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PROTOZOOLOGY
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PROTOZOOLOGY
By
RICHARD R. KUDO, D.Sc.
Professor of Zoology
The University of Illinois
Urbana, Illinois
With three hundred and seventy-six illustrations
Fourth Edition
CHARLES C THOMAS • PUBLISHER
Springfield, Illinois • U.S.A.
Charles C Thomas • Publisher
Bannerstone House
301-327 East Lawrence Avenue, Springfield, Illinois
Published simultaneously in the British Commonwealth oj Nations by
Blackwell Scientific Publications, Ltd., Oxford, England
Published simultaneously in Canada by
The Ryerson Press. Toronto
This monograph is protected by copyright. No
part of it may be reproduced in any manner
without written permission from the publisher.
Copyright 1931, 1939, 1946, and 1954 by Charles C Thomas • Publisher
First Edition, January, 1931
Second Edition, September, 1939
Third Edition, January, 1946
Third Edition, Second Printing, November, 1947
Third Edition, Third Printing, August, 1950
Fourth Edition, September, 1954
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 54-6567
Printed in the United States oj America
"The revelations of the Microscope are perhaps not
excelled in importance by those of the telescope.
While exciting our curiosity, our wonder
and admiration, they have proved of
infinite service in advancing our
knowledge of things
around us."
Leidy
LIBRfcfcYl^
/^'
Preface
THE fourth edition of Protozoology maintains its original aim in
setting forth "introductory information on the common and rep-
resentative genera of all groups of both free-living and parasitic
Protozoa" for seniors and graduates in zoology in colleges and uni-
versities. It has been noted in recent years that students frequently
wished to obtain a fuller knowledge on certain topics, organisms,
processes, etc., than that which was found in the former edition. In
order to meet this need without too great an expansion, references
have been given to various items in the text and a list of a much
larger number of literature has been appended to each chapter.
Furthermore, this enlargement of references increases the usefulness
of this work to advanced students, teachers of biology, field workers
in various areas of biological science, veterinarians, physicians, pub-
lic health workers, laboratory diagnosticians and technicians, etc.
While the chapter arrangement remains the same as before, a
thorough revision has been carried on throughout the text in the
light of many recently published contributions to protozoology.
Good illustrations are indispensable in this kind of work, since they
are far more easily comprehended than lengthy statements. There-
fore, old illustrations were replaced by more suitable ones and many
new illustrations have been added, bringing up the total number of
the text figures now to 376. Except diagrams, all figures are accom-
panied by the scales of magnification. For illustrations that have
been adopted from published papers, the indebtedness of the author
is expressed by mentioning the authors' names.
R. R. Kudo
Urbana, Illinois
Contents
Preface vii
Part I: General biology 3
CHAPTER
1 Introduction 5
Relationship of protozoology to other fields of
biological science, p. 6; the history of protozool-
ogy, p. 10.
2 Ecology 20
Free-living Protozoa, p. 20; parasitic Proto-
zoa, p. 28.
3 Morphology 39
The nucleus, p. 40; the cytoplasm, p. 45; loco-
motor organellae, p. 49; fibrillar structures, p.
60; protective or supportive organellae, p. 70;
hold-fast organellae, p. 76; parabasal appa-
ratus, p. 77; Golgi apparatus, p. 78; chondri-
osomes, p. 80; contractile and other vacuoles, p.
83; chromatophore and associated organellae,
p. 89.
4 Physiology 97
Nutrition, p. 97; reserve food matter, p. 112;
respiration, p. 116; excretion and secretion, p.
118; movements, p. 122; irritability, p. 130.
5 Reproduction 145
Nuclear division, p. 145; cytoplasmic division, p.
166; colony formation, p. 173; asexual repro-
duction, p. 175; sexual reproduction and life-
cycles, p. 180; regeneration, p. 212.
6 Variation and heredity 223
Part II: Taxonomy and special biology 247
CHAPTER
7 Major groups and phylogeny of Protozoa 249
8 Phylum Protozoa 254
Subphylum 1 Plasmodroma 254
Class 1 Mastigophora 254
Subclass 1 Phytomastigina 256
Order 1 Chrysomonadina 256
IX
V
"C30
CONTENTS
9 Order 2 Cryptomonadina 272
10 Order 3 Phytomonadina 276
11 Order 4 Euglenoidina 293
Order 5 Chloromonadina 306
12 Order 6 Dinoaagellata 310
13 Subclass 2 Zoomastigina 333
Order 1 Rhizomastigina 333
14 Order 2 Protomonadina 339
15 Order 3 Polymastigina 369
16 Order 4 Hypermastigina 404
J 7 Class 2 Sarcodina 417
Subclass 1 Rhizopoda 418
Order 1 Proteomyxa 418
18 Order 2 Mycetozoa 427
19 Order 3 Amoebina 435
20 Order 4 Testacea 472
21 Order 5 Foraminifera 493
22 Subclass 2 Actinopoda 505
Order 1 Heliozoa 505
23 Order 2 Radiolaria 516
24 Class 3 Sporozoa 526
Subclass 1 Telosporidia 526
Order 1 Gregarinida 527
25 Order 2 Coccidia 570
26 Order 3 Haemosporidia 599
27 Subclass 2 AcnidQsporidia 635
Order 1 Haplosporidia 635
Order 2 Sarcosporidia 638
28 Subclass 3 Cnidosporidia 643
Order 1 Myxosporidia 643
Order 2 Actinorayxidia 660
29 Order 3 Microsporidia 668
Order 4 Helicosporidia 678
30 Subphylum 2 Ciliophora 683
Class 1 Ciliata 683
Subclass 1 Protociliata 685
31 Subclass 2 Euciliata 690
Order 1 Holotricha 690
Suborder 1 Astomata 691
32 Suborder 2 Gymnostomata 700
Tribe 1 Prostomata 700
33 Tribe 2 Pleurostomata 723
CONTENTS xi
Tribe 3 Hypostomata 728
34 Suborder 3 Trichostomata 737
35 Suborder 4 Hymenostomata 758
36 Suborder 5 Thigmotricha 774
37 Suborder 6 Apostomea 789
38 Order 2 Spirotricha 796
Suborder 1 Heterotricha 796
39 Suborder 2 Oligotricha 814
40 Suborder 3 Ctenostomata 829
41 Suborder 4 Hypotricha 832
42 Order 3 Chonotricha 847
43 Order 4 Peritricha 850
44 Class Suctoria 863
45 Collection, cultivation, and observation of Protozoa 879
Author index 905
Subject index 919
PROTOZOOLOGY
PROTOZOOLOGY
PART I: GENERAL BIOLOGY
Chapter 1
Introduction
PROTOZOA are unicellular animals. The body of a protozoan
is morphologically a single cell and manifests all characteristics
common to the living thing. The various activities which make up
the phenomena of life are carried on by parts within the body or cell.
These parts are comparable with the organs of a metazoan which are
composed of a large number of cells grouped into tissues and are
called organellae or cell-organs. Thus the one-celled protozoan is a
complete organism somewhat unlike the cell of a metazoan, each of
which is dependent upon other cells and cannot live independently.
From this viewpoint, certain students of protozoology maintain
that the Protozoa are non-cellular, and not unicellular, organisms.
Dobell (1911), for example, pointed out that the term "cell" is
employed to designate (1) the whole protozoan body, (2) a part of
a metazoan organism, and (3) a potential whole organism (a fertilized
egg) which consequently resulted in a confused state of knowledge
regarding living things, and, therefore, proposed to define a cell as
a mass of protoplasm composing part of an organism, and further
considered that the protozoan is a non-cellular but complete organ-
ism, differently organized as compared with cellular organisms, the
Metazoa and Metaphyta. Although some writers (Hyman, 1940;
Lwoff, 1951) follow this view, the great majority of protozoologists
continue to consider the Protozoa as unicellular animals. Through
the processes of organic evolution, they have undergone cytological
differentiation and the Metazoa histological differentiation.
In being unicellular, the Protozoa and the Protophyta are alike.
The majority of Protozoa may be distinguished from the majority of
Protophyta on the basis of dimensions, methods of nutrition, direc-
tion of division-plane, etc. While many Protophyta possess nuclear
material, it is not easy to detect it in many forms; on the other hand,
all Protozoa contain at least one easily observable nucleus. The
binary fission of Protozoa and Protophyta is longitudinal and trans-
verse respectively. Most of Ciliata, however, multiply by transverse
division. In general the nutrition of Protozoa is holozoic and of
Protophyta, holophytic or saprophytic; but there are large numbers
of Protozoa which nourish themselves by the latter methods. Thus
an absolute and clean-cut separation of the two groups of unicellular
organisms is not possible. Haeckel (1866) coined the name Protista
to include these organisms in a single group, but this is not generally
6 PROTOZOOLOGY
adopted, since it includes undoubted animals and plants, thus creat-
ing an equal amount of confusion between it and the animal or the
plant. Calkins (1933) excluded chromatophore-bearing Mastigoph-
ora from his treatment of Protozoa, thus placing organisms similar
in every way, except the presence or absence of chromatophores, in
two different (animal and plant) groups. This intermingling of char-
acteristics between the two groups of microorganisms shows clearly
their close interrelationship and suggests strongly their common
ancestry.
Although the majority of Protozoa are solitary and the body is
composed of a single cell, there are several forms in which the
organism is made up of more than one cell. These forms, which are
called colonial Protozoa (p. 173), are well represented by the mem-
bers of Phytomastigina, in which the individuals are either joined by
cytoplasmic threads or embedded in a common matrix. These
cells are alike both in structure and in function, although in a few
forms there may be a differentiation of the individuals into repro-
ductive and vegetative cells. Unlike the cells in a metazoan which
form tissues, these vegetative cells of colonial Protozoa are not so
dependent upon other cells as are the cells in Metazoa; therefore,
they do not form any true tissue. The reproductive cells produce
zygotes through sexual fusion, which subsequently undergo repeated
division and may produce a stage comparable with the blastula stage
of a metazoan, but never reaching the gastrula stage. Thus, colonial
Protozoa are only cell-aggregates without histological differentiation
and may thus be distinguished from the Metazoa.
An enormous number of species of Protozoa are known to man.
From comparatively simple forms such as Amoeba, up to highly
complicated organisms as represented by numerous ciliates, the
Protozoa vary exceedingly in their body organization, morphological
characteristics, behavior, habitat, etc., which necessitates a tax-
onomic arrangement for proper consideration as set forth in detail
in Chapters 8 to 44.
Relationship of protozoology to other fields of
biological science
A brief consideration of the relationship of Protozoology to
other fields of biology and its possible applications may not be
out of place here. Since the Protozoa are single-celled animals
manifesting the characteristics common to all living things, they
have been studied by numerous investigators with a view to dis-
covering the nature and mechanism of various phenomena, the
INTRODUCTION 7
sum-total of which is known collectively as life. Though the in-
vestigators generally have been disappointed in the results, in-
asmuch as the assumed simplicity of unicellular organisms has
proved to be offset by the complexity of their cell-structure, never-
theless discussion of any biological principles today must take into
account the information obtained from studies of Protozoa. It is now
commonly recognized that adequate information on various types
of Protozoa is a prerequisite to a thorough comprehension of biology
and to proper application of biological principles.
Practically all students agree in assuming that the higher types of
animals have been derived from organisms which existed in the re-
mote past and which probably were somewhat similar to the primi-
tive Protozoa of the present day. Since there is no sharp distinction
between the Protozoa and the Protophyta or between the Protozoa
and the Metazoa, and since there are intermediate forms between
the major classes of the Protozoa themselves, progress in proto-
zoology contributes toward the advancement of our knowledge on
the probable steps by which living things in general evolved.
Geneticists have undertaken studies on heredity and variation
among Protozoa. "Unicellular animals," wrote Jennings (1909),
"present all the problems of heredity and variation in miniature.
The struggle for existence in a fauna of untold thousands showing
as much variety of form and function as any higher group, works
itself out, with ultimate survival of the fittest, in a few days under
our eyes, in a finger bowl. For studying heredity and variation we
get a generation a day, and we may keep unlimited numbers of
pedigreed stock in a watch glass that can be placed under the micro-
scope." Morphological and physiological variations are encountered
commonly in all forms. Whether variation is due to germinal or
environmental conditions, is often difficult to determine. Studies on
conjugation in Paramecium by utilizing the mating types first noted
by Sonneborn (1937, 1938) not only brought to light a wealth of
important information regarding the genetics of Protozoa, but also
are revealing a close insight concerning the relationship between the
nuclear and cytoplasmic factors of heredity in the animal.
Parasitic Protozoa are confined to one or more specific hosts.
Through studies of the forms belonging to one and the same genus
or species, the phylogenetic relation among the host animals may
be established or verified. The mosquitoes belonging to the genera
Culex and Anopheles, for instance, are known to transmit avian and
human Plasmodium respectively. They are further infected by
specific microsporidian parasites. For instance, Thelohania legeri
8 PROTOZOOLOGY
has been found widely only in many species of anopheline mosqui-
toes; T. opacita has, on the other hand, been found exclusively in
culicine mosquitoes, although the larvae of the species belonging to
these two genera live frequently in the same body of water (Kudo,
1924, 1925). By observing certain intestinal Protozoa in some mon-
keys, Hegner (1928) obtained evidence on the probable phylogenetic
relationship between them and other higher mammals. The relation
of various Protozoa of the wood-roach to those of the termite, as
revealed by Cleveland and his associates (1934), gives further proof
that the Blattidae and the Isoptera are closely related.
Study of a particular group of parasitic Protozoa and their hosts
may throw light on the geographic condition of the earth which
existed in the remote past. The members of the genus Zelleriella are
usually found in the colon of the frogs belonging to the family Lepto-
dactylidae. Through an extensive study of these amphibians from
South America and Australia, Metcalf (1920, 1929) found that the
species of Zelleriella occurring in the frogs of the two continents are
almost identical. He finds it more difficult to conceive of convergent
or parallel evolution of both the hosts and the parasites, than to
assume that there once existed between Patagonia and Australia a
land connection over which frogs, containing Zelleriella, migrated.
Experimental studies of large Protozoa have thrown light on the
relation between the nucleus and the cytoplasm, and have furnished
a basis for an understanding of regeneration in animals. In Protozoa
we find various types of nuclear divisions ranging from a simple
amitotic division to a complex process comparable in every detail
with the typical metazoan mitosis. A part of our knowledge in
cytology is based upon studies of Protozoa.
Through the efforts of various investigators in the past fifty
years, it has now become known that some 25 species of Protozoa
occur in man. Entamoeba histolytica, Balantidium coli, and four
species of Plasmodium, all of which are pathogenic to man, are
widely distributed throughout the world. In certain restricted areas
are found other pathogenic forms, such as Trypanosoma and Leish-
mania. Since all parasitic Protozoa presumably have originated
in free-living forms and since our knowledge of the morphology,
physiology, and reproduction of the parasitic forms has largely been
obtained in conjunction with the studies of the free-living organ-
isms, a general knowledge of the entire phylum is necessary to under-
stand these parasitic forms.
Recent studies have further revealed that almost all domestic
animals are hosts to numerous parasitic Protozoa, many of which
INTRODUCTION 9
are responsible for serious infectious diseases. Some of the forms
found in domestic animals are morphologically indistinguishable
from those occurring in man. Balantidium coli is considered as a
parasite of swine, and man is its secondary host. Knowledge of
protozoan parasites is useful to medical practitioners, just as it is
essential to veterinarians inasmuch as certain diseases of animals,
such as southern cattle fever, dourine, nagana, blackhead, coccidio-
sis, etc., are caused by Protozoa.
Sanitary betterment and improvement are fundamental re-
quirements in the modern civilized world. One of man's necessities
is safe drinking water. The majority of Protozoa live freely in various
bodies of water and some of them are responsible, if present in suffi-
ciently large numbers, for giving certain odors to the waters of
reservoirs or ponds (p. 114). But these Protozoa which are occasion-
ally harmful are relatively small in number compared with those
which are beneficial to man. It is generally understood that bacteria
live on various waste materials present in the polluted water, but
that upon reaching a certain population, they would cease to multi-
ply and would allow the excess organic substances to undergo de-
composition. Numerous holozoic Protozoa, however, feed on the bac-
teria and prevent them from reaching the saturation population.
Protozoa thus seem to help indirectly in the purification of the water.
Protozoology therefore must be considered as part of modern sani-
tary science.
Young fish feed extensively on small aquatic organisms, such as
larvae of insects, small crustaceans, annelids, etc., all of which de-
pend largely upon Protozoa and Protophyta as sources of food sup-
ply. Thus the fish are indirectly dependent upon Protozoa as food
material. On the other hand, there are numbers of Protozoa which
live at the expense of fish. The Myxosporidia are almost exclusively
parasites of fish and sometimes cause death to large numbers of com-
mercially important fishes (Kudo, 1920) (p. 648). Success in fish-
culture, therefore, requires among other things a thorough knowl-
edge of Protozoa.
Since Russel and Hutchinson (1909) suggested some forty years
ago that Protozoa are probably a cause of limitation of the numbers,
and therefore the activities of bacteria in the soil and thus tend to
decrease the amount of nitrogen which is given to the soil by the
nitrifying bacteria, several investigators have brought out the fact
that in the soils of temperate climate various sarcodinans, flagellates
and less frequently ciliates, are present and active throughout the
year. The exact relation between specific Protozoa and bacteria in
10 PROTOZOOLOGY
the soil is not yet clear in spite of the numerous experiments and
observations. All soil investigators should be acquainted with the
biology and taxonomy of free-living Protozoa.
It is a matter of common knowledge that the silkworm and the
honey bee suffer from microsporidian infections (p. 670). Sericulture
in south-western Europe suffered great damages in the middle of
the nineteenth century because of the "pebrine" disease, caused by
the microsporidian, Nosema bombycis. During the first decade of
the present century, another microsporidian, Nosema apis, was
found to infect a large number of honey bees. Methods of control
have been developed and put into practice so that these micro-
sporidian infections are at present not serious, even though they still
occur. On the other hand, other Microsporidia are now known to in-
fect certain insects, such as mosquitoes and lepidopterous pests,
which, when heavily infected, die sooner or later. Methods of de-
struction of these insects by means of chemicals are more and more
used, but attention should also be given to biological control of them
by means of Protozoa and Protophyta.
While the majority of Protozoa lack permanent skeletal structures
and their fossil forms are little known, there are at least two large
groups in the Sarcodina which possess conspicuous shells and which
are found as fossils. They are Foraminifera and Radiolaria. From
early palaeozoic era down to the present day, the carbonate of
lime which makes up the skeletons of numerous Foraminifera has
been left embedded in various rock strata. Although there is no dis-
tinctive foraminiferan fauna characteristic of a given geologic pe-
riod, there are certain peculiarities of fossil Foraminifera which dis-
tinguish one formation from the other. From this fact one can un-
derstand that knowledge of foraminiferous rocks is highly useful in
checking up logs in well drilling. The skeletons of the Radiolaria are
the main constituent of the ooze of littoral and deep-sea regions.
They have been found abundantly in siliceous rocks of the palaeozoic
and the mesozoic eras, and are also identified with the clays and
other formations of the miocene period. Thus knowledge of these two
orders of Sarcodina, at least, is essential for the student of geology
and paleontology.
The history of protozoology
Aside from a comparatively small number of large forms, Protozoa
are unobservable with the naked eye, so that one can easily under-
stand why they were unknown prior to the invention of the micro-
scope. Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) is commonly recog-
INTRODUCTION 11
nized as the father of protozoology. Grinding lenses himself,
Leeuwenhoek made more than 400 simple lenses, including one
which, it is said, had a magnification of 270 times (Harting). Among
the many things he discovered were various Protozoa. According
to Dobell (1932), Leeuwenhoek saw in 1674 for the first time free-
living fresh- water Protozoa. Between 1674 and 1716, he observed
many Protozoa which he reported to the Royal Society of Lon-
don and which, as Dobell interpreted, were Euglena ("green in
the middle, and before and behind white"), Vorticella, Stylonychia,
Carchesium, Volvox, Coleps, Kerona, Anthophysis, Elphidium, etc.
Huygens gave in 1678 "unmistakable descriptions of Chilodon(-ella),
Paramecium, Astasia and Vorticella, all found in infusions" (Dobell).
Colpoda was seen by Buonanni (1691) and Harris (1696) rediscov-
ered Euglena. In 1718 there appeared the first treatise on micro-
scopic organisms, particularly of Protozoa, by Joblot who empha-
sized the non-existence of abiogenesis by using boiled hay-infusions
in which no Infusoria developed without exposure to the atmosphere.
This experiment confirmed that of Redi who, some 40 years be-
fore, had made his well-known experiments by excluding flies from
meat. Joblot illustrated, according to Woodruff (1937), Paramecium,
the slipper animalcule, with the first identifiable figure. Trembley
(1744) studied division in some ciliates, including probably Para-
mecium, which generic name was coined by Hill in 1752. Noctiluca
was first described by Baker (1753).
Rosel von Rosenhof (1755) observed an organism, which he called
"der kleine Proteus," and also Vorticella, Stentor, and Volvox. The
"Proteus" which Linnaeus named Volvox chaos (1758) and later re-
named Chaos protheus (1767), cannot be identified with any of the
known amoeboid organisms (Kudo, 1946). Wrisberg (1764) coined
the term "Infusoria" (Dujardin; Woodruff). By using the juice of
geranium, Ellis (1769) caused the extrusion of the "fins" (trichocysts)
in Paramecium. Eichhorn (1783) observed the heliozoan, Actino-
sphaerium, which now bears his name. O. F. Miiller described
Ceratium a little later and published two works on the Infusoria
(1773, 1786) although he included unavoidably some Metazoa and
Protophyta in his monographs, some of his descriptions and figures
of Ciliata were so well done that they are of value even at the present
time. Lamarck (1816) named Folliculina.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century the cylcosis in Para-
mecium was brought to light by Gruithuisen. Goldfuss (1817) coined
the term Protozoa, including in it the coelenterates. Nine years
later there appeared d'Orbigny's systematic study of the Foramini-
12 PROTOZOOLOGY
fera, which he considered "microscopical cephalopods." In 1828
Ehrenberg began publishing his observations on Protozoa and in
1838 he summarized his contributions in Die Infusionsthicrchen als
vollkommene Organismen, in which he diagnosed genera and species
so well that many of them still hold good. Ehrenberg excluded Rota-
toria and Cercaria from Infusoria. Through the studies of Ehrenberg
the number of known Protozoa increased greatly; he, however, pro-
posed the term "Polygastricha," under which he placed Mastigo-
phora, Rhizopoda, Ciliata, Suctoria, desmids, etc., since he believed
that the food vacuoles present in them were stomachs. This hypothe-
sis became immediately the center of controversy, which incidentally,
together with the then-propounded cell theory and improvements in
microscopy, stimulated researches on Protozoa.
Dujardin (1835) took pains in studying the protoplasm of various
Protozoa and found it alike in all. He named it sarcode. In 1841 he
published an extensive monograph of various Protozoa which came
under his observations. The term Rhizopoda was coined by this
investigator. The commonly used term protoplasm was employed by
Purkinje (1840) in the same sense as it is used today. The Protozoa
was given a distinct definition by Siebold in 1845, as follows: "Die
Thiere, in welchen die verschiedenen Systeme der Organe nicht
scharf ausgeschieden sind, und deren unregelmassige Form und ein-
fache Organization sich auf eine Zelle reduzieren lassen." Siebold
subdivided Protozoa into Infusoria and Rhizopoda. The sharp differ-
entiation of Protozoa as a group certainly inspired numerous micros-
copists. As a result, several students brought forward various group
names, such as Radiolaria (J. Muller, 1858), Ciliata (Perty, 1852),
Flagellata (Cohn, 1853), Suctoria (Claparede and Lachmann, 1858),
Heliozoa, Protista (Haeckel, 1862, 1866), Mastigophora (Diesing,
1865), etc. Of Suctoria, Stein failed to see the real nature (1849), but
his two monographs on Ciliata and Mastigophora (1854, 1859-1883)
contain concise descriptions and excellent illustrations of numerous
species. Haeckel who went a step further than Siebold by distinguish-
ing between Protozoa and Metazoa, devoted 10 years to his study
of Radiolaria, especially those of the Challenger collection, and de-
scribed in his celebrated monographs more than 4000 species.
In 1879 the first comprehensive monograph on the Protozoa of
North America was put forward by Leidy under the title of Fresh-
water Rhizopods of North America, which showed the wide distribu-
tion of many known forms of Europe and revealed a number of new
and interesting forms. This work was followed by Stokes' The Fresh-
water Infusoria of the United States, which appeared in 1888.
INTRODUCTION 13
Butschli (1880-1889) established Sarcodina and made an excellent
contribution to the taxonomy of the then-known species of Protozoa,
which is still considered as one of the most important works on gen-
eral protozoology. The painstaking researches by Maupas, on the
conjugation of ciliates, corrected erroneous interpretation of the
phenomenon observed by Balbiani some 30 years before and gave
impetus to a renewed cytological study of Protozoa. The variety in
form and structure of the protozoan nuclei became the subject of in-
tensive studies by several cytologists. Weismann put into words the
immortality of the Protozoa. Schaudinn contributed much toward
the cytological and developmental studies of Protozoa.
In the first year of the present century, Calkins in the United
States and Dofiein in Germany wrote modern textbooks of protozo-
ology dealing with the biology as well as the taxonomy. Jennings de-
voted his time for nearly 40 years to the study of genetics of Pro-
tozoa. Recent development of bacteria-free culture technique in cer-
tain flagellates and ciliates, has brought to light important informa-
tion regarding the nutritional requirements and metabolism of these
organisms.
Today the Protozoa are more and more intensively and exten-
sively studied from both the biological and the parasitological sides,
and important contributions appear continuously. Since all parasitic
Protozoa appear to have originated in free-living forms, the com-
prehension of the morphology, physiology, and development of the
latter group is obviously fundamentally important for a thorough
understanding of the former group.
Compared with the advancement of our knowledge on free-living
Protozoa, that on parasitic forms has been very slow. This is to be ex-
pected, of course, since the vast majority of them are so minute that
the discovery of their presence has been made possible only through
improvements in the microscope and in technique.
Here again Leeuwenhoek seems to have been the first to observe
a parasitic protozoan, for he observed, according to Dobell (1932), in
the fall of 1674, the oocysts of the coccidian Eimeria stiedae, in the
contents of the gall bladder of an old rabbit; in 1681, Giardia intes-
tinalis in his own diarrhceic stools; and in 1683, Opalina and Nycto-
therus in the gut contents of frogs. The oral Trichomonas of man was
observed by O. F. Miiller (1773) who named it Cercaria tenax (Do-
bell, 1939). There is no record of anyone having seen Protozoa living
in other organisms, until 1828, when Dufour's account of the grega-
rine from the intestine of coleopterous insects appeared. Some ten
years later, Hake rediscovered the oocysts of Eimeria stiedae. A
14 PROTOZOOLOGY
flagellate was observed in the blood of salmon by Valentin in 1841,
and the frog trypanosome was discovered by Gluge (1842) and
Gruby (1843), the latter author creating the genus Trypanosoma
for it.
The gregarines were a little later given attention by Kolliker
(1848) and Stein (1848). The year 1849 marks the first record of
an amoeba being found in man, for Gros then observed Entamoeba
gingivalis in the human mouth. Five years later, Davaine found
in the stools of cholera patients two flagellates (Trichomonas and
Chilomastix). Kloss in 1855 observed the coccidian, Klossia heli-
cina, in the excretory organ of Helix; and Eimer (1870) made an ex-
tensive study of Coccidia occurring in various animals. Balantidium
coli was discovered by Malmsten in 1857. Lewis in 1870 observed
Entamoeba coli in India, and Losch in 1875 found Entamoeba histo-
lytica in Russia. During the early part of the last century, an epi-
demic disease, pebrine, of the silkworm appeared in Italy and France,
and a number of biologists became engaged in its investigation. Fore-
most of all, Pasteur (1870) made an extensive report on the nature of
the causative organism, now known as Nosema bombycis, and also on
the method of control and prevention. Perhaps this is the first scien-
tific study of a parasitic protozoan which resulted in an effective
practical method of control of its infection.
Lewis observed in 1878 an organism which is since known as
Trypanosoma lewisi in the blood of rats. In 1879 Leuckart created
the group Sporozoa, including in it the gregarines and coccidians.
Other groups under Sporozoa were soon definitely designated. They
are Myxosporidia (Butschli, 1881), Microsporidia and Sarcosporidia
(Balbiani, 1882).
Parasitic protozoology received a far-reaching stimulus when
Laveran (November, 1880) discovered the microgamete formation
("flagellation") of a malaria parasite in the human blood. Smith and
Kilborne (1893) demonstrated that Babesia of the Texas fever of
cattle in the southern United States was transmitted by the cattle
tick from host to host, and thus revealed for the first time the close
relationship which exists between an arthropod and a parasitic proto-
zoan. Two years later Bruce discovered Trypanosoma brucei in the
blood of domestic animals suffering from "nagana" disease in Africa
and later (1897) demonstrated by experiments that the tsetse fly
transmits the trypanosome. Studies of malaria organisms continued
and several important contributions appeared. Golgi (1886, 1889)
studied the schizogony and its relation to the occurrence of fever,
and was able to distinguish the types of fever. MacCallum (1897)
INTRODUCTION 15
observed the microgamete formation in Haemoproteus of birds and
suggested that the "flagella" observed by Laveran were micro-
gametes of Plasmodium. In fact, he later observed the formation of
the zygote through fusion of a microgamete and a macrogamete of
Plasmodium falciparum. Almost at the same time, Schaudinn and
Siedlecki (1897) showed that anisogamy results in the production of
zygotes in Coccidia. The latter author published later further ob-
servations on the life-cycle of Coccidia (1898, 1899).
Ross (1898, 1898a) revealed the development of Plasmodium
r dictum (P. praecox) in Culex fatigans and established the fact that
the host birds become infected by this protozoan through the bites
of the infected mosquitoes. Since that time, investigators too numer-
ous to mention here (p. 600), studied the biology and development
of the malarial organisms. Among the more recent findings is the
exo-erythrocytic development, fuller information on which is now
being sought. In 1902, Dutton found that the sleeping sickness in
equatorial Africa was caused by an infection by Trypanosoma gam-
biense. In 1903, Leishman and Donovan discovered simultaneously
Leishmania donovani, the causative organism of "kala-azar" in
India.
Artificial cultivation of bacteria had contributed toward a very
rapid advancement in bacteriology, and it was natural, as the num-
ber of known parasitic Protozoa rapidly increased, that attempts to
cultivate them in vitro should be made. Musgrave and Clegg (1904)
cultivated, on bouillon-agar, small free-living amoebae from old
faecal matter. In 1905 Novy and MacNeal cultivated successfully the
trypanosome of birds in blood-agar medium, which remained free
from bacterial contamination and in which the organisms underwent
multiplication. Almost all species of Trypanosoma and Leishmania
have since been cultivated in a similar manner. This serves for de-
tection of a mild infection and also identification of the species in-
volved. It was found, further, that the changes which these organ-
isms underwent in the culture media were imitative of those that
took place in the invertebrate host, thus contributing toward the
life-cycle studies of them.
During and since World War I, it became known that numer-
ous intestinal Protozoa of man are widely present throughout the
tropical, subtropical and temperate zones. Taxonomic, morphologi-
cal and developmental studies on these forms have therefore ap-
peared in an enormous number. Cutler (1918) seems to have suc-
ceeded in cultivating Entamoeba histolytica, though his experiment
was not repeated by others. Barret and Yarborough (1921) culti-
1G PROTOZOOLOGY
vated Balantidium coli and Boeck (1921) cultivated Chilomastix
mesnili. Boeck and Drbohlav (1925) succeeded in cultivating Enta-
moeba histolytica, and their work was repeated and improved upon
by many investigators. While the in-vitro cultivation has not thrown
much light on metabolic activities of this and other parasitic
amoebae, as no one of them would grow in culture without some
other organisms, it has increased our knowledge on the biology of
these parasites.
References
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Baker, H.: (1753) Employment for the microscope. London.
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(1881) Myxosporidia. Zool. Jahrb. 1880, 1 : 162.
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Cohn, F. J.: (1853) Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der In-
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Davaine, C. : (1854) Sur des animalcules infusoires, etc. C. R. Soc
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INTRODUCTION 17
chomonas tenax (O.F.M.) : its discovery and its nomenclature.
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Donovan, C. : (1903) The etiology of one of the heterogeneous fevers
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d'Orbigny, A. : (1826) Tableau methodique de la Classe des Cephal-
opodes. Ann. Sci. Nat., 7:245.
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infusoires et sur une substance appelee sarcode. Ann. Sci. Nat.
Zool., 4:343.
(1841) Histoire naturelle des zoophytes. Infusoires. Paris.
Dutton, J. E. : (1902) Preliminary note upon a trypanosome occur-
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Ehrenberg, C. G.: (1838) Die Infusionsthierchen als vollkommene
Organismen. Leipzig.
Eichhorn, J. C: (1783) Zugabe zu meinen Beytragen, etc. Danzig.
Eimer, T. : (1870) Ueber die ei- und kugelformigen sogenannten
Psorospermien der Wirbelthiere. Wurzburg.
Ellis, J.: (1769) Observations on a particular manner of increase
in the animalcula, etc. Phil. Trans., 59:138.
Gluge, G. : (1842) Ueber ein eigenthumliches Entozoon im Blute
des Frosches. Arch. Anat. Phys. wiss. Med., 148.
Goldfuss, G. A.: (1817) Ueber die Entwicklungsstufen des Thieres.
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Golgi, C.: (1886) Sulla infezione malarica. Arch. Sci. Med., 10:109.
— (1889) Sul ciclo evolutio dei parassiti malarici nella febbre
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Gros, G.: (1849) Fragments d'helminthologie et de physiologie mi-
croscopique. Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 22:549.
Gruby, D.: (1843) Recherches et observations sur une nouvelle
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Haeckel, E. H.: (1862) Betrachtungen ueber die Grenzen und Ver-
wandschaft der Radiolarien und ueber die Systematik der
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(1866) Generelle Morphologie der Organismen. Berlin.
Hake, T. G.: (1839) A treatise on varicose capillaries, as constitut-
ing the structure of carcinoma of the hepatic ducts, etc. Lon-
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Harris, J.: (1696) Some microscopical observations of vast num-
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Hegner, R. : (1928) The evolutionary significance of the protozoan
parasites of monkeys and man. Quart. Rev. Biol., 3:225.
Hill, J. : (1752) An history of animals, etc. London.
Hyman, Libbie H. : (1940) The invertebrates: Protozoa through
Ctenophora. New York.
IS PROTOZOOLOGY
Jennings, H. S. : (1909) Heredity and variation in the simplest or-
ganisms. Am. Nat., 43:322.
Joblot, L. : (1718) Descriptions et usages de plusieurs nouveaux mi-
croscopes, etc. Paris.
Kloss, H.: (1855) Ueber Parasiten in der Niere von Helix. Abh.
Senckenb. Naturf. Ges., 1:189.
Kolliker, A.: (1848) Beitrage zur Kenntnis niederer Thiere.
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Kudo, R. R. : (1920) Studies on Myxosporidia. Illinois Biol. Monogr.
5:nos. 3, 4.
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(1946) Pelomyxa carolinensis Wilson. I. Jour. Morph., 78:
317.
Laveran, A.: (1880) Note sur un nouveau parasite trouve dans le
sang de plusieurs malades atteints de fievre palustre. Bull Acad.
Med., 9:1235, 1268, 1346.
(1880a) Un nouveau parasite trouve dans le sang des malades
atteints de fievre palustre. Bull. Mem. Soc. Med. Hopit. Paris,
17:158.
Leidy, J.: (1879) Freshwater Rhizopods of North America. Rep.
U. S. Geol. Survey, 12.
Leishman, W. B.: (1903) On the possibility of the occurrence of
trypanosomiasis in India. British Med. Jour., 1:1252.
Leuckart, R. : (1879) Die Parasiten des Menschen. 2 ed. Leipzig.
Lewis, T. R. (1870) A report on the microscopic objects found in
cholera evacuations, etc. Ann. Rep. San. Comm. Gov. India
(1869) 6:126.
(1878) The microscopic organisms found in the blood of man
and animals, etc. Ibid. (1877) 14:157.
Linnaeus, C.: (1758) Systema Naturae. 10 ed. 1:820.
— ■ (1767) Systema Naturae. 12 ed. 1:1324.
Losch, F. : (1875) Massenhafte Entwickelung von Amoben im Dick-
darm. Arch. path. Anat., 65:196.
Lwoff, A.: (1951) Biochemistry and physiology of Protozoa. New
York.
MacCallum, W. G.: (1897) On the flagellated form of the malarial
parasite. Lancet, 2:1240.
Malmsten, P. H.: (1857) Infusorien als Intestinal-Thiere beim
Menschen. Arch. path. Anat., 12:302.
Metcalf, M. M.: (1920) Upon an important method of studying
problems of relationship and of geographical distribution. Proc.
Nat. Acad. Sc, 6:432.
(1929) Parasites and the aid they give in problems of taxon-
omy, geographical distribution, and paleogeography. Smith.
Misc. Coll., 81: no. 8.
Musgrave, W. E. and Clegg, M. T. : (1904) Amebas: their cultiva-
tion and aetiologic significance. Dep. Inter., Biol. Lab. Bull.,
Manila, no. 18:1.
INTRODUCTION 19
Novy, F. G. and MacNeal, W. J.: (1905) On the trypanosomes of
birds. J. Inf. Dis., 2:256.
Pasteur, L. : (1870) Etudes sur la maladie des vers a soie. Paris.
Perty, M.: (1852) Zur Kenntnis kleinster Lebensformen, etc. Bern.
Rosel von Rosenhof, A. J.: (1755) Der kleine Proteus. Der
Monat.-herausgeg. Insect. -Belust., 3:622.
Ross, R.: (1898) Report on the cultivation of Proteosoma Labbe in
grey mosquitoes. Gov. Print. Calcutta.
(1898a) Preliminary report on the infection of birds with
Proteosoma by the bites of mosquitoes. Ibid.
Russell, E. J. and Hutchinson, H. B.: (1909) The effect of partial
sterilization of soil on the production of plant food. J. Agr. Sc,
3:111.
Schaudinn, F. and Siedlecki, M.: (1897) Beitrage zur Kenntnis
der Coccidien. Verhandl. deut. zool. Ges., p. 192.
Siebold, C. T. v.: (1845) Bericht ueber die Leistungen in der Na-
turgeschichte der Wiirmer, etc. Arch. Naturg., 11:256.
Siedlecki, M.: (1898) Etude cytologique et cycle evolutif de la coc-
cidie de la seiche. Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 12:799.
Etude cytologique et cycle evolutif de Adelea ovata
Schneider. Ibid., 13:169.
Smith, T. and Kilborne, F. L. : (1893) Investigations into the na-
ture, causation, and prevention of Texas or southern cattle
fever. Bull. Bur. Animal Ind., U. S. Dep. Agr., No. 1.
Sonneborn, T. M. : (1937) Sex, sex inheritance and sex determina-
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(1938) Mating types in Paramecium aurelia, etc. Proc. Am.
Phil. Soc, 79:411.
Stein, S. F. N. v.: (1854) Die Infusionsthiere auf ihre Entwickel-
ungsgeschichte untersucht. Leipzig.
(1859-83) Der Organismus der Infusionsthiere. Leipzig.
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Valentin: (1841) Ueber ein Entozoon im Blute von Salmo fario.
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Woodruff, L. L. : (1937) Louis Joblot and the Protozoa. Sc
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(1939) Some pioneers in microscopy, with special reference
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Wrisberg, H. A.: (1765) Observationum de Animalculis infusoriis
Satura. Gottingen.
Chapter 2
Ecology
WITH regard to their habitats, the Protozoa may be divided
into free-living forms and those living on or in other organisms.
Mastigophora, Sarcodina, Ciliata, and Suctoria include both free-
living and parasitic Protozoa, but Sporozoa are exclusively parasi-
tic.
Free-living Protozoa
The vegetative or trophic stages of free-living Protozoa have been
found in every type of fresh and salt water, soil and decaying or-
ganic matter. Even in the circumpolar regions or at extremely high
altitudes, certain protozoa occur at times in fairly large numbers.
The factors, which influence their distribution in a given body of wa-
ter, are temperature, light, chemical composition, acidity, kind and
amount of food, and degree of adaptability of the individual proto-
zoans to various environmental changes. Their early appearance as
living organisms, their adaptability to various habitats, and their ca-
pacity to remain viable in the encysted condition, probably account
for the wide distribution of the Protozoa throughout the world. The
common free-living amoebae, numerous testaceans and others, to
mention a few, of fresh waters, have been observed in innumerable
places of the world.
Temperature. The majority of Protozoa are able to live only
within a small range of temperature variation, although in the en-
cysted state they can withstand a far greater temperature fluctua-
tion. The lower limit of the temperature is marked by the freezing of
the protoplasm, and the upper limit by the destructive chemical
change within the body protoplasm. The temperature toleration
seems to vary among different species of Protozoa; and even in the
same species under different conditions. For example, Chalkley
(1930) placed Paramecium caudatum in 4 culture media (balanced
saline, saline with potassium excess, saline with calcium excess, and
saline with sodium excess), all with pH from 5.8 or 6 to 8.4 or 8.6, at
40°C. for 2-16 minutes and found that (1) the resistance varies with
the hydrogen-ion concentration, maxima appearing in the alkaline
and acid ranges, and a minimum at or near about 7.0; (2) in a bal-
anced saline, and in saline with an excess of sodium or potassium, the
alkaline maximum is the higher, while in saline with an excess of
calcium, the acid maximum is the higher; (3) in general, acidity de-
creases and alkalinity increases resistance; and (4) between pH 6.6
20
ECOLOGY 21
and 7.6, excess of potassium decreases resistance and excess of cal-
cium increases resistance. Glaser and Coria (1933) cultivated Para-
mecium caudatum on dead yeast free from living organisms at
20-28°C. (optimum 25°C.) and noted that at 30°C. the organisms
were killed. Doudoroff (1936), on the other hand, found that in
P. multimicronucleatum its resistance to raised temperature was low
in the presence of food, but rose to a maximum when the food was
exhausted, and there was no appreciable difference in the resistance
between single and conjugating individuals.
The thermal waters of hot springs have been known to contain liv-
ing organisms including Protozoa. Glaser and Coria' (1935) obtained
from the thermal springs, of Virginia, several species of Mastigoph-
ora, Ciliata, and an amoeba which were living in the water, the tem-
perature of which was 34-36°C, but did not notice any protozoan in
the water which showed 39-41°C. Uyemura (1936, 1937) made a
series of studies on Protozoa living in various thermal waters of Ja-
pan, and reported that many species lived at unexpectedly high
temperatures. Some of the Protozoa observed and the temperatures
of the water in which they were found are as follows: Amoeba sp.,
Vahlkampfia Umax, A. radiosa, 30-51°C; Amoeba verrucosa, Chilo-
donella sp., Lionotus fasciola, Paramecium caudatum, 36-40°C;
Oxytricha fallax, 30-56°C.
Under experimental conditions, it has been shown repeatedly that
many protozoans become accustomed to a very high temperature if
the change be made gradually. Dallinger (1887) showed a long time
ago that Tetramitus rostratus and two other species of flagellates
became gradually acclimatized up to 70°C. in several years. In na-
ture, however, the thermal death point of most of the free-living
Protozoa appears to lie between 36° and 40°C. and the optimum
temperature, between 16° and 25°C.
On the other hand, the low temperature seems to be less detri-
mental to Protozoa than the higher one. Many protozoans have
been found to live in water under ice, and several haematochrome-
bearing Phytomastigina undergo vigorous multiplication on snow in
high altitudes, producing the so-called "red snow." Klebs (1893) sub-
jected the trophozoites of Euglena to repeated freezing without ap-
parent injury and Jahn (1933) found no harmful effect when Euglena
cultures were kept without freezing at — 0.2°C. for one hour, but
when kept at — 4°C. for one hour the majority were killed. Gay lord
(1908) exposed Trypanosoma gambiense to liquid air for 20 minutes
without apparent injury, but the organisms were killed after 40 min-
utes' immersion,
22 PROTOZOOLOGY
Kiihne (1864) observed that Amoeba and Actinophrys suffered no
ill effects when kept at 0°C. for several hours as long as the culture
medium did not freeze, but were killed when the latter froze. Molisch
(1897) likewise noticed that Amoeba dies as soon as the ice forms in
its interior or immediate vicinity. Chambers and Hale (1932) dem-
onstrated that internal freezing could be induced in an amoeba by
inserting an ice-tipped pipette at — 0.6°C, the ice spreading in the
form of fine featherly crystals from the point touched by the pipette.
They found that the internal freezing kills the amoebae, although
if the ice is prevented from forming, a temperature as low as — 5°C.
brings about no visible damage to the organism. At 0°C, Deschiens
(1934) found the trophozoites of Entamoeba histolytica remained
alive, though immobile, for 56 hours, but were destroyed in a short
time when the medium froze at — 5°C.
According to Greeley (1902), when Stentor coeruleus was slowly
subjected to low temperatures, the cilia kept on beating at 0°C. for
1-3 hours, then cilia and gullet were absorbed, the ectoplasm was
thrown off, and the body became spherical. When the temperature
was raised, this spherical body is said to have undergone a reverse
process and resumed its normal activity. If the lowering of tempera-
ture is rapid and the medium becomes solidly frozen, Stentor per-
ishes. Efimoff (1924) observed that Paramecium multiplied once in
about 13 days at 0°C, withstood freezing at — 1°C. for 30 minutes
but died when kept for 50-60 minutes at the same temperature. He
further stated that Paramecium caudatum, Colpidium colpoda, and
Spirostomum ambiguum, perished in less than 30 minutes, when ex-
posed below — 4°C, and that quick and short cooling (not lower than
— 9°C.) produced no injury, but if it is prolonged, Paramecium be-
came spherical and swollen to 4-5 times normal size, while Colpid-
ium and Spirostomum shrunk. Wolfson (1935) studied Paramecium
sp. in gradually descending subzero-temperature, and observed that
as the temperature decreases the organism often swims backward,
its bodily movements cease at — 14.2°C, but the cilia continue to
beat for some time. While Paramecium recover completely from a
momentary exposure to — 16°C, long cooling at this temperature
brings about degeneration. When the water in which the organisms
are kept freezes, no survival was noted. Plasmodium knowlcsi and
P. inui in the blood of Macacus rhesus remain viable, according to
Coggeshall (1939), for as long as 70 days at — 76°C, if frozen and
1 hawed rapidly. Low temperature on Protozoa (Luyet and Gehenio,
1940).
Light. In the Phytomastigina which include chromatophore-bear-
ECOLOGY 23
ing flagellates, the sun light is essential to photosynthesis (p. 107). The
sun light further plays an important role in those protozoans which
are dependent upon chromatophore-possessing organisms as chief
source of food supply. Hence the light is another factor concerned
with the distribution of free-living Protozoa.
Chemical composition of water. The chemical nature of the water
is another important factor which influences the very existence of
Protozoa in a given body of water. Protozoa differ from one another
in morphological as well as physiological characteristics. Individual
protozoan species requires a certain chemical composition of the wa-
ter in which it can be cultivated under experimental conditions, al-
though this may be more or less variable among different forms
(Needham et al, 1937).
In their "biological analysis of water" Kolkwitz and Marsson
(1908, 1909) distinguished four types of habitats for many aquatic
plant, and a few animal, organisms, which were based upon the kind
and amount of inorganic and organic matter and amount of oxygen
present in the water: namely, katharobic, oligosaprobic, mesosapro-
bic, and polysaprobic. Katharobic protozoans are those which live in
mountain springs, brooks, or ponds, the water of which is rich in
oxygen, but free from organic matter. Oligosaprobic forms are those
that inhabit waters which are rich in mineral matter, but in which
no purification processes are taking place. Many Phytomastigina,
various testaceans and many ciliates, such as Frontonia, Lacrymaria,
Oxytricha, Stylonychia, Vorticella, etc. inhabit such waters. Meso-
saprobic protozoans live in waters in which active oxidation and de-
composition of organic matter are taking place. The majority of
freshwater protozoans belong to this group: namely, numerous
Phytomastigina, Heliozoa, Zoomastigina, and all orders of Ciliata.
Finally polysaprobic forms are capable of living in waters which,
because of dominance of reduction and cleavage processes of organic
matter, contain at most a very small amount of oxygen and are rich
in carbonic acid gas and nitrogenous decomposition products. The
black bottom slime contains usually an abundance of ferrous sul-
phide and other sulphurous substances. Lauterborn (1901) called this
sapropelic. Examples of polysaprobic protozoans are Pelomyxa
palustris, Euglypha alveolata, Pamphagus armatus, Mastigamoeba,
Trepomonas agilis, Hexamita inflata, Rhynchomonas nasuta, Hetero-
nema acus, Bodo, Cercomonas, Dactylochlamys, Ctenostomata, etc.
The so-called "sewage organisms" abound in such habitat (Lackey,
1925).
Certain free-living Protozoa which inhabit waters rich in decom-
24 PROTOZOOLOGY
posing organic matter are frequently found in the faecal matter of
various animals. Their cysts either pass through the alimentary
canal of the animal unharmed or are introduced after the faeces are
voided, and undergo development and multiplication in the faecal
infusion. Such forms are collectively called coprozoic Protozoa. The
coprozoic protozoans grow easily in suspension of old faecal matter
which is rich in decomposed organic matter and thus show a strik-
ingly strong capacity of adapting themselves to conditions different
from those of the water in which they normally live. Some of the
Protozoa which have been referred to as coprozoic and which are
mentioned in the present work are, as follows: Scytomonas pusilla,
Rhynchomonas nasuta, Cercomonas longicauda, C. crassicauda, Tre-
pomonas agilis, Naegleria gruberi, Acanthamoeba hyalina, Chlamy-
dophrys stercorea and Tillina magna.
As a rule, the presence of sodium chloride in the sea water prevents
the occurrence of numerous species of fresh-water inhabitants. Cer-
tain species, however, have been known to live in both fresh and
brackish or salt water. Among the species mentioned in the present
work, the following species have been reported to occur in both fresh
and salt waters: Mastigophora: Amphidinium lacustre, Cerat-
ium hirundinella; Sarcodina: Lieberkiihnia wagneri; Ciliata: Meso-
dinium pidex, Prorodon discolor, Lacrymaria olor, Amphileptus
claparedei, Lionotus fasciola, Nassula aurea, Trochilioides recta,
Chilodonella cucullulus, Trimyema compressum, Paramecium cal-
kinsi, Colpidium campylum, Platynematum sociale, Cinetochilum
margaritaceum, Pleuronema coronatum, Caenomorpha medusula,
Spirostomum minus, S. teres, Climacostomum virens, and Thuricola
folliculata; Sxictoria, : Metacineta mystacina, Endosphaera engelmanni.
It seems probable that many other protozoans are able to live
in both fresh and salt water, judging from the observations such
as that made by Finley (1930) who subjected some fifty species of
freshwater Protozoa of Wisconsin to various concentrations of sea
water, either by direct transfer or by gradual addition of the sea
water. He found that Bodo uncinatus, Uronema marinum, Pleuron-
ema jaculans and Colpoda aspera are able to live and reproduce
even when directly transferred to sea water, that Amoeba verrucosa,
Euglena, Phacus, Monas, Cyclidium, Euplotes, Lionotus, Para-
mecium, Stylonychia, etc., tolerate only a low salinity when directly
transferred, but, if the salinity is gradually increased, they live in
100 per cent sea water, and that Arcella, Cyphoderia, Aspidisca, Ble-
pharisma, Colpoda cucullus, Halteria, etc. could not tolerate 10 per
cent sea water even when the change was gradual. Finley noted no
ECOLOGY 25
morphological changes in the experimental protozoans which might
be attributed to the presence of the salt in the water, except Amoeba
verrucosa, in which certain structural and physiological changes were
observed as follows: as the salinity increased, the pulsation of the
contractile vacuole became slower. The body activity continued up
to 44 per cent sea water and the vacuole pulsated only once in 40
minutes, and after systole, it did not reappear for 10-15 minutes.
The organism became less active above this concentration and in
84 per cent sea water the vacuole disappeared, but there was still a
tendency to form the characteristic ridges, even in 91 per cent sea
water, in which the organism was less fan-shaped and the cytoplasm
seemed to be more viscous. Yocom (1934) found that Ewplotes pa-
tella was able to live normally and multiply up to 66 per cent of
sea water; above that concentration no division was noticed, though
the organism lived for a few days in up to 100 per cent salt water,
and Paramecium caudatum and Spirostomum ambiguum were less
adaptive to salt water, rarely living in 60 per cent sea water. Frisch
(1939) found that no freshwater Protozoa lived above 40 per cent
sea water and that Paramecium caudatum and P. multimicronucle-
atum died in 33-52 per cent sea water. Hardin (1942) reports that
Oikomonas termo will grow when transferred directly to a glycerol-
peptone culture medium, in up to 45 per cent sea water, and cultures
contaminated with bacteria and growing in a dilute glycerol-peptone
medium will grow in 100 per cent sea water.
Hydrogen-ion concentration. Closely related to the chemical com-
position is the hydrogen-ion concentration (pH) of the water. Some
Protozoa appear to tolerate a wide range of pH. The interesting pro-
teomyxan, Leptomyxa reticulata, occurs in soil ranging in pH 4.3 to
7.8, and grows very well in non-nutrient agar between pH 4.2 and
8.7, provided a suitable bacterial strain is supplied as food (Singh,
1948) ; and according to Loefer and Guido (1950), a strain of Euglena
gracilis (var. bacillaris) grows between pH 3.2 and 8.3. However, the
majority of Protozoa seem to prefer a certain range of pH for the
maximum metabolic activity.
The hydrogen-ion concentration of freshwater bodies varies a great
deal between highly acid bog waters in which various testaceans
may frequently be present, to highly alkaline water in which such
forms as Acanthocystis, Hyalobryon, etc., occur. In standing deep
fresh water, the bottom region is often acid because of the decom-
posing organic matter, while the surface water is less acid or slightly
alkaline due to the photosynthesis of green plants which utilize car-
bon dioxide. In some cases different pH may bring about morpho-
26
PROTOZOOLOGY
logical differences. For example, in bacteria-free cultures of Para-
mecium bursaria in a tryptone medium, Loefer (1938) found that at
pH 7.6-8.0 the length averaged 86 or 87/x, but at 6.0-6.3 the length
was about 129/z. The greatest variation took place at pH 4.6 in which
no growth occurred. The shortest animals at the acid and alkaline
extremes of growth were the widest, while the narrowest forms
(about 44m wide) were found in culture at pH 5.7-7.4. Many workers
have made observations on the pH range of the water or medium
in which certain protozoans live, grow, and multiply, some of which
data are collected in Table 1 .
Table 1 . — Protozoa and hydrogen-ion concentration
Protozoa
pH range of
medium in which
Optimum
range
Observers
growth occurs
A. In bacteria-free cultures
Euglena gracilis
3.5-9.0
—
Dusi
3.0-7.7
6.7
Alexander
3.9-9.9
6.6
Jahn
. —
5.0-6.5
Schoenborn
E. deses
6.5-8.0
7.0
Dusi
5.3-8.0
7.0
Hall
E. piscijormis
6.0-8.0
6.5-7.5
Dusi
5.4-7.5
6.8
Hall
E. viridis
—
5.0
Schoenborn
Chilomonas Paramecium
4.8-8.0
6.8
Mast and Pace
4.1-8.4
4.9;7.0
Loefer
Chlorogonium euchlorum
4.8-8.7
7.1-7.5
"
C. elongatum
4.8-8.7
7.1-7.5
"
C. teragamum
4.2-8.6
6.7-8.3
"
Colpidmm campylum
—
5.4
Kidder
Glaucoma scintillans
—
5.6-6.8
a
G. ficara
4.0-9.5
5.1;6.7
Johnson
Tetrahymena pyriformis
—
5.6-8.0
Kidder
T. vorax
—
6.2-7.6
u
Paramecium bursaria
4.9-8.0
6.7-6.8
Loefer
B. In cultures containing bacteria
Carteria obtusa
—
3.5-4.5
Wermel
Trichomonas vaginalis
6.4-8.4
—
Bland et al.
Actinosphaerium eichhorni
—
7.2-7.6
Howland
Acanthocystis aculeata
7 . 4 or above 8 . 1
Stern
Paramecium caudatum
5.3-8.2
7.0
Darby
6.0-9.5
7.0
Morea
—
6.9-7.1
Wichterman
P. aurelia
5.7-7.8
6.7
Morea
ECOLOGY
27
Table 1. — Continued
Protozoa
pH range of
medium in whicl
Optimum
Observers
growth occurs
range
5.9-8.2
5.9-7.7
Phelps
—
7.0-7.2
Wichterman
P. multim icronucleatum
4.8-8.3
7.0
Jones
—
6.5-7.0
Wichterman
P. trichium
—
6.7-7.1
"
P. bursaria
—
7.1-7.3
a
P. poly car yum
—
6.9-7.3
"
P. calkinsi
—
6.5-7.8
"
P. woodruffi
—
7.0-7.5
"
Colpidium sp.
6.0-8.5
—
Pruthi
Colpoda cucullus
5.5-9.5
6.5;7.5
Morea
Holophyra sp.
6.5-7.4
—
Pruthi
Plagiopyla sp.
6.9-7.5
—
"
Amphileptus sp.
6.8-7.5
7.1-7.3
«
Spirostomvm ambiguum
6.8-7.5
7.4
Saunders
S. sp.
6.5-8.0
7.5
Morea
Stentor coeruleus
7.8-8.0
—
Hetherington
Blepharisma undulans
—
6.5
Moore
Gastrostyla sp.
6.0-8.5
—
Pruthi
Stylonychia pustulata
6.0-8.0
6.7;8.0
Darby
Food. The kind and amount of food available in a given body
of water also controls the distribution of Protozoa. The food is
ordinarily one of the deciding factors of the number of Protozoa
in a natural habitat. Species of Paramecium and many other holo-
zoic protozoans cannot live in waters in which bacteria or minute
protozoans do not occur. If other conditions are favorable, then the
greater the number of food bacteria, the greater the number of
protozoa. Noland (1925) studied more than 65 species of fresh-water
ciliates with respect to various factors and came to the conclusion
that the nature and amount of available food has more to do with
the distribution of these organisms than any other one factor. Di-
dinium nasutum feeds almost exclusively on paramecia; therefore, it
cannot live in the absence of the latter ciliate. As a rule, euryphagous
Protozoa which feed on a variety of food organisms are widely dis-
tributed, while stenophagous forms that feed on a few species of food
organisms are limited in their distribution.
In nature, Protozoa live in association with diverse organisms.
The interrelationships which exist among them are not understood
in most cases. For example, the relationship between Entamoeba
histolytica and certain bacteria in successful in-vitro cultivation has
28 PROTOZOOLOGY
not yet been comprehended. Certain strains of bacteria were found
by Hardin (1944) to be toxic for Paramecium multimicronucleatum,
but if Oikomonas termo was present in the culture, the ciliate was
maintained indefinitely. This worker suggested that the flagellate
may be able to "detoxify" the metabolic products produced by the
bacteria. Food relation in ciliates (Faure-Fremiet, 1950, 1951a).
The adaptability of Protozoa to varied environmental conditions
influences their distribution. The degree of adaptability varies a
great deal, not only among different species, but also among the
individuals of the same species. Stentor coeruleus which grows ordi-
narily under nearly anaerobic conditions, is obviously not influenced
by alkalinity, pH, temperature or free carbon dioxide in the water
(Sprugel, 1951).
Some protozoans inhabit soil of various types and localities. Un-
der ordinary circumstances, they occur near the surface, their maxi-
mum abundance being found at a depth of about 10-12 cm. (Sandon,
1927). It is said that a very few protozoans occur in the subsoil.
Here also one notices a very wide geographical distribution of ap-
parently one and the same species. For example, Sandon found
Amoeba proteus in samples of soil collected from Greenland, Tristan
da Cunha, Gough Island, England, Mauritius, Africa, India, and
Argentina. This amoeba is known to occur in various parts of North
America, Europe, Japan, and Australia. The majority of Testacea
inhabit moist soil in abundance. Sandon observed Trinema enchelys
in the soils of Spitzbergen, Greenland, England, Japan, Australia, St.
Helena, Barbados, Mauritius, Africa, and Argentina.
Parasitic Protozoa
Some Protozoa belonging to all groups live on or in other organ-
isms. The Sporozoa are made up exclusively of parasites. The rela-
tionships between the host and the protozoan differ in various ways,
which make the basis for distinguishing the associations into three
types as follows: commensalism, symbiosis, and parasitism.
Commensalism is an association in which an organism, the com-
mensal, is benefited, while the host is neither injured nor benefited.
Depending upon the location of the commensal in the host body,
the term ectocommensalism or endocommensalism is used. Ecto-
commensalism is often represented by Protozoa which may attach
themselves to any aquatic animals that inhabit the same bod}' of
water, as shown by various species of Chonotricha, Peritricha, and
Suctoria. In other cases, there is a definite relationship between the
commensal and the host. For example, Kerona polyporum is found
ECOLOGY 29
on various species of Hydra, and many ciliates placed in Thigmo-
tricha (p. 774) are inseparably associated with certain species of
mussels.
Endocommensalism is often difficult to distinguish from endo-
parasitism, since the effect of the presence of a commensal upon the
host cannot be easily understood. On the whole, the protozoans
which live in the lumen of the alimentary canal may be looked upon
as endocommensals. These protozoans undoubtedly use part of the
food material which could be used by the host, but they do not in-
vade the host tissue. As examples of endocommensals may be men-
tioned: Endamoeba blattae, Lophomonas blattarum, L. striata,
Nyctotherus ovalis, etc., of the cockroach; Entamoeba coli, Iodamoeba
biitschlii, Endolimax nana, Dientamoeba fragilis, Chilomastix mes-
nili, etc., of the human intestine; numerous species of Protociliata of
Anura, etc. Because of the difficulties mentioned above, the term
parasitic Protozoa, in its broad sense, includes the commenals also.
Symbiosis on the other hand is an association of two species of
organisms, which is of mutual benefit. The cryptomonads belonging
to Chrysidella ("Zooxanthellae") containing yellow or brown chrom-
atophores, which live in Foraminifera and Radiolaria, and certain
algae belonging to Chlorella ("Zoochlorellae") containing green
chromatophores, which occur in some freshwater protozoans, such as
Paramecium bursaria, Stentor amethystinus, etc., are looked upon
as holding symbiotic relationship with the respective protozoan host.
Several species of the highly interesting Hypermastigina, which are
present commonly and abundantly in various species of termites and
the woodroach Cryptocercus, have been demonstrated by Cleveland
to digest the cellulose material which makes up the bulk of wood-
chips the host insects take in and to transform it into glycogenous
substances that are used partly by the host insects. If deprived of
these flagellates by being subjected to oxygen under pressure or to
a high temperature, the termites die, even though the intestine is
filled with wood-chips. If removed from the gut of the termite, the
flagellates perish (Cleveland, 1924, 1925). Recently, Cleveland
(1949-1950c) found that the molting hormone produced by Crypto-
cercus induces sexual reproduction in several flagellates inhabiting
its hind-gut (p. 185). Thus the association here may be said to be an
absolute symbiosis.
Parasitism is an association in which one organism (the parasite)
lives at the expense of the other (the host) . Here also ectoparasitism
and endoparasitism occur, although the former is not commonly
found. Hydramoeba hydroxena (p. 464) feeds on the body cells of
.30 PROTOZOOLOGY
Hydra which, according to Reynolds and Looper (1928), die on an
average in 6.8 days as a result of the infection and the amoebae dis-
appear in from 4 to 10 days if removed from a host Hydra. Costia
necatrix (p. 372) often occurs in an enormous number, attached to
various freshwater fishes especially in an aquarium, by piercing
through the epidermal cells and appears to disturb the normal func-
tions of the host tissue. Ichthyophthirius multifiliis (p. 709), another
ectoparasite of freshwater and marine fishes, goes further by com-
pletely burying themselves in the epidermis and feeds on the host's
tissue cells and, not infrequently, contributes toward the cause of the
death of the host fishes.
The endoparasites absorb by osmosis the vital body fluid, feed on
the host cells or cell-fragments by pseudopodia or cytostome, or
enter the host tissues or cells themselves, living on the cytoplasm or
in some cases on the nucleus. Consequently they bring about abnor-
mal or pathological conditions upon the host which often succumbs
to the infection. Endoparasitic Protozoa of man are Entamoeba
histolytica, Balantidium coli, species of Plasmodium and Leishmania,
Trypanosoma gambiense, etc. The Sporozoa, as was stated before, are
without exception coelozoic, histozoic, or cytozoic parasites.
Because of their modes of living, the endoparasitic Protozoa cause
certain morphological changes in the cells, tissues, or organs of the
host. The active growth of Entamoeba histolytica in the glands of the
colon of the victim, produces first slightly raised nodules which de-
velop into abscesses and the ulcers formed by the rupture of ab-
scesses, may reach 2 cm. or more in diameter, completely destroying
the tissues of the colon wall. Similar pathological changes may also
occur in the case of infection by Balantidium coli. In Leishmania
donovani, the victim shows an increase in number of the large macro-
phages and mononuclears and also an extreme enlargement of the
spleen. Trypanosoma cruzi brings about the degeneration of the in-
fected host cells and an abundance of leucocytes in the infected
tissues, followed by an increase of fibrous tissue. T. gambiense, the
causative organism of African sleeping sickness, causes enlargement
of lymphatic glands and spleen, followed by changes in meninges
and an increase of cerebro-spinal fluid. Its most characteristic
changes are the thickening of the arterial coat and the round-celled
infiltration around the blood vessels of the central nervous system.
Malarial infection is invariably accompanied by an enormous
enlargement of the spleen ("spleen index"); the blood becomes
watery; the erythrocytes decrease in number; the leucocytes, sub-
normal; but mononuclear cells increase in number; pigment granules
ECOLOGY
31
which are set free in the blood plasma at the time of merozoite-
liberation are engulfed by leucocytes; and enlarged spleen contains
large amount of pigments which are lodged in leucocytes and endo-
thelial cells. In Plasmodium falciparum, the blood capillaries of
brain, spleen and other viscera may completely be blocked by in-
fected erythrocytes.
In Myxosporidia which are either histozoic or coelozoic parasites
of fishes, the tissue cells that are in direct contact with highly en-
larging parasites, undergo various morphological changes. For exam-
fEssssxgsss
«m .&?: %: %m
¥■ '■■■■■■' 'i**£i?< ■'•:■: -X^^<: ; . $ ?-:
Fig. 1. Histological changes in host fish caused by myxosporidian in-
fection, X1920 (Kudo), a, portion of a cyst of Myxobolus intestinalis, sur-
rounded by peri-intestinal muscle of the black crappie; b, part of a cyst
of Thelohanellus notatus, enveloped by the connective tissue of the blunt-
nosed minnow.
pie, the circular muscle fibers of the small iniestine of Pomoxis
sparoides, which surround Myxobolus intestinalis, a myxosporidian,
become modified a great deal and turn about 90° from the original
direction, due undoubtedly to the stimulation exercised by the
myxosporidian parasite (Fig. 1, a). In the case of another myxo-
sporidian, Thelohanellus notatus, the connective tissue cells of the
host fish surrounding the protozoan body, transform themselves into
"epithelial cells" (Fig. 1, b), a state comparable to the formation of
the ciliated epithelium from a layer of fibroblasts lining a cyst
formed around a piece of ovary inplanted into the adductor muscle
of Pecten as observed by Drew (1911),
32 PROTOZOOLOGY
Practically all Microsporidia are cytozoic, and the infected cells
become hypertrophied enormously, producing in one genus the so-
called Glugea cysts (Figs. 287, 290). In many cases, the hypertrophy
of the nucleus of the infected cell is far more conspicuous than that
of the cytoplasm (Figs. 287, 291) (Kudo, 1924).
When the gonads are parasitized heavify, the germ cells of the
host animal often do not develop, thus resulting in parasitic castra-
tion. For example, the ciliate, Orchitophrya steUarum, a parasite in
the male reproductive organ of Asterias rubens, was found by Vevers
(1951) to break down completely all germinal tissues of the testes in
the majority of the host starfish. In other cases, the protozoan does
not invade the gonads, but there is no development of the germ cells.
The microsporidian, Nose ma apis, attacks solely the gut epithelium
of the honey bee, but the ovary of an infected queen bee degenerates
to varying degrees (Hassanein, 1951). Still in other instances, the
Protozoa invade developing ova of the host, but do not hinder their
development, though the parasites multiply, as in Nosema bombycis
in the silkworm (Stempell, 1909) and Babesia bigemina in the cattle
tick (Dennis, 1932).
For the great majority of parasitic Protozoa, there exists a de-
finite host-parasite relationship and animals other than the specific
hosts possess a natural immunity against an infection by a particular
parasitic protozoan. Immunity involved in diseases caused by Pro-
tozoa has been most intensively studied on haemozoic forms, es-
pecially Plasmodium and Trypanosoma, since they are the causative
organisms of important diseases. Development of these organisms
in hosts depends on various factors such as the species and strains
of the parasites, the species and strains of vectors, and immunity of
the host. Boyd and co-workers showed that reinoculation of persons
who have recovered from an infection with Plasmodium vivax or P.
falciparum with the same strain of the parasites, will not result in a
second clinical attack, because of the development of homologous
immunity, but with a different strain of the same species or different
species, a definite clinical attack occurs, thus there being no hetero-
logous tolerance. The homologous immunity was found to continue
for at least three years and in one case for about seven years in P.
vivax, and for at least four months in P. falciparum after apparent
eradication of the infection. In the case of leishmaniasis, recovery
from a natural or induced infection apparently develops a lasting
immunity against reinfection with the same species of Leishmania.
It has been shown that in infections with avian, monkey and hu-
man Plasmodium or Trypanosoma hwisi1 a considerable number of
ECOLOGY 33
the parasites are destroyed during the developmental phase of the
infection and that after a variable length of time, resistance to the
parasites often develops in the host, as the parasites disappear from
the peripheral blood and symptoms subside, though the host still
harbors the organisms. In malarious countries, the adults and chil-
dren show usually a low and a high rate of malaria infection respect-
ively, but the latter frequently do not show symptoms of infection,
even though the parasites are detectable in the blood. Apparently
repeated infection produces tolerance which can keep, as long as the
host remains healthy, the parasites under control. There seems to be
also racial difference in the degree of immunity against Plasmodium
and Trypanosoma.
As to the mechanism of immunity, the destruction of the parasites
by phagocytosis of the endothelial cells of the spleen, bone marrow
and liver and continued regenerative process to replace the de-
stroyed blood cells, are the two important phases in the cellular de-
fense mechanism. Besides, there are indications that humoral de-
fense mechanism through the production of antibodies is in active
operation in infections by Plasmodium knowlesi and trypanosomes
(Taliaferro, 1926; Maegraith, 1948; Culbertson, 1951). Immunity
(Taliaferro, 1941).
With regard to the origin of parasitic Protozoa, it is generally
agreed among biologists that the parasite in general evolved from
the free-living form. The protozoan association with other organ-
isms was begun when various protozoans which lived attached to,
or by crawling on, submerged objects happened to transfer them-
selves to various invertebrates which occur in the same water.
These Protozoa benefit by change in location as the host animal
moves about, and thus enlarging the opportunity to obtain a con-
tinued supply of food material. Such ectocommensals are found
abundantly; for example, the peritrichous ciliates attached to the
body and appendages of various aquatic animals such as larval in-
sects and microcrustaceans. Ectocommensalism may next lead to
ectoparasitism as in the case of Costia or Hydramoeba, and then
again instead of confining themselves to the body surface, the Pro-
tozoa may bore into the body wall from outside and actually acquire
the habit of feeding on tissue cells of the attached animals as in the
case of Ichthyophthirius.
The next step in the evolution of parasitism must have been
reached when Protozoa, accidentally or passively, were taken into
the digestive system of the Metazoa. Such a sudden change in
habitat appears to be fatal to most protozoans. But certain others
34 PROTOZOOLOGY
possess extraordinary capacity to adapt themselves to an entirely
different environment. For example, Dobell (1918) observed in the
tadpole gut, a typical free-living limax amoeba, with characteristic
nucleus, contractile vacuoles, etc., which was found in numbers in
the water containing the faecal matter of the tadpole. Glaucoma
(Tetrahymena) pyriformis, a free-living ciliate, was found to occur
in the body cavity of the larvae of Theobaldia annulata (after
MacArthur) and in the larvae of Chironomus plumosus (after Treil-
lard and Lwoff). Lwoff successfully inoculated this ciliate into the
larvae of Galleria mellonella which died later from the infection.
Janda and Jirovec (1937) injected bacteria-free culture of this
ciliate into annelids, molluscs, crustaceans, insects, fishes, and
amphibians, and found that only insects — all of 14 species (both
larvae and adults) — became infected by this ciliate. In a few days
after injection the haemocoele became filled with the ciliates. Of
various organs, the ciliates were most abundantly found in the
adipose tissue. The organisms were much larger than those present
in the original culture. The insects, into which the ciliates were in-
jected, died from the infection in a few days. The course of develop-
ment of the ciliate within an experimental insect depended not only
on the amount of the culture injected, but also on the temperature.
At 1-4°C. the development was much slower than at 26°C; but if
an infected insect was kept at 32-36°C. for 0.5-3 hours, the ciliates
were apparently killed and the insect continued to live. When
Glaucoma taken from Dixippus morosus were placed in ordinary
water, they continued to live and underwent multiplication. The
ciliate showed a remarkable power of withstanding the artificial
digestion; namely, at 18°C. they lived 4 days in artificial gastric
juice with pH 4.2; 2-3 days in a juice with pH 3.6; and a few hours
in a juice with pH 1.0. Cleveland (1928) observed Tritrichomonas
fecalis in faeces of a single human subject for three years which grew
well in faeces diluted with tap water, in hay infusions with or with-
out free-living protozoans or in tap water with tissues at —3° to
37°C, and which, when fed per os, was able to live indefinitely in
the gut of frogs and tadpoles. Reynolds (1936) found that Colpoda
steini, a free-living ciliate of fresh water, occurs naturally in the
intestine and other viscera of the land slug, Agriolimax agrestis, the
slug forms being much larger than the free-living individuals.
It may be further speculated that Vahlkampfia, Hydramoeba,
Schizamoeba, and Endamoeba, are the different stages of the course
the intestinal amoebae might have taken during their evolution.
Obviously endocommensalism in the alimentary canal was the
initial phase of endoparasitjsm. When these endocommensals began
ECOLOGY 35
to consume an excessive amount of food or to feed on the tissue cells
of the host gut, they became the true endoparasites. Destroying or
penetrating through the intestinal wall, they became first established
in the body or organ cavities and then invaded tissues, cells or even
nuclei, thus developing into pathogenic Protozoa. The endoparasites
developing in invertebrates which feed upon the blood of vertebrates
as source of food supply, will have opportunities to establish them-
selves in the higher animals.
Hyperparasitism. Certain parasitic Protozoa have been found to
parasitize other protozoan or metazoan parasites. This association is
named hyperparasitism. The microsporidian Nosema notabilis (p.
672) is an exclusive parasite of the myxosporidian Sphaerospora
polymorpha, which is a very common inhabitant of the urinary blad-
der of the toad fish along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. A heavy in-
fection of the microsporidian results in the degeneration and death
of the host myxosporidian trophozoite (Kudo, 1944). Thus Nosema
notabilis is a hyperparasite. Organisms living on and in Protozoa
(Duboscq and Grasse, 1927, 1929; Georgevitch, 1936; Grasse, 1936;
Kirby, 1932, 1938, 1941, 1941a, 1942, 1942a, 1942b, 1944, 1946)
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Chalkley, H. W. : (1930) Resistance of Paramecium to heat as af-
fected by changes in hydrogen-ion concentration and in inor-
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Chambers, R. and Hale, H. P.: (1932) The formation of ice in pro-
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— (1926) Symbiosis among animals with special reference to
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- (1950) II. Ibid., 86:185.
- (1950a) III. Ibid., 86:215.
- (1950b) IV. Ibid, 87:317.
— (1950c) V. Ibid, 87:349.
36 PROTOZOOLOGY
Coggeshall, L. T. : (1939) Preservation of viable malaria parasites
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Deschiens, R. : (1934) Influence du froid sur les formes vegetatives
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Calotermes (Glyptotermes) iridipennis. Arch. zool. exp. gen., 66:
451.
— (1929) Sur quelques protistes d'un Calotermes, etc.
Ibid., 68:8.
Efimoff, W. W. : (1924) Ueber Ausfrieren und Ueberkaeltung der
Protozoen. Arch. Protist., 49: 431.
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salinity. Ecology, 11:337.
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Georgevitch, J.: (1936) Ein neuer Hyperparasit, Leishmania esocis
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33.
— (1935) The culture and reactions of purified Protozoa.
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ECOLOGY 37
Hassanein, M. H. : (1951) Studies on the effect of infection with
Nosema apis on the physiology of the queen honey-bee. Quart.
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— (1942a) III. Ibid., 45:167.
— (1942b) A parasite of the macronucleus of Vorticella. Jour.
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(1944) The structural characteristics and nuclear parasites
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265.
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38 PROTOZOOLOGY
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Chapter 3
Morphology
PROTOZOA range in size from submicroscopic to macroscopic,
though they are on the whole minute microscopic animals. The
parasitic forms, especially cytozoic parasites, are often extremely
small, while free-living protozoans are usually of much larger dimen-
sions. Noctiluca, Foraminifera, Radiolaria, many ciliates such as
Stentor, Bursaria, etc., represent larger forms. Colonial proto-
zoans such as Carchesium, Zoothamnium, Ophrj^dium, etc., are even
greater than the solitary forms. On the other hand, Plasmodium,
Leishmania, and microsporidian spores may be mentioned as exam-
ples of the smallest forms. The unit of measurement employed in
protozoology is, as in general microscopy, 1 micron (n) which is
equal to 0.001 mm.
The body form of Protozoa is even more varied, and because of
its extreme plasticity it frequently does not remain constant. Fur-
thermore the form and size of a given species may vary according to
the kind and amount of food as is discussed elsewhere (p. 109). From
a small simple spheroidal mass up to large highly complex forms, all
possible body forms occur. Although the great majority are without
symmetry, there are some which possess a definite symmetry. Thus
bilateral symmetry is noted in all members of Diplomonadina (p.
392); radial symmetry in Gonium, Cyclonexis, etc.; and universal
symmetry, in certain Heliozoa, Vol vox, etc.
The fundamental component of the protozoan body is the pro-
toplasm which is without exception differentiated into the nucleus
and the cytoplasm. Haeckel's (1868, 1870) monera are now considered
as nonexistent, since improved microscopic technique has failed in re-
cent years to reveal any anucleated protozoans. The nucleus and the
cytoplasm are inseparably important to the well-being of a proto-
zoan, as has been shown by numerous investigators since Verworn's
pioneer work. In all cases, successful regeneration of the body is ac-
complished only by the nucleus-bearing portions and enucleate parts
degenerate sooner or later. On the other hand, when the nucleus is
taken out of a protozoan, both the nucleus and cytoplasm degener-
ate, which indicates their intimate association in carrying on the
activities of the body. It appears certain that the nucleus controls
the assimilative phase of metabolism which takes place in the cyto-
plasm in normal animals, while the cytoplasm is capable of carrying
on the catabolic phase of the metabolism. Aside from the importance
39
40 PROTOZOOLOGY
as the controlling center of metabolism, evidences point to the con-
clusion that the nucleus contains the genes or hereditary factors
which characterize each species of Protozoa from generation to gen-
eration, as in the cells of multicellular animals and plants.
The nucleus
Because of a great variety of the body form and organization, the
protozoan nuclei are of various forms, sizes and structures. At one
extreme there is a small nucleus and, at the other, a large voluminous
one and, between these extremes, is found almost every conceivable
variety of form and structure. The majority of Protozoa contain a
single nucleus, though many may possess two or more throughout
the greater part of their life-cycle. In several species, each individual
possesses two similar nuclei, as in Diplomonadina, Protoopalina
and Zelleriella. In Euciliata and Suctoria, two dissimilar nuclei, a
macronucleus and a micronucleus, are typically present. The macro-
nucleus is always larger than the micronucleus, and controls the
trophic activities of the organism, while the micronucleus is con-
cerned with the reproductive activity. Certain Protozoa possess
numerous nuclei of similar structure, as for example, in Pelomyxa,
Mycetozoa, Actinosphaerium, Opalina, Cepedea, Myxosporidia,
Microsporidia, etc.
The essential morphological components of the protozoan nucleus
are the nuclear membrane, chromatin, plastin and nucleoplasm or
nuclear sap. Their interrelationship varies sometimes from one de-
velopmental stage to another, and vastly among different species.
Structurally, they fall in general into one of the two types: vesicular
and compact.
The vesicular nucleus (Fig. 2, a, c, e) consists of a nuclear mem-
brane which is sometimes very delicate but distinct, nucleoplasm,
achromatin and chromatin. Besides there is an intranuclear body
which is, as a rule, more or less spherical and which appears to be of
different make-ups as judged by its staining reactions among differ-
ent nuclei. It may be composed of chromatin, of plastin, or of a
mixture of both. The first type is sometimes called karyosome and
the second, nucleolus or plasmosome. Absolute distinction between
these two terms cannot be made as they are based solely upon the
difference in affinity to nuclear stains which cannot be standardized
and hence do not give uniformly the same result. Following Minchin
(1912), the term endosome is advocated here to designate one or
more conspicuous bodies other than the chromatin granules, present
within the nuclear membrane (Fig, 2, b, d).
Fig. 2. a-f, vesicular nuclei; g-j, compact nuclei, X980. a, b, nuclei of
Entamoeba invadens (a, in life; b, in stained organism); c, d, nuclei of
Amoeba spumosa (c, in life, showing a large endosome; d, stained); e, f,
nuclei of A. proteus (e, in life; f, a nucleus subjected to Feulgen's nucleal
reaction) ; g, h, nuclei of Paramecium aurelia (g, in life under phase micro-
scope, snowing two vesicular micronuclei and compact macronucleus; h,
Feulgen-stained nuclei); i, j, nuclei of Frontonia leucas, showing a micro-
nucleus and macronucleus, both of which are compact ($ in life, showing
many endosomes imbedded among the granules; j, nuclei stained with
acidified methyl green),
42 PROTOZOOLOGY
When viewed in life, the nucleoplasm is ordinarily homogeneous
and structureless. But, upon fixation, there appear invariably achro-
matic strands or networks which seem to connect the endosome and
the nuclear membrane (Fig. 2, b, d). Some investigators hold that
these strands or networks exist naturally in life, but due to the simi-
larity of refractive indices of the strands and of the nucleoplasm,
they are not visible and that, when fixed, they become readily recog-
nizable because of a change in these indices. In some nuclei, however,
certain strands have been observed in life, as for example in the
nucleus of the species of Barbulanympha (Fig. 174, c), according to
Cleveland and his associates (1934). Others maintain that the achro-
matic structures prominent in fixed vesicular nuclei are mere arti-
facts brought about by fixation and do not exist in life and that the
nucleoplasm is a homogeneous liquid matrix of the nucleus in which
the chromatin is usually distributed as small granules. Frequently
larger granules of various sizes and forms may occur along the inner
surface of the nuclear membrane. These so-called peripheral granules
that occur in Amoeba, Entamoeba, Pelomyxa, etc., are apparently
not chromatinic (Fig. 2, a, e). The vesicular nucleus is most com-
monly present in various orders of Sarcodina and Mastigophora.
The compact nucleus (Fig. 2, g-j), on the other hand, contains a
large amount of chromatin substance and a comparatively small
amount of nucleoplasm, and is thus massive. The macronucleus of
the Ciliophora is almost always of this kind. The variety of forms
of the compact nuclei is indeed remarkable. It may be spherical,
ovate, cylindrical, club-shaped, band-form, moniliform, horseshoe-
form, filamentous, or dendritic. The nuclear membrane is always
distinct, and the chromatin substance is usually of spheroidal form,
varying in size among different species and often even in the same
species. In the majority of species, the chromatin granules are small
and compact (Fig. 2, h, i), though in some forms, such as Nyctotheru-s
ovalis (Fig. 3), they may reach 20/x or more in diameter in some indi-
viduals and while the smaller chromatin granules seem to be homo-
geneous, larger forms contain alveoli of different sizes in which
smaller chromatin granules are suspended (Kudo, 1936).
Precise knowledge of chromatin (thymo- or desoxyribose-nucleic
acid) is still lacking. At present the determination of the chromatin
depends upon the following tests: (1) artificial digestion which does
not destroy this substance, while non-chromatinic parts of the nu-
cleus are completely dissolved; (2) acidified methyl green which
stains the chromatin bright green; (3) 10 per cent sodium chloride
solution which dissolves, or causes swelling of, chromatin granules,
MORPHOLOGY
43
while nuclear membrane and achromatic substances remain unat-
tacked; and (4) in the fixed condition Feulgen's nucleal reaction
(p. 897). Action of methyl green (Pollister and Leuchtenberger,
1949).
There is no sharp demarcation between the vesicular and compact
nuclei, since there are numerous nuclei the structures of which are
Fig. 3. Parts of
nacronuclei of Nyctotherus ovalis, showing chromatin
spherules of different sizes, X650 (Kudo).
intermediate between the two. Moreover what appears to be a
vesicular nucleus in life, may approach a compact nucleus when
fixed and stained as in the case of Euglenoidina. Several experimental
observations show that the number, size, and structure of the endo-
some in the vesicular nucleus, and the amount and arrangement of
the chromatin in the compact nucleus, vary according to the physio-
logical state of the whole organism. The macronucleus may be
44 PROTOZOOLOGY
divided into two or more parts with or without connections among
them and in Dileptus anser into more than 200 small nuclei, each of
which is "composed of a plastin core and a chromatin cortex" (Cal-
kins; Hayes).
In a compact nucleus, the chromatin granules or spherules fill, as
a rule, the intranuclear space compactly, in which one or more endo-
somes (Fig. 2, i) may occur. In many nuclei these chromatin granules
appear to be suspended freely, while in others a reticulum appears to
make the background. The chromatin of compact nuclei gives a
strong positive Feulgen's nucleal reaction. The macronuclear and
micronuclear chromatin substances respond differently to Feulgen's
nucleal reaction or to the so-called nuclear stains, as judged by the
difference in the intensity or tone of color. In Paramecium caudatum.,
P. aurelia, Chilodonella, Nyctotherus ovalis, etc., the macronuclear
chromatin is colored more deeply than the micronuclear chromatin,
while in Colpoda, Urostyla, Euplotes, Stylonychia, and others, the
reverse seems to be the case, which may support the validity of the
assumption by Heidenhain that the two types of the nuclei of
Euciliata and Suctoria are made up of different chromatin sub-
stances— idiochromatin in the micronucleus and trophochromatin
in the macronucleus — and in other classes of Protozoa, the two kinds
of chromatin are present together in a single nucleus. The macro-
nucleus and the micronucleus of vegetative Paramecium caudatum
were found by Moses (1950) to possess a similar nucleic acid-protein
composition; namely, similar concentrations of total protein, non-
histone protein, desoxyribose nucleic acid and ribose nucleic acid.
Of the two latter nucleic acids, ribose nucleic acid is said to be pres-
ent in a larger amount than desoxyribose nucleic acid in both nuclei.
It may be considered that the two nucleic acids occur in different
proportions in the two nuclei.
Chromidia. Since the detection of chromatin had solely depended
on its affinity to certain nuclear stains, several investigators found
extranuclear chromatin granules in many protozoans. Finding such
granules in the cytoplasm of Actinosphaerium eichhorni, Arcella vul-
garis, and others, Hertwig (1902) called them chromidia, and main-
tained that under certain circumstances, such as lack of food ma-
terial, the nuclei disappear and the chromatin granules become scat-
tered throughout the cytoplasm. In the case of Arcella vulgaris, the
two nuclei break down completely to produce a chromidial-net
which later reforms into smaller secondary nuclei. It has, however,
been found by Belaf that the lack of food caused the encystment
rather than chromidia-formation in Actinosphaerium and, according
MORPHOLOGY 45
to Reichenow, Jollos observed that in Arcella the nuclei persisted,
but were thickly covered by chromidial-net which could be cleared
away by artificial digestion to reveal the two nuclei. In Diffiugia, the
chromidial-net is vacuolated or alveolated in the fall and in each
alveolus appear glycogen granules which seem to serve as reserve
food material for the reproduction that takes place during that
season (Zuelzer), and the chromidia occurring in Actinosphaerium
appear to be of a combination of a carbohydrate and a protein
(Rumjantzew and Wermel, 1925). Apparently the widely distributed
volutin (p. 114), and many inclusions or cytozoic parasites, such as
Sphaerita (p. 893), which occur occasionally in different Sarcodina,
have in some cases been called chromidia. By using Feulgen's nucleal
reaction, Reichenow (1928) obtained a diffused violet-stained zone
in Chlamydomonas and held them to be dissolved volutin. Calkins
(1933) found the chromidia of Arcella vulgaris negative to the nucleal
reaction, but by omitting acid-hydrolysis and treating with fuchsin-
sulphurous acid for 8-14 hours, the chromidia and the secondary
nuclei were found to show a typical positive reaction and believed
that the chromidia were chromatin. Thus at present the real nature
of chromidia is still not clearly known, although many protozoolo-
gists are inclined to think that the substance is not chromatinic, but,
in some way, is connected with the metabolism of the protozoan.
The cytoplasm
The extranuclear part of the protozoan body is the cytoplasm. It
is composed of a colloidal system, which may be homogeneous, granu-
lated, vacuolated, reticulated, or fibrillar in optical texture, and is
almost always colorless. The chromatophore-bearing Protozoa are
variously colored, and those with symbiotic algae or cryptomonads
are also greenish or brownish in color. Furthermore, pigment or
crystals which are produced in the body may give protozoans vari-
ous colorations. In several forms pigments are diffused throughout
the cytoplasm. For example, many dinoflagellates are beautifully
colored, which, according to Kofoid and Swezy, is due to a thorough
diffusion of pigment in the cytoplasm.
Stentor coeruleus is beautifully blue-colored. This coloration is due
to the presence of pigment stentorin (Lankester, 1873) which occurs
as granules in the ectoplasm (Fig. 14). The pigment is highly re-
sistant to various solvents such as acids and alkalis, and the sun-
light does not affect its nature. It is destroyed by bleaching with
chlorine gas or with potassium permanganate, followed by immer-
sion in 5 per cent oxalic acid (Weisz, 1948). Several species of Blepha-
46 PROTOZOOLOGY
risma are rose- or purple-colored. The color is due to the presence of
zoopurpurin (Arcichovskij, 1905) which is lodged in numerous gran-
ules present in the ectoplasm. This pigment is soluble in alcohol,
ether or acetone, and is destroyed by strong light (Giese, 1938).
Weisz (1950) maintains that both pigment granules are chondrio-
somes, and in Stentor, cytochrome oxidase appears to be localized in
the pigment granules.
The extent and nature of the cytoplasmic differentiation differ
greatly among various groups. In the majority of Protozoa, the
cytoplasm is differentiated into the ectoplasm and the endoplasm.
The ectoplasm is the cortical zone which is hyaline and homogeneous
in Sarcodina and Sporozoa. In the Ciliophora it is a permanent and
distinct part of the body and contains several organelles. The endo-
plasm is more voluminous and fluid. It is granulated or alveolated
and contains various organellae. While the alveolated cytoplasm is
normal in forms such as the members of Heliozoa and Radiolaria, in
other cases the alveolation of normally granulated or vacuolated
cytoplasm indicates invariably the beginning of degeneration of the
protozoan body. In Amoeba and other Sarcodina, the "hyaline cap"
and "layer" (Mast) make up the ectoplasm, and the "plasmasol"
and "plamagel" (Mast) compose the endoplasm (Fig. 46).
In numerous Sarcodina and certain Mastigophora, the body
surface is naked and not protected by any form-giving organella.
However, the surface layer is not only elastic, but solid, and there-
fore the name plasma-membrane may be applied to it. Such forms
are capable of undergoing amoeboid movement by formation of
pseudopodia and by continuous change of form due to the movement
of the cytoplasm which is more fluid. However, the majority of
Protozoa possess a characteristic and constant body form due to the
development of a special envelope, the pellicle. In Amoeba striata,
A. verrucosa (Howland, 1924), Pelomyxa carolinensis, P. illinoisensis
(Kudo, 1946, 1951), etc., there is a distinct pellicle. The same is true
with some flagellates, such as certain species of Euglena, Peranema,
and Astasia, in which it is elastic and expansible so that the organ-
isms show a great deal of plasticity.
The pellicle of a ciliate is much thicker and more definite, and
often variously ridged or sculptured. In many, linear furrows and
ridges run longitudinally, obliquely, or spirally; and, in others, the
ridges are combined with hexagonal or rectangular depressed areas.
Still in others, such as Coleps, elevated platelets are arranged paral-
lel to the longitudinal axis of the body. In certain peritrichous
ciliates, such as Vorticella monilata, Carchesium granulatum, etc.,
MORPHOLOGY 47
the pellicle may possess nodular thickenings arranged in more or less
parallel rows at right angles to the body axis.
While the pellicle always covers the protozoan body closely,
there are other kinds of protective envelopes produced by Protozoa
which may cover the body rather loosely. These are the shell, test,
lorica or envelope. The shell of various Phytomastigina is usually
made up of cellulose, a carbohydrate, which is widely distributed
in the plant kingdom. It may be composed of a single or several
layers, and may possess ridges or markings of various patterns on it.
In addition to the shell, gelatinous substance may in many forms be
produced to surround the shelled body or in the members of Volvo-
cidae to form the matrix of the entire colony in which the individuals
are embedded. In the dinoflagellates, the shell is highly developed
and often composed of numerous plates which are variously sculp-
tured.
In other Protozoa, the shell is made up of chitin or pseudo-chitin
(tectin). Common examples are found in the testaceans; for example,
in Arcella and allied forms, the shell is made up of chitinous material
constructed in particular ways which characterize the different gen-
era. Newly formed shell is colorless, but older ones become brownish,
because of the presence of iron oxide. Difflugia and related genera
form shells by gluing together small sand-grains, diatom-shells,
debris, etc., with chitinous or pseudochitinous substances which
they secrete. Many foraminiferans seem to possess a remarkable
selective power in the use of foreign materials, for the construction of
their shells. According to Cushman (1933) Psammosphaera fusca
uses sand-grains of uniform color but of different sizes, while P. parva
uses grains of more or less uniform size but adds, as a rule, a single
large acerose sponge spicule which is built into the test and which
extends out both ways considerably. Cushman thinks that this is not
accidental, since the specimens without the spicules are few and those
with a short or broken spicules are not found. P. bowmanni, on the
other hand, uses only mica flakes which are found in a comparatively
small amount, and P. rustica uses acerose sponge spicules for the
framework of the shell, skilfully fitting smaller broken pieces into
polygonal areas. Other foraminiferans combine chitinous secretion
with calcium carbonate and produce beautifully constructed shells
(Fig. 4) with one or numerous pores. In the Coccolithidae, variously
shaped platelets of calcium carbonate ornament the shell.
The silica is present in the shells of various Protozoa. In Euglypha
and related testaceans, siliceous scales or platelets are produced in
the endoplasm and compose a new shell at the time of fission or of
48 PROTOZOOLOGY
encystment together with the chitinous secretion. In many helio-
zoans, siliceous substance forms spicules, platelets, or combination
of both which are embedded in the mucilaginous envelope that
surrounds the body and, in some cases, a special clathrate shell com-
posed of silica, is to be found. In some Radiolaria, isolated siliceous
spicules occur as in Heliozoa, while in others the lateral development
Fig. 4. Diagram of the shell of Peneroplis pertusus, X about 35
(Carpenter), ep, external pore; s, septum; sc, stolon canal.
of the spines results in production of highly complex and the most
beautiful shells with various ornamentations or incorporation of
foreign materials. Many pelagic radiolarians possess numerous con-
spicuous radiating spines in connection with the skeleton, which ap-
parently aid the organisms in maintaining their existence in the open
sea.
Certain Protomonadina possess a funnel-like collar in the flagel-
lated end and in some in addition a chitinous lorica surrounds the
body. The lorica found in the Ciliophora is mostly composed of
chitinous substance alone, especially in Peritricha, although others
produce a house made up of gelatinous secretion containing foreign
materials as in Stentor (p. 806). In the Tintinnidae, the loricae
are either solely chitinous in numerous marine forms not mentioned
in the present work or composed of sand-grains or coccoliths ce-
mented together by chitinous secretion, which are found in fresh-
water forms.
MORPHOLOGY 49
Locomotor organellae
Closely associated with the body surface are the organellae of
locomotion: pseudopodia, flagella, and cilia. These organellae are not
confined to Protozoa alone and occur in various cells of Metazoa.
All protoplasmic masses are capable of movement which may result
in change of their forms.
Pseudopodia. A pseudopodium is a temporary projection of part
of the cytoplasm of those protozoans which do not possess a definite
pellicle. Pseudopodia are therefore a characteristic organella of
Sarcodina, though many Mastigophora and certain Sporozoa, which
lack a pellicle, are also able to produce them. According to their
form and structure, four kinds of pseudopodia are distinguished.
1). Lobopodium is formed by an extension of the ectoplasm,
accompanied by a flow of endoplasm as is commonly found in
Amoeba proteus (Figs. 46; 184). It is finger- or tongue-like, sometimes
branched, and its distal end is typically rounded. It is quickly
formed and equally quickly retracted. In many cases, there are
many pseudopodia formed from the entire body surface, in which
the largest one will counteract the smaller ones and the organism
will move in one direction; while in others, there may be a single
pseudopodium formed, as in Amoeba striata, A. guttula, Pelomyxa
carolinensis (Fig. 186, b), etc., in which case it is a broadly tongue-
like extension of the body in one direction and the progressive move-
ment of the organisms is comparatively rapid. The lobopodia may
occasionally be conical in general shape, as in Amoeba spumosa (Fig.
185, a). Although ordinarily the formation of lobopodia is by a gen-
eral flow of the cytoplasm, in some it is sudden and "eruptive," as in
Entamoeba blattae or Entamoeba histolytica in which the flow of the
endoplasm presses against the inner zone of the ectoplasm and the
accumulated pressure finally causes a break through the zone, result-
ing in a sudden extension of the endoplasmic flow at that point.
2). Filopodium is a more or less filamentous projection com-
posed almost exclusively of the ectoplasm. It may sometimes be
branched, but the branches do not anastomose. Many testaceans,
such as Lecythium, Boderia, Plagiophrys, Pamphagus, Euglypha,
etc., form this type of pseudopodia. The pseudopodia of Amoeba
radiosa may be considered as approaching this type rather than the
lobopodia.
3). Rhizopodium is also filamentous, but branching and
anastomosing. It is found in numerous Foraminifera, such as
Elphidium (Fig. 5), Peneroplis, etc., and in certain testaceans, such
50
PROTOZOOLOGY
as Lieberkuhnia, Myxotheca, etc. The abundantly branching and
anastomosing rhizopodia often produce a large network which serves
almost exclusively for capturing prey.
lift, \^i ;;:;;: ;l ;
;;\v„
I'll:
Fig. 5. Pseudopodia of Elphidium strigilata, X about 50
(Schulze from Kiihn).
4). Axopodium is, unlike the other three types, a more or less
semi-permanent structure and composed of axial rod and cytoplas-
mic envelope. Axopodia are found in many Heliozoa, such as Actino-
phrys, Actinosphaerium, Camptonema, Sphaerastrum, and Acan-
MORPHOLOGY
51
thocystis. The axial rod, which is composed of a number of fibrils
(Doeflein; Roskin, 1925; Rumjantzew and Wermel, 1925), arises
from the central body or the nucleus located in the approximate
center of the body, from each of the nuclei in multinucleate forms,
or from the zone between the ectoplasm and endoplasm (Fig. 6).
Although semipermanent in structure, the axial rod is easily ab-
sorbed and reformed. In the genera of Heliozoa not mentioned
above and in numerous radiolarians, the radiating filamentous
pseudopodia are so extremely delicate that it is difficult to determine
en
.-Ite
c v
kSX
w
7\A\. -| '"•-/
ec
Fig. 6. Portion of Actinosphaerium eichhorni, X800 (Kiihn). ar, axial rod;
cv, contractile vacuole; ec, ectoplasm; en, endoplasm; n, nucleus.
whether an axial rod exists in each or not, although they resemble
axopodia in general appearance.
There is no sharp demarcation between the four types of pseudo-
podia, as there are transitional pseudopodia between any two of
them. For example, the pseudopodia formed by Arcella, Lesquer-
eusia, Hyalosphaenia, etc., resemble more lobopodia than filopodia,
though composed of the ectoplasm only. The pseudopodia of Actino-
monas, Elaeorhanis, Clathrulina, etc., may be looked upon as
transitional between rhizopodia and axopodia.
While the pseudopodia formed by an individual are usually of
characteristic form and appearance, they may show an entirely
different appearance under different circumstances. According to
52
PROTOZOOLOGY
the often-quoted experiment of Verworn, a Umax amoeba changed
into a radiosa amoeba upon addition of potassium hydroxide to the
water (Fig. 7). Mast has recently shown that when Amoeba proteus
or A . dubia was transferred from a salt medium into pure water, the
amoeba produced radiating pseudopodia, and when transferred
back to a salt medium, it changed into monopodal form, which
change he was inclined to attribute to the difference in the water
contents of the amoeba. In some cases during and after certain in-
ternal changes, an amoeba may show conspicuous differences in
Fig. 7. Form-change in a limax-amoeba (Verworn). a, b, contracted
forms; c, individual showing typical form; d-f, radiosa-forms, after ad-
dition of KOH solution to the water.
pseudopodia (Neresheimer). As was stated before, pseudopodia occur
widely in forms which are placed under classes other than Sarcodina
during a part of their life-cycle. Care, therefore, should be exer-
cised in using them for taxonomic consideration of the Protozoa.
Flagella. The flagellum is a filamentous extension of the cytoplasm
and is ordinarily extremely hue and highly vibratile, so that it is
difficult to recognize it distinctly in life under the microscope. It is
most clearly observed under a darkfield or phase microscope. Lugol's
solution usually makes it more easily visible, though the organism is
killed. In a small number of species, the flagellum can be seen in life
under an ordinary microscope as a long filament, as for example in
MORPHOLOGY
53
Peranema. As a rule, the number of flagella present in an individual
is small, varying from one to eight and most commonly one or two;
but in Hypermastigina there occur numerous flagella.
A flagellum appears to be composed of two parts: an elastic axial
filament or axoneme, made up of one to several fibrils and the con-
tractile cytoplasmic sheath surrounding the axoneme (Fig. 8, a, b).
In some flagella, both components extend the entire length and
terminate in a bluntly rounded point, while in others the distal por-
tion of the axoneme is apparently very thinly sheathed (Fig. 8, c).
Fig. 8. Diagrams of flagella. a, flagellum of Euglena (Butschli); b,
flagellum of Trachelomonas (Plenge); c, flagella of Polytoma uvella; d,
flagella of Monas socialis (Vlk).
In some flagellates, stained flagella show numerous lateral fibrils
(Fig. 8, d) (Fischer, 1894; Dellinger, 1909; Mainx, 1929; Petersen,
1929; etc.). These flagella or ciliary flagella have also been noticed
by several observers in unstained organisms under darkfield micro-
scope (Vlk, 1938; Pitelka, 1949). In recent years, the electron micro-
scope has been used by some to observe the flagellar structure
(Schmitt, Hall and Jakus, 1943; Brown, 1945; Pitelka, 1949; Chen,
1950), but in all cases, the organisms were air-dried on collodion
films for examination so that the flagella disintegrated more or less
completely at the time of observation.
Pitelka (1949) studied flagella of euglenoid organisms under light
and electron microscopes. She found that the flagellum of Euglena
54 PROTOZOOLOGY
gracilis, Astasia longa and Rhabdomonas incurva, consists of an
axoneme, composed of about 9 fibrils, 350-600 A in diameter, ar-
ranged in two compact, parallel bundles, and a sheath which is made
up of fibrillar elements, a probably semi-fluid matrix and a limiting
membrane. Under conditions always associated with death of the
organism, the fibrils of the sheath fray out on one or more sides of
the flagellum into fine lateral filaments or mastigonemes. The electron
micrographs obtained by various investigators on supposedly one
and the same flagellate present a varied appearance of the structure.
Compare, for example, the micrographs of the frayed flagellum of
Euglena gracilis by Brown (1945), Pitelka (1949) and Houwink
(1951). The anterior flagellum of Peranema trichophorum frays out
into three strands during the course of disintegration as first ob-
served by Dellinger (1909) and by several recent observers. It can be
easily demonstrated by treating the organism with reagents such as
acidified methyl green. Under electron microscope, Petelka noted no
frayed mastigonemes in the flagellum of Peranema, while Chen
(1950) observed numerous mastigonemes extending out from all
sides like a brush, except the basal portion of the flagellum.
The electron micrographs of the flagellum of trypanosomes reveal
that it also consists of an axoneme and a sheath of cytoplasm. The
axoneme is composed of a number of long parallel fibrils, 8 in
Tnjpanosoma lewisi, each with estimated diameters of 0. 055-0. 06m
(Kleinschmidt and Kinder, 1950), and up to 9 in T. evansi, with
estimated diameters of 0.04-0.05^ (Kraneveld, Houwink and Keidel,
1951). The cytoplasmic sheath of the latter species was said to be
cross-striated at about 0.05m intervals. No mastigonemes occur in
these flagella.
The frayed condition of a flagellum which had become detached
from the organism or which is still attached to a moribund indi-
vidual, as revealed by the darkfield microscope, may also indicate a
phase in disintegration of the flagellum. It is reasonable to assume
that different flagella may have structural differences as revealed by
the electron microscope, but evidence for the occurrence of mas-
tigonemes on an active flagellum of a normally living organism ap-
pears not to be on hand.
A flagellum takes its origin in a blepharoplast of kinetosome im-
bedded in the cytoplasm. The blepharoplast is a small compact
granule, but in certain parasitic flagellates, it may be comparatively
large and ovoid or short rod-shaped, surrounded often by a halo.
Whether this is due to the presence of a delicate cortical structure
enveloping the compact body or to desiccation or fixation is un-
MORPHOLOGY 55
known. In such forms, the flagellum appears to arise from the outer
edge of the halo. Certain observers such as Woodcock (1906), Min-
chin (1912), etc., used the term kinetonucleus. It has since been
found that the blepharoplast of certain trypanosomes often gives a
positive Feulgen's reaction (Bresslau and Scremin, 1924).
The blepharoplast and centriole are considered synonymous by
some, since prior to the division of nucleus, it divides and initiates
the division of the latter. A new flagellum arises from one of the
daughter blepharoplasts. While the blepharoplast is inseparably
connected with the flagellum and its activity, it is exceedingly small
or absent in Trypanosoma equinum and in some strains of T. evansi.
Furthermore, this condition may be produced by exposure of normal
individuals to certain chemical substances (Jirovec, 1929; Piekarski,
1949) or spontaneously (p. 228) without decrease in flagellar activity.
The flagellum is most frequently inserted near the anterior end
of the body and directed forward, its movement pulling the organ-
ism forward. Combined with this, there may be a trailing flagellum
which is directed posteriorly and serves to steer the course of move-
ment or to push the body forward to a certain extent. In a compara-
tively small number of flagellates, the flagellum is inserted near the
posterior end of the body and would push the body forward by its
vibration. Under favorable conditions, flagellates regenerate lost
flagella. For example, Peranema trichophorum from which its an-
terior flagellum wras cut off, regenerated a new one in two hours
(Chen, 1950).
In certain parasitic Mastigophora, such as Trypanosoma (Fig.
9), Trichomonas, etc., there is a very delicate membrane extending
out from the side of the body, a flagellum bordering its outer margin.
When this membrane vibrates, it shows a characteristic undulating
movement, as will easily be seen in Trypanosoma rotatorium of the
frog, and is called the undulating membrane. In many of the dino-
flagellates, the transverse flagellum seems to be similarly constructed
(Kofoid and Swezy) (Fig. 127, d,f).
Cilia. The cilia are the organella of locomotion found in the Cilio-
phora. They aid in the ingestion of food and serve often as a tactile
organella. The cilia are fine and more or less short processes of ecto-
plasm and occur in large numbers in the majority of the Holotricha.
They may be uniformly long, as in Protociliata, or may be of differ-
ent lengths, being longer at the extremities, on certain areas, in
peristome or in circumoral areas. Ordinarily the cilia are arranged in
longitudinal, oblique, or spiral rows, being inserted either on the
ridges or in the furrows. A cilium originates in a kinetosome embedded
56
PROTOZOOLOGY
in the ectoplasm. In well-studied ciliates, there occurs a fine fibril,
kinetodesma (Chatton and Lwoff, 1935), a short distance to the right
of the kinetosome (Fig. 23). The ciliary row or kinety (Chatton and
Lwoff) consists of the kinetosomes and kinetodesma (Fig. 23, a). In
forms such as Suctoria in which cilia occur only in the swimming
stage, the kinetosomes appear to be present as infraciliature (Chat-
ton, Lwoff and Lwoff, 1929).
Flagellum
Undulating
membrane
Nucl(
Blepharoplast
Fig. 9. A diagram showing the structure of a trypanosome (Ktihn).
As to its structure, a cilium appears to be made up of an axoneme
and contractile sheath (Fig. 10, a). Gelei observed in flagella and
cilia, lipoid substance in granular or rod-like forms which differed
even among different individuals of the same species; and Klein
(1929) found in many cilia of Colpidium colpoda, an argentophilous
substance in granular form much resembling the lipoid structure of
Gelei and called them "cross striation" of the contractile component
(Fig. 10, b, c). In electron micrographs of a dried cilium of Para-
mecium, Jakus and Hall (1946) found that it consisted of a bundle of
about 11 fibrils extending the full length (Fig. 10, d). These fibrils
were about 300-500 A in diameter. As there was no visible sheath,
the two observers remarked that if a sheath exists, it must be very
fragile and easily ruptured.
The cilia are often present more densely in a certain area than
in other parts of body and, consequently, such an area stands out
conspicuously, and is sometimes referred to as a ciliary field. If this
area is in the form of a zone, it may be called a ciliary zone. Some
authors use pectinellae for short longitudinal rows or transverse
MORPHOLOGY
57
bands of close-set cilia. In a number of forms, such as Coleps, Sten-
tor, etc., there occur, mingled among the vibratile cilia, immobile
stiff cilia which are apparently solely tactile in function.
Fig. 10. a, cilia of Coleps; b, cilium of Cyclidium glaucoma; c, basal por-
tion of a cilium of Colpidium colpoda, all in silver preparations (Klein); d,
electronmicrograph of a dried cilium of Paramecium, shadow-cast with
chromium, XI 1,000 (Jakus and Hall).
In the Hypotricha, the cilia are largely replaced by cirri, although
in some species both may occur. A cirrus is composed of a number of
cilia arranged in 2 to 3 rows that fused into one structure com-
pletely (Figs. 11, a; 12, a), which was demonstrated by Taylor. Klein
also showed by desiccation that each marginal cirrus of Stylonychia
58
PROTOZOOLOGY
was composed of 7 to 8 cilia. In some instances, the distal portion of a
cirrus may show two or more branches. The cirri are confined to the
ventral surface in Hypotricha, and called frontal, ventral, anal,
Cirrus fiber
Ectoplasmic granules
Basal plate of the cirrus
Kinetosomes of
component cilia
Adoral zone
Frontal cirri
Undulating membrane
Marginal cirri
Ventral cirri
Anal cirri
Caudal cirri
Fig. 11. a, five anal cirri of Euplotes eurystomus (Taylo'r); b, schematic
ventral view of Stylonychia to show the distribution of the cirri.
caudal, and marginal cirri, according to their location (Fig. 11, b).
Unlike cilia, the cirri may move in any direction so that the organ-
isms bearing them show various types of locomotion. Oxytricha,
MORPHOLOGY
59
Stylonychia, etc., "walk" on frontals, ventrals, and anals, while swim-
ming movement by other species is of different types.
In all euciliates except Holotricha, there are adoral membranellae.
A membranella is composed of a double ciliary lamella, fused com-
pletely into a plate (Fig. 12, b). A number of these membranellae
occur on a margin of the peristome, forming the adoral zone of
cpg
Fig. 12. Diagrams of cirrus and membranella of Euplotes eurystomus,
X1450 (Taylor), a, anal cirrus in side view; b, a membranella (cpg, co-
agulated protoplasmic granules; cr, ciliary root; fp, fiber plate; k, kineto-
some) .
membranellae, which serves for bringing the food particles to the
cytostome as well as for locomotion. The frontal portion of the zone,
the so-called frontal membrane appears to serve for locomotion and
Kahl considers that it is probably made up of three lamellae. The oral
membranes which are often found in Holotricha and Heterotricha,
are transparent thin membranous structures composed of one or two
rows of cilia, which are more or less strongly fused. The membranes,
located in the lower end of the peristome, are sometimes called
perioral membranes, and those in the cytopharynx, undulating mem-
branes.
In Suctoria, cilia are present only during the developmental
stages, and, as the organisms become mature, tentacles develop in
their stead. The tentacles are concerned with food-capturing, and
60
PROTOZOOLOGY
are either prehensile or usually suctorial. The prehensile tentacle
appears to be essentially similar in structure to the axopodium
(Roskin, 1925). The suctorial tentacles are tubular and this type is
interpreted by Collin as possibly derived from cytostome and cyto-
pharynx of the ciliate (Fig. 13).
Although the vast majority of Protozoa possess only one of the
three organelles of locomotion mentioned above, a few may possess
jjjgjt
Fig. 13. Diagrams showing the possible development of a suctorian
tentacle from a cytostome and cytopharynx of a ciliate (Collin).
pseudopodia in one stage and flagella in another during their de-
velopment. Among several examples may be mentioned Naegleri-
idae (Fig. 183), Tetramitus rostratus (Fig. 155), etc. Furthermore,
there are some Protozoa which possess two types of organellae at the
same time. Flagellum or flagella and pseudopodia occur in many
Phytomastigina and Rhizomastigina, and a flagellum and cilia are
present in Ileonema (Fig. 306, b, c).
In the cytoplasm of Protozoa there occur various organellae, each
of which will be considered here briefly.
Fibrillar structures
One of the fundamental characteristics of the protoplasm is its
contractility. If a fully expanded Amoeba proteus is subjected to a
mechanical pressure, it retracts its pseudopodia and contracts into a
more or less spherical form. In this response there is no special or-
ganella, and the whole body reacts. But in certain other Protozoa,
there are special organellae of contraction. Many Ciliophora are able
to contract instantaneously when subjected to mechanical pressure,
as will easily be noticed by following the movement of Stentor,
Spirostomum, Trachelocerca, Vorticella, etc., under a dissecting
microscope. The earliest observer of the contractile elements of
Protozoa appears to be Lieberkiihn (1857) who noted the "muscle
MORPHOLOGY
61
fibers" in the ectoplasm of Stentor which were later named
myonemes (Haeckel) or neurophanes (Neresheimer).
The myonemes of Stentor have been studied by several in-
vestigators. According to Schroder (1906), there is a canal between
each two longitudinal striae and in it occurs a long banded myoneme
which measures in cross-section 3-7/x high by about lju wide and
which appears cross-striated (Fig. 14). Roskin (1923) considers that
mc
gis
Fig. 14. Myonemes in Stentor coeruleus (Schroder), a, cross-section of
the ectoplasm; b, surface view of three myonemes; c, two isolated
myonemes (cl, cilium; gis, granules between striae; k, kinetosome; m,
myoneme; mc, myoneme canal).
the myoneme is a homogeneous cytoplasm (kinoplasm) and the wall
of the canal is highly elastic and counteracts the contraction of the
myonemes. All observers agree that the myoneme is a highly con-
tractile organella.
Many stalked peritrichous ciliates have well-developed myonemes
not only in the body proper, but also in the stalk. Koltzoff's (1911)
studies show that the stalk is a pseudochitinous tube, enclosing an
inner tube filled with granulated thecoplasm, which surrounds a cen-
tral rod, composed of kinoplasm, on the surface of which are ar-
62
PROTOZOOLOGY
ranged skeletal fibrils (Fig. 15). The contraction of the stalk is
brought about by the action of kinoplasm and walls, while elastic
rods will lead to extension of the stalk. Myonemes present in the
ciliates aid in the contraction of body, but those which occur in
many Gregarinida aid apparently in locomotion, being arranged
longitudinally, transversely and probably spirally (Roskin and
Levinsohn, 1929) (Fig. 15, c). In certain Radiolaria, such as Acantho-
Fig. 15. a, b, fibrillar structures of the stalk of Zoothamnium (Kolt-
zoff); c, myonemes in Gregarina (Schneider), ef, elastic fiber; ie, inner
envelope; k, kinoplasm; oe, outer envelope; t, thecoplasm.
metron elasticum (Fig. 219, c), etc., each axial spine is connected with
10-30 myonemes (myophrisks) originating in the body surface.
When these myonemes contract, the body volume is increased, thus
in this case functioning as a hydrostatic organella.
In Isotricha prostoma and /. intestinalis, Schuberg (1888) observed
that the nucleus is suspended by ectoplasmic fibrils and called the
apparatus karyophore. In some forms these fibrils are replaced by
ectoplasmic membranes as in Nyctotherus ovalis (Zulueta; Kudo),
ten Kate (1927, 1928) studied fibrillar systems in Opalina, Nycto-
MORPHOLOCxY 63
therus, Ichthyophthirius, Didinium, and Balantidium, and found
that there are numerous fibrils, each of which originates in the kine-
tosome of a cilium and takes a transverse or oblique course through
the endoplasm, ending in a kinetosome located on the other side of
the body. He further noted that the cytopharynx and nucleus are
also connected with these fibrils, ten Kate suggested morphonemes
for them, since he believed that the majority were form-retaining
fibrils.
The well-coordinated movement of cilia in the ciliate has long
been recognized, but it was Sharp (1914) who definitely showed that
this ciliary coordination is made possible by a certain fibrillar system
which he discovered in Epidinium (Diplodinium) ecaudatum (Fig.
16). Sharp recognized in this ciliate a complicated fibrillar system
connecting all the motor organellae of the cytostomal region, and
thinking that it was "probably nervous in function," as its size, ar-
rangement and location did not suggest supporting or contractile
function, he gave the name neuromotor apparatus to the whole
system. This apparatus consists of a central motor mass, the
motorium (which is stained red with Zenker fixation and modified
Mallory's connective tissue staining), located in the ectoplasm just
above the base of the left skeletal area, from which definite strands
radiate: namely, one to the roots of the dorsal membranellae (a
dorsal motor strand) ; one to the roots of the adoral membranellae
(a ventral motor strand); one to the cytopharynx (a circum-oeso-
phageal ring and oesophageal fibers) ; and several strands into the
ectoplasm of the operculum (opercular fibers). A similar apparatus
has since been observed in many other ciliates: Euplotes (Yocom;
Taylor), Balantiduum (McDonald), Paramecium (Rees; Brown;
Lund), Tintinnopsis (Campbell), Boveria (Pickard), Dileptus
(Visscher), Chlamydodon (MacDougall), Entorhipidium and Le-
chriopyla (Lynch), Eupoterion (MacLennan and Connell), Metopus
(Lucas), Troglodytella (Swezey), Oxytricha (Lund), Ancistruma and
Conchophthirus (Kidder), etc. Ciliate fibrillar systems (Taylor,
1941).
Euplotes, a common free-living hypotrichous ciliate, has been
known for nearly 60 years to possess definite fibrils connecting the
anal cirri with the anterior part of the body. Engelmann suggested
that their function was more or less nervelike, while others main-
tained that they were supporting or contracting in function. Yocom
(1918) traced the fibrils to the motorium, a very small bilobed body
(about 8/x by 2ju) located close to the right anterior corner of the
triangular cytostome (Fig. 17, m). Joining with its left end are five
Fig. 16. A composite drawing from three median sagittal sections of
Epidinium ecaudatum, fixed in Zenker and stained with Mallory's connec-
tive tissue stain, X1200 (Sharp), am, adoral membranellae; c, cytostome;
cp, cytopharynx; cpg, cytopyge; cpr, circumpharyngeal ring; dd, dorsal
disk; dm, dorsal membrane; ec, ectoplasm; en, endoplasm; m, motorium;
oc, oral cilia; od, oral disk; oef, oesophageal fibers; of, opercular fibers;
p, pellicle; prs, pharyngeal retractor strands; si, skeletal laminae; vs, ven-
tral skeletal area.
MORPHOLOGY
65
long fibers (acf) from the anal cirri which converge and appear to
unite with the motorium as a single strand. From the right end of the
motorium extends the membranella-fiber anteriorly and then to left
along the proximal border of the oral lip and the bases of all mem-
branellae. Yocom further noticed that within the lip there is a
sm
Fig. 17. Ventral view of Euplotes eurystomus (E. patella) showing neu-
romotor system, X670 (Hammond), acf, fibril of anal cirrus; am, anterior
adoral zone membranelle; m, motorium; mf, membranelle fibrils; oc, en-
doral cilia; pf, post-pharyngeal fibril; pra, post-pharyngeal membrane;
rf, radiating fibrils; sm, suboral membranelles; vm, ventral adoral zone
membranelles.
latticework structure whose bases very closely approximate the cyto-
stomal fiber. Taylor (1920) recognized two additional groups of
fibrils in the same organism: (1) membranella fiber plates, each of
which is contiguous with a membranella basal plate, and is attached
at one end to the membranella fiber; (2) dissociated fiber plates con-
tiguous with the basal plates of the frontal, ventral and marginal
cirri, to each of which are attached the dissociated fibers (rf). By
means of microdissection needles, Taylor demonstrated that these
66 PROTOZOOLOGY
fibers have nothing to do with the maintenance of the body form,
since there results no deformity when Euplotes is cut fully two-
thirds its width, thus cutting the fibers, and that when the motorium
is destroyed or its attached fibers are cut, there is no coordination
in the movements of the adoral membranellae and anal cirri. Ham-
mond (1937) and Hammond and Kofoid (1937) find the neuromotor
system continuous throughout the stages during asexual reproduc-
tion and conjugation so that functional activity is maintained at all
times.
A striking feature common to all neuromotor systems, is that
there seems to be a central motorium from which radiate fibers to
different ciliary structures and that, at the bases of such motor or-
ganellae, are found the kinetosomes or basal plates to which the
"nerve" fibers from the motorium are attached.
Independent of the studies on the neuromotor system of American
investigators, Klein (1926) introduced the silver-impregnation
method which had first been used by Golgi in 1873 to demonstrate
various fibrillar structures of metazoan cells, to Protozoa in order
to demonstrate the cortical fibers present in ciliates, by dry-fixation
and impregnating with silver nitrate. Klein (1926-1942) subjected
ciliates of numerous genera and species to this method, and observed
that there was a fibrillar system in the ectoplasm at the level of the
kinetosomes which could not be demonstrated by other methods.
Klein (1927) named the fibers silver lines and the whole complex,
the silverline system, which vary among different species (Figs. 18-
20). Gelei, Chatton and Lwoff, Jlrovec, Lynch, Jacobson, Kidder.
Lund, Burt, and others, applied the silver-impregnation method to
many other ciliates and confirmed Klein's observations. Chatton and
Lwoff (1935) found in Apostomea, the system remains even after the
embryonic cilia have entirely disappeared and considered it in-
fraciliature.
The question whether the neuromotor apparatus and the silver-
line system are independent structures or different aspects of the
same structure has been raised frequently. Turner (1933) found that
in Euplotes patella (E. eurystomus) the silverline system is a regular
latticework on the dorsal surface and a more irregular network on
the ventral surface. These lines are associated with rows of rosettes
from which bristles extend. These bristles are held to be sensory in
function and the network, a sensory conductor system, which is
connected with the neuromotor system. Turner maintains that the
neuromotor apparatus in Euplotes is augmented by a distinct but
connected external network of sensory fibrils. He however finds no
motorium in this protozoan.
MORPHOLOGY
(17
Lund (1933) also made a comparative study of the two systems
in Paramecium multimicronucleatum, and observed that the silverline
system of this ciliate consists of two parts. One portion is made up
of a series of closely-set polygons, usually hexagons, but flattened
into rhomboids or other quadrilaterals in the regions of the cyto-
stome, cytopyge, and suture. This system of lines stains if the or-
Fig. 18. The silverline system of Ancistruma mytili, XlOOO (Kidder).
a, ventral view; b, dorsal view.
ganisms are well dried. Usually the lines appear solid, but fre-
quently they are interrupted to appear double at the vertices of the
polygons which Klein called "indirectly connected" (pellicular)
conductile system. In the middle of the anterior and posterior sides
of the hexagons is found one granule or a cluster of 2-4 granules,
which marks the outer end of the trichocyst. The second part which
Klein called "directly connected" (subpellicular) conductile system
consists essentially of the longitudinal lines connecting all kine-
tosomes in a longitudinal row of hexagons and of delicate transverse
fibrils connecting granules of adjacent rows especially in the cyto-
stomal region (Fig. 19).
By using Sharp's technique, Lund found the neuromotor system
68
PROTOZOOLOGY
of Paramecium multimicronucleatum constructed as follows: The
subpellicular portion of the system is the longitudinal fibrils which
connect the kinetosomes. In the cytostomal region, the fibrils of
right and left sides curve inward forming complete circuits (the
circular cytostomal fibrils) (Fig. 20). The postoral suture is separated
at the point where the cytopyge is situated. Usually 40-50 fibrils
Fig. 19. Diagram of the cortical region of Paramecium multimicronu-
cleatum, showing various organellae (Lund), c, cilia; et, tip of trichocyst;
k, kinetosome; If, longitudinal fibril; p, pellicle; t, trichocyst; tf, transverse
fibril.
radiate outward from the cytostome (the radial cytostomal fibrils).
The pharyngeal portion is more complex and consists of (1) the
oesophageal network, (2) the motorium and associated fibrils, (3)
penniculus which is composed of 8 rows of kinetosomes, thus form-
ing a heavy band of cilia in the cytopharynx, (4) oesophageal process,
(5) paraoesophageal fibrils, (6) posterior neuromotor chain, and (7)
postoesophageal fibrils. Lund concludes that the so-called silverline
system includes three structures: namely, the peculiarly ridged
pellicle; trichocysts which have no fibrillar connections among
them or with fibrils, hence not conductile; and the subpellicular sys-
tem, the last of which is that part of the neuromotor system that
concerns with the body cilia, ten Kate (1927) suggested that senso-
motor apparatus is a better term than the neuromotor apparatus.
Silverline system (Klein, 1926-1942; Gelei, 1932); fibrils in ciliates
Fig. 20. The neuromotor system of Paramecium multimicronucleahim
(Lund), a, oral network; b, motorium, X1670. aep, anterior end of pen-
niculus; c, cytopyge; ccf, circular cytostomal fibril; cof, circular oesopha-
geal fibril; cpf, circular pharyngeal fibril; ef, endoplasmic fibrils; lbf,
longitudinal body fibril; lof, longitudinal oesophageal fibrils; lpf, longi-
tudinal pharyngeal fibril; m, motorium; oo, opening of oesophagus; op,
oesophageal process; paf, paraoesophageal fibrils; pep, posterior end of
penniculus; pnc, posterior neuromotor chain; pof, postoesophageal fibrils;
rcf, radial cytostomal fibril; s, suture.
70 PROTOZOOLOGY
(Jacobson, 1932; Taylor, 1941); argyrome in Astomata (Puytorac,
1951).
Protective or supportive organ ellae
The external structures as found among various Protozoa which
serve for body protection, have already been considered (p. 47).
Here certain internal structures will be discussed. The greater part
of the shell of Foraminifera is to be looked upon as endoskeleton
and thus supportive in function. In Radiolaria, there is a mem-
branous structure, the central capsule, which divides the body into
a central region and a peripheral zone. The intracapsular portion
contains the nucleus or nuclei, and is the seat of reproductive proc-
esses, and thus the capsule is to be considered as a protective or-
ganella. The skeletal structures of Radiolaria vary in chemical com-
position and forms, and are arranged with a remarkable regularity
(p. 517).
In some of the astomatous euciliates, there are certain structures
which seem to serve for attaching the body to the host's organ, but
which seem to be supportive to a certain extent also. The peculiar
organella furcula, observed by Lynch in Lechriopyla (p. 741) is said
to be concerned with either the neuromotor system or protection.
The members of the family Ophryoscolecidae (p. 816), which are
common commensals in the stomach of ruminants, have conspicuous
endoskeletal plates which arise in the oral region and extend posteri-
orly. Dogiel (1923) believed that the skeletal plates of Cycloposthium
and Ophryoscolecidae are made up of hemicellulose, "ophryoscole-
cin," which was also observed by Strelkow (1929). MacLennan
found that the skeletal plates of Polyplastron multivesiculatum were
composed of small, roughly prismatic blocks of paraglycogen, each
possessing a central granule.
In certain Polymastigina and Hypermastigina, there occurs a
flexible structure known as the axostyle, which varies from a fila-
mentous structure as in several Trichomonas, to a very conspicuous
rod-like structure occurring in Parajoenia, Gigantomonas, etc. The
anterior end of the axostyle is very close to the anterior tip of the
body, and it extends lengthwise through the cytoplasm, ending near
the posterior end or extending beyond the body surface. In other
cases, the axostyle is replaced by a bundle of axostylar filaments
that are connected with the flagella (Lophomonas). The axostyle
appears to be supportive in function, but in forms such as Saccino-
baculus, it undulates and aids in locomotion (p. 379).
In trichomonad flagellates there is often present along the line of
MORPHOLOGY 71
attachment of the undulating membrane, a rod-like structure which
has been known as costa (Kunstler) and which, according to Kirby's
extensive study, appears to be most highly developed in Pseudo-
trypanosoma and Trichomonas. The staining reaction indicates that
its chemical composition is different from that of flagella, blepharo-
plast, parabasal body, or chromatin.
In the gymnostomatous ciliates, the cytopharynx is often sur-
rounded by rod-like bodies, and the entire apparatus is often called
oral or pharyngeal basket, which is considered as supportive in
function. These rods are arranged to form the wall of the cyto-
pharynx in a characteristic way. For example, the oral basket of
Chilodonella cucullulus (Fig. 312, c, d) is made up of 12 long rods
which are so completely fused in part that it appears to be a smooth
tube; in other forms, the rods are evidently similar to the tubular
trichocysts or trichites mentioned below.
In numerous holotrichs, there occur unique organelles, trichocysts,
imbedded in the ectoplasm, and usually arranged at right angles to
the body surface, though in forms such as Cyclogramma, they are
arranged obliquely. Under certain stimulations, the trichocysts "ex-
plode" and form long filaments which extend out into the surround-
ing medium. The shape of the trichocyst varies somewhat among
different ciliates,, being pyriform, fusiform or cylindrical (Penard,
1922; Kriiger, 1936). They appear as homogeneous refractile bodies.
The extrusion of the trichocyst is easily brought about by means of
mechanical pressure or of chemical (acid or alkaline) stimulation.
In forms such as Paramecium, Frontonia, etc., the trichocyst is
elongate pyriform or fusiform. It is supposed that within an expansi-
ble membrane, there is a layer of swelling body which is responsible
for the remarkable longitudinal extension of the membrane (Kriiger)
(Fig. 21, a). In other forms such as Prorodon, Didinium, etc., the
tubular trichocyst or trichites are cylindrical in shape and the mem-
brane is a thick capsule with a coiled thread, and when stimulated,
the extrusion of the thread takes place. The trichites of Prorodon
teres measure about 10—1 1 yu. long (Fig. 21, d) and when extruded,
the whole measures about 20 /x; those of Didinium nasutum are 15-
20m long and after extrusion, measure about 40 m in length (Fig. 21,
e,f). In Spathidium spathida (Fig. 21, c), trichites are imbedded like
a paling in the thickened rim of the anterior end. They are also
distributed throughout the endoplasm and, according to Woodruff
and Spencer, "some of these are apparently newly formed and being-
transported to the oral region, while others may well be trichites
which have been torn away during the process of prey ingestion, "
72
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 21. a, a schematic drawing of the trichocyst of Paramecium cau-
datum (Kruger) (b, base of the tip; c, cap; m, membrane; mt, membrane
of extruded trichocyst; s, swelling body; t, tip); b, an extruded trichocyst,
viewed under phase dark contrast, X1800; c, trichites in Spathidium,
spathula, X300 (Woodruff and Spencer); d, a diagram of the trichocyst of
Prorodon teres (Kruger) (eg, capsule-granule; e, end-piece of filament; f,
filament; w, capsule wall); e, f, normal and extruded trichocysts of Didin-
ium nasutum (Kruger).
MORPHOLOGY 73
Whether the numerous 12-20^ long needle-like structures which
Kahl observed in Remanella (p. 727) are modified trichites or not,
is not known.
Dileptus anser feeds on various ciliates through the cytostome,
located at the base of the proboscis, which possesses a band of long
trichocysts on its ventral side. When food organisms come in contact
with the ventral side of the proboscis, they give a violent jerk, and
remain motionless. Visscher saw no formed elements discharged
from the trichocysts, and, therefore, considered that these tricho-
cysts contained a toxic fluid and named them toxicysts. But Kruger
and Hayes (1938) found that the extruded trichocysts can be recog-
nized.
Perhaps the most frequently studied trichocysts are those of
Paramecium. They are elongate pyriform, with a fine tip at the
broad end facing the body surface. The tip is connected with the
pellicle (Fig. 19, 0- Kruger found this tip is covered by a cap (Fig.
21, a) which can be seen under darkfield or phase microscope and
which was demonstrated by Jakus (1945) in an electron micrograph
(Fig. 22, a). When extruded violently, the entire structure is to be
found outside the body of Paramecium. The extruded trichocyst is
composed of two parts: the tip and the main body (Fig. 21, b). The
tip is a small inverted tack, and may be straight, curved or bent.
The main body or shaft is a straight rod, tapering gradually into a
sharp point at the end opposite the tip. Extruded trichocysts meas-
ure 20-40yu or more in length, and do not show any visible struc-
tures, except a highly refractile granule present at the base of the
tuck-shaped tip (Fig. 21, b). The electron microscope studies of the
extruded trichocysts by Jakus (1945), Jakus and Hall (1946) and
Wohlfarth-Bottermann (1950), show the shaft to be cross-striated
(Fig. 22). Jakus considers that the main component of the tricho-
cyst is a thin cylindrical membrane formed by close packing of
longitudinal fibrils characterized by a periodic pattern (somewhat
resembling that of collagen), and as the fibrils are in phase with re-
spect to this pattern, the membrane appears cross-striated.
As to the mechanism of the extrusion, no precise information is
available, though all observers agree that the contents of the tricho-
cyst suddenly increase in volume. Kruger maintains that the tricho-
cyst cap is first lifted and the swelling body increases enormously in
volume by absorbing water and lengthwise extension takes place,
while Jakus is inclined to think that the membrane itself extends by
the sudden uptake of water.
74
PROTOZOOLOGY
How are these organelles formed? Tonniges (1914) believes that
the trichocysts of Frontonia leucas originate in the endosomes of the
macronucleus and development takes place during their migration
to the ectoplasm. Brodsky (1924) holds that the trichocyst is com-
posed of colloidal excretory substances and is first formed in the
vicinity of the macronucleus. Chatton and Lwoff (1935) find how-
Fig. 22. Electronmicrographs of extruded trichocysts of Paramecium,
a, dried and stained with phosphotungstic acid, XI 1,000 (Jakus); b, a
similarly treated one, X 15,000 (Jakus); c, shadow-cast with chromium,
X 16,000 (Jakus and Hall).
ever in Gymnodinioides the trichocysts are formed only in tomite
stage and each trichocyst arises from a trichocystosome, a granule
formed by division of a kinetosome (Fig. 23, a-c). In Polyspira, the
trichocyst formation is not confined to one phase, each kinetosome
is said to give rise to two granules, one of which may detach itself,
migrate into other part of the body and develops into a trichocyst
(d). In Foettingeria, the kinetosomes divide in young trophont stage
into irichitosomes which develop into trichites (e). The two authors
note that normally cilia-producing kinetosomes may give rise to
MORPHOLOGY
::»
trichocysts or trichites, depending upon their position (or environ-
ment) and the phase of development of the organism.
Although the trichocyst was first discovered by Ellis (1769)
and so named by Allman (1855), nothing concrete is yet known as
to their function. Ordinarily the trichocysts are considered as a de-
fensive organella as in the case of the oft-quoted example Parame-
cium, but, as Mast demonstrated, the extruded trichocysts of this
ciliate do not have any effect upon Didinium other than forming a
viscid mass about the former to hamper the latter. On the other
Fig. 23. Diagrams showing the formation of trichocysts in Gymnodini-
oides (a-c) and in Polyspira (d) and of trichites in Foettingeria (e) (Chat-
ton and Lwoff). a, a ciliary row, composed of kinetosomes, large satellite
corpuscles and kinetodesma (a solid line); b, each kinetosome divides into
two, producing trichocystosome; c, transformation of trichocystosomes
into trichocysts; d, formation of trichocyst from one of the two division
products of kinetosome; e, formation of trichites from the division prod-
ucts of kinetosomes.
hand, the trichocysts and trichites are clearly an offensive organelle
in capturing food organisms in organisms such as Dileptus, Didinium,
Spathidium, etc. Saunders (1925) considered that the extruded tri-
chocysts of Paramecium serve for attachment of the body to other
objects. But Wohlfarth-Bottermann (1950) saw Paramecium cauda-
tum extruding up to 300 trichocysts without any apparent external
stimulation and trichocyst-less individuals were able to adhere to
foreign objects. This worker suggested that the trichocyst secretes
calcium salt and probably also sodium and potassium, and thus may
serve an osmoregulatory function. Some years ago Penard (1922)
considered that some trichocysts may be secretory organellae to pro-
duce material for loricae or envelope, with which view Kahl concurs,
as granular to rod-shaped trichocysts occur in Metopus, Amphilep-
76 PROTOZOOLOGY
tus, etc. Klein has called these ectoplasmic granules protrichocysts,
and in Prorodon, Kruger observed, besides typical tubular tricho-
cysts, torpedo-like forms to which he applied the same name. To
this group may belong the trichocysts recognized by Kidder in Con-
chophthirus mytili. The trichocysts present in certain Cryptomonad-
ina (Chilomonas and Cyathomonas) are probably homologous with
the protrichocysts (Kruger, 1934; Hollande, 1942; Dragesco, 1951).
Hold-fast organellae
In the Mastigophora, Ciliophora, and a few Sarcodina, there
are forms which possess a stalk supporting the body or the lorica.
With the stalk the organism is attached to a solid surface. In some
cases, as in Ahthophysis, Maryna, etc., the dendritic stalks are
made up of gelatinous substances rich in iron, which gives to them a
reddish brown color. In parasitic Protozoa, there are special or-
ganellae developed for attachment. Many genera of cephaline
gregarines are provided with an epimerite of different structures
(Figs. 235-237), by which the organisms are able to attach them-
selves to the gut epithelium of the host. In Astomata, such as Into-
shellina, Maupasella, Lachmannella, etc., simple or complex pro-
trusible chitinous structures are often present in the anterior region ;
or a certain area of the body may be concave and serves for ad-
hesion to the host, as in Rhizocaryum, Perezella, etc.; or, again,
there may be a distinctive sucker-like organella near the anterior
extremity of the body, as in Haptophyra, Steinella, etc. A sucker is
also present on the antero-ventral part of Giardia intestinalis.
In the Myxosporidia and Actinomyxidia, there appear, during
the development of spore, 1-4 special cells which develop into
polar capsules, each, when fully formed, enclosing a more or less
long spirally coiled delicate thread, the polar filament (Figs. 279,
286). The polar filament is considered as a temporary anchoring or-
ganella of the spore at the time of its germination after it gained
entrance into the alimentary canal of a suitable host. In the Micro-
sporidia, the filament may or may not be enclosed within a capsule
(Figs. 288; 289). The nematocysts (Fig. 132, b) of certain dino-
flagellates belonging to Nematoidium and Polykrikos, are almost
identical in structure with those found in the coelenterates. They
are distributed through the cytoplasm, and various developmental
stages were noticed by Chatton, and Kofoid and Swezy, which indi-
cates that they are characteristic structures of these dinoflagellates
and not foreign in origin as had been held by some. The function of
the nematocysts in these protozoans is not understood.
MORPHOLOGY
77
Parabasal apparatus
In the cytoplasm of many parasitic flagellates, there is frequently
present a conspicuous structure known as the parabasal apparatus
(Janicki, 1911), consisting of the parabasal body and often thread
(Cleveland), which latter may be absent in some cases. This struc-
ture varies greatly among different genera and species in appearance,
structure and position within the body. It is usually connected with
Fig. 24. Parabasal apparatus in: a, Lophomonas blattarujn (Kudo);
b, Metadevescovina debilis; c, Devescovina sp. (Kirby). af, axostylar fila-
ments; bl, blepharoplasts; f, food particles; fl, flagella; n, nucleus; pa,
parabasal apparatus.
the blepharoplast and located very close to the nucleus, though
not directly connected with it. It may be single, double, or multiple,
and may be pyriform, straight or curved rod-like, bandform, spirally
coiled or collar-like (Fig. 24). Kofoid and Swezy considered that the
parabasal body is derived from the nuclear chromatin, varies in
size according to the metabolic demands of the organism, and is a
"kinetic reservoir." On the other hand, Duboscq and Grasse" (1933)
maintain that this body is the Golgi apparatus, since (1) acetic acid
destroys both the parabasal body and the Golgi apparatus ; (2) both
are demonstrable with the same technique; (3) the parabasal body
78 PROTOZOOLOGY
is made up of chromophile and chromophobe parts as is the Golgi
apparatus; and (4) there is a strong evidence that the parabasal
body is secretory in function. According to Kirby (1931), who has
made an extensive study of this organella, the parabasal body could
be stained with Delafield's haematoxylin or Mallory's triple stain
after fixation with acetic acid-containing fixatives and the body does
not show any evidence to indicate that it is a secretory organella.
Moreover the parabasal body is discarded or absorbed at the time of
division of the body and two new ones are formed.
The parabasal body of Lophomonas blattarum is discarded when
the organism divides and two new ones are reformed from the cen-
triole or blepharoplast (Fig. 65), and its function appears to be sup-
portive. Possibly not all so-called parabasal bodies are homologous
or analogous. A fuller comprehension of the structure and function
of the organella rests on further investigations.
Golgi apparatus
With the discovery of a wide distribution of the so-called Golgi
apparatus in metazoan cells, a number of protozoologists also re-
ported a homologous structure from many protozoans. It seems im-
possible at present to indicate just exactly what the Golgi appara-
tus is, since the so-called Golgi techniques, the important ones of
which are based upon the assumption that the Golgi material is
osmiophile and argentophile, and possesses a strong affinity to
neutral red, are not specific and the results obtained by using the
same method often vary a great deal. Some of the examples of the
Golgi apparatus reported from Protozoa are summarized in Table 2.
It appears thus that the Golgi bodies occurring in Protozoa are
small osmiophilic granules or larger spherules which are composed
of osmiophile cortical and osmiophobe central substances. Fre-
quently the cortical layer is of unequal thickness, and, therefore,
crescentic forms appear. Ringform apparatus was noted in Chilo-
donella and Dogielella by Nassonov (1925) and network-like forms
were observed by Brown in Pyrsonympha and Dinenympha. The
Golgi apparatus of Protozoa as well as of Metazoa appears to be
composed of a lipoidal material in combination with protein sub-
stance.
In line with the suggestion made for the metazoan cell, the Golgi
apparatus of Protozoa is considered as having something to do with
secretion or excretion. Nassonov (1924) considers that osmiophilic
lipoidal substance, which he observed in the vicinity of the walls of
the contractile vacuole and its collecting canals in many ciliates and
MORPHOLOGY
Table 2. — Golgi apparatus in Protozoa
79
Protozoa
Golgi apparatus
Observers
Chromulina, Astasia
Rings, spherules with a dark
Hall
Chilomonas
nm
Granules, vacuoles
Hall
Euglenoidina
Stigma
Grasse"
Euglena gracilis
Spherical, discoidal with
dark rim; tend to group
around or near nucleus
Brown
Peranema
Rings, globules, granules
Hall
Pyrsonympha, Di-
Rings, crescents, spherules;
Brown
nenympha
granules break down to
form network near pos-
terior end
Holomastigotes, Pyr-
Parabasal bodies
Dubocsq and
sonympha, etc.
Grass6
Amoeba proteus (Fig.
Rings, crescents, globules,
Brown
25)
granules
Endamoeba blattae
Spheres, rings, crescents
Hirschler
Monocystis, Gregarina
Spheres, rings, crescents
Hirschler
Aggregata, gregarines
Crescents, rings
Joyet-Lavergne
Adelea
Crescents, beaded grains
King and
Gatenby
Blepharisma undidans
Rings in the cytoplasm
Moore
Vorticella, Lionotus,
The membrane of contrac-
Nassonov
Paramecium, Dogiel-
tile vacuole and collecting
ella, Nassula, Chilo-
canals
monas, Chilodonella
flagellates, is homologous with the metazoan Golgi apparatus and
secretes the fluid waste material into the vacuole from which it is
excreted to the exterior. According to Brown, there is no blackening
by osmic impregnation of the contractile vacuole in Amoeba proteus,
(Fig. 25), but fusion of minute vacuoles associated with crescentic
Golgi bodies produces the vacuole and Park (1929) noted osmiophile
knob-like elevations on the surface of the macronucleus of Stentor
and Leucophrys, while the contractile vacuole system did not
blacken.
Duboscq and Grasse (1933) maintain that this body is a source of
energy which is utilized by motor organelles. Joyet-Lavergne points
out that in certain Sporozoa, the Golgi body is composed of granules
and may be the center of enzyme production. Similar to Golgi ma-
terial, the so-called vacuome, which consists of neutral red-staining
and osmiophile globules, has been reported to occur in many Proto-
80
PROTOZOOLOGY
zoa (Hall, 1931; Hall and Nigrelli, 1937). The exact morphological
and physiological significance of these organellae and the relation
between them must be looked for in future investigations. Golgi
apparatus in Protozoa (Alexeieff, 1928; MacLennan, 1941; Grasse\
1952).
Chondriosomes
Widely distributed in many metazoan cells, the chondriosomes
have also been recognized in various Protozoa. The chondriosomes
possess a low refractive index, and are composed of substances easily
IIS
Fig. 25. The Golgi bodies in Amoeba proteus (Brown).
soluble in alcohol, acetic acid, etc. Osmium tetroxide blackens the
chondriosomes, but the color bleaches faster than in the Golgi bodies.
Janus green B stains them even in 1 : 500,000 solution, but stains also
other inclusions, such as the Golgi bodies (in some cases) and certain
bacteria. According to Horning (1926), janus red is said to be a more
exclusive chondriosome stain, as it does not stain bacteria. The
chemical composition of the chondriosome seems to be somewhat
similar to that of the Golgi body; namely, it is a protein compounded
with a lipoidal substance. If the protein is small in amount, it is
said to be unstable and easily attacked by reagents; on the other
hand, if the protein is relatively abundant, it is more stable and
resistant to reagents.
The chondriosomes occur as small spherical to oval granules, rod-
MORPHOLOGY
81
like or filamentous bodies, and show a tendency to adhere to or re-
main near protoplasmic surfaces. In many cases they are distributed
without any definite order; in others, as in Paramecium or Opalina,
they are regularly arranged between the kinetosomes of cilia (Hor-
ning). In Tillina canalifera, Turner (1940) noticed that the endo-
plasmic chondriosomes are evenly distributed throughout the cyto-
plasm (Fig. 26, b), while the ectoplasmic chondriosomes are ar-
Sic. <x
v }r
a
b m^'
Fig. 26. Chondriosomes in Tillina canalifera (Turner), a, diagram show-
ing the ectoplasmic chondriosomes (c, cilium; cf, coordinating fibril; ch,
chondriosome; cr, ciliary rootlet; k, kinetosome I and II; p, pellicle); b, a
section showing chondriosomes and food vacuoles.
ranged in regular cross rows, one in the center of each square formed
by four cilia (Fig. 2f6, a). In Peranema trichophorum, Hall (1929) ob-
served peripheral chondriosomes located along the spiral striae,
which Chadefaud (1938) considered as mucus bodies. Weisz (1949,
1950) finds that stentorin and zoopurpurin already mentioned (p.
45) are chondriosomes.
In certain Protozoa, the chondriosomes are not always demon-
strable. For example, Horning states in Monocystis the chondrio-
somes present throughout the asexual life-cycle as rod-shaped bodies,
but at the beginning of the spore formation they decrease in size and
number, and in the spore none exists. The chondriosomes appear as
soon as the sporozoites are set free. Thus it would appear that the
82 PROTOZOOLOGY
chondriosomes are reformed de novo. On the other hand, Faure-
Fremiet, the first student of the chondriosomes in Protozoa, main-
tained that they reproduce by division, which has since been con-
firmed by many observers. As a matter of fact, Horning found in
Opalina, the chondriosomes are twisted filamentous structures and
undergo multiple longitudinal fission in asexual division phase. Be-
fore encystment, the chondriosomes divide repeatedly transversel}'
and become spherical bodies which persist during encystment and
in the gametes. In zygotes, these spherical bodies fuse to produce
longer forms which break up into elongate filamentous structures.
Richardson and Horning further succeeded in bringing about divi-
sion of the chondriosomes in Opalina by changing pH of the medium.
As to the function of chondriosomes, opinions vary. A number of
observers hold that they are concerned with the digestive process.
After studying the relationship between the chondriosomes and
food vacuoles of Amoeba and Paramecium, Horning suggested that
the chondriosomes are the seat of enzyme activity and it is even
probable that they actually give up their own substance for this
purpose. Mast (1926) described "beta granules" in Amoeba proteus
which are more abundantly found around the contractile vacuole.
Mast and Doyle (1935, 1935a) noted that these spherical to rod-like
beta granules are plastic and stain like chondriosomes and that there
is a direct relation between the number of beta granules in the cyto-
plasm and the frequency of contraction of the contractile vacuole.
They maintained that these granules "probably function in trans-
ferring substances from place to place in the cytoplasm." Similar
granules are recognizable in the species of Pelomyxa (Andresen,
1942; Wilber, 1942; Kudo, 1951).
The view that the chondriosomes may have something to do with
the cell-respiration expressed by Kingsbury was further elaborated
by Joyet-Lavergne through his studies on certain Sporozoa. That
the chondriosomes are actively concerned with the development of
the gametes of the Metazoa is well known. Zweibaum's observation,
showing an increase in the amount of fatty acid in Paramecium just
prior to conjugation, appears to suggest this function. On the other
hand, Calkins found that in Uroleptus, the chondriosomes became
abundant in exconjugants, due to transformation of the macronu-
clear material into the chondriosomes. The author agrees with
McBride and Hewer who wrote: "it is a remarkable thing that so
little is known positively about one of the 'best known' protoplasmic
inclusions" (Piney, 1931). Condriosomes in Protozoa (MacLennan,
1941; Grasse, 1952).
MORPHOLOGY 83
Numerous minute granules, less than l^u in diameter, occur usually
abundantly suspended in the cytoplasm. They can most clearly be
noted under phase microscope. Mast named those found in Amoeba
"alpha granules."
Contractile and other vacuoles
The majority of Protozoa possess one or more vacuoles known
as pulsating or contractile vacuoles. They occur regularly in all
freshwater-inhabiting Sarcodina, Mastigophora and Ciliophora. Ma-
rine or parasitic Sarcodina and Mastigophora do not ordinarily have
a contractile vacuole. This organelle is present with a few exceptions
in all marine and parasitic Ciliophora, while it is wholly absent in
Sporozoa.
In various species of free-living amoebae, the contractile vacuole
is formed by accumulation of water in one or more droplets which
finally fuse into one. It enlarges itself continuously until it reaches
a maximum size (diastole) and suddenly bursts through the thin
cytoplasmic layer above it (systole), discharging its content to out-
side. The location of the vacuole is not definite in such forms and,
therefore, it moves about with the cytoplasmic movements; and, as
a rule, it is confined to the temporary posterior region of the body.
Although almost spherical in form, it may occasionally be irregular
in shape, as in Amoeba striata (Fig. 184, /). In many testaceans and
heliozoans, the contractile vacuoles which are variable in number,
are formed in the ectoplasm and the body surface bulges out above
the vacuoles at diastole. In Mastigophora, the contractile vacuole
appears to be located in the anterior region.
In the Ciliophora, except Protociliata, there occur one to many
contractile vacuoles, which seem to be located in the deepest part
of the ectoplasm and therefore constant in position. Directly above
each vacuole is found a pore in the pellicle, through which the con-
tent of the vacuole is discharged to outside. In the species of Con-
chophthirus, Kidder (1934) observed a narrow slit in the pellicle
just posterior to the vacuole on the dorsal surface (Fig. 27). The
margin of the slit is thickened and highly refractile. During diastole,
the slit is nearly closed and, at systole, the wall of the contractile
vacuole appears to break and the slit opens suddenly, the vacuolar
content pouring out slowly. When there is only one contractile
vacuole, it is usually located either near the cytopharynx or, more
often, in the posterior part of the body. When several to many
vacuoles are present, they may be distributed without apparent
order, in linear series, or along the body outline. When the contrac-
84 PROTOZOOLOGY
tile vacuoles are deeply seated, there is a delicate duct which con-
nects the vacuole with the pore on the pellicle as in Paramecium
woodruffi, or in Ophryoscolecidae. In Balantidium, Nyctotherus, etc.,
the contractile vacuole is formed very close to the permanent cyto-
pyge located at the posterior extremity, through which it empties its
content.
In a number of ciliates there occur radiating or collecting canals
besides the main contractile vacuole. These canals radiate from the
central vacuole in Paramecium, Frontonia, Disematostoma, etc. But
when the vacuole is terminal, the collecting canals of course do not
radiate, in which case the number of the canals varies among
different species: one in Spirostomum, Stentor, etc., 2 in Clima-
s£
i:
a
Fig. 27. Diagrams showing the contractile vacuole, the accessory vacu-
oles and the aperture, during diastole and systole in Conchophthirus
(Kidder).
costomum, Eschaneustyla, etc., and several in Tillina. In Peritricha,
the contractile vacuole occurs near the posterior region of the cyto-
pharynx and its content is discharged through a canal into the vesti-
bule and in Ophrydium ectatum, the contractile vacuole empties its
content into the cytopharynx through a long duct (Mast).
Of numerous observations concerning the operation of the con-
tractile vacuole, that of King (1935) on Paramecium multimicro-
nucleatum (Figs. 28, 29) may be quoted here. In this ciliate, there
are 2 to 7 contractile vacuoles which are located below the ecto-
plasm on the aboral side. There is a permanent pore above each
vacuole. Leading to the pore is a short tube-like invagination of the
pellicle, with inner end of which the temporary membrane of the
vacuole is in contact (Fig. 28, a). Each vacuole has 5-10 long col-
lecting canals with strongly osmiophilic walls (Fig. 29), in which
Gelei (1939) demonstrated longitudinal fibrils, and each canal is
made up of terminal portion, a proximal injection canal, and an
ampulla between them. Surrounding the distal portion, there is osmi-
ophilic cytoplasm which may be granulated or finely reticulated, and
MORPHOLOGY
85
which Nassonov (1924) interpreted as homologous with the Golgi
apparatus of the metazoan cell. The injection canal extends up to
the pore. The ampulla becomes distended first with fluid transported
discontinuously down the canal and the fluid next moves into the
injection canal. The fluid now is expelled into the cytoplasm just
beneath the pore as a vesicle, the membrane of which is derived
from that which closed the end of the injection canal. These fluid
060 <A>
<3^=> _i^_ _ £5=
Fig. 28. Diagrams showing the successive stages in the formation of
the contractile vacuole in Paramecium multimicronucleatum (King) ; up-
per figures are side views; lower figures front views; solid lines indicate
permanent structures; dotted lines temporary structures, a, full diastole;
b-d, stages of systole; e, content of ampulla passing into injection canal;
f, formation of vesicles from injection canals; g, fusion of vesicles to form
contractile vacuole; h, full diastole.
vesicles coalesce presently to form the contractile vacuole in full
diastole and the fluid is discharged to exterior through the pore,
which becomes closed by the remains of the membrane of the dis-
charged vacuole.
In Haptophrya michiganensis, MacLennan (1944) observed that
accessory vacuoles appear in the wall of the contractile canal which
extends along the dorsal side from the sucker to the posterior end,
as the canal contracts (Fig. 30) . The canal wall expands and enlarg-
ing accessory vacuoles fuse with one another, followed by a full ex-
pansion of the canal. Through several excretory pores with short
ducts the content of the contractile canal is excreted to the exterior.
The function of the contractile vacuole is considered in the following
86
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 29. Contractile vacuoles of Paramecium multimicronucleatum,
X1200 (King), a, early systole, side view; b, diastole, front view; c, com-
plete systole, front view; d, systole, side view.
MORPHOLOGY
87
chapter (p. 118). Comparative study of contractile vacuoles (Haye,
1930; Weatherby, 1941).
Various other vacuoles or vesicles occur in different Protozoa. In
the ciliates belonging to Loxodidae, there are variable numbers of
Miiller's vesicles or bodies, arranged in 1-2 rows along the aboral sur-
face. These vesicles (Fig. 31, a-c) vary in diameter from 5 to 8.5/*
Fig. 30. Excretory canal of Haptophrya michiganensis (MacLennan).
a, an individual in side view, showing a contraction wave passing down
the canal; b, successive views of the same region of the contractile canal
during a full pulsatory cycle (a-c, systole; d-g, diastole); c, diagram show-
ing a contractile wave passing from left to right between two adjacent
excretory pores.
and contain a clear fluid in which one large spherule or several small
highly refractile spherules are suspended. In some, there is a fila-
mentous connection between the spherules and the wall of the
vesicle. Penard maintains that these bodies are balancing cell-organs
and called the vesicle, the statocyst, and the spherules, the stato-
liths.
Another vacuole, known as concrement vacuole, is a character-
istic organella in Biitschliidae and Paraisotrichidae. As a rule, there
is a single vacuole present in an individual in the anterior third of
body. It is spherical to oval and its structure appears to be highly
88
PROTOZOOLOGY
complex. According to Dogiel (1929), the vacuole is composed of a
pellicular cap, a permanent vacuolar wall, concrement grains and
two fibrillar systems (Fig. 31, d). When the organism divides, the an-
terior daughter individual retains it, and the posterior individual de-
velopes a new one from the pellicle into which concrement grains
Fig. 31. a-c, Miiller's vesicles in Loxodes (a, b) and in Remanella (c)
(a, Penard; b, c, Kahl); d, concrement vacuole of Blepharoprosthium
(Dogiel). cf, centripetal fibril; eg, concrement grains; cp, cap; fw, fibrils
of wall; p, pellicle; vp, vacuolar pore; w, wall.
enter after first appearing in the endoplasm. This vacuole shows no
external pore. Dogiel believes that its function is sensory and has
named the vacuole, the statocyst, and the enclosed grains, the
statoliths.
Food vacuoles are conspicuously present in the holozoic Protozoa
which take in whole or parts of other organisms as food. The food
vacuole is a space in the cytoplasm, containing the fluid medium
which surrounds the protozoans and in which are suspended the
food matter, such as various Protophyta, other Protozoa or small
Metazoa. In the Sarcodina and the Mastigophora which do not
possess a cytostome, the food vacuoles assume the shape of the food
materials and, when these particles are large, it is difficult to make
out the thin film of water which surrounds them. When minute food
MORPHOLOGY S9
particles are taken through a cytostome, as is the case with the
majority of euciliates, the food vacuoles are usually spherical and
of approximately the same size within a single protozoan. In the
saprozoic Protozoa, which absorb fluid substances through the body
surface, food vacuoles containing solid food, of course, do not occur.
Chromatophores
d
Pvrenoids
Fig. 32. a, Trachelomonas hispida, X530 (Doflein); b, c, living and
stained reproductive cells of Pleodorina illinoisensis, XlOOO (Merton);
d-f, terminal cells of Hydrurus foetidus, showing division of chromato-
phore and pyrenoid (Geitler); g-i, Chlamydomonas sp., showing the di-
vision of pyrenoid (Geitler).
Chromatophore and associated organellae
In the Phytomastigina and certain other forms which are green-
colored, one to many chromatophores (Fig. 32) containing chloro-
phyll occur in the cytoplasm. The chromatophores vary in form
among different species; namely, discoidal, ovoid, band-form, rod-
like, cup-like, fusiform, network or irregularly diffused. The color
of the chromatophore depends upon the amount and kinds of pig-
ment which envelops the underlying chlorophyll substance. Thus the
chromatophores of Chrysomonadina are brown or orange, as they
contain one or more accessory pigments, including phycochrysin,
and those of Cryptomonadina are of various types of brown with
90 PROTOZOOLOGY
very diverse pigmentation. In Chloromonadina, the chromatophores
are bright green, containing an excess of xanthophyll. In dinoflagel-
lates, they are dark yellow or brown, because of the presence of
pigments: carotin, phylloxanthin, and peridinin (Kylin, 1927), the
last of which is said to give the brown coloration. A few species of
Gymnodinium contain blue-green chromatophores for which phyco-
cyanin is held to be responsible. The chromatophores of Phytomon-
adina and Euglenoidina are free from any pigmentation, and there-
fore green. Aside from various pigments associated with the chro-
matophores, there are carotinoid pigments which occur often outside
the chromatophores, and are collectively known as haematochrome.
The haematochrome occurs in Haematococcus pluvialis, Euglena
sanguinea, E. rubra, Chlamydomonas, etc. In Haematococcus, it in-
creases in volume and in intensity when there is a deficiency in phos-
phorus and especially in nitrogen; and when nitrogen and phos-
phorus are present sufficiently in the culture medium, the haemato-
chrome loses its color completely (Reichenow, 1909; Pringsheim,
1914). Steinecke also noticed that the frequent yellow coloration of
phytomonads in moorland pools is due to a development of carotin in
the chromatophores as a result of deficiency in nitrogen. Johnson
(1939) noted that the haematochrome granules of Euglena rubra be-
come collected in the central portion instead of being scattered
throughout the body when sunlight becomes weaker. Thus this Eu-
glena appears green in a weak light and red in a strong light. The
chromatophores undergo division at the time when the organism
which contains them, divides, and therefore the number of chroma-
tophores appears to remain about the same through different genera-
tions (Fig. 32).
In association with the chromatophores are found the pyrenoids
(Fig. 32) which are usually embedded in them. The pyrenoid is a
viscous structureless mass of protein (Czurda), and may or may not '
be covered by tightly fitting starch-envelope, composed of several
pieces or grains which appear to grow by apposition of new material
on the external surface. A pyrenoid divides when it reaches a certain
size, and also at the time of the division of the organism in which it
occurs. As to its function, it is generally agreed that the pyrenoid is
concerned with the formation of the starch and allied anabolic prod-
ucts of photosynthesis. Pyrenoid (Geitler, 1926).
Chromatophore-bearing Protozoa usually possess also a stigma
(Fig. 32) or eye-spot. The stigma may occur in exceptional cases
in colorless forms, as in Khawkinea, Polytomella, etc. It is ordi-
narily situated in the anterior region and appears as a reddish or
MORPHOLOGY 91
brownish red dot or short rod, embedded in the cortical layer of the
cytoplasm. The color of the stigma is due to the presence of droplets
of haematochrome in a cytoplasmic network. The stigma is incapable
of division and a new one is formed de novo at the time of cell divi-
sion. In many species, the stigma possesses no accessory parts, but,
according to Mast (1928), the pigment mass in Chlamydomonas,
Pandorina, Eudorina, Euglena, Trachelomonas, etc., is in cup-form,
the concavity being deeper in the colonial than in solitary forms.
There is a colorless mass in the concavity, which appears to function
as a lens. In certain dinoflagellates, there is an ocellus (Fig. 127, c, d,
q, h) which is composed of amyloid lens and a dark pigment mass
(melanosome) that is sometimes capable of amoeboid change of form.
The stigma is, in general, regarded as an organella for the perception
of light intensity. Mast (192G) considers that the stigma in the Vol-
vocidae is an organella which determines the direction of the move-
ment.
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MORPHOLOGY 93
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Janicki, C: (1911) Zur Kenntnis des Parabasalapparates bei para-
sitischen Flagellaten. Biol. Zentralbl., 31:321.
Jirovec, O. : (1929) Studien ueber blepharoplastlose Trypanosomen.
Arch. Protist., 68:187.
Kidder, G. W. : (1933) On the genus Ancistruma Strand (Ancistrum
Maupas). Biol. Bull., 64:1.
(1933a) Conchophthirus caryoclada sp. nov. Ibid., 65:175.
(1934) Studies on the ciliates from freshwater mussels. I, II.
Ibid., 66:69, 286.
King, R. L. : (1935) The contractile vacuole of Paramecium multi-
micronucleatum. J. Morphol., 58:555.
Kirby, H. Jr.: (1931) The parabasal body in trichomonad flagel-
lates. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 50:189.
Klein, B. M.: (1926) Ueber eine neue Eigentumlichkeit per Pelli-
cula von Chilodon uncinatus. Zool. Anz., 67:160.
(1926a) Ergebnisse mit einer Silbermethode bei Ciliaten.
Arch. Protist., 56:243.
(1927) Die Silberliniensysteme der Ciliaten. Ibid., 58:55.
(1928) Die Silberliniensysteme der Ciliaten. Ibid., 60:55 and
62:177.
(1929) Weitere Beitrage zur Kenntnis des Silberliniensys-
tems der Ciliaten. Ibid., 65: 183.
94 PROTOZOOLOGY
- (1930) Das Silberliniensystem der Ciliaten. IV. Ibid., 69:
235.
(1942) Differenzierungsstufen des Silberlinien- oder neuro-
formativen Systems. Ibid., 96:1.
Kleinschmidt, A. and Kinder, E.: (1950) Elektronenoptische Be-
funde an Rattentrypanosomen. Zentralbl. Bakt. I Abt. Orig.,
156:219.
Kofoid, C. A. and Swezy, Olive: (1921) The free-swimming un-
armored Dinoflagellata. Mem. Uni. Cal., 5:1.
Koltzoff, N. K. : (1911) Untersuchungen ueber die Kontraktilitat
des Stieles von Zoothamnium alternans. Biol. Zeitschr. Mos-
kau, 2:55.
Kraneveld, F. C, Houwink, A. L. and Keidel, H. J. W. : (1951)
Electron microscopical investigations on trypanosomes. I. Proc.
Kon. Nederl. Akad. Wetensch., C, 54:393.
Kruger, F.: (1934) Bemerkungen iiber Flagellatentrichocysten.
Arch. Protist., 83:321.
(1936) Die Trichocysten der Ciliaten im Dunkelfeld. Zoo-
logica, 34 (H. 91) :1.
Kudo, R. R.: (1924) A biologic and taxonomic study of the Micro-
sporidia. Illinois Biol. Monogr., 9:80.
(1936) Studies on Nyctotherus ovalis Leidy, etc. Arch. Pro-
tist., 87:10.
(1946) Pelomyxa carolinensis Wilson. I. J. Morphol., 78:317.
(1951) Observations on Pelomyxa illinoisensis. Ibid., 88: 145.
Kylin, H.: (1927) Ueber die karotinoiden Farbstoffe der Algen.
Zeitschr. physiol. Chem., 166:39.
Lund, E. E.: (1933) A correlation of the silverline and neuromotor
systems of Paramecium. Univ. Cal. Publ. Zool., 39:35.
Lynch, J. E.: (1930) Studies on the ciliates from the intestine of
Strongylocentrotus. II. Ibid., 33:307.
MacLennan, R. F. : (1941) Cytoplasmic inclusions. In: Calkins and
Summers' Protozoa in biological research.
(1944) The pulsatory cycle of the contractile canal in the
ciliate Haptophrya. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 63:187.
Mainx, F.: (1928) Beitrage zur Morphologie und Physiologie der
Eugleninen. Arch. Protist., 60:305.
Mast, S. O.: (1926) Structure, movement, locomotion and stimula-
tion in Amoeba. J. Morphol., 41:347.
(1928) Structure and function of the eye-spot in unicellular
and colonial organisms. Arch. Protist., 60:197.
(1944) A new peritrich belonging to the genus Ophrydium.
Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 63:181.
and Doyle, W. L. : (1935) Structure, origin and function of
cytoplasmic constituents in Amoeba proteus. Arch. Protist., 86:
155.
(1935a) II. Ibid., 86:278.
Moses, M. J.: (1950) Nucleic acids and proteins of the nuclei of
Paramecium. J. Morphol., 87:493.
Nassonov, D.: (1924) Der Exkretionsapparat (kontractile Vacuole)
MORPHOLOGY 95
der Protozoen als Homologen des Golgischen Apparatus der
Metazoenzelle. Arch. mikr. Anat., 103:437.
(1925) Zur Frage ueber den Bau und die Bedeutung des
Lipoiden Exkretionsapparates bei Protozoen. Ztschr. Zell-
forsch., 2:87.
Owen, H. M.: (1947) Flagellar structure. I. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 66:
50.
(1949) II. Ibid., 68:261.
Park, O. : (1929) The osmiophilic bodies of the protozoans, Stentor
and Leucophrys. Ibid., 48:20.
Penard, E.: (1922) Etudes sur les infusoires d'eau douce. Geneva.
Petersen, J. B. (1929) Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Flagellatengeis-
seln. Bot, Tidsskr., 40:373.
Pickard, Edith A.: (1927) The neuromotor apparatus of Boveria
teredinidi Nelson, etc. Univ. Cal. Publ. Zool., 29:405.
Piekarski, G.: (1949) Blepharoplast und Trypaflavinwirkung bei
Trypanosoma brucei. Zentralbl. Bakt., Orig., 153:109.
Piney, A.: (1931) Recent advances in microscopy. London.
Pitelka, Dorothy R. : (1949) Observations on flagellum structure
in Flagellata. Univ. Cal. Publ. Zool., 53:377.
Pollister, A. W. and Leuchtenberger, Cecilie: (1949) The na-
ture of the specificity of methyl green for chromatin. Proc Nat.
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Pringsheim, E. : (1914) Die Ernahrung von Haematococcus pluvialis.
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Puytorac, P. de: (1951) Sur la presence d'un argyrome chez quel-
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etc. Arb. kaiserl. Gesundh., 33:1.
— ■ (1928) Ergebnisse mit der Nuklealfarbung bei Protozoen.
Arch. Protist., 61:144.
Richardson, K. C. and Horning, E. S.: (1931) Cytoplasmic struc-
tures in binucleate opalinids with special reference to the Golgi
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Roskin, G.: (1923) La structure des mvonemes des infusoires. Bull.
biol. France et Belg., 57:143.
— (1925) Ueber die Axopodien der Heliozoa und die Greiften-
takel der Ephelotidae. Arch. Protist,, 52:207.
and Levinsohn, L. B.: (1929) Die Kontractilen und die
Skelettelemente der Protozoen. I. Ibid., 66:355.
Rumjantzew, A. and Wermel, E. : (1925) Untersuchungen ueber
den Protoplasmabau von Actinosphaerium eichhorni. Ibid., 52:
217.
Saunders, J. T.: (1925) The trichocysts of Paramecium. Proc.
Cambridge Philos. Soc, Biol. Sc, 1:249.
Schroder, O.: (1906) Beitrage zur Kenntnis von Stentor coeruleus
und St. roeselii. Arch. Protist,, 8:1.
Schuberg, A.: (1888) Die Protozoen des Wiederkauermagens. I.
Zool. Jahrb., Abt. Syst,, 3:365.
Sharp, R. : (1914) Diplodinium ecaudatum with an account of its
neuromotor apparatus. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 13:43.
96 PROTOZOOLOGY
Strelkow, A.: (1929) Morphologische Studien ueber oligotriche In-
fusorien aus dem Darme des Pferdes. I. Arch. Protist., 68:503.
Taylor, C. V.: (1920) Demonstration of the function of the neuro-
motor apparatus in Euplotes by the method of micro-dissection.
Univ. California Publ. Zool., 19:403.
(1941) Ciliate fibrillar systems. In: Calkins and Summers'
Protozoa in biological research.
ten Kate, C. G. B.: (1927) Ueber das Fibrillensvstem der Ciliaten.
Arch. Protist., 57:362.
(1928) II. Ibid., 62:328.
Thon, K. : (1905) Ueber den feineren Ban von Didinium nasutum.
Ibid., 5:282.
Tobie, Eleanor J.: (1951) Loss of the kinetoplast in a strain of
Trypanosoma equiperdum. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 70:251.
Tonniges, C: (1914) Die Trichocysten von Frontonia leucas und
ihr chromidialer Ursprung. Arch. Protist., 32:298.
Turner, J. P.: (1933) The external fibrillar system of Euplotes with
notes on the neuromotor apparatus. Biol. Bull., 64:53.
(1937) Studies on the ciliate Tillina canalifera n. sp. Tr.
Am. Micr. Soc, 56:447.
(1940) Cytoplasmic inclusions in the ciliate, Tillina canali-
fera. Arch. Protist., 93:255.
Verworn, M.: (1903) Allgemeine Physiologic 4th ed. Jena.
Visscher, J. P.: (1926) Feeding reactions in the ciliate Dileptus
gigas, etc Biol. Bull., 45: 113.
Vlk, W.: (1938) Ueber den Bau der Geissel. Arch. Protist., 90:-148.
Weatherby, J. H.: (1941) The contractile vacuole. In: Calkins and
Summers' Protozoa in biological research.
Weisz, P. B.: (1948) The role of carbohydrate reserves in the re-
generation of Stentor fragments. J. Exper. Zool., 108:263.
(1949) A cytochemical and cytological study of differentia-
tion in normal and reorganizational stages of Stenlor coeruleus.
J. Morphol., 84:335.
(1950) On the mitochondrial nature of the pigmented gran-
ules in Stentor and Blepharisma. Ibid., 86:177.
Wetzel, A.: (1925) Vergleichend cytologische Untersuchungen an
Ciliaten. Arch. Protist., 51:209.
Wilber, C. G. : (1942) The cytology of Pelomyxa carolinensis. Trans.
Am. Micr. Soc, 61:227.
(1945) Origin and function of the protoplasmic constituents
in Pelomyxa carolinensis. Biol. Bull., 88:207.
Wohlfarth-Bottermann, K-E. : (1950) Funktion und Struktur der
Parameciumtrichocysten. Wissenschaften, 37:562.
Woodcock, H. M.: (1906) The haemoflagellates : a review of present
knowledge relating to the trypanosomes and allied forms.
Quart. J. Micr. Sc, 50:151.
Woodruff, L. L. and Spencer, H.: (1922) Studies on Spathidium
spatula. I. Jour. Exp. Zool., 35:189.
Yocom, H. B. : (1918) The neuromotor apparatus of Euplotes patella.
Univ. California Publ. Zool., 18:337.
Chapter 4
Physiology
THE morphological consideration which has been given in the
last chapter, is, though necessarily brief, indicative of the occur-
rence of various and often complex organellae in Protozoa. The
physiological activity of the whole protozoan is the sum-total of
all the functions which are carried on by numerous minute parts or
organellae of the cell body, unlike the condition found in a metazoan.
Indeed, as Calkins (1933) stated, "physiological problems (of
Protozoa) for the most part begin where similar problems of the
Metazoa leave off, namely the ultimate processes of the single cell.
Here the functional activities have to do with the action and inter-
action of different substances which enter into the make-up of
protoplasm and, for the most part, these are beyond our powers of
analysis." A full discussion of various physiological problems per-
taining to Protozoa is out of question in the present work and, there-
fore, a general consideration on protozoan physiology will suffice
for our purpose.
Nutrition
Protozoa obtain nourishment in manifold ways. Information on
the nutrition of the Protozoa is undergoing an accelerated progress
through improvements in technique in experimental cultivation. In
many Phytomastigina (Pringsheim, 1937a; Hall, 1939), afewciliates
(Kidder and Dewey, 1951) and many blood-inhabiting flagellates
(Lwoff, 1951) which have been cultivated in vitro free from other
organisms, a much clearer information is becoming available. But
for the majority of Protozoa a thorough comprehension of the nutri-
tion is to be sought in future (Doyle, 1943; Lwoff, 1951; Most, 1951;
Kidder, 1951).
Holozoic (zootrophic, heterotrophic) nutrition. This is the method
by which all higher animals obtain their nourishment; namely, the
protozoan uses other animals or plants as sources of food. It involves
the food-capture and ingestion, digestion and assimilation, and re-
jection of indigestible portions.
The methods of food-capture vary among different forms. In the
Sarcodina, the food organisms are captured and taken into the body
at any point. The methods however vary. According to Rhumbler's
(1910) oft-quoted observations, four methods of food-ingestion oc-
cur in amoebae (Fig. 33) ; namely, (1) by "import," in which the food
is taken into the body upon contact, with very little movement on
97
98 PROTOZOOLOGY
the part of the amoeba (a); (2) by "circumfluence,'' in which the
cytoplasm flows around the food organism as soon as it comes in
contact with it on all sides and engulfs it (6) ; (3) by "circumvalla-
tion," in which the amoeba without contact with the food, forms
pseudopodia which surround the food on all sides and ingest it (c) ;
Fig. 33. Various ways by which amoebae capture food organisms,
a, A moeba verrucosa feeding on Oscillatoria by 'import' (Rhumbler) ; b, A .
proteus feeding on bacterial glea by 'circumfluence'; c, on Paramecium
by 'circumvallation' (Kepner and Whitlock) ; d-h, A. verrucosa ingesting
a food particle by 'invagination' (Gross-Allermann).
(4) by "invagination," in which the amoeba touches and adheres to
the food, and the ectoplasm in contact with it is invaginated into the
endoplasm as a tube, the cytoplasmic membrane later disappears
(d-h). In a species of Hartmannella, Ray (1951) reports an aggluti-
nation of large numbers of motile bacteria over the body surface,
which later form a large mass and are taken into a food cup.
In certain testaceans, such as Gromia, several rhizopodia cooper-
ate in engulfing the prey and, in Lieberkuhnia (Fig. 34), Verworn
noted ciliates are captured by and digested in rhizopodia. Similar
SIOLOGY
00
observation was made by Schaudinn in the heliozoan Camptonema in
which several axopodia anastomose to capture a prey (Fig. 214, d).
In the holozoic Mastigophora, such as Hypermastigina, which do
not possess cytostome, the food-ingestion is by import or invagina-
tion as noted in Trichonympha campanula (Cleveland, 1925a; Emik,
1941) (Fig. 35, a) and Lophomonas blattarum (Kudo, 1926).
The food particles become attached to the pseudopodium and are
held there on account of the viscid nature of the pseudopodium. The
sudden immobility of active organisms upon coming in contact with
pseudopodia of certain forms, such as Actinophrys, Actinosphaer-
ium, Gromia, Elphidium, etc., suggests, however, probable discharge
of poisonous substances. In the Suctoria which lack a cytostome, the
tentacles serve as food-capturing organellae. The suctorial tentacle
Fig. 34.
Rhizopodium of Lieberkiihnia, capturing and digesting
Colpidium colpoda (Vervvorn).
bears on its distal end a rounded knob which, when it comes in con-
tact with an actively swimming ciliate, stops the latter immediately
(Parapodophrya typha, Fig. 369, a). The prehensile tentacles of
Ephelotidae are said to be similar in structure to the axopodia, in
that each possesses a bundle of axial filaments around a cytoplasmic
core (Roskin, 1925). These tentacles are capable of piercing through
the body of a prey. In some suctorians, such as Choanophrya (Fig.
374, a), the tubular tentacles are clearly observable, and both solid
and liquid food materials are sucked in through the cavity. The
rapidity with which tentacles of a suctorian stop a very actively
swimming ciliate is attributed to a certain substance secreted by the
tentacles, which paralyses the prey.
In the cytostome-bearing Mastigophora, the lashing of flagella
will aid in bringing about the food particles to the cytostome, where
100
PROTOZOOLOGY
it is taken into the endoplasm. Chen (1950) observed Peranema feed-
ing on immobile organisms. When the tip of the anterior flagellum
comes in contact with an immobile Euglena, the whole flagellum
Fig. 35. a, eight outline sketches of a Trichonympha campanula, in-
gesting a large particle of food, XI 50 (Emik); b, four outline sketches of
a Peranema trichophorum feeding on an immobile Euglena (Chen).
beats actively and the body contracts, followed by elongation. The
process is repeated several times until the body touches Euglena.
Then the cytostome stretches open, the oral rods move up, protrude
from the body and become attached to Euglena. Peranema advances
PHYSIOLOGY 101
toward the prey and the whole Euglena is engulfed in 2 to 15 min-
utes (Fig. 35, b).
In the ciliates, there are many types of cytostome and associated
organelles, but the food-capturing seems to be in general of two
kinds. When the cytostome is permanently open, the organism in-
gests continuously food particles that are small enough to pass the
cytostome and cytopharynx, as in the case of Paramecium. The
other type is carried on by organisms bearing cytostome which is
ordinarily closed such as seen in Coleps, Didinium, Perispira (Dewey
and Kidder, 1940), but which expands to often an extraordinary size
when the ingestion of prey takes place. Cannibalism in Protozoa
(Dawson, 1919; Lapage, 1922; Gelei, 1925a; Tanabe and Komada,
1932; Giese and Alden, 1938; Chen, 1950).
The ingested food particles are usually surrounded by a film of
fluid which envelops the organism and the whole is known as the
food vacuole (p. 88). The quantity of fluid taken in with the food
varies greatly and, generally speaking, it seems to be inversely pro-
portional to the size, but proportional to the activity, of the food
organisms. Food vacuoles composed entirely of surrounding liquid
medium have occasionally been observed. Edwards (1925) noticed
ingestion of fluid medium by an amoeba by forming food-cups under
changed chemical composition. Brug (1928) reports seeing Ent-
amoeba histolytica engulf liquid culture medium by formation of lip-
like elevation of the ectoplasm and Kirby (1932) figures ingestion
of the brine containing no visible organisms by the cytostome of
Rhopalophrya salina (Fig. 36). Mast and Doyle (1934) state that if
Amoeba proteus, A. dubia, A. dofleini, or A. radiosa is placed in an
albumin solution, a hypertonic balanced salt solution, or a hyper-
tonic solution of calcium gluconate it rapidly decreases in volume,
and forms numerous tubes filled with fluid, which disintegrate sooner
or later and release their fluid content in the cytoplasm. At times 50
or more such tubes may be present, which indicates that the organism
ingests considerable quantities of fluid in this way. The two authors
consider that it is "a biological adaptation which serves to compen-
sate for the rapid loss of water."
The food vacuoles finally reach the endoplasm and in forms such
as Amoebina the vacuoles are carried about by the moving endo-
plasm. In the ciliates, the fluid endoplasm shows often a definite
rotation movement. In Paramecium, the general direction is along
the aboral side to the anterior region and down the other side, with
a short cyclosis in the posterior half of the body.
Some observers maintain that in ciliates there is a definite "diges-
102
PROTOZOOLOGY
tive tubule" beginning with the cytostome and ending in the cyto-
pyge, and the food vacuoles travel through it. Cosmovici (1931,
1932) saw such a canal in soluble starch-fed Colpidium colpoda upon
staining with iodine, but Hall and Alvey (1933) could not detect
such a structure in the same organism. Kitching (1938b) observed
no such tubule in the peritrichous ciliates he studied, and concluded
that the food vacuoles are propelled over the determined part of the
course by the contraction of surrounding cytoplasm. In Vorticella
sp., food vacuoles are formed one by one at the end of cytopharynx,
migrate through different parts of the cytoplasm without order and
food material is digested (Fig. 37, a). Old food vacuoles are defecated
through a small papilla on the lower wall of the cytopharynx and
thence to the outside (Hall and Dunihue, 1931) (Fig. 37, b-d).
^r\
n tr\ n n
Fig. 36. Ingestion of brine by Rhopalophrya salina (Kirbj').
As stated above, in a number of species the food organisms are
paralyzed or killed upon contact with pseudopodia, tentacles or ex-
ploded trichocysts. In numerous other cases, the captured organism
is taken into the food vacuole alive, as will easily be noted by ob-
serving Chilomonas taken in by Amoeba proteus or actively moving
bacteria ingested by Paramecium. But the prey ceases to move in a
very short time. It is generally believed that some substances are se-
creted into the food vacuole by the protoplasm of the organisms to
stop the activity of the prey within the food vacuole. Engelmann
(1878) demonstrated that the granules of blue litmus, when ingested
by Paramecium or Amoeba, became red in a few minutes. Brandt
(1881) examined the staining reactions of amoebae by means of
haematoxylin, and found that the watery vacuoles contained an
acid. Metschnikoff (1889) also showed that there appears an acid
secretion around the ingested litmus grains in Mycetozoa. Green-
wood and Saunders (1894) found in Carchesium that ingestion of
PHYSIOLOGY
103
food particles stimulated the cytoplasm to secrete a mineral acid.
According to Nirenstein (1925), the food vacuole in Paramecium
undergoes change in reaction which can be grouped in two periods.
The first is acid reaction and the second alkaline reaction, in which
albumin digestion takes place. On the other hand, Khainsky (1910)
observed that the food vacuole of ciliates, such as Paramecium, is
Fig. 37. Diagrams showing movements of food vacuoles in Vorticella
sp. (Hall and Dunihue). a, diagram of the migration paths of six food
vacuoles (vacuoles 1, 2, most recently formed; 3, 4, recently formed; 5, 6,
formed some time before) ; b-d, stages in extrusion of a food vacuole (b,
food vacuole entering gullet; c, a later stage; d, the food vacuole leaving
cytostome, while another one is moving up toward the cytopyge).
acid during the entire period of protein digestion, and becomes neu-
tral to finally alkaline when the solution of the food substance is
ended. Metalnikoff (1912) found that in the food vacuoles of Para-
mecium, besides acid-alkaline reaction change, some vacuoles never
show acid reaction and others occasionally show sustained acid reac-
tion. Shapiro (1927) studied the reaction change of the food vacuoles
in Paramecium caudatum by using phenol red, neutral red, Congo
red, and litmus, and found that when the organism is kept in a
medium with pH 7, its food vacuoles are first alkaline (pH 7.6),
soon reach a maximum acidity (pH 4.0), while still in the posterior
104 PROTOZOOLOGY
half of the body. Later, the vacuoles show a decreased acidity, finally
reaching pH 7.0. In Vorticella sp. and Stylonychia pustulata, the
range of pH observed in the food vacuoles was said to be 4.5-
7.0 and 4.8-7.0 respectively. The food vacuoles of Actinosphaer-
ium, according to Howland (1928), possess at the beginning pH
6.0-7.0 for 5 to 10 minutes, but this soon changes to acid (pH 4.3)
in which digestion appears to be carried on. In older food vacuoles
which are of less acid (pH 5.4-5.6), the digestion appears to be at
an end. In the species of Bresslaua, Claff, Dewey and Kidder (1941)
noted that a Colpoda taken into the food vacuole is instantly killed
with a sudden release of an acid which shows pH 3.0-4.2. During
digestion the protoplasm of the prey becomes alkaline and the un-
digested residue becomes acid before extrusion.
Mast's observations (1942) on the food vacuoles in Amoeba pro-
teus and A. dubia containing Chilomonas or Colpidium, indicate:
(1) the fluid in the vacuoles becomes first acid and then alkaline;
(2) the increase in the acidity of the fluid in the vacuole is not due to
cytoplasmic secretion, but is probably due to respiration in the in-
gested organisms, chemical changes associated with their death,
etc.; and (3) the death of the organisms taken in the food vacuoles is
probably caused by the decrease in oxygen in the vacuoles, owing to
the respiration of the organisms in them. De La Arena (1941, 1942)
found the maximum acidity of the fluid of food vacuoles in Pelomyxa
carolinensis containing Colpidium striatum was pH 5.8 and was not
fatal for the ciliate, but considered the possibility of the existence in
the food vacuole of "some lethal agent" which kills the prey.
Just exactly what processes take place in the food vacuole have
been observed only in a few cases. Nirenstein (1925) noticed the ap-
pearance of numerous neutral red-stainable granules around the food
vacuole which pass into the interior of the vacuole, and regarded
them as carriers of a tryptic ferment, while Roskin and Levinsohn
(1926) demonstrated the oxidase reaction in these granules. Hopkins
and Warner (1946) believe that the digestion of food in Entamoeba
histolytica is brought about by enzymes carried to the food vacuoles
by "digestive spherules" which arise at the periphery of the nucleus,
apparently due to the action of the substances diffusing from the nu-
cleus into the cytoplasm.
As to the localization or distribution of enzymes within protozoan
body, definite information is not yet available. In centrifuged
Amoeba proteus, Holter and Kopac (1937) found the peptidase ac-
tivity independent of all cytoplasmic inclusions that were stratified
by centrifugal forces. Holter and L0vtrup (1949) found peptidase in
PHYSIOLOGY 105
centrifuged Pelomyxa carolinensis comparatively evenly distributed
after centrifugation, possibly with a tendency to be concentrated in
the lighter half, while proteinase was largely localized in the heavier
half in which cytoplasmic granules were accumulated, and concluded
that these two enzymes are bound, at least in part, to different cyto-
plasmic components. A number of enzymes have been reported to
occur in Protozoa, some of which are listed in Table 3.
These findings suffice to indicate that the digestion in Protozoa
is carried on also by enzymes and its course appears to vary among
different Protozoa. The albuminous substances are digested and de-
composed into simpler compounds by enzymes and absorbed by the
surrounding cytoplasm. The power to digest starch into soluble
sugars is widely found among various Protozoa. It has been re-
ported in Mycetozoa, Foraminifera, Pelomyxa, Amoeba, Enta-
moeba, Ophryoscolecidae and other ciliates by several investigators.
The members of Vampyrella (p. 420) are known to dissolve the
cellulose wall of algae, especially Spirogyra in order to feed on their
contents. Pelomyxa (Stole), Foraminifera (Schaudinn), Amoeba
(Rhumbler), Hypermastigina, Polymastigina (Cleveland), etc., have
also been known for possessing the power of cellulose digestion.
Many of the Hypermastigina and Polymastigina which lead symbi-
otic life in the intestine of the termite and of the wood roach, as dem-
onstrated by Cleveland and his co-workers, digest by enzymes the
cellulose which the host insect ingests. The assimilation products
produced by an enormous number of these flagellates are seemingly
sufficient to support the protozoans as well as the host. The cili-
ate commensals inhabiting the stomach of ruminants also appar-
ently digest the cellulose, since the faecal matter as a rule does not
contain this substance (Becker et al., 1930; Weineck, 1934).
Dawson and Belkin (1928) injected oils into Amoeba dubia and
found 1.4 to 8.3 per cent digested. Mast (1938) reported that the
neutral fat globules of Colpidium are digested by Amoeba proteus
and transformed into fatty acid and glycerine which unite and form
neutral fat. Chen (1950) found that when Peranema trichophorum
was fed on almond oil (stained dark blue with Sudan black), Sudan
III-stainable droplets gradually increased in number in five to 10
hours, while ingested oil-droplets decreased in size, and considered
that the droplets were "fat-substances" resynthesized from prod-
ucts of digestion of almond oil by this flagellate. The digestion of
rice starch is followed by the appearance of increasing number of
ovoid paramylon granules, and the digestion of casein results in the
formation of oil droplets and paramylon bodies.
106
PROTOZOOLOGY
Table 3. — Enzymes in Protozoa
Protozoa
Enzymes
Observers
Amoeba proteus
Peptidase
Holter and Kopac (1 937) ;
Holter and Doyle (1938);
Andresen and Holter (1949);
Holter and Ljtfvtrup (1949)
Proteinase
Andresen and Holter (1949);
Holter and Ljrfvtrup (1949)
Amylase
Holter and Doyle (1938a)
A. dubia
Lipolytic substance
Dawson and Belkin (1928)
Pelornyxa palustris
Diastatic enzyme
Hartog and Dixon (1893) ;
Stole (1900)
Pepsin-like enzyme
Hartog and Dixon (1893)
Peptidase
Andresen and Holter (1949)
Proteinase
u
P. carolinensis
Peptidase
"
Proteinase
a
Succinic dehydro-
Andresen, Engel and Holter
genase
(1951)
Lipase
Wilber (1946)
Soil amoeba
" Amoebo-diastase, "
a trypsin-like en-
zyme
Mouton (1902)
Aethalium seftticum
Pepsin-like enzyme
Krukenberg (1886)
Eitglena gracilis
Proteolytic enzyme
Jahn (1931)
Xylophagous Poly-
Cellulase
Trager (1932)
and Hyper-mas-
Cellobiase
Cleveland et ah (1934)
tigina
Didinium nasutum
Dipeptidase
Doyle and Patterson (1942)
Tetrahymena pirifor-
Proteolytic enzyme
Lwoff (1932); Lawrie (1937)
mis
Peptidases
Kidder and Dewey (1951)
Acetylcholinesterase
Seaman and Houlihan (1951)
Colpidium striatum
Proteolytic enzyme
Elliott (1933)
Paramecium cau-
Peptidase
Holter and Doyle (1938)
datum
Amylase
a
P. multimicronuclea-
tum
Frontonia sp.
Dipeptidase
Doyle and Patterson (1942)
Peptidase
Holter and Doyle (1938)
Amylase
a
Balantidium coli
Diastase
Glaessner (1908)
In certain Sarcodina such as Amoeba and Pelornyxa, refringent
bodies occur conspicuously in the cytoplasm. They were first noticed
in Pelornyxa palustris by Green" (1874) who called them "Glanz-
korper." Stole (1900) and Leiner (1924) considered them as glycogen
enclosed within a membrane and associated intimately with the
PHYSIOLOGY 107
carbohydrate metabolism of the organism, since their number was
proportionate to the amount of food obtained by the organism.
Veley (1905) on the other hand found them albuminoid in nature.
Studies of the refringent bodies in Amoeba proteus led Mast and
Doyle (1935, 1935a) to conclude that the outer layer is composed of
a protein stroma impregnated with lipid containing fatty acid, which
gives positive reaction for Golgi substance; the envelope is made up
of a carbohydrate which is neither starch nor glycogen; and the re-
fringent bodies function as reserve food, since they disintegrate dur-
ing starvation. The same function was assigned to those occurring in
Pelomyxa carolinensis by Wilber (1945, 1945a), but Andresen and
Holter (1945) do not agree with this view, as they observed the
number of the refringent bodies ("heavy spherical bodies") remains
the same in starvation. Thus a full comprehension of the nature and
function of the refringent body must depend on future observations.
The indigestible residue of the food is extruded from the body.
The extrusion may take place at an}' point on the surface in many
Sarcodina by a reverse process of the ingestion of food. But in pelli-
cle-bearing forms, the defecation takes place either through the
cytopyge located in the posterior region of the body or through an
aperture to the vestibule (Fig. 37, b-d). Permanent cytopyge is lack-
ing in some forms. In Fabrea salina, Kirby (1934) noticed that a large
opening is formed at the posterior end, the contents of food vacuoles
are discharged, and the opening closes over. At first the margin of
the body is left uneven, but soon the evenly rounded outline is re-
stored. The same seems to be the case with Spirostomum (Fig. 38),
Blepharisma, etc. Cytopyge (Klein, 1939).
Holophytic (autotrophic, prototrophic) nutrition. This is the type
of nutrition in which the Protozoa are able to decompose carbon
dioxide by means of chlorophyll contained in chromatophores (p. 89)
in the presence of the sunlight, liberating the oxygen and combining
the carbon with other elements derived from water and inorganic
salts (photosynthesis). Aside from the Phytomastigina, chromato-
phores were definitely observed in a ciliate Cyclotrichium meunieri
(Figs. 300, o; 301) (Powers, 1932; Bary and Stuckey, 1950). In a
number of other cases, the organism itself is without chromatophores,
but is apparently not holozoic, because of the presence of chloro-
phyll-bearing organisms within it. For example, in the testacean
Paulinella (Fig. 206, c) in which occur no food vacuoles, chromato-
phores of peculiar shape are always present. The latter appear to be
a species of alga which holds a symbiotic relationship with the
testacean, and perhaps acts for the sarcodinan as the chromatophores
108
PROTOZOOLOGY
of the Phytomastigina. A similar relationship seems to exist between
Paramecium bursaria, Stentor pohjmorphus, etc. and zoochlorellae;
Paraeuplotes tortugensis and a zooxanthella and others (p. 29).
Pringsheim (1928) showed that organic matters from zoochlorellae
are passed on to their host, Paramecium bursaria, to be used as food.
Through studies of relationships between zooxanthellae and in-
vertebrates, Yonge observed that the zooxanthellae utilize carbon
dioxide, nitrogen and phosphorus which are the catabolic products
of the host and supply in return oxygen, fats and carbohydrates to
the host. Photosynthesis in Phytomastigina (Hutner and Provasoli,
1951).
Saprozoic (saprophytic) nutrition. In this nutrition, the Protozoa
obtain nourishment by diffusion through the body surface. This is
accomplished without any special organellae. Perhaps the only in-
Fig. 38. Outline sketches showing the defecation process in
Spirostomum ambiguum (Blattner).
stance in which the saprozoic nutrition is accomplished through a
special organella is the pusules (Figs. 127, 129) in marine dinoflagel-
lates which, according to Kofoid and Swezy (1921), appear to con-
tain decomposed organic matter and aid the organisms in carrying
on this process.
The dissolved food matters are simpler compounds which originate
in animal or vegetable matter due to the decomposing activities of
bacterial organisms. Numerous free-living flagellates nourish them-
selves with this method. Recently a number of investigators found
that saprozoic Protozoa could be cultivated in bacteria-free media
of known compositions. For example, Pringsheim (1937) observed in
Polytoma uvella (Fig. 113, h) that sodium acetate is needed from
which the starch among others is produced and carbohydrates have
no direct bearing upon the nutrition, but fatty acids derived from
them participate in the metabolism.
The Protozoa which live within the body of another organism are
PHYSIOLOGY 109
able to nourish themselves by absorbing the digested or decomposed
substances of the host and could be considered assaprozoic, though
the term parasitic has sometimes been used. Coelozoic Protozoa be-
long to this group, as for example, Protociliata, astomatous ciliates,
Trypan osomatidae, etc. In the case of cytozoic or certain histozoic
forms, such as Cnidosporidia, the host cytoplasm is apparently
liquefied or hydrolyzed by enzymes before being absorbed by them.
The parasitic Protozoa, which actually feed on host tissue cells, such
as Entamoeba histolytica, Balantidium coli, etc., or endo commensals,
{Endamoeba blattae, Entamoeba coli, etc.) employ, of course, the holo-
zoic nutrition.
Many Protozoa nourish themselves by more than one method at
the same or different times, subject to a change in external condi-
tions. This is sometimes referred to as mixotrophic nutrition (Pfeif-
fer). For example, Euglena gracilis, according to Zumstein (1900),
Lwoff (1932) and Pringsheim and Hovasse (1948), loses its green
coloration in the darkness or even in the light when the culture
medium is very abundant in decomposed organic substances, which
may indicate that this organism is capable of carrying on both holo-
phytic and saprozoic nutrition.
With the introduction of bacteria-free culture technique in recent
years, it has now become well established that a protozoan species
exhibits conspicuous differences in form, size and structure, which
are exclusively due to differences in the kind and amount of food
material. For example, Kidder, Lilly and Claff (1940) noted in
Tetrahymena vorax (Fig. 39), bacteria-feeders are tailed (50-75^
long), saprozoic forms are fusiform to ovoid (30-70/x long), forms
feeding on sterile dead ciliates are fusiform (60-80^ long), and carni-
vores and cannibals are irregularly ovoid (100-250^ long), in the latter
form of which a large "preparatory vacuole" becomes developed.
In Chilomonas Paramecium, Mast (1939) observed the individuals
grown in sterile glucose-peptone solution were much smaller than
those cultured in acetate-ammonium solution and moreover the
former contained many small starch grains, but no fat, while the
latter showed many larger starch grains and a little fat. Amoeba
proteus when fed exclusively on Colpidium, became very large and
extremely "fat" and sluggish, growing and multiplying slowly, but
indefinitely; when fed on Chilomonas only, they grew and multi-
plied for several days, then decreased in number and soon died, but
lived longer on Chilomonas cultured in the glucose-peptone. It is
well known that Protozoa as any other organism, show atypical
or abnormal morphological and physiological peculiarities. In the
110
PROTOZOOLOGY
case of carnivorous forms, the condition of food organisms may pro-
duce abnormalities in them, as was shown by Beers (1933) in Didi-
nium fed on starved paramecia (Fig. 40).
Some thirty years ago, Robertson (1921-1927) reported that when
two ciliates, Enchelys and Colpoda, are placed in a small amount of
fresh culture medium, the rate of reproduction following a "lag pe-
Fig. 39. Form and size variation in Tetrahymena vorax, due to differ-
ences in kind and amount of food material, as seen in life, X400 (Kidder,
Lilly and Claff). a, bacteria-feeder; b, c, saprozoic forms; d, individual
which has fed on killed Colpidium campylum; e, starved individual from
a killed-Colpidium culture; f-i, progressive form and size changes of
saprozoic form in the presence of living Colpidium; j, a young carnivore
which has been removed to a culture with living yeast.
PHYSIOLOGY
111
riod" is more than twice (up to ten times) that of a single animal in
the same amount of the medium. He assumed that this acceleration
was due to a certain agent or substance produced within the animal,
Fig. 40. Didinium nasutum, X265 (Beers), a, normal fully grown ani-
mal; b-e, abnormal organisms which were fed on starved Paramecium.
which diffused into the culture medium. When more than one animal
is confined in a limited amount of culture fluid, this substance is
present in a higher concentration than with one animal, and an in-
creased rate of division is the result. Robertson called this "allelo-
catalytic result," and the phenomenon, "allelocatalysis."
112 PROTOZOOLOGY
Soon a large number of observers came forward with varying re-
sults— some confirmatory, others contradictory. The vast majority
of these observations including Robertson's own, were carried on
ciliates which were grown in association with various bacteria, and
naturally, the results lacked agreement. For a review of these ob-
servations too numerous to mention here, the reader is referred to
Allee (1931, 1934), Mast and Pace (1938) and Richards (1941).
When bacteria-free cultivation became possible for some Protozoa,
it was hoped that this problem might be solved under controlled
conditions. Howrever, the results still lack agreement. For example,
Phelps (1935) reported that in Tetrahymena (Glaucoma), the
growth rate and the maximum yield were the same between twro
cultures: one started with 0.014 organism and the other, with 1600
organisms per ml. Thus there was no allelocatalysis. On the other
hand, Mast and Pace (1938) noted a significant acceleration of the
growth rate in Chilomonas when up to 50 organisms were inoculated
into 0.4 cc. of culture fluid as compared to the growth rate in cultures
with one or more Chilomonas inocula, and furthermore, a single
Chilomonas showed an increased rate of reproduction as the volume
of the culture fluid was reduced.
Various aspects of metabolic processes in Protozoa such as inor-
ganic requirements, carbon and nitrogen metabolism, growth fac-
tors, vitamins, etc., have recently been studied by a number of in-
vestigators. For information, the reader is referred to Hall (1941)
and Lwoff (1951).
Reserve food matter
The anabolic activities of Protozoa result in the growth and in-
crease in the volume of the organism, and also in the formation and
storage of reserve food-substances which are deposited in the cy-
toplasm to be utilized later for growth or reproduction. The re-
serve food stuff is ordinarily glycogen or glycogenous substances,
which seem to be present widely. Thus, in saprozoic Gregarinida,
there occur in the cytoplasm numerous refractile bodies which stain
brown to brownish-violet in Lugol's solution; are insoluble in cold
water, alcohol, and ether; become swollen and later dissolved in boil-
ing water; and are reduced to a sugar by boiling in dilute sulphuric
acid. This substance which composes the refractile bodies is called
paraglycogen (Biitschli) or zooamylon. Gohre (1943) considers it a
stabilized polymerization product of glycogen.
Rumjantzew and Wermel (1925) demonstrated glycogen in Ac-
tinosphaerium. In the cysts of Iodamoeba, glycogen body is con-
PHYSIOLOGY
113
spicuously present and is looked upon as a characteristic feature of
the organism. The iodinophile vacuole of the spores of Myxobolidae
is a well-defined vacuole containing glycogenous substance and is
also considered as possessing a taxonomic value. In many ciliates,
both free-living (Paramecium, Glaucoma, Vorticella, Stentor, etc.)
and parasitic (Ophryoscolecidae, Nyctotherus, Balantidium (Faure-
Fremiet and Thaureaux, 1944)), glycogenous bodies are always
present. According to MacLennan (1936), the development of the
paraglycogen in Ichthyophthirius is associated with the chondrio-
somes. In Eimeria tenella, glycogenous substance does apparently
not occur in the schizonts, merozoites, or microgametocytes ; but
becomes apparent first in the macrogametocyte, and increases in
amount with its development, a small amount being demonstrable
in the sporozoites (Edgar et al., 1944).
c
Fig. 41. a-d, two types of paramylon present in Euglena gracilis
(Btitschli); e-h, paramylon of E '. sanguinea, X1100 (Heidt). (e, natural
appearance; f, g, dried forms; h, strongly pressed body.)
The anabolic products of the holophytic nutrition are starch,
paramylon, oil and fats. The paramylon bodies are of various forms
among different species, but appear to maintain a certain character-
istic form within a species and can be used to a certain extent in
taxonomic consideration. According to Heidt (1937), the paramylon
of Euglena sanguinea (Fig. 41) is spirally coiled which confirms
Butschli's observation. The paramylon appears to be a polysac-
charide which is insoluble in boiling water, but dissolves in concen-
trated sulphuric acid, potassium hydroxide, and slowly in formalde-
hyde. It does not stain with either iodine or chlor-zinc-iodide and
when treated with a dilute potassium hydroxide, the paramylon
bodies become enlarged and frequently exhibit a concentric stratifi-
cation.
In the Chrysomonadina, the reserve food material is in the form
of refractile spheroid bodies which are known as leucosin, probably
a carbohydrate which when boiled in water stains with iodine. Oil
114
PROTOZOOLOGY
droplets occur in various Protozoa and when there is a large number
of oil-producing forms in a body of water, the water may develop
various odors as indicated in Table 4.
Table 4. — Protozoa and odors of water
Protozoa
Odor produced by them
Cryptomonas
candied violets
Mallomonas
aromatic, violets, fishy
Synura
ripe cucumber, muskmelon, bitter and
spicy taste
Uroglenopsis
fishy, cod-liver oil-like
Dinobryon
fishy, like rockweed
Chlamydomonas
fishy, unpleasant or aromatic
Eudorina
faintly fishy
Pandorina
faintly fishy
Volvox
fishy
Ceratium
vile stench
Glenodinium
fishy
Peridinium
fishy, like clam-shells
Bursaria
Irish moss, salt marsh, fishy (Whipple,
1927)
Pelomyxa
ripe cucumber (Schaeffer, 1937)
Fats occur widely in Protozoa. They appear usually as small re-
fractile globules. Zingher (1934) found that in the Sarcodina and
Ciliata he studied, each species showed morphological characteristics
of the fatty substance it contained. Fat globules occur abundantly
in Amoeba and Pelomyxa which are easily seen by staining with
Sudan III. In Tillina canalifera, fat droplets, 1-2/x in diameter, are
present especially in the region to the right of the cytopharynx
(Turner, 1940). According to Panzer (1913), the fat content of
Eimeria gadi was 3.55 per cent and Pratje (1921) reports that 12 per
cent of the dry matter of Noctiluca scintillans appeared to be the
fatty substance present in the form of granules and is said to give
luminescence upon mechanical or chemical stimulation. But the
chemical nature of these "photogenic" granules is still unknown at
present (Harvey, 1952). A number of other dinoflagellates, such as
Peridinium, Ceratium, Gonyaulax, Gymnodinium, etc., also emit
luminescence. In other forms the fat may be hydrostatic in function,
as is the case with a number of pelagic Radiolaria, many of which
are also luminous. Luminescence in Protozoa (Harvey, 1952).
Another reserve food-stuff which occurs widely in Protozoa, ex-
cepting Ciliophora, is the so-called volutin or metachromatic gran-
ule. It is apparently equally widely present in Protophyta. In fact
it was first discovered in the protophytan Spirillum volutans. Meyer
PHYSIOLOGY 115
coined the name and held it to be made up of a nucleic acid. It stains
deeply with nuclear dyes. Reichenow (1909) demonstrated that if
Haematococcus pluvialis (Fig. 42) is cultivated in a phosphorus-free
medium, the volutin is quickly used up and does not reappear. If
however, the organisms are cultivated in a medium rich in phos-
phorus, the volutin increases greatly in volume and, as the culture
becomes old, it gradually breaks down. In Polytomella agilis (Fig.
114, c, d), Doflein (1918) showed that an addition of sodium phos-
phate resulted in an increase of volutin. Reichenow, Schumacher^
Fig. 42. Haematococcus pluvialis, showing the development of volutin
in the medium rich in phosphorus and its disintegration in an exhausted
medium, X570 (Reichenow). a, second day; b, third day; c, fourth day;
d, e, sixth day; f, eighth day.
and others, hold that the volutin appears to be a free nucleic acid,
and is a special reserve food material for the nuclear substance. Sas-
suchin (1935) studied the volutin in Spirillum volutans and Sarcina
flava and found that the volutin appears during the period of strong
growth, nourishment and multiplication, disappears in unfavorable
condition of nourishment and gives a series of characteristic carbo-
hydrate reactions. Sassuchin considers that the volutin is not related
to the nucleus, but is a reserve food material of the cell, and is
composed of glycoprotein. Volutin (Jirovec, 1926).
Starvation. As in all living things, when deprived of food, Protozoa
perish sooner or later. The changes noticeable under the microscope
are: gradual loss of cytoplasmic movement, increasing number of
vacuoles and their coalescence, and finally the disintegration of the
body. In starved Pelomyxa carolinensis, Andresen and Holter (1945)
noticed the following changes: the animals disintegrate in 10-25
days at 22°C. ; body volume decreases particularly during the early
days of starvation and is about 20-30 per cent of the initial volume
at the time of death; food vacuoles are extruded from the body in 24
to 48 hours; the cytoplasm becomes less viscous and many fluid
vacuoles make their appearance; crystals and refringent bodies en-
closed within vacuoles, form large groups as the vacuoles coalesce,
some of which are extruded from the body; crystals and refringent
bodies remain approximately constant during starvation and there
116 PROTOZOOLOGY
is no indication that they are utilized as food reserves. The ratio of
reduced weight and volume and the specific gravity remain reason-
ably constant during starvation (Zeuthen, 1948). Andresen (1945)
found starved Amoeba proteus to show a similar change on the whole,
except that the number of chondriosomes decreased and in some
cases dissolution of crystals occurred just before disintegration.
Respiration
In order to carry on various vital activities, the Protozoa, like
all other organisms, must transform the potential energy stored in
highly complex chemical compounds present in the cytoplasm, into
various forms of active energy by oxidation. The oxygen involved
in this process appears to be brought into contact with the sub-
stances in two ways in Protozoa. The great majority of free-living,
and certain parasitic forms absorb free molecular oxygen from
the surrounding media. The absorption of oxygen appears to be
carried on by the permeable body surface, since there is no special
organella for this purpose. The polysaprobic Protozoa are known
to live in water containing no free oxygen. For example, Noland
(1927) observed Metopus es in a pool, 6 feet in diameter and 18 inches
deep, filled with dead leaves which gave a strong odor of hydrogen
sulphide. The water in it showed pH 7.2 at 14°C, and contained no
dissolved oxygen, 14.9 c.c. per liter of free carbon dioxide, and 78.7
c.c. per liter of fixed carbon dioxide. The parasitic Protozoa of
metazoan digestive systems live also in a medium containing no
molecular oxygen. All these forms appear to possess capacity of
splitting complex oxygen-bearing substances present in the body to
produce necessary oxygen.
Several investigators studied the influence of abundance or lack
of oxygen upon different Protozoa. For example, Putter (1905) dem-
onstrated that several ciliates reacted differently when subjected to
anaerobic condition, some perishing rapidly, others living for a con-
siderable length of time. Death is said by Lohner to be brought
about by a volume-increase due to accumulation of the waste prod-
ucts. When first starved for a few days and then placed in anaerobic
environment, Paramecium and Colpidium died much more rapidly
than unstarved individuals. Putter, therefore, supposed that the dif-
ference in longevity of aerobic Protozoa in anaerobic conditions was
correlated with that of the amount of reserve food material such as
protein, glycogen and paraglycogen present in the body. Putter fur-
ther noticed that Paramecium is less affected by anaerobic condition
than Spirostomum in a small amount of water, and maintained that
PHYSIOLOGY 117
the smaller the size of body and the more elaborate the contractile
vacuole system, the organisms suffer the less the lack of oxygen in
the water, since the removal of catabolic products depends upon these
factors.
The variety of habitats and results of artificial cultivations of
various Protozoa indicate clearly that the oxygen requirements vary
a great deal among different forms. Attempts were made in recent
years to determine the oxygen requirement of Protozoa. The results
of the observations are not always convincing. The oxygen consump-
tion of Paramecium is said, according to Lund (1918) and Amberson
(1928), to be fairly constant over a wide range of oxygen concentra-
tion. Specht (1934) found the measurements of the oxygen con-
sumption and carbon dioxide production in Spirostomum ambiguum
vary because of the presence of a base produced by the organism.
Soule (1925) observed in the cultural tubes of Trypanosoma lewisi
and Leishmania tropica, the oxygen contained in about 100 c.c. of
air of the test tube is used up in about 12 and 6 days respectively.
A single Paramedian caudatum is said to consume in one hour at
21°C. from 0.0052 c.c. (Kalmus) to 0.00049 c.c. (Howland and Bern-
stein) of oxygen. The oxygen consumption of this ciliate in heavy
suspensions (3X103 to 301 X103 in 3 c.c.) and associated bacteria,
ranged, according to Gremsbergen and Reynaerts-De Pont (1952),
from 1000 to 4000 nM3 per hour per million individuals at 23.5°C.
The two observers considered that P. caudatum possesses a typical
cytochrome-oxidase system. Amoeba proteus, according to Hulpieu
(1930), succumbs slowly when the amount of oxygen in water is less
than 0.005 per cent and also in excess, which latter confirms Putter's
observation on Spirostomum. According to Clark (1942), a normal
Amoeba proteus consumes 1.4 X10~3 mm3 of oxygen per hour, while
an enucleated amoeba only 0.2X10-3 mm3. He suggests that "the
oxygen-carriers concerned with 70 per cent of the normal respiration
of an amoeba are related in some way to the presence of the nu-
cleus." In Pelomyxa caroUnensis, the rate of oxygen consumption at
25°C. was found by Pace and Belda (1944) to be 0.244+0.028 mm3
per hour per mm3 cell substance and does not differ greatly from
that of Amoeba proteus and Actinosphaervum eichhorni. The tem-
perature coefficient for the rate of respiration is nearly the same as
that in Paramecium, varying from 1.7 at 15-25°C. to 2.1 at 25-35°C.
Pace and Kimura (1946) further note in Pelomyxa caroUnensis that
carbohydrate metabolism is greater at higher than at lower tem-
perature and that a cytochrome-cytochrome oxidase system is the
mechanism chiefly involved in oxidation of carbohydrate.
118 PROTOZOOLOGY
The Hypermastigina of termites are killed, according to Cleve-
land (1925), when the host animals are kept in an excess of oxygen.
Jahn found that Chilomonas paramedian in bacteria-free cultures in
heavily buffered peptone-phosphate media at pH 6.0, required for
rapid growth carbon dioxide which apparently brings about a favor-
able intracellular hydrogen-ion concentration. Respiratory metabo-
lism (Meldrum, 1934; Jahn, 1941).
Excretion and secretion
The catabolic waste material composed of water, carbon dioxide,
and nitrogenous compounds, all of which are soluble, pass out of the
body by diffusion through the surface or by means of the contractile
vacuole (p. 83). The protoplasm of the Protozoa is generally con-
sidered to possess a molecular make-up which appears to be similar
among those living in various habitats. In the freshwater Protozoa
the body of which is hypertonic to surrounding water, the water
diffuses through the body surface and so increases the water content
of the body protoplasm as to interfere with its normal function. The
contractile vacuole, which is invariably present in all freshwater
forms, is the means of getting rid of this excess water from the body.
On the other hand, marine or parasitic Protozoa live in nearly iso-
tonic media and there is no excess of water entering the body, hence
the contractile vacuoles are not found in them. Just exactly why
nearly all euciliates and suctorians possess the contractile vacuole
regardless of habitat, has not fully been explained. It is assumed that
the pellicle of the ciliate is impermeable to salts and slowly permeable
to water (Kitching, 1936) or impermeable to water, salts and prob-
ably gases (Frisch, 1937). If this is the case with all ciliates, it is not
difficult to understand the universal occurrence of the contractile
vacuole in the ciliates and suctorians.
That the elimination of excess amount of water from the body
is one of the functions of the contractile vacuole appears to be be-
yond doubt judging from the observations of Zuelzer (1907), Finley
(1930) and others, on Amoeba verrucosa which lost gradually its con-
tractile vacuole as sodium chloride was added to the water, losing
the organella completely in the seawater concentration and of Yo-
com (1934) on Paramecium caudatum and Euplotes patella, the con-
tractile vacuoles of which nearly ceased functioning when the ani-
mals were placed in 10 per cent sea water. Furthermore, marine
amoebae develop contractile vacuoles de novo when they are trans-
planted to fresh water as in the case of Vahlkampfia calkinsi (Hogue,
1923) and Amoeba biddulphiae (Zuelzer, 1927). Herfs (1922) studied
PHYSIOLOGY 119
the pulsation of the contractile vacuoles of Paramecium caudatum in
fresh water as well as in salt water and obtained the following meas-
urements:
Per cent NaCl in water
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1.00
Contraction period in second
6.2
9.3
18.4
24.8
163.0
Excretion per hour in body
volumes
4.8
2.82
1.38
1.08
0.16
The number of the contractile vacuoles present in a species is con-
stant under normal conditions. The contraction period varies from a
few seconds to several minutes in freshwater inhabitants, and is, as
a rule, considerably longer in marine Protozoa. Kitching (1938a)
estimated that a quantity of water equivalent to the body volume is
eliminated by freshwater Protozoa in four to 45 minutes and by
marine forms in about three to four hours. The size of contractile
vacuole in diastole may vary. Botsford (1926) reported that the con-
tractile vacuole in Amoeba proteus varied considerably within a short
period of time in size and rate of contraction under seemingly identi-
cal conditions. The rate of contraction is subject to change with the
temperature, physiological state of the organism, amount of food
substances, etc. For example, Rossbach noted in the three ciliates
listed below, the contraction was accelerated first rapidly and then
more slowly with rise of the temperature:
Time in seconds between two systoles at
different temperature (C.)
5° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30°
Euplotes char on 61 48 31 28 22 23
Stylonychia pustulata 18 14 10-11 6-8 5-6 4
Chilodonella cucidlulus 9 7 5 4 4 —
How much water enters through the body surface of Protozoa is
not known, but it appears to be the major portion that is excreted
through contractile vacuoles. Water also enters the protozoan body
in food vacuoles. In Vampyrella lateritia which feeds on the cell con-
tents of Spirogyra in a single feeding, many contractile vacuoles ap-
pear within the cytoplasm and evacuate the Avater that has come in
with the food (Lloyd, 1926) and the members of Ophryoscolecidae
show an increased number and activity of contractile vacuoles while
feeding (MacLennan, 1933). The amount of water contained in food
vacuoles seems, however, to be far smaller than the amount evacu-
ated by contractile vacuoles (Gelei, 1925; Eisenberg, 1925). Other
evidences such as the contractile vacuole continues to pulsate when
cytosome-bearing Protozoa are not feeding and its occurrence in
automatons ciliates, would indicate also that the water entering
120 PROTOZOOLOGY
through this avenue is not of a large quantity. How much water is
produced during the metabolic activity of the organisms is un-
known, but it is considered to be a very small amount (Kitching,
1938). The mechanism by which the difference in osmotic pressure
can be maintained at the body surface is unknown. It may be, as
suggested by Kitching (1934), that the contractile vacuole extrudes
water but retains the solutes or some osmotically active substances
must be continuously produced within the body.
Attempts to detect catabolic products in the contractile vacuole,
in the body protoplasm or in the culture fluid, were unsuccessful, be-
cause of technical difficulties. Weatherby (1927) detected in the
Fig. 43. Examples of crystals present in Protozoa, a-e, in Paramecium
caudatum (Schewiakoff), (a-d, X1000, e, X2600); f, in Amoeba protetis;
g, in A. discoides; h-1, in A. dubia (Schaeffer).
spring water in which he kept a number of thoroughly washed Para-
mecium, urea and ammonia after 30-36 hours and supposed that
the urea excreted by the organisms gave rise to ammonia. He found
also urea in similar experiments with Spirostomum and Didinium
(Weatherby, 1929). Doyle and Harding (1937) found Glaucoma ex-
creting ammonia, and not urea. Carbon dioxide is obviously ex-
creted by the body surface as well as the contractile vacuole. At
present the composition of the fluid in the contractile vacuole is not
know7n. General reference (Weatherby, 1941); permeability of water
in Protozoa (Belda, 1942; L0vtrup and Pigon, 1951); physiology of
contractile vacuole (Stempell, 1924; Fortner, 1926; Gaw, 1936;
Kitching, 1938a).
Aside from the soluble forms, there often occur in the protozoan
body insoluble substances in the forms of crystals and granules of
various kinds. Schewiakoff (1894) first noticed that Paramecium
often contained crystals (Fig. 43) composed of calcium phosphate,
which disappeared completely in 1-2 days when the organisms were
starved, and reappeared when food was given. Schewiakoff did not
see the extrusion of these crystals, but considered that these crystals
PHYSIOLOGY 121
were first dissolved and excreted by the contractile vacuoles, as they
were seen collected around the vacuoles. When exposed to X-irradi-
ation, the symbiotic Chlorella of Paramecium bursaria disappear
gradually and crystals appear and persist in the cytoplasm of the
ciliate (Wichterman, 1948a). These crystals varying in size from a
few to 12m, are found mainly in the posterior region of the body.
Wichterman notes that the appearance or disappearance of crystals
seems to be correlated with the absence or presence of symbiotic
Chlorella and with the holozoic or holophytic (by the alga) nutrition
of the organism.
In Amoeba proteus, Schubotz (1905) noted crystals of calcium
phosphate which were bipyramidal or rhombic in form, were doubly
refractile and measured about 2-5m in length. In three species of
Amoeba, Schaeffer (1920) points out the different shape, number and
dimensions of the crystals. Thus in Amoeba proteus, they are truncate
bipyramids, rarely flat plates, up to 4.5m long; in A. discoides, abun-
dant, truncate bipyramids, up to 2.5m long; and in .4. dubia, vari-
ously shaped (4 kinds), few, but large, up to 10m, 12m, 30m long (Fig.
43). Bipyramidal or plate-like crystals are especially abundant in
Pelom.yxa illinoisensis at all times (Kudo, 1951); the crystals of P.
carolinensis remain the same during the starvation of the organism
(Andresen and Holter, 1945; Holter, 1950).
The crystals present in Protozoa appear to be of varied chemical
nature. Luce and Pohl (1935) noticed that at certain times amoe-
bae in culture are clear and contain relatively a few crystals but, as
the culture grows older and the water becomes more neutral, the
crystals become abundant and the organisms become opaque in
transmitted light. These crystals are tubular and six-sided, and vary
in length from 0.5 to 3.5m- They considered the crystals were com-
posed of calcium chlorophosphate. Mast and Doyle (1935), on the
other hand, noted in Amoeba proteus two kinds of crystals, plate-
like and bipyramidal, which vary in size up to 7m in length and
which are suspended in alkaline fluid to viscous vacuoles. These two
authors believed that the plate-like crystals are probably leucine,
while the bipyramidal crystals consist of a magnesium salt of a sub-
stituted glycine. Other crystals are said to be composed of urate,
carbonate, oxalate, etc.
Another catabolic product is the haemozoin (melanin) grains
which occur in many haemosporidians and which appear to be com-
posed of a derivative of the haemoglobin of the infected erythrocyte
(p. 605). In certain Radiolaria, there occurs a brownish amorphous
mass which is considered as catabolic waste material and, in Foram-
122 PROTOZOOLOGY
inifera, the cytoplasm is frequently loaded with masses of brown
granules which appear also to be catabolic waste and are extruded
from the body periodically.
While intracellular secretions are usually difficult to recognize,
because the majority remain in fluid form except those which pro-
duce endoskeletal structures occurring in Foraminifera, Heliozoa,
Radiolaria, certain parasitic ciliates, etc., the extracellular secretions
are easily recognizable as loricae, shells, envelopes, stalks, collars,
mucous substance, etc. Furthermore, many Protozoa secrete, as was
stated before, certain substances through the pseudopodia, tentacles
or trichocysts which possess paralyzing effect upon the preys.
Movements
Protozoa move about by means of the pseudopodia, flagella, or
cilia, which may be combined with internal contractile organellae.
Movement by pseudopodia. Amoeboid movements have long been
studied by numerous observers. The first attempt to explain the
movement was made by Berthold (1886), who held that the differ-
ence in the surface tension was the cause of amoeboid movements,
which view was supported by the observations and experiments of
Butschli (1894) and Rhumbler (1898). According to this view, when
an amoeba forms a pseudopodium, there probably occurs a diminu-
tion of the surface tension of the cytoplasm at that point, due to
certain internal changes which are continuously going on within the
body and possibly due to external causes, and the internal pressure of
the cytoplasm will then cause the streaming of the cytoplasm. This
results in the formation of a pseudopodium which becomes attached
to the substratum and an increase in tension of the plasma-mem-
brane draws up the posterior end of the amoeba, thus bringing about
the movement of the whole body.
Jennings (1904) found that the movement of Amoeba verrucosa
(Fig. 44, a) could not be explained by the surface tension theory,
since he observed "in an advancing amoeba substance flows for-
ward on the upper surface, rolls over at the anterior edge, coming
in contact with the substratum, then remains quiet until the body
of the amoeba has passed over it. It then moves upward at the
posterior end, and forward again on the upper surface, continuing
in rotation as long as the amoeba continues to progress." Thus
Amoeba verrucosa may be compared with an elastic sac filled with
fluid. Dellinger (1906) studied the movement of Amoeba proteus, A.
verrucosa and Difflugia spiralis. Studying in side view, he found
that the amoeba (Fig. 45) extends a pseudopod, "swings it about,
PHYSIOLOGY
123
brings it into the line of advance, and attaches it" to the substratum
and that there is then a concentration of the substance back of this
point and a flow of the substance toward the anterior end. Dellinger
held thus that "the movements of amoebae are due to the presence
Fig. 44. a, diagram showing the movement of Amoeba verrucosa in side
view (Jennings) • b, a marine limax-amoeba in locomotion (Pantin from
Reichenow). ac, area of conversion; cet, contracting ectoplasmic tube; fe,
fluid ectoplasm; ge, gelated ectoplasm.
of a contractile substance," which was said to be located in the endo-
plasm as a coarse reticulum. Wilber (1946) pointed out that Pelo-
myxa carolinensis carries on a similar movement at times.
Fig. 45. Outline sketches of photomicrographs of Amoeba protexis
during locomotion, as viewed from side (Dellinger).
In the face of advancement of our knowledge on the nature of
protoplasm, Rhumbler (1910) realized the difficulties of the surface
tension theory and later suggested that the conversion of the ecto-
plasm to endoplasm and vice versa were the cause of the cytoplasmic
124 PROTOZOOLOGY
movements, which was much extended by Hyman (1917). Hyman
considered that: (1) a gradient in susceptibility to potassium cyanide
exists in each pseudopodium, being the greatest at the distal end,
and the most recent pseudopodium, the most susceptible; (2) the
susceptibility gradient (or metabolic gradient) arises in the amoebae
before the pseudopodium appears and hence the metabolic change
which produces increased susceptibility, is the primary cause of
pseudopodium formation; and (3) since the surface is in a state of
gelation, amoeboid movement must be due to alterations of the col-
loidal state. Solation, which is brought about by the metabolic
change, is regarded as the cause of the extension of a pseudopodium,
and gelation, of the withdrawal of pseudopodia and of active con-
traction. Schaeffer (1920) mentioned the importance of the surface
layer which is a true surface tension film, the ectoplasm, and the
streaming of endoplasm in the amoeboid movement.
Pantin (1923) studied a marine limax-type amoeba (Fig. 44, 6) and
came to recognize acid secretion and absorption of water at the place
where the pseudopodium was formed. This results in swelling of the
cytoplasm and the pseudopodium is formed. Because of the acidity,
the surface tension increases and to lower or reduce this, concentra-
tion of substances in the "wall" of the pseudopodium follows. This
leads to the formation of a gelatinous ectoplasmic tube which, as the
pseudopodium extends, moves toward the posterior region where the
acid condition is lost, gives up water and contracts finally becoming
transformed into endoplasm near the posterior end. The contraction
of the ectoplasmic tube forces the endoplasmic streaming to the
front.
This observation is in agreement with that of Mast (1923, 1926,
1931) who after a series of carefully conducted observations on
Amoeba proteus came to hold that the amoeboid movement is
brought about by "four primary processes; namely, attachment to
the substratum, gelation of plasmasol at the anterior end, solation of
plasmagel at the posterior end and the contraction of the plasmagel
at the posterior end" (Fig. 46). As to how these processes work,
Mast states: "The gelation of the plasmasol at the anterior end ex-
tends ordinarily the plasmagel tube forward as rapidly as it is broken
down at the posterior end by solation and the contraction of the
plasmagel tube at the posterior end drives the plasmasol forward.
The plasmagel tube is sometimes open at the anterior end and the
plasmasol extends forward and comes in contact with the plasma-
lemma at this end (Fig. 47, a), but at other times it is closed by a
thin sheet of gel which prevents the plasmasol from reaching the
PHYSIOLOGY
12.5
Fig. 46. Diagram of Amoeba proteus, showing the solation and gelation
ot the cytoplasm during amoeboid movement (Mast), c, crystal: cv con-
tractile vacuole; f food vacuole; he, hyaline cap; n, nucleus; pg plasma-
gel; pgs, plasmagel sheet; pi, plasmalemma; ps, plasmasol
126
PROTOZOOLOGY
anterior end (6). This gel sheet at times persists intact for consider-
able periods, being built up by gelation as rapidly as it is broken
down by stretching, owing to the pressure of the plasmagel against
it. Usually it breaks periodically at various places. Sometimes the
breaks are small and only a few granules of plasmasol pass through
and these gelate immediately and close the openings (d). At other
times the breaks are large and plasmasol streams through, filling the
hyaline cap (c), after which the sol adjoining the plasmalemma gel-
Fig. 47. Diagrams of varied cytoplasmic movements at the tip of a
pseudopodium in Amoeba proteus (Mast), g, plasmagel; he, hyaline cap;
hi, hyaline layer; pi, plasmalemma; s, plasmasol.
ates forming a new gel sheet. An amoeba is a turgid system, and the
plasmagel is under continuous tension. The plasmagel is elastic and,
consequently, is pushed out at the region where its elasticity is
weakest and this results in pseudopodial formation. When an amoeba
is elongated and undergoing movement, the elastic strength of the
plasmagel is the highest at its sides, lowest at the anterior end and
intermediate at the posterior end, which results in continuity of the
elongated form and in extension of the anterior end. If pressure is
brought against the anterior end, the direction of streaming of plas-
masol is immediately reversed, and a new hyaline cap is formed at
the posterior end which is thus changed into a new anterior end."
The rate of amoeboid locomotion appears to be influenced by en-
vironmental factors such as pH, osmotic pressure, salt concentration,
substratum, temperature, etc. (Mast and Prosser, 1932).
Flagellar movement. The flagellar movement is in a few instances
observable as in Peranema, but in most cases it is very difficult to
observe in life. Since there is difference in the number, location, size,
and probably structure (p. 53) of flagella occurring in Protozoa, it
is supposed that there are varieties of flagellar movements. The first
explanation was advanced by Biitschli, who observed that the flagel-
PHYSIOLOGY 127
lum undergoes a series of lateral movements and, in so doing, a pres-
sure is exerted on the water at right angles to its surface. This pres-
sure can be resolved into two forces: one directed parallel, and the
other at right angles, to the main body axis. The former will drive
the organism forward, while the latter will tend to rotate the animal
on its own axis.
Gray (1928), who gave an excellent account of the movement of
flagella, points out that "in order to produce propulsion there must
be a force which is always applied to the water in the same direction
and which is independent of the phase of lateral movement. There
can be little doubt that this condition is satisfied in flagellated organ-
isms not because each particle of the flagellum is moving laterally to
and fro, but by the transmission of the waves from one end of the
flagellum to the other, and because the direction of the transmission
is always the same. A stationary wave, as apparently contemplated
by Biitschli, could not effect propulsion since the forces acting on
the water are equal and opposite during the two phases of the move-
ment. If however the waves are being transmitted in one direction
only, definite propulsive forces are present which always act in a
direction opposite to that of the waves."
Because of the nature of the flagellar movement, the actual proc-
ess has often not been observed. Verworn observed long ago that in
Peranema trichophorum the undulation of the distal portion of flagel-
lum is accompanied by a slow forward movement, while undulation
along the entire length is followed by a rapid forward movement.
Krijgsman (1925) studied the movements of the long flagellum of
Monas sp. (Fig. 48) which he found in soil cultures, under the dark-
field microscope and stated: (1) when the organism moves forward
with the maximum speed, the flagellum starting from c 1, with the
wave beginning at the base, stretches back (c 1-6), and then waves
back (d, e), which brings about the forward movement. Another type
is one in which the flagellum bends back beginning at its base (/)
until it coincides with the body axis, and in its effective stroke waves
back as a more or less rigid structure (g) ; (2) when the organism
moves forward with moderate speed, the tip of the flagellum passes
through 45° or less (h-j) ; (3) when the animal moves backward, the
flagellum undergoes undulation which begins at its base (k-o) ; (4)
when the animal moves to one side, the flagellum becomes bent at
right angles to the body and undulation passse along it from its base
to tip (p); and (5) when the organism undergoes a slight lateral
movement, only the distal end of the flagellum undulates (q).
Ciliary movement. The cilia are the locomotor organella present
128
PROTOZOOLOGY
permanently in the ciliates and vary in size and distribution among
different species. Just as flagellates show various types of move-
ments, so do the ciliates, though nearly all free-swimming forms
swim in a spiral path (Bullington, 1925, 1930). Individual cilium on a
Fig. 48. Diagrams illustrating flagellar movements of Monas sp.
(Krijgsman). a-g, rapid forward movement (a, b, optical image of the
movement in front and side view; c, preparatory and d, e, effective stroke;
f, preparatory and g, effective stroke); h-j, moderate forward movement
(h, optical image; i, preparatory and j, effective stroke); k-o, undulatory
movement of the flagellum in backward movement; p, lateral movement;
q, turning movement.
PHYSIOLOGY
129
progressing ciliate bends throughout its length and strikes the water
so that the organism tends to move in a direction opposite to that of
the effective beat, while the water moves in the direction of the beat
(Fig. 49, a-d). In the Protociliata and the majority of holotrichous
and heterotrichous ciliates, the cilia are arranged in longitudinal, or
oblique rows and it is clearly noticeable that the cilia are not beating
in the same phase, although they are moving at the same rate. A
/" "^ 7
1 2
j
'5 4
W/^mr^ll
^gc
Fig. 49. Diagrams illustrating ciliary movements (Verworn). a-d,
movement of a marginal cilium of Urostyla grandis (a, preparatory and
b, effective stroke, resulting in rapid movement; c, preparatory, and d,
effective stroke, bringing about moderate speed) ; e, metachronous move-
ments of cilia in a longitudinal row.
cilium (Fig. 49, e) in a single row is slightly in advance of the cilium
behind it and slightly behind the one just in front of it, thus the cilia
on the same longitudinal row beat metachronously. On the other
hand, the cilia on the same transverse row beat synchronously, the
condition clearly being recognizable on Opalina among others,
which is much like the waves passing over a wheat field on a windy
day. The organized movements of cilia, cirri, membranellae and un-
dulating membranes are probably controlled by the neuromotor
system (p. 63) which appears to be conductile as judged by the
results of micro-dissection experiments of Taylor (p. 65). Ciliary
movement (Gray, 1928) ; spiral movement of ciliates (Bullington,
1925, 1930); movement of Paramecium (Dembowski, 1923, 1929a)
and of Spirostomum (Blattner, 1926).
The Protozoa which possess myonemes are able to move by con-
130 PROTOZOOLOGY
traction of the body or of the stalk, and others combine this with the
secretion of mucous substance as is found in Haemogregarina and
Gregarinida.
Irritability
Under natural conditions, the Protozoa do not behave always in
the same manner, because several stimuli act upon them usually in
combination and predominating stimulus or stimuli vary under dif-
ferent circumstances. Many investigators have, up to the present
time, studied the reactions of various Protozoa to external stimula-
tions, full discussion of which is beyond the scope of the present
work. Here one or two examples in connection with the reactions
to each of the various stimuli only will be mentioned. Of various
responses expressed by a protozoan against a stimulus such as
changes in body form, movement, structure, behavior, etc., the
movement is the most clearly recognizable one and, therefore, free-
swimming forms, particularly ciliates, have been the favorite ob-
jects of study. We consider the reaction to a stimulus in protozoans
as the movement response, and this appears in one of the two direc-
tions: namely, toward, or away from, the source of the stimulus.
Here we speak of positive or negative reaction. In forms such as
Amoeba, the external stimulation is first received by the body sur-
face and then by the whole protoplasmic body. In flagellated or
ciliated Protozoa, the flagella or cilia act in part sensory; in fact in a
number of ciliates are found non-vibratile cilia which appear to be
sensory in function. In a comparatively small number of forms, there
are sensory organellae such as stigma, ocellus, statocysts, concretion
vacuoles, etc.
In general, the reaction of a protozoan to any external stimulus
depends upon its intensity so that a certain chemical substance may
bring about entirely opposite reactions on the part of the protozoans
in different concentrations and, even under identical conditions,
different individuals of a given species may react differently. Irri-
tability (Jennings, 1906; Mast, 1941); in Spirostomum (Blattner,
1926).
Reaction to mechanical stimuli. One of the most common stimuli
a protozoan would encounter in the natural habitat is that which
comes from contact with a solid object. When an amoeba which
Jennings observed, came in contact with the end of a dead algal
filament at the middle of its anterior surface (Fig. 50, a), the amoe-
boid movements proceeded on both sides of the filament (6), but
soon motion ceased on one side, while it continued on the other, and
PHYSIOLOGY
131
the organism avoided the obstacle by reversing a part of the current
and flowing in another direction (c) . When an amoeba is stimulated
mechanically by the tip of a glass rod (rf), it turns away from the
side touched, by changing endoplasmic streaming and forming new
pseudopodia (e). Positive reactions are also often noted, when a
suspended amoeba (/) comes in contact with a solid surface with the
tip of a pseudopodium, the latter adheres to it by spreading out (g).
Streaming of the cytoplasm follows and it becomes a creeping form
Fig. 50. Reactions of amoebae to mechanical stimuli (Jennings), a-c,
an amoeba avoiding an obstacle; d, e, negative reaction to mechanical
stimulation; f-h, positive reaction of a floating amoeba.
(h). Positive reactions toward solid bodies account of course for the
ingestion of food particles.
In Paramecium, according to Jennings, the anterior end is more
sensitive than any other parts, and while swimming, if it comes in
contact with a solid object, the response may be either negative or
positive. In the former case, avoiding movement (Fig. 51, c) follows
and in the latter case, the organism rests with its anterior end
or the whole side in direct contact with the object, in which position
it ingests food particles through the cytostome.
Reaction to gravity. The reaction to gravity varies among dif-
ferent Protozoa, according to body organization, locomotor organ-
elle, etc. Amoebae, Testacea and others which are usually found
attached to the bottom of the container, react as a rule positively
132
PROTOZOOLOGY
toward gravity, while others manifest negative reaction as in the
case of Paramecium (Jensen; Jennings), which explains in part why
Paramecium in a culture jar are found just below the surface film in
mass, although the vertical movement of P. caudatum is undoubt-
edly influenced by various factors (Koehler, 1922, 1930; Dembowski,
1923, 1929, 1929a; Merton, 1935).
Reaction to current. Free-swimming Protozoa appear to move
or orientate themselves against the current of water. In the case of
Fig. 51. Reactions of Paramecium (Jennings), a, collecting in a drop
of 0.02% acetic acid; b, ring-formation around a drop of a stronger solu-
tion of the acid; c, avoiding reaction.
Paramecium, Jennings observed the majority place themselves in
line with the current, with anterior end upstream. The mycetozoan
is said to exhibit also a well-marked positive reaction.
Reaction to chemical stimuli. When methylgreen, methylene
blue, or sodium chloride is brought in contact with an advancing
amoeba, the latter organism reacts negatively (Jennings). Jen-
nings further observed various reactions of Paramecium against
chemical stimulation. This ciliate shows positive reaction to weak
solutions of many acids and negative reactions above certain con-
centrations. For example, Paramecium enters and stays within the
PHYSIOLOGY 133
area of a drop of 0.02 per cent acetic acid introduced to the prepara-
tion (Fig. 51, a); and if stronger acid is used, the organisms collect
about its periphery where the acid is diluted by the surrounding
water (b) . The reaction to chemical stimuli is probably of the great-
est importance for the existence of Protozoa, since it leads them to
proper food substances, the ingestion of which is the foundation of
metabolic activities. In the case of parasitic Protozoa, possibly the
reaction to chemical stimuli results in their finding specific host ani-
mals and their distribution in different organs and tissues within the
host body. Recent investigations tend to indicate that chemotaxis
plays an important role in the sexual reproduction in Protozoa.
Chemotaxis in Peranema (Chen, 1950).
Reaction to light stimuli. Most Protozoa seem to be indifferent
to the ordinary light, but when the light intensity is suddenly in-
creased, there is usually a negative reaction. Verworn saw the di-
rection of movements of an amoeba reversed when its anterior end
was subjected to a sudden illumination; Rhumbler observed that an
amoeba, which was in the act of feeding, stopped feeding when it
was subjected to strong light. According to Mast, Amoeba pro-
teus ceases to move when suddenly strongly illuminated, but con-
tinues to move if the increase in intensity is gradual and if the il-
lumination remains constant, the amoeba begins to move. Pelomyxa
carolinensis reacts negatively to light (Kudo, 1946).
The positive reaction to light is most clearly shown in stigma-
bearing Mastigophora, as is well observable in a jar containing
Euglena, Phacus, etc., in which the organisms collect at the place
where the light is strongest. If the light is excluded completely,
the organisms become scattered throughout the container, inac-
tive and sometimes encyst, although the mixotrophic forms would
continue activities by saprozoic method. The positive reaction to
light by chromatophore-bearing forms enables them to find places
in the water where photosynthesis can be carried on to the maximum
degree.
All Protozoa seem to be more sensitive to ultraviolet rays. Inman
found that amoeba shows a greater reaction to the rays than others
and Hertel observed that Paramecium which was indifferent to an
ordinary light, showed an immediate response (negative reaction) to
the rays. MacDougall brought about mutations in Chilodonella by
means of these rays (p. 229). Horvath (1950) exposed Kahlia sim-
plex to ultraviolet rays and destroyed the micronucleus. The emi-
cronucleate individuals lived and showed a greater vitality than nor-
mal individuals, as judged by the division rate at 34°C. Mazia and
134 PROTOZOOLOGY
Hirshfield (1951) subjected Amoeba proteus to ultraviolet radiation
and noticed that irradiation of the whole and nucleated half amoebae
delays division immediately following exposure; later progeny of the
irradiated amoebae have a normal division rate; amputation of half
of the cytoplasm greatly increases the radiation sensitivity as meas-
ured by delayed division or by the dose required for permanent in-
hibition of division (sterilization dose) ; individuals that have re-
ceived this dose may survive for 20-30 days; and the survival time
of an enucleate fragment is very much reduced by small (200-500
ergs/sq. mm) doses. The two workers consider that the overall radia-
tion effect may have both nuclear and cytoplasmic components. By
exposing Pelomyxa carolinensis to 2537 A ultraviolet irradiation,
Wilber and Slane (1951) found the effects variable; however, all re-
covered from a two minutes' exposure, none survived a 10-minute
exposure, and 70 per cent of fat were released after two minutes'
exposure.
Zuelzer (1905) found the effect of radium rays upon various Pro-
tozoa vary; in all cases, a long exposure was fatal to Protozoa, the
first effect of exposure being shown by accelerated movement. Hal-
berstaedter and Luntz (1929, 1930) studied injuries and death of
Eudorina elegans by exposure to radium rays. Entamoeba histolytica
in culture when subjected to radium rays, Nasset and Kofoid (1928)
noticed the following changes: the division rate rose two to four
times by the exposure, which effect continued for not more than 24
hours after the removal of the radium and was followed by a re-
tardation of the rate; radium exposure produced changes in nuclear
structure, increase in size, enucleation or autotomy, which were more
striking when a larger amount of radium was used for a short time
than a smaller amount acting on for a long time; and the effects
persisted for four to six days after the removal of the radium and
then the culture gradually returned to normalcy. Halberstaedter
(1914) reported that when exposed to Beta rays, Trypanosoma
brucei lost its infectivity, though remained alive.
Halberstaedter (1938) exposed Trypanosoma gambiense to X-rays
and found that 12,000r rendered the organisms not infectious for
mice, while 600,000r was needed to kill the flagellates. Emmett
(1950) exposed T. cruzi to X-rays and noticed that dosages between
51,000r and 100,000r were necessary to destroy the infectivity of this
trypanosome; the cultures, after exposure to 100,000r, appeared to
be thriving up to three months; and the effects of exposure were not
passed on to new generations.
When Paramecium bursaria were exposed to X-rays, Wichterman
PHYSIOLOGY 135
(1948) noted: dosages higher than 100,0Q0r retard the locomotion of
the ciliate; none survives 700,000r; the symbiotic Chlorella is de-
stroyed by exposure to 300,000-000,000?' ; irradiation inhibits di-
division temporarily, but the animals recover normal division rate
after certain length of time; and mating types are not destroyed,
though minor changes occur. In Pelomyxa carolinensis, Daniels
(1951) observed: the median lethal dose of X-rays is 96,000r; with
dosages 15,000-140,000r, the first plasmotomy is greatly delayed and
the second plasmotomy is also somewhat delayed, but later plas-
motomies show complete recovery; X-irradiation does not change
the type of plasmotomy; and in individuals formed by plasmogamy
of X-irradiated halves to non-irradiated halves, the nuclei divide
simultaneously as in a normal individual.
Reaction to temperature stimuli. As was stated before, there
seems to be an optimum temperature range for each protozoan,
although it can withstand temperatures which are lower or higher
than that range. As a general rule, the higher the temperature, the
greater the metabolic activities, and the latter condition results in
turn in a more rapid growth and more frequent reproduction. It has
been suggested that change to different phases in the life-cycle of a
protozoan in association with the seasonal change may be largely
due to temperature changes of the environment. In the case of
parasitic Protozoa which inhabit two hosts: warm-blooded and cold-
blooded animals, such as Plasmodium and Leishmania, the difference
in body temperature of host animals may bring about specific stages
in their development.
Reaction to electrical stimuli. Since Verworn's experiments,
several investigators studied the effects of electric current which
is passed through Protozoa in water. Amoeba shows negative re-
action to the anode and moves toward the cathode either by revers-
ing the cytoplasmic streaming (Verworn) or by turning around the
body (Jennings). The free-swimming ciliates move mostly toward
the cathode, but a few may take a transverse position (Spirostomum)
or swim to the anode (Paramecium, Stentor, etc.). Of flagellates,
Verworn noticed that Trachelomonas and Peridinium moved to the
cathode, while Chilomonas, Cryptomonas, and Polytomella, swam
to the anode. When Paramecium caudatum was exposed to a high-
frequency electrostatic or electromagnetic field, Kahler, Chalkley
and Voegtlin (1929) found the effect was primarily caused by a tem-
perature increase in the organism. By subjecting Pelomyxa carolin-
ensis to a direct current electric field, Daniel and May (1950) noted
that the time required for the rupture of the body in a given current
136 PROTOZOOLOGY
density is directly correlated with the size of the organism and that
calcium increases the time required for rupture at a fixed body size
and current density, but does not alter the size effect. Galvanotaxis
of Oxytricha (Luntz, 1935), of Arcella (Miller, 1932).
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PHYSIOLOGY 143
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Rumjantzew, A. and Wermel, E.: (1925) Untersuchungen ueber
den Protoplasmabau, etc. Arch. Protist., 52:217.
Sassuchin, D. N.: (1935) Zum Studium der Protisten- und Bakte-
rienkerne. I. Ibid., 84:186.
Schaeffer, A. A.: (1920) Amoeboid movement, Princeton.
Schewiakoff, W. : (1894) Ueber die Natur der sogennannten Ex-
kretkorner der Infusorien. Ztschr. wiss. Zool., 57:32.
Schulze, K. L. : (1951) Experimentelle Untersuchungen ueber die
Chlorellen-symbiose bei Ciliaten. Biol. Gen., Vienna, 19:281.
Seaman, G. R. and Houlihan, R. K. : (1951) Enzyme systems in
Tetrahymena geleii S. II. J. Cell. Comp. Physiol., 37:309.
Shapiro, N. N.: (1927) The cycle of hydrogen-ion concentration in
the food vacuoles of Paramecium, Vorticella, and Stylonychia.
Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 46:45.
Soule, M. H.: (1925) Respiration of Trypanosoma lewisi and Leish-
mania tropica. J. Infect. Dis., 36:1245.
Specht, H. : (1934) Aerobic respiration in Spirostomum ambiguum,
etc. J. Cell Comp. Physiol., 5:319.
Stempell, W. : (1924) Weitere Beitrage zur Physiologie der pul-
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Stolc, A.: (1900) Beobachtungen und Versuche ueber die Ver-
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(1929) Excretion of nitrogenous substances in Protozoa.
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(1941) The contractile vacuole. In: Calkins and Summers
(1941).
144 PROTOZOOLOGY
Weineck, E. : (1934) Die Celluloseverdauung bei den Ciliaten des
Wiederkauermagens. Arch. Protist., 82:169.
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(1948a) The presence of optically active crystals in Para-
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(1907) Ueber den Einfiuss des Meerwassers auf die pul-
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Chapter 5
Reproduction
THE mode of reproduction in Protozoa is highly variable among
different groups, although it is primarily a cell division. The
reproduction is initiated by the nuclear division in nearly all cases,
which will therefore be considered first.
Nuclear division
Between a simple direct division on the one hand and a com-
plicated indirect division which is comparable with the typical
metazoan mitosis on the other hand, all types of nuclear division
occur.
Direct nuclear division. Although not so widely found as it was
thought to be in former years, amitosis occurs normally and regu-
larly in many forms. While the micronuclear division of the Cilio-
phora is mitotic (p. 165), the macronuclear division is invariably
amitosis. The sole exception to this general statement appears to be
the so-called promitosis reported by Ivanic (1938) in the macro-
nucleus in the "Vermehrungsruhe" stage of Chilodenella uncinata in
which chromosomes and spindle-fibers were observed. In Para-
mecium caudatum (Fig. 52), the micronucleus initiates the division
by mitosis and the macronucleus elongates itself without any visible
changes in its internal structure. The elongated nucleus becomes
constricted through the middle and two daughter nuclei are pro-
duced.
It is assumed that the nuclear components undergo solation during
division, since the formed particles of nucleus which are stationary
in the resting stage manifest a very active Brownian movement.
Furthermore, in some cases the nuclear components may undergo
phase reversal, that is to say, the chromatin granules which are dis-
persed phase in the non-staining fluid dispersion medium in the rest-
ing nucleus, become dispersion medium in which the latter is sus-
pended as dispersed phase. By using Feulgen's nucleal reaction,
Reichenow (1928) demonstrated this reversal phenomenon in the di-
vision of the macronucleus of Chilodonella cucullulus (Fig. 53).
The macronucleus becomes at the time of its division somewhat
enlarged and its chromatin granules are more deeply stained than
before. But chromosomes which characterize the mitotic division
are entirely absent, although in a few forms in which mating types
occur, the type difference and certain other characters, according to
145
146
PROTOZOOLOGY
Sonneborn and Kimball, appear to be under control of genie consti-
tuents of the macronucleus. Since the number of chromatin granules
appear approximately the same in the macronuclei of different gen-
erations of a given species, the reduced number of chromatin gran-
Fig. 52. Nuclear and cytoplasmic division of Paramecium caudatum as
seen in stained smears, X260 (Kudo).
ules must be restored sometime before the next division takes place.
Calkins (1926) is of the opinion that "each granule elongates and
divides into two parts, thus doubling the number of chromomeres."
Reichenow (1928) found that in Chilodonella cucullulus the lightly
Feulgen positive endosome appeared to form chromatin granules
and Kudo (1936) maintained that the large chromatin spherules of
REPRODUCTION
147
the macronucleus of Nyctotherus ovalis probably produce smaller
spherules in their alveoli (Fig. 3).
When the macronucleus is elongated as in Spirostomum, Stentor.
Euplotes, etc., the nucleus becomes condensed into a rounded form
prior to its division. During the "shortening period" of the elongated
macronuclei prior to division, there appear 1-3 characteristic zones
which have been called by various names, such as nuclear clefts,
reconstruction bands, reorganization bands, etc. In Euplotes patella
Fig. 53. The solation of chromatin during the macronuclear division of
Chilodonella cucullulus, as demonstrated by Feulgen's nucleal reaction,
Xl800(Reichenow).
(E. eury stomas) , Turner (1930) observed prior to division of the
macronucleus a reorganization band consisting of a faintly staining
zone ("reconstruction plane") and a deeply staining zone ("solution
plane"), appears at each end of the nucleus (Fig. 54, a) and as each
moves toward the center, a more chromatinic area is left behind
(b-d). The two bands finally meet in the center and the nucleus as-
sumes an ovoid form. This is followed by a simple division into two.
In the T-shaped macronucleus of E. woodruffi, according to Pierson
(1943), a reorganization band appears first in the right arm and the
posterior tip of the stem of the nucleus. When the anterior band
reaches the junction of the arm and stem, it splits into two, one part
148
PROTOZOOLOGY
moving along the left arm to its tip, and the other entering and pass-
ing down the stem to join the posterior band. According to Summers
(1935) a process similar to that of E. eurystomus occurs in Diophrys
appendiculata and Stylonychia pustulata; but in Aspidisca lynceus
(Fig. 55) a reorganization band appears first near the middle region
of the macronucleus (6), divides into two and each moves toward an
end, leaving between them a greater chromatinic content of the
reticulum (c-i). Summers suggested that "the reorganization bands
are local regions of karyolysis and resynthesis of macronuclear
materials with the possibility of an elimination of physically or
possibly chemically modified nonstaining substances into the cyto-
plasm." Weisz (1950a) finds that the nodes of the moniliform macro-
Fig. 54. Macronuclear reorganization before division in Euplotes
eurystomus, X240 (Turner), a, reorganization band appearing at a tip
of the macronucleus; b-d, later stages.
nucleus of Stentor coeruleus contain different concentration of thymo-
nucleic acid which is correlated with morphogenetic activity of indi-
vidual nodes, and that fusion of ill-staining nodes results in a return
of strong affinity to methyl green. It appears, therefore, concentra-
tion of bandform or moniliform macronucleus prior to division may
serve to recover morphogenetic potential prior to division.
In a small number of ciliates, the macronucleus is distributed as
small bodies throughout the cytoplasm. In Urostyla grandis, the
macronuclear material is lodged in 100 or more small bodies scat-
tered in the cytoplasm. Prior to fission, all macronuclear bodies fuse
with one another and form one macronucleus which then divides
three times into eight and the latter are evenly distributed between
the two daughter individuals, followed by divisions until the number
reaches 100 or more (Raabe, 1947). On the other hand, in Dileptus
REPRODUCTION
149
anser (Fig. 310, c), "each granule divides where it happens to be
and with the majority of granules both halves remain in one daugh-
ter cell after division" (Calkins). Hayes noticed a similar division,
but at the time of simultaneous division prior to cell division, each
macronucleus becomes elongated and breaks into several small
nuclei.
Fig. 55. Macronuclear reorganization prior to division in Aspidisca
lynceus, X1400 (Summers), a, resting nucleus; b-i, successive stages in
reorganization process; j, a daughter macronucleus shortly after division.
The extrusion of a certain portion of the macronuclear material
during division has been observed in a number of species. In Urolep-
tus halseyi, Calkins actually noticed each of the eight macronuclei
is "purified" by discarding a reorganization band and an "x-body"
into the cytoplasm before fusing into a single macronucleus which
then divides into two nuclei. In the more or less rounded macro-
nucleus that is commonly found in many ciliates, no reorganization
band has been recognized. A number of observers have however noted
150
PROTOZOOLOGY
that during the nuclear division there appears and persists a small
body within the nuclear figure, located at the division plane as in
the case of Loxocephalus (Behrend), Eupoterion (MacLennan and
Connell) and even in the widely different protozoan, Endamoeba
blattae (Kudo, 1926). Kidder (1933) observed that during the division
of the macronucleus of Conchophthirus my till (Fig. 56), the nucleus
"casts out a part of its chromatin at every vegetative division,"
which "is broken down and disappears in the cytoplasm of either
Fig. 56. Macronuclear division in Conchophthirus mytili, X440 (Kidder).
daughter organism." A similar phenomenon has since been found
further in C. anodontae, C. curtus, C. magna (Kidder), Urocentrum
turbo, Colpidium colpoda, C. campylum, Glaucoma scintillans (Kidder
and Diller), Allosphaerium convexa (Kidder and Summers), Colpoda
inHata, C. maupasi, Tillina canalifera, Bresslaua vorax, etc. (Burt et
al., 1941). Beers (1946) noted chromatin extrusion from the macro-
nucleus during division and in permanent cysts in Tillina magna.
What is the significance of this phenomenon? Kidder and his associ-
ates believe that the process is probably elimination of waste sub-
stances of the prolonged cell-division, since chromatin extrusion does
not take place during a few divisions subsequent to reorganization
REPRODUCTION 151
after conjugation in Conchophthirus mytili and since in Colpidium
and Glaucoma, the chromatin elimination appears to be followed by
a high division rate and infrequency of conjugation. Dass (1950)
noticed a dark body between two daughter macronuclei of a ciliate
designated by him as Glaucoma piriformis and considered it as sur-
plus desoxyribonucleic acid about to be converted by the cytoplasm
to ribonucleic acid necessary for active growth.
In Paramecium aurelia, Woodruff and Erdmann (1914) reported
the occurrence of "endomixis." At regular intervals of about 30 days,
the old macronucleus breaks down and disappears, while each of the
two micronuclei divides twice, forming eight nuclei. Of these, six
disintegrate. The animal then divides into two, each daughter indi-
vidual receiving one micronucleus. This nucleus soon divides twice
into four, two of which develop into two macronuclei, while the
other two divide once more. Here the organism divides again into
two individuals, each bearing one macronucleus and two micronuclei.
This process, they maintained, is "a complete periodic nuclear re-
organization without cell fusion in a pedigreed race of Paramecium."
The so-called endomixis has since been reported to occur in many
ciliates. However, as pointed out by Wilson (1928), Diller (1936),
Sonneborn (1947) and others, there are several difficulties in holding
that endomixis is a valid process. Diller considers that endomixis
may have been based upon partial observations on hemixis (p. 206)
and autogamy (p. 203). Sonneborn could not find any indication
that this process occurs in numerous stocks and varieties of Para-
mecium aurelia, including the progeny of the strains studied by
Woodruff, and maintained that endomixis does not occur in this spe-
cies of Paramecium.
As has been stated already, two types of nuclei: macronucleus
and micronucleus, occur in Euciliata and Suctoria. The macro-
nucleus is the center of the whole metabolic activity of the organism
and in the absence of this nucleus, the animal perishes. The waste
substances which become accumulated in the macronucleus through
its manifold activities, are apparently eliminated at the time of
division, as has been cited above in many species. On the other
hand, it is also probable that under certain circumstances, the macro-
nucleus becomes impregnated with waste materials which cannot be
eliminated through this process. Prior to and during conjugation
(p. 188) and autogamy (p. 203), the macronucleus becomes trans-
formed, in many species, into irregularly coiled thread-like structure
(Fig. 85) which undergoes segmentation into pieces and finally is
absorbed by the cytoplasm. New macronuclei are produced from
152
PROTOZOOLOGY
some of the division-products of micronuclei by probably incor-
porating the old macronuclear material. In most cases this sup-
position is not demonstrable. However, Kidder (1938) has shown in
S'd © ©
d e f g
Fig. 57. Diagram showing the macronuclear regeneration in Parame-
cium aurelia (Sonneborn). a, an individual before the first division after
conjugation or autogamy, containing two macronuclear (stippled) an-
lagen, two micronuclei (rings) and about 30 disintegrating (solid black)
masses of the old macronucleus; b, two individuals formed by the first
division, each containing one macronuclear anlage, two micronuclei and
macronuclear masses; c, two individuals produced by the second division:
one (above) with the new macronucleus, two micronuclei and macro-
nuclear masses, and the other without new macronucleus; d-f, binary
fissions in which the two micronuclei divide, but old macronuclear masses
are distributed equally between the two daughters until there is one large
regenerated macronucleus and two micronuclei; g, division following f,
goes on in an ordinary manner.
the encysted Paraclevelandia simplex, an endocommensal of the
colon of certain wood-feeding roaches, this is actually the case;
namely, one of the divided micronuclei fuses directly with a part of
macronucleus to form a macronuclear anlage which then develops
into a macronucleus after passing through "ball-of-yarn" stage simi-
lar to that which appears in an exconjugant of Nyctotherus (Fig. 85).
REPRODUCTION 153
Since the macro-nucleus originates in a micronucleus, it must con-
tain all structures which characterize the micronucleus. Why then
does it not divide mitotically as does the micronucleus? During
conjugation or autogamy in a ciliate, the macronucleus degenerates,
disintegrates and finally becomes absorbed in the cytoplasm. In
Paramecium aurelia, Sonneborn (1940, 1942, 1947) (Fig. 57) ob-
served that when the animal in conjugation is exposed to 38°C.
from the time of the synkaryon-formation until before the second
postzygotic nuclear division (a-c), the development of the two newly
formed macronuclei is retarded and do not divide as usual with the
result that one of the individuals formed by the second postzygotic
division receives the newly formed macronucleus, while the other
lacks this (c). In the latter, however, division continues, during
which some of the original 20-40 pieces of the old macronucleus that
have been present in the cytoplasm segregate in approximately equal
number at each division (d, e) until there is only one in the animal
(/). Thereafter the macronucleus divides at each division (g). Sonne-
born found this "macronuclear regeneration" in the varieties 1 and
4, but considered that it occurs in all stocks. Thus the macronucleus
in this ciliate appears to be a compound structure with its 20-40
component parts, each containing all that is needed for development
into a complete macronucleus. From these observations, Sonneborn
concludes that the macronucleus in P. aurelia appears to undergo
amitosis, since it is a compound nucleus composed of many "sub-
nuclei" and since at fission all that is necessary to bring about
genetically equivalent functional macronuclei is to segregate these
multiple subnuclei into two random groups.
While the macronuclear division usually follows the micronuclear
division, it takes place in the absence of the latter as seen in amicro-
nucleate individuals of ciliates which possess normally a micronu-
cleus. Amicronucleate ciliates have been found to occur naturally or
produced experimentally in the following species: Didinium nasutum
(Thon, 1905; Patten, 1921), Oxytricha hymenostoma (Dawson, 1919),
O.fallax, Urostyla grandis (Woodruff , 1921), Paramecium caudatum
(Landis, 1920; Woodruff, 1921), etc. Amicronucleate Oxytricha f alia x
which were kept under observation by Reynolds (1932) for 29
months, showed the same course of regeneration as the normal indi-
viduals. Beers (1946b) saw no difference in vegetative activity be-
tween amicronucleate and normal individuals of Tillina magna. In
Euplotes patella, amicronucleates arise from "double" form (p. 229)
with a single micronucleus, and Kimball (1941a) found that the
mioronucleus is not essential for continued life in at least some
154 PROTOZOOLOGY
clones, though its absence results in a marked decrease in vigor. The
bi-micronucleate Paramecium bursaria which Woodruff (1931) iso-
lated, developed in the course of 7 years of cultivation, unimicronu-
cleate and finally amicronucleate forms, in which no marked varia-
tion in the vitality of the race was observed. These data indicate that
amicronucleates are capable of carrying on vegetative activity and
multiplication, but are unable to conjugate or if cell-pairing occurs,
the result is abortive, though Chen (1940c) reported conjugation be-
tween normal and amicronucleate individuals of P. bursaria (p. 189).
Horvath (1950) succeeded in destroying the micronucleus in Kahlia
simplex (p. 133) and found the emicronucleates as vigorous as the
normal forms, judged by the division rate, but were killed within 15
days by proactinomycin, while normal individuals resisted by en-
cystment. This worker reasons that the emicronucleates are easily
destroyed by unfavorable conditions and, therefore, ciliates without
a micronucleus occur rarely in nature.
Fig. 58. Amitosis of the vegetative nucleus in the trophozoite of
Myxosoma catostomi, X2250 (Kudo).
Other examples of amitosis are found in the vegetative nuclei in
the trophozoite of Myxosporidia, as for example, Myxosoma catos-
tomi (Fig. 58), Thelohanellus notatus (Debaisieux), etc., in which the
endosome divides first, followed by the nuclear constriction. In
Streblomastix strix, the compact elongated nucleus was found to
undergo a simple division by Kof oid and Swezy.
Indirect nuclear division. The indirect division which occurs in the
protozoan nuclei is of manifold types as compared with the mitosis
in the metazoan cell, in which, aside from minor variations, the
change is of a uniform pattern. Chatton, Alexeieff and others, have
proposed several terms to designate the various types of indirect
nuclear division, but no one of these types is sharply defined. For our
purpose, mentioning of a few examples will suffice.
A veritable mitosis was noted by Dobell in the heliozoan Oxnerella
maritima (Fig. 59), which possesses an eccentrically situated nucleus
containing a large endosome and a central centriole, from which
radiate many axopodia (a). The first sign of the nuclear division is
REPRODUCTION
155
the slight enlargement, and migration toward the centriole, of the
nucleus (6). The centriole first divides into two (c, d) and the nucleus
becomes located between the two centrioles (e). Presently spindle
fibers are formed and the nuclear membrane disappears (/, g). After
\\«m\
ymmmn
••fin Hi' '».'. '
/ f'n
Fig. 59. Nuclear and cytoplasmic division in Oxnerella maritime/,, X about
1000 (Dobell). a, a living individual; b, stained specimen; c-g, prophase;
h, metaphase; i, anaphase; j, k, telophase; 1, division completed.
passing through an equatorial-plate stage, the two groups of 24
chromosomes move toward the opposite poles (g-i). As the spindle
fibers become indistinct, radiation around the centrioles becomes
conspicuous and the two daughter nuclei are completely recon-
structed to assume the resting phase (j-l). The mitosis of another
heliozoan Acanthocystis aculeata is, according to Schaudinn and
156
PROTOZOOLOGY
Stern, very similar to the above. Aside from these two species, the
centriole has been reported in many others, such as Hartmannella
(Arndt), Euglypha, Monocystis (Bglaf), Aggregata (Dobell; Bglaf;
Fig. 60. Mitosis in Trichonympha campanula, X800 (Kofoid and
Swezy). a, resting nucleus; b-g, prophase; h, metaphase; i, j, anaphase;
k, telophase; 1, a daughter nucleus being reconstructed.
REPRODUCTION 157
Naville), various Hypermastigina (Kofoid; Duboscq and Grasse;
Kirby; Cleveland and his associates).
In numerous species the division of the centriole (or blepharo-
plast) and a connecting strand between them, which has been called
desmose (centrodesmose or paradesmose), have been observed. Ac-
cording to Kofoid and Swezy (1919), in Trichonympha campanula
(Fig. 60), the prophase begins early, during which 52 chromosomes
are formed and become split. The nucleus moves nearer the anterior
end where the centriole divides into two, between which develops a
desmose. From the posterior end of each centriole, astral rays extend
out and the split chromosomes form loops and pass through "tangled
skein" stage. In the metaphase, the equatorial plate is made up of
V-shaped chromosomes as each of the split chromosomes is still
connected at one end, which finally becomes separate in anaphase,
followed by reformation of two daughter nuclei.
As to the origin and development of the achromatic figure, vari-
ous observations and interpretations have been advanced. Certain
Hypermastigina possess very large filiform centrioles and a large
rounded nucleus. In Barbulanympha (Fig. 61), Cleveland (1938a)
found that the centrioles vary from 15 to 30^ in length in the four
species of the genus which he studied. They can be seen, according
to Cleveland, in life as made up of a dense hyaline protoplasm.
When stained, it becomes apparent that the two centrioles are
joined at their anterior ends by a desmose and their distal ends 20 to
30/x apart, each of which is surrounded by a special centrosome (a).
In the resting stage no fibers extend from either centriole, but in the
prophase, astral rays begin to grow out from the distal end of each
centriole (6). As the rays grow longer (c), the two sets soon meet and
the individual rays or fibers join, grow along one another and over-
lap to form the central spindle (d). In the resting nucleus, there are
large irregular chromatin granules which are connected by fibrils
with one another and also with the nuclear membrane. As the achro-
matic figure is formed and approaches the nucleus, the chromatin be-
comes arranged in a single spireme imbedded in matrix. The spireme
soon divides longitudinally and the double spireme presently breaks
up transversely into paired chromosomes. The central spindle begins
to compress the nuclear membrane and the chromosomes become
shorter and move apart. The intra- and extra-nuclear fibrils unite as
the process goes on (e), the central spindle now assumes an axial
position, and two groups of V-shaped chromosomes are drawn to
opposite poles. In the telophase, the chromosomes elongate and be-
come branched, thus assuming conditions seen in the resting nucleus.
158
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 61. Development of spindle and astral rays during the mitosis in
Barbulanympha, X930 (Cleveland), a, interphase centrioles and centro-
somes; b, prophase centrioles with astral rays developing from their distal
ends through the centrosomes; c, meeting of astral rays from two cen-
trioles; d, astral rays developing into the early central spindle; e, a later
stage showing the entire mitotic figure.
In Holomastigotoides tusitala (Fig. 172, a, b), Cleveland (1949)
brought to light the formation of the achromatic figure, and the
minute structure and change in chromosomes (Fig. 62). In the late
telophase, after cytoplasmic division, the centrioles follow the flagel-
lar bands 4 and 5 for 1.5 turns (a). The two chromosomes are an-
chored to the old centriole. When the new centriole has become as
REPRODUCTION
159
a M>,
Fig. 62. Mitosis in Holomastigotoides tusitala (Cleveland), a, anterior
region showing flagellar bands, centrioles, centromeres and chromosomes,
b-h, telophase; i, j, prophase; k, metaphase; 1, anaphase; m, telophase,
b, c, new and old centrioles forming achromatic figure; d, one chromosome
has shifted its connection from old to new centriole; e, f, flattening out of
centrioles and achromatic figure; g, h, beginning of chromosomal twist-
ing; i, chromosomes duplicated, producing many gyres of close-together
relational coiling of chromatics, and centromeres duplicated; j, chroma-
tids losing their relational coiling by unwinding; k, relational coiling dis-
appeared, achromatic figure elongating and separating sister chromatids;
1, central spindle bent, chromatids in two groups; m, central spindle
pulled apart.
160 PROTOZOOLOGY
long as the old one, the centrioles begin to produce astral rays (b)
which soon meet and form the central spindle (c). An astral ray from
the new centriole becomes connected with the centromere of one of
the chromosomes (d). The spindle grows in length and enters resting
stage (e-j), later the spindle fibers lengthen (k, /) and pull apart (m).
The chromosome is composed of the matrix and chromonema
(Fig. 63), of which the former disintegrates in the telophase and re-
appears in the early prophase of each chromosome generation, while
the latter remains throughout. From late prophase to mid-telophase,
minor coils are incorporated in major coils (a-c) ; from mid-telophase
to late telophase, they are in very loose majors (d); and after the
majors have disappeared completely, they become free (e). Soon
after cytoplasmic division, the majors become looser and irregular
and finally disappear, while minors and twisting remain. Each chro-
mosome presently divides into 2 chromatids (f) and a new matrix is
formed for each. As the matrix contracts the chromatids lose their
relational coiling and the minors become bent and thus the new
generation of major coils makes its appearance (g). With the further
concentration of the matrix, the majors become more conspicuous
(h), the minors being incorporated into them. When most of the re-
lational coiling has been lost and majors are close together, the
chromosomal changes cease for days or weeks. This is the late pro-
phase. After the resting stage, the achromatic figure commences to
grow again (i, j) and the two groups of chromatids are carried to the
poles, followed by transverse cytoplasmic division (Fig. 64). The
coils remain nearly the same during metaphase to early telophase.
Thus Cleveland showed the continuity of chromosomes from genera-
tion to generation. He finds that the resting stage of chromosomes
varies in different types of cells: some chromosomes rest in inter-
phase, some in early prophase and others in telophase, and that the
centromere is an important structure associated with the movement
of chromatids and in the reduction of chromosomes in meiosis. For
fuller information the reader is referred to the profusely illustrated
original paper (Cleveland, 1949).
In Lophomonas blattarum, the nuclear division (Fig. 65) is initiated
by the migration of the nucleus out of the calyx. On the nuclear
membrane is attached the centriole which probably originates in the
blepharoplast ring; the centriole divides and the desmose which
grows, now stains very deeply, the centrioles becoming more con-
spicuous in the anaphase when new flagella develop from them.
Chromatin granules become larger and form a spireme, from which
REPRODUCTION
161
?, aft
Fig. 63. Chromosomal changes in Holomastigotoides tusitala, X1050
(Cleveland), a, telophase shortly after cytoplasmic division, new fifth
band and new centriole are growing out and chromosomes are twisted;
b, c, the same chromosome showing major and minor coils respectively;
d, later telophase, showing minor coils; e, matrix completely disinte-
grated, showing minor coils; f, a prophase nucleus, showing division of
chromosomes into two chromatids; g, later prophase, in which majors
are developing with minors; h, later prophase; i, metaphase in which
distal halves of the chromatids have not yet separated, showing minor
coils; j, anaphase, showing major and minor coils of chromonemata.
162
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 64. Cytoplasmic division in Holomastigotoides tusitala, X about
430 (Cleveland), a, fifth flagellar band has separated from others; b, one
nucleus and fifth band moving toward posterior end; c, the movement of
the band and nucleus has been completed; d, e, anterior and posterior
daughter individuals, produced by transverse division.
REPRODUCTION
163
6-8 chromosomes are produced. Two groups of chromosomes move
toward the opposite poles, and when the division is completed, each
centriole becomes the center of formation of all motor organellae.
In some forms, such as Noctiluca (Calkins), Actinophrys (Belaf),
etc., there may appear at each pole, a structureless mass of cyto-
plasm (centrosphere), but in a very large number of species there
Fig. 65. Nuclear division in Lophomonas blattarum, X1530 (Kudo),
a, resting nucleus; b, c, prophase; d, metaphase; e-h, anaphase; i-k, telo-
phase.
appear no special structures at poles and the spindle fibers become
stretched seemingly between the two extremities of the elongating
nuclear membrane. Such is the condition found in Pelomyxa (Kudo)
(Fig. 66), Cryptomonas (Belaf), Rhizochrysis (Doflein), Aulacantha
(Borgert), and in micronuclear division of the majority of Euciliata
and Suctoria.
The behavior of the endosome during the mitosis differs among
different species as are probably their functions. In Eimeria schubergi
(Schaudinn), Euglena viridis (Tschenzoff), Oxyrrhis marina (Hall),
164
PROTOZOOLOGY
Colacium vesiculosum (Johnson), Haplosporidium limnodrili (Gran-
ata), etc., the conspicuously staining endosome divides by elongation
and constriction along with other chromatic elements, but in many
other cases, it disappears during the early part of division and reap-
pears when the daughter nuclei are reconstructed as observed in
Monocystis, Dimorpha, Euglypha, Pamphagus (Belar), Acantho-
cystis (Stern), Chilomonas (Doflein), Dinenympha (Kirby), etc.
Fig. 66. Mitosis in Pelomyxa carolinensis, X1150 (Kudo), a, c, 1, in life;
b, d-k, in acidified methyl green, a, b, resting nuclei; c-g, prophase; h,
metaphase; i-k, anaphase; 1, front and side view of a young daughter
nucleus.
In the vegetative division of the micronucleus of Conchophthirus
anodontae, Kidder (1934) found that prior to division the micronu-
cleus moves out of the pocket in the macronucleus and the chromatin
becomes irregularly disposed in a reticulum; swelling continues and
the chromatin condenses into a twisted band, a spireme, which
breaks into many small segments, each composed of large chromatin
granules. With the rapid development of the spindle fibers, the
twelve bands become arranged in the equatorial plane and condense.
Each chromosome now splits longitudinally and two groups of 12
daughter chromosomes move to opposite poles and transform them-
REPRODUCTION
105
selves into two compact daughter nuclei. A detailed study of micro-
nuclear division (Fig. 67) of Urostyla grandis was made by Raabe
(1946). The micronucleus is a compact body in the interphase (a),
Fig. 67. Micronuclear division of Urostyla grandis, X2100 (H. Raabe).
a, resting stage; b-j, prophase (b-e, stages in the formation of spireme;
f, g, spireme ribbon; h, i, twelve segments of ribbon arranged in the direc-
tion of the elongating nuclear axis; j, a polar view of the same); k, 1,
metaphase, condensation of the segments; m-o, anaphase; p, late ana-
phase; q, a daughter nucleus in telophase; r-t, reconstruction stages; u, a
resting daughter nucleus.
166 PROTOZOOLOGY
but increases in size and the chromatin becomes grouped into small
masses (6, c), which become associated into a spiral ribbon (d-g).
The latter then breaks up into 12 segments that are arranged paral-
lel to the axis of the elongating nucleus (h-i). Each segment con-
denses into a chromosome which splits longitudinally into two (k)
and the two groups of chromosomes move to opposite poles (l-P). In
Zelleriella elliptica (Fig. 295) and four other species of the genus in-
habiting the colon of Bufo valliceps, Chen (1936, 1948) observed the
formation of 24 chromosomes, each of which is connected with a
fiber of the intranuclear spindle and splits lengthwise in the meta-
phase.
While in the majority of protozoan mitosis, the chromosomes split
longitudinally, there are observations which suggest a transverse di-
vision. As examples may be mentioned the chromosomal divisions in
Astasia laevis (Belaf), Entosiphon sulcatum (Lackey), and a number
of ciliates. In a small number of species observations vary within a
species, as, for example, in Peranema trichophorum in which the
chromosomes were observed to divide transversely (Hartmann and
Chagas) as well as longitudinally (Hall and Powell; Brown). It is
inconceivable that the division of the chromosome in a single species
of organism is haphazard. The apparent transverse division might be
explained by assuming, as Hall (1937) showed in Euglena gracilis,
that the splitting is not completed at once and the pulling force act-
ing upon them soon after division, brings forth the long chromo-
somes still connected at one end. Thus the chromosomes remain to-
gether before the anaphase begins.
In the instances considered on the preceding pages, the so-called
chromosomes found in them, appear to be essentially similar in
structure and behavior to typical metazoan chromosomes. In many
other cases, the so-called chromosomes or "pseudochromosomes"
are slightly enlarged chromatin granules which differ from the ordin-
ary chromatin granules in their time of appearance and movement
only. In these cases it is of course not possible at present to deter-
mine how and when their division occurs before separating to the
respective division pole. In Table 5 are listed the number of the
"chromosomes" which have been reported by various investigators
in the Protozoa that are mentioned in the present work.
Cytoplasmic division
The division of the nucleus is accompanied by division of extranu-
clear organelles such as chromatophores, pyrenoids, etc. The blepha-
roplast of the flagellates and kinetosomes of the ciliates undergo di-
REPRODUCTION
Table 5. — Chromosomes in Protozoa
167
Protozoa
Number of
chromosomes
Observers
Rhizochrysis scherffeli
22
Doflein
H aematococcus pluvialis
20-30
Elliott
Polytomella agilis
5
Doflein
Chla7?iydomonas spp.
10 (haploid)
Pascher
Polytoma uvella
16 (diploid)
Moewus
Euglena pisciformis
12-15(?)
Dangeard
E. viridis
30 or more
Dangeard
Phacus pyrum
30-40
Dangeard
Rhabdomonas incurva
About 12
Hall
Vacuolaria virescens
About 30
Fott
Syndinium turbo
5
Chatton
Anthophysis vegetans
8-10
Dangeard
Cercomonas longicauda
4-5
Dangeard
Collodictyon triciliatum
About 20
Belaf
Chilomastix gallinarum
About 12
Boeck and Tanabe
Eutrichomastix serpentis
5
Kofoid and Swezy
Dinenympha fimbricata
25-30
Kirby
Metadevescovina debilis
About 4
Light
Trichomonas tenax
3
Hinshaw
T. gallinae
6
Stabler
T. hominis
5 or 6
Bishop
T. vaginalis
5
Hawes
Tritrichomonas atigusta
5
Kofoid and Swezy
4 or 8
Kuczynski
6
Samuels
T, batrachorum
4 or 8
Kuczynski
6
Bishop
T. muris
6
Wenrich
Hexamita salmonis
5 or 6
Davis
Giardia intestinalis
4
Kofoid and Swezy
G. muris
4
Kofoid and Christiansen
Calonympha grassii
4 or 5
Janicki
Spirotrichonympha polygyra
2 doubles
Cup
2
Cleveland
S. bispira
2
Cleveland
Lophomonas blattarum
16 or 8 doubles
Janicki
8 or 6
Kudo
12 or 6 doubles
Belaf
L. striata
12 or 6 doubles
Belaf
Barbidanympha laurabuda
40
Cleveland
B. uf alula
50
Cleveland
Rhynchonympha tarda
19
Cleveland
Urinympha talea
14
Cleveland
Staurojoenia assimilis
24
Kirby
Trichony mpha campanula
52 or 26 doubles
Kofoid and Swezy
168
PROTOZOOLOGY
Table 5. — Continued
Protozoa
Number of
chromosomes
Observers
T. grandis
22
Cleveland
Plasmodiophora brassicae
8 (diploid)
Terby
Naegleria gruberi
14-16
Rafalko
N. bistadialis
16-18
Kiihn
Amoeba protevs
500-600
Liesche
Endamoeba disparata
About 12
Kirby
Entamoeba histolytica
6
Kofoid and Swezy; Uribe
E. coli
6
Swezy; Stabler
4
Liebmann
E. gingivalis
5
Stabler; Noble
Dientamoeba fragilis
4
Wenrich
6
Dobell
Uydr amoeba hydroxena
8
Reynolds and Threlkeld
Spirillina vivipara
12 (diploid)
Myers
Patellina corrugata
24 (diploid)
Myers
Pontigulasia vas
8-12
Stump
Actinophrys sol
44 (diploid)
Belaf
Oxnerella maritima
About 24
Dobell
Thalassicolla nucleata
4
Belaf
Aulacantha scolymantha
More than 1600
Borgert
4 in gamogony
Belaf
Zygosoma globosum
12 (diploid)
Noble
Diplocystis schneideri
6 (diploid)
Jameson
Gregarina blattarum
6 (diploid)
Sprague
Nina gracilis
5 (haploid)
L6ger and Duboscq
Actinocephalus parvus
8 (diploid)
Weschenfelder
Aggregata eberthi
12 (diploid)
Dobell; Belaf; Naville
Merocystis kathae
6 (haploid)
Patten
Adelea ovata
8-10 (diploid)
Greiner
Adelina deronis
20 (diploid)
Hauschka
Orcheobius herpobdellae
10-12
Kunze
Chloromyxum leydigi
4 (diploid)
Naville
Sphaerospora polymorpha
4 (diploid)
Kudo
Myxidium lieberkuhni
4
Bremer
M. serotinum
4 (diploid)
Kudo
Sphaeromyxa sabrazesi
6
Debaisieux; Belaf
4
Naville
S. balbianii
4
Naville
Myxobolus pfeifferi
4
Keysselitz; Mercier;
Georgevitch
Protoopalina intestinalis
8 (diploid)
Metcalf
Zelleriella antilliensis
2(?)
Metcalf
Z. intermedia
24
Chen
Didinium nasutum
16 (diploid)
Prandtl
Cyclotrichium meunieri
6
Powers
REPRODUCTION
Table 5. — Continued
Protozoa
Number of
chromosomes
Observers
Chilodonella uncinata
4 (diploid)
Enrique; MacDougall
C. uncinata (tetraploid)
8; 4
MacDougall
Conchophthirus anodontae
12 (diploid)
Kidder
C. mytili
16 (diploid)
Kidder
Ancistruma isseli
About 5 (haploid)
Kidder
Paramecium aurelia
30-40
Diller
About 35
Sonneborn
P. caudatum
About 36
Perm
Stentor coeruleus
28 (diploid)
Mulsow
Tetrato.vum unifasciculatum
About 14
Davis
Oxytricha bifaria
24 (diploid)
Kay
0. fallax
24 (diploid)
Gregory
Uroleptus halseyi
24 (diploid)
Calkins
Pleurotricha lanceolata
About 40 (dipl.)
Manwell
Stylonychia pustulata
6
Prowazek
Eaplotes patella
6 (diploid)
Yocom; Ivanic
E. eurystomus
8 (diploid)
Turner
Vorticella microstoma
4
Finley
Carchesium polypinum
16 (diploid)
Popoff
Trichodina sp.
4-6
Diller
vision, giving rise to daughter blepharoplasts and kinetosomes that
become organized into characteristic locomotor organelles. Morpho-
genesis in the apostomes (Chatton and Lwoff, 1935; Lwoff, 1950);
mechanism of morphogenesis in ciliates (Faure-Fremiet, 1948; Guil-
cher, 1950; Weisz, 1951, 1951a).
Binary fission. As in metazoan cells, the binary fission occurs very
widely among the Protozoa. It is a division of the body through
middle of the extended long axis into two nearly equal daughter
individuals. In Amoeba proteus, Chalkley and Daniel found that
there is a definite correlation between the stages of nuclear divi-
sion and external morphological changes (Fig. 68). During the pro-
phase, the organism is rounded, studded with fine pseudopodia and
exhibits under reflected light a clearly defined hyaline area near its
center (a), which disappears in the metaphase (b, c). During the
anaphase the pseudopodia rapidly become coarser; in the telophase
the elongation of body, cleft formation, and return to normal
pseudopodia, take place.
In Testacea, one of the daughter individuals remains, as a rule,
within the old test, while the other moves into a newly formed one,
170
PROTOZOOLOGY
as in Arcella, Pyxidicula, Euglypha, etc. According to Doflein, the
division plane coincides with the axis of body in Cochliopodium,
Pseudodifflugia, etc., and the delicate homogeneous test also divides
into two parts. In the majority of the Mastigophora, the division is
longitudinal, as is shown by that of Rhabdomonas incurva (Fig. 69).
In certain dinoflagellates, such as Ceratium, Cochliodinium, etc.,
the division plane is oblique, while in forms such as Oxyrrhis (Dunk-
b ^
ssfisSk
Fig. 68. External morphological changes during division of Amoeba
proteus, as viewed in life in reflected light, X about 20 (Chalkley and
Daniel), a, shortly before the formation of the division sphere; b, a later
stage; c, prior to elongation; d, further elongation; e, division almost
completed.
erly; Hall), the fission is transverse. In Streblomastix strix (Kofoid
and Swezy, 1919), Lophomonas striata (Kudo, 1926b), Spirotricho-
nympha bispira (Cleveland, 1938), Holomastigotoides tusitala (Fig.
64) and others (Cleveland, 1947), and Strombidium clavellinae (Bud-
denbrock, 1922), the division takes place transversely but the polar-
ity of the posterior individual is reversed so that the posterior end
of the parent organism becomes the anterior end of the posterior
daughter individual. In the ciliate Bursaria, Lund (1917), observed
reversal of polarity in one of the daughter organisms at the time of
division of normal individuals and also in those which regenerated
after being cut into one-half the normal size.
REPRODUCTION
171
In the Ciliophora the division is as a rule transverse (Fig. 52), in
which the body without any enlargement or elongation divides by
constriction through the middle so that the two daughter indivi-
duals are about half as large at the end of division. Both individuals
usually retain their polarity.
Multiple division. In multiple division the body divides into a
number of daughter individuals, with or without residual cyto-
Fig. 69. Nuclear and cytoplasmic division in Rhabdomonas incurva,
X about 1400 (Hall), a, resting stage; b, c, prophase; d, equatorial plate;
e, f, anaphase; g, telophase.
plasmic masses of the parent body. In this process the nucleus
may undergo either simultaneous multiple division, as in Aggregata,
or more commonly, repeated binary fission, as in Plasmodium (Fig.
256) to produce large numbers of nuclei, each of which becomes the
center of a new individual. The number of daughter individuals often
varies, not only among the different species, but also within one and
the same species. Multiple division occurs commonly in the Fora-
minifera (Fig. 208); the Radiolaria (Fig. 218), and various groups of
Sporozoa in which the trophozoite multiplies abundantly by this
method.
Budding. Multiplication by budding which occurs in the Proto-
zoa is the formation of one or more smaller individuals from the
172
PROTOZOOLOGY
parent organism. It is either exogenous or endogenous, depending
upon the location of the developing buds or gemmules. Exogenous
budding has been reported in Acanthocystis, Noctiluca (Fig. 127),
Myxosporidia (Fig. 70, b), astomatous ciliates (Fig. 298), Chono-
tricha, Suctoria (Fig. 371, k), etc. Endogenous budding has been
lit
/im
Fig. 70. a, b, budding in Myxidium lieberkiihni; c, d, plasmotomy in
Chloromyxum leydigi; e, plasmotomy in Sphaeromyxa balbianii.
found in Testacea, Gregarinida, Myxosporidia (Figs. 279, e; 281, j),
and other Sporozoa as well as Suctoria (Fig. 371, h). Collin observed
a unique budding in Tokophrya cyclopum in which the entire body,
excepting the stalk and pellicle, transforms itself into a young
ciliated bud and leaves sooner or later the parent pellicle.
Plasmotomy. Occasionally the multinucleate body of a protozoan
divides into two or more small, mutinucleate individuals, the cyto-
plasmic division taking place independently of nuclear division. This
has been called plasmotomy by Doflein. It has been observed in the
REPRODUCTION
173
trophozoites of several coelozoic myxosporidians, such as Chloro-
■myxumleydigi, Sphaeromyxa balbianii (Fig. 70), etc. It occurs further
in certain Sarcodina such as Mycetozoa (Fig. 179) and Pelomyxa
(Fig. 71), and Protociliata.
Fig. 71. Eight individuals of Pelomyxa carolinensis, seen undisturbed
in culture dishes, in which mitotic stages occurred as follows, X40 (Kudo) :
a, early prophase; b, c, later prophase; d, metaphase; e, f, early and late
anaphase; g, h, late telophase to resting nuclei (g, plasmotomy into two
individuals; h, plasmotomy into three daughters).
Colony formation
When the division is repeated without a complete separation of
the daughter individuals, a colonial form is produced. The compon-
174 PROTOZOOLOGY
ent individuals of a colony may either have protoplasmic connections
among them or be grouped within a gelatinous envelope if completely
separated. Or, in the case of loricate or stalked forms, these exo-
skeletal structures may become attached to one another. Although
varied in appearance, the arrangement and relationship of the com-
ponent individuals are constant, and this makes the basis for dis-
tinguishing the types of protozoan colonies, as follows:
Catenoid or linear colony. The daughter individuals are attached
endwise, forming a chain of several individuals. It is of compara-
tively uncommon occurrence. Examples: Astomatous ciliates such as
Radiophrya (Fig. 298), Protoradiophrya (Fig. 298) and dinoflagel-
lates such as Ceratium, Haplozoon (Fig. 130) and Polykrikos (Fig.
132).
Arboroid or dendritic colony. The individuals remain connected
with one another in a tree-form. The attachment may be by means
of the lorica, stalk, or gelatinous secretions. It is a very common
colony found in different groups. Examples: Dinobryon (Fig. 108),
Hyalobryon (Fig. 108), etc. (connection by lorica); Colacium (Fig.
121), many Peritricha (Figs. 362; 364), etc. (by stalk); Poterioden-
dron (Fig. 139), Stylobryon (Fig. 151), etc. (by lorica and stalk);
Hydrurus (Fig. 109), Spongomonas (Fig. 150), Cladomonas(Fig. 150)
and Anthophysis (Fig. 151) (by gelatinous secretions).
Discoid colony. A small number of individuals are arranged in a
single plane and grouped together by a gelatinous substance. Exam-
ples: Cyclonexis (Fig. 108), Gonium (Fig. 116), Platydorina (Fig.
117), Protospongia (Fig. 138), Bicosoeca (Fig. 139), etc.
Spheroid colony. The individuals are grouped in a spherical form.
Usually enveloped by a distinct gelatinous mass, the component
individuals may possess protoplasmic connections among them.
Examples: Uroglena (Fig. 108, c), Uroglenopsis (Fig. 108, d), Volvox
(Fig. 115), Pandorina (Fig. 117,/), Eudorina (Fig. 117, h), etc. Such
forms as Stephanoon (Fig. 117, a) appear to be intermediate between
this and the discoid type. The component cells of some spheroid
colonies show a distinct differentiation into somatic and reproductive
individuals, the latter developing from certain somatic cells during
the course of development.
The gregaloid colony, which is sometimes spoken of, is a loose
group of individuals of one species, usually of Sarcodina, which
become attached to one another by means of pseudopodia in an ir-
regular form.
REPRODUCTION
175
Asexual reproduction
The Protozoa nourish themselves by certain methods, grow and
multiply, by the methods described in the preceding pages. This
phase of the life-cycle of a protozoan is the vegetative stage or the
trophozoite. The trophozoite repeats its asexual reproduction process
under favorable circumstances. Generally speaking, the Sporozoa
ncrease to a much greater number by multiple division or schizog-
ony and the trophozoites are called schizonts.
Under certain conditions, the trophozoite undergoes encystment
(Fig. 72). Prior to encystment, the trophozoites cease to ingest, and
extrude remains of, food particles, resulting in somewhat smaller
forms which are usually rounded and less active. This phase is some-
Fig. 72. Encystment of Lophomonas blattarum, X1150 (Kudo).
times called the precystic stage. The whole organism becomes de-
differentiated; namely, various cell organs such as cilia, cirri,
flagella, axostyle, peristome, etc., become usually absorbed. Finally
the organism secretes substances which become solidified into a re-
sistant wall, and thus the cyst is formed. In this condition, the
protozoan is apparently able to maintain its vitality for a certain
length of time under unfavorable conditions.
Protozoa appear to encyst under various conditions. Low tem-
perature (Schmahl, 1926), evaporation (Belaf, 1921; Bodine, 1923;
Garnjobst, 1928), change in pH (Koffman, 1924; Darby, 1929), low
or high oxygen content (Brand, 1923; Rosenberg, 1938), accumula-
tion of metabolic products (Belaf, 1921; Mast and Ibara, 1923;
Beers, 1926) or of associated bacteria (Mouton, 1902; Belaf, 1921)
and over-population (Barker and Taylor, 1931) in the water in which
Protozoa live, have been reported to bring about encystment. While
17(3 PROTOZOOLOGY
lack of food in the culture has been noted by many observers
(Oehler, 1916; Claff, Dewey and Kidder, 1941; Singh, 1941; Beers,
1948; etc.) as a cause of encystment in a number of Protozoa such
as Blepharisma (Stolte, 1922), Polytomella (Kater and Burroughs,
1926), Didinium (Mast and Ibara, 1931), Uroleptus (Calkins, 1933),
etc., an abundance of food and adequate nourishment seem to be
prerequisite for encystment. Particular food was found in some in-
stances to induce encystment. For example, Singh (1948) employed
for culture of Leptomyxa reticulata, 40 strains of bacteria, of which
15 led to the production of a large number of cysts in this sarcodinan.
Encystment of Entamoeba histolytica is easily obtained by adding
starch to the culture (Dobell and Laidlow, 1926; Balamuth, 1951).
The age of culture, if kept under favorable conditions, does not
influence encystment. Didinium after 750 generations, according to
Beers (1927), showed practically the same encystment rate as those
which had passed through 10 or 20 generations since the last encyst-
ment. When Leptomyxa mentioned above is cultured for more than
a year, no encystment occurred, but young cultures when supplied
with certain bacteria encysted (Singh, 1948).
In some cases, the organisms encyst temporarily in order to un-
dergo nuclear reorganization and multiplication as in Colpoda (Fig.
73) (Kidder and Claff, 1938; Stuart, Kidder and Griffin, 1939), Til-
lina (Beers, 1946), etc. In Ichthyophthirius, the organism encysts
after leaving the host fish and upon coming in contact with a solid
object, and multiplies into numerous "ciliospores" (MacLennan,
1937). Pelomyxa carolinensis (Illinois stock) has not encysted since
its discovery in 1944, although the cultures were subjected to vari-
ous environmental changes, but P. illinoisensis has been found to
encyst and excyst frequently in flourishing cultures (Kudo, 1951).
Thus it may be assumed that some unknown internal factors play
as great a part as do the external factors in the phenomenon of en-
cystment (Ivanic, 1934; Cutler and Crump, 1935).
The cyst is covered by one to three membranes. Though generally
homogeneous, the wall of cyst may contain siliceous scales as in
Euglypha (Fig. 74). While chitinous substance is the common ma-
terial of which the cyst wall is composed, cellulose makes up the
cyst membrane of many Phytomastigina. Entz (1925) found the
cysts of various species of Ceratium less variable in size as com-
pared with the vegetative form, and found in all, glycogen, oil and
volutin.
The capacity of Protozoa to produce cyst is probably one of the
REPRODUCTION
177
reasons why they are so widely distributed over the surface of the
globe. The minute protozoan cysts are easily carried from place to
place by wind, attached to soil particles, debris, etc., by the flowing
water of rivers or the current in oceans or by insects, birds, other
Fig. 73. Diagram showing the life cycle of Colpoda cucullus (Kidder and
Claff). a-j, normal reproductive activity repeated (j-b) under favorable
cultural conditions; k-o, resistant cyst (k-n, nuclear reorganization and
chromatin elimination).
animals to which they become readily attached. The cyst is capable
of remaining viable for a long period of time : eight years in Haema-
tococcus pluvialis (Reichenow, 1929), four yaers in Spathidium spath-
ula and Oxytricha sp. (Dawson and Mitchell, 1929), five years in
Colpoda cucullus (Dawson and Hewitt, 1931), 10 years in Didinium
nasutum (Beers, 1937), etc.
178
PROTOZOOLOGY
When a cyst encounters a proper environment, redifferentiation
takes place within the cyst. Various organellae which characterize
the organism, are regenerated and reformed, and the young tropho-
zoite excysts. The emerged organism returns once more to its trophic
phase of existence. Experimental data indicate that excystment
takes place under conditions such as addition of fresh culture me-
dium (Kiihn, 1915; Rosenberg, 1938), hypertonic solution (Ilowai-
sky, 1926), distilled water (Johnson and Evans, 1941), organic in-
fusion (Mast, 1917; Beers, 1926; Barker and Taylor, 1933), and bac-
terial infusion (Singh, 1941; Beers, 1946a) to the culture medium.
Change in pH (Koffman, 1924), lowering the temperature (John-
son and Evans, 1941) and increase in oxygen content (Brand, 1923;
Finley, 1936) of the medium have also been reported as bringing
about excystment. Excystment in Colpoda cucullus is said to be due
Fig. 74. Encystment of Euglypha acanthophora, X320 (Kiihn).
to specific inducing substances present in plant infusion (Thimann
and Barker, 1934; Haagen-Smit and Thimann, 1938). Experiment-
ing with two soil amoebae, "species 4 and Z," Crump (1950) found
that the excystment in species Z took place without the presence of
bacteria and regardless of the age of the cysts, but species 4 excysted
only in the presence of certain bacteria (Aerobacter sp. or "4036")
and the excystment diminished with the age of cysts. Crump sug-
gested that the two strains of bacteria appeared to produce some
material which induced excystment in Amoeba species 4. In Tillina
magna, Beers (1945) found, however, the primary excystment-in-
ducing factor to be of an osmotic nature and inducing substances,
a secondary one.
As to how an aperture or apertures are formed in the cyst wall
prior to the emergence of the content, precise information is not
yet on hand, though there are many observations. In the excyst-
ment in Didinium and Tillina, Beers (1935, 1945, 1945a) notes that
REPRODUCTION
179
an increased internal pressure due to the imbibition of water, re-
sults in the rupture of the cyst wall which had lost its rigidity and
resistance (Fig. 75). Apertures in the cyst wall of Pelomyxa illi-
noisensis are apparently produced by pseudopodial pressure (Kudo,
1951). Seeing a similar aperture formation in the cyst of Entamoeba
histolytica, Dobell (1928) "imagined that the amoeba secretes a fer-
ment which dissolves the cyst wall."
Fig. 75. Excystment in Didinium nasutum, as seen in a single indi-
vidual, X250 (Beers), a, resting cyst; b, appearance of "excystment"
vacuole; c, rupture of the cyst membrane, the vacuole is becoming en-
larged; d, e, emergence of the cyst content, the vacuole increasing in
size; f, the empty outer cyst membrane; g, the free organism with the
inner membrane; h, organism after discharge of vacuole; i, j, later stages
of emergence of the ciliate.
Although encystment seems to be an essential phase in the life
cycle of Protozoa in general, there are certain Protozoa including
such common and widely distributed forms as the species of Para-
mecium in which this phenomenon has not been definitely observed
(p. 744). In some Sporozoa, encystment is followed by production
of large numbers of spores, while in others there is no encystment.
Here at the end of active multiplication of trophozoite, sexual re-
180
PROTOZOOLOGY
production usually initiates the production of the spores (Fig. 76).
The spores which are protected by a resistant membrane are capa-
ble of remaining viable for a long period of time outside the host
body.
Fig. 76. Diagram illustrating the life-cycle of Thelohania legeri (Kudo),
a, extrusion of the polar filament in gut of anopheline larva; b, emerged
amoebula; c-f, schizogony in fat body; g-m, sporont-formation; m-x,
stages in spore-formation.
Sexual reproduction and life-cycles
Besides reproducing by the asexual method, numerous Protozoa
reproduce themselves in a manner comparable with the sexual re-
production which occurs universally in the Metazoa. Various types
of sexual reproduction have been reported in literature, of which a
few will be considered here. The sexual fusion or syngamy which is a
complete union of two gametes, has been reported from various
groups, while the conjugation which is a temporary union of two
individuals for the purpose of exchanging the nuclear material, is
found almost exclusively in the Ciliophora.
Sexual fusion. The gametes which develop from trophozoites, may
be morphologically alike (isogametes) or unlike (anisogametes) ,
REPRODUCTION 181
both of which are, in well-studied forms, physiologically different
as judged by their behavior toward each other. If a gamete does not
meet with another one, it perishes. Anisogametes are called micro-
gametes and macrogametes. Difference between them is comparable
in many instances (Figs. 77, 256) with that which exists between the
spermatozoa and the ova of Metazoa. The microgametes are motile,
relatively small and usually numerous, while the macrogametes are
usually not motile, much more voluminous and fewer in number.
Therefore, they have sometimes been referred to as male and female
gametes (Fig. 77).
^^
Fig. 77. a, macrogamete, and b, microgamete of Volvox aureus,
X1000 (Klein).
While morphological differences between the gametes have long
been known and studied by many workers, whatever information
we possess on physiological differences between them is of recent
origin. Since 1933, Moewus and his co-workers have published a
series of papers based upon their extended studies of bacteria-free
cultures of many species (and strains) of Chlamydomonas (p. 276)
which throw some light on the gamete differentiation among these
phytomonadinans. The gametes in Chlamydomonas are mostly
isogamous, except in a few forms. Sexual fusion takes place in the
majority of species and strains between the gametes produced in
different clones, and there is no gametic fusion within a single clone.
Moewus obtained "sex substances" from some of the cultures and
showed that these are chemotactic substances. Each gamete secretes
substances that attract the other and each reacts to the substances
secreted by the other. Kiihn, Moewus and Wendt (1939) recognized
"hormones," and named them, termones (sex-determining hor-
mones), anderotermone (male-determining hormone) and gynoter-
mone (female-determining hormone).
In a few strains or species of Chlamydomonas, sexual fusion is
found to take place among the gametes that develop within a single
clone. Moewus considers in these cases there exist two types of
gametes in a clone. However, Pascher, Pringsheim, and others ob-
182
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 78. Sexual fusion in Copromonas subtilis, X1300 (Dobell).
tained results which seem to indicate that there is no physiological
or sex differentiation between the fusing gametes. In the much-
studied Sporozoa, for example, Plasmodium, the two gametes are
both morphologically and physiologically differentiated, and sexual
fusion always takes place between two anisogametes.
Fig. 79. Sexual fusion in Trinema linearis, X960 (Dunkerly). a, an
organism in life, with the resting nucleus and two contractile vacuoles;
b, union of two individuals; c, fusion of the organisms in one test, sur-
rounded by cyst membrane; d, older cyst; e, still older cyst with a single
nucleus.
REPRODUCTION
183
The isogamy is typically represented by the flagellate Copro-
monas subtilis (Fig. 78), in which there occurs, according to Dobell,
Fig. 80. The life-cycle of Stephanosphaera pluvialis (Hieronymus).
a-e, asexual reproduction; f-m, sexual reproduction.
a complete nuclear and cytoplasmic fusion between two isogametes.
Each nucleus, after casting off a portion of its nuclear material,
fuses with the other, thus forming a zygote containing a synkaryon.
In Trinerna lineare (Fig. 79), Dunkerly (1923) saw isogamy in which
Fig. 81. Sexual reproduction in Trichonympha of Cryptocercus
(Cleveland), a, vegetative individual; b, gametocyte in early stage of
encystment; c, anterior end of the same organism (chromosomes have
been duplicated, nuclear sleeve is opening at seams and granules are
flowing into the cytoplasm); d, further separation of the male and fe-
male chromosomes; e, the nuclear division has been completed, few old
flagella remain and new post rostral flagella are growing; f, the cytoplas-
mic division has begun at the anterior end; g, the gametes just before ex-
cystment, the female showing the developing ring of fertilization granules;
h, a female gamete; i, a female gamete with a fertilization ring, a, X350;
b, X320; c, X600; d-i, X280.
REPRODUCTION 185
two individuals undergo a complete fusion within one test and en-
cyst. In Stephanosphaera pluvialis (Fig. 80), both asexual and sexual
reproductions occur, according to Hieronymus. Each individual
multiplies and develops into numerous biflagellate gametes, all of
which are alike. Isogamy between two gametes results in formation
of numerous zygotes which later develop into trophozoites.
Anisogamy has been observed in certain Foraminifera. It perhaps
occurs in the Radiolaria also, although positive evidence has yet to
be presented. Anisogamy seems to be more widely distributed. In
Pandorina morum, Pringsheim observed that each cell develops asex-
ually into a young colony or into anisogametes which undergo sexual
fusion and encyst. The organism emerges from the cyst and develops
into a young trophozoite. A similar life-cycle was found by Goebel in
Eudorina elegc.ns
The wood-roach inhabiting flagellates belonging to Trichonympha,
Oxymonas, Saccinobaculus, Notila and Eucomonympha, were found
by Cleveland (1949a-1951a) to undergo sexual reproduction when
the host insect molts. It has been observed that the gamete-forma-
tion is induced by the molting hormone produced by the prothoracic
glands of the host insect. The sexual reproduction of Trichonympha,
possessing 24 chromosomes, as observed and described by Cleve-
land, is briefly as follows (Figs. 81, 82): About three days before its
host molts, the haploid nucleus in the flagellate divides, in which
two types of daughter chromosomes (or chromatids) become sepa-
rated from each other: the dark-staining male gamete nucleus and
light-staining female gamete nucleus (Fig. 81, b-d); in the mean-
time, a membrane is formed to envelop the organism (b, d). When
the cytoplasmic division is completed (e-g), the two gametes "ex-
cyst" and become free in the host gut (h; Fig. 82, b). In the female
gamete, there appear "fertilization granules" (Fig. 81, h), which
gather at the posterior extremity (i), through which a fluid-filled
vesicle ("fertilization cone") protrudes (Fig. 82, a). A male gamete
(6) comes in touch with a female gamete only at this point (c), and
enters the latter (d-f). The two gamete nuclei fuse into a diploid
synkaryon (g, h). The zygote and its nucleus begin immediately to
increase in size, and undergo two meiotic divisions (i-k), finally giv-
ing rise to vegetative individuals (Fig. 81, a).
Among the Sporozoa, anisogamy is of common occurrence. In
Coccidia, the process was well studied in Eimeria schubergi (Fig.
243), Aggregata eberthi (Fig. 246), Adelea ovata (Fig. 253), etc., and
the resulting products are the oocysts (zygotes) in which the spores
or sporozoites develop. Similarly in Haemosporidia such as Plasmo-
186
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 82. Sexual reproduction in Trichonympha of Cryptocercus
(Cleveland), a, a female gamete with a fetilization ring and cone; b, a
male gamete; c-g, stages in fusion and fertilization; h, a zygote; i, telo-
phase of the first meiotic division of the zygote nucleus; j, k, prophase and
anaphase of the second meiotic division, a-g, X280;h, X215;i-k, X600.
REPRODUCTION 187
dium vivax (Fig. 256), anisogamy results in the formation of the
ookinetes or motile zygotes which give rise to a large number of
sporozoites. Among Myxosporidia, a complete information as to
how the initiation of sporogony is associated with sexual reproduc-
tion, is still lacking. Naville, however, states that in the trophozoite
of Sphaeromyxa sabrazesi (Fig. 277), micro- and macro-gametes
develop, each with a haploid nucleus. Anisogamy, however, is pe-
culiar in that the two nuclei remain independent. The microgametic
nucleus divides once and the two nuclei remain as the vegetative
nuclei of the pansporoblast, while the macrogamete nucleus multi-
plies repeatedly and develop into two spores. Anisogamy has been
suggested to occur in some members of Amoebina, particularly in
Endamoeba blattae (Mercier, 1909). Cultural studies of various para-
sitic amoebae in recent years show, however, no evidence of sexual
reproduction. Among the Ciliophora, the sexual fusion occurs only
in Protociliata (Fig. 294).
Conjugation. The conjugation is a temporary union of two indivi-
duals of one and the same species for the purpose of exchanging part
of the nuclear material and occurs almost exclusively in the Euci-
liata and Suctoria. The two individuals which participate in this
process may be either isogamous or anisogamous. In Paramecium
caudatum (Fig. 83), the process of conjugation has been studied by
many workers, including Biitschli (1876), Maupas (1889), Calkins
and Cull (1907), and others. Briefly the process is as follows: Two
similar individuals come in contact on their oral surface (a). The
micronucleus in each conjugant divides twice (b-e), forming four
micronuclei, three of which degenerate and do not take active part
during further changes (f-h). The remaining micronucleus divides
once more, producing a wandering pronucleus and a stationary pro-
nucleus (/, g). The wandering pronucleus in each of the conjugants
enters the other individual and fuses with its stationary pronucleus
(h, r). The two conjugants now separate from each other and be-
come exconjugants. In each exconjugant, the synkaryon divides
three times in succession (i-m) and produces eight nuclei (n), four
of which remain as micronuclei, while the other four develop into
new macronuclei (o). Cytoplasmic fision follows then, producing
first, two individuals with four nuclei (p) and then, four small in-
dividuals, each containing a micronucleus and a macronucleus (a).
Jennings maintained that of the four smaller nuclei formed in the
exconjugant (o), only one remains active and the other three de-
generate. This active nucleus divides prior to the cytoplasmic divi-
188
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 83. Diagram illustrating the conjugation of Paramecium caudatum.
a-q, X about 130 (Calkins); r, a synkaryon formation as in h, X1200
(Dehorne).
REPRODUCTION 1S9
sion so that in the next stage (p), there are two developing macro-
nuclei and one micronucleus which divides once more before the
second and last cytoplasmic division (q). During these changes, the
original macronucleus disintegrates, degenerates, and finally be-
comes absorbed in the cytoplasm.
Although this is the general course of events in the conjugation
of this ciliate, recent observations revealed a number of different
nuclear behavior. For example, there may not be pronuclear ex-
change between the conjugants (cytogamy, p. 204), thus resulting
in self fertilization (Diller, 1950a). In a number of races, Diller
(1950) found that one of the two nuclei produced by the first divi-
sion of the synkaryon degenerates, while the other nucleus divides
three times, forming 8 nuclei, and furthermore, an exconjugant may
conjugate occasionally with another individual before the reorgani-
zation has been completed.
The conjugaton of P. bursaria has also received attention of
many workers. According to Chen (1946a), the first micronuclear
division is a long process. One daughter nucleus degenerates and
the other undergoes a second division. Here again one nucleus de-
generates, while the other divides once more, giving rise to a wan-
dering and a stationary pronucleus. Exchange of the wandering
pronuclei is followed by the fusion of the two pronuclei in each
conjugant. The synkaryon then divides. One of the two nuclei
formed by this division degenerates, while the other gives rise to
four nuclei by two divisions. The latter presently become dif-
ferentiated into two micronuclei and two macronuclei, followed
by a cytoplasmic division. The time two conjugants remain paired
is said to be 20-38 or more hours (Chen, 1946c). In this Paramecium
also, various nuclear activities have been reported. Chen (1940a, c)
found that conjugation between a micronucleate and an amicronu-
cleate can sometimes occur. In such a case, the micronucleus in the
normal individual divides three times, and one of the pronuclei mi-
grates into the amicronucleate in which there is naturally no nu-
clear division. The single haploid nucleus ("hemicaryon") in each
individual divides three times as mentioned above and four nuclei
are produced. Thus amicronucleate becomes micronucleated. Con-
jugating pairs sometimes separate from each other in a few hours.
Chen (1946c) found that when such pairs are kept in a depression
slide, temporary pairing recurs daily for many days, though there
is seemingly no nuclear change. Chen (1940) further observed that
the micronucleus in this species is subject to variation in size and
190 PROTOZOOLOGY
in the quantity of chromatin it contains, which gives rise to dif-
ferent (about 80 to several hundred) chromosome numbers during
conjugation in different races, and that polyploidy is not uncom-
mon in this ciliate. This investigator considers that polyploidy is
a result of fusion of more than two pronuclei which he observed on
several occasions. The increased number of pronuclei in a conju-
gant may be due to: (1) the failure of one of the two nuclei produced
by the first or second division to degenerate; (2) the conjugation
between a unimicronucleate and a bimicronucleate, or (3) the fail-
ure of the wandering pronucleus to enter the other conjugant; with
this latter view Wichterman (1946) agrees. Apparently polyploidy
occurs in other species also; for example, in P. caudatum (Calkins
and Cull, 1907; Penn, 1937).
In P. trichium, Diller (1948) reported that the usual process of
conjugation is the sequence of three micronuclear divisions, pro-
ducing the pronuclei (during which degeneration of nuclei may oc-
cur at the end of both the first and second divisions), cross- or
self-fertilization and three divisions of the synkarya. Ordinarily four
of the eight nuclei become macronuclei, one remains as the micro-
nucleus and the other three degenerate. The micronucleus divides
at each of the two cytoplasmic divisions. Exchange of strands of the
macronuclear skein may take place between the conjugants. Diller
found a number of variations such as omission of the third prefer-
tilization division, autogamous development, etc., and remarked
that heteroploidy is pronounced and common.
In P. aurelia possessing typically two micronuclei, the process of
conjugation was studied by Maupas (1889), Hertwig (1889), Dil-
ler (1936), Sonneborn (1947), etc., and is as follows: Soon after bi-
association begins, the two micronuclei in each conjugant divide
twice and produce eight nuclei, seven of which degenerate, while the
remaining one divides into two gametic nuclei (Maupas, Woodruff,
Sonneborn) Diller notes that two or more of the eight nuclei divide
for the third time, but all but two degenerate; the two gametic nu-
clei may or may not be sister nuclei. All agree that there are two
functional pronuclei in each conjugant. As in other species of Para-
mecium already noted, there is a nuclear exchange which results in
the formation of a synkaryon in each conjugant. The synkaryon di-
vides twice and the conjugants separate from each other at about
this time. Two nuclei develop into macronuclei and the other two
into micronuclei. Prior to the first cytoplasmic division of the excon-
jugant, the micronuclei divide once, but the macronucleus does not
divide, so that each of the two daughters receives one macronucleus
REPRODUCTION 191
and two micronuclei. The original macronucleus in the conjugant
becomes transformed into a skein which breaks up into 20 to 40
small masses. These are resorbed in the cytoplasm as in other species.
As to when these nuclear fragments are absorbed, depends upon the
nutritive condition of the organism (Sonneborn); namely, under a
poor nutritional condition the resorption begins and is completed
early, but under a better condition this resorption takes place after
several divisions.
During conjugation reciprocal migration of a pronucleus thus oc-
curs in all cases. During biassociation and even in autogamy (p. 203),
there develops a conical elevation ("paroral cone") and the nuclear
migration takes place through this region. Although there is ordi-
narily no cytoplasmic exchange between the conjugants, this may
occur in some cases as observed by Sonneborn (1943a, 1944). P.
aurelia of variety 4, according to Sonneborn, do occasionally not
separate after fertilization, but remain united by a thin strand in the
region of the paroral cones. In some pairs, the strand enlarges into a
broad band through which cytoplasm flows from one individual to
the other. The first division gives off a normal single animal from
each of the "parabiotic twins" and the two clones derived from the
two individuals belong to the same mating type (p. 192).
Conjugation between different species of Paramecium has been
attempted by several workers. Muller (1932) succeeded in producing
a few pairings between normal P. caudatum and exconjugant P.
multimicronucleatum. The nuclear process ran normally in cauda-
tum, which led Muller to believe that crossing might be possible, but
without success. De Garis (1935) mixed "double animals" (p. 228) of
P. caudatum and conjugating population of P. aurelia. Pairing be-
tween them occurred readily, in which the aurelia mates remained
attached to caudatum for five to 12 hours. Four pairs remained to-
gether, but aurelia underwent cytolysis on the second day. The
separated aurelia from other pairs died after showing "cloudy swell-
ing" on the second or third day after biassociation. The caudatum
double-animals on the other hand lived for two to 12 (average six)
days during which there was neither growth nor division and finally
perished after "hyaline degeneration." No information on nuclear
behavior in these animals is available. Apparently, the different spe-
cies of Paramecium are incompatible with one another.
In 1937, Sonneborn discovered that in certain races of P. aurelia,
there are two classes of individuals with respect to "sexual" differ-
entiation and that the members of different classes conjugate with
each other, while the members of each class do not. The members of
192 PROTOZOOLOGY
a class or caryonide (Sonneborn, 1939) are progeny of one of the two
individuals formed by the first division of an exconjugant and thus
possess the same macronuclear constitution. These classes were des-
ignated by Sonneborn (1938) as mating types. Soon a similar phe-
nomenon was found by several workers in other species of Para-
A ' ,r ,- , .- •
*~K * *
#*
^
^*%
%
•»
4.
it _• ' . im. o _ • _i .*_, J
Fig. 84. Mating behavior of Paramecium bursaria (Jennings), a, indi-
viduals of a single mating type; b, 6 minutes after individuals of two mat-
ing types have been mixed; c, after about 5 hours, the large masses have
been broken down into small masses; d, after 24 hours, paired conjugants.
mecium; namely, P. bursaria (Jennings, 1938), P. caudatum (Gil-
man, 1939; Hiwatashi, 1949-1951), P. trichium, P. calkinsi (Sonne-
born, 1938) and P. multimicronucleatum (Giese, 1939). When organ-
isms which belong to different mating types are brought together,
they adhere to one another in large clumps ("agglutination") of
numerous individuals (Fig. 84, b). After a few to several hours, the
REPRODUCTION 193
large masses break down into small masses (c) and still later, con-
jugants appear in pairs (d). The only other ciliate in which mating
types are definitely known to occur is Euplotes patella in which, ac-
cording to Kimball (1939), there occurs no agglutination mating re-
action.
How widely mating types occur is not known at present. But as
was pointed out by Jennings, the mating types may be of general oc-
currence among ciliates; for example, Maupas (1889) observed that
in Lionotus (Loxophyllum) fasciola, Leucophrys patula, Stylonychia
pustulata, and Onychodromus grandis, conjugation took place be-
tween the members of two clones of different origin, and not among
the members of a single clone. Precise information on the occurrence
of mating types among different ciliates depends on future research.
In Paramecium aurelia, Sonneborn distinguishes seven varieties
which possess the same morphological characteristics of the species,
but which differ in addition to mating types, also in size, division
rate, conditions of temperature and light under which mating reac-
tion may occur, etc. (Sonneborn, 1947). There occurs ordinarily no
conjugation between the clones of different varieties. Within each of
six varieties, there are two mating types, while there is only one type
in the seventh variety. Animals belonging to the same variety, but
to different mating types, only conjugate when put together (Table G).
Under optimum breeding conditions two mating types of the same
variety give 95 per cent immediate agglutination and conjugation.
But exceptions occur. Sonneborn and Dipell (1946) place the 7 va-
rieties of aurelia under two groups: A (varieties 1, 3, 5 and 7) and B
(varieties 2, 4 and 6) on the basis of their conjugational reactions.
Mating types in group A do not conjugate with those of group B; no
mating type of group B is known to conjugate with any type of other
varieties in this group; but a number of combinations of mating
types belonging to different varieties of group A conjugate with each
other. For example, varieties 1 and 5 conjugate (namely, type I with
type X and type II with type IX); however these interparietal mat-
ing reactions are (1) always less intense than intra varietal reaction,
(2) dependent upon the degree of reactivity of the culture, and (3)
different from the intravarietal reaction with respect to the condi-
tions for optimum reaction. Furthermore in most cases, the progeny
of intervarietal matings are not viable. In the varieties of group A,
the mating types appear to be of a more general sort. Therefore,
Sonneborn (1947) designated even- and odd-numbered types as +
and — respectively.
194
PROTOZOOLOGY
Table 6. — Groups, varieties and mating types in Paramecium
aurelia (Sonneborn)
0 indicates that conjugation does not occur; numbers show the
maximum percentage of conjugant-pairs formed; Inc.
indicates incomplete mating reaction
Group
A
B
Variety
1
3
5
7
2
4
6
Mating
type
I II
V
VI
IX X
XIII
III
IV
VII
VIII
XI
XII
General
Type
1
I
II
0 95
0
0
1
0
0
0 40
40 0
0
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
+
A
3
V
VI
0
95
0
0 0
0 0
0
3 Inc.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
+
5
IX
X
0 95
0
0
1 Inc.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
+
7
XIII
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-
2
III
IV
0
95
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
B
4
VII
VIII
0
95
0
0
0
0
0
6
XI
XII
0
95
0
In P. bursaria, Jennings (1938, 1939) found three varieties. Va-
rieties 1 and 3 contain 4 mating types each, while variety 2, eight
mating types. Jennings and Opitz (1944) further found variety 4
(Russian), composed of twro mating types and variety 5 under which
several Russian clones were placed. Chen (1946a) added variety 6
(originating in Europe) containing four mating types. Thus in this
species of Paramecium, there are now six varieties, containing 23
mating types (Table 7), and mating reaction occurs even among
enucleate fragments of animals of different mating types of the same
variety (Tartar and Chen, 1941). In Euplotes patella, Kimball (1939)
observed six mating types which he designated as type I to type VI
(Table 8).
Though the members of a clone are of the same mating type and
therefore do not conjugate, a clone may undergo at very long inter-
vals (some 2000 culture days), "self -differentiation" into twro mating
types which then conjugate (Jennings, 1941). Furthermore, Jennings
REPRODUCTION 195
Table 7. — Varieties and mating types in Paramecium bursaria
(Jennings; Jennings and Opitz; Chen)
+ indicates that conjugation occurs; — indicates that it does not
Variety
1
2
3
4
5
6
Mating
type
A B C D
EFGHJKLM
N
O P Q
R S
T
U V W X
A
B
C
D
- + + +
- + +
- +
1
2
E
F
G
H
J
K
L
M
- + + + + + + +
- + + + + + +
- + + + + +
- + + + +
- + + +
- + +
- +
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
N
O
P
Q
+ + +
- + +
- +
3
4
R
S
- +
5
T
6
U
V
w
X
- + + +
- + +
- +
and Opitz (1944) found that mating type R (variety 4) conjugated
with E, K, L or M (variety 2), but all conjugants or exconjugants
perished without multiplication. Chen (1946a) made a cytological
study of them and observed that the nuclear changes which are
Table
8. — Mating types in
Euplotes
patella (E
.imball)
Mating type
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
I
_
+
+
+
+
+
II
—
+
+
+
+
III
—
+
+
+
IV
—
+
+
V
—
+
VI
—
19G PROTOZOOLOGY
seemingly normal during the first 16 hours, become abnormal sud-
denly after that time, and the micronuclei divide only once and there
is no nuclear exchange. The death of conjugants or exconjugants is
possibly due to physiological incompatibility between the varieties
upon coming in contact or probably due to "something that diffuses
from one conjugant to the other."
Studies of mating types have revealed much information re-
garding conjugation. Conjugation usually does not occur in well-fed
or extremely starved animals, and appears to take place shortly
after the depletion of food. Temperature also plays a role in con-
jugation, as it takes place within a certain range of temperature
which varies even in a single species among different varieties
(Sonneborn). Light seems to have different effects on conjugation
in different varieties of P. aurelia. The time between two conju-
gations also varies in different species and varieties. In P. bursaria,
Jennings found that in some races the second conjugation would
not take place for many months after the first, while in others
such an "immature" period may be only a few weeks. In P. aurelia,
in some varieties there is no "immature" period, while in others there
is 6 to 10 days' "immaturity."
Very little is known about the physiological state of conjugants
as compared with vegetative individuals. Several investigators ob-
served that animals which participate in conjugation show much
viscous body surface. Boell and Woodruff (1941) found that the
mating individuals of Paramecium calkinsi show a lower respiratory
rate than not-mating individuals. Neither is the mechanism of con-
jugation understood at present. Kimball (1942) discovered in
Euplotes patella, the fluid taken from cultures of animals of one type
induces conjugation among the animals of other types (p. 235). Pre-
sumably certain substances are secreted by the organisms and be-
come diffused in the culture fluid. In Paramecium aurelia, Sonne-
born (1943) found that of the four races of variety 4, race 51 was a
"killer," while the other three races, "sensitive." Fluid in which the
killer race grew, kills the individuals of the sensitive races. As has
been mentioned already, P. bursaria designated as type T (variety
5) (Table 7) conjugates with none. But Chen (1945) found that its
culture fluid induces conjugation among a small number of the indi-
viduals of one mating type of varieties 2, 3, 4 and 6, in which nuclear
changes proceed as in normal conjugation. Furthermore, this fluid
is capable of inducing autogamy in single animals. Other visible in-
fluences of the fluid on organisms are sluggishness of movement and
darker coloration and distortion of the body.
REPRODUCTION 197
Boell and Woodruff (1941) noticed that in P. calkinsi, living indi-
viduals of one mating type will agglutinate with dead ones of the
complementary mating type. A similar phenomenon was also ob-
served by Metz (194(5, 1947, 1948) who employed various methods of
killing the animals. The pairs composed of living and formaldehyde-
killed animals, behave much like normal conjugating pairs; there is
of course no cross-fertilization, but the living member of the pair
undergoes autogamy. While the "mating type substances" can be
destroyed by exposure to 52°C. for five minutes; by X-irradiation;
by exposure of formaldehyde-killed reactive animals to specific anti-
sera or to 100°C, etc., Metz demonstrated that animals may be
killed by many reagents which do not destroy these substances.
Furthermore, all mating activities disappear when the animals are
thoroughly broken up, which suggests that Paramecium might re-
lease some mating substance inhibitory agent. This agent was later
found in this Paramecium (Metz and Butterfield, 1950). Metz (4948)
points out that the mating reaction involves substances present on
the surfaces of the cilia, and supposes that the interaction between
two mating-type substances initiates a chain of reactions leading up
to the process of conjugation and autogamy. Hiwatashi (1949a,
1950) using four groups (each composed of two mating types) of P.
caudatum, confirmed Metz's observation. Metz and Butterfield
(1951) more recently report that non-proteolytic enzymes (lecithin-
ase, hyaluronidase, lysozyme, ptyalin, ribonuclease) have no de-
tectable effect on the mating reactivity of P. calkinsi; but proteo-
lytic enzymes such as trypsin and chymotrypsin destroy the mating
reactivity, and mating substance activity was not found in the digest
of enzyme-treated organisms. The two observers believe that the
mating reactivity is dependent upon protein integrity.
When the ciliate possesses more than one micronucleus, the
first division ordinarily occurs in all and the second may or may
not take place in all, varying apparently even among individuals
of the same species. This seems to be the case with the majority, al-
though more than one micronucleus may divide for the third time to
produce several pronuclei, for example, two in Euplotes patella, Sty-
lonychia pustulata; two to three in Oxytricha fallax and two to four in
Uroleptus mobilis. This third division is often characterized by long
extended nuclear membrane stretched between the division prod-
ucts.
Ordinarily the individuals which undergo conjugation appear to
be morphologically similar to those that are engaged in the trophic
activity, but in some species, the organism divides just prior to
198
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 85. The life-cycle of Nyctotherus cordiformis in Hyla versicolor
(Wichterman). a, a cyst; b, excystment in tadpole; c, d, division is
repeated until host metamorphoses; e, smaller preconjugant; f-j, con-
jugation; k, exconjugant; 1, amphinucleus divides into 2 nuclei, one micro-
nucleus and the other passes through the "spireme ball" stage before
developing into a macronucleus; k-n, exconjugants found nearly exclu-
sively in recently transformed host; o, mature trophozoite; p-s, binary
fission stages; t, precystic stage.
REPRODUCTION 199
conjugation. According to Wichterman (1936), conjugation in
Nyctotherus cordiformis (Fig. 85) takes place only among those
which live in the tadpoles undergoing metamorphosis (f-j). The
conjugants are said to be much smaller than the ordinary tropho-
zoites, because of the preconjugation fission (d-e). The micronuclear
divisions are similar to those that have been described for Para-
mecium caudatum and finally two pronuclei are formed in each con-
jugant. Exchange and fusion of pronuclei follow. In each exconjug-
ant, the synkaryon divides once to form the micronucleus and the
macronuclear anlage (k-l) which develops into the "spireme ball"
and finally into the macronucleus (m-o).
A sexual process which is somewhat intermediate between the
sexual fusion and conjugation, is noted in several instances. Ac-
cording to Maupas' (1888) classical work on Vorticella nebulifera, the
ordinary vegetative form divides twice, forming four small indi-
viduals, which become detached from one another and swim about
independently. Presently each becomes attached to one side of a
stalked individual. In it, the micronucleus divides three times and
produces eight nuclei, of which seven degenerate; and the remaining
nucleus divides once more. In the stalked form the micronucleus di-
vides twice, forming four nuclei, of which three degenerate, and the
other dividing into two. During these changes the two conjugants
fuse completely. The wandering nucleus of the smaller conjugant
unites with the stationary nucleus of the larger conjugant, the other
two pronuclei degenerating. The synkaryon divides several times
to form a number of nuclei, from some of which macronuclei are
differentiated and exconjugant undergoes multiplication. In Vorti-
cella microstoma (Fig. 86), Finley (1943) notes that a vegetative indi-
vidual undergoes unequal division except the micronucleus which
divides equally (a), and forms a large stalked macroconjugant and a
small free microconjugant (b). The conjugation which requires 18-
24 hours for completion, begins when a microconjugant attaches it-
self to the lower third of a macroconjugant. The protoplasm of the
microconjugant enters the macroconjugant (c). The micronucleus of
the microconjugant divides three times, the last one of which being
reductional (d, e), while that of the macroconjugant divides twice
(one mitotic and one meiotic). Fusion of one of each produces a
synkaryon (/) which divides three times. One of the division products
becomes a micronucleus and the other seven macronuclear anlagen
(g, h) which are distributed among the progeny (i,j).
Another example of this type has been observed in Metopus es
200
PROTOZOOLOGY
(Fig. 87). According to No land (1927), the conjugants fuse along the
anterior end (a), and the micronucleus in each individual divides in
the same way as was observed in Paramecium caudatum ib-e). But
the cytoplasm and both pronuclei of one conjugant pass into the
other (J), leaving the degenerating macronucleus and a small
Fig. 86. Sexual reproduction in Vorticella microstoma, X800 (Fin-
ley), a, preconj ligation division which forms a macroconjugant ami a
microconjugant; b, a macroconjugant with three microconjugants; c, a
microconjugant fusing with a macroconjugant; d, the micronucleus of the
microconjugant divided into four nuclei; e, with 12 nuclei formed by di-
visions of the two micronuclei of conjugants; f, synkaryon; g, eight nu-
clei after three divisions of synkaryon; h, seven enlarging macronuclear
anlagen and a micronucleus in division; i, first division; j, a daughter in-
dividual with a micronucleus, four macronuclear anlagen. and old macro-
nuclear fragments.
REPRODUCTION
201
amount of cytoplasm behind in the shrunken pellicle of the smaller
conjugant which then separates from the other (j). In the larger
exconjugant, two pronuclei fuse, and the other two degenerate and
disappear (g, h) . The synkaryon divides into two nuclei, one of which
condenses into the micronucleus and the other grows into the macro-
nucleus (i, k-m). This is followed by the loss of cilia and encystment.
While ordinarily two individuals participate in conjugation, three
Fig. 87. Conjugation of Metopus es (Noland). a, early stage; b, first
micronuclear division; c, d, second micronuclear division; e, third micro-
nuclear division; f, migration of pronuclei from one conjugant into the
other; g, large conjugant with two pronuclei ready to fuse; h, large con-
jugant with the synkaryon, degenerating pronuclei and macronucleus;
i, large exconjugant with newljr formed micronucleus and macronucleus
j, small exconjugant with degenerating macronucleus; k-m, development
of two nuclei, a, X290; b-j, X250, k-m, X590.
202
PROTOZOOLOGY
or four individuals are occasionally involved. For example, conjuga-
tion of three animals was observed in P. caudatum by Stein (1867),
Jickeli (1884), Maupas (1889) and in Blepharisma vndulans by
Giese (1938) and Weisz (1950). Chen (1940b, 1948) made a careful
study of such a conjugaion which he found in Paramecium bur-
Fig. 88. Conjugation of three individuals in Paramecium bursaria,
X365 (Chen), a, late prophase of the first nuclear division (the individual
on right is a member of a race with "several hundred chromosomes,"
while the other two belong to another race with "about 80 chromosomes") ;
b, anaphase of the third division (each individual contains 2 degenerating
nuclei); c, beginning of pronuclear exchange between two anterior ani-
mals; d, e, synkaryon formation; f, after the first division of synkaryon,
one daughter nucleus undergoing degeneration in all animals.
REPRODUCTION
203
saria (Fig. 88). He found that the usual manner of association is
conjugation between a pair with the third conjugant attached to the
posterior part of one of them (a). Nuclear changes occur in all three
individuals, and in each, two pronuclei are formed by three divisions
(c) . But the exchange of the pronuclei takes place only between two
anterior conjugants (c-e) and autogamy (see below) occurs in the
third individual.
Fig. 89. Diagram illustrating autogamy in Paramecium aurelia (Diller).
a, normal animal; b, first micronuclear division; c, second micronuclear
division; d, individual with 8 micronuclei and macronucleus preparing for
skein formation; e, two micronuclei dividing for the third time; f, two
gamete-nuclei formed by the third division in the paroral cone; g, fusion
of the nuclei, producing synkaryon; h, i, first and second division of
synkaryon; j, with 4 nuclei, 2 becoming macronuclei and the other 2 re-
maining as micronuclei; k, macronuclei developing, micronuclei dividing;
1, one of the daughter individuals produced by fission.
Automixis. In certain Protozoa, the fusion occurs between two
nuclei which originate in a single nucleus of an individual. This
process has been called automixis by Hartmann, in contrast to the
amphimixis (Weismann) which is the complete fusion of two nuclei
originating in two individuals, as was discussed in the preceding
pages. If the two nuclei which undergo a complete fusion are present
in a single cell, the process is called autogamy, but, if they are in two
204 PROTOZOOLOGY
different cells, then paedogamy. The autogamy is of common occur-
rence in the myxosporidian spores. The young sporoplasm contains
two nuclei which fuse together prior to or during the process of ger-
mination in the alimentary canal of a specific host fish, as for exam-
ple in Sphaeromyxa sabrazesi (Figs. 276; 277) and Myxosoma cato-
stomi (Fig. 275). In the Microsporidia, autogamy appears to initiate
the spore-formation at the end of schizogonic activity of individuals
as in Thelohania legeri (Fig. 76).
Diller (1936) observed in solitary Paramecium aurelia (Fig. 89),
certain micronuclear changes similar to those which occur in
conjugating individuals. The two micronuclei divide twice, form-
ing eight nuclei (a-d), some of which divide for the third time (e),
producing two functional and several degenerating nuclei (/). The
two functional nuclei then fuse in the "paroral cone" and form the
synkaryon (g, h) which divides twice into four (i, j). The original
macronucleus undergoes fragmentation and becomes absorbed in the
cytoplasm. Of the four micronuclei, two transform into the new
macronuclei and two remain as micronuclei (k) each dividing into
two after the body divided into two (Z).
Another sexual process appears to have been observed by Diller
(1934) in conjugating Paramecium trichium in which there was
no nuclear exchange between the two conjugants. Wichterman
(1940) observed a similar process in P. caudatum and named it cytog-
amy. Two small (about 200/x long) individuals of P. caudatum
fuse on their oral surfaces. There occur three micronuclear divisions
as in the case of conjugation, but there is no nuclear exchange be-
tween the members of the pair. The two gametic nuclei in each indi-
vidual are said to fuse and form a synkaryon as in autogamy. Sonne-
born (1941) finds the frequency of cytogamy in P. aurelia to be cor-
related with temperature. At 17°C, conjugation occurs in about 95
per cent of the pairs and cytogamy in about 5 per cent; but at 10°
and 27°C, cytogamy takes place in 47 and 60 per cent respectively.
In addition, there is some indication that sodium decreases and
calcium increases the frequency of occurrence of cytogamy.
The paedogamy occurs in at least two species of Myxosporidia,
namely, Leptotheca ohlmacheri (Fig. 279) and Unicapsula muscularis
(Fig. 280). The spores of these myxosporidians contain two uninu-
cleate sporoplasms which are independent at first, but prior to
emergence from the spore, they undergo a complete fusion to meta-
morphose into a uninucleate amoebula. Perhaps the classical exam-
ple of the paedogamy is that which was found by Hertwig (1898) in
Actinosphaerium eichhorni. The organism encysts and the body di-
REPRODUCTION
205
vides into numerous uninucleate secondary cysts. Each secondary
cyst divides into two and remains together within a common cyst-
wall. In each the nucleus divides twice, and forms four nuclei, one of
which remains functional, the remaining three degenerating. The
paedogamy results in formation of a zygote in place of a secondary
cyst. Belaf (1923) observed a similar process in Actinophrys sol
(Fig. 90). This heliozoan withdraws its axopodia and divides into
two uninucleate bodies which become surrounded by a common
Fig. 90. Paedogamy in Actinophrys sol, X460 (Belaf). a, withdrawal
of axopodia; b, c, division into two uninucleate bodies, surrounded by
a common gelatinous envelope; d-f, the first reduction division; g-i,
the second reduction division; j-1, synkaryon formation.
gelatinous envelope. Both nuclei divide twice and produce four nu-
clei, three of which degenerate. The two daughter cells, each with one
haploid nucleus, undergo paedogamy and the resulting individual
now contains a diploid nucleus.
In Paramecium aurelia, Diller (1936) found simple fragmentation
of the macronucleus which was not correlated with any special
micronuclear activity and which could not be stages in conjugation
or autogamy. Diller suggests that if conjugation or autogamy is to
create a new nuclear complex, as is generally held, it is conceivable
that somewhat the same result might be achieved by "purification
act" (through fragmentation) on the part of the macronucleus itself,
206
PROTOZOOLOGY
without involving micronuclei. He coined the term hemixis for this
reorganization.
Meiosis. In the foregoing sections, references have been made to
the divisions which the nuclei undergo prior to sexual fusion or con-
jugation. In all Metazoa, during the development of the gametes,
the gametocytes undergo reduction division or meiosis, by which the
number of chromosomes is halved; that is to say, each fully mature
gamete possesses half (haploid) number of chromosomes typical of
the species (diploid). In the zygote, the diploid number is reestab-
lished. In the Protozoa in which sexual reproduction occurs during
their life-cycle, meiosis presumably takes place to maintain the con-
stancy of chromosome-number, but the process is understood only
in a small number of species.
Fig. 91. Mitotic and meiotic micronuclear divisions in conjugating
Didinium nasutum. (Prandtl, modified), a, normal micronucleus;b, equa-
torial plate in the first (mitotic) division; c, anaphase in the first division;
d, equatorial plate in the second division; e, anaphase in the second
(meiotic) division.
In conjugation, the meiosis seems to take place in the second
micronuclear division, although in some, for example, Oxytricha
fallax, according to Gregory, the actual reduction occurs during the
first division. Prandtl (1906) was the first to note a reduction in
number of chromosomes in the Protozoa. In conjugating Didinium
nasutum (Fig. 91), he observed 16 chromosomes in each of the
daughter micronuclei during the first division, but only 8 in the
second division. Since that time, the fact that meiosis occurs during
the second micronuclear division has been observed in Chilodonella
uncinata (Enrique; MacDougall), Carchesium polypinum (Popoff),
Uroleptus halseyi (Calkins), etc. (note the ciliates in Table 5 on p.
168). In various species of Paramecium and many other forms, the
number of chromosomes appears to be too great to allow a precise
counting, but the observations of Sonneborn, as quoted elsewhere
(p. 234) and of Jennings (1942) on P. aurelia and P. bursaria respec-
REPRODUCTION
207
tively, indicate clearly the occurrence of meiosis prior to nuclear ex-
change during conjugation.
Information on the meiosis involved in the complete fusion of gam-
etes is even more scanty and fragmentary. In Monocystis rostrata
(Fig. 92), a parasite of the earthworm, Mulsow (1911) noticed that
f ' ^^V
m
-m
^tzm&j^
w
Fig. 92. Mitosis and meiosis in Monocystis rostrata (Mulsow). a-g,
mitosis; h-j, meiosis. a, a resting nucleus in the gametocyte; b, develop-
ment of chromosomes; c, polar view of equatorial plate; d, longitudinal
splitting of eight chromosomes; e, separation of chromosomes in two
groups; f, late anaphase; g, two daughter nuclei; h, i, polar view of the
equatorial plate in the last division; j, anaphase, the gamete nucleus is
now haploid (4). a-c, X1840; d-g, X1400; h-j, X3000.
the nuclei of two gametocytes which encyst together, multiply by
mitosis in which eight chromosomes are constantly present (a-g),
but in the last division in gamete formation, each daughter nucleus
receives only 4 chromosomes (h-j). In another species of Monocystis,
Calkins and Bowling (1926) observed that the diploid number of
chromosomes was 10 and that haploid condition is established in the
last gametic division thus confirming Mulsow's finding.
In the paedogamy of Actinophrys sol (Fig. 90), Belaf (1923) finds
44 chromosomes in the first nuclear division, but after two meiotic
divisions, the remaining functional nucleus contains only 22 chromo-
somes so that when paedogamy is completed the diploid number is
restored. In Polytoma uvella, Moewus finds each of the two gametes
is haploid (8 chromosomes) and the zygotes are diploid. The syn-
karyon divides twice, and during the first division reduction division
takes place.
208
PROTOZOOLOGY
In the coccidian, Aggregata eberthi (Fig. 246), according to Dobell
(1925), Naville (1925) and Belaf (1926) and in the gregarine, Diplo-
cystis schneideri, according to Jameson (1920), there is no reduction
in the number of chromosomes during the gamete-formation, but the
first zygotic division is meiotic, 12 to 6 and 6 to 3, respectively. A
similar reduction takes place also in Actinocephalus parvus (8 to 4,
after Weschenf elder, 1938), Greg arina blattarum (6 to 3, after Sprague,
1941), Adelina deronis (20 to 10, after Hauschka, 1943), etc. Tri-
chonympha and other flagellates (p. 185) of woodroach, Polytoma
Fig. 93. Degeneration or aging in Stylonychia pustulata. X340 (Maupas,
modified), a, Beginning stage with reduction in size and completely
atrophied micronucleus; b, c, advanced stages in which disappearance of
the frontal zone, reduction in size, and fragmentation of the macronucleus
occurred; d, final stage before disintegration.
and Chlamydomonas (p. 276) also undergo postzygotic meiosis.
Thus in these organisms, the zygote is the only stage in which the
nucleus is diploid.
Some seventy years ago Weismann pointed out that a protozoan
grows and muliplies by binary fission or budding into two equal or
unequal individuals without loss of any protoplasmic part and these
in turn grow and divide, and that thus in Protozoa there is neither
senescence nor natural death which occur invariably in Metazoa in
which germ and soma cells are differentiated. Since that time, the
problem of potential immortality of Protozoa has been a matter
which attracted the attention of numerous investigators. Because of
large dimensions, rapid growth and reproduction, and ease with
REPRODUCTION 209
which they can be cultivated in the laboratory, the majorhVy of
Protozoa used in the study of the problem have been free-living
freshwater ciliates that feed on bacteria and other microorganisms.
The very first extended study was made by Maupas (1888) who
isolated Stylonychia pustulata on February 27, 1886, and observed
316 binary fissions until July 10. During this period, there was noted
a gradual decrease in size and increasing abnormality in form and
structure, until the animals could no longer divide and died (Fig.
93). A large number of isolation culture experiments have since been
carried on numerous species of ciliates by many investigators. The
results obtained are not in agreement. However, the bulk of ob-
tained data indicates that the vitality of animals decreases with the
passing of generations until finally the organisms suffer inevitable
death, and that in the species in which conjugation or other sexual
reproduction occurs, the declining vitality often becomes restored.
Perhaps the most thorough experiment was carried on by Calkins
(1919, 1933) with Uroleptus mobilis. Starting with an exconjugant on
November 17, 1917, a series of pure-line cultures was established by
the daily isolation method. It was found that no series lived longer
than a year, but when two of the progeny of a series were allowed to
conjugate after the first 75 generations, the exconjugants repeated
the history of the parent series, and did not die when the parent
series died. In this way, lines of the same organism have lived for
more than 12 years, passing through numerous series. In a series,
the average division for the first 60 days was 15.4 divisions per 10
days, but the rate gradually declined until death. Woodruff and
Spencer (1924) also found the isolation cultures of Spathidium
spathula (fed on Colpidium colpoda) died after a gradual decline in
the division rate, but were inclined to think that improper environ-
mental conditions rather than internal factors were responsible for
the decline.
On the other hand, Woodruff (1932) found that 5071 generations
produced by binary fission from a single individual of Paramecium
aurelia between May 1, 1907 and May 1, 1915, did not manifest any
decrease in vitality after eight years of continued asexual reproduc-
tion. Other examples of longevity of ciliates without conjugation
are: Glaucoma for 2701 generations (Enriques, 1916), Paramecium
caudatum for 3967 generations (Metalnikov, 1922), Spathidium spa-
thula for 1080 generations (Woodruff and Moore, 1924), Didinium
nasutum for 1384 generations (Beers, 1929), etc. With Actinophrys
sol, Belaf (1924) carried on isolation cultures for 1244 generations for
a period of 32 months and noticed no decline in the division rate.
210 PROTOZOOLOGY
Hartmann (1921) made a similar observation on Eudorina
It would appear that in these forms, the life continues indefinitely
without apparent decrease in vital activity.
As has been noted in the beginning part of the chapter, the
macronucleus in the ciliates undergoes, at the time of binary fission
a reorganization process before dividing into two parts and undoubt-
edly, there occurs at the same time extensive cytoplasmic reorgani-
zation as judged by the degeneration and absorption of the old, and
formation of the new, organellae. It is reasonable to suppose that
this reorganization of the whole body structure at the time of divi-
sion is an elimination process of waste material accumulated by the
organism during the various phases of vital activities as was con-
sidered by Kidder and others (p. 150) and that this elimination,
though not complete, enables the protoplasm of the products of divi-
sion to carry on their metabolic functions more actively.
As the generations are multiplied, the general decline in vitality
is manifest not only in the decreased division-rate, slow growth,
abnormal form and function of certain organellae, etc., but also in
inability to complete the process involved in conjugation. Jennings
(1944) distinguished four successive periods in various clone cultures
of Paramecium bursaria; namely, (1) a period of sexual immaturity
during which neither sexual reaction nor conjugation occurs; (2) a
period of transition during which weak sexual reactions appear in a
few individuals; (3) a period of maturity in which conjugation takes
place readily when proper mating types are brought together; and
(4) a period of decline, ending in death. The length of the first two
periods depends on the cultural conditions. Exconjugant clones that
are kept in condition under which the animals multiply rapidly,
reach maturity in three to five months, while those subjected to de-
pressing condition require 10 to 14 months to reach maturity. The
third period lasts for several years and is followed by the fourth
period during which fission becomes slower, abnormalities appear,
many individuals die and the clones die out completely.
Does conjugation affect the longevity of clones in Paramecium
busaria? A comparative study of the fate of exconjugants and non-
conjugants led Jennings (1944a) to conclude that (1) conjugation
results in production of one of the following four types: (a) excon-
jugants perish without division, (b) exconjugants divide one to four
times and then die, (c) exconjugants produce weak abnormal clones
which may become numerous, and (d) exconjugants multiply vigor-
ously and later undergo conjugation again; at times the latter are
REPRODUCTION 211
more vigorous than the parent clones, thus showing rejuvenescence
through conjugation; (2) conjugation of young clones results in little
or no mortality, while that of old clones results in high (often 100 per
cent) mortality; (3) conjugation between a young and an old clone,
results in the death of most or all of the exconjugants; (4) the two
members of a conjugating pair have the same fate; and (5) what
other causes besides age bring about the death, weakness or ab-
normality of the exconjugants, are not known.
It is probable that the process of replacing old macronuclei by
micronuclear material which are derived from the products of fusion
of two micronuclei of either the same (autogamy) or two different
animals (conjugation), would perhaps result in a complete elimina-
tion of waste substances from the newly formed macronuclei, and
divisions which follow this fusion may result in shifting the waste
substances unequally among different daughter individuals. Thus in
some individuals there may be a complete elimination of waste
material and consequently a restored high vitality, while in others
the influence of waste substances present in the cytoplasm may offset
or handicap the activity of new macronuclei, giving rise to stocks of
low vitality which will perish sooner or later. In addition in conjuga-
tion, the union of two haploid micronuclei produces diverse genetic
constitutions which would be manifest in progeny in manifold
ways. Experimental evidences indicate clearly such is actually the
case.
In many ciliates, the elimination of waste substances at the time
of binary fission and sexual reproduction (conjugation, and autog-
amy), seemingly allow the organisms continued existence through
a long chain of generations indefinitely. Jennings (1929, 1942) who
reviewed the whole problem states: "Some Protozoa are so con-
stituted that they are predestined to decline and death after a
number of generations. Some are so constituted that decline occurs,
but this is checked or reversed by substitution of reserve parts
for those that are exhausted; they can live indefinitely, but are
dependent on this substitution. In some the constitution is such
that life and multiplication can continue indefinitely without visible
substitution of a reserve nucleus for an exhausted one; but whether
this is due to the continued substitution, on a minute scale, of re-
serve parts for those that are outworn cannot now be positively
stated. This perfected condition, in which living itself includes con-
tinuously the necessary processes of repair and elimination, is found
in some free cells, but not in all."
212 PROTOZOOLOGY
Regeneration
The capacity of regenerating the lost parts, though variable
among different species, is characteristic of all Protozoa from simple
forms to those with highly complex organizations, as shown by ob-
servations of numerous investigators. It is now a well established
fact that when a protozoan is cut into two parts and the parts are
kept under proper environmental conditions, the enucleated portion
is able to carry on catabolic activities, but unable to undertake ana-
bolic activities, and consequently degenerates sooner or later. Brandt
(1877) studied regeneration in Actinosphaerium eichhorni and found
that only nucleate portions containing at least one nucleus regener-
ated and enucleate portions or isolated nuclei degenerated. Similarly
Gruber (1886) found in Amoeba proteus the nucleate portion regener-
ated completely, while enucleate part became rounded and perished
in a few days. The parts which do not contain nuclear material may
continue to show certain metabolic activities such as locomotion,
contraction of contractile vacuoles, etc., for some time; for example,
Grosse-Allermann (1909) saw enucleate portions of Amoeba verrucosa
alive for 20 to 25 days, while Stole (1910) found enucleate Amoeba
proteus living for 30 days. Clark (1942, 1943) showed that Amoeba
proteus lives for about seven days after it has been deprived of its
nucleus. Enucleated individuals show a 70 per cent depression of
respiration and are unable to digest food due to the failure of zymo-
gens to be activated in the dedifferentiating cytoplasm. According to
Brachet (1950), the enucleated half of an amoeba shows a steady
decrease in ribonucleic acid content, while the nucleated half retains
a much larger amount of this substance. Thus it appears that the
synthesis of the cytoplasmic particles containing ribonucleic acid is
under the control of the nucleus.
In Arcella (Martini; Hegner) and Difflugia (Verworn; Penarcl),
when the tests are partially destroyed, the broken tests remain un-
changed. Verworn considered that in these testaceans test-forming
activity of the nucleus is limited to the time of asexual reproduction
of the organisms. On the other hand several observers report in
Foraminifera the broken shell is completely regenerated at all times.
Verworn pointed out that this indicates that here the nucleus con-
trols the formation of shell at all times. In a radiolarian, Thalassi-
colla nucleata, the central capsule, if dissected out from the rest of
body, will regenerate into a complete organism (Schneider). A few
regeneration studies on Sporozoa have not given any results to be
considered here, because of the difficulties in finding suitable media
for cultivation in vitro.
REPRODUCTION 213
An enormous number of regeneration experiments have been con-
ducted on more than 50 ciliates by numerous investigators. Here
also the general conclusion is that the nucleus is necessary for re-
generation. In many cases, the macronucleus seems to be the only
essential nucleus for regeneration, as judged by the continued divi-
sion on record of several amicronucleate ciliates and by experiments
such as Schwartz's in which there was no regeneration in Stentor
coeruleus from which the whole macronucleus had been removed.
A remarkably small part of a protozoan is known to be able to re-
generate completely if nuclear material is included. For example,
Sokoloff found 1/53-1/69 of Spirostomum ambiguum and 1/70-1/75
of Dileptus anser regenerated and Phelps showed portions down to
1/80 of an amoeba were able to regenerate. In Stentor coeruleus,
pieces as small as 1/27 (Lilly) or 1/64 (Morgan) of the original speci-
mens or about 70/jl in diameter (Weisz) regenerate. Burnside cut 27
specimens of this ciliate belonging to a single clone, into two or more
parts in such a way that some of the pieces contained a large portion
of the nucleus while others a small portion. These fragments re-
generated and multiplied, giving rise to 268 individuals. No dimen-
sional differences resulted from the different amounts of nuclear
material present in the cut specimens. Apparently regulatory pro-
cesses took place and in all cases normal size was restored, re-
gardless of the amount of the nuclear material in ancestral pieces.
Thus biotypes of diverse sizes are not produced by causing inequali-
ties in the proportions of nuclear material in different individuals.
In addition to these restorative regenerations, there are physio-
logical regenerations in which as in the case of asexual and sexual re-
production, various organellae such as cilia, flagella, cytostome,
contractile vacuoles, etc., are completely regenerated. Information is
now available on the process of morphogenesis in regeneration and
reorganization in certain ciliates (Chatton and Lwoff, 1935; Bala-
muth, 1940; Summers, 1941; Faure-Fremiet, 1948; Weisz, 1948,
1951).
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214 PROTOZOOLOGY
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216 PROTOZOOLOGY
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REPRODUCTION 217
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218 PROTOZOOLOGY
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REPRODUCTION 219
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220 PROTOZOOLOGY
(1889) Le rejeunissement karyogamique chez les cilies. Ibid.,
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Muller, W. : (1932) Cytologische und vergleichend-physiologische
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Mulsow, K. : (1911) Ueber Fortpflanzungserscheinungen bei Mono-
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Noble, E. R. : (1947) Cell division in Entamoeba gingivalis. Univ.
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Oehler, R. : (1916) Amoebenzucht auf reinem Boden. Arch. Pro-
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Prandtl, H.: (1906) Die Konjugation von Didinium nasutum.
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REPRODUCTION 221
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222 PROTOZOOLOGY
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Biol., 18:303.
Chapter 6
Variation and heredity
IT IS generally recognized that individuals of all species of organ-
ism vary in morphological and physiological characteristics. Pro-
tozoa are no exception, and manifest a wide variation in size, form,
structure, and physiological characters among the members of a
single species. The different groups in a species are spoken of as the
races, varieties, strains, etc. It is well known that dinoflagellates
show a great morphological variation in different localities. Wesen-
berg-Lund (1908) noticed a definite seasonal morphological variation
in Cerctium hirundinella in Danish lakes, while Schroder (1914)
found at least nine varieties of this organism (Fig. 94) occurring in
various bodies of water in Europe, and List (1913) reported that the
organisms living in shallow ponds possess a marked morphological
difference from those living in deep ponds. Cyphoderia ampulla is
said to vary in size among those inhabiting the same deep lakes;
namely, individuals from the deep water may reach 200m in length,
while those from the surface layer measure only about 100^ long.
In many species of Foraminifera, the shell varies in thickness ac-
cording to the part of ocean in which the organisms live. Thus the
strains which live floating in surface water have a much thinner shell
than those that dwell on the bottom. For example, according to
Rhumbler, Orbulina universa inhabiting surface water has a com-
paratively thin shell, 1.28-18^ thick, while individuals living on the
bottom have a thick shell, up to 24/x in thickness. According to
Uyemura, a species of Amoeba living in thermal waters, showed a
distinct dimensional difference in different springs. It measured
10— 40/x in diameter in sulphurous water and 45-80^ in ferrous water;
in both types of water the amoebae were larger at 36-40°C. than
at 51°C.
Such differences or varieties appear to be due to the influence of
diverse environmental conditions, and will continue to exist under
these conditions; but when the organisms of different varieties are
subjected to a similar environment, the strain differences usually dis-
appear sooner or later. That the differences in kind and amount of
foods bring about extremely diverse individuals in Tetrahymena
vorax and Chilomonas Paramecium in bacteria-free cultures has al-
ready been mentioned (p. 109). Chlamydomonas debaryana are repre-
sented by many races differing in form, size, and structure, in various
localities as well as under different laboratory conditions. Moewus
223
224
PROTOZOOLOGY
(1934) distinguished 12 such varieties and showed that any variety
could be changed into another by using different culture media. This
transformation, however, did not occur at the same rate among dif-
ferent races. It was found that the longer a strain has remained under
Fig. 94. Varieties of Ceratium hirundinella from various European
waters (Schroder), a, furcoides-type (130-300> by 30-45/x); b, brachy-
ceroides-type (130-145/z by 30-45^); c, silesiacum-type (148-280/x by
28— 34ju) ; d, carinthiacum-type (120-145/z by 45-60/x); e, gracile-type
(140-200/* by 60-75/x); f, austriacum-type (120-160/x by 45-60/x); g,
robustum-type (270-310/x by 45-55/x); h, scotticum-type (160-210/z by
50-60m); i, piburgense-type (180-260/* by 50-60/x).
conditions producing a given type, the greater the time and the num-
ber of generations needed to change it to a new type under a new
condition, as is shown in Table 9.
While in many species, the races or varieties have apparently been
brought about into being under the influence of environmental con-
ditions, in others the inherited characters persist for a long period,
and still in others the biotype may show different inherited char-
VARIATION AND HEREDITY 225
Table 9. — Relation between the number of days cultivated in peptone
medium and the number of days cultivated in salt-sugar medium needed to
change from type 1 to type 5 in Chlamydomonas debaryana (Moewus).
Days in peptone medium
Days in salt-sugar medium needed
as type 1
to change to type 5
28
28
140
49
273
133
441
175
567
231
609
370
644
459
672
531
690
534
acters. To the last-mentioned category belongs perhaps a strain of
Tetrahymena pyriformis in which, according to Furgason (1940), a
pure-line bacteria-free culture derived from a single individual was
found to be composed of individuals differing in shape and size which
became more marked in older cultures.
The first comprehensive study dealing with the variation in
size and its inheritance in asexual reproduction of Protozoa was
conducted by Jennings (1909). From a "wild" lot of Paramec-
ium caudatum, eight races or biotypes with the relative mean
lengths of 206, 200, 194, 176, 142, 125, 100, and 45/x were isolated.
It was found that within each clone derived from a single parent,
the size of individuals varies greatly (which is attributable to
growth, amount of food, and other environmental conditions), any
one of which may give rise to progeny of the same mean size. Thus
selection within the pure race has no effect on the size, and the differ-
ences brought about merely by environment are not inherited. Jen-
nings (1916) examined the inheritance of the size and number of
spines, size of shell, diameter of mouth, and size and number of
teeth of the testacean Difflugia corona, and showed that "a popula-
tion consists of many hereditarily diverse stocks, and a single stock,
derived from a single progenitor, gradually differentiates into such
hereditarily diverse stocks, so that by selection marked results are
produced." Root (1918) with Centropyxis aculeata, Hegner (1919)
with Arcella dentata, and Reynolds (1924) with A. polypora, ob-
tained similar results. Jennings (1937) studied the inheritance of
teeth in Difflugia corona in normal fission and by altering through
operation, and found that operated mouth or teeth were restored to
226 PROTOZOOLOGY
normal form in 3 or 4 generations and that three factors appeared to
determine the character and number of teeth: namely, the size of the
mouth, the number and arrangement of teeth in the parent, and
"something in the constitution of the clone (its genotype) which
tends toward the production of a mouth of a certain size, with teeth
of a certain form, arrangement, and number."
Races or strains have been recognized in almost all intensively
studied Protozoa. For example, Ujihara (1914) and Dobell and Jepps
(1918) noticed five races in Entamoeba histolytica on the basis of dif-
ferences in the size of cysts. Spector (1936) distinguished two races in
the trophozoite of this amoeba. The large strain was found to be
pathogenic to kittens, but the small strain was not. Meleney and
Frye (1933, 1935) and Frye and Meleney (1939) also hold that there
is a small race in Entamoeba histolytica which has a weak capacity for
invading the intestinal wall and not pathogenic to man. Sapiro,
Hakansson and Louttit (1942) similarly notice two races which can
be distinguished by the diameters of cysts, the division line being
10/x and 9m in living and balsam-mounted specimens respectively.
The race with large cysts gives rise to trophozoites which are more
actively motile, ingest erythrocytes, and culture easily, is patho-
genic to man and kitten, while the race with small cysts develops
into less actively motile amoebae which do not ingest erythrocytes
and are difficult to culture, is not pathogenic to hosts, thus not being
histozoic. It is interesting to note, however, that Cleveland and
Sanders (1930) found the diameter of the cysts produced in a pure-
line culture of this sarcodinan, which had originated in a single cyst,
varied from 7 to 23m- Furthermore, the small race of Frye and
Meleney mentioned above was later found by Meleney and Zucker-
man (1948) to give rise to larger forms in culture, which led the last
two observers to consider that the size range of the strains of this
amoeba is a characteristic which may change from small to large or
vice versa under different environmental conditions.
Investigations by Boyd and his co-workers and others show that
the species of Plasmodium appear to be composed of many strains
which vary in diverse physiological characters. In an extended study
on Trypanosoma lewisi, Taliaferro (1921-1926) found that this flagel-
late multiplies only during the first ten days in the blood of a rat after
inoculation, after which the organisms do not reproduce. In the adult
trypanosomes, the variability for total length in a population is about
3 per cent. Inoculation of the same pure line into different rats some-
times brings about small but significant differences in the mean size
and passage through a rat-flea generally results in a significant vari-
VARIATION AND HEREDITY 227
ability of the pure line. It is considered that some differences in
dimensions among strains are apparently due to environment (host),
but others cannot be considered as due to this cause, since they per-
sist when several strains showing such differences are inoculated
into the same host. The two strains of T. cruzi isolated from human
hosts and maintained for 28 and 41 months by Hauschka (1949),
showed well defined and constant strain-specific levels of virulence,
different degrees of affinity for certain host tissues, unequal suscepti-
bility to the quinoline-derivative Bayer 7602, and a difference in re-
sponse to environmental temperature. The five strains of Tricho-
monas gallinae studied by Stabler (1948) were found to possess a
marked variation in virulence to its hosts.
According to Kidder and his associates, the six strains (H, E, T,
T-P, W, GHH) of Tetrahymena pyriformis and the two strains (V,
PP) of T. vorax differ in biochemical reactions. They found the ap-
pearance of a biochemical variation between a parent strain (T) and
a daughter strain (T-P) during a few years of separation and a
greater difference in the reactions between the two species than that
between the strains of each species. These strains show further dif-
ferences in antigenic relationships. Five strains of pyriformis con-
tain qualitatively identical antigens, but differ quantitatively with
respect to amount, concentration or distribution of antigenic ma-
terials. The sixth strain (T) contains all the antigens of the other five
strains and additional antigens. The two strains of vorax are said to
be nearly identical antigenically. The antigenic differences between
the two species were marked, since there is no cross-reaction within
the standard testing time. In these cases, thus, some aspects of the
physiological difference among different strains are understood.
Jollos (1921) subjected Paramecium caudatum to various environ-
mental influences such as temperature and chemicals, and found that
the animals develop tolerance which is inherited through many gen-
erations even after removal to the original environment. For exam-
ple, one of the clones which tolerated only 1.1% of standard solution
of arsenic acid, was cultivated in gradually increasing concentrations
for four months, at the end of which the tolerance for this chemical
was raised to 5%. After being removed to water without arsenic
acid, the tolerance changed as follows: 22 days, 5%; 46 days, 4.5%;
151 days, 4%; 166 days, 3%; 183 days, 2.5%; 198 days, 1.25% and
255 days, 1%. As the organisms reproduced about once a day, the
acquired increased tolerance to arsenic was inherited for about 250
generations.
There are also known inherited changes in form and structure
228 PROTOZOOLOGY
which are produced under the influence of certain environmental
conditions. Jollos designated these changes long-lasting modifica-
tions (Dauermodifikationen) and maintained that a change in en-
vironmental conditions, if applied gradually, brings about a change,
not in the nucleus, but in the cytoplasm, of the organism which
when transferred to the original environment, is inherited for a
number of generations. These modifications are lost usually during
sexual processes at which time the whole organism is reorganized.
The long-lasting morphological and physiological modifications
induced by chemical substances have long been known in parasitic
Protozoa. Werbitzki (1910) discovered that Trypanosoma brucei
loses its blepharoplast when inoculated into mice which have
been treated with pyronin, acridin, oxazin and allied dyes, and
Piekarski (1949) showed that trypaflavin and organic metal com-
pounds which act as nuclear poisons and interfere with nuclear di-
vision, also bring about the loss of blepharoplast in this trypano-
some. Laveran and Roudsky (1911) found that the dyes mentioned
above have a special affinity for, and bring about the destruction
by auto-oxidation of, the blepharoplast. Such trypanosomes lacking
a blepharoplast behave normally and remain in that condition during
many passages through mice. When subjected to small doses of cer-
tain drugs repeatedly, species of Trypanosoma often develop into
drug-fast or drug-resistant strains which resist doses of the drug
greater than those used for the treatment of the disease for which
they are responsible. These modifications may also persist for several
hundred passages through host animals and invertebrate vectors,
but are eventually lost.
Long-lasting modifications have also been produced by several
investigators by subjecting Protozoa to various environmental in-
fluences during the nuclear reorganization at the time of fission,
conjugation, or autogamy. In Stentor (Popoff) and Glaucoma
(Chatton), long-lasting modifications appeared during asexual divi-
sions. Calkins (1924) observed a double-type Uroleptus mobilis (Fig.
95, b) which was formed by a complete fusion of two conjugants.
This abnormal animal underwent fission 367 times for 405 days, but
finally reverted back to normal forms, without reversion to double
form. The double animal of Euplotes patella (d) is, according to Kim-
ball (1941) and Powers (1943), said to be formed by incomplete di-
vision and rarely through conjugation. De Garis (1930) produced
double animals in Paramecium caudatum through inhibition of di-
vision by exposing the animals to cyanide vapor or to low tempera-
tures
VARIATION AND HEREDITY
229
Jennings (1941) outlined five types of long-lasting inherited
changes during vegetative reproduction, as follows: (1) changes that
occur in the course of normal life history, immaturity to sexual ma-
turity which involves many generations; (2) degenerative changes
resulting from existence under unfavorable conditions; (3) adaptive
changes or inherited acclimitization or immunity; (4) changes which
are neither adaptive nor degenerative, occurring under specific en-
vironmental conditions; and (5) changes in form, size, and other
characters, which are apparently not due to environment.
Whatever exact mechanism by which the long-lasting modifica-
Fig. 95. a-c, Uroleptus mobilis (Calkins) (a, a pair in conjugation; b,
an individual from the third generation by division of a double organism
which had been formed by the coalescence of a conjugating pair; c, a
product of reversion); d, a double animal of Euplotes patella (Kimball).
tions are brought about may be, they are difficult to distinguish
from permanent modification or mutation, since they persist for
hundreds of generations, and cases of mutation have in most instan-
ces not been followed by sufficiently long enough pure-line cultures
to definitely establish them as such (Jollos, 1934; Moewus, 1934;
Sonneborn, 1947).
Jollos observed that if Paramecium were subjected to environ-
mental change during late stages of conjugation, certain individuals,
if not all, become permanently changed. Possibly the recombining and
reorganizing nuclear materials are affected in such a way that the
hereditary constitution or genotype becomes altered. MacDougall
subjected Chilodonella uncinata to ultraviolet rays and produced
many changes which were placed in three groups: (1) abnormalities
which caused the death of the organism; (2) temporary variations
which disappeared by the third generation ; and (3) variations which
230
PROTOZOOLOGY
were inherited through successive generations and hence considered
as mutations. The mutants were triploid, tetraploid, and tailed
diploid forms (Fig. 96), which bred true for a variable length of time
in pure-line cultures, either being lost or dying off finally. The tailed
form differed from the normal form in the body shape, in the number
of ciliary rows and contractile vacuoles, and in the mode of move-
ment, but during conjugation it showed the diploid number of chro-
mosomes as in the typical form. The tailed mutant remained true
and underwent 20 conjugations during ten months.
Fig. 96. Chilodonella uncinata (MacDougall). a, b, ventral and side
view of normal individual; c, d, ventral and side view of the tailed mutant.
Kimball (1950) exposed Paramecium aurelia to beta particles from
plaques containing P32 and obtained many clones which multiplied
more slowly than normal animals or died, which conditions were
interpreted by him to be due to mutational changes induced in the
micronuclei by the radiation. Kimball found that the radiation was
less effective if given just before the cytoplasmic division than if
given at other times during the division interval and that exposure
of the organisms to ultraviolet ray of wave length 2537 A inactivates
the Kappa (p. 239).
The loss of the blepharoplast in trypanosomes mentioned above
occurs also spontaneously in nature. A strain of Trypanosoma evansi
which had been maintained in laboratory animals for five years, sud-
denly lost the blepharoplast (Wenyon, 1928) which condition re-
mained for 12| years (Hoare, 1940). Hoare and Bennett (1937) found
five camels out of 100 they examined infected by the same species
of trypanosome that was without a blepharoplast. One strain inocu-
lated into laboratory animals has retained this peculiarity for nearly
VARIATION AND HEREDITY 231
three years. Nothing is known as to how such strains arise, though
some workers suggest mutational change.
In sexual reproduction, the nuclei of two individuals participate
in producing new combinations which would naturally bring about
diverse genetic constitutions. The new combination is accomplished
either by sexual fusion in Sarcodina, Mastigophora, and Sporozoa,
or by conjugation in Euciliata and Suctoria.
The genetics of sexual fusion is only known in a few forms. Perhaps
the most complete information was obtained by Moewus through
his extended studies of certain Phytomonadina. In Polytoma (p.
281), Chlamydomonas (p. 276), and allied forms, the motile indi-
viduals are usually haploid. Two such individuals (gametes) fuse
with each other and produce a diploid zygote which encysts. The
zygote later undergoes at least two divisions within the cyst wall, in
the first division of which chromosome reduction takes place. These
swarmers when set free become trophozoites and multiply asexually
by division for many generations, the descendants of each s warmer
giving rise to a clone.
Moewus (1935) demonstrated the segregation and independent as-
sortment of factors by hybridization of Polytoma. He used two va-
rieties each of two species: P. uvella and P. pascheri, both of which
possess 8 haploid chromosomes. Their constitutions were as follows:
P. uvella
Form A: Oval (F), without papilla (p), with stigma (S), large (D)
(Fig. 97, a).
Form B: Oval (F), without papilla (p), without stigma (s), large (D)
(Fig. 97, b).
P. pascheri
Form C: Pyriform (f), with papilla (P), without stigma (s), large
(D) (Fig. 97, c).
Form D: Pyriform (f), with papilla (P), without stigma (s), small
(d) (Fig. 97, d).
Thus six different crosses were possible from the four pairs of
characters. When A (FpSD) and B (FpsD) fuse, the zygote divides
into four swarmers, two swarmers have stigma (S), and the other
two lack this cell organ, which indicates the occurrence of segrega-
tion of the two characters (S, s) during the reduction division. When
B (FpsD) is crossed with C (fPsD), thus differing in two pairs of
characters, two swarmers possess one combination or type and the
other two another combination. Different pairs of combinations are
232 PROTOZOOLOGY
of course found. It was found that about half the zygotes gives rise to
the two parental combinations (Fig. 97, b, c), while the other half
gives rise to FPsD (e) and fpsD (/).
When B (FpsD) is crossed with D (fPsd) or A (FpSD) is crossed
with D (fPsd), only two types of swarmers are also formed from
each zygote, and in the case of BxD, eight different combinations
are produced, while in the case of AXD, sixteen different combina-
tions, which appear in about equal numbers, are formed. Thus these
four factors or characters show independent assortment during divi-
sions of the zygote.
a b c d e (
Fig. 97. a, b. Polytoma uvella. a, Form A; b, P^orm B.
c, d. P. pascheri. c, Form C; d, Form D.
e, f. Crosses between Forms B and C. (Moewus)
Furthermore, Moewus noticed that certain other characters ap-
peared to be linked with some of the four characters mentioned
above. For example, the length of flagella, if it is under control of a
factor, is linked on the same chromosome with the size-controlling
factors (D, d), for large individuals have invariably long flagella
and small individuals short flagella. During the experiments to de-
termine this linkage, it was found that crossing over occurs between
two entire chromosomes that are undergoing synapsis.
In certain races of Polytoma pascheri and Chlamydomonas euga-
metos, the sexual fusion takes place between members of different
clones only. The zygote gives rise as was stated before to four swarm-
ers by two divisions, which are evenly divided between the two
sexes, which shows that the sex-determining factors are lodged in a
single chromosome pair. In a cross between Chlamydomonas para-
doxa and C. pseudoparadoxa, both of which produce only one type of
gamete in a clone, the majority of the zygotes yield four clones, two
VARIATION AND HEREDITY 233
producing male gametes and the other two female gametes; but a
small number of zygotes gives rise to four clones which contain both
gametes. It is considered that this is due to crossing-over that
brought the two sex factors (P and M) together into one chromo-
some, and hence the "mixed" condition, while the other chromosome
which is devoid of the sex factors gives rise to individuals that soon
perish.
In crosses between Chlamydo?no?ias eugametos which possesses a
stigma and 10 haploid chromosomes and C. paupera which lacks a
stigma and 10 haploid chromosomes, 12 pairs of factors including
sex factor are distinguishable. Consequently at least two chromo-
somes must have two factors in them. Thus adaptation to acid or
alkaline culture media was found to be linked with differences in
the number of divisions in zygote. That there occurs a sex-linked in-
heritance in Chlamydomonas was demonstrated by crossing stigma-
bearing C. eugametos of one sex with stigma-lacking C. paupera of
the opposite sex. The progeny that were of the same sex as C. euga-
metos parent possessed stigma, while those that were of the same sex
as C. paupera parent lacked stigma. Thus it is seen that the sex factor
and stigma factor are located in the same chromosome.
The genetics of conjugation which takes place between two diploid
conjugants has been studied by various investigators. Pure-line
cultures of exconjugants show that conjugation brings about diverse
inherited constitutions in the clones characterized by difference in
size, form, division-rate, mortality-rate, vigor, resistance, etc. The
discovery of mating types in Paramecium and in Euplotes, and in-
tensive studies of conjugation and related phenomena, are bringing
to light hitherto unknown information on some of the fundamental
problems in genetics.
Sonneborn (1939) has made extended studies of variety 1 of
Paramecium aurelia (p. 194) and found that genetically diverse ma-
terials show different types of inheritance, as follows:
(1) Stocks containing two mating types. When types I and II
conjugate, among a set of exconjugants some produce all of one
mating type, others all of the other mating type and still others
both types (one of one type and the other of the other type). In the
last mentioned exconjugants, the types segregate usually at the
first division, since of the two individuals produced by the first divi-
sion, one and all its progeny, are of one mating type, and the other
and all its progeny are of the other mating type. A similar change
was also found to take place at autogamy. Sonneborn therefore con-
siders that the mating types are determined by macronuclei, as
234 PROTOZOOLOGY
judged by segregation at first or sometimes second division in excon-
jugants and by the influence of temperature during conjugation and
the first division.
(2) Stocks containing only one mating type. No conjugation oc-
curs in such stocks. Autogamy does not produce any change in type
which is always type I. Stocks that contain type II only have not
yet been found.
(3) Hybrids between stocks containing one and two mating types.
When the members of the stock containing both types I and II
(two-type condition) conjugate with those of the stock containing
one type (one-type condition), all the descendants of the hybrid
exconjugants show two-type condition, which shows the dominancy
of two-type condition over one-type condition. The factor for the
two-type condition may be designated A and that for the one-type
condition a. The parent stocks are AA and aa, and all Fi hybrids Aa.
When the hybrids (Aa) are backcrossed to recessive parent (aa)
(158 conjugating pairs in one experiment), approximately one-half
(81) of the pairs give rise to two-type condition (Aa) and the remain-
ing one-half (77) of the pairs to one-type condition (aa), thus showing
a typical Mendelian result. When Fi hybrids (Aa) were interbred by
120 conjugating pairs, each exconjugant in 88 of the pairs gave
rise to two- type condition and each exconjugant in 32 pairs pro-
duced one-type condition, thus approximating an expected Men-
delian ratio of 3 dominants to 1 recessive. That the F2 dominants
are composed of two-thirds heterozygotes (Aa) and one-third homo-
zygotes (AA) was confirmed by the results obtained by allowing F2
dominants to conjugate with the recessive parent stock (aa). Of 19
pairs of conjugants, 6 pairs gave rise to only dominant progenj^,
which shows that they were homozygous (AA) and their progeny
heterozygous (Aa), while 13 pairs produced one-half dominants and
one-half recessives, which indicates that they were heterozygous
(Aa) and their progeny half homozygous (aa) and half heterozygous
(Aa). Thus the genie agreement between two conjugants of a pair
and the relative frequency of various gene combinations as shown in
these experiments confirm definitely the occurrence of meiosis and
chromosomal exchange during conjugation which have hitherto been
considered only on cytological ground.
In Euplotes patella, Kimball (1942) made various matings with
respect to the inheritance of the mating type. The results obtained
can be explained if it is assumed that mating types I, II, and V, are
determined by different heterozygous combinations of three allelic
genes which if homozygous determine mating types III, IV, and VI.
VARIATION AND HEREDITY 235
Upon this supposition, type I has one allele in common with type II,
and this allele is homozygous in type IV. It has one allele in common
with type V, and this allele is homozygous in type VI. Type II has
one allele in common with type V and this is homozygous in type
III. These alleles were designated by Kimball, mt1, mt2, and mt3.
The genotypes of the six mating types may be indicated as follows:
imVmtMI), rn^mt3 (II), mt3mt3(III), mtfmt1 (IV), mt2mt3 (V), and
mt2mt2 (VI).
There is no dominance among these alleles, the three heterozygous
combinations determining three mating types being different from
one another and from the three determined by homozygous combi-
nation. Kimball (1939, 1941) had shown that the fluid obtained free
of Euplotes from a culture of one mating type will induce conjuga-
tion among animals of certain other mating types. When all possible
combinations of fluids and animals are made, it was found that the
fluid from any of the heterozygous types induces conjugation among
animals of any types other than its own and the fluid from any of
the homozygous types induces conjugation only among animals of
the types which do not have the same allele as the type from
which the fluid came. These reactions may be explained by an
assumption that each of the mating type alleles is responsible for
the production by the animal of a specific conjugation-inducing
substance. Thus the two alleles in a heterozygote act independently
of each other; each brings about the production by the animal of a
substance of its own. Thus heterozygous animals are induced to con-
jugate only by the fluids from individuals which possess an allele
not present in the heterozygotes.
The double animals of Euplotes patella (p. 228) conjugate with
double animals or with single animals in appropriate mixtures and at
times a double animal gives rise by binary fission to a double and
two single animals instead of two animals (Fig. 98). Powers (1943)
obtained doubles of various genotypes for mating types which were
determined by observing the mating type of each of the two singles
that arose from the doubles. Doubles of type IV (m^mt1) with a
single micronucleus (Fig. 98, a) were mated with singles of type VI
(mt2mt2) (6). The double exconjugants (d) were "split" into their
component singles belonging to mating types IV and VI (g), while
the doubles were type I (/) . Thus it was found that the phenotype of
a double animal with separate nuclei was the same as though the
alleles present in the nuclei were located within one nucleus. The
fact that loss of one micronucleus had no effect on the type of
doubles, tends to show that the micronucleus has no direct effect on
236
PROTOZOOLOGY
mating types. Sonneborn's view (p. 233) that the macro-nucleus is
the determiner of the mating types in Paramecium aurelia appears to
hold true in Euplotes also.
The relation between the cytoplasm and nucleus in respect to in-
heritance has become better known in recent years in some ciliates.
Sonneborn (1934) crossed two clones of Paramecium aurelia differing
markedly in size and division rate, and found the difference persisted
Type VI
Type J
Type I
Type I
Type VI
Fig. 98. Diagram showing conjugation between a double (type IV)
and a single (type VI) of Euplotes patella (Powers), a, a double organism
with one micronucleus (genotype mt'mt1); b, a normal single with a mi-
cronucleus (genotype mt2mt2); c, conjugation of the single with the ami-
cronucleate half of the double (one of the pronuclei produced in the sin-
gle migrates into the double, while the two pronuclei of the double un-
dergo autogamy); d, the exconjugant double is shown to be type I
(mtmit2); e, exconjugant single remains type VI; f, the double divides
into two type I doubles; g, occasionally the anterior half of the double
is widely "split," and division produces a double and two singles, the
latter testing as type IV and type VI; h, line of exconjugant single. Newly
formed macronuclei are stippled.
VARIATION AND HEREDITY 237
for a time between the two Fi clones produced from the two mem-
bers of each hybrid pair of exconjugants, but later both clones be-
came practically identical in size and division rate (Sonneborn,
1947). De Garis (1935) succeeded in bringing about conjugation in
Paramecium caudatum, between the members of a large clone (198m
long) (Fig. 99, a) and of a small clone (73ju long) (b). The excon-
jugants of a pair are different only in the cytoplasm as the nuclei are
alike through exchange of a haploid set of chromosomes. The two
exconjugants divide and give rise to progeny which grow to size
characteristic of each parent clone, division continuing at the rate of
once or twice a day. However, as division is repeated, the descend-
0."
oooooOOOOO
Fig. 99. Diagram showing the size changes in two clones derived from
a pair of conjugants of Paramecium caudatum, differing in size (a, b).
Gradual change in dimensions in each clone during 22 days resulted in
intermediate size (Jennings) .
ants of the large clone become gradually smaller after successive
fissions, while the descendants of the small clone become gradually
larger, until at the end of 22 days (in one experiment) both clones
produced individuals of intermediate size (about 135ju long) which
remained in the generations that followed. Since the exconjugants
differed in the cytoplasm only, it must be considered probable that
at first the cytoplasmic character was inherited through several
vegetative divisions, but ultimately the influence of the new nucleus
gradually changed the cytoplasmic character. The ultimate size be-
tween the two clones is however not always midway between the
mean sizes of the two parent clones, and is apparently dependent
upon the nuclear combinations brought about by conjugation. It
has also become known that different pairs of conjugants between
the same two clones give rise to diverse progeny, similar to those of
sexual reproduction in Metazoa, which indicates that clones of Para-
238 PROTOZOOLOGY
mecium caudatum are in many cases heterozygous for size factors and
recombination of factors occurs at the time of conjugation.
In P. aurelia, Kimball (1939) observed that there occasionally
occurs a change of one mating type into another following autogamy.
When the change is from type II to type I, not all animals change
type immediately. Following the first few divisions of the product of
the first division after autogamy there are present still some type II
animals, although ultimately all become transformed into type I.
Here also the cytoplasmic influence persists and is inherited through
vegetative divisions. Jennings (1941) in his excellent review writes:
"The primary source of diversities in inherited characters lies in the
nucleus. But the nucleus by known material interchanges im-
presses its constitution on the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm retains the
constitution so impressed for a considerable length of time, dur-
ing which it assimilates and reproduces true to its impressed char-
acter. It may do this after removal from contact with the nucleus to
which its present constitution is due, and even for a time in the
presence of another nucleus of different constitution. During this
period, cytoplasmic inheritance may occur in vegetative reproduc-
tion. The new cells produced show the characteristics due to this
cytoplasmic constitution impressed earlier by a nucleus that is no
longer present. But in time the new nucleus asserts itself, impressing
its own constitution on the cytoplasm. Such cycles are repeated as
often as the nucleus is changed by conjugation."
Since the first demonstration some forty years ago of "cytoplas-
mic inheritance" in higher plants, many cytoplasmic factors have
been observed in various plants (Michaelis and Michaelis, 1948).
Information on similar phenomena in Metazoa and Protozoa is of
recent origin.
As was already mentioned (p. 196), Sonneborn found in four races
of variety 4 of Paramecium aurelia a pair of characters which he
designated as "killer" and "sensitive." The killers liberate para-
mecin, a desoxyribonucleoprotein (Wagtendonk and Zill, 1947), into
the culture fluid, to which they are resistant. When the sensitive
races are exposed to paramecin in the fluid in which the killer race 51
lived, they show after hours a hump on the oral surface toward the
posterior end which becomes enlarged, while the anterior part of the
body gradually wastes away. The body becomes smaller and
rounded; finally the organisms perish (Fig. 100). Sensitives can be
mated to the killers, however, without injury if proper precaution is
taken, since paramecin does not affect them during conjugation. The
two exconjugants obtain identical genotypes, but their progeny
VARIATION AND HEREDITY 239
are different; that is, one is a killer and the other is a sensitive
culture. F2 progeny obtained by selfing show no segregation. There-
fore, the difference between the killer and the sensitive is due to a
cytoplasmic difference and not to a genie difference.
The same observer noted that the thin cytoplasmic paroral strand
which appears between conjugating pair that ordinarily breaks off
within a minute, occasionally may remain for a long time, and if the
strand persists as long as 30 minutes, there occurs an interchange of
cytoplasm between the pair (Fig. 101). When this happens, both
exconjugants produce killer clones. In F2 no segregation takes place.
Thus killers can introduce the killer trait to sensitives through a
cytoplasmic connection between them. Sonneborn supposed that the
killers contain a cytoplasmic genie factor or a plasmagene which de-
Fig. 100. Paramecium aurelia. The changes leading up to death when the
sensitives are exposed to the killer stock 51 (variety 4) (Sonneborn).
termines the killer trait and called it kappa. Preer (1948) demon-
strated that this kappa is a particle which can be recognized in
Giemsa-stained specimens (Fig. 102). It was further found that kill-
ers can be irreversibly transformed into hereditary sensitives by
eliminating kappa particles by exposure to high temperature (Sonne-
born, 1946), x-irradiation (Preer, 1948b) or nitrogen mustard (Geck-
ler, 1949) and that sensitives can be transformed to hereditary killers
by placing them in concentrated suspensions of broken bodies of
killers (Sonneborn, 1948a). Therefore, it became clear that kappa is a
self-multiplying cytoplasmic body which is produced when some are
already present.
Killer races of variety 2 differ from each other and from that of
variety 4 mentioned above, in the effects produced on sensitives be-
fore the latter are killed. These sensitives possess a gene different
from that of the killers and cannot be changed into killers by im-
mersing it to kappa suspensions of broken bodies of killers. When
this sensitive is mated with a killer, F2 generation produced by self-
240
PROTOZOOLOGY
ing among the killer Fi clones, shows segregation of sensitives and
killers in the ratio of a single gene difference. In the presence of
dominant gene K, kappa is maintained, but in recessive k homozy-
gotes, kappa cannot be maintained and any kappa carried over from
killers is rapidly lost. Thus it is evident, Sonneborn points out, that
the plasmagene kappa is dependent on gene K.
Dipell (1948, 1950) found a number of killer mutants in variety 4.
End oi- conjuqa+iorv.: Separated except at paroral cone.
Time until separation is completed
More +h<m
3o min.
KHIer Killer
Clone, clone
kk+/c kk+a:
Killer Sensitive
e clone
KK+/C KK+*
Killer Sensitive
clone clone
KK+/C KK
Fig. 101. Diagram showing the effects of transfers of different amounts
of the cytoplasm between mates in conjugation of KK+ kappa killers
and KK sensitives in Paramecium aurelia (Sonneborn).
She showed through breeding analysis that these mutations have
brought about no change in any gene affecting kappa or the killer
trait, but have been in every case due to changes in kappa. In a
mutant which was capable of producing two types of killing, there
were two kinds of kappa which she succeeded in separating in differ-
ent animals and their progeny. Thus it became apparent that kappa
can undergo mutation, that various mutant kappas can multiply in
animals with the original genome, and that the kappas are deter-
mined by themselves and not by nuclear genes.
According to Preer (1948), the kappa particles (Fig. 102) in the
killer race G are about 0.4ju long, and those in a mutant Gml only
about 0.2-0.3ju long, while in other strains they measure as much as
VARIATION AND HEREDITY
241
0.8/* in length. Preer (1948a, 1950) further observed that the kappa
particles contain desoxyribonucleic acid and vary in form (rod-like or
spherical), size and number in different races of killers, and that an
increase, reduction or destructon of the kappas, as determined by
indirect methods, was correlated with the observed number of the
Fig. 102. Photomicrographs of Paramecium, aurelia, stained with
Giemsa's stain (Sonneborn). a, a killer with a number of kappa particles
in the cytoplasm; b, a sensitive without kappa particles, a few dark-
stained bodies near the posterior end being bacteria in a food vacuole.
stained particles. As to the suggestion that the kappa particles may
be viruses, symbionts (Altenberg, 1948), etc., the reader is referred
to Sonneborn (1946, 1950).
The application of antigen-antibody reactions to free-living Pro-
tozoa began some forty years ago. Bernheimer and Harrison (1940,
1941) pointed out the antigenic dissimilarity of three species of
Paramecium in which the members of a clone differ widely in their
242 PROTOZOOLOGY
susceptibility to the immobilizing action of a given serum. Strains of
Tetrahymena pyriformis differ in antigenic reactions, as has already
been mentioned (p. 227). Sonneborn and his co-workers have studied
serological reactions in Paramecium aurelia (Sonneborn, 1950).
When a rabbit is inoculated intraperitoneally with a large number
of a strain of P. aurelia, its serum immobilizes in a high dilution, the
organisms of the same strain, but not of other strains. Such a sero-
logically distinct strain is called a serotype or antigenic type. It was
found that a clone originating in a homozygous individual gives
rise to a series of various serotypes. Race 51 gave rise to eight sero-
types: A, B, C, D, E, G, H and J, and race 29, to seven serotypes:
A, B, C, D, F, H and J. When a serotype is exposed to its antiserum,
it changes into other types, which course Sonneborn was able to
control by temperature and other conditions. For example, serotype
D (stock 29) may be changed by its antiserum to type B at 32°C.
and to type H at 20°C, types B, F and H are convertible one into the
other and all other types can be transformed to any of the three ; and
serotypes A and B (stock 51) are convertible one into the other, and
other types can be changed to A or B. The antigenic types are in-
herited, if the cultures are kept at 26°-27°C. with food enough to
allow one division a day. When induced or spontaneous changes of
serotype occur, crosses made among different serotypes of the same
strain reveal no effective gene differences among them ; thus all sero-
types of a strain possess apparently an identical genie constitution.
Sonneborn finds serotype A of stock 29 is not exactby the same as the
type A of stock 51. When these are crossed, it is found that the dif-
ference between two antigens is controlled by a pair of allelic genes
of which the 51A-gene is dominant over the 29A-gene. On the basis
of these observations, it has been concluded that nuclear genes con-
trol the specificity of the physical basis of cytoplasmic inheritance
in these antigenic traits, and hereditary transformations of serotype
are cytoplasmic "mutations" of hitherto unknown type.
In the inheritance of the killer trait and of serotype, both traits
are cytoplasmically determined and inherited; hereditary changes
are brought about by environmental conditions; and the traits are
dependent for their maintenance upon nuclear genes. However, the
specific type of killer trait is controlled by the kind of kappa pres-
ent, not by the genes, while the specific type of A antigen is de-
termined by the nuclear genes. The transformation of the killer
to the sensitive is made irreversible, but that of serotypes is not.
The various types of killer character are not mutually exclusive,
as different kinds of kappa can coexist in the same organism and
VARIATION AND HEREDITY 243
its progeny, each kind of kappa controlling production of its cor-
responding kind of paramecin, while in serotype, two kinds of anti-
gen substances cannot coexist, thus being mutually exclusive. The
physical basis of the killer trait lies in the visible Feulgen-positive
kappa particles, while no such particles have so far been found in
association with the serotype.
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VARIATION AND HEREDITY 245
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these bodies with cytoplasmic factor, kappa. Genetics, 33:625.
(1950) Microscopically visible bodies in the cytoplasm of
the "killer" strain of Paramecium aurelia. Ibid., 35:344.
Reynolds, B. D. : (1924) Interactions of protoplasmic masses in rela-
tion to the study of heredity and environment in Arcella poly-
pora. Biol. Bull., 46:106.
Root, F. M.: (1918) Inheritance in the asexual reproduction in
Centropyxis aculeata. Genetics, 3:173.
Sapiro, J. J., Hakansson, E. G. and Louttit, C. M.: (1942) The
occurrence of two significantly distinct races of Entamoeba his-
tolytica. Am. J. Trop. Med., 22:191.
Schroder, B.: (1914) Ueber Planktonepibionten. Biol. Zentralbl.,
34:328.
Sonneborn, T. M. : (1937) Sex, sex inheritance and sex determina-
tion in Paramecium aurelia. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sc, 23:378.
(1939) Paramecium aurelia: mating types and groups; etc.
Am. Nat., 73:390.
— (1942) Inheritance in ciliate Protozoa. Ibid., 76:46.
(1943) Gene and cytoplasm. I, II. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sc, 29:
329.
(1946) Experimental control of the concentration of cyto-
plasmic genetic factors in Paramecium. Cold Springs Harbor
Symp. Quant. Biol., 11:236.
(1947) Recent advances in the genetics of Paramecium and
Euplotes. Adv. Genetics, 1:263.
(1948) Introduction to symposium on plasmagenes, genes
and characters in Paramecium aurelia. Am. Nat., 82:26.
(1950) The cytoplasm in heredity. Heredity, 4:11.
246 PROTOZOOLOGY
and Lynch, R. S.: (1934) Hybridization and segregation in
Paramecium aurelia. J. Exper. Zool., 67:1.
Stabler, R. M.: (1948) Variations in virulenec of strains of Tri-
chomonas gallinae in pigeons. J. Parasit., 34: 147.
Taliaferro, W. H.: (1926) Variability and inheritance of size in
Trypanosoma lewisi. J. Exper. Zool., 43:429.
(1929) The immunology of parasitic infections. New York.
and Huff, C. G.: (1940) The genetics of the parasitic Proto-
zoa. Am. A. Adv. Sc. Publ., 12:57.
Ujihara, K.: (1914) Studien ueber die Amoebendysenterie. Ztschr.
Hyg., 77:329.
Wagtendonk, W. J. v. and Zill, L. P.: (1947) Inactivation of
paramecin ("killer" substance of Paramecium aurelia 51, va-
riety 4) at different hydrogen-ion concentrations and tempera-
tures. J. Biol. Chem., 171:595.
Wenyon, C. M. : (1928) The loss of the parabasal body in trypano-
somes. Tr. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 22:85.
Wesenberg-Lund, C. : (1908) Plankton investigations of the Danish
lakes. Copenhagen.
PART II: TAXONOMY AND
SPECIAL BIOLOGY
Chapter 7
Major groups and phylogeny of Protozoa
THE Protozoa are grouped into two subphyla: Plasmodroma (p.
254) and Ciliophora (p. 683). The Plasmodroma are more primi-
tive Protozoa and subdivided into three classes: Mastigophora
(p. 254), Sarcodina (p. 417), and Sporozoa (p. 526). The Ciliophora
possess more complex body organizations, and are divided into two
classes: Ciliata (p. 683) and Suctoria (p. 863).
In classifying Protozoa, the natural system would be one which is
based upon the phylogenetic relationships among them in conform-
ity with the doctrine that the present day organisms have descended
from primitive ancestral forms through organic evolution. Unlike
Metazoa, the great majority of Protozoa now existing do not possess
skeletal structures, which condition also seemingly prevailed among
their ancestors, and when they die, they disintegrate and leave
nothing behind. The exceptions are Foraminifera (p. 493) and
Radiolaria (p. 516) which produce multiform varieties of skeletal
structures composed of inorganic substances and which are found
abundantly preserved as fossils in the earliest fossiliferous strata.
These fossils show clearly that the two classes of Sarcodina were
already well-differentiated groups at the time of fossilization. The
sole information the palaeontological record reveals for our reference
is that the differentiation of the major groups of Protozoa must have
occurred in an extremely remote period of the earth history. There-
fore, consideration of phylogeny of Protozoa had to depend ex-
clusively upon the data obtained through morphological, physio-
logical, and developmental observations of the present-day forms.
The older concept which found its advocates until the beginning
of the present century, holds that the Sarcodina are the most primi-
tive of Protozoa. It was supposed that at the very beginning of
the living world, there came into being undifferentiated mass of pro-
toplasm which later became differentiated into the nucleus and the
cytoplasm. The Sarcodina represented by amoebae and allied forms
do not have any further differentiation and lack a definite body
wall, they are, therefore, able to change body form by forming
pseudopodia. These pseudopodia are temporary cytoplasmic proc-
esses and formed or withdrawn freely, even in the more or less
permanent axopodia. On the other hand, flagella and cilia are per-
manent cell-organs possessing definite structural plans. Thus from
the morphological viewpoint, the advocates of this concept main-
249
250 PROTOZOOLOGY
tained that the Sarcodina are the Protozoa which were most closely
related to ancestral forms and which gave rise to Mastigophora,
Ciliata, and Sporozoa.
This concept is however difficult to follow, since it does not agree
with the general belief that the plant came into existence before the
animal; namely, holophytic organisms living on inorganic substances
anteceded holozoic organisms living on organic substances. There-
fore, from the physiological standpoint the Mastigophora which
include a vast number of chlorophyll-bearing forms, must be con-
sidered as more primitive than the holozoic Sarcodina. The class
Mastigophora is composed of Phytomastigina (chromatophore-bear-
ing flagellates and closely related colorless forms) and Zoomastigina
(colorless flagellates). Of the former, Chrysomonadina (p. 256) are
mostly naked, and are characterized by possession of 1-2 flagella,
1-2 yellow chromatophores and leucosin. Though holophytic nutri-
tion is general, many are also able to carry on holozoic nutrition.
Numerous chrysomonads produce pseudopodia of different types;
some possess both flagellum and pseudopodia; others such as Chrys-
amoeba (Fig. 105) may show flagellate and ameoboid forms (Klebs;
Scherffel); still others, for example, members of Rhizochrysidina
(p. 267), may lack flagella completely, though retaining the char-
acteristics of Chrysomonadina. When individuals of Rhizochrysis
(p. 267) divide, Scherffel (1901) noticed unequal distribution of the
chromatophore resulted in the formation of colorless and colored
individuals (Fig. 110, a, b). Pascher (1917) also observed that in the
colonial chrysomonad, Chrysarachnion (p. 267), the division of
component individuals produces many in which the chromatophore
is entirely lacking (Fig. 110, c, d). Thus these chrysomonads which
lack chromatophores, resemble Sarcodina rather than the parent
Chryosomonadina.
Throughout all groups of Phytomastigina, there occur forms
which are morphologically alike except the presence or absence of
chromatophores. For example, Cryptomonas (p. 273) and Chilo-
monas (p. 273), the two genera of Cryptomonadina, are so mor-
phologically alike that had it not been for the chromatophore, the
former can hardly be distinguished from the latter. Other examples
are Euglena, Astasia, and Khawkinea; Chlorogonium and Hyalo-
gonium; Chlamydomonas and Polytoma; etc.
The chromatophores of various Phytomastigina degenerate read-
ily under experimental conditions. For instance, Zumstein (1900)
and recently Pringsheim and Hovasse (1948) showed that Euglena
gracilis loses its green coloration even in light if cultured in fluids
MAJOR GROUPS AND PHYLOGENY 251
rich in organic substances; in a culture fluid with a small amount
of organic substances, the organisms retain green color in light, lose
it in darkness; and when cultured in a pure inorganic culture fluid,
the flagellates remain green even in darkness. Therefore, it would
appear reasonable to consider that the morphologically similar forms
with or without chromatophores such as are cited above, are closely
related to each other phylogenetically, that they should be grouped
together in any scheme of classification, and that the apparent
heterogeneity among Phytomastigina is due to the natural course of
events. The newer concept which is at present followed widely is that
the Mastigophora are the most primitive unicellular animal organ-
isms.
Of Mastigophora, Phytomastigina are to be considered on the
same ground more primitive than Zoomastigina. According to the
studies of Pascher, Scherffel and others, Chrysomonadina appear to
be the nearest to ancestral forms from which other groups of Phyto-
mastigina arose. Among Zoomastigina, Rhizomastigina possibly
gave rise to Protomonadina, from which Polymastigina and Hyper-
mastigina later arose. The last-mentioned group is the most highly
advanced one of Mastigophora in which an increased number of
flagella is an outstanding characteristic.
As to the origin of Sarcodina, many arose undoubtedly from vari-
ous Zoomastigina, but there are indications that they may have
evolved directly from Phytomastigina. As was stated already,
Rhizochrysidina possess no flagella and the chromatophore often de-
generates or is lost through unequal distribution during division,
apparently being able to nourish themselves by methods other than
holophytic nutrition. Such forms may have given rise to Amoebina.
Some chrysomonads such as Cyrtophora (p. 260) and Palatinella,
have axopodia, and it may be considered that they are closer to the
ancestral forms from which Heliozoa arose through stages such as
shown by Actinomonas (p. 335), Dimorpha (p. 335), and Pteri-
domonas (p. 335) than any other forms. Another chrysomonad,
Porochrysis (p. 260), possesses a striking resemblance to Testacea.
The interesting marine chrysomonad, Chrysothylakion (p. 267)
that produces a brownish calcareous test from which extrudes an-
astomosing rhizopodial network, resembling a monothalamous
foraminiferan, and forms such as Distephanus (p. 267) with siliceous
skeletons, may depict the ancestral forms of Foraminifera and
Radiolaria respectively. The flagellate origin of these two groups of
Sarcodina is also seen in the appearance of flagellated swarmers dur-
ing their development. The Mycetozoa show also flagellated phase
252 PROTOZOOLOGY
during their life cycle, which perhaps suggests their origin in flagel-
lated organisms. In fact, in the chrysomonad Myxochrysis (p. 261),
Pascher (1917) finds a multinucleate and chromatophore-bearing
organism (Fig. 105, e-j) that stands intermediate between Chryso-
monadina and Mycetozoa. Thus there are a number of morpho-
logical, developmental, and physiological observations which sug-
gest the flagellate origin of various Sarcodina.
The Sporozoa appear to be equally polyphyletic. The Telosporidia
contain three groups in which flagellated microgametes occur, which
suggests their derivation from flagellated organisms. Leger and
Duboscq even considered them to have arisen from Bodonidae (p.
362) on the basis of flagellar arrangement. Obviously Gregarinida
are the most primitive of the three groups. The occurrence of such a
form as Selenococcidium (p. 572), would indicate the gregarine-
origin of the Coccidia and the members of Haemogregarinidae (p.
592) suggest the probable origin of the Haemosporidia in the Coc-
cidia. The Cnidosporidia are characterized by multinucleate tro-
phozoites and by the spore in which at least one polar capsule with
a coiled filament occurs. Some consider them as having evolved
from Mycetozoa-like organisms, because of the similarity in multi-
nucleate trophozoites, while others compare the polar filament with
the flagellum. It is interesting to note here that the nematocyst,
similar to the polar capsule, occurs in certain Dinoflagellata (p. 310)
independent of flagella. The life cycle of Acnidosporidia is still in-
completely known, but the group may have differentiated from such
Sarcodina as Mycetozoa.
The Ciliata and Suctoria are distinctly separated from the other
groups. They possess the most complex body organization seen
among Protozoa. All ciliates possess cilia or cirri which differ from
flagella essentially only in size. Apparently Protociliata and Eucili-
ata have different origins, as judged by their morphological and
physiological differences. It is probable that Protociliata arose from
forms which gave rise to Hypermastigina. Among Euciliata, one
finds such forms as Coleps, Urotricha, Plagiocampa, Microregma,
Trimyema, Anophrys, etc., which have, in addition to numerous
cilia, a long flagellum-like process at the posterior end, and Ileonema
that possesses an anterior vibratile flagellum and numerous cilia,
which also indicates flagellated organisms as their ancestors. It is
reasonable to assume that Holotricha are the most primitive ciliates
from which Spirotricha, Chonotricha, and Peritricha evolved. The
Suctoria are obviously very closely related to Ciliata and most prob-
ably arose from ciliated ancestors by loss of cilia during adult stage
MAJOR GROUPS AND PHYLOGENY 253
and by developing tentacles in some forms from cytostomes as was
suggested by Collin (Fig. 13). General reference (Franz, 1919; Lwoff,
1951).
References
Butschli, 0.: (1883-1887) Bronn's Klassen und Ordnungen des
Thierreichs. 1.
Doflein, F. and E. Reichenow: (1949) Lehrbuch der Protozoen-
kunde. 6th ed. 1.
Franz, V.: (1919) Zur Frage der phylogenetischen Stellung der
Protisten, besonders der Protozoen. Arch. Protist., 39:263.
Lwoff, A.: (1951) Biochemistry and physiology of Protozoa. New
York.
Minchin, E. A.: (1912) Introduction to the study of the Protozoa.
London.
Pascher, A.: (1912) Ueber Rhizopoden- und Palmellastadien bei
Flagellaten, etc. Arch. Protist., 25:153.
(1916) Rhizopodialnetz als Fangvorrichtung bei einer Plas-
modialen Chrysomonade. Ibid., 37:15.
(1916a) Fusionsplasmodien bei Flagellaten und ihre Be-
deutung fiir die Ableitung der Rhizopoden von den Flagellaten.
Ibid., 37:31.
(1917) Flagellaten und Rhizopoden in ihren gegenseitigen
Beziehungen. Ibid., 38:1.
(1942) Zur Klarung einiger gefarbter und farbloser Flagel-
laten und ihrer Einrichtungen zur Aufnahme animalischer Nahr-
ung. Ibid., 96:75.
Pringsheim, E. G. and Hovasse, R.: (1948) The loss of chromato-
phores in Euglena gracilis. New Phytologist, 47:52.
Scherffel, A.: (1901) Kleiner Beitrag zur Phylogenie einiger Grup-
pen niederer Organismen. Bot. Zeit., 59:143.
Zumstein, H.: (1900) Zur Morphologie und Physiologie der Eu-
glena gracilis. Jahrb. wiss. Botanik., 34:149.
Chapter 8
Phylum Protozoa Goldfuss
Subphylum 1 Plasmodroma Doflein
THE Plasmodroma possess pseudopodia which are used for loco-
motion and food-getting or flagella that serve for cell-organs of
locomotion. In Sporozoa, the adult stage does not possess any cell-
organs of locomotion. The body structure is less complicated than
that of Ciliophora. In some groups, are found various endo- and
exo-skeletons. The nucleus is of one kind, but may vary in number.
All types of nutrition occur. Sexual reproduction is exclusively by
sexual fusion or automixis; asexual reproduction is by binary or
multiple fission or budding. The majority are free-living, but numer-
ous parasitic forms occur, Sporozoa being all parasitic.
The Plasmodroma are subdivided into three classes as follows:
Trophozoite with fiagellum Class 1 Mastigophora
Trophozoite with pseudopodium Class 2 Sarcodina (p. 417)
Without cell-organs of locomotion; producing spores; all parasitic
Class 3 Sporozoa (p. 526)
Class 1 Mastigophora Diesing
The Mastigophora includes those Protozoa which possess one to
several flagella. Aside from this common characteristic, this class
makes a very heterogeneous assemblage and seems to prevent a
sharp distinction between the Protozoa and the Protophyta, as it
includes Phytomastigina which are often dealt with by botanists.
In the majority of Mastigophora, each individual possesses 1-4
flagella during the vegetative stage, although species of Polymasti-
gina may possess up to 8 or more flagella and of Hypermastigina a
greater number of flagella. The palmella stage (Fig. 103) is common
among the Phytomastigina and the organism is capable in this stage
not only of metabolic activity and growth, but also of reproduction.
In this respect, this group shows also a close relationship to algae.
All three types of nutrition, carried on separately or in combina-
tion, are to be found among the members of Mastigophora. In holo-
phytic forms, the chlorophyll is contained in the chromatophores
which are of various forms among different species and which differ
in colors, from green to red. The difference in color appears to be due
to the pigments which envelop the chlorophyll body (p. 89). Many
forms adapt their mode of nutrition to changed environmental con-
ditions; for instance, from holophytic to saprozoic in the absence of
the sunlight. Holozoic, saprozoic and holophytic nutrition are said
254
MASTIGOPHORA 255
to be combined in such a form as Ochromonas. In association with
chromatophores, there occurs refractile granules or bodies, the
pyrenoids, which are connected with starch -form at ion. Reserve
food substances are starch, oil, etc. (p. 113).
In less complicated forms, the body is naked except for a slight
cortical differentiation of the ectoplasm to delimit the body surface
and is capable of forming pseudopodia. In others, there occurs a thin
plastic pellicle produced by the cytoplasm, which covers the body
surface closely. In still others, the body form is constant, being en-
cased in a shell, test, or lorica, which is composed of chitin, pseudo-
chitin, or cellulose. Not infrequently a gelatinous secretion envelops
the body. In three families of Protomonadina there is a collar-like
structure located at the anterior end, through which the flagellum
protrudes.
The great majority of Mastigophora possess a single nucleus, and
only a few are multinucleated. The nucleus is vesicular and contains
a conspicuous endosome. Contractile vacuoles are always present in
the forms inhabiting fresh water. In simple forms, the contents of
the vacuoles are discharged directly through the body surface to
the exterior; in others there occurs a single contractile vacuole near
a reservoir which opens to the exterior through the so-called cyto-
pharynx. In the Dinoflagellata, there are apparently no contractile
vacuoles, but non-contractile pusules (p. 310) occur in some forms.
In chromatophore-bearing forms, there occurs usually a stigma
which is located near the base of the flagellum and seems to be the
center of phototactic activity of the organism which possesses it.
Asexual reproduction is, as a rule, by longitudinal fission, but in
some forms multiple fission also takes place under certain circum-
stances, and in others budding may take place. Colony-formation
(p. 174), due to incomplete separation of daughter individuals, is
widely found among this group. Sexual reproduction has been re-
ported in a number of species.
The Mastigophora are free-living or parasitic. The free-living
forms are found in fresh and salt waters of every description ; many
are free-swimming, others creep over the surface of submerged ob-
jects, and still others are sessile. Together with algae, the Mastigoph-
ora compose a major portion of plankton life which makes the
foundation for the existence of all higher aquatic organisms. The
parasitic forms are ecto- or endo-parasitic, and the latter inhabit
either the digestive tract or the circulatory system of the host ani-
mal. Trypanosoma, a representative genus of the latter group, in-
cludes important disease-causing parasites of man and of domestic
animals.
256 PROTOZOOLOGY
The Mastigophora are divided into two subclasses as follows :
With chromatophores Subclass 1 Phytomastigina
Without chromatophores Subclass 2 Zoomastigina (p. 333)
Subclass 1 Phytomastigina Doflein
The Phytomastigina possess the chromatophores and their usual
method of nutrition is holophytic, though some are holozoic, sapro-
zoic or mixotrophic; the majority are conspicuously colored; some
that lack chromatophores are included in this group, since their
structure and development resemble closely those of typical Phyto-
mastigina.
Some observers consider the types of flagella as one of the char-
acters in taxonomic consideration (Petersen, 1929; Vlk, 1938: Owen,
1949; etc.). Owen found, for example, "lash flagella" (with a terminal
filament) in some species of Phytomonadina, Rhizomastigina, Pro-
tomonadina and Polymastigina and simple flagella in the forms in-
cluded in Chrysomonadina, Cryptomonadina, Euglenoidina and
Dinoflagellata; and simple flagellum and flagella on Oikomonas and
Monas. He advocated the transfer of the latter two genera from
Protomonadina to Chrysomonadina.
1-4 flagella, either directed anteriorly or trailing
Chromatophores yellow, brown or orange
Anabolic products fat, leucosin Order 1 Chrysomonadina
Anabolic products starch or similar carbohydrates
Order 2 Cryptomonadina (p. 272)
Chromatophores green
Anabolic products starch and oil. Order 3 Phytomonadina (p. 276)
Anabolic products paramylon Order 4 Euglenoidina (p. 293)
Anabolic products oil Order 5 Chloromonadina (p. 306)
2 flagella, one of which transverse Order 6 Dinoflagellata (p. 310)
Order 1 Chrysomonadina Stein
The chrysomonads are minute organisms and are plastic, since
the majority lack a definite cell- wall. Chromatophores are yellow to
brown and usually discoid, though sometimes reticulated, in form.
Metabolic products are leucosin and fats. 1-2 flagella are inserted at
or near the anterior end of body where a stigma is present.
Many chrysomonads are able to form pseudopodia for obtaining
food materials which vary among different species. Nutrition, though
chiefly holophytic, is also holozoic or saprozoic. Contractile vacuoles
are invariably found in freshwater forms, and are ordinarily of
simple structure.
Under conditions not fully understood, the chrysomonads lose
MASTIGOPHORA, CHRYSOMONADINA 257
their fiagella and undergo division with development of mucilaginous
envelope and thus transform themselves often into large bodies
known as the palmella phase and undertake metabolic activities as
well as multiplication (Fig. 103). Asexual reproduction is, as a rule,
m c w
Qb — 1
m \ / b
0
Fig. 103. The life-cycle of Chromulina, X about 200 (Kiihn). a, encyst-
ment; b, fission; c, colony-formation; d, palmella-formation.
by longitudinal division during either the motile or the palmella
stage. Incomplete separation of the daughter individuals followed
by repeated fission, results in numerous colonial forms mentioned
elsewhere (p. 174). Some resemble higher algae very closely. Sexual
reproduction is unknown in this group. Encystment occurs com-
monly; the cyst is often enveloped by a silicious wall possessing an
opening with a plug. Taxonomy (Doflein, 1923; Schiller, 1925a;
Pascher, 1926; Conrad, 1926; Scherffel, 1926; Hollande, 1952).
The chrysomonads inhabit both fresh and salt waters, often occur-
ring abundantly in plankton.
Motile stage dominant Suborder 1 Euchrysomonadina
Palmella stage dominant
Sarcodina-like; flagellate stage unknown
Suborder 2 Rhizochrysidina (p. 267)
With flagellate phase Suborder 3 Chrysocapsina (p. 269)
Suborder 1 Euchrysomonadina Pascher
With or without simple shell
One flagellum Family 1 Chromulinidae (p. 258)
2 flagella
Fiagella equally long Family 2 Syncryptidae (p. 262)
Flagella unequally long Family 3 Ochromonadidae (p. 264)
With calcareous or silicious shell
Bearing calcareous discs and rods. . . .Family 4 Coccolithidae (p. 266)
Bearing silicious skeleton Family 5 Silicoflagellidae (p. 267)
258 PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 1 Chromulinidae Engler
Minute forms, naked or with sculptured shell; with a single flagel-
lum; often with rhizopodia; a few colonial; free-swimming or at-
tached.
Genus Chromulina Cienkowski. Oval; round in cross-section;
amoeboid; 1-2 chromatophores ; palmella stage often large; in fresh
water. Numerous species. The presence of a large number of these
organisms gives a golden-brown color to the surface of the water.
Development (Doflein, 1923); species (Doflein, 1921, 1922; Schiller,
1929; Pascher, 1929; Conrad, 1930).
C. pascheri Hofeneder (Fig. 104, a, b). 15-20/* in diameter.
Genus Pseudochromulina Doflein. Spheroid body amoeboid; cyto-
plasm granulated; two contractile vacuoles anterior; a single flagel-
lum about the body length; a yellow tray-like chromatophore with
upturned edge; stigma and pyrenoid absent; nucleus central; cyst
ovoid, with asymmetrical siliceous wall with an aperture tube (Do-
flein, 1921).
P. asymmetrica D. Body 3-4 /* in diameter; cytoplasm with fat and
probably leucosin; cyst 4/* by 3/*; aperture tube about l/i; fresh
water (Doflein, 1921).
Genus Chrysamoeba Klebs. Body naked; flagellate stage ovoid,
with 2 chromatophores, sometimes slender pseudopodia at the same
time; flagellum may be lost and the organism becomes amoeboid,
resembling Rhizochrysis (p. 267) ; standing fresh water.
C. radians K. (Fig. 105, a, b). Flagellated form measures 8/x by
3.5/*; amoeboid stage about 8-10/* by 3-4/x, with 10-20/x long radiat-
ing pseudopodia; cyst 7/* in diameter (Doflein, 1922).
Genus Chrysapsis Pascher. Solitary; plastic or rigid; chromato-
phore diffused or branching; with stigma; amoeboid movement;
holophytic, holozoic; fresh water. Several species.
C. sageneF. (Fig. 104, c). Anterior region actively plastic; stigma
small; 8-14m long; flagellum about 30/* long.
Genus Chrysococcus Klebs. Shell spheroidal or ovoidal, smooth
or sculptured and often brown-colored; through an opening a flagel-
lum protrudes; 1-2 chromatophores; one of the daughter individuals
formed by binary fission leaves the parent shell and forms a new one ;
fresh water. Lackey (1938) found several species in Scioto River,
Ohio.
C. ornatus Pascher (Fig. 104, d). 14-16/* by 7-10/*.
Genus Mallomonas Perty (Pseudomallomonas Chodat). Body
elongated; with silicious scales and often spines; 2 chromatophores
MASTIGOPHORA, CHRYSOMONADINA
259
rod-shaped; fresh water. Numerous species (Pascher, 1921; Conrad,
1927, 1930).
M . litomosa Stokes (Fig. 104, e). Scales very delicate, needle-like
projections at both ends; flagellum as long as body; 24-32/* by 8/x-
Fig. 104. a, b, Chromulina pascheri, X670 (Hofeneder); c, Chrysapsis
sagene, X1000 (Pascher); d, Chrysococcus ornatus, X600 (Pascher); e,
Mallomonas litomosa, X400 (Stokes); f, Pyramidochrysis modesta, X670
(Pascher); g, Sphaleromantis ochracea, X600 (Pascher); h, Kephyrion
ovum, X1600 (Pascher); i, Chrysopyzis cyathus, X600 (Pascher); j,
Cyrtophora pedicellata, X400 (Pascher); k, Palatinella cyrtophora, X400
(Lauterborn) ; 1, Chrysosphaerella longispina, X600 (Lauterborn).
260 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Microglena Ehrenberg. Body ovoid to cylindrical; with a
firm envelope in the surface of which are embedded many lenticular
masses of silica (Conrad, 1928); a single flagellum at anterior end; a
reservoir around which four to eight contractile vacuoles occur; a
sheet-like chromatophore; stigma; leucosin; fresh water.
M. ovum Conrad (Fig. 106, a). 31-38ju by 18-25m (Conrad, 1928).
Genus Pyramidochrysis Pascher. Body form constant; pyriform
with 3 longitudinal ridges; flagellate end drawn out; a single chro-
matophore; 2 contractile vacuoles; fresh water.
P. modesta P. (Fig. 104,/). 11-13/z long.
Genus Sphaleromantis Pascher. Triangular or heart-shaped;
highly flattened; slightly plastic; 2 chromatophores; 2 contractile
vacuoles ; stigma large; long flagellum; fresh water.
S. ochracea P. (Fig. 104, g). 6-13m long.
Genus Kephyrion Pascher. With oval or fusiform lorica ; body fills
posterior half of lorica; one chromatophore; a single short flagellum;
small; fresh water. Species (Conrad, 1930).
K. ovum P. (Fig. 104, h). Lorica up to 7 p. by 4;u.
Genus Chrysopyxis Stein. With lorica of various forms, more or
less flattened; 1-2 chromatophores; a flagellum; attached to algae in
fresh water.
C. cyathus Pascher (Fig. 104, i). One chromatophore; flagellum
twice body length; lorica 20-25^ by 12-15/x.
Genus Cyrtophora Pascher. Body inverted pyramid with 6-8
axopodia and a single flagellum; with a contractile stalk; a single
chromatophore ; a contractile vacuole ; fresh water.
C. pedicellata P. (Fig. 104, j). Body 18-22julong; axopodia 40-60m
long; stalk 50-80;u long.
Genus Palatinella Lauterborn. Lorica tubular; body heartshaped ;
anterior border with 16-20 axopodia; a single flagellum; a chromato-
phore; several contractile vacuoles; fresh water.
P. cyrtophora L. CFig. 104, k). Lorica 80-1 50/z long ; body 20-25/x by
18-25ju; axopodia 50/x long.
Genus Chrysosphaerella Lauterborn. In spherical colony, indivi-
dual cell, oval or pyriform, with 2 chromatophores; imbedded in
gelatinous mass ; fresh water.
C. longispina L. (Fig. 104, I). Individuals up to 15^ by 9^; colony
up to 250ju in diameter; in standing water rich in vegetation.
Genus Porochrysis Pascher. Shell with several pores through
which rhizopodia are extended ; a flagellum passes through an apical
pore; a single small chromatophore; leucosin; a contractile vacuole;
fresh water.
MASTIGOPHORA, CHRYSOMONADINA
261
P. aspergillus P. (Fig. 105, c, d). Shell about 35m long by 25/z wide;
chromatophore very small; a large leucosin grain; fresh water.
Genus Myxochrysis Pascher. Body multinucleate, amoeboid; with
yellowish moniliform chromatophores, many leucosin granules and
contractile vacuoles; holozoic; surrounded by a brownish envelop
which conforms with body form; flagellated swarmers develop into
Fig. 105. a, flagellate and b, amoeboid phase of Chrysamoeba radians,
X670 (Klebs); c, surface view and d, optical section of Porochrysis asper-
gillus, X400 (Pascher); e-j, Myxochrysis paradoxa (Pascher). e, a medium
large Plasmodium with characteristic envelop; the large food vacuole
contains protophytan, Scenedesmus, X830; f, diagrammatic side view of a
Plasmodium, engulfing a diatom; moniliform bodies are yellowish
chromatophores, X1000; g-i, development of swarmer into Plasmodium
(stippled bodies are chromatophores), X1200.
multinucleate Plasmodium; plasmotomy and plasmogamy; fresh
water (Pascher, 1916a).
M. paradoxa P. (Fig. 105, e-j). Plasmodium 15-18^ or more in
diameter; in standing water.
Genus Angulochrysis Lackey. Body ovoid: colorless, thin lorica
rounded anteriorly and flattened posteriorly into "wings"; a single
flagellum long; no cytostome; two bright yellow-brown chromato-
phores; no stigma; swims with a slow rotation; marine (Lackey,
1940).
262
PROTOZOOLOGY
A. erratica L. (Fig. 106, b, c). Body up to 12/x long; lorica up to
30m high; flagellum about four times the body length; Woods Hole.
Genus Stylochromonas L. Body ovoid, sessile with a stiff stalk:
with a large collar at anterior end; a single flagellum; two golden
brown chromatophores; no stigma; marine (Lackey, 1940).
S. minuta L. (Fig. 106, d). Body 5-8 m long; collar about 6/x high;
flagellum about twice the body length.
Fig. 106. a, Microglena ovum, X680 (Conrad); b, c, two views of
Angulochrysis erratica, X900 (Lackey); d, Stylochromonas minuta, X1200
(Lackey).
Family 2 Syncryptidae Poche
Solitary or colonial chrysomonads with 2 equal flagella; with or
without pellicle (when present, often sculptured) ; some possess stalk.
Genus Syncrypta Ehrenberg. Spherical colonies; individuals with
2 lateral chromatophores, embedded in a gelatinous mass; 2 con-
tractile vacuoles ; without stigma ; cysts unknown ; fresh water.
S. volvox E. (Fig. 107, a). 8-14Mby 7-12/z; colony 20-70m in diam-
eter; in standing water.
Genus Synura Ehrenberg (Synuropsis Schiller). Spherical or ellip-
soidal colony composed of 2-50 ovoid individuals arranged radially;
body usually covered by short bristles; 2 chromatophores lateral; no
stigma; asexual reproduction of individuals is by longitudinal di-
vision; that of colony by bipartition; cysts spherical; fresh water.
Species (Korshikov, 1929).
S. uvella E. (Fig. 107, b). Cells oval; bristles conspicuous; 20-40m
by 8-17^; colony 100-400^ in diameter; if present in large numbers,
MASTIGOPHORA, CHRYSOMONADINA
263
the organism is said to be responsible for an odor of the water re-
sembling that of ripe cucumber.
S. adamsi Smith (Fig., 107 c). Spherical colony with individuals
radiating; individuals long spindle, 42-47/t by 6.5-7// ; 2 flagella up
to 17// long; in fresh water pond.
Fig. 107. a, Syncrypta volvox, X430 (Stein); b, Synura uvella, X500
(Stein); c, S. adamsi, X280 (Smith); d, Hymenomonas roseola, X400
(Klebs); e, Derepyxis amphora, X540 (Stokes); f, D. ollula, X600
(Stokes); g, Stylochrysallis parasitica, X430 (Stein).
Genus Hymenomonas Stein. Solitary; ellipsoid to cylindrical;
membrane brownish, often sculptured; 2 chromatophores; without
stigma; a contractile vacuole anterior; fresh water.
H. roseola S. (Fig. 107, d). 17-50// by 10-20/*.
Genus Derepyxis Stokes. With cellulose lorica, with or without a
short stalk; body ellipsoid to spherical with 1-2 chromatophores;
2 equal flagella; fresh water.
D. amphora S. (Fig. 107, e). Lorica 25-30// by 9-18//; on algae in
standing water.
D. ollula S. (Fig. 107,/). Lorica 20-25// by 15//.
Genus Stylochrysalis Stein. Body fusiform; with a gelatinous
stalk attached to Volvocidae; 2 equal flagella; 2 chromatophores;
without stigma; fresh water.
S. parasitica S. (Fig. 107, g). Body 9-1 l/i long; stalk about 15/z
long; on phytomonads.
264
PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 3 Ochromonadidae Pascher
With 2 unequal flagella; no pellicle and plastic; contractile vacu-
oles simple; with or without a delicate test; solitary or colonial;
free-swimming or attached.
Genus Ochromonas Wyssotzki. Solitary or colonial; body surface
delicate; posterior end often drawn out for attachment; 1-2 chro-
matophores; usually with a stigma; encystment; fresh water. Many
species (Doflein, 1921, 1923).
0. mutdbilis Klebs (Fig. 108, a). Ovoid to spherical; plastic, 15-30m
by 8-22M.
0. ludibunda Pascher (Fig. 108, b). Not plastic; 12-17m by 6— 12ju.
0. granulans Doflein. No stigma; 5-12/z long (Doflein, 1922).
Fig. 108. a, Ochromonas mutdbilis, X670 (Senn); b, 0. ludibunda, X540
(Pascher); c, Uroglena volvox, X430 (Stein); d, Uroglenopsis americana,
X470 (Lemmermann) ; e, Cyclonexis annularis, X540 (Stokes); f, Dino-
bryon sertularia, X670 (Scherffel) ; g, Hyalobryon ramosum., X540 (Lauter-
born); h, Stylopyxis viucicola, X470 (Bolochonzew).
MASTIGOPHORA, CHRYSOMONADINA 265
Genus Uroglena Ehrenberg. Spherical or ovoidal colon}', com-
posed of ovoid or ellipsoidal individuals arranged on periphery of a
gelatinous mass; all individuals connected with one another by
gelatinous processes running inward and meeting at a point; with a
stigma and a plate-like chromatophore; asexual reproduction of
individuals by longitudinal fission, that of colony by bipartition;
cysts spherical with spinous projections, and a long tubular process;
fresh water. One species.
U. volvox E. (Fig. 108, c). Cells 12-20/* by 8-13/*; colony 40-400/*
in diameter; in standing water.
Genus Uroglenopsis Lemmermann. Similar to Uroglena, but
individuals without inner connecting processes.
U. americana (Calkins) (Fig. 108, d). Each cell with one chro-
matophore; 5-8/* long; flagellum up to 32/* long; colony up to 300/*
in diameter; when present in abundance, the organism gives an of-
fensive odor to the water (Calkins). Morphology, development
(Troitzkaja, 1924).
U. europaea Pascher. Similar to the last-named species; but
chromatophores 2; cells up to 7/* long; colon y 150-300/* in diameter.
Genus Cyclonexis Stokes. Wheel-like colony, composed of 10-20
wedge-shaped individuals; young colony funnel-shaped; chromato-
phores 2, lateral; no stigma; reproduction and encystment unknown ;
fresh water.
C. annularis S. (Fig. 108, e). Cells 11-14/* long; colony 25-30/* in
diameter; in marshy water with sphagnum.
Genus Dinobryon Ehrenberg. Solitary or colonial; individuals
with vase-like, hyaline, but sometimes, yellowish cellulose test,
drawn out at its base; elongated and attached to the base of test
with its attenuated posterior tip; 1-2 lateral chromatophores;
usually with a stigma; asexual reproduction by binary fission; one
of the daughter individuals leaving test as a swarmer, to form a new
one; in colonial forms daughter individuals remain attached to the
inner margin of aperture of parent tests and there secrete new tests;
encystment common; the spherical cysts possess a short process;
Ahlstrom (1937) studied variability of North American species and
found the organisms occur more commonly in alkaline regions than
elsewhere; fresh water. Numerous species.
D. sertularia E. (Fig. 108,/). 23-43/* by 10-14/*.
D. divergens Imhof. 26-65/* long; great variation in different lo-
calities.
Genus Hyalobryon Lauterborn. Solitary or colonial; individual
body structure similar to that of Dinobryon; lorica in some cases
266
PROTOZOOLOGY
tubular, and those of young individuals are attached to the exterior
of parent tests ; fresh water.
H. ramosum L. (Fig. 108, g). Lorica 50-7 0/j long by 5-9 ^ in diame-
ter; body up to 30/x by 5/x; on vegetation in standing fresh water.
Genus Stylopyxis Bolochonzew. Solitary; body located at bottom
of a delicate stalked lorica with a wide aperture ; 2 lateral chromato-
phores ; fresh water.
S. mucicolali. (Fig. 108, h). Lorica 17— 18^ long; stalk about 33/x
long; body 9— llyu long: fresh water.
Family 4 Coccolithidae Lohmann
The members of this family occur, with a few exceptions, in salt
water only; with perforate (tremalith) or imperforate (discolith)
discs, composed of calcium carbonate; 1-2 flagella; 2 yellowish
Fig. 109. a, Pontosphaerahaeckeli, X1070 (Kiihn); b, Discosphaeratubi-
fer, X670 (Klihn); c, Distephanus speculum, X530 (Kiihn); d, Rhizo-
chrysis scherffeli, X670 (Doflein); e-g, Hy drums foetidus (e, entire
colony; f, portion; g, cyst), e (Berthold), f, X330, g, X800 (Klebs); h, i,
Chrysocapsa paludosa, X530 (West); j, k, Phaeosphaera gelatinosa (j, part
of a mass, X 70 ; k, three cells, X330) (West).
MASTIGOPHORA, CHRYSOMONADINA 267
chromatophores ; a single nucleus; oil drops and leucosin; holophytic.
Taxonomy and phylogeny (Schiller, 1925, 1926; Conrad, 1928a;
Kamptner, 1928; Deflandre, 1952a).
Examples :
Pontosphaera haeckeli Lohmann (Fig. 109, a).
Discosphaera tubifer Murray and Blackman (Fig. 109, b).
Family 5 Silicoflagellidae Borgert
Exclusively marine planktons; with siliceous skeleton which en-
velops the body. Example: Distephanus speculum (Miiller) (Fig. 109,
c) (Deflandre, 1952).
Suborder 2 Rhizochrysidina Pascher
No flagellate stage is known to occur; the organism possesses pseu-
dopodia; highly provisional group, based wholly upon the absence of
flagella; naked or with test; various forms; in some species chroma-
tophores are entirely lacking, so that the organisms resemble some
members of the Sarcodina. Several genera.
Genus Rhizochrysis Pascher. Body naked and amoeboid ; with 1-2
chromatophores : fresh water.
R. scherffeli P. (Figs. 109, d; 110, a, b). 10-14/* in diameter; 1-2
chromatophores: branching rhizopods; fresh water.
Genus Chrysidiastrum Lauterborn. Naked; spherical; often sev-
eral in linear association by pseudopodia; one yellow-brown chro-
matophore; fresh water.
C. catenation L. Cells 12-14ju in diameter (Pascher, 1916a).
Genus Chrysarachnion Pascher. Ameboid organism; with achro-
matophore, leucosin grain and contractile vacuole; many individuals
arranged in a plane and connected by extremely fine rhizopods, the
whole forming a cobweb network. Small animals are trapped by the
net; chromatophores are small; nutrition both holophytic and holo-
zoic; during division the chromatophore is often unevenly distrib-
uted so that many individuals without any chromatophore are
produced; fresh water (Pascher, 1916a).
C. insidians P. (Fig. 110, c, d). Highly amoeboid individuals 3-4/x
in diameter; chromatophore pale yellowish brown, but becomes blu-
ish green upon death of organisms; a leucosin grain and a contractile
vacuole; colony made up of 200 or more individuals.
Genus Chrysothylakion Pascher. With retort-shaped calcareous
shell with a bent neck and an opening; shell reddish brown (with
268
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 110. a, b, Rhizochrysis scherffeli, X500 (Scherffel). a, 4 chroma-
tophore-bearing individuals and an individual without chromatophore;
b, the last-mentioned individual after 7 hours, c, d, Chrysarachnion insi-
dians (Pascher). c, part of a colony composed of individuals with and
without chromatophore, X1270; d, products of division, one individual
lacks chromatophore, but with a leucosin body, X2530. e, f, Chrysothy-
lakion vorax (Pascher). e, an individual with anastomosing rhizopodia and
"excretion granules," XS70; f, optical section of an individual; the cyto-
plasm contains two fusiform brownish chromatophores, a spheroid
nucleus, a large leucosin body and contractile vacuole, X about 1200.
MASTIGOPHORA, CHRYSOMONADINA 269
iron) in old individuals; through the aperture are extruded extremely
fine anastomosing rhizopods; protoplasm which fills the shell is
colorless; a single nucleus, two spindle-form brown chromatophores,
several contractile vacuoles and leucosin body; marine water.
C. vorax P. (Fig. 110, e, /). The shell measures 14-18/x long, 7-10/x
broad, and 5-6/x high; on marine algae.
Suborder 3 Chrysocapsina Pascher
Palmella stage prominent; flagellate forms transient; colonial;
individuals enclosed in a gelatinous mass ; 1-2 flagella, one chromato-
phore, and a contractile vacuole; one group of relatively minute
forms and the other of large organisms.
Genus Hydrurus Agardh. In a large (1-30 cm. long) branching
gelatinous cylindrical mass; cells yellowish brown; spherical to
ellipsoidal; with a chromatophore; individuals arranged loosely in
gelatinous matrix; apical growth resembles much higher algae; mul-
tiplication of individuals results in formation of pyrimidal forms
with a flagellum, a chromatophore, and a leucosin mass; cyst may
show a wing-like rim; cold freshwater streams.
H. foetidus Kirschner (Figs. 32, d-f; 109, e-g). Olive-green, feath-
ery tufts, 1-30 cm. long, develops an offensive odor; sticky to touch;
occasionally encrusted with calcium carbonate; in running fresh
water.
Genus Chrysocapsa Pascher. In a spherical to ellipsoidal gelati-
nous mass; cells spherical to ellipsoid; 1-2 chromatophores; with or
without stigma ; freshwater.
C. paludosa P. (Fig. 109, h, i). Spherical or ellipsoidal with cells
distributed without order; with a stigma; 2 chromatophores;
s warmer pyriform with 2 flagella; cells llju long; colony up to 100/z
in diameter.
Genus Phaeosphaera West and West. In a simple or branching
cylindrical gelatinous mass; cells spherical with a single chroma-
tophore; fresh water.
P. gelatinosa W. and W. (Fig. 109, j, k). Cells 14-17.5/x in diameter.
References
Butschli, O. : (1883-1887) Mastigophora. Bronn's Klassen und Ord-
nungen des Thierreichs. 1, pt. 2.
Doflein, F. and Reichenow, E. : (1949) Lehrbuch der Protozoen-
kunde. 6th ed. 1. Jena.
Grasse, P.-P.: (1952) Traite de Zoologie. I. Fasc. 1. Paris.
Kent, S.: (1880-1882) A manual of Infusoria. London.
270 PROTOZOOLOGY
Pascher, A.: (1914) Flagellatae: Allgemeiner Teil. In: Die Siisswas-
serflora Deutschlands. Part 1.
Stein, F.: (1878) Der Organismus der Infusionsthiere. 3 Abt. Leip-
zig-
(1883) Der Organismus der Flagellate oder Geisselinfusorien.
Parts 1, 2. Leipzig.
Ahlstrom, E. H.: (1936) The deep-water plankton of Lake Michi-
gan, exclusive of the Crustacea. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 55:286.
(1937) Studies on variability in the genus Dinobryon. Ibid.,
56:139.
Conrad, W.: (1926) Recherches sur les flagellates de nos eaux
saumatres. II. Arch. Protist., 56:167.
— ■ (1927) Essai d'une monographie des genres Mallomonas
Perty (1852) et Pseudomallomonas Chodat (1920). Ibid., 59:
423.
(1928) Le genre Microglena. Ibid., 60:415.
(1928a) Sur les Coccolithophoracees d'eau douce. Ibid., 63:
58.
(1930) Flagellates nouveaux ou peu connus. I. Ibid., 70:657.
Deflandre, G.: (1952) Classe des Silicoflagellides. In: Grasse
(1952), p. 425.
(1952a) Classe des Coccolithophorides. Ibid., p. 440.
Doflein, F.: (1921) Mitteilungen liber Chrysomonadien aus dem
Schwarzwald. Zool. Anz., 53:153.
(1922) Untersuchungen liber Chrysomonadinen. I, II. Arch.
Protist., 44:149.
(1923) III. Ibid., 45:267.
Fritsch, F. E.: (1935) The structure and reproduction of the algae.
Cambridge.
Hollande, A.: (1952) Classe des Chrysomonadines. In: Grasse
(1952), p. 471.
Kamptner, E.: (1928) Ueber das System und die Phylogenie der
Kalkflagellaten. Arch. Protist., 64: 19.
Korshikov, A. A.: (1929) Studies on the chrysomonads. I. Ibid., 67:
253.
Lackey, J. B. : (1938) Scioto River forms of Chrysococcus. Am. Mid-
land Natur., 20:619.
- (1940) Some new flagellates from the Woods Hole area. Ibid.,
23:463.
Owen,'h. M.: (1947) Flagellar structure. I. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc,
66:50.
(1949) II. Ibid., 68: 261.
Pascher, A.: (1916) Studien liber die rhizopodiale Entwicklung der
Flagellaten. Arch. Protist., 36:81.
(1916a) Rhizopodialnetz als Fangvorrichtung bei einer plas-
modialen Chrysomonade. Ibid., 37:15.
— (1916b) Fusionsplasmodien bei Flagellaten und ihre Be-
deutung fur die Ableitung der Rhizopoden von den Flagellaten.
Ibid., 37:31.
MASTIGOPHORA, CHRYSOMONADINA 271
— (1917) Flagellaten und Rhizopoden in ihren gegenseitigen
Beziehungen. Ibid., 38:584.
— (1921) Neue oder wenig bekannte Protisten. Ibid., 44:119.
(1929) XXI. Ibid., 65:426.
Scherffel, A.: (1901) Kleiner Beitrag zur Phylogenie einiger Grup-
pen niederer Organismen. Bot. Zeit., 59:143.
(1927) Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Chrysomonadineen. II.
Arch. Protist., 57:331.
Schiller, J.: (1925) Die planktonischen Vegetationen des adriat-
ischen Meeres. A. Ibid., 51:1.
(1925a) B. Ibid., 53:59.
(1926) Ueber Fortpflanzung, geissellose Gattungen und die
Nomenklatur der Coccolithophoraceen, etc. Ibid., 53:326.
(1926a) Der thermische Einfluss und die Wirkung des Eises
auf die planktischen Herbstvegetationen, etc. Ibid., 56:1.
■ — (1929) Neue Chryso- und Cryptomonaden aus Altwassern
der Donau bei Wien. Ibid., 66:436.
Smith, G. M.: (1950) The freshwater algae of the United States. 2
ed. New York.
Stokes, A. C.: (1888) A preliminary contribution toward a history
of the freshwater Infusoria of the United States. J. Trenton
Nat. Hist. Soc, 1:71.
Troitzkaja, O. V.: (1924) Zur Morphologie und Entwicklungsge-
schichte von Uroglenopsis americana. Arch. Protist., 49:260.
West, G. S. and Fritsch, F. E.: (1927) A treatise on the British
freshwater algae. Cambridge.
Chapter 9
Order 2 Cryptomonadina Stein
THE cryptomonads differ from the chrysomonads in having a
constant body form. Pseudopodia are very rarely formed, as
the body is covered by a pellicle. The majority show dorso-ventral
differentiation, with an oblique longitudinal furrow. 1-2 unequal
flagella arise from the furrow or from the cytopharynx. In case 2
flagella are present, both may be directed anteriorly or one poster-
iorly. These organisms are free-swimming or creeping.
One or two chromatophores are usually present. They are discoid
or band-form. The color of chromatophores varies: yellow, brown,
red, olive-green; the nature of the pigment is not well understood,
but it is said to be similar to that which is found in the Dinoflagel-
lata (Pascher). One or more spherical pyrenoids which are enclosed
within a starch envelope appear to occur outside the chromato-
phores. Nutrition is mostly holophytic; a few are saprozoic or holo-
zoic. Assimilation products are solid discoid carbohydrates which
stain blue with iodine in Cryptomonas or which stain reddish violet
by iodine in Cryptochrysis ; fat and starch are produced in holo-
zoic forms which feed upon bacteria and small Protozoa. The stigma
is usually located near the insertion point of the flagella. Con-
tractile vacuoles, one to several, are simple and are situated near the
cytopharynx. A single vesicular nucleus is ordinarily located near
the middle of the body.
Asexual reproduction, by longitudinal fission, takes place in
either the active or the non-motile stage. Sexual reproduction is un-
known. Some cryptomonads form palmella stage and others gelati-
nous aggregates. In the suborder Phaeocapsina, the palmella stage is
permanent. Cysts are spherical, and the cyst wall is composed of
cellulose. The Cryptomonadina occur in fresh or sea water, living
also often as symbionts in marine organisms.
Flagellate forms predominant Suborder 1 Eucryptomonadina
Palmella stage permanent Suborder 2 Phaeocapsina (p. 275)
Suborder 1 Eucryptomonadina Pascher
Truncate anteriorly; 2 anterior flagella; with an oblique furrow near
anterior end Family 1 Cryptomonadidae (p. 273)
Reniform; with 2 lateral flagella; furrow equatorial
Family 2 Nephroselmidae (p. 274)
272
CRYPTOMONADINA
273
Family 1 Cryptomonadidae Stein
Genus Cryptomonas Ehrenberg. Elliptical body with a firm pelli-
cle; anterior end truncate, with 2 flagella; dorsal side convex, ventral
side slightly so or flat; nucleus posterior; "cytopharynx" with gran-
ules, considered trichocysts by some observers (Hollande, 1942,
1952); 2 lateral chromatophores vary in color from green to blue-
green, brown or rarely red; holophytic; with small starch-like bodies
which stain blue in iodine; 1-3 contractile vacuoles anterior; fresh
water. Several species. Morphology and taxonomy (Hollande, 1942,
1952).
Fig. 111. a, Cryptomonas ovata, X800 (Pascher);b, Chilomonas Para-
mecium, X1330 (Biitschli); c, d, Chrysidella schaudinni, X1330 (Winter);
e, Cyathomonas truncata, X670 (Ulehla); f, Cryptochrysis commutata,
X670 (Pascher); g, Rhodomonas lens, X1330 (Ruttner); h, Nephroselmis
olvacea, X670 (Pascher) ; i, Protochrysis phaeophycearum, X800 (Pascher);
j, k, Phaeothamnion confervicolum, X600 (Kiihn).
C. ovata E. (Fig. Ill, a). 30-60/x by 20-25/x; among vegetation.
Genus Chilomonas Ehrenberg. Similar to Cryptomonas in general
body form and structure, but colorless because of the absence of
chromatophores; without pyrenoid; "cytopharynx" deep, lower half
surrounded by granules, considered by Hollande (1942) and Drag-
esco (1951) as trichocysts; one contractile vacuole anterior; nucleus
in posterior half; endoplasm usually filled with polygonal starch
grains; saprozoic fresh water.
C. Paramecium E. (Fig. 111,6). Posteriorly narrowed, slightly bent
"dorsally"; 30-40 m by 10-1 5m; saprozoic; widely distributed in stag-
274 PROTOZOOLOGY
nant water. Cytology (Mast and Doyle, 1935; Hollande, 1942;
Dragesco, 1951); bacteria-free culture (Mast and Pace, 1933); me-
tabolism (Mast and Pace, 1929; Pace, 1941); growth substances
(Pace, 1944, 1947; Mast and Pace, 1946); effects of vitamins (Pace,
1947).
C. oblonga Pascher. Oblong; posterior end broadly rounded; 20-
50/i long.
Genus Chrysidella Pascher. Somewhat similar to Cryptomonas-
but much smaller-, yellow chromatophores much shorter; those oc,
curring in Foraminifera or Radiolaria as symbionts are known as
Zooxanthellae. Several species.
C. schaudinni (Winter) (Fig. Ill, c, d). Body less than 10m long; in
the foraminiferan Peneroplis pertusus.
Genus Cyathomonas Fromentel. Body small, somewhat oval;
without chromatophores; much compressed; anterior end obliquely
truncate; with 2 equal or subequal anterior flagella; colorless; nu-
cleus central; anabolic products, stained red or reddish violet by
iodine; contractile vacuole usually anterior; a row of refractile
granules, protrichocysts, close and parallel to anterior margin of
body; asexual reproduction by longitudinal fission; holozoic; in stag-
nant water and infusion. One species.
C. truncata Ehrenberg (Fig. Ill, e). 15-25ju by 10-15/i.
Genus Cryptochrysis Pascher. Furrow indistinctly granulated;
2 or more chromatophores brownish, olive-green, or dark green,
rarely red; pyrenoid central; 2 equal flagella; some lose flagella and
may assume amoeboid form ; fresh water.
C. commutataV. (Fig. Ill, /). Bean-shaped; 2 chromatophores;
19/x by 10m.
Genus Rhodomonas Karsten. Furrow granulated; chromatophore
one, red (upon degeneration the coloring matter becomes dissolved
in water) ; pyrenoid central ; fresh water.
R. lens Pascher and Ruttner (Fig. Ill, g). Spindle-form; about 16m
long; in fresh water.
Family 2 Nephroselmidae Pascher
Body reniform; with lateral equatorial furrow; 2 flagella arising
from furrow, one directed anteriorly and the other posteriorly.
Genus Nephroselmis Stein. Reniform; flattened; furrow and
cytopharynx distinct; no stigma; 1-2 chromatophores, discoid,
brownish green; nucleus dorsal; a central pyrenoid; 2 contractile
vacuoles; with reddish globules; fresh water.
N. olvacea S. (Fig. Ill, h). 20-25m by 15m-
CRYPTOMONADINA 275
Genus Protochrysis Pascher. Reniform; not flattened; with a dis-
tinct furrow, but without cytopharynx; a stigma at base of flagella;
1-2 chromatophores, brownish yellow; pyrenoid central; 2 contrac-
tile vacuoles ; fission seems to take place during the resting stage ;
fresh water.
P. phaeophycearum P. (Fig. Ill, i). 15-17/z by 7-9//.
Suborder 2 Phaeocapsina Pascher
Palmella stage predominant; perhaps border-line forms between
brown algae and cryptomonads. Example: Phaeothamnion confer-
vicolum Lagerheim (Fig. Ill, j, k) which is less than 10// long.
References
Dragesco, J.: (1951) Sur la structure des trichocystes du flagelle
cryptomonadine, Chilomonas paramecium. Bull. micr. appl., 2
ser. 1:172.
Fritsch, F. E. : (1935) The structure and reproduction of the algae.
Cambridge.
Hollande, A.: (1942) Etude cytologique et biologique de quelques
flagell^s libres. Arch. zool. exper. g£n., 83:1.
(1952) Classe des Cryptomonadines. In: Grasse (1952), p.
286.
Mast, S. O. and Doyle, W. L.: (1935) A new type of cytoplasmic
structure in the flagellate Chilomonas paramecium. Arch.Protist.,
85:145.
and Pace, D. M. : (1933) Synthesis from inorganic compound
of starch, fats, proteins and protoplasm in the colorless animal,
Chilomonas paramecium. Protoplasma, 20:326.
(1939) The effect of calcium and magnesium on
metabolic processes in Chilomonas. J. Cell. Comp. Physiol., 14:
261.
(1946) The nature of the growth-substance produced
by Chilomonas paramecium. Physiol. Zool., 19:223.
Pace, D. M.: (1941) The effects of sodium and potassium on meta-
bolic processes in Chilomonas paramecium. J. Cell. Comp.
Physiol., 18:243.
(1944) The relation between concentration of growth-pro-
moting substance and its effect on growth in Chilomonas para-
mecium. Physiol. Zool., 17:278.
(1947) The effects of vitamins and growth-promoting sub-
stance on growth in Chilomonas paramecium. Exper. Med. Surg.
5:140.
Pascher, A.: (1913) Cryptomonadinae. Susswasserflora Deutsch-
lands. 2.
West, G. S. and Fritsch, F. E.: (1927) A treatise on the British
freshwater algae. Cambridge.
Chapter 10
Order 3 Phytomonadina Blochmann
THE phytomonads are small, more or less rounded, green flagel-
lates, with a close resemblance to the algae. They show a definite
body form, and most of them possess a cellulose membrane, which
is thick in some and thin in others. There is a distinct opening in
the membrane at the anterior end, through which 1-2 (or 4 or
more) flagella protrude. The majority possess numerous grass-green
chromatophores, each of which contains one or more pyrenoids. The
method of nutrition is mostly holophytic or mixotrophic; some color-
less forms are, however, saprozoic. The metabolic products are
usually starch and oils. Some plr^tomonads are stained red, owing
to the presence of haematochrome. The contractile vacuoles may be
located in the anterior part or scattered throughout the body. The
nucleus is ordinarily centrally located, and its division seems to be
mitotic, chromosomes having been definitely noted in several species.
Asexual reproduction is by longitudinal fission, and the daughter
individuals remain within the parent membrane for some time.
Sexual reproduction seems to occur widely. Colony formation also
occurs, especially in the family Volvocidae. Encystment and forma-
tion of the palmella stage are common among many forms. The
phytomonads have a much wider distribution in fresh than in salt
water.
Solitary
Membrane a single piece; rarely indistinct
2 flagella Family 1 Chlamydomonadidae
3 flagella Family 2 Trichlorididae (p. 281)
4 flagella Family 3 Carteriidae (p. 281)
5 flagella Family 4 Chlorasteridae (p. 283)
6 or more flagella Family 5 Polyblepharididae (p. 284)
Membrane bivalve Family 6 Phacotidae (p. 284)
Colonial, of 4 or more individuals; 2 (1 or 4) flagella
Family 7 Volvocidae (p. 285)
Family 1 Chlamydomonadidae Butschli
Solitary; spheroid, oval, or ellipsoid; with a cellulose membrane;
2 flagella; chromatophores, stigma, and pyrenoids usually present.
Cytology (Hollande, 1942).
Genus Chlamydomonas Ehrenberg. Spherical, ovoid or elongated;
sometimes flattened; 2 flagella; membrane often thickened at an-
terior end; a large chromatophore, containing one or more pyrenoids;
276
PHYTOMONADINA 277
stigma; a single nucleus; 2 contractile vacuoles anterior; asexual
reproduction and palmella formation; sexual reproduction isogamy
or anisogamy; fresh water. Numerous species (Pascher, 1921, 1925,
1929, 1930, 1932: Skvortzow, 1929; Pringsheim, 1930; Pascher and
Jahoda, 1928; Moewus, 1932, 1933; Gerloff, 1940); variation (Moe-
wus, 1933) ; sexual development (Moewus, 1933a) ; variation (p. 223) ;
genetics (p. 231).
C. monadina Stein (Fig. 112, a-c). 15-30/x long; fresh water;
Landacre noted that the organisms obstructed the sand filters used in
connection with a septic tank, together with the diatom Navicula.
C. angulosa Dill. About 20^u by 12-15/z; fresh water.
C. epiphytica Smith (Fig. 112, d). 8-9/j, by 7-8/*; in freshwater lakes.
C. globosa Snow (Fig. 112, e). Spheroid or ellipsoid; 5-7 n in dia-
meter; in freshwater lakes.
C. gracilis S. (Fig. 112,/). 10-13/x by 5-7 n; fresh water.
Genus Haematococcus Agardh (Sphaerella Sommerfeldt). Sphe-
roidal or ovoid with a gelatinous envelope ; chromatophore peripheral
and reticulate, with 2-8 scattered pyrenoids; several contractile
vacuoles; haematochrome frequently abundant in both motile and
encysted stages; asexual reproduction in motile form; sexual repro-
duction isogamy; fresh water.
H. pluvialis (Flotow) (Figs. 42; 112, g). Spherical; with numerous
radial cytoplasmic processes; chromatophore U-shape in optical sec-
tion; body 8-50m, stigma fusiform, lateral; fresh water. Reichenow
(1909) noticed the disappearance of haematochrome if the culture
medium was rich in nitrogen and phosphorus. In bacteria-free cul-
tures, Elliott (1934) observed 4 types of cells: large and small flagel-
lates, palmella stage and haemato cysts. Large flagellates predominate
in liquid cultures, but when conditions become unfavorable, palmella
stage and then haematocysts develop. When the cysts are placed in
a favorable environment after exposure to freezing, desiccation, etc.,
they give rise to small flagellates which grow into palmella stage or
large flagellates. No syngamy of small flagellates was noticed. Hae-
matochrome appears during certain phases in sunlight and its ap-
pearance is accelerated by sodium acetate under sunlight. Sexuality
(Schulze, 1927).
Genus Sphaerellopsis Korschikoff (Chlamydococcus Stein). With
gelatinous envelope which is usually ellipsoid with rounded ends;
body elongate fusiform or pyriform, no protoplasmic processes to
envelope; 2 equally long flagella; chromatophore large; a pyrenoid;
with or without stigma; nucleus in anterior half; 2 contractile vacu-
oles; fresh water.
278
PROTOZOOLOGY
S. fluviatilis (Stein) (Fig. 112, h). 14-30/zby 10-20m; fresh water.
Genus Brachiomonas Bohlin. Lobate; with horn-like processes,
all directed posteriorly; contractile vacuoles; ill-defined chromato-
phore; pyrenoids; with or without stigma; sexual and asexual re-
production; fresh, brackish or salt water.
Fig. 112. a-c, Chlamydomonas monadina, X470 (Goroschankin) (a,
typical organism; b, anisogamy; c, palmella stage); d, C. epiphytica,
X1030 (Smith); e, C. globosa, X2000 (Snow); f, C. gracilis, X770 (Snow);
g, Haematococcus pluvialis, X500 (Reichenow); h, Sphaerellopsis fluvia-
tilis, X490 (Korschikoff); i, Brachiomonas westiana, X960 (West); j,
Lobomonas rostrata, X1335 (Hazen); k, Diplostauron pentagonium, X1110
(Hazen); 1, Gigantochloris permaxima, X370 (Pascher); m, Gloeomonas
ovalis, X330 (Pascher); n, Scourfieldia complanata, X1540 (West); o,
Thorakomonas sabulosa, X670 (Korschikoff).
PHYTOMONADINA 279
B. westiana Pascher (Fig. 112, i). 15-24/t by 13-23/z; brackish
water.
Genus Lobomonas Dangeard. Ovoid or irregularly angular; chro
matophore cup-shaped; pyrenoid; stigma; a contractile vacuole,
fresh water.
L. rostrata Hazen (Fig. 112, j). 5-12 /i by 4-8 /*.
Genus Diplostauron Korschikoff. Rectangular with raised cor-
ners; 2 equally long flagella; chromatophore; one pyrenoid; stigma;
2 contractile vacuoles anterior; fresh water.
D. pentagonium (Hazen) (Fig. 112, k). 10-13/* by 9— 10m-
Genus Gigantochloris Pascher. Unusually large form, equalling
in size a colony of Eudorina; flattened; oval in front view; elongate
ellipsoid in profile; membrane radially striated; 2 flagella widely
apart, less than body length; chromatophore in network; numerous
pyrenoids; often without stigma; in woodland pools.
G. permaxima P. (Fig. 1 12, 1). 70-150/* by 40-80/x by 25-50/*.
Genus Gloeomonas Klebs. Broadly ovoid, nearly subspherical;
with a delicate membrane and a thin gelatinous envelope; 2 flagella
widely apart; chromatophores numerous, circular or oval discs;
pyrenoids (?); stigma; 2 contractile vacuoles anterior; freshwater.
G. ovalis K. (Fig. 112, m). 38-42/x by 23-33/*; gelatinous envelope
over 2/* thick.
Genus Scourfieldia West. Whole body flattened; ovoid in front
view; membrane delicate; 2 flagella 2-5 times body length; a chro-
matophore; without pyrenoid or stigma; contractile vacuole anter-
ior; nucleus central; fresh water.
S. complanata W. (Fig. 112, n). 5.2-5. 7/* by 4. 4-4. 6m ; fresh water.
Genus Thorakomonas Korschikoff. Flattened; somewhat irregu-
larly shaped or ellipsoid in front view; membrane thick, enclustered
with iron-bearing material, deep brown to black in color; proto-
plasmic body similar to that of Chlamydomonas; a chromatophore
with a pyrenoid; 2 contractile vacuoles; standing fresh water.
T. sabulosa K. (Fig. 112, o). Up to 16// by 14/*.
Genus Coccomonas Stein. Shell smooth; globular; body not filling
intracapsular space; stigma; contractile vacuole; asexual reproduc-
tion into 4 individuals ; fresh water. Species (Conrad 1930).
C. orbicularis S. (Fig. 113, a). 18-25/1 in diameter; fresh water.
Genus Chlorogonium Ehrenberg. Fusiform; membrane thin and
adheres closely to protoplasmic body; plate-like chromatophores
usually present, sometimes ill-contoured; one or more pyrenoids;
numerous scattered contractile vacuoles; usually a stigma; a central
nucleus; asexual reproduction by 2 successive transverse fissions
280
PROTOZOOLOGY
during the motile phase; isogamy reported; fresh water.
during the motile phase; isogamy reported; fresh water. Sexuality
(Schulze, 1927); nutrition (Loefer, 1935).
C. euchlorum E. (Fig. 113, b). 25-70/1 by 4-1 5/x; in stagnant water.
Genus Phyllomonas Korschikoff. Extremely flattened ; membrane
delicate; 2 flagella; chromatophore often faded or indistinct; numer-
ous pyrenoids; with or without stigma; many contractile vacuoles;
fresh water.
Fig. 113. a, Coccomonas orbicularis, X500 (Stein); b, Chlorogonium
euchlorum, X430 (Jacobsen); c, Phyllomonas phacoides, X200 (Kor-
schikoff); d, Sphaenochloris printzi, X600 (Printz); e, Korschikoffia
guttula, X1670 (Pascher); f, Fur cilia lobosa, X670 (Stokes); g, Hyalo-
gonium klebsi, X470 (Klebs); h, Polytoma uvella, X670 (Dangeard);
i, Parapolytoma satura, X1600 (Jameson); j, Trichloris paradoxa, X990
(Pascher).
P. phacoides K. (Fig. 113, c). Leaf -like; rotation movement; up to
100/i long; in standing fresh water.
Genus Sphaenochloris Pascher. Body truncate or concave at flagel-
late end in front view; sharply pointed in profile; 2 flagella widely
apart; chromatophore large; pyrenoid; stigma; contractile vacuole
anterior; fresh water.
S. printzi P. (Fig. 113, d). Up to 18/x by 9/*.
Genus Korschikoffia Pascher. Elongate pyriform with an undu-
lating outline; anterior end narrow, posterior end more bluntly
rounded; plastic; chromatophores in posterior half; stigma absent;
contractile vacuole anterior; 2 equally long flagella; nucleus nearly
central ; salt water.
PHYTOMONADINA 281
K. guttula P. (Fig. 113, e). 6-lOyu by 5m; brackish water.
Genus Furcilla Stokes. U-shape, with 2 posterior processes; in
side view somewhat flattened; anterior end with a papilla; 2 flagella
equally long; 1-2 contractile vacuoles anterior; oil droplets; fresh
water.
F. lobosa S. (Fig. 113,/). 11-14M long; fresh water.
Genus Hyalogonium Pascher. Elongate spindle-form ; anterior end
bluntly rounded; posterior end more pointed; 2 flagella; protoplasm
colorless; with starch granules; a stigma; asexual reproduction re-
sults in up to 8 daughter cells; fresh water.
H. klebsi P. (Fig. 113, g). 30-80/x by up to 10m; stagnant water.
Genus Polytoma Ehrenberg (Chlamydoblepharis France; Tussetia
Pascher). Ovoid; no chromatophores; membrane yellowish to
brown; pyrenoid unobserved; 2 contractile vacuoles; 2 flagella
about body length; stigma if present, red or pale-colored; many
starch bodies and oil droplets in posterior half of body; asexual re-
production in motile stage; isogamy (Dogiel, 1935); saprozoic; in
stagnant fresh water. Genetics (p. 231).
P. uvella E. (Figs. 8, c; 97, a, b; 113, h). Oval to pyriform; stigma
may be absent; 15-30/x by 9-20m- Cytology (Entz, 1918; Hollande,
1942).
Genus Parapolytoma Jameson. Anterior margin obliquely trun-
cate, resembling a cryptomonad, but without chromatophores; with-
out stigma and starch; division into 4 individuals within envelope;
fresh water.
P. satura J. (Fig. 113, i). About 15m by 10m; fresh water.
Family 2 Trichlorididae
Genus Trichloris Scherffel and Pascher. Bean-shape; flagellate
side flattened or concave; opposite side convex; chromatophore
large, covering convex side; 2 pyrenoids surrounded by starch
granules; a stigma near posterior end of chromatophore; nucleus
central; numerous contractile vacuoles scattered; 3 flagella near
anterior end.
T. paradoxa S and P. (Fig. 113, j). 12-15/x broad by 10-12M high;
flagella up to 30m long.
Family 3 Carteriidae
Genus Carteria Diesing (Corbierea, Pithiscus Dangeard). Ovoid,
chromatophore cup-shaped; pyrenoid; stigma; 2 contractile vacuoles;
fresh water. Numerous species (Pascher, 1925, 1932; Schiller, 1925).
282
PROTOZOOLOGY
C. cordiformis (Carter) (Fig. 114, a). Heart-shaped in front view;
ovoid in profile; chromatophore large; 18-23/x by 16-20/t.
C. ellipsoidalis Bold. Ellipsoid; chromatophore; a small stigma;
division into 2, 4, or 8 individuals in encysted stage; 6-24/x long;
fresh water, Maryland (Bold, 1938).
Genus Pyramimonas Schmarda (Pyramidomonas Stein). Small
pyramidal or heart-shaped body; with bluntly drawn-out posterior
end; usually 4 ridges in anterior region; 4 flagella; green chromato-
phore cup-shaped; with or without stigma; a large pyrenoid in the
posterior part; 2 contractile vacuoles in the anterior portion ;'encyst-
ment; fresh water. Several species (Geitler, 1925).
P. tetrarhynchus S. (Fig. 114, b). 20-28/* by 12-18/*; fresh water;
Wisconsin (Smith, 1933).
Fig. 114. a, Carteria cordiformis, X600 (Dill); b, Pyramimonas tetra-
rhynchus, X400 (Dill); c, d, Polytomella agilis, X1000 (Doflein) (d, a
cyst) ; e, Spirogonium chlorogonioides, X 670 (Pascher) ; /, Tetrablepharis
7nultifilis, X670 (Pascher); g, Spermatozopsis exultans, XI 630 (Pascher);
h, Chloraster gyrans, X670 (Stein); i, Polyblepharides singularis, X870
(Dangeard); j, k, Pocillomonas flos aquae, X920 (Steinecke); 1, m, Phaco-
tus lenticularis, X430 (Stein); nj Pteromonas angulosa, X670 (West); o, p,
Dysmorphococcus variabilis, X1000 (Bold).
PHYTOMONADINA 283
P. montana Geitler. Bluntly conical; anterior end 4-lobed or
truncate; posterior end narrowly rounded; plastic; pyriform nucleus
anterior, closely associated with 4 flagella; stigma; 2 contractile
vacuoles anterior; chromatophore cup-shaped, granular, with scat-
tered starch grains and oil droplets ; a pyrenoid with a ring of small
starch grains; 17-22.5/1 long (Geitler, 1925); 12-20/* by 8-16/*
(Bold); flagella about body length; fresh water, Maryland (Bold,
1938).
Genus Polytomella Aragao. Ellipsoid, or oval, with a small papilla
at anterior end, where 4 equally long flagella arise ; with or without
stigma; starch: fresh water (Aragao, 1910; Doflein, 1916).
P. agilis A. (Fig. 114, c, d). Numerous starch grains; 8—18/* by
5-9/*; flagella 12-17/* long; fresh water; hay infusion.
P. caeca Pringsheim. Ovoid with bluntly pointed posterior end;
12-20/* by 10-12/*; membrane delicate; a small papilla at anterior
end; no stigma; two contractile vacuoles below papilla; cytoplasm
ordinarily filled with starch grains; fresh water (Pringsheim, 1937).
Genus Medusochloris Pascher. Hollowed hemisphere with 4 proc-
esses, each bearing a flagellum at its lower edge; a lobed plate-
shaped chromatophore; without pyrenoid. One species.
M. phiale P. In salt water pools with decaying algae in the Baltic.
Genus Spirogonium Pascher. Body spindle-form; membrane deli-
cate; flagella a little longer than body; chromatophore conspicuous;
a pyrenoid; stigma anterior; 2 contractile vacuoles; fresh water. One
species.
S. chlorogonioides (P). (Fig. 114, e). Body up to 25/* by 15/*.
Genus Tetrablepharis Senn. Ellipsoid to ovoid; pyrenoid present;
fresh water.
T. multifilis (Klebs) (Fig. 114,/). 12-20/* by 8-15/*; stagnant water.
Genus Spermatozopsis Korschikoff. Sickle-form; bent easily, oc-
casionally plastic; chromatophore mostly on convex side; a distinct
stigma at more rounded anterior end; flagella equally long; 2 con-
tractile vacuoles anterior; fresh water infusion.
S. exultans K. (Fig. 114, g). 7-9/* long; also biflagellate ; in fresh
water with algae, leaves, etc.
Family 4 Chlorasteridae
Genus Chloraster Ehrenberg. Similar to Pyramimonas, but an-
terior half with a conical envelope drawn out at four corners; with 5
flagella; fresh or salt water.
C. gyrans E. (Fig. 114, h). Up to 18/* long; standing water; also re-
ported from salt water.
284 PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 5 Polyblepharididae Dangeard
Genus Polyblepharides Dangeard. Ellipsoid or ovoid; flagella 6-8,
shorter than body length; chromatophore; a pyrenoid; a central
nucleus; 2 contractile vacuoles anterior; cysts; a questionable genus;
fresh water.
P. singularis D. (Fig. 114, i). 10-14M by 8-9/x.
Genus Pocillomonas Steinecke. Ovoid with broadly concave an-
terior end; covered with gelatinous substance with numerous small
projections; 6 flagella; chromatophores disc-shaped; 2 contractile
vacuoles anterior; nucleus central; starch bodies; without pyrenoid.
P.flos aquae S. (Fig. 114, j, k). 13m by 10m; fresh water pools.
Family 6 Phacotidae Poche
The shell typically composed of 2 valves; 2 flagella protrude from
anterior end; with stigma and chromatophores; asexual reproduction
within the shell ; valves may become separated from each other ow-
ing to an increase in gelatinous contents.
Genus Phacotus Perty. Oval to circular in front view; lenticular
in profile; protoplasmic body does not fill dark-colored shell com-
pletely; flagella protrude through a foramen; asexual reproduction
into 2 to 8 individuals ; fresh water.
P. lenticularis (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 114, I, m). 13-20m in diameter; in
stagnant water.
Genus Pteromonas Seligo. Body broadly winged in plane of suture
of 2 valves; protoplasmic body fills shell; chromatophore cup-
shaped; one or more pyrenoids; stigma; 2 contractile vacuoles;
asexual reproduction into 2-4 individuals; sexual reproduction by
isogamy; zygotes usually brown; fresh water. Several species.
P. angulosa (Lemmermann) (Fig. 114, n). With a rounded wing
and 4 protoplasmic projections in profile; 13-17/i by 9-20m; fresh
water.
Genus Dysmorphococcus Takeda. Circular in front view; anterior
region narrowed; posterior end broad; shell distinctly flattened pos-
teriorly, ornamented by numerous pores; sutural ridge without
pores; 2 flagella; 2 contractile vacuoles; stigma, pyrenoid, cup-shaped
chromatophore; nucleus; multiplication by binary fission; fresh
water.
D. variabilis T. (Fig. 114, o, p). Shell 14-19/x by 13-17/x; older shells
dark brown; fresh water; Maryland (Bold, 1938).
PHYTOMONADINA 285
Family 7 Volvocidae Ehrenberg
An interesting group of colonial flagellates; individual similar to
Chlamydomonadidae, with 2 equally long flagella (one in Mastigo-
sphaera; 4 in Spondylomorum) , green chromatophores, pyrenoids,
stigma, and contractile vacuoles; body covered by a cellulose mem-
brane and not plastic; colony or coenobium is discoid or spherical;
exclusively freshwater inhabitants.
Genus Volvox Linnaeus. Often large spherical or subspherical
colonies, consisting of a large number of cells which are differen-
tiated into somatic and reproductive cells; somatic cells numerous,
embedded in gelatinous matrix, and contains a chromatophore,
one or more pyrenoids, a stigma, 2 flagella and several contractile
vacuoles; in some species cytoplasmic connection occurs between ad-
jacent cells; generative cells few and large. Reproduction is by
parthenogenesis or true sexual fusion. In parthenogenetic colonies,
the gametes are larger in size and fewer in number as compared with
the macrogametes of the female colonies. Sexual fusion is anisogamy
(Fig. 77) and sexual colonies may be monoecious or dioecious. Zy-
gotes are usually yellowish to brownish red in color and covered by a
smooth, ridged or spinous wall. Fresh water. Many species. Smith
(1944) made a comprehensive study of 18 species on which the fol-
lowing species descriptions are based.
V. globator L. (Fig. 115, a, b). Monoecious. Sexual colonies 350-
500m in diameter; 5000-15,000 cells, with cytoplasmic connections;
3-7 microgametocytes, each of which develops into over 250 micro-
gametes; 10-40 macrogametes; zygotes 35-45/1 in diameter, covered
with many spines with rounded tip. Parthenogenetic colonies 400-
GOO/i in diameter; 4-10 gametes, 10-13/i in diameter; young colonies
up to 250/i. Europe and North America.
V. aureus Ehrenberg (Figs. 77; 115, c-e). Dioecious. Male colonies
300-350/* in diameter; 1000-1500 cells, with cytoplasmic connec-
tions; numerous microgametocytes; clusters of some 32 microgam-
etes, 15-18/x in diameter. Female colonies 300-400/*; 2000-3000
cells; 10-14 macrogametes; zygotes 40-60/x with smooth surface.
Parthenogenetic colonies up to 500/z; 4-12 gametes; young colonies
150/x in diameter. Europe and North America. Sexual differentiation
(Mainx, 1929).
V. tertius Meyer. Dioecious. Male colonies up to 170/t in diameter;
180-500 cells, without cytoplasmic connections; about 50 micro-
gametocytes. Female colonies up to 500ju; 500-2000 cells; 2-12
macrogametes; zygotes 60-65/i with smooth wall. Parthenogenetic
286
PROTOZOOLOGY
^oo o °0 o ° ° o ooocS?:
•oo° °„ o.o °0o „ of
.<;-/
Ns(%&
Do"W
Fig. 115. Species of Volvox ("Smith), a, b, Volvox globator (a, a female
colony, X150; b, a zygote, X370); c-e, V. aureus (c, a young partheno-
genetic colony; d, a mature male colony, X125; e, a zygote, X370); f-h,
V. spermatosphaera: f, a parthenogenetic colony, X185; g, a mature male
colony, X370; h, a zygote, X370); i, a zygote of V. weismannia, X370;
j, k, V. per globator (j, a male colony, XI 50; k, a zygote, X370).
PHYTOMONADINA 287
colonies up to 600 m in diameter; 500-2000 cells; 2-12 gametes.
Europe and North America.
V. spermatosphaera Powers (Fig. 115, f-h). Dioecious. Male colo-
nies up to 100m in diameter; cells, without connection, up to 128
microgametocytes. Female colonies up to 500 n in diameter; 6-16
macrogametes; zygotes 35-45/1, with smooth membrane. Partheno-
genetic colonies up to 650/x in diameter; 8-10 gametes; young colo-
nies ellipsoid, up to 100 ju in diameter. North America (Powers, 1908).
V. weismannia P. (Fig. 115, i). Male colonies 100-150/z in diam-
eter; 250-500 cells; 6-50 microgametocytes; clusters of microgametes
(up to 128) discoid, 12-15/t in diameter. Female colonies up to 400/*;
2000-3000 cells; 8-24 macrogametes; zygotes 30-50ju in diameter,
with reticulate ridges on shell. Parthenogenetic colonies up to 400/z;
1500-3000 cells; 8 or 10 gametes; 40-60/x in diameter; young colonies
1 00-200 /x in diameter. North America (Powers, 1908).
V. perglobator P. (Fig. 115, j, k). Dioecious. Male colonies 300-
450/x in diameter 5000-10,000 cells, with delicate cytoplasmic con-
nections; 60-80 microgametocytes. Female colonies 300-550/z in di-
ameter; 9000-13,000 cells; 50-120 macrogametes; zygotes 30-34/x,
covered with bluntly pointed spines. Parthenogenetic colonies as
large as 1.1 mm; three to nine gametes; young colonies 250-275/x in
diameter. North America.
Genus Gonium Miiller. 4 or 16 individuals arranged in one plane;
cell ovoid or slightly polygonal; with 2 flagella arranged in the plane
of coenobium; with or without a gelatinous envelope; protoplasmic
connections among individuals occur occasionally; asexual reproduc-
tion through simultaneous divisions of component cells; sexual re-
production isogamy; zygotes reddish; fresh water. Colony formation
(Hartmann, 1924).
G. sociale (Dujardin) (Fig. 116, a). 4 individuals form a discoid
colony; cells 10-22/* by 6-16// wide; in open waters of ponds and
lakes.
G. pectorale M. (Fig. 116, b). 16 (rarely 4 or 8) individuals form a
colony; 4 cells in center; 12 peripheral, closely arranged; cells 5-14/x
by 10/x; colony up to 90/z in diameter; fresh water.
G. /orraoswm Pascher. 16 cells in a colony further apart; peripheral
gelatinous envelope reduced; cells similar in size to those of G. so-
ciale but colony somewhat larger; freshwater lakes.
Genus Stephanoon Schewiakoff. Spherical or ellipsoidal colony,
surrounded by gelatinous envelope, and composed of 8 or 16 bi-
288
PROTOZOOLOGY
flagellate cells, arranged in 2 alternating rows on equatorial plane;
fresh water.
S. askenasii S. (Fig. 117, a). 16 individuals in ellipsoidal colony;
cells 9/x in diameter; flagella up to 30/t long; colony 78/* by 60/z-
Genus Platydorina Kofoid. 32 cells arranged in a slightly twisted
plane; flagella directed alternately to both sides; dioecious; fresh
water.
P. caudata K. (Fig. 117, b). Individual cells 10-15/t long; colony
up to 165m long by 145ju wide, and 25/u thick; dioecious; anisogamy;
macrogametes escape from female colonies and remain attached to
Fig. 116. a, Gonium sociale, X270 CChodat); b, G. pec-
torale, X670 CHartmann).
them or swim about until fertilized by microgametes; zygotes be-
come thickly walled (Taft, 1940).
Genus Spondylomorum Ehrenberg. 16 cells in a compact group in
4 transverse rings; each with 4 flagella; asexual reproduction by
simultaneous division of component cells; fresh water. One species.
S. quaternarium E. (Fig. 117, c). Cells 12-26/x by 8-15/i; colony
up to 60ju long.
Genus Chlamydobotrys Korschikoff. Colony composed of 8 or 16
individuals; cells with 2 flagella; chromatophore; stigma ; no
pyrenoid; fresh water. Species (Pascher, 1925); culture (Schulze,
1927).
C. stellata K. (Fig. 117, d). Colony composed of 8 individuals
arranged in 2 rings; individuals 14-15m long; colony 30-40/1 in
diameter; Maryland (Bold, 1933).
PHYTOMONADINA
289
Genus Stephanosphaera Cohn. Spherical or subspherical colony,
with 8 (rarely 4 or 16) cells arranged in a ring; cells pyriform, but
with several processes; 2 flagella on one face; asexual reproduction
and isogamy (p. 183) ; fresh water.
Fig. 117. a, Stephanoon askenasii, X440 (Schewiakoff); b, Platydorina
caudata, X2S0 (Kofoid); c, Spondylomorum quaternarium, X330 (Stein);
d, Chlamydobotrys stellata, X430 (Korschikoff) ; e, Stephanosphaera plu-
vialis, X250 (Hieronymus) ; f, Pandorina morum, X300 (Smith); g,
Mastigosphaera gobii, X520 (Schewiakoff ) ; h, Eudorina elegans, X310
(Goebel); i, Pleodorina illinoisensis, X200 (Kofoid).
S. pluvialis C. (Figs. 80; 117, e). Cells 7-13m long; colony 30-60/x
in diameter. Culture and sexuality (Schulze, 1927).
Genus Pandorina Bory. Spherical or subspherical colony of usu-
ally 16 (sometimes 8 or 32) biflagellate individuals, closely packed
within a gelatinous, but firm and thick matrix; individuals often
angular; with stigma and chromatophores; asexual reproduction
290 PROTOZOOLOGY
through simultaneous division of component individuals; anisog-
amy; zygotes colored and covered by a smooth wall; fresh water.
One species.
P. morum (Miiller) (Figs. 117, /). Cells 8-17/z long; colony 20-
40/x, up to 250/z in diameter; ponds and ditches.
Genus Mastigosphaera Schewiakoff. Similar to Pandorina; but
individuals with a single flagellum which is 3.5 times the body length;
fresh water.
M. gobii S. (Fig. 117, g). Individual 9m long; colony 30-33/*.
Genus Eudorina Ehrenberg. Spherical or ellipsoidal colony of
usually 32 or sometimes 16 spherical cells; asexual reproduction
similar to that of Pandorina; sexual reproduction with 32-64 spheri-
cal green macrogametes and numerous clustered microgametes which
when mature, unite with the macrogametes within the colony; red-
dish zygotes with a smooth wall; fresh water. Colony formation
(Hartmann, 1924).
E. elegans E. (Fig. 117, h). Cells 10-24^ in diameter; colony 40-
150 fx in diameter; in ponds, ditches and lakes. Culture and morphol-
ogy (Hartmann, 1921); response to light (Luntz, 1935).
Genus Pleodorina Shaw. Somewhat similar to Eudorina, being
composed of 32, 64, or 128 ovoid or spherical cells of 2 types: small
somatic and large generative, located within a gelatinous matrix;
Sexual reproduction similar to that of Eudorina; fresh water.
P. illinoisensis Kofoid (Figs. 32, b, c; 117, i). 32 cells in ellipsoid
colony, 4 vegetative and 28 reproductive individuals; arranged in
5 circles, 4 in each polar circle, 8 at equator and 8 on either side of
equator; 4 small vegetative cells at anterior pole; vegetative cells
10-16/x in diameter; reproductive cells 19-25/x in diameter; colony
up to 160m by 130/z.
P. californica S. Spherical colony with 64 or 128 cells, of which
1/2-2/3 are reproductive cells; vegetative cells 13-1 5m; reproductive
cells up to 27/x; colony up to 450/x, both in diameter. Variation (Tif-
fany, 1935); in Ukraine (Swirenko, 1926).
References
Aragao, H. B.: (1910) Untersuchungen iiber Polytomella agilis n.g.,
n. sp. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz, 2:42.
Bold, H. C: (1938) Notes on Maryland algae. Bull. Torrey Bot.
Club., 65:293.
Conrad, W. : (1930) Flagellates nouveaux ou peu connus. I. Arch.
Protist., 70:657.
Crow, W. B.: (1918) The classification of some colonial Chlamy-
domonads. New Phytol., 17:151.
PHYTOMONADINA 291
Dangeard, P.: (1900) Observations sur la structure et le developpe-
ment du Pandorina morum. Le Botaniste, 7:192.
Doflein, F.: (1916) Polytomella agilis. Zool. Anz., 47:273.
Dogiel, V.: (1935) Le mode de conjugaison de Polytoma uvella.
Arch. zool. exper. gen., 77 (N. et R.) : 1:1.
Elliott, A. M.: (1934) Morphology and life history of Haematococ-
cus pluvialis. Arch. Protist., 82:250.
Entz, G. Jr.: (1913) Cytologische Beobachtungen an Polytoma
uvella. Verh. deutsch. zool. Ges. Ver. Berlin, 23:249.
(1918) Ueber die mitotische Teilung von Polytoma uvella.
Arch. Protist., 38:324.
Fritsch, F. E.: (1935) The structure and reproduction of the algae.
Geitler, L.: (1925) Zur Kenntnis der Gattung Pyramidoraonas.
Arch. Protist., 52:356.
Gerloff, J.: (1940) Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Variabilitat und
Systematik der Gattung Chlamydomonas. Ibid., 94:311.
Harper, R. A.: (1912) The structure and development of the colony
in Gonium. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 31:65.
Hartmann, M.: (1921) Untersuchungen iiber die Morphologie und
Physiologie des Formwechsels der Phytomonadien. III. Arch.
Protist., 43:223.
— (1924) Ueber die Veranderung der Koloniebildung von
Eudorina elegans und Gonium pectorale unter dem Einfluss aus-
serer Bedingungen. IV. Ibid., 49:375.
Hollande, A.: (1942) Etude cytologique et biologique de queleques
flagelles libres. Arch. zool. exper. gen., 83:1.
Janet, C.: (1912, 1922, 1923) Le Volvox. I. II and III Memoires.
Kofoid, C. A.: (1900) Plankton studies. II, III. Ann. Mag. Nat,
Hist., Ser. 7,6:139.
Loefer, J. B.: (1935) Effect of certain carbohydrates and organic
acids on growth of Chlorogonium and Cbilomonas. Arch Pro-
tist., 84:456.
( 1935a) Effect of certain nitrogen compounds on growth of
Chlorogonium and Chilomonas. Ibid., 85:74.
Luntz, A.: (1935) Ueber die Regulation der Reizbeantwortung bei
koloniebildenden griinen Einzelligen. Ibid., 86:90.
Mainx, F.: (1929) Ueber die Geschlechterverteilung bei Volvox
aureus. Ibid., 67:205.
Mast, S. O.: (1928) Structure and function of the eye-spot in uni-
cellular and colonial organisms. Ibid., 60:197.
Moewus, F.: (1932) Neue Chlamydomonaden. Ibid., 75:284.
— (1933) Untersuchungen liber die Variabilitat von Chlamy-
domonaden. Ibid., 80:128.
— (1933a) Untersuchungen iiber die Sexualitat und Entwick-
lung von Chlorophyceen. Ibid., 80:469.
Pascher, A.: (1921) Neue oder wenig bekannte Protisten. Arch.
Protist., 44:119.
(1925) Neue oder wenig bekannte Protisten. XVII. Ibid., 51 :
549.
292 PROTOZOOLOGY
(1925a) XVIII. Ibid., 52:566.
(1927) Volvocales — Phytomonadinae. Die Siisswasserflora.
Pt. 4.
— (1929) Neue oder wenig bekannte Protisten. Arch. Protist.,
65:426.
— (1930) Neue Volvocalen. Ibid., 69:103.
— (1932) Zur Kenntnis der einzelligen Volvocalen. Ibid., 76:1.
— and Jahoda, Rosa: (1928) Neue Polyblepharidinen und
Chlamydomonadinen aus den Almtumpeln um Lunz. Ibid.,
61:239.
Pavillard, J.: (1952) Classe de Phytomonadines ou Volvocales. In:
Grasse (1952), p. 154.
Powers, J. H.: (1907) New forms of Volvox. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc,
27:123.
— (1908) Further studies in Volvox with descriptions of three
new species. Ibid., 28: 141.
Pringsheim, E. G.: (1930) Neue Chlamydomonadaceen, etc. Arch.
Protist., 69:95.
— (1937) Zur Kenntnis saprotropher Algen und Flagellaten. II.
Ibid., 88:151.
Reichenow, E.: (1909) Untersuchungen an Haematococcus pulvialis
nebst Bemerkungen iiber andere Flagellaten. Arb. kaiserl.
Gesundh., 33:1.
Schiller, J.: (1925) Die planktonischen Vegetationen des adria-
tischen Meeres. B. Arch. Protist., 53:59.
Schulze, B.: (1927) Zur Kenntnis einiger Volvocales. Ibid., 58: 508.
Shaw, W. R.: (1894) Pleodorina, a new genus of the Volvocideae.
Bot. Gaz., 19:279.
Skvortzow, B. W. : (1929) Einige neue und wenig bekannte Chlamy-
domonadaceae aus Manchuria. Arch. Protist., 66:160.
Smith, G. M.: (1944) A comparative study of the species of Volvox.
Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 63:265.
(1950) The freshwater algae of the United States. New York.
Swirenko: (1926) Ueber einige neue und interessante Volvocineae,
etc. Arch. Protist., 55:191.
Taft, C. E. : (1940) Asexual and sexual reproduction in Platydorina
caudata. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 59:1.
Tiffany. L. H.: (1935) Homothallism and other variations in
Pleodorina calif ornica. Arch. Protist., 85:140.
West, G. S. and Fritsch, F. E.: (1927) A treatise on the British
freshwater algae. Cambridge.
Chapter 11
Order 4 Euglenoidina Blochmann
THE body is as a rule elongated; some are plastic, others have a
definite body form with a well-developed, striated or variously
sculptured pellicle. At the anterior end, there is an opening through
which a flagellum protrudes. In holophytic forms the so-called cyto-
stome and cytopharynx, if present, are apparently not concerned with
the food-taking, but seem to give a passage-way for the flagellum
and also to excrete the waste fluid matters which become collected
in one or more contractile vacuoles located near the reservoir.
In holozoic forms, a well-developed cytostome and cytopharynx are
present. Ordinarily there is only one flagellum, but some possess two
or three. Chromatophores are present in the majority of the Eu-
glenidae, but absent in two families. They are green, vary in
shape, such as spheroidal, band-form, cup-form, discoidal, or
fusiform, and usually possess pyrenoids. Some forms may contain
haematochrome. A small but conspicuous stigma is invariably pres-
ent near the anterior end of the body in chromatophore-bearing
forms.
Reserve food material is the paramylon body, fat, and oil, the
presence of which depends naturally on the metabolic condition
of the organism. The paramylon body assumes diverse forms in dif-
ferent species, but is, as a rule, constant in each species, and this
facilitates specific identification to a certain extent. Nutrition is
holophytic in chromatophore-possessing forms, which, however,
may be saprozoic, depending on the amount of light and organic sub-
stances present in the water. The holozoic forms feed upon bacteria,
algae, and smaller Protozoa.
The nucleus is, as a rule, large and distinct and contains almost
always a large endosome. Asexual reproduction is by longitudinal
fission; sexual reproduction has been observed in a few species. En-
cystment is common. The majority inhabit fresh water, but some
live in brackish or salt water, and a few are parasitic in animals.
Taxonomy (Mainx, 1928; Hollande, 1942, 1952a); Jahn, 1946; Pring-
sheim, 1950.
With stigma Family 1 Euglenidae (p. 294)
Without stigma
With 1 flagellum Family 2 Astasiidae (p. 302)
With 2 flagella Family 3 Anisonemidae (p. 303)
293
294 PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 1 Euglenidae Stein
Body plastic ("euglenoid"), but, as a rule, more or less spindle-
form during locomotion. The flagellum arises from a blepharoplast
located in the cytoplasm at the posterior margin of the reservoir.
Between the blepharoplast and the "cytostome," the flagellum shows
a swelling which appears to be photosensitive (Mast, 1938). Many
observers consider that the basal portion of the flagellum is bifur-
cated and ends in two blepharoplasts, but Hollande (1942), Prings-
heim (1948) and others, hold that in addition to a long flagellum
arising from a blepharoplast, there is present a short flagellum which
does not extend beyond the neck of the reservoir and often adheres
to the long flagellum, producing the appearance of bifurcation. Cul-
ture and physiology (Mainx, 1928); cytology (Giinther, 1928; Hol-
lande, 1942).
Genus Euglena Ehrenberg. Short or elongated spindle, cylindrical,
or band-form; pellicle usually marked by longitudinal or spiral
striae; some with a thin pellicle highly plastic; others regularly spi-
rally twisted; stigma usually anterior; chromatophores numerous and
discoid, band-form, or fusiform; pyrenoids may or may not be sur-
rounded by starch envelope; paramylon bodies which may be two
in number, one being located on either side of nucleus, and rod-like
to ovoid in shape or numerous and scattered throughout; contractile
vacuole small, near reservoir; asexual reproduction by longitudinal
fission; sexual reproduction reported in Euglena sanguined ; common
in stagnant water, especially where algae occur; when present in
large numbers, the active organisms may form a green film on the
surface of water and resting or encysted stages may produce con-
spicuous green spots on the bottom of pond or pool; in fresh water.
Numerous species (Pascher, 1925; Johnson, 1944; Gojdics, 1953).
E. pisciformis Klebs (Fig. 118, a). 20-35/* by 5-10/*; spindle-form
with bluntly pointed anterior and sharply attenuated posterior end;
slightly plastic; a body-length flagellum, active; 2-3 chromato-
phores; division into two or four individuals in encysted stage
(Johnson, 1944).
E. viridis Ehrenberg (Fig. 118, 6). 40-65/* by 14-20/*; anterior end
rounded, posterior end pointed; fusiform during locomotion; highly
plastic when stationary; flagellum as long as the body; pellicle ob-
liquely striated; chromatophores more or less bandform, radially
arranged; nucleus posterior; nutrition holophytic, but also saprozoic.
Multiplication in thin-walled cysts (Johnson).
E. acus E. (Fig. 118, c). 50-175/* by 8-18/*; body long spindle or
EUGLENOIDINA
295
cylinder, with a sharply pointed posterior end; flagellum short, about
I the body length; spiral striation of pellicle very delicate; numerous
discoid chromatophores; several paramylon bodies, rod-form and
12-20ju long; nucleus central; stigma distinct; movement sluggish.
Fig. 118. Species of Euglena (Johnson), a, Euglena pisciformis, X855;
b, E. viridis, X400; c, E. acus, X555; d, E. spirogyra, X460; e, E. oxyuris,
X200; f, E. sanguinea, X400; g, E. deses, X315; h, E. gracilis, X865; i,
E. tripteris, with optical section of body, X345; j, E. ehrenbergi, X145;
k, E. terricola, X345; 1, E. sociabilis, X320; m, two individuals of E.
klebsi, X335; n, two individuals of E. rubra, X355.
E. spirogyra E. (Fig. 118, d). 80-125 ;u by 10-35m; cylindrical; an-
terior end a little narrowed and rounded, posterior end drawn out;
spiral striae, made up of small knobs, conspicuous; many discoid
chromatophores; two ovoidal paramylon bodies, 18-45/x by 10-18/x,
one on either side of centrally located nucleus; flagellum about \ the
body length; stigma prominent; sluggish.
E. oxyuris Schmarda (Fig. 118, e). 1 50-500 m by 20-40^; cylindri-
296 PROTOZOOLOGY
cal; almost always twisted, somewhat flattened; anterior end round-
ed, posterior end pointed; pellicle with spiral striae; numerous dis-
coid chromatophores; two ovoid paramylon bodies, 20-40/* long, one
on either side of nucleus, and also small bodies; stigma large; flagel-
lum short; sluggish.
E. sanguinea E. (Fig. 118,/). 80-170/* by 25-45/*; posterior end
bluntly rounded; flagellum about the body length; pellicle striated;
elongate chromatophores lie parallel to the striae; haematochrome
granules scattered in sun light and collected in the central area in
darkness.
E. deses E. (Fig. 118, g). 85-170/* by 10-20/*; elongate; highly
plastic; faint striae; stigma distinct; nucleus central; chromato-
phores discoid with pyrenoid; several small rod-shaped paramylon
scattered; flagellum less than \ the body length.
E. gracilis Klebs (Fig. 118, h). 35-55/* by 6-25/*; cylindrical to
elongate oval; highly plastic; flagellum about the body length; fusi-
form chromatophores 10-20; nucleus central; pyrenoids.
E. tripteris Dujardin (Fig. 118, i). 70-120/* by 12-16/*; elongate;
three-ridged, rounded anteriorly and drawn out posteriorly; pellicle
longitudinally striated; only slightly plastic; stigma prominent; dis-
coid chromatophores numerous; two paramylon bodies, rod-shaped
and one on either side of the nucleus; flagellum about f the body
length.
E. ehrenbergi Klebs (Fig. 118, j). 170-400/* by 15-40/*; cylindrical
and flattened, posterior end rounded; plastic, often twisted; spiral
striation; numerous small discoid chromatophores; stigma conspicu-
ous; 2 paramylon bodies elongate, up to over 100m long; flagellum
about \ the body length or less.
E. terricola Dangeard (Fig. 118, k). 65-95/* by 8-18/*; pellicle thin
and highly plastic; nucleus central; chromatophores long (20-30/*)
rods; paramylon bodies small and annular; flagellum about § the
body length.
E. sociabilis D. (Fig. 118, 1). 65-112/* by 15-30/*; cylindrical; deli-
cate pellicle; highly plastic; numerous elongate chromatophores;
paramylon bodies discoid; flagellum slightly longer than body.
E. klebsi Mainx (Fig. 118, m). 45-85/* by 5-10/*; form highly
plastic; chromatophores discoid; paramylon bodies rod-shaped, up
to several; flagellum short.
E. rubra Hardy (Fig. 118, n). 70-170/* by 25-36/*; cylindrical;
rounded anteriorly and drawn out posteriorly; spiral striation; nu-
cleus posterior; flagellum longer than body; stigma about 7/* in di-
ameter; many fusiform chromatophores aligned with the body striae;
EUGLENOIDINA 297
numerous haematochrome granules, 0.3-0.5/x in diameter: ovoid
paramylon bodies; reproductive and temporary cysts and protective
cysts, 34-47^ in diameter, with a gelatinous envelope.
Johnson (1939) found that the color of this Euglena was red in
the morning and dull green in the late afternoon, due to the dif-
ference in the distribution of haematochrome within the body.
When haematochrome granules are distributed throughout the
body, the organism is bright-red, but when they are condensed
in the center of the body, the organism is dull green. When part
of the area of the pond was shaded with a board early in the
morning, shortly after sunrise all the scum became red except
the shaded area. When the board was removed, the red color
appeared in 11 minutes while the temperature of the water remained
21°C. In the evening the change was reversed. Johnson and Jahn
(1942) later found that green-red color change could be induced by
raising the temperature of the water to 30-40°C. and by irradiation
with infrared rays or visible light. The two workers hold that the
function of haematochrome may be protective, since it migrates to a
position which shields the chromatophores from very bright light.
If this is true, it is easy to find the species thriving in hot weather in
shallow ponds where temperature of the water rises to 35-45°C. In
colder weather, it is supposed that this Euglena is less abundant and
it exists in a green phase, containing a few haematochrome granules.
Genus Khawkinea Jahn and McKibben. Similar to Genus Eu-
glena, but without chromatophores and thus permanently colorless ;
fresh water.
K. halli.L and M. 30-65/z by 12-14/*; fusiform; pellicle spirally
striated; plastic; flagellum slightly longer than body; stigma 2-3/x in
diameter, yellow-orange to reddish-orange, composed of many gran-
ules; numerous (25-100) paramylon bodies elliptical or polyhedral:
cysts 20-30^ in diameter; putrid leaf infusion; saprozoic (Jahn and
McKibben, 1937).
K. ocellata (Khawkine). Similar to above; flagellum 1.5-2 times
body length; fresh water.
Genus Phacus Dujardin. Highly flattened; asymmetrical; pellicle
firm; body form constant; prominent longitudinal or oblique stria-
tion; flagellum and a stigma; chromatophores without pyrenoid
(Pringsheim) are discoid and green; holophytic ; fresh water. Numer-
ous species (Skvortzov, 1937; Pochmann, 1942; Conrad, 1943; Alle-
gre and Jahn, 1943); Morphology and cytology (Krichenbauer, 1937;
Conrad, 1943).
P. pleuronectes (Miiller) (Fig. 119, a). 45-100 n by 30-70/x; short
298
PROTOZOOLOGY
posterior prolongation slightly curved; a prominent ridge on the con-
vex side, extending to posterior end; longitudinally striated; usually
one circular paramylon body near center; flagellum as long as body.
P. longicauda (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 119, b). 120-170/* by 45-70/*;
usually slightly twisted ; a long caudal prolongation ; flagellum about
Fig. 119. Species of Phacus (Allegre and Jahn). a, Phacus pleuronedes
and an end view, X800; b, P. longicauda, X500; c, P. pyrum and an end
view, X880; d, P. acuminata and an end view, XI 300; e, P. monilata,
X800; f, P. torta, and an end view, X800; g, P. oscillans, X1400.
one discoidal paramylon body central; pellicle longitudinally stri-
ated.
P. pyrum (E.) (Fig. 119, c). About 30-50/1 by 10-20/*; circular in
cross-section; with a medium long caudal prolongation; pellicle ob-
liquely ridged; stigma inconspicuous; two discoid paramylon bodies;
flagellum as long as the body.
EUGLENOIDINA 299
P. acuminata Stokes (Fig. 119, d). About 30-40 m by 20-30/*;
nearly circular in outline; longitudinally striated; usually one small
paramylon body; flagellum as long as the body.
P. monilata (S) (Fig. 119, e). 40-55/z by 32-40/*; a short caudal pro-
jection; pellicle with minute knobs arranged in longitudinal rows;
discoid chromatophores; flagellum about the body length.
P. torta Lemmermann (Fig. 119, /). 80-100 m by 40-45/*; body
twisted, with a long caudal prolongation; longitudinal striae on pel-
licle; chromatophores discoid; one large circular paramylon body;
flagellum about | the body length.
P. oscillans Klebs (Fig. 119, g). 15-35/* by 7-10/x; rounded ante-
riorly and bluntly pointed posteriorly; striation oblique; 1 or 2
paramylon bodies; flagellum about as long as the body.
Genus Lepocinclis Perty (Crumenula Dujardin). Body more or
less ovo-cylindrical; rigid with spirally striated pellicle; often with a
short posterior spinous projection; stigma sometimes present; dis-
coidal chromatophores numerous and marginal; paramylon bodies
usually large and ring-shaped, laterally disposed; without pyrenoids;
fresh water. Many species (Pascher, 1925, 1929: Conrad, 1934;
Skvortzov, 1937).
L. ovum (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 120, a). Body 20-40 /x long.
Genus Trachelomonas Ehrenberg. With a lorica which often pos-
sesses numerous spines; sometimes yellowish to dark brown, com-
posed of ferric hydroxide impregnated with a brown manganic com-
pound (Pringsheim, 1948); a single long flagellum protrudes from
the anterior aperture, the rim of which is frequently thickened to
form a collar; chromatophores either two curved plates or numerous
discs; paramylon bodies small grains; a stigma and pyrenoid; mul-
tiplication by fission, one daughter individual retains the lorica and
flagellum, while the other escapes and forms a new one; cysts com-
mon; fresh water. Numerous species (Palmer, 1902, 1905, 1925,
1925a; Pascher, 1924, 1925, 1925a, 1926, 1929; Gordienko, 1929;
Conrad, 1932; Skvortzov, 1937; Balech, 1944).
T. hispida (Perty) (Figs. 32, a; 120, b). Lorica oval, with numerous
minute spines; brownish; 8-10 chromatophores; 20-42 /i by 15-26/t;
many varieties.
T. urceolata Stokes (Fig. 120, c). Lorica vasiform, smooth with a
short neck; about 45/z long.
T. piscatoris (Fisher) (Fig. 120, d). Lorica cylindrical with a short
neck and with numerous short, conical spines; 25-40/z long; flagel-
lum 1-2 times body length.
300
PROTOZOOLOGY
T. verrucosa Stokes (Fig. 120, e). Lorica spherical, with numerous
knob-like attachments ; no neck ; 24-25/* in diameter.
T. vermiculosa Palmer (Fig. 120, /). Lorica spherical; with many
sausage-form markings; 23m in diameter.
Genus Cryptoglena Ehrenberg. Body rigid, flattened; 2 band-form
chromatophores lateral; a single flagellum; nucleus posterior;
among freshwater algae. One species.
C. pigra E. (Fig. 120, g). Ovoid, pointed posteriorly; flagellum
short; stigma prominent; 10-15/t by 6-10/t; standing water.
y£f+;£$$ I'/Jf If]
Ns^jj^
Fig. 120. a, Lepocinclis ovum, X430 (Stein); b, Trachelomonas hispida,
X430 (Stein); c, T. urceolata, X430 (Stokes); d, T. piscatoris, X520
(Fisher); e, T. verrucosa, X550 (Stokes); f, T. vermiculosa, X800 (Palmer);
g, Cryptoglena pigra, X430 (Stein); h, Ascoglena vaginicola, X390 (Stein);
i, Eutreptia viridis, X270 (Klebs); j, E. marina, X670 (da Cunha); k,
Euglenamorpha hegneri, X730 (Wenrich).
Genus Ascoglena Stein. Encased in a flexible, colorless to brown
lorica, attached with its base to foreign object; solitary; without
stalk; body ovoidal, plastic; attached to test with its posterior end;
a single flagellum; a stigma; numerous chromatophores discoid;
with or without pyrenoids; reproduction as in Trachelomonas;
fresh water.
A. vaginicola S. (Fig. 120, h). Lorica about 43/i by 15/*.
Genus Colacium Ehrenberg. Stalked individuals form colony;
frequently attached to animals such as copepods, rotifers, etc. ; stalk
mucilaginous; individual cells pyriform, ellipsoidal or cylindrical;
without flagellum; a single flagellum only in free-swimming stage;
disco idal chromatophores numerous; with pyrenoids; multiplication
EUGLENOIDINA
301
by longitudinal fission; also by swarmers, possessing a flagellum and
a stigma; fresh water. Several species.
C. vesiculosum E. (Fig. 121). Solitary or colonial, made up of two
to eight individuals; flagellate form ovoid to spindle; 22 ju by 12^;
seven to ten elongate chromatophores along the periphery; flagellum
Fig. 121. Colacium vesiculosum (Johnson), a, diagram showing the life
cycle (a-d, palmella stage; e, formation of flagellate stage; f, formation
of flagellate stage by budding of Palmella stage; g, flagellate stage; h,
attached stage); b, flagellate and c, stalked form on a crustacean, X1840.
one to two times the body length; a stigma; many paramylon bodies;
palmella stage conspicuous; stalked form (Johnson, 1934).
Genus Eutreptia Perty (Eutreptiella da Cunha). With 2 flagella at
anterior end; pellicle distinctly striated; plastic; spindle-shaped dur-
ing movement; stigma; numerous discoid chromatophores; pyren-
oids absent; paramylon bodies spherical or subcylindrical ; multipli-
cation as in Euglena; cyst with a thick stratified wall; fresh or salt
water.
E. viridis P. (Fig. 120, i). 50-70M by 5-13;u; in fresh water; a
variety was reported from brackish water ponds.
E. marina (da Cunha) (Fig. 120, j). Flagella unequal in length;
302
PROTOZOOLOGY
longer one as long as body, shorter one ^; body 40-50/* by 8-10/*;
salt water.
Genus Euglenamorpha Wenrich. Body form and structure similar
to those of Euglena, but with 3 flagella; in gut of frog tadpoles. One
species.
E. hegneri W. (Fig. 120, k). 40-50/* long (Wenrich, 1924).
Family 2 Astasiidae Butschli
Similar to Euglenidae in body form and general structure, but
without chromatophores; body highly plastic, although usually
elongate spindle.
Genus Astasia Dujardin. Body plastic, although ordinarily elon-
gate; fresh water or parasitic (?) in microcrustaceans. Many species
(Pringsheim, 1942). Bacteria-free cultivation (Schoenborn, 1946).
A. klebsi Lemmermann (Fig. 122, a). Spindle-form; posterior
Fig. 122. a, Astasia klebsi, X500 (Klebs); b, Urceolus cyclostomus,
X430 (Stein); c, U. sabulosus, X430 (Stokes); d, Petalomonas mediocanel-
lata, X1000 (Klebs); e, Rhabdomonas incurva, X1400 (Hall); f, Scyto-
monas pusilla, X430 (Stein).
portion drawn out; flagellum as long as body; plastic; paramylon
bodies oval; 40-50/* by 13-20/*; stagnant water.
Genus Urceolus Mereschkowsky (Phialonema Stein). Body color-
less; plastic; flask-shaped; striated; a funnel-like neck; posterior
region stout; a single flagellum protrudes from funnel and reaches in-
ward the posterior third of body; fresh or salt water.
U. cyclostomus (Stein) (Fig. 122, b). 25-50/* long; fresh water.
U. sabulosus (Stokes) (Fig. 122, c). Spindle-form; covered with
minute sand-grains; about 58/* long; fresh water.
Genus Petalomonas Stein. Oval or pyriform; not plastic; pellicle
often with straight or spiral furrows; a single flagellum; paramylon
EUGLENOIDINA 303
bodies; a nucleus; holozoic or saprozoic. Many species in fresh water
and a few in salt water. Species (Shawhan and Jahn, 1947).
P. mediocanellata S. (Fig. 122, d). Ovoid with longitudinal fur-
rows on two sides; flageHum about as long as the body; 21-26/x long.
Genus Rhabdomonas Fresenius. Rigid body, cylindrical and not
flattened, more or less arched ; pellicle longitudinally ridged ; a flag-
ellum through aperture at the anterior tip; fresh water (Pringsheim,
1942). Species (Pascher, 1925); relation to Menoidium (Pringsheim,
1942).
R. incurva F. (Figs. 69, 122, e). Banana-shaped; longitudinal ridges
conspicuous; flagellum as long as the body; 15-25^ by 7-8 n (Hall,
1923); 13-15/x by 5-7;u (Hollande, 1952a); common in standing
water.
Genus Scytomonas Stein. Oval or pyriform, with a delicate pel-
licle; a single flagellum; a contractile vacuole with a reservoir;
holozoic on bacteria; longitudinal fission in motile stage; stagnant
water and coprozoic.
S. pusilla S. (Fig. 122, /). About 15/x long. Cytology (Schiissler,
1917).
Genus Copromonas Dobell. Elongate ovoid; with a single flagel-
lum; a small cytostome at anterior end; holozoic on bacteria; per-
manent fusion followed by encystment (p. 183); coprozoic in faecal
matters of frog, toad, and man; several authors hold that this genus
is probably identical with Scytomonas which was incompletely de-
scribed by Stein.
C. subtilis D. (Fig. 78). 7-20ju long. Golgi body (Gatenby and
Singh, 1938).
Family 3 Anisonemidae Schewiakoff
Colorless body plastic or rigid with a variously marked pellicle;
2 flagella, one directed anteriorly and the other usually posteriorly;
contractile vacuoles and reservoir; stigma absent; paramylon bodies
usually present; free-swimming or creeping.
Genus Anisonema Dujardin. Generally ovoid; more or less flat-
tened; asymmetrical; plastic or rigid; a slit-like ventral furrow;
flagella at anterior end; cytopharynx long; contractile vacuole an-
terior; nucleus posterior; in fresh water. Several species.
A. acinus D. (Fig. 123, a). Rigid; oval; somewhat flattened; pel-
licle slightly striated; 25-40m by 16-22/x.
A. truncatum Stein (Fig. 123, b). Rigid; elongate ovoid: 60 m by
20/x.
A. emarginatum Stokes (Fig. 123, c). Rigid; 14/x long; flagella long.
304 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Peranema Dujardin. Elongate, with a broad rounded or
truncate posterior end during locomotion; highly plastic when sta-
tionary; delicate pellicle shows a fine striation; expansible cytostome
with a thickened ridge and two oral rods at anterior end; aperture
through which the flagella protrude is also at anterior end; a free
flagellum, long and conspicuous, tapers toward free end; a second
flagellum adheres to the pellicle; nucleus central; a contractile vacu-
ole, anterior, close to the reservoir; holozoic; fresh water.
P. trichophorum (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 123, d). 4.0-70/x long; body or-
dinarily filled with paramylon or starch grains derived from Astasia,
Rhabdomonas, Euglena, etc., which coinhabit the culture; holozoic;
very common in stagnant water. Cell inclusion (Hall, 1929); struc-
ture and behavior (Chen, 1950); development (Lackey, 1929); flag-
ellar apparatus (Lackey, 1933; Pitelka, 1945); food intake (Hall,
1933; Hollande, 1942; Hyman, 1936; Chen, 1950).
P. granulifera Penard. Much smaller in size. 8-1 5ju long; elongate,
but plastic; pellicle granulated; standing water.
Genus Heteronema Dujardin. Plastic; rounded or elongate;
flagella arise from anterior end, one directed forward and the other
trailing; cytostome near base of flagella; holozoic; fresh water. Sev-
eral species.
H. acus (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 123, e). Extended body tapers towards
both ends; anterior flagellum as long as body, trailing one about 1/2;
contractile vacuole anterior ; nucleus central ; 45-50/* long ; fresh water.
Morphology, reproduction (Loefer, 1931).
H. mutabile (Stokes) (Fig. 123,/). Elongate; highly plastic ; longi-
tudinally striated; about 254/x long; in cypress swamp.
Genus Tropidoscyphus Stein. Slightly plastic; pellicle with 8
longitudinal ridges; 2 unequal flagella at anterior pole; holozoic or
saprozoic; fresh or salt water.
T. octocostatus S. (Fig. 123, g). 35-63yu long; fresh water, rich in
vegetation.
Genus Distigma Ehrenberg. Plastic; elongate when extended;
body surface without any marking; 2 flagella unequal in length, di-
rected forward; cytostome and cytopharynx located at anterior end;
endoplasm usually transparent; holozoic. Several species (Prings-
heim, 1942).
D. proteus E. (Fig. 123, h). 50-1 10m long when extended; nucleus
central; stagnant water; infusion. Cytology (Hollande, 1937).
Genus Entosiphon Stein. Oval, flattened; more or less rigid,;
flagella arise from a cytostome, one flagellum trailing; protrusible
cytopharynx a long conical tubule almost reaching posterior end;
EUGLENOIDINA
305
nucleus centro-lateral; fresh water.
E. sulcatum (Dujardin) (Fig. 123, i). About 20/i long (Lackey,
1929, 1929a).
E. ovatum Stokes. Anterior end rounded; 10-12 longitudinal
striae; about 25-28/z long.
Genus Notosolenus Stokes. Free-swimming; rigid oval; ventral
Fig. 123. a, Anisonema acinus, X400 (Klebs); b, A. truncatum, X430
(Stein); c, A. emerginatum, X530 (Stokes); d, Peranema trichophorum,
X670; e, Heteronema acus, X430 (Stein); f, H. mutabile, XI 20 (Stokes);
g, Tropidoscyphus octocostatus, X290 (Lemmermann); h, Distigma proteus,
X430 (Stein); i, Entosiphon sulcatum, X430 (Stein); j, Notosolenus apo-
camptus, X120 (Stokes); k, N. sinuatus, X600 (Stokes); 1, m, front and
side views of Triangulomonas rigida, X935 (Lackey); n, Marsupiogaster
striata, X590 (Schewiakoff ) ; o, M. picta (Faria, da Cunha and Pinto).
306 PROTOZOOLOGY
surface convex, dorsal surface with a broad longitudinal groove;
flagella anterior; one long, directed anteriorly and vibratile; the
other shorter and trailing; fresh water with vegetation.
iV. apocamptus S. (Fig. 123, j). Oval with broad posterior end;
6-1 1/x long.
N. sinuatus S. (Fig. 123, h). Posterior end truncate or concave;
about 22/t long.
Genus Triangulomonas Lackey. Rigid body, triangular, with con-
vex sides; one surface flat, the other elevated near the anterior end;
pellicle brownish; a mouth at anterior end with cytopharynx and
reservoir: two flagella, one trailing; salt water.
T. rigida L. (Fig. 123, I, m). Body 18m by 15/z; anterior flagellum
as long as the body; posterior flagellum 1.5 times the body length;
Woods Hole (Lackey, 1940).
Genus Marsupiogaster Schewiakoff. Oval; flattened; asymmet-
rical; cytostome occupies entire anterior end; cytopharynx con-
spicuous, 1/2 body length; body longitudinally striated; 2 flagella,
one directed anteriorly, the other posteriorly; spherical nucleus;
contractile vacuole anterior; fresh or salt water.
M. striata Schewiakoff (Fig. 123, n). About 27/x by 15/x; fresh
water; Hawaii.
M . picta Faria, da Cunha and Pinto (Fig. 123, o). In salt water;
Rio de Janeiro.
Order 5 Chloromonadina Klebs
The chloromonads are of rare occurrence and consequently not
well known. The majority possess small discoidal grass-green chro-
matophores with a large amount of xanthophyll which on addition
of an acid become blue-green. No pyrenoids occur. The metabolic
products are fatty oil. Starch or allied carbohydrates are absent.
Stigma is also not present. Genera (Poisson and Hollande, 1943; Hol-
lande, 1952).
Genus Gonyostomum Diesing (Rhaphidomonas Stein). With a sin-
gle flagellum: chromatophores grass-green; highly refractile tricho-
cyst-like bodies in cytoplasm ; fresh water. A few species.
G. semen D. (Fig. 124, a). Sluggish animal; about 45-60/x long;
among decaying vegetation.
Genus Vacuolaria Cienkowski (Coelomonas Stein). Highly plastic;
without trichocyst-like structures; anterior end narrow; two flag-
ella; cyst with a gelatinous envelope. One species.
V. virescens C. (Fig. 124, 6). 50-70M by 18-25/*; fresh water. Cy-
tology (Fott, 1935; Poisson and Hollande, 1943).
EUGLENOIDINA, CHLOROMONADINA
307
Genus Trentonia Stokes. Bi-flagellate as in the last genus; but
flattened; anterior margin slightly bilobed. One species.
T. flagellata S. (Fig. 124, c). Slow-moving organism; encystment
followed by binary fission; about 60ju long; fresh water.
Genus Thaumatomastix Lauterborn. Colorless; pseudo podia
formed; 2 flagella, one extended anteriorly, the other trailing; holo-
Fig. 124. a, Gonyostomum semen, X540 (Stein); b, Vacuolaria virescens,
X460 (Senn); c, Trentonia flagellata, X330 (Stokes); d, Thaumatomastix
setifera, X830 (Lauterborn)
zoic; perhaps a transitional form between the Mastigophora and the
Sarcodina. One species.
T. setifera L. (Fig. 104, d). About 20-35/* by 15-28/*; fresh water.
References
Allegre, C. F. and Jahn, T. L.: (1943) A survey of the genus
Phacus Dujardin. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 62:233.
Balech, E.: (1944) Trachelomonas de la Argentina. An. Mus.
Argent. Cien. Nat., 41:221.
Chen, Y. T.: (1950) Investigations of the biology of Peranema tri-
chophorum. Quart. J. Micr. Sc, 91:279.
Conrad, W.: (1932) Flagellates nouveaux ou peu connus. III. Arch.
Protist., 78:463.
(1934) Materiaux pour une monographic du genre Lepo-
cinclis. Ibid., 82:203.
(1943) Notes protistologiques. XXVIII. Bull. Mus. Roy.
d'Hist. Natur. Belgique, 19, no. 6.
da Cunha, A. M.: (1913) Sobre um novo genero de "Euglenoidea."
Brazil Medico, 27:213.
308 PROTOZOOLOGY
Dangeard, P.: (1901) Recherches sur les Eugleniens. La Bot., 8:97.
Fott, B.: (1935) Ueber den inneren Bau von Vacuolaria viridis.
Arch. Protist., 84:242.
Fritsch, F. E.: (1935) The structure and reproduction of the algae.
Gatenby, J. B. and Singh, B. N.: (1938) The Golgi apparatus of
Copromonas subtilis and Euglena sp. Quart. J. Micr. Sc., 80:567.
Gojdics, Mary: (1953) The genus Euglena. Madison, Wisconsin.
Gordienko, M.: (1929) Zur Frage der Systematik der Gattung
Trachelomonas. Arch. Protist., 65:258.
Gunther, F.: (1928) Ueber den Bau und die Lebensweise der
Euglenen, etc. Ibid., 60:511.
Hall, R. P.: (1923) Morphology and binary fission of Menoidium
incurvum. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 20:447.
(1929) Reaction of certain cytoplasmic inclusions to vital
dyes and their relation to mitochondria and Golgi apparatus in
the flagellate Peranema trichophorum. J. Morphol. Physiol., 48:
105.
(1933) The method of ingestion in Peranema, etc. Arch.
Protist., 81:308.
(1934) A note on the flagellar apparatus of Peranema, etc.
Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 53:237.
(1937) A note on behavior of chromosomes. Ibid., 56:288.
Hollande, A.: (1937) Quelques donnees nouvelles sur la cytologic
d'une Astasiacee peu connu: Distigma proteus. Bull. Soc. zool.
Fr., 62:236.
(1942) Etudes cytologique et biologique de quelques flagelles
libres. Arch. zool. exp. gen., 83:1.
— (1952) Classe de Chloromonadines. In: Grasse (1952), p. 227.
— (1952a) Classe des Eugleniens. Ibid., p. 239.
Hyman, Libbie H.: (1936) Observations on Protozoa. II. Quart. J.
Micr. Sc. 79:50,.
Jahn, T. L.: (1946) The euglenoid flagellates. Quart. Rev. Biol., 21:
246.
— and McKibben, W. R.: (1937) A colorless euglenoid flagel-
late, Khawkinea halli n.g., n.sp. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 56:48.
Johnson, D. F. : (1934) Morphology and life history of Colacium
vesiculosum. Arch. Protist., 83:241.
Johnson, L. P.: (1939) A study of Euglena rubra. Tr. Am. Micr.
Soc, 58:42.
(1944) Euglena of Iowa. Ibid., 63:97.
and Jahn, T. L. : (1942) Cause of the green-red color change
in Euglena rubra. Physiol. Zool, 15:89.
Krichenbauer, H.: (1937) Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Morphologie
und Entwicklungsgeschichte der Gattungen Euglena und Pha-
cus. Arch. Protist., 90:88.
Lackey, J. B.: (1929) Studies on the life history of Euglenida. I.
Ibid., 66:175.
(1929a) II. Ibid., 67:128.
(1933) III. Biol. Bull., 65:238.
EUGLENOIDINA, CHLOROMONADINA 309
(1940) Some new flagellates from the Woods Hole area. Am.
Midi. Nat., 23:463.
Lemmermann, E.: (1913) Eugleninae. Siisswasserflora Deutsch-
lands. Pt. 2.
Loefer, J. B.: (1931) Morphology and binary fission of Heteronema
acus. Arch. Protist., 74:449.
Mainx, F. : (1928) Beitrage zur Morpholgie und Physiologie der
Eugleninen. I, II. Ibid., 60:305.
Palmer, T. C: (1902) Five new species of Trachelomonas. Proc.
Acad. Nat. Sc., Philadelphia, 54:791.
(1905) Delaware valley forms of Trachelomonas. Ibid., 57:665.
(1925) Trachelomonas: etc. Ibid., 77:15.
(1925a) Nomenclature of Trachelomonas. Ibid., 77:185.
Pascher, A.: (1913) Chloromonadinae. Siisswasserflora Deutsch.
Pt. 2.
(1924) Neue oder wenig bekannte Protisten. XIII. Arch.
Protist., 48:492.
(1925) XV. Ibid., 50:486.
(1925a) XVII. Ibid., 51:549.
(1926) XIX. Ibid., 53:459.
(1929) XXI. Ibid., 65:426.
Pitelka, Dorothy R. : (1945) Morphology and taxonomy of flagel-
lates of the genus Peranema Dujardin. J. Morphol., 76: 179.
Pochmann, A.: (1942) Synopsis der Gattung Phacus. Arch. Protist.,
95:81.
Poisson, R. and Hollande, A.: (1943) Considerations sur la cy-
tologic, la mitose et les affinit^s des Chloromonadies. Ann. Sc.
Nat. Ser. Bot. Zool., 5:147.
Pringsheim, E. G.: (1942) Contribution to our knowledge of sapro-
phytic Algae and Flagellata. III. New Phytologist, 41:171.
(1948) Taxonomic problems in the Euglenineae. Biol. Rev.,
23:46.
and Hovasse, R. : (1948) The loss of chromatophores in
Euglena gracilis. New Phytologist, 47:52.
(1950) Les relations de parente entre Astasiacees et
Euglenacees. Arch. zool. exper. gen., 86:499.
Schoenborn, H. W. : (1946) Studies on the nutrition of colorless
euglenoid flagellates. II. Physiol. Zool., 19:430.
Schussler, H.: (1917) Cytologische und entwicklungsgeschichtliche
Protozoenstudien. I. Arch. Protist., 38:117.
Shawhan, Fae M. and Jahn, T. L.: (1947) A survey of the genus
Petalomonas. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 66:182.
Skvortzov, B. V.: (1937) Contributions to our knowledge of the
freshwater algae of Rangoon, Burma, India. I. Arch. Protist.,
90:69.
Stokes, A. C: (1888) A preliminary contribution toward a history
of the freshwater Infusoria of the United States. J. Trenton Nat.
Hist. Soc, 1:71.
Chapter 12
Order 6 Dinoflagellata Biitschli
THE dinoflagellates make one of the most distinct groups of the
Mastigophora, inhabiting mostly marine water, and to a lesser
extent fresh water. In the general appearance, the arrangement of
the two flagella, the characteristic furrows, and the possession of
brown chromatophores, they are closely related to the Crypto-
monadina.
The body is covered by an envelope composed of cellulose which
may be a simple smooth piece, or may be composed of two valves
or of numerous plates, that are variously sculptured and possess
manifold projections. Differences in the position and course of the
furrows and in the projections of the envelope produce numerous
asymmetrical forms. The furrows, or grooves, are a transverse an-
nulus and a longitudinal sulcus. The annulus is a girdle around the
middle or toward one end of the body. It may be a complete,
incomplete or sometimes spiral ring. While the majority show a
single transverse furrow, a few may possess several. The part of the
shell anterior to the annulus is called the epitheca and that posterior
to the annulus the hypotheca. In case the envelope is not developed,
the terms epicone and hypocone are used (Fig. 105). The sulcus
may run from end to end or from one end to the annulus. The two
flagella arise typically from the furrows, one being transverse and
the other longitudinal.
The transverse flagellum which is often band-form, encircles the
body and undergoes undulating movements, which in former years
were looked upon as ciliary movements (hence the name Cilioflagel-
lata). In the suborder Prorocentrinea, this flagellum vibrates freely
in a circle near the anterior end. The longitudinal flagellum often
projects beyond the body and vibrates. Combination of the move-
ments of these flagella produces whirling movements characteristic
of the organisms.
The majority of dinoflagellates possess a single somewhat massive
nucleus with evenly scattered chromatin, and usually several endo-
somes. There are two kinds of vacuoles. One is often surrounded by
a ring of smaller vacuoles, while the other is large, contains pink-
colored fluid and connected with the exterior by a canal opening into
a flagellar pore. The latter is known as the pusule which functions
as a digestive organella (Kofoid and Swezy). In many freshwater
forms a stigma is present, and in Pouchetiidae there is an ocellus
composed of an amyloid lens and a dark pigment-ball. The majority
310
DINOFLAGELLATA 311
of planktonic forms possess a large number of small chromatophores
which are usually dark yellow, brown or sometimes slightly greenish
and are located in the periphery of the body, while bottom-dwelling
and parasitic forms are, as a rule, colorless, because of the absence of
chromatophores. A few forms contain haematochrome. The method
of nutrition is holophytic, holozoic, saprozoic, or mixotrophic. In
holophytic forms, anabolic products are starch, oil, or fats.
Anterior flagellar pore n. /" -\ -Epicone
}■£ \ ^Transverse flagellum
Annulus or girdle - — Ls^^^^^^^
^C \\ 4 Sulcus
Hypocone V— ][r^>j/
Longitudinal flagellum - — j ^Posterior flagellar pore
Fig. 125. Diagram of a typical naked dinoflagellate (Lebour).
Asexual reproduction is hy binary or multiple fission or budding
in either the active or the resting stage and differs among different
groups. Encystment is of common occurrence. In some forms the
cyst wall is formed within the test. The cysts remain alive for many
years; for example, Ceratium cysts were found to retain their vital-
ity in one instance for six and one-half years. Conjugation and sexual
fusion have been reported in certain forms, but definite knowledge on
sexual reproduction awaits further investigation.
The dinoflagellates are abundant in the plankton of the sea and
play an important part in the economy of marine life as a whole. A
number of parasitic forms are also known. Their hosts include vari-
ous diatoms, copepods and several pelagic animals.
Some dinoflagellates inhabiting various seas multiply suddenly in
enormous numbers within certain areas, and bring about distinct
discolorations of water, often referred to as "red tide" or "red wa-
ter." Occasionally the red water causes the death of a large number
of fishes and of various invertebrates. According to Galtsoff (1948,
1949), the red water which appeared on the west coast of Florida
in 1946 and 1947, was due to the presence of an enormous number
of Gymnodinium brevis and this dinoflagellate seemed in some man-
ner to have been closely correlated with the fatal effect on animals
entering the discolored water. Ketchum and Keen (1948) found the
total phosphorus content of the water containing dense Gymnodin-
ium populations to be 2.5 to 10 times the maximum expected in
312 PROTOZOOLOGY
the sea, and the substance associated with Gymnodinium and other
dinoflagellates causes nose and throat irritations in man. Woodcock
(1948) observed that similar irritations can be produced by breath-
ing air artificially laden with small drops of the red water contain-
ing 56X106 dinoflagellates per liter. The irritant substance passed
through a fine bacterial filter, and was found to be very stable, re-
maining active in stored red water for several weeks. Distribution
and taxonomy (Kofoid, 1906, 1907, 1909, 1931; Kofoid and Swezy,
1921; Prescott, 1928; Eddy, 1930; Playfair, 1919; Wailes, 1934;
Thompson, 1947, 1950; Balech, 1944, 1949, 1951; Rampi, 1950;
Chatton, 1952); locomotion (Peters, 1929).
The Dinoflagellata are subdivided into three major groups:
Bivalve shell without furrows Suborder 1 Prorocentrinea
Naked or with shell showing furrows. .Suborder 2 Peridiniinea (p. 313)
Naked; without furrows; no transverse flagellum
Suborder 3 Cystoflagellata (p. 329)
Suborder 1 Prorocentrinea Poche
Test bivalve; without any groove; with yellow chromatophores;
2 flagella anterior, one directed anteriorly, the other vibrates in a
circle; fresh or salt water.
Family Prorocentridae Kofoid
Genus Prorocentrum Ehrenberg. Elongate oval; anterior end
bluntly pointed, with a spinous projection at pole; chromatophores
small, yellowish brown; salt water. Species (Schiller, 1918, 1928).
P. micans E. (Fig. 126, a). 36-52/x long; a cause of "red water."
P. triangulatum Martin. Triangular with rounded posterior end;
shell-valves flattened; one valve with a delicate tooth; surface cov-
ered with minute pores; margin striated; chromatophores yellow-
brown, irregular, broken up in small masses; 17-22^. Martin (1929)
found it extremely abundant in brackish water in New Jersey.
Genus Exuviaella Cienkowski. Subspherical or oval; no anterior
projection, except 2 flagella; 2 lateral chromatophores, large, brown,
each with a pyrenoid and a starch body; nucleus posterior; salt
and fresh water. Several species (Schiller, 1918, 1928).
E. marina C. (Fig. 126, b, c). 36-50M long.
E. apora Schiller. Compressed, oval; striae on margin of valves;
chromatophores numerous yellow-brown, irregular in form; 30-32/x
by 21-26/x (Schiller); 17-22M by 14-1 % (Lebour; Martin); common
in brackish water, New Jersey.
E. compressa (Stein). Flattened ellipsoid test; anterior end with a
DINOFLAGELLATA
313
depression through which two flagella emerge; two chromatophores
pale or deep green, each with a pyrenoid; nucleus posterior; no
stigma; 22-26/x by 15-18/z by 11-12/*; fresh and salt water (Thomp-
son, 1950).
Suborder 2 Peridiniinea Poche
Typical dinoflagellates with one to many transverse annuli and
a sulcus; 2 flagella, one of which undergoes a typical undulating
movement, while the other usually directed posteriorly. According
Fig. 126. a, Prorocentrum micans, X420 (Schiitt); b, c, Exuviaella
marina, X420 (Schiitt); d, e, Cystodinium steini, X370 (Klebs); f, Gleno-
dinium cinctum, X590 (Schilling); g, G. pulvisculum, X420 (Schilling);
h, G. uliginosum, X590 (Schilling); i, G. edax, X490 (Schilling); j,
G. neglectum, X650 (Schilling).
to Kofoid and Swezy, this suborder is divided into two tribes.
Body naked or covered by a thin shell Tribe 1 Gymnodinioidae
Body covered by a thick shell Tribe 2 Peridinioidae (p. 324)
Tribe 1 Gymnodinioidae Poche
Naked or covered by a single piece cellulose membrane with an-
nulus and sulcus, and 2 flagella; chromatophores abundant, yellow
or greenish platelets or bands; stigma sometimes present; asexual
reproduction, binary or multiple division; holophytic, ho lo zoic, or
314 PROTOZOOLOGY
sap ro zoic; the majority are deep-sea forms; a few coastal or fresh
water forms also occur.
With a cellulose membrane Family 1 Cystodiniidae
Without shell
Furrows rudimentary Family 2 Pronoctilucidae
Annulus and sulcus distinct
Solitary
With ocellus Family 3 Pouchetiidae (p. 316)
Without ocellus
With tentacles Family 4 Noctilucidae (p. 316)
Without tentacles
Free-living Family 5 Gymnodiniidae (p. 318)
Parasitic Family 6 Blastodiniidae (p. 321)
Permanently colonial Family 7 Polykrikidae (p. 324)
Family 1 Cystodiniidae Kofoid and Swezy
Genus Cystodinium Klebs. In swimming phase, oval, with ex-
tremely delicate envelope; annulus somewhat acyclic; cyst-mem-
brane drawn out into 2 horns. Species (Pascher, 1928; Thompson,
1949).
C. steini K. (Fig. 126, d, e). Stigma beneath sulcus; chromato-
phores brown; swarmer about 45^ long; freshwater ponds.
Genus Glenodinium Ehrenberg. (Glenodiniopsis, Stasziecella
Woloszynska). Spherical; ellipsoidal or reniform in end-view; an-
nulus a circle; several discoidal, yellow to brown chromatophores;
horseshoe- or rod-shaped stigma in some; often with gelatinous en-
velope; fresh water. Many species (Thompson, 1950).
G. cinctum E. (Fig. 126,/). Spherical to ovoid; annulus equatorial;
stigma horseshoe-shaped; 43 ai by 40/x. Morphology and reproduction
(Lindemann, 1929).
G. pulvisculum Stein (Fig. 126, g). No stigma; 38/x by 30ju.
G. uliginosum Schilling (Fig. 126, h). 36-48m by 3G>
G. edax S. (Fig. 126, i). 34/x by 33/x.
G. neglectum S. (Fig. 126, j). 30-32M by 29M.
Family 2 Pronoctilucidae Lebour
Genus Pronoctiluca Fabre-Domergue. Body with an antero-
ventral tentacle and sulcus; annulus poorly marked; salt water.
P. tentaculatum (Kofoid and Swezy) (Fig. 127, a). About 54ju long;
off California coast.
Genus Oxyrrhis Dujardin. Subovoidal, asymmetrical posteriorly;
annulus incomplete; salt water.
0. marina D. (Fig. 127, 6). 10-37/x long. Division (Dunkerly, 1921;
Hall, 1925).
DINOFLAGELLATA
315
Fig. 127. a, Pronoctiluca tentaculatum, X730 (Kofoid and Swezy);
b, Oxyrrhis marina, X840 (Senn); c. Pouchetia fusus, X340 (Schiitt);
d, P. maxima, X330 (Kofoid and Swezy); e, Protopsis ochrea, X340
(Wright); f, Nematodinium partitum, X560 (Kofoid and Swezy); g, Pro-
terythropsis crassicaudata, X740 (Kofoid and Swezy); h, Erythropsis
cornuta, X340 (Kofoid and Swezy); i, j , Noctiluca scintillans (i, side view;
j, budding process), X140 (Robin).
316 PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 3 Pouchetiidae Kofoid and Swezy
Ocellus consists of lens and melanosome (pigment mass); sulcus
and annulus somewhat twisted; pusules usually present; cytoplasm
colored; salt water (pelagic).
Genus Pouchetia Schutt. Nucleus anterior to ocellus; ocellus with
red or black pigment mass with a red, brown, yellow, or colorless
central core; lens hyaline; body surface usually smooth; ho lo zoic;
en^ystment common; salt water. Many species (Schiller, 1928a).
P. fusus S. (Fig. 127, c). About 94/t by 41/x; ocellus 27m long.
P. maxima Kofoid and Swezy (Fig. 127, d). 145/t by 92/*; ocellus
20/x; off California coast.
Genus Protopsis Kofoid and Swezy. Annulus and sulcus similar
to those of Gymnodinium or Gyrodinium; with a simple or compound
ocellus; no tentacles; body not twisted; salt water. A few species.
P. ochrea (Wright) (Fig. 127, e). 55/i by 45/z; ocellus 22/i long;
Nova Scotia.
Genus Nematodinium Kofoid and Swezy. With nematocysts;
girdle more than 1 turn; ocellus distributed or concentrated, pos-
terior; holozoic; salt water.
N. partitum K. and S. (Fig. 127, /). 91/* long; off California coast.
Genus Proterythropsis Kofoid and Swezy. Annulus median; ocel-
lus posterior; a stout rudimentary tentacle; salt water. One species.
P. crassicaudata K. and S. (Fig. 127, g). 70/t long; off California.
Genus Erythropsis Hertwig. Epicone flattened, less than 1/4
hypocone; ocellus very large, composed of one or several hyaline
lenses attached to or imbedded in a red, brownish or black pigment
body with a red, brown or yellow core, located at left of sulcus;
sulcus expands posteriorly into ventro -posterior tentacle; salt water.
Several species.
E. cornuta (Schutt) (Fig. 127, h). 104/x long; off California coast
(Kofoid and Swezy).
Family 4 Noctilucidae Kent
Contractile tentacle arises from sulcal area and extends poste-
riorly; a flagellum; this group has formerly been included in the
Cystoflagellata; studies by recent investigators, particularly by
Kofoid, show its affinity with the present suborder ; holozoic ; saltwater.
Genus Noctiluca Suriray. Spherical, bilaterally symmetrical; peri-
stome marks the median line of body; cytostome at the bottom of
peristome; with a conspicuous tentacle and a short flagellum; cyto-
plasm greatly vacuolated, and cytoplasmic strands connect the cen-
tral mass with periphery; specific gravity is less than that of sea wa-
DINOFLAGELLATA
31'
ter, due to the presence of an osmotically active substance with a
lower specific gravity than sodium chloride, which appears to be
ammonium chloride (Goethard and Heinsius); certain granules are
luminescent (Fig. 128); cytoplasm colorless or blue-green; sometimes
tinged with yellow coloration in center; swarmers formed by bud-
ding, and each possesses one flagellum, annulus, and tentale; widely
distributed in salt water; holozoic. One species.
N. scintillans f Macartney) (N. miliaris S.) (Figs. 127, i,j; 128).
Usually 500-IOOOm in diameter, with extremes of 200/u and 3 mm.
Gross (1934) observed that complete fusion of two swarmers (isoga-
metes) results in cyst formation from which trophozoites develop.
Acid content of the body fluid is said to be about pH 3. Nuclear di-
Fig. 128. Noctiluca scintillans, as seen under darkfield microscope
(Pratje). a, an active individual; b, a so-called "resting stage," with fat
droplets in the central cytoplasm, prior to either division or swarmer
formation; c, d, appearance of luminescent individuals (F, fat-droplets;
K, nucleus; P, peristome; T, tentacle; V, food body; Z, central proto-
plasm).
318 PROTOZOOLOGY
vision (Calkins, 1898); morphology and physiology (Goor, 1918;
Kofoid, 1920; Pratje, 1921); feeding (Hofker, 1930); luminescence
(Harvey, 1952).
Genus Pavillardia Kofoid and Swezy. Annulus and sulcus similar
to those of Gymnodinium; longitudinal flagellum absent; stout
finger-like mobile tentacle directed posteriorly; salt water. One
species.
P. tentaculifera K. and S. 58m by 27/x; pale yellow; off California.
Family 5 Gymnodiniidae Kofoid
Naked forms with simple but distinct 1/2-4 turns of annulus;
with or without chromatophores; fresh or salt water.
Genus Gymnodinium Stein. Pellicle delicate; subcircular; bi-
laterally symmetrical; numerous discoid chromatophores vari-
colored (yellow to deep brown, green, or blue) or sometimes absent;
stigma present in few; many with mucilaginous envelope; salt,
brackish, or fresh water. Numerous species (Schiller, 1928a) ; culti-
vation and development (Lindemann, 1929).
G. aeruginosum S. (Fig. 129, a). Green chromatophores; 20-32/x by
13-25/x (Thompson, 1950) ; ponds and lakes.
G. rotundatum Klebs (Fig. 129, b). 32-35/x by 22-25M; fresh water.
G. palustre Schilling (Fig. 129, c). 45/z by 38^; fresh water.
G. agile Kofoid and Swezy (Fig. 129, d). About 28m long; along
sandy beaches.
Genus Hemidinium Stein. Asymmetrical; oval; annulus about
half a turn, only on left half. One species.
H. nasutum S. (Fig. 129, e). Sulcus posterior; chromatophores
yellow to brown; with a reddish brown oil drop; nucleus posterior;
transverse fission; 24-28ju by 16-17/x; fresh water.
Genus Amphidinium Claparede and Lachmann. Form variable;
epicone small; annulus anterior; sulcus straight on hypo cone or also
on part of epicone; with or without chromatophores; mainly holo-
phytic, some holozoic; coastal or fresh water. Numerous species
Schiller, 1928a).
A. lacustre Stein (Fig. 129, /). 30/t by 18/x; in fresh and salt (?)
water.
A. scissum Kofoid and Swezy (Fig. 129, g). 50-60m long; along
sandy beaches.
A. fusiforme Martin. Fusiform, twice as long as broad: circular
in cross-section; epicone rounded conical; annulus anterior; hypo-
cone 2-2.5 times as long as epicone; sulcus obscure; body filled with
DINOFLAGELLATA
319
Fig. 129. a, Gymnodinium aeruginosum, X500 (Schilling); b, G. ro-
tundatum, X360 (Klebs); c, G. palustre, X360 (Schilling); d, G. agile,
X740 (Kofoid and Swezy); e, Hemidinium nasutum, X670 (Stein);
f, Amphidinium lacustre, X440 (Stein); g, A. scissum, X8S0 (Kofoid
and Swezy); h, Gyrodinium biconicum, X340 (Kofoid and Swezy);
i, G. hyalinum, X670 (Kofoid and Swezy); j, Cochlodinium atromacu-
latum, X340 (Kofoid and Swezy); k, Torodinium robustum, X670
(Kofoid and Swezy); 1, Massartia nieuportensis, X670 (Conrad); m,
Chilodinium cruciatum, X900 (Conrad); n, o, Trochodinium prismaticum,
X1270 (Conrad); p, Ceratodinium asymmetricum, X670 (Conrad).
320 PROTOZOOLOGY
yellowish green chromatophores except at posterior end ; stigma dull
orange, below girdle; nucleus ellipsoid, posterior to annulus; pellicle
delicate; 17-22ju by 8-1 1/z in diameter. Martin (1929) found that it
was extremely abundant in parts of Delaware Bay and gave rise to
red coloration of the water ("Red water").
Genus Gyrodinium Kofoid and Swezy. Annulus descending left
spiral; sulcus extending from end to end; nucleus central; pusules;
surface smooth or striated; chromatophores rarely present; cyto-
plasm colored; holozoic; salt or fresh water. Many species (Schiller,
1928a).
Q. biconicum K. and S. (Fig. 129, h). 68 n long; salt water; off Cali-
fornia.
G. hyalinum (Schilling) (Fig. 129, i). About 24^ long; fresh water.
Genus Cochlodinium Schlitt. Twisted at least 1.5 turns; annulus
descending left spiral; pusules; cytoplasm colorless to highly colored;
chromatophores rarely present; holozoic; surface smooth or striated;
salt water. Numerous species (Schiller, 1928a).
C. atromaculatum Kofoid and Swezy (Fig. 129, j). 183-185/x by
72ju; longitudinal flagellum 45/x long; off California.
Genus Torodinium Kofoid and Swezy. Elongate; epicone several
times longer than hypocone; annulus and hypocone form augur-
shaped cone; sulcus long; nucleus greatly elongate; salt water. 2
species (Schiller, 1928).
T. robustum K. and S. (Fig. 129, k). 67-75/z long; off California.
Genus Massartia Conrad. Cylindrical; epicone larger (9-10 times
longer and 3 times wider) than hypocone; no sulcus; with or without
yellowish discoid chromatophore (Thompson, 1950).
M . nieuportensis C. (Fig. 129, 1). 28-37/x long; brackish water.
Genus Chilodinium Conrad. Ellipsoid; posterior end broadly
rounded, anterior end narrowed and drawn out into a digitform
process closely adhering to body; sulcus, apex to 1/5 from posterior
end; annulus oblique, in anterior 1/3 (Conrad, 1926).
C. cruciatum C. (Fig. 129, m). 40-50ju by 30-40/z; with trichocysts;
brackish water.
Genus Trochodinium Conrad. Somewhat similar to Amphidi-
nium; epicone small, button-like; hypocone with 4 longitudinal
rounded ridges; stigma; without chromatophores.
T. prismaticum C. (Fig. 129, n, o). 18-22/x by 9-12;u; epicone
5-7 jit in diameter; brackish water (Conrad, 1926).
Genus Ceratodinium Conrad. Cuneiform; asymmetrical, color-
less, more or less flattened; annulus complete, oblique; sulcus on half
of epicone and full length of hypocone; stigma.
DINOFLAGELLATA 321
C. asymmetricum C. (Fig. 129, p). 68-80^ by about 10/x; brackish
water (Conrad, 1926).
Family 6 Elastodiniidae Kofoid and Swezy
All parasitic in or on plants and animals; in colony forming genera,
there occur trophocyte (Chatton) by which organism is attached to
host and more or less numerous gonocytes (Chatton). Taxonomy
(Chatton, 1920; Reichenow, 1930).
Genus BJastodinium Chatton. In the gut of copepods; spindle-
shaped, arched, ends attenuated; envelope (not cellulose) often with
2 spiral rows of bristles; young forms binucleate; when present,
chromatophores in yellowish brown network; swarmers similar to
those of Gymnodinium; in salt water. Many species.
B. spinulosum C. (Fig. 130, a). About 235/* by 33-39/z; swarmers
5-10ju; in Palacalanus parvus, Clausocalanus arcuicornis and C.
furcatus.
Genus Oodinium Chatton. Spherical or pyriform; with a short
stalk; nucleus large; often with yellowish pigment; on Salpa, Anne-
lida, Siphonophora, marine fishes, etc.
0. poucheti (Lemmermann) (Fig. 130, b, c). Fully grown indivi-
duals up to 170/x long; bright yellow ochre; mature forms become
detached and free, dividing into numerous gymnodinium-like
swarmers; on the tunicate. Oikopleura dioica.
O. ocellatum Brown (Fig. 131, a, b). Attached to the gill filaments of
marine fish by means of cytoplasmic processes; oval in form; 12m by
10m to 104m by 80m, average 60m by 50m; nucleus spherical; many
chromatophores and starch grains; a stigma. When grown, the or-
ganism drops off the gill and becomes enlarged to as much as 150m
in diameter. Soon the cytoplasmic processes and the broad flagel-
lum are retracted and the aperture of shell closes by secretion of
cellulose substance. The body divides up to 128 cells, which become
flagellated and each divides once more. These flagellates, 12/x by 8m,
reach the gills of fish and become attached (Brown, 1931; Nigrelli,
1936).
O. limneticum Jacobs (Fig. 131, c, d). Pyriform; 12ju by 7.5m to
20ju by 13/x; light green chromatophores variable in size and shape;
no stigma; without flagella; filopodia straight or branched; the or-
ganism grows into about 60m long in three days at 25°C; observed
maximum, 96m by 80m; starch becomes abundant; fission takes place
in cyst; flagellate forms measure about 15m long; ectoparasitic on the
integument of freshwater fishes in aquaria (Jacobs, 1946).
322
PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Apodinium Chatton. Young individuals elongate, spherical
or pyriform; binucleate; adult colorless; formation of numerous
swarmers in adult stage is peculiar in that lower of the 2 individuals
formed at each division secretes a new envelope, and delays its
Fig. 130. a, Blastodinium spinxdosum, X240 (Chatton); b, c, Oodi-
nium poucheti (c, a swarmer) (Chatton); d, e, Apodinium mycetoides
(d, swarmer-formation, X450; e, a younger stage, X640) (Chatton);
f, Chytriodiniuxn parasiticum in a copepod egg (Dogiel); g, Trypanodinium
ovicola, X1070 (Chatton); h, Duboscqella tintinnicola (Duboscq and
Collin); i, j, Haplozoon clymenellae (i, mature colony, X300; j, a swarmer,
X1340) (Shumway); k, Syndinium turbo, X1340 (Chatton); 1, Paradi-
nium poucheti, X800 (Chatton); m, Ellobiopsis chattoni on Calanus fin-
marchicus (Caullery); n, Paraellobiopsis coutieri (Collin).
DINOFLAGELLATA
323
further division until the upper one has divided for the second time,
leaving several open cups; on tunicates.
A. mycetoides C. (Fig. 130, d, e). On gill-slits of Fritillaria pel-
lucida.
Genus Chytriodinium Chatton. In eggs of planktonic copepods;
young individuals grow at the expense of host egg and when fully
formed, body divides into many parts, each producing 4 swarmers.
Several species.
C. parasiticum (Dogiel) (Fig. 130, /). In copepod eggs; Naples.
Genus Trypanodinium Chatton. In copepod eggs; swarmer-stage
only known.
Fig. 131. a, Oodinium ocellatum, recently detached from host gill;
b, a free living flagellate form, X760 (Nigrelli); c, d, 0. limneticum, X800
(Jacobs).
T. ovicola C. (Fig. 130, g). Swarmers biflagellate; about 15ju long.
Genus Duboscqella Chatton. Rounded cell with a large nucleus;
parasitic in Tintinnidae. One species.
D. tiniinnicola (Lohmann) (Fig. 130, h). Intracellular stage oval,
about 100^ in diameter with a large nucleus; swarmers biflagellate.
Genus Haplozoon Dogiel. In gut of polychaetes; mature forms
composed of variable number of cells arranged in line or in pyramid;
salt water. Many species.
H. clymenellae (Calkins) (Microtaeniella clymenellae C.) (Fig. 130,
i,j). In the intestine of Clymenella torquata; colonial forms consist of
250 or more cells; Woods Hole (Shumway, 1924).
Genus Syndinium Chatton. In gut and body cavity of marine
copepods; multinucleate round cysts in gut considered as young
324 PROTOZOOLOGY
forms; multinucleate body in host body cavity with numerous
needle-like inclusions.
S. turbo C. (Fig. 130, k). In Paracalanus parvus, Corycaeus ven-
ustus, Calanus finmarchicus; swarmers about 15/x long.
Genus Paradinium Chatton. In body-cavity of copepods; mul-
tinucleate body without inclusions; swarmers formed outside the
host body.
P. poucheti C. (Fig. 130, 1). In the copepod, Acartia clausi; swarm-
ers about 25,u long, amoeboid.
Genus Ellobiopsis Caullery. Pyriform; with stalk; often a septum
near stalked end; attached to anterior appendages of marine cope-
pods.
E. chattoni C. (Fig. 130, m). Up to 700/c long; on antennae and
oral appendages of Calanus finmarchicus, Pseudocalanus elongatus
and Acartia clausi. Development (Steuer, 1928).
Genus Paraellobiopsis Collin. Young forms stalkless; spherical;
mature individuals in chain-form; on Malacostraca.
P. coutieri C. (Fig. 130, n). On appendages of Nebalia bipes.
Family 7 Polykrikidae Kofoid and Swezey
Two, 4, 8, or 16 individuals permanently joined; individuals
similar to Gymnodinium; sulcus however extending entire body
length; with nematocysts (Fig. 132, 6); greenish to pink; nuclei
about 1/2 the number of individuals; holozoic; salt water. Nemato-
cysts (Hovasse, 1951).
Genus Polykrikos Btitschli. With the above-mentioned characters;
salt or brackish water. Species (Schiller, 1928).
P. kofoidi (Chatton) (Fig. 132, a, 6). Greenish grey to rose; com-
posed of 2, 4, 8, or 16 individuals; with nematocysts; each nemato-
cyst possesses presumably a hollow thread, and discharges under
suitable stimulation its content; a binucleate colony composed of 4
individuals about 110m long; off California.
P. barnegatensis Martin. Ovate, nearly circular in cross-section,
slightly concave ventrally; composed of 2 individuals; constriction
slight; beaded nucleus in center; annuli descending left spiral, dis-
placed twice their width; sulcus ends near anterior end; cytoplasm
colorless, with numerous oval, yellow-brown chromatophores; nem-
atocysts absent; 46m by 31.5/*; in brackish water of Barnegat Bay.
Tribe 2 Peridinioidae Poche
The shell composed of epitheca, annulus and hypotheca, which
may be divided into numerous plates; body form variable.
DINOFLAGELLATA
325
With annulus and sulcus
Shell composed of plates; but no suture. . . Family 1 Peridiniidae (p. 326)
Breast plate divided by sagittal suture. Family 2 Dinophysidae (p. 328)
Without annulus or sulcus Family 3 Phytodiniidae (p. 329)
Fig. 132. a, b, Polykrikos kofoidi (a, colony of four individuals, X340;
b, a nematocyst, X1040) (Kofoid and Swezy); c, Peridinium tabulatum,
X460 (Schilling); d, P. divergens, X340 (Calkins); e, Ceratium hirundi-
nella, X540 (Stein); f. C. longipes, X100 (Wailes); g, C. tripos, X140
(Wailes); h, C. fusxis, X100 (Wailes); i, Heterodinium scrippsi, X570
(Kofoid and Adamson).
326 PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 1 Peridiniidae Kent
Shell composed of numerous plates; annulus usually at equator,
covered by a plate known as cingulum; variously sculptured and
finely perforated plates vary in shape and number among different
species; in many species certain plates drawn out into various proc-
esses, varying greatly in different seasons and localities even among
one and the same species; these processes seem to retard descending
movement of organisms from upper to lower level in water when
flagellar activity ceases; chromatophores numerous small platelets,
yellow or green; some deep-sea forms without chromatophores; chain
formation in some forms; mostly surface and pelagic inhabitants in
fresh or salt water.
Genus Peridinium Ehrenberg. Subspherical to ovoid; reniform in
cross-section; annulus slightly spiral with projecting rims; hypotheca
often with short horns and epitheca drawn out; colorless, green, or
brown; stigma usually present; cysts spherical; salt or fresh water.
Numerous species. Species and variation (Bohm, 1933; Diwald,
1939); Chromatophore and pyrenoid (Geitler, 1926).
P. tabulation Claparede and Lachmann (Fig. 132, c). 48/t by 44/i;
fresh water.
P. diver gens (E.) (Fig. 132, d). About 45/i in diameter; yellowish,
salt water.
Genus Ceratium Schrank. Body flattened; with one anterior and
1-4 posterior horn-like processes; often large; chromatophores yel-
low, brown, or greenish; color variation conspicuous; fission is said
to take place at night and in the early morning; fresh or salt water.
Numerous species; specific identification is difficult due to a great
variation (p. 223). Biology and morphology (Entz, 1927); encyst-
ment (Entz, 1925).
C. hirundinella (Muller) (Figs. 94; 132, e). 1 apical and 2-3 antap-
ical horns; seasonal and geographical variations (p. 223); chain-
formation frequent; 95-700/x long; fresh and salt water. Numerous
varieties. Reproduction (Entz, 1921, 1931; Hall, 1925a; Borgert,
1935); holozoic nutrition (Hofeneder, 1930).
C. longipes (Bailey) (Fig. 132, /). About 210/i by 51-57M; salt
water.
C. tripos (Muller) (Fig. 132,0). About 225/i by 75/x; salt water. Wailes
(1928) observed var. atlantica in British Columbia; Martin (1929)
in Barnegat Inlet, New Jersey. Nuclear division (Schneider, 1924).
C.fusus (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 132, h). 300-600/x by 15-30/*; salt water;
widely distributed; British Columbia (Wailes), New Jersey (Martin),
etc.
DINOFLAGELLATA 327
Genus Heterodinium Kofoid. Flattened or spheroidal; 2 large
antapical horns; annulus submedian; with post-cingular ridge; sulcus
short, narrow; shell hyaline, reticulate, porulate; salt water. Numer-
ous species.
H. scrippsi K. (Fig. 132, i). 130-155/x long; Pacific and Atlantic
(tropical).
Genus Dolichodinium Kofoid and Adamson. Subcorneal, elongate;
without apical or antapical horns; sulcus only 1/2 the length of hy-
potheca; plate porulate; salt water.
D. lineatum (Kofoid and Michener) (Fig. 133, a). 58/z long; eastern
tropical Pacific.
Genus Goniodoma Stein. Polyhedral with a deep annulus; epi-
theca and hypotheca slightly unequal in size, composed of regularly
arranged armored plates; chromatophores small brown platelets;
fresh or salt water.
G. acuminata (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 133, b). About 50> long; salt water.
Genus Gonyaulax Diesing. Spherical, polyhedral, fusiform,
elongated with stout apical and antapical prolongations, or dorso-
ventrally flattened; apex never sharply attenuated; annulus equa-
torial; sulcus from apex to antapex, broadened posteriorly; plates
1-6 apical, 0-3 anterior intercalaries, 6 precingulars, 6 annular
plates, 6 postincingulars, 1 posterior intercalary and 1 antapical;
porulate; chromatophores yellow to dark brown, often dense; with-
out stigma; fresh, brackish or salt water. Numerous species (Kofoid,
1911; Whedon and Kofoid, 1936).
G. polyedra Stein (Fig. 133, c). Angular, polyhedral; ridges along
sutures, annulus displaced 1-2 annulus widths, regularly pitted; salt
water. "Very abundant in the San Diego region in the summer
plankton, July-September, when it causes local outbreaks of 'red
water,' which extend along the coast of southern and lower Cali-
fornia" (Kofoid, 1911; Allen, 1946). The organisms occurred also in
abundance (85 per cent of plankton) in pools of sea water off the
beach of Areia Branca, Portugal, and caused "red water" during the
day and an extreme luminescence when agitated at night (Santos-
Pinto, 1949).
G. apiculata (Penard) (Fig. 133, d). Ovate, chromatophores yel-
lowish brown; 30-60/x long; fresh water.
Genus Spiraulax Kofoid. Biconical; apices pointed; sulcus not
reaching apex; no ventral pore; surface heavily pitted; salt
water.
S. jolliffei (Murray and Whitting) (Fig. 133, e). 132^ by 92^;
California (Kofoid, 1911a).
32*
PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Woloszynskia Thompson (1950). An apparently intermedi-
ate form between Gymnodinioidae and Peridinioidae.
Family 2 Dinophysidae Kofoid
Genus Dinophysis Ehrenberg. Highly compressed; annulus wid-
ened, funnel-like, surrounding small epitheca; chromatophores yel-
low; salt water. Several species (Schiller, 1928). Morphology and
taxonomy (Tai and Skogsberg, 1934).
Fig. 133. a, Dolichodinium lineatum, X670 (Kofoid and Adamson),
b, Goniodoma acuminata, X340 (Stein); c, Gonyaulax polyedra, X670
(Kofoid); d, G. apiculata, X670 (Lindemann) ; e, Spiraulax jolliffei,
right side of theca, X340 (Kofoid); f, Dinophysis acuta, X580 (Schutt);
g, h, Oxyphysis oxytoxoides, X780 (Kofoid); i, Phytodinium simplex,
X340 (Klebs); j, k, Dissodinium lunula: j, primary cyst (Dogiel); k,
secondary cyst with 4 swarmers (Wailes), X220.
DINOFLAGELLATA 329
D. acuta E. (Fig. 133,/). Oval; attenuated posteriorly ;54-94/z long;
widely distributed; British Columbia (Wailes).
Genus Oxyphysis Kofoid. Epitheca developed; sulcus short; sulcal
lists feebly developed; sagittal suture conspicuous; annulus im-
pressed; salt water (Kofoid, 1926).
0. oxytoxoides K. (Fig. 133, g, h). 63-68M by 15/*; off Alaska.
Family 3 Phytodiniidae Klebs
Genus Phytodinium Klebs. Spherical or ellipsoidal; without fur-
rows; chromatophores discoidal, yellowish brown.
P. simplex K. (Fig. 133, i). Spherical or oval; 42-50/x by 30-45m
fresh water.
Genus Dissodinium Klebs (Pyrocystis Paulsen). Primary cyst,
spherical, uninucleate; contents divide into 8-16 crescentic second-
ary cysts which become set free; in them are formed 2, 4, 6, or 8
Gymnodinium-like swarmers; salt water.
Fig. 134. a, Leptodiscus medusoides, X50 (Hertwig); b, Craspedotella
pileolus, X110 (Kofoid).
D. lunula (Schutt) (Fig. 133, j, k). Primary cysts 80-155/* in
diameter; secondary cysts 104-130/z long; swarmers 22/x long; widely
distributed; British Columbia (Wailes).
Suborder 3 Cystoflagellata Haeckel
Since Noctiluca which had for many years been placed in this
suborder, has been removed, according to Kofoid, to the second sub-
order, the Cystoflagellata becomes a highly ill-defined group and
includes two peculiar marine forms: Leptodiscus medusoides Hertwig
(Fig. 134, a), and Craspedotella pileolus Kofoid (Fig. 134, b), both
of which are medusoid in general body form.
References
Allen, W. E.: (1946) Significance of "red water" in the sea. Turtox
news, 24:49.
Balech, E.: (1949) Etude de quelques especes de Peridinium, sou-
vent confondues. Hydrobiologia, 1:390.
(1951) Deuxieme contribution a la connaissance des Peridi-
nium. Ibid., 3:305.
330 PROTOZOOLOGY
Bohm, A.: (1933) Beobachtungen an adriatischen Peridinium-Arten.
Arch. Protist, 80:303.
Borgert, A.: (1935) Fortpflanzungsvorgange und Heteromorphis-
mus bei marinen Ceratien, etc. Ibid., 86:318.
Brown, E. M.: (1931) Note on a new species of dinoflagellate from
the gills and epidermis of marine fishes. Proc. Zool. Soc. London,
1:345.
Calkins, G. N.: (1898) Mitosis in Noctiluca milliaris. 58 pp.
Chatton, E.: (1920) Les Peridiniens parasites: Morphologie, re-
production, ethologie. Arch. zool. exper. gen., 59:1.
(1952) Classe des Dinoflagelles ou Peridiniens. In: Grasse
(1952), p. 310.
Conrad, W.: (1926) Recherches sur les flagellates de nos eaux
saumatres. I. Arch. Protist., 55:63.
Diwald, K.: (1939) Ein Beitrag zur Variabilitat und Systematik der
Gattung Peridinium. Ibid., 93:121.
Dunkerly, J. S.: (1921) Nuclear division in the dinoflagellate,
Oxyrrhis marina. Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc, Edinburgh, 20:217.
Eddy, S.: (1930) The freshwater armored or thecate dinoflagellates.
Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 49:1.
Entz, G.: (1921) Ueber die mitotische Teilung von Ceratium hi-
rundinella. Arch. Protist., 43:415.
— (1925) Ueber Cysten und Encystierung der Siisswasser-
Ceratien. Ibid., 51:131.
— (1927) Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Peridineen. Ibid., 58:344.
(1931) Analyse des Wachstums und Teilung einer Population
sowie eines Individuums des Protisten Ceratium, etc. Ibid., 74:
310.
Fritsch, F. E.: (1935) The structure and reproduction of the algae.
Galtsoff, P. S.: (1948) Red tide: etc. Spec. Sc Rep., U. S. Fish
Wildl. Service, no. 46.
(1949) The mystery of the red tide. Sc. Monthly, 68:109.
Geitler, L.: (1926) Ueber Chromatophoren und Pyrenoide bei
Peridineen. Arch. Protist., 53:343.
Goor, A. C. J. Van: (1918) Die Cytologie von Noctiluca miliaris.
Ibid., 39:147.
Graham, H. W.: (1943) Gymnodinium catenatum, etc. Tr. Am.
Micr. Soc, 62:259.
Gross, F.: (1934) Zur Biologie und Entwicklungsgeschichte von
Noctiluca miliaris. Arch. Protist., 83:178.
Hall, R. P.: (1925) Binary fission in Oxyrrhis marina. Univ. Cali-
fornia Publ. Zool, 26:281.
(1925a) Mitosis in Ceratium hirundinella, etc. Ibid, 28:29.
Harvey, E. N.: (1952) Bioluminescence. New York.
Hofeneder, H. : (1930) Ueber die animalische Ernahrung von
Ceratium, etc. Arch. Protist, 71:1.
Hofker, J.: (1930) Ueber Noctiluca scintillans. Ibid, 71:57.
Hovasse, R.: (1951) Contribution a l'etude de la cnidogenese chez
les Peridiniens. I. Arch. zool. exper. gen, 87:299.
Jacobs, D. L.: (1946) A new parasitic dinoflagellate from freshwater
fish. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 65:1.
DINOFLAGELLATA 331
Ketchum, B. H. and Keen, Jean: (1948) Unusual phosphorus con-
centrations in the Florida "red tide" sea water. J. Mar. Res., 7:
17.
Kofoid, C. A.: (1907) The plate of Ceratium, etc. Zool. Anz., 32:
177.
— (1909) On Peridinium steinii, etc. Arch. Protist., 14:25.
(1911) Dinoflagellata of the San Diego Region. IV. Uni. Cal.
Publ. Zool., 8:187.
- (1911a) V. Ibid., 8:295.
(1920) A new morphological interpretation of Noctiluca, etc.
Ibid., 19:317.
(1926) On Oxyphysis oxytoxoides, etc. Ibid., 28:203.
— (1931) Report of the biological survey of Mutsu Bay. XVIII.
Sc. Rep. Tohoku Imp. Uni., Biol., 6:1.
— and Adamson, A. M.: (1933) The Dinoflagellata: the family
Heterodiniidae, etc. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, 54:1.
— and Swezy, Olive: (1921) The free-living unarmored Dino-
flagellata. Mem. Univ. California, 5:1.
Lebour, Marie V. : (1925) The dinoflagellates of northern seas.
London.
Lindemann, E.: (1929) Experimentelle Studien uber die Fortpflanz-
ungserscheinungen der Siisswasserperidineen auf Grund von
Reinkulturen. Arch. Protist., 68:1.
Martin, G. W.: (1929) Dinoflagellates from marine and brackish
waters of New Jersey. Univ. Iowa Stud. Nat. Hist., 12, no. 9.
Nigrelli, R. F.: (1936) The morphology, cytology and life-history
of Oodinium ocellatum Brown, etc. Zoologica, 21 : 129.
Pascher, A.: (1928) Von einer neue Dinococcale, etc. Arch. Protist.,
63:241.
Peters, N.: (1929) Ueber Orts- und Geisselbewegung bei marinen
Dinoflagellaten. Ibid., 67:291.
Playfair, G. I.: (1919) Peridineae of New South Wales. Proc. Linn.
Soc. N.S.Wales, 44:793.
Pratje, A.: (1921) Noctiluca miliaris Suriray. Beitrage zur Morpho-
logie, Physiologie und Cytologic I. Arch. Protist., 42:1.
Prescott, G. W. : (1928) The motile algae of Iowa. Univ. Iowa Stud.
Nat. Hist., 12:5.
Rampi, L. : (1950) Peridiniens rares ou nouveaux pour la Pacifique
Sud-Equatorial. Bull. lTnst. Oceanogr., no. 974.
Reichenow, E.: (1930) Parasitische Peridinea. In: Grimpe's Die
Tierwelt der Nord- und Ost-See. Pt. 19, II, d3.
Santos-Pinto, J. d.: (1949) Um caso de "red water" motivado por
abundancia anormal de Gonyaulax poliedra. Bol. Soc. Port. Ci.
Nat., 17:94.
Schiller, J.: (1918) Ueber neue Prorocentrum- und Exuviella-
Arten, etc. Arch. Protist., 38:250.
■ (1928) Die planktischen Vegetationen des adriatischen
Meers. I. Ibid., 61:45.
(1928a) II. Ibid., 62:119.
Schilling, A.: (1913) Dinoflagellatae (Peridineae). Die Slisswasser-
flora Deutscblands. Pt. 3.
332 PROTOZOOLOGY
Schneider, H.: (1924) Kern und Kernteilung bei Ceratium tripos.
Arch. Protist., 48:302.
Shumway, W.: (1924) The genus Haplozoon, etc. Jour. Parasit., 11 :
59.
Steuer, A.: (1928) Ueber Ellobiopsis chattoni Caullery, etc. Arch.
Protist., 60:501.
Tai, L.-S. and Skogsberg, T.: (1934) Studies on the Dinophysoidae,
etc. Ibid., 82:380.
Thompson, R. H.: (1947) Freshwater dinoflagellates of Maryland.
Chesapeake Biol. Lab. Publ., no. 67.
— (1949) Immobile Dinophyceae. I. Am. J. Bot., 36:301.
— (1950) A new genus and new records of freshwater Pyrro-
phyta, etc. Lloydia, 13:277.
Wailes, G. H.: (1928) Dinoflagellates and Protozoa from British
Columbia. Vancouver Mus. Notes, 3.
— (1934) Freshwater dinoflagellates of North America. Ibid., 7,
Suppl., 11.
Whedon, W. F. and Kofoid, C. A.: (1936) Dinoflagellates of the
San Francisco region. I. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 41:25.
Chapter 13
Subclass 2 Zoomastigina Doflein
THE Zoomastigina lack chromatophores and their body organ-
izations vary greatly from a simple to a very complex type. The
majority possess a single nucleus which is, as a rule, vesicular in
structure. Characteristic organellae such as parabasal body, axo-
style, etc., are present in numerous forms and myonemes are found
in some species. Nutrition is holozoic or saprozoic (parasitic). Asex-
ual reproduction is by longitudinal fission; sexual reproduction is un-
known. Encystment occurs commonly. The Zoomastigina are free-
living or parasitic in various animals.
With pseudopodia besides flagella Order 1 Rhizomastigina
With flagella only
With 1-2 flagella Order 2 Protomonadina (p. 339)
With 3-8 flagella Order 3 Polymastigina (p. 369)
With more than 8 flagella Order 4 Hypermastigina (p. 404)
Order 1 Rhizomastigina Butschli
A number of borderline forms between the Sarcodina and the
Mastigophora are placed here. Flagella vary in number from one to
several and pseudopods also vary greatly in number and in appear-
ance.
With many flagella Family 1 Multiciliidae
With 1-3 rarely 4 flagella Family 2 Mastigamoebidae
Family 1 Multiciliidae Poche
Genus Multicilia Cienkowski. Generally spheroidal, but amoeboid;
with 40-50 flagella, long and evenly distributed; one or more nuclei;
holozoic; food obtained by means of pseudopodia; multiplication by
fission; fresh or salt water.
M. marina C. (Fig. 135, a). 20-30ju in diameter; uninucleate; salt
water.
M. lacustris Lauterborn (Fig. 135, b). Multinucleate; 30-40/x in
diameter; fresh water.
Family 2 Mastigamoebidae
With 1-3 or rarely 4 flagella and axo podia or lobo podia; uninucle-
ate; flagellum arises from a basal granule which is connected
with the nucleus by a rhizoplast; binary fission in both trophic and
encysted stages; sexual reproduction has been reported in one spe-
cies; holozoic or saprozoic; the majority are free-living, though a few
parasitic.
333
334
PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Mastigamoeba Schulze (Mastigina Frenzel). Monomasti-
gote, uninucleate, with finger-like pseudopodia; flagellum long and
connected with nucleus; fresh water, soil or endocommensal. Species
(Klug, 1936).
M. aspera S. (Fig. 135, c). Subspherical or oval; during locomotion
elongate and narrowed anteriorly, while posterior end rounded or
Fig. 135. a, Multicilia marina, X400 (Cienkowski) ; b, M. lacustris,
X400 (Lauterborn) ; c, Mastigamoeba aspera, X200 (Schulze); d, M,
longifilum, X340 (Stokes); e, M. setosa, X370 (Goldschmidt); f, Masti-
gellavitrea, X 370 (Goldschmidt).
lobed; numerous pseudopods slender, straight; nucleus near flagel-
late end; 2 contractile vacuoles; 150-200> by about 50>; in ooze of
pond.
M. longifilum Stokes (Fig. 135, d). Elongate, transparent; flagel-
lum twice body length; pseudopods few, short; contractile vacuole
anterior; body 28/i long when extended, contracted about 10>; stag-
nant water.
ZOOMASTIGINA, RHIZOMASTIGINA 335
M. setosa (Goldschmidt) (Fig. 135, e). Up to 140m long.
M. hylae (Frenzel) (Fig. 136, a). In the hind-gut of the tadpoles of
frogs and toads: 80-135^ by 21-31 m; flagellum about 10m long
(Becker, 1925). Development (Ivanic, 1936).
Genus Mastigella Frenzel. Flagellum apparently not connected
with nucleus; pseudopods numerous, digitate; body form changes
actively and continuously; contractile vacuole.
M. vitrea Goldschmidt (Fig. 135,/). 150/x long; sexual reproduction
(Goldschmidt).
Genus Actinomonas Kent. Generally spheroidal, with a single
flagellum and radiating pseudopods; ordinarily attached to foreign
object with a cytoplasmic process, but swims freely by withdrawing
it; nucleus central; several contractile vacuoles; ho lo zoic.
A. mirabilis K. (Fig. 136, 6). Numerous simple filopodia; about
10/x in diameter; flagellum 20ju long; fresh water.
Genus Dimorpha Gruber. Ovoid or subspherical; with 2 flagella
and radiating axopodia, all arising from an eccentric centriole; nu-
cleus eccentric ; pseudopods sometimes withdrawn ; fresh water. Spe-
cies (Pascher, 1925).
D. mutans G. (Fig. 136, c). 15-20;u in diameter; flagella about 20-
30/x long.
Genus Tetradimorpha Hsiung. Spherical with radiating axopodia;
four flagella originate in a slightly depressed area; nucleus central.
When disturbed, all axopodia turn away from the flagellated pole
and are withdrawn into body, and the organism undergoes swimming
movement; freshwater ponds.
T. radiata H. (Fig. 136, d, e). Body 27-38m in diameter; axopodia
27-65m long; flagella 38-57/z long (Hsiung, 1927).
Genus Pteridomonas Penard. Small, heart-shaped; usually at-
tached with a long cytoplasmic process; from opposite pole there
arises a single flagellum, around which occurs a ring of extremely fine
filopods; nucleus central; a contractile vacuole; ho lo zoic; fresh water.
P. pulex P. (Fig. 136,/). 6-12ju broad.
Genus Histomonas Tyzzer. Actively amoeboid; mostly rounded,
sometimes elongate; a single nucleus; an extremely fine flagellum
arises from a blepharoplast, located close to nucleus; axostyle (?)
sometimes present; in domestic fowls. One species.
H. meleagridis (Smith) {Amoeba meleagridis S.) (Fig. 137). Ac-
tively amoeboid organism; usually rounded; 8-21/x (average 10-14/x)
in the largest diameter; nucleus circular or pyriform with usually a
large endosome; a fine flagellum; food "vacuoles contain bacteria,
starch grains and erythrocytes; binary fission; during division flagel-
336
PROTOZOOLOGY
lum is discarded; cysts unobserved; in young turkeys, chicks, grouse,
and quail. Bayon and Bishop (1937) successfully cultured the organ-
ism from hen's liver. Morphology of the cultured forms (Bishop,
1938).
This organism is the cause of enterohepatitis known as "black-
head," an infectious disease, in young turkeys and also in other
fowls, in which it is often fatal. Smith (1895) discovered the organ-
ism and considered it an amoeba (1910). It invades and destroys the
mucosa of the intestine and caeca as well as the liver tissues. Tropho-
Fig. 136. a, Mastigamoeba hylae, X690 (Becker); b, Actinomonas
mirabilis, XI 140 (Griessmann) ; c, Dimorpha mutans, X940 (Blochmann);
d, e, Tetradimorpha radiata CHsiung) (d, a typical specimen, X430; e,
swimming individual, X300); f, Pteridomonas pulex, X540 (Penard); g,
Rhizomastix gracilis, X1340 (Mackinnon).
ZOOMASTIGINA, RHIZOMASTIGINA
337
zoites voided in faeces by infected birds may become the source of
new infection when taken in by young birds with drink or food.
Tyzzer (1920) found the organism to possess a flagellate stage and
established the genus Histomonas for it. Tyzzer and Fabyan (1922)
and Tyzzer (1934) demonstrated that the organism is transmissible
from bird to bird in the eggs of the nematode Heterakis gallinae,
which method appears to be a convenient and reliable one for pro-
ducing Histomonas infection in turkeys (McKay and Morehouse,
Fig. 137. Histomonas meleagridis. a-d, from host animals (Wenrich);
e-h, from cultures (Bishop), a, b, organisms in caecum of chicken (in a
Tyzzer slide); c, an individual from pheasant showing "ingestion tube"
with a bacterial rod; d, a large individual from the same source, all
X1765; e, an amoeboid form; f, a rounded form with axostyle (?); g, h,
stages in nuclear division, X2200.
1948). Desowitz (1950) noticed in a Heterakis two enlarged gut cells
filled with amoebulae which he suggested might be a stage of this
protozoan. Niimi (1937) reported that the organism enters through
the mouth of the nematode and invades its eggs. Dobell (1940) points
out the similarity between this flagellate and Dientamoeba fragilis
(p. 462). Wenrich (1943) made a comparative study of forms found in
338 PROTOZOOLOGY
the caecal smears of wild ring-neck pheasants and of chicks. The
organisms measured 5-30^ in diameter and possessed 1-4 flagella,
though often there were no flagella.
Genus Rhizomastix Alexeieff. Body amoeboid; nucleus central:
blepharoplast located between nucleus and posterior end; a long
fiber runs from it to anterior end and continues into the flagellum;
without contractile vacuole; division in spherical cyst.
R. gracilis A. (Fig. 136, g). 8-14ju long; flagellum 20/x long; in
intestine of axolotles and tipulid larvae.
References
Bayon, H. P. and Bishop, Ann: (1937) Cultivation of Histomonas
meleagridis from the liver lesions of a hen. Nature, 139:370.
Becker, E. R. : (1925) The morphology of Mastigina hylae (Frenzel)
from the intestine of the tadpole. J. Parasit., 11:213.
Bishop, Ann: (1938) Histomonas meleagridis, etc. Parasit., 30:181.
Desowitz, R. S.: (1950) Protozoan hyperparasitism of Heterakis
gallinae. Nature, 165:1023.
Dobell, C: (1940) Research on the intestinal Protozoa of monkeys
and man. X. Parasit., 32:417.
Hsiung, T.-S.: (1927) Tetradimorpha radiata, etc. Tr. Am. Micr.
Soc, 46:208.
Klug, G.: (1936) Neue oder wenig bekannte Arten der Gattungen
Mastigamoeba, etc. Arch. Protist., 87:97.
Lemmermann, E. : (1914) Pantostomatinae. Slisswasserflora Deutsch-
lands. Pt. 1.
McKay, F. and Morehouse, N. F.: (1948) Studies on experimental
blackhead infection in turkeys. J. Parasit., 34:137.
Niimi, D.: (1937) Studies on blackhead. II. J. Japan. Soc. Vet. Sc,
16:183.
Pascher, A. : (1925) Neue oder wenig bekannte Protisten. XV. Arch.
Protist., 50:486.
Smith, T. : (1895) An infectious disease among turkeys caused by
protozoa. Bull. Bur. Animal Ind., U. S. Dep. Agr., no. 8.
(1910) Amoeba meleagridis. Science, 32:509.
(1915) Further investigations into the etiology of the proto-
zoan disease of turkeys known as blackheads, etc. J. Med. Res.,
33:243.
Tyzzer, E. E.: (1919) Developmental phases of the protozoan of
"blackhead" in turkeys. Ibid., 40:1.
(1920) The flagellate character and reclassification of the
parasite producing "blackhead" in turkey, etc. J. Parasit., 6:
124.
(1934) Studies on histomoniasis, etc. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts Sc,
69:189.
and Fabyan, M.: (1920) Further studies on "blackhead" in
turkeys, etc. J. Infect. Dis., 27:207.
(1922) A further inquiry into the source of the virus
in blackhead of turkeys, etc. J. Exper. Med., 35:791.
Wenrich, D. H.: (1943) Observations on the morphology of Histo-
monas from pheasants and chickens. J. Morphol., 72:279.
Chapter 14
Order 2 Protomonadina Blochmann
THE protomonads possess one or two flagella and are composed
of a heterogeneous lot of Protozoa, mostly parasitic, whose af-
finities to one another are very incompletely known. The body is in
many cases plastic, having no definite pellicle, and in some forms
amoeboid. The method of nutrition is holozoic, or saprozoic (para-
sitic). Reproduction is, as a rule, by longitudinal fission, although
budding or multiple fission has also been known to occur, while
sexual reproduction, though reported in some forms, has not been
confirmed.
With 1 flagellum
With collar
Collar enclosed in jelly Family 1 Phalansteriidae
Collar not enclosed in jelly
Without lorica Family 2 Codosigidae
With lorica Family 3 Bicosoecidae (p. 341)
Without collar
Free-living Family 4 Oikomonadidae (p. 343)
Parasitic Family 5 Trypanosomatidae (p. 344)
With 2 flagella
With undulating membrane Family 6 Cryptobiidae (p. 357)
Without undulating membrane
Flagella equally long Family 7 Amphimonadidae (p. 358)
Flagella unequally long
No trailing flagellum Family 8 Monadidae (p. 360)
One flagellum trailing Family 9 Bodonidae (p. 362)
Family 1 Phalansteriidae Kent
Genus Phalansterium Cienkowski. Small, ovoid ; one flagellum and
a small collar; numerous individuals are embedded in gelatinous
substance, with protruding flagella; fresh water.
P. digitatum Stein (Fig. 138, a). Cells about 17ju long; oval; colony
dendritic; fresh water among vegetation.
Family 2 Codosigidae Kent
Small flagellates; delicate collar surrounds flagellum; ordinarily
sedentary forms; if temporarily free, organisms swim with flagellum
directed backward; holozoic on bacteria or saprozoic; often colonial;
free-living in fresh water. Feeding process (Lapage, 1925).
Genus Codosiga Kent (Codonocladium Stein; Astrosiga Kent). In-
dividuals clustered at end of a simple or branching stalk ; fresh water.
339
340
PROTOZOOLOGY
C. utriculus Stokes (Fig. 138, b). About 11/x long; attached to fresh-
water plants.
C. disjuncta (Fromentel) (Fig. 138, c). In stellate clusters; cells
about 15ju long; fresh water.
Fig. 138. a, Phalansterium digitatum, X540 (Stein); b, Codosiga
utriculus, X1340 (Stokes); c, C. disjuncta, X400 (Kent); d, Monosiga
ovata, X800 (Kent); e, M. robusta, X770 (Stokes); f. Desmarella monili-
formis, X800 (Kent); g, Protospongia haeckeli, X400 (Lemmermann) ;
h, an individual of Sphaeroeca volvox, X890 (Lemmermann); i, Diplosiga
francei, X400 (Lemmermann); j, D. socialis, X670 (France^.
Genus Monosiga Kent. Solitary; with or without stalk; occasion-
ally with short pseudo podia; attached to freshwater plants. Several
species.
M. ovata K. (Fig. 138, d). 5-15/x long; with a short stalk.
M. robusta Stokes (Fig. 138, e). 13m long; stalk very long.
Genus Desmarella Kent. Cells united laterally to one another;
fresh water.
D. moniliformis K. (Fig. 138,/). Cells about 6ju long; cluster com-
posed of 2-12 individuals; standing fresh water.
D. irregularis Stokes. Cluster of individuals irregularly branching,
composed of more than 50 cells; cells 7-1 1m long; pond water.
PROTOMONADINA 341
Genus Proterospongia Kent. Stalkless individuals embedded irreg-
ularly in a jelly mass, collars protruding; fresh water.
P. haeckeli K. (Fig. 138, g). Body oval; 8m long; flagellum 24-32ju
long; 6-60 cells in a colony.
Genus Sphaeroeca Lauterborn. Somewhat similar to the last
genus; but individuals with stalks and radiating; gelatinous mass
spheroidal; fresh water.
S. volvox L. (Fig. 138, h) . Cells ovoid, 8-12ju long; stalk about
twice as long; flagellum long; contractile vacuole posterior; colony
82-200> in diameter; fresh water.
Genus Diplosiga Frenzel {Codonosigopsis Senn). With 2 collars;
without lorica; a contractile vacuole; solitary or clustered (up to 4);
fresh water.
D. francei Lemmermann (Fig. 138, i). With a short pedicel; 12ju
long; flagellum as long as body.
D. socialis F. (Fig. 138, j). Body about 15/x long; usually 4 clus-
tered at one end of stalk (15ju long).
Family 3 Bicosoecidae Poche
Small monomastigote; with lorica; solitary or colonial; collar may
be rudimentary; holozoic; fresh water. Taxonomy and morphology
(Grasse and Deflandre, 1952).
Genus Bicosoeca James-Clark. With vase-like lorica; body small,
ovoid with rudimentary collar, a flagellum extending through it;
protoplasmic body anchored to base by a contractile filament
(flagellum?); a nucleus and a contractile vacuole; attached or free-
swimming.
B. socialis Lauterborn (Fig. 139, a). Lorica cylindrical, 23/x by
12^; body about 10> long; often in groups; free-swimming in fresh
water.
B. kepneri Reynolds. Body pyriform: 10m by 6m; lorica about 1.5
times the body length; flagellum about 30m long (Reynolds, 1927).
Genus Salpingoeca James-Clark. With a vase-like chitinous lorica
to which stalked or stalkless organism is attached; fresh or salt
water. Numerous species (Pascher, 1925, 1929). Morphology (Hofe-
neder, 1925).
S. fusiformis Kent (Fig. 139, 6). Lorica short vase-like, about 15-
16m long; body filling lorica; flagellum as long as body; fresh water.
Genus Diplosigopsis France. Similar to Diplosiga but with
lorica; solitary; fresh water on algae.
D. affinis Lemmermann (Fig. 139, c). Chitinous lorica, spindle-
form, about 15^ long; body not filling lorica; fresh water.
342
PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Histiona Voigt. With lorica; but body without attaching
filament; anterior end with lips and sail-like projection; fresh water.
Morphology (Pascher, 1943).
H. zachariasi V. (Fig. 139, d). Lorica cup-like; without stalk;
about 13/a long; oval body 13/x long; flagellum long; standing fresh
water.
Genus Poteriodendron Stein. Similar to Bicosoeca; but colonial;
Fig. 139. a, Bicosoeca socialis, X560 (Lauterborn); b, Salpingoeca
fusiformis, X400 (Lemmermann); c, Diplosigopsis affinis, X590 (France^;
d, Histiona zachariasi, X440 (Lemmermann); e, Poteriodendron petiola-
tunij X440 (Stein); f, Codonoeca inclinata, X540 (Kent); g, Lagenoeca
ovata, X400 (Lemmermann).
lorica vase-shaped: with a prolonged stalk; fresh water. Flagellar
movement (Geitler, 1942).
P. petiolatum (S.) (Fig. 139, e). Lorica 17-50^ high; body 21-35/t
long; flagellum twice as long as body; contractile vacuole terminal;
standing fresh water.
Genus Codonoeca James-Clark. With a stalked lorica; a single
flagellum; 1-2 contractile vacuoles; fresh or salt water.
C. inclinata Kent (Fig. 139, /). Lorica oval; aperture truncate;
about 23m long; stalk twice as long; body oval, about 17m long;
flagellum 1.5 times as long as body; contractile vacuole posterior;
standing fresh water.
Genus Lagenoeca Kent. Resembles somewhat Salpingoeca; with
lorica; but without any pedicel between body and lorica; solitary;
free-swimming; fresh water.
L. ovata Lemmermann (Fig. 139, g). Lorica oval, 15/x long; body
loosely filling lorica; flagellum 1.5 times body length; fresh water.
Genus Stelexomonas Lackey. A single collar longer than body;
PROTOMONADINA
343
vesicular nucleus median; a contractile vacuole terminal; individuals
are enclosed in arboroid, dichotomously branching tubes; fresh
water.
S. dichotoma L. (Fig. 140, a). Body ovoid, 10m by 8m; flagellum up
to 25/x long; collar 12m long; the dichotomous tube infolded and
wrinkled where branched; organisms are not attached to the tube
(Lackey, 1942).
Fig. 140. a, Stelexomonas dichotoma, X1000 (Lackey); b, Oikomonas
termo, X1330 (Lemmermann) ; c, Thylacomonas compressa, X640 (Lem-
mermann); d, Ancyromonas contorta, X2000 (Lemmermann); e, Platy-
theca microspora, X650 (Stein): f, Aulomonas purdyi, X1000 (Lackey);
g, Caviomonas mobilis, X2400 (Nie).
Family 4 Oikomonadidae Hartog
Genus Oikomonas Kent. A rounded monomastigote; uninucleate;
encystment common; stagnant water, soil and exposed faecal mat-
ter. Several workers note the affinity of the members of this genus
with Chrysomonadina, on the basis of general structure, cyst, etc.,
though lacking chromatophores. Owen (1949) points out the flagel-
lum of Oikomonas is a simple one, typical of Chrysomonadina.
0. termo (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 140, b). Spherical or oval; anterior end
lip-like; flagellum about twice body length; a contractile vacuole;
5-20m in diameter; stagnant water. Bacteria-free culture (Hardin,
1942); bacterial food (Hardin, 1944, 1944a).
Genus Thylacomonas Schewiakoff. Pellicle distinct; cytostome
344 PROTOZOOLOGY
anterior; one flagellum; contractile vacuole anterior; rare.
T. compressa S. (Fig. 140, c). 22/u by 18/x; flagellum body length;
fresh water.
Genus Ancyromonas Kent. Ovate to triangular; free-swimming or
adherent; flagellum trailing, adhesive or anchorate at its distal end,
vibratile throughout remainder of its length; nucleus central; a
contractile vacuole; fresh or salt water.
A. contorta (Klebs) (Fig. 140, d). Triangular, flattened; posterior
end pointed; 6-7/z by 5-6/n; flagellum short; a contractile vacuole;
standing fresh water.
Genus Platytheca Stein. With a flattened pyriform lorica, with a
small aperture; 1 or more contractile vacuoles; fresh water.
P. microspora S. (Fig. 140, e). Lorica yellowish brown, with a
small aperture; 12-18/x long; flagellum short; among roots of Lemna.
Genus Aulomonas Lackey. Solitary and colorless; enclosed in, but
not attached to, a thin hyaline cylindrical tube, which expands like a
funnel at one end and broken at the other end; fresh water.
A. purdyi L. (Fig. 140,/). Ovoid, 6-8ju by 4-5/x; flagellum 10-16m
long; nucleus median; one contractile vacuole at each end of the
body (Lackey, 1942).
Genus Caviomonas Nie. Elongate pyriform; a single flagellum
from the rounded anterior end where a vesicular nucleus is located;
a band-like "peristyle" runs along the body; without cytostome;
parasitic. One species (Nie, 1949).
C. mobilis N. (Fig. 140, g). Body 2.2-6.6/x by 2-3m; average 4/x by
3ju; in addition to the peristyle, a short, fine spinous strand occurs;
in the caecal contents of guinea-pig, Cavia porcella.
Family 5 Trypanosomatidae Doflein
Body characteristically leaf-like, though changeable to a certain
extent; a single nucleus and a blepharoplast from which a flagellum
arises (Figs. 9; 141); basal portion of the flagellum forms the
outer margin of undulating membrane which extends along one side
of body; exclusively parasitic; a number of important parasitic
Protozoa which are responsible for serious diseases of man and
domestic animals in various parts of the world are included in it.
Morphology and taxonomy (Grass6, 1952).
Genus Trypanosoma Gruby. Parasitic in the circulatory system of
vertebrates; highly flattened, pointed at flagellate end, and bluntly
rounded, or pointed, at other; polymorphism due to differences in
development common; nucleus central; near aflagellate end, there is
a blepharoplast from which the flagellum arises and runs toward
PROTOMONADINA
345
opposite end, marking the outer boundary of the undulating
membrane; in most cases fiagellum extends freely beyond body;
many with myonemes; multiplication by binary or multiple fission.
The organism is carried from host to host by blood-sucking in-
vertebrates and undergoes a series of changes in the digestive system
of the latter (Fig. 142). A number of forms are pathogenic to their
hosts and the diseased condition is termed trypanosomiasis in general.
In vertebrate
host
In invertebrate host
In vertebrate
host
r
•>
V
J
)
C
I
)
1
©
©
Trypanosoma
Trypanosoma
Crithidia
Leptomonas
Leishmania
Leishmania
Leptomonas and
Phytomonas (in plant)
Leishmania
Crithidia
Herpetomonas
Trypanosoma
Fig. 141. Diagram illustrating the morphological differences among the
genera of Trypanosomatidae (Wenyon)
T. gambiense Dutton (Fig. 143, a-d). The trypanosome, as it oc-
curs in the blood, lymph or cerebro-spinal fluid of man, is extremely
active; body elongate, tapering towards both ends and sinuous; 15-
30/i by 1-3 ju; the small blepharoplast is located near the posterior
end; fiagellum arises from the blepharoplast and runs forward along
the outer border of somewhat spiral undulating membrane, extend-
ing freely; binary fission; between long (dividing) and short (recently
divided) forms, various intermediates occur; in man in central Africa.
No other stages are found in the human host. When a "tse-tse"
fly, Glossina palpalis or G. tachinoides, sucks the blood of an in-
fected person, the trypanosomes remain in its stomach for a few
days and undergo multiplication which produces flagellates of
diverse size and form until the 7th to 10th days when the organisms
show a very wide range of forms. From 10th to 12th days on, long
346
PROTOZOOLOGY
slender forms appear in great numbers and these migrate back gradu-
ally towards proventriculus in which they become predominant
forms. They further migrate to the salivary glands and attach them-
Fig. 142. The life-cycle of Trypanosoma lewisi in the flea, Ceratophyl-
lus fasciatus (Minchin and Thomson, modified), a, trypanosome from
rat's blood; b, individual after being in flea's stomach for a few hours;
o-l, stages in intracellular schizogony in stomach epithelium; m-r, two
ways in which rectal phase may arise from stomach forms in rectum;
s, rectal phase, showing various types; t, secondary infection of pylorus of
hind-gut, showing forms similar to those of rectum.
PROTOMONADINA
347
selves to the duct-wall in crithidia form. Here the development con-
tinues for 2-5 days and the flagellates finally transform themselves
into small trypanosomes which are now infective. These metacyclic
trypanosomes pass down through the ducts and hypopharynx. When
the fly bites a person, the trypanosomes enter the victim. In addition
to this so-called cyclic transmission, mechanical transmission may
take place.
Trypanosoma gambiense is a pathogenic protozoan which causes
Gambian or Central African sleeping sickness. The disease occurs in,
Fig. 143. a-d, Trypanosoma gambiense; e-h, T. rhodesiense, in stained
blood smears of experimental rats, X2300. An erythrocyte of rat is shown
for comparison, a, b, typical forms; c, d, division stages; e, f, typical forms;
g, h, post-nuclear forms.
and confined to, central Africa within a zone on both sides of the
equator where the vectors, Glossina palpalis and G. tachinoides (on
the west coastal region) live. Many wild animals have been found
naturally infected by the organisms and are considered to be reser-
voir hosts. Among the domestic animals, the pigs appear to be one
of the most significant, as they themselves are said not to suffer from
infection.
The chief lesions of infection are in the lymphatic glands and in
the central nervous system. In all cases, there is an extensive small-
348
PROTOZOOLOGY
cell infiltration of the perivascular lymphatic tissue throughout the
central nervous system.
T. rhodesiense Stephens and Fantham (Fig. 143, e-h). Morphologi-
cally similar to T. gambiense, but when inoculated into rats, the posi-
tion of the nucleus shifts in certain proportion (usually less than 5%)
of individuals toward the posterior end, near or behind the blepharo-
plast, together with the shortening of body. Some consider this
trypanosome as a virulent race of T. gambiense or one transmitted
by a different vector, others consider it a human strain of T. brucei.
The disease caused by this trypanosome appears to be more
virulent and runs a course of only a few months. It is known as
Rhodesian or East African sleeping sickness. The organism is con-
fined to south-eastern coastal areas of Africa and transmitted by
Glossina morsitans.
T. cruzi Chagas (Schizotrypanum cruzi C). (Fig. 144). A small
Fig. 144. Trypanosoma cruzi in experimental rtas. a-c, flagellate forms
in blood; d, e, cytozoic forms, all X2300; f, a portion of infected cardiac
muscle, X900.
curved (C or U) form about 20m long; nucleus central; blepharoplast
conspicuously large, located close to sharply pointed non-flagellate
end; multiplication takes place in the cells of nearly every organ of
the host body; upon entering a host cell, the trypanosome loses its
flagellum and undulating membrane, and assumes a leishmania form
which measures 2 to by. in diameter; this form undergoes repeated
binary fission, and a large number of daughter individuals are pro-
duced; they develop sooner or later into trypanosomes which,
through rupture of host cells, become liberated into blood stream.
Life cycle (Elkeles, 1951).
This trypanosome is the causative organism of Chagas' disease or
South American trypanosomiasis which is mainly a children's dis-
ease, and is widely distributed in South and Central America and as
PROTOMONADINA 349
far north as Mexico in North America. In the infected person, the
heart and skeletal muscles show minute cyst-like bodies.
The transmission of the organism is carried on apparently by nu-
merous species of reduviid bugs, bed bugs and certain ticks, though
the first named bugs belonging to genus Triatoma (cone-nosed or
kissing bugs) especially T. megista (Panslrongylus megistus), are the
chief vectors. When P. megistus (nymph or adult) ingests the in-
fected blood, the organisms undergo division in the stomach and
intestine, and become transformed into crithidia forms which con-
tinue to multiply. In eight to 10 days the metacyclic or infective
trypanosomes make their appearance in the rectal region and pass
out in the faeces of the bug at the time of feeding on host. The para-
sites gain entrance to the circulatory system when the victim
scratches the bite-site or through the mucous membrane of the eye
(Brumpt, 1912; Denecke and von Haller, 1939; Weinstein and Pratt,
1948).
Cats, dogs, opossums, monkeys, armadillos, bats, foxes, squirrels,
wood rats, etc., have been found to be naturally infected by T. cruzi,
and are considered as reservoir hosts. Vectors are also numerous.
No cases of Chagas' disease have been reported from the United
States, but Wood (1934) found a San Diego wood rat (Neotoma
fuscipes macrotis) in the vicinity of San Diego, California, in-
fected by Trypanosoma cruzi and Packchanian (1942) observed in
Texas, 1 nine-banded armadillo (Dasypis novemcinctus) , 8 opossums
(Didelphys virginiana), 2 house mice (Mus musculus), and 32 wood
rats {Neotoma micropus micropus), naturally infected by Trypano-
soma cruzi. It has now become known through the studies of Kofoid,
Wood, and others that Triatoma protracta (California, New Mex-
ico), T. rubida (Arizona, Texas), T. gerstaeckeri (Texas), T. heide-
manni (Texas), T. longipes (Arizona), etc., are naturally infected
by T. cruzi. Wood and Wood (1941) consider it probable that
human cases of Chagas' disease may exist in southwestern United
States. In fact, the organisms from a naturally infected Triatoma
heidemanni were shown by Packchanian (1943) to give rise to a
typical Chagas' disease in a volunteer. Reduviid bugs (Usinger,
1944) ; Chagas' disease in the United States (Packchanian, 1950) ; in
central Brazil (Dias, 1949).
T.brucei Plimmer and Bradford (Fig. 145, a). Polymorphic;
15-30ju long (average 20/x); transmitted by various species of tsetse
flies, Glossina; the most virulent of all trypanosomes; the cause of
the fatal disease known as "nagana" among mules, donkeys, horses,
camels, cattle, swine, dogs, etc., which terminates in the death of
350
PROTOZOOLOGY
the host animal in from two weeks to a few months; wild animals
are equally susceptible; the disease occurs, of course, only in the
region in Africa where the tsetse flies live.
T. theileri Laveran (Fig. 145, b). Large trypanosome which oc-
curs in blood of cattle; sharply pointed at both ends; 60-7 0/t long;
myonemes are well developed. Cytology (Hartmann and Noller,
1918).
T. americanum Crawley. In American cattle; 17-25/u or longer;
only crithidia forms develop in culture. Crawley (1909, 1912) found
it in 74 per cent and Glaser (1922a) in 25 per cent of cattle they
examined. The latter worker considered that this organism was an
intermediate form between Trypanosoma and Crithidia.
Fig. 145. a, Trypanosoma brucei; b. T. theileri; c, T. melophagium ;
d, T. evansi; e, T. equinum; f, T. equiperdum; g, T. lewisi; all X1330
(several authors).
T. melophagium (Flu) (Fig. 145, c). A trypanosome of the sheep;
50-60m long with attenuated ends; transmitted by Melophagus
ovinus.
T. evansi (Steel) (Fig. 145, d). In horses, mules, donkeys, cattle,
dogs, camels, elephants, etc.; infection in horses seems to be usually
fatal and known as "surra"; about 25/x long; monomorphic; trans-
mitted by tabanid flies; widely distributed. Transmission (Nieschulz,
1928).
T. equinum Vages (Fig. 145, e). In horses in South America, caus-
ing an acute disease known as "mal de Caderas"; other domestic
animals do not suffer as much as do horses; 20-25/* long; without
blepharoplast.
PROTOMONADINA 351
T. equiperdum Doflein (Fig. 145, /). In horses and donkeys;
causes "dourine," a chronic disease; widely distributed; 25-30>
long; no intermediate host; transmission takes place directly from
host to host during sexual act. Nuclear division (Roskin and Schisch.,
1928).
T. hippicum Darling. In horses and mules in Panama; the cause
of "murrina" or "derrengadera"; 16-18/x long; posterior end obtuse;
mechanically transmitted by flies; experimentally various domestic
and wild animals are susceptible, but calf is refractory (Darling,
1910, 1911). Serological tests (Taliaferro and Taliaferro, 1934).
T. lewisi (Kent) (Figs. 142; 145, g). In the blood of rats; widely
distributed; about 30m long; body slender with a long flagellum;
transmitted by the flea Ceratophyllus fasciatus, in which the organism
undergoes multiplication and form change (Fig. 142); when a rat
swallows freshly voided faecal matter of infected fleas containing
the metacyclic organisms, it becomes infected. Many laboratory
animals are refractory to this trypanosome, but guinea pigs are
susceptible (Laveran and Mesnil, 1901: Coventry, 1929). Variation
and inheritance of size (Taliaferro, 1921, 1921a, 1923); reproduction-
inhibiting reaction product (Taliaferro, 1924, 1932) ; nuclear division
(Wolcott, 1952).
T. neotomae Wood (? T. triatomae Kofoid and McCulloch). In
wood rats, Neotoma fuscipes annectens and N. f. macrotis; resembles
T. lewisi; about 29m long; blepharoplast large, rod-form; free flagel-
lum relatively short; the development in the vector flea Orchopeas
W. wickhami, similar to that of T. lewisi; experimentally Norway
rats are refractory (and wood rats are refractory to T. lewisi (Fae D.
Wood, 1936)); comparative morphology of trypanosomes which oc-
cur in California rodents and shrews (Davis, 1952).
T. duttoni Thiroux. In the mouse; similar to T. lewisi, but rats are
said not to be susceptible, hence considered as a distinct species;
transmission by fleas. Antibodies (Taliaferro, 1938).
T. peromysci Watson. Similar to T. lewisi; in Canadian deer mice,
Peromyscus maniculatus and others.
T. nabiasi Railliet. Similar to T. lewisi; in rabbits, Lepus do-
mesticus and L. cuniculus.
T. paddae Laveran and Mesnil. In Java sparrow, Munia oryzi-
vora.
T. noctuae (Schaudinn). In the owl Athene noctua.
Numerous other species occur in birds (Novy and MacNeal, 1905;
Laveran and Mesnil, 1912; Wenyon, 1926). Crocodiles, snakes and
turtles are also hosts for trypanosomes (Roudabush and Coatney,
352
PROTOZOOLOGY
1937). Transmission is by blood-sucking arthropods or leeches.
T. rotatorium (Mayer) (Fig. 146, a). In tadpoles and adults of
various species of frog; between a slender form with a long projecting
flagellum measuring about 35/x long and a very broad one without
free portion of flagellum, various intermediate forms are to be
noted in a single host; blood vessels of internal organs, such as kid-
neys, contain more individuals than the peripheral vessels; nucleus
central, hard to stain; blepharoplast small; undulating membrane
Fig. 146. a, Trypanosoma rotatorium X750 (Kudo); b, T. inopinatum,
X1180 (Kudo); c, T. diemyctyli, XSOO (Hegner); d, T. giganteum,
X500 (Neumann); e, T. granulosum, XlOOO (Minchin); f, T. remaki,
X1650 (Kudo); g, T. percae, XlOOO (Minchin); h, T. danilewskyi,
XlOOO (Laveran and Mesnil); i, T. rajae, X1600 (Kudo).
highly developed; myonemes prominent; multiplication by longi-
tudinal fission; the leech, Placobdella marginata, has been found to
be the transmitter in some localities
T. inopinatum Sergent and Sergent (Fig. 146, b). In blood of vari-
ous frogs; slender; 12-20/x long; larger forms 30-35/z long; blepharo-
plast comparatively large; transmitted by leeches.
Numerous species of Trypanosoma have been reported from the
frog, but specific identification is difficult; it is better and safer
to hold that they belong to one of the 2 species mentioned above
until their development and transmission become known.
T. diemyctyli Tobey (Fig. 146, c). In blood of the newt, Triturus
viridescens ; a comparatively large form; slender; about 50ju by 2-5ju;
flagellum 20-25/n long; with well developed undulating membrane.
PROTOMONADINA 353
Both fresh and salt water fish are hosts to different species of
trypanosomes; what effect these parasites exercise upon the host
fish is not understood; as a rule, only a few individuals are ob-
served in the peripheral blood of the host. Transmission (Robertson,
1911); species (Laveran and Mesnil, 1912; Wenyon, 1926; Laird,
1951).
T. granulosumL&ver&n and Mesnil (Fig. 146, e). In the eel, Anguilla
vulgaris; 70-80> long.
T. giganteum Neumann (Fig. 146, d). In Raja oxyrhynchus; 125-
130^ long.
T. remaki Laveran and Mesnil (Fig. 146, /). In Esox lucius, E.
reticulatus and probably other species; 24-33/x long. (Kudo, 1921).
T. percae Brumpt (Fig. 146, g). In Perca fluviatilis; 45-50> long.
T. danilewskyi Laveran and Mesnil (Fig. 146, h). In carp and
goldfish; widely distributed; 40> long.
T. rajae Laveran and Mesnil (Fig. 146, i). In various species of
Raja; 30-35/x long (Kudo, 1923).
Genus Crithidia Leger. Parasitic in arthropods and other inverte-
brates; blepharoplast located between central nucleus and flagellum-
bearing end (Fig. 141); undulating membrane not so well developed
as in Trypanosoma; it may lose the flagellum and form a leptomonas
or rounded leishmania stage which leaves host intestine with faecal
matter and becomes the source of infection in other host animals.
C. euryophthalmi McCulloch (Fig. 147, a-c). In gut of Eury-
ophthalmus convivus; California coast.
C. gerridis Patton (Fig. 147, d). In intestine of water bugs, Gerris
and Microvelia; 22-45^ long. Becker (1923) saw this in Gerris re-
migis.
C. hyalommae O'Farrell (Fig. 147, e, /). In body cavity of the
cattle tick, Hyalomma aegyptium in Egypt; the flagellate through
its invasion of ova is said to be capable of infecting the offspring
while it is still in the body of the parent tick.
Genus Leptomonas Kent. Exclusively parasitic in invertebrates;
blepharoplast very close to flagellate end ; without undulating mem-
brane (Fig. 141); non-flagellate phase resembles Leishmania.
L. ctenocephali Fantham (Fig. 147, g, h). In hindgut of the dog
flea, Ctenocephalus canis; widely distributed. Morphology (Yama-
saki, 1924).
Genus Phytomonas Donovan. Morphologically similar to Lep-
tomonas (Fig. 141); in the latex of plants belonging to the families
Euphorbiaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Apocynaceae, Sapotaceae and
Utricaceae; transmitted by hemipterous insects; often found in
354
PROTOZOOLOGY
enormous numbers in localized areas in host plant; infection spreads
from part to part; infected latex is a clear fluid, owing to the absence
of starch grains and other particles, and this results in degeneration
of the infected part of the plant. Several species.
P. davidi (Lafront). 15-20> by about 1.5/z; posterior portion of
body often twisted two or three times; multiplication by longitu-
dinal fission; widely distributed; in various species of Euphorbia.
P. elmassiani (Migone) (Fig. 147, i, j). In various species of milk
Fig. 147. a-c, Crithidia euryophthalmi (a, b, in mid-gut; c, in rectum),
X880 (McCulloch); d, C. gerridis, X1070 (Becker); e, f, C. hyalom-
mae, X1000 (O'Farrell); g, h, Leptomonas ctenocephali, XlOOO (Wenyon);
i, j, Phytomonas elmassiani (i, in milkweed, Asclepias sp. ; j, in gut of a
suspected transmitter, Oncopeltus fasciatus), X1500 (Holmes); k,
Herpetomonas muscarum, X1070 (Becker); 1-n, H. drosophilae, XlOOO
(Chatton and Leger).
weeds; 9-20/x long; suspected transmitter, Oncopeltus fasciatus
(Holmes, 1924); in South and North America.
Genus Herpetomonas Kent. Ill-defined genus (Fig. 141); ex-
clusively invertebrate parasites; Trypanosoma-, Crithidia-, Lep-
tomonas-, and Leishmania-forms occur during development. Several
species. Species in insects (Drbohlav, 1925).
H. muscarum (Leidy) (H. muscae-domeslicae Burnett) (Fig. 147, k).
In the digestive tube of flies belonging to the genera: Musca, Cal-
liphora, Cochliomyia, Sarcophaga, Lucilia, Phormia, etc.; up to 30ju
by 2-3/x. Effect on experimental animals (Glaser, 1922) ; comparative
study (Becker, 1923a).
H. drosophilae (Chatton and Alilaire) (Fig. 147, l-n). In intestine
of Drosophila confusa; large leptomonad forms 21-25/u long, flagel-
lum body-length; forms attached to rectum 4-5m long.
PROTOMONADINA 355
Genus Leishmania Ross. In man or dog, the organism is an ovoid
body with a nucleus and a blepharoplast; 2-5;u in diameter; with
vacuoles and sometimes a rhizoplast near the blepharoplast; intra-
cellular parasite in the cells of reticuloendothelial system; multi-
plication by binary fission. In the intestine of blood-sucking insects
or in blood-agar cultures, the organism develops into leptomonad
form (Fig. 148, d-j) which multiplies by longitudinal fission. Nuclear
division (Roskin and Romanowa, 1928).
There are known at present three "species" of Leishmania which
are morphologically alike. They do not show any distinct differential
characteristics either by animal inoculation experiments or by cul-
ture method or agglutination test.
Species of Phlebotomus (sand-flies) have long been suspected as
vectors of Leishmania. When a Phlebotomus feeds on kala-azar
patient, the leishmania bodies become flagellated and undergo
multiplication so that by the third day after the feeding, there
are large numbers of Leptomonas flagellates in the mid-gut. These
flagellates migrate forward to the pharynx and mouth cavity on the
4th or 5th day. On the 7th to 9th days (after the fly is fed a second
time), the organisms may be found in the proboscis. But the great
majority of the attempts to infect animals and man by the bite of
infected Phlebotomus have failed, although in a number of cases
small numbers of positive infection have been reported. Adler and
Ber (1941) have finally succeeded in producing cutaneous leish-
maniasis in 5 out of 9 human volunteers on the site of bites by lab-
oratory-bred P. papatasii which were fed on the flagellates of
Leishmania tropica suspended in 3 parts 2.7% saline and 1 part de-
fib rinated blood and kept at a temperature of 30°C. Swaminath,
Shortt and Anderson (1942) also succeeded in producing kala-azar
infections in 3 out of 5 volunteers through the bites of infected P.
L. donovani (Laveran and Mesnil) (L. infantum, Nicolle) (Fig. 148).
As seen in stained spleen puncture smears, the organism is rounded
(1-3/x) or ovoid (2— 4/x by 1.5-2.5/z); cytoplasm homogeneous, but
often with minute vacuoles; nucleus comparatively large, often
spread out and of varied shapes; blepharoplast stains more deeply
and small; number of parasites in a host cell varies from a few to
over 100.
This is the cause of kala-azar or visceral leishmaniasis which is
widely distributed in Europe (Portugal, Spain, Italy, Malta, Greece,
and southern Russia), in Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya,
Abyssinia, Sudan, northern Kenya and Nigeria), in Asia (India,
356
PROTOZOOLOGY
China, Turkestan, etc.), and in South America. The parasite is most
abundantly found in the macrophages, mononuclear leucocytes, and
polymorphonuclears of the reticulo-endothelial system of various
organs such as spleen, liver, bone marrow, intestinal mucosa, lym-
phatic glands, etc. The most characteristic histological change ap-
pears to be an increase in number of large macrophages and mono-
nuclears. The spleen and liver become enlarged due in part to
increased fibrous tissue and macrophages.
Fig. 148. Leishmania donovani, X1535. a, an infected polymorpho-
nuclear leucocyte; b, organisms scattered in the blood plasm; c, an in-
fected monocyte; d-f, flagellate forms which develop in blood-agar cul-
tures.
The organism is easily cultivated in blood-agar media (p. 886).
After two days, it becomes larger and elongate until it measures
14-20/z by 2/i. A flagellum as long as the body develops from the
blepharoplast and it thus assumes leptomonad form (Fig. 148, /)
which repeats longitudinal division. Dogs are naturally infected with
L. donovani and may be looked upon as a reservoir host. Vectors are
Phlebotomus argentipes and other species of Phlebotomus.
L. tropica (Wright). This is the causative organism of the Oriental
sore or cutaneous leishmaniasis. It has been reported from Africa
(mainly regions bordering the Mediterranean Sea), Europe (Spain
Italy, France, and Greece), Asia (Syria, Palestine, Armenia, South-
ern Russia, Iraq, Iran, Arabia, Turkestan, India, Indo-China, and
China), and Australia (northern Queensland). The organisms are
present in the endothelial cells in and around the cutaneous lesions,
located on hands, feet, legs, face, etc.
L. tropica is morphologically indistinguishable from L. donovani,
but some believe that it shows a wider range of form and size than
the latter. In addition to rounded or ovoid forms, elongate forms are
PROTOMONADINA 357
often found, and even leptomonad forms have been reported from
the scrapings of lesions. The insect vectors are Phlebotomus papa-
tasii (p. 355), P. scrgenti and others. Direct transmission through
wounds in the skin also takes place. The lesion appears first as a
small papula on skin; it increases in size and later becomes ulcerated.
Microscopically an infiltration of corium and its papillae by lympho-
cytes and macrophages is noticed; in ulcerated lesions leishmania
bodies are found in the peripheral zone and below the floor of the
ulcers.
L. brasiliensis Vianna. This organism causes Espundia, Bubos, or
American or naso-oral leishmaniasis, which appears to be con-
fined to South and Central America. It has been reported from
Brazil, Peru, Paraguay, Argentina, Uruguay, Bolivia, Venezuela,
Ecuador, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, and Mexico.
Its morphological characteristics are identical with those of L.
tropica, and a number of investigators combine the two species into
one. However, L. brasiliensis produces lesions in the mucous mem-
brane of the nose and mouth. Vectors appear to be Phlebotomus
intermedins, P. panamensis and other species of the genus. Direct
transmission through wounds is also possible. Fuller and Geiman
(1942) find Citellus tridecemlineatus a suitable experimental animal.
Family 6 Cryptobiidae Poche
Biflagellate trypanosome-like pro to monads; 1 flagellum free, the
other marks outer margin of undulating membrane; blepharoplast
an elongated rod-like structure, often referred to as the parabasal
body; all parasitic.
Genus Cryptobia Leidy (Trypanoplasma Laveran and Mesnil).
Parasitic in the reproductive organ of molluscs (Leidy, 1846) and
other invertebrates; also in the blood of fishes.
C. helicis L. (Fig. 149, a-c). In the reproductive organ of various
species of pulmonate snails: Triodopsis albolabris, T. tridentata,
Anguispira alternata (Leidy, 1846), Helix aspersa, and Monadenia
fidelis (Kozloff, 1948); 16-26.5M by 1.5-3.3/x. Morphology and cul-
ture (Schindera, 1922).
C. borreli (Laveran and Mesnil) (Fig. 149, d, e). In blood of various
freshwater fishes such as Catostomus, Cyprinus, etc.; 20-25/x long
(Mavor, 1915).
C. cyprini (Plehn) (Fig. 149, /). In blood of carp and goldfish;
10-30/z long; rare.
C. grobbeni (Keysselitz). In coelenteric cavity of Siphonophora;
about 65/x by 4/x.
358
PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 7 Amphimonadidae Kent
Body naked or with a gelatinous envelope; 2 equally long anterior
flagella; often colonial; 1-2 contractile vacuoles; free-swimming or
attached ; mainly fresh water.
Genus Amphimonas Dujardin. Small oval or rounded amoeboid;
flagella at anterior end; free-swimming or attached by an elongated
stalk-like posterior process; fresh or salt water.
Fig. 149. a, a neutral red stained and b, a fixed and stained Cryptobia
helicis, X2200 (Kozloff); c, stained specimen of the same organism,
X1690 (Belaf); d, a living and e, stained C. borreli, X1730 (Mavor); f,
C. cyprini, X600 (Plehn).
A. globosa Kent (Fig. 150, a). Spherical; about 13/x in diameter;
stalk long, delicate; fresh water.
Genus Spongomonas Stein. Individuals in granulated gelatinous
masses; 2 flagella; one contractile vacuole; colonial; with pointed
pseudopodia in motile stage; fresh water.
S. uvella S. (Fig. 150, 6). Oval; 8-12/x long; flagella 2-3 times as
long; colony about 50ju high; fresh water.
Genus Cladomonas Stein. Individuals are embedded in dichot-
omous dendritic gelatinous tubes which are united laterally; fresh
water.
C. fruticulosa S. (Fig. 150, c). Oval; about 8^ long; colony up to
85ju high.
Genus Rhipidodendron Stein. Similar to Cladomonas, but tubes
are fused lengthwise ; fresh water.
PROTOMONADINA
359
R. splendidum S. (Fig. 150, d, e). Oval; about 13m long; flagella
about 2-3 times body length; fully grown colony 350/z high.
Genus Spiromonas Perty. Elongate; without gelatinous covering;
spirally twisted; 2 flagella anterior; solitary; fresh water.
S. augusta (Dujardin) (Fig. 150,/). Spindle-form; about 10ju long;
stagnant water.
Fig. 150. a, Amphimonas globosa, X540 (Kent); b, Spongomonas uvella,
X440 (Stein); c, Cladomonas fruticulosa, X440 (Stein); d, e, Rhipidoden-
dron splendidum (d, a young colony, X440; e, a freeswimming individual,
X770) (Stein); f, Spiromonas augusta, X1000 (Kent); g, Diplomita soci-
alis, X1000 (Kent); h, Streptomonas cordata, X890 (Lemmermann) ; i,
Dinomonas vorax, X800 (Kent).
Genus Diplomita Kent. With transparent lorica; body attached
to bottom of lorica by a retractile filamentous process; a rudimen-
tary stigma (?) ; fresh water.
D. socialis K. (Fig. 150, g). Oval flagellum about 2-3 times the
body length; lorica yellowish or pale brown; broadly spindle in form;
about 15ju long; pond water.
Genus Streptomonas Klebs. Free-swimming; naked; distinctly
keeled; fresh water.
S. cordata (Perty) (Fig. 150, h). Heart-shaped; 15/u by 13/*; rota-
tion movement,
360 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Dinomonas Kent. Ovate or pyriform, plastic, free-swim-
ming; 2 fiagella, equal or sub-equal, inserted at anterior extremity,
where large oral aperture, visible only at time of food ingestion, is also
located, feeding on other flagellates; in infusions.
D. vorax K. (Fig. 150, i). Ovoid, anterior end pointed; 15-16ju.
long; fiagella longer than body; hay infusion and stagnant water.
Family 8 Monadidae Stein
Two unequal fiagella; one primary and the other secondary; swim-
ming or attached; 1-2 contractile vacuoles; colony formation fre-
quent; free-living.
Genus Monas Muller (Physomonas Kent). Active and plastic;
often attached to foreign objects; small, up to 20m long; fresh and
salt water. Some authors hold that this genus should be placed in
Chrysomonadina on the same ground mentioned for Oikomonas (p.
343). Flagellar movement (Krijgsman, 1925); cyst (Scherffel, 1924);
morphology and taxonomy (Reynolds, 1934).
M. guttula Ehrenberg (Fig. 151, a). Spherical to ovoid; 14-16m
long; free-swimming or attached; longer flagellum about 1-2 times
body length; cysts 12m in diameter; stagnant water.
M. elongata (Stokes) (Fig. 151, b). Elongate; about 11m long; free-
swimming or attached; anterior end obliquely truncate; fresh water.
M. socialis (Kent) (Figs. 8, d; 151, c). Spherical; 5-10ju long;
among decaying vegetation in fresh water.
M. vestita (Stokes) (Fig. 151, d). Spherical; about 13.5m in diam-
eter; stalk about 40m long; pond water. Reynolds (1934) made a
careful study of the organism.
M. sociabilis Meyer. Body 8-10ju long by 5m; two unequal fiagella;
the longer one is as long as the body and the shorter one about one-
fourth; 20-50 individuals form a spheroid colony, resembling a
detached colony of Anthophysis; polysaprobic.
Genus Stokesiella Lemmermann. Body attached by a fine cyto-
plasmic thread to a delicate and stalked vase-like lorica; 2 contrac-
tile vacuoles; fresh water.
S. dissimilis (Stokes) (Fig. 151, e). Solitary; lorica about 28m long.
S. leptostoma (S.) (Fig. 151, /). Lorica about 17m long; often in
groups; on vegetation.
Genus Stylobryon Fromentel. Similar to Stokesiella; but colonial ;
on algae in fresh water.
S. abbotti Stokes (Fig. 151, g). Lorica campanulate; about 17m
long; main stalk about 100m high; body oval or spheroidal; fiagella
short.
PROTOMONADINA
361
Genus Dendromonas Stein. Colonial; individuals without lorica,
located at end of branched stalks; fresh water among vegetation.
D. virgaria (Weisse) (Fig. 151, h). About 8/1 long; colony 200/x
high; pond water.
Fig. 151. a, Monas guttula, X620 (Fisch); b, M. elongata, X670
(Stokes); c, M. socialis, X670 (Kent); d, M. vestita, X570 (Stokes);
e, Stokesiella dissimilis, X500 (Stokes); f, S. leptostoma, X840 (Stokes);
g, Stylobryon abbotti, X480 (Stokes); h, Dendromonas virgaria, a young
colony of, X670 (Stein); i, Cephalothamnium cyclopum, X440 (Stein);
j, k, Anthophysis vegetans (j, part of a colony, X230; k, an individual,
X770) (Stein).
Genus Cephalothamnium Stein. Colonial; without lorica, but in-
dividuals clustered at the end of a stalk which is colorless and rigid;
fresh water.
C. cyclopum S. (Fig. 151, i). Ovoid; 5-10/x long; attached to body
of Cyclops and also among plankton.
Genus Anthophysis Bory (Anthophysa). Colonial forms, some-
what similar to Cephalothamnium; stalks yellow or brownish and
usually bent ; detached individuals amoeboid with pointed pseudo-
podia.
A. vegetans (Miiller) (Fig. 151, j, k). About 5-6m long; common in
stagnant water and infusion.
362 PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 9 Bodonidae Biitschli
With 2 flagella; one directed anteriorly and the other posteriorly
and trailing; flagella originate in anterior end which is drawn out
to a varying degree; one to several contractile vacuoles; asexual re-
production by binary fission; holozoic or saprozoic (parasitic). Mor-
phology and taxonomy (Hollande, 1942, 1952).
Genus Bodo Ehrenberg (Prowazekia Hartman and Chagas).
Small, ovoid, but plastic; cytostome anterior; nucleus central or
anterior; flagella connected with 2 blepharoplasts in some species;
encystment common; in stagnant water and coprozoic. Numerous
species. Cytology (Belaf, 1920; Hollande, 1936).
B. caudatus (Dujardin) (Fig. 152, a, b). Highly flattened, usually
tapering posteriorly; 11-22/x by 5-10>; anterior flagellum about
body length, trailing flagellum longer; blepharoplast; cysts spherical;
stagnant water.
B. edax Klebs (Fig. 152, c). Pyriform with bluntly pointed ends;
11— 15/x by 5-7m; stagnant water.
Genus Pleuromonas Perty. Naked, somewhat amoeboid; usually
attached with trailing flagellum; active cytoplasmic movement;
fresh water.
P. jaculans P. (Fig. 152, d). Body 6-10> by about 5/z; flagellum
2-3 times body length; 4-8 young individuals are said to emerge
from a spherical cyst; stagnant water.
Genus Rhynchomonas Klebs (Cruzella Faria, da Cunha and
Pinto). Similar to Bodo, but there is an anterior extension of body,
in which one of the flagella is embedded, while the other flagellum
trails; a single nucleus; minute forms; fresh or salt water; also some-
times coprozoic.
R. nasuta (Stokes) (Fig. 152, e). Oval, flattened; 5 6/u by 2-3/x;
fresh water and coprozoic.
R. marina (F., C. and P.). In salt water.
Genus Proteromonas Kunstler (ProwazekeUa Alexeieff). Elon-
gated pyriform; 2 flagella from anterior end, one directed anteriorly
and the other, posteriorly; nucleus anterior; encysted stage is re-
markable in that it is capable of increasing in size to a marked de-
gree; exclusively parasitic; in gut of various species of lizards. Spe-
cies (Grasse, 1926, 1952).
P. lacertae (Grassi) (Fig. 152, /). Elongate, pyriform; 10-30> long,
gut of lizards belonging to the genera Lacerta, Tarentola, etc.
Genus Retortamonas Grassi {Embadomonas Mackinnon). Body
plastic, usually pyriform or fusiform, drawn out posteriorly; a large
PROTOMONADINA 363
cytostome toward anterior end; nucleus anterior; 2 flagella; cysts
pyriform or ovoid; parasitic in the intestines of various animals.
Taxonomy (Wenrich, 1932; Kirby and Honigberg, 1950).
R. gryllotalpae G. (Fig. 152, g). About 7-14;u (average 10/x) long;
in intestine of the mole cricket, Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa.
Fig. 152. a, b, Bodo caudatus, X1500 (Sinton); c, B. edax, X1400
(Kiihn); d, Pleuromonas jaculans, X650 (Lemmermann); e, Rhin-
chomonas nasuta, X1800 (Parisi); f, Proteromonas lacertae, X2500
(Ktihn); g, Retortamonas gryllotalpae, X2000 (Wenrich); h, R. blattae,
X2000 (Wenrich); i, R. intestinalis, X2000 (Wenrich); j, Phijllomitus
undulans, X1000 (Stein); k, Colponema loxodes, X650 (Stein); 1, Cerco-
monas longicauda, X2000 (Wenyon); m, C. crassicauda, X2000 (Dobell).
R. blattae (Bishop) (Fig. 152, h). About 6-9/x long; in colon of
cockroaches.
R. intestinalis (Wenyon and O'Connor) (Figs. 152, i; 153). Poly-
morphic, often pyriform or ovoid with drawn-out posterior end; 4-9ju
by 3-4ju; cytostome large, about 1/3 the body length ; vesicular nucleus
364
PROTOZOOLOGY
with an endosome near anterior end; anterior flagellum as long as
the body; posterior flagellum shorter, but thicker, in or near cyto-
stome; cysts pyriform; 4.5-7/* long; a single nucleus and an oblong
area surrounded by fibril; commensal in the lumen of human intes-
tine; trophozoites and also cysts occur in diarrhoeic faeces; of com-
paratively rare occurrence. Varieties (Hogue, 1933, 1936).
R. caviae (Hegner and Schumaker, 1928). In the caecum of guinea-
pigs; stained trophozoites 4-7 /* by 2.4-3.2/* (H. and S.), 4.4-7.7/* by
4-4.3/* (Nie, 1950); stained cysts 3.4-5.2/* by 3.3-3.6/z (H. and S.),
4.5-5.7/* by 3.4-3.7/* (Nie).
Fig. 153. Retortamonas intestinalis, X2300 (a, b, d, Wenyon and
O'Connor; c, Dobell and O'Connor; e, g, Kudo; f, Jepps). a, b, organ-
isms in life; c, d, stained trophozoites; e, cyst in life; f, g, stained cysts.
Genus Phyllomitus Stein. Oval; highly plastic; cytostome large
and conspicuous; 2 unequal flagella, each originates in a blepharo-
plast; fresh water or coprozoic.
P. undulans S. (Fig. 152, j), Ovoid; 21-27/* long; trailing flagel-
lum much longer than anterior one; stagnant water.
Genus Colponema Stein. Body small; rigid; ventral furrow con-
spicuous, wide at anterior end; one flagellum arises from anterior end
and the other from middle of body; fresh water.
C. loxodes S. (Fig. 152, k). 18-30/* by 14/* cytoplasm with refractile
globules.
Genus Cercomonas Dujardin. Biflagellate, both flagella arising
from anterior end of body; one directed anteriorly and the other
runs backward over body surface, becoming a trailing flagellum;
plastic; pyriform nucleus connected with the blepharoplast of
flagella; spherical cysts uninucleate; fresh water or coprozoic.
PROTOMONADINA 365
C. longicauda D. (Fig. 152, V). Pyriform or ovoid; posterior end
drawn out; 18-36/x by 9-14ju; flagella as long as body; pseudo podia;
fresh water and coprozoic.
C. crassicauda D. (Fig. 152, m). 10-16ju by 7-10/*; fresh water and
coprozoic.
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Leidy, J.: (1846) Description of a new genus and species of Entozoa.
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philadelphia, 3:100.
Lemmermann, E.: (1914) Protomastiginae. Susswasserflora Deutsch-
lands. H. 1.
PROTOMONADINA 367
Mavor, J. W. : (1915) On the occurrence of a trypanosome, probably
Trypanoplasma borreli, etc. J. Parasit., 2:1.
Minchin, E. A. and Thomson, J. D.: (1915) The rat trypanosome,
Trypanosoma lewisi, in its relation to the rat flea, etc. Quart. J.
Micr.Sc, 60:463.
Nelson, R. : (1922) The occurrence of Protozoa in plants affected
with mosaic and related diseases. Tech. Bull. Bot. Stat. Michi-
gan Agr. Coll., no. 58.
Nie, D.: (1950) Morphology and taxonomy of the intestinal Proto-
zoa of the guinea-pig, Cavia porcella. J. Morphol., 86:381.
Nieschulz, O.: (1928) Zoologische Beitrage zum Surra problem.
XVII. Arch. Protist., 61:92.
Novy, F. G. and MacNeal, W. J.: (1905) On the trypanosomes of
birds. J. Infect. Dis., 2:256.
Packchanian, A.: (1942) Reservoir hosts of Chagas' disease in the
State of Texas. Am. J. Trop. Med., 22:623.
(1943) Infectivity of the Texas strain of Trypanosoma cruzi
toman. Ibid., 23:309.
(1950) The present status of Chagas' disease in the United
States. Rev. Soc. Mexicana Hist. Nat., 10:91.
Pascher, A.: (1925) Neue oder wenig bekannte Protisten. XVII.
Arch. Protist., 51:549.
(1929) XXI. Ibid., 65:426.
— (1943) Eine neue Art der farblosen Flagellatengattung His-
tiona aus den Uralpen. Ibid., 96:288.
Reynolds, B. D.: (1927) Bicosoeca kepneri. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc,
46:54.
(1934) Studies on monad flagellates. I, II. Arch. Protist., 81 :
399.
Robertson, M.: (1911) Transmission of flagellates living in the
blood of certain freshwater fishes. Philos. Trans., B, 202:29.
Roskin, G. and Romanowa, K. : (1928) Die Kernteilung bei
Leishmania tropica. Arch. Protist., 60:482.
and Schischliaiewa, S.: (1928) Die Kernteilung bei Try-
panosomen. Ibid., 60:460.
Roudabush, R. L. and Coatney, G. R. : (1937) On some blood
Protozoa of reptiles and amphibians. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 56:
291.
Scherffel, A.: (1924) Ueber die Cyste von Monas. Arch. Protist.,
48:187.
Schindera, M.: (1922) Beitrage zur Biologie, Agglomeration und
Ztichtung von Trypanoplasma helicis. Ibid., 45:200.
Swaminath, C. S., Shortt, E. and Anderson, A. P.: (1942) Trans-
mission of Indian kala-azar to man by the bites of Phlebotomus
argentipes. Indian J. Med. Research, 30:473.
Taliaferro, W. H.: (1921) Variation and inheritance in size in
Trypanosoma lewisi. I. Proc Nat. Acad. Sc, 7:138.
— (1921a) II. Ibid., 7:163.
(1923) A study of size and variability, throughout the course
of "pure line" infections, with Trypanosoma lewisi. J. Exper.
Zool., 37:127.
368 PROTOZOOLOGY
— (1924) A reaction product in infections with Trypanosoma
lewisi which inhibits the reproduction of the trypanosomes. J.
Exper. Med., 39:171.
— (1926) Variability and inheritance of size in Trypanosoma
lewisi. J. Exper. Zool., 43:429.
— (1932) Trypanocidal and reproduction-inhibiting antibodies
to Trypanosoma lewisi in rats and rabbits. Am. J. Hyg., 16:32.
(1938) Ablastic and trypanocidal antibodies against Try-
panosoma duttoni. J. Immunol., 35:303.
— and Taliaferro, Lucy G.: (1934) Complement fixation,
precipitin, adhesion, mercuric chloride and Wassermann tests in
equine trypanosomiasis of Panama. Ibid., 26:193.
Usinger, R. L.: (1944) The Triatominae of North and Central
America and the West Indies and their public health signifi-
cance. U. S. Publ. Health Bull., no. 288.
Vianna, G.: (1911) Sobre uma nova especie de Leishmania. Brazil
Medico, no. 41.
Weinstein, P. P. and Pratt, H. D.: (1948) The laboratory infec-
tion of Triatoma neotomae Neiva with Trypanosoma cruzi, etc.
J. Parasit., 34:231.
Wenrich, D. H.: (1932) The relation of the protozoan flagellate,
Retortamonas gryllotalpae, etc. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 51:225.
Wenyon, C. M.: (1911) Oriental sore in Bagdad, etc. Parasitology,
4:273.
— (1926) Protozoology. London and Baltimore.
Wolcott, G. B.: (1952) Mitosis in Trypanosoma lewisi. J. Morphol.,
90:189.
Wood, Fae D.: (1934) Natural and experimental infection of
Triatoma protracta Uhler and mammals in California with
American human trypanosomiasis. Am. J. Trop. Med., 14:497.
— (1936) Trypanosoma neotomae sp. nov., etc. Univ. California
Publ. Zool., 41:133.
and Wood, S. F.: (1941) Present knowledge of the distribu-
tion of Trypanosoma cruzi in reservoir animals and vectors. Am.
J. Trop. Med., 21:335.
Yamasaki, S.: (1924) Ueber Leptomonas ctenocephali, etc. Arch.
Protist,, 48:137.
Chapter 15
Order 3 Polymastigina Blochmann
THE Zoomastigina placed in this group possess 3-8 (in one
family up to a dozen or more) flagella and generally speaking,
are minute forms with varied characters and structures. Many
possess a cytostome and one to many nuclei and the body is covered
by a thin pellicle which allows the organism to change form, although
each species shows a typical form. The cytoplasm does not show any
special cortical differentiation; in many, there is an axial structure
known as axostyle or axostylar filaments (p. 70). In Trichomonadi-
dae, there is usually a rod-like structure, known as costa (Kunstler),
along the base of the undulating membrane and in Devescovinidae,
there is a subtriangular body, the cresta, directly below the basal
portion of the trailing flagellum, which in some species is very large
and capable of movement. At the time of division, the old costa is
retained and a new one is formed; the cresta however is resorbed
and two new ones are produced (Kirby). Parabasal bodies of various
form and structure occur in many species.
The majority of Polymastigina inhabit the digestive tract of ani-
mals and nutrition is holozoic or saprozoic (parasitic). Many xylopha-
gous forms hold symbiotic relationship with the host termites.
Asexual reproduction is binary or multiple fission. Encystment is
common. Sexual reproduction has been recognized in a few species.
Taxonomy of species living in termites (Kirby, 1926).
With 1 nucleus Suborder 1 Monomonadina
With 2 nuclei Suborder 2 Diplomonadina (p. 392)
With more than 2 nuclei Suborder 3 Polymonadina (p. 396)
Suborder I Monomonadina
Without axial organella
With 3 flagella Family 1 Trimastigidae (p. 370)
With 4 flagella
None undulates on body surface
Without cell-organ of attachment. . Family 2 Tetramitidae (p. 371)
With rostellum Family 3 Streblomastigidae (p. 374)
One undulates on body surface . . Family 4 Chilomastigidae (p. 374)
With more than 4 flagella Family 5 Callimastigidae (p. 375)
With axial organella
Without undulating membrane
Without cresta
Flagella not adhering to body
Without rostellum Family 6 Polymastigidae (p. 376)
With rostellum Family 7 Oxymonadidae (p. 378)
369
370
PROTOZOOLOGY
Flagellar cords on body surface
Family S Dinenymphidae (p. 379)
With cresta Family 9 Devescovinidae (p. 380)
With undulating membrane. . . .Family 10 Trichomonadidae (p. 385)
Family 1 Trimastigidae Kent
Genus Trimastix Kent. Ovate or pyriform; naked; free-swimming;
with a laterally produced membranous border; 3 flagella (1 anterior
flagellum vibrating, 2 trailing); salt water. Species (Grasse, 1952a).
T. marina K. (Fig. 154, a). About 18ju long; salt water.
Fig. 154. a, Trimastix marina, X1250 (Kent); b, Dallingeria drysdali,
X2000 (Kent); c, Macromaslix lapsa, X1500 (Stokes).
T. convexa Grasse (Coelotrichomastix convexa Hollande) (Fig. 167,
a). In life 10-22/* by 8-10/x; dorsal side strongly convex, ventral side
concave; three free flagella nearly equally long, fourth flagellum
borders the undulating membrane, present on the concave side and
becomes free beyond the posterior end of body; spherical nucleus
voluminous, with a large endosome; free-living and coprozoic (Hol-
lande, 1939; Grasse, 1952a).
Genus Dallingeria Kent. Free-Swimming or attached; with trail-
ing flagella; body small; with drawn-out anterior end; fresh water
with decomposed organic matter.
D. drysdali K. (Fig. 154, b). Small; elongate oval; less than 6^
long ; stagnant water.
Genus Macromastix Stokes. Free-swimming, somewhat like
POLYMASTIGINA 371
Dallingeria, but anterior region not constricted; 3 flagella from an-
terior end; one contractile vacuole; fresh water.
M. lapsa S. (Fig. 154, c). Ovoid; 5.5/x long; anterior flagellum 1/2
and trailing flagella 2-3 times body length; pond water.
Genus Mixotricha Sutherland. Large; elongate; anterior tip
spirally twisted and motile; body surface with a coat of flagella in
closely packed transverse bands (insertion and movement entirely
different from those of Trichonympha) except posterior end ; 3 short
flagella at anterior end; nucleus, 20m by 2ju, connected with blepharo-
plasts by prolonged tube which encloses nucleus itself; cytoplasm
with scattered wood chips; in termite gut. One species. Taxonomic
position undetermined.
M. paradoxa S. About 340^ long, 200> broad and 25/x thick ; in gut
of Mastotermes darwiniensis ; Australia (Sutherland).
Family 2 Tetramitidae Butschli
Genus Tetramitus Perty. Ellipsoidal or pyriform; free-swimming;
cytostome at anterior end; 4 flagella unequal in length; a contractile
vacuole; holozoic; fresh or salt water or parasitic. Species (Klug,
1936).
T. rostratus P. (Fig. 15G, a). Body form variable, usually ovoid and
narrowed posteriorly: 18-30ju by 8-11 n; stagnant water. Bunting
(1922, 1926) observed an interesting life cycle of what appeared to be
this organism which she had found in cultures of the caecal content
of rats (Fig. 155). Nuclear division (Bunting and Wenrich, 1929).
T. pyriformis Klebs (Fig. 156, b). Pyriform, with pointed poste-
rior end; 11-13/x by 10-1 2/x; stagnant water.
T. salinus (Entz) (Fig. 156, c). 2 anterior flagella, 2 long trailing
flagella; nucleus anterior; cytostome anterior to nucleus; a groove to
posterior end; cytopharynx temporary and length variable; 20-30^
long (Entz); 15-19ju long (Kirby). Kirby observed it in a pool with
a high salinity at Marina, California.
Genus Collodictyon Carter. Body highly plastic; with longitudinal
furrows; posterior end bluntly narrowed or lobed; no apparent
cytostome; 4 flagella; a contractile vacuole anterior; fresh water.
C. triciliatum C. (Fig. 156, d). Spherical, ovoid or heart-shaped;
27-60/x long; flagella as long as the body; pond water. Cytology
(Rhodes, 1919); food ingestion (Belaf, 1921).
Genus Costia Leclerque. Ovoid in front view, pyriform in profile;
toward the right side, there is a shallow depression which leads into
cytostome (?) and from which extend two long and two short flagella
(only two flagella (Andai, 1933)); contractile vacuole posterior; en-
cystment ; ectoparasitic in freshwater fishes.
372
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 155. Diagram illustrating the life-cycle of Tetramitus rostratus
(Bunting), a, cyst; b, vegetative amoeba; c, division; d, after division;
e, f, stages in transformation to flagellate form; g, fully formed flagel-
late; h, flagellate prior to division; i, flagellate after division; j-1, trans-
formation stages to amoeba.
C. necatrix (Henneguy) (Fig. 156, e-j). 10-20ju by 5-10/x (Henne-
guy), 5-18/x by 2.5-7 fj. (Tavolga and Nigrelli, 1947) ; nucleus central;
uninucleate cyst, spherical, 7-10/iin diameter; when present in large
numbers, the epidermis of the fish appears to be covered by a whitish
coat. Davis (1943) found a similar organism which measured 9-14^
by 5-8 m, on trout, Salmo irideus and Salvelinus fontinalis, and
named it Costia pyriformis.
Genus Enteromonas da Fonseca (Tricercomonas Wenyon and
O'Connor). Spherical or pyriform, though plastic; 3 anterior flagella;
the fourth flagellum runs along the flattened body surface and ex-
tends a little freely at the posterior tip of body; nucleus anterior;
no cytostome; cyst ovoid and with 4 nuclei when mature; parasitic
POLYMASTIGINA
373
in mammals, da Fonseca (1915) originally observed only 3 flagella
and no cysts; 4 flagella and encysted forms were noticed in Tri-
cercomonas by Wenyon and O'Connor (1917); in da Fonseca's ori-
ginal preparations, Dobell (1935) observed 4 flagella as well as cysts
and concluded that Enteromonas and Tricercomonas are one and
the same flagellate.
Fig. 156. a, Tetramitus rostratus, X620 (Lemmermann); b, T. pyri-
formis, X670 (Klebs); c. T. salinus, X1630 (Kirby); d, Collodictyon
triciliatum, X400 (Carter); e-j, Costia necatrix (e, f, XSOO (Weltner);
g-i, X1400 (Moroff); j, two individuals attached to host integument
X500 (Kudo)); k, Enteromonas hominis, X1730 (Wenyon and O'Con-
nor); 1, Copromastix prowazeki, X1070 (Aragao).
E. hominis da F. (T. intestinalis W. and O) (Figs. 156, k; 157, ad).
Trophozoites 4-l(hz by 3-6ju; nucleus circular or pyriform, with a
large endosome, near anterior end; 4 flagella take their origins in
blepharoplasts located close to nucleus; cytoplasm vacuolated or
reticulated, contains bacteria; cysts ovoid, 6-8/x by 4-6/z; with 1, 2,
or 4 nuclei; commensal in the lumen of human intestine; found in
diarrhoeic stools. Widely distributed.
E. caviae Lynch. Similar to the species mentioned above, but
slightly smaller; in the caecum of guinea-pigs (Lynch, 1922). Cytol-
ogy (Nie, 1950).
374 PROTOZOOLOGY '
Genus Copromastix Aragao. Four anterior flagella equally long;
body triangular or pyramidal; coprozoic.
C. prowazeki A. (Fig. 156, I). About 16-18/* long; in human and
rat faeces.
Genus Karotomorpha Travis (Tetramastix Alexeieff). Elongate
pyriform; body more or less rigid; four unequal flagella at the an-
terior end, in two groups; nucleus anterior; without cytostome;
parasitic in the intestine of Amphibia. Species (Travis, 1934).
K. bufonis (Dobell) (Fig. 157, e). Spindle in shape; 12-16/x by
2-6/*; in the intestine of frogs and toads. Cytology (Grasse, 1926).
Family 3 Streblomastigidae Kofoid and Swezy
Genus Streblomastix K. and S. Spindle-form; with a rostellum,
the anterior tip of which is enlarged into a sucker-like cup; below the
cup are inserted 4 (Kidder) or 6 (Kofoid and Swezy) equally long
flagella; extremely elongate nucleus below rostellum; body surface
with 4 or more spiral ridges; in termite gut. One species.
S. strix K. and S. (Fig. 157, /, g). 15-52/* by 2-15/*; 4-8 spiral
ridges; blepharoplast in rostellum; in Termopsis angasticollis.
Family 4 Chilomastigidae Wenyon
Four flagella, one of which undulates in the cytostome.
Genus Chilomastix Alexeieff. Pyriform; with a large cytostomal
cleft at anterior end; nucleus anterior; 3 anteriorly directed flagella;
short fourth flagellum undulates within the cleft; cysts common; in
intestine of vertebrates. Several species.
C. mesnili (Wenyon) (Fig. 157, h-k). The trophozoite is oval or
pyriform; 5-20 (10-15)/* long; jerky movements; a large cytosto-
mal cleft near anterior end; nucleus, vesicular, often without endo-
some; 3 anterior flagella about 7-10/z long; the fourth flagellum
short, undulates in the cleft which ridge is marked by 2 fibrils. The
cyst pyriform; 7-10/* long; a single nucleus; 2 cytostomal fibrils and
a short flagellum; commensal in the caecum and colon (some con-
sider also in small intestine) of man. Both trophozoites and cysts oc-
cur in diarrhoeic faeces. It is widely distributed and very common.
Cytology (Kofoid and Swezy, 1920); cultivation (Boeck, 1921).
C. intestinalis Kuczynski. In guinea-pigs; 13-27/* by 5—1 1/x (Gei-
man, 1935); 8.8-28/* by 6.6-11/* (Nie, 1950).
C. bettencourti da Fonseca. In rats and mice.
C. cuniculi da F. In rabbits.
C. caprae d. F. In goat.
POLYMASTIGINA
375
Fig. 157. a-d, Enteromonas hominis, XI 730 (Wenyon and O'Connor)
(a, b, living and c, stained trophozoites; d, a stained cyst); e, Karoto-
morpha bufonis, X2000 (Grass6); f, Streblomastix strix, X1030; g, ante-
rior end of the organism, showing the rostellum, blepharoplast, sucking
cup and flagella (Kidder); h-k, Chilomastix mesnili, X1530 (h, living and
i, stained trophozoites; j, a fresh cyst; k, a stained cyst); 1, a stained
trophozoite, and m, a stained cyst of C. gallinarum, X1330 (Boeck and
Tanabe); n, Callimastix frontalis, XI 500 (Braune); o, C. equi, XI 100
(Hsiung).
C. gallinarum Martin and Robertson (Fig. 157, I, m). 11-20/x by
5-6^; in the caeca of turkeys and chicks. Morphology (Boeck and
Tanabe, 1926).
Family 5 Callimastigidae da Fonseca
Flagella 12 or more; in stomach of ruminants or in caecum and
colon of horse.
Genus Callimastix Weissenberg. Ovoid; compact nucleus central
or anterior; 12-15 long flagella near anterior end, vibrate in unison.
Weissenberg (1912) considered this genus to be related to Lopho-
monas (p. 407), but organism lacks axial organellae;in Cyclops and
alimentary canal of ruminants and horse.
C. cyclopis W. In body-cavity of Cyclops sp.
C. frontalis Braune (Fig. 157, n). 12 flagella; about 12ju long; fla-
gella 30ju long; in cattle, sheep and goats.
376
PROTOZOOLOGY
C. equi Hsiung (Fig. 157, o). 12-15 flagella; 12-18/* by 7-10/*;
nucleus central; in caecum and colon of horse.
Family 6 Polymastigidae Biitschli
Genus Polymastix Biitschli. Pyriform; four flagella arise from two
blepharoplasts located at anterior end; cytostome and axostyle in-
conspicuous; body often covered by a protophytan; commensals in
insects. Species (Grasse, 1926, 1952).
P. melolonthae (Grassi) (Fig. 158, a). 10—15/* by 4-8/*; body cov-
ered by Fusiformis melolonthae (Grasse, 1926) : in the intestine of
Melolontha, Oryctes, Cetonia, Rhizotrogus, Tipula, etc.
Fig. 158. a, Polymastix melolonthae, X2000 (Grasse); b, Eutrichomastix
serpentis, X1450 (Kofoid and Swezy); c, E. batrachorum, X1350 (Dobell);
d, E. axostylis, X2000 (Kirby); e, Chilomitus caviae (Nie); f, Hexamastix
termopsidis, X2670 (Kirby); g, H. batrachorum; h, Protrichomonas legeri,
X1000 (Alexeieff); i, Monocercomonoides melolonthae, X2000 (Grasse); j,
Cochlosoma rostraturn, X1465 (Kiiriura).
Genus Eutrichomastix Kofoid and Swezy (Trichomastix Bloch-
mann). Pyriform; anterior end rounded; cytostome and nucleus
anterior; 3 flagella of equal length arise from anterior end, the fourth
trailing; axostyle projects beyond posterior end of body; all endo-
commensals.
E. serpentis (Dobell) (Fig. 158, b). About 10-25/* long; in intestine
POLYMASTIGINA 377
of snakes: Pituophis, Eutaenia, and Python (Kofoid and Swezy,
1915).
E. balrachorum (Dobell) (Fig. 158, c). Ovoid; 6-20/x long; in
intestine of Ranafusca (Dobell, 1909).
E. axostylis Kirby (Fig. 158, d). Elongate, ellipsoid, or pyriform;
axostyle projecting; 5-10.5/xby 2-3.5/*; 3 anterior flagella 5-1 0/x long;
in gut of Nasutitermes kirbyi (Kirby, 1931).
Genus Chilomitus da Fonseca. Elongate oval; pellicle well de-
veloped; aboral surface convex; cytostome near anterior end,
through which four flagella originating in a bi-lobed blepharoplast,
protrude; rudimentary axostyle; nucleus and parabasal body below
the cytostome (da Fonseca, 1915).
C. caviae da F. (Fig. 158, e). In the caecum of guinea-pigs; stained
trophozoites 6-14/i by 3.1-4.6/x; cytoplasm contains siderophilic
bodies of unknown nature (Nie, 1950).
Genus Hexamastix Alexeieff. Body similar to Eatrichomastix,
but with 6 flagella, of which one trails; axostyle conspicuous; para-
basal body prominent.
H. termopsidis Kirby (Fig. 158, /). Ovoidal or pyriform; 5-1 1m
long; flagella 15-25^ long; in gut of Zootermopsis angusticollis and
Z. nevadensis; California (Kirby, 1930).
H. caviae and H. robustus were described by Nie (1950) from the
caecum of guinea-pigs.
H. balrachorum Alexeieff (Fig. 158, g). Oval or spindle form; 8-14ju
by 4-8ju; flagella about body length; in gut of Triton taeniatus.
Genus Protrichomonas Alexeieff. 3 anterior flagella of equal
length, arising from a blepharoplast located at anterior end; para-
sitic.
P. legeri A. (Fig. 158, h). In oesophagus of the marine fish, Box
boops.
Genus Monocercomonoides Travis (Monocercomonas Grassi).
Small; 4 flagella inserted in pairs in two places; two directed an-
teriorly and the other two posteriorly; axostyle filamentous; para-
sitic. Taxonomy (Travis, 1932).
M. melolonthae (Grassi) (Fig. 158, ?'). Ovoid: 4-1 5/x long; in the
larvae of Melolontha melolontha, etc.
Genus Cochlosoma Kotlan. Body small, oval; sucker in the an-
terior half; 6 flagella; axostyle filamentous; parasitic (Kotlan, 1923).
C. rostratum Kimura (Fig. 158, j). In the colon of domestic ducks,
Anas platyrhynchus and Carina moschata; 6-10m by 4-6. 5^ (Kimura,
1934). McNeil and Hinshaw (1942) observed this organism in the
intestine of young poults and in the region of caecal tonsil in adults.
378
PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 7 Oxymonadidae Kirby
Genus Oxymonas Janicki. Attached phase with a conspicuous
rostellum, the anterior end of which forms a sucking-cup for attach-
ment; pyriform. In motile phase, rostellum is less conspicuous; 2
blepharoplasts located near the anterior extremity of axostyle, give
rise to 2 flagella each; axostyle conspicuous; xylophagous; in termite
and woodroach; sexual reproduction in some (Cleveland, 1950).
Fig. 159. a, b, Oxymonas dimorpha (Connell) (a, a motile form, X900;
b, an attached aflagellate form, X460); c, 0. grandis, X265 (Cleveland);
d, Proboscidiella kofoidi, X600 (Kirby).
0. dimorpha Connell (Fig. 159, a, b). Subovoid; delicate pellicle;
axostyle slightly protruding; a pair of long anterior flagella from
2 blepharoplasts, connected by rhizoplast; nucleus anterior. When
attached to intestine, rostellum elongate, flagella disappear; 17m by
14/z to 195/x by 165m; in Neotermes simplicicornis; California and
Arizona (Connell, 1930).
0. grandis Cleveland (Fig. 159, c). Body 76m by 31m to 183m by
79m; rostellum varies 30-200m in length; nucleus without an endo-
POLYMASTIGINA 379
some, anterior, about 20-23/x in diameter; axostyle consists of a
staining part and a non-staining part; in the intestine of Neotermes
dalbergiae and N. tectonae (Cleveland, 1935).
Genus Proboscidiella Kofoid and Swezy (Microrhopalodina Grassi
and Foa; Kirbyella Zeliff). Attached and motile forms similar to Oxy-
monas; but multinucleate; 4 flagella from each karyomastigont (p.
315); rostellum with filaments which extend posteriorly as axo-
styles; in termite gut (Kofoid and Swezy, 1926; Zeliff, 1930a).
P. kofoidi Kirby (Fig. 159, d). Average size 66m by 46m; rostellum
as long as, or longer than, the body; karyomastigonts 2-19 or more
(average 8) ; each mastigont with 2 blepharoplasts from which extend
4 flagella; in Cryptolermes dudleyi (Kirby, 1928).
Family 8 Dinenymphidae Grassi and Foa
Genus Dinenympha Leidy. Medium large; spindle form; 4-8
flagellar cords adhering to body which are spirally twisted about one
turn; the flagella free at the posterior end; axostyle varies from cord
to band; pyriform nucleus, anterior, with a large endosome; in ter-
mite gut. Species (Koidzumi, 1921).
D. gracilis L. (Fig. 160, a). 24-50/1 by 6-1 2m ; body flattened and
twisted; ends attenuated; with adhering protophytes; in Reticuli-
termes flavipes.
D. fimbriata Kirby (Fig. 140, b). 52-64m by 8-18/x; 4-8 flagellar
cords; with adherent protophytes; axostyle varies in width; in
Reticuliterm.es hesperus (Kirby, 1924).
Genus Pyrsonympha Leidy. Large; club-shaped, the posterior end
is rounded; body surface with 4-8 flagellar cords which are arranged
lengthwise or slightly spirally; flagella extend freely posteriorly;
blepharoplast at the anterior tip, often with a short process for at-
tachment; axostyle a narrow band, may be divided into parts; large
pyriform nucleus anterior; in termite gut. Species (Koidzumi, 1921) ;
nuclear division (Cleveland, 1938).
P. vertens L. (Fig. 160, c). About 100-150m long; 4-8 flagellar
cords; in Reticulitermes flavipes. Cytology (Duboscq and Grasse,
1925).
P. granulata Powell (Fig. 160, d). 40-120m by 5-35m; 4-8 flagellar
cords; in Reticulitermes hesperus (Powell, 1928).
Genus Saccinobaculus Cleveland. Elongate to spherical; 4, 8, or
12 flagella adhere to the body, and project out freely; axostyle is an
extremely large paddle-like body and undulates, serving as cell-
organ of locomotion; posterior end of axostyle enclosed in a sheath;
in woodroach gut.
380
PROTOZOOLOGY
S. ambloaxostylus C. (Fig. 160, e-g). 65-1 10/x by 18-26/*; in
Cryptocercus punctulatus. Sexual reproduction (Cleveland, 1950a).
Genus Notila Cleveland. Body elongate, plastic; four flagella, the
attached portion of which shows attached granules (Fig. 160, i);
axostyle large, paddle-like, much broader than that of Pyrsonympha ;
Fig. 160. a, Dinenympha gracilis, X730;b, D. fimbriate/,, X625 (Kirby);
c, Pyrsonympha vertens, X730; d, P. granulata, X500 (Powell); e-g,
Saccinobaculus ambloaxostylus (Cleveland) (e, whole organism, X600;
f, anterior and g, posterior portion of vegetative individual); h-j, Notila
proteus (Cleveland) (h, diploid individual, X360; i, anterior and j, pos-
terior ends of the organism).
no axostyler sheath at posterior end, but with large granules or
spherules embedded in it; in Cryptocercus punctulatus.
N. proteus C. (Fig. 160, h-j). Size not given; gametogenesis and
sexual fusion, induced by the molting hormone of the host; diploid
number of chromosomes 28 (Cleveland, 19501)).
Family 9 Devescovinidae Doflein
Usually 3 anterior flagella and a trailing stout flagellum; near
base of trailing flagellum an elongated cresta (becoming a large
POLYMASTIGINA
381
internal membrane in some species) (Fig. 161); trailing flagellum
lightly adheres to body surface along edge of cresta; axostyle; para-
basal body of various forms; single nucleus anterior; without undu-
lating membrane; generally xylophagous. Cytology and morpho-
genesis (Kirby, 1944).
papilla
ant. flagella
ant. lamella
bleph. group
nucl. rhiz.
parab. fil.
parab. body
cresta
chrom. mass
nucl. memb.
chr. cone in ax.
parab. spiral
chromoph. element
of pb.
axostyle
tr. flagellum
Fig. 161. A diagrammatic view of the anterior part of Devescovina lem-
niscata, showing the cresta and other organellae (Kirby).
Genus Devescovina Foa. Elongate body, usually pointed poste-
riorly; 3 anterior flagella about the body length; trailing flagellum,
slender to band-form, about 1-1.5 times the body length; cresta;
parabasal body spiraled around axostyle or nucleus; in termite in-
testine. Many species (Kirby, 1941, 1949).
D. lemniscata Kirby (Figs. 161; 162, a). 21-51/* by 9-17//; trailing
flagellum a band; cresta long, 7-9/*; in Cryptotermes hermsi and many
species of the genus; species of Neotermes, Glyptotermes and
Kalotermes (Kirby, 1926a).
Genus Parajoenia Janicki. Medium large; with rounded extremi-
ties; 3 anterior flagella and trailing flagellum long; cresta of moder-
ate size; parabasal body well developed with its anterior end close to
blepharoplast; stout axostyle expanded anteriorly into leaf -like
capitulum, bearing a longitudinal keel; in intestine of termites.
P. grassii J. (Fig. 162, b). 29-59/* by 12-33/*; trailing flagellum
382
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 162. a, Devescovina lemniscata, X1600; b, Parajoenia grassii, with
attached spirochaetes, XH50; c, Foaina nana, XH50; d, Macrotricho-
monas pulchra, X1600 (all after Kirby); e, Metadevescovina debilis, X1130
(Light, modified).
POLYMASTIGINA 383
stout, cordlike; cresta about 9/t long; in Neotermes connexus (Kirby,
1937, 1942a).
Genus Foaina Janicki {Janickiella Duboscq and Grasse; Para-
devescovina, Crucinympha Kirby). Small to medium large; 3 anterior
flagella; trailing flagellum about twice the body length; cresta
slender, 2.5-17/x long; parabasal body single, in some with rami; in
intestine of termites. Many species (Kirby, 1942a, 1949).
F. nana Kirby (Fig. 162, c). 6-18/x by 4.5-8.5/x; trailing flagellum
a moderately stout cord, 2-3 times the body length; cresta slender,
8.5m long; filament part of the parabasal body reaching the middle
of body; in Cryptotermes hermsi and many species of the genus; also
species of Glyptotermes, Rugitermes, and Procryptotermes (Kirby,
1942a).
Genus Macrotrichomonas Grassi. Large; 3 anterior flagella; trail-
ing flagellum well developed, 1-1.5 times the body length; cresta a
broad internal membrane, 21-86/i long; parabasal body coiled around
the axostyle, 1-13 times; in termite gut. Several species (Kirby,
1942, 1949).
M. pulchra G. (Fig. 162, d). 44-91/x by 21-41/*; trailing flagellum
band-form; cresta large; parabasal body coiled closely 4-10 times;
in Glyptotermes parvulus, and many other species of the genus (Kirby,
1942).
Genus Metadevescovina Light. Moderately large; 3 anterior
flagella; a short trailing flagellum; cresta small; parabasal body
loosely coiled around axostyle; anterior end of axostyle in a loop;
in termite gut. Many species (Light, 1926; Kirby, 1945).
M . debilis L. (Fig. 162, e). 30-70/* by 15-30/*; in Kalotermes hub-
bardi.
Genus Caduceia Franca. Large; 3 long anterior flagella; trailing
flagellum slender, shorter than body; cresta relatively small, 1— 12/z
long; parabasal body coiled around axcstyle 2-20 times; nucleus
relatively large; axostyle terminates in filament; in termites. Several
species (Kirby, 1942, 1949).
C. bugnioni Kirby (Fig. 163, a). 48-80/* by 18-40/*; in Neotermes
greeni (Kirby, 1942).
Genus Hyperdevescovina Kirby. Similar to Caduceia; but cresta
very small ;stout axostyle projects from the body ; in Proglyptotermes,
Neotermes; New Zealand and South Africa. Many species (Kirby,
1949).
H. calotermitis (Nurse). 52-1 14/* by 30-65//; projecting portion of
the axostyle 45-63/*; in Proglyptotermes browni; New Zealand.
Genus Pseudodevescovina Sutherland. Large; 3 short anterior
384
PROTOZOOLOGY
fiagella; one short trailing flagellum; axostyle stout; cresta of moder-
ate size; parabasal body large, divided into a number of attached
cords; in termite gut. Several species (Kirby, 1945).
P. uniflagellate, S. (Fig. 163, b). 52-95m by 26-60/z; 3 delicate
fiagella, 30/z long; trailing flagellum a little stouter; cresta 11-20/*
long; main parabasal body C-shaped, with 7-19 attached cords; in
Kalotermcs insularis (Kirby, 1936, 1945).
Fig. 163. a, Caduceia bugnioni, X930; b, Pseudodevescovina unifiagel-
lata, X1190; c, Bullanympha silvestrii, X780 (all after Kirby); d, e,
Gigantomonas herculea (Dogiel) (d, X530; e, amoeboid phase (Myxo-
monas), X400).
POLYMASTIGINA 385
Genus Bullanympha Kirby. Flagella and cresta similar to those in
Pseudodevescovina; axostyle similar to that in Caduceia; proximal
part of parabasal body bent in U-form around the nucleus and at-
tached voluminous distal portion coiled around the axostyle; in
termite gut (Kirby, 1938, 1949).
B. silvestrii K. (Fig. 163, c). 50-138/* by 35-100/*; cresta about 5.8m
long; distal portion of parabasal body coils around axostyle about
twice; in Neotermes erythraeus.
Genus Gigantomonas Dogiel (Myxomoiias D.). Medium large; 3
anterior flagella; a long and stout trailing flagellum; cresta conspicu-
ously large; large axostyle; in termite gut. According to Kirby (1946),
the so-called undulating membrane is a large cresta; in aflagellate
phase (Myxomonas) the nuclear division takes place.
G. herculea D. (M. polymorpha D.) (Fig. 163, d, e). 60-75/* by
30-35/z; in the intestine of Hodotermes mossambicus (Kirby, 1946).
Family 10 Trichomonadidae Wenyon
Kirby (1947) considers that Trichomonas and allied genera should
be grouped in a new order Trichomonadina. He proposes four fami-
lies: Monocercomonadidae, Devescovinidae, Calonymphidae and
Trichomonadidae to be placed under it. Morphology and taxonomy
(Grasse, 1952a}.
Genus Trichomonas Donne. Pyriform ; typically with four free an-
terior flagella; fifth flagellum along the outer margin of the undulat-
ing membrane; costa at the base of the membrane; axostyle de-
veloped, often protruding beyond the posterior end of the body; en-
cystment has not been definitely observed; all parasitic. Numerous
species (Wenrich, 1944). Cytology and morphogenesis (Kirby, 1944) ;
division process (Kuczynski, 1918).
T. hominis (Davaine) (Fig. 164, a). Active flagellate, undergoing a
jerky or spinning movement; highly plastic, but usually ovoid or
pyriform; 5-20/t long; cytostome near anterior end; 4 anterior
flagella equally lpng; fifth flagellum borders undulating membrane
which is seen in life ; in degenerating individuals the membrane may
undulate, even after loss of flagella, simulating amoeboid movement;
axostyle straight along the median line; vacuolated cytoplasm with
bacteria; commensal in the colon and ileum of man; found in diarr-
hoeic stools. Wenrich (1944) states that in all 20 cases which he
studied, some or most of the individuals showed five anterior flagella
and two unequal blepharoplasts.
Since encysted forms have not yet been found, transmission is as-
sumed to be carried on by trophozoites. According to Dobell (1934),
386
PROTOZOOLOGY
he became infected by an intestinal Trichomonas of a monkey
(Macacas nemestrinus) by swallowing "a rich two-day culture" plus
bacteria which were mixed with 10 cc. of sterilized milk on an empty
stomach. The presence of Trichomonas in his stools was established
on the 6th day by culture and on the 13th day by microscopical
examination after taking in the cultures. The infection which lasted
for about four and a half years, did not cause any ill effects upon
Fig. 164. Diagrams showing the species of Trichomonas which live
in man, X2500 (modified after Wenrich). a, Trichomonas hominis; b, T.
tenax; c. T. vaginalis.
him. The organism is killed after five minutes' exposure to N/20
HC1 at 37°C, but at 15-22°C, is able to survive, though in small
numbers, up to 15 minutes after exposure to the acid (Bishop, 1930).
This flagellate is widely distributed and of common occurrence, es-
pecially in tropical and subtropical regions.
T. tenax (Miiller) (T. elongata Steinberg; T. buccalis Goodey)
(Fig. 164, b). Similar to the last mentioned species; commensal in the
tartar and gum of human mouth. Nomenclature (Dobell, 1939).
T. vaginalis Donne (Fig. 164, c). Broadly pyriform; 10-30/x by
10-20/x; cytoplasm contains many granules and bacteria; cytostome
inconspicuous; nutrition parasitic and holozoic; parasitic in human
reproductive organ. Although the organism does not enter the vagi-
nal tissues, many observers believe it to be responsible for certain
diseases of the vagina. Trussell and Johnson (1945) maintain that it
POLYMASTIGINA
387
is capable of inciting an inflammatory reaction in the vaginal mucous
membrane and according to Hogue (1943), this flagellate produces a
substance which injures the cells in tissue culture. It occurs also in
the male urethra (Feo, 1944). Morphology (Reuling, 1921; Wenrich,
1939, 1944, 1944a, 1947); taxonomy, structure and division (Hawes,
1947); comprehensive monograph (Trussell, 1947).
Because of the morphological similarity of these three species of
Fig. 165. a, Trichomonas microti, X2000 (Wenrich and Saxe); b-d,
T. gallinae, X1765 (Stabler) (b, from domestic pigeon; c, from turkey;
d, from red- tailed hawk); e, T. linearis, X2000 (Kirby).
human Trichomonas, a number of workers maintain that they may
be one and the same species. Dobell (1934) inoculated a rich culture
of Trichomonas obtained from his stools into the vagina of a monkey
(Macacus rhesus) and obtained a positive infection which was easily
proven by culture, but unsatisfactorily by microscopical examina-
tion of smears. The infection thus produced lasted over three years
and did not bring about any ill effect on the monkey. He considers
that T. vaginalis and T. hominis are synonyms and that there occur
diverse strains different in minor morphological characters and phys-
iological properties. Andrews (1929) noted the organism obtained
from vaginal secretion was larger than T. hominis and its undulating
membrane extended for 1/2 or 2/3 the body length, but when cul-
tured in vitro, the organisms became smaller in size and the undu-
lating membrane protruded beyond the body as a free flagellum. On
the other hand, Stabler and his co-workers (1941, 1942) failed to ob-
tain infections in volunteers by inoculating intravaginally with cul-
388 PROTOZOOLOGY
tures of T. hominis. Wenrich (1944) who made comparative studies
of human Trichomonas, considers that there exist distinctly recog-
nizable morphological differences among the three human species of
Trichomonas, as shown in Fig. 164.
T. macacovaginae Hegner and Ratcliffe. In the vagina of Macacus
rhesus. Dobell (1934) held that this is identical with T. vaginalis and
T. hominis.
T. microti Wenrich and Saxe (Fig. 165, a). In the caecum of ro-
dents, Microtus pennsylvanicus, Peromyscus leucopus, Rattus nor-
vegicus, Mesocricetus auratus; 4-9 m long; four free flagella; a blepha-
roplast; undulating membrane medium long; axostyle conspicuous.
T. gallinae (Rivolta) (T. columbae Rivolta and Delprato) (Fig.
165, b-d). Pyriform; 6— 19>u by 2-9m; ovoid nucleus anterior together
with a blepharoplast and parabasal body ; axostyle protrudes a little ;
cytoplasmic granules; four anterior flagella 8-13/x long; autotomy;
in the upper digestive tract of pigeon and also turkey, chicken, and
dove. Experimentally it is transferable to quail, bob-white, hawk,
canary, etc., and often fatal to hosts. Species (Travis, 1932a). Mor-
phology (Stabler, 1941); pathology (Levine and Brandly, 1940);
transmission (Levine et al., 1941); distribution (Barnes, 1951; Sta-
bler, 1951).
T. linearis Kirby (Fig. 165, e). Elongate spindle in form; 9-24^ by
3-8 n; in the intestine of Orlhognathotermes wheeleri; Panama. Other
species in termites (Kirby, 1931).
T. limacis (Dujardin). In the intestine and liver-tubules of slugs,
Deroceras agreste (Dujardin, 1841) and Limax flavus (Kozloff, 1945);
subspherical to ellipsoidal; 11-17/x by 8-13m; four anterior flagella;
undulating membrane extends to posterior end, with free flagellum
(Kozloff).
Genus Tritrichomonas Kofoid. Similar to Trichomonas in appear-
ance, behavior and structure, but with only three anterior flagella;
parasitic. Many species.
T. foetus (Riedmuller) (Fig. 166, a, b). In the genitalia of cattle;
pathogenic; 10-15/z long; transmission by sexual act, from cow to
bull or bull to cow and also by "natural contamination" (Andrews
and Miller, 1936) from cow to cow. Infection brings about perma-
nent or temporary suspension of the conception or the death of
foetus. Sheep is susceptible (Andrews and Rees, 1936). Morphology
(Wenrich and Emmerson, 1933; Morgan and Noland, 1943; Kirby,
1951); effect on tissue culture (Hogue, 1938); effect on reproducti-
bility of cow (Bartlett, 1947, 1948).
T. fecalis Cleveland. 5m by 4ju to 12/x by 6m; average dimensions
POLYMASTIGINA
3S9
8.5/i by 5.7^; axostyle long, protruding 1/3-1/2 the body length
from the posterior end; of 3 flagella, one is longer and less active
than the other two; in the faeces of man. Its remarkable adapta-
bility observed by Cleveland was noted elsewhere (p. 34).
Fig. 166. a, Tritrichomonas foetus in life, X1330 (Morgan and Noland);
h, a stained T. foetus, X1765 (Wenrich and Emmerson); c, d, T. muris,
X2000 (Wenrich); e, T. batrachorum, X1465 (Bishop); f, g, T. augusta,
X 1455 (Samuels) ; h, T. brevicollis, X2000 (Kirby) ; i, j, Pseudotrichomonas
keilini, X2200 (Bishop).
T. muris (Grassi) (Fig. 166, c, d). Fusiform; 10-16/* by 5-10/*; 3
anterior flagella short, posterior flagellum extends beyond body;
axostyle large, its tip protruding; in the caecum and colon of mice
(Mus, Peromyscus) (Wenrich, 1921) and ground squirrel (Citellus
lateralis chrysodeirus) (Kirby and Honigberg, 1949). The organism
390 PROTOZOOLOGY
has been found within nematodes which coinhabit the host intestine.
For example, Theiler and Farber (1932) found the flagellate in the
chyle-stomach of Aspicularis tetraptera and Syphacia obvelata, and
Becker (1933) noted two active individuals of this flagellate within
the egg shell of the last-named nematode. Morphology and division
(Kofoid and Swezy, 1915; Wenrich, 1921).
T. caviae (Davaine). Ovoid or pyriform; 5-22/z long; undulating
membrane long; axostyle protrudes; spherical cysts about 7 m in di-
ameter (Galli-Valerio, 1903; Wenyon, 1926). Cytology and reproduc-
tion (Grasse and Faure, 1939).
T. batrachorum (Perty) (Fig. 166, e). Ovoid; 14-18/* by 6-10/x
(Alexeieff); in culture, 7-22/z by 4-7 ju (Bishop, 1931) ; axostyle with-
out granules; in the colon of frogs and toads. Bishop (1934) suc-
ceeded in infecting the tadpoles of Rana temporaria and Bufo vul-
garis by feeding them on cultures free from cysts.
T. augusta Alexeieff (Fig. 166, /, g). Elongate spindle; 15-27/x by
5-13/z; thick axostyle protrudes, and contains dark-staining gran-
ules; in the colon of frogs and toads. Morphology and division
(Kofoid and Swezy, 1915; Samuels, 1941); viability (Rosenberg,
1936); in frog liver lesions (Stabler and Pennypacker, 1939).
T. brevicollis Kirby (Fig. 166, h). Ovoid, undulating membrane
curved around end; 10-1 7m by 4-8m; in the intestine of Kalotermes
brevicollis; Panama.
Genus Pseudotrichomonas Bishop. Body form, structure and
movement, are exactly like those of Tritrichomonas, but free-living
in freshwater pond (Bishop, 1939).
P. keilini B. (Fig. 166, i, j). When alive 7-11m by 3-6m; highly
plastic; young cultures contain more globular forms, while old cul-
tures more elongated organisms; three unequally long anterior flag-
ella; undulating membrane short, does not extend more than 1/2
the body and without a free flagellum; cytostome; holozoic, feeding
on bacteria; nucleus anterior; axostyle filamentous, invisible in life;
no cysts; in a pond in Lincolnshire, England. Bishop (1935) culti-
vated this flagellate in serum-saline medium, in hay infusion and in
pond or rain water with boiled wheat grains at 4-31°C. (Bishop,
1936, 1939).
Genus Tricercomitus Kirby. Small; 3 anterior flagella; a long
trailing flagellum, adhering to body; nucleus anterior, without
endosome; blepharoplast large, with a parabasal body and an axial
filament; parasitic.
T. termopsidis K. (Fig. 167, b). 4-12/x by 2-3m; anterior flagella
6-20m long; trailing flagellum 19-65m long; in gut of Zootermopsis
POLYMASTIGINA
391
angusticollis, Z. nevadensis and Z. laticeps; California and Arizona.
Culture and encystment (Trager, 1934).
Genus Pentatrichomonas Mesnil. Similar to Trichomonas, but
with 5 free anterior flagella.
P. bengalensis Chatterjee. 9-20ju by 7-14/*; in human intestine.
Kirby (1943, 1945a) observed that of the five flagella, four arise from
Fig. 167. a, Trimastix convexa, X1310 (Hollande); b, Tricercomitus
termopsidis, X665 (Kirby) ; c, Pentatrichomonoides scroa, X1500 (Kirby);
d, Pseudotrypanosoma giganteum, X435 (Kirby).
the end of a columnar (1-2ju long) extension, while the fifth flagellum
is a little shorter and takes its origin about 1m behind the extension.
Genus Pentatrichomonoides Kirby. Five anterior flagella and the
undulating membrane; axostyle very slightly developed; fusiform
parabasal body; nucleus separated from the anterior blepharoplast;
in termite gut.
P. scroa K. (Fig. 167, c). 14-45/u by 6-15/z; in Cryptotermes dudleyi
and Lobitemies longicollis.
Genus Pseudotrypanosoma Grassi. Large, elongate; 3 anterior
flagella; undulating membrane; slender axostyle; band-like structure
between nucleus and blepharoplast; parabasal body long, narrow;
in termite gut.
P. giganteum G. (Fig. 167, d). 55-lU/u long (Grassi); 145-205/* by
392
PROTOZOOLOGY
20-40m; anterior flagella about 30m long (Kirby); in gut of Poro-
termes adamsoni and P. grandis.
Suborder 2 Diplomonadina
The suborder consists of a number of binucleate flagellates pos-
sessing bilateral symmetry.
Family Hexamitidae Kent
Genus Hexamita Dujardin (Octomitus Prowazek). Pyriform; 2
nuclei near anterior end; 6 anterior and 2 posterior flagella; 2 axo-
Fig. 168. a, Hexamita inflata, X600 (Klebs); b, c, trophozoite and cyst
of H. intestinalis, X1600 (Alexeieff); d, H. salmonis, X2100 (Davis); e, H.
cryptocerci, X1600 (Cleveland); f, Trepomonas agilis, X1070 (Klebs);
g, T. rotans, X710 (Lemmermann) ; h, Gyromonas ambulans, X530
(Seligo); i, Trigonomonas compressa, X490 (Klebs); j, Urophagus rostratus,
X800 (Klebs).
POLYMASTIGINA 393
styles; 1-2 contractile vacuoles in free-living forms; cytostome ob-
scure; endoplasm with refractile granules; encystment; in stagnant
water or parasitic.
H. inflata D. (Fig. 168, a). Broadly oval; posterior end truncate;
13-25/* by 9-1 5/z; in stagnant water.
H. intestinalis D. (Fig. 168, b, c). 10-16/x long; in intestine of
frogs, also in midgut of Trutta fario and in rectum of Motella tricir-
rata and M . mustela in European waters. Morphology (Schmidt,
1920).
H. salmonis (Moore) (Fig. 168, d). 10-12/x by 6-8/*; in intestine
of various species of trout and salmon; schizogony in epithelium of
pyloric caeca and intestine; cysts; pathogenic to young host fish
(Moore, 1922, 1923; Davis, 1925).
H. periplanetae (Belaf). 5-8 m long; in intestine of cockroaches.
H. cryptocerci Cleveland (Fig. 168, e). 8-13/t by 4-5. 5/z; in Crypto-
cercus punctulatus.
H. meleagridis McXiel, Hinshaw and Kofoid (Fig. 169, a). Body
6-12/x by 2-5/*. It causes a severe catarrhal enteritis in young tur-
keys. Experimentally it is transmitted to young quail, chicks, and
duckling (McNeil, Hinshaw and Kofoid, 1941).
H. sp. Hunninen and Wichterman (1938) (Fig. 169, b). Average
dimensions 10/x by 5.5m; found in the reproductive organs of the
trematode, Deropristis inflata, parasitic in the eel; heavily infected
eggs are said not to develop.
Genus Giardia Kunstler {Lamblia Blanchard). Pyriform to ellip-
soid; anterior end broadly rounded, posterior end drawn out; bi-
laterally symmetrical; dorsal side convex, ventral side concave or
flat, with a sucking disc in anterior half; 2 nuclei; 2 axostyles; 8
flagella in 4 pairs; cysts oval to ellipsoid; with 2 or 4 nuclei and
fibrils; in the intestine of various vertebrates. Many species. Criteria
for species differentiation (Simon, 1921 ; Hegner, 1922) ; cytology and
taxonomy (Filice, 1952).
G. intestinalis (Lambl) (G. enterica Grassi; G. lamblia Stiles (Fig.
169, c-g). When the flagella lash actively, the organism shows a slight
forward movement with a sidewise rocking motion. The trophozoite
is broadly pyriform, not plastic ; 9-20/x by 5-lG>; sucking disc acts as
attachment organella; cytoplasm hyaline; 2 needle-like axostyles; 2
vesicular nuclei near anterior margin; 8 flagella in 4 pairs; two flag-
ella originate near the anterior end of axostyles, cross each other and
follow the anterolateral margin of the disc, becoming free; two
originating in anterior part of axostyles, leave the body about 1/3
from the posterior tip; two (ventral) which are thicker than others,
originate in axostyles at nuclear level and remain free; two (caudal)
394
PROTOZOOLOGY
flagella arise from the posterior tips of axostyles; a deeply staining
body may be found in cytoplasm.
The cysts are ovoid and refractile; 8-14/x by 6-lOju; cyst wall thin;
contents do not fill the wall; 2 or 4 nuclei, axostyles, fibrils and fla-
gella are visible in stained specimens.
This flagellate inhabits the lumen of the duodenum and other
Fig. 169. a, Hexamita meleagridis, X1875 (McNeal et al.)\ b, an egg
of Deropristis inflata containing Hexamita, X770 (Hunninen and Wich-
terman); c-g, Giardia intestinalis, X2300 (c, front and d, side view of
living organisms; e. stained trophozoite; f, fresh and g, stained mature
cysts) .
POLYMASTIGINA 395
parts of small intestine and colon of man. Both trophozoites and
cysts are ordinarily found in diarrhoeic faeces. In severe cases of in-
fection, an enormous number of the organisms attach themselves to
the mucous membrane of the intestine which may result in abnormal
functions of the host tissues. In some cases, the flagellate has been
reported from the gall bladder. The stools often contain unusual
amount of mucus. Although there is no evidence that G. intestinalis
attacks the intestinal epithelium, experimental observations point to
its pathogenicity (Tsuchiya and Andrews, 1930). Cytology (Kofoid
and Swezy, 1922).
G. duodenalis (Davaine). In the intestine of rabbits; 1 3-1 9m by 8-
U/x (Hegner, 1922).
G. canis Hegner. In dogs; 12-17/x by 7.6-10/z; cysts oval, 9- 13m by
7-9m (Hegner, 1922).
G. muris (Grassi). In rats and mice; 7-13m by 5- 10m (Simon, 1922).
G. simoni Lavier. In the small intestine of rats; 14-19m by 7-10. 5m
(Lavier, 1924); 11—16/* by 5-8m (Nieschulz and Krijgsman, 1925).
G. ondatrae Travis. In the intestine of the muskrat, Ondatra
zibethica; 13m by 7m (Travis, 1939); 10m by 5.5m (Waters et al).
G. caviae Hegner. In the intestine of guinea-pigs; 8-14m by 5.5-
10m (Hegner, 1923).
Genus Trepomonas Dujardin. Free-swimming; flattened; more or
less rounded; cytostomal grooves on posterior half, one on each side;
8 flagella (one long and 3 short flagella on each side) arise from ante-
rior margin of groove; near anterior margin there is a horseshoe-form
structure, in which two nuclei are located; fresh water, parasitic,
or coprozoic.
T. agilis D. (Fig. 168, /). More or less ovoid; 7-30m long; 1 long
and 3 short flagella on each side; rotation movement; stagnant
water; also reported from intestine of amphibians.
T. rotans Klebs (Fig. 168, g). Broadly oval; posterior half highly
flattened; 2 long and 2 short flagella on each of 2 cytostomes; stag-
nant water. '
Genus Gyromonas Seligo. Free-swimming; small; form constant,
flattened; slightly spirally coiled; 4 flagella at anterior end; cyto-
stome not observed; fresh water.
G. ambulans S. (Fig. 168, h). Rounded; 8-15m long; standing
water.
Genus Trigonomonas Klebs. Free-swimming; pyriform, plastic;
cytostome on either side, from anterior margin of which arise 3
flagella; flagella 6 in all; 2 nuclei situated near anterior end; move-
ment rotation; holozoic; fresh water.
390
PROTOZOOLOGY
T. compressa K. (Fig. 168, i). 24-33/x by 10-16/*; flagella of differ-
ent lengths; standing water (King, 1936).
Genus Urophagus Klebs. Somewhat similar to Hexamita; but
a single cytostome; 2 moveable posterior processes; ho lo zoic; stag-
nant water.
U. rostratus (Stein) (Fig. 168, j). Spindle-form; 16-25/* by 6-12/*.
Suborder 3 Polymonadina
The polymonads are multinucleate. Each nucleus is associated
with a blepharoplast (from which a flagellum extends), a parabasal
Fig. 170. a, Calonympha grassii, X900 (Janicki); b, Stephanonympha
nelumbium, X400 (Kirby); c, Coronympha clevelandi, X1000 (Kirby);
d, Metacoronympha senta, X485 (Kirby); e, Snyderella tabogae, X350
(Kirby).
POLYMASTIGINA 397
body, and an axial filament. Janicki called this complex karyomasti-
gont (Fig. 170, a) and the complex which does not contain a nucleus,
akaryomastigont (Fig. 170, e). This group includes the forms which
inhabit the gut of various species of termites, most probably as
symbionts.
Genus Calonympha Foa. Body rounded; large; numerous long
flagella arise from anterior region; numerous nuclei; karyomastigonts
and akaryomastigonts; axial filaments form a bundle; in termite
gut (Foa, 1905).
C. grassii F. (Fig. 170, a). 69-90/x long; in Cryptotermes grassii.
Genus Stephanonympha Janicki. Oval, but plastic; numerous
nuclei spirally arranged in the anterior half; karyomastigonts; axial
filaments form a bundle; in termite gut (Janicki, 1911).
S. nelumbium Kirby (Fig. 170, b). 45)u by 27m; in Cryptotermes
hermsi.
Genus Coronympha Kirby. Pyriform with 8 or 16 nuclei, arranged
in a single circle in anterior region; 8 or 16 karyomastigonts; axo-
styles distributed; in termite gut (Kirby, 1929, 1939).
C. clevelandi K. (Fig. 170, c). 25-53^ by 18-46/*; in Kalotermes
clevelandi.
Genus Metacoronympha Kirby. Pyriform; one hundred or more
karyomastigonts arranged in spiral rows meeting at the anterior
end; each karyomastigont is composed of nucleus, blepharoplast,
cresta, 3 anterior flagella, a trailing flagellum, and an axostyle; axo-
style as in the last genus; in termite gut (Kirby, 1939).
M. senta K. (Fig. 170, d). 22-92M by 15-67ju; karyomastigonts
about 66-345 (average 150) in usually 6 spiral rows; in Kalotermes
emersoni and four other species of the genus.
Genus Snyderella Kirby. Numerous nuclei scattered through the
cytoplasm; akaryomastigonts close together and extend through the
greater part of peripheral region; axial filaments in a bundle; in
termite gut (Kirby, 1929).
S. tabogae K. (Fig. 170, e). Pyriform; rounded posteriorly; bluntly
conical anteriorly; 77-172ju by 53-97/*; in Cryptotermes longicollis.
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398 PROTOZOOLOGY
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POLYMASTIGINA 399
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400 PROTOZOOLOGY
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— (1915) Untersuchungen an parasitischen Flagellaten. II.
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Quart. J. Micr. Sc, 72:355.
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393
— (1931) II. Ibid., 36:171.
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— (1936) Two polymastigote flagellates of the genera Pseudo-
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Hawaiian termite. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 41:213.
— (1938) Polymastigote flagellates of the genus Foaia Janicki,
etc. Quart. J. Micr. Sc, 81:1.
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fornia Publ. Zool., 45:1.
— ■ (1942) II. Ibid., 45:93.
— (1942a) III. Ibid., 45:167.
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man. J. Parasit., 29:422.
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Mastigamoeba, etc Arch Protist., 87:97.
POLYMASTIGINA 401
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30.
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402 PROTOZOOLOGY
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Trussell, R. E.: (1947) Trichomonas vaginalis and trichomoniasis.
Springfield, Illinois.
— and Johnson, G.: (1945) Trichomonas vaginalis Donne. Re-
POLYMASTIGINA 403
cent experimental advances. Puerto Rico J. P. H. Trop. Med.,
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(1947) The species of Trichomonas in man. J. Parasit.,
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and Emmerson, M. A.: (1933) Studies on the morphology of
Tritrichomonas foetus (Riedmiiller) from American cows. J.
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Wenyon, C. M.: (1926) Protozoology. 1. London and Baltimore.
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(1930a) KirbyeUa zeteki, etc. Ibid., 11:740.
Chapter 16
Order 4 Hypermastigina Grassi and Foa
ALL members of this order are inhabitants of the alimentary
. canal of termites, cockroaches, and woodroaches. The cyto-
plasmic organization is of high complexity, although there is only
a single nucleus. Flagella are numerous and have their origin in the
blepharoplasts located in the anterior region of body. In many spe-
cies which are xylophagous, there exists a true symbiotic relationship
between the host termite and the protozoans (p. 29). Method of
nutrition is either holozoic or saprozoic (parasitic). Bits of wood,
starch grains, and other food material are taken in by means of
pseudopodia (p. 99).
Asexual reproduction is by binary fission; multiple division has
also been noted in some species under certain conditions, while sexual
reproduction has been observed in a few species. Encystment occurs
in some genera of Lophomonadidae and certain species inhabiting
woodroaches in which moulting of the host insect leads to encyst-
ment and sexual reproduction. The protozoan fauna of the colon is
lost at the time of molting of the host insect, but newly molted indi-
viduals regain the fauna by proctodeal feeding (Andrews, 1930).
The number of Protozoa present in the colon of the termite is
usually very enormous. The total weight of all Protozoa present in a
termite worker has been estimated to be from about 1/7-1/4 (Hun-
gate, 1939) or 1/3 (Katzin and Kirby, 1939) to as much as 1/2
(Cleveland, 1925) of the body weight of the host. The correlation-
ship between the termite and its intestinal flagellate fauna, has been
studied by several observers. Kirby (1937) notes that certain groups
of flagellates occur only in certain groups of termites, while others
are widely distributed. Flagellates of one host termite introduced
into individuals of another species survive for a limited time only
(Light and Sanford, 1928; Cleveland, Hall et al., 1934; Dropkin,
1941, 1940). Taxonomy (Koidzumi, 1921; Kirby, 1920; Bernstein,
1928).
Body without segmented appearance
Flagella in spiral rows Family 1 Holomastigotidae (p. 405)
Flagella not arranged in spiral rows
Flagella in one or more anterior tufts
1 tuft of flagella Family 2 Lophomonadidae (p. 407)
2 tufts of flagella Family 3 Hoplonymphidae (p. 410)
4 tufts of flagella Family 4 Staurojoeninidae (p. 412)
Several tufts (loriculae) Family 5 Kofoidiidae (p. 412)
404
HYPERMASTIGINA
405
Flagella not arranged in tufts
Posterior part without flagella
Family 6 Trichonymphidae (p. 412)
Flagella over entire body.. .Family 7 Eucomonymphidae (p. 414)
Body with segmented appearance. .Family 8 Teratonymphidae (p. 414)
Family 1 Holomastigotidae Janicki
Genus Holomastigotes Grassi. Body small; spindle-shaped; few
spiral rows reach from anterior to posterior end; nucleus anterior,
surrounded by a mass of dense cytoplasm; saprozoic; in the termite
gut.
H. elongatum G. (Fig. 171, a). In gut of Reticulitermes lucifugus,
R. speratus, R. flaviceps, and Macrohodotermes massambicus; up to
70/x by 24m (Grassi, 1892).
Fig. 171. a, Holomastigotes elongatum, X700 (Koidzumi); b, Holo-
mastigotoides hartmanni, X250 (Koidzumi); c, Spirotrichonympha leidyi,
X400 (Koidzumi); d, S. pulchella, X900 (Brown); e, Microspirotricho-
nympha porteri, X250 (Koidzumi); f, M. ovalis, X600 (Brown); g, Macro-
spironympha xylopletha, X300 (Cleveland et al.); h, Leptospironympha
eupora, X1050 (Cleveland et al.).
406 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Holomastigotoides Grassi and Foa. Large; pyriform;
spiral rows of flagella as in the last genus, but more numerous (12-40
rows) ; a mass of dense cytoplasm surrounds ovoid nucleus near the
anterior end; in termite gut (Grassi and Foa, 1911). Cytology (Cleve-
land, 1949).
H. hartmanni Koidzumi (Fig. 171, b). 50-140^ long; in Copto-
termes formosanus.
H. tusitala Cleveland (Figs. 62; 63; 64; 172, a, 6). In the hindgut
of Prorhinotermes simplex; largest species in this host; elongate pyri-
form; five flagellar bands, arise at the anterior end and spiral the
body 5| times; dimorphic with respect to chromosome numbers,
2 and 3; 130-200 m long. Cleveland's observation on its chromosome
cycle has been mentioned elsewhere (p. 158).
Genus Spirotrichonympha Grassi and Foa (1911). Moderately
large; elongate pyriform; flagella deeply embedded in cytoplasm in
anterior region, arising from 1 to several spiral bands; mass of dense
cytoplasm conical and its base indistinct; nucleus spherical; in ter-
mite gut. Development (Duboscq and Grasse, 1928).
S. leidyi Koidzumi (Fig. 171 ,c). In Coptotermes formosanus; 15-50/z
by 8-30ju.
S. pulchella Brown (Fig. 171, d). 36-42M by 14-16/x; in Reticu-
litermes hageni.
S. bispira Cleveland. In Kalotermes simplicicornis ; 59-102^ by
32-48m; two flagellar bands in 34 spiral turns; resting nucleus with
two chromosomes; the cytoplasmic division is unique in that portion
of the anterior end shifts its position to the posterior end, where a
new flagellar band develops; thus the division is longitudinal (Cleve-
land, 1938).
Genus Spirotrichonymphella Grassi. Small; without spiral ridges;
flagella long; saprozoic, not wood-feeding; in termite gut.
S. pudibunda G. In Porotermes adamsoni; Australia. Multiple
fusion (Sutherland).
Genus Micro spirotrichonympha Koidzumi (Spironympha Koid-
zumi). Small, surface not ridged; spiral rows of flagella only on
anterior half; a tubular structure between nucleus and anterior
extremity; a mass of dense cytoplasm surrounds nucleus; with or
without axial rod; in termite gut (Koidzumi, 1917, 1921).
M. porteri K. (Fig. 171, e). In Reticulitermes flaviceps ; 20-55^ by
20-40m.
M. ovalis (Brown) (Fig. 171,/). 36-48/1 by about 40/z; in Reticu-
litermes hesperus (Brown, 1931).
Genus Spirotrichosoma Sutherland. Pyriform or elongate; below
HYPERMASTIGINA 407
operculum, two deeply staining rods from which fiagella arise and
which extend posteriorly into 2 spiral flagellar bands; without axo-
style; nucleus anterior, median; wood chips always present, but
method of feeding unknown; in Stolotermes victoriensis; Australia.
S. capitata S. 87/x by 38/*; flagellar bands closely spiral, reach
posterior end.
Genus Macrospironympha Cleveland et al. Broadly conical: fia-
gella on 2 broad flagellar bands which make 10-12 spiral turns, 2 inner
bands; axostyles 36-50 or more; during mitosis nucleus migrates
posteriorly; encystment, in which only nucleus and centrioles are
retained, takes place at each ecdysis of host; in Cryptocercus punctu-
latus.
M. xylopletha C. et al. (Fig. 171, g). 112-154M by 72-127M.
Genus Leptospironympha Cleveland et al. Cylindrical; small; fia-
gella on 2 bands winding spirally along body axis; axostyle single,
hyaline; in Cryptocercus punctulatus. Several species. Sexual repro-
duction (Cleveland, 1951).
L. eupora C. et al. (Fig. 171, h). 30-38/z by 18-21/i.
Genus Rostronympha Duboscq, Grasse and Rose. Form variable,
ovoid to medusoid; with or without a long contractile attaching
organelle like a trunk, constricted in three places and of annulated
surface; spiral ridges from which fiagella arise, do not reach the pos-
terior half; posterior half with attached spirochaetes; xylophagous;
in the intestine of Anacanthotermes in Algier.
R. magna D., G. and R. (Fig. 172, c-e). Large individuals, 135-
180m by 110-135/x, with the trunk-like extension reaching a length of
180yu; the body proper is divided into two parts; the posterior portion
may be drawn out like the manubrium of a medusa; axostyle con-
spicuous; in the gut of Anacanthotermes ochraceus of Algier (Duboscq
and Grasse, 1943).
Family 2 Lophomonadidae Kent
Genus Lophomonas Stein. Ovoid or elongate; small: a vesicular
nucleus anterior; axostyle composed of many filaments; cysts com-
mon; in colon of cockroaches.
L. blattarum S. (Figs. 24, a; 65; 72; 173, a-e). Small pyriform,
plastic; bundle of axostylar filaments may project beyond the pos-
terior end; active movements; binary or multiple fission; 25-30/1
long; encystment; holozoic; in the colon of cockroaches, Blatta orien-
talis in particular; widely distributed (Kudo, 1926). Cytology (Ja-
nicki, 1910; Belaf, 1926; Kudo, 1926).
L. striata Biitschli (Fig. 173, f-h). Elongate spindle; body with
408
PROTOZOOLOGY
obliquely arranged needle-like structures which some investigators
believe to be a protophytan (to which Grasse gave the name, Fusi-
formis lophomonadis) ; bundle of axial filaments short, never protrud-
ing; movement sluggish; cyst spherical with needle-like structures;
in same habitat as the last species. Cytology (Kudo, 1926a).
£&£-
'?
Fig. 172. a, b, Holomastigotoides tusitala (Cleveland) (a, surface view;
b, flagellar bands, parabasal bodies, thin axostyles) ; c-e, Rostronympha
magna (Duboscq and Grasse) (c, a large individual with the completely
extended trunk, with axostyle, X500; d, a small medusoid form, XI 000;
e, a young individual with posteriorly attached spirochaetes, X500); f,
anterior end of Joenia annectens (Duboscq and Grasse).
Genus Eulophomonas Grassi and Foa. Similar to Lophomonas, but
flagella vary from 5-15 or a little more in number; in termite gut.
E. kalotermitis Grassi. In Kalotermes flavicollis; this flagellate has
not been observed by other workers.
Genus Prolophomonas Cleveland et al. Similar to Eulophomonas;
established since Eulophomonas had not been seen by recent observ-
ers; it would become a synonym "if Eulophomonas can be found in
K. flavicollis" (Cleveland et al.).
HYPERMASTIGINA
409
P. tocopola C. et al. (Fig. 173, i). 14-19/i by 12-15/*; in Cr?/pto-
cercus punctidatus.
Genus Joenia Grassi. Ellipsoidal; anterior portion capable of
forming pseudopodia; flagellar tufts in part directed posteriorly;
surface covered by numerous immobile short filamentous processes,
Fig. 173. a-e, Lophomonas blattarum (a, b, in life, X320; c, a stained
specimen; d, a trophozoite in which the nucleus is dividing; e, a stained
cyst, X1150) (Kudo); f-h, L. striata (f, in life, X320; g, a stained divid-
ing individual; h, a stained cyst, XI 150) (Kudo); i, Prolophomonas toco-
pola, X1200 (Cleveland et al.); j, Joenia annectens (Grassi and Foa); k,
Microjoenia pyriformis, X920 (Brown); 1, Torquenympha octophis, X920
(Brown).
nucleus spherical, anterior; posterior to it a conspicuous axostyle
composed of numerous axial filaments, a parabasal apparatus sur-
rounding it; xylophagous; in termite gut (Grassi, 1885).
J. annectens G. (Figs. 172, /; 173, j). In Kalotermes flavicollis.
Parabasal apparatus (Duboscq and Grasse, 1928a).
410 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Joenina Grassi. More complex in structure than that of
Joenia; flagella inserted at anterior end in a semi-circle; parabasal
bodies 2 elongated curved rods; xylophagous (Grassi, 1917).
J. pulchella G. In Porotermes adamsoni.
Genus Joenopsis Cutler. Oval; large; a horseshoe-shaped pillar at
anterior end, flagella arising from it; some directed anteriorly, others
posteriorly; parabasal bodies long rods; a strong axostyle; xylopha-
gous; in the termite gut (Cutler, 1920).
J. polytricha C. In Archotermopsis wroughtoni; 95-129/z long.
Genus Microjoenia Grassi. Small, pyriform; anterior end flat-
tened; flagella arranged in longitudinal rows; axostyle; parabasal
body simple; in termite gut (Grassi, 1892).
M. pyriformis Brown (Fig. 173, k). 44-52 n by 24-30/x; in Reticuli-
termes hageni (Brown, 1930).
Genus Mesojoenia Grassi and Foa. Large; flagellar tuft spreads
over a wide area; distinct axostyle, bent at posterior end; 2 para-
basal bodies; in termite gut (Grassi and Foa, 1911).
M . decipiens G. In Kalotcrmes flavicollis.
Genus Torquenympha Brown. Small; pyriform or top-form; axo-
style; radially symmetrical; 8 radially arranged parabasal bodies;
nucleus anterior; in termite gut (Brown, 1930).
T. octoplus B. (Fig. 173, I). 15-26/x by 9-13/z; in Reticulitermes
Family 3 Hoplonymphidae Light
Genus Hoplonympha Light. Slender fusiform, covered with thick,
rigid pellicular armor; each of the two flagellar tufts arises from a
plate connected with blepharoplast at anterior end; nucleus near
anterior extremity, more or less triangular in form; in termite gut
(Light, 1926).
H. natator L. (Fig. 174, a, b). 60-120/x by 5-12/x; in Kalotermes
simplicicornis.
Genus Barbulanympha Cleveland et al. Acorn-shaped: small, nar-
row, nuclear sleeve between centrioles; number of rows of flagella
greater at base; large chromatin granules; numerous (80-350) para-
basals; axostylar filaments 80-350; flagella 1500-13,000; different
species show different number of chromosomes during mitosis; in gut
of Cryptocercus punctulatus. Four species.
B. ujalula C. et al. (Figs. 61; 174, c). 250-340M by 175-275M; 50
chromosomes; flagellated area 36-41ju long; centriole 28-35^ long.
B. laurabuda C. et al. 180-240^ by 135-170/z; 40 chromosomes;
flagellated area 29-33/z long; centriole 24-28^ long.
HYPERMASTIGINA
411
Genus Rhynchonympha Cleveland et al. Elongate; number of fla-
gellar rows same throughout; axial filaments somewhat larger and
longer, about 30; 30 parabasals: 2400 flagellar in Cryplocercus punc-
tulatus. Sexual cycle (Cleveland, 1952).
R. tarda C. et al. (Fig. 175,/). 130-215M by 30-70M.
Genus Urinympha Cleveland et at. Narrow, slender; flagellated
area, smaller than that of the two genera mentioned above; flagella
move as a unit; about 24 axial filaments; 24 parabasals; 600 flagella;
Fig. 174. a, b, Hoplonympha natator, X450 (Light); c, Barbulanympha
ufalula, X210 (Cleveland etal.); d, Urinympha talea, X350 (Cleveland
et al.); e, Staurojoenina assimilis, X200 (Kirby); f, Idionympha perissa,
X250 (Cleveland et al.); g, Teratonympha mirabilis, X200 (Dogiel).
412 PROTOZOOLOGY
in gut of Cryptocercus punctulatus (Cleveland, 1951a).
U. talea C. (Fig. 174, d). 7 5-300 /i by 15-50/t; sexual reproduction
(Cleveland, 1951a).
Family 4 Staurojoeninidae Grassi
Genus Staurojoenina Grassi. Pyriform to cylindrical; anterior
region conical; nucleus spherical, central; 4 flagellar tufts from ante-
rior end; ingest wood fragments; in termite gut (Grassi, 1917).
S. assimilis Kirby (Fig. 174, e). 105-190/z long; in Kalotermes
minor (Kirby, 1926).
Genus Idionympha Cleveland et al. Acorn-shaped; axostyles 8-18;
fine parabasals grouped in 4 areas; pellicle non-striated; nucleus
nearer anterior end than that of Staurojoenina; flagellated areas
smaller; in gut of Cryptocercus punctulatus.
I. perissa C. et. al (Fig. 174,/). 169-275/* by 98-155/t.
Family 5 Kofoidiidae Light
Genus Kofoidia Light. Spherical; flagellar tufts composed of 8-16
loriculae (permanently fused bundles of flagella); without either
axostyle or parabasal body; between oval nucleus and bases of
flagellar tufts, there occurs a chromatin collar; in termite gut (Light,
1927).
K. loriculata L. (Fig. 175, a, b). 60-140/z in diameter; in Kalotermes
simplicicornis.
Family 6 Trichonymphidae Kent
Genus Trichonympha Leidy (Leidyonella Frenzel; Gymnonympha
Dobell; ? Leidy opsis Kofoid and Swezy). Anterior portion consists
of nipple and bell, both of which are composed of 2 layers; a distinct
axial core; nucleus central; flagella located in longitudinal rows on
bell; xylophagous; in the intestine of termites and woodroach. Many
species. The species inhabiting the woodroach undergo sexual repro-
duction at the time of molting of the host (Cleveland, 1949a) (p.
185). Species (Leidy, 1877; Kirby, 1932, 1944) ; nomenclature (Cleve-
land, 1938; Dobell, 1939); mineral ash (MacLennan and Murer,
1934).
T. campanula Kofoid and Swezy (Figs. 60; 175, c). 144-313/z by
57-1 44/t; wood particles are taken in by posterior region of the body
(Fig. 35, a); in Zootermopsis angusticollis, Z. nevadensis and Z.
laticeps (Kofoid and Swezy, 1919).
T. agilis Leidy (Fig. 175, d). 55-1 15/t by 22-45/*; in Reticulitermes
flavipes, R. lucifugus, R. speratus, R. flaviceps, R. hesperus, R. tibialis.
(Leidy, 1877).
HYPERMASTIGINA
413
T. grandis Cleveland et al. 190-205^ by 79-88^; in Cryptocercus
punctulatus.
Genus Pseudotrichonympha Grassi and Foa. 2 parts in anterior
end as in Trichonympha; head organ with a spherical body at its tip
and surrounded by a single layer of ectoplasm; bell covered by 2
layers of ectoplasm; nucleus lies freely; body covered by slightly
Fig. 175. a, b, Kofoidia loriculata, X175, X300 (Light); c, Tricho-
nympha campanula, X150 (Kofoid and Swezy); d, T. agilis, X410
(Kirby); e, Eucomonympha imla, X350 (Cleveland et al.); f, Rhyncho-
nympha tarda, X350 (Cleveland et al.).
414 PROTOZOOLOGY
oblique rows of short fiagella; in termite gut (Grassi and Foa, 1911).
P. grassii Koidzumi. In Coptotermes formosanus; spindle-form;
200-300^ by 50-1 20/x (Koidzumi, 1921).
Genus Deltotrichonympha Sutherland. Triangular; with a small
dome-shaped "head"; composed of 2 layers; head and neck with long
active fiagella; body fiagella short, arranged in 5 longitudinal rows;
fiagella absent along posterior margin; nucleus large oval, located
in anterior third; cytoplasm with wood chips; in termite gut. One
species.
D. operculata S. Up to 230/* long, 164/* wide, and about 50/x thick;
in gut of Mastotermes darwiniensis; Australia.
Family 7 Eucomonymphidae Cleveland et al.
Genus Eucomonympha Cleveland et al. Body covered with fiagella
arranged in 2 (longer rostral and shorter post-rostral) zones; rostral
tube very broad, filled with hyaline material; nucleus at base of
rostrum; in gut of Cryptocercus punctulatus.
E. imla C. et al. (Fig. 175, e). 100-165/* by 48-160/*; attached
forms more elongate than free individuals; sexual reproduction
(Cleveland, 1950).
Family 8 Teratonymphidae Koidzumi
Genus Teratonympha Koidzumi (Teranympha K.; Cyclonympha
Dogiel). Large and elongate; transversely ridged, and presents a
metameric appearance; each ridge with a single row of fiagella; an-
terior end complex, containing a nucleus; reproduction by longitudi-
nal fission; in termite gut (Koidzumi, 1917, 1921; Dogiel, 1917).
T. mirabilis K. (Fig. 174, g). 200-300/* or longer by 40-50/*; in Re-
ticulitermes speratus. Mitosis (Cleveland, 1938a).
References
Andrews, Bess J.: (1930) Method and rate of protozoan refauna-
tion in the termite, etc. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 33:449.
Belar, K.: (1926) Der Formwechsel der Protistenkerne. Ergebn. u.
Fortschr. Zool., 6:235.
Bernstein, T.: (1928) Untersuchungen an Flagellaten aus dem
Darmkanal der Termiten aus Turkestan. Arch. Protist., 61:9.
Brown, V. E.: (1930) Hypermastigote flagellates from the termites
Reticulitermes: etc. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 36:67.
(1930a) On the morphology of Spirotrichonympha with a de-
scription of two new species, etc. Arch. Protist., 70:517.
(1931) The morphology of Spironympha, etc. J. Morphol.
Phvsiol., 51:291.
HYPERMASTIGINA 415
Cleveland, L. R. : (1925) The effects of oxygenation and starvation
on the symbiosis between the termite, Termopsis, and its in-
testinal flagellates. Biol. Bull., 48:455.
— (1938) Longitudinal and transverse division in two closely
related flagellates. Ibid., 74:1.
(1938a) Morphology and mitosis of Tetranympha. Arch.
Protist., 91:442.
(1949) The whole life cycle of chromosomes and their coiling
systems. Tr. Am. Philos. Soc, 39:1.
(1949a) Hormone-induced sexual cycles of flagellates. I. J.
Morphol., 85:197.
(1950) V. Ibid., 87:349.
(1951) VI. Ibid., 88:199.
(1951a) VII. Ibid., 88:385.
- (1952) VIII. Ibid., 91:269.
Hall, S. R., Sanders, E. P. and Collier, Jane: (1934) The
wood-feeding roach, Cryptocercus, its Protozoa, etc. Mem. Am.
Acad. Arts and Sc., 17:185.
Cutler, D. W. : (1920) Protozoa parasitic in termites. II. Quart. J.
Micr. Sc, 64:383.
Dobell, C: (1939) On "Teranympha" and other monstrous latin
parasites. Parasitology, 31:255.
Dogiel, V. A.: (1917) Cyclonympha strobila n. g., n. sp. J. Microbiol.,
4:47.
■ (1922) Untersuchungen an parasitischen Protozoen aus dem
Darmkanal der Termiten. II, III. Arch. Soc. Russ. Protist., 1 :
226.
Dropkin, V. H.: (1937) Host-parasite relations in the distribution of
Protozoa in termites. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 41 : 189.
(1941) Host specificity relations of termite Protozoa. Ecol-
ogy, 22:200.
(1946) The use of mixed colonies of termites in the study of
host-symbiont relations. J. Parasit., 32:247.
Duboscq, O. and Grasse, P.: (1928) Notes sur les protistes para-
sites des termites de France. V. Arch. zool. exper. gen., 67
(N.-R.):159.
(1928a) L'appareil parabasal de Joenia annectens.
C. R. Soc. biol., 99:1118.
(1943) Les flagelles de V Anacanthotermes ochraccus.
Arch. zool. exper. gen., 82:401,
and Rose, M.: (1937) La flagelle de V Anacantho-
termes ochraceus du Sud-Algerien. C. R. Acad. Sc, 205:574.
Grasse, P. P.: (1952) Traite de zoologie. I. Fasc. 1. Paris.
and Hollande, A.: (1945) La structure d'une hypermasti-
gine complexe Staurojoenina caulleryi. Ann. Sc. Nat. Bot. Zool.,
7:147.
Grassi, B.: (1885) Intorno ad alcuni protozoi parassiti delle termiti.
Atti Accad. Gioenia Sci. Nat, Catania, Ser. 3, 18:235.
— (1892) Conclusioni d'una memoria sulla societa dei termiti.
Atti R. Accad. Lincei, Ser. 5, 1:33.
416 PROTOZOOLOGY
(1917) Flagellati viventi nei termiti. Mem. R. Accad. Lincei,
12:331.
and FoA, Anna: (1911) Intorno di protozoi dei termitidi.
Atti R. Accad. Lincei, Ser. 5, 20:725.
Hungate, R. E.: (1939) Experiments on the nutrition of Zooter-
mopsis. III. Ecology, 20:230.
Janicki, C: (1910) Untersuchungen an parasitischen Flagellaten. I.
Ztschr. wiss. Zool., 95:245.
(1915) II. Ibid., 112:573.
Katzin, L. I. and Kirby, H. Jr.: (1939) The relative weights of ter-
mites and their Protozoa. J. Parasit., 25:444.
Kirby, H. Jr.: (1926) On Staurojoenina assimilis, etc. Univ. Cali-
fornia Publ. Zool., 29:25.
— — (1932) Flagellates of the genus Trichonympha. Ibid.,37:349.
(1937) Host-parasite relations in the distribution of Protozoa
in termites. Ibid., 41:189.
(1944) The structural characteristics and nuclear parasites
of some species of Trichonympha in termites. Ibid., 49: 185.
Kofoid, C. A. and Swezy, Olive: (1919) Studies on the parasites of
termites. III. Ibid., 20:41.
(1919a) IV. Ibid., 20:99.
Koidzumi, M.: (1917) Studies on the Protozoa harboured by the
termites of Japan. Rep. Invest, on termites, 6:1.
(1921) Studies on the intestinal Protozoa found in the ter-
mites of Japan. Parasitology, 13:235.
Kudo, R. R.: (1926) Observations on Lophomonas blattaram, etc.
Arch. Protist., 53:191.
(1926a) A cytological study of Lophomonas striata. Ibid., 55:
504.
Leidy, J.: (1877) On intestinal parasites of Termes flavipes. Proc.
Acad. Nat. Sc. Philadelphia, p. 146.
Light, S. F.: (1926) Hoplonympha natator. Univ. California Publ.
Zool., 29:123.
— (1927) Kofoidia, a new flagellate, from a California termite.
Ibid., 29:467.
and Sanford, Mary F.: (1928) Experimental transfaunation
of termites. Ibid., 31:269.
MacLennan, R. F. and Murer, H. K.: (1934) Localization of
mineral ash in the organelles of Trichonympha, etc. J. Morphol.,
56:231.
Sutherland, J. L.: (1933) Protozoa from Australian termites. Quart.
J. Micr. Sc, 76:145.
Swezy, Olive: (1923) The pseudopodial method of feeding by
trichomonad flagellates parasitic in wood-eating termites.
Univ. California Publ. Zool., 20:391.
Chapter 17
Class 2 Sarcodina Hertwig and Lesser
THE members of this class do not possess any thick pellicle
and, therefore, are capable of forming pseudopodia (p. 49).
The term 'amoeboid' is often used to describe their appearance.
The pseudopodia serve ordinarily for both locomotion and food-
capturing. The peripheral portion of the body shows no structural
differentiation in Amoebina, Proteomyxa, and Mycetozoa. Internal
and external skeletal structures are variously developed in other
orders. Thus, in Testacea and Foraminifera, there is a well-devel-
oped test or shell that usually has an aperture, through which the
pseudopodia are extruded; in Heliozoa and Radiolaria, skeletons of
various forms and materials are developed.
The cytoplasm is, as a rule, differentiated into the ectoplasm and
the endoplasm, but this differentiation is not constant. In Radio-
laria, there is a perforated membranous central capsule which marks
the border line between the two cytoplasmic regions. The endoplasm
contains the nucleus, food vacuoles and various granules. The ma-
jority of Sarcodina are uninucleate, but species of Foraminifera and
Mycetozoa are multinucleate in certain phases during their develop-
ment. In the family Paramoebidae, there occurs a peculiar secondary
nucleus.
The Sarcodina are typically holozoic. Their food organisms are
Protozoa, small Metazoa and Protophyta, which present themselves
conspicuously in the cytoplasm. The methods of ingestion have al-
ready been considered (p. 97). One or more contractile vacuoles
are invariably present in forms inhabiting the fresh water, but absent
in parasitic forms or in those which live in the salt water.
Asexual reproduction is usually by binary (or rarely multiple)
fission, budding, or plasmotomy. Definite proof of sexual reproduc-
tion has been noted in a comparatively small number of species.
Encystment is common in the majority of Sarcodina, but is unknown
in a few species. The life-cycle has been worked out in some forms
and seems to vary among different groups. The young stages are
either amoeboid or flagellate, and on this account, it is sometimes
very difficult to distinguish the Sarcodina and the Mastigophora.
In some forms the mature trophic stage may show an amoeboid or
flagellate phase, owing to differences in environmental conditions.
The Sarcodina are divided into two subclasses as follows :
With lobopodia, rhizopodia, or filopodia . . Subclass 1 Rhizopoda (p. 418)
With axopodia Subclass 2 Actinopoda (p. 505)
417
418 PROTOZOOLOGY
Subclass 1 Rhizopoda Siebold
The name Rhizopoda has often been used to designate the entire
class, but it is used here for one of the subclasses, which is further
subdivided into five orders, as follows:
Without test or shell
With radiating pseudopodia Order 1 Proteomyxa
With rhizopodia; forming Plasmodium. . .Order 2 Mycetozoa (p. 427)
With lobopodia Order 3 Amoebina (p. 435)
With test or shell
Test single-chambered; chitinous Order 4 Testacea (p. 472)
Test 1- to many-chambered; calcareous . . Order 5 Foraminifera (p. 493)
Order 1 Proteomyxa Lankester
A number of incompletely known Rhizopods are placed in this
group. The pseudopodia are filopodia which often branch or anas-
tomose with one another. In this respect the Proteomyxa show
affinity to the Mycetozoa. Flagellate swarmers and encystment occur
commonly. The majority of Proteomyxa lead parasitic life in algae
or higher plants in fresh or salt water. Taxonomy (Valkanov, 1940).
Pseudoplasmodium-formation Family 1 Labyrinthulidae
Solitary and Heliozoa-like
With flagellate swarmers Family 2 Pseudosporidae (p. 420)
Without flagellate swarmers Family 3 Vampyrellidae (p. 420)
Family 1 Labyrinthulidae Haeckel
Small fusiform protoplasmic masses are grouped in network of
sparingly branched and anastomosing filopodia; individuals encyst
independently; with or without flagellate stages.
Genus Labyrinthula Cienkowski. Minute forms feeding on various
species of algae in fresh or salt water; often brightly colored due to
carotin. Jepps (1931) found these organisms common in marine
aquaria. Young (1943) considers the six known species as actually
three species and two varieties, while Watson (1951) holds that only
one species, L. macrocystis, should be recognized.
L. cienkowskii Zopf (Fig. 176, a). Attacks Vaucheria in fresh water.
L. macrocystis Cienkowski. Renn (1934, 1936) found a species in
the diseased leaf-tissue of the 'spotting and darkening' eel-grass,
Zostera marina, along the Atlantic coast of the United States. Young
(1943) identified the organism which he studied as L. macrocystis,
and noted that its hosts included various algae and three genera of
Naiadaceae: Zostera, Ruppia and Zannichellia.
The 'net-plasmodium' contains fusiform cells which average in size
SARCODINA, PROTEOMYXA
419
18/x by 4/x and which multiply by binary fission; many cells encyst
together within a tough, opaque membrane. The growth is best at
14-24°C. and at 12-22 per cent chlorinity (Young). Watson and
Ordal (1951) cultivated the organism on agar and sea water with
various bacteria, and found that the organism is fusiform in young-
cultures; highly motile; filamentous projections are formed from the
flat mucoid lamellae, secreted by the organism, and expand to form
passways over which the organism travels; holozoic, saprozoic.
Genus Labyrinthomyxa Duboscq. Body fusiform; amoeboid and
flagellate phases, variable in size; flagellate stage penetrates the host
cell membrane; in plants.
Fig. 176. a, Labyrinthula cienkowskii, X200 (Doflein); b-e, Laby-
rinthomyxa sauvageaui (b, c, flagellate forms, XlOO; d, e, amoeboid
forms, X500) (Duboscq); f, g, Pseudospora volvocis, X670 (Robert-
son); h-j, Protonwnas amyli (Zopf);k, 1, Vampyrella lateritia, X530
(k (Leidy), 1 (Doflein)); m, n, Nuclearia delicatula, X300 (Cash).
420 PROTOZOOLOGY
L. sauvageaui D. (Fig. 176, b-e). Fusiform body 7— llyu long; pseu-
doplasmodium-formation; amoeboid stage 2.5-14ju long; flagellate
stage 7-18/z long; parasitic in Laminaria lejolisii at Roscoff, France.
Family 2 Pseudosporidae Berlese
Genus Pseudospora Cienkowski. Body minute; parasitic in algae
and Mastigophora (including Volvocidae) ; organism nourishes itself
on host protoplasm, grows and multiplies into a number of smaller
individuals, by repeated division; the latter biflagellate, seek a new
host, and transform themselves into amoeboid stage; encystment
common. Morphology and development (Schussnig, 1929).
P. volvocis C. (Fig. 176, /, g). Heliozoan form about 12-30/1 in
diameter; pseudopodia radiating; cysts about 25ju in diameter; in
species of Volvox. Morphology (Roskin, 1927).
P. -parasitica C. Attacks Spirogyra and allied algae.
P. eudorini Roskin. Heliozoan forms 10-12/x in diameter; radiating
pseudopodia 2-3 times longer; amoeboid within host colony; cysts
15 n in diameter; in Eudorina elegans.
Genus Protomonas Cienkowski. Body irregularly rounded with
radiating filo podia; food consists of starch grains; division into bi-
flagellate organisms which become amoeboid and unite to form
pseudo plasmodium; fresh or salt water.
P. amyli C. (Fig. 176, h-j). In fresh water.
Family 3 Vampyrellidae Doflein
Filo podia radiate from all sides or formed from a limited area;
flagellate forms do not occur; the organism is able to bore
through the cellulose membrane of various algae and feeds on proto-
plasmic contents; body often reddish because of the presence of
carotin; multinucleate; multiplication in encysted stage into uni- or
multi-nucleate bodies; cysts often also reddish.
Genus Vampyrella Cienkowski. Heliozoa-like; endoplasm vacuo-
lated or granulated, with carotin granules; numerous vesicular
nuclei and contractile vacuoles; multinucleate cysts, sometimes
with stalk; 50-700/* in diameter. Several species.
V. lateritia (Fresenius) (Fig. 176, k, I). Spherical; orange-red
except the hyaline ectoplasm; feeds on Spirogyra and other algae
in fresh water. On coming in contact with an alga, it often travels
along it and sometimes breaks it at joints, or pierces individual cell
and extracts chlorophyll bodies by means of pseudopodia; multipli-
cation in encysted condition; 30-40/z in diameter. Behavior (Lloyd,
1926, 1929).
SARCODINA, PROTEOMYXA
421
Genus Nuclearia Cienkowski. Subspherical, with sharply pointed
fine radiating pseudopodia; actively moving forms vary in shape;
with or without a mucous envelope; with one or many nuclei; fresh
water.
Fig. 177. a, Arachnula impatiens, X670 (Dobell); b, c, Chalnwjdomyxa
montana: b, X270 (Cash); c, X530 (Penard); d, Rhizoplasma kaiseri,
(Verworn); e, Biomyxa vagans, X200 (Cash); f, Penardia mutabilis, X200
(Cash); g, Hyalodiscus rubicundus, X370 (Penard).
422 PROTOZOOLOGY
N. delicatula C. (Fig. 176, m, n). Multinucleate; bacteria often
adhering to gelatinous envelope; up to 60m in diameter.
N. simplex C. Uninucleate ; 30ju in diameter.
Genus Arachnula Cienkowski. Body irregularly chain-form with
filo podia extending from ends of branches; numerous nuclei and
contractile vacuoles; feeds on diatoms and other microorganisms.
A. impatiens C. (Fig. 177, a). 40-35Gy in diameter.
Genus Chlamydomyxa Archer. Body spheroidal; ectoplasm and
endoplasm well differentiated; endoplasm often green-colored due
to the presence of green spherules; numerous vesicular nuclei; 1-2
contractile vacuoles; secretion of an envelope around the body is
followed by multiplication into numerous secondary cysts; cyst wall
cellulose; in sphagnum swamp.
C. montana Lankester (Fig. 177, b, c). Rounded or ovoid; cyto-
plasm colored; about 50/* in diameter; when moving, elongate with
extremely fine pseudo podia which are straight or slightly curved
and which are capable of movement from side to side; non-con-
tractile vacuoles at bases of grouped pseudo pods; in active individ-
ual there is a constant movement of minute fusiform bodies
(function?); when extended 100-150^ long; total length 300/x or
more; fresh water among vegetation.
Genus Rhizoplasma Verworn. Spherical or sausage-shaped; with
anastomosing filo podia; orange-red; with a few nuclei.
R. kaiseri V. (Fig. 177, d). Contracted form 0.5-1 mm. in diameter;
with 1-3 nuclei; pseudo podia up to 3 cm. long; extended body up to
10 mm. long; originally described from Red Sea.
Genus Chondropus Greeff. Spherical to oval; peripheral portion
transparent but often yellowish; endoplasm filled with green, yellow,
brown bodies; neither nucleus nor contractile vacuoles observed;
pseudo pods straight, fine, often branched; small pearl-like bodies on
body surface and pseudopodia.
C. viridis G. Average diameter 35-45^; fresh water among algae.
Genus Biomyxa Leidy (Gymnophrys Cienkowski). Body form in-
constant; initial form spherical; cytoplasm colorless, finely granu-
lated, capable of expanding and extending in any direction, with
many filopodia which freely branch and anastomose; cytoplasmic
movement active throughout; numerous small contractile vacuoles
in body and pseudopodia; with one or more nuclei.
B. vagans L. (Fig. 177, e). Main part of body, of various forms;
size varies greatly; in sphagnous swamps, bog-water, etc.
B. cometa (C). Subspherical or irregularly ellipsoidal; pseudopodia
small in number, formed from 2 or more points; body 35-40/z, or up
SARCODINA, PROTEOMYXA 423
to 80/x or more; pseudopodia 400/x long or longer. Cienkowski main-
tained that this was a moneran.
Genus Penardia Cash. When inactive, rounded or ovoid; at other
times expanded; exceedingly mobile; endoplasm chlorophyll-green
with a pale marginal zone; filopodia, branching and anastomosing,
colorless; nucleus inconspicuous; one or more contractile vacuoles,
small; fresh water.
P. mutabilis C. (Fig. 177, /). Resting form 90-100/x in diameter;
extended forms (including pseudopodia) 300-400/x long.
Genus Hyalodiscus Hertwig and Lesser. Discoid, though outline
varies; endoplasm reddish, often vacuolated and sometimes shows
filamentous projections reaching body surface; a single nucleus;
ectoplasmic band of varying width surrounds the body completely;
closely allied to Vampyrella; fresh water.
H. rubicundus H. and L. (Fig. 177, g). 50-80/x by about 30ju;
polymorphic; when its progress during movement is interrupted by
an object, the body doubles back upon itself, and moves on in
some other direction; freshwater ponds among surface vegetation.
Genus Leptomyxa Goodey. Multinucleate, thin, amoeboid or-
ganisms; multinucleate cysts formed by condensation of protoplasm;
free-living in soil (Goodey, 1915).
L. reticulata G. (Fig. 178, a-c). Body composed of a thin trans-
parent protoplasm; when fully extended, 3 mm. or more in length;
superficially resembles an endosporous mycetozoan, but no reversi-
ble cytoplasmic movement; multinucleate with eight to 20 to several
hundred nuclei; nuclei, 5-6/z in diameter, with a large endosome;
nuclear division simultaneous, but not synchronous; plasmotomy;
plasmogamy; cysts multinucleate, by local condensation of proto-
plasm; widely distributed in British soil (Singh, 1948, 1948a).
McLennan (1930) found a similar organism in and on the root of
diseased hops in Tasmania.
Genus Megamoebomyxa Nyholm. Extremely large amoeboid or-
ganism; when contracted, lobulate, with adhering detritus; when
cultured at 8-10°C. on debris, filopodia are formed and form-change
occurs; lobate during locomotion; "nutrient chiefly detritus"; Ma-
rine. One species (Nyholm, 1950).
M. argillobia N. (Fig. 178, d). An opaque white organism; up to
25 mm. long; polymorphic; in marine sediment, rich in debris at the
depth of 45-70 in.; Gullmar Fjord, Sweden.
Genus Reticulomyxa Nauss. Highly polymorphic, multinucleate
amoeboid organism; rhizopodia radiating from a central mass of un-
differentiated granular protoplasm with many non-contractile vacu-
424
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 178. a-c, Leptomyxa reticulata, X73 (Singh) (a, a trophozoite;
b, cyst-formation; c, a cyst); d, an individual of Megamoebomyxa argil-
lobia, showing the changes of body form, X2/3 fNyholm); e, a young
trophozoite of Reticulomyxa filosa, X3 (Nauss).
oles; plasmotomy usually into three, after discarding extraneous
particles and migrating to new site; when transferred to fresh dish of
water, "spore-like" bodies are dispersed; fresh water among decaying
leaves. Nauss (1949) points out its affinity to Proteomyxa, Myceto-
zoa and Foraminifera.
R. filosa N. (Fig. 178, e). On moist blotting paper the central mass
is an elevated body, but in water it spreads into a broad sheet, 4-6
mm. in diameter; pseudopodia may be up to 10 times the diameter
of the central white mass; encyst ment occurs when subjected to
SARCODINA, PROTEOMYXA 425
lower temperature or when cultured with algae; food consists of
"worms," rotifers and organic debris.
References
Cash, J.: (1905,1909) The British freshwater Rhizopoda and
Heliozoa. 1, 2. London.
— and Wailes, G. H. : (1915-1918) 3, 4 London.
Doflein, F. and Reichenow, E.: (1929) Lehrbuch der Protozoen-
kunde. 5 ed. Jena.
Kuhn, A.: (1926) Morphologie der Tiere in Bildern. H.2, T.2.
Rhizopoden. Jena.
Leidy, J.: (1879) Freshwater Rhizopods of North America. Rep.
U. S. Geol. Survey, 12.
Penard, E.: (1902) Faune rhizopodique du bassin du Leman.
Geneva.
Cash, J.: (1905) The British freshwater Rhizopoda and Heliozoa. 1.
London.
Cienkowski, L.: (1863) Das Plasmodium. Pringsheim's Jahrb. Bot.,
3:400.
(1867) Ueber den Bau und die Entwicklung der Labyrinthu-
leen. Arch. mikr. Anat., 3:274.
Dobell, C: (1913) Observations on the life-history of Cienkowski's
Arachnula. Arch. Protist., 31:317.
Duboscq, O.: (1921) Labyrinthomyxa sauvageaui, etc. C. R. Soc.
bid., 84:27.
Goodey, T.: (1915) A preliminary communication of three new pro-
teomyxan rhizopods from soil. Arch. Protist., 35:80.
Jepps, Margaret W.: (1931) Note on a marine Labyrinthula. J.
Marine Biol. Ass. United Kingdom, 17:833.
Lloyd, F. E.: (1926) Some behaviours of Vampyrella lateritia, etc.
Papers Mich. Acad. Sc, 6:275.
(1929) The behavior of Vampyrella lateritia, etc. Arch. Pro-
tist., 67:219.
McLennan, E. I.: (1930) A disease of hops in Tasmania and an ac-
count of a proteomyxan organism, etc. Australian J. Exper.
Biol., 7:9.
Nauss, Ruth N.: (1949) Reticulomyxa filosa, etc. Bull. Torrey Bot.
Club, 76:161.
Nyholm, K.-G.: (1950) A marine nude rhizopod type Megamoebo-
myxa argillobia. Zool. Bidrag. Uppsala, 29:93.
Renn, C. E.: (1935) A mycetozoan parasite of Zostera marina. Na-
ture, 135:544.
(1936) The wasting disease of Zostera marina. Biol. Bull.,
70:148.
Roskin, G.: (1927) Zur Kenntnis der Gattung Pseudospora. Arch.
Protist., 59:350.
Schussnig, B.: (1929) Beitrage zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der
Protophyten. IV. Ibid., 68:555.
426 PROTOZOOLOGY
Singh, B. N.: (1948) Studies on giant amoeboid organisms. I. J. Gen.
Microbiol., 2:7.
(1948a) II. Ibid., 2:89.
Valkanov, A.: (1929) Protistenstudien. IV. Arch. Protist., 67:110.
— (1940) Die Heliozoen und Proteomyxien. Ibid., 93:225.
Watson, S. W. and Ordal, E. J.: (1951) Studies on Labyrinthula.
Univ. Washington Oceanogr. Lab., Tech. Rep., 3, 37 pp.
Young, E. L.: (1943) Studies on Labyrinthula, etc. Am. J. Bot., 30:
586.
Zopf, W.: (1887) Handbuch der Botanik (A. Schenk), 3:24.
Chapter 18
Order 2 Mycetozoa de Bary
THE Mycetozoa had been considered to be closely related to the
fungi, being known as Myxomycetes, or Myxogasteres, the
'slime molds.' Through extended studies of their development,
de Bary showed that they are more closely related to the Protozoa
than to the Protophyta, although they stand undoubtedly on the
border-line between these two groups of microorganisms. The Myce-
tozoa occur on dead wood or decaying vegetable matter of various
kinds.
The most conspicuous part of a mycetozoan is its Plasmodium
which is formed by fusion of many myxamoebae, thus producing
a large multinucleate body (Fig. 179, a). The greater part of the
cytoplasm is granulated, although there is a thin layer of hyaline and
homogeneous cytoplasm surrounding the whole body. The numerous
vesicular nuclei are distributed throughout the granular cytoplasm.
Many small contractile vacuoles are present in the peripheral por-
tion of the Plasmodium. The nuclei increase in number by division
as the body grows; the division seems to be amitotic during the
growth period of the Plasmodium, but is mitotic prior to the spore-
formation. The granulation of the cytoplasm is due to the presence
of enormous numbers of granules which in some forms are made up
of carbonate of lime. The Plasmodium is usually colorless, but some-
times yellow, green, or reddish, because of the numerous droplets of
fluid pigment present in the cytoplasm.
The food of Mycetozoa varies among different species. The great
majority feed on decaying vegetable matter, but some, such as
Badhamia, devour living fungi. Thus the Mycetozoa are holozoic or
saprozoic in their mode of nutrition. Pepsin has been found in the
Plasmodium of Fuligo and is perhaps secreted into the food vacuoles,
into which protein materials are taken. The Plasmodium of Bad-
hamia is said to possess the power of cellulose digestion.
When exposed to unfavorable conditions, such as desiccation,
the protoplasmic movement ceases gradually, foreign bodies are
extruded, and the whole Plasmodium becomes divided into numer-
ous sclerotia or cysts, each containing 10-20 nuclei and being sur-
rounded by a resistant wall (6). These cysts may live as long as three
years. Upon return of favorable conditions, the contents of the
sclerotia germinate, fuse together, and thus again produce plasmodia
(c-e).
When lack of food material occurs, the Plasmodium undergoes
427
428
PROTOZOOLOGY
changes and develops sporangia. The first indication of this process
is the appearance of lobular masses of protoplasm in various parts
of the body (/, g). These masses are at first connected with the stream-
ing protoplasmic thickenings, but later become completely segre-
gated into young sporangia. During the course of sporangium-for-
mation, foreign bodies are thrown out of the body, and around each
Fig. 179. The life-cycle of the endosporous mycetozoan (de Bary,
Lister, and others), a, plasmodium-formation by fusion of numerous
myxamoebae; b, c, formation of sclerotium; d, e, germination of sclero-
tium and formation of Plasmodium; f, portion of a Plasmodium showing
streaming protoplasmic thickenings; g, h, formation of sporangia; i, a
sporangium opened, showing capillitium; j, a spore; k, germination of
spore; 1, myxamoeba; m, n, myxoflagellates; o-q, multiplication of
myxoflagellate; r, microcyst; s, myxamoeba. Variously magnified.
sporangium there is secreted a wall which, when mature, possesses a
wrinkled appearance (h). The wall continues down to the substra-
tum as a slender stalk of varying length, and in many genera the end
of a stalk spreads into a network over the substratum, which forms
the base, hypothallus, for the stalk. With these changes the interior
MYCETOZOA 429
of the sporangium becomes penetrated by an anastomosing network,
capillitium, of flat bands which are continuous with the outer cover-
ing (i). Soon after the differentiation of these protective and sup-
porting structures, the nuclei divide simultaneously by mitosis and
the cytoplasm breaks up into many small bodies. These uninucleate
bodies are the spores which measure 3-20/x in diameter and which
soon become covered by a more or less thick cellulose membrane (j),
variously colored in different species.
The mature sporangium breaks open sooner or later and the
spores are carried, and scattered, by the wind. When a spore falls
in water, its membrane ruptures, and the protoplasmic contents
emerge as an amoebula (k, I). The amoebula possesses a single vesic-
ular nucleus and contractile vacuoles, and undergoes a typical amoe-
boid movement. It presently assumes an elongate form and one
flagellum or two unequally long flagella (Elliott, 1948) develop from
the nucleated end, thus forming a myxoflagellate (m, n) which under-
goes a peculiar dancing movement and is able to form short, pointed
pseudopodia from the posterior end. It feeds on bacteria, grows and
multiplies by binary fission (o-q). After a series of division, the myxo-
flagellate may encyst and becomes a microcyst (r). When the micro-
cyst germinates, the content develops into a myxamoeba (s) which,
through fusion with many others, produces the Plasmodium men-
tioned above. This is the life-cycle of a typical endosporous myceto-
zoan.
In the genus Ceratiomyxa in which spores are formed on the sur-
face of sporophores, the development is briefly as follows: the
Plasmodium lives on or in decayed wood and presents a horn-like
appearance. The body is covered by a gelatinous hyaline substance,
within which the protoplasmic movements may be noted. The proto-
plasm soon leaves the interior and accumulates at the surf ace of the
mass; at first as a close-set reticulum and then into a mosaic of
polygonal cells, each containing a single nucleus. Each of these cells
moves outward at right angles to the surface, still enveloped by the
thin hyaline layer, which forms a stalk below. These cells are spores
which become ellipsoid and covered by a membrane when fully
formed. The spore is uninucleate at first, but soon becomes tetranu-
cleate. When a spore reaches the water, its content emerges as an
amoebula which divides three times, forming 8 small bodies, each
of which develops a flagellum and becomes a myxoflagellate. The
remaining part of the development is presumably similar to that of
the endosporous form. Morphology (de Bary, 1864, 1884; MacBride,
1922; Jahn, 1928; MacBride and Martin, 1934).
430 PROTOZOOLOGY
A large number of mycetozoan genera and species are known
(Hagelstein, 1944). The order is divided here into two suborders.
Spore develops into myxoflagellate; myxamoebae fuse completely and
form Plasmodium Suborder 1 Eumycetozoa
No flagellate stage; myxamoebae grouped prior to spore-formation, but
do not fuse to form a true Plasmodium
Suborder 2 Sorophora (p. 433)
Suborder 1 Eumycetozoa Zopf
Spores develop within sporangia
Spores violet or violet-brown
Sporangia with lime
Lime in small granular form Family 1 Physaridae
Fig. 180. a, b, Badhamia utricularis Berkeley (a, cluster of sporangia,
X4; b, part of capillitium and spore-cluster, X140) (Lister); c, d, Fuligo
septica Gmelin (c, a group of sporangia, X^; d, part of capillitium and
two spores, X120) (Lister); e, f, Didymium effusum Link (e, sporan-
gium, Xl2; f, portion of capillitium and wall of sporangium showing
the crystals of calcium carbonate and two spores, X200) (Lister);
g, h, Stemonitis splendens Rostafinski (g, three sporangia, X2; h, col-
umella and capillitium, X42) (Lister).
Genus Badhamia Berkeley (Fig. 180, a, b)
Capillitium, a course network with lime throughout.
Genus Fuligo Haller (Fig. 180, c, d)
Capillitium, a delicate network of threads with vesicular expan-
sions filled with granules of lime.
Lime in crystalline form Family 2 Didymiidae
MYCETOZOA 431
Genus Didymium Schrader (Fig. 180, e, f)
Lime crystals stellate, distributed over the wall of sporangium.
Sporangia without lime
Sporangia stalked Family 3 Stemonitidae
Genus Stemonitis Gleditsch (Fig. 180, g, h)
Sporangium-wall evanescent; capillitium arising from all parts of
columella to form a network.
Sporangium combined into aethalium
Family 4 Amaurochaetidae
Genus Amaurochaete Rostafinski (Fig. 181, a, b)
With irregularly branching thread-like capillitium.
Spores variously colored, except violet
Capillitium absent or not forming a system of uniform threads.
Sporangium-wall membranous; with minute round granules
Family 5 Cribrariidae
c^ggfc, d .
W$9 f?m
Fig. 181. a, b, Amaurochaete fuliginosa MacBride (a, group of spor-
angia, X£; b, capillitium, XlO) (Lister); c, empty sporangium of Cri-
braria aurantiaca Schrader, X20 (Lister); d, sporangium of Orcadella
operculata Wingate, X80 (Lister); e, cluster of sporangia of Tubulina
fragiformis Persoon, X3 (Lister); f, aethalium of Reticularia lycoperdon
Bull., XI (Lister); g, aethalium of Lycogala miniatum Persoon Xl (Lis-
ter); h-j, Trichia affinis de Bary (h, group of sporangia, X2; i, elater,
X250; j, spore, X400) (Lister); k, 1, Arcyria punicea Persoon (k, four
sporangia, X2; 1, part of capillitium, X 250 and a spore, X 560) (Lister);
m, n, Ceratiomyxa fruticulosa MacBride (m, sporophore, X40; n, part of
mature sporophore, showing two spores, X480) (Lister).
432 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Cribraria Persoon (Fig. 181, c)
Sporangia stalked; wall thickened and forms a delicate persistent
network expanded at the nodes.
Sporangia solitary; stalked Family 6 Liceidae
Genus Orcadella Wingate (Fig. 181, d)
Sporangia stalked, furnished with a lid of thinner substance.
Sporangium-wall membranous without granular deposits
Family 7 Tubulinidae
Genus Tubulina Persoon (Fig. 181, e)
Sporangia without tubular extensions.
Many sporangia more or less closely fused to form large bodies
(aethalia); sporangium-wall incomplete and perforated
Family 8 Reticulariidae
Genus Reticularia Bulliard (Fig. 181,/)
Walls of convoluted sporangia incomplete, forming tubes and folds
with numerous anastomosing threads.
Sporangia forming aethalium Family 9 Lycogalidae
Genus Lycogala Micheli (Fig. 181, g)
Oapillitium a system of uniform threads
Capillitium threads with spiral or annular thickenings
Family 10 Trichiidae
Genus Trichia Haller (Fig. 181, h-j)
Capillitium abundant, consisting of free elasters with spiral
thickenings.
Capillitium combined into an elastic network with thickenings in
forms of cogs, half-rings, spines, or warts. Family 11 Arcyriidae
Genus Arcyria Wiggers (Fig. 181, A;, I)
Sporangia stalked; sporangium-wall evanescent above, persistent
and membranous in the lower third.
Capillitium abundant; sporangia normally sessile
Family 12 Margaritidae
Genus Margarita Lister
Capillitium profuse, long, coiled hair-like.
Spores develop on the surface of sporophores
Spores white; borne singly on filiform stalk
Family 13 Ceratiomyxidae
MYCETOZOA 433
Genus Ceratiomyxa Schroter (Fig. 181, m, n)
Suborder 2 Sorophora Lister
Pseudoplasmodium incomplete; myxamoeba of limax-form
Family 1 Guttuliniidae
Pseudoplasmodium complete; myxamoeba with short pointed pseudo-
podia Family 2 Dictyosteliidae
The Proteomyxa and the Mycetozoa as outlined above, are not
distinctly defined groups. In reality, there are a number of forms
which stand on the border line between them. Development of
Dictyostelium discoideum (Raper, 1940) ; food habits and distribution
of Dictyostelium (Singh, 1947, 1947a).
Phytomyxinea Poche
These organisms which possess a large multinucleate amoeboid
body, are parasitic in various plants and also in a few animals. Tax-
onomy (Palm and Burk, 1933; Cook, 1933).
Genus Plasmodiophora Woronin. Parasitic in the roots of cabbage
and other cruciferous plants. The organism produces knotty enlarge-
ments, sometimes known as "root-hernia," or "fingers and toes"
(Fig. 182, a). The small (haploid) spore (6) gives rise to a myxoflagel-
late (c-f) which penetrates the host cell. The organism grows in size
6
#•&£$
Fig. 182. Plasmodiophora brassicae. a, root-hernia of cabbage; b, a
spore, X620; c-e, stages in germination of spore, X620; f, myxamoeba,
X620 (Woronin); g, a host cell with several young parasites, X400;
h, an older parasite, X400 (Nawaschin).
and multiplies (g, h). The Plasmodium divides into sporangia. Flagel-
lated gametes that develop from them fuse in pairs, giving rise to
diploid zygotes. These zygotes develop further into plasmodia in
which haploid spores are produced. Morphology (Jones, 1928) ; cy-
tology (Milovidov, 1931).
P. brassicae W. (Fig. 182). In Brassica spp.
434 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Sorosphaera Schroter. Parasitic in Veronica spp.
Genus Tetramyxa Goebel. In Ruppia, Zannichellia, etc.
Genus Octomyxa Couch, Leitner and Whiffen. In Achlya glomerata.
Genus Sorodiscus Lagerheim and Winge. In Chara, Callitriche, etc.
Genus Polymyxa Ledingham. In Triticum, etc.
Genus Membranosorus Ostenfeld and Petersen. In Heteranthera
dubia.
Genus Spongospora Brunchorst. Parasitic in Solanum; the dis-
eased condition of potatoes is known as powdery or corky scab.
Genus Ligniera Maire and Tison. In Alisma, Juncus, etc.
References
Cook, W. R. I.: (1933) A monograph of the Plasmodiophorales.
Arch. Protist., 80:179.
de Bary, A.: (1864) Die Mycetozoa. Leipzig.
(1884) Vergleichende Morphologie und Biologie der Pilze,
Mycetozoen, und Bacterien. Leipzig.
Elliott, E. W.: (1948) The sperm-cells of Myxomycetes. J. Wash-
ington Acad. Sc, 38:133.
Hagelstein, R.: (1944) The Mycetozoa of North America. New
York.
Jahn, E.: (1901-1920) Myxomycetenstudien. I-X. Ber. deutsch.
bot. Ges., 19, 20, 22-26, 29, 36 and 37.
- (1928) Myxomycetenstudien. XII. Ibid., p. 80.
Jones, P. M.: (1928) Morphology and cultural study of Plasmodio-
phora brassicae. Arch. Protist., 62:313.
Karling, J. S.: (1942) The Plasmodiophorales. New York.
Lister, A.: (1925) A monograph on the Mycetozoa. 3 ed. London.
MacBride, T. H.: (1922) North American slime molds. 2 ed. New
York.
— and Martin, G. H.: (1934) The Myxomycetes. New York.
Milovidov, P. F.: (1931) Cytologische Untersuchungen an Plasmo-
diophora brassicae. Arch. Protist., 73:1.
Palm, B. T. and Burk, Myrle: (1933) The taxonomy of the Plas-
modiophoraceae. Ibid., 79:262.
Raper, K. B.: (1940) Pseudoplasmodium formation and organiza-
tion in Dictyostelium discoideum. J. Elisha Mitchell Sc. Soc,
56:241.
Singh, B. N.: (1947) Studies on soilAcrasieae. I. J. Gen. Microbiol.,
1:11.
(1947a) II. Ibid., 1:361.
Chapter 19
Order 3 Amoebina Ehrenberg
THE Amoebina show a very little cortical differentiation. There
is no thick pellicle or test, surrounding the body, although in
some a delicate pellicle occurs. The cytoplasm is more or less dis-
tinctly differentiated into the ectoplasm and the endoplasm. The ec-
toplasm is hyaline and homogeneous, and appears tougher than the
endoplasm. In the endoplasm, which is granulated or vacuolated, are
found one or more nuclei, various food vacuoles, crystals, and other
inclusions. In the freshwater forms, there is at least one distinctly
visible contractile vacuole. The pseudopodia are lobopodia, and ordi-
narily both the ectoplasm and endoplasm are found in them. They
are formed by streaming or fountain movement of the cytoplasm. In
some members of this order, the formation of pseudopodia is erup-
tive or explosive, since the granules present in the endoplasm break
through the border line between the two cytoplasmic layers and
suddenly flow into the pseudopodia. Asexual reproduction is ordi-
narily by binary fission, although multiple fission may occasionally
take place. Encystment is of common occurrence. Sexual reproduc-
tion, which has been reported in a few species, has not been con-
firmed.
The Amoebina inhabit all sorts of fresh, brackish, and salt waters.
They are also found in moist soil and on ground covered with decay-
ing leaves. Many are inhabitants of the digestive tract of various
animals, and some are pathogenic to the hosts.
The taxonomic status of the group is highly uncertain and con-
fusing, since their life-histories are mostly unknown and since numer-
ous protozoans other than the members of this group often possess
amoeboid stages.
The order is subdivided into four families as follows:
With amoeboid and flagellate stages
Family 1 Naegleriidae
Amoeboid stage only
With one or more nuclei of one kind
Free-living Family 2 Amoebidae (p. 437)
Parasitic Family 3 Endamoebidae (p. 443)
With a secondary nucleus Family 4 Paramoebidae (p. 405)
Family 1 Naegleriidae
The members of the two genera placed in this family possess both
amoeboid and flagellate phases [diphasic). In the former, the organ-
435
436
PROTOZOOLOGY
ism undergoes amoeboid movement by means of lobopodia and in
the latter the body is more or less elongated. Binary fission seems to
take place during the amoeboid phase only. Thus these are diphasic
amoebae, in which the amoeboid stage predominates over the
flagellate. The amoeboid phase is often a 'limax' form; under natural
circumstances, it is often exceedingly difficult by observing the
amoeboid stage only, to determine whether they belong to this fam-
ily or the family Amoebidae.
Genus Naegleria Alexeieff. Minute flagellate stage with 2 flagella;
amoeboid stage resembles Vahlkampfia (p. 442), with lobopodia; cy-
toplasm differentiated; vesicular nucleus with a large endosome;
contractile vacuole conspicuous; food vacuoles contain bacteria;
cysts uninucleate; free-living in stagnant water and often coprozoic.
Taxonomy and cytology (Rafalko, 1947; Singh, 1952).
Fig. 183. a-c, trophozoite, flagellate phase and cyst Call stained) of
Naegleria gruberi, X750 (Alexeieff); d-f, similar stages of N. bistadialis,
X750 (Kiihn); g-j, trophozoite, flagellate phase, cyst, and excystment of
Trimastigamoeba philippinensis, X950 (Whitmore).
N. gruberi (Schardinger) (Fig. 183, a-c). Amoeboid stage 10 36jtt
by 8-18/*; cyst uninucleate; cyst wall with several apertures; flagel-
late stage 18/x by 8/t; stagnant water and often coprozoic.
N. bistadialis (Puschkarew) (Fig. 183, d-f). Similar in size; but
cyst with a smooth wall.
Genus Trimastigamoeba Whitmore. Flagellate stage bears 3
flagella of nearly equal length ; vesicular nucleus with a large endo-
some; amoeboid stage small, less than 20/x in diameter; uninucleate
cysts with smooth wall ; stagnant water.
T. philippinensis W. (Fig. 183, g-j). Amoeboid stage 16-18/x in
diameter; oval cysts 13-14/x by 8-12/t; flagellate stage 16-22/t by
6-8m.
AMOEBINA 437
Family 2 Amoebidae Bronn
These amoebae do not have flagellate stage and are exclusively
amoeboid (monophasic) . They are free-living in fresh or salt water,
in damp soil, moss, etc., and a few parasitic; 1, 2, or many nuclei;
contractile vacuoles in freshwater forms; multiplication by binary
or multiple fission or plasmotomy: encystment common. Genera
(Leidy, 1879; Penard, 1902; Singh, 1952).
Genus Amoeba Ehrenberg (Proteus Miiller; Amiba Bory). Amoe-
boid; a vesicular nucleus, either with many spherical granules or with
a conspicuous endosome; usually one contractile vacuole; pseudo-
podia are lobopodia, never anastomosing with one another; holozoic;
in fresh, brackish or salt water. Numerous species. Nomenclature
(SchaefTer, 1926; Mast and Johnson, 1931; Kudo, 1952).
A. proteus (Pallas) (Figs. 2, e, f; 25; 33, b, c; 43,/; 45-47; 68; 184,
a, b). Up to 600m or longer in largest diameter; creeping with a few
large lobopodia, showing longitudinal ridges; ectoplasm and endo-
plasm usually distinctly differentiated; typically uninucleate; nu-
cleus discoidal but polymorphic; endoplasmic crystals truncate bi-
pyramid, up to 4.5m long (SchaefTer, 1916); nuclear and cytosomic
divisions show a distinct correlation (p. 169); fresh water. Cytology
(Mast, 1926; Mast and Doyle, 1935, 1935a) ; nuclear division (Chalk-
ley, 1936; Liesche, 1938).
A. discoides SchaefTer (Figs. 43, g; 184, c). About 400m long during
locomotion; a few blunt, smooth pseudo podia; crystals abundant,
truncate bipyramidal, about 2.5m long (SchaefTer) ; endoplasm with
numerous coarse granules; fresh water.
A. dubia S. (Figs. 43, h-l; 184, d). About 400m long; numerous
pseudo podia flattened and with smooth surface; crystals, few,
large, up to 30m long and of various forms among which at least 4
types are said to be distinct (SchaefTer); contractile vacuole one or
more; fresh water. Nuclear division (Dawson et al., 1935); viscosity
(Angerer, 1942); contractile vacuole (Dawson, 1945).
A. verrucosa Ehrenberg (Figs. 33, a, d-h; 44, a; 184, e). Ovoid in
general outline with wart-like expansions; body surface usually
wrinkled, with a definite pellicle; pseud opodia short, broad and
blunt, very slowly formed; nucleus ovoid, vesicular, with a large en-
dosome; contractile vacuole; up to 200m in diameter; fresh water
among algae.
A. striata Penard (Fig. 184,/). Somewhat similar to A. verrucosa,
but small; body flattened; ovoid, narrowed and rounded posteriorly;
nucleus vesicular; contractile vacuole comparatively large and often
438
PROTOZOOLOGY
not spherical; extremely delicate pellicle shows 3 or 4 fine longitud-
inal lines which appear and disappear with the movement of the
body; 25-45/z by 20-35ju; fresh water among vegetation.
Fig. 184. a, b, Amoeba proteus (a, X130 (Schaeffer), b, cyst (Doflein));
c, A. discoides, X130 (Schaeffer); d, A. dubia, X130 (Schaeffer); e, A.
verrucosa, X200 (Cash); f, A. striata, X400 (Penard); g, A. guttula,
X800 (Penard); h, A. limicola, X530 (Penard).
A. guttula Dujardin (Fig. 184, g). Ovoid during locomotion, nar-
rowed posteriorly and often with a few minute, nipple-like denta-
tions; movement by wave-like expansions of ectoplasm; endoplasm
granulated, with crystals; nucleus vesicular; a single contractile vac-
uole; 30-35/z by 20-25)u; fresh water in vegetation.
A. limicola Rhumbler (Fig. 184, h). Somewhat similar to A. gut-
AMOEBINA 439
tula; body more rounded; locomotion by eruption of cytoplasm
through the body surface; 45-55/z by 35/x; nucleus vesicular; fresh
water among vegetation.
Fig. 185. a, Amoeba spumosa, X400 (Penard); b, c, A. vespertilio,
X300 (Penard); d-f, A. gorgonia, X400 (Penard); g, A. radiosa, X500
(Penard); h, Dinamoeba mirabilis, X250 (Leidy).
A. spumosa Gruber (Fig. 2, c, d; 185, a). Somewhat fan-shaped;
flattened; during locomotion broad pseudopodia with pointed end;
temporary posterior region with nipple-like projections; a small
440 PROTOZOOLOGY
number of striae become visible during movement, showing there
is a very thin pellicle; endoplasm always vacuolated, the vacuoles
varying in size (up to 30m in diameter); vesicular nucleus with an
endosome; 50-125/1 long during locomotion; fresh water.
A. vespertilio Penard (Fig. 185, b, c.) Pseudo podia conical, com-
paratively short, connected at base by web-like expansions of ecto-
plasm; endoplasm colorless, with numerous granules and food par-
ticles; a single vesicular nucleus with a large endosome; contractile
vacuoles; 60-100/x long; fresh water. Cannibalism (Lapage, 1922);
contractile vacuole (Hyman, 1936) ; morphology and biology (Raabe,
1951).
A. gorgonia P. (Fig. 185, d-f). Body globular when inactive with
a variable number of radiating "arms," formed on all sides; when
in locomotion, clavate; nucleus vesicular, with a large endosome;
rounded forms 40-50m in diameter; clavate individuals up to 100m;
fresh water among vegetation.
A. radiosa Ehrenberg (Fig. 185, g). Small, usually inactive;
globular or oval in outline; with 3-10 radiating slender pseudo podia
which vary in length and degree of rigidity; when pseudo pods are
withdrawn, the organism may be similar to A. proieus in general ap-
pearance; pseudo pods straight, curved or spirally coiled; size varies,
usually about 30m in diameter, up to 120m or more: fresh water.
Genus Dinamoeba Leidy. Essentially Amoeba, but the temporary
posterior region of body with retractile papillae ; body surface includ-
ing pseudopods and papillae, bristling with minute spicules or mo-
tionless cils; often surrounded by a thick layer of delicate hyaline
jelly, even during locomotion; fresh water.
D. mirabilis L. (Fig. 185, h). Oval to limaciform; spheroid when
floating; pseudo podia numerous, conical; ectoplasm clear, usually
with cils; endoplasm with food vacuoles, oil (?) spherules and large
clear globules; nucleus and contractile vacuole obscure; spherical
forms 64-160m in diameter; creeping forms 152-340/x by 60-220m;
cyst about 160m in diameter (Groot, 1936); in sphagnous swamp.
Genus Pelomyxa Greeff. Large amoeboid organisms, ranging from
0.5 to 4 or 5 mm. in length when clavate and moving progressively;
nuclei numerous, less than 100 to 1000 or more; many small contrac-
tile vacuoles; refringent bodies ("Glanzkorper") of various dimen-
sion and number; with or without bacterial inclusions (which Penard
and others consider as symbiotic); holozoic on plant or animal or-
ganisms or detritus; plasmotomy simple or multiple; in fresh water.
Several species (Kudo, 1946). Nomenclature (Schaeffer, 1926; Mast
and Johnson, 1931; Rice, 1945; Kudo, 1946, 1952; Wilber, 1947).
AMOEBINA
441
P. palustris G. (P. villosa Leidy) (Fig. 186, a). Large; 2-3 mm. or
larger in diameter; sluggish, with usually one broad pseudopodium;
undifferentiated cytoplasm with many nuclei and various inclusions
such as fragments of plant bodies, numerous small sand particles,
etc., which brings about opacity and dark coloration of body; in
addition bacteria (Cladothrix pelomyxae Veley, Myxococcus pelomyxae
Keller and Bacterium parapelomyxae Keller) occur in the cytoplasm
Fig. 186. a, Pelomyxa palustris, X160 (Leidy); b, c, P. carolinensis,
X45 (Kudo) (b, an individual in locomotion; c, feeding form); d, e,
P. illinoisensis, X40 (Kudo) (d, an individual in locomotion; e, a more
or less stationary animal); f, Vahlkampfia patuxent, X660 (Hogue); g, h,
Acanthamoeba castellanii, X1270 (Hewitt); i, j, A. hyalina, X840 (Do-
bell).
which some observers consider as symbionts; cyst with two to three
envelopes (Stole, see Kudo, 1951) ; feeds on plant and inorganic de-
bris; polysaprobic in still stagnant water, buried in mud. Central
Europe, Great Britain and North America. Morphology (Greeff,
1874; Hollande, 1945); locomotion (Okada, 1930a; Mast, 1934);
plasmogamy (Okada, 1930) ; laboratory cultivation (Hollande, 1945).
442 PROTOZOOLOGY
P. carolinensis Wilson (Figs. 66; 71; 186, b, c). Monopodal forms
1-5 mm. long; polypodal forms 1-2 mm. in diameter; locomotion ac-
tive; nuclei up to 1000 or more, circular in front view, about 20/x in
diameter and ellipsoid in profile; fluid and food vacuoles, crystals,
many contractile vacuoles; feeds on various Protozoa and inverte-
brates; easily cultivated in laboratory; plasmotomy into two to six
individuals; nuclear division simultaneous and synchronous; ex-
perimental plasmogamy; no encystment in the Illinois stock, but
New Jersey stock is said to encyst (Musacchia, 1950); North Amer-
ica. Distribution (Kudo, 1946); morphology (Wilson, 1900; Andre-
sen, 1942; Kudo, 1946); plasmotomy (Schaeffer, 1938; Kudo, 1949);
nuclear division (Kudo, 1947); locomotion (Wilber, 1946); permea-
bility (Belda, 1942-1943); effect of x-irradiation (Daniels, 1951,
1952, 1952a).
P. illinoisensis Kudo (Fig. 186, d, e). The organism resembles the
last-named species, but much smaller in size; 500-1000 // in length;
clavate forms seldom exceed 1.5 mm.; several hundred nuclei, spheri-
cal, 14-16/z in diameter; peripheral granules of the nuclei are large
and often discoid, irregularly distributed; crystals occur abundantly
in all physiological conditions; chalky white in reflected light; plas-
motomy into two to five daughters; encystment and excystment take
place freely in cultures; cysts measure 250-350^ in diameter with
usually two membranes, a multinucleate amoeba emerges from a
cyst after several weeks (Kudo, 1950, 1951). Other species of Pelo-
myxa (Kudo, 1951).
Genus Vahlkampfia Chatton and Lalung-Bonnaire. Small amoe-
bae; vesicular nucleus with a large endosome and peripheral chro-
matin; with polar caps during nuclear division; snail-like movement,
with one broad pseudo podium; cysts with a perforated wall; fresh
water or parasitic. Nuclear division (Jollos, 1917).
V. Umax (Dujardin). 30-40/x long; fresh water.
V. patuxent Hogue (Fig. 186, /). In the alimentary canal of the
oyster; about 20^ long during the first few days of artificial culti-
vation, but later reaching as long as 140/* in diameter; ordinarily
one large broad fan-shaped pseudopodium composed of the ecto-
plasm; in culture, pseudopodium-formation eruptive; holozoic on
bacteria; multiplication by fission or budding; encystment rare;
cysts uninucleate.
Genus Hartmannella Alexeieff. Small amoebae, with moderately
or well-developed ectoplasm; vesicular nucleus with a large endo-
some; mitotic figure ellipsoidal or cylindrical, without polar caps.
Cysts rounded; wall smooth or slightly wrinkled in one species.
AMOEBINA 443
Several species. Volkonsky (1933) distinguishes four groups. Species
and morphology (Singh, 1952); nuclear division (Jollos, 1917).
H. hyalina (Dangeard). 20-25/z in diameter; ectoplasm well
developed; endoplasm vacuolated; slender pseudo podia extend in
different directions; Hartmann and Chagas observed a centriole in
the endosome.
Genus Acanthamoeba Volkonsky. Small amoebae similar to Hart-
mannella; ectoplasm is not well developed; mitotic figure at the end
of metaphase, a straight or concave spindle with sharply pointed
poles. Cysts enveloped by two membranes, the outer envelope being
highly wrinkled and mammillated. Several species.
A. castellanii (Douglas) (Fig. 186, g, h). In association with fungi
and certain bacteria; Hewitt obtained the organism from agar cul-
tures of sample soil taken from among the roots of white clover; co-
existing with yeast-like fungi, Flavobacterium trifolium and Rhizo-
bium sp.; 12-30/x in diameter; some cysts are said to remain viable
at 37°C. for 6 days.
A. hyalina (Dobell and O'Connor) (Fig. 186, *, j). According to
Volkonsky, the organism described by Dobell and O'Connor as
Hartmannella hyalina, is transferred to this genus. Small amoeba;
9-17yu in diameter when rounded; a single contractile vacuole; binary
fission; mitotic figure a sharply pointed spindle. Cysts spherical;
10-15/x in diameter; with a smooth inner and a much wrinkled outer
wall; easily cultivated from old faeces of man and animals; also in
soil and fresh water.
Genus Sappinia Dangeard. With two closely associated nuclei.
S. diploidea (Hartmann and Nagler). Coprozoic in the faeces of
different animals; pseudopodia short, broad, and few; highly vacu-
olated endoplasm with 2 nuclei, food vacuoles, and a contractile
vacuole; surface sometimes wrinkled; the nuclei divide simultane-
ously; during encystment, two individuals come together and secrete
a common cyst wall; 2 nuclei fuse so that each individual possesses
a single nucleus; finally cytoplasmic masses unite into one; each
nucleus gives off reduction bodies (?) which degenerate; 2 nuclei
now come in contact without fusion, thus producing a binucleate
cyst (Hartmann and Nagler).
Family 3 Endamoebidae Calkins
Exclusively parasitic amoebae; the vegetative form is relatively
small and occurs mostly in the alimentary canal of the hosts; con-
tractile vacuoles absent, except in Hydramoeba; multiplication by
binary fission; encystment common. The generic differentiation is
444
PROTOZOOLOGY
based upon the morphological characteristics of the nucleus. Sum-
mary No. 99 of 'Opinions Rendered' by the International Commis-
sion of Zoological Nomenclature (1928) holds that Entamoeba is a
synonym of Endamoeba; in the present work, however, Endamoeba
and Entamoeba are separated, since the two groups of species placed
under them possess different nuclear characteristics (Fig. 187). No-
menclature (Dobell, 1919, 1938; Kirby, 1945; Hemming, 1951).
Genus Endamoeba Leidy (1879). Nucleus spheroidal to ovoid;
membrane thick; in life, filled with numerous granules of uniform di-
mensions along its peripheral region; upon fixation, a fine chro-
matic network becomes noticeable in their stead; central portion
®
Fig. 187. Diagram showing the stained nuclei of the trophozoites of
five genera of parasitic amoebae, a, Endamoeba; b, Entamoeba; c, Ioda-
moeba; d, Endolimax; e, Dientamoeba.
coarsely reticulated ; with several endosomes between the two zones
(Fig. 187, a) ; in some, cytoplasm becomes prominently striated dur-
ing locomotion; in the intestine of invertebrates.
E. blattae (Biitschli) (Fig. 188). In the colon of cockroaches; 10-
150 n in diameter; rounded individuals with broad pseudopodia, show
a distinct differentiation of cytoplasm; elongated forms with a few
pseudopodia, show ectoplasm only at the extremities of the pseudo-
pods; endoplasm of actively motile trophozoites shows a distinct
striation, a condition not seen in other amoebae; fluid-filled vacuoles
occur in large numbers; amoebae feed on starch grains, yeast cells,
and bacteria, all of which coexist in the host organ; cysts, 20-50m
in diameter, commonly seen in the colon contents, with often more
than 60 nuclei. The life-cycle of this amoeba is still unknown. Mer-
rier (1909) held that when the multinucleate cysts gain entrance to
the host intestine through its mouth, each of the cyst-nuclei becomes
the center of a gamete; when the cyst-membrane ruptures, the
gametes are set free and anisogamy takes place, resulting in forma-
AMOEBINA
445
tion of numerous zygotes which develop into the habitual tropho-
zoites. Morphology (Leidy, 1879; Kudo, 1926; Morris, 1936; Meg-
litsch, 1940).
E. thomsoni Lucas. In the colon of cockroaches; 7-30/x in diameter;
very adhesive; 1-3 large peripheral granules on the nuclear mem-
brane; cysts 8-16ju in diameter, with 1-4 nuclei (Lucas, 1927).
E. disparata Kirby. In colon of Microtermes hispaniolae ; 20-40^
long; active; xylophagous (Kirby, 1927).
Fig. 188. Endamoeba blattae. a-c, trophozoites in life, X530; d, a stained
binucleate amoeba; e, f, stained and fresh cysts, X700 (Kudo).
E. majestas K. (Fig. 189, a). In the same habitat; 65-165ju in
diameter; many short pseudo podia; cytoplasm rilled with food
particles (Kirby, 1927).
E. simulans K. (Fig. 189, b). In the gut of Microtermes pana-
maensis; 50-1 50/z in diameter.
E. sabulosa K. In the same habitat; small 19-35/z in diameter.
E. pellucida, E. granosa, E. lutea and E. suggrandis were described
from the colon of Cubitermes sp. of Africa (Henderson, 1941).
446
PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Entamoeba Casagrandi and Barbagallo (1895). Nucleus
vesicular, with a comparatively small endosome, located in or near
the center and with varying number of peripheral nonchromatinic
granules attached to the nuclear membrane (Fig. 187, b) ; chromatin
in the endosome and in peri-endosomal region. The genus was es-
tablished by the two Italian authors who were unaware of the ex-
istence of the genus Endamoeba (p. 444). Numerous species in ver-
tebrates and invertebrates; one species in Protozoa.
Fig. 189. a, Endamoeba majestus, X420 (Kirby); b, E. simulans, X420
(Kirby); c, Entamoeba paulista in Zelleriella, X290 (Stabler and Chen).
E. histolytica Schaudinn (1903) (Figs. 190, 191). The trophozoite
is an active amoeba and measures 7-35 (9-20) n in diameter; cyto-
plasm usually well differentiated; eruptive formation of large lobo-
podia, composed largely of ectoplasm; when fresh, active monopodal
progressive movement; the vesicular nucleus appears in life as a
ring, difficult to recognize; food vacuoles contain erythrocytes, tissue
cell fragments, leucocytes, etc.; stained nucleus shows a membrane,
comparatively small peripheral granules, a centrally located small
endosome and an indistinct network with a few scattered chromatin
granules. The trophozoite multiplies by binary fission. The amoeba
lives in the lumen and in the tissues of the wall of the colon, and
brings about characteristic ulceration of the colon which is typically
accompanied by symptoms of amoebic dysentery. Through the portal
vein, the amoeba may invade the liver in which it produces abscess,
and other organs such as lung, brain, testis, etc. The infection in
these organs is referred to as amoebiasis.
Under certain circumstances not well understood, the amoebae
remain small after division. Such amoebae are sluggish and known
AMOEBINA 447
as the precystic forms. The precystic amoeba secretes presently a
resistant wall and becomes encysted. The highly refractile cyst is
spherical and measures 5-20/* in diameter. At first it contains a single
nucleus which divides twice. The mature cyst contains four nuclei.
In addition the cyst contains diffused glycogen and elongated refrac-
tile rod-like bodies with rounded extremities which stain deeply
with haematoxylin (hence called chromatid bodies). These inclusions
are absorbed and disappear as the cyst matures. No further changes
Pi ''KJ_
up •
o
■■■we
. ■ -V
»:■;■
,W,
IPS
Q
7 p
Fig. 190. Entamoeba histolytica, X1150 (Kudo). 1, a living trophozoite;
2-4, stained trophozoites; 5, a fresh cyst; 6-9, stained cysts.
take place in the cyst as long as it remains outside the host's intes-
tine. The trophozoites are found in dysenteric or diarrhoeic faeces,
but formed faeces usually contain cysts. The cyst is the stage by
which the organism begins its life in a new host.
The life-cycle of Entamoeba histolytica in human host is unknown.
The amoeba has, however, been cultivated in vitro by numerous
investigators since the first successful cultivation by Boeck and
Drbohlav (1924) (p. 887). The excystment of cysts and metacystic
development have also been observed and studied especially by
Dobell (1928) and Cleveland and Sanders (1930) in cultures. Snyder
448
PROTOZOOLOGY
and Meleney (1941) found that bacteria-free cysts usually excyst
when suspended in various media with living bacteria and in the
absence of bacteria, excystment was observed only in the presence
of the reducing agents, cysteine or neutralized thioglycollic acid or
under conditions of reduced oxygen tension. According to Dobell,
in the process of excystation, a single tetranucleate amoeba emerges
from a cyst through a minute pore in the cyst wall. The tetranucleate
metacystic amoeba produces a new generation of trophozoites by a
diverse series of nuclear and cytoplasmic divisions (Fig. 191) which
result in production of eight uninucleate amoebulae. These amoebu-
lae are young trophozoites which grow into larger ones. No sexual
phenomena have been observed during these changes. It is supposed
that when viable cysts reach the lower portion of the small intestine
or the colon, the changes stated above take place in the lumen and
the young uninucleate amoebulae initiate an infection.
Q) G
I cbeb 0[
I I \ I \ / I ^
Fig. 191. Diagram showing excystment and a common way by which
a metacystic amoeba of Entamoeba histolytica divides into 8 uninucleate
amoebulae (Dobell).
AMOEBINA 449
While the description of Entamoeba histolytica given above applies
in general, diversities in dimensions of trophozoites and cysts, and
in pathogenicity in human host as well as in experimental animals
have been reported. A number of observers are inclined to think
that there are several varieties or races of this amoeba, as has
already been mentioned (p. 226).
Entamoeba histolytica, commonly known as "the dysentery
amoeba," was first definitely recognized by Losch in Russia in 1875.
It is now known to be widely distributed in tropical, subtropical
and temperate regions alike, although it is more prevalent in warmer
regions. The incidence of infection depends mainly on the sanitary
conditions of the community, since the cysts of the organism are
voided from host in faeces. Faecal examinations which have been
carried on by numerous investigators in different countries of the
world, reveal that the incidence of infection is as high as over 50 per
cent in some areas. According to Craig (1934), 49,336 examinations
made by many observers in various parts of the United States show
that the infection rate varied from 0.2 to 53 per cent, averaging 11.6
per cent, which justifies Craig's (1926) earlier estimate that about 10
per cent of the general population harbor this protozoan. An acute
infection by E. histolytica is accompanied by dysentery, while in
chronic cases or in convalescence, the host may void infectious cysts
without suffering from the infection himself. Such a person is known
as a cyst-carrier or -passer.
The trophozoite if voided in faeces perish in a comparatively short
time. The dissemination of infection is thus exclusively carried on by
the cyst. Viable cysts may be transmitted (1) by contamination of
food through contact with contaminated water or through unsani-
tary habit of food handlers who are cyst-carriers; (2) by droppings of
flies and cockroaches which, as noted below, contain viable cysts for
a comparatively long time after feeding on faeces containing cysts
and by soiled appendages of these insects which may directly trans-
fer the cysts to food by walking on it; and (3) by contaminated wa-
ter in which the cysts live considerably longer than in faeces (p. 450).
The seriousness of water-borne infection in crowded areas is easily
realized when one recalls the outbreak (some 1400 cases) of amoebic
dysentery and amoebiasis which originated in Chicago in 1933, where
defective plumbing in certain establishments contaminated the wa-
ter system with the cysts of Entamoeba histolytica (Bundesen et al.,
1936) and the development of some 100 cases of amoebic dysentery
among firemen who drank contaminated water in connection with
the 1934 fire of the Union Stockyards in Chicago (Hardy and Spec-
tor), although in the latter instance, some workers believe that se-
450 PROTOZOOLOGY
vere amoebic infections may have resulted from already existing
dormant infections aided by the newly formed association with bac-
teria.
The cysts remain viable for a considerable length of time outside
the human intestine, if environmental conditions are favorable. Since
information regarding the viability and longevity of the cyst is
highly important from the epidemiological standpoint, many papers
have dealt with it. In testing the viability of the cyst, the following
two tests have been used by the majority of investigators.
(a) Eosin-staining test. Kuenen and Swellengrebel (1913) first
used a dilute solution of eosin (1:1000). It has since been used by
Wenyon and O'Connor, Root, Boeck, and many others. Solutions
used vary from 1:10,000 (Root) to 1:100 (Boeck). A small amount
of fresh cyst-containing material and a drop of eosin solution are
mixed on a slide, then dead cysts will appear stained reddish under
the microscope, while living cysts remain unstained. Whether or not
unstained cysts might be dead or uninfectious is unknown. But as
Wenyon and O'Connor wrote, "if we accept the eosin test as a
criterion and regard all unstained cysts as living, the error in judg-
ment will be on the safe side." Root found neutral red in 1:10,000
dilution to give a slightly larger proportion of stained cysts than
eosin. Frye and Meleney's (1936) comparative study leads one to
look upon this method as a fairly dependable one.
(b) Cultivation test. Improved cultural technique now brings
about easily excystment of viable cysts in a proper culture medium.
For example, Yorke and Adams (1926) obtained in 24 hours "a
plentiful growth of vegetative forms" from cysts in Locke-egg-serum
medium (p. 887). Snyder and Meleney (1941) note recently that the
excystation does not take place in various culture media unless liv-
ing bacteria were added or oxygen concentration of the media was
decreased. Animal infection method has not been used much, as
experimental animals (cats) show individual difference in suscepti-
bility. Some of the published results are summarized below. The
testing method used is indicated by: a for eosin test or 6 for cultiva-
tion test and is given after the name of the investigators.
1. Cysts in faeces kept in a covered container. All cysts disap-
peared in 3 days at 37°C; at 27-30°C. half of the cysts found dead
by the 4th and all dead by the 9th day (Kuenen and Swellengrebel ;
a). Alive for 3 weeks (Thomson and Thomson; a). Remain un-
changed for several weeks if kept "cool and moist" (Dobell). All
dead within 10 days at 16-20° or 0°C. (Yorke and Adams; b).
2. Cysts kept in water emulsion. All alive on the 9th, but almost
AMOEBINA 451
all dead on the 13th day (Kuenen and Swellengrebel ; a). Viable for
25 days (Thomson and Thomson; a). Cysts in running water for 15
days, excysted in pancreatic juice (Penfold, Woodcock and Drew).
Viable for 30 days (Wenyon and O'Connor; a) ; for 5 weeks (Dobell) ;
for 153 days (Boeck; a). Alive for 10 and 17 days at 16-20° and 0°C.
respectively (Yorke and Adams; 6); for 3, 10, 30, and 90 days at
30°, 20°, 10° and 0°C. respectively (Chang and Fair; b).
3. Cysts in relation to high temperatures. Cysts are killed at
68°C. in 5 minutes (Boeck; a); at 50°C. in 5 minutes (Yorke and
Adams; 6). Dipping in boiling water for 5-10 seconds kills the cysts
(Kessel; a).
4. Cysts in relation to desiccation. Desiccation kills cysts instantly
(Kuenen and Swellengrebel; Wenyon and O'Connor, Dobell, etc.).
Therefore, the cysts carried in dust are most probably not viable
under ordinary circumstances.
5. Cysts in relation to chemicals.
HgCl2. 0.1% solution kills cysts in 4 hours (Kuenen and
Swellengrebel; a) ; kills readily (Lin; 6). 1 : 2500 solution kills
cysts in 30 minutes at 20-25°C. (Yorke and Adams; 6).
Creolin. 1 :250 solution kills cysts in 5-10 minutes (Kuenen and
Swellengrebel; a).
Alcohol. 50% alcohol kills cysts immediately (Kuenen and
Swellengrebel; a); in one hour (Kessel; a).
Formaldehyde. Cysts treated in 1% solution for 4 hours were
apparently dead, though not stained with eosin (Wenyon
and O'Connor). 0.5% solution kills cysts in 30 minutes at
20-25° or 37°C. (Yorke and Adams; b).
Cresol. 1:20, 1:30, and 1:100, killed the cysts immediately,
in one minute and in 30 minutes respectively (Wenyon and
O'Connor; a).
Phenol. 1:40 and 1:100 killed cysts in 15 minutes and 7 hours
respectively (Wenyon and O'Connor; a). 1% solution of
phenol or lysol kills cysts in 30 minutes at 20-25° or 37°C.
(Yorke and Adams; b).
HC1. 7.5% solution at 20-25°C. and 5% at 37°C. kill the
cysts in 30 minutes (Yorke and Adams; 6).
NaOH. 2.5% solution kills cysts in 30 minutes at 20-25° or
37°C. (Yorke and Adams; 6).
Chlorine. 1:10,000 solution did not have any effect on cysts
after several hours (Wenyon and O'Connor; a). 0.2% and
0.5% solutions kill the cysts in 7 days and 72 hours respec-
tively (Kessel; a). 0.5% and 1% solutions kill the cysts in
452 PROTOZOOLOGY
36-48 and 12-24 hours respectively (Lin; 6). 1/64 of a
saturated solution of chlorine (about 0.7 weight %) at
20-25°C. and 1/320 solution at 37°C. killed the cysts in 30
minutes (Yorke and Adams; b). Exposure to the residual
chlorine 5, 8 and even 10 parts per million for 30 minutes al-
lowed cysts to remain viable (Becker et al.). Thus the cysts
of E. histolytica are resistant to chlorinated water far above
the concentration which is used ordinarily in water treat-
ment.
Potassium permanganate. 2% solution kills the cysts in 3 days
(Kessel; a). 1 :500 solution kills cysts in 24-48 hours (Lin; b).
]% solution does not kill cysts at 20-25° or 37°C. in 30
minutes (Yorke and Adams; b).
Emetin hydrochloride and yatren. 5% solutions of the two
drugs did not have any effects upon cysts at 20-25° or 37°C.
in 30 minutes (Yorke and Adams; 6).
Antibiotics. The majority of antibiotics appear to inhibit the
growth of bacteria, which results in the death of the amoeba
in culture. Prodigiosin, however, according to Balamuth and
Brent (1950), kills the amoebae when added in the dilution
of 1:400,000, while bacterial flora, oxidation-reduction po-
tentials and pH are not affected by it.
6. Cysts in relation to passage through the intestine of insects.
Wenyon and O'Connor found that the cysts of E. histolytica sur-
vived as long as 24 hours in the intestines of flies, Musca domestica,
Calliphora, and Lucilia, and living cysts were voided for 16 hours
after feeding on faecal material containing cysts. Roubaud using
Musca domestica, found also unaltered cysts for over 24 hours (but
rarely after 40 hours) after taking the cysts in its gut, and if a fly
drowned in water, the cysts remained viable for about a week. Root
(1921) using Musca domestica, Calliphora erythrocephala (and
Fannia caniadaris, Lucilia caesar, and Chrysomyia macellaria) found
that about half the cysts were dead after 15 hours and last living
cysts were found after 49 hours in the intestines of these flies after
feeding on cyst-containing material, and that when the flies which
ingested cysts were drowned in water, about half the cysts were
found dead in 3 days and last living cysts were noticed on the 7th
day. Frye and Meleney (1932) found cysts in the intestines of flies
which were caught in 4 of 12 houses where infected subjects lived.
Macfie (1922) reported that the cysts of Entamoeba histolytica he
observed in the intestine of Periplaneta americana appeared un-
AMOEBINA 453
harmed. Tejera (1926) reports successful experimental infection in
two kittens that were fed on the droppings of cockroaches (sp.?)
caught in a kitchen, which contained cysts resembling those of
E. histolytica. Frye and Meleney (1936) observed that the cysts
passed through the intestine of Periplaneta americana in as early as
10-12 hours and remained in the intestine for as long as 72 hours,
after feeding on experimental material. Cysts which stayed in the
cockroach intestine for 48 hours gave good cultures of trophozoites
in egg-horse-serum-Ringer medium.
'0
0
S 6 8 9
Fig. 192. Entamoeba coli, X1150 (Kudo). 1, a living amoeba; 2-5,
stained trophozoites; 3, an amoeba infected by Sphaerita; 6, a precystic
amoeba; 7, a fresh cyst; 8, a stained young cyst with a large glycogen
vacuole; 9, a stained mature cyst.
In addition to E. histolytica, there are now known four other
intestinal amoebae living in man. They are E. coli, Endolimax nana,
Iodamoeba biitschlii and Dientamoeba fragilis. In Table 10 are given
the characteristics necessary for distinguishing E. histolytica from
the other four intestinal amoebae.
E. coli (Grassi) (Fig. 192). The trophozoite measures 15^0/* in
diameter; average individuals 20-35/x; cytoplasm not well differenti-
ated; movement sluggish; endoplasm granulated, contains micro-
organisms and faecal debris of various sizes in food vacuoles; erythro-
cytes are not ingested, though in a few cases (Tyzzer and Geiman)
454
PROTOZOOLOGY
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AMOEBINA 455
and in culture (Dobell, etc.), they may be taken in as food particles
(see below); nucleus, 5-8ju in diameter, seen in vivo; compared with
E. histolytica, the endosome is somewhat large (about 1m in diame-
ter) and located eccentrically; peripheral granules more conspicuous.
The precystic form, 10-30/x in diameter, resembles that of E. his-
tolytica. Separation of the two species of amoebae by this stage is
ordinarily impossible.
The cyst is spherical or often ovoid, highly refractile; 10-30^ in
diameter; immature cyst contains 1, 2 or 4 nuclei, oneor more large
glycogen bodies with distinct outlines, but comparatively small
number of acicular, filamentous or irregular chromato id bodies with
sharply pointed extremities; when mature the cyst contains 8
nuclei and a few or no chromato id bodies. The trophozoites and
small number of cysts occur in diarrhoeic or semiformed faeces and
the formed faeces contain mostly cysts.
This amoeba lives in the lumen of the colon and does not enter the
tissues of the wall. As noted above, it has been observed in a few
instances to ingest erythrocytes, but there is no evidence to show
that it takes them in from living tissues. This amoeba is therefore
considered a commensal. The abundant occurrence of the tro-
phozoite in diarrhoeic faeces is to be looked upon as a result and not
the cause of the intestinal disturbance. This amoeba is of common
occurrence and widely distributed throughout the world.
Nothing is known about its life-cycle in the human intestine.
Cultivation of cysts in vitro indicates, according to Dobell (1938),
the following changes : The cyst content usually emerges as a single
multinucleate amoeba through a large opening in the cyst wall.
Prior to or during the emergence, the amoeba may divide. Normal
mature cysts "frequently lose" 1-4 of their original 8 nuclei before
germination, thus becoming "infranucleate" (with 4-7 nuclei). Un-
like in E. histolytica, there is no nuclear division in the metacystic
stages. By a series of binary divisions with random nuclear distribu-
tion, uninucleate amoebulae are finally produced. These are young
amoebae which develop into large trophozoites. Here also, there is
no sexual phenomenon in the life-cycle. Nomenclature and morphol-
ogy (Dobell, 1919, 1938).
E. gingivalis (Gros) (E. buccalis Prowazek) (Fig. 193). This
amoeba lives in carious teeth, in tartar and debris accumulated
around the roots of teeth, and in abscesses of gums, tonsils, etc. The
trophozoite is as active as that of E. histolytica; 8-30> (average
10-20>) in diameter; cytoplasm well differentiated; monopodal
progressive movement in some individuals; endoplasm hyaline, but
456 PROTOZOOLOGY
vacuolated, and contains ordinarily a large number of pale greenish
bodies (which are probably nuclei of leucocytes, pus cells or other
degenerating host cells) and bacteria in food vacuoles; nucleus, 2-4/x
in diameter, appears as a ring ; when stained it shows a small central
endosome and small peripheral granules closely attached to the
Si
~Qm -V-. <#**
m
A
«
Fig. 193. Entamoeba gingivalis, X1150 (Kudo). 1, 2, living amoebae;
3-7 stained amoebae.
membrane. Stabler (1940) observed 5 chromosomes during binary
fission. Encysted forms have not been observed in this amoeba.
Kofoid and Johnstone (1930) reported having seen the same organ-
ism in the mouth of monkeys (Rhesus and Cynomolgus) from south-
east Asia.
E. gingivalis is the very first parasitic amoeba that has become
known to man. Gros (1849) found it in Russia in the tartar on the
surface of the teeth. Some observers maintain that this amoeba is the
cause of pyorrhoea alveolaris, but evidence for such an assumption
seems to be still lacking. It has been found in the healthy gums and
even in false teeth (Lynch). Therefore, it is generally considered as
a commensal. It is widely distributed and of common occurrence.
In the absence of the encysted stage, it is supposed that the
organism is transmitted in trophic forms. According to Koch (1927)
who studied the effects of desiccation and temperatures upon the
amoeba in culture, the amoeba is killed at 0°C. in 18 hours, at 5°C.
in 24 hours, at 10°C. in 48 hours, at 45°C. in 20 minutes, at 50°C. in
15 minutes, and at 55°C. in 2 minutes. At 40°C, the survival is said
to be for an indefinite length of time. Complete desiccation of the
culture medium or immersion in water at 60°C. kills the amoeba. She
AMOEBINA 457
considered that E. gingivalis may be disseminated both by direct
contact and by intermediate contaminated articles. Nuclear division
(Stabler, 1940; Noble, 1947).
E. gedoelsli Hsiung (E. intestinalis (Gedoelst)). In the colon and
caecum of horse; 6-13ju by 6-1 1/x; endosome eccentric; bacteria-
feeder.
E. equi Fantham. 40-50m by 23-29^; nucleus oval; cysts tetra-
nucleate, 15-24/z in diameter; seen in the faeces of horse; Fantham
reports that the endoplasm contained erythrocytes.
E. bovis Liebetanz. 5-20/x in diameter; uninucleate cysts, 4-15/z in
diameter; in the stomach of cattle and gnu, Cunnochaetes taurinus
(Mackinnon and Dibb, 1938). Morphology (Noble, 1950).
E. ovis Swellengrebel. Cyst uninucleate; in the intestine of sheep.
E. caprae Fantham. In goat intestine.
E. polecki (Prowazek). In the colon of pigs; 10-12/z in diameter;
cyst uninucleate, 5-1 1/z in diameter.
E. debliecki Nieschulz (Fig. 194, a). 5-lO^t in diameter; cysts uni-
nucleate; in the intestine of pigs and goats. Two races (Hoare, 1940) ;
morphology (Nieschulz, 1924) ; Entamoebae of domestic animals (No-
ble and Noble, 1952).
E. venaticum Darling. In the colon of dog; similar to E. histolytica;
since the dog is experimentally infected with the latter, this amoeba
discovered from spontaneous amoebic dysentery cases of dogs, in
one of which were noted abscesses of liver, is probably E. histolytica.
E. cuniculi Brug. Similar to E. coli in both trophic and encysted
stages; in the intestine of rabbits.
E. cobayae Walker (E. caviae Chatton). Similar to E. coli; in the
intestine of guinea-pigs (Nie, 1950).
E. muris (Grassi) (Fig. 194, b, c). In the caecum of rats and mice;
trophozoite 8-30 /z; cytoplasm with rod-shaped or fusiform bacteria
and flagellates coinhabiting the host's organ; nucleus 3-9/* in diame-
ter and resembles closely that of E. coli; cysts 9-20/x in diameter,
with eight nuclei when mature. Nuclear division (Wenrich, 1940);
food habits (Wenrich, 1941).
E. citelli Becker (Fig. 194, d, e). In the caecum and colon of the
striped ground squirrel, CiteUus tridecemlineatus ; rounded tropho-
zoites 10-25m in diameter; nucleus 4-6/* in diameter, with a compara-
tively large endosome which varies in position from central to
perpheral; cysts with eight nuclei, about 15m in diameter.
E. gallinarum Tyzzer. In the caeca of chicken, turkeys and pos-
sibly other fowls; trophozoites 9-25 (16-18)//; cysts octonucleate,
15^ bv 12ju.
458
PROTOZOOLOGY
E. testudinis Hartmann. In intestine of turtles, Tesludo graeca,
T. argentina, T. calcarata and Terrapene Carolina.
E. barreti (Taliaferro and Holmes) (Fig. 194, /). In the colon of
snapping turtle, Chelydra serpentina; trophozoites 14-23 (18)^ long.
Cultivation (Barret and Smith, 1924).
E. terrapinae Sanders and Cleveland (Fig. 194, g, h). Trophozoites
10-15/x long; cysts 8-14/z in diameter, tetranucleate when mature;
Fig. 194. a, a stained cyst of Entamoeba debliecki, X1330 (Hoare);
b, c, E. muris, X1330 (Wenrich) (b, with fusiform bacilli; c, with Tri-
trichomonas muris); d, e, stained trophozoite and cyst of E. citelli, X880
(Becker); f, a stained trophozoite of E. barreti, X1330 (Taliaferro and
Holmes); g, h, stained trophozoite and cyst of E. terrapinae, X1665
(Sanders and Cleveland); i, j, stained trophozoite and cyst of E. invadens,
X1045 (Geiman and Ratcliffe).
upon excystment, the cyst content divides into four uninucleate
amoebulae; in the colon of Chrysemys elegans (Sanders and Cleve-
land, 1930).
E. invadens Rodhain (Figs. 2, a, b; 194, i,j). Resembles E. histoly-
tica. Trophozoites measure 15.9/x in average diameter (9. 2-38. 6 /z by
9-30m); active locomotion; feed on leucocytes, liver cells, epithelial
cell debris, bacteria, etc.; nucleus simliar to that of E. histolytica.
Cysts 13. 9m (11-20/z) in diameter; 1-4 nuclei; glycogen vacuole;
chromatoid bodies acicular, rod-like or cylindrical.
Hosts include various reptiles: Varanus salvator, V. varius,
Tiliqua scincoides, Pseudoboa clelia, Lampropeltis getulus, Ancis-
AMOEBINA 459
trodon mokasen, Natrix rhombifer, N. sipedon, N. sipedon sipedon,
N. cyclopion, Python sebae, Rachidelus brazili, etc. Zoological Gar-
dens in Philadelphia (Geiman and Ratcliffe) and Antwerp (Rodhain).
The amoeba produces lesions in the stomach, duodenum, ileum,
colon and liver in host animals. Time for excystation in host's intes-
tine (jejunum and ileum) five to 14 hours; time for metacystic devel-
opment in host's intestine seven-24 hours; the excysted amoeba with
four nuclei, each of which divides once, divides finally into eight
amoebulae; optimum temperature for culture 20-30°C. (Geiman and
Ratcliffe, 1936). Ratcliffe and Geiman (1938) observed spontaneous
and experimental amoebiasis in 32 reptiles.
E. ranarum (Grassi). In colon of various species of frogs; re-
sembles E. histolytica; 10-50/x in diameter; cysts are usually tetranu-
cleate, but some contain as many as 16 nuclei; amoebic abscess of
the liver was reported in one frog. Comparison with E. histolytica
(Dobell, 1918); life cycle (Sanders, 1931).
E. (?) phallusiae Mackinnon and Ray. In the intestine of the ascid-
ian, Phallusia mamillata; 15-30m by 10-15m; nucleus about 5ju in
diameter, structure not well defined; cysts uninucleate, about 20/z
in diameter; parasitic nutrition.
E. minchini Mackinnon. In gut of tipulid larvae; 5-30/x in diam-
eter; cyst nuclei up to 10 in number.
E. apis Fantham and Porter. In Apis mellifica; similar to E. coli.
E. thomsoni Lucas. In the colon of cockroaches; when rounded
7-30 (15-25)m in diameter; usually attached to debris by a knob-
like process, highly adhesive; cytoplasm poorly differentiated; vesic-
ular nucleus with peripheral granules; endosome variable, with
loosely aggregated granules and a central dot; cysts 8-16/x in diame-
ter, with one to four nuclei (Lucas, 1927).
E. aulastomi Noller. In the gut of the horse-leech, Haemopis san-
guisuga; cysts with four nuclei. Morphology nad development
(Bishop, 1932).
E. paulista (Carini) (Brumptina paulista C.) (Fig. 189, c). In the
cytoplasm of many species of Protociliata; trophozoites 5.3-14. 3/z
in diameter; cysts about 9.4/x in diameter, uninucleate; no effect upon
host ciliates even in case of heavy infection (Stabler and Chen, 1936;
Chen and Stabler, 1936). Carini and Reichenow (1935) : trophozoites
8-14jii in diameter; cysts 8-12/i; either identical with E. ranarum or
a race derived from it.
Genus Iodamoeba Dobell. Vesicular nucleus, with a large en-
dosome rich in chromatin, a layer of globules which surrounds the
endosome and do not stain deeply, and achromatic strands between
400
PROTOZOOLOGY
the endosome and membrane (Fig. 187, c); cysts ordinarily uninu-
cleate, contain a large glycogenous vacuole which stains conspicu-
ously with iodine; in intestine of man and mammals (Dobell, 1919).
I. butschlii (Prowazek) (7. williamsi P.) (Fig. 195). The tropho-
zoite is 6-25/x (average 8-1 5/z) in diameter; fairly active with pro-
gressive movement, when fresh; cytoplasm not well differentiated;
endoplasm granulated, contains bacteria and yeasts in food vacu-
oles; the nucleus (3-4/x in diameter) visible in vivo; the large endo-
some about \ the diameter of nucleus, surrounded by small spherules.
.;. ' ®
w
©
Fig. 195. Iodamoeba butschlii, X1150 (Kudo). 1, a living amoeba; 2-5,
stained trophozoites; 4, 5, somewhat degenerating trophozoites; 0, a fresh
cyst; 7-10, stained cysts.
The cysts are spherical, ovoid, ellipsoid, triangular, pyriform or
square; rounded cysts measure about 6-1 5/* in the largest diameter;
a large glycogen body which becomes conspicuously stained with
Lugol's solution (hence formerly called "iodine cysts") persists;
nucleus with a large, usually eccentric endosome.
The trophozoites and cysts are ordinarily present in diarrhoeic
faeces, while the formed faeces contain cysts only. This amoeba ap-
parently lives in the lumen of the colon and does not seem to attack
host's tissues and is, therefore, considered to be a commensal. No-
menclature (Dobell, 1919); nuclear structure (Wenrich, 1937a).
I. suis O'Connor. In colon of pig; widely distributed; indis-
tinguishable from I. butschlii; it is considered by some that pigs are
probably reservoir host of I. butschlii.
Genus Endolimax Kuenen and Swellengrebel. Small; vesicular
nucleus with a comparatively large irregularly shaped endosome,
AMOEBINA
461
composed of chromatin granules embedded in an achromatic ground
mass and several achromatic threads connecting the endosome with
membrane (Fig. 187, d); commensal in hindgut in man and animals.
Several species.
E. nana (Wenyon and O'Connor) (Fig. 196, a-d). The trophozoite
measures 6-18ju in diameter; fairly active monopodal movement by
forming a broad pseudopodium; when stationary pseudo podia are
formed at different points; endoplasm is granulated and contains
bacteria as food particles; the vesicular nucleus, 1.5-3/x in diameter,
is composed of a delicate membrane with a few chromatin granules
and a large irregularly shaped endosome.
Fig. 196. a-d, Endolimax nana, X2300 (Kudo) (a, b, living and
stained trophozoites; c, d, fresh and stained cysts); e, f, stained tropho-
zoite and cyst of E. clevelandi, X3000 (Gutierrez-Ballesteros and Wen-
rich); g, h, stained trophozoites of Martinezia baezi, XI 700 (Hegner and
Hewitt).
The cyst is usually ovoid; young cyst contains 1 or 2 nuclei; mature
cyst with 4 nuclei; indistinctly outlined glycogen body may be
present while immature; dimensions 5-12/x (majority 7-10/i) in
diameter.
The trophozoites are found in diarrhoeic or semifluid faeces to-
gether with the cysts, and formed faeces contain cysts. This amoeba
is coelozoic in the lumen of the upper portion of colon and is consid-
ered to be a commensal. Cytology and life-history (Dobell, 1943).
E. caviae Hegner. In the caecum of guinea-pigs. Morphology (Heg-
ner, 1926; Nie, 1950).
462
PROTOZOOLOGY
E. grcgariniformis (Tyzzer). In the caeca of fowls; 4-12ju in di-
ameter; cysts uninucleate (Tyzzer, 1920).
E. clevelandi Gutierrez-Ballesteros and Wenrich (Fig. 196, e, /).
In the rectal contents of Pseudemys floridana mobilensis ; tropho-
zoites 5-1 -ijj, in diameter; cysts tetranucleate, 4.5-10/z large.
E. ranarum Epstein and Ilovaisky. In the colon of frogs; cysts
octonucleate, up to 25/x in diameter.
E. blattae Lucas. In the colon of cockroaches; trophozoites 3-1 5/z
long; cysts, 7-1 l^t in diameter and with one to three nuclei (Lucas,
1927).
Genus Dientamoeba Jepps and Dobell. Small amoeba; number of
binucleate trophozoites often greater than that of uninucleate
forms; nuclear membrane delicate; endosome consists of several
chromatin granules embedded in plasmosomic substances and
connected with the membrane by delicate strands (Fig. 187, e) ; in
colon of man (Jepps and Dobell, 1918).
Fig. 197. Dientamoeba fragilis, X2300 (Kudo), a, b, living bi- and
uni-nucleate trophozoites; c, d, stianed uni- and bi-nucleate tropho-
zoites.
D. fragilis J. and D. (Fig. 197). The trophozoite is actively amoe-
boid; 4-18/x (average 5-12/x) in diameter; progressive movement;
cytoplasm well differentiated; endoplasm granulated contains bac-
teria in food vacuoles; nucleus onl}r faintly visible; 1 or 2 nuclei, the
ratio is variable; in some material binucleate forms may be 80% or
more (Jepps and Dobell), while in others uninucleate forms may pre-
dominate (Kudo, 1926a; Wenrich, 1937); nucleus is made up of a
delicate membrane and a large endosome (more than one-half the
diameter of nucleus) in which are embedded 4-8 chromatin granules
along the periphery. According to Dobell (1940), the binucleate con-
dition represents an arrested telophase stage of mitosis and the
chromatin granules are in reality chromosomes, probably 6 in num-
ber. Comparison with Histomonas meleagridis (p. 335) led this author
to think that this amoeba may be an aberrant flagellate closely re-
lated to Histomonas.
AMOEBINA 463
Encysted stage has not been observed. Degenerating trophozoites
often develop vacuoles which coalesce into a large one and the or-
ganisms may then resemble Blastocystis hominis (p. 893) which is
very common in faeces. Transmission may be carried on by tropho-
zoites. According ot Wenrich (1940), this amoeba if left in the faeces
remains alive up to 48 hours at room temperature, but disappears
probably by disintegration in 2 hours at 3.5°C. Since all attempts
to bring about experimental infection by mouth or by rectum failed,
Dobell considered that the amoeba may be transmitted from host
to host in the eggs of nematodes such as Trichuris or Ascaris, as in
the case of Histomonas (p. 335).
The amoeba inhabits the lumen of the colon. There is no indica-
tion that it is histozoic or cytozoic. Some workers attribute certain
intestinal disturbances to this amoeba, but no definite evidence for
its pathogenicity is available at present. It seems to be widely dis-
tributed, but not as common as the other intestinal amoebae men-
tioned above, although in some areas it appears to be common. Nu-
clear division (Wenrich, 1936, 1939, 1944a; Dobell, 1940).
Genus Martinezia Hegner and Hewitt. The nucleus consists of a
wrinkled membrane, a large compact or granular endosome and
heavy peripheral beads; cysts unknown; parasitic.
M. baezi H. and H. (Fig. 196, g, h). In the intestine of iguanas,
Ctenosaura acanthura; 8-21/* by 6.5-16/*; nucleus about 4/* in diame-
ter; two nuclei in about 3 per cent of the organisms; cysts not seen.
Genus Dobellina Bishop and Tate. Trophozoite: small amoeba;
ectoplasm and endoplasm differentiated; usually monopodal;
nucleus one to many ; nucleus with a large central endosome and an
achromatic nuclear membrane; nuclear divisions mitotic and simul-
taneous; no solid food vacuoles; no contractile vacuole; with refrin-
gent granules. Cysts: spherical; thin-walled; devoid of glycogen and
of chromatoid bodies; 2 or more nuclei; parasitic (Bishop and Tate,
1939).
D. mesnili (Keilin) (Fig. 198, a-c). Uninucleate amoebae as small
as 3.6/* in diameter; multinucleate forms 20-25/* by 10-15/*; cysts
8-11/* in diameter; in the space between the peritrophic membrane
and the epithelium of the gut in the larvae of Trichocera hiemalis,
T. annulata, and T. regelationis (winter gnats).
Genus Schizamoeba Davis. Nucleus vesicular, without endosome,
but with large discoid granules arranged along nuclear membrane; 1
to many nuclei; cyst-nuclei formed by fragmentation of those of
the trophozoite and possess a large rounded chromatic endosome,
connected at one side with the nuclear membrane by achromatic
464 PROTOZOOLOGY
strands to which chromatin granules are attached; in stomach of
salmonid fish. One species (Davis, 1926).
S. salmonis D. (Fig. 198, d, e). Sluggish amoeba; 10-25/* in di-
ameter; 1 to several nuclei; multiplication by binary fission; nuclear
division amitotic. Cysts are said to be more abundant than tropho-
zoites and their appearance seems to be correlated with the amount
of available food; cysts spherical, 15-35/t in diameter; cyst-mem-
brane thin and nuclei vary from 3 to many; during encystment,
chromatin bodies of trophozoite become collected in several masses
which then break up and each chromatin grain becomes the endo-
some of newly formed nucleus; cyst contents divide sooner or later
into 4-11 multinucleate bodies and the whole increases in size;
finally cyst-membrane disintegrates and the multinucleate bodies
become set free. Trophozoites are said to occur in the mucous
covering of stomach of host fish; cysts occur in both stomach and
intestine. Aside from the loss of certain amount of available food, no
pathogenic effect of the amoeba upon the host fish was noticed
(Davis).
Genus Hydramoeba Reynolds and Looper. Nucleus vesicular
with a large central endosome composed of a centriole (?) and
chromatin granules embedded in an achromatic mass, achromatic
strands radiating from endosome to membrane; a ring made up of
numerous rod-shaped chromatin bodies in the nuclear-sap zone; 1
or more contractile vacuoles; apparently the most primitive para-
sitic amoeba; parasitic on Hydra.
H. hydroxena (Entz) (Fig. 198, f-l). Parasitic in various species
of Hydra; first observed by Entz; Wermel found 90 per cent of Hydra
he studied in Russia were infected by the amoeba; Reynolds and
Looper (1928) stated that infected Hydra die on an average in 6.8
days and that the amoebae disappear in 4-10 days if removed from a
host hydra. More or less spheroidal, with blunt pseudopods; 60-
380/i in diameter; nucleus shows some 20 refractile peripheral gran-
ules in life; contractile vacuoles; food vacuoles contain host cells;
multiplication by binary fission.
Ito (1949) found this organism in Hydra japonica, H. magnipapil-
lata, Palmathydra robusta, etc. in Japan. The trophozoites measured
26-2 10m long with a nucleus, 10-12/x in diameter. Early infection
occurs on the tip of tentacles and spreads to the body proper (Fig.
198, i-l). Since the tentacles remain contracted, the host hydra can-
not feed on food organisms and becomes "depressed." The amoebae
finally enter the coelenteric cavity and feed on the endoderm cells.
The host hydra becomes spherical. At25°C. death of the hydra may
AMOEBINA
465
occur in one week. Encystment takes place soon after the death of
the host or occasionally when the organisms become detached from
the host; cysts are spherical, measure 27.5-29m, and contain one or
more nuclei, nematocysts and a large vacuole (h). Nuclear division
(Reynolds and Threlkeld, 1929).
Fig. 198. a-c, Dobellina mesnili (Bishop and Tate) (a, b, stained uni-
and multi-nucleate trophozoites, X2200; c, a stained cyst with six nu-
clei, X1760); d, e, stained trophozoite and cyst of Schizamoeba salmonis,
X1070 (Davis); f-1, Hijdramoeba hydroxena (f, h-1, Ito; g, Reynolds and
Looper) (f, a trophozoite in life, X330; g, a trophozoite feeding on ecto-
dermal cells of a Hydra in section, X470; h, a living cyst, X530; i-1,
stages of infection in Hydra, X6.5); m, Paramoeba pigmentifera with its
nucleus in center, X800 (Janicki).
Family 4 Paramoebidae Poche
Genus Paramoeba Schaudinn. The amoeba possesses a nucleus and
nucleus-like secondary cytoplasmic structure, both of which mul-
tiply by division simultaneously; free-living or parasitic.
P. pigmentifera (Grassi) (Fig. 198, m). About 30/x long; sluggish;
466 PROTOZOOLOGY
cytoplasm distinctly differentiated; secondary body larger than the
nucleus; flagellated swarmers are said to occur; parasitic in coelom
of Chaetognatha such as Sagitta claparedei, Spadella bipunctata, S.
inflata, and S. serratodentata. Cytology (Janieki, 1928, 1932).
P. schaudinni Faria, da Cunha and Pinto. About 7-22/x in diame-
ter; in salt water; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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470 PROTOZOOLOGY
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AMOEBINA 471
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Wenrich, D. H. : (1936) Studies on Dientamoeba fragilis. I. Jour.
Parasit., 22:76.
(1937) II. Ibid., 23:183.
(1937a) Studies on Iodamoeba butschlii with special reference
to nuclear structure. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc, 77:183.
(1939) Studies on Dientamoeba fragilis. III. J. Parasit., 25:
43.
(1940) Nuclear structure and nuclear division in the trophic
stages of Entamoeba muris. J. Morph., 66:215.
(1941) Observations on the food habits of Entamoeba muris
and Entamoeba ranarum. Biol. Bull., 81:324.
(1944) Studies on Dientamoeba fragilis. IV. J. Parasit.,
30:322.
(1944a) Nuclear structure and nuclear division in Dient-
amoeba fragilis. J. Morph., 74:467.
Wenyon, C. M.: (1926) Protozoology. 1. London and Baltimore.
Wermel, E.: (1925) Beitrage zur Cytologie der Amoeba hydroxena
Entz. Arch. russ. Protist., 4:95.
Wilber, C. G.: (1942) The cytology of Pelomyxa carolinensis. Tr.
Am. Micr. Soc, 61:227.
(1945) Origin and function of the protoplasmic constituents
in Pelomyxa carolinenesis. Biol. Bull., 88:207.
(1946) Notes on locomotion in Pelomyxa carolinensis. Tr.
Am. Micr. Soc, 65:318.
(1947) Concerning the correct name of the rhizopod,
Pelomyxa carolinensis. Ibid., 66:99.
Wilson, H. V.: (1900) Notes on a species of Pelomyxa. Am. Nat.,
34:535.
Yorke, W. and Adams, A. R. D.: (1926) Observations on Entamoeba
histolytica. I. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 20:279.
Chapter 20
Order 4 Testacea Schultze
THE Testacea or Thecamoeba comprise those amoeboid organ-
isms which are enveloped by a simple shell or test, within which
the body can be completely withdrawn. The shell has usually a single
aperture through which pseudopodia protrude, and varies in shape
and structure, although a chitinous or pseudochitinous membrane
forms the basis of all. It may be thickened, as in Arcella and others,
or composed of foreign bodies cemented together as in Difflugia,
while in Euglypha siliceous platelets or scales are formed in the
endoplasm and deposited in the shell.
The cytoplasm is ordinarily differentiated into the ectoplasm and
endoplasm. The ectoplasm is conspicuously observable at the aper-
ture of the shell where filopodia or slender ectoplasmic lobopodia
are produced. The endoplasm is granulated or vacuolated and con-
tains food vacuoles, contractile vacuoles and nuclei. In some forms
there are present regularly in the cytoplasm numerous basophilic
granules which are known as 'chromidia' (p. 44).
Asexual reproduction is either by longitudinal fission in the forms
with thin tests, or by transverse division or budding, while in others
multiple division occurs. Encystment is common. Sexual reproduc-
tion by amoeboid or flagellate gametes has been reported in some
species.
The testaceans are mostly inhabitants of fresh water, but some
live in salt water and others are semi-terrestrial, being found in
moss or moist soil, especially peaty soil. Biology of soil-inhabiting
forms (Volz, 1929); ecology (Hoogenraad, 1935).
Shell simple and membranous
Filopodia, in some anastomosing Family 1 Gromiidae
Pseudopodia fllose, simply branched Family 2 Arcellidae (p. 476)
Shell with foreign bodies, platelets, or scales
With foreign bodies Family 3 Difflugiidae (p. 482)
With platelets or scales Family 4 Euglyphidae (p. 487)
Family 1 Gromiidae Eimer and Fickert
These forms are frequently included in the Foraminifera by other
authors.
Genus Gromia Dujardin (Allogromia, Rhynchogromia, Diplo-
gromia Rhumbler). Thin test rigid or flexible, smooth or slightly
coated with foreign bodies; spherical to elongate ellipsoid; aperture
472
TESTACEA 473
terminal; 1 or more nuclei; contractile vacuoles; many filopodia,
branching and anastomosing; cytoplasm with numerous motile
granules; fresh or salt water. Many species.
G.fluvialis D. (Fig. 199, a). Test spherical to subspherical; smooth
or sparsely covered with siliceous particles; yellowish cytoplasm
fills the test; aperture not seen; a large nucleus and numerous con-
tractile vacuoles; filopodia long, often enveloping test; 90-250/*
long; on aquatic plants, in moss or soil.
G. ovoidea (Rhumbler) (Fig. 199, b). In salt water.
G. nigricans (Penard) (Fig. 199, c). Test large, circular in cross-
section; a single nucleus; 220-400/* long; in pond water among vege-
tation.
Genus Microgromia Hertwig and Lesser. Test small, hyaline,
spherical or pyriform, not compressed; aperture terminal, circular;
filopodia long straight or anastomosing, arising from a peduncle; a
single nucleus and contractile vacuole; solitary or grouped. Morphol-
ogy (Valkanov, 1930).
M. socialis (Archer) (Fig. 199, d). Cytoplasm bluish; contractile
vacuole near aperture; filopodia arise from a peduncle, attenuate,
branching, anastomosing; often numerous individuals are grouped;
multiplication by fission and also by swarmers; 25-35/* in diameter;
among vegetation in fresh water.
Genus Microcometes Cienkowski. Body globular, enclosed within
a transparent, delicate, light yellowish and pliable envelope with
3-5 apertures, through which long branching filopodia extend; body
protoplasm occupies about 1/2 the space of envelope; 1-2 contrac-
tile vacuoles ; fresh w ater.
M. paludosa C. (Fig. 199, e). About 16-17/* in diameter; fresh
water among algae (Valkanov, 1931; Jepps, 1934).
Genus Artodiscus Penard. Body globular, plastic; covered by
envelope containing small grains of various kinds; nucleus eccentric;
a few pseudopodia extend through pores of the envelope; movement
very rapid ; fresh water.
A. saltans P. (Fig. 199,/). 18-23/* in diameter; fresh water.
Genus Lieberkiihnia Claparede and Lachmann. Test ovoidal or
spherical, with or without attached foreign particles; aperture
usually single, lateral or subterminal; one or more nuclei; many con-
tractile vacuoles; pseudopodia formed from a long peduncle, reticu-
late, often enveloping test; fresh or salt water.
L. wagneri C. and L. (Fig. 200, a). Spheroidal; aperture subtermi-
nal, oblique, flexible; cytoplasm slightly yellowish, fills the test;
80-150 vesicular nuclei; nuclei 6/* in diameter; many contractile vac-
474
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 199. a, Gromia fluvialis, X120 (Dujardin); b, (?. ovoidea, X50
(Schultze); c, (r. nigricans, X200 (Cash and Wailes); d, Microgromia
socialis, X170 (Cash); e, Microcometes paludosa, X670? (Penard);
f, Artodiscus saltans, X670 (Penard); g, Schultzella diffluens, X120
(Rhumbler).
TESTACEA
475
uoles; pseudopodia long, anastomosing; 60-1 60m long; among algae
in fresh and salt water.
Genus Diplophrys Barker. Test thin, spherical; 2 apertures, one
at each pole; cytoplasm colorless; a single nucleus; several contrac-
tile vacuoles; filo podia radiating. One species.
D. archeri B. (Fig. 200, b). With 1-3 colored oil droplets; pseu-
dopodia highly attenuate, radiating, straight or branched; multi-
plication into 2 or 4 daughter individuals; solitary or in groups;
diameter 8-20/z; on submerged plants in fresh water.
Fig. 200. a, Lieberkuhnia ivagneri, X160 (Verworn); b, Diplophrys
archeri, X930 (Hertwig and Lesser); c, Lecythium hyalinum, X330
(Cash and Wailes); d, Myxotheca arenilega, X70 (Schaudinn); e, Dac-
tylosaccus vermiformis, Xl5 (Rhumbler); f, Boderia turneri (Wright).
Genus Lecythium Hertwig and Lesser. Test thin, flexible, color-
less; aperture elastic, terminal; colorless cytoplasm fills the test;
large nucleus posterior; numerous filopodia long, branching, not
anastomosing; fresh water.
L. hyalinum (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 200, c). Spheroidal; aperture cir-
cular with a short flexible neck; a single contractile vacuole; diame-
ter 20-45/z ; in submerged vegetation.
476 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Schultzella Rhumbler. Test thin, delicate, difficult to
recognize in life, easily broken at any point for formation of pseudo-
podia which branch and anastomose; irregularly rounded; without
foreign material; salt water.
S. diffluens (Grubler) (Fig. 199, g). Cytoplasm finely granulated;
opaque, colorless; with oil droplets, vacuoles and numerous small
nuclei ; up to 220/j. in diameter.
Genus Myxotheca Schaudinn. Amoeboid; spherical or hemi-
spherical, being flattened on the attached surface; a thin pseudo-
chitinous test with foreign bodies, especially sand grains; pseudo-
podia anastomosing; salt water. Nucleus (Foyn, 1936).
M. arenilega S. (Fig. 200, d). Test yellow, with loosely attached
foreign bodies; cytoplasm bright red due to the presence of highly
refractile granules; 1-2 nuclei, 39-75ju in diameter; body diameter
160-560/z.
Genus Dactylosaccus Rhumbler. Test sausage-shape and vari-
ously twisted; pseudo podia filiform, anastomosing; salt water.
D. vermiformis R. (Fig. 200, e). Test smooth; pseudo podia rise
from small finger-like projections; 1-2 nuclei; body 4 mm. by 340m ;
salt water.
Genus Boderia Wright. Body form changeable; often spherical,
but usually flattened and angular; filopodia long; test extremely
delicate, colorless; salt water.
B. turneri W. (Fig. 200, /). Body brown to orange; active cyto-
plasmic movement; 1-10 nuclei ; multiple division(?) ; 1.56-6.25 mm.
in diameter; in shallow water.
Family 2 Arcellidae Schultze
Genus Arcella Ehrenberg. Test transparent, chitinous, densely
punctated; colorless to brown (when old); in front view circular,
angular, or stellate; in profile plano-convex or semicircular; vari-
ously ornamented; aperture circular, central, inverted like a funnel;
protoplasmic body does not fill the test and connected with the latter
by many ectoplasmic strands; slender lobopodia, few, digitate, sim-
ple or branched; 2 or more nuclei; several contractile vacuoles; fresh
water. Numerous species. Taxonomy and morphology (Deflandre,
1928); variation and heredity (Jollos, 1924).
A. vulgaris E. (Fig. 201, a, b). Height of test about 1/2 the diame-
ter; dome of hemispherical test evenly convex; aperture circular,
central; colorless, yellow, or brown; protoplasmic body conforms
with the shape of, but does not fill, the test; lobopodia hyaline; 2
vesicular nuclei; several contractile vacuoles; test 30-100/x in dia-
TESTACEA
477
meter; in the ooze and vegetation in stagnant water and also in soil.
Of several varieties, two may be mentioned; var. angulosa (Perty),
test smaller, 30-40/i in diameter, faceted, forming a 5- to 8-sided
figure, with obtuse angles; var. gibbosa (Penard), test gibbous, sur-
face pitted with circular depressions of uniform dimensions: 45-50xi
up to 100/z in diameter.
x^cSW
Fig. 201. a, b, Arcella vulgaris, X170; X230 (Leidy); c, A. discoides,
X170 (Leidy); d, A. mitrata, X140 (Leidy); e, f, A. catinus. X 170 (Cash);
g-i, A. dentata, X170 (Leidy); j, k, A. artocrea, X170 (Leidy).
A. discoides E. (Fig. 201, c). Test circular in front view, plano-
convex in profile; diameter about 3-4 times the height; test color-
ation and body structure similar to those of A. vulgaris; test 70-
260/t in diameter; in fresh water.
A. mitrata Leidy (Fig. 201, d). Test balloon-shaped or polyhedral;
height exceeds diameter of base; aperture circular, crenulated and
usually evarted within inverted funnel; protoplasmic body sphe-
roidal, with 'neck' to aperture and cytoplasmic strands to test; 6 or
more slender lobopodia; test 100-145/* high, 100-152/* in diameter;
in fresh water among vegetation.
A. catinus Penard (Fig. 201, e, /). Test oval or quadrate, not
circular, in front view; aperture oval; dome compressed; lateral
margin with 6 or 8 facets; test 100-120/i in diameter and about
45/i high; fresh water among vegetation.
A. dentata Ehrenberg (Fig. 201, g-i). Test circular and dentate
478
PROTOZOOLOGY
in front view, crown-like in profile; diameter more than twice the
height; aperture circular, large; colorless to brown; about 95^ in
diameter, aperture 30/x in diameter; 15-17 spines; in the ooze of
freshwater ponds.
A. artocrea Leidy (Fig. 201, j, k). Heightof test 1/4-1/2 the diame-
ter; dome convex; surface mammillated or pitted; border of test
everted and rising 1/4-1/2 the height of test; about 175/z in diame-
ter; fresh water.
Fig. 202, a, b, Pyxidicula operculata, X800 (Penard); c, Pseudochlamys
patella, X330 (Cash); d, e, Difflugiella apicidata, X270 (Cash); f, Crypto-
difflugia oviformis, X320 (Cash); g, Lesquereusia spiralis, X270 (West);
h, Hyalosphenia papilio, X330 (Leidy); i, Corycia coronata, X170
(Penard); j, Pamphagus mutabilis, X330 (Leidy); k, Plagiophrys parvi-
punctata, X330 (Penard).
Genus Pyxidicula Ehrenberg. Test patelliform; rigid, transparent,
punctate; aperture circular, almost the entire diameter of test;
cytoplasm similar to that of Arcella; a single nucleus; 1 or more
contractile vacuoles; fresh water.
P. operculata (Agardh) (Fig. 202, a, b). Test smooth, colorless to
brown; a single vesicular nucleus; pseudopodia short, lobose or
digitate; 20/x in diameter; on vegetation.
TESTACEA 479
Genus Pseudochlamys Claparede and Lachmann. Test discoid,
flexible when young; body with a central nucleus and several con-
tractile vacuoles.
P. patella C. and L. (Fig. 202, c). Young test hyaline, older one
rigid and brown; often rolled up like a scroll; a short finger-like
pseudopodium between folds; 40-45ai in diameter; in fresh water
among vegetation, in moss and soil.
Genus Difflugiella Cash. Test ovoid, not compressed, flexible
and transparent membrane; colorless cytoplasm fills the test, usually
with chlorophyllous food material; median pseudopodia lobate or
digitate with aciculate ends, while lateral pseudopods long, straight,
and fine, tapering to a point; fresh water. One species.
D. apiculata C. (Fig. 202, d, e). About 40^ by 28/z; among vege-
tation.
Genus Cryptodifflugia Penard. Small test j^ellowish to brownish;
Difflugia-like in general appearance, compressed; with or without
foreign bodies; pseudopodia long, acutely pointed; fresh water.
C. ovijormis P. (Fig. 202, /). Test ovoid; without foreign bodies;
crown hemispherical; aperture truncate; cytoplasm with chloro-
phyllous food particles; 16-20/x by 12-15/x; in marshy soil.
Genus Lesquereusia Schlumberger. Test compressed, oval or
globular in profile, narrowed at bent back; semispiral in appearance;
with curved or comma-shaped rods or with sand-grains (in one
species); body does not fill up the test; pseudopodia simple or
branched ; fresh water.
L. spiralis (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 202, g). Aperture circular; border
distinct; cytoplasm appears pale yellow; a single nucleus; 96-188/x
by 68-1 14/i ; in marsh water.
Genus Hyalosphenia Stein. Test ovoid or pyriform; aperture end
convex; homogeneous and hyaline, mostly compressed; crown uni-
formly arched; protoplasm partly filling the test; several blunt
pseudopodia simple or digitate. Several species.
H. papilio Leidy (Fig. 202, h). Test yellowish; transparent;
pyriform or oblong in front view ; a minute pore on each side of crown
and sometimes one also in center; aperture convex; in narrow lateral
view, elongate pyriform, aperture a shallow notch; with chloro-
phyllous particles and oil globules; 110-140/* long; in fresh water
among vegetation.
Genus Corycia Dujardin. Envelope extremely pliable, open at
base, but when closed, sack-like; envelope changes its shape with
movement and contraction of body; with or without spinous pro-
jections.
480 PROTOZOOLOGY
C. coronata Penard (Fig. 202, i). 6-12 spines; 140/* in diameter;
in moss.
Genus Pamphagus Bailey. Test hyaline membranous, flexible;
aperture small; body fills the envelope completely; spherical nuc-
leus large; contractile vacuoles; filo podia long, delicate, branching,
but not anastomosing; fresh water. Species (Hoogenraad, 1936).
P. mutabilis B. (Fig. 202, j). Envelope 40-100/* by 28-68/*.
Genus Plagiophrys Claparede and Lachmann. Envelope thin,
hyaline, changeable with body form; usually elongate-oval with
rounded posterior end; narrowed at other half; envelope finely
punctated with a few small plates; aperture round; cytoplasm
clear; nucleus large; pseudopods straight filopodia, sometimes
branching ; fresh water.
P. parvipunctata Penard (Fig. 202, k). Envelope 50/* long.
Genus Leptochlamys West. Test ovoid, thin transparent chitinous
membrane, circular in optical section; aperture end slightly ex-
panded with a short neck; aperture circular, often oblique; body
fills test; without vacuoles; pseudo podium short, broadly expanded
and sometimes cordate; fresh water.
L. ampullacea W. (Fig. 203, a). Nucleus large, posterior; with
green or brown food particles; test 45-55/* by 36-40/* in diameter;
aperture 15-17/*; among algae.
Genus Chlamydophrys Cienkowski. Test rigid, circular in cross-
section; aperture often on drawn-out neck; body fills the test; zonal
differentiation of cytoplasm distinct; nucleus vesicular; refractile
waste granules; pseudopodia branching; fresh water or coprozoic.
Species (Belaf, 1926); plasmogamy and division (Belar, 1926).
C. stercorea C. (Fig. 203, k). Test 18-20/* by 12-15/*; mature cysts
yellowish brown, 12-15/* in diameter; multiplication by budding;
coprozoic and fresh water.
Genus Cochliopodium Hertwig and Lesser. Test thin, flexible,
expansible and contractile; with or without extremely fine hair-like
processes; pseudopodia blunt or pointed, but not acicular. Several
species.
C. bilimbosum (Auerbach) (Fig. 203, b). Test hemispherical; pseu-
dopodia conical with pointed ends; test 24-56/* in diameter; fresh
water among algae.
Genus Amphizonella Greeff. Test membranous with a double
marginal contour; inner membrane smooth, well-defined; outer
serrulate; aperture inverted; a single nucleus; pseudopodia blunt,
digitate, and divergent.
A. violacea G. (Fig. 203, c). Test patelliform, violet-tinted; with
TESTACEA
481
chlorophyllous corpuscles and grains; sluggish; average diameter
160/z; fresh water.
Genus Zonomyxa Ntisslin. Test rounded pyriform, flexible,
chitinous, violet-colored; endoplasm vacuolated, with chlorophyl-
Fig. 203. a, Leptochlamys ampullacea, X330 (West); b, Cochliopodium
bilimbosum, X670 (Leidy); c, Amphizonella violacea, X270 (Greeff);
d, Zonomyxa violacea, X200 (Penard); e, f, Microcorycia flava, X240
(Wailes); g, h, Parmulina cyathus, X500 (Penard); i, Diplochlamys leidyi
X270 (Brown); j, Capsellina timida, X270 (Wailes); k, Chlamydophrys
stercorea, X670 (Wenyon).
lous particles; several nuclei; pseudo podia simple, not digitate; fresh
water.
Z. violacea N. (Fig. 203, d). A single lobular pseudo podium with
acuminate end; 4 nuclei; diameter 140-160/u; actively motile forms
250/z or longer; among sphagnum.
Genus Microcorycia Cockerell. Test discoidal or hemispherical,.
482 PROTOZOOLOGY
flexible, with a diaphanous continuation or fringe around periphery,
being folded together or completely closed; crown of test with cir-
cular or radial ridges; body does not fill the test; 1-2 nuclei; pseu-
dopodia lobular or digitate; fresh water. A few species.
M. flava (Greeff) (Fig. 203, e, /). Test yellowish brown; crown
with few small foreign bodies; endoplasm with yellowish brown
granules; 2 nuclei; contractile vacuoles; diameter 80-100/*; young
individuals as small as 20ju; in moss.
Genus Parmulina Penard. Test ovoid, chitinoid with foreign
bodies; aperture may be closed; a single nucleus; 1 or more contrac-
tile vacuoles; fresh water. A few species.
P. cyathus P. (Fig. 203, g, h). Test small, flexible; ovoid in aper-
ture view, semicircular in profile; aperture a long, narrow slit when
test is closed, but circular or elliptical when opened; 40-55/* long;
in moss.
Genus Capsellina Penard. Test hyaline, ovoid, membranous;
with or without a second outer covering; aperture long slit; a single
nucleus; 1 or more contractile vacuoles; filose pseudopodia; fresh
water.
C. timida Brown (Fig. 203, j). Small, ovoid; elliptical in cross-
section; with many oil (?) globules; filo podium; 34/* by 25/*; in moss.
Genus Diplochlamys Greeff. Test hemispherical or cup-shaped,
flexible with a double envelope; inner envelope a membranous sack
with an elastic aperture; outer envelope with loosely attached for-
eign bodies; aperture large; nuclei up to 100; pseudopodia few,
short, digitate or pointed; fresh water. Several species.
D. leidyi G. (Fig. 203, i). Test dark gray; inner envelope project-
ing beyond outer aperture; nuclei up to 20 in number; diameter
80-100/*.
Family 3 Difflugiidae Taranek
Genus Difflugia Leclerc. Test variable in shape, but generally
circular in cross-section; composed of cemented quartz-sand, di-
atoms, and other foreign bodies; aperture terminal; often with
zoochlorellae; cytoplasmic body almost fills the test; a single nu-
cleus; many contractile vacuoles; pseudopodia cylindrical, simple
or branching; end rounded or pointed; fresh water, woodland soil,
etc.
D. oblonga Ehrenberg (D. pyriformis Perty) (Fig. 204, a). Test
pyriform, flask-shaped, or ovoid; neck variable in length; fundus
rounded, with occasionally 1-3 conical processes; aperture terminal,
typically circular; test composed of angular sand-grains, diatoms;
bright green with chlorophyllous bodies; 60-580/* by 40-240/*; in
TESTACEA
483
the ooze of fresh water ponds, ditches and bogs; also in moist soil.
Several varieties.
D. urceolata Carter (Fig. 204, b). A large ovoid, rotund test, with
a short neck and a rim around aperture; 200-230^ by 150-200^:
in ditches, ponds, sphagnous swamps, etc.
Fig. 204. a, Difflugia oblonga, X130 (Cash); b, D. urceolata, X130
(Leidy); c, d, D. arcula, X170 (Leidy); e, D. lobostoma, X130 (Leidy);
f, D. constricta, X200 (Cash); g, Centropyxis aculeata, X200 (Cash);
h, Campuscus cornutus, X170 (Leidy); i, Cucurbitella mespiliformis,
X200 (Wailes).
D. arcula Leidy (Fig. 204, c, d). Test hemispherical, base slightly
concave, but not invaginated ; aperture triangular, central, trilobed ;
test yellowish with scattered sand-grains or diatoms; diameter
100-140ju; in sphagnous swamp, moss, soil, etc.
D. lobostoma L. (Fig. 204, e). Test ovoid to subspherical; aperture
terminal; with 3-6 lobes; test usually composed of sand-grains,
rarely with diatoms; endoplasm colorless or greenish; diameter
80-120ju; in fresh water. Sexual fusion and life cycle (Goette, 1916).
D. constricta (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 204, /). Test laterally ovoid,
fundus more or less prolonged obliquely upward, rounded, and sim-
ple or provided with spines; soil forms generally spineless; aperture
antero -inferior, large, circular or oval and its edge inverted; test
composed of quartz grains; colorless to brown; cytoplasm colorless;
80-340/1 long; in the ooze of ponds and in soil.
484 PROTOZOOLOGY
D. corona Wallich. Test ovoid to spheroid, circular in cross-
section; crown broadly rounded, with a variable number of spines,
aperture more or less convex in profile, central and its border mul-
tidentate or multilobate; test with fine sand-grains, opaque; cyto-
plasm colorless; pseudopodia numerous, long, branching or bifur-
cating; 180-230^ by about 150^; in fresh water. Genetics (Jennings,
1916, 1937).
Genus Centropyxis Stein. Test circular, ovoid, or discoid; aper-
ture eccentric, circular or ovoidal, often with a lobate border; with
or without spines; cytoplasm colorless; pseudopodia digitate; fresh
water. Species (Deflandre, 1929).
C. aculeata S. (Fig. 204, g). Test variable in contour and size; with
4-6 spines; opaque or semitransparent ; with fine sand-grains or
diatom shells; pseudopodia sometimes knotted or branching; when
encysted, the body assumes a spherical form in wider part of test;
granulated, colorless or with green globules; diameter 100-150)u;
aperture 50-60/z in diameter.
Genus Campascus Leidy. Test retort-shaped with curved neck,
rounded triangular in cross-section; aperture circular, oblique, with
a thin transparent discoid collar; nucleus large; 1 or more contrac-
tile vacuoles; body does not fill the test; fresh water.
C. cornutus L. (Fig. 204, h). Test pale-yellow, retort-form; with
a covering of small sand particles; triangular in cross-section; a
single nucleus and contractile vacuole; filo podia straight; 110-140/n
long; aperture 24-28ju in diameter; in the ooze of mountain lakes.
Genus Cucurbitella Penard. Test ovoid with sand-grains, not
compressed; aperture terminal, circular, surrounded by a 4-lobed
annular collar; cytoplasm grayish, with zoochlorellae; nucleus
large; 1 to many contractile vacuoles; pseudopodia numerous,
digitate; fresh water.
C. mespiliformis P. (Fig. 204, i). 115-140/* long; diameter 80-
105ju; in the ooze or on vegetaiton in ponds and ditches.
Genus Plagiopyxis Penard. Test subcircular in front view; ovoid
in profile; aperture linear or lunate; cytoplasm gray, with a single
nucleus and a contractile vacuole; fresh water.
P. callida P. (Fig. 205, a). Test gray, yellowish, or brown; large
nucleus vesicular; pseudopodia numerous, radiating, short, pointed
or palmate; diameter 55-135/x; in vegetation.
Genus Pontigulasia Rhumbler. Test similar to that of Difflugia,
but with a constriction of neck and internally a diaphragm made of
the same substances as those of the test.
P. vas (Leidy) (Fig. 205, b). Round or ovoid test; constriction
TESTACEA
485
deep and well-marked; with sand-grains and other particles; aper-
ture terminal; 125-170/z long; fresh water ponds. Stump (1943)
made a study of the nuclear division of the organism. During meta-
phase 8-12 "chromosomes" form a well-defined equatorial plate;
average time for completion of the division was found to be 80 min-
utes.
Fig. 205. a, Plagiopyxis callida, X200 (Wailes); b, Pontigulasia vas
X200 (Cash); c, Phnjganella acropodia, X190 (Cash); d, Bullinula
indica, X130 (Wailes); e, f, Heleopera petricola, X190 (Cash); g, Nadi-
nella tenella, X400 (Penard); h, Frenzelina reniformis, X600 (Penard);
i, Amphitrema flavum, X360 (Cash and Wailes); j, Pseudodifflugia gracilis,
X330 (Cash); k, Diaphoropodon mobile, X270 (Cash and Wailes); 1, m,
Clypeolina marginata, X330 (Cash and Wailes).
Genus Phryganella Penard. Test spheroidal or ovoid, with sand-
grains and minute diatom shells; aperture terminal, round; pseudo-
podia drawn out to a point; fresh water.
P. acropodia (Hertwig and Lesser) (Fig. 205, c). Test circular in
486 PROTOZOOLOGY
aperture view; hemispherical in profile; yellowish or brownish,
semi-transparent, and covered with sand-grains and scales; in front
view sharply pointed pseudopodia radiating; colorless endoplasm
usually with chlorophyllous bodies; 30-50/i in diameter.
Genus Bullinula Penard. Test ellipsoidal, flattened on one face,
with silicious plates; on the flattened surface, » -shaped aperture;
a single nucleus; pseudopodia digitate or spatulate, simple or
branched; fresh water.
B. indica P. (Fig. 205, d). Test dark brown; 120-250/z in diameter.
Distribution and morphology (Hoogenraad, 1933).
Genus Heleopera Leidy. Test variously colored; fundus hemi-
spherical, with sand-grains; surface covered with amorphous scales,
often overlapping; aperture truncate, narrow, elliptic notched in
narrow lateral view; a single nucleus; pseudopodia variable in num-
ber, thin digitate or branching; fresh water. Several species.
H. petricola L. (Fig. 205, e, /). Test variable in size and color,
strongly compressed; fundus rough with sand-grains of various
sizes; aperture linear or elliptic, convex in front view; pseudopodia
slender, branching; 80-lOOju long; in boggy places.
Genus Averintzia Schouteden. Test similar to that of Heleopera,
but small aperture elliptical; test thickened around aperture; fresh
water.
A. cyclostoma (Penard). Test dark violet, with sand-grains of dif-
ferent sizes; elliptical in cross-section; pseudopodia unobserved; 135-
180^ long; in sphagnum and aquatic plants.
Genus Nadinella Penard. Test chitinous, thin, hyaline, with for-
eign bodies and collar around aperture; filo podia; fresh water.
N. tenella P. (Fig. 205, g). 50-55/x long; fresh water lakes.
Genus Frenzelina Penard. Two envelopes, outer envelope hemi-
spherical, thin, rigid, covered with siliceous particles; inner envelope
round or ovoid, drawn out at aperture, thin, hyaline and covering
the body closely; aperture round, through which a part of body with
its often branching straight filo pods extends; cytoplasm with dia-
toms, etc.; a nucleus and a contractile vacuole; fresh water.
F. reniformis P. (Fig. 205, h). Outer envelope 26-30/x in diameter;
fresh water lakes.
Genus Amphitrema Archer. Test ovoid, symmetrical, compressed;
composed of a transparent membrane, with or without adherent
foreign bodies; 2 apertures at opposite poles; with zoochlorellae;
nucleus central; 1 to several contractile vacuoles; straight filo podia,
sparsely branched, radiating; fresh water. Several species.
A. flavum A. (Fig. 205, i). Test brown, cylindrical with equally
TESTACEA 487
rounded ends in front view; elliptical in profile; ovoid with a small
central oval aperture in end view; 45-77/* by 23-45/*; in sphagnum.
Genus Pseudodifflugia Schlumberger. Test ovoid, usually rigid,
with foreign bodies; circular or elliptical in cross-section; aperture
terminal; granulated cytoplasm colorless or greyish; nucleus poster-
ior; a contractile vacuole; filo podia long, straight or branching; fresh
water. Several species.
P. gracilis S. (Fig. 205, j). Test yellowish or brownish; subspheri-
cal, with sand-grains; aperture without neck; 20-65/* long.
Genus Diaphoropodon Archer. Test ovoid, flexible, with minute
foreign bodies and a thick covering of hyaline hair-like projections;
pseudopodia long, filose, branching; fresh water.
D. mobile A. (Fig. 205, k). Test brown; of various shapes; aperture
terminal; body does not fill the test; nucleus large; 1-2 contractile
vacuoles; 60-120/* long; projections 8-10/* long; in vegetation.
Genus Clypeolina Penard. Test ovoid, compressed, formed of a
double envelope; outer envelope composed of 2 valves with scales
and particles; inner envelope a membranous sack; long filo podia,
often branching; fresh water.
C. marginata P. (Fig. 205, I, m). Outer test-valves }^ellow to dark
brown; lenticular in cross-section; wide terminal aperture; endo-
plasm with many small globules; a single nucleus and contractile
vacuole; 80-150/* long.
Family 4 Euglyphidae Wallich
Genus Euglypha Dujardin (Pareuglypha Penard). Test hyaline,
ovoid, composed of circular, oval, or scutiform siliceous imbricated
scales, arranged in longitudinal rows; aperture bordered with regu-
larly arranged denticulate scales; usually with spines; 1-2 nuclei
large, placed centrally; filopodia dichotomously branched; contrac-
tile vacuoles; fresh water. Numerous species. Division and encyst-
ment (Ivanic, 1934).
E. acanthophora (Ehrenberg) (E. alveolata D.) (Fig. 74). Test
ovoid, or slightly elongate; 3-7 scales protruding around the circular
aperture; scales elliptical; body almost fills the test; 50-100/* long.
E. cristata Leidy (Fig. 206, a). Test small, elongate with a long
neck, fundus with 3-8 spines; scales oval; aperture circular, bordered
by a single row of 5-6 denticulate scales; cytoplasm colorless; nucleus
posterior; reserve scales are said to be collected around the exterior
of aperture, unlike other species in which they are kept within the
cytoplasm; 30-70/* long; 12-23/* in diameter; aperture 6-12/*; scales
4.5-9.5/* by 2.5-6.5/*; spines 10-15/* long.
488
PROTOZOOLOGY
E. mucronata L. (Fig. 206, b). Test large; fundus conical, with
1-2 terminal spines (12-44^ long); aperture circular, bordered by a
single row of 6-8 denticulate scales; 100-150^ long, diameter 30-60^;
aperture 15-20ju in diameter.
Fig. 206. a, Euglypha cristata, X330 (Wailes); b, E. mucronata, X330
(Wailes); c, Paulinella chromatophora, X1000 (Wailes); d, Cyphoderia
ampulla, X200 (Cash); e, f, Corythion pulchellum, X350 (Wailes).
Genus Paulinella Lauterborn. Test small ovoid, not compressed;
with siliceous scales in alternating transverse rows; aperture ter-
minal ; body does not fill the test completely ; nucleus posterior; among
vegetation in fresh or brackish water.
P. chromatophora L. (Fig. 206, c). Scales arranged in 11-12 rows;
with 1-2 curved algal symbionts; no food particles; a single con-
tractile vacuole; 20-32ju long; 14-23^ in diameter.
Genus Cyphoderia Schlumberger. Test retort-shaped; colorless to
yellow; made up of a thin chitinous membrane, covered with discs
or scales; aperture terminal, oblique, circular; body does not fill the
test completely; nucleus large, posterior; pseudo podia, few, long
filose, simple or branched; fresh water (Husnot, 1943).
C. ampulla (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 206, d). Test usually yellow, trans-
lucent, composed of discs, arranged in diagonal rows; circular in
TESTACEA
489
cross-section; aperture circular; cytoplasm gray, with many granules
and food particles; 2 contractile vacuoles; 60-200/* long; diameter
30-70/*. Several varieties.
Genus Trinema Dujardin. Test small, hyaline, ovoid, compressed
anteriorly, with circular siliceous scales; aperture circular, oblique,
invaginate; nucleus posterior; filopodia not branched; fresh water in
vegetation.
T. enchelys (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 207, a). 1-2 contractile vacuoles;
Fig. 207. a, Trinema enchelys, X330 (Wailes); b, Placocista spinosa,
X200 (Wailes); c, Assulina seminulum, X400 (Wailes); d, Nebela collaris,
X200 (Cash); e, Quadrula symmetrica, X200 (Gash); f, Sphenoderia
lenta, X330 (Leidy).
pseudo podia attenuate, radiating; 30-100/z long; 15-60/x wide; scales
4-12/x in diameter.
T. lineare Penard (Fig. 79). Test transparent; scales indistinct;
about 35/x by 17/t; filopodia. Sexual fusion (Dunkerly, 1923) (p. 183).
Genus Corythion Taranek. Test small, hyaline, composed of small
oval siliceous plates; compressed; elliptical in cross-section; aperture
subterminal, ventral or oblique, and circular or oval; numerous
filopodia; fresh water.
C. pulchellum Penard (Fig. 206, e, /). Aperture lenticular; cyto-
plasm colorless; 2-3 contractile vacuoles; 25-35/z by 15-20/z; aper-
ture 7-1 0/x by 3-4/x.
Genus Placocista Leidy. Test ovoid, hyaline, compressed; len-
ticular in cross-section; with oval or subcircular siliceous scales;
aperture wide, linear, with flexible undulate borders; nucleus large,
490 PROTOZOOLOGY
posterior; often with zoochlorellae; filo podia branching and man}',
generally arising from a protruded portion of cytoplasm; fresh
water.
P. spinosa (Carter) (Fig. 207, b). Margin of test with spines,
either singly or in pairs; 116-174/z by 70-100^; in sphagnum.
Genus Assulina Ehrenberg. Test colorless or brown; ovoid; with
elliptical scales, arranged in diagonal rows; aperture oval, terminal
bordered by a thin chitinous dentate membrane; nucleus posterior;
contractile vacuoles; filo podia divergent, sometimes branching; fresh
water.
A. seminulum (E.) (Fig. 207, c). Body does not fill the test; with
numerous food particles; pseudo podia few, straight, divergent,
slender, seldom branched; 60-150/x by 50-75^; in sphagnum.
Genus Nebela Leidy. Test thin, ovate or pyriform; with circular
or oval platelets of uniform or various sizes; highly irregular; endo-
plasm with oil globules; nucleus posterior; body does not fill the
test, and is connected with the latter by many ectoplasmic strands
at fundus end; pseudo podia blunt, rarely branched; fresh water.
Numerous species. Taxonomy (Jung, 1942a).
N. collaris (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 207, d). Test pyriform, fundus obtuse
in profile; aperture without any notch; endoplasm with chlorophyl-
lous food particles; pseudopodia digitate, short, usually 3-6 in num-
ber: about 130m by 85-90/*: in marshes among sphagnum. Feeding
habit, binary fission and plasmogamy (MacKinlay, 1936).
Genus Quadrula Schulze. Test pyriform, hemispherical, or dis-
coidal; with quadrangular siliceous or calcareous platelets, arranged
generally in oblique series, not overlapping; a single nucleus; body
and pseudopodia similar to those of Difflugia; fresh water.
Q. symmetrica (Wallich) (Fig. 207, e). Compressed, smaller plate-
lets near aperture; cytoplasm very clear, with chlorophyllous gran-
ules; 3-5 pseudopodia digitate; nucleus posterior; 80-140/z by 40-
96/*; in sphagnum.
Genus Sphenoderia Schlumberger. Test globular or oval, some-
times slightly compressed; hyaline, membranous, with a short broad
neck, and a wide elliptical aperture; scales circular, oval, or hexag-
onal, arranged in alternating series; cytoplasm colorless; 1-2 con-
tractile vacuoles; filo podia, fine, branching; fresh water.
S. lenta S. (Fig. 207, /). Hyaline test ovoid or globular; scales cir-
cular or broadly oval; aperture terminal, surrounded by a thin chi-
tinous collar, one side inclined inwards; nucleus large; cytoplasm
colorless; 2 contractile vacuoles; 30-64/* by 20-46/*; aperture 10-22/*
in diameter.
TESTACEA 491
References
Belar, K.: (1921) Untersuchungen ueber Thecamoeben der
Chlamydophrys-Gmppe. Arch. Protist., 43:287.
Breuer, R. : (1916) Fortpflanzung und biologische Erscheinungen
einer Chlamydophrys-Form auf Agarkulturen. Ibid., 37:65.
Cash, J.: (1905) The British freshwater Rhizopoda and Heliozoa. 1.
(1909) 2.
and Wailes, G. H.: (1915) 3.
(1918) 4.
Deflandre, G.: (1928) Le genre Arcella. Arch. Protist., 64:152.
(1929) Le genre Centropyxis. Ibid., 67:322.
Dunkerly, J. S.: (1923) Encystation and reserve food formation
in Trinema lineare. Tr. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 53:297.
Foyn, B.: (1936) Ueber die Kernverhaltnisse der Foraminifere
Myxotheca arelilega. Arch. Protist., 87:272.
Goette, A.: (1916) Ueber die Lebenscyclus von Difflugia lobostoma.
Ibid., 37:93.
Hegner, R. W.: (1920) The relation between nuclear number,
chromatin mass, etc. J. Exper. Zool., 30: 1.
Hoogenraad, H. R. : (1933) Einige Beobachtungen an Bullinula
indica. Arch. Protist., 79:119.
(1935) Studien ueber die sphagnicolen Rhizopoden der
niederlandischen Fauna. Ibid., 84:1.
(1936) Was ist Pamphagus mutabilis Bailey? Ibid., 87:417.
Husnot, P. (1943) Contribution a l'etude des Rhizopodes de Bre-
tagne. Les Cyphoderia, etc. 143 pp. Paris.
Ivanic, M.: (1934) Ueber die gewohnliche Zweiteilung, multiple
Teilung und Encystierung bei zwei Euglypha-Arten. Arch.
Protist., 82:363.
Jennings, H. S.: (1916) Heredity, variation and the results of se-
lection in the uniparental reproduction of Difflugia corona.
Genetics, 1:407.
(1937) Formation, inheritance and variation of the teeth in
Difflugia corona. J. Exper. Zool., 77:287.
Jepps, Margaret W. : (1934) On Kibisidytes marinus, etc. Quart. J.
Micr. Sc, 77:121.
Jollos, V.: (1924) Untersuchungen ueber Variabilitat und Ver-
erbung bei Arcellen. Arch. Protist., 49:307.
Jung, W.: (1942) Sudchilenische Thekamoeben. Ibid., 95:253.
(1942a) Illustrierte Thekamoeben-Bestimmungstabellen. I.
Ibid., 95:357.
Leidy, J.: (1879) Freshwater Rhizopods of North America. Rep.
U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., 12.
MacKinlay, Rose B.: (1936) Observations on Nebela collaris, etc.
J. Roy. Micr. Soc, 56:307.
Penard, E. : (1890) Etudes sur les rhizopods d'eau douce. Mem. soc.
phys. hist, nat., Geneva, 31:1.
(1902) Faune rhizopodique du bassin du Leman. Geneva.
(1905) Sarcodines des Grands Lacs. Geneva.
492 PROTOZOOLOGY
Stump, A. B.: (1943) Mitosis and cell division in Pontigulasia vas.
J. El. Mitch. Sc. Soc, 59:14.
Valkanov, A.: (1930) Morphologie und Karyologie cer Micro-
gromia elegantula. Arch. Protist., 71:241.
(1931) Beitrag zur Morphologie und Karyologie der Micro-
cometes paludosa. Ibid., 73:367.
Volz, P.: (1929) Studien zur Biologie der bodenbewohnenden
Thekamoeben. Ibid., 69:348.
Chapter 21
Order 5 Foraminifera d'Orbigny
THE Foraminifera are comparatively large Protozoa, living al-
most exclusively in the sea. They were very abundant in geo-
logic times and the fossil forms are important in applied geology
(p. 10). The majority live on ocean bottom, moving about slug-
gishly over the mud and ooze by means of their pseudopodia. Some
are attached to various objects on the ocean floor, while others are
pelagic.
The cytoplasm is ordinarily not differentiated into the two zones
and streams out through the apertures, and in perforated forms
through the numerous pores, of the shell, forming rhizopodia which
are fine and often very long and which anastomose with one another
to present a characteristic appearance (Fig. 5). The streaming move-
ment of the cytoplasm in the pseudopodia are quite striking; the
granules move toward the end of a pseudopodium and stream back
along its periphery. The body cytoplasm is often loaded with brown
granules which are apparently waste matter and in some forms such
as Peneroplis pertusus these masses are extruded from the body
from time to time, especially prior to the formation of a new cham-
ber. Contractile vacuoles are usually not found in the Foraminifera.
The test of the Foraminifera varies greatly in form and structure.
It may show various colorations — orange, red, brown, etc. The ma-
jority measure less than one millimeter, although larger forms may
frequently reach several millimeters. The test may be siliceous or
calcareous and in some forms, various foreign materials, such as
sand-grains, sponge-spicules, etc. which are more or less abundantly
found where these organisms live, are loosely or compactly cemented
together by pseudochitinous or gelatinous substances. Certain forms
show a specific tendency in the selection of foreign materials for the
test (p. 47). Siliceous tests are comparatively rare, being found
in some species of Miliolidae inhabiting either the brackish water or
deep sea. Calcareous tests are sometimes imperforated, but even in
such cases those of the young are always perforated. By far the ma-
jority of the Foraminifera possess perforated calcareous tests. The
thickness of the shell varies considerably, as do also the size and
number of apertures, among different species. Frequently the per-
forations are very small in the young and later become large and
coarse, while in others the reverse may be the case.
The form of the shell varies greatly. In some there is only one
chamber composed of a central body and radiating arms which repre-
493
494 PROTOZOOLOGY
sent the material collected around the pseudopodia, as in Rhabdam-
mina (Fig. 209, a) , or of a tubular body alone, as in Hyperammina (Fig.
209, d). The polythalamous forms possess shells of various spirals.
The first chamber is called the proloculum. which may be formed
either by the union of two swarmers or by asexual reproduction. The
former is ordinarily small and known as the microspheric proloculum,
while the latter, which is usually large, is called the megalospheric
proloculum. To the proloculum are added many chambers which
may be closely or loosely coiled or not coiled at all. These chambers
are ordinarily undivided, but in many higher forms they are divided
into chamberlets. The chambers are delimited by the suture on the
exterior of the shell. The septa which divide the chambers are per-
forated by one or more foramina known as stolon canals, through
which the protoplasm extends throughout the chambers. The last
chamber has one or more apertures of variable sizes, through which
the cytoplasm extends to the exterior as pseudopodia. The food of
Foraminifera consists mostly of diatoms and algae, though pelagic
forms are known to capture other Protozoa and micro crustaceans.
All species of Foraminifera manifest a more or less distinct tend-
ency toward a dimorphism: the megalospheric form has a large pro-
loculum, is uninucleate and is relatively small in size ; while the micro-
spheric form possesses a small proloculum, is multinucleate, and is
large. In addition, there is a difference in the direction of rotation of
spiral chambers of tests in some species (Myers). For example, in
Discorbis opercularis, the microspheric form has clockwise rotation
of the chambers, and the megalospheric form shows counterclock-
wise rotation. The megalospheric forms are said to be much more
numerous than the microspheric forms, especially in pelagic species.
It is possible that, as Myers (1938) pointed out, the flagellate gam-
etes are set free in open water and have a minimum of opportunity
for syngamy.
Lister (1895) observed the development of the megalospheric
form in Elphidium by asexual reproduction from the microspheric
form. He noticed flagellated swarmers in megalospheric tests and
considered them as gametes which through syngamy gave rise to
microspheric individuals. Recent studies by Myers (1935-1940)
confirm the correctness of this view, except that in some species the
gametes are amoeboid. In Spirillina vivipara (Fig. 208, A, 1-5) the
mature microspheric form (1) which measures 125-1 52ju in diameter,
becomes surrounded by an envelope composed of substrate debris
and viscous substance. Within the "multiple fission cyst," nuclear
and cytoplasmic fissions form numerous small uninucleate megalo-
FORAMINIFERA
495
spheric individuals which produce tests and emerge from the cyst
(Si). They grow into mature megalospheric forms which measure
60-72/x in diameter. Two to four such individuals become associated
A B C
<®
Fig. 208. Developmental cycles of Foraminifera (Myers). A, Spirilhna
vim-para; B, Discorbis patelliformis; G. Elphidium crispa. 1, microsphere
forms; 2, megalospheric forms, a-c, enlarged views of young megalo-
spheric forms; 3, beginning of sexual reproduction; 4, gamete and zygote
formation, a-c, gametes; 5, young microsphere forms, a-c, enlarged views
of one in each species.
496 PROTOZOOLOGY
and transform into "fertilization cyst." (S). The nucleus in each
individual divides twice or occasionally three times and thus formed
multinucleate bodies escape from the tests within the cyst envelope
where many gametocytes are produced by multiple fissions. Each
gametocyte which contains 12 chromosomes divides into two amoe-
boid haploid gametes by meiosis. Gametes developed from different
parents presumably undergo fusion in pairs and zygotes are pro-
duced (4)- Each zygote becomes proloculum in which the nucleus
divides twice and when the coiled tubular chamber of test grows to
about three-quarters of a whorl, young microspheric individuals
escape from the cyst and lead' independent existence (5) . Myers re-
ports the development of Patellina corrugata is similar to that of
Spirillina, except the amoeboid gametes possess 12 haploid number
of chromosomes.
In Discorbis patelliformis (Fig. 208, B, 1-5), the same investigator
noticed no fertilization cyst during the sexual reproduction, but two
megalospheric individuals come in contact and flagellate gametes are
produced in them. The zygotes develop within the space formed by
the dissolution of septa between chambefs and tests; the zygote
nucleus divides repeatedly within each zygote and forms about 40
nuclei before a test is secreted. In Elphidium crispa (Fig. 208, C,
1-5), there is no direct association of megalospheric individuals dur-
ing sexual reproduction. The flagellated gametes produced in each,
are set free in the water and the fusion of the gametes depends en-
tirely upon the chance meeting.
In Patellina corrugata and Discorbis vilardeboanus, Calvez (1950)
finds that the postzygotic divisions of the nucleus are mitotic and
the trophozoite nucleus is diploid, but meiosis occurs in the tropho-
zoite just before multiple division.
More than 300 genera of extinct and living Foraminifera are now
known. Cushman distinguished 45 families. The present work fol-
lows Cushman in recognizing and differentiating 44 families, and
lists one genus as an example for each, but places Gromia and allied
genera in the order Testacea (p. 472). Taxonomy (Cushman, 1948);
ecology (Phleger and Walton, 1950; Phleger and Parker, 1951); dis-
tribution (Post, 1951, Ming, 1952).
Test entirely or in part arenaceous
Test single-chambered or rarely an irregular group of similar chambers
loosely attached
Test with a central chamber, 2 or more arms; fossil and recent. . . .
Family 1 Astrorhizidae
FORAMINIFERA
497
Genus Rhabdammina Sars (Fig. 209, a)
Test without a central chamber, elongate, open at both ends; fossil
and recent Family 2 Rhizamminidae
Genus Rhizammina Brady (Fig. 209, b)
Test a chamber or rarely series of similar chambers loosely attached,
with normally a single opening; fossil and recent
Family 3 Saccamminidae
Genus Saccammina Sars (Fig. 209, c)
Test 2-chambered, a proloculum and long undivided tubular second
chamber
Fig. 209. a, Rhabdammina abyssorum, X5 (Ktihn); b, Rhizammina
algaeformis, fragment of, Xl4 (Cushman); c, Saccammina sphaerica,
X8 (Rhumbler); d, Hyperammina subnodosa, x4 (Brady); e, Ammo-
discus incertus, X20 (Kiihn); f, Silicina limitata, Xl3 (Cushman);
g, Reophax nodulosus, X3 (Brady).
Test with the second chamber, simple or branching, not coiled;
mostly recent and also fossil Family 4 Hyperamminidae
Genus Hyperammina Brady (Fig. 209, d)
Test with the second chamber usually coiled at least in young
Test of arenaceous material with much cement, usually yellowish
or reddish brown; fossil and recent . Family 5 Ammodiscidae
Genus Ammodiscus Reuss (Fig. 209, e)
Test of siliceous material, second chamber partially divided;
fossils only Family 6 Silicinidae
Genus Silicina Bornemann (Fig. 209, f)
Test typically many-chambered
Test with all chambers in a rectilinear series; fossil and recent
Family 7 Reophacidae
498 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Reophax Montfort (Fig. 209, g)
Test planispirally coiled at least in young
Axis of coil, short; many uncoiled forms; fossil and recent
Family 8 Lituolidae
Genus Lituola Lamarck (Fig. 210, a)
Axis of coil usually long, all close-coiled
Interior not labyrinthic; fossil only Family 9 Fusulinidae
^Hs
Fig. 210. a, Lituola nautiloidea (Cushman); b, section through a
Fusulina (Carpenter); c. Textularia agglutinans, X90 (Rhumbler); d.
Verneuilina propinqua, XS (Brady); e, Valvulina triangularis, (d'Or-
bigny); f, Trochammina inflata, X32 (Brady); g, Placopsilina cenomana
(Reuss); h, Tetrataxis palaeotrochus, Xl5 (Brady); i, Spiroloculina
limbata, X20 (Brady); j, Triloculina trigonula, Xl5 (Brady) ; k, Fischer-
ina helix, X32 (Heron-Allen and Earland); 1, Vertebralina striata, X40
(Kuhn); m, Alveolinella mello, X35 (Brady).
Genus Fusulina Fisher (Fig. 210, b)
Interior labyrinthic; fossil only Family 10 Loftusiidae
Genus Loftusia Brady
Test typically biserial at least in young of microspheric form; fossil
and recent Family 11 Textulariidae
Genus Textularia Def ranee (Fig. 210, c)
Test typically triserial at least in young of microspheric form
Aperture usually without a tooth, test becoming simpler in higher
forms; fossil and recent Family 12 Verneuilinidae
FORAMINIFERA 499
Genus Verneuilina d'Orbigny (Fig. 210, d)
Aperture typically with a tooth, test becoming conical in higher
forms; fossil and recent Family 13 Valvulinidae
Genus Valvulina d'Orbigny (Fig. 210, e)
Test with whole body labyrinthic, large, flattened, or cylindrical;
recent Family 14 Neusinidae
Genus Neusina Goes
Test trochoid at least while young
Mostly free, typically trochoid throughout; fossil and recent. .
Family 15 Trochamminidae
Genus Trochammina Parker and Jones (Fig. 210,/)
Attached; young trochoid, later stages variously formed; fossil and
recent Family 16 Placopsilinidae
Genus Placopsilina d'Orbigny (Fig. 210, g)
Free; conical, mostly of large size; fossil only
Family 17 Orbitolinidae
Genus Tetrataxis Ehrenberg (Fig. 210, h)
Test coiled in varying planes, wall imperforate, with arenaceous
portion only on the exterior; fossil and recent
Family 18 Miliolidae (in part)
Genus Spiroloculina d'Orbigny (Fig. 210, i)
Test calcareous, imperforate, porcellaneous
Test with chambers coiled in varying planes, at least in young; aperture
large, toothed; fossil and recent. .Family 18 Miliolidae (in part)
Genus Triloculina d'Orbigny (Fig. 210, j)
Test trochoid; fossil and recent Family 19 Fischerinidae
Genus Fischerina Terquem (Fig. 210, k)
Test planispiral at least in young
Axis very short, chambers usually simple; fossil and recent
Family 20 Ophthalmidiidae
Genus Vertebralina d'Orbigny (Fig. 210, I)
Axis short, test typically compressed and often discoid, chambers
mostly with many chamberlets; fossil and recent
Family 21 Peneroplidae
Genus Peneroplis Montfort (Figs. 4; 211)
Axis typically elongate, chamberlets developed; mainly fossil
Family 22 Alveolinellidae
500
PROTOZOOLOGY
•i/w a
&
b ^|V c
«^6 ft c,toc
Fig. 211. Diagram illustrating the life-cycle of Peneroplis pertusus
(Winter), a-f, megalospheric generation; g, gamete formation; h-k,
isogamy; 1-n, microspheric generation; o, multiple division.
Genus Alveolinella Douville (Fig. 210, w)
Test globular, aperture small, not toothed; recent only
Family 23 Keramosphaeridae
Genus Keramosphaera Brady
Test calcareous, perforate
Test vitreous with a glassy lustre, aperture typically radiate, not
trochoid
FORAMINIFERA
501
Test planispirally coiled or becoming straight, or single-chambered;
fossil and recent Family 24 Lagenidae
Genus Lagena Walker and Jacob (Fig. 212, a)
Test biserial or elongate spiral; fossil and recent
Family 25 Polymorphinidae
Genus Polymorphina d'Orbigny
Test not vitreous; aperture not radiating
Test planispiral, occasionally trochoid, then usually with processes
along the suture lines, septa single, no canal system; fossil and
recent Family 26 Nonionidae
Fig. 212. a, Lagena striata, X50 (Rhumbler); b, Elphidium strigilata,
X40 (Kiihn); c, Operculina ammonoides, X50 (Kuhn); d, Pavonina
flabelliformis, X30 (Brady); e, Hantkenina alabamensis, X40 (Cushman);
f, Bolivina -punctata, X100 (Kuhn); g, Rotalia beccarii, X40 (Kiihn); h,
Asterigerina carinata, X30 (d'Orbigny from Kiihn).
Genus Elphidium Montfort (Figs. 5; 208, C; 212, b)
(Polystomella Lamarck)
Test planispiral, at least in young, generally lenticular, septa double,
canal system in higher forms; fossil and recent
Family 27 Camerinidae
Genus Operculina d'Orbigny (Fig. 212, c)
Test generally biserial in at least microspheric form, aperture usually
large, without teeth; fossil and recent
Family 28 Heterohelicidae
502 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Pavonina d'Orbigny (Fig. 212, d)
Test planispiral, bi- or tri-serial with elongate spines and lobed
aperture; fossil and recent Family 29 Hantkeninidae
Genus Hantkenina Cushman (Fig. 212, e)
Test typically with an internal tube, elongate
Aperture generally loop-shaped or cribrate; fossil and recent. . .
. Family 30 Buliminidae
Genus Bolivina d'Orbigny (Fig. 212, /)
Aperture narrow, curved, with an overhanging portion; mostly
fossil, also recent Family 31 Ellipsoidinidae
Genus Ellipsoidina Seguenza
Test trochoid, at least in young of microspheric form, usually coarsely
perforate; when lenticular, with equatorial and lateral chambers
Test trochoid throughout, simple; aperture ventral
No alternating supplementary chambers on ventral side; fossil
and recent Family 32 Rotaliidae
Genus Rotalia Lamarck (Fig. 212, g)
Genus Spirillina Ehrenberg (Fig. 208, A)
Genus Patellina Williamson.
Genus Discorbis Lamarck (Fig. 208, B)
Alternating supplementary chambers on ventral side; fossil and
recent Family 33 Amphisteginidae
Genus Asterigerina d'Orbigny (Fig. 212, h)
Test trochoid and aperture ventral in young
With supplementary material and large spines, independent of
chambers; fossil and recent Family 34 Calcarinidae
Genus Calcarina d'Orbigny (Fig. 213, a)
With later chambers in annular series or globose with multiple
apertures, but not covering earlier ones; fossil and recent. . . .
Family 35 Halkyardiidae
Genus Halkyardia Heron-Allen and Earland (Fig. 213, b)
With later chambers somewhat biserial; aperture elongate in
the axis of coil; fossil and recent. .Family 36 Cassidulinidae
FORAMINIFERA
503
Genus Cassidulina d'Orbigny (Fig. 213, c)
With later chambers becoming involute, very few making up the
exterior in adult; aperture typically elongate, semicircular; in
a few species circular; fossil and recent
Family 37 Chilostomellidae
Genus Allomorphina Reuss (Fig. 213, d)
With chambers mostly finely spinose and wall cancellated, adapted,
for pelagic life, globular forms with the last chamber com-
pletely involute; aperture umbilicate or along the suture; fossil
and recent Family 38 Globigerinidae
Fig. 213. a, Calcarina defrancei, X25 (Brady); b, Halkyardia radiata,
Xl5 (Cushman); c, Cassidulina laevigata, X25 (Brady); d, Allomorphina
trigona, X40 (Brady); e, Globigerina bxdloides, X30 (Kuhn); f, Anomalina
punctulata (d'Orbigny); g, Rupertia stabilis, X50 (Brady).
Genus Globigerina d'Orbigny (Fig. 213, e)
Early chambers globigerine, later ones spreading and compressed;
fossil and recent Family 39 Globorotaliidae
Genus Globorotalia Cushman
Test trochoid at least in young, aperture peripheral or becoming
dorsal
Mostly attached, dorsal side usually flattened; fossil and recent
Family 40 Anomalinidae
Genus Anomalina d'Orbigny (Fig. 213, /)
Later chambers in annular series; fossil and recent
Family 41 Planorbulinidae
504 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Planorbulina d'Orbigny
Test trochoid in very young, later growing upward
Later chambers in loose spiral; fossil and recent
Family 42 Rupertiidae
Genus Rupertia Wallich (Fig. 213, g)
Later chambers in masses or branching, highly colored; mostly
recent, also fossil Family 43 Homotremidae
Genus Homotrema Hickson
Test trochoid in the very young of microspheric form, chambers
becoming annular later, with definite equatorial and lateral
chambers, often with pillars; fossil only
Family 44 Orbitoididae
Genus Orbitoides d'Orbigny
References
Brady, B. H.: (1884) Report on the Foraminifera dredged by
H.M.S. Challenger, during the years 1873-1876. Rep. Voy.
Chall., 9.
Calvez, J. le: (1950) Recherches sur les foraminiferes. II. Arch.
zool. exper. g£n., 87:211.
Cushman, J. A.: (1948) Foraminifera: their classification and eco-
nomic use. 4 ed. Cambridge, Mass.
Illing, Margaret A.: (1952) Distribution of certain Foraminifera
within the littoral zone on the Bahama Banks. Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist., 5:275.
Myers, E. H.: (1935) The life history of Patellina corrugata, etc.
Bull. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr., Univ. California Tech. Ser., 3:
355.
(1936) The life-cycle of Spirillina vivipara Ehrenberg, with
notes on morphogenesis, etc. J. Roy. Micr. Soc, 56:126.
(1938) The present state of our knowledge concerning the life
cycle of the Foraminifera. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sc, 24:10.
(1940) Observations on the origin and fate of flagellated
gametes in multiple tests of Discorbis. J. Mar. Biol. Ass.
Unit. Kingd., 24:201.
Phleger, F. B.: (1951) Ecology of Foraminifera, northwest Gulf of
Mexico. I. Mem. Geol. Soc. America, 46:1.
and Parker, F. L.: (1951) II. Ibid., 46:89.
and Walton, W. R.: (1950) Ecology of marsh and bay Fo-
raminifera, Barnstable, Mass. Am. J. Sc, 248:274.
Post, Rita J.: (1951) Foraminifera of the south Texas coast. Publ.
Inst. Mar. Sc, 2:165.
Rhumbler, L.: (1904) Systematische Zusammenstellung derrezen-
ten Reticulosa (Nuda u. Foraminifera). I. Arch. Protist., 3: 181.
Chapter 22
Subclass 2 Actinopoda Calkins
THE Actinopoda are divided into two orders as follows:
Without central capsule Order 1 Heliozoa
With central capsule Order 2 Radiolaria (p. 516)
Order 1 Heliozoa Haeckel
The Heliozoa are, as a rule, spherical in form with many radi-
ating axopodia. The cytoplasm is differentiated, distinctly in Ac-
tinosphaerium, or indistinctly in other species, into the coarsely
vacuolated ectoplasm and the less transparent and vacuolated
endoplasm. The food of Heliozoa consists of living Protozoa or
Protophyta; thus their mode of obtaining nourishment is holozoic.
A large organism may sometimes be captured by a group of Heliozoa
which gather around the prey. When an active ciliate or a small roti-
fer comes in contact with an axopodium, it seems to become suddenly
paralyzed and, therefore, it has been suggested that the pseudopodia
contain some poisonous substances. The axial filaments of the axo-
podia disappear and the pseudopodia become enlarged and surround
the food completely. Then the food matter is carried into the main
part of the body and is digested. The ectoplasm contains several
contractile vacuoles and numerous refractile granules which are
scattered throughout. The endoplasm is denser and usually devoid
of granules. In the axopodium, the cytoplasm undergoes streaming
movements. The hyaline and homogeneous axial filament runs
straight through both the ectoplasm and the endoplasm, and ter-
minates in a point just outside the nuclear membrane. When the
pseudopodium is withdrawn, its axial filament disappears com-
pletely, though the latter sometimes disappears without the with-
drawal of the pseudopodium itself. In Acanthocystis the nucleus is
eccentric (Fig. 216, b), but there is a central granule, or centroplast,
in the center of the body from which radiate the axial filaments of
the axopodia. In multinucleate Actinosphaerium, the axilia filaments
terminate at the periphery of the endoplasm. In Camptonema, an
axial filament arises from each of the nuclei (Fig. 214, d).
The skeletal structure of the Heliozoa varies among different
species. The body may be naked, covered by a gelatinous mantle, or
provided with a lattice-test with or without spicules. The spicules
are variable in form and location and may be used for specific dif-
ferentiation. In some forms there occur colored bodies bearing
chromatophores, which are considered as holophytic Mastigophora
505
506 PROTOZOOLOGY
(p. 29) living in the heliozoans as symbionts.
The Heliozoa multiply by binary fission or budding. Incomplete
division may result in the formation of colonies, as in Rhaphidi-
ophrys. In Actinosphaerium, nuclear phenomena have been studied
by several investigators (p. 204). In Acanthocystis and Oxnerella
(Fig. 59), the central granule behaves somewhat like the centriole
in a metazoan mitosis. Budding has been known in numerous species.
In Acanthocystis the nucleus undergoes amitosis several times, thus
forming several nuclei, one of which remains in place while the other
migrates toward the body surface. Each peripheral nucleus becomes
surrounded by a protruding cytoplasmic body which becomes cov-
ered by spicules and which is set free in the water as a bud. These
small individuals are supposed to grow into larger forms, the central
granules being produced from the nucleus during the growth. For-
mation of swarmers is known in a few genera and sexual reproduc-
tion occurs in some forms. The Heliozoa live chiefly in fresh water,
although some inhabit the sea. Taxonomy and morphology (Penard,
1905, 1905a; Cash and Wailes, 1921; Roskin, 1929, Valkanov, 1940).
Without gelatinuous envelope
Without flagella
Pseudopodia arise from thick basal parts, branching
Family 1 Actinocomidae
Pseudopodia not branching, cytoplasm highly vacuolated
Family 2 Actinophryidae (p. 507)
With 1-2 flagella Family 3 Ciliophryidae (p. 508)
With gelatinous envelope; with or without skeleton
Without flagella
Without chitinous capsule
Without definite skeleton Family 4 Lithocollidae (p. 508)
With chitinous or siliceous spicules or scales
With chitinous spicules. . . .Family 5 Heterophryidae (p. 510)
With siliceous skeleton
Cup-like plates over body; 2-3 pseudopodia often grouped
Family 6 Clathrellidae (p. 511)
Scales flattened, not cup-like
Family 7 Acanthocystidae (p. 511)
With chitinous retiform capsule Family 8 Clathulinidae (p. 513)
With numerous flagella, among axo podia; siliceous scales
Family 9 Myriophryidae (p. 514)
Family 1 Actinocomidae Poche
Genus Actinocoma Penard. Body spherical; one or more contrac-
tile vacuoles; nucleus with a thick membrane, central; filopodia, not
axo podia, simple or in brush-like groups; fresh water.
A. ramosa P. (Fig. 214, a). Average diameter 14-26ju.
ACTINOPODA, HELIOZOA 507
Family 2 Actinophyridae Claus
Genus Actinophrys Ehrenberg. Spheroidal; cytoplasm highly vac-
uolated, especially ectoplasm; with often symbiotic zoochlorellae;
nucleus central; 1 to many contractile vacuoles; axopodia straight,
Fig. 214. a, Actinocoma ramosa, X630 (Penard); b, Actinophrys sol,
X400 (Kudo); c, Actinosphaerium eichhorni, X45 (Kudo); d, Camp-
tonema nutans, X350 (Schaudinn).
numerous, axial filaments terminate at surface of the nucleus; "sun
animalcules"; fresh water.
A. sol E. (Figs. 90; 214, b). Spherical; ectoplasm vacuolated; endo-
plasm granulated with numerous small vacuoles; a large central
nucleus; solitary but may be colonial when young; diameter variable,
average being 40-50^; among plants in still fresh water. Reproduc-
tion, morphology and physiology (Belaf, 1923, 1924); food habit
(Looper, 1928).
508 PROTOZOOLOGY
A. vesiculata Penard. Ectoplasm with saccate secondary vesicles,
extending out of body surface between axo podia; nucleus central,
with many endosomes; 25-30/x in average diameter; fresh water.
Genus Actinosphaerium Stein. Spherical; ectoplasm consists al-
most entirely of large vacuoles in one or several layers; endoplasm
with numerous small vacuoles; numerous nuclei; axopodia end in
the inner zone of ectoplasm (Fig. 6). 2 species.
A. eichhorni Ehrenberg (Figs. 6; 214, c). Numerous nuclei scattered
in the periphery of endoplasm; 2 or more contractile vacuoles, large;
axial filaments arise from a narrow zone of dense cytoplasm at the
border line between endoplasm and ectoplasm; body large, diameter
200-300/x, sometimes up to 1 mm.; nuclei 12-20^ in diameter; among
vegetation in freshwater bodies. Nuclear change (Speeth, 1919);
morphology (Rumjantzew and Wermel, 1925); transplantation
(Okada, 1930).
A. arachnoideum Penard. Ectoplasm irregularly vacuolated; no
distinct endoplasmic differentiation; nuclei smaller in number; pseu-
dopodia of 2 kinds; one straight, very long and the other filiform,
and anastomosing; 70-80m in diameter; fresh water.
Genus Camptonema Schaudinn. Spheroidal; axial filaments of
axopodia end in nuclei about 50 in number; vacuoles numerous and
small in size; salt water.
C. nutans S. (Fig. 214, d). About 150^ in diameter.
Genus Oxnerella Dobell. Spherical; cytoplasm indistinctly dif-
ferentiated ; eccentric nucleus with a large endosome ; axial filaments
take their origin in the central granule; no contractile vacuole;
nuclear division typical mitosis (Fig. 59).
0. maritima D. (Fig. 59). Small, 10-22/1 in diameter; solitary,
floating or creeping; salt water.
Family 3 Ciliophryidae Poche
Genus Ciliophrys Cienkowski. Spherical with extremely fine
radiating filopodia, giving the appearance of a typical heliozoan,
with a single flagellum which is difficult to distinguish from the nu-
merous filopodia, but which becomes conspicuous when the pseudo-
podia are withdrawn; fresh or salt water.
C. infusionum C. (Fig. 215, a). 25-30^ long; freshwater infusion.
C. marina Caullery. About 10^ in diameter; salt water.
Family 4 Lithocollidae Poche
Genus Lithocolla Schulze. Spherical body; outer envelope with
usually one layer of sand-grains, diatoms, etc. ; nucleus eccentric.
ACTINOPODA, HELIOZOA
509
L. globosa S. (Fig. 215, 6). Body reddish with numerous small
colored granules; nucleus large; central granule unknown; envelope
35-5(V in diameter; in lakes, ponds, and rivers; also in brackish
water.
Fig. 215. a, Ciliophrys infusionum, X400 (Biitschli); b, Lithocolla
globosa, X250 (Penard); c, Astrodisculus radians, X600 (Penard);
d, Actinolophus pedunculatus, X400 (Schultze); e, Elaeorhanis cincta,
X300 (Penard); f, Sphaerastrum fockei, X300 (Stubenrauch) ; g, Hetero-
phrys myriopoda, X270 (Penard).
510 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Astrodisculus Greeff. Spherical with gelatinous envelope,
free from inclusions, sometimes absent; no demarcation between 2
regions of the cytoplasm; pseudopodia fine without granules; fresh
water.
A. radians G. (Fig. 215, c). Outer surface usually with adherent
foreign bodies and bacteria; cytoplasm often loaded with green,
yellow, or brown granules; nucleus eccentric; a contractile vacuole;
diameter 25-30/z including envelope; in pools and ditches.
Genus Actinolophus Schulze. Body pyriform, enveloped in a
gelatinous mantle; stalked; stalk apparently hollow; axopodia long,
numerous; nucleus eccentric; salt water.
A. pedunculatus S. (Fig. 215, d). Diameter about 30yu; stalk about
100m long.
Genus Elaeorhanis Greeff. Spherical; mucilaginous envelope with
sand-grains and diatoms; cytoplasm with a large oil globule; nu-
cleus eccentric; 1 or more contractile vacuoles; pseudopodia not
granulated, sometimes forked; fresh water.
E. cincta G. (Fig. 215, e). Bluish with a large yellow oil globule;
without any food particles; no central granule; pseudopodia rigid,
but apparently without axial filaments, sometimes forked; young
forms colonial; solitary when mature; outer diameter 50-60/z; body
itself 25-30^; in lakes and pools.
Genus Sphaerastrum Greeff. Somewhat flattened; greater part
of axopodia and body covered by a thick gelatinous mantle; a cen-
tral granule and an eccentric nucleus; fresh water.
S. fockei G. (Fig. 215, /). Diameter about 30/x; often colonial; in
swamps.
Family 5 Heterophryidae Poche
Genus Heterophrys Archer. Spherical; mucilaginous envelope
thick, with numerous radial, chitinous spicules which project beyond
periphery; nucleus eccentric; axial filaments originate in a central
granule; fresh or salt water.
H. myriopoda A. (Fig. 215, g). Nucleus eccentric; cytoplasm
loaded with spherical algae, living probably as symbionts; contractile
vacuoles indistinct; 50-80/z in diameter; in pools and marshes; and
also among marine algae.
H. glabrescens Penard. Spherical; gelatinous envelope poorly de-
veloped; chitinous needles indistinct; pseudopodia very long; 11— 15u
in diameter; fresh water.
ACTINOPODA, HELIOZOA oil
Family 6 Clathrellidae Poche
Genus Clathrella Penard. Envelope distinct, polygonal; surface
with uniform alveoli with interalveolar portion extending out; en-
velope appears to be continuous, but in reality formed by a series
of cup-like bodies; contractile vacuole large; voluminous nucleus
eccentric; filo podia straight, some bifurcated, arising between
"cups."
C. foreli P. (Fig. 21(3, a). Envelope about 40-55ju in diameter;
fresh water.
Family 7 Acanthocystidae Claus
Genus Acanthocystis Carter. Spherical; siliceous scales, arranged
tangentially and radiating siliceous spines with pointed or bifur-
cated ends; nucleus eccentric; a distinct central granule in which
the axial filaments terminate. Several species.
A. aculeata Hertwig and Lesser (Fig. 216, b). Tangential scales
stout and pointed; spines curved and nail-headed; cytoplasm grey-
ish; a single contractile vacuole; diameter 35-40>; spines about 1/3
the body diameter; in fresh water. Morphology and reproduction
(Stern, 1924).
Genus Pompholyxophrys Archer. Spherical; outer mucilaginous
envelope with minute colorless spherical granules arranged in con-
centric layers; nucleus eccentric; contractile vacuoles; pseudopodia
long, straight, acicular; fresh water.
P. punicea A. (Fig. 21G, c). Body colorless or reddish, with usually
many colored granules and green or brown food particles; nucleus
large, eccentric; solitary, active; diameter 25-35^; outer envelope
5-10/x larger; in pools.
Genus Raphidiophrys Archer. Spherical; mucilaginous envelope
with spindle-shaped or discoidal spicules which extend normally
outwards along pseudopodia; nucleus and endoplasm eccentric;
solitary or colonial; fresh water. Several species.
R. pallida Schulze (Fig. 216, d). Outer gelatinous envelope
crowded with curved lenticular spicules, forming accumulations
around pseudopodia; ectoplasm granulated; nucleus eccentric; con-
tractile vacuoles; axial filaments arise from the central granule;
solitary; diameter 50-60>; nucleus 12-15^ in diameter; spicules 2G>
long; among vegetation in still fresh water.
Genus Raphidocystis Penard. Spicules of various forms, but un-
like those found in the last genus.
R. tubifera P. (Fig. 216, e). Spicules tubular with enlarged extrem-
512
PROTOZOOLOGY
ity; diameter about 18/x; envelope 25^; fresh water.
R. infestans Wetzel. Body 20-40/* in diameter; thin axopodia
twice the body diameter; without radial spicules; feeds on ciliates
(Wetzel, 1925).
Genus Wagnerella Mereschkowsky. Spherical, supported by a
Fig. 216. a, Clathrella foreli, X250 (Penard); b, Acanthocystis aculeata,
X300 (Stern); c, Pompholyxophrys punicea, X260 (West); d, Raphidio-
phrys pallida, X300 (Penard); e, Raphidocyslis tubifera, X500 (Penard);
f, Wagnerella borealis, X75 (Kuhn); g, Pinaciophora fltiviatilis, X250
(Penard).
ACTINOPODA, HELIOZOA 513
cylindrical stalk with an enlarged base; small siliceous spicules;
nucleus in the base of stalk; multiplication by budding.
W. borealis M. (Fig. 216, /). About I8O/1 in diameter; stalk often
up to 1.1 mm. long; salt water.
Genus Pinaciophora GreefT. Spherical; outer envelope composed
of circular discs, each being perforated with 19 minute pores; cyto-
plasm reddish ; fresh water.
P. fluviatilis G. (Fig. 216, g). Diameter 45-50ju, but somewhat
variable; in freshwater ponds.
Family 8 Clathrulinidae Claus
Genus Clathrulina Cienkowski. Envelope spherical, homogeneous,
with numerous regularly arranged openings; with a stalk; proto-
plasm central, not filling the capsule; nucleus central; pseudo podia
numerous, straight or forked, granulated ; fresh water.
C. elegans C. (Fig. 217, a). Envelope colorless to brown, perforated
by numerous comparatively large circular or polygonal openings; 1
or more contractile vacuoles; nucleus central; diameter 60-90^,
openings 6-10m; length of stalk 2-4 times the diameter of envelope,
3-4 n wide; solitary or colonial; among vegetation in ponds. Taxon-
omy and stalk formation (Valkanov, 1928).
Genus Hedriocystis Hertwig and Lesser. Envelope spherical,
openings minute, surrounded by polyhedral facets or ridges; with
stalk; solitary or colonial; fresh water.
H. reticulata Penard (Fig. 217, b). Envelope colorless or pale
yellow, facets regularly polygonal with raised borders; stalk solid,
nucleus central; 1 contractile vacuole; each pesudopodium arises
from a pore located in the center of a facet; solitary; capsule about
25/* in diameter; body about \2y. in diameter; stalk about 70// by
1.5/z; in marshy pools.
Genus Elaster Grimm. Envelope spherical, delicate, penetrated
by numerous more or less large pores; without stalk; pseudo podia
many, straight filose.
E. greeffi G. (Fig. 217, c). Diameter of envelope 20/*; envelope
delicate, colorless; many pseudopodia; in peaty soil.
Genus Choanocystis Penard. Spherical envelope with perforations
which possess conical borders; openings of cones provided with
funnel-like expansions, edges of which nearly touch one another;
fresh water.
C. lepidula P. (Fig. 217, d). Diameter 10-13^; envelope delicate;
1 or more contractile vacuoles; pseudopodia very long.
514
PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 9 Myriophryidae Poche
Genus Myriophrys Penard. Spherical or ovoid, covered with a
protoplasmic envelope containing scales (?), surrounded by numer-
Fig. 217. a, Clathrulina elegans, X250 (Leidy); b, Hedriocystis reticu-
lata, X500 (Brown); c, Elaster greeffi,, X680 (Penard); d, Choanocystis
lepidula, X690 (Penard); e, Myriophrys paradoxa, X300 (Penard).
ACTINOPODA, HELIOZOA 515
ous fine processes; endoplasm vesicular; a large nucleus eccentric; a
large contractile vacuole; long pseudopodia granulated and attenu-
ated toward ends.
M. paradoxa P. (Fig. 217, e). Average diameter 4%; in fresh-water
swamps.
References
Belar, K.: (1923) Untersuchungen an Actinophrys sol. I. Arch.
Protist., 46:1.
(1924) II. Ibid., 48:371.
Cash, J. and Wailes, G. H.: (1921) The British freshwater Rhizo-
poda and Heliozoa. 5. London.
Leidy, J.: (1879) Freshwater Rhizopods of North America. Rep.
U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., 12.
Okada, Y. K.: (1930) Transplantationsversuche an Protozoen.
Arch. Protist., 69:39.
Penard, E. : (1905) Les Heliozoaires d'eau douce. Geneva.
(1905a) Les Sarcodines des grands lacs. Geneva.
Roskin, G.: (1929) Neue Heliozoa-Arten. I. Arch. Protist., 66:201.
Rumjantzew, A. and Wermel, E.: (1925) Untersuchungen ueber
den Protoplasmabau von Aetinosphaerium eichhorni. Ibid., 52:
217.
Speeth, Caroline: (1919) Ueber Kernveranderungen bei Aeti-
nosphaerium in Hunger- und Encystierungskulturen. Ibid., 40:
182.
Stern, C: (1924) Untersuchungen ueber Acanthocystideen. Ibid.,
48:437.
Valkanov, A.: (1928) Protistenstudien. III. Ibid., 64:446.
(1940) Die Heliozoen und Proteomyxien. Ibid., 93:225.
Wetzel, A. : (1925) Zur Morphologie und Biologie von Raphidocystis
infestans n. sp., etc. Ibid., 53 : 135.
Chapter 23
Order 2 Radiolaria Miiller
THE Radiolaria are pelagic in various oceans. A vast area of the
ocean floor is known to be covered with the ooze made up chiefly
of radiolarian skeletons. They seem to have been equally abundant
during former geologic ages, since rocks composed of their skeletons
occur in various geological formations. Thus this group is the second
group of Protozoa important to geologists.
The body is generally spherical, although radially or bilaterally
symmetrical forms are also encountered. The cytoplasm is divided
distinctly into two regions which are sharply delimited by a mem-
branous structure known as the central capsule. This is a single or
double perforated membrane of pseudochitinous or mucinoid nature.
Although its thickness varies a great deal, the capsule is ordinarily
very thin and only made visible after addition of reagents. Its shape
varies according to the form of the organism; thus in spherical forms
it is spherical, in discoidal or lenticular forms it is more or less ellips-
oidal, while in a few cases it shows a number of protruding processes.
The capsule is capable of extension as the organism grows and of
dissolution at the time of multiplication. The cytoplasm on either
side of the capsule communicates with the other side through pores
which may be large and few or small and numerous. The intracap-
sular portion of the body is the seat of reproduction, while the extra-
capsular region is nutritive and hydrostatic in function. The intra-
capsular cytoplasm is granulated, often greatly vacuolated, and is
stratified either radially or concentrically. It contains one or more
nuclei, pigments, oil droplets, fat globules, and crystals. The nucleus
is usually of vesicular type, but its form, size, and structure, vary
among different species and also at different stages of development
even in one and the same species.
A thin assimilative layer, or matrix, surrounds the central capsule.
In Tripylea, waste material forms a brownish mass known as phaeo-
dium, around the chief aperture (astropyle) of the capsule. Then
there is a highly alveolated region, termed calymma, in which the
alveoli are apparently filled with a mucilaginous secretion of the cy-
toplasm. Brandt showed that the vertical movement of some Radio-
laria is due to the formation and expulsion of a fluid which consists
of water saturated with carbon dioxide. Under ordinary weather
and temperature conditions, the interchange between the alveoli
and the exterior is gradual and there is a balance of loss and gain of
the fluid, so that the organisms float on the surface of the sea. Under
516
RADIOLARIA 517
rough weather conditions or at extraordinary high temperatures,
the pseudopodia are withdrawn, the alveoli burst, and the organisms
descend into deeper water, where the alveoli are reformed.
The Radiolaria feed on microplankton such as copepods, dia-
toms, and various Protozoa. The food is taken in through pseudo-
podia and passed down into the deeper region of calymma where
it is digested in food vacuoles. The Radiolaria can, however, live
under experimental conditions without solid food if kept under light.
This is ordinarily attributed to the action of the yellow corpuscles
which are present in various parts of the body, although they are,
as a rule, located in the calymma. In Actipylea they are found only
in intracapsular cytoplasm, and in Tripylea they are absent alto-
gether. They are spherical bodies, about 15/x in diameter, with a
cellulose wall, 2 chromatophores, a pyrenoid, starch, and a single
nucleus. They appear to multiply by fission. These bodies are con-
sidered as zooxanthellae (p. 274). In the absence of organic food
material, the Radiolaria live probably by utilizing the products of
holo phytic nutrition of these symbiotic organisms.
The axopodia arise from either the extracapsular or the intra-
capsular portion and radiate in spherical forms in all directions, as
in Heliozoa. In Actipylea, myonemes are present in certain pseudo-
podia and produce circular groups of short, rod-like bodies clustered
around each of the radial spines (Fig. 219, c). They connect the pe-
ripheral portion of the body with the pseudopodial covering of the
spicule and possess a great contractile power, supposedly with hy-
drostatic function (p. 62).
The skeletal structure of Radiolaria varies considerably from sim-
ple to complex and has a taxonomic value. The chemical nature of
the skeleton is used in distinguishing the major subdivisions of the
order. In the Actipylea it seems to be made up of strontium sul-
phate, while in the three other groups, Peripylea, Monopylea, and
Tripylea, it consists fundamentally of siliceous substances. The
skeleton of the Actipylea is sharply marked from others in form and
structure. The majority of this group possess 20 rods radiating from
center. The rod-shaped skeletons emerge from the body in most
cases along five circles, which are comparable to the equatorial, two
tropical and two circumpolar circles of the globe, which arrangement
is known as Mutter's law, since J. Miiller first noticed it in 1858.
The life-cyle of the Radiolaria is very incompletely known (Fig.
218). Binary or multiple fission or budding has been seen in some
Peripylea, Actipylea, and Tripylea. Multiple division is also known
to occur in Thalassophysidae in which it is the sole known means of
518
PROTOZOOLOGY
reproduction. The central capsule becomes very irregular in its out-
line and the nucleus breaks up into numerous chromatin globules.
Finally the capsule and the intracapsular cytoplasm become trans-
Fig. 218. Diagram illustrating the probable life-cycle of Actipylea
(Kiihn). a, mature individual; b, c, binary fission; d, e, multiplication by
budding; f, mature individual similar to a; g, formation of swarmers; h-j,
supposed, but not observed, union of two swarmers producing a zygote;
k, 1, young individuals.
formed into numerous small bodies, each containing several nuclei.
Further changes are unknown. Swarmer-formation is known in some
forms. In Thalassicolla, the central capsule becomes separated from
the remaining part of the body and the nuclei divide into a number
of small nuclei, around each of which condenses a small ovoidal mass
of cytoplasm. They soon develop flagellum. In the meantime the
capsule descends to a depth of several hundred meters, where its
RADIOLARIA 519
wall bursts and the flagellates are liberated (g). Both isoswarmers
and anisoswarmers occur. The former often contain a crystal and
a few fat globules. Of the latter, the macroswarmers possess a nu-
cleus and refringent spherules in the cytoplasm. Some forms pos-
sess 2 flagella, one of which is coiled around the groove of the body,
which makes them resemble certain dinoflagellates. Further devel-
opment is unknown; it is supposed that the anisoswarmers are sexual
and isoswarmers asexual generations. Nuclear relationship (Hertwig,
1930).
Enormous numbers of species of Radiolaria are known. An out-
line of the classification is given below, together with a few examples,
of the genera.
Skeleton composed of strontium sulphate Suborder 1 Actipylea
Skeleton composed of other substances
Central capsule uniformly perforated, skeleton either tangential to the
capsule or radiating without reaching the intracapsular region. .
Suborder 2 Peripylea (p. 520)
Central capsule not uniformly perforated
Capsule monaxonic, bears at one pole a perforated plate forming
the base of an inward-directed cone
Suborder 3 Monopylea (p. 522)
Capsule with 3 openings: 1 astro pyle and 2 parapyles
Suborder 4 Tripylea (p. 523)
Suborder 1 Actipylea Hertwig
Radial spines, 10-200, not arranged according to Midler's law.
Spines radiate from a common center, ancestral forms (Haeckel). . . .
Family 1 Actineliidae
Genus Actinelius (Fig. 219, a)
10-16 spines irregularly set Family 2 Acanthociasmidae
Genus Acanthociasma (Fig. 219, b)
Radial spines, few, arranged according to Midler's law
Without tangential skeletons
Spines more or less uniform in size
Spicules circular in cross-section Family 3 Acanthometridae
Genus Acanthometron (Fig. 219, c)
Spicules cruciform in cross-section Family 4 Acanthoniidae
Genus Acanthoma (Fig. 219, d)
2 opposite spines much larger Family 5 Amphilonchidae
520
PROTOZOOLOGY
"SPIT
Pfflg
Fig. 219. a, Actinelms primordialis, X25 (Haeckel); b, Acanthociasma
planum, X65 (Mielck); c, Acanthometron elasticum (Hertwig); d, Acon-
thonia tetracopa, X40 (Schewiakoff ) ; e, Amphilonche hydrometrica, X130
(Haeckel); f, Hexaconus serratus, X100 (Haeckel).
Genus Amphilonche (Fig. 219, e)
With tangential skeletons
20 radial spines of equal size, shell composed of small plates, each
with one pore Family 6 Sphaerocapsidae
Genus Sphaerocapsa
2 or 6 larger spines
2 enormously large conical sheathed spines
Family 7 Diploconidae
Genus Diploconus
6 large spines Family 8 Hexalaspidae
Genus Hexaconus (Fig. 219, f)
Suborder 2 Peripylea Hertwig
Solitary, skeleton wanting or simple spicules; mostly spherical
Nucleus spherical with smooth membrane
Vacuoles intracapsular Family 1 Physematiidae
Genus Lampoxanthium (Fig. 220, a)
Vacuoles extracapsular Family 2 Thalassicollidae
Genus Thalassicolla (Fig. 220, b)
Nuclear membrane not smoothly contoured
Nuclear wall branching out into pouches, structure similar to the
last , t ...... * Family 3 Thalassophysidae
RADIOLARIA 521
Fig. 220 a, Lampoxanthium pandora, X20 (Haeckel); b, Thalassicolla
nucleata, X15 (Huth).
Genus Thalassophysa
Nuclear wall crenate
Huge double spicule Family 4 Thalassothamnidae
Genus Thalassothamnus
A latticed skeleton, with branching and thorny spines
Family 5 Orosphaeridae
Genus Orosphaera
Solitary, skeleton complex, often concentric
Central capsule and skeleton spherical Family 6 Sphaeroidae
Genus Hexacontium (Fig. 221, a)
Central capsule and skeleton elliptical or cylindrical
Family 7 Prunoidae
c
iri* * #^
Fig. 221. a, Hexacontium aster acanthion, X130; b, Pipetta tuba, X100;
c, Staurocyclia phacostaurus, X130; d, Cenolarus primordialis, X100;
e, SphaerQZoum ovodimare, X30 (Haeckel).
522 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Pipetta (Fig. 221, b)
Central capsule and skeleton discoidal or lenticular
Family 8 Discoidae
Genus Staurocyclia (Fig. 221, c)
Similar to the above, but flattened Family 9 Larcoidae
Genus Cenolarus (Fig. 221, d)
Colonial, individuals with anastomosing extracapsular cytoplasm, em-
bedded in a jelly mass
Without latticed skeleton, but with siliceous spicules arranged tan-
gentially to central capsule Family 10 Sphaerozoidae
Genus Sphaerozoum (Fig. 221, e)
Central capsule of each individual enclosed in a latticed skeleton
Family 11 Collosphaeridae
Genus Collosphaera
Suborder 3 Monopylea Hertwig
Without any skeleton Family 1 Nassoidae
Genus Cystidium (Fig. 222, a)
With skeleton
Without a complete latticed skeleton
Skeleton a basal tripod Family 2 Plectoidae
Fig. 222. a, Cystidium princeps, X120; b, Triplagia primordialis, X25;
c, Lithocircus magnificus, X100; d, Dictyophimus hertwigi, X80 (Haeckel).
Genus Triplagia (Fig. 222, b)
Skeleton a simple or multiple sagittal ring. . . Family 3 Stephoidae
Genus Lithocircus (Fig. 222, c)
With a complete latticed skeleton
Lattice skeleton single, without constriction. . . Family 4 Cyrtoidae
Genus Dictyophimus (Fig. 222, d)
Lattice skeleton multiple Family 5 Botryoidae
RADIOLARIA 523
Genus Phormobothrys
Suborder 4 Triplylea Hertwig
Without skeleton; with isolated spicules
Skeleton consists of radial hollow rods and fine tangential needles
Family 1 Aulacanthidae
Genus Aulacantha (Fig. 223, a)
With foreign skeletons covering body surface
Family 2 Caementellidae
Fig. 223. a, Aulacantha scolymantha, X30 (Kuhn); b, Caementella
stapedia, X65 (Haeckel); c, Aulosphaera labradoriensis, XlO (Haecker).
Genus Caementella (Fig. 223, b)
With skeleton
1-2 (concentric) usually spherical skeletons
Outer lattice skeleton with triangular or areolar meshes
Family 3 Sagosphaeridae
Genus Sagenoscene
One lattice skeleton with hollow radial bars
Family 4 Aulosphaeridae
Genus Aulosphaera (Fig. 223, c)
2 concentric lattice skeletons connected by radial bars
Family 5 Cannosphaeridae
Genus Cannosphaera
One skeleton, simple, but variable in shape; bilaterally symmetrical
Skeleton with fine diatomaceous graining . . Family 6 Challengeridae
Genus Challengeron (Fig. 224, a)
Skeleton smooth or with small spines Family 7 Medusettidae
524
PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Medusetta (Fig. 224, b)
One skeleton; spherical or polyhedral, with an opening and with radiat-
ing spines
Skeleton spherical or polyhedral, with uniformly large round pores
Family 8 Castanellidae
Fig. 224. a, Challengeron wyvillei, X 105 (Haeckel) ; b, Medusetta ansata,
X230 (Borgert); c, Castanidium murraiji, X25 (Haecker); d, Circoporus
octahedrus, X65 (Haeckel); e, Tuscarora murrayi, X7 (Haeckel); f, Coelo-
aendrum ramosissimum, XlO (Haecker).
Genus Castanidium (Fig. 224, c)
Skeleton similar to the last, but the base of each radial spine sur-
rounded by pores Family 9 Circoporidae
Genus Circoporus (Fig. 224, d)
Skeleton flask-shaped with 1-2 groups of spines
Family 10 Tuscaroridae
Genus Tuscarora (Fig. 224, e)
Central portion of skeleton consists of 2 valves
Valves thin, each with a conical process which divides into branched
tubes Family 11 Coelodendridae
Genus Coelodendrum (Fig. 224, f)
References
Brandt, K.: (1905) Zur Systematik der koloniebildenden Radiola-
rien. Zool. Jahrb. Suppl., 8:311.
RADIOLAMA 525
Borgert, A.: (1902) Mitteilungen ueber die Tripyleen-Ausbeute der
Plankton-Expedition. I. Zool. Jahrb. Syst., 15:563.
(1904) II. Ibid., 19:733.
(1905) Die Tripyleen Radiolarien der Plankton-Expedition.
Ergebn. Plankton-Exp. Humboldt-Stiftung, 3:95.
(1913) II. Ibid., 3:539.
Haeckel, E.: (1862) Die Radiolarien. Eine Monographic I.
(1887) II.
(1887a) Report on the Radiolaria collected by H.M.S. Chal-
lenger. Chall. Rep. Zool., 18.
Haecker, V.: (1908) Tiefseeradiolarien. Wiss. Ergebn. deutsch.
Tiefsee-Exp., 14:337.
Hertwig, R. : (1879) Der Organismus der Radiolarien. Jena.
(1930) Ueber die Kern verhaltnisse der Acanthometren. Arch.
Protist., 71:33.
Chapter 24
Class 3 Sporozoa Leuckart
THE Sporozoa are without exception parasitic and bear spores.
Their hosts are widely distributed in the animal kingdom, from
Protozoa to Chordata. As a rule, they are incapable of locomotion,
but some when immature may move about by pseudopodia or myo-
nemes. They possess neither cilia nor flagella, except in the gamete
stage. In the forms that are confined to one host, the spore is usu-
ally enveloped by a resistant membrane which would enable it to
withstand unfavorable conditions while outside the host body, but
in those having two host animals, as in Plasmodium, the sporozoite
is naked. The method of nutrition is saprozoic or parasitic, the food
being dissolved cytoplasm, tissue fluid, body fluid, or dissolved food
material of the host.
Both asexual and sexual reproductions are well known in many
species. Asexual reproduction is by repeated binary or multiple fis-
sion or budding of intracellular trophozoites. The multiple division
in a host cell produces far greater number of individuals than that
of protozoans belonging to other classes and often is referred to as
schizogony. The sexual reproduction is by isogamous or anisogamous
fusion or autogamy and marks in many cases the beginning of
sporogony or spore-formation.
Schaudinn (1900) divided the Sporozoa into two groups, Telospo-
ridia and Neosporidia, and this scheme has been followed by several
authors. Some recent writers consider these two groups as separate
classes. This, however, seems to be improper, as the basis of dis-
tinction between them is entirely different from that which is used
for distinguishing the other four classes: Sarcodina, Mastigophora,
Ciliata, and Suctoria. For this reason, the Sporozoa are placed in a
single class and divided into three subclasses as follows:
Spore simple; without polar filament
Spore with or without membrane; with 1-many sporozoites
Subclass 1 Telosporidia
Spore with membrane; with one sporozoite
Subclass 2 Acnidosporidia (p. 635)
Spore with polar filament Subclass 3 Cnidosporidia (p. 643)
Subclass 1 Telosporidia Schaudinn
The spore which contains neither a polar capsule nor a polar fila-
ment possesses one to several sporozoites and is formed at the end of
the trophic life of the individual. In the forms which invade two host
526
SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA 527
animals to complete their development, there occur naked sporo-
zoites instead of spores.
The infection of a new host begins with the entrance of mature
spores through mouth, or with the introduction of the sporozoites
by blood-sucking invertebrates directly into the blood stream. The
sporozoites enter specific host cells and there grow at the expense of
the latter. In the Coccidia and the Haemosporidia, the trophozoite
continues its intracellular existence, but in the Gregarinida it leaves
the host cell and grows in an organ cavity. Except Eugregarinina,
the vegetative form undergoes schizogony and produces a large
number of daughter individuals which invade new host cells, thus
spreading the infection within the host body. The trophozoites fi-
nally develop into gametocytes. In the Coccidia and the Haemospo-
ridia, anisogametes are, as a rule, produced. Each macrogametocyte
develops into a single macrogamete and each microgametocyte,
into several microgametes. Fusion of the gametes in pairs results in
formation of a large number of zygotes, each of which develops either
into one to many spores or into a number of naked sporozoites. In
the Gregarinida, two fully mature trophozoites (or gametocytes)
encyst together and the nucleus in each multiplies repeatedly to
form numerous gametes, which fuse in pairs with those produced in
the other individual within the common envelope. The zygotes de-
velop into spores, each containing variable number of sporozoites.
When these spores enter a new host, the changes outlined above are
repeated. The Telosporidia are parasitic in vertebrates and higher
invertebrates.
Three orders are distinguished in this subclass:
Mature trophozoite extracellular, large; zygote not motile; sporozoites
enveloped Order 1 Gregarinida
Mature trophozoite intracellular, small
Zygote not motile; sporozoites enveloped. . .Order 2 Coccidia (p. 570)
Zygote motile; sporozoites naked. . . .Order 3 Haemosphoridia (p. 599)
Order 1 Gregarinida Lankester
The gregarines are chiefly coelozoic parasites in invertebrates,
especially arthropods and annelids. They obtain their nourishment
from the host organ-cavity through osmosis. The vast majority of
gregarines do not undergo schizogony and an increase in number is
carried on solely by sporogony. In a small group, however, schizog-
ony takes place and this is used as the basis for grouping these
protozoans into two suborders as follows:
No schizogony Suborder 1 Eugregarinina (p. 528)
Schizogony occurs Suborder 2 Schizogregarinina (p. 560)
528 PROTOZOOLOGY
Suborder 1 Eugregarinina Dofiein
This suborder includes the majority of the so-called gregarines
which are common parasites of arthropods. When the spore gains en-
trance into a suitable host, it germinates and the sporozoites emerge
and enter the epithelial cells of the digestive tract. There they grow
at the expense of the host cells which they leave soon and to which
they become attached by various organellae of attachment (Fig.
235). These trophozoites become detached later from the host cells
and move about in the lumen of the gut. This stage, sporadin, is ordi-
narily most frequently recognized. It is usually large and vermiform.
The body is covered by a definite pellicle and its cytoplasm is clearly
differentiated into the ectoplasm and endoplasm. The former con-
tains myonemes (p. 62) which enable the organisms to undergo glid-
ing movements (Watson, 1916).
In one group, Acephalina, the body is of a single compartment,
but in the other group, Cephalina, the body is divided into two com-
partments by an ectoplasmic septum. The smaller anterior part
is the protomerite and the larger posterior part, the deutomerite,
contains a single nucleus. In Pileocephalus (Fig. 236, s) the nucleus is
said to be located in the protomerite and according to Goodrich
(1938) both the protomerite and deutomerite of Nina gracilis contain
a nucleus. The endoplasm contains numerous spherical or ovoidal
bodies which are called zooamylon or paraglycogen grains and
which are apparently reserve food material (p. 112). The proto-
merite may possess an attaching process with hooks or other
structures at its anterior border; this is called the epimerite. The epi-
merite is usually not found on detached sporadins. Goodrich ob-
served recently that in Nina the protomerite is a knob-like part of
the gregarine when contracted, but expands freely and used as a
mobile sucker for attachment to the gut epithelium of the host Scolo-
pendra. Presently multiple filiform epimerite grows at the free edge
of the sucker and penetrates between the host cells. Epimerite bear-
ing trophozoites are called cephalins. Cytology (Gohre, 1943).
Many gregarines are solitary, others are often found in an endwise
association of two or more sporadins. This association is called
syzygy. The anterior individual is known as the primite and the pos-
terior, the satellite. What differences exist between the two individ-
uals that become associated is not well known. But Muhl (1921) re-
ported in Gregarina cuneata, the granules in the primite and the
satellite stained differently with neutral red. Sporadins usually en-
cyst in pairs and become gametocytes. This process following bi-
association was observed in a number of species; for example, in
SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA
529
Leidyana erratica (Watson, 1916), Gregarina blaitarum (Sprague,
1941) (Fig-. 226), etc. Within the cyst-membrane, the nucleus in each
individual undergoes repeated division, forming a large number of
small nuclei which by a process of budding transform themselves into
numerous gametes. The gametes may be isogamous or anisogamous.
Each of the gametes in one gametocyte appears to unite with one
formed in the other, so that a large number of zygotes are produced.
In some species such as Nina gracilis the microgametes enter the
individual in which macrogametes develop, and the development of
zygotes takes place, thus producing the so-called pseudocyst. The
zygote becomes surrounded by a resistant membrane and its content
Fig. 225. Diagram illustrating the developmental cycle of Lankesteria
culicis (Wenyon). a, entrance of sporozoite into the mid-gut epithelium
and growth of trophozoites; b, mature trophozoite found in the lumen
of gut; c, association of two gametocytes prior to encystment; d-f, gamete
formation; g, zygote formation; h, development of spores from zygotes;
i, a spore; j, emergence of eight sporozoites from a spore in a new host
gut.
530
PROTOZOOLOGY
develops into the sporozoites, thus developing into a spore. The
spores germinate when taken into the alimentary canal of a host
animal and the life-cycle is repeated.
According to Wenyon, in a typical Eugregarinina, Lankesteria
culicis (Fig. 225) of Aedes aegypti, the development in a new host
begins when a larva of the latter ingests the spores which had been
set free by infected adult mosquitoes in the water. From each spore
are liberated 8 sporozoites (j), which enter the epithelial cells of the
stomach and grow (a). These vegetative forms leave the host cells
later and become mingled with the food material present in the
stomach lumen of the host (6). When the larva pupates, the sporad-
ins enter the Malpighian tubules, where they encyst (c). The re-
peated nuclear division is followed by formation of large numbers
of gametes (d-f) which unite in pairs (g). The zygotes thus formed
develop into spores, each possessing 8 sporozoites (h). Meanwhile
the host pupa emerges as an adult mosquito, and the spores which
become set free in the lumen of the tubules pass into the intestine,
from which they are discharged into water. Larvae swallow the
spores and acquire infection.
Eugregarinina are divided into 2 tribes :
Trophozoite not septate Tribe 1 Acephalina (p. 531)
Trophozoite septate Tribe 2 Cephalina (p. 541)
Fig. 226. Encystment in Gregarina blattarum, X60 (Sprague). a, a
trophozoite with epimerite and 3 pairs of syzygy; b, association of three
individuals; c-h, encystment as seen in a single pair in about one hour.
SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA 531
Tribe 1 Acephalina Kolliker
The acephalines are mainly found in the body cavity and organs
associated with it. The infection begins by the ingestion of mature
spores by a host, in the digestive tract of which the sporozoites are
set free and undergo development or make their way through the
gut wall and reach the coelom or various organs such as seminal
vesicles. Young trophozoites are intracellular, while more mature
forms are either intracellular or extracellular. Acephaline gregarines
(Berlin, 1924; Bhatia and Chatterjee, 1925; Bhatia and Setna, 1926;
Bhatia, 1929; Troisi, 1933).
Spores with similar ends
Spores biconical
Sporadins solitary
Anterior end not differentiated Family 1 Monocystidae
Anterior end conical or cylindro-conical
Family 2 Rhynchocystidae (p. 534)
Sporadins in syzygy
Spores with thickenings at ends . . Family 3 Zygocystidae (p. 534)
Spores without thickenings. .Family 4 Aikinetocystidae (p. 535)
Spores not biconical
Spores navicular Family 5 Stomatophoridae (p. 536)
Spores round or oval
No encystment Family 6 Schaudinnellidae (p. 537)
2 sporadins encyst together Family 7 Diplocystidae (p. 538)
Spores with dissimilar ends
Spores with epispore Family 8 Urosporidae (p. 538)
Spores without epispore Family 9 Allantocystidae (p. 540)
SDores unobserved; grown trophozoites with cup-like depression at
posterior end for syzygy Family 10 Ganymedidae (p. 541)
Family 1 Monocystidae Biitschli
Trophozoites spheroidal to cylindrical; anterior end not differ-
entiated; solitary; spores biconical, without any spines, with 8 spo-
rozoites.
Genus Monocystis Stein. Trophozoites variable in form; motile;
incomplete sporulation in cyst; spore biconical, symmetrical; in
coelom or seminal vesicles of oligochaetes. Numerous species (Berlin,
1924).
M. ventrosa Berlin (Fig. 227, a-c). Sporadins 109-1 83m by 72-
135m; nucleus up to 43m by 20m ; cysts 185-223m by 154-182u;
spores 17-25m by 8-19m; in Lumbricus rubellus, L. castaneus and
Helodrilus foetidus.
M. lumbrici Henle (Fig. 227, d, e). Sporadins about 200m by
60-70m; cysts about 162m in diameter; in Lumbricus terrestris, L.
rubellus, and L. castaneus (Berlin, 1924).
532
PROTOZOOLOGY
M . rostrata Mulsow (Figs. 92, 228). Elongate oval; average dimen-
sions 450/z by 220/x; anterior end often drawn out into a process;
pellicle thick, longitudinally striated; cysts about 750 /x in diameter;
spores 23/x by 9ju," in the seminal vesicles of Lumbricus terrestris.
Mulsow (1911) found vegetative stages in autumn and winter and
sporogony in spring. Meiosis in the last pre-gametic division (p. 207).
Fig. 227. a-c, Monocyslis ventrosa (a, X260; b, X150; c, X830)
(Berlin); d, e, M. lumbrici, X280 (Berlin); f. Apolocystis gigantea,
X90 (Troisi); g, A. minuta, with attached phagocytes, X770 (Troisi);
h, Nematocystis vermicularis, X80 (Hesse); i, j, Rhabdocystis claviformis
(i, X220; j, X270) (Boldt); k, 1, Enterocystis ensis (k, X140) (Zwetkow).
Genus Apolocystis Martiis. Trophozoites spherical; without
principal axis marked by presence of any special peripheral organ;
solitary; spore biconical; in seminal vesicles or coelom of various
oligochaetes. Many species.
A. gigantea Troisi (Fig. 227, /). In seminal vesicles of Helodrilus
foetidus and Lumbricus rubellus; late October to March only; fully
SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA
533
grown trophozoites 250-800^ in diameter; whitish to naked eyes;
pellicle thickly covered by 10-15/x long 'hairs'; endoplasm packed
with spherical paraglycogen grains (3m in diameter), nucleus 35-
43m in diameter; cysts 400-800m in diameter; spores 19m by 8.6m
(Troisi, 1933).
A. minuta Troisi (Fig. 227, g). In seminal vesicles of Lumbricus
terrestris, L. castaneus and L. rubellus; mature trophozoites 40-
46m in diameter; endoplasm yellowish brown, packed with spherical
paraglycogen grains (5.3-7m in diameter); nucleus 10m in diameter;
cysts 68-74m by 55-65m; spores of 3 sizes, 11m by 5.5m, 18.8m by 7m
and 21.6m by 9.8m.
Genus Nematocystis Hesse. Trophozoites elongate, cylindrical
and shaped like a nematode; solitary. Many species^/ Bhatia*and
Chatterjee, 1925).
Fig. 228. Monocystis rostrata (Mulsow). a-c, tropho-
zoites, X90; d, spore, X850.
N. vermicularis H. (Fig. 227, h). In seminal vesicles of Lumbricus
terrestris, L. rubellus, Helodrilus longus, Pheretima barbadensis;
trophozoites 1 mm. by 100m; cylindrical, both ends with projections;
nucleus oval; endoplasm alveolated, with paraglycogen grains;
sporadins become paired lengthwise; cysts and spores unknown.
Genus Rhabdocystis Boldt. Trophozoites elongate, gently curved;
anterior end swollen, club-shaped; posterior end attenuated; spores
with sharply pointed ends. One species.
R. claviformis B. (Fig. 227, i, j). In seminal vesicles of Octolasium
complanatum; sporadins extended, up to 300m by 30m; pellicle dis-
tinctly longitudinally striated; zooamylon bodies 2-4m in diameter;
cysts biscuit-form, 110m by 70m; spores 16m by 8m-
Genus Enterocystis Zwetkow. Early stages of trophozoites in
syzygy; sporadins in association ensiform; cysts spherical without
ducts; spores elongate ovoid, with 8 sporozoites; in gut of ephemerid
larvae. Species (Noble, 1938a).
534 PROTOZOOLOGY
E. ensis Z. (Fig. 227, k, I). Sporadins in syzygy 200-510/x long;
cysts 200-350yu in diameter; spores elongate ovoid; in gut of larvae
of Caenis sp.
Genus Echinocystis Bhatia and Chatterjee. Body nearly spherical
with two spine-like structures extending out from the body surface;
solitary; spores biconical with equally truncated ends; in the seminal
vesicles of earthworms (Bhatia and Chatterjee, 1925).
E. globosa B. and C. Body 740 m by 65m; spines sometimes un-
equally long; observations on spores incomplete; in the sperm sacs of
Pheretima heterochaeta.
Family 2 Rhynchocystidae Bhatia
Trophozoites ovoid, spherical or elongate, with a conical or cy-
lindro-conical trunk at anterior end; solitary; spore biconical, with
8 sporozoites.
Genus Rhynchocystis Hesse. Trophozoites ovoid or cylindrical;
plastic epimerite, conical or cylindro-conical trunk; in seminal vesi-
cles of oligochaetes. Many species (Bhatia and Chatterjee, 1925;
Troisi, 1933).
R. pilosa Cuenot (Fig. 229, a). In seminal vesicles of Lumbricus
terrestris, L. castaneus and Helodrilus foetidus; 217m by 25.5/*; pel-
licle with close, longitudinal ridges from which arise 'hairs' up to
40/i in length; endopLasm viscous, packed with oval (3m by 2m)
paraglycogen bodies; cysts ovoid, 95m by 84/x; spores 13.3m by 5m
(Troisi, 1933).
R. porrecta Schmidt (Fig. 229, b, c). In seminal vesicles of Lum-
bricus rubellus and Helodrilus foetidus; extremely long with an en-
larged head; up to 2.5 mm. by 32-36m; sluggish; endoplasm granu-
lated, filled with oval (4m by 2-3m) paraglycogen grains; nucleus 17-
25m in diameter; spores 27.7-28m by 12m; sporozoites 13-18m by 3-5m
(Troisi, 1933).
Family 3 Zygocystidae Bhatia
Trophozoites in association; spores biconical, with peculiar thick-
enings at extremities; with 8 sporozoites; in seminal vesicles or coe-
lom of oligochaetes.
Genus Zygocystis Stein. Sporadins pyriform, 2-3 in syzygy; in
seminal vesicles or coelom of oligochaetes. Several species.
Z. wenrichi Troisi (Fig. 229, d, e). In seminal vesicles of Lumbricus
rubellus and Helodrilus foetidus; sporadins up to 1.5 mm. by 250m in
diameter; pellicle with longitudinal ridges which become free and
form a 'tuft of hairs' at the posterior end; cysts 500-800m by 300-
500m; spores 28m by 13m.
SPOROZOA, GREGARIXIDA
535
Genus Pleurocystis Hesse. Trophozoites in longitudinal or lateral
association; spores biconical. One species.
P. cuenoti H. (Fig. 229, /). In the ciliated seminal horn of Helo-
drilus longus and H. caliginosus; 2 mm. by 300//; pellicle striated
longitudinally, obliquely near the posterior end; cysts 1.5-2 mm. in
diameter; spores 28. 5 m by 12/x (Hesse, 1909).
Family 4 Aikinetocystidae Bhatia
Trophozoites solitary or in syzygy; branching dichotomously,
branches with sucker-like organellae of attachment; spores biconical.
Fig. 229 a, Rhynchocystis pilosa, X200 (Hesse); b, c, R. porrecta:
b, X170 (Hesse); c, spore, X1330 (Troisi); d, e, Zygocystis wenrichi
(d, X45; e, X450) (Troisi); f, Pleurocystis cuenoti, X190 (Hesse); g, h,
Aikinetocystis singularis (h, X320) (Gates); i-k, Stomatophora coronata
(i, j, X430; k, X870) (Hesse); 1, Astrocystella lobosa, X120; m, Cratero-
cystis papua, X65; n, Choanocystella tentaculata, X570; o, Choanocystoides
costaricensis, X470 (Martiis).
536 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Aikinetocystis Gates. Trophozoites cylindrical or columnar,
with a characteristic, regular dichotomous branching at attached
end, with sucker-like bodies borne on ultimate branches; solitary or
2 (3-8) individuals in association; spores biconical.
A. singularis G. (Fig. 229, g, h). In coelom of Eutyphoeus foveatus.
E. rarus, E. peguanus and E. spinulosus (of Burma) ; trophozoites up
to 4 mm. long; number of branches 8 or 16, each with an irregular
sucker; ovoid nucleus near rounded end; spores of two sizes, 20-23m
long and 7-8m long; a few cysts found, ovoid and about 600m long.
Family 5 Stomatophoridae Bhatia
Trophozoites spherical to cylindrical or cup-shaped ; with a sucker-
like epimerite; solitary; spores navicular, ends truncate; 8 sporo-
zoites; in seminal vesicles of Pheretima (Oligochaeta) .
Genus Stomatophora Drzewecki. Trophozoites spherical or ovoid:
anterior end with a sucker-like epimeritic organella with a central
spine; spores navicular. Several species.
S. coronata (Hesse) (Fig. 229, i-k). In seminal vesicles of Phere-
tima rodericensis, P. hawayana and P. barbadensis; trophozoites
spherical, ovoid or elliptical, about 180m by 130m; endoplasm with
ovoid paraglycogen grains; cysts ellipsoid or fusiform, 70-80 m by
50-60m; spores in 2 sizes, 11m by 6m and 7m by 3m and in chain.
Genus Astrocystella Martiis. Trophozoites solitary; stellate with
5-9 lobes radiating from central part containing nucleus; anterior
surface with a depression. One species.
A. lobosa M. (Fig. 229, I). In seminal vesicles of Pheretima beau-
fortii (New Guinea) ; diameter about 200m; spores fusiform.
Genus Craterocystis M. Trophozoites solitary; rounded; a sucker-
like depression on anterior end; myonemes well developed, running
from concave to convex side. One species.
C. papua M. (Fig. 229, m). In prostate and lymphatic glands of
Pheretima wendessiana (New Guinea); trophozoites about 360-
390m in diameter.
Genus Choanocystella M. (Choanocystis M.). Trophozoites soli-
tary; rounded or ovate; anterior end with a mobile sucker and a
tentacle bearing cytoplasmic hairs; myonemes. One species.
C. tentaculata M. (Fig. 229, n). In seminal vesicles of Pheretima
beaufortii (New Guinea) ; trophozoites 50m by 36m-
Genus Choanocystoides M. Trophozoites solitary, rounded or cup-
shaped; anterior end with a mobile sucker, bordered by cytoplasmic
filaments. One species.
C. costaricensis M. (Fig. 229, o). In seminal vesicles of Pheretima
SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA
537
heterochaeta (Costa Rica); trophozoites 40-45/x in diameter; nucleus
ovoid, large, 12/x in diameter.
Genus Beccaricystis M. Mature trophozoites elongate, cylindrical,
with a sucker-like depression at anterior end; nucleus at its bottom,
one species.
B. loriai M. (Fig. 230, a). In seminal vesicles of Pheretima ser-
mowaiana; trophozoites cylindrical, with wart-like growths, myo-
Fig. 230. a, Beccaricystis loriai, X570 (Cognetti); b, c, Schaudinnella
henleae (b, X885; c, X1000) (Nusbaum); d, e, Diplocystis schneideri
(d, Xl4;e, spore, X2000) (Kunstler) ; f , Urospora chiridotae, X200 (Pix-
ell-Goodrich); g-i, Gonospora minchini (g, a young trophozoite in host
egg; h, a mature trophozoite, X330; i, sporadins in association, X80)
(Goodrich and Pixell-Goodrich).
nemes run lengthwise with radially arranged transverse fibrils ; about
lOO/i long.
Genus Albertisella M. Mature trophozoites cup-shaped, with an-
terior sucker with a smooth wall; nucleus at its bottom. One species.
A. crater C. In seminal vesicles of Pheretima sermowaiana.
Family 6 Schaudinnellidae Poche
Parasitic in the digestive system of oligochaetes; spores spherical;
trophozoites do not encyst; male trophozoites producing microgam-
538 PROTOZOOLOGY
etes and female, macrogametes ; zygotes or amphionts (spores)
rounded.
Genus Schaudinnella Nusbaum. Trophozoites elongate spindle,
free in lumen or attached to gut wall; sporadins male or female;
spherical macrogametes and fusiform microgametes ; zygotes or
amphionts encapsulated, passed out of host or enter gut epithelium,
dividing to produce many sporozoites (autoinfection).
S. henleae N. (Fig. 230, b, c). In gut of Henlea leptodera; mature
trophozoites about 70/x by 9/i; attached trophozoite with a clear
wart-like epimerite; female and male sporadins; macrogametes,
5-7.5^ in diameter; microgametes, spindle-form, 1-1.25/* long;
sporozoites rounded oval, 2.5-3/* in diameter.
Family 7 Diplocystidae Bhatia
Coelomic or gut parasites of insects; trophozoites solitary or asso-
ciated early in pairs; spores round or oval, with 8 sporozoites.
Genus Diplocystis Kunstler. Trophozoites spherical to oval; asso-
ciation of 2 individuals begin early in spherical form; spores round
or oval, with 8 sporozoites; in the intestine and coelom of insects.
D. schneideri K. (Fig. 230, d, e). In the body cavity of Peri-
planeta americana; young stages in gut epithelium; cysts up to 2
mm. in diameter; spores 7-8/* in diameter; sporozoites 8/i long. Meio-
sis (p. 208).
Genus Lankesteria Mingazzini. Trophozoites more or less spatu-
late; spherical cyst formed by 2 laterally associated sporadins in
rotation; spores oval, with flattened ends, with 8 sporozoites; in the
gut of tunicates, flatworms and insects. Several species.
L. culicis (Ross) (Fig. 225). In gut and Malpighian tubules of
Aedes aegypti and A. albopictus; mature trophozoites about 150-
200/z by 3 1-4 1/t ; cysts spherical, in Malpighian tubules of host,
about 30/i in diameter; spores 10/t by 6/t.
Family 8 Urosporidae Woodcock
Coelomic parasites in various invertebrates; sporadins associative;
spores with unequal ends; with or without epispores of various forms,
with 8 sporozoites.
Genus Urospora Schneider. Large; frequently in lengthwise asso-
ciation of 2 individuals of unequal sizes, spores oval, with a filamen-
tous process at one end; in body cavity or blood vessel of Tubifex,
Nemertinea, Sipunculus, Synapta, and Chiridota. Several species.
U. chiridotae (Dogiel) (Fig. 230, /). In blood vessel of Chiridota
laevis (in Canada); paired trophozoites up to about 1 mm. long; with
stiff 'hairs' (Goodrich, 1925).
SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA 539
U. hardyi Goodrich. In the coelom of Sipunculus nudus; spores
about 16m long, process 4-6m long, with eight sporozoites; thin-
walled cysts 0.5-2 mm. in diameter; active phagocytosis by host
cells of cysts and some trophozoites, producing brownish masses,
5 by 2 mm. or more in diameter, which are crowded together in the
posterior region of the host.
Genus Gonospora Schneider. Trophozoites polymorphic, oval,
pyriform or vermiform; cysts spherical; spore with a funnel at one
end, rounded at the other; in gut, coelom or ova of polychaetes.
G. minchini Goodrich and Pixell-Goodrich (Figs. 230, g-i; 231, g).
In coelom of Arenicola ecaudata; young trophozoites live in host
eggs which float in the coelomic fluid; fully grown trophozoites
leave eggs in which they grow up to 200m long, and encyst together
in pairs; spores without well-developed funnel, 8-10ju long (Good-
rich and Goodrich, 1920).
Genus Lithocystis Giard. Trophozoites large, ovoid or cylindrical;
attached for a long period to host tissue; pellicle with hairlike pro-
cesses; endoplasm with calcium oxalate cystals; spores ovoid, with
a long process at one end ; in coelom of echinids.
L. brachycercus Goodrich (Fig. 231, a, b). In the coelom of Chiri-
dota laevis; fully grown spherical trophozoites up to 200m in diame-
ter; spores with a short flattened tail; in Canada (Goodrlih, 1925).
L. lankesteri G. In the coelom of Sipunculus nudus; trophozoites
covered with spinous structures; biassociative; spores 12-14/z by
6-8m; the long ribbon-like tail 50-60 m long.
Genus Pterospora Racovitza and Labbe. Sporadins associative
or solitary; free end drawn out into 4 bifurcated processes; cysts
spherical or oval; spores with epispore drawn out into 3 lateral
processes; in coelom of polychaetes.
P. maldaneorum R. and L. (Fig. 231, c, d). In coelom of Liocepha-
lus liopygue; trophozoites about 140m long; cysts 288m, by 214m;
epispore 24/x in diameter; endospore 10-14/* by 3-4/j.
Genus Ceratospora Leger. Sporadins elongate conical, head to
head association; without encystment; spores oval with a small
collar at one end and 2 divergent elongate filaments at other. One
species.
C. mirabilis L. (Fig. 231, e, /). Sporadins 500-600m long; spore
12m by 8m, filaments 34m long; in general body cavity of Glycera sp.
Genus Cystobia Mingazzini. Trophozoites, large, irregular; fully
grown forms always with 2 nuclei, due to early union of 2 individ-
uals; spores oval, membrane drawn out and truncate at one end;
in blood vessels and coelom of Holothuria.
540
PROTOZOOLOGY
d
Fig. 231. a, b, Lithocystis brachycercus, X1330 (Pixell-Goodrich); c, d,
Pterospora maldaneorum (c, X40; d, X530) (Labbe); e, f, Ceratospora
mirabilis (e, X45; f, X670) (Leger); g, Gonospora minchini, X2000
(Goodrich); h, i, Cystobia irregularis (h, X65; i, X770) (Minchin); j-m,
Allantocystis dasyhelei (j-1, X500; m, X560) (Keilin); n, Ganymedes
anaspides, X570 (Huxley).
C. irregularis (Minchin) (Fig. 231, h, ^.Trophozoites irregular in
form; up to 500^ long; endoplasm opaque, granulated; cysts in
connective tissue of vessels; spore ovoid, epispore bottle-like, 25/u
long; in blood vessel of Holothuria nigra.
Family 9 Allantocystidae Bhatia
Trophozoites elongate cylindrical; cysts elongate, sausage-like;
spores fusiform, sides slightly dissimilar.
Genus Allantocystis Keilin. Sporadins, head to head association;
cysts sausage-like; in dipterous insect. One species.
A. dasyhelei K. (Fig. 231, j-m). In gut of larval Dasyhelea obscura;
SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA 541
full-grown sporadins 65-75/t by 20-22/t; cysts 140-150/1 by 20/z;
spores 18m by 6.5/i (Keilin, 1920).
Family 10 Ganymedidae Huxley
Trophozoites only known; mature individuals biassociative; pos-
terior end of primite with a cup-like depression to which the epi-
meritic organella of satellite fits; cysts spherical; spores unknown.
Genus Ganymedes Huxley. Characters of the family; Huxley
considers it as an intermediate form between Acephalina and
Cephalina.
G. anaspides H. (Fig. 2,31, n). In gut and liver-tube of the crus-
tacean, Anaspides tasmaniae (of Tasmania); trophozoites in associa-
tion. 70-300/i by 60-130/x; cysts 85-1 15/z in diameter.
Tribe 2 Cephalina Delage
The body of a trophozoite is divided into the protomerite and
deutomerite by an ectoplasmic septum; inhabitants of the ali-
mentary canal of invertebrates, especially arthropods. Taxonomy
and distribution (Watson, 1916; Pinto, 1919; Kamm, 1922, 1922a).
One host species involved
None-septate; epimerite a knob Family 1 Lecudinidae (p. 542)
Septate
Development intracellular
Sporadins associative Family 2 Cephaloidophoridae (p. 543)
Sporadins solitary Family 3 Stenophoridae (p. 544)
Development extracellular
Sporadins associative
Satellite non-septate Family 4 Didymophyidae (p. 544)
Satellite septate Family 5 Gregarinidae (p. 544)
Sporadins solitary
Epimerite simple knob-like
Cysts with several ducts Family 6 Leidyanidae (p. 547)
Cysts without or with one duct
Family 7 Monoductidae (p. 548)
Epimerite not simple knob-like
Epimerite cup-shaped or digitate
Epimerite cup-shaped. . .Family 8 Menosporidae (p. 549)
Epimerite digitate. . . .Family 9 Dactylophoridae (p. 550)
Epimerite otherwise
Spore hat-shaped Family 10 Stylocephalidae (p. 552)
Spore of other shapes
Spore with spines. .Family 11 Acanthosporidae (p. 554)
Spore without spines
Family 12 Actinocephalidae (p. 554)
Two host species involved Family 13 Porosporidae (p. 558)
542
PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 1 Lecudinidae Kamm
Epimerite simple, symmetrical; non-septate; spores ovoidal,
thickened at one pole; solitary; in gut of polychaetes and termites.
Undoubtedly intermediate forms between Acephalina and Cepha-
lina.
Genus Lecudina Mingazzini. Epimerite simple, knob-like; in
polychaetes. Species (Kamm, 1922).
Fig. 232. a, Lecudina pellucida (Kolliker); b, Polyrhabdina spionis,
X800 (Reichenow); c, Sycia inspinata (L6ger); d, e, Zygosoma globosum
(d, X60; e, X1260) (Noble); f, Cephaloidophora olivia, X190 (Kamm);
g, Stenophora larvata, X50 (Leidy); h, S. robusta, X130 (Ellis); i, j,
Fonsecaia polymorpha (i, X220; j, X430) (Pinto); k, Gregarina blattarum,
X55 (Kudo); 1, G. locustae, X65 (Leidy); m, G. oviceps, X30 (Crawley);
n, Protomagalhaesia serpentula, X35 (Pinto); o, Gamocystis tenax (Schnei-
der).
SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA 543
L. pellucida (Kolliker) (Fig. 232, a). In Nereis cultrifera and N.
beaucourdrayi ; trophozoites ellipsoid; spores 7/i by 5/i (Ellis, 1913).
Genus Polyrhabdina Mingazzini. Trophozoites flattened, ovoidal;
epimerite with a corona of processes with split ends, deeply stain-
able; in polychaetes (Spionidae).
P. spionis (Kolliker) (Fig. 232, b). In Scololepis fuligionosa; 100/*
by 35/t; epimerite with a corona of 8-10 processes; cysts unknown.
Mackinnon and Ray (1931) report var. bifurcata, the epimerite of
which is a "knob-shaped structure with a circlet of 14 to 16 minute
teeth at its base, and at its crown, two much larger, diverging, claw-
like processes."
Genus Kofoidina Henry. Epimerite rudimentary; development
intracellular; 2-14 sporadins in association; cysts and spores un-
known (Henry, 1933).
K. ovata H. In midgut of Zootermopsis angusticollis and Z. neva-
densis; syzygy 153-672/* long; sporadins 41-105// long.
Genus Sycia L£ger. Epimerite knobbed, bordered by a thick ring;
protomerite subspherical ; deutomerite conical, with navicular in-
clusions; in marine annelids (Leger, 1892).
S. inspinata L. (Fig. 232, c). In Audouinia lamarcki.
Genus Zygosoma Labbe. Trophozoites with wart-like projections;
epimerite a simple knob; spores oval; in gut of marine annelids.
Z. globosum Noble (Fig. 232, d, e). Trophozoites 250-500/t by
200-380/i ; epimerite a large globule; cysts 400/t by 360/i, without
ducts; spores oval, with 4 sporozoites, 9/i by 7/i; reduction zygotic,
12 to 6 chromosomes; in gut of Urechis caupo in California.
Genus Ulivina Mingazzini. Elongate ellipsoid; epimerite simple;
spores unknown; in gut of polychaetes.
U. rhynchoboli (Crawley). Sporadins up to 700 /i long; in the gut of
Rhynchobolus americanus (Crawley, 1903).
Family 2 Cephaloidophoridae Kamm
Development intracellular; early association; cysts without spo-
roducts; spores ovoidal, with equatorial line; in gut of Crustacea.
Genus Cephaloidophora Mawrodiadi. Sporadins biassociative,
early; epimerite rudimentary; cysts without sporoducts; spores in
chain, ovoidal.
C. olivia (Watson) (Fig. 232/,). Biassociated sporadins up to 218/t
long; individuals up to 118/i by 36/t; cysts spheroidal, 60/t in diame-
ter; spores (?) ; in gut of Libinia dubia; Long Island.
C. nigrofusca (Watson). Sporadins, ovoid to rectangular, up to
125/i by 75/x; cysts and spores (?); in gut of Uca pugnax and U.
pugilator.
544 PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 3 Stenophoridae Leger and Duboscq
Development intracellular; sporadins solitary; with a simple
epimerite or none; cysts open by rupture; spores ovoid, with or
without equatorial line, not extruded in chain; in Diplopoda.
Genus Stenophora Labbe. With or without simple epimerite;
spores ovoid with equatorial line, not in chain. Species (Watson,
1916; Pinto, 1919).
S. larvata (Leidy) (Fig. 232, g). Sporadins up to 800m by 23m ;
protomerite small; in gut of Spirobolus spinigerus.
S. robusta Ellis (Fig. 232, h). Sporadins 140-180/x by 67m; cysts and
spores both unobserved; in gut of Parajulus venustus, Orthomorpha
gracilis and 0. sp.; Colorado.
Genus Fonsecaia Pinto. Spores elongate ovoid; without equa-
torial line.
F. polymorpha Pinto (Fig. 232, i, j). Sporadins 170m long; spores
18m by 8m; in gut of Orthomorpha gracilis; Brazil.
Family 4 Didymophyidae Leger
Two to three sporadins in association; satellite without septum.
Genus Didymophyes Stein. Epimerite a small pointed papilla;
cysts spherical, open by rupture; spores ellipsoidal.
D. gigantea S. Sporadins slender, 1 cm. by 80- 100m; 2 deuto-
merites; cysts spherical, 600-700m in diameter; spores oval, 6.5m by
6m; in gut of larvae of Oryctes nasicornis, O. sp., and Phyllognathus
sp. (Leger, 1892).
Family 5 Gregarinidae Labbe'
Sporadins in association; epimerite simple, symmetrical; cysts
with or without ducts; spores symmetrical.
Genus Gregarina Dufour. Sporadins biassociative; epimerite
small, globular or cylindrical; spores dolioform to cylindrical; cysts
open by sporoducts; in the gut of arthropods. Numerous species
(Watson, 1916). Morphology and physiology (Muhl, 1921).
G. blattarum Siebold (Figs. 226; 232, k). Sporadins in syzygy, 500-
1100m; by 160-400m; cysts spherical or ovoidal; eight to 10 sporo-
ducts; spores cylindrical to dolioform, truncate at ends, 8-8. 5m by
3.5-4m; in the midgut of cockroaches, especially Blatta orientalis.
Reproduction (Schiffmann, 1919; Sprague, 1941).
G. locustae Lankester (Fig. 232, I). Sporadins 150-350m long: in
Dissosteria Carolina.
G. oviceps Diesing (Fig. 232, m). Sporadins up to 500m by 225m; in
syzygy; spherical cysts 250m in diameter; two to five sporoducts up
SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA 545
to 1 mm. long; spores dolioform, 4.5m by 2.25m; in Gryllus abbrevia-
te and G. americanus (Leidy, 1853).
G. polymorpha (Hammerschmidt). Cylindrical sporadins up to
350m by 100m; in syzgyy; protomerite dome-shaped; deutomerite
cylindrical, rounded posteriorly; a small nucleus with an endosome;
in the intestine of larvae and adults of Tenebrio molitor ("meal
worm").
G. rigida (Hall). Sporadins 28m by 20m up to 424m by 196m," syzygy;
spherical cysts 212-505m in diameter; in the species of Melanoplus
(grasshoppers) (Kararo, 1920; Allegre, 1948).
Genus Protomagalhaesia Pinto. Sporadins cylindrical; in syzygy,
protomerite of satellite draws in the posterior end of primite; cysts
without ducts; spores dolioform, with spines at ends.
P. serpentula (Magalhaes) (Fig. 232, n). Sporadins up to 1.2 mm.
by 180m; in gut and coelom of Blatta orientalis.
Genus Gamocystis Schneider. Septate only in trophozoites; spo-
radins non-septate; in syzygy; spore formation partial; with sporo-
ducts; spores cylindrical. A few species.
G. tenax S. (Fig. 232, 6). Association head to head; spherical cysts
with 15 or more ducts; spore cylindrical, with rounded ends; in gut
of Blattella lapponica (Schneider, 1875).
Genus Hyalospora Schneider. Sporadins in syzygy; cytoplasm
yellowish orange; epimerite a simple knob; cysts open by rupture;
spores fusiform.
H. affinis S. Trophozoites 300m long; cysts, yellow, 60m in diame-
ter; spores 8.7m by 6m; in gut of Machilis cylindrica (Labbe, 1899).
Genus Tettigonospora Smith. Similar to Hyalospora, but cyto-
plasm opaque white; spores spherical. One species (Smith, 1930).
T. stenopelmati S. Sporadins 225-542m by 118-225m; spherical
cysts 434-551 m in diameter, wall 17-66m thick; spores 4.8-5m in di-
ameter; in the midgut of Stenopelmatus fuscus and S. pictus ("Jerusa-
lem crickets").
Genus Hirmocystis Labbe. Sporadins associative, 2-12 or more;
with a small cylindrical papilla-like epimerite; cysts without ducts;
spores ovoidal.
H. harpali Watson (Fig. 233, a). Total length of association up
to 1060m; sporadins up to 560m by 80m; cysts unknown; in gut of
Harpalus pennsylvanicus erythropus (Watson, 1916).
H. termitis (Leidy) (Fig. 233, 6). Association 614-803m long;
epimerite simple sphere; cysts rare; spores (?); in Zootermopsis
angusiicollis, Z. ?ievadensis, etc. (Henry, 1933).
Genus Uradiophora Mercier. Sporadins in syzygy; deutomerite
546
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 233. a, Hirmocystis harpali, X50 (Watson); b, H. termitis, X85
(Henry); c, Anisolobus dacnecola, X270 (Vincent); d, e, Carcinoecetes
hesperus (d, X200; e, X780) (Ball); f, Leydiana erratica, X170 (Wat-
son); g-i, Lepismatophila thermobiae (g, h, X85; i, spores, X200) (Adams
and Travis); j-1, Colepismatophila watsonae (j, k, X85; 1, spores, X200)
(Adams and Travis) ; m-o, Monoductus lunatus (m, cephalin, X240; n, C}rst,
X120; o, two views of spore, X2330) (Ray and Chakravatry).
with small process; epimerite an elongate papilla; cysts oval without
ducts; spores spherical, in chains (Mercier, 1911).
U. cuenoti M. (Fig. 234, a). 2-4 sporadins in syzygy; individuals
up to 700/z long; cysts ovoid, 44 /i long; spores 4/x in diameter; in gut
of Atyaephrya desmaresti.
Genus Pyxinioides Tregouboff. Sporadins biassociative; epimerite
with 16 longitudinal furrows, small cone at end.
P. balani (Kolliker). Primite up to 130^; satellite 60ju long; in gut
of Balanus amphitrite and B. eburneus.
Genus Anisolobus Vincent. Sporadins in syzygy; epimerite lack-
ing; protomerite of primite expanded to form sucker-like organella*
SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA 547
cysts ellipsoid, with thick envelope; with 6-8 sporoducts; spores
barrel-shaped. One species.
A. dacnccola V. (Fig. 233, c). In the midgut of the coleopteran
Dacne rufifrons; 2 sporadins in syzygy 1 00-300 m by 20-50^; cysts
without envelope, 130-150 n by 80-90/*; sporoducts 40-50/x long;
spores in chain, dolioform, 6> by 4^ (Vincent, 1924).
Genus Carcinoecetes Ball. Sporadins in syzygy of 2 or more indi-
viduals; epimerite rudimentary; cysts without sporoducts; spores
round to ovoidal, not in chain; in gut of Crustacea (Ball, 1938).
C. hesperus B. (Fig. 233, d, e). 2-6 sporadins in association; sporad-
ins up to 320^ by 9m ; cysts about 140/i by 123^, attached to the wall
of hindgut; spores 8.6/i by 7.7/z, with 8 radially arranged sporozoites;
in gut of the striped shore crab, Pachygrapsus crassipes; in California,
C. bermudensis B. In the mid- and hind-gut of Pachygrapsus trans-
versus; in Bermuda (Ball, 1951).
C. mithraxi B. In the gut of Mithr ax forceps; in Bermuda.
C. calappae B. In the gut of Calappa flammca; in Bermuda.
Genus Heliospora Goodrich. Elongated, septate; spores more or
less spherical, with equatorial ray-like processes (Goodrich, 1949).
H. longissima (Siebold) (Fig. 234, b-e). Trophozoites elongate fili-
form, up to 228m long; no intracellular stage; epimerite small, and is
retained until the sporadins roll up for encystment; spherical cyst
thinly walled and ruptures easily; microgametes flagellated; spores
7-8/x in diameter, with eight sporozoites and bear six long ray-like
processes at the equator; in the gut of Gammarus pulex.
Genus Rotundula Goodrich. Rotund; button-like epimerite; pre-
cocious association; cyst without duct; spores, small, spherical or
subspherical (Goodrich, 1949).
R. gammari (Diesing) (Fig. 234,/). Cysts 40-50^; microgametes
flagellate, 4/z in diameter; spores spherical, 5-6^ in diameter; in the
gut of Gammarus pulex.
Family 6 Leidyanidae
Similar to the last two families; but sporadins are solitary and
epimerite simple knob-like; cysts with several sporoducts.
Genus Leidyana Watson. Solitary; epimerite a simple globular
sessile knob; cysts with ducts; spores dolioform (Watson, 1915).
L. erratica (Crawley) (Fig. 233,/). Sporadins up to 500^ by 160/x;
cysts about 350^ in diameter; membrane about 30/x thick; 1-12
sporoducts; spores extruded in chains, 6/z by 3^; in gut of Gryllus
abbreviatus and G. pennsylvanicus.
548 PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 7 Monoductidae Ray and Chakravatry
As in the last family solitary; but cyst with a single sporoduct or
none; spore with 8 sporozoites.
Genus Monoductus R. and C. Sporadins solitary; epimerite a
small elevation with prongs attached to its base; anisogamy; cyst
with a single sporoduct; spores flattened fusiform, with dissimilar
ends, each with 8 sporozoites. One species.
M. lunatus R. and C. (Fig. 233, m-o). Cephalins 225-445/* by
33-4 7/x; epimerite with about 16 prongs; nucleus parachute-shaped,
with myonemes attached at posterior margin; sporadins develop
posterior pseudopodial processes before association; cysts spherical,
225-230m in diameter, voided by host; development completed in
3-4 days outside the host body, with one duct; spores 10.25m by 4/x,
truncate at one end, attenuated at other and discharged in a single
chain; in gut of Diplopoda sp.
Genus Sphaerocystis Leger. Sporadins solitary; without protomer-
rite; spherical.
S. simplex L. Sporadins 100-140/z in diameter; protomerite in
young trophozoites; spherical cysts in which individuals are not
associative, 100m in diameter; spores ovoid, 10.5m by 7.5m; in gut of
Cyphon pallidulus.
Genus Lepismatophila Adams and Travis. Epimerite a simple
knob; cysts without ducts; spores ellipsoidal, smooth, in chain. One
species (Adams and Travis, 1935).
L. thermobiae A. and T. (Fig. 233, g-4). Sporadins 67-390^ by
30-174ju; cysts white to black, ellipsoidal to subspherical, 244-378/z
by 171-262ju; spores brown, 13.6m by 6.8m; in the ventriculus of the
firebrat, Thermobia domestica.
Genus Colepismatophila Adams and Travis. Similar to the last
genus; but larger; spores in wavy chains, hat-shaped, with 2 curved
filamentous processes attached at opposite ends. One species.
C. watsonae A. and T. (Fig. 233, j-l). Sporadins 92-562m by 55-
189m; cysts 226-464/i by 158-336m; spores 16.5m by 9.7m, processes 21m
long; in ventriculus of Thermobia domestica (Adams and Travis, 1935).
Genus Hyalosporina Chakravarty. Sporont solitary; epimerite
small, tongue-like; anisogametes; cyst without ducts; spores oval,
with a hyaline membrane. One species (Chakravarty, 1935, 1936X-
H. cambolopsisae C. (Fig. 234, g-j). Trophozoites 247-1 11 1m by
37-1 11m; cysts oval, 292-390m by 263-375m; spores 8m; by 6m; in the
gut of the milliped, Cambolopsis sp.
SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA
549
Fig. 234. a, Uradiophora cuenoti in syzygy, X65 (Mercier); b-e,
Heliospora longissima (Goodrich) (b, a pair in syzygy, X330; c, micro-
gamete; d, zygote; e, a spore with 4 nuclei, X2665) ; f, Rotundula gammari
in syzygy, X330 (Goodrich); g-j, Hyalosporina cambolopsisae (Chakra-
varty) (g, intracellular trophozoite, XI 110; h, a mature individual with
fibrils tethering the nucleus, X120; i, anterior part of an attached organ-
ism, X2330; j, a spore, X1110); k, the digestive tube of Nepa cinerea
with eight trophozoites attached to the stomach (opened) epithelium and
three cysts of Coleorhynchus heros (Poisson).
Family 8 Menosporidae Leger
Sporadins solitary; epimerite a large cup, bordered with hooks,
with a long neck; cysts without sporoducts; spores crescentic,
smooth.
Genus Menospora Leger. With the characters of the family.
M. polyacantha L. (Fig. 235, a, 6). Sporadins 600-700/* long;
cysts 200/x in diameter; spores 15^ by 4/z; in gut of Agrion puella.
550 PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 9 Dactylophoridae Leger
Sporadins solitary; epimerite complex, digitate; cysts dehiscence
by pseudocyst; spores cylindrical; in gut of chilopods.
Genus Dactylophorus Balbiani. Protomerite wide, bordered by
digitiform processes; spores cylindrical.
D. robustus Leger (Fig. 235, c, d). Sporadins 700-800/x long; cysts
spherical, 200/x in diameter; spores 11m by 4.3/*; in gut of Cryptops
hortensis.
Genus Echinomera Labbe. Epimerite an eccentric cone with 8 or
more digitiform processes; cysts without sporoducts; spores cylin-
drical.
E. magalhaesi (Pinto) (Fig. 235, e). Sporadins up to 300m by 70m;
in gut of Scolopendra sp.
Genus Rhopalonia Leger. Epimerite spherical, with 10 or more
digitiform processes; pseudocysts; spores cylindrical.
R. hispida (Schneider) (Fig. 235, /, g). Endoplasm yellowish
orange; cysts 200-250// in diameter; spores 16m by 6.5/*; in gut of
Geophiles sp. and Stigmatogaster gracilis.
Genus Dendrorhynchus Keilin. Elongate; epimerite a disc, sur-
rounded by numerous ramified papillae; transverse fibrils conspicu-
ous; cysts elliptical; spores fusiform.
D. system K. (Fig. 235, h). Sporadins 255m by 18.5-20^; spores
18-19m by In) in midgut of larvae of Systenus sp., a dolichopodid
fly, found in decomposed sap of elm tree.
Genus Trichorhynchus Schneider. Protomerite prolonged ante-
riorly into a long neck, dilated at tip; pseudocyst; spores cylindrical
to ellipsoidal.
T. pulcher S. (Fig. 235, i). Cysts 303-3 16m in diameter; spores
9.7m by 5.8m; in gut of Scutigera sp. and S. forceps (Watson, 1916).
Genus Nina Grebnecki (Pterocephalus Schneider). Protomerite
made up of 2 long narrow horizontal lobes fused and upturned
spirally at one end, peripheral portion with many teeth, from which
project long filaments; spores in chain; in gut of myriapods. Species
(Watson, 1916).
N. gracilis G. (Fig. 235, j, k). 1.5-5 mm. long; cyst spherical;
spores ellipsoidal ; in the gut of Scolopendra cingulata and S. subspini-
pes (Goodrich, 1938).
Genus Seticephalus Kamm. Protomerite with closely set brush-
like bristles.
S. elegans (Pinto) (Fig. 235, I). Sporadins up to 75m by 35m; cysts
and spores unknown; in gut of Scolopendra sp.
Genus Acutispora Crawley. Solitary; pseudocyst; spore biconical,
SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA
551
with a thick blunt endosporal rod at each end. One species (Crawley,
1903).
A. macrocephala C. (Fig. 235, ra). Sporadins up to 600^ long; cysts
spherical, 410/* in diameter; spores navicular, slightly curved, 19/z
by 4ju; in gut of Lithobius forficatus.
Fig. 235. a, b, Menospora polyacantha (Leger); c, d, Dactylophorus
robustus (c, X130; d, X900) (Leger); e, Echinomera magalhaesi, X130
(Pinto); f, g, Rhopalonia hispida (g, X830) (Leger); h, Bendrorhynchus
systeni, X770 (Keilin); i, Trichorhynchus pulcher (Schneider); j, k, Nina
gracilis (j, X10) (Schneider); 1, Seticephalus elegans, X450 (Pinto);
m, Acutispora macrocephala, X65 (Crawley); n, Metamera schubergi,
X270 (Duke); o, p, Hentschelia thalassemae (o, X230; p, X620) (Mackin-
non and Ray); q, r, Lecythion thalassemae (q, X270; r, X930) (Mackinnon
and Ray).
552 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Metamera Duke. Epimerite eccentric, bordered with
many branched digitiform processes; cysts without ducts; spores
biconical (Duke, 1910).
M. schubergi D. (Fig. 235, n). Sporadins 150m by 45m; spores 9m
by 7m; in gut of the leeches, Glossosiphonia complanata and Placob-
della marginata.
M. reynoldsi Jones. Sporadins with epimerite measure 280m by
50m; cysts spherical; dehiscence by rupture; spore biconical, 5m by
3m, with 8 sporozoites; in the stomach diverticula and intestine of
Glossosiphonia complanata.
Genus Hentschelia Mackinnon and Ray. Epimerite with a short
neck, umbrella-like with its margin divided into 4-5 lobes, each
fluted on anterior surface; 2 sporadins encyst together; gametes
anisogamous; flagellate and non-flagellate; zygote gives rise to a
spherical spore with 8 sporozoites. One species.
H. thalassemae M. and R. (Fig. 235, o, p). Cephalins 75-98m by
30-45m", in gut of Thalassema neptuni (Mackinnon and Ray, 1931).
Genus Lecythion Mackinnon and Ray. Epimerite a low cone, sur-
rounded by 14-15 petal -shaped lobes, with a neck; cysts and spores
unknown.
L. thalassemae M. and R. (Fig. 235, q. r). Cephalins 135m by 52m;
epimerite about 27m long; in gut of Thalassema neptuni.
Family 10 Stylocephalidae Ellis
Sporadins solitary; epimerite varied; pseudocysts; hat-shaped
spores in chains.
Genus Stylocephalus Ellis. Epimerite nipple-like; cysts covered
with papillae; in arthropods and molluscs.
S. giganteus E. (Fig. 236, a). Sporadins 1.2-1.8 mm. long; cysts
spherical, 450m in diameter; spores subspherical black, 11m by 7m;
in Eleodes sp., Asida opaca, A. sp., and Eusattus sp. (Coleoptera)
(Ellis, 1912).
Genus Bulbocephalus Watson. Epimerite a dilated papilla located
in middle of a long neck( Watson, 1916a).
B. elongatus W. (Fig. 236, b). Sporadins up to 1.6 mm. by 50m;
nucleus diagonal; cysts and spores unknown; in gut of Cucujus larva
(acoleopteran).
Genus Sphaerorhynchus Labbe. Epimerite a small sphere at end
of a long neck.
S. ophioides (Schneider). Cephalins 1.3 mm. long; epimerite 220m
long; terminal part 8.5m; sporadins 3-4 mm. long; in gut of Acis sp.
SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA
553
Genus Cystocephalus Schneider. Epimerite a large lance-shaped
papilla with a short neck; spore hat-shaped.
C. algerianus S. (Fig. 236, c, d). Sporadins 3-4 mm. long; spores
10-10. 5/x long; in gut of Pimelia sp. (Labb6, 1899).
Fig. 236. a, Stylocephalus giganteus, X65 (Ellis); b, Bulbocephalus
elongatus, Xl5 (Watson); c, d, Cystocephalus algeriamis (c, X6; d, X930)
(Schneider); e, Lophocephalus insignis (Schneider); f, Acanthospora poly-
morpha, X1670 (L6ger); g, h, Corycella armata (h, X860) (L£ger); i,
Prismatospora evansi, X50 (Ellis); j, k, Ancyrophora gracilis (k, X1250)
(L6ger); 1, m, Cometoides capitatus (m, X1330) (L6ger); n, o, Actino-
cephahis acutispora (L6ger); p. Amphoroides calverti, X130 (Watson);
q, Asterophora philica, X65 (Leidy); r, Steinina rotunda, X130 (Watson);
s, Pileocephalus striatus, X 180 (Leger and Duboscq) ; t, Stylocystis praecox,
XSO (L6ger).
Genus Lophocephalus Labbe. Epimerite sessile crateriform disc
with crenulate periphery, surrounded by digitiform processes.
L. insignis (Schneider) (Fig. 236, e). Sporadins 1 mm. long; cysts
rounded; 430/x by 330/u; pseudocysts; spores 10^ long; in gut of
Helops striatus.
554 PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 11 Acanthosporidae Leger
Sporadins solitary; epimerite complex; cysts without sporoducts;
spores with equatorial and polar spines.
Genus Acanthospora Leger. Epimerite simple conical knob; spores
with spines.
A. polymorpha L. (Fig. 236, /). Sporadins polymorphic; up to 1
mm. long; protomerite cylindro-conical; deutomerite ovoidal; endo-
plasm yellowish brown; cyst 500-700m in diameter; spore with 4
spines at each pole and 6 at equatorial plane, 8m by 4.4m; in gut
of Hydrous ceraboides.
Genus Corycella Leger. Epimerite globular, with 8 hooks; spores
biconical, with one row of polar spines (Leger, 1892).
C. armata L. (Fig. 236, g, h). Sporadins 280-300/x long; cysts
spherical, 250m in diameter; spores 13m by 6.5m; in gut of larva of
Gyrinus natator.
Genus Prismatospora Ellis. Epimerite subglobular with 8 lateral
hooks; spores hexagonal, prismatic with one row of spines at each
pole.
P. evansi E. (Fig. 236, i). Sporadins broadly conical, 400m long;
cysts 370m in diameter; without sporoducts; spores with 6 long
spines at each pole, 1 1/x by 5.8m ; in gut of Tramea lacerta and Sym-
petrum rubicundulum; Michigan.
Genus Ancyrophora Leger. Epimerite globular with 5-10 digiti-
form processes directed posteriorly; spores biconical, with spines.
A. gracilis L. (Fig. 236, j, k). Sporadins 20G>-2 mm. long; cysts
spherical, 200m in diameter; spores hexagonal in optical section,
with 4 polar and 6 equatorial spines, 8.5m by 5m; in gut of larvae and
adults of Carabus auratus, C. violaceus, C. sp., and of larvae of Silpha
thoracica (Coleoptera) (Leger, 1892).
Genus Cometoides Labbe. Epimerite globular with 6-15 long
filaments; spores with polar spines and 2 rows of equatorial spines.
C. capitatus (Leger) (Fig. 236, I, m). Sporadins up to 2 mm. long,
active; epimerite with 12-15 filaments, 32-35/* long; cysts 30% in
diameter; spores 5.1m by 2.5/*; in gut of larvae of Hydrous sp. (Coleop-
tera) (Watson, 1916).
Family 12 Actinocephalidae Leger
Sporadins solitary; epimerite variously formed; cysts without
sporoducts; spores irregular, biconical or cylindro-biconical; in gut
of insects.
Genus Actinocephalus Stein. Epimerite sessile or with a short
SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA 555
neck, with 8-10 simple digitiform processes at its apex; spores bi-
conical.
A. acutispora Leger (Fig. 236, n, o). Sporadins 1-1.5 mm. long;
cysts ovoid, 550-600/* by 280/*; spores, acutely pointed, of 2 sizes,
4.5/z by 2.8^ and 6.4/* by 3.6/*; in gut of the coleopteran Silpha
laevigata.
A. parvus Wellmer. Sporadins 180/* by 50/*; cysts rounded, 62-
112/* in diameter; spores spindle-form, 6-7.5/* by 3-3. 8/*; 8 diploid
chromosomes; the first division in the zygote is meiotic; in the gut
of larvae of dog-flea, Ctenocephalus cams. Development (Weschen-
f elder, 1938).
Genus Amphoroides Labbe. Epimerite a globular sessile papilla;
protomerite cup-shaped; spores curved; in myriapods.
A. calverti (Crawley) (Fig. 236, p). Sporadins up to 1670/* by 120/*;
cysts spherical, 380/* in diameter; spores unknown; in gut of Callipus
lactarius.
Genus Asterophora Leger. Epimerite a thick horizontal disc with
a milled border and a stout style projecting from center; spore cylin-
drobiconical; in Neuroptera and Coleoptera.
A. philica (Leidy) (Fig. 236, q). Sporadins 300/*-2 mm. long;
cysts and spores unknown; in gut of Nyctobates pennsylvanica (Craw-
ley, 1903).
Genus Steinina L£ger and Duboscq. Solitary; epimerite a short
motile digitiform process, changing into a flattened structure; spore
biconical; in Coleoptera (Leger and Duboscq, 1904).
S. rotunda Watson (Fig. 236, r). Sporadins 180-250/* long; in gut
of Amara augustata (Coleoptera) (Watson, 1915).
Genus Pileocephalus Schneider. Epimerite lance-shaped, with a
short neck.
P. striatus Leger and Duboscq (Fig. 236, s). Sporadins 150/* long;
nucleus in protomerite; cysts spherical; in gut of larvae of Pty 'diop-
tera contaminata.
Genus Stylocystis Leger. Epimerite a sharply pointed, curved
process; spores biconical (Leger, 1899).
S. praecox L. (Fig. 236, t). Sporadins up to 500/* long; cysts ovoidal,
200/* long; spores 8m by 5/* in gut of larval Tanypus sp.
Genus Discorhynchus Labbe. Epimerite a large spheroidal papilla
with collar and short neck; spores biconical, slightly curved.
D. truncatus (Leger) (Fig. 237, a, b). Sporadins 300/* long; cysts
spherical, 140/x in diameter; in gut of larvae of Sericostoma sp.
Genus Anthorhynchus Labbe. Epimerite a large flattened fluted
disc; spores biconical, chained laterally.
556
PROTOZOOLOGY
A. sophiae (Schneider) (Fig. 237, c, d). Cephalins up to 2 mm. long,
with 200m long epimerite; protomerite 150m long; endoplasm opaque;
spores 7ju by 5m; in gut of Phalangium opilio.
Genus Sciadiophora Labbe. Epimerite a large sessile disc with
crenulate border; protomerite with numerous vertical laminations;
spores biconical.
Fig. 237. a, b, Discorhynchus truncatus (a, X130) (Leger); c, d, An-
thorhynchus sophiae (c, Xl5; d, X1330) (Schneider); e-g, Sciadiophora
phalangii (g, spore, X1040) (L6ger); h, Amphorocephalus amphorellus
(Ellis); i, Pyxinia bulbifera (Watson); j, Schneideria mucronata, X75
(L£ger); k, Beloides firmus (L6ger); 1, Taeniocystis mira, X85 (L6ger);
m, n, Stictospora provincialis (Ledger); o, Bothriopsis histrio (L6ger);
p-r, Coleorhynchus heros (p, Xl4) (Schneider); s, Legeria agilis (Schnei-
der); t-v, Phialoides ornata (t, X45; v, X930) (L6ger); w, Geneiorhynchus
aeschnae, X60 (Crawley).
S. phalangii (Leger) (Fig. 237, e-g). Sporadins 2-2.5 mm. long;
protomerite with 15-16 plates; cysts 500m in diameter; spores 9m by
5^; in gut of Phalangium crassum and P. cornutum (Arachnida).
Genus Amphorocephalus Ellis. Epimerite a sessile peripherally
fluted disc set upon a short neck; protomerite constricted super-
ficially; spores unknown (Ellis, 1913).
SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA 557
A. amphorellus E. (Fig. 237, h). Sporadins 500-970/* long; in gut
of Scolopendra heros.
Genus Pyxinia Hammerschmidt. Epimerite a crenulate crateri-
form disc; with a style in center; spores biconical. Species (Vincent,
1922).
P. bulbifera Watson (Fig. 237, i). Sporadins up to 850m by 260m;
in gut of Dermestes lardarius (Watson, 1916a).
Genus Schneideria Leger. Epimerite sessile, a thick horizontal
disc with milled border; a style arising from center; sporadins with-
out protomerite; spores biconical (Leger, 1892).
S. mucronata L. (Fig. 237, j). Sporadins 700-800m long; agile;
polymorphic; cysts 270m by 190m; spores fusiform, 15m by 9m; in
intestinal caeca of larvae of Bibio marci.
Genus Beloides Labbe. Epimerite bordered by pointed lateral
processes and apical style; spores biconical (Labbe, 1899).
B. firmus (Leger) (Fig. 237, k). Style 80m long; cysts 180-200m
in diameter; spores 14. 5m by 6m; in gut of larvae of Dermestes lar-
darius.
Genus Taeniocystis Leger. Epimerite sessile or with a short neck;
8-10 digitiform processes at its apex; deutomerite divided by septa
into many chambers; spores biconical.
T. mira L. (Fig. 237, I). Sporadins tapeworm-like; 400-500m
long; epimerite with 6-8 curved hooks; cysts spherical, 130m in
diameter; spores 7m by 3m; in gut of larval Ceratopogon solstitialis.
Genus Stictospora Leger. Epimerite with a short neck, a spher-
ical crateriform ball with 12 posteriorly-directed laminations set
close to neck; cysts with a gelatinous envelope; without ducts;
spores biconical, slightly curved (Leger, 1893).
S. provincialis L. (Fig. 237, m, n). Sporadins 1-2 mm. long; cysts
800m in diameter; in gut of larvae of Melolontha sp. and Rhizotrogus
sp.
Genus Bothriopsis Schneider. Epimerite sessile, small, oval, with
6 or more filamentous processes directed upward; spores biconical;
cysts spherical (Schneider, 1875).
B. histrio S. (Fig. 237, o). Epimerite with 6 filaments, 80-90m
long; cysts 400-500m long; spores 7.2m by 5m; in gut of Hydaticus
sp.
Genus Coleorhynchus Labbe. Epimerite discoid, lower border
over deutomerite; spores biconical.
C. heros (Schneider) (Figs. 234, k; 237, p-r). Sporadins 2-3 mm.
long; in gut of Nepa cinerea. Development (Poisson, 1939).
Genus Legeria Labbe. Protomerite wider than deutomerite; epi-
558 PROTOZOOLOGY
merite unknown; cysts without duct; spores cylindro-biconical
(Labbe, 1899).
L. agilis (Schneider) (Fig. 237, s). In gut of the larvae of Colym-
betes sp.
Genus Phialoides Labbe. Epimerite a cushion set peripherally
with stout teeth, surrounded by a wider collar; with a long neck;
cysts spherical, without ducts; spores biconical.
P. ornata (Leger) (Fig. 237, t-v). Sporadins 500/* long; cysts
300-400/x in diameter; spores 10.5/t by 6.7/*; in gut of larvae of
Hydrophilus piceus.
Genus Geneiorhynchus Schneider. Epimerite a tuft of short
bristles at end of neck; spores cylindrical.
G. aeschnae Crawley (Fig. 237, w). Sporadins 420// long; cysts
and spores unknown; in Aeschna constricta.
Family 13 Porosporidae Labbe
When naked or well-protected sporozoites enter the stomach
and midgut of a specific crustacean host, they develop into typi-
cal cephaline gregarines; 1, 2, or more sporadins become associat-
ed and encyst. Repeated nuclear and cytoplasmic division re-
sults in formation of an enormous number of gymnospores in hind-
gut. Some observers consider this change as schizogony, and hence
include the family in the suborder Schizogregarinina. When the
gymnospores are voided in the faeces of crustaceans and come in
contact with molluscan host, they enter, or are taken in by phago-
cytosis of, the epithelial cells of the gills, mantle or digestive system.
These gymnospores are found especially in abundance in the
lacunae of the gills. Presently they become paired and fuse (Hatt) ;
the zygotes develop into naked or encapsulated sporozoites within
the phagocytes of the molluscan host, which when taken in by a
crustacean host, develop into cephaline gregarines.
Genus Porospora Schneider. Sporozoites formed in molluscan
phagocytes without any protective envelope (Hatt, 1931).
P. gigantea (van Beneden) (Fig. 238, a-f). Sporadins in Ho-
marus gammarus, up to 10 mm. long; cysts 3-4 mm. in diameter;
gymnospores spherical, 8/i in diameter (Hatt), containing some
1500 merozoites; in molluscan hosts, Mytilus minimus and Tro-
chocochka mutabilis, they develop into naked sporozoites (17/* long)
which are usually grouped within phagocytes.
Genus Nematopsis Schneider. Development similar to that of
Porospora (Hatt); but each sporozoite in a double envelope.
N. legeri (de Beauchamp) {Porospora galloprovincialis L6ger and
SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA
f
559
Fig. 238. a-f, Porospora gigantea (Hatt). a, a cephalin attached to
Homarus gut, X1250; b, gymnospores; c, d, developing sporozoites
in mollusc; e, sporozoites enveloped by phagocyte; f, a sporozoite,
X2250. g-n, Nematopsis legeri (Hatt). g, h, trophozoites in Eriphia;
i, associated trophozoites attached to gut-epithelium, X1250; j, gym-
nospores ;k, gymnospores after entering molluscanbody; 1, a young sporo-
zoite, X2250; m, cyst in mollusc with six spores; n, germination of a
spore in Eriphia gut, X1250.
Duboscq) (Fig. 238, g-n). Sporadins in a crustacean, Eriphia spini-
frons, in linear or bifurcated syzygy 75-7 50 m long; cysts about 80 m
in diameter; gymnospores 7/x in diameter, composed of fewer, but
larger merozoites; permanent spores with a distinct one-piece shell
(endospore) and a less conspicuous epispore, about 14-15ju long and
circular in cross-section, develop in numerous species of molluscan
560 PROTOZOOLOGY
hosts: Mytilus galloprovincialis, M. minimus, Lasea rubra, Cardita
calyculata, Chiton caprearum, Trochocochlea turbinata, T. articulata,
T. mutabilis, Phorcus richardi, Gibbula divaricata, G. rarilineata, G.
adamsoni, Pisania maculosa, Cerithium rupestre, ColumbcUa rustica,
and Conus mediterraneus in European waters (Hatt, 1931).
N. ostrearum Prytherch. Sporadins in syzygy in the mud crabs,
Panopeus herbsti and Eurypanopeus depressus, 220-342 n; cysts 80-
190^ in diameter; gymnospores 4/* in diameter; spores produced in
the oyster, Ostrea virginica, 16^ by 11-12/z (Prytherch, 1940). Lan-
dau and Galtsoff (1951) showed that the organism is widely dis-
tributed among the oysters along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, but
found no evidence to suppose that the organism is destructive to the
host mollusc.
N. panopei Ball. Sporadins up to 210/x by 14/z; protomerite about
1/15 the body length; epimerite on young individuals only; syzygy
often multiple, as in other species; cysts 88 ^ by 74^, free in the
lumen or attached to the wall of the hind-gut; gymnospores about
6.5^ in diameter; in the gut of Panopeus herbsti and P. occidentalis ;
in Bermuda. Molluscan host unknown (Ball, 1951).
Suborder 2 Schizogregarinina Leger
The schizogregarines are intestinal parasites of arthropods, an-
nelids, and tunicates. When the spore gains entrance to the di-
gestive tract of a specific host through mouth, it germinates and
the sporozoites are set free (Fig. 239). These sporozoites develop
into trophozoites either in the gut-lumen or within the host cells,
and undergo schizogony (c), which may be binary or multiple fis-
sion or budding. The fully grown trophozoites become paired as
in Eugregarinina and encyst, in which condition they undergo
sexual reproduction. Each individual which is now a gametocyte
produces gametes (d-e). Fusion of two gametes follows (/). The
zygote develops into a spore containing 1-8 sporozoites (g, a).
One spore from 2 gametocytes Family 1 Ophryocystidae
Two or more spores from 2 gametocytes
Family 2 Schizocystidae (p. 562)
Family 1 Ophryocystidae Leger and Duboscq
Two gametocytes produce one spore; in Malpighian tubules of
Coleoptera, gut of Ascidia and coelom of Oligochaeta.
Genus Ophryocystis Schneider. Multiplication by binary or mul-
tiple division; extracellular; trophozoites conical, attached to host
cells by pseudopods; a single spore in a pair of spheroidal gameto-
SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA
561
Fig. 239. The life-cycle of Schizocystis gregarinoides, X1000 (Leger).
a, germinating spore; b, growth of schizonts; c, schizogony; d, two
gametocytes and their association; e, stages in gamete formation, f,
zygote formation, g, cyst containing zygotes, each of which develops into
a spore shown in a.
cytes; spore with 8 sporozoites; in Malpighian tubules of Coleop-
tera. Several species.
0. mesnili Leger (Fig. 240, a-e). In Tenebrio molitor; schizonts
1-4 nuclei; gametocytes llju in diameter; pairs 16-17^ by 11/x;
spores biconical, llju by 7/z.
Genus Merogregarina Porter. Schizogony intracellular; tropho-
zoites attached to gut epithelium by a proboscidiform organel-
la; 2 gametocytes giving rise to one spore containing 8 sporozoites.
M. amaroucii P. (Fig. 240, /, g). In gut of the ascidian, Ama-
roucium sp.; extracellular; trophozoites with epimerite, 27-31yu
long; spore about 14/x long.
a(32
Fig. 240. a-e, Ophryocystis mesnili (a, trophozoite attached to Mal-
pighian tubule; b-e, sporogony), X1330 (Leger); f, g, Merogregarina
amaroucii, X1000 (Porter); h, i, Spirocystis nidula (h, X770; i, X500)
(L6ger and Duboscq); j, k, Caulleryella pipientis (j, gut of Culex pipiens
with trophozoites, X200; k, a spore, X1200) (Buschkiel).
Genus Spirocystis Leger and Duboscq. Schizogony intracellular;
schizonts curved, one end highly narrowed; mature schizonts
snail-like, with numerous nuclei; repeated schizogony (?); gametes
in chloragogen cells, somatic and visceral peritonium; association
of 2 gametes produces a spore. One species.
S. nidula L. and D. (Fig. 240, h, i). In coelom and gut epithelium
of Lumbricus variegatus; multinucleate schizont about 35/z long;
microgametes fusiform or ovoid, 7/x by 3/x| macrogametes ovoid
or spherical, 11/x in diameter; fusion of 2 gametes produces one
spore which is thick-walled, 35/x long and contains one sporozoite,
up to 40^ long.
Family 2 Schizocystidae Leger and Duboscq
Two or more spores are produced in a pair of gametocytes.
Genus Schizocystis Leger. Mature trophozoite multinucleate;
ovoid or cylindrical with differentiated anterior end; schizogony
by multiple division; trophozoites become associated, encyst, and
produce numerous (up to 30) spores, each with 8 sporozoites; in
Diptera, Annelida, and Sipunculoida (Leger, 1909).
S. gregarinoides L. (Fig. 239). In gut of larvae of Ceratopogon
SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA 563
solstitialis; mature schizonts up to 400/z by 15m; curved or spirally
coiled; gametocytes 30-50/z long; cysts ovoid, 16-32ju long; spores
biconical, S/x by 4m.
Genus Syncystis Schneider. Schizogony and sporogony extra-
cellular; young trophozoites elongate, amoeboid; mature schizonts
more or less spheroidal, producing some 150 merozoites; cysts
spherical, producing about 150 spores. One species.
S. mirabilis S. (Fig. 241, k, I). In coelomic fluid and fat bodies
of Nepa cinerea; merozoites, In long; cysts spherical; spores navicu-
lar, 3-4 spines at ends, 10m by 6m, with 8 sporozoites.
Genus Mattesia Naville. Schizogony in the adipose tissue cell;
2 spores produced by a pair of gametocytes. One species. Meiosis
(Naville, 1930).
M. dispora N. (Fig. 241, m). In adipose tissue cells of larvae of
the flour moth, Ephestia kuhniella and Plodia interpunctella (pupa
and adult also); schizonts 2.5-12/x long; cyst 8-12/x in diameter,
with 2 spores, each with 8 sporozoites; spores 14m by 7.5m (Na-
ville, 1938); 11m by 6m (maximum 13.5m by 8m) (Musgrave and Mac-
kinnon). Highly pathogenic according to Musgrave and Mackinnon.
Genus Caulleryella Keilin. Multiplication extracellular; each
gametocyte gives rise to 8 gametes, a pair forming 8 zygotes or
spores; spore with 8 sporozoites; in gut of dipterous larvae. Several
species.
C. pipientis Buschkiel (Fig. 240, j, k). Average trophozoites
50-60m by 23-26m; with paraglycogen grains; schizogony produces
30-38 merozoites; in gut of larvae of Culex pipiens.
Genus Lipotropha Keilin. Schizogony and sporogony intracel-
lular; cyst contains 16 spores, each with 8 sporozoites; in fat body
of Systenus larvae. One species.
L. macrospora K. (Fig. 241, n). Spores about 13.5m by 3m-
Genus Lipocystis Grell. Schizogony and sporogony intracellular;
gamete formation on the surface of cytomeres; isogamy; cyst pro-
duces 100-200 spores, each with eight sporozoites. One species (Grell,
1938).
L. polyspora G. (Fig. 242, a). Spores elongate ellipsoid, about 10m
by 4m; in the fat body of Panorpa communis.
Genus Selenidium Giard. Schizogony intracellular; many spores
produced by a pair of extracellular gametocytes; spore with 4 or
more sporozoites; in gut of annelids. Generic status (Mackinnon and
Ray, 1933).
S. potamillae Mackinnon and Ray (Fig. 241, a-c). Trophozoites
euglenoid, average size 40m by 15m; longitudinal striae; cysts ob-
564
PROTOZOOLOGY
long, producing many spores; spore, spherical with 4 (up to 10)
sporozoites; in gut of the polychaete, Potamilla reniformis (Mackin-
non and Ray, 1933).
Genus Meroselenidium Mackinnon and Ray. Schizogony intra-
cellular, initiated by formation of small masses which give rise
Fig. 241. a-c, Selenidium potamillae (a, X420; b, cyst with spores,
X330; c, spore) (Mackinnon and Ray); d-f, Meroselenidium keilini
(d, sporadin, X670; e, f, different views of spore, X930) (Mackinnon
and Ray); g-j, Machadoella triatomae (g, a schizont, X1420; h, i, a single
and associated sporadins, X710; j, spore, X1920) (Reichenow); k, 1,
Syncystis mirabilis: k, a cyst, X470 (Steopoe); 1, spore (Schneider);
m, Mattesia dispora, X1480 (Naville); n, Lipotropha macrospora, X800
(Keilin).
to merozoites; about 20 spores from a pair of gametocytes; spores
with numerous sporozoites. One species (Mackinnon and Ray, 1933).
M. keilini M. and R. (Fig. 241, d-f). Large schizonts about 150/x
by 30/x; sporadins free in gut 200-300^ by 40-70^; paired gameto-
cytes 85/x by 40jli; spores 26-28m by 14-16/x, bivalve (?), trans-
verse ridges, with many sporozoites; in gut of Potomilla reniformis.
Genus Selenocystis Dibb. Sporadins leaf -like with a median ridge;
biassociation with posterior ends, forming an elongated cyst, at-
SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA
565
tached to the host epithelium by a foot-like organelle; isogametes
with a short flagellum; spores with four or eight sporozoites. One
species (Dibb, 1938).
S. foliata (Ray) (Fig. 242, b-f). Trophozoites 30-250 /x long; pel-
licle with 16-24 striae; the broader end with which the organism is
attached to the host epithelium depressed ; surrounding this depres-
sion, a number of about 8/i long refringent filaments occur; while one
■v.,»^r*T.>---
Fig. 242. a, two views of a spore of Lipocystis polyspora, X1485
(Grell); b-f, Selenocystis foliata (b, a mature trophozoite, X665 (Ray);
c, migration of nuclei of gametocytes to the surface of cyst, X565; d,
gamete in life; e, f, spores with four and eight sporozoites, X1130 (Dibb)).
organism is still attached, biassociation by posterior ends takes
place; 26-226/x by 9-34/*; isogametes; subspherical spores about 8.5m
in diameter, with four or eight sporozoites; in the gut of the poly-
chaete, Scolelepis fuliginosa.
Genus Machadoella Reichenow. Nematode-like, rigid; simple
rounded anterior end; thick pellicle, longitudinally striated; schi-
zogony in vermiform stage; head to head association of gameto-
cytes; cysts with 3-6 spores, each with 8 sporozoites.
M. triatomae R. (Fig. 241, g-j). Schizonts about 55/x long; game-
tocytes 100-120/x long; schizogony into 6-8 merozoites; cysts with
3-6 spores; spore 10-1 1/x by 7-7. 5^; in Malpighian tubules of
Triatoma dimidiata (of Guatemala) (Reichenow, 1935).
References
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kunde. 5 ed. Jena.
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Reichenow, E. : (1932) Sporozoa. Grimpe's Die Tierwelt der Nord-
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566 PROTOZOOLOGY
Schaudinn, F.: (1900) Untersuchungen ueber Generationswechsel
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Protozoa from the firebrat, etc. J. Parasit., 21:56.
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— (1930) Synopsis of the genera and classification of haplocyte
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— and Chatterjee, G. B.: (1925) On some gregarine parasites
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and Setna, S. B.: (1926) On some more gregarine parasites
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Buschkiel, Marianne: (1921) Caulleryella pipientis, etc. Zool.
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Calkins, G. N. and Bowling, R. C: (1926) Gametic meiosis in
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— (1903a) II. Ibid., 55:632.
- (1907) III. Ibid., 59:220.
Dibb, M. J.: (1938) Selenocystis foliata (Ray) from Scolelepis fuligi-
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Ellis, M. M.: (1912) A new species of polycystid gregarine from the
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(1913a) New gregarines from the United States. Zool. Anz.,
41:462.
— (1914) An acanthosporid gregarine from North American
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SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA 567
Goodrich, E. S. and Goodrich, Helen L. M. P.: (1920) Gonospora
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(1938) Nina: a remarkable gregarine. Ibid., 81:107.
(1949) Heliospora n.g. and Rotundula n.g., etc. Ibid., 90:
27.
- (1950) Sporozoa of Sipunculus. Ibid., 91:469.
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and Duboscq, O.: (1915) Etudes sur Spirocyslis nidula, etc
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568 PROTOZOOLOGY
Monocistidee e dei loro fenomeni riproduttivi. Arch. Protist.,
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(1921) Resultats de l'expedition scientifique Neerlandaise a
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(1925) Sulla classificazione e sui caratteri tassonomici delle
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(1930) Further observations on the protozoan Tettigono-
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SPOROZOA, GREGARINIDA 569
Vincent, Mary: (1922) On the life history of a new gregarine:
Pyxinia anobii, etc. Parasitology, 14:299.
(1924) On a new gregarine Anisolobus dacnecola, etc. Ibid.,
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(1916a) Observations on polycystid gregarines from Ar-
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Weschenfelder, R.: (1938) Die Entwicklung von Actinocephalus
parvus. Arch. Protist., 91 : 1.
Zwetkow, W. N.: (1926) Eine neue Gregarinengattung Enter ocystis
ensis, etc. Arch. russ. protist., 5:45.
Chapter 25
Order 2 Coccidia Leuckart
THE Coccidia show a wide zoological distribution, attacking
all vertebrates and higher invertebrates alike. The majority
are parasites of the epithelium of the digestive tract and its asso-
ciated glands. Asexual reproduction is by schizogony and sexual
reproduction by anisogamy in the majority of species. Both kinds
of reproduction take place in one and the same host body, with
the exception of such forms as Aggregata in which alternation of
generations and of hosts occurs. Taxonomy (Leger, 1911).
Gametocytes similar; independent; a microgametocyte developing into
many microgametes Suborder 1 Eimeridea
Gametocytes dissimilar; association begins during the late trophic life;
a few microgametes Suborder 2 Adeleidea (p. 590)
Suborder 1 Eimeridia Leger
These coccidians are, as a rule, intracellular parasites of the gut
epithelium. Both asexual (schizogonic) and sexual (sporogonic)
generations occur in one host, although in some there is also alter-
nation of hosts. The life-cycle of Eimeria schubergi, a gut parasite
of the centipede, Lithobius forficatus, as observed by Schaudinn,
is as follows (Fig. 243). The infection begins when the mature
oocysts of the coccidian gain entrance into the host through the
mouth. The sporozoites escape from the spores and make their way
through the micropyle of the oocyst into the gut lumen (p). By
active movement they reach and enter the epithelial cells (a).
These schizonts grow into large rounded bodies and their nuclei
multiply in number. The newly formed nuclei move to the body
surface, and each becomes surrounded by a small mass of cyto-
plasm, forming a merozoite. When the host cells rupture, the mero-
zoites are set free in the gut lumen, make their way into new host
cells and repeat the development (6). Instead of growing into
schizonts, some merozoites transform themselves into macro- or
micro-gametocytes (c). Each macrogametocyte contains retrac-
tile bodies, and becomes a mature macrogamete, after extruding
a part of its nuclear material (d, e). In the microgametocyte, the
nucleus divides several times and each division-product assumes
a compact appearance (f-h). The biflagellate comma-shaped mi-
crogametes thus produced, show activity when freed from the
host cells (i). A microgamete and a macrogamete unite to form a
zygote which secretes a membrane around itself (j). This stage is
570
COCCIDIA
571
\
Fig. 243. The life-cycle of Eimeria schubergi, X-400 (Schaudinn)
a, entrance of a sporozoite in the gut epithelial cell of host and growth
of schizont; b, schizogony; c, macro- and micro-gametocyte; d, e, for-
mation of macrogamete; f-h, formation of microgametes; i, mature
gametes prior to fusion, j, k, fertilization; 1-n, spore-formation; o, oocyst
containing four mature spores, each with two sporozoites; p, germination
of spores in host's gut.
known as the oocyst. The nucleus divides twice and produces four
nuclei (k-m). Each of the four nuclei becomes the center of a spo-
roblast which secretes a membrane and transforms itself into a
spore (n). Its nucleus, in the meantime, undergoes a division, and
two sporozoites develop in the spore (o). Oocysts leave the host in
the faecal matter and become the source of infection.
Body vermiform; schizogony in motile stage
Family 1 Selenococcidiidae (p. 572)
Body not vermiform
Alternation of generations and of hosts . . Family 2 Aggregatidae (p. 572)
Only one host
Gametocytes become associated early; many microgametes
Family 3 Dobelliidae (p. 576)
Gametocytes independent Family 4 Eimeriidae (p. 576)
572
PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 1 Selenococcidiidae Poche
Vermiform body and gametic differentiation place this family
on the borderline between Coccidia and Gregarinida.
Genus Selenococcidium Leger and Duboscq. Nucleus of vermi-
form trophozoite divides 3 times, producing 8 nuclei; trophozoite
becomes rounded after entering gut-epithelium and divides into
8 schizonts; this is apparently repeated; schizonts develop into
gametocytes; microgametocyte produces numerous microgametes ;
gametic union and sporogony (?). One species.
Fig. 244. Selenococcidium intermedium, X550 (Leger and Duboscq).
a, schizont in host gut; b, c, schizogony; d, microgametocyte; e, micro-
gametes; f, macrogametoc}rte; g, macrogamete; h, zygote (oocyst).
S. intermedium L. and D. (Fig. 244). Octonucleate vermiform
schizont 60-100m long, and divides into vermicular merozoites in
gut cells; parasitic in gut lumen of European lobster.
Genus Ovivora Mackinnon and Ray. Trophozoites large and ver-
miform (Fig. 245, a) ; gametocytes spherical (c) ; large macrogameto-
cytes; small microgametocytes, giving rise to numerous biflagellate
microgametes (d): oocyst membrane delicate or lacking; ovoid
spores contain variable (averaging 12?) number of sporozoites;
schizogony produces many merozoites; one host. One species (Mac-
kinnon and Ray, 1937).
0. thalassemae (Lankester) (Fig. 245). In the egg of the echiurid
worm, Thalassema neptuni; merozoites about 10m long (b) ; macro-
gametocytes (c) 40-75^ in diameter; microgametocytes (c) 23-65/x;
chromosome reduction, 14 to 7, in the zygote; spores (/) 15.5^ by
13.5/x (Mackinnon and Hay, 1937).
Family 2 Aggregatidae Labbe
Anisogamy results in production of zygotes which become trans-
formed into many spores, each with 2-30 sporozoites; in schizogony
COCCIDIA
573
cytomeres first appear and then merozoites; alternation of genera-
tions and of hosts which are marine annelids, molluscs and crus-
taceans.
Genus Aggregata Frenzel. Schizogony in a crustacean and sporo-
gony in a cephalopod; zygote produces many spores, each with 3
sporozoites. Many species. Cytology (Moroff, 1908).
Fig. 245. Ovivora thalassemae (Mackinnon and Ray)- a, two mature
organisms in host egg, seen in reflected light, X250; b, schizonts in sec-
tioned egg; c, micro- and macro-gametocytes in an egg, X500; d, two
maturing microgametes still attached to cytoplasmic residuum, X1075;
e, cyst with zygotes in some of which nuclei are dividing, X500; f, a spore
with 10 nuclei, X900.
A. eberthi (Lab-be) (Fig. 246). Schizogony in Portunus depura-
tor and sporogony in Sepia officinalis. Spores (a) germinate in the
crab gut, each liberating 3 sporozoites (b) which grow and produce
merozoites (10/x by 2/x) by schizogony in peri-intestinal connec-
tive tissue cells (6 chromosomes) (c-/); when host crab is eaten by
a cuttlefish, merozoites penetrate gut wall and develop into mi-
cro- and macro-gametocytes (h, k), and further into gametes (j-l);
anisogamy (m) produces zygotes; zygote nucleus contains 12
chromosomes which become divided into 2 groups of 6 in the first
division (n, o); repeated nuclear division (p) forms many sporo-
blasts (q), each transforms itself into a spherical spore with 3 sporo-
zoites (Dobell, 1925; Naville, 1925; Belaf, 1926).
574
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 246. The life-cycle of Aggregata eberthi (Dobell). a, a mature
spore; b, germination of spore; c-f, schizogony; g, a merozoite, swal-
lowed by Sepia; h-j, development of microgametes; k-1, development
of macrogamete; m, fertilization; n, o, first zygotic division, chromosomes
reduced in number from 12 to 6; p, q, development of sporoblasts, each of
which develops into a spore with three sporozoites.
Genus Merocystis Dakin. Sporogony in the kidney of the whelk,
Buccinum; schizogony unknown, in another host (possibly a crab);
microgametocytes produce first C3^tomeres which in turn form
microgametes; anisogamy gives rise to zygotes, zygote forms many
sporoblasts, each developing into a spore; spore spherical, with 2
sporozoites. One species.
M. kathae D. (Fig. 247, a, b). In the kidney of Buccinum un-
datum; spores spherical, about 14^ in diameter. Patten (1935)
COCCIDIA
575
studied its life cycle and found that during microgametogenesis and
sporogony, 6 chromosomes occur. She added that meiosis occurs in
the zygote which is the only diploid stage as in Aggregata eberihi.
Genus Pseudoklossia Leger and Duboscq. Anisogamy and spo-
rogony in the kidney of marine mussels; oocyst or zygote produces
numerous spores; spore with 2 sporozoites; no residual body; schi-
zogony unknown, in another host (Leger and Duboscq, 1915, 1917).
P. pectinis L. and D. (Fig. 247, c). In kidney of Pecten maximus
in France; association of 2 sporozoites which are 3.5/z in diameter.
Fig. 247. a, b, Spores of Merocystis kathae, X1000 (Foulon); c, Pseudo-
klossia pectinis, two sporozoites of a spore, X1470 (Leger and Duboscq);
d-k, Eimeria stiedae (d, a trophozoite; e, host cell with three trophozoites;
f, g, schizogony; h, macrogametocyte, X1270 (Hartmann) ; i-k, oocysts,
X830 (Wasilewski)); 1, m, E. perjorans, X750 (Perard); n, E. faurei,
X800 (Wenyon).
Genus Caryotropha Siedlecki. Both schizogony and sporogony
take place in a host. One species.
C. mesnili S. In coelom (in floating bundles of spermatogonia) of
the polychaete, Polymnia nebulosa; schizogony in bundle of sper-
matogonia, in which cytomeres with 10-16 nuclei and then mero-
zoites are formed; schizogony repeated; gametocytes undergo de-
velopment also in the same host cells; microgametes become set
free in coelom, where union with macrogametes takes place; each
oocyst forms about 16 spores; spore with usually 12 sporozoites;
cysts are extruded with the reproductive cells of the host worm.
576 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Myriospora Lermantoff. Anisogamy and sporogony in
marine snails; schizogony unknown; oocyst forms numerous spores
each with 2 sporozoites. One species.
M. trophoniae L. In the polychaete, Trophonia plumosa; macro-
gametes, vermiform, up to 800ju long, later ovoid; microgameto-
cyte forms first about 100 cytomeres, each with some 20 nuclei;
microgametes comma-shaped; anisogamy; oocyst with several hun-
dred spores, each with about 24 sporozoites.
Genus Hyaloklossia Labbe. Schizogony unknown; sporogony in
the kidney of marine mussels; oocyst in the organ-cavity; spherical
spores of 2 kinds: smaller one with 2 spirally coiled sporozoites and
the other with 4-6 sporozoites. One species.
H. pelseneeri Leger. Spherical oocysts 75-SOfj. in diameter; spores
8/x and 11— 12^ in diameter; in kidney of Tellina sp. and Donax sp.
Genus Angeiocystis Brasil. Schizogony unknown; sporogony in
polychaetes; oocyst forms 4 spores; spore oval, with about 30
sporozoites and residual body at a pole. One species.
A. audouiniae B. In the cardiac body of Audouinia tentaculata;
macrogametes vermiform, up to 65/z long.
Family 3 Dobelliidae Ikeda
Numerous microgametes develop from each microgametocyte;
the union of gametocytes begins early.
Genus Dobellia Ikeda. Schizonts sexually differentiated: micro-
schizonts and macroschizonts; young schizonts binucleate; associa-
tion of 2 gametocytes begins early as in Adeleidea (p. 590), but
many microgametes are formed in each microgametocyte. One
species (Ikeda, 1914).
D. binucleata I. In the gut of Petalostoma minutum; mature oocyst
20-25ju in diameter, with a thin wall, contains some 100 sporozoites
without any spore membrane around them.
Family 4 Eimeriidae Leger
Macro- and micro-gametocytes develop independently; micro-
gametocyte produces many gametes; an oocyst from a pair of
anisogametes ; oocyst with variable number of spores containing
1-many sporozoites, which condition is used as basis of generic
differentiation. Oocysts found in the faeces of hosts are usually im-
mature; time needed for completion of spore formation depends
upon the species, temperature, moisture, etc. Becker (1934) recom-
mends the following bactericidal solutions in which oocysts develop
to maturity: 1% formaldehyde, 1% chromic acid of 2-4% potas-
sium dichromate.
COCCIDIA 577
Genus Eimeria Schneider {Coccidium Leuckart). Zygote or oocyst
produces four spores, each with two sporozoites. Numerous species
(Levine and Becker, 1933: Boughton and Volk, 1938; Hardcastle,
1943); host specificity (Becker, 1933).
E. schubergi (Schaudinn) (Fig. 243). In the gut of Lithobius for-
ficatus; oocysts spherical, 22-25/* in diameter.
E. stiedae (Lindemann) {Coccidium oviforme Leuckart) (Fig. 247,
d-k). In the epithelium of the bile-duct and liver (with white nod-
ules) of wild and domestic rabbits; schizonts ovoid or spherical, 15-
18/i in diameter; merozoites 8-10/* long; oocysts ovoid to ellipsoid,
often yellowish, micropylar end flattened; mature oocysts 28-40/*
by 16-25/*; sporulation in 60-70 hours; heavy infection is believed
to be fatal to young animals, which may occur in an epidemic form.
Transmission and comparison with E. perforans (Uhlhorn, 1926).
E. perforans (Leuckart) (Fig. 247, I, m). In the small intestine of
rabbits; oocysts with equally rounded ends, 24-30/* by 14-20/*;
sporulation in 48 hours at 33°C; the thermal death point of imma-
ture oocysts 51°C. (Becker and Crouch, 1931); pathogenic. Other
species (Perard, 1925; Becker, 1934). Lund (1950) found 17 per cent
of coccidian infection among 1200 faecal specimens collected from
23 commercial rabbitries in southern California.
E. zilrnii (Rivolta). In the gut of cattle; oocystss pherical to ellip-
soidal, 12-28/* by 10-20/*; sporulation in 48-72 hours; said to cause
diarrhoea.
E. bovis (Ziiblin) {E. smithi Yakimoff and Galouzo). In the gut of
cattle; oocysts 23-34/* by 17-23/*; sporulation in three to five days
in shallow dishes, and two weeks in deep dishes (Becker). Develop-
ment (Hammond et ah, 1946).
E. ellipsoidalis Becker and Frye (Fig. 248, a). In the faeces of calf;
oocysts ellipsoidal, 20-26/* by 13-17/*; sporulation in 18 days (Becker
and Frye, 1929).
E. cylindrica Wilson. In the faeces of cattle; oocysts cylindrical,
19-27/x by 12— 15m; sporulation in two to 10 days.
E. wyomingensis Huizinga and Winger. In the faeces of cattle;
oocysts pyriform, 37-45/* by 26-31/*; spores 19/* by 3/* (Huizinga and
Winger, 1942).
E. faurei Moussu and Marotel (Fig. 247, ri). In the gut of sheep
and goat; oocysts ovoid, 20-40 /* by 17-26/*; sporulation in 24-48
hours.
E. arloingi Marotel. In the gut of sheep and goat; oocysts with a
cap, ovoid, 25-35/* by 18-25/*; sporulation in three days.
E. intricata Spiegel. In the gut of sheep and goat; oocysts with
578
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 248. Oocysts of Eimeria. a, Eimeria ellipsoidalis, XI 500 (Becker
and Frye); b, E. debliecki, X1070 ("Wenyon); c, E. canis, X650 (Wenyon);
d, E. falciformis, X730 ( Wenyon); e, E. separata; f, E. miyairii, X2000
("Becker, Hall and Hager); g, E. mephitidis, X1000 ("Andrews); h, E.
cynomysis, X1000 ("Andrews); i. E. citelli, XI 360 ("Kartchner and Becker),
j, E. monads, X1630 (Fish); k, E. tenella, X600 (Tyzzer); 1, E. mitis,
X430 (Tyzzer); m, E. acervulina, X430 (Tyzzer); n, E. maxima, X470
(Tyzzer;) o, E. ranarum, X670; p, E. prevoti, X670 CLaveran and Mes-
nil); q, E. ranae, X670 (Dobell); r, E. sardinae, X600, s, E. clupearum.
X600 (Thomson and Robertson); t, E. brevoortiana (Hardcastle).
COCCIDIA 579
thick wall, with or without cap, ellipsoidal, 42-60/* by 30-36/*; sporu-
lation in about 9 days. Species in North American sheep (Christen-
sen, 1938), in Rocky Mountain Bighorn sheep (Honess, 1942).
E. debliecki Douwes (Fig. 248, &). In the gut of pigs; 30-82 per cent
infection in California (Henry); oocysts 12-29/* by 12-20/*; sporula-
tion in seven to nine days. Development (Noller and Frenz, 1922).
E. scabra Henry. In the caecal contents of pigs; oocysts, brown, el-
lipsoidal, 22-36/* by 16-26/*. Henry (1931) recognized 2 other species
in California swine.
E. caviae Sheather. In the gut of guinea pigs; oocysts subspherical
to ellipsoid, 13-26/* by 13-22/* (Sheather, 1924). Morphology and
development (Lapage, 1940).
E. cants Wenyon (Fig. 248, c). In the gut of dogs; oocysts, ellip-
soidal, 18-45/t by 11-28/*; spores 9.5/t by 2.5/*; sporulation in 24
hours.
E.felina Nieschulz. In the gut of cat; oocysts 21-26/* by 13-17/*.
E. falciformis (Eimer) (Fig. 248, d). In the gut of mice; oocysts
spherical to ovoid, 16-21/* by 11-17/*; sporulation in 3 days.
E. nieschulzi Dieben. In the small intestine of rats; oocysts 16-
26.4/* by 13-21/*; sporulation in 65-72 hours. Growth-promoting
potency of feeding stuffs (Becker, 1941 ; Becker, Manresa and Smith,
1943).
E. separata Becker and Hall (Fig. 248, e). In the caecum and colon
of rats; oocysts 13-19.5/* by 11-17/*; sporulation in 27-36 hours.
E. miyairii Ohira (Fig. 248, /). In the small intestine of rats;
oocysts 16.5-29/* by 16-26/*; sporulation in 96-120 hours. Unsporu-
lated oocysts perish in 15 seconds at 53°C. and in 24 hours at 41°C. ;
sporulated oocysts are killed in two minutes at 52°C. (Reinhardt
and Becker, 1933). Structure of oocyst wall (Henry, 1932); Eimeria
in rodents (Fish, 1930; Henry, 1932a; Roudabush, 1937a).
E. mephitidis Andrews (Fig. 248, g). In the faeces of the common
skunk; oocysts oval to spherical, 17-25/* by 16-22/*; wall 1/* thick;
a circular micropyle; spores with a rostrum, 10-12/* by 7-9/*; ex-
tended sporozoites 10-14/* by 4-5/*; other stages unknown (An-
drews, 1928).
E. cynomysis A. (Fig. 248, h). In the faeces of the prairie dog; oo-
cysts oval, 33-37/* by 28-32/*; a double fibrous wall, 1.5-2.5/* thick;
the inner wall slightly orange-yellow; micropyle 5-6 /* in diameter;
spores, broad pyriform, 13-17/* b}^ 8-12/*.
E. citelli Kartchner and Becker (Fig. 248, i). In the caecal contents
of the striped ground squirrel, Citellus tridecemlineatus; subspherical
to ellipsoidal oocysts 15-23/* by 14-19/*.
580
PROTOZOOLOGY
2 3 4
Fig. 249. Diagram illustrating the development of Eimeria tenella in
the caecal glands of chick (Tyzzer). The numbers below indicate the days
of infection, ma, macrogamete; me, merozoite (me1, me2, me3, generation
1, 2, 3 merozoites respectively); mi, microgametocyte; oo, oocyst; ret. oo
and ret. sch, oocysts and schizonts which failed to escape; sch1, sch2,
schizonts of generation 1 and 2; tr, young growing trophozoites. (Continue
to upper left of Fig. 250.)
E. monads Fish (Fig. 248, j). In the intestine of the woodchuck,
Marmota monax; spherical to subspherical oocysts 20/a by 18ju (Fish,
1930), 14-20/i in diameter (Crouch and Becker, 1931) ; wall compara-
tively thick; sporulation completed in 60-64 hours in 2 per cent po-
tassium bichromate at room temperature. Crouch and Becker found
two other species: E. perf oroides and E. os, in the woodchuck in
Iowa. Eimeria in lemming (Levine, 1952).
E. tenella (Railliet and Lucet) (Figs. 248, k; 249; 250). In the caeca,
colon and lower small intestine of chicken; a cause of acute coccidio-
sis characterized by haemorrhage (Tyzzer) ; in the caecal contents of
California quail (Henry); oocysts 19.5-26/x by 16.5-23^; sporula-
tion in 48 hours. Tyzzer's observation on experimental infection in
COCCIDIA
r.si
Fig. 250. Continuation of the diagram shown in Fig. 249 (Tyzzer).
From the right end of the upper figure continue to the left of the lower
figure; for explanation see Figure 249.
chicken is as follows (Figs. 249 and 250) : When a large number of
582 PROTOZOOLOGY
oocysts are fed to chickens, the sporozoites emerge from the oocysts
and spores, in as early as 20 hours and are found on the surface of
the caecal mucosa. Toward the end of the second day, growing
trophozoites are found in the gland epithelial cells; they undergo
schizogony (Fig. 249, sch1) by the middle of the third day. A single
first generation schizont is estimated to produce about 900 pyriform
merozoites which measure 2-4 /x by 1-1. 5/x and occur in the gland
lumen (we1). As these merozoites invade the epithelial cells of the
fundi of the glands and become trophozoites, the infected host cells
increase in size, become rounded and no longer form a continuous
layer (tr). These trophozoites (Fig. 250, sch) grow to much greater
dimensions (up to as much as 45m in diameter) than those of the
first generation and multiply into merozoites (me2) by the fifth day.
These merozoites are much larger and more elongated than those
of the first generation and measure 16m by 2/x. The haemorrhage in
the affected mucosa which begins usually with the growth of the
second generation trophozoites, increases in volume so that by the
fifth day after infection, a great portion of the mucosa sloughs off,
which coincides with the liberation of the merozoites. The merozoites
formed in the host cells located in the deeper part of the mucosa are
unable to become free and appear to grow into multinucleate forms
(ret sch). When the liberated merozoites enter epithelial cells, most
of them develop into macrogametocytes (ma) and microgametocytes
(mi), while comparatively small numbers become trophozoites and
form by budding a few, large third generation merozoites (me3).
Mature oocysts (oo) are found on seven to eight days after infection.
Eimeria species in chicken (Tyzzer, 1929, 1932; Henry, 1931a); eco-
nomic importance (Foster, 1949; Brackett and Bliznick, 1950) ; path-
ological changes (Tyzzer, 1929, 1932; Mayhew, 1937); statistical
study of infections (Fish, 1931); mortality of hosts (Mayhew, 1933);
killing oocysts (Fish, 1931a); control measures (Andrews and Tsuch-
iya, 1931; Andrews, 1933); comparative oocyst production (Brackett
and Bliznick, 1950); in wild fowls (Haase, 1939).
E. mitis Tyzzer (Fig. 248, I). In the anterior small intestine of
chicken; oocysts subspherical; 16.2m by 15.5m; sporulation in 48
hours (Tyzzer, 1929).
E. acervulina T. (Fig. 248, m). In the anterior small intestine of
chicken, and in California quail (Henry); oocysts oval, 17. 7-20. 2m
by 13. 7-16. 3m; sporulation in 20 hours; associated with serious
chronic coccidiosis (Tyzzer, 1929). Effect on host (Moynihan, 1950).
E. maxima T. (Fig. 248, n). In the small intestine of chicken; oo-
cysts oval, 21.5-42.5m by 16.5-29.8/x (Tyzzer, 1929).
COCCIDIA 583
E. necatrix Johnson. In the small intestine (schizonts) and caeca
(oocysts) of chicken; a cause of chronic coccidiosis; oocysts obovate,
13-23 n by 11-18/*; sporulation in 48 hours (Tyzzer, 1932).
E. praecox J. In the upper third of the small intestine of chicken;
oocysts ovoid, 20-25/* by 15.5-20/*; sporulation in 48 hours.
E. meleagridis Tyzzer. In the caeca of turkey; apparently non-
pathogenic; oocysts, ellipsoidal, 19-30/x by 14. 5-23 /* (Tyzzer, 1927,
1932). Coccidiosis in turkey (Hawkins, 1952).
E. meleagrimitis T. In the lower small intestine of turkey; some-
what similar to E. mitis; oocysts, 16.5-20.5/* by 13.2-17.2/* (Tyzzer,
1929).
E. adenocides Moore and Brown. In the ileum, caeca and rectum
of turkeys; oocysts about 25.6/* by 16.5/*; highly pathogenic to young
turkeys (Moore and Brown, 1950).
E. truncata (Railliet and Lucet). In the kidney of geese; oocysts
truncate at one pole, ovoid, 14-23/* by 13-18/*; some observers find
this coccidian fatal to young geese.
E. anseris Kotlan. In the intestine of geese; oocysts spherical or
pyriform, 11-16/* in diameter. Coccidia in Canada goose (Levine,
1952a).
E. labbeana Pinto. In the gut of domestic pigeon; oocysts some-
times light brown, 15-26/* by 14-24/*.
E. dispersa Tyzzer. In the small intestine of bob-white quail and
pheasant; oocysts ovate, 18.8-22.8/* (quail), smaller in pheasant,
without polar inclusion; sporulation in about 24 hours.
E. amydae Roudabush. In the intestine of Amyda spinifera;
oocysts oval with a thin wall, 17-24/* by 12-17/*; elliptical spores
about 11-16/x long (Roudabush, 1937).
E. chrysemydis Deeds and Jahn. In the intestine of Chrysemys
marginata; oval oocysts 21-27/* by 13-18/*; fusiform spores 12-14/*
by 5-8/* (Deeds and Jahn, 1939). Other reptilian species (Rouda-
bush, 1937)
E. ranarum (Labbe) (Fig. 248, o). In the gut epithelium (nuclei) of
frogs; oocysts about 17/* by 12/*.
E. prevoti (Laveran and Mesnil) (Fig. 248, p). In the gut epithelium
of frogs; oocysts about 17/* by 12/*.
E. ranae Dobell (Fig. 248, q). In the gut of frogs; oocysts 22/* by
18/x.
Species of Eimeria are often parasitic in fishes used for human
consumption, and thus may appear in faecal matter. A few examples
will be mentioned here.
E. sardinae (Thelohan) (E. oxyspora Dobell) (Fig. 248, r). In the
584
PROTOZOOLOGY
testis of sardine; spherical oocyst 30-50/u (Thelohan, 1890; Dobell,
1919).
E. clupearum (Thelohan) (E. wenyoni Dobell) (Fig. 248, s). In the
liver of herring, mackerel, and sprat; spherical oocysts 18-33^ in
diameter (TMohan, 1894; Dobell, 1919). Taxonomy (Thomson and
Robertson, 1926).
E. gadi Fiebiger. In the swim-bladder of Gadus virens, G. morrhua,
and G. aeglefinus; schizogony and sporogony; germination of spores
takes place in the bladder of the same host individual, bringing
about a very heavy infection; oocysts 26-28 m; pathogenic (Fiebiger,
1913).
E. brevoortiana Hardcastle (Fig. 248, t). Schizogony in the epithe-
lium of the pyloric caeca and sporogony in the testis of the men-
haden, Brevoortiana tyrannus; mature oocysts, spherical, 17.5-30>
in diameter or ovoid, 21-30/x by 15-27. 5m (Hardcastle, 1944).
Genus Jarrina Leger and Hesse. Oocysts ovoid, one end rounded
and the other drawn out into a short neck; 4 spores, each with 2
sporozoites (Leger and Hesse, 1922).
J. paludosa L. and H. (Fig. 251, a, b). In the gut of Fulica atra and
Gallinula chloropus; oocysts 15/x by 11/x; sporulation in 15 days.
Fig. 251. Oocysts of Coccidia. a, b, Jarrina paludosa, X800 (Leger
and Hesse) ; c, d, oocyst and spore of Wenyonella africana, X 1330 (Hoare),
e, f, a young and a mature oocyst of Isospora hominis, XI 400 (Dobell);
g, /. bigemina; h, /. rivolta, X930 (Wenyon).
Genus Wenyonella Hoare. Oocysts with 4 spores, each with 4
sporozoites. Three species.
W. africana H. (Fig. 251, c, d). In the small intestine of Boaedon
lineatus ("brown snake") in Uganda; oocysts ovoid or subspherical,
18.5— 19.2/u by 16-17. 6/x; spores ovoid, 9.6^ by 8yu; sporulation in
5-6 days.
W. gallinae Ray. In the epithelium of the lower intestine of chick-
COCCIDIA 585
en; oval oocysts, 29.5-33.5/u by 20-23^; spores 18.8/* by 8m; sporo-
zoites club-shaped; sporulation in four to six days at 28°C. (Ray,
1945).
Genus Isospora Schneider. Oocyst produces two spores, each con-
taining four sporozoites. Avian Isospora (Boughton, Boughton and
Volk, 1938).
/. hominis (Rivolta) (/. belli Wenyon) (Fig. 251, e, /). This is the
sole coccidian parasite of man known up to the present time. Its life
cycle is unknown, but most probably the schizogony, gametogenesis
and sexual fusion occur in the intestinal epithelium. Oocysts have
only been seen in the stools of infected persons.
The oocyst is asymmetrically fusiform; 20-33^ by 10-16/*; wall is
made up of two membranes which are highly resistant to chemicals;
when voided in faeces, the contents either fill up the oocyst or appear
as a spherical mass, composed of refractile granules of various sizes;
nucleus appears as a clear circular area; when the faecal specimen
is kept in a covered container at the room temperature, the proto-
plasmic mass divides into 2 spherical sporoblasts in about 24 hours
each sporoblast develops in another 24 hours into a spore (10-16^
by 7-10m) containing 4 sporozoites. Further changes take place when
the oocyst finds its way into the human intestine in contaminated
food or water.
/. hominis has been observed in widely separated regions, but ap-
pears not to be of common occurrence. As to its effect on the human
host, very little is known. Connal (1922) described the course of an
accidental oral infection by viable mature oocysts, as follows: The
incubation period was about six days, the onset sudden, and the
duration over a month. The cure was spontaneous. The symptoms
were diarrhoea, abdominal discomfort, flatulence, lassitude, and loss
of weight. During the first three weeks of the illness no oocysts were
found, but then oocysts appeared in the stools for nine days. On the
10th day they were not seen, but reappeared on the 11th and 12th
days, after which they were not found again. The acute signs of ill-
ness abated within one week of the finding of the oocysts. The faeces
contained a large amount of undigested material, particularly fat
which gave it a thick oily consistency, showing signs of slow gaseous
formation.
Matsubayashi and Xozawa (1948) found six cases of infection in
Japan. A volunteer ingested some 3000 oocysts. Eight days later
diarrhoea developed, followed by a rise of temperature above 39°C,
which lasted for 10 days. On the following day, the diarrhoea sub-
sided, but later returned and was especially pronounced on the 17th
586 PROTOZOOLOGY
day, after which it disappeared completely. Oocysts were discharged
regularly since the 9th day for 32 days. About a month after the
cessation of oocyst-production, the person ingested again some 2500
cysts, but no infection resulted, which the two authors attributed to
the immunity produced during the first infection. Another volunteer
showed a similar course of infection. The symptoms disappeared
without medication after the termination of oocyst discharge. Thus,
the coccidiosis of man appears to be a self-limited one. Attempts to
infect common laboratory animals with this coccidian have so far
failed (Foner, 1939; Herrlich and Liebmann, 1944; Rita and Vida,
1949). History (Dobell, 1919); human species (Dobell, 1926); inci-
dence (Magath, 1935; Barksdale and Routh, 1948).
I. bigemina (Stiles) (Fig. 251, g). In the gut of cat and dog; oocysts
10-14/* by 7-9/x.
I. rivolta (Grassi) (Fig. 251, h). In the gut of cat and dogs; oocysts
20-25m by 15-20/*.
I. felis Wenyon (Fig. 252, a). In cat and dog; oocysts 39-48/* by
26-37/*.
I. suis Biester. In swine faeces; oocysts subspherical, about
22.5/* by 19.4/*; sporulation in 4 days.
I. lacazii Labbe. In the small intestine of passerine birds (spar-
rows, blackbirds, finches, etc); oocysts subspherical or ovoidal,
18.5-30/x by 18-29.2/*; spores, 16.5-18.5/* by 10.3-12.4/*; heavily in-
fected sparrows show definite symptoms of infection; sporulation in
24 hours (Henry, 1932b). Sparrows and other common small birds
have been known to be free from Eimeria infection, while the barn-
yard fowls are seldom infected by Isospora (Boughton, 1929). Sig-
nificance of size variation in oocysts (Boughton, 1930; Henry, 1932b) ;
development (Chakravarty and Kar, 1944).
I. buteonis Henry. In the duodenal contents of several species of
hawks: Buteo borealis, B. swainsoni, Accipiter cooperii, and Asio
flammeus; oocysts irregular in form with a thin wall, 16-19.2/* by
12.8-16/*: spores 9.6-13/* by 8-10.4/* (Henry, 1932b).
I. Ueberkiihni (Labbe) (Fig. 252, b). Oocyst about 40/* long; in the
kidney of frogs. Development (Noller, 1923).
Genus Cyclospora Schneider. Development similar to that of
Eimeria; oocyst with 2 spores, each with 2 sporozoites and covered
by a bi-valve shell.
C. caryolytica Schaudinn (Fig. 252, c). In the gut of the mole;
sporozoites enter and develop in the nuclei of gut epithelial cells;
oocyst oval, about 15/* by 11.5/*. Development (Tanabe, 1938).
Genus Dorisiella Ray. Zygote develops (without becoming oocyst)
COCCIDIA
587
Fig. 252. a, Isospora felis, X930 (Wenyon); b; /. lieberkuhni, X660
(Laveran and Mesnil); c, Cyclospora caryolytica, X1330 (Schaudinn);
d, Dorisiella scolelepidis, oocyst with two spores, X1400 (Ray); e, f,
Caryospora simplex, XSOO (L6ger); g-i, Cryptosporidium muris (g, h,
oocysts; i, emergence of four sporozoites), X1030 (Tyzzer); j, Pfeif-
ferinella ellipsoides, X1330 (Wasielewski) ; k, P. impudica, X800 (L£ger
and Hollande) ; 1, Lankesterella minima, a mature cyst in endothelial cell,
XlOOO (Noller); m, Barrouxia ornata, X1330 (Schneider); n. Echinospora
labbei, XlOOO (Leger).
into 2 spores, each with 8 sporozoites; macrogametocytes migratory.
D. scolelepidis R. (Fig. 252, d). In the gut of the polychaete,
Scolelepis fuliginosa; zygote contents divide into 2 oval spores, 12-
16m by 6-10/x; spore with 8 sporozoites (Ray, 1930).
Genus Caryospora Leger. Oocyst develops into a single spore
with 8 sporozoites and a residual mass; membrane thick and yellow.
One species.
C. simplex L. (Fig. 252, e,f). In the gut-epithelium of Vipera aspis;
oocyst thick-walled, 10-1 5^ in diameter.
Genus Cryptosporidium Tyzzer. Lumen-dwelling minute organ-
isms; oocyst with 4 sporozoites.
C. muris T. (Fig. 252, g, i). In the peptic glands of the mouse; both
schizogony and sporogony in the mucoid material on surface of the
epithelium: oocysts 7/x by 5ju; 4 sporozoites, 12-14/* long (Tyzzer,
1910).
588 PROTOZOOLOGY
C. parvum T. In the glands of small intestine of the mouse; oocysts
with 4 sporozoites, 4.5/* in diameter (Tyzzer, 1912).
Genus Pfeifferinella Wasielewski. Macrogamete with a "recep-
tion tubule" by which microgamete enters; oocyst produces directly
8 sporozoites.
P. ellipsoidcs W. (Fig. 252, j). In the liver of Planorbis corneus;
oocysts oval, 13-15/* long.
P. impudica Leger and Hollande (Fig. 252, k). In the liver of
Limax marginatus; oocysts ovoid, 20/* by 10/*.
Genus Lankesterella Labbe. Oocyst produces 32 or more sporo-
zoites directly without spore-formation; in endothelial cells of cold-
blooded vertebrates; mature sporozoites enter erythrocytes in which
they are transmitted to a new host individual by bloodsucking in-
vertebrates.
L. minima (Chaussat) (Fig. 252, I). In frogs; transmitted by
the leech (Placobdella marginata) ; frog acquires infection through
introduction of sporozoites by a leech; sporozoites make their way
into the blood capillaries of various organs; there they enter endo-
thelial cells; schizogony produces numerous merozoites which bring
about infection of many host cells; finally macro- and micro-gameto-
cytes are formed ; anisogamy produces zygotes which transform into
oocysts, in which a number of sporozoites develop; these sporozoites
are set free upon disintegration of cyst wall in the blood plasma and
enter erythrocytes (Noller) ; oocyst oval, about 33/* by 23/*.
Genus Schellackia Reichenow (Tyzzeria Allen). Oocyst spherical
with 8 sporozoites, without spore membrane; in the intestine of birds
and lizards.
S. bolivari R. In the mid-gut of the lizards, Acanthodactylus vul-
garis and Psammodromus hispanicus; development somewhat simi-
lar to that of Eimeria schubergi (Fig. 243) ; oocysts spherical, 15-19/*
in diameter, with 8 sporozoites (Reichenow, 1919).
S. perniciosa (Allen). In the small intestine of Anas domesticus;
oocysts 10-13.3/* by 9-10.8/*; highly pathogenic.
Genus Barrouxia Schneider. Oocyst with numerous spores, each
with a single sporozoite; spore membrane uni- or bi-valve, with or
without caudal prolongation. Development (Schellack and Reiche-
now, 1913).
B. ornata S. (Fig. 252, m). In gut of Nepa cinerea; oocysts spheri-
cal, 34-37/* in diameter, with many spores; spore with one sporozoite
and bivalve shell, 17-20/* by 7-10/*.
Genus Echinospora Leger. Oocyst with 4-8 spores, each with a
sporozoite; endospore with many small spinous projections.
COCCIDIA
589
E. labbei L. (Fig. 252, n). In the gut of Lithobivs mvtabilis; oocyst
spherical, 30-40ai in diameter; spores, 11m by 9.4/u, with bi-valve
shell; sporulation completed in about 20 days.
Fig. 253. The life-cycle of Adelea ovata, XtiOO (Schellack and Keiche-
now). a, schizont entering the gut epithelium of the host centipede; b-d,
schizogony; e, larger form of merozoite; f, microgametocyte (left) and
macrogametocyte (right) ; g, association of gametocytes; h, i, fertilization;
j, zygote; k, nuclear division in zygote; 1, mature oocyst with many
spores.
590 PROTOZOOLOGY
Suborder 2 Adeleidea Leger
The Adeleidea are on the whole similar to Eimeridea in their
habitat and development, but the micro- and macro-gametocytes
become attached to each other in pairs during the course of develop-
ment into gametes (Fig. 253), and each microgametocyte produces
a few microgametes. The zygote becomes oocyst which produces
numerous sporoblasts, each of which develops into a spore with 2 or
4 sporozoites.
In epithelium of gut and its appended glands of chiefly invertebrates. . .
Family 1 Adeleidae
In cells of circulatory system of vertebrates
Family 2 Haemogregarinidae (p. 592)
Family 1 Adeleidae Leger
Genus Adelea Schneider. Zygote develops into a thinly walled
oocyst with numerous flattened spores, each with 2 sporozoites; in
arthropods.
A. ovata S. (Fig. 253). In the gut of Lithobius forficatus; merozoites
17-22^ long; oocysts elongate oval, 40-50/z by 30-40m; 17-33 or
more spores; spores circular, flattened, 20m by 4/z (Hesse, 1910a).
Life cycle (Schellack and Reichenow, 1913, 1915).
Genus Adelina Hesse. Oocyst thick-walled; spores spherical, com-
paratively small in number; in the gut or coelom of arthropods and
oligochaetes (Hesse, 1910, 1910a).
A. dimidiata (Schneider) (Fig. 254, a). In the gut of Scolopendra
cingulata and other myriapods; oocysts with 3-17 spores (Schellack,
1913).
A. octospora H. (Fig. 254, b). Spherical oocyst contains spores; in
the coelom of Slavina appendiculata (Hesse, 1910a).
A. deronis Hauschka and Pennypacker. In peritoneum of Dero
limosa; oocyst contains 12 (10-14) spores; meiosis at the first zygotic
nuclear division; haploid chromosome number 10; the life cycle is
completed in 18 days at room temperature (Hauschka, 1943).
Genus Klossia Schneider. Oocyst with numerous spherical spores,
each with 3-10 sporozoites. Several species. Life cycle (Xabih, 1938).
K. helicina S. In the kidneys of various land-snails, belonging to
genera Helix, Succinea, and Vitrina; oocyst with a double envelope
120-180/z in diameter; spores 12/x in diameter, with 5-6 sporozoites
(Debaisieux, 1911). Cytology and development (Naville, 1927).
Genus Orcheobius Schuberg and Kunze. Macrogametes vermi-
form; oocyst with 25-30 spores, each with 4 (or 6) sporozoites.
COCCIDIA
591
Fig. 254. a, Adelina dimidiata, a spore, XlOOO (Schellack); b, A. octo-
spora, oocyst, XlOOO (Hesse); c, Orcheobias herpobdellae, X550 (Kunze);
d, e, Klossiella muris (d, renal cell of host with 14 sporoblasts; e, spore),
X280 (Smith and Johnson); f, Legerella hydropori, oocyst, XlOOO
(Vincent); g, h, Haemogregarina of frog, X1400 (Kudo); i-m, H. simondi,
in the blood of the sole, Solea vulgaris, X1300 (Laveran and Mesnil);
n, Hepatozoon muris, spore, X420 (Miller); o, Karyolysus lacertae, X700
(Reichenow).
0. herpobdellae S. and K. (Fig. 254, c). In the testis of Herpobdella
atomaria; mature macrogametes 180^ by 30//; microgametes 50m
by 12/x; schizogony in April and May; sporogony in June and July.
Genus Klossiella Smith and Johnson. Microgametocyte produces
2 microgametes; oocyst with many spores, each with numerous
sporozoites; in the kidney of mammals (Smith and Johnson, 1902).
K. muris S. and J. (Fig. 254, d, e). Oocyst with 12-14 spherical
spores; about 30-34 sporozoites in a spore, 16/x by 13/j; spores dis-
charged in the host's urine; in the epithelium of the tubules and
glomeruli in the kidney of the mouse, Mus musculus.
K. cobayae Seidelin. Oocyst with 8-20 spores; spore with about
30 sporozoites; in the kidney of guinea pig.
Genus Legerella Mesnil. Oocyst contains numerous sporozoites;
spores entirely lacking; in arthropods (Mesnil, 1900).
L. hydropori Vincent (Fig. 254,/). In the epithelium of Malpighian
592 PROTOZOOLOGY
tubules of Hydroporus palustris; oocysts ovoid, 20-25// long, with
16 sporozoites which measure 17m by 3m (Vincent, 1927).
Genus Chagasella Machado. Oocyst with 3 spores, each with 4
or 6 (or more) sporozoites; in hemipterous insects.
C. hartmanni (Chagas). In the gut of Dysdercus ruficollis; oocysts
with 3 spores about 45m in diameter; spore with 4 sporozoites, about
35m by 15m (Machado, 1911).
Genus Ithania Ludwig. Microgametocyte produces four micro-
gametes; oocyst with one to four spores, each with nine to 33 sporo-
zoites. One species (Ludwig, 1947).
I. weririchi L. In the epithelial cells of the gastric caeca and mid-
gut of the larvae of the crane-fly, Tipula abdominalis; oocysts 34-
63m by 22-50m-
Family 2 Haemogregarinidae Leger
With 2 hosts: vertebrates (circulatory system) and invertebrates
(digestive system) .
Genus Haemogregarina Danilewsky. Schizogony takes place in
blood cells of vertebrates; when gametocytes are taken into gut of
leech or other blood-sucking invertebrates, sexual reproduction takes
place; microgametocyte develops 2 or 4 microgametes; sporozoites
formed without production of spores.
H. stepanowi D. (Fig. 255). Schizogony in Emys orbicularis and
sexual reproduction in Placobdella catenigera; sporozoites introduced
into blood of the chelonian host by leech (a), and enter erythrocytes
in which they grow (d-g) ; schizogony in bone-marrow, each schizont
producing 12-24 merozoites (h); schizogony repeated (i); some
merozoites produce only 6 merozoites (j, k) which become gameto-
cytes (l-o); gametogony occurs in leech; 4 microgametes formed
from each microgametocyte and become associated with macro-
gametocytes in gut of leech (p-r) ; zygote (s) divides three times, and
develops into 8 sporozoites (t-w).
Haemogregarines are found commonly in various birds (Aragao,
1911), reptiles, amphibians (Fig. 254, g, h) (Roudabush and Coat-
ney, 1937) and fishes (Fig. 254, i-m).
Genus Hepatozoon Miller. Schizogony in the cells of liver, spleen,
and other organs of vertebrates; merozoites enter erythrocytes or
leucocytes and develop into gametocytes; in blood-sucking arthro-
pods (ticks, mites), micro- and macro-gametes develop and unite in
pairs; zygotes become oocysts which increase in size and produce
sporoblasts, spores, and sporozoites.
H. muris (Balfour) (Fig. 254, n). In various species of rat; several
COCCIDIA
503
Fig. 255. The life-cycle of Haemogregarina stepanowi, X1200 (Reich-
enow), a, sporozoite; b-i, schizogony; j-k, gametocyte-formation, 1, m,
microgametocytes; n, o, macrogametocytes; p, q, association of gameto-
cytes; r, fertilization; s-w, division of the zygote nucleus to form eight
sporozoites.
594 PROTOZOOLOGY
specific names were proposed on the basis of difference in host,
locality, and effect on the host, but they are so indistinct^ defined
that specific separation appears to be impossible. Schizogony in the
liver of rat; young gametocytes invade mononuclear leucocytes and
appear as haemogregarines; when blood is taken in by the mite,
Laelaps echidninus, union of 2 gametes produces vermicular body
which penetrates gut-epithelium and reaches peri-intestinal tissues
and grows; becoming surrounded by a cyst-membrane, cyst content
breaks up into a number of sporoblasts and then into spores, each of
which contains a number of sporozoites; when a rat devours infected
mites, it becomes infected.
Genus Karyolysus Labbe. Sporoblasts formed in the oocysts in gut-
epithelium of a mite, vermiform sporokinetes, enter host ova and
become mature; when young mites hatch, spores in gut-epithelium
are cast off and discharged in faeces; a lizard swallows spores; liber-
ated sporozoites enter endothelial cells in which schizogony takes
place; merozoites enter erythrocytes as gametocytes which when
taken in by a mite complete development in its gut.
K. lacertae (Danilewskj^) (Fig. 254, o) . In Lacerta muralis;
sexual reproduction in Liponyssus saurarum; sporokinetes 40-50ju
long; spores 20-25/x in diameter (Reichenow, 1913, 1921).
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COCCIDIA 595
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596 PROTOZOOLOGY
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(1910a) Sur le genre Adelea, etc. Arch. zool. exper. gen.,
7(N-R):15.
Honess, R. F.: (1942) Coccidia infesting the Rocky Mountain Big-
horn sheep in Wyoming, etc. Bull. Univ. Wyoming Agr. Exper.
Stat., no. 249.
Huizinga, H. and Winger, R. N.: (1942) Eimeria wyomingensis, a
new coccidium from cattle. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 61 : 131.
Kartchner, J. A. and Becker, E. R.: (1930) Observations on
Eimeria citelli, etc J. Parasitol., 17:90.
Lapage, G.: (1940) The study of coccidiosis (Eimeria caviae) in the
guinea-pig. Veter. J., 96:144, 190, 242, 280.
Leger, L.: (1911) Caryospora simplex, coccidie monosporee et la
classification des coccidies. Arch. Protist., 22:71.
— and Duboscq, O.: (1915) Pseudoklossia glomerata n.g., n. sp.,
coccidie de lamellibranche. Arch. zool. exper. gen., 55 (N-R):7.
(1917) Pseudoklossia pectinis n. sp., etc. Ibid., 56
(N-R):88.
and Hesse, E.: (1922) Coccidies d'oiseaux palustres le genre
Jarrina n.g. C. R. Acad. Sc, 174:74.
Levine, N. D. : (1952) Eimeria dicrostonicis n. sp., a protozoan para-
site of the lemming, etc Tr. Illinois Acad. Sc, 44:205.
— (1952a) Eimeria magnalabia and Tyzzeria sp. from the Can-
ada goose. Cornell Veter., 42:247.
— and Becker, E. R.: (1933) A catalog and host-index of the
species of the coccidian genus Eimeria. Iowa State College J.
Sc, 8:83.
COCCIDIA 597
Ludwig, F. W.: (1947) Studies on the protozoan fauna of the larvae
of the crane-fly, Tipula abdominalis. II. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 66:
22.
Lund, E. E. : (1950) A survey of intestinal parasites in domestic rab-
bits in six counties in southern California. J. Parasitol., 36: 13.
Machado, A.: (1911) Sobro um novo coccidio do intestino de um
hemiptero. Brazil Med., no. 39.
Mackinnon, Doris L. and Ray, H. N.: (1937) A coccidian from the
eggs of Thalassemia neptuni. Parasitology, 29:457.
Magath, T. B.: (1935) The coccidiaof man. Am. J. Trop. Med., 15:
91.
Marshall, E. K.: (1950) Infection with Isospora hominis, etc. J.
Parasit., 36:500.
Matsubayashi, H. and Nozawa, T.: (1948) Experimental infection
of Isospora hominis in man. Am. J. Trop. Med., 28:633.
Mayhew, R. L.: (1933) Studies on coccidiosis. V. Poultry Sc, 12:
206.
(1937) IX. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 56:431.
Miller, W. W.: (1908) Hepatozoon perniciosum, etc. U.S.P.H.
Serv., Hyg. Lab. Bull., no. 46.
Moore, E. N. and Brown, J. A.: (1951) A new coccidium patho-
genic for turkey, Eimeria adenoeides n. sp. Cornell Veter., 41:
124.
Moroff, T.: (1908) Die bei den Cephalopoden volkommenden Ag-
gregata-Arten, etc. Arch. Protist., 11:1.
Moynihan, I. W.: (1950) The role of the protozoan parasite,
Eimeria acervulina, etc. Canada J. Comp. Med. Vet. Sc, 14:
74.
Nabih, A.: (1938) Studien iiber die Gattung Klossia, etc. Arch.
Protist., 91:474.
Naville, A.: (1925) Recherches sur le cycle sporogonique des Ag-
gregata. Rev. Suisse Zool., 32:125.
(1927) Recherches sur le cycle eVolutif et chromosomique de
Klossia helicis. Arch. Protist., 57:427.
Noller, W.: (1923) Zur Kenntnis eines Nierencoccids. Ibid., 47:
101.
and Frenz, O.: (1922) Zur Kenntnis des Ferkelkokzids und
seiner Wirkung. Deutsch. tierarztl. Wechonschr., 30:1.
Patten, R. : (1935) The life history of Merocystis kathae in the whelk,
Buccinum undulatum. Parasitology, 27:399.
Perard, C. : (1925) Recherches sur les coccidies et les coccidioses du
lapin. Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 39:505.
Pratt, I.: (1940) The effect of Eimeria tenella upon the blood sugar
of the chicken. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 59:31.
Ray, H. N.: (1930) Studies on some Sporozoa in polychaete worms.
II. Parasitology, 22:471.
Reichenow, E.: (1913) Karyolysus lacertae, etc. Arb. kais. Gesundh.
45:317.
(1919) Der Entwicklungsgang der Haemococcidien Karyoly-
sus, etc Sitz-Ber. Gesell. naturf. Fr. Berlin, p. 440.
598 PROTOZOOLOGY
(1921) Die Haemococcidien der Eidechsen. Arch. Protist.
42:179.
Reinhardt, J. F. and Becker, E. R. : (1933) Time of exposure and
temperature as lethal factors in the death of the oocysts, etc.
Iowa State College J. Sci., 7:505.
Rita, G. and Vida, B. L. D.: (1949) Coccidiosi umana da Isospora.
Riv. Parassit., 10:117.
Roudabush, R. L.: (1937) Some coccidia of reptiles found in North
America. J. Parasitol., 23:354.
(1937a) The endogenous phases of the life cycle of Eimeria
nieschulzi, etc. Iowa State College J. Sc, 11:135.
(1937b) Two Eimeria from the flying squirrel, etc. J. Para-
sitol, 23:107.
and Coatney, G. R.: (1937) On some blood Protozoa of rep-
tiles and amphibians. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 56:291.
Schaudinn, F.: (1900) Untersuchungen ueber den Generationswech-
sel bei Coccidien. Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Morphol, 13:197.
Schellack, C. : (1913) Coccidien-Untersuchungen. II. Arb. kais.
Gesundh., 45:269.
and Reichenow, E.: (1913) I. Ibid., 44:30.
Schneider, A.: (1885) Tablettes zoologiques. 1.
Smith, T. and Johnson, H. P.: (1902) On a coccidium (Klossiella
muris g. et sp. nov.) parasitic in the renal epithelium of the
mouse. J. Exper. Med., 6:303.
Tanabe, M.: (1938) On three species of Coccidia of the mole,
Mogera wogura coreana, etc. Keijo J. Med., 9:21.
Thelohan, P.: (1890) Sur deux coccidies nouvelles, parasites de
l'epinoche et de la sardine. C. R. Acad. Sc, 110:1214.
(1894) Nouvelles recherches sur les coccidies. Arch. zool.
exp., 2:541.
Thomson, J. G. and Robertson, A.: (1926) Fish as the source of
certain Coccidia recently described as intestinal parasites of
man. British Med. J., p. 282.
Tyzzer, E. E.: (1910) An extracellular coccidian, Cryptosporidium
muris, etc. J. Med. Res., 18:487.
(1912) Cryptosporidium parvum, etc. Arch. Protist., 26:394.
(1927) Species and strains of Coccidia in poultry. J. Parasit.,
13:215.
(1929) Coccidiosis in gallinaceous birds. Am. J. Hyg., 10:1.
(1932) Coccidiosis in gallinaceous birds. II. Ibid., 15:319.
Uhlhorn, E.: (1926) Uebertragungsversuche von Kaninchencocci-
dien auf Huhnerkucken. Arch. Protist., 55:101.
Vincent, Mary: (1927) On Legerella hydropori n. sp., etc. Parasitol-
ogy, 19:394.
Wenyon, C. M.: (1933) Coccidiosis of cats and dogs and the status
of the Isospora of man. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol., 17:231.
(1926) Protozoology. 2. London and Baltimore.
Zublin, E.: (1908) Beitrag zur Kenntnis der roten Ruhr der Rinde,
etc. Schweiz. Arch. Tierheilk., 50:123.
Chapter 26
Order 3 Haemosporidia Danilewsky
THE development of the Haemosporidia is, on the whole, similar
to that of the Coccidia in that they undergo asexual reproduction
or schizogony, and also sexual reproduction resulting in sporozoite-
f ormation ; but the former takes place in the blood of vertebrates and
the latter in the alimentary canal of some blood-sucking inverte-
brates. Thus one sees that the Haemosporidia remain always within
the body of one of the two hosts; hence, the sporozoites do not pos-
sess any protective envelope.
The Haemosporidia are minute intracorpuscular parasites of ver-
tebrates. The malarial parasites of man are typical members of this
order. The development of Plasmodium vivax is briefly as follows
(Fig. 256). An infected female anopheline mosquito introduces sporo-
zoites into human blood when it feeds on it through skin (a). The
sporozoites are fusiform and 6-15ju long. They are capable of slight
vibratory and gliding movement when seen under the microscope
after removal from mosquitoes. After about 7-10 days of exo-eryth-
rocytic development (p. 602), the organisms are found in erythro-
cytes (c, d) and are called schizonts. At the beginning the schizonts
are small rings. They grow and finally divide into 12-24 or more
merozoites (e,f) which are presently set free in the blood plasma (g).
This schizogony requires 48 hours. The freed merozoites will, if not
ingested by leucocytes, enter and repeat schizogony in the erythro-
cytes. After repeated and simultaneous schizogony in geometric pro-
gression, large numbers of infected erythrocytes will be destroyed at
intervals of 48 hours, apparently setting free ever-increasing amounts
of toxic substances into the blood. This is the cause of the regular
occurrence of a characteristic paroxysm on every third day.
In the meanwhile, some of the merozoites develop into gameto-
cytes instead of undergoing schizogony (h-k). When fully formed
they are differentiated into macro- and micro-gametocytes, but re-
main as such while in the human blood. When a female anopheline
mosquito takes in the blood containing gametocytes, the microgame-
tocyte develops into 4-8 microgametes (k, I), and the macroga-
metocyte into a macrogamete (i, m) in its stomach. An ookinete
(zygote) is formed when a microgamete fuses with a macrogamete
(m, n). The ookinetes are motile. As they come in contact with the
stomach epithelium, they enter it and become rounded into oocysts
which lie between the base of the epithelium and the outer membrane
of the stomach (o). Within the oocysts, repeated nuclear division
599
600 PROTOZOOLOGY
produces numerous sporozoites (p). When fully mature, the oocyst
ruptures and the sporozoites are set free in the haemolymph through
which they migrate to the salivary glands (g, r). The sporozoites
make their way through the gland epithelium and finally to the duct
of hypopharynx. They are ready to infect a human victim when the
mosquito pierces with its proboscis the skin for another blood meal.
Thus the sexual reproduction occurs in the mosquito (primary host)
and the asexual reproduction, in man (secondary host).
The Haemosporidia are divided into three families:
With pigment granules
Schizogony in peripheral blood of vertebrates . . Family 1 Plasmodiidae
Gametocytes in peripheral blood; schizogony elsewhere
Family 2 Haemoproteidae (p. 618)
Without pigment granules; minute parasites of erythrocytes
Family 3 Babesiidae (p. 622)
Family 1 Plasmodiidae Mesnil
Genus Plasmodium Marchiafava and Celli. Schizogony in erythro-
cytes and also probably in endothelial cells of man, mammals, birds,
and reptiles; sexual reproduction in blood-sucking insects; widely
distributed. Numerous species.
In all species, the infection in a vertebrate host begins under natu-
ral condition with the inoculation of the sporozoites by a vector
mosquito. The form, size and structure of the sporozoites vary widely
within a species so that identification of the species in this stage ap-
pears to be impossible (Boyd, 1935). Until some 20 years ago, it had
been generally believed that the sporozoites upon entering the blood,
penetrate and enter immediately the erythrocyte and begin intra-
corpuscular development, which process Schaudinn (1902) reported
to have seen in life. In this the eminent pioneer protozoologist was in
error, since no one has up to the present time been able to confirm
his observation. Et. and Edm. Sergent (1922) were the first to find
that quinine given in large doses to the canaries on the day the birds
were bitten by Culex mosquitoes infected with Plasmodium relictum,
did not prevent infection in the birds. During the course of studies on
P. vivax in cases of general paresis, Yorke and MacFie (1924) dis-
covered that if quinine was given before the inoculation of infected
blood, no infection resulted, but if the sporozoites were inoculated,
quinine did not prevent infection. Similar observations were made
on other species of malarial organisms. James (1931) suggested the
possibility that the sporozoites are carried away from peripheral to
visceral circulation and develop in the cells of the reticuloendo-
thelial system.
HAEMOSPORIDIA
601
In. man.
In. female
anopheline
mosquito
Fig. 256. The life-cycle of Plasmodium vivax (Kudo), a, sporozoite en-
tering human blood; b, exoerythrocytic stage; c, the initiation of the
erythrocytic development; d, a young schizont ("ring form"); e-g,
schizogony; h, i, macrogametocytes; j, k, microgametocytes; 1, micro-
gamete-formation in the stomach of a mosquito; m, union of the gametes;
n, zygote or ookinete; o, rounding up of an ookinete in the stomach wall;
p, oocyst in which sporozoites are developing; q, mature oocyst ruptured
and sporozoites are set free in the haemolymph; r, sporozoites entering
the salivary gland cells.
602 PROTOZOOLOGY
Boyd and Stratman-Thomas (1934) found that the peripheral
blood of a person who had been subjected to the bites of 15 anophe-
line mosquitoes infected by Plasmodium vivax, did not become in-
fectious to other persons by subinoculation until the 9th day and that
the parasites were not observed before the 11th day in the stained
films of the peripheral blood. Warren and Coggeshall (1937) observed
that when suspensions of the sporozoites of P. cathemerium ob-
tained from infected Culex pipiens, were inoculated into canaries,
the blood was not infectious for 72 hours, but emulsions made from
the spleen, liver and bone marrow contained infectious parasites
which brought about infection by subinoculations in other birds.
These and many similar observations cannot be satisfactorily ex-
plained if one follows Schaudinn's view. The fact that P. elongatum
is capable of undergoing schizogony in the leucocytes and reticulo-
endothelial cells in addition to erythrocytes of host birds had been
observed by Raffaele (1934) and Huff and Bloom (1935).
As to the nature of development of Plasmodium during the pre-
patent period, James and Tate (1938) showed that there occur schiz-
onts and schizogonic stages in the endothelial cells of the spleen,
heart, liver, lung, and brain of the birds infected by P. gallinaceum
(Fig. 257). They suggested the term exo erythrocytic to this schizog-
ony in contrast to the well known erythrocytic schizogony. Huff and
his co-workers made a series of detailed studies of pre-erythrocytic
stages of this avian species. According to Huff and Coulston (1944).
the sporozoites that are inoculated into the skin of chickens, are en-
gulfed by phagocytes in 0.5-6 hours. In heterophile leucocytes, the
sporozoites are apparently killed, but in the cells of lymphoid-
macrophage system they develop into cryptozoites (Huff, Coulston
and Cantrell, 1943) by assuming a spheroid shape and increasing in
size for the first 36 hours, during which time there is a rapid re-
peated division of the nucleus. The schizogony is completed in 36 to
48 hours, each giving rise to 75-150 merozoites. These merozoites
enter new lymphoid-macrophage and endothelial cells and become
metacryptozbites which undergo schizogony similar to that of the
cryptozoite. After three or four generations, the merozoites enter
erythrocytes, and thus the erythrocytic stages appear in five to 10
days. Porter (1942) distinguishes two types of exoerythrocytic de-
velopment in avian Plasmodium; namely, gallinaceum-type just
quoted and elongatum-type
Exoerythrocytic or E.-E. stages were further discovered in saurian
Plasmodium (Thompson and Huff, 1944; Garnham, 1950) and in
mammalian malaria organisms (Shortt and Garnham, 1948). In P.
HAEMOSPORIDIA
603
Fig. 257. Exoerythrocytic schizogony in avian Plasmodium, a-f, P.
gallinaceum in smears from chicks (James and Tate), a, monocyte from
lung, infected by 2 young schizonts; b, monocyte from liver, with a grow-
ing trinucleate schizont; c, monocyte from lung, with a large multi-
nucleate schizont; d, large mature schizont containing many mature mero-
zoites, free in lung; e, portion of broken schizont from lung, showing the
attached developing merozoites. ( X1660). f, a capillary of brain blocked
by 3 large schizonts ( X740). g, h, P. cathemerium in sections of organs of
canaries (Porter; X1900). g, capillary in the brain, showing an endothelial
cell infected with a uninucleate and a multinucleate schizont; h, a multi-
nucleate schizont and a group of merozoites found in a capillary of heart
muscle.
cynomolgi, Shortt and Garnham report that the E.-E. stages occur
in the parenchymatous cells of the liver of host monkeys and are in-
clined to think that there is one generation only. The earliest forms
were seen on the fifth day after the inoculation of the sporozoites.
They are rounded bodies, about 10m in diameter and contain about
50 chromatin granules of irregular shape. They grow in size to about
35m in diameter, and divide in eight to nine days into some 1000
merozoites, each measuring about 1/z. These merozoites presumably
invade the erythrocyte. In P. vivax, the E.-E. stages develop in the
parenchymatous cells of the liver also and resemble those of P.
cynomolgi. The forms found on the seventh day after sporozoite-
inoculation were slightly larger (about 42/z in diameter) than those
604
PROTOZOOLOGY
of P. cynomolgi, and when mature, give rise to 800-1000 merozoites.
Thus exoerythrocytic stages and development have definitely
been demonstrated for Plasmodium in various host groups, although
morphological and developmental details, distinction between them
and other little known organisms such as Toxoplasma (p. 625) and
interrelationship between them and erythrocytic stages, had to be
looked for in future investigations (Fig. 258). General review of E.-E.
development (Huff, 1947, 1948; Garnham, 1948).
cnosqui t0
—^^
^
a /N
/ * _,
/ /
/ (\
-*\
'^" *v
^ b /
/ /
** "
/ /
*r
1 1
/ '
, 1 c 1
Fig. 258. Diagrammatical life-cycle of an avian Plasmodium (Several
authors). Well established phases are connected by solid lines, while
undetermined and recently suggested phases are indicated by broken
lines, a, sporozoite injected into host bird by a mosquito; b-e, exoerythro-
cytic schizonts and schizogony in monocytes; f-i, commonly seen schi-
zogony in erythrocytes; j, macrogametocyte; k, microgametocyte.
The incubation period of Plasmodium infections in man varies due
to various factors such as the strain, vitality and number of the spo-
rozoites injected by the mosquitoes, the varied susceptibility on the
part of host, etc. Boyd and co-workers found that the incubation
periods for the three species of humaD Plasmodium which they stud-
ied were, as follows: In P. vivax. 8-21 days (the majority 11-14 days)
HAEMOSPORIDIA 605
after the bites of infected mosquitoes, but in one case as long as 304
days; in P. malariae, 4-5 weeks, with the onset of fever lagging 3-12
days behind; and in two strains of P. falciparum, one, 6-25 days and
the other, 9-13 days; in another observation, P. falciparum was
observable in the peripheral blood in 5-9 days and the onset of fever
in 7-12 days.
The paroxysm of malaria is usually divisible into three stages: chill
or rigor stage, high temperature or febrile stage (104° F. or over)
and sweating or defervescent stage. The time of paroxysm corre-
sponds, as was stated already, with the time of liberation of mero-
zoites from erythrocytes, and is believed to be due to extrusion of
certain substance into the blood plasma. The nature of this ma-
terial is however unknown at present. In the grown schizonts as well
as in gametocytes of Plasmodium, are fcund invariably yellowish
brown to black pigment granules which vary in form, size and num-
ber among different species. They are usually called haemozoin gran-
ules and are apparently the catabolic products formed within the
parasites. The pigment of P. gallinaceum and P. cynomolgi has been
identified with haematin (ferri protoporphyrin) (Rimington and
Fulton, 1947). The pigment possesses certain taxonomic significance,
as will be described below. The infected erythrocytes, if stained
deeply, may show a punctate appearance. These dots are small and
numerous in the erythrocytes infected by P. vivax and P. ovale, and
are known as Schiiffner's (1899) dots, while those in the host cells in-
fected by P. falciparum are few and coarse and are referred to as
Maurer's (1902) dots. No clots occur in the erythrocytes infected by
P. malariae. Pathology (Maegraith, 1948); splenomegaly (Darling,
1924, 1926; Russell, 1935, 1952a; Hackett, 1944); histopathology
(Taliaferro and Mulligan, 1937); character of paroxysm (Kitchen
and Putnam, 1946) ; blood proteins during infection (Boyd and
Proske, 1941); stippling of erythrocytes (Thomson, 1928).
The condition which brings about the formation of gametocytes
is not known at present. The gametocytes appear in the peripheral
blood at various intervals after onset of fever, and remain inactive
while in the human blood. The assumption that the macrogameto-
cytes undergo parthenogenesis under certain conditions and develop
into schizonts as advocated by Grassi, Schaudinn and others, does
not seem to be supported by factual evidence. The initiation of
further development appears to be correlated with a lower tempera-
ture and also a change in pH of the medium (Man well). If living
mature microgametocytes of human Plasmodium taken from an in-
fected person are examined microscopically under a sealed cover glass
606 PROTOZOOLOGY
at room temperature (18-22°C), development takes place in a short
while and motile microgametes are produced ("exflagellation").
Similar changes take place when the gametocytes are taken into
the stomach of mosquitoes belonging to genera other than Anopheles,
but no sexual fusion between gametes occurs in them and all degener-
ate sooner or later. In the stomach of an anopheline mosquito, how-
ever, the sexual reproduction of human Plasmodium continues, as
has been stated before.
All species are transmitted by adult female mosquitoes. The males
are not concerned, since they do not take blood meal. The species of
Plasmodium which attack man are transmitted only by the mosqui-
toes placed in genus Anopheles, while the majority of the avian spe-
cies of Plasmodium are transmitted by those which belong to genera
Culex, Aedes, and Theobaldia. The chief vectors of the human ma-
larial parasites in North America are A. quadrimaculatus (eastern,
southern and middle-western States), A. punctipennis (widely dis-
tributed), A. crucians (southern and south-eastern coastal area), A.
walkeri (eastern area) , and .4 maculipennis freeborni (Pacific coast) .
Boyd and coworkers observed that (1) A. quadrimaculatus and A.
punctipennis were about equally susceptible to Plasmodium vivax;
(2) A. quadrimaculatus was susceptible to several strains of P. falci-
parum, while A. punctipennis varied from highly susceptible to re-
fractory to the same strains; (3) A. quadrimaculatus was more
susceptible to all three species of Plasmodium than coastal or inland
A. crucians. Thus A. quadrimaculatus is the most dangerous malaria
vector in the United States as it shows high susceptibility to all hu-
man Plasmodium. A. pseudopunctipennis distributed from south-
western United States to Argentina and A. albimanus occurring in
Central America, are but a few out of many anopheline vectors of
human Plasmodium in the areas indicated. Host-parasite relation
(Boyd and Coggeshall, 1938); malaria vectors of the world (Komp,
1948); susceptibility of Anopheles to malaria (King, 1916; Boyd and
Kitchen, 1936); epidemiology in North America (Boyd, 1941), in
Brazil (Boyd, 1926), in Jamaica (Boyd and Aris, 1929), in Cuba
(Carr and Hill, 1942), in Trinidad and British West Indies (Downs,
Gillette and Shannon, 1943), in Porto Rico (Earle, 1930, 1939), in
Haiti (Paul and Bellerive, 1947), in Philippine Islands (Russell,
1934, 1935a), in India (Russell and Jacob, 1942) and in Liberia; gen-
eral picture (Russell, 1952, 1952a); mosquito control (Russell, 1952a)
The time required for completion of sexual reproduction of Plas-
modium in mosquitoes varies according to various conditions such
as species and strain differences in both Plasmodium and Anopheles,
HAEMOSPORIDIA 607
temperature, etc. Boyd and co-workers showed that when the ano-
phelines which fed on patients infected by P. vivax were allowed to
feed on other persons, their infectivity was as follows: 1-10 days
after infective feeding, 87.2%; 11-20 days, 93.8%; 21-30 days, 78%;
31-40 days, 66%; 41-50 days, 20%; and over 50 days, none. In a
similar experiment with P. falciparum, during the first 10 days the
infection rate was 84%, but thereafter the infectivity rapidly dim-
inished until there was no infection after 40 days. It is generally
known that the development of the parasites in mosquitoes depends
a great deal on temperature. Although the organisms may survive
freezing temperature in mosquitoes (Coggeshall), sporozoite-for-
mation is said not to take place at temperatures below 16° C. or
above 35° C. (James). According to Stratman-Thomas (1940), the
development of Plasmodium vivax in Anopheles quadrimaculatus is
completed within the temperature range of 15-17° to 30° C. It
varies from 8 to 38 days after infective feeding. The optimum tem-
perature is said to be 28° C. at which the development is com-
pleted in the shortest time. A period of 24 hours at 37.5° C. will
sterilize all but a very small per cent of Anopheles quadrimaculatus
of their Plasmodium vivax infection. This has a bearing on the trans-
mission of Plasmodium vivax in summer months. In certain localities
oocysts may survive the winter and complete their development in
the following spring. Duration of infection in Anopheles (Boyd and
St.-Thomas, 1943a; Boyd, St.-Thomas and Kitchen, 1936).
There are three long-recognized species of human Plasmodium.
They are P. vivax, P. falciparum and P. malariae. To these P. ovale
is here added. Each species appears to be represented by numerous
strains or races as judged by the differences in virulence, immuno-
logical responses, incubation period, susceptibility to quinine, etc.
(Boyd, 1934, 1940, 1940a; Boyd and Kitchen, 1948).
Malaria has been, and still is, perhaps the most important proto-
zoan disease of man. In India alone, malaria fever is held to be the
direct cause of over a million deaths annually among nearly 100
million persons who suffer from it (Sinton, 1936). In the United
States, the disease had been prevalent in places in south-eastern
States. But since 1945, cases of malaria have rapidly declined and
there is prospect of the disappearance of endemic malaria from the
United States (Andrews, Quinby and Langmuir, 1950; Andrews,
1951). In malarious countries, the disease is a serious economic and
social problem, since it affects the majority of population and brings
about a large number of persistent sickness, the loss of man power
and retardation of both mental and physical development among
608 PROTOZOOLOGY
children. History of malaria (Ross, 1928; Boyd, 1941; Russell,
1943); general reference (Boyd, 1949; Russell, West and Manwell,
1946); antimalarial drugs (Russell, 1952a).
It must be added here that human ingenuity has been for nearly
30 years utilizing the malarial organisms in combating another dis-
ease; namely, naturally induced malaria therapy has been success-
fully used in the treatment of patients suffering from general paresis
C
* V
c
f Q h
rt+ft
i i k I
Fig. 259. Plasmodium vivax, X1535 (Original), a, young ring-form;
b, c, growing schizonts; d, two schizonts in an erythrocyte; e, f, large
schizonts; g-i, schizogonic stages; j, fully developed merozoites; k, macro-
gametocyte; 1, microgametocyte.
and other forms of neuro-syphilis. Technique (Boyd and Stratman-
Thomas, 1933; Boyd, St.-Thomas and Kitchen, 1936a; Boyd, St.-
Thomas, Kitchen and Kupper, 1938; Mayne and Young, 1941).
P. vivax (Grassi and Feletti) (Fig. 259). The benign tertian malaria
parasite; schizogony completed in 48 hours and paroxysm every
third day. Ring forms: About 1/4-1/3 the diameter of erythrocytes;
unevenly narrow cytoplasmic ring is stained light blue (in Giemsa)
and encloses a vacuole; nucleus stained dark-red, conspicuous.
Growth period: Irregular amoeboid forms; host cell slightly enlarged;
Schuffner's dots begin to appear. Grown schizonts: In about 26 hours
after paroxysm; occupy about 2/3 of the enlarged erythrocytes, up
to 12^ in diameter, which are distinctly paler than uninfected ones;
Schuffner's dots more numerous; brownish haemozoin granules; a
large nucleus. Schizogonic stages: Repeated nuclear division produces
HAEMOSPORIDIA 609
12-24 or more merozoites; multinucleate schizonts about 8-9m in
diameter; haemozoin granules in loose masses; merozoites about 1.5m
long. Gametocytes: Time required for development of ringform into a
mature gametocyte is estimated to be about four days; smoothly
rounded body, occupying almost whole of the enlarged erythrocytes;
brown haemozoin granules numerous. Macrogametocytes are about
9-10/j. in diameter, stain more deeply and contain a small compact
nucleus; microgametocytes are a little smaller (7-8/x in diameter),
stain less deeply and contain a less deeply staining large nucleus.
This species is said to invade reticulocytes rather than erythrocytes
(Kitchen, 1938). Boyd (1953a) distinguished five series of erythro-
>
e f g h j
Fig. 260. Plasmodium falciparum, X1535 (Original), a, three ring-forms
in an erythrocyte; b, a somewhat grown schizont in an erythrocyte with
Maurer's dots; c-f, growing and schizogonic stages, g, h; merozoite for-
mation; i, macrogametocyte; j, microgametocyte.
cytic organisms on the basis of nuclear and cytoplasmic character-
istics. The organisms of series A give rise by schizogony to organisms
of series B or D which in turn produce series C (microgametocytes)
or series E (macrogametocytes). Onset of infection is said to occur
usually when the parasite density is less than 100 per mm3 (Boyd,
1944). Incubation period (Boyd and Stratman-Thomas, 1933c,
1934) ; concentration of organisms (Ferrebee and Geiman, 1946) ; im-
munity (Boyd and Stratman-Thomas, 1933a, b; Boyd and Kitchen,
1936a; Boyd, 1947); susceptibility (Boyd and Stratman-Thomas,
1933c, 1934).
The benign malaria fever parasite is the commonest and the most
widely distributed species in the tropical and subtropical regions as
well as in the temperate zone. It has been reported as far north as the
Great Lakes region in North Ameria; England, southern Sweden and
northern Russia in Europe; and as far south as Argentina, Australia,
and Natal in the southern hemisphere. Generally speaking this spe-
610 PROTOZOOLOGY
cies predominates in the spring and early summer over the other
species.
P. falciparum (Welch) {Laverania malariae Grassi and Feletti; P.
tenue Stepens) (Fig. 260). The subtertian, malignant tertian or aesti-
vo-autumnal fever parasite; schizogonic cycle is somewhat irregular,
though generally about 48 hours. Ring forms: Much smaller than
those of P. vivax; about In in diameter; marginal forms and multiple
(2-6) infection common ; nucleus often rod-form or divided into two
granules; in about 12 hours after paroxysm, all schizonts disappear
from the peripheral blood. Growth and schizogonic stages: These are
almost exclusively found in the capillaries of internal organs; as
schizonts mature, Maurer's dots appear in the infected erythrocytes;
when about 5/x in diameter, nucleus divides repeatedly and 8-24 or
more small merozoites are produced; haemozoin granules dark brown
or black and usually in a compact mass; infected erythrocytes are not
enlarged. Gametocytes: Mature forms sausage-shaped ("crescent"),
about 10-12ju by 2-3ju; appear in the peripheral blood. Macrogameto-
cytes stain blue and contain a compact nucleus and coarser granules,
grouped around nucleus; micro gametocytes stain less deeply blue or
reddish, and contain a large lightly staining nucleus and scattered
smaller haemozoin granules. The organism invades both mature and
immature erythrocytes (Kitchen, 1939). Cytological study of micro-
gametocytes and microgametes (MacDougall, 1947) ; different strains
(Kitchen and Putnam, 1943); induced infection (Boyd and Kitchen,
1937); incubation period (Boyd and Kitchen, 1937b; Boyd and
Matthews, 1939); immunity (Boyd and Kitchen, 1945).
The subtertian fever parasite is widely distributed in the tropics.
In the subtropical region, it is more prevalent in late summer or early
autumn. It is relatively uncommon in the temperate zone. The
malignancy of the fever brought about by this parasite is attributed
in part to decreased elasticity of the infected erythrocytes which be-
come clumped together into masses and which adhere to the walls of
the capillaries of internal organs especially brain, thus preventing the
circulation of blood through these capillaries.
P. malariae (Laveran) (Fig. 261). The quartan malaria parasite;
schizogony in 72 hours and paroxysm every fourth day. Ring forms:
Similar to those of P. vivax. Growth period: Less amoeboid, rounded;
in about 6-10 hours haemozoin granules begin to appear; granules
are dark brown; in 24 hours, schizonts are about 1/2 the diameter
of erythrocytes which remain normal in size; schizonts often
stretched into "band-form" across the erythrocytes; no dots com-
parable with Schiiffner's or Maurer's dots. Mature and segmenting
HAEMOSPORIDIA 611
schizonts: In about 48 hours, schizonts nearly fill the host cells;
rounded; haemozoin granules begin to collect into a mass; nuclear
divisions produce 6-12 merozoites which are the largest of the three
species and may often be arranged in a circle around a haemozoin
mass. Gametocytes : Circular; with haemozoin granules. Macrogame-
tocytes stain more deeply and contain a small, more deeply staining
a b c
g h
#
i j k I
Fig. 261. Plasmodium malariae, X1535 (Original), a, ring-form; b-e,
band-form schizonts; f-i, schizogonic stages; j, merozoite formation; k.
macrogametocyte, 1, microgametocyte.
nucleus and coarser granules; microgametocytes stain less deeply
and contain a larger lightly stained nucleus and finer and numerous
granules. The organism invades most frequently mature red cor-
puscles (Kitchen, 1939).
The quartan fever parasite is distributed in the tropics and sub-
tropics, though it is the least common of the three species. As a rule,
in an area where the three species of Plasmodium occur, this species
seems to appear later in the year than the other two.
P. ovale Stevens (Fig. 262). The Ovale or mild tertian fever para-
site; schizogony in about 48 hours; its morphological characters re-
semble both P. vivax and P. malariae. Ring forms: Similar to
those of the two species just mentioned; Schiiffner's dots appear
early. Growth period: Infected erythrocytes are more or less oval
with irregular fimbriated margin; slightly enlarged; not actively
amoeboid, sometimes in band-form; with dark brown haemozoin
612 PROTOZOOLOGY
granules; Schuffner's dots abundant. Schizogonic stages: 6-12 mero-
zoites. Gametocytes: Resemble closely those of P. malariae; host cells
with Schuffner's dots and slightly enlarged.
This organism appears to be confined to Africa and Asia (Philip-
pine Islands and India). Several malariologists doubt the validity of
the species.
The malarial parasites are ordinarily studied in stained blood
films (p. 899). Table 11 will serve for differential diagnosis of the
three common species.
'r%
e f g h
Fig. 262. Plasmodium ovale, X1535 (Original), a, ring-form; b, c,
growing schizonts; d-f, schizogonic stages; g, macrogametocyte; h. micro-
gametocyte.
Several species of Plasmodium have been observed in primates and
monkeys, some of which resemble strikingly the human species.
Here a few species will be mentioned. Other species (Aberle, 1945).
P. kochi (Laveran) (Fig. 263, a-f). In the monkeys belonging to
the genera: Callicebus, Cercocebus, Cercopithecus, Erythrocebus,
and Papio; schizogony in 48 hours; organism resembles P. vivax; in-
fected erythrocytes become enlarged and sometimes stippling like
Schuffner's dots occurs; eight to 14 merozoites; gametocytes large
and spheroid.
P. brasilianum Gonder and Berenberg-Gossler (Fig. 263, g-l). In
New World monkeys belonging to the genera: Alouatta, Ateles,
Cacajao and Cebus; schizogony in 72 hours; it resembles P. ma-
lariae; no enlargement of infected erythrocytes; band-form schi-
zonts; number of merozoites vary according to the difference in hosts,
averaging eight to 10; gametocytes rounded, comparatively small in
number (Taliaferro and Taliaferro, 1934). Haematology (Taliaferro
and Kliiver, 1940).
P. cynomolgi Mayer (Fig. 263, m-r). In Macaca irus (Macacus
HAEMOSPORIDIA 613
Table 11. — Differential diagnosis of three species of human Plasmodium
P. vivax
P. falciparum
P. malariae
Ring forms
About J*-! the diam-
eter of erythrocytes;
a single granular nu-
cleus.
About 5-5 the diam-
eter of erythrocytes;
marginal forms and
multiple (2-6) infec-
tion common.
Similar to those of
P. vivax; cytoplasm
slightly denser.
Infected
erythro-
cytes
Much enlarged, up
to 12m in diameter,
paler than normal
(7.5^ in diameter)
erythrocytes; Schuff-
ner's dots.
Normal , some are
distorted or con-
tracted in later schiz-
ogonic period ; Maur-
er's dots.
Not enlarged; some-
times slightly smaller
than uninfected ones;
no dots.
Growing
schizonts
Irregularly amoe-
boid ; vacuolated ;
paler; small yellow-
ish brown haemozoin
granules.
Partly grown ring
forms often with rod-
shaped or 2 granular
nuclei; further devel-
opment not seen in
peripheral blood.
Not amoeboid; oval,
rounded, band-form,
rarely irregular; less
vacuolated cyto-
plasm deeper blue;
dark brown gran-
ules.
Fully
grown
schizonts
Irregular in form;
about f the enlarged
erythrocytes; vacuo-
lated; brown haemo-
zoin granules.
Only in internal or-
gans; §-§ of erythro-
cytes; dark haemo-
zoin in compact mass.
Nearly filling eryth-
rocytes; rounded; cy-
toplasm deeper blue;
dark brown pigment
granules.
Schizogonic
stages
12-24 or more mero-
zoites; irregularly ar-
ranged in much en-
larged host cells.
Only in internal or-
gans; 8-24 or more
small merozoites; ir-
regularly arranged ;
dark pigment.
6-12 merozoites
which are the largest
of all, typically ar-
ranged in a circle.
Gameto-
cytes
Almost filling en-
larged erythrocytes;
rounded or oval ;
with brown pigment
granules.
Sausage-shaped; hae-
mozoin dark brown;
in the peripheral
blood.
Filling normal-sized
erythrocytes; round
or ovoid, much
smaller than those
of P. vivax; dark
brown pigment.
cynomolgus) ; schizogony in 48 hours; eight to 22 merozoites; infected
erythrocytes slightly enlarged and stippled; vectors are Anopheles.
Schizogony (Wolfson and Winter, 1946; Taliaferro and Mulligan,
1937) ; morphology (Mulligan, 1935); cellular changes in host (Talia-
ferro and Mulligan, 1937).
614
PROTOZOOLOGY
feiy w? iit*
Fig. 263. Plasmodium of monkeys. Column 1, ring forms; 2, 3, growing
trophozoites; 4, segmenting schizonts; 5, macrogametocytes; 6, micro-
gametocytes. a-f, Plasmodium kochi, X1665 (Gonder and Berenberg-
Gossler); g-1, P. brasilianum, X1665; m-r, P. cynomolgi, X2000; s-x, P.
knowlesi, X2000 CTaliaferro and Taliaferro).
P. knowlesi Sinton and Mulligan (Fig. 263, s-x). In Macaca irus;
experimentally man is susceptible; schizogonic cycle in 24 hours; six
to 16 merozoites; infected erythrocytes are somewhat distorted.
Morphology and development (Brug, 1934; Mulligan, 1935; Talia-
ferro and Taliaferro, 1949); infections in man (Milam and Cogge-
shall, 1938).
P. berghei Vincke and Lips. In the tree rat, Thamnomys surdaster
of Congo (Vincke and Lips, 1948). White mice, white rats, cotton
rats, the field vole (Microtus guntheri) and the golden hamster
{Mesocricetus auratus) are susceptible; mosquito vector, Anopheles
dureni (Mercado and Coatney, 1951).
Many species of Plasmodium have been reported from numerous
species of birds in which are observed clinical symptoms and path-
logical changes similar to those which exist in man with malaria
infection. In recent years the exoerythrocytic stages have been in-
tensively studied in these forms. According to Hegner and co-
HAEMOSPORIDIA 615
workers the erythrocytes into which merozoites enter are often the
most immature erythrocytes (polychromatophilic erythroblasts).
The species of avian Plasmodium are transmitted by adult female
mosquitoes belonging to Culex, Aedes or Theobaldia. Some of the
common species are briefly mentioned here. Avian Plasmodium
(Manwell, 1935a; Hewitt, 1940b); avian hosts (Wolfson, 1941); dis-
tribution (Man well and Herman, 1935; Herman, 1938; Hewitt,
1940a; Wood and Herman, 1943).
P. relictum Grassi and Feletti (P. praecox G. and F. ; P. inconstans
Hartman) (Fig. 264, a). In English sparrow (Passer domesticus) and
other passerine birds, also in mourning doves and pigeons (Coatney
1938); schizogony varies in different strains, in 12, 24, 30 or 36
hours; 8-15 or 16-32 merozoites from a schizont; gametocytes
rounded, with small pigment granules; host-cell nucleus displaced;
canaries (Serinus canaria) susceptible; many strains; transmitted by
Culex, Aedes and Theobaldia; widely distributed. Duration of infec-
tion (Manwell, 1934; Bishop, Tate and Thorpe, 1938); variety
(Manwell, 1940); in Culex pipieris (Huff, 1934); development in
birds (Mudrow and Reichenow, 1944); relationship of E.-E. and
erythrocytic stages (Sergent, 1949).
P. vaughani Novy and McNeal (Fig. 264, b). In robin (Turdus
m. migratorius) and starling (Sturnus v. vulgaris) ; 4-8 (usually 4)
merozoites from a schizont, ordinarily with 2 pigment granules;
schizogony in about 24 hours; gametocytes elongate; host-cell nu-
cleus not displaced.
P. cathemerium Hartman (Fig. 264, c). In English sparrow, cow-
bird, red-winged blackbird, and other birds; schizogony in 24 hours,
segmentation occurs at 6-10 p.m.; 6-24 merozoites from a schizont;
mature schizonts and gametocytes about 7-8ju in diameter; gameto-
cytes rounded; haemozoin granules in microgametocytes longer and
more pointed than those present in macrogametocytes; canaries
susceptible; numerous strains; common; transmitted by many spe-
cies of Culex and Aedes (Hartman, 1927). Relapse (Manwell, 1929);
acquired immunity (Cannon and Taliaferro, 1931) ; in ducks (Hegner
and West, 1941); cultivation (Hewitt, 1939); effect of plasmochin
(Wampler, 1930).
P. rouxi Sergent, Sergent and Catanei (Fig. 264, d). In English
sparrow in Algeria; similar to P. vaughani; schizogony in 24 hours;
4 merozoites from a schizont; transmitted by Culex.
P. elongatum Huff (Fig. 264, e). In English sparrow; schizogony
occurs mainly in the bone marrow, and completed in 24 hours; 8-12
merozoites from a schizont; gametocytes elongate, found in periph-
616
PROTOZOOLOGY
eral blood; transmitted by Culex (Huff, 1930). Canaries and ducks
are susceptible. Study of nucleus (Chen, 1944).
P. circumflexum Kikuth (Fig. 264,/). In the red-winged blackbird,
cowbird and several other birds, including the ruffed grouse (Fallis,
1946) ; growing schizonts and gametocytes form broken rings around
©®is (o)8§
Fig. 264. a, Plasmodium r dictum; b, P. vaughani; c, P. cathemerium;
d, P. rouxi; e, P. elongatum; f, P. circumflexum; g, P. polare; h, P.
nucleophilum; i, P. gallinaceum; j, P. hexamerium; k, P. oti; 1, P. lophurae.
Columns 1, ring-forms; 2, growing schizonts; 3, segmenting schizonts; 4,
macrogametocytes; and 5, microgametocytes. X about 1400 (Several au-
thors; from Hewitt, modified).
HAEMOSPORIDIA 617
the host-cell nucleus; schizogony in 48 hours; 13-30 merozoites;
gametocytes elongate, with a few haemozoin granules; transmission
by Theobaldia (Herman, 1938b).
P. polare Manwell (Fig. 264, g). In cliff swallow (Petrochelidon I.
lunifrons) ; grown schizonts at one of the poles of host erythrocytes;
8-14 merozoites from a schizont; few in peripheral blood; gameto-
cytes elongate (Manwell, 1935a).
P. nucleophilum M. (Fig. 264, h). In catbird (Dumatella carolin-
ensis); schizogony in 24 hours; 3-10 merozoites from a schizont;
mature schizonts usually not seen in the peripheral blood; gameto-
cytes elongate, often seen closely applied to the host-cell nucleus;
haemozoin granules at one end (Manwell, 1935a).
P. gallinaceum Brumpt (Fig. 264, i). In domestic fowl (Gallus
domesticus) in India; schizogony in 36 hours; 20-36 merozoites from a
schizont; gametocytes round, with few haemozoin granules; host-cell
nucleus displaced; pheasants, geese, partridges and peacocks are
susceptible, but canaries, ducks, guinea fowls, etc., are refractory;
transmitted by Aedes (Brumpt, 1935). E.-E. development (p. 602);
vectors (Russell and Mohan, 1942); phosphorus 32 in study (Clarke,
1952); nucleic acids (Lewert, 1952).
P. hexamerium Huff (Fig. 264,,/). In bluebird (Sialias. sialis) and
Maryland yellow-throats; schizogony in 48 or 72 hours; grown schi-
zonts often elongate; 6 merozoites from a schizont; gametocytes
elongate (Huff, 1935).
P. oti Wo If son (Fig. 264, k). In eastern screech owl (Otus asio
naevius) ; 8 merozoites from a schizont ; body outlines irregular, rough ;
gametocytes elongate. Manwell (1949) considers this species identi-
cal with P. hexamerium.
P. lophurae Coggeshall (Fig. 264, 1). In fire-back pheasant (Loph-
ura i. igniti) from Borneo, examined at New York Zoological Park;
8-18 merozoites from a schizont; gametocytes large, elongate; host-
cell nucleus not displaced; canaries are refractory, but chicks and
especially ducks are highly susceptible (Coggeshall, 1938, 1941;
Wolfson, 1940) ; young ducklings succumb less readily to its infection
than older ducks (Becker, 1950). Experimentally Aedes aegypti, A.
albopictus and Anopheles qvadrimaculatus serve as vectors, but not
Culex pipiens (Jeffery, 1944). Characteristics (Terzian, 1941); culti-
vation (Trager, 1950).
A number of lizards have recently been found to be infected by
Plasmodium. A few species are described here briefly. Species
(Thompson and Huff, 1944a; Laird, 1951).
P. mexicanum Thompson and Huff (Fig. 265). In Sceloporus fer-
618
PROTOZOOLOGY
rariperezi of Mexico; experimentally S. olivaceous, S. undulatus,
Crotaphytus collaris, PhrynQsoma cornutum and P. asio, become in-
fected ; in erythrocytes and normoblasts, and in all types of circulat-
ing cells; host cells not hypertrophied ; schizonts round to elongate;
10-40 merozoites; gametocytes 12-16/z by 6-7. 7 ju, only in haemo-
globin-containing cells which become enlarged and distorted (Thomp-
son and Huff, 1944); a mite, Hirstella sp., was considered to be a
possible vector (Pelaez, Reyes and Barrera, 1948).
Fig. 265. Plasmodium mexicanum, X1780 (Pelaez et al. ). a, b, young
and growing trophozoites in host's erythrocyte; c, segmenting schizont;
d, macrogametocyte; e, microgametocyte.
P. rhadinurum T. and H. In the erythrocytes of Iguana iguana
rhinolopha in Mexico; schizonts extremely polymorphic with one or
two long processes; 4-5 merozoites; gametocytes 6. 5-7. In ; vector un-
known (Thompson and Huff, 1944a).
P.floridense T. and H. In the erythrocytes of Sceloporus undulatus
in Florida; young trophozoites pyriform; 6-21(12) merozoites;
gametocytes 7.5-8.0/u in diameter; vector unknown (Thompson and
Huff, 1944a)
P. lygosomae Laird. In New Zealand skink, Lygosoma moco (Laird,
1951).
Family 2 Haemoproteidae Doflein
Schizogony occurs in the endothelial cells of vertebrates; mero-
zoites enter circulating blood cells and develop into gametocytes;
if blood is taken up by specific blood-sucking insects, gametocytes
develop into gametes which unite to form zygotes that undergo
changes similar to those stated above for the family Plasmodiidae.
Genus Haemoproteus Kruse. Gametocytes in erythrocytes, with
pigment granules, halter-shaped when fully formed (hence Halter-
idium Labbe) ; schizogony in endothelial cells of viscera of vertebrate
reptiles. Species (Cerny, 1933; Coatney and Roudabush, 1937);
transmission experiments (Noller, 1Q20).
HAEMOSPORIDIA
619
H. columbae Celli and Sanfelice (Fig. 266). In pigeons (Columba
livid), etc.; widely distributed; young schizonts, minute and uninu-
cleate, are in the endothelial cells of lungs and other organs, grow
into large multinucleate bodies which divide into 15 or more uninu-
cleate cytomeres (Aragao). Each cytomere now grows and its nucleus
divides repeatedly. The host cell in which many cytomeres undergo
enlargement, becomes highly hypertrophied and finally ruptures.
The multinucleate cytomeres break up into numerous merozoites,
some of which possibly repeat the schizogony by invading endothe-
lial cells, while others enter erythrocytes and develop into gameto-
cytes which are seen in the peripheral blood; sexual reproduction
Fig. 266. The life-cycle of Haemoproieus columbae. (Several authors),
a, a sporozoite entering an endothelial cell of the pigeon; b, growth of a
schizont; c, segmentation of multinucleate schizont into uninucleate
cytomeres; d-i, development of cytomeres to produce merozoites; j-m,
development of microgametes; n-p, development of macrogamete; q,
fertilization; r, s, ookinetes; t, a young oocyst in the stomach wall of
a fly; u, a ruptured mature oocyst with sporozoites. a-k, n, o, in the
pigeon, 1, m, p-u, in Pseudolynchia maura.
620 PROTOZOOLOGY
in, and transmitted by, the flies: Lynchia brunea, L. lividicolor, L.
capensis, Pseudolynchia maura, and Microlynchia fusilla. Nomencla-
ture and relapse (Coatney, 1933).
H. lophortyx O'Roke. In California valley quail, Gambel quail,
and Catalina Island quail (Lophortyx) ; gametocytes in erythrocytes,
also occasionally in leucocytes; young gametocytes, spherical to
elongate, about 1m long; more developed forms, cylindrical, about
8m by 2m, with 2-10 pigment granules; mature gametocytes, halter-
shaped, encircling the nucleus of the host erythrocyte, 18m by 1.5-
2.5m; numerous pigment granules; 4-8 microgametes, about 13. 5m
long, from each microgametocyte; on slide in one instance, gamete-
formation, fertilization and ookinete formation, completed in 52
minutes at room temperature; in nature sexual reproduction takes
place in the fly, Lynchia hirsuta; sporozoites enter salivary glands
and fill central tubules; schizonts present in lungs, liver and spleen
of quail after infected flies sucked blood from the bird; mero-
zoites found in endothelial cells of capillaries of lungs, in epithelial
cells of liver and rarely in peripheral blood cells; how merozoites
enter blood cells is unknown; schizonts seldom seen in circulating
blood; infected birds show pigment deposits in spleen and lungs
(O'Roke, 1934). Duration of infection (Herman and Bischoff, 1949).
H. metchnikovi (Simond). In the Indian river tortoise, Trionyx
indicus and the yellow-bellied terrapin, Pseudemys elegans (Hewitt,
1940).
Genus Leucocytozoon Danilewsky. Schizogony in the endothelial
cells as well as visceral cells of vertebrates; sexual reproduction in
blood-sucking insects; gametocytes in spindle-shaped host cells.
Several species (Cerny, 1933; Coatney and Roudabush, 1937).
L. simondi Mathis and Leger (L. anatis Wickware) (Fig. 267).
Mathis and Leger (1910) described this species from the teal duck
(Querquedula crecca) in Tonkin, China. Wickware (1915) saw L.
anatis in ducks in Canada. O'Roke (1934) carried on experimental
studies on the developmental cycle with the form which he found in
wild and domestic ducks in Michigan. Herman (1938) observed the
organism in common black ducks (Anas rubripes tristis), red-breasted
merganser (Mergus serrator), and blue-winged teal (Querquedula
discors) and considered L. anatis as identical with L. simondi. Huff
(1942) studied the schizogony and gametocytes, and maintained the
species he studied in mallard ducks (Anas p. platyrhynchos) and
domestic ducks from Wisconsin, to be L. simondi.
According to O'Roke, the vector is the black fly, Simulium venus-
tum, in which the sexual reproduction takes place. Gametocytes de-
HAEMOSPORIDIA
621
velop into mature gametes in 1-2 minutes after blood is obtained
from an infected duck; macrogametes about 8ju in diameter; 4-8 mi-
crogametes, 15.7-24. In long, from a single microgametocyte; zygotes
are found in stomach contents of fly in 10-20 minutes after sucking
Fig. 267. The life-cycle of Leucocytozoon simondi (Brumpt, modified),
a-c, development of macrogamete; d-f, development of microgametes;
g, fertilization; h, ookinete; i, j, ookinete piercing through the stomach
wall; k-m, development of sporozoites; n, sporozoites entering endo-
thelial cells; o-r, schizogony.
in the infected blood of bird ; motile ookinetes abundant after 5 hours,
measure 33. 3m by 3-4.6^; 22 hours after sucking duck blood, oocysts
are found on outer wall of stomach; sporozoites mature probably in
24-48 hours; 5 days after a duck has been bitten by infected black
flies, schizogonic stages are noticed in endothelial cells of capillaries
of lungs, liver, spleen; on about 7th day gametocytes appear in blood ;
liver and spleen become hypertrophied ; the infection among duck-
622 PROTOZOOLOGY
lings is said to be highly fatal and appears often suddenly. In addi-
tion to the Simulium mentioned above, Simulium parnassum appears
to be a vector (Fallis, Davies and Vickers, 1951).
Mathis and Leger: Macrogametocytes, oval; 14-15/x by 4.5-5.5/*;
several vacuoles in darkly stained cytoplasm. Microgametocytes,
oval; slightly smaller; cytoplasm stains less deeply. Infected host
cells about 48/* long; nucleus elongate.
Huff found that (1) young schizonts are in macrophages of, and
also extracellularly in, the spleen and liver; (2) two types of schi-
zonts occur: one, "hepatic schizonts" in hepatic cells which cause
no distortion or alteration of the host cell, and the other, "megalo-
schizonts" in the blood vessels of, or extra vascularly in, the heart,
spleen, liver and intestine; (3) megaloschizonts become divided into
many cytomeres which give rise to numerous merozoites; (4) young
gametocytes occur in lymphocytes, monocytes, myelocytes and late
polychromatophile ery throblasts ; (5) the cells in which fully grown
gametocytes occur, appear to be macrophages. Life history and effect
on the blood of host birds (Fallis, Davies and Vickers, 1951); de-
velopment in ducklings (Chernin, 1952).
Other reported species: L. smithi Laveran and Lucet (1905) in
turkey; L. bonasae Clarke (1935) in ruffed grouse; L. andrewsi
Atchley (1951) in chicken, etc.
Family 3 Babesiidae Poche
Minute non-pigmented parasites of the erythrocytes of various
mammals; transmission by ticks.
Genus Babesia Starcovici (Piroplasma Patton). In erythrocytes of
cattle; pear-shaped, arranged in couples; sexual reproduction in fe-
male ticks in which developing ova, hence young ticks, become in-
fected with ookinetes, producing sporozoites which enter salivary
glands (Dennis). Taxonomy (Toit, 1918).
B. bigemina (Smith and Kilborne) (Figs. 268; 269, a-d). The
causative organism of the haemoglobinuric fever, Texas fever or
red-water fever of cattle; the very first demonstration that an ar-
thropod plays an important role in the transmission of a protozoan
parasite; the infected cattle contain in their erythrocytes oval or
pyriform bodies with a compact nucleus and vacuolated cytoplasm;
the division is peculiar in that it appears as a budding process at the
beginning. We owe Dennis (1932) for our knowledge of the develop-
ment of the organism.
Sexual reproduction followed by sporozoite formation occurs in
the tick, Boophilus (Margaropus) annulatus; when a tick takes in
HAEMOSPORIDIA
infected blood into gut lumen, isogametes, 5.5-6> long, are produced;
isogamy results in motile club-shaped ookinetes, 7- 12m long, which
pass through gut wall and invade larger ova (1-2, in one case about
50, ookinetes per egg) ; each ookinete rounds itself up into a sporont
7.5-12m in diameter, which grows in size and whose nucleus divides
repeatedly; thus are produced multinucleated (4-32 nuclei) amoe-
boid sporokinetes, up to 15m long, which now migrate throughout
Fig. 268. The life-cycle of Babesia bigemina (Dennis), a-f, division in
erythrocytes of cattle; g, h, gametocytes; i, isogametes; j, fertilization;
k, zygote; 1, ookinete penetrating through the gut wall; m, ookinete in
host egg; n-p, sporoblast-formation; q, sporokinetes in a large em-
bryonic cell; r, sporozoites in salivary gland.
624
PROTOZOOLOGY
embryonic tissue cells of tick, many of which cells develop into
salivary gland cells; sporokinetes develop into sporozoites before or
after hatching of host tick; sporozoites bring about an infection to
cattle when they are inoculated by tick at the time of feeding. Texas
fever once caused a considerable amount of damage to the cattle
industry in the southern United States to which region the distribu-
tion of the tick is limited. Rees (1934) maintains that there is in
addition a somewhat smaller species, B. argentina Lignieres.
Fig. 269. a-d, Babesia bigemina, X3Q00 (Nuttall); e-h, B. bovis,
X3000 (Nuttall); i-1, Theileria parva, X3000 (Nuttall); m-s, Dactylo-
soma ranarum (m-q, schizogony; r, s, gametocytes), X2700 (Noller).
B. bovis Starcovici (Fig. 269, e-h). In European cattle; amoeboid
form usually rounded, though sometimes stretched; 1-1. 5m in dia-
meter; paired pyriform bodies make a larger angle, 1.5-2/* long;
transmitted by Ixodes ricinus.
B. canis (Piana and Galli-Valerio). Pyriform bodies 4.5-5/x long;
the organism causes malignant jaundice in dogs; widely distributed;
transmitted by the ticks: Haemaphysalis leachi, Rhipicephalus san-
guineus, and Dermacentor reticulatus (Regendanz and Reichenow,
1933).
HAKMOSPORIDIA 025
Species of Babesia occur also in sheep, goats, pigs and horses.
Genus Theileria Bettencourt, Franga and Borges. Schizogony
takes place in endothelial cells of capillaries of viscera of mammals;
certain forms thus produced enter erythrocytes and appear in
the peripheral circulation.
T. parva (Theiler) (Fig. 269, i-l). In the cattle in Africa, cause of
African coast fever; intracorpuscular forms 1-2/z in diameter; trans-
mitted by the tick, Rhipicephalus evertsi and R. appendiculatus
(Reichenow, 1937).
Genus Dactylosoma Labbe. In blood of reptiles and amphibians;
schizogony and gametocytes in erythrocytes; invertebrate hosts
unknown.
D. ranarum (Kruse) (Fig. 269, ra-s). In European frogs; schizonts
4-9m in diameter; 4-16 merozoites, 2-3m by 1-1. 5/x; gametocytes
5-8m by 1.5-3m.
Genus Toxoplasma Nicolle and Manceaux. Minute intracellular
parasites in leucocytes and endothelial cells of various mammals,
birds and reptiles; round or ovoid; usually not common in periph-
eral blood, though infective through inoculation; ordinarily abun-
dant in the liver, spleen, bone marrow, lung, brain, etc.; multiplica-
tion by binary fission (Nicolle and Manceaux, 1909). Several species
were designated by observers on the basis of the difference in host
species. Taxonomy (Chatton and Blanc, 1917) ; morphology (Arantes
1914); relation to Plasmodium (Hegner and Wolfson, 1938; Man-
well, 1939, 1941).
^0
Fig. 270. Toxoplasma gondii. X about 1750. (Chatton and Blanc)
a, isolated organisms; b, 2 trophozoites; c, organisms undergoing binary
fission; d, a host cell with many organisms which developed by repeated
binary fission.
T. gondii N. and M. (Fig. 270). In Ctenodactylus gundi, a rodent
in North Africa; a variety of experimental animals susceptible to it;
crescentic; 4-6m by 2-3m; division occurs intra- or extra-cellularly.
626 PROTOZOOLOGY
Since the subcutaneous tissues of experimentally infected animals
such as rats, pigeons and chicks do not harbor parasites in the ab-
sence of parasitemia and the organisms are apparently present in the
blood, transmission may be carried on by blood-sucking arthropods
(Jacobs and Jones, 1950).
Toxoplasma appears to be common in birds. For example, in a
survey on the blood parasites of birds on Cape Cod, Herman (1938)
found the organism in 11 species of birds examined by him. In the
past ten years a considerable amount of information has accumu-
lated on the organisms which attack and produce a disease (toxoplas-
mosis) in man. References (Sabin, 1942; Schwarz, Rose and Fry,
1948; Mantz, Sailey and Grocott, 1949; Hogan, 1951; Weinman,
1952).
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4
HAEMOSPORIDIA 627
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628 PROTOZOOLOGY
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HAEMOSPORIDIA 629
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030 PROTOZOOLOGY
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HAEMOSPORIDIA 631
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632 PROTOZOOLOGY
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(1952) The present status of malaria in the world. Am. J.
Trop. Med. Hyg., 1:111.
(1952a) Malaria: basic principles briefly stated. Springfield,
Illinois.
and Jacob, V. P.: (1942) On the epidemiology of malaria in
the Nilgiris district, Madras Presidency. J. Med. Inst. India, 4:
349.
and Mohan, B. N.: (1942) Some mosquito hosts to avian
Plasmodia with special reference to P. gallinaceum. J. Parasit.,
28:127.
HAEMOSPORIDIA 633
, West, L. S. and Manwell, R. D.: (1946) Practical malari-
ology. Philadelphia.
Sabin, A. B.: (1942) Toxoplasmosis. A recently recognized disease
of human beings. In De Sanctis: Advances in pediatrics.
Schaudinn, F.: (1902) Studien iiber krankheitserregende Protozoen.
II. Plasmodium vivax Grassi. Arb. kaiserl. Gesundh., 19:169.
Schuffner, W. : (1899) Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Malaria. Deutsche
Arch. klin. Med., 64:428.
Schwarz, G. A., Rose, Eliz. K. and Fry, W. E.: (1948) Toxoplas-
mic encephalomyelitis, a clinical report of six cases. Pediatrics,
1:478.
Sergent, Ed.: (1949) Sur deux cycles evolutifs insexues des Plas-
modium chez les paludeens. C. R. Acad. Sc, Paris, 229:455.
Sergent, Ed. and Et., and Catanel, A.: (1928) Sur un parasite
nouveau du paludisme des oiseaux. Ibid., 186:809.
Sergent, Et. and Ed.: (1922) Etude experimentale du paludisme
des oiseaux. Arch. Inst. Pasteur Afr. Nord, 2:320.
Shortt, H. E. and Garnham, P. C. C.: (1948) The pre-erythrocytic
development of P. cynomolgi and P. vivax. Tr. Roy. Soc. Trop.
Med. Hyg., 41:785.'
Simmons, J. S., Callender, G. R. et al.\ (1939) Malaria in Panama.
Am. J. Hyg., Monogr. Ser. No. 13.
Sinton, J. A. and Mulligan, H. W.: (1932) A critical review of the
literature relating to the identification of the malarial parasites
recorded from monkeys of the families Cercopithecidae and
Colobidae. Rec. Mai. Surv. India, 3:357.
Smith, T. and Kilborne, F. L.: (1893) Investigations into the na-
ture, causation and prevention of Texas or Southern cattle
fever. U.S.D.Agr., Bur. An. Ind. Bull., No. 1.
Starcovici, C.: (1893) Bemerkungen iiber den durch Babes ent-
deckten Blutparasiten, etc. Centralbl. Bakt. I. Orig., 14:1.
Stratman-Thomas, W. K.: (1940) The influence of temperature on
Plasmodium vivax. Am. J. Trop. Med., 20:703.
Taliaferro, W. H. and Kluver, Cessa: (1940) The hematology of
malaria (P. brasilianum) in Panamanian monkeys. 1, 2. J.
Infect. Dis., 67:121.
and Mulligan, H. W.: (1937) The histopathology of ma-
laria with special reference to the function and origin of the
macrophages in defence. Indian Med. Res., Memoires, 29:1.
Taliaferro, W. H. and Lucy, G.: (1934) Morphology, periodicity
and course of infection of P. brasilianum in Panamania mon-
keys. Am. J. Hyg., 20:1.
(1947) Asexual reproduction of P. cynomolgi in rhe-
sus monkeys. J. Infect. Dis., 80:78.
(1949) Asexual reproduction of P. knowlesi in rhesus
monkeys. Ibid., 85:107.
Terzian, L. A.: (1941) Studies on P. lophurae, a malarial parasite
in fowls. I. Am. J. Hyg., 33: 1.
Thompson, P. E. and Huff, C. G.: (1944) A saurian malarial para-
site, P. mexicanum, n. sp., etc. J. Infect. Dis., 74:48,
634 PROTOZOOLOGY
(1944a) Saurian malarial parasites of the United
States and Mexico. Ibid., 74:68.
Thomson, J. G.: (1928) Stippling of the red cells in malaria. Proc.
Roy. Soc. Med., 21:464.
Toit, P. J. D.: (1918) Zur Systematik der Piroplasmen. Arch.
Protist., 39:84.
Trager, W. : (1950) Studies on the extracellular cultivation of an
intracellular parasite (avian malaria). I. J. Exper. Med., 92:
349.
Vincke, I. H. and Lips, M.: (1948) Un nouveau Plasmodium d'un
rougeur sauvage du Congo, P. berghei, n. sp. Ann. Soc. Beige
med. trop., 28:97.
Wampler, F. J.: (1930) A preliminary report on the early effects of
plasmochin on P. cathemerium. Arch. Protist., 69: 1.
Warren, A. J. and Coggeshall, L. T.: (1937) Infectivity of blood
and organs in canaries after inoculation with sporozoites. Am. J.
Hyg.,26:l
Weinman, D.: (1952) Toxoplasma and toxoplasmosis. Ann. Rev.
Microbiol., 6:281.
Wenyon, C. M.: (1926) Protozoology. Vol. 2. London and Balti-
more.
Wickware, A. B.: (1915) Is Leucocytozoon anatis the cause of a new
disease in ducks? Parasitology, 8:17.
Wolfson, Fruma: (1936) Plasmodium oti n. sp., etc. Am. J. Hyg.,
24:94.
(1940) Virulence and exoerythrocytic schizogony in four spe-
cies of Plasmodium in domestic ducks. J. Parasit., 26:Suppl.:
28.
(1941) Avian hosts for malaria research. Quart. Rev. Biol.,
16:462.
and Winter, Mary W. : (1946) Studies of P. cynomolgi in
the rhesus monkey, Macaca mulatto.. Am. J. Hyg., 44:273.
Wood, S. F. and Herman, C. M.: (1943) The occurrence of blood
parasites in birds from southwestern United States. J. Parasit.,
29:187.
Yorke, W. and MacFie, J. W. S.: (1924) Observations on malaria
made during treatment of general paresis. Tr. Rov. Soc. Trop.
Med. Hyg., 18:13.
Chapter 27
Subclass 2 Acnidosporidia Cepede
THE sporozoa which are grouped here are mostly incompletely
known, although some of them are widely distributed. They pro-
duce spores which are simple in structure, being composed of a spore
membrane and a sporoplasm.
Order 1 Haplosporidia Caullery and Mesnil
This order includes those sporozoans which produce simple
spores. In some species the spores may resemble superficially those
of Microsporidia, but do not possess any polar filament. In this re-
gard, Haplosporidia may be considered a more primitive group than
Cnidosporidia (p. 643).
The Haplosporidia are cytozoic, histozoic, or coelozoic parasites
of invertebrates and lower vertebrates. The spore is spherical or
ellipsoidal in form and covered by a resistant membrane which may
possess ridges or may be prolonged into a more or less long tail-like
projection. In a few species the spore membrane possesses a lid
which, when opened, will enable the sporoplasm to emerge as an
amoebula. The sporoplasm is uninucleate and fills the intrasporal
cavity.
The development of a haplosporidian, Ichthyosporidium gigan-
teum, as worked out by Swarczewsky, is as follows (Fig. 271): The
spores germinate in the alimentary canal of the host fish and the
emerged amoebulae make their way to the connective tissue of vari-
ous organs (a). These amoebulae grow and their nuclei multiply in
number, thus forming plasmodia. The plasmodia divide into smaller
bodies, while the nuclei continue to divide (b-e). Presently the nuclei
become paired (/, g) and the nuclear membranes disappear (Ji). The
plasmodia now break up into numerous small bodies, each of which
contains one set of the paired nuclei (i, j). This is the sporont (j)
which develops into 2 spores by further differentiation (k-o).
Genus Haplosporidium Caullery and Mesnil. After growing into
a large form, Plasmodium divides into uninucleate bodies, each of
which develops into a spore; spore truncate with a lid at one end;
envelope sometimes prolonged into processes; in aquatic annelids
and molluscs.
H. chitonis (Lankester) (Fig. 272, a, b). In liver and connective
tissue of Craspidochilus cinereus; spores oval, 10m by 6m; envelope
with 2 prolonged projections.
635
036
PROTOZOOLOGY
H. limnodrili Granata (Fig. 272, c). In gut epithelium of Lim-
nodrilus udekemianus; spores 10-12m by 8-10/x.
H. nemertis Debaisieux (Fig. 272, d). In connective tissue of
Lineus bilineatus; spores oval with a flat operculum, but without
any projections of envelope, 7m by 4m.
H. heterocirri C. and M. (Fig. 272, e). In gut epithelium of Het-
Fig. 271. The development of Ichthyosporidium giganteum (Swarczewsky).
a-e, schizogony; f-n, sporogony; o, stained spore, X about 1280.
erocirrus viridis; mature organisms 50-60m by 30-40/x; spores 6.5m
by 4m.
H. scolopli C. and M. (Fig. 272, /). In Scoloplos mulleri; fully
grown form 100-150m by 20-30m; spores 10m by 6.5m.
H. vejdovskii C. and M. (Fig. 272, g). In a freshwater oligochaete,
Mesenchytraeus flavus ; spores 10-12m long.
Genus Urosporidium Caullery and Mesnil. Similar to Haplo-
sporidium, but spherical spore with a long projection.
ACNIDOSPORIDIA, HAPLOSPORIDIA
637
U. fuliginosum C. and M. (Fig. 272, h, i). In the coelom of the
polychaete, Syllis gracilis; rare.
Genus Anurosporidium Caullery and Chappellier. Similar to
H aplosporidium, but operculate spore spherical.
A. pelseneeri C. and C. In sporocyst of a trematode parasitic in
Donax trunculus; schizogony intracellular; cysts extracellular, with
up to 200 spores; spores about 5m long.
Fig. 272. a, b, H aplosporidium chitonis, X1000 (Pixell-Goodrich;) c, H.
lirnnodrili, X1000 (Granata); d, H. nemertis, X1000 (Debaisieux); e, H.
heterocirii, X 1000 (Caullery and Mesnil) ; f , H. scolopli, X 1000 (Caullery
and Mesnil); g, H. vejdovskii, X1000 (Caullery and Mesnil); h, i, Uro-
sporidium fuliginosum. X1000 (Caullery and Mesnil); j, k, Bertramia
asperospora (j, cyst with spores; k, empty cyst), X1040 (Minchin); 1, m,
Coelosporidium periplanetae (1, trophozoite with spores and chromatoid
bodies), X2540 (Sprague).
Genus Bertramia Caullery and Mesnil. Parasitic in aquatic worms
and rotifers; sausage-shaped bodies in coelom of host; spherical
spores which develop in them, possess a uninucleate sporoplasm and
a well-developed membrane.
B. asperospora (Fritsch) (Fig. 272, j, k). In body cavity of rotifers:
Brachionus, Asplanchna, Synchaeta, Hydatina, etc.; fully grown
vermicular body 70-90m with 80-150 spores.
G3S
PROTOZOOLOGY
B. capitellae C. and M. In the annelid Capitella capitata; spores
2.5/x in diameter.
B. euchlanis Konsuloff. In coelom of rotifers belonging to the
genus Euchlanis.
Genus Ichthyosporidium Caullery and Mesnil. In fish; often
looked upon as Microsporidia, as the organism develops into large
bodies in body muscles, connective tissue, or gills, which appear as
conspicuous "cysts," that are surrounded by a thick wall and con-
tain numerous spores.
/. giganteum (Thelohan) (Fig. 271). In various organs of Creni-
labrus melops and C. ocellatus; cysts 30m-2 mm. in diameter; spores
5-8/i long.
I. hertwigi Swarczewsky. In Crenilabrus paro; cysts 3-4 mm. in
diameter in gills; spores 6m long.
Genus Coelosporidium Mesnil and Marchoux. In coelom of Cla-
docera or Malpighian tubules of cockroach; body small, forming
cysts; spores resemble microsporidian spores; but without a polar
filament.
C. periplanetae (Lutz and Splendore) (C. blattellae Crawley) (Fig.
272, 1, m). In lumen of Malpighian tubules of cockroaches; common;
spores 5.5-7. 5/x by 3-4^. Cytology (Sprague, 1940).
Order 2 Sarcosporidia Balbiani
These organisms are muscle parasites of mammals, birds and rep-
tiles. The infected host muscles are characterized by the presence of
opaque white bodies (Miescher's tubes) (Fig. 273) which vary from
microscopic to several centimeters in length, and are cylindrical,
ellipsoid or ovoid, with a somewhat lobulated surface. When mature,
the parasite becomes- filled with the "spores" or Rainey's corpuscles
which are crescentic or banana-shaped. They contain a nucleus and
many granules, surrounded by a very delicate membrane (Fig. 274).
The morphological peculiarity and lack of information concerning
their transmission and development have characterized these organ-
Fig. 273. a, Sarcocystis tenella in the oesophagus of sheep; b, S. miescheri-
ana in the muscle of pig; XI (Schneidemuhl from Doflein).
ACNIDOSPORIDIA, SARCOSPORIDIA 639
isms for many years. Spindler and Zimmerman (1945) placed asepti-
cally ruptured cysts of Sarcocystis miescheriana (p. 640) of pigs in
sterile dextrose solution and kept the preparations at 37°C. for 24
hours and then at room temperature. In from a few days to two
weeks, the "spores" budded off minute, coccoid bodies which de-
veloped into septate mycelia with vertical hyphae bearing spores, a
typical feature of the development of a fungus belonging to Asper-
gillus. When the conidia from the cultures were injected into or fed
to 50 young pigs, 25 showed at necropsy four to six months after the
injection or ingestion of the conidia, typical Sarcocystis cysts in the
muscles, while the controls remained free from infection. Cultures
made from the mature cysts in these pigs, developed a fungus like
that which had been injected. Pigs, rats and mice which fed on the
cysts, passed faeces and urine containing yeast-like bodies which de-
veloped in cultures into a fungus like that which was originally
cultured. Spindler 's (1947) further study revealed that in the sarco-
sporidian cysts of sheep and duck, the strands present within the
cysts were none other than the connective tissues of the host and the
compartments contained a network of jointed hypha-like structures,
and the spores appeared to be exogenous growths on the jointed
hypha-like structures; and each spore was capable of budding out an-
other spore from its free end. Spindler concludes from these observa-
tions that Sarcocystis of pigs, sheep and ducks are fungi, related to
Aspergillus. This view will explain reasonably well the difficulties
encountered in relation to Sarcosporidia; namely, the unknown life
cycle, lack of a protective membrane of the "spore," the absence of a
vector, and the common occurrence among herbivorous animals.
Genus Sarcocystis Lankester. In the muscles of higher vertebrates.
Many species have been reported by various workers from mammals,
birds and reptiles on the basis of difference in host species. Species
(Babudieri, 1932).
S. lindemanni (Rivolta). A few cases of Sarcocystis infection have
been reported from man in muscle cells of larynx (Baraban and
St. Remy), of biceps and tongue (Darling), of heart (Manifold),
of breast (Vasudevan), etc. There seem to be dimensional dis-
crepancies of organisms observed by different investigators. The di-
mensions of parasitic masses and of spores are as follows : Parasites
1.6 mm. by 170m and banana-shaped spores 8-9/z long (Baraban and
St. Remy) ; parasites 84ju by 27m and spores 4.25m by 1.75m (Darling) ;
parasites spherical, 500/* in diameter and spores over 10m long
(Manifold); parasites 5.3 cm. by 320m and spores 8.33m by 1.6m
(Vasudevan). The parasitic masses are oval to spindle in form and
640
PROTOZOOLOGY
imbedded in the muscle cells which are distended, and may appear
white-streaked to naked eye. Seen in sections, the body is divided
into compartments. Gilmore, Kean and Posey (1942) have recently
found three bodies in sectioned heart muscles of an eleven year old
child who died from an unknown cause, and considered them as
sarcosporidian bodies. They measured 25m by 19m, 57m by 30m, and
41m by 25m hi cross sections; there were no septa within the bodies;
minute bodies present in the masses were mostly rounded and about
1m in diameter, though a few were crescentic. The questions such as
what species infect man, how man becomes infected, etc., are un-
answered at present.
Muscle layer
Connective tissue layer
Fibrous zone
External}
Median /Cyst membrane
Internal )
Sporoblasts
Spores
Fig. 274. Portion of a cyst of Sarcocystis tenella in sheep, X about
1000 (Alexeieff).
S. tenella Railleit (Figs. 273, a; 274). In the muscles of tongue,
pharynx, oesophagus, larynx, neck, heart, etc., of sheep; large
parasites 40m~2 cm. long with a thin membrane; spores sickleform
(Alexeieff, 1913; Scott, 1943).
S. miescheriana (Kiihn) (Fig. 273, b). In the muscles of pig; cysts
up to 3-4 mm. by 3 mm.; envelope striated; "spores" reniform.
Musfeldt (1950) found 15 of 264 pig diaphragms examined were in-
fected by a Sarcocystis. The pigs were all garbage-fed animals.
ACNIDOSPORIDIA, SARCOSPORIDIA 641
Sarcocystis infections were also noticed in the rats from one of the
piggeries from which infected pigs were obtained. Fungus nature of
the organism (p. 639); effect on host (Spindler, Zimmerman and
Jaquette, 1946).
S. bertrami Doflein. In the muscles of horse; similar to S. miescher-
iana; parasitic mass up to 9-10 mm.; envelope striated.
S. muris Blanchard. In body muscles of rats and mice; parasitic
masses up to 3 cm. long; spores 13-15/x by 2.5-3/*; transmissible to
guinea pig (Negri) which shows experimental infection in muscles in
50-100 days after feeding on infected muscles.
S. rileyi Stiles. In muscles of various species of ducks; parasites in
muscle, opaque white in color and measure up to 5 mm. by 2 mm.;
spores are sausage-shaped and 8-10/i by about 3;u.
References
Alexeieff, A.: (1913) Recherches sur Sarcosporidies. I. Arch. zool.
exper. gen., 51:521.
Babudieri, B.: (1932) I Sarcosporidi e le Sarcosporidiose. Arch.
Protist., 78:421.
Baraban, L. and St. Remy, G.: (1894) Sur une cas de tubes psoro-
spermiques observes chez l'homme. C. R. soc. biol., 10:201.
Caullery, M. and Mesnil, F.: (1905) Recherches sur les Haplo-
sporidies. Arch. zool. exper. gen., 4:101.
Crawley, H.: (1914) The evolution of Sarcocystis muris in the in-
testinal cells of the mouse. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philadelphia,
66:432.
Darling, S. T.: (1909) Sarcosporidiosis, with report of a case in
man. Arch. Int. Med., 3:183
— (1919) Sarcosporidiosis in an East Indian. J. Parasit., 6:98.
Gilmore, H. R. Jr., Kean, B. H. and Posey, F. M.: (1942) A case
of sarcosporidiosis with parasites found in heart. Am. J. Trop.
Med., 22:121.
Lambert, S. W.: (1927) Sarcosporidial infection of the myocardium
in man. Am. J. Path., 3:663.
Musfeldt, I. W. : (1950) A report on infection by Sarcocystis sp. in
swine from Vancouver, Canada. Canad. J. Comp. Med. Vet.
Sc, 14:126.
Scott, J. W.: (1943) Life history of Sarcosporidia, with particular
reference to Sarcocystis tenella. Bull. Univ. Wyoming Exper.
Stat., no. 259.
Spindler, L. A.: (1947) A note on the fungoid nature of certain in-
ternal structures of Miescher's sacs, etc. Proc. Helm. Soc. Wash-
ington, 14:28.
— and Zimmerman, H. E. Jr.: (1945) The biological status of
Sarcocystis. J. Parasit., 31 :suppl. : 13.
and Jaquette, D. S.: (1946) Transmission of Sarco-
cystis to swine. Proc. Helm. Soc. Wash., 13: 1.
642 PROTOZOOLOGY
Sprague, V.: (1940) Observations on Coelosporidium periplanetae
with special reference to the development of the spore. Tr. Am.
Micr. Soc, 59:460.
Swaczewsky, B.: (1914) Ueber den Lebenscyklus einiger Haplo-
sporidien. Arch. Protist., 33:49.
Teichmann, E.: (1912) Sarcosporidia. Prowazek's Handbuch der
pathog. Protozoen. Part 3:345.
Weissenberg, R.: (1921) Fischhaplosporidien. Ibid., Part 3:1391.
Chapter 28
Subclass 3 Cnidosporidia Doflein
THE members of this subclass possess without exception resist-
ant spores which are of unique structure. Each spore possesses
1-4 polar filaments and one to manjr sporoplasms. The membrane
which envelops these structures may be a single-piece or bi- or tri-
valved. The polar filament is typically coiled within a polar capsule.
In the order Myxosporidia and Actinomyxidia, there appear
several cells during the process of sporulation. These cells give rise
to one to many sporoplasms or generative cells, capsulogenous
cells, and spore membrane. This condition is not observed in other
groups of Protozoa and for this reason some writers recognize a close
affinity between these two orders and the Mesozoa. The method of
multiplication in the Cnidosporidia is schizogonic and sporogonic.
The division is repeated binary or multiple fission, budding, or
plasmotomy. The nuclear division varies from amitosis to mitosis.
Isogamous, anisogamous, and autogamous reproduction have been
reported in a number of species. In many forms, the zygote is the
sporont, in which one to many spores become differentiated.
No secondary or intermediate host has been found for any of the
Cnidosporidia. They are exclusively parasites of the lower verte-
brates and invertebrates. Since cnidosporidian infections occur
frequently in epidemic forms among such economically important
animals as the silkworm, honey bees, and commercial fishes, these
organisms possess considerable practical significance. History and
economic importance (Auerbach, 1910; Kudo, 1920, 1924).
The Cnidosporidia are divided into the following four orders:
Spores comparatively large
Shell bivalve; 1 to 4 polar capsules Order 1 Myxosporidia
Shell trivalve; 3 polar capsules Order 2 Actinomyxidia (p. 660)
Spores comparatively small
Shell one-piece; 1 (or 2) polar filament. .Order 3 Microsporidia (p. 668)
Barrel-shaped; a thick filament coiled beneath the shell; 3 sporoplasms
Order 4 Helicosporidia (p. 678)
Order 1 Myxosporidia Butschli
The spore of a myxosporidian is of various shapes and dimen-
sions. It is covered by a bivalve chitinous spore membrane (Kudo,
1921), the two valves meeting in a sutural plane which is either
twisted (in three genera) or more or less straight. The membrane
may possess various markings or processes. The polar capsule, with
643
644
PROTOZOOLOGY
its short coiled filament, varies in number from one to four (Fig.
275). Except in the family Myxidiidae, in which one polar capsule
is situated near each of the poles of the spore, the polar capsules
are always grouped at one end which is ordinarily designated as the
anterior end of the spore. Below or between (in Myxidiidae) the
polar capsules, there is almost always a sporoplasm. Ordinarily a
Fig. 275. Sporogony in Myxosoma catostomi, X2130 (Kudo), a, sporont
or pansporoblast; b-h, development of two sporoblasts within the spo-
ront; i, a nearly mature spore; j-1, views of spore.
young spore possesses two sporoplasm nuclei which fuse into one
(autogamy) when the spore becomes mature. In Myxobolidae there
is a glycogenous substance in a vacuole which stains mahogany red
with iodine and is known as the iodinophilous (iodophile) vacuole.
The Myxosporidia are exclusive^ parasites of lower verte-
brates, especially fishes. Both fresh and salt water fishes have been
found to harbor, or to be infected by, Myxosporidia in various
regions of the world. A few occur in Amphibia and Reptilia, but no
species has been found to occur in either birds or mammals. When
a spore gains entrance into the digestive tract of a specific host fish,
the sporoplasm leaves the spore as an amoebula which penetrates
through the gut-epithelium and, after a period of migration, enters
the tissues of certain organs, where it grows into a trophozoite at the
CNIDOSPORIDIA, MYXOSPORIDIA 645
expense of the host tissue cells, and the nucleus divides repeatedly.
Some nuclei become surrounded by masses of dense cytoplasm
and become the sporonts (Fig. 275). The sporonts grow and their
nuclei divide several times, forming 6-18 daughter nuclei, each with
a small mass of cytoplasm. The number of the nuclei thus produced
depends upon the structure of the mature spore, and also upon
whether 1 or 2 spores develop in a sporont. When the sporont de-
velops into a single spore, it is called a monosporoblastic sporont,
and if two spores are formed within a sporont, which is usually the
case, the sporont is called disporoblastic, or pansporoblast. The
spore-formation begins usually in the central area of the large tro-
phozoite, which continues to grow. The surrounding host tissue
becomes degenerated or modified and forms an envelope that is
often large enough to be visible to the naked eye (Figs. 278, 280).
This is ordinarily referred to as a myxosporidian cyst. If the site of
infection is near the body surface, the large cyst breaks and the ma-
ture spores become set free in the water. In case the infection is con-
fined to internal organs, the spores will not be set free while the host
fish lives. Upon its death and disintegration of the body, however,
the liberated spores become the source of new infection.
The more primitive Myxosporidia are coelozoic in the host's
organs, such as the gall bladder, uriniferous tubules of the kidney,
urinary bladder, etc. In these forms, the liberated amoebulae make
their way into the specific organ and there grow into multinucleate
amoeboid trophozoites which are capable of forming pseudopodia
of various types. They multiply by exogenous or endogenous bud-
ding or plasmotomy. One to several spores are developed in the
trophozoite.
Almost all observers agree in maintaining the view that the 2
nuclei of the sporoplasm or 2 uninucleate sporoplasms fuse into one
(autogamy or paedogamy), but as to the nuclear as well as cyto-
plasmic changes prior to, and during, spore-formation, there is a
diversity of opinions. For illustration, the development of Sphaero-
myxa sabrazesi (p. 656) as studied by two investigators may be taken
as an example. Debaisieux's (1924) observation is in brief as follows
(Fig. 276) : Sporoplasms after finding their way into the gall bladder
of host fish develop into large trophozoites containing many nuclei
(a, 6) 2 vegetative nuclei become surrounded by a cytoplasmic mass(c)
and this develops into a primary propagative cell (d) which divides
(3 chromosomes are noted) (e) and forms secondary propagative
cells (/). A binucleate sporocyte is formed from the latter by unequal
nuclear division (g-j) and 2 sporocytes unite to form a tetranucleate
646
PROTOZOOLOGY
pansporoblast (j) which develops into 2 spores (k, I). Sporoplasm
shows first 2 nuclei (/), but later 4 (ra>), of which 2 degenerate (n) and
the other 2 fuse into one nucleus (o). On the other hand, according to
Naville(1930) a uninucleate amoebula (Fig. 277, a) enters the gall
bladder and develops into multinucleate trophozoite in which nuclear
a b
c
Fig. 276. The development of Sphaeromyxa sabrazesi (Debaisieux).
a, vegetative nuclei; b, association of two vegetative nuclei; c, the same
within a cell; d, primary propagative cell; e, its division; f, secondary
propagative cells; g, their division; h, formation of sporocyte; i, two
sporocytes; j, formation of pansporoblast; k, pansporoblast at later stages;
1, pansporoblast with two spores, the sporoplasm of which contains two
nuclei; m, four nuclei in sporoplasm; n, two nuclei remain functional, the
other two degenerate, o, fusion of the two nuclei.
CNIDOSPORIDIA, MYXOSPORIDIA
647
Fig. 277. The development of Sphaeromyxa sabrazesi (Naville). a, uni-
nucleate amoebula enters the gall bladder; b, young multinucleate
trophozoite; c, development of macrogametes; d, development of micro-
gametes; e, f, plasmogamy; g-m, development of pansporoblast; n, fusion
of the two nuclei in the sporoplasm.
648 PROTOZOOLOGY
division reveals 4 chromosomes (6); within the trophozoite macro-
gametes and microgametes are independently formed, during which
process, chromosome number is reduced into half (2) (c, d) ; plasog-
amy between a macrogamete and a microgamete results in produc-
tion of a binucleate pansporoblast (e,f), from which repeated nuclear
division (g-l) forms 2 spores (m) ; each of the 2 nuclei of the sporo-
plasm is haploid and the diploid number is restored when the 2 nuclei
fuse into one (n).
The site of infection by Myxosporidia varies among different
species. They have been found in almost all kinds of tissues and
organs of host fish, although each myxosporidian has its special site
of infection in one to several species of fish. The gills and gall bladder
are most frequently parasitized by Myxosporidia in freshwater
fishes, while the gall bladder and urinary bladder of marine fishes
harbor one or more species of Myxosporidia. When the infection is
concentrated in the fins or integument, the resulting changes are
quite conspicuous (Fig. 278). The infection in the gills is usually
Fig. 278. A channel cat, heavily infected with Henneguya exilis,
X* (Kudo).
manifest by whitish pustules which can be frequently detected with
the unaided eye. When the wall of the alimentary canal, mesentery,
liver, and other organs are attacked, one sees considerable changes
in them. Heavy myxosporidian infection of the gall bladder or uri-
nary bladder of the host fish may cause abnormal appearance and
coloration or unusual enlargement of the organ, but under ordinary
circumstances the infection is detected only by a microscopical ex-
amination of its contents. Certain histological changes in the host
fish have been mentioned elsewhere (p. 31).
Severe epidemic diseases of fishes are frequently found to be due to
myxosporidian infections. According to Davis (1924), the "wormy"
halibut of the Pacific coast of North America is due to the myxo-
sporidian, Unicapsula muscalaris (Fig. 280), which invades the mus-
cular tissue of the host fish. The "boil disease" of the barbel, Barbus
barbus and others, of European waters, is caused by Myxobolus
pfeifferi (Keysselitz, 1908). Myxosoma cerebralis, which attacks the
CNIDOSPORIDIA, MYXOSPORIDIA 649
supporting tissues of salmonid fish, is known to be responsible for the
so-called "twist disease" (Plehn, 1904), which is often fatal espe-
cially to young fishes and occurs in an epidemic form. Henneguya
salminicola invades the body muscles of various species of Pacific
salmon and produces opaque white cysts, 3-6 mm in diameter; it is
thus responsible for the so-called "tapioca disease" of salmon (Fish,
1939). Kudoa thyrsites (p. 655) attacks the body muscle fibers of the
barracouta in which the infected muscles become liquefied. This con-
dition is known as "milky barracouta" or "pap snoek" and may
affect as much as 5 per cent of the commercial catches (Willis, 1949).
Taxonomy (Gurley, 1894; Thelohan, 1895; Auerbach, 1910; Kudo,
1920, 1933); development (Kudo, 1920; Naville, 1927, 1930; Noble,
1944); species from North America (Gurley, 1894; Mavor, 1915,
1916; Davis, 1917; Kudo, 1920-1944; Jameson, 1929, 1931; Meg-
litsch, 1937-1947a; Fantham et ah, 1939, 1940; Noble, 1939, 1941;
Rice and Jahn, 1943), from South America (da Cunha and Fonseca,
1917, 1918; Nemeczek, 1926; Pinto, 1928; Guimaraes, 1931), from
Europe (Thelohan, 1895; CSpede, 1906; Auerbach, 1910, 1912;
Parisi, 1912; Jameson, 1913; Georgevitch, 1916-1936; Dunkerly,
1921; Petruschewsky, 1932; Jaczo, 1940); from Asia (Fujita, 1923,
1927; Chakravarty, 1939, 1943; Chakravarty and Basu, 1948).
The Myxosporidia are divided into three suborders:
Largest diameter of spore at right angles to sutural plane; with 1 polar
capsule on each side; sporoplasm without iodinophilous vascuole. .
Suborder 1 Eurysporea
Spore spherical or subspherical with 1, 2, or 4 polar capsules; sporoplasm
without iodinophilous vacuole. .Suborder 2 Sphaerosporea (p. 651)
Sutural plane coincides with, or is at an acute angle to, largest diameter
of spore; 1, 2, or 4 polar capsules; sporoplasm with or without iodino-
philous vacuole Suborder 3 Platysporea (p. 655)
Suborder 1 Eurysporea Kudo
Spores laterally expanded; coelozoic in marine fish, except one species. .
Family 1 Ceratomyxidae
Spores less laterally expanded; in freshwater fish; histozoic or coelozoic. .
Family 2 Wardiidae (p. 651)
Family 1 Ceratomyxidae Doflein
Spores are laterally prolonged and therefore sutural diameter is
smaller than width; 2 polar capsules at anterior margin; one on
each side of sutural plane; in one genus the spores contain three polar
capsules and the spore membrane is composed of three shell-valves.
Genus Ceratomyxa Thelohan. Shell-valves conical and hollow,
650
PROTOZOOLOGY
attached on bases; sporoplasm usually not filling intrasporal cavity;
Numerous species in the gall-bladder of marine fish, except C. shasta
(Noble, 1950) which was found "widely distributed in viscera" of
fingerling rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri).
Fig. 279. a, Ceratomyxa mesospora, X1000 (Davis); b, c, C. hopkinsi,
X1000 (Jameson); d-j, Leptotheca ohlmacheri (d, section of a uriniferous
tubule of Rana pipiens, with trophozoites and spores, XS00; e, a tropho-
zoite with a bud; f-h, disporous trophozoites; i, a spore with extruded
polar filaments; j, surface view of spore, X1500) (Kudo).
CNIDOSPORIDIA, MYXOSPORIDIA 651
C. mesospora Davis (Fig. 279, a). In the gall-bladder of Cestracion
zygaena; spores 8m in sutural diameter and 50-65m wide.
C. hopkinsi Jameson (Fig. 279, b, c). In the gall-bladder of Paro-
phrys vetulus, Microstomias pacificus and Citharichthys xanthostigmus ;
trophozoites disporous; spores 5. 7-7. 5m in sutural diameter and 28.8-
39m broad.
Genus Leptotheca Thelohan. Shell-valves hemispherical; in gall-
bladder or urinary bladder of marine fish and one in amphibians.
Numerous species.
L. ohlmacheri (Gurley) (Fig. 279, d-j). In the uriniferous tubules of
kidney of frogs and toads; spores 9.5-12m in sutural diameter and
13-14. 5ju wide; with 2 uninucleate sporoplasms (Kudo 1922).
Genus Myxoproteus Doflein. Spores pyramidal with or without
distinct processes at base of pyramid; in urinary bladder of marine
fish. 3 species.
M . cordiformis Davis (Fig. 280, a). In the urinary bladder of Chae-
(odipterus faber; spores 12 m by 10-1 1m-
Genus Trilospora Noble. Spores triangular with concave sides in
anterior end-view; profile ellipsoid; three polar causles and three
shell-valves; in the gall-bladder of marine fish. One species.
T. californica N. Spores 7.2/x in sutural diameter by 16/z wide;
polar capsules 3/x by 1.5/i, often four instead of three in number; in
the gall-bladder of Typhlogobius californiensis and Gibbonsia elegans
elegans (Noble, 1939).
Family 2 Wardiidae Kudo
Genus Wardia Kudo. Spores isosceles triangle with 2 convex sides;
oval in profile; 2 large polar capsules; tissue parasites of freshwater
fish. 2 species.
W. ovinocua K. (Fig. 280, 6). In the ovary of Lepomis humilis;
spores 9-1 1m in sutural diameter and 10-12m wide.
Genus Mitraspora Fujita. Spores circular or ovoidal in front view;
somewhat flattened in profile; 2 polar capsules; shell striated; with
or without posterior filaments; in kidneys of freshwater fishes. This
genus apparently includes border-line forms between this and other
suborders. 3 species.
M. elongata Kudo. In the kidney of Apomotis cyanellus; spores
15-17m by 5-6M.
Suborder 2 Sphaerosporea Kudo
Spore with 1 polar capsule Family l Unicapsulidae (p. 652)
Spore with 2 polar capsules Family 2 Sphaerosporidae (p. 653)
Spore with 4 polar capsules Family 3 Chloromyxidae (p. 654)
652
PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 1 Unicapsulidae Kudo
Genus Unicapsula Davis. Spherical spore with 1 polar capsule;
shell-valves asymmetrical; sutural line sinuous; histozoic in marine
fish. One species.
Fig. 280. a, Myxoproteus cor di for mis, X 1000 (Davis) ; b, Wardia ovino-
cua, X1330 (Kudo); c, Sphaerospora polymorpha, X1000 (Davis); d-i, S.
tincae (d, external appearance of a heavily infected young tench; e, in-
ternal appearance, Xf ; f, mature pansporoblast; g, h, two spores; i, germi-
nation of spore, X1000) (L6ger); j, k, Sinuolinea dimorpha (j, trophozoite
with three gemmules, X420; k, a spore, X930) (Davis); 1, m, Chloro-
myxum leydigi (1, X500; m, X1000) (Th&ohan); n, C. trijugam, X1130
(Kudo).
U. muscularis D. (Fig. 281). Spore about 6m in diameter; 2 uni-
nucleate sporoplasms; in muscle fibers of halibut; Pacific coast of
North America; the cause of the "wormy" halibut (Davis, 1924).
CNIDOSPORIDIA, MYXOSPORIDIA 653
Family 2 Sphaerosporidae Davis
Genus Sphaerospora Thelohan. Spore spherical or subspherical ;
sutural line straight; 2 polar capsules at anterior end; coelozoic or
histozoic in marine or freshwater fishes.
Fig. 281. Unicapsula muscularis (Davis), a, b, infected muscle fibers,
X20; c, cross-section of an infected muscle, X190; d, part of a section of
an infected muscle, X575; e-h, spores, X2500.
S. polymorpha Davis (Figs. 280, c; 282, a-e). In the urinary blad-
der of toadfish, Opsanus tau and 0. beta. Trophozoites amoeboid
with conical pseudopodia; up to 100/x long, the majority being 20-5(V
long; plasmotomy; disporoblastic; disporous or polysporous. Spores
spheroidal; shell-valves finely striated; polar capsules divergent;
fresh spores measure 7. 5-9. 5m by 7-8/*. The trophozoites suffer fre-
quently infection by Nosema notabilis (p. 672). Development and
hyperparasitism (Kudo, 1944).
654
PROTOZOOLOGY
S. tincae Plehn (S. pernicialis Leger) (Fig. 280, d-i). In the kidney
and other viscera of Tinea tinea in France and Germany; cause of
epidemic disease among young tench; disease is manifest by great
distension of anterior portion of abdomen and up-turned mouth : in-
Fig. 282. a-e, Sphaerospora polymorpha (Kudo) (a, a trophozoite in life,
XI 530; b, stage in simple plasmotomy, X700; c, d, front and anterior end
views of fresh spores; e, a spore with the extruded polar filaments,
X1415);f-h, Myxidium. serotinum (Kudo) (f, a stained young trophozoite,
XI 530; g, h, two views of fresh spores, showing the ridges on the mem-
brane, X915); i-1, Kudoa clupeidae (Meglitsch) (i, j, two views of un-
stained spores, X1240; k, 1, stained spores, X1430); m-p, K. thyrsites
(Willis) (m-o, preserved spores; p, a spore from section).
fection fatal through rupture of abdominal wall; spores 7-8.75/* in
diameter (Leger, 1929).
Genus Sinuolinea Davis. Spherical or subspherical spores; su-
tural line sinuous; with or without lateral processes; 2 spherical
polar capsules; in urinary bladder of marine fish.
S. dimorpha D. (Fig. 280, j, k). In Cynoscion regalis; spores 15m in
diameter (Davis, 1917).
Family 3 Chloromyxidae Thelohan
Genus Chloromyxum Mingazzini. Spore with 4 polar capsules,
grouped at anterior end; shell surface often striated or ridged;
CNIDOSPORIDIA, MYXOSPORIDIA 655
histozoic or coelozoic in freshwater or marine fish and also in amphib-
ians. Numerous species.
C. leydigi M. (Figs. 70, c, d; 280, I, m). In the gall-bladder of vari-
ous species of Raja, Torpedo and Cestracion; spores 6-9/x by 5-6ju;
widely distributed. Structure and development (Erdmann, 1917;
Naville, 1927).
C. trijugum Kudo (Fig. 280, n). In the gall-bladder of Xenotis
megalotis and Pomoxis sparoides; spores 8-10/x by 5— 7/x.
Genus Kudoa Meglitsch. Resembles Chloromyxum; but spores
stellate or quadrate in anterior end-view; spore membrane delicate
and the sutures indistinct; four shell-valves (?); histozoic (Meg-
litsch, 1947a). Several species.
K. clupeidae (Hahn) (Fig. 282, i-l). In the body muscles of
Clupea harengus, Brevoortia tyrannus, etc.; spores 5.1m by 6.4m;
polar capsules 1.5m by 1m (Meglitsch, 1947). Nigrelli (1946) found
this species in the ocean pout {Macrozoares americanus).
K. thyrsites (Gilchrist) (Fig. 282, m-p). In the body muscles of the
barracouta, Thyrsites atun, in Australia and Africa; pyramidal spores
6-7 m high and 12-1 7 m wide; two uninucleate sporoplasms; polar
capsules homogeneous in appearance (Willis, 1949). Effect on host
(p. 649).
Suborder 3 Platysporea Kudo
Without iodinophilous vacuole
2 polar capsules, one at each pole Family 1 Myxidiidae
1 polar capsule Family 2 Coccomyxidae (p. 658)
2 or 4 polar capsules grouped Family 3 Myxosomatidae (p. 658)
With an iodinophilous vacuole Family 4 Myxobolidae (p. 658)
Family 1 Myxidiidae Thelohan
Genus Myxidium Butschli (Cystodiscus Lutz). Spores fusiform with
pointed or rounded ends; polar filament comparatively long, fine;
coelozoic or histozoic in fishes, also in amphibians and reptiles. Nu-
merous species.
M. lieberkuhni Butschli (Figs. 70, a, b; 284, a-d). In urinary blad-
der of Esox spp.; spores 18-20/z by 5-6 /x; widely distributed. De-
velopment (Cohn, 1896; Debaisieux, 1916); division (Kudo, 1921a;
Bremer, 1922).
M. immersum (Lutz) (Cystodiscus immersus Lutz; M. lindoyense
Carini). (Fig. 284, e, f). In the gall bladder of species of Bufo,
Leptodactylus, Atelopus, etc.; in Brazil and Uruguay. Trophozoites
circular to oval, and very thin; up to 4 mm. in diameter; disporo-
blastic; polysporous. Spores 11. 8-13. 3m by 7.5-8. 6m; shell-valves
650 PROTOZOOLOGY
marked with 1 longitudinal and 7-9 transverse ridges (Cordero,
1919; Kudo and Sprague, 1940).
M. serotinum Kudo and Sprague (Figs. 282, f-h; 283). In the gall
bladder of Bufo terrestris, Rana pipiens, R. clamitans and R. spheno-
cephala; in the United States. Trophozoites up to 6.5 by 1.8 mm.,
extremely thin; cytoplasm highly alveolated; endogenous budding;
disporoblastic; polysporous. Spores 16-18ju by 9m; shell-valve with
2-4 longitudinal and 10-13 transverse ridges (Kudo, 1943).
Fig. 283. Scattered spores, young and sporulating trophozoites of Myxid-
ium serotinum, as seen in the bile of a frog in life, X64 (Kudo).
M. kudoi Meglitsch. In gall-bladder of Ictalurus furcatus; troph-
ozoites large disc-like up to 1 mm. in diameter; spores 8.5-12/; long
by 4-6 m (Meglitsch, 1937).
Genus Sphaeromyxa Thelohan. Spore fusiform, but ends usually
truncate; polar filament short, thick; trophozoites large, discoid;
coelozoic in marine fish. Several species.
S. balbianii T. (Figs. 70, e; 284, g-4). In gall-bladder of Motella
and other marine fish in Europe and of Siphostoma in the United
States; spores 15-20/* by 5-6 n (Naville, 1930).
S. sabrazesi Laveran and Mesnil (Figs. 276; 277; 284, j-Z). In gall-
CNIDOSPORIDIA, MYXOSPORIDIA
0.r)7
bladder of Hippocampus, Motella, etc.; spores 22-28m by 3-4/z (De-
baisieux, 1925; Naville, 1930).
Genus Zschokkella Auerbach. Spore semi-circular in front view;
fusiform in profile; circular in cross-section; ends pointed obliquely;
Fig. 284. a-d, Myxidium lieberkuhni (a, a trophozoite, X220 (Lieber-
klihn); b, a small trophozoite, X1000; c, d, spores, X1400) (Kudo);
e, f, M. immersum, X1400 (Kudo); g-i, Sphaero7?tyxa balbianii (g, X|;
h, a spore, X1400 (Davis); i, spore with extruded polar filaments, X840
(Thelohan)); j-1, S. sabrazesi (j, trophozoite, X10; k, 1, spores, X1000)
(Schroder); m, n, Zschokkella hildae (m, X600; n, X1060) (Auerbach);
o-t, Coccomyxa morovi (o, a young binucleate trophozoite; p-s, develop-
ment of sporoblast; t, a spore with the extruded polar filament), X665
(L£ger and Hesse).
polar capsules large, spherical; sutural line usually in S-form, coelo-
zoic in fish or amphibians. A few species.
Z. hildae A. (Fig. 284, m, n). In urinary bladder of Gadus spp.;
spores 16-29m by 13-18m (Auerbach, 1910).
658 PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 2 Coccomyxidae Leger and Hesse
Spore ellipsoidal; one polar capsule at one end; circular in cross-
section; undoubtedly a border-line form between Myxosporidia and
Microsporidia.
Genus Coccomyxa Leger and Hesse. Polar filament long, fine;
coelozoic parasite in marine fish (Leger and Hesse, 1907).
C. morovi L. and H. (Fig. 284, o-t). In the gall-bladder of Clupea
pilchardus; spores 14 n by 5-6 /x (Georgevitch, 1926).
Family 3 Myxosomatidae Poche
Two or 4 polar capsules at anterior end; sporoplasm without any
iodinophilous vacuoles.
Genus Myxosoma Thelohan (Lentospora Plehn). Spore circular,
oval or ellipsoid in front view, lenticular in profile; 2 polar capsules
at anterior end; histozoic in marine or fresh water fish. Several
species.
M. catostomi Kudo (Figs. 58; 275). In the muscle and connective
tissue of Catostomus commersonii; spores 13-15/x by 10-1 1.5^ (Kudo,
1926).
M. cerebralis (Hofer) (Fig. 285, a). In the cartilage and perichon-
drium of salmonid fish; young fish are especially affected by in-
fection, the disease being known as the "twist-disease" (Dreh-
krankheit); spores 6-10m in diameter, (p. 648).
M. funduli Kudo. In the gills of Fundulus; spherical cysts up to
360/x by 264^; spores pyriform, 14/x by 8/x by 6/x; polar capsules 8/x by
2M (Kudo, 1918). Other species (Bond, 1938-1939).
Genus Agarella Dunkerly. Spore elongate oval; 4 polar capsules
at anterior end; shell prolonged posteriorly into long processes. One
species.
A. gracilis D. (Fig. 285, b). In the testis of South American lung-
fish, Lepidosiren paradoxa (Dunkerly, 1915, 1925).
Family 4 Myxobolidae Thelohan
One, 2, or 4 polar capsules grouped at anterior end; sporoplasm
with an iodinophilous vacuole.
Genus Myxobolus Butschli. Spores ovoidal or ellipsoidal, flat-
tened; 2 polar capsules at anterior end; sporoplasm with an iodin-
ophilous vacuole; sometimes with a posterior prolongation of shell;
exclusively histozoic in freshwater fish or amphibians. Numerous
species.
M. pjeifferi Thelohan (Fig. 285, e,f). In the muscle and connective
CNIDOSPOPJDIA, MYXOSPORIDIA
659
tissue of body and various organs of Barbus barbus, B. fluviatilis,
and B. plebejus; tumor up to a diameter of 7 cm; most of infected
fish die from the effect (Keysselitz) ; spores 12-12. by. by 10-10. 5m.
M. orbiculatus Kudo (Fig. 285, g-i). In muscle of Notropis gilberti;
spores 9-10m in diameter by 6.5-7m thick.
M . conspicuus K. (Fig. 285, j, k). In corium of head of Moxostoma
breviceps; tumors 1/2-4 mm.; spores 9-11.5/x by 6.5-8m (Kudo, 1929).
Fig. 285. a, Myxosoma cerebralis, showing two views of spore, X800
(Plehn); b, a spore of Agarella gracilis, X1660 (Dunkerly); c, d, front and
side views of fresh spores of Thelohanellus notatus, XI 530 (Kudo); e, f,
Myxobolus pfeifferi (Keysselitz) (e, Part of section of a cyst; f, a spore
treated with iodine solution, X 1 780) ; g-i, M. orbiculatus (Kudo) (g, in-
fected host's muscle, X600; h, a fresh spore; i, Lugol-treated spore,
X1000); j, k, views of fresh spores of M. conspicuus, X1530 (Kudo); l-o,
M. squamosus (1, a cyst under a scale, X6.5; m-o, views of fresh spores,
XI 530); p-r, spores of Henneguya exilis, XI 530; s-u, spores of Unicauda
clavicauda, X1530 (s, t, fresh spores; u, a stained spore without the proc-
ess (Kudo)).
660 PROTOZOOLOGY
M. intestinalis K. (Fig. I, a). In the intestinal wall of Pomoxis
sparoides; (fixed unstained) spores, 12-13/x by 10-12.5/x; the his-
tological changes brought about by this protozoan have been men-
tioned elsewhere (p. 27) (Kudo, 1929).
M. squamosus K. (Fig. 285, l-o). In connective tissue below scales
of Hybopsis kentuckiensis; spore circular in front view, 8-9/x in
diameter, 4.5-5m thick.
Genus Thelohanellus Kudo. Pyriform spores, each with one polar
capsule; sporoplasm with an iodinophilous vacuole; histozoic in
freshwater fish. 11 species (Kudo, 1933).
T. notatus (Mavor) (Figs. 1, 6; 285, c, d). In subdermal connective
tissue of Pimephales notatus, Cliola vigilax, Notropis cornutus, N.
blennius, and Leuciscus rutilus; tumor up to 7 mm. in diameter;
spores 17-18m by 7.5-10m; host tissue surrounding the organism be-
comes so greatly changed that it appears as an epithelium (p. 31)
(Debaisieux, 1925; Kudo, 1929, 1934).
Genus Henneguya Thelohan (Myxobilatus Davis). Spore circular
or ovoidal in front view; flattened; 2 polar capsules at anterior end;
each shell-valve prolonged posteriorly into a long process; sporoplasm
with an iodinophilous vacuole; mostly histozoic in freshwater fish.
Numerous species.
H. exiles Kudo (Figs. 278; 285, p-r). In gills and integument of
Ictalurus punctatus; cysts up to 3 mm. in diameter, conspicuous;
spores, total length 60-70/x, spore proper 18-20/x long by 4-5/x wide
by 3-3.5m thick (Kudo, 1929, 1934).
H. mictospora Kudo. In the urinary bladder of Lepomis spp. and
Micropterus salmoides; spores 13.5-15m long, 8-9m wide, 6-7.5m
thick; caudal prolongation 30-40/x long.
Genus Unicauda Davis. The spore is similar to that of Henneguya,
but the single caudal appendage is not an extension of the shell-
valves. Several species (Davis, 1944).
U. clavicauda (Kudo) (Fig. 285, s-u). In the subdermal connective
tissue of the minnow, Notropis blennius; oblong or ellipsoid cysts,
1-1.5 mm. in the longest diameter; spores 10.5-11. 5/x by 8. 5-9. 5m by
6m; appendage 20-30m by 3-6.5m (Kudo, 1934).
Order 2 Actinomyxidia Stole
The Cnidosporodia placed in this order have been less frequently
studied and, therefore, not so well known as the Myxosporidia. The
spore is enveloped by a membrane, or shell composed of 3 valves
which are sometimes drawn out into simple or bifurcated processes.
There are also 3 polar capsules in the spore and the polar filaments
CNIDOSPORIDIA, ACTINOMYXIDIA 661
are plainly visible m vivo. One to many sporoplasms occur in each
spore. In the fully grown stage, the body is covered by a membrane
and contains eight sporoblasts which develop in turn into eight
spores. Whether the pansporoblast is formed by union of two cells
or not, is unknown. The nuclei and cytoplasm divide and isogamy
takes place. The zygote thus formed is the sporont in which a single
spore is produced by repeated nuclear division combined with cyto-
plasmic differentiation.
The Actinomyxidia inhabit the body cavity or the gut-epithelium
of fresh or salt water annelids. Taxonomy, morphology and develop-
ment (Granata, 1925).
Spore with a double membrane; inner membrane a single piece, the outer
trivalve; a single binucleate sporoplasm
Family 1 Tetractinomyxidae
Spore membrane a single trivalve shell; a single octonucleate sporoplasm
or 8 uninucleate sporoplasms Family 2 Triactinomyxidae
Family 1 Tetractinomyxidae Poche
Genus Tetractinomyxon Ikeda. In the coelom of the sipunculid Pe-
talostoma minutum; spores tetrahedron, without processes; tropho-
zoite a rounded body, when mature; pansporoblast develops 8
spores. Seemingly borderline forms between the Myxosporidia and
the Actinomyxidia.
T. intermedium I. (Fig. 286, a). Spherical pansporoblasts 20-25ju
in diameter; spores 7-8ju in diameter; in coelom of the sipunculid,
Petalostoma minutum (Ikeda, 1912).
Family 2 Triactinomyxidae
Genus Triactinomyxon Stole. Each of 3 shell-valves drawn out
into a long process, the whole anchor-like; spore with 8 or more
uninucleate sporoplasms; in the gut-epithelium of oligochaetes.
T. ignotum S. (Fig. 286, d). Spore with 8 sporoplasms; in Tubifex
tubifex.
T. magnum Granata. Spore with 16 sporoplasms; in Limnodrilus
udekemianus.
T. legeri Mackinnon and Adams. Spore with 24 sporoplasms; in
Tubifex tubifex.
T. dubium Granata. Spore with 32 sporoplasms; in Tubifex tubifex.
T. mrazeki Mackinnon and Adams. Spore with 50 sporoplasms; in
Tubifex tubifex.
Genus Sphaeractiroryxon Caullery and Mesnil. In the crelcm cf
oligochaetes; spores rounded, without any processes; in early stage
G62
PROTOZOOLOGY
of development, there are 2 uninucleate bodies surrounded by a bi-
nucleate envelope; 2 inner cells multiply into 16 cells which unite in
pairs; nucleus of zygote of sporont divides first into 2; 1 of the nu-
clei divides into 6 which form 3 shell-valves and 3 polar capsules,
while the other nucleus together with a portion of cytoplasm remains
Fig. 286. a, Tetractinomyxon intermedium, X800 (Ikeda) b,; Sphae-
radinomijxon stolci, X600 (Caullery and Mesnil); c, S. gigas, X665
(Granata); d, Triactinomyxon ignotum, X165 (L6ger); e, Hexactinomyxon
psammoryctis, X300 (Stole); f, g, Synactinomyxon tubificis, X600 (Stole);
h, N eoactinomyxum globosum, XS60 (Granata); i, Cuyenotia sphaerulosa,
X2095 (Naville).
outside the envelope, and undergoes multiplication; multinucleate
sporoplasm migrates into spore; sporoplasm later divides into a
large number of uninucleate sporoplasms which, when spores gain
entrance into a new host, begin development.
S. stolci C. and M. (Fig. 286, b). Spore spherical; in Clitellis are-
narius and Hemitubifex benedii.
CNIDOSPORIDIA, ACTINOMYXIDIA 663
S. gigas Granata (Fig. 286, c). In the coelom of Limnodrilus hoff-
meisteri (Granata, 1925).
Genus Hexactinomyxon Stole. Each of 3 shell-valves prolonged
into 2 processes; spore appears as a 6-armed anchor.
H. psammoryctis S. (Fig. 286, e). In the gut-epithelium of Psam-
moryctes barbatus; sporoplasm multinucleate.
Genus Synactinomyxon Stole. Spore with 2 prolonged shell-valves
and 1 conical valve.
S. tubificis S. (Fig. 286, /, g). In the gut-epithelium of Tubifex
tubifex.
Genus Neoactinomyxum Granata. 3 shell-valves without any pro-
cess, distended to hemisphere.
N. globosum G. (Fig. 286, h). In the gut-epithelium of Limnodrilus
udekemianus ; spore with numerous sporoplasms (Granata, 1925;
Jfrovec, 1940).
Genus Guyenotia Naville. Pansporoblast with 8 spores; spore
spherical with 3 shell-valves, each drawn out posteriorly into digiti-
form process, longer than diameter of spore; sporoplasm with 32
nuclei.
G. sphaerulosa N. (Fig. 286, i). In the gut-epithelium of Tubifex
tubifex; spores 15/x in diameter; appendages of mature spore 40ju long.
References
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Awerinzew, S.: (1913) Ergebnisse der Untersuchungen iiber para-
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Bond, F. F. : (1938) Cnidosporidia from Fundulus heteroclitus. Tr.
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— (1938a) The doubtful relationship of Sporozoa to the ulcers
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— (1939) The seasonal incidence of myxosporidian parasites in-
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Bremer, H.: (1922) Studien iiber Kernbau und Kernteilung von
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Butschli, O.: (1881) Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Fischpsorosper-
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664 PROTOZOOLOGY
Cepede, C: (1906) Myxosporidies des poissons des Alpes Fran-
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Chakravarty, M.: (1939) Studies on Myxosporidia from the fishes
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(1943) Studies on Myxosporidia from the common food
fishes of Bengal. Proc. Indian Acad. Sc, 18:21.
and Basu, S. P.: (1948) Observations on some myxosporid-
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Cohn, L.: (1896) Ueber die Myxosporidien von Esox lucius und
Perca fluviatilis. Zool. Jahrb. Anat., 9:227.
Cordero, E. H.: (1919) Cystodiscus immersus Lutz: Mixosporidio de
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da Cunha, A. M. and da Fonseca, 0.: (1917-1918) Sobre os myxo-
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Davis, H. S.: (1917) The Myxosporidia of the Beaufort region. Bull.
U. S. Bureau Fish., 35:199.
— (1924) A new myxosporidian parasite, the cause of "wormy"
halibut. Rep. U. S. Comm. Fisheries for 1923, App. 8.
(1944) A revision of the genus Henneguya with descriptions
of two new species. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 63:311.
Debaisieux, P.: (1918) Notes sur le Myxidium lieberkiihni. La Cel-
lule, 30:281.
(1924) Sphaeromy.va sabrazesi Laveran et Mesnil. Ibid., 35:
269.
(1925) Etudes sur les Myxosporidies. III. Arch. zool. exper.
gen., 64:353.
Dunkerly, J. S.: (1915) Agarella gracilis, etc. Proc. Roy. Phys.
Soc, 19:213.
— (1921) Fish Myxosporidia from Plvmouth. Parasitology, 12:
328.
(1925) The development and relationship of the Myxospo-
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Erdmann, Rhoda: (1917) Chloromyxum leydigi und seine Bezieh-
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Fantham, H. B., Porter, Annie and Richardson, L. R, : (1939)
Some Myxosporidia found in certain freshwater fishes in Que-
bec Province, Canada. Parasitology, 31:1.
— (1940) Some more Myxosporidia observed in
Canadian fishes. Ibid., 32:333.
Fish, F. F.: (1939) Observations on Henneguya salminicola, etc
J. Parasitol., 25:169.
Fujita, T.: (1912) Notes on new sporozoan parasites of fishes. Zool.
Anz., 39:259
(1923) Studies on Mvxosporidia of Japan. J. Coll. Agr.
Sapporo, 10:191.
— (1924) Studies on myxosporidian infection of the crucian
carp. Japan J. Zool., 1 : 45.
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poro, 16:229.
CNIDOSPORIDIA, ACTINOMYXIDIA 665
Georgevitch, J.: (1916) Note sur les myxosporidies recueillie as
Roscoff. Bull. soc. zool. France, 41:86.
(1917) Recherches sur le developpement de Ceratomyxa
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(1926) Sur la Coccomyxa de la sardine. Ibid., 65(N.-R):57.
(1936) Nouvelles etudes sur les myxosporidies. Bull. l'Acad.
Sc. Math. Natur. Belgrade, B, 3:87.
Granata, L.: (1925) Gli Attinomissidi. Arch. Protist., 50:139.
Guimaraes, J. R. A.: (1931) Myxosporideos da ichtiofauna brasi-
leira. Fac. Med. Sao Paulo Thesis. 50 pp.
Gurley, R. R. : (1894) The Myxosporidia or psorosperms of fishes,
etc. Rep. U. S. Fish. Comm., 26:65.
Ikeda, I.: (1912) Studies on some sporozoan parasites of Sipuncu-
loids. I. Arch. Protist., 25:240
Jaczo, I.: (1940) Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Myxosporidien der
Balaton-Fische. I. Arb. ungarisch. Biol. Forschungsinst., 12:
277.
Jameson, A. P.: (1913) A note on some Myxosporidia collected at
Monaco. Bull, l'lnst. Ocean., 273:1.
(1929) Myxosporidia from Californian fishes. J. Parasitol.,
16:59.
(1931) Notes on California Myxosporidia. Ibid., 18:59.
Jirovec, O. : (1940) Zur Kenntnis einiger in Oligochaten parasitie-
renden Protisten. II. Arch. Protist., 94:212.
Johnston, T. H. and Bancroft, M. J.: (1919) Some new sporozoan
parasites of Queensland freshwater fish. J. Proc. Roy. Soc.
N. S. Wales, 52:520.
Keysselitz, G.: (1908) Ueber durch Sporozoen (Myxosporidien)
hervorgerufene pathologische Veranderungen. Verh. Ges.
deutsch. Natur. Aertze, 79:452.
Kudo, R. R.: (1918) Contributions to the study of parasitic Proto-
zoa. IV. J. Parasitol., 4:141.
— - (1920) Studies on Myxosporidia. Illinois Biol. Monogr., 5:
245.
(1921) On the nature of structures characteristic of cnido-
sporidian spores. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 40:59.
— ■ (1921a) On some Protozoa parasitic in freshwater fishes of
New York. J. Parasitol., 7: 166.
— (1922) On the morphology and life history of a myxosporid-
ian, Leptotheca ohhnacheri, etc. Parasitology, 14:221.
— (1926) On Myxosoma catotsomi Kudo, 1923, etc. Arch. Pro-
tist., 56:90.
— (1929) Histozoic Myxosporidia found in freshwater fishes of
Illinois. Ibid., 65:364.
(1933) A taxonomic consideration of Myxosporidia. Tr. Am.
Micr. Soc, 52:195.
(1934) Studies on some protozoan parasites of fishes of Illi-
nois. Illinois Biol. Monogr., 13:1.
(1943) Further observations on the protozoan, Myxidium
serotinum, etc. J. Morphol., 72:263.
666 PROTOZOOLOGY
(1944) The morphology and development of Noserna nota-
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Illinois Biol. Monogr., 20:1.
and Sprague, V.: (1940) On Myxidium immersum and M.
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Leger, L.: (1929) Une nouvelle maladie parasitaire funeste aux
elevages de tanche, "la spherosporose." Trav. Lab. Hydr. Pise.
Uni. Grenoble, 21:7.
- — and Hesse, E.: (1907) Sur une nouvelle myxosporidie para-
site de la sardine. C. R. Acad. Sc, 145:85.
Lutz, A.: (1889) Ueber ein Myxosporidium aus der Gallenblase
brasilianischer Batrachier. Centralbl. Bakt., 5:84.
Mavor, J. W. : (1915) Studies on the Sporozoa of the fishes of the
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25.
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(1947) Studies on Myxosporidia from the Beaufort region. I.
Ibid., 33:265.
(1947a) II. Ibid., 33:271.
Naville, A.: (1927) Le cycle chromosomique, la fecondation et la
reduction chromatique de Chloromijxum leydigi. Ann. Inst.
Ocean., 4:177.
(1930) Recherches sur le sexualite chez les myxosporidies.
Arch. Protist., 69:327.
(1930a) Le cycle chromosomique d'une nouvelle actinomyxi-
die: Guyenotia sphaerulosa n. g., n. sp. Quart. J. Micr. Sc, 73:
547.
Nemeczek, A.: (1926) Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Myxosporidien-
fauna Brasiliens. Arch. Protist., 54:137.
Nigrelli, R. F.: (1946) Parasites and diseases of the ocean pout,
Macrozoarces americanus. Bull. Bingham Ocean. Collect., 9: 187.
Noble, E. R.: (1939) Myxosporidia from tide pool fishes of Califor-
nia. J. Parasit., 25:359.
(1941) On distribution relationships between California tide
pool fishes and their myxosporidian parasites. Ibid., 27:409.
(1941a) Nuclear cycles in the life history of the protozoan
genus Ceratomyxa. J. Morphol., 69:455.
(1944) Life cycles in the Myxosporidia. Quart. Rev. Biol.,
19:213.
Parisi, B.: (1912) Primo contributo alia distribuzione geografica dei
missosporidi in Italia. Atti. Soc. Ital. Sc. Nat., 50:283.
Petruschewsky, G. K.: (1932) Zur Systematik und Cytologie der
Myxosporidia aus einigen Fischen des Weissen Meeres. Arch.
Protist., 78:543.
Pinto, C: (1928) Myxosporideos e outros protozoarios intestinaes
de peixes observados na America do Sul. Arch. Inst. Biol. Sao
Paulo, 1:1.
CNIDOSPORIDIA, ACTINOMYXIDIA 667
Prehn, Marianne: (1904) Ueber die Drehkrankheit der Salmoni-
den. Arch. Protist., 5:145.
(1925) Eine neue Schleienkrankheit. Fisch.-Zeit., 28:299.
Rice, V. J. and Jahn, T. L.: (1943) Myxosporidian parasites from
the gills of some fishes of the Okoboji region. Proc. Iowa Acad.
Sc, 50:313.
(1943a) Internal myxosporidian infections of some
fishes of Okoboji region. Ibid.,* 50:323.
Schroder, O.: (1907) Beitrage zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der
Myxosporidien, Sphaeromyxa sabrazesi. Arch. Protist., 9:359.
Southwell, T. and Prashad, B.: (1918) Parasites of Indian fishes,
etc. Rec. Indian Mus., 15:341.
Thelohan, P.: (1892) Observation sur les myxosporidies et essai
de classification de ces organisms. Bull. Soc. Philom., 4:165.
(1895) Recherches sur les myxosporidies. Bull. Sc. Fr. Belg.,
26:100.
Ward, H. B.: (1919) Notes on North American Myxosporidia. J.
Parasitol, 6:49.
Willis, A. G.: (1949) On the vegetative forms and life history of
Chloromyxum thyrsites Gilchrist and its doubtful systematic po-
sition. Australian Jour. Sc. Res., Ser. B. Biol. Sc, 2:379.
Chapter 29
Order 3 Microsporidia Balbiani
THE Microsporidia are far more widely distributed as parasites
among various animal phyla than the Myxosporidia. They
are however typically parasites of arthropods and fishes. All Micro-
sporidia invade and undergo asexual division and sporogony within
the host cell. These infected cells may show frequently an enormous
Fig. 287. Effects of microsporidian infections upon host animals, a, the
central nervous system of Lophius piscatoris infected by Nosema lophii
(Doflein); b, a smelt infected by Glugea hertwigi, Xf (Schrader); c, a
Culex larva infected by Thelohania opacita, X14 (Kudo); d, a Simulium
larva infected by T. multispora, X10 (Strickland); e, portion of testis of
Barbus barbus infected by Plistophora longifdis, X1.4 (Schuberg); f, g,
normal and hypertrophied nuclei of the adipose tissue cells of larval
Culex pipiens, the latter due to a heavy infection by StempelKa magna,
X1330 (Kudo).
hypertrophy of both the cytoplasmic body and nuclei (Figs. 287, /, g;
290, a-e), a characteristic feature of the host reaction toward this
particular group of protozoan parasites.
The microsporidian spore is on the whole relatively small as com-
pared with that of Myxosporidia. In the vast majority it measures
3-6/i in the largest diameter. The chitinous spore membrane which is
apparently of a single piece except in a few species, envelops the
668
MICROSPORIDIA
669
sporoplasm and the polar filament, a very long delicate filament.
The latter may be enclosed within a polar capsule as in a myxo-
sporidian spore. Structure of microsporidian spores (Leger and
Hesse, 1916a; Kudo, 1920, 1921, 1924b; Kohler, 1921).
When such spores are taken into the digestive tract of a specific
host (Fig. 288), the polar filaments are extruded and perhaps anchor
the spores to the gut-epithelium (a). The sporoplasms emerge as
amoebulae through the opening after the filaments become com-
pletely detached (b). By amoeboid movements they penetrate
through the intestinal epithelium and enter the blood stream or body
cavity and reach the specific site of infection (c). They then enter the
Fig. 288. The life-cycle of Stempellia magna, XS00 (Kudo), a, b, ger-
mination of spore in the mid-gut of culicine larva; c-k, division stages;
1-p, sporont formation; q-t, formation of 1, 2, 4, and 8 sporoblasts;
u, sporoblast; v-x, development of sporoblast into spore.
host cells and undergo multiplication at the expense of the latter {d-
n). The trophozoites become sporonts (o), each of which produces a
number of spores (p-x) characteristic of each genus. Some spores
seem to be capable of germinating in the same host body, and thus
the number of infected cells increases. When heavily infected, the
host animal dies as a result of the degeneration of enormous numbers
of cells thus attacked. Such fatal infections may occur in an epidemic
form, as is well known in the case of the pebrine disease of silkworms
070 PROTOZOOLOGY
(Pasteur, 1870; Stempell, 1909; Kudo, 1916; Hutchinson, 1920;
Jameson, 1922), Nosema-disease of honey bees (Zander, 1911;
White, 1919; Farrar, 1947), microsporidiosis of mosquitoes (Kudo,
1921-1930), etc. Taxonomy (Leger and Hesse, 1922; Kudo, 1924b;
Jfrovec, 1936; Weiser, 1947); the polar filament (Kudo, 1913, 1918,
1924b; Morgenthaler, 1922; Ohshima, 1927, 1937).
The Microsperidia are subdivided into two suborders:
Spore with a single polar filament Suborder 1 Monocnidea (p. 070)
Spore with 2 polar filaments Suborder 2 Dicnidea (p. 078)
Suborder 1 Monocnidea Leger and Hesse
Spore oval, ovoid, or pyriform, if subcylindrical length less than 4 times
breadth Family 1 Nosematidae
Spore spherical or subspherical Family 2 Coccosporidae (p. 070)
Spore tubular or cylindrical, width less than 1/5 length, straight or curved
Family 3 Mrazekiidae (p. 070)
Family 1 Nosematidae Labbe
The majority of Microsporidia belong to this family.
Genus Nosema Nageli. Each sporont develops into a single spore.
Numerous species.
N. bombycis N. (Fig. 289, a, b). In all tissues of embryo, larva,
pupa and adult of Bombyx mori; spores 3-4/z by 1.5-2/z, polar fila-
ment 57-72/z long when extruded; advanced infection is character-
ized by numerous minute brownish-black spots scattered over the
body surface, which gave rise to such names as pebrine disease
(France), Fleckenkrankbeit (Germany), Biriushi-Bio (Japan), Cota
(India), etc. (Fig. 289, b) to the disease; heavily infected larvae can-
not spin cocoon and perish; the organisms invade, and develop in,
ova so that newly hatched larvae are already infected with this mi-
crosporidian. Viable spores introduced per os bring about infections
in Arctia caja (Stempell, 1909), Margarnia pyloalis, Chilo simplex
(Ohshima, 1935), and Hyphantria cunea (Kudo and DeCoursey,
1940). Morphology and Development (Stempell, 1909; Kudo, 1924b).
N. bryozoides (Korotneff) (Fig. 289, c, d). In the germ cells and
cavity of the bryozoans, Plumatella fungosa and P. repens; spores
7-10/x by 5-6M (Braem, 1911; Schroder, 1914).
N. apis Zander (Fig. 289, e-g). In the mid-gut of honey bees; spores
4-6^ by 2-4 n; the extruded filament shows often 2 sections of differ-
ent undulations (Fig. 289, g) (Kudo, 1921a). The infection is con-
fined to the digestive system, but the ovary of an infected queen bee
undergoes various degrees of degeneration depending on the extent
of the gut infection (Fyg, 1945; Farrar, 1947; Hassanein, 1951),
MICROSPORIDIA
though the eggs are free from the parasites, which condition may be
looked upon as a parasitic castration. Morphology and development
(Zander, 1909; Fantham and Porter, 1912).
N. cyclopis Kudo (Fig. 289, h, i). In Cyclops fuscus; spores 4.5/z by
3M (Kudo, 1921b).
N. anophelis K. (Fig. 289, j, k). In the larvae of Anopheles quadri-
maculatus; spores 5-6 m by 2-3^ (Kudo, 1925). It was also found in A.
maculipennis (Missiroli, 1928).
Fig. 2S9. a, b, Nosema bombycis (Kudo) (a, fresh spores, X1500; b, a
heavily infected silkworm larva showing characteristic dots on integu-
ment, Xf); c, d, N. bryozoides (c, infected funiculus, X270 (Braem); d, a
stained spore, X1200 (Schroder)); e-g, Ar. apis (Kudo) (e, a fresh spore; f,
a stained spore, X 1560; g, a spore with the extruded polar filament as seen
in dark field, X800); h, i, views of fresh spores of N. cyclopis, X1560
(Kudo); j, k, fresh spores of N. anophelis, X1600 (Kudo); 1, m, preserved
and stained spores of N. aedis, XI 530 (Kudo); n, Frenzelina conformis, a
gregarine, infected by schizonts and spores of Nosema frenzelinae (Leger
and Duboscq) ; o-q, Nosema notabilis, X 1400 (Kudo) (o, a stained tropho-
zoite of Sphaerospora polymorpha, a myxosporidian, infected by six
trophozoites of Nosema notabilis; p, another host trophozoite in which
nine spores and two trophozoites of N. notabilis occur; q, six fresh spores
of N. notabilis).
672 PROTOZOOLOGY
N. aedis K. (Fig. 289, I, m). In the adipose tissue of a larval Aedes
aegypti; spores broadly pyriform and measure 7.5-9/u by 4-5^; polar
capsule large; uninucleate sporoplasm posterior (Kudo, 1930).
N. frenzelinae Leger and Duboscq (Fig. 289, n). In the cytoplasm
of the cephaline gregarine, Frenzelina conformis, parasitic in the
gastric caeca and intestine of Pachygrapsus marmoratus ; spores
about 2.8m long; extruded polar filament up to 25/z long (Leger and
Duboscq, 1909).
N. notabilis Kudo (Fig. 289, o-q). In the trophozoite of the myxo-
sporidian, Sphacrospo?'a polymorpha (p. 653) which inhabits the uri-
nary bladder of Opsanus tau and 0. beta. The host fish remain free
from the microsporidian infection. The entire development takes
place in the cytoplasm of the host trophozoites. Trophozoites small
binucleate, multiply by binary fission. Spores ovoid to ellipsoid;
sporoplasm binucleate; fresh spores 2.9-4/z by 1.4-2.5/x; extruded
polar filament 45-62//. When heavily infected, the host myxosporid-
ian trophozoites degenerate and disintegrate. A unique example of
hyperparasitism in which two cnidosporidians are involved (Kudo,
1944).
Genus Glugea Thelohan. Each sporont develops into 2 spores;
the infected host cells become extremely hypertrophied, and trans-
form themselves into the so-called Glugea cysts (Figs. 287, b; 290,
e). Many species (Kudo, 1924b).
G. anomala (Moniez) (Fig. 290, a-f). In Gasterosteus aculeatus, G.
pungitus (sticklebacks) and Gobius minutus; cysts conspicuous, up to
about 5 mm. in diameter; host cells are extremely hypertrophied;
spores 4-6 m by 2-3 ju. Morphology and sporogony (Stempell, 1904;
Weissenberg, 1913; Debaisieux, 1920).
G. miilleri Pfeiffer. In the muscles of Gammarus pulex and G.
locusta; spores 5-6 m by 2-3 ju (Debaisieux, 1919).
G. hertwigi Weissenberg (Figs. 287, b; 290, g, h). In the smelt,
Osmerus mordax and 0. eparlanus. Schrader (1921) found the in-
testine the primary site of infection, the cysts varying in size, up to
3 mm. in diameter; as the cysts grow in the mucosa, they come to lie
immediately under the peritoneum. Spores measure 4-5. 5/x by 2-
2.5m- Fantham, Porter and Richardson (1941) found the cysts in the
serous membrane of the hind gut; as the spores were 3.5-4.6^ by
1.5-2/z, they named the organism Glugea hertwigi var. canadensis.
Morphology and spore-formation (Weissenberg, 1911, 1913; Schra-
der, 1921).
Genus Perezia Leger and Duboscq. Each sporont produces 2
MICROSPORIDIA
673
spores as in Glugea, but infected host cells are not hypertrophied. A
few species.
P. mesnili Paillot (Fig. 290, ?)• In cells of silk glands and Malpi-
Fig. 290. a-f, Glugea anomala (a, a young trophozoite in a connective
tissue cell of the intestine of a young host fish, seven days after feeding on
spores; b, c, more advanced stages; d, a later stage, the host cell being
multinucleated and 41/x in diameter, X1000 (Weissenberg) ; e, section of
an infected Gasterosteus aculeatus, showing two large cysts (Thedohan); f,
a fresh spore, X1500 (Stempell)); g, h, G. hertwigi (Schrader) (g, cross-
section of the infected intestine of a smelt, X14; h, 2 spores); i, stained
spores of Perezia mesnili, X2265 (Palliot); j, section of Lankesteria as-
cidiae, a gregarine, infected by P. lankesteriae, X900(Leger and Duboscq) ;
k-o, Gurleya tetraspora (k, infected hypodermal cells of Moina, X660
(Jirovec); 1, a mature sporont; m, a fresh spore (Doflein); n, stained
spores; o, spores with extruded polar filaments (Jirovec)); p, q, a sporont
and a spore with the extruded filament of Gurleya richardi, XT 200
(Cepede).
674 PROTOZOOLOGY
ghian tubules of larvae of Pieris brassicae; spores 3.4/* by 1.5-2/*
(Paillot, 1918, 1929).
P. lankesteriae Leger and Duboscq (Fig. 290, j). In the cytoplasm
of the gregarine, Lankesteria ascidiae, parasitic in the intestine of the
tunicate, Ciona intestinalis. It attacks only the gregarine which are
free in the lumen of the gut; the host nucleus does not undergo hy-
pertrophy; ovoid spores 2.5/* long.
Genus Gurleya Doflein. Each sporont develops into four sporo-
blasts and finally into four spores. A few species.
G. tetraspora D. (Fig. 290, k-o). In the hypodermal cells of
Daphnia maxima and Moina rectirostris ; spores pyriform, 2.8-3.4/*
by 1.4-1.6/* (Jfrovec, 1942). The infected host appears opaque white.
G. richardi Cepede (Fig. 290, p, q). In Diaptomus castor; spores 4-
6/* by 2.8/*.
Genus Thelohania Henneguy. Each sporont develops into 8 sporo-
blasts and ultimately into 8 spores; sporont membrane may degen-
erate at different times during spore formation. Numerous species.
T. legeri Hesse (T. illinoisensis Kudo) (Figs. 76; 291, a-e). In the
fat bodies of the larvae of several species of Anopheles; spores 4-6/*
by 3-4/*; heavily infected larvae die without pupation; widely dis-
tributed. Spore-formation (Kudo, 1924).
T. opacita Kudo (Figs. 287, c; 291, /, g). In the adipose tissue of
the larvae of Culex mosquitoes; spores 5.5-6/* by 3.5-4/* (Kudo,
1922, 1924a).
T. reniformis Kudo and Hetherington (Fig. 291, h). In the gut
cells of the nematode, Protospirura muris, in mice; reniform spores
3-4/* by 1.5-1.8/* (Kudo and Hetherington, 1922).
Genus Stempellia Leger and Hesse. Each sporont produces 1, 2, 4,
or 8 sporoblasts and finally 1, 2, 4, or 8 spores. 2 species.
S. magna Kudo (Figs. 287, /, g; 288; 291, i-l). In fat-bodies of
various culicine larvae; spores 12.5-16.5/* by 4-5/*; polar capsule
visible in life; polar filament when extruded under mechanical pres-
sure measures up to 350-400/* long (Kudo, 1925a).
Genus Duboscqia Perez. Sporont develops into 16 sporoblasts and
finally 16 spores. Host-cell nuclei extremely hypertrophied. One
species.
D. legeri P. (Fig. 291, m-o). In the fat-body cells of Reticulitermes
lucifugus and R.flavipes. Trophozoites invade the peri-midintestinal
adipose tissue cells which become enlarged into "cysts," up to 660/*
by 300/*, because of active multiplication of the organisms; each
binucleate schizont becomes a sporont which grows and produces 16
spores. Spores ovoid to ellipsoid; fresh spores are 4.3-5.9/* by 2.2-3/*;
If 0Mm
/
Fig. 291. a-e, Thelohania legeri, X1570 (Kudo) (a, b, stained sporo-
gonic stages; c, d, mature sporonts; e, a fresh spore); f, g, mature octo-
sporous and tetrasporous sporonts of T. opacita, X1570 (Kudo); h, gut
epithelial cells of Protospirura infected by T. reniformis, X1040 (Kudo
and Hetherington) ; i-1, Stempellia magna, XI 570 (Kudo) (i, j, fresh
spores; k, slightly pressed spore in Lugol; 1, a spore with the nearly com-
pletely extruded polar filament, stained after Fontana); m-o, Duboscqia
legeri (Kudo) (m, the mid-gut of Reticulitermes flavipes with an enlarged
and two uninfected fat bodies, X57; n, portion of an infected and two
uninfected fat body cells of the termite in section; o, mature sporont in
life, XI 530); p, q, Trichoduboscqia epeori (Leger) (p, a mature sporont,
X1330; q, a fresh spore, X2670); r, s, stained spores of Plistophora longi-
filis, XI 280 (Schuberg).
G7G PROTOZOOLOGY
sporoplasm uninucleate; extruded polar filament 80-95/x long (Perez,
1908; Kudo, 1942).
Genus Trichoduboscqia Leger. Similar to Duboscqia in number of
spores produced in each sporont; but sporont with 4 (or 3) rigid
transparent prolongations, difficult to see in life. One species.
T. epeori L. (Fig. 291, p, q). In fat-bodies of nymphs of the may-
flies, Epeorus torrentium and Rhithrogena semicolorata; sporonts
spherical, 9-10/* in diameter, with usually 16 spores; prolongations of
membrane in sporont, 20-22/* long; spores pyriform, 3.5-4/* long
(Leger, 1926).
Genus Plistophora Gurley. Sporont develops into variable number
(often more than 16) of sporoblasts, each of which becomes a spore.
Several species.
P. longifilis Schuberg (Figs. 287, e; 291, r, s). In the testis of
Barbus fluviatilis; spores 3/x by 2/i to 12/i by 6/*; extruded polar fila-
ment up to 510^ long.
P. kudoi Sprague and Ramsey. In the epithelial cells of the mid-
gut of Blatta orientalis; fresh spores about 3.2/* by 1.75/*; polar fila-
ment 25-50/* long.
Genus Pyrotheca Hesse. Schizogony and sporogony unknown;
spores elongate pyriform, anterior end attenuated, posterior end
rounded, slightly curved; sporoplasm in posterior region, with 1-2
nuclei; polar capsule large. One species (Hesse, 1935).
P. incurvata H. (Fig. 292, a, b). In fat-bodies and haemocoele of
Megacylcops viridis; spores 14/* by 3/*; polar filament 130/* long.
Family 2 Coccosporidae Kudo
Genus Coccospora Kudo (Cocconema Leger and Hesse). Spore
spherical or subspherical. Several species (Leger and Hesse, 1921,
1922; Kudo, 1925b).
C. slavinae (L. and H.) (Fig. 292, c, d). In gut-epithelium of Slavina
appendiculata; spores about 3/* in diameter.
Family 3 Mrazekiidae Leger and Hesse
Genus Mrazekia L. and H. (Myxocystis Mrazek). Spore, tubular
and straight; a long or short process at one extremity (Leger and
Hess, 1916). Species (Jfrovec, 1936a).
M. caudata L. and H. (Fig. 292, e, /). In the lymphocytes of
Tubifex tubifex; spore cylindrical, 16-18/* by 1.3—1.4/*, with a long-
process.
Genus Bacillidium Janda. Spore cylindrical, but without any proc-
ess; one end narrowed in a few species (Janda, 1928). Several species
(Jfrovec, 1936a).
MICROSPORIDIA
G77
B. eriodrili J. (Fig. 292, g). In the lymphocytes in the posterior
portion of the body cavity and nephridia of Criodrilus lacuum; in-
fected lymphocytes become hypertrophied from 15/* to 200-400/* in
diameter; the infected part of the body appears yellowish; spores
20-22/* by 1/* (Janda); 15.5-17/* by 1.2-1.4/* up to 24-25/* by 1.6m
(commonly 18-20/* by 1.4-1.5/*) (Jirovec).
Fig. 292. a, b, stained spores of Pyrotheca incurvata, X1330 (Hesse);
c, d, spores of Coccospora slavinae, the latter with extruded filament,
XI 330 (Leger and Hesse); e, f, Mrazekia caudata (e, an infected host cell,
X465 (Mrazek); f, a spore, XI 165 (L6ger and Hesse)); g, Criodrilus
lacuum, infected by Bacillidium eriodrili, showing the enlarged posterior
region, Xf (Janda); h, i, B. limnodrili (Jirovec) (h, trophozoites and
spores of the microsporidian in a host lymphocyte, X600; i, a stained
spore, X930); j, k, stained spores of Cougourdella magna, XI 330 (Hesse);
1, a spore of Octospora muscae-domesticae, X1430 (Chatton and Krempf);
m, n, spores of Spiroglugea octospora (L6ger and Hesse) (m, X665; n,
X2000); o, p, spores of Toxoglugea vibrio (Leger and Hesse) (o, X665; p,
X2000) ; q, stained spores of T. gerridis, X2000 (Poisson) ; r, s, a fresh and
a stained spore of Telomyxa glugeiformis, X2000 (Leger and Hesse).
B. limnodrili Jirovec (Fig. 292, h, i). In lymphocytes within gonads
of Limnodrilus claparedeanus ; spores 22-24/* by 1.5/* (Jfrovec,
1936a).
Genus Cougourdella Hesse. Spore cylindrical, with an enlarged
extremity, resembling the fruit of Lagenaria cougourda. 3 species
(Hesse, 1935).
C. magna H. (Fig. 292, j, k). In haemocoele and fat body of Mega-
678 PROTOZOOLOGY
cyclops viridis; spores 18m by 3m; polar filament 110m long; sporo-
plasm with 1-2 nuclei or 2 uninucleate sporoplasms.
Genus Octosporea Flu. Spore cylindrical; more or less curved;
ends similar. 6 species (Jirovec, 1936a).
0. muscae-domesticae F. (Fig. 292, I). In gut and germ cells of
Musca and Drosophila; spores 5-8 m long (Chatton and Krempf,
1911).
Genus Spiroglugea Leger and Hesse. Spore tubular and spirally
curved; polar capsule large. One species.
S. octospora L. and H. (Fig. 292, m, n). In fat body of larvae of
Ceratopogon sp.; spores 8-8. 5m by 1/x.
Genus Toxoglugea (Toxonema) Leger and Hesse. Minute spore
curved or arched in semi-circle. 4 species (Poisson, 1941).
T. vibrio L. and H. (Fig. 292, o, p). In the fat body of Ceratopogon
sp.; spores 3.5m by less than 0.3ju.
T. gerridis Poisson (Fig. 292, q). In the fat body of the bug,
Aquarius najas; sporont gives rise to eight sporoblasts and then to
eight spores; also monosporous; microspores 4.5m by 0.8m, the polar
filament 40-50m long; macrospores 7-8m long.
Suborder 2 Dicnidea Leger and Hesse
Family Telomyxidae Leger and Hesse
Genus Telomyxa Leger and Hesse. Spore with 2 polar capsules;
sporont develops into 8, 16, or more sporoblasts and finally 8, 16,
or more spores (Leger and Hesse, 1910). Four species (Poisson, 1941).
T. glugciformis L. and H. (Fig. 292, r, s). In the fat body of the
larva of Ephemera vulgata; spores 6.5m by 4m.
Order 4 Helicosporidia Kudo
This order has been created to include the interesting organism,
Helicosporidium, observed by Keilin. Although quite peculiar in the
structure of its spore, the organism seems to be best placed in the
Cnidosporidia.
The minute spore is composed of a thin membrane of one piece
and of three uninucleate sporoplasms, around which is coiled a long
thick filament. Young trophozoites are found in the host tissues or
body cavity. They undergo schizogony, at the end of which uninu-
cleate sporonts become differentiated. A sporont divides apparently
twice and thus forms four small cells which develop into a spore.
The complete life-history is still unknown.
Genus Helicosporidium Keilin. Parasitic in arthropods; schizog-
HELICOSPORIDIA
679
Fig. 293. Diagram illustrating the probable development of Helico-
sporidia, X about 1600 (Keilin). a-c, schizont and schizogony; d, spo-
ront(?); e, three stages in formation of four-celled stage; f, hypothetical
stage; g, young spore before the spiral filament is formed; h, mature spore;
i, j, opening of spore and liberation of sporoplasms. a-h, in living host
larva; i, j, in dead host body.
ony and sporogony; spore with central sporoplasms and a single
thick coiled filament. One species (Keilin, 1921).
H. parasiticum K. (Fig. 293). In body cavity, fat body, and nerv-
ous tissue of larvae of Dasyhelea obscura and Myceiobia pallipes
(Diptera), and Hericia hericia (Acarina), all of which inhabit
wounds of elm and horse-chestnut trees; schizonts minute; spores
5-6/x in diameter; extruded filament 60-65/* by 1/z thick.
References
Borchert, A.: (1930) Nosemainfektion. Arch. Bienenk., 11:1.
Braem, F.: (1911) Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Fauna Turkestans.
VII. Trav. Soc. Imp. Nat., St. Petersbg., 42:1.
Chatton, E. and Krempf, A.: (1911) Sur le cycle evolutif et la po-
680 PROTOZOOLOGY
sition systematique des protistes du genre Octosporea, etc. Bull.
soc. zool. France, 36:172.
Debaisieux, P.: (1919) Etudes sur les microsporidies. II, III. La
Cellule, 30:153.
(1920) IV. Ibid., 30:215.
(1928) Etudes cytologiques sur quelques microsporidies.
Ibid., 38:389.
Doflein, F.: (1898) Studien zur Naturgeschichte der Protozoen.
III. Zool. Jahrb. Anat., 11:281.
Fantham, H. B. and Porter, Annie: (1912) The morphology and
life history of Nosema apis, etc. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol., 6:
163.
■ — and Richardson, L. R.: (1941) Some Microsporidia
found in certain fishes and insects in Eastern Canada. Para-
sitology, 33:186.
Farrar, C. L.: (1947) Nosema losses in package bees as related to
queen supersedure and honey yields. J. Econ. Entom., 40:333.
FoA, Anna: (1924) Modificazione al ciclo morfologico e biologico del
Nosema bombycis Nageli. Boll. Lab. Zool. Gen. Agr., Portici,
17:147.
Fyg, W. : (1945) Die Einfluss der Nosema-Infektion auf die Eier-
stocke der Bienenkonigin. Schweiz. Bien.-Zeit., 68:67.
Hassanein, M. H.: (1951) Studies on the effect of infection with
Nosema apis on the physiology of the queen honey-bee. Quart.
J. Micr. Sc, 92:225.
Hesse, E.: (1904) Thelohania legeri n. sp., microsporidie nouvelle,
parasite des larves d' Anopheles maculipennis Meig. C. R. soc.
biol., 57:570.
(1904a) Sur le developpement de Thelohania legeri. Ibid., 57:
571.
(1935) Sur quelques microsporidies parasites de Megacyclops
viridis. Arch. zool. exper. gen., 75:651.
Hutchinson, C. M.: (1920) Pebrine in India. Mem. Dept. Agr. In-
dia, 1:177.
Jameson, A. P. : (1922) Report on the diseases of silkworms in India.
Superint. Gov. Print., Calcutta, India. 165 pp.
Janda, V. : (1928) Ueber Microorganismen aus der Leibeshohle von
Criodrilus lacuum Hoffm. und eigenartige Neubildungen in der
Korperwand dieses Tieres. Arch. Protist., 63:84.
Jirovec, O.: (1936) Studien iiber Microsporidien. Mem. Soc. Zool.
Tehee. Prague, 4:1.
(1936a) Zur Kenntnis von in Oligochaten parasitierenden
Microsporidien aus der Familie Mrazekiidae. Arch. Protist.,
87:314.
(1942) Zur Kenntnis einiger Cladoceren-Parasiten. II. Zool.
Anz., 140:129.
Keilin, D.: (1921) On the life-history of Helicosporidium parasiti-
cum n. g., n. sp., etc. Parasitology, 13:97.
Kohler, A.: (1921) Ueber die chemische Zusammensetzung der
Sporenschale von Nosema apis. Zool. Anz., 53:85.
HELICOSPORIDIA 681
Korotoneff, A.: (1892) Myxosporidium bryozoides. Ztschr. wiss.
ZooL, 53:591.
Kudo, R. R.: (1913) Eine neue Methode die Sporen von Nosema
bombycis Nageli mit ihren ausgeschnellten Polfaden dauerhaft
zu praparieren, etc. Zool. Anz., 41:368.
(1916) Contribution to the study of parasitic Protozoa. II.
Bull. Seric. Exp. St., 1:31.
(1918) Experiments on the extrusion of polar filaments of
cnidosporidian spores. J. Parasitol., 4:141.
— ■ (1920) On the structure of some microsporidian spores. Ibid.,
6:178.
(1921) Studies on Microsporidia, with special reference to
those parasitic in mosquitoes. J. Morphol., 35:123.
(1921a) Notes on Nosema apis. J. Parasitol., 7:85.
(1921b) Microsporidia parasitic in copepods. Ibid., 7:137.
(1921c) On the nature of structures characteristic of cnido-
sporidian spores. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 40:59.
(1922) Studies on Microsporidia parasitic in mosquitoes. II.
J. Parasitol., 8:70.
(1924) III. Arch. Protist., 49:147.
(1924a) VI. Jour. Parasit., 11:84.
(1924b) A biologic and taxonomic study of the Microspo-
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(1925) Studies on Microsporidia parasitise in mosquitoes.
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~ (1925a) V. Biol. Bull., 48:112.
(1925b) Microsporidia. Science, 61:366.
— (1942) On the microsporidian, Duboscqia legeri, parasitic in
Reticulitermes flavipes. J. Morphol., 71:307.
(1944) Morphology and development of Nosema notabilis,
etc. Illinois Biol. Monogr., 20:1.
and DeCoursey, J. D.: (1940) Experimental infection of
Hyphantria cunea with Nosema bombycis. J. Parasitol., 26: 123.
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Labbe, A.: (1899) Sporozoa. Das Tierreich, Lief. 5, 180 pp.
Leger, L.: (1926) Sur Triehoduboscqia epeori Leger. Trav. Lab.
Hydro. Pise, 18:1.
and Duboscq, O. : (1909) Microsporidie parasite de Frenze-
lina. Arch Protist., 17:117.
(1909a) Perezia lankesteriae, etc. Arch. zool. exper.
1(N.-R):89.
— and Hesse, E. : (1910) Cnidosporidies des larves d'ephemeres.
C.R.Acad. Sc., 150:411.
(1916) Mrazekia, genre nouveau de microsporidies
a spores tubuleuses. C. R. soc. biol., 79:345.
(1916a) Sur la structure de la spore des microspori-
dies. Ibid., 79:1049.
(1921) Microsporidies a spores spheriques. C. R.
Acad. Sc, 173:1419.
682 PROTOZOOLOGY
(1922) Microsporidies bacteriformes et essai de
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Missiroli, A.: (1928) Alcuni protozoi parassiti dell' "Anopheles
maculipennis." Riv. Malariol., 7:1.
Morgenthaler, O. : (1922) Der Polfaden von Nosema apis. Arch.
Bienenk., 4:53.
Nageli, K. W. : (1857) Ueber die neue Krankheit der Seidenraupe
und verwandte Organismen. Bot. Zeit., 15:760.
Ohmori, J.: (1912) Zur Kenntnis des Pebrine-Erreger, Nosema
bombycis. Arb. kaiserl. Gesundh., 40:108.
Ohshima, K. : (1927) A preliminary note on the structure of the polar
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(1935) Infection of Chilo simplex by Nosema bombycis and
function of the haemo-lymphocyte. J. Zool. Soc. Japan, 47:607.
(1937) On the function of the polar filament of Nosema
bombycis. Parasitology, 29:220.
Paillot, A.: (1918) Deux microsporidies nouvelles parasites des
chenilles de Pieris brassicae. C. R. Soc. biol., 81:66.
(1929) Contribution a l'etude des microsporidies parasites
de Pieris brassicae. Arch. d'Anat. Micros., 25:242.
Pasteur, L.: (1870) Etude sur la maladie des vers a soie. Paris.
Perez, C: (1908) Sur Duboscqia legeri, microsporidie nouvelle para-
site du Termes lucifugus, etc. C. R. soc. biol., 65:631.
Poisson, R.: (1941) Les microsporidies parasites des insectes hemip-
teres. IV. Arch. zool. exper. gen., 82(N.-R):30.
Schrader, F.: (1921) A microsporidian occurring in the smelt. J.
Parasitol., 7:151.
Schroder, O.: (1914) Beitrage zur Kenntnis einiger Microsporidien.
Zool. Anz., 43:320.
Schuberg, A.: (1910) Ueber Mikrosporidien aus dem Hoden der
Barbe und durch sie verursachte Hypertrophic der Kerne. Arb.
kaiserl. Gesundh., 33:401.
Sprague, V. and Ramsey, Juanita: (1942) Further observations on
Plistophora kudoi, etc. J. Parasitol., 28:399.
Stempell, W. : (1904) Ueber Nosema anomalum. Arch. Protist., 4: 1.
- (1909) Ueber Nosema bombijcis. Ibid., 16:281.
Weiser, J. : (1947) Klic k urcovani Mikrosporidii. Acta Soc. Sc. Nat.
Moravicae, 18:1.
Weissenberg, R.: (1911) Ueber einige Mikrosporidien aus Fischen.
Sitz.-ber Gesell. naturf. Freunde, Berlin, p. 344.
(1913) Beitrage zur Kenntnis des Zeugungskreises der
Mikrosporidien, etc. Arch. mikr. Anat., 82:81.
White, G. F.: (1919) Nosema-disease. Bull. U. S. Dept, Agr., No.
780.
Zander, E.: (1909) Tierische Parasiten als Krankheitserreger bei
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(1911) Krankheit und Schadlinge der erwachsenen Bienen.
Handbuch der Bienenkunde. II. 42 pp.
Chapter 30
Subphylum 2 Ciliophora Doflein
THE Ciliophora possess cilia which serve as cell-organs of loco-
motion. In Suctoria the cilia are present only during early devel-
opmental stages. The members of this subphylum possess a unique
organization not seen in the Plasmodroma; namely, except Proto-
ciliata, the Ciliophora contain two kinds of nuclei: the macronucleus
and the micronucleus. The former is large and massive, and controls
the metabolic activities of the organism, while the latter is minute
and usually vesicular or less compact, and is concerned with the
reproductive processes. Nutrition is holozoic or parasitic; holophytic
in Cyclotrichium meunieri (p. 706). Sexual reproduction is mainly
by conjugation, and asexual reproduction is by binary fission or
budding. The majority are free-living, but a number of parasitic
forms also occur.
The Ciliophora are divided into two classes:
Cilia present throughout trophic life Class 1 Ciliata
Adult with tentacles; cilia only while young. . Class 2 Suctoria (p. 863)
Class 1 Ciliata Perty
The class Ciliata includes Protozoa of various habitats and body
structures, though all possess cilia or cirri during the trophic stage.
They inhabit all sorts of fresh and salt water bodies by free-swim-
ming, creeping, or being attached to other objects; some are para-
sitic in other animals. Free-swimming forms are usually spherical
to elliptical, while the creeping forms are, as a rule, flattened or
compressed.
The cilia are extremely fine, comparatively short, and as a rule
arranged in rows (p. 55). In some forms they diminish in number and
are replaced by cirri (p. 57). The cilia are primarily cell-organs of lo-
comotion, but secondarily through their movements bring the food
matter into the cytostome. Moreover, certain cilia appear to be tac-
tile organellae. The food of free-living ciliates consists of small plant
and animal organisms which ordinarily abound in the water; thus
their nutrition is holozoic. The ciliates vary in size from less than 10ju
up to 2 mm. in large forms (as in an extended Spirostomum or Sten-
tor). The cytoplasm is distinctly differentiated into the ectoplasm
and the endoplasm. The ectoplasm gives rise to the cilia and tricho-
cysts and is covered by a pellicle. The endoplasm contains nuclei,
food vacuoles, contractile vacuoles, pigment granules, crystals, etc.
683
684 PROTOZOOLOGY
In the majority of ciliates, the anterior and posterior extremities are
permanent and distinct; in all eytostome-possessing forms, the oral
and aboral surfaces are distinguishable, while in numerous creeping
forms the dorsal and ventral sides are differentiated.
The body is covered by a very thin yet definite membrane, the
pellicle, which is ordinarily uniformly thin and covers the entire
body surface so closely that it is not recognizable in life. In some
forms, such as Coleps, it develops into numerous platelets and in
others, such as Trichodina, into hook-like processes. The outer half
of the ectoplasm may show alveolar structure which, in section,
exhibits radiating and parallel lines. In this portion the myonemes
(p. 61) are lodged. The deeper layer of the ectoplasm is structureless
and free from granules. In the ectoplasm are embedded the kineto-
somes of cilia, which are arranged in longitudinal, oblique, or
spiral rows. In recent years complex fibrillar systems have been
recognized in many ciliates (p. 63-70). The cilia may fuse to form
cirri, membranellae, and undulating membranes (p. 59) which occur
in certain groups. In many euciliates contractile vacuoles with one to
several collecting canals are one of the prominent structures. The
endoplasm is more fluid and the ground substance is finely granu-
lated or reticulated; it undergoes rotation movement or cyclosis.
Two types of nuclei are present in all euciliates. The massive
macronucleus is of various forms. The chromatin granules which
may reach 20/x in diameter (p. 42) fill compactly the intranuclear
space. The macronucleus multiplies by amitosis. The micronucleus
is ordinarily so minute that it is difficult to see in a living specimen.
It is vesicular in structure, although in some it appears to be com-
pact, and consists of an endosome, the chromatin, the nucleoplasm,
and the membrane. The number of micronuclei present in an indi-
vidual varies among different species. At the time of reproduction it
increases in size and divides mitotically ; during conjugation it under-
goes a characteristic meiotic division (p. 206).
The protociliates possess from two to many nuclei of a uniformly
same structure and numerous ovoid or spindle-shaped bodies, endo-
spherules, the nature of which is open to speculation. Some authors
think that they are nuclei (micronuclei (after Hickson, 1903) or
macronuclei (after Konsuloff, 1922, 1930)); others consider them as
reserve food materials (Patten). Metcalf (1909) considers that each
nucleus possesses both metabolic chromatin and reproductive chro-
matin, the former being seen as large flattened peripheral masses and
the latter, as smaller spheroidal granules.
In all except protociliates and a comparatively small number of
CILIOPHORA, PROTOCILIATA 685
astomatous euciliates, there is a cytostome which in its simplest form
is represented by a small opening on the pellicle, and may or may not
be closed when the animal is not feeding. The cytostome opens into
the cytopharynx (or gullet), a tubule which ends in the deeper por-
tion of the endoplasm. In the cytopharynx there may be present one
or more undulating membranes to facilitate intaking of the food.
Occasionally the cytostome is surrounded by trichites or trichocysts
(p. 71). When the cytostome is not at the anterior region as, for
instance, in Paramecium, there is a peristome (or oral groove) which
starts at or near the anterior end and runs posteriorly. The peristome
is ciliated so that food particles are thrown down along it and ulti-
mately into the cytostome which is located at its posterior end. Solid
waste particles are extruded from the cytopyge, or cell-anus, which
is usually noticeable only at the time of actual defecation (p. 108).
Cytology (Konsuloff, 1922; Wetzel, 1925).
Following Metcalf, Ciliata are here divided into 2 subclasses:
Two to many nuclei of one kind; sexual reproduction permanent fusion. . .
Subclass 1 Protociliata
Macronucleus and micronucleus; sexual reproduction conjugation
Subclass 2 Euciliata (p. 690)
Subclass 1 Protociliata Metcalf
The protociliates are almost exclusively inhabitants of the large
intestine of Salientia; only a few species have been reported from
urodeles, reptiles, and fish (Metcalf, 1923, 1940). The body is cov-
ered uniformly by cilia of equal length. There is no cytostome and
the nutrition is parasitic (saprozoic). The number of nuclei varies
from two to many, all of which are of one type. Asexual reproduction
is by binary fission or plasmotomy. In a number of species sexual
fusion of 2 gametes has been observed (Metcalf, 1909; Konsuloff,
1922) (Fig. 294, f-i). Grasse (1952) proposed recently to transfer
these organisms to "Rhizoflagellata" from Ciliata, since they differ
from the ciliates in (1) having nuclei of the same kind, (2) under-
going sexual fusion and not conjugation, and (3) having longitudinal,
and not transverse, division or plasmotomy. Taxonomy (Metcalf,
1920a, 1923, 1940); geographical distribution (Metcalf, 1920, 1929,
1940); cytology and development (van Overbeek de Meyer, 1929);
species (Bhatia and Gulati, 1927; Carini, 1938-1942; Beltran, 1941,
1941a).
Family Opalinidae Claus
Genus Opalina Purkinje and Valentin. Highly flattened; multi-
nucleate; in amphibians. Numerous species (Metcalf, 1923, 1940).
686
PROTOZOOLOGY
Growth and nuclear division (Hegner and Wu, 1921); cytology (ten
Kate, 1927).
0. hylaxena Metcalf (Fig. 294, a). In Hyla versicolor; largerin divid-
ual about 420m long, 125m wide, 28/z thick. Several subspecies
(Metcalf).
0. obtrigonoidea M. (Fig. 294, b-d). 400-840/x long, 175-180/x wide,
20-25ju thick; in various species of frogs and toads (Rana, Hyla,
Bufo, Gastrophryne, etc.), North America. Numerous subspecies
(Metcalf).
Fig. 294. a-i, 1, Metcalf; j, k, Leger and Duboscq. a, two individuals of
Opalina hylaxena, X78; b-d, three individuals of 0. obtrigonoidea, X78
(b, from Bufo fowleri; c, from Rana pipiens; d, from R. palustris) ; e, four
individuals of Cepedea cantabrigensis, X 78 ; f-i, stages in sexual reproduc-
tion in Protoopalina intestinalis; j, k, P. saturnalis, X500; 1, P. mitotica,
X240.
CILIOPHORA, PROTOCILIATA
687
0. carolinensisM. 90-400/x by 32-1 70/x; in Rana pipiens spheno-
cephala.
0. pickeringii M. 200-333m by 68-100/x; in Hyla pickeringii.
0. oregonensis M. 526m by 123m; in Hyla regilla.
0. spiralis M. 300-355m long, 130-140m wide, 25-42m thick; in
Bufo compactilis.
0. chorophili M. About 470m by 100m; in Chorophilus triseriatus.
0. kennicotii M. About 240m by 85m; in Rana areolata.
Genus Cepedea Metcalf. Cylindrical or pyriform; circular in
cross-section; multinucleate; all in Amphibia. Numerous species.
Cytology (Fernandez, 1947).
C. cantabrigensis M. (Fig. 294, e). About 350m by 84m; in Rana
cantabrigensis.
C. hawaiensis M. 170-200m by 43-60m; in Rana catesbeiana;
Hawaii.
C. obovoidea M. About 315m by 98m; in Bufo
Fig. 295. Zelleriella elliptica, stained specimens, X440 (Chen), a, a
typical vegetative individual; b, an individual which is nearly completely
divided, the nuclei being at early metaphase.
688 PROTOZOOLOGY
C. floridensis M. About 230m by 89m; in Scaphiopus albus.
Genus Protoopalina Metcalf. Cylindrical or spindle-shaped, cir-
cular in cross-section; 2 nuclei; in the colon of various species of Am-
phibia with one exception. Numerous species.
P. intestinalis (Stein) (Fig. 294, f-i). About 330/x by 68m; in
Bombina bombina, and B. pachypa; Europe.
P. saturnalis Leger and Duboscq (Fig. 294, j, k). In the marine
fish, Box boops; 100-152/x by 22-60m-
P. mitotica (M) (Fig. 294, 1). 300m by 37m; in Amby stoma tigrinum.
Genus Zelleriella Metcalf. Greatly flattened; 2 similar nuclei; all
in Amphibia. Numerous species. Cytology (Chen, 1948).
Z. scaphiopodos M. In Scaphiopus solitarius; about 150m long, 90m
broad, 13m thick.
Z. antilliensis (M). About 180m long, 113/z wide, 32/x thick; in
Bufo marinus.
Z. hirsuta M. About 113m long, 60m wide, 22m thick; in Bufo cog-
natus.
Z. elliptica Chen (Fig. 295). In Bufo valliceps; average dimensions
184^ by 91m- Chen (1948) distinguishes four other species from the
same host, all of which possess 24 chromosomes.
References
Butschli, O.: (1887-1889) Protozoa. In: Bronn's Klassen und
Ordnungen des Thier-reichs. 1.
Doflein, F. and Reichenow, E. : (1929) Lehrbuch der Protozoen-
kunde. 5 ed. Jena.
Kahl, A.: (1930-1935) Urtiere oder Protozoa. I. Wimpertiere oder
Ciliata (Infusoria). In: Dahl's Die Tierwelt Deutschlands und
der angrenzenden Meeresteile, etc. Parts 18, 21, 25, 30.
Kent, W. S. : (1880-1882) A manual of Infusoria. London.
Stein, F.: (1867) Der Organismus der Infusionsthiere. 2.
Stokes, A. C: (1888) A preliminary contribution toward a history
of the freshwater Infusoria of the United States. J. Trenton
Nat. Hist. Soc, 1:71.
Beltran, E.: (1941) Opalinidos parasitos en anfibios mexicanos.
Rev. Soc. Mexicana Hist. Nat., 2:127.
(1941a) Zelleriella leptodeirae sp. nov., etc. Ibid., 2:267.
Bhatia, B. L. and Gulati, A. N.: (1927) On some parasitic ciliates
from Indian frogs, toads, etc. Arch. Protist., 57:85.
Carini, A.: (1938) Contribuicao ao conhecimento das "Opalinidae"
dos batraquios do Brasil. II. Bol. Biol, N.S., 3:147.
— (1938a) Zelleriella corniola, etc. Arch. Biol., 22:1.
(1940) Contribuicao ao conhecimento das "Opalinidae" dos
batraquios do Brasil. Ibid., 24, 5 pp.
(1942) Sobre uma Zelleriella do cecum do Siphonops annula-
tus. Ibid., 26, 2 pp.
CILIOPHORA, PROTOCILIATA 689
Chen, T. T.: (1948) Chromosomes in Opalinidae with special refer-
ence to their behavior, morphology, etc. J. Morphol., 88:281.
Fernandez, D. F.-G.: (1947) Observaciones cytologicas sobre las
Opalinas. Trab. Inst. Cien. Nat. Jose de Acosta, 1:352.
Grasse, P.-P.: (1952) Traite de Zoologie. I. Fasc. 1. Paris.
Hegner, R. W.: (1932) Observations and experiments on the opa-
linid ciliates of the green frog. J. Parasitol., 18:274.
and Wu, H. F.: (1921) An analysis of the relation between
growth and nuclear division in a parasitic infusorian, Oplaina
sp. Am. Nat., 55:335.
Konsuloff, S.: (1922) Untersuchungen ueber Opalina Arch.
Protist 44:285.
(1930) Haben die Opaliniden zwei Kernarten wie die anderen
Infusorien? Ibid., 71:248.
Metcalf, M. M.: (1909) Opalina. Arch. Protist., 13:195.
— (1920) Upon an important method of studying problems of
relationship and of geographical distribution. Proc. Nat. Acad.
Sc, 6:432.
(1920a) The classification of the Opalinidae. Science, 52:135.
(1923) The opalinid ciliate infusorians. Smithsonian Inst.
U. S.Nat. Mus., Bull., 120:1
(1928) The bell-toads and their opalinid parasites. Am. Nat.,
62:5.
(1929) Parasites and the aid they given in problems of tax-
onomy, geographical distribution and paleogeography. Smith-
sonian Misc. Coll., 81: no. 8.
(1940) Further studies on the opalinid ciliate infusorians and
their hosts. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 87:465.
ten Kate, C. G. B.: (1927) Ueber das Fibrillensystem der Ciliaten.
Arch. Protist., 57:362.
van Overbeek de Meyer, G. A. W. : (1929) Beitrage zur Wach-
stums- und Plasmadifferenzierungs-Erscheinungen an Opalina
ranarum. Arch. Protist., 66:207.
Wetzel, A.: (1925) Vergleichend cytologische Untersuchungen an
Ciliaten. Ibid., 51:209.
Chapter 31
Subclass 2 Euciliata Metcalf
THE most conspicuous group of Protozoa containing 2 nuclei;
macronucleus and micronucleus. Sexual reproduction is through
conjugation. We owe Kahl a great deal for his series of comprehen-
sive taxonomic studies of free-living ciliates. The euciliates are
grouped under the following four orders:
Without adoral zone of membranellae Order 1 Holotricha
With adoral zone of membranellae
Adoral zone winds clockwise to cytostome
Peristome not extending beyond general body surface
Order 2 Spirotricha (p. 796)
Peristome extending out like funnel. . . . Order 3 Chonotricha (p. 847)
Adoral zone winds counter-clockwise to cytostome
Order 4 Peritricha (p. 850)
For a brief, but concise view on the classification of the ciliates, the
reader is referred to Faure-Fremiet (1950).
Order 1 Holotricha Stein
The members of this order show uniform ciliation over the entire
body surface. Adoral zone does not occur. The majority possess a
cytostome which varies among different forms. Nutrition is holo-
zoic or saprozoic. Asexual reproduction is usually by transverse
fission and sexual reproduction by conjugation. Encystment is com-
mon. The holotrichous ciliates are conspicuous free-living forms in all
sorts of fresh, brackish, and salt waters, though some are parasitic.
The order is here divided into 6 suborders:
Without cytostome Suborder 1 Astomata (p. 691)
With cytostome
Cytostome not rosette-like
Without special thigmotactic ciliated field
Cytostome on body surface or in peristome, without strong cilia . .
Suborder 2 Gymnostomata (p. 700)
Cytostome in peristome, bearing special cilia or membranes
Peristome lined with rows of free cilia
Suborder 3 Trichostomata (p. 737)
Peristome with membrane; with or without free cilia
Suborder 4 Hymenostomata (p. 758)
With well-developed thigmotactic ciliated field; commensals in mus-
sels Suborder 5 Thigmotricha (p. 774)
Cytostome small rosette-like aperture or obscure; parasitic
Suborder 6 Apostomea (p. 789)
EUCILIATA, HOLOTRICHA 691
Suborder 1 Astomata Schewiakoff
The ciliates placed in this suborder possess no cytostome, although
there may occur a slit-like organella which has been looked upon as
a vestigial cytostome. The body ciliation is usually uniform. Asexual
division is carried on by transverse fission and often by budding
which results in chain formation. Sexual reproduction is conjugation
and in some encystment is known. These organisms are parasitic
in various invertebrates living in fresh or salt water. Taxonomy
(Cepede, 1910, 1923; Cheissin, 1930; Heidenreich, 1935; Delphy,
1936); skeletal structures (Rossolimo and Perzewa, 1929); Argyrome
(Puytorac, 1951).
Without attaching organellae or skeletal structures
Macronucleus round to elongate Family 1 Anoplophryidae
Macronucleus irregular network Family 2 Opalinopsidae (p. 694)
With attaching organellae or skeletal structures
Contractile vacuole, a long dorsal canal; usually with a sucking or-
ganella . Family 3 Haptophryidae (p. 694)
Contractile vacuoles not canal-like; with various attaching organellae
or skeletal structures Family 4 Intoshellinidae (p. 696)
Family 1 Anoplophryidae Cepede
Genus Anoplophrya Stein (Collinia Cepede). Oval, elongate,
ellipsoid or cylindrical; macronucleus ovoid to cylindrical; micro-
nucleus small; one to several contractile vacuoles; ciliation dense
and uniform; in coelom and gut of Annelida and Crustacea. Numer-
ous species (Rossolimo, 1926).
A. marylandensis Conklin (Fig. 296, a). 36-72ju by 16-42ju; in the
intestine of Lumbricus terrestris and Helodrilus caliginosus; Balti-
more, Maryland (Conklin, 1930).
A. orchestii Summers and Kidder (Fig. 296, b). Polymorphic ac-
cording to size; pyriform to broadly ovoid; 7-45 ciliary rows meri-
dional, unequally spaced, and more on one surface; macronucleus
voluminous, a compact micro nucleus; body 6-68/z long; in the sand-
flea, Orchestia agilis; Woods Hole, Massachusetts (Summers and
Kidder, 1936).
Genus Rhizocaryum Caullery and Mesnil. With hollowed ventral
surface which serves for attachment; macronucleus drawn out like a
tree-root. One species.
R. concavum C. and M. (Fig. 296, c). In the gut of Polydora caeca
and P. flava (polychaetes).
Genus Metaphrya Ikeda. Pyriform, anterior end bent slightly
to one side; 12 longitudinal ciliary furrows; below ectoplasm, a
692
PROTOZOOLOGY
layer of refringent materials; endoplasm sparse; macronucleus bas-
ket-like, large, with a spacious hollow; a micronucleus; no contractile
vacuoles. One species.
M . sagittae I. (Fig. 296, d). About 250/z by 130/x; in the body cavity
of Sagitta sp.
Genus Perezella Cepede. Ovoid; ventral surface concave, serves
for attachment; macronucleus ellipsoid; contractile vacuole ter-
^■^■h
JH
Fig. 296. a, Anoplophrya rnarylandensis, X500 (Conklin); b, A.
orchestii, X500 (Summers and Kidder); c, Rhizocaryum concavum, X670
(C6pede); d, Metaphrya sagittae, X120 (Ikeda); e, Perezella pelagica,
X340 (Cepede); f, Dogielella sphaerii, X470 (Poljansky); g, D. minuta,
X670 (Poljansky); h, D. Virginia, X670 (Kepner and Carroll); i, Orchi-
lophrya stellarum, X870; j, Kofoidella eleutheriae, X270; k, Biitschliella
opheliae, X350 (Cepede).
EUCILIATA, HOLOTRICHA 693
minal; longitudinally, uniformly, ciliated. A few species.
P. pelagica C. (Fig. 296, e). In the coelom of copepods (Ascartia,
Clausia, Paracalanus) ; about 48/z long.
Genus Dogielella Poljansky. Pyriform; longitudinal ciliary rows;
contractile vacuole terminal; macronucleus spherical, with a spheri-
cal or elliptical micro nucleus; in the parenchyma of flat worms or
molluscs. 4 species (Poljansky, 1925).
D. sphaerii P. (Fig. 296, /). 40-10(V by 25-54^: in Sphaerium
corneum. Conjugation (Poljansky, 1926).
D. minuta P. (Fig. 296, g). 12-28^ by up to 20/z; in Stenoslomum
leucops (Platyhelminthes).
D. Virginia (Kepner and Carroll) (Fig. 296, h). 40-50> long; in the
same host animal; Virginia.
D. renalis Kay. Elongate pyriform, but extremely plastic; 61-184^
by 27-82ju; spherical macronucleus in the middle of body; one micro-
nucleus; a contractile vacuole anterior; in the renal organ of Phy sella
sp. (Kay, 1946).
Genus Orchitophrya Cepede. Elongate pyriform; ciliary rows
oblique; macronucleus spherical, central. One species.
0. stellarum C. (Fig. 296, i). In gonads of the echinoderm, Aster-
acanthion (Asterias) rubens; 35— 65m long.
Genus Kofoidella Cepede. Pyriform; macronucleus broadly oval;
contractile vacuole, subterminal. One species.
K. eleutheriae C. (Fig. 296, j). In gastro vascular cavity of the
medusa, Eleutheria dichotoma; 30-80/x long.
Genus Herpetophrya Siedlecki. Ovoid; with a pointed, mobile,
tactile, non-ciliated cone; macronucleus globular; without con-
tractile vacuole. One species.
H. astomata S. In coelom of Polymnia (annelid).
Genus Biitschliella Awerinzew. Elongate with pointed anterior
end, with non-ciliated retractile anterior cap; cilia in about 10
slightly spiral rows; macronucleus band-form; several contractile
vacuoles in a longitudinal row. Several species.
B. opheliae A. (Fig. 296, k). In Ophelia limacina; 280-360m by
35-50/x.
B. chaetogastri Penard. Elongate lanceolate, slightly flattened;
longitudinal rows of long cilia; cytoplasm colorless; macronucleus
elongate; micro nucleus voluminous, vesicular; without contractile
vacuole; 60-120/x long; in the oesophagus of Chaetogaster sp.
Genus Spirobutschliella Hovasse (1950). Elongate fusiform with
rounded extremities; ciliation uniform and in spiral rows; anterior
tip not ciliated; pellicle thick; macronucleus, a long spindle reaching
694 PROTOZOOLOGY
the both ends of the body; a median micronucleus; in the intestine of
Annelida.
S. chattoni H. In the mid-gut of Potamoceros triqueter, a common
annelid in the vicinity of Banyuls; 180-550/x by 50/x; micronucleus
fusiform, 6-IOm long; often infected by a microsporidian, Gurleya
nova H.
Genus Protanoplophrya Miyashita. Similar to Anoplophrya; but
with rudimentary oral apparatus, a long slit, an undulating mem-
brane and cytopharynx in anterior region of body; macronucleus
elongate band ; numerous contractile vacuoles. One species.
P. stomata Miyashita (Fig. 297, a). Cylindrical; up to 1.5 mm. by
about 70m; in hind-gut of Viviparus japonicus and V. malleatus.
Family 2 Opalinopsidae Hartog
Genus Opalinopsis Foettinger. Oval or ellipsoid; macronucleus
fragmented; ciliation uniform and close; parasite in the liver of
cephalopods. A few species.
0. sepiolae F. (Fig. 297, b). 40-80m long; in the liver of Sepiola ron-
deletii and Octopus tetracirrhus.
Genus Chromidina Gonder (Benedenia Foettinger). Elongate;
anterior region broader, end pointed; uniform ciliation; macro-
nucleus in irregular network distributed throughout body; micro-
nucleus obscure; budding and encystment; Cheissin holds that this
is identical with Opalinopsis. One species.
C. elegans (Foettinger) (Fig. 297, c, d). 500-1500m by about 30-60m
in kidney and gonad of cephalopods: Sepia, Loligo, Illex and Spirula
(Jepps, 1931). Morphology (Wermel, 1928).
Family 3 Haptophryidae Cepede
Genus Haptophrya Stein. Elongate; uniformly ciliated; anterior
end with a neck-like constriction; a circular sucker surrounded by
1-2 rows of cilia. A few species.
H. michiganensis Wcodhead (Fig. 297, e). 1.1-1.6 mm. long; in the
gut of the four-toed salamander, Hemidactylium scutatum; Michigan.
Cytology (Bush, 1933); contractile canal (MacLennan, 1944).
H. virginiensis Meyer. 354/x by 95m; macronucleus about one-
third of the body length; in the intestine of Rana palustris.
Genus Steinella Cepede. Anterior end broad; sucker-like depres-
sion without encircling cilia, but with 2 chitinous hooks. One species.
S. uncinata (Schultze). Up to 200m long; in gastro vascular cavity
of Planaria ulvae, Gunda segmentata and Proceros sp.
Genus Lachmannella Cepede. With a chitinous hook at anterior
EUCILIATA, HOLOTRICHA
695
end; elongate pyriform, anterior end curved; ciliation longitudinal
and dense. One species.
L. recurva (Claparede and Lachmann) (Fig. 297, /). In the gastro-
vascular cavity of Planaria limaeina; about 200/* long.
Genus Sieboldiellina Collin. Vermiform, with neck-like constric-
tion; simple sucker at anterior end. One species.
S. planariarum (Siebold) (Fig. 297, g). Up to 70(V long; in gastro-
Fig. 297. a, Protanoplophrya stomata, X100 (Miyashita); b, Opalinopsis
sepiolae, X670 (Gonder); c, d, Chromidina elegans (c, X330 (Chatton and
Lwoff); d, X220 (Wermel)); e, Haptophrya michiganensis, X35 (Wood-
head) ; f, Lachmannella recurva, XlOO (C6pede) ; g, Sieboldiellina planaria-
rum, X100 (Cepede);h, i, Intoshellina poljanskyi (h, X300; i, attaching
organella seen from ventral side, X870) (Cheissin); j, k, Monodontophrya
kijenskiji (j, XlOO; k, anterior end in profile, X870) (Cheissin).
696 PROTOZOOLOGY
vascular cavity of various fresh- and salt-water turbellarians, most
frequently Planaria torva.
Family 4 Intoshellinidae Cepede
Genus Intoshellina Cepede. Elongate; ciliary rows slightly spiral;
macronucleus voluminous, highly elongate; 5-7 contractile vacuoles
scattered in posterior region; a complicated attaching organella at
anterior end (Fig. 297, i) ; vestigial cytopharynx.
/. poljanskyi Cheissin (Fig. 297, h, i). 170-280/x long; in the intes-
tine of Limnodrilus arenarius.
Genus Monodontophrya Vejdowsky. Elongate; anterior end with
thick ectoplasm; attaching organella at anterior end, with fibrils;
macronucleus elongate; numerous contractile vacuoles in a longi-
tudinal row.
M. kijenskiji Cheissin (Fig. 297, j, k). 400-800^ long; in anterior
portion of intestine of Tubifex inflatus.
Genus Maupasella Cepede. Ellipsoid; close longitudinal ciliary
rows; with a spinous attaching organella at anterior end, with fibrils;
contractile vacuoles in 2 irregular rows; macronucleus elongate.
One species.
M. nova C. (Fig. 298, a). 70-130^ long; in the intestine of Allolobo-
phora caliginosa (annelid). Supplementary chromatic body (Keilin,
1920).
Genus Schultzellina Cepede. Similar to Maupasella; but with at-
taching organella set obliquely; macronucleus voluminous, reniform.
S. mucronata C. (Fig. 298, b). In the intestine of Allurus tetraedurus
(annelid).
Genus Hoplitophrya Stein. Slender, elongate; elongated macro-
nucleus; a micronucleus; a single longitudinal row of many contrac-
tile vacuoles on the dorsal side; a single median spicule with a small
pointed tooth at its anterior end; in the intestine of oligochaetes.
Several species.
H. secansS. Elongated; 160-500/; by 20-35/x; 15-30 contractile
vacuoles in a row; spicule 10-15/x long; in the intestine of Lumbricus
variegatus.
H. criodrili Miyashita (Fig. 298, c). Ellipsoid, slightly flattened;
90-130/x by 45-60^; periphery of endoplasm highly granulated; at-
taching organelle about 25/x long; macronucleus bandform; two rows
of contractile vacuoles; in the anterior half of the gut of an oligo-
chaete, Criodrilus sp.
Genus Radiophrya Rossolimo. Elongate, often with satellites;
attaching organella composed of an arrowhead, a tooth and ecto-
EUCILIATA, HOLOTRICHA
J
697
Fig. 298. a, Maupasella nova, X280 (Cepede); b, Schultzellina mucro-
nata, X670 (Cepede); c, Hoplitophrya criodrili, X500 (Miyashsita) ; d, e,
Radiophrya hoplites (Cheissin) (d, X 130; e, anterior end in profile, X300) ;
f, Metradiophrya lumbrici, X140 (Cepede); g, Protoradiophrya fissispicu-
lata, X330 (Cheissin); h, Mrazekiella intermedia, X210 (Cheissin); i,
Mesnilella rostrata, X470 (Cheissin); j, M. clavata, X290 (Penard).
plasmic fibrils; macro nucleus a narrow long band; a single row of
many small contractile vacuoles, close to the nucleus. Many species.
R. hoplites R. (Fig. 298, d, e). 100-1000ju long; in the intestine of
Lamprodrilus, Teleuscolex, Styloscolex, and other oligochaetes.
Genus Metaradiophrya Heidenreich. Ovoid to ellipsoid; with 2
lateral rows of contractile vacuoles; with a hook attached to a long
shaft; ectoplasmic fibers supporting the hook; in the intestine of
oligochaetes. Several species.
M. lumbrici (Dujardin) (Fig. 298,/). 120-140m by 60-70m; in the
intestine of Lumbricus terrestris, L. rubellus and Eisenia foetida.
Morphology (Williams, 1942); argyrome (Puytorac, 1951).
698 PROTOZOOLOGY
M. asymmetrica Beers. 115-150/x by 55-70/x; hook 10/i long; shaft
25-30/x by 2/x in antero -lateral margin in ectoplasm; 25-30 support-
ing fibrils; 2 rows of 4 vacuoles each, which do not contract regularly
in vitro; in the intestine (middle third) of Eisenia lonnbergi (Beers,
1938).
Genus Protoradiophrya Rossolimo. Elongate; near anterior end
a shallow depression along which is found a spicule which may be
split posteriorly. A few species.
P. fissispicidata Cheissin (Fig. 298, g). 180-350/i long; in the ante-
rior portion of intestine of Styloscolex sp.
Genus Mrazekiella Kijenskij. Elongate; anterior portion broad
with sucker-like depression, posterior region cylindrical; anterior
end with attaching organella composed of arrowhead and skeletal
ribs; macronucleus an elongate band; contractile vacuoles dis-
tributed. A few species.
M. intermedia Cheissin (Fig. 298, h). 180-260/* long; in the anterior
portion of intestine of Branchiura coccinea.
Genus Mesnilella Cepede. Elongate; with one or more long spicules
imbedded in endoplasm; contractile vacuoles in 1-2 rows. Numerous
species.
M. rostrata Rossolimo (Fig. 298, i). 100-1200/x long; in the intes-
tine of various oligochaetes (Styloscolex, Teleuscolex, Lamprodrilus,
Agriodrilus, etc.).
M. clavata (Leidy) (Fig. 298, j). 100-200/x long; in the intestine of
Lumbricus variegatus.
References
Beers, C. D.: (1938) Structure and division in the astomatous cili-
ate Metaradiophrya asymmetrica n. sp. J. Elisha Mitch. Sc.
Soc, 54:111.
Bush, Mildred: (1933) The morphology of the ciliate Haptophrya
michiganensis, etc. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 52:223.
Cepede, C.: (1910) Recherches sur les infusoires astomes: etc. Arch.
zool. exper. g6n., Ser. 5, 3:341.
— (1923) V, VI. Bull. Soc. Zool. France, 48:105.
Cheissin, E.: (1930) Morphologische und systematische Studien
ueber Astomata aus dem Baikalsee. Arch. Protist., 70:531.
Conklin, C: (1930) Anoplophrya marylandensis, etc. Biol. Bull.,
58:176.
Delphy, Jean: (1936) Sur les Anoplophryimorphes. III. Bull. Mus.
Nat. d'hist. nat., 8:516.
Faure-Fremiet, E.: (1950) Morphologie compared et systematique
des cilies. Bull. soc. zool. France, 75:109.
Heidenreich, E.: (1935) Untersuchungen an parasitischen Ciliaten
aus Anneliden. I, II. Arch. Protist., 84:315.
EUCILIATA, HOLOTRICHA 699
Hovasse, R. : (1950) Spirobutschliella chattoni, etc. Bull. Inst.
Ocean ogr., no. 962.
Jepps, Margaret W. : (1931) On a parasitic ciliate from Spirula.
Danish "Dana"-Exp. 1920-1922. Oceanogr. Rep., 8:35.
Kay, Marie W. : (1946) Observations on Dogielella renalis, etc. J.
Parasitol., 32:197.
Keilin, D.: (1920) On the occurrence of a supplementary chromatic
body in Mawpasclla nova, etc. Parasitology, 12:92.
MacLennan, R. F.: (1944) The pulsatory cycle of the contractile
canal in the ciliate Haptophrya. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 63: 187.
Meyer, S. L.: (1939) Description of Haptophrya virginiensis, etc.
J. Parasitol., 25:141.
Miyashita, Y.: (1933) Drei neue parasitische Infusorien aus dem
Darme einer japanischen Susswasseroligochaete. Ann. Zool.
Japon., 14:127.
Poljnskij, J. L: (1925) Drei neue parasitische Infusorien aus
dem Parenchym einiger Mollusken und Turbellarien. Arch.
Protist., 52:381.
(1926) Die conjugation von Dogielella sphaerii. Ibid., 53:
407.
Puytorac, P. de (1951) Sur le presence d'un argyrome chez quel-
ques cili£s astomes. Arch. zool. exper. gen., 88(N.-R) :49.
Raabe, Z.: (1949) Recherches sur les cilies thigmotriches. IV. Ann.
Univ. Maria Curie-Sklodowska, Sec. C, 4:195.
Rossolimo, L. L.: (1926) Parasitische Infusorien aus dem Baikalsee.
Arch. Protist., 54:468.
and Perzewa, T. A.: (1929) Zur Kenntnis einiger astomen
Infusorien: etc. Ibid., 67:237.
Summers, F. M. and Kidder, G. W.: (1936) Taxonomic and cytolo-
gical studies on the ciliates associated with the amphipod family
Orchestiidae from the Woods Hole district. Ibid., 86:379.
Wermel, E. W.: (1928) Untersuchungen ueber Chormidina elegans.
Ibid., 64:419.
Williams, G. W. : (1942) Observations on several species of Meta-
radiophrya. J. Morphol., 70:545.
Woodhead, A. E.: (1928) Haptophrya michiganensis sp.nov. J.
Parasitol., 14:177.
Chapter 32
Order 1 Holotricha Stein (continued)
Suborder 2 Gymnostomata Biitschli
Cytostome at or near anterior end Tribe 1 Prostomata
Cytostome not at or near anterior end
Cytostome lateral, narrow or round . . . Tribe 2 Pleurostomata (p. 723)
Cytostome ventral, in anterior half. . . .Tribe 3 Hypostomata (p. 728)
Tribe 1 Prostomata Schewiakoff
Free-living
Cytostomal region compressed; bearing trichites
Family 1 Spathidiidae
Cytostomal region not compressed
Cytostome opens into anterior receptaculum ; with lorica
Family 2 Metacystidae (p. 703)
Cytostome at tip of apical cone Family 3 Didiniidae (p. 703)
Cytostome otherwise
Body covered with regularly arranged, perforated, ectoplasmic
plates Family 4 Colepidae (p. 706)
Body not covered with plates
With radially arranged tentacles
Family 5 Actinobolinidae (p. 707)
Without tentacles Family 6 Holophryidae (p. 708)
Parasitic in mammalian gut Family 7 Butschliidae (p. 717)
Family 1 Spathidiidae Kahl
Genus Spathidium Dujardin. Flask- or sack-shaped; compressed;
anterior region slightly narrowed into a neck, and truncate; ciliation
uniform; cytostome occupies whole anterior end; contractile vacuole
posterior; macronucleus elongate; several micronuclei; trichocysts
around cytostome and scattered throughout; fresh or salt water.
Numerous species.
S. spathula Miiller (Figs. 21, c; 299, a, b). Up to 250ju long; fresh
water. Morphology and food-capture (Woodruff and Spencer, 1922) ;
conjugation (Woodruff and Spencer, 1924).
Genus Paraspathidium Noland. Form resembles that of Spathid-
ium; but cytostome an elongate slit, bordered on one side by strong
cilia and on the other by weaker cilia and a shelf-like, nonundulatory
membrane; 2 longer cilia on dorsal edge near anterior tip; anterior
1/3 compressed; posterior 2/3 nearly cylindrical; 2 oval macro nuclei,
each with a micronucleus; cytoplasm filled with numerous refractile
granules; about 70 rows of cilia; contractile vacuole terminal; salt
water. One species.
P. trichostomum N. (Fig. 299, c-e). About 220/x long; macronuclei
44/x long each; salt water; Florida (Noland, 1937).
700
HOLOTRICHA
701
Fig. 299. a, b, Spathidium spathula, X200 (Woodruff and Spencer);
c-e, Paraspathidium trichostomum (Noland) (c, X130; d, cytostomal re-
gion X400; e, portion of pellicle, X1000); f, Spathidioides sulcata, X260
(Brodsky); g, Enchelydium fusidens, X240 (Kahl); h, Homalozoon vermi-
culare, X80 (Stokes); i, Cr another idiuni taeniatum, X300 (Schewiakoff) ; j,
Penardiella crassa, X210 (Kahl); k, Perispria ovum, X665 (Dewey and
Kidder); 1, P. strephosoma, X280 (Kahl); m, Legendrea bellerophon, X190
(Penard).
Genus Spathidioides Brodsky (Spathidiella Kahl). Somewhat
similar to Spathidium; but oral ridge highly flattened on ventral
side and conspicuously developed into a wart-like swelling on dorsal
side; this knob contains trichocysts; sapropelic.
S. sulcata B. (Fig. 299, /). 65-85/* long; posterior end pointed,
702 PROTOZOOLOGY
highly flattened; anterior end elevated at one side where cytostome
and cytopharynx with 10 rods are located.
Genus Enchelydium Kahl. Somewhat similar to Spathidium; but
oral ridge forms a swollen ring with trichocysts; the ridge circular or
elongated in cross-section; when swimming, the organisms appear
as if cytostome is opened; with dorsal bristle; fresh water.
E. fusidens K. (Fig. 299, g). Cylindrical, contractile; cilia dense
and rather long; macronucleus reniform, often appears as composed
of 2 spherical parts; contractile vacuole terminal; oral ring with
spindle-like trichocysts; food vacuoles not seen; extended body 110m
long; contracted 75m; sapropelic.
Genus Homalozoon Stokes. Elongate; cilia conspicuous on flat-
tened right side; left side swollen or keeled; fresh water.
H. vermiculare (S.) (Fig. 299, h). Extended body 450-850m long;
vermiform; macronucleus band form; contractile vacuoles about 30
or more in a row; standing fresh water.
Genus Cranotheridium Schewiakoff. Spathidium-like organisms;
anterior end obliquely truncate, near the extended side of which is
located the cytostome; cytopharynx surrounded by a group of
trichites; fresh water.
C. taeniatum S. (Fig. 299, i). Anterior end flattened; with a group
of trichites; macronucleus long band-form; with many micro nuclei;
contractile vacuole terminal; ciliation and striation close; colorless;
movement slow; about 170m long; fresh water.
Genus Penardiella Kahl. Ellipsoid, somewhat compressed; oral
ridge slightly oblique; a girdle with trichocysts encircling the body;
fresh water.
P. crassa (Penard) (Fig. 299, j). Elongate ellipsoid, flattened; tri-
chocysts in posterior portion of girdle are longer and those in the
dorsal region are fewer in number and shorter; macronucleus sau-
sage-form; contractile vacuole posterior, in front of the girdle; body
160m by 50m; sapropelic.
Genus Perispira Stein. Ovoid or cylindrical; oral ridge turns
right-spirally down to posterior end.
P. ovum S. (Fig. 299, k). Oval; starved individuals 30-60m by 20-
45m, well-fed forms 65-120m by 50-1 10m; spiral ridge one complete
turn; cytostome in the anterior end of the ridge, with a number of
delicate trichites; ovoid to elongate macronucleus; a micronucleus; a
terminal contractile vacuole; in fresh water (Dewey and Kidder,
1940). The ciliate was cultured bacteria-free by feeding on sterile
Euglena gracilis.
P. strephosoma Stokes (Fig. 299, /). Oval to cylindrical; about 85m
long; standing water with sphagnum.
HOLOTRICHA 703
Genus Legendrea Faure-Fremiet. Ellipsoid or ovoid; a peripheral
zone with small tentacular processes bearing trichocysts.
L. bellerophon Penard (Fig. 299, m). 100-180/*; fresh water.
Genus Teuthophrys Chatton and Beauchamp. Body rounded pos-
teriorly, anterior end with 3 radially equidistant, spirally curved
arms (counter-clockwise when viewed from posterior end); the de-
pressions between arms form furrows; cytostome apical, at the inner
bases of arms; contractile vacuole terminal; ciliation uniform, ex-
cept the inner surfaces of arms where longer cilia as well as tricho-
cysts are present; with zoochlorellae; macronucleus rope-shaped
and wound; micro nucleus unobserved. One species.
T. trisula C and B. (Fig. 300, a). 150-300/z long; length: width
3 : 1-2:1 ; ponds in Pennsylvania and California (Wenrich, 1929).
Family 2 Metacystidae Kahl
Genus Metacystis Cohn. Oblong; ciliation general, except poste-
rior end; ciliary circle around cytostome; usually one caudal cilium;
with a large posterior vesicle containing turbid fluid.
M. truncata C. (Fig. 300, 6). Elongate, not much difference in body
width at different levels; with about 12 furrow rings; body length up
to 30/x; salt water.
Genus Vasicola Tatem (Pelamphora Lauterborn). Ovoid with
caudal cilia; lorica flask-shape, highly ringed; cytostome at anterior
end, its lip with 4 rows of long cilia; body surface with shorter cilia;
macronucleus round, central, with a micro nucleus; contractile vacu-
ole near macronucleus; fresh or salt water.
V. ciliata T. (Pelamphora butschlii L.) (Fig. 300, c). Body about
100m long; sapropelic in fresh water.
Genus Pelatractus Kahl. Somewhat similar to Vasicola; but with-
out lorica or caudal cilia; with a terminal vacuole; without lip of
Vasicola; sapropelic.
P. (Vasicola) grandis (Penard) (Fig. 300, d). Free-swimming;
elongated fusiform; numerous contractile vacuoles on one side; body
125-220/x long; sapropelic in fresh water.
Family 3 Didiniidae Poche
Genus Didinium Stein (Monodinium Fabre-Domergue) . Barrel-
shaped; one to several girdles of cilia (pectinellae) ; expansible cyto-
stome at the tip of a proboscis, supported by a dense layer of long
trichites; macronucleus horseshoe-shaped; two to three and oc-
casionally four micronuclei, close to macronucleus; contractile vacu-
ole terminal; fresh or salt water. Several species.
704
PROTOZOOLOGY
D. nasutum (Miiller) (Figs. 21, e, f; 40; 75; 91; 300, e-g). 80-200m
long; endoplasm highly granulated; with two girdles of pectinelles;
feeds on Paramecium ; spherical cysts (Fig. 75) with three walls, 60-
80 /x in diameter; fresh water. Morphology (Thon, 1905; Calkins,
1915; Beers, 1935); encystment, food requirement and conjugation
(Beers, 1927, 1930, 1933, 1935); longevity of cysts (Beers, 1937);
Fig. 300. a, Teuthophrys trisula, X330 (Wenrich); b, Metacystis trun-
cata, X270 (Cohn); c, Vasicola ciliata, X250 (Kahl); d, Pelatr actus
grandis, X170 (Penard); e-g, Didinium nasutum, X170 (Kudo); h, D.
balbianii, X290 (Butschli) ; i-k, Mesodinium pulex (i, X670; j, oral view;
k, oral tentacles, X1330) (Noland); 1, m, M. acarus (1, X670; m, oral
tentacles, X1330) (Noland); n, Askenasia faurei, X530 (Faur^-Fremiet);
o, Cyclotrichium meunieri, X780 (Powers).
HOLOTRICHA
705
excystment (Beers, 1945, 1946) (Fig. 75); fibrillar structures (ten
Kate, 1927); meiosis in conjugation (p. 206) (Prandtl, 1906).
D. balbianii (Fab re-Do mergue) (Fig. 300, h). 60-100ju long; a
single girdle of pectinelles near anterior end; fresh water.
Genus Mesodinium Stein. Ovoid; an equatorial furrow marks
conical anterior and spherical posterior parts; in the furrow are in-
serted 2 (or 1) rings of strong cilia; one directed anteriorly and the
other posteriorly; with tentacle-like retractile processes around the
cytostome; fresh and salt water.
M. pulex (Claparede and Lachmann) (Fig. 300, i-k). Oral ten-
tacles with trifurcate tips; body 20-3 1/x long; salt water; Florida.
Noland states that the freshwater forms are 21-38^ long.
M. acarus Stein (Fig. 300, I, m). Oral tentacles with capitate tip;
10-16m long; salt water, Florida (Noland, 1937).
Fig. 301. Cyclotrichium meunieri (Bary and Stuckey). a, diagram of or-
ganism in life, X665; b, a composite figure from stained specimens, X 1130
(c, cirri; ch, chromatophores; cr, ciliary row; cy, "cytostome"; py, pyre-
noid).
Genus Askenasia Blochmann. Resembles Didinium; ovoid; with
2 closely arranged rings of long cilia; anterior ring made up of some
60 pectinelles which are directed anteriorly; posterior ring composed
of about the same number of long cilia directed posteriorly and
arranged parallel to body surface; fresh or salt water.
A. faurei Kahl (Fig. 300, n). Body oval, anterior end broadly
rounded; posterior region conical; pectinelles about 13/x long; the
second band (10/z) of long cilia; an ellipsoid macronucleus; a micro-
nucleus; body about 58-60^ long; fresh water.
Genus Cyclotrichium Meunier. Body spheroid to ellipsoid with a
large non-ciliated oral field which is surronded by a pectinelle-ring,
706 PROTOZOOLOGY
one end dome-like, and the other truncate; macronucleus sausage-
shaped; in salt water.
C. meunieri Powers (Fig. 300, o; 301). Anterior end broadly
rounded; posterior region conical; cytostome obscure; oral funnel at
anterior end in a depression; broad filiated band at about middle;
ectoplasm with concave chromatophore (covered with haemato-
chrome) plates on surface, below which numerous pyrenoids occur in
vacuoles; endoplasm with numerous granules; 25-42^ by 18-34^;
Powers (1932) found that the 'red water' in Frenchman Bay in
Maine was caused by the swarming of this organism. The same
author held later that this ciliate may be the same as Mesodinium
rubrum as observed by Leegaard (1920).
Bary and Stuckey (1950) found this organism in an extensive area
of brownish-maroon water in Wellington Harbour in April and
August, 1948. Their description follows: body 22-47/x by 19-41/z;
anterior half dome-like, posterior half expanded; posterior end trun-
cate; "cytostome"; greenish-maroon chromatophores close to body
surface; no ingested food material.
Family 4 Colepidae Claparede and Lachmann
Genus Coleps Nitzsch. Body-form constant, barrel-shaped; with
regularly arranged ectoplasmic plates; cytostome at anterior end,
surrounded by slightly longer cilia; often spinous projections at or
near posterior end; 1 or more long caudal cilia, often overlooked;
fresh or salt water. Many species (Noland, 1925, 1937; Kahl, 1930).
C. hirtus (Miiller) (Fig. 302, a). 40-65/x long; 15-20 rows of plate-
lets; 3 posterior processes; fresh water.
C. elongatus Ehrenberg (Fig. 302, b). 40-55ju long; slender; about
13 rows (Noland, 1925) or 14-17 rows (Kahl) of platelets; 3 posterior
processes; fresh water.
C. bicuspis Noland (Fig. 302, c). About 55m long; 16 rows of plate-
lets; 2 posterior processes; fresh water.
C. octospinus N. (Fig. 302, d). 80-1 10^ long; 8 posterior spines;
about 24 rows of platelets; Geiman (1931) found this organism in an
acid marsh pond and noted variation in number and location of ac-
cessory spines; fresh water.
C. spiralis N. (Fig. 302, e). About 23 longitudinal rows of platelets
slightly spirally twisted; posterior spines drawn together; a long
caudal cilium; about 50/z long; salt water; Florida (Noland, 1937).
C. heteracanthus N. (Fig. 302, /). Anterior processes only on one
side; posterior spines; caudal cilium; about 90/x by 35/x; salt water;
Florida.
HOLOTRICHA
707
Genus Tiarina Bergh. Somewhat similar to Coleps, but posterior
end tapering to a point; salt water.
T.fusas (Claparede and Lachmann) (Fig. 302, g). 85-135/* long.
Family 5 Actinobolinidae Kent
Genus Actinobolina Strand (Actinobolus Stein). Ovate or spheri-
cal; ciliation uniform; extensible tentacles among cilia; contractile
vacuole terminal; macronucleus curved band; fresh water.
A. vorax (Wenrich) (Fig. 302, h). Body 100-200/* long; elongate
oval to spheroid; yellowish brown in color; cytostome at anterior
end; contractile vacuole terminal; macronucleus rope-like; 30-60
Fig. 302. a, Coleps hirtus, X530 (Noland);b, C. elongatus, X530 (No-
land); c, C. bicuspis, X530 (Noland); d, C. octospinus, X530 (Noland);
e, C. spiralis, X400 (Noland); f, C. heter acanthus, X400 (Noland);
g, Tiarina fusus, X530 (Faure-Fremiet) ; h, Actinobolina vorax, X300
(Wenrich); i, Dactylochlamys pisciformis, X330 (Kahl); j, Enchehjomor-
pha vermicularis, X670 (Kahl).
708 PROTOZOOLOGY
ciliary rows; about 30 tentacles in each ciliary row; tentacles may be
extended to twice the diameter of the body or be completely with-
drawn; feeds chiefly on rotifers which stop all movements as though
completely paralyzed upon coming in contact with the tentacles
(Wenrich, 1929a).
Genus Dactylochlamys Lauterborn. Body spindle-form, though
variable; posterior end drawn out into tail; pellicle with 8-12 un-
dulating spiral ridges on which tentacle-like processes and long cilia
are alternately situated; these processes are retractile (Kahl) and
similar in structure to those of Suctoria; cytostome has not been
detected; possibly allied to Suctoria; fresh water. One species.
D. pisciformis L. (Fig. 302, i). Body 80-120/x long.
Genus Enchelyomorpha Kahl. Conical, compressed; posterior end
broadly rounded; anterior portion narrow; cilia on ring-furrows; an-
terior half with unretractile short tentacles; cytostome not noted;
macro nucleus with a central endosome surrounded by spherules;
contractile vacuole terminal, large.
E. vermicularis (Smith) (Fig. 302, j). Body 30-45/x ; fresh and brack-
ish water.
Family 6 Holophryidae Schouteden
Genus Holophrya Ehrenberg. Oval, globose or ellipsoidal; ciliation
uniform; sometimes longer cilia at the anterior or posterior region;
systostome circular, simple, without any ciliary ring around it;
cytopharynx with or without trichites or trichocysts; fresh or salt
water. Numerous species.
H. simplex Schewiakoff (Fig. 304, a). Ellipsoidal; 18-20 ciliary
rows; cilia uniformly long; cytostome small; cytopharynx without
trichocysts or trichites; contractile vacuole and cytopyge posterior;
macronucleus large, round; 34yu by 18/x; fresh water.
Genus Lagynophrya Kahl. Resembles Holophrya; small elongate
ovoid to short cylindrical; one side convex, the other more or less
flattened; cytopharynx terminates anteriorly in a small cone-like
process which may or may not be distinct; stagnant fresh or salt
water. Several species.
L. mutans K. (Fig. 304, b). Body plastic; oval to cylindrical;
colorless; narrowly striated; oval cone hemispherical without any
trichocysts; body about 90ju long, when contracted about 65ju in
diameter; among decaying leaves in fresh water.
Genus Ichthyophthirius Fouquet. Body oval; ciliation uniform;
pellicle longitudinally striated; cytostome at anterior end, with a
short cytopharynx with cilia; horseshoe-shaped macronucleus;
HOLOTRICHA
709
micronucleus adhering to macronucleus; macronucleus undergoes re-
organization by discarding small chromatin masses (Haas, 1934); no
division within the host body; multiplication within cyst which is
formed after dropping off the fish skin and in which numerous (up to
Fig. 303. Ichthyophthirius ?mdtijiliis. a, free-swimming individual, X75
(Butschli); b-e, development within cyst; f, a young individual, X400
(Fouquet); g, section through a fin of infected carp showing numerous
parasites, XlO (Kudo); h, a catfish, Ameiurus albidus, heavily infected by
the ciliate (Stiles, 1894).
1000) ciliated bodies (30-45^ in diameter) are produced; conjugation
has been reported; parasitic in the integument of freshwater and
marine fishes; in aquarium, host fish may suffer death; widely dis-
tributed.
/. multifiliis F. (Fig. 303). 100-1000^ long; ovoid; produces pus-
tules in the epidermis or gills; cytostome is large, 30-40^ in diameter.
710 PROTOZOOLOGY
Pearson (1932) and Kudo (1934) reported extensive infections in
large open ponds in Indiana and Illinois and Butcher (1941, 1943)
noted infections in many yearling trout in hatcheries in 1939 and
1940. MacLennan (1935, 1935a, 1937, 1942) observed that the grown
trophozoites leave the host epithelium and encyst on the bottom of
aquarium; the cytostome is absorbed; the body protoplasm divides
into 100-1000 small spherical ciliated cells, 18-22^ in diameter,
which presently metamorphose into elongated forms, measuring
about 40^ to 10/x. These young ciliates break through the cyst wall
and seek new host fish by active swimming. The young ciliates are
able to attack the fish integument for at least 96 hours, though their
infectivity decreases markedly after 48 hours.
Sikama (1938) observed a similar organism on 44 species of ma-
rine fishes. This ciliate was somewhat smaller in dimensions, meas-
uring up to 452m by 360/z, and possessed a macronucleus typically
constricted into four beads. Fibrillar structures (ten Kate, 1927).
Genus Bursella Schmidt. Oval; anterior end broadly and ob-
liquely truncate where a large ciliated groove-like pit occurs; ridges
of pit contractile; cilia short; macronucleus, spherical to ellipsoidal;
several micronuclei; endoplasm reticulated; with symbiotic algae;
ectoplasm with trichocysts; fresh water.
B. spumosa S. 240-560^ long; freshwater pond.
Genus Spasmostoma Kahl. Somewhat similar to Holophrya;
cytostome with flaps which beat alternately; ciliation uniform.
S. viride K. (Fig. 304, c). Spherical or oval; always with green food
vacuoles containing Euglena and allied flagellates; cytostome at
anterior end; cytopharynx with trichocysts, which are extensible
at the time when food is taken in; cilia on about 20 rows, near cyto-
stome somewhat longer; macronucleus round; body 50-75^ long;
sapropelic.
Genus Urotricha Claraparede and Lachmann (Balanitozoon
Stokes). Body oval to ellipsoidal or conical; with 1 or more longer
caudal cilia; ciliation uniform, except in posterior region which may
be without cilia; cytostome at or near anterior end, surrounded by
ring of heavier cilia; contractile vacuole, posterior; macronucleus
spherical; fresh water.
U. agilis (Stokes) (Fig. 304, d). Body small; about 15-20m long;
swimming as well as leaping movement; standing fresh water with
sphagnum.
U. farcta C. and L. (Fig. 304, e). Body 20-30/x long; fresh water.
Kahl considers U. parvula Penard and Balanitozoon gyrans Stokes
are identical with this species.
HOLOTRICHA
711
Fig. 304. a, Holophrya simplex, X800 (Roux); b, Lagynophrya mutans,
X380 (Kahl); c, Spasmostoma viride, X330 (Kahl); d, Urotricha agilis,
X530 (Stokes); e, U. far da, X470 (Lieberkiihn); f, g, Plagiocampa ma-
rina (Noland) (f, X400; g, anterior end, X670); h, Chilophrya utahensis,
X840 (Pack); i, C. labiata, X500 (Edmondson); j, Platyophrya lata, X280
(Kahl); k, Stephanopogon colpoda, non-ciliate side, X500 (Kahl); 1,
Prorodon discolor, X330 (Biitschli); m, Pseudoprorodon farctus, X270
(Roux); n, o, Coelosomides marina, X245 (Faure-Fremiet) (n, silver-im-
pregnated surface view; o, optical section); p, q, Placus socialis, X530
(Noland) (p, anterior end view).
712 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Plagiocampa Schewiakoff. Ovoid, spindle-form or cylin-
drical; slightly asymmetrical; cytostome at anterior end in a slit;
right ridge thickened and lip-like, with about 8 long cilia; with or
without long caudal cilium; fresh or salt water. Several species.
P. marina Kahl (Fig. 304, /, g). Cylindrical; oval macronucleus
central; contractile vacuole terminal; a caudal cilium ; 55-90/* long ;
salt water; Florida (Noland).
Genus Chilophrya Kahl. Ovoid or ellipsoid ; cytostome at anterior
end, surrounded by protrusible rods; on one side there is a lip-like
ectoplasmic projection; fresh or salt water.
C. (Prorodon) utahensis (Pack) (Fig. 304, h). Body ellipsoid, some-
what asymmetrical; comparatively small number of furrows; cilia-
tion uniform; a finger-like process in front of cytostome; macro-
nucleus small, central; contractile vacuole terminal; endoplasm
with zoochlorellae; encystment common; cysts highly sensitive to
light; 50m long; Great Salt Lake, Utah (Pack).
C. (Urotricha) labiata (Edmondson) (Fig. 304, i). Body ovoid;
a lip-like process in front of cytostome; macronucleus oblong, central;
contractile vacuole terminal; 30/* long; fresh water.
Genus Platyophrya Kahl. Compressed; flask-like or elongate
ovoid; asymmetrical; dorsal surface convex, ventral surface flat or
partly concave; spiral striation; position and direction of cytostome
variable; macronucleus round; contractile vacuole terminal; fresh
water.
P. lata K. (Fig. 304, j). Highly compressed; colorless; many
striae; on left edge of cytostome 5-6 cirrus-like projections and on
right edge many short bristles; 105/z long; fresh water with sphagnum.
Genus Stephanopogon Entz. Somewhat resembles Platyophrya;
compressed; cytostome at anterior extremity which is drawn out;
cytostome surrounded by lobed membranous structures; salt water.
S. colpoda E. (Fig. 304, k). Longitudinal striae on 'neck' 4-8 in
number; 2 contractile vacuoles; 50-70/* long; creeping movement;
salt water among algae.
Genus Prorodon Ehrenberg (Rhagadostoma Kahl). Ovoid to
cylindrical; ciliation uniform, with sometimes longer caudal cilia;
oral basket made up of double trichites which end deep in ectoplasm,
oval in cross-section; contractile vacuole terminal; macronucleus
massive, spherical or oval; fresh or salt water. Numerous species.
P. discolor (E.) (Fig. 304, I). Ovoidal; 45-55 ciliary rows; macro-
nucleus ellipsoid; micronucleus hemispherical; contractile vacuole
terminal; 100-130/* long; fresh water; Kahl (1930) states that it oc-
curs also in brackish water containing 2.5 per cent salt; sapropelic
HOLOTRICHA 713
form in salt water is said to possess often long caudal cilia.
P. griseus Claparede and Lachmann. Oblong; 165-200/i long;
fresh water.
Genus Pseudoprorodon Blochmann. Similar to Prorodon; usually
flattened; one side convex, the other concave; ectoplasm conspicu-
ously alveolated; trichocysts grouped; 1 or more contractile vacu-
oles posterior-lateral or distributed, with many pores; macronucleus
elongate; cytopharynx with trichites; fresh or salt water.
P. farctus (Claparede and Lachmann) (Figs. 304, m). Ellip-
soid; cytostome surrounded by long trichites; contractile vacuole
posterior, with secondary vacuoles; macronucleus elongate; body
150-200/x long; fresh water.
Genus Coelosomides Anigstein (Coelosoma A.). General appear-
ance similar to Prorodon and Holophrya; body cylindrical; ciliation
uniform; at anterior end, a conspicuous ciliated vestibule runs down
deep; mouth and cytopharynx; endoplasm vacuolated; a macronu-
cleus and a micronucleus; marine.
C. marina A. (Fig. 304, n, o). About 200/x long; central endoplasm
highly vacuolated; periphery finely reticulated; macronucleus elon-
gate; micronucleus compact (Anigstein, 1911; Faure-Fremiet, 1950).
Genus Placus Cohn (Spathidiopis Fabre-Domergue ; Thoraco-
phrya Kahl). Body small; ellipsoid or ovoid; somewhat compressed;
pellicle with conspicuous spiral furrows; cytostome a narrow slit at
anterior extremity; with strong cilia on right margin of slit; cytopyge
a long narrow slit with cilia on both sides; macronucleus ellipsoid
to sausage-form; contractile vacuole posterior; salt, brackish or
fresh water.
P. socialis (Fabre-Domergue) (Fig. 304, p, q). 40-50/* by 28-32/t,
about 22^ thick; salt water; Florida (Noland, 1937).
Genus Lacrymaria Ehrenberg. Polymorphic; cylindrical, spindle-
or flask-shaped; with a long contractile proboscis; cytostome round;
ciliary rows meridional or spiral to right; near cytostome a ring-like
constriction with a circle of longer cilia ; cytopharynx usually dis-
tinct; contractile vacuole terminal; fresh or salt water. Numerous
species.
L. olor (Miiller) (Fig. 305, a). Elongate; highly contractile; 2
macro nuclei; 2 contractile vacuoles; extended forms 400-500/* up
to 1.2 mm. long; when dividing, long neck is formed sidewise so that
it appears as oblique division (Penard) ; fresh and salt water.
L. lagenula Claparede and Lachmann (Fig. 305, b). Body flask-
shape; neck highly extensible; striation distinct, spiral when con-
tracted; macronucleus short sausage-like or horseshoe-shape; endo-
714 PROTOZOOLOGY
plasm granulated; body 70m long, up to 150m (Kahl) ; salt water.
L. coronata C. and L. (Fig. 305, c). Large; neck extensible; body
form variable, but usually with bluntly rounded posterior end; endo-
plasm appears dark; striae spiral; 85-100/x long; salt and brackish
water.
Genus Enchelys Hill. Flask-shape; anterior end obliquely trun-
cate; cytostome slit-like, rarely round; fresh or salt water. Several
species (Faur6-Fremiet, 1944).
E. curvilata (Smith) (Fig. 305, d). Elongate ovoid; posterior end
rounded; longitudinal striation; macronucleus band-form; contrac-
tile vacuole terminal; endoplasm yellowish, granulated; about 150m
long; fresh water among algae.
Genus Crobylura Andre. Body when extended spindle-form, with
truncate ends; when contracted, thimble-form; cilia short and thick;
several long caudal cilia; slit-like cytostome at anterior end; no
apparent cytopharynx; macronucleus irregularly rounded, hard to
stain; micro nucleus not observed; contractile vacuole latero-pos-
terior; fresh water. One species.
C. pelagica A. (Fig. 305, e). Body 65-95m long; in freshwater
plankton.
Genus Microregma Kahl. Small, ovoid; dorsal side convex;
ventral side flat; with a small slit-like cytostome near anterior end;
with or without caudal bristle; fresh or salt water.
M. {Enchelys) auduboni (Smith) (Fig. 305, /). Body plastic;
coarsely ciliated; caudal bristle thin; cytostome at anterior end,
surrounded by longer cilia; cytopharynx small with trichocysts;
round macronucleus central; contractile vacuole near posterior end;
40-55m ; fresh water.
Genus Chaenea Quennerstedt. Elongate; anterior end drawn
out into a narrow truncated 'head'; but without any ring furrow;
'head' spirally or longitudinally furrowed; often with longer cilia
directed anteriorly; cytostome terminal, not lateral; cytopharynx
with trichocysts; body striation meridional, or slightly right spiral;
macronucleus often distributed; fresh or salt water.
C. limicola Lauterborn (Fig. 305, g). Anterior half of body broad;
posterior end drawn out into a point; contractile; cytopharynx with
trichocysts; many trichocysts in endoplasm; contractile vacuoles
in a row; 130-150m long; stagnant fresh water.
Genus Pithothorax Kahl. Slender, barrel-shaped; with firm pellicle;
a fairly long caudal bristle-, contractile vacuole in posterior half ; cilia-
tion coarse and not over entire body surface; resembles Coleps; fresh
water.
HOLOTRICHA
715
P. ovatus K. (Fig. 305, h). Caudal bristle breaks off easily; body
30/n long; fresh water among decaying vegetation.
Genus Rhopalophrya Kahl. Cylindrical; furrows widely separated;
slightly asymmetrical; curved ventrally; dorsal surface convex;
ventral surface flat or slightly concave; anterior end with 'neck'; 2
spherical macronuclei; fresh or salt water; sapropelic.
b mSM. .#!
v.v-' • . .•.•••••'■:-..--.v.,:C".i,..i"
Fig. 305. a, Lacrymaria olor, X170 (Roux); b, L. lagenula (contracted),
X400 (Calkins); c, L. coronata (contracted), X530 (Calkins); d, Enchelys
curvilata, X200 (Smith); e, Crobylura pelagica, X500 (Andr6); f, Micro-
regma auduboni X500 (Smith); g, Chaenea limicola, X310 (Penard); h,
Pithothorax ovahis, X550 (Kahl); i, Trachelophyllum clavatum, X100
(Stokes).
R. salina Kirby (Fig. 306, a). Cylindrical, tapering gradually to a
truncated anterior end, slightly curved ventrally; cilia (6-10/* long)
sparsely distributed; 2 macronuclei, spherical; 29-55/z long; 16-21/x
in diameter; in concentrated brine (salts "34.8 per cent; pH 9.48")
from Searles Lake; California (Kirby, 1934).
Genus Enchelyodon Clapar&de and Lachmann. Elongated; cy-
716
PROTOZOOLOGY
lindrical, ovoid or flask-shaped; some with head-like prolongation;
cytopharynx with trichites; cilia long at anterior end; fresh or salt
water. Several species.
E. californicus Kahl. 120-130ju long; elongate ovoid to nearly
cylindrical; not distinctly flattened; macro nucleus horseshoe-like,
with a large micronucleus; in mosses; California.
Genus Trachelophyllum Claparede and Lachmann. Elongate; flat-
tened; flexible, ribbon-like; anterior end neck-like and tip truncate;
cytopharynx narrow, round in cross-section, with trichocysts; ciliary
rows widely apart; 2 macro nuclei, each with a micronucleus; con-
tractile vacuole terminal; fresh or salt water. Several species.
T. clavatum Stokes (Fig. 305, i). About 200/x long; fresh water.
Genus Ileonema Stokes (Monomastix Roux). Body flattened;
flask-shaped; somewhat similar to Trachelophyllum, but there is a
remarkable flagellum-like process extending from anterior end;
cytopharynx with trichocysts; fresh water.
I. dispar S. (Fig. 306, 6). Highly contractile; anterior flagellum
half body length, whose basal portion spirally furrowed; cytostome
f I
Fig. 306. a, Rhopalophrya salina, X1040 (Kirby); b, Ileonema dispar,
X190 (Stokes); c, /. ciliata, X800 (Roux); d, e, Trachelocerca phaenicop-
terus (Kahl) (d, whole organism, X120; e, anterior end, X260); f, g, T,
subviridis (Nolan d) (f, whole organism, XI 55; g, the nucleus, X480).
HOLOTRICHA 717
at base of the flagellum; cytopharynx spindle-form with trichites; 2
contractile vacuoles and cytopyge posterior; ovoid macronucleus;
movement slow creeping; about 120/* long; fresh water among algae.
I. ciliata (Roux) (Fig. 306, c). 75/* by 14/*; fresh water.
Genus Trachelocerca Ehrenberg. Elongate, vermiform or flask-
shaped; more or less extensible, with drawn-out anterior end; with-
out any ring-furrow which marks the 'head' of Lacrymaria, and when
contracted pellicular striae not spiral and no neck as is the case with
Chaenea; salt water. Many species.
T. phoenicopterus Cohn (Fig. 306, d, e). Elongate; extensible and
contractile; neck and tail distinct when contracted; cytostome at
anterior end, surrounded by a ridge containing indistinctly visible
short trichocysts, cytopharynx with trichocysts; macronuclei made
up of 4 radially arranged endosomes suspended in the nucleoplasm
(Gruber, Kahl); micronucleus difficult to make out; contractile
vacuoles apparently in a row, rarely seen; salt water; Woods Hole
(Calkins).
T. subviridis Sauerbrey (Fig. 306,/, g). Highly extensible and con-
tractile; nucleus contains peculiar crystal-like bodies; size variable;
when extended 320-480/* long; salt water. Noland (1937) observed
the organism in a salt spring in Florida.
Family 7 Butschliidae Poche
This family includes species that inhabit the alimentary canal of
mammals; circular cytostome at anterior end, cytopyge usually lo-
cated at posterior end; ciliation uniform or in a few zones; with re-
fractile concrement vacuole (Fig. 31, d) in anterior portion; one or
more contractile vacuoles.
Genus Butschlia Schuberg. Ovoid, anterior end truncate, posterior
end rounded; cytostome at anterior end, surrounded by long cilia;
thick ectoplasm at anterior end; macronucleus spherical micronu-
cleus(?); concretion vacuole; ciliation uniform; in stomach of cattle.
B. parva S. (Fig. 307, a). 30-50/* by 20-30/* Conjugation (Dogiel,
1928).
Genus Blepharoprosthium Bundle. Pyriform, anterior half con-
tractile, ciliated; caudal cilia; macronucleus reniform; in the caecum
and colon of horse.
B. pirrum B. (Fig. 307, 6). 54-86/* by 34-52/* (Hsiung, 1930a).
Genus Didesmis Fiorentini. Anterior end neck-like, with large
cytostome; anterior and posterior ends ciliated; macronucleus ellip-
soid; in the caecum and colon of horse. Species (Hsiung, 1930a).
718
PROTOZOOLOGY
D. quadrata F. (Fig. 307, c). 50-90/z by 33-68/*; with a deep dorsal
groove.
Genus Blepharosphaera Bundle. Spherical or ellipsoidal; ciliation
uniform except in posterior region; caudal cilia; in the caecum and
colon of horse.
Fig. 307. a, Biltschlia parva, X670 (Schuberg); b, Blepharoprosthium
pireum, X470 (Hsiung); c, Didesmis quadrata, X270 (Hsiung); d,
Blepharosphaera intestinalis, X600 (Hsiung); e, Blepharoconus cervicalis,
X360 (Hsiung); f, Bundleia postciliata, X530 (Hsiung); g, Blepharozoum
zonatum, X200 (Gassovsky).
B. intestinalis B. (Fig. 307, d). 38-74M in diameter (Hsiung, 1930a).
Genus Blepharoconus Gassovsky. Oval; small cytostome; cilia on
anterior 1/3-1/2; caudal cilia; macro nucleus ovoid; 3 contractile
vacuoles; cytopharynx with rods; in the colon of horse.
B. cervicalis Hsiung (Fig. 307, e). 56-83 m by 48-70m; Iowa (Hsiung,
1930, 1930a).
Genus Bundleia da Cunha and Muniz. Ellipsoid; cytostome small;
cilia at anterior and posterior ends, posterior cilia much less numer-
ous; in the caecum and colon of horse.
B. postciliata (Bundle) (Fig. 307, /). 30-56m by 17-32M (Hsiung,
1930a).
HOLOTRICHA
719
Genus Polymorphs Dogiel. Flask-shaped; ciliation on anterior re-
gion, a few caudal cilia; macronucleus disc-shaped; contractile vacu-
ole terminal ; in the caecum and colon of horse.
P. ampulla D. (Fig. 308, a). 22-36/* by 13-21 /* (Hsiung, 1930a).
Genus Holophryoides Gassovsky. Oval, with comparatively large
cytostome at anterior end; ciliation uniform; macronucleus small,
Fig. 308. a, Pohjmorpha ampulla, X1170 (Hsiung); b, Holophryoides
ovalis, X410 (Gassovsky); c, Prorodonopsis coli, X700 (Gassovsky);
d, Paraisotrichopsis composita, X450 (Hsiung); e, Sulcoarcus pellucidulus,
X410 (Hsiung); f, Alloiozona trizona, X450 (Hsiung).
ellipsoid; contractile vacuole subterminal; in the colon and caecum
of horse.
H. ovalis (Fiorentini) (Fig. 308, 6). 95-140/* by 65-90/*.
Genus Blepharozoum Gassovsky. Ellipsoid, with attenuated pos-
terior end; ciliation uniform; cytostome near anterior tip; 2 con-
tractile vacuoles; macronucleus small, reniform; in caecum of horse.
B. zonatum G. (Fig. 307, g). 230-245/* by 115-122/* (Hsiung,
1930a).
720 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Prorodonopsis Gassovsky. Pyriform; ciliation uniform; 3
contractile vacuoles; macro nucleus sausage-shaped; in the colon of
horse.
P. coli G. (Fig. 308, c). 55-67/* by 38-45/* (Hsiung, 1930a).
Genus Paraisotrichopsis Gassovsky. Body uniformly ciliated;
spiral groove from anterior to posterior end; in the caecum of horse.
P. composite G. (Fig. 308, d). 43-56/* by 31-40/* (Hsiung, 1930a).
Genus Sulcoarcus Hsiung. Ovoid, compressed ; a short spiral groove
at anterior end; cytostome at ventral end of the groove; cytopyge
terminal; concretion vacuole mid- ventral, contractile vacuole pos-
terior to it; cilia on groove, posterior end and mid-ventral region
(Hsiung, 1935).
S. pellucidulus H. (Fig. 308, e). 33-56/* by 30-40/*; in faeces of
mule.
Genus Alloiozona Hsiung. Cilia in 3 (anterior, equatorial and pos-
terior) zones; in the caecum and colon of horse (Hsiung, 1930, 1930a).
A. trizona H. (Fig. 308,/). 50-90/* by 30-60/*.
Genus Ampullacula Hsiung. Flask-shaped; posterior half bearing
fine, short cilia; neck with longer cilia; in the caecum of horse.
A. ampulla (Fiorentini). About 110/t by 40/* (Hsiung, 1930a).
References
Anigstein, L.: (1911) Ueber zwei neue marine Ciliaten. Arch.
Protist., 24:127.
Bary, B. M. and Stuckey, R. G.: (1950) An occurrence in Welling-
ton Harbour of Cyclotrichium meuvieri Powers, a ciliate causing
red water, etc. Tr. Roy. Soc. New Zealand, 78:86.
Beers, C. D.: (1927) Factors involved in encystment in the ciliate
Didinium nasutum. J. Morphol. Physiol., 43:499.
— ■ (1930) On the possibility of indefinite reproduction in the
ciliate Didinium, etc. Am. Nat., 63:125.
(1933) Diet in relation to depression and recovery in the
ciliate Didinium nasutum. Arch. Protist., 79:101.
(1935) Structural changes during encystment and excyst-
ment. etc. Ibid., 84:133.
(1945) The encystment process in the ciliate Didinium
nasutum. J. Elisha Mitchell Sc. Soc, 61:264.
(1946) Excystment in Didinium nasutum, with special ref-
erence to the role of bacteria. J. Exper. Zool., 103:201.
Butcher, A. D. : (1941) Outbreaks of white spot or ichthyophthiriasis
(Ichthyophthirius multifiliis) at the hatcheries, etc. Proc. Roy.
Soc. Victoria, 53:126.
(1943) Observations on some phases of the life cycle of
Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, etc. Australian Zool., 10:125.
Calkins, G. N.: (1915) Didinium nasutum. I. J. Exper. Zool., 19:
225.
HOLOTRICHA 721
Chatton, E. and Beauchamp, P. D.: (1923) Teuthophrys trisulca,
etc. Arch. zool. exper. gen., 61 (N. et R.) : 123.
Dewey, Virginia and Kidder, G. W.: (1940) Growth studies on
ciliates. VI. Biol. Bull., 79:255.
Dogiel, V.: (1928) Ueber die Conjugation von Biitschlia parva.
Arch. Protist., 62:80.
Faure-Fremiet, E.: (1944) Polymorphisme de YEnchelys rnutans.
Bull. soc. zool. France, 69:212.
(1950) Ecologie des cilies psammophiles littoraux. Bull. biol.
France Belgique, 84:35.
-, Stolkowski, J. and Ducornet, J.: (1948) Etude experi-
mentale de la clacification tegumentaire chez un infusoire cilie"
Coleps hirtus. Biochem. Biophys. Acta, 2:668.
Geiman, Q. M.: (1931) Morphological variations in Coleps octo-
spinus. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 50:136.
Haas, G. : (1934) Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Cytologic von Ich-
thyophthirius multifiliis. Arch. Protist., 82:88.
Hsiung, T. S.: (1930) Some new ciliates from the large intestine of
the horse. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 49:34.
(1930a) A monograph on the Protozoa of the large intestine
of the horse. Iowa State College J. Sc, 4:356.
(1935) On some new ciliates from the mule, etc. Bull. Fan
Mem. Inst. Biol., 6:81.
Kahl, A. : (1926) Neue und wenige bekannte Formen der holotrichen
und heterotrichen Ciliaten. Arch. Protist., 55:197.
(1927) Neue und erganzende Beobachtungen holotricher
Ciliaten. I. Ibid., 60:34.
— (1930) Urtiere oder Protozoa. I. Dahl's Die Tierwelt
Deutschlands, etc. Part. 18:1.
(1930a) Neue und erganzende Beobachtungen holotricher
Infusorien. II. Arch. Protist., 70:313.
Kirby, H. Jr.: (1934) Some ciliates from salt marshes in California.
Ibid., 82:114.
Kudo, R. R. : (1934) Studies on some protozoan parasites of fishes of
Illinois. Illinois Biol. Monogr., 13:1.
Leegaard, C: (1920) Microplankton from the Finnish waters dur-
ing the month of May, 1912. Acta Soc Sc. Fenn. Helsingfors,
48:5:1.
MacLennan, R. F.: (1935) Observations on the life cycle of Ich-
thyophthirius, etc. Northwest Sc, 9, 3 pp.
(1935a) Dedifferentiation and redifferentiation in Ich-
thyophthirius. I. Arch. Protist., 86:191.
(1937) Growth in the ciliate Ichthyophthirius. I. J. Exper.
Zool, 76:423.
(1942) II. Ibid., 91:1.
Noland, L. E. : (1925) A review of the genus Coleps with descriptions
of two new species. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 44:3.
(1937) Observations on marine ciliates of the Gulf coast of
Florida. Ibid., 56:160.
Pearson, N. E.: (1932) Ichthyophthiriasis among the fishes of a
pond in Indianapolis. Proc Indian Acad. Sc, 41:455.
722 PROTOZOOLOGY
Penard, E.: (1922) Etudes sur les infusoires d'eau douce. Geneva.
Powers, P. B. A.: (1932) Cyclotrichium meunieri, etc. Biol. Bull., 63:
74.
Prandtl, H.: (1906) Die Konjugation von Didiniumnasutum. Arch.
Protist., 7:251.
Roux, J. : (1901) Faune infusorienne des eaux stagnantes de environs
de Geneve. Mem. cour. fac. sc. l'Uni. Geneva, 148 pp.
Sikama, Y. : (1938) Ueber die Weisspunktchenkrankheit bei See-
fischen. J. Shanghai Sc. Inst., 4:113.
Stiles, C. W.: (1894) Report on a parasitic protozoan observed on
fish in the aquarium. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1893, p. 173.
Stokes, A. C.: C1888) A preliminary contribution toward a history
of the freshwater Infusoria of the United States. J. Trenton
Nat. Hist. Soc, 1:71,
ten Kate, C. G. B.: (1927) Ueber das Fibrillensystem der Ciliaten.
Arch. Protist., 57:362.
Thon, K. : (1905) Ueber den feineren Bau von Didinium, etc. Ibid.,
5:281.
Wenrich, D. H.: (1929) Observations on some freshwater ciliates.
I. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 48:221.
— (1929a) The structure and behavior of Actinobolus vorax.
Biol. Bull, 56:390.
Woodruff, L. L. and Spencer, H.: (1922) Studies on Spathidium
spathula. I. J. Exper. Zool., 35:189.
(1924) II. Ibid., 39:133.
Chapter 33
Order 1 Holotricha Stein (continued)
Suborder 2 Gymnostomata Biitschli (continued)
Tribe 2 Pleurostomata ScheAviakoff
Cytostome on convex ventral surface.
Cytostome a long slit Family 1 Amphileptidae
Cytostome round, at base of trichocyst-bearing neck
Family 2 Tracheliidae (p. 725)
Cytostome on concave ventral side Family 3 Loxodidae (p. 727)
Family 1 Amphileptidae Schouteden
Genus Amphileptus Ehrenberg. Flask-shaped; somewhat com-
pressed; ciliation uniform and complete; slit-like cytostome not
reaching the middle of body, without trichocyst-borders; many con-
tractile vacuoles; 2 or more macro nuclei; fresh or salt water.
A. claparedei Stein (A. meleagris Claparede and Lachmann) (Fig.
309, a). Slightly flattened; broadly flask-shaped; with bluntly
pointed posterior and neck-like anterior end; cytostome about 2/5
from ventral margin; trichocysts indistinct; dorsal ciliary rows also
not distinct; contractile vacuoles irregularly distributed; 120-150ju
long; fresh and salt water, on stalks of Zoothamnium, Carchesium,
Epistylis, etc.
A. branchiarum Wenrich (Fig. 309, b). On the integument and gills
of frog tadpoles; swimming individuals killed with iodine, 100-135/u
by 40-60/x (Wenrich, 1924).
Genus Lionotus Wrzesniowski (Hemiophrys W.). Flask-shape;
elongate, flattened; anterior region neck-like; cilia only on right side;
without trichocyst-borders; cytostome with trichocysts; 1 (terminal)
or many (in 1-2 rows) contractile vacuoles; 2 macronuclei; 1 micro-
nucleus; fresh or salt water.
L. fasciola (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 309, c). Elongate flask in form; hya-
line; with flattened neck and tail, both of which are moderately
contractile; posterior end bluntly rounded; without trichocysts;
neck stout, bent toward the dorsal side; cytostome a long slit; con-
tractile vacuole posterior; 2 spherical macronuclei between which a
micronucleus is located; 100/i long; fresh water and probably also in
salt water.
Genus Loxophyllum Dujardin (Opisthodon Stein). Generally simi-
lar to Lionotus in appearance; but ventral side with a hyaline border,
reaching posterior end and bearing trichocysts; dorsal side with
723
724
PROTOZOOLOGY
either similar tricho cyst-border or with tricho cyst-warts; macro nu-
cleus a single mass or moniliform; contractile vacuole, one to many;
fresh or salt water. Many species.
L. meleagris D. (Fig. 309, d). Form and size highly variable;
flask-shape to broad leaf -like; broad ventral seam with trichocysts
and often undulating; dorsal seam narrow and near its edge, groups
of trichocysts in wart-like protuberances; macronucleus moniliform;
micronuclei, as many as the beads of the macronucleus (Penard,
1922) ; contractile vacuole terminal, with a long canal ; 300-400^ long,
up to 700ju (Penard); feeds mainly on rotifers; fresh water.
Fig. 309. a, Amphileptus claparedei, X370 (Roux); b, A. branchiarutn,
flattened, X490 (Wenrich); c, Lionotus fasciola, X510 (Kahl); d, Loxo-
phyllum meleagris, X120 (Penard); e, L. setigerum, X570 (Sauerbrey);
f, Bryophyllum vorax, X360 (Stokes); g, h, Centrophorella fasciolatum
(g, X50;h, XI 10) (Noland).
HOLOTRICHA 725
L. setigerum Quennerstedt (Fig. 309, e). 100-350/* long; average
150/* by 60m; form variable; 1-4 macro nuclei; several contractile
vacuoles in a row; salt and brackish water. Morphology (Sauerbrey,
1928).
Genus Bryophyllum Kahl. Similar to Loxophyllum; but uniformly
ciliated on both broad surfaces; ventral ridge with closely arranged
trichocysts, extends to the posterior extremity and ends there or
may continue on to the opposite side for some distance; macro nu-
cleus ovoid to coiled bandform; in mosses. Species (Gelei, 1933).
B. vorax (Stokes) (Fig. 309,/). Elongate; tricho cyst-bearing ven-
tral ridge turns up a little on dorsal side; contractile vacuole pos-
terior; macro nucleus oval; 130/* long; in fresh water among sphag-
num.
Genus Centrophorella Kahl ( Kentrophoros Sauerbrey). Extremely
elongate, nematode-like; anterior end greatly attenuated; posterior
end pointed; body surface longitudinally striated; ciliation uniform;
1-3 macronuclei; numerous contractile vacuoles in 2 rows; cytostome
not observed.
C. fasciolalum (S.) (Fig. 309, g, h). About 270+t by 38/*. Noland
(1937) observed 2 specimens in sediment taken from sandy bottom in
Florida; contracted 650/* long; extended 1 mm. long.
C. lanceolata Faure-Fremiet. Ribbon-like; 460-520/* by 40 /*; ven-
tral side ciliated; dorsal side covered with dark sulphur bacteria
(Caulobacteria), except the extremities; five to six spherical micro-
nuclei, about 4/* in diameter; on sandy flat of Cape Cod (Faure-
Fremiet, 1951).
Family 2 Tracheliidae Kent
Genus Trachelius Schrank. Oval to spherical; anterior end drawn
out into a relatively short finger-like process or a snout; posterior
end rounded; round cytostome at base of neck; cyto pharynx with
trichites; contractile vacuoles many; macro nucleus simple or band-
form; fresh water.
T. ovum Ehrenberg (Fig. 310, a). Spheroidal to ellipsoid; right side
flattened and with a longitudinal groove; left side convex; proboscis
about 1/4-1/2 the body length; cilia short and closely set; numerous
contractile vacuoles; macronucleus short sausage-form, often di-
vided into spherules; endo plasm penetrated by branching cytoplas-
mic skeins or bands and often with numerous small brown excretion
granules; 200-400/* long; fresh water.
Genus Dileptus Dujardin. Elongate; snout or neck-like prolonga-
tion conspicuous; somewhat bent dorsally; along convex ventral side
72g PROTOZOOLOGY
of neck many rows of trichocysts; a row of strong cilia; dorsal surface
JiSr 3 rX of short bristles; cytostonre surrounded by a nng; cyto-
nharynx with long trichocysts; posterior end drawn out mto a tad,
S£ vacuofes, 2 or more; body ciliation umform; macronu-
m ,7- ^ Ynn CRouxV b Dilevlus americanus,
Fig. 310. a, Trachehus ovum Xl30 (Roux) b ' £ coni x340
X250 (Kahl); c Z>. arwer, X310 (Hayes) d ta J. w|IIdri
(Wenrich); e. P. ro6t«rft«, X340 (WeancbJ i, x8Q
X200 (Penard); g, Loxodes «, Xl90 (S toke* , n ^ ?
(Kahl); i, j, Remanella rugosa (i, dorsal side, X13U, j, anienoi p
ing the endoskeleton) (Kahl).
HOLOTRICHA 727
cleus bandform, moniliform or divided into numerous independent
bodies; fresh or salt water. Many species.
D. americanus Kahl (Fig. 310, b). Proboscis bent dorsally sickle-
like; macro nucleus made up of 2 sausage-shaped or often horseshoe-
shaped parts; 2 contractile vacuoles on dorsal side; 200/x long; in
mosses.
D. anser (Miiller) (Fig. 310, c). Proboscis slightly flattened; macro-
nucleus divided into 100 or more discoid bodies; 16 or more vesicular
micronuclei (Jones, 1951) ; contractile vacuoles in a row on the aboral
surface, with 2-3 in proboscis; 250-400 ju, sometimes up to 600/z long;
in fresh water. Culture, encystment and excystment (Jones, 1951).
Genus Paradileptus Wenrich (Tentaculifera Sokoloff). Body
broader at the level of cytostome; with a wide peristomal field that
bears the cytostome and is surrounded for 2/3-3/4 its circumference
by a raised rim which is continuous anteriorly with the spirally
wound proboscis; trichocyst-zone traversing the rim and anterior
edge of proboscis; contractile vacuoles small, numerous, distributed;
macronucleus segmented ; fresh water (Wenrich, 1929a).
P. conicus W. (Fig. 310, d). 100-200m by 50-1 00/z.
P. robustus W. (Fig. 310, e). 180-450/x long.
P. estensis Canella. 600-800^ long; feeds on rotifers (Canella,
1951).
Genus Branchioecetes Kahl. Preoral part somewhat like that of
Amphileptus, and bent dorsally; ventral side of neck with 2 rows of
trichocysts; cytostome at posterior end of neck; cytopharynx with
trichocysts; ectocommensals on Asellus or Gammarus.
B. gammari (Penard) (Fig. 310,/). 130-200^ long; on Gammarus.
Family 3 Loxodidae Butschli
Genus Loxodes Ehrenberg. Lancet-like; strongly compressed; an-
terior end curved ventrally, and usually pointed; right side slightly
convex; uniform ciliation on about 12 longitudinal rows; ectoplasm
appears brownish, because of closely arranged brownish protricho-
cysts; endoplasm reticulated; 2 or more vesicular macro nuclei; one or
more micronuclei; 5-25 Miiller's vesicles (p. 87; Fig. 31, a, b) in dor-
sal region; fresh water.
L. vorax Stokes (Fig. 310, g). 125-140/z long; yellowish brown, a
row of slightly longer cilia; sapropelic in standing fresh water.
L. magnus S. (Fig. 310, h). Extended about 700m long; dark brown;
12-20 or more Miiller's vesicles in a row along dorsal border; stand-
ing pond water.
Genus Remanella Kahl. Similar to Loxodes in general appearance;
728 PROTOZOOLOGY
but with endoskeleton consisting of 12-20/x long spindle-form needles
lying below broad ciliated surface in 3-5 longitudinal strings con-
nected with fibrils; Muller's vesicles (Fig. 31, c) in some, said to be
different from those of Loxodes (Kahl) ; sandy shore of sea.
R. rugosa K. (Fig. 310, i, j). 200-300/x long.
Tribe 3 Hypostomata Schewiakoff
Without furrow; free-living; conspicuous oral or pharyngeal basket
Ciliation complete; dorsal cilia usually less dense than those on ventral
surface Family 1 Nassulidae
Ciliation incomplete; dorsal surface without cilia or with a few sensory
bristles
Posterior ventral surface with a style. .Family 2 Dysteriidae (p. 730)
Without a style Family 3 Chlamydodontidae (p. 731)
Furrow from anterior end of cytostome; parasitic
Family 4 Pycnothricidae (p. 733)
Family 1 Nassulidae Schouteden
Genus Nassula Ehrenberg. Oval to elongate; ventral surface flat,
dorsal surface convex; usually brightty colored, due to food mate-
rial; cytostome 1/3-1/4 from anterior end; body often bent to left
near cytostome; opening of oral basket deep, in a vestibule with a
membrane; macronucleus spherical or ovoid, central; a single micro-
nucleus; contractile vacuole large, with accessory vacuoles and opens
ventrally through a tubule-pore; fresh or salt water. Many species.
N. aurea E. (Fig. 311, a). 200-250/x long; fresh and brackish water
(Kahl).
Genus Paranassula Kahl. Similar in general appearance to Nas-
sula; but with preoral and dorsal suture line; longer caudal cilia on
dorsal suture; pharyngeal basket not funnel-like, with 16-18 trichites ;
about 75 ciliary rows; trichocysts especially in anterior region.
P. microstoma (Claparede and Lachmann) (Fig. 311, b). Pellicle
roughened by a criss-cross of longitudinal and circular furrows;
macronucleus elongate oval, posterior; contractile vacuole near mid-
dle and right-dorsal; about 80-95/z long; salt water; Florida (Noland).
Genus Cyclogramma Perty. Somewhat resembling Nassula; but
conspicuous oral basket in pyriform depression and opens toward left
on ventral surface; depression with a short row of small membranes
at its anterior edge; trichocysts usually better developed than in
Nassula; fresh water.
C. trichocystis (Stokes) (Fig. 311, c). Body colorless or slightly
rose-colored; trichocysts thick and obliquely arranged; one con-
tractile vacuole; usually full of blue-green food vacuoles; actively
motile; about 60/x long; in fresh water among algae.
HOLOTRICHA
729
Fig. 311. a, Nassula aurea, X190 (Schewiakoff); b, Paranassula micro-
stoma, X400 (Noland); c, Cyclogramma trichocystis, X510 (Stokes);
d, Chilodontopsis vorax, X200 (Stokes); e, Eucamptocerca longa, X320 (da
Cunha); f, Orthodon hamatus, X160 (Entz); g, Dysteria calkinsi, X540
(Calkins); h, Trochilia palustris, X1070 (Roux); i, Trochilioides recta,
X740 (Kahl); j, Hartmannula entzi, X220 (Entz); k, Chlamydodon
mnemosyne, X520 (MacDougall); 1, Phascolodon vorticella, X340 (Stein).
Genus Chilodontopsis Blochmann. Elongate ellipsoid; colorless;
ventral surface flattened, dorsal surface slightly convex; both sides
ciliated; oral basket without vestibule; cytostome with a mem-
branous ring; usually with a postoral ciliary furrow; fresh water.
C. vorax (Stokes) (Fig. 311, d). Elongate ellipsoid; anterior re-
730 PROTOZOOLOGY
gion slightly curved to left; snout fairly distinct; oral basket with
about 16 rods; several contractile vacuoles distributed, a large
one terminal; macronucleus large, lenticular, granulated; with a
closely attached micro nucleus ; 50-160/x long; fresh water.
Genus Eucamptocerca da Cunha. Elongate; posterior part drawn
out into a caudal prolongation ; dorso-ventrally flattened ; ciliation on
both sides; round cytostome with oral basket in anterior ventral sur-
face. One species.
E. longa da C. (Fig. 311, e). 300m by 25m; macronucleus ovoid, with
a micro nucleus; contractile vacuole(?); in brackish water (salt con-
tent 3 per cent); Brazil.
Genus Orthodon Gruber. Oval; contractile; colorless; much flat-
tened; anterior region curved toward left; striation on both dorsal
and ventral sides; cytostome toward right border; oral basket long;
macronucleus oval; contractile vacuole terminal; fresh or salt water.
0. hamatus G. (Fig. 311, /). Extended 200-260/x long, contracted
90-150/i long; flask-shaped ; oral basket with 16 trichites; salt water.
Family 2 Dysteriidae Kent
Genus Dysteria Huxley (Ervilia Dujardin; Iduna, Aegyria Clapa-
rede and Lachmann; Cypridium Kent). Ovate, dorsal surface con-
vex, ventral surface flat or concave; left ventral side with nonciliated
ventral plate; postoral ciliation is continuation of preoral to right
of cytostome and parallel to right margin; cytostome in a furrow
near right side; posterior style or spine conspicuous; macronucleus
spheroid or ovoid, central; with a micro nucleus; usually 2 contractile
vacuoles; fresh or salt water. Numerous species.
D. calkinsi Kahl (Z). lanceolata Calkins) (Fig. 311, g). About 45m
by 27m; salt water; Woods Hole.
Genus Trochilia Dujardin. Similar to Dysteria; but ciliation on the
ventral side in an arched zone; fresh or salt water. Several species.
T. palustris Stein (Fig. 311, A). 25m long; fresh water.
Genus Trochilioides Kahl. Rounded at anterior end, narrowed
posteriorly; right side more convex than left; cytostome anterior
with cytopharynx and preoral membrane; conspicuous longitudinal
bands on right half with longitudinal striae, becoming shorter toward
left; fresh or salt water.
T. recta K. (Fig. 311, i). 40-50m long; sapropelic in fresh and brack-
ish water.
Genus Hartmannula Poche (Onychodactylus Entz). Ventral surface
uniformly ciliated; cytopharynx with short rods; in salt water.
H. entzi Kahl (Fig. 311, j). 80-140m long; salt water.
HOLOTRICHA 731
Family 3 Chlamydodontidae Claus
Genus Chlamydodon Ehrenberg. Ellipsoid, reniform, elongate tri-
angular, etc. ; cilia only on ventral surface, anterior cilia longer; cyto-
stome elongate oval and covered with a membrane bearing a slit;
oral basket made up of closely arranged rods with apical processes;
along lateral margin, there is a characteristic striped band which is
a canalicule of unknown function; fresh or salt water.
C. mnemosyne E. (Fig. 311, k). Ellipsoid or reniform; right side
convex, left side concave; ventral side flat, dorsal side greatly con-
vex; a band of trichites, 'railroad track,' parallel to body outline; oral
basket with 8-10 rods; macro nucleus oval; 4-5 contractile vacuoles
distributed; 60-90/x long; salt water. MacDougall (1928) observed it
in the brackish water at Woods Hole and studied its neuromotor
system.
Genus Phascolodon Stein. Ovoid; with broad anterior end and
bluntly pointed posterior end ; ventral side concave or flat, dorsal side
convex; ciliated field on ventral surafce narrowed laterally behind
cytostome, forming V-shaped ciliated area (about 12 rows); cyto-
stome ellipsoid with oral basket; macronucleus oval with a micro-
nucleus; 2 contractile vacuoles; fresh water.
P. vorticella S. (Fig. 311, l). 80-1 10m long; cytostome covered by a
slit-bearing membrane; with 2 preoral membranes; macronucleus
ovoid; fresh water.
Genus Cryptopharynx Kahl. Ellipsoid, anterior third bent to left;
ventral surface flat, dorsal surface with hump; spiral interciliary fur-
rows ridged; oval cytostome at anterior end; no cytopharynx; dorsal
hump yellowish, granulated with gelatinous cover; 2 macro nuclei; 1
micro nucleus; 2 contractile vacuoles, one posterior and the other to-
ward left side at the bend of body. One species.
C. setigerus K. (Fig. 312, a, b). Elongate ellipsoid; anterior region
bent to left; ventral surface flat, dorsal surface with a hump; about
15 ventral ciliary rows; 2 vesicular macronuclei and 1 micronucleus
dorso-central; 33-96/x by 21-45m (Kirby). Kirby (1934) found the
organism in salt marsh pools (salinity 1.2-9.7 per cent) with purple
bacteria; California.
Genus Chilodonella Strand (Chilodon Ehrenberg). Ovoid; dorso-
ventrally flattened; dorsal surface convex, ventral surface flat; ven-
tral surface with ciliary rows; anteriorly flattened dorsal surface with
a cross-row of bristles; cytostome round; oral basket conspicuous,
protrusible; macronucleus rounded; contractile vacuoles variable in
number; fresh or salt water or ectocommensal on fish and amphi-
pods. Many species.
732
PROTOZOOLOGY
C. cucullulus (Miiller) (Chilodon steini Blochmann) (Figs. 53; 312,
c-e). 19-20 ventral ciliary rows; oral basket with about 12 rods and
with 3 preoral membranes; macro nucleus oval, a characteristic con-
centric structure; micro nucleus small; body 100-300^ long, most
■MHC;
Fig. 312. a, b, Cryptopharynx setigerus, X650 (Kirby); c-e, Chilodonella
cucullulus (c, X270 (Stein); d, oral region; e, nucleus (Penard)); f, C.
caudata, X1000 (Stokes); g, C. fiuviatilis, X800 (Stokes); h, C. cyprini,
X670 (Moroff); i, Allosphaerium palustris, X1000 (Kidder and Sum-
mers).
often 130-150/x long; fresh and brackish water. Conjugation (Ivanic,
1933).
C. caudata (Stokes) (Fig. 312,/). About 42/z long; standing water.
C. fiuviatilis (S.) (Fig. 312, g). About 50/i long; fresh water.
C. uncinata (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 96). 50-90/x long; about 11 ventral
HOLOTRICHA 733
ciliary rows; some 7 dorsal bristles; widely distributed in various
freshwater bodies; several varieties. Conjugation (MacDougall,
1935).
C. cyprini (Moroff) (Fig. 312, h). 50-70m by 3O-40m; in the integu-
ment and gills of cyprinoid fishes; the organism, if freed from the host
body, dies in 12-24 hours. Ciliation (Krascheninnikow, 1934).
C. longipharynx Kidder and Summers. 17-21/1 (average 19m) long;
cytopharynx long, reaches posterior end; ectocommensal on amphi-
pods, Talorchestia longicornis and Orchestia palustris; Woods Hole
(Kidder and Summers, 1935).
C. hyalina K. and S. 40ju (36-47m) long; ectocommensal on Or-
chestia agilis; Woods Hole.
C. rotunda K. and S. 29m (27-34/z) long; ectocommensal on Or-
chestia agilis; Woods Hole.
Genus Allosphaerium Kidder and Summers. Oval; right side con-
cave, left side more or less flat; body highly flattened; arched dorsal
surface devoid of cilia; ventral surface slightly concave with 12-27
ciliary rows; right and left margin of ventral surface with a pellicu-
lar fold; cytostome anterior-ventral, oval or irregular, surrounded by
ridge on posterior border, extending to left margin; 3 groups of
ciliary membranes extending out of cytostome; macro nucleus oval,
central or anterior; a micro nucleus; 2 (or 1) contractile vacuoles; a
refractile spherule regularly present in posterior portion of endo-
plasm; ectocommensal on the carapace and gills of amphipods.
A. palustris K. and S. (Fig. 312, i). 46-59/x long; 27 ventral ciliary
rows; on Orchestia palustris and Talorchestia longicornis) Woods
Hole.
A. sulcatum K. and S. 24-32m long; 12 ciliary rows; on the carapace
of Orchestia agilis and 0. palustris; Woods Hole.
A. granulosum K. and S. 32-42yu long; rotund; 17 ciliary rows;
cytoplasm granulated; on carapace of Orchestia agilis and 0. palus-
tris; Woods Hole.
A. caudatum K. and S. Resembles A. palustris; 35-45ju long; 14
ciliary rows; 1 contractile vacuole; ectoplasm at posterior end, drawn
out into a shelf; on Orchestia agilis; Woods Hole.
A. convexa K. and S. 24-36m long; 17 ciliary rows; on the carapace
and gill lamellae of Talorchestia longicornis; Woods Hole.
Family 4 Pycnothricidae Poche
Ciliation uniform; ectoplasm thick and conspicuous; a furrow or
groove connects the cytostome with the anterior end; parasitic in
the alimentary canal of mammals.
734
PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Pycnothrix Schubotz. Large, elongate; with broadly
rounded anterior and narrowed posterior end; somewhat flattened;
short thick cilia throughout; ectoplasm thick; macro nucleus spheri-
cal, in anterior 1/6; micronucleus(?); 2 longitudinal grooves, one be-
ginning on each side near anterior end, united at the notched pos-
terior end; a series of apertures in grooves considered as cytostomes;
at posterior 1/3, an aperture gives rise to branching canals running
through endoplasm, and is considered as excretory in function. One
species.
P. monocystoides S. (Fig. 313, a). 300ju-2 mm. long; in the colon of
Procavia capensis and P. brucei.
Genus Nicollella Chatton and Perard. Elongate; a narrow groove
extends from the anterior end to cytostome, located at the middle of
Fig. 313. a, Pycnothrix monocystoides, X50; b, Nicollella ctenodactyli,
X170; c, Collinella gundi, X170 (Chatton and P6rard); d, Buxtonella sul-
cata, X395 (Jameson); e, Taliaferria clarki, X500 (Hegner and Rees).
HOLOTRICHA 735
body; bilobed posteriorly; contractile vacuole terminal; macronu-
cleus ellipsoid, anterior; a micronucleus; ectoplasm thick anteriorly;
ciliation uniform (Chatton and Perard, 1921). One species.
N. ctenodactyli C. and P. (Fig. 313, b). 70-550/z by 40-150/x; in the
colon of Ctenodactylus gundi.
Genus Collinella Chatton and Perard. More elongate than Nicol-
lella; uniform ciliation; a groove extends from end to end; cytostome
at posterior end of the groove; contractile vacuole terminal; macro-
nucleus much elongated, central or posterior (Chatton and Perard,
1921). One species.
C. gundi C. and P. (Fig. 313, c). 550-600 m by 100m; in the colon of
Ctenodactylus gundi.
Genus Buxtonella Jameson. Ovoid; a prominent curved groove
bordered by two ridges from end to end; cytostome near anterior
end; uniform ciliation; in the caecum of cattle (Jameson, 1926). One
species.
B. sulcata J. (Fig. 313, d). 55-124/x by 40-72M.
Genus Taliaferria Hegner and Rees. Body ovate; circular in cross-
section; ectoplasm is two-layered and thick; ciliation uniform; cyto-
stome anterior, subterminal; macronucleus and a closely attached
micronucleus near center; two contractile vacuoles; cytopyge (Heg-
ner and Rees, 1933). One species.
T. clarki H. and R. (Fig. 313, e). 83-146/x by 42-83/z; in the caecum
and colon of the red spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi).
References
Chatton, E. and Perard, C: (1921) Les Nicollelidae, infusoires
intestinaux des gondis et des damans, etc. Bull. biol. France et
Belgique, 55: 87.
Canella, M. F.: (1951) Contributi alia conoscenza dei Ciliati. II.
Ann. Univ. Ferrara, Sez. 3, Biol. Anim., 1:81.
da Cunha, A. M.: (1914) Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Protozoenfauna
Brasiliens. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz, 6: 169.
Faure-Fremiet, E.: (1951) The marine sand-dwelling ciliates of
Cape Cod. Biol. Bull., 100:59.
Gelei, J. v.: (1933) Beitrage zur Ciliatenfauna der Umgebung von
Szeged. II. Arch. Protist., 81:201.
Hegner, R. W. and Rees, C. W.: (1933) Taliaferria clarki, etc. Tr.
Am. Micr. Soc, 52:317.
Ivanic, M.: (1933) Die Conjugation von Chilodon cucullulus. Arch.
Protist., 79:313.
Jameson, A. P.: (1926) A ciliate, Buxtonella sulcata, etc. Parasitol-
ogy, 18:182.
Jones, E. E. Jr.: (1951) Encystment, excystment, and the nuclear
cycle in the ciliate Dileptus anser. J. El. Mitch. Sc. Soc, 67:
205.
736 PROTOZOOLOGY
Kahl, A.: (1931) Urtiere oder Protozoa. Dahl's Die Tierwelt
Deutschlands, etc. Part. 21.
Kent, W. S.: (1880-1882) A manual of Infusoria.
Kidder, G. W. and Summers, F. M.: (1935) Taxonomic and etio-
logical studies on the ciliates associated with the amphipod fam-
ily, etc. I. Biol. Bull, 68:51.
Kirby, H. Jr.: (1934) Some ciliates from salt marshes in California.
Arch. Protist., 82:114.
Krascheninnikow, S.: (1934) Ueber die Cilienanordnung bei
Chilodonella cyprini, etc. Ann. Protist., 4:135.
MacDougall, Mary S.: (1935) Cytological studies of the genus
Chilodonella, etc. I. Arch. Protist., 84:198.
Noland, L. E.: (1937) Observations on marine ciliates of the Gulf
coast of Florida. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 56:160.
Penard, E.: (1922) Etudes sur les infusoires d'eau douce. Geneva.
Sauerbrey, Ernestine: (1928) Beobachtungen liber einige neue
oder wenig bekannte marine Ciliaten. Arch. Protist., 62:355.
Stein, F.: (1867) Der Organismus der Infusionstiere. Vol. 2.
Stokes, A. C: (1888) A preliminary contribution toward a history
of the freshwater Infusoria of the United States. J. Trenton
Nat. Hist. Soc, 1:71.
Wenrich, D. H.: (1924) A new protozoan parasite, Amphileptus
branchiarum, etc. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 63:191.
(1929) Observations on some freshwater ciliates. II. Ibid.,
48:352.
Chapter 34
Order 1 Holotricha Stein (continued)
Suborder 3 Trichostomata Biitschli
With gelatinous lorica; swimming backward
Family 1 Marynidae (p. 738)
Without lorica
Compressed, armor-like pellicle; ciliation sparse, mainly on flat right
side in 2-9 broken rows on semicircular or crescentic keel; cy-
tostome on flattened ventral surface, with an obscure membrane.
Family 2 Trichopelmidae (p. 739)
Body form and ciliation otherwise
With a long caudal cilium; cilia in 3-4 spiral rows on anterior half,
very small forms Family 3 Trimyemidae (p. 739)
Without a caudal cilium; form and ciliation otherwise
With a spiral zone of special cilia, from cytostome to posterior end
Spiral zone extends from anterior right to posterior left
Family 4 Spirozonidae (p. 740)
Spiral zone extends from anterior left to posterior right
Family 5 Trichospiridae (p. 740)
Without a spiral zone of special cilia
Ciliated cross-furrow in anterior 1/5 on ventral surface, leads
to cytostome Family 6 Plagiopylidae (p. 740)
Without ciliated cross-furrow
Cytostome in flat oval groove with heavily ciliated ridge in
anterior 1/4 Family 7 Clathrostomidae (p. 742)
Cj'tostome funnel-like, deeply situated
Cytostomal funnel with strong cilia; peristome from an-
terior left to posterior right
Family 8 Parameciidae (p. 742)
Without such a peristome
Free-living; oral funnel deep; cilia at bottom and top. .
Family 9 Colpodidae (p. 745)
Endozoic
Commensal in vertebrates
Family 10 Entorhipidiidae (p.748 )
Parasitic in vertebrates
Ciliation uniform
With concrement vacuoles
Family 11 Paraisotrichidae (p. 750)
Without such vacuoles
Family 12 Isotrichidae (p. 751)
Ciliation not uniform
Cytostome occupies the entire anterior end; cilia
only in anterior region
Family 13 Cyathodiniidae (p. 752)
Cytostome not terminal; tufts of cilia above and
below cytostome and in posterior region. . . .
Family 14 Blepharocoridae (p. 752)
737
738
PROTOZOOLOGY
Body with infraciliature, but cilia only in free-swimming stage; adult
enclosed within a thick pellicle and attached to secretory hair of
arthropods Family 15 Conidophryidae (p. 753).
Family 1 Marynidae Poche
Genus Maryna Gruber. Peristome makes a complete circle, thus
the cone is entirely separated from anterior edge of body; cytostome
left ventral, elongate slit; ridge also with a slit; gelatinous lorica
dichotomous.
M. socialis G. (Fig. 314, a, b). About 150m long; in infusion made
from long-dried mud.
Fig. 314. a, b, Maryna socialis (a, X40; b, X160) (Gruber); c, Myctero-
thrix erlangeri, X310 (Kahl); d, Trichopelma sphagnetorum, X570 (Kahl);
e, f, Pseudomicrothorax agilis (e, X340; f, X670) (Kahl); g, Drepanomonas
dentata, X540 (Penard); h, Microthorax simulans, X620 (Kahl); i, Trim-
yema compressum, X410 (Lackey); j, Spirozona caudata, X370 (Kahl);
k, Trichospira inversa, X360 (Kahl).
HOLOTRICHA 739
Genus Mycterothrix Lauterborn (Trichorhynchus Balbiani). An-
terior cone continuous on dorsal side with body ridge; hence free edge
of body only on ventral side; no ventral slit.
M. erlangeri L. (Fig. 314, c). Nearly spherical with zoochlorellae;
50-55ju by 40-50^; fresh water.
Family 2 Trichopelmidae Kahl
Genus Trichopelma Levander (Leptopharynx Mermod). Com-
pressed; surface with longitudinal furrows, seen as lines in end-view;
coarse ciliation throughout; cytostome toward left edge about 1/3
from the anterior end; cytopharynx tubular; macro nucleus spheroid,
central; 2 contractile vacuoles; fresh water.
T. sphagnetorum (L.) (Fig. 314, d). 25-40/x long; in fresh water.
Genus Pseudomicrothorax Mermod (Craspedothorax Sondheim).
More or less compressed; cytostome opens in anterior half toward
left side, in a depression surrounded by ciliary rows; body surface
marked with a broad longitudinal ridge with cross striation; furrows
canal-like; cilia on ventral side; cytopharynx tubular, with elastic
rods ; fresh water.
P. agilis M. (Fig. 314, e,f). Ellipsoid ; 48-58ju long; in fresh water.
Genus Drepanomonas Fresenius (Drepanoceras Stein). Highly flat-
tened; aboral surface convex; oral surface flat or concave; with a few
deep longitudinal furrows; ciliation sparse; cytostome and a small
cytopharynx simple, near the middle of body; fresh water. Several
species.
D. dentata F. (Fig. 314, g). With a small process near cytostome;
2 rows of ciliary furrows on both oral and aboral surfaces; cilia on
both ends of oral surface; 40-65/z long; in fresh water.
Genus Microthorax Engelmann (Kreyella Kahl). Small, flattened;
with delicate keeled armor which is more or less pointed anteriorly
and rounded posteriorly; ventral armor with 3 ciliary rows; oral de-
pression posterior-ventral, with a stiff ectoplasmic lip on right side,
below which there is a small membrane, and with a small tooth on
left margin; no cytopharynx; macro nucleus spherical; 2 contractile
vacuoles; in fresh water. Many species.
M. simulans Kahl (Fig. 314, h). 30-35ju long; decaying plant infu-
sion, also in moss.
Family 3 Trimyemidae Kahl
Genus Trimyema Lackey (Sciadostoma Kahl). Ovoid, more or less
flattened; anterior end bluntly pointed, posterior end similar or
rounded; with a long caudal cilium; cilia on 3-4 spiral rows which are
740 PROTOZOOLOGY
usually located in the anterior half of body; round cytostome near
anterior end with a small cytopharynx; spherical macro nucleus cen-
tral with a small micronucleus; one contractile vacuole; active swim-
mer; fresh or salt water.
T. compressum L. (Fig. 314, i). About 65/i by 35/t; Lackey found it
in Imhoff tank; fresh and salt water (Kahl). Klein (1930) studied its
silverline system.
Family 4 Spirozonidae Kahl
Genus Spirozona Kahl. Short spindle-form; anterior end truncate,
posterior region drawn out to a rounded end, with a group of longer
cilia; spiral ciliation; beginning near right posterior third the central
ciliary row runs over ridge to left and then reaches the cytostome;
other rows are parallel to it; cytostome in anterior 1/4, with cyto-
pharynx; ellipsoid macro nucleus nearly central; contractile vacuole
terminal; fresh water, sapropelic.
S. caudata K. (Fig. 314, j). 80-100/* long.
Family 5 Trichospiridae Kahl
Genus Trichospira Roux. Body cylindrical; posterior end rounded,
anterior end conical in profile, where the cytostome surrounded by 2
spiral rows of cilia, is located; a special ciliary band beginning in the
cytostomal region runs down on ventral side, turns spirally to left
and circles partially posterior region of body; ciliary rows parallel to
it; macro nucleus oval, with a micronucleus; contractile vacuole pos-
terior; fresh water, sapropelic.
T. inversa (Claparede and Lachmann) (Fig. 314, k). 70-100/z long.
Family 6 Plagiopylidae Schewiakoff
Genus Plagiopyla Stein. Peristome a broad ventrally opened groove
from which body ciliation begins; peristomal cilia short, except a
zone of longer cilia at anterior end; cytostome near median line at the
end of the peristome; cytopharynx long; a peculiar 'stripe band' lo-
cated on dorsal surface has usually its origin in the peristomal
groove, after taking an anterior course for a short distance, curves
back and runs down posteriorly near right edge and terminates about
1/3 the body length from posterior end; macro nucleus rounded; a
micronucleus; contractile vacuole terminal; free-living or endozoic.
P. nasuta S. (Fig. 315, a). Ovoid; tapering anteriorly; peristome at
right angles or slightly oblique to the edge; trichocysts at right an-
gles to body surface; macro nucleus round to irregular in shape; body
about 100/x (80-180/*) long; sapropelic in brackish water. Lynch
HOLOTRICHA
741
(1930) observed this ciliate in salt water cultures in California and
found it to be 70-1 14^ by 31-56/* by 22-37/x.
P. minuta Powers (Fig. 315, b). 50-75/x by 36-46/x; in the intestine
of Strongylocentrohis droebachiensis ; the Bay of Fundy (Powers,
1933).
Genus Lechriopyla Lynch. Similar to Plagiopyla; but with a large
internal organella, furcula, embracing the vestibule from right, and
a large crescentic motorium at left end of peristome; in the intestine
of sea-urchins.
|>i|M?|
m
Fig. 315. a, Plagiopyla nasuta, X340 (Kahl); b, P. minuta, X400
(Powers); c, Lechriopyla mystax, X340 (Lynch); d, Sonderia pharyngea,
X590 (Kirby); e, S. vorax, X310 (Kahl); f, Glathrostoma viminale, X220
(Penard); g, Physalophrya spumosa, X160 (Penard).
L. mystax L. (Fig. 315, c). 113-174/x long; in the gut of Stro?igylo-
centrotus purpuratus and S. franciscanus; California.
Genus Sonderia Kahl. Similar to Plagiopyla in general appear-
ance; ellipsoid; flattened; peristome small and varied; body covered
by 2-4/i thick gelatinous envelope which regulates osmosis, since no
742 PROTOZOOLOGY
contractile vacuole occurs (Kahl); with or without a striped band;
trichocysts slanting posteriorly; in salt or brackish water. Kirby
(1934) showed that several species of the genus are common in the
pools and ditches in salt marshes of California, salinities of which
range 3.5-10 per cent or even up to 15-20 per cent.
S. pharyngea Kirby (Fig. 315, d). Ovoid to ellipsoid; flattened; 84-
110/x by 48-65/x; gelatinous layer about 2/* thick, with bacteria;
about 60 longitudinal ciliary rows, each with 2 borders; peristome
about 35/x long, at anterior end, oblique; with closely set cilia from
the opposite inner surfaces; cytopharynx conspicuous; spherical
macro nucleus anterior, with a micro nucleus; trichocysts (7-9m long)
distributed sparsely and unevenly, oblique to body surface; a group
of bristle-like cilia at posterior end; often brightly colored because of
food material; in salt marsh, California.
S. vorax Kahl (Fig. 315, e). Broadly ellipsoid; size variable, 70-
180/n long; ventral surface flattened; posterior border of peristomal
cavity extending anteriorly; in salt marsh; California (Kirby, 1934).
Family 7 Clathrostomidae Kahl
Genus Clathrostoma Penard. Ellipsoid ; with an oval pit in anterior
half of the flattened ventral surface, in which occur 3-5 concentric
rows of shorter cilia; cytostome a long slit located at the bottom of
this pit; with a basket composed of long fibrils on the outer edge of
the pit ; in fresh water.
C. viminale P. (Fig. 315, /). Resembles a small Frontonia leucas;
macronucleus short sausage-form; 4 micronuclei in a compact group;
endoplasm with excretion crystals; 5 preoral ciliary rows; 130-180/x
long; in fresh water.
Family 8 Parameciidae Grobben
Genus Paramecium Hill (Paramaecium M tiller). Cigar- or foot-
shaped; circular or ellipsoid in cross section; with a single macronu-
cleus and 1 to several vesicular or compact micronuclei; peristome
long, broad, and slightly oblique; in fresh or brackish water. Several
species. Comparative morphology (Wenrich, 1928a; Wichterman,
1953); ciliary arrangement (Lieberman, 1928); pellicular structure
(Gelei, 1939); excretory system (Gelei, 1939a); spiral movement
(Bullington, 1930); cultivation (Wichterman, 1949).
P. caudatum Ehrenberg (Figs. 21, a, b; 43, a-e; 52; 83; 316, a).
180-300ju long; with a compact micronucleus, a massive macronu-
cleus; 2 contractile vacuoles on aboral surface; posterior end bluntly
pointed; in fresh water. The most widely distributed species. Cytol-
HOLOTRICHA
743
ogy and physiology (Miiller, 1932); contractile vacuoles (Dimitrowa,
1928); cytopharynx (Gelei, 1934); calcium and iron (Kruszynski,
1939); nuclear variation (Diller, 1940); re-conjugation (Diller, 1942);
food vacuoles (Bozler, 1924); conjugation (p. 187).
P. aurelia E. (Figs. 2, g, h; 57; 89; 100; 101; 102; 316, 6). 120-180/z
long; two small vesicular micronuclei, a massive macronucleus; two
contractile vacuoles on aboral surface; posterior end more rounded
than P. caudatum; in fresh water. Nutrition (Phelps, 1934); autog-
amy and hemixis (Diller, 1936); conjugation and mating types
(p. 190).
■1 /
Fig. 316. Semi-diagrammatic drawings of nine species of Paramecium
in oral surface view, showing distinguishing characteristics taken from
fresh and stained specimens, X230 (several authors), a, P. caudatum;
b, P. aurelia; c, P. multimj,cronucleatum; d, P. bursaria; e, P. putrinum;
f, P. calkinsi; g, P. trichium; h, P. polycaryum; i, P. woodruffi.
744 PROTOZOOLOGY
P. multimicronucleatum Powers and Mitchell (Figs. 19; 20; 28; 29;
316, c). The largest species, 200-330/x long; three to seven contractile
vacuoles; four or more vesicular micronuclei; a single macronucleus;
in fresh water. Cytology and physiology (Muller, 1932) ; division and
conjugation (Stanghoner, 1932; Koster, 1933); relation to Oiko-
monas and bacteria in culture (Hardin, 1944).
P. bursaria (Ehrenberg) (Figs. 84; 88; 316, d). Foot-shaped, some-
what compressed; about 100-1 50^ by 50-60/z; green with zoochlo-
rellae as symbionts; a compact micronucleus; a macronucleus; two
contractile vacuoles; in fresh water. Relation between Chlorella and
host (Parker, 1926; Pringsheim, 1928); micronuclear variation
(Woodruff, 1931); bacteria-free culture (Loefer, 1936); removal of
symbionts (Jennings, 1938; Wichterman, 1948); conjugation (p. 189).
P. putrinum Claparede and Lacbmann (Fig. 316, e). Similar to P.
bursaria, but a single contractile vacuole and an elongated macronu-
cleus; no zoochlorellae; 80-150m long; in fresh water.
P. calkinsi Woodruff (Fig. 316, /). Foot-shaped; posterior end
broadly rounded; 100-150/t by 50/x; 2 vesicular micronuclei; 2 con-
tractile vacuoles; in fresh, brackish and salt water. Ecology, mor-
phology, mating types (Wichterman, 1951).
P. trichium Stokes (Fig. 316, g). Oblong; somewhat compressed;
50-105 (80-90) /i long; a compact micronucleus; two contractile
vacuoles deeply situated, each with a convoluted outlet; in fresh
water. Structure and division (Wenrich, 1926); conjugation (p. 190)
(Diller, 1948, 1949).
P. polijcaryum Woodruff and Spencer (Fig. 316, h). Form similar
to P. bursaria; 70-1 10/* long; 2 contractile vacuoles; 3-8 vesicular
micronuclei; in fresh water.
P. woodruffi, Wenrich (Fig. 316, i). Similar to P. polycaryum; 150-
210jtx long; 2 contractile vacuoles; 3-4 vesicular micronuclei; brackish
water (Wenrich, 1928).
Although Paramecium occurs widely in various freshwater bodies
throughout the world and has been studied extensively by numerous
investigators by mass or pedigree culture method, there are only a
few observations concerning the process of encystment. Blitschli con-
sidered that Paramecium was one of the Protozoa in which encyst-
ment did not occur. Stages in encystment were however observed in
P. bursaria (by Prowazek) and in P. putrinum (by Lindner). In re-
cent years, four observers reported their findings on the encystment
of Paramecium. Curtis and Guthrie (1927) give figures in their text-
book of zoology, showing the process (in P. caudatuml) (Fig. 317, a-c),
while Cleveland (1927) injected Paramecium culture into the rectum
HOLOTRICHA
745
of frogs and observed that the ciliate encysted within a thin mem-
brane. Michelson (1928) found that if P. caudatum is kept in Knop-
agar medium, the organism becomes ellipsoidal under certain condi-
tions, later spherical to oval, losing all organellae except the nuclei,
and develops a thick membrane; the fully formed cyst is elongated
and angular, and resembles a sand particle (Fig. 317,/). Michelson
considers its resemblance to a sand grain as the chief cause of the cyst
having been overlooked by workers. In all these cases, it may how-
ever be added that excystment has not been established.
Fig. 317. a-c, encystment in a species of Paramecium (Curtis and
Guthrie); d-f, encystment of P. caudatum, X380 (Michelson).
Genus Physalophrya Kahl. Without peristome; but cytostome lo-
cated near the anterior half of body, resembles much that of Para-
mecium; although there is no membrane, a ciliary row occurs in the
left dorsal wall of cytopharynx; in fresh water. Taxonomic status is
not clear; but because of its general resemblance to Paramecium, the
genus with only one species is mentioned here.
P. spumosa (Penard) (Fig. 315, g). Oval to cylindrical; highly
plastic; cytoplasm reticulated; numerous contractile vacuoles; 150-
320^ long; in fresh water.
Family 9 Colpodidae Poche
Genus Colpoda Miiller. Reniform; compressed; right border semi-
circular; posterior half of the left border often convex; oral funnel in
the middle of flattened ventral side; cytostome is displaced to the
746
PROTOZOOLOGY
right of the median plane, which leads into peristome cavity and
gives rise dorsally to a diagonal groove; right edge of cytostome bears
a ciliated area, but no protruding membrane as in Bryophrya (p.
747); macronucleus spherical or oval, central; a compact micronu-
cleus; a contractile vacuole terminal; in fresh water. Many species.
Burt (1940) made a comparative study of five species, which are
mentioned here.
C. cucullus M. (Fig. 318, a). 40-110/x long; anterior keel with eight
Fig. 318. a, Colpoda cucullus; h, C. inflata; c, C. maupasi; d, C. aspera;
e, C. steini, all X330 (Burt); f, g, Tillina magna, X100 (Bresslau); h, T.
canalifera, X330 (Turner); i, Bresslaua vorax, X100 (Kahl); j, Bryophrya
bavariensis, X280 (Kahl); k, Woodruffia rostrata, XI 90 (Kahl).
to 10 indentations; 29-34 ciliary grooves; cilia mostly paired; macro-
nucleus with a stellate endosome; trichocysts rod-form; usually with
abundant food vacuoles; in fresh water with decaying plants.
C. inflata (Stokes) (Fig. 318, 6). 35-90M long; anterior keel with 6-
8 indentations; number of ciliary grooves (or meridians) 21-24; cilia
mostly in pairs; in fresh water among vegetation.
C. maupasi Enriques (Fig. 318, c). 35-90/x long; cytostome about
HOLOTRICHA 747
one-fourth from the anterior end; anterior keel with five indenta-
tions; 16-18 meridians; in fresh water.
C. aspera Kahl (Fig. 318, d). 12-42/z long; cytostome about one-
third from the anterior end; 14-16 meridians; anterior keel with five
indentations; in fresh water.
C. steini Maupas (Fig. 318, e). 15-42^; cytostome about two-fifths
from the anterior end, and with a bundle of long membranellae; five
to six preoral ridges; paired and single cilia; one pair of long caudal
cilia; 12 meridians; in fresh water. The organism can live in various
organs of the land slug, Agriolimax agrestis (Reynolds, 1936).
C. duodenaria Taylor and Furgason. 20-40/x (9-60m) long; 12 longi-
tudinal ciliary rows; 3 postoral rows; 2 long cilia at the posterior
end; long cilia project out from the cytostome along its posterior
margin, forming a "beard"; a contractile vacuole terminal; macro-
nucleus ovoid, with crescentic micro nucleus; division into 2-8 indi-
viduals in division cyst; but no division in trophozoite stage; bac-
teria-feeder; fresh water. Encystment (Taylor and Strickland, 1939) ;
identity (Burt, 1940).
Genus Tillina Gruber. Similar to Colpoda in general appearance
and structure; but cytopharynx a long curved, ciliated tube; in fresh
water.
T. magna G. (Fig. 318, /, g). 180-20G> long (Gruber), up to 400 m
long (Bresslau) ; macronucleus oval to rod-shape; micronuclei vesicu-
lar, highly variable in number (2-16) (Beers); a contractile vacuole
terminal, with six long collecting canals; division cyst produces four
individuals; in stagnant water and also coprozoic. Morphology
(Gregory, 1909; Beers, 1944, 1945); encystment and excystment
(Beers, 1945, 1946, 1946a).
T. canalifera Turner (Figs. 26; 318, h). 150-200/x by 100-1 50m;
resembles magna; but macronucleus ellipsoid, about one-third the
body length; four to 14 micronuclei, clustered around the macro-
nucleus; a terminal contractile vacuole with seven to nine long
permanent collecting canals; cytoplasm with 3-7/x long refractile
rods; in fresh water (Turner, 1937). Cytoplasmic inclusions (Turner,
1940).
Genus Bresslaua Kahl. General body form resembles Colpoda; but
cytopharynx large and occupies the entire anterior half.
B. vorax K. (Fig. 318, i). 80-250m long; in fresh water.
Genus Bryophrya Kahl. Ovoid to ellipsoid; anterior end more or
less bent toward left side; cytostome median, about 1/3 from an-
terior end, its right edge continues in horseshoe form around the
posterior end and half of the left edge; anterior portion of left edge of
748 PROTOZOOLOGY
the cytostome with posteriorly directed membrane; macro nucleus
oval or spherical; micronuclei; in fresh water.
B. bavariensis K. (Fig. 318, J*). 50-120ju long.
Genus Woodruffia Kahl. Form similar to Chilodonella (p. 731);
highly flattened snout bent toward left; cytostome, a narrow diago-
nal slit, its left edge with a membranous structure and its right edge
with densely standing short cilia; macro nucleus spherical; several (?)
micronuclei; contractile vacuole flattened, terminal; in salt water.
W. rostrata K. (Fig. 318, k). 120-180ju long; salt water culture with
Oscillatoria.
W. metabolica Johnson and Larson (1938). Pyriform; 85-400^
long; division cysts 85-155ju in diameter; resting cysts 40-62/i in
diameter; in freshwater ponds. Johnson and Evans (1939, 1940)
find two types of protective cysts in this ciliate: "stable" and
"unstable" cysts, formation of both of which depends upon the
absence of food. These cysts have three membranes: a thin inner-
most endocyst, a rigid mesocyst and a gelatinous outer ectocyst.
The protoplasmic mass of the stable cyst is smaller, and free from
vacuoles, and its ectocyst is thick, while that of the unstable
cyst is larger, contains at least one fluid vacuole and its ectocyst
is very thin. Crowding, feeding on starved Paramecium, increasing
the temperature, and increasing the salt concentration of the
medium, are said to influence the formation of unstable cysts.
The two authors (1941) further reported that when free-swimming
individuals were subjected, in the absence of food, to extremes of
temperature, high concentrations of hydrogen-ion, and low oxygen
tension, unstable cysts were formed; when the oxygen tension de-
creased, the tendency to encyst increased, even when ample food
was present. The unstable cysts are said to remain viable for six
months. Excystment is induced by changing the balanced salt solu-
tion, by replacing it with distilled water and by lowering tempera-
ture from 30° to 20°C.
Family 10 Entorhipidiidae Madsen
Genus Entorhipidium Lynch. Triangular in general outline; color-
less; large, 155-350/x long; flattened; posterior end drawn out, with
a bristle; anterior end bent to left; cytostome in depression close to
left anterior border, with long cilia; with or without a cross-groove
from preoral region; cytopharynx inconspicuous; trichocysts; macro-
nucleus oval to sausage-form; one to several micronuclei; several (ex-
cretory) vacuoles left-ventral; in intestine of the starfish, Strongy-
locentrotus -pur-pur atus. Four species.
HOLOTRICHA
749
E. echini L. (Fig. 319, a). About 253/z by 125m; California.
Genus Entodiscus Madsen. Broadly or narrowly lancet-like, with-
out narrowed posterior portion; cytostome small on left narrow side,
about 2/5 the body length from anterior end; without trichocysts;
macro nucleus central, with a micro nucleus; contractile vacuole sub-
terminal; swimming movement rapid without interruption. Two
species. Morphology (Powers, 1933, 1933a).
E. indomitus M. (Fig. 319, 6). 80-117/z by 20-23/z; in the intestine
of Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis.
E. borealis (Hentschel) (Fig. 319, c). Oval; cytostome nearer an-
terior end; 105-170/1 by 60-115/*; in the gut of Strongylocentrotus
Fig. 319. a, Entorhipidium echini, X270 (Lynch); b, Entodiscus in-
domitus, X380 (Madsen); c, E. borealis, X380 (Powers); d, Biggaria
bermudense, X380 (Powers); e, B. echinometris, X380 (Powers); f, Ano-
phrys elongata, X390 (Powers); g, A. aglycus, X390 (Powers).
750 PROTOZOOLOGY
droebachiensis and Echinus esculentus; Powers (1933) studied this
species in the first-named host from Maine, and found a supporting
rod which is imbedded in the margin along the right wall of the oral
cavity and which he named stomatostyle.
Genus Biggaria Kahl. Scoop-like form; anterior 2/3 thin, posterior
region thickened, terminating in a rudder-like style; cilia in longi-
tudinal rows; longer cilia on caudal prolongation; cytostome in the
posterior half, opening into a vestibule, into which long cilia project
from the roof ; aperture to cyto pharynx with 2 membranes ; contrac-
tile vacuole subterminal; in the intestine of sea-urchins.
B. bermudense (Biggar) (Fig. 319, d). 90-185/* by 48-82/*; in Ly-
techinus variegatus; Bermuda (Biggar), North Carolina (Powers).
Powers (1935) found the organism at Tortugas in Lytechinus variega-
tus, Centrechinus antillarum, Echinometra lucunter, Tripneustes escu-
lentus and Astrophyga magnifica.
B. echinometris (B.) (Fig. 319, e). 80-195/* by 33-70/*; in Echi-
nometris subangularis (Bermuda) and Lytechinus variegatus (North
Carolina).
Genus Anophrys Cohn. Cigar-shaped; flexible; longitudinal ciliary
rows; peristome begins near the anterior end, parallel to body axis
and about 1/3 the body length; a row of free cilia on right edge of
peristome; cytostome inconspicuous; spherical macro nucleus cen-
tral; contractile vacuole terminal; in the intestine of sea-urchins.
A. elongata Biggar (Fig. 319, /). About 96/t long (Powers); 166m
long (Biggar) ; in the gut of Lytechinus variegatus and Echinometris
subangularis; Bermuda (Biggar); Powers (1935) found this species
also in the hosts mentioned for Biggaria bermudense.
A. aglycus Powers (Fig. 319, g). 56-120/* by 16-35/*; in the gut of
Centrechinus antillarum and Echinometra lucunter; Tortugas (Pow-
ers, 1935).
Family 11 Paraisotrichidae da Cunha
Genus Paraisotricha Fiorentini. Uniformly ciliated in more or
less spiral longitudinal rows; longer cilia at anterior end; cytostome
near anterior tip; contractile vacuole posterior; in the caecum and
colon of horse.
P. colpoidea F. (Fig. 320, a). 70-100/* by 42-60/*. Conjugation
(Dogiel, 1930).
P. beckeri Hsiung (Fig. 320, b). 52-98/* by 30-52/* (Hsiung, 1930,
1930a\
HOLOTRICHA
rai
Family 12 Isotrichidae Blitschli
Genus Isotricha Stein. Ovoid; flattened; dense longitudinal ciliary
rows; cytostome at or near anterior end ; several contractile vacuoles;
reniform macronucleus and a micronucleus connected with, and
suspended by, fibrils, karyophore; locomotion with posterior end
directed forward; in the stomach of cattle and sheep.
Fig. 320. a, Paraisotricha colpoidea, X270 (Hsiung); b, P. beckeri, X360
(Hsiung); c, Isotricha prostoma, X500 (Becker and Talbott); d, /. intes-
tinalis, X500 (Becker and Talbott); e, Dasytricha ruminantium, X330
(Becker and Talbott); f, Cyathodinium pirijorme, X1290 (Lucas); g,
Blepharocorys uncinata, X540 (Reichenow); h, B. bovis, X850 (Dogiel);
i, Charon equi, X570 (Hsiung).
/. prostoma S. (Fig. 320, c). 80-195/z by 53-85/x. Cytology (Camp-
bell, 1929).
I. intestinalis S. (Fig. 320, d). 97-130ju by 68-88/z.
Genus Dasytricha Schuberg. Oval, flattened; cilia in longitudinal
spiral rows; no karyophore; in the stomach of cattle.
D. ruminantium S. (Fig. 320, e). 50-75ju by 30-40^.
752
PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 13 Cyathodiniidae da Cunha
Genus Cyathodinium da Cunha. Conical or pyriform; broad cyto-
stome occupies the entire anterior end and extends posteriorly 1/4-
3/4 the body length; deep with prominent ridges; oral cilia in a sin-
gle row on left ridge; body cilia comparatively long, confined to an-
terior half; macro nucleus round or ellipsoid; a micro nucleus; one to
several contractile vacuoles; in the caecum and colon of guinea pigs.
C. conicum da C. Inverted cone; 50-80ju by 20-30/1 ; in the caecum
of Cavia aperea and C. porcella.
C. piriforme da C. (Fig. 320, /). Typical form inverted pyriform;
second form conical with tapering anterior end; contractile vacuole
posterior; 30-40ju by 20-30ju; in the caecum of Cavia aperea and C.
porcella. Occurrence and cytology (Lucas, 1932, 1932a; Nie, 1950).
Family 14 Blepharocoridae Hsiung
Genus Blepharocorys Bundle. Oral groove deep, near anterior end;
3 (oral, dorsal and ventral) ciliary zones at anterior end; a caudal
ciliary zone; in the caecum and colon of horse or stomach of cattle.
Many species.
Fig. 321. The developmental cycle of Conidiophrys pilisuctor (Chatton
and Lwoff). a, trophont with two tomites; b, freed tomite; c, tomite be-
coming attached to host's hair; d, lacrymoid trophont; e, spheroid stage;
f, g, cucurbitoid stage.
HOLOTRICHA
753
B. uncinata (Fiorentini) (B. equi Schumacher) (Fig. 320, g). With
a screw-like anterior process; 55-74/z by 22-30^; in the caecum and
colon of horse (Hsiung, 1930a).
B. bovis Dogiel (Fig. 320, h). 23-37/z by 10-17//; in the stomach of
cattle (Dogiel, 1926).
Genus Charon Jameson. Two caudal ciliary zones; in the colon of
horse or in stomach of ruminants.
C. equi Hsiung (Fig. 320, i). 30-48m by 10-14ju; in the colon of
horse (Hsiung, 1930, 1930a).
Family 15 Conidophryidae Mohr and LeVeque
(Pilisuctoridae Chatton and Lwoff)
Genus Conidophrys Chatton and Lwoff (Fig. 321). Trophont or
the form attached to host's appendages (a), cylindrical, with a thick
pellicle; contents divide into two or three (and up to several) smaller
bodies which develop into tomites or free-swimming individuals (b) ;
when the latter come in contact with the ends of the secretory hairs
Fig. 322. Conidiophrys pilisuctor (Chatton and Lwoff). a, trophonts of
all ages on an appendage of Corophium acherusicum; b, a stained mature
trophont with two formed and one developing tomites, X1330; c, a tomite
emerging from trophont, X1330; d, a living tomite, X2230; e, newly at-
tached lacrymoid trophont, X1330.
754 PROTOZOOLOGY
of the host, they become attached through their cytopharynx (c) and
lose their cilia; during the development into the cucurbitoid mature
stage (/, g), the organism passes through lacrymoid (d) and spheroid
(e) stages; on freshwater amphipods and isopods (Chatton and Lwoff,
1934, 1936).
C. pilisuctor C. and L. (Fig. 322). Lacrymoid trophont 12-1 5m by
6-7/*; cucurbitoid forms 50-60^ long; free-swimming tomites 12— 14/i
in diameter by 6-7/z high, ciliated and possess a comparatively long
cytopharynx; nourishment of trophont through host's hairs; in
amphipods and isopods, especially on Corophium acherusicum,
France. Mohr and LeVeque (1948) found it on the wood-boring iso-
pods, Limnoria lignorum and Corophium acherusicum in California.
References
Beers, C. D.: (1944) The maintenance of vitality in pure lines of
the ciliate Tillina magna. Am. Nat., 78:68.
(1945) Some factors affecting excystment in the ciliate
Tillina magna. Physiol. Zool., 18:80.
(1946) History of the nuclei of Tillina magna during divi-
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(1946a) Tillina magna: etc. Biol. Bull., 91:256.
Bozler, E.: (1924) Ueber die Morphologie der Ernahrungsorganelle
und die Physiologie der Nahrungsaufnahme bei Paramecium
caudatum. Arch. Protist., 49:163.
Bullington, W. E. : (1930) A further study of spiraling in the ciliate
Paramecium, etc. J. Exper. Zool., 56:423.
Burt, R. L.: (1940) Specific analysis of the genus Colpoda with spe-
cial reference to the standardization of experimental material.
Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 59:414.
— , Kidder, G. W. and Claff, C. L.: (1941) Nuclear reorgani-
zation in the family Colpodidae. J. Morphol., 69:537.
Campbell, A. S.: (1929) The structure of Isotricha prostoma. Arch.
Protist., 66:331.
Chatton, E. and Lwoff, A.: (1934) Sur un infusoire parasite des
poils secreteurs des crustaces Edriophtalmes et la famille nou-
velle des Pilisuctoridae. C. R. Acad. Sc, 199:696.
(1936) Les Pilisuctoridae. Bull. biol. France et Belg.,
70:86.
Claff, C. L., Dewey, Virginia C. and Kidder, G. W.: (1941)
Feeding mechanisms and nutrition in three species of Bresslaua.
Biol. Bull., 81:221.
Cleveland, L. R. : (1927) The encystment of Paramecium in the
recta of frogs. Science, 66:221.
Curtis, W. C. and Guthrie, Mary J.: (1927) Textbook of general
zoology. New York.
Diller, W. F.: (1936) Nuclear reorganization processes in Para-
mecium aurelia, etc. J. Morphol., 59: 11.
HOLOTRICHA 755
— (1940) Nuclear variation in Paramecium caudatum. Ibid.,
66:605.
— (1942) Re-conjugation in Paramecium caudatum. Ibid., 70:
229.
(1948) Nuclear behavior of Paramecium trichium during con-
jugation. Ibid., 82:1.
(1949) An abbreviated conjugation process in Paramecium
trichium. Biol. Bull., 97:331.
Dimitrowa, A.: (1928) Untersuchungen liber die iiberzahligen pul-
sierenden Vakuolen bei Paramecium caudatum. Arch. Protist.,
64:462.
Dogiel, V.: (1926) Une nouvelle espece du genre Blepharocorys, B.
bovis, etc. Ann. Parasitol., 4:61.
(1930) Die prospektive Potenz der Syncaryonderivate an der
Conjugation von Paraisotricha erlautert. Arch. Protist., 70:
497.
Gelei, J. v.: (1934) Der feinere Bau des Cytopharynx von Para-
mecium und seine systematische Bedeutung. Ibid., 82:331.
(1939) Das aussere Stiitzgerustsystem des Paramecium-
korpers. Ibid., 92:245.
(1939a) Neue Beitrage zum Bau und zu der Funktion des
Exkretionssystems von Paramecium. Ibid., 92:385.
Gregory, Louise H.: (1909) Observations on the life history of
Tillina magna. J. Exper. Zool., 6:383.
Hardin, G.: (1944) Symbiosis of Paramecium and Oikomonas. Ecol-
ogy, 25:304.
Hsiung, T. S.: (1930) Some new ciliates from the large intestine of
the horse. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 49:34.
(1930a) A monograph on the Protozoa of the large intestine
of the horse. Iowa State College J. Sc, 4:356.
Jennings, H. S.: (1938) Sex reaction types and their interrelations
in Paramecium bursaria. I. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sc, 24:112.
Johnson, W. H. and Evans, F. R. : (1939) A study of encystment in
the ciliate, Woodruffia metabolica. Arch. Protist., 92:91.
(1940) Environmental factors affecting cystment in
Woodruffia metabolica. Physiol. Zool., 13:102.
(1941) A further study of environmental factors af-
fecting cystment in Woodruffia metabolica. Ibid., 14:227.
and Larson, Enid: (1938) Studies on the morphology and
life history of Woodruffia metabolica, n. sp. Arch. Protist., 90:
383.
Kidder, G. W. and Claff, C. L.: (1938) Cytological investigations
of Colpoda cucullus. Biol. Bull., 74:178.
Kirby, H. Jr.: (1934) Some ciliates from salt marshes in California.
Arch. Protist., 82:114.
Koster, W. : (1933) Untersuchungen iiber Teilung und Conjugation
bei Paramecium multimicronucleatum. Ibid., 80:410.
Kruszynski, J.: (1939) Mikrochemische Untersuchungen des
veraschten Paramecium caudatum. Ibid., 92:1.
Lackey, J. B.: (1925) The fauna of Imhoff tanks. Bull. N. J. Agr.
Exper. St., No. 417.
756 PROTOZOOLOGY
Lieberman, P. R. : (1929) Ciliary arrangement in different species of
Paramecium. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 48:1.
Loefer, J. B. : (1936) Bacteria-free culture of Paramecium bursaria
and concentration of the medium as a factor in growth. J. Exper.
Zool., 72:387.
Lucas, Miriam S.: (1932) A study of Cyathodinium piriforme.
Arch. Protist., 77:64.
(1932a) The cytoplasmic phases of rejuvenescence and fis-
sion in Cyathodinium piriforme. II. Ibid., 77:406.
Lynch, J.: (1929) Studies on the ciliates from the intestine of
Strongylocentrotus. I. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 33:27.
(1930) II. Ibid., 33:307.
Michelson, E.: (1928) Existenzbedingungen und Cystenbildung bei
Paramecium caudatum. Arch. Protist., 61:167.
Mohr, J. L. and LeVeque, J. A. : (1948) Occurrence of Conidophrys,
etc. J. Parasitol., 34:253.
MiiLLER, W.: (1932) Cytologische und vergleichend-physiologische
Untersuchunger liber Paramecium multimicronucleatum und P.
caudatum, etc. Arch. Protist., 78:361.
Nie, D.: (1950) Morphology and taxonomy of the intestinal Proto-
zoa of the guinea-pigs, Cavia porcella. J. Morphol., 86:381.
Parker, R. C: (1926) Symbiosis in Paramecium bursaria. J. Exper.
Zool, 46:1.
Powers, P. B. A. : (1933) Studies on the ciliates from sea urchins. I.
Biol. Bull., 65:106.
(1933a) II. Ibid., 65:122.
(1935) Studies on the ciliates of sea urchins. Papers Tortugas
Lab., 29:293.
Pringsheim, E. G.: (1928) Physiologische Untersuchungen an
Paramecium bursaria. Arch. Protist., 64:289.
Reynolds, B. D.: (1936) Colpoda steini, a facultative parasite of the
land slug, Agriolimax agrestis. J. Parasitol., 22:48.
Stranghoner, E.: (1932) Teilungsrate und Kernreorganisations-
prozess bei Paramecium multimicronucleatum. Arch. Protist.,
78 * 302
Stuart, C. A., Kidder, G. W. and Griffin, A. M.: (1939) Growth
studies on ciliates. III. Physiol. Zool., 12:348.
Taylor, C. V. and Furgason, W. H.: (1938) Structural analysis of
Colpoda duodenaria sp. nov. Arch. Protist., 90:320.
- — - — and Strickland, A. G.: (1939) Reactions of Colpoda duo-
denaria to environmental factors. II. Physiol. Zool., 12:219.
Turner, J. P.: (1937) Studies on the ciliate Tillina canalijera n. sp.
Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 56:447.
(1940) Cytoplasmic inclusions in the ciliate Tillina canalij-
era. Arch. Protist. , 93 : 255.
Wenrich, D. H.: (1926) The structure and division of Paramecium
trichium. J. Morphol. Physiol., 43:81.
(1928) Paramecium woodruffi n. sp. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 47:
256.
(1928a) Eight well-defined species of Paramecium. Ibid., 47:
275.
HOLOTRICHA 757
Wichterman, R. : (1948) The biological effects of x-rays on mating
types and conjugation of Paramecium bursaria. Biol. Bull., 94:
113.
(1949) The collection, cultivation, and sterilization of Para-
mecium. Proc. Penn. Acad. Sc, 23:151.
(1951) The ecology, cultivation, structural characteristics
and mating types of Paramecium calkinsi. Ibid., 25:51.
(1953) The biology of Paramecium. New York.
Woodruff, L. L.: (1921) The structure, life history and intrageneric
relationships of Paramecium calkinsi, sp. nov. Biol. Bull, 41:
171.
(1931) Micronuclear variation in Paramecium bursaria.
Quart. J. Micr.Sc, 74:537.
Chapter 35
Order 1 Holotricha Stein (continued)
Suborder 4 Hymenostomata Delage and Herouard
Cytostome not connected with peristome Family 1 Frontoniidae
Oytostome at end or bottom of peristome
Peristome sickle-form, ciliated slit; sunk at right angles to body surface
Family 2 Ophryoglenidae (p. 767)
Peristome long, begins at anterior end of body
Peristome with a one-layered membrane which forms a pocket sur-
rounding cytostome on right edge and a row of cilia or mem-
brane on left Family 3 Pleuronematidae (p. 769)
Peristome otherwise
Peristome with 2 one-layered membranes; no distinct ectoplasmic
pocket around cytostome. .Family 4 Cohnilembidae (p. 771)
Peristome furrow either covered densely with cilia, besides an un-
dulating membrane on right edge, or with only a thick undu-
lating membrane on the right edge
Family 5 Philasteridae (p. 771)
Family 1 Frontoniidae Kahl
Genus Frontonia Ehrenberg. Ovoid to ellipsoid; anterior end more
broadly rounded than posterior end; flattened; oral groove lies in
anterior third or more or less flattened ventral surface, to right of
median line; lancet-like with pointed anterior and truncate poste-
rior end; left edge is more curved than right edge, and posteriorly be-
comes a prominent ectoplasmic lip; cytostome with a complex or-
ganization (on left edge a large undulating membrane composed of
3 layers, each being made up of 4 rows of cilia; on right, semi-
membranous groups of cilia; 3 outer rows of cilia from the postoral
suture; along this suture ectoplasm is discontinuous so that large
food matter is taken in; with a small triangular ciliated field poste-
rior to cytostome and left of suture) ; a long narrow postoral groove
which is ordinarily nearly closed ; cytopharynx w7ith numerous strong
fibrils; ciliary rows close and uniform; ectoplasm with numerous
fusiform trichocysts; macro nucleus oval; one to several micro nuclei;
1-2 contractile vacuoles, with collecting canals and an external pore;
in fresh or salt water. Species identification and movement (Bulling-
ton, 1939); trichocysts (Kriiger, 1931).
F. leucas E. (Figs. 2, i, j; 323, a-c). 150-600^ long; feeds on fila-
mentous algae, but may take in Arcella and even large amoebae
(Beers, 1933); among algae in fresh water.
F. branchiostomae Codreanu (Fig. 323, d). 75-100jn by 55-95/x;
commensal in the branchial cavity of Amphioxus.
758
HOLOTRICHA
759
Genus Disematostoma Lauterborn. Somewhat similar to Fron-
tonia; pyriform; with broadly rounded, truncate or concave anterior
end and bluntly pointed narrow posterior end; preoral canal wide;
a dorsal ridge in posterior region of body; macro nucleus sausage-
form; a micro nucleus; contractile vacuole in middle of body, with
long collecting canals; in fresh water.
Fig. 323. a-c, Frontonia leucas (Bullington) (a, aboral view showing a
contractile vacuole, collecting canals, macronucleus, four micronuclei and
trichocysts, X220; b, oral view, showing the cytostome with undulating
membrane and groove, X165; c, portion of pellicle with wart-like projec-
tions over trichocysts); d, F. branchiostomae, X490 (Codreanu); e, Disem-
atostoma butschlii, X340 (Kahl); f, Lembadion bullinum, X170 (Kahl); g,
Tetrahymena pyriformis, X950 (Furgason).
760 PROTOZOOLOGY
D. biitschlii L. (Fig. 323, e). 135-155^ long; with or without zoo-
chlorellae; in fresh water.
Genus Lembadion Perty. Oval; dorsal side convex, ventral side
concave; cytostome 3/4-4/5 the body length; on its left with a large
membrane composed of many ciliary rows and on its right, numerous
narrow rows of short free cilia; an undulating membrane and ciliary
rows near posterior end; contractile vacuole in mid-dorsal region
with a long tubule opening at posterior-right side; close ciliation
uniform; macronucleus ellipsoid, subterminal; a micro nucleus; long
caudal cilia; in fresh water.
L. bullinum P. (Fig. 323, /). 120-200^ long; posterior cilia 40-50/x
long.
Genus Tetrahymena Furgason (1941). Pyriform; small forms; uni-
form ciliation; ciliary rows or meridians 17-42; 2 postoral meridians;
preoral suture straight; cytostome small, close to anterior end, pyri-
form; its axis parallel to body axis; inconspicuous ectoplasmic ridge
or flange on the left margin of mouth; an undulating membrane on
right side and 3 membranellae on left of the cytostome; a single con-
tractile vacuole; macronucleus ovoid; micronucleus absent in some
species; in fresh water or parasitic. Corliss (1952, 1952a) made a
comparative study of different strains and allied forms.
T. pyriformis (Ehrenberg) (T. geleii Furgason) (Figs. 323, g; 324,
a-c). 59 strains (Corliss, 1952a) ; 40-60/x long; 17-23 ciliary meridians;
pyriform cytostome about 1/10 the body length; with or without
micronucleus; bacteria-feeder; in fresh water (Corless, 1952, 1952a).
Bacteria-free or pure culture (Kidder, 1941) (p. 884).
T. vorax (Kidder, Lilly and Claff) (Glaucoma vorax K. L. and C.)
(Fig. 39). Form and size vary; bacteria-feeders elongate pyriform,
50-75ju long; saprozoic forms fusiform, 30-70/z long, decreasing in
size with the age of culture; sterile particle-feeders, 60-80/z long;
carnivores and cannibals broadly pyriform, 100-250^ long; 19-21
ciliary meridians; macronucleus ovoid, central; in carnivores, out-
line irregular; apparently without micronucleus; pond water.
T. limacis (Warren). In the liver and other visceral organs of the
gray garden slug, Deroceras agreste; 33-68 (55) n by 18-35(27)//;
those from cultures measure 28-68(44) n by 1 7-42(27) /x; the parasitic
phase is cucumber-shaped with apiculate anterior end ; the free-living
organisms are pyriform, somewhat pointed anteriorly; cytostome at
about 1/4 from the anterior end, with an undulating membrane and
three membranelles; 33-37 ciliary rows (Kozloff, 1946).
Genus Leucophrys Ehrenberg. Broadly pyriform; cytostome large,
pyriform, with its axis parallel to body axis; ectoplasmic flange along
HOLOTRICHA
761
left margin; undulating membrane on right and 3 membranellae on
left of mouth; 5 postoral ciliary meridians; macronucleus ovoid; a
micronucleus; fresh water.
L. patula E. (Fig. 324, d-f). Broadly pyriform; 80-160/x long;
occasionally small forms occur; cytostome pyriform, about 1/3
the body length; 40-45 ciliary meridians; macronucleus irregularly
ovoid; a micronucleus attached to macronucleus; carnivorous, but
may be cultured in sterile media (Kidder) ; fresh water. Morphogene-
sis (Faur6-Fremiet, 1948).
Genus Glaucoma Ehrenberg (Dallasia Stokes). Ovoid or ellipsoid;
cytostome about one-fourth the body length, near anterior end,
ellipsoid; cytostome with an inconspicuous undulating membrane
Fig. 324. a-c, Tetrahymena pyriformis (a, X535 (Kidder); b, c, cyto-
stomal structure (Furgason)); d-f, Leucophrys patula (d, a well-fed ani-
mal, X280 (Maupas); e, a diagram, X535 (Kidder); f, cytostome (Furga-
son)); g, h, Glaucoma scintillans (g, a diagram, X535 (Kidder); h, cyto-
stome (Furgason)); i, j, Colpidium colpoda (i, X180 (Kahl); j, cytostome
(Furgason)) ; k, C. campylum, X535 (Kidder) ; 1, C. echini, X385 (Powers) ;
m, Paraglaucoma rostrata, X400 (Kahl); n, Malacophrys rotans, X500
(Kahl).
762 PROTOZOOLOGY
on right and 3 membranellae on left; ectoplasmic ridge on right bor-
der of mouth; ciliation uniform; 30-40 ciliary meridians; 7 postoral
meridians; macro nucleus rounded; a micro nucleus; a contractile
vacuole; with or without 1 or more caudal bristles; fresh water.
G. scintillans E. (Fig. 324, g, h). Ovate with rounded ends; 45-75 ix
long; U-shaped cytostome, about one-fourth the body length, ob-
lique; ectoplasmic flange and 3 membranellae conspicuous; a con-
tractile vacuole in posterior one-third; macronucleus oval, central;
a micronucleus ; bacteria-feeder; in fresh water. Bacteria-free culture
(Kidder, 1941); division (Kidder and Diller, 1934)
Genus Colpidium Stein. Elongate reniform; ciliary meridians
variable in number, but typically one postoral meridian; small tri-
angular cytostome one-fourth from anterior end toward right side;
a small ectoplasmic flange along right border of cytostome which
shows an undulating membrane on right and 3 membranellae on left;
rounded macronucleus; a micronucleus; a contractile vacuole; fresh
or salt water or parasitic.
C. colpoda (Ehrenberg) (Tillina helia Stokes) (Figs. 10, c; 324,
i, j). Elongate reniform; 90-1 50m long; cytostome about one-
tenth the body length ; 55-60 ciliary meridians; preoral suture curved
to left; macronucleus oval, central; a micronucleus; fresh water.
Bacteria-free culture (Kidder, 1941); division (Kidder and Diller,
1934); effect of food bacteria on division (Burbank, 1942).
C. campylum (Stokes) (Fig. 324, k). Elongate reniform; 27-30
ciliary meridians; preoral suture curved to right; 50-70 m long; in
fresh and brackish water. Division (Kidder and Diller, 1934).
C. striatum S. Similar to the last species; contractile vacuole
further posterior; 50^ long; in standing water.
C. echini (Russo) (Fig. 324, I) . In the intestinal caeca of Strongylo-
centrotus lividus; 37-64(55)/* by 21-28(25)/*; 24 longitudinal ciliary
rows; cytostome at anterior third (Powers, 1933).
Genus Paraglaucoma Kahl. Somewhat similar to Glaucoma; but
without perioral ectoplasmic ridge; a membrane on right ridge of
the cytostome; anterior end drawn out to a point in profile, posterior
end rounded; a stiff posterior bristle; a contractile vacuole; rapid
zig-zag movement. One species.
P. rostrata K. (Fig. 324, m). 60-80ix long; in fresh water (often in
dead rotiferan body); California, Wisconsin (Kahl).
Genus Malacophrys Kahl. Ellipsoid or cylindrical; plastic; cilia
uniformly close-set in longitudinal rows; slit-like cytostome at an-
terior extremity ; in fresh water.
M. rotans K. (Fig. 324, n). Oval; close and dense ciliation; spheri-
HOLOTRICHA 763
cal macro nucleus central; a micro-nucleus; a single contractile vacu-
ole; body 40-50/x long; fresh water.
Genus Espejoia Burger (Balantiophorus Penard). Ellipsoid; an-
terior end obliquely truncate; large cytostome at anterior end; post-
oral groove on ventral side, 1/4-1/3 the body length ; a conspicuous
membrane on the left edge of groove; in gelatinous envelope of eggs
of insects and molluscs.
E. musicola (P.) (Fig. 325, a). Elongate; right side flat, left side
convex; 80-100^ long (Penard); 70-80m long and dimorphic (Faure-
Fremiet and Mugard, 1949).
Genus Cryptochilidium Schouteden (Cryptochilum Maupas). El-
lipsoid; with rounded anterior end, posterior end pointed in profile;
highly compressed; uniform and close ciliation; cytostome near mid-
dle; one or more longer cilia at posterior end; contractile vacuole
posterior; macronucleus round; a micronucleus; commensal. Several
species (Powers, 1933, 1935).
C. echini (Maupas) (Fig. 325, b). 70-140m long; in the gut of Echi-
nus lividus.
Genus Eurychilum Andre. Elongate ellipsoid; anterior end some-
what narrowed; cilia short; dense ciliation not in rows; contractile
vacuole terminal; macronucleus band-form; cytostome about 2/5
from anterior end and toward right, with a strong undulating mem-
brane on left; no cyto pharynx; actively swimming. One species.
E. actiniae A. (Fig. 325, c). About 155/x long; in gastrovascular
cavity of Sagartia parasitica.
Genus Monochilum Schewiakoff. Ovoid to ellipsoid; medium
large; uniform and dense ciliation in rows; oblong cytostome left of
median line, in about 1/4 the body length from anterior end; short
cyto pharynx conical, with an undulating membrane; contractile
vacuole near middle; in fresh water.
M. frontatum S. (Fig. 325, d). Anterior end broader; ventrally
flattened, dorsally somewhat convex; macronucleus ellipsoid; a
micronucleus; feeds on algae; 80/* by 30/u.
Genus Dichilum Schewiakoff. Similar to Monochilum; but mem-
brane on both edges of the cytostome; in fresh or salt water.
D. cuneiforme S. (Fig. 325, e). Ellipsoid; cytostome about 1/5 the
body length from anterior end; right membrane larger than left;
small cytopharynx; macronucleus ellipsoid; about 40/x by 24ju; in
fresh water.
Genus Loxocephalus Eberhard. Ovoid to cylindrical; sometimes
compressed; crescentic cytostome on slightly flattened area near
anterior end, with 2 membranes; often a zone of cilia around body;
764
PROTOZOOLOGY
usually 1 (or more) long caudal cilium; endoplasm granulated, yel-
lowish to dark brown; macronucleus ovoid; a single contractile
vacuole; in fresh or brackish water. Many species.
L. plagius (Stokes) (Fig. 325,/). 50-65/* long; nearly cylindrical;
15-16 ciliary rows; endoplasm usually darkly colored; in fresh water
among decaying vegetation.
Genus Balanonema Kahl. Similar to Loxocephalus; but with plug-
like ends; cytostome difficult to see; a caudal cilium; macronucleus
Fig. 325. a, Espejoia musicola, X300 (Penard); b, Cryptochilidium
echini, X380 (Powers); c, Eurychilum actiniae, X360 (Andre); d, Mono-
chilum frontatum, X440 (Schewiakofif) ; e, Dichilum cuneiforme, X700
(Schewiakoff); f, Loxocephalus plagius, X380 (Stokes); g, Balanonema
biceps, X600 (Penard); h, Platynematum sociale, X500 (Kahl); i, Sapro-
philus agitatus, X450 (Stokes); j, S. muscorum, X440 (Kahl); k, Cineto-
chilum margaritaceum, X440 (Kahl).
oval; contractile-vacuole; ciliation uniform or broken in the middle
zone ; fresh water.
B. biceps (Penard) (Fig. 325, g). Ellipsoid; no cilia in the middle
region; contractile vacuole central; macronucleus posterior to it;
42-50ju long.
Genus Platynematum Kahl. Ovoid or ellipsoid; highly flattened;
with a long caudal cilium; contractile vacuole posterior-right; small
HOLOTRICHA 765
cytostome more or less toward right side, with 2 outer membranes;
ciliary furrows horseshoe-shaped; in fresh or salt water.
P. sociale (Penard) (Fig. 325, h). Anterior hall more flattened;
ventral side concave; cytostome in the anterior third; yellowish and
granulated; 30-50/x long; sapropelic in fresh and brackish water.
Genus Saprophilus Stokes. Ovoid or pyriform; compressed, cy-
tostome in anterior 1/4-1/3 near right edge, with two membranes;
macro nucleus spherical; contractile vacuole posterior; in fresh water.
S. agitatus S. (Fig. 325, i). Ellipsoid; ends bluntly pointed; com-
pressed; plastic; close striation; about 4G> long; in fresh water in
decomposing animal matter such as Gammarus.
S. muscorum Kahl (Fig. 325, j). Cytostome large, with a large
membrane; trichocysts; contractile vacuole with a distinct canal;
body about 35ju long; in fresh water.
Genus Cinetochilum Perty. Oval to ellipsoid; highly flattened;
cilia on flat ventral surface only; cytostome right of median line in
posterior half, with a membrane on both edges which form a
pocket; oblique non-ciliated postoral field leads to left posterior end;
with 3^1 caudal cilia; macro nucleus spherical, central; contractile
vacuole terminal; in fresh or salt water. Neuroneme system (Gelei,
1940).
C. margaritaceum P. (Fig. 325, k). 15-45/x long; in fresh and
brackish water.
Genus Dexiotrichides Kahl (Dexiotricha Stokes). Reniform; com-
pressed; cytostome near middle, with two membranes; long cilia
sparse; a special oblique row of cilia; a single caudal cilium; contrac-
tile vacuole terminal; spheroidal macro nucleus anterior; a micro-
nucleus ; in fresh water. One species.
D. centralis (Stokes) (Fig. 326, a). About 30-45/i long; in decaying
vegetable matter.
Genus Cyrtolophosis Stokes. Ovoid or ellipsoid; with a mucilagi-
nous envelope in which it lives, but from which it emerges freely;
cytostome near anterior end with a pocket-forming membrane; on
right side a short row of special stiff cilia, bent ventrally; sparse
ciliation spiral to posterior-left; spherical macro nucleus central; a
contractile vacuole; in fresh water.
C. mucicola S. (Fig. 326, b). 25-28m long; in infusion of leaves.
Genus Urocentrum Nitzsch. Short cocoon-shaped, constricted
in the middle; ventral surface flat; 2 broad girdles of cilia; fused
cilia at posterior end; with a zone of short cilia in the constricted
area; cytopharynx with a stiff ectoplasmic membrane which sepa-
rates two undulating membranes; macronucleus horseshoe-shaped,
766
PROTOZOOLOGY
posterior; a micronucleus; contractile vacuole terminal, with eight
long collecting canals which reach the middle of body; in fresh water.
U. turbo (Miiller) (Fig. 326, c). 50-80/z long; unique movement.
Fission (Kidder and Diller, 1934).
Genus Urozona Schewiakoff. Ovoid, both ends broadly rounded;
a distinct constriction in the ciliated middle region; ciliary band
composed of 5-6 rows of cilia, directed anteriorly and arranged longi-
tudinally; cytostome with a membrane; rounded macro nucleus and a
micronucleus posterior ; contractie vacuole subterminal ;in freshwater.
Fig. 326. a, Dexiotrichides centralis, X500 (Kahl); b, Cyrtolophosis
mucicola, X670 (Kahl); c, Urocentrum turbo, X200 (Biitschli); d, Urozona
butschlii, X440 (Kahl); e, Uronema marinum, X490 (Kahl); f, g, U. pluri-
caudatum, X940 (Noland); h, Homalogastra setosa, X450 (Kahl); i, j,
Stokesia vernalis, X340 (Wenrich); k, Ophryoglena collini, X150 (Liechten-
stein); 1, 0. pyriformis, X180 (Rossolimo); m, 0. intestinalis, X55
(Rossolimo).
HOLOTRICHA 767
U. biitschlii S. (Fig. 326, d). 20-25^ long (Kahl); 30-40/i (Schewi-
akoff ) ; in stagnant water.
Genus Uronema Dujardin. Oval to elongate ovoid; slightly flat-
tened; anterior region not ciliated; inconspicuous peristome with
ciliated right edge; cytostome on the ventral side close to left border
in the anterior half, with a small tongue-like membrane; cytopharynx
indistinct; macronucleus spherical, central; contractile vacuole ter-
minal; in salt or fresh water. Comparison with Cyclidium (Parducz,
1940).
U. marinum D. (Fig. 326, e). 30-50/x long; in salt water among
algae. Structure (Parducz, 1939).
U. pluricaudatum No land (Fig. 326, /, g). Body appears to be
twisted in dorsal view, due to a spiral depression that runs obliquely
down toward cytostome; with about 8 caudal cilia; in salt water;
Florida (Noland, 1937).
Genus Homalogastra Kahl. Broad fusiform; furrows spiral to left;
a long caudal cilium; a group of cilia on right and left side of it;
macronucleus spherical, anterior; contractile vacuole posterior; in
fresh water.
H. setosa K. (Fig. 326, h). About 3(V long; fresh water.
Genus Stokesia Wenrich. Oblique cone with rounded angles; flat
anterior surface uniformly ciliated; with peristome bearing zones of
longer cilia, at the bottom of which is located the cytostome; a
girdle of longer cilia around the organism in the region of its greatest
diameter; pellicle finely striated; with zoochlorellae; trichocysts;
free-swimming; in freshwater pond. One species (Wenrich, 1929).
S. vemalis W. (Fig. 326, i,j). 100-16G> in diameter; macronucleus;
2-4 micronuclei; fresh water.
Family 2 Ophryoglenidae Kent
Genus Ophryoglena Ehrenberg. Ellipsoidal to cylindrical; ends
rounded or attenuated; preoral depression in form of '6' due to an
ectoplasmic membrane extending from the left edge, cilia on the
right edge; cytostome deep-seated; 1 (or 2) contractile vacuole with
long radiating canals, opens through pores on right ventral side;
macronucleus of various forms with several endosomes; a micro-
nucleus; fresh or salt water or parasitic. Many species.
0. collini Lichtenstein (Fig. 326, k). Pyriform; macronucleus
horseshoe-shape; 200-300^ by 120-230/z; in the caecum of Baetis
larvae.
O. parasitica Andre. Ovoid; dark; micronucleus (?); 170-350/x by
180-200/z; in the gastro vascular cavity of Dendrocoelum lacteum.
768
PROTOZOOLOGY
0. pyriformis Rosso limo (Fig. 326, l). Flask-shape; 240-300^ long;
in the gastro vascular cavity of various Turbellaria.
0. intestinalis R. (Fig. 326, ra). Up to 1.5 mm. by 450-500/*; small-
est 60m long; in the gastro vascular cavity of Dicotylus sp.
0. atra Lieberkuhn. Oval, posterior end broadly rounded; 300-
500/x long; grayish; filled with globules; cytostome near anterior end;
macro nucleus elongated; a contractile vacuole; trichocysts; stagnant
fresh water.
Genus Deltopylum Faure-Fremiet and Mugard. Cylindrical; uni-
form ciliation on about 70 ciliary rows; a triangular cytostome in the
anterior fourth, with a paroral undulating membrane on right and
three adoral membranes; a contractile vacuole on mid-right side, a
pore being located in a depression of pellicle above it; macronucleus
Fig. 327. a, Deltopylum rhabdoides, X665 (Faur6-Frenriet and Mugard);
b, Pleuronema crassum, X240 (Kahl); c, P. anodontae, X290 (Kahl); d, e,
P. setigerum, X540 (Noland); f, P. coronatum, X540 (Noland); g, P.
marinum, X400 (Noland); h, Cyclidium litomesum, X300 (Stokes); i.
Cristigera phoenix, X500 (Penard); j, C. media, X400 (Ka,hl),
HOLOTRICHA 769
irregularly ribbon-like; five or six micronuclei; in fresh water (Faure"-
Fremiet and Mugard, 1946).
D. rhabdoides F. and M. (Fig. 327, a). Cylindrical; 150-180/z by
40-45/z; anterior end slightly attenuated and curved, posterior end
rounded; the organism grows well on the gut of Chironomus larvae
in laboratory.
Family 3 Pleuronematidae Kent
Genus Pleuronema Dujardin. Ovoid to ellipsoid; peristome begins
at anterior end and extends for 2/3 the body length; a conspicuous
membrane at both edges; semicircular swelling to left near oral area;
no cyto pharynx; close striation longitudinal; one to many posterior
sensory stiff cilia; macro nucleus round or oval; a micro nucleus; a
contractile vacuole; trichocysts in some species; fresh or salt water,
also commensal in freshwater mussels.
P. crassum D. (Fig. 327, b). 70-120/x long; somewhat compressed;
Woods Hole (Calkins).
P. anodontae Kahl (Fig. 327, c). About 55m long; posterior cilium
about 1/2 the body length ; in Sphaerium, Anodonta.
P. setigerum Calkins (Fig. 327, d, e). Ellipsoid; flattened; ventral
surface slightly concave; about 25 ciliary rows; 38-50/z long (No-
land) ; in salt water; Massachusetts, Florida.
P. coronatum Kent (Fig. 327, /) . Elongate ovoid ; both ends equally
rounded; caudal cilia long; about 40 ciliary rows; 47-75/x long
(Noland, 1937) ; in fresh and salt water; Florida.
P. marinum D. (Fig. 327, g). Elongate ovoid; trichocysts distinct;
caudal cilia medium long; about 50 ciliary rows; 51-126ju long
(Noland) ; in salt water; Florida.
Genus Cyclidium Mtiller. Small, 15-60ju long; ovoid; usually
with refractile pellicle; with a caudal cilium; peristome near right
side; on its right edge occurs a membrane which forms a pocket
around cytostomal groove and on its left edge either free cilia or a
membrane which unites with that on right; no semicircular swelling
on left of oral region; round macronucleus with a micro nucleus; con-
tractile vacuole posterior; fresh or salt water. Numerous species. 3
species in sea urchin (Powers, 1935); comparison with Uronema
(Parducz, 1940).
C. litomesum Stokes (Fig. 327, h). About 40m long; dorsal surface
slightly convex with a depression in middle; ventral surface more or
less concave; cilia long; in fresh water.
Genus Cristigera Roux. Similar to Cyclidium; much compressed ;
70
PROTOZOOLOGY
with a postoral depression; peristome closer to mid-ventral line;
fresh or salt water. Several species.
C. phoenix Penard (Fig. 327, i). 35-50^ long; fresh water.
C. media Kahl (Fig. 327, j). 45-50m long; in salt water.
Genus Ctedoctema Stokes. Similar to Cyclidium in body form;
peristome nearer median line, diagonally right to left; right peri-
Wto>A
Fig. 328. a, Ctedoctema acanthocrypta, X840 (Kahl); b, Calyptotricha
pleuronemoides, X180 (Kahl); c, Histiobalantium natans, X420 (Kahl);
d, H. semisetatum, X270 (Noland); e, Pleurocoptes hydr actiniae, X470
(Wallengren); f, Cohnilembus fusifor?nis, X560 (Kahl); g, C. caeci, X390
(Powers); h, Philaster digitifomris, X220 (Kahl); i, P. armata, X240
(Kahl); j, Helicostoma buddenbrocki, X190 (Kahl).
stomal ridge with a sail-like membrane which surrounds the cyto-
stome at its posterior end; trichocysts throughout; fresh water.
C. acanthocrypta S. (Fig. 328, a). Ovoid; anterior end truncate;
macro nucleus round, anterior; about 35ju long; in fresh water among
vegetation.
Genus Calyptotricha Phillips. Somewhat resembles Pleuronema or
Cyclidium; but dwelling in a lorica which is opened at both ends;
with zoochlorellae; fresh water.
C. pleuronemoides P. (Fig. 328, b). Lorica about 85/* high; body
HOLOTRICHA 771
about 50ju long; Kellicott's (1885) form is more elongated; in fresh
water.
Genus Histiobalantium Stokes. Ovoid; ventral side flattened;
ciliation uniform; long stiff cilia distributed over the body surface;
peristome deep; both anterior and posterior regions with a well-
developed membrane, connected with the undulating membrane;
macro nucleus in 2 parts; 1-2 micro nuclei; several contractile vacu-
oles distributed ; fresh water.
H. natans (Claparede and Lachmann) (Fig. 328, c). 70-1 10/x long.
H. semisetatum Noland (Fig. 328, d). Elongate ellipsoid; posterior
end bluntly rounded; macro nucleus spherical; longer cilia on pos-
terior half only; contractile vacuoles on dorsal side; 126-205/x long;
salt water; Florida (Noland, 1937).
Genus Pleurocoptes Wallengren. Ovoid, dorsal side hemispher-
ical, ventral side flattened; peristome large, reaching the posterior
1/3; cyto pharynx indistinct; longer cilia along peristome; macro-
nucleus spherical; several micronuclei; contractile vacuole terminal;
ectocommensal.
P. hydractiniae W. (Fig. 328, e). 60-70/x long; on Hydractinia
echinata.
Family 4 Cohnilembidae Kahl
Genus Cohnilembus Kahl (Lembus Cohn). Slender spindle-form;
flexible; peristome from anterior end to the middle of body or longer,
curved to right, with 2 membranes on right edge; a caudal cilium or a
few longer cilia at posterior end; macro nucleus oval, central; in salt
or fresh water, some parasitic.
C. fusiformis (C.) (Fig. 328, /). Striation spiral; peristome about
1/6 the body length; a few cilia at posterior end; oval macronucleus
central; contractile vacuole posterior; about 60ju long; in fresh water.
C. caeci Powers (Fig. 328, g). About 32-92/z long; in the intestine of
Tripneustes esculentus and other echinoids; Tortugas.
Family 5 Philasteridae Kahl
Genus Philaster Fabre-Domergue (Philasterides Kahl). Body
cylindrical; peristome about 1/3-2/5 the body length, broader near
cytostome and with a series of longer cilia; cytostome with a triangu-
lar membrane; cyto pharynx (?); ciliation uniform; a caudal cilium;
trichocysts; oval macronucleus with a micro nucleus, central; con-
tractile vacuole terminal or central; in salt or fresh water.
P. digitiformis F-D. (Fig. 328, h). Anterior region bent dorsally;
contractile vacuole terminal; 100-150^ long; salt water.
772 PROTOZOOLOGY
P. armata (K.) (Fig. 328, i). Anterior end more or less straight;
peristome difficult to see; contractile vacuole central; 70-80ju long;
fresh water.
Genus Helicostoma Cohn. Similar to Philaster in general appear-
ance; preoral side-pouch curved around posterior edge of peristome
and separated from it by a refractile curved band; with or without
a pigment spot near cytostome; macronucleus oval or band-form;
contractile vacuole terminal; in salt water.
H. buddenbrocki Kahl (Fig. 328, j). 130-200/* long; in salt and
brackish water.
References
Beers, C. D.: (1933) The ingestion of large amoebae by the ciliate
Frontonia leucas. J. El. Mitch. Sc. Soc, 48:223.
Bullington, W. E. : (1930) A study of spiraling in the ciliate Fron-
tonia with a review of the genus, etc. Arch. Protist., 92:10.
Burbank, W. D.: (1942) Physiology of the ciliate Colpidium col-
poda. I. Physiol. Zool., 15:342.
Corliss, J. O.: (1952) Comparative studies on holotrichous ciliates
in the Colpidium-Glaucoma-Leucophrys-Tetrahymena group.
I. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 71 : 159.
(1952a) Review of the genus Tetrahymena. Proc. Soc. Pro-
toz., 3:3.
Faure-Fremiet, E.: (1948) Doublets homopolaires et regulation
morphogenetique chez le cilie Leucophrys patula. Arch. d'Anat.
Micr. Morph. Exp., 37:183.
and Mugard, Helene: (1946) Sur un infusoire holotriche
histiophage, Deltopylum rhabdoides n. g., n. sp. Bull soc. zool.
France., 71:161.
(1949) Le dimorphisme de Espejoia mucicola. Hydro-
biologia, 1:379.
Furgason, W. H.: (1940) The significant cytostomal pattern of the
"Glaucoma-Colpidium group," and a proposed new genus and
species, Tetrahymena geleii. Arch. Protist., 94:224.
Gelei, G. v.: (1940) Cinetochilum und sein Neuronemensvstem.
Ibid., 94:57.
Kahl, A.: (1931) Urtiere oder Protozoa. Dahl's Die Tierwelt
Deutschlands, etc. Part 21.
Kidder, G. W. : (1941) Growth studies on ciliates. VII. Biol. Bull.,
80:50.
and Diller, W. F.: (1934) Observations on the binary fis-
sion of four species of common free-living ciliates, etc. Ibid., 67:
201.
, Lilly, D. M. and Claff, C. L.: (1940) Growth studies on
ciliates. IV. Ibid., 78:9.
Kozloff, E. N.: (1946) The morphology and systematic position of
a holotrichous ciliate parasitizing Deroceras agreste. J. Morphol.,
79:445.
HOLOTRICHA 773
Kruger, F.: (1931) Dunkelfelduntersuchungen iiber den Bau der
Trichocysten von Frontonia leucas. Arch. Protist., 74:207.
Noland, L. E.: (1937) Observations on marine ciliates of the Gulf
coast of Florida. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 56:160.
Parducz, B.: (1939) Korperbau und einige Lebenserscheinungen
von Uronema marinum. Arch. Protist., 92:283.
(1940) Verwandtschaftliche Beziehungen zwischen den Gat-
tungen Uronema und Cyclidium. Ibid., 93:185.
Powers, P. B. A.: (1933) Studies on the ciliates from sea urchins. I.
Biol. Bull., 65:106.
(1935) Studies on the ciliates of sea-urchins. Papers Tortu-
gas Lab., 29:293.
Rossolimo, L. L.: (1926) Parasitische Infusorien aus dem Baikal-
See. Arch. Protist., 54:468.
Wenrich, D. H.: (1929) Observation on some freshwater ciliates. I.
Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 48:221.
T
Chapter 36
Order 1 Holotricha Stein (continued)
Suborder 5 Thigmotricha Chatton and Lwoff
HE majority of the ciliates placed in this suborder are parasites
or commensals of molluscs. They possess thigmotactic cilia with
which they attach themselves to the host body. Though appearing
heterogeneous, Chatton and Lwoff (1949) maintain that there is a
phylogenetic unity among them, which condition has been brought
about by degenerative influence because of similar conditions of
habitat. Taxonomy (Jarocki and Raabe, 1932; Chatton and Lwoff,
1949).
Following Chatton and Lwoff (1939), the suborder is here divided
into seven families:
Family 1 Conchophthiridae
Family 2 Thigmophryidae (p. 776)
Family 3 Hemispeiridae (p. 776)
Family 4 Hysterocinetidae (p. 779)
Family 5 Ancistrocomidae (p. 780)
Family 6 Hypocomidae (p. 784)
Family 7 Sphenophryidae (p. 785).
Family 1 Conchophthiridae Reichenow
Genus Conchophthirus Stein. Oval to ellipsoid; flattened; right
margin concave at cytostomal region, left margin convex; ventral
surface somewhat flattened, dorsal surface convex; cytostome on
right side near middle in a depression with an undulating membrane;
macro nucleus; micro nucleus; contractile vacuole opens through a
canal to right side ; in the mantle cavity and gills of various mussels.
Species (Kidder, 1934, 1934a; Uyemura, 1934, 1935); morphology
(Raabe, 1932, 1934; Kidder, 1934).
C. anodontae (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 329, a). Ovoid; cytostome in
anterior third, with an overhanging projection in front; cytopharynx,
surrounded by circular fibrils, continues down as a fine, disten-
sible tubule, to near the macronucleus; with peristomal basket;
ciliary grooves originate in a wide ventral suture near anterior
end; anterior region filled with refractile granules; macronucleus
posterior; contractile vacuole between nuclei and peristome, with
a slit-like aperture (Fig. 27); 65-125/* by 47-86^; in the mantle
cavity, gills and on non-ciliated surface of palps of Elliptio com-
planatus; Woods Hole.
774
HOLOTRICHA
775
Fig. 329. a, Concophthirus anodontae; b, C. magna, X300 (Kidder); c,
Myxophyllum steenstrupi, X280 (Raabe) ; d, Hemispeira asteriasi, X705
(Wallengren) ; e, f , Protophrya ovicola (Cepede) (f , a young Littorina rudis
with the ciliate); g, h, two views of Ancistruma mytili, X500 (Kidder); i,
A. isseli, X500 (Kidder); j, A. japonica, X600 (Uyemura); k, Eupoterion
pernix, X500 (MacLennan and Connell); 1, Ancistrina ovata, X630
(Cheissin).
C. magna Kidder (Fig. 329, b). Much larger; 123-204/i by 63-116/*;
closer ciliation; anterior 1/3 filled with smaller granules; irregularly
outlined macronucleus, 25-30m in diameter, central; 2 (or 1) micro-
nuclei; aperture for contractile vacuole large; mantle cavity of El-
liptic) complanatus; Massachusetts.
776 PROTOZOOLOGY
C. mytili de Morgan (Fig. 56). Reniform; 130-220/* by 76-161/x;
peristomal groove on the right side; trichocysts conspicuous along
frontal margin; macronucleus oval; 2 micronuclei; on the foot of the
common mussel, Mytilus edulis. Division and conjugation (Kidder,
1933b, c).
Genus Myxophyllum Raabe. Oval or spheroid; pellicle elastic and
flexible ; peristome on posterior right, without undulating membrane;
7 macronuclei; a micronucleus ; ciliation uniform; in the slime cover-
ing land pulmonates.
M. steenstrupi (Stein) (Fig. 329, c). 120/i by 100-120/*; on Succinea
putris, etc.
Family 2 Thigmophryidae Chatton and Lwoff
Genus Thigmophrya Chatton and Lwoff. Elongate ; round or oblong
in cross section; cytostome in posterior third; contractile vacuole
opens in cy to pharynx; on the gills or palps of lamellibranchs.
T. macomae C. and L. Elongate ovoid; flattened; ventral surface
slightly concave; oral funnel opened; contractile vacuole opens at
the bottom of cytopharynx; numerous ciliary rows; about 110m by
40m; on the gills of Macoma (TelUna) balthica (Chatton and Lwoff,
1923).
Family 3 Hemispeiridae Konig
Genus Hemispeira Fabre-Domergue (Hemispeiropsis Konig).
Nearly spherical; flattened; longitudinal non-ciliated furrow on ven-
tral surface, which encircles thigmotactic posterior cilia; 4-5 cross-
furrows of cilia : a huge adoral membrane at anterior end ; macronu-
cleus, micronucleus large; contractile vacuole, anterior-right; com-
mensal.
H. asteriasi F.-D (Fig. 329, d). 20-30/x long; ectocommensal on
Asterias glacialis (Wallengren, 1895).
Genus Protophrya Kofoid (Isselina Cepede). Ellipsoid to pyriform;
spherical macronucleus; cytostome close to the posterior end. Taxon-
omy (Raabe, 1949); ciliation (Chatton and Lwoff, 1949).
P. ovicola K. (Fig. 329, e, /). About 60m long; in the uterus and
brood-sac of the molluscs, Littorina rudis and L. obtusata (Kofoid,
1903).
Genus Ancistruma Strand (Ancistrum Maupas). Ovoid, pyriform
or somewhat irregular; flattened; right side with more numerous
large cilia than the left; peristome on right side; cytostome near
posterior extremity; macronucleus round or sausage-shape, central;
a micronucleus; contractile vacuole posterior; commensal in the
mantle cavity of various marine mussels. Many species. Morphology,
reproduction (Kidder, 1933, 1933a).
HOLOTRICHA 777
A. my tili (Quennerstedt) (Figs. 18; 329, g, h). Oval; dorsal surface
convex, ventral surface concave; dorsal edge of peristome curves
around the cytostome; peristomal floor folded and protruding;
longitudinal ciliary rows on both surfaces; three rows of long cilia on
peristomal edges; macro nucleus sausage-form; a compact micro-
nucleus anterior; 52-74ju by 20-38/z. Kidder (1933) found it in abund-
ance in the mantle cavity of Mytilus edulis at Woods Hole and New
York.
A. isseli Kahl (Fig. 329, *). Bluntly pointed at both ends; 70-88/x
by 31-54ju. Kidder (1933) observed it abundantly in the mantle cav-
ity of the solitary mussel, Modiolus modiolus, Massachusetts and
New York, and studied its conjugation and nuclear reorganization.
A. japonica Uyemura (Fig. 329, j). Body oval or elongate pyri-
form; 55-76(67) /z by 14-29(20) n; subspherical macronucleus con-
spicuous; a compact micronucleus; usually a single contractile vacu-
ole, posterior; in the mantle cavity of marine mussels; Meritrix
meritrix, Paphia philippinarum, Cyclina sinensis, Mactra veneri-
formis, M. sulcataria, and Dosinia bilnulata (Uyemura, 1937).
Genus Eupoterion MacLennan and Connell. Small ovoid ; slightly
compressed; cilia short, in longitudinal rows; rows of long cilia in
peristome on mid-ventral surface and extend posteriorly, making a
half turn to left around cytostome; small conical cytostome lies in
postero -ventral margin of body; contractile vacuole terminal; large
round macronucleus anterior; a micronucleus; commensal.
E. pernix M. and C. (Fig. 329, k). 46-48 ciliary rows; 6 rows of
heavy peristomal cilia; 38-56/x long; in the intestinal contents of the
mask limpet, Acmaea persona; California.
Genus Ancistrina Cheissin. Ovoid; anterior end attenuated; peri-
stomal field along narrow right side; 15-18 ciliary rows parallel to
peristomal ridges; cytostome right-posterior, marked with oral ring,
with a membrane and a zone of membranellae ; right ridge of peri-
stome marked by two adoral ciliary rows; macronucleus anterior,
spheroidal; a micronucleus; commensal.
A. ovata C. (Fig. 329, 1). 38-48/x by 15-20/*; in the mantle cavity of
molluscs: Benedictia biacalensis, B. limneoides and Choanomphalus
sp.
Genus Cochliophilus Kozloff. Ovoid and compressed; peristome in
right-posterior fourth of the body; membrane-like fine cilia overlie a
series of thick cilia from the anterior end of the peristome to cyto-
stome; longitudinal rows of cilia; a vesicular micronucleus; an ovoid
macronucleus; a contractile vacuole; in molluscs.
C. depressus K. (Fig. 330, a). About 93/z by 63m by 15m; 52-56
778
PROTOZOOLOGY
ciliary rows; peristomal membraneous cilia motile; macronucleus ob-
long; in the mantle cavity of the pulmonate snail, Phytia setijer in
San Francisco Bay (Kozloff, 1945).
Genus Ancistrella Cheissin. Elongate; ends rounded; ventral sur-
face less convex than dorsal surface; 16-17 longitudinal ciliary rows;
ciliation uniform, except anterior-dorsal region, bearing bristle-like
longer cilia; 2 adoral ciliary rows on right of peristome, curved dor-
sally behind cytostome; contractile vacuole posterior; macronucleus
single or divided into as many as 7 parts; micronucleus; commensal.
A. choanomphali C. (Fig. 330, b). 55-90ju by 18-20/u; in the mantle
cavity of Choanomphalus sp.
Fig. 330. a, Cochliophilus depressus, X600 (Kozloff); b, Ancistrella
choanomphali, X840 (Cheissin); c, Boveria teredinidi, X550 (Pickard); d,
Plagiospira crinita, X740 (Issel); e, Hysterocineta eiseniae, X250 (Beers);
f, Ptychostomum bacteriophilum , X500 (Miyashita).
HOLOTRICHA 779
Genus Ancistrospira Chatton and Lwoff. Ciliation meridional to
spiral; peristome right spiral; commensal.
A. veneris C. and L. 50-60/z by 22-28^; ovoid, anterior end
pointed; ciliary rows meridional; thigmotactic field on the left side,
sharply marked from body ciliation; on the gills of Venus fasciata.
Genus Boveria Stevens (Tiarella Cheissin). Conical; cytostome
at posterior end; peristome spiral posteriorly; macronucleus oval,
in anterior half; a micronucleus; contractile vacuole posterior; ecto-
commensal on gills of various marine animals such as Teredo, Bankia,
Tellina, Capsa and Holothuria. Several species.
B. teredinidi Pickard (Fig. 330, c). 27-173/i by 12-3 1m; on gills of
Teredo navalis; California (Pickard, 1927).
Genus Plagiospira Issel. Conical; anterior end attenuated; peri-
stome runs spirally from middle of body to cytostome, with long
cilia ; marcronucleus oval, anterior; a micronucleus; contractile vacu-
ole near middle of body; somewhat spirally arranged striae widely
apart on right side; commensal.
P. crinita I. (Fig. 330, d). 32-58ju by 18-34^; in Cardita calyculata
and Loripes lacteus.
Family 4 Hysterocinetidae Diesing
Inclusion of this family in the present suborder is provisional, since
its affinity to other forms is not yet clear. Beers (1938) who placed
it in Hymenostomata, in agreement with Cheissin (1931), states that
the nutrition is in part saprozoic, and that the organisms are in the
process of acquiring the saprozoic and astomatous condition.
Genus Hysterocineta Diesing (Ladopsis Cheissen). Elongate;
flattened; flexible, an inverted V- or U-shaped sucker conspicuously
present in antero- ventral margin; ciliation uniform; cytostome and
cytopharynx at the posterior end; an undulating membrane along
peristome which borders the posterior margin of body; macronucleus
elongate; a micronucleus; contractile vacuole posterior; in the intes-
tine of gastropods and oligochaetes. 4 species. Taxonomy (Jarocki,
1934; Beers, 1938; Raabe, 1949).
H. eiseniae Beers (Fig. 330, e). 190-210/x by 35-40/x; cytostome
not functional; endoplasm with small granules; macronucleus 45-50^
long; sucker inverted V, about 25-30;u long; in the intestine of Ei-
senia lonnbergi (Beers, 1938).
Genus Ptychostomum Stein (Lada Vejdovsky). Sucker circular or
ovoid; macronucleus ovoid or reniform, not elongate; in oligochaetes.
Several species. Taxonomy (Studitsky, 1932; Raabe, 1949).
780 PROTOZOOLOGY
P. bacteriophilum Miyashita (Fig. 330,/). Elongate oval; 70-130/*
by 30-45/*; sucker oval and large, about 50/* in diameter; macronu-
cleus ellipsoid; endoplasm with numerous rods (symbiotic bacteria?) ;
in the freshwater oligochaete, Criodrilus sp.
Family 5 Ancistrocomidae Chatton and Lwoff
Genus Ancistrocoma C. and L. (Parachaenia Kofoid and Bush).
Elongate pyriform with attenuated anterior end; somewhat flat-
tened dorso-ventrally; a contractile suctorial tentacle at the anterior
tip, which is used for attachment to the epithelium of host, and
which continues internally as a long curved canal; longitudinal cilia-
tion on dorso-lateral and ventral sides, beginning at the anterior
end; parasitic in the gills and palps of mollusks. Taxonomy (Kozloff,
1946b; Chatton and Lwoff, 1950).
A. pelseneeri C. and L. (Parachaenia myae Kofoid and Bush) (Fig.
331, a). Body 50-83(62)/* by 14-20(16)/* by 11-16(12.5) a*; 14 ciliary
rows on dorso-lateral and ventral surfaces; five rows on the ventral
side extend only 2/3 from the anterior end; tentacle continues in-
ternally for about 2/3 of body, curved; macronucleus sausage-
shaped; a single micronucleus; on the gills and palps of mussels:
Mya arenaria, M. irus, M. inconspicua, M. nasuta, M. secta, Crypto-
mya californica (Kozloff, 1946b).
Genus Hypocomagalma Jarocki and Raabe. Ovoid or pyriform
with attenuated anterior end; asymmetrical; 22-24 ciliary rows
which do not reach the posterior end; a suctorial tentacle at the an-
terior end; on mollusks.
H. pholadidis Kozloff (Fig. 331, b). 63-89/* by 18-25/* by 16-21/*;
anterior end bent ventrally; 24 or 25 ciliary rows; one or more con-
tractile vacuoles; macronucleus sausage-shaped; a single micronu-
cleus; parasitic in the epithelium of the gills and palps of Pholadidea
penita (Kozloff, 1946b).
Genus Syringopharynx Collin. Elongate ovoid, narrowed ante-
riorly; a suctorial tentacle at anterior end; 14 ciliary rows (six dorsal,
six ventral and two lateral) ; on molluscs (Collin, 1914).
S. pterotrachae C. Body 55/* by 25/*; macronucleus elongate band;
on the gills of Pterotracha coronata (Chatton and Lwoff, 1950).
Genus Goniocoma Chatton and Lwoff. Ovoid with attenuated an-
terior end; end of suctorial tentacle extremely slender; 27-29 ciliary
rows; of the 14 dorsal rows, the median row is very short and the
rows on either side of it are progressively longer; ventral rows pass
over the posterior end and terminate on dorsal surface; on the gills
of molluscs.
HOLOTRICHA
781
Fig. 331, a, ventral view of a stained Ancislrocoma pelseneeri, X1120
(Kozloff); b, Hypocomagalma pholadidis, X840 (Kozloff); c, ciliature as
viewed from right side of Holocoma primigenius, X1130 (Chatton and
Lwoff) ; d, ventral view of Insignicoma venusta, X1245; e, Raabella botulae,
XI 245; f, Crebricoma kozloffi, X755 (Kozloff).
G. macomae (C. and L.). Body 33-39^ by 13-18/*; a comparatively
voluminous micronucleus; on the gills and palps of Macoma balthica
(Chatton and Lwoff, 1950).
Genus Holocoma Chatton and Lwoff. Cylindrical; ventral surface
convex; tentacle at anterior end; 19-23 ciliary rows; 6-10 median
dorsal rows relatively short, seven left and six right rows long ; on the
gills of mollusks.
H. primigenius C. and L. (Fig. 331, c). Elongated body 41-59m
by 15^; ventral surface convex; elongate macronucleus; on the gills
of Macoma balthica (Chatton and Lwoff, 1950).
782 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Insignicoma Kozloff. Elongate pyriform; a contractile ten-
tacle with internal canalicule; median ciliary rows on anterior half
of ventral surface; two right ciliary rows; left rows short and closely
set; an inverted V-shaped row of long cilia on left-lateral surface at
about the middle of body; on mollusks.
/. venusta K. (Fig. 331, d). 42-52/* by 18-21/1 by 15-18/z; 15 me-
dian, two right, and 16-17 left ciliary rows; macronucleus ovoid; mi-
cronucleus spherical; on the gills and palps of Botula californiensis
(Kozloff, 1946a).
Genus Raabella Chatton and Lwoff. Three groups of ciliary rows;
eight to 11 short median rows; six to 11 longer rows on left-lateral
side; two longer rows on the right side; on mollusks.
R. botulae (Kozloff) (Fig. 331, e). 31-39/* by 14-17/x by 12-14/x; 11
median rows; 11 closely set left rows; two longer right rows; macro-
nucleus ovoid to sausage-shaped; spherical micronucleus; on the
gills and palps of Botula californiensis (Kozloff, 1946a).
Genus Crebricoma Kozloff. Pyriform; anterior suctorial tentacle;
many ciliary rows, the majority of which are closely set; two long
rows on the right side; anterior terminals of the rows make a V-
shaped suture; on the gills of mollusks.
C. kozloffi Chatton and Lwoff (C. carinata K.) (Fig. 331, /). Body
58-71// by 27-39/x by 22-3 l/i; two ciliary rows on right side long,
about 2/3 the body length; more than 30 rows of closely set cilia
(1/2-2/3 the body length and longer toward left); macronucleus el-
lipsoid; on the gills and palps of Mytilus edulis (Kozloff, 1946; Chat-
ton and Lwoff, 1950).
Genus Hypocomides Chatton and Lwoff. Elongate; some 23 cili-
ary rows; about 20 median rows, short; two longer rows on right; a
short curved row near the posterior end; on mollusks.
H. mediolariae C. and L. (Fig. 332, a). 27-50/t by 15-27/*; on the
gills of Mediolaria marmorata (Chatton and Lwoff, 1922).
Genus Anisocomides Chatton and Lwoff. Body ovoid, slightly
flattened; 12 ciliary rows; two short median rows with five additional
rows which are progressively longer toward left; a short oblique row,
posterior to the outermost left row; four right rows much longer; on
the gills of mollusks.
A. zyrpheae (C. and L.) (Fig. 332, b). 19-38M by 10-1 5/x by 7-10M;
on the gills of Pholas (Zyrphea) crispata (Chatton and Lwoff, 1926).
Genus Hypocomatidium Jarocki and Raabe. Similar to Aniso-
comides, but without the short posterior ciliary row; on the gills of
mollusks.
783
Fig. 332, a, Hypocomides mediolariae, X1000; b, left side view of
Anisocomides zyrpheae in life, X1065; c, Isocomides mytili in life, X1000
(Chatton and Lwoff); d, Hypocomina tegularum, X1245; e, Heterocinetop-
sis goniobasidis, XI 145; f-h, Hypocomella phoronopsidis, X1300 (f, ven-
tral view of a stained specimen; g, h, dorsal and right side views in life) ; i,
Enerthecoma kozloffi,, X1145 (Kozloff).
H. stphaerii J. and R. Ovoid; 30-45/x by 14-18/u by 9-12^; nine
ciliary rows; five rows on left- ventral and four on right; on the gills
of Sphaerium corneum and S. rivicola (Jarocki and Raabe, 1932).
Genus Isocomides Chatton and Lwoff. Elongated; 14-18 ciliary
rows on anterior 2/3 of the ventral surface ; six to seven on right and
eight to 11 on left; in addition, there is a short transverse row with a
dozen long cilia, posterior to other rows; on mussels.
/. mytili (C. and L.) (Fig. 332, c). 57-64M by 20-22M; on the gills of
Mytilus edulis (Chatton and Lwoff, 1922).
Genus Hypocomina Chatton and Lwoff. Ovoid to pyriform; an
784 PROTOZOOLOGY
anterior tentacle; eight to 10 ciliary rows about half the body-length
and starting a little distance away from the anterior tip; on mol-
lusks.
H. tegularum Kozloff (Fig. 332, d). 26-36/x by 12-17/u by 9-12/z;
anterior end bent ventrally; nine ciliary rows, five rows on right be-
ing slightly longer than the other four; spherical macronucleus; para-
sitic on the ctenidium of Tegula brunnae (Kozloff, 1946).
Genus Heterocinetopsis Jarocki. Body elongate, flattened dorso-
ventrally; a contractile tentacle, its canalicule extending 1/3-2/3
the body length; 10-12 ciliary rows; the median rows about one-half
the body length, the rows toward left being progressively longer; on
mollusks (Jarocki, 1935).
H. goniobasidis (Kozloff) (Fig. 332, e). 36-48/x by 15-20/* by 11-
14:11) 10 ciliary rows; macronucleus pyriform; ovoid micronucleus
inconspicuous; parasitic on the epithelium of the gills and mantle of
Goniobasis plicifera silicula (Kozloff, 1946c).
Genus Hypocomella Chatton and Lwoff (Hypocomidium Raabe).
Pyriform, asymmetrical, flattened; a long retractile tentacle; seven
to 13 ciliary rows on the ventral surface, three rows on left being
progressively longer; on mollusks (Chatton and Lwoff, 1922, 1950).
H. phoronopsidis (Kozloff) (Fig. 332, f-h). 26-37/: by 11-16/* by
6.5-1 1/x; eight ventral ciliary rows; ovoid macronucleus and micro-
nucleus; on the tentacles of Phoronopsis viridis (Kozloff, 1945a).
Genus Enerthecoma Jarocki. Pyriform, symmetrical; 8 ciliary
rows on the ventral side; three on left are somewhat separated from
five others and closely set; on the gills of mollusks.
E. kozloffi Chatton and Lwoff (Fig. 332, i). 32-56/z by 13-21 n by
10-13/*; eight ciliary rows about 2/3 the body length; macronucleus
elongate ; micronucleus fusiform ; on the gills of Viviparus fasciatus
and V. malleatus (Kozloff, 1946c; Chatton and Lwoff, 1950).
Genus Cepedella Poyarkoff . Pyriform with a pointed anterior end ;
macronucleus globular; without contractile vacuole.
C. hepatica P. Body 16-26/x long; in the liver of Sphaerium cor-
neum.
Family 6 Hypocomidae Butschli
Genus Hypocoma Griiber. Dorsal side convex; ventral side flat-
tened with a ciliated oval field; a suctorial tentacle at the anterior
end; about 13 ciliary rows; an adoral zone, a short row (eight gran-
ules) at anterior-left side; on colonial Protozoa.
H. parasitica G. (Fig. 333, a). 30-38/x by 18-20/x by 18/t; 13 ciliary
rows on the flattened surface: adoral zone, a short row; 11 general
HOLOTRICHA
785
ciliary rows; macronucleus horseshoe-shape; a large central food
vacuole; on solitary or colonial peritrichs such as Vorticella, Zoo-
thamnium, etc. (Chatton and Lwoff, 1950).
Genus Heterocoma Chatton and Lwoff. Body ovoid; ventral side
flattened; suctorial tentacle antero-ventral ; 13 ciliary rows make an
ellipsoidal field; an adoral zone, five closely-set rows on left and
Fig. 333. a, Hypocoma parasitica, X1350; b, Heterocoma hyper parasitica,
X1200; c, ciliature of Parahypocoma collini, as seen from left-ventral side
in life (Chatton and Lwoff).
seven widely separated rows on right; in the branchial cavity of
Salpa (Chatton and Lwoff, 1939).
H. hyperparasitica C. and L. (Fig. 333, b). Body ovoid, with
bluntly pointed posterior end; about 44 p. long; a large food vacuole
in cytoplasm ; in the branchial cavity of Salpa mucronata-democratica
(Chatton and Lwoff, 1950).
Genus Parahypocoma Chatton and Lwoff. Ellipsoid; highly flat-
tened; anterior end tapers slightly; 29-34 ciliary rows; the adoral
zone as in the other two genera; a comparatively short suctorial ten-
tacle at anterior end; macronucleus horseshoe-shaped; a large cen-
tral food vacuole; parasitic in ascidians.
P. collini C. and L. (Fig. 333, c). In Ascidia mentula and Ciona
intestinalis (Chatton and Lwoff, 1950).
Family 7 Sphenophryidae Chatton and Lwoff
Genus Sphenophrya Chatton and Lwoff. Body elongated, "quar-
ter orange-" or banana-shaped; attached to the gills of host mollusks
786
PROTOZOOLOGY
by a suctorial tentacle; adult stage without cilia; ciliature is reduced
to infraciliature of 2 groups; multiplication by budding; embryos are
ciliated; on the gills of mollusks (Chatton and Lwoff, 1921).
S. dosiniae C. and L. (Fig. 334, a-c). Body 120ju by 15-2(V; young
embryo ciliated ; on the gills of Dosinia exoleta, Venus ovata, Corbula
gibba, etc. (France) ; Mactra solidissima (Woods Hole) (Chatton and
Lwoff, 1950).
Fig. 334, a-c, Sphaenophrya dosiniae (a, a young embryo; b, a growing-
individual attached to an epithelial cell of the host by a suctorial tentacle;
c, an individual from which a bud is ready to separate) ; d, a side view of
Pelecyophrya tapetis in life; e, f, Gargarius gargarius, XI 200 (e, in life,
showing a macronucleus and a micronucleus; f, diagram showing the
ciliature) (Chatton and Lwoff).
Genus Pelecyophrya Chatton and Lwoff. Body hatchet-shaped,
laterally compressed; posterior end rounded; a large "sucker" at the
anterior end; infraciliature in two groups, five on right and four on
left; multiplication by budding; on the gills of mollusks (Chatton and
Lwoff, 1922).
P. tapetis C. and L. (Fig. 334, d). Body 23-25/x by about 10 »;
macronucleus spherical; ovoid micronucleus; cytoplasm contains
HOLOTRICHA 787
fragments of host cells including nuclei; conjugation; on the gills of
Tapes aureus (Chatton and Lwoff, 1950).
Genus Gargarius Chatton and Lwoff. Dorso-ventrally flattened;
with a "horn" near the anterior end; sucker occupies the entire ven-
tral surface, its margin showing papillous extensions; on the ventral
surface there are two groups of ciliature; four rows on each side; on
Mytilus (Chatton and Lwoff, 1934).
G. gargarius C. and L. (Fig. 334, e, /). Body about 35m long; cili-
ated embryos formed by budding or unequal division; macronucleus
elongate; micronucleus spherical; on Mytilus edulis (Chatton and
Lwoff, 1950).
References
Beers, C. D.: (1938) Hysterocineta eiseniae, etc. Arch. Protist., 91:
516.
Chatton, E. and Lwoff, A.: (1922) Sur 1'evolution des infusoires
des lamellibranches, etc. C. R. Acad. Sc, 175:787.
(1923) Sur revolution des infusoires des lamelli-
branches. Ibid., 177:81.
(1926) Diagnoses de cilies thigmotriches nouveaux.
Bull. Soc.Zool.Fr., 51:345.
(1939) Sur le sucoir des infusoires thigmotriches
rhyncoides, etc. C. R. Acad. Sc, 209:333.
(1949) Recherches sur les cilies thigmotrichs. I.
Arch. zool. exper. gen., 86:169.
(1950) II. Ibid., 86:393.
Cheissin, E.: (1931) Infusorien Ancistridae und Boveriidae aus
dem Baikalsee. Arch. Protist., 73:280.
Jarocki, J.: (1934) Two new hypocomid ciliates. Heterocineta ja-
nickii, etc. Mem. Acad. Pol. Sci. Lett. CI. Math. Nat. Ser. B,
Sc. Nat., p. 167.
and Raabe, Z.: (1932) Ueber drei neue Infusorien-Genera
der Familie Hvpocomidae, etc. Bull. Acad. Pol. Sc. Lett. Ser.
B. Sci. Nat. (II), p. 29.
Kidder, G. W.: (1933) On the genus Ancistruma. I. Biol. Bull, 64:
1.
(1933a) II. Arch. Protist., 81:1.
(1933b) Studies on Conchophthirius mytili. I. Ibid., 79: 1.
(1933c) II. Ibid., 79:25.
(1933d) Conchophthirius caryoclada sp. nov. Biol. Bull., 65:
175.
(1934) Studies on the ciliates from freshwater mussels. I.
Ibid., 66:69.
(1934a) II. Ibid., 66:286.
Konig, A.: (1894) Hemispeiropsis comatulae, etc. Sitzb. kais. Akad.
Wiss., Wien. M.-N. CI., 103:55.
Kofoid, C. A.: (1903) On the structure of Protophrya ovicola, etc.
Mark Anniv. Vol., Harvard Uni., p. 111.
788 PROTOZOOLOGY
and Bush, Mildred: (1936) The life cycle of Parachaenia
myae, etc. Bull. Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat., 12:1.
Kozloff, E. N.: (1945) Cochliophilus depressus, etc. Biol. Bull., 89:
95.
(1945a) Heterocineta phoronopsidis, etc. Ibid., 89:180.
(1946) Studies on ciliates of the family Ancistrocomidae,
etc. I. Ibid., 90:1.
(1946a) II. Ibid., 90:200.
(1946b) III. Ibid., 91:189.
(1946c) IV. Ibid., 91:200.
MacLennan, R. F. and Connell, F. H.: (1931) The morphology of
Eupoterion pernix. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 36:141.
Miyashita, Y. : (1933) Drei neue parasitische Infusorien aus dem
Darme einer japanischen Susswasseroligochaete. Ann. Zool.
Japon., 14:127.
Mjassnikowa, Marie: (1930) Sphenophrya sphaerii, etc. Arch.
Protist., 71:255.
Pickard, Edith A.: (1927) The neuromotor apparatus of Boveria
teredinidi, etc. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 29:405.
Raabe, Z.: (1934) Weitere Untersuchungen an einigen Arten des
Genus Conchophthirus. Mem. Acad. Pol. Sc. Lett. Ser. B, 10:
221.
(1949) Recherches sur les cilies thigmotriches. III. Ann.
Univ. Marie Curie-Ski. Sec. C, 4:119.
Stevens, N. M.: (1903) Further studies on the ciliate Infusoria,
Licnophora and Boveria. Arch. Protist., 3:1.
Studitsky, A. N.: (1932) Ueber die Morphologie, Cytologic und
Systematik von Ptychostomum chattoni. Ibid., 76:188.
Uyemura, M.: (1934) Ueber einige neue Ciliaten aus dem Darm-
kanal von japanischen Echinoidien. I. Sc. Rep. Tokio Bunrika
Daigaku, 1:181.
(1935) Ueber drei in der Susswassermuschel lebende Ciliaten
(Conchophthirius). Ibid., 2:89.
(1937) Studies on ciliates from marine mussels in Japan. I.
Ibid., 3:115.
Wallengren, H.: (1895) Studier ofver ciliata infusorier. II. 77 pp.
Lund.
Chapter 37
Order 1 Holotricha Stein (continued)
Suborder 6 Apostomea Chatton and Lwoff
ASYMMETRICAL forms with a rosette-like cytostome through
which liquid or small solid particles are taken into the body;
sparse ciliary rows spiral; adoral rows short; macronucleus oval to
band-form; a micro nucleus; a single contractile vacuole.
The life-cycle of the ciliates grouped here appears to be highly
complex and Chatton and Lwoff (1935) distinguished several devel-
opmental phases (Fig. 335), as follows: (1) Trophont or vegetative
phase: right-spiral ciliary rows; nucleus pushed aside by food bodies;
body grows, but does not divide. (2) Protomont : transitory stage be-
tween 1 and 3 in which the organism does not nourish itself, but pro-
duces "vitelloid" reserve plates; nucleus central, condensed ; ciliary
rows become straight. (3) Tomont: the body undergoes division
usually in encysted condition into more or less a large number of
small ciliated individuals. (4) Protomite : a stage in which a renewed
torsion begins, and which leads to tomite stage. (5) Tomite: small
free-swimming and non-feeding stage, but serves for distribution. (6)
Phoront: a stage which is produced by a tomite when it becomes at-
tached to a crustacean and encysts; within the cyst a complete trans-
formation to trophont takes place.
Family Foettingeriidae Chatton
Genus Foettingeria Caullery and Mesnil. Trophonts large, up to 1
mm. long; sublenticular, anterior end attenuated; dorsal surface con-
vex, ventral surface concave; right side less convex than left side; 9
spiral ciliary rows nearly evenly arranged; in gastro vascular cavity
of various actinozoans; tomont on outer surface of host body, gives
rise to numerous to mites with meridional ciliary rows; each tomite
becomes a phoront by encysting on a crustacean, and develops into
a trophont when taken into gastrovascular cavity of an actinozoan.
One species.
F. actiniarum (Claparede) (Fig. 336, a). Phoronts on Copepoda,
Ostracoda, Amphipoda, Isopoda and Decapoda; trophonts in Ac-
tinia mesembryanthemum, A. equina, Anemonia sulcata and other
actinozoans in European waters; Chatton and Lwoff found Metri-
dium marginatum, Sagartia leucolena and Astrangia danae of Woods
Hole free from this ciliate.
Genus Spirophrya Chatton and Lwoff. Trophonts ovoid, pointed
anteriorly; 16 uninterrupted ciliary rows of which striae 1 and 2 ap-
789
790
PROTOZOOLOGY
(Idyaea furcata)
Phoront:
Young trophont
Fig. 335. Diagram illustrating the life-cycle of Spirophrya
subparasitica (Chatton and Lwoff).
proach each other in posterior-dorsal region; phoronts attached to a
crustacean; when eaten by Cladonema, trophonts enter the crusta-
cean body and complete growth; protomonts upon leaving the host
body encyst and each divides into 4-82 tomites (Fig. 335). One
species.
S. subparasitica C. and L. (Figs. 335; 336, b). Phoronts attached
to Idyaea furcata; ovoid trophonts enter the copepod when eaten by
Cladnema radiatum.
HOLOTRICHA
791
Genus Gymnodinioides Minkiewicz (Physophaga Percy; Oospira
Chatton and Lwoff). Trophonts twisted along equatorial plane; gen-
erally 9 ciliary rows, in some a ruclimentar}^ row between striae 5 and
6 at anterior end. Many species.
G. calkinsi Chatton and Lwoff. Phoronts on gills and trophonts
in the moult of Palaemonetes sp. ; Woods Hole.
Genus Phoretrophrya Chatton and Lwoff. Trophonts generally
with 9 ciliary rows; striae 1, 2, and 3, close to one another. One spe-
cies.
Fig. 336. a, Foettingeria actiniarum, a trophont; b,Spirophrya subpara-
sitica, a trophont, XlOOO; c, Phoretrophyra nebaliae, X1180; d, Syno-
phrya hypertrophica (Chatton and Lwoff).
792
PROTOZOOLOGY
P. nebaliae C. and L. (Fig. 336, c). Phoronts and tomonts on ap-
pendages, and trophonts in the moult, of Nebalia geoffroyi.
Genus Synophrya Chatton and Lwoff. Trophonts and tomonts
Fig. 337, a, Ophiurespira weilli; b, Photorophrya insidiosa, a trophont in
a phoront of Gymnodinioides, X800; c, Vampyrophrya pelagica, a trophont,
X740; d, Pericaryon cesticola, a trophont (Chatton and Lwoff).
similar to those of Gymnodinioides; but development highly compli-
cated. One species.
S. hypertrophica G. and L. (Fig. 336, d). Phoronts in branchial
lamellae, and trophonts in the moult, of Portunus depurator, etc.
HOLOTRICHA
793
Fig. 338. a, Polyspira delagei; b, Calospira minkiewiczi, a trophont,
X1300; c, Vampyrophrya pelagica, d, Traumatiophtora punctata, X1300
(Chatton and Lwoff).
Genus Ophiurespira Chatton and Lwoff. Trophonts ovoid; 10
ciliary rows; striae 9 and 10 interrupted. One species.
0. weilli C. and L. (Fig. 337, a). Trophonts in the intestine of
Ophiothrix fragilis and Amphiura squamata (Ophiuroidea).
Genus Photorophrya Chatton and Lwoff. Trophonts small ; ciliation
approximately that of Ophiurespira; massive macro nucleus; with
peculiar trichocysts comparable with the nematocysts of Polykrikos
(p. 324) ; ecto- or endo -parasitic in encysted stages of other aposto-
means. Several species.
794 PROTOZOOLOGY
P. insidiosa C. and L. (Fig. 337, b). Phoronts, trophonts and
tomites in phoronts of Gymnodinioides.
Genus Polyspira Minkiewicz. Trophonts reniform; 9 rows and
several extra rows; striae 1-4 and 5-9 with 2 others in 2 bands.
P. delagei M. (Fig. 338, a). Phoronts on gills and trophonts in the
moult of Eupagurus berhardus.
Genus Pericaryon Chatton. Trophonts ellipsoid; 14 ciliary rows.
P. cesticola C. (Fig. 337, d). Trophonts in the gastro vascular cavity
of the ctenophore, Cestus veneris; other stages unknown.
Genus Calospira Chatton and Lwoff. Trophonts resemble those
of Spirophrya; 20 ciliary rows; macro nucleus twisted band-form; a
micronucleus.
C. minkiewiczi C. and L. (Fig. 338, b). Phoronts attached to in-
tegument of Harpacticus gracilis (copepod); trophonts in its fresh
carcass; tomonts and tomites in water.
Genus Vampyrophrya Chatton and Lwoff. Trophonts ovoid; 10
ciliary rows. One species.
V. pelagica C. and L. (Fig. 337, c; 338, c). Phoronts on Paracala-
nus parvus, Clausocalanus furcatus, etc., and trophonts in their
fresh carcasses.
Genus Traumatiophtora Chatton and Lwoff. Trophonts oval; 11
ciliary rows. One species.
T. punctata C. and L. (Fig. 338, d). Trophonts in fresh carcass of
Acartia clausi.
Genus Hyalospira Miyashita. Trophonts in the moult of a fresh-
water crustacean, with a contractile vacuole and a long accessory
canal, and with a band-shaped macro nucleus; protomont encysts in
narrow crevices; tomont divides into 2-16 tomites; tomite with a
tubular macronucleus, two ciliated grooves on ventral side, and 9
ciliary rows; phoront cysts occur on the body hairs of Xiphocaridina
to metamorphose into trophont (Miyashita, 1933).
H. caridinae M. (Fig. 339 a). Fully grown trophonts 80-120^ long;
phoronts and phoront cysts present in fresh moults and body hairs
respectively of the freshwater shrimp, Xiphocaridina compressa.
Genus Cyrtocaryum Faure-Fremiet and Mugard. Trophont, as-
tomous; external appearance resembles Anoplophrya (p. 691); macro-
nucleus reticulate as in Foettingeria; liberated in sea water; no en-
cystment, but multiplication in free state; differentiation of an oral
ciliary field.
C. halosydnae F. and M. (Fig. 339, b-e). Trophont in the lateral
caeca of the digestive tube of Halosydna gelatinosa; pyriform, 90-
120/x by 65-80 /x ; with about 60 slightly spiral ciliary rows; cilia in
HOLOTRICHA
795
Fig. 339. a, a newly excysted trophont of Hyalospira caridinae, X1000
(Miyashita); b-e, Cryptocaryum halosydnae (Faur6-Fremiet and Mugard)
(b, the infraciliature of trophont, X450; c, tomont of third or fourth gen-
eration; d, anterior end view; e, tomite in life, X800).
the anterior region strongly thygmotactic. When freed in the sea
water, no encystment occurs, but division into eight to 16 sub-
spherical individuals in chain, takes place. Tomont 45^ long; to-
mites 20m by 16/x, asymmetrical, with a long caudal bristle.
References
Chatton, E. and Lwoff, A.: (1935) Les cilies apostomes. Arch-
zool. exper. gen., 77:1.
Faure-Fremiet, E. and Mugard, Helene: (1949) Un infusoire
apostome parasite d'un polychete: etc. C. R. Acad. Sc, 228:
1753.
Miyashita, Y. : (1933) Studies on a freshwater foettingeriid ciliate,
Hyalospira caridinae. Japan J. Zool., 4:439.
Chapter 38
Order 2 Spirotricha Blitschli
With free cilia only; exceptionally with small groups of cirrus-like pro-
jections in addition to cilia
Uniformly ciliated; in Peritromidae dorsal surface without or with a
few cilia; in Licnophoridae cilia only on edge of attaching disk;
peristome usually extended; peristomal field mostly ciliated
Suborder 1 Heterotricha
Ciliation much reduced or none at all
Rounded in cross-section; cilia usually much reduced; adoral zone
encloses a non-ciliated peristomal field in spiral form
Suborder 2 Oligotricha (p. 814)
Compressed; carapaced; peristomal zone reduced to 8 membranellae
which lie in an oval hollow. .Suborder 3 Ctenostomata (p. 829)
Cirri only, on ventral side; dorsal side usually with rows of short bristles. .
Suborder 4 Hypotricha (p. 832)
Suborder 1 Heterotricha Stein
Body ciliation complete and uniformly the same
Peristome sunk in a funnel-like hollow at anterior end, thus mostly
covered Family 1 Bursariidae (p. 797)
Peristome lies almost completely free, leading to a short and narrow
oral funnel (absent in one family)
Peristome in anterior region
A narrow non-ciliated zone on right of adoral zone; usually an
undulating membrane or ciliary row to right of this non-ciliated
zone and anterior to cytostome; a small peristomal field between
the membrane and adoral zone
Adoral zone extends diagonally to posterior-right on ventral
surface; highly developed forms, with a long zone twisting
spirally around body Family 2 Metopidae (p. 800)
Adoral zone parallel to body axis on flat ventral surface, turns
somewhat to right in front of cytostome; oral funnel dis-
tinct; typically an undulating membrane or a double ciliated
furrow in front of cytostome
Family 3 Spirostomidae (p. 801)
Without the non-ciliated zone; a large peristomal field with a half
or completely spiral adoral zone
Peristomal field not ciliated; with a large undulating membrane
on its right edge Family 4 Condylostomidae (p. 806)
Peristomal field ciliated; without undulating membrane
Peristomal field not drawn out in 2 wings; free-swimming or
secretes gelatinous lorica
Family 5 Stentoridae (p. 806)
Peristomal field drawn out into 2 wings; with flask-shaped, thin
pseudochitinuous lorica .. Family 6 Folliculinidae (p. 807)
Peristome at posterior end; cytopharynx directed anteriorly
Family 7 Clevelandellidae (p. 809)
796
SPIROTRICHA, HETEROTRICHA
797
Body ciliation either confined to ventral side or lacking
Free-living; flattened; cilia only on ventral surface; adoral zone sur-
rounds anterior region of ventral surface; cytostome on left edge
near the middle of body Family 8 Peritromidae (p. 810)
Ectocommensal; extremities discoid; body narrowed; anterior disk
surrounded spirally by adoral zone; posterior disk bears mem-
branous cilia Family 9 Licnophoridae (p. 810)
Family 1 Bursariidae Perty
Genus Bursaria Miiller. Ovoid; anterior end truncate, posterior
end broadly rounded; dorsal surface convex, ventral surface flat-
tened; deep peristome begins at anterior end and reaches about
Fig. 340. a, Bursaria truncatella, X60 (Kahl); b, Thylacidium trunca-
tion, X440 (Schewiakoff ) ; c, Bursaridium difficile, X210 (Kahl); d,
Balantidium duodeni, X170 (Stein); e, B. praenucleatum, X950 (Kudo
and Meglitsch).
central part of body, where it gives rise to cytostome and cyto-
pharynx, which is bent to left ; lengthwise fold divides peristome into
2 chambers; striation longitudinal; ciliation complete and uniform;
macronucleus band-form; many micronuclei; many contractile vac-
uoles distributed along lateral and posterior borders; cysts with a
double envelope; fresh water. Cytology and conjugation (Poljansky,
1934); division (Schmahl, 1926); fibrils (Peschkowsky, 1927).
79S
PROTOZOOLOGY
B. truncatella M. (Fig. 340, a). 500-1000 m long; macronucleus a
long rod; 10-34 vesicular micronuclei; fission mostly during night;
feeds on various Protozoa; cysts 120-200^ in diameter; macronu-
cleus becomes coiled and intertwined; fresh water (Schmahl, 1926;
Beers, 1948).
Genus Thylacidium Schewiakoff. Similar to Bursaria in general
appearance; but smaller in size; peristome simple in structure with-
out longitudinal fold; with zoochlorellae; fresh water. One species.
T. truncatum S. (Fig. 340, b). 60-100/x long.
Genus Bursaridium Lauterborn. Similar to Bursaria; peristome
funnel turns to right ; fresh water.
B. difficile Kahl (Fig. 340, c). Anterior end truncate, cyto pharynx
slanting toward right; about 130ju long.
Fig. 341. Balantidium coli, X530 (Kudo), a, a living trophozoite; b, a
stained trophozoite; c, a fresh cyst; d, a stained cyst.
Genus Balantidium Claparede and Lachmann (Balantidiopsis
Butschli; Balantiodoides Alexeieff). Oval, ellipsoid to subcylindrical;
peristome begins at or near anterior end; cytopharynx not well de-
veloped; longitudinal ciliation uniform; macronucleus elongated; a
micro nucleus; contractile vacuole and cytopyge terminal; in the gut
of vertebrates and invertebrates. Numerous species (Hegner, 1934;
Kudo and Meglitsch, 1938).
B. coli (Malmsten) (Fig. 341). Ovoid; 40-80/x by 30-60m, but
length varies 30-150/z; body covered by many slightly obliquely
longitudinal rows of cilia; peristome small near anterior tip, lined
with coarser cilia; inconspicuous cytostome and cytopharynx are
located at the end of peristome; 2 contractile vacuoles, one terminal,
the other near the middle of body; macronucleus sausage-shape
and a vesicular micro nucleus; cytopyge near the posterior tip; food
particles are of various kinds, including erythrocytes and other host
SPIROTRICHA, HETEROTRICHA 799
cell fragments, starch grains, faecal debris, etc. The trophozoite
multiples by binary fission. Conjugation (Brumpt, 1909; Jameson,
1927; Scott, 1927; Nelson, 1934).
The cysts are circular to ovoid in outline; slightly yellowish or
greenish and refractile; 40-60ju in diameter; cyst wall made up of 2
membranes; cytoplasm hyaline; macronucleus and a contractile
vacuole are usually seen.
This ciliate lives in the colon and caecum of man and causes
balantidiosis or balantidial dysentery. Strong (1904) made the first
histological study of the infection. The organisms invade the tissues
and blood vessels of the mucosa and submucosa. At the beginning
there is hyperaemia with punctiform haemorrhages, and later vascu-
lar dilatation, round cell infiltration, eosinophilia, etc., develop in
the infected area. Finally deep-seated ulcers are produced. The bal-
antidial dysentery is usually of chronic type. It has a wide geograph-
ical distribution. In the United States a few cases of infections have
been observed in recent years. In the Philippine Islands, more cases
have been noticed than anywhere else.
This ciliate is a very common parasite in the intestine of pigs,
and also of chimpanzee and orang-outang. In pigs, the organism
ordinarily confines itself to the lumen of the intestine, but according
to Ratcliffe (1934), when the host animals become infected by
organisms belonging to Salmonella, it invades and ulcerates the in-
testinal wall. The cysts developing in pigs appear to become the
chief source of infection, since balantidial dysentery is more com-
monly found among those who come in contact with pigs or pig in-
testine. The cysts remain viable for weeks in pig faeces in moist
and dark places, though they are easily killed by desiccation or ex-
posure to sun light. The cysts may reach human mouth in food or in
water contaminated with them, through unclean hands of persons
who come in contact with faeces or intestine of pigs, and in some
cases perhaps through uncooked sausage.
B. suis McDonald. Ellipsoid; 35-120/z by 20-60/x; macronucleus
more elongate than that of B. coli; in the intestine of pigs (McDon-
ald, 1922). Levine (1940) through a series of culture studies, has
come to consider that B. coli and B. suis are only morphological
variations due to the nutritional condition and that B. suis is sy-
nonymous with B. coli. Lamy and Roux (1950) observed both forms
in cultures started with single individuals, and considered the elon-
gate suis as conjugants and the oval coli as vegetative forms.
B. caviae Neiva, da Cunha and Travassos. In the caecum of
guinea-pig. Morphology (Scott, 1927; Nie, 1950).
800 PROTOZOOLOGY
Other domestic and wild animals harbor various species of Bal-
antidium.
B. duodeni Stein (Fig. 340, d). 70-80/x by 55-60^; in the intestine of
the frog.
B. praenucleatum Kudo and Meglitsch (Fig. 340, e). 42-127ju long,
32-102/x thick, 25-80ju wide; macronucleus close to anterior end; in
the colon of Blatta orientalis (Kudo and Meglitsch, 1938).
Family 2 Metopidae Kahl
Genus Metopus Claparede and Lachmann. Body form changeable;
when extended oblong or fusiform; peristome conspicuous, slightly
spirally diagonal, beginning at the anterior end and reaching the
middle of body; when contracted, peristome much spirally coiled;
cytopharynx short; body ciliation uniform, longitudinal or in some,
spiral; longer cilia at ends; conspicuous contractile vacuole terminal;
macronucleus ovoid to elongate; fresh or salt water (sapropelic),
some parasitic. Numerous species.
M. es Muller (M. sigmoides C. and L.) (Figs. 87; 342, a). 120-200^
long; sapropelic. Noland's (1927) study on its conjugation has been
described (p. 161).
M. striatus McMurrich (Fig. 342, b). 80-120/x long; fresh water.
M. fuscus Kahl (Fig. 342, c). 180-300m long by 60/x wide and 40ju
thick ; fresh water.
M. circumlabens Biggar (Fig. 342, d). 70-165ju by 50-75/x; in the
digestive tract of sea urchins, Diadema setosum and Echinometris
subangularis in Bermuda (Biggar, 1932; Lucas, 1934); in Centrechi-
nus antillarum, etc., in Tortugas (Powers, 1935); in Diadema setosum
and Echinometra oblonga in Japan (Uyemura, 1933).
Genus Spirorhynchus da Cunha. Fusiform; somewhat flattened;
anterior end drawn out and curved toward left; posterior end also
drawn out; spiral peristome; cytopharynx small with an undulating
membrane; cilia uniformly long; contractile vacuole posterior; longi-
tudinally striated; body surface with closely adhering bacteria
(Kirby); three spherical macronuclei; micronucleus (?); in brackish
water (da Cunha, 1915).
S. verrucosus da C. (Fig. 342, e). 122-140^ by 20-22^. Kirby (1934)
observed it in salt marsh with 3 per cent salinity; California.
Genus Caenomorpha Perty (Gyrocoris Stein). Bell-shaped; car-
apaced ectoplasm in some species bears protricho cysts; strong mar-
ginal zone of about 8 rows of cilia; 1-2 dorsal rows of longer cilia
and a dense spiral field around caudal prolongation; peristome long;
cytostome posterior; cytopharynx directed anteriorly; a single
SPIROTRICHA, HETEROTRICHA
d
801
Fig. 342. a, Metopus es, X260 (Kahl); b, M. striatus, X220 (Kahl);
c, M.fuscus, X150 (Kahl); d, M. circumlabens, X370 (Powers^; e, Spiro-
rhynchus verrucosus, X360 (Kirby); f, Caenomorpha medusula, X200
(Blochmann); g, Blepharisma lateritium, X160 (Penard); h, B. persici-
num, X290 (Penard); i, B. steini, X340 (Penard); j, Protocruzia piger-
rima, X390 (Faria, da Cunha and Pinto); k, Phacodinium metschnicofli,
X270 (Kahl).
elongate or two spherical macro nuclei; a micro nucleus; fresh or salt
water (sapropelic). Several species.
C. medusula P. (Fig. 342, /). 150/x by 130/x; fresh and brackish
water. Several varieties.
Family 3 Spirostomidae Kent.
Genus Spirostomum Ehrenberg. Elongated; cylindrical; some-
what compressed; ectoplasm with highly developed myonemes which
are arranged lengthwise independent of ciliary rows, hence highly
contractile; yellowish to brown; excretory vacuole terminal large,
with a long dorsal canal; macro nucleus either ovoid or chain form;
802
PROTOZOOLOGY
cilia short; rows longitudinal; caudal cilia are thigmotactic, secrete
mucous threads (Jennings) ; peristome closely lined with short mem-
branellae; fresh or salt water. Several species.
Fig. 343. a, Spirostomum ambiguum, X65 (Kahl); b, S. minus, X140
(Kahl); c, S. loxodes, X240 (Stokes); d, S. intermedium, X140 (Kahl);
e, S. teres, X200 (Kahl); f, S. filum, X190 (Penard); g, Gruberia calkinsi,
X140 (Bertran); h, Pseudoblepharisma tenuis, X310 (Kahl); i, Parable-
pharisma pellitum, X 340 (Kahl).
SPIROTRICHA, HETEROTRICHA 803
S. ambiguum E. (Figs. 38; 343, a). 1-3 mm. long; macronucleus
composed of many beads; many micronuclei; peristome 2/3 the
body length; fresh water. Regeneration (Seyd, 1936); irritability
(Blattner, 1926).
S. minus Roux (Fig. 343, b). 500-800/x long; macronucleus
chain-form; in fresh and salt water (Kahl).
S. loxodes Stokes (Fig. 343, c). About 300m long (length: width,
6-7:1); peristome about 1/3 the body length; oblique striation;
longer cilia at ends; macronucleus chain-form; fresh water.
S. intermedium Kahl (Fig. 343, d). Slender; 400-600/x long; macro-
nucleus chain-form; fresh water.
S. teres Claparede and Lachmann (Fig. 343, e). 150-400m long;
macronucleus oval; in fresh water and also reported from salt water.
S. filum (E.) (Fig. 343, /). Peristome 1/4 the body length; poster-
ior end drawn out; 200-300/* up to 700/t long; fresh water.
Genus Gruberia Kahl. Similar to Spirostomum in general appear-
ance; but posterior end drawn out; slightly contractile; contractile
vacuole posterior; macronucleus compact or beaded ; salt water.
G. calkinsi Beltran (Fig. 343, g). 200-800^ long; peristome 2/3
the body length; many (contractile?) vacuoles distributed; monili-
form macronucleus; many micronuclei; Woods Hole (Beltran, 1933).
Genus Blepharisma Perty. Pyriform, spindle-form or ellipsoid;
somewhat narrowed anteriorly; compressed; peristome on the left
border, which is twisted to right at posterior end and connected
with oral funnel with membrane; in front of cytostome a 2-layered
undulating membrane on right edge; ciliary rows longitudinal; cilia-
tion dense; contractile vacuole and cytopyge terminal; macronu-
cleus one or divided into several parts; several species rose-colofea1 ;
fresh or salt water. Many species.
B. lateritium (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 342, g). 130-200/z long; pyriform;
macronucleus oval; a micro nucleus; rose-colored; fresh water among
decaying leaves.
B. persicinum P. (Fig. 342, A). 80-1 20ju long; elongate oval;
posterior end pointed; left peristomal edge sigmoid; preoral mem-
brane large; macronucleus in 3-7 parts; rose-colored; fresh water
among decaying vegetation.
B. steini Kahl (Fig. 342, i). 80-200^ long; macronucleus ovoid;
reddish to colorless; fresh water in sphagnum.
B. undulans Stein. 150-300/z long; macronucleus in 2 parts; un-
dulating membrane long; cytopharynx directed posteriorly; fresh
water among decaying vegetation. Contractile vacuole (Moore,
1934); influence of light on color (Giese, 1938) (p. 46); morphology
804 PROTOZOOLOGY
and physiology (Stolte, 1924) ; macronuclear reorganization (Young,
1939); multiconj ligation (Weisz, 1950a); zoopurpurin (Weisz, 1950).
Genus Protocruzia Faria, da Cunha and Pinto. Peristome does
not turn right, leads directly into cytostome; convex left side not
ciliated, but bears bristles; flat right side with 3-5 faintly marked
ciliary rows; peristome begins at pointed anterior end and extends
1/4-1/3 the body length; cyto pharynx (?); macro nucleus simple;
contractile vacuole subterminal; salt water.
P. pigerrima (Cohn) (Fig. 342, j). About 20m (da Cunha); 50-
60^ long (Kahl) ; peristome 1/4-1/3 the body length; salt water.
Genus Phacodinium Prowazek. Oval; marked grooves on body
surface; cilia in cirrus-like fused groups; peristome long on left mar-
gin; cytostome posterior; contractile vacuole terminal; macronu-
cleus horseshoe-shape; 5-9 micronuclei; fresh water. One species.
P. mctschnicoffi, (Certes) (Fig. 342, k). About 100m long.
Genus Pseudoblepharisma Kahl. Body form intermediate be-
tween Spirostomum and Blepharisma; right peristomal edge with 2
rows of cilia; fresh water.
P. tenuis K. (Fig. 343, h). 100-200m long.
Genus Parablepharisma Kahl. Similar to Blepharisma; but peri-
stome-bearing anterior half narrowed neck-like and pointed; ecto-
plasm covered with gelatinous layer in which symbiotic bacteria are
imbedded ; salt water.
P. pellitum K. (Fig. 343, i). 120-180m long.
Genus Nyctotherus Leidy. Oval or reniform; compressed; peri-
stome begins at anterior end, turns slightly to right and ends in
cytostome located midway between the ends; cyto pharynx runs
dorsally and posteriorly, a long tube with undulating membrane;
ciliary rows longitudinal and close-set; massive macronucleus in
anterior half with a micronucleus ; in some, nuclei are suspended
by a karyophore; endoplasm with discoid glycogen bodies, especially
in anterior region, hence yellowish to brown; contractile vacuole
and cytopyge terminal; in the colon of Amphibia and various
invertebrates. Numerous species (Geiman and Wichterman, 1937;
Wichterman, 1938; Carini, 1938-1945).
N. ovalis L. (Figs. 3; 344, a, b). Ovoid; anterior half compressed;
macronucleus elongate, at right angles to dorso-ventral axis at
anterior 1/3; micronucleus in front of macronucleus; distinct karyo-
phore; glycogen bodies; 90-185m by 62-95m; giant forms up to 360m
by 240m; cysts 72-106m by 58-80m; in the colon of cockroaches. The
chromatin spherules of the macronucleus are often very large (p. 42).
Fibrillar structure (ten Kate, 1927); nuclei (Kudo, 1936).
SPIROTRICHA, HETEROTRICHA
805
N. cordiformis (Ehrenberg) (Figs. 85; 344, c). 60-200m by 40-140^;
ovoid; micronucleus behind macronucleus; no karyophore; in the
colon of frogs and toads. Higgins (1929) notes that there are certain
differences between American and European forms and that the
Fig. 344. a, b, Nydotherus ovalis, X340 (Kudo); c, N. cordiformis
X 170 (Stein) ; d, Condylostoma vorticella, X 120 (Penard) ; e, Stentor coerul-
eus, somewhat contracted, X70 (Roux); f, S. polymorphus, X60 (Roux);
g, S. mulleri, X50 (Kahl); h, S. roeseli, X75 (Roux); i, S. igneus, X160
(Kahl); j, S. amethystinus, X100 (Kahl).
806 PROTOZOOLOGY
organisms exhibit a great variety of form and size in the tadpoles of
various frogs, although those of adult frogs are relatively constant
in form. Life cycle (Wichterman, 1936) (p. 198) ; tactile cilia (Fernan-
dez-Galiano, 1948); fibrillar structure (ten Kate, 1927).
Family 4 Condylostomidae Kahl
Genus Condylo stoma Bory. Ellipsoid; anterior end truncate,
posterior end rounded or bluntly pointed; slightly flattened; peri-
stome wide at anterior end and V-shaped, peristomal field not cili-
ated; a large membrane on right edge and adoral zone on left; macro-
nucleus moniliform; one to several contractile vacuoles often with
canal; cytopyge posterior; fresh or salt water. Many species (Spie-
gel, 1926).
C. vorticella (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 344, d). 100-200/x long; fresh water.
C. patens (Mtiller). 250-550ju long; salt water; Woods Hole (Cal-
kins).
Family 5 Stentoridae Carus
Genus Stentor Oken. When extended, trumpet-shaped or cylindri-
cal; highly contractile; some with mucilaginous lorica; usually oval
to pyriform while swimming; conspicuous peristomal field frontal;
adoral zone encircles peristome in a spiral form, leaving a narrow
gap on ventral side; the zone and field sink toward cytostome and
the former continues into cytopharynx; macro nucleus round, oval or
elongated, in a single mass or moniliform; contractile vacuole
anterior-left; free-swimming or attached; fresh water.
S. coeruleus Ehrenberg (Figs. 14; 344, e). Fully extended body
1-2 mm. long; anterior end greatly expanded; the beautiful blue
color is due to a pigment, stentorin, lodged in interstriation gran-
ules (p. 45); macronucleus moniliform; fresh water. Body and nu-
clear size (Burnside, 1929); physiology (Dierks, 1926); effect of en-
vironment (Stolte, 1922); cytology (Dierks, 1926; Weisz, 1949); re-
generation (Schwartz, 1935; Weisz, 1948, 1948a, 1951); vertical dis-
tribution (Sprugel, 1951).
S. striatus Barraud-Maskell. Dark bluish green; funnel-shaped;
peristomal edge irregularly undulating; striation conspicuous; macro-
nucleus beaded; up to 2.2 mm. long.
S. polymorphic (Muller) (Fig. 344, /). Colorless; with symbiotic
Chlorella 1-2 mm. long when extended; macronucleus beaded; an-
terior end expanded.
S. miilleri (Bory) (Fig. 344, g). Colorless; with zoochlorellae; 2-3
mm. long; anterior end expanded; posterior portion drawn out into
SPIROTRICHA, HETEROTRICHA 807
stalk, often housed in a gelatinous tube; on body surface 3-4 longer
and stiff cilia grouped among cilia; macronucleus moniliform.
S. roeseli Ehrenberg (Fig. 344, h). 0.5-1 mm. long; anterior end
expanded; body surface with groups of longer cilia; posterior por-
tion drawn out and often housed in a gelatinous tube; macronucleus
long band-form.
S. igneus E. (Fig. 344, i). Rose-colored or colorless; 200-4CHV
long; macronucleus oval; ciliation uniform.
S. niger (Miiller). Yellowish or brown; macronucleus oval; 200-
300/x long.
S. multiformis (M.) Dark blue to bluish green; anterior end not
expanded; 150-200^ long; macronucleus oval.
S. amethystinus Leidy (Fig. 344, j). Habitually pyriform (con-
tracted); amethyst-blue; with zoochlorellae; 300-600/z long; macro-
nucleus oval.
S. pyriformis Johnson. When extended 500/x long; anterior end
200/x in diameter.
Genus Fabrea Henneguy. Pyriform; posterior end broadly round-
ed, anterior end bluntly pointed; peristome extends down from
anterior end 2/5 or more the body length, its posterior portion
closely wound; peculiar black spot beneath membranellae in anterior
portion of spiral adoral zone, composed of numerous pigment gran-
ules; without contractile vacuole; macronucleus, a sausage-shaped
body or in 4 parts; in salt water.
F. salina H. (Fig. 345, a, b). 120-220/* by 67-125/i (Kirby); 130-
450/z by 70-200/x (Henneguy); cysts ovoidal, with gelatinous enve-
lope; 89-1 11m by 72-105ju. Kirby (1934) found the organism in
ditches and pools in salt marshes, showing salinities 7.5-20.1 per
cent in California.
Genus Climacostomum Stein. Oval; flattened; right edge of peri-
stome without membrane, left edge, semicircular or spiral with a
strong adoral zone; peristomal field ciliated; cytopharynx a long
curved tube with a longitudinal row of cilia; macronucleus band-
form; contractile vacuole terminal, with two long canals; fresh or
brackish water.
C. virens (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 345, c). 100-300/x long; with or without
zoochlorellae; fresh and brackish water.
Family 6 Folliculinidae Dons
Genus Folliculina Lamarck. Horny or chitinous lorica (Fig. 345,
d) attached on broad surface; neck of the lorica oblique to perpen-
dicular; sometimes with a collar or spiral ridge; neck uniform in
808
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 345. a, b, Fabrea salina (Kirby) (a, trophozoite, XI 70; b, cyst,
X330); c, Climacostomum vireus, X100 (Stein); d, side-view of the lorica
of a Folliculina, X150 (Andrews); e, Folliculina moebiusi, X170 (Stein);
f, F. producta, XI 10 (Wright); g, Pseudofolliculina arctica, X50 (Dons);
h, Parafolliculina violacea, X230 (Andrews).
diameter; in salt or fresh water. Species (Andrews, 1914, 1921, 1923;
Sahrhage, 1916); test secretion (Dewey, 1939).
F. moebiusi Kahl (Fig. 345, e). Lorica about 500^ long.
F. producta (Wright) (Fig. 345,/). Lorica yellowish brown; 250/x
long; neck often long; Atlantic coast.
F. boltoni Kent. Lorica about 200/z; lorica and body blue green;
aperture only slightly enlarged; short neck oblique or upright; in
fresh water (Hamilton, 1950, 1952).
Genus Microfolliculina Dons. Posterior end or sides of lorica with
sack-like protuberances.
M. limnoriae (Giard). Lorica dark blue; pellicle faintly striated;
salt water.
Genus Pseudofolliculina Dons. Lorica attached with its posterior
SPIROTRICHA, HETEROTRICHA
809
without ring-furrow in middle; with or
with spiral
end; more or less vertical;
without style; salt water.
P. arctica D. (Fig. 345, g). Lorica about 43(V high,
ridge; off Norweigian coast 15-28 m. deep.
Genus Parafolliculina Dons. Neck of lorica with a basal swelling;
attached either with posterior end or on a lateral surface; salt water.
P. violacea (Giard) (Fig. 345, h). Total length 225-288 /x; widely
distributed in salt water (Andrews, 1921, 1942).
Family 7 Clevelandellidae Kidder
Genus Clevelandella Kidder (Clcvelandia K.) . Elongate pyriform
or spear-shaped; posterior region drawn out, at the end of which
peristome and cytostome are located; body more or less flexible;
completely ciliated; one macro nucleus supported by a karyophore;
a micro nucleus; a contractile vacuole at posterior left, near cytopyge;
*m§0
Fig. 346. a, b, ventral and dorsal views of Clevelandella panesthiae,
X300; c, d, Paraclevelandia brevis (c, ventral view, X760; d, a cyst, X740)
(Kidder); e, Peritromus calif ornicus, X360 (Kirby); f, Lichnophora mac-
farlandi, X420; g, L. conklini, X340 (Stevens).
810 PROTOZOOLOGY
endocommensals in the colon of wood-feeding roaches, Panesthia
javanica and P. spadica. Several species.
C. panesthiaeK. (Fig. 346, a, b). Broadly fusiform with bluntly
pointed anterior end and truncate posterior end; 87-156 (123)^
by 53-78(62)ju; peristomal projection about one-fifth the body
length; peristome is nearly enclosed; macro nucleus massive; a vesi-
cular micro nucleus on its anterior border; karyophore separates the
endoplasm into 2 parts: anterior part with glycogenous platelets,
posterior part with numerous food particles; often parasitized by
Sphaerita (p. 893); in the colon of Panesthia javanica and P. spadica
(Kidder, 1937, 1938).
Genus Paraclevelandia Kidder. Elongate pyriform; body rigid;
posterior end truncated obliquely to left; no peristomal projection;
one macro nucleus and one micro nucleus; at anterior end, there is a
sac connected with the karyophore, which is said to be a "macro-
nuclear reservoir"; endocommensals.
P. brevis K. (Fig. 346, c-d). Conical in shape; 16-38 (38)/z by 9-21
(19)m; macronucleus spherical to elongate ellipsoid; micro nucleus
comparatively large, retains nuclear stains longer than macronu-
cleus; anterior sac may sometimes be absent; cysts, 14-19/z long;
ovoid; with a spherical macronucleus and a micro nucleus; in the co-
lon of Panesthia javanica and P. spadica (Kidder, 1938).
Family 8 Peritromidae Stein
Genus Peritromus Stein. Ovoid; ventral surface flattened, dorsal
surface with hump of irregular outline bearing a few stiff cilia;
ciliary rows only on ventral surface; a small undulating membrane
at posterior end of peristome; short marginal spines; 2 macro- and 2
micro-nuclei; salt water.
P. emmae S. 90-10CV long; creeping on bottom; Woods Hole.
P. calif ornicus Kirby (Fig. 346, e). Peristome short; left margin
slightly concave; dorsal hump with wart-like protuberances, bear-
ing spines (about 12/z long); 16-19 or more ventral ciliary rows; 2
spherical macronuclei, one anterior right and the other posterior
left of hump; micronuclei 4 (2-5); 89-165^ by 60-96/i; salt marsh
pools with salinity "1.2-6 per cent" in California (Kirby, 1934).
Family 9 Licnophoridae Stevens
Genus Licnophora Claparede. Discoid; body roughly divisible
into basal disc, neck and oral disc; basal disc for attachment, with
several concentric ciliary coronas; neck flattened, contractile nar-
rowed part with or without a ventral furrow and fibril-bundles
(both running from oral groove to basal disc) ; oral disc highly flat-
SPIROTRICHA, HETEROTRICHA 811
tened, round or ovoid; edge with membranelle zone which extends
to pharyngeal funnel; macro nucleus long chain-form; without con-
tractile vacuole; commensal in salt water animals.
L. macfarlandi Stevens (Fig. 346, /). Average 90-1 10m by 45-60/t;
diameter of basal disc 40-45/1 ; basal disc circular; macronuclei in
25-35 parts in 4 groups; commensal in the respiratory tree of Sticho-
pus calif ornicus (Stevens, 1901). Morphology, fission and regenera-
tion (Balmuth, 1941, 1942).
L. conklini S. (Fig. 346, g). 100-135/* long; commensal in Crepidula
plana of Atlantic coast.
References
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■ (1921) American Follinulinas: taxonomic notes. Am. Nat.,
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(1923) Folliculina: case making, anatomy and transforma-
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(1942) Parafolliculina violacea at Woods Hole. Biol. Bull.,
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Balamuth, W. : (1941) Studies on the organization of ciliate Pro-
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(1942) II. J. Exp. Zool., 91 : 15.
Beers, C. D.: (1948) Encystment in the ciliate Bursaria truncatella.
Biol. BuR., 94:86.
Beltran, E.: (1933) Gruberia calkinsi, etc. Ibid., 64:21.
Biggar, Ruth B.: (1922) Studies on ciliates from Bermuda sea
urchins. J. Parasitol., 18:252.
Blattner, H.: (1926) Beitrage zur Reizphysiologie von Spirosto-
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Brumpt, E. : (1909) Demonstration du role pathogene du Balantid-
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Carini, A. : (1938) Sobre um Nyctotherus da intestino de um grillo-
talpideo. Arch. Biol., 22, 1 p.
(1938a) Sobre um Nyctotherus da intestino da "Testudo
tabulata." Ibid., 22, 2 pp.
(1939) Sobre um Nyctotherus da cloaca de uma Amphis-
baena. Ibid., 23, 1 p.
— ■ (1940) Contribuicao ao estudo dos nictoteros dos batraquios
do Brasil. Ibid., 24, 15 pp.
(1945) Sobre um Nyctotherus do Crossodactylus gaudi-
chaudi. Ibid., 29, 2 pp.
da Cunha, A. M.: (1915) Spirorhynchus verrucosus, etc. Brazil Med-
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Dewey, Virginia C: (1939) Test secretion in two species of Folli-
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Dierks, K.: (1926) Untersuchungen uber die Morphologie und
Physiologie des Stentor coeruleus, etc. Arch. Protist., 54: 1.
Fernandez-Galiano, D.: (1948) Los cilios tactiles de Nyctotherus
812 PROTOZOOLOGY
cordiformis. Bol. Real Soc. Espan. Hist. Nat., 46:219.
Geiman, Q. M. and Wichterman, R. : (1937) Intestinal Protozoa
from Galapagos tortoises. J. Morphol., 23:331.
Hamilton, J. M.: (1950) A f olliculinid from northwestern Iowa. Sci-
ence, 111:288.
(1952) Studies on loricate Ciliophora. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sc,
58:469.
Hegner, R. W. : (1934) Specificity in the genus Balantidium based
on size and shape, etc. Am. J. Hyg., 19:38.
(1940) Nyctotherus beltrani, etc. J. Parasitol., 26:315.
Higgins, Helen T.: (1929) Variation in the Nyctotherus found in
frog and toad tadpoles and adults. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 48: 141.
Jameson, A. P.: (1927) The behavior of Balantidium coli in cultures.
Parasitology, 19:411.
Kahl, A.: (1932) Urtiere oder Protozoa. Dahl's Die Tierwelt
Deutschlands, etc. Part 15.
Kidder, G. W.: (1937) The intestinal Protozoa of the wood-feeding
roach Panesthia. Parasitology, 29:163.
• (1938) Nuclear reorganization without cell division in Para-
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Kirby, H. Jr.: (1934) Some ciliates from salt marshes in California.
Ibid., 82:114.
Kudo, R. R.: (1936) Studies on Nyctotherus ovalis, with special ref-
erence to its nuclear structure. Ibid., 87: 10.
and Meglitsch, P. A.: (1938) On Balantidium praenuclea-
tum, etc. Ibid., 91:111.
Lamy, L. and Roux, H.: (1950) Remarques morphologiques, bio-
logiques et specifiques sur les Balantidium de culture. Bull. Soc.
Path. Exot., 43:422.
Levine, N. D. : (1940) The effect of food intake upon the dimensions
of Balantidium from swine in culture. Am. J. Hyg., 32:81.
Lucas, Miriam S.: (1934) Ciliates from Bermuda sea urchins. I.
J. Roy. Micr. Soc, 54:79.
McDonald, J. D. : (1922) On Balantidium coli and B. suis (sp. nov.).
Univ. California Publ. Zool., 20:243.
Moore, Imogene: (1934) Morphology of the contractile vacuole and
cloacal region of Blepharisma undulans. J. Exper. Zool., 69:59.
Neiva, A., da Cunha, A. M. and Travassos, L.: (1914) Para-
sitologische Beitrage. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz, 6:180.
Nelson, E. C. : (1934) Observations and experiments on conjugation
of the Balantidium from the chimpanzee. Am. J. Hyg., 20: 106.
Nie, D.: (1950) Morphology and taxonomy of the intestinal Pro-
tozoa of the guinea-pig, Cavia porcella. J. Morphol., 86:381.
Noland, L. E. : (1927) Conjugation in the ciliate, Metopus sigmoides.
J. Morphol. Physiol., 44:341.
Peschkowsky, Ludmilla: (1927) Skelettgebilde bei Infusorien.
Arch. Protist., 56:31.
Poljansky, G.: (1934) Geschlechtsprozesse bei Bursaria truncatella.
Ibid., 81:420.
Powers, P. B. A.: (1936) Studies on the ciliates of sea urchins, etc.
Papers Tortugas Lab., 29:293.
Sahrhage, H.: (1916) Ueber die Organisation und die Teilungsvor-
SPIROTRICHA, HETEROTRICHA 813
gang des Flaschentierchens (Folliculina ampulla). Arch. Pro-
tist., 37:139.
Schmahl, 0.: (1926) Die Neubildung des Peristoms bei Teilung von
Bursaria truncatella. Ibid., 54 : 359.
Schwartz, V.: (1935) Versuche uber Regeneration und Kerndi-
morphismus bei Stentor coeruleus. Ibid., 85: 100.
Scott, Miriam J.: (1927) Studies on the Balantidium from the
guinea-pig. J. Morphol. Physiol., 44:417.
Seyd, E. L.: (1936) Studies on the regulation of Spirostomum ambig-
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184.
Sprugel, G. Jr.: (1951) Vertical distribution of Stentor coeruleus,
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Stevens, N. M.: (1901) Studies on ciliate Infusoria. Proc. California
Acad. Sc. Ser. 3, 3:1.
(1903) Further studies on the ciliate Infusoria, Licnophora
and Boveria. Arch. Protist., 3:1.
Stolte, H.-A.: (1922) Der Einfluss der Umwelt auf Macronucleus
und Plasma von Stentor coeruleus. Ibid., 45:344.
(1924) Morphologische und physiologische Untersuchungen
an Blepharisma undulans. Ibid., 48:245.
Strong, R. P. : (1904) The clinical and pathological significance of
Balantidium coli. Bur. Gov. Lab. Manila., Biol. Lab. Bull.,
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Tanabe, M. and Komada, K. : (1932) On the cultivation of Balantid-
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Arch. Protist., 57:362.
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Metopus circumlabens, etc. J. Nat. Hist. Soc. Tokio, 31: 5 pp.
Weisz, P. B.: (1948) Time, polarity, size and nuclear content in the
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(1948a) Regeneration in Stentor and the gradient theory.
Ibid., 109:439.
■ (1949) A cytochemical and cytological study of differentia-
tion in normal and reorganizational stages of Stentor coeruleus.
J. Morphol., 84:335.
(1950) On the mitochondria nature of the pigmented gran-
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- (1950a) Multiconjugation in Blepharisma. Biol. Bull., 98 : 242.
(1951) An experimental analysis of morphogenesis in Stentor
coeruleus. J. Exper. Zool., 116:231.
Wichterman, R.: (1936) Division and conjugation in Nyctotherus
cordiformis, etc. J. Morphol., 60:563.
(1938) The present state of knowledge concerning the exist-
ence of species of Nyctotherus living in man. Amer. J. Trop.
Med., 18:67.
Woodruff, L. L.: (1935) Physiological significance of conjugation
in Blepharisma undulans. J. Exper. Zool., 70:287.
Young, Dixie: (1939) Macronuclear reorganization in Blepharisma
undulans. J. Morphol., 64:297.
T
Chapter 39
Order 2 Spirotricha Biitschli (continued)
Suborder 2 Oligotricha Biitschli
HE cilia are greatly reduced in number in the Oligotricha and
the adoral zone encloses a non-ciliated spiral peristomal field.
Free-living
Oral portion of peristome lies free on ventral surface
Family 1 Halteriidae
Adoral zone encloses frontal peristomal field
Without lorica Family 2 Strobilidiidae (p. 815)
With lorica or test'. Family 3 Tintinnidae (p. 816)
Parasitic
Adoral and dorsal zones, both directed anteriorly and retractile; no
other cilia Family 4 Ophryoscolecidae (p. 816)
In addition to adoral and dorsal zones, groups of cirri in posterior half
of body, directed posteriorly and nonretractile
Family 5 Cycloposthiidae (p. 823)
Family 1 Halteriidae Claparede and Lachmann
Genus Halteria Dujardin. Spherical or broadly fusiform; anterior
border bears conspicuous adoral zone; oral part of peristome with a
small membrane on right edge and cirri on left; with an equatorial
zone of small oblique grooves, each bearing 3 long cirri or bristles;
macro nucleus oval; a micronucleus; contractile vacuole left of cyto-
stome; fresh water. Several species (Szabo, 1935).
H. grandinella (Miiller) (Fig. 347, a). About 7 bristle-bearing
grooves; 15 frontal and 7 adoral membranellae; 20-40/x long. Kahl
(1932) distinguishes 2 varieties: var. cirrifera (Fig. 347, b), 25-50ju
long, with huge cirri instead of fine body cirri; and var. chlorelligera
(Fig. 347, c), 40-50/x long, with bristles and large zoochlorellae;
fresh water.
Genus Strombidium Claparede and Lachmann. Ovoid to spher-
ical; adoral zone very conspicuous (2-4 conspicuous sickle-form
frontal membranellae and adoral membranellae extend down cyto-
pharynx, the first section surrounding an apical process); no body
bristles or cirri; trichocysts; macronucleus oval or band-form; a
micronucleus; a contractile vacuole; salt or fresh water. Numerous
species.
S. calkinsi Faur6-Fremiet (Fig. 347, d). 35-60/z long; brackish and
salt water; Calkins (1902) first observed it at Woods Hole.
814
SPIROTRICHA, OLIGOTRICHA
815
Genus Tontonia Faure-Fremiet. With well-developed apical col-
lar; a long cytoplasmic (contractile) caudal process; salt water.
T. gracillima F.-F. (Fig. 347, e). 48-52/z long; caudal process
250-300ju long; macronucleus moniliform; with zoochlorellae.
Fig. 347. a, Halteria grandinella, X490 (Kahl); b, H. g. var. cirrifera,
X370 (Kahl); c, H. g. var. chlorelligera, X260 (Kahl); d, Strombidium
calkinsi, X900 (Calkins); e, Tontonia gracillima, X540 (Faure-Fremiet);
f, Strobilidium gyrans, X340 (Kahl); g, Tintinnidium fluviatile, X140
(Kent); h, i, T. semiciliatwn, X140 (Sterki); j, Strombidinopsis gyrans,
X270 (Kent); k, Tintinnopsis cylindrata, X440 (Daday); 1, T. illinoisen-
sis, X420 (Hempel); m, Codonella cratera, X540 (Faur6-Fremiet).
Family 2 Strobilidiidae Kahl
Genus Strobilidium Schewiakoff. Pyriform or turnip-shaped; cyto-
stome at anterior end; without cytopharynx; horseshoe-shaped
816 PROTOZOOLOGY
macronucleus anterior; a micronucleus ; a contractile vacuole; fresh
or salt water. Several species (Busch, 1921).
S. gyrans (Stokes) (Fig. 347, /). Lateral border with rounded ele-
vation near anterior end, posterior end truncate; 40-70/x long; in
standing fresh water.
Family 3 Tintinnidae Claparede and Lachmann
Conical or trumpet-like, attached inside a lorica of various forms,
composed of gelatinous or pseudochitinous substances; with longi-
tudinal rows of cilia, and 2 (1-4) macro- and a micro-nuclei; mostly
pelagic, a few inhabiting fresh or brackish water. Kofoid and Camp-
bell (1929) distinguished more than 300 species and placed them in
12 families and 51 genera, of which 23 genera were created by them.
A few genera and species are mentioned here. Taxonomy (Hofker,
1932); species (Campbell, 1942; Balech, 1942-1951; Rampi, 1950;
Silva, 1950); factors in evolution (Kofoid, 1930); lorica formation
(Busch, 1925).
Genus Tintinnidium Stein. Elongated lorica, highly irregular in
form; soft; aboral end closed or with a minute opening; wall viscous
and freely agglomerates foreign bodies; salt or fresh water.
T.fluviatile Stein (Fig. 347, g). Lorica 100-200juby 45ju; on vege-
tation in fresh water.
T. semiciliatum Sterki (Fig. 347, h, i). 40-60/z long; on plants in
fresh water.
Genus Strombidinopsis Kent. Lorica often absent; ovate or pyri-
form; frontal border with numerous long cirrus-like cilia; body
covered by fine cilia; contractile vacuole posterior; fresh water.
S. gyrans K. (Fig. 347, j). 30-80/1 long; fresh water pond.
Genus Tintinnopsis Stein. Lorica bowl-shaped; always with a
broad aperture; aboral end closed; wall thin and covered with foreign
bodies; salt or fresh water. Species (Balech, 1945).
T. cylindrata Kofoid and Campbell (Fig. 347, k). Lorica 40-50/c
long; in lakes.
T. illinoisensis Hempel (Fig. 347, 1). Lorica 59/x long; in rivers.
Genus Codonella Haeckel. Lorica urn- to pot-shaped; sharply
divided externally and internally into a collar and bowl; collar with-
out spiral structure; in fresh water.
C. crater a (Leidy) (Fig. 347, m). Lorica 60-70/i by 40/x; a number
of varieties are often mentioned.
Family 4 Ophryoscolecidae Stein
Elongate oval, asymmetrical; with 1 or 2 (adoral and dorsal)
zones of membranellae; in digestive tract of mammals. Sharp (1914)
SPIROTRICHA, OLIGOTRICHA 817
employed "forma" to distinguish forms in Entodinium with com-
mon characteristics, differing in certain others, which scheme was
extended to the whole family by Dogiel (1927). It is most probable
that many species are varieties of a single species as judged by the
work of Poljansky and Strelkow (1934); but since information is still
incomplete, the present work ranks various formae with species, in
agreement with Kofoid and MacLennan (1930).
The relationship between these oligotrichs and host ruminants has
not definitely been determined, but it appears to be commensalism
rather than symbiosis (Becker, Schulz and Emmerson, 1930; Mowry
and Becker, 1930). Morphology (Bretschneider, 1934, 1935); con-
tractile vacuoles (MacLennan, 1933); conjugation (Dogiel, 1925);
numbers in cattle stomach (Dogiel and Fedorowa, 1929); fauna in
African antelopes (Dogiel, 1932); in yaks (Dogiel, 1934); in Indian
goat (Das-Gupta, 1935); in Indian ox (Kofoid and MacLennan,
1930, 1932, 1933); in gaur (Kofoid and Christenson, 1934); in sheep,
wild sheep and goat (Ferber and Fedorowa, 1929; Bush and Kofoid,
1948).
Genus Ophryoscolex Stein. Ovoid; with adoral and dorsal zones
of membranellae; dorsal zone some distance behind anterior end,
encircling 3/4 the body circumference at middle, broken on right
ventral side; 3 skeletal plates extend over the body length on right-
ventral side; 9-15 contractile vacuoles in 2 (anterior and posterior)
circles; macro nucleus simple, elongate; in the stomach of cattle,
sheep, goat and wild sheep (Ovis orientalis cycloceros) . Several spe-
cies (Kofoid and MacLennan, 1933); neuromotor system (Fernan-
dez, 1949).
Dogiel (1927) designated the following species as 3 formae of
0. caudatus Eberlein.
0. Ucoronatus Dogiel (Fig. 348, a). 120-1 70m by 81-90/*; primary
spine 38-58/* long; in sheep.
O. caudatus Eberlein (Fig. 348, b). 137-162/* by 80-98/*; preanal
spines 47-60/* long; in sheep, goat, and cattle.
O. quadricoronatus Dogiel (Fig. 348, c). 128-180/* by 86-100/*;
preanal spines 48-63/* long; in sheep and Ovis orientalis cycloceros.
Genus Caloscolex Dogiel. Ovoid; anterior end truncate, posterior
end rounded with or without processes; 2 zones of membranellae;
dorsal zone encircles the body completely; 3 skeletal plates variously
modified; 7 contractile vacuoles in a single circle; nucleus elongate;
in the stomach of Camelus dromcdarius. Several species.
C. cuspidatus D. (Fig. 348, d). 130-160/x by 73-90/*.
Genus Entodinium Stein. Without dorsal zone; adoral zone at
truncate anterior end; without skeleton; contractile vacuole ante-
SIS
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 348. a, Ophryoscolex bircoronatus, X340 (Dogiel); b, 0. caudatus,
X310 (Dogiel); c, 0. quadricoronatus, X340 (Dogiel); d, Caloscolex
cuspidatus, X310 (Dogiel); e, Entodinium caudatum, X500 (Becker and
Talbott); f, E. bursa, X390 (Schuberg); g, A?nphacanthus ovum-rajae,
X350 (Dogiel).
rior; macronucleus, cylindrical or sausage-form, dorsal; micronucleus
anterior to middle and on left-ventral side of macronucleus; in cattle
and sheep. Numerous species (Kofoid and MacLennan, 1930; Mac-
Lennan, 1935).
E. caudatum S. (Fig. 348, e). 50-8 0/z long; in cattle and sheep.
E. bursa S. (Fig. 348, /). 55-114/* by 37-78/* (Schuberg); 80/x by
60/t (Becker and Talbott) ; in the stomach of cattle.
Genus Amphacanthus Dogiel. Similar to Entodinium; but spinous
processes at both anterior and posterior ends ; in stomach of Camelus
dromedarius. One species.
A. ovum-rajae D. (Fig. 348, g). 46-55/z by 32-48/z.
SPIROTRICHA, OLIGOTRICHA
819
Genus Eodinium Kofoid and MacLennan. Dorsal zone on the
same level as adoral zone; without skeleton; macronucleus a straight,
rod-like body beneath dorsal surface; 2 contractile vacuoles; in
cattle and sheep. Several species.
E. lobatum K. and M. (Fig. 349, a). 44-60m by 29-37m; in Bos
indicus (Kofoid and MacLennan, 1932).
Genus Diplodinium Schuberg. Adoral and dorsal zones at the
Fig. 349. a, Eodinium lobatum, X540 (Kofoid and MacLennan); b,
Diplodinium dentatum, X250 (Kofoid and MacLennan); c, Eremoplastron
bovis, X550 (Kofoid and MacLennan); d, Eudiplodinium maggii, X500
(Dogiel); e, Diploplastron affine, X320 (Dogiel); f, Metadmium medium,
X320 (Dogiel).
820 PROTOZOOLOGY
same level; without skeletal plates; macro-nucleus beneath right side,
its anterior third bent ventrally at an angle of 30°-90°; 2 contractile
vacuoles; in cattle, antelope, Camelus dromedarius, reindeer, goat.
Numerous species (Kofoid and MacLennan, 1932).
D. dentatum (Stein) (Fig. 349, b). 65-82/* by 40-50/*; in cattle
(including Bos indicus).
Genus Eremoplastron Kofoid and MacLennan. Adoral and dorsal
zones at anterior end; a single narrow skeletal plate beneath right
surface; triangular or rod-like macronucleus, anterior end of which
is often bent ventrally; 2 contractile vacuoles; in cattle, antelope,
sheep, reindeer. Numerous species (Kofoid and MacLennan, 1932).
E. bovis (Dogiel) (Fig. 349, c). 52-100/x by 34-50/*; in cattle and
sheep.
Genus Eudiplodinium Dogiel. Adoral and dorsal zones at anterior
end; a single, narrow, skeletal plate beneath right surface; rod-like
macronucleus with its anterior end enlarged to form a hook opening
dorsally; pellicle and ectoplasm thick; 2 contractile vacuoles with
heavy membranes and prominent pores; in cattle. Species (Kofoid
and MacLennan, 1932).
E. maggii (Fiorentini) (Fig. 349, d). 104-255/* by 63-1 70m; in cat-
tle, sheep and reindeer.
Genus Diploplastron Kofoid and MacLennan. Adoral and dorsal
zones at anterior end; 2 skeletal plates beneath right surface; macro-
nucleus narrow; rod-like; 2 contractile vacuoles below dorsal surface,
separated from macronucleus. One species (Kofoid and MacLennan,
1932).
D. affine (Dogiel and Fedorowa) (Fig. 349, e). 88-120/x by 47-65/*;
in the stomach of cattle, sheep, and goat.
Genus Metadinium Awerinzew and Mutafowa. Adoral and dor-
sal zones at anterior end; 2 skeletal plates beneath right surface
sometimes fused posteriorly; macronucleus with 2-3 dorsal lobes;
2 contractile vacuoles; pellicle and ectoplasm thick; conspicuous
oesophageal fibrils beneath dorsal and right sides; in the stomach of
cattle, sheep, goat, and reindeer (Awerinzew and Mutafowa, 1914).
M. medium A. and M. (Fig. 349,/). 180-272/* by 111-175/*; in cat-
tle.
Genus Polyplastron Dogiel. Adoral and dorsal zones at anterior
end; 2 skeletal plates beneath right surface, separate or fused; 3
longitudinal plates beneath left surface, with anterior ends con-
nected by cross bars; contractile vacuoles beneath dorsal surface in a
longitudinal row, also with additional vacuoles; in the stomach of
cattle and sheep. Species (Kofoid and MacLennan, 1932).
SPIROTRICHA, OLIGOTRICHA
821
P. multivesiculatum (D. and Fedorowa) (Fig. 350, a). 120-190/* by
78-140/*; in cattle and sheep. MacLennan (1934) found that the
skeletal plates are made up of small, roughly prismatic blocks of
glycogen, each with a central granule.
Genus Elytroplastron Kofoid and MacLennan. 2 zones at anterior
end, 2 skeletal plates beneath right surface, a small plate beneath
Fig. 350. a, Polyplastron multivesiculatum, X360 (Dogiel); b, Ely-
troplastron hegneri, X340 (Dogiel); c, Ostracodinium dentatum, X440
(Dogiel); d, Enoploplastron triloricatum, X370 (Dogiel); e, Epidinium
caudatum, X340 (Becker and Talbott); f, E. ecaudatum, X340 (Becker
and Talbott); g, Epiplastron africanum, X300 (Dogiel).
ventral surface, and a long plate below left side; pellicle and ecto-
plasm thick; conspicuous fibrils beneath dorsal-right side. One
species.
E. hegneri (Becker and Talbott) (Fig. 350, b). 110-160/* by 67-97/*;
in cattle, sheep, Buffelus bubalus and Bos indicus (Becker, 1933).
Genus Ostracodinium Dogiel. 2 zones at anterior end; broad skele-
tal plate beneath right side ; 2-6 contractile vacuoles in a dorsal row ;
822 PROTOZOOLOGY
cytopharyngeal fibrils thick, extend to posterior end; in cattle, sheep,
antelope, steenbok, and reindeer. Numerous species (Kofoid and
MacLennan, 1932).
0. dentatum (Fiorentini) (Fig. 350, c). 52-1 10/x by 31-68M; in
the stomach of cattle.
Genus Enoploplastron Kofoid and MacLennan. 2 zones near an-
terior end; 3 skeletal plates beneath right- ventral side, either
separate or partly fused; 2 contractile vacuoles; heavy pharyngeal
fibrils; in cattle, reindeer and antelope.
E. triloricatum (Dogiel) (Fig. 350, d). Dogiel (1927) mentions size
differences among those occurring in different host species, as fol-
lows: in cattle, 85-1 12ju by 51-7 0/x; in reindeer, 75-103^ by 40-58/x;
in antelope (Rhaphiceros sp.), 60-110/x by 37-56/t.
Genus Epidinium Crawley. Elongate; twisted around the main
axis; 2 zones; dorsal zone not at anterior end; 3 skeletal plates, with
secondary plates; simple macronucleus club-shaped; 2 contractile
vacuoles; in cattle, sheep, reindeer, camels, etc. Species (Kofoid and
MacLennan, 1932).
E. caudatum (Fiorentini) (Fig. 350, e). 113— 151/x by 45-61/z; in
cattle, camels, Cervus canadensis and reindeer.
E. {Diplodinium) ecaudatum (F.) (Figs. 16; 350, /). 112-140/x by
40-60/1 (Becker and Talbott); in cattle, sheep, and reindeer. The
classical observation of Sharp (1914) on its neuromotor system has
been described elsewhere (p. 63).
Genus Epiplastron Kofoid and MacLennan. Elongate; 2 zones;
dorsal zone not at anterior end; 5 skeletal plates, with secondary
plates; macronucleus simple, elongate; 2 contractile vacuoles; in
antelopes.
E. africanum (Dogiel) (Fig. 350, g). 90-140** by 30-55*t; in Rha-
phiceros sp.
Genus Ophisthotrichum Buisson. 2 zones; dorsal zone at middle
or near posterior end of body; one-piece skeletal plate well developed;
2 contractile vacuoles posterior; conjugation (Dogiel); in many Afri-
can antelopes. One species.
O.janus (Dogiel) (O. thomasi B.) (Fig. 351, a). 90-150** by 42-60*1.
Conjugation (Dogiel, 1925).
Genus Cunhaia Hasselmann. Cytostome near anterior end, with
adoral zone; dorsal zone on 1/3 of anterior-dorsal surface; 2 con-
tractile vacuoles; skeleton (?); in the caecum of guinea pig, Cavia
aperea. One species.
C. curvata H. (Fig. 351, b). 60-80** by 30-40*t; in Brazil.
SPIROTRICHA, OLIGOTRICHIA 823
Family 5 Cycloposthiidae Poche
Pellicle firm and body rigid; zones of membranellae at anterior
and posterior ends; more or less compressed; cytopharynx short
and wide; macronucleus elongate; a single micronucleus; 2 or more
contractile vacuoles; in horse and anthropoid apes.
Genus Cycloposthium Bundle. Large, elongate barrel-shaped;
cytostome in center of a retractile conical elevation at anterior end;
adoral zone conspicuous; an open ring-zone of membranellae near
posterior end on both dorsal and ventral sides; pellicle ridged; skele-
Fig. 351. a, Ophisthotrichum janus, X370 (Dogiel); b, Cunhaia curvata,
X670 (Hasselmann); c, Cycloposthium bipalmatum, X300 (Bundle);
d, C. dentiferum, X270 (Hsiung), e, Spirodinium equi, X350 (Davis);
f, Triadinium caudatum, X300 (Hsiung) ; g, T. minimum, X440 (Hsiung);
h, Tetratoxum unifasciculatum, X280 (Hsiung).
824 PROTOZOOLOGY
ton club-shaped; several contractile vacuoles in a row along band-
form macronucleus; in the caecum and colon of horse. Many species
(Hsiung, 1930). Cytology (Strelkow, 1929, 1932).
C. bipalmatum (Fiorentini) (Fig. 351, c). 80-127/* by 35-57 /*. Con-
jugation (Dogiel, 1925).
C. dentiferum Gassovsky (Fig. 351, d). 140-222/* by 80-110/*.
Genus Spirodinium Fiorentini. Elongate, more or less fusiform;
adoral zone at anterior end; anterior ciliary zone encircles the body
at least once; a posterior ciliary arch, only 1/2 spiral; a dorsal cavity
of unknown function (Davis, 1941), lined with stiff rods; in the colon
and caecum of the horse. Species (Hsiung, 1930, 1935).
S. equi F. (Fig. 351, e). 82-196/x by 46-108/*; widely distributed.
Morphology (Hsiung, 1935a; Davis, 1941); division (Davis, 1941).
Genus Triadinium Fiorentini. More or less helmet-shaped; com-
pressed; adoral zone at anterior end; 2 posterior (ventral and dorsal)
zones; with or without a caudal projection; in the caecum and colon
of horse. Species (Hsiung, 1935).
T. caudatum F. (Fig. 351,/). 59-86/* by 50-68/*.
T. galea Gassovsky. 59-78/1 by 50-60/*.
T. minimum G. (Fig. 351, g). 35-58/* by 30-40/z.
Genus Tetratoxum Gassovsky. Slightly compressed; 2 anterior
and 2 posterior zones of membranellae ; in the colon of horse. Species
(Hsiung, 1930).
T. unifasciculatum (Fiorentini) (Fig. 351, h). 88-186/* by 60-108/*;
widely distributed. Morphology and micronuclear division (Davis,
1941a).
T. escavatum Hsiung. 95-135/x by 55-90/*.
T. parvum H. 67-98/* by 39-52/*.
Genus Tripalmaria Gassovsky (Tricaudalia Buisson). Adoral zone
at anterior end; 2 dorsal and 1 ventral-posterior zones in tuft-form;
macronucleus inverted U-shape; in the colon of horse. Cytology
(Strelkow, 1932).
T. dogieli G. (Fig. 352, a). 77-123/* by 47-62/* (Hsiung, 1930).
Genus Triplumaria Hoare. Adoral zone; 2 dorsal and 1 ventral
cirrose tufts (caudals); skeleton, composed of polygonal plates ar-
ranged in a single layer, surrounds the body except the dorsal sur-
face; dorsal groove supported by rod-like skeleton; macronucleus
elongate sausage-form, with a micronucleus attached to its dorsal
surface near middle; about 6 contractile vacuoles arranged in line
along dorsal surface of body; in the intestine of Indian rhinoceros
(Hoare, 1937).
T. hamertoni H. 129-207/* long, 65-82/* thick, 4-39/* broad; endo-
SPIROTRICHA, OLIGOTRICHIA
825
Fig 352. a, Tripalmaria dogieli, X180 (Gassovsky); b, Cochhatoxum
periac'htum, X270 (Hsiung); c, Ditoxum funinucleum, X270 (Hsiung);
d-f, Troglodytella abrassarti (d, X670 (Swezey); e, ventral and f, dorsal
view, X210 (Brumpt and Joyeux)).
826 PROTOZOOLOGY
commensal in the intestine of Rhinoceros unicornis in Zoological
Garden in London.
Genus Cochliatoxum Gassovsky. Adoral zone near anterior end;
3 additional zones, 1 antero-dorsal, 1 postero-dorsal and 1 postero-
ventral; macro nucleus with curved anterior end; in the colon of
horse. One species.
C. periachtum G. (Fig. 352, b). 210-370/x by 130-210m (Hsiung,
1930).
Genus Ditoxum Gassovsky. Large adoral zone near anterior end ;
2 dorsal (anterior and posterior) zones; macronucleus curved club-
shaped; in the colon of horse (Hsiung, 1935).
D.funinucleum G. (Fig. 352, c). 135-203^ by 70-101/x.
Genus Troglodytella Brumpt and Joyeux. Ellipsoid; flattened;
adoral zone ; 3 additional zones (anterior zone continuous or not con-
tinuous on ventral surface; posterior zone continuous on dorsal
surface; between them a small zone on each side); skeletal plates in
anterior region; macronucleus L-form; contractile vacuoles in 2 cir-
cles; in the colon of anthropoid apes.
T. abrassarti B. and J. (Fig. 352, d-f). About 145-220/x by 120-
IGOyu; in the colon of chimpanzees (Brumpt and Joyeux, 1912).
Reichenow (1920) distinguished var. acuminata on the basis of the
drawn-out posterior end, which was found by Swezey (1932) to be a
variant of T. abrassarti. Cytology (Swezey, 1934); cultivation (Nel-
son, 1932; Swezey, 1935).
T. gorillae Reichenow. 200-280/z by 120-160/*; in the colon of
gorilla; with anterior zone not reaching the right side.
References
Awerinzew, S. and Mutafowa, R,: (1914) Material zur Kenntnis
der Infusorien aus dem Magen der Wiederkauer. Arch. Protist.,
33:109.
Balech, E.: (1942) Tintinnoineos del Estrecho le Maire. Physis, 19:
245.
— (1945) Tintinnoinea de Atlantida. Comm. Mus. Argent.
Cien. Nat. Ser. Cien. Zool., no. 7.
(1951) Nuevos datos aobre Tintinnoinea de Argentina y Uru-
guay. Physis, 20:291.
Becker, E. R. : (1933) Concerning Ehjtroplastron hegneri. Tr. Am.
Micr.Soc, 52:217.
, Schulz, J. A. and Emmerson, M. A. : (1930) Experiments on
the physiological relationships between the stomach Infusoria
of ruminants and their hosts. Iowa State College J. Sc, 4:215.
and Talbott, Mary: (1927) The protozoan fauna of the
rumen and reticulum of American cattle. Ibid., 1:345.
SPIROTRICHA, OLIGOTRICHA 827
Bretschneider, L. H.: (1934) Beitrage zur Strukturlehre der Oph-
ryoscoleciden. II. Arch. Protist., 82:298.
Brumpt, E. and Joyeux, C: (1912) Sur un infusoire nouveau para-
site du Chimpanze, etc. Bull. Soc. Path. Exot., 5:499.
Busch, W.: (1921) Studien iiber Ciliaten des nordatlantischen
Ozeans und Schwarzen Meers. I. Arch. Protist., 42:364.
— (1925) Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Gehausebildung bei den
Tintinnidae, etc. Ibid., 58:183.
Bush, Mildred and Kofoid, C. A.: (1948) Ciliates from the Sierra
Nevada bighorn, etc. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 53:237.
Crawley, H.: (1923) Evolution in the ciliate family Ophryoscoleci-
dae. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philadelphia, 75:393.
da Cunha, A. M.: (1914) Ueber die Ziliaten, welche in Brasilien im
Magen von Rindern und Schafen vorkommen. Mem. Inst. Os-
waldo Cruz., 6:58.
— (1917) Sobre os ciliados do tubo digestivo dos mammideros.
Buenos Aires. 8 pp.
Das-Gupta, M.: (1935) Preliminary observations on the protozoan
fauna of the rumen of the Indian goat, etc. Arch. Protist., 85:
153.
Davis, T. G.: (1941) Morphology and division in Spirodinium equi.
J. Morphol., 69:225.
(1941a) Morphology and division in Tetratoxum unifasci-
culatum. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 60:441.
Dogiel, V.: (1925) Die Geschlechtsprozesse bei Infusorien, etc.
Arch. Protist., 50:283.
(1927) Morphologie der Familie Ophryoscolecidae. Ibid.,
59:1.
(1932) Beschreibung einiger neuer Vertreter der Familie
Ophryoscolecidae, etc. Ibid., 77:92.
(1934) Angaben liber die Ophryoscolecidae, etc. Ibid., 82:
290.
and Fedorowa, T. : (1929) Ueber die Zahl der Infusorien im
Wiederkauermagen. Zentralbl. Bakt. I. Orig., 112:135.
Ferber, K. E. and Fedorowa, T.: (1929) Zahlung und Teilungs-
quote der Infusorien im Pansen der Wiederkauer. Biol. Zen-
tralbl., 49:321.
Fernandez, D. F.-G.: (1949) Sobre el aparato neuromotor y otras
estructuras protoplasmaticas de "Ophryoscolex purkinjei."
Trab. Inst. Cien. Nat. J. d. Acosta, 2:257.
Hoare, C. A.: (1937) A new cycloposthiid ciliate, etc. Parasitology,
29:559.
Hofker, J.: (1932) Studien liber Tintinnoidea. Arch. Protist., 75:
315.
Hsiung, T. S.: (1930) A monograph on the Protozoa of the large
intestine of the horse. Iowa State College J. Sc, 4:356.
— (1935) Notes on the known species of Triadinium, etc Bull.
Fan Mem. Inst. Biol., 6:21.
— (1935a) On some new ciliates from the mule, etc. Ibid., 6:81.
Kahl, A.: (1932) Urtiere oder Protozoa. I. Dahl's Die Tierwelt
Deutschlands, etc. Part 25.
828 PROTOZOOLOGY
Kofoid, C. A.: (1930) Factors in the evolution of the pelagic ciliata,
the Tintinnoinea. Contr. Marine Biol., Stanford Univ., 39 pp.
and Campbell, A. S.: (1929) A conspectus of the marine
and freshwater Ciliata, belonging to the suborder Tintinnoinea,
etc. Univ. California Publ. Zool., 34:1.
and Christenson, J. F.: (1934) Ciliates from Bos gaurus.
Ibid., 39:341.
and MacLennan, R. F.: (1930) Ciliates from Bos indicus I.
Ibid., 33:471.
(1932) II. Ibid., 37 : 53.
(1933)111. Ibid., 39:1.
MacLennan, R. F.: (1933) The pulsatory cycles of the contractile
vacuoles in the Ophryoscolecidae, etc. Ibid., 39 : 205.
(1935) Ciliates from the stomach of musk-deer. Tr. Am.
Micr. Soc, 54:181.
Mowry, Helen A. and Becker, E. R.: (1930) Experiments on the
biology of Infusoria inhabiting the rumen of goats. Iowa State
College J. Sc, 5:35.
Nelson, E. C: (1932) The cultivation of a species of Troglodytella,
etc. Science, 75:317.
Rampi, L.: (1950) I Tintinnoidi della acque di Monaco, etc. Bull.
l'lnst. OcSanogr., no. 965.
Reichenow, E.: (1920) Den Wiederkauer-Infusorien verwandte
Formen aus Gorilla und Schimpanse. Arch. Protist., 41:1.
Silva, Estela de S. E. : (1950) Les Tintinnides de la baie de Cas-
cais (Portugal). Bull. PInst. Oc6anogr., no. 974.
Strelkow, A.: (1929) Morphologische Studien iiber oligotriche In-
fusorien aus dem Darme des Pferdes. I. Arch. Protist., 68:503.
(1932) II, III. Ibid., 75:191.
Swezey, W. W.: (1932) The transition of Troglodytella abrassarti and
T. a. acuminata, intestinal ciliates of the chimpanzee. J. Para-
sitol., 19:12.
(1934) Cytology of Troglodytella abrassarti, etc. J. Morphol.,
56:621.
(1935) Cultivation of Troglodytella abrassarti, etc. J. Para-
sitol., 21:10.
Szabo, M.: (1935) Neuere Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Gattung
Halteria. Arch. Protist., 86:307.
Chapter 40
Order 2 Spirotricha Blitschli (continued)
Suborder 3 Ctenostomata Lauterborn
THE ciliates placed in this group are carapaced and compressed
forms with a very sparse ciliation. The adoral zone is also re-
duced to about 8 membranellae. These organisms are exclusively
free living and sapropelic in fresh, brackish, or salt water. Morphol-
ogy and taxonomy (Kahl).
Posterior half of carapace with 4 ciliated rows on left and at least 2 rows
on right; with anterior row of cilia on left side. .Family 1 Epalcidae
Posterior half of carapace with cirrus-like groups on left only, none on
right; without frontal cilia
Long ciliated band extends over both broad sides
Family 2 Discomorphidae
Short ciliated band ventral, extending equally on both broad sides. . .
Family 3 Mylestomidae (p. 830)
Family 1 Epalcidae Wetzel
Genus Epalxis Roux. Rounded triangular; anterior end pointed
toward ventral surface, posterior end irregularly truncate; dorsal
surface more convex; right carapace with 1 dorsal and 1 ventral
ciliary row in posterior region; usually 4 (2-3) median teeth; all anal
teeth without spine ; with comb-like structures posterior to oral aper-
ture; 1-2 oval macronuclei dorsal; contractile vacuole posterior-
ventral; sapropelic in fresh or salt water. Many species.
E. mirabilis R. (Fig. 353, a). 38-45/* by 27-30/*; fresh water.
Genus Saprodinium Lauterborn. Similar to Epalxis; but some
(left and right) of anal teeth with spines; sapropelic in fresh or salt
water. Several species.
S. dentatum L. (Fig. 353, b). 60-80/* long; fresh water (Lackey,
1925).
S. putrinium Lackey (Fig. 353, c). 50/t long, 40/z wide, about 15/i
thick ; in Imhoff tanks.
Genus Pelodinium Lauterborn. Right carapace with 2 median
rows of cilia, its median anal teeth fused into one so that there are
only three teeth. One species.
P. reniforme L. (Fig. 353, d). 40-50/t long; sapropelic.
Family 2 Discomorphidae Poche
Genus Discomorpha Levander. Oval; ventrally directed anterior
spine long; posterior end without teeth or ridges; ciliated bands on
829
830
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 353. a, Epalxis mirabilis, X1200 (Roux); b, Saprodinium den-
tatum, X430 (Kahl); c, S. pulrinium, X470 (Lackey); d, Pelodinium
reniforme, X600 (Lauterborn); e, f, Discomorpha pectinata, (e, X500;
f, X220) (Kahl); g, Mylestoma bipartitum, X470 (Kahl); h, Atopodinium
fibulatum, X520 (Kahl).
both lateral surfaces; 2 spines on right side; 2 cirrus-like groups on
posterior-left; sapropelic. A few species.
D. pectinata L. (Fig. 353, e,f). 70-90/* long; sapropelic.
Family 3 Mylestomidae Kahl
Genus Mylestoma Kahl. Posterior margin without any indenta-
tion, though sometimes a small one on right side, but none on left;
SPIROTRICHA, CTENOSTOMATA 831
3 often long ribbon-like cirri on peristome; fresh or salt water. Sev-
eral species.
M . bipartitum (Gourret and Roesner) (Fig. 353, g). 35-50/z long;
two caudal processes; salt water.
Genus Atopodinium Kahl. Posterior left side with one large, and
right side with 2 indentations; macronucleus spherical; sapropelic.
A.fibulatum K. (Fig. 353, h). 4O-50m long.
References
Kahl, A.: (1932) Ctenostomata (Lauterborn) n. Subord. Arch. Pro-
tist., 77:231.
(1932a) Urtiere oder Protozoa. Dahl's Die Tierwelt Deutsch-
lands, etc. Part 25.
Lackey, J. B.: (1925) Studies on the biology of sewage disposal.
The fauna of Imhoff tanks. Bull. New Jersey Agric. Exper. Sta-
tion, no. 417.
Chapter 41
Order 2 Spirotricha Blitschli (continued)
Suborder 4 Hypotricha Stein
THE members of this suborder are, as a rule, flattened and strong
cilia or cirri are restricted to the ventral surface. Except the fam-
ily Aspidiscidae, the dorsal surface possesses rows of short slightly
moveable tactile bristles. The peristome is very large with a well-
developed adoral zone. The cirri on the ventral surface are called,
according to their location, frontals, ventrals, marginals, anals
(transversals), and caudals, as was mentioned before (Fig. 11, b).
Asexual reporduction is by binary fission and sexual reproduction by
conjugation. Encystment is common. Mostly free-living in fresh,
brackish or salt water; a few parasitic.
Adoral zone fully formed
Cirri on ventral surface
Ventrals in rows, though in some reduced; 2 rows of marginals. . . .
Family 1 Oxytrichidae
Ventrals and marginals not in longitudinal rows
Family 2 Euplotidae (p. 839)
No ventral cirri; caudal cirri Family 3 Paraeuplotidae (p. 843)
Adoral zone reduced Family 4 Aspidiscidae (p. 845)
Family 1 Oxytrichidae Kent
Genus Oxytricha Ehrenberg (Histrio Sterki; Opisthotricha Kent;
Steinia Diesing). Ellipsoid; flexible; ventral surface flattened, dorsal
surface convex; 8 frontals; 5 ventrals; 5 anals; short caudals; mar-
ginals may or may not be continuous along posterior border; macro-
nucleus in 2 parts, rarely single or in 4 parts; fresh or salt water.
Numerous species (Horvath, 1933); neuromotor system (Lund,
1935).
0. fallax Stein (Fig. 354, a). Posterior region broadly rounded;
about 150^ long; fresh water. Amicronucleate race (Reynolds, 1932).
0. bifaria Stokes (Fig. 354, b). Right side convex; left side flat-
tened; posterior end pointed; about 250m long; fresh water infusion.
0. ludibunda S. (Fig. 354, c). Ellipsoid; flexible; 100m long; fresh
water among sphagnum.
O. setigera S. (Fig. 354, d). Elongate ellipsoid; 5 frontals; ventrals
shifted anteriorly; 50m long; fresh water.
Genus Tachysoma Stokes (Actinotricha Cohn). Flexible; frontals
8-10, of which anterior three are usually the largest; 5 ventrals
832
SPIROTRICHA, HYPOTRICHA
833
scattered; 5 anals; marginals at some distance from lateral borders,
interrupted posteriorly ; fresh or salt water.
T. parvistyla S. (Fig. 354, e). 10 frontals scattered; about 63 n long;
in shallow freshwater pools.
Genus Urosoma Kowalewski. Similar to Oxytricha; but posterior
portion drawn out and much narrowed ; fresh water.
U. caudata (Stokes) (Fig. 354, /). 200-250/1 long; pond water.
Genus Amphisiella Gourret and Roeser. With a single row of
ventrals and 2 marginal rows; salt or fresh water. Several species.
A. thiophaga (Kahl) (Fig. 354, g). 70-100^ long; salt water.
Genus Eschaneustyla Stokes. Elliptical or ovate; narrow peri-
Fig. 354. a, Oxytricha fallax, X230 (Stein); b, O. bifaria, X180 (Stokes);
c, O. ludibunda, X400 (Stokes); d, O. setigera, XS70 (Stokes); e, Tachy-
soma parvistyla, X490 (Stokes); f, Urosoma caudata, X250 (Stokes);
g, Amphisiella thiophaga, X380 (Kahl); h, Eschaneustyla brachytona,
X240 (Stokes); i, Gonostomum strenuum, X160 (Engelmann) ; ],Hemi-
cycliostyla sphagni, X100 (Stokes); k, 1, Cladotricha koltzowii (k, X170;
1, X300) (Kahl).
834 PROTOZOOLOGY
stome 1/3 the body length; frontals numerous, about 22 in addition
to 2 at anterior margin; ventrals small and numerous in 3 oblique
rows; no anals; marginals uninterrupted; contractile vacuole a long
canal near left border; fresh water. One species.
E. brachytona S. (Fig. 354, h). 170-220/* long.
Genus Gonostomum Sterki (Plagiotricha Kent). Flexible; 8 or
more frontals; 1-2 oblique ventral rows of short cirri; 4 or 5 anals; 2
marginal rows; fresh water.
G. strenuum (Engelmann) (Fig. 354, i). Elongate; with caudal
bristles; about 150/t long; fresh water.
Genus Hemicycliostyla Stokes. Elongate oval; flexible; ends
rounded; 20 or more frontals, arranged in 2 semicircular rows; adoral
row begins near center on right side of peristomal field; ventral sur-
face entirely covered with fine cilia; no anals; one or more contractile
vacuoles ; nucleus distributed ; fresh water.
H. sphagni S. (Fig. 354, j). About 400-500/* long; marsh water
with sphagnum.
Genus Hypotrichidium Ilowaisky. Two ventral and marginal rows
of cirri spirally arranged; peristome large, extends 1/2 the body
length, with a large undulating membrane; 2 macro- and micro-nu-
clei; contractile vacuole anterior-left; fresh water.
H. conicum I. (Fig. 355, a). 90-1 50/* long.
Genus Cladotricha Gajevskaja. Elongate band-form; anterior
end rounded, posterior end rounded or attenuated; frontals only 2
featherly cirri; macronucleus spheroidal; micronucleus; without con-
tractile vacuole; salt water, with 5-20 per cent salt content. One
species.
C. koltzowii G. (Fig. 354, k, I). Band-form up to about 200/* long;
posteriorly attenuated forms up to about 100/* long.
Genus Psilotricha Stein. Oval to ellipsoid; frontals and anals un-
differentiated; ventrals and marginals long cirri, few; ventrals in 2
rows and a rudimentary row toward left; with or without zoochlo-
rellae; fresh water. A few species.
P. acuminata S. (Fig. 355, 6). 80-100/* long.
Genus Kahlia Horvath. Frontal margin with 3-4 strong cirri;
5-8 ventral longitudinal rows ; marginals ; sapropelic in fresh water.
K. acrobates H. (Fig. 355, c). 100-200/x long; soil infusion.
Genus Uroleptus Ehrenberg. Elongate body drawn out into a tail-
like portion; 3 frontals; 2-4 rows of ventral cirri; marginals; no
anals; sometimes rose- or violet-colored; fresh or salt water. Many
species.
U. limnetis Stokes (Fig. 355, d). About 200/x long; fresh water
among vegetation.
SPIROTRICHA, HYPOTRICHA
S3 5
U. longicaudatus S. (Fig. 355, e). About 200/* long; marsh water
with sphagnum.
U. halseyi Calkins (Fig. 355,/). About 160/t by 20/*; peristome
1/6-1/7 the body length; 3 ventrals; macronucleus divided into
many (up to 26) parts; 2 (1-3) micronuclei; fresh water (Calkins,
1930).
Genus Uroleptopsis Kahl. Ventrals in 2 uninterrupted rows; salt
water. A few species.
Fig. 355. a, Hypotrichidium conicum, X200 (Kahl); b, Psilotricha
acuminata, X230 (Stein); c, Kahlia acrobates, X240 (Kahl); d, Uroleptus
limnetis, X240 (Stokes); e, U. longicaudatus, X240 (Stokes); f, U. halseyi,
X470 (Calkins); g, Uroleptopsis citrina, X260 (Kahl); h, Strongylidium
calif or nicum, X200 (Kahl); i, Stichotricha secunda, X340 (Kahl); j, S.
intermedia (Froud); k, Chaetospira mulleri (Froud); 1, Urostyla grandis,
X140 (Stein); m, U. trichogaster, XI 50 (Kahl).
836 PROTOZOOLOGY
U. citrina K. (Fig. 355, g). Elongate; flexible; ectoplasm with
pale-yellow ringed bodies which give the organism yellowish color;
marginals discontinuous posteriorly; 2 contractile vacuoles near
left border; 150-25CV long; salt water.
Genus Strongylidium Sterki. 2-5 ventral rows of cirri; marginals
spirally arranged; 3-6 frontals; 2 or more macro nuclei; fresh or salt
water. Many species.
S. californicum Kahl (Fig. 355, h). 4-5 frontals; macronuclei about
30 in number; 4 micronuclei; contractile vacuole with short canals;
about 250/* long; fresh water among vegetation.
Genus Stichotricha Perty. Slender ovoid or fusiform; peristome-
bearing part narrowed; not flexible; usually 4 spiral rows of cirri;
sometimes tube-dwelling, and then in groups; fresh or salt water.
Many species.
S. secunda P. (Fig. 355, i). 130-200/i long; in fresh water.
S. intermedia Froud (Fig. 355, J-)- Solitary; non-loricate; 40-170/x
long, 2/5 of which is a bent proboscis; two rows of body cilia; two
rows of dorsal cilia, 5/t long; among Lemna in fresh water (Froud,
1949).
Genus Chaetospira Lachmann. Similar to Stichotricha; but peri-
stome-bearing part flexible; fresh or salt water.
C. mulleri L. (Fig. 355, k). Flask-shaped, 60-200 /i long, in a lorica;
cytostome at the base of proboscis; a single (two or more) micronu-
cleus; macronucleus in two to eight parts; ingested diatoms lose
color in 10 minutes; Bodo is immobilized in less than one minute;
binary fission; the anterior individual remains in the lorica, while
the posterior individual (averaging 46 /i long) swims away and sooner
or later becomes attached to substrate; cysts pyriform, 35-55/x by
15-20/i ; among Lemna in fresh water (Froud, 1949).
Genus Urostyla Ehrenberg. Ellipsoid; flexible; ends rounded;
flattened ventral surface with 4-10 rows of small cirri and 2 mar-
ginal rows; 3 or more frontals; 5-12 anals; macronucleus a single
body or in many parts; fresh or salt water. Numerous species.
U. grandis E. (Figs. 49; 355, I). 300-400/t long; macronucleus in
100 or more parts; 6-8 micronuclei; fresh water. Nuclei (Raabe,
1946, 1947) (p. 165).
U. trichogaster Stokes (Fig. 355, m). 250-330/t long; fresh water.
U. caudata S. (Fig. 356, a). Elongate ellipsoid; flexible; narrowed
anterior part bent to left; peristome 1/3 the body length; macro-
nucleus in many parts; contractile vacuoles near left margin; about
600/* long; fresh water with sphagnum.
SPIROTRICHA, HYPOTRICHA
837
U. pohjmicronucleata Merriman. Elliptical with broadly rounded
ends; flexible; 225m by 65m; opaque, green or brown because of the
ingested diatoms; 3 large and 10 small frontals; four ventral rows of
cirri; marginals; macronucleus in two parts; three to 11 micronuclei
(Merriman, 1937).
U. coei Turner. Elliptical, with a more pointed posterior end; 200 m
by 50m; four rows of ventral cirri, the right row being the longest;
five frontals; macronucleus in two masses; four micronuclei (Turner,
1939).
Genus Kerona Ehrenberg. Reniform; no caudals; 6 oblique rows
of ventral cirri; commensal. One species.
Fig. 356. a, Urostyla caudata, X90 (Stokes); b, Kerona polyporum,
X200 (Stein); c, Keronopsis rubra, X270 (Entz); d, Epiclintes pluvialis,
XlOO (Smith); e, Holosticha vernalis, X220 (Stokes); f, H. hymenophora,
XlSO (Stokes); g, Paraholosticha herbicola, X200 (Kahl); h, Trichotaxis
stagnatilis, X190 (Stokes); i, Balladyna elongata, X800 (Roux); j, Pleu-
rotricha lanceolata, X250 (Stein); k, Gastrostyla muscorum, X200 (Kahl).
838 PROTOZOOLOGY
K. polyporum E. (Fig. 356, b). 120-200/* long; commensal on
Hydra.
Genus Keronopsis Penard. Two ventral rows of cirri reaching
frontal field; caudals variable; macro nucleus usually in several
(rarely 2) parts; fresh or salt water. Numerous species.
K. rubra (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 356, c). Reddish; 200-300/* long; salt
water.
Genus Epiclintes Stein. Elongate; spoon-shaped; flattened ven-
tral surface with more than 2 rows of cirri; 2 marginal rows; frontals
undifferentiated; anals; no caudals; salt or fresh water. A few species.
E. pluvialis Smith (Fig. 356, d). About 375m long; fresh water.
Genus Holosticha Wrzesniowski. Three frontals along anterior
margin; 2 ventral and 2 marginal rows of cirri; anals; fresh or salt
water. Numerous species.
H. vernalis Stokes (Fig. 356, e). 7 anals; about 180/z long; shallow
pools with algae.
H. hymenophora S. (Fig. 356,/). 5 anals; 2 contractile vacuoles;
160-200/1 long; shallow pools.
Genus Paraholosticha Kahl. Elongate-oval; flexible; ventral cirri
in 2 parallel oblique rows; with a row of stiff cirri along frontal mar-
gin, posterior to it 2 short rows of cirri; marginals continuous or
interrupted at posterior border; fresh water.
P. herbicola K. (Fig. 356, g). 150-190/t long; fresh water among
algae.
Genus Trichotaxis Stokes. Similar to Holosticha; but with 3 rows
of ventral cirri; fresh or salt water.
T. stagnatilis S. (Fig. 356, h). About 160/t long; ellipsoid; in fresh
water among decaying vegetation.
Genus Balladyna Kowalewski. Ellipsoid; frontals not well de-
veloped or lacking; 1 ventral and 2 marginal rows of cirri; long
dorsal and lateral stiff cirri; fresh water.
B. elongata Roux (Fig. 356, i). 32-35/t by 11-12/*; fresh water
among plants and detritus.
Genus Pleurotricha Stein. Oblong to ellipsoid; marginals continu-
ous; 8 frontals; 3-4 ventrals; 7 anals of which 2 are more posterior;
2 rows of ventral cirri; between ventrals and marginals 1-3 rows of
few coarse cilia; fresh water.
P. lanceolata (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 356, j). 100-165/* long; 2 macro-
and 2 micro-nuclei. Manwell (1928) studied its conjugation, division,
encystment and nuclear variation. Encystment (Penn, 1935).
Genus Gastrostyla Engelmann. Frontals distributed except 3 along
the frontal margin; ventrals irregular; 5 anals; macronucleus divided
SPIROTRICHA, HYPOTRICHA 839
into 2-8 parts; fresh or salt water. Morphology and physiology
(Weyer, 1930).
G. muscorum Kahl (Fig. 356, k). 130-200^ long; macronucleus in
8 parts; fresh water in vegetation.
Genus Stylonychia Ehrenberg. Ovoid to reniform; not flexible;
ventral surface flat, dorsal surface convex; 8 frontals; 5 ventrals;
5 anals; marginals; 3 caudals; with short dorsal bristles; fresh or salt
water. Many species.
S. mytilus (Muller) (Fig. 357, a). 100-30(V long; fresh, brackish
and salt water. Encystment (von Brand, 1923).
S. pustulata E. (Figs. 93; 357, b). About 150/j, long; fresh water.
Cytology (Hall, 1931) ; division and reorganization (Summers, 1935).
S. putrina Stokes (Fig. 357, c). 125-150/x long; fresh water.
S. notophora S. (Fig. 357, d). About 125^ long; standing water.
Genus Onychodromus Stein. Not flexible; somewhat rectangular;
anterior end truncate, posterior end rounded; ventral surface flat,
dorsal surface convex; peristome broadly triangular in ventral view;
3 frontals; 3 rows of cirri parallel to the right edge of peristome; 5-6
anals; marginals uninterrupted; 4-8 macronuclei; contractile vacu-
ole; fresh water. One species.
0. grandis S. (Fig. 357, e). 100-300^ long.
Genus Onychodromopsis Stokes. Similar to Onychodromus; but
flexible; 6 frontals of which the anterior three are the largest; fresh
water. One species.
O.flexilis S. (Fig. 357,/). 90-125/z long; standing pond water.
Family 2 Euplotidae Claus
Genus Euplotes Ehrenberg. Inflexible body ovoid; ventral surface
flattened, dorsal surface convex; longitudinally ridged; peristome
broadly triangular; frontal part of adoral zone lies in flat furrow; 9
or more frontal- ventrals; 5 anals; 4 scattered caudals; macronucleus
band-like; a micronucleus; contractile vacuole posterior; fresh or
salt water. Many species. Comparative morphology (Pierson, 1943).
E. patella (Muller) (Fig. 357, g). Subcircular to elliptical; average
dimensions 91^ by 52^; 9 f rontal-ventrals ; aboral surface with 6 pro-
minent ridges with rows of bristles embedded in rosettes of granules;
peristome narrow; peristomal plate small triangle; macronucleus
simple C-form band; micronucleus near anterior-left end; membra-
nellae straight; posterior end of cytopharynx anterior to, and to left
of, the fifth anal cirrus; post-pharyngeal sac; fresh and brackish
water. Doubles and amicronucleates (Kimball, 1941) ; mating types
(p. 194).
840
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 357. a, Stylonychia mytilus, X200 (Stein); b, S. pustulata, X400
(Roux); c, S. putrina, X200 (Stokes); d, S. notophora, X200 (Stokes); e,
Onychodromus grandis, X230 (Stein); f, Onychodromopsis flexilis, X240
(Stokes); g, Euplotes patella, X420 (Pierson); h, E. eurystomus, X330
(Pierson); i, E. woodruffi,, X310 (Pierson); j, E. aediculatus, X290 (Pier-
son).
SPIROTRICHA, HYPOTRICHA 841
E. eurystomus Wrzesniowski (Fig. 357, h). Elongated ellipsoid;
length 100-195/*; average dimensions 138/* by 78/*; 9 f rontal-ventrals ;
no aboral ridges, but 7 rows of bristles ; peristome wide, deep ; peri-
stomal depression sigmoid; membranellae forming sigmoid curve;
end of cytopharynx far to left and anterior to the fifth anal cirrus;
post-pharyngeal sac; macronucleus 3-shaped; micronucleus near
flattened anterior corner of macronucleus; fresh and brackish water.
Division and conjugation (Turner, 1930); neuromotor system (Tur-
ner, 1933; Hammond, 1937; Hammond and Kofoid, 1937).
E. woodruffi Gaw (Fig. 357, i). Oval; length 120-165/*; average
dimensions 140/1 by 90/*; 9 f rontal-ventrals ; aboral surface often
with 8 low ridges; peristome wide, with a small peristomal plate; end
of cytopharynx almost below the median ridge; 4th ridge between
anal cirri often extends to anterior end of body; post-pharyngeal sac;
macronucleus consistently T-shaped; micronucleus anterior-right;
brackish (with salinity 2.30 parts of salt per 1000) and fresh water
(Gaw, 1939).
E. aediculatus Pierson (Fig. 357, j). Elliptical; length 110-165/*;
average dimensions 132/* by 84/*; 9 f rontal-ventrals ; aboral surface
usually without ridges, but with about 6 rows of bristles; peristome
narrow; peristomal plate long triangular, drawn out posteriorly; a
niche midway on the right border of peristome; anal cirri often form
a straight transverse line; 4th ridge between anals may reach anterior
end of body; macronucleus C-shape with a flattened part in the left-
anterior region; micronucleus some distance from macronucleus at
anterior-left region; post-pharyngeal sac; fresh and brackish (salin-
ity 2.30 parts of salt per 1000) water.
E. plumipes Stokes. Similar to E. eurystomus. About 125/* long;
fresh water.
E. carinatus S. (Fig. 358, a). About 70/* by 50/*; fresh water.
E. charon (Miiller) (Fig. 358, b). 70-90/* long; salt water.
Genus Euplotidium Noland. Cylindrical; 9 f rontal-ventrals in 2
rows toward right; 5 anals; a groove extends backward from oral
region to ventral side, in which the left-most anal cirrus lies; peri-
stome opened widely at anterior end, but covered posteriorly by a
transparent, curved, flap-like membrane; adoral zone made up of
about 80 membranellae; longitudinal ridges (carinae), 3 dorsal and
2 lateral; a row of protrichocysts under each carina; a broad zone
of protrichocysts in antero-dorsal region; cytoplasm densely granu-
lated; salt water. One species (Noland, 1937).
E. agitatum N. (Fig. 358, c, d). 65-95/* long; erratic movement
rapid; observed in half-dead sponges in Florida.
842
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 358. a, Euplotes carinatus, X430 (Stokes); b, E. charon, X440
(Kahl); c, d, Euplotidium agitatum, X540 (Noland); e, Certesia quad-
rinucleata, X670 (Sauerbrey); f, Diophrys appendiculata, X570 (Wal-
lengren); g, Uronychia setigera, X870 (Calkins); h, Aspidisca
X300 (Stein); i, A. polystyla, X290 (Kahl).
SPIROTRICHA, HYPOTRICHA 843
Genus Certesia Fabre-Domergue. Ellipsoid; flattened; dorsal
surface slightly convex, ventral surface flat or concave; 5 frontals
at anterior border; 7 ventrals; 5 anals; no caudals; marginals small
in number; 4 macronuclei; salt water. One species.
C. quadrinucleata F.-D. (Fig. 358, e). 70-100m by about 45/i.
Morphology (Sauerbrey, 1928).
Genus Diophrys Dujardin. Peristome relatively large, often
reaching anals; 7-9 frontal-ventrals; 5 anals; 3 strong cirri right-
dorsal near posterior margin; salt water.
D. appendiculata (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 358, /). 60-lOOyu long; salt
water; Woods Hole (Calkins). Division and reorganization (Sum-
mers, 1935).
Genus Uronychia Stein. Without frontals and ventrals; 5 anals;
3 right-dorsal cirri (as in Diophrys); 2 left-ventral cirri near posterior
margin; peristome, oval with a large undulating membrane on
right edge; salt water. Several species.
U. setigera Calkins (Fig. 358, g). 40/z by 25/z; salt water; Woods
Hole.
Genus Gastrocirrhus Lepsi. Anterior end truncate with a ring of
cilia; posterior end bluntly pointed; slightly flattened; a wide peri-
stome leading to cytostome, with undulating membrane on left; 16
cirri on ventral surface arranged on right and posterior margins
(Lepsi) or six frontals, five ventrals, five caudals (Bullington) ; ma-
rine. Apparently intermediate between Heterotricha and Hypo-
tricha (Lepsi).
G. stentoreus Bullington (Fig. 359, a). About 104^ by 71-8 1/t; dark
granulated cytoplasm; active jumping as well as swimming move-
ment; in Tortugas (Bullington, 1940).
Family 3 Paraeuplotidae Wichterman
Genus Paraeuplotes Wichterman. Ovoid; ventral surface slightly
concave, dorsal surface highly convex and bare, but with one ridge;
frontal and adoral zones well developed ; ventral surface with a semi-
circular ciliary ring on the right half, posterior half of which is
marked by a plate and with two ciliary tufts, near the middle of an-
terior half; 5-6 caudal cirri; macronucleus curved band-form; a
terminal contractile vacuole; zooxanthellae, but no food vacuole in
cytoplasm; marine, on the coral.
P. tortugensis W. (Fig. 359, b, c). Subcircular to ovoid; average
individuals 85/z by 75/x; ciliary plate 37 /jl long, with longer cilia;
adoral zone reaches nearly the posterior end; "micronucleus not
clearly differentiated" (Wichterman); 5-6 caudal cirri about 13/*
844
PROTOZOOLOGY
long; zooxanthellae yellowish brown, about 12 p. in diameter, fill the
body; found on Eunicea crassa (coral); Tortugas, Florida.
Genus Euplotaspis Chatton and Seguela. Ellipsoid; ventral surface
flat or slightly concave; dorsal surface convex; membranellae and
cirri with fringed tips; peristome very long; 10 frontal-ventrals; five
anals; three or four caudals difficult to see in life; dorsal surface
without striae or ciliary processes; macronucleus arched band; a
single micronucleus. One species (Chatton and Seguela, 1936).
-^
Fig. 359. a, ventral view of Gastrocirrhus stenloreus, X330 (Bullington)
(ac, anterior cirri; cc, caudal cirri; cp, cytopharynx; oc, oral cilia; om, oral
membrane; vc, ventral cirri); b, c, dorsal and ventral views of Paraeu-
plotes tortugensis, X490 (Wichterman) (avc, anterior ventral cilia; cp,
ciliary plate; cpc, ciliary plate cilia; cv, contractile vacuole; ds, dorsal
swelling; fm, frontal membranellae; om, adoral membranellae; sp. caudal
cirri; te, tufts of cilia; zo, zoothanthellae) ; d, ventral view of Euplotaspis
cionaecola, X1285 (Chatton and Seguela).
SPIROTRICHA, HYPOTRICHA 845
E. cionaecola C. and S. (Fig. 359, d). 60-70 m by 45-55m; in the
branchial cavity of the ascidian, Ciona intestinalis.
Family 4 Aspidiscidae Claus
Genus Aspidisca Ehrenberg. Small; ovoid; inflexible; right and
dorsal side convex, ventral side flattened; dorsal surface conspicu-
ously ridged ; ado ral zone reduced or rudimentary ; 7 frontal-ventrals;
5-12 anals; macronucleus horseshoe-shaped or occasionally in 2
rounded parts; contractile vacuole posterior; fresh or salt water.
Numerous species.
A. lynceus E. (Figs. 55; 358, h). 30-50/x long; fresh water. Division
and reorganization (Summers, 1935).
A. polystyla Stein (Fig. 358, i). About 50/x long; marine; Woods
Hole (Calkins).
References
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— (1930) Uroleptus halseyi. II. Arch. Protist., 69:151.
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846 PROTOZOOLOGY
Noland, L. E.: (1937) Observations on marine ciliates of the Gulf
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macronuclei of Aspidisca lynceus, etc. Arch. Protist., 85:173.
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— (1939) A new species of hypotrichous ciliate, Urostyla coei.
Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 58:395.
von Brand, T.: (1923) Die Encystierung bei Vorticella microstoma
und hypotrichen Infusorien. Arch. Protist., 47:59.
Wallengren, H.: (1900) Studier ofver Ciliata infusorier. IV.
Kongl. Fysio. Sail. Handl., 11:2:1.
Weyer, G.: (1930) Untersuchungen liber die Morphologie und
Physiologie des Formwechsel der Gastrostyla steini. Arch. Pro-
tist., 71:139.
AVtchterman, R. : (1942) A new ciliate from a coral of Tortugas, etc
Carnegie Inst. Wash. Publ., 524:105.
Chapter 42
Order 3 Chonotricha Wallengren
THESE ciliates live attached to aquatic animals, especially crus-
taceans and have developed a peculiar organization. The body is,
as a rule, vase-form with an apical peristome, around which extends
a more or less complicated ectoplasmic collar or funnel and along
which are found ciliary rows that lead to the deeply located cyto-
stome and cytopharynx. The macronucleus is oval and situated cen-
trally; there is a contractile vacuole usually near the cytopharynx.
Asexual reproduction is by lateral budding, and conjugation has been
observed in a few species. Taxonomy (Kahl, 1935); distribution
(Mohr, 1948).
Family Spirochonidae Stein
Genus Spirochona Stein. Peristome funnel spirally wound; ciliary
zone on floor of the spiral furrow; attached to Gammarus in fresh
water. Many species (Swarczewsky, 1928).
S. gemmipara S. (Fig. 360, a). 80-120/* long; attached to the gill-
plates of Gammarus pulex and other species. Morphology (Guilcher,
1950).
Genus Stylochona Kent. Peristomal funnel with an inner funnel.
One species.
S. coronata K. (Fig. 360, b). About 60/* long; on marine Gammar-
us.
Genus Kentrochona Rompel ( Kentrochonopsis Doflein). Peri-
stomal funnel wide, simple, membranous; with or without a few (2)
spines.
K. nebaliae R. (Fig. 360, c). About 40// long; much flattened, with
its broad side attached by means of gelatinous substance to epi-
and exo-podite of Nebalia geoffroyi; salt water.
Genus Trichochona Mohr. Elongate; with a long stalk; pellicle
thick; a single and simple funnel; two ciliary patches, one parallel to
funnel rim and the other diagonal in the deep part of funnel; one
macronucleus; one to four micronuclei; budding; marine. One species
(Mohr, 1948).
T. lecythoides M. (Fig. 360, d, e). Body 35-86/x by 3-28 /*; funnel
8-21. 5/i high; stalk 16-51/z long; peristomal funnel with horizontal
ciliary lines, up to 32; diagonal lines about 20; on the appendages of
the marine crustacean, Amphithoe sp.
Genus Heliochona Plate. Peristomal funnel with numerous needle-
like spines. Taxonomy (Wallengren, 1895; Guilcher, 1950).
847
848
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 360. a, Spirochona gemmipara, X300 (Hertwig); b, Stylochona
coronata, X400 (Kent); c, Kentrochona nebaliae, X970 (Rompel); d, e,
Trichochona lecythoides (Mohr) (d, a portion of a host's appendage with 16
attached organisms, XI 10; e, an individual, X405); f, Heliochona scheu-
teni, X550 (Wallengren) ; g, H. sessilis, X510 (Wallengren) ; h, Chilodo-
chona quennerstedti, X400 (Wallengren).
H. scheuteni (Stein) (Fig. 360,/). About 80-90/1 long; on append-
ages of Gammarus locusta; salt water.
H. sessilis P. (Fig. 360, g). About 60/z long; on Gammarus locusta;
salt water.
Genus Chilodochona Wallengren. Peristome drawn out into two
lips; with a long stalk.
C. quennerstedti W. (Fig. 360, h). 60-1 15/* long; stalk, 40-160/x; on
Ebalia turnefacta and Portunus depurator; salt water.
References
Kahl, A.: (1935) Urtiere oder Protozoa. Darn"
Deutschlands, etc. Part 30.
Die Tierwelt
CHONOTRICHA 849
Guilcher, Yvette: (1950) Contribution a l'etude des cilies gem-
mipares, chonotriches et tentaculiferes. Univ. Paris, Thesis.
S6r. A. 2369. (1951. Ann. des Sc. Nat., Zool., Ser. 11, 13:33).
Mohr, J. L. : (1948) Trichochona lecythroides, a new genus and spe-
cies, etc. Allan Hancock Found. Publ., Occasional Papers, no.
5.
Swarczewsky, B. : (1928) Zur Kenntnis der Raikalprotistenfauna.
Arch. Protist., 64:44.
Wallengren, H.: (1895) Studier ofver ciliata infusorier. II. 77 pp.
Lund.
Chapter 43
Order 4 Peritricha Stein
THE peritrichous ciliates possess a much enlarged disk-like ante-
rior region which is conspicuously ciliated. The adoral zone is
counter-clockwise to the cytostome viewed from the anterior end.
The body ciliation is more or less limited. The stalked forms produce
free-swimming individuals, telotrochs. Asexual reproduction is by bi-
nary fission; and conjugation occurs commonly. The majority are
free-living or attached to various aquatic animals and plants, al-
though a few are parasitic. Taxonomy (Kahl, 1935; Stiller, 1939,
1940; Nenninger, 1948); structure of stalk (Precht, 1935).
Attached to submerged objects; usually no body cilia, though telotroch
possesses a posterior ring of cilia Suborder 1 Sessilia
Free-swimming; but with highly developed attaching organellae on
aboral end Suborder 2 Mobilia (p. 859)
Suborder 1 Sessilia Kahl
Without lorica, although some with a gelatinous or mucilaginous en-
velope Tribe 1 Aloricata
With definite pseudochitinous lorica Tribe 2 Loricata (p. 857)
Tribe 1 Aloricata Kahl
Posterior end with 1-2 short spines; swimming with peristome-bearing
end forward Family 1 Astylozoonidae
Posterior end, directly or indirectly through stalk, attached to submerged
objects
Anterior region a long cylindrical, highly contractile neck; contractile
vacuole connected with vestibule by a long canal; reservoir of con-
tractile vacuole distinct; with or without a thin stalk
Family 2 Ophrydiidae (p. 852)
Anterior portion not drawn out into a neck
Without stalk Family 3 Scyphidiidae (p. 852)
With stalk
Stalk non-contractile Family 4 Epistylidae (p. 853)
Stalk contractile Family 5 Vorticellidae (p. 855)
Family 1 Astylozoonidae Kahl
Genus Astylozoon Engelmann (Geleiella Stiller). Free-swimming;
pyriform or conical; aboral end attenuated, with 1-2 thigmotactic
stiff cilia; pellicle smooth or furrowed; wdth or without gelatinous
envelope; in fresh water. A few species.
A.fallax E. (Fig. 361, a). 70-100m; fresh water.
Genus Hastatella Erlanger. Free-swimming; body surface with
2-4 rings of long conical ectoplasmic processes; fresh water.
850
PERITRICHA
851
H. aesculacantha Jarocki and Jacubowska (Fig. 361, 6). 30-52ju by
24-40/z ; in stagnant water.
Genus Opisthonecta Faure-Fremiet. Conical; ends broadly
rounded; a ring of long cilia close to aboral end; adoral zone about
1.1 turns, composed of 2 parallel rows; a papilla with about 12 long
cilia, just above the opening into vestibule; macronucleus sausage-
Fig. 361. a, Astylozoonfallax, X170 (Engelmann) ; b, Hastatella aescula-
cantha, X580 (Jarocki); c, d, 0 pisthonecta henneguyi (c, X335 (Lynch and
Noble); d, a cyst in life, X340 (Rosenberg)); e, Ophridium sessile, X65
(Kent); f, 0. vernalis, X160 (Stokes); g, 0. ectatum, X160 (Mast); h,
Scijphidia amphibiarum, X570 (Nenninger); i, Paravorticella clymenellae,
X65 (Shumway).
852 PROTOZOOLOGY
form; micronucleus; 3 contractile vacuoles connected with cyto-
pharynx; fresh water. One species.
0. henneguyi F.-F. (Fig. 361, c, d). 148-170m long; cysts about 57/z
in diameter; sometimes infected by a parasitic suctorian, Endo-
sphaera engelmanni (Lynch and Noble, 1931) (p. 873). Conjugation
(Rosenberg, 1940); neuromotor system (Kofoid and Rosenberg,
1940); encystment (Rosenberg, 1938).
Family 2 Ophrydiidae Kent
Genus Ophrydium Ehrenberg (Gerda Claparede and Lachmann).
Cylindrical with a contractile neck ; posterior end pointed or rounded ;
variable number of individuals in a common mucilaginous mass;
pellicle usually cross-striated; fresh water.
0. sessile Kent (Fig. 361, e). Fully extended body up to 300/z
long; colorless or slightly brownish; ovoid colony up to 5 mm. by 3
mm. ; attached to freshwater plants.
0. vernalis (Stokes) (Fig. 361, /). About 250/x long; highly con-
tractile; in shallow freshwater ponds in early spring (Stokes).
0. ectatum Mast (Fig. 361, g). 225-400 /j, long; with many zoochlor-
ellae; colony up to 3 mm. in diameter; in fresh water (Mast, 1944).
Family 3 Scyphidiidae Kahl
Genus Scyphidia Dujardin. Cylindrical; posterior end attached to
submerged objects or aquatic animals; body usually cross-striated;
fresh or salt water. Species (Nenninger, 1948).
S. amphibiarum Nenninger (Fig. 361, h). On tadpoles; about 76/z
long.
Genus Paravorticella Kahl. Similar to Scyphidia; but posterior
portion is much elongated and contractile; salt water, attached or
parasitic.
P. clymenellae (Shumway) (Fig. 361, i). 100/i long; in the colon of
the annelid, Clymenella torquata; Woods Hole.
Genus Glossatella Butschli. With a large adoral membrane; often
attached to fish and amphibian larvae.
G. tintinnabulum (Kent) (Fig. 362, a). 30-43/x long; attached to
the epidermis and gills of young Triton.
Genus Ellobiophrya Chatton and LwofT. Posterior end drawn out
into 2 arm-like processes by means of which the organism holds fast
to the gill bars of the mussel, Donax vittatus. One species.
E. donacis C. and L. (Fig. 362, b). 50^ by 40/z, excluding the proc-
PKRITRICHA
Fig. 362. a, Glossatella tintinnabidum , X610 (Penard); b, Ellobiophrya
donacis, X900 (Chatton and Lwoff); c, Epistylis plicatilis, X200 (Stein);
d, e, E. cambari (Kellicott) (d, X140; e, X340); f, E. niagarae, X150
(Bishop and Jahn); g, Rhabdostyla vernalis, X320 (Stokes); h, Opistho-
styla annulata, X440 (Stokes); i, Campanella umbellaria, X180 (Schro-
der) ; j, Pyxidium vernale, X240 (Stokes) ; k, P. urceolatum, X 140 (Stokes) ;
1, Opercularia stenostoma, X140 (Udekem); m, 0. plicatilis, X40 (Stokes);
n, Operculariella parasitica, X245 (Stammer).
Family 4 Epistylidae Kent
Genus Epistylis Ehrenberg. Inverted bell-form; individuals usually
on dichotomous non-contractile stalk, forming large colonies; at-
tached to fresh or salt water animals. Numerous species (Nenninger,
1948).
E. -plicatilis E. (Fig. 362, c). 110-162ju long (Nenninger); colony
often up to 3 mm. high; in fresh water.
854 PROTOZOOLOGY
E. fugitans Kellicott. 50-60/* long; attached to Sida in early spring.
E. cambari K. (Fig. 362, d, e). About 50 ^ long; attached to the
gills of Cambarus.
E. niagarae (Fig. 362, /). Expanded body about 16G> long; peri-
stomal ring prominent; flat cap makes a slight angle with the ring;
bandform macronucleus transverse to long axis, in the anterior
third; gullet with ciliated wall; 40-50 in a colony; attached to the
antennae and body surface of crayfish (Kellicott, 1883) or to painted
and snapping turtles (Bishop and Jahn, 1941).
Genus Rhabdostyla Kent. Similar to Epistylis; but solitary with
a non-contractile stalk; attached to aquatic animals in fresh or salt
water. Numerous species (Nenninger, 1948).
R. vernalis Stokes (Fig. 362, g). About 50/x long; attached to Cy-
clops and Cypris in pools in early spring.
Genus Opisthostyla Stokes. Similar to Rhabdostyla; but stalk long,
is bent at its point of attachment to submerged object, and acts like
a spring; fresh or salt water (Nenninger, 1948).
0. annulata S. (Fig. 362, h). Body about 23^ long; fresh water.
Genus Campanella Goldfuss. Similar to Epistylis; but adoral
double zone turns 4-6 times; fresh water.
C. umbellaria (Linnaeus) (Fig. 362, i). Colony may reach several
millimeters in height; individuals 130-250/* long (Kent).
Genus Pyxidium Kent. Stalk simple, not branching; peristome
even when fully opened, not constricted from the body proper;
frontal disk small, oblique, supported by style-like slender process
arising from peristome; attached to freshwater animals and in vege-
tation. Taxonomy (Nenninger).
P. vernale Stokes (Fig. 362, j). Solitary or few together; 70-85/z
long; fresh water among algae.
P. urceolatum S. (Fig. 362, k). About 90/x long; fresh water on
plants.
Genus Opercularia Stein. Individuals similar to Pyxidium; but
short stalk dichotomous; peristome border like a band.
O. stenostoma S. (Fig. 362, 1). When extended, up to 125/x long; at-
tached to Asellus aquaticus and others.
O. plicatilis Stokes (Fig. 362, m). About 254/x long; colony 1.25-
2.5 mm. high; pond water.
Genus Operculariella Stammer. Fixed stalk, branched, short and
rigid; peristome small, without border, smooth; without disk or
frontal cilia; vestibule large (Stammer, 1948).
0. parasitica S. (Fig. 362, n). 100-1 10/u long; barrel-shaped; peri-
stome opening only 1/4 the body breadth; macronucleus about 30^
PERITRICHA
855
long; parasitic in the oesophagus of Dytiscus marginalis, Acilius
sulcatus, Hydaticus transversalis, Graphoderes zonatus and G. bilinea-
tus.
Family 5 Vorticellidae Fromental
Genus Vorticella Linnaeus. Inverted bell-form; colorless, yellow-
ish, or greenish; peristome more or less outwardly extended; pellicle
sometimes annulated; with a contractile stalk, macronucleus band-
form; micronucleus; 1-2 contractile vacuoles; solitary; in fresh or
salt water, attached to submerged objects and aquatic plants or
animals. Numerous species. Taxonomy (Noland and Finley, 1931;
*A^^
Fig. 363. a-c, Vorticella campanula (a, X400; b, part of stalk, X800;
c, telotroch, X200); d, e, V. convallaria (d, X400; e, XSOO); f-p, V. micro-
stoma (f, g, X400; h, X840; i, telotroch, X400; j-p, telotroch-formation
in vitro, X270); q, r, V. picta (q, X400; r, X800);s, t, V. monilata (s,
X400; t, X800) (Noland and Finley).
856
PROTOZOOLOGY
Kahl, 1935; Nenninger, 1948); movements of food vacuoles (Hall
and Dunihue, 1931).
V. campanula Ehrenberg (Fig. 363, a-c). Usually in groups; endo-
plasm filled with refractile reserve granules; vestibule very large
with an outer pharyngeal membrane; 50-157/* by 35-99/*; peristome
60-125/* wide; stalk 50-4150/* by 5.6-12/* fresh water.
V. convallaria (L.) (Fig. 363, d, e). Resembles the last-named
species; but anterior end somewhat narrow; usually without refrac-
tile granules in endoplasm; 50-95/; by 35-53/*; peristome 55-75/*
wide; stalk 25-460/* by 4-6. 5m ; fresh water.
V. microstoma Ehrenberg (Figs. 86; 363, f-p). 35-83 /* by 22-50/*;
peristome 12-25/* wide; stalk 20-385/* by 1.5-4/*; common in fresh-
water infusion. Conjugation (Finley, 1943); encystment (von Brand,
1923).
V. picta (E.) (Fig. 363, q, r). 41-63/* by 20-37/*; peristome 35-50/*;
stalk 205-550/* by 4-7/*; 2 contractile vacuoles; with refractile gran-
ules in stalk ; fresh water.
V. monilata Tatem (Fig. 363, s, t). Body with pellicular tuber-
cles composed of paraglycogen (Faure-Fremiet and Thaureaux,
1944); 2 contractile vacuoles; 50-78/* by 35-57/t; peristome 36-63/*
wide; stalk 50-200/* by 5-6.5/*; fresh water.
Genus Carchesium Ehrenberg. Similar to Vorticella; but colonial;
myonemes in stalk not continuous, and therefore individual stalks
contract independently; attached to fresh or salt water animals or
plants; occasionally colonies up to 4 mm. high. Several species (Kahl,
1935; Nenninger, 1948).
Fig. 364. a, Carchesium polypinum, X200 (Stein); b, C. granulatum,
X220 (Kellicott); c, Zoothamnium arbuscula, X200 (Stein); d, Z. adamsi,
XI 50 (Stokes).
PERITRICHA 857
C. polypinum (Linnaeus)' (Fig. 364, a). 100-125m long; colony up
to 3 mm. long; fresh water.
C. granulatum Kellicott (Fig. 364, b). About 100,u long; 2 con-
tractile vacuoles anterior; on Cambarus and aquatic plants.
Genus Zoothamnium Bory. Similar to Carchesium; but myonemes
(Fig. 15) of all stalks of a colony are continuous with one another, so
that the entire colony contracts or expands simultaneously; fresh
or salt water; colonies sometimes several millimeters high. Numerous
species (Kahl, 1935; Nenninger, 1948). Development (Summers,
1938, 1938a).
Z. arbuscula Ehrenberg (Fig. 364, c). 40-60/z long; colony up to
more than 6 mm. high; fresh water. Morphology and life cycle
(Furssenko, 1929).
Z. adamsi Stokes (Fig. 364, d). About 60/z long; colony about 250/*
high; attached to Cladophora.
Tribe 2 Loricata Kahl
Peristomal margin not connected with lorica; body attached only at
posterior end, and extends, out of lorica . . Family 1 Vaginicolidae
Peristomal margin connected with inner margin of aperture of lorica;
stalked disk only extends out of lorica
Family 2 Lagenophryidae (p. 691)
Family 1 Vaginicolidae Kent
Genus Vaginicola Lamarck. Lorica without stalk, attached to
substratum directly with its posterior end ; body elongate and cylin-
drical; fresh or salt water. Numerous species (Swarczewsky, 1930).
V. leptosoma Stokes (Fig. 365, a). Lorica about 160/* high; when
extended, about 1/3 of body protruding; on algae in pond water.
V. annulata S. (Fig. 365, b). Lorica about 120/i high; below middle,
a ring-like elevation; anterior 1/3 of body protruding, when ex-
tended; pond water.
Genus Cothurnia Ehrenberg. Similar to Vaginicola; but lorica
stands on a short stalk; fresh or salt water. Numerous species
(Swarczewsky, 1930).
C. canthocampti Stokes (Fig. 365, c). Lorica about 80/* high; on
Canthocamptus minutus.
C. annulata S. (Fig. 365, d). Lorica about 55/t high; fresh water.
Genus Thuricola Kent. Body and lorica as in Vaginicola; but
lorica with a simple or complex valve-like apparatus which closes
obliquely after the manner of a door when protoplasmic body con-
tracts; salt or fresh water.
858
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 365. a, Vaginicola leptosoma, X130 (Stokes); b, V. annulata,
X170 (Stokes); c, Cothurnia canthocampti, X150 (Stokes); d, C. an-
nulata, X340 (Stokes); e, Thuricola folliculata, XllO (Kahl); f, Thuri-
colopsis kellicottiana, XllO (Stokes); g, Caulicola valvata, X760 (Stokes);
h, i, Pyxicola affinis, X170 (Kent); j, P. socialis, X170 (Kent); k, Platy-
cola longicollis, X200 (De Fromentel); 1, Lagenophrys vaginicola, X380
(Penard); m, L. patina, X150 (Stokes); n, L. labiata, X340 (Penard).
T. folliculata (Miiller) (Fig. 365, e). Lorica 127-170// high (Kent) ;
160-200/x high (Kahl) ; salt and fresh water.
Genus Thuricolopsis Stokes. Lorcia with an internal, narrow,
flexible valve-rest, adherent to lorica wall and projecting across
cavity to receive and support the descended valve; protoplasmic
body attached to lorica by a pedicel; on freshwater plants.
T. kellicottiana S. (Fig. 365,/). Lorica about 22G> long.
Genus Caulicola Stokes. Similar to Thuricola; but lorica-lid at-
tached to aperture; fresh or brackish water. 2 species.
C. valvata S. (Fig. 365, g). Lorica about 50/x high; stalk about 1/2;
body protrudes about 1/3 when extended; brackish water.
Genus Pyxicola Kent. Body attached posteriorly to a corneous
lorica; lorica colorless to brown, erect, on a pedicel; a discoidal
corneous operculum developed beneath border of peristome, which
closes lorica when organism contracts; fresh or salt water. Many
species.
P. affinis K. (Fig. 365, h, i). Lorica about 85m long; in marsh
water.
PERITRICHA 859
P. socialis (Gruber) (Fig. 365, j). Lorica about 100/t long; often in
groups; salt water.
Genus Platycola Kent. Body similar to that of Vaginicola; but
lorica always decumbent and attached throughout one side to its
fulcrum of support; fresh or salt water. Many species.
P. longicollis K. (Fig. 365, k). Lorica yellow to brown when older;
about 126^ long; fresh water.
Family 2 Lagenophryidae Butschli
Genus Lagenophrys Stein. Lorica with flattened adhering surface,
short neck and convex surface; "striped body" connects body with
lorica near aperture; attached to fresh or salt water animals. Many
species (Swarczewsky, 1930). Biology (Awerinzew, 1936).
L. vaginicola S. (Fig. 365, 1). Lorica 70/* by 48/*; attached to caudal
bristles and appendages of Cyclops minutus and Canthocamptus sp.
L. patina Stokes (Fig. 365, m). Lorica 55/* by 50/*; on Gammarus.
L. labiata S. (Fig. 365, n). Lorica 60/* by 55/*; on Gammarus.
Suborder 2 Mobilia Kahl
Family Urceolariidae Stein
Genus Urceolaria Lamarck. Peristome more or less obliquely
placed; external ciliary ring difficult to see; horny corona of attach-
ing disk with obliquely arranged simple teeth without radial proc-
esses; commensal. A few species. Morphology (Wallengren, 1897).
U. mitra (Siebold) (Fig. 366, a). 80-140/* long; on planarians.
U. paradoxa (Claparede and Lachmann) (Fig. 366, b). 70-80/*
in diameter; colonial forms; in the respiratory cavity of Cyclostoma
elegans.
U. karyolobia Hirshfield. 45-50/* in diameter, 20-30/* high; mac-
ronucleus lobate and conspicuous; in the mantle cavity of limpets,
Lottia gigantea and Acmaea spp. (Hirshfield, 1949).
Genus Trichodina Ehrenberg. Low barrel-shaped; with a row of
posterior cilia; horny ring of attaching disk with radially arranged
hooked teeth; commensal on, or parasitic in, aquatic animals. Several
species (Mueller, 1932, 1937). Structure (Wallengren, 1897a); bi-
ometry (Faure-Fremiet, 1943).
T. pediculus (Miiller) (Fig. 366, c). A shallow constriction in mid-
dle of body; 50-70/* in diameter; on fish. Those found on Hydra and
on the gills of Necturus and Triturus larvae are probably this species
-(Fulton, 1923). Reproduction (Cavallini, 1931).
T. urinicola Fulton (Fig. 366, d). 50-90/* long; teeth 28-36; in
860
PROTOZOOLOGY
| J /ft^s
Fig. 366. a, Urceolaria mitra, X270 (Wallengren) ; b, U. paradoxa,
X215 (Claparede and Lachmann); c, Trichodina pediculus, X425 (James-
Clark); d, T. urinicola, X470 (Fulton); e, T. ranae (Cunha); f, T. sp.,
X460 (Diller); g, Cyclochaeta spongillae, X460 (Jackson); h, i, C. domer-
guei, X535 (MacLennan).
urinary bladder of a moribund Bufo sp. (Fulton) and in frogs
Faur£-Fremiet and Mugard, 1946).
T. sp. Diller (Fig. 366, e). 30-4G> in diameter; on the skin and gills
of frog and toad tadpoles. Division (Diller, 1928).
T. ranae da Cunha (Fig. 366,/). 40-50/x in diameter, 30-5G> high;
23-31 V-shaped teeth on the attaching ring; in the urinary bladder
of Rana ridibunda perezi (da Cunha, 1950).
Genus Cyclochaeta Jackson. Saucer-form; peristomal surface
parallel to the basal disc ; upper surface with numerous flat wrinkles ;♦
basal disc composed of cuticular rings, velum, cirri, and membranel-
PERITRICHA 801
lae; commensal on, or parasitic in, fresh or salt water animals. Sev-
eral species. MacLennan (1939) made a careful study of two species.
C. spongillae J. (Fig. 366, g). About 6G> in diameter; in interstices
of Spongilla fluviatilis.
C. domerguei Wallengren (Fig. 366, h, i). 23-56;u in diameter;
about one-fifth high; 18-25 denticles, each with a narrow slightly
curved spine; outer cuticular ring more fineby striated than inner
ring; cirri longer than membranellae (MacLennan, 1939); on fresh
water fishes.
References
Awerinzew, G. W.: (1936) Zur Biologie des Infusors Lagenophrys.
Arch. Protist., 87:131.
Bishop, E. L. Jr. and Jahn, T. L. : (1941) Observations on colonial
peritrichs of the Okoboji region. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sc, 48:417.
Oavallini, F. : (1931) La gemmazione in Trichodina pediculus. Arch.
Protist., 75:167.
da Cunha, A. X. : (1950) Trichodina ranae, etc. Mem. Estud. Mus.
Zool. Coimbra., no. 202, 11 pp.
Diller, W. F.: (1928) Binary fission and endomixis in the Tricho-
dina from tadpoles. J. Morphol. Physiol., 46:521.
Faure-Fremiet, E.: (1943) Etude biometrique de quelques tricho-
dines. Bull. Soc. Zool. France, 68:158.
and Mugard, Helene: (1946) Une trichodine parasite en-
dovesicale chez Rana esculenta. Ibid., 71 :36.
— and Thaureaux, J. : (1944) Les globules de "paraglycogene"
chez Balantidium elongatum et Vorticella monilata. Ibid., 69:3.
Finley, H. E. : (1943) The conjugation of Vorticella microtsoma. Tr.
Am. Micr. Soc, 62:97.
Fulton, J. F. Jr.: (1923) Trichodina pediculus and a new closely re-
lated species. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 37: 1.
Furssenko, A.: (1929) Lebenscyclus and Morphologie von Zoo-
thamnium arbuscula. Arch. Protist., 67:376.
Hirshfield, H.: (1949) The morphology of Urceolaria karyolobia
sp. nov., etc. J. Morphol., 85: 1.
Jarocki, J. and Jakubowska, Wanda: (1927) Eine neue, solitar
freischwimmende Peritriche, Hastatella aesculacantha n. sp.
Zool. Anz., 73:270.*
Kahl, A.: (1935) Peritricha und Chonotricha. In Dahl's Die Tier-
welt Deutschlands, etc. Part 30:651.
Kent, S.: (1881-1882) A manual of Infusoria.
Kofoid, C. A. and Rosenberg, L. E.: (1940) The neuromotor sys-
tem of Opisthonecta henneguyi. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc, 82:421.
MacLennan, R. F.: (1939) The morphology and locomotor activi-
ties of Cyclochaeta domerguei. J. Morphol., 65:241.
Mast, S. O. : (1944) A new peritrich belonging to the genus Ophryd-
ium. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 63:181.
Mueller, J. F.: (1932) Trichodina renicola, a cilate parasite of the
urinary tract of Esox niger. Roosevelt Wild Life Ann., 3: 139.
862 PROTOZOOLOGY
(1937) Some species of Trichodina, etc. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc.
61:177.
Nenninger, Ursula: (1948) Die Peritrichen der Umgebung von
Erlangen, etc. Zool. Jahrb. Syst., 77:169.
Noland, L. E. and Finley, H. E.: (1931) Studies on the taxonomy
of the genus Vorticella. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 50:81.
Penard, E.: (1922) Etude sur les infusoires d'eau douce. Geneva.
Precht, H.: (1935) Die Struktur des Stieles bei den Sessilia. Arch.
Protist., 85:234.
Rosenberg, L. E.: (1938) Cyst stages of Opisthonecta henneguyi. Tr.
Am. Micr. Soc, 57:147.
(1940) Conjugation in Ophisthonecta henneguyi, etc. Proc
Am. Philos. Soc, 82:437.
Stammer, H.-J.: (1948) Eine neue eigenartige endoparasitische
Peritriche, Operculariella parasitica n. g., n. sp. Zool. Jahrb.
Syst., 77:163.
Stiller, J. : (1939) Die Peritrichenfauna der Nordsee bei Helgoland.
Arch. Protist., 92:415.
(1940) Beitrag zur Peritrichenfauna des grossen Ploner Sees
in Holstein. Arch. Hydrobiol., 36:263.
Stokes, A. C: (1888) A preliminary contribution toward a history
of the freshwater Infusoria of the United States. J. Trenton
Nat. Hist. Soc, 1:71.
Summers, F. M.: (1938) Some aspects of normal development in the
colonial ciliate Zoothamnium alterans. Biol. Bull., 74:117.
(1938a) Form regulation in Zoothamnium alterans. Ibid., 74:
130.
Swarczewsky, B. : (1930) Zur Kenntnis der Baikalprotistenfauna.
IV. Arch. Protist., 69:455.
Thompson, Sally, Kirkegaard, D. and Jahn, T. L.: (1947)
Syphidia ameiuri, n. sp., etc. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 66:315.
von Brand, T.: (1923) Die Encystierung bei Vorticella microstoma,
etc. Arch. Protist., 47:59.
Wallengren, H.: (1897) Studier ofver ciliata Infusorier. III.
Sartryck Fysiogr. Sallsk. Handl, 8:1.
(1897a) Zur Kenntnis der Gattung Trichodina. Biol. Cen-
tralbl., 17:55.
Chapter 44
Class 2 Suctoria Claparede and Lachmann
THE Suctoria which have been also known as Acinetaria,
Tentaculifera, etc., do not possess any cilia or any other cell-
organs of locomotion in the mature stage. The cilia are present only
on young individuals which are capable of free-swimming, and lost
with the development of a stalk or attaching disk, and of tentacles.
Therefore, an adult suctorian is incapable of active movement. The
body may be spheroidal, elliptical, or dendritic; and is covered with
a pellicle and occasionally possesses a lorica. There is no cytostome,
and the food-capturing is carried on exclusively by the tentacles.
Tentacles are of two kinds: one is suctorial in function and bears a
rounded knob on the extremity and the other is for piercing through
the body of a prey and more or less sharply pointed. The tentacles
may be confined to limited areas or may be distributed over the
entire body surface. The food organisms are usually small ciliates
and nutrition is thus holozoic.
Asexual reproduction is by binary fission or by budding. The buds
which are formed by either exogenous or endogenous gemmation are
ciliated, and swim around actively after leaving the parent individ-
ual. Finally becoming attached to a suitable object, the buds meta-
morphose into adult forms. Sexual reproduction is through a com-
plete fusion of conjugants. Relation to prostomatous ciliates (Kahl,
1931); morphogenesis (Guilcher, 1950).
The Suctoria live attached to animals, plants or non-living matter
submerged in fresh or salt water, although a few are parasitic.
With only suctorial tentacles
Body irregular or branching
Without proboscis or special arms; sometimes with stolon; without
stalk Family 1 Dendrosomidae (p. 864)
With proboscis or special arms
With rectractile processes bearing tentacles
Family 2 Ophryodendridae (p. 867)
With branched arms Family 3 Dendrocometidae (p. 867)
Body more or less bilaterally symmetrical
Exogenous budding and division. .Family 4 Podophryidae (p. 868)
Endogenous budding
Pellicle thin; within or without lorica; with or without stalk. . . .
Family 5 Acinetidae (p. 870)
Pellicle thick; without lorica; a few tentacles, variable in form;
stalk short, stout Family 6 Discophryidae (p. 875)
With suctorial and prehensile tentacles; with or without lorica; ex-
ogenous budding; commensals on marine hydroids
Family 7 Ephelotidae (p. 877)
863
864 PROTOZOOLOGY
Family 1 Dendrosomidae Biitschli
Genus Dendrosoma Ehrenberg. Dendritic; often large; nucleus
band-form, branched; numerous contractile vacuoles; fresh water.
Taxonomy and morphology (Gonnert, 1935).
Fig. 367. a, Dendrosoma radians, X35 (Kent) ; b, Trichophrya epistylidis
X250 (Stokes); c, T. salparum, X170 (Collin); d, T. columbiae, X200
(Wailes); e, T. micropteri, X650 (Davis); f, Erastophrya chattoni (Fanre-
Fremiet) ; g, Astrophrya arenaria, X65 (Awerinzew) ; h, Lernaeophrya capi-
tata, X35 (P6rez); i, Dendrosomides paguri, X200 (Collin).
SUCTORIA 865
D. radians E. (Fig. 367, a). Brownish; 1.2-2.5 mm. high; on vege-
tation. Morphology (Gonnert).
Genus Trichophrya Claparede and Lachmann (Platophrya Gon-
nert). Body small; rounded or elongate, but variable; without stalk;
tentacles in fascicles, not branching; simple or multiple endogenous
budding; fresh or salt water.
T. epistylidis C. and L. (T. sinuosa Stokes) (Fig. 367, b). Form
irregular; with many fascicles of tentacles; nucleus band-form,
curved; numerous vacuoles; up to 240/x long; on Epistylis, etc., in
fresh water. Morphology (Gonnert).
T. salparum Entz (Fig. 367, c). On various tunicates such as
Molgula manhattensis; 40-60/u long; tentacles in 2 groups; salt water;
Woods Hole (Calkins).
T. columbiae Wailes (Fig. 367, d). 60-75/u by 40-48/z in diameter;
cylindrical; tentacles at ends; nucleus spherical; in marine plankton;
Vancouver (Wailes).
T. microptcri Davis (Fig. 367, e). Body elongate, irregular or
rounded; up to 30-40/* long by 10-1 2n\ fully extended tentacles 10-
12/x long; cytoplasm often filled with yellow to orange spherules; a
single micronucleus; a single contractile vacuole; attached to the gill
of small mouth black bass, Micropterus dolomieu. Davis (1942) states
that when abundantly present, the suctorian may cause serious in-
jury to the host.
Genus Erastophrya Faure-Fremiet. Pyriform; distributed tenta-
cles; posterior end drawn out into two "arms" by means of which
the organism grasps the stalk of a peritrich; fresh water (Faure-
Fremiet, 1943). One species.
E. chattoni F.-F. (Fig. 367,/). Body up to 130^ long; macronucleus
spherical to sausage form; a single micronucleus; a contractile
vacuole; endogenous budding, gemma about 40 ju long; a commensal
on Glossatella piscicola.
Genus Astrophrya Awerinzew. Stellate; central portion drawn out
into 8 elongate processes, each with a fascicle of tentacles; body cov-
ered by sand grains and other objects. One species.
A. arenaria A. (Fig. 367, g). 145-188^ in diameter; processes 80-
190m long; in Volga river plankton.
Genus Lernaeophrya Perez. Body large; with numerous short pro-
longations, bearing very long multifasciculate tentacles; nucleus
branched; brackish water. One species.
L. capitata P. (Fig. 367, h). Attached to the hydrozoan, Cordy-
lophora lacustris in brackish water; 400-500/j long; tentacles 400^
long. Morphology (Gonnert).
866
PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Dendrosomides Collin. Branched body similar to Dendro-
soma, but with a peduncle; reproduction by budding of vermicular
form; salt water. One species.
D. paguri C. (Fig. 367, i). 200-300/* long; vermicular forms 350m
long; on the crabs, Eupagurus excavatus and E. cuanensis.
Genus Rhabdophrya Chatton and Collin. Elongate, rod-form; with
short peduncle, not branched ; tentacles distributed over entire sur-
Fig. 368. a, Rhabdophrya trimorpha, X430 (Collin); b, Staurophrya
elegans, X200 (Zacharias); c, Ophryodendron porcellanum, X220 (Collin);
d, O. belgicum, X270 (Fraipont); e, Dendrocometes paradoxus, X270
(Wrzesnowski); f, Dendrocometides priscus, X220; g, Discosoma tenella,
X220; h, Cometodendron clavatum, X220 (Swarczewsky) ; i, j, Podophrya
fixa (i, X400 (Wales); j, X220 (Collin)); k, P. elongata, X240 (Wailes).
SUCTORIA 867
face; macronucleus ellipsoid; micro nucleus small; 2-3 contractile
vacuoles; salt or brackish water. Several species.
R. trimorpha C. and C. (Fig. 368, a). Up to 150^ long; on the cope-
pod, Cletodes longicaudatus.
Genus Staurophrya Zacharias. Rounded body drawn out into 6
processes.
S. elegans Z. (Fig. 368, 6). Tentacles not capitate; macronucleus
round; 1-2 contractile vacuoles; about 50/z in diameter; in fresh
water.
Swarczewsky (1928) established the following genera for the
forms he had found in Lake Baikal: Baikalophrya, Stylophrya,
Baikalodendron and Gorgonosoma.
Family 2 Ophryodendridae Stein
Genus Ophryodendron Claparede and Lachmann. With one long
or 3-6 shorter retractile processes, bearing suctorial tentacles; on
Crustacea, Annelida, etc. ; salt water. Several species.
0. porcellanum Kent (Fig. 368, c). 60-IOGVj long; on Porcellana
platycheles, etc.
0. belgicum Fraipont (Fig. 368, d). 38-1 14/z long; vermicular form
100/i; on Bryozoa and hydrozoans; Vancouver (Wailes).
Family 3 Dendrocometidae Stein
Genus Dendrocometes Stein. Body rounded; with variable num-
ber of branched arms; fresh water. Taxonomy (Swarczewsky, 1928a).
D. paradoxus S. (Fig. 368, e). Up to 100/z long; on Gammarus
pulex, G. puteanus, etc. Morphology and biology (Pestel, 1932).
Genus Stylocometes Stein. Arms not branched; tentacles finger-
like ; fresh water.
S. digitatus (Claparede and Lachmann). Up to HOju long; on the
gills of Asellus aquaticus and on Aphrydium versatile.
Genus Dendrocometides Swarczewsky. Body more or less arched;
suctorial tentacles slender, pointed and simple or branched; at-
tached to crustaceans on its broad and circular surface (Swarczew-
sky, 1928a).
D. priscus S. (Fig. 368, /). Diameter 60-65m, height 18-20/z; on
Acanthogammarus albus; Lake Baikal.
Genus Discosoma S. Discoid; circular in front view; short and
pointed tentacles radially arranged, four or six in each row; gemma-
tion, endogenous and simple.
D. tenella S. (Fig. 368, g). Diameter 75/*, height 10/z; on Acantho-
gammarus victorii, etc.; Lake Baikal.
868 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Cometodendron S. Body elongate; attached to substrate
by a "foot," well-developed arms; short and pointed tentacles at the
ends of arms; simple endogenous gemmation.
C. clavatum S. (Fig. 368, h). 150/* by 40-50/*; the foot 20-22/*; on
Acanthogammarus victorii, etc.; Lake Baikal.
Family 4 Podophryidae Bi'itschli
Genus Podophrya Ehrenberg. Subspherical; normally with a rigid
stalk; suctorial tentacles in fascicles or distributed on entire body
surface; encystment common; fresh or salt water. Many species.
P. fixa Miiller (Fig. 368, i, j). Spherical; tentacles of various
lengths; stalked; nucleus spheroid; one contractile vacuole; 10-28/*
long; fresh water.
P. collini Root. Ovoid; stalked; 30-60 capitate tentacles, dis-
tributed; nucleus spherical; one contractile vacuole; 40-50/t in di-
ameter; in swamp (Root, 1914).
P. elongata Wailes (Fig. 368, k). Elongate; flattened; with a pedi-
cel; tentacles distributed; nucleus cylindrical; 95-105/* long; stalk
65-85/* by 7-9/*; on the marine copepod, Euchaeta japonica; Van-
couver.
Genus Parapodophrya Kahl. Spherical; tentacles radiating, a few
long, more or less conical at proximal portion; stalk thin; salt water.
P. typha K. (Fig. 369, a). 50-60/* in diameter; salt water (Kahl,
1931).
Genus Sphaerophrya Claparede and Lachmann. Spherical, with-
out stalk; with or without distributed tentacles; multiplication by
binary fission or exogenous budding; fresh water, free-living or para-
sitic.
S. soliformis Lauterborn (Fig. 369, b). Spherical; numerous tenta-
cles about 1/4-1/3 the body diameter; a contractile vacuole; nu-
cleus oval; diameter about 100/z; sapropelic.
S. magna Maupas. Spherical; about 50/x in diameter; numerous
tentacles of different length; nucleus spheroid; standing fresh water
with decaying vegetation.
S. stentoris M. Parasitic in Stentor; swarmers ciliated on posterior
end; the other end with capitate tentacles; nucleus spheroid; 2 con-
tractile vacuoles; about 50/* long.
Genus Paracineta Collin. Spherical to ellipsoidal; tentacles dis-
tributed ; mostly in salt water, a few in fresh water.
P. limbata (Maupas) (Fig. 369, c, d). With or without gelatinous
envelope; 20-50/* in diameter; swarmer with many ciliated bands,
contractile; on plants and animals in salt water.
SUCTORIA
Fig. 369. a, Parapodophrya typha, X270 (Kahl); b, Sphaerophrya
soliformis, X200 (Lauterborn) ; c, d, Paracineta limbata (c, a bud is
ready to leave; d, basal part of stalk), X460 (Collin); e, Metacineta
mystacina, capturing Halteria, X400 (Collin); f, Urnula epistylidis,
X140 (Claparede and Lachmann); g, Lecanophrya drosera, X390
(Kahl); h, Ophryocephalus capitatum, X200 (Wailes); i, Acineta lacustris,
X200 (Stokes).
Genus Metacineta Biitschli. Lorica funnel-shaped, lower end
drawn out for attachment; tentacles grouped at anterior end; nu-
cleus spherical; one contractile vacuole. One species.
M. mystacina (Ehrenberg) (Fig. 369, e). Lorica up to 700/x long;
in fresh and salt water.
Genus Urnula Claparede and Lachmann. Lorica colorless; lower
end pointed, attached; aperture narrowed, round or triangular; body
870 PROTOZOOLOGY
more or less filling lorica; 1-2 (up to 5) long active tentacles; nucleus
central, oval; one or more contractile vacuoles; fresh water.
U. epistylidis C. and L. (Fig. 369,/). Up to 80/x long; on Epistylis,
Dendrosoma, etc.
Genus LecanophryaKahl. Body rounded rectangular in cross sec-
tion; anterior region bowl-shaped; somewhat rigid tentacles located
on the inner surface of bowl; salt water.
L. drosera K. (Fig. 369, g). 40-70m high; hollow stalk; tentacles in
3-5 indistinct rows; attached to the antennae of the copepod,
Nitocra typica.
Genus Ophryocephalus Wailes. Spheroidal, stalked; a single long
mobile, capitate tentacle; multiplication by multiple exogenous bud-
ding from apical region; on Ephelota gemmipara and E. coronata (p.
877) ; salt water. One species.
0. capitatum W. (Fig. 369, h). About 55m long; tentacle up to 10G>
by 1.5-5/z; Vancouver.
Family 5 Acinetidae Biitschli
Genus Acineta Ehrenberg. Lorica more or less flattened; usually
with stalk; tentacles in 2 (1 or 3) fascicles; body completely or partly
filling lorica; swarmer with ciliated band or completely ciliated ; fresh
or salt water. Numerous species (Swarczewsky, 1928a).
A. tuberosa E. (Fig. 370, a). Lorica 50-100m high; with stalk; salt
and brackish water.
A. cuspidata Stokes (Fig. 370, 6). Lorica cup-shaped; front end
with 2 opposing sharp points; lorica 32-42^ high; on Oedogonium in
fresh water.
A. lacuslris S. (Fig. 369, i). Lorica elongate ovoid; flattened; 75-
185^ high; on Anacharis in pond.
Genus Tokophrya Biitschli. Pyriform or pyramidal; without lo-
rica; tentacles in 1-4 fascicles on anterior surface; stalk not rigid;
simple endogenous budding; fresh water. Several species.
T. infusionum (Stein) (Fig. 370, c-e). Inverted pyramid ; stalk with
or without attaching disk; macronucleus oval; 2 contractile vacuoles;
about 60m long. Relation between contractile vacuole and feeding
(Rudzinska and Chambers, 1951); life span (Rudzinska, 1951).
T. cyclopum (Claparede and Lachmann) (Fig. 370, /). Oval or
spherical; stalk short; tentacles in 2-5 bundles; macronucleus spheri-
cal; 1-2 contractile vacuoles; about 50/x long; on Cyclops, etc.
Genus Thecacineta Collin. Lorica with free margin; body usually
attached to bottom of lorica, more or less long; tentacles from an-
terior end; salt water. Several species (Swarczewsky, 1928).
SUCTORIA
871
Fig. 370. a, Acineta tuberosa, X670 (Calkins); b, A. cuspidata, X670
(Stokes); c-e, Tokophrya infusionum (c, X400; d, a free-swimming bud;
e, a young attached form, X800) (Collin); f, T. cyclopum, a young
individual, X500 (Collin).
T. cothurnioides C. (Fig. 371, a). Lorica about 50ju high; stalk
knobbed; on Cletodes longicaudatus.
T. gracilis (Wailes) (Fig. 371, b). Lorica 110/x by 35M; stalk 200m by
4/jl; on hydrozoans.
Genus Periacineta Collin. Elongate lorica; attached with its
drawn-out posterior end; tentacles from the opposite surface in
bundles; fresh water.
872
PROTOZOOLOGY
P. buckei (Kent) (Fig. 371, c). Attached end of lorica with basal
plate; 3 contractile vacuoles; up to 125ju long; on Lymnaea stagnalis
and Ranatra linearis.
Fig. 371. a, Thecacineta colhurnioides, X400 (Collin); b, T. gracilis,
X270 (Wailes); c, Periacineta buckei, feeding on Chilodonella, X530
(Collin); d, Hallezia brachypoda, X200 (Stokes); e, Solenophrya inclusa,
X230 (Stokes); f, S. per a, X230 (Stokes); g, h, Acinetopsis lentaculata
(g, X130; h, X230) (Root); i, j, Tachyblaston ephelotensis (i, a young
individual in Ephelota, X260; j, mature form, X500) (Martin); k,
Dactylophrya roscovita, X830 (Collin).
SUCTORIA 873
Genus Hallezia Sand. Without lorica; with or without a short
stalk; tentacles in bundles; fresh water.
H. brachypoda (Stokes) (Fig. 371, d). 34-42/* in diameter; in stand-
ing water among leaves.
Genus Solenophrya Claparede and Lachmann. Lorica attached di-
rectly with its under side; body usually not filling lorica; tentacles in
fascicles; fresh water.
S. inclvsa Stokes (Fig. 371, c). Lorica subspherical; about 44/x in
diameter; standing fresh water.
S. pera S. (Fig. 371, /). Lorica satchel-form; about 40-45/z high;
body about 35/z long; standing fresh water.
Genus Acinetopsis Robin. Lorica in close contact with body on
sides; stalked; 1-6 large retractile tentacles and numerous small
tentacles from apical end ; mainly salt water.
A. tentaculata Root (Fig. 371, g, h). Lorica 187/x high; stalk 287/z
long; large tentacles up to 500/z long; body about 138/z by 100/x; on
Obelia commissuralis and 0. geniculata; Woods Hole (Root, 1922).
Genus Tachyblaston Martin. Lorica with short stalk; tentacles
distributed on anterior surface; nucleus oval; salt water. One species.
T. ephelotensis M. (Fig. 371, i,j). Lorica 30-93m high; stalk 20-30/x
long ; attached to Ephelota gemmipara.
Genus Dactylophrya Collin. Cup-like lorica, filled with the proto-
plasmic body; with a short stalk; 12-15 arm-like tentacles from an-
terior surface; salt water. One species.
D. roscovita C. (Fig. 371, k). About 40/t long excluding stalk; on the
hydrozoan, Diphasia attenuate/,.
Genus Pseudogemma Collin. Attached with a short stalk to larger
suctorians; without tentacles; endogenous budding; swarmer with 4
ciliary bands; salt water.
P. pachystyla C. (Fig. 373, a). About 30/u long; stalk 3-4/z wide;
swarmer 15/z by 9m; on Acineta tuberosa.
Genus Endosphaera Engelmann. Spherical without lorica; without
tentacles; budding endogenous; swarmer with 3 equatorial ciliary
bands; parasitic in Peritricha; fresh and salt water.
E. engelmanni Entz (Fig. 373, b). 15-41/x in diameter; imbedded in
the host's cytoplasm; swarmer 13-19/* in diameter; in Opisthonecta
henneguyi (p. 852), and other peritrichs.
Genus Allantosoma Gassovsky. With neither lorica nor stalk;
elongate; one or more tentacles at ends; macronucleus oval or spheri-
cal; compact micronucleus; a single contractile vacuole; cytoplasm
often filled with small spheroidal bodies; development unknown; in
mammalian intestine. Species (Hsiung, 1930).
874
PROTOZOOLOGY
A. intestinalis G. (Fig. 373, c). 33-60/* by 18-37/x; attached to vari-
ous ciliates living in the caecum and colon of horse.
A. dicorniger Hsiung (Fig. 373, d). 20-33/z by 10-20ju; unattached;
in the colon of horse (Hsiung, 1928).
A. brevicorniger H. (Fig. 373, e). 23-36m by 7-1 \n; attached to
various ciliates in the caecum and colon of horse.
Fig. 372. a-d, Anarma multiruga, Xabout 230; b, budding individual;
c, cross-section; d, with an internal ciliated bud; e, f, Squalorophrya
macrostyla, Xabout 670; f, cross-section; g, Multifasciculatum elegans,
Xabout 660 (Goodrich and Jahn).
Genus Anarma Goodrich and Jahn. Radially or somewhat bi-
laterally symmetrical; without stalk or lorica; attached directly or
by a short protoplasmic process to substratum; 1-2 fascicles of capi-
tate tentacles; multiplication by external budding near base or by a
single internal ciliated bud; conjugation; ectocommensal on Chryse-
mys picta bellii (Goodrich and Jahn, 1943).
A. multiruga G. and J. (Fig. 372, a-d). Body cylindrical, 70-150/x
by 35-70ju; body surface with 7 or 8 longitudinal folds; pellicle thin;
cytoplasm granulated; nucleus ribbon-form ; 2-6 contractile vacuoles,
SUCTORIA 875
each with a permanent canal and a pore; attached directly or indi-
rectly to the carapace and plastron of the turtle.
Genus Squalorophrya Goodrich and Jahn. Elongate; radially sym-
metrical; lorica, rigid, close-fitting, covered with debris; with a stalk ;
capitate tentacles at distal end; ectocommensal on Chrysemys picta
bellii.
S. macrostyla G. and J. (Fig. 372, e, /). Cylindrical, with 4 longi-
tudinal grooves; body about 90m by 40/x; striated stalk, short and
thick, about 30/* long; lorica highly viscous with debris; nucleus
ovoid to elongate, sometimes Y-shaped; 2 contractile vacuoles, each
with a permanent canal and a pore; on Chrysemys picta bellii.
Genus Multifasciculatum Goodrich and Jahn. Radially or bilat-
erally symmetrical; stalked; without lorica; pellicle thin; several
fascicles of tentacles on distal, lateral and proximal regions of body;
ectocommensal on Chrysemys picta bellii.
M. elegans G. and J. (Fig. 372, g). Body ovoid; 50-90/x by 20-50/z;
stalk striated, about 150-270/x long; tentacles in 4 groups; nucleus
ovoid; 1-3 contractile vacuoles; attached to the plastron of the tur-
tle.
Family 6. Discophryidae Collin
Genus Discophrya Lachmann. Elongate; a short stout pedicel with
a plate; tentacles evenly distributed on anterior surface or in fasci-
cles; contractile vacuoles, each with a canalicule leading to body
surface; mainly fresh water. Several species (Swarczewsky, 1928b).
D. elongata (Claparede and L.) (Fig. 373, /). Cylindrical; tentacles
on anterior end and in 2 posterior fascicles; stalk striated; about 80ju
long; on the shell of Paldina vivipara in fresh water.
Genus Thaumatophrya Collin. Spherical; long stalk; tentacles dis-
tributed, tapering toward distal end; salt water. One species.
T. trold (Claparede and Lachmann) (Fig. 373, g). About 75/z in
diameter.
Genus Rhynchophrya Collin. Oblong; bilaterally symmetrical; a
short striated stalk; 1 main long and a few shorter tentacles; 6-10
contractile vacuoles, each with a canalicule leading to outside; fresh
water. One species.
R. palpans C. (Fig. 373, h). 85/* by 50/*; tentacles retractile, 10-
200/x long; stalk 20/z by 10/z; on Hydrophilus piceus.
Genus Choanophrya Hartog. Spheroidal to oval; stalked; 10-12
tentacles; tubular, expansible at distal end to engulf voluminous food
particles; macronucleus oval to spherical; a micronucleus; fresh wa-
ter. One species.
C. infundibulifera H. (Fig. 374, a). 65/t by 60^; fully extended ten-
876
PROTOZOOLOGY
Fig. 373. a, Pseudogemma pachystyla, X400 (Collin); b, Endosphaera
engelmanni, X500 (Lynch and Noble); c, Allantosoma intestinalis, X1050
(Hsiung); d, A. dicorniger, X1300 (Hsiung); e, A. brevicorniger, X1400
(Hsiung); f, Discophrya elongata, X440 (Collin); g, Thaumatophrya trold,
X1150 (Claparede and Lachmann); h, Rhynchophrya palpans, X440
(Collin).
tacles 200m long; on Cyclops ornatus. Tentacles and feeding (Farkas,
1924).
Genus Rhyncheta Zenker. Protoplasmic body attached directly to
an aquatic animal ; with a long mobile tentacle bearing a sucker at its
end.
R. cyclopum Z. (Fig. 374, b, c). About 170/* long; on Cyclops.
SUCTORIA
877
Fig. 374. a, Choanophrya infundibulifera, feeding on disintegrating
part of a Cyclops, X400 (Collin); b, c, Rhyncheta cyclopum (b, XlOO;
c, end of tentacle, X400) (Zenker); d, Ephelotagemmipara, X200 (Hert-
wig); e, E. coronata, X140 (Kent); f, E. plana, front view, with two at-
tached Ophryocephalus, X35 (Wailes); g, Podocyathus diadema, X200
(Kent).
Family 7 Ephelotidae Sand
Genus Ephelota Wright. Without lorica; stalk stout, often
striated; suctorial and prehensile tentacles distributed; macronu-
cleus usually elongate, curved; on hydroids, bryozoans, algae, etc.;
salt water. Numerous species.
E. gemmipara Hertwig (Fig. 374, d). About 250ju by 220/x; stalk up
to 1.5 mm. long; on hydroids, bryozoans, etc.
E. coronata Kent (Fig. 374, e). Flattened ; 90-200^ long; stalk lon-
gitudinally striated (Kent) ; on hydroids, bryozoans, algae, etc.
E. plana Wailes (Fig. 374,/). 150-320/* by 100-150/z; stalk 100/*-
1 mm. long; on bryozoans; Vancouver.
878 PROTOZOOLOGY
Genus Podocyathus Kent. It differs from Ephelota in having a con-
spicuous lorica; salt water. One species.
P. diadema K. (Fig. 374, g). Lorica about 42^ long; on bryozoans,
hydrozoans, etc.
References
Collin, B.: (1911) Etudes monographique sur les Acinetiens. I.
Arch. zool. exper. gen., Ser. 5, 8:421.
(1912)11. Ibid., 51:1.
Davis, H. S.: (1942) A suctorian parasite of the small mouth black
bass, etc. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 61:309.
Farkas, B. : (1924) Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Suctorien. Arch.
Protist., 48:125.
Faure-Fremiet, E.: (1943) Commensalisme et adaption chez un
acinetien: Erastophrya chattoni, etc. Bull. soc. zool. Fr., 68:145.
Gonnert, R. : (1935) Ueber Systematik, Morphologie, Entwick-
lungsgeschichte und Parasiten einiger Dendrosomidae, etc.
Arch. Protist., 86:113.
Goodrich, J. P. and Jahn, T. L.: (1943) Epizoic Suctoria from
turtles. Tr. Am. Micr. Soc, 62:245.
Gtjilcher, Yvette: (1950) Contribution a l'etude des cilies gem-
mipares, chonotriches et tentaculiferes. Uni. Paris Thesis, Ser.
A. 2369 (1951 Ann. des Sc. Nat., Zool., Ser. 11, 13:33).
Hsiitng, T. S.: (T928) Suctoria of the large intestine of the horse.
Iowa State College J. Sc, 3:101.
(1930) A monograph on the Protozoa of the large intestine
of the horse. Ibid., 4:350.
Kahl, A.: (1931) Ueber die verwandtschaftlichen Beziehungen der
Suctorien zu den Prostomen Infusorien. Arch. Protist., 73:424.
— (1934) Suctoria. Grimpe's Die Tierwelt der Nord- und Ost-
see. Part 26. Leipzig.
Kent, S. : (1881-1882) A manual of the Infusoria.
Pestel, B.: (1932) Beitrage zur Morphologie und Biologie des
Dendrocomctes paradoxus. Arch. Protist., 75:403.
Root, F. M.: (1914) Reproduction and reactions to food in the
suctorian, Podophrya collini n. sp. Ibid., 35:164.
— (1922) A new suctorian from Woods Hole. Tr. Am. Micr.
Soc, 41:77.
Rudzinska, Maria A.: (1951) The effect of overfeeding and starva-
tion on the life span and reproduction of Tokophrya infusionum,
etc J. Gerontol., 6, Suppl. 3:144.
— and Chambers, R.: (1951) The activity of the contractile
vacuole in a suctorian (Tokophrya infusionum). Biol. Bull., 100:
49.
Swarczewsky, B.: (1928) Zur Kenntnis der Baikalprotistenfauna.
I. Arch. Protist., 61:349.
(1928a) II. Ibid., 62:41.
(1928b) III. Ibid., 63:1.
(1928c) IV. Ibid., 63:362.
Wailes, G. H.: (1928) Dinoflagellates and Protozoa from British
Columbia. Vancouver Museum Notes, 3:25.
I
Chapter 45
Collection, Cultivation, and Observation of Protozoa
Collection
N THE foregoing chapters it has been pointed out that various
species of Protozoa have characteristic habitats and that many
of free-living forms are widely distributed in bodies of water: fresh,
brackish, and salt; while the parasitic forms are confined to specific
host animals. Of free-living Protozoa many species may occur in
large numbers within a small area under favorable conditions, but
the majority are present in comparatively small numbers. If one who
has become acquainted with the representative forms, intends to
make collection, it is well to carry a compound microscope in order
to avoid bringing back numerous jars containing much water, but
few organisms. Submerged plants, decaying leaves, surface scum,
ooze, etc., should be examined under the microscope. When desired
forms are found, they should be collected together with a quantity of
water in which they occur.
When the material is brought into the laboratory, it is often nec-
essary to concentrate the organisms in a relatively small volume
of water. For this purpose the water may partly be filtered rapidly
through a fine milling cloth and the residue quickly poured back
into a suitable container before filtration is completed. The container
should be placed in a cool moderately lighted room to allow the or-
ganisms to become established in the new environment. Stigma-
bearing Phytomastigina will then be collected in a few hours on the
side of the container, facing the strongest light, and the members of
Sarcodina will be found among the debris on the bottom. Many
forms will not only livejong, but also multiply in such a container.
For obtaining large freshwater amoebae, fill several finger bowls
with the collected material and water, and place one or two rice
grains to each. After a few days, examine the bottom surface of the
bowls under a binocular dissecting microscope. If amoebae were in-
cluded in the collection, they will be found particularly around the
rice grains. Pipette them off and begin separate cultures (p. 881).
In order to collect parasitic Protozoa, one must, of course, find the
host organisms that harbor them. Various species of tadpoles, frogs,
cockroaches, termites, etc., which are of common occurrence or easily
obtained and which are hosts to numerous species of Protozoa, are
useful material for class work.
879
880 PROTOZOOLOGY
Intestinal Protozoa of man are usually studied in the faeces of an
infected person. Natural movement should be collected. Do not use
oily purgatives in obtaining faecal specimens, as they make the
microscopical examination difficult by the presence of numerous oil
droplets. The receptacle must be thoroughly cleaned and dry, and
provided with a cover. Urine or water must be excluded completely.
The faeces must be examined as soon as possible, since the active
trophozoites degenerate quickly once leaving the human intestine.
If dysenteric or diarrhoeic stools are to be examined, they must not
be older than one hour or two. In case this is not possible, wrap the
container with woolen cloth while transporting, the organisms may
live for several hours. Care must however be exercised during the
microscopical examination, as there will be present unavoidably a
large number of degenerating forms. If the stool is formed and nor-
mal, it would contain usually encysted forms and no trophozoites if
the host is infected by a protozoan, unless mucus, puss, or blood is
present in it. Examination of such faeces can be delayed, as the cysts
are quite resistant (p. 450).
Cultivation
For extensive study or for class work, a large number of certain
species of Protozoa are frequently needed. Detection and diagnosis
of human Protozoa are often more satisfactorily made by culture
method than by microscopical examination of the collected material.
Success in culturing Protozoa depends upon several factors. First an
abundant supply of proper food material must be made available.
For example, several species of Paramecium live almost exclusively
on bacterial organisms, while Didinium and allied ciliates depend
upon Paramecium and other ciliates as sources of food supply. For
cultivating chromatophore-bearing forms successfully, good light
and proper kinds and amount of inorganic substances are necessary.
In the second place, the temperature and chemical constituents of
the culture medium must be adjusted to suit individual species. As a
rule, lower temperatures seem to be much more favorable for culture
than higher temperatures, although this is naturally not the case
with those parasitic in homoiothermal animals. Furthermore, proper
hydrogen ion concentration of the culture must be maintained. In
the third place, both Protozoa and Metazoa which prey upon the
forms under cultivation must be excluded from the culture. For in-
stance, it is necessary to remove Didinium nasutum in order to ob-
tain a rich culture of Paramecium. For successful culture of Amoeba
proteus, Aeolosoma, Daphnia, Cyclops, etc., must be excluded from
the culture.
COLLECTION, CULTIVATION, OBSERVATION 881
Mixed cultures of many free-living Protozoa are easily maintained
by adding from time to time a small amount of ripe hay-infusion or
dried lettuce powder to the collected water mentioned before. Chilo-
monas, Peranema, Bodo, Arcella, Amoeba, Paramecium, Colpoda,
Stylonychia, Euplotes, etc., often multiply in such cultures. To ob-
tain a large number of a single species, individuals are taken out
under a binocular dissecting microscope by means of a finely drawn-
out pipette and transferred to a suitable culture medium. Such a
culture is called a mass or stock culture. If a culture is started with a
single individual, the resulting population makes up a clone or a
pure line
Aside from the cultures of blood-inhabiting Protozoa and of some
100 free-living forms, the protozoan cultures are by no means "pure"
cultures in the bacteriological sense, even if only one species of Pro-
tozoa is present, since bacteria and other microorganisms are in-
variably abundantly present in them.
A. Free-living Protozoa
To deal with all the culture media employed by numerous workers
for various free-living Protozoa is beyond the scope of the present
work. Here only a few examples will be given. For further informa-
tion, the reader is referred to Belaf (1928), Needham et al. (1937),
etc.
Chromatophore-bearing flagellates. — There are a number of culture
fluids. Two examples:
(a)
(b)
Peptone or tryptone
2.0 gm.
KH2P04
0.25 gm.
MgSC-4
0.25 gm.
KC1
0.25 gm.
FeCl3
trace
Sodium acetate
2.0 gm.
Pyrex distilled water
1000 cc.
Peptone or tryptone
2.5 gm.
KN03
0.5 gm.
KH2P04
0.5 gm.
MgS04
0.1 gm.
NaCl
0.1 gm.
Sodium acetate
2.5 gm.
Dextrose
2.0 gm.
Glass distilled water
1000 cc.
Peranema, Chilomonas, Astacia and other colorless flagellates. — A
number of culture fluids have been advocated. A simple yet satis-
882 PROTOZOOLOGY
factory one is as follows: Fill a finger bowl with about 150 cc. of glass
distilled water and place 4 rice grains on the bottom. Let the dish
stand for a few days, and then introduce with a pipette a number of
desired flagellates from a mass culture into it. Cover the bowl and
keep it at about 20° C.
Mast (1939) used the following media for Chilomonas Paramecium.
(a) Glucose-peptone solution:
Peptone 8 gm.
Glucose 2 gm.
Water 1000 cc.
(b) Acetate-ammonium solution:
Sodium acetate
1.5 gm,
Ammonium chloride
0.46 gm,
Ammonium sulphate
0.1 gm,
Dipotassium hydrogen
phosphate
0.2 gm,
Magnesium chloride
0.01 gm,
Calcium chloride
0.012 gm.
Water
1000 cc.
Amoeba proteus and other freshwater amoebae. — Fill a finger bowl
with 200 cc. of glass distilled water, and place 4 rice grains. After a
few days seed with amoebae (p. 879), add about 5 cc. of Chilomonas
culture, and cover the bowl with a glass cover. In about two weeks
a ring of amoebae will be found around each rice grain, and if Chilo-
monas do not overmultiply, the amoebae will be found abundantly in
another two weeks. If properly maintained, subcultures may be
made every 4-6 weeks. Chalkley (1930) advocates substitution of
the plain water with a salt solution which is composed of
NaCl 0.1 gm.
KC1 0.004 gm.
CaCl2 0.006 gm.
Glass distilled water 1000 cc.
If the culture water becomes turbid, make subcultures or pour off
the water and fill with fresh distilled water or the solution. Culture
should be kept at 18-22°C.
Hahnert (1932) used the following culture solution:
KC1 0.004 gm.
CaCl2 0.004 gm.
CaH4(P04)2 0.002 gm.
Mg3(P04)2 0.002 gm.
COLLECTION, CULTIVATION, OBSERVATION 883
Ca3(P04)2 0.002 gm.
Pyrex water 1000 cc.
Pelomyxa carolinensis. — These amoebae grow well in a finger bowl
with 150 cc. of redistilled water to which large numbers of Parame-
cium are added daily. Pace and Belda (1944) advocate the following
solution instead of distilled water:
K2HPO4 0.08 gm.
KH2P04 0.08 gm.
CaCl2 0.104 gm.
Mg3(P04)2 • 4H20 0 . 002 gm.
Pyrex water 1000 cc.
Small mono- or di-phasic amoebae. — Musgrave and Clegg's me-
dium, modified by Walker, is as follows:
Agar 2.5 gm.
NaCl 0.05 gm.
Liebig's beef -extract 0.05 gm.
Normal NaOH 2 cc.
Distilled water 100 cc.
Arcella and other Testacea. — The testaceans commonly multiply
in a mixed culture for several weeks after the collection was made.
Hegner's method for Arcella: Pond water with weeds is shaken up
violently and filtered through eight thicknesses of cheese cloth, which
prevents the passage of coarse particles. The filtrate is distributed
among Petri dishes, and when suspended particles have settled down
to the bottom, specimens of Arcella are introduced. This will serve
also for Difflugia and other testaceans. Hay or rice infusion is also
a good culture medium for these organisms.
Actinophrys and Actinosphaerium. — Belaf cultivated these helio-
zoans successfully in Knop's solution:
Magnesium sulphate 0 . 25 gm.
Calcium nitrate 1 gm.
Potassium phosphate 0 . 25 gm.
Potassium chloride 0.12 gm.
Iron chloride trace
Distilled water 1000 cc.
Freshwater dilates. — They are easily cultivated in a weak infusion
of hay, bread, cracker, lettuce leaf, etc. The battery jars containing
the infusions should be left standing uncovered for a few days to al-
ow a rich bacterial growth in them. Seed them with material such
884
PROTOZOOLOGY
as submerged leaves or surface scum containing the ciliates. If de-
sired, culture may be started with a single individual in a watch
glass. Collection, cultivation and sterilization of Paramecium (Wich-
terman, 1949).
Pure culture
Many free-living flagellates and certain ciliates have in recent
years been successfully cultured free from any other associated or-
ganisms. The protozoan to be cultivated must be freed from other
Protozoa and bacteria. For this, washing, dilution, migration and
bactericidal agents have been used. For information, the reader is
referred to Glaser and Coria (1930), Claff (1940), Taylor and Van
Wagentock (1941), Kidder (1941), etc.
Free-living Phytomastigina. — Many media are known. See Prings-
heim (1926, 1937, 1946), Hall (1937, 1941), Hutner and Provasoli
(1951), etc.
Tetrahymena and allied forms. — Kidder, Dewey and Parks use a
basal medium as quoted below:
y per ml
DL-alanine 110
L-arginine 206
L-aspartic acid 122
Glycine 10
L-glutamic acid 233
L-histidine 87
DL-isoleucine 276
L-leucine 344
L-lysine 272
DL-methionine 248
L-phenylalanine 160
L-proline 250
DL-serine 394
DL-threonine 326
L-tryptophane 72
DL-valine 162
7 per ml
Thiamine HC1 1.00
Biotin (free acid) 0.0005
Choline CI 1.00
MgSo4-7H20. .
Fe(NH4)2(S04)2
MnCl2-4H20. .
ZnCl2
CaCl2-2H20...
CuCl2-2H20...
FeCL-6H20. ..
K2HP04
KH2OP4
6H20
Ca pantothenate 0.10
Nicotinamide 0.10
Pyridoxine HC1 1.00
Pyridoxal HC1 0.10
Pyridoxamine HC1 0. 10
Riboflavin 0.10
Pteroylglutamic acid 0.01
Guanylic acid .
Adenylic acid.
Cytidylic acid .
Uracil
100
25
0.5
0.05
50
5
1.25
1,000
1,000
30
20
25
10
Dextrose 2,500
Na acetate 1,000
Tween85 700
Protogen 1 unit
B. Parasitic Protozoa
Intestinal flagellates of man. — There are numerous media which
have been used successfully by several investigators.
COLLECTION, CULTIVATION, OBSERVATION
885
(a) Ovo-mucoid medium (Hogue, 1921). White of two eggs are
broken in a sterile flask with beads. Add 200 cc. of 0.7 % NaCl solu-
tion and cook the whole for 30 minutes over a boiling water bath,
shaking the mixture constantly. Filter through a coarse cheese cloth
and through cotton-wool with the aid of a suction pump. Put 6 cc. of
the filtrate in each test tube. Autoclave the tubes for 20 minutes un-
der 15 pounds pressure. After cooling, a small amount of fresh faecal
material containing the flagellates is introduced into the tubes. Incu-
bate at 37°C.
(b) Sodium chloride sheep serum water (Hogue, 1922). Composed
of 100 cc. of sterile 0.95% NaCl and 10-15 cc. of sterile sheep serum
water (dilution 1:3). 15 cc. to each tube. Trichomonas hominis, T.
tenax, and Retortamonas intestinalis grow well.
Trichomonas vaginalis. — Johnson and Trussell (1943) reported the
following mixture the most suitable medium :
Bacto-peptone
32 gm.
Bacto-agar
1.6 gm.
Cysteine HC1
2.4 gm.
Maltose
1.6 gm.
Difco liver infusion
320 cc.
Ringer's solution
960 cc.
NaOH(N/l)
11-13 cc.
Heat the mixture in a water bath to melt the agar; filter through a
coarse paper; add 0.7 cc. of 0.5 per cent aqueous methylene blue;
adjust pH to 5.8-6.0 with N/1 HC1 or NaOH; tube 8 cc; autoclave.
After cooling, add aseptically 2 cc. of sterile (filtered) human serum.
Incubate at least four days; store at room temperature for two to
three weeks or as long as an amber "anaerobic" zone is apparent.
Termite flagellates. — Trager's (1934) media are as follows:
Solution A
Solution U
gm. per
gm. per
liter water
liter water
NaCl
1.169
2.164
NaHC03
0.840
0.773
NasCeHsO? • 2H20 (citrate)
2.943
1.509
NaHoP04H20
0.690
0
KC1
0.745
0
KH2P04
0
1.784
CaCl2
0.111
0.083
MgS04
0
0.048
886 PROTOZOOLOGY
In solution A, Trichomonas sp. and Tricercomitus termopsidis were
cultivated. For Trichomonas termopsidis, a small amount of Loeffler's
blood serum and cellulose were added. All three flagellates were cul-
tured for over three years. In solution U to which 0.01 per cent blood
serum, cellulose and charcoal, were added, Trichonympha sphaerica
(from Termopsis angusticollis) grew well and multiplied up to two
weeks, although T. campanula and T. collaris failed to do so. The
culture in a test tube was inoculated with the entire hindgut of a
termite and kept at room temperature.
Lophomonas blattarum and L. striata. — A mixture of one sterile
egg-white and 100 cc. of sterile Ringer's solution, to which a small
amount of yeast cake is added, is an excellent culture medium. Incu-
bation at room temperature; subcultures every 4-6 days.
Trypanosoma and Leishmania. — Novy, MacNeal and Nicolle
(NNN) medium: 14 gm. of agar and 6 gm. of NaCl are dissolved by
heating in 900 cc. of distilled water. When the mixture cools to about
50°C, 50-100 cc. of sterile defibrinated rabbit blood is gently added
and carefully mixed so as to prevent the formation of bubbles. The
blood agar is now distributed among sterile test tubes to the height
of about 3 cm., and the tubes are left slanted until the medium be-
comes solid. The tubes are then incubated at 37°C. for 24 hours to
determine sterility and further to hasten the formation of conden-
sation water (pH 7.6). Sterile blood or splenic puncture containing
Trypanosoma cruzi or Leishmania is introduced by a sterile pipette
to the condensation water in which organisms multiply. Incubation
at 37°C. for trypanosomes and at 20-24°C. for Leishmania.
For cultivating T. gambiense and T. rhodesiense, Tobie, von Brand
and Mehlman (1950) used the following medium:
(a) Base. 1.5 gm. Bacto-beef, 2.5 gm. Bacto-peptone, 4 gm. sodium
chloride and 7.5 gm. Bacto-agar, are dissolved in 500 cc. distilled
water. After adjusting pH to 7.2-7.4 with NaOH, autoclave at 15
lbs pressure for 20 minutes. Cool this to about 45°C, then add whole
rabbit blood which had been inactivated at 56°C. for 30 minutes, in
the proportion of 25 cc. blood to 75 cc. base, using 0.5 per cent sterile
sodium citrate to prevent the coagulation. This base is placed in
test tubes (5 cc. each and slanted) or in flasks (25 cc), and allowed
to solidify.
(b) Liquid phase. Sterile Locke's solution. This is added in
amounts of 2 cc. (to test tubes) or 10-15 cc. (to flasks), and cotton
plugs are applied. The trypanosomes are said to grow well and to
reach the peak population in 10-14 days.
Entamoeba barreti. — Barret and Smith (1924) used a mixture of
COLLECTION, CULTIVATION, OBSERVATION 887
9 parts of 0.5% NaCl and 1 part of human blood serum. Incubation
at 10-15°C.
E. invadens. — Ratcliffe and Geiman (1938) used a mixture of
gastric mucin 0.3 gm., "ground alum" salt 0.5 gm., and distilled
water 100 cc. About 2 mg. of sterile rice starch is added to each cul-
ture tube at the time of inoculation. Culture at 20-30° C. and sub-
culture every 7 days.
E. histolytica and other amoebae of man. — The first successful cul-
ture was made by Boeck and Drbohlav (1925) who used the follow-
ing media.
(a) Locke-egg-serum (LES) medium. The contents of 4 eggs
(washed and dipped in alcohol) are mixed with, and broken in, 50 cc.
of Locke's solution in a sterile flask with beads. The solution is made
up as follows:
NaCl 9 gm.
CaCl2 0.2 gm.
KC1 0.4 gm.
NaHCC-3 0.2 gm.
Glucose 2 . 5 gm.
Distilled water 1000 cc.
The emulsion is now tubed so that when coagulated by heat, there
is 1-1.5 inches of slant. These tubes are now slanted and heated at
70°C. until the medium becomes solidified. They are then autoclaved
for 20 minutes at 15 pounds pressure (temperature must be raised
and lowered slowly). After cooling the slant is covered with a mix-
ture of 8 parts of sterile Locke's solution and 1 part of sterile in-
activated human blood serum. The tubes are next incubated to
determine sterility. The culture tubes are inoculated with a small
amount of faecal matter containing active trophozoites. Incubation
at 37°C. Yorke and Adams (1926) obtained rich cultures by inocu-
lating this medium with washed and concentrated cysts of E. his-
tolytica in 24 hours.
(b) Locke-egg-albumin (LEA) medium. The serum in LES medium
is replaced by 1% solution of crystallized egg albumin in Locke's
solution which has been sterilized by passage through a Berkefeld
filter.
Dobell and Laidlaw (1926) used Ringer's solution instead of
Locke's.
(c) Ringer-egg-serum (RES) or Ringer-egg-albumin (REA) me-
dium. Solid medium is the same as that of (a) or (b), but made up in
Ringer's solution which is composed of
888 PROTOZOOLOGY
NaCl 9 gm.
KC1 0.2 gm.
CaCl2 0.2 gm.
Distilled water 1000 cc.
The covering liquid is serum-Ringer or egg-albumin. The latter is
prepared by breaking one egg white in 250 cc. of Ringer's solution
which is passed through a Seitz filter. Before inoculating with amoe-
bae, a small amount of sterile solid rice-starch (dry-heated at 180°C.
for 1 hour) is added to the culture tube.
(d) Horse-serum-serum (HSS) or Horse-serum-egg-albumin (HSA)
medium. Whole horse-serum, sterilized by filtration, is tubed and
slanted at 80°C. for about 60-70 minutes (do not heat longer).
When the slants have cooled, they are covered with diluted serum or
egg-albumin given for (c). The tubes are incubated for sterility and
sterile rice-starch is added immediately before inoculation. Frye and
Meleny (1939) substituted the liquid portion of this medium by
0.5% solution of Lily liver extract No. 343 in 0.85% NaCl.
(e) Liver-agar-serum (LAS) medium. Cleveland and Sanders
(1930) used the following medium:
Liver infusion agar
(Difco dehydrated) 30 gm.
Glass distilled water 1000 cc.
The medium is tubed, autoclaved, and slanted. The slants are cov-
ered with a 1:6 dilution of sterile fresh horse serum in 0.85% NaCl
solution. A 5 mm. loop of sterile rice flour or powdered unpolished
rice is added to each tube. In making subculture, remove 2 or 3 drops
of the rice flour debris from the bottom with a sterile pipette.
(/) Egg-yolk-saline medium (Balamuth and Sandza, 1944). Two
eggs are hard-boiled. Upon cooling, the egg white is discarded and
the yolks are crumbled in a beaker containing 125 ml of 0.8 per cent
sodium chloride solution. The mixture is boiled for 10 minutes, and
after replacement of evaporated water the infusion is filtered by
suction pump and restored to 125 ml. The filtrate is autoclaved 20
minutes at 15 pounds pressure. Upon cooling, a slight precipitation
of yolk settles, and is removed by simple filtration, after which
125 ml of N/15 phosphate buffer (pH 7.5) is added, making the
total salt concentration N/30 phosphate solution in 0.4 per cent
sodium chloride. This final mixture is tubed in 5 ml amounts, auto-
claved as before, and then is stored under refrigeration until use.
Before introducing amoebae a loop of sterile rice starch is added to
each tube.
COLLECTION, CULTIVATION, OBSERVATION 889
To inhibit bacterial growth in cultures of Entamoeba, various
antibiotics have been tried. For example, Spingarn and Edelman
(1947) found that when streptomycin was added in the amount of
1000-3000 units per cc. to culture of E. histolytica, the survival of the
amoebae in culture was prolonged from an average of 8 days to 33.7
days, which effect was apparently due to the inhibition of bacteria.
Encystment of Entamoeba histolytica is usually brought about by
first cultivating the organisms in starch-free media and then by
transferring them into media with starch. Balamuth (1951) recom-
mends a diphasic medium of the following composition: 2 gm. of
Wilson liver concentrate powder is brought to boiling in 80 ml. dis-
tilled water and filtered. Then 6.4 ml. of 0.25 molar Na3P04. 12 H20
and 7.6 ml. of 1.0 molar potassium phosphate buffer (in the ratio of
4.7 parts K2HP04 to 0.3 part KH2P04) are added. By adding dis-
tilled water in a volumetric flask bring the mixture to 100 ml. Trans-
fer it to a beaker and add 3 gm. Bacto-agar. Heat gently until agar
dissolves; then autoclave for 20 minutes at 15 lbs pressure. The pH
should be about 7.2. The overlay is prepared by mixing double-
strength eggyolk and normal horse serum (10:1) and rice starch is
added last.
Plasmodium. — Bass and John's (1912) culture is as follows: 10 cc.
of defibrinated human blood containing Plasmodium and 0.1 cc. of
50% sterile dextrose solution are mixed in test tubes and incubated
at 37-39°C. In the culture, the organisms develop in the upper layer
of erythrocytes. Since that time a number of investigators have
undertaken cultivation of different species of Plasmodium. For in-
formation the reader is referred to Geiman, Anfinsen et al. (1946) and
Trager (1950).
Balantidium coli. — Barret and Yarbrough (1921) first cultivated
this ciliate in a medium consisting of 16 parts of 0.5% NaCl and 1
part of inactivated human blood serum. The medium is tubed.
Inoculation of a small amount of the faecal matter containing the
trophozoites is made into the bottom of the tubes. Incubation at
37°C. Maximum development is reached in 48-72 hours. Subcul-
tures are made every second day. Rees used a mixture of 16 parts
of Ringer's solution and 1 part of Loeffler's derrydrated blood serum.
Atchley (1935) employed a medium composed of 4 parts of Ringer's
solution and 1 part of faeces, which is filtered after 24 hours, centri-
fuged and sterilized by passage through a Seitz filter. Nelson (1940)
also used 1 part of caecal contents of pig in 9 parts of Ringer's solu-
tion, which mixture is passed through a sieve and then filtered
through a thick absorbent cotton. Balantidium which shows posi-
890 PROTOZOOLOGY
tive geotropism, is freed of faecal debris by passage downward
through cotton in V-tube. The ciliates are introduced into the cul-
ture tubes. Incubation at 37°C. Subcultures are made every 7-22
days. Nelson found that autoclaved medium is unsuitable until a
living bacterial population has been established. Balantidium can
also be cultivated in the media given for the intestinal amoebae.
Microscopical examination
Protozoa should be studied as far as possible in life. Permanent
preparations while indispensable in revealing many intracellular
structures, cannot replace fresh preparations. The microscopic slides
of standard size, 3" by I", should be of white glass and preferably
thin. The so-called No. 1 slides measure about 0.75 mm. in thickness.
For darkfield illumination thin slides are essential. No. 1 coverglasses
should be used for both fresh and permanent preparations. They are
about 130-1 70/x thick. The most convenient size of the coverglass is
about 7/8 square inch which many prefer to circular ones.
The slides and coverglasses must be thoroughly cleaned before
being used. Immerse them in concentrated mineral acids (nitric acid
is best fitted) for 10 minutes. Pour off the acid, wash the slides and
coverglasses for about 10 minutes in running water, rinse in distilled
water, and keep them in 95% alcohol. When needed they are dried
one by one with clean cheese cloth. Handle slides and covers with a
pair of forceps. If thumb and fingers are used, hold them edgewise.
A. Fresh preparations
In making fresh preparations with large Protozoa care must be ex-
ercised to avoid pressure of the coverglass on the organisms as this
will cause deformities. If small bits of detritus or debris are included
in the preparation, the coverglass will be supported by them and the
organisms will not be subjected to any pressure. Although ordinary
slides are used most frequently, it is sometimes advisable to use a
depression slide especially for prolonged observation. To make a
preparation with this slide, a small drop of water containing speci-
mens is placed in the center of a coverglass, and is covered by a small
circular coverglass (about 1 cm. in diameter), which in turn is cov-
ered by a depression slide with a thin coat of vaseline along the edge
of the depression, so as to make an air-tight compartment. In turning
over the whole, care must be taken to prevent the smaller circular
cover from touching any part of the slide, as this would cause the
water to run down into the depression. Nemeczek (1926) seems to
have been the first one who used the second coverglass for this prepa-
COLLECTION, CULTIVATION, OBSERVATION 891
ration. If the Protozoa to be examined are large and observation can
be made under a low power objective, the small coverglass should
be omitted.
As far as possible examine fresh preparations with low power ob-
jectives. The lower the magnification, the brighter and the larger the
field. The microscopical objects can quickly and easily be measured,
if an ocular micrometer division has been calculated in combination
with different objectives.
The free-living ciliates swim about so actively as to make their
observation difficult. However, an actively swimming ciliate will
sooner or later come to stop upon coming in contact with various
debris, air bubbles or margin of the coverglass to allow a study of its
structure. Various reagents recommended for retardation of swim-
ming movements of ciliates, bring about deformities in the organisms
and therefore, must not be used; but a drop of saturated solution of
methyl cellulose may be added to a ciliate preparation to retard the
active movement of the organism without causing any visible ab-
normality (Marsland, 1943).
For observation of cilia, flagella, extruded polar filament of Micro-
sporidia, etc., the so-called changeable condenser is useful, since it
gives both bright and dark fields under dry objectives. The ordinary
dark field condenser is used almost exclusively in conjunction with
an oil immersion objective and therefore for very active organisms
a great deal of time is often lost before satisfactory observation is
made. The phase microscope is highly useful in studying various
intracellular structures in life.
When treated with highly diluted solutions of certain dyes, living
Protozoa exhibit some of their organellae or inclusions stained with-
out apparent injury to the organisms. These vital stains are usually
prepared in absolute alcohol solutions. A small amount is uniformly
applied to the slide and allowed to dry, before water containing Pro-
tozoa is placed on it. Congo red (1 : 1,000) is used as an indicator, as
its red color of the salt changes blue in weak acids. Janus Green B
(1:10,000-20,000) stains chondriosomes. Methylene blue (1:10,000
or more) stains cytoplasmic granules, nucleus, cytoplasmic processes,
etc., Neutral red (1:3,000-30,000) is an indicator: yellowish red
(alkaline), cherry red (weak acid), and blue (strong acid). It also
stains nucleus slightly. Golgi bodies are studied in it, though its
specific^ for this structure is not clear.
Parasitic Protozoa should be studied in the tissue or body fluids in
which they occur. When they are too small in amount to make a
suitable preparation, one of the following solutions may be used.
892 PROTOZOOLOGY
Physiological salt solution. Widely used concentrations of NaCl
solutions are 0.5-0.7% for cold-blooded animals and 0.8-0.9% for
warm-blooded animals.
Ringer's solution. The one Dobell advocated has been given al-
ready (p. 887). Another frequently used solution consists of
NaCl 0.8 gm.
KC1 0.02 gm.
CaCl2 0.02 gm.
(NaHC03 0.02 gm.)
Glass distilled water 100 cc.
For demonstrating organellae, the following reagents which kill
the Protozoa upon application, may be used on living Protozoa.
LugoFs solution. This is made up of potassium iodide 1.5 gm.,
water 25 cc, and iodine 1 gm. The solution deteriorates easily.
Flagella and cilia stain clearly. Glycogen bodies stain ordinarily red-
dish brown. Cysts of intestinal Protozoa are more easily studied in
Lugol's solution.
Sudan III and IV. 2% absolute alcohol solution diluted before use
with the same amount of 45% alcohol. Neutral fats are stained red.
Methyl green. 1% solution in 1% acetic acid solution makes an
excellent nuclear stain.
Nigrosin. 10% solution if used in smears and air-dried makes the
pellicular patterns of flagellates and ciliates stand out clearly.
In the case of faecal examination if the stool is dysenteric, a small
portion is placed by a tooth-pick or platinum loop on a slide and
covered with a cover glass. Before placing the cover, all large parti-
cles must be removed quickly so that the smear will be uniformly
thin. Smears of diarrhoeic stools can be made in a similar way. But
if the faecal material is formed or semiformed, a small drop of warm
(37°C.) 0.85% NaCl solution is first placed on the slide, and a small
portion of the faeces, particularly mucus, pus or blood, is emulsified
in it. The whole is covered by a coverglass. The faecal smear should
not be too thick or too thin for a satisfactory observation. If the
smear is too thick, it will be impossible to distinguish objects
clearly, and on the other hand, if it is too thin, there will be much
time lost in observing widely scattered Protozoa. The optimum
thickness of the smear is one through which the print of this page
can be read.
The success in faecal examination for intestinal Protozoa depends
almost entirely on continued practice, since the faecal matter con-
tains myriads of objects which may resemble Protozoa (Fig. 375,
COLLECTION, CULTIVATION, OBSERVATION
S93
c-h). Aside from certain coprozoic Protozoa (p. 24) which appear in
old faeces, Blastocystis hominis (Fig. 375, c-f) occur in almost all
faeces. This organism which is considered to be a fungus and harm-
less to its host, is usually spherical and measures about 5-25ju in
diameter. Within a very thin membrane, there is a narrow peripheral
cytoplasmic layer in which 1 or 2 nuclei and several refractile gran-
ules are present. The cytoplasmic ring encloses a large homogeneous
body which is somewhat eosinophile, but not iodinophile. In some
the cytoplasm may be more abundant and the inclusion body smal-
ler. Dividing forms appear peanut-shaped. Blastocystis (Grasse,
1926; Reyer, 1939).
Fig. 375. a, Sphaerita in a stained trophozoite of Entamoeba coli; b,
Nucleophaga in a stained trophozoite of Iodamoeba butschlii; c, d, Blasto-
cystis hominis (in an unstained smear) ; e, f , stained Blastocystis hominis;
g, an epithelial cell from a faecal smear; h, a polymorphonuclear leuco-
cyte with three ingested erythrocytes. All X1150 (Kudo).
In a number of parasitic Protozoa, there occur foreign organ-
isms which may be mistaken for food inclusions or chromatin.
They are vegetable organisms which were named by Dangeard
as Sphaerita and Nucleophaga (Fig. 375, a, b). The former occurs
in the cytoplasm and the latter in the nucleus of the host protozoan.
These parasites are spherical and about 0.5-lju in diameter; they
are found most frequently in spherical masses composed of vary-
ing numbers of individuals. Nucleophaga appears to destroy the
host nucleus. Degenerating epithelial cells or leucocytes (Fig. 375, g,
h) may simulate parasitic amoebae. Fishes and birds are often in-
fected by Coccidia and when they are consumed as food, the oocysts
pass the alimentary canal unchanged and appear in the stools.
Sphaerita (Chatton and Brodsky, 1909; Mattes, 1924; Becker, 1926;
894 PROTOZOOLOGY
Sassuchin, 1928; Sassuchin et al., 1930; Jahn, 1933; Kirby, 1941).
The cysts of intestinal Protozoa are, as a rule, distributed through-
out the formed faeces and difficult to detect in small portions of the
voided specimens. Flecks of mucus in the fluid stool obtained by use
of a saline purge may contain more numerous cysts than naturally
passed one. Several methods for concentrating cysts for microscopi-
cal examination are known. The simplest one is to emulsify thor-
oughly a small mass of faeces about the size of a lump sugar in a
dish by adding a small amount of once-boiled tap water. Add to
it about 500 cc. of water and pour the whole emulsion into a glass
cylinder, and let it stand for about 15 minutes. Remove the scum
floating on the surface and draw off the turbid fluid into another
cylinder, leaving the sediment and a little fluid just above it un-
touched. The majority of cysts are suspended in the drawn-off por-
tion of the emulsion. Centrifuge the fluid, pour off the supernatant
fluid and add water. Centrifuge again. Repeat this three times until
the supernatant fluid becomes clear. The sediment will be found to
contain more numerous cysts than small sample specimens. Bijlmer
(1948) finds the following method the most satisfactory. Suspend a
fleck of faeces about the size of a pea in a dish with some 33 per
cent ZnS04. If much debris appear on the surface, filter through a
layer of cheese-cloth. The fluid is decanted into a centrifuge tube,
and some more ZnS04 solution is added to half a centimeter from
the top. After centrifuging for 2 minutes, lift a loopful of material
from the surface and place on a slide.
B. Permanent preparations
Permanent preparations are employed, as was stated before, to
supplement, and not to supplant, fresh preparations. Smear prepa-
rations are more frequently studied, while section preparations are
indispensable in extensive studies of Protozoa. Various fixatives and
stains produce different results, care must be exercised in making
and evaluating permanent preparations. Diversity of stained ob-
jects (Wenrich, 1941).
a. Smear preparations
Smears are made either on coverglasses or slides. However, cover-
glass-smears are more properly fixed and require smaller amount of
reagents than slide-smears. Greater care must be excerised in han-
dling coverglasses, as they are easily broken. Large free-living
Protozoa do not frequently adhere to the glass, since there is not
COLLECTION, CULTIVATION, OBSERVATION 895
enough albuminous substance in the culture fluid. If a small drop of
fresh egg-white emulsified in sterile distilled water is smeared on the
coverglass very thinly with the tip of a clean finger, before mounting
material for smear, more specimens will adhere to and remain on the
coverglass upon the completion of the preparation. Let the smear
lie horizontally for 5-10 minutes or longer.
Parasitic Protozoa live in media rich in albuminous substances,
and therefore, easily adhere to the coverglass in smear. Make uni-
formly thin smears on coverglasses. If the smears are made from
dysenteric or fluid stools, they should be fixed almost immediately.
Smears made from diarrhoeic or formed stools by emulsifying in
warm salt solution, should be left for a few minutes. In any case, do
not let the smear become dry except a narrow marginal zone.
The smears are fixed next. The most commonly used fixative for
Protozoa is Schaudinn's fluid. This is made up as follows:
Cold saturated mercuric
bichloride (6-7%) 66 cc.
Absolute or 95% alcohol 33 cc.
Glacial acetic acid 1 cc.
The first two can be kept mixed without deterioration, but the acid
must be added just before fixation. Fix at room temperature or
warmed to 50°C. The fixative is placed in a square Petri dish and the
smear is gently dropped on it with the smeared surface facing down-
ward. With a little experience, air bubbles can be avoided and make
the smear float on the surface of the fixative. After about one minute,
turn it around and let it stay on the bottom of the dish for 5 to 10
more minutes. In case the smear is too thick, a thin coat of vaseline
on the upper side of the coverglass will make it to float. About six
coverglass-smears may be fixed in the dish simultaneously.
The coverglass-smears are now transferred to a Columbia staining
jar for coverglasses, containing 50% alcohol for 10 minutes, followed
by two changes for similar length of time. Transfer the smears next
to 30% alcohol for 5 minutes, and then to a jar with water, which
is now placed under gently running tap water for 15 minutes. Rinse
them in distilled water and stain.
Other fixatives frequently used for Protozoa are as follows:
Bouin's fluid
Picric acid (saturated) 75 cc.
Formaldehyde 25 cc.
Glacial acetic acid 5 cc.
896 PROTOZOOLOGY
Fixation for 5-30 minutes; wash with 70% alcohol until picric acid
is completely washed away from the smears.
Sublimate-acetic
Saturated sublimate solution 100 cc.
Glacial acetic acid 2 cc.
This is the original fixative for Feulgen's nucleal reaction (p. 897).
Fixation and after-treatment similar to Schaudinn's fluid.
Carnoy's fluid
Absolute alcohol
30 cc.
Glacial acetic acid
10 cc.
Fixation for 5-30 minutes; wash in 95% alcohol.
Osmium tetroxide
The vapor from or the solution itself of 1% Osmium tetroxide may
be used. Fixation in 2-5 minutes; wash in running water.
Flemming's fluid
1% chromic acid 30 cc.
2% osmium tetroxide 8 cc.
Glacial acetic acid 2 cc.
Fixation for 10-50 minutes; wash for one hour or longer in running
water.
The most commonly used stain is Heidenhain's iron haematoxy-
lin, as it is dependable and gives a clear nuclear picture, although it
is unsatisfactory for voluminous organisms or smears of uneven
thickness. It requires a mordant, ammonio-ferric sulphate (iron
alum) and a dye, haematoxylin. Crystals of iron alum become yellow
and opaque very easily. Select clear violet crystals and prepare 2%
aqueous solution. Haejnatoxylin solution must be well "ripe." The
most convenient way of preparing it is to make 10% absolute alcohol
solution as it does not require ripening. By diluting this stock solu-
tion with distilled water, prepare 0.5 or 1% slightly alcoholic solution
which will be ready for immediate and repeated use. Smears are left
in the mordant in a jar for 1-3 hours or longer. Wash them with run-
ning water for 5 minutes and rinse in distilled water. Place the smears
now in haematoxylin for 1-3 hours or longer. After brief washing in
water, the smears are decolorized in Petri dish in a diluted iron alum,
0.5% HC1 in water or 50% alcohol, or saturated aqueous solution of
picric acid under the microscope. Upon completion, the smears are
COLLECTION, CULTIVATION, OBSERVATION 897
washed thoroughly in running water for about 30 minutes. Rinse
them in distilled water. Transfer them through ascending series of
alcohol (50 to 95%). If counter-staining with eosin is desired, dip the
smears which were taken out from 70% alcohol, in 1% eosin in 95%
alcohol for a few seconds, and then in 95% plain alcohol. After two
passages through absolute alcohol and through xylol, the smears are
mounted one by one on a slide in a small drop of mixture of Canada
balsam and xylol. The finished preparations are placed in a drying
oven at about 60°C. for a few days.
Other stains that are often used are as follows:
Delafield's haematoxylin. If the stock solution is diluted to 1:5-
10, a slow, but progressive staining which requires no decolorization
may be made; but if stock solution is used, stain for 1-16 hours, and
decolorize in 0.5% HC1 water or alcohol. If mounted in a neutral
mounting medium, the staining remains true for a long time.
Mayer's paracarmine. In slightly acidified 70% alcohol solution,
it is excellent for staining large Protozoa. If over-stained, decolorize
with 0.5% HC1 alcohol.
Giemsa's stain. Shake the stock solution bottle well. By means of
a stopper-pipette dilute the stock with neutral distilled water (5-10
drops to 10 cc). Smears fixed in Schaudinn's fluid and washed in
neutral distilled water are stained in this solution for 10 minutes to
6 hours to overnight. Rinse them thoroughly in neutral distilled
water and transfer them through the following jars in order (about
5 minutes in each): (a) acetone alone; (b) acetone: xylol, 8:2; (c)
acetone: xylol, 5:5; (d) acetone : xylol, 2:8; (e) two changes of xylol.
The smears are now mounted in cedar wood oil (which is used for
immersion objectives) and the preparations should be allowed to dry
for a longer time than the balsam -mounted preparations.
Feulgen's nucleal reaction. The following solutions are needed.
(a) HC1 solution. This is prepared by mixing 82.5 cc. of HC1 (spe-
cific gravity 1.19) and 1000 cc. of distilled water.
(b) Fuchsin-sodium bisulphite. Dissolve 1 gm. of powdered fuchsin
(basic fuchsin, diamant fuchsin or parafuchsin) in 200 cc. of distilled
water which has been brought to boiling point. After frequent shak-
ing for about 5 minutes, filter the solution when cooled down to 50°C.
into a bottle and add 20 cc. HC1 solution. Cool the solution further
down to about 25°C. and add 1 gm. of anhydrous sodium bisulphite.
Apply stopper tightly. Decolorization of the solution will be com-
pleted in a few hours, but keep the bottle in a dark place for at least
24 hours before using it.
(c) Sulphurous water:
898 PROTOZOOLOGY
Distilled or tap water 200 cc.
10% anhydrous sodium
bisulphite 10 cc.
HC1 solution (a) 10 cc.
Feulgen's reaction is used to detect thymonucleic acid, a constitu-
ent of chromatin. By a partial hydrolysis, certain purin-bodies in the
acid are split into aldehydes which show a sharp Schiff's reaction
upon coming in contact with fuchsin-sodium bisulphite. Thus this
is a reaction, and not a staining method. Smears fixed in sublimate-
acetic or Schaudinn's fluid are brought down to running water, after
being placed for about 24 hours in 95% alcohol. Immerse them in
cold HC1 for one minute, then place them in HC1 kept at 60°C. (over
a microburner or in an incubator) for 5 minutes, quickly immerse in
cold HC1. After rapidly rinsing in distilled water, place the smears
in solution (b) for 30-minutes to 3 hours. There is no overstaining.
The smears are then washed in three changes (at least 2 minutes in
each) of solution (c). Wash them in running water for 30 minutes. If
counterstaining is desired, dip in 0.1% light green solution and rinse
again in water. The smears are now dehydrated through a series of
alcohol in the usual manner and mounted in Canada balsam (Feul-
gen and Rossenbeck, 1924; Feulgen-Brauns, 1924; Feulgen, 1926;
Coleman, 1938; Stowell, 1945).
Silver-impregnation methods. Since Klein (1926) applied silver
nitrate in demonstrating the silver-line system of ciliates, various
modifications have been proposed.
Dry silver method (Klein, 1926). Air-dried cover glass smears are
placed for 6-8 minutes in a 2 per cent solution of silver nitrate and
thoroughly washed. The smears are exposed to sunlight for 2-8 hours
in distilled water in a white porcelain dish, with occasional control
under the microscope. The smears are then washed thoroughly and
air-dried; finally mounted in Canada balsam.
Wet silver method (modified after Gelei and Horvath, 1931). The
ciliates are fixed in a centrifuge tube for 5-10 minutes in sublimate-
formaldehyde solution, composed of saturated corrosive sublimate
95 cc. and formaldehyde 5 cc. The specimens are now washed twice
in nonchlorinated water and once in distilled water; they are then
treated in 1.5-2 per cent solution of silver nitrate for 5-20 minutes.
Without washing, the specimens in the tube are exposed to direct
sunlight for 10-60 minutes in distilled water, after which the speci-
mens are washed 4-6 times in distilled water, one minute each. Pass-
ing through a gradually ascending alcohol series and xylol, the speci-
mens are mounted in Canada balsam.
COLLECTION, CULTIVATION, OBSERVATION 899
Fontana's method. For staining filamentous structures such as the
extruded polar filament of microsporidian spores, this method is the
most satisfactory one. After air-drying the smears are fixed for 5
minutes in a mixture of formaldehyde, 20 cc; glacial acetic acid, 1
cc; and distilled water, 100 cc. After washing in running water, the
smears are placed in the following mordant composed of equal parts
of 5 per cent tannic acid and 1 per cent carbolic acid, for about 2
minutes at about 60°C. Wash the smears in water and place them for
3-5 minutes in 0.25 per cent solution of silver nitrate warmed to
60°C, to which ammonia has been added drop by drop until a gray-
ish brown cloud appeared. Wash thoroughly and air-dry. After pass-
ing through 95 per cent and absolute alcohol, and xylol, the smears
are mounted in Canada balsam
b. Blood film preparations
Thin film. The finger tip or ear lobe is cleaned with 70% alcohol.
Prick it with an aseptic blood lancet or a sterilized needle. Wipe off
the first drop with gauze and receive the second drop on a clean slide
about half an inch from one end (Fig. 376, 1). Use care not to let the
slide touch the finger or ear-lobe itself. Quickly bring a second slide,
one corner of which had been cut away, to the inner margin of the
blood drop (1), and let the blood spread along the edge of the second
slide. Next push the second slide over the surface of the first slide at
an angle of about 45° toward the other end (#). Thus a thin film of
blood is spread over the slide (3). Let the slide lie horizontally and
dry, under a cover to prevent dust particles falling on it and to keep
away flies or other insects. If properly made, the film is made up of
a single layer of blood cells.
Thick films. Often parasites are so few that to find them in a thin
film involves a great deal of time. In such cases, a thick film is advo-
cated. For this, 2 to 4 drops of blood are placed in the central half-
inch square area, and spread them into an even layer with a needle
or with a corner of a slide. Let the film dry. With a little practice, a
satisfactory thick smear can be made. It will take two hours or more
to dry. Do not dry by heat, but placing it in an incubator at 37°C.
will hasten the drying. When thoroughly dry, immerse it in water
and dehaemoglobinize it. Air dry again.
Thin and thick film. Often it is time-saving if thin and thick films
are made on a single slide. Place a single drop of blood near the center
and make a thin film of it toward one end of the slide. Make a small
thick smear in the center of the other half of the slide. Dry. When
900
PROTOZOOLOGY
thoroughly dry, immerse the thick film part in distilled water and de-
haemoglobinize it. Let the slide dry.
Blood smears must be stained as soon as possible to insure a proper
staining, as lapse of time or summer heat will often cause poor stain-
ing especially of thick films. Of several blood stains, Giemsa's and
Wright's stains are used here. For staining with Giemsa's stain, the
thin film is fixed in absolute methyl alcohol for 5 minutes. Rinse well
Fig. 376. Diagrams showing how a thin blood film is made on a slide.
the slide in neutral distilled water. After shaking the stock bottle
(obtained from reliable makers) well, dilute it with neutral distilled
water in a ratio of one drop of stain to 1-2 cc. of water. Mix the solu-
tion and the blood film is placed in it for 0.5-2 hours or longer if
needed. Rinse the slide thoroughly in neutral distilled water and
wipe off water with a tissue paper from the underside and edges
of the slide. Let the slide stand on end to dry. When thoroughly dry,
place a drop of xylol and a drop of cedar wood oil (used for immersion
objectives) and cover with a coverglass. The mounting medium
COLLECTION, CULTIVATION, OBSERVATION 901
should be absolutely neutral. Do not use Canada balsam for mount-
ing, as acid in it promptly spoils the staining.
For Wright's stain, fixation is not necessary. With a medicine
dropper, cover the dried blood film with drops of undiluted Wright's
stain, and let the film stand horizontally for 3-5 minutes ; then the
same number of drops of neutral distilled water is added to the stain
and the whole is left for 10-30 minutes. The stain is then poured off
and the film is rinsed in neutral distilled water. Dry. Mount in xylol
and cedar wood oil.
Use of coverglass on a stained blood film is advocated, since a
cedar wood oil mounted slide allows the use of dry objectives which
in the hand of an experienced worker would give enough magnifica-
tion for species determination of Plasmodium, and which will very
clearly reveal any trypanosomes present in the film. Furthermore,
the film is protected against scratches, and contamination by many
objects which may bring about confusion in detecting looked-for
organisms.
Films made from splenic punctures for Leishmania or Trypano-
soma are similarly treated and prepared.
c. Section preparations
Paraffin sections should be made according to usual histological
technique. Fixatives and stains are the same as those mentioned for
smear preparations.
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902 PROTOZOOLOGY
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COLLECTION, CULTIVATION, OBSERVATION 903
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Author Index
Aberle, S. D., 612, 626
Adams, A. R. D., 450, 451, 471, 887
Adams, J. A., 548, 566
Adamson, A. M., 331
Adler, S., 355, 365
Ahlstrom, E. H., 265, 270
Alden, R. H., 101, 138
Alexander, G., 26
Alexeieff, A., 80, 91, 390, 397, 640,
641
Allee, W. C, 112, 136
Allegre, C. F., 297, 307, 545, 566
Allen, Ena A., 594
Allen, W. E., 327, 329
Allman, G. J., 16, 75
Altenberg, E., 241, 243
Alvey, C. H., 102, 138
Amberson, W. R., 117, 136
Andai, G., 371, 397
Anderson, A. P., 355, 367
Andresen, N., 82, 106, 107, 115, 116
121, 136, 442, 466
Andrews, Bess J., 404, 414
Andrews, E. A., 808, 809, 811
Andrews, J., 388, 395, 397, 403, 579,
582, 594
Andrews, J. M., 607, 626
Andrews, Mary N., 387, 398
Anfinsen, C. B., 889, 902
Angerer, C. A., 437, 466
Anigstein, L., 713, 720
Aragao, H. B., 283, 290, 594, 619
Arantes, J. B., 625, 626
Arcichovskij, V., 46, 91
Aris, F. W., 606, 627
Arndt, A., 156
Atchley, F. O., 622, 626, 889
Auerbach, M., 643, 649, 657, 663
Awerinzew, G. W., 859, 861
Awerinzew, S., 663, 820; 826
B
Babudieri, B., 639, 641
Baker, H., 11, 16
Balamuth, W., 176, 213, 452, 466,
811, 888, 889, 901
Balbiani, G., 13, 14, 16
Balech, E., 299, 307, 312, 329, 816,
826
Ball, G. H., 547, 560, 566
Bancroft, M. J., 665
Baraban, L.,F639, 641
Barbagallo, P., 466
Barker, H. A., 175, 178, 213, 222
Barksdale, W. L., 586, 594
Barnes, W. B., 388, 398
Barrera, A., 618, 632
Barret, H. P., 15, 16, 458, 466, 886,
889
Bartlett, D. E., 388, 398
Bary, B. M., 107, 136, 706, 720
Bass, C. C., 889, 901
Basu, S. P., 649, 664
Bayon, H. P., 336, 338
Beauchamp, P. d., 721
Becker, E. R., 105, 136, 335, 338, 353,
354, 365, 390, 398, 403, 466, 576,
577, 579, 580, 594, 595, 596, 598,
617, 626, 817, 818, 821, 822, 826,
828, 893, 901
Beers, C. D., 91, 110, 136, 150, 153,
175, 176, 177, 178, 209, 214, 698,
704, 720, 747, 754, 758, 772, 779,
787, 798, 811
Behrend, K., 150
BSlaf, K., 44, 91, 156, 163, 166, 167,
168, 175, 205, 207, 208, 209, 214,
362, 365, 371, 398, 407, 414, 480,
491, 507, 515, 573, 595, 881, 883, 901
Belda, W. H., 117, 120, 136, 141, 442
446, 883
Belkin, M., 105, 106, 137
Bellerive, A., 606, 632
Beltran, E., 685, 688, 803, 811
Bennett, S. C. J., 230, 244
Ber, M., 355, 365
Berenberg-Gossler, H., 629
Berlin, H., 531, 566
Bernheimer, A. W., 241, 243
Bernstein, T., 117, 139, 404, 414
Berthold, C, 122, 136
Bhatia, B. L., 533, 534, 566, 685, 688
Biggar, Ruth B., 750, 800, 811
Bijlmer, J., 901
Bischoff, A. L., 620, 629
Bishop, Ann, 167, 336, 338, 386, 390,
398, 459, 463, 466, 615, 626
Bishop, E. L. Jr., 854, 861
Blattner, H., 129, 130, 136, 803, 811
Blanc, G., 625, 628
Bland, P. B., 26, 35
Bliznick, A., 582, 595
Bloom, W., 602, 630
Boeck, W. C., 16, 167, 374, 375, 398,
447, 450, 451, 887, 901
Bodine, J. H., 175, 214
Boell, E. J., 196, 197, 214
Bohm, A., 326, 330
Bogenko, W. P., 903
Bold, H. C., 282, 283, 284, 288, 290
Boley, L. E., 401
Bond, F. F., 658, 663
Borchert, A., 679
905
906
PROTOZOOLOGY
Borgert, A., 163, 168, 326, 330, 525
Botsford, Emily F., 119, 136
Boughton, D. C, 577, 585, 586, 595
Boughton, Ruth B., 585, 595
Bowling, R. C, 207, 215, 566
Boyd, M. F., 32, 226, 600, 602, 604,
605, 606, 607, 608, 609, 626, 627
Bozler, E., 136, 743, 754
Brachet, J., 212, 214
Brackett, S., 582, 595
Brady, B. H., 504
Braem, F., 679
Brandly, C. A., 388, 401
Brandt, K., 102, 212, 516, 524
Bremer, H., 168, 655, 663
Brent, M. M., 452, 466
Bresslau, E., 55, 91, 747
Bretschneider, L. H., 817, 827
Breuer, R., 491
Brodsky, A., 74, 91, 893, 901
Brown, E. M., 321, 330
Brown, H. P., 53, 54, 91
Brown, J. A., 597
Brown, V. E., 63, 78, 79, 91, 406, 410,
414
Bruce, D., 14, 16
Brug, S. L., 101, 136, 614, 628
Brumpt, E., 349, 365, 617, 628, 799,
811, 826, 827
Buddenbrock, W. v., 170, 214
Butschli, O., 13, 14, 16, 112, 122, 126,
136, 187, 214, 253, 269, 663, 688,
744
Bullington, W. E., 128, 129, 136, 742,
754, 758, 772, 843, 845
Bundesen, H. N., 449, 466
Bunting, Martha, 371, 398
Buonanni, F., 11, 16
Burbank, W. D., 762, 772
Burk, Myrle, 433, 434
Burks, C, 466
Burnside, L. H., 213, 214, 806
Burroughs, R. D., 176, 218
Burt, R, L., 66, 91, 150, 214, 745, 747,
754
Busch, W., 816, 826
Buschkiel, Marianne, 566
Bush, Mildred, 694, 698, 788, 817,
826
Butcher, A. D., 710, 720
Butterfield, Winifred, 197, 220
Calkins, G. N., 6, 13, 16, 44, 45, 82,
97, 136, 146, 149, 163, 169, 176,187,
190, 206, 207, 209, 214, 228, 243,
265, 318, 330, 566, 704, 717, 720,
769, 806, 814, 835, 843, 845, 865
Callender, G. R., 633
Calvez, J. le., 496, 504
Campbell, A. S., 63, 751, 754, 816,
828
Canella, M. F., 727, 735
Cannon, P. R., 615, 628
Cantrell, W., 602, 630
Carini, A., 459, 466, 663, 685, 688,
800, 811
Carr, H. P., 606, 628
Casagrandi, O., 466
Cash, J., 425, 466, 491, 506, 515
Catanel, A., 633
Caullery, M., 641, 663
Cavallini, F., 859, 861
C§pede, C, 649, 664, 691, 698
Cerny, W., 618, 620, 628
Chadefoud, M., 81, 91
Chagas, C, 166, 467
Chakravarty, M., 566, 586, 595, 649,
664
Chalkley, H. W., 20, 35, 135, 139,
169, 215, 216, 437, 466, 882
Chambers, R., 22, 35, 870, 878
Chang, S. L., 451
Chatterjee, G. B., 533, 534, 566
Chatton, E., 56, 66, 74, 76, 92, 167,
213, 215, 228, 312, 321, 330, 625,
628, 678, 679, 721, 735, 754, 774,
776, 781, 782, 783, 784, 785, 786,
787, 789, 795, 844, 845, 893, 901
Cheissin, E., 691, 698, 779, 787
Chen, T. T., 154, 166, 168, 189, 194,
195, 196, 202, 215, 221, 459, 467,
470, 616, 628, 688, 689
Chen, Y. T., 53, 54, 55, 92, 100, 101,
105, 133, 137, 304, 307
Chernin, E., 622, 628
Christensen, J. F., 579, 595, 817, 828
Christiansen, Elizabeth B., 167, 401
Cienkowski, L., 425
Claff, C. L., 104, 109, 137, 140, 150,
176, 214, 218, 754, 755, 772, 884,
901
Claparede, J., 12, 16
Clark, A. M., 117, 137, 212, 215
Clarke, C. H. D., 617, 622, 628
Clarke, D. H., 617, 628
Clegg, M. T., 15, 18, 883
Cleveland, L. R., 8, 16, 29, 34, 35,
42, 77, 92, 99, 105, 106, 118, 136,
159. 160, 167, 168, 170, 185, 215,
216, 226, 243, 378, 379, 380, 389,
398, 404, 409, 411, 412, 414, 415,
447, 458, 467, 744, 754, 888, 902
Coatney, G. R., 351, 367, 592, 598,
614, 615, 618, 620, 628, 631
Coggeshall, L. T., 22, 36, 602, 606,
607, 614, 617, 627, 628, 631, 634
Cohn, F. J., 12, 16
Cohn, L., 655, 664
Cole, F. J., 16
Coleman, L. C, 898, 902
Collier, Jane, 92, 137, 216, 398, 415
Collin, B., 60, 172, 253, 780, 878
Conklin, C, 691, 698
Connal, A., 585, 595
Connell, F. H., 63, 150, 378, 398, 788
AUTHOR INDEX
90<
Conolly, G. I., 466
Conrad, W., 257, 258, 259, 260, 267,
270, 279, 290, 297, 299, 307, 320,
321, 330
Cook, W. R. I., 433, 434
Cordero, E. H., 656, 664
Coria, N. A., 21, 36, 884, 902
Corliss, J. O., 760, 772
Cosmovici, N. L., 102, 137
Coulston, F., 602, 630
Coventry, F. A., 351, 365
Craig, C. F., 449, 467
Crawley, H., 350, 365, 543, 551, 555,
566, 641, 827
Crouch, H. B., 577, 580, 594, 595
Crow, W. B., 290
Crump, Lettice M., 176, 178, 216
Culbertson, J. T., 33, 36
Cull, S. W., 187, 190, 215
Cupp, Easter E., 167
Curtis, W. C, 744, 754
Cushman, J. A., 47, 92, 496, 504
Cutler, D. W., 15, 16, 176, 215, 410,
415
Czurda, V., 90
da Cunha, A. M., 307, 649,
800, 804, 811, 812, 827
da Cunha, A. X., 860, 861
da Fonseca, O. O. R., 377,
664
Dallinger, W. H., 21, 36
Dangeard, P. A., 167, 291,
893
Daniel, G. E., 135, 137,
216, 466
Daniels, E. W., 135, 137,
Darby, H. H., 26, 27, 36, 17
Darling, S. T., 351, 365,
639, 641
Das-Gupta, M., 817, 827
Dass, C. M. S., 151, 216
Davaine, C. J., 14, 16
Davies, D. M., 622, 629
Davis, Betty S., 351, 365
Davis, H. S., 167, 372, 393,
467, 648, 649, 652, 654,
878
Davis, T. G., 169, 216, 824,
Dawson, J. A., 101 105,
153, 177, 216, 437, 467
de Bary, A., 429, 434
De Garis, C. F., 191, 216,
243
De la Arena, J. F., 104, 137
Debaisieux, P., 154, 168,
645, 655, 657, 660, 664,
DeCoursey, J. D., 670, 681
Deeds, O. J., 583, 595
Deflandre, G., 267, 270,
476, 484, 491
664, 735,
398, 649,
308, 467,
169, 215,
442, 467
5,216
605, 628,
, 398,
664,
464,
865,
, 827
106,
137,
228,
237,
590,
672,
595,
680
341,
366,
Dellinger, O. P., 53, 54, 92, 122, 123,
137
Delphy, Jean, 691, 698
Dembowski, J., 129, 132, 137
Denecke, K, 349, 365
Dennis, E. W., 32, 36, 622, 628
Deschiens, R., 22, 36
Desowitz, R. S., 337, 338
Dewey, Virginia C, 97, 101, 104,
106, 136, 140, 176, 244, 702, 721,
754, 808, 811, 884, 902
Dias, E., 349, 365
Dibb, M. J., 457, 469, 565, 566
Dierks, K., 92, 806, 811
Diesing, K. M., 12
Diller, W. F., 150, 151, 169, 189, 190,
205, 216, 218, 743, 744, 754, 755,
762, 766, 772, 860, 861
Dimitrowa, A., 743, 755
Dippell, Ruth V., 193, 221, 240, 243
Diwald, K., 326, 330
Dixon, A. E., 106
Dobell, C, 5, 11, 13, 16, 34, 36, 154,
156,168, 176, 179,183,208,216,226
243, 337, 338, 373, 385, 386, 387,
399, 412, 415, 425, 444, 447, 455,
459, 460, 461, 462, 463, 467, 573,
584, 586, 595, 887, 902
Doflein, F., 13, 17, 51, 92, 115, 137,
163, 167, 172, 253, 257, 258, 264,
269, 270, 283, 291, 425, 565, 670,
688, 824, 827
Dogiel, V., 70, 88, 92, 291, 399, 415,
717, 721, 750, 753, 755, 817, 822,
824, 827
Donne, A., 399
Donovan, C, 15, 17
d'Orbigny, A., 11, 17
Doudoroff, M., 21, 36
Douglas, M., 467
Downs, W. G., 606, 628
Doyle, W. L., 82, 94, 97, 101, 106,
107, 120, 121, 137, 139, 140, 274,
275, 437, 469
Dragesco, J., 76, 92, 273, 274, 275
Drbohlav, J., 16, 354, 365, 447, 887,
901
Drew, A. H., 451
Drew, G. H., 31, 36
Dropkin, V. H., 404, 415
Duboscq, O., 35, 36, 77, 79, 92, 157,
168, 252, 379, 399, 406, 407, 409,
415, 425, 567, 575, 596, 672, 681
Ducornet, J., 721
Dufour, L., 13, 17
Dujardin, F., 11, 12, 17, 388
Duke, H. L., 552, 566
Dunihue, F. W., 102, 138, 856
Dunkerly, J. S., 170, 183, 314, 330,
489, 491, 649, 658, 664
Dusi, H., 26
Dutton, J. E., 15, 17
908
PROTOZOOLOGY
E
Earle, W. C, 606, 628
Eddy, S., 312, 330
Edelman, M. H., 889, 903
Edgar, S. A., 113, 137
Edwards, J. J., 101
Efimoff, W. W., 22, 36
Ehrenberg, C. G., 12, 17
Eichhorn, J. C, 11, 17
Eimer, T., 14, 17
Eisenberg, E., 119, 137
Elkeles, G., 348, 365
Elliott, A. M., 106, 167, 277, 291
Elliott, E. W., 434
Ellis, J., 11, 17, 75
Ellis, M. M., 543, 552, 556, 566
Emik, L. O., 99, 138
Emmerson, M. A., 136, 388, 403,
817, 826
Emmet, J., 134, 138
Engel, Fr., 106, 136
Engelmann, T. W., 63, 102, 138
Engley, F. B., 402
Enriques, P., 169, 206, 209, 216
Entz, G., 176, 217, 281, 291, 326,
330, 371, 464, 467
Erdmann, Rhoda, 151, 222, 655, 664
Evans, F. R., 178, 218, 748, 755
Everritt, Martha G, 217
Fabyan, M., 337, 338
Fair, G. M., 451
Fallis, A. M., 616, 622, 628, 629
Fantham, H. B., 649, 664, 671, 672,
680
Farber, S. M., 390, 402
Farkas, B., 876, 878
Farrar, C. L., 670, 680
Faure, Alice, 390, 399
Faure-Fremiet, E., 28, 36, 82, 113,
138, 213, 217, 690, 698, 713, 714,
721, 725, 735, 761, 763, 769, 772,
795, 856, 859, 860, 861, 865, 878
Fedorowa, T., 817, 827
Feo, L. G., 387, 399, 402
Ferber, K. E., 817, 827
Fernandez, D. F.-G., 687, 689, 817,
827
Fernandez-Galiano, D., 806, 811
Ferrebee, J. W., 609, 629
Feulgen, R., 898, 902
Feulgen-Brauns, Frieda, 898, 902
Fiebiger, J., 584, 595
Fiene, A. R., 403
Filice, F. P., 393, 399
Finley, H. E., 24, 36, 118, 169, 178,
199, 217, 855, 856, 861, 862
Fischer, A., 53, 92
Fish, F. F., 579, 580, 582, 595, 649,
664
Foa, Anna, 397, 399, 406, 410, 416,
Foyn, B., 476, 491
Foner, A., 586, 596
Fortner, H., 120, 138
Foster, A. O., 582, 596
Fott, B., 167, 306, 308
Franz, V., 253
Fraser, L. A., 137
Frenz, O., 579, 597
Frisch, J. A., 25, 36, 118, 138
Fritsch, F. E., 270, 271, 275, 291,
308, 330
Frosch, P., 217
Froud, Joan, 836, 845
Fry, W. E., 626, 633
Frye, W. W., 226, 243, 450, 452,
453, 577, 594, 888
Fujita, T., 649, 664
Fuller, H. S., 357, 365
Fulton, J. D., 605, 632
Fulton, J. F. Jr., 859, 860, 861
Furgason, W. H., 225, 243, 747, 756,
760, 772
Furssenko, A., 857, 861
Fyg, W., 670, 680
Galli-Valerio, B., 390, 399
Galtsoff, P. S., 38, 311, 330, 560, 567,
903
Garnham, P. C C, 602, 603, 604,
629, 633
Garnjobst, L., 175, 217
Gatenby, J. B., 79, 303, 308
Gates, G. E., 566
Gaw, H. Z., 120, 138, 841, 845
Gaylord, H. R., 21, 36
Geckler, R. P., 239, 243
Gehenio, P. M., 22, 38
Geiman, Q. M., 357, 365, 374, 399,
453, 459, 467, 470, 609, 629, 706,
721, 804, 812, 887, 889, 902, 903
Geitler, L., 90, 92, 282, 291, 326, 330,
365
Gelei, G. v., 84, 138, 765, 772
Gelei, J. v., 56, 66, 68, 92, 101, 119,
138, 725, 735, 742, 743, 755, 898,
902
Georgevitch, J., 35, 36, 168, 649, 658,
665
Gerloff, J., 277, 291
Giese, A. C, 46, 92, 101, 138, 192,
202, 217, 803
Gillette, H. P. S., 606
Gilman, L. C, 192, 217
Gilmore, H. R., Jr., 640, 641
Glaessner, K., 106
Glaser, R. W., 21, 36, 350, 354, 365,
884, 902
Gluge, G., 14, 17
Gohre, E., 112, 138, 528, 566
Gonnert, R., 864, 865, 878
Goethard, 317
Goette, A., 483, 491
AUTHOR INDEX
909
Goidics, Mary, 294, 308
Go'ldfuss, G. A., 11, 17
Goldstein, L., 35
Golgi, C, 14, 17, 66
Gonder, R., 629
Goodey, T., 423, 425
Goodrich, E. S., 539, 567
Goodrich, Helen P., 528, 538, 539,
547, 550, 567
Goodrich, J. P., 874, 878
Goor, A. C. J. Van, 318, 330
Gordienko, M., 299
Graham, H. W., 330
Granata, L., 661, 663, 665
Grasse, P. P., 35, 36, 77, 79, 80, 82,
92, 138, 157, 217, 269, 341, 344,
362, 365, 370, 374, 376, 379, 385,
390, 399, 406, 407, 408, 409, 415,
685, 689, 893, 902
Grassi, B., 391, 399, 405, 406, 409,
410, 412, 414, 415, 416, 605
Gray, J., 127, 129, 138
Greeff, R., 106, 138, 441, 467
Greeley, A. W., 22, 36
Greenwood, Marion, 102, 138
Gregory, Louise H., 169, 206, 747,
755
Greiner, J., 168
Grell, K. G., 563, 567
Gremsbergen, C., 117
Griffin, A. M., 176, 221, 756
Grocott, R. G., 626, 631
Groot, A. A. de, 440, 467
Gros, GM 14, 17, 456
Gross, F., 317, 330
Grosse-Allerman, W., 212
Gruber, A., 212, 717, 747
Gruby, D., 14, 17
Gruithuisen, F. v., 11
Giinther, F., 294, 308
Guido, V. M., 25, 38
Guilcher, Yvette, 217, 847, 849, 863,
878
Guimaraes, J. R. A., 649, 665
Gulati, A. N., 685, 688
Gurley, R. R., 649, 665
Guthrie, Mary J., 744, 754
Gutierrez-Ballesteros, E., 467
H
Haagen-Smit, A. J., 178, 217, 222
Haas, G., 709, 721
Haase, A., 582, 596
Hackett, L. W., 605, 629
Haeckel, E. H., 5, 12, 17, 39, 61, 92,
525
Haecker, V., 525
Hagelstein, R., 430, 434
Hager, Anna, 595
Hahnert, W. F., 882, 902
Hake, T. G., 13, 17
Hakansson, E. G., 226, 245
Halberstaedter, L., 134, 138
Hale, H. P., 22, 35
Hall, C. E., 53, 56, 73, 93
Hall, Phoebe R., 594
Hall, R. P., 26, 79, 80, 81, 92, 97,
102, 112, 138, 166, 167, 170, 217,
303, 304, 308, 314, 326, 330, 839,
845, 856, 884, 902
Hall, S. R., 16, 92, 137, 216, 398,
404, 415
Haller, E. v., 349, 365
Hamilton, J. M., 808, 812
Hammond, D. M., 66, 92, 577, 596,
841, 845
Hardcastle, A. B., 577, 584, 596
Hardin, G., 25, 28, 36, 343, 366, 744,
755
Harding, J. P., 120, 137
Hardy, A. V., 449, 467
Harper, R. A., 291
Harris, J., 11, 17
Harrison, J. A., 241, 243
Harting, 11
Hartman, E., 615, 629
Hartmann, M., 166, 210, 217, 287,
290, 291, 350, 366, 443, 467
Hartog, M., 106
Harvey, E. N., 114, 138, 318, 330
Hassanein, M. H., 32, 37, 670, 680
Hatt, P., 558, 560, 567
Hauschka, T. S., 168, 207, 217, 227,
243, 590
Hawes, R. S., 167, 387, 399
Hawkins, P. A., 596
Haye, A., 87, 93
Hayes, M. L., 44, 73, 93, 149
Hegner, R. W., 8, 17, 212, 225, 243,
364, 366, 393, 395, 399, 461, 468,
491, 614, 615, 625, 629, 686, 689,
735, 798, 812, 883
Heidenhain, M., 44
Heidenreich, E., 691, 698
Heidt, K., 113, 138
Heinsius, 317
Hemming, F., 444, 468
Henderson, J. C., 445, 468
Henneguy, G., 372, 807
Henry, Dora P., 543, 545, 579, 580,
582, 586, 596
Herfs, A., 93, 118, 138
Herman, C. M., 615, 617, 620, 629,
631, 634
Herrick, C. A., 137
Herrlich, A., 586, 596
Hertel, E., 133
Hertwig, R., 44, 93, 190, 204, 217, 519
525
Hesse, E., 535, 567, 584, 590, 596,
658, 666, 669, 670, 676, 677, 680,
681
Hester, H. R., 401
Hetherington, A., 27
Hetherington, D. C, 674, 681
Hewer, H. R., 82
910
PROTOZOOLOGY
Hewitt, D. C, 177, 216
Hewitt, R., 468, 615, 620, 629
Hickson, S. J., 684
Hieronymus, G., 185
Higgins, Helen T., 805, 812
Hill, J., 11, 17
Hill, R. B., 606, 628
Hinshaw, H. C, 167, 217
Hinshaw, W. R., 377, 393, 401
Hirschfield, H. I., 134, 141, 859, 861
Hirschler, J., 79
Hiwatashi, K., 192, 197, 217
Hoare, C. A., 230, 244, 457, 468, 824,
827
Ilofeneder, H., 326, 330, 341
Hofker, J., 318, 330, 816, 827
Hogan, M. J., 626, 629
Hogue, Mary J., 118, 138, 364, 366,
387, 388, 399, 468, 885, 902
Hollande, A., 76, 93, 257, 270, 273,
274, 275, 276, 281, 291, 293, 294,
303, 304, 306, 308, 362, 366, 370,
399, 441, 468
Holmes, F. O., 354, 366, 470
Holter, H., 104, 106, 107, 115, 121,
136, 138
Honess, R. F., 579, 596
Honigberg, B., 363, 366, 389, 400
Hoogenraad, H. R., 472, 480, 486,
491
Hopkins, D. L., 104, 139
Horning, E. S., 80, 81, 82, 93, 95
Horvath, J. v., 133, 139, 154, 217,
832, 845, 898, 902
Houlihan, R. K., 106, 143
Houwink, A. L., 54, 93, 94
Hovasse, R., 109, 142, 250, 253, 324,
330, 699
Howland, Ruth, 26, 37, 46, 93, 104,
117, 139
Hsiung, T. S., 335, 338, 399, 717, 719,
721, 750, 753, 755, 824, 826, 827,
873
Huff, C. G., 246, 602, 604, 615, 616,
617, 618, 620, 622, 629, 630, 632,
633, 878
Huizinga, H., 577, 596
Hulpieu, H. R., 117, 139
Hungate, R. E., 404, 416
Hunninen, A. V., 393, 400
Husnot, P., 488, 491
Hutchinson, C. M., 670, 680
Hutchinson, H. B., 9, 19
Hutner, S. H., 108, 139, 884, 902
Huxley, J., 541
Huygens, 11
Hyman, Libbie H., 5, 17, 124, 139,
304, 308, 440, 468
Ibara, Y., 175, 176, 219
Ikeda, I., 576, 661, 665
Illing, Margaret A., 496, 504
Ilowaisky, S. A., 178, 217
Inman, O. L., 133
Ito, T., 464, 468
Ivanic, M., 145, 169, 176, 218, 335,
366, 487, 491, 732, 735
J
Jacob, V. P., 606, 632
Jacobs, D. L., 321, 330
Jacobs, L., 626, 630
Jacobson, Irene, 66, 70, 93
Jaczo, I., 649, 665
Jahn, E., 429, 434
Jahn, T. L., 21, 26, 37, 106, 118, 139,
293, 297, 303, 307, 308, 583, 595,
649, 667, 854, 861, 862, 874, 878,
894, 902
Jahoda, Posa, 277, 292
Jakubowska, Wanda, 861
Jakus, Marie A., 53, 56 ,73, 93
James, S. P., 600, 602, 607, 630
Jameson, A. P., 168, 208, 218, 567,
649, 665, 670, 680, 735, 799, 812
Janda, Y, 34, 37, 676, 677, 680
Janet, C, 291
Janicki, C, 77, 93, 167, 397, 399, 407,
416, 466, 468
Jaquette, D. S., 641
Jarocki, J., 774, 779, 783, 784, 787,
861
Jefferey, G. M., 617, 630
Jennings, H. S., 7, 13, 18, 122, 130,
131, 132, 135, 139, 192, 194, 196,
206, 210, 211, 218, 225, 229, 244,
484, 491, 744, 755, 802
Jensen, P., 132
Jepps, Margaret W., 226, 243, 418,
425, 462, 468, 473, 491, 694, 699
Jickeli, C. F., 202, 218
Jirovec, O., 34, 37, 55, 66, 93, 115,
139, 663, 665, 670, 674, 676, 677,
678, 680
Joblot, L., 11, 18
Johns, F. M., 889, 901
Johnson, D. F., 26, 301, 308
Johnson, G., 386, 402
Johnson, H. P., 591, 598
Johnson, J. G, 885, 902
Johnson, L. P., 90, 294, 297, 308
Johnson, P. L., 437, 440, 469
Johnson, W. H., 178, 218, 748, 755
Johnston, T. H., 665
Johnstone, H. G., 456, 468
Jollos, Y, 45, 227, 228, 229, 244,442,
443, 468, 476, 491
Jones, A. W., 567
Jones, E. E. Jr., 727, 735
Jones, E. P., 27
Jones, F. E., 626, 630
Jones, P. M., 433, 434
Joyet-Lavergne, Ph., 79, 82
Joyeux, C, 826, 827
Jung, \Y, 490, 491
AUTHOR INDEX
911
Kahl, A., 59, 73, 75, 688, 690, 706,
708, 710, 712, 714, 717, 721, 728,
736, 740, 742, 762, 767, 772, 803,
804, 812, 814, 827, 829, 831, 847,
848, 850, 856, 857, 858, 861,863,
868, 878
Kahler, H., 135, 139
Kaleita, E., 466
Kalmus, H., 117
Kamm, Minnie W., 541, 542, 545
567
Kamptner, E., 267, 270
Kar, A., 586, 595
Railing, J. S., 434
Kartchner, J. A., 596
Kater, J. M., 176, 218
Katzin, L. I., 404, 416
Kay, M. M., 169, 218
Kay, Marie W., 693, 699
Kean, B. H., 640, 641
Keen, Jean, 311, 331
Keidel, H. J. W., 54, 94
Keilin, D., 541, 567, 678, 679, 680
699 ...
Keller, H., 468
Kent, W. S., 269, 688, 736, 845, 854
858, 861, 877, 878
Kellicott, D. S., 771, 854
Kepner, W. A., 139
Kessel, J. F., 451
Kessler, W. R., 467
Ketchum, B. H.r311, 331
Keysselitz, G., 168, 648, 659, 665
Khainsky, A., 103, 139
Kidder, G. W., 26, 37, 63, 66, 76
83, 93, 97, 101, 104, 106, 109, 136,
139, 140, 150, 152, 164, 169, 176,
210, 214, 218, 227, 244, 374, 691
699, 702, 721, 733, 736, 754, 755,
756, 760, 761, 762, 766, 772, 774
776, 777, 787, 810, 812, 884, 902 '
Kikuth, W., 630
Kilborne, F. L., 14, 19, 633
Kimball, R. F., 146, 153, 193, 194
196, 219, 228, 230, 234, 235, 238
244, 839
Kimura, G. G., 377, 400
Kimura, T. E., 117, 142
Kinder, E., 54, 94
King, R. L., 84, 93
King, S. D., 79
King, W. V., 606, 630
Kingsbury, B. F., 82
Kirby, H. Jr., 35, 37, 71, 78, 93, 101,
107, 140, 157, 167, 168, 363, 366,
369, 371, 377, 379, 381, 383, 384
385, 388, 389, 391, 397, 400, 404
412, 416, 444, 445, 468, 715, 72l'
731, 736, 742, 755, 800, 807, 81o'
812, 894, 902
Kirkegaard, D., 862
Kitchen, S. F., 605, 606, 607, 608,
609, 610, 611, 627, 630
Kitching, J. A., 102, 118, 119, 120
140
Klebs, G., 21, 37, 250
Klein, B. M., 56, 57, 66, 68, 93, 107,
740, 898, 903
Kleinschmidt, A., 54, 94
Kloss, H., 14, 18
Kliiver, Cessa, 612, 633
Klug, G., 334, 338, 371, 396, 400
Koch, Dorothy A., 456, 468
Koehler, O., 132, 140
Kolliker, R. A. v., 14, 18
Konig, A., 787
Koster, W., 744, 755
Koffman, M., 175, 178, 219
Kofoid, C. A., 45, 55, 66, 76, 77, 93,
108, 134, 140, 141, 154, 157, 167
168, 219, 291, 312, 316, 327, 329
331, 374, 377, 379, 390, 393, 395,
401, 416, 468, 776, 787, 788, 816,
817, 818, 819, 821, 822, 826, 828,
841, 845, 852, 861
Kohler, A., 132, 669, 680
Koidzumi, M., 379, 401, 404, 406
414, 416
Kolkwitz, R., 23, 37
Koltzoff, N. K., 61, 94
Komada, K., 101, 143, 813
Komp, W. H. W., 606, 630
Konsuloff, S., 684, 685, 689
Kopac, M. J., 104, 106, 139
Korotoneff, A., 681
Korschelt, E., 219
Korshikov, A. A., 262
Kotlan, A., 377, 401
Kozloff, E. N., 357, 366, 388, 401,
760, 772, 778, 780, 782, 784, 788
Kraneveld, F. C., 54, 94
Krascheninnikow, S., 736
Kremp, A., 678, 679
Krichenbauer, H., 297, 308
Krijgsman, B. J., 127, 140, 360, 395,
402 > > > ,
Kriiger, F., 71, 73, 76, 94, 758, 773
Krukenberg, W., 106
Kruse, W., 630
Kruszynski, J., 743, 755
Kuczynski, M. H., 167, 385, 401
Kudo, R. R., 8, 9, 11, 18, 32, 35, 37,
42, 46, 62, 82, 94, 99, 121, 133, 140,
146, 150, 163, 167, 168, 170, 176,
179, 219, 353, 366, 407, 408, 416,
437, 440, 441, 442, 445, 462, 468,
649, 651, 655, 656, 658, 659, 660,
665, 666, 669, 670, 671, 672, 674,
676, 681, 710, 721, 798, 804, 812
Kudrjewzew, W. A., 903
Kuenen, W. A., 450, 469
Kiihn, A., 168, 178, 181, 219, 425
Kuhne, W., 22, 37
Kunstler, J., 71, 369
912
PROTOZOOLOGY
Kunze, W., 168
Kupper, W. H., 608, 6"
Kylin, H., 90, 94
Labb6, A., 545, 553, 557, 558, 565,
681
Lachmann, J., 12, 16
Lackey, J. B., 23, 37, 166, 258, 261,
262, 270, 304, 306, 308, 343, 344,
366, 755, 829, 831
Laidlaw, P. P., 176, 216, 887, 902
Laird, JVL, 353, 366, 617, 618, 630
Lamarck, C. d., 11
Lambert, S. W., 641
Lambl, W., 401
Lamy, L., 797, 812
Landau, Helen, 560, 567
Landis, E. M., 153, 219
Langmuir, A. D., 607, 626
Lankester, E. R., 45
Lapage, G., 101, 140, 366, 440, 469,
579, 596
Lauterborn, R., 23, 37
Larson, Enid, 748, 755
Laveran, A., 14, 18, 228, 351, 353,
366, 622, 630
Lavier, G., 395, 401
Lawrie, N. R., 106
Lebour, Marie V., 331
Leegaard, C, 706, 721
Leeuwenhoek, A. v., 10, 11, 13
Leger, L., 168, 252, 543, 544, 554,
555, 557, 562, 567, 570, 575, 584,
596, 654, 658, 666, 669, 670, 672,
676, 681
Leger, M., 620, 622
Leidy, J., 12, 18, 357, 366, 401, 412,
416, 425, 437, 445, 469, 491, 515,
567
Leiner, M., 106, 140
Leishman, W. B., 15, 18
Lemmermann, E., 309, 338, 366
Lepsi, J., 843, 845
Leuchtenberger, Cecilie 43, 95
Leuckart, G G. F. R., 14, 18,
LeVeque, J. A., 754, 756
Levine, N. D., 388, 401, 577, 580,
583, 596, 799, 812
Levinsohn, L. B., 62, 95, 104, 143
Lewert, R. M., 617, 630
Lewis, T. R., 14, 18
Lieberkuhn, N., 60
Lieberman, P. R., 742, 756
Liebmann, H., 168, 219, 586, 596
Liesche, W., 168, 219, 437, 469
Light, S. F., 167, 383, 401, 404, 410,
412, 416
Lillie, F. R., 213
Lilly, D. M., 109, 140, 772
Lin, C. C, 451, 452
Lindemann, E., 314, 318, 331
Linnaeus, G, 11, 18
Lips, M., 614, 634
List, T., 223, 244
Lister, A., 434, 494
Lloyd, F. E., 119, 140, 420, 425
Loefer, J. B., 25, 26, 37, 280, 291,
304, 309, 744, 756
Lohner, L., 116
Losch, F., 14, 18, 449
Looper, J. B., 30, 38, 464, 470, 507
Louttit, G M., 226, 245
L0vtrup, S., 104, 106, 120, 139, 140
Lucas, Catherine L. T., 445, 459,
462, 469
Lucas, Miriam S., 63, 752, 756, 800,
812
Luce, R. H., 121, 140
Lucet, 622, 630
Ludwig, F. W., 592, 597
Lund, Barbara, 117, 140
Lund, E. E., 63, 66, 67, 94, 577, 597
832, 845
Lund. E. J., 170, 219
Luntz, A., 134, 136, 138, 140, 290,
291
Lutz, A., 666
Lutz, F. E., 38, 903
Luyet, B. J., 22, 38
Lwoff, A., 5, 18, 34, 56, 66, 74, 92,
97, 106, 109, 112, 140, 213, 215,
219, 253, 754, 774, 776, 781, 782,
783, 784, 785, 786, 787, 789, 795
Lwoff, M., 56, 92
Lynch, J., 740, 756
Lynch, J. E., 63, 66, 70, 94, 852
Lynch, K. M., 373, 401, 456
Lynch, R. S., 218, 244, 246
M
MacArthur, W. P., 34
MacBride, T. H., 429, 434
MacCallum, W. G., 14, 18
MacDougall, Mary S., 133, 169, 206,
229, 610, 630, 731, 733, 736
Macfie, J. W. S., 452, 600, 634
Machado, A., 597
MacKinlay, Rose B., 490, 491, 543
Mackinnon, Doris L., 457, 469, 552,
563, 564, 567, 568, 572, 597
MacLennan, R. F., 63, 70, 80, 82, 85,
94, 113, 119, 140, 150, 176, 219,
412, 416, 694, 699, 710, 721, 788,
817, 818, 819, 821, 822, 828, 861
MacNeal, W. J., 15, 19, 351, 367,
631, 886
Maegraith, B., 33, 38, 605, 630
Magath, T. B., 586, 597
Mainx, F., 53, 94, 285, 291, 293,
294, 309
Malmsten, P. H., 14
Manceaux, L., 625, 631
Manifold, J. A., 639
Manresa, M. Jr., 579, 595
Mantz, F. A., Jr., 626, 631
AUTHOR INDEX
913
Manwell, R. D., 169, 219, 605, 608,
615, 617, 625, 631, 633, 838, 845
Marshall, E. K., 597
Marsland, D. A., 891, 902
Marsson, M., 23, 37
Martiis, L. C. de, 567
Martin, C. H., 401
Martin, G. H., 429, 434
Martin, G. W., 312, 320, 326, 331
Martini, E., 212
Mast, S. O., 26, 46, 52, 75, 82, 83,
84, 91, 94, 101, 105, 107, 109, 112,
121, 124, 126, 130, 133, 140, 141,
175, 176, 178, 219, 274, 275, 291,
294, 437, 440, 441, 469, 852, 861,
882
Mathis, C, 620, 622
Matsubayashi, H., 585, 597
Mattes, 6., 893, 902
Matthews, C. B., 610, 627
Maupas, E. F., 13, 187, 190, 193,
199, 202, 209, 219,
Maurer, G., 605, 631
Mavor, J. W., 357, 367, 649, 666
May, G. H., 135, 137
Mayer, M., 631
Mayhew, R. L., 582, 597
Mayne, B., 608, 631
Mazia, D., 133, 141
McBride, E. W., 82
McDonald, J. D., 63, 799, 812
McGann, Virginia G., 244
McKay, F., 337, 338
McKibben, W. R., 297, 308
McLennan, E. I., 423, 425
McNeal, Ethel, 373, 393, 401
Meglitsch, P. A., 445, 469, 649, 655,
656, 666, 798
Mehlman, B., 886, 903
Meldrum, N. U., 118, 141
Meleney, H. E., 226, 243, 244, 448,
450, 452, 453, 470, 888
Mercado, Teresa I., 614, 631
Mercier, L., 168, 187, 444, 469, 546,
568
Merriman, D., 837, 845
Merton, H., 132, 141
Mesnil, F., 351, 353, 366, 591, 641,
663
Metalnikoff, S., 103, 141
Metalnikov, S., 209, 220
Metcalf, M. M., 8, 18, 168, 684, 685,
686, 689
Metchnikoff, E., 102, 141
Metz, C. B., 197, 200
Meyer, S. L., 114, 699
Michaelis, G., 238, 244
Michaelis, P., 238, 244
Michelson, E., 745, 746
Milam, D. F., 614, 631
Miller, E. d. W., 136, 141
Miller, F. W., 388, 397
Miller, W. W., 597
Milovidov, P. F., 433
Minchin, E. A., 40, 55, 253, 367
Missiroli, A., 671, 682
Mitchell, W. H., 177, 216
Miyashita, Y., 699, 788, 794, 795
Mjassnikowa, Marie, 788
Moewus, F., 167, 181, 207, 223, 229,
231, 245, 277, 291
Mohan, B. N., 617, 632
Mohr, J. L., 754, 756, 847, 848
Molisch, H., 22, 38
Moore, Emmeline, 393, 401
Moore, E. N., 597
Moore, Imogene, 79, 209, 803, 812
Morea, L., 26, 27
Morehouse, N. F., 337, 338
Morgan, B. B., 388, 401
Morgan, T. H., 213
Morgenthaler, O., 670, 682
Moroff, T., 597
Morris, S., 445, 469
Moses, M. J., 44, 94
Most, H., 97, 141
Mouton, H., 106, 141, 175, 220
Mowry, Helen A., 817, 828
Moynihan, I. W., 582, 597
Mudrow, Lilly, 615, 631
Miihl, Dorothea, 528, 544, 568
Miiller, J., 12, 517
Mueller, J. F., 859, 861
Miiller, O. F., 11, 13
Miiller, W., 191, 220, 744, 756
Mugard, Helene, 763, 769, 772, 795,
860, 861
Mulligan, H. W., 605, 613, 614, 631,
633
Mulsow, K., 207, 220, 532, 568
Mulsow, W., 169
Murer, H. K., 412, 416
Musacchia, X. J., 442, 469
Musfeldt, I. W., 640, 641
Musgrave, A. J., 563, 568
Musgrave, W. E., 15, 18
Mutafowa, R., 820, 826, 883
Myers, E. H., 168, 494, 496, 504
N
Nabih, A., 590, 597
Nageli, K. W., 682
Nagler, K., 443
Nasset, Elizabeth C., 134, 141
Nassonov, D., 78, 79, 85, 94
Nauss, Ruth N., 424, 425
Naville, A., 157, 168, 187, 208, 220,
563, 565, 568, 573, 590, 597, 646,
649/655, 656, 657, 666 |
Needham, J. G., 23, 38, 881, 903
Negri, A., 641
Neiva, A., 812
Nelson/E. C, 799, 812, 826, 828,
889, 890
Nelson, R., 367
Nemeczek, A., 649, 666, 890
914
PROTOZOOLOGY
Nenninger, Ursula, 850, 852, 853,
854, 856, 857, 862
Neresheimer, E., 52, 61
Nicolle, C, 625, 631, 886
Nie, D., 364, 367, 373, 374, 377, 402,
457, 461, 469, 752, 756, 799, 812
Nieschulz, O., 350, 367, 395, 402, 457,
469
Nigrelli, R. F., 80, 92, 321, 331, 372
402, 655, 666
Niimi, D., 337, 338
Nirenstein, E., 103, 104, 141
Noble, A. E., 852
Noble, E. R., 168, 220, 457, 469,
533, 568, 649, 650, 651, 666
Noble, G. A., 457, 469
Noller, W., 350, 366, 579, 588, 597,
618, 631
Noland, L. E., 27, 38, 116, 141, 200,
220, 388, 401, 701, 705, 706, 712,
713, 717, 721, 725, 728, 736, 767,
769, 771, 773, 800, 812, 841, 846
855, 862
Novy, F. G., 15, 19, 351, 367, 631, 886
Nozawa, T., 585, 597
Nyholm, K.-G., 423, 425
O'Connor, F. W., 373, 450, 451, 452
Oehler, R., 176, 220
Ohmori, J., 680
Oshima, K., 670, 682
Okada, Y. K., 441, 469, 508, 515
Opitz, Pauline, 194, 195, 218
Ordal, E. J., 419, 426
O'Roke, E. C, 620, 631
Owen, H. M., 95, 256, 270, 343
Pace, D. M., 26, 112, 117, 141, 274,
275, 883
Pack, A., 712
Packchanian, A., 349, 367
Paillot, A., 674, 682
Palm, B. T., 433, 434
Palmer, T. C, 299, 309
Pantin, C. F. A., 124, 142
Panzer, T., 114, 142
Parducz, B., 767, 769, 773
Parisi, B., 649, 666
Park, O., 79, 95
Parker, F. L., 496, 504
Parker, R. C, 744, 756
Parks, R. E., Jr. 884, 902
Pascher, A., 167, 181, 250, 252, 253
257, 258, 259, 267, 270, 272, 275,
277, 281, 288, 291, 294, 299, 303,
309, 314, 331, 335, 338, 341, 342,
367
Pasteur, L., 14, 19, 670, 682
Patten, M. W., 153, 220
Patten, R., 168, 574, 597
Patten, Ruth, 684
Patterson, E. K., 106, 137
Patton, W. H., 631
Paul, J. H., 606, 632
Pavillard, J., 292
Pearson, N. E., 710, 721
Pelaez, D., 618, 632
Penard, E., 71, 75, 87, 95, 212, 425,
437, 440, 470, 477, 491, 506, 515,
713, 722, 724, 736, 862
Penfold, W. J., 451
Penn, A. B. K., 169, 190, 220, 838,
846
Pennypacker, M. I., 390, 402
Perard, C, 577, 597, 735
Perez, C, 676, 682
Perty, J. A. M., 12, 19, 477
Perzewa, T. A., 691, 699
Peschkowsky, Ludmilla, 797, 812
Pestel, B., 867, 878
Peters, N., 312, 331
Petersen, J. B., 53, 95, 256
Petruschewsky, G. K., 649, 666
Phelps, A., 27, 38, 112, 743
Phelps, Lillian A., 213
Phleger, F. B., 496, 504
Pickard, Edith A., 63, 95, 142, 779,
788
Piekarski, G, 55, 95, 228, 245
Pierson, Bernice F., 147, 839, 841,
846
Pig6n, A., 120
Piney, A., 82, 95
Pinto, C, 541, 544, 568, 649, 666
Pitelka, Dorothy R., 53, 54, 95, 304,
309
Playfair, G. I., 312, 331
Pochmann, A., 297, 309
Pohl, A. W., 121, 140
Poisson, R., 306, 309, 557, 568, 678,
682
Poljansky, G., 693, 797, 812, 817
Poljanskij, J. I., 699
Pollister, A. W., 43, 95
Popoff, M., 169, 206, 228
Popoff, P. P., 903
Porter, Annie, 664, 671, 672, 680
Porter, R. J., 602, 632
Posey, F. M., 640, 641
Post, Rita J., 496, 504
Powell, W. N., 166, 379, 402
Powers, E. L., 220, 228, 235, 245
Powers, J. H., 287, 292
Powers, P. B. A., 107, 142, 168, 706,
722, 741, 749, 750, 756, 762, 769,
773, 800, 812
Prandtl, H., 168, 206, 220, 705, 722
Prashad, B., 667
Pratje, A., 114, 142, 318, 331
Pratt, H. D., 349, 368
Pratt, I., 597
Precht, H., 850, 862
Preer, J. R. Jr., 239, 240, 241, 245
Prehn, Marianne, 649, 667
AUTHOR INDEX
915
Prescott, G. W., 312, 331
Pringsheim, E. G., 90, 95, 97, 108,
109, 142, 181, 185, 250, 253, 277,
283, 292, 293, 294, 297, 299, 303,
304, 309, 744, 756, 884, 903
Proske, H. O., 605, 627
Prosser, C. L., 126, 141
Provasoli, L., 108, 139, 884, 902
Prowazek, S. v., 169, 744
Pruthi, H. S., 27
Prytherch, H. F., 560, 568
Putter, A., 116, 142
Purkinje, J. E., 12
Putnam, P., 605, 610, 630
Puytorac, P. de, 70, 95, 691, 697, 699
Quinby, G. E., 607, 626
Raabe, H., 148, 165, 220, 440, 470,
836, 846
Raabe, Z., 699, 774, 776, 779, 783,
787, 788
Rafalko, J. S., 168, 220, 436, 470
Raffaele, G., 602, 632
Raffel, D., 218, 244
Rakoff, A. E., 402
Rampi, L., 312, 331, 816, 828
Ramsey, Juanita, 682
Raper, K. B., 433, 434
Ratcliffe, H. L., 459, 467, 470, 632,
799, 887, 903
Ray, Dixie L.,'98, 142
Ray, H. N., 469, 543, 552, 563, 564
Redi, F., 11
Rees, C. W., 63, 388, 398, 402, 624,
632, 735
Regendanz, P., 624, 632
Reichenow, E., 45, 90, 95, 115, 142,
145, 146, 177, 220, 253, 277, 292,
321, 331, 425, 459, 466, 565, 568,
588, 590, 594, 597, 598, 615, 624,
625, 631, 632, 688, 826, 828
Reinhardt, J. F., 579, 598
Renn, C. E., 418, 425
Reuling, F., 387, 402
Reyer, W., 893, 903
Reyes, R. P., 618, 632
Reynaerts-De Pont, F., 117
Reynolds, B. D., 30, 34, 38, 168, 225,
245, 341, 360, 367, 464, 465, 470,
747, 756
Reynolds, Mary E. C, 153, 220,
832, 846
Rhodes, R. G, 371
Rhumbler, L., 97, 105, 122, 123, 133,
142, 220, 504
Rice, N. E., 440, 470
Rice, V. J., 649, 667
Richards, O. W., 112, 142
Richardson, K. C, 82, 95
Richardson, L. R., 664, 672, 680
Rimington, C, 605, 632
Rita, G., 586, 598
Robertson, A., 584, 598
Robertson, Muriel, 367, 401
Robertson, T. B., 110, 111, 112, 142
Rodhain, J., 459, 470
Romanowa, K., 355, 367
Root, F. M., 225, 245, 450, 452, 470,
868, 873, 878
Rose, Elizabeth K., 626, 633
Rose, M., 415
Rosenberg, L. E., 38, 175, 178, 220,
390, 402, 852, 861, 862
Rosenhof, R. v., 11, 19
Roskin, G., 51, 60, 61, 62, 95, 99, 104,
143, 351, 355, 367, 420, 425, 506,
515
Ross, R., 15, 19, 608, 632
Rossenbeck, H., 898, 902
Rossolimo, L. L., 691, 699, 773
Roubaud, E., 452
Roudabush, R. L., 351, 367, 579, 583,
592, 598, 618, 620, 628
Roudsky, D., 228
Routh, C. F., 586, 594
Roux, H., 799, 812
Roux, J., 722, 846
Rudzinska, Maria A., 870, 878
Rumjantzew, A., 45, 51, 95, 112, 143,
508, 515
Russel, E. J., 19
Russell, P. F., 605, 606, 608, 617, 632,
633
Sabin, A. B., 626, 633
Sahrhage, H., 808, 812
Sailey, H. R., 626, 631
Samuels, R., 167, 390, 402
Sanders, Elizabeth P., 16, 92, 137,
216, 226, 243, 398, 415, 447, 458,
459, 467, 470, 888, 902
Sandon, H., 28, 38
Sandza, J. G., 888, 901
Sanford, Mary F., 404, 416
Santos-Pinto, J. d., 327, 331
Sapiro, J. J., 226, 245
Sassuchin, D. N., 115, 143, 894, 903
Sauerbrey, Ernestine, 725, 736, 843,
846
Saunders, E. R., 102, 138
Saunders, J. T., 75, 95
Schaeffer, A. A., 114, 121, 124, 143,
437, 440, 442, 470
Schaudinn, F., 13, 15, 19, 99, 105,
155, 470, 526, 566, 598, 600, 605
633
Schellack, C, 588, 590, 598
Scherffel, A., 250, 253, 257, 271, 360,
367
Schewiakoff, W., 120, 143, 767
Schiffmann, Olga, 544, 568
916
PROTOZOOLOGY
Schiller, J., 257, 258, 267, 271, 281,
292, 312, 316, 318, 320, 324, 328,
331
Schilling, A., 331
Schindera, M., 357, 367
Schischliaiewa, S., 351, 367
Schmahl, O., 175, 221, 797, 798, 813
Schmidt, W., 53, 393, 402
Schneider, A., 545, 557, 568, 598
Schneider, H., 212, 326, 332
Schoenborn, H. W., 26, 38, 302, 309
Schrader, F., 672, 682
Schroder, B., 223, 245
Schroder, O., 61, 95, 667, 682
Schuberg, A., 62, 95, 682, 818
Schubotz, H., 121
Schiiffner, W., 605, 633
Schussler, H., 303, 309
Schulz, J. A., 136, 817, 826
Schulze, B., 277, 280, 288, 289, 292
Schulze, K. L., 143
Schumacher, J., 115
Schumaker, E., 364, 366
Schussnig, B., 420, 425
Schwartz, V., 213, 806, 813
Schwarz, G. A., 626, 633
Scott, J. W., 640, 641
Scott, Miriam J., 799, 813
Scremin, L., 55, 91
Seaman, G. R., 106, 143
Seguela, Josephine, 844, 845
Sergent, Ed., 600, 615, 633
Sergent, Et., 600, 633
Setna, S. B., 566
Seyd, E. L., 803, 813
Shannon, R. C, 606
Shapiro, N. N., 103, 143
Sharp, R., 63, 95, 816, 822
Shaw, W. R., 292
Shawhan, Fae M., 303, 309
Sheather, L., 579
Shortt, H. E., 355, 367, 602, 603, 633
Shumway, W., 323, 332
Siebold, C. T. E. v., 12, 19
Siedlecki, M., 15, 19
Sikama, Y., 710, 722
Silva Estela de S. E., 816, 828
Silverstein, J. K, 467
Simmons, J. S., 633
Simon, C. E., 393, 395, 402
Singh, B. N., 25, 38, 176, 178, 221,
303, 308, 423, 426, 433, 434, 436,
437, 443, 470
Sinton, J. A., 607, 633
Skogsberg, T., 328, 332
Skvortzow, B. W., 277, 292, 297, 299,
309
Slane, Gertrude M., 134, 144
Smith, L., 579, 595
Smith, L. M., 545, 568
Smith, G. M., 271, 282, 285, 292
Smith, Nanine M., 458, 466, 886
Smith, Th., 14, 19, 336, 338, 591,
598, 633
Snyder, T. L., 447, 450, 470
Sokoloff, B., 213, 220
Sonneborn, T. M., 7, 19, 146, 151,
153, 169, 190, 191, 192, 193, 196,
206, 218, 221, 229, 233, 236, 237,
238, 239, 241, 242, 243, 245
Soule, M. H., 117, 143
Southwell, T., 667
Specht, H., 117, 143
Spector, B. K, 226, 449, 467
Speeth, Caroline, 508, 515
Spencer, H., 71, 209, 222, 700, 722
Spiegel, A., 806, 813
Spindler, L. A., 639, 641
Spingarn, C. L., 889, 903
Sprague, V., 168, 208, 221, 529, 544,
568, 638, 641, 656, 666, 682
Sprugel, G., Jr., 28, 38, 806, 813
St. Remy, G., 639, 641
Stabler, R. M., 167, 168, 227, 246,
387, 388, 390, 402, 456, 457, 459,
467, 470
Stammer, H.-J., 854, 862
Starcovici, C, 633
Stein, F., 12, 14, 19, 202, 221, 270,
688, 736, 846
Steinecke, F., 90
Stempell, W., 32, 38, 120, 143, 670,
672, 682
Stern, C, 26, 156, 511, 515
Steuer, A., 324, 332
Stevens, N. M., 788, 811, 813
Stiles, C. W., 722
Stiller, J., 850, 862
Stokes, A. C, 12, 19, 271, 309, 688,
722, 736, 846, 852, 862
Stole, A., 105, 106, 143, 212
Stolkowski, J., 721
Stolte, H. A., 176, 221, 804, 806, 813
Stowell, R. E., 898, 903
Stranghoner, E., 744, 756
Stratman-Thomas, W. K, 602, 607,
608, 609, 627, 633
Strelkow, A., 70, 96, 817, 824, 828
Strickland, A. G., 222, 747, 756
Strong, R. R, 799, 813
Stuart, C. A., 176, 218, 221, 244, 756
Stuckey, R. G., 107, 136, 706, 720
Studitsky, A. N., 779, 788
Stump, A. B., 168, 485, 492
Summers, F. M., 136, 148, 213, 215,
218, 221, 691, 699, 733, 736, 839,
843, 845, 846, 857, 862
Sutherland, J. L., 371, 402, 406, 416
Swaminath, C. S., 355, 367
Swarczewsky, B., 635, 641, 847, 849,
857, 859, 862, 867, 870, 875, 878
Swellengrebel, N. H., 450, 469
Swezey, W. W., 63, 826, 828
Swezy, Olive, 45, 55, 76, 77, 94, 108,
140, 154, 157, 167, 168, 219, 221,
312, 374, 416
AUTHOR INDEX
917
Swirenko, 290, 292
Szab6, M., 828
Taft, C. E., 288, 292
Tai, L.-S., 328, 332
Talbott, Mary, 818, 822, 826
Taliaferro, Lucy G., 351, 368, 612,
614, 633
Taliaferro, W. H., 33, 38, 226, 246,
351, 367, 368, 470, 605, 612, 613,
614, 615, 628, 633
Tanabe, M., 101, 143, 167, 375, 398,
586, 598, 813
Tartar, V., 194, 221
Tate, P., 463, 466, 602, 615, 626, 630
Tavolga, W. N., 372, 402
Taylor, C. V., 57, 63, 65, 70, 96, 129,
143, 175, 178, 213, 222, 747, 756,
884, 903
Teichmann, E., 641
Tejera, E., 453
ten Kate, C. G. B., 62, 68, 96, 686,
689, 705, 710, 722, 804, 806, 813
Terby, J., 168
Terzian, L. A., 617, 633
Thaureaux, J., 113, 138, 856, 861
Theiler, H., 390, 402
Thelohan, P., 584, 598, 649, 667
Thimann, K. V., 178, 222
Thompson, P. E., 602, 617, 618, 633
Thompson, R. H., 312, 313, 314, 318,
320 332
Thompson, Sally, 862
Thomson, D., 450
Thomson, J. G., 367, 450, 584, 598,
605, 634
Thon, K., 96, 153, 222, 704, 722
Thorpe, Mary V., 615, 626
Threlkeld, W. L., 168, 465, 470
Tiffany, L. H., 290, 292
Tobie, Eleanor, J., 96, 886, 903
Tonniges, C, 74, 96
Toit, P. J. d., 622, 634
Trager, W., 106, 143, 391, 402, 617,
634, 885, 889, 903
Travassos, L., 812
Travis, B. V., 374, 377, 388, 395, 402,
548, 566
Treillard, M., 34
Trembley, A., 11, 19
Troisi, R. L., 533, 534, 568
Troitzkaja, O. V., 265, 271
Trussell, R. E., 386, 387, 402, 885,
902
Tsuchiya, H., 395, 403, 582, 594
Turner, J. P., 66, 81, 96, 114, 143,
147, 169, 222, 747, 756, 837, 841,
846
Tyzzer, E. E., 337, 338, 453, 462,
470, 580, 581, 582, 583, 587, 588,
598
U
Uhlhorn, E., 577, 598
Ujihara, K., 226, 246
Uribe, C, 168
Usinger, R. L., 349, 368
Uyemura, M., 21, 38, 774, 777, 788,
800, 813
Valentin, 14, 19
Valkanov, A., 426, 473, 492, 506, 513,
515
Van Overbeek de Meyer, G. A. W.,
685, 689
Van Wagtendonk, W. J., 238, 246,
884, 903
Vasudevan, A., 639
Veley, Lilian J., 107, 143
Verworn, M., 39, 52, 96, 98, 127, 133,
135, 143, 212
Vevers, H. G., 32, 38
Vianna, G., 368
Vickers, Marjorie A., 622, 629
Vincent, Mary, 547, 557, 569, 592,
598
Vida, B. L. D., 586, 598
Vincke, I. H., 614, 634
Visscher, J. P., 63, 73, 96
Vlk, W., 53, 96, 256
Voegtlin, C, 135, 139
Volk, J., 577, 585, 595
Volkonsky, M., 443, 470
Volz, P., 472, 492
von Brand, T., 175, 178, 222, 839,
846, 856, 862, 886, 903
W
Wailes, G. H., 312, 329, 332, 491,
506, 515, 865, 867, 878
Walker, E. L., 471, 883
Wallengren, H., 776, 788, 846, 847,
849, 859, 862
Walton, W. R., 496, 504
Wampler, F. J., 615, 634
Ward, H. B., 667
Warner, Kay L., 104, 139
Warren, A. J., 602, 634
Waters, P. C, 395, 403
Watson, Minnie, 528, 529, 541, 544,
545, 550, 552, 554, 555, 557, 569
Watson, S. W., 418, 419, 426
Weatherby, J. H., 87, 96, 120, 143
Weineck, E., 105, 144
Weiner, Eleanor, 35
Weinman, D., 626, 634
Weinstein, P. P., 349, 368
Weiser, J., 670, 682
Weismann, A., 13, 208
Weissenberg, R., 375, 403, 641, 672,
682
Weisz, P. B., 45, 46, 81, 96, 148, 202
213, 222, 804, 806, 813
918
PROTOZOOLOGY
Wenrich, D. H., 35, 167, 168, 222,
302, 337, 338, 363, 368, 371, 385,
387, 388, 389, 390, 398, 403, 457,
460, 462, 463, 467, 471, 703, 708,
722, 723, 727, 736, 742, 744, 756,
767, 773, 894, 903
Wenyon, C. M., 230, 246, 351, 353,
368, 373, 390, 403, 450, 451, 452,
471, 566, 598, 634, 903
Werbitzki, F., 228
Wermel, E. W., 26, 45, 51, 95, 112,
143, 464, 471, 508, 694, 699
Weschenfelder, R., 168, 208, 222, 555,
560
Wesenberg-Lund, C, 223, 246
West, E., 629
West, G. S., 271, 275, 292
West, L. S., 608, 615, 633
Wetzel, 96, 512, 515, 685, 689
Weyer, G, 839, 846
Whedon, W. F., 327, 332
Whipple, G. C, 114, 144
White, G. F., 670, 682
Whitlock, W. C, 139
Wichterman, R., 26, 27, 38, 121, 134,
144, 190, 199, 204, 222, 393, 400,
742, 744, 756, 804, 806, 812, 813,
843, 846, 884, 903
Wickware, A. B., 620, 634
Wilber, C. G., 82, 96, 106, 107, 123,
134, 144, 440, 442, 471
Williams, G. W., 697, 699
Willis, A. G., 649, 655, 667
Wilson, E. B., 151, 222
Wilson, H. V., 442, 471
Winger, R. N., 577, 596
Winter, Mary W., 613, 634
Wohlfarth-Bottermann, K.-E., 73,
75, 96
Wolcott, G. B., 351, 368
Wolff, E., 222
Wolfson, 22, 38
Wolfson, Fruma, 613, 615, 617, 625,
629, 634
Wood, Fae D., 349, 351, 368
Wood, S. F., 349, 368, 615, 634
Woodcock, H. M., 55, 96, 451
Woodcock, A. H., 312
Woodhead, A. E., 699
Woodruff, L. L., 11, 19, 71, 96, 151,
153, 154, 190, 196, 197, 209, 214,
222, 700, 722, 744, 757, 813
Wrisberg, H. A., 11, 19
Wu, H. F., 686, 689
Yamasaki, S., 353, 368
Yarborough, N., 15, 16, 889
Yocom, H. B., 25, 38, 63, 65, 96, 118,
144, 169
Yonge, C. M., 108
Yorke, W., 450, 451, 471, 600, 634,
887
Young, Dixie, 804, 813
Young, E. L., 418, 419, 426
Young, M. D., 608, 628, 631
Zander, E., 670, 671, 682
Zeliff, C. C, 379, 403
Zeuthen, E., 116, 144
Zill, L. P., 238, 246
Zimmerman, H. E., Jr., 639, 641
Zingher, J. A., 114, 144
Zopf, W., 426
Zuckerman, Lucille K., 226, 244
Zublin, E., 598
Zuelzer, M., 45, 118, 134, 144
Zulueta, A. de, 62
Zumstein, H., 109, 144, 250, 253
Zweibaum, J., 82
Zwetkow, W. N.. 569
Subject Index
Numbers in bold-face type indicate pages on which are given the defini-
tions, explanations, or discussions of technical terms; the characterizations or
differentiations of taxonomic subdivisions; or the descriptions of genera and
species.
Numbers in italics indicate pages on which appear those illustrations that
could not be placed on the same pages as the related text matter.
Abiogenesis, 11
Abnormal morphology, 109-110, 111
Acanthamoeba, 443
castellanii, 441, 443
hyalina, 24, 441, 443
Acanthociasma, 519
planum, 520
Acanthociasmidae, 519
Acanthocystidae, 506, 511-513
Acanthocystis, 25, 511
aculeata, 26, 155, 511, 512
Acanthodactylus vulgaris, 588
Acanthogammarus albus, 867
victorii, 867, 868
Acanthometridae, 519
Acanthometron, 519
elasticum, 62, 520
Acanthoma, 519
teracopa, 520
Acanthoniidae, 519
Acanthospora, 554
polymorpha, 553, 554
Acanthosporidae, 541, 554
Acartia, clausi, 324, 794
Accipiter cooperii, 586
Acephalina, 530, 531-541
Acetylcholinesterase, 106
Achlya glomerata, 434
Achromatic figure, 157, 158
Acidified methylgreen on nucleus, 42
Acilius sulcatus, 855
Acineta, 870
cuspidata, 870, 871
lacustris, 869, 870
tuberosa, 870, 871 , 873
Acinetaria, 863
Acinetidae, 863, 870-875
Acinetopsis, 873
tentaculata, 872, 873
Acis, 552
Acmaea, 859
persona, 111
Acnidosporidia, 526, 635-642
Acridin, 228
Actineliidae, 519
Actinelius, 519
primordialis, 520
Actinia equina, 789
mesembryanthemum, 789
Actinobolina, 707
borax, 707-708
Actinobolinidae, 700, 707-708
Actinobolus, 707
Actinocephalidae, 541, 554-558
Actinocephalus, 554-555
acutispora, 558, 555
parvus, 555
Actinocoma, 506
ramosa, 506, 507
Actinocomidae, 506
Actinolophus, 510
pedunculatus, 509, 510
Actinomonas, 335
mirabilis, 335, 336
Actinomyxidia, 76, 643, 660-663
Actinophryidae, 506, 507-508
Actinophrys, 22, 507, 883
sol, 205, 507
vesiculata, 508
Actinopoda, 417, 505-524
Actinosphaerium, 11, 40, 45, 117,
508, 883
arachnoideum, 508
eichhorni, 26, 44, 51, 204, 212, 507,
508
Actinotricha, 822
Actinozoa, 789
Actipylea, 519-520
Acutisopora, 550-551
macrocephala, 551
Adaptability of Protozoa, 28, 34, 101
Adelea, 79, 590
ovata, 589, 590
Adeleidae, 590-592
Adeleidea, 570, 590-594
Adelina, 590
deronis, 168, 208, 590
dimidiata, 590, 591
octospora, 590, 591
Adoral membranellae, 59, 63
zone, 58, 59
Aedes, 606, 615, 617
aegypti, 530, 538, 617, 672
albopictus, 538, 617
Aegyria, 730
Aeschna constricta, 558
Aethalium septicum, 106
African Coast fever, 625
919
920
PROTOZOOLOGY
Agarella, 658
gracilis, 658, 659
Aggregata, 79, 573
eberthi, 573-574
Aggregatidae, 571, 572-576
Aging in Protozoa, 208-211
Agriodrilus, 698
Agriolimax agrestis, 34, 747
Agrion puella, 549
Aikinetocystidae, 531, 535-536
Aikinetocystis, 536
singularis, 535, 536
Akaryomastigont, 397
Albertisella, 535
crater, 535
Algae, 420, 422
Alisma, 434
Allan tocystidae, 531, 540
Allantocystis, 540
dasyhelei, 540-541
Allantosoma, 873
brevicorniger, 874, 876
dicorniger, 874, 876
intestinalis, 874, 876
Allelocatalysis, 111, 112
Allogromia, 472
Alloiozona, 720
trizona, 719, 720
Allolobophora caliginosa, 696
Allomorphina, 503
trigona, 508
Allosphaerium, 733
caudatum, 733
convexa, 733
granulosum, 733
palustris, 732, 733
sulcatum, 733
Allurus tetraedurus, 696
Aloricata, 850-857
Alouatta, 612
Alpha granules, 83
Alveolinella, 500
mello, 498
Alveolinellidae, 499
Amara augustata, 555
Amaroucium, 561
Amaurochaete, 431
fuliginosa, 431
Amaurochaetidae, 431
Ambystoma tigrinum, 688
Ameiurus albidus, 709
Amiba, 437
Amicronucleate ciliataes, 153-154,
189
Amitosis, 145-154
Ammodiscidae, 497
Ammodiscus, 497
incertus, 497
Ammonia, 120
Amoeba, 21, 22, 34, 42, 52, 128, 131,
437, 883
biddulphiae, 118
discoides, 120, 437, 438
Amoeba — continued
dofleini, 101
dubia, 52, 101, 120, 437, 438
gorgonia, 489, 440
guttula, 49, 438
Umicola, 438-439
meleagridis, 335
proteus, 28, 41, 49, 52, 79, 80, 82,
98, 101, 117, 119, 120, 123,
124, 125, 126, 169, 170, 212,
437, 438, 882
radiosa, 21, 49, 101, 439, 440
spumosa, 41, 49, 439-440
striata, 46, 49, 437-438
verrucosa, 21, 24, 25, 46, 98, 118,
122, 128, 437, 438
vespertilio, 439, 440
Amoebiasis, 446, 449
Amoebic dysentery, 446, 449
Amoebidae, 435, 437-443
Amoebina, 418, 435-466
Amoebodiastase, 106
Amoeboid movement, 122-126, 417
Amphacanthus, 818
ovum-rajae, 818
Amphibia, 14, 335, 352, 374, 377, 390,
393, 462, 583, 586, 588, 591, 592,
625, 651, 656, 686, 687, 688, 694,
723, 800, 852, 860
Amphidinium, 318
fusiforme, 318, 819
lacustre, 24, 318, 319
scissum, 318, 819
Amphileptidae, 723-725
Amphileptus, 27, 723
branchiarum, 723, 724
claparedei, 24, 723, 724
meleagris, 723
Amphilonche, 520
hydrometrica, 520
Amphilonchidae, 519
Amphimonadidae, 339, 358-360
Amphimonas, 358
globosa, 358, 359
Amphimixis, 203
Amphionts, 538
Amphioxus, 758
Amphipoda, 754
Amphisiella, 833
thiophaga, 833
Amphisteginidae, 502
Amphithoe sp., 847
Amphitrema, 486
flavum, 485, 486-487
Amphiura squamata, 793
Amphizonella, 480
violacea, 480-481
Amphorocephalus, 556
amphorellus, 556t 557
Amphoroides, 555
calverti, 558, 555
Ampullacula, 720
ampulla, 720
SUBJECT INDEX
921
Amyda spinifera, 583
Amylase, 106
Anabolic products, 112-115
Anacanthotermes ochraceus, 407
Anal cirri, 58, 66
Anarma, 874
multiruga, 874-875
Anas domesticus, 588
p. platijrhyncus, 377, 620
rubripes tristis, 620
Anaspides tasmaniae, 541
Ancistrella, 778
choanomphali, 778
Ancistrina, 777
ovata, 775, 777
Ancistrocoma, 780
pelseneeri, 780, 781
Ancistrocomidae, 774, 780-784
Ancistrodon mokasen, 458-459
Ancistrospira, 779
veneris, 779
Ancistrum, 776
Ancistruma, 63, 776
isseli, 775, 111
japonica, 775, 111
mytili, 67, 775, 111
Ancyromonas, 344
contorta, 348, 344
Ancyrophora, 554
gracilis, 553, 554
Anderotermone, 181
Anemonia sulcata, 789
Angeiocystis, 576
audouiniae, 576
Anguilla vulgaris, 353
Anguispira alternata, 357
Angulochrysis, 261
erratica, 262
Anisocomides, 782
zyrpheae, 782, 783
Anisogametes, 180
Anisogamy, 185, 187
Anisolobus, 546-547
dacnecola, 546, 547
Anisonema, 303
acinus, 303, 305
emarginatum, 303, 305
truncatum, 303, 305
Anisonemidae, 293, 303-306
Annelida, 321, 531, 532, 533, 534,
535, 536, 537, 543, 635, 636, 638,
661, 662, 663, 691, 694, 696, 697,
698, 779, 852
Annulus, 310
Anodonta, 769
Anomalina, 503
punctulata, 503
Anomalinidae, 503
Anopheles, 7, 602, 606, 674
albimanus, 606
crucians, 606
dureni, 614
maculipennis, 671
Anopheles — continued
maculipennis freeborni, 606
pseudopunctipennis, 606
punctipennis, 606
quadrimaculatus, 606, 607, 617, 671
walkeri, 606
Anophrys, 750
aglycus, 749, 750
elongata, 749, 750
Anoplophrya, 691
marylandensis, 691, 692
orchestii, 691, 692
Anoplophryidae, 691-694
Antelope, 799, 820, 822
Anthophysa, 361
Anthophysis, 11, 361
vegetans, 361
Anthropoid apes, 799, 820, 826
Anthorhynchus, 555
sophiae, 556
Antibiotics, 154, 452, 889
Antigenic relationship, 227, 241-242.
243
Anurosporidium, 637
pelseneeri, 637
Aphrydium versatile, 867
Apis mellifica, 10, 459, 670
Apocynaceae, 353
Apodinium, 322-323
mycetoides, 322, 323
Apolocystis, 532
gigantea, 532-533
minuta, 582, 533
Apomotis cyanellus, 651
Apostomea, 66, 690, 789-795
Aquarius najas, 678
Arachnida, 556
Arachnula, 422
impatiens, 421, 422
Arboroid colony, 174, 342, 361
Arcella, 24, 45, 476, 883
artocrea, 477, 478
catinus, 411
dentata, 225, 477-478
discoides, 477
mitrata, 411
polypora, 225
vulgaris, 44, 45, 476-477
var. angulosa, 477
gibbosa, 477
Arcellidae, 472, 476-482
Archotermopsis wroughtoni, 410
Arctia caja, 670
Arcyria, 432
punicea, 431
Arcyriidae, 432
Arenicola ecaudata, 539
Argentophilous substance, 56, 78
Argyrome, 691, 697
Armadillos, 349
Arsenic acid, 227
Artificial digestion, 34, 42
922
PROTOZOOLOGY
Artodiscus, 473
saltans, 473, 474
Ascaris, 463
Ascartia, 693
Ascidia, 459
mentula, 785
Ascidians, 459, 674, 785, 845
Asclepiadaceae, 353
Ascoglena, 300
vaginicola, 300
Asellus aquaticus, 854, 867
Asexual reproduction, 175-180
Asida, 552
opaca, 552
Asio flammeus, 586
Askenasia, 705
faurei, 704, 705
Aspergillus, 639
Aspicularis tetraptera, 390
Aspidisca, 24, 845
lynceus, 148, 149, 842, 845
polystyla, 842, 845
Aspidiscidae, 832, 845
Asplanchna, 637
Assulina, 490
seminulum, 489, 490
Astasia, 11, 46, 79, 302, 881
klebsi, 302
laevis, 166
longa, 54
Astasiidae, 293, 302-303
Aster acanthion rubens, 693
Asterias glacialis, 776
rubens, 32, 693
Asterigerina, 502
carinata, 501
Asterophora, 555
philica, 553
Astomata, 690, 691-698
Astral rays, 155, 156, 158, 160
Astrangia danae, 789
Astrocystella, 536
lobosa, 535, 536
Astrodisculus, 510
radians, 509, 510
Astrophrya, 865
arenaria, 864, 865
Astrophyga magnifica, 750
Astropyle, 516
Astrorhizidae, 496
Astrosiga, 339
Astylozoon, 850
fallax, 850, 851
Astylozoonidae, 850-852
Ateles, 612
geoffroyi, 735
Atelopus, 655
Athene noctua, 351
Atopodinium, 831
fibulatum, 830, 831
Atyaephrya desmaresti, 546
Audouinia lamarcki, 543
tentaculata, 576
Aulacantha, 523
scolymantha, 523
Aulacanthidae, 523
Aulomonas, 344
purdyi, 343, 344
Aulosphaera, 523
labradoriensis, 523
Aulosphaeridae, 523
Autogamy, 151, 191, 196, 238, 644,
645
Autoinfection, 538
Automixis, 203-206
Autotrophic nutrition, 107-108
Averintzia, 486
cyclostoma, 486
Avian Plasmodium, 614-617
Axial fibrils, 51
filaments, 53, 505
rod, 50, 51
Axolotl, 338
Axoneme, 53, 54, 56
Axopodia, 50-51, 505
Axostylar filaments, 70, 77, 369, 407
Axostyle, 70, 333, 369, 379
B
Babesia, 14, 622, 625
argentina, 624
bigemina, 32, 622-624
bovis, 624
canis, 624
Babesiidae, 600, 622-626
Bacillidium, 676
criodrili, 677
limnodrili, 677
Bacteria vs Protozoa, 5, 9-10
Bacterium parapelomyxac, 441
Badhamia, 430
utricularis, 430
Baetis, 767
Baikalodendron, 867
Baikalophrya, 867
Balanitozoon, 710
gyrans, 710
Balanonema, 764
biceps, 764
Balantidial dysentery, 799
Balantidiopsis, 798
Balantidiosis, 799
Balantidium, 63, 798
caviae, 799
coli, 8, 9, 14, 16, 30, 798-799, 889-
890
duodeni, 797, 800
praenucleatum, 797, 800
suis, 799
Balantiodoides, 798
Balantiophorus, 763
Balanus amphitrite, 546
eburneus, 546
Ball-of-yarn stage, 152
Balladyna, 838
elongata, 837, 838
SUBJECT INDEX
923
Bankia, 779
Barbel, 648, 659, 676
Barbulanympha, 42, 157, 158, 410
laurabuda, 410
uf alula, 158, 410, 411
Barbus barbus, 648, 659
fluviatilis, 659, 676
plebejus, 659
Barracouta, 649
Barrouxia, 588
ornata, 587, 588
Basal plate, 58
Bat, 349
Beccaricystis, 537
loriai, 537
Bed bugs, 349
Beloides, 557
firmus, 556, 557
Benedenia, 694
Benedictia biacalensis, 777
limneoides, 777
Bertramia, 637
asperospora, 637
capitellae, 638
euchlanis, 638
Beta granules, 82
Beta particles in Paramecium, 230
Beta rays on Protozoa, 134
Bibio marci, 557
Bicosoeca, 341
kepneri, 341
socialis, 341, 342
Bicosoecidae, 339, 341-343
Biggaria, 750
bermudense, 749, 750
echinometris, 7'49. 750
Binary fission, 169-171
Biological control, 10
Biomyxa, 422
cometa, 422-423
vagans, 421, 422
Biotypes, 213, 225
Bird malaria, 614-617
Birds, 15, 351, 586, 592, 614-617,
626, 893
Biriushibio, 670
Black birds, 586
Black flies, 620, 622, 668
Black-head of turkey, 9, 336
Blastocystis hominis, 463, 893
Blastodiniidae, 314, 321-324
Blastodinium, 321
spinulosum, 321, 322
Blastula, 6
Blatta orientaUs, 407, 544, 545, 676,
800
BlatteUa lapponica, 545
Blattidae, 8
Blepharisma, 24, 45-46, 803
lateritium, 801, 803
persicinum, 801, 803
steini, 801, 803
undulans, 27, 79, 803-804
Blepharoconus, 718
cervicalis, 718
Blepharocoridae, 737, 752-753
Blepharocorys, 752
bovis, 751, 753
equi, 753
uncinata, 751, 753
Blepharoplast, 54, 56, 77, 157, 160,
228, 230
loss of, 55, 228, 230-231
Blepharoprosthium, 88, 717
pireum, 717, 718
Blepharosphaera, 718
intestinalis, 718
Blepharozoum, 719
zonatum, 718, 719
Blood-films, 899-901
Blue bird, 617
Boaedon lineatus, 584
Boderia, 476
turneri, 475, 476
Bodo, 23, 362
caudata, 362, 363
edax, 362, 363
uncinatus, 24
Bodonidae, 339, 362-365
Boeck-Drbohlav's media, 887
Boil-disease of fish, 648
Bolivina, 502
punctata, 501
Bombina bombina, 688
pachypa, 688
Bombyx mori, 670, 671
Boophilus annulatus, 622
Bos indicus, 819, 820, 821
Bothriopsis, 557
histrio, 556, 557
Botryoidae, 522
Botula calif orniensis, 782
Boveria, 63, 779
teredinidi, 778, 779
Box boops, 377, 688
Brachiomonas, 278
westiana, 278, 279
Brachionus, 637
Branchioecetes, 727
gammari, 726, 727
Brachiura coccinea, 698
Brassica, 433
Bresslaua, 747
vorax, 746, 747
Brevoortiana tyrannus, 584, 655
Brumptina paulista, 459
Bryophyllum, 725
vorax, 724, 725
Bryophrya, 747-748
bavariensis, 746, 748
Bryozoa, 670, 867, 877
Bubos, 357
Buccinum, 574
undatum, 574
Budding, 171-172, 863, 867, 868
924
PROTOZOOLOGY
Biitschlia, 717
parva, 717, 718
Butschliella, 693
chaetogaslri, 693
opheliae, 692, 693
Butschliidae, 700, 717-720
Buffelus bubalis, 821
Bufo, 655, 686, 860
cognatus, 688
compactilis, 687
lentiginosus , 687
marinus, 688
terrestris, 656
valliceps, 166, 688
vulgaris, 390
Bulbocephalus, 552
elongatus, 552, 553
Buliminidae, 502
Bullanympha, 385
silvestrii, 384, 385
Bullinula, 486
indica, 485, 486
Bundleia, 718
postciliata, 718
Bursaria, 39, 797
truncatella, 797, 798
Bursariidae, 796, 797-800
Bursaridium, 798
difficile, 797, 798
Bursella, 710
spumosa, 710
Buteo borealis, 586
swainsoni, 586
Buxtonella, 735
sulcata, 734, 735
Cabbage, 433
Cacajao, 612
Caduceia, 383
bugnioni, 384, 3S4
Caementella, 523
stapedia, 523
Caementellidae, 523
Caenis, 534
Caenomorpha, 800-801
medusula, 24, 801
Calanus finmarchicus, 324
Calappa flammea, 547
Calcareous test, 493
Calcarina, 502
defrancei, 503
Calcarinidae, 502
Calcium chlorophosphate, 121
phosphate, 121
Callicebus, 612
Callimastigidae, 369, 375-376
Callimastix, 375
cyclopia, 375
equi, 875, 376
frontalis, 375
Calliphora, 354, 452
erythrocephala, 452
Callipus lactarius, 555
Callitriche, 434
Calonympha, 397
grassii, 396, 397
Caloscolex, 817
cuspidatus, 817, 818
Calospira, 794
minkiewiczi, 793, 794
Calymma, 516
Calyx, 160
Calyptotricha, 770
pleuronemoides, 770-771
Cambarus, 854, 857
Cambolopsis sp., 548
Camels, 349, 350, 817, 818, 820,822
Camelus dromedarius, 230, 817, 818,
820
Camerinidae, 501
Campanella, 854
umbellaria, 853, 854
Campascus, 484
cornutus, 488, 484
Camptonema, 508
nutans, 507, 508
Canary, 388, 601, 602, 615, 616
Cannibalism, 101, 440
Cannosphaera, 523
Cannosphaeridae, 523
Canthocamptus, 857
minutus, 857
Capillitium, 429
Capitella capitata, 638
Capsa, 779
Capsellina, 482
timida, 481, 482
Carabus, 554
auratus, 554
violaceus, 554
Carchesium, 11, 39, 856
granulatum, 46, 856, 857
polypinum, 856, 857
Carcinoecetes, 547
bermudensis, 547
calappae, 547
hesperus, 546, 547
mithraxi, 547
Cardita calyculata, 560, 779
Carina moschata, 377
Carinae, 841
Carotin, 90, 418, 420
Carp, 353, 357
Carteria, 281
cordiformis, 282
ellipsoidalis, 282
obtusa, 26
Carteriidae, 276, 281-283
Caryonide, 192
Caryospora, 587
simplex, 587
Caryotropha, 575
mesnili, 575
Cassidulina, 503
laevigata, 503
SUBJECT INDEX
925
Cassidulinidae, 502
Castanellidae, 524
Castanidium, 524
murrayi, 524
Castration, parasitic, 32, 670-671
Cat, 226, 349, 450, 579, 586
Catabolic products, 120, 121, 122
Cat-bird, 617
Catenoid colony, 174, 326
Catfish, 278, 660, 709
Catostomus, 357
commersonii, 658
Cattle, 32, 349, 350, 375, 388, 457,
577, 622, 624, 625, 717, 735, 751,
752, 753, 817, 818, 819, 820, 821,
822
Cattle fever, 9, 622, 624
Caudal cirri, 58
Caulicola, 858
vulvata, 858
Caulleryella, 563
pipientis, 562, 563
Cavia, aperea, 752
porcella, 344, 752
Caviomonas, 344
mobilis, 848, 344
Cebus, 612
Cell, 5
Cell-aggregates, Protozoa as, 6
Cell-anus, 64, 84, 102, 107
Cell-organ, 5, 60-91
Cellobiase, 106
Cellulase, 106
Cellulose, 29, 47, 105, 276, 427
Cenolarus, 522
primordialis, 521
Central capsule, 70, 505, 506, 516
motor mass, 63, 64, 65
spindle, 157, 158
Centrechinus antillarum, 750, 800
Centriole, 55, 154, 155, 157, 158, 159
Centrodesmose, 156, 157
Centromere, 159, 160
Centrophorella, 725
fasciolatum, 724, 725
lanceolata, 725
Centropyxis, 484
aculeata, 225, 483, 484
Centrosome, 157, 158
Centrosphere, 163
Cepedea, 40, 687
cantabrigensis, 686, 687
fioridensis, 688
hawaiensis, 687
obovoidea, 687
Cepedella, 784
hepatica, 784
Cephalin, 528
Cephalina, 530, 541-560
Cephaloidophora, 543
nigrofusca, 543
olivia, 542, 543
Cephaloidophoridae, 541, 543
Cephalopoda, 573, 694
Cephalothamnium, 361
cyclopum, 361
Ceratiomyxa, 433
fruticulosa, 431
Ceratiomyxidae, 432
Ceratium, 11, 326
fusus, 825, 326-327
hirundinella, 24, 223, 224, 325, 326
longipes, 825, 326
tripos, 325, 326
var. atlantica, 326
Ceratodinium, 320
asymmetricum, 319, 321
Ceratomyxa, 649-650
hopkinsi, 650, 651
mesospora, 650, 651
shasta, 650
Ceratomyxidae, 649-651
Ceratophyllus fasciatus, 346, 351
Ceratopogon, 678
' solstitialis, 557, 562-563
Ceratospora, 539
mirabilis, 539, 540
Cercaria tenax, 13
Cercocebus, 612
Cercomonas, 23, 364
crassicauda, 24, 368, 365
longicauda, 24, 868, 365
Cercopithecus, 612
Cerithium rupestre, 560
Certesia, 843
quadrinucleata, 842, 843
Cervus canadensis, 822
Cestracion, 655
zygaena, 651
Cestus veneris, 794
Cetonia, 376
Chaenea, 714
limicola, 714, 715
Chaetodipterus fabor, 651
Chaetogaster, 693
Chaetognatha, 466
Chaetospira, 836
mulleri, 835, 836
Chagas' disease, 348, 349
Chagasella, 592
hartmanni, 592
Chalkley's solution, 882
Challengeridae, 523
Challengeron, 523
wyvillei, 524
Chaos prothens, 11
Chara, 434
Charon, 753
equi, 751, 753
Chelydra serpentina, 458
Chemical composition of water, 23-
25
stimuli, 132-133
Chemicals on cysts, 451-452
Chicken, 336, 375, 388, 393, 580-582,
583, 584, 617
926
PROTOZOOLOGY
Chill and fever, 605
Chilo simplex, 670
Chilodinium, 320
cruciatum, 319, 320
Chilodochona, 848
quennerstedti, 848
Chilodon, 731
steini, 732
Chilodonella, 11, 21, 44, 78, 79, 731
caudata, 732
cucullulus, 24, 71, 145, 146, 147,
732
cypini, 732, 733
fluviatilis, 732
hyalina, 733
longipharynx, 733
rotunda, 733
uncinata, 145, 229, £30, 732-733
Chilodontopsis, 729
vorax, 729-730
Chilomastigidae, 369, 374-375
Chilomastix, 14, 374
bettencourti, 374
caprae, 374
cuniculi, 374
(jallinarum, 375
intestinalis, 374
mesnili, 16, 29, 374, 375
Chilomitus, 377
caviae, 376, 377
Chilomonas, 79, 273, 881
oblonga, 274
Paramecium, 26, 109, 118, 273-274,
882
Chilophrya, 712
labiata, 711, 712
utahensis, 711, 712
Chilostomellidae, 503
Chimpanzee, 799, 826
Chiridota, 538
Jams, 538, 539
Chironomus, 769
plumosus, 34
Chitin, 47, 48
Chiton, caprearum, 560
Chlamydoblepharis, 281
Chlamydobotrys, 288
stellata, 288, 289
Chlamydococcus, 277
Chlamydodon, 63, 731
mnemosyne, 729, 731
Chlamydodontidae, 728, 731-733
Chlamydomonadidae, 276-281
Chlamydomonas, 45, 89, 181, 276-
277
angulosa, 277
debaryana, 223, 224, 225
epiphytica, 277, 278
eugametos, 232, 233
globosa, 277, 278
gracilis, 277, £73
monadina, 277 ', £73
paradoxa, 232
Chlamydomonas — continued
paupera, 233
pseudoparadoxa, 232
Chlamydomyxa, 422
montana, 421, 422
Chlamydophrys, 480
stercorea, 24, 480, 481
Chloraster, 283
0yrans, £3£, 283
Chlorasteridae, 276, 283
Chlorella, 29, 121, 135, 744
Chlorine on cysts, 451-452
Chlorogonium, 279-280
elongatum, 26
euchlorum, 26, 280
teragamum, 26
Chloromonadina, 256, 306-307
Chloromyxidae, 651, 654-655
Chloromyxum, 654-655
leydigi, 172, 652, 655
trijugum, 652, 655
Chlorophyll, 89, 254
Choanocystis, 513
lepidula, 513, 514
Choanocystella, 536
tentaculata, 535, 536
Choanocystoides, 536
costaricensis, 535-536
Choanomphalus, 777, 778
Choanophrya, 875
infundibulifera, 875-876, 877
Chondriosomes, 46, 80-83, 113, 891
Chondropus, 422
viridis, 422
Chonotricha, 28, 690, 847-849
Chorophilus triseriatus, 687
Chromatin, 40, 42, 146
Idio-, 44
Test of, 42
Tropho-, 44
Chromatid, 159, 160
Chromatoid body, 447
Chromatophore, 29, 45, 89-90, 107,
250, 256, 293, 297, 706
Chromic acid, 576
Chromidia, 44-45, 472
Chromidina, 694
elegans, 694, 695
Chromomeres, 146
Chromonema, 160
Chromosomes, 155, 156, 157, 158,
159, 160, 166, 167-169, 206, 231,
233
Chromulina, 79, 257, 258
pascheri, 258, 259
Chromulinidae, 257, 258-262
Chrysamoeba, 258
radians, 258, 261
Chrysapsis, 258
sagene, 258, 259
Chrysarachnion, 267
insidians, 267, 268
Chrysemys elegans, 458
SUBJECT INDEX
927
Chrysemys — continued
marqinata, 583
pict'a bellii, 874, 875
Chrysidella, 29, 274
schaudinni, 273, 274
Chrysidiastrum, 267
catenation, 267
Chrysocapsa, 269
paludosa, 266, 269
Chrysocapsina, 257, 269
Chrysococcus, 258
ornatus, 258, 259
Chrysomyia macellaria, 452
Chrysomonadina, 256-269
Chrysopyxis, 260
cyathus, 259, 260
Chrysosphaerella, 260
lonqispina, 259, 260
Chrysothylakion, 267, 269
vorax, 268, 269
Chytriodinium, 323
parasiticum, 321, 323
Cilia, 55-57, 683
Ciliary field, 56
flagella, 53
movement, 127-129
zone, 56
Ciliata, 12, 249, 250, 683-862, 883
Cilioflagellata, 310
Ciliophora, 55, 349, 683-878
Ciliophryidae, 506, 508
Ciliophrys, 508
infusionum, 508, 509
marina, 508
Ciliospore, 176
Cinetochilum, 765
margaritaceum, 24, 764, 765
Cingulum, 326
Ciona intestinalis, 674, 785, 845
Circoporidae, 524
Circoporus, 524
octahedrus, 524
Circular cytostomal fibrils, 68, 69
Circum-oesophageal ring, 63
Cirri, 57-58, 683, 832
Cirrus fiber, 58, 65, 66
Citellus lateralis chrysodeirus, 389
tridecemlineatus, 357, 457, 579
Citharichthys xanthostigmus, 651
Cladomonas, 358
fruticulosa, 358, 359
Cladonema radiatum, 790
Cladophora, 857
Cladothrix pelomyxae, 441
Cladotricha, 834
koltzowii, 833, 834
Clathrella, 511
foreli, 511,512
Clathrellidae, 506, 511
Clathrostoma, 742
viminale, 741, 742
Clathrostomidae, 737, 742
Clathrulina, 513
Clathrulina — continued
elegans, 513, 514
Clathrulinidae, 506, 513
Clausia, 693
C lausocalanus arcuicornis, 321
furcatus, 321, 794
Cleaning glass-wares, 890
Cletodes longicaudatus, 867, 871
Cleveland-Sanders' medium, 888
Clevelandella, 809-810
panesthiae, 809, 810
Clevelandellidae, 790, 809-810
Clevelandia, 809
Cliff swallow, 617
Climacostomum, 807
virens, 24, 807, 808
Cliola viqilax, 660
Clitellis, arenarius, 662
Clupea harengus, 655
pilchardus, 658
Clymenella torquata, 323, 852
Clypeolina, 487
marginata, 485, 487
Cnidosporidia, 526, 643-682
Coccidia, 14, 15, 185, 527, 570-598
Coccidiosis, 9, 580
Coccidium, 577
oviforme, 577
Coccolith, 48
Coccolithidae, 257, 266-267
Coccomonas, 279
orbicularis, 279, 280
Coccomyxa, 658
morovi, 657, 658
Coccomyxidae, 655, 658
Cocconema, 676
Coccospora, 676
slavinae, 676, 677
Coccosporidae, 670, 676
Cochliatoxum, 826
periachtum, 825, 826
Cochliomyia, 354
Cochliophilus, 777
depressus, 777-778
Cochliopodium, 480
bilimbosum, 480, 481
Cochlodinium, 320
atromaculatum, 319, 320
Cochlosoma, 377
rostratum, 376, 377
Cockroaches, 29, 363, 393, 407, 445,
449, 452, 453, 459, 462, 538, 544,
545, 638, 676, 800
Codonella, 816
cratera, 815, 816
Codonocladium, 339
Codonoeca, 342
inclinata, 342
Codonosigopsis, 341
Codosiga, 339
disjuncta, 339
utriculus, 339
Codosigidae, 339-341
928
PROTOZOOLOGY
Coelenterata, 693, 873, 877
Coelodendridae, 524
Coelodendrum, 524
ramosissimum, 524
Coelomonas, 306
Coelosoma, 713
Coelosomides,
marina, 711, 713
Coelosporidium, 638
blattellae, 638
periplanetae, 637, 638
Coelotrichomastix convexa, 370
Coelozoic Protozoa, 30, 31, 109
Coenobium, 285
Cohnilembidae, 758, 771
Cohnilembus, 771
caeci, 770, 771
fusiformis, 770, 771
Colacium, 300-301
vesiculosum, 301
Coleorhynchus, 557
heros, 549, 556, 557
Colepidae, 700, 706-707
Colepismatophila, 548
watsonae, 546, 548
Coleps, 11, 46, 57, 706
bicuspis, 706, 707
elongatus, 706, 707
heter acanthus, 706, 707
hirtus, 706, 707
octospinus, 706, 707
spiralis, 706, 707
Collared Protozoa, 48, 339, 340, 341,
342, 343, 743, 759
Collecting canals, 84, 85, 86, 746
Collection of Protozoa, 879-880
Collinella, 735
gundi, 734, 735
Collinia, 691
Collodictyon, 371
triciliatum, 371, 373
Collosphaera, 522
Collosphaeridae, 522
Colonial Protozoa, 6, 39, 173-174,
255, 285-290
Colony,
arboroid, 174, 342, 361
catenoid, 174, 326
dendritic, 174, 342, 361
discoid, 174, 2SS
gregaloid, 174
linear, 174, 326
spheroid, 174, 286, 289
Color of Protozoa, 45
water due to Protozoa, 311,
312, 320, 327, 706
Colpidium, 27, 762
campylum, 24, 26, 110, 761, 762
colpoda, 22, 56, 57, 761, 762
echini, 761, 762
striatum, 762
Colpoda, 11, 27, 44, 745-746
aspera, 24, 746, 747
Colpoda — continued
cucullus, 24, 177, 178, 746
duodenaria, 747
inflata, 746
maupasi, 746-747
steini, 34, 746, 747
Colpodidae, 737, 745-748
Colponema, 364
loxodes, 363, 364
Columba livia, 619
Columbella rustica, 560
Colymbetes, 558
Cometodendron, 868
clavatum, 866, 868
Cometoides, 554
capitatus, 553, 554
Commensal, 28-29
Commensalism, 28-29
Compact nucleus, 42-44
Concentration of cysts, 894
Conchophthiridae, 774-776
Conchophthirus, 63, 84, 774
anodontae, 164-165, 774, 775
magna, 775
mytili, 76, 150, 776
Concrement vacuole, 87-55
Condylostoma, 806
patens, 806
vorticella, 805, 806
Condylostomidae, 796, 806
Cone-nosed bug, 349
Congo red, 103, 891
Conidophryidae, 738, 753-754
Conidophrys, 753-754
pilisuctor, 752, 753, 754
Conjugation, 13, 187-203, 690
Connochaetes taurinus, 457
Contractile canal, 85, 87
vacuole, 82, 83-85, 117,
118, 119, 125
Contractility, 60-62
Conus mediterraneus, 560
Copepoda, 321, 323, 324, 361, 674,
693, 867, 868, 870
Copromastix, 374
prowazeki, 373, 374
Copromonas, 303
subtilis, 182, 183, 303
Coprozoic Protozoa, 24, 436, 443
Coptolermes formosanus, 406, 414
Corbierea, 281
Corbula gibba, 786
Cordylophora lacustris, 865
Corky scab of potatoes, 434
Coronympha, 397
clevelandi, 396, 397
Corophium acherusicum, 753, 754
Corycacus venustus, 324
Corycella, 554
armata, 553, 554
Corycia, 479
coronata, 478, 480
Corythion, 489
pulchellum, 488, 489
SUBJECT INDEX
929
Costa, 71, 369
Costia, 33, 371
necatrix, 30, 372, 373
pyriformis, 372
Cota, 670
Cothurnia, 857
annulata, 857, 80S
canthocampti, 857, 858
Cougourdella, 677
magna, 677-678
Coverglasses, 890, 901
Cow bird, 615
Cranotheridium, 702
taeniatum, 701, 702
Crappie, 31, 660, 655
Craspedotella pileolus, 329
Craspedothorax, 739
Craspidochilus cinereus, 635
Craterocystis, 536
papua, 635, 536
Crayfish, 854, 857
Crebricoma, 782
carinata, 782
kozloffi,, 781, 782
Crenilabrus melops, 633
ocellatus, 638
paro, 638
Crepidula plana, 811
Crescent, 610
Cresta, 369, 380-381, 882
Cribraria, 432
aurantiaca, 431
Cribariidae, 431
Crickets, 363, 545'
Criodrilus, 696, 780
lacuum, 677
Cristigera, 769-770
mediaK 768, 770
phoenix, 768, 770
Crithidia, 345, 353
euryophthalmi, 353, 354
gerridis, 353, 854
hyalommae, 353, 354
Crobylura, 714
pelagica, 714, 715
Crocodiles, 351
Cross-striation in cilia, 56, 57
Crossing over, 232-233
Crotaphytus collaris, 618
Cruciferous plants, 433
Crucinympha, 383
Crumenula, 299
Crustacea, 541, 546, 547, 558, 559
560, 691, 754, 866
Cruzella, 362
Cryptobia, 357
borreli, 357, 358
cyprini, 357, 358
grohbeni, 357, 358
helicis, 357, 358
Cryptobiidae, 339, 357
Cryplocercus punctulatus, 29, 380,
Cryptocercus punctulatus — continued
393, 407, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413,
414
Cryptochilidium, 763
echini, 763, 764
Cryptochilum, 763
Cryptochrysis, 274
commutata, 273, 274
Cryptodifflugia, 479
oviformis, 478, 479
Cryptoglena, 300
pigra, 300
Cryptomonadina, 76, 256, 272-275
Cryptomonadidae, 272, 273-274
Cryptomonas, 273
ovata, 273
Cryptomya californica, 780
Cryptopharynx, 731
setigerus, 731, 732
Cryptops hortensis, 550
Cryptosporidium, 587
muris, 587
parvum, 588
Cryptotermes dudleyi, 379, 391
grassii, 397
hermsi, 381, 383, 393
longicollis, 393
Cryptozoite, 602
Crystals, .720-121, 125, 442
Ctedoctema, 770
acanthocrypta, 770
Ctenocephalus canis, 353, 555
Ctenodactylus gundi, 625, 735
Ctenophores, 794
Ctenosaura acanthura, 463
Ctenostomata, 23, 796, 829-831
Cubitermes, 445
Cucujus, 552
Cucurbitella, 484
mespiliformis, 483, 484
Culex, 7, 600, 606, 615, 616, 668, 674
fatigans, 15
pipiens, 563, 602, 615, 617
Cultivation of
Free-living Protozoa, 880-884
Parasitic Protozoa, 15-16, 450,
884-890
Cultures,
Bacteria-free, 108, 109, 181, 343
Clone, 881
Mass, 881
Mixed, 881
Pure, 881, 884
Pure-line, 881
Stock, 881
Cunhaia, 822
curvata, 822, 823
Current vs Protozoa, 132
Cyathodiniidae, 737
Cyathodinium, 752
conicum, 752
piriforme, 751, 752
Cyathomonas, 274
truncata, 278, 274
930
PROTOZOOLOGY
Cyclidium, 24, 769
glaucoma, 57
litomesum, 768, 769
Cyclina sinensis, 111
Cyclochaeta, 860-861
domergui, 860, 861
spongillae, 860, 861
Cyclogramma, 728
trichocystis, 728, 729
Cyclonexis, 39, 265
annularis, 264, 265
Gyclonympha, 414
Cycloposthiidae, 814, 823-826
Cycloposthium, 70, 823-824
bipalmatum, 823, 824
dentiferum, 823, 824
Cyclops, 361, 375, 854, 870, 876
fuscus, 671
minutus, 859
ornatus, 876
Cyclosis, 11, 101
Cyclospora, 586
caryolytica, 586, 587
Cyclostoma elegans, 859
Cyclotrichium, 705-706
meunieri, 107, 683, 704, 705, 706
Cynomolgus, 456
Cynoscion regalis, 654
Cyphoderia, 24, 488
ampulla, 223, 488-489
Cyphon pallidulus, 548
Cypridium, 730
Cyprinus, 357
Cypris, 854
Cyrtocaryum, 794
halosydnae, 794, 795
Cyrtoidae, 522
Cyrtolophosis, 765
mucicola, 765, 766
Cyrtophora, 260
pedicellata, 259, 260
Cyst, 175, 176, 182, 226, 277, 447,
449, 638, 645, 748, 894
-carrier, 449
-passer, 449
viability of, 177, 450-453, 748
Cystidium, 522
princeps, 522
Cystobia, 539
irregularis, 540
Cystocephalus, 553
algerianus, 553
Cystodiniidae, 314
Cystodinium, 314
steini, 313, 314
Cystodiscus, 655
immersus, 655
Cystoflagellata, 312, 316, 329
Cytochrome oxidase, 117
Cytogamy, 189, 204
Cytomere, 573, 575, 619
Cytopharynx, 685
Cytoplasm, 45-46
Cytoplasmic division, 166, 169-174
binary fission, 169-171
budding, 171-172
multiple division, 171
plasmotomy, 135, 172-173
schizogonv, 175, 526, 560, 599, 601
608, 609
Cytoplasmic inheritance, 238-243
mutation, 240
toxin, 238
Cytopyge, 64, 84, 102, 107
Cytostome, 59, 88, 101, 685
Cytozoic Protozoa, 30, 32, 109
Dacne rufifrons, 547
Dactylochlamys, 23, 708
pisciformis, 707, 708
Dactylophoridae, 541, 550-552
Dactylophorus, 550
robustus, 550, 551
Dactylophrya, 873
roscovita, 872, 873
Dactylosaccus, 476
vermiformis, 475, 476
Dactylosoma, 625
ranarum, 624, 625
Dallasia, 761
Dallingeria, 370
drysdali, 370
Daphnia maxima, 674
Darkfield microscope, 52, 890, 891
Dasyhelea obscura, 540, 679
Dasypis novemcinctus, 349
Dasytricha, 751
ruminantium, 751
Deer mouse, Canadian, 351
Defecation process, 107, 108
Degeneration, 46
Deltopylum, 768-769
rhabdoides, 768, 769
Deltotrichonympha, 414
operculata, 414
Dendritic colony, 174, 342, 861
Dendrocoelum lacteum, 767
Dendrocometes, 867
paradoxus, 866, 867
Dendrocometidae, 863, 867-868
Dendrocometides, 867
priscus, 866, 867
Dendromonas, 361
virgaria, 361
Dendrorhynchus, 550
systeni, 550, 551
Dendrosoma, 864, 870
radians, 864, 865
Dendrosomidae, 863, 864
Dendrosomides, 866
paguri, 864, 866
Depression slide, 890
Derepyxis, 263
amphora, 263
ollula, 263
SUBJECT INDEX
931
Dermacenler reticulatus, 624
Dermestes lardarius, 557
Dero limosa, 590
Deroceras agreste, 388, 760
Deropristis inflata, 393
Derrengadera, 351
Desmarella, 340
irregularis, 340
moniliformis, 340
Desmose, 157, 160, 163
Desoxyribose nucleic acid, 42, 44,
151, 238
Deutomerite, 528
Devescovina, 77, 381
lemniscata, 381, 382
Devescovinidae, 370, 380-385
Dexiotricha, 765
Dexiotrichides, 765
centralis, 765, 766
Diadema setosum, 800
Diaphoropodon, 487
mobile, 485, 487
Diaptomus castor, 674
Diastase, 106
Diastole, 83
Diatoms, 422
Dichilum, 763
cuneiforme, 763, 764
Dicnidia, 670, 678
Dicotylus, 768
Dictyophimus, 522
hertwigi, 522
Dictyostelium discoideum, 433
Dictyosteliidae, 433
Didelphys virginiana, 349
Didesmis, 717
quadrata, 718
Didiniidae, 700, 703-706
Didinium, 703
balbianii, 704, 705
nasutum, 27, 72, 111, 179, 206,
704-705
Didymiidae, 430
Didymium, 431
effusum, 480
Didymophyes, 544
gigantea, 544
Didymophidae, 541, 544
Dientamoeba, 444, 453, 454, 462
fragilis, 29, 337, 462-463
Difflugia, 45, 482, 883
arcula, 483
constricta, 483
corona, 225, 484
lobostoma, 483
oblonga, 482-483
pyriformis, 482
spiralis, 122
urceolata, 483
Difflugiella, 479
apiculata, 478, 479
Difflugiidae, 472, 482-487
Digestion, 82, 102-106
Digestive tubule, 101-102
Dileptus, 63, 725-727
americanus, 726, 727
anser, 44, 73, 148, 726, 727
Dimensions of Protozoa, 39
Dimorpha, 335
mutans, 335, 836
Dinamoeba, 440
mirabilis, 489, 440
Dinenympha, 78, 79, 379
fimbriata, 379, 380
gracilis, 379, 380
Dinenymphidae, 370, 379-380
Dinobryon, 265
divergens, 265
sertularia, 264, 265
Dinoflagellata, 114, 256, 310-32 9
Dinomonas, 360
vorax, 359, 360
Dinophysidae, 325, 328-329
Dinophysis, 328
acuta, 328, 329
Diophrys, 843
appendiculata, 148, 842, 843
Dipeptidase, 106
Diphasia attenuata, 873
Diphasic amoebae, 435, 883
Diplochlamys, 482
leidyi, 481, 482
Diploconidae, 520
Diploconus, 520
Diplocystidae, 531, 538
Diplocystis, 538
schneideri, 537, 538
Diplodinium, 819-820
dentatum, 819, 820
ecaudatum, 822
Diplogromia, 472
Diplomita, 359
socialis, 359
Diplomonadina, 39, 369, 392-396
Diplophrys, 475
archeri, 475
Diploplastron, 820
affme, 819, 820
Diplopoda, 548
Diplosiga, 341
francei, 340, 341
socialis, 340, 341
Diplosigopsis, 341
afflnis, 341, 842
Diplostauron, 279
pentagonium, 278, 279
Direct nuclear division, 145-154
Discoid colony, 174, 288
Discoidae, 522
Discolith, 266
Discomorpha, 829-830
pectinata, 830
Discomorphidae, 829-830
Discophrya, 875
elongata, 875, 876
Discophryidae, 863, 875-877
932
PROTOZOOLOGY
Discorbis, 502
opercularis, 494
petalliformis, 495, 496
vilardeboanus, 496
Discorhynchus, 555
truncatus, 555, 556
Discosoma, 867
tenella, 866, 867
Discosphaera tubifer, 266, 267
Disematostoma, 759
butschlii, 759, 760
Dissodinium, 329
lunula, 828, 329
Dissosteria Carolina, 544
Distephanus speculum, 266, 267
Distigma, 304
proteus, 304, 305
Ditoxum, 826
funinucleum, 825, 826
Division, 145-166, 169-174
cytoplasmic, 166, 169-174
nuclear, 8, 145-166
Dixippus morosus, 34
Dobell-Laidlaw's media, 887-888
Dobellia, 576
binucleata, 576
Dobelliidae, 571, 576
Dobellina, 463
mesnili, 463, 465
Dog, 349, 350, 356, 395, 457, 579,
586, 624
Dogielella, 78, 79, 693
minuta, 692, 693
renalis, 693
sphaerii, 692, 693
Virginia, 692, 693
Dolichodinium, 327
lineatum, 327, 328
Donax, 576
trunculus, 637
vittatus, 852
Donkey, 349, 350, 351
Dorisiella, 586-587
scolelepidis, 587
Dorsal motor strand, 63
Dosinia bilnulata, 111
exoleta, 786
Double forms, 153, 191, 228, 229,
235, 236
Dourine, 9, 351
Dove, 388, 615
Drehkrankheit, 649, 658
Drepanoceras, 739
Drepanomonas, 739
dentata, 738, 739
Drosophila, 678
confusa, 354
Drug-fast Protozoa, 228
Drug-resistant Protozoa, 228
Duboscqia, 674
legeri, 674-676
Duboscqella, 323
tintinnicola, 322, 323
Ducks, 377, 393, 588, 616, 620, 641
Dumatella carolinensis, 617
Dyes, 228, 896-899, 900-901
Dysdercus ruficollis, 592
Dysentery amoeba, 449
Dysmorphococcus, 284
variabilis, 282, 284
Dysteria, 730
calkinsi, 729, 730
lanceolata, 730
Dysteriidae, 728
Dytiscus marginalis, 855
Earthworm, 531, 532, 533, 534, 691,
696, 697, 698, 779
Ebalia turnefacta, 848
Echinodermata, 693, 741, 748, 749,
750, 762, 763, 769, 771, 800
Echinomera, 550
magalhaesi, 550, 551
Echinometra lucunter, 750
oblonga, 800
Echinometris subangularis, 750, 800
Echinocystis, 534
globosa, 534
Echinospora, 588
labbei, 587, 588
Echinus esculentus, 750
lividus, 763
Ecology, 20-35
Ectocommensals, 28-29, 33
Ectoparasites, 29, 30, 33
Ectoplasm, 46
Eel-grass, 418
Eels, 353
Effect of parasites on hosts, 30-33,
347-348, 349, 355-356, 446, 605-
606, 607-608, 648-649, 799
Egg-yolk-saline medium, 888
Eimeria, 577
acervulina, 578, 582
adenoeides, 583
amydae, 583
anseris, 583
arloingi, 511
bovis, 577
brevoortiana, 578, 584
canis, 578, 579
caviae, 579
chrysemydis, 583
citelli, 578, 579
clupearum, 578, 584
cylindrica, 577
cynomysis, 578, 579
debliecki, 578, 579
dispersa, 583
ellipsoidalis, 577, 578
falciformis, 578, 579
faurei, 575, 577
felina, 579
gadi, 584
intricata, 577-579
SUBJECT INDEX
933
Eimeria — continued
labbeana, 583
maxima, 578, 582
meleagridis, 583
meleagrimitis, 583
mephitidis, 578, 579
mitis, 578, 582
miyairii, 678, 579
monads, 578, 580
necatrix, 583
nieschulzi, 579
os, 580
oxyspora, 583
perforans, 575, 577
perforoides, 580
praecox, 583
prevoti, 578, 583
ranae, 575, 583
ranarum, 578, 583
sardinae, 578, 583-584
scabra, 579
schubergi, 570-571, 577
separata, 579
smithi, 577
stiedae, 13, 575, 577
teneHa, 575, 580-582
truncata, 583
wenyoni, 584
xoyomingensis, 577
zilrnii, 577
Eimeridea, 570-589
Eimeriidae, 571, 576-589
Eisenia foetida, 697
lonnbergi, 698, 779
Elaeorhanis, 510
cincta, 505, 510
Elaster, 513
oree$, 513, 514
Electrical stimuli vs Protozoa, 135-
136
Electron micrographs, 53-54, 56, 7.3-
Eleodes, 552
Elephant, 350
Eleutheria dichotoma, 693
Ellipsoidina, 502
Ellipsoidinidae, 502
Elliptio complanatus, 774, 775
Ellobiophrya, 852
donacis, 852, 555
Ellobiopsis, 324
chattoni, 322, 324
Elphidium, 11, 49, 501
crispa, 495
strigilata, 60, 501
Elytroplastron, 821
hegneri, 821
Embadomonas, 362
Emetin hydrochloride, 452
Emicronucleate ciliates, 153-154
Emys orbicularis, 592
Enchelydium, 702
fusidens, 701, 702
Enchelyodon, 715-716
californicus, 716
Enchelyomorpha, 708
vermicularis, 707, 708
Enchelys, 714
auduboni, 714
curvilata, 714, 715
Encystment, 44, 175-177, 277, 744-
745, 748, 889
Endamoeba, 34, 444
blattae, 29, 49, 79, 150, 444-445
disperata, 445
granosa, 445
lutea, 445
majestus, 445, 446'
pellucida, 445
sabulosa, 445
simulans, 445, 446"
suggrandis, 445
thomsoni, 445
vs Entamoeba, 444
Endamoebidae, 435, 443-465
Endocommensalism, 28, 29, 34
Endolimax, 444, 460-461
blattae, 462
caviae, 461
clevelandi, 461, 462
gregariniformis, 462
nana, 29, 453, 454, 461
ranarum, 462
Endomixis, 151
Endoparasites, 29, 30, 34, 35
Endoplasm, 46
Endoskeleton, 70
Endosome, 40, 41, 42, 44, 74, 163-164
Endosphaera, 873
engelmanni, 24, 852, 873, 876
Enerthecoma, 784
kozloffi, 783, 784
Enoploplastron, 822
triloricatum, 821, 822
Entamoeba, 42, 444, 446
apis, 459
aulastomi, 459
barrel, 458, 886-887
bows, 457
buccalis, 455
caprae, 457
caviae, 457
CTteZft, 457, 4^5
cobayae, 457
coZz, 14, 29, 453-455, 555
cuniculi, 457
debliecki, 457, 455
eani, 457
gallinarum, 457
gingivalis, 14, 455-457
gedoelsti, 457
histolytica, 8, 14, 15, 16, 22, 27, 30,
49, 101, 176, 226, 446-453,
454, 887-889
intestinalis, 457
invadens, 41, 458-459, 887
934
PROTOZOOLOGY
Entamoeba — continued
minchini, 459
muris, 457, J+58
ovis, 457
paulista, 446, 459
phallusiae, 459
polecki, 457
ranarum, 459
terrapinae, 458
testudinis, 458
thomsoni, 459
venaticum, 457
Enterocystis, 533
ensz's, 532, 534
Enterohepatitis, 336
Enteromonas, 372-373
caviae, 373
hominis, 373, 375
Entodinium, 817-818
bursa, 818
caudatum, 818
Entodiscus, 749
borealis, 749
indomitus, 749
Entorhipidiidae, 737, 748-750
Entorhipidium, 63, 748
echini, 749
Entosiphon, 304-305
ovatum, 305
sulcatum, 305
Enzymes in Protozoa, 82, 104, 105,
106
vs mating types, 197
Eodinium, 819
lobatum, 819
Eosin test, 450
Epalcidae, 829
Epalxis, 829
mirabilis, 829, 330
Epeorus torrentium, 676
Ephelota, 877
coronata, 870, 377
gemmipara, 870, 873, 877
plana, 877
Ephelotidae, 863
Ephemera vulgata, 678
Ephestia kuhniella, 563
Epiclintes, 838
pluvialis, 837, 838
Epicone, 310
Epidinium, 822
caudatum, 821, 822
ecaudatum, 63, ^4, 32i, 822
Epimerite, 76, 528
Epiplastron, 822
africanum, 821, 822
Epistylidae, 850, 853
Epistylis, 853, 870
cambari, 858, 854
fugitans, 854
niagarae, 853, 854
plicatilis, 853
Epitheca, 310
Erastophrya, 865
chattoni, 864, 865
Eremoplastron, 820
bow's, 3i£, 820
Eriphia spinifrons, 559
Ervilia, 730
Erythroblast in malaria, 615
Erythrocebus, 612
Erythrocytic schizogony, 599, 601,
608, 609
Erythropsis, 316
cornuta, 315, 316
Eschaneustyla, 833-834
brachytona, 833, 834
Esox, 655
lucius, 353
reticulatus, 353
Espejoia, 763
mucicola, 763, 764
Espundia, 357
Eucamptocerca, 730
longa, 729, 730
Euchaeta japonica, 868
Euchlanis, 638
Euchrysomonadina, 257-267
Euciliata, 44, 685, 690-861
Eucomonympha, 414
imla, 413, 414
Eucomonymphidae, 405, 414
Eucryptomonadina, 272-275
Eudiplodinium, 820
maggii, 819, 820
Eudorina, 290
elegans, 134, 185, 289, 290, 420
Euglena, 11, 21, 24, 53, 294
acus, 294-295
deses, 26, 295, 296
ehrenbergi, 295, 296
gracilis, 26, 54, 79, 113, 295, 296
g. bacillaris, 25
klebsi, 295, 296
oxyuris, 295-296
pisciformis, 26, 294, 295
rubra, 295, 296
sanguinea, 113, 294, £95, 296
sociabilis, 295, 296
spirogijra, 295
terricola, 295, 296
tripteris, 295, 296
wWefe'a, 26, 294, ££5
Euglenamorpha, 302
hegneri, 300, 302
Euglenidae, 293, 294-302
Euglenoid movement, 294
Euglenoidina, 43, 256, 293-306
Euglypha, 47
acanthophora, 178, 487
alveolata, 23, 487
cristata, 487, 488
mucronata, 488
Euglyphidae, 472, 487-490
Eugregarinina, 527, 528-560
Eulophomonas, 408
SUBJECT INDEX
935
Eulophomonas — con fin ued
kalotermitis, 408
Eumycetozoa, 430-433
Eunicea crassa, 844
Eupagurus berhardus, 794
cuanensis, 866
excavatus, 866
Euphorbia, 354
Euphorbiaceae, 353, 354
Euplotaspis, 844
cionaecola, 844, 845
Euplotes, 24, 44, 63, 839
aediculatus, 840, 841
carinatus, 841, 842
charon, 841, 842
eurystomus, 59, 65, 66, 147, 148,
840, 841
patella, 25, 65, 66, 118, 147, 193,
194, 195, 196, 228, 229, 234-
245, 286, 839, 840
plumipes, 841
woodruff., 147, &$0, 841
Euplotidae, 832, 839-843
Euplotidium, 841
agitatum, 841, 842
Eupoterion, 63, 150, 777
pernix, 775, 777
Eurychilum, 763
actiniae, 763, 764
Euryophthalmus convivus, 353
Eurypanopeus depressus, 560
Euryphagous Protozoa, 27
Eurysporea, 649-651
Eusattus, 552
Eutaenia, 377
Eutreptia, 301
marina, 300, 301-302
viridis, 800, 301
Eutreptiella, 301
Eutrichomastix, 376
axostylis, 376, 377
batrachorum, 376, 377
serpentis, 376-377
Eutyphoeus foveatus, 536
peguanus, 536
rarus, 536
spinulosus, 536
Evolution of Protozoa, 5, 33, 34, 35
Excretion, 118-122
Excretory canal, 87
pores, 85, 87
Excystment, 178-179, 277, 448, 450,
748
Exflagellation, 606
Exoerythrocytic stages, 15, 599, 602-
604, 614
Exoskeleton, 10, 47-48, 70, 472, 493
Exuviaella, 312
apora, 312
compressa, 312-313
marina, 312, 313
Eye-spot, 89, 90-91
Fabrea, 807
salina, 807, 808
Factors for distribution, 20-28
encystment, 175-176. 177
178
excystment, 178, 179
Faecal examination, 892-894
Faeces, collection of, 880
Fannia canicularis, 452
Fats, 105, 114, 892
Fatty acid, 105, 107
Ferments, 104
Fertilization cone, 185, 186
granules, 185, 186
Feulgen's nucleal reaction, 43, 44, 45,
55, 145, 243, 896
Fibrillar structures, 60-70
Filopodia, 49, 419, 472
Finch, 586
Fingers and toes in cabbage, 433
Firebrat, 548
Fischerina, 499
helix, 498
Fischerinidae, 499
Fish, 9, 30, 31, 321, 353, 357, 371,
372, 377, 393, 464, 583, 584, 592,
638, 643, 644, 645, 648, 649, 650,
651, 652, 653, 654, 655, 656, 657,
658, 659, 660, 672, 676, 688, 709,
710, 865, 893
Fixatives, 895
Acetic-formaldehyde, 899
Bouin, 895-896
Carnoy, 896
Flemming, 896
Methyl alcohol, 900
Osmium tetroxide, 896
Schaudinn, 895, 898
Sublimate-acetic, 896, 898
formaldehyde, 898
Zenker, 63
Flagellata, 12, 254
Flagella, 52-55, 128, 254, 310
Flavobacterium, trifolium, 443
Fleas, 351, 353, 555
Fleckenkrankheit, 670
Flies, 354, 449, 452, 620, 678
Foaina, 383
nana, 382, 383
Foettingeria, 75, 789
actiniarum, 789, 791
Foettingeriidae, 789-795
Folliculina, 11, 807-808
boltoni, 808
moebiusi, 808
producta, 808
Folliculinidae, 796, 807-809
Fonsecaia, 544
polymorpha, 542, 544
Fontana's staining, 899
Food capture, 97-101
vacuoles, 88-89, 101-106, 125
PROTOZOOLOGY
Food of Protozoa, 27-28
Foraminifera, 10, 11, 29, 39, 49, 185,
223, 249, 418, 493-504
Forma, 817
Formaldehyde, 576
Fossil Protozoa, 10, 249
Fowls, 462
Fox, 349
Free-living Protozoa, 20-28
Frenzelina, 486
conformis, 672
reniformis, 485, 486
Fresh preparations, 890-894
Fritillaria pellucida, 323
Frogs, 14, 29, 335, 352, 374, 377, 390,
393, 462, 583, 586, 588, 591, 592,
625, 651, 656, 686, 687, 688, 694,
723, 800, 852, 860
Frontal cirri, 58
membrane, 59
Frontonia, 23, 758
branchiostomae , 758, 759
leucas, 41, 74, 758, 759
Frontoniidae, 758-767
Fulica atra, 584
Fuligo, 430
septica, 430
Fundulus, 658
Fungus, 443, 639, 641
Furcilla, 281
lobosa, 280, 281
Furcula, 70
Fusiformis lophomonadis, 408
melolonthae, 376
Fusulina, 498
Fusulinidae, 498
Gadus, 657
aeglefinis, 584
morrhua, 584
virens, 584
Galleria mellonella, 34
Gallinula chloropus, 584
Gallus domesticas, 617
Gametes, 180-181, 231, 494, 599, 601
Gametocytes, 599, 601, 605, 609
Gammarus, 847, 859
locusta, 672, 848
pulex, 547, 672, 847, 867
puteanus, 867
Gamocystis, 545
tenax, 542, 545
Ganymedes, 541
anaspides, 540, 541
Ganymedidae, 531, 541
Gargarius, 787
gargarius, 786, 787
Gastrocirrhus, 843
stentoreus, 843, 844
Gastrophryne, 686
Gastrosteus aculeatus, 672
pungitus, 672
Gastrostyla, 27, 838-839
muscorum, 887, 839
Gastrula, 6
Gelatinous substance, 47, 48
Geleiella, 850
Gemmation, 171-172, 863, 867, 868
Gemmules, 172
Geneiorhynchus, 558
aeschnae, 556, 558
Genes, 146, 231, 239, 240, 241, 242
Genetics, 223-243
Genotypes, 226, 229, 235, 238
Geographical distribution, 20, 28
Geophiles, 550
Gerda, 852
Gerris, 353
remigis, 353
Giardia, 393
canis, 395
caviae, 395
duodenalis, 395
enterica, 393
intestinalis, 13, 393-395
lamblia, 393
muris, 395
ondatrae, 395
simoni, 395
Gibbonsia elegans elegans, 651
Gibbula adamsoni, 560
divaricata, 560
rarilineala, 560
Giemsa stain, 239, 608
Gigantism, 109, 110
Gigantochloris, 279
permaxima, 278, 279
Gigantomonas, 385
herculea, 384, 385
Glaucoma, 761-762
ficaria, 26
pyriformis, 34, 151
scintillans, 26, 761, 762
vorax, 760
Glenodiniopsis, 314
Glenodinium, 314
cinctum, SIS, 314
edax, 313, 314
neglectum, SIS, 314
pulvisculum, SIS, 314
uliginosum, 313, 314
Globigerina, 503
bulloides, 503
Globigerinidae, 503
Globorotalia, 503
Globorotaliidae, 503
Gloeomonas, 279
ovalis, 278, 279
Glossatella, 852
piscicola, 865
tintinnabulum, 852, 853
Glossina morsitans, 348
palpalis, 345, 347
tachinoides, 345, 347
Glossosiphonia complanata, 552
SUBJECT INDEX
937
Glugea, 672
anomala, 671, 672
herlwigi, 668, 672
h. var. canadensis, 672
mulleri, 672
Glugea cyst, 32, 672
Glycera, 539
Glycogenosis substance, 29, 45, 106,
112, 113, 116, 447, 644, 821, 892
Glyptotermes, 381, 383
parvulus, 383
Gnats, 463
Gnu, 457
Goat, 374, 375, 457, 577, 625, 817,
820
Gobius minutus, 672
Goldfish, 357
Golgi apparatus, 77, 78-80, 85, 891
Goniobasis plicifera silicula, 784
Goniocoma, 780
macomae, 781
Goniodoma, 327
acuminata, 327, 328
Gonium, 39, 287
formosum, 287
pectorale, 287, 288
sociale, 287, 288
Gonocyte, 321
Gonospora, 539
minchini, 537, 539, 540
Gonostomum, 834
strenuum, 833, 834
Gonyaulax, 327
apiculata, 327, 828
polyedra, 327, 328
Gonyostomum, 306
semen, 306, 307
Goose, 583
Gorgonosoma, 867
Gorilla, 826
Graphoderes bilineatus, 855
zonatus, 855
Grasshopper, 544, 545
Gravity vs Protozoa, 131-132
Gregaloid colony, 174
Gregarina, 62, 79, 544
blattarum, 529, 530, 542, 544
cuneata, 528
locustae, 542, 544
oviceps, 542, 544-545
polymorpha, 545
rigida, 545
Gregarines, 13, 14, 79, 528
Gregarinida, 62, 527-569
Gregarinidae, 541, 544-547
Gromia, 472-473
fluvialis, 473, 474
nigricans, 473, 4^4
ovoidea, 473, 4?4
Gromiidae, 472-476
Grouse, 336, 616
Growth factors, 112
Gruberia, 803
Gruberia — continued
calkinsi, 802, 803
Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa, 363
Gryllus abbreviatus, 545, 547
americanus, 545
pennsylvanicus, 547
Guinea pig, 344, 351, 364, 373, 374,
377, 395, 457, 461, 579, 591, 752,
822
Gullet, 685
Gunda segmentata, 694
Gurleya, 674
nova, 694
richardi, 673, 674
tetraspora, 678, 674
Guttuliniidae, 433
Guyenotia, 663
sphaerulosa, 662, 663
Gymnodiniidae, 314, 318-321
Gymnodinioidae, 313-324
Gymnodinioides, 75, 791
calkinsi, 791
Gymnodinium, 318
aeruginosum, 318, 81 9
agile, 318, 319
brevis, 311
palustre, 318, 319
rotundatum, 318, 319
Gymnonympha, 412
Gymnophrys, 422
Gymnospore, 558, 559
Gymnostomata, 690, 700-735
Gynotermone, 181
Gyrinus natator, 554
Gyrocoris, 800
Gyrodinium, 320
biconicum, 819, 320
hyalinum, 319, 320
Gyromonas, 395
ambulans, 892, 395
Habitats of Protozoa,
free-living, 20-28
coprozoic, 24
katharobic, 23
mesosaprobic, 23
oligosaprobic, 23
polysaprobic, 23
sapropelic, 23
Haemaphysalis, leachi, 624
Haematin, 605
Haematochrome, 21, 90, 91, 276, 297,
706
Haematococcus, 277
pluvialis, 115, 277, 278
Haematocyst, 277
Haematoxylin, 102, 896, 897
Haemoglobinuric fever, 622
Haemogregarina, 591, 692
stepanowi, 592, 593
Haemogregarinidae, 590, 592-594
Haemopis sanguisuga, 459
93S
PROTOZOOLOGY
Haemoproteidae, 600, 618-622
Haemoproteus, 15, 618
columbae, 619-620
lophortyx, 620
metchnikovi, 620
Haemosporidia, 527, 599-634
Haemozoin, 121, 605, 608
Hahnert's solution, 882-883
Halibut, 648, 652
wormy, 648, 652, 653
Halkyardia, 502
radiata, 503
Halkyardiidae, 502
Hallezia, 873
brachypoda, 872, 873
Halosydna gelatinosa, 794
Halteria, 24, 814
grandinella, 814, 815
var. chlorelligera, 814, 815
cirrifera, 814, 815
Halteriidae, 814-815
Halteridium, 618
Humster, 614
Hanging drop preparation, 890-900
Hantkenina, 502
alabamensis, 501
Hantkeninidae, 502
Haplosporidia, 635-638
Haplosporidian cyst, 638
Haplosporidium, 635
chitonis, 635, 637
heterocirri, 636, 687
limnodrili, 636, 637
nemertis, 636, 637
scolopli, 636, 637
vejdovskii, 636, 637
Haplozoon, 323
clymenellae, 322, 323
Haptophrya, 694
inichigancnsis, 87, 694, 695
virginiensis, 694
Haptophryidae, 694-696
Harpacticus gracilis, 794
Harpalus pennsylvanicus erythropus,
545
Hartmannella, 442-443
hyalina, 443
Hartmannula, 730
entzi, 329, 730
Hastatella, 850
aesculacantha, 851
Hawks, 388, 586
Hedriocystis, 513
reticulata, 513, 514
Heleopera, 486
petricola, 1^85, 486
Helicosporidia, 643, 678-679
Helicosporidium, 678-679
parasiticum, 679
Helicostoma, 772
buddenbrocki, 770, 772
Heliochona, 847
scheuteni, 848
sessilis, 848
Heliospora, 547
longissima, 547, 549
Heliozoa, 12, 23, 39, 50, 505-515
Helix, 14, 590
aspersa, 357
Helodrilus caliginosus, 535, 691
foetidus, 531, 532, 534
longus, 533, 535
Helops striatus, 553
Hemicaryon, 189
Hemicellulose, 70
Hemicycliostyla, 834
sphagni, 833, 834
Hemidactylium scutatutn, 694
Hemidinium, 318
nasutum, 318, 819
Hemiophrys, 723
Hemispeira, 776
asteriasi, 775, 776
Hemispeiridae, 774, 776-779
Hemispeiropsis, 776
Hemitubifex benedii, 662
Hemixis, 151, 206
Henlea leptodera, 538
Henneguya, 660
exilis, 648, 659, 660
mictospora, 660
salminicola, 640
Hentschelia, 552
thalassemae, 551, 552
Hepatozoon, 592
muris, 591, 592-594
Heredity, 223-243
Hericia hericia, 679
Herpetomonas, 354
drosophilae, 354
miiscae-domesticae, 354
muscarum, 354
Herpetophrya, 693
astomata, 693
Herpobdella atomaria, 591
Herring, 584
Heterakis gallinae, 337
Heteranthera dubia, 434
Heterocineto.psis, 784
goniobasidis, 783, 784
Heterocirrus viridis, 636
Heterocoma, 785
hyperparasitica, 785
Heterodinium, 327
scrippsi, 325, 327
Heterohelicidae, 501
Heteronema, 304
acus, 23, 304, 305
mutabile, 304, 305
Hetrophrys, 510
glabrescens, 510
myriopoda, 509, 510
Heterophryidae, 506, 510
Heteroploidy, 190
Heterotricha, 790-811
Heterotrophic nutrition, 97-107
Hexacontium, 221
SUBJECT INDEX
939
H exacontiu m — contin ued
aster acanthion, 221
Hexaconus, 520
serratus, 520
Hexactinomyxon, 663
psammoryctis, 662, 663
Hexalaspidae, 520
Hexamastix, 377
batrachorum, 376, 377
caviae, 377
robustus, 377
termopsis, 376, 377
Hexamita, 392-393
rryptocerci, 392, 393
inflata, 23, 392, 393
intestinalis, 392, 393
meleagridis, 393, 394
periplanetae , 393
salmonis, 392, 393
Hexamitidae, 392-396
Hippocampus, 657
Hirmocystis, 545
harpali, 545, 546
termitis, 545, 546
Hirstella sp., 618
Histiobalantium, 771
natans, 770, 771
semisetatum, 770, 771
Histiona, 342
zachariasi, 342
Histomonas, 335, 463
meleagridis, 335-338, 462
History of Protozoology, 10-16
Histozoic Protozoa, 30, 31, 109
Histrio, 832
Hodotermes mossamhicus, 385
Hogue's media, 885
Hold-fast organellae, 76
Holocoma, 781
primigenius, 781
Holomastigotes, 79, 405
elongatum, 405
Holomastigotidae, 404, 405-407
Holomastigotoides, 406
hartmanni, 405, 406
tusitala, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162,
406, 408
Holophrya, 27, 708
simplex, 708, 711
Holophryidae, 700, 708-717
Holophryoides, 719
ovalis, 719
Holophytic nutrition, 107-108
Holosticha, 838
hymenophora, 837, 838
vernalis, 837, 838
Holothuria, 539, 779
nigra, 540
Holotricha, 690-795
Holozoic nutrition, 88
Homalogastra, 767
setosa, 766, 767
Homalozoon, 702
vermiculare, 701, 702
Homarus gammarus, 558
Homotrema, 504
Homotremidae, 504
Honey bees, 10, 459, 670
Hoplonympha, 410
natator, 410, 411
Hoplonymphidae, 404, 410-412
Hoplitophrya, 696
criodrili, 696, 697
secans, 696
Hormones, 29, 181, 185, 380
Horse, 349, 350, 351, 376, 457, 625,
641, 717, 718, 719, 720, 750, 753,
823, 824, 826, 874
Horse serum egg medium, 888
Host-parasite relationships, 32-33
Human Protozoa, see Man
Hyaline cap, 46, 125
layer, 46
Hyalobryon, 25, 265-266
ramosum, 264, 266
Hyalodiscus, 423
rubicundus, 421, 423
Hyalogonium, 281
klebsi, 280, 281
Hyaloklossia, 576
pelseneeri, 576
Hyalomma aegyptium, 353
Hyalosphenia, 479
papilio, 478, 479
Hyalospira, 794
caridinae, 794, 795
Hyalospora, 545
affinis, 545
Hyalosporina, 548
cambolopsisae, 548, 549
Hi/bopsis kentuckiensis, 660
Hybridization, 231-238
Hydaticus, 557
transversalis, 855
Hydatina, 637
Hydra, 30, 464, 859
japonica, 464
magnipapillata, 464
Hydr actinia cchinata, 771
Hydramoeba, 33, 34, 464
hydroxena, 29-30, 464-465
Hydrogen-ion concentration, 20, 25-
27, 82, 103-104, 116, 118
Hydrophilus piccus, 558, 875
H ydroporus palustris, 592
Hydrostatic organellae, 62
Hydrous, 554
ceraboides, 554
Hydrurus, 269
foetidus, 89, 266, 269
Hyla, 686
pickeringi, 687
regilla, 687
versicolor, 686
Hymenomonas, 263
roseola, 263
Hymenostomata, 690, 758-772
940
PROTOZOOLOGY
Hyperammina, 497
sabnodosa, J+97
Hyperamminidae, 497
Hyperdevescovina, 383
calotermiiis, 383
Hypermastigina, 29, 70, 118, 157,
333, 404-414
Hyperparasitism, 35, 637, 653, 672,
674, 694
Hyphantria cunea, 670
Hypocoma, 784
parasitica, 784-785
Hypocomagalma, 780
pholadidis, 780, 781
Hypocomatidium, 782
sphaerii, 783
Hypocomella, 784
phoronopsidis, 783, 784
Hypocomidae, 774, 784-785
Hypocomides, 782
mediolariae, 782, 783
Hypocomidium, 784
Hypocomina, 783-784
tegularum, 783, 784
Hypocone, 310
Hypostomata, 700, 728-735
Hypothallus, 428
Hypotheca, 310
Hypotricha, 796, 832-845
Hypotrichidium, 834
conicum, 834, 835
Hysterocineta, 779
eiseniae, 778, 779
Hysterocinetidae, 774, 779-780
Ichthyophthirius, 33, 708-709
multifiliis, 30, 709-710
Ichthyosporidium, 638
giganteum, 635, 636, 638
hertwigi, 638
Ictalurus furcatus, 656
punctatus, 648, 660
Idiochromatin, 44
Idionympha, 412
perissa, 411, 412
Iduna, 730
Idyaea furcata, 790
Iguana iguana rhinolopha, 618
Iguanas, 463
Ileonema, 60, 716
ciliata, 716, 717
disper, 716-717
Illex, 694
Immortality, 208
Immunity, 32-33
Incidence of Entamoeba histolytica,
449
Incubation period of malaria, 604-
605
Independent assortment, 231, 232
Indirect nuclear division, 154-166
Infraciliature, 56, 66
Infusoria, 11
Insignicoma, 782
venusta, 781, 782
Intoshellina, 696
poljanskyi, 695, 696
Intoshellinidae, 696-698
Iodamoeba, 444, 459-460
buischlii, 29, 453, 454, 460, 893
suis, 460
williamsi, 460
Iodine cyst, 460
Iodinophilous vacuole, 113, 644
Irritability, 130-136
Irritant substance, 312
Iron oxide in Protozoa, 47
Isocomides, 783
mytili, 783
Isogametes, 180
Isogamy, 182, 183, 185
Isopoda, 754
Isoptera, 8, 29, 543, 545, 674, 885-886
Isospora, 585
belli, 585
bigemina, 584, 586
buteonis, 586
felis, 586, 587
hominis, 584, 585-586
lacazii, 586
lieberkuhni, 586, 587
rivolta, 584, 586
suis, 586
Isotricha, 751
intestinalis, 62, 751
prostoma, 62, 751
Isotrichidae, 737, 751
Isselina, 776
Ithania, 592
wenrichi, 592
Ixodes ricinus, 624
J
Janickiella, 383
Janus green B., 80, 891
red, 80
Jarrina, 584
paludosa, 584
Jaundice in dog, 624
Joenia, 409
annectens, 408, 409
Joenina, 4l0
pulchella, 410
Joenopsis, 410
polytricha, 410
Juncus, 434
Kahlia, 834
acrobates, 834, 836
simplex, 133, 154
Kala azar, 15, 355
Kalotermes, 381
brevicollis, 390
SUBJECT INDEX
941
Kalotermes — continued
clevelandi, 397
emersoni, 397
flavicollis, 408, 409, 410
hubbardi, 383
insularis, 384
minor, 412
simplicicornis, 406, 410, 412
Karotomorpha, 374
bufonis, 374, 375
Kappa particles, 230, 239, 240, 241
Karyolysus, 594
lacertarum, 591, 594
Karyomastigont, 379, 397
Karyophore, 62, 751
Karyosome, 40
Katharobic Protozoa, 23
Kentrochona, 847
nebaliae, 847, 848
Kentrochonopsis, 847
Kentrophoros, 725
Kephyrion, 260
ovum, 259, 260
Keramosphaera, 500
Keramosphaeridae, 500
Kerona, 11, 837
polyporum, 28-29, 837, 838
Keronopsis, 838
rubra, 837, 838
Khawkinea, 297
halli, 297
ocellata, 297
Killer race of Paramecium, 196, 236,
238-241
Kinetonucleus, 55
Kinetodesma, 56, 75
Kinetosome, 54, 55, 56, 58, 61, 63, 66,
74, 75
Kinety, 56
Kinoplasm, 61, 62
Kirbyella, 379
Kissing bug, 349
Klossia, 590
helicina, 14, 590
Klossiella, 591
cobayae, 591
muris, 591
Knop's solution 883
Kofoidella, 693
eleutheriae, 692, 693
Kofoidia, 412
loriculata, 412, 413
Kofoidiidae, 404, 412
Kofoidina, 543
ovata, 543
Korschikoffia, 280
guttula, 280, 281
Kreyella, 739
Kudoa, 655
clupeidae, 654, 655
thyrsites, 649, 654, 655
Labyrinthomyxa, 419
sauvageaui, 419, 420
Labyrinthula, 418
cienkowskii, 418, 419
macrocystis, 418-419
Labyrinthulidae, 418-420
Lacerta, 362
muralis, 594
Lachmannella, 694-695
recurva, 695
Lacrymaria, 23, 713
coronata, 714, 715
lagenula, 713-714, 715
olor, 24, 713, 715
Lada, 779
Ladopsis, 779
Laelaps echidninus, 594
Lagena, 501
striata, 501
Lagenaria, cougourda, 677
Lagenidae, 501
Lagenoeca, 342
ovata, 342
Lagenophryidae, 857, 859
Lagenophrys, 859
labiata, 858, 859
patina, 858, 859
vaginicola, 858, 859
Lagynophrya, 708
mutans, 708, 711
Lamblia, 393
Laminaria lejolisii, 420
Lampoxanthium, 520
pandora, 521
Lamprodrilus, 697, 698
Lampropeltis getulus, 458
Lankesterella, 588
minima, 587, 588
Lankesteria, 538
ascidiae, 674
culicis, 529, 530, 538
Larcoidae, 522
Lasea rubra, 560
Laverania malariae, 610
Lecanophrya, 870
drosera, 869, 870
Lechriopyla, 63, 70, 741
mystax, 74 1
Lecudina, 542
pellucida, 542, 543
Lecudinidae, 541, 542-543
Lecythion, 552
thalassemae, 551, 552
Lecythium, 675
hyalinum, 675
Leeches, 352, 459, 552, 588, 592
Legendrea, 703
bellerophon, 701, 703
Legerella, 591
hydropori, 591-592
Legeria, 557-558
agilis, 556, 558
942
PROTOZOOLOGY
Leidyana, 547
erratica, 529, 546, 547
Leidyanidae, 541, 547
Leidyonella, 412
Leidyopsis, 412
Leishmania, 8, 30, 32, 345, 355, 886,
901
brasiliensis, 357
donovani, 15, 30, 355-356
infantum, 355
tropica, 117, 356-357
Leishmaniasis, 32, 355-357
Lembadion, 760
bullinum, 759, 760
Lembus, 771
Lemming, 580
Lentospora, 658
Lepidosiren paradoxa, 658
Lepismatophila, 548
thermobiae, 546, 548
Lepocinclis, 299
ovum, 299, 300
Lepomis, 660
humilis, 651
Leptochlamys, 480
ampxdlacea, 480, 481
Leptodactylidae, 8
Leptodactylus, 655
Leptodiscus medusoides, 329
Leptomonas, 345, 353
ctenocephali, 353, 354
Leptomyxa, 423
reticulata, 25, 176, 423, 424
Leptopharynx, 739
Leptospironympha, 407
eupora, 405, 407
Leptotheca, 651
ohlmacheri, 204, 650, 651
Lepus cuniculus, 351
domesticus, 351
Lernaeophrya, 865
capitata, 864, 865
Lesquereusia, 479
spiralis, 478, 479
Leucine, 121
Leuciscus rutilus, 660
Leucocytozoon, 620
anatis, 620
andrewsi, 622
bonasae, 622
simondi, 620-622
smithi, 622
Leucophrys, 79, 760-761
patella, 761
Leucosin, 113
Libinia dubia, 543
Liceidae, 432
Licnophora, 810-811
conklini, 809, 811
macfarlandi, 809, 811
Lichnophoridae, 797, 810-811
Lieberkuhnia, 99, 473
wagneri, 24, 473-475
Life-cycle of
Actipylea, 517-518
Adelea ovata, 589
Aggregata eberthi, 573-5 7 4
Apostomea, 789-790
Avian Plasmodium, 604
Babesia bigemina, 622-624
Chromulina, 257
Chrysomonadina, 257
Coccidia, 570-571
Discorbis patelliformis, 496
Eimeria schubergi, 570-571
tenella, 580-582
Elphidium crispa, 495, 496
Entamoeba histolytica, 447-448
Eugregarinina, 529-530
Foraminifera, 494-496
Haemogregarina stepanowi, 592, 593
Haemoproleus columbae, 619
Helicosporidium parasiticum, 679
I chthyosporidium giganteum, 635,
636
Lankesteria culicis, 529, 530
Leucocytozoon simondi, 621
Microsporidia, 180, 669
Mycetozoa, 427-429
Myxosporidia, 644-645
N yctotherus cordiformis, 198-199
Pandorina morum, 185
Peneroplis pertusus, 500
Plasmodium vivax, 599-600, 601
Radiolaria, 517-519
Schizocystis gregarinoides, 561
Schizogregarinina, 560
Sphaeromyxa sabrazesi, 646, 647
Spirillina vivipara, 494-496
Spirophrya subparasitica, 495
Stempellia magna, 669
Stephanosphaera pluvialis, 183
Telosporidia, 527
Tetramitus rostralus, 372
Thelohania legeri, 180
Trypanosoma cruzi, 349
gambiense, 345-347
lewisi, 346
Lightstimuli on Protozoa, 22-23, 133-
135, 196
Ligniera, 434
Limax flavus, 388
marginatus, 588
Limnodrilus arenarius, 696
claparedeanus, 677
hoffmeisteri, 663
udekemianus, 636, 661,
663
Limnoria liguorum, 754
Limpets, 777, 859
Linear colony, 174, 326
Lineus bilineatus, 636
Linkage, 232
Liocephalus liopygue, 539
Lionotus, 24, 79, 723
fasciola, 21, 24, 723, 724
SUBJECT INDEX
943
Lipase, 106
Lipocystis, 563
polyspora, 563, 565
Lipoid substance, 56, 78, 80, 107
Lipolytic substance, 106
Liponyssus saurarum, 594
Lipotropha, 563
macrospora, 563, 564
Lithobiusforficatus, 551, 570, 577, 590
mutabilis, 589
Lithocircus, 522
magnificus, 522
Lithocolla, 508
globosa, 509
Lithocollidae, 506, 508-510
Lithocystis, 539
brachycercus, 539, 540
lankesteri, 539
Littorina obtusata, 776
rudis, 776
Litmus, 102, 103
Lituola, 498
nautiloidea, 498
Lituolidae, 498
Liver-agar-serum medium, 888
Lizards, 362, 588, 594, 617, 618
Lobitermes longicollis, 391
Lobomonas, 279
rostrata, 278, 279
Lobopodia, 49
Lobster, 572
Locke-egg media, 450, 887
Locke's solution, 887
Locomotor organelles, 49-60, 379
Loftusia, 498
Loftusiidae, 498
Loligo, 694
Longitudinal fibrils, 68-69
flagellum, 310
Long-lasting modification, 228-229
Lophius piscatoris, 668
Lophocephalus, 553
insignis, 553
Lophomonadidae, 404, 407-410
Lophomonas, 407
blattarum, 29, 77, 160, 163, 175,
407, 409, 886
striata, 29, 407-408, 409, 886
Lophortyx, 620
Lophura igniti igniti, 617
Lorica, 47
Loricata, 850, 857-859
Loripes lacteus, 779
Lottia gigantea, 859
Loxocephalus, 150, 763-764
plagius, 764
Loxodes, 88, 727
magnus, 726, 121
vorax, 726, 727
Loxodidae, 723, 727-728
Loxophillum, 723-724
meleagris, 724
setigerum, 724, 725
Lucilia, 354, 452
caesar, 452
Lugol's solution, 52, 460, 892
Lumbricus castaneus, 531, 533, 534
/u6c«?<s,531,532,533,534,
697
terrestris, 531, 532, 533
534, 691, 697
variegatus, 562, 696, 698
Luminescence, 114, 317, 318, 327
Lycogala, 432
miniatum, 431
Lycogalidae, 432
Lygosoma moco, 618
Lymnaea stagnalis, 872
Lynchia brunea, 620
capensis,* 620
hirsuta, 620
Uvidicolor, 620
Lytechinus variegatus, 750
M
Macaca irus, 612, 614
Macacus cynomolgus, 612-613
nemestrinus, 386
rhesus, 22, 387, 388
Machadoella, 565
triatomae, 565
Machilis cylindrica, 545
Mackerel, 584
Macoma balthica, 776, 781
Macrogamete, 181, 599, 601, 605, 606
Macrogametocyte, 599, 601, 605, 606
Macrohodotermes massambicus, 405
Macromastix, 370-371
lapsa, 370, 371
Macronuclear regeneration, 152, 153
reorganization, 148-151
Macronucleus, 145, 146, 147-154,
684, 690
Macrospironympha,
xylopletha, 405, 407
Macrotrichomonas, 383
pulchra, 882, 383
Macrozoares americanus, 655
Mactra solidissima, 786
sulcataria, 111
veneriformis, 111
Mai de Caderas, 350
Malacophrys, 762
rotans, 761, 762-763
Malacostraca, 324
Malaria, 14, 30-31, 607-608
aestivo-autumnal, 610
benign tertian, 608
malignant tertian, 610
mild tertian, 611
ovale, 611
quartan, 610
subtertian, 610
tertian, 608
Malarial organisms of
Birds, 614-617
944
PROTOZOOLOGY
Malarial organisms of — continued
Man, 608-612, 613
Monkeys, 612-614
Reptiles, 617-618
Malaria therapy, 608
Mallard duck, 620
Mallomonas, 258-259
litmosa, 259
Man, Protoza in,
Balantidium coli, 8, 798-799
Chilomastix mesnili, 29, 374, 875
Dientamoeba fragilis, 29, 462-463
Endolimax nana, 29, 461
Entamoeba coli, 29, 453-455
gingivalis, 455-457
histolytica, 8, 446-453
Enteromonas hominis, 372-373
Giardia intestinalis, 393-395
Iodamoeba butschlii, 29, 460
Isospora hominis, 585-586
Leishmania brasiliensis, 357
donovani, 355-356
tropica, 356-357
Plasmodium falciparum, 610
malariae, 610-611
ovale, 611-612
vivax, 608-610
Retortamonas intestinalis, 363-364
Sarcocystis lindemanni, 639-640
Trichomonas hominis, 385-386,
387, 388
tenax, 386, 387
vaginalis, 386-387
Trypanosoma cruzi, 348-349
gambiense, 345-347
rhodesiense, 348
Margarita, 432
Margaritidae, 432
Margarnia pyloalis, 670
Margaropus annulatus, 622
Marginal cirri, 58
Marmota monax, 580
Marsupiogaster, 306
picta, 805, 306
striata, 805, 306
Martinezia, 463
baezi, 461, 463
Maryna, 738
socialis, 738
Marynidae, 737, 738-739
Massive nucleus, J+l, 42-44
Massartia, 320
nieuportensis, 819, 320
Mastigamoeba, 23, 334
aspera, 334
hylae, 335, 336
longifilum, 334
setosa, 884, 335
Mastigamoebidae, 333-338
Mastigella, 335
vitrea, 334, 335
Mastigina, 334
Mastigoneme, 54
Mastigophora, 12, 42, 249, 250, 254-
414
Mastigosphaera, 290
gobii, 289, 290
Mastotermes darwiniensis, 371, 414
Mating behavior, 192-193
type, 145, 192-196, 233
type determiner, 233-234, 236
type substance, 197, 235
Mattesia, 563
dispora, 563, 564
Maupasella, 696
nova, 696, 697
Maurer's dots, 605, 609, 610
Mayflies, 676, 678, 767
Meal worm, 545, 561
Mechanical stimuli on Protozoa, 130-
131
Media, culture, 881-890
Mediolaria marmorata, 782
Medusetta, 524
ansata, 524
Medusettidae, 523
Medusochloris, 283
phiale, 283
Megacyclops viridis, 676, 677-678
Megalosphaeric generation, 494, 495
proloculum, 494
Megamoebomyxa, 423
argillobia, 423-424
Meiosis, 160, 206-208, 234, 496
gametic, 206-207, 234
zygotic, 208, 573, 574, 575
Melanin, 121
Melanoplus, 545
Melanosome, 91, 316
Melolontha, 376, 557
melolontha, 377
Melophagus ovinus, 350
Membrane,
cell, 46-47
nuclear, 40, 41, 42
Membranella, 59
basal plate, 59, 65
fiber, 65
fiber plate, 65
Membranosorus, 434
Mendelian inheritance, 231, 232
Menhaden, 584
Menoidium, 303
Menospora, 549
polyacantha, 549, 551
Menosporidae, 541, 549
Merganser, red-breasted, 620
Mergus serrator, 620
Meriirix meritrix, 111
Merocystis, 574
kathae, 574-575
Merogregarina, 561
amaroucii, 561, 562
Meroselenidium, 564
keilini, 564
Merozoite, 580, 581, 599, 601
SUBJECT INDEX
945
Mesenchytraeus flavus, 636
Mesnilel'la, 698
clavata, 697, 698
rostrata, 697, 698
Mesocricetus, auratus, 388, 614
Mesodinium, 705
acarus, 704, 705
pulex, 24, 704, 705
rubrum, 706
Mesojoenia, 410
decipiens, 410
Mesosaprobic Protozoa, 23
Mesozoa, 643
Metabolism, 39
Metachromatic granules, 114
Metacineta, 869
mystacina, 24, 869
Metacoronympha, 397
senta, 396, 397
Metacryptozoite, 602
Metacysticlae, 700, 703
Metacystis, 703
truncata, 703, 704
Metadevescovina, 383
debilis, 77, 382, 383
Metadinium, 820
medium, 819, 820
Metamera, 552
reynoldsi, 552
schubergi, 551, 552
Metaphyra, 691-692
sagittae, 692
Metaradiophrya, 697
asymmetrica, 698
lumbrici, 697
Metazoa compared with Protozoa, 6
Methyl cellulose, 891
green, 42, 43, 892
Methylene blue, 891
Metopidae, 796, 800-801
Metopus, 63, 800
circumlabens, 800, 801
es, 116, 199-200, 201, 800, 801
fuscus 800, 801
sigmoides, 800
straitus, 800, 801
Metridium marginatum, 789
Microcometes, 473
paludosa, 473, 4~4
Microcorycia, 481-482
flava, 481, 482
Microcyst, 429
Microdissection, 65
Microfolliculina, 808
limnoriae, 808
Microgamete, 15, 181, 599, 601, 605,
606
Microgametocyte, 599, 601, 605, 606
Microglena, 260
ovum, 260, 262
Microgromia, 473
socialis, 473, 474
Microjoenia, 410
Microjoenia — continued
pyrijormis, 409, 410
Microlynchia fusilla, 620
Micron, 39
Micronucleus, 41, 44, 684, 690
Micropterus dolomieu, 865
salmoides, 660
Microregma, 714
audoboni, 714, 715
Microrhopalodina, 379
Microscopical examination, 890-901
Microspheric generation, 494, 495
proloculum, 494
Microspirotrichonympha, 406
ovalis, 405, 406
porteri, 405, 406
Microsporidia, 7-8, 10, 14, 32, 39, 40,
643, 668-678
Microsporidian cyst, 668, 672, 675
Microsporidiosis, 10, 668
Microstomus pacificus, 651
Microtaeniella clymenellae, 323
Microtermes hispaniolae, 445
panamaensis, 445
Microthorax, 739
simulans, 738, 739
Microtus guntheri, 614
pennsylvanicus, 388
Microvelia, 353
Miescher's tube, 638
Miliolidae, 499
Milk weeds, 353, 354
Milky barracouta, 649
Mites, 592, 594, 618
Mithrax forceps, 547
Mitosis, 154-166
Mitraspora, 651
elongata, 651
Mixotricha, 371
paradoxa, 371
Mixotrophic nutrition, 109
Mobilia, 850, 859-861
Modifications, long-lasting, 228
Modiolus modiolus, 111
Moina rectirostris, 674
Mole, 586
Molgula manhattensis, 865
Mollusca, 357, 558, 573, 575, 576,
635, 693, 774-787, 852
Molting hormone on Protozoa, 185,
380
M onadenia fidelis, 357
Monadidae, 339, 360-361
Monas, 24, 127, 128, 360
elongata, 360, 361
guttula, 360, 361
socialis, 53, 360, 361
sociabilis, 360
vestita, 360, 361
Monera, 39, 423
Monkeys, 349, 456, 602, 603, 612, 735
Monocercomonas, 377
Monocercomonoides, 377
melolonthae, 376, 311
946
PROTOZOOLOGY
Monochiluni, 763
frontatum, 763, 764
Monocnidea, 670-678
Monocystidae, 531-534
Monocystis, 79, 81, 207, 531
lumbrici, 531, 532
rostrata, 207, 532, 533
ventrosa, 531, 532
Monodinium, 703
Monodontophrya, 696
kijenskiji, 695, 696
Monductidae, 541, 548
Monoductus, 548
lunatus, 546, 548
Monomastix, 716
Monomonadina, 369-392
Monophasic amoebae, 437, 883
Monopylea, 519, 522-523
Monosiga, 340
ovata, 340
robusta, 340
Morphology, 39-91
Morphonemes, 63
Mosquitoes, 530, 538, 600, 606, 614,
615
Motella, 656, 657
mustela, 393
tricirrata, 393
Motorium, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 69
Mouse, 228, 349, 351, 374, 395, 457,
579, 587, 591, 614, 639, 641, 672
Movement by
cilia, 127-129
flagella, 126-127, 128
myonemes, 129-130
pseudopodia, 122-126
M oxostoma breviceps, 659
Mrazekia, 676
caudala, 676, 677
Mrazekiella, 698
intermedia, 697, 698
Mrazekiidae, 670, 676-678
Mule, 349
Muller's law, 517
vesicle, 87, 88, 727, 728
Multicilia, 333
lacustris, 333, 334
marina, 333, 334
Multiciliidae, 333
Multifasciculatum, 875
elegans, 874, 875
Multiple conjugation, 202
Multiple division, 171
fission cyst, 494
Munia oryzivora, 351
Murrina, 351
Mus musculus, 349, 389, 591
Musca, 354, 678
domestica, 452
Musgrave-Clegg's medium, 883
Muskrat, 395
Mutation, 229-230, 240, 242
My a arenaria, 780
Mya — continued
inconspicua, 780
irus, 780
nasuta, 780
secta, 780
Mycetobia, pallipes, 676
Mycetozoa, 40, 418, 427-434
Mycterothrix, 739
erlangeri, 738, 739
Mylestoma, 830-831
bipartitum, 830, 831
Mylestomidae, 829, 830-831
Myonemes, 61-62, 129, 333
Myophrisks, 62
Myriapoda, 550, 589, 590
Myriophryidae, 506, 514-515
Myriophrys, 514-515
paradoxa, 514, 515
Myriospora, 576
trophoniae, 576
Mytilus edulis, 776, 777,782, 783, 787
galloprovincialis, 560
minimus, 558, 560
Myxamoeba, 427
Myxidiidae, 655-657
Myxidium, 655
immersum, 655-656, 657
kudoi, 656
liberkuhni, 172, 655, 657
lindoyense, 655
serotinum, 654, 656
Myxobilatus, 660
Myxobolidae, 655, 658-660
Myxobolus, 658
conspicuus, 659
intestinalis, 31, 660
orbiculatus, 659
pfeifferi, 648, 658-659
squamosus, 659, 660
Myxochrysis, 261
paradoxa, 261
Myxococcus, pelomyxae, 441
Myxocystis, 676
Myxoflagellate, 429
Myxogasteres, 427
Myxomonas, 385
polymorpha, 385
Myxomycetes, 427
Myxophyllum, 776
steenstrupi, 775, 776
Myxoproteus, 651
cordiformis, 651, 652
Myxosoma, 658
catostomi, 154, 644, 658
cerebralis, 648, 658, 659
funduli, 658
Myxosomatidae, 655, 658
Myxosporidia, 9, 14, 31, 40, 76, 643-
660
Myxosporidian cyst, 645, 648, 649,
653, 659
Myxotheca, 476
arenilega, 4^5, 476
SUBJECT INDEX
947
Nadinella, 486
tenella, 485, 486
Nagana, 9, 14, 349
Naegleria, 436
gruberi, 24, 436
bistadialis, 436
Naegleriidae, 60, 435-436
Naiadaceae, 418
Nassoidae, 522
Nassula, 79, 728
aurea, 24, 728, 729
Nassulidae, 728
Nasutitermes kirbyi, 377
Natrix cyclopion, 459
rhombifer, 459
sipedon, 459
s. sipedon, 459
Navicula, 277
Nebalia bipes, 324
geoffroyi, 792, 847
Nebela, 490
collaris, 489, 490
Necturus, 859
Nematocyst, 76, 324
Nematocystis, 533
vermicularis, 582, 533
Nematode, 390, 674
Nematodinium, 316
partitum, 815, 316
Nematopsis, 558
legeri, 558-560
ostrearum, 560
panopei, 560
Nemertinea, 538
Neoactinomyxum, 663
globosum, 662, 663
Neosporidia, 526
Neotermes, 381, 383
connexus, 383
dalbergiae, 379
erythraeus, 385
greeni, 383
simplicornis, 378
tectonae, 379
Neotoina fuscipes annectens, 351
/. macrotis, 349, 351
micropus micro pus, 351
Nepa cinerea, 557, 563, 588
Nephroselmidae, 272, 274-275
Nephroselmis, 274
olvacea, 273, 274
Nereis beaucourdrayi, 543
cullrifera, 543
Net-plasmodium, 418
Neuromotor apparatus, 63-66, 67-68,
69, 731
Neurophane, 61
Neusina, 499
Neusinidae, 499
Neutral red, 78, 79, 103, 104, 450,
528, 891
Newt, 352
Nicollella, 734-735
ctenodactyli , 734, 735
Nigrosin, 892
Nina, 550
gracilis, 528, 529, 550, 551
Nitocra typica, 870
Nitrogen deficiency, 90
N N N Medium, 886
Noctiluca, 11, 39, 316-317
miliar is, 317
scintillans, 114, 315, 317-318
Noctilucidae, 314, 316-318
Nonionidae, 501
Nosema, 670
aedis, 671, 672
anophelis, 671
apis, 10, 32, 670-671
bombycis, 10, 14, 32, 670, 671
bryozoides, 670, 671
cyclopis, 671
lophii, 668
notabilis, 35, 653
Nosema-disease, 670, 671
Nosematidae, 670-676
Notila, 380
proteus, 380
Notosolenus, 305-306
apocamptus, 305, 306
sinuatus, 305, 306
Notropis blennius, 660
cornutus, 660
gilberti, 659
Nucleal reaction, Feulgen's, 897-898
Nuclear creft, 147
Nuclear division, 145-166
direct, 145-154
indirect, 154-166
Nuclear membrane, 40
reorganization, 147-151, 152
sap, 40
Nuclearia, 421
delicatula, 419, 422
simplex, 422
Nucleic acid, 42, 44, 115
Nucleolus, 40
Nucleophaga, 893
Nucleoplasm, 40, 41
Nucleus, 40-44, 684
v compact, 41, 42-44
r macro-, 41, 42, 43, 44, 684
Iflmicro-, 41, 44, 684
m vesicular, 40-42
Nutrition, 97-116
autotrophic, 107
heterotrophic, 97
holophytic, 107-108
holozoic, 88, 97-107
mixostrophic, 109
parasitic, 109
phytotrophic, 107
sapropelic, 23
saprophytic, 108
saprozoic, 89, 108-109
948
PROTOZOOLOGY
Nutrition — continued
zootrophic, 97
Nyctobates pennsylvanica, 555
Nvctotherus, 13, 804
cordiformis, 198, 199, 805-806
ovalis, 29, 42, 43, 44, 62, 147, 804,
805
Obelia commissuralis, 873
geniculata, 873
Ocean pout, 655
Ocellus, 91, 310, 316
Ochromonadidae, 257, 264-266
Ochromonas, 264
granulans, 264
ludibunda, 264
mutabilis, 264
Octolasium complanatum, 533
Octomitus, 392
Octomyxa, 434
Octopus letracirrhus, 694
Octosporea, 678
muscae-domesticae, 677, 678
Ocular micrometer, 891
Odor produced by Protozoa, 9, 114
Oikomonadidae, 339, 343-344
Oikomonas, 343
termo, 25, 28, 343
Oikopleura dioica, 321
Oil, 105, 113-114
Oligosaprobic Protozoa, 23
Oligotricha, 790, 814-826
Oncopeltus fascialus, 354
Ondatra zibethica, 395
Onychodactylus, 730
Onychodromopsis, 839
flexilis, 839, 840
Onychodromus, 839
grandis, 839, 840
Oocyst, 185, 571, 576, 599, 601
Oodinium, 321
limneticum, 321, 323
ocellatum, 321, 323
poucheti, 321, 322
Ookinete, 187, 599, 601, 621, 623
Oospira, 791
Opalina, 13, 40, 685-686
carolinensis, 687
chorophili, 687
hylaxena, 686
kennicotti, 687
obtrigonoidea, 686
oregonensis, 687
pickeringii, 687
spiralis, 687
Opalinidae, 685-688
Opalinopsidae, 694
Opalinopsis, 694
sepiolae, 694, 695
Opercular fibers, 63
Opercularia, 854
plicatilis, 853. 854
Opercularia — continued
stenostoma, 853, 854
Operculariella, 854
parasitica, 853, 854-855
Operculina, 501
ammonoides, 501
Ophelia limacina, 693
Ophiothrix fragilis, 793
Ophisthotrichum, 822
janus, 822, 823
thomasi, 822
Ophiurespira, 793
weilli, 792, 793
Ophrydiidae, 850, 852
Ophrydium, 39, 852
ectatum, 851, 852
sessile, 851, 852
vernalis, 851, 852
Ophryocephalus, 870
capitatum, 869, 870
Ophryocystidae, 560-562
Ophryocystis, 560-561
mesnili, 561, 562
Ophryodendridae, 863, 867
Ophryodendron, 867
belgicum, 866, 867
porcellanum, 866, 867
Ophryoglena, 767
atra, 768
collini, 766, 767
intestinalis, 766, 768
parasitica, 767
pyriformis, 766, 768
Ophryoglenidae, 758, 767-769
Ophryoscolecidae, 70, 119, 814, 816-
822
Ophryoscolecin, 70
Ophryoscolex, 817
bicoronatus, 817, 818
caudatus, 817, 818
quadricoronatus, 817, 818
Ophthalmidiidae, 499
Opisthodon, 723
Opisthonecta, 851-852
henneguyi, 851, 852, 873
Opisthostyla, 854
annulata, 853, 854
Opisthotricha, 832
Opossum, 349
Opsanus beta, 35, 653, 672
tau, 35, 653, 672
Oral basket, 71
groove, 685
membrane, 59
Orang-outang, 799
Orbitoides, 504
Orbitoididae, 504
Orbitolinidae, 499
Orbulina universa, 223
Orcadella, 432
operculata, 431
Orcheobius, 590
herpobdellae, 591
SUBJECT INDEX
949
Orchesiiu agilis, 691, 733
palustris, 733
Orchitophrya, 693
stellarum, 32, 692, 693
Orchopeas w. wickhami, 351
Organellae, 5, 60-91
Oriental sore, 356
Origin of parasitism, 33-35
Orosphaera, 521
Orosphaeridae, 521
Orthodon, 730
hamulus, 729, 730
Orthognathotervies wheeleri, 388
Orthomorpha, 544
gracilis, 544
Oryctes, 376, 544
nasicornis, 544
Osmerus, 688
eparlanus, 672
mordax, 672
Osmiophile structures, 78, 79
Osmium tetroxide, 80
Ostracodinium, 821-822
dentatum, 821, 822
Ostrea virginica, 442, 560
Otus asio naevius, 617
Ovis orientulis cycloceros, 817
Ovivora, 572
thalassemae, 572, 573
Oxazin, 228
Oxidation, 116
Oxidase, 104, 117
Oxygen consumption, 116-118
on Protozoa, 29, 116-11!
Oxmonadidae, 369, 378-379
Oxymonas, 378
dimorpha, 378
grandis, 378-379
Oxnerella, 508
muritima, 154, 155, 508
Oxyphysis, 329
oxytoxoides, 328, 329
Oxyrrhis, 314
marina, 314, 315
Oxytricha, 23, 63, 832
bifaria, 832, 833
fallax, 21, 832J, 833
hymenostomu, 153
ludibundu, 832, 833
setigera, 832, 883
Oxytrichidae, 832-839
Oyster, 442, 560
Owl, 617
Pace and Belda's solution, 883
Pachygrapsus, crassipes, 547
marmoratus, 672
transversus, 547
Paedogamy, 645
Paphia philippinarum, 111
Palacalanus parvus, 321
Palaemonetes, 791
Palatinella, 260
cyrtophora, 259, 260
Paldina vivipara, 875
Palmathydra robusta, 4(54
Palmella stage, 257, 276, 277
Pamphagus, 480
armatus, 23
mutabilis, 478, 480
Pandorina, 289-290
morum, 185, 289, 290
Panesthia javanica, 810
spandica, 810
Panopeus herbesti, 560
occidentalis, 560
Panorpa communis, 563
Pansporoblast, 187, 645
Panslrongylus megistus, 349
Pap snoek, 649
Papio, 612
Parabasal apparatus, 77-78, 333
body, 333, 369
Parabiotic twins, 191
Parablepharisma, 804
pellitum, 802, 804
Paracalanus, 693
parvus, 324, 794
Parachaenia, 780
myae, 780
Paracineta, 868
limbata, 868, 869
Paraclevelandia, 810
brevis, 809, 810
simplex, 152
Paradesmose, 157
Paradevescovina, 383
Paradileptus, 727
conicus, 726, 727
estensis, 727
robustus, 726, 727
Paradinium, 324
poucheti, 822, 324
Paraellobiopsis, 324
coutieri, 822, 324
Paraeuplotes, 843
tortugensis, 843-844
Paraeuplotidae, 832, 843-845
Parafolliculina, 809
violacea, 808, 809
Paraglaucoma, 762
rostratu, 761, 762
Paraglycogen, 70, 112, 113, 116, 528
Paraholosticha, 838
herbicolu, 837, 838
Parahypocoma, 785
collini, 785
Paraisotricha, 750
beckeri, 750, 751
colpoidea, 750, 751
Paraisotrichidae, 737, 750
Paraisotrichopsis, 720
composita, 719, 720
Parajoenia, 381
grassii, 381-383
950
PROTOZOOLOGY
Parajulus venustus, 544
Paramaecium, 742
Parameciidae, 737, 742-745
Paramecin, 238
Paramecium, 11, 22, 24, 56, 57, 63,
74, 79, 132, 179, 742, 745
aurelia, 26, 41, 44, 151, 152, 153,
190-191, 193-194, 196, 233,
236, 238, 241, 242, 743
bursaria, 25, 26, 27, 29, 121, 154,
189-190, 192, 194-196, 202,
743, 744
calkinsi, 24, 27, 196, 748, 744
caudatum, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 44, 72,
117, 118, 119, 120, 145, 146,
187-189, 225, 227, 228, 237,
742-743, 745
multimicronucleatum, 21, 25, 27, 28,
67, 68, 69, 85, 86, 191, 743, 744
poltcaryum, 27, 743, 744
putrinum, 743, 744
trichium, 27, 190, 743, 744
woodruffi, 27, 743, 744
Paramoeba, 465
pigmentifera, 465-466
schaudinni, 466
Paramoebidae, 435, 465-466
Paramylon, 105, 113, 203
Paranassula, 728
microstoma, 728, 729
Parapodophyra, 868
typha, 868, 869
Parapolytoma, 281
satura, 280, 281
Parasitic castration, 32, 670-671
Parasitic nutrition, 109
Parasitic Protozoa, 28-35, 116, 880
Parasitism, 29-32
origin of, 33-35
Paraspathidium, 700
trichostomum, 700, 701
Paravorticella, 852
clymenellae, 851, 852
Paresis, 600
Pareuglypha, 487
Parmulina, 482
cyathus, 481, 482
Parophrys vetulus, 651
Paroral cone, 191, 204
Paroxysm, 599, 605
Parthenogenesis, 285, 605
Passer domesticus, 586, 615
Passerine birds, 586, 615
Patellina, 502
corrugata, 496
Pathological changes in host, 30-33,
347-348, 349, 355-356, 446, 605-
606, 607-608, 799
Paulinella, 488
chromatophora, 488
Pavillardia, 318
tentaculifera, 318
Pavonina, 502
Pavonina — continued
flabelliformis, 501
Pebrine disease, 10, 14, 669, 670
Pecten, 31
maximus, 575
Pectinella, 56
Pedigree culture, 881
Pelamphora, 703
butschlii, 703
Pelatractus, 703
grandis, 703, 704
Pelecyophrya, 786
tapetis, 786-787
Pellicle, 46-47, 118, 435
Pelodinium, 829
reniforme, 829, 830
Pelomyxa, 40, 42, 440
carolinensis, 46, 49, 117, 135, 164,
173, 176, 441, 442, 883
illinoisensis, 46, 176, 44 1, 442
palustris, 23, 441
villosa, 441
Penardia, 423
mutabilis, 421, 423
Penardiella, 702
crassa, 701, 702
Peneroplis, 499
pertusus, 48, 500
Peneroplidae, 499
Penniculus, 68, 69
Pentatrichomonas, 391
bengalensis, 391
Pentatrichomonoides, 391
scroa, 391
Pepsin-like enzyme, 106
Peptidase, 104, 106
Peranema, 46, 79, 304, 881
granulifera, 304
trichophorum, 54, 55, 81, 100,304,
305
Perca fluviatilis, 353
Perezella, 692-693
pelagica, 692, 693
Perezia, 672-673
lankesteriae, 673, 674
mesnili, 673-674
Periacineta, 871
buckei, 872
Pericaryon, 794
cesticola, 792, 794
Peridiniidae, 325
Peridiniinea, 312, 313-329
Peridinin, 90
Peridinioidae, 313, 324-329
Peridinium, 326
divergens, 825, 326
tabulatum, 825, 326
Perioral membrane, 59
Peripheral granules of nucleus, 42
Periplaneta americana, 452, 453, 538
Peripylea, 519, 520-522
Perispira, 702
ovum, 701, 702
strephosoma, 701, 702
SUBJECT INDEX
951
Peristome, 59, 685
Peristyle, 344
Peritricha, 28, 33, 61, 690, 850-862
Peritromidae, 797, 810
Peritromus, 810
californicus, 809, 810
emmae, 810
Permanent preparations, 894-901
Peromyscus, 389
leucopus, 388
maniculatus, 351
Petalomonas, 302-303
mediocanellata, 802, 303
Petalostoma minutum, 576, 661
Petrocheliden I. lunifrons, 617
Pfeifferinella, 588
ellipsoides, 587, 588
impudica, 588
Phacodinium, 804
metschnicoffi, 801, 804
Phacotidae, 276, 284
Phacotus, 284
lenticular is, 282, 284
Phacus, 24, 297
acuminata, 298, 299
longicauda, 298
monilata, 298, 299
oscillans, 298, 299
pleuronectes, 297-298
pyrum, 298
torta, 298, 299
Phaeocapsina, 272, 275
Phaeodium, 516
Phaeosphaera, 269
gelatinosa, 266, 269
Phaeolhamnion confervicoluni, 273,
275
Phagocytosis, 602
Phalangium, cornutum, 556
crassum, 556
opilio, 556
Phalansteriidae, 339
Phalansterium, 339
digitatum, 339, 340
Phallusia mamillata, 459
Pharyngeal basket, 71
Phascolodon, 731
vorticella, 729, 731
Phase microscope, 52, 83, 891
Pheasant, 338, 583, 617
fire-back, 617
Phenol red, 103
Pheretima barbadensis, 533, 536
beaufortii, 536
hawayana, 536
heterochaeta, 534, 536-537
rodericensis, 536
sermowaiana, 537
wendessiana, 536
Phialoides, 558
ornata, 556, 558
Phialonema, 302
Philaster, 771
Philaster — continued
armata, 770, 111
digitiformis, 770, 771
Philasteridae, 758, 771-772
Philasterides, 771
Phlebotomus, 355
argentipes, 355, 356
intermedins, 357
panamensis, 357
papatasii, 355, 357
sergenti, 357
Pholadidea penita, 780
Pholas crispata, 782
Phorcus, richardi, 560
Phoretrophrya, 791
nebaliae, 791, 792
Phormia, 354
Phormobothrys, 523
Phoronopsis viridis, 784
Phoront, 789, 790
Phosphorescence, 114, 317, 318, 327
Phosphorus deficiency, 90
Photogenic granules, 114
Photorophrya, 793
insidiosa, 792, 794
Photosynthesis, 23, 25, 90, 107, 108
Phryganella, 485
acropodia, 485-486
Phrynosoma asio, 618
cornutum, 618
Phycochrisin, 89
Phycocyanin, 90
Phyllognathus, 544
Phyllomitus, 364
undulans, 363, 364
Phyllomonas, 280
phacoides, 280
Phylogeny of Protozoa, 249-253
Phylloxanthin, 90
Physalophrya, 745
spumosa, 741, 745
Physaridae, 430
Phy sella sp., 693
Physematiidae, 520
Physiological solution, 892
Physiology, 97-136
Physomonas, 360
Physophaga, 791
Phytia setifer, 778
Phytodiniidae, 325, 329
Phytodinium, 329
simplex, 828, 329
Phytomastigina, 6, 21, 23, 256-329,
881 884
Phytomonadina, 256, 263, 276-290
Phytomonas, 353-354
davidi, 354
elmassiani, 354
Phytomyxinea, 433-434
Phytotrophic nutrition, 107-108
Pieris brassicae, 674
Pig, 9, 347, 349, 457, 460, 579, 586,
625, 639, 640, 799
Pigeon, 388, 583, 615, 619
952
PROTOZOOLOGY
Pigments, 30, 31, 45, 89-90
Pileocephalus, 555
striatus, 553, 555
Pilisuctoridae, 753
Pimelia, 553
Pimephales notatus, 660
Pinaciophora, 513
fluviatilis, 512, 513
Pipetta, 522
tuba, 521
Piroplasma, 622
Pisania maculosa, 560
Pithiscus, 281
Pithothorax, 71-4
ovatus, 715
Pituophis, 377
Placobdella caienigera, 592
marginata, 352, 552, 588
Placocista, 489-490
spinosa, 489, 490
Placosilina, 499
cenomana, 498
Placopsilinidae, 499
Placus, 713
socialis, 711, 713
Plagiocampa, 712
marina, 711, 712
Plagiophrys, 480
parvipunctata, 4?8, 480
Plagiopyla, 27, 740
minuta, 741
nasuta, 740-741
Plagiopylidae, 737
Plagiopyxis, 484
callida, 484, 485
Plagiospira, 779
crinita, 778, 779
Plagiotricha, 834
Planaria, 859
limacina, 695
torva, 696
ulvae, 694
Planorhis corneus, 588
Planorbulina, 504
Planorbulinidae, 503
Plants, 5, 6, 353, 354
Plasmagel, 46, 125
Plasmagene, 239
Plasmaiemma, 125, 126
Plasma-membrane, 46
Plasmasol, 46, 124, 125
Plasmodia, 427, 428
Plasmodiidae, 600-618
Plasmodiophora, 433
brassicae, 433
Plasmodium, 7, 15, 30, 32, 39, 226,
600-608, 889, 901
berghei, 614
brasiliarmm, 612, 614
catkemerium, 602, 60S, 625, 616
circumflexum, 616—617
cynomolgi, 603, 604, 605, 612-613
elongatum, 602, 615-616
Plasmodium — continued
falciparum, 15, 31, 32, 605, 606,
607, 609, 610, 613
floridense, 618
gallinaceum, 602, 60S, 605, 616,
617
hexamerium, 616, 617
inconstans, 615
inui, 22
kochi, §\2,614
knowlesi, 22, 33, 614
lophurae, 616, 617
hjgosomae, 618
malariae, 605, 607, 610-611, 613
mexicanum, 617-618
nucleophilum, 616, 617
oti, 616,617
ovale, 605, 607, 611-612
polare, 616, 617
praecox, 15, 615
rhadinurum, 618
relictum, 15, 600, 615, 616
rouxi, 615, 616
tenue, 610
vaughani, 615, 616
vivax, 32, 186-187, 599-600, 601 ,
602, 603, 604, 605, 606, 607,
608-610, 613
Plasmodroma, 249, 254-679
Plasmogamy, 135
Plasmosome, 40
Plasmotomy, 135, 172-173
Plastin, 40
Platophrya, 865
Platycola, 859
longicollis, 858, 859
Platydorina, 288
caudata, 288, 289
Platvhelminthes, 693, 694, 695, 696,
"767, 768
Platynematum, 764-765
sociale, 24, 764, 765
Platyophrya, 712
lata, 711, 712
Platysporea, 649, 655-660
Platytheca, 344
microspora, S4S, 344
Plectoidae, 522
Pleodorina, 290
californica, 290
illinoisensis, 89, 289, 290
Pleurocoptes, 771
hydractiniae, 770, 771
Pleurocystis, 535
cuenoti, 535
Pleuromonas, 362
jaculans, 24, 362, 363
Pleuronema, 769
anodontae, 768, 769
coronatum, 24, 768, 769
crassum, 768, 769
jaculans, 24
marinum, 768,, 769
SUBJECT INDEX
953
Pleuronema — continued
setigerum, 768, 769
Pleuronematidae, 758, 769-771
Pleurostomata, 700, 723-728
Pleurotricha, 838
lanceolata, 887, 838
Plistophora, 676
kudoi, 676
longifilis, 668, 675, 676
Plodia inter punctella, 563
Plumatella fungosa, 670
repens, 670
Pocillomonas, 284
flos aquae, 282, 284
Podocyathus, 878
diadema, 877, 878
Podophrya, 868
collini, 868
elongata, 866, 868
fixa, 866, 868
Podophryidae, 863, 868-870
Poisonous substance, 99
Polar capsule, 76, 643
filament, 76, 643, 644
Polyblepharides, 284
singularis, 282, 284
Polyblepharididae, 276, 284
Polychaetes, 575, 576
Poly dor a caeca, 691
fiava, 691
Polygastricha, 12
Polykrikidae, 314, 324
Polykrikos, 324
barneqateyisis, 324
kofoidi, 324, 325
Polymastigidae, 369, 376-377
Polymastigina, 70, 333, 369-397
, Polymastix, 376
melolonthae, 376
Polymnia, 693
nebulosa, 575
Polymonadina, 369, 396-397
Polymorpha, 719
ampulla, 719
Polymorphina, 501
Polymorphinidae, 501
Polymyxa, 434
Poly plastron, 820
multivesiculatum, 70, 821
Polyploidy, 190
Polyrhabdina, 543
spionis, 542, 543
spinosus' bifurcata,' 543
Polysaprobic Protozoa, 23, 116
Polyspira, 75, 794
delagei, 793, 794
Polystomella, 501
Polystoma, 281
pascheri, 231, 232
uvella, 53, 231, 232, 280, 281
Polytomella. 283
agilis, 115, 282, 283
caeca, 283
Pomoxis sparoides, 31, 655, 660
Pompholyxophrys, 511
punicea, 511, 512
Pontigulasia, 484
vas, 484-485
Pontosphaera haeckeli, 266, 267
Porcellana platycheles, 867
Porifera, 861
Porochrysis, 260
aspergillus, 261
Porospora, 558
galloprovincialis, 558
gigantea, 558, 559
Porosporidae, 541, 558-560
Porotermes adamsoni, 392, 406, 410
grandis, 392
Portunus depurator, 573, 792, 848
Potamilla reniformis, 564
Potamoceros triqueter, 694
Potassium dichromate, 576
Poteriodendron, 342
petiolatum, 342
Pouchetia, 316
fusus, 315, 316
maxima, 315, 316
Pouchetiidae, 314, 316
Powdery scab, 434
Prairie dog, 579
Precystic stage, 447, 455
Preerythrocytic stage, 602
Prehensile tentacles, 60
Preparations, Microscopical, 890-901
Fresh, 890-894
Permanent, 894-901
blood film, 899-901
smear, 894-899
section, 901
Prepatent period, 602
Primite, 528, 612
Prismatospora, 554
evansi, 553, 554
Proactinomycin, 154
Proboscidiella, 379
kofoidi, 878, 379
Procavia brucei, 734
capensis, 734
Proceros, 694
Procryptotermes, 383
Proctodeal feeding, 404
Prodigiosin, 452
Proglyptotermes, 383
browni, 383
Proloculum, 494
Prolophomonas, 408
tocopola, 409
Promitosis, 145
Pronoctiluca, 314
tentaculatum, 314, 815
Pronoctilucidae, 314
Prorhinotermes simplex, 406
Prorocentridae, 312-313
Prorocentrinea, 312-313
Prorocentrum, 312
954
PROTOZOOLOGY
Prorocentrum — continued
micans, 312, 313
triangulatum, 312
Prorodon, 712
discolor, 24, 711,712-713
griseus, 713
teres, 72
utahensis, 712
Prorodonopsis, 720
coli, 719, 720
Prostomata, 700-720
Protanoplophrya, 694
stomata, 694, 695
Protective organellae, 70-76
Proteinase, 105, 106
Proteolytic enzyme, 106
Proteomyxa, 418-425
Proteromonas, 362
lacertae, 362, 363
Proterospongia, 341
haeckeli, 340, 341
Proterythropsis, 316
crassicaudata, 315, 316
Proteus, 437
Protista, 5T6, 12
Protochrysis, 275
phaeophycearum, 273, 275
Protociliata, 29, 459, 684, 685-688
Protocruzia, 804
pigerrima, 801, 804
Protomagalhaesia, 545
serpentula, 542, 545
Protomerite, 528
Protomite, 789
Protomonadina, 333, 339-365
Protomonas, 420
amyli, 420
Protomont, 789
Protoopalina, 688
intestinalis, 686, 688
mitotica, 686, 688
saturnalis, 686, 688
Protophrya, 776
ovicola, 775, 776
Protophyta vs Protozoa, 5
Protoplasm, 12
Protoplasmic movements, 101-102,
122-126
Protopsis, 316
ochrea, 315, 316
Protoradiophrya, 698
fissispiculata, 697, 698
Protospirura muris, 674
Protozoa,
as non-cellular organisms, 5
as unicellular organisms, 5
coining of term, 11
colonial, 6, 47, 173-174
definition of, 5, 12
distinguished from Protophyta, 5
Metazoa, 6
ecology of, 20-35
fossil, 10, 493, 516
Protozoa — continued
free-living, 20-28
geographical distribution of, 20, 28
in thermal waters, 21
parasitic in man, see Man,
Protozoa, 459,672,674,
694, 794, 852, 873
phylogeny of, 249-253
physiology of, 97-136
reproduction of, 145-211
size of, 39, 109, 110
Protozoology in relation to
biology, 6-7
cytology, 8
economic entomology, 7, 8, 10
evolution, 7, 8
genetics, 7
geography, 8
geology, 8, 10
medicine, 8
phylogeny, 7, 8
pisciculture, 9
sanitary science, 9
soil biology, 9-10
veterinary medicine, 8, 9
zoogeography, 8
Protrichocyst, 76
Protrichomonas, 377
legeri, 376, 377
Prowazekella, 362
Prowazekia, 362
Prunoidae, 521
Psammodromus hispanicus, 588
Psammoryctes barbatus, 663
Psammosphaera bowmanni, 47
fusca, 47
parva, 47
rustica, 47
Pseudemys elegans, 620
floridana mobilensis, 462
Pseudoblepharisma, 804
tenuis, 802, 804
Pseudoboa clelia, 458
Pseudocalanus elongatus, 324
Pseudochitinous substance, 47
Pseudochlamys, 479
patella, 478, 479
Pseudochromosomes, 166
Pseudochromulina, 258
asymmetrica, 258
pseudocyst, 529
Pseudodevescovina, 383-384
unifiagellata, 384
Pseudodifflugia, 487
gracilis, 485, 487
Pseudofolliculina, 808-809
arctica, 808, 809
Pseudogemma, 873
pachystyla, 873, 876
Pseudoklossia, 575
pectinis, 575
Pseudolynchia maura, 620
Pseudomallomonas, 258
SUBJECT INDEX
955
Pseudomicrothorax, 739
agilis, 738, 739
Pseudopodia, 49-52, 97, 98, 99, 100,
417, 435
Pseudoprorodon, 713
farctus, 711, 713
Pseudospora, 420
eudorini, 420
parasitica, 420
volvocis, 419, 420
Pseudosporidae, 418, 420
Pseudotrichomonas, 390
keilini, 389, 390
Pseudotrichonympha, 413-414
grassii, 414
Pseudotrypanosoma, 391
giganteum, 391-392
Psilotricha, 834
acuminata, 838, 835
Pteridomonas, 335
pulex, 335, 336
Pterocephalus, 550
Pteromonas, 284
angulosa, 282, 284
Pterospora, 539
maldaneorum, 539, 540
Pterotracha coronata, 780
Ptychoptera contaminata, 555
Ptychostomum, 779
bacteriophilum, 778, 780
Pulsating vacuole, 83
Pusule, 108, 310
Pycnothricidae, 728, 733-735
Pycnothrix, 734 '
monocystoides, 734
Pyorrhoea alveolaris, 456
Pyramidochrysis, 260
modesta, 259, 260
Pyramidomonas, 282
Pyramimonas, 282
montana, 283
tetrarhynchus, 282
Pyrenoids, 89, 90
Pyrocystis, 329
Pyronin, 228
Pyrotheca, 676
incurvata, 676, 677
Pyrsonympha, 78, 79, 379
granulata, 379, 880
vertens, 379, 880
Python, 377
sebae, 459
Pyxicola, 858
affinis, 858
socialis, 858, 859
Pyxidicula, 478
operculata, 478
Pyxidium, 854
urceolatum, 853, 854
vernale, 858, 854
Pyxinia, 557
bulbifera, 556, 557
Pyxinioides, 546
balani, 546
Quadrula, 490
symmetrica, 489, 490
Quail, 336, 388, 393, 580, 582, 583,
620
Querquedula crecca, 620
discors, 620
Quinine, 600
R
Raabella, 782
botulae, 781, 782
Rabbit, 351, 374, 395, 457, 577
Races of Protozoa, 223-228
Rachidelus brazili, 459
Radial cytostomal fibrils, 68, 69
Radiating canals, 84
Radiolaria, 10, 12, 29, 39, 185, 249,
505, 516-524
Radiophrya, 696-697
hoplites, 697
Radium rays, 134
Rainey's corpuscles, 638
Raja, 655
oxyrhynchus, 353
Rana, 686
areolata, 687
cantabrigensis, 687
catesbeiana, 687
clamitans, 656
fusca, 377
pipiens, 656
palustris, 694
ridibunda perezi, 860
sphaenocephala, 656, 687
temporaria, 390
Ranatra linearis, 872
Raphidiophrys, 511
pallida, 511, 512
Raphidocystis, 511
infestans, 512
tubifera, 511-512
Rat, 14, 351, 371, 374, 388, 395, 457,
579, 592, 614, 639, 641
Rattus norvegicus, 388
Reaction of Protozoa to
Beta rays, 134
chemical stimuli, 132-133
current, 132
electrical stimuli, 135-136
gravity, 131-132
light, 133-135
mechanical stimuli, 130-131
radium rays, 134
temperature, 135
ultraviolet rays, 133-134
X-rays, 134-135
Reconstruction band, 147, 148
Red snow, 21
tide, 311, 312
water, 311, 312, 313, 327, 706
956
PROTOZOOLOGY
Red-water fever, 622
Red-winged black bird, 615, 616
Reduction division, 160, 206-208,
234, 496, 573, 574, 575
Reduviid bugs, 349
Refringent body, 106-107, 440
Regeneration, 39, 55, 212-213
Reindeer, 822
Relation between
neuromotor and silver-line systems,
67-69
nucleus and cytoplasm, 39-40,
212-213, 236-238
Remanella, 73, 88, 727-728
rugosa, 726, 728
Reophacidae, 497
Reophax, 498
nodulosus, 497
Reorganization band, 147, 148, 149
Reproduction in Protozoa, 145-211
asexual, 175-180
sexual, 180-211
Reptiles, 458, 583, 592, 625
Reserve food matter, 107, 112-115,
116
Reservoir hosts, 347, 349
Respiration, 82, 104, 116-118, 196
Retardation of movement, 891
Reticularia, 432
lycoperdon, 431
Reticulariidae, 432
Reticuliterrnes flaviceps, 405, 406, 412
flavipes, 379, 412, 674
hageni, 406, 410
hesperus, 379, 406, 410,
412
lucifugus, 405, 412, 674
speratus, 405, 412, 414
tibialis, 412
Reticulomyxa, 423-424
filosa, 424-425
Retortamonas, 362-363
blattae, 363
caviae, 364
gryllotalpae, 363
intestinalis, 363-364, 885
Rhabdammina, 497
abyssorum, 497
Rhabdocystis, 533
claviformis, 532, 533
Rhabdomonas, 303
incurva, 54, 170, 171
Rhabdophrya, 866-867
trimorpha, 866, 867
Rhabdostyla, 854
vernalis, 853, 854
Rhagadostoma, 712
Rhaphiceros, 822
Rhaphidomonas, 306
Rhesus, 456
Rhinoceros unicornis, 824, 826
Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, 625
evertsi, 625
sanguineus, 624
Rhipidodendron, 358
splendidum, 359
Rhithrogena semicolorata, 676
Rhizammina, 497
algaeformis, 497
Rhizamminidae, 497
Rhizobium sp., 443
Rhizocaryum, 691
concavum, 691, 692
Rhizochrysidina, 257, 267-269
Rhizochrysis, 267
scherffeli, 266, 267, 268
Rhizoflagellata, 685
Rhizomastigina, 333
Rhizomastix, 338
gracilis, 336, 338
Rhizoplasma, 422
kaiseri, 421, 422
Rhizoplast, 333
Rhizopoda, 12, 417-504
Rhizopodia, 49-50, 493
Rhizotrogus, 376, 557
Rhodomonas, 274
lens, 273, 274
Rhopalonia, 550
hispida, 550, 551
Rhopalophrya, 715
salina, 101, 102, 715, 716
Rhyncheta, 876
cyclopum, 876, 877
Rhynchobolus americanus, 543
Rhynchocystidae, 531, 534
Rhynchocystis, 534
pilosa, 534, 585
porrecta, 534, 535
Rhynchogromia, 472
Rhynchomonas, 362
marina, 362
nasuta, 23, 24, 362, 363
Rhvnchonympha, 411
tarda, 411, 413
Rhynchophrya, 875
palpans, 875, 876
Ribose nucleic acid, 44, 150
Ringer-egg media, 887-888
Ringer's solution, 887-888, 891
Ringform in Plasmodium, 601, 608
Robins, 615
Rontgen Rays on Protozoa, 134-135
Root hernia, 433
Rostellum, 374, 378, 379
Rostronympha, 407
magna, 407, 408
Rotalia, 502
beccarii, 501
Rotaliidae, 502
Rotifera, 637, 638
Rotundula, 547
gammari, 547, 549
Rugitermes, 383
Rupertia, 504
stabilis, 503
Rupertiidae, 504
Ruppia, 418, 434
SUBJECT INDEX
957
Saccammina, 497
sphaerica, 497
Saccamminidae, 497
Saccinobaculus, 70, 379
amploaxostylus, 380
Sagartia leucolena, 789
parasitica, 763
Sagenoscene, 523
Sagitta, 692
claparedei, 466
Sagosphaeridae, 523
Salamander, 694
Salientia, 685
Salinity vs Protozoa, 24-25
Salmo gairdneri, 650
irideus, 372
Salmon, 14, 393, 649
Salmonella, 799
Salmonid fish, 464, 649, 658
Salpa, 321
Salpa mucronata-democratica, 785
Salphvoeca, 341
fusifnrmis, 341, 342
Salvelinus fontinalis, 372
Sand flies, 355, 691, 7c 3
Sapotaceae, 353
Sappinia, 443
diploidea, 443
Saprodinium, 829
dentatum, 829, 830
putrinum, 829, 830
Sapropelic Protozoa, 23
Saprophilus, 765
agitatus, 764, 765
muscorum, 764, 765
Saprophytic nutrition, 108- 100
Saprozoic nutrition, 89
Sarcina flava, 115
Sarcocystis, 639
bertrami, 641
lindemanni, 639-640
miescheriana, 638, 640-641
muris, 641
rileyi, 639, 641
tenella, 638, 639, 640
Sarcode, 12
Sarcodina, 10, 42, 249, 250, 254, 417-
525
Sarcophaga, 354
Sarcosporidia, 14, 638-641
Sardine, 584
Satellite, 528
Scaphiopus albus, 688
solitarius, 688
Sceloporus ferrariperezi, 617-618
olivaceous, 618
undulatus, 618
Schaudinnella, 538
henleae, 537, 538
Schaudinnellidae, 531, 537-538
Schellackia, 588
bolivari, 588
Schellackia — continued
perciciosa, 588
Schizamoeba, 34, 463-464
salmonis, 464, 465
Schizocystidae, 560, 562-565
Schizocystis, 562
gregarinoides, 561, 562-563
Schizogony, 175, 526, 560, 599, 601
erythrocytic, 599, 601, 608, 609
exoerythrocytic, 602-605
Schizogregarinina, 527, 560-565
Schizont, 175, 599, 601, 609
Schizotrypanum cruzi, 348
Schneideria, 557
mucronata, 556, 557
Schuffner's dots, 605, 608, 611
Schultzella, 476
diffluens, 474< 476
Schultzellina, 696
mucronata, 696, 697
Sciadiophora, 556
phalangii, 556
Sciadostoma, 739
Sclerotia, 427, 428
Scololepis fuligi?wsa, 543, 565
Scolopendra, 550
cingulata, 550, 590
heros, 557
subspinipes, 550
Scoloplos nmlleri, 636
Scourfieldia, 279
complanata, 278, 279
Scutigera, 550
forceps, 550
Scyphidia, 852
amphibiarum, 851, 852
Scyphidiidae, 850, 852
Scytomonas, 303
pusilla, 24, 302, 303
Secondary nucleus, 417, 465
Secretion, 118-122
Section preparation, 901
Selective power of Protozoa, 47
Selenidium, 563
potamillae, 563-564
Selenococcidiidae, 571, 572
Selenococcidium, 572
intermedium, bl2
Selenocystis, 564-565
foliata, 565
Senescence, 208-211
Sensitive race in Paramecium, 196,
236, 238-241
Sensomotor apparatus, 68
Sepia, 694
officialis, 573
Sepiola rondeletii, 694
Sericostoma, 555
Serinus canaria, 615
Serotypes, 242
Sessilia, 850-859
Seticephalus, 550
clegans, 550, 551
95S
PROTOZOOLOGY
Sewage organisms, 23
Sex factors, 233
reaction types, 192-197
substance, 181, 196, 197, 235
Sex-linked inheritance, 233
Sexual fusion, 180-187, 599, 601, 685
Sexual reproduction, 29
amphimixis, 203
autogamy, 203-204
automyxis, 203
conjugation, 187-203
Cytogamy, 204
paedogamy, 204-205
sexual fusion, 180-187, 599, 601,
606-607
syngamy, 180-187
Sheep, 350, 375, 457, 577, 578, 625,
640, 751, 817, 818, 819, 820, 821,
822
Shell, 10, 47-48, 70, 472
Sialia s. sialia, 617
Sieboldiellina, 695
planariarum, 695-696
Silica, 47-48, 493
Silicina, 497
limitata, 497
Silicinidae, 497
Silicofiagellidae, 257, 267
Silkworm, 10, 14, 670, 671
Silpha laevigata, 555
thoracica, 554
Silver-impregnation method, 66
Silver line, 66, 67
Silverline system, 66, 67, 68
Simulium, 668
parnassum, 622
venustum, 620
Sinuolinea, 654
dimorpha, 652, 654
Siphonophora, 321, 357
Siphostoma, 656
Sipunculoida, 661
Sipunculus, 538
nudus, 539
Size difference, 109-110, 111
Skeleton, 47-48, 417, 517
Skink, 618
Skunk, 579
Slavina appendiculata, 590, 676
Sleeping sickness, 15, 30
Gambian, 30, 347
Rhodesian, 348
Slides, microscopic, 890
Slime molds, 427
Slugs, 388, 747, 760
Smear preparations, 894-901
Smelt, 668
Snails, 357, 588, 590
Snake, 351, 377, 458-459, 584
Snyderella, 397
tabogae, 896, 397
Sodium chloride on nucleus, 42
Protozoa, 24-25
Soil Protozoa, 9, 28, 423, 443, 472
Solanum, 434
Solea vulgaris, 591
Solenophrya, 873
inclusa, 872, 873
pera, 872, 873
Solutions,
Chalkley's, 882
Hahnert's, 882-883
Locke's, 887
Lugol's, 892
Pace and Belda's, 883
Ringer's, 887-888, 891
Saline, 892
Sonderia, 741-742
pharyngea, 741, 742
vorax, 741, 742
Sorodiscus, 434
Sorophora, 430, 433
Sorosphaera, 434
Spadella bipunctata, 466
inflata, 466
serratodentata, 466
Sparrow, 351, 586, 615
Spasmostoma, 710
viride,^ 710, 711
Spathidiella, 701
Spathidiidae, 700-703
Spathidioides, 701
sulcata, 701-702
Spathidiopsis, 713
Spathidium, 700
spathula, 72, 700, 701
Spermatozopsis, 283
exultans, 282, 283
Sphaenochloris, 280
printzi, 280
Sphaeractinomyxon, 661-662
gigas, 662, 663
stolci, 662
Sphaerastrum, 510
fockei, 509, 510
Sphaerella, 277
Sphaerellopsis, 277
fluviatilis, 277
Sphaerium, 769
corneum, 693, 783, 784
rivicola, 783
Sphaerita, 45, 893
Sphaerocapsa, 520
Sphaerocapsidae, 520
Sphaerocystis, 548
simplex, 548
Sphaeroeca, 341
volvox, 840, 341
Sphaeroidae, 521
Sphaeromyxa, 656
balbianii, 172, 656, 657
sabrazesi, 187, 645-648, 656-657
Sphaerophrya, 868
magna, 868
soliformis, 868, 869
stentoris, 868
SUBJECT INDEX
959
Sphaerorhynchus, 552
ophioides, 553
Sphaerospora, 653
pernicialis, 654
pohjmorpha, 35, 652, 653, 654, 672
tincae, 652, 654
Sphaerosporea, 649, 651-655
Sphaerosporidae, 65 1, 653-654
Sphaerozoidae, 522
Sphaerozoum, 522
ovodimare, 521
Sphaleromantis, 260
ochracea, 259, 260
Sphenoderia, 490
lenta, 489, 490
Sphenophrya, 785-786
dosiniae, 786
Sphenophryidae, 774, 785-787
Spheroid colony, 174, 286, 289
Spider monkey, 735
Spindle fibers, 155, 157, 158, 161, 163,
164
Spionidae, 543
Spiraulax, 327
jolliffei, 327, 828
Spireme ball, 199
Sprillina, 502
vivipara, 494, 495
Spirillum volutans, 114, 115
Spirobolus spinigerus, 544
Spirobutschliella, 693-694
chattoni, 694
Spirochona, 847
gemmipara, 847, 848
Spirochonidae, 847-848
Spirocystis, 562
nidula, 562
Spirodinium, 824
equi, 823, 824
Spiroglugea, 678
octospora, 677, 678
Spirogonium, 283
chlorogonioides, 282, 283
Spirogyra, 420
Spiroloculina, 499
limbata, 498
Spiromonas, 359
augusta, 359
Spironympha, 406
Spirophrya, 789-790
sabparasitica, 790, 791
Spirorhynchus, 800
verrucosus, 800, 801
Spirostomidae, 796, 801-806
Spirostomum, 27, 116, 801-802
ambiguum, 22, 25, 27. 108, 117,
802, 803
filum, 802, 803
intermedium, 802, 803
loxodes, 802, 803
minus, 24, 802, 803
teres, 24, 802, 803
Spirotricha, 690, 796-846
Spirotrichonympha, 406
bispira, 406
leidyi, 405, 406
pulchella, 405, 406
Spirotrichonymphella, 406
pudibunda, 406
Spirotrichosoma, 406-407
capitata, 407
Spirozona, 740
caudata, 738, 740
Spirozonidae, 737, 740
Spirula, 694
Spleen index, 30
Spondylomorum, 288
quaternarium, 288, 289
Sponge, 861
Spongilla fluviatilis, 861
Spongomonas, 358
uvella, 358, 359
Spongospora, 434
Sporadin, 528
Sporangium, 428
Spore, 180, 526, 635, 638, 639, 643
actinomyxidian, 660-661
cnidosporidian, 643
haplosporidian, 635, 637
helicosporidian, 678, 679
microsporidian, 180, 668-669, 677
mycetozoan, 429
myxosporidian, 643-644
Spore membrane, 526, 643
Sporoblast, 571
Sporocytes, 645
Sporogony, 526, 645
Sporokinete, 623, 624
Sporont, 623, 643, 645, 669
monosporoblastic, 645
disporoblastic, 645
Sporophore, 429
Sporoplasm, 643, 644
Sporozoa, 14, 30, 179, 249, 250, 254,
526-682
Sporozoite, 187, 526, 527, 571, 599,
600, 601 , 607
Sprat, 584
Squalorophrya, 875
macrostyla, 874, 875
Squirrel, 349, 389, 457, 579
Stains, 896-899, 900-901
Delafield's, 78, 897
Feulgen's nucleal reaction, 897-
898
Fontana's, 899
Giemsa's, 897, 900
Heidenhain's, 896-897
Mallory's, 63, 78
Mayer's, 897
Silver-impregnation, 898
Vital, 891
Wright's, 901
Stalk, 76
Starfish, 32
Starling, 615
960
PROTOZOOLOGY
Starvation on Protozoa, 115-116
Stasziecella, 314
Statocyst, 87, 88
Statolith, 87, 88
Staurocyclia, 522
phacostaurus, 521
Staurojoenina, 412
assimilis, Jf.ll, 412
Staurojoeninidae, 404, 412
Staurophrya, 867
elegans, 866, 867
Steenbok, 822
Steinella, 694
uncinata, 694
Steinia, 832
Steinina, 555
rotunda, 558, 555
Stelexomonas, 342-343
dichotoma, 343
Stemonitidae, 431
Stemonitis, 431
splendens, 480
Stempellia, 674
magna, 668, 669, 674, 675
Stenopelmatus fuscus, 545
pictus, 545
Stenophagous Protozoa, 27
Stenophora, 544
larvata, 542, 544
robusta, 542, 544
Stenophoridae, 541, 544
Stenostomum leucops, 693
Stentor, 11, 39, 79, 806
amethystinus, 29, 807
coeruleus, 22, 27, 28, 45, 61, 148,
805, 806
igneus, 805, 807
mulleri, 805, 806-807
multiformis, 807
niger, 807
polymorphus, 805, 806
pyriformis, 807
roeseli, 805, 807
striatus, 806
Stentoridae, 796, 806-807
Stentorin, 45, 81
Stephanonympha, 397
nelumbium, 396, 397
Stephanoon, 287-288
askenasii, 288, 289
Stephanopogon, 712
colpoda, 711, 712
Stephanosphaera, 289
pulvialis, 183, 185, 289
Stephoidae, 522
Stichopus calif or nicus, 811
Stichotricha, 836
intermedia, 835, 836
secunda, 885, 836
Sticklebacks, 672
Stictospora, 557
provincialis, 556, 557
Stigma, 89, 90-91
Stigmatogaster gracilis, 550
Stokesia, 767
vernalis, 766, 767
Stokesiella, 360
dissimilis, 360, 861
leptostoma, 360, 861
Stolotermes victoriensis, 407
Stomatophora, 536
coronata, 585, 536
Stomatophoridae, 531, 536-537
Stomatostyle, 750
Strains of Protozoa, 223-228, 607
Streblomastigidae, 369, 374
Streblomastix, 374
strix, 154, 374
Streptomonas, 359
cordata, 359
Streptomycin, 889
Strobilidiidae, 814, 815-816
Strobilidium, 815-816
gyrans, 815, 816
Strombidinopsis, 816
gyrans, 815, 816
Strombidium, 814
calkinsi, 814 815
Strongylidium, 836
californicum, 835, 836
Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, 741
droebachiensis, 741,
749, 750
lividus, 762
purpuratus, 741, 748
Sturnus v. vulgaris, 615
Stylobryon, 360
abbotti, 360, 361
Stylocephalidae, 541, 552-553
Stylocephalus, 552
giganlens, 552, 558
Stylochona, 847
coronata, 847, 848
Stylochromonas, 262
minuta, 262
Stylochrysalis, 263
parasitica, 263
Stylocometes, 867
digitatus, 867
Stylocystis, 555
praecox, 553, 555
Stylonychia, 11, 23, 24, 44, 839
mytilus, 839, 840
notophora, 839, 840
pustulata, 27, 148, 208, 209, 839,
840
putrina, 839, 840
Stylophrya, 867
Stylopyxis, 266
mucicola, 264, 266
Styloscolex, 697, 698
Snbneucleus, 153
Succinia, 590
putris, 776
Succinic dehydrogenase, 106
Sucker, 76, 85
SUBJECT INDEX
961
Suctoria, 12, 28, 44, 249, 683, 863-
878
Suctorial tentacle, 60
Sudan III and IV, 105, 114, 892
Sulcoarcus, 720
pellucidulus, 719, 720
Sulcus, 310
Sun animalcules, 507
Supportive organellae, 70-76
Surface tension, 122, 124
Surra, 350
Sutural plane, 643
Swarmers, 518, 519
Sycia, 543
inspinata, 542, 543
Syllis gracilis, 637
Symbiosis, 29, 105, 107, 108, 121,
241, 369, 440
Symmetry, 39
bilateral, 39, 392, 394
radial, 39
universal, 39
Sympetrum rubicundulum, 554
Synactinomyxon, 663
' tubificis, 662, 663
Synapta, 538
Synchaeta, 637
Syncrypta, 262
volvox, 262, 263
Syncriptidae, 257, 262-263
Syncystis, 563
mirabilis, 563, 564
Syndiriium, 323-324
turbo, 322, 324
Syngamy, 180
Synkaryon, 183
Synophrya, 792
hypertrophica, 791, 792
Synura, 262
adainsi, 263
uvella, 262-263
Synuropsis, 262
Syphacia obvelata, 390
Syringopharynx, 780
pterotrachae, 780
Systenus, 550, 563
Systole, 83
Syzygy, 528, 530
Tachyblaston, 873
ephelolensis, 872, 873
Tachysoma, 832-833
parvistyla, 833
Tactile organelles, 57
Taeniocystis, 557
mira, 556, 557
Taliaferria, 735
clarki, 734, 735
Talorchestia longicornis, 733
Tanypus, 555
Tapes aureus, 787
Tapioca disease, 649
Tarentola, 362
Teal, blue-winged, 620
Teal duck, 620
Tectin, 47
Tegula brunnae, 784
Teleuscolex, 697, 698
Tellina, 576, 779
balthica, 776
Telomyxa, 678
glugeiformis, 677, 678
Telomyxidae, 678
Telosporidia, 526-634
Telotroch, 850
Temperature and Protozoa, 20-22,
134, 196, 204, 239, 242, 456, 579,
607
Tenebrio molitor, 545, 561
Tentacles, 59-60, 99, 707, 708, 863
Tentaculifera, 727, 863
Teranympha, 414
Teratonympha, 414
mirabilis, 411, 414
Teratonymphidae, 405, 414
Teredo, 779
navalis, 779
Termite Protozoa, 29, 105, 543, 545,
674, 885-886
Termones, 181
Termopsis anguslicollis, 374
Test, 47-48, 472, 493
Testacea, 169, 418, 472-490, 883
Testudo argentina, 458
calcarata, 458
graeca, 458
Tetrablepharis, 283
multifilis, 282, 283
Tetractinomyxidae, 661
Tetractinomyxon, 661
intermedium, 661, 662
Tetradimorpha, 335
radiata, 335, 336
Tetrahymena, 760, 884
geleii, 760
limacis, 760
piriformis, 26, 34, 225, 227, 759,
760, 761
vorax, 26, 109, 110, 227, 760
Tetramastix, 374
Tetramitidae, 369, 371-374
Tetramitus, 371
pyriformis, 371, 373
rostratus, 21, 60, 371, 372, 373
salinus, 371, 373
Tetramyxa, 434
Tetrataxis, 499
palaeolrochus, 498
Tetratoxum, 824
escavatum, 824
parvum, 824
unifasciculatum, 823, 824
Tettigonospora, 545
stenopelmati, 545
Teutophrys, 703
962
PROTOZOOLOGY
Teutophrys — continued
trisula, 703, 704
Texas fever, 14, 622
Textularia, 498
agglutinans, 498
Textulariidae, 498
Thalassema neptuni, 552, 572
Thalassicolla, 520
nucleata, 521
Thalassicollidae, 520
Thalassophysa, 521
Thalassophysidae, 520
Thalassothamnidae, 521
Thalassothamnus, 521
Thamnomys surdaster, 614
Thaumatomastix, 307
setifera, 307
Thaumatophrya, 875
trold, 875, 876
Thecacineta, 870
cothtirnioides, 871, 872
gracilis, 871, 872
Thecamoeba, 472
Thecoplasm, 61
Theileria, 625
parva, 624, 625
Thelohanellus, 660
notatus, 31, 154, 659, 660
Thelohania, 674
illinoisensis, 674
legeri, 7, 180, 674, 675
multispora, 668
opacita, 8, 668, 674, 675
reniformis, 674, 675
Theobaldia, 606, 615, 617
annulata, 34
Thermal waters and Protozoa, 21
Thermobia domestica, 548
Thigmophrya, 776
macomae, 776
Thigmophryidae, 774, 776
Thigmotricha, 29, 690, 774-787
Thoracophrya, 713
Thorakomonas, 279
sabulosa, 278, 279
Thuricola, 857
folliculata, 24, 858
Thuricolopsis, 858
kellicoltiana, 858
Thylacidium, 798
truncatum, 797, 798
Thylacomonas, 343-344
compressa, 848, 344
Thymonucleic acid, 42, 148, 898
Thyrsites atan, 655
Tiarella, 779
Tiarina, 707
fusus, 707
Ticks, 349, 353, 592, 622, 624, 625
Tillina, 747
canalifera, 81, 746, 747
helia, 762
magna, 24, 178, 746, 747
Tiliqua scincoides, 458
Tinea tinea, 654
Tintinnidae, 48, 814, 816
Tintinnidium, 816
fluviatile, 815, 816
semiciliatum, 815, 816
Tintinnopsis, 63, 816
cylindrata, 815, 816
illinoisensis, 815, 816
Tipula, 338, 376, 459
abdominalis, 592
Toad, 335, 374, 390, 651, 655, 656,
686, 687, 688, 860
Toadfish, 35, 653, 672
Tokophrya, 870
cyclopum, 172, 870, 871
infusionum, 870, 871
Tomite, 752, 753, 789, 790
Tomont, 789, 790
Tontonia, 815
gracillima, 815
Torodinium, 320
robustum, 819, 320
Torpedo, 655
Torquenympha, 410
octoplus, 409, 410
Toxicyst, 73
Toxoglugea, 678
gerridis, 677, 678
vibrio, 677, 678
Toxonema, 678
Toxoplasma, 603, 625
gondii, 625-626
Toxoplasmosis, 626
Tracheliidae, 723, 725-727
Trachelius, 725
ovum, 725, 726
Trachelocerca, 717
phoenicopterus, 716, 717
subviridis, 716, 717
Trachelomonas, 58, 299
hispida, 89, 299, 800
piscatoris, 299, 800
urceolata, 299, 800
vermiculosa, 300
verrucosa, 300
Trachelophyllum, 716
clavatum, 715, 716
Trager's media, 885
Tramea lacerta, 554
Transverse flagellum, 310
Traumatiophtora, 794
punctata, 793, 794
Tremalith, 266
Trematodes, 393, 637
Trentonia, 307
flagellata, 307
Trepomonas, 395
agilis, 23, 24, 392, 395
rotans, 892,395
Triactinomyxidae, 661-663
Triactinomyxon, 661
dubium, 661
SUBJECT INDEX
963
Triactinomyxon— continued
ignotum, 661, 662
legeri, 66 1
magnum, 661
mrazeki, 661
Triadinium, 824
caudatum, 823, 824
galea, 824
minimum, 823, 824
Triangulomonas, 306
rigida, 305, 306
Triatoma, 349
dimidiata, 349, 565
gerstaeckeri, 349
heidemanni, 349
longipes, 349
megista, 349
protracta, 349
rufo'da, 349
Tricaudalia, 824
Tricercomitus, 390
termopsidis, 390-391, 886
Tricercomonas, 372
intestinalis, 373
Trichia, 432
affinis, 431
Trichiidae, 432
Trichite, 71, 72, 74
Trichitosome, 74
Trichlorididae, 276, 281
Trichloris, 281
paradoxa, 280, 281
Trichocera annulata, 463
hiemalis, 463
regelationis, 463
Trichochona, 847
lecithoides, 847, S^S
Trichocyst, 11, 71-76, 102, 273, 793
Trichocystosome, 74, 75
Trichodina, 859
pediculus, 859, 860
ranae, 860
sp., 860
urinicola, 859-860
Trichoduboscqia, 676
epeori, 675, 676
Trichomastix, 376
Trichomonadidae, 370, 385-392
Trichomonadina, 385
Trichomonas, 13, 14, 55, 385, 886
buccalis, 386
columbae, 388
elongata, 386
gallinae, 227, 387, 388
hominis, 385-386, 387, 388, 885
limacis, 388
linearis, 387, 388
macacovaginae, 388
microti, 387, 388
tertax, 386, 387, 885
vaginalis, 26, 386-387, 885
Trichonympha, 184, 186, 412
agilis, 412, 4-7S
Trichonympha — continued
campanula, 100, 156, 412, ffS, 886
collaris, 886
grandis, 413
sphaerica, 886
Trichonymphidae, 405, 412-414
Trichopelma, 739
sphagnetrum, 738, 739
Trichopelmidae, 737, 739
Trichophrya, 865
columhiae, 864, 865
epistylidis, 864, 865
salparum, 864, 865
sinuosa, 865
micropteri, 864, 865
Trichorhynchus, 550, 739
pulcher, 550, 551
Trichospira, 740
inversa, 738, 740
Trichospiridae, 737, 740
Trichostomata, 690, 737-754
Trichotaxis, 838
stagnatilis, 837, 838
Trichuris, 463
Trigonomonas, 395
compressa, 392, 396
Triloculina, 499
trigonula, 498
Trilospora, 651
calif ornica, 651
Trimastigamoeba, 436
philippinensis, 436
Trimastigidae, 369, 370-371
Trimastix, 370
convexa, 370, 391
marina, 370
Trimyema, 739-740
compressum, 24, 755, 740
Trimyemidae, 737, 737-740
Trinema, 489
enchelys, 28, 489
linear e, 182, 183, 489
Triodopsis albolabris, 357
tridentata, 357
Trionyx indicus, 620
Tripalmaria, 824
dogieli, 824, S£5
Triplagia, 522
primordialis, 522
Triplumaria, 824
hamertoni, 824, 826
Tripneustes esculentus, 750, 771
Tripylea, 519, 523-524
Triticum, 434
Triton, 852
taeniatus, 377
Tritrichomonas, 388
augusta, 389, 390
batrachorum, 389, 390
brevicollis, 389, 390
caviae, 390
fecalis, 34, 388-389
/oeiws, 388, 389
904
PROTOZOOLOGY
Tritrichomonas — continued
muris, 389-390
Triturus, 859
viridescens, 352
Trochammina, 499
inflata, 498
Trochamminidae, 499
Trochila, 730
palustris, 729, 730
Trochilioides, 730
recta, 24, 729, 730
Trochocochlea articulata, 560
mutabilis, 558, 560
turbinata, 560
Trochodinium, 320
prismaticum, 319, 320
Troglodytella, 63, 826
abrassarti, 825, 826
var. acuminata, 826
gorillae, 826
Trophochromatin, 414
Trophocyte, 321
Trophonia plumosa, 576
Trophont, 752, 753, 789
Trophozoite, 175
Tropidoscyphus, 304
octocostatus, 304, 805
Trout, 393
Trutta fario, 393
Trypanodinium, 323
ovicola, 322, 323
Trypanoplasma, 357
Trypanosoma, 8, 13, 32, 55, 56, 344-
345, 886, 901
americanum, 350
brucei, 14, 228, 349-350
cruzi, 30, 227, 348-349, 886
danilewskyi, 852, 353
diemyctyli, 352
duttoni, 351
equinum, 55, 350
equiperdum, 350, 351
ewon«, 54, 55, 230, 350
gambiense, 15, 21, 30, 345-347, 880
giganteum, 352, 353
granulosum, 352, 353
hippicum, 351
inopinatum, 352
feu*-**, 14, 32, 54, 117, 226, S^tf,
350, 351
melophagium, 350
nabiasi, 351
neotomae, 351
noctuae, 351
paddae, 351
percae, 352, 353
peromysci, 351
raj'ae, S5#, 353
remaki, 352, 353
rhodesiense, 347, 348, 886
rotatorium, 55, 352
theileri, 350
triatomae, 351
Trypanosomatidae, 339, 344-357
Trypanosomiasis, 345
Trypsin-like enzymes, 106, 345, 347,
348, 349
Tsetse flies, 14, 345, 347, 348
Tubifex, 538
inflatus, 696
ta&tfex, 661, 663, 676
Tubulina, 432
fragiformis, 481
Tubulinidae, 432
Tunicate, 321, 674, 865
Turbellaria, 768
T urdus m. migratorius, 615
Turkey, 336, 375, 388, 393, 583, 854
Turtle, 351, 458, 462, 583, 592, 620,
874, 875
Tuscarora, 524
murrayi, 524
Tuscaroridae, 524
Tussetia, 281, 345
Twist disease, 649, 658
Typhlogobius calif 'or niensis, 651
Tyzzeria, 588
U
Uca pugilator, 543
pugnax, 543
Ulivina, 543
rhynchoboli, 543
Ultraviolet rays, 133-134
Undulating membrane, 55, 56, 58, 59,
345
Unicapsula, 652
muscularis, 204, 648, 652, 658
Unicapsulidae, 651, 652
Unicauda, 660
clavicauda, 659, 660
Uradiophora, 545-546
cuenoti, 546, 549
Urceolaria, 859
karyolobia, 859
mitra, 859, 860
paradoxa, 859, 860
Urceolariidae, 859-861
Urceolus, 302
cyclostomus, 302
sabulosus, 302
Urea, 120
Urechis caupo, 543
Urinympha, 411-412
talea, 411, 412
Urnula, 869-870
epistylidis, 869, 870
Urocentrum, 765-766
turbo, 766
Uroglena, 265
volvox, 264, 265
Uroglenopsis, 265
americana, 264, 265
europaea, 265
Uroleptopsis, 835
citrina, 885, 836
SUBJECT INDEX
905
Uroleptus, 834
halseyi, 149, 835
limnetis, 834, 835
longicaudatus , 835
mobilis, 209, 228, 229
Uronema, 767
marinum, 24, 766, 767
pluricaudatum, 766, 767
Uronychia, 843
setigera, 842, 843
Urophagus, 396
rostratus, 892, 396
Urosoma, 833
caudata, 833
Urospora, 538
chiridotae, 537, 538
hardyi, 539
Urosporidae, 531, 538-540
Urosporidium, 636
fuliginosum, 637
Urostyla, 44, 836
caudata, 836, 837
coei, 837
grandis, 148, .70,5, 166, 535, 836
polymicronucleata, 837
trichogaster, 835, 836
Urotrichia, 710
agilis, 710, 7/i
/arcta, 710, ?7J
labiata, 712
parvula, 710
Urozona, 766
biltschlii, 766, 767
Utricaceae, 353
Vacuolaria, 306
virtscens, 306, 307
Vacuome, 79
Vaginicola, 857
annulata, 857, 555
leptostoma, 857, 555
Vaginicolidae, 857-859
Vahlkampfia, 34, 442
fe'max, 21, 442
patuxent, 441, 442
Valvulina, 499
triangularis, 498
Valvulinidae, 499
Vampyrella, 420
lateritia, 119, 419, 420
Vampyrellidae, 418, 420-425
Vampyrophrya, 794
pelagica, 792, 793, 794
Varanus salvator, 458
varius, 458
Variation in Protozoa, 7, 109-H0,
223-243
Vasicola, 703
ciliata, 703, 704
grandis, 703
Vaucheria, 418
Vectors, 347, 349, 356, 357, 606-607
Vegetative stage, 175
Ventral cirri, 58
Ventral motor strand, 63
Venus fasciata, 779
ovata, 786
Verneuilina, 499
propinqua, 498
Verneuilinidae, 498
Veronica, 434
Vertebralina, 499
striata, 498
Vesicular nucleus, 40-42
Viability of cysts, 177, 450-453, 748
Viperia aspis, 587
Virus, 241
Vital stains, 891
Vitamins, 112
Vitrina, 590
Viviparus fascialus, 784
japonicus, 694
malleatus, 694, 784
Vole, 614
Volutin, 45, 114-115
Volvocidae, 276, 285-290
Volvox, 11, 39, 420, 2 85
aureus, 181, 285, 286
chaos, 11
globator, 285, 286
perglobator, 286, 287
spermatosphaera, 286, 287
tertius, 285, 287
weismannia, 286, 287
Vorticella, 11, 23, 79, 103, 855-856
campanula, 855, 856
convallaria, 855, 856
microstoma, 199, 200, 855, 856
monilata, 46, 855, 856
nebulifera, 199
picta, 855, 856
Vorticellidae, 850, 855-857
W
Wagnerella, 512-513
borealis, 512, 513
Wardia, 651
ovinocua, 651, 652
Wardiidae, 649, 651
Wenyonella, 584
africana, 584
gallinae, 584-585
Whelk, 574
Woloszynskia, 328
Woodchuck, 580
Wood rat, 349
Woodroach, 29, 105, 378, 379, 380,
393, 407, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413,
414, 810
Woodruffia, 748
metabolica, 748
rostrata, 746, 748
Wormy halibut, 648, 652, 653
966
PROTOZOOLOGY
X-irradiation, 197, 239
Xanthophyll, 90, 306
Xenotis megalotis, 655
Xiphocaridina compressa, 794
Xylophagous Protozoa, 369, 378, 381,
404
Y
Yatren, 452
Yeast, 443, 639
Yellow throat, 617
Zannichellia, 418, 434
Zelleriella, 8, 688
antilliensis, 688
elliptica, 166, 687, 688
hirsuta, 688
scaphiopodos, 688
Zonomyxa, 481
violacea, 481
Zooamylon, 112, 528
Zoochlorellae, 29, 108, 507, 703, 739,
744, 767, 770, 806, 807, 814, 815,
834
Zoomastigina, 23, 256, 333-414, 884-
886
Zoopurpurin, 46, 81
Zootermopsis anguslicollis, 377, 390,
412, 543, 545
laticeps, 391, 412
nevadensis, 377, 391,
412, 543, 545
Zoothamnium, 39, 62, 857
adamsi, 856, 857
arbuscula, 856, 857
Zootrophic nutrition, 88, 97-107
Zooxanthellae, 29, 108, 274, 517, 844
Zostera, 418
marina, 418
Zschokkella, 657
hildae, 657
Zygocystidae, 531, 534-535
Zygocystis, 534
wenrichi, 534, 535
Zygosoma, 543
globosum, 542, 543
Zygote, 182, 183, 186, 529, 571, 599,
601
Zyrphaea crispata, 782
This Book
PROTOZOOLOGY
(Fourth Edition)
By Richard R. Kudo, D.Sc.
was set, printed and bound by The Collegiate Press of
Menasha, Wisconsin. The engravings were made by The
Northwestern Engraving Company of Menasha, Wis-
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type page is 25 x 44 picas. The type face is Monotype
8 A & 25 J, set 10 point on 12 point. The text paper is
60 pound White Lexington English Finish.
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