Providing Services to African
Americans who are Blind:
Views of Experienced White and
African American Rehabilitation
Counselors
J. Martin Giesen, Ph.D., Lynn W. McBroom, Ph.D.,
Brenda S. Cavenaugh, Ph.D.
Mississippi State University
Rehabilitation
Research &
Training Center
on Blindness
& Low Vision
Earl Gooding, Ph.D., James H. Hicks, Ed.D.
Alabama A & M University
Providing Services to African Americans who are Blind
Views of Experienced White and African American
Rehabilitation Counselors
J. Martin Giesen, Ph.D., Lynn W. McBroom, Ph.D.*,
Brenda S. Cavenaugh, Ph.D.
Mississippi State University
Earl Gooding, Ph.D., James H. Hicks, Ed.D.
Alabama A & M University
*Now at Wood College, Mathiston, MS.
Copyright© 2000
All Rights Reserved
Rehabilitation Research and Training Center
on Blindness and Low Vision
P. O. Box 6189
Mississippi State, MS 39762
(662) 325-2001
TDD: (662) 325-8693
FAX: (662) 325-8989
Development of this document was supported in part by the Rehabilitation Research
and Training Center on Blindness and Low Vision Grant H133G50089 from the National
Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research, Department of Education,
Washington, DC. Opinions expressed herein are not necessarily those of the granting
agency and no endorsement by NIDRR should be inferred.
Mississippi State University does not discriminate on the basis of sex, age, race, color,
religion, national origin, veteran status, or disability.
ABSTRACT
African Americans are the largest minority group served by the vocational
rehabilitation (VR) system for persons with visual impairments. Improvement in VR
services to this population could also improve outcomes for other minority groups and
for all blindness VR consumers. As part of a larger program of research, this study
investigated similarities and differences in the views of experienced VR counselors
serving African Americans who are blind or visually impaired (hereafter referred to as
blind). A total of 26 counselors (1 1 African American) reported their views in structured
telephone interviews.
In general, there were more similarities than differences in counselor views. With
some minor exceptions, White and African American counselors had similar views on
their skill level; client-counselor interaction (trust, disclosure); and most useful skills,
techniques, resources; and referral sources.
There were differences by counselor race regarding help-seeking patterns, job
and rehabilitation expectations, effects of adverse personal and socioeconomic factors,
and ideal client characteristics. African American counselors increasingly stressed use
of family and community resources, and were more likely to look to other professionals
in seeking help. A striking pattern emerged for expectations and beliefs such that
African American counselors believed that Black clients have higher job expectations
but are less likely to be successfully rehabilitated. In contrast, White counselors
believed that Black clients have lower expectations and see no difference in
rehabilitation rates. The pattern emerged that best practice in serving African American
clients who are blind centers around a sound, culturally sensitive, and thorough
application of basic rehabilitation counseling principles. There are no “magic bullets”.
Counselors felt that harnessing client motivation and positive expectations, and
employing a family- and community-oriented attitude was the best approach. Additional
recommendations were made for improving VR counselor preparation and practice in
serving African American clients who are blind. Directions for future research were also
suggested.
-in-
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2019 with funding from
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Table of Contents
Introduction . 1
Prevalence of Disability Among African Americans . 1
Prevalence of blindness . 2
Participation in Labor Force . 3
Participation in Rehabilitation and Health Services . 3
VR services and outcomes for minority groups with vision-related
rehabilitation needs . 4
Strategies to Enhance Rehabilitation Outcomes . 6
Measuring rehabilitation outcomes . 6
Summary and Purpose of Study . 6
Method . 9
Participants . 9
Survey participants . 9
Minorities Outcomes Advisory Council . 10
Instrument . 10
Procedure . 10
Data Analysis . 11
Results . 13
Client and Counselor Interaction . 13
Cultural diversity training and perceived counseling skill . 13
Issue of trust . 14
Client disclosure . 15
Disclosure and rehabilitation . 15
Useful Techniques and Referral Sources . 15
Skills, techniques, and resources . 15
Important referral sources . 17
-v-
Seeking Help or Advice in Working with Black Clients . 18
Perceptions of General Factors Related to Employment: Job
Expectations, Likelihood of Rehabilitation, and Willingness to Relocate
. 19
Perceptions of Factors Affecting Employment Outcomes . 22
Perceptions: Ideal Characteristics of Black and White Consumers .... 25
Summary Conclusions and Recommendations . 27
Certification . 27
Client-Counselor Interaction, Useful Techniques . . 27
Cultural diversity training and skill . 27
Trust . 28
Disclosure . 28
Useful techniques . . . 28
Referral sources . 28
Seeking help or advice . 28
Conclusions and recommendations . 28
Expectations and Beliefs . 29
Conclusions and recommendations . 30
Final Conclusions . 31
References . 33
Appendix A: Project Context . 37
Appendix B: Survey Instrument
41
Introduction
The findings of Atkins and Wright (1980) that Blacks receive unequal treatment
“in all major dimensions of the public vocational rehabilitation process” (p. 42) has
stimulated considerable concern and discussion within the rehabilitation community
(Jenkins, Ayers, & Hunt, 1996). The Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA)
responded to Atkins and Wright’s report by contracting with Lawrence Johnson and
Associates to conduct a more involved study (Jenkins, et al.). Johnson and Associates
(1984) substantiated findings of differences in outcomes between minority and majority
consumers and made several recommendations (e.g., cultural workshops for
counselors, development of outreach programs) to improve services to minorities. A
few key initiatives have since addressed services to minorities with disabilities. Some of
these include establishment in 1988 of a research and training center on employment
needs of minorities and legislated activities under Section 21 [now Section 19] of the
Rehabilitation Act Amendments of 1992. However, recent studies (e.g., Wilson, 2000)
continue to document inequitable participation of African Americans in VR services.
Given this initial context, the present research investigated the contrasting views
of experienced rehabilitation counselors serving African Americans who are blind. Prior
to a more complete description of the present investigation, more contextual information
is provided regarding culture, disability, and VR. More specifically, this section further
supports the need for culturally-responsive VR services by presenting demographics on
the high prevalence of disability and visual impairment among African Americans. It
also provides a review of studies comparing the participation rates of African Americans
and Whites in the labor force and in VR services.
Prevalence of Disability Among African Americans
According to the 1988 U.S. Bureau of Census data (Bowe, 1992; U.S. Bureau of
the Census, 1989), 14% of working-age African Americans (16 to 64) have a work
disability as compared to only 8% of Whites with a work disability. Data collected in
1991-92 by the Census Bureau in its Survey of Income and Program Participation
1
(SIPP) indicates that African Americans are one of two groups most likely to be
disabled (Bradsher, 1999). Only Native Americans slightly edge out African Americans
(overall rate of 21.9% vs. 20.0%, respectively) in rate of disability. Among adolescent
and working-age African Americans (15 to 64), the disability rate increases from 20.0%
to 20.8% (Bradsher).
Disability is more broadly defined in the SIPP than in the National Health
Interview Survey (NHIS). For example, the SIPP includes people who report functional
limitations or conditions but who also may be fully employed. This difference in
reporting is reflected in findings of lower disability rates using 1992 NHIS data. Among
the working-age population 18 to 69, Native Americans report the highest percentage of
work limitation due to disability (17%), Black Hispanics report the second highest
percentage (16%), and Black, Non-Hispanics report the third highest percentage (14%)
(Stoddard, Jans, Ripple, & Kraus, 1998).
Prevalence of blindness. In 1977, ethnic minorities accounted for one third of
the visually impaired population (National Center for Health Statistics, 1977). Estimates
from data compiled from the 1991-92 SIPP indicated that, among those with a severe
visual impairment (unable to see words and letters in ordinary newsprint at all), 21% are
African American (Schmeidler & Halfmann, 1998). In the general population, 12% are
African American. This overrepresentation of African Americans among people with
visual impairment is even more pronounced when considering adolescents and
working-age adults. For persons age 15-64 with a severe visual impairment, 25% are
African Americans. For this same age group in the general population, only 9% are
African American (Schmeidler & Halfmann).
NHIS data collected from 1986-1990 indicate that African Americans report
higher rates for chronic conditions such as diabetes and hypertension (Belgrave, 1998).
African Americans are 1 .7 times as likely to have Type II diabetes as the general
population (American Diabetes Association, 1997; U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, 1999). According to the American Diabetes Association, diabetes is
the leading cause of new cases of blindness for ages 20 to 74, with 12,000 to 24,000
people losing their sight each year due to diabetes. Glaucoma is another leading cause
2
of blindness in American, and African Americans are 4 to 5 times as likely as Whites to
develop glaucoma (Prevent Blindness America, 1999).
Participation in Labor Force
Three-fourths (78%) of African American job seekers with disabilities are out of
the labor force as compared to 21% of non-disabled African American adults (Atkins,
1988; Bowe, 1992; personal communication, Frank Bowe, September 8, 1999). Of
those in the labor force - including those who are employed and those actively seeking
work -- 27% are unemployed. Only 13% of working-age African Americans with
disabilities are employed (Belgrave, 1998). In comparison, Whites who are disabled
are employed at twice the rate of African Americans with disabilities (Atkins). For the
entire labor force, the unemployment rate for Whites is 3.6% and for African Americans,
8.3% (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1999).
Participation in Rehabilitation and Health Services
Nationally, African Americans are the largest minority group served by the state-
federal VR program-in fiscal year 1998, 22% of all VR closures were African American
(Cavenaugh, 2000). Moreover, Congress has found that patterns of inequitable
treatment of African Americans “have been documented in all major junctures of the
vocational rehabilitation process” (Section 19, Rehabilitation Act Amendments of 1998).
Chelimsky (1993) found that state VR agencies purchased proportionally more
services for White consumers than for African American or Hispanic American
consumers. Atkins and Wright (1980) also documented that African Americans were
about 7% less likely to be accepted for services, were about 7% less likely to be
rehabilitated, were about half as likely to have attended college, and, if rehabilitated,
had lower wages at closure than Whites. Wheaton, Wilson, and Brown (1996) found
that African Americans received more VR services than Whites (specifically in the areas
of adjustment training, transportation, and maintenance), but received fewer restoration
services and less college training (also see Atkins, 1988).
3
Wilson (2000) also reported that European Americans were more likely than
African Americans to be accepted for VR services. The three most common reasons
given by counselors for nonacceptance of African Americans with disabilities were
failure to cooperate, lack of vocational handicap, and lack of disabling condition (Atkins
& Wright, 1980).
Danek and Lawrence (1982) reported White clients were accepted in a shorter
time period than African American clients. African American clients tend to be
supported by public and private assistance at referral, and White clients, by family or
friends. African American and White clients were about the same age, yet White clients
have obtained more years of education. At case closure, more Whites were employed
in professional, technical, managerial, clerical, and sales positions, and more African
Americans were employed in service industries and as homemakers.
Minorities with disabilities access health care systems and rehabilitation
programs at lower rates than Whites with disabilities due to socioeconomic status,
language skills, level of trust for majority institutions, cultural values, and other reasons
(Atkins, 1988). According to Giesen et al. (1995), this proportional under-representation
appears to be due to an interplay between awareness, the availability of services,
transportation and service access, attitudes and willingness to accept services,
difficulties of the rehabilitation system in successfully contacting African Americans who
are blind, and discrimination. Walker, Akpati, Roberts, Palmer, and Newsome (1986)
(as cited in Wright, 1988) suggested African Americans may not be taking full
advantage of available facilities and, even after completing the rehabilitation process, a
large number of African Americans do not leave the lower income groups.
Additional studies examining employment and rehabilitation outcomes for
minority groups with disabilities include work by Alston and McCowan (1994); Asbury,
Walker, Maholmes, Green, and Belgrave (1994); Dziekan and Okocha (1993); Feist-
Price (1995); National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (1993); and
Wheaton (1995).
VR services and outcomes for minority groups with vision-related
rehabilitation needs. No studies were found in the current published literature that
4
specifically examined this area. The only exceptions were some very recent works.
Cavenaugh and Giesen (1998) reported selected findings of longitudinal comparisons
between African American and White consumers in blindness VR, examining
demographic, service, and outcome trends between the early 1980s (national sample,
A/=97 1 ) and 1995 (RSA national population A/=14,1 00). These authors point out that in
making cross-race comparisons , important race differences often have been masked if
gender was not also considered in the comparisons. For this reason , their results
include gender in the crosstabulation of White and African American groups. Some
selected findings are reported here.
Regarding demographics of those served in the state-federal VR system, African
American males are now youngest when compared to a 10-year increase in average
age for White consumers. Previous disparities in education level between White and
African American consumers have all but disappeared. Earnings at referral by African
Americans has increased to exceed that of White females, but is still exceeded by that
of White males. Also, African American males show lowered levels of personal income
at referral. Regarding services, African Americans no longer receive a higher
percentage of restoration services but have maintained their need for transportation
services. With respect to outcomes, African American males and females have made
gains in closure earnings, but their earnings are still only about 78% of that for White
males. Competitive closure rate for African American males has maintained itself at a
rate about 10% lower than that of White males, while the rates for African American vs.
White females is about equal. The percentage of African Americans closed in sheltered
employment settings has decreased, especially for African American males, to a rate
comparable to that for White males. Homemaker closures have increased only slightly
for African American females compared to a 12% increase for White females. Finally,
unsuccessful closures have decreased for White males and increased for African
American males and females.
5
Strategies to Enhance Rehabilitation Outcomes
If VR counselors are to succeed in reaching African Americans with disabilities,
they must take full advantage of this group’s strengths: (a) strong kinship bonds, (b)
demonstrated role flexibility, (c) strong religious orientation, and (d) strong education
and work ethics (Alston & Turner, 1994). Counselors can tap into these strengths by
including key members of the kinship network, applying existing role flexibility patterns
to individuals with disabilities, incorporating religious leaders into the rehabilitation
process, emphasizing the role of education and retraining, and involving successful role
models who are both African American and disabled. Atkins (1988) also cited many of
these same strengths when recommending that rehabilitation agencies examine their
practices and procedures, and not simply exist as gate-keepers that screen undesirable
clients.
Measuring rehabilitation outcomes. In order for rehabilitation research to
progress, Bolton (1979) suggested that specific disability groups and client subgroups
with similar characteristics be studied separately. As rehabilitation services to African
Americans who are blind or visually impaired improve, the largest blind minority group
stands to benefit. Such efforts may also set the stage to improve rehabilitation
outcomes for others who are visually impaired and from minority backgrounds.
Summary and Purpose of Study
In broad terms, the literature reveals that minority persons with disabilities
experience disadvantages to a greater extent than non-minority persons with
disabilities. This has been expressed as a double bias of being African American and
disabled (Alston & Mngadi, 1992). The disadvantages include greater incidence of
significant disability, including a high rate of visual impairment, and greater susceptibility
to health problems such as diabetes and glaucoma. When disability occurs in
combination with minority status, disadvantages are compounded and, in addition,
extend to significant disadvantage in the labor market. The disadvantages of minority
persons as consumers in the state-federal VR system is a documented fact and
extends to impact employment and rehabilitation outcomes.
6
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When considering vision-related rehabilitation needs of minority persons, what
little research there is provides further documentation of disadvantage for African
American consumers. Moreover, it has been suggested that African Americans with
disabilities share unique strengths, such as strong kinship bonds and a religious
orientation that can positively impact the VR process (Alston & Turner, 1994). Further,
specific disability groups (e.g., individuals who are blind) and specific client subgroups
(e.g., specific minority groups) are best understood if studied separately (Bolton, 1979).
This study investigated the special and possibly unique rehabilitation-related
needs of African American clients who are blind. The approach taken was to explore
and contrast views of the VR process and strategies for effective rehabilitation in terms
of the perceptions of African American and White VR counselors with significant
experience serving African American clients. The focus on experienced counselors is
important because these counselors work directly with clients as they move through all
phases of the rehabilitation process (entry, provision of services, and closure through
employment or other outcomes) and consequently have become practice experts in
this process. In addition by including both African American and White counselors, we
hoped to provide an important comparison and contrast of their perceptions and
experiences relating to (a) vision-related rehabilitation needs of African Americans; (b)
the usefulness of skills, techniques, or resources for working with African clients; (c)
recommendations and suggested strategies to meet these vision-related rehabilitation
needs; and (d) perceived factors affecting employment outcome.
7
Method
Participants
Survey participants. Directors of state blindness VR agencies in RSA Regions
IV and VI (13 states in the South and Southwest) were asked to nominate 4 (2 White
and 2 African American) VR counselors from their state who were experienced in
serving African American clients and who had large (at least 50% preferred) minority
caseloads. Regions IV and VI were targeted for study because most states in these
regions have relatively high percentages of African Americans in the general population
and high percentages of African Americans receiving blindness VR services. Two
states had no African American counselors, and one state had no counselors meeting
the selection criteria. From this strategically defined list, randomized quota sampling
was used to select interviewees, trying to balance race and urban-rural settings. A
total of 26 counselors from 12 states agreed to participate in telephone interviews
during 1997.
There are relatively few African American counselors providing VR services to
persons who are blind or visually impaired (Giesen, McBroom, Gooding, Ewing, &
Robertson, 1996). Consequently, a strategic sampling frame was established and
quota sampling was employed to secure an adequate sample of African American
counselors. Our objective was not to provide a general description of the population of
VR counselors. It was to survey a sample of counselors with considerable
experience-fhe experts in serving African American consumers. Also, we felt such a
group would be most able to provide useful information and informed views regarding
serving African American consumers.
Quota sampling efforts were successful: Of the counselors, 50% were White,
42%, African American, and 8% (2) classified themselves as “Other - Hispanic, Native
American, or Asian.” They were primarily female (65%) and averaged age 45 (30 to 59).
About a third (31%) had some type of visual disability and 12% had a nonvisual
disability. White rehabilitation counselors were more likely to have a nonvisual
disabilities (23%) than African American counselors (0%).
9
Counselors had been employed in blindness VR for an average of 1 1 years (2 to
27 years); and on average, worked with 77 clients (42 White, 31 Black, 3 other racial
category). Most (62%) held a master’s degree, and all had a 4-year college degree.
Most (62%) were not members of any professional organization. A large portion (85%)
held no professional certification: White counselors (20%); African American counselors
(0%); the 12% who were Certified Rehabilitation Counselors were White. Memberships
included the Association for Education and Rehabilitation of the Blind and Visually
Impaired (AER) (23%) and the National Rehabilitation Association (NRA) (19%).
Minorities Outcomes Advisory Council. In the spirit of Participatory Action
Research and consumer involvement (Tewey, 1997), a five-member Advisory Council
worked with project researchers to help ensure that the study was responsive to
consumer needs in terms of significance, relevance, and usefulness of new knowledge.
Members represented experienced rehabilitation counselors and other service
providers, previous consumers of rehabilitation services, and cultural diversity
specialists. All members were from racial minority backgrounds, and the majority were
blind or visually impaired.
Instrument
Based on literature review and study goals, a questionnaire was designed and
field tested. The final product was revised based on results of the field test and
recommendations from the Minority Outcomes Advisory Council. The result was a 27-
item survey designed for administration by telephone. The survey contained questions
about VR counselor characteristics (including background, training, and professional
affiliations); helpful techniques and resources (including similarities and differences in
working with African American and White clients); and employment expectations for
clients. See Appendix B for the complete instrument.
Procedure
Endorsements from the research councils of the National Council of State
Agencies for the Blind (NCSAB) and the Council of State Agencies of Vocational
10
Rehabilitation (CSAVR) were obtained. This step was necessary to obtain permissions
and encourage cooperation from state agencies. Approval from MSU’s Institutional
Review Board was also obtained before data collection from any potential
respondents. Permission to contact counselors was given by the directors of the state
agencies involved. Counselors were then contacted, consented to participate, and
scheduled for interview. All interviews were conducted by experienced research
professionals (the authors from Alabama A & M University).
Data Analysis
Numerical data were cleaned, coded, and entered into a SPSS (Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences) data file. The data were analyzed using descriptive
data techniques (e.g., percentages, means, cross-tabulations) and t tests for counselor
race comparisons. The 2 counselors that indicated race to be “other” were excluded
from any analysis that included a breakdown by race. Data from open-ended questions
were sorted by content and grouped according to similar themes and subsequently
broken down by counselor race.
11
« .
s
.
Results
The results are organized to describe the interaction process between client and
counselor, strategies to improve or facilitate working with African American or Black
clients, and counselor perceptions on a variety of factors related to the rehabilitation
process and outcomes. Although rehabilitation counselors were described as either
African American or White, the term “Black consumers or clients” (rather than African
American) was used in reporting counselor perceptions of rehabilitation consumers. In
doing so, we were able to maintain consistency with wording used in the survey
instrument (Appendix B) and, hopefully, prevent reader confusion.
Descriptive analyses are reported for all measures. Analyses of differences
between African American and White rehabilitation counselors were conducted for
numerical measures, where appropriate. Differences were reported when statistically
present. If a result states that there were no differences by race, this indicates that any
differences in the data were not statistically significant. Lack of differences between
African American and White counselors were noted and received comment when
deemed unexpected or noteworthy. Unless otherwise indicated, group differences were
evaluated using independent groups t tests with alpha set at the .10 level. This level
was chosen to increase power given the small available sample size and because of
the exploratory nature of the investigation.
Client and Counselor Interaction
Cultural diversity training and perceived counseling skill. Almost all
counselors (96%) had attended some workshop, class, or program on cultural diversity.
The programs included in-house staff development activities (73%), training from
universities (31%), continuing education programs offered by Regional Rehabilitation
Continuing Education Programs (RRCEPs) or AER (12%), or other sources (12%).
To determine the rehabilitation counselors’ perceived skill levels in working with
Black consumers, respondents were asked, “Which of the following represents your
13
level of skill in working with Black clients - very unskilled, somewhat unskilled, neither
unskilled nor skilled, somewhat skilled, or very skilled?’’
• Both African American and White counselors rated themselves as high. The
average response was “somewhat” to “very skilled” ( M = 4.54 with a range from 1
to 5).
• While both ratings were high, African American rehabilitation counselors
assessed themselves to be slightly more skilled when working with Black
consumers than White counselors assessed themselves ( M - 4.73 vs. 4.31, t( 22)
= -1 .82, p = .082).
Issue of trust. Regarding trust and race, the question was “It has been
suggested that a client’s trust level was affected by race. Do you agree?” Responses
indicated
• 65% (a majority) of rehabilitation counselors believed a client’s trust level was
affected by race.
• There was no difference in this belief by race of counselor.
Regarding trust and successful approaches, in a follow-up open-ended question,
counselors were asked, “What approaches have you found to be successful in
overcoming problems of trust in working with clients of a different race?” The responses
were as follows.
Approach
Total
White
African
American
Be honest (e.g., keep promises, provide services in a
timely manner)
8
3
5
Use good communication skills (e.g., be genuine, be
willing to listen, talk at the client’s level)
8
5
3
Become familiar with the client (e.g., inquire, share,
understand)
3
2
1
Establish a “common ground” of race or blindness
3
1
2
“Acknowledge the race problem”
1
1
14
• The most frequent responses were being honest and using good communication
skills.
• White counselors were more likely to advocate using good communication skills.
• African American counselors were more likely to stress honesty.
Client disclosure. In open-ended questions, rehabilitation counselors were
asked, “To what extent do Black and White clients differ in the way they disclose
information about themselves? How do they differ?"
• The majority (79%) of both African American and White counselors saw no
difference in clients’ disclosure styles.
• A small number had other comments, but the numbers were too small to suggest
reliable trends.
Only 4 saw differences associate with race. Three African American rehabilitation
counselors thought Blacks were more secretive, while 1 White thought Whites were
more secretive. One White rehabilitation counselor thought Blacks were more religious
which affected how they disclosed information about themselves.
Disclosure and rehabilitation. Using an open-ended question, counselors were
asked, “How do these differences affect the rehabilitation process ?”
• Most (79%) stated there was no effect.
• A small number had comments: Three African Americans stated trust and a
working relationship had to be developed with Black clients and 1 believed race
made it more difficult for Blacks to find jobs. One White counselor believed
clients were overprotected.
Useful Techniques and Referral Sources
Skills, techniques, and resources. Rehabilitation counselors also were asked
to score a list of skills, techniques, or resources according to how useful each item was
in working with Black clients (see Question 3 in Appendix B for exact wording).
15
Responses could range from 1 (“not at all useful”) to 5 (“extremely useful”). As reported
in Table 1, the most useful items-in order-were:
• Including the extended family in the rehabilitation process to better serve Black
clients;
• Contacting clients in their homes;
• Job development with Black employers;
• Seeking assistance from Black coworkers;
• Including community leaders; and
• Including church leaders.
See Table 1 for mean ratings.
Only one race difference was statistically reliable:
• White counselors were more likely than African American rehabilitation
counselors to believe job development with Black employers was a useful
technique for working with Black clients, f(16) = 1.77, p = .096.
Table 1: Usefulness Ratings of Skills, Techniques, or Resources for Working with
Black Clients
Mean
White
African American
Skill, Technique, or Resource
Usefulness
Mean Score
Mean Score
(SO)
(SD)
(SD)
Including extended family
4.08
4.23
3.73
(.98)
(.73)
(1.19)
Contacting clients in their homes
3.71
3.62
3.82
(1.16)
(1.19)
(1.17)
Job development with Black employers
3.72
(1.07)
: ■ :
4.10
(.88)
o OR
O.Z0
(1.17)
Seeking assistance from Black coworkers
3.45
3.17
3.88
(1.32)
(1.27)
(1.34)
16
Including community leaders
3.32
3.18
3.44
(1.29)
(1.33)
(1 .24)
Including church leaders
2.82
3.00
2.63
(1.19)
(1.29)
(1.30)
Note: Scores range from 1 (not at all useful) to 5 (extremely useful). Ratings include
White and African American rehabilitation counselors, n = 24. Shading indicates
statistical differences between groups, p < .10.
In a follow-up question, rehabilitation counselors were also asked, “ Are there
other factors that have been useful to you when serving Black clients T
• No strong pattern of other useful factors emerged.
White rehabilitation counselors believed it was important to be from the community (2
responses), while African Americans stated it was important to be Black (2 responses).
Both groups cited the importance of good communication skills (2 responses). Other
responses from Whites included utilizing peer counseling, and participating in Black
awareness programs (1 response each). Other responses from African Americans
included calling other people in the state, using job readiness vendors, providing
transportation, and having a general knowledge about visual impairments (1 response
each).
Important referral sources. In another open-ended question, respondents
were asked, “If you made a list of your referral sources in the Black community , which
would you consider to be the most important T Responses are summarized here.
Referral Source
Total
White
African
American
Physicians
8
6
2
Social service agencies
7
2
5
Churches
5
1
4
Schools
3
2
1
Other Responses (Low frequency)
Self-referrals
2
2
Referrals from other clients
1
1
17
Family
2
2
Employers
2
2
Leaders or public officials
2
2
• Physicians, social service agencies, churches, and schools-in order-were
reported as most important.
• White counselors tended to use physicians and schools while African American
counselors tended to use social service agencies and churches.
Seeking Help or Advice in Working with Black Clients
Rehabilitation counselors were provided a list of resources they might use “for
help or advice in working with Black clients .” Results for use and ratings of helpfulness
are given in Table 2. The most frequently used sources were
• rehabilitation coworkers;
• rehabilitation supervisors;
• mentors outside of rehabilitation;
• RRCEPs, agency inservices, and other special programs; and
• books and journals.
• African American counselors were statistically more likely than White counselors
to turn to rehabilitation coworkers and to supervisors (M =0.82 vs. 0.46, t (22) =
• -1 .851 , p = .078 for both resources).
In addition, 2 White rehabilitation counselors suggested ministers and community
leaders could be helpful when working with Black clients.
If rehabilitation counselors used a resource, they also rated its helpfulness
(Table 2, see Question 1 1 in Appendix B for exact wording). The most helpful resources
were
• mentors outside of rehabilitation ( M = 4.54);
• rehabilitation coworkers ( M = 4.27); and
• RRCEPs, agency inservices, and other special programs (M = 4.27).
The only counselor race difference was that African American counselors
believed mentors outside of rehabilitation were more helpful than Whites
believed, t ( 10) = -1 .86, p = .093.
Table 2: Use and Helpfulness Ratings of Sources of Help or Advice in Working
with Black Clients
Proportion Using
Helpfulness of Source
Source
African
Mean
African
%
White
American
Helpfulness
White
American
Source of Help
Using
Mean
Mean
of Source
Mean
Mean
or Advice
Source
(SD)
(SD)
(SD)
(SD)
(SD)
Rehabilitation
.46
.82
4.27
4.00
4.44
coworkers
62.5%
(-52)
(.40)
(.80)
(.89)
(.73)
Rehabilitation
.46
. ■ • . ■
.82
4.07
4.60
3.78
supervisor
62.5%
(.52)
(.40)
(1.39)
(.55)
(1 -64)
Mentor outside of
.38
.64
, 4.54
4.20
4.86
• _ \ ; ......
rehabilitation
50.0%
(.51)
(.50)
(.66)
- : • -
(.84)
.
■ -
" - '
03
00
RRCEPs,
inservices, and
.54
.45
4.27
4.17
4.40
other special
50.0%
(.52)
(.52)
(.47)
(.41)
(.55)
programs
.46
.45
4.09
4.00
4.20
Books and journals
45.8%
(-52)
(.52)
(.94)
(1.23)
(.84)
Note : For “helpfulness of source,” scores range from 1 (very unhelpful) to 5 (very
helpful). Ratings include White and African American rehabilitation counselors, n = 24).
Shading indicates statistical differences between groups, p<.10.
Perceptions of General Factors Related to Employment: Job Expectations,
Likelihood of Rehabilitation, and Willingness to Relocate
Rehabilitation counselors were asked three questions about how Black
consumers differed from White consumers regarding general employment factors
(Table 3). For each question, the rehabilitation counselor was asked to select one of
the following: (a) lowered expectation or less likely for Black consumers as compared to
19
White consumers (score = 1), (b) no difference between Black and White consumers
(score = 2), or (c) higher expectations or more likely for Black consumers (score = 3).
Respondents were first asked, “ How do job expectations of Black consumers
differ from that of White consumers ?”
• The mean response for all rehabilitation counselors was 2.08 indicating that they
did not believe there was a difference in job expectations of Black and White
consumers.
• However, African American counselors believed Black consumers’ job
expectations were higher than job expectations of White consumers, while White
counselors believed Blacks’ job expectations were lower than expectations of
White consumers, t (22) = -5.23, p = .000.
Counselors were next asked, “How do Black consumers differ from Whites in
their likelihood to be closed rehabilitated ?”
• White rehabilitation counselors were statistically more likely than African
Americans to expect Black and White consumers to have similar rates of
rehabilitation (successful closures).
• In contrast, African American rehabilitation counselors believed Black consumers
had lower rates of rehabilitated (successful) closures than White consumers, t
(21) = 1.98, p = .061.
Last, respondents were asked, “How do Black consumers differ from Whites in
their willingness to relocate or transfer to a better job?”
• Both groups of rehabilitation counselors agreed that Black consumers tend to be
less willing to relocate or transfer to a better job (M = 1 .65).
20
Table 3: Mean Ratings of Perceived Differences Between White and Black
Consumers-General Factors
Relative Difference Between
Consumers
All
Counselors
Mean
(SD)
White
Counselors
Mean
(SD)
African American
Counselors
Mean
(SD)
2.08
1.54
2.64
■
Job expectations differ
(.74)
(.52)
(.51)
V '
1.68
1.83
a AR
1 .40
Rates of closed rehabilitated differ
(.48)
(.39)
(.52)
1.65
1.77
1.45
Willingness to relocate or transfer
(.63)
(.44)
(.69)
Note : 1 = Lowered expectation or less likely for Black consumers as compared to White
consumers; 2 = No difference; 3 = Higher expectations or more likely for Black
consumers. Ratings include White and African American rehabilitation counselors, n =
24. Shading indicates statistical differences between groups, p < .10.
For further descriptive exposition, Table 4 shows the breakdown of response
frequencies by race of rehabilitation counselors on perceived differences between
Black and White consumers. For example, all the rehabilitation counselors who
believed Black consumers had lower job expectations were White (100%). Similarly, all
the rehabilitation counselors who believed Black consumers held higher job
expectations were African American (100%). White rehabilitation counselors were
almost twice as likely as African Americans to expect no differences in job expectations
for Black and White consumers (64% vs. 36%). Recall that African American and
White counselors responded statistically differently on two of the three questions listed
in Table 3 Qob expectations and rehabilitation rates).
21
Table 4: Frequency of Response For Perceived Differences Between White and
Black Consumers-General Factors
Factor
Lower for Blacks
No Difference
Higher for Blacks
White
(n)
African
American
(n)
White
(n)
African
American
(n)
White
(n)
African
American
(n)
Job expectations differ
1 00%
(6)
63.6%
(7)
36.4%
(4)
1 00%
(7)
Rates of closed
rehabilitated differ
25.0%
(2)
75.0%
(6)
66.7%
(10)
33.3%
(5)
Willingness to relocate
or transfer
30.0%
(3)
70.0%
(7)
76.9%
(10)
23.1%
(3)
1 00%
(1)
Note. Includes White and African American rehabilitation counselors, n = 24.
Percentages sum to 100% within each response category.
Perceptions of Factors Affecting Employment Outcomes
Certain factors may have a different effect on competitive employment outcomes
for Black and White consumers. Rehabilitation counselors were presented with a list of
four factors and asked to respond on the same 1-3 scale used with the previous three
questions. Generally, it was agreed by African American and White counselors that
Black clients were hurt more than White clients by
• low income without public assistance;
• low education level; and
• lack of work experience.
The only item demonstrating a statistical difference in how African American and White
counselors responded was receipt of SSI, SSDI, or other public assistance:
• African American rehabilitation counselors tended to believe that public
assistance hurts Black consumers more than White consumers in becoming
competitively employed, while
• White rehabilitation counselors believed that there was no difference in the effect
of receipt of public assistance on Black and White consumers becoming
competitively employed, t( 22) = 2.87, p = .009.
22
Table 5: Mean Ratings of Perceived Differences Between White and Black
Consumers-Employment Factors _ _ _
Combined
White
African American
Mean Score
Mean Score
Mean Score
Factor
(SD)
(SD)
(SD)
SSI, SSDI, or other public
1.75
.
2.00
1.45
assistance
(.53)
(.41)
(.52)
Low income without
1.75
1.77
1.73
public assistance
(.53)
(.44)
(.65)
1.42
1.54
1.27
Low education level
(.50)
(.52)
(.47)
1.57
1.69
1.40
Lack of work experience
(.51)
(.48)
(.52)
Note: 1 = Hurts Blacks more than Whites in reaching competitive employment; 2 = No
difference; 3 = Helps Blacks more than Whites in reaching competitive employment.
Includes White and African American rehabilitation counselors, n = 24.
Shading indicates statistical differences between groups, p < .10.
Again for further descriptive exposition, Table 6 shows the breakdown of these
response frequencies by race of the rehabilitation counselor. For example, more African
American than White rehabilitation counselors believed receiving public assistance
makes it more difficult for Black consumers (86% vs. 14%) when compared with Whites
in reaching competitive employment. White rehabilitation counselors were twice as likely
as African Americans to believe the effect of public assistance was no different for Black
than for White consumers (69% vs. 31%).
23
Table 6: Frequency of Response for Perceived Differences Between White and
Black Consumers-Employment Factors _ _ _
Factor
Lower for Blacks
No Difference
Higher for Blacks
White
African
American
White
African
American
White
African
American
SSI, SSDI, or other
public assistance
14.3%
(1)
85.7%
(6)
68.8%
(11)
31.3%
(5)
100%
(1)
Low income without
public assistance
42.9%
(3)
57.1%
(4)
62.5%
(10)
37.5%
(6)
100%
(1)
Low education level
42.9%
(6)
57.1%
(8)
70.0%
(7)
30.0%
(3)
Lack of work
experience
50.0%
(1)
50.0%
(1)
40.0%
(4)
60.0%
(6)
66.7%
(8)
33.3%
(4)
Note. Includes White and African American rehabilitation counselors, n = 24.
Percentages sum to 100% within each response category.
Counselors were also asked to list other factors that had different effects on
competitive employment outcomes for Black and White consumers.
Other Employment Factors
Total
White
African
American
Lack of self-esteem or motivation
3
1
2
Lack of transportation
3
1
2
Poor appearance at interviews
1
1
Lack of connections or networking
1
1
Racism
3
2
1
In general, given the low frequency of these responses, no strong trends were indicated.
Lack of self-esteem or motivation, lack of transportation, poor appearance at interviews,
and lack of connections or networking tended to be given by African American
counselors, while racism tended to be suggested more by White counselors.
24
Perceptions: Ideal Characteristics of Black and White Consumers
Certain characteristics of clients may make them more likely to benefit from VR
services. These characteristics may differ by the client’s race. Using open-ended
questions to explore these possibilities, respondents were first asked, “ What are the
characteristics of Black consumers that make them more likely to benefit from vocational
rehabilitation services?” Responses were as follows.
Characteristic
Total
White
African
American
Black clients were motivated to escape poverty and improve
themselves
8
4
4
Faith in God
1
1
Absence of other resources
1
1
Awareness of VR services
1
1
Financial assistance from VR
1
1
Black clients were more willing to accept agency services
1
1
Black clients had more realistic expectations
1
1
Family support made the difference for Black consumers
2
1
1
The dominant characteristic was that Black consumers were motivated to escape
poverty and better themselves. No other strong trends emerged.
Respondents were next asked, uWhat are the characteristics of White consumers
that make them more likely to benefit from vocational rehabilitation services?”
Responses were as follows.
Characteristic
Total
White
African
American
White consumers... were motivated
4
3
1
Were better educated
3
2
1
Had family support
1
1
More motivated by public expectations
1
1
25
More familiar with rehabilitation services
2
2
More accepted by society
1
1
Could select their opportunities
1
1
Could relocate
1
1
The main trends were that White consumers were perceived as
• more motivated,
• better educated, and
• perhaps more familiar with rehabilitation services.
Summary Conclusions and Recommendations
Certification
Our sample showed a low rate of professional certification, particularly among
African American counselors. These counselors may benefit from increased opportunity
to obtain professional certifications in appropriate specialty areas. Action is already
being taken in this area under Section 101(a)(7) of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as
amended, which requires states to provide-as part of its comprehensive system of
personnel development-academic preparation to VR counselors to meet national or
state approved certification or licensure requirements. We expect the certification level
of rehabilitation counselors to become more uniform because of this requirement.
Client-Counselor Interaction, Useful Techniques
Cultural diversity training and skill. More than 9 in 10 of the counselors had
training in cultural diversity issues, and both African American and White counselors
perceived themselves to be highly skilled in working with Black clients. We expected and
found that our sample of counselors experienced in working with minority clients had
received cultural diversity training. Also we would expect that such training would be
linked with higher levels of skill in working with diverse consumers. This expectation is
supported by Wheaton and Granello (1998) who found higher scores on a multicultural
counseling inventory to be associated with multicultural training. It is unknown from this
investigation whether the level of perceived skill of counselors corresponds to actual
counseling and/or multicultural counseling skills. However, the pattern of greater
perceived multicultural competence on the part of African American counselors is
consistent with those of several investigators (e.g., Granello & Wheaton, 1998). These
investigators indicated that minority counselors-including African American-reported
more competence in multicultural awareness and relationships than did European
American counselors. They also caution that it is not clear whether the perception of
greater competence is in fact based on better preparation. Future research using formal
measures of multicultural skill is recommended to determine actual skill levels and
27
whether multicultural counseling skills need to be sharpened for either or both counselor
race groups.
Trust. Counselors believe that a client’s trust level is affected by race, and that
honesty and good communication skills can improve trust. White counselors tend to
advocate good communication skills, while African American counselors stress honesty.
Disclosure. Contrary to expectations, there are no counselor race differences in
the way White and Black consumers are seen to disclose information about themselves,
nor do such disclosure differences affect the rehabilitation process.
Useful techniques. With Black clients-in order of usefulness-these are including
the extended family in the rehabilitation process, contacting clients in their own homes,
and engaging in job development with Black employers. Other possibly useful strategies
are seeking assistance from Black coworkers, and including community leaders and
church leaders in the rehabilitation process. White counselors think that job
development with Black employers is more important when working with Black clients
than do Black counselors.
Referral sources. The most important are physicians, social service agencies,
churches, and schools. White counselors find physicians and schools most important
while African American counselors acknowledge social service agencies and churches.
Seeking help or advice. Our experienced counselors seek help or advice in
working with Black clients -in order of use- from coworkers and supervisors, outside
mentors, and training programs (e.g., RRCEPs, inservices). Some use is also made of
books and journals. African American counselors are about twice as likely to use
coworkers and supervisors than are White counselors.
Experienced counselors find the most helpful sources are mentors outside of
rehabilitation; rehabilitation coworkers or supervisors; RRCEPS, agency inservices, and
other special programs; and books and journals. African American counselors find
mentors to be more helpful than do White counselors.
Conclusions and recommendations. Counselors of both races agreed on the
importance of trust in the rehabilitation process, the factors that can improve trust, the
absence of important race differences in client disclosure, the lack of effect of disclosure
28
differences on the rehabilitation process, the most used referral sources, and the most
helpful referral sources. African American counselors uniquely stress honesty, place less
emphasis on job development with Black employers, use social service agencies and
churches more as referral sources, are more likely to use coworkers and supervisors for
help or advice, and find mentors a more helpful source.
Counselors’ attention to establishing and enhancing trust and maintaining
honesty with consumers should be actively maintained. The pattern of usefulness
factors suggests a family- and community-oriented approach to rehabilitation as likely to
be most effective with African American consumers. These findings and
recommendations are consistent with those of Alston and Turner (1994), which stress
the usefulness and strengths of the African American family system and community in
the rehabilitation process. In addition, the help-seeking pattern favoring use of
coworkers and supervisors points to these groups (i.e., counselors, counselor
supervisors) as prime targets for relevant training.
Expectations and Beliefs
Counselor race affects job and outcome expectations. There is a tendency for
African American counselors to view Black consumers, when compared with White
consumers, as having higher job expectations but lower likelihood of successful closure.
Conversely, White counselors tend to view Black consumers as having lower job
expectations but equal likelihood of successful closure. Black consumers are seen as
less willing to relocate for a better job, regardless of counselor race.
Regarding factors hurting employment of Black consumers more, counselors of
both races agree these are less work experience, less education, and receiving public
assistance. African American counselors believe that public assistance uniquely hurts
Black consumers more than Whites.
Factors leading to greater benefit from VR, largely, do not differ by counselor race
and suggest strengths of Black clients. Counselors of both races view Black clients as
strengthened by their motivation to escape poverty and their motivation to improve
themselves. Differences by counselor race favoring White clients do appear to exist
29
regarding the sheer motivation of White consumers and higher education level. This
view is held mostly by White counselors.
Conclusions and recommendations. There is less agreement between
counselors of both races in the area of expectations and beliefs than in the areas of
client-counselor interaction, and useful techniques and practices. The pattern of
disagreement in expectations suggests that African American counselors see Black
clients as having strong intrinsic motivation (e.g., high job expectations, high motivation
to improve themselves) but high vulnerability to negative social forces (e.g., less
experience and education, dependence on public assistance ) resulting in lowered
expectations for success. The pattern for White counselors is less clear but suggests an
in-group orientation, emphasizing the high motivation of White clients. This pattern also
suggests that Black clients are no more susceptible to negative social forces than are
White clients and that African American consumers are rehabilitated at the same rate as
White consumers.
A similar pattern of findings indicating differing perspectives between African
American and White rehabilitation service delivery professionals has been reported
regarding reasons for the low level of professional participation of African Americans in
blindness VR service delivery. Similar patterns of findings were obtained for blindness
VR service delivery professionals (Giesen et al, 1995) and administrators (Giesen et al.,
1996).
Recommendations appropriate from this section speak to taking advantage of
perceived strengths and increasing awareness of less positive expectations. Counselors
need to maintain significant positive expectations for African American consumers,
reinforce motivations for improvement, and take advantage of family and community
strengths as consistent with suggestions by Alston and Turner (1994). White counselors,
particularly, should be on guard for possible lowered job expectations for African
American consumers so as to prevent possible self-fulfilling prophecy effects.
Additionally, White counselors should strive to recognize the limits of their knowledge
and experience, and be open to seeking help from a broad array of sources. Counselors
should not assume that these clients are unwilling to move to secure a better job.
30
Final Conclusions
Experienced rehabilitation counselors-both White and African American-
providing services to African American consumers who are blind or visually impaired can
provide “expert opinions” regarding the client-counselor interaction process, useful
techniques, sources for help and advice, and beliefs and expectations about the process
and outcomes of rehabilitation. This research identifies important components for the
rehabilitation process and dispels some unimportant ones, delineates useful techniques,
identifies most used and most useful referral sources, identifies sources for help or
advice, and provides information on expectations and beliefs about these clients. It also
explains how such beliefs differ according to counselor race. Overall, more similarities
than differences were observed-as viewed by counselors of different races.
As might be expected, more differences occurred in the domains of beliefs and
expectations, and much fewer differences occurred in views of what affects the
rehabilitation process and what practices are most useful. Differences in expectations
and beliefs between African American and White counselors may effect rehabilitation
outcomes. This possible effect should be investigated in future research.
There do not appear to be special or unique practices or techniques that can
dramatically enhance rehabilitation outcomes for African American consumers-no
“magic bullets.” However, there do appear to be some areas in which rehabilitation
practice can be improved and lead to substantial improvements in outcomes for African
American consumers. Overall, the study supports a sound, culturally sensitive, and
thorough application of rehabilitation counseling principles-taking advantage of client
motivation, positive expectations, and family- and community-oriented components-as
best practice in serving African American clients who are blind.
31
■
*
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36
Appendix A
Project Context
Appendix A
Project Context
This project is part of a larger investigation funded by the National Institute on
Disability and Rehabilitation Research. Researchers at the Rehabilitation Research
and Training Center (RRTC) on Blindness and Low Vision at Mississippi State
University (MSU) and Alabama A&M University (A&M) worked cooperatively on the
project. The purposes of the larger project were to perform (a) quantitative
database research on issues related to blindness rehabilitation with African
American consumers; (b) qualitative and quantitative survey research to identify and
recommend strategies to meet the special or unique rehabilitation needs of
individuals who are blind from minority backgrounds, particularly to enhance their
competitive employment, life skills, and educational achievements; (c) design,
conduct, and assess short-term training for service delivery professionals; and (d)
disseminate findings from all activities. The project specifically targeted individuals
who are blind and African American for their needs in rehabilitation service delivery
and enhancement of employment outcomes.
The present project addressed part (b) above. Project staff surveyed African
American and non-minority rehabilitation counselors who have significant
experience in serving African American clients. These counselors were asked to
identify rehabilitation needs of African American clients and to provide suggestions
and recommendations on meeting those needs. This report focuses on findings
from these data. Other components of the larger research program are addressed
in separate reports.
39
■
Appendix B
Survey Instrument
Unique Needs: A Survey to Enhance
Employment Outcomes of Black Clients who are Blind
Counselors Survey
INTERVIEWER: READ EACH QUESTION EXACTLY AS WRITTEN. DO NOT READ
OUTLOUD THE WORDS PRINTED IN ALL CAPS (SIMILAR TO THIS SECTION).
RECORD THE ANSWERS ACCORDING TO THE INSTRUCTIONS. RECORD ANY
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION THAT MAY ASSIST US IN UNDERSTANDING AN
ANSWER.
ID NUMBER _
Sex FEMALE (0) MALE (1) _
Hello, may I speak to (NAME OF RESPONDENT)? This is (YOUR NAME) at Alabama
A & M University and Mississippi State University’s Rehabilitation Research and Training
Center on Blindness and Low Vision. We appreciate your willingness to participate in
this study. Your answers are very important to us. We want to know what you think!
This survey is one of several we have done in the region and nation to better understand
the unique needs of African American consumers in the blindness rehabilitation system.
This survey is designed to be quick and easy to complete. Your responses will be
anonymous and you can refuse to answer any questions at any time.
Is this a good time to talk?
1 . How many clients are in your average caseload?
Black _
White _
Other _
TOTAL _
2. Have you ever attended workshops, classes, or programs on
cultural diversity? NO (0) YES (1) _
2a. In-house staff development? _
2b. University course? _
2c. Continuing education programs (for example, RRCEP, AER)? _
2d. Other? (Please specify)
43
3. Which of the following skills, techniques, or resources have you found to be the
most useful in working with Black client. Please rate each item that I read from a
score of 1 , meaning “not at all useful” to 5, meaning “extremely useful”. 9 - NA
a. Engaging in job development with Black employers to
better serve Black clients?
b. Including the extended family in the rehabilitation
process to better serve Black clients? _ _ _
c. Including church leaders in the rehabilitation process? _
d. Including community leaders in the rehabilitation process? _ _
e. Contacting clients in their homes as compared
with other settings? _
f. Seeking assistance from Black coworkers? _
4. Are there other factors that have been useful to you when serving Black clients?
Please list them AND BE AS SPECIFIC AS POSSIBLE.
5. If you made a list of your referral sources in the Black community, which would
you consider to be the most important? What is the next most important item?
CONTINUE AS NEEDED.
6. Which of the following represents your level of skill in working
with Black clients?
Very unskilled (1) Somewhat skilled (4)
Somewhat unskilled (2) Very skilled (5)
Neither unskilled nor skilled (3)
7a. It has been suggested that a client’s trust level is affected by race.
Do you agree? NO(0)YES(1)
44
7b. Please explain your response.
8. What approaches have you found to be successful in overcoming problems of
trust in working with clients of a different race?
9a. To what extent do Black and White clients differ in the way they disclose
information about themselves? How do they differ?
9b. How do these differences affect the rehabilitation process?
1 0. Who do you turn to for help or advice in working with Black clients?
NO (0) YES (1 )
#10 #11
a. Coworkers in rehabilitation _ _
45
b. Rehabilitation supervisor
c. Mentor outside of rehabilitation
d. Books and journals
e. RRCEPs, inservices, and other
special programs
f. Other (please specify)
1 1 . FOR EACH ITEM ANSWERED “YES,” ASK: How helpful was information from
(THE SPECIFIC GROUP) been to you in working with Black consumers?
Very unhelpful (1 ) A little helpful (4)
A little unhelpful (2) Very helpful (5)
Neither unhelpful nor helpful (3)
12. It has been suggested that certain factors have a different effect on competitive
employment outcomes for Black and White consumers. I am going to read a list
of items beginning with ...
a. The effect of receiving SSI, SSDI, or other public assistance. _
Hurts Blacks more than Whites in reaching competitive employment (1)
No difference between Blacks or Whites in reaching competitive employment (2)
Helps Blacks more than Whites in reaching competitive employment (3)
b. The effect of low income without receiving public assistance. _
c. The effect of a low education level.
d. The effect of a lack of work experience.
e. What are some other factors? Please specify.
1 3. What are the characteristics of Black consumers that make them more likely to
benefit from vocational rehabilitation services?
46
14. What are the characteristics of White consumers that make them more likely to
benefit from vocational rehabilitation services?
1 5. How do job expectations of Black consumers differ from that of
White consumers?
Job expectations of Blacks are lower than Whites (1 )
Job expectations of Blacks do not differ from Whites (2)
Job expectations of Blacks are higher than Whites (3)
16. How do Black consumers differ from Whites in their likelihood
to be closed rehabilitated?
Blacks are less likely than Whites to be closed rehabilitated (1)
Blacks do not differ from Whites for closed rehabilitated (2)
Blacks are more likely than Whites to be closed rehabilitated (3)
1 7. How do Black consumers differ from Whites in their willingness
to relocate or transfer to a better job?
Blacks are less likely than Whites to relocate (1 )
Blacks do not differ from Whites in their willingness to relocate (2)
Blacks are more likely than Whites to relocate (3)
18. How old were you on your last birthday?
1 9. What racial or ethnic group do you belong to?
White or Caucasian (0) Black or African American (1 )
Other (SPECIFY HISPANIC, NATIVE AMERICAN, ASIAN) (2)
20. What is the highest level of education you have achieved?
Less than high school graduation (1)
47
High school graduate or GED (2)
Some college work (3)
Community or junior college graduate (4)
Senior college or university graduate (5)
Some postgraduate college work (6)
Master’s degree (7)
Doctorate degree (8)
21 . What was your major area of study while in college?
22. Do you have a visual disability? NO (0) YES (1)
23. Do you have a nonvisual disability? NO(0)YES(1)
24. How many years have you worked in the blindness
rehabilitation system?
25. Which of the following professional organizations do you belong? YES (1)
AER (Association for Education and Rehabilitation of
the Blind and Visually Impaired)
NRA (National Rehabilitation Association)
ARCA (American Rehabilitation Counseling Association)
NRC (National Rehabilitation Counseling Association)
Other (please specify)
TOTAL NUMBER OF ORGANIZATIONS
26. Which of the following certifications do you hold? YES (1)
CRC (Certified Rehabilitation Counselor)
AER Certification
Other (please specify)
TOTAL NUMBER OF CERTIFICATIONS
27. Is there anything else you would like to tell us about working with Black
clients who are blind?
Thank you for helping us with this research project. Would you like to receive a
summary of the results? RECORD NAME, ADDRESS, AND PREFERENCE FOR
PRINT, CASSETTE TAPE, OR BRAILLE ON A SEPARATE SHEET OF PAPER.
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