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"g^ftiJ 


THE    PROVINCE 


OF 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA 


WRITTEN    FOR 


THE    SOUTH    AUSTRALIAN    GOVERNMENT 


BY 


JAMES   DOM  I  NICK    WOODS,    J.  P.; 


WITH  A   SKETCH   OF 


THE    NORTHERN    TERRITORY, 

By  H.  D.   WILSON. 


C.    E.    r.RISTOW,    GOVERNMKNT     I'RIXTrCR,    NORTII-TF.I^K  ACK 

1894. 


PREFACE. 


THE  following  account  of  the  Province  of  South  Aus- 
tralia, from  its  discovery  in  1627  to  the  end  of  1892, 
was  written  under  the  authority  of  the  Government  of  the 
Colony.  The  work  differs  in  plan  and  arrangement  from 
other  books  of  a  similar  character  which  have  appeared 
in  former  years.  Besides  being  brought  down  to  a  later 
period,  the  volume  includes  much  that  has  not  hitherto 
appeared  in  print  in  a  collected  form.  Apart  from  the 
official  aid  which  has  been  received  by  the  author  in  the 
execution  of  his  work,  he  is  indebted  to  many  friends  and 
others  for  useful  suggestions  and  valuable  information,  of 
which  he  has  been  glad  to  avail  himself.  They  are  too 
many  to  be  indicated  by  individual  names,  but  it  is  hoped 
that  they  will  kindly  accept  the  grateful  and  sincere 
acknowledgments  for  their  assistance  which  are  tendered 
to  them  here, 

Adelaide,  December,  1893. 


lS.2i5'/S 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Chai'tek         I. — DiscovEUY  OF  South  Austhalia  ..  ..                      1 

"  1 1.— Physical  Featuiies               ..  ..              ..              ..             12 

"  III.— Fauna              ..             ..             ..  ..             ..                    25 

"  IV.— Flora        . .                            . .  . .             . .             . .             35 

"  V. — Climate  and  Meteorology         . .  . ,             . .                    43 

"  VI. — Foundation  and  Settlement  ..             ..             ..             62 

"  VII. — Progkess  and  Development      . .  . .             . .                    79 

"  VIII. — Progress  and  Development  ..             ..             ..             93 

"  IX. — Explorations  of  the  Interior  ..             ..                   107 

"  X.-  Explorations  of  the  Interior  ..             ..             ..           US 

"  XI. — Explorations  of  the  Interior  . .             . .                  129 

"  XII. — J'olitical  Constitution        . ,  . .             . .             . .           145 

XIII.— I;Aw,  Crime,  &c.           ..             ..  ..             ..                   161 

"  XIV.— Land  Laws             ..             ..  ..             ..             ..           184 

"  XV.— Population      ..              ..              .,  ..              ..                   211 

"  XVI. — Agriculture           ..             ..  ..             ..             ..           227 

"  XVII. — Mines  and  Minerals    ..             ..  ..             ..                  253 

"  XVIII.— Pastoral                 ..             ..  ..             ..             ..           285 

"  XIX.— Commerce        ..             ..             ..  ..             ..                  297 

"  XX. — Revenue:  Public  Debt:  Public  Works         ..  ..           315 

"  XXL— Education        ..             ..             ..  ..             ..                  333 

"  XXII. — Religious  and  Charitable  Institutions  . .           350 

"  XXIII. — Municipal  Institutions  and  Gteneral  Matteks   . .  368 

"  XXIV. — Aborigines              ..             ..  .,              ..             ..           3,s7 

"  XXV. — Northern  Territory  ..              ..  ..              ..                   415 


SOUTH    AUSTEALIA. 


CHAPTER    I. 

Discovery    of    Soi-th    Australia.— Nuyts    ix    1627— The    Great    Australian- 
Bight — The    Coastline — Captain    Flinders    in    the    "Investigator" 

Sights  Cape  Leuwin  in  December,  1801 — Fowler's  Bay  and  Banks' 
Peninsula— Lands  on  Thistle  Island— Mr.  Thistle  and  his  Boat's  Cre-w 
Lost — Port  Lincoln,  Spencer's  Gulf — Kangaroo  Island,  St.  Vincent's 
Gulf — Troubridge  Island  and  Shoal — Mount  Lofty — Head  of  St. 
Vincent's  Gulf — The  Hummocks — Mount  Brown — Mount  Arden — 
Yorke's  Peninsula  —  Backstairs  Passage  —  Encounter  Bay  —  Meets 
"Le  Geographe" — Proceeds  to  Sydney — Loss  of  the  "Porpoise" — 
Sails  for  England  in  the  "Cumberland" — Arrival  at  Mauritius — 
Kept  Prisoner  for  Six  Years  and  a  Half — Returns  to  England — 
His  Death — Captain  Barker — His  Arrival  in  St.  Vincent's  Gulf- 
Ascends  Mount  Lofty — Penetrates  to  the  Murray  Mouth — Murdered 
by  the  Natives. 

The  discovery  of  that  part  of  New  Holland  -which  now  constitutes  a 
portion  of  the  province  of  South  Australia  was  made  in  the  year  1627, 
by  a  Dutch  navigator  who  named  it  Nuyts'  Land.  The  newly-found 
country'  extended  along  the  greater  part  of  the  coastline  which  forms  the 
Great  Australian  Bight.  Its  appearance  was  not  attractive.  All  that  was 
seen  from  the  ships  was  two  long  lines  of  cliffs  about  400ft.  high, 
brown  and  dark-colored  at  the  top,  and  nearly  white  at  the  bottom,  which 
extended  for  several  hundred  miles.  The  aspect  of  the  newly-discovered 
land  was  not  of  a  kind  to  encourage  further  investigation,  even  if  the 
discoverer  had  at  command  the  time  and  the  means  necessary  for  such 
an  undertaking.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  that  portion  of 
Australia  was  not  again  visited  for  nearly  two  hundred  years. 

The  founding  of  the  colony  of  New  South  Wales  led  to  the  organisation 
of  many  expeditions  to  examine  and  explore  the  coasts  of  the  territory 
which  had  been  newly  acquired  by  England.  They  were  gradually 
extended  both  north  and  west,  and  were  rewarded  by  most  important 
discoveries.  Admiral  D'Entrecasteaux,  a  French  officer,  commanded  an 
expedition  to  seek  for  La  Pcrouse,  who  had  not  been  heard  of  iov 
many  years.  Li  the  coui-se  of  his  search  he  made  imj)ortaiit 
discoveries  in  Van  Diemen's  Land,  as  Tasmania  was  then  called,  visited 
the  west  coast  of  Australia,  and  steering  along  the  south  part  of  New 

A 


Z  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

Holland,  reached  Fowler's  Bay  about  the  end  of  the  year  1792.  Lieu- 
tenant Grant,  R.N.,  was  sent  from  England,  in  command  of  the  Ladij 
Nelson,  a  brig  of  sixty  tons  burthen,  for  service  as  a  surveying  ship, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Governor  of  New  South  Wales.  On  his 
way  to  Bass's  Straits,  through  which  he  had  been  instructed  to  pass  on 
his  way  to  Botany  Bay,  he  discovered  Cape  Banks  and  Cape  Northumber- 
land. He  also  saw  Mount  Gambler  and  Mount  Schanck,  both  of  which 
were  named  by  him.  These  are  the  earliest  recorded  discoveries  of 
the  country  now  called  South  Australia. 

Matthew  Flinders,  a  midshipman  on  board  the  Reliance,  who  had 
long  been  engaged  in  exploring  and  surveying  work  at  Moreton  Bay, 
returned  to  England  in  the  year  1800.  He  had  distinguished  himself 
greatly  in  naval  explorations,  but  especially  with  Mr.  Bass  in  sailing 
through  Bass'  Straits,  and  in  proving  what  had  only  been  conjectured 
before — that  Tasmania,  or  Van  Diemen's  Land  as  it  was  then  named,  was 
an  island.  In  England  his  discoveries  became  known  through  the 
exertions  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  who  brought  Flinders  and  his  projects 
for  further  explorations  in  the  seas  of  New  Holland  prominently  before 
the  Admiralty,  then  directed  by  Earl  Spencer  as  its  First  Lord.  A  ship 
was  purchased  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  Flinders'  plans,  and  he 
was  appointed  to  command  her.  The  vessel  was  not  new,  but  she  was 
considered  to  be  good  enough  for  the  work  which  was  before  her.  She 
was  thoroughly  refitted  and  coppered,  and  was  provided  with  all  that  in 
those  days  was  deemed  necessary  to  ensure  the  success  of  the  expedition. 
Her  burthen  was  only  340  tons.  She  was  re-named  the  Investigator. 
She  had  previously  sailed  under  the  name  of  the  Xenophon.  Mr.  Robert 
Brown  accompanied  Flinders  as  botanist  to  the  expedition,  and  Mr. 
Westall,  the  celebrated  landscape  painter,  as  artist.  A  well-known 
writer  on  the  subject  of  the  exploration  of  Australia*,  observes  "  that 
a  more  fortunate  selection  for  the  purpose  could  not  have  been  made. 
Australia  owes  very  much  to  both  those  men.  The  labors  of  Brown  upon 
the  coast  left  nothing  to  be  desired.  Of  course  he  could  not  see  everv- 
thing ;  but  he  saw  so  much  that  one  is  astonished  to  observe  how  little 
was  left  for  others  to  do.  Since  his  time  naturalists  have  had  hard  work 
to  glean  novelties  from  the  regions  near  which  Brown  had  set  his  foot. 
To  Westall  the  same  meed  of  praise  can  be  given.  The  classic  story  of 
Flinders  is  rendered  truly  charming  by  the  poAverful  pencil  of  the  artist." 
Mr.  Franklin,  cousin  to  Flinders,  who  (as  Sir  John  Franklin)  became 
Governor  of  Van  Diemen's  Land  and  Avho  subsequently  died  in  the  Arctic 
regions  when  in  command  of  an  expedition  to  discover  the  north-west 
passage,  was  a  midshipman  on  board  the  Iiivestigator. 

*  J.  E.  Tenison  Woods,  Discovery  and  Explorations  of  Australia.    London,  1865. 


ITS    DISCOVERY.  3 

The  Investigator  left  Spithead  on  the  18th  of  July,  1801.  The  voyage 
to  Cape  Leuwin  extended  over  a  period  of  five  months,  including  a  brief 
stay  at  Madeira  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Cape  Leuwin  was  .sightod 
on  the  6th  of  December.  Flinders  entered  King  George's  Sound  with 
the  intention  of  making  some  necessary  repairs  to  his  ship,  but  he  found 
no  place  suitable  for  the  pm*pose.  He  accordingly  moved  on  to  a 
neighboring  inlet  called  Princess  Royal  Hai-bor,  where  the  Investif/a'or 
was  overhauled  and  her  defects  made  good.  On  leaving  the  harbor. 
Flinders  kept  close  in  to  the  land  in  the  expectation  of  finding  some 
opening ;  none,  however,  existed.  There  was  a  gap  for  a  short  space  in 
the  line  of  the  cliffs,  and  smoke  was  seen  inland,  but  the  break  did  not 
continue  for  any  great  distance  and  the  high  land  appeared  once  more. 

*  The  length  of  these  cliffs  from  their  second  commencement  is  thirty- 
three  leagues,  and  that  of  the  level  bank  from  Cape  Pasley  no  less  than 
145  leagues.  The  height  of  this  extraordinary  bank  is  nearly  the  same 
throusrhout,  being:  never  less  than  400ft.  and  nowhere  more  than 
600ft.  In  the  first  twenty  leagues  the  rugged  tops  of  some  inland 
mountains  were  seen  above  it,  but  during  the  remainder  of  its  long  course 
the  bank  was  the  limit  of  the  view. 

Flinders  pursued  his  voyage  to  the  eastward,  still  keeping  near  to  tht* 
coast  until  he  saw  the  end  of  the  second  range  of  cliffs.  Here  it  became 
sandy  and  turned  north-east  for  some  few  miles.  He  had  reached  the 
head  of  the  Great  Australian  Bight,  f  A  few  hours'  sail  brought  him  to 
Cape  Nuyts,  beyond  which  no  exploration  had  extended.  Here  the  country 
showed  signs  of  improvement ;  it  was  fairly  wooded,  but  the  soil  appeared 
to  be  sandy.  After  passing  Cape  Nuyts  several  bays  were  found.  The 
first,  Fowler's  Bay,  was  named  after  the  first  lieutenant  of  the  sliip  ; 
Smoky  Bay,  Streaky  Bay,  Anxious  Bay,  and  Coffin's  Bay  were  visited  in 
turn  and  named,  but  the  country  nowhere  presented  features  of  interest. 
After  spending  some  short  time  in  surveying  the  various  inlets  which 
abound  off  that  portion  of  the  eastern  limit  of  the  Great  Australian 
Bight,  he  followed  the  coastline  past  Point  Sir  Isaac  until  it  began  to 
trend  to  the  north.  On  the  17th  of  February,  1802,  Flinders  1  mded. 
The  place  where  he  disembarked  was  thought  to  be  connected  with  the 
mainland,  but  it  was  soon  ascertained  that  it  was  an  island.  This  was 
named  "Thistle  Island,"  after  the  mate  of  the  Investigator.  Numerous 
seals  were  seen  there  and  many  traces  of  kangaroos  ;  no  natives,  however, 
were  met  with.  To  the  nortti  a  group  of  islands  was  discovered,  and  a 
boat  was  sent  away  under  the  charge  of  Mr.  Thistle  and  a  midshipman 


*  Flinders'  Voyages  to  Terra  Australis.     London,  ISU. 
t  About  160  miles  west  of  this  is  situated  the  small  port  of  Kucla,  discovered  m  1863 
by  Captain  E.  A.  Deiisser  (formerly  of  79th  Ri-giraent) 


4  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

named  Taylor  to  examine  them  and  to  find  a  suitable  watering  place. 
After  cruising  about  for  some  time  the  cutter  was  seen  under  sail 
apparently  on  her  way  back  to  the  ship.  As  night  came  on  the  boat 
was  lost  sight  of,  and  those  on  board  became  anxious,  as  there  was 
no  soimd  nor  sign  that  she  was  approaching  the  Investigator.  Captain 
Flinders,  on  hearing  that  the  cutter  had  not  returned,  sent  Lieutenant 
Fowler  away  with  a  boat  to  see  what  detained  the  missing  craft.  Tavo- 
hours  passed,  and  as  the  second  boat  did  not  return  a  gun  was  fired ; 
Lieutenant  Fowler  at  once  came  back,  but  without  tidings  of  the  missing 
cutter.  He  had  found  no  trace  of  her,  but  he  had  met  with  broken  water 
close  by  the  spot  where  the  object  of  his  search  had  last  been  seen,, 
which  was  sufficient  to  have  upset  his  own  boat  if  it  had  been  under  sail. 
At  daylight  the  Investiyator  stood  in  towards  the  mainlaind  in  the 
direction  in  which  the  cutter  was  last  sighted,  and  after  anchoring  in  a 
small  cove  in  which  the  ship  was  well  sheltered,  a  boat  was  sent  away  to 
search  for  the  cutter.  It  soon  returned  towing  the  Avreck  of  the  missing 
craft  bottom  upwards.  She  had  been  dashed  against  the  rocks  and  broken- 
to  pieces.  Of  the  crew  there  was  not  the  slightest  trace,  nor  was  any 
ever  seen.  They  were  either  carried  out  to  sea,  or,  what  is  more  pro- 
bable, taken  by  the  sharks,  which  at  all  times  abound  in  those  waters. 
Flinders  named  the  cove  in  which  the  wreck  was  found  "  Memory  Cove," 
and  he  left  behind  him  a  copper  plate,  on  which  the  particulars  of  the 
misfortune  were  engraven.  After  designating  several  of  the  islands  in 
the  neighborhood  by-  the  names  of  the  men  who  had  formed  the  crew 
of  the  cutter,  he  proceeded  on  his  voyage.  The  southern  point  of 
the  mainland  was  named  "  Cape  Catastrophe,"  as  a  memorial  of  the 
first  serious  misfortime  that  had  fallen  upon  the  expedition. 

In  the  course  of  the  boat  expeditions  in  search  of  the  cutter,  a 
beautiful  bay  AA-as  discovered.  This  was  called  Port  Lincoln.  The 
harbor  is  magnificent,  and  the  climate,  especially  in  the  summer  months, 
delightful ;  but  the  country  which  surrounds  it,  except  in  a  few  places,, 
is  not  good ;  and  although  at  one  time  it  Avas  looked  upon  as  a  proper 
site  for  the  capital  of  the  colon)',  it  has  ncA-er  made  any  great  progress. 
After  surveying  the  islands  AA'hich  form  the  Sir  Joseph  Banks'  Group, 
the  Investiyator  proceeded  up  the  remarkable  indentation  Avhich  bears 
the  name  of  Spencer  Gulf.  The  coast  on  the  western  side  was  flat  and. 
sandy,  AA'hilst  that  on  the  east  Avas  high  and  bold.  Near  the  shore  it  was 
loAv  and  not  Avell  grassed,  but  it  rose  in  the  distance  to  a  fine  mountain 
range.  Flinders  steered  up  the  gulf  in  the  expectation  of  finding  a  riAer, 
but  his  expectation  was  not  realised.  The  shores  of  the  guK  gradually 
contracted.  The  mountain  range  to  the  east  was  very  near,  and  in  the 
we.st   a   series    of    moderately   high   flat-topped    hills   Avas   discoA'ered. 


ITS    T:)TSrOVERY.  5 

IVIount  Biwvn  was  \'isible  in  the  distance,  but  the  western  hills  seemed 
to  mark  the  end  of  the  indentation.  Flinders  then  determined  to 
examine  the  head  of  the  gulf.  He  could  not  take  his  ship  into  the  inlet 
in  which  it  terminated ;  he  therefore  proceeded  onward  in  a  boat. 
The  inlet  followed  a  serpentine  course  for  some  miles,  between  banks 
covered  with  mangroves.  After  considerable  trouble  a  landing  was 
made,  but  no  fresh  water  could  be  found.  Much  disappointed.  Flinders 
returned  to  his  ship. 

Messrs.  Brown  and  Westall  in  the  meantime  had  made  an  excursion 
to  the  eastern  mountains,  now  known  as  the  Flinders  Range,  with  the 
intention  of  going  to  the  top  of  Mount  Brown.  They  travelled  for  a 
distance  of  about  sixteen  miles  to  the  foot  of  the  mount,  and  reached  the 
summit  early  in  the  evening.  'I'here  they  remained  all  night  without 
water,  but  they  were  amply  rewarded  for  the  hardships  thev  had  under- 
gone in  reaching  the  crest  by  the  splendid  view  which  lay  before  them. 
The  mount  is  over  3,000ft.  above  the  sea  level.  It  is  described  as  sublime 
solitude  and  desolation.  To  the  west  was  the  gulf  meandering  through 
low  cliffs,  topped  with  sand  or  shrubs,  which  in  the  distance  looked  like 
yellow  meadows.  Further  in,  distance  merged  both  scrub  and  sand  into 
■one  subdued  dusky  bro^^^l  tint,  out  of  which  square  blue  blocks  of  table- 
land rose  here  and  there  in  the  distance.  To  the  east  was  wood  and  plain 
and  swelling  hills,  with  mountains  beyond,  rugged  and  baiTen  ;  but  on 
every  side,  north,  south,  or  east,  the  dusky  brown  or  misty  blue  was  not 
broken  by  a  single  silvery  spot  of  water.  Time  has  wrought  a  great 
change  in  this  part  of  the  country.  The  inlet  that  cost  Flinders  so 
much  disappointment  is  now  an  important  port,  named  Port  Augusta, 
which  is  the  centre  of  a  large  import  and  export  trade,  and  the  desolate 
looking  country  around  Mount  Brown  is  extensively  and  profitably  culti- 
vated. In  the  middle  of  March,  1802,  Flinders  returned  down  the  gulf, 
€xaminiiig  the  eastern  side  as  he  ])rogressed.  One  large  bay,  called 
Hardvvicke  Bay,  Avas  discovered,  but  although  it  is  safe  and  commodious 
it  is  not  much  in  use.  The  coast  as  seen  from  the  sea  is  low  and  sanily, 
but  inland  the  country  is  fertile,  and  is  mostly  imder  cultivation. 

After  passing  the  southern  headland  of  Yorke's  Peninsula,  which  was 
named  Cape  Spencer,  the  Investigator  was  driven  by  stress  of  weather 
to  take  shelter  under  the  land  which  lay  to  the  south.  This  was  at 
Kangaroo  Island.  The  point  which  afforded  the  vessel  protection  from 
the  storm  was  called  Point  Marsden.  Beyond  this  was  a  bay,  named 
Nepean  Bay,  where  the  vessel  anchored.  Flinders  remained  here  for 
three  days,  during  which  he  endeavored  to  penetrate  inland,  but  the 
scrub  was  so  dense  and  the  trees  so  high,  that  nothing  could  be  seen. 
The  crew  of    the  ship  employed    themselves  in  killing  kangaroos  and 


6  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

skinning-  and  preparing  them  for  food.  These  animals  were  so  tame  that 
they  allowed  themselves  to  be  knocked  over  with  clubs  Avithout  any 
attempt  to  escape.  After  living  on  salt  provisions  such  as  were  then 
supplied  to  all  ships,  the  change  afforded  by  a  most  abundant  supply  of 
fresh  meat  must  have  been  both  useful  and  welcome  to  the  crew.  In 
gi-atitude  for  so  seasonable  a  supply  of  fresh  food  Flinders  named  the  place 
Kangaroo  Island.  The  animals  killed  were  of  large  size  and  weight,  and 
it  is  certain  that  they  must  have  been  extremely  numerous.  Very 
recently  nine  specimens  were  captured  on  the  island,  though  for  many 
years  it  was  thought  that  they  had  ceased  to  exist.  After  the  crew 
had  recruited  themselves  in  this  way,  the  Inve&tigatur  s  commander 
set  saiL  to  pursue  his  exploration  on  the  coast  from  Cape  Spencer.  A 
broad  strait  intervenes  between  Knngaroo  Island  and  the  southern  head- 
lands of  the  main.  This  channel  was  named  Investigator's  Strait.  It 
may  be  as  Avell  in  this  place  to  state  that  Kangaroo  Island  is  to  the  south 
of  the  mainland.  It  is  about  a  hundred  miles  long  from  Cape  Willoughby 
on  the  east  to  Cape  Borda  on  the  west,  and  about  thirty-six  miles  broad 
in  its  widest  part.  From  Cape  Gautbeaume  on  the  south  to  Point 
Marsden  on  the  north  the  coastline  is  high,  rocky,  and  dangerous  to 
approach.  It  is  well  wooded,  indeed  rather  thickly  timbered.  It  con- 
tains a  great  deal  of  good  land  and  is  fairly  well  Avatered.  The  climate 
is  excellent,  and  there  is  an  abundance  of  fish  all  along  the  seaboard. 
It  is,  however,  very  thinly  populated,  and  it  is  only  in  a  few  places 
that  any  settlers  are  to  be  found. 

After  quitting  the  island  the  ship  headed  up  St.  Vincent's  Gulf,  where 
Troubridge  Island  and  Shoal  were  first  seen.  Flinders  had  seen  Mount 
Lofty  from  Xepean  Bay.  As  he  proceeded  up  St.  Vincent's  Gulf  he 
again  saw  the  eminence  which  formed  the  highest  peak  of  that  mountain 
chain  which  stretched  from  Cape  Jervis  to  the  head  of  Spencer's  Gulf, 
where  Port  Augusta  is  now  established.  The  coast  appeared  low,  and 
apparently  composed  of  sand  and  rock,  but  the  aspect  of  the  country 
continually  changed. 

As  the  hills  came  into  view  the  slopes  appeared  to  be  well  timbered 
and  the  intervening  land  well  grassed  Smoke  seen  in  various  places 
denoted  the  existence  of  native  camps  inland.  Proceeding  onward  for 
some  distance  the  Investigator  anchored  off  a  sandy  beach.  Mangrove 
swamps  were  noticed  on  the  horizon  as  the  evening  drew  on.  Next  day 
Flinders  left  his  ship  in  a  boat  to  examine  the  head  of  the  gulf.  It 
greatly  resembled  the  head  of  St.  Vincent's  Gulf.  There  were  wide 
mud  iiats,  at  times  covered  with  water,  and  an  abundance  of  mangroves  ; 
but  where  the  shores  converged,  the  water  was  salt.  There  was  no  sign 
of  any  fresh  water  stream  flowing  into  the  sea.     A  port  is  now  established 


ITS    DISCOVERY.  7 

there  called  Port  Wakefield.  A  boat's  crew  Avas  sent  on  shore  with 
orders  to  ascend  some  hills,  now  known  as  the  Hummocks,  which  lay  a  few 
miles  inland.  They  did  not  come  up  to  them,  because  they  had  not 
made  preparation  to  remain  on  shore.  Flinders  reached  the  top  of  a 
smaller  elevation  to  gain  a  view  of  the  whole  of  the  inlet.  He  noticed 
that  the  Mount  Lofty  Range  ran  within  a  few  miles  of  the  Hummocks. 
The  soil  appeared  to  be  sandy,  but  the  trees  were  large.  Between  the 
two  ranges  there  was  a  broad  swamjjy  valley,  into  which  water  ran  from 
the  hills  during  the  rainy  weather,  and  found  its  way  thence  into  the  gulf. 
He  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  eastern  ridge  which  rose  from  Cape 
Jervis  was  identical  with  that  which  he  had  seen  in  Spencer's  Gulf,  whose 
summit  had  been  ascended  and  named  Mount  Brown,  and  whose  furthest 
point  north  was  designated  Mount  Arden.  He  estimated  the  distance  as 
300  miles,  but  the  range  extends  much  further.  The  peninsula  which  hems 
in  the  eastern  side  of  St.  Vincent's  Gulf  was  called  Yorke  Peninsula  ; 
its  outline  is  not  unlike  that  of  Italy.  The  length  of  the  peninsula  is 
over  100  miles,  its  breadth  at  the  head  of  the  gulf  about  thirty-two 
miles,  fi-om  Royston  Head  to  Troubridge  Point  about  forty-six  miles,  and 
from  Point  Turton  to  Sturt  Bay  about  ten  miles.  The  Investigator 
returned  to  Kangaroo  Island  without  examining  any  more  of  the  coast, 
except  that  portion  which  is  opposite  to  Cape  Jervis.  The  strait  which 
lays  between  the  island  and  the  cape  is  not  more  than  seven  miles  wide, 
and  is  named  Backstairs  Passage.  After  passing  through  this  passage  to 
the  eastward,  three  small  granite  islands  were  discovered.  They  con- 
siste.i  of  bare  rock,  and  are  known  as  The  Pages.  These  are  situated  at 
the  western  extremity  of  that  large  indentation  of  the  coast  into  which 
the  River  Murray  flows,  marked  on  the  charts  as  Encounter  Bay.  and 
lying  between  the  138th  and  140th  meridians  of  E.  longitude.  This 
designation  owes  its  origin  to  the  circumstance  that  in  this  bay  (longitude 
138°  58"  E.  and  latitude  35°  40"  S.)  the  Investigator  fell  in  with  the 
French  ship  Le  Gengraphe,  under  Captain  Baudin,  which  was  also  on  a 
voyage  of  discovery.  She  had  parted  fi-om  her  consort,  Le  Natuy-ahste, 
in  a  heavy  gale  that  had  overtaken  them  in  Bass's  Straits.  Captain 
Flinders  Avent  on  board  the  Geographe,  and  exchanged  credentials  with 
the  commander,  and  compared  experiences.  Captain  Baudin  liad 
explored  the  coast  from  Western  Port  to  the  spot  where  the  vessels  met, 
so  that  the  whole  of  the  southern  boundary  of  New  Holland  had  been 
examined  from  east  to  west.  Here  the  history  of  the  discovery  of  South 
Australia  comes  to  an  end.  A  portion  of  it  had  been  seen,  but  not 
examined,  in  1627.  That  section  of  the  province  which  starts  from 
Nuyts'  Point,  and  includes  Banks'  Peninsula,  the  Sir  Joseph  Banks' 
group  of  islands,    the  two   gulfs,   Yorke    Peninsula,  Kangaroo    Island, 


8  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

and  that  space  which  inten^enes  between  Cape  Jervis  and  the  Murray 
Mouth,  was  first  discovered,  and  to  a  large  extent  surveyed,  by  Flinders 
alone.  The  remaining  portion,  from  Encounter  Bay,  near  the  Murray 
Mouth,  to  Discovery  Bay,  at  the  eastern  boundary  of  South  Australia, 
was  claimed  to  have  been  discovered  b}'  Baudin — who,  however,  did  not 
recognise,  or  perhaps  did  not  know  of,  the  discoveries  of  Lieutenant  Grant 
in  the  Ladij  NeUon.  He  contented  himself  with  naming  the  prominent 
features  of  the  coast,  without  making  surveys  or  determining  longitudes. 
The  subsequent  career  of  Captain  Flinders  does  not  immediately  concern 
the  Province  of  South  Australia.  It  was  so  remarkable,  however,  that  it 
deserves  to  be  briefly  related. 

After  proceeding  to  S3Tlney,  and  from  thence  to  the  Gulf  of  Carpen- 
taria, where  he  did  good  work.  Flinders  was  compelled  to  return  to  Port 
Jackson,  owing  to  the  ravages  of  scurvy  amongst  his  crew  and  the 
unseaworthy  condition  of  the  Investigator.  He  applied  to  the  Governor 
of  New  South  Wales  (Cajit.  King,  R.N.)  for  another  ship,  but,  not 
.'succeeding  in  obtaining  one,  he  determined  to  proceed  to  England  and 
apply  to  the  Admiralty.  He  left  Port  Jackson  in  the  Porpoise  on  the 
12th  July,  1803,  and  five  days  afterwards  was  wrecked  upon  a  reef  in 
about  longitude  150°  0"  E.  and  latitude  22°  11"  S.  He  returned  to 
Sydney  in  the  longtjoat  of  the  wrecked  vessel,  and,  obtaining  assistance, 
he  rescued  all  his  crew  from  the  reef.  He  then  determined  to  sail  to 
England  in  a  small  schooner,  the  Ctimberland,  of  only  twenty-nine  tons. 
He  reached  the  island  of  Mauritius  in  safety,  but  his  little  craft  wanted 
thoroughly  refitting.  On  landing  he  exhibited  his  passport  as  an 
explorer,  but  the  authorities  of  the  island  would  not  recognise  it, 
treated  him  as  an  impostor,  and  detained  him  in  custody  for  six  years 
and  a  half.  He  did  not  reach  England  till  the  year  1810.  The  history 
of  his  discoveries  and  his  hardships  was  published  in  1814,  in  "which  year 
he  died,  it  is  said,  on  the  very  day  that  his  splendid  work  was  published. 
The  treatment  he  received  from  the  French  Government  Avas  execrable. 
M.  Peron,  the  naturalist  on  board  the  Giographe,  in  his  work  on  the  dis- 
coveries made  by  Captain  Baudin,  absolutely  ignored  all  that  Flinders 
had  done.  In  the  French  maps  published,  the  names  of  capes,  headlands, 
islands,  Sec,  fixed  on  by  Flinders  were  all  changed,  and  French  names 
substituted.  So  complete  was  the  alteration  that  not  even  the  smallest 
island  escaped.  The  thoroughness  of  the  surveys  made  by  Flinders  may 
be  judged  from  the  fact  that  surveys  made  a  few  years  back  by  Captain 
Hutchinson,  R.N.,  and  Staff"  Commanders  Howard,  R.N.,  and  Goalen, 
R.N.,  fully  confirmed  the  accuracy  of  his  work  as  far  as  it  had  gone. 
After  the  lapse  of  nearly  ninety  years  they  are  still  reliable  South 
Australia  has  no  monument  in  honor  of  that  gallant  officer,  to  whom  its 


ITS    DISCOVERY.  9 

■discovery  is  mainly  due,  except  an  obelisk  erected  to  his  memory  at  Port 
Lincoln  by  his  cousin.  Captain  Sir  John  Franklin,  R.N.,  when  he  Avas 
Governor  of  Van  Diemen's  Land.  Time,  hosvever,  has  done  justice  to 
iiis  achievements.  The  names  which  he  originally  gave  to  the  places 
he  had  discovered  and  made  known  to  the  world,  have  all  been 
restored  to  the  charts,  and  are  now  universally  recognised,  whilst  those 
substituted  by  the  French  are  almost  forgotten.  Captain  Flinders 
was  an  enterprising  explorer  and  also  a  scientific  navigator.  lie 
was  gifted  with  courage,  perseverance,  sound  judgment,  and  unflinching 
fortitude.  His  name  deserves  to  take  an  honorable  position  amongst 
England's  most  renowned  navigators,  but  more  especially  amongst 
the  names  of  those  whose  discoveries  form  a  glorious  introduction  to  the 
liistory  of  the  island  continent  of  xVustralia. 

Many  years  elapsed  from  the  time  that  Minders  parted  company  with 
Captain  Baudin  and  the  Geographe  in  Fiucounter  Bay  in  1802  before  any 
expedition  was  set  on  foot  to  ascertain  what  kind  of  country  lay  behind 
the  extensive  coastline  which  had  been  discovered  by  those  navigators. 
Whatever  interest  might  have  been  aroused  in  England  when  Flinders' 
work  wa°  published  in  1814,  it  soon  faded  out.  The  exciting  events 
Avhich  preceded  and  followed  the  close  of  the  great  European  struggle  in 
1815  left  little  room  for  considering  what  immediate  or  future  value  the 
remote  territory  of  New  Holland  and  its  dependencies  might  possess  for 
the  British  nation.  In  New  South  Wales  the  case  was  different.  The 
Governors  of  that  settlement  from  time  to  time  sent  forth  exploring 
parties  in  various  directions  to  acquire  some  knowledge  of  the  immense 
territory  which,  with  so  little  trouble  and  cost,  had  become  a  part  of  the 
Colonial  Empire  of  the  United  Kingdom.  It  c(mld  not  have  been  sup- 
posed even  in  those  days  that  sucli  an  extent  of  country  as  that,  bounded 
by  the  Indian  seas  on  the  north  and  west  and  the  Southern  and  Pacific 
-oceans  on  the  south  and  east,  could  be  peopled  by  means  of  the  colonising 
plan  then  in  force.  The  transportation  system  had  not  been  a  success  as 
far  as  it  had  been  followed  out,  and  it  must  soon  have  become  evident 
that  discoveries  of  large  tracts  of  land  suitable  for  the  settlement  of 
white  men  must  effect  some  modification,  at  the  least,  of  the  experimental 
process  under  which  the  first  colony  had  been  established  at  Botany  Bay. 
In  1828  Captain  Sturt,  afterwards  Colonial  Secretary  in  South  Australia, 
was  commissioned  by  Sir  Ralph  Darling,  then  Governor  of  New  South 
Wales,  to  explore  the  Macquarie  river  westward  as  far  as  he  coidd  and  it 
possible  to  its  mouth.  He  set  out  on  the  10th  of  November,  and  ho 
closed  his  arduous  and  distressing  journey  by  reaching  the  Darling  River 
in  longitude  145°  33'  E.  and  latitude  29°  37'  S.  He  was  not  able  to  proceed 
further,  and  after  an  absence  of  nearly  five  months  regained  hi.s  starting 


10  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

l)oint  ill  Wellington  Valley.  In  the  following  year  Sturt  again  started 
out,  this  time  for  the  purpose  of  tracing  down  the  course  of  the  Murrum- 
bidgee  and  all  the  rivers  connected  with  it  as  far  as  was  possible.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  dwell  upon  the  details  of  his  voyage,  or  upon  the  sufferings 
which  he  and  his  party  endured.  He  traced  the  River  Darling  down  to 
its  junction  Avith  the  Murray,  and  floated  along  that  stream  in  the  face  of 
the  most  frightful  difficulties,  until  he  came  into  Lake  Alcxandrina.  At 
the  lake  he  saw  Mount  Barker,  but  he  mistook  it  for  Mount  Lofty. 
He  had  achieved  a  great  triumph,  however,  for  he  had  traced  the 
Murray  nearly  to  its  mouth,  and  thus  solved  the  question  of  all  the 
western  waters  from  the  Darling  Downs  to  the  Australian  Alps.  On 
the  return  voyage  Sturt  and  his  party  suffered  even  more  than  they 
did  on  the  outward  passage,  for  they  were  worn  out  with  exhaustion 
fi'om  overwork  and  starvation.  They  were  just  six  months  away, 
during  which  the  party,  comprising  only  six  men,  had  ventured  some 
thousands  of  miles  in  an  open  whaleboat  through  a  country  infested  by 
hostile  savages. 

Captain  Collet  Barker,  of  the  39th  Regiment,  who  had  been  employed 
at  Port  Kaflles  and  afterwards  in  Western  Australia,  on  leaving  King- 
George's  Sound  was  directed  by  the  Governor  of  Xew  South  Wales  to 
call  at  Encounter  Bay,  in  St.  Vincent's  Gulf.  He  arrived  at  its  entrance  in 
April,  1831.  His  object  was  to  find  some  communication,  if  any  existed, 
between  Lake  Alexandrina  and  the  Gulf.  Finding  none,  he  landed  in 
company  with  Mr.  Kent,  and  penetrated  so  far  inland  as  to  ascend  Mount 
Lofty.  From  that  height  they  saw  before  them  those  beautiful  plains  in 
which  Adelaide  is  situated.  They  examined  the  coast  anew,  again  landed, 
and  crossed  the  country  eastward  to  Lake  Alexandrina.  When  they  had 
penetrated  thus  far  they  made  their  way  to  the  channel  through  which  the 
Murray  flows  into  the  sea.  Barker  thought  it  was  about  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  Avide,  and  he  decided  to  swim  across  it  in  order  to  take  some  bearings 
from  a  sandhill  on  the  other  side.  He  crossed  in  safety,  and  Avas  seen  to 
ascend  the  sandhill,  and  then  move  down  toAvards  the  beach.  Here  all 
traces  of  him  AA'ere  lost.  His  companions  waited  for  hours  for  his  return. 
Nothing  could  be  seen,  except  that  there  were  fires  all  round  the  sandhill 
AA'hich  he  had  ascended.  Having  ^iA^en  up  all  hope  of  his  return,  thej^ 
went  back  to  their  ship.  His  party  procured  the  aid  of  a  black  woman 
from  Cape  Jervis  and  two  sealers  from  Kangaroo  Island,  and  eventually 
ascertained  the  particulars  of  his  fate.  He  had  been  attacked  by  the 
natives,  AA'ho  were  in  great  numbers  at  the  place  he  landed,  and  "  as  he 
took  to  the  Avater  to  avoid  them  he  Avas  speared  through  the  body  in  a 
dozen  different  places.  Afterwards,  the  murderers  said,  they  threw  the 
body  into  the  sea ;  but  no  one  who  knoAvs  the    horrible  habits  of  these 


ITS    DISCOVERY.  11 

natives  will  believe  that  part  of  the  story."*  Mr.  Kent  took  the  com- 
mand of  the  expedition,  and,  having  made  a  short  further  exploration  by 
returning  up  the  valley  of  the  Inman  Kiver,  proceeded  in  the  ship  to 
Sydney.  With  this  lamentable  occurrence  the  history  of  the  discover}' 
of  South  Australia  comes  to  an  end.  The  exploration  of  the  interior  was 
left  to  be  accomplished  by  the  settlers  who  first  colonised  it,  a  few  years 
afterwards. 


*  Discovery,  &c.,  of  Austraha.     London,  1865. 


12  SOUTH    AUSTKAI>IA. 


CHAPTER    II. 

Boundaries  of  South  Australia — Enlargement  of  its  Akea — Extent  of  the 
Province — Length  of  Coastline  —  Rivers  Abutting  on  the  Coast  — 
Lakes  in  the  South- East— Lakh  Alexandrina  and  Lake  Albert — 
Probable  Cause  of  their  Formation— Varied  Characteristics  of  South 
Australia — Probable  Division  of  Australia  into  Two  or  More  Parts 
IN  Earlier  Geologic  Times — Evidence  in  Support  of  this  View — The 
South  Australian  Mountain  Chain  Unconnected  avith  any  other 
Mountain  System — The  Adelaide  Plains— Mineral  Riches — Description 
OF  the  Leading  Physical  Features  of  the  Colony — Extent  of  the 
Mountain  Region — Heights  of  the  Highest  Peaks — The  Flinders  Range 
— The  Adelaide  Chain— The  South-Eastekn  Plain — Its  Extent — 
Fertility  of  the  Hills  and  Valleys — Geological  Features  of  South 
Australia — Extinct  Animals,  &c. 

The  territory  Avhich  originally  constituted  South  Australia — that  is  to 
siij,  the  province  established  by  the  Act  of  the  Imperial  Parliament,  4  and 
6  of  William  IV.,  cap.  95 — commenced  on  the  west  at  the  132nd  and 
stretched  eastward  to  the  141st  meridian  of  east  longitude.  Its  northern 
boundary  was  the  26th  parallel  of  south  latitude,  from  which  it  extended 
down  to  the  Southern  Ocean.  Its  extreme  southerly  limit  is  in  about 
38°  S.  latitude,  at  a  point  some  five  miles  east  of  Discovery  Bay.  The 
area  of  this  large  tract  of  country  was  about  300,000  square  miles.  The 
fixing  of  the  western  boundary  at  longitude  132°  E.,  left  a  space  inter- 
vening between  that  line  and  the  eastern  boundary  of  Western  Australia 
about  ninety  miles  wide,  which  had  not  been  specifically  appropriated  to 
any  of  the  colonies,  although  it  formed  part  of  the  territory  legally 
belonging  to  New  South  Wales.  This  region,  containing  between  80,000 
and  90,000  square  miles,  was  added  to  the  province  of  South  Australia 
in  1861.  A  further  addition  of  territory  was  made  to  the  province  in 
1863,  when  all  the  country  extending  north  from  the  26°  of  S.  latitude 
to  the  Indian  Ocean  in  latitude  IT  S.,  and  between  129°  and  138°  E. 
longitude,  was  annexed  to  South  Australia. 

The  general  area  of  the  province  was  thus  increased  (as  estimated)  to 
about  900,000  square  miles.  The  Northern  Territory,  as  the  new  region 
was  designated,  although  politically  a  portion  of  South  Australia,  is 
virtually  a  separate  country,  differing  from  the  parent  colony  in  climate, 
soil,  and  general  resources. 

The  south  coast  of  the  colony,  which  stretches  over  12°  of  longitude, 
following  the  outlines  of  the  Great  Australian  Bight.  Spencer's  and  St. 
Vincent's  Gulfs,  and  along  Encounter  Bay,  Lacepede  Bay,  Rivoli  Bay,  &c., 


PHYSICAL    FEATURES.  1;3 

is  about  1,600  miles  in  length.  Along  the  whole  of  this  immense  coast- 
line there  is  scarcely  a  single  river  which  is  navigable  from  the  sea,  except 
the  Miu-ray,  which  flows  into  Encounter  Bay  in  longitude  138°  58'  E. 
and  latitude  35°  4'  S.  The  entrance  to  the  Mm-ray  is  exceedingly 
dangerous  and  becomes  quite  unapproachable  when  the  winds  blow 
strongly  either  from  the  south,  south-west,  or  west.  The  Glenelg 
River,  near  the  eastern  limit  of  the  province,  cannot  be  entered,  its  mouth 
being  closed  by  a  sand  bar.  Travelling  westward  from  the  Murray  there 
are  two  rivers  which  open  into  the  bay,  the  Hindmarsh  and  the  Inman. 
Sand  bars  and  reefs  of  rocks,  which  extend  far  out  into  the  sea,  effectually 
prevent  all  access  to  them  from  that  direction.  Following  the  coastline  to 
Noarlunga,  the  Onkaparinga,  which  rises  in  the  Mount  Loftv  ranges, 
opens  into  St.  Vincent's  Gulf,  and  is  navigable  for  some  distance  by  small 
coasting  craft,  and  is  used  occasionally  in  the  wheat  season.  The  next 
fresh  water  river  that  is  met  with  is  the  Sturt,  or  rather,  the  Patawalonga 
Creek,  which  comes  down  to  the  gulf  at  Glenelg.  It  is  not  navigable 
from  the  sea,  although  boats  occasionally  can  be  taken  into  it  from  the 
bay.     This  water-course  rises  in  the  Mount  Lofty  ranges. 

At  a  point  fourteen  miles  north  of  the  Sturt  the  coastline  is  broken  by 
an  arm  of  the  sea  which  runs  inland  for  about  eight  miles  in  a  due  south 
direction  to  Port  Adelaide,  which  is  the  principal  harbor  of  the  colony. 
To  the  south  and  east  of  this  estuary  the  River  Torrens  is  foimd.  It  rises 
in  the  Mount  Lofty  ranges,  near  Mount  Pleasant,  folloAAang  a  tortuous 
coui'se  for  many  miles  in  a  westerly  direction  until  it  reaches  the  Torrens 
Gorge,  where  it  emerges  from  the  hills  and  flows  through  the  Adelaide 
plains.  It  separates  North  Adelaide  from  the  southern  part  of  the  city, 
and  thence  after  a  course  of  about  six  miles  spreads  its  waters  over  a 
tract  of  swampy  land  at  a  short  distance  from  the  seacoast,  which  is 
known  as  the  Reedbeds.  The  Torrens  is  a  large  watercourse,  which 
carries  away  the  largest  portion  of  the  drainage  from  the  hills  which  lie 
to  the  east  of  Adelaide.  In  the  rainy  season  it  often  swells  into  a 
dangerous  mountain  torrent.  In  the  summer  months  it  is  dry  in  places, 
although  at  the  Gorge,  ten  miles  cast  of  Adelaide,  where  it  enters  the 
plains,  the  flow  of  water  never  ceases.  Twelve  milts  north  of  the  city 
another  stream  appears,  which  is  named  the  Little  Para.  It  flows  from 
east  to  west,  but  its  waters  do  not  reach  the  sea.  They  are  lost  in  an 
extensive  sw^amp  lying  to  the  east  of  Torrens  Island,  near  the  entrance  to 
the  inlet  which  terminates  at  Port  Adelaide. 

About  ten  miles  north  of  the  entrance  to  Port  Adelaide  the  Gawler 
River  flows  into  the  gulf  at  Port  Gawler.  Twelve  miles  furtlier  north 
the  River  Light  flows  westward  from  the  hilly  country  towards  the 
coastline,  and  dies  out  on  the  flats  eight  miles  north  of  the  Gawler  River 


14  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

and  about  two  miles  from  the  shore.  North  of  this  up  to  the  head  of 
the  gulf,  which  terminates  at  Port  Wakefield,  except  a  creek  at  Port 
Arthur  at  the  head  of  the  gulf  on  the  western  side,  there  are  only  small 
channels  which  trend  towards  the  sea,  but  they  are  unimportant,  and  for 
the  most  part  spread  out  and  disappear  before  the  coastline  is  reached. 
There  are  no  permanent  streams  which  flow  into  the  sea  on  either  the 
eastern  or  western  sides  of  Yorke's  Peninsula.  Indeed,  along  the  shores 
of  Spencer's  Gulf,  only  one  large  watercourse  is  met  with,  the  Back  Creek 
at  Port  Broushton,  midway  between  Wallaroo  and  Port  Pirie. 

■^•'Fiom  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  colony  to  Rosetta  Head,  at  the 
western  extremity  of  Encounter  Bay,  the  coast  is  generally  low  and  flat. 
From  Cape  Northumberland  to  Rivoli  Bay  it  is  occasionally  dotted  with 
rocks  which  do  not  rise  much  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  From  Rivoli 
Bay  to  Cape  Jaffa  it  is  very  dangerous  to  navigators,  in  consequence  of 
extensive  reefs  of  rock  which  stretch  out  from  the  shore,  sometimes  for 
many  miles. 

From  Rosetta  Head  round  to  Cape  Jervis  the  coastline  is  mostly 
bold  and  rugged,  though,  as  at  Tunkalilla,  small  accessible  beaches  are 
occasionally  seen.  From  Cape  Jervis  to  Brighton,  on  the  east  shore,  the 
outline  is  high  and  rocky,  and  from  thence  to  the  head  of  the  gulf  an 
almost  continuous  line  of  sand  dunes  extends  to  its  head. 

From  Cape  Banks,  in  latitude  about  37°  50"  S..  to  Guichen  Bay,  a 
distance  of  some  sixty  miles,  and  lying  but  a  short  distance  inland  from 
the  coast,  several  lakes  exist.  Lake  Bonney,  one  of  the  largest,  is  a 
louo-  sheet  of  fresh  water,  twenty-five  miles  in  length  and  seldom  more 
than  two  miles  wide.  It  is  shallow,  but  is  surrounded  by  moderately 
high  banks.  Next  comes  Lake  George,  about  ten  miles  long  and  not 
more  than  half  that  distance  wide  in  its  broadest  part.  Lake  St.  Clair 
is  much  smaller,  salt,  shallow,  and  apparently  di-ying  up.  Lake  Eliza 
is  separated  from  this  by  a  narrow  strip  of  land  ;  it  is  about  seven  miles 
long  and  about  half  as  wide.  This  is  also  salt  and  shallow,  and  shows 
signs  of  drying  up.  Lake  Hawdon  is  situated  to  the  north  and  ease  of 
Lake  Elizd  ;  it  is  more  than  forty  miles  long,  and  its  greatest  width 
about  eight  miles.  This,  however,  is  more  a  morass  than  a  lake. 
About  forty  miies  north-west  of  Lake  Hawdon  is  the  Coorong.  This 
is  an  arm  of  the  sea,  having  its  opening  not  very  far  from  the  Murray 
Mouth.  It  runs  parallel  to  the  coast  for  about  seventy  miles,  and  is 
nowhere  more  than  about  four  miles  wide.  It  terminates  in  a  small 
creek,  which  runs  for  some  distance  inland. 

Two  remarkable  lakes  lie  at  the  mouth  of  the  River   Murray — Lake 
Alexandrina  and  Lake  Albert.     They  are  connected  by  a  narrow-  strip  of 
*Geo.  Obs.  in  South  Australia.     London,  1862. 


PHYSICAL    FEATURES.  15 

water.  The  former  is  about  twenty-four  miles  in  its  longest  measure- 
ment from  south-west  to  north-east,  and  about  fourteen  miles  in  width 
taken  from  west  to  east.  It  was  evidently  a  deep  bay  at  tlie  period 
when  the  mouth  of  the  Murray  was  at  its  northern  end.  It  is  verv 
shallow,  and,  in  consequence  of  the  large  quantities  of  sediment  brought 
down  occasionally  by  the  floods,  is  gradually  becoming  more  shallow 
still.  Lake  Albert  is  irregular  in  outline,  and  about  fourteen  miles  long 
from  north  to  south  and  eight  wide  in  its  broadest  part.  That  also 
appears,  like  Lake  Alexandrina,  to  have  been  a  bay  of  the  sea.  It 
seems  as  if  both  of  these  lakes  owed  their  origin  to  a  cause  like  that 
which  foimed  the  Coorong.  The  upheaval  of  the  land  has  raised  from 
the  sea  certain  eminences  which  e.^isted  underneath  the  water  as  banks 
or  shoals,  and  these,  being  higher  than  the  bottom  between  them  and 
the  shore,  locked  in  the  water  as  soon  as  they  were  above  its  level. 
The  hollow  of  the  lake  was  doubtless  caused  by  the  river,  and  the 
sediment  brought  down  by  it  may  have  caused  the  banks,  which,  now 
being  upheaved,  form  its  southern  boundary. 

The  observations  here  recorded  have  related  jjrincipally  to  the  coast- 
line and  the  contiguous  country.  So  far  as  they  have  extended  they  do 
not  suggest  much  expectation  of  fertile  regions  inland,  or  afford  any 
satisfactory  indications  of  the  nature  of  the  interior  of  South  Australia. 
Little,  indeed,  could  be  inferred  in  this  direction  from  the  imperfect  and 
unsatisfying  glimpses  of  the  country  Avhich  were  obtained  by  navigators 
as  they  viewed  it  from  the  sea.  Scientific  examinations  of  its  chief 
characteristics,  however,  show  that  "there  is  no  country  more  interesting 
in  its  formations  or  more  varied  in  its  mineralogical  productions  than 
South  Australia.  Lofty  mountains,  extensive  and  fertile  plains,  sandy 
deserts,  and  inland  seas  are  all  included  in  its  far-stretching  boundaries. 
With  a  climate  like  that  of  the  south  of  Spain,  it  possesses  the  scenery 
of  the  Highlands  in  some  places,  whilst  in  others  deserts  like  those  of 
Arabia,  and  vieing  with  them  for  bleakness,  aridity,  and  burning  heat. 
There  are  chains  of  salt  lakes  which  render  unprofitable  a  larger  area 
than  England.  There  are  marshes  and  salt  swamps  more  dank,  unwhole- 
some, and  extensive  than  any  in  the  United  State*.  There  are  rocky 
precipices  and  chasms  and  waterfalls  to  rival  almost  the  Alps.  There 
are  extinct  volcanoes  of  large  dimensions  almost  as  numei'ous  as  those 
of  Auvergne.  And,  finally,  there  are  caves  which  exceed  in  magnitude 
the  Guacharo  Caves  of  Humboldt,  or,  in  stalactites,  the  Antiparos  of  the 
^^gean  Sea."* 

The  limits  of  a  work  like  this  forbid  any  lengthened  exposition  of  all 
the  evidences  on  which  these  assertions  re.st.     The  accumulation   of  the 
•  Geo.  Obs.  in  South  Australia.     J^ondon,  1862. 


16  SOUTH    AllSTKALIA. 

facts  has  spread  over  many  years  in  point  of  time,  and  has  taxed  the 
energies  of  many  men  whose  bravery,  perseverance,  and  self-sacrifice 
could  alone  have  accomplished  the  arduous  tasks  which  they  set  for 
themselves,  and  whose  labors  have  added  so  much  to  the  imperishable 
records  of  natural  science  in  this  portion  of  the  globe.  All  that  can  be 
accomplished  in  these  pages  is  to  give  a  general  outline  of  the  results 
which  have  been  attained.  Flinders  was  the  first  to  discover  the  most 
remarkable  physical  features  of  this  portion  of  New  Holland  in  tracing 
out  Spencer's  Gulf  and  its  neighbour.  Gulf  St.  Vincent.  These  singular 
indentations  present  an  mimense  coastline,  and  with  various  bays  and 
shipping  places,  which  are  now  in  daily  use,  make  up  in  one  respect  for 
the  absence  of  navigable  rivers.  It  is  supposed  that  the  deep  indenta- 
tions in  Spencer's  Gulf,  Gulf  St.  Vincent,  Yorke's  Peninsula,  Cape 
Jervis,  and  Kangaroo  Island  indicate  that  there  was  formerly  a  separa- 
tion of  the  continent  into  two  portions  prior  to  the  deposition  of  the 
Cretaceous  formation.  There  is  no  similar  indentation  along  the  coast 
until  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  is  reached,  and  the  separation  must 
have  been  along  an  irregular  line  drawn  between  the  Gulf  of  Carpen- 
taria on  the  north  to  the  head  of  Spencer's  Gulf  on  the  south.  Some  of 
the  reasons  are  that  at  Cape  Jervis  a  mountain  range  commences,  which 
runs  nearly  north  and  south,  and  this  is  bounded  on  the  east  and  w^est 
by  Tertiary  deposits.  These  beds  thin  out  to  the  east  very  near  to  the 
boundary  line  between  South  Aiistralia  and  Victoria,  and  are  immediately 
succeeded  by  extinct  volcanoes  and  altered  Primary  rocks,  which  do 
not  appear  to  have  been  covered  by  any  Tertiary  sea.  To  the  westward 
of  the  same  range  the  beds  have  been  traced  through  the  greater  portion 
of  the  Great  Australian  Bight,  until  they  are  terminated  by  the  Primary 
rocks  of  Western  Australia,  which  also  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
covei  ed  by  a  Tertiary  sea.  Thus  we  have  the  east  and  west  sides  of  the 
continent  occupied  by  Primary  rocks,  and  the  centre  by  Tertiary  beds, 
enclosing  an  abundance  of  fossil  shells.  This  is  pretty  strong  pre- 
sumptive evidence  of  their  previous  separation. 

Again,  Spencer's  Gulf  bears  most  unmistakable  signs  of  having  formerly 
been  much  larger,  or  rather  to  have  been  better  filled  by  the  ocean 
than  it  is  at  present.  To  the  end  of  Spencer's  Gulf  there  is  an  uninter- 
rupted tract  of  waste  marshy  lowlands,  continuing  far  due  north,  w^hich 
has  been  found  wherever  examined  (with  some  small  exceptions)  to 
consist  of  limestone  w'ith  recent  marine  shells  and  salt  water,  while 
other  parts  are  immense  plains  of  shingles  without  any  shells,  probably 
portions  of  the  ocean  bed  which  were  too  deep  for  the  support  of  any 
animal  life.  Geologists  are  not  well  acquainted  with  the  exact  nature 
of  the  rocks  round  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  but  it  is  not  unhkely  that 


PHYSICAL     FEATVRES.  17 

they  ai-e  Tertiary.  The  high  land  of  Cape  York  on  the  eastern  side  is 
known  to  be  Primary,  as  also  the  highest  land  in  Arnheim's  Land.  This 
would  certainly  seem  to  correspond  with  the  opening  for  Tertiary  beds  at 
the  Southern  Alps.  It  is  not,  therefore,  hazarding  too  much  to  say  that 
a  sea  has  at  no  very  distant  period  rolled  between  the  east  and  west  portions 
of  the  continent.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  Yorke's  Peninsula,  which 
divides  the  southern  gulf,  is  composed  partially  of  Tertiary  rock,  and  there- 
fore shows  its  existence  to  have  been  coeval  with  the  continent  itself.  * 

Mr.  H.  Y.  L.  Brown,  the  Government  Geologist,  states  that  since  the 
above  was  written  (1862)  the  progress  of  geological  inquiry  has  resulted 
in  shoAving  that  enormous  deposits  belonging  to  the  Mesozoic  period 
occupy  an  extensive  deep  basin  existing  in  the  interior  of  Australia, 
covering  portions  of  New  South  Wales,  South  Australia,  and  Queens- 
land. These,  being  pierced,  have  yielded  very  large  quantities  of  artesian 
water ;  boring  operations  have  thus  been  encouraged,  and  pastoral  under- 
takings greatly  promoted. 

There  is  other  evidence  in  support  of  the  theory  of  the  separation  of 
New  Holland  into  two  parts.  The  author  of  the  above  quoted  observations, 
in  some  essays  on  the  age  of  the  Australian  continent,  f  says: — *■'  Australia 
has  a  marvellous,  unaccountable  difference  in  the  flora  of  her  east  and 
west  sides.  From  this  it  is  inferred  that  there  must  at  one  time  have  been 
a  separation  between  the  two  parts  of  the  continent.  This  inference  may 
not  seem  clear,  but  other  facts  confirm  it.  For  instance,  there  is  a  greater 
difference  between  the  flora  of  Victoria  and  that  of  AVestern  Australia 
than  there  is  between  that  of  Victoria  and  that  of  the  rest  of  the  world; 
and  it  is  remarkable  that  the  genera  are  the  same.  Gumtrees,  honey- 
suckles, tea-trees,  and  acacias  abound  in  both.  There  are  133  acaciae, 
fifty-five  eucalypti,  twenty-seven  melaleucse,  and  fifteen  banksiaj  in  south- 
east Australia,  according  to  Hooker,  and  not  one  of  the  same  species 
is  found  in  Western  Australia;  yet  the  same  district  has  100  mclaleucae, 
ninety -nine  acaciae,  forty-six  eucalypti,  and  thirty-eight  banksiac.  This  is 
singular  enough,  and  strongly  confirmatory  of  the  inference  that  a  former 
separation  existed  between  the  two  parts.  But  there  is  another  proof : 
the  intermediate  country,  instead  of  having  its  own  species  and  being  a 
peculiar  botanical  province,  is  strictly  intermediate  in  character  too — that 
is  to  say,  its  flora  is  made  uj)  of  plants  which  are  common  to  botli 
west  and  east  Australia.  The  trend  or  trough  of  the  continent  in  which 
a  basin  of  salt  lakes  lies  is  the  point  of  the  junction  of  the  two  provinces. 
It  is  therefore  an  inference  almost  as  certain  as  a  matter  of  fact,  that,  as 
the  centre  of  the  south  side  of  the  continent  was  gradually  raised  from 
the  waters,  it  became  colonised  by  a  flora  which  spread  down  from  the 

•  Geol.  Obs.  S.A.,  pp.  16  and  17.  'J.  E.  Tenison  Woods,  Australasian,  1S66. 

B 


18  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

east  and  west  sides,  and  had  there  been  any  union  between  the  two  parts 
of  the  continent  on  the  north  side  the  distinctive  features  of  the  two 
sides  woukl  not  have  been  so  well  preserved."  * 

As  far  as  scientific  investigations  go,  there  now  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  existing  territory  of  New  Holland  was  not  originally  one  immense 
island,  but  consisted  of  two,  and  possibly  more,  distinct  portions  with  seas 
intervening  between  the  separate  parts. 

When  Flinders  took  refuge  in  Nepean  Bay,  Kangaroo  Island,  he 
named  the  headland  which  was  prominent  on  the  north  side  of  Backstairs 
Passage,  Cape  Jervis.  From  this  point  starts  the  mountain  chain  which 
stretches  northwards  beyond  the  head  of  Spencer's  Gulf.  The  highest 
point  is  Mount  Lofty,  2,334ft.  above  sea  leA^el.  This  range  of  mountains 
is  not  connected  with  the  mountain  systems  of  the  neighboring  colonies. 
It  has  been  supposed  that  at  one  time  the  hills  were  much  higher  than 
they  are  now,  and  there  are  evidences  which  suggest  that  in  eai'lier 
periods  there  were  glaciers.  Traces  of  these  were  seen  by  Selwyn  at  the 
Inman  river,  and  the  writer  of  these  pages  has  noticed  them  in  the  gorge 
of  the  ToiTens,  which  flows  through  the  moimtains  at  a  distance  of  some 
ten  miles  east  from  Adelaide.  Still  more  marked  evidence  of  glacial  action 
may  be  seen  at  Hallett's  Cove,  on  the  seacoast  at  Black  Point,  about 
fourteen  miles  south-east  of  Adelaide.  Doubtless  more  extended  and 
substantial  evidences  will  be  forthcoming  when  the  South  Australian  chain 
shall  have  been  more  minutely  explored  and  examined  than  it  has  been  up 
to  the  present  day.  The  South  Australian  chain,  as  already  stated,  is 
bounded  on  its  eastern  and  western  sides  by  recent  Tertiary  beds.  The 
eastern  side  consists  of  an  extensive  fertile  plain,  which  extends  from 
Brighton,  on  the  east  coast  of  Gulf  St.  Vincent,  up  to  and  round  its  termi- 
nation. The  whole  of  this  plain  is  now  cultivated.  In  the  valleys  formed 
by  the  hills  and  on  the  uplands  all  through  them,  some  of  the  finest  agri- 
cultural land  in  the  province  is  situated.  The  hills  themselves  abound 
in  minerals  of  various  kinds,  which  will  be  noticed  in  the  proper 
place.  Without  entering  here  into  the  special  characteristics  of  the 
South  Australian  chain,  a  general  view  of  its  principal  features  will  be 
foimd  interesting.  Mr.  Tate,  Professor  of  Geology  in  the  Adelaide 
University,  describes  them  as  follows  : — f 

"The  mountain  ranges  in  South  Australia  proper  follow  the  general  di- 
rection of  the  two  gulfs,  St.  Vincent's  and  Spencer's.  The  elevated  regions 
of  the  southern  portion  of  the  province  occupy  three  well-defined  areas, 
separated  from  each  other  by  the  gulfs  mentioned ;  but  in  the  northerly 
extension  they  approach  each  other,  and  to  the  north  of  Lake  Torrens  no 
well-defined  mountain  system  exists.  Our  ranges  are  of  a  rather  composite 

*  Tenison  Woods,  Australasian,  1866. 
I    ir     ersary  Address,  Adelaide  Philosophical  Society,  1878-9. 


PHYSICAL     FEATIRES.  If) 

character,  consisting  of  parallel  ridges,  often  separated  by  deep  and  plain- 
like valleys.  This  feature  is  most  prominent  to  the  north  of  Koorino-a.  The 
first  group  is  that  of  the  Adelaide  chain,  commencing  at  Cape  Jervis  and 
occupying  the  coastline  to  tlie  north  as  far  as  Xormanville  and  to  the 
east  as  far  as  Port  Elliot,  and  continues  -with  varied  height  in  a  nearly 
northerly  direction  to  beyond  Lake  Frome,  a  distance  of  350  miles.  It 
attains  its  greatest  elevation  in  the  Mount  Lofty  and  Barossa  districts, 
and  its  chief  and  highest  points  are  Mount  Lofty,  2,334ft. ;  Kaiserstuhl, 
1,973ft.;  Lagoon  Hill,  2,23oft.;  and,  north  of  the  Burra,  Mount  Cone, 
2,601  ft.;  and  Razorback,  2,834ft.  It  is  very  little  interrupted  in  its 
course,  and  that  only  by  a  few  narrow  gorges  through  which  are  dis- 
charged our  insignificant  rivers,  emptying  thfsmselves  into  St.  Vincent's 
Gulf.  Two  spurs  are  thrown  ofP  on  its  western  side  within  our  imme- 
diate district  (Adelaide),  one  terminating  in  the  sea  cliffs  between  Marino 
and  Morphett  Vale,  and  the  second  in  those  forming  the  southern 
boundary  of  Aldinga  Bay. 

"The  second  group  is  that  of  the  Flinders  Kange,  which  commences  on 
the  elcA-ated  land  of  northern  Yorke's  Peninsula  in  the  conspicuous  hills 
termed  the  Hummocks,  at  the  head  of  St.  Vincent's  Gulf;  thence  it 
follows  a  curvilinear  line,  with  a  general  northerly  direction,  round  to  the 
head  of  Lake  Torrens.  The  east  coast  of  Spencer's  Gulf  has  the  same 
general  direction  as  this  chain,  to  which  it  is  in  close  proximity,  and, 
because  of  the  small  annual  rainfall  (about  12in.),  though  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  range  is  higher  than  that  of  the  Adelaide  chain,  the  rivers  are 
all  short,  and  for  the  most  part  do  not  reach  the  sea  or  Lake  Torrens. 
The  highest  points  of  this  range  are  amongst  the  highest  in  South 
Australia.  They  are  the  Bluff,  2,404ft.;  Mount  Remarkable  and  Mount 
Brown,  about  3,000ft.  All  these  elevated  regions  are  constituted  of  the 
.fundamental  rocks  and  their  associated  granites. 

"  The  Adelaide  chain  is  bounded  on  its  west  side  by  the  vast  and 
fertile  plain  of  Adelaide,  which  extends  from  Marino  on  the  south,  and 
sweeps  round  the  head  of  St.  Vincent's  Gulf  on  the  north.  Xo  incon- 
siderable portion  has  been  removed  by  the  action  of  the  sea,  as  it  is 
abruptly  terminated  on  the  shores  of  Holdfast  Bay  and  at  Ardrossan  on 
either  side  of  the  gulf.  The  period  of  its  formation  is  comparatively 
recent.  Plains  of  like  character  are  interspersed  in  longitudinal  bands 
among  the  parallel  ridges  of  the  Flinders  Range  and  the  northern 
•extension  of  the  Adelaide  chain,  though  not  one  is  equal  in  magnitude 
to  the  Adelaide  Plain.  The  two  southern  spurs  of  the  Adelaide 
chain  enclose  undulating  plains,  in  part  partaking  of  the  character  of 
the  Adelaide  Plain,  but  mainly  constituted  of  rocks  of  much  older 
deposits  (?),  though  of  Tertiary  date  ;  the  northern  one  is  the  Willunga 
Plain;  the  southern,  the  Myponga  Flat. 


20  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

''  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Adelaide  chain  there  stretches  far  and 
wide  the  plain  of  the  south-east,  towards  the  western  boundary  of  which 
flows  the  Lower  Murray.  The  dimensions  of  this  plain  extend  about  290 
miles  from  north  to  south,  and  on  an  average  of  100  miles  from  east  to 
west.  The  general  level,  which  is  broken  by  low  ridges,  does  not  exceed 
200ft.  The  rocks  composing  it  are  of  the  same  age  as  those  composing 
the  Willunga  Plain  and  the  lower  tracts  of  Yorke's  Peninsula.  The 
prevailing  uniformity  of  scenery  is  relieved  in  two  limited  areas  by  isolated 
hills  of  granite  and  A'olcanic  materials,  and  towards  the  seaward  by 
immense  swamps.  Xo  rivers  originate  in  this  plain,  though  a  few  short 
ones  traverse  its  western  margin  in  their  passage  from  the  Adelaide 
chain  to  the  River  Murray. 

••  To  the  north  and  west  from  Lake  Torrens  there  stretch  almost 
illimitable  plains  somewhat  similar  in  their  character  to  the  portions  of 
the  south-east  plain.  The  western  section  is  probably  conterminous  \N-ith 
the  Bunda  plateau  around  the  head  of  the  Great  Australian  Bight." 

The  interest  which  the  "  Hills,"  as  they  are  called,  afford  to  those  who 
may  visit  them  cannot  be  foreshadowed  by  Professor  Tate's  description  of 
their  physical  features.  They  abound  in  wonderful  scenery.  They  are 
everywhere  full  of  the  most  fertile  valleys  in  which  the  inhabitants 
are  able  to  produce  fruits  and  vegetables  of  most  European  kinds  that 
are  difficult  to  grow  on  the  hot  plains,  lying  west  of  the  mountain  system 
which  forms  such  a  magnificent  background  to  the  city  of  Adelaide  on 
its  southern  and  eastern  sides. 

Lakes  do  not  exist  in  or  near  them,  but  abundance  of  excellent  water 
is  found  in  the  valleys,  and  they  provide  a  delightfully  cool  resort  in  the 
hot  season.  Here,  indeed,  are  found  summer  homes,  which  in  healthi- 
ness and  coolness  of  temperature  more  than  rival  many  of  the  watering 
places  which  lie  upon  the  coast.  From  a  few  of  the  high  portions  of  the 
hills,  which  front  the  west,  the  prospect  is  marvellous.  Kangaroo  Island, 
about  ninety  miles  away,  may  be  distinctly  seen  from  the  tops  of  some 
of  the  hills,  and  even  the  lower  outline  of  Yorke's  Peninsula  can 
be  plainly  traced  when  the  sunlight  is  not  too  strong. 

The  hills,  however,  have  attractions  beyond  those  which  interest 
the  traveller,  who  looks  only  for  grandeur  of  mountain  scenery. 
They  indicate  material  wealth,  for  they  are  full  of  mineral  riches.  Gold, 
silver,  copper,  iron,  and  lead  are  found  amongst  them,  and  other  minerals 
of  greater  or  less  commercial  importance.  Emeralds,  diamonds,  and  other 
valuable  gems  have  been  found  in  various  places  adjacent  to  and  sub- 
sidiary to  the  ranges.  At  Encounter  Bay,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Inman  river,  gem  sand  is  found,  which  contains  in  minute  forms  some 
varieties  of  precious  stones  of  commerce.  The  mineral  resources  of  the 
colony  are  great,  and  will  be  noticed  further  on. 


PHYSICAL     FEATURES.  lil 

The  following  observations  by  Mr.  H.  Y.  L.  Brow-n,  Government 
Geologist,  furnish  a  brief  account  of  the  geological  features  of  South 
Australia : — 

"  Plutonic  Rocks. — Granite  outcrops  in  small  areas  near  Kingston  and 
in  the  various  places  in  the  Xinety-Mile  Desert  (S.E.  district),  at  Port 
Victor,  Murray  Bridge,  Kangaroo  Island,  Yorke's  Peninsula,  near  Port 
Lincoln.  Streaky  Bay  to  Fowler's  Bay,  Pidinga,  Prichard  Desert,  the 
Warburton  ranges,  &c.,  and  in  larger  and  more  extensive  masses  in  the 
north-east,  near  Boolcoomata,  Thackaringa,  near  Mount  Babbage,  and 
Mount  Adams,  north  of  Lake  Frome,  and  is  reported  to  constitute  the 
prevailing  rock  of  the  Musgrave  Ranges,  in  the  north-west  of  South 
Australia  proper.  Porphyry,  felspar  porphyry,  syenite,  granidite,  and 
greenstone  are  generally  found  near,  or  associated  "with,  these  rocks,  the 
Gawler  Ranges  being  principally  composed  of  felspar  porphjTy. 

"A  decomposed  amygdaloid  trap  occurs  in  the  neighborhood  of  Wool- 
tana,  near  Lake  Frome,  in  connection  with  greenstone  porph^TV  and 
serpentine  rocks.  With  all  the  outcrops  of  granite  rocks  metamorphic 
gneiss  and  granite  are  associated,  into  which  igneous  dykes  have  been 
injected.  These  dykes  are  numerous  in  most  of  the  old  metamorphic  and 
sedimentary  rocks,  and  doubtless  are  of  many  different  ages.  On  Yorke's 
Peninsula  there  are  granitic  and  metamorphic  rocks  unconformably  over- 
laid by  beds  of  crystalline  fossiliferous  marble,  grit,  conglomerate,  kc, 
AS'hich  are  considered  to  be  of  Lower  Silurian  age. 

"  In  the  main  range,  extending  from  Cape  Jervis,  in  the  south,  to 
Mount  Babbage,  its  northern  extremity,  there  are  dykes  of  granite, 
greenstone,  porphyry,  kc,  which  have  been  intruded  into  the  stratified 
rocks,  which  are  nowhere  seen  to  overlie  them  uncomformably — it  is 
probable,  therefore,  that  the  granite  rocks  of  Y'orke's  Peninsula  are  of  a 
much  greater  age  than  those  of  the  ranges  extending  from  Cape  Jervis 
northwards. 

"  As  a  proof  of  the  time  which  has  elapsed  between  the  intrusion  of 
the  various  plutonic  rocks,  it  has  been  observed  that  some  of  the  old 
conglomerates  containing  granite  boulders  have  been  pierced  by  veins  of 
a  more  recent  granite. 

"  Metamorphic  rocks,  azoic  or  silurian  gneiss,  conglomerate,  micaceous 
and  hornblende  schists,  clay  and  micaceous  slates,  ciystalline  limestone 
or  marble,  quartzite,  Sec,  are  found  to  occur  over  all  the  area  occupied 
by  granite  rocks,  and  in  conjunction  with  them.  Into  these,  dykes  of 
igneous  rocks  and  masses  are  intruded.  Some  of  the  metamorphic, 
gneissic,  and  granite  rocks  consist  of  conglomerates  containing  water- 
worn  pebbles,  and  boulders  with  crystals  of  felspar. 


22  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

"Silurian  Rocks.  —  These .  consist  of  incluied  conglomerates,  grits,- 
quartzites,  sandstones,  limestones,  dolomites,  clay,  and  micaceous  slates 
and  shales.  No  fossils  have  been  obsei-ved  in  them  generally,  and.  so 
far  as  examined,  they  appear  to  be  of  the  same  age  as  the  more  highly 
metamorphic  rocks,  but  are  less  altered  through  the  absence  of  intrusive 
dykes.  The  crvstalline  limestones  of  Ardrossan  contain  trUobites  and 
corals  which  have  been  recognised  as  Lower  Silurian.  There  are  bands 
of  similar  limestone  on  the  eastern  side  of  Si.  Vincent's  Gulf,  interbedded 
with  the  slates  and  quartzites  of  the  Mount  Lofty  Range. 

"  West  of  Port  .\ugusta,  and  in  other  places  to  the  eastward,  there  are- 
quartzites,  shales,  sandstones,  and  conglomerates  in  undulating  and  hori- 
zontal beds,  which  are  apparently  an  upper  series  of  rocks  which  may  be 
of  Devonian  age,  although  no  fossils   have   hitherto   been  observed   in 
them. 

•'  The  highly  metamorphic,  azoic,  and  Silurian  rocks  extend  in  more  or 
less  continuous  ranges  from  Kangaroo  Island  to  Mount  Babbage,  near 
the  head  of  Lake  Frome,  and  to  near  Mount  Xor-West,  with  a  north- 
easterly extension  in  the  dii-ection  of  the  Barrier  Ranges,  in  New  South. 
"Wales. 

"  Smaller  patches  occur  on  Yorke's  Peninsula,  the  Port  Lincoln  District, 
the  Dennison  and  "Warburton  Ranges,  and  east  of  the  Musgiave  Ranges. 

"  These  are  the  mineral-bearing  rocks,  and  in  them  copper,  lead,  gold, 
manganese,  and  other  metals  have  been  discovered,  and  in  many  cases 
worked,  over  a  distance  extending  from  south  to  north  of  more  than  six 
degrees  of  latitude. 

"  Mesozoic  Rocks  (Cretaceous  or  Oolitic). — A  large  portion  of  the 
interior  northward  of  the  main  range,  extending  into  Queensland,  Xew 
South  "Wales,  and  "Western  Australia,  is  occupied  by  rocks  of  mesozoic 
age.  They  occupy  a  depression,  of  which  Lake  Eyre  is  the  lowest  part. 
The  physical  aspect  of  the  country  is  that  presented  by  table  hills  and 
table  lands,  plains,  and  stony  and  sandy  deserts,  with  vast  salt  lakes, 
such  as  Lakes  'Eyre,  Frome,  &cc.,  into  which  discharge  large  watercourses 
and  creeks,  w^hich  are  liable  to  floods  during  long  intervals,  sometimes 
for  years,  caused  by  rain  which  falls  on  the  surrounding  ranges,  which 
in  some  cases  are  hundreds  of  miles  distant. 

*'  This  reg-ion  Avas  originallv  a  basin,  which  is  now  filled  with  more  or 
less  horizontal  beds  of  clay,  slate,  limestone,  gj-psum,  sand,  gravel,  kc, 
overlaid  in  patches  by  a  yellow  jasper  rock,  known  as  desert  quartzite, 
fragments  of  which  are  strewed  over  the  surface  of  the  plains  and  do\\Tis. 

"  This  is  the  chief  artesian  water-bearing  formation.  The  greatest  depth 
at  which  a  flowing  or  artesian  well  has  been  met  with  is  at  Tarkanina,, 
where  a  large  supply  was  struck  by  boring,  at  a  depth  of  1,200ft. 


PHYSICAL     FEATURES.  23 

"  Tertiary  Rocks. — The  largest  portion  of  South  Australia  is  covered  by 
Tertiar]r  and  post-tertiary  deposits. 

"  Older  tertiary  rocks  are  found  along  the  coast,  from  the  Victorian 
border,  near  Moun<-  Gambier,  to  Eucla,  on  the  West  Australian  border. 
They  extend  inland  for  a  considerable  distance,  up  the  Murray  River,  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  Mount  Lofty  Ranges ;  and  occupy  smaller  areas 
at  near  Port  "Willunga,  on  Yorke's  Peninsula,  and  various  other  places,  at 
generally  a  less  elevation  above  the  sea,  although,  in  one  or  two  instances, 
cappings  are  found  at  a  higher  elevation. 

*'  They  consist  of  coralline  and  shell  limestones,  sandstone,  clay  sands, 
calcareous  sandstones,  and  argillaceous  limestones,  rich  in  fossils. 

"The  Xullarbor  Plains,  in  the  western  portion  of  the  pro\ince,  between 
Fowler's  Bay  and  Eucla,  are  composed  of  hard  crystalline  limestone, 
resting  on  soft  chalky  limestone  with  flints.  These  beds  form  perpen- 
dicular cliffs,  rising  from  2.50ft.  to  StiOft.  along  the  coast  between  the  two 
places  named,  the  formation  extending  inland  over  100  miles.  Fossils 
are  very  plentiful  in  these  rocks  wherever  found. 

"  Middle  tertiary  beds  of  limestone,  calcareous  sandstone,  sandstone, 
shell  limestone,  kc,  overlie  the  older  tertiaries  along  the  coast. 

"  The  volcanic  rocks,  consisting  of  basalt,  lava,  scoria,  ash.  \c..  of  the 
Mount  Gambier  district,  are  of  a  newer  age  than  the  older  tertiary 
limestone.  Mount  Gambier  and  Mount  Schank  are  two  of  the  principal 
points  of  eruptions.  Volcanic  rocks  also  occur  in  the  Mount  Burr  Range, 
not  far  from  Mount  Gambier. 

"  Pliocene  Tertiaries. — Old  river  deposits,  which  appear  to  be  of  the 
same  age  as  the  old  gold  drifts  of  Victoria  and  New  South  Wales,  occur 
as  cappings,  and  covering  large  areas,  at  elevations  sometimes  amounting 
to  1 ,000ft.  above  the  sea,  at  the  Mount  Lofty  and  other  portions  of  the 
ranges.     It  is  evident  that  they  are  the  remains  of  an  old  river  system. 

'•  Where  prospected,  as  at  Barossa  and  Echunga,  gold  has  been  found  in 
them.  A  very  large  area  still  remains  available  for  this  purpose  in  the 
neighborhood  of  these  goldfields  and  elsewhere. 

"  Post  Tertiary  and  Recent. — All  the  previously  mentioned  rocks  are,  to 
a  less  or  greater  extent,  covered  over  in  patches  by  a  varying  thickness 
of  allu\-ium.  Sand  in  dunes,  as  along  the  coast,  or  in  wide  undulating 
plains  and  ridges,  as  in  the  interior.  The  extent  of  country  covered  by 
these  hills  and  rivers  is  very  great. 

"  On  the  seacoast  at  a  place  called  Hallett's  Cove,  in  the  hundred  of 
Noarlunga,  and  distant  from  Adelaide  in  a  south-westerly  direction  about 
eleven  miles,  ice-marked  rocks  are  seen.  The  cliffs  forming  the  northern 
boundary  of  this  cove  consist  of  purple  shales,  slates,  and  quartzites, 
■which  have  been  contorted  and  twisted  into  an  anticlinal,  the  crown  of 


24  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

which  extends  along  the  edge  of  the  crown  northward  for  some  distance, 
forming  a  narrow  strip  of  rock  outcrop;  the  latter  is  observed  to  be 
polished,  and  sometimes  striated.  The  most  southern  of  these  exposures 
is  immediately  over  the  end  of  the  anticlinal.  Here,  at  a  height  of  about 
60ft  or  70ft.  above  the  sea,  on  the  top  of  the  cliff,  over  an  area  of  some 
30  square  yards,  the  rock  has  been  smoothed  and  striated.  This  floor 
dips  S.S.W.  at  an  angle  of  about  10°.  The  groovings  are  of  all  sizes  up 
to  l^in.  in  width,  with  a  depth  of  about  vVin.  The  general  direction  of 
the  grooves  is  from  N.  30°  W.  and  N.W.  to  W.N.^V.  The  rock  is  a 
purple  slaty  shale. 

'  The  second  exposure  is  close  to  the  edge  of  the  cliff,  about  300 
yards  further  northward.  The  polished  and  grooved  rock  is  here  a  hard 
quartzose  sandstone,  at  a  height  of  about  50ft.  or  60ft.  above  the  sea. 
The  area  exposed  is  some  .12  or  15  yards;  it  dips  west  at  an  angle  of 
from  25°  to  30°,  and  the  direction  of  the  grooves  is  north  and  south 
along  it  in  horizontal  and  inclined  lines.  Boulders,  pebbles,  and  shingle 
of  gneiss,  granite,  and  quartzite,  sandstone,  limestone,  slate,  &.C.,  together 
with  ragged  blocks  and  masses  of  grey  limestone  and  limstone  boulder 
conglomerate,  on  a  brittle  shale  and  clay,  are  scattered  about  on  the  slope 
of  the  hill  above  the  ice-scratched  rock.  The  ice-grooves  and  polishing 
of  the  rocks  appear  to  have  been  caused  by  floating  drift  ice  in  narrow 
channels,  or  along  the  shore,  the  boulder  drift  having  been  deposited  on 
the  melting  of  the  ice  which  stranded  on  the  spot." 

In  many  parts  of  the  province  the  remains  of  huge  extinct  marsupials 
have  been  discovered,  such  as  Diprotodon,  the  Macropus  Titan,  &c. 
Fossil  bones  of  cetacea  have  been  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Murray, 
with  shark's  teeth,  &c.  An  immense  shark's  tooth,  over  Sin.  long  and 
4in.  wide  at  its  base,  was  picked  up  at  Lake  Hope  some  years  ago,  and 
is  now  in  the  museum  at  Adelaide. 

It  will  be  understood  that  a  thoroughly  complete  survey  of  the 
geological  features  of  the  country  has  not  yet  been  made.  Investiga- 
tions of  this  kind  in  this  colony  do  not  date  back  for  more  than  thirty- 
two  or  thirty-three  years.  In  future  days,  when  more  time  and  money 
can  be  devoted  to  accomplish  an  exhaustive  geological  survey  of  the 
colony  than  are  expended  upon  the  work  at  the  present  time,  it  may 
be  expected  that  many  interesting  and  important  discoveries  will  be 
recorded,  which  will  add  largely  to  our  knowledge  of  this  part  of 
Australia,  and  not  improbably  to  some  extent  qualify  existing  ideas  as  to 
its  early  history. 


ITS     KALNA.  25 


CHAPTER    III. 

South  Australian   Fauna — Animals — Birds  —Reptiles — Insects — Fishes. 

The  native  animals  which  inhabit  South  Australia  are  identical  w-ith 
"many  of  those  which  are  common  to  other  portions  of  New  Holland. 
It  has  no  species  peculiar  to  itself,  and  none  are  found  there  which  are 
not  found  in  other  parts  of  the  continent.  Various  species  of  kangaroo 
f  MacropusJ  were  abundant  all  over  the  colon}^  wherever  there  was  food 
for  them,  although  they  have  now  entirely  disappeared  from  the  settled 
districts  for  a  long  distance  both  north  and  south  of  Adelaide. 

In  those  parts  of  the  country  where  scrub  abounds  and  there  is  still 
shelter  for  them,  wallabies  ^//rt/ma^^/rj/sy  of  various  kinds  are  still  plentiful. 
Bandicoots  f  PaiamelesJ  existed  in  considerable  numbers  on  the  grassy 
plains  before  settlement  and  cultivation  drove  them  away.  Kangaroo 
rats  f Hypsiprhmius J  were  also  at  one  time  niimerous,  but  they  have 
almost  ceased  to  exist  within  the  settled  areas.  The  native  bear 
fPhascolarctosJ,  thought  to  be  peculiar  to  New  South  Wales,  has  been 
found,  though  rarely,  in  the  Murray  scrub.  The  wombat  f  Pliascolnmysj 
is  abundant  in  the  south-eastern  district,  where  it  lives  in  holes  under  the 
limestone  crust  which  covers  a  considerable  part  of  that  country.  The 
oposslun  fDidelphyaJ  abounds  wherever  there  are  large  trees,  such  as  the 
gum,  kc,  in  Avhich  they  live  in  hole.^  and  hollows  high  above  the  ground. 
These  animals  are  most  destructive  to  gardens  which  may  be  near  their 
haunts.  The  native  cat  ( Dasyuru^ ) ,  a  carnivorous  marsupial,  and  the 
Phnscogale,  also  carnivorous,  are  fairly  distributed  over  the  coimtr^- ; 
the  former  are  occasionally  migratory,  and  they  are  both  destructive  to 
poultry.  The  duck-billed  platypus  (  Ornithorhyncus  paradoxus )  inhabits 
South  Australia,  but  is  very  rarely  found.  A  dead  specimen,  brought 
down  by  a  flood,  was  found  floating  on  the  Torrens  Lake  last  winter. 
Mr.  W.  Forester,  of  the  Railway  Department,  saw  it  and  lifted  it  into 
his  boat,  but  it  was  so  much  decomposed  that  he  was  obliged  to 
throw  it  hack  into  the  water.  It  must  have  been  washed  away  from 
some  of  the  creeks  which  empty  themselves  into  the  River  Torrens 
on  the  western  side  of  the  Mount  Lofty  ranges.  The  brush-tailed 
ant  eater  f  MyrmecnbhisJ,  and  the  spiny  ant  eater  (Echidna),  are  also 
very  rare. 

One  of  the  great  pests  of  the  colony  is  the  dingo,  or  native  dog,  which 
abounds  in  the  northern  and  south-eastern  pastoral  districts.  It  is 
believed  by  naturalists  to  have  been  introduced  into  Australia.  It  is 
most  destructive  to  sheej),  and  the  settlers  wage  constant  war  upon  it. 


26  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

Of  late  years  its  numbers  have  been  much  reduced.  It  is  savage  and 
cowardly,  but  has  not  been  known  to  attack  man.       • 

There  are  several  kinds  of  rodents  {Hapalotis,  Mus,  Sec),  and  a  few 
water  rats,  vampires,  and  bats  of  various  species  are  enumerated  amongst 
the  fauna  of  the  province,  though  many  of  them  are  rare. 

*In  the  late  Mr.  Harcus'  work  on  South  Australia,  Mr.  F.  G.  Water- 
house,  C.M.Z.S.  and  F.L.S.,  then  curator  of  the  Adelaide  Museum, 
supplied  a  list  of  South  Australian  mammals  which  enumerates  twenty- 
seven  of  different  genera,  and  of  marsupials  notices  forty-three. 

A  new  animal  was  discovered  in  1890  on  the  Idracowra  run,  a  cattle 
station  comprising  several  hundred  square  miles  of  country  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  Northern  Territory  of  South  Australia.  It  is  a 
marsupial  mole  and  is  named  Notoryctes  typhlops.  It  is  about  5Ain.  long. 
The  fur  may  be  described  as  being  generally  of  a  light  fawn  color,  long, 
soft,  and  of  a  bright  lustrous  and  silken  appearance  ;  in  parts  it  deepens 
to  a  glistening  golden  hue,  and  in  others  it  inclines  more  to  a  silvery 
aspect.  Perpetual  burrowing  seems  to  be  the  characteristic  feature  of  its 
life.  It  enters  the  sand  obliquely  and  travels  underground  for  a  few  feet 
or  for  many  yards,  not  apparently  reaching  a  depth  of  more  than  2in.  or 
3in.,  for  whilst  underground  its  progress  can  often  be  detected  by  a  slight 
cracking  or  moving  of  the  surface  over  its  position.  In  penetrating  the 
soil  free  use  as  a  borer  is  made  of  the  conical  snout  with  its  horny 
protecting  shield,  and  the  powerful  scoop-like  foreclaws  are  also  brought 
into  play.  As  it  disappears  from  sight  the  hind  limbs  as  well  are  used  to 
throw  the  sand  backwards,  which  falls  in  again  behind  it  as  it  goes,  so 
that  no  permanent  tunnel  is  left  to  mark  its  course.  Again  emerging  at 
some  distance  it  travels  for  a  few  feet  upon  the  surface  and  then  descends 
as  before.  In  this  singular  animal  no  eyes  are  visible  externally,  and  the 
smallest  opening  through  the  skin  corresponding  to  their  position  cannot 
be  detected.  The  ear  openings  are  distinct,  though  almost  completely 
concealed  by  the  fur,  which  grows  right  up  to  their  margins.  The  tail  is 
hard,  tough,  and  leathery  in  texture  and  appearance,  and  for  the 
greater  part  is  marked  \\ith  conspicuous  annular  ridges  down  to  the  point. 
It  is  thick  at  its  insertion  and  tapers  down  to  a  blunt  or  knob-like  tip. 
The  marsupium,  or  pouch,  is  reflected  backwards.  These  animals  do  not 
appear  to  be  numerous.  All  the  specimens  hitherto  obtained  have  been 
found  within  a  circumscribed  area,  about  four  miles  from  the  Idracowra 
station,  on  the  Finke  river,  in  Central  Australia,  and  almost  invariably 
amongst  sandhills.  It  is  said  also  to  have  been  seen  south  of  the 
Macdonnell  Ranges,  and  one  specimen  was  found  droA^med  at  Tempe 
Downs,  120  miles  south  of  Alice  Springs.  There  are  some  excellently 
*  South  Australia  :    Harcus.    London,  1876. 


IT.S     FAUNA.  27 

preserved  specimens  in  the  Adelaide  Museum. "^^  It  is  supposed  to  feed  on 
ants  and  other  insects,  debris  of  these  having  been  found  in  its  intestines. 
The  Notoryctes  is  a  marsupial  in  all  essential  details,  yet  in  its  outward 
form,  and  especially  in  its  stronp:  digging  limbs  and  rudimentary  eyes,  it 
resembles  the  true  moles  (Talpce).  It  is  still  more  like  the  moles  of 
S.  Africa  and  the  Chri/sochloris,  both  of  which  genera  belong  to  the 
Insectivora,  an  order  which  is  not  represented  in  Australia. 

As  regards  birds,  none  of  the  leading  orders  are  wanting  in  South 
Australia.  The  genera  of  representative  species  are  all  closely  allied  to 
the  birds  which  occupy  similar  positions  in  other  countries — eagles, 
hawks,  harriers,  and  owls  fill  their  usual  positions.  The  swallow  and 
its  congeners  come  and  go  as  regularly  in  the  southern  parts  of  Australia 
as  in  England,  and  so  do  the  cuckoos.  There  are  many  other  birds  which 
migrate  thus,  but  the  extent  of  their  journeys  has  not  been  ascertained. 
In  South  Australia  there  are  swifts,  swallows,  martens,  and  flycatchers, 
and  also  goat  suckers  fPodargusJ.  Petrels,  gulls,  albatross,  terns,  and 
penguins,  frequent  the  coasts,  and  there  is  an  abundance  of  cormo- 
rants in  all  the  estuaries  and  rivers.  Pelicans  arc  found  in  both  the 
north  and  south  parts  of  the  colony,  on  the  sandy  spits  and  patches  of 
the  streams.  The  swamps  and  lagoons  are  covered  with  ducks,  grebes, 
rails,  &c.,  of  the  same  types  as  those  inhabiting  the  northern  hemisphere, 
but  in  almost  every  case  of  distinct  species.  The  number  of  ducks  i.s 
truly  surprising,  and  one  writer  stated  that  he  had  travelled  in  winter 
along  the  River  Murray  and  the  long  estuary  of  the  Coorong.  and  for 
upwards  of  120  miles  he  was  never  out  of  sight  of  large  flocks  which 
literally  darkened  the  water  and  airf 

The  special  features  of  the  birds  of  Australia  are  its  parrots,  its  mound 
building  birds,  its  bower  birds,  and  certain  anomalous  passerine  genera 
which  have  no  parallel  in  other  parts  ot  the  globe.  There  are  no  vultures 
and  no  trogons.  There  are  over  sixty  species  of  parrots,  scarcely  any  of 
Avhich  are  found  outside  Australia  and  its  islands.  They  include  the 
cockatoo  parrot  (a  beautiful  little  bird),  the  cockatoo  (three  species), 
many  varieties  of  the  rosella  parrot  f  Plati/cercusJ,  grass  parrots,  grass 
parakeets,  lorikeets,  k.c.,  &.c.  There  are  large  numbers  of  pigeons,  the  most 
beautiful  being  the  bronze  wing,  of  which  there  are  seven  species  ;  there 
are  also  owds,  goat  suckers,  herons,  bitterns,  spoon  bills,  ibis,  black  swans, 
and  other  birds  too  numerous  to  mention  in  detail.  The  order  Eaptores, 
or    falcons,   has  twenty-six   representative    species  in  South   Australia. 

*  A  full  description  of  this  .singular  creature  appears  in  the  transactions  of  the  Royal 
Society  of   South  Australia,  1891,  by  E.  C.  Stirling.  M.D.,  Cantab.,  and  F.R.O.S., 
Eng.,  Lecturer  on  Physiology  in  the  University  of  Adelaide, 
t  Essay  on  the  Natural  History  of  New  South  Wales  :  Tenison  Woods.   Sydney,  1882. 


28 


SOUTH    AUSTKALIA. 


Stngid(s,  or  owls,  7  ;  night  jars,  4  ;  swifts,  2  ;  swallows,  5  ;  kingfisliers, 
9.  Meliphagirtcc,  or  honej^  eaters,  45  ;  cuckoos,  11  ;  Psittacidce  (parrots 
and  cockatoos),  37  ;  Charadridce  (plovers  and  dottrells),  18;  herons,  24; 
pelicans,  11:  grebes,  3  ;  penguins,  1.  But  it  is  needless  here  to  extend 
the  list.  Those  who  desire  to  go  fully  into  this  portion  of  the  natural 
history  of  South  Australia  can  refer  to  Goidd's  magnificent  works  on 
the  subject. 

The  bower  birds  f  Chlamydera  michalis  and  C.  MaculataJ,  which  are 
found  only  in  the  interior  far  away  from  all  settlement,  are  peculiar  in 
their  habits.  In  addition  to  their  nests  they  build  bowers  on  the 
ground  several  feet  long,  which  they  adorn  with  shells  and  various 
trifles  they  pick  up  in  the  bush.  These  bowers  are  used  as  playgrounds, 
and  that  is  all  can  be  conjectured.  The  laughing  jackass  fDacelo 
GigasJ  is  widely  distributed,  but  does  not  live  far  from  water.  It  is 
remarkable  for  its  Aveird  laughter-like  cry;  so  also  the  magpie  of  the 
colonists  for  its  curious  musical  note.  These  birds  are  easily  tamed, 
and  will  remain  about  a  house  unconfined;  they  make  most  interesting 
pets,  and  the  magpie  can  -without  much  difficulty  be  taught  to  repeat 
w^ords  and  to  whistle  scraps  of  tunes. 

One  bird  which  is  peculiar  to  Australia  deserves  special  notice — the 
emu  ( Dromanius) .  It  stands  about  5ft.  high  and  has  no  wings ;  the 
feathers  mostly  are  harsh,  coarse,  and  hair-like,  and  of  a  dusky  greyish- 
brown.  They  live  mostly  on  the  plains  not  far  from  scrub,  in  which  they 
breed.  They  are  hunted  for  the  sake  of  their  skins,  which  make  neat 
mats,  and  for  their  oil,  which  is  said  to  be  efficacious  as  an  outward 
application  for  rheumatism.  The  natives  hunt  the  emus  for  food.  These 
birds  are  easily  domesticated  :  that  is,  if  not  hunted  about  they  will  stay 
about  the  stations  of  sheejifarmers  in  the  bush.  There  are  two  living 
species,  and  one,  extinct,  of  miich  larger  size  named  by  Professor  Owen 
Dromornis  Australis.  South  Australia  has  no  birds  of  song,  though  there 
are  many  whose  notes  are  distinctly  musical.  There  is  only  one  kind  of 
crow  f  Corvus  Australis  J,  which  is  distributed  all  over  the  continent  of 
Australia. 

The  lyre  bird  { Menura  superhaj  is  famed  for  its  beautiful  and 
gracefvd  plumage.  The  tail  feathers  take  the  form  of  the  ancient  classic 
lyre,  and  have  eyes  at  the  upper  ends  of  the  two  principal  plumes  like 
the  spots  which  are  spread  over  the  tail  of  the  European  peacock.  These 
birds  were  always  difficidt  to  procure,  but  they  are  becoming  more  rare 
year  after  year,  in  consequence  of  the  merciless  and  inconsiderate  manner 
in  which  they  are  destroyed  by  bushmen  for  the  sake  of  their  feathers. 

The  native  pheasants,  or  mound-making  birds  fLeipoa  ocellata  and 
JSIegapodius    tumulusj,    lay    their    eggs    in    a    few   leaves    and    twigs, 


ITS     FAUNA.  29 

surrounded  by  large  mounds  of  sand,  which  the  birds  scrape  together  for 
the  purpose.  The  eggs  are  left  to  hatch  themselves  by  the  heat  of  this 
compost  heap.  The  eggs  of  the  Leipoa  are  so  thin  that  the  birds  could 
scarcely  sit  upon  them  without  breaking  them.  They  are  generally  found 
in  desert  scrub,  are  of  large  size,  and  much  esteemed  as  articles  of  food. 
Most  of  the  native  birds  are  protected  during  portions  of  the  year. 
During  these  times  it  is  illegal  to  shoot  them,  to  have  them  in  possession, 
or  to  expose  them  for  sale.  The  bustard,  or  wild  turkey  f  Chariot  Is 
AiistraUsJ  is  very  widely  distributed.  These  birds  afford  excellent  sport 
dui'ing  the  open  season,  but,  however,  are  very  shy,  and  generally  not  easy 
to  apjDroach.  They  are  splendid  birds  for  the  table,  being  of  large  size 
and  of  excellent  flavor. 

In  former  years  quails  were  very  abundant.  They  were  obtainable  in 
the  sandhills  on  the  coast,  all  over  the  plains,  and  on  the  slopes  which 
stretch  down  from  the  hills.  They  still  are  seen  about  the  wheatfields  at 
harvest  time. 

The  aborigines  are  exempt  from  the  operation  of  the  statutes  which 
determine  the  close  seasons. 

The    kangaroo    (Macropus    major),   whose    skin    is    of    considerable 

commercial  value,  is  now  protected  during  certain  months.    In  the  South- 

East,  that  is  that  part  of  the  colony  which  lies  between  the  Murray  and  its 

eastern  boundary,  some  years  ago  a  premium  of  so  much  per  head  was 

paid  for  its  destruction.     Kangaroos  were  so  numerous  that  the  settlers 

found  that  the  number  of  sheep  which  the  runs  were  able  to  carry  was 

seriously  restricted   in  consequence  of   their  enormous  consumption  of 

grass.     They  were  rounded  up  in  droves  and  slaughtered  in  hundreds. 

On  one  station  alone  £800  was  paid  in  one  year  for  their  destruction,  and 

that,  at  6d.  per  head,  gaAc  a  total  of  32,000.     This  was  only  a  small  part 

of  what  was  done  in  the  whole  district.     From  the  nature  of  the  country, 

and  the  shelter  they  are  able  to  secure  amongst  the  ferns  and  in  the  scrub 

which  abounds  there,  it  is   not  likely  that  they  will  be  exterminated. 

Their  numbers,  however,  have  been  greatly  diminished  of  late  years  in  the 

good  country.      The  increase  in  the  value  of  their  skins  has  prompted 

the  Parliament  to  pass  a  special  Act  (No.  527  of  1891)  to  protect  them, 

and  prevent  their  wholesale  destruction.      Those  Avho  admire  and  pay 

long  prices  for  seal  skins  and  other  furs  might  well  turn  their  attention 

to  the  beautiful  skins  which  are  obtainable  all  over  Australia.     It  is 

true  that  fur  is  not  in  much  use   in   this  part  of  New  Holland  as  a 

defence  against   the   cold,  but   feminine  fashions    have  quite  as   much 

influence    in   the    Sunny   South    as    elsewhere,  and    tippets,    boas,  and 

miiffs  of  the  skins  of  native  animals  are  not  altogether  disregarded. 

The  Reptilia  in  South  Australia  are  not  very  numeious.     There  are 


80  SOUTH     Al'STRALIA. 

«ome  two  or  three  species  of  frogs,  but  lizards  are  more  abundant.  The 
largest  of  them  fHydrosaurusJ  inhabits  the  gullies  in  the  Mount  Lofty 
Ranges  and  the  plains  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  One  specimen  in 
the  museum  measures  nearly  5ft.  from  the  muzzle  to  the  tip  of  the  tail. 
The  jew  lizard  ( Amphiholorus  barhatusj  is  common.  It  is  remarkable 
for  a  peculiar  frill  about  the  neck,  which  appears  not  unlike  a  beard,  from 
which  probably  it  derives  its  common  name.  Another  kind,  known  as 
the  sleepy  or  club-tailed  lizard,  is  found  amongst  the  sandhills  on  the 
coast  and  on  the  plains,  and  is  probably  identical  with  the  Trachysaurus 
of  New  South  Wales.  The  most  singular  lizard  found  in  South 
Australia  is  the  Moloch  horridus.  It  looks  ugly,  but  is  harmless.  It  is 
€in.  or  Tin.  long,  and  covered  with  large  curved  spines,  very  sluggish 
in  movement,  and  easily  captured-  Its  food  consists  of  ants  and  small 
insects.  The  reptile  is  most  common  in  the  region  of  Port  Augusta, 
at  the  head  of  Spencer's  Gulf.     It  does  not  live  in  captivity. 

Snakes,  both  venomous  and  harmless,  are  denizens  of  the  colony,  but 
they  are  not  very  numerous.  There  are  twenty-two  species,  of  which 
the  majority  are  poisonous.  The  "  death  "  or  "  deaf  "  adder  {Acan- 
■thopis)  is  frequently  met  with  in  the  scrub  and  in  solitary  jjlaces.  Its 
bite  is  most  deadly.  The  genus  Hoplocephalus  frequents  moist  grassy 
places  and  the  herbage  bordering  iipon  swamps.  There  is  also  the 
Pseudychis  porphyriaca,  or  black  snake.  All  of  these  are  dangerous, 
their  bites  being  frequently  fatal  within  a  few  hours.  Although  there 
are  a  few  which  are  non-venomous,  it  is  wise  to  avoid  snakes  of  every 
sort.  As  a  rule  these  reptiles  always  glide  away  when  human  beings 
approach  them,  but  if  surprised  they  are  likely  to  attack  an  intruder. 
Accidents  from  snake  bite  are  often  recorded  in  the  other  colonies 
which  are  followed  by  fatal  results.  Generally  here  the  settlers  do  not 
ti'ouble  much  about  them,  except  to  kill  them  when  they  can,  and  very 
few  casualties  from  this  cause  are  heard  of.  The  natives  eat  all  kinds 
of  snakes,  but  they  will  not  touch  those  which  they  have  not  killed  for 
themselves.  The  flesh  of  snakes,  as  well  as  of  lizards,  is  said  to  be 
delicious.     It  is  white  and  tender,  not  unlike  that  of  chicken. 

Mr.  Zietz,  of  the  South  Australian  Museum,  has  prepared  a  list  of  the 
Ophidia  which  inhabit  the  colony.  He  enumerates  twenty  species  which 
have  been  described  and  defined,  and  two  whose  species  is  imcertain. 
Four  species  are  considered  to  be  peculiar  to  South  Australia,  viz.,  Peters' 
blind  snake  f  Typhlops  hituherculahisj,  the  Port  Lincoln  snake  f  Hoplo- 
cephalus spectabilisj,  Flinders'  snake  fH.  aterj,  and  Masters'  snake  fH. 
Masterii ) .  The  two  species  of  blind  snake  f  Typhlops  bituberculatus  and 
T.  nigresce7isj.  and  also  the  carpet  snake  fMorelia  variegataj,  are  not 
venomous.     All  the  other  snakes  found  in  South  Australia  are  venomous. 


ITS     FAUNA.  31 

•and  five  species  are  dangerous  to  mankind,  viz.,  two  species  of  black 
■snake  fPseudichis  Australin  and  P.  porphyriacusj,  two  specie's  of 
Hoplocephalus,  and  the  "  death  "  or  "  deaf "  adder  fAcanthopis 
antarcticaj.^' 

A  peculiar  long-necked  tortoise  f  Chelodina  longicollisj  inhabits  the 
River  Murray,  and  a  few  other  fresh-water  streams.  It  is  not  of  large 
«ize,  seldom  exceeding  9in.  in  length  in  the  carapace  and  6in.  or  Tin.  in 
width.  Its  very  long  neck  projects  sometimes  as  much  as  Tin.  from  the 
carapace.  They  are  eagerly  sought  after  by  the  aborigines  for  food,  and 
the  colonists  are  not  at  all  insensible  to  their  gastronomic  value. 

Entomologists  will  find  a  wide  field  for  their  investigations  in  South 
Australia.  It  possesses  numerous  varieties  of  Coleoptera,  or  beetles  ; 
Hymenoptera,  or  flies  and  wasps;  and  Hemiptera^o'c  bugs.  It  is  also  well 
endowed  with  Lepidoptera,  or  butterflies  and  moths.  It  is  a  scientific 
fact  that  in  all  these  orders  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  the  insects  of 
Australia  are  so  marked  that  an  expert  would  at  once  know  any  specimen 
from  New  Holland.  Amongst  the  Hymenoptera,  Diptera,  Hemiptera,  and 
Neurojitera,  not  much  has  been  done  in  Australia  towai'ds  describing  and 
cataloguing  the  different  species.  It  is  noticeable  that  most  of  the  familiar 
forms  of  insect  life  find  their  representatives  here.  Thus  there  are  dragon 
flies,  wasps,  hornets,  and  bees.  Mosquitos  are  very  abundant  and  in 
many  varieties  in  moist  places,  and  in  all  swamps,  both  on  the  sea-shore 
and  inland,  though  from  dry  desert  tracts  they  are  absent. 

This  province,  favored  as  it  has  been  in  many  respects,  has  been 
bountifully  supplied,  though  perhaps  not  more  than  other  colonies,  with 
unts.  There  are  many  varieties  of  these  creatures — small  as  well  as 
large — from  the  little  pismire,  as  its  prototype  is  called  in  England,  to  the 
formidable  insect  known  in  South  Australia,  as  the  soldier  ant,  which  is 
■quite  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  length.  The  jaws  of  this  terror  to  those 
who  may  provoke  its  hostility  are  a  full  quarter  of  an  inch  long.  The 
bite  of  this  ant  leaves  bad  consequences  behind  it  in  the  shape  of  a 
sore  which  is  not  easy  to  heal.  These  ants  live  for  the  most  part  in  sandy 
country.  There  are  two  sorts  specially  noteworthy — the  soldier,  which 
is  scarlet,  and  the  bulldog,  of  a  deep  shining  blue.  Besides  these  there 
are  white  ants,  which  are  destructive  to  soft  timber,  books,  and  other 
things  which  come  within  their  reach ;  black,  blue,  and  red  ants,  night  ants, 
large,  blind  and  harmless;  and  one,  seen  in  the  sub-tropical  region, 
which  is  green.  It  is  a  most  hideous-looking  insect,  with  a  wedge- 
shaped  head  which  seems  to  be  all  teeth.  The  small  ants,  when  they 
find  their  way  into  houses,  as  they  sometimes  do,  are  great  pests.  They 
attack  everything — meat,  sugar,  sweets  of  all  kinds,  indeed  almost  all 
*  Trans.  Roy.  Sou.  S.A.:    A.  Zietz,  1887. 


32  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

that  is  edible.  Kerosene  or  tar  placed  in  their  holes,  however,  soon 
gets  rid  of  them.  Other  ants,  which  live  in  gardens  and  on  the  plains, 
must  do  much  good.  They  devour  all  sorts  of  insects,  centipedes, 
scorpions,  tarantulas,  and  spiders  of  various  kinds ;  and  they  do  not 
apjjroach  dwellings  unless  a  few  stray  ones  are  brought  there  with 
firewood.  They  never  domicile  themselves  as  some  of  the  smaller 
varieties  do.  Nevertheless  it  is  as  well  to  avoid  them,  because  when 
they  do  bite,  the  sensation,  though  not  lastiuij,  is  not  unlike  that  of  a 
hot  needle  stvick  into  the  flesh. 

South  Australia  has  many  species  of  spiders,  but  the  branch  of 
entomology  which  treats  of  the  Arachnid(e  has  not  received  much  atten- 
tion, and  little  is  known  about  it.  Several  of  them  are  to  some  extent 
poisonous,  and  the  bite,  if  not  dangerous,  is  certainly  painfid,  and 
occasions  much  constitutional  disturbance  in  some  cases.  One  spider, 
which  builds  its  nests  in  low  bushes,  spins  beautiful  silk  of  a  yellow 
color.  It  is  sometimes  found  stretching  for  many  feet  from  one  bush  to 
another,  and  is  extremely  strong  and  tough.  The  nests  are  often  as 
large  as  a  moderately  sized  egg.  They  are  most  common  in  the  North. 
Another  most  interesting  species  excavates  a  hole  in  the  ground,  which  it 
covers  with  a  beautifully  fitted  lid,  and  closes  it  down  when  it  captures 
anything,  so  as  to  prevent  the  escape  of  its  prey. 

The  fishes  which  abound  along  the  shores,  from  the  Great  Australian 
Bight  as  far,  at  least,  as  the  Glenelg  river,  are  to  a  great  extent  identical 
with  those  which  are  found  ofE  the  coasts  of  Victoria  and  New  South 
"Wales,  as  far  north  as  Sydney.  Schnapper  fPagrus  unicolorj,  mullet 
fmugilj,  several  species ;  mackerel  (Scomber  antarcticusj,  whiting 
fSillago  maculataj,  rock  cod  f  Pseudophycis  harbatusj,  leather  jacket 
f  Monocanthus  ayrandij,  flathead  f  Platycephalus J ,  several  species  ; 
salmon  f  Aripis  salar ),  gurnard  (TriglaJ,  are  common  to  both  Spencer  and 
St.  Vincent  guKs,  whilst  the  muUoway  fSciaena  antarctica)  abounds  in  the 
Murray  near  the  mouth  as  far  as  the  water  is  salt.  Bream  (  Chrysophrys 
Australis)  and  perch  {Sates  colonorunij  are  plentiful  in  the  streams 
which  open  into  Encounter  Bay,  and  also  in  the  Onkaparinga,  near 
its  entrance  to  the  sea.  The  sweep  fScorpis  oequipennisj,  a  most 
delicious  fish,  is  abundant  in  New  South  Wales,  where,  strange  to  say, 
it  is  not  thought  much  of.  It  is  found  at  Port  Elliot,  on  the  south 
coast,  near  Pullen's  Island,  and  in  the  deep  water  which  skirts  the  rocks 
at  Commodore  Point,  in  Encounter  Bay.  The  sole  ( Synaptura  nigerj  is 
found  at  Port  Lincoln,  at  Kangaroo  Island,  and  occasionally  in  Gulf 
St.  Vincent.  It  is  somewhat  scarce,  and  rarely  brought  to  market 
in  the  capital.  Crabs  fNeptunus  pelagicus)  are  plentiful  on  sandy 
beaches   in    shallow    water,    on    sand   banks    in   deeper   water,    and   ia 


ITS     FAUNA.  33 

rocky  places.  They  are  of  a  small  size,  but  of  excellent  flavor.  The 
spiny  lobster  or  crayfish  fPaliniirus  hugeliij  abounds  on  the  South 
Australian  coast  wherever  it  is  rocky.  It  is  abundant  at  Port 
Elliot,  Encounter  Bay,  Port  MacDonnell,  Guichen  Bay,  Kangaroo 
Island,  &c.,  &c.  The  Murray  cod  (Oligarus),  of  which  there  are  twu 
species,  is  found  principally  in  the  x'wgx  from  which  it  takes  its 
name.  It  occurs,  however,  in  other  rivers  in  the  west  of  New  South 
Wales,  and  also  in  a  few  of  the  eastern  rivers  north  of  Sydney.  The 
Oligarus  Macquariensis,  or  true  Murray  cod,  is  a  valuable  fish  for  the 
table.  It  is  extremely  voracious,  and  specimens  have  been  known  to 
weigh  as  much  as  120lbs.  The  second  species  fO.  MitchelliJ,  called  by 
fishermen  the  Murray  perch,  differs  from  the  first  in  many  particulars, 
but  is  not  much  inferior  in  size.  Many  other  fishes  frequent  the  coast 
whose  names  and  characteristics  have  not  been  recorded.  The  late  Sir 
William  MacLeay  published  a  most  valuable  "  Descriptive  Catalogue  of 
Austrahan  Fishes,"  and  the  late  Count  J.  de  Castelnau,  has  treated  of 
"  Australian  Fishes,  new  or  little  known,"  &c.,  but  as  yet  no  census 
of  the  filches  peculiar  to  South  Australia  has  been  prepared,  so  that 
probably  much  has  yet  to  be  learned  respecting  them. 

Sharks  of  various  species  infest  the  coastline  of  South  Australia 
in  every  direction,  and  are  at  all  times  dangerous.  One  kind,  known  in 
New  South  Wales  as  the  "  Grey  Nurse  "  f  Odotitapsis  Americaniis J ,  which 
is  frequently  seen  in  the  South  Australian  gulfs,  is  a  formidable  monster. 
It  is  recorded  in  "  Fish  and  Fisheries  of  New  South  Wales,  1882,"  that 
it  has  been  known  "  to  seize  hold  of  the  steer  oar  of  a  whaleboat  when  the 
boat  was  moving  rapidly  through  the  water  and  shake  it  with  its  teeth 
two  or  three  times,  let  go  its  hold,  and  pursue  and  seize  it  again  as  if  it 
were  a  living  object."  Some  years  ago  a  party  in  a  boat  oflf  the  Sema- 
phore struck  one,  which  was  lying  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  with  a 
boat  hook.  It  attacked  the  craft  and  tore  away  a  part  of  the  side,  and 
the  occupants  were  obliged  to  cant  the  boat  to  get  into  sliallow  water 
where  the  shark  could  not  follow  it.  More  recently  a  midshipman 
belonging  to  H.M.S.  Clio,  the  flagship  of  Commodore  Stirling,  which 
was  at  anchor  off"  Largs  Bay,  was  paddling  around  the  ship  in  a  canoe. 
One  of  these  sharks  rose  from  underneath,  seized  the  canoe  and  tore 
out  a  portion  of  the  bottom.  In  the  planks  of  the  canoe  several  of  the 
shark's  teeth  were  left  embedded  in  the  wood;  they  were  from  lin.  to 
\\\n.  in  length. 

One  specimen  of  the  swordfish  /'Xi/pliiasJ  was  captured  at  the  head  of 
Spencer's  Gulf,  at  Port  Augusta,  and  is  now  in  the  Adelaide  Museum 
A  Lnth,  or  leathery  turtle,  was  taken  a  few  years  ago  ofl' Torrens  Islanil. 
in  the  arm   of  the  sea   which  extends  to   Port   Adelaide.     These  were 


34  ^^OUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

probably  accidental  visitors,  inasmuch  as  no  similar  specimens  have  been 
seen  since. 

The  fresh- water  fish  in  the  smaller  streams  are  few  and  of  small 
size.  They  appear  to  be  little  known  to  science;  nevertheless,  they  are 
delicious,  and  not  unlike  whitebait.  In  all  the  deep  holes  in  the  inland 
moxmtain  streams  a  kind  of  crayfish  is  always  procurable.  In  form  it 
much  resembles  the  European  lobster,  but  is  small,  varying  from  3in. 
to  6in.in  length.  It  is  of  a  dull  bluish  black  when  taken  out  of  the 
water,  but  turns  red  on  being  boiled.  It  is  of  delicate  flavor,  though  its 
edible  part  is  small.  There  is  one  lobster— a  true  lobster — f  Atapopsis 
serratus J  y\h.\c\i  is  obtainable  in  the  Murrumbidgee  and  Murray  rivers. 
It  averages  about  a  foot  in  length,  and  is  niarked  in  u-regular  dark  and 
light  patches.  When  boiled  parts  of  the  shell  remain  cream  colored 
whilst  the  others  turn  red.  It  is  in  season  in  the  winter  time,  but  is 
scarce  in  the  Adelaide  market. 

In  South  Australia  one  of  the  finest  kinds  of  oyster  covers  extensive 
beds  on  some  parts  of  the  western  coasts  of  the  colony.  It  is  of  large  size, 
splendid  flavor,  and  abundant,  and  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Port 
Lincoln  oyster,  though  it  is  found  not  only  at  Poit  Lincoln  but  in 
numerous  places  along  the  coasts  of  Banks'  Peninsula,  and  elsewhere  in 
that  region.  The  indiscriminate  way  in  Avhich  some  years  ago  these 
bivalves  were  dredged  ujj  and  sent  to  market  necessitated  legislation,  and 
as  occasion  requires  the  old  beds  are  closed  for  various  ^^eriods,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  exhaustion,  if  not  the  ultimate  destruction,  of  the  valuable 
oyster  grounds.  Of  late  oysters  have  become  dear,  inasmuch  as  in 
the  season  they  are  exported  to  the  eastern  colonies.  New  South 
Wales  has  extensive  beds  of  rock  oysters,  which,  though  delicate  and 
admirable,  are  not  large ;  but  that  colony  has  nothing  to  represent  the 
unrivalled  products  of  Port  Lincoln.  Shrimps,  or  rather  prawns,  abound 
along  shallow  sandy  beaches,  but  they  are  not  very  frequently  seen  in 
the  shops  for  sale. 


ITS     FLORA.  ;^,5 


CHAPTER    IV. 

SovTH    Australian    Plants— The     Forest    Land    Region— The    Schuh    Land 
Region — The  Grass  Land  Region,  &c. 

To  speak  of  the  botanical  features  of  South  Australia  is  in  reality  to 
speak  of  the  botanical  characteristics  of  western  and  eastern  Australia. 
The  region  of  South  Australia,  from  its  position  and  its  o-eolo^ical 
conditions,  could  scarcely  be  expected  to  develop  flora  much  different 
from  those  which  exist  on  the  eastern  and  western  sections  of  the  continent 
that  form  her  natural  boundaries.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  two  genera  of 
the  eucalyptus  and  the  acacia  preponderate  over  the  whole  ]n-ovinco,  as 
they  do  in  other  portions  of  the  great  continent;  but  of  134  eucalypti 
which  are  at  present  known  in  Australia,  only  thirty,  and  of  acaciee,  of 
Avhich  300  species  are  recorded,  no  more  than  seventy,  are  fotmd  in  South 
Australia. 

Apart  from  other  characteristics,  the  trees  of  South  Australia  are  not 
as  tall  as  those  which  are  found  on  the  north-east  and  west  of  her 
territory.  The  eucalypti  do  not  exceed  100ft.  to  120ft.  in  height,  whilst 
in  Western  Australia  one  species  attains  the  height  of  400ft.,  and  one 
specimen  in  Victoria  measured  420ft.  in  length.  This  was  a  fallen  tree 
in  the  Dandenong  Ranges  in  Victoria.  Amongst  the  eighteen  to  twenty 
species  of  eucalyptus  which  appear  in  the  extra-tropical  jiart  of  South 
Australia,  there  are  only  a  few  kinds  which  are  held  in  special  estimation. 
They  are  commonly  called  the  red.  white,  and  blue  gum,  stringybark, 
and  peppermint.  These  are  used  for  various  purposes,  such  as  building, 
rough  carpentry,  wheelwrights'  work,  and  for  fuel.  The  redgura 
fKucalijptus  rust  rata  J  is  very  hard  and  solid,  weighing  about  621bs.  to 
the  cubic  foot,  and  when  properly  seasoned  is  impervious  to  the  white 
ant :  it  is,  moreover,  most  difficult  to  work  up.  The  stringybark  fE. 
ohliqnaj  has  its  habitat  principally  in  the  hills.  It  sheds  its  bark  in  long 
fibrous  strings,  which  loosen  and  droop  down  as  they  become  detached  by 
the  newly-formed  bark  underneath.  This  process  gives  to  the  trunks  of 
the  trees  a  ragged  untidy  appearance.  The  stringybark  grows  so  straight 
that  the  young  trees  are  much  used  for  scaffold  poles,  spars,  &c.,  in 
which  length,  strength,  toughness,  and  straightness  are  required.  Tlu^ 
wood  of  these  trees  makes  excellent  palings  and  shingles  for  roofing, 
because  it  Sf)lits  evenly  and  readily.  It  is  also  used  lart^ely  for  fencing 
rails  and  sometimes  for  posts  ;  but  it  soon  perishes  in  the  ground,  and 
the  white  ant  destroys  it  rapidly.  As  fuel  it  is  not  good.  WIumi  dry  it 
burns  away  fiercely;   when  green  or  damjj  it  can  with  ditficulty  he  got 


36  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

to  burn  at  all,  unless  mixed  with  other  more  combustible  wood.  The 
bluegum  fE.  dumosaj  is  valuable  for  all  sorts  of  work,  and  for  fuel  as 
well.  The  whitegum  /"£.  viminalisj  is  generally  inferior  in  durability;  it 
does  not  resist  white  ants,  and  when  green  or  damp  it  is  worse  even  than 
stringybark  as  fuel.  The  peppermint  fE.  odorataj  is  a  hard  wood,  useful 
for  ordinaiy  purposes,  and  very  serviceable  as  fuel. 

The  redgum  is  widely  distributed.  It  is  never  far  distant  from  water, 
and  its  stately  branches  are  almost  invariably  noticeable  on  the  margins 
of  creeks  and  watercourses  in  the  north. 

All  Eucalypti,  indeed  most  Australian  trees,  are  remarkable  for  their 
naked  appearance.  The  boughs  are  always  distinctly  traceable  through 
the  foliage,  which  is  smooth  and  shiny,  in  their  grey  outlines,  from  which 
at  a  distance  the  leaves  scarcely  seem  to  depend.  The  trees  for  their  size 
throw  little  shade,  and  in  some  varieties  thick  branches  often  drop  off 
suddenly  on  a  perfectly  calm  hot  day,  to  the  certain  destruction  of  any- 
thing that  may  happen  to  be  beneath.  These  trees  give  a  special 
monotony  to  the  scenery  of  South  Australia. 

The  wood  of  the  acacia  is  useful  only  for  cabinet  work,  but  the  black- 
wood  (Acacia  melanoxylon )  has  better  qualities  for  purposes  of  that  nature. 
This  tree,  however,  is  common  in  the  south-east,  whilst  it  is  rare  near 
Adelaide.  It  is  more  common  still  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  border. 
Another  species  of  acacia,  the  wattle  of  the  colonists  (A.  pycnanthaj,  at 
one  time  neglected,  but  now  largely  cultivated,  is  valuable  for  the  gum 
which  freely  exudes  from  it  and  for  its  bark.  The  gum  is  little,  if  at  all, 
inferior  to  gum  arable,  and  the  bark,  bought  in  England  as  Mimosa  bark, 
is  one  of  the  best  of  the  kinds  used  for  tanning  purposes.  There  are 
other  kinds  of  acacia  which  are  also  valuable  for  tanning,  bvit  none  are 
equal  to  the  Avattle. 

The  sheaoak  ( Casuarina  stricta)  is  remarkable  in  appearance.  Its 
fi-onds  do  not  shape  as  ordinary  leaves ;  they  appear  as  continuations  of 
the  branches  ;  they  never  reach  any  great  height,  and  are  almost  funereal 
in  aspect.  The  wind  rushing  or  sighing  through  them  causes  a  mournful 
whistling  or  wailing  sovind,  according  to  the  force  of  the  breeze.  All 
kinds  of  cattle  eat  their  fronds  greedily.  The  wood  is  tough  and  splits 
tolerably  evenly.  It  makes  excellent  spokes  for  wheels,  handles  for 
hammers,  &c.,  and  is  used  also  for  turnery  work  and  in  cabinet-making. 
As  fuel  it  is  excellent. 

The  tea  trees  (Melaleuca  and  Leptospermum)  mostly  inhabit  low  damp 
situations,  and  are  to  some  extent  valuable  because  of  the  durable  nature 
of  their  v/ood  when  used  underground,  or  perhaps  in  water.  It  is  close- 
grained  and  hard,  and  when  dry,  heavy.  It  is  generally  sound  at  the 
heart.     The  wood  of  the  native  pines  of  this  province  (Frenela  rohusta 


ITS     FLORA.  37 

and  F.  rhomboideaj  are  not  durable,  and  little  used  except  for  fences  or 
for  fuel.  The  Banksia  marylnata,  or  honeysuckle,  is  occasionally  used 
for  cabinet  -work,  and  the  Mi/oporum  acuminatum,  although  soft,  is  tough, 
and  forms  excellent  knees  for  boats. 

The  late  Dr.  Schomburgk,  Director  of  the  Botanic  Garden,  Adelaide, 
from  whose  writings  the  foregoing  account  has  been  mainly  derived, 
remarks  upon  the  absence  of  native  edible  fruits,  "  of  which  there 
are  none  deserving  the  name,  except  a  few  berry-bearing  shrubs 
belonging  to  the  orders  Epacrida-  and  Santalacea,  Asiroloma  and 
Leucopogon,  the  principal  species  of  which,  the  native  currant  of  the 
colonists  f  Astroloma  humifusiunj  and  the  so-called  native  peach  fFusanus 
acuminatiisj  producing  a  globular  fruit  of  the  size  of  a  small  peach,  with 
a  succulent  pericarp  and  a  hard,  bony,  much  pitted  endocarp  (the 
quondong),  are  all  South  Australia  can  boast  of.  There  is  also  a 
deficiency  in  eatable  root-bearing  plants."  There  is  one  of  which  little 
notice  has  been  taken— the  muntrce.  It  grows  along  the  ground,  and 
produces  a  berry  of  a  size  somewhat  smaller  than  that  of  the  ordinary 
Barcelona  nut.  The  smell  and  taste  are  strong,  and  like  that  of  an 
apple.  It  may  be  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Inman  and  Hindmarsh 
rivers,  on  Yorke's  Peninsula,  and  in  many  other  sjjots  where  sandy  soil 
and  moisture  exist.  A  shoot  withers  rapidly  when  separated  from  the 
parent  plant. 

One  peculiarity  of  the  eucalypti  has  not  been  noticed,  and  that  is 
their  extraordinary  vitality.  As  long  as  a  strip  of  bark  is  continuous 
from  the  ground  up  to  the  branches,  the  tree  which  keeps  it  lives.  Thus 
trees  many  feet  in  diameter  at  and  above  the  bole,  hollowed  out  by  the 
ravages  of  insects  or  by  fire,  leaving  cavities  large  enough  to  shelter 
several  grown  persons,  live  and  put  forth  their  leaves  as  if  nothing  had 
ever  occurred  to  interfere  with  their  growth.  Dr.  Schomburgk, 
however,  points  out  that  when  eucalypti  trees  die  they  begin  to  die  from 
the  topmost  branches.  The  leaves  fall  off,  and  nothing  but  dry  twigs 
and  sticks  are  left  until  the  end  comes.  The  gum  trees  of  all  kinds  ai-e 
subject  not  only'  to  the  attacks  of  insects  which  destroy  them,  but  to  the 
visitation  of  a  vegetable  parasite  called  the  mistletoe.  It  attaches  itself 
to  the  branches  and  hangs  down  in  long  pendulous  vitiform  bunches,  and 
is  not  unlike  the  mistletoe  of  the  oak.  When  it  attacks  a  tree  the  life  of 
that  tree  is  only  a  question  of  time. 

The  sandalwood  tree,  which  grows  in  abundance  on  Yorke's  Peninsula, 
is  short  in  stature,  but  produces  solid  and  strong  wood.  When  recently 
cut  down  it  has  an  agreeable  odour,  which  lasts  for  a  long  while,  but 
becoming  more  and  more  faint  as  the  trunk  dries.  It  is  useful  for  many 
purposes.     It   also   does  duty  as  firewood.      Those   who   have    read   iu 


•38  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

Eastern  tales  about  chambers  beiug-  scented  with  burning  sandalwood, 
and  imagine  that  a  perfume  of  a  pleasant  nature  must  be  the  result, 
would  be  completely  disillusioned  by  the  combustion  of  our  sandalwood. 
This  wood  is  known  even  in  China  as  a  deadly  foe  to  mosquitoes.  This 
is  not  surprising,  for  anyone  who  has  had  the  good  or  ill  fortiuie  to  camp 
by  a  sandalwood  fire  in  the  biish  will  give  his  clear  testimony  to  the  fact 
that  the  smell  of  the  burning  wood  is  bad.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say 
that  it  verges  on  the  insufferable.  Some  specimens  of  the  timber  have 
been  sent  to  England,  and  some  forwarded  to  the  Paris  Exhibition  in 
1871,  but  they  have  not  attracted  attention. 

After  noticing  the  g-eneral  features  of  the  flora  of  South  Australia,  the 
author  above  refei-red  to  states  that  "  notwithstanding  the  little  apparent 
difference  in  the  formation  of  its  surface,  soil,  and  climate,  the  flora  of 
South  Australia  introduces  itself  to  the  observer  in  its  geographical 
extension  by  special  and  peculiar  forms  of  plants  in  regions.  These  are 
the  forest  land,  scrub  land,  grass  land,  and  the  intra-tropical  regions." 

The  region  of  the  forest  land  in  South  Australia  occupies  most  of  the 
mountain  districts,  and  extends  along  the  base  of  the  mountain  chains. 
The  forests  have  not  the  fulness  and  lofty  growth  of  those  of  other 
countries.  The  underwood  is  of  medium  size,  more  open  and  less  difficult 
to  penetrate.  The  forests  are  of  less  extent,  and  are  intercepted  by  tracts 
of  grass  land.  The  eucalypts  are  the  most  predominant  forest  trees; 
the  stringybark  forming  often  whole  forests  in  some  mountainous  districts 
but  is  seldom  seen  in  the  plains. 

The  trees  of  the  forests  do  not  appear  crowded,  and  seldom  do  the 
branches  of  a  tree  reach  those  of  a  neighboring  one.  The  declivities  of 
the  mountain  ranges  are  for  the  most  part  similarly  timbered,  the  trees 
sometimes  extending  to  the  summits  ;  often  only  one-half  or  two-thirds  of 
the  remaining  part  being  grassed,  with  here  and  there  copses  of  low 
shrubs,  and  stunted  and  much  ramified  trees.  Often  the  whole  declivities 
are  grassed  without  even  a  shrub  or  tree. 

"  Another  feature  of  the  tableland  in  the  hill  districts  is  the  appearance 
of  occasional  hills  clothed  only  with  a  scanty  covering  of  tussocky  grasses, 
amongst  fragments  of  ironstone  quartz  and  sand,  destitute  of  all  other 
vegetation,  except  small  scattered  trees  of  the  Casuarina  stricta,  C.  glauca, 
and  the  peppermint  f  Eucalyptus  odorataj. 

"  The  level  tableland  is  generally  covered  with  grass,  but  is  deficient 
m  shrubs.  Here  scattered  are  to  be  seen  the  most  stately  and  majestic 
specimens  of  eucalypts.  Such  tablelands  have  a  park-like  appearance, 
the  trees  standing  seemingly  at  measured  distances,  single  or  in  small 
clumps,  as  if  planted  by  a  landscape  gardener.     The  soil  of  these  table- 


ITS     FLORA.  39 

lands  is  generally-  speaking  very  rich,  and  produces  abundant  crops  of 
cereals.  The  underwood  of  the  forests  is  most  represented  by  the  follow- 
ing genera — Corren,  Alyxia,  Prostranthera.  GrevUlea,  Hnkea.  Isopoyon, 
Exocarpus,  Acacia,  Banksia,  Cassia,  Calythrix,  Pomaderris.  Leiicopogon, 
Lepf.ospprmum,  Daviesia,  Dillwynia,  Eutaxia,  Platylobium.  Puitenaea, 
and  shrubby  eucalypts. 

"  The  beautiful  genus  Epacris,  which  is  only  represented  iu  South 
Australia  by  one  species  fE.  impressaj,  frequently  covers  whole  mountain 
ridges  and  declivities  :  when  in  bloom  the  different  shades  of  color  of  its 
its  flowers  produce  an  effect  not  readily  described. 

•'  A  most  prominent  and  striking  effect  of  the  mountain  forest  region 
is  produced  by  the  grass  trees  X-anthorrhoea  quadranyulatis  and  X. 
seniiplana.  They  mostly  appear  on  the  ridges  and  declivities  of  rocky 
and  stony  hills  almost  devoid  of  any  other  vegetation,  and  are  found  on 
some  wooded  lands,  but  never  on  the  plains.  The  first-named  j^rows 
from   10ft.   to  12ft.  in  height,  often  w4th  a  trunk  fi-om  1ft.  to  18in.  in 

diameter,  and  the  flower  stalk  6ft.  to  10ft.  high This 

species  appears  only  in  hilly  districts,  on  rocky  declivities :  it  drives 
its  straggling  roots  into  the  crevices  of  the  rocks  several  feet  down  into 
the  accumulated  vegetable  soil.  These  grass  trees  are  of  slow  growth — 
the  largest  specimens  must  be  several  hundred  years  old.  The  second 
species,  X.  semiplana,  is  often  found  at  the  base  of  the  hills  in  sandy 
soil.  It  forms  its  stem  underground,  extending  often  2ft.  or  3ft.  before 
the  roots  appear.  The  leaves  lie  close  to  the  ground.  Both  species 
exude  a  resin,  which  contains  nitro-picric  acid,  from  which  a  valuable  dye 
can  be  made."  These  grass  trees  exist  in  thousands  on  the  sandy  flats  in 
the  Ninety-Mile  Desert,  which  lies  between  the  Murray  River  and  the 
Victorian  border.  The  roots  of  these  plants  are  edible ;  the  gum.  when 
it  could  be  procured,  was  used  by  the  natives  to  fix  stone  points  on  to 
the  wooden  shafts  of  their  spears  and  to  fasten  axe  heads  fashioned  of 
stone  to  their  helves,  as  other  paleolithic  savages  did  in  earlier  geological 
epochs.  The  X.  quadnmgidnfis  not  long  ago  existed  in  tolerably  conside- 
rable numbers  in  the  Waterfall  Gully,  a  favorite  resort  of  holiday  makers, 
about  six  miles  east  of  Adelaide,  and  in  the  gully  ending  with  the  Morialta 
waterfalls.  But  holiday-making  at  most  times  means  spoliation  of  some 
sort,  and,  of  course,  when  wild  flowers,  ferns,  ivc,  are  trophies  of  holiday 
expeditions,  grass  trees  could  not  be  expected  to  escape.  Some  lives  have 
been  lost  in  consequence  of  over-confident  climbers  ascending  the  steep 
rocks  in  which  they  grow,  and  in  inaccessible  places  they  remain  in  their 
solitary  greatness.  They  are  mostly  known  to  old  colonists  as  •*  black 
boys,"  and  at  a  distance  the  strange  shapes  these  trees  assume  is 
suggestive  of  the  colloquial  name. 


40  SOLTll     AUSTRALIA. 

The  gullies  which  intervene  between  the  hills  ai-e  filled  with  shrubs 
and  ferns,  and  some  of  the  most  beautiful  plants  in  the  province  are  foimd 
there.  Handsome  ferns,  accoi'ding  to  Dr.  Schomburgk,  flourished  there 
in  great  profusion,  and  man}'  are  still  to  be  seen,  such  as  the  Todea 
Africana,  whose  stems  are  sometimes  over  18in.  in  diameter.  There  are 
others  also  which  need  not  be  enumerated,  some  of  which  thrive  in  the 
crevices  of  rocks  and  some  which  border  the  edges  of  brooks  and  rivulets, 
which  in  the  gullies  are  almost  always  flowing  in  the  hottest  weather. 

Terrestrial  orchids  inhabit  the  bases  and  slopes  of  the  hills  in  places 
where  they  are  not  overshadowed  by  the  undergrowth.  There  are  about 
twenty  genera  in  South  Australia. 

The  regions  of  the  scrub  land  appear  over  the  whole  area  of  the 
province;  they  stretch  to  greater  or  less  extent  in  different  districts,  and 
are  estimated  to  cover  about  one-eighth  of  the  whole  area  of  the  colony. 
They  are  most  extensive  in  the  north  and  east,  and  in  the  south-east 
bordering  on  the  Murray.  They*  include  wearying,  desolate,  and  arid 
plains,  the  soil  being  of  the  poorest  description,  unfit  for  cultivation,  and 
changing  from  loamy  clay  to  pure  sand  ;  the  surface  is  covered  with  frag- 
ments of  silicious  or  ferruginous  sand  and  iron  stone.  The  vegetation  is 
stunted.  The  scrub  itself  is  nearly  destitute  of  grasses  and  other 
herbage.  No  indication  of  water  is  seen  in  such  places.  There  are  but 
few  genera  of  grasses,  and  they  grow  only  in  tufts  considerably  apart 
from  each  other.  The  absence  of  other  herbage  is  as  great  during  the 
summer,  but  this  great  deficiency  is  compensated  by  a  large  variety  of 

genera  and  species  of  shrubs The  monotonous  and  dismal 

look  of  an  extensive  tract  of  scrub  is  depressing  wiien  viewed  from  an 
eminence.  The  uniformity  in  the  height  of  the  vegetation,  and  the 
dull  glaucous  color  of  the  foliage,  look  in  the  distance  like  a  rolling  sea 
reaching  the  horizon.  Such  at  least  is  the  impression  which  is  usually 
])roduced  by  the  first  glimpse  of  the  Murray  scrub,  which  extends  for 
hundi-eds  of  miles.  All  the  scrub  in  the  different  districts  produces  the 
same  impression,  but  the  plants  inhabiting  these  tracts  are  not  of  the  same 
genera  and  species,  because  the  locality  and  soil  affect  tne  character  of 

the  flora Shrubs  of  one  kind  or  other  are  found  in  flower 

throughout  the  year.  Most  kinds  bloom  in  September  and  October;  the 
rainy  season  therefore  alters  the  outward  appearance  of  the  scrub  only 
to  a  small  extent :  but  it  calls  into  life  the  terrestrial  orchids,  of  which 
a  good  many  kinds  inhabit  it.  Their  duration  is  short,  and  they  dis- 
appear as  rapidly  as  they  spring  up. 

A  most  valuable  plant  appears  in  abundance  in  the  northern  districts. 
It  is  known  as  the  saltbush  ( Atriplex  NummulariaJ,  on  which  sheep 
subsist  and  thrive  dm-ing  the  summer  and  in  times  of  drought.     If  all 


ITS     FLORA.  41 

other  vegetation  is  suffering  from  drought,  the  saltbush  alone  •withstands 
the  heat  of  the  sun,  maintains  its  freshness,  and  saves  thousand;?  of  sheep 
from  starvation. 

The  grass  land  region  forms  the  principal  part  of  the  whole  area  of 
South  Australia.  It  consists  of  vast  xmdulating  plains,  stretching  from 
the  coast  to  the  north  and  east.  But  along  the  coast  and  for  hundreds 
of  miles  inland  the  grass  plains  have  for  the  most  part  disappeared,  and 
now  foiTU  agricvdtural  districts  which  produce  the  finest  cereals  known. 

The  great  plains  of  the  interior,  especially  towards  the  north,  so 
extensive  as  to  be  lost  in  the  hoiizon,  like  deserts,  are  emphatically 
monotonous  and  desolate.  Only  here  and  there  are  fomad  fertile  spots  of 
grass  land,  but  not  of  large  extent.  They  alternate  with  bare  sandstone 
ridges  or  rolling  sandhills,  interspersed  with  stony  and  waterless  flats. 
Their  surface  is  often  saline,  covered  with  sharp  angular  or  weather-worn 
fragments  of  various  sizes,  of  ironstone  quartz,  reddish  sandstone,  and 
conglomerate,  supporting  only  a  scanty  herbage  of  perennial  gi-asses, 
that  grow  in  tufts  and  tinge  the  sandy  surface.  Groups  of  stunted 
shrubs  and  small  ramified  trees,  mostly  of  limited  extent,  rise  from  the 
plains  like  islands.  They  consist  of  varieties  of  the  sheaoak  {  CasuarinaJ, 
eucalyptus,  and  wattle  (Acacia  pycnanthaj.  The  plains  near  the  coast 
are  of  a  difEerent  character.  The  soil  is  mostly  fertile,  extending  often 
down  to  the  sea,  and  constituting  a  great  portion  of  the  arable  land  of 
the  colony. 

The  fertile  earth  covering  these  plains  gives  rise  to  an  essential  alteration 
in  their  vegetation.  Xom-ishing  grasses  of  various  kinds  make  their 
appearance.  Shrubs  of  small  stature,  with  sheaoaks,  wattles,  pines,  &c., 
sometimes  single,  but  occasionally  forming  groves  without  underwood, 
like  oases  in  the  desert,  are  scattered  about.  The  banks  of  the  rivers 
and  creeks,  which  mostly  cease  running  in  the  summer,  are  lined  Avith 
tall  gum  trees  of  immense  size,  and  shrubs  which  spread  out  more  or 
less  into  the  plains  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil 

In  the  month  of  May  the  rainy  season  generally  commences.  The  rain 
has  a  wondrous  effect  upon  the  herbage  of  the  plains.  A  few  heavy 
showers  change  the  patches  of  dried-up  grasses  and  herbage  into  a 
beautiful  green  sward.  The  rapidity  with  which  the  grasses,  especially 
the  anniials,  spring  up,  is  such  that  in  a  few  days  the  plains  are  covered 
with  luxuriant  verdure  which  ordinarily  only  northern  countries  produce. 
For  the  few  months  that  the  wet  season  or  winter  lasts,  every  week  adds 
new  colors  to  the  vegetation  of  the  plains.  By  the  middle  of  November 
the  number  of  flowering  plants  lessens  rapidly.  Tlie  annual  grasses  and 
other  herbaceous  plants  begin  to  dry  up,  droop,  and  disappear.  In  January 
the  plains  present  a  dried-up  and  withered  appearance.     Tlic  seeds  of 


42  SOUTH     ALSTKALIA. 

the  annual  plants  have  been  scattered  ;  perennial  herbage  has  returned 
to  its  dormant  state  until  the  advent  of  the  next  rainy  season. 
.  .  .  .  There  is  another  kind  of  grass  land  to  be  met  with  here  and 
there  in  large  parts,  called  "  Bay  of  Biscay  land."  Such  places  have  a 
peculiar  undulating  surface.  The  soil  is  considered  very  good.  It  is  of 
a  chocolate  color,  and  produces  fine  wheat  crops,  but  it  takes  several 
years'  ploughing  to  render  the  surface  level.  The  flora  of  the  Bay  of 
Biscay  land  has  its  peculiarities.  Gum  trees  f  Eucalyptus  J  shun  such 
tracts,  but  they  are  rich  in  Composite  and  grasses. 


CLIMATE    AND    METEOROLOGY.  i'-j 


CHAPTER    V. 

Climate — Area  —  Productiveness  of  the  Province  —  Varvinu  Rainfall  — 
Meteorological  Records  —  The  Government  Astronomer's  View>  — 
Foreign  Plants  and  their  Progress — The  Hills  and  Plains — The 
Seasons — Delightful  Climate — Sir  G.  Kingston's  Observai ions— Course 
of  Winds — The  Influence  of  the  Monsoons — Hot  "Winds — Meteoro- 
logical Tables,  &c. 

The  climate  of  South  Australia,  although  occasionally  somewhat  tiying 
in  the  summer  months,  is  unquestionably  one  of  the  most  agrreeable  and 
most  healthy  in  the  world.  It  has  been  compared  with  that  of  the  south 
of  Sjjain.  Its  skies  have  been  justly  described  as  surpassing  those  of 
Italy.  The  purity  and  dryness  of  its  atmosphere  are  quite  equal  to 
similar  climatic  characteristics  which  prevail  in  the  best  portions  of 
Algeria.  In  fertility  of  soil  it  is  not  interior  to  that  of  the  most  favorc-d 
districts  in  those  sunn)'  lands.  The  enormous  territory  which  is  em- 
braced within  the  limits  of  South  Australia  proper,  having  an  area  of 
about  380,070  square  miles,  or  243,244,800  acres,  naturally  includes 
considerable  climaiic  differences.  The  climate  in  the  hills  and  in  the 
high  lands  is  temperate  and  genial,  and  not  marked  by  an  excess  of 
cold  during  the  winter  months.  On  the  plains  the  summer  weather  is 
most  felt,  for,  as  the  winter  and  spring  rains  cease,  they  become  dry  and 
hot  and  unfavorable  to  the  growth  of  many  plants  which  belong  to  cooler 
countries.  In  the  hills  almost  all  the  fruits  and  vegetables  which  grow 
in  Europe  and  in  the  more  temperate  regions  of  Asia,  as  well  as  many 
that  are  indigenous  to  Africa  and  America,  thrive  splendidly.  The  produc- 
tiveness of  the  colony  depends  to  a  very  great  extent  upon  the  rainfall, 
and  that  varies  remarkably,  not  only  in  different  localities,  but  in  different 
seasons.  Thus  the  rainfall  at  Mount  Lofty,  in  1889,  amounted  to  67-010 
inches  ;  in  18.39  it  was  32-000.  At  Parallana,  in  the  far  north,  in  1888. 
it  was  1-710  inches,  and  in  1885  it  had  been  20-40.5.  In  some  parts  of 
the  north,  such  as  Lake  Frome,  only  5  inches  were  recorded.  The 
average  rainfall  in  the  whole  of  the  agricultural  districts  of  South  Aus- 
tralia, from  Melrose  to  Cape  Northumberland,  in  1890*  was  26-646 
inches;  the  mean  for  previous  years  being  21-476.  The  highest 
total  was  in  1889,  when  30-874  inches  were  recorded  at  the  Adelaide 
Observatory;  and  the  lowest  in  1876,  when  no  more  than  13-434 
inches  were  noted  at  the  same  place.  It  is  somewhat  strange  that  the 
heaviest  rainfall  known  in  the  colony  should  not  have  been  followed  by 

•  Pailiameutary  Paper  al  of  ISiM,  Kumlall  in  South  AustraUa  :    <.'.  loiUl, 

Government  Astronomer. 


44  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

something  approaching  to  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  harvest ; 
yet,  in  1863,  with  a  rainfall  in  Adelaide  of  less  than  24  inches, 
the  yield  was  nearly  double  what  was  secured  in  1889,  when  the 
rainfall  was  nearly  31  inches.  This  noticeable  discrepancy,  however, 
maybe  ascribed  to  causes  not  altogether  dependent  on  the  actual  quantity 
of  rain  that  descends.  The  time  of  the  year  at  which  the  rains  set  in,  their 
duration,  and  then  again  the  temperature  which  immediately  follows  upon 
the  rains  when  they  continue  late  and  come  down  to  the  verge  of  summer, 
and  the  early  visitation  of  north  winds,  which  in  the  summer  are  hot, 
all  have  their  share  in  influencing  the  quantity  of  the  yield.  Other 
circumstances,  not  meteorological,  have  also  their  effect  upon  the  harvest. 

The  observations  of  the  i-ainfall  which  occurs  in  the  various  parts  of 
the  colony  are  recorded  at  368  stations.  At  several  of  these  the  daily 
range  of  the  barometer  and  thermometer  are  noted,  with  all  the  particulars 
which  accurately  describe  the  meteorological  conditions  of  the  place. 
These  are  forwarded  to  the  central  station,  where,  under  the  direction  of 
C.  Todd,  Esq.,  Postmaster-General  and  Government  Astronomer,  they 
are  collated,  tabulated,  and  prepared  for  publication.  By  means  of  the 
telegraph,  which  extends  from  Adelaide  to  the  Indian  Ocean  on  the 
north,  to  Melbourne  and  Sydney  on  the  east,  almost  to  the  extreme 
north  of  Queensland  on  the  north-east,  and  from  Adelaide  to  North- 
West  Cape  in  Western  Australia,  the  Government  Astronomer  is  able  to 
publish  weather  forecasts,  which,  being  generally  reliable,  are  alike 
interesting  and  useful  to  the  public,  and  are  eagerly  looked  for  in  the 
columns  of  the  daily  journals. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  this  colony  (as  well  as  the  other  colonies 
whose  meteorological  records  are  collected  and  made  up  on  the  same 
system)  is  in  a  position  to  furnish  daily  accounts  of  meteorological 
phenomena  which  occur  over  most  of  the  continent,  that  can  be 
regarded  as  authentic.  The  record  of  the  rainfall  dates  back  as  far  as 
1839,  when  it  was  commenced  by  the  late  Sir  George  Kingston,  formerly 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Assembly,  and  who  kept  it  up  till  within  a  very 
short  period  of  his  death  in  1880.  The  record  at  the  Observatory  was 
commenced  in  1856,  since  when  its  operations  ba^e  been  gradually 
extended  all  over  the  province,  so  that  its  meteorological  arrangements 
are  as  complete  as  it  has  been  possible  to  make  them. 

The  Postmaster-General  and  Astronomer  to  the  colony  published  in 
1876*  a  paper  which  gave  inter-esting  particulars  of  the  climatic  pecu- 
liarities of  South  Australia,  as  well  as  a  detailed  account  of  the 
Observatory  and  its  appliances.     Since  the  publication  of  that  memoir 

*Observatorv  and  Meteoroloo;v  of  South  Australia:    C.  Todd,  C.M.G., 

F.li.S.,  Jcc,  1876. 


CLIMATE     AM)     METEOROLOGY,  45 

the  climate  of  the  colony  has  not  sensibly  changed.  There  have  been 
in-egularities  in  the  seasons,  or  rather  irregularities  in  the  special 
phenomena  of  those  seasons,  especially  of  late  years,  which  should,  if 
duly  weighed  by  those  who  are  interested  in  the  culture  of  the  land, 
whether  as  fruit  growers,  vignerons,  market  gardeners,  or  producers  of 
grain,  largely  influence  the  horticulture  and  agriculture  of  the  future. 

The  indigenous  plants  of  the  province  were  not  capable  of  maintaining 
a  large  population.  The  food  of  the  aborigines  indeed  consisted  almost 
entirely  of  animals,  birds,  reptiles,  fishes,  and  even  insects.  The  soil  and 
climate,  however,  which  produced  so  little  for  the  food  of  man,  before 
the  coming  of  the  white  settlers,  amply  rewarded  the  adventurers  who 
migrated  to  the  province  when  they  planted  the  seeds  of  their  European 
homes  in  South  Australian  soil.  Everything,  or  almost  everything,  throve 
at  first.  As  experience  of  the  country  extended,  and  the  different  plants 
became  acclimatised,  they  increased  in  strength  and  productiveness.  The 
late  Dr.  Schomburgk  stated,  and  it  has  been  proved,  that  the  South 
Australian  cereals  are  the  finest  that  are  grown  in  the  world,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  those  that  are  intra-tropical,  all  fruits  fi-om  other  parts 
of  the  world  come  to  a  perfection  in  size  and  flavor  in  the  different 
districts  of  the  province  hardly  known  in  other  countries.  Most  fruits, 
vegetables,  and  useful  plants  are  found  to  improve  by  the  change,  as  the 
climatic  conditions  to  a  great  extent  modify  as  well  as  develop  them.  The 
finest  grapes  are  grown  upon  the  plains ;  they  ripen  in  perfection  and  in 
profusion.  At  the  present  time  South  Australian  wine  has  obtained  no 
inconsiderable  reputation  in  the  markets  of  Europe.  On  the  plains 
apples,  pears,  loquats,  plums,  walnuts,  and  chestnuts,  as  also  apricots, 
peaches,  nectarines,  oranges,  citrons,  lemons  and  .shaddocks,  cherries, 
grapes,  figs,  almonds,  mulberries,  olives,  &,c.,  thrive  splendidly,  and 
many  of  them  in  the  gullies  in  the  hills.  In  these  gullies  vegetables  of 
the  finest  quality  and  all  culinary  herbs  grow  in  all  seasons.  They 
flourish  also  on  the  plains  during  the  rainy  season.  Cauliflowers  of  large 
size,  cabbages,  turnips,  asparagus,  artichokes,  leeks,  onions,  beets,  carrots, 
potatoes,  endive,  lettuce,  celery,  &.c.,  as  well  as  cucumbers,  sweet  and 
water  melons,  pumpkins,  tomatoes,  and  other  fruits  and  vegetables  attain 
a  size  and  flavor  which  are  not  common  in  Europe. 

In  the  memoir  on  the  climate  which  has  been  referred  to,  Mr. 
Todd  states  that  "  the  observations  at  the  Observatory  satisfactorily 
represent  the  climate  of  the  plains  for  some  distance  north  and  south 
of  Adelaide,  but  in  the  Mount  Lofty  ranges,  close  by,  the  citizens  can 
in  an  hour  or  two  find  a  much  lower  temperature,  and  twenty  minutes 
by  railway  will  carry  them  to  the  invigorating  breezes  of  the  gulf;  and, 
except  when  kept  back  by  strong  easterly  and  northerly  winds,  the  sea 


46  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

breeze  sets  in  soon  after  10  a.m.  and  sweeps  across  the  plains,  tempering 
the  heat  during  what  would  otherwise  be  the  hottest  hours  of  the  day. 

"  The  hottest  months  in  the  year  are  December,  January,  and  Feb- 
ruary, when  the  temperature  on  the  plains  frequently  exceeds  100°  in 
the  shade.  November  and  March  are  also  hot ;  but  the  nights,  especi- 
ally in  the  former  month,  are  cooler,  and  the  heat  is  seldom  of  long 
duration,  rarely  reaching  100°  in  the  shade,  and,  coming  in  suddenly 
with  a  strong  hot  wind,  is  followed  quickly  by  a  change  to  cool,  or  even 
cold,  weather.  A  few  hot  days  occasionally  occur  in  October;  but,  even 
in  the  hottest  months,  especially  in  December,  the  weather  is  often 
broken  by  cloudy,  cold  intervals,  with  strong  south-west  winds,  veering 
gradually  to  south  and  south-east.  This  state  of  things  will  continue 
for  several  days,  during  which  the  Mind  from  the  south-east  will  usually 
freshen  towards  sunset,  a  bank  of  cloud  forming  over  the  Mount  T.ofty 
ranges,  with  cold  nights,  the  temperature  falling  rapidly  after  sunset. 
The  duration  of  these  south-easterly  winds  appears  to  depend  upon  the 
weather  on  the  eastern  coast:  and  the  presence  of  the  bank  of  cloud  on 
the  ranges,  and  the  persistence  and  force  of  the  wind,  often  indicate 
gales  and  rain  on  the  coasts  of  New  South  Wales  and  Queensland, 
although  the  weather  here  may  be  fine  and  clear  overhead.  As  the 
easterly  wind  modei-ates  it  gradually  hauls  to  the  north,  and  alternate 
land  (easterly)  and  sea  (south-westerly)  breezes  set  in,  with  fine  weather, 
getting  warmer  and  warmer,  till  another  spell  of  extreme  heat  is  expe- 
rienced. The  heat  is  sometimes  followed  by  rain,  especially  in  the 
earlier  part  of  the  season,  setting  in  with  the  surface  wind  light  at 
north-east,  but  the  upper  current  north-west.  This  is  usually  presaged 
by  aggregations  of  cirro-cumuli,  which  close  up  and  form  a  bank  with  a 
hard  sharply-defined  outline,  gradually  spreading  over  the  sky,  the  clouds 
at  the  same  time  increasing  in  density  as  they  change  their  character, 
with  scud  forming  beneath.  'I"he  rain  increases  as  the  wind  veers  to  the 
north-west,  and  often  e.xtends  over  a  large  area  to  the  north,  and  is  some- 
times accompanied  with  heavy  thunder  and  lightning,  usually  terminating 
with  a  gale  from  the  south-west.  The  same  thing  occurs  in  the  winter; 
but  the  wind  at  that  season  hangs  longer  about  the  west,  often  backing 
to  the  north-west,  with  henvy  rain  and  wind.  These  are  usually  our 
heaviest  and  most  widely  diffused  falls,  the  rains  from  the  south-west 
seldom  extending  far  inland. 

"  The  summer  may  be  regarded  as  extending  from  October  to  March. 
After  that  month  the  temjierature  falls  rapidly,  very  rarely  reaching 
90°  in  the  shade.  .  .  .  The  weather  during  April  and  a  great  part 
of  May  is  simply  perfection,  and  the  same  applies  to  most  of  the  winter 
and  till  the  end  of  October.     Although  corresponding  to  the  autumn  or 


CLIMATE     AND     METEOROLOGY.  47 

early  winter  of  Europe  it  is  virtually  spring,  when  vegetation,  refreshed 
by  the  first  rains  after  the  drought  of  summer,  bursts  into  fresh  life, 
and  the  whole  surface  of  the  land  is  clad  with  verdure."  Heavy  lains 
frequently  fall  in  May,  and  the  greatest  downfalls  usually  occur  in 
that  month.  The  coldest  months  are  Jmie,  July,  and  August,  but 
the  mean  temperature  in  those  months  has  not  fallen  below  51*o°. 
Although  the  temperature  is  not  very  low,  the  cold  is  sometimes  much 
felt  in  the  winter  months,  because  of  the  contrast  it  emphasises  between 
the  summer  weather  and  the  genial  temperature  which  prevails  in  other 
portions  of  the  year.  Frosts  occasionally  occur  on  the  plains,  and 
frequently  in  the  hills.  Ice,  perhaps  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  is 
occasionally  noticeable  in  shallow  surface  pools,  but  this  rarely  if  ever 
survives  an  hour's  sunshine.  Snow  has  sometimes  fallen  at  Mount  Lofty 
and  on  other  high  summits  in  the  ranges,  and  at  other  times  a  few 
miles  north  of  Kooringa,  which  is  ], 560ft.  above  the  sea  level.  Snow 
is,  however,  quite  phenomenal  in  South  Australia,  and  the  drift  does  not 
remain  on  the  ground  for  more  than  an  hour  or  two,  whenever  it  does 
occur. 

*  In  writing  on  the  subject  of  the  course  of  the  seasons  or  *'  weather 
forecasts,"  Sir  George  Kingston  gave  the  following  as  the  results  of  his 
observations  extending  over  forty  years : — "  The  heaviest  rains  through- 
out the  year  may  be  expected  with  a  wind  at  about  north-east,  the  rain 
then  commencing  to  fall  gently  and  the  wind  light — both  gradually 
increasing  as  the  latter  veers  round  to  the  north,  and  thence  to  the 
north-west,  when  the  violence  of  both  rain  and  wind  has  much 
increased.  After  this  the  wind  may  be  expected  to  draAv  round 
to  the  west,  with  still  increasing  violence,  till  it  has  got  to  the 
south  of  west,  when  the  rain  generally  ceases— or  at  least  rarely 
falls  except  in  heavy  squalls  and  showers — and  the  weather  clears 
up.  The  time  occupied  by  a  continuous  fall  of  rain,  as  thus  described, 
rarely  amounts  to  twelve  hours.  The  wind  will,  however,  frequently 
hang  at  about  west,  Avith  a  few  points  of  variation  to  the  south  and  north, 
for  some  days — during  which  period  rain  occurs  in  showers  if  to  the 
south,  and  more  steadily  in  proportion  to  the  northing  of  the  wind.  The 
heaviest  rains — assuming  a  tropical  character — may  be  expected  after  a 
hot  north-east  wind,  drawing  round  to  the  north-west,  at  which  point  an 
inch  of  rain  and  upwards  has  often  fallen  within  the  hour,  accompanied 
with  heavy  thunder  and  lightning;  or,  as  in  October,  1854.  the  rain 
is  represented  by  tremendous  hailstorms — the  hail  assuming  the  form  of 
flat  pieces  of  ice. 

*  Parliamentary  Paper.  Honsi-  of   A>seiiil>  v,   X'>.  74  of  1->7V'.     Sir  (J.  5>.  Kingston's 
Analysis  of  Rain  Ucgisler,  1S:>9  lo  ISTO. 


48  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

"  As  regards  the  use  of  the  barometer,  in  forming  a  judgment  on  the 
weather  to  be  expected  I  have  to  observe  that  the  barometer  invariably 
begins  to  fall  Avith  a  north-east  wind,  continuing  to  fall  as  the  wind 
increases  in  violence  and  draws  round  by  the  north,  north-west,  and 
westerly,  at  or  about  which  point  it  reaches  it  lowest  figure.  The  baro- 
meter generally  begins  to  rise  with  the  least  southing  in  the  wind.  Now, 
although  a  low  barometer  thus  agrees  with  the  heaviest  fall  of  rain,  it  is 
impossible  to  draw  certain  conclusions  from  it  as  to  probability  of  rain 
or  otherwise — unless,  indeed,  when  the  wind  is  violent,  as  then,  even 
with  every  appearance  of  heavy  cloudy  weather,  rain  rarely  occurs. 
Calm,  murky  weather,  accompanied  by  a  low  state  of  the  barometer,  is 
the  most  favorable  indication  for  rain.  I  have  frequently  seen  the  baro- 
meter at  its  lowest  point  (as  observed  by  me),  29-3 — blowing  hard,  and 
accompanied  by  cloudy  weather — when  no  rain  has  fallen  :  on  the  other 
hand,  I  have  known  some  of  the  steadiest  and  most  copious  rains  to  occur 
with  the  barometer  at  30-2  and  falling,  the  wind  light  or  nearly  calm. 

"  I  may  add,  that  generally  during  fine  weather  a  land  and  sea  breeze 
alternates  during  the  twenty-four  hours.  After  sunset  the  wind  gene- 
rally blows  from  about  south-east  to  east,  dying  away  about  daylight, 
and  a  light  south-west  wind  springs  up  about  9  a.m.  — but,  failing  to  do 
so,  the  land  wind  towards  morning  draws  round  from  east  to  north-east 
by  north  to  north-west,  and  west  towards  the  afternoon ;  and  shoidd  it 
hano-  to  the  north  of  east,  with  a  falling  barometer,  it  is  a  certain  pre- 
cursor of  a  hot  wind. 

"  [t  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  add  here  that,  when  Sydney  was 
visited  by  tremendous  storms  and  floods  from  the  19th  to  the  end  of 
July,  1860,  the  weather  here  was  then  unusually  fine  for  the  time  of 
year;  the  barometer  was,  during  all  that  time,  above  SOin.  and  very 
steady — oscillating  slightly  each  day,  its  whole  range  not  exceedingr  0-2 ; 
the  wind  was  very  light,  from  south-east  to  north-east  and  north-west. 
I  did  not  record  a  drop  of  rain  all  that  time — an  unprecedented  event  at 
that  period  of  the  year." 

"  The  winds,"  according  to  JNIr.  Todd.  "  during  the  summer  tend 
generally  on  all  sides  to  the  heated  interior,  which  may  be  roughly 
described  as  a  vast  plain  broken  by  a  fesv  ranges,  none  of  which  are 
of  any  great  size  or  magnitude ;  on  the  south  coast  the  wind 
being  south-east  and  south  varied  by  occasional  south-west  gales 
following  a  hot  wind  from  the  north-east  and  north,  whilst  during  the 
winter  north-east  and  northerly  winds  predominate.  On  the  east  coast 
it  is  south-east,  east,  and  north-east,  whilst  further  north  and  round  the 
north  coast,  the  north-west  monsoon  for  some  months  before  and  after 
the  simimer  solstice  presses  down  south  with  varying  force,  often  making 
itself  felt  as  far  south  as  the  Macdonnell  ranges  on  the  southern  edge  of 


CLIMA.rE    AND    METEOROLOGY.  49 

the  tropics  in  the  centre  of  the  continent.  North  of  the  Macdounell 
ranges  the  winds  during  the  summer  season  are  variable,  south- 
east and  north-west  winds  alternating  with  calms,  and  heavy  electrical 
storms  with  rain  prevail  with  increasing  intensity  northwards  to  tlie 
coast.  South  of  the  Macdonnell  ranges  south-east  winds  prevail  duvin"- 
the  greater  part  of  the  year,  but  in  the  summer  they  are  often  influenced 
by  the  north-west  tropical  current,  and  then  veering  to  the  north-east 
and  north  will  sweep  over  South  Australia  as  a  hot  wind,  the  birthplace 
of  which  seems  to  be,  speaking  approximately,  somewhere  about  latitude 
26°.  Our  experience  of  the  climate  of  the  interior  of  Australia  is  as  yet 
but  limited,  but  the  stations  on  the  great  overland  telegraph  now 
furnish  accurate  daily  reports  of  the  weather,  direction  of  upper  currents, 
and  rainfall.  These  reports  show  that  the  prevailing  wind,  except 
during  the  middle  of  the  summer,  is  south-east." 

In  connection  with   Sir  George  Kingston's  "  weather  forecasts  "  the 
following  observations  from  Mr.  Todd  may  be  read  with  interest : — "  I 
have  long  been  of  opinion  that  the  southerly  dip  of  the  monsoon  largelv 
influences  the   climate   of   South    Australia  proper  as   well  as    that  of 
Victoria.     In  seasons  of  drought,  or  when  the  summer  in  the  interior  is 
dry,  the  north-west  monsoon  rains  thin  off,  and  rarely  reach  the   centre 
in  occasional  storms.     But  when  the  monsoon  is  strong  and  blows  well 
home,  the  tropical  rains  and  thunder  storms  will  stretch  right  across  the 
continent  well  into  the   northern  country  of  South  Australia  to  within 
about  two  or   three   hundred  miles  of  Adelaide,  and  occasionally  these 
tropical  rains  will  reach  the  south  coast.     A  wet  season  in  the  interior 
will  probably  coincide  with   a  hot    summer    in     South   Australia    and 
Victoria  ;  whilst  a  cool  summer,  when    strong  polar  currents  keep   the 
temperature  down  and  the  south-east  w^inds  are  powerful,  will  denote  or 
coincide   with  a  dry  summer    in    the  interior   and   a   weak   north-west 
monsoon.     The  winter  i-ains  of  the  south,  it  may  be  remarked,  thin  off  at 
about   three  or  four  degrees  north    of  Adelaide,  rarely  penetrating  to 
latitude  28°,  and  summer  rains  are  not  to  be  depended  upon  far  south  of 
the  tropics.      Between  those  parallels  is  a  wide  belt  of  five  or  six  degrees 
having  an  uncertain  rainfall,  subject   to   droughts,  very   seldom  getting 
rain    during    the    winter,   but  mostly    depending   on  summer  thunder- 
storms, the  frequency  and  intensity  of  which,  it  is  not  improbable,  may 
be  found  closely  to  coincide  with  the   magnetic  cycle  of  eleven  and   a 
quarter  years,  which  is  believed  to  determine  the  frequency  of  aurora\ 
magnetic  storms,  and  solar  spots.    This  of  course  is  conjectural,  and  is  not 
to  be  accepted  till  proved  by  increased  experience." 

From  the  foregoing  a  tolerably  accurate  conception  of  the  South  .-Vus- 
tralian   climate   may  be   formed.       There  is  one  thing,  however,  whicli 

D 


.50  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

deserves  some  notice  here.     In  many   published   articles  in  newspapers 
and  magazines  the  hot  winds  of  Australia,  and   specially  of  South  Aus- 
tralia, have  been  mentioned  in  highly-colored  terms.     They  have   been 
described  as  terrific,  and  have  been  dwelt  upon  as  though  the  chmate  of 
this  province  was  somewhat  worse   than   tropical.      It  is  quite  true  that 
hot  winds  are  not  pleasant,  in  fact  they  are    enervating,  and  whilst  they 
last  are  exceedingly  exhausting  to  persons  who  are  in  a  feeble  state  of 
body;  but  they  seldom  last  for  more  than   a  very  few  days,  and  when 
the  westerly  breezes  which  succeed  them  set  in,  sometimes  suddenly,  all 
the  bodily  malaise  which  they  may  have  caused  quickly  disappears.     They 
have,  hoAvever,  a   most  beneficial  effect   in  purifying   the    atmosphere. 
They  destroy  noxious  germs  which  may  float  about  in  the  air,  and  other- 
Avise  do  an  immense  amount  of  good.     At  the  same  time  their  effect  upon 
tender  plants  is  severe,  and  all  kinds  of  flowers  and  shrubs  which  are  not 
hardy  or  tolerably  well  protected  from  them  droop  and  shrink,  and  are  sIoav 
to  recover  their  strength  until  a  much  cooler  temperature  prevails. 

Even  with  the  drawback  of  occasional  hot  winds,  there  is  seDom  such 
severe  heat  in  the  summer  as  to  prevent  persons  from  following  their 
ordinary  occupations  out  of  doors.    There  are  only  forty-five  days  in  the 
year,  taking  the  average  of  34  years  1857-90,  on  which  the  temperature 
rises  above  90".     The  Government  Astronomer  has  noted  this  fact,  and 
states  that  "  our   climate,  beautiful  as  it  really  is,  affording  as  it  does  a 
greater   number    of  pleasant  days    on    which    outdoor  pursuits   can  be 
carried  on  with   buoyancy  of  spirits,  one  must  confess  is  a  Avee  bit  dry, 
a  fact  which  vegetation  on  the  plains  in  our  summer  season  sufficiently 
attests.     The  clearness  or  transparency  of  our  atmosphere  is  something 
Avonderfid,  and  owing  to  its  dryness,  except  on  hot-Avind  days,  is  seldom 
oppressive  unless  one  is  lazy.    Cricket  matches  are  played  with  the  usual 
enthusiasm  before  crowds  of  spectators  Avith  the  thermometer  ranging 
between  90=  and  100=  in  the  shade,  and  the  AA-riter  has  ridden  fifty  miles 
in  the  day  with  the  temperature  as  high  as  110°  Avithout  much  incon- 
venience or  distress ;  the  secret  of  which  is  that  these  high  temperatures 
are  ahvays  accompanied  by  such  an  extreme    diyness   of  the    air   that 
perspiration  affords  instantaneous  relief.       When  a  fierce  hot  Avind  is 
bloAving,  and  the  thermometer  stands  at  perhaps  something  over  100°, 
the  Avet  bidb  thennometer  Avill  shoAV  65°,  and  it  is  this  Avhich  enables 
persons  to  bear  the  heat  of  summer  and  carry  on  their  usual  pursuits 
Avith  less  inconvenience  and  discomfort  than  is  felt  in  damp  climates, 
though  the  temperature  maybe   15°  or  20°  loAA-er,  but  nearly  saturated 
Avith  aqueous  vapors,  as  at  Port  DarAvin,  AA-here,  during  the  rainy  season 
of  the  north-Avest  monsoon,   the  thermometer  may  stand  at  only  88°, 
whilst  the  Avet  bulb  indicates  86^     Such  an  atmosphere,  Ave  need  hardly 
sav,  is  far  more  enervating  than  the  hot  and  dry  air  of  the  Adelaide 
Plains." 


CLIMATE    AND    METEOROLOGY. 


a 


One  peculiarity  of  the  Australian  climate  is  the  occurrence  of  drought. 
Droughts  are  either  general — that  is  to  say,  they  aifect  the  whole  of 
the  Australian  continent  in  a  greater  or  less  degree — or  thev  are  ])artial. 
that  is  confined  within  limited  areas.  South  Australia  is  probabh 
more  subject  to  visitations  of  this  kind  than  any  other  portion  of 
Australia,  owing  to  some  extent  to  the  absence  of  high  mountain  ranges 
in  the  interior.  The  causes  of  these  droughts  have  been  very  carefully 
investigated  by  the  official  heads  of  the  meteorological  departments  in 
the  princijjal  colonies,  and  as  far  as  their  observations  have  extended 
they  are  generally  in  accord  upon  the  subject.  The  following  paper 
prepared  by  Mr.  Todd  wiH  be  found  most  interesting.  It  enters  some- 
what fully  into  the  subject  and  will  repay  perusal : — 

"  Australia,  lying  between  the  parallels  of  11°  and  39°  south,  has  a 
tropical  and  sub-tropical  climate,  with  summer  monsoon  rains  on  the 
north  coast,  extending  for  some  distance  inland,  and  winter  rains  on  the 
south  coast.  The  greater  part — all  the  interior  —  is  within  the  anti- 
cyclonic  region  of  high  pressure  and  the  dry  south-east  trades.  It  is. 
therefore,  a  land  subject  to  drought.  Sometimes,  as  durhig  the  present  year 
(1888).  the  drought  embraces  the  whole  of  the  continent,  in  other  years 
it  is  more  or  less  local,  whilst  some  regions  suffer  from  almost  perpetual 
drought.  The  driest  portion  is  a  belt  of  country  reaching  from  a  little 
north  of  the  Grea,t  Bight,  or  from  about  latitude  30°  to  the  north-west 
coast,  which  throughout  the  year  is  swept  by  the  south-east  trades.  The 
bounding  limits  on  either  side  are  not  well  defined,  but  they  extend  fiom 
Avell  to  the  west  of  the  130th  meridian  to  the  east  of  Lake  Eyre.  I  he 
average  rainfall  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Lake  Eyre  is  a  little 
over  5  inches,  and  even  this  low  average  is  only  reached  by  the  help  of 
occasional  heavy  storms.  Thus  at  the  Peake  on  the  west,  and  Cowarie 
on  the  east  side  of  the  lake,  the  average  is  a  little  over  5  inches,  and  at 
Charlotte  Waters  to  the  north  (26°  S.)  6-0o2  inches.  The  rainfall  at 
these  places  in  individual  years  was  as  follows  :  — 


Year. 


1874 

1875 
1876 

1877 
1878 

1879 
1880 
188 1 


Peake. 


^         .     Charlotte 
Cowane.   Waters. 


Year. 


Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches.  , 

4-452 

— 

4-982 

5-840 

— 

3-615 

1-690 

— 

1-710 

7-335 

— 

"-775 

12-620 

— 

11-245 

6-340 

— 

10-610 

3-630 

— 

5-515 

2-475 

■ 

2-495  ; 

1 

1882  

1883  

1884  

1885  

1886  

1887  

1888  up  to  De- 
cember 27* 


Peake. 

Cowarie. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

6-420 

3-120 

2-170 

I  050 

3-315 

3-600 

6-935 

I  '  -535 

7-440 

8-515 

6-765 

8-220    1 

2  200 

0-200 

Charlottr 
Waters. 


Inches. 

5-890 

1-365 
2-965 

8 --1 05 
S-ioo 
8350 
5-920 


Or,  for  the  year — Peake,  3-280;  Cowarie,  0-650;  Charlotte  Waters,  7-080. 


52  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

At  Charlotte  Waters  (latitude  26^)  the  driest  period  since  our  records 
commenced  in  1874  was  from  the  end  of  February,  1875,  to  the  end  of 
December,  1876 — a  period  of  twenty-two  mouths — during  which  only 
1*910  inches  were  recorded.  Of  this  0-73  inch  fell  in  May,  1876,  and 
0-819  inch  in  the  last  three  mouths  of  that  year,  leaving  only  0*470  inch 
to  be  accounted  for  during  the  remaining  eighteen  months  ;  whilst  this 
year  (1888),  up  to  December  27th,  at  Cowarie  only  0*200  inch  has 
fallen.  These  figures  Aviil  show  the  severe  droughts  to  which  this  pare 
of  the  country  is  exposed ;  yet  it  is  occupied  by  settlers  determined  to. 
conquer  all  difficulties. 

"  Our  records  of  rainfall  in  the  interior  extend  over  too  short  a  space 
to  afford  any  clue  as  to  periodicity.  The  foregoing  table,  however,  as  far 
as  it  goes,  seems  to  indicate  wet  periods  extending  over  three  consecutive 
years,  about  nine  years  apart  ;  but  at  Alice  Springs,  where  the  rainfall  is 
almost  entirely  dependent  on  the  southerly  reach  of  the  monsoons  — the 
winter  rains  rarely  penetrating  so  far  north — no  such  period  is  indicated. 
The  mean  rainfall  there  is  11*411  inches  ;  the  greatest  fall  in  any  year 
since  1874  was  27*210  inches  in  1879,  and  the  least  5*390  inches  in  J884. 
The  proximate  cause  of  this  extreme  aridity  of  climate  is  not  far  to  seek. 
During  the  winter  months  the  south-east  trades  extend  in  the  interior, . 
from  about  latitude  27°  to  beyond  the  north  coast,  as  a  dry  wind, 
precipitating  no  rain.  The  barometer  is  high,  and  the  nights  are  cold, 
radiation,  owing  to  the  extreme  dryness  of  the  air  and  absence  of  cloud, 
being  unimpeded  and  very  rapid.  Occasionally  the  areas  of  cyclonic 
depression,  which  pass  along  our  southern  coast  in  regular  succession,, 
extend  their  influence  well  into  the  interior,  and  then  the  south-east 
wind  dies  away  and  gives  place  to  a  northerly  wind  on  the  advancing  or 
north-eastern  quadrant  of  the  disturbance.  When  this  happens  we  may 
generally  expect  a  good  or  general  rain  over  the  northern  portions  of  the 
colony,  in  some  cases,  but  very  rarely,  even  reaching  up  to  the  tropics. 
The  majority  of  these  storm  areas,  however,  as  they  pass  the  meridian, 
of  Adelaide,  have  their  centre  well  to  the  south  of  Kangaroo  Island,  in 
which  case  the  rain  is  mainly  confined  to  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
Flinders  Range,  the  Mount  Lofty  Kanges,  and  the  southern  or  coastal 
districts  of  the  colony.  These  cyclones  evidently  skirt  the  southern 
margin  of  the  anticyclonic  region  lying  to  the  north,  and  have  a  pro- 
gressive march  to  the  east.  We  have  traced  some  from  the  Mauritius  to 
New  Zealand.  Their  approach  is  heralded  on  the  west  coast  by  northerly 
winds  and  falling  barometers  at  Perth  and  Cape  Leuwin.  On  the 
following  day  the  winds  in  South  Australia  veer  to  the  north-east,  the 
barometer  begins  to  fall,  the  temperature  rises,  and  light  cirri  appear  as 
the    vanguard   of    tho    approaching    disturbance.       The    low    pressure- 


CLIMATE    AND   METEOROLOGY.  53 

frequently  shoots  xip  into  the  Great  Bight,  the  depression  assuming  what 

is  termed  a  V  shape,  wedged  in  between  two  areas  of  higher  pressure. 
From  this  point  it  follows  the  trend  of  the  coastline,  but  its  onward 
progress  depends  nn  the  high-pressure  systems  to  the  north  and  over 

■south-eastern  Australia.     If  the  barometer  there  is  high  and  the  pressure 

is  maintained,  the  storm  centre  is  driven  off  to  the  south,  and  barelv 
affects  our  weather  in  South  Australia,  and  we  may  have  but  little  rain 
except  on  the  coast  and  ranges  ;  but  if  the  pressure  gives  way  the  storm 
centre  will  keep  a  more  easterly  course,  and  the  rain  will  be  more  or  less 
general  over  the  colony.  Victoria,  south  of  the  dividing  range,  and 
Tasmania,  are,  in  most  cases,  well  within  the  influence  of  these  dis- 
turbances, and  generally,  therefore,  get  rain,  with  strong  westerly  gales 
through  Bass's  Straits.  Having  reached  Tasmania,  the  centre  will  pass 
over  to  New  Zealand  in  from  twenty-four  to  thirty  hours,  on  a  south- 
east course.      Sometimes  these  storm  areas  come  up  from  the  south-west 

-  and  the  first  intimation  we  have  of  their  approach  is  a  fallini;  barometer 
in  Tasmania,  over  which  the  depression  passes,  occasionally  extending 
some  distance  up  the  east  coast  of  Australia  before  recur^•ing  to  the 

•  south-east,  CM  .rOM^e  to  New  Zealand.  These  storms  bring  strong  south- 
west to  south  winds  in  South  Australia,  with  cloudy  weather,  but  little  or 
no  rain,  except  oh  the  coast  and  Mount  Lofty  Ranges,  where  there  may 
be  a  few  light  showers.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  winter  rainfall  and 
its  northerly  extension  in  South  Australia  largely  depend  on  the 
barometric  pressure  in  the  interior.     As  the  summer  advances,  the  belt 

•of  south-east  trades  and  hish  pressure  recede  to  the  -outh,  the  interior 
becomes  intensely  heated,  the  barometer  falls  through  the  rarefaction  of 
the  air,  and  the  vapor-laden  north-west  monsoon  sets  in  on  the  north 
'<;oasr,  with  electrical  disturbances,  followed  by  heavy  rains  lasting  until 
towards  the  end  of  March,  dying  away  in  April  as  the  sun  again  passes 
to  the  north  of  the  equator.  The  southerly  reach  of  the  monsoon  will 
evidently  depend  on  the  pressure  in  Central  Australia.  In  some  years  it 
will  extend  south  of  the  tropics,  or  even  as  far  as  Lake  E}Te  ;  in  other 
years  only  a  few  hundred  miles  inland.  We  thus  have  a  wide  belt  of 
country — say,  roughly  speaking,  from  the  18th  to  the  30th  parallels — 
which  is  constantly  exposed  to  drought,  or  whenever  the  winter  rains 
fail  north  of  30^,  or  the  monsoons  do  not  extend  far  inland  from  the 
north  coast.  When  both  of  these  conditions  occur  in  succession  the 
drought  is  intensified  and  wider  spread.  The  north-west  monsoon  rains 
in  1887-8  wei-e  in  excess  on  the  coast,  and  about  an  average  as  far  south 
as  Barrow  Creek  until  the  end  of  February ;  but  in  March  they  were 
very  light  at  Port  Darwin  (4- 160  inches,  or  7  inches  below  the  average), 
and  altogether  failed  inland,  whilst  this  .season  the  monsoon  has  so  far 
proved  abnormally  light. 


54  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

"  A.t  Singapore  the  present  year  is  described  as  unusually  dry,  the 
rainfall  up  to  the  end  (if  November  being  only  about  6;^  inches,  or  some 
40  inches  below  the  average.  At  Banjoewangie,  where  it  usually  rains 
heavily  from  December  to  .VI arch  (both  inclusive),  and  often  till  June, 
the  north-west  monsoon  has  only  just  set  in,  the  rainfall  in  October, 
November,  and  December  (up  to  the  18th)  being  only  5061  inches,  and 
from  the  beginning  of  the  year  4r'234  inches,  or  10  inches  below  the 
average  ;  whilst  at  Baravia  the  fall  up  to  December  17th  was  61  inches, 
or  14  inches  below  the  average.  The  meteorological  reporter  to  the 
Government  of  India  (Mr.  Blanford)  sends  me  the  following  telegram 
from  Simla  : — '  Comj)lete  rainfall  data,  present  year  not  collected.  So 
far  as  can  be  judged,  total  rainfall  for  the  year  is  in  excess  of  average. 
Distribution  has.  however,  been  unusually  irregular,  as  is  frequently  the 
case  at  minimum  sunspot  phase  in  India.  Last  winter  rains  slightly 
below  average.  Snowfall  on  Himalayas  much  below  average,  and  depth 
of  water,  snow-fed  rivers,  also  much  below  average.  This  year  tem- 
perature very  excessive  in  April,  May,  and  June,  during  which  period 
several  tornadoes  in  Northern  India  of  excessive  and  unusual  violence. 
South-west  monsoon  rains  set  in  very  irregularly.  They  have  been  in 
excess  in  Burmah,  Northern  and  Central  India,  and  Bombay ;  deficient 
in  central  provinces,  and  very  deficient  in  districts  west  of  Arravalli  Hills 
and  in  North  Madras.  South-west  monsoon  current  retreated  earlier 
than  usual,  and  crops  in  Bengal  and  Behar  have  suffered  to  some  extent 
from  early  termination  of  rains,  although  rains  ample  up  to  that  time. 
Only  area  of  general  drought  includes  West  Rajpiitana,  Guzerat,. 
Katheawar,  and  Cutch ;  but  even  there  famine  is  not  anticipated. 
Partial  drought  in  North  Madras,  compensated  by  heavy  rain  October 
and  November.  Whole  of  Southern  India  has  received  abundant  rain 
past  two  months  from  so-called  north-east  monsoon.  Early  termination 
of  rains  over  Northern  India  has  been  followed  by  persistent  excessive 
pressure.  Before  and  during  rains  pressure  was  steadily  below  average 
in  Northern  India,  more  especially  Punjab  and  the  north-western 
provinces.' 

"  Comparing  our  records  with  those  of  India,  I  find  a  close  corres- 
pondence or  similarity  of  seasons  with  regard  to  the  prevalence  of 
drought,  and  there  can  be  little  or  no  doubt  that  severe  droughts  occur, 
as  a  rule,  simultaneously  over  the  two  countries.  'Ihe  most  remarkable 
instance  of  this  was  the  disastrous  drought  of  1876,  the  year  of  the  great 
Indian  famine.  This  drought,  it  is  said,  has  been  traced  from  30°  south 
in  Australia  to  60"  north,  over  90°  of  latitude  and  100°  of  longitude.  In 
India  it  prevailed  in  all  Madras  and  Deccan,  Mysores  and  the  south  part 
of  Hyderabad,  followed  by  severe  famine  in  those  districts,  and  a  drought 


CLIMATE    AM)    METEOROLOGY. 


00 


in  the  central  and  north-western  provinces  in  1877.  It  was  also  felt  at 
Mauritius.  On  the  north  coast  of  Australia  the  monsoon  rains  of 
1875-76  were  a  good  average  as  far  south  as  latitude  22°.  At  Alice 
Springs,  however,  the  rainfall  during  the  seven  months — October,  1875. 
to  April,  1876  (the  usual  wet  season) — was  less  than  3  inches,  or  excep- 
tionally small,  being  5^  inches  below  the  average  :  and  during  the  twelve 
months  following,  or  the  year  ending  April,  1877,  only  4-346  inches  fell, 
or  7  inches  below  the  average.  South  of  tropics,  or  around  Lake  Eyre, 
the  rainfall  for  the  whole  year  1876  was  only  about  If  inches.  At  Adelaide 
it  was  13-434  inches,  and  the  mean  over  the  agricultural  districts  15*742 
inches.  Everywhere  the  rainfall  was  largely  deficient.  The  following 
shows  the  coincidence  of  drought  in  India  with  years  of  deficient  rainfall 
at  Adelaide  : — 


Year  of  Drought  in  India. 

Rainfall  in 

Above 
Average. 

Adelaide. 

Below 
Average. 

Remarks. 

1839    

1844    

1853    

i86o   

1861    

Inches. 

5-9 
2-9 

_ 
3-8 

Inches. 

1-3 
4-3 

2-6 

5-6 
i-o 

1-2 

6-4 
3-9 
/ '/ 

At  Hobart,  9  inches  below:   at  Sydney  3j 
inches  below 

Drought  in  Australia 

1865   

1866   

1868   

1869   

1874   

1876   

1877         

Great  drought  in  Australia 
Very  dry  in  some  parts 

Intense  in  India 

Great  drought  and  famnie  in  India  :  gnat 
drought  in  Australia 

"  With  regard  to  the  periodical  recurrence  of  droughts,  Mr.  Blanford 
finds  that,  eliminating  those  which  have  occurred  in  some  })art  or  other  of 
the  peninsula,  ii  appears  that  they  have  recurred  with  remarkable  regu- 
larity at  intervals  of  from  nine  to  twelve  years — or,  taking  an  entire  cen- 
tury, a  mean  interval  of  ten  and  one-third  years.  'Sir.  Meldrum — ^^  ho 
included  in  his  investigations  the  pluvial  statistics  of  Mauritius.  Cape  of 


56  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

Good  Hope,  Melbourne,  Adelaide,  and  Sydney — arrived  at  the  conclusion 
that  years  ot  maximum  aud  minimum  rainfall  closely  coincided  with 
Wolff's  years  of  maximum  and  minimum  sun  spots.  According  to  Wolff 
the  years  of  minimum  sun  spots  were  1843,  1856,  1867.  1878.  At 
Adelaide  the  rainfall  in  1843  was  17'192  inches,  or  3  inches  below 
the  average  :  in  1856  it  was  24'93l  inches,  being  the  middle  and 
wettest  year  of  three  good  years  ;  in  1867  it  was  19'051  inches,  or  2  inches 
below  the  average  ;  and  in  1878,  which  was  also  the  middle  year  of  three 
good  years,  it  was  22*083  inches.  It  curiously  happens  that  two  years 
preceding  each  of  the  years  of  minimum  sun  spots  were  cimracterised  by 
very  small  rainfall,  thus: — 1841,  17-956  inches;  1854,  15-346  inches ; 
1865,  15  5U6  inches:  1876.  13-434  inches.  The  rainfall  at  Adelaide,  and 
to  some  extent  at  Melbourne,  is  often  deficient  in  those  years  which  are 
wettest  on  the  east  coast,  and  vice  versa.  Taking  the  seven  months, 
April  to  October — i.e.,  the  wheat-growing  season — the  mean  rainfall  over 
the  agricultural  districts  south  of  Mount  Remarkable,  deduced  from  fifty 
stations  fairly  evenly  distributed,  is  16-878  inches,  the  mean  for  the  year 
being  21  387  inches.  Comparing  the  rainfall  during  this  season  in  each 
year  since  1860  with  the  temperature  and  pressure  of  the  previous  five 
summer  months  (November  to  March)  I  find: — 1.  That  in  the  sixteen 
years  when  the  mean  summer  temperature  was  below  the  average,  the 
followinj;  winter  rainfall  was  below  the  average  in  eleven  Years,  above 
the  average  in  two  years,  and  about  an  average  in  three  years.  2.  That 
in  the  twelve  years  when  the  summer  temperature  was  above  the  average, 
the  following  winter  rains  were  above  the  average  in  eight  years,  below 
in  three  years,  and  about  an  average  in  one  j-ear.  3.  That  in  the  fifteen 
years  when  the  barometric  pressure  w^as  above  the  average  in  the  summer, 
the  following  winter  rains  were  below  the  average  in  teii  years,  above  in 
three  years,  and  about  an  average  in  two  years.  4.  That  in  the  thirteen 
years  AA'hen  the  summer  jDressure  was  below  the  average,  the  winter  rain 
was  above  the  average  in  seven  years,  below  in  four  years,  and  about  an 
average  in  two  years. 

"  By  combining  the  pressure  and  temperature  it  was  found  :— 1.  That 
in  the  eleven  years  when  the  summer  pressure  was  above  the  average  and 
the  temperature  below,  the  following  winter  rain  was  below  the  average 
in  eight  years,  above  the  average  in  only  one  year,  and  about  an  average 
in  two  years.  2.  That  in  the  eight  years  when  the  summer  pressure  was 
below  and  the  temperature  above,  the  winter  rain  was  above  the  average 
in  six  years,  below  in  only  one  year,  and  an  average  in  one  year.  From 
which  we  obtain  the  following  general  rule : — Summer  cool,  with  high 
barometer;  winter  (fry.     Summer  Ao^,  with  Zoif^  barometer;  winter  ?fe^." 


CLIMATE    AND    METEOROJ.OG V. 


The  table  which  follows  gives  the  decennial  returns  of  the  rainfall 
recordecl  at  the  Adelaide  Observatory  in  each  month,  and  also  the 
montlily  average,  for  tifty-two  years  (1839-1890) : — 


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Q 

CLIMATE    AND    METEOROLOGY. 


09 


ADELAIDE    OBSERVATORY. 
Hygrometric  Results  for  the  Ten  Years.   1 881-1890. 


Montb. 


January    . 

February . 
March  . .  . 
April     . . . 

May 

June     . . . . 

July 

August 
September 
October    . 
November 
December 

Year. 


Mean  Temperature 
of  Dew  Point. 


Degrees. 
50-9 
507 
49-5 
48-3 
47-3 
45-4 
42-8 
44-2 

45-2 
462 

477 
49-4 


Mean  Elastic  Force 
of  Vapor. 


Inches. 

0-374 
•370 
•354 
•338 
•327 
■304 
-276 
•290 
•300 
•314 
•332 
•353 


47-1 


•324 


Mean  Deffree  of 

Humidity 

(Saturation  =  100). 


44 
4'^ 
4.S 

57 
68 

75 
74 
70 
64 

58 

50 

46 

57 


Rainfall  ac 

Adelaide 

Ohscjvatniy 

• 

*  Rainfall  (52  years,  1839-1890). 

Mean 

Months 

\ 

Evaporation 
(21  vearsl. 

Mean 

Mean  No.  of 

Greatest     ; 

Least 

(Inches). 

Wet  Days. 

(Inches).     . 

(Inches). 

January  

0-734 

4-3 

i 
4-000 

o-ooo 

9-023 

February    

0-684 

33 

3-100      ; 

0-000 

7-252 

March     

0-988 

6-0 

4-600 

0000 

6-068 

April 

1-823 

9-r 

6-780 

0086 

3-670 

May    

2-884 

13-8 

7-751 

0-245 

2-149 

June 

2-988 

15-6 

7-800 

0-423 

I-4IO 

July   

2-705 

16-4 

5-380 

0-505 

1-504 

August 

2-566 

i6-6 

6-2qo     1 

0-675 

2-065 

September 

1-972 

13-8 

4-640 

0-686 

3-042 

October 

1-771 

IO-8 

3-834     1 

0-306 

4-062 

November 

1-157 

7-8 

3-550 

0-039 

6-512 

December 

•932 

6-1 

3-977 

0-105 

8-423 

Year   

21-204 

123-6 

*30-874    ; 

ti3-434 

56-080 

•  In  1889. 


+  In  1876. 


60 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 


Table  showing  the  Monthly  and  Annual  Mean  Teinperature  at  following 
Stations  in  the  Nothern  Territory,  together  with  the  Absolute  Alaximum 
and  Minimum  Temperature  in  each  Month  and  the  Year  in  1890. 


Port  Dakwin. 

Alice  Springs. 

jMean 
Tempera- 
ture. 

Maximum,    Minimum. 

Mean 
Tempera- 
ture. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

1890. 

84-1 

837 
85-0 
83-0 

8i-5 
797 

75-4 
79-1 

83-0 

86-0 

86-5 

86-7 

January 

Febr-iiary 

March.    

98-5 

97-3 

97-3 
97-2 

94-1 
92-5 
90-5 
95-0 
969 
97-2 

99-3 
100-9 

74-1 

72-2 

72-6 
68-6 

65-9 
61-3 

F'' 
61-0 

67-1 

72-1 

68-8 

70-9 

■84-2 
85-6  ■ 
78-8 
66-0 
59-6 

■557 
51-8 

.59-0 
7?i 

109-6 

104-8 

106-4 

88-3 

857 

■81-6 

■  ■  79-5 

^9-5 
103-4 

6l-4 
60-3 
46-9 

April 

May   

June   

July 

August 

September. 

October 

453 
357 
29-3 
26-7 
29-6 

488 

Xovember 

December 

78-0 
82-4 

■  105-6 
110-9 

49- 5 
54- r 

Year 

82-8      !        100-9 

1 

57-1 

— 

110-9 

26-7 

Table  showing  the  Monthly  and  Annual  Mean  Temperature^,  dr»c.— continued. 


1890. 

January .... 
February    . . , 

March     

April 

May    

June  

July    

August 

September . . , 

October 

November  . . 
December  . . , 

Year  . . , 


Port  At-gusta. 


Mean 
Tempera- 
ture. 


82-1 
78-2 

75*4 
68-1 
60-0 
56-2 
52-0 

537 
6i-8 
66-6 
696 

74-5 

66-5 


Maxim  m. ;  Miniiiium. 


IIO-8 
I02-I 
IOI-2 

91-5 
80-3 
72-9 

66-3 
76-5 

93-5 
92-7 

101-9 

991 

IIO-8 


56-8 
59-0 

52-9 
50-2 
42-7 

357 
36-6 
36-0 
44-1 
44-9 
49-3 


51-2 
357 


ECCLA  AND  TO  THE  WESTERN  PaRT 

OF  THE  Colony. 


.Mean 
Tempera- 
ture. 


71-S 
72-6 
67-4 
66-1 
61-0 
56-1 
52-2 

54-1 
61-4 
62-4 
65-0 
68-1 

63-2 


Ma.\imum. 


II5-0 

98-8 

104-4 

91-7 

.87-2 

76-1 

697 

87-4 

96-1 

102-8 

108-7 

105-9 

115-0 


Minimum. 


:>-  - 
522 
46-6 
46-1 
37-6 
36-2 

38-1 

33-9 

34-5 
39-0 

43-8 

497 

33-9 


CLIMATE    AND    METEOROLOGY. 


«1 


Mean  Annual  Rainfall  in  South  Australia  and  Northern  Territory^  and 

Greatest  aiid  Least  Raitt/all. 


station. 


NoKTHEKN  Territory. 

Port  Darwin 

Southport 

Yani  Creek    

Pine  (reek     

Eiver  Katherine   

Daly  Waters 

Powell's  Creek 

Tennant's  Cr^ek 

Barrow  Creek    

Alice  Springs    

Charlotte  Waters 

Peake     

South  Australia 
(proper). 

Strang  ways  Springs  .... 

Farina    

Beltana 

Blinman     

Outalpa 

Tardea   

Port  Augusta     

Melrose 

Orroroo 

Georgetown 

Clare  

Kooringa   

Kapunda    

Wallaroo   

Edithburgh    

Tanunda    

Gawler  

Adelaide    

Gumenicha    

Mount  Barker   

Strathalbyn   .  .    - 

Eucla 

Streaky  Bay 

Port  Lincoln 

Wentworth    

Blanchetown     

Naracoorte     

Robe :  . . . . 

Penola    

Mount  Gambler    

Cape  Norihumberland. . 


Mean 
Rainiall. 


No.  of 
Years. 


Greatest. 


62-945 
63-204 

47-794 
43-326 

39-525 
29-293 
18-160 
17-298 

13-913 

11-469 

6-402 

5  541 


5-176 

6-708 

9-310 
13-823 
To-084 

10-374 

9-2/3     ; 

24-263     j 

15-098     ) 

17-759  i 
24-330  I 
17-920     j 

20-0II   I 

13-622 

17-168 

22  036 

19-302 

21-204 

33-555 
30-601 
19074 
9-7II 
16-380 

19-977 
12-257 

12-064 
22-492 
24-669 

27-570 
31-806 
27-406 


21 

15 
16 
10 
18 
18 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 


17 
12 

17 
25 
23 
14 
31 
27 
18 

17 
29 

32 
30 

27 
16 

23 
30 
52 
22 

30 

30 

15 

13 

25 
22 

23 
23 
30 
30 
30 
25 


81-725 
88-800 
74-440 
57-500 
54-576 

43  905 
29-985 

26-110 
31-270 
27-210 

11-775 
12-620 


11-315 
12-408 

16-580 

23-460 

19-235 
17-040 

15-085 
38-780 
25-140 
28-980 
38-540 
27860 

32-155 
22-623 

22-945 
31-588 
30-691 
30874 

48-330 
46-470 
26-225 

13-775 
23-500 
28-875 
27-767 
19-710 
34-860 
33-169 
40-947 
55-675 
35-025 


In. 


003 
879 
879 

879 
873 
873 
877 
877 
879 
879 

877 
878 


1890 
1890 
1872 
1889 
1890 
1872 
1872 
1870 
1889 
1889 
1889 

1875 
1889 
1890 
1889 
1889 
1889 

1875 
1889 
1889 

1877 
1890 
1890 
1870 
1870 
1889 
1861 
1863 
1861 
1870 


Leiist. 


In. 


45  -000 

41-815 

28-370 

31-972 

21-720 

15-809 

10-325 

7-205 

4-780 

5-390 

I  365 
I -690 


1-665 
2-300 
4-850 
5823 
1-840 
6-510 
2-214 
12-150 

7-390 
IO-58S 
14-270 

9-754 
13-230 

7-805 
10-940 

15-525 
12-475 
13-434 
22-172 

21-295 
12-038 

6-373 

9-480 

14-960 

4-590 
6-140 
16-300 
17-210 
18-800 
21-520 

20-735 


1881 
1881 
1881 
1874 
1883 
1883 
1878 
1884 
1881 
1884 
1883 
1876 


1884 

1888 

1888 

i{ 

i{ 

1881 

1865 

1888 

1888 

1876 

1865 

1859 
l86: 

1888 
1888 
1882 
1865 
1876 
1869 
1869 
1869 
187S 
1881 
1867 
1888 
1888 
1869 
1877 
1877 
1877 
1888 


62  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 


CHAPTER    YI. 

A  New  Colony  Projected — Promoteks  Fail  to  Obtain  a  Charter — The  South 
Australian  Association — Bill  for  Founding  South  Australia  Passed 
IN  1834 — Act  of  William  IV.,  Cap.  95 — Outline  of  its  Provisions — 
The  New  Colony  to  be  Free  from  the  Introduction  of  Convicts — 
Difficulty  in  Disposing  of  Land  Sufficient  to  Establish  the  Colony 
— The  South  Australian  Company — The  Wakefield  System — Land 
Sales  — Statutory  Deposit  of  £20,000 — Colonel  Napier— Captain 
Hindmarsh,  R.N.,  appointed  Governor — Sailing  of  the  "Cygnet'" 
and  "Rapid"  to  Found  the  Settlement — Arrival  of  Captain  Hind- 
marsh— Proclamation  OF  THE  Colony — Divided  Authority — Disputes 
between  the  Governor  and  His  Officebs — The  Site  of  Adelaide 
Chosen— The  Governor's  Disapproval -Settlement  of  the  Dispute 
— Town  Suka'ey  Completed  —  Sale  of  City  Lands — Resignation  of 
Colonel  Light — His  Death — Captain  Hindmarsh  Recalled — First 
Anniversary  of  the  Foundation  of  the  Colony,  the  28th  December 
— Arrival  of  Cattle  Ovekland— Arrival  of  Colonel  Gawler — Captain 
Hindmarsh's  Administration — Dual  Control  Abolished  —  Act  of  1 
AND  2,  Victoria,  Cap.  60 — State  of  the  Public  Finances — Colonel 
Gawler's  Difficulties — His  Bills  Dishonored — His  Recall — Arrival 
of  Goveknor  Grey — His  Policy— His  Difficulties — Ordered  to  Send 
all  Emigrants  Employed  by  Government  to  Sydney — Declines  tc 
Carry  Out  those  Instructions —Assistance  Given  by  the  Imperial 
Government— Captain  Grey  Appointed  Governor  of  New  Zealand — 
Progress  of  the  Colony — Discovery  of  the  Kapunda  and  Burra 
Mines — Colonel  Robe  Appointed  Governor — His  Policy  and  Adminis- 
tration— State  Aid  to  Religion— Mining  Royalties — Defeat  of  the 
Governor's  Proposals— Colonel  Robe's  Troubles — His  Resignation — 
Progress   of   the   Colony   Under   His   Rule. 

The  discoveries  which  Captain  Sturt  had  made  in  the  course  of  his  long 
and  miserable  voyage  down  and  up  the  Murraj'  created  some  stir  when 
the  news  of  his  heroic  adventure  reached  England,  and  this  was  increased 
as  soon  as  the  later  discovery  of  an  enormous  fertile  country,  as  seen  from 
Mount  Lofty  by  the  ill-fated  Captain  Barker,  became  known.  At  that 
time  the  mother  country  was  in  a  troubled  state.  The  French  Revolu- 
tion, the  agitation  precedent  to  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill,  and  other 
social  and  political  causes  turned  the  eyes  of  many  to  distant  lands,  in  the 
hope  of  bettering  their  fortunes,  which,  in  those  days,  showed  but  a  gloomy 
prospect  in  the  future.  As  early  as  1831  a  number  of  gentlemen  formed 
themselves  into  a  committee  for  the  purpose  of  founding,  a  colony  as  an 
outlet  for  some  of  the  population,  on  the  principles  on  which  South  Aus- 
tralia was  afterwards  established.  Even  at  that  time  a  number  of  persons 
who  desii"ed  to  settle  in  the  projected  new  colony  had  been  collected 


FOUNDATION    AND    SETTLEMENT.  63 

together.  They  were  disappointed.  The  committee  carried  on  a  long 
and  unsatisfactory  negotiation  with  the  Government  of  that  day  in  order  to 
obtain  a  charter  to  found  a  colony.  'I'hey  were  not  successful,  and  the 
intending  emigrants  were  dispersed.  The  projects  of  the  committee  were 
abandoned,  but  only  for  a  time.  In  1834  another  committee  was  formed, 
having  in  view  objects  similar  to  those  of  its  predecessor.  It  was 
called  the  "  South  Australian  Association."  It  consisted  at  first  of 
twenty-nine  gentlemen,  all  of  whom  occupied  leading  positions  in 
England,  and  of  whom  eighteen  were  Members  of  Parliament.  By 
great  exertions  that  committee  obtained  a  Bill  for  the  colonisation  of 
South  Australia,  which  passed  the  House  of  Commons  with  the  support 
of  the  Right  Hon.  Spring  Rice,  then  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies. 
On  the  last  day  of  the  session  of  1834  it  received  the  Royal  assent. 
During  its  passage  through  the  House  of  Lords  it  was  supported  by  the 
Duke  of  Wellington. 

The  Act  of  4  and  5,  "William  IV.,  cap.  95,  under  which  South  Australia 
was  founded,  empowered  the  Crown  to  erect  "one  or  more  provinces"  in 
that  part  of  Australia  lying  between  the  132nd  and  the  141st  meridians 
of  E.  longitude  and  between  the  26th°  of  S.  latitude  and  the  Southern 
Ocean.  It  further  enacted  that  all  persons  residing  within  the  said  jiro- 
vince  or  provinces  should  be  free,  "  not  subject  to  the  laws  or  constitution 
of  any  other  part  of  Australia,  but  bound  by  only  those  which  should  be 
constructed  especially  for  their  own  territory."  It  enacted  that  the  Crown 
might  empower  any  persons,  who  should  seem  fit  to  the  Privy  Council,  and 
resident  within  the  said  Province  or  Provinces,  to  frame  laws  and 
establish  courts,  to  appoint  officers,  chaplains,  and  clergymen  of  the 
established  churches  of  England  or  Scotland,  and  to  levy  such  taxes  as 
should  be  necessary  to  the  well-being  of  the  colony\  These  laws  were  to 
be  laid  before  the  King  in  Council  with  due  expedition.  Three  or  more 
Commissioners  were  to  be  appointed  by  the  Crown  to  carry  certain 
parts  of  the  Act  into  execution,  and  their  proceedings  were  required 
to  be  laid  before  Parliament  once  a  year. 

The  Commissioners  were  appointed  to  declare  all  the  lands  of  the  colony, 
excepting  roads  and  footpaths,  to  be  open  to  purchase  by  British  subjects, 
to  make  regulations  for  the  survey  and  sale  of  such  lands  at  such  price  as 
thev  mi^ht  deem  expedient,  and  for  letting  unsold  lands  foi  periods  of  not 
less  than  three  years.  They  might  sell  the  land  by  auction  or  otherwise, 
but  for  ready  money  only,  at  a  price  not  less  than  12s.  per  acre,  and  the 
price  was  to  be  uniform.  The  whole  of  the  cash  proceeds  without 
deduction  (with  a  reservation  subsequently  provided  for)  constituted  an 
Emigration  Fund,  to  be  employed  in  conveying  poor  emigrants  from 
Great  Britain  or    Ireland   to  the  colonv.     The  sexes  of  tlie  emigrants 


64  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

were  to  be,  as  far  as  possible,  in  equal  proportions,  and  they  were  not  ta 
be  more  than  30  years  of  age.  A  resident  Commissioner  of  Lands  in  the 
colony  was  to  be  appointed,  with  a  requisite  staff  of  surveyors.  The 
Commissioners  were  empowered  to  borrow  £50,000  at  an  interest  not 
exceeding  10  per  cent.,  the  capital  sum  to  be  expended  on  emigration 
until  the  sale  of  public  lands  had  produced  an  amount  sufficient  to 
defray  the  cost  of  conveying  such  a  number  of  poor  emigrants  to  the' 
colony  as  might  be  thought  desirable.  Beyond  this  the  Commissioners 
were  authorised  to  raise  £200,000  on  bonds,  to  be  termed  "  South 
Australian  Colonial  Revenue  Securities,"  for  defraying  the  necessary 
costs,  cliarges,  and  expenses  of  founding  the  colony  and  of  providing  for 
its  government;  and  the  bonds  were  declared  "to  be  a  charge  upon  the* 
ordinary  revenue  or  produce  of  all  rates,  duties,  and  taxes  to  be  levied 
within  the  province."  The  Commissioners  might  reduce  the  rate  of 
interest  by  taking  np  sums  of  money  at  a  lower  rate  than  10  per  cent,  to- 
pay  off  any  existing  security,  and  the  lands  of  the  colony  were  deemed 
to  become  a  collateral  security. 

One  most  important  section  in  the  Act  (22nd)  ran  as  follows :—"  No- 
person  or  persons  convicted  in  any  covirt  of  Justice  in  Great  Britain, 
or  Ireland,  or  elsewhere,  shall,  at  any  time  or  under  any  circumstances,, 
be  transported  as  a  convict  to  any  place  within  the  limits  hereinbefore 
described."  The  operation  of  this  special  enactment  has  conferred  an 
absolutely  distinctive  character  upon  South  Australia.  Its  value  in 
developing  the  resources  of  the  colony  cannot  be  over-estimated,  and  the 
present  inhabitants  of  the  province  cannot  be  too  grateful  for  this  indica- 
tion of  the  foresight  of  the  founders  of  their  homes. 

The  Act  contained  a  provision  which  made  it  lawful  to  establish  a 
constitution  or  local  government  for  "  any  of  the  South  Australian 
provinces"  possessing  the  population  of  50,000  souls.  The  Com- 
missioners were  restrained  from  entering  upon  the  exercise  of  their 
r^eneral  powers  until  they  had  invested  £20,000  in  Exchequer  Bills,  or 
other  securities,  and  until  land  to  the  value  of  £35,000  had  been  sold. 
The  investment  of  £20,000  iir  Exchequer  Bills  was  required  hs  security 
that  no  part  of  the  expense  of  founding  and  governing  the  intended 
colony  should  fall  on  the  mother  country. 

There  was  some  difficulty  in  disposing  of  a  sufficient  quantity  of  land 
to  enable  the  Commissioners  to  realise  the  sum  of  £35,000  which  was 
required,  and  to  secure  funds  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  proceed  to 
found  the  colony,  so  that  after  the  lapse  of  two  months  from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  sales  considerably  more  than  one-half  of  the  extent 
of  land  required  to  be  disposed  of  remained  unsold.  The  Commissioners 
at  the  outset  had  fixed  the  price  of  the  land  at  £1  per  acre,  and  each 


FOUNDATION     AXl)     SETTLEMENT.  65 

land  Older  was  for  eighty  acres  of  country  land  and  one  acre  of  town 
land;  the  price  being  £81.  About  this  time  the  "South  Australian 
Company "'  was  formed,  with  a  laryje  capital,  intended  to  be  emploj-ed  in 
the  improvement  of  the  colony.  It  was  set  on  foot  by  the  late  George 
f'ife  Angas.  This  company  offered  at  once  to  purchase  the  remaining 
lots  of  land,  provided  the  price  was  reduced  to  12s.  per  acre.  The  Com- 
missioners readily  fell  in  with  the  proposal.  In  order,  however,  to  do 
equal  justice  to  all  purchasers,  they  issued  "  modified  regulations 
for  the  disposal  of  the  land  "  under  which  the  price  of  all  the  lands  which 
had  been  alienated  up  to  that  time  was  reduced  to  the  sum  charged  to 
the  South  Australian  Company.  Of  course  no  money  was  returned,  but 
those  who  had  paid  for  eighty  acres  of  land  at  £1  per  acre  received 
instead  134  acres  at  12s.  per  acre. 

The  principles  on  which  the  colony  was  established  originated  with  Mr. 
Edward  Gibbon  Wakefield.  He  had  noted  the  evils  which  had  sprung 
from  the  plan  that  had  been  followed  in  establishing  the  colony  of  Western 
Australia.  Large  grants  of  lands,  amounting  to  tens  of  thousands  of  acres, 
had  been  made  to  intending  settlers.  Those  grants  were  altogether  out  of 
proportion  to  individual  requirements,  or  to  the  capacity  of  the  grantees 
to  deal  with  the  enormous  tracts  of  country  which  had  been  assigned  to 
them.  The  capital  that  was  introduced  into  Western  Australia  was, 
therefore,  wasted,  and  many  of  the  immigrants  who  had  intended  to  settle 
there,  and  who  could  get  away,  left  the  country  in  disgust  and  disappoint- 
ment. Indeed  the  colony  of  Western  Austi-alia  has  only  recently  emerged 
from  the  difficulties  which  arose  from  the  land-grant  system,  and  the 
discouragements  which  consequently  crippled  the  efforts  of  the  limited 
population  that  remained  in  the  colony. 

Wakefield's  theory  was  that  a  colony  should  be  self-supporting,  and  that 
a  revenue  should  be  created  by  the  sale  of  the  waste  or  unappropriated 
lands  within  it;  that  the  whole  of  the  revenue  obtained  in  this  way  should 
be  used  as  an  emigration  fund,  and  that  the  price  of  the  land  should  be 
fixed  sufficiently  high  to  secure  a  constant  supply  of  hired  labor  for  its 
cultivation.  On  this  basis  South  Australia  was  founded.  It  was  claimed 
by  the  promoters  of  the  new  colony  that,  under  the  regulations  made  for 
the  sale  of  land  within  its  boundaries,  the  tenure  of  land  was  superior  to 
that  by  which  it  was  held  in  the  other  Australian  colonies.  In  those 
settlements  the  Cro■\^^l  had  reserved  to  itself  the  right  of  mining,  of 
cutting  timber  and  stone  for  public  works,  and  of  making  roads  across 
any  estate  at  pleasure  ;  whilst  in  South  Australia  the  land  was  sold  in 
unconditional  and  absolute  fee  simple,  without  any  reserve  for  any  purpose. 

A  sufficient  quantity  of  land  was  sold,  and  the  investment  of  the 
£20,000  in  Exchequer  Bills  as  required  by  statute  was  completed.     The 

E 


66  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

Commissioners  then  set  about  making  the  necessary  arrangements  for  the 
founding  of  the  colony.  The  Governorship  was  offered  to  Colonel 
Napier — better  known  as  Sir  C.  J.  Napier,  who  won  his  honors  as 
conqueror  of  Scinde.  He  demanded  a  small  military  contingent  for  the 
defence  of  the  colony,  and,  in  addition,  power  to  draw  upon  the  Home 
Government  for  funds,  if  required  in  emergency.  The  colony,  however, 
was  intended  to  be  self-supporting,  therefore  his  proposition  could  not 
be  entertained ;  he  consequently  declined  the  proffered  honor.  Captain 
Hindmarsh,  R.N.,  was  gazetted  to  the  post  on  February  4th,  1836. 

On  the  20th  March,  1836,  the  Cygnet,  239  tons,  sailed  from  Loudon, 
taking  to  the  new  settlement  Mr.  G.  S.  Kingston,  second  in  command  of  the 
surveying  staff,  with  Captain  Lipson,  R.N.,  harbormaster,  and  Messrs. 
Finniss,  Neale,  Symonds,  Hardy,  and  Cannan,  surveyor^  ;  Dr.  Wright, 
surgeon;  Mr.  T.  Gilbert,  storekeeper;  .Mr.  John  Morphett,  passenger; 
besides  a  number  of  surveyors'  laborers,  gardeners,  and  others,  with 
their  wives  and  families.  On  the  1st  of  May  the  Rapid,  of  131  tons, 
followed,  under  the  command  of  Colonel  Light,  with  Messrs.  Field,  R.N., 
Pullen,  R.N.,  Hill,  and  Messrs.  Jacob  and  Claughton,  sm-veyors ;  Mr.  J. 
Woodforde,  surgeon ;  and  some  survey  laborers.  Each  of  those  vessels 
was  provisioned  for  twelve  months,  and  provided  with  all  necessary  instru- 
ments for  survey  operations.  The  Rapid  arrived  at  Kangaroo  Island  on 
the  19th  August,  and  the  Cygnet  on  September  11th.  On  arriving  at 
Nepean  Bay,  Colonel  Light  assumed  command  of  the  expedition.  After 
examining  Kangaroo  Island  and  all  the  east  coast  of  Gulf  St.  Vincent, 
he  visited  Port  Lincoln,  in  Spencer's  Gulf.  None  of  the  conditions 
which  he  considered  necessary  to  fit  the  place  for  a  large  settlement  were 
apparent  there.  On  his  return  he  determined  to  seek  for  a  better  site  for 
the  capital  of  the  new  colony,  on  the  east  coast  of  the  gulf,  which  he 
had  examined.  He  soon  discovered  the  inlet  or  arm  of  the  sea  on  which 
Port  Adelaide  is  established,  and  he  had  no  diflB.culty  in  fixing  the  site  of 
the  chief  town.*' 

Governor  Hindmarsh  sailed  from  England  in  H.M.S.  Buffalo,  on  July 
23rd,  and  arrived  in  Holdfast  Bay  on  December  28th.  He  landed  on 
the  same  day  with  his  family  and  suite.  They  were  received  by  the 
officers  and  gentlemen  who  had  previously  arrived,  and  had  fixed  their 
habitations  at  what  is  now  known  as  Glenelg.  His  Excellency  met  the 
members  of  his  Council  in  the  tent  of  the  Colonial  Secretary,  where 
the  Orders  in  Council  for  erecting  South  Australia  into  a  British  Province 
and  appointing  the  colonial  officers  were  read,  as  was  also  His  Excellency's 
commission  as  Governor  and  Commander-in  Chief.  The  Governor,  the 
members  of  his  Council,  and  the  other  officers  were  then  sworn  in.     The 

*  Capper's  South  Australia.     Lond.,  1839. 


FOUXDATIOX     AND     SETTLKMF.XT.  67 

■Governor's  commis>ion  n'as  afterwards  read  to  the  settlers,  of  whom  there 
Avere  about  three  hundred  present,  and  the  British  flag  was  displayed 
under  a  royal  salute  The  marines  who  formed  the  Governor's  escort  or 
guard  of  honor  fired  fni  ae  juie,  and  a  salute  of  fifteen  puns  was 
fired  from  the  Buffalo^'-  This  was  the  ceremony  of  founding  South 
Australia. 

Whilst  the  Governor  possessed  the  necessary  powers  for  the  ordinary 
government  of  the  colony,  he  could  not  exercise  any  control  over  the 
administration  of  the  land.  That  was  in  the  hands  of  Mr.  James  Hurtle 
Fisher  (afterwards  knighted),  Resident  Commissioner  under  the  Board 
of  Commissioners  who  were  in  London.  This  division  of  authority 
gave  vise  to  serious  disputes  between  the  Governor  and  his  officers,  and 
much  public  inconvenience  was  felt  in  consequence.  Colonel  Light,  the 
Surveyor- General,  had  served  with  considerable  distinction  in  the 
Peninsular  war,  and  had  been  on  the  staff  of  the  Duke  of  Wellimrton. 
He  had  great  nautical  knowledge,  for  he  had  been  an  officer  in  the 
Turkish  navy.  He  was  a  man  of  varied  but  solid  acquirements,  of 
considerable  force  of  character,  genial  manners,  and  in  all  respects 
well  fitted  to  fill  the  post  which  he  had  undertaken.  Before  selecting 
the  present  site  of  Adelaide  he  had  examined  the  coast  carefully: 
Kangaroo  Island  and  Port  Lincoln  were  abandoned  by  him  as  unsuitable 
for  settlement,  and  Encounter  Bay  was  rejected  on  similar  grounds.  The 
site  of  -Adelaide  was  not  determined  on  without  anxious  care  and 
deliberation.  It  seemed  to  him  (and  experience  has  amply  confirmed  the 
soundness  of  his  views)  that  the  spot  he  had  chosen  possessed  all  the 
requirements  Avhich  appeared  to  be  indispensable  for  the  establishment 
of  a  large  city.  There  was  water  in  abundance  (the  Torrens  f  flowed 
through  it),  the  country  surrounding  it  was  level  and  fei'tilc.  well 
timbered  and  well  grassed.  The  elevation  of  the  site  above  the  sea  level 
was  admirably  suited  for  drainage,  if  ever  that  became  necessary:  there 
were  no  hostile  aborigines  to  contend  against,  and  the  climate  in 
his  judgment  was  all  that  could  be  desired. 

Captain  Hindmarsh,  however,  did  not  approve  of  the  site  of  the  new 
city  of  Adelaide ;  he  Avished  to  bring  it  considerably  nearer  to  the  sea 
shore.  To  this  Colonel  Light  would  not  consent.  Amongst  the  settlers 
themselves  there  was  much  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  Avhere  the  city 
should  be  located.  Eventually  a  meeting  of  persons  who  had  bought 
land  assembled  to  consider  the  question,  and  the  choice  of  Colonel  Light 
was  endorsed  by  such  a  majority  that  all  controversy  on  the  subject  was 
extinguished.     In  the  meantime  the  surveys  went  on  very  slowly.    There 

*  Capper's  South  Australia.     Lond.,  1830. 
t  The  native  name  of  this  stream  was  Karri- Wina-Parri  (Wyatt). 


68  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

was  a  great  deficiency  of  the  appliances  required  to  move  the  surveyors- 
and  their  camps  from  place  to  place,  and  much  dissatisfaction  arose. 
Whatever  inconveniences  might  have  been  felt  by  those  who  were  on  the 
spot,  and  who  had  been  there  from  the  outset,  the  arrival  of  a  large 
number  of  emigrants  before  the  surveys  were  sufficiently  forward  to  enable 
them  to  be  settled  on  the  land  only  made  matters  worse.  Much  of 
this  trouble  was  distinctly  due  to  the  provisions  of  the  Act,  which 
required  £35,000  to  be  raised  by  the  Commissioners  from  land  sale& 
before  they  could  make  any  arrangements.  Thus  it  was  that  many 
purchasers,  whom  the  Commissioners  could  not  control  or  influence,  left 
England  in  a  few  months  after  the  departure  of  the  first  expedition, 
instead  of  waiting  until  advices  had  been  received  as  to  the  site  of  the 
capital. 

The  town  surveys  were  completed  by  the  10th  March,  1837;  1,042 
acres  had  been  laid  out  and  numbered,  part  in  North  Adelaide  and  part 
in  South  Adelaide,  and  a  plan  of  the  town  prepared  and  exhibited  for 
public  inspection.  On  the  23rd  the  Resident  Commissioner  and  the 
Surveyor- General  put  the  representatives  of  437  preliminary  sections  in. 
possession  of  their  allotments.  On  the  27th  the  remainder  of  the  1,042. 
acres  were  put  up  to  public  auction  at  the  upset  price  of  £1  per  acre. 
They  realised  an  average  of  £6  Os.  9d.  each. 

Meanwhile  Mr.  Kingston  had  proceeded  to  England  to  lay  before  the 
Commissioners  a  plan  for  prosecuting  the  surveys  in  a  more  expeditious 
way  than  that  in  which  they  were  being  carried  on.  The  Commissioners 
adopted  Mr.  Kingston's  suggestions,  and  they  instructed  the  Resident  Com- 
missioner to  follow  out  the  course  that  had  been  proposed  by  him.  If  the 
Surveyor-General  declined  to  do  this,  Mr.  Kingston  was  to  take  charge  of  the 
surveys  and  Colonel  Light  was  to  be  otherwise  employed.  On  receipt'  of 
the  new  instructions  Colonel  Light  resigned,  and  all  the  surveyors  resigned 
with  him.  These  circumstances  did  not  add  to  the  harmonious  progress 
of  affairs  in  the  infant  settlement.  Colonel  Light  took  the  circumstances 
which  led  to  his  resignation  much  to  heart.  His  position  preyed  upon  his 
mind,  and  in  the  following  year  he  died.  His  remains  were  accorded  a 
public  funeral,  and  he  was  buried  in  the  centre  of  the  public  square 
which  bears  his  name.  A  monument  was  erected  over  his  grave  ;  and,  at 
the  time  of  writing,  a  proposal  is  on  foot  to  replace  it  by  another 
more  in  accordance  with  the  public  estimation  in  which  his  eminent 
services  are  held.  Mr.  Kingston  was  much  blamed  for  what  had  taken 
place,  but  without  just  reason.  Colonel  Light  thought  he  had  been  under- 
mined by  him.  A  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons,  which  after- 
wards inquired  into  South  Australian  affairs,  completely  exonerated  him 
from  all  blame  in  the  matter. 


FOUNDATION     AND     SETTLEMENT.  69 

The  Governor  was  continually  embroiled  with,  and,  it  may  be  believed, 
embarrassed  by,  those  over  whom  he  was  supposed  to  have  official  control. 
Eventually  complaints  were  forwarded  to  the  Secretary  of  State,  who 
recalled  Captain  Hindmarsh  in  1838.  He  left  the  colony  on  the  14th  of 
July  in  that  year.  The  day  before  he  embaiked  he  was  presented  with 
an  address  signed  by  some  of  the  most  influential  colonists  upon  his 
relinquishing  the  Governorship  of  the  colony,  Mr.  George  Milner 
Stephen  was  sworn  in  as  Acting  Governor  pending  the  arrival  of  Captain 
Hindmarsh's  successor.  Colonel  Gawler,  which  took  place  on  October  1 7th 
in  the  same  year. 

Captain  Hindmarsh's  rule  extended  over  a  little  more  than  eighteen 
monihs ;  but  even  during  that  short  time  some  progress  had  been  made 
towards  foimding  the  judicial  system,  vrhich  was  developed  with  so 
much  success  in  subsequent  years.  A  Supreme  Court  was  established, 
and  Ordinances  to  enable  the  Governor  to  create  districts,  and  for  the 
erection  of  Courts  of  resident  magistrates ;  to  levy  certain  duties  on 
spirits  and  tobacco,  on  property  sold  by  auction,  and  for  licensing 
auctioneers,  wholesale  spirit  dealers,  distillers,  and  rectifiers  :  to  levy 
Customs  duties,  and  for  the  preservation  of  the  port,  harbors,  kc,  and 
for  the  regulation  of  shipping.  On  the  3rd  June,  1837,  the  second 
number  of  The  South  Australian  Gazette  and  Coloiiial  Register  was 
published  in  the  colony.  The  first  number  appeared  in  London  previous 
to  the  departure  of  the  Buffalo  with  the  main  body  of  emigrants.  That 
literary  enterprise  still  flourishes  in  the  shape  of  The  South  Australian 
Register,  one  of  the  leading  daily  papers  in  the  colony. 

The  first  anniversary  of  the  foundation  of  the  colony,  by  the  landing 
of  Governor  Hindmarsh  and  its  pioclamation  by  him,  was  celebrated  by 
a  public  dinner  "  at  the  Southern  Cross  Hotel  in  commemoration  of  that 
event,  on  which  occasion  forty-eight  gentlemen  sat  down  to  an  excellent 
dinner  of  four  courses  and  dessert."  The  South  Australian  of  to-day 
celebrates  the  foundation  of  the  colony  in  a  different  fashion.  The  28th 
December  is  always  observed  as  a  strict  public  holiday,  and  tens  of 
thousands  of  prosperous  colonists  flock  to  Glenelg  by  rail  to  enjoy  the 
festivities  which  are  always  indulged  in  on  that  occasion.  Their  com- 
fortable appearance,  their  orderly  behavior,  their  well-dressed  wives  and 
families,  who  form  no  insignificant  part  of  the  annual  demonstration, 
give  stronger  evidence  of  the  general  prosperity  of  the  colonists  than 
pages  of  writing  could  supply.  On  the  1st  January,  1838,  the  first  races 
were  held  in  Adelaide,  "and  it  is  said  that  on  the  first  day  upwards  of  800 
persons  were  present."*  On  the  26th  the  Governor  laid  tiie  foundation 
of  a  ston3  church  (Trinity  Church,  on  North-terrace),  and  the  ceremony 

*  Capper's  South  Australia. 


70  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

was  concluded  by  the  Rev.  C.  B.  Howard,  Colonial  Chaplain  (Church 
of  England),  addressing  the  assembly  and  invoking  the  Divine  blessing 
on  the  undertaking. 

On  A.pril  3rd  an  important  event,  which  had  a  Avonderful  influence 
on  the  development  of  the  colony,  took  place.  Mr.  Joseph  Hawdon 
arrived  in  Adelaide  overland  from  Sydney,  after  a  journey  of  ten  weeks. 
He  brought  with  him  a  mixed  herd,  comprising  335  bullocks,  cows, 
heifers,  and  horses.  He  lost  only  four  bullocks  in  the  course  of  his  long' 
and  certainly  risky  journey.  This  welcome  addition  to  the  resources  of 
the  new  settlement  so  elated  the  colonists  that  a  public  dinner  was  given 
to  Mr.  Hawdon,  which  was  attended  by  some  ninety  persons.  A  snuff- 
box was  presented  to  him  in  the  name  of  the  people  of  South  Australia, 
and  an  ox  from  his  own  herd  was  roasted  whole  to  do  honor  to  him  and 
the  occasion.  His  arrival  had  established  a  series  of  facts  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  those  portions  of  the  continent  which  lay  to  the  east  of  South 
Australia.  The  country  he  had  traversed  was  fairly  good,  and  a  practi- 
cable route  existed  for  the  introduction  of  all  kinds  of  stock.  There  was 
no  further  danger  of  any  prolonged  scarcity  of  beef  and  mutton,  and  a 
new  source  of  trade  was  opened  up.  Mr.  E.  J.  Eyre*  soon  after  arrived 
with  another  mixed  herd  of  300  head  of  cattle,  and  a  few  months  later 
Captain  Sturt  (subsequently  Colonial  Secretarj')  with  another  herd  of  400 
head.  The  travels  of  those  enterprising  bushmen  were  often  impeded  by 
attacks  uiade  upon  them  by  the  natives,  and  much  trouble  ensued. 
These  savages  were  in  course  of  time  forced  to  leave  travellers  alone,  and 
it  was  not  long  before  the  overland  journey  from  Sydney  became  safe 
from  all  dangers,  excej^t  those  arising  from  bush  fires  and  periods  of 
drought. 

Captain  Hindmarsh's  successor  was  Colonel  Gawler,  an  old  Peninsular 
officer,  who  had  served  with  great  distinction  in  no  less  than  six  general 
engagements  in  Spain,  and  on  the  memorable  18th  of  June,  1815,  with 
the  5'2nd  regiment.  He  arrived  in  the  colony  on  the  12th  October,  1838. 
Captain  Hindmarsh's  administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  colony  cannot 
be  regarded  as  a  success.  His  early  training  in  the  navy  in  the  days  of 
Nelson,  under  whom  he  served  at  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  was  not  of  a 
kind  calculated  to  develop  those  qualities  of  diplomacy  and  statesmanship, 
which,  if  necessary  in  the  government  of  a  well-settled  community,  were 
absolutely  indispensable  in  the  founding  of  a  new  state,  where  every 
institution  had  to  be  built  up.  If  he  failed  it  could  not  be  surprising ; 
because,  under  the  circumstances  in  which  he  was  placed,  and  hampered, 
as  he  was,  with   the   acts  of  an  official  not  responsible  to  him,  it  would 

*  Mr.  Eyre  atterwards  became  Protector  <'f  Aborigines,  then  Lieutenant-Governor  of 
New  Zealand,  and  eveiitually  Governor  of  Jamaica. 


FOUNDATION    AND    SETTLEMENT.  71 

have  bepii  difficult  for  any  one  to  succeed.  When  he  arrived  in  South 
Australia  the  population  amounted  to  54fi  souls  ;  when  he  retired  it 
had  increased  to  2,377.  The  large  increase  in  the  number  of  settlers 
overtook  him  and  the  other  authorities  in  the  colony  before  they  were 
properly  prepared  for   them. 

The  twofold  control  of  the  Governor  and  the  Resident  Commissioner 
was  determined  by  the  Act  1  and  2  of  Victoria,  cap.  60.  The  new  Act 
provided  that,  instead  of  the  making  of  law^s  and  the  levying  of  taxes 
being  left  as  provided  for  in  the  Act  of  William  IV.,  cap.  9.5.  those 
powers  should  in  future  be  exercised  by  three  or  more  persons  resident 
in  the  colony,  chosen  by  the  Sovereign  in  Council ;  and  the  authority 
to  appoint  officers,  chaplains,  and  clergj-men  was  repealed.  The 
Sovereign  was  empowered  to  appoint  the  members  of  the  Council  and  the 
officers  of  the  Government  under  the  sign  manual,  instead  of  by  orders 
in  Council.  "  The  Commissioners  were  empowered  to  raise  the  residue  of 
the  £200.000  mentioned  in  the  former  Act.  and  also  other  sums  which 
they  were  by  either  Act  authorised  to  raise,  by  selling  redeemable 
annuities.  They  were  also  empowered  to  employ  money  raised  on  land 
or  revenue  securities  convertibly,  and  to  raise  money  on  the  security  of 
the  revenue  to  pay  debts  incurred  to  either  fund;  the  debt  incurred  to 
the  Emigration  Fund  was  never  to  exceed  one-third  of  its  amount  for 
the  current  year,  and  the  Commissioners  were  authorised  to  apply  the 
proceeds  of  land  sales  in  payment  of  revenue  securities."  This  Act 
materially  altered  the  position  of  affairs  in  the  colony,  and  if  it  had  come 
mto  operation  earlier  than  it  did,  ^Jerhaps  some  of  the  troubles  which 
fell  upon  the  colony  might  have  been  avoided. 

In  1836  and  1837,  the  first  two  years  of  the  colony's  existence,  there 
was  no  revenue.  The  cost  of  the  Governor  and  the  officers  under  and 
independent  of  him,  for  salaries  alone,  was  £4,250  :  the  Governor's  salary 
being  £800.  These  expenses  were  paid  from  moneys  raised  by  loans 
and  by  advances  made  from  the  Emigration  Fund.  In  1837 
the  public  expenditure  amounted  to  £5.283.  whilst  the  revenue  was  nil. 
In  1838  the  revenue  amounted  to  £1,4)8,  and  the  expenditure  to 
£16,580.  The  prospects  of  the  future  were  not  very  hopeful  from  a 
financial  point  of  view,  because  there  was  a  certainty  that  the  ex- 
jienditure  Avould  increase,  and  almost  an  equal  certainty  that  the  revenue 
would  not  keep  pace  with  the  requirements  of  the  public  service. 

When  Colonel  Gawler  arrived  he  found  things  in  a  very  unsatisfactory 
condition.  There  was  a  population  of  3,680  souls  in  the  colony,  but  little, 
or,  it  might  be  .said,  nothing,  had  been  done  towards  settling  them 
on  the  land.  Adelaide  then  consisted  of  about  ;i30  dwelling-houses 
of   various   descriptions,   a  great    number  of   them    built    substantially 


72  SOUTH     AUST  R  A  I>  T  A . 

of  brick  or  stone  ;  but  the  country  sections  had  not  been  in  the  hands  of 
the  proprietors  for  more  than  four  months,  and  only  about  200  acres 
had  been  ploughed.  It  was  hoped,  however,  that  at  least  2,000  acres 
would  be  under  cultivation  in  the  course  of  another  year.  Still,  the 
people  remained  about  the  city,  which  was  not  in  a  prosperous  condition, 
for  a  great  deal  of  land  specidationhad  been  carried  on.  which  had  caused 
much  financial  embarrassment  Colonel  Gawler  did  his  utmost  to 
compel  landowners,  w'ho  were  squatting  on  the  park  la-xds,  to  betake 
themselves  to  their  own  possessions  and  lo  cultivate  their  land.  He  also 
projected  extensi^'e  public  w^orks  to  provide  employment  for  those  who 
had  no  land  of  their  own,  and  who  would  otherwise  have  become  a 
burthen  on  the  community.  The  outcome  of  this  policy  was  a  heavy 
expenditure,  which  the  revenue  of  the  colony  was  insufficient  to  meet. 
Colonel  Gawler  drew  upon  the  Home  Government  in  order  to  meet 
current  liabilities,  and  as  his  authority  to  do  this  was  not  recognised,  his 
bills  were  returned  dishonored.  The  revenue  for  1839,  1840,  and  1841 
amounted  to  £75,773.  The  expenditure  during  the  same  period  was 
£357, 61y,  leaving  a  deficiency  of  £281,842. 

The  return  of  Colonel  Gawler's  bills  brought  about  a  complete 
financial  collapse  in  the  colony,  and  numbers  of  persons  were  absolutely 
ruined.  The  temporary  prosperity  which  had  been  secured  by  the 
Governor's  policy  was  purchased  at  a  very  dear  rate.  Colonel  Gawler 
was  recalled,  and  was  superseded  by  Captain  Grey,  who,  it  is  said, 
entered  Government  House  on  the  loth  May,  1841,  without  giving  any 
previous  intimation  of  his  proposed  visit,  and  annoimced  to  Colonel 
Gawler  that  his  bills  had  been  dishonored.  He  then  produced  Colonel 
Gawler's  letter  of  recall  and  his  own  appointment  as  Governor  in  his 
place.  It  is  difficult  to  believe  that  the  British  Government  would  act 
with  such  discourtesy  to  any  official,  especially  to  one  who  had  served  his 
country  so  well  as  Colonel  Gawler  had  done,  but  the  fact  has  been 
publicly  stated  in  several  works  on  South  Australia,  and  has  never  been 
contradicted.  There  is  no  doubt  that  Colonel  Gawler  was  badly  treated. 
Indeed,  the  fact  is  clear  from  the  following  extract  from  the  report  of 
the  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  appointed  to  investigate 
the  affairs  of  South  Australia  : — "  With  regard  to  Colonel  Gawler,  it  is 
impossible  to  doubt  that  when  he  entered  on  the  duties  of  his  office 
things  were  in  a  state  of  great  confusion,  and  that  the  difficulties  he  had 
to  contend  with  were  most  embarrassing  ;  that,  shortly  after  he  arrived  in 
the  colony,  he  represented  these  circumstances  and  gave  the  Commissioners 
reason  to  expect  a  considerable  excess  of  expenditure  over  what  had 
been  provided ;  that  amongst  those  witnesses  who  have  most  decidedly 
pronounced  his  expenditure  excessive,  none  have  been  able  to  point  out 


rOUXDATIOX     AM)     SKTTLEMEXT.  73 

uny  specific  item  which  could  have  been  reduced  -without  great  public 
inconvenience  ;  whilst  the  chief  item  of  expenditure,  incurred  on  account 
of  the  Goveinment  House  and  the  public  offices,  was  one  that  the  late 
board  had  authorised." 

In  1840  there  was  some  trouble  with  the  natives  in  the  South-East. 
About  the  middle  of  the  year,  a  brig  named  the  Maria  was  cast  away  on 
the  south  coast,  about  three  days'  journey  to  the  south-east  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Murray  River,  and  a  report  reached  Adelaide,  several  days  after- 
wards, to  the  effect  that  all  of  the  survivors  of  the  wreck  had  been 
murdered  by  blacks.  A  party  was  sent  out  under  the  charge  of  Lieut. 
Pullen,  R.N.  (now  Admiral),  to  visit  the  district  and  inquire  into  the 
•circumstances.  After  a  short  search,  the  dead  bodies  of  seventeen  men, 
women,  and  children  were  discovered,  partlj'  buried  in  the  sand.  The 
flesh  had  been  completely  stripped  off  the  bones  of  one,  which  was  that  of 
-a  woman.  It  was  believed  that  it  had  been  devoured  by  the  murderers. 
The  blacks  in  the  neighborhood  had  the  clothes  and  blankets  of  the  men, 
as  well  as  bonnets,  shawls,  &c..  whi'h  had  belonged  to  the  women. 

On  receipt  of  Lieut.  Pullen' s  report.  Governor  Gawlcr  dispatched 
Major  O'Halloran,  the  Commissioner  of  Police,  and  a  strong  party,  with 
instructions,  if  possible,  to  find  out  the  guilty  persons,  and  to  punish 
them.  The  offenders  belonged  to  a  tribe  which  inhabited  the  south  coast, 
near  Lacepede  Bay.  The  expedition  crossed  the  mouth  of  the  .Murray 
•on  August  21st,  and  on  the  following  day  made  prisoners  of  thirteen 
men,  two  boys,  and  about  fifty  women  and  children.  Tlie  men  were 
retained  in  custody,  and  the  rest  were  set  at  liberty.  All  the  captured 
natives  had  in  their  possession  some  portions  of  the  shipwrecked  persons' 
•effects,  and  some  of  the  clothes  were  satuiated  with  blood.  After  some 
trouble,  two  more  blacks  were  arrested,  and  on  the  following  day  they 
were  tried  by  court  martial  for  the  murders.  Tavo  of  them  were  found 
guilty  and  sentenced  to  death.  The  condemned  men  were  hanged  next 
day  in  the  presence  of  a  large  number  of  the  tribe,  who  had  been 
collected  to  witness  the  executions.  This  summary  act  of  retribution 
made  a  profound  impression  on  the  natives,  and  it  had  a  much  more 
salutary  effect  upon  them  in  checking  attacks  upon  white  people  than 
if  the  guilty  persons  liad  been  brought  to  Adelaide  for  tiial  in  the  usual 
way.  The  punishment  which  overtook  the  murderers  was  inflicted  under 
the  Governor's  sanction.  It  was  probably  not  in  accordance  with 
law,  and  Colonel  Gawler  was  severely  blamed  by  tlie  authorities  in 
England,  and  by  others  for  the  cou  -se  that  he  had  jjursued.  Perhaps 
the  Governor  overrated  the  extent  of  his  authority  in  dealing  witli  such  a 
contingency;  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  as  to  the  wisdom  of  his  policy 
in  convincing  the  natives  of  the  ovcrwhehuing  power  of  the  white  peojjle. 


/4  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

Colonel  Gawler  returned  to  Eno-land,  and  Captain  Grey,  acting  under 
instructions,  set  to  work  to  effect  the  most  sweeping  retrenchments.  The 
Commissioners  in  London  had  been  abolished,  and  the  government  of 
South  Australia  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Secretary  of  State  for  Colonies. 
The  sudden  collapse  of  the  province  was  so  disastrous  that  its  condition 
pressed  itself  upon  the  attention  of  the  British  Parliament.  A 
Select  Committee,  which  investigated  the  affairs  of  the  new  settlement, 
brought  up  a  report  which  helped  much  to  restore  its  fortunes.  A  sum 
of  £155,000  was  voted  by  l^arliament  as  a  loan  to  cover  some  of  Colonel 
Gawler's  bills.  This  was  afterwards  converted  into  a  free  gift.  Besides 
this  sum  £27,900  was  loaned  to  the  colony  for  the  payment  of  Colonel 
Gawler's  bills  on  the  Colonisation  Commissioners,  and  £32,646  to  meet 
bills  drawn  by  Governor  Grey  for  the  support  of  "  paiiper  immigrants," 
and  to  meet  the  charge  of  the  interest  on  the  bonded  debt  of  the  colony, 
temporarily  assumed  by  the  consolidated  debt  of  Great  Britain.  Those 
two  sums  were  punctually  repaid,  and  the  debt  due  by  the  Colonial 
Government  to  the  English  Government  was  thought  to  have  been 
extinguished  in  1851  ;  but  in  1887  a  claim  for  £15,516  for  interest  was 
made  against  South  Australia.  As  a  matter  of  equity,  this  svun  was  not 
properly  chargeable  against  the  colony,  although  it  was  promptly  })aid. 
This  ended  the  troubles  that  arose  from  Colonel  Gawler's  administration. 

Captain  Grey  was  the  servant  of  the  Secretary  of  State,  and  to  all 
intents  and  purposes  South  Australia  became  a  Crown  colony.  It  was 
ruled  by  the  Governor  and  his  Executive  Council,  vmder  instructions 
from  England.  The  people  had  no  voice  in  public  affairs,  no  con- 
trol over  the  taxation  imposed  upon  them,  nor  over  the  public  expen- 
diture. They  had  no  representation  except  in  the  city  council,  which 
was  quite  at  the  mercy  of  the  Governor.  His  Excellency  appeared  to 
thro-w  every  obstacle  in  the  way  of  its  operations,  and  it  finally  collapsed 
in  1843.  The  retrenchment  policy  of  Governor  Grey  was  the  cause  of 
considerable  public  dissatisfaction.  In  one  of  his  despatches  to  the 
Secretary  of  State  he  stated*  that  he  was  often  threatened  with  personal 
violence ;  that  tumultuous  meetings  were  held  and  seditious  language 
used;  the  police  Avere  tampered  with, and  he  was  for  some  time  without  the 
means  of  resisting  any  attack  that  might  be  made,  and  of  which  he  was 
in  hourly  expectation.  jNo  outbreak,  however,  took  place,  and  the  people, 
becoming  scattered  over  the  country  in  the  employ  of  landowners, 
generally  resigned  themselves  to  the  new  state  of  affairs,  which  gradually 
and  stea-iily  improved.  The  Home  Government,  however,  did  not 
seem  to  have  much  confidence  in  the  future  of  the  colony,  even  under 
Governor  Grey's  rigorous  administr.ttion.     f  "  In  the  month  of  August 

*  Governor  Grey  to  Lord  Stanlev,  October  24th,  1842.      t  South  Australian, 

March  3id,  184  3. 


FOUNDATION     AND     SETTLEMENT.  75 

last  His  Excellency  received  instructions  from  the  Right  Honorable 
the  Secretary  for  the  Colonies  to  send  to  Sydney  all  the  laborino- 
emigrants  at  present  on  Government  works."  The  Governor  did  not 
obey  those  instructions.  He  knew  that  a  large  number  of  persons  had 
left  the  colony  for  Xew  Zealand  and  elsewhere.  He  saw  also  that 
the  expense  of  doing  what  he  was  directed  to  do  would  be  much 
greater  than  that  which  would  be  incurred  by  keeping  them  em- 
ployed at  the  cost  of  about  £4,000  per  quarter.  He  wrote  to 
Lord  Stanley*  and  said.  "  Had  I  at  once  sent  all  the  emigrants 
away,  the  colony  would  have  been  irretrievably  ruined,  and  the 
whole  of  the  expenditure  laid  out  upon  it  would  have  been  utterly 
lost.  I  should,  in  the  first  instance,  have  had  to  send  away  2,427  souls, 
that  is  one-sixth  part  of  the  whole  population ;  the  fact  of  having  done 
so  would  have  made  paupers  of  a  great  many  more,  who  must  have  been 
removed  in  the  same  manner,  and  there  would  have  been  no  laborers 
remaining  in  the  colony  to  procure  food  for  those  who  were  left." 
Previous  to  the  arrival  of  this  despatch  in  London  the  "  Act  to  provide  for 
the  better  government  of  South  Australia"  was  forwarded  to  Governor 
Grey,  and  that  Act,  with  the  pecuniary  help  given  by  the  Imperial 
Government,  terminated  the  difficulties  and  uncertainties  which  had 
inflicted  very  severe  injury  on  the  colony.  Captain  Grey  retained  his 
Governorship  until  the  25th  of  October,  1845.  His  task  was  a  hard  one. 
His  retrenchment  policy  had  pressed  sorely  on  many  of  the  colonists,  who 
could  not  forget  what  they  had  endured  in  consequence.  The  ordinary 
revenue  of  the  colony,  during  the  whole  course  of  his  administration,  was 
iiever  equal  to  the  exjienditure,  and  the  balance  had  to  be  j^rovided  for 
out  of  the  proceeds  of  land  sales.  When  he  assumed  office  the  popula- 
tion was  14,562  ;  when  he  left,  in  1845,  it  had  increased  to  21,759.  The 
steady  increase  in  the  number  of  the  people  did  not  tend  to  decrease  the 
difficulties  of  his  position.  Whatever  they  had  been,  he  had  overcome 
them  all,  and  he  left  for  his  new  Government  in  New  Zealand  Avith  tlie 
regrets  and  good  wishes  of  a  large  majority  of  those  who  remained 
behind.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  his  administration  alone  would 
have  placed  the  colony  in  the  greatly  improved  condition  in  which  it 
was  when  he  retired.  Other  causes  had  contributed  to  the  revival  of 
trade  and  prosperity.  The  discovery  of  the  Kapunda  Mine,  in  1842.  and 
of  the  Burra  Mine,  in  1845,  did  much  to  infuse  a  new  spu'it  into  the 
colonists.  Trade  extended,  the  land  sales  increased,  and  the  future 
progress  of  the  province  seemed  to  be  assured. 

In  1841,  about  nine  months  after  the  execution  of  the  Maria  Creek 
murderers,  some  stockowners  who  were  travelling  overland  with  sheep 
•  Governor  Grey  to  Lord  Stanlev.  December  "iCth,   1^4■2. 


76  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

were  attacked  by  the  Rufus  tribe  of  blacks  near  the  N.W.  Bend  of  the 
River  Murray.  Mr.  Inman,  who  was  the  leader  of  the  party  in  charge 
of  the  sheep,  and  two  of  his  men  were  badly  wounded,  and  all  of  the 
sheep,  numbering  about  7,000,  were  taken  by  the  natives.  When  the 
circumstance  became  known,  Major  O'Halloran  was  sent  out  in  command 
of  an  expeditionary  force  to  punish  the  assailants  if  they  could  be  traced 
out.  After  an  absence  of  a  few  days,  during  which  nothing  had  been 
done,  the  expedition  was  recalled,  in  consequence  of  the  censures  that 
had  been  passed  upon  Colonel  Gawler  for  his  actions  in  connection  with 
the  Maria  Creek  murders. 

As  soon  as  Major  O'Halloran  reached  Adelaide,  a  volunteer  party 
under  Lieut.  Field,  R.N.,  set  out  to  endeavor  to  recover  the  sheep 
which  had  been  stolen.  Nine  days  after  their  departure,  they  met 
a  body  of  natives  between  200  and  300  strong.  They  at  once  attacked 
the  white  men  and  endeavored  to  surround  them.  Lieut.  Field  and  his 
party  escaped  with  difficulty,  after  shooting  some  of  their  assailants. 
After  their  return  to  Adelaide  another  expedition  was  organised,  bu'  the 
Governor  (Captain  Grey)  would  not  permit  its  members  "  to  levy  war  or 
to  exercise  any  belligerent  actions  "  against  the  offenders.  Nothing 
resulted  from  this  expedition  except  the  finding  of  a  white  man  who 
had  lost  all  his  cattle  ("00)  in  an  attack  made  by  the  natives,  and  three 
members  of  his  party  who  were  killed  by  them.  The  overland  journey 
to  Adelaide  fi-om  the  eastward  had  now  become  dangerous  in  conse- 
quence of  the  unremitting  hostility  of  the  tribes.  An  inspector  of  police 
(Mr.  Shaw)  with  twenty-nine  men  was  sent  away  into  the  disturbed 
country  to  meet  some  people  who  were  bringing  cattle  overland,  in  order 
to  protect  them  from  the  outrages  of  the  natives.  The  cattle  owners 
had  been  attacked  by  the  blacks,  but  had  repulsed  them.  A  few  days 
afterwards  the  police  party  was  assailed  by  them.  They  persistently 
rejected  all  friendly  overtures  on  the  part  of  the  whites,  and,  probably 
confident  in  their  numbers,  pei'severed  in  their  attacks.  A  short  conflict 
ensued,  in  which  thirty  of  the  aborigines  were  killed  and  about  ten 
wounded.  When  the  expedition  returned  to  Adelaide,  an  official  in- 
vestigation was  made  into  the  circumstances  of  the  case  and  the  conduct 
of  the  inspector  and  his  men.  The  police  party  was  completely 
exonerated  from  all  blame  in  the  matter.  In  order  to  obviate,  as  far  as 
could  be  done,  any  further  troubles,  Mr.  E.  J.  Eyre  was  apjiointed  pro- 
tector of  aborigines,  and  stationed  at  Moorundi,  on  the  Murray.  He  soon 
secured  the  confidence  of  the  natives,  and  from  the  time  of  his  appoint- 
ment outrages  by  the  blacks  upon  travelling  Avhite  men  entirely  ceased. 

Colonel  Robe  became  Governor  on  October  2oth,  1845.  His  acceptance 
of  office  was  not  due  to  personal  inclination  or  to  ambition,  but  solely  to 


FOUNDATION     AND    !!ETTLEMENT.  77 

his  obedience  to  commands  placed  upon  him.  He  did  not  like  his 
position,  and  he  was  not  adapted  to  fill  an  onerous  post,  such  as 
that  which  had  been  vacated  by  Govenor  Grey.  He  was  essentially  a 
soldier,  and  unacquainted  with  the  exigencies  of  a  civil  administration. 
Nevertheless,  the  colony  progressed  greatly  during  his  regime;  but  its 
progress  sjjrang  from  the  development  of  some  of  the  newly-discovered 
resources  of  the  province  more  than  from  any  special  statesmanlike 
policy  of  his  own.  Some  important  measures  were  initiated  by  him  in 
Council,  but  they  caused  dissatisfaction  amongst  the  colonists,  and 
one  of  them  was  signally  defeated.  At  the  time  he  became  Governor, 
the  whole  of  the  legislative  power  was  vested  in  him,  as  Governor, 
and  eight  members  of  the  Executive  Council,  four  of  whom  held 
official  positions,  the  other  ibur  being  nominated  by  the  Crown. 
The  Council  thus  formed  was  presided  over  by  him,  but  it  was 
necessary  that  five  of  the  Council  besides  himself  must  be  present  in 
order  to  form  a  quorum.  In  1846  a  proposition  was  brought  before  the 
Council  for  making  State  grants  to  certain  religious  bodies.  It  is  not 
clear  whether  the  proposal  originated  with  the  Governor,  or  was  suggested 
by  a  member  of  the  Council.  The  proposition  was  agreed  to,  and  the 
grants  made  under  it  continued  m  force  until  1851.  The  passing  of  this 
measure  was  very  ill  received  by  the  public.  It  was  a  distinct  violation 
of  one  of  the  principles  upon  which  the  colony  was  founded — that  there 
should  be  no  connection  between  Church  and  State  ;  moreover,  the  grant 
was  most  unfair  in  its  operation,  because  it  could  not  extend  to  all  the 
various  religious  sects  which  were  represented  in  the  colony.  Men  of 
all  shades  of  religious  opinions  concurred  in  condemning  and  denouncing 
the  law,  and  the  Governor  fell  greatly  in  public  estimation.  In  1848 
Governor  Robe  sanctioned  the  grant  of  an  acre  of  land  in  Victoria- 
square  to  the  Right  Rev.  A.  Short,  D.D.,  then  newly  appointed 
Anglican  Bishop  of  Adelaide,  as  a  site  for  a  cathedral.  This  grant  was 
not  made  known  at  the  time  it  was  executed,  and  it  was  not  registered  in 
the  General  Registry  Office  for  more  than  three  years  after.  If  the 
fact  had  become  public,  the  issue  of  the  grant  would  probably  have  been 
resisted  without  any  delay.  It  certainly  would  have  formed  ground 
fur  an  appeal  to  the  Secretary  of  State  in  England,  and  it  could  not  have 
failed  still  more  to  embitter  the  public  feeling  against  the  Governor, 
which  was  already  very  strong  * 

Another  source  of  public  dissatisfaction  arose  in  consequence  of  the 
introduction  of  a  Bill  into  the  Council  to  place  a  royalty  on  all  minerals 

*  This  subject  cropped  up  in  1855.  In  that  year  Bishop  Short  claimed  the  acre  in 
Yictoria-square,  and  the  Corporation  of  Adelaide  resisted  his  Lordship's  claim.  The 
Bishop  brought  an  action  in  the  Supreme  Court  to  assert  his  right,  but  the  case  went 
against  him.     The  verdict  was  not  challenged,  so  the  matter  ended. 


78  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

raised  in  the  province.  The  official  members  of  the  Council  were 
compelled  to  support  the  Governor's  proposal ;  the  non-official  members 
were  ail  opposed  to  it.  If  the  question  had  come  to  the  vote,  the  Bill  must 
have  been  carried  by  the  Governor's  casting  vote.  Seeing  this,  the  non- 
official  members  left  the  Council  Chamber  in  a  body  before  the  division 
could  be  taken.  There  was  no  quorum  ;  the  business,  therefore,  could 
not  be  proceeded  with,  and  the  measure  was  shelved.  The  Governor 
then  attempted  to  impose  the  royalty  without  the  concurrence  of  the 
Council ;  but  a  trial  in  the  Supreme  Court  ended  in  a  decision  that  the 
Governor  did  not  possess  the  power  that  he  had  claimed  to  exercise. 
Governor  Robe,  wearied  out  at  last  with  the  turmoils  in  which  he  was 
continually  plunged,  was  relieved  of  his  office  at  his  own  request.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Sir  Henry  Edward  Fox  Young,  on  August  2nd,  1848. 
Although  CJolonel  Robe  was  not  successful  as  a  Governor,  South  Australia 
made  great  and  substantial  jn'ogress  during  the  term  of  his  administra- 
tion. The  population  had  increased  from  21,759  in  1845,  to  38,666 
in  1848.  The  ordinary  revenvie  had  grown  from  £32,433  in  1845,  to 
£82,411  in  1848;  and  in  each  of  the  last  years  of  Colonel  Robe's  rule 
there  was  a  considerable  surplus  of  revenue  over  expenditure.  The  sale 
of  land  also  had  advanced  considerably.  In  1845  the  quantity  of  land 
that  had  been  sold  from  the  date  of  the  founding  of  the  colony  was 
380,371  acres.  In  the  three  years  ending  in  1848,  123,605  acres  had 
been  disposed  of.  The  proceeds  of  the  land  sales  up  to  the  end  of  1845 
amounted  to  £363,017.  From  1846  to  1848,  inclusive,  they  amounted 
to  £167,865,  the  grand  total  being  £530,877.  The  colony  now  was 
thoroughly  established,  its  public  affairs  were  in  a  prosperous  condition, 
and  there  was  apparently  little  cause  for  anxety  for  the  future. 


PROGKESS     AND     DEVP:L0PMENT.  79 


CHAPTER    VII. 

Sir  Hexry  Young  —  Introduces  the  Main  Road  System  and  District 
CoiNCiLS — Change  in  the  Form  of  Government — The  Legislative 
Council — State  Aid  to  Eeligion  Abolished — The  Gold  Discoveries — 
Exodus  of  the  Population — Run  on  the  Banks — Suspension  of 
Trade — Disbandment  of  the  Civil  Servants — Sir  Henry  Young's 
Difficulties — A  Gold  Commissioner  appointed  on  the  Diggings — The 
Overland  Gold  Escort — Want  of  a  Circulating  Medium — Expedients 
OF  Store  and  Shop  Keepers — The  Bullion  Act — Hesitation  of  the 
Governor  to  Assent  to  It — The  Act  Assented  to  and  Passed  in  a 
Few  Hours — Large  Profits  of  the  Banks — The  Turning  Point  in- 
South  Australian  History — ^Large  Demand  for  Land — Opening  up 
op  the  Murray  — Captain  Cadell — Mr.  W.  Randell — Voyage  of  the 
"Lady  Augusta  "  —  Reaches  Swan  Hill,  on  the  Darling — Success 
of  the  Expedition — The  Murray  River  Trade — Clearing  the  Murray 
— Refusal  of  the  Victorian  Government  to  Assist — Port  Elliot — 
Victor  Harbor — Large  Increase  in  the  Population — A  Xew  Con- 
stitution Bill — Returned  "Without  the  Royal  Assent — Demand  for 
Self-government — The  Administration  of  Governor  I'oung — Large 
Increase  in  Population  and  Reve.vue — Unwise  System  of  Immigra- 
tion— Loss  TO  THE  Colony  in  CoNseauENCE — Sir  R.  G.  MacDonnell — 
The  Crimean  War — Preparations  for  the  Defence  of  the  Colony — 
The  New  Constitution -Governor  Favors  a  Single  Chamber— The 
Xew  Constitution  Framed — Assented  to  by  the  Queen — Is  Proclaimed 
AND  Comes  into  Force — ^The  First  Ministry' — The  Governor's  Attitude 
Towards  It — Meeting  of  P.irliament — Its  Proceedings — Sir  R.  G. 
MacDonnell' s  Administration. 

SiK  Henry  Young  was  transferred  from  the  Eastern  Pro^•ince  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  of  which  he  was  Lieutenant-Governor,  to  take  a  similar 
rank  and  position  in  South  Australia.  He  had  pre\'iously  been  Governor 
of  Prince  Edward's  Island.  Unlike  his  predecessors  in  office,  he  hnd  had 
considerable  experience  in  civil  administration.  He  was  not  a  man  of 
shining  ability,  but  he  was  thoughtful  and  cautious,  and  able  to  rise 
to  the  occasion  if  any  serious  difficulty  pressed  upon  him.  Reserved  in 
manner  and  somewhat  exclusive  in  his  associations,  he  never  became 
popular,  but  he  deservedly  gained  the  respect  of  all  those  with  whom  he 
came  in  contact.  Durin;^  his  tenure  of  office,  which  lasted  from  the 
middle  of  1848  to  the  end  of  1854,  momentous  events  occurred,  which 
permanently  changed  the  condition  of  the  whole  of  the  Australian 
colonies,  except  that  of  the  struggling  settlement  at  Swan  River.  The 
colony  is  indebted  to  him  for  the  initiation  of  an  extensive  main  road 
svstem,  which  provided  the  principal  means  of  communication  between 
the  outlying  country  and  the  cajjital  and  port,  before  railways  were  con- 
structed.    He  also  introduced  the  district  council  system  from  the  Cape 


80  SOUTH     AUSTRAl.IA. 

of  Good  Hope,  which  has  become  the  most  vahiable  of  existing  institu- 
tions in  the  colony  for  local  self-government.  Whilst  it  conferred  upon 
locally- elected  bodies  very  large  privileges  and  powers,  it  imposed  on 
them  considerable  obligations,  and  it  gradually  weaned  the  country 
settlers  from  that  unwholesome  dependence  on  the  Government  which 
had  hitherto  prevailed  to  do  for  them  most  things  which  they  ought  to 
have  done  for  themselves.  It  took  many  years  to  bring  about  this  result. 
The  Corporation  of  the  City  of  Adelaide,  whose  powers  and  functions 
had  been  in  abeyance  for  nine  years,  was  revived  by  him  in  1852. 
Previous  to  this  a  great  alteration  had  been  made  in  the  political 
condition  of  the  colonists.  In  1851  the  old  system  of  government  by 
the  Governor  and  his  nominee  Council  was  abolished,  and  a  Legis- 
lature of  one  Chamber,  composed  of  sixteen  elected  members  and  eight 
nominees,  erected  in  its  stead.  Four  of  the  nominated  members  were 
members  of  the  Executive  Council,  and  filled  the  chief  official  posts  in 
the  colony.  The  remaining  four  were  appointed  by  the  Governor  him- 
self, subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Crown.  This  approval,  however, 
was  merely  a  matter  of  form.  The  Legislative  Council,  as  the  new 
Chamber  was  designated,  exercised  control  over  the  expenditure  charge- 
able to  the  general  revenue  of  the  province,  whilst  the  Governor,  as 
representing  the  Crown,  possessed  the  disposal  of  all  the  income  derived 
from  the  sale  or  leasing  of  the  public  lands.  This  form  of  government 
was  originated  by  Earl  Grey,  K.G.,  who  at  that  time  was  Secretary  of 
State  for  the  Colonies.  Although  not  adapted  to  fulfil  all  the  require- 
ments of  a  rapidly  growing  colony,  it  was  gratefully  accepted.  It 
had  one  merit  —  that  it  conferred  upon  the  colonists  representation, 
not  complete,  but  still  representation,  and  a  considerable  share  in  the 
legislative  power  which  Avas  exercised  through  the  Crown. 

One  of  the  earliest  and  most  valued  of  the  Acts  of  the  new  Legislature 
was  to  abolish  for  ever  all  State  aid  to  religion.  The  question  had 
rankled  in  the  public  mind  ever  since  the  rule  of  Colonel  Robe ;  and,  at 
the  first  elections  which  took  place  under  the  new  law,  it  was  made  the 
principal  test  of  the  candidates.  The  elections  over,  the  objectionable 
law  was  summarily  disposed  of,  and  the  question  was  finally  set  at  rest. 
Ever  since  then  all  religious  bodies  have  been  upon  an  equal  footing  in 
their  relations  to  the  State.  They  are  all  self  supporting,  and  work  out 
their  own  progress  in  complete  freedom. 

The  Legislative  Council  had  little  time  to  develop  any  of  the  ideas 
which  were  entertained  by  the  newly-elected  members  before  a  surprise 
came  upon  Australia  which  unsettled  the  whole  of  the  colonies,  except 
perhaps  Western  Australia,  with  which  there  was  very  little  intercourse 
at  that  time. 


PROGRESS    AXI)    DEVELOPMENT.  81 

Gold  in  large  quantities  had  been  discovered  in  California,  and  manv 
persons  left  Australia  to  try  their  fortunes  in  that  distant  and  then 
unknown  country.  In  1851  gold  was  found  in  greater  abundance,  first 
ill  the  colony  of  New  South  Wales,  and  in  a  very  short  time  afterwards 
in  Victoria.  When  the  news  arrived  in  the  province  and  was  confirmed, 
everything  was  suddenly  turned  upside  down.  All  business  was 
suspended  whilst  the  wonderful  discoveries  were  discussed,  and  then  an 
exodus  began.  The  miners  left  the  Burra  Burra  and  Kapunda  copper 
mines,  and  all  operations  there  were  svispended.  The  shopkeepers  foi- 
the  most  part  closed  their  places  of  biisiness  and  made  for  the  diggings. 
Every  one  who  could  raise  sufficient  funds  for  the  journey  went  away. 
The  ships  in  harbor,  which  traded  only  between  the  mother  country  and 
the  colony,  were  laid  on  the  berth  between  Adelaide  and  ^Melbourne  to 
carrj'  off  the  intending  diggers,  who  were  wild  with  excitement.  Most 
of  the  able-bodied  men  left  the  colony,  and  the  population  which 
remained  was  composed  principally  of  women,  of  men  who  were  in- 
cajjable  of  hard  work,  and  small  children.  Gold  seekers  in  numbers  took 
with  them  their  boys  of  nine  and  ten  years  of  age  to  help  them.  The  lads 
could  not  die,  but  they  could  rock  cradles  for  washing  the  auriferous  dirt. 
Many  took  their  whole  families  to  live  with  them  on  the  goldfields  in 
tents  or  huts,  or  under  any  shelter  that  was  procurable  or  could  be 
dcAased.  People  who  could  not  pay  their  passages  from  port  to  port 
walked  overland  to  the  diggings,  a  distance  of  over  500  miles.  A  large 
part  of  the  journey  Avas  through  the  desert,  Avhich  stretches  for  ninetv 
miles  between  the  River  Mvuray  and  the  boundary  of  the  colony.  Water 
was  procurable  there  in  those  days  in  only  two  or  three  places,  and 
provisions  on  the  direct  line  of  route  were  unobtainable.  For  all  this  the 
adventurers  pressed  on,  and  notwithstanding  the  difficulties  which  they 
encountered,  and  the  privations  they  were  compelled  to  suffer,  there  are 
few  records  of  casualties  amongst  them. 

The  banks  were  besieged,  and  the  pro^nnce  almost  entirely  drained  of 
specie.  On  the  diggings  bank  notes  were  of  little  use,  gold  coin  was 
not  obtainable,  and  those  who  drew  money  from  the  banks  to  pay  their 
way  outMard  were  compelled  to  take  silver  in  such  currency  as  the  banks 
could  supply.  Bags  containing  shillings,  sixpenny  pieces,  fourpenny 
pieces,  and  coppers  were  handed  across  the  bank  counters  in  liquidation 
of  cheques  drawn  against  deposits,  and  it  was  with  difficidty  that  the 
banking  institutions  were  able  to  hold  their  own.  Bills  on  England  were 
scarcely  negotiable,  so  great  was  the  strain  upon  the  banks  to  meet  the 
incessant  local  demands  upon  their  resources.  With  the  suspension  of 
trade  which  took  place  the  revenue  fell  off.  Sir  Henry  Young  accordingly 
set  to  work  to  retrench.     A  large  number  of  the  civil  servants  sent  in 

F 


82  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

their  resignations;  the  remainder,  with  very  few  exceptions,  were  relieved 
from  their  duties.     They  received,  in  some  cases,  leave  of  absence  with- 
out salary,  with  the  promise  that  they  would  be  reinstated  in  the  service 
when  better  times  came.     Those  promises,  however,  were  not  generally- 
adhered  to.     The  staff  of  public  officers  was  so  reduced  that  in  many 
departments  one  only  was  retained,  just  to  perform  the  very  small  amount 
of  routine  work  which  arose,  and  some  departments  were  closed  entirely. 
There  were  no  complaints  of  the  action  of  the  Governor  in  the  emer- 
gency ;  his  course  was  unavoidable.     His  great  difficulty^  was  to  provide 
for  the  wives  and  families  of  those  who  had  gone  away,  in  the  event  of 
their  not  being  successful  on  the  goldfields,  or  of  their  not  returning. 
Fortunately,  after  a  few  months,  the  most  cheering  intelligence  of  the 
general  success  of  the  South  Australian  adventurers  arrived  in  Adelaide. 
The  most  of  them  had  done  well.     Gold  they  had,  but  it  was  difficult  to 
remit  funds,  because  communication  between  the  two  colonies  was  so 
uncertain.     Sir  Henry  Young,   at   the   suggestion  of    some   merchants, 
caused  the  formation  of  a  gold  escort,  to  proceed  to  the  diggings  and 
bring  back  to  Adelaide  the   gold   belonging    to  the   South    Australian 
diggers.     A  gold  commissioner  for  South  Australia  was  appointed,  and 
Mr.   Tolmer,   Chief  Inspector   of  Mounted  Police,  took  charge   of   the 
first  escort.     It  was  composed  of  several  troopers,  who  took  with  them 
an  ordinary  spring  cart  with  iron  boxes  in  it  to  contain  the  gold.     The 
route  over  which  the  party  travelled  had  been  well  explored.     Cattle 
had  been  brought  overland  years  before  through  quite  as  bad  country. 
The  natives  were   harmless.     Hundreds  of   diggers  had  walked  safely 
overland  without  any  escort  at  all.     The  only  danger  to  be  apprehended 
was  from    bushrangers — "  old  lags  and    Vandemonians,"  as    they  were 
called,  of    whom  there    were   not  a  few — on    and  hanging  about  the 
diggings    and    their    approaches,    who    certainly    were    dangerous    to 
isolated  travellers  and  small  parties  of  men  moving  from  place  to  place 
— that  is  if   they  had  anything  worth  plundering.     The  escorts  started 
fortnightly,  commanded,  as  circumstances  required,  by  Inspectors  Alford, 
Stuart,  and  Crombie.     During  the  many  months  in  which  they  travelled 
backwards  and  forwards  no  attempt  was  made  to  molest  them  in  any 
way,  and  none  of  the  gold  was  lost  either  through  accident  or  by  robbery. 
When  the  gold  came  into  the  colony  a  new  difficulty  arose — what  could 
be  done  with  it  ?     Crude  metal  was  not  a  legal  tender.     There  was  no 
coin  in  the  place,  or  so  little  as  to  be  wholly  inadequate  to  meet  the  most 
common  requirements  of  trade.     In  order  to  provide  small  change  some 
of  the  store  and  shop  keepers  issued  notes  for  sixpence,  threepence,  and 
even  twopence.     This  kind  of  currency  was  accepted,  and  remained  in 
use  until  small  coins  and  copper,  or  copper  tokens,  which  answered  the 


PROGRESS  AND  DEVELOPMENT.  83 

temporary  purjjose  just  as  well,  were  imported  and  placed  in  general  cir- 
culation. The  banks  were  willing  enough  to  buy  the  gold,  but  they  could 
not  deal  Avith  the  bullion  in  the  only  way  in  which  it  could  become 
serviceable  to  the  owners  who  were  on  the  spot  and  to  the  public.  Mr. 
George  Tinline  was  at  that  time  acting  manager  of  the  South  Australian 
Bank,  the  first  bank  founded  in  the  province,  and  then  the  largest  and  most 
influential  in  the  colony.  He  advised  Sir  Henry  Young  to  introduce  a 
Bill  into  the  Legislative  Council  making  gold,  under  certain  conditions,  a 
legal  tender,  so  as  to  establish  some  kind  of  currency  to  tide  over  the 
existing  deficiency  of  specie.  The  Royal  instructions  to  the  Lieutenant- 
Governor  expressly  forbade  him  to  sanction  any  measure  for  altering  the 
currency  without  the  previous  concurrence  of  the  Sovereign.  Sir  Henry 
Young  was  fully  aware  of  the  gravity  of  the  situation,  but  he  had  done 
nothing  to  meet  the  emergency  :  he  recognised  the  pressure  of  the  cir- 
cumstances, but  he  hesitated  ;  he  was  cautious,  his  own  official  position 
being  in  the  balance.  At  length,  however,  after  much  deliberation,  he 
gave  way,  and  the  Bullion  Act  was  introduced  into  the  Legislative 
Coimcil,  and  passed  into  law  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours.  Under  this 
Act,  which  was  to  remain  in  force  for  one  year  only,  gold  assayed  and 
reduced  to  standard  fineness  became  a  legal  tender  at  £3  lis.  per  oz. 
An  assay  office  was  established  in  order  that  the  gold  dust  and  nuggets 
might  be  reduced  to  standard  ingots,  and  gold  tokens  were  coined  to 
take  the  place  of  sovereigns.  These  tokens  were  worth  about  22s. 
or  23s.  each.  Of  course  this  step,  whilst  it  gave  great  and  imme- 
diate public  relief,  was  of  enormous  advantage  to  the  banks.  The 
gold,  for  which  they  paid  £3  lis.  and  upwards  per  oz.,  fetched 
up  to  £3  17s.  9d.  per  oz.  in  England,  and  the  tokens  yielded  a 
large  profit  per  cent.,  because  the  gold  w^as  paid  for  in  notes,  and 
the  tokens  when  paid  into  a  customer's  account  were  reckoned  as  being 
worth  no  more  than  £l  each.  The  difference  in  value  was  appro- 
priated by  the  banks,  who  did  apparently  nothing  for  the  gains  they 
realised.  There  can  be  no  doubt  now  that  the  discovery  of  the  gold- 
fields  in  the  adjoining  colonies  and  the  passing  of  the  Bullion  Act 
made  the  turning  point  in  the  fortunes  of  South  Australia.  Mr.  Tinline, 
at  whose  instance  the  Act  was  passed,  was  entertained  afterwards  at  a 
public  banquet,  and  presented  with  a  service  of  plate  and  the  sum  of 
£2,500  in  recognition  of  the  services  he  had  rendered  to  the  colony. 

Towards  the  middle  of  1852  the  diggers  began  to  return  to  South 
Australia.  Trade  generally  revived  and  extended  with  a  rapidity  unparal- 
leled in  the  colony.  A  sudden  and  immense  demand  for  land  sprang  up, 
and  at  the  Government  land  sales  the  auction  room  was  always  thronged 
with  eager  purchasers.     All,  or  nearly  all,  the  South  Australian  gold- 


84  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

seekers  were  anxious  to  obtain  land  of  their  own,  and  many  Victorian 
diffgrers  were  filled  with  the  same  desire.  At  this  time  the  land  laws  in 
force  in  Victoria  were  so  restrictive  that  small  areas  of  land  for  agricul- 
tural purposes  were  unobtainable.  Most  of  the  countrj-  there  was  in  the 
possession  of  pastoralists,  Avho  would  neither  surrender  their  holdings  nor 
consent  to  any  modifications  of  the  conditions  under  which  they  held 
them.  Those  who  wanted  land  were  thus  driven  to  South  Australia, 
where  it  was  obtainable  in  suitable  areas  and  at  a  reasonable  price. 
These  circumstances  laid  the  foundation  of  that  agricultural  development 
and  prosperity  for  which  this  colony  has  ever  since  that  time  been 
distinguished. 

In  185.3,  when  the  gold  fever  had  somewhat  abated,  the  navigation  of 
the  River  Murray  became  a  subject  of  absorbing  interest  and  importance. 
Since  Sturt  had  come  doAvn  the  stream  in  1829,  the  vahie  of  that  river, 
or  rather  its  eventual  importance  to  the  internal  trade  of  nearly  one  half 
of  Australia,  had  not  been  thought  of .  In  August,  1852,  Captain  Francis 
Cadell  came  down  the  river  in  a  canvas  boat,  from  about  the  junction  of 
the  Darling,  with  the  object  of  examining  it  and  ascertaining  to  what 
extent  it  was  navigable  for  large  craft.  The  result  w^as  most  satisfactory; 
and,  on  the  fact  becoming  known,  a  reward  of  £4,000  was  offered,  under 
certain  conditions,  for  the  first  two  steamers  which  should  be  navigated 
from  Goolwa,  near  the  sea  entrance  to  the  Murray,  to  the  junction  of 
that  stream  with  the  River  Darling.  A  company  called  the  River 
Murray  Navigation  Company  was  formed  by  Captain  Cadell,  with  the 
assistance  of  Mr.  William  Younghusband,  one  of  the  leading  merchants 
in  the  colony,  and  the  Lady  Auc/usta  steamer  was  built  and  started  on 
her  trial  voyage.  Previous  to  this  Mr.  Wm.  Randell  had  built  a  small 
steamer  at  Mannum,  on  the  Murray,  about  eighty  miles  above  Goolwa, 
and  had  steamed  up  the  Murray  and  for  some  distance  along  the 
Darling,  but  his  craft  did  not  fulfil  the  conditions  which  would  entitle 
him  to  the  reward.  The  trip  of  the  Lady  Augusta  Avas  thoroughly 
successful.  The  Governor  and  his  wife,  with  a  large  party  of  ladies  and 
gentlemen,  accompanied  Captain  Cadell.  The  Lady  Augtista  steamed  as 
far  as  Swan  Hill,  on  the  Darling,  a  distance  of  about  1,500  miles.  From 
this  point  Sir  Henry  Young  wrote  to  the  Secretary  of  State  announcing 
the  success  of  the  expedition.  The  opening  up  of  the  Murray  and  the 
establishment  of  an  intercolonial  trade  in  the  adjacent  country  did  not 
realise  the  expectations  which  those  who  established  it  had  anticijjated. 
Many  steamers  were  placed  on  the  river,  but  the  trade  waned  and  finally 
dwindled  down  to  unremunerative  proportions.  Nearly  all  the  persons 
who  were  engaged  in  it  at  the  outset  lost  heavily,  and  Captain  Cadell 
was  nearly  ruined  by  it.     South  Australia  did  her  utmost  to  secure  the 


PROGRESS    AND    DEVELOPMENT.  85 

trade  by  engaging  in  extensive  operations  to  clear  the  river  of  obstruc- 
tions, but  the  Victorian  Government  refused  to  assist  or  co-operate  in  this 
useful  work.  That  colony  was  anxious  to  secure  the  trade  for  herself, 
and  in  a  short  time  constructed  a  railway  to  Echuca  to  intercept  the 
traffic  and  bring  it  into  Melbourne.  South  Australia  for  years  after- 
wards did  not  attempt  to  connect  the  Murray  with  her  own  seaboard, 
and  when  she  did  the  golden  opportimity  had  passed  away.  Sir  Henry 
Young,  it  is  true,  caused  a  tramline  to  be  constructed  from  Goolwa  to 
Port  Elliot,  where  it  was  expected  that  wool  would  be  shipped  for 
England.  That  port,  however,  was  in  every  way  unsuitable  for  shipping, 
being  small  and  rocky,  with  bad  anchorage,  and  dangerous  to  approach. 
The  Queen  of  Sheba,  a  barque  of  600  tons,  did  enter  it,  and  she  got  out 
again,  but  she  never  renewed  her  visit.  Several  small  craft  were  lost  in 
the  port  itself,  and  after  a  short  period  of  unsatisfactory  experience  the 
place  was  abandoned.  This  experiment  cost  the  colony  nearly  £50,000. 
Since  then  a  railway  has  been  made  westward,  from  Goolwa  to  Victor 
Harbor,  in  Encounter  Bay,  and  a  splendid  breakwater  constructed  at 
the  latter  place  from  Granite  Island.  There  is  deep  water  there,  perfect 
shelter  from  the  prevailing  winds,  and  the  harbor  is  accessible  in  almost 
all  weathers  ;  yet  the  place  is  now  but  little  used.  Most  of  the  wool 
which  comes  down  the  Murray  is  taken  direct  by  rail  from  Morgan  to 
Port  Adelaide,  thereby  saving  much  time  in  shipment  and  considerable 
expense  in  loading  and  vmloading. 

In  1853  the  population  had  grown  so,  thnt  the  inhabitants  of  the  colony 
■numbered  79,000  souls  In  the  Imperial  Act  under  which  the  colony 
was  established  it  was  provided  that  the  inhabitants  might  frame  a 
constitution  for  themselves  as  soon  as  they  numbered  50,000.  That  limit 
had  long  been  passed,  and  it  was  considered  time  to  exercise  the  privilege 
promised  to  them.  A  Constitution  Bill  was  passed  by  the  Legislative 
Council,  consisting  of  two  chambers,  one  elected  by  the  people  and  the 
second  nominated  by  the  Crown  for  life.  The  experience  gained  by  the 
enactments  of  a  single  nominee  chamber  were  fresh  in  the  minds  of  the 
colonists,  and  the  proceedings  of  the  single  chamber,  composed  of  elected 
members  and  nominees  in  the  proportion  of  two  of  the  former  to  one  of 
the  latter,  had  not  been  altogether  satisfactory.  Property  (lualification 
was  the  basis  of  the  representative  element,  officialism  the  principle  of  the 
nominee  element.  The  admixture  did  not  work  well.  The  Governor 
was  nearly  always  able  to  secure  a  majority  in  favor  of  his  o^v^l  projects, 
and  he  had  the  sole  disposal  of  the  land  fund,  independent  of  the  Legisla- 
tive body.  The  principle  of  a  dual  control,  which  had  proved  a  failure 
when  the  colony  was  founded,  was  now  revived  in  a  more  powerful  and 
more  objectionable  form.     As  the  colony  advanced  the  land  sales  had 


86  SOrXH    AUSTRALIA. 

become  large,  and  constituted  the  most  fertile  source  of  revenue.  The 
Governor  could  deal  -with  it  at  pleasure,  subject  always  to  responsibility  to 
Downing-street.  The  people  wanted  self-government,  and  that  they 
conceived  they  could  not  obtain  as  long  as  they  were  fettered  either  by 
the  independence  of  the  Governor  in  his  disposal  of  the  land  fund,  or  by 
the  independence  of  an  upper  chamber  whose  appointment  vested  in  the 
Crown.  The  proposed  new  constitution  did  not  satisfy  the  colonists.  An 
agitation  against  it,  in  which  the  late  Sir  George  Kingston  took  a  leading 
part,  was  set  on  foot.  Remonstrances  and  petitions  were  forwarded  to 
the  SecretaiT  of  State,  who  returned  the  Bill  to  the  colony  foi  further 
consideration,  the  Royal  sanction  having  been  withheld.  No  other 
occuiTence  of  serious  import  to  South  Australia  took  place  during  the 
remainder  of  Sir  Henry  Young's  tenn  of  office.  He  was  p:-oinoted  to  be 
Governor  of  Tasmania,  and  left  the  colony  at  the  end  of  1854. 

The  administration  of  Governor  Young  has  been  dwelt  upon  at  some 
length,  because  the  period  it  embraces  constitutes  the  most  eventful 
epoch  in  the  history  of  South  Australia.  From  the  time  at  which  the- 
reaction  took  place,  when  the  settlers  returned  from  the  goldfields,  its- 
individuality  became  firmly  established  and  its  future  successful  develop- 
ment rendered  certain.  It  was  no  longer  a  sluggish  and  struggling 
settlement ;  it  had  become  a  prosperous,  well-ordered,  and  enterprising 
community,  destined  to  undertake  a  leading  part  in  legal  reforms,  in  laying 
bare  the  secrets  of  the  interior  of  the  continent,  and  in  introducing  some 
of  the  most  valuable  adjuncts  to  civilization,  which  have  largely  and 
beneficially  influenced  the  advancement  of  the  whole  of  the  Australian 
colonies.* 

Under  Sir  Henry  Young  the  land  revenue  increased  from  £32,935 
in  1848  to  £383,470  in  1854.  The  general  revenue  increased  from 
£82,911  in  1848  to  £595,356  in  1854,  and  commercial  prosperity 
kept  pace  with  these  figures,  which  indicate  the  financial  position  of 
the  colony.  Yet  much  of  the  money  was  wasted.  In  1848  the 
population  amoiinted  to  38,666  persons.  Between  that  time  and  the 
end  of  1854  no  less  than  93,140  persons  entered  the  colony.  The  increase- 
of  births  over  deaths  in  the  same  period  was  7,897.  The  population, 
thus  should  have  been  increased  by  101,037  souls.  The  population- 
in  1849  amounted  to  52,904.  Without  emigration  the  total  should 
have    been    153,941.      However,    in    the    same   period    46,481    persons 

*  Amongst  these  may  be  mentioned  the  passing  of  Torrens'  Real  Property  Act,  now 
adopted  in  all  the  colonies ;  Stuart's  explorations ;  the  construction  of  the  overland 
telegraph  line  across  the  continent :  the  making  of  a  railway  to  the  Victorian  border : 
the  telegraph  line  to  the  boundaiy  of  Western  Australia.  These  were  carried  out  by 
South  Australia  unaided. 


PROGRESS  AND  DEVELOPMENT.  87 

left  the  colony;  thus  the  population  should  have  been  106,460 
souls.  At  the  end  of  1854  it  seems  that  the  total  population  was  no 
more  than  92,545,  so  that  there  remained  a  balance  against  the  colony  of 
13.915  souls.  The  fact  was  that  immigration  was  carried  on  on  a  large 
and  expensive  scale  by  the  South  Australian  Government.  Many  persons 
who  were  introduced  at  the  public  charge  only  used  South  Australia  as  a 
point  from  which  they  could  reach  the  goldfields :  the  colony  thus 
lost  many  of  the  people  introduced  at  her  cost  ^'ictoria  was  by  this 
means  largely  provided  with  popvdation  by  the  immigration  fund  of 
South  Australia.  This  improvident  system  of  dealing  with  the  proceeds 
of  land  sales,  and  of  bringing  people  to  the  colony,  was  not  discontinued 
for  many  years.  The  actual  loss  to  South  Australia  which  arose  from 
this  cause  has  never  been  properly  ascertained,  but  it  must  have  been 
immense. 

Sir  Richard  Graves  MacDonnell,  who  succeeded  Governor  Young,  did 
not  arrive  in  the  colony  until  June,  1855  ;  the  affairs  of  the  province 
being  administered  in  the  interim  by  Mr,  B.  T.  Finniss,  who  up  to 
that  time  had  been  Colonial  Secretary.  Sir  Richard  MacDonnell  was 
transferred  from  the  government  of  the  Island  of  St.  Vincent.  He  had 
preA'iously  been  Chief  Justice  of  one  of  the  settlements  on  the  West 
Coast  of  Africa,  and  subsequently  Governor  of  the  same  dependency. 

In  1854  the  Crimean  Avar  broke  out,  and  the  colonists  were  mostly  occu- 
pied in  devising  means  for  their  defence,  and  in  organising  a  military  force 
to  resist  attack.  A  strong  regiment  of  foot  was  enrolled,  with  a  small  con- 
tingent of  cavalry  and  three  field  batteries  of  artillery.  The  men  were 
badly  armed,  even  for  those  days.  There  was  only  a  bare  supply  of  old 
percussion  muskets  for  the  infantry,  the  armament  of  the  cavalry  was 
insufficient,  and  the  artiilery  mustered  only  six  light  six-pounders,  four 
nine-pounders,  and  two  24lb.  howitzers.  The  men  were  good  enough  ; 
they  were  strong  and  healthy,  accustomed  both  to  the  country  and 
climate,  and  equal  to  anything  if  properly  equipped  and  disciplined. 
At  that  time  there  were  no  heavy  guns  to  protect  either  the  entrance  to 
the  Port  or  the  shipping.  However,  the  forces  were  not  put  to  the 
test,  and  their  organisation  was  scarcely  more  than  fairly  under  Avay  when 
the  war  came  to  an  end.  Governor  MacDonnell  found  the  colony  m  a 
prosperous  state,  with  a  large  revenue  and  no  pressing  public  difficulties 
to  grapple  with.  There  was  the  new  constitution  to  be  framed, 
discussed,  and  adopted.  In  order  to  ascertain  the  wishes  of  the  colonists 
on  this  important  subject,  the  Legislative  Council  was  dissolved  in 
1855.  The  members  returned  were  nearly  all  in  favor  of  manhood 
suffrage  and  vote  by  ballot.  This  clear  expression  of  the  popular  feeling 
considerably  simplified  the  future  deliberations  of  the  Council. 


88  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

When  the  session  was  opened  after  the  general  election,  the  Estimates 
framed  by  the  Governor  were  forwarded  to  the  Legislative  Council. 
Instead  of  being  discussed  in  the  customary  way,  they  were  referred  to  a 
select  committee.  The  reason  for  this  unprecedented  course  was  never 
made  clear.  The  Governor's  policy  had  not  caused  any  dissatisfaction 
out  of  doors.  Probably  the  members  of  the  Council,  in  view  of  the 
framing  of  the  new  constitution,  desired  to  gain  some  insight  into  the  inner 
working  of  the  Government  establishments,  which  had  hitherto  been  a 
sealed  book  to  them.  It  was  certain,  however,  that  some  of  the  leading 
members  of  the  Council  were  determined  to  exercise  to  the  fullest  extent 
such  powers  as  they  possessed,  and  to  limit  those  of  the  Governor  as  far  as 
was  possible.  The  constitution  of  the  committee  was  singular.  The  Covm- 
cil  was  composed  of  sixteen  elected  members  and  eight  nominees.  The 
committee  comprised  six  elected  members  and  only  one  nominee.  The 
Governor's  policy  was  apparently  at  their  mercy.  The  committee 
protracted  its  sittings  for  several  mcmths,  and  the  public  service  was 
carried  on  by  means  of  credit  votes  on  the  basis  of  the  Estimates  as  laid 
before  the  Council,  so  that  in  the  end  no  economy — if  such  a  thing  had 
been  seriously  contemplated — was  secured.  Reports  were  brought  up  by 
the  committee  from  time  io  time,  which  were  always  more  or  less  ad%erse 
to  the  Governor  and  his  policy,  and  at  length  an  address  was  sent  to  the 
Governor  requesting  him  to  send  revised  Estimates  for  the  consideration 
of  the  Council.  Sir  Richard  MacUonnell  replied  by  message,  which 
embodied  a  trenchant  commentary  on  the  acts  of  the  select  committee. 
It  dealt  with  the  whole  case  in  such  a  masterl}^  way  as  to  turn  the  tide  of 
public  opinion  completely  against  the  proceedings  of  the  committee.  The 
Governor's  views  were  subsequently  supported  by  public  meetings,  -w^hich 
were  held  in  various  parts  of  the  colony.  The  select  committee  achieved 
nothing.  "  The  mass  of  work  which  the  special  committee  had  under- 
taken, which  extended  not  only  to  the  examination  of  the  public 
accounts,  but  also  to  an  inquiry  into  the  financial  position  of  the  colony 
generally,  for  which  purpose  the  managers  of  the  banks  were  summoned 
to  appear  and  were  examined.  To  some  questions  they  refused  to  reply, 
as  the  evidence  sought  %vas  of  too  inquisitorial  a  nature.  It  may  easily  be 
inferred  that  the  Government  officers  were  dealt  with  in  a  similar  spirit.  "* 

Whilst  the  committee  on  the  Estimates  was  sitting,  the  Constitution  Act 
was  introduced  into  the  Council.  There  were  conflicting  elements  of 
various  kinds  iu  the  Legislatm-e  which  it  was  difficult  to  harmonise  or 
even  to  reconcile,  so  strange  was  the  mixture  of  Liberalism  and 
Conservatism,  not  alone  in  parties,  but  in  individuals,  so  that  the  problem 
of  framing  a  constitution  for  the  colony  Avas  not  easy  of  solution. 
*  Constitutional  History  of  South  Australia  :  Finniss.     Adelaide,  1886. 


PROGRESS  AND  DEVELOPMENT.  89 

Sir  Richard  MacDonnell's  own  views  were,  that  a  single  chamber  wholly 
-elective  would  answer  all  the  aspirations  of  the  colonists.*  These  views 
were  not  considered  by  the  Legislative  Council,  and  the  form  of  Constitu- 
tion -which  was  adopted  was  modelled  somewhat  on  the  lines  of  the 
Legislature  in  England.  It  was  determined  to  establish  a  Parliament  of 
two  Houses — a  Legislative  Council  and  House  of  Assembly,  but  both  of 
them  elected.  The  former  was  chosen  on  the  basis  of  a  property  qualifica- 
tion, for  the  electors  but  not  for  the  elected.  The  House  of  Assembly 
was  chosen  by  manhood  suffrage  ;  that  is,  that  all  adult  males  who  were 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  who  were  registei'ed  as  electors,  were  entitled 
to  vote.  The  qualification  for  the  Legislative  Council  was  a  £50  free- 
hold ;  a  lease,  registered,  having  three  years  to  run  :  or  a  right  of  pur- 
chase of  the  annual  value  of  £20  ;  or  the  tenancy  of  a  house  of  the  clear 
annual  vahie  of  £25.  Any  one  was  eligible  as  a  member  for  the  Ljiper 
House  if  he  were  a  natural-born  or  naturalised  subject  of  the  Queen  and 
thirty  years  of  age,  and  had  lived  in  the  colony  for  three  years.  The 
Legislative  Council  consisted  of  eighteen  members,  elected  for  twelve 
years,  and  not  subject  to  dissolution,  but  one-third  of  the  members  were 
to  retire  every  third  year,  the  order  of  retirement  being  determined  by 
ballot  after  the  first  election  had  taken  place.  The  members  were 
elected  by  the  whole  province  voting  as  one  constituency.  The  House 
of  Assemby  consisted  of  thirty-six  members,  elected  by  electors  on  the 
basis  of  six  months'  registration  and  manhood  suffrage.  It  was  liable  to 
dissolution  by  ihe  Governor ;  failing  such  an  event  the  members  retained 
their  seats  for  three  years.  They  were  elected  for  certain  districts  into 
Avhich  the  colony  was  divided,  and  the  mode  of  election  in  both  cases 
was  by  ballot.  The  principle  of  the  ballot  was  adopted  at  the  instance 
of  the  late  Mr.  F.  S.  Dutton,  who  is  the  father  of  the  ballot  in  Australia. 
The  Act  was  allowed  by  the  Queen,  and  returned  to  the  colony  un- 
altered. It  was  passed  in  the  last  session  of  the  old  Legislative  Coimcil  of 
1855-G,  and  was  proclaimed  to  come  into  force  as  soon  as  it  was  received 
from  England.  It  contained  one  most  important  jJi'Ovision — that  no 
alteration  in  the  Constitution  should  become  law  unless  it  was  passed  by 
clear  majorities  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament.  The  judges  were  declared 
by  the  Act  to  be  removable  only  on  addresses  from  both  Houses.  Five 
Ministers  were  appointed,  who  were  responsible  to  Parliament,  and  no 
act  of  tiie  Governor  cculd  have  any  force  unless  countersigned  by  one 
of  them.  The  Act  materially  altered  the  position  of  the  Governor.  He 
was  no  longer  the  mere  representative  of  the  Crown,  responsible  only  to 
Her  Majesty  through  the  Secretary  of  State ;  he  was  bound  to  act  on 
the  advice  of  his  responsible  Ministers,  although  required  by  certain 
*  Goveniinciit  Gazelle,  August  17,  18-55. 


90  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

clauses  in  his  instructions  to  reserve  Bills  dealing  with  particular  questions- 
for  the  signification  of  the  Royal  assent.     Sir  Richard  MacDonnell  had 
never   been    Governor  of    a  colony  with    an    independent    constitution, 
and  he  was  not  easily  reconciled  to  the  altered  position  in  which  he  found 
himself.     His  oavu  view  was  that  it  was  for  him  to  prescribe  the  policy  of 
the  Ministry,  instead  of  merely  formally  concurring  in  that  which  they 
might  advise.     Consequently  there  arose  considerable  friction  between 
him  and  his  first  Ministers,  who  did  not  meet  the  new  Parliament  for  some 
months  after  they  had  been  sworn   in.     The   situation  was  novel  and 
complicated.      Tlie    Governor    had   been    compelled   to    form    the    first 
Ministry  out  of   the  only  materials  which  were  available,  namely,  three 
heads  of  departments  who  were  members  of  the  Executive  Council — the 
Hon.  B.  T.   Finnish,  M.P.,  Chief  Secretary;  the  Hon.    K.   D.  Hanson^ 
M.P.,  Attorney-General;  the  Hon.  R.  R.  Torrens,  MP.,  Treasurer;  with 
the  Hon.  Chas.  Bonney,  M.P..  Commissioner  of  Crown  Lands,  and  the 
Hon.  Samuel  Davenport,  M.L.C.,  Commissioner  of  Public  Works.     Tbi& 
was  a  makeshift  Ministry,  for,  with  the  exception  of  the  official  mem- 
bers, no  one  knew  anything  about  what  was  contemplated  for  the  future 
or  what  had  gone  on  before.     As  a  matter  of  fact  the  Ministers  did  not 
possess  the  Governor's  confidence,  and,  as  circumstances  unfolded  them- 
selves, it  became  evident  that  they  were  not  inclined  to  submit  to  the 
direction  of  the  Governor,  who  did  not  desire  to  surrender  the  prerogative 
which  he  had  been  accustomed  to  use  during  the  whole  of  his  official 
career.     The  problem,  however,  was  soon  solved. 

The  new  Ministry  met  the  Parliament  in  April,  1857,  and  resigned  in 
August,  after  existing  for  less  than  four  months.  It  would  not  have 
survived  even  that  brief  period  but  for  a  conflict  which  had  sprung  up 
between  the  two  branches  of  the  Legislature  on  the  question  of  Money 
Bills.  The  two  Houses,  according  to  the  Constitution  Act,  claimed  equal 
powers  as  conferred  upon  them  (by  clauses  1  and  40  of  the  Act  of  185.5-6) 
with  regard  to  all  Bills,  with  the  exception  that  Money  Bills  must  origi- 
nate in  the  House  of  Assembly  and  only  on  the  recommendation  of  the 
Governor.  A  Bill  to  levy  and  regulate  certain  tonnage  dues  was  introduced 
into  the  Assembly,  as  required  by  the  terms  of  the  Constitution  Act.  It 
was  passed  in  due  course,  and  forwarded  to  the  Legislative  Council  for 
concurrence.  In  its  progress  through  that  House  important  amendments 
were  made  in  it,  and,  as  altered,  it  was  returned  to  the  Assembly.  That 
House  refused  to  recognise  the  right  of  the  Council  to  make  alterations 
in  any  Money  Bill,  and  a  long  and  heated  debate  followed,  which  ended  in 
the  rejection  of  the  measure.  Later,  an  arrangement  or  compromise  took 
place  between  the  Houses,  under  which  they  consented  in  the  future  to 
make  "  suggestions  "  as  to  amendments  in  Money  Bills  for  the  considera- 


PROGRESS  AND  DEVELOPMENT.  91 

tion  of  the  House  of  Assembly,  instead  of  making  the  amendments 
directly,  and  that  arrangement  has  been  in  force  for  about  thirty-five 
years.  The  debate  which  grew  out  of  the  privilege  dispute  kept  the 
Ministry  in  office,  but  not  substantially  in  power,  and  shortly  after  the 
settlement  of  the  constitutional  question  a  new  Ministry  came  on  the 
scene.  The  fact  was  that  members  of  the  Assembly  were  ambitious. 
There  were  no  parties  in  that  House,  and  just  then  none  were  possible. 
The  Assembly  did  not  want  officials  in  power  who  had  been  under  the 
direct  control  of  the  Governor  and  who  might  be  influenced  by  him,  but 
Ministers  Avho  would  not  act  otherwise  than  with  the  confidence  of  a 
majority  in  the  popular  branch  of  the  Legislature.  The  Ministry  was 
out-voted,  and  new  men  assumed  office :  that  Ministry  lasted  for 
nine  days  only.  Another  succeeded  and  survived  just  twenty-nine  days. 
A  third  was  called  to  the  Governor's  Councils,  which  held  office  for  two 
years  and  nine  months.  With  this  new  combination  the  reign  of 
officialism  ceased,  and  from  that  time  until  now  the  Government  has 
been  carried  on  in  accordance  with  the  constitutional  principles  which 
are  established  in  the  mother  country-,  as  far  as  they  can  be  applied  to 
local  conditions. 

During  the  tenure  of  office  of  the  third  responsible  Ministry  "  The  Real 
Property  Act"  was  passed.  It  originated  with  Mr.  K.  R.  Torrens 
(afterwards  created  K.('.M.G.)  It  changed  the  system  of  the  transfer  of 
real  property,  and  simplified  it,  so  that  it  was  effected  with  almost  as  much 
ease  as  the  transfer  of  ordinary  chattels  which  pass  from  hand  to  hand. 
The  details  of  this  valuable  enactment,  which  has  been  adopted  in  all  of 
the  Australian  colonies  and  in  Xew  Zealand,  Avill  be  given  in  another 
place.  It  need  only  be  stated  here  that  its  introduction  has  conferred 
incalculable  benefits  upon  almost  every  landholder  in  those  dependencies 
of  the  British  Crown  in  which  the  law  has  been  brought  into  force. 

The  first  railway  connecting  Adelaide  with  its  chief  port  was  completed 
and  opened  for  traffic  in  Sir  Richard  MacDonnell's  time,  as  well  as 
the  railway  line  from  Adelaide  to  Gawler,  which  was  the  first  stej) 
towards  opening  out  the  northern  portions  of  the  colony.  The  lines  were 
projected  and  originated  by  Sir  Henry  Young,  by  whom  a  bonded  ciebt 
in  South  Australia  was  first  incurred.*"  To  Sir  Richard  MacDonnell  the 
establishment  of  the  Adelaide  and  Suburban  "Waterworks  is  attributable.! 
The  value  of  this  undertaking  has  been  so  great  that  the  water  supjdy  has 
been  extended  to  all  the  suburbs,  and  in  the  country  it  has  led 
to  the  construction  of  other  hydraulic  works  which  render  many 
places  entirely  independent  of  the  uncertain  and  intermittent  rainfall. 
In  this  very  dry  country  hydraulic  works  wanted  only  a  beginning.  The 
*  Act  No.  18  of  1853  and  Act  No.  18  of  1854.         t  Act  No.  28  of  1855-6. 


92  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

colony  is  now  reaping  the  advantage  of  the  useful  but  limited  scheme 
which  was  set  on  foot  in  1855-6.  Sir  Richard  MacDonnell  remained  in 
the  colony  up  to  the  day  of  the  arrival  of  his  successor.  He  was  a  popular 
Governor,  an  excellent  administrator,  and  a  cultivated  gentleman  of  large 
mental  capacity.  He  was  somewhat  persistent  in  his  own  views,  and  not 
easily  moved  from  fixed  opinions.  The  colony  progressed  well  during  his 
governorship,  but  his  personal  plans  for  her  advancement  were  greatly 
cheeked  by  the  introduction  of  constitutional  Government.  Neverthe- 
less, he  has  left  behind  him  an  excellent  reputation.  He  certainly 
deserves  to  be  regarded  as  the  most  able  Governor  of  the  transition  stage 
of  the  colony's  existence. 

The  progress  of  the  province  during  Sir  Richard  MacDonnell' s  tenure  of 
the  governorship  is  indicated  by  the  following  figures  : — The  population 
had  increased  from  92,545  in  1854  (the  year  of  his  arrival)  to  126,830  at 
the  end  of  1861  (a  few  months  before  his  departure)  :  the  revenue  in 
1855  was  £453,641.  in  1861  it  was  £558,587;  the  expenditure  was 
£689,696  in  1855,  in  1861  it  amounted  to  £482,951  ;  the  area  of  land 
under  cultivation  in  1853  (there  are  no  returns  for  1854-5)  comprised 
129,692  acres,  in  1862  it  had  expanded  to  320,160  acres  ;  the  number  of 
sheep  in  the  colony  had  increased  from  1,768,724  in  1853  to  3,431,000  in 
1862  ;  the  imports  had  decreased  from  2,147,107  in  1854  to  £1,820,656 
in  1862;  whilst  in  the  same  period  the  exports  had  grown  from 
£1,322,822  to  £2,145,796.  The  immigration  at  the  public  cost  into  the 
colony  was  very  considerably  restricted  during  the  period  to  which  the 
foregoing  figures  relate.  From  17,258  souls  in.  1854,  it  was  reduced  to 
2,685  in  1862.  The  emigrants  who  had  been  sent  to  the  colony  were  to 
a  great  extent  unsuitable  to  its  requirements,  especially  the  female 
portion,  and  Sir  R.  MacDonnell  found  his  resources  severely  taxed  in 
securing  their  distribution  and  absorption  amongst  the  colonists  in  the 
rural  districts. 


PROGRESS   AND   DEVELOPMENT.  93 


CHAPTER    YIII. 

Sir  Bominick  Daly — His  Arkival — Unsatisfactory  State  of  the  Sui-reme  Couut 
— Sir  Charles  Cooper — His  Retirement  — Mr.  Justice  Boothby's  Protest 
Against  the  Pension  Act— Claims  to  be  Chief  Justice— Difficulties 
Consequent  upon  the  Claim — Acts  Declared  Invalid — Addresses  to  the 
Crown  to  Remove  Mr.  Justice  Boothby — Addresses  Not  Complied  avith — 
Further  Difficulties  in  the  Supreme  Court— A  Fresh  Application  to 
the  Secretary  of  State — Lord  Carnarvon  Refuses  to  Comply  with  the 
Request  to  Remove  the  Judge — Suggests  His  Re.moval  in  Terms  of  an 
Imperial  Statute — That  Suggestion  Adopted — Enquiry  into  the  Judge's 
Conduct — His  Removal — Visit  of  H.R.H.  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh,  K.G. 

—  Death  of  Sir  Dominick  Daly — Progress  of  the  Colony — Colonel 
Hamley — Alteration  in  the  Land  Laws — Arrival  of  Sir  James  Fergusson 

—  Inauguration  of  the  Overland  Telegraph  Line — Progress  of  the 
Colony — Sir  A.  Musgrave — Ministerial  Disputes  and  Changes — Arrival 
of  Sir  "W.  "W.  Cairns — His  Resignation — Sir  W.  F.  D.  Jervois  Appointed 
Governor— Sir  W.  C.  F.  Robinson  Appointed — The  Earl  of  Kintore. 

Sir  Dominick  Daly  entered  upon  his  government  on  March  4th,  1862. 
He  had  passed  through  a  long  official  career  in  Canada,  and  had  been  a 
member  of  one  of  the  early  responsible  Ministries  in  that  great  dependency 
of  the  Crown,  after  its  affairs  had  been  settled  by  the  late  p]ari  of  Durham. 
His  Excellency  was  transferred  from  Prince  Edward's  Island,  of  which 
he  was  Governor,  to  South  Australia,  where  he  remained  until  the  time 
of  his  death.  The  colony  was  in  a  flourishing  condition  when  he  was 
appointed,  and  it  made  great  progress  under  his  rule.  The  general  policy 
of  the  province  being  determined  by  Ministers  >yho  were  answerable  to 
Parliament,  there  was  not  much  scope  for  the  exercise  of  a  Governor's 
statesmanship  in  directing  the  course  of  political  events.  Sir  Dominick 
Daly,  however,  possessed  a  clear  perception  of  the  duties  which  devohed 
upon  him  as  head  of  the  Executive,  and  was  well  versed  in  the  principles 
and  usages  of  constitutional  government.  Whilst  he  was  never  unmindful 
of  the  claims  of  the  dift'erent  Ministries  which  succeeded  each  other  during 
his  Governorship  to  his  co-operation  and  support,  he  preserved  his  posi- 
tion and  his  dignity  with  all  of  them,  and  thus  gained  the  confidence  of 
the  Parliament  and  the  universal  respect  of  the  colonists. 

Sir  R.  G.  MacDonnell  had  left  beiiind  him  a  very  troublesome  matter, 
which  had  arisen  in  his  time.  It  related  to  the  conduct  of  business  in 
the  Supreme  Court,  and  the  course  pursued  by  one  of  the  judges  of  that 
tribunal.  Mr.  Benjamin  Boothby,  who  had  been  Recorder  of  Pontefract 
and  a  revising  barrister  of  one  of  the  Ridings  of  Yorkshire,  was  api)ointcd 
Second  Judge  in  succession  to  Mr.  Justice  Crawford,  who  had  died.  The 
appointment  had  been  made  by  letters  patent  under  the  great  seal  of  the 


94  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

province,  by  Sir  H.  E.  F.  Young,  Lieutenant-Governor  of  South  Australia, 
acting  in  pursuance  of  a  warrant  under  the  Royal  Sign  Manual  directed 
to  the  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies,  dated  in  February,  1853.  Mr. 
Boothby  acted  as  Second  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  until  the  Chief 
Justice,  Sir  Charles  Cooper,  went  to  England  on  leave.  Mr.  Justice 
Boothby  was  then  appointed  Acting  Chief  Justice  during  Sir  Charles 
Cooper's  absence  fi'om  the  colony.  Previous  to  this  the  office  of  third 
judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  had  been  created,  to  which  Mr.  Edward 
Castres  Gwynne  was  appointed,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  administration 
of  justice,  on  account  of  the  divergences  of  opinion  which  had  occurred 
between  the  Chief  Justice  and  Mr.  Justice  Boothby  on  many  of  the 
questions  of  law  which  came  befoi-e  the  Court.  Sir  Charles  Cooper 
resigned  his  office  at  the  end  of  1861,  and  the  Hon.  R.  D.  Hanson, 
Attorney-General  at  the  time,  was  appointed  to  the  vacant  position.  The 
Parliament  passed  an  Act  conferring  on  Sir  Charles  Cooper  a  pension  of 
£1,000  a  year  for  life,  in  recognition  of  his  long  and  distinguished 
services  to  the  colony.  Mr.  Justice  Boothby  took  exception  to  that  Act, 
and  he  memorialised  the  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies  in  order  to 
induce  him  to  advise  the  Queen  not  to  assent  to  it.  on  the  ground  that  it 
made  no  provision  for  any  other  of  the  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  who 
might  retire.  The  Duke  of  Newcastle,  however,  declined  to  act  on  Mr. 
Justice  Boothby's  suggestions,  and  intimated  that  if  he  desired  to  bring 
the  matter  before  the  Privy  Council  he  must  do  so  at  his  own  cost. 

The  new  Chief  Justice  was  sworn  in  in  due  course.  When  he  attended 
to  take  his  seat  upon  the  Bench,  Mr.  Justice  Boothby  raised  the  objection 
that  Mr.  Hanson's  appointment  was  illegal  and  invalid,  and  that  he  had 
no  right  to  the  position  of  Chief  Justice.  This  objection  was  overruled 
as  untenable,  and  Mr.  Hanson  entered  upon  the  functions  of  his  office. 
Mr.  Justice  Boothby  claimed  to  be  entitled  to  the  position  of  Chief 
Justice,  and  on  various  occasions  asserted  himself  to  be  the  only  lawfully 
appointed  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  South  Australia. 

From  this  circumstance  serious  difficulties  arose.  Mr.  Justice  Boothby 
pronounced  the  Constitution  Act  to  be  invalid,  and  declared  that  all  the 
laws  which  had  been  enacted  under  its  provisions  were  also  invalid. 
Many  other  enactments  were  also  held  by  him  to  be  invalid  or  inoperative, 
because  they  were  either  ultra  vires  or  repugnant  to  the  law  of  England. 
He  considered  that  there  was  no  Attorney-General,  and  he  postponed  the 
trial  of  prisoners  who  were  arraigned  before  him  because  grand  juries  had 
been  abolished,  and  indictments  preferred  by  the  Attorney-General  had 
no  legal  force.  The  whole  of  the  judicial  system  of  the  colony  was  thus 
disarranged.  The  delays  which  followed  in  determining  suits  that  were 
brought   in   the    Supreme    Court,   the   constantly   recurring  differences 


PROGRESS    AND    DEVELOPMENT.  95 

•which  arose  between  Mr.  Justice  Boothby,  his  colleagues  on  the  Bench, 
and  the  Bar  generally,  created  great  public  dissatisfaction  and  excitement. 
At  length  the  Parliament  took  notice  of  the  state  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
and  addresses  fi-oni  both  branches  of  the  Legislature  were  passed  and 
forwarded  through  the  Governor  to  the  Secretary  of  State,  praying  Her 
Majesty  to  remove  Mr.  Justice  Boothby  fi-ora  office.  The  Duke  of 
Newcastle,  acting  on  the  advice  of  the  law  officers  of  the  Crown  in 
England,  decided  not  to  comply  with  the  prayer  of  the  addresses,  on  the 
■ground  that,  although  Mr.  Justice  Boothby  might  have  been  wrong  in 
many  cases  in  his  exposition  of  the  law,  in  some  of  the  positions  taken  up 
by  him  he  had  been  right.  In  order  to  remove  exjjressed  doubts  as  to 
the  state  of  the  law  in  the  colony,  and  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of 
similar  difficulties  in  the  future,  validating  Acts  were  passed  by  the 
Imperial  Parliament,  which,  it  was  expected,  would  terminate  the 
unsatisfactory  condition  of  affiairs  which  had  deprived  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  province  of  much  of  its  usefulness.  This  expectation  was  not 
realised.  Mr.  Justice  Boothby's  opinions  underwent  no  change  in  fact, 
nor  were  they  even  modified  in  degree.  His  claims  to  be  the  sole  judge 
of  the  Court  were  persistently  re-asserted,  and  the  altercations  between 
himself  and  the  other  judges,  as  well  as  members  of  the  Bar,  were  con- 
tinually renewed.  * 

The  proceedings  of  the  Supreme  Court  and  the  impediments  which 
were  thrown  in  the  way  of  the  dispatch  of  the  business  of  that  tribunal 
formed  the  subject  of  a  vohmiinous  correspondence  between  the  Governor, 
the  Secretary  of  State,  and  Mr.  Justice  Boothby.  It  bi-ought  about  no 
satisfactory  result,  and  it  forced  itself  anew  upon  the  consideration  of  the 
Legislature.  The  Imperial  Government  was  again  urged  to  dismiss  Mr. 
Boothby.  The  Earl  of  Carnarvon,  who  held  the  seals  of  the  Colonial 
Office  in  succession  to  the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  after  reconsidering  the 
whole  case  ab  initio,  intimated  to  the  Governor  that  the  question  of  Mr. 
Justice  Boothby's  conduct  was  so  intermixed  with  matters  of  law  that,  in 
his  judgment,  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council  was  the  proper 
tribunal  whose  advice  should  be  sought  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
the  case.  His  Lordship  concluded  his  despatch  with  the  following 
words: — "If  Mr.  Boothby's  conduct  justified,  and  the  interest  of  the 
■colony  required  his  prompi  removal,  it  would  have  been  far  better  to  have 
adopted  the  responsibility  of  removing  him  under  the  Act  of  22nd  George 
III.,  Chap.  75,  than  to  have  transmitted  an  ex  parte  case  to  be  dealt  with 
by  Her  Majesty's  Government  at  the  other  side  of  the  world,  with  the 
evident  probability  that  their  first  step  would  be  to  put  Mr.  Boothby  on 
his  defence,  and   the  possibility  of  calculating   the   delays  to  which  this 

*  Parliamentary  Paper  No.  22  of  1S67. 


96  SOITH    AISTRALIA. 

necessary  step  might  lead.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  even  now  your 
Government  would  act  wisely  by  commencina:  proceedings  under  that 
Act;  but  they  will  do  M-ell  to  bear  in  mind  that,  in  that  case,  their 
decision  will  be  subject  to  appeal  to  the  Privy  Council,  and  that,  with  a 
view  to  that  appeal,  their  charges  must  be  adequate  and  precise,  that  the 
evidence  of  the  fact  must  be  sufficient,  and  that  Mr.  Boothby  must  be 
fully  heard  in  his  defence."  *•' 

In  April.  1867,  the  Chief  Justice  and  Mr.  Justice  Gwynne  wrote  to  the 
Governor  complaining  of  the  offensive  conduct  of  Mr.  Justice  Boothby 
towards  themselves,  of  the  obstacles  his  demeanor  threw  in  the  way 
of  the  equal  administration  of  justice,  and  requesting  His  Excellency  to 
adopt  such  remedial  measures  as  it  might  lay  in  the  jiower  of  the  Govern- 
ment to  apply.  On  the  26th  May,  1866,  the  Attorney-General  (the  Hon. 
James  Penn  Boucaut,  M.P.,  now  second  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court)  had 
forwarded  a  report  to  the  Governor  on  the  conduct  of  Mr.  Justice 
Boothby,  in  which  the  whole  of  that  judge's  proceedings  were  reviewed 
at  length.  That  report  substantially  formed  the  basis  of  the  application 
to  the  Secretary  of  State  which  drew  forth  the  Earl  of  Carnarvon's  des- 
patch quoted  above.  At  length  it  Avas  determined  to  proceed  against  Mr, 
Boothby  in  accordance  with  the  Act  of  George  HI.,  Chap.  75,  as  had 
been  suggested  by  Lord  Carnarvon.  The  Governor  and  flxecutive Council 
met  on  the  24th  June,  1 867,  to  investigate  the  charges  brought  against  the 
judge,  which  were  as  follows  : — "  1.  Conduct  and  language  contumacious 
and  disrespectful  to  the  Court  of  Appeals,  and  obstructive  to  the  said 
Court  in  the  performance  of  its  duties.  2.  Perverse  refusal  to 
acknowledge  the  authority  of  Parliament  and  to  administer  the  laws  of 
the  Province.  3.  Expressions  on  the  Bench  disparaging  and  insulting- 
the  Legislature,  the  Government,  and  the  institutions  of  the  province,  and 
language  and  behavior  on  the  Bench  calculated  to  bring  the  administra- 
tion of  justice  into  contempt.  4.  Language  on  the  Bench  offensive  and 
irritating  to  the  other  judges,  and  public  denial  of  their  authority. 
5.  Allowing  private  and  personal  feeling  to  interfere  with  the  fair  and 
impartial  administration  of  justice."  Mr.  Justice  Boothby  attended  the 
Coimcil  on  the  first  day  of  its  sittings,  but  he  denied  its  authority  and 
ignored  its  proceedings.  After  reading  a  paper  containing  a  demand  for 
certain  documents,  he  left  the  chamber,  and  did  not  again  appear  before 
the  Council.  The  Council  sat  for  eight  days  and  eventually  found  the 
charges  provqd.  An  order  was  then  made  by  which  Mr.  Boothby  was 
amoved  from  his  office.  Mr.  Boothby  had  determined  to  appeal  to  the 
Queen  in  Council  against  the  order,  but  his  death,  which  occurred  a  few 
months  after,  brought  the  controversy  to  a  close. 
*  Despatch  of  the  Earl  of  Carnarvon  to  Governor  Sir  D.  Daly,  Febioiary  26tb,  1867. 


PROGRESS     AND     DEVEl.OPMEXT.  97 

Towards  the  end  of  1867,  His  Royal  Highness  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh 
paid  a  State  visit  to  South  Australia.  He  was  in  command  of  H.M.S.S. 
Galatea.  He  landed  on  the  31st  of  October,  and  was  received  with  the 
utmost  enthusiasm.  The  city  Avas  illuminated,  triumphal  arches  were 
built,  balls,  hunting  parties,  and  other  festivities  were  arranged,  and 
the  colony  was  en  fete  diuring  the  whole  period  of  his  stay.  An  open 
vote  to  cover  the  expenses  of  his  reception  was  passed  by  Parliament,  and 
everything  was  done  to  do  honor  to  the  distinguished  visitor,  and  to 
make  his  stay  agreeable  to  him  and  to  his  suite.  He  sailed  for  Victoria 
on  the  21st  November,  apparently  much  gratified  at  the  reception  which 
had  been  accorded  to  him. 

Early  in  1868  Sir  Dominick  Daly,  who  had  been  in  feeble  health  for 
several  months,  was  attacked  by  a  serious  illness  from  which  he  never 
rallied,  and  he  died  on  the  19th  February.  A  public  funeral  was 
accorded  to  his  remains,  which  Avere  interred  with  military  honors.  Xo 
greater  public  demonstration  than  that  which  took  place  at  the  interment 
has  been  witnessed  in  the  colony.  Sir  D.  Daly  was  the  only  Roman 
Catholic  Governor  ever  appointed  to  South  Australia.  He  was  not  a 
brilliant  man,  but  he  possessed  great  tact  and  a  singularly  coiTect 
judgment ;  he  was  also  a  good  administrator.  He  was  pre-eminently  just, 
and  strictly  impartial  in  the  midst  of  the  frequent  Ministerial  changes 
which  occurred  during  his  official  career  in  South  Australia.  His 
manner  was  gentle  and  dignified,  and  without  being  demonstrative  he  was 
sincere.  The  Imperial  authorities  were  so  Avell  satisfied  with  his 
administration  that  they  had  decided  to  re-appoint  him  as  Governor  for  a 
second  term  of  office.  Xo  Governor  enjoyed  a  greater  measure  of 
popularity  than  Sir  D.  Daly,  and  none  more  Avorthily  merited  the  excellent 
reputation  which  he  left  behind  him.  His  decease  was  deeply  lamented 
by  every  class  in  the  province. 

At  the  time  of  his  arrival  in  1862  the  population  numbered  135,329 
souls,  at  the  time  of  his  decease  it  had  increased  to  172,680.  The  revenue 
Avhich  amounted  to  £548,709  in  1862  had  grown  to  £716,295  in  1867. 
The  expenditure  in  each  of  those  years  was  £579,381  in  the  former,  and 
£1,003,272  in  the  latter — the  last,  however,  included  loan  moneys  raised 
for  public  works  ;  491,511  acres  were  under  cultivation  in  1862,  in  1867  the 
area  had  increased  to  810,734  acres.  The  colony  possessed  56,25 1  horses  in 
the  former  year,  and  74,228  in  the  latter.  In  the  same  years  the  number  of 
sheep  in  the  colony  were  3,431 ,000,  and  4,447,445,  respectively.  The  cattle, 
however,  had  decreased  from  258,342  to  122,200.  The  reason  for  this 
remarkable  falling  off  is  not  ascertainable.  The  value  of  the  import  trade 
increased  from  £1,820,056  to  £2,506,394,  and  that  of  the  export  trade 
from  £2,145,796  to  £3,164,622.     The  railway  system,  then  in  its  early 


98  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

infancy,  showed  only  fifty-six  miles  in  operation.  In  1862  there  were 
1,026  miles  of  telegraph  wires  erected,  communicating  with  thirty-five 
stations  ;  in  1867  1,642  miles  were  erected,  connecting  sixty-five  stations. 
The  assets  of  the  banks  grew  from  £1,930,914  in  1862  to  £3,234,209  in 
1867,  and  their  liabilities  from  £958,824  to  £1,549,195. 

On  the  decease  of  the  Governor  the  administration  of  the  Government 
devolved  upon  Lieutenant-Colonel  F.  G.  Hamley,  of  the  50th  Regiment, 
the  senior  military  officer  on  active  service  in  the  colony,  and  he  held 
office  until  the  Right  Hon.  Sir  James  Fergusson,  Bart.,  who  was 
appointed  to  succeed  Sir  D.  Daly,  arrived  in  South  Australia  on 
February  15th,  1869.  The  new  Governor  had  been  a  member  of  the 
English  Parliament,  and  had  filled  the  offices  of  Uader  Secretary  of 
State  for  the  Home  Department,  and  Under  Secretary  of  State  for 
India.  He  had  also  held  a  commission  in  the  Coldstream  Guards,  and 
had  served  in  the  Crimean  war,  and  at  the  siege  of  Sebastopol.  where  he 
was  wounded.  During  Colonel  Hamley's  administration  considerable 
changes  took  place  in  the  manner  of  disposing  of  the  waste  lands  of  the 
Crown.  Before  then  land  had  been  sold  by  auction,  but  this  system 
had  created  a  class  of  persons  known  as  "  land  sharks,"  w^ho  attended  all 
Government  land  sales,  and  bid  for  and  bought  all  they  covild  secure,  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  lai-ger  prices  from  the  people  who  required  the 
land  for  bond  fide  settlement,  whom  they  had  been  able  to  outbid.  It 
also  gave  rise  to  extensive  land  monopolies,  which  kept  farmers  off  the 
soil  and  thus  restricted  settlement.  South  Australia  lost  some  of  its 
population  through  the  operation  of  those  causes.  At  length  a  change 
Avas  brought  about  by  the  new  Land  Act,  or  ''  Strangways'  Act  "  as  it 
was  called.  The  land  was  sold  on  credit,  the  full  sum  bid  for  it  being 
payable  within  four  years  from  the  date  of  the  sale.  The  purchase- 
money  bore  interest  at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent.,  the  whole  of  which  was 
payable  in  advance  at  the  time  the  land  was  sold.  Besides  that,  cei-tain 
areas  in  different  parts  of  the  colony  were  proclaimed  to  be  agricultural 
areas,  in  which  land  was  open  for  selection  by  intending  purchasers,  and 
when  two  or  more  persons  applied  at  the  same  time  for  the  same  block, 
the  applications  were  decided  on  by  lot.  All  the  land  that  had  been  put 
up  at  auction  aad  not  sold  was  open  for  selection ;  but  a  definite  value 
was  assigned  to  each  section,  and,  if  not  taken  up,  the  price  was  gradually 
reduced  until  it  became^j-ated  at  £1  per  acre. 

The  change  did  some  good ;  but  if  the  auction  system  had  evils  of  its 
own,  the  new  law  generated  new  evils.  The  limit  of  selection  was  640 
acres.  The  land  monopolists  were  equal  to  the  occasion  ;  they  purchased 
lands  in  the  names  of  persons  who  were  under  their  control,  and  the 
residence  clauses  were  evaded  by  the  presence  of  dummies.     Some  of 


PROGRESS     AXD     DEVEr.OPMENT.  99 

the  dummies  got  the  better  of  their  principals,  by  keeping  the  land 
bought  in  their  names  and  complying  with  the  terms  of  the  Act.  Tho«e 
who  prompted  the  dummying  for  their  own  purposes  coidd  neither  sue 
nor  prosecute,  and  in  some  cases  lost  their  money  and  the  land.  Various 
amendments  in  the  land  Acts  followed  from  time  to  time,  until  they 
developed  into  the  land  laws  now  in  force,  as  will  be  noted  in  a  subse- 
quent part  of  this  work. 

Sir  James  Fergusson  remained  in   South  Australia  till  April,   1873, 
when  he   was  transferred   to   the   Government   of    Xew  Zealand.     He 
identified  himself  with  all  movements  for  the  advancement  of  agriculture, 
and  took  a  most  substantial  and  generous  part  in  useful  popular  move- 
ments.    The  great  event  of  his  administration,  howevei',  was  the  opening 
of  the  Overland  Telegraph  Line,  constructed  by  South  Australia  across 
the  continent  to  Port  Darwin,  which  placed  the  .Australian  colonies  in 
direct  communication  with  Great  Britain,  and,  consequently,  with  all  the 
telegraphic    systems    of    the    civilised   workl.     The    completion    of   the 
Overland  Telegraph  Line  was  inaugurated  by  a  public  banquet  in  the 
Town  Hall  of  Adelaide,  and  it  was  announced  by  the  Governor  on  that 
occasion  that  the  Chief  Secretary  (the  Hon.    Henry  Ayers,  M.L.C.)  had 
been  honored  by  the  Queen  by  being  created  K.C'.M.G.,  and  Mr.   C. 
Todd  (Postmaster-General,  under  whose  sviperintendence  the  work  had 
been  carried  out,  and  who,  in  fact,  had  originated  the  scheme)  was  made 
C.M.G.     The  Hon.  H.  B.  T.  Strangways,  the  Minister  who  had  intro- 
duced  the   Act   authorising   the  Avork   into    Parliament,  and  by  Avhose 
exertions   it   became  law,  received   no  recognition  of   his  valuable  and 
important  services  to  the  colony  in  promoting  the  enterprise.      During  Sir 
J.  Fergusson's  rei/i?ne  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh  visited  the  colony  a  second 
time,  but  not  in  his  official  capacity.     His  only  public  act  was  to  lay  the 
foundation-stone  of  the  Sailors'  Home  at  Port  Adelaide  in  February,  1869. 
The  progress  of    the   province   between    1868    and   the  end  of    1872 
— shortly  after  which  Sir  R.  D.  Hanson,  Chief  Justice,  administered  the 
Government,  2)ending  the  arrival  of  Sir  James  Fergusson's  successor — 
may   be    traced    by   the   following    brief    statistics  : — The    population 
increased  from  176,298  to  192,223;  the  revenue  declined  from  £716,004 
to  £697,442  ;    the   expenditure   fell   from  £852.689  to  £700,255  ;    the 
quantity  of  land  under  cultivation  in  1868   wos  808,234  acres,  in  1872 
1,164,846  acres;  the  number  of  horses  in  the  colony  in  the  former  year 
was  75,409,  in  the  latter  82,215  ;  the  horned  cattle  numbered  123.213  in 
1868,  and  151,662  in  1872  ;  the  sheep  depastured  in  1868  were  4.987,024. 
and  in  1872,  4,900,687  ;   the  combined  value  of  the  import  and  export 
trades  was  £5,057,810  in  1868,  and  £6,540,194  in  1872  ;  in  1868.  1,642 
miles  of  telegraph  line  had  been  erected  connecting  sixty-five  stations. 


100  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

in  1872  there  were  3,731  miles,  connecting  eighty-six  stations  ;  the  asset* 
of  the  banks  increased  from  £3,234,209  to  £3,509,452,  and  their 
liabilities  from  £1,549,195  to  £2,010,183. 

Sir  James  Fergusson  was  an  excellent  administrator,  a  forcible  speaker, 
and  a  far-seeing  politician.  It  was  he  who  originated  the  idea  of  a  bold 
public  works  policy,  the  carrying  out  of  which  has  helped  very  largely  ta 
develop  the  productiveness  and  increase  the  wealth  and  prosperity  of  the 
province.  He  was  courteous  in  his  demeanor,  though  at  times  somewhat 
austere.  He  did  not  succeed  in  acquiring  such  a  wide-spread  popularity 
as  Sir  D.  Daly,  but  he  was  greatly  respected  as  an  upright  conscientious 
gentleman  and  an  exemplary  man.  Sir  James  Fergusson  sustained  a 
severe  loss  in  the  death  of  his  wife.  Lady  Edith  Fergusson,  daughter  of  the 
Marquis  of  Dalhousie,  who  had  been  Governor-General  of  India.  She 
expired  on  the  28th  October,  1871.  Her  ladyship  had  gained  the 
sincere  admiration  and  gratitude  of  all  classes  by  her  widely  extended 
but  unostentatious  charity,  and  the  deep  interest  she  manifested  in  the 
welfare  of  the  poor  and  suffering  of  her  own  sex. 

Mr.  Anthony  Musgrave,  C.M.G.,  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Natal, 
succeeded  Sir  James  Fergusson  in  the  Governorship.  He  held  office 
from  June  9th,  1873  imtil  March  24th,  1877.  His  regime  Avas  eventful 
as  far  as  political  conflicts  were  concerned,  but  uneventful  as  far 
as  regarded  his  position  as  Governor.  The  political  disturbances 
arose  from  the  accession  of  Mr.  J.  P.  Boucavit  (now  second  Judge 
of  the  Supreme  Court)  to  power.  He  proposed  to  borrow  some 
£3,000,000  for  public  works,  and  to  meet  the  interest  upon  the 
debt  thus  incurred  by  the  imposition  of  fresh  taxation,  in  the  shape  of 
Stamp  taxes  and  Probate  and  Succession  Duties.  His  proposals  were 
welcomed  and  easily  carried  in  the  House  of  Assembly,  but  the  Legisla- 
tive Council  rejected  them.  Without  the  additional  taxation  he  refused 
to  borrow.  The  Parliament  was  prorogued  and  met  again  in  a  very  few 
weeks,  when  the  taxation  proposals  were  again  carried  in  the  Assembly 
and  again  rejected  by  the  Legislative  Council ;  Mr.  Boucaut  thereupon 
declined  to  proceed  with  his  public  works  projects.  The  Parliament  was 
again  prorogued.  Before  it  met  again  Sir  R.  D.  Hanson,  the  Chief 
Justice,  died  suddenly,  and  the  Hon.  S.  J.  "Way,  Attorney-General,  was 
appointed  in  his  place.  This  circumstance  necessitated  a  re-arrangement 
of  the  Ministry,  from  which  some  of  its  members  seceded,  and  Avhen  the 
Parliament  re-assembled  the  Hon.  Mr.  Boucaut's  Ministry  was  removed 
by  a  no-confidence  vote.  The  Hon.  John  Colton  (now  Sir  John  Colton, 
K.C.M.G.)  formed  a  new  Cabinet,  which  adopted  the  whole  of  the 
retiring  Ministers'  policy  except  as  to  taxation.  The  sum  of 
£3,000,000    was    raised    on    loan,    and    various    new    railways    were 


PROGRESS  AND  DEVELOPMENT,  101 

projected,  all  of  which  have  since  been  constructed.  The  Probate 
and  Succession  Duties  were  adopted  and  became  law,  but  the  Stamp  Act 
which  had  been  contemplated  was  not  proceeded  with.  During  all  these 
political  changes  the  Governor  was  necessarily  inactive,  except  as  to  the 
exercise  of  his  ordinary  functions  as  chief  of  the  Executive.  He  was 
essentially  of  retiring  and  studious  habits,  having  no  taste  for  the  tur- 
moils of  party  conflict,  and  he  did  not  court  publicity  to  any  remarkable 
extent.  He  occupied  a  kind  of  negative  position  with  regard  to  the 
colonists.  He  was  neither  popular  nor  unpopular,  but  he  left  behind  him 
on  his  retirement  the  reputation  of  being  a  well-meaning,  undemonstra- 
tive, and  eminently  efficient  Governor.  Mr.  Musgrave  was  made  a 
K.C.M.G.  shortly  after  his  arrival  in  the  colony.  His  ser\-ices  in  other 
colonies  had  certainly  entitled  him  to  this  distinction  before  he  was 
appointed  to  rule  over  a  jirovince  which  ranks  in  the  Colonial  Office  as  a 
first  class  colony.  Sir  A.  Musgrave  was  promoted  to  the  Governorship 
of  Jamaica,  and  he  left  South  Australia  for  his  new  seat  of  Government 
on  January  23rd.  1877.  Pending  the  arrival  of  his  successor.  Sir  W.  W, 
Cairns,  K.C.M.G.,  who  was  transferred  from  Queensland,  His  Honor  the 
Chief  Justice,  Mr.  S.  J.  Way,  filled  the  office  of  Administrator.  This  was 
from  January  29th,  1877,  till  March  24th,  in  the  same  year. 

From  1872  to  1876,  inclusive,  the  position  of  the  province  will  be 
understood  from  the  subjoined  figures.  The  population  had  gro-\\m  from 
192,223  to  225.677.  The  revenue  increased  from  £697,422  to  £1,320,205. 
The  expenditure  had  augmented  from  £700,255  to  £1.323,337.  The 
quantity  of  land  brought  into  cultivation  had  extended  from  1,164,846 
acres  to  1,514,916  acres.  The  horse  stock  had  multiplied  from  82,215 
head  to  106,903,  and  homed  cattle  from  151,662  to  219,441.  The 
increase  in  the  number  of  sheep  depastured  in  the  colony  was  from 
4.900,687  to  6,133,291.  The  total  value  of  the  import  and  export  trades 
(which  was  £6,540,194  in  1872)  amounted  to  £9,392,353  in  1876.  The 
tonnage  of  shipping  inwards  and  outwards  sprang  up  from  347,360  tons 
to  732,330.  [n  1872,  202  miles  of  railway  were  open  and  at  work,  and 
in  1876.  328  miles;  3.731  miles  of  telegraph  line  connecting  86  stations 
were  in  operation  in  1872.  and  in  1876,  4,486  miles  of  line  connecting 
112  stations.  The  assets  of  the  banks  had  accumulated  from  £3,509,452 
to  £6,346,127,  and  the  liabilities  had  grown  from  £2,010.183  to 
£3,826,354. 

Sir  William  Wellington  Cairns  was  sworn  in  as  Administrator  of  the 
Government,  in  the  customary  way,  when  he  landed  in  South  Australia, 
and  was  received  with  the  cordiality  and  respect  with  which  all  the 
Governors  have  without  exception  been  greeted.  His  career,  however, 
was  very  brief.       The  only  public  functions  performed  by  him  were  the 


102  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

opening  of  the  Victoria  Bridge,  on  April  '24th,  1877,  and  being  present 
at  the  inauguration  of  the  Senate  of  the  Adelaide  University  and 
the  enrohnent  of  its  members.  He  resigned  his  office  on  May  17th, 
after  holdiu"  it  for  less  than  two  mouths,  so  that  the  colonists 
had  no  opportunity  of  judging  either  of  his  personal  character 
or  of  his  official  capabilities.  The  Cnief  Justice  again  became 
Administrator.  an<l  remained  so  for  nearly  live  months.  In  Julj,  1877, 
the  overland  telegraph  line  to  Western  Australia  was  completed  as  far  as 
Eucla,  a  small  port;  about  150  miles  west  of  the  head  of  the  Great 
Australian  Bight. 

Sir  W.  D.  F.  Jervois.  K.C.M.G.,  C.B.,  was  the  next  Governor. 
He  held  the  rank  of  Colonel  in  the  Royal  Elngineers,  and  was  Governor 
of  the  Straits  Settlements  when  he  was  appointed  to  South  Australia.* 
He  was  a  most  distinguished  officer,  and  was  regarded  as  one  of 
the  greatest  of  European  authorities  on  fortifications.  His  varied 
services  at  the  Cape,  in  India,  and  liis  professional  career  in  England 
and  elsewhere,  had  caused  his  advancement  step  by  step  until  he  came 
to  South  Australia  as  Governor.  He  arrived  in  H.M.S.  Sapphh-e  on  the 
2nd  of  October,  1877,  and  remained  in  office  till  the  17tb  November, 
1882.  He  was  absent  from  the  colony  for  six  months  in  1878,  during 
which  time  the  Chief  Jvistice  acted  as  his  locum  tenens.  About  a 
month  after  Sir  William  Jervois'  first  arrival  the  Overland  Telegraph  Line 
from  Adelaide  to  Perth,  connecting  West  Australia  with  the  telegraph 
systems  of  the  other  colonies  and  of  the  world,  was  completed.  It  follows 
the  coastline,  for  the  most  part  along  Eyre's  track,  and  joins  the  South 
Australian  system  at  Port  Augusta.  In  the  foUoAving  year,  on  July  ;50tli. 
Sir  William  Jervois  laid  the  foundation-stone  of  the  Adelaide  University, 
and  on  that  occasion  delivered  an  address  which  attracted  much  attention 
and  was  the  subject  of  much  laudatory  comment.  On  the  26th  of 
November  the  colony  suffered  a  great  loss  in  the  death  of  Sir  George 
Kingston,  who  died  on  board  the  P.  k  O.  Company's  steamship 
Malwi  on  a  voyage  to  Bombay,  which  place  he  was  desirous  of  visiting 
for  the  benefit  of  his  health.  He  had  been  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Assembly  for  many  years,  but  had  just  vacated  that  office  in  consequence 
of  a  dissolution  of  Parliament.  He  had  represented  the  district  of  the 
Burra  for  many  years,  and  had  always  taken  a  leading  part  in  the  most 
important  political  movements  of  his  time.  His  exertions  had  an 
important  effect  in  procuring  the  rejection  of  the  first  Constitution  Bill 
by  the  Secretary  of  State,  and  he  zealously  advocated  the  election  of 
members  for  the  Legislative  Council,  instead  of  their  being  nominated 
by  the  Cro-wn,  as  was  provided  in  the  rejected  Constitution  Bill. 
*  Now  Lieut.  General,  G.C.M.G.,  C.B. 


PROGRESS     AND     DEVELOPMENT.  103 

Prince  Albert  Victor  (the  late  Duke  of  Clarence  and  Avondale)  with 
his  brother  (Prince  George  of  Wales)  visited  the  colony  on  June  12th, 
1881.  Then-  visit  was  unofficial.  They  were  well  received,  and  during 
their  brief  stay  of  less  than  a  week  saw  as  much  of  the  colony  as  Sir 
William  Jervois  could  enable  them  to  do.  The  defences  of  the  colony 
were  much  improved  during  the  Governorship  of  Sir  Wm.  Jervois  Two 
first-class  fortresses,  designed  by  the  Governor  himself,  weie  erected  for 
the  defence  of  Port  Adelaide,  which  imtil  then  had  been  unprotected,  ami 
the  gunboat  Protector,  one  of  the  most  efficient  of  its  class,  was  built  for 
the  colony.  In  November,  1882,  Sir  W.  Jervois  was  appointed  Governor 
of  New  Zealand.  He  was  entertained  at  a  public  banquet  on  the  5th 
January,  1882,  just  prior  to  his  departure,  and  he  left  the  colony  amidst 
general  regret:  for  he  was  exceedingly  popular,  and  had  shown  himself 
to  be  a  prudent  administrator  and  a  Governor  who  took  the  deepest 
interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  colony  at  large. 

The  following  extracts  from  official  statistics  denote  the  general  pro- 
gress of  the  province  from  1877  to  1882  inclusive.  The  population 
increased  fi-om  236,864  to  293,509.  The  revenue  advanced  from 
£1.441,401  to  £2,087,076;  and  the  expenditure  from  £1,443,463  to 
262,146,599.  The  cultivated  area  extended  from  1,828,115  acres  to 
2,370,980  acres.  The  progress  of  pastoral  operations  showed  an 
increase  in  horse  stock  from  110  684  to  162,400;  of  horned  cattle 
from  230,679  to  306,046.  and  of  sheep  from  6,098,359  to  6,388,366. 
The  value  of  the  imports  in  1877  amounted  to  £4,625,511,  and  of 
the  exports  £6,707,788:  total,  £11,333,299.  The  tonnage  of  shipping 
inwards  and  outwards  grew  from  67  7,776  tons  to  1,337,218  tons.  In 
1877  there  were  328  miles  of  railway  open  and  in  operation  ;  in  1882. 
945  miles;  4,061  miles  of  telegrajjh  line  were  erected  and  at  work, 
and  in  1882  5,093  miles,  connecting  172  stations.  The  assets  of  the 
banks  in  the  colony  were  £6,346,127  in  1877,  and  in  1882  £10,812,500; 
and  the  liabilities  for  the  same  years  £4,044,041  and  £5.776,668 
respectively. 

Sir  William  Robinson  came  to  the  colony  as  successor  to  Lieutenant 
General  Sir  W.  F.  D.  Jervois  in  February,  1883,  and  he  remahied  in 
office  for  a  little  over  six  years,  when  he  was  transferred  to  Victoria  to 
act  as  Governor  during  the  absence  of  Sir  Henry  Loch.  The  most  note- 
worthy occurrences  of  his  admmistration  were  the  celebration  of  Her 
Majesty's  Jubilee  and  the  opening  of  the  South  Australian  Exhibition  in 
commemoration  of  that  auspicious  event.  The  holding  of  that  Exhibi- 
tion must  be  attributed  in  a  great  degi'ee  to  the  exertions  of  Mr.  E.  '1". 
Smith,  who  Avas  mayor  of  Adelaide,  on  whom  the  honor  of  K.C.M.(i. 
was  subsequently  conferred  by  Her  Majesty  in  recognition  of  the  great 


104  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

public  services  he  had  rendered  to  the  colony.  The  foundation-stone  of 
the  Exhibition  Building  was  laid  by  Sir  W.  Jervois  on  the  21st  June,  1886, 
and  the  Exhibition  itself  was  opened  on  the  21st  June  in  the  following 
year  by  Sir  William  Robinson.  The  Exhibitioa  was  a  perfect  success, 
and  the  receipts  completely  covered  all  the  expenses  that  had  been  incurred 
in  promoting  and  carrying  out  the  undertaking,  so  that  the  gentlemen  who 
had  guaranteed  the  cost  in  the  first  instance  were  not  called  upon  to  con- 
tribute anything.  It  was  kept  open  for  six  months,  during  Avhich  it 
was  visited  by  789,672  persons.  The  total  cost  of  the  Exhibition  was 
£68,702,  including  the  expense  of  erecting  a  jjermanent  building 
(£33,898),  which  reverted  to  the  Government  at  its  close,  the  upper 
portion  of  which  is  now  used  as  the  public  Art  Gallery.  Governor 
Robinson  left  South  Australia  for  Melbourne  early  in  March,  1889,  and 
was  succeeded  by  the  Right  Hon.  the  Earl  of  Kintore,  G.C  M.G.,  the 
present  Governor,  who  now  administers  the  affairs  of  the  province.  The 
Chief  Justice  administered  the  Government  in  the  intervals  between  the 
departures  of  Sir  William  Jervois  and  Sir  William  Robinson  and  the 
arrival  of  their  successors,  and  in  January,  1891,  he  received  a  commis- 
sion as  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  colony  from  Her  Majesty  the  Queen. 
The  figures  which  follow  hereunder  indicate  the  condition  of  the 
colony  from  the  years  1883-4  to  1890-1,  both  inclusive.  In  the  former 
year  the  population,  as  estimated,  was  304.515,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
latter,  also  as  estimated,  329,811.  These  figures  have  been  rectified  by 
the  census  which  was  taken  in  1891.  The  revenue  in  1883-4  was 
£2,060,140,  in  1890  £2,732,222.  The  expenditure  in  each  of  the  years 
was,  in  1883,  £2,330,079,  and  in  1891  £2,582,640.  The  area  of  land 
under  cultivation  in  1883-4  was  2,754,560,  and  in  1890-1,  2,649,098  acres. 
The  number  of  horses  in  the  former  time  totalled  164,360,  in  the  latter 
187,686.  The  number  of  cattle  in  the  colony  was  319.620  head  in 
1883-4  and  359,938  in  1890-1.  The  pastoralists  owned  in  the  colony 
6,677,067  sheep  at  the  beginning  of  the  period  mentioned  and  at  its 
close  7,004,642.  The  value  of  the  imports  in  the  respective  years  noted 
was  £6,310,055  in  1883  and  £8,262,673  in  1890.  The  exports  in  1883 
amounted  to  £4,883,461  and  in  1890  to  £8.827,378.  The  tonnage  of 
shipping,  inwards  and  outwards,  extended  from  787,554  tons  to  1,115,309 
tons.  The  number  of  miles  of  railway  at  work  in  1883  was  972,  in  1890 
1,611  (since  increased  to  1,666),  and  the  net  revenue  on  the  capital 
invested  was  2-56  per  cent,  in  1883  and  5-03  in  1890.  In  1883  the 
telegraph  lines  extended  to  5,278  miles,  serving  179  stations,  and  in  1890 
to  5,624,  serving  218  stations.  The  liabilities  of  the  banks  in  1883 
were  £5,306,595,  in  1890  they  amounted  to  £7,759,926;  on  the  other 
hand  the  assets  amounted  to  £11,868,025  in  the  former  year  and  to 
£11,489,843  in  the  latter. 


PROGRESS     AND     DEVELOPMENT.  105 

In  the  year  1885  the  Imperial  Parliament  passed  an  Act  (48  and  49 
"Vict.,  cap.  60)  to  constitute  a  Federal  Council  of  the  Australian  Colonies, 
"  called  the  Federal  Council  of  Australia,  for  the  purpose  of  dealing 
with  such  matters  of  common  Australasian  interest,  in  respect  of  which 
united  action  is  desirable,  as  can  be  dealt  with  without  unduly  interfering 
with  the  internal  affairs  of  the  sereral  colonies  by  their  respective 
X,egislatures."  Each  colony  was  to  be  represented  at  the  Council  by  two 
members,  except  in  the  case  of  Crown  colonies,  which  were  allowed 
•one  representative  only.  It  was  required  to  meet  once  in  every  two 
years.  Under  this  Act  the  Council  first  met  in  1886.  South  Aus- 
tralia was  not  represented  on  that  occasion.  The  South  Australian 
Parliament  adopted  the  Federal  Act  in  1888  for  a  period  of  two 
years,  and  the  Hon.  Thomas  Plaj'ford,  M.P.,  and  the  Hon.  C.  C. 
Kingston,  M.P..  were  nominated  by  the  Governor  as  the  first  members  to 
■represent  South  Australia.  When  the  Council  met  in  Hobart  (Tas- 
mania), in  1889,  the  Hon.  T.  Playford  was  elected  president.  In  that 
session  no  Act  was  passed  which  affected  South  Australia.  In  1890,  Dr. 
J.  A.  Cockburn,  M.P..  and  the  Hon.  T.  Playford  were  elected  by  the 
members  of  the  Legislative  Council  and  House  of  Assembly — not,  how- 
ever, in  Parliament  assembled — to  represent  the  province  at  the  next 
meeting  of  the  Council.  The  South  Australian  representatives  did  not 
attend  the  session  of  1890.  as  the  Federal  Act  has  not  been  renewed  by 
the  local  Parliament,  although  a  measure  for  that  purpose  was  prepared 
in  1890  and  another  in  1892.  In  1890  a  conference  of  representa- 
tives of  the  different  .\ustralian  colonics  was  held  in  Melbourne.  Its 
object  was  to  discuss  the  subject  of  the  federation  of  the  colonies  on 
a  basis  broader  and  more  complete  than  that  which  could  be  estab- 
lished under  the  provisions  of  the  existing  Federal  Council  Act.  Its 
deliberations  resulted  in  a  proposition,  which  was  submitted  to  the 
different  Australian  Legislatures,  to  hold  a  convention  in  Sydnev,  com- 
posed  of  representatives  of  all  the  Australian  colonies,  to  consider  the 
question  of  federation,  and  to  frame  a  constitution  under  which  they 
might  unite  for  the  purposes  of  Federal  Government.  This  proposition 
was  brought  before  the  South  Australian  Parliament,  and  agreed  to. 
The  convention  met  in  March,  1891,  and  closed  its  sittings  in  April,  in 
the  same  year,  having  agreed  upon  a  comprehensive  measure,  which  it 
was  arranged  shovdd  be  submitted  to  the  different  colonial  Legislatures 
for  their  approval,  with  or  without  amendment,  at  their  pleasure.  The 
members  who  represented  South  Australia  were  the  Hon.  T.  Playford, 
M.P.  ;  Hon.  Sir  John  Cox  Bray,  K.C.M.G.,  M.P. ;  Hon.  J.  A.  Cockburn, 
M.D.,  Lond.,  M.P.  ;  Hon.  Sir  John  W.  Downer,  K.C.M.G.,  Q.C..  M.P.  ; 
Hon.  C.  C.  Kingston,  Q.C.,  .M.P.  ;  Hon.  R.  C.  Baker,  C.M.G.,  M.L.C. ; 


106  SOUTH     AVSTRALIA. 

Hon.  J.  H.  Gordon,  M.L.C.  'Jlie  Draft  Federal  Constitution  Bill  was  laid 
before  the  colonial  Legislatures  in  due  course.  It  lias  been  partially 
considered  by  some  of  them,  but  from  various  causes  it  has  not  yet  been 
adopted  by  any.  The  subject  remains  in  abeyance  for  the  present,  though 
there  is  no  doubt  that  it  will  engage  the  serious  attention  of  the  different 
colonial  Parliaments  before  long. 

Some  of  the  South  Australian  Governors  identified  themselves  greatl^r 
with  the  exploration  of  the  untrodden  interior,  and  Sir  R.  MacDonnell  was 
anxious  to  cross  the  continent.  He  certainly  would  have  made  the  attempt 
when  he  was  at  Stuart's  Springs,  in  the  latter  part  of  1859,  but  for  there- 
monstrances  of  some  of  those  Avho  accompanied  him.  The  Earl  of  Kintore,, 
in  1891,  made  a  journey  by  sea  to  Port  Darwin,  in  the  Northern  Territory, 
and  returned  to  Adelaide  along  the  telegraph  line.  He  is  the  only 
Governor  who  has  crossed  the  continent  from  sea  to  sea.  The  results  of 
h.is  journey  were  embodied  in  a  despatch  to  the  Secretary  of  State,  which 
was  very  favorably  commented  on  when  it  was  published  in  England. 


EXPLORATIONS     OF     THE     INTERIOR.  107 


CHAPTER   IX. 

Early   Explorations— Cock   and    Fjnlayson — Strangways  and  Hutchinsox — 

EXAMIN-E    THE      MuRRAY    MoUTH EyRE     EXPLORES    THE    FlINDER3    RaNGE 

Discovers  the  Broughtox  and  the  Rocky  Riveks  — Mount  Remarkable 
— MoVNT  Arden — Lake  Torrens  -  Explores  to  the  "West  of  Port 
Lincoln— Returns  to  Mount  Arden— Discovers  the  Gawler  Ranges — 
Waterless  Country- — Governor  Gawler — Explores  from  the  North- 
West  Bend  to  Flinders  Range— Party  Falls  Short  of  Water — 
Returns  to  Camp— Mr.  Bryan  becomes  Exhausted — Remains  behind — 
Is  Lost  in  the  Scrub — Search  for  him  Unsuccessful — Eyre's  Expedi- 
tion— Explores  to  the  North  — Crystal  Brook — Mount  Eyre — Bad 
Country— Scarcity  of  Water — Lake  Torrens — Reaches  Mount  Decep- 
tion-Dry- Watercourses — Proceeds  to  Mount  Termination — Flooded 
Plains — Xo  Grass  and  no  Water— The  Mundy  and  the  Frome — Mount 
Hopeless — Returns  to  Mount  Arden — Determines  to  Penetrate  to 
THE  West — Port  l,incoln — Scott's  Joubney  thence  in  a  Whaleboat  to 
Port  Adelaide-^Sets  out  again  from  Streaky  Bay — The  Head  of  the 
Great  Australian  Bight — Threatened  by  Natives — Horses  Die  of 
Exhaustion — Reduces  his  Party — Succeeds  in  Rounding  the  Great 
Bight — Sterile  Country— Still  further  Reduces  the  Party — Pressed 
BY  the  Governor  to  Return — He  Determines  to  Press  on — Sufferings 
OF  THE  Party — Shortness  of  Provisions — Baxter  Wishes  to  Return- 
Eyre  STILL  Refuses — Sufferings  of  the  Horses — Desertion  of  Two  of 
the  Blacks  -  They  Return — Murder  of  Baxter — Want  of  Water  and 
Grass— Food  Exhausted — Falls  in  with  a  French  Whaler — Receives 
Relief -Sets  Forward  Again — Further  Difficulties — Reaches  King 
George's  Sound. 

When  the  first  settlers  landed  in  South  Australia  nothing  was  kno^-n 
of  the  vast  territory  which  had  been  constituted  a  province  of  the  British 
Empire,  beyond  that  which  had  been  made  known  by  Captain  Sturt  in 
the  narrative  of  his  voyage  down  the  Murray  to  Lake  Alexandrina,  and 
by  Mr.  Kent,  who  had  ascended  Mount  Lofty  with  Captain  Barker, 
and  had  accompanied  that  officer  to  the  Murray  Mouth,  where  he  was 
murdered  by  the  natives.  It  was  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the 
natm-e  of  the  interior  should  be  ascertained  with  as  little  delay  as  was 
possible,  although,  from  its  great  extent,  a  full  knowledge  of  the  country 
could  not  be  obtained  Avithout  the  expenditure  of  mucli  time  and  money. 
^'arious  small  expeditions  were  undertaken  by  private  persons  from  time 
to  time,  to  explore  north,  east,  and  south  of  Adelaide,  so  that  in  the 
course  of  two  or  three  years  after  the  colony  had  been  founded  the 
country  for  a  considerable  distance  round  the  capital  was  tolei-ably  well 
known.  Of  these  expeditions  there  are  few  records.  The  first  persons  who 
crossed    the    Mount    Lofty    ranges    were   Messrs.  Cock  and    Finlaysou, 


108  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

in  1837.  They  penetrated  as  far  as  Lake  Alexandrina,  and  discovered 
Hindmarsh  Island  and  the  Hindmarsh  and  the  Inraan  Rivers  in  Encounter 
Bay.  Later  in  the  same  year,  Messrs.  Strangways  and  Hutchinson  vpere 
sent  out  to  ascertain  whether  there  was  any  outlet  from  the  Murray  besides 
that  seen  by  Sturt  and  Barker.  They  succeeded  in  taking  a  dray,  drawn 
by  two  oxen  only,  along  the  whole  distance  from  Adelaide  to  Encounter 
Bay.  At  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Mount  Lofty  ranges  the  hills 
were  so  rugged  and  precipitous  and  the  ravines  so  deep  that  they  were 
sometimes  compelled  to  unload  the  dray  and  carry  over  the  provisions 
themselves,  and  then  get  the  bullocks  across  in  the  best  way  they  could. 
On  reaching  Encounter  Bay  they  procured  a  whaleboat,  and  sailed  to  the 
Murray  Mouth.  Their  examination  proved  that  it  was  the  only  opening 
of  that  river  into  the  sea.  Whilst  there  they  discovered  the  Coorong, 
which  has  been  described  in  a  former  part  of  this  work.  Messrs.  Hawdon 
and  Gardiner,  who  brought  cattle  overland  from  Sydney,  made  known 
the  nature  of  the  country  lying  to  the  north-east  of  the  ranges.  Mr. 
E.  J.  Eyre  also  brought  cattle  overland  from  Port  Philip,  and  added 
considerably  to  the  stock  of  knowledge  of  the  colony.  Mr.  C.  Bonney 
travelled  to  Adelaide  from  Portland  Bay  with  a  herd  of  cattle.  His 
journey  showed  that  there  was  available  land  between  Portland  and  the 
Murray.  A  little  to  the  north  of  Bonney's  track  a  fertile  tract  of 
country  was  found  soon  after,  Avhich  is  now  kno^vn  as  the  South-Eastern 
District  of  South  Avistralia.  The  country  to  the  north  of  Adelaide  had 
been  carefully  explored  for  about  a  hundred  miles,  and  the  Light,  the 
Wakefield,  and  the  Gilbert  rivers  were  discovered. 

The  present  sketch  of  the  explorations  in  South  Australia  must  neces- 
sarily be  confined  to  outlines  of  those  which  were  the  most  important. 
A  full  account  of  all  that  has  been  done  for  the  purpose  of  opening  up 
of  the  interior  would  fill  several  volumes.  In  May,  1839.  Mr.  Eyre 
set  out  to  explore  the  Flinders  Ranges  beyond  Mount  Arden  to  the  north 
of  the  head  of  Spencer's  Gulf,  which  he  expected  would  stretch  across 
the  continent.  For  the  fii-st  hundi-ed  miles  he  found  them  to  be  a  chain 
of  fertile  hills  and  plains,  well  grassed  and  of  rich  soil.  Those  hills  were 
lightly  timbered  and  easy  to  travel  over.  He  also  discovered  the  Hutt 
River,  the  Hill  River,  and  the  Broughton.  Here  the  country  became 
poorer,  and  near  the  last-named  stream  it  was  more  abrupt  and  broken. 
After  leaving  the  Broughton,  and  sticking  out  on  a  line  a  little  west  of 
north,  barren  country  was  found,  and  then  a  hill,  called  Spring  Hill, 
which  he  ascended.  To  the  north-west  there  were  extensive  plains,  and 
in  the  west  the  waters  of  Spencer's  Gulf  could  be  seen.  Crossing  the 
plains,  he  came  to  Campbell's  range.  Beyond  the  creek  which  flowed 
through  the  plains,  Eyre  came  into  a  small  gorge  in  the  range,  through 


EXPLORATIONS     OF     THE     INTERIOR.  10^ 

which  a  pretty  stream  flowed,  which  he  named  the  Rocky  River.  It  soon 
lost  itself  in  a  sandy  chamiel.  From  this  point  a  conspicuous  peaked 
hill,  isolated  from  the  neighboring  hills,  was  visible,  which  he  named 
Mount  Remarkable.  It  is  over  3,000ft.  high.  The  country  round  the 
Rocky  river  was  open,  but  of  inferior  description.  In  moving  up  the 
gulf  along  the  range,  the  hills  rose  from  the  plains  like  high  rocky 
barren  walls.  The  rocks  were  abrupt  escarpments  of  quartzite,  or  steep 
declivities  of  clay  slate.  There  was  little  or  no  vegetation  on  any 
of  them.  Seen  from  a  rise  a  few  miles  north  of  Moimt  Arden,  the  land  to 
the  north  appeared  to  be  low,  rocky,  and  sandy,  with  only  a  few  stunted 
bushes  growing  there.  To  the  east  high  barren  ranges,  extending  north 
as  far  as  sight  could  follow  them,  became  visible.  To  the  west  and 
north-west  a  sheet  of  water,  which  was  named  Lake  Torrens,  was 
observed.  Eyre  did  not  attempt  to  go  further,  and  he  returned  ta 
Adelaide. 

In  the  same  year  Eyre  led  another  expedition  to  examine  the  coast  to 
the  west  of  Port  Lincoln.  He  penetrated  as  far  as  Streaky  Bay  through 
a  dense  scrub,  which  commenced  a  few  miles  to  the  west  of  the  settle- 
ment at  Port  Lincoln.  The  country  then  improved.  It  opened  into  low 
grassy  lightly-timbered  ridges  of  limestone,  with  here  and  there  springs 
and  lakes  of  fresh  water.  These  ridges  extended  about  twelve  miles 
inland,  and  then  a  low  level  waste  of  barren  scrubby  land  commenced^ 
As  he  proceeded,  the  range  receded  from  the  sea  and  left  scrub 
on  both  sides,  interrupted  near  the  beach  by  large  salt  lakes,  one  of 
which  had  been  seen  by  Flinders,  who  had  mistaken  it  for  an  inlet  of  the 
sea.  When  Eyre  reached  Streaky  Bay  he  decided  to  cross  the  countrj^ 
to  Mount  Arden.  This  course  enabled  him  to  pass  along  the  north  part 
of  the  Port  Lincoln  peninsula  and  gain  a  good  idea  of  the  character  of 
the  inland  country.  The  first  day's  journey  was  through  scrub  and  open 
plains,  with  grass,  but  no  water,  and  a  bad  soil.  The  second  day  he 
reached  a  high  granite  ridge  with  grass  and  water  on  its  flanks,  from 
which  a  range  of  hiUs  named  the  Gawler  Range  was  discerned.  From 
this  ridge  the  route  lay  through  a  desert,  scrubby,  and  stony  country, 
abounding  with  spinifex  gi-owing  on  the  sand  ridges,  with  occasionally 
level  limestone  flats.  Another  day's  travel  brought  him  under  the^ 
Gawler  Ranges.  Those  hills  were  composed  of  granite,  with  coarse  vegeta- 
tion, but  there  was  no  water  except  in  a  few  surface  pools.  Along  the 
foot  of  the  range  patches  of  good  grass  land  existed,  but  still  no 
water.  From  this  point  he  travelled  due  east,  and  he  found  a  little 
surface  water  but  no  grass.  One  rise  was  passed  named  Baxter's  Range. 
With  this  exception  and  the  occurrence  of  a  few  salt  lakes,  nothing  broke 
the  scrub  until  the  head  of  Spencer's  Gulf  was  reached.     In  most  seasons 


110  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

a  journey  over  the  same  country  would  be  impracticable.  The  only- 
water  to  be  found  is  in  small  quantities,  in  holes  in  the  rocks  left  by  the 
rains,  so  that,  unless  immediately  after  wet  weather,  the  country  cannot 
be  penetrated. 

In  the  same  year  Governor  Gawler  set  out  to  explore  from  the  North- 
West  Bend  of  the  Murray  towards  the  east  side  of  the  Flinders  Range. 
What  little  was  known  of  that  part  of  the  country  was  unfavorable  ;  it 
was  a  dense  scrub  as  far  as  it  had  been  penetrated.  The  Governor  hoped 
that  some  better  country  might  be  found  if  it  were  carefully  explored. 
He  left  in  November,  accompanied  by  Captain  Sturt,  Mr.  Inman,  Mr. 
Bryan,  and  two  others.  The  first  day's  journey  was  over  sandy  plains 
covered  with  clumps  of  stunted  trees  with  tall  grass,  a  little  saltbusli, 
biit  no  water.  On  the  second  day  the  small  quantity  of  water  the  party 
carried  with  them  was  exhausted,  and  it  became  necessary  to  obtain 
a  further  supply.  The  Governor  and  Mr.  Bryan  turned  back  to  the  camp 
to  obtain  assistance  for  the  rest,  because  their  horses  were  knocked  up 
and  scarcely  able  to  travel.  After  a  journey  of  about  twelve  miles  Mr. 
Bryan  was  too  fatigued  to  proceed  further.  Colonel  Gawler  most  un- 
willingly left  him,  to  go  on  alone  for  help.  He  reached  the  camp  and 
returned  with  water,  but  Bryan  was  not  to  be  found.  A  search  for  him 
was  made,  but  it  was  fruitless.  His  coat  was  picked  up  and  a  paper,  on 
which  he  had  written  that  he  was  much  exhausted  and  had  gone  to 
the  south-east.  No  traces  of  him  were  ever  found,  though  the  search 
for  him  was  continued  until  all  the  provisions  of  the  party  were  expended. 

The  most  terrible,  and  certainly  the  most  unprofitable,  of  all  the  explor- 
ing expeditions  which  have  been  undertaken  in  South  Australia  was 
projected  in  1840.  Mr.  Eyre,  who  had  had  so  much  experience  in 
examining  the  country  to  the  north  of  Port  Augusta  and  to  the  west  of 
Port  Lincoln,  set  out  on  a  new  expedition.  A  scheme  had  been  set  on 
foot  for  the  discovery  of  a  route  between  South  .'\iistralia  and  Kino- 
George's  Sound.  Eyre  did  not  consider  the  scheme  practicable,  but 
he  undertook  to  lead  an  expedition  to  the  north,  and  ofFei-ed  to  bear  one- 
third  of  the  expense.  Governor  Gawler  accepted  his  proposal,  and  the 
party  was  duly  equipped.  It  consisted  of  Mr.  Eyre,  Mr.  E.  B.  Scott 
(lately  Superintendent  of  the  Yatala  Labor  Prison),  four  men,  and  two 
native  boys.  They  took  with  them  thirteen  horses,  forty  sheep,  and 
stores  for  three  months.  A  further  supply  was  to  be  sent  to  them  by 
sea  to  the  head  of  Spencer's  Gulf.  The  party  set  out  on  the  18th  June. 
Eyre's  plan  was  to  follow  up  the  Flinders  Range  until  it  led  him  to  the 
centre  of  the  continent.  He  followed  his  former  track  till  the  27th,  to 
a  more  westerly  portion  of  the  Rocky  river,  and  on  emerging  from  the 
hills  he  came  upon  a  stream  of  water  which  he  named  Crystal  Brook. 


EXPLORATIONS    OF    THE     INTERIOR.  Ill 

On  the  3rd  July  they  reached  Mount  Brown,  and  camped  there,  waiting 

for  the  supply  vessel  Waterwitch.     She  arrived  two  days  afterwards,  and 

whilst  the  stores  were  being  landed  Eyre  started  with  one  of  the  bovs 

for  a  preliminary  examination  beyond  Mount  Eyre.     They  reached   that 

place  ou  the  7th  of  July,  and  then  struck  to  the  north-west  to  examine  Lake 

Torrens.     For  the  first  day  and  a  half  they  crossed  immense  plains,  and 

then  heavy  sand  ridges  with  level  lands  between.     There  was  no  water- 

coui'se  along  the  whole  extent ;  all  they  had  to  supply  their  wants  was 

the  remains  of  a  chance  shower,  which  had  left  a  few  puddles  here  and 

there.     Eyre  found  it  completely  surrounded  by  a  steep   sandy  ridge, 

exactly  like  the  dunes  which  are  seen  on  the  sea  shore.     The  bed  of  the 

lake  was  dry,  and  coated  over  with  a   crust  of  salt.     It  yielded  to  the 

foot,  but  as  he  trod  on  it  a  soft  mud  oozed  out.     He  tried  to  walk  upon 

it,  but  was  obliged  to  return.      He  was  unable  to  ascertain  whether  there 

was  fresh  water  in  the  bed  or  not ;  but  he  knew  there  was  none  to  be 

found  for  at  least  five  miles  from  the  spot  at  which  he  rested.     To   the 

north,  as  far  as  the  eye  could  see,  there  was  one  immense  tract  of  sterile 

country.     Eyre  then  determined  to  move  northwards.     He   could   not 

cross  the  lake,  for  there  was  nothing  for  the  men  or  horses  on  its  banks. 

He  was  thus  forced  to  follow  the  range  as  far  as  he   could.     He  went 

forward  to  Mount  Deception,  which  was  the  furthest  point  visible  to  the 

north-west.     In  crossing  the  plains  he  had  to  depend  upon  the  water  in 

the  puddles.     There  w^ere  watercoui-ses,  but  they   were   encrusted  Avith 

salt,  and  where  the  teatree  grew  the  soil  was  saline  and  the  water  too 

brackish  for  use.     Still  he  pushed  on  to  the  northward,  through  miserable 

country,  until  he  came  to  a  spring   115   miles  north  of  Mount  Arden. 

He  returned  ro  the  depot  after  being  invay  fifteen  days.     He  then  sent 

back  the    Watericitch  and  moved  his  party  to  the  depot  pool.     From 

thence  he  went  forward  once  more  to  Moimt  Termination,  over   barren 

stony  plains  and  dry  Avatercourses.     At  length  he  found  some  pools  in  a 

watercourse,  to  Avhich  he  moved  his  party.     This  was  named  the   Scott. 

As  the   party   advanced,   the   hills   trended   eastward   and  then   c(^ased 

altogether  in  latitude  29°  30"  S.  Plains  now  succeeded,  which  had  recently 

been  flooded,  but  there  was  neither  grass  nor  waier  upon  them.     Eyre 

tried  to  force  his  way  through  by  moving  north-west,  but  he  was  blocked 

by  a  salt  marsh.     Again  and  again  he   endeavox-ed  to  go  forward,  each 

time  striking  more  to  the  eastward;  here  he  was  stopped  by  Lake  Torrens, 

iis  he  then  believed.     From  Mount  Serle  he  obtained  a  view  of  the  lake 

to  the  eastward.     Two  watercourses  were  seen  by  him  (the   Mundy  and 

the  Frome),  but  they  seldom  contained  water.     The  latter  fiowed  from 

the  south  side  of  Mount  Searle,  and  at  twenty-three  miles  it  became  as 

salt  as  the  sea.     He  then  sent  his  party  back  to  Mount  Arden  whilst  he 


112  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

continued  his  examination  of  the  country.  After  riding  for  thirty-five 
miles  through  a  dreadful  tract,  he  came  to  a  prominent  hill  called  Mount 
Hopeless,  where  he  obtained  a  view  which  dispelled  all  his  hopes,. 
and  he  returned  reluctantly  to  Mount  Arden. 

Finding  that  he  could  not  penetrate  the  counti-y  to  the  north,  he  now 
determined  to  travel  west  from  Port  Lincoln.  After  a  short  rest  at  a 
place  not  very  far  from  the  head  of  the  gulf,  Ejtc  sent  two  men  and  one 
native  boy  with  the  drays,  the  sheep,  and  seven  horses  to  Streaky  Bay,, 
over  his  last  year's  tracks,  whilst  he  and  Mr.  Scott  with  the  rest  of  the 
party  made  for  Port  Lincoln  in  order  to  obtain  supplies.  When  he 
reached  that  place  nothing  could  be  got ;  he  therefore  hired  a  small  boat 
and  sent  Mr.  Scott  to  Adelaide  to  seek  assistance.  The  voyage,  a  most 
hazardous  one  at  any  season  of  the  year,  was  successfully  performed,  and 
Mr.  Scott  returned  in  the  Waterivitch,  bringing  abundance  of  stores  and 
provisions.  A  cutter  was  sent  round  to  Streaky  Bay,  where  the  party 
were  reunited  on  November  3rd.  The  craft  was  then  sent  on  to  Fowler'^ 
Bay,  and  her  captain  directed  to  land  water  at  Smoky  Bay.  "With  this 
the  party  reached  Fowler's  Bay  in  safety.  The  cutter  was  sent  back  to 
Denial  Bay,  with  orders  to  return  on  the  11th  December.  Eyre  then 
went  on ;  he  struggled  through  the  sand  for  three  days,  but  was  com- 
pelled to  retm-n  for  water.  He  now  sent  a  supply  forward  in  the  dray,, 
and  at  a  distance  of  twenty-seven  miles  he  sank  a  well  and  struck  water. 
He  pushed  on  for  twenty-two  miles  further,  but  no  water  could  be 
found,  and  the  horses  were  knocked  up.  Here  the  party  was  surrounded 
by  natives,  whose  behavior  troubled  them  greatly.  They  could 
proceed  no  further.  The  only  thing  to  be  done  was  to  bury  the  stores 
and  drive  the  horses  before  them  as  quickly  as  possible  back  to  water,^ 
but  this  could  not  be  done  whilst  the  natives  hovered  around  them.  At 
length  they  moved  away.  The  stores  were  hurriedly  buried,  and  fourteen^ 
horses  driven  on  as  fast  as  they  could  go.  Three  of  them  fell  down  and 
died  before  assistance  could  be  brought  to  them.  Eyre  had  spent  twenty- 
four  days  in  trying  to  rovind  the  head  of  the  Bight.  Failing  in  this,  he 
returned  to  the  depot  camp,  but  the  men  and  horses  were  so  exhausted 
that  a  long  rest  was  indispensable.  The  furthest  point  reached  was 
twelve  miles  from  the  head  of  the  Bight,  and  the  country  traversed  wa* 
of  the  very  worst  kind.  Eyre  now  decided  on  reducing  his  party.  The 
loss  of  four  horses  rendered  it  impossible  to  take  on  provisions  for  all, 
and  the  number  of  the  party  rendered  the  difficulty  of  getting  sufficient 
water  more  formidable.  He  therefore  sent  back  all  but  the  overseer, 
one  man,  Mr.  Scott,  and  two  native  boys.  He  sent  despatches  to  the 
Governor  asking  for  more  assistance  in  the  shape  of  pi'ovisions  and 
forage,  and  he  determined  to  remain  for  six  weeks  at  the  depot.     As 


EXPLORATIONS    OF    THE    INTERIOR.  113 

soon  as  the  cutter  left  he  made  a  fresh  attempt  to  get  round  the  Bio-ht, 
this  time  with  success,  and  he  reached  a  point  fifty  miles  beyond  it. 
The  country  was  all  sand  ridges  and  scrub,  with  no  water  for  at  least 
sixty  miles.  It  was  impracticable  for  drays,  and  apparently  so  for  horses. 
At  the  Head  of  the  Bight  he  fell  in  with  some  natives,  who  led  him  to 
grass  and  wafer,  but  he  gathered  from  them  that  there  was  no  more  for 
at  least  1 00  miles,  near  the  first  break  in  the  cliffs  seen  by  Flinders. 
The  country  at  the  top  of  the  cliffs  was  level.  The  upper  crust  was 
composed  of  limestone  overlying  a  concrete  of  sand,  small  pebbles,  and 
shells.  Back  from  the  sea  the  country  was  flat  and  open,  with  low 
prickly  bushes,  salsolaceous  plants,  and  patches  of  gum  scrub  and  grassy 
openings. 

The  horses  had  suffered  severely.     It  was  only  by  burying  water  that 
the  men  had  been  able  to  travel  so  far.     Eyre  now  resolved  to  reduce 
the  party  still  further,  and  he  sent  back  Mr.  Scott  and  another  of  his 
men,  keeping  only  Baxter,  the  overseer,  and  three   native  boys.     The 
third,  named  Wylie,  was  a  native  of  King  George's  Sound,  whom  E\Te 
had  brought  to  Adelaide  a  few  months  before.     On  the  31st  January, 
1841,  the  cutter  returned  to  Adelaide.     An  attempt  was  now  made  to 
explore  north  of  Fowler's  Bay,  but  the  country  was  penetrated  only  for 
about  twenty  miles.     On  February  23rd,  the  reduced  party  prepared  for 
a  fresh  start.     They  buried  all  their  surplus  baggage,  and  as  they  were 
about  to  move  away  a  cutter  hove  in  sight.     Mr.  Scott  landed  from  it, 
and  brought  letters  from  the  Governor,  urging  Eyre  to  return.     Eyre 
would  not  accede  to  the  request,  for  he  was  determined  to  push  forward. 
He  moved  onwards  on  the  same  day,  and  on  March   3rd  reached  the 
head  of  the  Bight.      The  party  were  almost  blinded  by  the  sand  as  they 
travelled,  and  were  much  tormented  by  the  visitation  of  huge  flies,  which 
bit  them  severely.     The  water  at  which  they  camped  was  the  last  of 
which  they  had  knowledge.     Eyre  set  out  again  on  March  7th  with  one 
of  the  native   boys  and  the   sheep,  travelling  very  slowly  ;    the  overseer 
was   directed  to  follow  with  the  pack   horses.      He  journeyed  on  for 
several    days    through    bad    country,  destitute    of    gi-ass     and    water. 
Eventually  he  came  to  a  native  well,  which,  to  his  deep  disappointment, 
was  quite  dry.     At  noon  on  the  third  day  he  was  110  miles  distant  from 
the  last  water,  and  the  sheep  could  go  no  further.     He  left  them  behind, 
and  also  a  note  to  the  overseer  to  hurry  on  with  the  horses   whilst 
he  pressed  forward  in   search  of  water.     He  occasionally  came  across 
tracks  which  looked  like  native  paths,  but  they  led  to  nothing.     After 
much   suffering.  Eyre  and   the  boy  reached  the  edge  of    the  cliff's   on 
November    11th.     No  water  was  found  there.     He  now  pushed  on  for 
seven  miles,  when  he  came  to  a  break  in  the  rocks  with  sand  drift  in 

H 


114  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

between,  in  which,  by  digging,  he  obtained  watei-  in  abundance.  Eyre 
at  once  turned  back  to  meet  the  sheep  and  horses.  It  had  been  neces- 
sary to  hghten  the  loads  of  the  latter,  and  the  stores  they  carried  were 
buried.  Rest  and  plenty  of  water  soon  brought  them  round  again.  The 
journey  through  the  desert  took  five  days,  during  which  Eyre  had 
advanced  135  miles. 

After  a  rest  of  six  days  Eyre  moved  onward  once  more.  He  tried  the 
beach,  but  that  was  too  sandy,  so  that  he  had  to  return  to  the  ridges  on 
the  shore.  Two  days  travelling  brought  him  to  a  grassy  patch,  but  water 
was  not  discoverable.  The  stock  could  not  last  out  another  long  stage, 
so  the  stores  were  buried  and  the  overseer  went  back  forty  miles  for 
water.  Eyre  remained  behind  with  the  stock.  He  had  only  six  pints  of 
water  left.  The  sheep  were  reduced  to  three,  and  the  stock  of  flour  had 
dwindled  do^\Ti  to  I421bs.  On  the  25th  the  overseer  brought  up  the 
horses  and  a  fresh  supply  of  water.  Before  moving  forward  on  the 
following  day  the  explorers  abandoned  everything  that  they  could  do 
without,  keeping  only  one  suit  of  clothes  and  a  blanket  each  ;  they  also 
killed  a  sheep  for  food.  The  cliffs  had  disappeared,  and  now  the  party 
moved  along  the  coast  as  well  as  they  could  through  seaweed  and  sand. 
Two  days  after  one  of  the  horses  lay  down  from  exhaustion.  It  was  got 
on  its  legs  again,  but  could  only  be  brought  on  after  being  relieved  of  its 
load,  which  was  distributed  amongst  the  others.  A.  little  later  on  a  pony 
dropped  and  was  left  to  its  fate.  The  horses  had  had  no  water  for  five 
days,  and  those  which  were  left  followed  the  men  like  dogs.  Baxter,  the 
overseer,  now  lost  heart,  and  he  pressed  Eyre  to  return  to  Fowler's  Bay. 
Eyre,  however,  was  inexorable,  he  would  go  on  ;  but  he  determined  to 
abandon  all  the  baggage  and  endeavor  to  save  the  lives  of  the  horses. 
Soon  afterwards  a  mare  dropped  behind,  then  a  horse  was  tied  up  to  a 
tree  to  save  it,  if  water  could  be  reached  that  night.  They  were  now 
136  miles  from  the  last  spot  where  water  had  been  found.  Some  sandhills 
were  seen  and  reached,  but  they  were  dry.  Another  day  passed  and  the 
terrible  country  did  not  improve.  About  a  quart  of  water  was  collected 
from  the  dew,  and  the  horses  still  came  on.  On  the  30th  some  sandhills 
were  seen,  and  in  a  hollow  Eyre  struck  water  at  oft.  deep.  The  party 
had  covered  160  miles  in  seven  days  Avithout  finding  any  traces  of  it. 

The  horses  now  improved  a  little.  A  sheep  was  killed,  and  Eyre  shot 
a  wallaby.  From  this  spot  he  sent  the  overseer  back  for  stores.  Baxter 
was  absent  for  ten  days.  He  had  abandoned  one  horse  thirteen  miles 
from  the  place  where  the  provisions  had  been  buried,  and  two  others 
remained  behind  about  five  miles  from  the  camp.  These  two  were  easily 
recovered.  E}Te  himself  returned  to  bring  on  the  load  of  the  dead 
horse,  aud  then  recommenced   his  journey.     The  party  was  now  about 


EXPLORATIONS   OF    THE    IXTERIOR.  115 

•650  miles  from  King  George's  Sound,  and  there  were  provisions  only 
enough  to  last  for  three  weeks.  Baxter  still  wanted  to  return,  but  his 
leader  refused.  Eyre  was  sick  from  eating  unwholesome  fish  that  had 
been  caught,  but  he  was  determined  not  to  turn  back.  A  horse  was  killed 
for  food,  and  all  the  party  were  made  ill  from  eating  it.  Two  of  the  black 
boys,  however,  stole  a  large  quantity  of  the  meat,  and  their  rations  were 
reduced  as  a  punishment;  they  then  deserted  the  camp.  The  last  sheep 
was  killed,  and  the  journey  was  resumed.  Towards  night  the  native 
boys  came  back  again.  On  April  26th  a  forward  movement  was  made, 
and  everything  except  the  provisions,  arms,  ammunition,  and  the  clothes 
worn  by  the  party  was  left  behind.  They  gained  fifteen  miles  on  the 
first  day  and  nineteen  on  the  second.  The  horses  were  hoppled  in  the 
evening  and  turned  out  to  feed.  Between  10  and  11  o'clock  Ejre 
went  to  look  after  the  horses,  which  had  strayed  away.  On  his  way  back 
he  heard  the  report  of  firearms,  and  on  reaching  the  camp  he  found  that 
Baxter  had  received  a  gunshot  wound  in  the  chest.  He  died  almost 
immeriiately  after  Eyre  arrived.  The  two  black  boys  who  had  left 
the  camp  had  murdered  the  overseer,  and  levanted  with  some  of  the 
arms  and  all  the  stores  they  could  carry  away.  In  the  morning  the 
overseer's  body  was  wrapped  in  a  blanket  and  covered  with  leaves — all 
the  burial  that  could  be  given  to  his  remains.  The  stock  of  provisions 
left  comprised  about  40lbs.  of  flour,  4  galls,  of  water,  and  a  little  tea  and 
sugar. 

Eyre  moved  on  for  about  ten  miles  on  that  day,  and  rested.  In 
the  evening  the  two  blacks  were  discovered  following ;  thev  wished  to 
entice  Wylie  away.  They  still  persisted  in  following  the  camp,  but  Eyre 
moved  on  rapidly  and  left  them  out  of  sight.  Nothing  further  was  seen 
of  them,  and  they  must  have  perished  in  the  desert.  Eyre  hurried 
onward  as  rapidly  as  he  could,  in  order  to  get  clear  of  his  treacherous 
followers  as  well  as  to  find  water  for  the  horses,  which  had  not  had  a 
drink  for  five  days.  On  the  2nd  May  they  discovered  a  native  well,  at 
which  the  animals  were  refi-eshed.  They  had  traversed  150  miles  of  I'ocky 
barren  tableland  without  water.  They  remained  here  till  the  10th,  when 
one  of  the  horses  was  killed  and  his  flesh  dried.  The  country  now 
improved  ;  it  became  hilly,  and  water  was  easily  obtained.  Here  Eyre 
and  his  boy  both  became  ill,  doubtless  from  the  efEects  of  the  diseased 
meat  which  they  had  eaten.  On  the  16th  and  17th  they  crawled  along 
as  far  as  their  wretched  state  allowed  them.  On  the  second  day  a  native 
dog  took  away  some  14lbs.  of  the  horseflesh  that  was  left,  and  the  rations 
were  reduced  in  consequence.  On  the  following  day  they  reached  a 
well-grassed  piece  of  country,  and  Eyre  shot  a  kangaroo.  On  the  19th 
-he  travelled  only  four  miles,  but  then  he  came  upon  excellent  grass  and 


116  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

plenty  of  water.  Here  they  rested  for  six  days,  and  they  shot  several 
kangaroos ;  besides  that  they  caught  fish  and  crabs  in  the  sea.  The  rest 
and  the  excellent  food  they  had  procured  restored  them  considerably^ 
and  the  horses  were  so  far  recovered  that  they  were  able  to  carry  Eyre 
occasionally.  The  Avayfarers  started  again  on  the  26th  May.  They 
found  water,  but  their  luck  in  finding  game  was  bad.  At  last  they  were 
reduced  to  a  few  spoonsful  of  flour  and  water  as  their  sole  sustenance. 
At  length  they  found  some  reeds,  the  roots  of  which  were  edible.  They 
had  now  to  live  upon  anything  they  could  find.  On  June  2nd  their  flour 
was  all  gone,  and  they  started  in  the  morning  without  breaking  their 
fast.  They  had  no  food  of  any  kind.  Eyre  and  Wylie  got  down  to 
the  sea,  and  to  their  unutterable  joy  they  saw  a  ship  at  anchor.  A  boat 
put  off,  and  they  were  taken  on  board.  The  vessel  was  a  French  whaler 
named  the  Mississippi,  commanded  by  Captain  Rossiter.  They  remained 
on  board  until  the  14th  June.  The  long  rest  and  abundant  food  had 
brought  them  round  so  that  they  could  continue  their  journey.  If  they 
had  not  found  the  ship  they  must  have  perished.  Captain  Rossiter  gave 
them  clothes  and  fresh  provisions  and  they  entered  on  their  dreary 
pilgrimage  once  more.  They  pressed  forward  as  rapidly  as  they  could,, 
over  a  very  sterile  country,  to  Cape  Barren.  It  took  twelve  days  to  reach 
that  spot,  and  at  150  miles  from  Rossiter  Bay,  where  they  had  obtained 
relief,  they  came  upon  tracks  of  natives.  On  the  evening  of  the  30th  of 
June  they  were  in  view  of  the  hills  at  the  rear  of  King  George's  Sound. 
Their  progress  was  greatly  retarded  by  the  wet  state  of  the  country,  and 
it  was  not  till  the  7th  of  July  that  they  reached  Albany.  Thus  ended 
the  most  daring  and  the  most  remarkable  of  the  feats  of  exploration  that 
have  ever  taken  place  in  Australia.  Eyre's  determined  courage  and 
perseverance  deserved  to  be  rewarded  with  better  results.  His  arrival  in 
Albany  caused  the  most  profoimd  surprise  ;  he  was  believed  to  be  dead, 
and  no  one  ever  expected  to  see  him  or  to  hear  of  him  again. 

In  1842  Captain  Frome,  R.E.,  Surveyor-General,  led  an  expedition  to 
examine  the  country  round  Lake  Torrens ;  he  did  not  penetrate  much 
further  than  Mount  Serle,  for  the  country  was  so  bad  that  he  returned. 

In  1846  Mr.  J.  Ainsworth  Horrocks,  who  had  been  in  the  colony  since 
1839,  and  in  various  small  expeditions  had  gained  considerable  experience 
in  exploring,  organised  a  party  to  take  up  the  project  that  had  baffled 
Eyre.  He  proposed  to  cross  the  head  of  Spencer's  Gulf  and  travel 
north-west  from  the  further  side  of  Lake  Torrens.  He  took  with  him  a 
camel,  the  only  one  then  in  Australia,  and  a  flock  of  goats,  because  they 
travelled  well  and  could  subsist  in  very  barren  country.  After  travelling 
for  nearly  a  month,  during  which  he  was  much  distressed  from  the  want 
of  water,  and  had  been  much  harassed  by  attacks  of  natives,  his  proposed. 


EXPLORATIONS    OF    THE    INTERIOR.  117 

•expedition  was  brought  to  a  sudden  and  tragic  close.  As  lie  was  loading 
the  camel  on  the  26th  of  August,  a  loaded  gun,  which  was  on  the  camel's 
back,  went  off,  and  he  received  the  full  charge  in  his  face.  The  wound 
was  evidently  a  fatal  one.  His  companions  rapidly  returned  with  him  to 
his  station,  where  he  died  on  September  1st.  He  was  only  twenty- 
eight  years  of  age,  but  he  had  shown  so  much  courage  and  ability  in  the 
expeditions  which  he  had  previously  undertaken  that  there  seems  every 
probability  that  if  his  life  had  been  spared  he  would  have  achieved  a 
very  high  position  amongst  the  ranks  of  Australian  explorers. 


118  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 


CHAPTER    X. 

1843 — Capt  Sturt's  Expedition  —  Sanctioned  by  Lord  Stanley -The  Party 
Organised — Leaves  Adelaide  in  August,  1844 — Party  Assemble  on  the 
Darling — Composition  of  the  Expedition  —  Journey  Commenced — Lake 
Caw-ndilla — Indifferent  Country — Terrible  Heat— Flood's  Creek — 
Mount  Lykll— Permanent  Water  Found— Great  Heat  Continues  — The 
Barrier  Ranges  Poole's  Journey — Horses  Die  from  Thirst— Suffer- 
ings OF  THE  Party  from  the  Heat— The  Grey  Ranges— "W ate u  Drying 
Up — Scrubby  Plains  — Desert  Country — Sturt  Unable  to  Push  Forward 
— Thermometer  131°  in  the  Shade -Permanent  Watehs  Discovered  by 
Poole  —  Imprisoned  there  for  Six  Months — Waters  Fail  in  Every 
Direction  —  Sturt  Moves  North  —  Is  Turned  Back  by  Scrub  and 
Desert  — Dreadful  Heats  set  in — Digs  an  Underground  Chamber — 
Weather  Moderates- Sturt  Explores  to  the  East  — Return  to  Camp 
— Sufferings  of  the  Party  from  the  Heat — Scurvy  Breaks  Out — 
Prospects  of  Rain  —  Sturt  goes  towards  Mount  Leslie  —  No  Water 
Found  —  Mr.  Poole's  Illness — His  Death — Stuart  sent  to  Mount 
Hopeless — Comes  to  an  Arm  of  Lake  Torrens — Lake  Frome  a  Salt 
Lake — Sturt  again  Tries  to  Penetrate  North — Strzelecki's  Ckeek  — 
Good  Country  Found  — Sturt  Hopes  to  make  the  Centre  of  the 
Continent — Desolate  Plains — A  Stony  Desert — Find  a  Native  Well — 
A  Horse  Abandoned — Sturt  can  Penetrate  no  Further  — Sufferings 
of  the  Party — Illness  of  Dr.  Browne— Sturt  Makes  One  More 
Attempt— Cooper's  Creek— Strikes  the  Stony  Desert  Again — Follows 
Cooper's  Creek  to  the  East — Again  Turned  Back — Renewed  Sufferings 
— Fearful  Heat — Thermometer  Bursts— Another  Horse  Abandoned — 
Want  of  Provisions — Sturt  III  with  Scurvy — Preparations  for  Return 
Home — Long  Stage  Without  Water — The  Barrier  Ranges — The  Party 
Reach   Lake    Cawndilla  and  Obtain  Assistance — Return  to  Adelaide. 

In  1843  Captain  Sturt  wrote  to  Lord  Stanley,  Secretary  for  the  Colonies, 
ojffering  to  lead  an  expedition  into  the  interior  of  the  Australian  continent. 
He  believed  that  good  country  would  be  found  a  little  way  beyond  the 
tropics,  and  he  was  anxious  to  unravel  the  mystery  of  the  interior.  Lord 
Stanley  approved  of  the  proposal,  and  he  directed  the  Governor  (Captain 
Grey)  to  organise  and  fit  out  the  exploring  party.  This  was  done,  and 
Sturt  left  Adelaide  on  August  10th,  1844.  Sturt' s  instructions  were  to 
travel  due  north  from  Mount  Arden,  and  endeavor  to  reach  the  centre 
of  the  continent,  but  on  no  account  to  risk  the  safety  of  the  party  by 
trying  to  cross  it.  Sturt  did  not  consider  it  prudent  to  try  to  cross  Lake 
Torrens,  but  he  intended  to  start  from  the  Darling  River  at  the  point  from 
which  Major  Mitchell  had  turned  back  in  1835  owing  to  the  attacks  of 
the  natives.  The  place  was  called  Laidley's  Ponds.  It  was  supposed 
that  the  Darling  was  joined  there  by  a  stream  which  rose  in  some  distant 


EXPLORATIONS    OF    THE    INTERIOR.  119 

mountains  that  were  visible  in  the  north-west.  The  country  between 
the  river  and  the  ranges  was  an  open  plain,  which  Sturt  hoped  to  cross 
with  the  aid  of  the  streams,  and  when  he  got  to  the  ranges  he  believed 
that  he  could  proceed  to  the  centre  of  the  continent  by  relying  on  the 
watercourses  that  would  be  found  amongst  the  hills.  The  party  assembled 
at  the  Darling  on  September  24th,  1844.  It  consisted  of  Captain  Sturt, 
in  command  ;  Mr.  Poole,  assistant  surveyor ;  Mr.  J.  H.  Browne,  surgeon  ; 
Mr.  J.  McDouall  Stuart,  draughtsman  ;  and  twelve  men.  The  equipment 
included  eleven  horses,  thirty  bullocks,  200  sheep,  six  dogs,  three  bullock - 
drays,  one  horse  dray,  a  spring  cart,  one  boat  and  boat  carriage,  and 
general  stores  enough  to  last  for  eighteen  months.  On  the  8th  October 
the  party  arrived  at  Laidley's  Ponds  ;  but  it  was  at  once  found  that  there 
was  no  creek  flowing  from  the  hills  which  were  seen  in  the  distance  to 
the  north-west,  but  only  a  watercourse  leading  to  two  lakes,  into  which 
the  floods  of  the  Darling  were  then  flowing.  This  was  in  long.  142^ 
5'  E.  and  lat.  32°  25'  S.  There  was  no  grass  in  the  locality,  and  the  place 
looked  dreary  and  wretched.  Mr.  Poole  was  sent  forward  to  one  of  tlie 
lakes  to  report  on  the  state  of  the  feed,  and,  if  there  were  none,  to  proceed 
to  the  ranges  in  the  north-west.  He  was  absent  four  days ;  he  had 
reached  the  lake,  but  there  was  no  grass.  On  arriving  at  the  ranges  there 
were  more  hills  visible  to  the  north  and  ranges  to  the  south-west,  and  also 
another  lake,  but  there  was  no  other  water  in  the  hills.  The  party  left 
the  Darling  on  the  17th.  After  completing  his  survey  up  to  Lake 
Cawndilla  the  leader  pushed  forward  to  examine  the  hills.  Forty  miles 
of  travel  over  a  barren  level  tract  of  sand  and  clay,  with  a  little  brushwood 
and  some  tufts  of  grass,  but  very  few  trees,  was  all  that  was  gained  at  that 
time.  The  party  found  a  few  native  wells  which  supplied  immediate 
wants,  and  in  following  up  a  dry  watercourse  they  came  upon  a  long 
serpentine  pond.  From  this  point  they  moved  north-west,  and  eventually 
reached  the  ranges,  which  they  ascended.  The  outlook  was  not  cheering. 
There  were  hills  in  the  distance  separated  by  an  inaccessible  valley,  but 
the  general  prospect  was  cold  and  unfertile.  Moving  to  the  south  a 
desolate  tract  of  forest  tableland  surrounded  by  hills  was  discerned,  but 
without  any  signs  of  water  to  lead  them  to  the  north-west,  so  thev  returned 
to  the  serpentine  pond.  On  the  24th  they  made  a  fresh  attempt  to 
advance ;  but  not  being  able  to  get  through  the  ranges,  thev  returned  to 
Cawndilla. 

On  November  1st  the  whole  party  was  moved  to  the  serpentine  water- 
hole,  and  Sturt  again  struck  out  to  the  north-west  with  three  men  and  a 
cart  with  a  tank  of  water.  The  ranges  were  crossed,  and  at  their  western 
base  a  pool  of  water  was  found.  On  the  west  there  was  an  unbroken 
level,  and,  as  far  as  it  could  be  seen,  ban  en  and  useless.     This  was  in 


120  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

lat.  31°  22'  S.  An  easy  route  to  the  north-west  was  soon  met  with,  and  a 
fine  creek  flowing  from  a  rocky  gorge  in  the  ranges  was  discovered.  It 
did  not  serve  fur  long,  and  when  it  failed  a  supply  was  taken  on  in  a  tank. 
On  the  1 1th  they  moved  towards  some  low  hills  visible  far  off  in  the  west. 
The  first  few  miles  was  over  a  barren  clay,  and  afterwards  the  ground 
became  covered  with  fragments  of  quartz  on  an  undulating  plain.  They 
continued  their  route  till  the  12th  over  sand  ridges  with  pine  trees 
scattered  about.  To  the  west  the  plain  continued  unbroken.  As  they 
returned  they  were  caught  in  a  thunderstorm,  which  covered  the  plains 
with  large  sheets  of  water.  This  unexpected  relief  would  have  enabled 
Sturt  to  advance  much  further  ;  but  as  soon  as  he  got  back  to  camp  he 
sent  Mr.  Poole  out  in  that  direction,  and  then  moved  the  depot  up  to  the 
creek  on  the  westei-n  edge  of  the  range.  Poole  left  on  the  'zOth  Novem- 
ber and  returned  on  the  2nd  December.  He  had  gone  west  and  somewhat 
to  the  north  through  barren  country  until  he  had  seen  Mount  Serle. 
Here  he  travelled  over  barren  sandhills  until  he  reached  low,  marshy, 
brackish  lakes — unbounded  to  the  north  and  south.  They  were  supposed 
to  be  connected  with  Lake  Torrens.  The  west  was  proved  to  be  imprac- 
ticable, so  that  Sturt  was  forced  to  look  for  water  along  the  ranges  to  the 
north. 

On  the  4th  of  December  he  sent  a  man  named  Flood  to  push  on  for 
sixty  miles  in  search  of  water,  for  the  party  could  not  remain  where  they 
were.  The  heat  was  terrible,  rising  at  times  to  125°  in  the  shade,  and  the 
water  was  daily  becoming  less  and  less.  Flood  returned  after  finding  a 
creek  forty  miles  away,  but  he  reported  that  the  hills  declined  rapidly,  and 
did  not  continue  much  further  to  the  north.  On  the  10th  the  whole  party 
reached  Flood's  Creek.  From  the  ranges  Sturt  was  able  to  see  Mount 
Lyell  and  Mount  Babbage.  The  country  was  wretched.  The  few  natives 
who  were  seen  were  miserably  emaciated,  as  if  there  was  but  little  food 
for  them  in  that  region.  He  journeyed  to  Mount  Lyell  through  scrubby 
ranges  until  he  neared  the  hill.  It  was  2,000ft.  high,  and  of  a  barren 
and  useless  character ;  but  the  country  towards  the  Darling  looked  even 
worse.  Messrs.  Poole  and  Browne,  who  in  the  meantime  had  gone  to  the 
north-west  to  look  for  water,  returned  on  the  25th,  having  reached  lat. 
28°  S.  They  reported  that  they  had  found  what  they  considered  to  be  a 
permanent  supply.  It  was,  however,  forty  miles  off,  and  it  was  doubtful 
whether  the  cattle  could  be  got  over  the  intervening  ground.  The 
thermometer's  daily  range  was  from  100°  to  120°  Fahr.,  and  the  cattle 
kept  under  the  trees  all  day  long  for  shelter,  and  they  became  low  in 
condition.  The  nights,  too,  were  extremely  warm,  for  the  hills  were  all 
on  fire,  and  it  was  hardly  safe  to  risk  going  without  water  for  a  single 
night.     Browne  and  Poole  saw  the  Stanley  or  Barrier  Ranges,  as  they 


EXPLORATIONS    OF    THE    INTERIOR.  121 

•were  called,  but  they  soon  terminated,  and  another  and  apparently  a 
more  important  range  succeeded  them.  Fifteen  miles  from  this  a  fine 
creek  was  discovered,  and  as  they  followed  it  to  the  north-west  they  came 
•upon  twenty  or  thirty  large  waterholes.  As  Poole  moved  forward  he  met 
with  several  other  creeks,  but,  as  he  neared  the  last,  the  plain  was  rough 
and  stony  for  about  ten  miles,  in  crossing  which  the  horses  suffered 
greatly.  On  returning  he  got  a  view  of  the  country  from  one  of  the 
hills.  It  was  a  thick  and  level  scrub,  apparently  impenetrable.  On 
the  28th  the  whole  party  left  Flood's  Creek,  and  on  the  oOth  reached  the 
first  creek  found  by  Poole  and  Browne.  The  cattle  were  exhausted  by 
the  journey,  and  some  of  them  had  fallen  dead  from  thirst.  Many  of  the 
men  also  suffered  greatly,  for,  owing  to  an  oversight,  they  had  been  left 
Avithout  relief.  The  whole  of  the  party  did  not  reach  the  creek  till 
January  2nd,  1844.  The  heat  was  overpowering  ;  "the  ground  became 
so  hot  that  the  bullocks  pawed  it  to  get  a  cooler  bottom ;  the  men's  shoes 
were  scorched  as  if  by  fire,  and  some  who  had  stripped  to  the  heat  were 
^blistered  and  severely  burnt." 

The  party,  so  far,  had  travelled  on  the  west  side  of  the  Stanley  or 
Barrier  Ranges ;  now  they  had  got  to  the  east  side  of  a  new  range 
which  was  named  the  Grey.  They  pressed  onward  with  much  difficulty 
from  creek  to  creek  over  stony  plains.  Those  creeks  mostly  terminated 
after  a  short  distance  in  plains  or  reedy  lagoons.  On  the  10th  of 
January  they  were  so  impeded  by  scrub  that  they  were  compelled  to 
camp  that  night  without  water.  They  got  through  the  scrub  on  the 
next  day,  passing  over  sandy  plains  covered  in  places  with  small  frag- 
ments of  quartz.  Moving  to  the  east,  they  camped  at  a  grassy  spot 
where  there  was  a  good  sheet  of  water,  but  it  was  shallow  and  drying  up, 
and  it  became  urgent  to  find  another  camping  place  without  delay.  On 
the  14th,  Sturt,  with  a  small  party,  went  out  north-west,  and  he  saw  that 
the  creeks  discovered  by  Browne  and  Poole  had  dried  up.  Poole  was 
then  sent  back  in  order  to  search  for  water  on  his  way  home.  Sturt 
continued  his  examination  of  the  hills,  which  were  isolated,  with  occa- 
sionally small  pools  of  bad  water  at  their  bases.  On  the  18th  Sturt  had 
reached  a  spot  where  they  ceased  altogether.  The  plains  beyond  were 
covered  with  a  thick  scrub,  which  Sturt  entered.  Striking  north-west  he 
came  to  a  desert,  in  which  sandy  flats  and  barren  sand  ridges  followed  in 
long  succession.  In  the  evening  he  reached  some  hills  with  dry  water- 
courses ;  from  the  top  of  one  of  them,  only  570ft.  above  sea  level,  he 
obtained  a  view  of  the  surrounding  region.  There  was  nothing  but  dark 
scrub  visible,  and  he  relinquished  all  hope  of  proceeding  further  in  that 
direction.  Sturt  now  returned  to  ihe  creek  in  the  scrub.  It  was  close 
to  a  native   camp  which  had  been   abandoned.     The    creek    soon   dis- 


122  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

appeared  in  the  plain.  The  heat  was  fearful,  the  thermometer  having 
reached  the  height  of  131°  Fahr.  It  was  impossible  almost  to  do  any- 
thing. After  eleven  days  of  disappointment  and  suffering  Sturt  returned 
to  the  camp.  On  his  way  back,  Poole  had  passed  to  the  west  of  a  small 
range,  and  found  a  large  sheet  of  water  in  the  bed  of  a  creek.  Crossing 
the  head  of  this  he  came  into  a  rocky  glen  with  many  pools  in  rocky 
basins,  which  contained  an  apparently  inexhaustible  supply  of  water. 
Here  the  party  remained  for  six  months.  The  waters  had  failed  on  every 
side,  and  it  would  have  been  impossible  for  them  either  to  advance  or 
retreat. 

The  camp  was  three  miles  and  a  half  south  south-east  of  Mount  Poole. 
The  country  was  dry  and  parched,  and  the  thermometer  ranged  daily 
from  100°  to  117°  in  the  shade.  The  only  living  things  which  stood  the 
heat  were  kites,  which  were  both  daring  and  troublesome.  Sturt  now 
made  another  attempt  to  go  north,  and  he  set  out  with  a  cart,  a  tank  of 
w^ater,  and  a  lad.  His  intention  was  to  reach  latitude  27°  S.  if  he  could. 
He  pushed  on  till  his  horse  nearly  died.  He  had  found  a  little  water  in 
the  ranges,  but  on  the  plains  there  was  nothing  but  interminable  scrub 
and  desert.  The  farthest  point  he  had  been  able  to  reach  was  latitude 
28°  9"  S.  On  the  17th  February  he  went  out  once  more,  following  down 
the  creek  near  the  native  camp  ;  it  gradually  increased  in  size,  and  in 
about  fifteen  miles  it  was  joined  by  another  creek  containing  a  small  supply 
of  water.  At  twenty-nine  miles  it  turned  to  the  west,  and  the  country  was 
more  level  and  open.  Eight  miles  further  it  was  lost  in  an  extensive 
plain  surrounded  by  sandhills.  Turning  to  the  north  he  found  a  fertile 
valley  of  small  extent,  which  led  to  sandhills  like  those  at  Lake  Torrens. 
On  the  21st  he  regained  the  camp.  Here  the  heat  was  so  severe  that  the 
whole  of  the  party  were  suffering  terribly.  It  was  impossible  to  work, 
and  writing,  drawing,  or  mapping  the  country  were  out  of  the  question, 
for  the  ink  and  the  colors  dried  up  as  fast  as  the  pens  and  brushes  could 
be  replenished.  An  underground  chamber  was  dug  by  Sturt' s  directions, 
in  which  the  people  could  obtain  some  shelter  in  the  hottest  part  of  the 
day.  The  men  were  in  a  state  of  forced  inaction.  At  length  the  weather 
became  cooler,  and  in  February  the  last  days  w^ere  chilly,  and  it  was 
noticed  that  the  birds  had  flow^n  northwards. 

On  March  13th  Sturt  and  a  small  party  went  out  to  examine  the  land 
to  the  east.  Water  had  been  found  lower  down  the  creek,  and  it  was 
hoped  that  it  would  enable  them  to  cover  a  considerable  extent  of  the 
country.  They  crossed  large  plains,  and  found  a  creek  with  high 
banks  and  abundance  of  water  in  it.  Here  they  saw  piles  of  dry  grass 
which  had  been  threshed  out  by  the  natives.  Neither  Sturt  nor  Mitchell, 
who  had  seen  similar  heaps,  understood  what  they  meant.     They  were, 


EXPLORATIONS    01'    THE    INTERIOR.  123 

doubtless,  the  stalks  that  were  left  after  beating  out  the  seeds  of  the 
iiardoo,  on  which  the  natives  to  some  extent  depend  in  these  regions  for 
food.  The  seeds  are  extremely  hard,  and  they  are  ground  by  the  women 
into  a  coarse  meal,  which  is  made  into  a  kind  of  bread  or  biscuit.  This 
is  certainly  nourishing,  but  the  labor  of  preparing  it  is  immense.  They 
penetrated  to  a  point  ninety-seven  miles  from  the  depot,  but  they  were 
still  about  140  from  the  Darling.  They  had  passed  over  plains  which 
had  been  occasionally  flooded,  and  had  met  witli  much  scrub.  Their 
knowledge  of  the  country  was  not  greatly  increased  by  the  journey.  On 
the  21st  they  i-eturned  to  camp  and  rested  till  the  end  of  the  month. 
April  came,  but  it  brought  no  change  in  the  weather.  Day  after  day 
clouds  gathered  and  thunder  was  heard  in  the  distance,  but  there  was  no 
rain.  The  air  was  so  dry  that  the  woodwork  of  the  drays  was  loosened, 
and  they  almost  fell  to  pieces.  The  screws  in  the  boxes  were  draNN-n,  and 
the  horn  handles  of  the  instruments  and  the  combs  split  up  into  thin 
strips.  The  hair  of  the  men  and  the  wool  upon  the  sheep  ceased  to 
grow;  the  lead  in  the  [)encils  dropped  out,  and  the  finger-nails  of  the 
men  became  brittle  like  glass.  In  addition  to  these  discomforts,  scurvy 
broke  out  amongst  the  explorers.  Sturt  was  lightly  attacked.  Dr. 
Browne  suffered  considerably,  and  Mr.  Poole  became  extremely  ill.  On 
the  18th  heavy  clouds  were  seen  in  the  direction  of  Mount  Serle,  and 
Sturt,  hoping  that  rain  had  fallen  in  that  direction,  made  a  journey  of 
over  seventy  miles  to  the  west.  No  water  was  found  in  that  direction, 
and  he  was  forced  to  retrace  his  steps  The  country  passed  through  was 
generally  barren,  with  a  few  grass  flats  and  many  sand  ridges.  Sturt 
made  no  further  attempt  to  explore  for  some  time  In  April,  May,  and 
June  there  was  no  rain.  One  starving  native  came  to  the  camp  for  food. 
Mr.  Poole  in  the  meantime  grew  worse,  and  could  scarcely  bear  shifting 
in  his  bed.  The  water  in  the  creek  showed  signs  of  failing,  and  the  pro- 
visions were  getting  short. 

Sturt  now  began  to  feel  that  he  could  not  penetrate  much  further  into 
the  interior,  but  he  hoped,  if  there  were  rain,  he  could  send  Mr.  Poole 
back  with  half  of  the  party,  and  his  life  might  be  saved.  On  the  12th 
of  July  rain  set  in,  several  wet  days  followed,  and  the  creek  was;  filled  to 
the  level  of  its  banks.  Mr.  Poole  was  sent  away  as  soon  as  was  possible, 
but  it  was  now  too  late  to  be  of  any  avail.  A  few  hours  after  the  return 
party  had  left,  a  messenger  came  back  with  the  intelligence  that  Mr. 
Poole  was  dead.  He  was  buried  near  the  depot,  and  his  initials  were  cut 
on  a  tree  which  grew  near.  On  the  morning  of  the  18th  tlie  remainder 
of  the  party  pushed  onwards  to  the  north-west.  They  crossed  sandy  and 
stony  plains  on  which  there  was  plenty  of  water,  but  they  got  on  very 
slowly.     On  the  26th  they  were  only  sixty-one  miles  from  the  depot. 


124  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

Sturt  now  fixed  upon  a  camp  at  a  gi'assy  well- watered  creek,  to  which  all 
the  party  were  brought.  This  was  the  Frome  Creek.  Mr.  Stuart  was 
at  once  sent  forward  with  instructions  to  chain  in  a  south-west  direction 
towards  Lake  Torrens,  about  the  latitude  of  Mount  Hopeless,  in  order 
to  connect  Sir  Thomas  Mitchell's  survey  with  the  surveys  of  Frome  and 
Eyre.  For  a  hundred  miles  he  found  nothing  but  barren  sandhills  with 
a  little  surface  water,  and  there  was  only  one  small  creek.  Ranges  were 
visible  to  the  west,  and  then  a  dry  lagoon,  the  bed  of  which  was  white 
with  salt.  This  was  a  pai't  of  Lake  Torrens.  Beyond  this  point  Lake 
Frome  was  discerned.  It  was  an  immense  shallow^  basin  over  ten  miles 
broad,  with  patches  of  deep  blue  water  in  the  centre,  perfectlj'  salt. 
There  was  a  gradual  descent  to  the  water  of  about  a  mile  and  a  half,  the 
ground  intervening  being  covered  with  a  low  scrub.  Stuart  tried  to  get 
across,  but  he  found  it  to  be  utterly  impassable  in  every  direction.  This 
lake  appeared  to  be  below  sea  level.  Its  situation  is  latitude  29°  14"  S. 
and  longitude  139°  12"  E. 

Leaving  the  depot  in  charge  of  Mr.  Stuart,  Sturt  prepared  to  continue 
his  movement  to  the  north.  He  took  with  him  Dr.  Browne  and  three 
men,  with  provisions  for  fifteen  weeks.  They  left  on  the  14th  of  August. 
Four  days  were  spent  in  passing  over  sand  ridges  and  grassy  flats  which 
showed  a  little  water  remaining  after  the  rains.  On  the  18th  they  came 
to  a  large  creek  with  extensive  pools  of  water,  and  the  habitations  of 
natives.  This  was  called  Strzelecki's  Creek.  Extensive  plains  presented 
themselves,  with  creeks  at  intervals  containing  water,  and  some  with 
large  gum  trees  growing  in  their  beds.  Tracks  of  natives  were 
abundant  and  there  was  plenty  of  fish  in  the  watercourses.  The  journey 
thus  far  had  been  more  satisfactory  than  had  been  expected,  and  as  the 
country  had  improved  and  there  was  plenty  of  water,  Sturt  thought  he 
might  be  able  to  reach  the  centre  of  the  continent.  On  the  24th  August 
the  country  improved  still  more,  but  after  a  few  miles  a  hill  of  red  sand 
confronted  them.  Hills  of  a  smaller  nature  succeeded  each  other  for 
twenty  miles.  Some  salt  lagoons  were  seen,  and  in  the  evening  a  fine 
pool  of  fresh  water  was  discovered,  to  which  the  party  moved  on  next 
day.  Sturt  walked  to  a  sandhill  a  couple  of  miles  distant,  and  from  its 
summit  he  saw  an  immense  plain,  quite  level,  and  of  a  dark  purple  color, 
without  trees,  grass,  or  any  traces  of  vegetation.  It  was  a  stony  desert. 
He  determined  to  cross  it  if  possible.  His  party  left  the  camp  on  the 
26th,  and  soon  found  a  good  supply  of  water.  They  then  tried  to  cross 
the  desert.  The  ground  was  covered  with  fragments  of  water-worn 
quartz  and  sandstone.  At  night  they  camped  without  any  water.  Next 
day  they  pressed  forward  through  a  belt  of  polygonum,  about  two  miles 
wide,  to   which  succeeded   an  earthy  plain  devoid    of    vegetation.       It 


EXPLORATIONS    Ol-^    THE    INTERIOR.  12-5 

looked  as  if  it  had  been  flooded  and  the  surface  had  dried.  Towards 
the  evening  water  was  found,  but  there  was  no  grass  for  the  horses,, 
which  had  now  gone  two  days  without  food. 

Next  morning  they  fell  in  with  a  watercourse  with  water  in  abundance, 
but  no  vegetation  of  any  kind.     Sand  ridges  were  before  them  and  flats 
beyond,  but  these  would  be  turned  into  morasses  if  the  weather  became 
wet.     To  the  north-west  a  forest  was  reached,  but  there  was  no  grass. 
Just  before  sundown  a  creek,   quite  dry,  lay  before  them.     In  it  was  a 
native  well,  with   a  small  quantity  of   water,   barely  enough  to  satisfy 
immediate   needs.     One   of  the  horses   became   useless,  he  was   so   ex- 
hausted, and  he  was  turned  loose  to  shift  as  he  could.     The  following 
day's  journey  was  over  sand  ridges  which  extended  into  plains,  broken  by 
yawning  rifts,  over  which  it  was  difficult  to  get  the  horses.    They  camped 
without  water.     The  horses  gnawed  the  bark  off  the  trees  and  searched 
among  the  dead  leaves  for  scraps  of  food.     It  was  a  wonder  that  they  held 
out.     On  the  1st  September  they  found  some  puddles,  which  appeased  the 
thirst  of  the  animals  for  a  time.     The  countr}^  then  improved,  and  they 
came  to  a  fine  creek,  with  extensive  reaches  of  water  and  good  grass  on 
its  banks.     They  travelled  along  this  for  a  couple  of  days,  when  the  creek 
ended  in  a  salt  lagoon,  beyond  which  there  was  no  fi-esh  water.     Search 
was  made  in  every  direction,  but  without  success.     From  the  top  of  one 
of  the  sandhills  the  view  disclosed  nothing  but  sand  ridges  everj-where. 
This   place  was  fifty  miles  from  the   last   creek.      They  camped  near 
some  acacia  bushes  without  water,  and  they  had  been  almost  without  food 
since  they  left  on  the  6th  September.     Sturt  penetrated  no  further.     He 
was  within  one  degree  of  reaching  the  tropics,  and  not  more  than  150  miles 
from  the  centre  of  the  continent.     The  little  band  returned  to  the  creek, 
and  from  thence  Sturt  made  another  effort  to  travel  north-east.     For  two 
days  he  met  with  nothing  but  salt  plains  and  red  sand,  which  drifted  about 
in  all  directions.     A  few  natives  were  seen,  as  well  as  smoke  from  their 
fires.     This  circumstance  held  out  some  promise  of  improvement  in  the 
country,  but  Sturt  was  unable  to  go  further.    In  returning  to  the  depot  the 
party  suffered  greatly.     Dr.  Browne  was  so  iU  that  he  was  barely  able  to 
keep  on  his  horse,  and  the  rest  were  terribly  exhausted.     They  had  lived 
upon  5lbs.  of  flour  each  per  week,  and  they  had  scarcely  anything  else. 
The  water  failed  as  they  retraced  their  steps,  and  they  had  the  greatest 
difficulty  to  make  their  way  back  again  to  the  creek.     They  arrived  at 
Strzelecki's  Creek  on  the  '29th  September,  and  at  Fort  Grey,  as  their  main 
camp  was  named,  on  the  2nd  October.     They  had  been  absent  for  eight 
weeks,  and  had  travelled  800  miles.     They  had  been  prudent  enough  to 
deepen  some  of  the  waterholes  as  they  passed  outwards,  otherwise  it 
cannot  be  doubted  that  the  whole  of  the  party  would  have  been  lost. 


126  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

Deeply  as  he  had  been  disappointed,  and  much  as  he  had  suffered, 
Sturt  would  not  give  up  his  task  without  making  one  more  effort.  He 
proposed  to  leave  Dr.  Browne  with  all  the  men  but  three,  Avhilst  he  went 
forward  again.  Dr.  Browne  endeavoured  to  dissuade  him,  but  to  no 
purpose.  There  was  considerable  risk  in  this  new  attempt,  for  there  had 
been  no  rain  since  Mr.  Poole  had  died,  and  the  water  supply  at  the  camp 
w-as  becoming  low.  Dr.  Browne  was  left  behind  with  instructions,  in  case 
of  need,  to  fall  back  upon  Evelyn  Creek.  The  needful  preparations  being 
completed,  Sturt  left  the  camp  on  October  9th,  in  company  with  J.  M. 
Stuart  and  two  men  with  provisions  for  ten  weeks.  In  two  days  they 
reached  Strzelecki's  Creek,  and  then  followed  a  north-west  course  over 
flooded  plains  bounded  by  sandhills.  At  the  close  of  the  day  they  came 
to  a  belt  of  trees  which  lined  a  splendid  creek,  containing  several 
fine  reaches  of  water.  There  was  plenty  of  grass,  and  the  waterholes 
were  well  stocked  with  fish.  This  was  named  Cooper's  Creek;  but  it  is 
now  generally  known  as  the  Barcoo,  which  is  its  native  name.  This 
stream  ran  east  and  west.  The  leader  of  the  party  was  bent  on  going 
to  the  north.  He  passed  through  plains  of  considerable  extent,  well 
grassed,  but  the  only  w^ater  lay  in  little  pools  which  remained  on  the 
surface  after  a  thunderstorm.  All  went  well  for  a  couple  of  days,  and 
then  a  most  unwelcome  change  took  place.  On  the  loth  the  dreaded 
sand  ridges  reappeared.  They  did  not  last  for  long,  and  grassy  plains  lay 
beyond  them.  These  plains  Sturt  called  the  Plains  of  Hope.  The  17th, 
however,  brought  them  to  sandhills  once  more,  over  which  they  struggled 
for  two  days.  A  little  water  Avas  found,  but  everything  was  desolate  in 
the  extreme.  From  one  of  the  sandhills  Sturt  obtained  a  view  which 
summarily  dispelled  all  his  hopes.  This  sandhill  jutted  out  into  the  stony 
desert  "  which  stretched  on  every  side  like  a  dark  purple  sea  before  him." 
Sturt  now  tried  to  cross  the  plain  again,  and  he  succeeded.  On  the 
opposite  side  he  met  with  sand  ridges  covered  with  fragments  of  stone, 
and  all  around  no  other  prospect  presented  itself.  This  was  in  lat.  25° 
58'  S.  and  long.  139°  26'  E.  The  horses  were  now  so  broken  down  fi-om 
want  of  food  and  water  that  Sturt  was  compelled  to  turn  back.  As  the 
men  moved  in  the  direction  of  the  camp  they  found  that  all  the  wells  but 
one  were  completely  dry.  This  one  saved  their  lives.  One  of  the  horses 
died  in  the  desert,  and,  with  this  solitary  loss,  they  regained  the  Barcoo 
on  the  28th  of  October. 

The  discovery  of  the  Barcoo  was  the  only  important  one  that  had 
been  made,  and  Sturt  determined  to  follow  it  up  to  the  eastward.  He 
buried  all  the  stores  he  could  spare,  and  then  went  on.  Though  the 
channel  of  the  river  was  (bry,  there  were  numerous  large  pools  or  reaches 
■with  abundance  of  water.     Natives  were  seen  in  considerable  numbers, 


EXPLORATIONS  OF  THE  INTERIOR.  127 

and  they  were  quiet  and  friendly.  The  journey  was  continued  to  the  31st, 
when  stony  ranges  showed  themselves  to  the  north.  The  river  here  had 
two  channels,  only  one  of  whicli  contained  water.  Three  days  later 
several  tributaries  to  the  main  stream  were  seen,  which  appeared  to  come 
from  extensive  flats,  in  which  Sturt  thought  the  river  took  its  rise.  The 
immense  plains  which  he  now  saw  before  him  convinced  him  that  he  could 
not  proceed  further  east,  as  he  himself  was  very  ill  and  one  of  his  men 
apparently  worse.  The  horses,  moreover,  could  scarcely  move  along,  so 
he  brought  his  journey  to  an  end,  and  returned  to  the  buried  .stores. 
Having  recovered  them,  the  men  moved  on  to  Strzelecki's  Creek.  Sturt 
first  came  upon  the  Barcoo  in  lat.  27°  44'  S.,  long.  140°  22'  E..  and  he 
turned  back  in  lat.  27°  56'  S.,  long.  142°  E.  The  waterholes  which  he  saw 
in  the  distance  were  covered  with  wild  fowl  of  all  kinds. 

On  the  return  march  to  Strzelecki's  Creek  the  little  party  suffered  as 
they  had  never  suffered  before.  They  were  exposed  to  a  furious  hot  wind 
as  they  slowly  moved  along.  The  ground  they  trod  on  was  so  hot  that 
matches  dropped  immediately  took  fire.  A  thermometer  marked  to  127° 
burst  from  the  terrible  heat,  and  the  horses  could  scarcely  be  got  to  move 
on  at  all.  They  had  to  travel  eighty-six  miles  without  water.  "When 
somewhat  less  than  half  that  distance  had  been  covered,  some  of  the 
horses  gave  in.  One  of  them  was  abandoned.  Want  of  food  now  began 
to  tell  upon  the  explorers,  and  Sturt,  ill  as  he  was,  hurried  forward  alone 
to  the  depot  for  assistance.  When  he  got  there  the  remainder  of  the 
party  had  gone  away.  They  could  not  remain  where  they  were  because 
the  little  water  that  was  left  had  become  putrid.  The  rest  of  Stmt's  party 
reached  the  depot,  but  only  with  extreme  difficulty.  Here  they  had  a  meal 
of  damper,  which  was  the  only  food  they  had  tasted  for  two  days.  In 
looking  about  the  camp  they  dug  up  some  bacon  and  suet,  which  had 
apparently  been  hidden  by  the  dogs.  It  was  eaten  with  avidity,  if  not 
with  relish,  and  it  put  into  the  men  some  little  strength,  which  they  sorely 
needed.  Sturt  was  badly  affected  with  scm-vy,  but  he  hastened  forward 
to  procure  aid,  and  he  succeeded  in  getting  to  the  tents  on  the  1 7th  of 
November.  He  found  that  Dr.  Browne  had  almost  entirely  recovered, 
and  all  of  the  men  but  one  were  in  good  health.  Assistance  was  sent  to 
the  people  who  were  slowly  coming  on  behind,  and  they  were  all  brought 
to  the  camp  in  safety.  'J'he  weather  gave  indications  of  another  hot,  dry 
season,  so  that  there  was  no  time  to  bs  lost.  It  was  necessary  now  to  push 
homeward  without  the  least  delay,  for  it  might  not  be  possible  to  get 
back  to  the  settled  districts.  A  search  for  water  was  unsuccessful,  and  it 
was  certain  that  for  120  miles,  to  Flood's  Creek,  there  was  no  surface  water 
at  all.  A  messenger  sent  forward  to  that  place  found  that  the  little  water 
that  remained  at  that  place  was  perfectly  black  and  likely  to  dry  up  in  a 


12a  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

very  short  time.  Sturt  was  alarmingly  ill,  and  he  had  not  been  able  to  leave 
his  bed  since  he  had  returned  into  camp.  He  directed  three  bullocks  to  be 
killed,  their  skins  filled  with  Avater,  and  sent  them  forward  on  a  dray  half 
of  the  way  to  Flood's  Creek.  The  remaining  bullocks  were  relieved  of 
everything  that  could  be  spared,  to  enable  them  to  carry  water  enough  for 
the  intervening  part  of  the  journey.  With  all  these  precautions  the 
journey  was  a  dreadful  one;  but  Flood's  Creek  was  reached  at  length, 
and  the  cattle  had  not  suffered  very  severely.  The  party  now  crossed  the 
Barrier  Ranges,  and  hurried  onward  to  reach  Lake  Cawndilla,  where  they 
expected  to  find  that  assistance  had  been  sent  to  them.  Some  water  was 
found  on  the  road,  and  that  eased  their  sufferings  to  some  extent.  When 
they  were  full  seventy  miles  from  Cawndilla  all  their  provisions  were 
exhausted.  Mr.  Piesse,  who  had  been  sent  forward  into  the  settled 
country  to  seek  relief,  had  succeeded  in  getting  it ;  but  the  wayfarers 
could  not  know  this.  A  hurried  and  miserable  stage  of  thirty- six  miles,, 
however,  brought  their  troubles  to  a  close.  Captain  Sturt  was  extremely 
weak  during  the  latter  portion  of  the  journey,  so  much  so,  that  he  was 
compelled  to  rest  at  the  Darling  for  some  time  before  he  could  continue  his 
journey  to  Adelaide.  The  party  reached  Adelaide  in  March,  ]  846,  having 
been  absent  for  about  nineteen  months.  The  enormous  privations  and  the 
personal  sufferings  of  Captain  Sturt  had  badly  affected  his  sight,  and 
at  length  he  became  totally  blind.  A  pension  of  £600  per  annum  was 
settled  upon  him  by  the  South  Australian  Government,  which  he  enjoyed 
till  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1869.  Captain  Sturt  was  nominated  a 
K.C.M.G.  by  Her  Majesty,  but  he  had  died  before  the  news  of  the  honor 
conferred  on  him  coidd  be  communicated  to  him.  Her  Majesty,  however, 
in  consideration  of  Sturt's  distinguished  services,  directed  that  his  widow 
should  take  ihe  rank  and  style  which  she  would  have  enjoyed  if  her 
courageous  and  indomitable  husband  had  lived.  Sturt  returned  to  Ade- 
laide with  the  conviction  that  the  centre  of  Australia  was  an  immense 
stony  desert.  Later  explorations,  however,  have  corrected  that  impres- 
sion, and  it  is  almost  as  easy  now  to  cross  the  continent  from  Adelaide 
to  Port  Darwin  as  it  was  in  the  early  days  to  travel  from  the  capital  to 
100  miles  beyond  the  Burra. 


EXPLORATIONS     OF     THE     INTERIOR.  129 


CHAPTER   XI. 

Babbage's  Search  for  Gold — ^Goyder  in  the  North — Babbage  sent  out 
AGAIN— Recalled  by  Major  "Warburton — John  McDouall  Stuart — 
Strikes  out  to  the  North — Forced  to  turn  back — Makes  Streaky 
Bay — Nearly'  Starved — Returns  to  Adelaide — Offers  his  Plans  to 
THE  Government — Not  Accepted — Sets  out  to  Cross  the  Continent — 
Arrives  at  Chambers'  Pillar — Discovers  the  Macdonnell  Range — 
Arrives  at  the  Centre  of  the  Continent — Plants  his  Flag  in  Central 
Mount  Stuart — Moves  Forward— Attacked  with  Scurvy — Abandons 
some  Horses — Unfriendly  Natives — Attacked  by  them — Forced  to 
retire — Return  to  Adelaide— New  Expedition  Organised — Stuart  to 
Lead — Moves  Forward  in  his  Old  Tracks— Country  Terrible — Horses 
Exhausted — One  Hundred  Miles  without  "Water — Stuart  tries  to 
make  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria— No  Clothes — Provisions  Nearly 
Exhausted — Stuart  and  Party  Seriously  III — Return  to  the  Settled 
Districts — Stuart  Attempts  Again  to  Cross  the  Continent — Succeeds  — 
Brings  Back  his  Party  Without  Loss — Value  of  his  Discoveries — 
Explorers  Generally — Warburton's  Journey  to  West  Australia — 
Other  Explorers — Stuart's  Retirement. 

In  the  year  1856,  Mr.  B.  H.  Babbage,  who  had  been  engineer  to  the 
City  and  Port  Railway,  and  who  professed  to  have  considerable  geological 
knowledge,  was  sent  to  the  north  to  search  for  gold.  He  found  none,  but 
he  discovered  several  creeks  and  permanent  waters  near  Lake  Torrens, 
in  the  country  that  Eyre  had  reported  to  be  waterless.  Babbage 
endeavored  to  find  a  crossing-place  over  Lake  Torrens,  but  ha^dng  lost 
his  horses,  he  returned.  In  the  following  year,  Mr.  G.  W.  Goyder, 
Deputy  Svirveyor-General,  was  directed  to  survey  the  country  that  had 
been  found  by  Warburton,  Babbage,  Swinden,  and  others  who  had  made 
various  small  explorations  in  that  region.  He  went  out  in  April  and 
returned  in  June,  having  made,  as  he  thought,  some  most  important 
discoveries  in  the  shape  of  large  fresh  water  lakes,  bounded  by  perpen- 
dicular cliffs,  Sec.  Other  remarkable  features  in  the  country,  theretofore 
regarded  as  a  desert,  were  described  in  his  report,  which  created  con- 
siderable sensation.  Captain  Freeling,  R.E.,  the  Surveyor-General,  was 
immediately  sent  out  with  a  party  to  report  further  upon  the  supposed 
discoveries,  but  when  they  came  on  the  ground  the  phenomena  described 
by  Mr.  Goyder  were  ascertained,  as  the  Surveyor-General  reported,  to 
have  been  the  result  of  mirage,  and  did  not  exist  as  represented.  There 
was  no  lake,  and  the  conclusion  drawn  in  Mr.  Goyder's  report  that  the 
lake  was  subject  only  to  the  most  trifling  variations  of  level  was  proved 
to  be  an  erroneous  deduction. 
I 


130  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

In  1858,  Mr.  Babbage  was  sent  out  again  to  explore  to  the  north  of 
some  discoveries  recentl)-  made  by  Mr.  Hack,  lying  between  the  western 
shore  of  Lake  Torrens  and  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Gairdner.  It  is 
needless  to  giA'e  the  ijarliculars  of  this  expedition.  It  was  a  total  failure. 
The  leader  was  a  person  wholly  unfitted  for  the  work,  and  Major 
Warburton  was  despatched  to  recall  him.  Warburton  did  this  part  of 
his  duty,  and  afterwards  made  some  explorations  himself  that  resulted  in 
valuable  discoveries,  which  eet  at  rest  all  questions  as  to  Lake  Torrens. 
That  lake  had  been  supposed  to  be  much  like  a  horseshoe  in  shape.  It 
was  now  proved  that  the  south  part  of  the  lake  was  not  united  to  the 
gulf.  The  lake  itself  was  divided  into  many^  salt  water  basins,  with  good 
land  intervening,  and  plenty  of  fresh  water.  This  knowledge  proved  to 
be  of  the  greatest  value  to  other  explorers  who  endeavored  to  press 
forward  into  the  interior. 

^Vhilst  Babbage  was  still  in  the  field,  John  McDouall  Stuart,  who  had 
been  draughtsman  in  Capt.  Sturt's  expedition  to  the  centre  of  Australia, 
commenced  a  series  of  explorations  which  ultimately  solved  the  problem 
of  the  interior  and  led  to  the  crossing  of  the  continent  from  south  to 
north.  In  June,  1858,  he  set  forward  with  one  companion,  one  native, 
and  five  horses.  Reaching  the  Elizabeth  on  the  16th  June,  he  camped 
there  and  then  pushed  on  until  he  came  in  sight  of  Mount  Nor' -West  and 
Mount  Deception.  Examining  the  country  carefully  as  he  went  forward, 
he  met  with  a  creek,  named  Stuart's  Creek  by  Babbage,  but  which  he 
re-named  Chambers'  Creek,  as  it  is  now  called.  His  horses  became 
crippled  by  the  stony  ground  he  had  traversed,  and  then  the  country  im- 
proved, though  the  travelling  was  hard,  owing  to  heavy  rains  that  had 
fallen.  The  country  much  resembled  the  stony  desert  of  which  Sturt 
and  he  had  had  a  bitter  experience.  Here  the  soil  improved.  Rain 
detained  him  for  a  couple  of  days,  and  then  he  met  with  an  immense 
plain  with  flat-topped  hills  dotted  about  them.  At  the  end  of  this 
plain  there  was  a  range,  from  which  a  well-wooded  country  was  seen  to 
the  north  and  east.  There  was  another  range  to  the  north-west,  from 
which  the  view  to  the  north-east  showed  an  extensive  stony  plain  with 
broken  hills  in  the  distance  ;  to  the  north  another  plain  with  distant 
table  hills,  and  to  the  north-west  the  termination  of  the  range  from 
which  the  view  was  obtained,  at  a  distance  of  about  ten  miles.  The 
furthest  point  reached  was  in  lat.  28°  20'  S  long.  134°  10'  E.  Stuart 
now  turned  south.  He  was  satisfied  that  he  would  be  able  to  penetrate 
still  further  to  the  north,  but  he  wanted  to  examine  the  country  to  the 
south  and  west.  The  route  was  over  stony  plains  with  one  or  two 
creeks.  These  plains  soon  terminated  in  red  sand,  quite  impracticable 
to  horses    jaded  and    weakened  as  his  w^ere.     He  then    moved    south, 


EXPLORATIONS     OF     THE     INTERIOR.  131 

-and  then  south-east  to  a  point  about  a  hundred  miles  north  of  a  lake 
which  had  been  found  by  Swinden  and  named  after  him.  For  five  days 
he  travelled  over  open  plains  at  first,  then  through  sandy  scrub  which 
became  more  dense  as  he  proceeded,  without  water.  One  creek  only 
was  found,  and  for  the  rest  of  the  time  he  depended  on  a  few  puddles 
left  by  the  rain. 

On  the  fifth  day  some  hills  were  seen  in  the  north.  As  his  little  band 
approached  them  the  country  was  better  grassed,  but  the  prospect  from 
the  tops  of  the  hills  was  not  encouraging.  On  the  22nd  of  June  they 
crossed  a  limestone  ridge  bounding  a  plain  from  north-west  to  east.  The 
country  around  was  good,  but  stony.  Stuart  examined  it  in  every  direc- 
tion, and  eventually  he  moved  towards  Fowler's  Bay.  From  Mount 
Finkc,  which  he  met  wdth  on  his  return,  he  saw  nothing  but  a  dense 
scrub  with  open  plains  without  any  water.  The  party  suffered  the  most 
terrible  privations  on  the  return  journey.  They  had  been  out  twice  as 
long  as  their  provisions  had  been  expected  to  last,  and  these  had  been 
much  reduced  by  Avet  and  other  damage.  Stuart  managed  to  eke  them 
out  until  the  party  reached  Lake  Gairdner,  where  the  last  of  the  flour 
was  consumed.  They  had  now  to  live  upon  anything  they  could  get. 
Sometimes  they  got  a  crow,  at  others  a  stray  opossum,  and  on  one 
occasion  a  wallaby,  but  at  last  they  depended  almost  entirely  upon  mar- 
supial mice,  which  were  found  in  some  abundance,  and  without  them 
they  must  have  been  starved  to  death.  At  length  they  reached  a  place 
called  Beelimah,  where  they  lived  upon  shell  fish  ixntil  they^  reached 
Streaky  Bay.  Here  Stuart  was  attacked  by  severe  illness,  and  was  unable 
to  move  until  September  3rd.  After  getting  away  he  suffered  a  relapse, 
and  could  go  on  only  for  very  short  distances.  With  much  suffering,  the 
party  managed  to  reach  a  station  at  Mount  Ardcn.  They  had  been  three 
months  away  ;  but  they  had  done  more  in  that  time  with  the  most  limited 
means  than  any  other  explorers  had  accomplished  with  abundant  re- 
sources. As  soon  as  he  had  sufficiently  recovered,  he  set  out  on  a  fresh 
expedition.  The  particulars  of  this  journey  have  never  been  published, 
so  that  it  is  not  knowni  what  he  saw  or  how  long  he  was  engaged  in  it. 

When  he  returned  to  Adelaide,  Stuart  offered  his  maps  and  journals  to 
the  Government  on  the  condition  of  receiving  a  lease  of  1,500  square 
miles  of  country  for  fourteen  years,  the  first  four  to  be  rent  free.  The 
Parliament,  to  which  his  offer  was  submitted,  rejected  it;  but  it  was 
determined  to  offer  a  reward  of  £10,000  to  any  one  who  would  cross  the 
continent  at  his  own  expense.  In  November,  18o9,  Stuart  made  an 
attempt  to  ex])lore  the  country^  he  had  found,  and  to  survey  it  into  two 
blocks  for  pastoral  occupation.  He  discovered  many  mound  s])rings 
similar  to  some  that  had  been  met  with  by  Warburton  on  his  northern 


132  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

journeys.  Some  of  these  were  hot,  and  many  of  very  large  extent^ 
covering  as  much  as  five  acres.  One,  called  the  William  Spring,  was  on 
a  hill  120ft.  high;  the  pool  of  water  contained  in  it  was  about  100ft. 
long,  and  showed  abimdant  tracks  of  natives,  as  well  as  the  footprints 
of  emus.  He  came  to  Lake  Eyre  on  its  western  side,  and  in  it 
saw  several  islands.  The  soil  was  a  sort  of  concrete,  formed  of  limc,^ 
salt,  and  gravel,  and  where  the  water  had  receded,  a  number  of  stnall 
fish  dried  and  caked  in  salt  were  found.  They  were  strewed  about  in 
great  quantities  on  the  shore,  in  a  belt  about  a  dozen  yards  wide. 

Stuart  had  negotiated  with  the  Government  for  a  lease  of  the  country 
discoA'ered  by  him,  or  a  reward  for  the  discoveries  he  had  made.  Finding 
that  he  could  not  obtain  either,  he  determined  to  make  an  attempt  to  cross- 
the  continent  in  order  to  secure  the  promised  bonus  of  £10,000.  In 
March,  1860,  he  had  arranged  his  plans,  and  he  left  Chambers'  Creek 
with  only  two  companions,  Mr.  Keckwick  and  Benjamin  Head.  They 
arrived  at  the  Neales  on  the  17th,  from  which  the  final  start  was  to  be 
made.  The  prospect  was  favorable,  for  abundant  rains  had  fallen,  but 
there  was  great  difficulty  in  crossing  the  creeks  which  flowed  into  the 
Neales.  The  ground  was  very  boggy  and  the  beds  of  the  streams  unre- 
liable. The  party  went  forward  over  tableland,  with  varying  soil,  opening 
out  into  imdulating  grassy  country  with  scrub.  Passing  through,  their 
packs  were  considerably  damaged,  and  they  were  obliged  to  camp  for 
repairs.  As  they  progressed,  the  coimtry  was  composed  of  sandhills 
with  a  great  deal  of  scrub.  Forcing  their  way  through  this,  and  crossing^ 
more  sandhills,  a  range  was  seen  to  the  north-east.  After  penetrating 
thirty-five  miles  of  mulga  scrub  they  came  to  the  junction  of  three  creeka 
coming  from  the  north-west.  At  the  northern  base  of  the  range  several 
fine  waterholes  were  found,  and  the  remains  of  a  large  native  camp.  On 
the  30th  they  crossed  a  wide  gum  creek,  and  immediately  after\vards  a 
low  range  of  volcanic  hills.  The  creek  was  called  the  Stevenson.  Its- 
banks  were  well  grassed,  and  the  mussel  shells,  crabs,  and  small  fish 
which  were  visible  in  its  bed,  gave  promise  of  its  waters  being  permanent. 
They  now  passed  over  some  large  gum  creeks  and  a  range  of  qviartz  and 
ironstone  with  some  gypsum.  A  view  from  Mount  Beddome,  its  highest 
point,  disclosed  no  change  in  the  country.  From  Mount  Humphries  a 
flat-topped  hill,  reached  on  the  4th  April,  scrub  was  seen  to  the  south 
and  west,  but  more  open  country  to  the  north. 

A  couple  of  miles  from  the  camp  there  was  a  splendid  creek,  with  good 
soil  and  grass  and  plenty  of  game.  This  country  was  considered  by  Stuart 
to  be  unrivalled.  This  creek  M-as  named  the  Finke.  After  crossing  the 
main  channel,  which  was  full  of  quicksand,  a  native  was  ourprised 
amongst  the  bushes,  but  as  soon  as  he  saw  the  horses  he  fled  away.     On 


EXPLORATIONS    OF     THE     INTERIOR.  133 

the  5th  the  explorers  came  to  a  hill  100ft.  high,  upon  which  stood  a 
pillar  of  sandstone  105ft.  high,  20ft.  wide,  and  10ft.  thick,  with  two 
peaks  upon  the  top.  This  was  called  Chambers'  Pillar,  in  honor  of  Mr. 
James  Chambers,  at  whose  instance  and  with  whose  assistance  principally 
Stuart  had  entered  upon  various  explorations.  A  forward  movement  on 
the  8th  over  sand  ridges  and  grassy  plains  towards  a  range  of  red  sand- 
stone hills  brought  the  party  to  a  dry  creek  named  the  Hugh.  To  the 
north  there  was  a  broken  range,  standing  out  boldly,  w'ith  two  remarkable 
bluffs  in  the  centre.  These  hills  were  different  from  any  yet  seen.  The 
explorers  moved  towards  them.  At  length  a  smaller  range  was  before 
them.  It  was  nearly  perpendicular,  with  large  masses  of  sandstone  on 
its  sides.  This  was  worse  to  pass  than  the  James  Range.  A  crossing 
place  could  not  be  found  for  miles.  The  rocks  obstructed  them,  and  then 
'dense  dead  scrub,  and  now  and  then  precipices,  then  again  scrub,  which 
.stopped  them  like  a  wall.  At  last  they  reached  the  other  side  of  the 
hills,  but  their  clothes  were  so  torn  that  they  were  almost  naked,  and  one 
of  the  horses  was  badly  lamed  by  a  splinter.  They  camjjed  at  the  head 
of  the  Hugh  for  a  day  to  make  good  damages.  The  furthest  range  was 
reached  on  the  10th  It  divided  into  two  chains,  through  which  the 
Hugh  flowed  in  a  gorge  bounded  by  perpendicular  rocks.  The  valley  was 
here  fertile  and  grass  plentiful.  A  few  miles  farther  on  the  Hugh  was 
■crossed  again,  and  pine  trees  were  found  growing  on  its  banks.  On  the 
11th  they  travelled  through  splendid  grass  country  with  plenty  of  water; 
but  a  high  bluflE  in  front  arrested  their  progress.  They  reached  its  foot 
in  the  evening,  and  camped  at  a  spring  with  abundant  vegetation.  Here 
they  found  a  palm,  the  fruit  of  which  they  roasted ;  but  a  small  quantity 
of  it  made  them  all  very  ill.  On  the  12th  the  Macdonnell  Range  was 
discovered,  and  after  crossing  it  they  found  a  permanent  waterhole,  at 
which  they  camped. 

The  outlook  from  the  hills  disclosed  nothing  but  an  open  scrubby  plain 
into  which  the  creeks  from  the  ranges  apparently  flowed.  Stuart  decided 
to  push  on.  He  travelled  twenty  miles  on  the  following  day  over  bushy 
ground,  well  grassed ;  but  he  was  obliged  to  camp  without  water.  Two 
■days  afterwards  he  saw  a  small  creek  bearing  east  from  the  range.  Mr. 
Keckwick  had  also  been  searching  for  water,  and  he  found  it  in  a  creek 
to  the  south.  Stuart  would  not  quit  the  range  until  he  found  permanent 
water,  for  the  country  all  round  was  dry,  and  looked  as  if  no  rain  had 
fallen  on  it  for  years.  On  the  19th  the  camp  was  moved  to  east  of  the 
Reynolds  Range,  from  the  toj)  of  which  (a  hill  named  .Mount  Freeling) 
Stuart  had  seen  a  creek.  The  country  was  rough  and  impracticable 
for  horses.  There  was  abundance  of  grass  and,  about  ten  miles  off,  a 
good  supply  of    water.     Another    day  passed,    and    then    the    country 


ly4  SOITH     AVS'lKAl.IA. 

improved.  They  found  a  large  creek  with  water  in  it  after  passing' 
over  the  range,  and  good  orass,  with  abundance  of  new  and  beautiful 
flowers.  The  party  were  now  ill,  suffering  from  scurvy,  but  they  obtained 
some  relief  from  tiie  vegetation  which  was  around  them.  Another  thirty- 
six  miles  brought  them  to  a  small  pool  of  rain  water  in  a  small  creek 
flowing  to  the  north-east.  On  the  22nd,  when  Stuart  made  his  observa- 
tions, he  found  that  he  had  reached  the  centre  of  the  continent.  He  had 
so  far  succeeded  where  all  other  explorers  had  failed.  About  two  miles 
and  a  half  from  the  camp  there  was  a  high  hill — it  was  not  exactly  in  the 
centre  of  Australia,  but  the  only  elevation  at  all  near  it.  This  he  named 
Central  Moimt  Stuart.  It  was  about  l.OOOft.  high.  He  ascended  it,  and 
planted  on  it  the  Union  Jack,  and,  having  given  three  cheers,  he  buried 
a  bottle,  within  which  was  enclosed  an  account  of  his  discovery. 

The  country  round  Central  Mount  Stuart  was  red  sand  without  stones,, 
and  well-grassed,  but  the  country  to  the  north  was  dry  and  unpromising. 
Stuart  now  decided  to  make  for  the  sources  of  the  Victoria  River,  and 
thence  to  cross  the  continent.  Pushing  on  for  thirty  eight  miles  without 
water,  he  reached  two  mountains — Mount  Denison  and  Mount  Leichardt. 
Here  water  was  found  with  luxuriant  grass  and  vegetation.  Tracks  of 
natives  were  met  with  in  several  directions.  On  the  28th  Stuart  climbed 
Mount  Denison.  Its  height  is  not  given,  but  it  was  the  highest  hill  he  had 
met  with,  and  it  took  him  eight  hours  to  reach  the  top.  The  ascent  was- 
so  difficult  that  he  was  compelled  to  leave  his  horse  tied  to  a  tree  about 
half  way  up  the  ascent.  High  mountains  appeared  to  the  south  and 
west,  and  then  an  interminable  plain  covered  with  patches  of  scrub.  To 
the  west  there  was  another  range— the  Barkly — which  he  determined  to 
reach.  As  he  descended  the  mount  he  was  startled  by  seeing  a  native 
smoke  not  far  from  the  place  where  he  had  fastened  up  his  horse.  He 
came  down  as  speedily  as  he  could,  for  an  encounter  with  the  blacks 
single-handed  was  a  thing  to  be  avoided. 

The  next  stage  was  twenty-four  miles  over  bad  country,  with  oidy  a 
little  water  in  a  native  well  at  the  end  of  the  journey.  Another  journey 
of  thirty-one  miles  was  over  level  ground  of  loose  sand  and  spinifex. 
There  was  still  no  water,  and  the  ground  looked  as  if  it  could  not  retain  it 
if  it  fell.  They  were  compelled  to  return,  and  the  horses  were  got  back 
with  great  difficulty.  They  were  forced  to  rest  for  three  days  at  Mount 
Denison,  for  they  were  all  exhausted  and  sick  from  over-exertion.  They 
moved  from  Mount  Denison  on  May  12th,  on  a  course  a  little  east  of  north. 
No  water  could  be  reached,  so  they  went  back  to  Central  Mount  Stuart. 
The  horses  were  in  a  bad  state.  Stuart  himself  was  ill  from  scur-v-y,  and 
much  shaken  by  a  fall  from  his  horse  in  the  scrub.  He  \\as  in  the 
greatest  pain,  and  was  scarcely  able  to  keep  in  his  saddle.     His  hands 


EXPLOR.iTIONS     OF     THE     IMERIOR.  135 

were  a  mass  of  sores,  which  would  not  heal.  His  mouth  and  gums  were 
in  such  a  state  that  he  could  take  only  boiled  flour  and  water.  Keckwick 
suffered  from  bad  hands,  but  was  not  otherwise  disabled. 

Stuart  rested  for  a  few  days,  and  then  went  forward  again  over  country, 
in  most  of  its  features,  similar  to  that  which  had  rendered  the  latter 
portion  of  his  journey  so  diflicult.  The  1st  of  June  brought  him  and 
his  men  to  an  extensive  channel,  Avith  deej)  reaches  of  water  con- 
taining small  fish.  Crossing  over,  the  little  band  reached  a  low  range 
of  rocks.  Stuart  could  not  ascend  them,  so  they  moved  on  to  some  more 
distant  ranges  in  the  north-west.  Beyond  this  a  splendid  waterhole  was 
found  which  was  deep  and  permanent,  but  there  was  no  food  for  the 
horses  near  it.  They  pushed  on,  passing  through  broken  granite  I'ocks 
and  thick  scrub  until  they  came  to  a  large  creek  called  Bishop's  Creek, 
which  terminated  in  a  long  green  plain.  Fourteen  miles  of  rough 
country  were  traversed,  then  sixteen  miles  of  scrub,  and  then  thirteen 
miles  of  good  grass.  When  that  ceased,  the  scrub  became  dense  and  all 
signs  of  water  had  disappeared.  He  was  within  300  miles  of  the  Victoria 
River,  but  he  could  not  pierce  the  scrub  and  he  reluctantly  turned  back. 
Instead  of  making  direct  for  Bishop's  Cre--k  he  turned  to  the  south. 
Here  the  country  became  worse.  One  of  the  horses  went  mad  from 
thii'st,  and  the  others  began  to  give  in.  In  hurryinj;  back  three  more 
horses  were  abandoned,  and  there  was  a  well-founded  dread  that  they 
would  not  be  able  to  bring  on  a  single  one.  Bishop's  Creek  was 
reached  after  a  terrible  struggle,  and  here  they  rested  for  a  short  time. 

Some  natives  now  made  their  appearance,  but  they  were  not  fi'iendly. 
Stuart  felt  himself  so  much  better  on  the  1 8th  of  June  that  he  set  out 
again  on  a  north  by  east  bearing,  but  he  was  driven  back  to  some  ponds 
found  by  Keckwick.  They  were  visited  at  this  place  by  some  natives, 
Avho  made  friendly  signs,  but  nothing  could  be  learned  from  them  and 
they  disappeared.  On  the  25th,  as  they  were  following  down  a  creek  for 
favorable  indications  of  a  route  to  the  north,  they  descried  natives 
watching  their  movements.  In  the  evening  they  made  a  sudden  attack 
on  the  little  party,  by  throwing  spears  and  boomerangs  and  firing  the 
grass.  Stuart  checked  them  by  a  discharge  of  firearms,  but  the  jiack 
horses  became  frightened  and  ran  away.  The  blacks  tried  to  cut  them 
off,  but  were  not  able  to  do  it.  The  attack  made  by  the  natives  con- 
vinced Stuart  that  he  could  proceed  no  further.  His  provisions  were 
alarmingly  reduced,  and  he  bent  his  unwilling  .steps  back  to  the  settled 
country.  As  he  moved  homewards  he  was  several  times  pursued  by  the 
natives.  Although  some  of  the  waters  on  which  he  had  depended  had 
dried  up,  others  were  found,  and  the  privations  of  the  party  on  that 
accoimt   were  not  very  great.     Stuart  reached   the  settled  districts  on 


136  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

September  2n(l.  His  progress  was  slow,  for  he  was  so  stricken  with 
scurvy  that  he  could  hardly  keep  on  his  horse.  His  companions  were 
also  ill,  and  came  along  with  the  utmost  difficulty. 

Stuart's  journey,  although  unsuccessful  in  accomplishing  the  object 
for  which  it  was  undertaken,  did  a  vast  deal  to  strip  the  interior  of  its 
mysterious  terrors.  The  centre  of  the  continent  had  been  passed,  and 
much  available  country  discovered.  The  project  of  crossing  x-Vustralia 
from  the  Southern  Ocean  to  the  Indian  Ocean  was  no  longer  a  doubtful 
one.  What  Stuart  had  done  in  opening  the  track  to  the  centre  of  the 
continent  rendered  it  almost  certain  that  a  party,  properly  equipped  and 
judiciously  led,  could  accomplish  the  journey  without  any  very  extra- 
ordinary risk. 

As  soon  as  Stuart  returned  to  Adelaide  the  Government  organised  a 
new  expedition,  the  command  of  which  was  given  to  him.  It  consisted 
of  eleven  men,  Keckwick  being  second  in  command.  They  set  out  on 
New  Year's  Day,  1861.  Stuart  was  not  in  good  health  when  the  party 
left,  so  that  they  did  not  reach  the  Lindsay  Creek,  in  lat.  26°  10"  S.,  until 
February  4th.  They  came  to  the  Bonney  on  April  12th.  and  Stuart, 
having  traced  its  course,  moved  on  to  Attack  Creek,  the  place  whence  he 
was  driven  back  by  the  natives  on  his  previous  journey.  He  arrived 
there  on  April  24th,  and  from  that  point  struck  out  for  the  Victoria 
River  on  a  north-west  course.  Four  days  were  consumed  in  fruitless 
attempts  to  find  w^ater  to  enable  him  to  bring  his  party  on;  at  last  a  creek 
named  the  Tomkinson  was  found,  and  the  whole  party  moved  up  and 
camped  there.  The  place  was  fertile,  abounding  in  shi-ubs  and  flowers, 
and  a  coarse  kind  of  grain  not  unlike  wheat  was  fairly  plentiful.  From 
this  place  they  all  pushed  on  to  the  Carruthers.  From  a  neighboring 
hill  Stuart  saw  distant  hills  covered  with  scrub.  There  were  also  native 
fires.  After  traversing  a  large  extent  of  country  wdthout  water,  Stuart  was 
obliged  to  return  to  the  Hunter.  From  the  3rd  till  the  9th  May,  Stuart 
tried  in  almost  every  direction  to  find  water  to  enable  him  to  advance, 
but  without  success.  He  was  now  obliged  to  rest  for  a  few  days,  for 
his  horses  were  so  worn  out  that  they  had  hardly  strength  enough  to 
move  back  to  the  camp.  From  the  13th  to  the  15th  considerable 
progress  was  made,  but  on  that  day  he  was  stopped  by  impenetrable  scrub, 
which  so  damaged  the  clothes  and  baggage  of  the  party  that  they  had  to 
remain  for  three  days  at  Lawson's  Creek  to  efEect  indispensable 
repairs.  On  the  20th  Stuart  went  on  with  two  men  and  seven  horses. 
After  travelling  forty-two  miles,  he  was  brought  up  by  a  very  dense 
scrub.  There  was  no  water,  and  no  appearance  of  any  hill  or  creek  for 
sixty  miles;  he  therefore  fell  back  on  Lawson's  Creek.  On  the  22nd  he 
found  a  splendid  sheet  of  water,  named  Newcastle  Water,  to  which  the 


EXPLORATIONS     OF     THE     INTERIOR.  137 

Tiv-hole  party  came  on.  On  the  25th  the  men  travelled  along  the  water 
for  twenty-nine  miles.  Here  the  natives  attacked  one  of  the  men  who 
was  separated  from  the  rest  The  man  fired  at  his  nearest  assailant  and 
so  escaped.  Stuart  now  moved  to  the  north  with  three  men  and  nine 
horses.  A  journey  of  thirty-eight  miles  through  plains  alternating  with 
scrub  brought  him  to  scrub  thicker  than  ever,  and  a  view  from  a  high 
tree  disclosed  only  a  more  dense  pack  of  bushes  before  him.  He  was  only 
100  miles  now  from  one  of  Gregory's  camps  upon  the  Campfield  Creek, 
but  he  was  obliged  to  return.  The  horses  were  very  weak,  and  the  party 
Avas  watched  and  closely  followed  by  natives.  A  rest  of  a  few  days 
brought  the  horses  round  again,  and  Stuart  prepared  for  a  fresh  movement. 
Rain,  however,  set  in,  the  country  became  boggy,  and  the  natives  again 
made  their  appearance.  They  were  dispersed  by  firing  over  their  heads. 
On  June  10th  Stuart  went  on  again,  but  as  he  advanced  the  scrub  grew 
thicker,  and  he  saw  that  it  was  hopeless  to  proceed  further. 
Although  the  ground  was  so  moist  that  the  horses  were  sinking  in  it  up  to 
their  fetlocks,  not  a  di'op  of  water  was  seen  anywhere.  He  then  tried  to 
reach  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  by  crossing  Sturt's  Plains  to  the  east,  but 
scrub  and  the  absence  of  water  jirevented  him  from  making  any  further 
progress  than  he  had  made  on  the  22nd.  Food  Avas  becoming 
scarce;  each  man  had  only  4lbs.  of  flour  and  lib.  of  dried  flesh  per 
week,  and  all  felt  the  effects  of  the  slow  starvation  which  they  were 
enduring.  The  horses,  too,  were  in  an  emaciated  condition  :  they  had 
neither  spirit  nor  strength,  and  Stuart  was  forced  to  return.  On  the 
■23rd  June  the  party  got  back  to  the  Tomkiuson.  Stuart  determined 
if  possible  to  travel  round  the  south  end  of  the  fearful  scrub  which  had 
baffled  him  so  far.  He  took  three  men,  ten  horses,  and  a  fortnight's 
food,  and  he  travelled  in  a  direction  a  little  north  of  west.  For  twenty- 
eight  miles  there  was  no  water,  and  he  camped  without  it,  and  on  the 
following  day  twenty-seven  miles  of  weary  work  over  red  sand  brought 
him  to  a  halt.  When  there  was  water,  there  was  impenetrable  scrub ; 
where  there  was  no  scrub,  there  was  no  water ;  at  times  there  was 
neither  scrub  nor  water.  He  had  to  return  to  the  Tomkinson  with  his 
horses  awfully  distressed,  for  they  had  travelled  over  lOO  miles  without 
a  drink. 

He  now  made  preparations  for  another  attempt  to  reach  the  Gulf 
•of  Carpentaria  by  travelling  north-west.  One  of  his  men  was  lost 
for  three  days,  and  a  search  for  him  considerably  delayed  his  onward 
movement.  Sixteen  miles  of  travel  brought  him  to  plains,  the  same 
in  ajipearance  as  Sturt's  terrible  plains — waterless.  He  was  forced  back. 
On  his  return  he  stayed  for  a  day  at  a  small  creek  that  contained  a  little 
-water.     On  the  4th   July   Stuart  made   his  final  effort  to  get  through. 


138  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

He  took  with  him  three  men.  ten  horses,  and  a  month's  provisions.  After 
thirty  miles  a  little  water  was  found.  Beyond  this,  plains  which  hecame 
sandy,  and  then  scrub,  then  low  sandhills,  and  then  a  flooded  plain,  then 
sandy  tableland  and  thick  scrub,  was  what  Stuart  had  to  pass  through. 
Nearly  two  days  were  occupied  in  forcintj  a  way  through  the  scrub,  but  he 
was  obliged  to  give  in,  for  the  country  was  utterly  impracticable.  Digging 
gave  no  water,  and  at  5ft.  deep  the  ground  was  still  dry.  To  return  was 
now  the  only  course  possible  to  ensure  the  lives  of  the  party.  Thirty 
weeks'  ])rovisions  had  been  their  stock  at  starting,  and  twenty-six  weeks 
had  passed  away.  It  would  take  nearly  ten  weeks  to  reach  settled  country. 
After  a  short  rest  to  shoe  the  horses  and  render  the  remaining  baggage 
fit  for  travelling,  the  pai'ty  set  forward  for  home.  They  had  very  little 
clothes  to  cover  them,  they  were  all  barefoot,  and  the  men  without 
exception  were  in  bad  health  from  over- work,  thirst,  and  starvation. 
They  moved  away  on  July  12th,  and  on  the  15th  September  came  within 
the  reach  of  civilised  life.  They  had  been  absent  for  260  days,  or  nearly 
nine  months.     This  closed  Stuart's  second  journey. 

Stuart's  return  to  Adelaide  without  having  crossed  the  continent  did 
not  lessen  the  confidence  of  the  Government  in  his  skill  and  determina- 
tion. Another  party  was  organised  with  Stuart  at  its  head,  Avhich  left 
the  settled  country  early  in  1862.  He  reached  the  point  from  which  he 
had  been  forced  to  return  in  the  middle  of  1861.  After  many  disap- 
pointments waters  were  found  in  various  places,  which  enabled  the  party 
to  reach  Purdie's  Ponds  on  June  llth.  Two  days  after  Stuart  went  on 
again,  and  came  to  a  small  creek  flowing  north.  Following  this  up,  he 
found  that  it  was  a  tributary  of  the  Roper  Kiver,  and  was  called  the 
Strangways.  Tracing  it  down,  the  Roper  was  struck.  It  was  a  splendid 
stream,  but  the  grass  on  the  banks  was  tall  and  quite  dry.  The  natives 
who  were  in  the  neighborhood  set  it  on  fire,  to  the  great  annoyance  of 
the  explorers.  The  ground  on  the  banks  was  boggy,  and  one  of  the 
horses  stuck  in  it.  In  trying  to  get  him  ovit  he  was  either  drowned  or 
strangled.  However,  his  flesh  was  too  valuable  to  lose,  and  it  was  cut  up 
and  eaten.  This  accident  saved  some  of  the  provisions.  From  the  Roper, 
Stuart  pushed  on  to  Chambers'  Creek,  in  lat.  14°  47'  S.  Here  the 
country  around  had  been  fired  by  the  natives,  and  was  all  ablaze.  This 
was  on  June  30th.  A  few  natives  came  to  the  camp  in  the  evening,  but 
when  they  saw  a  pigeon  shot,  they  went  off  and  were  not  seen  again.  A 
few  days  more  brought  the  explorers  to  a  series  of  sandstone  gorges  of  a 
desolate  appearance.  It  was  in  a  tableland,  but  after  a  time  basaltic  rocks 
took  the  place  of  sandstone.  Beyond  a  small  stream  named  the  Catherine, 
which  was  found  on  the  way,  the  country  altered  to  slate  and  limestone, 
sloping  down  into  a  large  swamp.     Here  there  were  several  creeks,  the 


EXIM.OKATIONS     OF     THE     INTERIOU.  139 

banks  of  Avhich  were  covered  with  dense  vegetation,  intermixed  with 
tropical  ferns  of  A'arious  kinds.  The  country  was  beautiful,  and  it  led 
into  a  succession  of  ravines  separated  by  walls  of  sandstone.  After 
passing  through  several,  Stuart  and  his  party  came  to  a  high  precipice, 
which  they  had  some  difficulty  in  descending.  It  was  close  to  a  stream 
which  flowed  northwards,  whose  banks  were  fringed  with  palms.  Stuart 
followed  it  up,  thinking  that  it  was  the  South  Alligator  River.  It  proved 
to  be  a  branch  of  the  Adelaide.  On  July  18th  the  main  channel  of  the 
Adelaide  was  struck.  P'rora  this  date  to  the  24th  the  travelling  was  not 
bad ;  that  is,  it  would  not  have  been  bad,  if  the  condition  of  the  horses 
had  been  reasonably  good,  or  if  the  men  of  the  party  had  good  or  fresh 
food.  Water,  however,  was  plentifvil,  and  grass  abundant.  On  the  24th, 
Stuart  started  from  a  creek  named  Thring's  Creek,  which  was  fed  by  a 
fresh-water  marsh  in  lat.  12"  22'  30"  S.,  on  a  due  north  course.  A  ride 
of  about  eight  miles  and  a  half  brought  them  in  sight  of  the  sea. 
Thring  was  the  first  to  discover  it,  as  he  was  in  advance  of  the  party. 
He  called  out  "The  sea!"  as  the  party  emerged  from  a  scrub  through 
which  it  had  been  necessary  to  clear  a  track.  On  hearing  Thring,  the 
party  gave  •'  three  long  and  hearty  cheers."  Stuart's  diary  tells  the 
story  thus: — "The  beach  is  covered  with  a  soft  blue  mud.  It  being  ebb 
tide,  I  could  see  for  some  distance,  and  found  it  would  be  impossible  for 
me  to  take  the  horses  along  it.  I  therefore  kept  them  where  I  had 
halted  them,  and  allowed  half  the  party  to  come  on  to  the  beach  and 
gratify  themselves  with  a  sight  of  the  sea,  whilst  the  other  half  remained 
to  watch  the  horses  until  their  return.  I  dipped  my  feet  and  washed  my 
face  and  hands  in  the  sea,  as  I  promised  the  late  Governor,  Sir  Richard 

MacDonnell,  I  Avould  do  if  I  reached  it After  all  the  party 

had  spent  some  time  on  the  beach,  at  which  they  were  much  pleased  and 
crratified,  thev  collected  a  few  shells.  I  returned  to  the  vallev,  where  I 
had  my  initials  cut  on  a  large  tree  (J.  M.  D.  S.),  as  I  intended  putting 
my  flag  up  at  the  mouth  of  the  Adelaide."  The  spot  that  Stuart  reached 
was  in  Van  Diemen's  Gulf,  lat.  12°  13'  30"  S.  Stuart,  however,  could 
not  get  to  the  mouth  of  the  Adelaide  ;  his  horses  were  too  weak  to  go 
through  the  soft  country  which  was  before  him.  He  therefore  returned 
to  the  spot  where  he  had  left  his  party  whilst  he  had  gone  on  to  look  for  a 
practicable  route.  This  was  at  Charles'  Creek.  He  caused  an  open  spate 
to  be  cleared,  and  selecting  one  of  the  highest  trees,  stripped  it  of  its 
lower  branches,  and  on  the  highest  limb  fixed  the  Union  Jack,  with 
his  name  sewn  on  the  centre  of  it.  At  one  foot  south  of  the  bole  of  the 
tree,  an  air-tight  tin  case  was  buried  Sin.  from  the  surface,  containing  a 
paper  with  the  following  notice:  —  "South  Australian  Great  Northern 
Exploring    Expedition.     The   exploring  party  under   the    command   of 


140  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

John  McDouall  Stuart  arrived  at  this  sjjot  on  the  25th  day  of  July,  1862, 
having-  crossed  the  entire  continent  of  Australia  from  the  Southern  to 
the  Indian  Ocean,  jjassing  through  the  centre.  They  left  Adelaide  on 
the  26th  day  of  October,  1861,  and  the  northern  station  of  the  colony 
on  the  21st  day  of  January,  1862.  To  commemorate  this  happy  event, 
they  have  raised  this  flag  bearing  his  name.  All  well.  God  save  the 
Queen  !  "  This  was  signed  by  Stuart  and  all  the  members  of  his  party. 
On  the  tree  on  which  the  flag  was  raised,  the  inscription  "  Dig  one 
FOOT  S."  was  cut  in  the  bark.     The  latitude  given  is  12°  14'  50"  S. 

On  the  following  day  Stuart  set  out  on  his  return  march.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  give  the  details  of  the  journey.  It  is  sufficient  to  say 
that  the  sufferings  of  all  of  the  party  were  great.  Want  of  svifficient 
food,  over- exertion,  and  sickness  told  severely  npon  them.  Stuart  was 
so  badly  afflicted  with  scurvy  that  it  was  almost  a  miracle  that  he  was 
brought  back  alive.  The  horses,  too,  on  which  the  safety  of  the  expedition 
absolutely  dejiended,  were  in  a  deplorable  state,  but  they  got  through 
their  work  wonderfully,  considering  all  that  they  had  suffered. 
They  reached  the  Mount  Stuart  Station  on  the  10th  December,  1862. 
The  outward  journey  from  Adelaide  to  Van  Diemen's  Gulf  occupied  271 
days,  and  the  return  march  from  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the  Mount  Stuart 
Station  137  days.  Notwithstanding  all  the  j^erils  and  privations,  the 
fatigue  and  sickness  which  sorely  tried  the  courage  and  endurance  of  all 
engaged  in  the  exploration,  Stuart  brought  them  back  without  losing  a 
man.  The  names  of  the  party  deserve  to  be  recorded  here.  John 
McDouall  Stuart  (leader),  William  Keckwick  (second  in  command), 
F.  W.  Thring  (third  officer),  W.  P.  Auld  (assistant),  Stephen  King, 
John  Billiatt,  James  Frew,  Heath  Nash,  John  McGorrery  (shoeing 
smith),  and  F.  G.  Waterhouse,  C.M.Z.S.  (naturalist  to  the  expedition). 

Stuart  was  not  the  first  to  cross  the  Australian  continenr.  As  soon  as 
it  became  known  that  he  had  succeeded  in  penetrating  to  the  centre  of 
Australia,  a  number  of  patriotic  gentlemen  in  Victoria  set  to  work  to 
organise  an  expedition  which  should  secure  for  that  colony  the  honor  of 
being  the  first  to  traverse  Australia  from  sea  to  sea.  The  undertaking 
was  planned  upon  a  large  scale,  and  no  pains  were  spared  to  secure 
success.  The  expedition  ended  in  disaster.  The  leader,  Richard  O'Hara 
Burke,  lost  his  life.  Wills,  the  second  in  command,  also  perished,  and 
Gray,  a  prominent  member  of  the  parly,  also  died.  No  one  can  deny 
the  heroism  of  the  men  whose  lives  were  sacrificed  in  this  ill-starred 
undertaking.  But  the  leaders  were  not  bushmen,  and  had  had  no 
experience  in  exploration.  Disunion  and  disobedience  to  orders,  from 
the  highest  to  the  lowest,  brought  about  the  worst  results,  and  all  that 
remains   now  to  tell  the  story  of  the  failure  of   the   undertaking  is   a 


EXPLORATIONS     OF     THE     INTERIOR.  141 

monument  erected  in  one  of  the  leadinjj;  streets  in  Melbourne  to  the 
memory  of  those  brave  men  whose  lives  were  lost  in  consequence.  The 
journev  of  Burke  and  Wills  gained  nothing  for  the  colony  which  .«ent 
them  forth  into  the  desert,  and  the  geography  of  Australia  has  profited 
little,  if  at  ail,  by  any  discoveries  made  by  them. 

The  expeditions  of  Sturt  and  of  Stuart  take  the  highest  place  in  the 
annals  of  Austi'alian  explorations.  To  the  former  is  due  the  disco veiy 
of  the  River  Murray,  by  means  of  which  the  east  and  south-oast  portions 
of  the  continent  have  been  opened  up  for  settlement  and  trade  ;  to  the 
latter  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  vast  interior  from  the  Southern 
to  the  Indian  Ocean.  Sturt's  wonderful  river  voyage  undoubtedly  led 
to  the  foundation  of  the  colonies  of  South  Australia  and  Victoria. 
Stuart's  even  more  wonderful  journey  to  Van  Diemen's  Gulf  led  to  the 
construction  of  the  overlanci  telegraph  line,  which  has  united  Australia 
with  the  rest  of  the  civilised  world.  Sturt  received  a  pension  from  the 
South  Australian  Government,  and  Stuart  was  rewarded  by  a  grant  of 
£2,000. 

In  1873  Major  Warburton,  in  command  of  a  party  organised 
by  Mr.  (now  Sir)  Thomas  Elder,  succeeded  in  crossing  the  interval 
between  the  South  Australian  boundary  to  Roeburne,  on  the  West 
Australian  coast,  and  was  nearly  perishing  from  want  of  water.  The 
country  he  passed  through  was  principally  desert,  unfit  for  occupation. 
Mr.  Ernest  Giles  made  explorations  to  the  westward  in  1875  and  1876, 
and  succeeded  in  reachmg  the  coast,  and  in  1891  Mr.  D.  Lindsay,  in 
charge  of  another  expedition  (fitted  out  as  those  of  W^arburton's  and 
Giles'  were,  at  the  cost  of  Sir  Thomas  Elder,  G.C.M.G.),  after 
considerable  difficulty,  pushed  through  to  the  settled  districts  of 
Western  Australia.  The  full  details  of  this  journey  have  not  yet 
been  made  public.  Mr.  Lindsay  returned  to  Adelaide,  leaving  his 
party  behind.  Further  explorations  in  this  direction  were  for  the 
present  abandoned. 

The  explorations  of  which  some  account  has  been  given  above,  comprise 
the  most  important  that  have  been  set  on  foot  in  South  Australia.  Other 
explorers,  however,  from  time  to  time,  have  done  good  service  in 
extending  the  gonei'al  knowledge  of  the  interior.  It  may  be  sufficient  to 
mention  the  names  of  McKinlay,  who  led  a  party  across  from  Adelaide 
to  Queensland  in  search  of  Richard  O'Hara  Burke,  the  ill-fated  leader  of 
the  Victorian  expedition ;  Lewis,  Winnecke,  Tietkins,  W.  Gosse,  and 
E.  A.  Delisser,  who  was  the  first  to  penetrate  the  country  at  the  head  of  the 
Great  Australian  Bight,  and  who  named  the  plains  which  lie  to  the 
north  of  that  singular  indentation  in  the  coast,  the  "  NuUarbor  Plains" — 
from  their  being  absolutely  destitute  of  timber  of  any  kind. 


142  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

Early  in  1866  Mr.  McKinlay  started  from  Escape  Cliffs,  in  the 
Xortliern  Territory,  tn  explore  the  country  adjacent  to  that  settle- 
ment. He  took  with  him  Mr.  R.  H.  I'klmunds  (surveyor  to  the 
expedition  and  second  in  command)  and  eight  men,  with  a  number 
of  sheep  and  horses.  The  provisions  were  calculated  for  an  absence 
of  six  weeks.  Not  long  after  they  had  started — about  a  fortnight — they 
were  overtaken  by  floods,  and  detained  in  one  spot  for  about  two  months. 
After  the  waters  had  subsided,  the  party  moved  on  towards  the  East 
Alligator  River,  off  the  mouth  of  which  the  Beatrice,  surveying  schooner, 
was  expected  to  be  in  waiting  to  carry  them  back  to  the  settlement. 
Various  accidental  circiimstances  retarded  their  progress  so  much  that 
it  was  not  until  the  first  week  in  June  that  they  came  to  the  river. 
Their  provisions  were  all  exhausted.  Several  of  their  horses  had  died, 
and  others  had  to  be  killed  for  food.  The  men  were  in  the  worst  of 
health  from  overwork  and  starvation,  and  the  horses  which  remained 
alive  were  unable  to  go  much  further.  The  state  of  aff;iirs  was  so 
desperate  that  McKinlay  at  one  time  seriously  considered  that  the 
best  thing  would  be  for  each  man  to  shift  for  himself,  and  get 
back  to  Escape  Cliffs  if  he  could  and  as  he  could.  That  idea  was  soon 
abandoned.  After  consultation  with  Mr.  Edmunds,  it  was  agreed  that 
the  horses  should  be  killed,  their  flesh  jerked  for  food,  and  that  a  punt 
should  be  constructed  out  of  saplings,  of  which  there  was  abundance 
at  hand,  and  covered  over  with  the  hides  of  the  horses  and  the  canvas 
of  a  tent  which  they  had  fortunately  brought  on  with  them.  The  work 
of  constructing  this  punt  occupied  Ryan  and  Tuckwell,  under  the  super- 
intendence of  Mr.  Edmunds,  from  the  9th  to  the  29th  of  June.  Every- 
thing about  this  novel  craft  was  of  the  most  singular  kind.  The  oars 
were  saplings,  and  the  blades  were  fashioned  out  of  the  ironwork  of  the 
saddles,  which  were  broken  up  for  the  purpose.  The  steering  apparatus 
was  a  long  sapling,  with  a  blade  somewhat  similar  to  the  oar  blades. 
The  anchor  was  a  bag  of  old  horseshoes  and  iron  scraps.  The  provisions 
consisted  of  dried  horse  flesh.  As  the  animals  from  which  it  was  pro- 
cured were  in  the  most  Avretched  condition,  the  meat  was  nauseous 
and  almost  devoid  of  nutriment.  Some  water  was  carried  in  canvas 
waterbags,  and  what  was  intended  for  the  main  store  was  put  into  an  ftir 
bed,  which  had  been  jjrovided  for  any  extreme  case  of  sickness.  Before 
the  party  could  get  away  they  were  attacked  by  a  large  number  of 
blacks,  who  set  fire  to  the  grass  and  rushed  at  them  with  spears.  It 
became  necessary  to  fire  upon  them,  and  after  a  few  shots  the  natives 
rapidly  dispersed.  The  crew  were  got  on  board,  and  the  voyage  was 
commenced  at  a  little  before  noon  on  the  29th  June.  They  dropped 
down  the  river,  moving  very  slowly,  until  Sunday,  July  1st,  when  the 


EXPLORATIONS     OF     THE     INTERIOR.  143 

punt  anchored,  and  the  party  went  ashore  to  fill  up  the  Avaterbags,  &c. 
As  the  frail  craft  got  clear  of  the  river  and  became  exposed  to  the  ocean 
^well,  it  creaked  and  twisted  like  a  basket,  and  it  was  necessary  to  keep 
two  men  constantly  baling  out  the  water,  which  came  in  almost  as 
fast  as  it  was  bucketed  out.  The  crew  were  kept  constantly  at  work 
rowing,  taking  spells  of  an  hour  on  and  an  hour  off.  Mr.  Edmunds 
"was  navigator  and  steersman.  The  weather  was  fearfully  hot  and  the 
water  supply  fell  short,  because  that  which  was  stored  in  the  air  bed 
had  become  impregnated  with  a  horrible  taste  from  the  chemicals  used 
in  its  manufacture,  and  was  unfit  for  use.  Those  who  tried  to  swallow 
it  were  instantly  sickened  by  it.  After  many  dangers  from  strong 
currents,  sunken  reefs,  and  adverse  winds,  which  drove  them  out  to 
sea,  they  came  in  sight  of  Escape  Cliffs  on  the  morning  of  the  5th  of 
July.  The  stench  from  the  rotting  hides  with  which  the  punt  was 
covered  was  intolerable,  and  none  of  the  crew  could  sleejD.  They  were 
followed  night  and  day  by  numerous  sharks,  which  sometimes  struck 
against  the  oars  as  the  men  pulled  along.  It  was  quite  clear  that 
neither  the  crew  nor  the  pimt  could  last  much  longer.  About 
noon  they  fortunately  made  the  shore.  As  soon  as  the  Pioneer,  as  the 
punt  was  called,  touched  the  ground,  it  collapsed  and  sank.  In  all 
probability  another  hour  at  sea  would  have  brought  the  voyage  of  the 
Pioneer  and  her  daring  little  crew  to  a  summary  and  wretched  end. 
The  dimensions  of  this  strange  craft  were  22ft.  x  9f't.  and  2ft.  6in.  deep. 
The  construction  and  the  voyage  of  the  Pioneer  were  the  desperate 
resources  of  desperate  men.  To  remain  where  they  were  was  certain 
death,  either  from  starvation  or  at  the  hands  of  the  natives.  The  punt 
offered  a  chance  of  life,  although  but  a  slender  one.  Fortunately  the 
venture  ended  well. 

A  voyage  almost  as  venturesome  was  undertaken  from  Escape  Cliffs  in 
1865.  Several  persons  who  were  at  the  new  settlement  were  anxious  to 
return  to  South  Australia.  There  was  no  ship  at  the  anchorage,  and  it 
was  quite  uncertain  when  any  vessel  would  call  in  at  Adam  Bay.  Mr. 
J.  P.  Stow,  now  Stipendiary  Magistrate  at  Mount  Gambler,  proposed  the 
plan  of  obtaining  a  boat  and  making  the  voyage  in  it.  After  some 
trouble  a  Swedish-built  craft,  23^ft.  long,  6ft.  beain,  and  2ft.  deep,  was 
secured,  and  the  party  prepared  for  the  voyage.  The  little  vessel  had 
two  masts  with  spritsails  and  a  jib.  The  crew  consisted  of  J.  P.  Stow, 
Arthur  Hamilton,  and  William  McMinn,  surveyors  (both  now  deceased), 
who  conducted  the  navigation,  John  White,  who  was  appointed  sailing 
master,  and  James  Davis,  seaman,  to  assist.  The  balance  of  the  crew 
was  made  up  by  two  men  belonging  to  the  Government  survey  in  the 
Northern  Territory,  named  Charles  Hake  and  Francis  Davis.      All  of 


144  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

them  were  anxious  to  leave  the  Territory,  but  one  or  two  were  actuated 
principally  by  a  spirit  of  adventure  and  a  desire  to  see  the  coast  and 
visit  as  many  places  as  possible  on  the  route.  The  scheme  was  to  visit 
Camden  Harbor,  about  600  miles  from  Adam  Bay,  and  if  a  ship  could  not 
be  met  with  there,  to  sail  on  till  they  came  to  some  place  where  they  might 
fall  in  with  a  vessel  and  take  passage  in  her  to  Adelaide.  The  Camden 
Harbor  project  was  soon  abandoned,  and  the  voyagers  weary  enough  as 
time  went  on,  at  last  reached  Champion  Bay,  300  miles  north  of  Perth, 
the  capital  of  Western  Australia.  The  length  of  the  journey  was  2,600 
miles.  The  monotony  of  the  voyage  was  broken  by  occasional  landings 
at  various  points  on  the  main  land  and  on  islands  as  they  sailed  along  the 
coast.  At  times  they  were  exposed  to  heavy  storms.  They  met  with 
calms,  adverse  winds  and  currents,  and  on  several  occasions  they  were 
stuck  upon  coral  reefs.  They  became  short  of  provisions  and  Avater,  as 
might  have  been  expected,  but  occasionally  caught  fish,  which  proved  a 
most  welcome  addition  to  the  limited  store  of  provisions  on  board.  On 
one  occasion  they  captured  some  strange  fish,  which  they  intended  to 
eat,  but  as  at  the  same  time  they  got  schnapper  they  took  them  and 
rejected  the  others.  On  arrival  at  Champion  Bay  they  learned  that  the 
fishes  they  had  rejected  were  poisonous.  The  Forlorn  Hope,  as  the 
little  craft  was  called,  left  Adam  Bay  on  May  7th  and  reached  Champion 
Bay  on  July  8th,  1865.  Mr.  Stow  wrote  an  account  of  this  remarkable 
voyage,  which  Avas  read  before  the  Geographical  Society  in  London,  by 
Sir  Roderick  Murchison.  The  whole  of  the  paper  is  interesting,  but 
especially  those  parts  Avhich  treat  of  excursions  on  shore  in  new  country 
between  Cape  Dombey,  Cape  Hay  (west  of  Anson  Bay)  the  archipelago 
off  the  north-west  coast,  Nicol  Bay,  with  its  aborigines,  and  Sharks  Bay. 
The  voyages  of  the  Pioneer  and  of  the  Forlorn  Hope,  and  the  courage 
and  endurance  of  the  men  who  formed  their  crews,  merit  a  distinguished 
place  in  the  annals  of  South  Australia,  and  certainly  would  do  no  dis- 
credit to  the  maritime  history  of  any  country  in  the  world. 


POLITICAL     CONSTITITION.  145 


CHAPTER    XII. 

Form  of  Government — The  Constitution — The  Parliament— Legislative 
Council — The  Qualification  of  Members  the  same  as  that  of  Elec- 
tors-Term  OF  Election — Order  of  Retirement — House  of  Assem- 
bly— Qualifications  of  Members  and  Electors — Acts  to  be  Assented 
to  by  the  Goveknor  or  Reserved — Equal  Powers  of  both  Houses — 
Money  Bills  to  Originate  in  the  House  of  Assembly — Claims  of  the 
Legislative  Council  to  Alter  Money  Bills — Resistance  of  the  House 
OF  Assembly'— A  Compromise  Effected — Privileges  of  the  Houses — 
Parliament  to  Meet  Annually — Limitation  of  the  Powers  of  Parlia- 
ment— Duration  of  Parliament — Responsible  Ministers— Powers  of 
the  Governor -Ministerial  Changes — Payment  of  Members — Salaries 
— Xo  Power  of  Impeachment — Public  Expenditure — How  Regulated 
and  Controlled — The  Audit  Commissioners— Excess  Warrants — Stand- 
ing Orders — English  Precedents — Regulation  of  Salaries  of  Presi- 
dent and  Speaker — Officers  Removable  only  by  Votes  of  the  Houses 
— Style  of  Members  of  the  Legislature  — Alteration  in  the  Consti- 
tution Act— Power  of  Dissolving  the  Upper  House— Increase  in  the 
Number  of  Members  of  Both  Houses — The  Proportion  of  Representa- 
tion to  Male  Adults — Electoral  System  of  South  Australia — 
Returning  Officers — Their  Duties — Process  of  Carrying  Out  an 
Election — Voting  Papers — The  Law  Regarding  Them — Penalties  — 
Absent  Voters— The  Scrutiny — Destruction  of  Voting  Papers — Courts 
OF  Disputed  Returns — Their  Appointment,  Powers,  and  Functions — 
Simplicity  of  the  South  Australian  System — Its  Effectiveness — 
Conduct  of  Electors — Statistical  Return  of  Elections, 

The  Government  of  South  Australia  is  carried  on  by  an  Executive, 
responsible  to  Parliament.  The  Parliament  consists  of  two  Chambers 
— a  Legislative  Council  and  a  House  of  Assembly.  This  form  of 
Constitution  was  embodied  in  "An  Act  to  establish  a  Constitution 
for  South  Australia,  and  to  grant  a  Civil  List  to  Her  Majesty,"  passed 
by  the  old  Legislative  Council,  in  1855.  and  reserved  for  the  signifi- 
cation of  the  lloyal  pleasure,  in  January,  185G.  As  soon  as  the 
Queen's  assent  became  known  in  the  colony,  the  Act  was  immediately 
brought  into  force.  Both  of  the  Chambers  were  elective.  The 
Legislative  Council,  which  consisted  of  eighteen  members,  was  elected 
by  the  whole  province,  constituting  one  single  electoral  district.  No 
person  could  be  elected  unless  he  was  of  thirty  years  of  age,  a  natural 
born  or  naturalised  subject  of  Her  Majesty,  or  legally  made  a  denizen  of 
the  province,  and  who  had  not  resided  in  the  colony  for  the  full  period 
of  three  years.  The  qualification  of  an  elector  consisted  in  the  possession 
of  a  freeliold  estate,  either  legal  or  equitable,  situate  within  the  province, 
of  the  actual  value  of  £50,  clear  of  all  charges  and  incumbrances  afiecting 

K 


146  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

it ;  or,  of  a  leasehold  estate,  in  possession,  situate  within  the  province, 
of  the  clear  annual  value  of  £20,  the  lease  being  registered  in  the  general 
registry  office  of  the  province,  and  having  three  years  to  run  at  the  time 
of  voting,  or  containing  a  clause  enabling  the  lessee  to  become  the 
purchaser  of  the  land  so  leased  ;  or  occupying  a  dwelling-house  of  the 
clear  anniial  value  of  £25,  and  in  being  registered  on  the  electoral  roll 
of  the  province  for  six  months  prior  to  the  election. 

After  the  first  election,  the  members  elected  proceeded  to  ballot  in 
order  to  determine  the  periods  at  which  they  should  retire.  The  members 
were  elected  nominally  for  twelve  years,  but  the  six  members  whom  the 
ballot  had  placed  first  on  the  list  retired  at  the  expiration  of  four  years ; 
the  members  who  became  elected  in  their  places  being  placed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  list.  At  the  expiry  of  a  second  term  of  four  years  six  more 
members  retired,  and  the  same  order  was  observed  in  placing  the  newly- 
elected  members.  By  this  means  periodical  changes  took  place  in  the 
personnel  of  the  Council  besides  those  which  might  occur  by  reason  of 
death,  resignation,  or  other  causes,  such  as  lunacy,  bankruptcy,  Sec. 

The  House  of  Assembly,  consisting  of  thirty-six  members,  was  chosen 
by  electors  on  the  basis  of  manhood  suffrage  without  any  property 
qualification  whatever.  All  that  Avas  reqviired  was  that  each  elector 
should  be  twenty-one  years  of  age,  a  natural  born  or  naturalised  subject 
of  Her  Majesty,  and  registered  on  the  electoral  roll  of  any  electoral 
district  for  six  months  previous  to  the  election.  The  qualification  for  a 
person  to  be  elected  as  a  member  of  the  House  of  Assembly  was  that  he 
should  be  qualified  and  entitled  to  be  registered  as  a  voter  in  and  for  an 
electoral  district  within  the  province,  and  that  he  should  have  resided  in 
the  province  for  the  full  period  of  five  years.  A  person  who  had  been 
attainted  or  convicted  of  treason,  or  felony,  or  other  infamous  offence  in 
any  part  of  Her  Majesty's  dominions,  could  not  be  entitled  to  vote  for  the 
election  of  a  member  of  either  House,  unless  he  had  received  a  free 
pardon,  or  had  imdergone  the  sentence  passed  on  him  for  such  offence. 
No  judge  or  officiating  minister  of  religion  was  capable  of  being  elected 
a  member  of  either  branch  of  the  Legislature  If  any  person  who  is 
declared  by  the  Act  to  be  incapable  to  vote  or  sit  in  Parliament  shall 
nevertheless  be  elected  for  any  electoral  district,  his  election  and  return 
are  declared  to  be  void  to  all  intents  and  purposes.  A  person  elected 
and  returned  contrary  to  the  provisions  of  the  Act,  who  presumes  to  sit 
or  vote  as  an  elected  member  of  the  Parliament,  is  liable  to  forfeit  the 
sum  of  £500.  Such  sum  may  be  recovered  by  any  person  who  shall  sue 
for  the  same  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  province,  or  in  any  other  court 
of  record  in  the  province  having  competent  jurisdiction.  All  the  Acts  passed 
by  the  Parliament,  before  they  can  come  into  operation,  require  the  assent 


POLITICAL     CONSTITUTION.  147 

•of  the  Governor  on  behalf  of  the  Crown.     The  Governor  may  lefuse  his 
assent  to   any  Bill,   or  he  may   reserve  it  for  the  signification  of  the 
Queen's  pleasure  thereon.     The  Governor  has  also  the  power  to  transmit 
by  message  to  the  Council  or  Assembly  for  the  consideration  of  either,  as 
the  case  may  be,  any  amendment  which  he  shall  desire  to  be  made  in  any 
Bill  presented  to  him  for  Her  Majesty's  assent.     All  such  amendments 
must  be  taken  into  consideration  in  such  manner  as  is  provided  in  the 
standing  orders  of  the  House  to  which  the  message  may  be  sent.     The 
powers  of  both  Houses  were  made  equal  in  all  respects,  except  one.    The 
:first   clause  of  the    Constitution  Act   requires  that  all   Bills  for   appro- 
priating any  part  of  the  revenue  of  the  jirovince,  or  for  imposing,  altering, 
or  repealing  any  rate,  tax,  duty,  or  impost,  shall  originate  in  the  House  of 
Assembly.      The  fortieth   clause   declares  that  it  shall  not  be  lawful  for 
either  House  of  Parliament  to  pass  any  vote,  resolution,  or  Bill  for  the 
appropriation  of   any  part  of  the  revenue  or  of  any  tax,  rate,  duty,  or 
impost  for  any  purpose  which  shall  not  have  been  first  recommended  by 
.the  Governor  to  the  said  House  of  Assembl}-  during  the  session  in  which 
such  vote,  resolution,  or   Bill  should  be    passed.     It  might  be  inferred 
from  this   that  the    Legislative   Council  Avas  under  no  restriction  with 
;regard  to   its  treatment  of  money  Bills  once  they  came  before  it ;  but 
-when  the  Council    proceeded  to    exercise   its    presumed   power  in  this 
irespect,  the  House  of    Assembly  resisted  every  attempt  to   alter  such 
;Bills  as  an  encroachment  on  its  privileges.      In  oi'der  to  surmount  the 
great  difficulties  which  arose  in  consequence,  a  compact  was  entered  into 
between  the  two  Houses,  by  which  it  was  agreed  that  the  Council  would 
not  "amend"   money  Bills,  but  if  it  should   require   amendments  the 
(Council  should  formulate   "suggestions"    for   alterations,   and  forward 
them  to  the  House  of  .\ssembly,  which  would  consider  the  suggestions 
and  embody  them  in  any  Bill  to  which  they  might  relate,   and    then 
forward  the  amended  Bill  to  the  Council   for  formal  concurrence.     Up 
to  the  present  time  this  compact  has  accomplished  the  purjjoses  for  which 
it  was  made,   and  there   seems   to    be   no   prospect   of  this   convenient 
arrangement  being  disturbed. 

The  privileges  of  the  two  Chambers  are  identical,  that  is  to  say  their 
privileges,  immunities,  or  powers  do  not  exceed  those  which  were  held, 
enjoyed,  and  exercised  by  the  Commons  House  of  Parliament  in  England, 
or  tlie  members  thereof,  at  the  time  of  the  passing  of  the  Constitution 
Act  in  South  Australia. 

An  important  restriction  relating  to  amendments  of  the  Constitution 
Act  is  contained  in  its  thirty- fourth  clause.  It  provides  that  it  shall  not 
be  lawful  to  present  to  the  Governor,  for  Her  Majesty's  assent,  any  Bill 
by  which  an  alteration  in  the  Constitution  or  House  of  Assembly  may  be 


148  SOUTH     AVSTKALIA. 

made,  unless  the  second  and  third  readings  of  such  Bill  shall  have  been 
passed  with  the  concurrence  of  an  absolute  majority  of  the  whole 
number  of  the  members  of  the  Legislative  Council  and  of  the  House  of 
Assembly  respectively.  Every  Bill  that  has  been  jjassed  under  that 
clause  must  be  reserved  by  the  Governor  for  the  signification  of  Her 
Majesty's  pleasure  thereon. 

The  powers  of  the  Parliament  are  derived  from  the  Imperial  Act,  the 
13th  and  14th  of  Victoria,  cap.  LIX.,  which  authorised  the  establishment 
in  South  Australia  of  a  Legislative  Council  of  twenty-four  members,  one- 
third  of  whom  were  to  be  appointed  by  Her  Majesty,  and  the  remaining 
two-thirds  elected  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  colony.  The  15th  section  of 
that  Act  gave  authority  to  the  Governor  of  South  Australia,  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Legi.slative  Council  to  be  established  in  the 
colony  under  the  Act,  to  make  laws  for  the  peace,  welfare,  and  good 
government  of  the  colony,  provided  that  no  such  law  should  be  repug- 
nant to  the  law  of  England.  The  32nd  section  of  that  Act  also  gave- 
power  to  the  Governor  and  Legislative  Council  of  South  Australia  to 
establish  therein,  instead  of  the  Legislative  Council,  a  Council  and  a 
House  of  Representatives  or  other  separate  Legislative  Houses,  to  consist 
respectively  of  such  members  to  be  appointed  or  elected  respectively  by 
such  persons  and  in  such  manner  as  might  be  determined  by  Act,  and  to. 
vest  in  such  Council  and  House  of  Representatives,  or  other  separate 
Legislative  Houses,  the  powers  and  functions  of  the  Legislative  Council, 
for  which  they  might  be  substituted. 

About  ten  years  after  the  passing  of  the  Constitution  Act  one  of  the 
judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  declared  that  that  Act  was  invalid,  and 
that  other  Acts  passed  under  its  authority  were  repugnant  to  the  law  of 
England,  or  otherwise  ultra  vii-es.  These  judicial  declarations  gave  rise 
to  much  trouble  and  caused  great  uncertainty,  but  the  expressed  doubts 
were  removed  by  the  passing  of  an  Imperial  Act,  the  16th  and  17th  of 
Victoria,  cap.  LXXXIV.,  the  second  section  of  which  enacted  that  all 
laws  theretofore  passed  or  purporting  to  have  been  passed  by  any  colonial 
Legislature  with  the  object  of  declaring  or  altering  the  constitution  of 
such  Legislature,  or  of  any  branch  thereof,  or  the  mode  of  appointing  or 
electing  the  members  of  the  same,  should  have,  and  Avere  deemed  to  have 
had,  from  the  date  at  which  the  same  should  have  received  the  assent  of 
Her  Majesty,  or  of  the  Governor  of  the  colony  on  behalf  of  Her  Majesty, 
the  same  force  and  effect  for  all  purposes  whatever  as  if  the  said 
Legislature  had  possessed  full  powers  of  enacting  laws  for  the  objects 
aforesaid,  and  as  if  all  formalities  and  conditions  by  Act  of  Parliament  or 
otherwise  prescribed  in  respect  of  the  passing  of  such  laws  had  been, 
duly  observed.      Since  that  Act  came  into  force  the   South  Australian. 


POLITICAL   co>'stiti:tion.  149 

Legislature    has   been    deemed   to  be  entitled  to   exercise  most  of  the 
functions  and  powers  which  pertain  to  sovereijTjn  States. 

The  duration  of  the  South  Australian  Parliament  is  three  years  ;  but 
the  Governor,  on  the  advice  of  his  Ministers,  or  indeed  ex  mero  motti, 
may  dissolve  it  at  any  time.  The  Ministry  was  ori<zinally  formed  by  five 
members  of  the  Legislature — the  Chief  Secretary,  the  Attorney-General, 
the  Treasurer,  the  Commissioner  of  Crown  Lands,  and  the  Commissioner 
of  Public  Works.  Some  years  ago  a  sixth  Minister  was  added  to  the 
number.  These  Ministers  form  the  Cabinet,  and  conduct  the  general 
business  of  Parliament.  They  are  ex  officio  members  of  the  Executive 
Council.  Five  of  them  are  in  the  Hoiise  of  Assembly  and  one  in 
the  Legislative  Council.  They  are  removable  by  an  adverse  vote 
of  the  House  of  Assembly,  and  they  might,  if  a  contingency  arose  to 
require  such  an  exercise  of  the  prerogative,  be  dismissed  by  the  Governor. 
For  this  there  is  no  precedent  in  South  Australia.  The  Ministry  formulates 
the  policy  submitted  to  the  Legislature,  and  advises  the  Governor  as  to  his 
course  of  action  in  all  cases.  It  also  forms  the  Executive  Council,  over 
■which  the  Governor  presides,  and  of  w^hich  he  is  the  President.  All 
appointments  in  the  public  service  are  made  by  the  GoA^ernor,  by  and 
with  the  advice  of  the  Executive  Council.  The  GoA^ernor  possesses  the 
prerogative  of  mercy,  in  the  exercise  of  which  he  generally  follows 
the  advice  of  his  Ministers.  By  a  recent  despatch  from  the  Secretary 
of  State  he  has  been  instructed  to  follow  the  advice  tendered  to  him  by 
his  responsible  advisers  ;  at  the  same  time  he  retains  the  power,  if  it 
should  be  deemed  imperatively  necessary,  to  act  upon  his  own  responsi- 
bility. In  such  a  case  he  is  required  to  report  the  matter  to  the 
Secretary  of  State,  setting,  out  in  full  the  advice  tendered  to  him  by  his 
Ministers  with  the  reasons  they  have  placed  on  record  to  support  it,  as  well 
as  the  grounds  upon  which  he  has  considered  it  necessary  to  deviate  from 
their  recommendation. 

The  administrative  functions  of  the  Ministers  of  the  Crown  are  arranged 
in  the  following  way  : — The  Cabinet  consists  of  six  responsible  Ministers, 
who  have  x'espcctively  the  management  and  superintendence  of  certain 
branches  of  the  Public  Service,  and  of  the  departments  connected 
therewith.  The  Chief  Secretary  is  the  ordinary  channel  of  official 
communication  between  the  Ministry  and  the  Governor.  He  is  the 
principal  executive  officer  of  the  Government,  and  has  under  his  special 
control  the  undennentioned  departments  and  offices  : — 

Aliens  Civil  Service  Examinations 

Central  Board  of  Health  Colonial  Surgeon 

Census  Commissioner  of  Audit 

Chamber  of  Manufactures  Destitute  Board 


150  SOlTll     Ai:STRALIA. 

Fire  Brigades  Naval  Defences 

Gaols  and  Prisons  Police 

Government  Printer  and  Comp-  Public  Charities 

troller  of  Stationery  Quarantine 

Government  Statist  Registrar-Genrl.  of  Births, &c-. 

Hospitals  Royal  Commissions 

Kerosene  Inspectors  Sheriff 

Lunatic  Asylums  State  Children's  Council 

Military  Defences  Vaccination 

Tire  Chief  Secretary  also  corresponds  with  the  Government  of  other 
colonies,  the  Government  of  India  and  its  dependencies,  the  Judges  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  South  Australia,  the  President  of  the  Legislative- 
Council,  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Assembly,  Clerk  of  Executive  Council,- 
Clerks  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament,  and  Consuls  of  Foreign  States. 

The  Attorney-General  is  the  chief  Law  Officer  of  the  Crown,  and  has- 
under  his  immediate  superintendence  the  following  departments  and 
officers,  &.C.,  who  communicate  with  him  as  their  responsible  head  on  all 
matters  connected  with  their  several  duties:  — 

Benches  of  Magistrates  Official  Receiver 

Commissioner  of  Inland  Revenue         Public  Trustee 
Commissioner  of  Insolvency  Registrar- General  of  Deeds 

Commissioner  of  Patents  Registrar  of  Trade   .Marks  audi 

Coroners  Copyright 

Crown  Solicitor  Returning:    Officer  of   the   Pro- 


& 


District  Returning  Officers  vince 


*o 


Justices  of  the  Peace  Stipendiary  Magistrates 

Local  Courts  of  Insolvency  Supreme  Court  Department 

He  also  conducts  all  correspondence  with  the  public  on  all  matters- 
connected  with  his  own  branch  of  the  service. 

The  Treasurer  is  the  responsible  head  of  the  Financial  Department  of 
the  Government,  and  has  under  his  special  superintendence  the 
departments  and  officers  named  below  :  — 

Agent-General  in  England  Marine  Board 

Chamber  of  Commerce,  kc.  Northern  Territory 

Customs  Department  Oyster  Fisheries 

Distillation  Public  Debt 

Government  Auctioneer  Savings     Bank     and     Banking 

Harbors  and  Lights  Institutions 

Landand  Income  Tax  Department        Stamp  Duty  Department 
He  conducts  all  correspondence  with  the  public  on  matters  connected 
with   his  own  branch   of    the  service.      He  also  considers   all   matters 
relating  to  the  finances  of  the  colony,  and  all  public  business  relating  to 


POLITICAL     COXSTITUTTOX.  151 

the  Northern  Territory,  and  communicates  solely  with  the  Agent-General 
in  London,  either  by  cable  or  letter,  in  all  public  matters.  He  has  also 
the  manajrement  of  the  Colonial  and  Imperial  Pensions  Department  in 
South  Australia. 

The  Commissioner  of  Crown  Lands  and  Immigration  is  the  head  of 
the  Territorial  Department  of  the  Government,  and  has  also  under  his 
management  all  arrangements  connected  with  immigration.  He  is 
authorised  to  correspond  direct  with  the  emigration  authorities  in 
England,  and  has  under  his  control  the  departments,  officers,  and  boards, 
&cc.,  which  are  hereunder  mentioned  :— 

Corporations  Inspector  of  Mines 

Credit  Lands  Department  Issuers  of  Crown  Lands  Licences 

District  Councils  Land  Boards 

Gold  Mining  "        Registrars  of  Dogs 

Government  Geologist  Superintendent  of  Cemeteries 

Immigration  Surveyor-General 

Inspector- General  of  Roads  Valuator  of  Runs 

Inspector    of    Working    Men's         Wild  Dog  Destruction 
Blocks  Woods  and  Forests 

The  Commissioner  also  conducts  all  correspondence  with  the  general 
public  affecting  his  department  of  the  Public  Service. 

The  Commissioner  of  Public  Works  superintends  the  correspondence 
of  the  Public  Works  Department,  and  has  control  over  the  several  boards 
and  departments  which  are  named  below  : — 

Engineer-in-C'hief, and  Engineer  Public  Works  and  Ikuldings 

of  Harbors  and  .letties  Railways  and  Tramways 

Public  Supply  Department  Waterworks  and  Sewers 

The  Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Education  transacts  all  public  business 
connected  with  public  education,  and  corresponds  with  the  council  of  the 
University  of  Adelaide.  He  has  also  control  over  the  undermentioned 
departments : — 

Aborigines  Post  Offices  and  Telegraphs 

Agricultural  Bureau  Poundkeepers 

Agricultural    College    and    Ex-  Public    Library,    Museum,    and 

perimental  Farm  Art  Gallery 

Agricultural  Societies  School  Boards  of  Advice 

Botanic  Garden  School  of  Mines 

Inspector-General  of  Schools  Stock  and  Brands  Department 

Institutes  Zoological  Gardens 

Observatory 
The  changes  of  Ministry  since  the  Constitution  Act  came  into  opera- 
tion have  been  numerous.      In  thirty-six  years  there  have  been  forty-two 


152  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

new  Cabinets,  besides  some  reconstructions ;  the  average  life  of  each 
Ministry  being  about  ten  months.  The  members  of  both  Houses  of 
Parliament  are  paid  £200  a  year  each  for  their  services,  but  on  becoming 
Ministers  of  the  Crown  this  sum  merges  into  the  Ministerial  salary.  The 
Governor  receives  £5.000  per  annum,  and  each  of  the  Ministers  £1,000  a 
a  year.  The  Constitution  Act  contains  no  povver  of  impeachment.  If  it 
should  happen  that  any  JNIinister  of  the  Crown  were  guilty  of  malversa- 
tion in  his  office,  or  other  grave  misdemeanor,  he  could  be  dealt  wnth  only, 
according  to  his  offence,  under  the  criminal  law  as  far  as  it  applied  to  his 
case,  and  he  would  be  tried  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  province. 

The  public  expenditure  is  incurred  under  the  authority  of  Parlia- 
mentary votes,  as  set  out  in  the  annual  Appropriation  Bill.  No  warrant 
for  the  expenditure  of  public  money  is  valid  unless  the  warrant  is  signed 
by  the  Governor  and  coimtersigned  by  a  responsible  Minister.  The 
expenditure  of  the  different  departments  is  controlled  by  the  Ministers 
who  have  charge  of  them.  From  them  the  necessaiy  authority  for  the 
outlay  of  money  proceeds  in  the  first  instance.  When  the  expenditure 
has  been  incurred  the  accounts  are  investigated  by  the  Commissioners  of 
Audit,  of  whom  there  are  two,  and  who  are  removable  only  on  addresses 
to  the  Governor  from  both  Houses  of  Parliament.  These  Commissioners 
are  bound  to  report  to  Parliament  once  in  every  year  on  the  state  of  the 
public,  accounts.  In  cases  of  emergency,  or  if  Parliament  is  out  of 
session,  the  Governor  may  authorise  the  expenditure  of  money  for  which 
there  is  no  vote,  or,  in  the  event  of  a  vote  not  being  found  sufficient  for 
the  service  for  which  it  was  granted,  he  may  sanction  the  issue  of  an 
excess  warrant  to  provide  the  necessary  funds.  Expenditure  authorised 
in  this  way  is  brought  under  the  notice  of  the  House  of  Assembly  as  soon 
as  practicable  after  Parliament  has  assembled. 

The  proceedings  of  both  branches  of  the  Legislature  are  regulated  by 
standing  orders  adopted  by  them  and  approved  by  the  Governor.  These 
standing  orders  are,  to  a  great  extent,  similar  to  those  in  force  in  the 
British  House  of  Commons,  as  far  as  local  circumstances  admit.  The 
decisions  of  the  President  of  the  Legislative  Council  and  of  the  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Assembly  follow  as  closely  as  possible  the  decisions  of 
the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  and  the  precedents  Avhich  are 
established  in  that  Chamber.  Members  of  the  Legislature  vacate  their 
seats  on  accepting  any  office  of  profit  or  pension  imder  the  Crown  ;  but 
they  are  not  obliged  to  do  so  on  being  appointed  members  of  a  Ministry, 
Their  seats  also  become  vacant  if  they  fail  to  attend  for  two  consecutive 
months  without  the  permission  of  that  branch  of  the  Legislature  in  which 
they  sit,  or  take  any  oath  or  make  any  declaration  of  allegiance  or 
adherence  to  any  foreign  power,  or   do  or  concur  in  or  adopt  any  Act 


POLITICAL     COXSTITITION.  153 

whereby  they  may  become  subjects  or  citizens  of  any  foreign  State  or 
power,  or  shall  become  bankrupt  or  take  the  benefit  of  any  law  relating  to 
insolvent  debtors,  or  become  i^ublic  defaulters,  or  be  attainted  of  treason, 
or  be  convicted  of  felony  or  any  infamous  crime,  or  become  of  unsoimd 
mind.  The  conditions  under  which  seats  become  vacant  are  the  same  in 
substance  for  both  houses  of  Parliament,  although  the  clauses  in  the 
Constitution  Act  in  which  they  are  set  out  differ  to  some  extent  in  their 
wording.  The  salary  of  the  President  of  the  Legislative  Council  is 
required  to  be  at  least  equal  to  that  of  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Assembly,  and  the  salaries  and  allowances  of  the  officers  of  the  Council 
the  same  as  those  of  the  corresponding  officers  in  the  House  of  Assembly. 
The  Chief  Clerk  of  the  Council  or  of  the  Assembly  can  only  be  removed 
from  office  by  vote  of  the  House  of  which  he  may  be  an  officer.  The 
Chief  Clerk  of  the  Legislative  Council  is  Clerk  of  the  Parliaments.  The 
salaries  of  the  Hon.  President  of  the  Council  and  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Assembly  are  voted  annually  in  the  Estimates,  and  amount  to  £600  a 
year  each.  The  members  of  the  Legislative  Council  are  styled  Honorable; 
the  members  of  the  Assembly  assume  the  style  of  M.P.  Ministers  are 
all  desiy-nated  Honorable,  and  those  who  have  served  the  Crown  for  three 
years  are  entitled  to  retain  ihe  title,  but  only  within  the  limits  of  the  pro- 
vince.    A  similar  rule  obtains  in  the  other  Australian  colonies. 

Since  the  passing  of  the  Constitution  Act  in  1855-6,  the  law  has  under- 
gone some  modifications.  In  187.3  the  number  of  members  of  the 
Assembly  was  increased  from  thirty-six  to  forty-six.  The  character  of 
the  Upper  House  has  also  been  altered.  In  1881  an  Act  was  passed  to 
amend  the  Constitution  Act,  and  under  it  the  province  was  divided  into 
four  electoral  districts,  each  of  which  was  represented  by  six  members. 
This  brought  up  the  number  of  members  to  twenty-four,  instead  of 
eighteen.  Of  these  twenty-four  members  the  eight  first  on  the  list  were 
required  to  retire  at  intervals  of  three,  six,  and  nine  years,  and  two  other 
members  for  each  district  to  be  elected  in  their  stead.  As  vacancies 
occur  by  reason  of  death,  resignation,  or  other  cause,  they  arc  filled  by 
the  election  of  members  for  the  districts  which  were  represented  by 
the  persons  who  retire.  'J'his  plan  was  adopted  in  order  to  render 
the  Council  more  in  accord  with  public  opinion  than  it  had  proved  to 
be  under  the  system  by  which  members  had  been  returned  by  the  whole 
of  the  electors  of  the  province  voting  as  one  district.  Local  repre- 
sentation to  some  extent  was  secured  by  the  alteration :  but  still  there 
was  no  power  to  dissolve  the  L'ppcr  Chamber,  as  the  House  of  Assembly 
could  be  dissolved,  in  the  event  of  its  proving  to  be  unmanageable  by  the 
Ministers,  or  out  of  harmony  with  the  public  opinion  of  the  time. 
Accordingly  a  clause  was  embodied  in  the  new  Act,  which  provided  that 


154  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

whenever  any  Bill  should  have  been  passed  by  the  House  of  Assembly- 
during  any  session  of  Parliament,  and  the  same,  or  a  similar  Bill  with  sub- 
stantially the  same  objects  and  having  the  same  title,  should  have  been 
passed  by  the  House  of  Assembly  during  the  next  ensuing  Parliament, 
a  general  election  of  the  House  of  Assembly  having  taken  place  between 
such  two  Parliaments,  the  second  and  third  readings  of  such  Bill  having 
been  passed,  in  the  second  instance,  by  an  absolute  majority  of  the  whole 
number  of  members  of  the  House  of  Assembly,  and  both  such  Bills 
should  have  been  rejected  by  or  have  failed  to  become  law  in  consequence 
of  any  amendments  made  therein  by  the  Legislative  Council,  it  should  be 
lawful  for.  but  not  obligatory  on,  the  Governor  to  dissolve  both  the 
Legislative  Council  and  the  House  of  Assembly,  whereupon  all  the 
members  of  both  Houses  would  vacate  their  seats,  and  new  members  be 
elected  to  supply  the  vacancies  so  created.  The  Governor,  however,  has 
an  alternative,  which  is  to  issue  Avrits  for  the  election  of  one,  and  not 
more  than  two,  members  for  each  district  of  the  Legislative  Council. 
This  being  done,  no  writs  can  be  issued  for  any  election  for  the  Legis- 
lative Council  as  long  as  the  number  of  members  remains  at  or  above 
the  number  of  twenty-four.  The  Act  has  been  in  force  now  for  about 
ten  years,  but  no  occasion  has  arisen  for  the  exercise  of  the  extraordinary 
powers  which  it  vests  in  the  Governor,  or  rather  in  the  Ministry  of  the  day. 
The  Act  was  reserved  for  the  Roj'al  assent,  which  was  signified  in 
due  course.  In  the  meantime  a  Bill  was  introduced  which  increased  the- 
number  of  members  of  the  House  of  Assembly,  which  restored,  to  some 
extent,  the  proportion  of  representation  in  each  Chamber,  which  was 
established  in  1856.  The  colony  was  divided  into  twenty-six  electoral 
districts,  each  returning  two  members,  and  subject  to  the  same  conditions 
of  election  and  dissolution  as  the  first  House  of  Assembly.  Two  more 
members  Avere  subsequently  added  (in  1888)  to  represent  the  Northern 
Territory,  which  previously  had  not  been  directly  represented  in  Parlia- 
ment. The  Assembly,  therefore,  now  consists  of  fifty-four  members, 
which  gives  a  representation  of  one  member  to  every  1,363  adult  males 
in  the  colony,  according  to  the  last  census. 

The  fundamental  principles  of  the  electoral  system  of  South  Austi'alia 
are  manhood  suffrage,  vote  by  ballot,  and  equal  electoral  rights.  By 
"manhood  suffrage"  is  meant  the  right  of  every  male  person  of  full  age  to- 
become  an  elector  on  the  registration  of  his  name  on  the  electoral  roll. 
The  term  "  vote  bv  ballot"  means  a  mode  of  exercising  the  franchise  which 
precludes  the  possibility  of  anj^  one  discovering  how  the  elector  has  voted,, 
and  by  "  equal  electoral  rights"  is  meant  that  for  either  House  of  Parlia- 
ment no  elector  can  have  or  exercise  more  than  one  vote.  Although  the 
ballot  system  is  in  force  in  the  other  Australian  colonies,  the  one  man  one 


POLITICAl,     CONSTITUTION.  155 

vote  system  is  not,  and  the  suffrage  in  those  colonies  is  more  restricted 
than  it  is  in  South  Australia.  The  administration  of  the  electoral  laws  is 
placed  in  the  hands  of  Returning  Officers  appointed  by  the  Governor  by 
commission  under  the  great  seal  of  the  colony,  all  of  whom  are  remov- 
able by  him.  The  electoral  business  of  the  Legislative  Council,  although 
nominally  under  the  charge  of  four  district  returning  officers,  is  carried 
out  by  the  returning  officers  for  the  Hovise  of  Assembly,  who  are  deputy 
returning  officers  for  the  Legislative  Council.  These  officers  compile  the 
electoral  rolls  for  their  divisions  and  districts,  hold  the  courts  of  revision 
quarterly  for  the  purgation  of  the  rolls,  and  they  preside  over  all  the 
elections  which  are  held  in  their  divisions  and  districts. 

A  description  of  the  process  of  carrying  on  an  election  may  not  be 
devoid  of  interest.  A  writ  issued  by  the  Governor  for  a  vacancy  in  the 
Legislative  Council,  or  by  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Assembly  for  a 
vacancy  in  that  Chamber,  is  directed  to  the  returning  officer  whom  it  may 
concern,  and  on  receiving  it  he  gives  a  statutory  notice  of  the  day  and 
place  of  nomination.  The  returning  officer  for  a  Legislati^-e  Council 
district  at  once  forwards  a  copy  of  the  writ  to  his  deputy  returning 
officers,  who,  after  giving  certain  notices,  hold  the  election  on  the  date 
specified  therein,  and,  at  the  close  of  the  polls  held  in  their  divisions, 
return  the  copies  of  the  writ,  with  indorsements  of  the  names  of  the  can- 
didates and  the  number  of  votes  polled  for  each  to  the  Returning  Officer 
for  the  Legislative  Council  district.  When  the  district  returning  officer 
has  received  all  the  copies  of  the  writ,  he  totals  the  numbers  and  makes 
his  return  accordingly.  At  the  time  and  place  indicated  in  the  writ  he 
attends  and  reads  the  nomination  papers  which  he  has  received.  These 
nomination  papers  nuist  be  signed  by  two  duly  qualified  electors, 
and  by  the  candidates,  who  arc  required  to  signify  in  writing  their 
consent  to  act  if  elected.  If  there  are  more  candidates  than  vacancies, 
the  proceedings  are  adjourned  to  a  date  and  place  mentioned  in  the  writ, 
when  a  poll  of  the  electors  is  taken.  The  hours  of  polling  are  from 
8  a.m.  till  7  p.m.  Shortly  before  the  opening  of  the  proceedings  the 
returning  officer  exhibits  the  ballot-box  open,  to  show  that  it  is  empty. 
The  inner  lid  is  then  closed  down,  locked,  and  sealed,  so  that  nothing  can 
be  put  into  it  except  through  an  opening,  like  the  slit  in  a  letter-box. 
This  is  so  contrived  that  a  paper  once  inserted  in  it  cannot  be  Avithdrawn. 
When  an  elector  comes  to  vote  he  announces  his  name  and  address  to 
one  of  the  poll  clerks  present,  who  refers  to  the  roll  to  see  that  he  is 
registered,  and  has  been  so  for  six  clear  months  before  the  date  of  the 
election.  Having  found  the  name,  the  poll  clerk  marks  it  off  from  the 
printed  roll  which  he  has  before  him,  and  then  hands  the  elector  a 
voting  paper  containing  the  names  of  all  the  candidates,  with  a  blank 


156  SOUTH     AUSTKAl.lA. 

square  printed  opposite  to  each  of  them.  This  voting  paper  is  initialled 
by  the  presiding  officer.  On  receipt  of  the  paper  the  voter  retires  into 
one  of  the  compartments  prepared  for  the  purpose,  and  there,  alone  and 
unseen,  records  his  vote  by  making  a  cross  in  the  square  opposite  to  the 
name  of  the  candidate  for  whom  he  intends  to  vote.  He  then  folds  his 
paper,  so  that  his  mark  cannot  be  seen,  and  hands  it  to  the  presiding 
officer,  who  deposits  it  in  the  ballot-box,  where  it  remains  until  the  time 
of  the  scrutiny.  At  7  p.m.  the  polling-booth  is  closed,  and  no  further 
votes  are  taken,  except  from  those  electors  who  may  be  in  the  booth  at  the 
time  of  closing,  but  whose  votes  have  not  previously  been  recorded. 

The  voting  papers  are  the  property  of  the  returning  officer,  and  any 
person  taking  one  away,  or  refusing  to  deliver  it  up  when  called  upon  by 
that  officer  to  do  so,  is  punishable  as  for  a  misdemeanor.  An  elector 
who  accidentally  defaces  a  voting  paper,  so  as  to  render  it  useless,  may 
receive  another  voting  paper  on  surrendering  the  first  one  to  the  return- 
ing orticer,  who  forthwith  destroys  it  by  burning.  A  person  who  is 
blind  may,  by  permission  of  the  returning  officer,  take  some  person  into 
the  voting  compartment  to  mark  his  paper  for  him.  If  a  person  who 
represents  himself  to  be  a  particular  elector  named  on  the  roll  applies 
for  a  voting  paper  after  another  person  has  voted  in  the  same  name,  the 
applicant,  upon  answering  certain  questions  set  out  in  the  Electoral  Act, 
is  entitled  to  receive  a  voting  paper,  and  to  make  use  of  it  as  if  no  vote 
had  been  recorded  for  the  name  under  which  the  applicant  claims.  A 
person  making  a  false  answer  to  any  of  the  questions  is  liable  to  prose- 
cution, and  a  person  who  Avrongfully  and  with  intent  to  commit  a  fraud 
has  voted  in  the  name  of  another  person  is  also  liable  to  prosecution. 

The  law  with  regard  to  tampering  with  or  improperly  using  voting 
papers  is  very  stringent.  Any  person  who  forges  or  fraudulently  defaces 
or  destroys  any  voting  paper,  or  the  initials  marked  on  it,  or  without  due 
avithority  supplies  a  voting  paper  to  any  one,  or  fraudulently  puts  into 
the  ballot-box  any  paper  other  than  the  voting  paper  which  he  is 
authorised  by  law  to  put  in,  or  fraudidently  takes  out  of  the  polling 
booth  any  voting  paper,  or  without  due  authority  destroys,  opens,  or 
otherwise  interferes  with  any  ballot-box  or  voting  papers  then  in  use  for 
the  purposes  of  the  election,  or  refuses  to  deliver  to  the  returning  officer 
or  his  deputy  any  voting  paper  in  his  possession,  whether  he  shall  haA'e 
obtained  such  voting  paper  for  the  purpose  of  recording  his  vote  or  not, 
is  liable  to  prosecution  for  misdemeanor,  and  may  be  imprisoned  and 
kept  to  hard  labor  for  any  term  not  exceeding  six  months  in  some  cases, 
and  two  years  in  others. 

In  elections  for  the  Legislative  Council  an  elector,  Avho  may  be  absent 
from  his  division  on  the  day  of  election,  may  obtain  from  the  retui-ning 


POLTTICAI,     COXSTITUTIOX.  157 

officer  of  the  division  a  certificate  which  will  enable  him  to  vote  at 
any  polling  place  within  the  Legislative  Council  district,  but  only  on 
surrender  of  the  certificate. 

Recently  a  new  law  relating  to  absent  voters  has  come  into  force.  An 
elector  who  knows  that  he  will  be  absent  from  the  colony  at  the  time  of 
a  given  election,  may,  after  the  issue  of  the  writ,  obtain  from  the  re- 
turning officer  of  the  district  a  certificate  that  he  is  registered  upon  the 
electoral  roll,  and  is  entitled  to  vote  at  the  coming  election.  He  is 
required  to  make  a  declaration  before  the  returning  officer  that  he  is  the 
person  named  in  the  register  of  voters,  and  that  he  makes  the  application 
believing  that  he  will  be  absent  at  the  time  of  the  forthcoming  election. 
The  returning  officer  is  entitled  to  put  to  the  applicant  certain  questions 
in  order  to  ensure  proper  identification,  and  if  the  elector  does  not 
answer  them  in  a  satisfactory  Avay,  the  certificate  is  refused.  If  the 
questions  are  properly  answered,  the  elector  receives  a  certificate  printed 
on  the  back  of  an  envelope,  and  a  voting  i)aper  with  a  counterfoil 
attached,  and  also  another  envelope  addressed  to  the  returning  officer,  in 
which  the  voting  paper  enclosed  in  that  envelope  are  afterwards  to  be 
placed  and  sealed  up.  On  receipt  of  these  docviments  the  elector  proceeds 
to  some  post  office,  and,  in  the  presence  of  the  postmaster  only,  signs  his 
name  on  the  counterfoil,  on  the  back  of  the  voting  paper,  and  presents 
the  voting  paper  folded  up  to  be  witnessed  by  the  postmaster,  and  stamped 
with  the  letter  stamp  of  the  day  and  date  then  being  used  at  the  post 
office.  On  the  voting  paper  the  elector  must  previously  write  the  name  of 
the  candidate  for  whom  he  votes.  The  voting  paper  is  then  folded  up  and 
placed  in  the  envelope  and  sealed  and  the  sealed  envelope  is  enclosed  in 
the  cover  addressed  to  the  returning  officer,  and  is  delivered  to  the  post- 
master, who  forwards  it  to  its  address  in  due  course.  At  the  scrutiny 
these  papers  are  deposited  in  a  box  by  themselves,  and  at  the  proper  time 
the  signatures  of  the  electors  are  verified,  and  the  voting  papers  allowed 
or  disallowed,  according  to  certain  provisions  in  the  Act.  The  process 
is  somewhat  intricate.  The  Absent  Voters  Act  was  passed  principally 
in  the  interest  of  seafaring  persons  at  the  various  ports  in  the  colony, 
but  it  has  been  made  use  of  only  to  a  very  limited  c.\tent. 

When  the  poll  has  closed  the  ballot  boxes  are  shut,  locked,  and 
sealed,  and  within  one  hour  after,  the  scrutiny  commences.  The  candi- 
dates are  represented  by  one  scrutineer  each  at  the  counting  of  the  votes, 
though  at  the  polling-booth  two  are  allowed  to  each  candidate.  Their 
appointments  ai-c  made  by  the  candidates  in  writing,  and  these  appoint- 
ments are  recpiired  to  be  delivered  to  the  returning  officer  before  the 
opening  of  the  poll.  A  strict  account  is  kept  of  all  the  voting  papers 
issued,  and  the  number  in  the  ballot  boxes  should  tallv  with  the  number 


158  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

delivered  by  the  poll  clerks  with  the  addition  of  the  number  that  have 
voted  on  travelling  certificates,  and  those  papers  issued  to  persons  in 
whose  name  a  vote  has  been  previously  recorded.  There  are  very  few 
occurences  of  the  latter  kind.  The  returning  officer  counts  the  voting 
papers  and  decides  which  are  informal  or  otherwise.  Informal  papers 
are  not  counted.  All  papers  which  have  been  objected  to  as  informal 
must  be  kejjt  by  the  returning  officer  until  a  sufficient  time  has  elapsed 
to  enable  an  appeal  to  be  made,  if  thought  desirable  by  any  of  the 
candidates,  to  the  Court  of  Disputed  Returns.  All  the  rest  are  forthwith 
destroyed,  and  the  writ  is  duly  indorsed  and  returned  to  the  proper 
authority. 

The  Courts  of  Disputed  Returns  are  constituted  by  four  members  of  the 
Legislative  Council  or  House  of  Assembly,  as  the  case  may  be,  presided 
over  by  one  of  the  Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  province.  These 
courts  have  power  to  inquire  into  all  cases  brought  before  them  respect- 
ing disjDuted  returns  of  members  to  serve  in  either  House,  whether  the 
disputes  arise  out  of  alleged  error  on  the  part  of  returning  officer,  or  out 
of  the  allegation  of  bribery  and  corruption  against  any  person  concerned 
in  any  election,  or  out  of  any  other  allegation  calculated  to  affect  the 
validity  of  the  return.  They  regulate  their  own  forms  of  procedure,  and 
are  guided  only  by  the  real  jvistice  and  good  conscience  of  each  case. 
They  cannot  sit  for  more  than  five  days,  exclusive  of  adjournments,  unless 
by  leave  of  the  House  by  which  they  are  appointed.  If  no  decision 
has  been  arrived  at  by  a  majority  within  the  five  sitting  days,  or  any 
enlarged  period,  the  president  of  the  court  is  empowered  to  pronounce  a 
decision  upon  the  evidence  then  before  the  court,  and  that  decision  is 
final  and  conclusive,  and  without  appeal.  The  courts  have  no  power  to 
inquire  into  the  correctness  of  anj'  electoral  roll,  nor  into  the  qualifications 
of  proposers  of  candidates,  nor  into  the  qualifications  of  persons  whose 
votes  may  have  been  either  admitted  or  rejected  on  the  day  of  election, 
but  simply  into  the  identity  of  the  persons,  and  whether  their  votes  were 
improperly  admitted  or  rejected,  assuming  the  roll  to  be  correct.  All 
complaints  of  the  undue  return  of  members  must  be  in  the  form  of 
petition  to  the  Legislative  Council  or  House  of  Assembly,  either  by  a 
candidate  at  the  election,  or  by  not  less  than  one-tenth  of  the  whole 
number  of  electors  who  were  entitled  to  vote  at  the  election  ;  and  the 
signature  of  each  elector  must  be  verified  by  two  witnesses,  whose  place 
of  abode  and  occupation  must  be  given.  This  provision  effectually  bars 
any  petition  from  the  electors.  Further  it  is  required  that  £50  shall  be 
deposited  with  the  President  of  the  Council  or  Speaker  of  the  Assembly, 
as  security  for  costs.  No  petition  can  be  noticed  which  shall  not  have 
been  presented  within  twenty-one  days  from  the  day  of  election,  or  one 


POLITICAL     CONSTITUTION.  159 

week  from  the  meeting  of  Parliament,  whichever  event  happens  last. 
The  petition  must  be  referred  to  tiie  Court  of  Disputed  Returns  within  ten 
days  after  it  has  been  duly  received.  The  courts  have  power  to  declare  a 
•candidate  duly  elected  who  was  not  returned  by  the  returning  officer  as 
duly  elected,  or  to  declare  a  person  unduly  elected  who  was  retm-ned 
as  elected,  or  otherwise  to  declare  the  election  to  be  null  and  void,  in 
which  case  a  writ  for  the  holding  of  a  new  election  is  issued  without  delay. 

The  simplicity  and  effectiveness  of  the  South  Australian  electoral 
system  has  attracted  much  notice  in  other  colonies  and  other  countries, 
and  it  has  been  adopted  with  most  satisfactory  results  in  several  of  the 
United  States  of  America'^'.  It  is  not  entirely  free  from  defects,  but,  on 
the  whole,  it  works  admirably,  and  has  stood  the  test  of  thirty-six  years' 
experience.  The  electors,  for  the  most  part,  ai-e  well  acquainted  with 
its  operation,  and  up  to  the  present  time  it  has  given  general  satisfaction. 
Elections  of  late  years  have  been  held  on  Saturdays,  when  nearly  all 
business  establishments  close  early,  so  that  almost  every  one  has  an 
opportimity  of  exercising  his  electoral  rights.  The  elections  are  carried 
on  without  turmoil  or  disorder.  The  writer  of  this,  who  has  had  some 
thirty  years'  experience  as  a  returning  officer,  during  a  great  portion  of 
which  he  has  controlled  the  electoral  business  of  the  largest  electoral 
district  in  the  province,  has  never  known  a  single  case  of  riot  or 
disturbance.  This  peaceable  state  of  affairs  is  due  absolutely  to  the 
ballot  as  it  is  used  in  South  Australia.  Party  feeling  runs  high  here,  as 
it  does  elsewhere,  but  it  never  runs  into  excess.  No  more  police  are 
required  at  elections  than  are  needed  at  other  large  public  gatherings,  and 
the  amount  of  drunkenness,  common  in  other  countries  on  similar 
■occasions,  is  infinitesimal.  Except  for  the  assembling  of  small  groups  of 
people  outside  the  chief  polling-places,  and  a  somewhat  increased 
activity  amongst  cabdrivers,  which  a  stranger  woxdd  scarcely  notice, 
little  appears  to  show  that  anything  vmusual  is  going  on. 

The  general  elections  for  the  House  of  Assembly  take  jjlace  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  events  at  the  expiration  of  every  three  years.  The 
last  was  held  in  April,  1890.  The  number  of  adult  males  who  were 
entitled  to  be  registoi'ed  on  the  electoral  rolls  at  that  time  was  estimated 
at  82,801,  the  number  actually  registered  and  entitled  to  vote  was 
69,921,  or  a  proportion  of  84"44  per  cent.  Thus  nearly  16  per  cent, 
■of  the  adults  in  the  colony  who  could  claim  the  franchise  were  not 
registered.  It  will  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  in  order  to  secure 
the  franchise  the  elector  must  apply  personally  or  in  writing  to  the 
returning    officer    of  the  district  wherein  he  requires  to  be  registered, 

*  The  Jievieiv  of  Reviews  (Sept.,  1891)  publishes  a   map  which  shows  that  it  is  in 
force  in  tweaty-five  States  in  Noith  America. 


160  SOITH     ALSTUALIA. 

and  in  which  he  must  be  a  resident,  and  he  must  furnish  the  particulars 
which  are  set  out  in  the  Electoral  Act  of  1879.  In  cases  where  this 
is  not  done,  or  is  done  in  such  a  manner  as  to  withhold  from  the 
returning  officer  the  information  required  by  law,  the  name  is  not 
placed  on  the  roll.  The  same  holds  gxiod  with  rej^ard  to  claims  for 
registration  on  the  rolls  of  the  Legislative  Council ;  so  that  if  any  person 
fails  to  acquire  the  franchise  the  ftiilure  is  attributable  to  eri'or,  omission, 
or  neglect  on  his  part.  The  name  of  an  elector  may  be  erased 
from  the  roll  of  the  Legislative  Council  if  he  loses  the  qualification 
prescribed  by  law,  or  ceases  to  reside  within  the  district  wherein  he  is 
registered.  Non-residence  also  leads  to  the  erasure  of  the  name  of  an 
elector  for  the  Assembly.  A  returning  officer,  however,  cannot  remove 
any  name  from  his  list  without  sending  a  notice  of  objection  to  the  last 
known  place  of  abode  of  the  elector,  to  whose  vote  exception  is  taken, 
and  affording  him  an  opportunity  of  defending  his  franchise  before  the 
court  of  revision. 

An  elector  who  removes  from  one  electoral  district  to  another  may 
obtain  from  the  returning  officer  of  the  district  which  he  leaves  a 
certificate  that  his  name  has  been  registered  for  six  months.  This 
certificate  entitles  him  to  be  placed  upon  the  electoral  roll  of  the  district 
to  which  he  removes,  and  he  is  immediately  entitled  to  vote  at  any 
election  which  may  take  place  after  the  date  of  the  transfer.  Certificates 
of  transfer  are  not  issued  within  four  clear  days  of  any  election  for  the 
Legislative  Council,  nor  after  the  issue  of  a  writ  for  an  election  for  the 
House  of  Assembly,  until  after  the  election  has  taken  place. 

At  the  general  election  in  1890  69,921  persons  were  on  the  electoral 
roll,  and  of  these  38,463  exercised  their  franchise.  This  number  was 
55'01  per  cent,  of  the  electoral  strength  of  the  colony.  At,  the  election 
for  the  Legislative  Council  which  occurred  in  April,  1891,  there  were 
33,265  electors  on  the  roll,  and  of  these  18,490  recorded  their  votes. 
This  gives  a  proportion  of  55-59  per  cent.  The  number  of  qualified 
electors  for  the  colony  in  the  House  of  Assembly  roll  as  stated  was 
69,921  in  1890,  and  of  these  33,265  were  also  on  the  Legislative  Council 
rolls.  These  figures  show  a  proportion  of  47"57  per  cent,  of  the  adult 
males  who  were  electors  qualified  for  both  the  Legislative  Council  and 
House  of  Assembly. 

At  the  time  of  taking  the  census  in  April,  1891,  entirely  new  electoral 
rolls  were  compiled.  From  these  it  appears  that  there  are  now  on  the 
rolls — subject  to  additions  and  erasures  from  time  to  time — 69,331  electors- 
for  the  House  of  Assembly,  and  33,668  electors  for  the  Legislative  Council,, 
thus  48'56  per  cent,  of  the  total  electoral  strength  of  the  province  is. 
entitled  to  participate  in  elections  for  the  Legislative  Council. 


LAW,    CRIME,    ETC.  161 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

Administkation  of  Justice— The  Supkeme  Court — Its  Poweiis — The  Judges — 
CmcuiT  CouKTs— The  Coukt  oi' Appeals — The  Insolvexcy  Court— Local 
CouKTs  -  Special  Magistrates — Coroners — Arolitiox  of  Grand  Juries 
— The  Public  Prosecutor — Matrimonial  Causes— Officers  of  the 
Supreme  Court— Laavs  in  Force  in  South  Australia — The  Claimants 
Relief  Act — The  Legal  Profession — The  Prerogative  of  Mercy 
— Death  Sentences— Capital  Punishments  Extremely  Rare — The 
Criminal  Population — The  Yatala  Labor  Prison  — The  Statistics  for 
Ten  Years  Ending  in  1890 — Large  and  Continual  Decrease  of  Crime 
in  South  Australia — Statistics— Minor  Offences— Statistics  Relating 
to  the  Adelaide  Gaol — Xumber  of  Gaols  in  the  Province — Proportion 
OF  Criminals  to  the  Population — Immorality  in  Adelaide  and  in 
Other  Australian  Capitals — Litigation — Testamentary  Causes — 
Insolvencies — Local  Court  Suits— Management  of  Prisons — Dietary 
Scale  of  Provisions — The  Police  Force— Organisation  and  Duties 
— Distribution  — Pay  of  Police. 

The  first  court  of  gaol  delivery  for  South  Australia  was  held  in 
Adelaide  in  May,  1837,  at  the  office  of  the  Resident  Commissioner, 
before  His  Honor  Sir  J.  W.  JefFcott,  Her  Majesty's  Judge  of  the  pro- 
vince.'^' On  the  last  day  of  the  same  month  an  Act  was  passed  in 
Council  for  the  establishment  of  a  court,  called  the  "  Supreme  Court  of 
the  Province  of  South  Australia." 

The  administration  of  justice  in  South  Australia  embodies  all  the  legal 
principles  and  precedents  which  obtain  in  the  mother  country.  The  tribu- 
nals by  which  civil  and  criminal  cases  are  determined  have  been  modified, 
so  as  to  meet  and  provide  for  conditions  which  are  to  some  e.xtent  of  local 
origin.  The  princijjal  tribunal  is  the  Supreme  Court  of  South  Australia, 
which  is  invested  within  the  colony  with  all  the  powers  that  are  exercised 
by  the  High  Court  of  Justice  in  England.  It  is  composed  of  a  Chief 
Justice,  a  second  and  a  third  judge.  There  is  no  difference  whatever  in 
the  jurisdiction  of  any  of  the  judges — the  Chief  Justice  and  the  second 
and  third  judges  exercise  equal  power  in  all  respects.  The  proceedings 
of  the  court  are  regulated  by  the  Supreme  Court  Act  of  1878,  under  the 
provisions  of  which  law  and  equity  are  administered  concurrently.  By 
the  Colonial  Courts  of  Admiralty  Act  of  1880,  passed  by  the  Imperial 

*Sii'  John  Jeffcott  joined  a  party  to  examine  Lake  Alexandrina  ;  ami  on  the  12th 
December,  1837,  Captain  Ulenkinsopp.  Sir  John,  and  five  seamen  attempted  to  go 
through  the  ^[uiray  mouth  into  Encounter  Bay  for  the  purpose  of  coasting  to  the 
whaling  station  of  Captain  Blenkinsopp.  The  boat  was  upset  among  the  breakers, 
and  Sir  John,  Cajjtain  Blenkinsopp,  and  two  seamen  were  drowned.  Sir  John  was 
succeeded  by  Charles  Cooper,  Esq.,  of  the  Temple. 
L 


162  SOI  TH     AlSl'RAl-IA. 

Parliament  (o3  and  54  Vict.,  cap.  27),  a  new  and  oriojinal  Admiralty  juris- 
diction has  been  conferred  on  the  Supreme  Courts  of  the  British  colonies, 
over  which  any  of  the  Supreme  Court  judges  may  preside.  The  civil 
sittings  of  the  Supreme  Court  take  place  six  times  in  the  course  of  the 
year,  and  the  criminal  sittings  in  the  city  of  Adelaide  are  held  at  inter- 
vals of  two  months.  For  the  trial  of  prisoners  in  the  distant  parts  of  the 
province  circuit  courts  are  held,  Avhich  are  presided  over  by  the  judges 
of  the  Supreme  Court.  The  circuit  courts  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
colony  are  held  three  times  in  each  year,  and  in  the  south-eastern  parts 
twice  in  each  year,  on  dates  fixed  by  the  Governor  by  proclamation.  In 
South  Australia  no  quarter  nor  petty  sessions  are  held.  The  business 
which  would  ordinarily  come  before  similar  tribunals  in  I'lngland  is  dis- 
posed of  either  by  the  Supreme  Court  or  by  the  magisterial  covirts  which 
deal  with  minor  offences.  The  Supreme  Court  sits  m  banco  from  time  to 
time  as  circumstances  may  require,  and  the  judges  attend  in  chambers 
for  the  disposal  of  such  business  as  may  be  brought  before  them.  If 
occasion  should  arise  the  judges  sometimes  take  a  portion  of  the  insol- 
vency business.  'Inhere  is  a  local  Court  of  Appeals,  constituted  by  the 
Governor  and  the  Executive  Council  of  the  province  (with  the  exception 
of  the  Attorney- General  and  Crown  Solicitor),  which  has  power  to 
receive  and  hear  appeals  from  the  judgments  of  the  Supreme  Court  in 
all  cases  where  the  sum  or  matter  at  issue  shall  amount  to  £100  ;  but 
the  court  is  restrained  from  reversing  any  judgment  of  the  Supreme 
Court  founded  upon  the  A'erdict  of  a  jury  of  twelve  men,  and  can  only 
reverse,  alter,  or  inquire  into  the  judgments  of  the  Supreme  Court  for 
error  of  law  apparent  on  the  record.  There  is  a  power  of  appeal  to  the 
PriA'y  Council  direct  from  the  judgments  of  the  Supreme  Court  where 
the  sum  or  matter  at  issue  is  above  the  value  of  £500.  A  modification 
of  the  Imperial  Judicature  Act  is  in  force  in  South  Australia,  so  that 
the  general  law  of  procedure  is  substantially  the  same  as  that  which 
prevails  in  England. 

The  Court  of  Insolvency  in  South  Australia  has  very  similar  jurisdic- 
tion in  South  Australia  to  that  of  the  Bankruptcy  Court  of  England.  It 
is  presided  over  by  a  Commissioner,  M'ho  is  also  Special  Magistrate  of  the 
Local  Court  in  Adelaide,  and  deals  with  all  insolvency  questions  and 
matters  relating  to  deeds  of  assignment  and  other  cases  which  arise  out  of 
them  and  out  of  compositions  between  creditors  and  debtors.  The  court 
has  power  to  adjudge  the  imprisonment  of  any  insolvent  for  any  term  not 
exceeding  three  years  for  the  commission  of  off'ences  against  the  law  of 
insolvency.     This  court  sits  whenever  business  requires  it  to  do  so. 

Local  courts,  which  are  analogous  to  the  county  courts  in  England,  are 
established  in  various  parts  of  the  province.      They  are  presided  over  by 


LAW,    CRIME,     KTC.  1G3 

special  magistrates,  who  (in  some  districts)  have  jurisdiction  in  insolvency. 
They  are  not  commissioners  of  insolvency,  but  "special  ma<»-istrates  of 
local  courts  of  insolvency  "  in  the  districts  for  which  they  have  been  pro- 
claimed. Their  jurisdiction  and  powers  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
Court  of  Insolvency  in  Adelaide.  A  special  magistrate  can  by  himself 
hear  and  dispose  of  cases  which  otherwise  could  be  determined  by  not  less 
than  two  justices  of  the  peace.  The  special  magistrates  deal  with  the 
police  cases  which  from  time  to  time  are  brought  before  them.  Each  of 
the  special  magistrates  transacts  the  judicial  business  of  a  very  large 
district,  and  he  travels  from  place  to  place,  to  sit  on  a])pointed  days,  in 
order  to  obviate  the  delay,  expense,  and  trouble  which  would  fall 
upon  suitors  if  they,  their  witnesses,  and  counsel  wei*e  i-equired  to  attend 
at  a  fixed  spot  where  an  immovable  coui-t  was  established.  Some  of  the 
local  courts  are  held  at  intervals  of  three  months;  others  at  shorter  periods. 
Some  have  only  power  to  dispose  of  cases  within  the  limited  jurisdiction. 
The  special  magistrates  are  constantly  on  the  move,  for  the  districts  are 
large  and  the  court-houses  many  miles  apart.  A  court  of  full  jurisdiction 
is  constituted  by  a  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  with  or  without  a  jury,  or 
by  a  special  magistrate  and  two  justices  of  the  peace,  or  a  special  magis- 
trate and  a  jury.  Local  courts  of  full  jurisdiction  have  cognisance  of 
all  personal  actions  where  the  debt  or  damage  does  not  exceed  £490. 
Local  courts  of  limited  jurisdiction  have  cognisance  of  all  jjersonal  actions 
where  the  debt  or  damage  is  not  more  than  £20.  Local  courts  of  limited 
jurisdiction  are  constituted  by  special  magistrates  sitting  alone  or  by 
two  justices  of  the  peace  for  the  province.  Where  local  courts  are  not 
proclaimed  magistrates'  courts  may  be  held,  at  which  resident  justices  of 
the  peace  dispose  of  police  informations,  petty  cases  on  the  criminal  side, 
and  summonses  which  arise  from  breaches  of  the  by-laws  of  municipal 
corporations  and  district  councils.  One  of  the  judges  sits  from  time  to 
time  as  the  Local  Court  of  Adelaide  to  hear  appeals  against  magisterial 
decisions,  &c.  Every  justice  of  the  peace  is  a  coroner,  and  can  hold 
inquests  on  deaths  or  fires  when  reported  to  him  by  the  police.  The 
services  of  the  justices  as  coroners  are  only  called  into  requisition  in 
country  places  where  paid  magistrates  are  not  available.  'J'here  is  a 
coroner  for  the  city  of  Adelaide,  who  holds  inquests  on  all  deaths  and 
fires  that  occur  within  ten  miles  of  the  metropolis.  Grand  juries  have 
been  abolished  for  many  years.  All  indictments  proceed  on  information 
by  the  Attorney-General.  The  Attorney-General  for  the  time  being  is 
at  the  head  of  the  legal  profession,  and  he  advises  the  Government  in 
all  matters  of  unusual  importance.  The  actual  legal  business  of  the 
country  is  transacted  by  the  Crown  Solicitor,  who,  being  also  public 
prosecutor,  conducts   all    the    public    prosecutions    which    are    brought 


164  SOUTH     AUSTKALIA. 

before  the  Supreme  Court  in  its  criminal  jurisdiction.      Occasionally  he 
prosecutes  in  the  police  courts. 

The  laws  that  are  in  force  in  South  Australia  are  the  laws  of  England 
as  they  existed  at  the  date  of  the  foundation  of  the  colony  in  so  far  as 
they  apply  to  its  circumstances ;  otherwise,  with  modifications  that  have 
been  made  in  them  to  suit  local  conditions,  with  the  addition  of  other 
laws  which  have  been  enacted  by  the  Legislature,  which  are  exclusively 
local  in  their  operation.  Some  of  those  laws  differ  considerably  from  the 
English  law,  although  they  are  not  numerous.  The  criminal  law  is  ia 
most  respects  similar  to  the  provisions  of  the  Criminal  Law  Consolidation 
Act  passed  in  England  a  few  years  ago.  Murder  is  the  only  crime 
punishable  with  death.  For  all  other  offences  penal  servitude  or  imprison- 
ment for  various  periods,  either  with  or  without  hard  labor,  is  prescribed.. 
For  some  offences  the  judges  may  order  criminals  to  be  flogged.  In 
trials  for  criminal  offences,  according  to  a  recent  alteration  in  the  laAV,. 
accused  persons,  as  well  as  the  husbands  or  wives  of  the  accused,  are  per- 
mitted but  not  compelled  to  give  evidence  on  oath.  In  such  cases,  like 
other  witnesses,  they  are  subject  to  cross-examination.  In  1885  an  Act 
was  passed  for  the  better  protection  of  girls  between  the  ages  of  thirteen 
and  sixteen.  No  female  under  the  latter  age  can  give  consent,  and  com- 
merce with  anyone  vmder  that  age  is  punishable.  The  Act  also  renders- 
punishable  persons  who  trade  on  the  immorality  of  girls,  even  up  to  the 
age  of  eighteen. 

The  Real  Property  Act  was  originated  in  South  Australia  by  the  late 
Sir  R.  R.  Torrens  in  the  year  1858,  and  has  been  adopted  in  all  the 
Australian  colonies,  and  also  in  New  Zealand.  It  has  been  amended  from 
time  to  time ;  but  all  the  amending  Acts  have  been  repealed,  and  are  now 
included  in  a  consolidated  Act  passed  in  1886.  The  objects  of  the  Act 
are  to  simplify  titles  to  land  and  to  facilitate  dealings  therewith,  as  well 
as  to  secure  indefeasibility  of  title  to  all  registered  proprietors,  except  ia 
certain  cases,  amongst  which  are  fraud,  insufficient  power  of  attorney,  legal) 
disability,  erroneous  inclusion  of  land  by  misdescription  and  rightful 
adverse  possession  when  land  is  brought  under  the  Act  and  the  certificate 
issued.  Provision  is  made  for  the  protection  of  bond  fide  purchasers  for 
valuable  consideration. 

Indefeasibility  of  title  may  be  said  to  be  the  most  important  principle- 
of  the  Act,  the  certificate  being  complete  evidence  of  the  title,  and,  with 
the  exceptions  mentioned,  it  becomes  unnecessary  in  future  transactions 
to  inquire  into  the  history  of  the  property  prior  to  the  issue  of  the 
certificate.  Where  it  is  desired  to  bring  land  under  the  Act  in  the  first 
instance,  the  applicant  is  required  to  surrender  to  the  Registrar-General  all 
his  deeds  and  other  instruments  constituting  or  affecting  his  title,  and  to. 


LAAV,    CKIME,    ETC.  165 

give  all  required  information  on  the  subject.  Where  necessary  precau- 
tions are  taken  by  means  of  advertisements  and  the  service  of  notices 
to  protect  the  rights  of  interested  parties.  Any  person  claiming  an 
interest  in  land  advertised  as  intended  to  be  brought  under  the  Act  may 
lodge  a  caveat  -with  the  Registrar- General.  The  certificate  of  title  has 
indorsed  on  it  all  such  incumbrances,  liens,  estates,  or  interests  as  the 
property  was  subject  to  at  the  time  of  the  issue  of  the  certificate.  Later 
transactions,  such  as  transfers,  mortgages,  and  leases,  are  effected  by 
simple  registered  instruments  and,  within  certain  limits,  by  indorsements  on 
the  certificates  of  title  and  in  the  register  book.  Trusts  are  recognised  by 
the  Act,  but  are  not  registered  under  it.  They  may,  however,  whether 
•with  respect  to  land  under  the  Act  or  not,  be  declared  by  any  instrument 
deposited  with  the  Registrar- General  for  safe  custody.  All  grants  of 
land  from  the  Crown  are  registered  imder  the  Real  Property  Act,  and  a 
married  woman  can  hold  property  under  the  Act  in  her  own  right. 

The  marriage  laws  differ  to  some  extent  from  those  of  England. 
Marriages  may  be  celebrated  by  the  Registrar-General,  the  Deputy- 
Registrar,  and  district  registrars,  and  by  officiating  ministers  of  all 
religious  denominations  whose  names  have  been  ordered  by  the  Governor 
to  be  entered  on  a  roll  kept  in  the  office  of  the  Registrar-General. 
Before  any  marriage  can  be  celebrated  the  parties  must  either  have 
■obtained  a  certificate  from  the  Registrar- General  or  a  district  registrar 
that  fourteen  days'  notice  has  been  given  and  that  no  authorised  person 
has  forbidden  the  issue  of  the  certificate,  or  they  must  obtain  a  licence 
from  the  Registrar,  his  deputy,  a  district  registrar,  or  from  an  officiating 
minister.  After  the  certificate  has  been  issued,  or  a  licence  has  been 
granted,  a  marriage  may  be  celebrated  at  any  time  within  three  months. 
A  caveat  may  be  entered  by  any  person  who  objects  to  a  marriage.  If 
a  caveat  is  entered  the  marriage  cannot  take  place  without  due  inquiry 
into  the  circumstances.  A  person  imder  age  must  produce  the  written 
consent  of  his  or  her  parent  or  guardian,  unless  satisfactory  reasons  are 
given  for  the  non-production  of  such  assent.  Persons  desiring  to  be 
married  must  sign  a  declaration  to  the  effect  that  there  is  no  legal  impedi- 
ment to  the  marriage  A  person  making  a  false  declaration  is  punishable 
as  for  a  misdemeanor,  and  in  the  case  of  fraiululent  marriage  the  guilty 
person  may  be  made  to  forfeit  all  property  accruing  from  the  marriage. 
Persons  unlawfully  or  fraudulently  celebrating  marriages  are  liable  to 
prosecution.  The  fee  for  a  marriage  performed  at  the  registration  office 
is  10s.  The  cost  of  a  licence  issued  by  a  registrar  is  £3.  No  scale  is 
laid  down  for  the  charges  made  by  oflftciating  ministers.  Under  the 
provisions  of  the  Deceased  Wife's  Sister  Act  a  man  is  enabled  to  marry 
his   deceased  wife's   sister  or  the  daughter  of  a  deceased  wife's  sister. 


1(36  SOllH      AIS'IKAI.IA. 

This  ])rovision  is  not  in  accordance  with  the  English  law.  A  woman 
cannot  many  htr  deceased  husband's  brother.  An  Act  similar  to  the 
English  Married  Women's  Property  Act  has  been  in  force  in  the  province 
for  some  years. 

The  administration   of  the   estates  of  deceased  persons  is   under  the 
Supreme  Court  in  its  testamentary  jurisdiction.     Since  the  passing  of  the 
Inheritance  Act  in  1869  there  is  no  heir  at-law,  and  in  cases  of  intestacy 
realty  is  distributable  as  personalty.     The  property  of  deceased  persons  is 
subject  to  probate  and  succession  duties.     These  duties  are  levied  under 
an  Act  which  closely  follows  the  English  Succession  Act  (16  &,  17  Vict., 
cap.  51),  the  main  principle  of  which  it  adopts.     It  was  amended  by  an 
Act  of  the  South  Australian  Parliament  passed  in  1881,  the  chief  purpose 
of  which  was  to  exempt  estates  of  less  than  il.OoO  in  value  from  probate 
duties  and  also  irom  succession  duties  in  cases  where  estates  passed  to  or 
for  the  benefit  of  the  lawful  children  of  the  deceased.     The  following  are 
the  duties  chargeable : — Probate  of  a  will,  or  letters   of  administration 
with  will  annexed,  when  the  effects  are  sworn  to  by  the  executor  or 
administrator  imder  £1,000,  nil;  above  £1,000,  1  per  cent.     Letters  of 
administration,  without  a  will  annexed,  when  the  effects  are  sworn  to  by 
the  administrator  under  £100,  £l    10s.  :  under  £200,  I'S  ;  and  so  on  up 
to  £500,  when  the  duty  is  £7  10s.,  and  above  that  amount   £1  10s.  per 
cent.     The  succession  duties  are  as  under  :  — Estates  under  the  value  of 
£1,000,  passing  for  the  benefit  of  the  lawful  children  of  the  predecessor, 
are  exempt  from  duty ;  when  the  successor  shall  be  the  lineal  descendant 
or  lineal  ancestor  of  the  predecessor,  on  the  value  of  the  succession,  1  per 
cent. ;  where  the  successor  shall  be  a  brother  or  sister,  or  a  legal  lineal 
descendant  of  a  brother  or  sister  of  a  predecessor,  £3  per  cent.  ;  where 
the  successor  shall  be  a  brother  or  sister  of  the  father  or  mother,  or  the 
legal  descendant  of  the  brother  or  sister  of  the  father  or  mother  of  the 
predecessor,  £5  per  cent. ;    where  the  successor   shall  be  a  brother  or 
sister  of  the  grandfather  or  grandmother  of  the  predecessor,  £6  per  cent; 
and  where    the   successor    shall    be    in  any   other  degree  of   collateral 
consanguinity   to    the  predecessor  than  is  heretofore  described,  or  shall 
be  a  stranger  in  blood  to  him,  £10  per  cent.     In  assessing  real  estate  the 
duty  is  charged  on  two-thirds  of   the  amount  arrived  at  by  using  the 
English  tables. 

In  1891  a  new  Act  was  passed  "to  consolidate  and  amend  the  Law 
relating  to  the  Estates  of  Deceased  Persons,"  &c.  (x\o.  537  of  189 1 ).  The 
principal  portions  of  this  Act  are  technical,  and  relate  to  jurisdiction  and 
procedure  and  to  the  vesting  and  administration  of  estates.  Some  new 
principles  are  embodied  in  it,  which  are  briefly  noticed.  Any  will  made, 
duly   executed    according   to    the    provisions    of   the   Act,   whereof   an 


LAW,    CRIME,    ETC.  167 

executor  or  executors  shall  be  appointed,  may.  at  anj'  time  previous  to 
the  death  of  the  testator,  be  deposited  for  safe  custody  with  the  Registrar 
of  Probates  by  the  testator  or  certain  persons  acting  on  his  behalf.  It 
must  be  enclosed  in  a  packet  sealed  by  the  Registrar,  and  indorsed  with 
the  names  of  the  testator  and  executor  or  executors,  the  date  of  the 
will,  &c.  Every  will  so  deposited  must  be  executed  by  the  testator  as 
required  by  law,  and  one  of  the  attesting  witnesses  must  be  the  tlegistrar, 
a  district  registrar,  a  notary  public,  a  solicitor,  or  a  commissioner  for 
taking  affidavits  in  the  Supreme  Court.  A  deposited  will  may  be  with- 
drawn by  the  testator  or  by  someone  authorised  by  him.  On  the  death  of 
a  testator  whose  will  is  in  the  custody  of  the  Registrar  any  executor  of  the 
^^•ill  may  apply  for  probate  of  such  Avill,  which  is  granted  under  certain 
regulations.  Land,  on  the  death  of  a  testator,  vests  in  his  executor  or 
administrator  as  if  it  were  a  chattel  real,  and  the  proceeds  of  the  land, 
when  sold,  are  disposable  and  distributable  for  the  payment  of  the  debts 
and  liabilities  of  the  owner  as  if  such  land  had  been  chattel  real.  No 
widow  is  entitled  to  dower  nor  husband  to  his  curtesy  out  of  any 
land  passing  under  the  preceding  section.  On  the  death  of  a  maiTied 
woman,  and  subject  to  certain  provisions  in  the  Act,  her  estate,  so  far  as 
not  devised  or  otherwise  disposed  of,  and  subject  to  any  mortgage,  trust, 
or  equity  affecting  it,  shall  be  distributed  in  the  following  manner  : — If 
she  shall  have  left  any  child  or  remoter  issue  surviving  her,  her  husband 
shall  be  entitled  to  one-third  of  her  estate ;  if  she  shall  not  have  left  any 
child  or  remoter  issue  surviving  her,  the  husband  shall  be  entitled  to  one- 
half  of  the  estate.  Any  person  dying  after  the  day  the  Act  came  into 
force,  and  leaving  a  widow  or  widower,  but  no  issue,  so  far  as  the  estate 
shall  not  be  devised  or  otherwise  disposed  of,  and  subject  to  any  mort- 
gage, trust,  or  equity  affecting  it,  and  to  the  rights  of  creditors  having 
claims  against  it,  the  estate  shall,  in  all  cases  where  its  net  value  does  not 
exceed  £500,  belong  to  the  widow  or  widower  absolutely.  Where  the 
estate  exceeds  £500  the  widow  or  widower  shall  be  entitled  to  £500 
thereof  absolutely,  and  shall  have  a  charge  upon  the  estate  for  that 
amount,  with  interest  from  the  date  of  the  deatli  of  the  intestate  at  8  per 
cent,  per  annum  until  payment.  The  provision  for  the  widow  or  widower 
thus  intended  to  be  made  shall  be  in  addition  and  without  prejudice  to 
her  or  his  share  in  the  estate  remaining  after  payment  of  the  sum  of  £500. 
As  regards  succession  to  any  estate  under  the  total  or  partial  intestacy  of 
a  woman,  her  illegitimate  child  shall  have  the  same  right  and  title  <is  if 
he  were  legitimate  ;  and,  so  far  as  regards  succession  to  any  estate  under 
the  total  or  partial  intestacy  t'f  an  illegitimate  child,  his  next  of  kin  on 
his  mother's  side  shall  have  the  same  right  and  title  as  if  he  were  legiti- 
mate.     All  specialty   and    simple    contract    debts  of  deceased    persons 


168  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

Stand  in  equal  degree.  Devisees  of  real  estate  cannot  claim  payment  of 
mortgage  out  of  the  personal  assets  of  the  deceased.  The  executor  or 
administrator  has  no  right  of  retainer  ;  a  creditor  who  has  obtained 
judgment  against  the  executor  or  administrator  cannot,  by  reason  of 
his  judgment,  have  priority  over  other  creditors;  and  legal  assets  are, 
subject  to  the  Act,  administered  in  the  same  manner  as  equitable 
assets. 

The  insolvency  law  (Act  No.  385  of  1886)  follows  the  principles  of  the 
measure  introduced  into  the  Imperial  Parliament  by  Mr.  Chamberlain. 
It  imjDoses  on  the  Insolvency  Court  the  duty  of  watching  insolvencies  for 
the  benefit  of  the  public,  and,  where  necessary,  of  punishing  insolvents  ; 
and  also  of  seeing  to  the  proper  distribution  of  insolvents'  estates.  In 
place  of  the  Official  Assignee  the  Act  creates  the  office  of  Official 
Receiver,  whose  duties,  in  addit'on  to  those  of  the  Official  Assignee, 
are  also  to  watch  the  trustee  or  trustees  appointed  at  the  instance  of  the 
creditors.  He  acts  as  sole  trustee  till  the  creditors  appoint  one.  The 
trustee  manages  the  estate,  and  must  make  returns  to  the  Official  Re- 
ceiver, who  watches  the  administration  of  the  estate.  Until  a  trustee  is 
appointed  the  Official  Receiver  manages  ttie  estate.  A  trustee  when 
appointed  must  realise  the  estate,  but  must  not  retain  the  money  in  his 
own  hands.  A  debtor  cannot  make  a  deed  of  assignment  without  the 
consent  of  his  creditors,  a  meeting  of  whom  he  must  call  before  executing 
any  such  deed.  If  the  creditors  do  not  pass  a  resolution  authorising 
the  debtor  to  execute  the  deed,  or  if  he  should  fail  within  a  specified 
period  to  execute  it  pursuant  to  such  resolution,  an  act  of  insolvency  is 
deemed  thereby  to  have  been  committed,  provided  the  creditors,  within 
a  time  fixed  by  the  Act,  present  a  jietition  for  adjudication  of  insolvency. 
With  the  consent  of  a  majority  in  number,  and  two-thirds  in  value,  the 
court  may  order  that  a  composition  be  accepted  in  satisfaction  of  the 
debts  of  the  insolvent,  or  that  a  scheme  of  arrangement  of  the  insolvent's 
affairs  be  approved.  Before  any  such  order  is  made  the  Official  Receiver 
must  make  a  report  satisfactory  to  the  court  as  to  the  composition  or 
scheme  ;  and  the  court  in  dealing  with  the  matter  will  take  into  con- 
sideration the  character  of  the  proposed  arrangement,  and  also  the  con- 
duct of  the  insolvent.  The  Act,  whilst  giving  large  powers  to  the  credi- 
tors, places  in  the  hands  of  the  court  authority  to  act  where  necessary, 
not  only  for  the  benefit  of  the  creditors,  but  also  in  the  interests  of  the 
public,  who  may  be  considered  to  be  more  or  less  wronged  by  every 
insolvency. 

Prior  to  the  year  1853  persons  who  had  claims  against  the  colonial 
Government  had  no  remedy  open  to  them  by  which  those  claims  could 
be  brought  before  the  courts,  except  that  of  a  petition  of  right.     That 


LAW,    CRIME,    KTC.  169 

procedure  was  of  limited  operation  and  insufficient  to  meet  all  such 
■cases.  It  could  only  be  obtained  in  England,  and  was  attended  with  great 
expense,  inconvenience,  and  delay.  In  the  year  above  named  a  short 
Act  was  passed  (the  Claimants  Relief  Act,  No.  6  of  1853)  to  terminate 
this  unsatisfactory  state  of  thinjrs.  It  provides  that  persons  having 
pecuniary  claims  against  the  Government  of  the  province  may  petition 
the  Governor  to  have  those  claims  inquired  into  by  the  law  courts.  The 
petition  must  set  forth  the  particulars  of  the  claims,  and  contain  a 
•certificate  from  a  practising  barrister  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
province  that  the  petitioner  has  a  proper  case  for  redress.  Within 
fourteen  days  of  its  presentation  the  Governor  is  required  to  refer  the 
petition  to  the  Supreme  Court  for  trial  by  jury  or  otherwise  as  the  court 
shall  direct.  In  case  the  Governor,  with  the  advice  of  his  Executive 
Council,  should  certify  that  the  petition  affects  the  Royal  prerogative 
the  petition  is  transmitted  to  the  Secretary  of  State  for  signification  of 
Her  Majesty's  approval  or  disapproval.  If  it  be  returned  with  the  Royal 
approval,  the  case  proceeds  in  the  ordinary  way;  but  if  returned  without 
ap])roval,  the  petition,  with  the  indorsement  thereon,  and  the  reasons  for 
■withholding  such  approval,  must  be  forthwith  published  in  the  Govern- 
ment Gazette,  in  which  case  the  remedy  provided  by  the  Act  cannot 
loe  had.  At  the  time  the  reference  is  made  to  the  Supreme  Court,  the 
Governor  is  directed  to  name  some  person  to  appear  as  nominal  defendant. 
That  person,  however,  is  not  subject  to  any  individual  responsibility,  in 
•either  person  or  property,  by  reason  of  his  being  the  nominal  defendant. 
The  Supreme  Court  is  empowered  to  make  rules  and  orders  for  regulating 
the  proceedings  under  any  petition,  and  the  parties  to  such  proceedings 
have  the  same  rights,  by  way  of  appeal,  rehearing  motion  for  the  reversal 
■of  verdicts,  or  otherwise,  as  in  ])rivate  suits  at  law  or  in  equity.  Costs 
follow  on  either  side  as  in  ordinary  cases  between  suitors,  and  judgments 
recovered  by  any  petitioners  may  be  paid  by  the  Governor  out  of  the 
ordinary  revenue  of  the  colony. 

The  Supreme  Court  exercises  jurisdiction  in  all  matrimonial  causes.  No 
special  judge  is  appointed  to  deal  with  such  cases  exclusively.  They 
are  heard  and  decided  by  arrangement  amongst  the  judges  themselves, 
and  their  decisions  are  reported  to  the  Full  Court,  which  issues  its 
decrees  in  accordance  therewith,  unless  cause  to  the  contrary  be  shown, 
or  some  circumstances  should  transi)ire  to  justify  suspension  or  variation 
of  the  customary  orders.  The  private  business  of  the  court  is  carried 
on,  under  the  judges,  by  a  Master  of  the  Supreme  Court  (who  is  also 
the  Public  Trustee),  a  registrar  of  probates  and  chief  clerk,  and  three 
judges'  associates.  The  processes  of  the  court  arc  enforced  by  the 
sheriff  and  his  assistants.     The  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  have  the 


170  SOUTH     AlsrUAl.l.V. 

power  to  sentence  criniinals  to  death  in  cases  where  the  law  prescribes 
that  penalty,  and  there  is  no  appeal  against  any  such  sentence  except 
upon  questions  reserved  at  the  time  of  trial  by  the  judge  who  tries  the 
case.  No  sentence  of  death,  however,  is  carried  out  until  after  the  case 
has  been  brought  before  the  Governor  in  Executive  Council,  when  the 
judge  before  whom  the  trial  took  place  is  in  attendance  with  his  notes 
to  afford  such  information  relating  to  the  circumstances  as  may  be 
required  to  assist  the  Council  in  deciding  Avhether  or  not  the  sentence 
shall  be  carried  into  effect.  The  Executive  Council,  which  is  composed 
of  the  Ministers  in  office  for  the  time  being,  decide  the  question  as  to 
whether  the  capital  sentence  shall  be  carried  out  or  not,  and  the  Governor 
acts  on  their  advice,  as  he  does  on  other  occasions  where  such  advice 
is  officially  tendered  to  him.  The  judge  who  has  tried  the  case  signs 
the  warrant  for  execution.  All  executions  take  place  within  the  walls  of  a 
gaol.  The  sheriff  is  responsible  for  the  due  carrying  out  of  the  warrant. 
At  the  time  of  execution  no  one  is  admitted  into  the  gaol  except  the 
coroner  and  the  jurors  who  hold  an  inquest  on  the  body  of  the  criminal, 
and  some  members  of  the  press.  Capital  punishment  is  a  rare  occurrence 
in  South  Australia.  Only  two  executions  have  taken  place  in  the 
province  since  1881  :  the  last  was  in  1883. 

The  business  in  the  Courts  of  Justice  is  carried  on  by  practitioners  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  South  Australia.  The  profession  of  the  law  is 
not  divided  into  two  branches  of  barristers  and  solicitors,  as  it  is  in 
England  and  in  many  of  the  English  colonies,  but  consists  of  one  body, 
the  members  of  which  are  called  practitioners  of  the  Supreme  Court. 
These  practitioners  are  entitled  to  i)ractice  as  barristers,  solicitors, 
attorneys,  and  proctors  in  all  courts  of  the  colony.  Any  practitioner  may 
become  a  notary  public,  but  a  separate  licence  to  act  as  a  notary  must 
be  obtained  from  the  Supreme  Court  on  payment  of  a  special  fee. 

To  entitle  a  person  to  be  admitted  as  a  practitioner  he  must  have 
served  as  a  clerk  under  articles  to  a  practitioner  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
or  as  a  Judge's  Associate,  for  at  least  three  years,  or  part  of  the  time 
as  one  and  part  as  the  other.  He  must  also  have  taken  the  degree  of 
LL.B.  in  the  University  of  Adelaide,  or  have  served  under  articles  to  a 
practitioner  for  at  least  five  years,  or  have  served  as  Judge's  Associate 
for  that  term,  or  part  of  the  time  as  a  clerk  under  articles  and  part  as  a 
Judges'  Associate,  and  also  have  passed,  in  addition,  examination'^  at 
the  Univeisity  in  the  Law  of  Property,  Constitutional  Law%  the  Law  of 
Obligations,  the  Law  of  Wrongs  (Civil  and  Criminal),  and  the  Law  of 
Procedure. 

A  person  who  has  been  admitted  to  the  bar,  or  as  an  advocate, 
solicitor,  attorney,  proctor,  or  writer  to  the  signet  in   Great  Britain,  or 


LAW,    CRIME,    ETC.  171 

has  served  for  a  full  term  of  five  j-ears  under  articles  to  any  of  the 
above-mentioned  persons,  or  part  of  the  time  under  articles  to  anj-  such 
persons  and  the  remainder  to  any  practitioner  in  South  Australia,  and 
has  passed  the  necessary  examinations,  is  entitled  to  be  admitted  as  a 
practitioner  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  colony. 

Any  person  who  has  actually  been  admitted  as  a  barrister,  solicitor, 
attorney,  or  proctor  in  Australasia,  New  Zealand,  British  North  America, 
or  in  South  Africa,  and  has  satisfied  the  Supreme  Coin-t  that  the  standard 
of  qualification  for  admission  to  the  bar  of  or  as  a  solicitor.  &c.,  in  the 
colony  from  which  he  came  is  not  inferior  to  that  of  South  Australia,  is 
entitled  to  be  admitted  as  a  practitioner  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  South 
Australia. 

No  person  is  entitled  to  be  admitted  as  a  practitioner  unless  he  is  a 
natural  born  or  a  naturalised  subject  of  the  Queen,  and  until  he  has 
attained  the  full  age  of  twenty-one  years.  'I'he  fees  payable  on  admis- 
sion are:  On  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance,  £l  Is.;  admission  fee, 
£10  10s. 

Before  a  person  is  entitled  to  enter  into  articles  of  clerkship  he  must 
have  passed  the  matricvilation  examination  in  the  University  of  Adelaide, 
or  in  some  University  recognised  by  the  Adelaide  University,  or  the 
preliminaiy  or  intermediate  examination  which  clerks  articled  in  England, 
Ireland,  and  Scotland  are  required  to  pass. 

l^ractitioners  of  the  Supreme  Court  are  eligible  for  appointment  as 
Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  or  to  any  of  the  judicial  offices  which 
exist  in  the  colony,  although  the  Executive  is  not  necessarily  restricted 
to  the  bar  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  South  Australia  in  any  judicial 
appointments  the  Government  may  deem  it  desirable  to  make.  All  of 
the  Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  as  well  as  the  Commissioner  of 
Insolvency,  were  practitioners  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  province, 
and  gained  their  professional  experience  in  South  Australia. 

The  records  of  the  coiu-ts  of  justice  form  in  most  communities 
somewhat  accurate  indices  to  the  geneial  character  and  morals  of  the 
people  with  whose  crimes,  excesses,  and  personal  disputes  they  are 
concerned.  Happily  for  South  Australia  she  has  no  distinct  criminal 
class  in  her  midst.  There  is  a  certain  amount  of  vagabondage  and 
rascality  floating  about  Adelaide,  as  there  is  about  all  cities,  but  the 
people  who  fall  within  tliis  category  are  not  persons  who  commit  serious 
offences,  but  who  pass  their  lives  in  idleness  when  out  of  gaol,  and  when 
committed  to  gaol  are  sent  there  as  drunkards,  petty  thieves,  or  as  rogues 
and  vagabonds.  A  large  proportion  of  the  criminals  who  are  sent  to  the 
stockade,  or  otherwise  the  Yatala  Labor  Prison,  which  is  the  principal 
place  where  serious  offences  are  expiated,  are  habitual  criminals,  as  may 


172 


SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 


be  seen  from  the  following  table,  whicli  gives  the  state  of  the  prison  for 
a  period  of  ten  years  : — 

Statement  of  the  Number  of  Prisoners  in  the  Yatala  Labor  Prison  for'  Ten 

Years  ending  in  1892. 


Tear. 


1883  

1884  

1885  

1886  

1887  

1888  

1889  

1890  

1891  

1892  

Totals 


Prisoners 

Confined  on 

Dec.  31st. 


Previously  Convicted. 


Once. 


Twice. 


Three 

or  More 

Times. 


277 

234 
222 

195 
164 

144 
114 

lOI 

98 

121 


1,670 


67 

47 
56 
51 
41 
31 
20 

13 
13 

19 


12 

13 

17 
15 
II 
10 
12 

15 
10 

16 


358 


131 


21 
18 

23 
39 
24 

27 

24 
21 

25 
29 


Total  of 

Previous 

Convictions. 


Per  cent. 

of 
Prisoners. 


251 


100 

78 
96 

105 

76 

68 
56 

49 
48 
64 


740 


3610 

43-24 
53-84 
46-34 

47-22 

49-12 
48-51 
48-97 
52-89 


4431 


From  this  it  appears  that  above  44  per  cent,  of  the  inmates  of  the 
Yatala  Labor  Prison,  during  the  last  ten  years,  have  been  old  and  frequent 
offenders.  Of  these  a  considerable  number  have  been  convicted  in  other 
colonies.  The  table  establishes  the  fact  that  serious  crime  has  consider- 
ably decreased  during  the  ten  years  ending  on  December  31sr,  1892. 
In  1883  there  were  135  new  admissions  into  the  prison;  in  1884,  97, 
including  two  returned  from  the  Lunatic  Asylum;  in  1885,  109,  includ- 
ing one  escaped  and  recaptured;  in  188G,  86;  in  1887,  81,  including 
one  sent  back  from  the  Lunatic  Asylum:  in  1885,  65,  including  one 
returned  fi-om  the  Lunatic  Asylum  ;  in  1889,  55,  including  one  from 
the  Lunatic  Asylum;  in  1890,  60,  including  five  from  the  Lunatic 
Asylum  and  one  escaped  prisoner  recaptured;  in  1891,  69,  including 
•eight  sent  back  from  the  Lunatic  Asylum;  in  1892,  85,  including  one 
returned  from  the  Lunatic  Asylum.  This  gives  a  total  of  842  new 
admissions  into  the  prison,  but  as  it  comprises  nineteen  remanded  back 
from  the  Lunatic  Asylum,  and  two  escaped  prisoners  recaptured,  the 
number  is  reduced  to  821.  The  decrease  between  1883  and  1892  is 
56-31  per  cent. 

The  continuous  decline  in  the  number  of  grave  offences  against  the 
law  is  more  strongly  exemplified  by  the  figures  which  follow.  They 
comprise  the   decennial  record  of  the  number  of  offenders  convicted  in 


LAW,    CRIME,    ETC. 


175 


the  Supreme  Court  and  the  Circuit  Courts  between  the  end  of  1882  and 
that  of   1892. 


Offences. 

1883. 

1884. 

1885. 

1886. 

1887. 

1888. 

1889. 

1890. 

[ 
1 801. 

1892. 

Offences  against  the 
person  (felonies) . . 

Offences  against  pro- 
perty (felonies)    . . 

Misdemeanoi'S    

1 

16 

94 
55 

165 

15 

86 
26 

127 

5 

89 
39 

133 

5 

92 
24 

4 

72 
26 

6 

59 
26 

8 

48 
22 

4 

51 
27 

5 

58 
27 

4 

60 
26 

Totals     

121 

102 

91 

78 

82 

1 

90 

90 

The  decrease  amounts  to  45*45  per  cent. 

The  subjoined  table,  which  shows  the  number  of  cases  heard  and 
determined  in  the  magistrates'  courts  of  summary  jurisdiction  diu-ing 
the  ten  years  1883  to  1892,  inclusive,  indicates  the  fact  that  minor 
ofPences  —  not  necessarily  criminal  —  have  decreased  nearly  one-half » 
namely,  40*48  per  cent.,  during  the  period. 

Number  of  Cases  De/ermi'ned  in  the  Magistrates'  Courts^  Summary  jfuris- 
diction,  for  Ten  Years  ending  in  1892. 


Year. 

Int'ormations  under  .4ct3 
of  Council,  &c. 

Drunkenness. 

Number  of 
Cases  Heard 

and 
Determined. 

Informa- 
tions Laid 
and  not 

Dismissals. 

Convictions. 

Di^missals. 

Convictions. 

Proceeded 
with. 

1883 

1884 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1890 

189I 

1892 

1,047 
982 

852 
714 
613 
559 
581 
631 
660 
696 

6,553 
6,182 

5,322 
4,017 

3.743 
3,656 
3,450 
3,449 
3,770 
3,828 

55 
54 
88 

64 

38 

32 

114 

141 

127 

4,478 
3,884 
3,273 
2,471 
2,026 

2,350 

i,97t 
2,268 
2,846 
2,571 

12,133 
11,102 

9,535 
7,297 
6,443 
6,603 

6,034 
6,462 

7,417 
7,222 

1,110 
1,019 

983 
830 

772 
735 
591 
692 

779 
826 

In  the  year  1883  4,478  persons  were  convicted  of  drunkenness. 
Many  of  those  persons  were,  as  they  are  in  all  years,  habituals  who  are 
continually  before  the  magistrates.  The  extent  to  which  their  fretiuent 
appearances  swell  the  total  of  the  number  of  cases  has  not  been  ascer- 
tained. The  South  Australian  colonists  are  not  intemperate  as  a  whole, 
and    whatever    amount   of    intemperance   may  have    prevailed  or  does 


174 


SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 


prevail  amongst  them  is  steadily  decreasing.  In  tlie  year  1892  2,571 
convictions  for  drunkenness  were  recorded.  The  difference  between 
the  number  of  convictions  in  the  two  years  cited  was  1,907  cases.  In 
1883  the  estimated  population  was  300,100  persons;  the  convictions  for 
drunkenness  in  that  year  amounted  to  1*49  per  cent.  In  1892  the  esti- 
mated population  was  331,721  souls,  and  the  convictions  for  the  above 
offence  had  fallen  to  2,571,  or  0'77  per  cent.  The  decrease  in  drunken- 
ness is  clearly  shown  by  the  following  table  : — 

Table   showing  the   ratio   of  Convictions  for  Drunkenriess  to   the    Total 
Population  for  Ten  Years  ending  in   1892. 


Year. 


Population. 


Convictions  tor      Ratio  per  cent. 
Drunkenness.        to  Population. 


1883. 
1884, 
1885, 
1886, 
1887, 
1888, 
1889. 
1890, 
1891, 
1892, 


300,100 

307,433 
306,212 

304,336 
308,215 
306,641 
311,112 

314,195 
320,723 
331,721 


1-49 
1-26 
1-07 
081 
065 
076 
063 
072 
0-88 
077 


The  mean  annual  population  of  the  colony  for  the  ten  years  included 
above  was  311,069  persons.  The  mean  annual  number  of  convictions 
for  drunkenness  was  2,814,  which  gives  a  mean  percentage  of  0-90. 
These  figures  do  not  establish  any  great  laxity  of  morals  in  the  direction 
of  intemperance  in  South  Australia. 

From  the  following  extracts  from  the  "  Statistical  Register,"  published 
officially,  it  appears  that  the  committals  to  the  Adelaide  Gaol,  which  is 
the  receptacle  for  all  prisoners  within  a  radius  of  nearly  100  miles 
from  the  metropolis,  have  fallen  from  2,207  in  1883  to  1,139,  in  1892, 
or  48'39  per  cent,  in  the  decade.  Similarly  the  number  of  persons  who 
had  been  previously  committed  declined  from  977  in  1883  to  519  in  1892, 
or  46'87  per  cent,  in  the  ten  years.  The  greatest  number  in  the  Adelaide 
Gaol  at  one  time  decreased  from  231  in  1883  to  159  in  1892,  or  31-16 
per  cent,  in  the  period.       The  niimber  of  males  dropped  from   1,662  in 


LAW,  (;rime,  ek;. 


175 


1883  to  868  in   1892,  or  47-77  per  cent.,  and  the  females  from    545  in 
1883  to  271  in  1892,  or  50-27  per  cent:  — 

Statemenl  of  the  Number  of  Prisonets  in  the  Adelaide  Gaol  for  Ten  Years 

ending  in   1892. 


Total  Number 

Number  who  had 

Greatest  Number 

Number  in  Gaol  on 

Committed  during 

been  Previously 

in  Gaol  at  One 

31st  December  in 

the  Year. 

Committed. 

Time. 

each  Year. 

Year. 

Males. 

Females. 

Males. 

Females. 

Males. 

Females. 

1 
Males. 

Females. 

1883.... 

1,662 

545 

587 

390 

167 

64 

74 

34 

1884    ... 

1,489 

467 

448 

348 

151 

55 

100 

31 

1885.... 

1,130 

430 

356 

3" 

125 

57 

60 

25 

1886.... 

1,074 

430 

378 

320 

99 

50 

74 

23 

1887.. 

941 

357 

240 

312 

104 

43 

63 

35 

[888.... 

912 

295 

375 

215 

91 

34 

70 

33 

1889.... 

957 

321 

350 

226 

102 

38 

56 

38 

1890 

887 

257 

320 

196 

94 

36 

94 

29 

1891.... 

956 

260 

357 

204 

127 

38 

103 

28 

1892.... 

868 

271 

327 

192 

137 

22 

8" 

7 

There  are  seven  gaols  in  South  Australia : — The  Yatala  Labor  Prison 
(for  male  convicts  only,  whose  sentences  are  for  eight  months  or  more), 
the  Adelaide  Gaol,  aud  smaller  gaols  at  Redruth.  Mount  Gambler, 
Wallaroo,  Port  Lincoln,  and  Gladstone,  to  the  last  of  which  women  who 
have  long  sentences  to  serve  are  sent  to  relieve  the  Adelaide  Gaol. 
These  prisons  can  accommodate  741  prisoners  if  confined  in  separate  cells, 
and  1,129  if  more  prisoners  than  one  occupy  a  cell.  The  number  of 
prisoners  received  into  all  the  gaols  in  the  colony  in  the  course  of  1892 
was  1,290  males  and  289  females,  in  all  1,579,  which  gives  a  ratio  of 
0"48  per  cent,  of  the  population.  Of  these  persons  1,159  males  could 
read  and  write,  and  222  females,  18  males,  and  21  females  could  read 
only,  and  114  males  and  46  females  could  not  read.  The  discipline  in 
the  different  prisons  is  remarkably  well  maintained.  The  total  number 
of  punishments  inflicted  in  the  gaols  for  misconduct  were  only  32  in 
1892,  being  only  2-03  per  cent,  of  the  niimber  of  prisoners  incarcerated 
—  1,579. 

It  has  not  been  the  purpose  of  this  work  to  institute  comparisons 
between  this  province  and  the  other  colonies  which  forni  the  Australian 
group.  It  has  been  considered  sufficient  to  treat  of  the  colony  as  it  is 
and  has  been,  without  reference  to  the  sister  provinces,  whose  internal 
affairs  and  whose  condition  do  not  directly  concern  the  South  Australian 
people.  Statements,  however,  have  appeared  in  an  official  work  pub- 
lished in  Victoria,  which,  if  reliable,  would  lead  to  the  inference  that  the 


176 


SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 


Soiiili  Australian  colonists  are  by  far  the  most  immoral  people  on  the 
great  Southern  Continent.  In  the  "Victorian  Year  Book,  1889-90," 
pp.  52  and  53,  it  is  stated  "  that  the  Commissioner  of  Police  in  Victoria, 
by  means  of  the  force  at  his  disposal  and  by  correspondence  with  the 
police  authorities  in  the  neighboring  colonies,  a  few  years  since  obtained 
some  figures  relating  to  the  prostitution  existing  in  Melbourne, 
Sydney,  Brisbane,  and  Adelaide,  which  will  be  found  in  the  following 
table : — 


Capital  Cities. 


Popula;ion, 
Census,  i88i. 


Estimated  Prostitutes  per 

Number  of  Pros-  |    10,000  of  the 
titutes,  i88j.      I     Population. 


Melbourne 
Sydney     . . 
Brisbane  . . 
Adelaide  . . 


282,947 

224,211 

31.109 

67,954 


2I-IO 

27-34 
31-82 

73-58 


The  "  Year  Book  "  says  : — "According  to  the  figures  in  the  last  column,. 
Melbourne  was  much  freer  from  prostitution  than  any  one  of  the  other 
metropolitan  cities  named.  It  will  be  observed  that  even  in  actual 
numbers  the  prostitutes  in  Melbourne  were  fewer  than  in  Sydney,, 
although  the  latter  had  the  smaller  population.  An  enormous  amount 
of  prostitution  appears  to  exist  in  Adelaide  ;  but  the  figures,  being  given 
in  round  numbers,  must  be  regarded  with  suspicion."  As  regards  the 
first  part  of  the  paragraph,  which  intimates  that  Melbourne  was  much 
freer  from  prostitution  than  any  one  of  the  other  cities  named,  it  is 
sufficient  to  say  that  any  unprejudiced  person  who  walked  through  the 
principal  thoroughfares  in  the  cities  indicated  after  nightfall,  and  noted 
what  he  saw,  would  come  to  a  different  conclusion.  As  far  as  outward 
appearances  can  prove  anything,  the  social  evil  prevails  in  Melbourne  to 
an  extent  mu.ch  in  excess  of  that  of  any  other  Australian  city.  In  the 
"  Year  Book  "  it  is  intimated  that  the  figures  relating  to  South  Australia, 
being  given  in  round  numbers,  must  be  regarded  with  suspicion.  So, 
indeed,  they  should  ;  but  not  because  they  are  given  in  round  numbers. 
According  to  other  figures  given  in  the  "  Year  Book,"  it  is  proved 
that  there  is  less  crime  and  less  drunkenness  in  South  Australia  than 
in  any  of  the  Australian  colonies.  Besides  this,  as  a  matter  of  fact  there 
is  less  destitution  and  there  are  less  illegitimate  births  in  South  Australia, 
in  proportion  to  the  popvdation,  than  in  any  of  the  Australian  colonies. 
Since  it  is  a  fact  that  the  principal  causes  which  lead  women  to  resort  to 
prostitution  exist  in  a  far  less  degree  in  South  Australia  than  they  do 
in  other  Australian  colonies,  it  is  reasonable  to  infer  that  the  fact  of 
prostitution  itself  must  also  be  less. 


LAAV,    CHIMH,    KTf.  177 

Moreover,  no  figures  such  as  those  given  above  can  be  regarded  as 
absolutely  coiTect,  because  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  an  accurate  census  of 
the  women  who  gain  their  subsistence  in  this  miserable  way.  Even  in 
countries  where  brothels  are  licensed  and  prostitutes  registered  such 
returns  cannot  be  implicity  relied  on,  on  account  of  the  number  of  females 
who  follow  their  occupation  in  secret  and  unknown  to  the  authorities. 
How  the  number  of  500  prostitutes  in  Adelaide  and  its  suburbs  was 
arrived  at  it  is  impossible  now  to  ascertain.  It  seems  likely,  however, 
from  recent  inquiries,  that  it  was  merely  a  general  estimate,  not  resting 
on  ascertained  numbers.  The  reports  from  the  Commissioner  of 
Police  show  that  in  the  year  1890  37  women  were  arrested  by  the 
police  for  loitering  for  or  soliciting  prostitution.  In  the  following 
year  (1891)  the  number  was  14,  and  in  1892,  21.  The  number  of 
persons  arrested  for  indecent  assaults  in  1890  and  1891  amounted  to  14 
in  each  year,  and  11  in  1892.  The  number  arrested  for  rape  in  1890  was 
9,  6  in  1891,  and  8  in  1892.  The  number  arrested  for  lewdness  in  1890 
was  6,  and  in  1891  8,  and  10  in  1892.  In  1890  there  were  no  arrests 
for  keeping  disorderly  houses,  2  in  1891,  and  none  in  1892.  These 
figures  and  facts  do  not  indicate  the  existence  of  such  widespread 
immorality  in  South  Australia  as  might  be  inferred  from  the  figures 
given  in  the  "  Year  Book." 

Early  in  1892  the  subject  of  the  amount  of  prostitution  existing  in  the 
city  of  Adelaide  and  its  suburbs  engaged  the  special  attention  of  the 
police.  '1  he  outcome  of  a  careful  investigation  into  the  matter  was  that 
within  the  area  indicated,  which  contained  a  population  of  132,252  souls, 
the  number  of  women  of  the  unfortunate  class  who  were  known  to  the 
police  was  204  ;  this  would  give  a  proportion  of  15-31  pei-  ten  thousand. 
If,  however,  the  population  is  estimated  according  to  the  number  of 
females  only  within  the  city  and  suburbs,  69,375,  the  result  is  that  there 
are  29'41  per  ten  thousand  females. 

The  relative  morality  of  the  colonies  in  another  aspect  is  shown  by  the 
following  extract  from  the  report  of  the  Registrar-General  of  Births, 
Deaths,  and  Marriages  in  South  Australia  for  the  year  1892  : — 

"  lUeyitiinate  Births. — The  births  entered  in  1892  as  illegitimate  num- 
bered 309  (159  males  and  150  females),  against  315  in  the  previous  year, 
the  percentage  of  illegitimate  to  all  births  being  the  same  for  each  of  the 
two  years,  viz.,  2'93.  The  latest  returns  received  give  the  following 
percentages  for  all  the  Australian  colonies  and  for  England : — 


Western  Australia   ..1892  5-89 

New  South  "Wales   ..1892  562 

Victoria     1892  5-59 

Queensland 1892  5-05 


Tasmania 1892  4-75 

New  Zealand    1892  3-32 

South  Australia    ....  1892  2-93 

England    189I  4-20 


M 


178 


SOL'TH    AUSTRALIA. 


"  For   the   convenience   of   reference   and    of   comparison    the    South 
Australian  rates  of  illegitimacy  are  here  appended,  for  twelve  years : — 
1881 
1882 
1883 


1884 
1885 
1886 


2-25 

1887 

2-25 

1888 

175 

1889 

2-10 

1890 

2-42 

189I 

2-38 

1892 

2-49 

2-57 

247 

2-50 

2-93 

2-93 

"  For  these  twelve  years  the  mean  percentage  of  illegitimate  to  the 
total  births  was  2-43,  while,  according  to  the  'Victorian  Year  Book' 
for  1892,  the  mean  percentages  in  the  other  Australasian  colonies  and 
the  United  Kingdom  (calculated  in  each  instance  on  the  returns  of  many 
years)  were  as  follows  : — 


New  South  Wales    4*44 

Victoria     4-30 

Tasmania 4 '06 

Queensland   3-87 


New  Zealand    2-57 

England  and  Wales     ....  4-70 

Scotland    8-20 

Ireland 2-"o 


Divorce  cases  and  matrimonial  suits  are  factors  in  the  morality  of  a 
people.  These  factors  in  South  Australia  are  recorded  as  under : — 
1883,38;  1884,36;  1885,31;  1886,18;  1887,14;  1888,16;  1889, 
12;   1890,  8;   1891,  14;   1892,  8. 

These  records  effectually  dispose  of  the  suggestion  that  South  Aus- 
tralia is  the  most  immoral  colony  in  the  Australian  family.  They  go, 
further,  to  prove  that,  taken  altogether,  the  standard  of  morality  in 
South  Australia  is  as  satisfactory  as  her  position  is  with  regard  to  crime 
when  compared  with  that  of  any  of  the  other  colonies  in  the  Australian 
continent,* 

With  regard  to  proceedings  in  the  civil  courts,  the  extension  of  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  local  court  to  suits  involving  sums  up  to  £490 
it  is  certain  has  greatly  reduced  the  amount  of  litigation  in  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  province ;  and  the  decisions  of  the  inferior 
courts  (some  of  which  are  presided  over  by  gentlemen  who  have  not 
had  a  legal  training)  have  generally  given  satisfaction.  The  deter- 
mination of  the  cases  which  come  into  court  is  much  more  speedy  than 
it  would  be  if  brought  before  the  higher  tribunal,  and  the  costs  are  less. 
The  reduction  in  the  number  of  writs  issued  out  of  the  Supreme  Court 
has  fallen  off  from  1,104  in  1883  to  169  in  1892,  and  the  number  of 
records  entered  for  trial  has  declined  from  58  in  1883  to  18  in  1892. 
In  equity  in  the  Supreme  Court  the  originating  summonses  have 
fluctuated  considerably,  ranging  in  the  ten  years  from  1883  to 
1892    from    3    to    10.        There    were    27    in    1888.       The    number   of 

*  The  figures  given  in  the  "  Victorian  Year  Book"  have  been  altered  since  the  above 
was  in  type.  As  the  incon-ect  statements  have  been  widely  circulated  in  that  pubKca- 
tion  it  has  not  been  considered  advisable  to  alter  the  text.  The  refutation  should 
appear  on  record  as  well  as  the  statements  themselves. 


LAW,    CRIMK,    ETC.  179 

petitions  filed  have  increased  from  40  in  1883  to  1.54  in  1892. 
Here  again  there  have  been  remarkable  fluctuations,  so  siidden  and 
-spasmodic  (if  they  may  be  so  designated)  as  to  be  referable  to  no 
ascertainable  principle.  The  number  of  probates  of  wills  grew  from  371 
in  1883  to  536  in  1 892,  and  the  number  of  letters  of  administration  ranged 
from  182  to  206  in  the  decade.  These  must  be  regarded  as  formal  pro- 
ceedings only,  which  do  not  properly  fall  under  the  head  of  litigation. 
The  effect  of  the  Local  Courts  Act  m.iy  best  be  indicated  by  the  diminu- 
tion in  the  number  of  writs  which  passed  through  the  Sheriff's  Office. 
In  1883  there  were  169  ;  in  1884,  182  ;  in  1885,  138  ;  in  1886,  111  ;  in 
1887,35  ;  in  1888,23;  in  1889,  18  ;  in  1890,16;  in  1891,  16;  in  1892, 
19.  A  great  deal  of  this  is  due  to  the  abolition  of  imprisonment  for  debt. 
It  should  be  mentioned  here  that  persons  who  attempt  to  abscond  from 
their  creditors  may  be  arrested  and  punished,  and  persons  who  have 
fraudulently  absconded  from  the  colony  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  the 
payment  of  their  just  debts  may  be  brought  back  to  the  colony  and  pro- 
ceeded against  criminally. 

As  regards  insolvencies,  the  decrease  in  the  number  of  cases  in  the 
ten  years  ending  1890  has  been  remarkable.  The  number  of  adjudications 
reached  its  highest  point  in  1883,  when  there  were  355,  and  it  gradually 
decUned  till  it  reached  its  lowest  number,  67,  in  1891  ;  in  1892 
there  were  80.  The  cases  brought  into  the  Local  Courts  in 
actions  of  debt  have  not  varied  in  number  to  any  great  extent  during 
the  last  few  years,  but  out  of  11,793  cases  only  13  were  tried  by  juries 
in  1892.  The  most  singular  feature  in  connection  Avith  Local  Court 
suits  is  the  difference  between  the  amounts  sued  for  and  those  for  which 
verdicts  were  returned.  The  aggregate  of  the  claims  amounted  in  1892 
to  £150,700.  The  defendants  allowed  judgment  to  go  by  default  to  the 
extent  of  £42,256,  leaving  claims  to  the  amount  of  £108,444  to  be 
determined  on  the  hearing  of  the  causes.  The  actual  amount  of  the 
verdicts  recovered  was  £10,767,  or  rather  less  than  10  per  cent. 
Similar  differences,  though  varying  only  in  degree,  are  observable  in 
previous  years.  In  1883  the  number  of  private  arrangements  under  the 
Insolvency  Act  was  135;  in  1892,  226. 

With  regard  to  prisons,  the  immediate  charge  of  the  stockade  (which 
is  situated  about  eight  miles  north  of  Adelaide)  is  under  a  superintendent 
(who  resides  at  the  prison),  with  a  staff  of  guards ;  but  the  general 
control  of  this  penal  establishment,  as  well  as  of  all  other  gaols  except  the 
reformatory  school  for  juvenile  offenders,  rests  with  the  Comptroller  of 
Labor  Prisons,  who  is  also  Sheriff"  of  the  province.  The  discipline  is 
punitive  only.  The  prisoners  in  the  stockade  are  mostly  employed  in 
quarrying  stone  and  breaking  it  for  road  metal;   but  only  able-bodied 


180  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

prisoners  can  be  set  to  work  like  this.  The  rest,  as  far  as  possible,  are 
required  to  labor  at  their  trades  and  in  various  other  ways,  as  far  as 
circiunstances  may  allow.  The  small  number  of  prisoners,  their  unequal 
sentences,  their  personal  conditions  and  capacities,  and  their  state  of 
health  do  not  favor  their  organisation  so  as  to  follow  out  any  distinct 
kind  of  labor,  except  in  a  desultory  way.  Each  able-bodied  prisoner, 
however,  is  required  to  perform  a  certain  daily  task,  and  by  that  mean* 
obtain  a  remission  of  sentence,  equivalent  to  one-third  of  his  term, 
for  continuous  good  conduct.  From  this  it  may  be  inferred  that  the 
Yatala  Labor  Prison  is  not  self-supporting.  The  work  performed  by  the 
prisoners,  gauged  by  the  direct  revenue  received  as  the  result  of  their 
labor,  cannot  be  taken  as  an  index  to  their  actual  earning.  The 
general  work  about  the  prison,  the  cultivation  of  certain  plots  of 
ground  in  rearing  vegetables  for  the  use  of  the  prisoners,  and  other 
employments  which  would  have  a  distinct  money  value  if  done  by 
free  men  out  of  doors,  can  scarcely  be  reduced  to  a  standard  with  a 
constantly  varj'ing  number  of  workers,  whose  capacity  and  experience 
in  different  kinds  of  labor  is  always  uncertain  and  whose  period  of 
detention  is  uncertain  also.  A  few  years  ago  a  new  prison  was  built 
within  the  walls  of  the  stockade,  and  almost  the  whole  of  the  structure 
was  erected  by  convict  labor.  The  actual  trade  value  of  the  work  per- 
formed has  not  been  credited  to  the  general  revenue  of  the  prison, 
apparently  because  no  money  was  received ;  but  the  worth  of  the  build- 
ings and  of  the  work  done  by  the  convicts  in  erecting  it  amounts  ta 
several  thousands  of  pounds. 

The  Adelaide  Gaol  is  the  common  receptacle  of  all  persons  who  may 
be  committed  to  prison  within  a  distance  of  about  100  miles  from 
Adelaide.  They  include  offenders  whose  sentences  range  from  seven 
days  up  to  eight  months — insolvents  detained  by  order  of  the  courts 
debtors  committed  from  local  court,  and  prisoners  awaiting  trial.  A 
large  amount  of  work  cannot  be  expected  from  so  mixed  collection  of 
persons.  Many  of  them  are  physically  incapable,  and  are  scarcely 
able  to  support  themselves  when  at  large.  What  little  they  are  able  to. 
do  has  scarcely  an  appreciable  value,  though  the  cost  of  their  main- 
tenance whilst  under  detention  is  the  same  as  that  of  persons  who  are 
able  to  perform  hard  work.  There  is  an  olive  plantation  close  to  the 
gaol,  the  cultivation  of  which  and  the  making  of  olive  oil  employs  a 
large  number  of  prisoners  at  the  proper  season  of  the  year.  Others  are 
engaged,  under  the  charge  of  guards,  in  cleaning  up  the  cattle  market, 
which  is  near  the  prison,  after  market  days.  Others  again  work  at 
stonebreaking,  oakum  picking,  Sec,  and  in  various  ways  about  the  prison 
as  they  may  be  directed.    Prisoners  awaiting  trial  and  insolvency  or  local 


LAW,    CRIME,    ETC.  181 

court  prisoners  are  not  required  to  perform  any  labor  except  that  of 
keejjing  those  portions  of  the  gaol  in  which  they  are  incarcerated  clean 
and  in  good  order.  The  other  prisons  are  the  receptacles  of  local 
offenders,  and  some  of  them  of  criminals  convicted  at  the  circuit  coui'ts 
which  are  held  in  their  vicinity.  The  daily  dietary  allowance  for  the 
several  classes  of  prisoners  is  as  follows: — No.  1.  Hard  labor — Bread, 
l^lbs.  ;  meat,  lib.;  potatoes,  lib.;  tea,  ^oz. ;  sugar,  2ozs. ;  rice,  2ozs. ; 
salt,  i-oz. ;  soap,  loz. ;  tobacco,  \o7..  No.  2.  Liyht  labor — Bread,  lib. ; 
meat,  ^^Ib  ;  potatoes,  lib. ;  tea,  ioz. ;  sugar,  2ozs  ;  rice,  2ozs. ;  salt, 
3OZ.  ;  soap,  \oz.  ;  tobacco,  ^oz.  No.  3.  Solitary  and  late — Bread,  l^^lb.; 
water,  ad  lib  Prisoners  (male)  are  only  allowed  tobacco  as  a  reward 
for  good  conduct  and  industrj^ — that  is  to  those  only  who  are  earning 
credit  time,  or  for  sjDecial  good  behaviour  in  those  to  whom  credit  may 
not  apply.  Ration  No.  1  is  only  allowed  to  such  prisoners  as  perform  the 
required  amount  of  labor,  unless  ordered  by  the  medical  officer.  The 
medical  officers  of  the  different  prisons  are  empowered  to  vary  the  dietary 
scale  for  any  prisoners  according  as  circumstances  may  require.  The 
average  annual  cost  to  the  public  of  all  the  prisons  in  the  province  for 
the  five  years  ending  in  1890  was  £13,751    17s.  8d. 

The  peace  and  good  order  of  the  colony  is  preserved  by  tlie  South 
Australian  police  force,  which  was  established  in  1839.  Various  Acts 
have  been  passed  since  that  date  to  amend  the  Police  Act,  but  in  1869- 
70  a  consolidating  Act  became  law,  under  which  the  police  have  since 
carried  out  their  duties.  The  police  force  is  divided  into  three  branches 
— mounted,  foot,  and  detective.  The  force  consists  of  5  inspectors,  2 
sub -inspectors,  15  sergeants,  15  corporals,  1  saddler,  152  mounted  con- 
stables, 191  foot  constables,  2  female  searchers,  14  native  police,  24 
camels,  and  313  horses.  The  detective  police  has  9  members,  who  are 
included  in  the  general  strength.  The  whole  of  the  police  are  under  the 
command  of  a  Commissioner,  who  is  directly  responsible  to  the  Chief 
Secretary.  For  police  purposes  the  province  is  divided  into  six  divisions, 
over  which  the  police  are  distributed  as  under :  — Metropolitan  and 
Suburban — About  200  square  miles  in  area,  within  a  radius  of  eight  miles 
from  Adelaide,  2  inspectors,  2  sub-inspectors,  9  sergeants,  6  corporals,  1 
saddler,  24  mounted  constables,  170  foot  constables,  2  female  searchers, 
1  native  j^olice,  52  horses.  Central  Division — 18,940  square  miles,  2 
sergeants,  2  corporals,  38  mounted  constables,  and  46  horses.  South- 
Eastern  Division — 9,430  square  miles,  1  inspector,  2  corporals,  14 
mounted  and  3  foot  constables,  and  27  horses.  Northern  Division — 
13,270  square  miles,  1  inspector,  2  sergeants,  3  corjjorals,  27  mounted 
and  12  foot  constables,  1  native  police,  and  44  horses.  Far  Northern 
Division — About  20,000  square  miles,  1    inspector,  2   sergeants,  2   cor- 


182  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

porals,  49  mounted  and  3  foot  constables,  and  114  horses.  Northern 
Territory — 318,230  square  miles,  1  inspector,  I  sergeant,  18  mounted 
police,  10  native  police,  24  camels,  and  57  horses.  The  Northern  Terri- 
tory police  are  not  reckoned  in  the  strength  of  the  force  belonging  to 
South  Australia  proper.  The  area  of  South  Australia  (exclusive  of  the 
Northern  Territory)  is  about  380,000  square  miles,  so  that  there  is  one 
police  officer  to  every  1,107  square  miles.  The  population  according  tO' 
the  census  of  1891  was  315,210,  so  that  there  was  one  constable  to  every 
919  inhabitants.  The  foot  police  do  the  duty  of  preserving  the  peace  in 
the  public  streets,  and,  as  far  as  they  are  able,  to  prevent  crime ;  they 
are  on  duty  for  eight  hours  at  a  time.  The  duties  of  the  mounted 
troopers  are  multifarious.  Circumstances  require  them,  in  many  cases, 
to  act  as  CroAMi  lands  rangers,  to  collect  the  census  papers  in  outlying 
districts,  to  collect  jury  lists  and  agricultural  statistics,  to  watch  cases 
of  destitution  and  communicate  with  the  destitute  board  thereon,  occa- 
sionally to  act  as  public  vaccinators  and  Customs  officers  near  the  borders; 
all  these  functions  being  superadded  to  the  ordinary  duties  of  constables. 
After  five  years'  continuous  service  non-commissioned  officers  and  con- 
stables who  may  be  compelled  to  resign  their  positions  from  ill-health 
or  abolition  of  office  are  entitled  to  one  month's  pay  for  every  year  of 
continuous  service,  and  the  same  rate  of  allowance  on  voluntary  retire- 
ment after  twenty  years'  service.  This  is  paid  from  a  fund  called  the 
police  fund,  which  is  maintained  from  a  proportion  of  all  fines,  fees, 
forfeitures,  kc,  obtained  by  the  police.  Officers  on  retirement  are  paid 
from  the  general  revenue  in  a  similar  proportion.  All  the  police  are 
drilled  to  the  use  of  arms.  The  metropolitan  police  are  supplied  Avith 
Martini-Henry  rifles  and  batons,  and  are  drilled  so  as  to  be  capable  of 
acting  with  local  military  forces  should  an  emergency  arise.  They  have 
some  of  the  best  marksmen  in  the  colony  in  their  ranks,  and  compete 
annually  for  prizes  given  by  the  Government.  The  mounted  police  are 
armed  with  swords  and  Smith  &.  Weeson's  revolving  carbines,  which 
can  be  used  as  rcA^olvers  or  carbines  as  occasion  may  demand.  These 
are  very  effective  and  light  to  carry.  The  men  are  drilled  in  the  simplest 
cavalry  movements  to  enable  them  to  act  together  in  emergencies,  and  on 
such  occasions  they  discard  their  swords  and  carry  batons  and  revolvers. 
The  daily  pay  of  all  constables,  as  voted  by  Parliament,  is  7s.  6d.,  but 
for  the  sake  of  departmental  convenience  the  men  are  divided  into  three 
classes — 1st  class,  8s.  per  day;  2nd  class,  7s.  6d. ;  3rd  class,  7s.  Pro- 
motion from  class  to  class  goes  by  seniority.  For  the  grade  of  non- 
commissioned officer  an  examination  as  to  fitness  and  ability  must  be  passed. 
In  addition  to  the  above  rates,  constables  of  more  than  four  years' 
standing  are  entitled  to   Id.  per  diem  for  every  year's  service  in  excess 


LAW,    CKIME,    ETC.  183 

of  four  years.  The  mounted  police  receive  £12  per  annum  each  as 
uniform  allowance  and  the  foot  police  £9.  Until  two  years'  service  is 
completed  the  daily  pay  for  both  branches  of  the  force  is  6s.,  and  only 
half  imiform  allowance  is  given.  Leave  of  absence  for  recreation  on  full 
pay,  not  exceeding  fourteen  days  in  the  year,  is  allowed  to  every  constable, 
which  he  can  take  at  one  time,  or  as  it  suits  him.  A  band  is  attached  to 
the  foot  police  at  head  quarters,  supported  entirely  by  voluntary  contri- 
butions. The  ranks  are,  to  a  large  extent,  recruited  fi-om  colonial  youths. 
The  force  is  an  admirable  one.  They  have  a  splendid  physique,  and 
comjjare  favorably  in  all  respects  with  any  similar  body  of  men  in  any 
part  of  the  world.  The  force  has  been  organised  on  its  present  basis  by 
Mr.  W.  J.  Peterswald,  the  Commissioner. 


184  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

The  Ckown  Lands  Act  444  of  1888 — Its  Divisions. — Part  1.  Definition  of 
Terms  used  in  the  Act— Alienation  of  Lands — Exchange  of  Lands — 
Dedication  of  Lands — Resumption— Reservation  of  Gold,  Silver,  and 
other  Metals,  &c. — Compensation  to  Owners — Part  II.  Leases — Land 
Districts  —  Land  Boards  —  Classification  of  Lands  —  Powers  of  Land 
Boards. — Part  II.  Lease,  with  Right  of  Purchase — Rents,  how  to  be 
Paid — Covenants — Resumption  of  Leased  Lands — Improvements — Sur- 
render OF  Leases — Remission  of  Rents. — Part  III.  Sales  of  Land  for 
Cash — Trrms. — Part  IV.  Pastoral  Leases  —  Classification  thereof. 
Class  I.  Leases  to  be  offered  at  Public  Auction  iv  Suitable  Blocks 
— Terms — Improvements  to  be  Paid  for  on  Termination  of  Lease, 
AND  Compensation  for  Depreciation  of  Lease  in  case  of  Resumption. 
— Leases  in  Class  II.  Improvements  how  to  be  Paid  for — Compensation 
FOR — Depreciation  in  Value  of  Run  in  consequence  of  Resumption. — 
Class  III.  Leases  to  be  offered  at  Public  Auction — Conditions — Payment 
FOR  Improvements — ^Lessee  required  to  Stock  the  Land  m'ithin  Three 
Years — Lessee  Released  fkom  the  Covenant  to  Stock  on  certain  Con- 
ditions— Entry  on  Leased  Land  for  Sura^ey  and  other  Purposes — 
Lessees  to  make  Returns  of  Stock — Travelling  Stock  to  Pay  Fees — 
Depasturing  Stock  without  Authority — Payments  and  Penalties — 
Persons  whose  Leases  have  been  Forfeited  not  allowed  to  hold  a 
Lease  of  the  Land  ok  any  Interest  therein. — Part  V.  Leases  and 
Licences  for  Mining  Purposes — Terms  of  Leases — Rent — Royalty  on 
Profits — Returns  to  be  Furnished — Penalty  for  Non-compliance — 
Inspection  of  Books  and  1'apers — Land  not  to  be  Used  for  other  than 
Mining  Purposes — Expenditure  on  Lands  Leased  for  Mineral  Pur- 
poses— Surrendek  of  Leases — Mineral  Licences  —  Terms  and  Con- 
ditions—Surrender OF  Leases. — Part  VI.  Miscellaneous  Leases — 
Aboriginal  Reserves— Government  Buildings — Sites  for  various  pur- 
poses—To BE  Offered  at  Auction— Grazing  Leases — Cultivation  of 
such  Lands — 1'reservation  of  Growing  Timber — Licenses  to  Enter 
UPON  Reserved  or  Dedicated  Lands — Term  of  Licence — Cancellation 
OF  Licences. — Part  VII.  "Working  Men's  Blocks— Area — Terms  of 
Lease — Terms  of  Purchase — Conditions  of  Residence. — Part  VIII. 
Frauds  at  Auctions — Illegal  Agreements. — Part  IX.  Miscellaneous 
Provisions. — Part  X.  Legal  Procedure — Appointment  of  Crown  Lands 
Rangers  —  Travelling  Stock — Powers  of  Ranger  —  Offences  and 
Penalties -Amending  Act  472  of  1879. — Part  I.  Interpretation  of 
Terms— Repeal  of  Clause  41  of  Act  444  of  1888 — How  Rent  to  be 
Charged  —Exchange  of  Lease  for  a  Perpetual  Lease  or  Lease  with 
Right  of  Purchase — ^Conditions  and  Provisions  as  to  Payments. — Part 
III.  Provisions  as  to  Rabbit-proof  Fences. — Part  IV.  Miscellaneous 
Conditions — Method  of  Applying  for  Land  under  Acts  444  of  1888, 
AND  47i  of  1889— General  Instructions — Leases  for  Working  Men — 
General  Remarks. 

In  earlier  portions  of  this  work  reference  has  been  made  to  the  method 
of  disposing  of  the  waste  lands  of  the  colony  at  the  time  of  its  founda- 
tion, and  to  some  of  the  modifications  which  it  became  necessary  to  make 


LASD     ].AWS.  185 

in  order  to  check  abuses  which  had  grown  up  within  the  systems  which 
were  in  force.  These  were  specially  aj^parent  in  the  auction  system. 
From  time  to  time  alterations  in  the  law  were  made,  but  none  of  them 
proved  to  be  of  a  permanent  character.  They  were  found  either  to  be 
faulty  in  construction,  or,  at  any  rate,  unsatisfactory  to  the  public.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  trace  out  all  the  changes  in  the  land  laws  which  were 
effected.  It  will  be  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  the  present  book  to 
show  in  extenso  what  the  laws  now  are.  These  will  become  thoroughly 
understood  from  the  subjoined  extracts  from  a  report  on  the  disposal  of 
the  Crown  lands  of  South  Australia  made  by  G.  W.  Goyder,  Esq., 
C.M.G.,  Surveyor-General,  to  the  Hon.  Commissioner  of  Crown  Lands 
in  1890.  This  report*,  which  is  exhaustive,  traces  the  history  of  the 
treatment  of  the  waste  lands  of  the  Crown  from  the  time  of  its  first 
settlement  doAvu  to  Jime,  1890,  the  date  at  which  it  was  made. 

"The  present  Crown  Lands  Act,  444  of  1888,  which  repeals  previous 
Acts,  is  divided  into  ten  parts,  as  follows,  viz.  : — Parts  1 .  Introductory 
and  general,  with  definitions  and  powers  of  Governor  ;  II.  Leases  with 
right  of  purchase  and  perpetual  leases  ;  III.  Sales  of  land  for  cash  ; 
IV.  Pastoral  leases ;  V.  Leases  and  licences  for  mining  purposes  ;  VJ . 
Leases  and  licences  for  miscellaneous  purposes  ;  VII.  Leases  of  small 
blocks  for  working  men  ;  VIII.  Frauds  at  auctions  ;  IX.  Miscellaneous 
provisions  ;   X.   Lejial  procedure,  trespasses,  and  penalties. 

"  Part  I.  defines  the  terms  used  in  the  Act ;  provides  for  the  alienation 
of  lands  by  the  Governor ;  for  the  exchange  of  Crown  lands  for  other 
lands  ;  leasing  or  devising  lands  to  aboriginals  ;  dedication  of  lands  for 
public  purposes,  such  as  water  supply ;  roads — dedication  by  delineation 
on  maps  of  public  roads ;  quaj's,  wharves,  or  landing  places  ;  public 
reservoirs,  aqueducts,  or  watercourses  :  hospitals,  asylums,  or  cemeteries  ; 
market-])laces  or  abattoirs  ;  institutions  for  public  amusement  or  instruc- 
tion ;  public  buildings  and  schools,  not  being  for  ecclesiastical  or 
denominational  purposes  ;  park  lands  or  places  for  the  recreation  and 
amusement  of  the  inhabitants  of  any  place,  town,  or  city  ;  places  for  public 
safety,  convenience,  health,  or  enjoyment,  and  for  any  other  public  purpose 
the  Governor  may  think  fit.  The  Governor,  by  proclamation,  may  resume 
dedicated  lands,  a  statement  of  reasons  being  laid  before  Parliament  ; 
constitute  counties  and  hundreds  and  towns,  or  declare  county,  hundred, 
or  town  shall  cease  to  exist ;  extend  or  diminish  the  area  of  any  comity, 
himdred,  or  town,  or  alter  or  divide  the  boundaries  of  the  same ;  may  set 
apart  Crown  lands  as  town  or  suburban  lands  ;  or  proclaim  mineral  lands, 
and  decide  the  form  in  which  grants,  alienations,  reservations,  and  dedica- 
tions shall  be  made ;  and  may  cancel  by  jJioclamation  the  grant  of 
*  Parliamentary  Paper  No.  60  of  1890. 


186  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

and  resume  any  dedicated  land  which  shall  not  be  used  or  required  for 
the  dedicated  purpose.  Dedicated  lands  may  be  exchanged,  and  reserving 
from  lands  to  be  granted  under  the  Act  all  gold,  silver,  and  other  metals, 
gems  or  precious  stones,  coal,  and  mineral  oil,  with  right  to  enter  upoa 
such  lands  and  mine  for  the  ores,  metals,  gold,  gems,  coal,  oil,  &c..  by- 
paying  fair  and  reasonable  compensation  to  the  owner  of  the  land. 

"  Part  II.  refers  to  leases  with  right  of  purchase  and  perpetual  leases. 
It  provides  that  lands  shall  be  surveyed  and  delineated  on  public  maps 
jirior  to  sale  of  leases  ;  that  all  Crown  lands  (except  town  lands)  in  hun- 
di'eds  and  schedule  D  may  be  taken  \i])  on  lease  with  right  of  purchase  or 
perpetual  lease  ;  that  the  Governor  may,  by  proclamation,  divide  the  pro- 
vince into  land  districts  with  distinguishing  names,  and  to  appoint  land 
boards  for  each  district,  each  board  to  consist  of  five  members,  of  whom 
three  shall  be  residents  of  district  for  which  they  are  appointed,  but  shall 
not  be  civil  servants.  The  boards  to  hold  office  for  twelve  months  from 
date  of  appointment,  but  retiring  members  to  be  eligible  for  re-appoint- 
ment ;  three  members  to  form  a  quorum.  Each  land  board  from  time  tO' 
time,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Commissioner,  to  classify  the  Crown 
lands  (except  town  lands)  within  hundreds  in  the  several  districts,  and 
decide  upon  the  area  to  be  included  in  each  separate  block  and  the  area 
that  may  be  held  by  any  one  lessee  according  to  the  class  of  land,  and  fix 
the  price  and  annual  rent  at  which  each  block  may  be  taken  up  on  lease- 
with  right  of  purchase  and  the  annual  rent  at  which  each  block  shall  be- 
taken up  on  perpetual  lease.  Due  notice  to  be  given  in  the  Government 
Gazette  of  the  date  up  to  which  application  shall  be  made  to  the  Com- 
missioner for  such  lands,  the  applicant  to  specify  which  kind  of  lease  he 
applies  for  (with  name,  address,  and  occupation),  and  to  enclose  with  suck 
application  20  per  cent,  of  the  first  yeai-'s  rent,  as  notified  in  the  Govern- 
ment Gazette,  all  ajiplications  up  to  date  specified  in  notice  to  be 
considered  as  simvdtaneous,  and  to  be  referred  by  the  Commissioner  tO' 
the  land  board  in  whose  district  the  land  is  situate,  unless  the  land  be 
previously  withdrawn  from  sale  by  the  Commissioner. 

'•  The  boards  to  meet  when  summoned  by  the  Commissioner  to  consider 
the  applications,  and  may  require  the  attendance  vof  and  examine  appli- 
cants and  their  witnesses,  and  all  objectors  and  their  witnesses,  and 
determine  to  which  applicant  the  land  shall  be  allotted,  or  may  reject  any 
application,  or  may  subdivide  or  alter  the  boundaries  of  any  block  ia 
cases  where  there  are  more  than  one  applicant  for  the  same,  and  may 
apportion  the  price  and  annual  rental,  or  the  annual  rent  only,  according- 
to  application  for  lease  with  right  of  purchase  or  perpetual  lease,  where 
subdivision  of  a  block  is  resorted  to  with  the  consent  of  the  applicants. 
Each  person  to  whom  a  portion  is  allotted  will  be  called  upon  to  pay  part 


LANJ)     J,A\VS.  187 

of  cost  of  subdivision  by  survey  on  the  ground,  and  the  names  of  appli- 
cants to  whom  land  has  been  allotted  shall  forthwith  be  published  in  the 
Government  Gazette.  Leases  to  the  successful  applicants  to  be  prepared 
in  triplicate,  and  to  be  left  in  land  office,  or  sent  to  applicant's  address,  as 
desired,  for  signature,  and  returned  signed  within  twenty-eight  days  to 
the  land  office  for  execution  by  the  Governor.  This  time  may  be 
extended  by  the  Commissioner ;  but  without  such  extension  the  leases 
will  be  liable  to  cancellation  if  not  signed  and  returned  to  land  office 
within  the  specified  time,  and  all  moneys  paid  on  account  of  lease  for- 
feited. 

"  Every  lease  with  right  of  purchase  shall  be  for  a  term  of  twenty- 
one  years,  with  a  right  of  renewal  for  a  further  term  of  twenty-one 
years,  and  a  right  of  purchase  of  the  leased  lands  at  any  time  after  six 
yeax's,  at  the  price  fixed  by  the  board,  sxich  price  not  being  less  than  5s. 
an  acre.  The  renewed  lease  shall  contain  a  right  of  purchase  at  a  price 
to  be  then  fixed  by  the  board,  not  being  less  than  5s.  an  acre.  The  rent 
reserved  on  perpetual  leases  for  the  first  fourteen  years  shall  be  that 
notified  in  the  Government  Gazette,  and  for  every  subsequent  fourteen 
years,  shall  be  fixed  by  the  board  by  re-valuation,  not  less  than  twelve 
months  before  the  expiry  of  each  period  of  fourteen  years  ;  the 
re-valuation  in  each  case  to  be  notified  by  the  Commissioner  to  the 
lessee,  who  shall  signify  to  the  Commissioner,  within  six  months,  his 
acceptance  or  refusal  of  the  same. 

"  All  rents  to  be  annually  paid  in  advance  ;  and  gold,  silver,  and  other 
metals  and  ores,  gems,  coal,  mineral  oil,  ficc,  to  be  reserved  from  the 
grant,  as  well  as  growing  timber :  the  lessee,  however,  to  be  at  liberty  to 
cut  and  remove  any  timber  for  cultivation  or  building  purposes  upon  the 
leased  land. 

"Each  lease  to  contain  covenants  to  pay  rent  in  advance,  taxes,  fence 
land  within  first  five  years  of  term  with  fence  or  wall  capable  of  resisting 
trespass  of  cattle,  and  to  keep  such  fence  or  wall  in  good  repair  ;  to 
destroy  and  keep  the  land  free  of  vermin  ;  to  keep  and  maintain  all 
improvements,  the  property  of  the  Crown,  in  tenantable  repair  and  con- 
dition ;  to  insure  to  full  insurable  value  all  buildings  upon  the  land,  the 
property  of  the  Crown  ;  to  permit,  subject  to  the  regulations,  lessees  or 
licencees  holding  leases  or  licences  under  Part  V.  of  the  Act  to  have  free 
access  to,  and  egress  from,  the  land  ;  and  such  other  covenants,  powers, 
and  conditions  as  the  Governor  may  deem  proper  to  prescribe  by  regula- 
tions. 

'•  The  Governor  may,  at  once,  or  from  time  to  time,  on  giving  three 
months'  notice  to  the  lessee,  and  payment  of  compensation  for  loss 
sustained  thereby,  resume  the  whole  or  part  of  the  land  leased  for  roads, 


188  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

railways,  tramways,  towns,  park  lands,  mining,  or  for  any  public  purpose. 

"  The  board,  in  fixing  tlie  annual  rental  and  price  for  land  in  lease  with 
right  of  purchase,  or  the  annual  rent  for  a  perpetual  lease,  when  there 
are  any  improvements  on  such  lands,  shall  take  such  improvements  into 
account.  In  fixing  rent  and  purchase-money,  or  rent  for  renewed  leases, 
the  board  shall  fix  the  rent  irrespective  of  improvements  which  the  lessee 
shall  have  made. 

"  Should  the  holder  of  a  perpetual  lease  fail  to  signify^  his  acceptance  to 
the  Commissioner  of  the  rent  fixed  by  re-valuation  for  fourteen  years 
within  six  months  after  notice  of  such  re-valuation  has  been  sent  to  him, 
he  will  forfeit  his  right  to  a  renewal,  and  the  lease  will  be  offered  at  the 
rental  fixed  by  the  board,  and  the  improvements  made  by  former  lessee 
be  paid  for  by  the  incoming  tenant  to  the  Commissioner,  and  by  the 
Commissioner  to  the  outgoing  lessee.  But  should  the  lease  of  the  land 
not  be  sold,  the  Commissioner  may  reduce  the  price  from  time  to  time  on 
recommendation  of  the  board,  and  re -offer  the  land  as  before. 

"  Any  person  holding  a  lease  iinder  any  of  the  Crown  Lands  Acts,  under 
agreement  with  right  of  purchase,  under  lease  with  right  of  purchase,  or 
lease  issued  on  the  surrender  of  an}'  agreement  for  purchase,  may 
surrender  his  lease  or  agreement  in  exchange  for  a  lease  with  right  of 
purchase  or  for  a  perpetual  lease  ;  and  any  person  holding  a  lease  of 
lands  reserved  for  leasing  may  in  like  manner  surrender  his  lease  for 
a  lease  with  right  of  purchase  or  perpetual  lease.  Provided  that  not 
more  than  1,000  acres  of  land  reserved  for  leasing  shall  at  the  time 
of  leasing  be  held  with  right  of  purchase  by  any  one  person.  Persons 
so  surrendering  shall  apply  to  the  land  board  of  the  district  to  fix  the 
price  and  annual  rent  with  a  right  of  purchase  and  the  annual  rent 
at  Avhich  he  may  obtain  a  perpetual  lease.  On  fixing  such  rental  and 
price,  or  rental  in  case  of  perpetual  lease,  the  boai'd  shall  notify  such  to 
the  Commissioner  for  his  approval,  and,  after  such  has  been  obtained,  to 
the  applicant,  who  may  decline  such  or  accept  a  lease  with  right  of  pur- 
chase or  perpetual  lease  at  his  option,  and,  in  the  event  of  his  accepting 
such  lease,  shall  be  credited  with  all  payments,  except  the  first  deposit  of 
10  per  cent.,  made  by  him  on  account  of  rent  or  i^urchase-money  of  such 
surrendered  lands. 

"  The  Commissioner,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  land  board  for  the 
district,  may  reduce  or  remit  any  arrears  of  rent  in  respect  of  any  lands 
leased  from  the  Crown  within  hundreds  within  such  district,  and  within 
schedule  D  ;  a  return  of  such  reductions  or  remissions,  with  reasons 
therefor,  being  annually  laid  before  Parliament  within  one  month  of  the 
opening  of  Parliament  for  the  dispatch  of  business.  Power  is  given 
to  land  boards  to  enter  upon  leased  lands  to  inspect  the  same,  and  to  view 


LAND     LAWS.  189 

the  buildings  and  other  improvements  thereon ;  and  power  is  taken  b}- 
the  Commissioner  to  grant  commonage  on  Crown  lands  -\^-ithin  hundreds, 
and  outside  the  limits  of  municipal  corporations  and  district  councils. 

"  Part  III.  relates  to  the  sale  of  land  for  cash.  It  provides  for  the  sale 
by  auction  for  cash  of  special  blocks  -which  are  surrounded  by  sold  lands 
or  lands  contracted  to  be  sold,  and  which  shall  have  been  withdrawn  from 
sale  or  lease,  and  also  blocks  of  land  not  exceeding  100  acres  which  may 
be  required  for  the  establishment  of  any  industry,  trade,  or  business,  or 
for  any  other  purpose  approved  by  the  Governor ;  for  the  sale  by  auction 
for  cash  of  all  Crown  lands  within  hundreds  offered  for  lease  under  Part 
II.  of  the  Act  and  remained  open  for  a  period  of  two  years  ;  and  for  the 
sale  of  town  lands  by  auction  for  cash — the  Commissioner  to  fix  the  upset 
price  in  each  of  these  cases,  but  no  such  upset  price  to  be  less  than  5s. 
per  acre. 

"  Twenty  per  cent,  of  the  purchase-money  of  lands  sold  for  cash  to  be 
paid  at  the  time  of  sale,  and  the  balance  within  one  month  from  such  date, 
or  the  sale  shall  be  nidi  and  void,  and  the  deposit  forfeited,  unless 
the  Commissioner  shall  see  fit  to  waive  such  forfeiture,  as  elsewhere  pro- 
vided. 

"  Lands  that  have  been  open  for  leasing  for  two  years,  and  are  about 
to  be  offered  for  cash,  shall  remain  open  to  application  for  leasing  until 
thirty  days  prior  to  the  date  of  offer  at  auction,  and  shall  again  be  open 
to  leasing  or  to  sale  by  private  contract  for  cash  should  they  not  be  sold 
when  offered  for  sale  by  public  auction.  Purchase-money  arising  from 
the  sale  of  lands  shall  form  a  fund  primarily  applicable  to  the  payment  of 
such  portion  of  the  public  liabilities  as  shall  hereafter  be  specially  charged 
thereon.  Any  Crown  lands  may  be  sold  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a 
fund  for  payment  of  the  deficit  in  the  revenue  of  the  province  on  the 
30th  day  of  June,  1887,  or  of  the  moneys  secured  by  Treasury  Bills 
issued  in  respect  thereof,  provided  that  plans  showing  lands  proposed  to 
be  sold,  with  area  and  price,  be  laid  before  Parliament  for  a  period  of 
thirty  days,  and  a  resolution  as  to  the  expediency  of  such  sale  shall  have 
been  passed  by  both  Houses  of  Parliament. 

"  Part  IV.  of  the  Act  relates  to  pastoral  leases,  which  are  divided  into 
three  classes.  Class  I.  includes  lands  held  by  pastoral  lessees  for  any 
term  of  years  granted  by  a  new  lease  issued  under  preceding  Crown 
Lands  Act,  and  which  leases,  except  in  a  few  cases,  expired  in  1888  or 
on  the  1st  of  January,  1889.  Class  II.  includes  pastoral  lauds  held  on 
the  14th  day  of  November,  1884,  and  which  are  held,  or  shall  hereafter 
be  held,  pursuant  to  the  then-existing  right  to  a  renewal  of  such  pastoral 
lease.  Class  III.  includes  all  other  jjastoral  lands  not  included  in  classes 
I.  and  II. 


190  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

"  The  conditions  relating  to  class  I.  provide  that  when  a  lease  is  about 
to  expire  or  be  determined,  and  the  lands  shall  not  be  required  for  any 
other  purpose,  the  Commissioner  may  cause  the  lands  to  be  offered  to 
lease  by  public  auction  in  blocks  most  suitable  for  securing  the  stocking 
and  development  of  the  countiy  and  utilising  the  improvement-*,  the 
lease  to  be  for  a  term  of  twenty-one  years,  the  rent  to  be  fixed  by  valua- 
tion, and  paid  annually  in  advance,  not  being  less  than  5s.  per  square 
mile.  The  lessee  to  pay  a  deposit  of  10  per  cent,  on  the  value  of  the 
improvements,  which  shall  be  held  as  security  for  their  maintenance 
in  a  proper  state  of  repair.  The  deposit  to  be  paid  on  the  lessee 
taking  possession,  and  interest  at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent,  per  annum 
to  be  credited  to  rent  on  account  of  such  deposit.  Should  the  lessee 
have  complied  with  the  conditions  of  lease,  the  deposit  to  be  repaid  to 
him  on  expiry  of  lease,  or  so  soon  as  he  shall  have  made  improvements 
upon  the  laud  equal  in  value  to  the  arnoimt  of  deposit,  unless  the  lessee 
shall  have  permitted  any  improvements  upon  the  land  to  get  into 
disrepair,  in  which  case  an  amovmt  equal  to  the  depreciation  in  value  shall 
be  forfeited.  New  leases  to  be  offered  for  sale  by  auction  not  earlier 
than  two  years  before,  nor  later  than  the  expiry  of  the  lease  then  deter- 
mining ;  and  the  lessee  shall  be  allowed,  notwithstanding  the  sale  of  a 
new  lease,  to  continue  in  occupation  of  such  lands  for  twelve  months  after 
the  sale  of  the  new  lease,  nothwithstandiug  the  expiry  of  his  existing 
lease,  during  which  period  he  shall  be  a  tenant  on  the  terms  of  his 
expired  lease,  but  shall  pay  the  rent  reserved  by,  and  otherwise  perform 
the  terms  of  such  new  lease,  and  exonerate  the  purchaser  from  such  pay- 
ment and  performance,  subject  to  such  terms  and  conditions  as  may  be 
prescribed  by  the  regulations. 

"  On  expiry  of  lease  by  effluxion  of  time,  and  subject  to  the  provisions 
of  the  Act,  the  lessee  shall  be  entitled  to  be  paid  the  value  of  all  sub- 
stantial water  improvements  made  by  him  during  the  currency  of  the 
lease  ;  and  in  case  of  resumption  (except  for  leased  lands  in  schedule 
B,  situate  on  the  west  coast  near  Fowler's  Bay,  and  on  the  River  Murray) 
the  lessee  shall  also  be  paid  compensation,  to  be  fixed  by  valuation,  for 
the  loss  or  depreciation  in  the  value  of  the  lease  caused  by  such  resump- 
tion, whether  for  the  whole  or  only  for  a  portion  of  the  leased  lands. 

"  Leases  in  class  II.  are  similar  to  those  in  class  I.  as  to  term  of  years, 
rents  fixed  by  valuation,  date  of  offer,  and  occupation  by  existing  lessee 
for  twelve  months  after  date  of  sale,  and  also  as  to  compensation  in  pay- 
ment of  improvements  on  expiry  of  lease,  and  on  resumption ;  with  this 
difference,  that  the  lessee  in  class  II.  is  paid  for  all  other  improvements 
effected  upon  the  run  by  the  lessee  during  the  currency  of  the  lease  in 
addition  to  substantial  water  improvements,  due  notice  being  given  to  the 


],ANJ)     ].A\VS.  191 

Commissioner,  as  required  by  the  Act,  of  the  intention  to  make  such 
improvements.  He  is  also  entitled  to  compensation  for  depreciation  in 
value  of  run  should  any  portion  of  the  land  be  resumed. 

"  In  class  III.  the  Commissioner  may  cause  leases  to  be  offered  for  sale 
by  public  auction  upon  the  following  conditions  : — Term,  thirty-five 
years  upset  annual  rental,  to  be  paid  in  advance,  2s.  6d.  per  square  mile 
for  the  first  fourteen  years  of  the  term,  the  rent  payable  afterwards  to  be 
fixed  by  valuation  every  seven  years.  The  Commissioner  shall  give 
notice  of  such  valuation  in  the  Government  Gazette  not  less  than  sixty 
days  preceding  each  successive  term ;  and  within  the  first  thirty  days  of 
such  notice  appearing,  the  lessee  may  surrender  his  lease,  in  which  case 
the  land  in  the  surrendered  lease  should  be  offered  at  auction  under  con- 
ditions of  the  surrendered  leases,  and  for  the  remainder  of  the  term,  a 
premium  of  three-fourths  the  value  of  the  improvements  then  on  the  land, 
to  be  paid  by  the  purchaser  to  the  Commissioner,  and  by  the  Com- 
missioner to  the  surrendering  lessee  after  deducting  any  arrears  of  rent, 
and  other  moneys,  if  any,  due  by  him  to  the  Government.  Should  the 
lease  be  unsold  when  offered  at  auction,  the  Commissioner  may  reduce 
rent  gradually  to  a  minimum,  and  value  of  improvements  in  proportion, 
until  the  lease  is  disposed  of,  when  the  value  put  upon  the  improvements 
will  be  paid  to  the  Commissioner,  and  by  him  to  the  surrendering  lessee, 
as  therein  provided. 

"  On  expiry  of  a  lease  in  class  III.,  the  lessee  is  entitled  to  payment  of 
the  value  of  all  improvements,  fences,  buildings,  Sec,  as  Avell  as  for  sub- 
stantial water  improvements,  and,  in  the  case  of  resumption,  he  shall  be 
entitled,  in  addition,  to  compensation  for  loss  or  depreciation  in  value  of 
run  in  consequence  of  such  resumption.  The  lessee  must,  howevei',  give 
vATitten  notice  of  all  imj^rovements  intended  to  be  made  by  him,  as  pro- 
vided by  the  Act.  In  resumptions,  if  the  land  is  required  for  the 
purposes  of  railway,  road,  public  work,  site  for  a  town,  cemetery,  or  park 
lands  but  one  month's  written  notice  is  required  to  be  given.  Three 
years'  notice  shall  be  given,  except  for  certain  lands  on  the  Murray  and 
near  Fowler's  Bay  on  the  west  coast,  detailed  in  schedule  B  to  the  Act, 
in  which  cases  but  twelve  months'  notice  of  resumption  is  necessary. 

"  In  class  III.,  the  leases  sold  at  auction  are  offered  at  the  upset  price, 
and,  where  necessary,  at  the  premium  stated,  and  all  payments  made  by 
a  pastoral  lessee,  pursuant  to  section  60  of  the  Act  (where  the  previous 
lessee  is  permitted  to  occupy  the  leased  land  for  twelve  months  after  date 
of  sale  of  the  lease),  in  exoneration  of  the  purchaser  of  a  new  lease  shall 
be  credited  against  the  rent  falling  due  after  the  first  year  in  such  lease. 
Notice  of  sale  of  leases  in  Government  Gazette  shall  appear  for  not  less 
than  four  weeks  prior  to  the  sale,  and  passed  lots  may  be  again  offered  by 


192  SOUTH     AU8TKALIA. 

the  Commissioner,  at  such  rental  as  he  may  think  fit,  piovided  that  no 
lease  be  offered  at  a  less  rental  than  5s.  per  square  mile.  In  fixing  the 
rent  by  valuation,  regard  is  had  to  the  pastoral  capacity  of  the  land  for 
stock ;  its  proximity  and  facilities  of  approach  to  railway  stations, 
ports,  rivers,  and  towns,  and  other  circumstances  of  situation  affecting  its 
value,  and  as  to  class  I.,  only  to  improvements  thereon.  In  no  case  shall 
the  upset  annual  rent  in  class  III.  be  fixed  at  less  than  2s.  6d.  per  square 
mile.  No  lessee  shall  be  entitled  to  payment  for  improvements  made 
after  the  14th  day  of  November,  1884,  unless  he  shall  have  given  notice 
in  terms  of  clause  75  in  writing,  to  the  Commissioner,  stating  nature, 
position,  probable  cost,  and  date  of  completion  thereof,  and  no  improve- 
ments shall  be  valued  or  considered  under  the  Act  unless  the  Commis- 
sioner shall  be  satisfied  that  they  were  made  bond  fide  for  increasing 
the  carrying  capacity  of  the  run.  No  lessee  shall  be  entitled  to  more 
than  one  payment  in  respect  of  the  same  improvements;  payment  for 
improvements  shall  be  made  within  six  months  after  the  resumption 
of  the  laud  or  expiration  of  the  lease,  and  if  the  lessee  shall  continue  in 
possession  of  the  land  after  the  expiration  of  the  lease,  then  within  six 
months  after  he  has  given  up  possession.  In  estimating  or  computing 
the  compensation  to  be  paid  in  loss  or  depreciation  in  value  of  any  lease, 
no  increased  value  is  to  be  given  on  account  of  public  works  constructed 
after  the  date  of  the  lease. 

"■  In  class  III.  the  lessee  is  required  to  stock  the  land  leased  before  the 
end  of  the  third  year  of  the  term  with  not  less  than  five  head  of  sheep 
or  one  head  of  great  cattle,  and  to  keep  the  same  so  stocked ;  and  before 
the  end  of  the  seventh  year,  to  increase  the  stocking  to  at  least  twenty 
head  of  sheep  or  four  head  of  great  cattle  per  square  mile ;  and,  on  being 
required  to  do  so,  to  furnish  the  Commissioner  with  a  true  statement  of 
the  sheep  or  cattle  with  which  the  leased  land  is  stocked.  But  the  lessee 
may  be  discharged  of  this  covenant  for  three  years  by  effecting  improve- 
ments before  the  end  of  the  third  year  of  the  term  to  the  value  of  30s. 
per  square  mile  ;  and  improvements  effected  to  the  value  of  £3  per  square 
mile  before  the  end  of  the  seventh  year  of  the  term  shall  totally  discharge 
the  lessee  from  the  covenant  of  stocking. 

"  Power  is  also  taken  in  the  Act  to  enter  on  leased  lands  for  the  purpose 
of  survey,  inspection,  or  valuation  ;  to  grant  annual  leases  and  commonage 
within  hundreds,  not  being  within  the  limits  of  municipal  corporations  or 
district  councils.  The  lessees  to  make  stock  returns  when  lands  are  held 
in  class  II.  under  any  Act  in  force  before  the  17th  of  November,  1886, 
as  under  previous  Act;  and  lessees  in  class  III.,  and  lessees  in  class  I. 
and  II.  whose  leases  have  been  granted  on  or  since  the  17th  day  of  Novem- 
ber, 1886,  or  shall  be  hereafter  granted;   or,  in  the  absence  of  the  lessee. 


LAXD     LAWS.  193 

the  overseer  shall  send  in  returns  within  twenty-one  days  from  the  1st 
day  .in  February,  April,  June,  August,  October,  and  December  of  each 
year  to  the  Commissioner,  through  the  medium  of  the  General  Post  Office, 
a  statement  or  return,  in  the  form  of  schedule  A  to  the  Act,  of  the  number 
of  all  sheep  and  cattle  (if  any),  not  being  the  property  of  such  lessee, 
which  at  any  time  during  the  previous  two  months  were  actually  upon  or 
depasturing  on  the  pastoral  lands  included  in  his  lease :  The  return  to 
give  names  and  addresses  of  owners  and  persons  in  charge  of  such  sheep 
and  cattle,  as  far  as  the  same  can  be  ascertained ;  such  return  to  be  made 
in  all  cases  whether  sheep  and  cattle  have  been  depasturing  such  lands. 
Where  cotitiguous  lands  are  included  in  more  leases  than  one,  the  state- 
ment may  be  made  as  if  the  whole  of  the  lands  were  included  in  one 
lease ;  persons  making  a  false  statement  will  be  subject  to  a  forfeit  for 
every  offence  of  not  more  than  fifty  pounds,  and  it  shall  be  lawful  for 
any  person,  acting  under  the  authority  of  the  Commissioner,  to  yard  or 
paddock  such  sheep  or  cattle  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  and  counting 
the  same.  The  owners  of  travelling  stock  were  required  to  pay  fees  in 
pursuance  of  the  84th  section  of  the  Act,  or  the  persons  in  charge  of  the 
stock  were  liable  ;  and  if  such  owner  is  not  the  holder  of  a  pastoral  lease. 
or  if  such  owner  cannot  be  ascertained,  the  Commissioner  may,  by  writing 
under  his  hand,  authorise  the  ranger,  trooper,  or  person  acting,  to  demand 
from  the  owner  or  person  in  charge  of  such  sheep  or  cattle  one  penny 
per  head  for  every  sheep,  and  sixpence  for  every  head  of  cattle,  and  if  he 
refuse  to  pay,  the  amount  may  be  recovered  by  sales  as  therein  provided. 
Provision  is  also  made  for  pastoral  lessees  to  recover  from  the  owners  of 
stock  depasturing  the  lands  of  such  lessees  without  their  authority  :  six- 
pence for  every  hundred  sheep,  or  every  twenty  head  of  great  cattle,  or  por- 
tions of  such  number  of  sheep  or  cattle  for  every  day  the  stock  may  be  upon 
such  land,  and  to  recover  the  penalties  or  payments  as  therein  provided. 
The  Government  may  accept  surrender  of  any  lands  in  a  pastoral  lease  if 
contiguous  lands  held  by  the  same  lessee  have  been  resumed,  and  in  the 
event  of  such  surrender  being  accepted  the  lessee  shall  be  entitled  to  the 
payments  for  improvements  thereon,  as  if  such  lease  had  expired  by 
effluxion  of  time.  No  person  whose  pastoral  lease  has  been  forfeited 
shall  be  again  permitted  to  hold  a  lease  of  such  lands,  or  any  interest 
therein,  imdor  pain  of  forfeiture  of  the  lease. 

"  Part  V.  relates  to  leases  and  licences  for  mining  purposes.  It  pro- 
vides for  granting  mineral  leases  in  blocks  not  exceeding  eighty  acres  to 
any  person  or  company  who  shall  first  apply  for  the  same.  The  lease  is 
for  a  term  of  ninety-nine  years,  and  enables  the  lessee  to  mine  for  and 
remove  all  minerals  and  metals  upon  the  leased  lands  except  gold,  and 
should  there  be  improvements  upon  the  land  applied  for  they  must  be  paid 

N 


194  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

for  by  the  applicant  before  the  lease  is  prepared.  The  rent  reserved  is 
one  shilling  per  acre  [)cr  annum,  and  sixpence  per  pound  sterling  on  the 
net  profits ;  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  which  returns  require  to  be 
sent  to  the  Commissioner  in  June  and  December  in  each  year,  false 
returns  involving  a  penalty  of  not  less  than  fifty  nor  more  than  five 
hundred  pounds.  The  Commissioner  has  the  right  to  inspect  books  and 
papers  belonging  to  and  connected  with  the  mine,  and  any  obstruction 
to  such  inspection  involves  a  penalty  of  from  twenty  to  one  hundred 
pounds.  The  rent,  with  2w  per  cent,  on  net  profits,  is  required  to  be 
paid  on  the  28th  day  of  February  and  the  31st  day  of  August  in  each 
year  of  the  term.  The  land  must  not  be  put  to  any  other  use  than 
mining  purposes  without  the  consent  of  the  Commissioner.  Six  pounds 
must  be  expended  in  working  the  mines  every  two  years,  for  each  acre 
comprised  in  the  lease,  and  one  man  must  be  employed  for  every  twenty 
acres,  or  part  of  twenty  acres,  demised,  and  that  the  lessee  must  afford 
the  Commissioner  satisfactory  evidence  that  such  conditions  have  been 
complied  with.  The  mineral  lessee  must  also  give  to  any  adjoining 
occupier  of  pastoral  land  free  access  to  any  natural  water  or  spring 
upon  the  land  for  the  use  of  his  stock.  Mineral  lessees  of  contiguous 
lands  may  give  notice  to  the  Commissioner  that  they  wish  to  surrender 
such  lease  and  receive  a  consolidated  lease  in  lieu  thereof,  or  leases 
may  be  amalgamated,  and  one  or  more  leases  be  given  in  exchange  for 
the  leases  surrended  for  amalgamation.  Every  mineral  lessee  may 
surrender  his  lease  on  giving  notice  to  the  Commissioner  of  his  intention 
to  do  so  in  writing. 

"  Specific  mineral  licences  may  be  granted  by  the  Commissioner  on  pay- 
ment of  twenty  shillings  to  search  for  metals  and  minerals,  except  gold, 
upon  any  specific  mineral  lands  not  exceeding  eighty  acres  in  extent;  the 
licence  to  be  for  twelve  months,  and  the  licencee  to  have  authority  to 
search  and  mine  the  land  and  remove,  for  purposes  of  analysis  only, 
minerals  or  metals,  except  gold,  not  exceeding  one  ton ;  this  quantity 
may,  however,  be  extended  to  twenty  tons  by  consent  of  Commissioner. 
The  holder  to  have  during  the  currency  of  his  licence  a  preferential  right 
to  a  lease  of  the  land  included  in  his  licence ;  but  no  person  shall  hold 
more  than  eighty  acres  under  such  licence  at  one  and  the  same  time. 
Every  licencee  shall  keep  at  least  one  man  searching  for  minei'als  and 
metals  upon  the  land  for  a  period  of  nine  months  of  the  term  of  licence, 
and  shall,  if  required,  furnish  the  Commissioner  with  satisfactory  evidence 
that  this  condition  has  been  complied  with,  or  his  licence  and  all  rights 
thereunder  shall  be  absolutely  forfeited.  A  general  licence  may  also  be 
granted  by  the  Commissioner  on  pa}Tnent  of  a  fee  of  twenty  shillings 
for    twelve   months,  renewable    for  a  further    term    of    twelve  months, 


LAND     LAWS.  195 

to  search  fox*  metals  and  minerals,  except  gold,  upon  any  mineral  lands. 
The  licence  to  be  for  a  period  of  twelve  months,  authorising  the  holder 
to  search  for  and  remove,  for  the  purpose  of  analysis  only,  one  ton 
of  any  mineral  or  metal  except  gold,  and  the  holder  shall  have  a 
preferential  right  during  the  cvu-rency  of  such  licence  to  a  mineral  lease 
or  leases  noi,  exceeding  eighty  acres,  on  which  he  may  have  discovered 
minerals  or  metals,  subject  to  similar  rents  and  conditions  as  under 
specific  licence.  No  mineral  licence  shall  include  or  apply  to  any  lands 
held  or  occupied  for  gold  mining  purposes.  The  holder  of  any  gold 
mining  lease  shall  be  entitled  to  mineral  lease  of  the  laud  comprised  in 
his  gold  mining  lease.  The  holder  of  a  mineral  lease  shall  be  entitled  to 
a  renewal  of  his  lease  on  its  expiry  by  effluxion  of  time  on  payment  of  a 
fine  or  premium  to  be  fixed  by  valuation.  Should  a  lease  expire  by 
effluxion  of  time,  and  the  lessee  not  be  desirous  of  securing  a  renewal  of 
his  lease,  the  laud  comprised  therein  may  be  offered  at  public  auction,  in 
one  or  more  blocks,  at  a  price  to  be  fixed  by  the  Commissioner.  Sjiecific 
licences  may  be  surrendered,  and  registered  companies  may  hold  not  more 
than  twelve  leases.  Lessees  under  gold  mining  leases  issued  under  previous 
Acts,  may  surrender  and  obtain  leases  under  Act  353  of  1885  ;  and 
lessees  holding  contiguous  lands  under  gold  mining  leases  may  surrender 
such  leases  and  obtain  new  leases  after  adjustment  of  boundaries,  but  of 
the  same  lands  only. 

"  Part  VI.  relates  to  leases  and  licences  for  miscellaneous  purposes — it 
provides  for  leases  not  exceeding  640  acres  being  granted,  on  such  terms 
as  the  Governor  may  think  fit,  to  discoverers  of  coal,  guano,  petroleum, 
or  other  valuable  substance  or  deposit — not  being  a  metal  or  metalliferous 
ore.  For  the  leasing  of  aboriginal  reserves,  not  exceeding  100  square 
miles,  for  a  term  not  exceeding  twenty-one  years,  at  such  rent  and  for 
such  other  terms  as  the  Governor  may  think  fit,  with  a  right  of  renewal, 
so  long  as  it  can  be  shown  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Governor  that  the 
land  is  required  by  and  applied  to  the  uses  of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants 
of  the  province.  That  leases  may  be  granted  of  any  Government  build- 
ings, or  of  any  Crown  lands,  or  other  lands  belonging  to  or  vested  in  the 
Crown,  for  any  term  not  exceeding  twenty-one  years,  and  upon  any  terms 
the  Governor  may  think  fit,  for  any  of  the  following  purposes — that  is  to 
say,  for  obtaining  and  removing  guano  or  other  manure  ;  for  removing 
stone,  clay,  or  earth  ;  for  sites  for  inns,  stores,  smithies,  bakeries,  or  other 
buildings  for  business  purposes,  in  thinly-populated  districts  ;  for  sites  for 
bathing-houses,  bathing  places,  mail  stations,  toll  or  punt  houses  ;  for  sites 
for  tanneries,  factories,  saw  mills,  or  paper  mills  ;  for  sites  for  wharves, 
quays,  jetties,  or  landing-places,  and  for  the  depositing  of  materials  or 
j)roduce  ;  for  the  working  of  mineral  springs  ;  for  sites  for  ship  or  boat 


196  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

building,  or  repairing ;  for  the  manufacture  of  salt ;  for  sites  for  smelting 
works,  or  any  other  works  or  purpose  approved  by  the  Governor.      Such 
leases  must  be  offered  for  sale  by  public  auction  to  the  highest  bidder,  at 
time,  place,  and  rental,  to  be  fixed  by  the  Commissioner,  and  of  which 
notice  will  be  given  in  the  Government  Gazette  not  less  than  four  weeks- 
before  the  holding  of  such  auction — passed  lots  to  be  open  to  application 
at  any  time — and  simultaneous  application  to  be  decided  by  lot.     The 
leases  to  contain  a  covenant  to  use  the  land  bond  fide  for  the  purpose  for 
which  it  was  demised,  and  such  other  covenants  the  Governor  may  think 
desirable,  and  a  provision  for  forfeiture  upon  breach  of   any  covenant 
contained  in  the  lease.     Lessees  holding  lands  under  miscellaneous  lease 
regulations  for  grazing  only,  or  grazing  and  cultivation,  may  cultivate  the 
whole  of  the  land,  provided  that  no  timber  be  cut  down  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  Commissioner.     Licences  may  be  granted  to  cut  and  remove 
live  and  dead  timber,  gravel,  stone,  clay,  earth,  or  sand,  and  to  enter  upon 
any  Crown  lands  or  lands  leased  for  pastoral  purposes    to   obtain  and 
remove  salt,  guano,  manure,  shell,  or  seaweed.     The  Commissioner,  or 
person  authorised  by  him,  may  grant  licences  to  enter  upon  Crown  lands,, 
dedicated  or  reserved  lands,  leased  for  pastoral  purposes,  for  fishermen's 
residences,  and  drying  groimds  for  manufactories,  fellmongering  establish- 
ments, slaughterhouses,  brick  or  lime  kilns,  or  saw  mills,  for  dep  isturing 
such  lands,  except  land  leased  for  pastoral  purposes,  with  cattle,  sheep,  or 
other  animals,  for  any  of  the  purposes  for  which  leases  may  be  issued 
under  Part  VI.  of  the  Act,  and  for  any  other  purpose  approved  by  the 
Commissioner.     Licences  to  be  for  twelve  months,  and  subject  to  such 
restrictions  as  the  Commissioner  may  see  fit  to  impose ;  and  the  Com- 
missioner may,  by  notice  in  the  Government  Gazette,  cancel  such  licence,, 
which    shall   become  void,  and    persons  continuing  to  act  under   such 
cancelled  licence  shall  be  subject  to  prosecution  as  if  such  licence  had 
not  been  granted. 

"  Part  VII. — Part  VII.  provides  for  granting  leases  of  small  blocks  of 
land  not  exceeding  twenty  acres  in  area  to  working  men.  These  blocks 
may  be  portions  of  Crown  lands  or  aboriginal  reserves,  except  the 
reserves  at  Poonindie,  Point  McLeay,  and  Point  Pearce.  The  area  of 
each  block  must  not  exceed  twenty  acres.  They  are  to  be  taken  up  by 
working  men  only  who  gain  their  livelihood  by  their  own  labor,  and  who 
have  attained  the  full  age  of  eighteen  years.  The  lease  shall  be  for  a 
term  of  twenty-one  years  with  a  right  of  renewal  for  a  further  term  of 
twenty-one  years.  The  lessee  may  complete  purchase  by  payment  of  the 
amount  fixed  at  termination  of  the  first  term  of  twenty-one  years,  and  at 
any  time  during  the  second  or  renewed  term  of  lease.  The  rent  to  be 
jjaid  annually  in  advance,  under  penalty  of  forfeiture  if  three  months  in 


LAND     LAWS.  197 

arrear ;  payment  may,  however,  be  extended  by  the  Commissioner,  as 
also  the  time  and  period  of  residence — which  should  be  nine  months  out 
of  every  year,  the  lessee  not  to  transfer  or  sublet  without  the  consent  of 
the  Commissioner.  If  leased  laud  is  on  or  forms  part  of  a  travelling 
stock  reserve,  lessee  cannot  impound  stock  trespassing  until  he  has  en- 
closed his  land  with  a  fence  at  least  4fL.  in  height  and  sufficiently  sub- 
stantial to  resist  cattle  and  sheep  from  trespassing. 

■'  Personal  residence  by  the  wife  or  any  member  of  the  family  of  any 
lessee  shall  be  considered  as  personal  residence  by  the  lessee. 

"  Part  V'lII.  —  Part  VIII.  relates  to  frauds  at  auction,  and  renders 
persons  agreeing  to  prevent  fair  competition,  or  to  pay  more  than  2\  per 
cent,  commission  to  person  or  agent  purchasing  land,  or  to  take  or  receive 
money  under  illegal  agreement  for  such  purpose,  or  endeavor  to  force  or 
induce  makiu;^  agreements  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  fair  competition, 
liable  to  penalties  set  forth  in  such  part  of  the  Act. 

"  Part  IX. — Part  IX.  of  the  .\ct  refers  to  miscellaneous  provisions,  and 
abolishes  conditions  of  cultivation  and  for  personal  residence — except  in 
cases  of  leases  held  v?^ith  right  of  purchase ;  provides  for  completion  of 
purchase  of  lands  held  by  lessees  after  expiry  of  six  years  from  date  of 
lease ;  for  the  granting  of  perpetual  leases  only  of  lands  granted  for 
educational  purposes — the  rent  and  allotments — also  reductions  in  cases 
where  the  rents  are  excessive,  by  the  land  board  for  the  district  in  which 
the  laud  is  situated ;  to  mortgages  of  land  ;  to  disability  of  person  under 
eighteen  years  of  age  to  hold  lands  under  agreement,  unless  as  the 
pei'sonal  representative  of  a  lessee  or  licencee  ;  to  appoint  places  for  land 
offices  for  the  receipt  of  applications  for  land  and  conduct  of  sales  under 
the_Act ;  and  to  appoint  persons  and  times  of  sales,  due  notice  of  such 
being  given  in  the  Government  Gazette  ;  the  auctioneer  to  conduct  sales 
without  auctioneers'  licence ;  power  to  Commissioner  to  withdraw  lands 
from  sale  and  to  re-offer  such  after  due  notice  in  the  Govermnent 
Gazette  ;  Commissioner  may  decline  to  accede  to  any  application  for  pur- 
chase of  lease  with  right  of  purchase  of  any  lands  known  or  supposed  to 
contain  gold,  silver,  copper,  or  any  other  mineral,  or  which  it  may  be 
desirable  to  reserve  for  public  purposes :  Commissioner  to  have  care  and 
control  of  all  lands  reserved,  or  lands  dedicated  by  the  Governor  to  any 
public  purpose,  except  lands  under  care  and  control  of  municipal 
corporations  or  district  councils ;  Commissioner,  or  person  authorised  by 
him,  may  enter  upon  leased  lands  in  search  of  water ;  may  resume  a 
square  mile  for  such  purpose,  and  lease  the  same  after  obtaining  water, 
compensation  being  paid  to  lessee  for  improvements  thereon ;  on  such 
resumption,  lessee  of  resumed  portion  to  keep  well  and  other  improve- 
ments   in    good   and    tenanttible    repair,    erect    and    keep    a    house    of 


198  SOITH    ATSTRALIA. 

accommodation  thereon,  and  appliances  for  tlie  supply  of  the  travelling- 
public  and  stock  with  water,  and  to  charge  for  water  at  rates  fixed  by  the 
Commissioner ;  giving  power  to  the  Commissioner  to  reclaim  swamp 
lands,  and  to  construct  watering  places  thereon  available  for  cattle  and 
sheep  ;  to  provide  for  payment  of  fines  of  5  per  cent,  where  rents  are 
not  paid  on  or  before  the  date  fixed  for  payment  thereof,  and  a  further 
penalty  of  10  per  cent,  if  the  rent  should  not  be  paid  within  one  month 
of  time  appointed  for  the  payment ;  and  for  recovery  of  rent  and  penalty 
should  rent  and  penalty  still  remain  unpaid  after  that  period  ;  to  forfeit 
any  Crown  leases  of  lands  the  rent  of  which  is  not  paid  within  three 
months  of  the  time  specified  for  such  payment ;  to  eject  persons  being  in 
illegal  occupation  of  Crown  property  ;  to  rescind  forfeiture  or  cancella- 
tion of  leases  of  Crown  lands  or  education  lands,  kc,  on  such  terms  as- 
he  may  think  fit,  and  to  waive  forfeiture  in  certain  cases ;  to  remit 
conditions  in  certain  cases,  and  to  receive  overdue  moneys ;  to  grant 
leases  and  licences,  with  the  consent  of  the  municipality  or  district 
council  in  which  such  roads  are  situate  ;  to  grant  mineral  leases  on  lands 
previously  leased  by  the  CroAATi  with  or  without  right  of  purchase,  and  to 
supersede  or  except  such  new  lease  from  the  lands  included  in  the 
previous  lease  to  the  extent  of  the  land  so  granted ;  to  grant  sites  for 
public  purposes,  such  as  school,  church,  chapel,  institute,  or  hospital,  or 
for  any  other  public  or  charitable  purposes,  from  an  agreement  or  lease 
held  under  the  Crown  Lands  Act,  on  the  application  of  the  holder,  such 
sites  not  to  exceed  tAvo  acres  for  every  one  of  such  purposes,  or  where 
such  holder  or  lessee  shall  desire  such  to  be  done ;  to  grant  sites  for 
a  blacksmith's  shop,  carpenter's  shop,  mill,  store,  or  post  office,  or  for  any 
other  purpose  approved  by  the  Governor ;  provided  that  such  land  shall 
not  exceed  half  an  acre  for  any  one  such  purpose,  and  that  no  such 
grant  shall  be  made  of  land  situated  within  five  miles  of  any  town  lands, 
and  the  Governor  may  require  security  to  be  given  that  the  lands  be  used 
for  no  other  purpose  than  those  contemplated,  the  value  of  which  were 
to  be  paid  for  on  application  ;  the  Commissioner  has  power  to  give 
permission  to  any  person  to  erect  gates  on  roads,  not  being  main  roads 
nor  within  the  limits  of  any  district  council,  and  may  let  the  right 
of  depasturing  such  road  or  way  ;  any  person  injuring  or  destroying  any 
such  gate  or  opening,  and  not  closing  the  same,  to  be  liable,  for  each 
and  every  such  offence,  to  a  fine  of  not  more  than  fifty  pounds,  or  to 
imprisonment,  with  or  without  hard  labor,  for  not  exceeding  six  months. 
The  Fencing  Act,  1865,  to  apply  to  all  lands  under  agreement  and  to  all 
lands  leased  under  any  of  the  CroA^-n  Lands  Acts  (except  lands  held  under 
miscellaneous  lease  for  other  than  grazing  or  cultivation  purposes),  the 
fence  to  mean  any  ordinary  fence  sufficient  to  resist  the  tresjDass  of  cattle 


LAXD     LAWS.  199 

or  sheep.     Provision  is  also  taken  to  enable  any  lessee  (except  a  lessee  of 
mineral  lands  who  may  have  erected  a  rabbit-proof  boundary  fence,  or 
made    an    ordin^y  boundary  fence    rabbit-proof),  shall   bo   entitled    to 
recover  half  the  cost  of  such  fence  from  the  owner  of  the  adjoining  land 
so  soon  as  he  shall  avail  himself  of  the  use  of  such  rabbit-proof  fence 
within  the  meaning  of  the  Fencing  Act,  1865,  provided  that  notice  of 
intention  to  erect  such  fence  be  given  to  the  owner  of  adjoining  land  at 
least  one  calendar  month  before  such  fence  is  erected  or  made  rabbit- 
proof.     Valuations  under  Part  IV.  of  the  Act  to  be  made  by  a  valuator 
appointed  by  the  Governor,  by  whom  such  valuations  shall  be  approved ; 
all  other  valuations  under  the  Act,  except  those  to  be  made  by  the  land 
board,  shall    be  determined  in  cases  of    dispute    by  two  arbitrators   of 
whom  one  shall  be  appointed  by  the  Commissioner  and  the  other  by  the 
persons  entitled  to  compensation  or  payment.     In  cases  of  the  arbitrators 
not  being  able   to  agree,  an  umpire  to  be   appointed   by  them  before 
entering  into  consideration  of  the  amount  of  compensation  or  payment. 
Either  party  failing  to  nominate  an  arbitrator  within  seven  days  of  notice 
in  writiny:  so  to  do  shall  have  been  given  him  by  ihe  party,  or  shall  name 
an  arbitrator  who  shall  refuse  or  neglect  to  act,  then  the  arbitrator  named 
by  the  other  party  shall  make  a  final  decision  alone.     Any  lessee  under 
the  Crown  Lands  Act  may  surrender  his  lease  at  any  time  dux'ing  the 
currency  thereof  in  a  form  prescribed  by  the  regulations,  and  a  new  lease 
shall  be  pre])ared  in  the  name  of  person  or  persons  nominated  by  the 
lessee  surrendering  such  lease.     The  new  lease  to  be  for  the  remainder  of 
the  term,  and  to  contain  similar  terms  and  conditions  as  wei'e  contained  in 
the    surrendered    lease.     The    Commissioner    to    have    power    to    sell 
unbranded  wild  cattle  over  twelve  months  old  feeding  upon  Crown  lands 
and  having  no  reputed  owner,  either  by  public  auction  or  by  private  con- 
tract, provided   that  notice   of    such  sale   be  given   in   the    Government 
Gazette  at  least  one  month  prior  to  the  date  of  sale.    The  purchaser  to  be 
authorised  by  writinji^  under  hand  of  Commissioner  to  take  possession  of 
such  cattle,  with  proper  assistance,  within  two  months  of  the  date  of  sale, 
or   such   further    time    as    the    Commissioner    may,    in    writing,    allow. 
Executors  or  administrators  of  any  purchaser  from  the  Crown  on  credit 
or  any  lessee  from  the  Crown  having  a  right  to  pui chase  any  lands  from 
the  Crown  may,  with  the  consent  of  the  Commissioner,  niortgage  such 
lands  to  complete  the  purchase.     The  Commissioner  may  cause  erroneous 
plans  attached  to  any  lease  of  the  Crown  to  be  corrected  at  the  expense 
of  the  lessee,  and  to  attach  such  corrected  plan  to  tiie  lease,  and  the  plan 
so  attached  being  signed  by  the  Commissioner    shall  form  part  of  lease 
and  the  parcel  taken  to  refer  to  such  corrected  \)\i.\n.     The  Commissioner 
may  charge  reasonable  fees  for  anything  done  under  the  Act,  as  may  be 


i^OO  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

fixed  by  regulations,  and  the  Governor  may,  from  time  to  time,  make  such 
regulations  for  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  the  Act.  Such  regulations 
when  published  in  the  Govt-rnment  Gazette  to  have  the  force  of  law. 

"Part  X. — Part  X.  relates  to  legal  procedure,  trespass,  and  jjenalties, 
provides  for  the  appointment  of  Crown  lands  rangers,  and  defines  their 
duties,  to  make  entrances  on,  and  serve  notices  respecting  Crown  lands,  to 
impound  sheep  and  cattle  trespassing  on  Crown  lands  and  to  destroy  pigs 
80  trespassing,  to  lay  informations  against  persons  allowing  sheep  or  cattle 
illegally  to  depasture  on  Crown  lands,  educational  lands  or  reserves  ;  to 
prosecute  owners  of  travelling  stock  whose  stock  when  travelling  honA 
fide  shall  not  travel  the  prescribed  distance  of  five  miles  each  day,  and  to 
recover  the  penalties  therefor ;  to  prosecute  and  recover  penalties  from 
persons  whose  stock  are  depasturing  Crown  lands,  &c.,  without  having  a 
valid  licence,  or  in  excess  of  the  quantity  of  stock  in  virtue  of  which  they 
may  be  entitled  to  pasture ;  for  the  first  ofPence  a  sum  not  exceeding  £5, 
for  the  second  a  sum  not  less  than  £5  nor  more  than  £10,  and  for 
the  third  and  every  subsequent  offence  not  less  than  £20  nor  more  than 
£100,  and,  in  addition  thereto,  for  each  off'ence  the  sum  of  3d.  per  head 
for  every  sheep,  goat,  or  pig,  and  Is.  6d.  for  every  head  of  cattle  unlaw- 
fully depasturing.  Persons  who  shall  unlawfully  occupy  any  land 
belonging  to  or  vested  in  the  Crown,  by  residing,  erecting  a  building 
or  hut  thereon,  or  by  clearing,  enclosing,  or  cultivating  any  part  thereof, 
or  who  shall  knowingly  make  any  false  statement  with  regard  to  com- 
monage in  hundreds,  shall  be  liable  for  the  first  offence  to  a  penalty  not 
exceeding  £10,  for  the  second  oflfence  a  sum  not  less  than  £10  nor  more 
than  £20,  for  the  third  or  any  subsequent  offence  a  sum  not  less  than  £20 
nor  more  than  £50,  provided  no  information  for  a  second  or  following 
offence  be  laid  until  fourteen  clear  days  from  the  date  of  the  previous 
conviction  ;  provides  penalties  for  persons  injuring,  cutting,  or  removing 
timber  from  Cro^\^l  lauds  or  reserves  without  a  valid  licence ;  or 
quarrying  and  removing  metals,  ores,  stone,  sand,  gravel,  or  other 
material ;  for  injuring  or  removing  landmarks  ;  for  obstructing  roads 
or  ways,  or  obstructing  authorised  persons  carrying  out  duties  entrusted 
to  them,  and  for  forging,  counterfeiting,  or  altering  any  lease,  grant, 
proclamation,  licence,  &;c. 

"  Act  444  of  1888  was  amended  on  the  6th  December,  by  the  Crown 
Lands  Amendment  Act,  No.  472  of  1889.  This  Act  is  divided  into  four 
parts.  Part  I.  Preliminary  ;  Part  II.  contains  provisions  relating  to 
siuTender  and  exchange  of  agreements  ;  Part  III.  The  provisions  as  to 
the  erection  of  rabbit-proof  boundary  fences;  and  Part  IV.  Miscellaneous. 

"  Part  I.  gives  an  interpretation  of  the  term  lands  reserved  for  leasing, 
as  described  in  the  schedule   to   the  Act,  referring  to  south-east  lands 


LAND     J>AWS.  201 

■within   hundreds,  and   seven  miles  on   each   side   of   the   railway  from 
Wellington  to  Tatiara,  outside  hundreds. 

'•  Part  II.  repeals  section  41  of  the  princiiial  Act  respecting  scrub  leases 
■or  lands  held  under  agreement  being  e.x.changed  for  a  perpetual  lease  or 
lease  with  right  of  purchase.  Explains  how  the  rent  is  charged  under 
section  40  of  the  principal  Act,  as  from  the  expiration  of  the  third  year 
from  the  date  of  the  original  agreement  or  lease.  How  moneys  paid  shall 
be  credited.  The  persons  surrendering  having  elected  to  take  a  perpetual 
lease,  shall  be  credited  against  rent  payable  under  the  new  lease  with  the 
whole  amount  paid  on  account  of  the  purchase-money,  or  purchase-money 
and  rent,  for  such  lands,  except  the  first  deposit  of  10  per  centum.  Jf 
the  person  shall  have  elected  to  take  a  lease  with  right  of  purchase  he 
■shall  in  like  manner  be  credited,  as  against  rent,  with  the  amount  so  paid, 
except  the  first  deposit  of  10  per  centum,  and  in  the  event  of  his  exer- 
cising his  right  of  purchase  before  the  amount  of  credit  shall  have  been 
•exhausted,  he  shall  be  credited  with  the  balance  as  against  the  purchase- 
money  :  Provided  that  in  either  case  such  credit  shall  not  cover  more 
than  twenty  y^ears'  rental  of  such  land,  according  to  the  rate  fixed  by  the 
land  board.  As  to  the  other  lands  surrendered,  the  person  surrendering 
«hall  be  credited  against  rent,  or  against  rent  and  purchase-money,  as  the 
■case  may  require,  with  all  money  paid  to  the  Crown  as  shall  be  in  excess 
of  10  per  centum  on  the  amount  at  which  he  was  originally  entitled  to 
purchase  the  land  :  Provided  that  no  such  credit  shall  be  given  unless 
all  moneys  payable  for  the  lands  held  by  such  person  in  respect  of  the 
first  three  years'  occupation  of  such  lands  shall  have  been  previously  paid; 
nor  shall  any  such  credit  be  given  contrary  to  the  terms  of  i,he  proviso  to 
«ub-section  1. 

"  Persons  holding  land  under  agreement  with  right  of  purchase  before 
the  Crown  Lands  Act,  1888,  came  into  operation  may,  within  twelve 
months  of  the  passing  of  Act  472,  1889,  apply  to  the  Commissioner  to 
have  the  price  he  has  agreed  to  pay  reduced,  and  the  Commissioner  shall 
submit  such  application  to  the  land  board  for  consideration,  and  on  their 
recommendation  reduce  the  purchase-money  ;  but  in  all  other  respects 
the  agreement  shall  remain  in  force,  and  any  previous  payments  on 
uccount  of  purch  ise-money  shall  remain  to  the  credit  of  such  person,  such 
■credit  being  applied  solely  as  against  rent  and  purchase-money,  or  rent, 
as  before  provided. 

"  Part  III. — Part  III.  relates  to  provisions  as  to  erection  of  rabbit-proof 
Ijoundary  fences,  ami  provides  for  the  erection  of  such  fences  as  abut  on 
■Crown  lands  l)eing  made  by  district  councils  by  means  of  a  loan  from  the 
Commissioner,  the  funds  for  which  are  to  be  provided  by  Parliament,  and 
the  moneys  being  expended  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Commissioner  :  or 


^02  SOUTH    AUSTHAMA. 

the  Commissioner  ma}^  erect  such  i-dbbit-proof  fence  on  such  portions 
of  the  boundary  line  of  any  district  council  as  shall  abut  on  any  Crown 
lands.  The  amount  expended  by  the  district  council  or  by  the  Com- 
missioner in  erecting  such  fence  lo  be  a  debt  due  by  such  district  council 
to  the  Commissioner,  to  be  repaid  by  such  council  by  ten  annual  equal 
amomits,  without  interest,  to  the  Commissioner,  the  first  annual  payment 
to  become  due  and  payable  at  the  expiration  of  twelve  months  from  the 
date  when  such  loan  was  granted  or  expenditure  incurred,  as  the  case 
may  be.  Such  annual  payments  shall  be  a  charge  upon  the  annual  rates 
of  such  district  council.  The  Governor  may,  from  time  to  time,  make 
regulations  for  any  of  the  purposes  of  the  Act,  for  providing  the  nature 
of  the  rabbit-proof  fences  to  be  erected,  the  mode  of  applications  for 
loans,  and  the  nature  and  form  of  the  securities  to  be  given  by  district 
councils  for  carrying  out  this  part  of  the  Act.  It  also  provides  for  notices 
to  the  owners  and  occupiers  of  land  infested  with  rabbits  to  destroy  the 
same,  and  for  the  Commissioner  of  Crown  Lands  or  any  district  council, 
or  any  person  authorised  by  the  Commissioner  or  district  council,  to- 
erect  a  rabbit-proof  fence  across  any  road  or  roads  specified  in  such 
authority,  provided  that  there  shall  be  a  gate  of  a  width  of  at  least  10ft. 
in  any  such  fence.  Persons  wilfully  injuring  or  destroying  any  rabbit- 
proof  fence,  or  any  part  thereof,  shall  be  liable  to  a  penalty  not  exceeding- 
twenty  pounds,  or  to  be  imprisoned  for  any  term  not  exceeding  six  months. 
Persons  wilfully  or  negligently  leaving  any  such  gate  open  to  be  liable  to- 
a  penalty  not  exceeding  five  pounds.  Proof  that  there  are  on  any  land 
burrows  showing  signs  of  the  presence  of  rabbits  shall  be  prima  facte 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  rabbits  on  such  land,  and  proof  that  these- 
signs  are  not  diminished  shall  be  prima  facie  evidence  that  the  occupier 
is  neglecting  what  he  has  been  required  to  do  bv  notice  which  has  been 
served  upon  him  under  provisions  of  the  Act. 

"  Part  IV. — Part  IV.  relates  to  miscellaneous  conditions,  and  provides 
for  forest  leases  to  be  adjudicated  upon  by  land  boards.  That  the  rent 
on  such  lands  may  be  remitted  or  re  luce  i.  That  reclaimed  lands  may  be- 
leased  on  such  terms  and  conditions  as  the  Commissioner  may  consider 
desirable,  the  rent  being  fixed  and  the  land  allotted  by  the  land  board. 
That  any  person  who  hns  surrendered  his  or  who  shall  hereafter  surrender 
his  agreement  cr  lease,  under  Part  II.  of  the  principal  Act,  shall  have  a 
right  of  appeal  to  the  Commissioner  against  the  decision  of  the  land  board, 
fixing  tfip  amount  of  i-ent  and  purchase-money,  or  either  (as  the  case  may 
be)  ;  and  the  Commissioner  shall,  on  receipt  of  such  appeal,  refer  the 
same  to  the  land  board  for  reconsideration  and  a  report  thereon,  and  may,, 
after  receiving  such  report  from  such  land  board,  reduce  the  rent  and 
purchase-money,  or  either,  so  appealed  against,  as,  in  his  opinion,  the  case 


LAND     LAWS.  203 

may  require  ;  provided  that  such  appeals  be  made  within  six  months  of 
the  passing  of  the  Act,  and  that  all  other  appeals  shall  be  made  -within 
six  months  of  the  notification  to  the  lessee  of  the  amount  of  the  rent,  or 
rent  and  purchase-money  fixed  by  tlie  board.  Land  boards  may  require 
evidence  to  be  given  on  oath.  Persons  convicted  of  false  evidence  to  be 
jjunished  as  for  j^erjury  ;  to  be  imprisoned  with  or  without  hard  labor  for 
a  period  not  exceeding  four  years.  Affirmation  may  be  received  in 
lieu  of  oath,  and  mav  be  administered  by  any  member  of  a  land  hoard. 
Governor  may  except  suburban  lands  from  beinsj  dealt  with  by  land 
boards,  and  where  such  lands  may  be  altogether  withdrawn  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  land  boards.  The  lands  may  be  sold  by  auction  for  cash, 
in  the  same  manner  as  town  lands.  All  applications  for  the  transfer  of 
any  lands  that  have  been  allotted  by  any  land  board  to  be  referred  to 
land  boards  for  advice,  and  no  transfer  shall  be  allowed  until  after 
notice  of  such  application  shall  have  been  inserted  for  four  weeks  in 
the  (Government  Gazette.  Not  more  than  1,000  acres  of  land  reserved 
for  leasing,  with  right  of  purchase,  shall  be  held  by  any  one  person. 
Provision  to  fix  upset  price  of  pastoral  lands  that  have  been  offered  at 
auction  and  been  twice  reduced  without  being  sold  with  the  advice 
of  land  boards.  Exempting  applicants  from  enclosing  20  ]ier  cent, 
of  first  year's  rent  with  application  for  consideration  of  land  board, 
when  such  amount  is  under  £l  sterling;  by  amendment  of  principal 
Act  allow  completion  of  purchase  on  six  years  of  working  men's  blocks; 
amendment  of  section  22  of  the  principal  Act  as  to  payment  of  first 
year's  rent,  preference  to  be  given  by  land  boards  to  applicants  who 
agree  to  reside,  provides  for  improvements  made  by  lessee  on  lands 
held  for  the  manufacture  of  salt  being  added  to  upset  pi  ice  and 
disposed  of  in  new  lease.  Provides  for  the  sale  of  pastoral  leases  after 
expiration  of  date  fixed  by  previous  Act,  and  upon  the  conditions  and 
terms  of  leases  offered  as  prescribed  bv  such  previous  Acts;  and  for  the 
offering  leases  of  contiguous  lands  to  the  lessee  for  terms  not  excccdino; 
three  years,  and  at  a  rental  to  be  fixed  by  the  Commissioner,  without 
such  leases  going  to  auction.  For  a  lessee  to  surrender  two  or  more 
blocks  of  land  included  in  the  same  run ;  the  lessee  may  surrender  the 
leases  of  such  blocks  and  obtain  one  lease  in  lieu  thereof,  and,  with  the 
consent  of  the  ('ommissioner,  the  improvements  necessary  to  entitle  the 
lessee  to  the  deposit  of  10  per  centum  paid  on  account  of  improvements, 
may  be  made  on  any  part  of  the  land  included  on  such  lease.  Provides 
for  the  correction  of  a  clerical  error  in  section  116  of  the  principal  Act 
by  substitution  of  the  word  'therein'  for  the  word  'herein'  in  the 
fifteenth  line  of  that  section.  Amends  section  131  of  ihe  ])rincipal  Act 
as   though  the  words  '  under  this  part  of  this  Act'  had  been  omitted. 


20-1  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

Amending  section  20  of  the  Woods  and  Forests  Act,  1882,  and  sub- 
stituting; the  words  'forty-two'  in  lieu  of  'twenty-one'  in  the  second 
line  of  the  said  section  ;  and  providing  for  Act  472  of  1889  and  444  of 
1888  being  read  and  construed  together  as  forming  one  Act. 

"The  method  of  applying  for  lands  as  provided  in  the  present  Land 
Acts  444  of  1888  and  472  of  1889  may  he  summarised  briefly  as 
follows  :  — 

"  All  questions  relating  to  lands,  e.Kcept  as  to  policy,  should  be  referred 
to  the  Surveyor-General  either  by  letter  or  personally,  and  appeals 
against  the  decision  of  that  officer  should  be  made  either  personally  or  by 
letter  to  the  Commissioner  of  Crown  Lands. 

"Applicants  wishing  to  obtain  town,  suburban,  or  special  country  blocks 
should  apply  to  the  Land  Office,  where  the  chief  clerk  or  subordinates 
deputed  for  the  purpose  will  afford  every  information,  receive  applica- 
tions, and  arrange  for  the  gazetting  of  such  lands  as  can  only  be  pur- 
chased at  auction.  In  cases  of  doubt  these  officers  will  refer  to  the  chief 
clerk  or  Surveyor-General,  in  order  that  full  information  may  be  promptly 
and  correctly  given.  Lands  requiring  to  be  offered  to  competition  by 
public  auction  must  be  included  in  a  list  of  lands  which  should  appear  in 
the  Government  Gazette  for  not  less  than  four  "weeks  prior  to  date  of  sale. 
Intending  purchasers  should  attend  the  sale,  which  is  held  in  the  Land 
Office,  either  personally  or  by  their  agents,  and  bid  for  the  land  required 
by  them — the  pm-chaser  paying  2C  per  cent,  at  the  fall  of  the  hammer 
and  the  balance  within  a  month  from  the  date  of  sale.  Should  it  be  in- 
convenient for  an  applicant  to  attend  at  the  Land  Office  personally,  he 
should  write  to  the  Surveyor-General,  specifying  the  lands  required  by 
him,  and  he  will  receive  an  intimation  when  the  lands  will  be  offered 
at  auction,  or,  should  the  lands  be  withheld  from  sale,  the  reasons 
therefor. 

"  Applicants  for  pastoral  lands,  or  for  lands  to  be  leased  by  allotment 
under  land  board  regulations,  should  make  similar  application,  either 
personally  or  by  letter :  the  pastoral  leases  required  being  gazetted  for 
sale  by  auction,  as  in  the  case  of  town  and  suburban  lands  ;  and  the 
application  for  lands  to  be  dealt  with  by  land  boards  will  be  referred  to 
and  dealt  with  by  such  boards,  whether  for  lease  with  right  of  purchase 
or  perjjetual  lease,  and  whether  for  ordinary  lands,  lands  in  reserved 
district,  drainage  lands,  or  working  men's  blocks ;  notice,  intimating  the 
size  and  price  of  block  and  date  up  to  which  applications  will  be  received, 
duly  appearing  in  the  Government  Gazp.tte,  and  subsequently  of  places 
where  the  board  will  meet  the  applicants  for  such  lands,  and,  after  due 
inquiry,  will  proceed  to  allot  the  lands  to  the  applicants,  as  provided 
by  the  Act  and  regidations.     In  all  cases  of  this  nature  forms  of  applica- 


LAND     LAWS*.  205 

tion  can  be  had  at  the  Land  Office,  as  well  as  at  post  offices  and 
district  council  offices,  or  local  courts  in  the  country.  These,  when 
filled  in,  may  be  addressed  to  the  Hon.  Commissioner  of  Crown  Lands, 
by  Avhom  they  will  be  referred  to  the  Land  Office  for  the  necessary  detail 
and  action  prior  to  their  being  finally  dealt  with  by  the  land  boards.  Each 
applicant  should  specify  in  the  application  whether  he  intends  to  reside 
personally  on  the  land,  and  whether  he  wishes  a  lease  with  right  of  pur- 
chase, or  perpetual  lease.  In  the  case  of  education  lands  a  perpetual 
lease  only  can  be  obtained,  and  of  forest  lands  a  lease  for  a  term  of  forty- 
two  years. 

"  Persons  wishing  to  apply  for  remissions  of  rent  or  reduction  in  rental, 
or  rental  and  price  of  purchase  under  which  such  lands  are  held,  should 
appeal  in  writing  to  the  Commissioner  of  Crown  Lands,  by  whom  such 
application  will  be  referred  to  the  Surveyor-General  for  necessary  detail. 
On  such  being  furnished,  the  appeal  will  be  dealt  with  by  the  land  board, 
and  the  amount  of  reduction  or  remission  (if  any)  duly  intimated  to 
them.  Applications  for  leasjes  or  licences  to  search  for  and  remove  coal, 
mineral  oils,  mineral  ores  or  metals,  or  new  discoveries  of  value,  entitling 
the  discoverers  to  a  lease  without  competition,  should  be  made  personally 
or  by  letter  to  the  Land  Office  or  Surveyor-General.  In  the  case  of 
mineral  leases  or  licences,  except  gold,  the  applicants  should  first  peg 
out  the  land  upon  which  discovery  has  been  made,  fix  the  position  of 
datum  peg,  and  as  well  as  jjossible,  by  reference  to  natuial  features 
in  the  localitv  or  bv  bearings  to  known  hills,  station  wells,  buildinjrs, 
springs,  marked  trees,  Sec,  or  to  trigonometrical  stations  ;  then, 
leaving  a  trusty  agent  or  partner  in  possession,  proceed  to  the 
Land  Office  and  make  application  for  lease  or  licence,  as  he  may 
desire,  on  obtaining  which  operations  may  be  commenced ;  but  it 
is  essential  for  the  security  of  the  applicant  that  he  should  not 
leave  his  discovery  unguarded  for  a  single  day,  as,  should  he 
do  so,  his  pegs  may  be  removed  and  another  applicant  or  person  desirous 
of  getting  the  lease  may  peg  out,  make  a  declaration  that  he  saw  no  other 
pegs  than  his  own  upon  the  ground,  and  that  no  one  adverse  to  him  was 
in  occupation  when  he  pegged  out  the  land,  and  thus  obtain  possession  of 
the  discovery  made  by  the  prior  applicant,  or,  should  he  fail  to  do  so, 
causing  trouble  and  annoyance  to  the  office  and  the  real  discoverer,  and 
should  the  discovery  be  of  value,  inducing  litigation  to  secure  at  least  a 
portion  of  the  profit.  Applicants  for  gold  leases  require  to  insert  notices 
of  their  intention  in  the  (jovernment  Gazette  and  public  papers,  sub- 
sequently applying  to  the  gold  warden,  as  provided  by  the  Gold  Mining 
Act  regulations.  The  warden  will  also  issue  miners'  rights,  prospectors'" 
licences  to  search  for  gold  as  therein  directed. 


206  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

"  Ponnits  are  frequently  granted,  ou  receipt  of  applications,  to  enable 
persons  making  discoveries  to  fix  the  exact  spot  or  locality  which  they 
wish  to  lease.  These  permits,  though  not  strictly  legal,  possess  the 
advantage  that,  whilst  interfering  but  little  with  the  stock  of  the  pas- 
toralist,  they  aid  in  the  development  of  discoveries  that  may  prove  of 
incalculable  value  to  the  country,  if  successfully  developed ;  and,  should 
search  prove  the  discovery  to  be  of  but  Utile  value,  the  right  of  search 
under  the  permit  expires,  and  the  pastoral  lease  continues  as  if  such 
permit  had  never  been  granted.  Were  this  policy  not  adopted,  the  land 
would  have  to  be  resumed  from  the  pastoral  lessee  when  any  such  claim 
was  made,  entailing  loss  to  the  State  by  compensation  requiring  to  be 
paid,  and  also  to  the  pastoral  occupant  of  the  land,  as  leases  granted  for 
such  purposes  generally  supersede  the  leases  held  for  depasturing 
purposes  on  such  lands.  In  the  Land  Office  officers  are  set  apart  to  deal 
with  applications  for  pastoral,  mineral,  and  other  classes  of  land,  and  on 
application  to  any  of  these  the  applicant  will  be  directed  to  go  to  the 
proper  officer,  from  whom  the  desired  information  can  be  obtained.  The 
walls  of  the  office  are  hung  round  with  plans  showing  pastoral  districts, 
mineral  lands,  and  lands  within  hundreds,  arranged  alphabetically,  under 
distinctive  symbols  or  tints,  that  materially  aid  in  giving  information  that 
may  be  desired  by  the  public.  The  books  of  credit  and  other  lands, 
except  such  as  have  been  purchased  for  cash,  are  also  arranged  so  that 
the  lands  selected  or  held  by  any  person  whose  name  is  furnished  can  be 
given  with  but  little  trouble  or  delay.  Recently,  due  to  the  changes  in 
the  land  laAvs  and  the  difficulty  in  training  new  people,  delay  has  occurred 
in  several  branches  of  the  Land  Office,  more  especially  those  dependent 
upon  the  land  board  transactions ;  bat,  fortunately,  these  are  being 
gradually  overcome.  Persons  failing  to  obtain  satisfactory  information 
from  the  Land  Office  should  see  the  head  of  the  department,  or  officer 
acting  for  him  in  his  absence,  when  full  detail  generallv  can  be  obtained 

"  Plans  of  lands  to  be  disposed  of  by  auction  for  pastoral  purposes,  sale, 
or  lease  under  land  boards  are  sent  to  local  courts  and  district  councils 
as  well  as  full  detail  given  in  the  Government  Gazette,  and  copies  of  such 
plans  can  be  had  at  the  Land  Office,  on  application,  either  colored  or 
plain,  at  little  over  the  absolute  cost  of  production.  Information 
involving  long  references  and  clerical  work  should,  howeA'er.  be  obtained 
by  clerks  or  agents,  to  whom  facilities  are  given  for  such  pur])oses,  the 
officers  being  too  busily  occupied  to  enable  them  to  give  the  time 
requisite  for  compiling  and  giving  such  information  in  a  written  form. 

"Copies  of  all  plans  deposited  by  order  of  Parliament — of  corporate 
towns  and  district  councils,  lines  of  railway,  and  roads  opened,  closed  or 
exchanged — can  be  seen  on  reference  to  the  Land  Office.      These  docu- 


LAND     LAWS.  207 

ments,  as  well  as  all  office  plans,  can  only  be  copied  in  pencil,  as  it  is 
essentially  necessary  to  preserve  them  as  far  as  possible  from  injury, 
which  could  not  be  done  with  such  certainty  were  ink  permitted  to  be 
used. 

"  Persons  desirous  to  obtain  leases  under  land  boards— of  lands  not  yet 
surveyed,  and  of  special  or  particular  form  and  area — should  state  such 
to  the  clerk  in  the  Land  Office,  or  by  letter,  on  receipt  of  which  the 
proper  steps  will  be  at  once  taken  to  comply  with  his  request,  so  far  as 
such  is  consistent  Avith  the  regulations. 

"  As  moneys  forwarded  to  the  department  with  applications  for  lands, 
leases,  licences,  &cc.,  may  be  paid  into  Treasury  on  receipt,  and  in  the 
event  of  the  application  not  being  complied  with,  cannot  always  be 
returned  at  once,  an  account  for  repajnnent  and  approval  must  be 
obtained  before  such  can  be  done.  This  inconvenience  cannot  well  be 
avoided,  as,  where  so  many  letters  sent  in  contain  money,  and  these 
cannot  be  always  summarily  dealt  with,  the  rule  is  to  jiay  most  sums  into 
the  Treasury,  as  it  is  undesirable  that  the  receiver  of  revenue  should  add 
to  his  anxiety  by  retaining  large  sums  of  money — pending  settlement  of 
question — either  in  hand  or  by  suspension  account,  and  where  such  can 
be,  the  system  is  avoided. 

"  Information  respecting  credit  agreements  still  in  force,  and  education 
leases,  can  be  had  on  application  to  the  Inspector- General  of  Credit 
Lands,  and  Secretary  Crown  Lands  Department ;  respecting  mines  and 
gold  leases,  to  the  Inspector  of  Mines  and  Warden  of  Goldfields,  Crown 
Lands  Office. 

"  Notices  under  the  Act  of  intention  by  pastoral  lessees  to  construct 
improvements  to  increase  the  carrying  capabilities  of  the  leased  lands  for 
pastoral  purposes  are  addressed  to  and  recorded  by  the  Surveyor-General, 
by  direction  of  the  Commissioner 

"The  only  recent  additions  to  the  laws  relating  to  lands  are  Act  478/90, 
relating  to  vermin-proof  fencing,  and  Act  .515  of  1891.  to  provide  for 
loans  to  the  lessees  of  working  men's  blocks,  and  for  other  purposes. 
The  former  Act  only  relates  to  lands  as  regards  vermin-proof  fencing. 
It  aiithorises  the  Government  to  enclose  Crown  lands  within  hundreds 
out  of  funds  voted  for  that  purpose,  to  pay  half  cost  of  enclosing 
private  lands  abutting  on  Crown  lands,  and  to  supply  netting  to  owners 
of  private  lands  within  a  specified  date ;  the  Aalue  to  be  repaid  by  ten 
equal  yearly  instalments,  without  interest;  Government  to  advance  moneys 
to  district  councils,  to  supply  wire  netting  to  residents  on  petition ;  the 
district  coimcils  to  be  responsible  for  repayment  of  advance  as  specified. 

"The   Blockers   Loan   Act,  No.  .515  of    1891,  provides  for  a   Parlia- 
mentary vote  not  e.xcecding  £10,000,  to  be  operated  on   by  the  Hon. 


208  SOUTH    AISTKALIA. 

Commissioner  in  making  advances  to  blockholclers,  to  assist  them  in 
erectinj^  buildings  and  making  permanent  improvements  on  their  blocks; 
the  advance  not  to  exceed  one-half  the  cost  to  the  blockholder  of  the 
permanent  buildings  then  existing  in  good  repair  on  his  block ;  the 
amount  advanced  to  any  lessee  not  to  exceed  £50  at  any  one  time  ; 
the  loans  to  be  repaid  by  instalments  at  the  commencement  of  the  fifths 
sixth,  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  years  respectively  from  date  of  the 
advance,  which  time,  in  cases  of  hardship,  may  be  extended  by  the  Hon. 
Commissioner ;  interest  is  payable  at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent,  per  annum 
on  the  amount  of  loan.  It  also  provided  for  the  indorsement  by  the 
Commissioner  of  leases  to  protect  block  holders'  interests  from  incum- 
brance or  seizure,  keeping  accounts,  and  penalty  for  fraud  or  false 
representations. 

"The  regulations  now  in  force  dealing  with  lands  in  the  province  are : 
— Relating  to  ostrich  farming,  dated  February  14th,  1883  ;  gold  mining, 
February  15th,  1888;   Crown  lands,  dated  February  24th,  1891. 

"  Persons  wishing  to  obtain  land  should  apply  by  letter  or  on  applica- 
tion form  to  the  Surveyor-General,  giving  full  detail  as  to  locality  and 
area,  or  personally  to  the  chief  clerk  in  tlie  Land  Office. 

"  Applications  to  have  lands  dealt  with  under  Part  II.,  Act  444  of  1888, 
are,  on  receipt,  referred  to  the  land  board  for  the  district  in  which  they 
are  situate.  The  board  recommends  the  sizes  and  i^rices,  and  after 
approval  the  necessary  surveys  are  effected  by  the  Survey  Department, 
on  completion  of  which  plans  are  prepared  and  the  lands  gazetted  for 
application.  On  a  date  specified  applications  and  deposits  of  20  per 
cent,  (if  the  annual  rental  is  over  £5)  are  sent  to  Crown  Lands 
Office.  Detail  of  the  holdings  of  earh  applicant  is  marked  thereon,  and 
the  applications  referred  to  the  land  board  for  allotment  on  the  date 
specified  in  terms  of  the  Gazette  notice. 

"The  boards  allot  Avorking  men's  blocks  and  ordinary  lands  on  per- 
petual lease  or  lease  with  right  of  purchase,  but  leases  of  land  in 
aiiriferous  districts  or  within  water  areas  are  granted  by  the  boards 
under  perpetual  lease  only,  as  also  are  educational  and  forest  lands. 
Leases  of  forest  lands  are  for  a  term  of  forty-two  years  without  right  of 
renewal. 

"  Transfers  of  land  held  under  Part  II.  of  the  Act  are  only  approved 
by  the  Commissioner  on  the  recommendation  of  the  land  board  after  four 
notices  of  intention  to  transfer  having  been  published  in  the  Government 
Gazetted 

"  The  issue  of  leases  for  working  men  was  first  suggested  by  the  Hon. 
G.  W.  Cotton,  M.L.C.,  as  a  means  to  help  working  men,  and  from 
whence  they  might  go  to  work  and  return  when  work  was  no  longer 


1-AND     I.AWS.  209 

procurable  in  the  neighborhood  their  spare  time  being  spent  in  culti- 
vating portions  of  the  land,  which  would  enable  them  to  keep  a  horse, 
cow,  fowls,  and  pigs,  and  grow  vegetables  and  fruit,  and  providing  milk, 
butter,  eggs,  vegetables,  fruit,  bacon,  and  a  comfortable  home  for  them- 
selves and  their  families ;  and  so  far  the  object  has  been  successful ; 
for,  although  a  great  many  of  the  blocks  have  been  dummied  by 
adjacent  owners,  and  others  been  applied  for  by  persons  under  age.  these 
defects  are  being  gradually  remedied,  and,  so  long  as  the  first  object  is 
kept  in  view,  the  occupation  of  these  lands  will  continue  successful. 
Suburban  and  other  available  lands  conveniently  situated  were  offered 
and  taken  up  under  the  regulations,  and  on  the  1st  June  instant  there 
■were,  as  stated  above,  1,544  of  these  blocks  held  under  lease,  representing 
24,731  acres,  and  realising  the  annual  rental  of  £2,208,  or  an  average 
rental  of  nearly  Is.  lOd.  per  acre.  These  lands  include  blocks  suburban 
to  existing  towns,  aboriginal  reserves  within  a  few  miles  of  Adelaide  and 
other  towns,  as  well  as  the  hilly  lands  of  Noarlunga,  Kuitpo,  and  Onka- 
paringa.  Some  of  these  lands,  valued  at  the  same  rate  as  adjoining 
lands  held  by  private  OAvners,  were  worth  from  £40  to  £80  per  acre, 
which,  averaged  with  other  lands  of  less  value,  appear  to  give  a  high  rate 
per  acre.  The  hill  lands  are  rough,  but  are  intersected  occasionally  by 
rich  bottoms  of  vegetable  soil,  and  with  small  springs  that  render  the 
blocks  doubly  valuable ;  and  whilst  these  little  swamp  flats  will  do  for 
the  growth  of  fodder  and  vegetables,  potatoes,  onions,  &c.,  the  hillsides 
should  grow  fruit  trees  quite  as  well  as  they  now  do  a  forest  of  stringy- 
bark,  which  would  appear  to  be  the  indigenous  vegetation  of  the  district 
so  far  as  timber  is  concerned,  and  furnishes,  not  only  firewood  and  fencing, 
but  also  shingles  and  building  materials  for  their  houses,  which,  with  the 
stone  and  lime  also  available,  should  prove  of  great  value  to  these  lessees. 
There  are  several  persons  holding  lands  of  this  class  personally  known  to 
me  as  neighbors,  who  are  hard-working,  trustworthy,  and  very  intelligent 
men ;  these  find  ready  employment  when  not  engaged  upon  their  blocks. 
Others  have  a  sufficient  area  of  cultivable  land  as  to  require  all  their 
time  ;  but  it  would  be  better  if,  even  in  the  hills,  a  few  country  residences 
were  scattered  about,  where  the  working  men  might  at  certain  seasons 
obtain  renumerative  employment.  It  is  an  uphill  game  for  many  of  the 
poor  fellows,  but  those  who  are  willing  and  strong  are  pretty  siu'c  to  do 
well,  and,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  will  be  able  to  resist  the  temptation  of  selling 
■when  the  short  period  of  six  years  has  elapsed,  after  which  they  can 
complete  purchase  and  the  land  will  become  their  own  to  do  as  they  like 
with.  I  think  it  is  a  pity  that  the  strips  of  land  reserved  for  the  use  of 
travelling  stock  in  some  of  the  districts,  where  the  soil  and  rainfall  are 

suitable,  have  not  been  set  apart  for  the  purpose  of  blocks  of  this  uature. 
o 


210  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

There  are  many  of  these  strips  too  stony  and  rough  for  this  purpose, 
such  as  lands  from  the  Muri-ay  Bridge  to  Meningie ;  but  there  are  other 
belts  of  land,  in  equally  favored  districts  as  to  climate  and  rainfall,  where 
the  soil  is  suitable,  and  where  a  sufficient  area  might  be  spared  to  give 
blocks  of  this  kind  every  few  miles,  which,  in  some  cases,  might  go  far 
to  keep  a  family  if  properly  cultivated,  although  this  remark  does  not 
apply  to  the  plains  outside  the  line  of  rainfall.  Of  the  1,366  blocks  held 
on  the  1st  June,  1889,  the  residence  conditions  were  only  complied  with 
on  675,  not  quite  half,  and  I  fear  that  this  propoi'tion  has  not  yet 
increased.  It  has  often  occurred  to  me  that  a  great  mistake  had  been 
made  in  granting  too  large  blocks  of  land  to  men  of  small  means,  the 
mere  cost  of  fencing  which  plunges  them  into  debt  and  keeps  them  poor 
for  a  series  of  years.  As  a  rule,  the  smaller  the  area  a  man  holds  for 
cultivation  the  greater  the  amount  of  skill  and  labor  is  expended  in  pro- 
duction, tbe  larger  areas  being  devoted  to  the  growth  of  grass  for 
depasturing  purposes.  I  do  not  say  that  it  is  more  profitable  to  the 
individual  to  cultivate  rather  than  to  the  depasture  the  land  by  stock,  or 
that  the  profit  from  beef,  mutton,  wool,  hides,  milk,  butter,  cheese,  and 
bacon  or  pork  will  not  equal  that  of  fruit,  vegetables,  &c.,  &c. ;  but  the 
smaller  area  cultivated  by  many  hands,  and  supporting,  clothing,  and 
educating  many  families,  and  supporting  trade  to  a  greater  extent,  must 
be  more  profitable  to  the  State  sooner  or  later.  Then  large  estates  may, 
as  population  increases,  be  sub-divided  and  sold  for  farming  purposes,  but 
until  this  becomes  more  general  the  lands  still  available  might  be  utilised 
more  effectually  if  put  into  as  many  hands  as  possible.  It  is  interesting 
to  know  that  cultivation  in  South  Australia  decreases  with  the  area  held 
by  indiA'iduals.  This  may  be  illustrated  in  a  few  lines,  thus  : — Take  the 
county  of  Adelaide  as  the  first  illustration.  Of  nearly  1,200  persons 
holding  blocks  of  from  1  to  5  acres,  two-fifths  are  cultivated  ;  of  702 
holders  of  sections  between  100  and  250  acres,  two-sevenths  are  culti- 
vated; of  145  holders  of  from  500  to  1,000  acres,  three-fifths  are  culti- 
vated; of  46  holders  of  1,000  to  2,000  acres,  one-ninth  is  cultivated ; 
and  of  three  holders  of  4,000  to  5,000  acres  but  one  hundred  and  forty- 
sixth  portion  is  cultivated.  In  the  county  of  Gawler  223  holders  of  500 
to  1,000  acres  cultivate  one-half,  whilst  two  holders  of  10,000  and  20,000 
acres  cultivate  but  one  three  hundred  and  fifty-eighth  portion.  In  the 
county  of  Frome  366  holders  of  from  500  to  1,000  acres  cultivate  half, 
whilst  five  holders  of  from  10,000  to  20,000  acres  cultivate  but  one  hun- 
dred and  fortieth  part.  In  county  Grey  219  holders  of  from  100  to  250 
acres  cultivate  a  fourth,  18  holders  of  from  5,000  to  10,000  acres  cultivate 
one-sixtieth,  whilst  four  owners  of  from  20,000  to  30,000  do  not  cultivate 
any  land  beyond  a  few  acres  for  garden  purposes." 


POPULATIOX.  211 


CHAPTER    XV. 

'Census  of  South  Australia. — Periods  at  ^VHICH  Taken — Census  of  1891 — Census 
Table  from  1844  to  1891 — Distribution  of  the  Population— Number  of 
Dwelling-houses — Area  Occupied  by  the  People — Cities  and  Towns, 
District  Councils,  &c. — Increase  of  Population — Effect  of  Mineral 
Discoveries — Of  the  Proclamation  of  Agricultural  Areas — The 
Broken  Hill  Mines — Stoppage  of  Immigration — Its  Effect — BiaTHS  in 
South  Australia — Actual  Number  for  Ten  Years— Rate  for  Ten 
Years — South  Australia  Compared  with  other  Countries — Marriage 
Kate — Proportion  of  Births  to  Marriages— Legislation  with  Regard 
to  the  Public  Health — Outline  of  the  Laws  in  Force  Regulating  the 
Public  Health — Central  Board  of  Health— Local  Boards — Power  of 
Boards — Deaths  in  South  Australia — Rate  for  Ten  Years — Table  of 
Actual  Mortality  in  each  Month  for  Ten  Years — Months  of  Greatest 
AND  Least  Fatality — Temperature  of  each  Month — Tables  Illus- 
trating the  Foregoing — General  Causes  of  Death— Table  for  Ten 
Years — Malarial  Fever,  Smallpox,  &c.,  Non-existent  in  the  Colony — • 
South  Australia  one  of  the  Healthiest  Countries  in  the  World — ■ 
Death  Rate  in  Age  Groups — Relative  Proportion  of  the  Sexes  in  the 
Province  and  in  England — Infant  Mortality  in  South  Australia — 
Birth  Rate  in  Adelaide  and  other  Capital  Cities— Deaths  in  Adelaide 
AND  Suburbs,  and  in  other  Cities  and  Suburbs — Births  and  Deaths  in 
Australian  Cities. 

In  the  year  1844  the  first  census  of  the  population  of  South  Australia 
was  taken,  and  after  that  time  a  fresh  one  has  been  made  in  every  fifth 
year  clown  to  1881.  In  the  year  1886  it  was  thought  desirable  to 
postpone  the  enumeration  of  the  people  of  the  province  until  the  period 
^when  a  general  census  would  be  taken  for  the  whole  of  the  Empire. 
This  was  done,  and  in  South  Australia  tlie  forms  were  filled  in  on  April 
5th,  1891.  The  results  of  the  enumeration  have  not  yet  been  published 
in  detail.  Several  parts,  however,  are  in  print,  and  it  is  expected  that  the 
whole  will  be  com]-)letcd  by  the  end  of  the  present  year.  It  comprises, 
besides  the  enumeration  of  the  people  in  the  colony,  details  of  their  ages, 
•sexes,  educational  condition,  marital  condition,  their  nationalities, 
religions,  occupations,  &c.  The  analysis  is  most  complete,  and  fills  a 
large  folio  volume.  From  the  tables  contained  therein  the  principal 
part  of  the  information  contained  in  these  pages  has  been  derived. 
The  number  of  persons  in  the  province,  including  the  Northern 
Territory,  was  ascertained  to  be  320,431  souls  at  that  date,  exclu- 
sive of  aborigines.  South  Australia  proper  contained  310,426;  the 
Northern  Territory  4,898,  of  whom  3,392  were  Chinese  male  adults; 
5,107  belonged  to  shipping — of  these  321  were  on  board  vessels  in  Port 
Darwin,  including   244   Chinese.      The  subjoined   statement  shows   the 


212 


SOUTH     AUSTRALIA, 


population,  male  and  female,  at  the  date  of  each  census  from  1844  ta 
1891,  both  inclusive,  but  not  including  aborigines. — 


Year  of  Census. 


1844 
1846 
1851 
1856 
1861 
1866 
1871 
1876 
1881 
1891 


Population. 


Total. 


17.366 
22,390 
63,700 
85,821 
126,830 

163,452 
185,626 
213,271 
279,865 
320,431 


Males. 


9.526 
12,670 
35,302 
43,720 
65,048 

85,334 

95,408 

110,491 

149,530 
166,801 


Females. 


On  Previous  Census 

(Total  Population 

only). 


Numerical 
Increase. 


7,840 
9,720 
28,398 
42,101 
61,782 
78,118 
90,218 
102,780 

130,335 
153.630 


5,024 
41,310 
22,121 
41,009 
36,622 
22,174 

27,645 

66,594 
40,56b 


Increase 
per  cent.. 


28-9 

184-5 
34-7 
477 
28-8 

13-5 
14-9 
31-2 

14-5 


The  population  has  thus  increased  nearly  nineteen-fold  in  the  period 
intervening  between  1844  and  1891.  In  the  ten  years  which  elapsed 
between  1881  and  1891  the  male  population  increased  by  17,271,  or  11-55- 
per  cent.,  and  the  females  by  22,699,  or  17*47  per  cent.  The  excess  of 
males  over  females  in  1881  w^as  19,195,  or  12-84  per  cent.,  but  in  1891  it 
had  decreased  to  13,171,  or  7*89  per  cent.  The  number  of  adult  males- 
was  84,013.  In  enumerating  the  females  the  adults  are  not  distinguished 
from  those  under  age. 

The  inhabitants  are  distributed  in  the  following  way : — The  corporate- 
towns,  thirty- three  in  number,  covering  an  area  of  47,371  acres,  contain 
123,167  souls,  of  whom  59,012  are  males  and  64,155  females,  so  that  in 
the  centres  of  population  the  numerical  preponderance  of  females  is 
5,143,  or  about  8  per  cent.  In  the  area  included  in  district  councils,  151 
in  number,  embracing  27,130,080  acres,  the  male  inhabitants  amount  to 
93,315  and  the  female  to  86,259.  The  excess  of  males  over  females  is 
thus  7,056,  or  7-56  per  cent.  In  the  remainder  of  the  province  there 
are  7,719  persons,  of  whom  the  large  majority  are  males. 

The  component  parts  of  the  population,  according  to  birthplace,  appear 
by  the  census  returns  to  be  as  follows  : — 

United  Kingdom    72,064 

South  Australia 2 1 7, 730 

Other  Australian  Colonies     1 1 ,079 

Other  British  Possessions i ,  504 

Foreign  Countries 16, 185 

Bom  at  Sea     601 

Unspecified 1,268 


320,431 


POPULATION.  213 

The  following  are  the  percentages  of  the  total  population  :  — 

Xativei?  of  England    I4'90 

"         Ireland 4-48 

"         Scotland   2-77 

"Wales    034 

22-49 

"         South  Australia    67-95 

"         Other  Australian  Colonics 3-44 

"  "      British  Possessions    0.48 

7I-8- 

"         Foreign  Countries    5-05 

Eom  at  Sea     019 

Unspecified 0-40 

SM 


loo-oo 

Of  the  foreia;ners  Germans  are  the  most  numerous,  the  total  number 
Tjeing  8,o53,  or  2'67  per  cent.  Next  come  Chinese,  of  whom  there  are 
3,997,  or  l-'2o  per  cent.,  and  then  Swedes  and  Norwegians,  who  number 
1,157,  or  0-36  per  cent. 

There  are  62,742  dwelling-houses  in  the  province,  of  which  3,775  are 
uninhabited  and  233  in  course  of  erection.  This  allows  about  five 
occupants  to  each  dwelling  inhabited.  The  houses  built  of  stone  or  brick 
number  48,319,  the  remainder  being  constructed  of  wood,  iron,  concrete, 
&c.  In  the  corjDorate  towns  the  density  of  population  averages  one 
person  to  2"6  acres.  In  the  area  diA-ided  into  district  councils  the  average 
is  one  person  to  151  acres.  In  the  other  portions  of  the  colony,  where 
pastoral  pursuits  are  exclusively  followed,  there  is  only  one  European 
inhabitant  to  437  square  miles. 

From  the  table  given  above  it  is  seen  that  the  apparent  increase  in  the 
population  has  not  been  more  than  14*5  per  cent.  It  show's  almost  the 
lowest  rate  recorded  since  a  census  of  the  people  in  this  province  was 
first  made.  In  new  countries  it  is  a  matter  of  experience  that  the 
population  is  always  of  an  unsettled  character.  Mhieral  discoveries, 
■ever  since  the  goldfields  were  found  in  1851,  have  invariably  been 
followed  by  considerable  migrations  from  place  to  place  in  and  to  the 
colonies  in  which  they  are  located,  and  they  have  added  to  or  taken  from 
the  aggregate  population  in  varying  numbers,  according  to  the  special 
circumstances  of  each  new  development  of  colonial  resources.  Alterations 
in  the  land  laws  in  South  Australia,  as  well  as  in  other  colonies,  have 
had  considerable  influence  on  the  movements  of  the  pco])le.     The  mining 


214 


SOUTH     AVSTRALIA. 


towns  of  Kapunda,  the  Burra,  Wallaroo,  Kadina,  and  Moonta  owe  their 
origin  to  mineral  discoveries.  The  proclamation  of  agricultural  areas 
in  the  North  drew  away  large  nimibers  of  farmers  from  other  parts 
of  the,|Colony  where  they  had  previously  been  settled,  and  more  recently 
the  discovery  of  the  Broken  Hill  silver  deposits  in  New  South  Wales, 
close  to  the  South  Australian  border,  has  attracted  a  very  lara:e  number 
of  South  Australians  to  the  new  fields  of  commerce  and  oE  labor.  It  is 
estimated  that  South  Australia  has  lost  quite  12,000  colonists  in  this 
direction.  This  loss  natiu-ally  told  against  South  Australia  when  the 
people  were  numbered,  but,  as  almost  the  whole  of  the  trade  with  Broken 
Hill  and  Silverton  is  carried  on  by  and  belongs  to  South  Australia,  the 
low  increase  of  the  population  is  more  an  apparent  than  a  real  fact. 
Numbers  of  the  people  who  are  employed  there  as  miners  and  artizans, 
and  others  engaged  in  commerce  are  South  Australians,  and  many 
of  them  have  their  families  living  within  its  limits.  H  the  estimate 
of  12,000  souls  who  have  left  this  province  to  work  at  Broken  Hill  is 
added  to  the  number  of  persons  who  were  living  in  South  Australia  at 
the  time  the  census  was  taken  in  1891,  the  increase,  which  is  now  set 
down  as  14"5  per  cent,  in  the  decade  which  ended  in  April  of  that  year, 
would  have  been  16'40  per  cent. 

Another  reason  why  the  population  has  not  increased  as  rapidly  as 
it  had  done  previous  to  the  census  taken  in  1856  is  that  immigration 
at  the  Government  expense  has  been  discontinued  for  several  years.  The 
increase,  therefore,  has  depended  upon  the  excess  of  births  over  deaths, 
and  upon  such  additions  as  may  have  accrued  from  voluntary  immigration. 
The  following  return  shoAvs  the  number  of  births  registered  in  the  colony 
for  the  ten  years  ending  in  1892,  as  also  the  excess  of  births  over 
deaths : — 


Year. 


Registered  during  Year. 


Total. 


1883, 

1884 

1885, 

1886. 

1887, 

1888. 

1889, 

1890. 

1891, 

1892. 


11,173 

11,847 

12,046 

11,177 
10,831 
10,510 
10,318 
10,364 
10,737 
10,544 


Males. 


5,677 
6,051 
6,070 

5,7" 
5,666 

5.501 
5,286 
5,222 
5,481 
5,227 


Females. 


5,496 
5,796 
5,976 
5,466 
5,165 
5,009 
5,032 
5,142 
5,256 
5,317 


Number  of 
Deaths. 


Excess  of 

Births 

over  Deaths.. 


4,435 
4,789 
3,987 
4,234 
3,944 
3,759 
3,501 

3,923 
4,211 

3,7" 


6,738 
7,058 
8,059 

6,943 
6,887 

6,751 
6,817 
6,441 
6,526 
6,833 


POPULATION. 


215 


The  table  b(4ow  gives  the  birth  rate  in  the  province  for  the  ten  years 
inchided  in  the  above  :—  ^"op^atton.''" 

1883    SS'Oi 

1884   39-04 

1885    3903 

1886   3<^82 

1887    35-48 

1888    34-40 

1889    33-49 

1890   33-27 

1891    3392 

1892    32-41 

Mean  per  i  ,000  for  the  ten  years   35 '59 

The  following  tabular  statement  (extracted  from  the  report  of  the 
Registrar-General  of  Births,  Deaths,  and  Marriages  for  1892)  shows  the 
rates  of  births,  deaths,  and  marriages  per  1,000  of  mean  population  iu 
the  Australasian  colonies,  the  different  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and 
several  other  countries.  "  The  figures  in  the  first  seven  lines  have  been 
taken  from  the  returns  of  the  statistical  authorities  of  the  different  colonies 
named,  for  the  most  part  from  returns  which,  on  application,  were  specially- 
supplied  to  this  office.  The  remainder  of  the  figures  have  either  been 
extracted  unaltered  or  been  deduced  by  calculation  from  the  returns  of  the 
Registrar-General  of  England,  who  obtains  his  information  respecting 
other  countries  from  the  several  official  authorities  of  those  countries:  — 


Year. 


Bii-ths. 


Deaths.         Marriages. 


South  Australia 

Victoria    

New  South  Wales 

Queensland      

"Western  Australia 

Tasmania     

New  Zealand 

United  Kingdom  (as  a  whole) 

England  and  Wales    

Ireland     

Scotland 

France 

The  German  Empire      

Prussia  (separately)    

Austria     

Italy     

Switzerland     

Belgium    

The  Netherlands     

Norway    

Sweden     

Hungary 


1892 
1892 
1892 
1892 
1892 
1892 
1892 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1890 
1890 


32-41 
32-54 
34-41 
35-84 
32-69 
32-49 
27-83 
30-40 
31-40 
23-10 
31-20 
22 -60 


1 1-41 

13-63 
13-22 
12-66 
16-46 


0  :)j 


•GO 
70 


38-30 
37-40 
28-20 
29-80 
33-70 
30-90 
28-00 
40-30 


IQ-Ob 

2000 
20-20 
18-40 
20-70 
2260 

23-40 
22  90 
28  00 
26-30 

2o-8o 

21-10 


20- 

17- 

17' 
32 


70 
50 
10 

30 


51 
65 
77 
67 
28 

51 
25 
30 
80 
60 
90 
50 
00 
10 
80 

50 
10 

50 
10 
60 
00 
20 


216 


SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 


"The  rates  for  other  European  countries  (Denmark.  Spain,  kc.)  have 
not  been  given  in  this  table,  because  in  the  returns  accessible  they  are 
not  calculated  on  mean  populations,  and  no  data  are  given  by  means  of 
which  this  defect  could  be  remedied.  The  deaths  of  French  persons 
abroad,  civil  and  military,  are  registered  in  France,  and  this,  of  course, 
helps  to  raise  the  death  rate  there.  It  will  be  seen  that,  in  the 
comparative  statement  as  it  stands,  South  Australia  shows  the  ninth 
highest  birth  rate,  the  tenth  highest  marriage  rate,  and  the  third  lowest 
death  rate.  If,  however,  the  seven  Australasian  colonies  alone  are 
considered,  South  Australia  shows  the  fourth  highest  birth  rate,  the  fourth 
highest  marriage  rate,  and  the  third  lowest  death  rate." 

"  The  following  table  shows  the  estimated  population  in  each  of  the 
seven  Australasian  colonies  on  December  31st,  1892.  The  numbers 
given  are  exclusive  of  the  aborigines,  except  that,  in  the  case  of  New 
Zealand,  about  2,100  half-castes,  liA'ing  as  Europeans,  are  included ;  and 
that  in  the  case  of  the  other  colonies  a  few  entirely  civilised  aborigines 
may  have  been  considered  and  counted  as  forming  part  of  the  ordinary 
population." 

Estimated  Population  of  the  Australasian  Colonies,  1892. 


Males. 

Females. 

Total. 

New  South  Wales 

641,819 

607,476 

237,965 

171,476 

4,625 

82,009 

36,095 

546,951 
559,332 
183,332 
160,245 

356 
71,135 
22,579 

1,188,770 

Victoria    

1,166,808 

Queensland 

South  Australia  proper 

421,297 

331,721 
4,981 

153,144 
58,674 

"         Northern  Territory   

Tasmania     

"Western  Australia 

Total  Australia   

1,781,465 
345,146 

1,543,930 
305,287 

3.325,395 
650,433 

New  Zealand 

Total  Australasia    

2,126,611 

1,849,217 

3,975,828 

The  subjoined  figures  indicate  the  annual  marriage  rate  per  1,000  of 
the  population  from  1883  to  1892  inclusive  : — 


1884 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 


8-64 
8-42 

7-93 
6-51 
6-48 
6-82 
6-69 
7-17 

7-31 
6-51 


1'01'UI.ATIOX. 


217 


The  Registrar-General,  in  the  report  above  quoted,  says  that  "  It  is  the 
'Opinion  of  statisticians  that  if,  through  a  series  of  years,  the  number  of 
marriages  in  each  year  be  compared  with  the  number  of  legitimate  births 
in  the  following  year  a  very  fair  estimate  can  be  obtained  of  the  average 
number  of  children  born  to  each  married  couple.  Although  the  records 
of  a  long  series  of  years  are  required  to  demonstrate  the  correctness  of  this 
opinion,  it  is  generally  only  necessary  to  examine  those  of  a  few  years  to 
obtain  estimates  that  may  be  relied  on.  The  following  ffgures  show  the  pro- 
portions of  births  to  each  marriage  in  South  Australia  for  seven  years  : — 


1886. 

1887, 

1888, 

1889. 

1890 

1891  , 

1892. 


4.46 

5-34 
5-17 
4-83 
4-90 
4-66 
4-42 


Mean    4-8j 


"  It  would  seem  from  this  that  4*83  (nearly  five)  is  the  average  number 
■of  children  born  in  South  Australia  to  each  marriage.  This  is  above  the 
average  of  England  and  Scotland,  and  below  that  of  Ireland,  and  in  the 
Australasian  colonies  is  excelled  only  by  the  average  in  Xew  Zealand 
(5'2o).  In  New  South  Wales  the  average  is  4-70;  in  Queensland,  4-60; 
in  Tasmania,  4"51  ;  and  in  Victoria,  4'22." 

"  A  rise  or  fall  in  the  marriage  rates  or  in  the  value  of  exports  or  imports 
is  generally  regarded  as  being  in  some  degree  indicative  of  a  corresponding 
change  in  the  prosperity  of  a  country.  The  following  table  shows  the 
variation  year  after  year  from  1881  to  1892  in  such  rates  and  values  : — 


Marriage  Rate  per 

1,000  of  the 
Mean  Population. 

Value  per  head  of  the  Population. 

Year. 

Imports  retained 

lor  Home 

Consumption. 

Exports  of 

South  Australian 

Produce. 

Imports  and 
Exports  united. 

1881    

831 
8-87 
8-64 
8-42 

7-93 
6-51 
6-48 
682 
6-69 
7-17 

7-31 
6-51 

£  •«••  d- 

16      I      3 
19     8     4 
16  14     5 
14  II     2 

13  15  II 
10    9  II 
10    4    0 
10    3     0 
10  10    4 
12     6  II 

n   0  II 

8  12     8 

£  s.  d. 

13  2    5 

14  13     9 
II   17     4 
17     8   10 

14  4     2 
9     5   II 

10  19     5 

15  5    9 

11  19  10 

14    3     2 

14  16    0 

9  18    9 

£    s.  d 
29    3    8 
34     2     I 
28  II     9 
32    0    0 
28    0     I 

19  15  10 

21  3     5 
25     8    9 

22  10    2 

20  10     I 
27  10  II 
18  II     5 

1882    

1883    

1884    

1885    

1886    

11887    

1888    

1889    

1890    

1891     

.1692    

218  SOUTH     Al.STRAI.IA. 

Before  entering  into  the  subject  of  the  death  rate  which  obtains  in  the 
colony,  it  is  important  to  show  what  legislation  exists  for  the  conservation 
of  the  public  health.  It  is  certain  that  in  a  new  and  sparsely  settled 
country  a  rigid  adherence  to  sanitary  laws  can  neither  be  expected  nor 
enforced,  except  within  the  limits  of  centres  of  population,  where  the 
catIs  which  are  the  jsrimary  causes  of  some  diseases  are  more  easily  traced 
to  their  sources,  and  where  their  effects  are  sooner  manifested  than  they 
can  be  in  thinly  inhabited  places.  In  the  chapter  on  climate  it  has  been 
shown  that,  as  far  as  meteorological  conditions  have  to  do  with  the  general 
health  of  the  community.  South  Australia  is  most  favorably  circumstanced. 
The  dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  really  valuable  efpects  of  the 
hot  winds,  do  much  to  prevent  the  generation  and  propagation  of 
malarious  disorders.  The  absence  of  that  squalid  poverty  which  causes 
such  ravages  amongst  the  inhabitants  of  large  European  cities  has  a 
special  influence  on  the  vital  conditions  of  the  masses.  The  over- 
crowding in  dwellings,  which  is  so  painful  a  feature  in  the  slums  of  large 
British  towns,  prevails  in  South  Australia  to  a  slight  extent  only,  and 
then  not  in  aggravated  forms.  In  the  city  of  Adelaide,  which  is  the  most 
largely  populated  municipality  in  the  colony,  the  average  number  of 
persons  dwelling  in  one  house  is  5-21,  and  in  Kensington  and  Norwood, 
the  next  largest  municipality — as  far,  at  least,  as  population  goes — is  4-89. 
It  is  greater  at  times  in  some  of  the  seaside  towns,  because  during  the  hot 
months  there  is  a  large  influx  of  visitors  which  is  always  varying.  This- 
fact  may  account  in  some  degree  for  the  disproportionate  death  rate  that 
is  occasionally  apparent  in  some  of  those  places,  which  are  of  great 
sanitary  value  to  the  inhabitants  of  Adelaide  and  its  suburbs. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  colony  there  were  no  special  sanitary  laws. 
Those  which  were  at  first  passed  were  left  entirely  in  the  hands  of' 
local  bodies,  which  worked  under  the  Municipal,  District  Councils,  and 
Police  Acts.  Those  Acts  armed  the  authorities  with  certain  powers  for 
the  suppression  of  common  nuisances  only.  As  the  population  increased 
it  was  found  necessary  to  establish  more  efficient  means  for  the  conserva- 
tion of  the  public  health  and  for  the  prevention  of  disease.  In  1873 
the  Public  Health  Act  was  passed.  It  established  a  Central  Board  of' 
Health,  with  a  secretary  and  a  staff  of  sanitary  inspectors.  Under  that  Act 
the  council  of  every  corporation  was  constituted  a  local  board  of  health, 
and  power  was  given  to  the  Governor  to  proclaim  sanitary  districts,  and 
to  appoint  local  boards  of  health  within  them.  Those  local  boards  had 
authority  to  levy  rates  for  sanitary  purposes.  If  they  failed  to  make  such 
rates  as  were  required  the  Central  Board  was  authorised  to  declare 
the  rates  itself.  The  Central  Board  had  jurisdiction  for  sanitary 
purposes  over  all  those  parts  of  the  colony  which  were  not  included  in. 


POPULATION.  219 

towns  or  in  declared  sanitary  districts.  Extensive  powers  were  conferred 
upon  it  for  mitigating  the  effects  and  preventing  the  spread  of  eudeniic, 
epidemic,  or  contagious  diseases  :  for  the  cleansing  and  disinfecting  of 
dwelling-houses  ;  for  regulating  the  construction  of  cesspits,  slaughter- 
houses, pigsties,  cowyards,  and  stables  ;  and  generally  for  preventing  the 
continuance  of  any  condition  or  tiling  deleterious  to  the  public  health. 
In  addition  to  these  the  Central  Board  had  full  authority  to  compel  local 
boards  to  carry  into  effect  all  the  provisions  of  the  Act. 

The  board  established  a  system  of  inspection  under  which  it  soon 
became  acquainted  Avith  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  different  districts 
within  a  radius  of  fifty  miles  from  Adelaide  where  any  offensive  trades 
were  carried  on.  The  ventilation  of  school-houses  and  the  latrine 
accommodation  provided  for  the  scholars  received  special  attention,  as 
well  as  the  condition  of  slaughter-houses,  &c. 

The  state  of  affairs  which  was  disclosed  at  the  beginning  of  the  board's 
operations  was  most  unsatisfactory.  Stringent  measures  were  therefore 
adopted  to  cause  all  places  which  were  in  an  improper  sanitary  state 
to  be  thoroughly  cleansed,  and  where  necessary  to  be  paved  and  drained. 
Between  two  and  three  years  elapsed  before  the  manifold  evils  which 
were  apparent  could  be  successfully  grappled  with.  As  soon  as  more 
complete  sanitary  arrangements  had  been  organised,  and  the  nuisances 
which  had  existed  were  brought  under  reasonable  control,  a  fre.sh  Act 
was  passed  (No.  56  of  1876),  which  conferred  upon  the  Central  Board 
practically  unlimited  power  for  enforcing  the  abatement  of  nuisances.  It 
was  now  enabled  to  declare  houses  unfit  for  human  habitation,  to  destroy 
infectious  bedding,  to  inspect  lodging-houses,  and  to  make  regulations 
respecting  them.  The  police  were  required  to  aid  the  boards  of  health, 
ancl  provisions  were  included  in  the  Act  to  facilitate  the  serving  of 
notices,  orders,  and  summonses,  and  the  institution  of  proceedings  in  the 
Magistrates'  Courts  wherever  necessary.  In  1887  the  Parliament  passed 
a  new^  District  Councils  Act,  which  divided  all  the  colony  to  the  south  of 
Hawker  into  districts,  which  were  constituted  local  boards  of  health 
possessing  all  the  powers  formerly  exercised  by  them  under  the  old 
system,  except  that  of  levying  special  sanitary  rates,  which  was  repealed, 
although  they  were  authorised  to  expend  money  out  of  their  general  rates 
for  sanitary  purposes.  This  restriction  does  not  apply  to  corporate  towns, 
which  can  levy  sanitary  rates  as  heretofore. 

Under  the  new  statute  the  duties  of  the  Central  Board  are  almost 
entirely  confined  to  the  supervision  of  the  local  boards,  of  which  there 
are  173.  One  inspector  is  kept  continually  travelling  over  the  colony, 
A-isiting  the  different  districts  and  reporting  to  the  board  full  particulars 
relating  to  their  sanitary  condition,  and  upon  the  systems  adopted  by  the 


220  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

respective  boards  for  carrying  out  the  ^n'ovisions  of  the  Health  Acts. 
Should  it  be  proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Central  Board  that  any 
council  has  made  default  in  doing  its  duty  as  a  local  board  of  health  the 
Central  Board  may  authorise  any  police  officer  to  carry  out  such  duties, 
and  may  recover  from  the  defaulting  board  all  charges  and  expenses  in 
connection  therewith.  Other  Acts  are  in  force  which  tend  towards  the 
conservation  of  the  public  health,  and  to  the  prevention  of  the  spread 
of  disease.  The  Vaccination  Act  requires  that  every  child  born  in 
the  colony  must  be  vaccinated  within  six  months  from  the  date  of  birth. 
The  Lodging-house  Acts  provide  for  the  registration  and  licensing  of 
common  lodging-houses,  whereby  their  sanitary  condition  may  be  main- 
tained and  measures  adopted  for  the  prevention  of  the  spread  of 
infectious  diseases.  The  Manvifacturing  Acts  provide  for  the  setting 
apart  of  certain  districts  for  manufacturing  pvirposes,  under  specified 
conditions.  The  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Act  regvilates  the  sale  of  drugs, 
and  deals  with  adulteration  of  food.  The  Quarantine  Act  provides  for 
the  placing  in  quarantine  of  sea-going  vessels  arriving  from  places  which 
have  been  declared  by  proclamation  to  be  infected  with  cholera,  smallpox, 
■or  other  dangerous  disorders.  On  arrival  at  a  South  Australian  port 
the  health  officer  inspects  the  passengers  and  crew.  If  that  officer  finds 
everything  in  order  he  gives  a  clean  bill  of  health,  but  should  there  be 
■eAidence  of  the  existence  of  any  infectious  disease  the  vessel  is  sent  into 
quarantine.  The  Central  Board  of  Health  directs  all  subsequent 
proceedings.  The  quarantine  station  is  at  Torrens  Island,  on  the  arm  of 
the  sea  known  as  the  Port  River.  The  passengers  for  this  colony  are 
removed  from  the  ships  to  this  station,  and  are  detained  until  all  risk  of 
introducing  disease  into  the  colony  is  at  an  end. 

The  following  figures  indicate  the  death  rate  per   1,000  of  the  mean 
population  for  the  ten  years  ending  in  1892  :  — 

1883   15-09 

1884   1578 

1885   12-92 

1886   13-95 

1887   12-92 

1888   12.30 

1889   11-36 

1890  12-59 

1891 i3'30 

1892    11-41 

The  annual  average  proportion  of  deaths  per  1,000  is  thus  13-16,  or 
less  than  ll  per  cent.     The  subjoined  table  shows  the  actual  mortality  in 


POPULATIOX. 


221 


South  Australia  in  each  month  for  ten  years  ending  in  1892 


Month. 


1883. 


Januaiy.... 
February  . 
March    .... 

April 

May    

June   

July    

August  .... 
September 
October .... 
November 
December . 


1884.    1885. 


436  I 

I 

345  I 
384  I 
416 

380 

314  I 

304 

329  I 
I 
285 

311 

477 

4S4 


493 
429 

493 
506 
429 
347 
359 
385 
3^3 
301 

323 
411 


4.435    4.789 


317 
314 
369 
306 

334 
350 
336 
274 
257 
279 
382 
469 


1886. 

1887. 

555 

452 

388 

324 

425 

386 

378 

399 

374 

317 

312 

312 

3" 

276 

245 

266 

258 

253 

255 

246 

309 

330 

424 

383 

4.234 

3.944 

1889. 


1890. 


364 
282 
301 
304 

374 
290 

313 
339 
264 

274 
316 
338 


428  I  384 

324  j  243 

3"   I  3^3 

318  '  326 


305 
226 

255 

248 

247 
237 
283 
319 


444 
344 
342 
320 
287 

303 
292 

325 


1891. 


1892. 


291 
296 
287 
302 
385 
412 
321 
321 


400 
352 
377 
348 
310 

295 
251 
302 


326  I     257 


324 
485 
461 


228 

295 
296 


3.7" 


Totals. 


4,120 
3.297 
3.646^ 
3.603 
3.652 
3,202 
3,068 
3,029 
2,747 
2,758 
3,492 
3,880 

40,494 


The  mean  mortality  in  each  month  of  the  decade  1881  to  1890,  arranged 
in  order  of  fatality  from  the  greatest  to  the  least,  follows  here.  The  mean 
daily  temperature,  the  maximum  and  minimum  of  the  thermometer,  its- 
mean  diurnal  range,  and  the  number  of  days  in  which  the  temperature 
exceeded  90°  during  the  same  period  *  is  also  shown  : — 


Month. 


January 
December  , 
March    . . , 

April 

May   

February  , 
November 

June 

July    

August  . .  , 
October  . .  , 
September , 


Number  of         Mean 
Deaths.     ,   Tempera- 
I       ture. 


Maximum. 


,..   .  iMean  Daily 

Minimum.       Kan^e. 


4,282 
3,914 
3,844 
3.735 
3,729 
3.447 
3.388 

3. 171 
3,118 
2,964 
2,726 

2,659 


74-4 
70-9 
69-8 

63-9 
57-8 

72-5 
67-0 

53-2 
51-0 

53-5 
6l-2 

57-2 


112-4 

107-5 

102-0 

94-5 
84-0 

107-6 

105-8 
72-2 
69-4 

8i-i 

94-5 
907 


45-1 
46-9 

45-8 
43'2 
37'5 
47-5 
43-9 
35-2 
34-2 
337 
39-5 
38-5 


23*9 

23-3 
21-9 

i8-5 
14-0 

23-4 
22-4 

12-7 

137 
14-8 
19-8 
171 


No.  of 
Davs  when, 
the  Tem- 
perature 
Exceeded 
90  degrees.. 


II 

9 
6 
I 

o 
9 

5 
o 
o 
o 
I 
o 


*  This  period  corresponds  with  that  of  the  tables  included  in  Chapter  Y.  on  climate. 


222 


SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 


The  average  death,  rate  appears  to  be  3,415  per  month.  In  December, 
January,  February,  March,  April,  and  May  this  number  appears  to  be 
exceeded.  In  all  the  other  months  the  average  is  not  reached.  The 
lowest  points  appear  in  September  and  October,  which  are  the  two 
most  delightful  months  in  the  whole  year. 

The  general  causes  of  deaths  in  the  colony  for  ten  years  ending  in  1892 
are  given  by  the  Registrar- General  of  Births,  Deaths,  and  Marriages, 
according  to  the  latest  returns  as  under  : — 


All  Causes. 


1883.    1884. 


Specific,  Febrile,  or  Zymotic 
Diseases     

Parasitic  Diseases  

Dietetic 

Constitutional 

Developmental 

Local 

Violence     

Ill  Defined  or  Xot  Specified 
Causes 


901 
24 

75 
524 

1,972 

202 

406 


Totals 4,435 


966 
32 
60 

602 

399 
2,035 

239 

456 


4,789 


1885. 

1886. 

1887. 

1888. 

720 

693 

664 

! 

550 

15 

30 

24 

22 

37 

57 

54 

49 

576 

603 

616 

607 

353 

407 

430 

373 

1,707 

1,813 

1,625 

1,607 

212 

272 

229 

234 

367 

359 

302 

257 

3.987 

4,234 

3,944 

3,759 

1890. 


597 
18 

52 

582 

360 

1,452 

208 


684 
10 

44 
601 
382 

1,713 
238 

251 


3,501     3,923 
1 
1 


1891. 


1892. 


709 
19 
41 

680 

480 
1,769 

207 

306 


513 
17 
25 

627 

391 

1,625 

197 

316 


4,2:1 


3»7" 


Dr.  Borthwick  (Health  Officer  of  Kensington  and  Norwood,  &c.),  in  an 
essay  on  the  public  health  in  South  Australia,*'  points  out  that  the 
climatic  conditions  of  the  colony  are  unfavorable  to  the  occurrence  of 
malarial  fevers,  and  that  they  are  absolutely  unknown.  Typhus  fever  is 
another  disease,  which,  according  to  the  same  authority,  *'  has  absolutely 
no  existence  in  the  colony ;  and  the  reason  is  apparent,  for,  although 
sanitary  conditions  are  very  far  from  being  perfect,  yet  there  is  no  over- 
crowding or  destitution,  and  much  time  is  spent  out  of  doors.  Relapsing 
fever  is  also  unknown,  and  Asiatic  cholera  has  never  found  a  footing  in 
the  colony ;  in  fact  it  has  never  directly  threatened  it,  but  it  has  been 
carried  by  ship  to  some  of  the  other  colonies  which  are  nearer  the  usually 
infected  ports.  The  application  of  quarantine  has,  however,  been 
sufficient  to  prevent  its  spread.  Two  deaths  from  smallpox  are  to  be 
found  in  the  Registrar-General's  reports,  one  in  the  year  1859,  and  the 
* Demogi-aphy  of  South  Australia,  by  T.  Borthwick,  M.D.,  Edin.     Lmd.,  189L 


POPULATION. 


223 


other  in  1887.  There  is  no  record  of  the  first-mentioned  case,  but,  from 
inquiries  made  amongst  the  older  practitioners  of  the  colony  (amongst 
them  the  present  PresideAt  of  the  Central  Board  of  Health,  H.  Whittell, 
Esq.,  M.D.),  it  appears  to  be  extremely  doubtful  whether  the  disease  was 
actually  smallpox,  so  that  this  death  may  safely  be  ignored  altogether." 

"  The  second  case  was  really  a  case  of  smallpox.  The  patient  had  been 
removed  from  an  infected  ship  and  died  at  the  quarantine  station, 
and  was  buried  at  sea.     This  disease  is  not  domiciled  in  South  Australia." 

From  the  foregoing  South  Australia  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
most  healthy  countries  in  the  world.  Dr.  Borthwick  shows  that  there 
has  been  a  progressive  decrease  in  the  death  rate  of  the  colony ;  and  he 
gives  a  table  "  which  shows  the  death  rate  of  age  groups,  stated  as  per 
1,000  living  at  indicated  periods  for  the  years  1880  to  1889,  and  also  a 
comparison  between  the  colony  and  England  and  Wales.  It  shows  that 
the  mortality  of  the  age  groups  between  5  and  45  is  below  that  of  all  ages. 
Hence  it  follows  that  a  community  like  that  of  the  colony,  which  has  a 
large  proportion  of  the  colonists  between  these  ages,  ought  to  have  a 
lower  death  rate  than  England  and  Wales.  It  will  be  seen  that  at  no 
age  group  does  the  mortality  of  the  colony  exceed  that  of  England  and 
Wales.  It  further  shows  that  the  decrease  which  has  occurred  in  recent 
years  in  the  death  rate  of  all  ages  is  due  to  a  marked  decrease  in  that  of 
the  group  0-5,  and  a  slight  decrease  in  the  others  up  to  the  last  two." 


Year. 

Popula- 
tion. 

All 
Ages. 

i 

0 

i 

0 

. 

0 

r 

10 

0 

■        1 

i88o 

267,573 

14'7 

49-2 

3-6 

26 

4"2 

5-6 

6-4 

10.5 

137 

22.5 

48-9 

103 '4 

i88i 

286,324 

14-4 

45"3 

3'4 

2-4 

3-8 

4'4 

7-1 

ID- 1 

15'4 

22-8 

49'4 

io6-6 

1882 

293,509 

15-4 

497 

2-7 

2-5 

4*7 

5'3 

7-8 

9-8 

I4"4 

26-3 

47'2 

115-6 

1883 

293.937 

15-0 

50-9 

3-4 

2"4 

3-3 

57 

6-8 

9-9 

I5'2 

24-9 

58.6 

99-6 

1884 

303.426 

i5'7 

5i"S 

4-6 

2-8 

4'3 

5'9 

7"9 

9-5 

I3'9 

27-4 

58-8 

i3i"8 

1885 

308,648 

12-9 

39-6 

3-4 

1-8 

4-0 

4'5 

6-4 

8-1 

12"9 

23-6 

52'2 

i36'2 

1886 

305.561 

13-8 

41-0 

3-4 

1-7 

3-5 

4-6 

7'9 

9-9 

13-3 

26-9 

597 

158-9 

1887 

308,836 

127 

35'i 

3-0 

i"7 

4'i 

4'9 

7-0 

9'4 

12-7 

25'3 

55-8 

177-5 

1888 

310,886 

I2'0 

300 

4"3 

i'9 

3-6 

4*2 

6.8 

8-5 

13-8 

257 

6o'7 

168-3 

1889 

315.402 

IIT 

28-9 

2-9 

1-8 

2'I 
2'3 

32 
3-8 

3-8 

5-6 

6-9 

12-3 

24'5 

6o-3 

160-2 

1880 
1889 

Colony. 

13-8 

42-1 

3 '4 
3'5 

4-8 

6-9 

9-2 

137 

24-9 

551 

135-8 

1880 
1885 

Colony. 

147 

47"4 

40 

S"i 

7-2 

9-4 

14-3 

250 

53'2 

117-9 

1880^ 

England 

1885) 

and 
Wales. 

I9'3 

55'o 

5-7 

3"2 

46 

5'9 

8-0 

11-8 

I7"3 

307 

64- 1 

209-1 

224 


SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 


The  estimated  population  given  above  differs  slightly  from  the 
corrected  figures  published  by  the  Registrar-General,  but  the  difference 
does  not  materially  affect  the  results  as  shown  by  Dr.  Borthwick. 

In  South  Australia  the  number  of  males  has  always  exceeded  that  of 
the  females,  and  the  subjoined  table  (quoted  from  Dr.  Borthwick)  shows- 
the  proportion  existing  at  the  various  census  periods.  It  also  shows  tbe 
proportion  existing  in  England  and  Wales.  It  thus  appears  that  instead, 
of  the  males  being  in  excess  females  preponderate  there. 


South  Australia. 

England  and  Wales. 

Year. 

Males  to  100 
Females. 

Year. 

Males  to  100 
Females. 

1844 

1846 

121 

130 

124              1 

103 
105 
109 

105 
107 
114 
108 

1841    

1851    

1851    

i86i    

1861    

}           95-8 
j           95-5 

1851 

1855 

1861 

1866      

}           94-9 

1871 

1871    

1871    

1876 

1881 

1881    

}           94-8 

1891 

In  relation  to  the  mortality  of  infants  in  South  Australia  the  Registrar-^ 
General  (report  1892)  makes  the  following  remarks: — 

"  The  deaths  of  infants  under  1  year  of  age  numbered  1,022,  against 
976  in  1891,  and  were  in  the  proportion  of  9-69  to  100  births  regis- 
tered, which  compared  favorably  with  the  corresponding  rates  of  the 
previous  seven  years,  and  also  with  the  rates  obtaining  in  the  other 
Australasian  colonies  and  England.  From  1885  to  1892  the  proportions 
in  South  Australia  were  as  follows :— 1885,  11-34;  1886,  12-61;  1887, 
11-12;  1888,  9-59;  1889,  9-42;  1890,  9-65;  1891,  9-09;  1892,9-69. 
The  latest  returns  received  show  that  the  proportions  in  the  other  colonies 
were  as  follows: — In  1892— Queensland,  10-65;  New  South  Wales^ 
10-45;  Western  Australia,  1407;  Victoria,  10-64;  Tasmania,  9-99; 
New  Zealand,  8-92.  On  the  whole,  the  colonies  stand  well  in  regard  to 
infantile  mortality,  since,  according  to  the  returns  of  the  Registrar- 
General  of  England,  the  two  lowest  proportions  known  in  England  since 


POPUr.ATlOX, 


225 


the  introduction  of  registration  were  13-00  in  1881,  and  13-50  in  1879; 
while  the  proportion  has  in  some  years  been  over  15-(0  or  even  over 
16-00.  For  the  quinquennium  ended  with  1891  the  mean  proportion  in 
England  was  14-50. 

"  For  comparison  the  birth  rates  of  the  capital  cities  and  suburbs  of 
the  colonies  and  of  some  other  capitals  are  here  given.  The  figxxres  for 
the  European  cities  have  been  taken  from  the  returns  of  the  Registrar- 
General  of  England,  while  those  for  the  colonial  capitals  have,  for  the 
most  part,  been  extracted  from  sjjecial  returns  which  were  supplied  by 
the  statistical  authorities  of  the  different  calonies : — 


1892. 

Perth 44  52 

Brisbane      37 '57 

Melbourne 3^-13 

Sydney    34-70 

Adelaide 32-91 

Hobart     31-46 

Wellingtoa 28-66 


1892. 

Vienna    31-90 

Greater  London 30-  70 

Berlin 28-80 

Dublin     27-80 

Edinburgh 27-10 

Brussels 26-80 

Paris    2;-oo 


"The  deaths  registered  in  Adelaide  and  suburbs  in  1892  numbered 
1,900  (999  males  and  901  females),  being  less  by  326  than  those  recorded 
in  the  previous  year.  The  death  rate  per  1,000  of  the  mean  population 
was  14-1 1  against  16-96  in  1891.  It  was  higher  by  2-70  than  that  of  the 
whole  colony,  but  lower  by  666  than  the  death  rate  of  the  city  of  Adelaide 
taken  by  itself — that  is,  the  city  death  rate  including  all  deaths  in  public 
institutions.  For  the  purpose  of  comparison,  the  death  rates  per  1,000 
of  the  mean  population  of  the  capital  cities  and  suburbs  of  the  colonies 
and  of  some  other  capitals  are  here  given  : — 


1892. 

Perth 27-22 

Hobait    21-85 

Melbourne 15-98 

Brisbane 14-19 

Adelaide 14-11 

Sydney    13.59 

Wellington     12-39 


1892. 

Dublin     29-30 

Vienna     24-30 

Paris    22-40 

Brussels 20-80 

Berlin 19-60 

Edinburgh 19-40 

Greater  London 19-30  " 


The  table  which  follows  shows  the  readings  of  the  meteorological 
instruments  at  the  Adelaide  Observatory  and  the  registered  mortality 
within  the  municipal  boundaries  of  the  city  of  Adelaide  in  each  month 
of  the  year  1892.  It  is  taken  from  the  report  of  the  Registrar-General 
of  Births,  Deaths,  and  Marriages  for  that  year,  and  "  is  intended  to  afford 
the  means  of  comparing  the  weather  and  its  changes  with  the  general 
mortality,  the  mortality  amongst  young  children  and  old  people,  and  the 
p 


226 


SOrXH    AUSTRALIA. 


mortality  from  certain  diseases,  the  malignancy  of  whicli  depends,  it  is 
believed,  very  much  on  the  state  of  the  weather." 


O 


Q 


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a 
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AGRICULTURE.  227 


CHAPTER    XYI. 

■South  Australia  an  AoRicuLTtTRAL  Colony— First  Attempts  at  Farming — First 
Export  of  Breadstuffs  in  1845 — Dearness  of  Cereal  Produce  up  to 
that  Time— Progress  of  Agriculture  and  Export  of  Wheat  from 
1855  TO  1890 — Akea  of  Land  Under  Cultivation — Total  Value  of 
Breadstuffs  Exported — Yield  of  AVheat  per  Acre — Table  Showing 
Areas  Under  Crops  from  1877  to  1891 — "Wheat  Crops  Dependent  on 
Rainfall — Quantities  of  Crops  per  Acre  from  1877  to  1891— Gross 
Produce  of  the  Colony  for  Same  Period — Weight  of  Wheat,  &c.,  per 
Bushel — Average  Price  of  Wheat  from  1881  to  1890— Coutrse  of 
Export  Trade — Culture  of  the  Vine — Its  Introduction — Introduction 
of  the  Olive — Vv^ine-making — The  Early  Vineyards  -Extension  of 
Wine  Industry — Area  Under  Vines — The  Most  Important  Vineyards 
— Export  of  Wine — Irs  Purity — Imports  and  Exports  of  Wines  — 
South  Australian  Wine  Free  from  Adulteration — Superior  to  Im- 
ported Wine — Its  Use  in  Public  Institutions — Export  of  South 
Australian  Wines  to  Different  Countries — ^The  Character  of  South 
Australian  Wines — Prizes  Taken  by  them  at  Various  Exhibitions — 
The  Launceston  Exhibition — Its  Influence  on  the  South  Australian 
Wine  Trade — Appointment  of  a  Viticultural  Expert — Vinegrower's 
Manual — Distribution  of  Vine  Cuttings — Establishment  of  Vine 
Nursery  in  Botanic  Garden — Fruit-growing  in  South  Australia — 
Vegetable  Production  and  Tra.de — Export  of  Fruit — Preserved 
Fruits— Exports  to  Great  Britain,  &c., — Dried  Fruits — Legislation 
FOR  Securing  Vines,  &c.,  Against  Introduced  Diseases — The  Fig — 
Olive  Culture — A  Remunerative  Pursuit — Quality  and  Value  of 
Olive  Oil — Wattle-growing— Eucalyptus  Oil — Almond  Cultivation  — 
Sericulture  — Flax  and  Hemp— Hops— Tobacco— Castor  Oil  Plant — 
Mustard — Gram  Vetches,  &c. — The  Caper— Opium— Liquorice — Per- 
fumes— Agricultural  Society — Agricultural  College — Agricultural 
Bureau — Woods  and  Forest  Department — Distribution  of  Trees — 
The  American  Ash — Its  Value  for  Cabinet  Work,  &c. — The  Pinus 
Insignis — The  Date  Palm — Its  Success  in  the  Far  Xorth. 

The  plan  upon  which  South  Australia  was  founded,  and  the  system 
under  which  the  land  was  sub-divided  and  sold,  indicated  the  main 
direction  which  the  development  of  the  colony  would  take.  It  was 
projected  as  an  agricultural  settlement,  for  the  proceeds  of  the  land  sales 
were  expended  on  the  introduction  of  labor,  to  enable  the  land  purchasers 
to  cultivate  the  soil.  The  early  settlers  knew  nothing  about  the 
capabilities  of  the  country',  and  were  also  ignorant  of  the  nature  of  the 
climate.  The  magnificent  open  forest  land  upon  which  the  site  of 
Adelaide  was  fixed  and  the  vegetation  which  covered  the  surrounding 
country  gave  abundant  evidence  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  though  how 
far  it  might  prove  suitable  for  the  growth  of  European  grain,  fruits,  and 


228  SOUTH   AUSTRALIA. 

vegetables  had  yet  to  be  ascertained.  A  very  short  experience  deter- 
mined that  question,  and  it  was  found  that  many^  European  plants  and 
seeds  grew  wdth  a  luxuriance  such  as  was  seldom  witnessed  in  the 
countries  from  which  they  were  introduced.  The  systematic  cultivation 
of  the  land  for  cereal  crops  was  not  vxndertaken  for  a  few  years  after 
the  founding  of  the  colony^  The  surface  of  the  country  in  many  places 
was  baked  so  hard,  from  ages  of  exposure  to  a  semi-tropical  sun,  that  it 
was  considered  by  many  to  be  altogether  unworkable,  and  at  first  nothing 
worth  speaking  of  was  attempted  to  put  its  capabilities  to  the  test. 
Considerable  delay  took  place  in  the  early  days  of  the  settlement  in 
placing  purchasers  of  land  who  were  on  the  spot  in  possession  of  the 
holdings  to  which  they  were  entitled,  and  Colonel  Gawler  experienced 
much  difficulty  in  compelling  many  of  them  to  remove  from  Adelaide  to 
their  own  properties.  The  progress  of  agriculture  was  therefore  slow, 
as  may  be  seen  from  the  figures  recorded  in  the  "  Statistical  Register  of 
South  Australia"  (1892),  which  gives  the  agricultural  statistics  of  the 
colony  from  the  date  of  its  foundation.  In  1837  only  eight  acres  of 
ground  were  cultivated.  In  the  following  year  the  area  had  increased 
to  eighty-six  acres,  of  which  only  twenty  were  cropped  with  wheat.  In 
1839  443  acres  were  in  tillage,  of  which  120  were  prepared  for  wheat- 
growing.  A  considerable  increase  took  place  in  1840,  in  which  y-ear 
2,503  acres  were  broken  up,  1,059  being  sown  with  wheat.  During  the 
five  vears  ending;  in  1840  299,072  acres  of  land  had  been  sold,  so  that 
a  little  less  than  an  acre  and  a  quarter  to  100  acres  sold  was  under  the 
plough  or  spade. 

After  the  last-mentioned  year  the  progress  of  agricultural  pursuits  was 
more  rapid.  In  1845  the  land  under  crop  was  26,218  acres,  of  which 
18,838  were  sown  out  with  wheat.  What  the  other  crops  Avere  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  return  quoted.  The  area  of  land  alienated  in  the  five 
years  amounted  to  81,299  acres,  which  brought  up  the  total  to  380,271 
acres,  of  which  111,378  acres  were  cultivated.  In  1850  the  acreage 
farmed  was  more  than  double  what  it  had  been  at  the  end  of  1845. 
In  that  year  64,728  acres  were  ploughed,  sown,  and  reaped;  41,807 
acres  had  wheat  crops,  13,302  acres  were  cut  for  hay,  and  9,616 
acres  bore  other  crops,  which  are  not  specified.  In  that  year  South 
Australia  commenced  exporting  breadstuffs,  having  sent  to  other 
colonies  merchandise  of  that  kind  to  the  value  of  £38,312.  For 
some  time  prior  to  this  most  of  the  breadstuffs  consumed  in  the  colony 
had  been  imported,  the  principal  portion  coming  frora  Tasmania^ 
This  kind  of  food  was  always  dear,  and  it  is  recorded  that  at  one  time 
flour  rose  to  £100  per  ton.  Ever  smce  1850  South  Australia  has  been 
essentially  an  agricultural  colony,  and  for  a  long  time,  besides  supplying 


AGRICULTUKE. 


229 


large  quantities  of  wheat  and  flour  to  the  eastern  colonies,  has  sent  away 
■extensive  shijiraents  to  South  Africa,  Mauritius,  Java,  and  other  places. 
At  the  present  time  the  principal  market  for  the  surplus  of  wheat  and 
flour  is  in  London,  where,  owing  to  their  excellent  quality,  they 
command  the  highest  market  rates.  A  sample  of  wheat  exhibited 
at  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851  weighed  over  69i^lbs.  to  the  bushel. 
South  Australian  wheat  bears  the  character  of  being  the  finest  in  the 
world. 

The  discovery  of  the  goldfields  in  1851  aflPected  the  official  operations 
■of  the  province  to  such  an  extent  that  no  statistics  of  the  land  under 
•cultivation  were  collected  from  that  year  until  1853.  In  1854  there  were 
129,692  acres  in  crop,  of  which  89,945  were  wheat,  23,402  hay,  and 
16,345  other  crops.  Of  1855  there  is  no  record.  The  Customs  returns, 
ihowever,  show  that  even  in  those  years  of  uncertainty  and  industrial 
stagnation  the  export  of  breadstuffs  continued  to  take  place,  increasing 
year  after  year  in  quantity  and  value  until  1855,  when  there  was  a 
■sudden  and  i-emarkable  falling  off. 

The  following  table  shows  the  progress  of  settlement  and  cultivation 
ior  ten  years  from  1879-80  to  1892-3  :  — 


1 

Extent  of  Land 

Land  Enclosed 

Year. 

Land 

held  bv  Free- 

Land 

Land  under 

but  not 

Alienated. 

holders. 

Enclosed. 

Cultivation. 

Cultivated. 

Acres. 

Acres. 

Acres. 

Acres. 

.\cres. 

1879-80    .... 

8,477,820 

5,702,387 

35,839,818 

2,271,058 

33,568,760 

1880-I 

8,942,415 

4,538,140 

33,924,598 

2,574,489 

31,350,109 

1881-2 

9,869,361 

4,894,428 

36,318,385 

2,613,903 

33,704,482 

1882-3 

9.903,167 

5,037,574 

39,829,398 

2,623,195 

37,206.203 

1883-4 

10,153,690 

5-308,894 

51,774,450 

2,754,560 

49,019,890 

1884-5 

io,335o72 

5,893,632 

53,444,411 

2,785,490 

50,658,921 

1889-90    

9,094,918 

5,662,741 

59,972,020 

2,864,877 

57,107,143 

1890-I 

8,532,823 

5.562,542 

61,365.069 

2,649,098 

58,715.971 

1891-2 

8,593,894 

5,770,040 

64,680,362 

2,533,291 

62,157,071 

1892-3 

8,637,947 

5,732,615 

64,^74.971 

2,625,741 

61,549,230 

In  South  Australia  proper,  in  the  year  1892-3,  8,637,947  acres 
had  been  alienated  by  the  Crown,  and  of  these  2,625,741  acres  were 
cultivated.  The  mean  population  for  that  year  was  331,721,  so  that  the 
proportion  of  land  o.vned  by  individuals  averaged  at  that  date  26  acres 
per  head,  and  the  land  cultivated  7 "9 15  acres  per  head. 

The  total  value  of  tiie  breadstuffs  exported  from  the  colony  down  to 
the  end  of  1890  amounted  to  £48,397,672  for  the  forty-four  years  since 
the  exports  of  breadstuffs  first  commenced,  giving  an  annual  average  of 
£1,099,947.  The  great  competition  which  wheatgrowers  in  this 
province  have  to  encounter  from  the  exports  from  California  and  India 


230 


SOUTH    AL'STRALTA. 


of  late  years  has  kept  the  price  of  wheat  very  low.  For  all  that  the 
South  Australian  agriculturist  is  still  able  to  grow  wheat  and  to 
dispose  of  it  at  a  profit.  The  yield  of  wheat  per  acre  is  not  large.  In 
the  early  days,  when  farmers  dealt  with  virgin  soil,  the  returns  were 
excellent.  *  "  For  many  years  in  the  neighborhood  of  Adelaide  har- 
vests of  from  twenty  to  thirty  bushels,  and  sometimes  more,  per  acre 
were  gathered.  Such  land  is  too  valuable  now  for  the  culture  of  cereals, 
and  there  are  very  few  fields  of  wheat  to  be  met  with  at  present  near 
Adelaide."  Whatever  wheat  is  put  into  the  soil  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  city  is  cut  for  hay.  In  fact,  the  whole  of  the  hay  crops  raised  in  the 
colony  are  from  wheat  sown  for  the  purpose.  The  culture  of  the  soil 
rapidly  exterminated  the  native  grasses,  which  provided  food  for  cattle, 
and  the  wheat  plant  was  the  best  resource  to  fall  back  upon  to  provide 
feed  for  farming  stock  and  general  consumption.  For  this  purpose 
wheaten  hay  has  no  rival.  A  considerable  quantity  is  annually  exported. 
The  folloAving  table  shows  the  extent  of  land  under  cultivation  and  the 
description  of  the  principal  crops  from  1878-9  to  1892-3  : — 


Crop. 


For  Grain — 

Wheat 

Barley 

Oats 

Peas 

For  Green  Forage  — 

"Wheat,  Barley,  Oats, 
&c 

Lucerne   

Sown  Grasses      

Flax     

Other  Crops     

Hay 

Potatoes 

Orchard   

Garden     

Vineyard      

Fallow  Land 

Total    


Acres  under  Cultivation. 


1879-80. 


1,458,096 

15.107 

4,117 

3.963 


1,271 
8,602 

24,123 
208 

20,403 

265,463 
7,320 
3.566 
5,583 
4,117 

449,119 


1880- 


1881-2. 


1882-3. 


2,271,058 


1,733,542 

13,074 

4,355 
4,406 


2,709 

9,057 

23,997 

76 

28,315 
272,567 

5.587 
4,188 

5.024 

4,337 
463.255 


1,768,781 

11,953 
3,023 
4,616 


1,998,746 
12,186 

3,457 
3,688 


1883-4. 


1,846,151 

13,475 
5,491 
3,590 


I 


2,574,489 


1.91S 
10,538 
16,438 

154 

1.758 

333.467 

6,136 

4,419 

5,445 
4,202 

441,058 


2,613,903 


2,623,195 


1,618 

2,086 

7,710 

8.483 

12,419 

22,603 

"3 

107 

3.408 

9,942 

138,843 

366,934 

5,288 

6,063 

5,169 

6,546 

4,998 

5,172 

4,312 

4,280 

421,240 

453,637 

2,754,560 


*  South  Australia  :  J.  P.  Stow.     Adelaide,  1883. 


AGRICULTURE. 
Extent  of  Land  under  Cultivation,  ^c. — continued. 


231 


Cioi). 


For  Grain — 

Wheat 

Barley 

Oats 

Peas  

For  Green  Forage — 

Wheat,  Barley,  Oats,  &c. 

Lucerne   

Sown  Grasses 

Flax 

Other  Crops     

Hay: 

Potatoes  

Orchard    

Garden     

Vineyards    

Fallow  Land   

Total    


Acres  under  Cultiration. 


1884-5- 


1,942,453 

15,697 

7,264 

4,601 


1,430 
8,649 

23,217 

35 

2,156 
308,429 
5,666 
5,825 
4,942 
4,590 
450,536 


2,785,490 


1889-90. 


1,842,961 

19,679 
10,297 

4,267 


1,506 
6,663 

28,331 

40 

3,123 

329,643 

6,383 

7,437 

5,763 

7,352 

591,432 


2,864,877 


iSgo-i.     1891-2 


1,673,573  '  1,552,423 
14,472     11,461 

12,475  12  ,637 

4,358  4,290 


2,634 

4,715 

21,431 

4,615 

345,150 

6,626 

8,736 
6,626 

9,535 
534,152 


2,649,098 


845 

5,571 

17,519 

2,663 

304,171 
6,892 
8,928 

5,494 

12,314 

588,083 


2,533,291 


1892-3. 


1,520,580 
13,285 

15,745 
4,705 


1,333 

6,456 
20,210 

4,230 

434,116 

6,014 

9,918 

5,853 

15,418 

567,878 


2,625,741 


"WTieat,  which  is  the  principal  crop  on  which  farmers  rely,  depends 
to  a  great  extent  on  the  rainfall  in  each  year.  Where  the  rains  are 
abundant  or  up  to  the  average  (21-204in.)  the  crops  are  mostly  good. 
Insufficient  rains,  or  rains  which  fall  only  at  unsuitable  times,  afPect  the 
returns  adversely.  When  hot  winds  set  in  early  they  inflict  consider- 
able injury  on  the  young  wheat  plants,  and  also  upon  every  kind  of 
vegetation.  Strong  heat  immediately  following  upon  wet  weather,  when 
the  stalks  of  the  wheat  are  tender,  frequently  produces  red  rust,  which 
shrivels  the  grain  and  stunts  the  growth  of  the  phmts.  Early  sowing  is 
considered  to  be  the  best  safeguard  against  that  visitation,  because  the 
young  plants  are  likely  to  have  gained  strength  sufficient,  in  a  great 
measure,  to  resist  its  effects  where  it  does  not  set  in  very  early  in  the 
season. 

Oats  do  not  thrive  well  except  in  certain  places,  "  where  the  climate  is 
cooler  anil  moister  than  over  the  average  of  South  Australian  country. 
Barlcv  yields  good  crops  over  a  far  greater  extent  of  country."  Some  is 
grown  on  Kangaroo  Island,  but  the  produce  is  not  large,   and  brewers, 


232 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 


who   are  the  principal  buyers,  generally  prefer  imported  malt  for  their 
own  trade.* 

The  table  below  gives  the  average   yield  per  acre  of  the  crops   men- 
tioned therein  for  a  series  of  years  : — 


Year. 


1877-8  . 
1878-9  . 
1879-80. 
1880- I  . 
1881-2  . 
1882-3  ■ 
1883-4  • 
1884-5  • 
1889-90. 
I 890- I  . 
1891-2  . 
1892-3  . 


Wheat. 


Barley. 


Bhs. 

lbs. 

7 

46 

7 

9 

9 

47 

Bhs.  lbs. 
II  49 

II  41 

13   19 
4  58   II  31 


4  34 

4  13 
7  56 
7  32 
7  55 

5  37 
4  9 

6  5 


II  24 

11  2 
14  o 
13  23 

12  27 

12  7 
9  [8 

13  10 


Oats. 


Peas. 


Bhs.  lbs.  Bhs.  lbs. 

11  38   12   5 

12  O  II  23 
15  I  '  14  46 
II  20  13  23 
10   26    12   29 


II 


II 


14  26    I  14  43 

12      8  14  5 

12  30  13  33 

9  13  14  42 

6  16  16  o 

I 

10  23  '  14  52 


Hay. 


Pota- 
toes. 


Cwt 
23 

19 
22 

19 

14 

15 
21 

19 
24 
18 

13 

18 


Cwt. 
50 

53 

76 
58 
58 
61 
84 
82 

75 

>  J 
81 

6, 


These  figures  are  averages  only.  Many  parts  of  the  colony  produce 
crops  which  in  Great  Britain  would  be  regarded  as  good,  even  in  favorable 
seasons.  Much  of  the  apparently  low  yield  is  attributable  in  South  Aus- 
tralia to  the  growing  of  wheat  in  places  where  under  ordinarily  favorable 
circumstances  large  crops  cannot  be  expected,  to  slovenly  and  im- 
provident farming,  to  over-cropping  the  soil,  to  insuflficient  means  in  the 
hands  of  the  cultivator,  and  to  the  high  price  of  labor.  South  Australian 
farmers  could  not  raise  wheat  at  all  at  a  profit  without  the  reaping 
machine,  which  does  in  one  day  what  could  not  without  it  be  done 
in  ten  days.  More  recent  improvements  in  farming  implements  and  the 
introduction  of  reapers  and  binders  have  reduced  the  cost  of  harvesting 
considerably,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  cultivation  of 
wheat  as  a  staple  article  of  export  is  likely  to  be  abandoned.  Those  who 
hold  land  will  naturally  cultivate   those  crops  which  furnish   the  best 

South  Australia  :  J.  P.  Stow,  1883. 


AGRICULTUKE. 


233 


returns  at  the  smallest  outlay.  Hitherto  wheat  has  been  considered  to 
ofFer  the  best  inducement  in  this  direction.  The  progress  of  the  colony, 
however,  shows  that  other  products  will  pay  infinitely  better  than  wheat, 
even  though  cultivated  on  a  small  scale,  and  these  are  gradually  coming 
into  favor.  This  statement  is  illustrated  by  the  following  table,  which  is 
a  decennial  return  of  the  gross  produce  of  the  crops  mentioned  therein:  — 


Year. 

Wheat. 

Barlfy. 

1 
Oats.         Peas. 

Hav. 

Pota- 
toes. 

Wine. 

Grapes 
Sold. 

1879-80 

1880-1  

1881-2  

Bushels. 

14,260,964 

8,606,510 

8,087,032 

7,356,117 

14.649,230 

14,621,755 

14.577.358 

9,399.389 

6,436,488 

9,240,108 

Bushels. 

202,166 
151,886 
137.165 

134,464 
188,806 
211,207 
246,841 

175.583 
107,183 
175,468 

Bushels.    Bushels. 

61,818      58,547 

50,070      58,963 

32,219      57,627 

38,472  ,    42,668 

80,467       52,816 

88,639      64,826 

131.449      57.800 

116,229      64,068 

80,876  '   68,655 

166.489      69,922 

Tons. 

296,141 
261,371 
240,827 

253.379 
388,719 
285,839 
395.920 
310,125 
193.317 
389,277 

Tons. 

27,832 
16,170 
18,154 
16,133 
25,557 
23,192 
23.853 
23,963 
27,824 
20,057 

Gallons. 

459,468 

500,955 
313,060 
347,340 
358,606 

473.535 
510,674 
762,776 
801,835 
594.038 

Cwts. 

34.240 
39,782 
29,961 

1882-3  

1883-4  

1884-5  

1889-90 

i8go-i  

36,260 
38,112 
42,923 
80,459 
112,614 

1891-2  

91,794 

1892-3  

72,798 

Wheat  is  grown  in  most  parts  of  the  colony,  but  potatoes  as  a  staple 
are  produced  most  largely  in  the  south-eastern  portion  of  the  colony,  of 
which  the  picturesque  town  of  Mount  Gambler  is  the  commercial  centre. 
The  excellent  climate  of  that  district  and  the  prolific  volcanic  soil  which 
extends  over  a  large  area  of  the  country  are  eminently  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  potatoes  as  well  as  to  the  production  of  butter,  bacon,  cheese, 
kc.  These  articles  add  largely  to  the  agricultural  importance  of  the 
district,  which  is  likely  to  increase  considerably  from  year  to  year. 

The  quality  of  the  grain  raised  in  the  colony  may  be  judged  from  the 
following  table,  which  shows  the  weight  per  imperial  bushel  of  prize 
wheat,  oats,  and  barley,  exhibited  at  the  annual  agricultural  shows  in 
Adelaide  from  1881  to  1892  inclusive,  the  date  of  the  latest  return: — 


1881. 
1882. 
1883. 
1884. 
1885. 
1886. 
1887. 
1888. 
,1889. 


Wheat. 


Oats. 


Barlev. 


Hills. 


Plans. 


lbs. 
66 

67 
68 

67 
66 

65 
66 

67 
66 


6 

II 

9 

14 

5 

10 

I 

4i 


lbs. 

67 
67 
69 
66 

68 

67 
66 

67 
68 


lbs.     ozs. 


II 

14 

9 

9 
II 
1 1 

12 
Hi 


50 

42 


52 

42 


10 

10 
6 
6 

t 

t 

t 

30 


English. 

Cape. 

lbs.     ozs. 

57       9 

57  9 

58  14 
58     14 

lbs.    ozs. 

55  0 
54     10 

56  4 
56      4 

—  t 

—  t 

—  t 

59      o 


t 

—  t 

—  t 

—  t 

—  t 


+  Weight  not  taken.        In  1890,  1891,  and  1892  there  was  no  competition. 


234 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 


From  this  it  appears  that,  although  splendid  wheat  is  grown  in  the 

hills,  the  hot  plains  are  more  favorable  to   its  growth.  The  average 

market   price    of    wheat    per    imperial    bushel   in    each  month   for    a 
period  of  ten  years  is  subjoined : — 


Month 


1883. 


January 
Februaiy  . 
March    ". . . . 

April  

May    

June   

July    

August  .... 
September 
October ..  . 
November 
December . 


s.    d. 


1884. 


a.    d. 

'^  ^ 

3 11 
3  "2 

4    o 


1885. 


9 
7 
6 

h 
4 


s.     (I. 

3     5 
3    4 


3^ 
6 

7 
7^ 

k 
9 
9 
2 


4  II 


1887. 


1888. 


s.    d. 


d.    s.    d. 


113 


1891. 


s.    d.      s.    d. 


3  9 
3     8 

3  10 

4  5 
4  7 
4  8 
4    8 

4    ID 

4  II 
4  8 
4  6 
4    6 


4 
6 

6 

5 
2 

2i 
2I 
94 
54 
5 


The  general  course  of  the  export  trade  in  wheat  is  exemplified  by  the 
table  printed  underneath.  It  will  be  noted  that  in  the  years  marked  with 
an  asterisk  the  rainfall  was  below  the  average.  The  decennial  statement 
of  the  rainfall  from  1881  to  1890  is  printed  in  Chapter  Y.  of  this  work 
with  the  monthly  average  for  fifty-two  years  from  1839  to  1890. 


Season. 


Acres  Culti- 
vated. 


1877-8. 
1878-9* 
1879-80 
1880-I* 
1881-2* 
1882-3* 
1883-4* 
1884-5* 
"1889-90 
1890-I  . 
1891-2  . 


1,828,115 
2,011,319 
2,271,058 

2,574.289 
2,613,903 
2,623,195 
2,754,560 
2,785.490 
2,864,877 
2,649,098 

2,533.291 


Acres  under 
Wheat. 


Produce 
Wheat. 


1,163,646 

1,305,851 
1,458,096 

1,733,542 
1,768,781 

1,746,531 
1,846,151 

1,942,453 
1,842,961 

1,673,573 
1,552,423: 


Bushels. 
9,034,692 

9,332,049 

14,260,964 

8,606,510 

8,087,032 

7,356,117 
14,649,230 

14.621,755 

14.577.358 

9,399,389 

6,436,488 


Average 

per 

Acre. 

Average 

Price  per 

Bushel. 

,    Ship- 
ments 
Bread- 

stuffs,     j 

Blis.lbs. 

s. 

d. 

Tons. 

7  46 

5 

5 

149.530 ! 

7      9 

5 

I 

163,969  ! 

9   47 

4 

5 

271,528 

4   58 

4 

9 

140,521 

4   34 

5 

10 

141,936  1 

4    13 

5 

0^ 

93,593  1 

7   56 

-> 

J) 

9 

328,873 

7   32 

3 

8 

314,407 

7   55 

3 

-1 

/2 

281,073 

5   37 

4 

5 

233,110 

4    9 

4 

If 

69,029 

Total 

Value 

Shipments 

Bre  ad- 

stufis. 


£ 
1,672,628 

1,648,112 

2,469,720 
1,336,761 
I. 551. 106 
1,030,496 
2,49.1,896 
2,185,057 
2,018,719 

1,927,483 
944,264 


Of  late  years  the  culture  of  the  vine  and  the  industry  of  wine-making 
have  taken  very  prominent  positions  amongst  the  producing  classes  of  the 
province.  At  a  very  early  period  of  the  colony's  existence  it  was  found 
that  the  climate  and  soil  were  eminently  suited  to  the  growth  of  the  vine, 
and  that  the  fruit  was  of  the  highest  qviality  in  flavor,  size,  and  abundance 
of  yield.     Almost  all  varieties  of  table  grapes,  as  well  as  wine  grapes. 


AGRICULTURE.  235 

thrive  admirably  in  the  hills  as  well  as  on  the  plains,  and  in  most  parts 
of  the  colony  the  vine  finds  a  congenial  habitat. 

In  nearly  all  the  gardens  attached  to  dwellings  vines  are  grown,  and 
the  produce,  which  is  obtained  without  much  trouble  or  labor,  forms 
an  important  addition  to  the  domestic  economy  of  the  growers.  In  small 
plots  of  ground,  such  as  are  cultivated  by  working  people,  they  require  little 
attention  beyond  pruning  at  the  proper  season,  and  digging  round  the 
stems  so  as  to  loosen  the  soil  for  the  spring  rains.  A  very  large  quantity 
of  grapes  is  raised  in  this  way  in  the  suburbs  of  Adelaide.  Within  a 
short  distance  of  the  capital  small  vineyards  were  formerly  numerous; 
these,  however,  for  the  most  part  have  disappeared,  owing  to  the  demand 
for  land  for  building  purposes. 

The  vine  was  first  introduced  into  the  province  from  Sydney,  where 
it  had  been  acclimatised  for  some  years.  The  South  Australian  Com- 
pany also  imported  some  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  vessel 
which  brought  the  latter  brought  olive  truncheons  at  the  same  time, 
and  both  were  planted  in  the  company's  nursery  at  a  place  now  known 
as  Hackney,  less  than  half  a  mile  from  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  city 
of  Adelaide.  Here  the  cuttings  throve  admirably,  and  from  the  first 
vines  they  were  rapidly  distributed  to  various  parts  of  the  young 
settlement.  "WTierever  they  were  planted  they  succeeded  quite  beyond 
expectation.  Some  years,  however,  elapsed  before  the  quantity  of  grapes 
which  was  grown  suggested  an  attempt  to  make  wine.  The  first  efforts 
in  this  direction  were  encouraging,  though  not  altogether  successful, 
English  farmers  and  horticulturists  had  no  experience  in  wine-making. 
They  were  ignorairt  of  the  special  varieties  of  vine  which  were  suitable 
for  the  purpose.  They  were  not  acquainted  with  the  situations  or  soils 
best  adapted  to  particular  kinds,  and  in  the  art  of  fermenting  the 
must  and  of  treating  the  new  wine  in  the  cellar  they  were  totally 
inexperienced.  However,  experimental  wine-making  went  on,  and  at 
length,  in  many  cases,  a  wholesome  and  drinkable  article  was  produced 
and  consumed  in  the  colony,  especially  at  harvest  time,  when  wine  was 
served  out  to  the  reapers  and  others  instead  of  beer,  which  in  country 
places  could  not  be  procured.  The  late  Mr.  Geo.  Stevenson,  who  was  an 
enthusiastic  horticulturist,  planted  vines  in  his  splendid  garden  in  Xoith 
Adelaide,  and  at  a  latter  period  on  a  large  scale  in  an  extensive  orchard 
at  Glen  Osmond,  just  in  the  hills  east  of  the  city.  Mr.  F.  Davis,  at  the 
Reedbeds,  not  very  far  from  the  seashore  to  the  west  of  Adelaide, 
engaged  largely  in  A'iticulture.  He  also  tried  wine-making  and  with 
considerable  success.  Dr.  Kelly  established  a  vineyard  at  Morphett 
Vale,  at  a  distance  of  some  fifteen  miles  south  of  the  metropolis,  and 
entered  into  wine-gi*owing  as  a  business.    He  also  prepared  and  printed  a 


■236  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

treatise  on  the  vine  in  South  Australia,  which  is  still  regarded  as  a  useful 
and  reliable  work  on  the  subject.  His  wines  were  held  in  considerable 
repute.  Mr.  Jacobs,  of  Moorooroo,  also  established  a  vineyard,  and  was 
highly  successful  in  producing  wine  of  excellent  quality.  The  wines 
grown  by  the  gentlemen  above-named  were  to  a  large  extent  typical  of 
those  which  are  now  characteristic  of  South  Australia.  The  com- 
paratively small  scale  on  which  wines  were  produced  at  that  time  gave 
proof  of  some  of  the  difficulties  which  stood  in  the  way  of  establishing  a 
trade.  It  was  difficult  from  year  to  year  to  secure  uniformity  of  sample, 
nor  could  quantity  be  guaranteed  when  a  demand  for  any  special  kind 
arose. 

The  success  which  attended  the  labors  of  these  growers  induced  others 
to  commence  oi^erations  as  vignerons  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  colony. 
At  the  present  time  there  are  15,418  acres  of  land  under  vines  alone, 
and  the  area  is  rapidly  extending.  There  are  4,206,880  vines  in  bearing 
and  4,545,737  not  yet  in  bearing.  The  most  important  vineyards  in  the 
colony  are  those  represented  by  Messrs.  Cleland  &c  Co.,  Limited:  Messrs. 
Hardy  k  Sons,  of  Bankside  and  Tintara ;  Messrs.  Penfold,  of  Penfield, 
near  Adelaide ;  the  Auldana  vineyard,  near  Magill ;  the  vineyard  at 
•Stonyfell,  near  Burnside  ;  the  Seppeltsfield  vineyard  and  the  vineyards 
of  Smith  &  Son,  Salter  &  Son,  and  of  S.  &  W.  Sage,  near  Tanunda ;  the 
Angaston  vineyard  ;  the  Clarendon  vineyard  ;  and  the  vineyard  of  the 
■Jesuit  Fathers,  at  Sevenhills,  near  Clare.  All  of  these  work  on  an 
extensive  scale.  There  are  many  others  in  existence,  and  according  to 
official  authority  there  are  more  than  1,000  winegrowers  in  South  Aus- 
tralia who  own  vineyards  of  an  acre  and  upwards  in  extent.  The  quantity 
of  wine  made  in  1892-3  was  594,038  gallons. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  produce  of  the  colony  is  exported,  but  the 
quantity  retained  for  home  consumption  is  great  and  always  increasing. 
The  use  of  colonial,  in  preference  to  imported,  wine  is  steadily  growing. 
The  colonial  wines  are  better  than  the  bulk  of  the  imported  wines  ;  they 
are  cheaper  and  more  wholesome,  because  "  they  are  absolutely  pure  and 
unadulterated  in  any  way  Avhatsoever."  *  This  writer  also  states  that 
*'  in  South  Australia  it  has  become  the  rule  for  the  smaller  growers  to 
sell  their  grapes  to  the  larger  growers  and  winemakers,  and  they  have  as 
much  as  they  can  do  to  cope  with  the  increasing  quantity  of  grapes 
offered  to  them,  and  there  is  a  good  opening  for  increased  capital  to  be 
employed  in  providing  the  required  accommodation.  Large  additions 
have  been  made  during  the  past  year  to  some  of  the  wine-making 
establishments,  notably  to  those  of  Mr.  B.  Seppelt,  of  Seppeltsfield; 
Smith  &;  Son,  W.  Salter  k  Son,  and  S.  &c  W.  Sage,  in  the  Angaston 
*  W.  B.  Boake  :   "The  Production  of  Wine  in  Australia."     London,  1890. 


AGRK  ILTrilE. 


237 


district  ;  Messrs.  Cleland  i<.  Co.,  Limited,  near  Tanunda  :  Penfold  &  Co., 
near  Adelaide;  Thomas  Hardy  k  Sons,  Limited,  at  Tintara  and  McLaren 
Yale,  south  of  Adelaide  ;  but  much  more  will  be  required  to  meet  the 
demands  for  the  next  and  future  vintages  in  these  localities." 

The  practice  of  selling  grapes  grown  by  small  producers  to  the  large 
winemakers  is  advantageous  to  all  parties.  The  small  vinegrower 
obtains  a  good  price  for  his  produce,  and  has  none  of  the  risks  attendant 
upon  wine-making  on  a  small  scale.  As  a  rule  the  majority  of  the 
grapefarmers  do  not  possess  the  appliances  suitable  for  wine-making  and 
blending,  and  they  have  neither  the  skill  to  manage  the  delicate 
operations  which  are  indispensable  to  the  making  of  wine  of  a  high  class 
nor  the  capital  to  embark  in  a  trade  which  can  only  be  successfully 
carried  on  on  a  large  scale.  In  every  wine-growing  district  the  grapes 
develop  special  local  peculiarities,  and  if  manipulated  on  a  limited  scale 
it  is  impossible  to  ensure  that  uniformity  of  sample  which  is  essential  to  a 
successful  trade.  The  price  that  is  paid  for  grapes  affords  the  grower  a 
good  remuneration  for  his  enterprise.  In  ordinary  seasons  an  acre  of 
A-ines  should  produce  about  two  tons  of  grapes,  and  the  cost  of  pruning 
them  and  keeping  the  soil  around  them  loose  and  free  from  weeds  is  not 
great.  The  price  of  grapes  is  about  £3  10s.  to  £4  5s.  per  ton,  and  this 
leaves  the  grower  a  respectable  profit  on  his  investment ;  indeed  a  far 
better  one  than  he  can  ever  rely  on  by  growing  wheat  or  hay. 

The  importation  of  Avine  into  South  Australia  may  be  seen  from  the 
following  figures  taken  from  the  "  Statistical  Register"  for  1892  : — 


Quantity   . .  gallons 
Value     £ 


i885. 

1887. 

1888. 

29,683 
16,500 

24.034 
14,198 

39,650 
26,826 

1890. 


22,084 
14,628 


27,014 
20,055 


I89I. 


21,230 

16,626 


1892 
20,408 

14,484 


A  considerable  portion  of  those  imports  consisted  of  sparkling  wines 
such  as  are  not  produced  in  the  colony. 

The  exports  of  South  Australian  Avine  during  the  same  periods  are 
appended : — 


Quantity   . .  gallons 
Value     £ 


1886. 


1887. 


83,309  '  89,838     130.037     180,135 
23,731     23,787      33,903      44,891 


1890. 


221,885 
50,738 


1891. 


1892. 


286,188!  325,038! 
58,684!    64,780 


238  SOUTH    AUSTRAT.TA. 

In  1892  303,795  gallons  were  exported  in  bulk  and  21,243  gallons  in 
bottle,  showing  an  increase  of  38,850  gallons  over  the  export  of  the 
preceding  year.  It  becomes  evident  from  this  that  Australian  wine  is 
growing  in  favor  in  other  countries. 

Mr.  Boake,  in  the  hrochure  quoted  above,  observes  that  '■'■  the 
difficulties  of  establishing  the  wine  industry  in  Australia  were  many ; 
vines  had  to  be  brought  from  Europe,  the  capacities  of  the  different 
localities  and  their  various  soils  had  to  be  experimented  upon,  and 
laborers,  entirely  inexperienced,  instructed  in  the  arts  of  tending  and 
pruning,  and,  when  the  wine  had  been  produced,  a  market  had  to  be 
found  for  it  among  a  population  to  whom  the  drinking  of  wine  was  an 
innovation  not  altogether  acceptable."  Much  of  this  is  true  as  regards 
South  Australia.  The  hard  business  of  training  inexperienced  men  to 
work  the  vines  has  been  overcome,  partly  by  the  enlarged  experience  of 
the  principal  winegrowers  and  partly  by  the  introduction  into  the  colony 
of  trained  wine  experts  from  Europe,  whose  employment  has  been  the 
means  of  bringing  about  a  thoroughly  scientific  method  of  treating  the 
vines  and  their  products,  so  that  now  South  Australian  wines  take  a 
distinguished  place  amongst  the  best  products  of  European  wine  countries. 
There  has  been  a  prejudice  against  Australian  wines  in  the  mother 
country,  but  it  is  now  disappearing,  for  the  British  customer  is  now 
assured  that  w^hen  he  buys  Australian  wine  he  gets  it  pure.  As  Mr. 
Boake  remarks — "  The  Australian  winegrower  is  unsophisticated  in  the 
art  of  adulteration.  Let  us  be  thankful  that  it  is  so.  He  simply  puts 
forth  a  pure  wine  and  nothing  else,  and  if  connoisseurs  tell  him  they  do 
not  like  his  wine,  it  has  too  much  spirit,  or  it  is  not  like  the  French  or 
Rhein  Avines,  he  can  only  beg  pardon  and  tell  you  he  does  not  '  make,' 
he  simply  '  grows '  it,  and  without  admitting  that  it  is  less  agreeable, 
has  less  bouquet,  or  is  inferior  to  what  you  have  been  used  to  drinking, 
he  invites  you  to  partake  of  the  pure  juice  of  the  grape,  and  if  it  is 
too  strong  for  you  then  take  less,  or  add  water  to  it  before  drinking, 
Avhich  will  bring  out  the  natural  bouquet  that  is  characteristic  of 
Australian  w'ines."  It  may  be  added  that  in  the  public  institutions 
South  Australian  wine  is  given  to  the  patients  in  preference  to  imported 
Avine.  In  his  last  report  on  the  "  Hospitals  for  the  Insane"  Dr.  Paterson, 
the  Colonial  Surgeon,  writes  as  follows  : — *'  Colonial  wdne  still  continues 
to  be  used,  and  the  experience  verifies  the  remark  made  in  previous 
reports,  that,  while  it  costs  less,  it  is  superior  to  the  imported  article." 

^^^len  the  export  of  wine  to  England  from  this  colony  was  first 
undertaken  there  were  immense  difficulties  in  the  way.  Vignerons  in 
South  Australia  had  to  learn  the  kinds  of  wine  which  would  be 
acceptable,  and  then  the  kinds  which  were  best  suited  to  withstand  the 


AGRICULTURE.  239 

varying  conditions  of  the  voyage  home.  In  addition  to  this  the  duty 
charged  upon  the  wines  of  the  Australian  colonies  was  so  high  that 
it  was  almost  prohibitory.  The  Customs  authorities  could  not  be 
brouo-ht  to  believe  that  South  Australian  Avine  was  not  fortified  by  the 
addition  of  spirit.  They  could  not  understand  that  the  proportion  of 
30  per  cent,  of  alcoholic  strength  was  a  natural  strength.  Some  of  our 
wines  go  to  that,  and  even  as  high  as  36  per  cent,  in  their  natural  state.* 
The  imports  were  consequently  charged  with  a  duty  of  2s.  6d.  per  gallon, 
whilst  the  lighter  wines  of  other  countries  not  British  colonies  were 
admitted  at  the  duty  of  Is.  per  gallon.  Such  an  impost  as  2s.  6d.  per 
gallon  was  almost  fatal  to  the  trade.  The  position  of  the  Australian 
winegrower  has  been  improved  of  late  years  in  this  respect,  but  the  rule 
of  the  EngHsh  Custom  House  checked  for  some  years  the  growth  of  the 
South  Australian  wine  trade  with  England. 

The   following    list    shows   the    quantity-    of    South   Australian   wine 
exported  to  difi'erent  countries  in  1892: — 

Gallons. 


United  Kingdom    ....  263,012 

New  Zealand 30, 191 

New  South  Wales   ...  6,419 

Victoria 4,77i 

Queensland     6,669 


Gallons. 

"West  Australia 6, 703 

Germany     i)929 

Tasmania    2,326 

Port  Darwin 936 

Other  countries 2,082 


A  few  exports  were  sent  to  India,  China,  Ceylon,  Belgium,  Italy, 
Germany,  and  the  Cape  Colonies.  The  consignments,  however,  were 
so  small  that  they  can  be  regarded  only  as  samples,  perhaps  the  fore- 
runners of  a  future  trade.  The  colonies  of  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria 
are  both  wine-producing  countries,  yet  they  stand  third  and  fifth  on  the 
list  of  the  customers  of  South  Australia  for  her  wines ;  and  in  both  cases 
there  is  a  heavy  import  duty  on  the  produce  of  this  colony.  In  New 
South  Wales  it  is  5s.  per  gallon  and  in  Victoria  6s. ;  in  Tasmania  it  is 
6s.  in  bulk  and  8s.  in  bottle.  These  duties  necessarily  cripple  the  inter- 
colonial wine  trade  greatly,  and  hamper  what  would  otherwise  become  an 
important  factor  in  South  Australian  commerce.     It  was  not  long  since 

*  Parliamentary  Paper  No.  162  of  1S74  gives  a  table  of  the  results  of  twelve  tests  of 
the  natural  wines  by  the  Customs  Department,  which  gives  an  average  of  29-4  per 
cent.,  the  highest  being  38"7  per  cent.,  heating  all  records.  The  next  was  33"9  per 
cent.,  and  the  lowest  22-8  per  cent.  The  wine  which  gave  the  highest  result  was 
made  as  an  experiment.  Mr.  C.  Bonney  (formerly  Commissioner  of  Crown  Lands),  at 
his  residence  near  Burnside,  crushed  enough  grapes  to  fill  a  quarter  cask  with  must. 
When  fermentation  had  ceased  he  closed  the  cask  and  left  it  to  take  care  of  itself.  It 
matured  into  a  strong  wine  without  the  addition  of  any  spirit.  Doubtless  the  grapes 
had  been  left  till  very  ripe.  The  site  on  which  the  grapes  were  grown  was  a  strong 
SOU  and  very  warm,  both  of  these  conditions  tending  to  generate  a  large  quantity  of 
sugar  in  the  must. 


240  SOITH    AUSTRALIA. 

Stated  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Australian  Winegrowers'  Association. 
that  the  Tasmanian  duty  on  South  Australian  wine  was  more  than  the 
actual  value  of  the  article  itself  in  South  Australia.  Negotiations  are  now 
in  progress  between  the  two  colonies,  which  it  is  hoped  will  result  in  an 
arrangement  by  which  a  freer  interchange  of  their  produce  may  be 
brought  about.  If  such  an  arrangement  should  be  entered  into  a 
considerable  impetus  will  be  given  to  the  wine  trade  here. 

Most  of  the  kinds  of  wine  produced  in  Europe  are  made  here.  They  are 
of  excellent  quality,  and  are  reasonable  in  price.  Port,  Sherry,  Madeira,, 
Claret,  Burgundy,  Constantia,  Frontignac,  Muscat,  Chablis,  Sauterne,. 
Reisling,  Champagne,  as  well  as  many  varieties  of  sweet  and  dry  wines, 
both  White  and  Red,  which  are  known  by  local  names,  are  produced  and 
are  much  in  demand.  Many  of  these  wines  have  gained  gold  medals  at 
different  exhibitions  in  London,  Paris,  Calcutta,  Bordeaux,  New  Zealand, 
Tasmania,  Western  Australia,  and  Philadelphia,  besides  other  foreign 
and  local  trophies  of  various  kinds.  In  Tasmania,  at  the  exhibition  held 
at  Launceston  in  1891,  the  awards  made  to  the  South  Australian  wine- 
makers,  of  whom  only  ten  exhibited,  "  were  greater  in  number  and  value- 
than  all  of  those  aw^arded  to  Victoria  and  New  South  Wales  combined. 
The  total  awards,  including  the  first  prize  for  champagne,  indicates  the- 
high  position  which  our  winemakers  have  attained  to,  as  they  have 
secured  fifteen  special  first  awards,  nineteen  first  prizes,  eight  second 
prizes,  no  third  prizes,  and  two  exhibits  highly  commended.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  influence  of  the  Tasmanian  Exhibition  upon  the- 
consumption  of  South  Australian  wines  will  be  great,  not  only  in  that 
island,  but  also  throughout  the  Australian  colonies,  because  of  the 
great  number  of  intercolonial  visitors  who  were  entertained  in  our 
reception  room,  the  expenditure  by  the  Government  being  amply 
justified  by  the  results  of  an  expansion  of  the  wine  industry  of  South 
Australia."* 

The  great  interest  taken  by  the  Government  in  the  production  of  wine 
is  exemplified  by  the  appointment  of  a  viticultural  expert  to  supply  the 
public  with  advice  and  assistance  in  the  culture  of  the  vine.  A  vine- 
grower's  manual  for  South  Australia  has  recently  been  prepared  and 
published  under  instructions  from  the  Government  of  South  Australia, 
and  with  the  co-operation  of  practical  vinegrowers  of  the  province,  which 
gives  full  instructions  in  the  art  of  viticulture  f  in  this  colony  which 
cannot  fail  to  be  of  the  greatest  benefit  to  all  who  enter  upon  vine- 
giowing. 

*Eeport  by  J.  H.  Scott  on  the  Tasmanian  Exhibition  to  the  Vinegrowers'  Association, 

May  25th,  1891. 
t  South  Australian  Vinegiower's  Manual:  George  Sutherland,  M.A.  Adelaide,  1892:. 


AGRICULTURE.  241 

Besides  this,  during  the  season  of  1892,  about  2,000,000  vine  cuttings 
have  been  distributed  gratis,  through  the  Conservator  of  Forests,  with  a 
view  of  encouraging  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  as  widely  as  possible. 
In  the  Botanic  Gardens  Mr.  Holtze,  the  director,  has  established  a  vine 
nursery  in  which  the  capabilities  of  all  the  useful  varieties  of  the  vine 
will  be  experimented  on  and  tested.  It  has  been  proposed  to  the  Govern- 
ment to  establish  a  wine  depot  in  London,  so  that  purchasers  there  may 
be  certain  of  obtaining  South  Australian  wine  in  its  pure  state.  It  is 
intended  also  that  the  wines  consigned  to  the  depot  shall  not  be  offered 
for  sale  unless  sound  and  in  good  condition,  so  as  to  obviate  as  far  as 
possible  the  risk  of  injury  to  the  reputation  of  South  Australian  wines  by 
the  sale  of  inferior  or  immature  samples. 

The  climate  and  soil  of  South  Australia  are  so  favorable  to  the  growth 
of  all  kinds  of  fruits  and  vegetables  that  the  pursuits  of  fruit-raising  and 
market  gardening  are  followed  on  a  large  scale.  Around  Adelaide, 
especially  in  the  hills,  orchards  and  vegetable  gardens  abound.  The 
official  statistics  for  1892  show  that  15,771  acres  are  at  present  devoted 
to  the  cultivation  of  orchard  and  kitchen  garden  produce,  and  the  area  is 
yearly  increasing.  It  appears  that  there  are  6,014  acres  imder  potatoes, 
orchards  occupy  9,918  acres,  and  gardens  5,853  acres.  The  quantity 
of  vegetables  raised  is  so  large  that,  besides  meeting  the  consumption  of 
Adelaide  and  its  suburbs,  the  gardeners  supply  the  mining  townships  on 
Yorke  Peninsula  and  elsewhere,  around  which  the  soil  is  not  suitable  for 
vegetable  and  fruit  culture.  An  immense  quantity  of  fruit  and  kitchen 
produce  is  forwarded  to  Broken  Hill  and  Silverton  for  the  use  of  the 
l)opulation  there  and  for  that  of  the  silver  mining  districts  adjacent 
to  those  tOAvns.  South  Australia,  in  fact,  commands  the  bulk  of  the 
trade  in  that  direction,  and  is  likely  to  continue  to  do  so,  for  the  soil  of 
the  district  generally  is  not  fertile.  The  rainfall  is  very  uncertain  and 
seldom  abimdant,  and  the  few  patches  of  country  which  can  be  made 
available  are  not  extensive,  and  so  far  removed  from  the  sources  of 
demand  as  to  render  the  pursuit  of  market  gardening  very  precarious  in 
such  localities. 

The  raising  of  friiit  has  become  an  extensive  industry  which  is  growing 
more  important  year  by  year.  South  Australia  is  not  only  able  to  supply 
her  own  requirements,  but  a  very  large  quantity  is  sent  away  to  other 
colonics  in  fresh  condition,  and  an  immense  deal  is  also  converted  into 
jams  and  preserves  of  various  kinds,  much  of  which  is  also  exported. 
According  to  the  Customs  returns  for  1892,  41,800lbs.  of  fresh  fruit 
were  sent  from  the  colony.  Of  these  New  South  Wales  took  32,066  ; 
Victoria,  8.083  ;  and  West  Australia,  l,2011bs.  The  export  of  preserved 
fruits  in  1892  was  as  follows: — To  Western  Australia,  60,16-llbs. ;  New 
Q. 


242  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

South  Wales,  17,358lbs. ;  Port  Darwin,  3,8l6lbs. ;  Queensland,  984lb,s. ; 
Great  Britain,  8721bs. ;  Ceylon,  5521bs. ;  and  other  countries,  3,3121bs., 
making  a  total  of  86,496lbs.  Besides  this  16,2051bs.  of  fruit  pulp  were  sent 
away  for  the  purpose  of  being  converted  into  jams,  &c.  The  gross  export 
of  jams  and  preserves  amounted  to  7o2,8101bs.,  distributed  as  follows: — 
New  South  Wales,  358, 170lbs.;  Western  Australia,  322,660lbs.;  Queens- 
land, 29,164lbs.;  Victoria,  12,l78lbs.;  Ceylon,  12,776lbs.;  Port  Darwin, 
15,436lbs. ;  and  other  countries,  2,2861b3.  The  values  of  the  fruits  and 
other  products  of  orchards  and  gardens  exported  were — Bottled  fruits, 
£85  ;  raisins,  £2  ;  fresh  fruits,  £19,051  ;  jams,  &c.,  £12,834  ;  preserved 
fruits,  £1,753  ;  fruit  pulp,  £143  ;    honey,  £1,437. 

Some  attempts  have  been  made  to  develop  the  fruit-growing  industry 
by  experimental  shipments  of  fresh  fruits  to  Great  Britain.  These  have 
been  attended  with  moderate  success.  It  has  recently  been  proved  that 
grapes,  when  properly  packed,  can  be  landed  in  England  in  good  condition 
a.t  seasons  when  they  are  certain  to  command  remunerative  prices.  The 
same  fact  has  been  established  with  regard  to  other  fruits,  but  this  trade 
is  only  in  its  infant  stage.  Oranges  and  lemons  and  other  varieties  of 
the  citrus  tribe  are  extensively  grown  in  the  colony,  but  it  is  still  to  some 
extent  indebted  to  New  South  Wales  for  supplies  to  meet  local  wants  and 
the  demand  which  has  sprung  up  in  the  silver  mining  districts  at  Broken 
Hill  and  the  surrounding  mining  settlements. 

The  riianufacture  of  dried  fruits,  such  as  raisins,  currants,  &c.,  has  not 
yet  made  very  great  progress  in  the  colony,  and  the  supply  for  the  local 
market  is  A'ery  far  short  of  its  requirements.  The  business,  however, 
is  gradually  expanding,  and  will  eventually  rise  into  greater  importance. 
The  quality  of  the  articles  is  excellent,  and  the  fruit  meets  a  ready 
sale  at  paying  prices.  Colonial  raisins,  of  which  7llcwts.  were  made  in 
1892,  are  preferred  to  those  which  are  imported,  and  the  currants  are 
decidedly  superior  to  any  that  come  from  Europe.  They  have  a  better 
appearance,  and  are  fresher  and  of  good  flavor.  They  are,  moreover, 
free  from  grit  and  other  impurities  which  are  always  found  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  in  imported  goods. 

The  process  of  sun-drying  grapes  and  currants  can  only  be  carried  on 
in  situations  where  they  mature  early  and  can  be  treated  in  the  open  air 
without  being  exposed  to  the  risk  of  early  rains  or  damp  weather. 
These  conditions  mostly  obtain  on  the  Adelaide  plains. 

With  regard  to  the  health  of  the  vines  which  are  extensively  grown  it 
may  be  said  that  they  are  not  subject  to  many  diseases  in  South  Australia. 
The  O'idium  Tuckerii  is  frequently  met  with,  but  the  judicious  use  of 
sulphur  is  always  a  specific  remedy.  The  damage  done  by  the  presence 
of  this  disease  has  never  caused  any  serious  or  extensive  mischief.     The 


AGRICULTURE.  243 

•colony  up  to  the  present  time  has  been  free  from  phtjUoxcra.  and  its  pre- 
sence is  so  far  unknown.  In  the  neighboring  colony  of  Victoria  it  was 
discovered  a  few  years  ago.  The  vinej'^ards  in  which  it  had  manifested 
itseK  were  destroyed.  The  stocks  were  rooted  up  and  burned,  and  the 
replanting  of  vines  on  the  sites  where  the  pest  had  existed  was  prohibited 
:for  a  period  sufficiently  long  to  obviate  the  probability  of  its  rcappeai-ance. 
All  the  colonies  which  were  interested  in  viticulture  joined  together  in 
•bearing  the  cost  of  eradicating  it.  The  efforts  which  were  persistently 
made  to  get  rid  of  this  scourge  have  so  far  proved  successful.  Stringent 
laws  regulate  the  treatment  of  vineyards  where  phylloxera  may  be 
discovered,  arid  rigorous  precautions  are  taken  to  prevent  its  renewal 
amongst  them  by  the  introduction  into  any  of  the  colonies  of  plants  or 
fruit  from  places  where  suspicion  of  its  existence  may  be  entertained. 

Figs  thrive  splendidly  in  the  colony.  They  are  abundant  in  all 
gardens  and  orchards,  but  the  business  of  drying  them  has  not  yet  taken 
much  hold  upon  fruitgrowers.  An  attempt  has  been  made  to  introduce 
the  Smyrna  fig,  which  is  the  best  kind  for  drying.  The  results  hitherto 
have  not  been  satisfactory.  The  trees  grow  well  and  bear  abundance  of 
fruit,  but  it  does  not  mature.  When  the  figs  are  about  half  groN^ni 
they  fall  to  the  ground,  and  of  course  the  product  of  the  trees  is  nil. 
The  same  thing  has  taken  place  with  the  Smyrna  fig  trees  which  have 
been  introduced  into  California.  The  falling  off  of  the  fruit  is  prevented 
in  Smyrna  by  a  process  called  "  caprification."  It  is  not  yet  understood 
in  South  Australia,  though  doubtless  in  course  of  time  the  difficulty  will 
be  overcome. 

The  culture  of  the  olive  and  the  manufacture  of  olive  oil  are 
prosecuted  with  the  greatest  success  in  the  colony,  and  the  quality  of 
"the  oil  which  is  prodiiced  is  in  every  respect  equal  to  that  of  the  very 
best  kinds  which  are  made  in  Southern  Europe.  The  industry,  however, 
is  carried  on  only  on  a  comparatively  small  scale,  considering  the 
immense  area  within  which  it  might  be  successfully  developed.  Some 
years  ago  Mr.  W.  R.  Boothby,  Sheriff  of  South  Australia,  who  has 
always  taken  a  great  interest  in  the  cultivation  of  the  olive,  whilst  on  a 
visit  to  Europe  collected  an  immense  quantity  of  valuable  information  on 
the  subject,  which  he  embodied  in  a  small  pami)hlet.  This  work  was 
published  by  the  Government  in  1878.  It  affords  information  as  to  the 
kinds  of  olive  which  are  cultivated  in  France  and  Italy,  and  gives  useful 
instructions  resj)ecting  the  soils  on  which  they  thrive  best,  and  also  as  to 
the  best  means  of  propagating  and  preserving  the  trees.  In  the 
introduction  he  observes — "  The  similarity  of  the  soil  and  climate 
between  this  province  and  Southern  Europe  is  remarked  by  every 
traveller  who  has  visited  both   places,  and  this  con^•iction  has  induced 


244  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

patriotic  colonists  like  Mr.  [now  Sir  Samuel]  Davenport,  Dr.  Schomburgk 
[since  deceased],  Mr.  Page,  and  others  to  endeavor  to  introduce  into 
South  Australia,  as  a  supplementary  industry,  what  in  Italy  and  Southern 
France  forms  one  of  the  jn-incipal  sources  of  national  wealth.  The 
cultivation  of  the  olive  and  the  manufacture  of  its  frviit  into  oil  form 
staple  industries  in  those  countries,  and  there  is  no  reason  whatever  why 
the  industry  may  not  attain  in  this  land  fair  proportions  if  agriculturalists 
and  persons  of  means  would  display  the  same  amount  of  intelligence  and 
enterprise  as  have  characterised  them  with  regard  to  many  other  matters 
affecting  their  interests  and  the  interests  of  the  country.  The  principal 
difficulty  which  the  advocates  of  olive  cultvire  hitherto  have  had  to 
contend  with  has  been  the  supineness  with  Avhich  this  important  question 
has  been  viewed  by  those  whose  interest  it  should  be  to  give  attention  to 
it.  The  slow  growth  of  the  tree  and  the  necessarily  long  time  before 
olives  become  productive  undoubtedly  tax  the  patience  of  men  whose 
experience  has  been  to  sow,  harvest,  and  sell  their  corn  within  the 
limits  of  a  single  year;  but  viewed  as  a  supplementary  industry — one  which 
can  be  carried  on  concurrently  with  the  usual  agricultural  operations- 
of  the  country,  and  without  materially  interfering  with  them — it  is  a 
matter  for  surprise  that  it  has  not  engaged  more  attention  than  has  been 
given  to  it.  It  is  gratifying  to  know,  however,  that  the  industry,  small 
as  it  is,  is  progressing,  and  that  annually  the  olive  plantations  of  the 
colony  are  being  increased  and  the  production  of  oil  becoming  year  by 
year  larger."  Unfortunately  there  are  no  special  records  which  allow  of 
a  comparison  being  made  between  the  state  of  olive  cultivation  at  the 
time  the  above  was  written  and  its  condition  now.  Some  of  the 
difficulties  which  barred  the  progress  of  the  industry  prevail  at  the 
present  time  as  they  did  then,  and  time  alone  can  solve  them.  They 
are  want  of  capital  and  of  knowledge,  as  well  as  of  the  plant  necessary 
for  oil-making,  in  addition  to  the  uncertainty  of  obtaining  labor  at  a 
moderate  cost  at  the  proper  seasons.  So  far  as  it  has  gone  the 
production  of  olive  oil  has  been  proved  to  be  a  paying  pursuit.  The- 
yield  is  satisfactory,  and  the  price  of  oil  good.  AVhat  is  produced  in  the 
colony  sells  readily  at  10s.  to  12s.  per  gallon,  and  the  supply  of  the  oil  is 
not  nearly  equal  to  the  demand  for  it.  The  most  considerable  olive- 
plantations  are  those  owned  by  Sir  Samuel  Davenport,  K.C.M.G.,and  the 
plantation  on  the  park  lands  immediately  adjoining  the  Adelaide  Gaol. 
At  the  latter  place  the  berries  are  gathered  by  the  prisoners,  and  the  oil 
is  made  by  prison  labor.  All  the  other  operations  of  digging  round  the 
trees  and  pruning  them,  kc,  are  also  performed  by  the  prisoners. 

The  cultivation  of  the  wattle  f  Acacia  ■pycnantha )  for  the  sake  of  the- 
bark,  which  is  largely  used  in  tanning,  has  spread  wonderfully  of  late  years.. 


AGRICTLTURE.  245 

Formerly  the  supply  of  wattle  bark  was  mostly  derived  from  the  scrub  on 
•waste  lands  of  the  CroMTi.  The  settlement  of  the  country  and  the 
reclamation  of  the  land  consequent  upon  the  spread  of  agi'iculture  seriously 
diminished  the  supply.  More  recently  the  high  price  which  the  bark 
has  realised  in  England,  where  it  has  become  scarce,  has  prompted  many 
landowners  to  plant  wattles  and  to  cultivate  them  in  a  systematic  manner. 
The  tree  is  indigenous,  and  will  grow  almost  anywhere,  so  that  it  requires 
but  little  care  or  attention.  In  the  second  or  third  year  after  planting 
the  bark  becomes  available.  After  the  bark  is  stripped  off  the  trees  die, 
but  the  land  does  not  require  replanting,  for  fresh  trees  grow  up  from 
the  seed  shed  by  the  old  ones.  In  order  to  encourage  this  industry  as 
much  as  possible,  and  to  induce  farmers  and  others  to  take  up  the 
cvdtivation  of  the  wattle,  the  Government  has  distributed  large 
quantities  of  the  seed  gratuitously.  About  3,000  tons  of  bark  were 
•exported  from  the  colony  in  1892.  valued  at  the  ports  of  shipment  at  over 
£1 1  10s.  per  ton.  The  bidk  of  the  exports  went  to  the  United  Kingdom, 
the  quantity  j^ent  thither  being  2,397  tons. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  gum  trees,  or  Eucalypti,  possess  considerable 
and  valuable  medicinal  properties.  The  Eucalyptus  globulus,  or  blue- 
gum,  which  grows  in  greater  perfection  in  Tasmania  than  it  does  on  the 
mainland  of  Australia,  is  much  valued  on  account  of  the  large  quantity  of 
eucalyptus  oil  which  can  be  distilled  from  its  leaves.  A  large  trade  is 
developing  from  its  manufacture,  and  four  distilleries  are  established  for 
its  production.  Three  of  these  are  located  on  Kangaroo  Island,  where 
the  Eucalyptus  eneorifolia,  a  narrow-leaved  gum,  is  abundant,  and  is 
reputed  to  yield  the  best  oil  of  all.  Official  returns  do  not  indicate  the 
extent  of  the  trade  in  eucalyptus  oil  or  the  value  of  the  exports,  but  it 
must  be  considerable  to  find  employment  for  the  operations  of  four 
distilleries. 

The  growth  of  the  almond  and  its  fecundity  are  surprising,  and  when 
the  right  kind  is  planted  the  pecuniary  results  are  most  satisfactory. 
The  trees  thrive  on  almost  any  soil,  and  require  little  attention.  The 
principal  thing  to  be  done  is  to  trench  the  groimd  in  which  they  are 
planted,  and  nature  will  do  the  rest.  The  Jordan  and  the  Brandis  are 
the  best  sorts  to  grow,  and  they  fetch  excellent  prices  in  the  market. 
Hardshells  realise  22s.  to  23s.  per  cwt.,  and  soft  shells  42s.  to  46s.  The 
latter  when  cracked  and  fit  for  immediate  use  in  confectionery,  &;c., 
realise  from  84s.  to  93s.  6d.  per  cwt.  The  yield  per  tree  depends 
altogether  upon  its  age  and  development.  The  expense  of  collecting  the 
produce  of  the  trees  is  small,  for  when  ripe  the  almonds  can  be  beaten 
off  the  boughs  with  long  sticks,  without  injury  either  to  the  fruit  or  the 
trees,  and  are  easily  collected  and  bagged  for  sale. 


246  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

The  late  Dr.  Schomburgk,  Director  of  the  Adelaide  Botanic  Garden,, 
in  various  ])apers  read  by  him  some  years  ago  before  the  Chamber  of 
Manufactures,  in  Adelaide,  pointed  out  the  adaptability  of  the  climate 
and  soil  of  the  colony  to  the  production  of  many  valuable  articles  of 
commerce  Avhich  might  be  profitably  exported  to  Europe.  He  strongly 
urged  the  importance  of  introducing  sericulture  into  the  province.  He 
ascertained  from  Europe  what  kinds  of  mulberry  were  the  best  for 
feeding  silkworms.  He  introduced  the  seeds  and  oifered  for  distribution 
young  plants  of  the  most  approved  kinds,  but  the  demand  for  them  was 
very  limited.  The  Government,  at  his  suggestion,  laid  out  an  extensive 
mulberry  plantation  at  the  Orphanage  at  Magill,  near  Adelaide.  Up  to 
the  j)resent  time  the  industry  of  sericulture  has  not  made  much  headway. 
Dr.  Cleland,  the  Resident  Medical  Officer  at  the  Parkside  Lunatic  Asylum, 
has  gone  into  the  raising  of  silkworms  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  he 
still  keeps  his  enterprise  going.  The  results,  however  satisfactory  as  far 
as  regards  the  production  of  excellent  silk,  have  not  as  yet  had  much 
influence  on  the  public  mind.  As  to  the  culture  of  the  mulberry,  Dr. 
Schomburgk  stated  that  it  will  grow  everywhere,  almost,  iti  the  colony. 
It  grows  at  Glenelg  and  Brighton,  close  to  the  sea  beach,  in  sand,  and  is 
as  luxuriant  in  its  development  there  as  it  is  in  the  fertile  soil  of  the  hills- 
and  other  parts  of  the  colony. 

Dr.  Cleland  has  kindly  supplied  the  following  notes  on  silk  culture  in 
South  Australia  : — "  The  cultivation  of  the  white  mulberry  tree  and  the 
rearing  of  silkworms  has  been  carried  on  in  South  Australia  for  the  past 
twenty  or  thirty  years.  In  the  year  1871  Mr.  F.  Wurm  claimed,  and 
obtained,  the  Government  bonus  of  £500  for  producing  the  first  hundred- 
weight of  silk  cocoons  in  the  province.  Since  that  time  he  has  not  done 
much  in  silk  culture.  In  1870  a  company  was  started  to  take  the 
industry  in  hand,  and  had  a  plantation  of  white  mulberry  trees  near 
Hindmarsh,  a  couple  of  miles  from  Adelaide.  Its  efforts  were 
unsuccessful,  partly  owing  to  an  insufficient  supply  of  leaf  food  for  the 
silkworms,  and  partly  to  unskilful  treatment  of  the  insects.  About  the 
same  time  an  attempt  was  made  to  establish  the  industry  at  the  Parkside 
Lunatic  Asylum,  under  the  supervision  of  Mrs.  Lindsay,  of  Port  Elliot, 
who  had  been  specially  instructed  by  Mrs.  Bladen  Niel,  of  Victoria. 
The  silkworms  unfortunately  proved  to  be  unhealthy,  and  the  attempt  was 
abandoned  for  a  time. 

"In  1877,  when  the  Sydney  Exhibition  was  held,  the  Japanese 
Commissioners  presented  to  Sir  Samuel  Davenport,  K.C.M.G.,  the 
'  grain '  of  an  esteemed  variety  of  silkworm,  which  was  handed  over  to 
the  care  of  Dr.  Cleland,  of  the  Parkside  Lunatic  Asylum,  on  account  of 
the  plantation  of  white  mvdberry  trees  which  had  been  formed  at  that 


AGRICULTURE.  247 

institution.  The  silkworms  have  proved  to  be  very  healthy.  They  have 
been  reared  in  a  shingle  house,  plastered  with  '  wattle  and  dab,'  and  have 
yielded  annually  about  a  hundredweight  and  a  half  of  good  cocoons. 
The  yield  is  limited  to  the  above  quantity  because  the  300  trees,  of  which 
the  plantation  consists,  do  not  produce  sufficient  food  for  a  greater 
number  of  silkworms  than  are  at  present  maintained.  The  quality  of 
the  silk  from  the  cocoons  which  are  produced  has  been  proved  to  be 
excellent,  judging  from  the  reports  received  from  the  Indian  and 
Colonial  Exhibition  of  1886,  from  a  firm  at  Calcutta,  and  from  a  firm  at 
Bologna,  in  Italy. 

"  The  great  obstacle  to  the  development  of  the  industry  is  the  fact  that 
no  plantations  of  white  mulberry  trees  of  any  extent  exist  in  the  colony. 
Ordinary  cultivators  cannot  be  expected  to  plant  unless  they  have  a  fair 
prospect  of  being  able  to  sell  the  leaves.  No  capitalist  has  yet  ventured 
to  give  the  requisite  guarantee — say  for  a  definite  term  of  years — to 
purchase  the  leaves  if  they  became  available." 

The  subject  was  discussed  in  a  paper  read  by  Dr.  Cleland  at  the  first 
congress  of  the  Agricultural  Bureau,  held  in  Adelaide  in  1890.  Sir 
Samuel  and  Lady  Davenport,  Mrs.  Lindsay  (of  Port  Elliot),  and  Mr. 
S.  Y.  Pizey  (of  Adelaide),  as  well  as  the  late  Dr.  Schomburgk,  have 
done  much  to  press  the  advantages  of  silk  culture  upon  the  notice  of 
agriculturists,  but  hitherto  Avith  only  slight  success. 

Flax  and  hemp  would  thrive  very  well  in  the  colony,  and  they  have 
been  cultivated  with  success  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  colony. 

The  soil  and  climate  of  the  south-eastern  district,  about  Mount 
Gambler,  are  admirably  adapted  to  the  growth  of  beetroot  for  the 
manufacture  of  sugar,  but  nothing  has  been  done  in  this  direction. 

Hops  flourish  admirably  in  various  parts  of  the  colony,  especially  at 
Lobe  thai.  Encounter  Bay,  Mount  Barker,  and  Mount  Gambler,  and  the 
produce  has  hitherto  found  a  ready  sale. 

Tobacco  can  be  produced  in  South  Austrcilia  of  excellent  quality. 
]\Iuch  attention  was  given  to  its  cultivation  in  the  early  days  of  the 
colony,  and  superior  tobacco  was  made ;  but  Dr.  Schomburgk  stated  that 
its  cultivation  became  entirely  neglected  when  the  price  of  wheat  paid 
the  farmer  better  than  that  of  tobacco.  He  also  stated  that  whilst 
South  Australian  tobacco  could  not  surpass  the  South  American  or  West 
Indian  leaf  in  flavor,  as  fair  a  sample  could  be  produced  in  the  colony  as 
on  the  continent  of  Europe.  One  field  of  tobacco  at  Lyndoch  Valley 
attracted  his  special  attention,  and  in  measuring  some  of  the  leaves  he 
found  that  their  average  size  was  21in.  long  and  12in.  wide.  Probably 
the  great  drawback  to  the  cultivation  of  the  tobacco  plant  is  the  want  of 
knowledge  of  a  proper  method  of   curing  the  leaf.     This  can  only  be 


248  SOUTH    AUSTRAJ.IA. 

acquired  when  the  plant  is  culthated  on  a  large  scale  and  it  becomes 
worth  while  to  bring  over  from  America  or  elsewhere  skilled  tobacco- 
growers,  who  thoroughly  understand  the  treatment  of  the  leaf 

The  castor  oil  plant  thrives  in  every  locality  and  in  every  soil,  rich  or 
poor.  It  grows  close  to  the  coast  in  pure  sand  and  becomes  covered 
with  seed.  It  is  generally  regarded  as  a  nuisance.  It  will  grow  where 
scarcely  any  other  vegetation  grows,  and  after  planting  there  would  be 
little  or  no  trouble  except  in  gathering  the  seeds.  They  have  a  fair 
marketable  value,  and  might  be  turned  to  good  account.  The  manu- 
facture of  castor  oil  has  not  yet  been  attempted,  except  in  an  experimental 
way,  but  there  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  it  might  be  made  in  South 
Australia  with  no  more  difficulty  than  olive  oil  is  raade  now. 

Mustard  is  grown  in  various  parts  of  the  colony,  and  the  manufacture 
of  the  flour  keeps  one  establishment  going.  The  colonial  article,  being 
fresh  and  strong  as  Avell  as  free  from  adulteration,  is  much  superior 
to  any  that  is  imported.  Habit  and  prejudice,  however,  lead  the 
majority  to  use  the  imported  article  in  preference  to  that  which  is  made 
in  the  colony.  The  color  which  the  imported  mustard  shows  is  much 
brighter  than  that  which  is  displayed  by  colonial  mustard.  This, 
however,  arises  from  the  admixture  of  foreign  substances  from  which 
the  local  article  is  free. 

In  addition  to  the  above  Dr.  Schomburgk  strongly  urged  the  growth 
of  gram  vetches,  &c.,  as  cattle  food,  but  although  these  plants  do  well,  and 
would  be  found  most  useful,  they  have  not  yet  superseded  or  even  inter- 
fered with  the  growth  of  hay,  oats,  and  barley,  which  are  used  for  fodder. 

Capers  thrive  magnificently  in  the  hills  in  South  Australia,  and  their 
preservation  could  be  made  a  profitable  industry,  but  as  yet  they  are  not 
produced  to  any  great  extent. 

Opium  cultivation  is  one  of  the  neglected  industries  in  South  Australia. 
With  everything  in  its  favor  as  regards  climate  and  soil,  it  has  as  yet 
received  no  special  attention. 

Liquorice  can  be  grown  in  the  colony  with  little  trouble  and  at  a  small 
cost  in  almost  any  locality  and  soil.  Probably  the  expense  of  cultivation 
and  the  length  of  time  that  must  elapse  (four  years)  before  the  crop 
arrives  at  maturity  have  discouraged  farmers  from  experimenting  upon  its 
production,  because  they  look  for  more  immediate  returns  for  the  results 
of  each  year's  labor. 

The  manufactiu-e  of  perfumes  might  be  carried  on  in  South  Australia 
with  profit  and  advantage.  So  far  as  it  has  been  tried  the  results  have 
been  most  satisfactory.  Various  difficulties,  however,  with  regard  to 
free  distillation,  as  well  as  other  impediments,  have  kept  this  valuable 
industry  in  the  back  ground. 


AGRICULTURE.  249 

The  list  of  plants  that  might  be  raised  whose  seeds,  fibres,  and  other 
products  could  be  turned  to  valuable  account  in  this  province  is  almost 
without  limit.  The  great  variety  of  soil  and  climate  which  it  possesses 
might  be  made  use  of  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  has  been  the  case  up 
to  the  present  time.  A  more  energetic  and  enterprising  spirit,  however, 
seems  to  have  set  in  amongst  the  cultivators  of  the  land,  and  a  very  few 
years  will  probably  make  a  considerable  difference  in  the  vegetable 
productions  of  the  colony. 

For  many  years  an  Agricultural  and  Horticultural  Society  has  been  in 
existence  whose  head-quarters  are  in  Adelaide.  There  are  also  many 
'local  societies  of  a  similar  nature,  all  of  which  have  done  much  in  the 
past,  as  they  are  doing  now,  in  promoting  all  kinds  of  agricultural 
■enterprise.  The  principal  society  holds  its  annual  show  in  Adelaide  in 
February,  and  the  show  days  are  amongst  the  most  important  of  the 
public  exhibitions  of  the  year.  Such  shows  are  always  largely  attended, 
and  in  the  hall  and  grounds  fruits,  grain,  vegetables,  and  stock  of  all 
kinds,  besides  agricultural  implements  and  machinery,  are  displayed. 
The  fruits,  vegetables,  and  grain  which  are  brought  together  on  such 
occasions  would  surprise  even  those  who  are  accustomed  to  the  collec- 
tions of  similar  productions  in  the  mother  country.  At  other  times  of 
the  year  there  are  exhibitions  of  livestock  of  all  kinds,  and  the  flower 
shows  which  are  held  at  suitable  seasons  are  such  as  would  do  credit  to 
any  country  in  the  world. 

An  Ajjricultural  College  has  been  established  at  Roseworthv,  about 
thirty-five  miles  north  of  Adelaide,  where  there  is  an  experimental  farm 
and  where  students  are  trained  in  the  practice  of  scientific  agriculture 
and  the  various  branches  of  study  connected  therewith.  An  account 
of  this  institution  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  education. 

There  is  a  Government  department  called  the  Agricultural  Bureau 
which  has  been  in  existence  for  a  feAV  years.  This  establishment  does 
excellent  work  in  the  encouragement  of  agricultural  pursuits.  Its 
objects  are  to  collect  and  disseminate  information  of  all  kinds  that  may 
be  useful  to  those  who  are  engay-ed  in  husbandry.  It  also  distributes 
seeds,  kc,  as  may  be  required,  in  order  to  bring  new  and  valuable 
prodiicts  within  the  reach  of  the  farming  classes.  This  kind  of  work 
Avas  formerly  performed  by  the  late  Dr.  Schomburgk,  Director  of  the 
Adelaide  Botanic  Gardens,  who  was  an  enthusiast  in  his  work,  and  who 
deservedly  earned  the  gratitude  of  the  community  for  his  unceasing 
efforts  to  promote  and  develop  the  latent  resources  of  the  colony  in 
atrricultiu'c,  horticulture,  and  arboriculture.  There  are  fortv-five  branches 
of  the  Bureau  in  different  parts  of  tlie  colony,  and  they  materially  assist 
the  valuable  labors  of  the  central  establishment. 


250  SOl'TH     AUSTRALIA. 

Amongst  the  most  useful  of  the  public  institutions  in  South  Australia, 
is  the  Woods  and  Forest  Department.  It  was  established  about 
fourteen  years  ago,  and  was  then  called  the  Forest  Board.  Its  organi- 
sation, however,  was  not  very  successful,  and  its  functions  were 
transferred  to  an  officer  as  head  of  a  department  under  Ministerial 
conti-ol.  The  change  has  proved  to  be  beneficial,  and  forest  planting  iii 
South  Australia  has  been  attended  with  the  greatest  success. 

For  forest  purposes  the  colony  has  been  divided  into  four  districts, 
the  northern  containing  nine  forests  covering  121,979  acres,  the  central 
district  includes  eight  forests  containing  21,647  acres,  the  western  district 
has  three  forests  spread  over  16,269  acres,  and  the  southern  district  has 
ten  forests  with  an  area  of  55,474  acres,  altogether  215,369  acres.  The 
total  area  under  operations  in  1892  was  10,185  acres. 

Young  trees  raised  in  the  plantations  are  freely  distributed,  372,192 
having  been  spread  over  the  colony  in  this  way  in  1890-91,  and  in  1891-2 
322,383.  At  the  present  time  there  are  close  upon  a  million  of  young 
trees  available  for  distribution.  The  actual  expenditure  of  the  depart- 
ment for  the  fourteen  years  ending  in  June,  1892,  was  £104,097,  and  the 
revenue  derived  from  the  sale  of  trees,  posts,  railway  sleepers,  Sec, 
amounted  to  £103,340.  The  small  excess  of  £799  as  expenditure  over 
revenue  during  a  term  of  sixteen  years  does  not  give  any  indication  of 
the  value  of  our  forest  reserves  and  their  contents.  Many  thousands  of 
posts  for  fencing  purposes  and  sleepers  for  railway  construction  have  been 
supplied  from  the  forest  reserves,  and  the  supply  of  available  timber  now 
growing  in  the  forests  is  equal,  without  further  planting,  to  all  the  require- 
ments which  are  likely  to  arise  in  the  colony  for  many  years  to  come. 

Many  varieties  of  timber  trees  are  grown  in  the  plantations  which  are 
suitable  for  purposes  other  than  those  of  railway  and  fencing  works. 
Trees  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  furniture  and  cabinet  work  of 
different  kinds  are  grown  there  in  perfection.  Amongst  them  may  be 
mentioned  the  American  ash  (Fraxinus  AmericanaJ,  which  has  sitcceeded 
beyond  all  expectation.  Some  of  the  trees  were  felled  at  the  early  age 
of  ten  years,  and  the  timber,  after  drying,  was  made  up  into  various 
articles,  such  as  buggy  poles,  tables,  chairs,  Indian  clubs,  mallets  for 
driving  tent  pegs,  constables'  staves,  trapeze  bars,  wickets,  buggy  naves, 
&c.  Many  of  the  samples  were  used  for  turnery,  and  in  every  case  the 
results  were  most  satisfactory.  The  wood  is  reported  '•  to  be  unrivalled 
in  toughness  and  adaptability  for  tiu-ning,  as  it  stands  working  to  the 
very  outside  and  to  the  smallest  dimensions  of  any  timber  without 
exhibiting  any  tendency  to  break  off."* 

♦Annual  Report  upon  State  Forest  Administration  for  1890-91,  oy  Walter  Gill, 
F.L.S.,  F.R.H.S.    Adelaide,  October,  1891. 


AGRICULTURE.  251 

In  1891  '•'  a  consignment  of  the  best  American  gro^vn  ash  was 
received  bv  Messrs.  Marshall  &  Co.,  and  their  foreman,  after  comparing 
the  Australian  grown  timber  with  it,  unhesitatingly  gave  it  as  his  opinion 
that  the  Australian  article  Avas  infinitely  superior  to  the  American  or 
anything  received  from  any  part  cf  the  world  of  the  same  kind  of  timber, 
being  a  better  color  and  tougher,  and  working  up  equal  to  satin  wood, 
while  it  never  deadens  from  being  polished,  and  always  keeps  its  color." 
The  Pinus  insignis  has  also  been  grown  with  the  most  satisfactory 
results.  It  possesses  the  special  merit  of  requiring  less  dressing  with  the 
plane  than  any  other  deal,  as  a  surface  can  be  obtained  much  more 
readily  thereupon.  It  takes  a  good  polish,  is  very  tough,  and  does  not 
split  on  exposure,  which  is  a  great  advantage  in  connection  with 
manufacturing  purposes.  Mr.  Gill,  the  Conservator  of  Forests,  regards 
these  results  "  as  encouraging  in  the  highest  degree,  giving  as  they  do 
most  satisfactory  proof  of  the  progress  already  attained  in  the  acclimati- 
sation of  some  valuable  exotic  timbers,  and  also  as  indicating  what  may 
be  expected  in  later  years  when  these  timbers  shall  have  been  properly 
matured." 

Some  interesting  experiments  have  been  made  by  the  Conservator 
of  Forests  in  the  cultivation  of  the  date  palm  in  the  Far  North,  at 
Hergott  Springs,  440  miles  north  of  Adelaide.*'  So  far  as  they  have 
proceeded  these  experiments  have  been  most  successful.  In  June,  1891, 
there  were  thirteen  plants  four  years  old,  285  one  year  old,  and  fifty- three 
just  planted  out  that  had  been  reared  in  the  plantation.  In  December,  1 890, 
the  palms  of  four  years  old  were  from  3ft.  to  4ft.  high,  and  some  of  the 
leaves  4ft.  long.  An  Afghan  recently  arrived  from  India,  who  was  well 
acquainted  with  the  cultivation  of  the  date  palm,  considered  that  the  soil 
at  and  about  Hergott  was  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  the  palm.  He 
also  stated  that  it  would  take  seven  years  in  India  for  the  palms  to  grow 
to  the  height  they  had  reached  at  Hergott  Springs  in  four  years.  In 
1891  a  number  of  suckers  w-ere  obtained  from  Kurrachee  (India),  and 
early  in  1892  236  arrived  in  the  colony  in  good  condition.  They  were 
forwarded  to  Hergott  Springs,  and  135  were  planted  in  ihe  ground  and 
seventy  in  pots  for  convenience  of  removal.  In  July,  1891,  113  suckers 
Avere  living,  eighty-five  in  the  ground  and  twenty-eight  in  pots.  In  order 
to  make  room  for  them  it  was  necessary  to  remove  and  pot  fifty-nine  of 
the  smallest  seedlings,  but  they  all  perished  except  six.  The  remainder 
are  doing  well.  If  only  a  small  percentage  of  the  suckers  becomes  well 
established  a  great  advantage  will  be  secured,  as  they  consist  of  some  of 
the  best  kinds  of  date  known  in  the  neighborhood  of  Kurrachee,  and 
they  will   soon   make   up   the  number  lost   by  their  own  suckers.     In 

•  About  29-20  S.  lat. 


252  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

response  to  inquiries  made  by  the  Agent- General  to  the  French  Govern- 
ment, valuable  information  has  been  courteously  supplied,  and  the 
Director  of  the  Experimental  Gardens  at  Hamma,  in  Algeria  (M.  Charles 
Riviere),  intimated  his  willingness  to  procure  suckers  of  the  "  Deglet 
Xoor,"  a  valuable  kind  of  date,  get  them  thoroughly  rooted,  and  dispatch 
them  in  charge  of  a  person  competent  to  take  care  of  them  during  the 
voyage.  Directions  have  been  given  by  the  Government  to  secure  450 
female  and  fifty  male  palms  of  the  kind  mentioned.  They  must  first  be 
obtained  from  a  district  of  the  Sahara,  known  as  "  Oued  Rir,"  which  is 
probably  a  long  distance  from  Hamma,  and  then  be  thoroughly  rooted 
before  they  can  be  forwarded  to  the  colony.  As  the  suckers  do  not 
strike  readily  this  process  will  necessitate  considerable  delay.  Some  time 
must  therefore  elapse  before  they  can  arrive  here.  The  plan  proposed 
removes  all  doubt  as  to  the  ultimate  issue  of  the  undertaking,  because, 
after  having  properly  taken  root,  if  they  receive  due  attention  in  the 
voyage,  hardly  a  plant  should  fail  to  reach  South  Australia  in  good 
growing  condition,  and  in  the  course  of  transfer  to  their  new  habitat  no 
check  whatever  will  be  experienced.  As  the  result  of  the  various  efforts 
which  have  been  made  it  is  not  too  much  to  anticipate  that  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  best  kinds  of  date  palm  will  before  long  become  an 
accomplished  fact.'* 

*Report  on  State  Forest  Administration  bv  Mr.  Gill,  F.L.S.,  r.R.H.S.,  Conservator 

of  Fores"ts,  1892. 


MINES    AXl)    MIXERAT.S.  253 


CHAPTER   XYII. 

South  Australia  Eich  ix  Minerals — Vakiety  of  Metals — The  Recokd  of  MiNEa 
— Mineral  Resources  hut  Little  Used — Causes  of  Xeglect — Number 
of  Reputed  Mines  ix  the  Colony— Low  Price  of  Copper — Its  Effect 
ox  Mixing — Mixeral  Claims,  their  Extent — First  Mixe  in  South 
Australia  at  Glen  Osmond — Discovery  of  the  Kapunda  Mixe — Mr. 
Selwyx's  Report  —  The  Burra  Mine — The  Montacute  Mixe — Yorke 
Pexixsula  Copper  Deposits — The  "Wallaroo  axd  Mooxta  Mixes — The 
Blixmax  Mixe — Floating  Companies — Paid-up  Shares  —  Export  of 
Copper  and  Copper  Ore,  &c.— Its  Value — Price  of  Copper  ix  London 
FOR  TwEXTY  Years  —  Silvek-lead — Its  Wide  Distributiox — Xumher 
of  Mixes  Recorded  —  Export  of  Silver-lead  —  The  Aclare  Mine — 
Quality  of  the  Ore— The  Euiacara  Mixes — The  Eukaby  Mixes — The 
Kaxgarilla  Mine  —  The  Kyxetox  Mixe — The  Strathalhyx  Mixe — The 
Talisker  Mine — Bismuth  Mixes  at  Balhannah — Mount  McDonald  and 
MuRNixxiE  —  Cobalt  —  Nickel  —  Cobalt  Claims  near  Blinmax — Irox — 
The  Mount  Jagged  Mine — Max gaxese  — Gold — Its  Discovery  ix  Aus- 
tralia IX  1823  near  Bathurst,  X.S.  Wales— Mexge,  the  MiNERAXOGisr 
— His  Discoveries  —  First  Gold  Mine  Worked  in  Australia — The 
Victoria  Gold  Mine — Opened  ix  1846 — Its  History — South  Australian 
Gold  at  the  Exhibitiox  of  1851 — The  Echuxga  Goldfield — Diamoxds- 
FouxD  There — The  Barossa  Goldfields  axd  Reefs  —  Para  Wirra — 
Taluxga  —  Ulooloo —  Mannahill  —  OuLNiNA — Teetulpa  —  Waukaringa — 
The  Peake  —  Number  of  Gold  Mines  —  Wide  Distribution  of  Gold — 
Amount  Exported — Its  Value — Probable  Value  of  Gold  Produced  and- 
Taken  out  of  the  Colony'  since  1852 — Minerals  for  the  Manufacture 
of  Paixt — Cemext — The  Broken  Hill  Mines — Coal  at  Leigh's  Creek. 

The  province  of  South  Australia  is  wonderfully  rich  in  minerals. 
Metals  of  almost  all  descriptions  are  found  within  it,  and.  for  many  years- 
the  mining  industry  has  formed  one  of  the  most  important  and  valuable 
aids  to  the  development  of  the  colony.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  tin, 
lead,  antimony,  bismuth,  manganese,  cobalt,  and  other  metals,  are  kno^\^l 
to  exist  in  various  places,  and  mines  containing  many  of  them  have  been 
worked  with  success  and  at  a  largo  profit.  The  South  Australian  copper 
mines  possess  a  world-wide  fame  ;  but,  except  in  a  few  remarkable 
instances,  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  colony  has  not  been  developed  on  a 
scale  at  all  proportionate  to  its  extent  and  importance.  In  an  official 
publication  Mr.  H.  Y.  L.  Brown,  F.G.S.,  Government  Geologist,  has 
collected  a  mass  of  valuable  information  on  the  subject  of  the  mines 
of  the  colony*,  and  has  given  a  brief  history  of  most  of  the  mining 
enterprises  and  discoveries  which  have  been  brought  before  the  public 
since  the  colony  w-as  founded.  It  may  be  a  matter  of  surprise  that  with 
♦  Record  of  tbe  Mines  of  South  Australia,  H.  Y.  L.  Brown :     Adelaide,  1893. 


254  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

SO  much  mineral  riches,  and  so  many  places  where  they  undoubtedly 
exist  in  quantities  which  would  make  splendid  returns  in  older  countries, 
South  Australia  has  done  so  little  to  make  use  of  that  which  is  actually 
spread  broadcast  over  immense  tracts  of  her  country.  Mr.  Brown  states  in 
the  work  above  mentioned  that  the  mineral  "  development  has  been  so 
far  merely  the  indication  of  futvire  possibilities,  and  nowhere  is  there  any 
sign  of  maturity.  Already  several  of  the  chief  products  of  this  country 
have  become  celebrated,  but  as  yet  little,  if  anything,  is  known  of  many  of 
its  mineral  dejjosits.  Excepting  in  a  few  notable  instances,  mining  has 
been  carried  on  desultorily  and  ineffectively,  sometimes  with  a  little 
enthusiasm,  followed  by  a  depression  proportioned  to  the  extravagance  of 
large  expectations,  but  never  with  such  steady  perseverance  as  might 
reasonably  have  been  expected  in  regard  to  an  industry  calculated  to  win 
great  wealth  and  to  support  a  large  mining  population."  The  backward 
condition  of  mining  enterprise  in  a  country  so  largely  endowed  with 
mineral  deposits  as  South  Australia  is  can  be  readily  explained.  Want  of 
proper  knowledge  on  the  part  of  prospectors  and  discoverers,  as  well  as 
amongst  reputed  mining  experts,  led  to  the  inception  of  many  ventures 
which  ended  in  failure.  The  same  cause  brought  about  the  abandonment 
of  reallj'  good  mining  properties,  because  they  were  neither  judiciously 
opened  up  nor  properly  worked.  The  dearness  of  money  also  marred  the 
jjrosecution  of  many  enterprises  which  in  all  probability  would  have 
proved  to  be  remunerative.  When  persons  possessed  of  capital  could 
lend  it  on  mortgage  on  first-class  security,  at  an  interest  of  10  percent,  or 
even  more,  they  were  not  easily  tempted  to  incur  the  risk  which  always 
attaches  to  mining  ventures.  The  operations  of  speculators  also  had  an 
disastrous  effect  on  the  successful  jn-osecution  of  mining  enterprises.  On 
the  floating  of  a  mine  the  shares  were  rushed  up  to  a  premium  before 
almost  anything  had  been  done  to  prove  the  value  of  the  property.  All 
that  was  looked  for  by  those  who  dealt  in  the  shares  Avas  a  profit  on  the 
scrip  as  it  changed  hands.  The  shares  thus  to  a  large  extent  fell  into  the 
possession  of  persons  who  had  not  purchased  for  investment,  but  solely 
for  speculative  purposes,  and  when  calls  were  made  they  were  not 
responded  to.  The  ventures  thus  collapsed  and  were  either  abandoned 
or  wound  up.  The  "  Record  of  the  Mines  of  South  Australia,"  referred 
to  above,  gives  accounts  of  some  himdreds  of  mines  containing  copper 
silver-lead,  iron,  bismuth,  cobalt,  and  nickel,  gold,  manganese,  &c., 
exclusive  of  others  projected  in  the  Northern  Territory,  of  which  the 
vast  majority  are  unworked.  The  Inspector  of  Mines  in  an  official  return 
showing  the  number  of  "  reputed  mines  "  in  the  province  at  the  close  of 
1892  gives  the  names  and  situations  of  only  twenty-six  copper  mines, 
thirty  gold  mines,  twenty  silver  mines,  two  cobalt  mines,  three  bismuth 


MINES    AND    MINERALS.  255 

mines,  and  one  coal  mine,  making  no  more  than  eighty-two  in  all,  and  in 
many  of  them  operations  are  suspended  for  the  present.  The  low  price  of 
copper  which  has  prevailed  for  many  years  has  largely  checked  produc- 
tion. Many  of  the  mines  are  situated  at  long  distances  from  the  seaboard, 
so  that  the  cost  of  transport  would  probably  absorb  any  margin  of  profit 
there  might  be  on  the  ore  when  raised.  Such  mines  are  therefore  idle, 
and  their  owners  must  wait  for  more  favorable  markets  before  they  can 
work  them  again.  The  colonists,  however,  are  not  altogether  discouraged 
by  the  results  of  mining  enterprises  as  far  as  experience  extends,  nor  have 
they  lost  faith  in  the  capabilities  of  the  colony  as  a  mineral  country,  for 
in  the  period  from  1881  to  1892  no  less  than  15,984  mineral  claims 
were  preferred  to  the  Government,  covering  an  area  of  1,250.064  acres. 
In  the  same  period  2,267  mineral  leases  were  issued  from  the  Crown 
Lands  Office,  extending  over  an  area  of  234,132  acres,  and  17,603  gold 
licences  were  taken  out  by  miners. 

The  first  mine  discovered  in  South  Australia  was  found  at  Glen  Osmond, 

on  the  western  flank  of  the  Mount  Lofty  Ranges,  about  five  miles  south- 

•east  of  Adelaide."^-'     This  was  in  the  year  1838.     Some  blocks  of  what 

was  supposed  to  be  limestone  cropping  out  on  the  side  of  one  of  the  hills 

on  being  broken  proved  to  be  pure  galena.     In  1839  the  proprietor  set  a 

few  men  to  Avork  on  the  section  to  raise  ore.     Some  six  or  seven  veins  or 

lodes  were  discovered,  and  about  twenty  tons  of  good  lead  ore  were  raised 

■and  shipped  to  England,  which  on  assay  gave  75  per  cent,  of  lead  and  about 

18ozs.  silver  to  the  ton.     In  1841  the  silver-lead  veins  of  the  "Wheal  Gawler 

Mine  (as  it  was  called)  were  opened  and  worked  with  very  primitive 

appliances.     Some  of   the  ore  tested  in  England  at  the  Governor  and 

Company's  smelt  mills  gave  77  per  cent,  of  lead  and  over  19ozs.  of  silver 

to    the    ton.     "  For    a   time    anticipations    of    success    stimulated    the 

adventurers  ;  but  ere  long  it  was  found  that  expenses  exceeded  profits, 

the  result  being  a  suspension  of  operations.     But  in  1844,  the  property 

being    leased  to    a    small    company,  operations    were    resumed.     Other 

prospectors  also  set  to  work  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  on  metalliferous 

outcrops,  and  a  little  later  on  smelting  works  were  established,  the  ruins 

of  which  for  years  have  attested  the  enterprise  of  these  pioneer  miners. 

Again  it  was  found  that  profits  did  not  overtake  the  very  considerable 

outlay,  and  mining  in  that  neighborhood  was  abandoned  long  before  the 

value  of  the  lodes  had  been  ascertained.     After  the  lapse  of  many  years, 

during  which  time  the  properties  lay  unworked,  the  several  mines  in 

the  locality  have  been   recently    reopened,  and   good   marketable   ores 

raised.     The  results,  however,  are  not  yet  such  as  to  prove  remunerative 

to  the  shareholders,  and  the  available  capital  being  small  it  is  feared  that 

*  Experiences  of  Life  in  South  Australia  :    J.  W.  KuU.     Adelaide  and  London,  1884- 


256  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

these  undertaking's  will  not  be  carried  on  to  proper  development."'''  At 
the  present  moment  these  mines  are  lying  idle. 

The  next  mineral  discovery  in  the  colony  was  the  Kapunda  Copper 
Mine,  the  oldest  copper  mine  in  the  province.  It  was  found  in  1842,  by 
Mr.  F.  S.  Button  (afterwards  Agent-General)  and  Mr.  C.  S.  Bagot.  It 
is  situated  at  a  distance  of  some  fifty  miles  north  of  Adelaide.  The  dis- 
coverers seciu'ed  the  freehold  and  worked  the  property  until  1879,  when 
it  was  sold.  The  actual  output  of  ore  during  the  time  the  mine  was- 
being  worked  was  never  officially  made  public,  but  it  was  estimated  by 
Mr.  J.  B.  Austin  at  about  2,000  tons  per  annum.  The  discovery  of  this 
mine  created  great  excitement  at  the  time,  especially  in  Adelaide,  and  it 
gave  rise  to  considerable  activity  in  the  search  for  minerals  all  over  the 
colony.  The  discovery  contributed  greatly  to  stimulate  trade,  and  the 
fortunate  owners  amassed  considerable  wealth  from  its  produce.  After 
the  mine  was  sold  it  was  \vorked  by  miners  on  tribute  for  a  considerable 
time.  Some  few  men  are  at  work  upon  the  ground  at  the  present  time, 
but  the  results  of  their  labors  are  not  made  public.  Mr.  A.  R.  C. 
Selwyn,  Government  Geologist  of  Victoria,  visited  the  mine  in  1859  and 
briefly  described  it.  The  peculiarity  of  the  deposits  in  which  the  copper 
is  found  renders  the  reproduction  of  Mr.  Selwyn's  account  of  them 
interesting : — 

"  The  mines  are  worked  in  a  very  peculiar  soft  aluminous  rock  of 
various  colors  — from  pure  white  passing  into  pink  and  red.  grey  and 
blue.  Frequently  it  is  either  covered  with  spots  or  traversed  at  right 
angles  to  the  beds  by  thin  veins  or  streaks  of  a  pure  white  soft  mineral, 
probably  silicate  of  alumina.  The  galleries  are  all  driven  with  pickaxe 
and  spade,  the  rock  seldom  being  hard  enough  to  render  the  use  of 
powder  necessary.  The  general  dip  of  the  beds  near  Kapunda  is  west 
10°  to  20°  south.  The  veins,  of  which  there  are  several  running  in 
parallel  lines  north  by  east  and  south  by  west,  have  also  a  westerly 
underlay  from  25°  to  80°,  To  the  N.E.  they  all  terminated  abruptly  in 
a  soft  dark-blue  pyritous  slate,  which  runs  N.E.  and  S.W.,  dipping  to 
the  N.W.,  from  25°  to  70°.  On  the  southern  strike  the  veins  are  all 
intersected  by  a  series  of  nearly  east  and  west  faults,  throwing  them  to 
the  eastward  in  steps.  The  ores,  blue  and  green  carbonates,  and  red 
and  black  oxides,  and  native  copper,  seem  to  occur  in  very  irregular  veins 
and  patches  occasionally  in  the  planes  of  the  bedding." 

"  The  Burra  Burra  Mine,  about  100  miles  from  Adelaide,  a  little  to  the 
east  of  north,  was  found  in  1845  by  a  shepherd  named  Picketr,  and  is 
singularly  situated  on  bald  hills  standing  130ft.  above  the  surrounding 
country.     The  ores  obtained  from  this  mine  have  been  chiefly  red  oxides,. 

*  Eecord  of  Mines. 


MINES   AND    MINERALS.  257 

very  rich  blue  and  green  carbonates,  including  malachite,  and  also  native 
copper.  The  discovery  of  this  mine,  supporting,  as  it  did  at  one  time,  a 
large  population,  marked  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  colony.  The 
capital  invested  in  it  was  £12.320  in  £5  shares,  and  no  subsequent  call 
was  ever  made  upon  the  shareholders.  The  total  amount  paid  in  divi- 
dends was  £800,000.  After  being  worked  by  the  original  owners  for 
some  years  the  mine  was  sold  to  a  new  company,  but  during  the  last  few 
years  it  has  not  been  worked,  owing  in  some  degree  to  the  low  price  of 
copper  and  also  to  the  fact  that  the  deposit  then  being  worked  apparently 
became  exhausted.  For  many  years  the  average  yield  was  from  10,000 
to  13,000  tons  of  ore,  averaging  22  to  23  per  cent,  of  copper.  It  is 
stated  that,  during  the  twenty-nine  and  a  half  years  in  which  the  mine 
was  worked,  the  company  expended  £2,241,167  in  general  expenses. 
The  output  of  ore  during  the  same  period  amounted  to  234,648  tons, 
equal  to  51,622  tons  of  copper.  This,  at  the  average  price  of  copper, 
amounted  to  a  money  A'alue  of  £4,749,224.  The  mine  stopped  working 
in  1877.  In  1859  the  number  of  men  employed  was  1,170.  In  the 
deeper  levels  regular  lodes  are  met  wdth,  running  north  and  south,  con- 
taining A^ery  rich  ore  of  malachite,  red  oxide,  and  grey  sulphuret  of 
copper ;  but  above  the  30  fathom  level  there  is  no  appearance  of  lodes, 
the  ore  (malachite  and  carbonate)  being  deposited  with  the  greatest 
irregularity.  The  blue  carbonate  often  occurred  in  round  nodules,  wdth 
regularly  formed  crystals  projecting  from  the  surface.  The  malachite 
was  found  in  the  form  of  stalactite,  in  slabs  incrusting  fissures  and 
u-regularly-shaped  masses,  which  had  been  deposited  in  cavities  of  the 
rocks.  The  country  rocks  are  much  broken  and  twisted,  and  consist  of 
a  cherty  siliceous  formation,  crystalline  white  and  grey  limestone,  blue 
slaty  shales,  and  argillaceous  sandstone.  Just  prior  to  the  stoppage  of 
the  Burra  Burra  Mine,  and  whilst  Captain  Sanders  was  in  charge,  it  is 
understood  that  good  percentage  ore  was  being  obtained  from  a  lode 
which  had  been  opened  at  a  comparatively  shallow  depth  beneath  the 
open  basin  whence  had  been  quarried  the  enormous  yield  of  carbonate 
ores.  Since  the  cessation  of  all  active  operations  it  has  been  reported 
that  overtures  have  been  made  to  the  proprietary  company  for  reopening 
the  mine,  but  it  to  be  presumed  that  no  satisfactory  arrangement  has 
been  arrived  at,  inasmuch  as  the  mine  still  lies  idle. — (''  Record  of  the 
Mines  of  South  Australia,"  pp.  6  and  7.) 

■  The  Montacute  Mine,  one  of  the  earliest  discovered  in  the  colony 
(1843-4),  is  situated  in  the  Mount  Lofty  Range,  about  ten  miles  N.E. 
from  Adelaide.  The  site  is  on  a  steep  spur  of  the  range,  and  extensive 
outcrops  of  ore  were  visible  on  the  surface.  According  to  Mr.  J.  B. 
Austin  (1863)  the  ores  were  chiefly  yellow  and  peacock  ores  averaging 

R 


258  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

18  per  cent,  of  copper.  Some  native  copper  was  also  met  with.  Work 
at  this  mine  ceased  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the  goldfields  in  the 
other  colonies,  and  has  not  been  resumed. 

The  copper  deposits  on  Yorke  Peninsula  cover  an  immense  area  of 
country,  and  have  developed  into  some  of  the  richest  and  most  important 
copper  mines  hitherto  discovered  in  South  Australia.  The  principal  of 
these  are  the  Wallaroo  and  the  Moonta  Mines.  The  first  was  found 
in  1860.  It  is  about  ten  miles  north  of  the  Moonta  Mines  and,  includ- 
ing the  Kurilla,  formerly  worked  as  a  separate  undertaking,  extends 
over  2,000  acres  of  Crown  lands.  "  There  are  five  lodes  in  the  property 
besides  the  Kiu*illa  lode.  The  main  lode  is  nearly  vertical,  though 
occasionally  the  underlay  is  a  little  to  the  north  and  sometimes  a  little  to 
the  south.  The  strike  of  the  lode  is  10°  to  20°  south  of  east.  The  lodes 
vary  in  width  from  a  few  inches  to  12ft.  or  14ft.,  and  the  ore  they  contain 
is  chiefly  chalcopyrite.  As  raised  from  the  mine  it  varies  from  3  to  10  per 
cent.,  with  occasionally  small  quantities  of  rich  ore.  The  deposits  of 
copper  ore  are  chiefly  along  the  lead  of  the  lodes  and  are  associated  with 
'  gangue.'  The  present  supply  is  mostly  chalcopyrite.  There  are  no  regular 
shoots.  In  connection  with  the  limestone  just  over  the  lode,  a  little  green 
carbonate  of  copper  was  found,  but  a  large  proportion  of  the  green  ore 
was  atacamite.  Below  this  oxides  of  copper  were  met  with,  both  red  and 
black,  then  grey  and  black  sulphides  with  iron  pyrites.  These  deposits 
of  ore  were  mostly  exhausted  many  years  ago.  Chalcopyrite  came  in  at 
varying  depths  of  fiom  ten  to  thirty  fathoms,  and  this  is  almost  the  only 
kind  of  ore  now  being  raised  at  the  mine.  It  continues  down  to  the 
bottom  of  the  deepest  shaft.  The  veinstone  associated  with  the  metallic 
minerals  is  composed  of  portion  of  the  bedrock,  iron  pyrites,  calcareous 
spar,  &;c.  The  country  formation  is  schistose  rock.  The  quantity  of  ore 
raised  from  the  time  the  mine  was  opened  to  December  31st,  1886,  was 
451,016  tons  of  21cwts.,  of  the  value  of  £2,030,143  in  the  colony.  It 
yielded  on  the  average  about  10  per  cent,  of  copper.  Thirty  shafts,  in- 
cluding trial  shafts,  have  been  sunk,  the  deepest  being  195  fathoms. 
The  water  level  was  reached  at  about  five  fathoms.  The  drives,  levels, 
&c.,  including  Matta  and  Kurilla,  extend  a  distance  of  twenty  miles. 
The  yield  now  varies  from  half  a  ton  to  six  tons  per  fathom." 

"  The  Moonta  Mine  was  discovered  in  the  year  1861,  and  has  proved 
to  be  one  of  the  richest  mines  in  the  colony.  It  is  situated  on  Yorke 
Peninsula,  on  the  eastern  shores  of  Spencer's  Gulf,  and  the  property  com- 
prises 2,673  acres  of  land  leased  from  the  Crown.  There  are  five  main 
lodes  on  the  property,  and  from  each  of  these  various  spurs  and  minor 
lodes  branch  out,  and  are  connected  with  the  main  lode  by  occasional 
cross  veins.    Including  these  there  are  twenty-seven  lodes.     Their  direc- 


MINES    AND    MINERALS.  259 

tion  is  north-westerly,  and  their  underlay  varies  from  3ft.  to  6ft.  in  the 
fathom.  The  main  lode  bears  N.  20°  E.,  and  the  others  vary  from  that 
to  N.  45°  E.  The  width  ranges  from  6in.  to  20ft.,  and  the  ore  obtained 
from  the  main  lodes  in  the  present  workings  is  chiefly  chalcopyrite  and 
occasionally  bornite.  The  bulk  of  the  veinstone — chiefly  quartz  and  at 
times  portion  of  the  bedrock — as  raised  ore  and  '  gangue  '  gives  from  2 
to  5  per  cent,  of  copper,  but  sometimes  clean  chalcopyrite  gives  20  to  30 
per  cent.,  and  bornite  from  30  to  50  per  cent.  The  country  rock  is 
feldsite  porphyry,  orthoclase  porphyry,  a  special  variety.  The  quantity 
of  ore  raised  from  the  mine  from  the  commencement  to  June  30th,  1886, 
equalled  in  gross  tons  of  21cwts.  476,180  tons,  and  the  average  percen- 
tage of  copper  on  net  dry  weight  of  dressed  ore  equalled  20  per  cent., 
and  the  total  value  in  the  colony  of  this  ore  amounted  to  £4,579,097. 
Seventy-seven  shafts  have  been  sunk,  including  twentj'-one  trial  shafts. 
The  shafts  are  vertical  for  a  short  distance,  then  mostly  follow  the  dip  of 
the  lode.  The  deepest  shaft  is  287  fathoms  (1,722ft.),  and  the  levels 
measure,  approximately,  twenty-nine  and  a  half  miles.  The  aggregate 
length  for  thoroughfares,  including  drives,  winzes,  and  shafts,  is  about 
forty-two  miles.  The  water  level  was  reached  at  about  five  fathoms. 
The  deposits  of  copper  ore  are  chiefly  along  the  lead  of  the  lodes  as.so- 
ciated  with  '  gangue,'  the  present  supplies  being  mostly  chalcopyrite  and 
occasionally  bornite.  An  exceedingly  small  proportion  of  green  carbo- 
nate ore  was  formerly  found  close  to  the  surface  ;  but  a  large  proportion 
of  the  green  ore  was  atacamite,  and  this  was  generally  met  with  below 
the  other.  Sometimes  red  oxide  was  found  with  the  atacamite.  The 
yield  varies  from  half  a  ton  to  eight  tons  per  fathom.  The  peculiarity  of 
this  cupriferous  district  was  disclosed  by  the  removal  of  these  ores  and 
the  sinking  of  these  shafts — namely,  that  although  the  lodes  continued 
regular,  no  further  ore  was  met  with,  and,  as  a  rule,  no  stain  of  copper 
was  seen  until  the  depth  of  from  five  to  ten  fathoms  was  reached,  when 
rich  oxide  and  malleable  copper  deposits  were  struck,  and  after  that 
black  and  grey  sulphides.  These  deposits,  however,  were  chiefly  worked 
out  in  past  times.  Chalcopyrite  occurred  at  an  average  depth  of  about 
tvverty  fathoms,  and  this,  with  occasional  deposits  of  bornite,  has  held 
down  either  in  large  or  small  proportions  to  the  present  deepest  point  of 
operations.  This  mine  at  one  time  employed  upwards  of  1,600  men  and 
boys,  and  still  keeps  a  very  large  number  (1,138)  at  work.  Copper  ore 
raised  during  four  months  ending  December  31st,  1889,  5,759  tons, 
assumed  to  be  the  average  rate  of  output.  This  mine  is  amalgamated 
with  the  Wallaroo  Mine." 

One  of  the  most  promising  of  the  copper  mines  yet  worked  in  the 
colony  is   the   Blinman.      It    is    situated  272  miles  north  of  Adelaide, 


260  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

and  120  east  of  Port  Augusta  in  the  Flinders  Range,  at  an  elevation  of 
2,000ft.  above  the  Parachilna  plains.  It  "is  supposed  to  have  been  found 
in  the  year  1862  by  a  shepherd  named  Bliuman,  who  observed  a  great 
outcrop  of  mineral  on  the  top  of  a  hill  about  90ft.  above  a  creek  lying 
to  the  eastward.  This  mass  was  about  350ft.  in  length,  nearly  100ft.  in 
thickness  at  one  part,  and  of  considerable  height.  On  being  tested  it 
proved  to  be  rich  copper  ore.  The  area  of  the  property  is  640  acres. 
The  workings  consist  of  a  main  shaft,  450ft.  deep,  from  which  dri^'es 
have  been  put  in  north  and  south,  which  are  known  as  the  15,  25,  35, 
50,  60,  and  70  fathom  levels.  The  longest  levels  northward,  which  are 
75,  25,  35,  and  50,  extend  300ft.  from  the  shaft ;  southward,  the  longest 
level  is  the  15  fathom,  which  extends  250ft.  The  lowest,  or  70  fathom 
level,  has  been  driven  130ft.  north,  and  the  same  distance  south.  The 
rock  formations  are  crystalline  siliceous  limestone  ;  bed  rock,  fine  argilla- 
ceous and  calcareous  sandstone,  quartzite,  and,  in  some  places,  clay  slate, 
having  a  vertical  dip,  and  striking  north  and  south  through  the  mine. 
The  copper  ores,  which  at  the  lower  levels  consist  chiefly  of  sulphides, 
are  disseminated  through  the  rocks  in  specks,  patches  or  pockets,  strings 
and  veins,  running  in  an  east  and  west  direction  across  the  rocks,  and 
also  with  them,  forming  altogether  a  metal-bearing  belt  of  strata,  in 
places  20ft.  to  30ft.  wide.  Some  of  the  cross  veins  are  of  considerable 
size,  and  in  one  or  two  places  they  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  be 
classed  as  lodes.  They  are  also  richer  in  ore  than  the  main  ore-bearing 
strata  Avhich  they  penetrated.  So  far  as  can  be  seen  there  is  no  defined 
boundary  between  the  ore-bearing  strata  and  the  barren  rocks ;  in  other 
words,  the  full  width  of  ore-bearing  rock  has  not  yet  been  determined. 

The  upper  portions  of  the  mine,  from  the  surface  to  the 

35  fathoms  level,  have  been  stoped  out  in  an  irregular  manner — probably 
the  bunches  of  richest  ore  were  followed,  leaving  large  cavities  separated 
by  portions  of  unworked  ground,  which  contains  an  appreciable  per- 
centage of  copper  ore,  and  which  will  probably  be  worked  at  some  future 
time.  These  excavations  are  of  considerable  width,  in  places  from  15ft. 
to  20ft.,  or  more,  and  a  large  quantity  of  ore  must  have  been  raised  from 
them.  The  present  workings  are  at  the  50  fathoms  level,  and  between 
that  and  the  70.  Here  the  ore  is  being  stoped  out  to  a  width  of  25ft. 
to  30ft.,  the  workings  more  resembling  those  of  a  quarry  than  of  a  mine. 
The  main  shaft  was,  at  the  time  of  the  Government  Geologist's  visit, 
35ft.  below  the  70  fathoms  level.  This  mine  possesses  one  or  two  special 
advantages  :  as  the  country  rock  is  solid  and  without  joints,  no  timbering 
is  required,  and  the  stopes,  after  the  removal  of  the  ore,  are  left  open  ; 
and  all  the  material  raised  from  the  mine  is  ore- bearing,  so  that,  with 
the  exception  of  that  which  comes  out  of  the  shaft,  no  mullock  has  to  be 


MINES    AND    MINERALS.  261 

raised.  The  oar-bearing  belt  of  strata  is  more  or  less  vertical  for  about 
300ft.,  and  then  underlies  to  the  eastward  at  a  high  angle.  The  veinstone 
associated  with  the  copper  ore  are  calcspar,  sulphate  of  barium  (hea^•y 
spar),  and  occasionally  quartz.  The  rocks  forming  the  ranges,  which 
have  an  elevation  of  2,00t)ft.  above  sea-level,  consist  of  alternating  strata, 
composed  of  quartzose,  sandstones,  and  shales,  siliceous  and  dolomitic 
limestone,  clay  and  calcareous  slates  and  flagstones,  sandstones,  quartz, 
brittle  shales,  and  kaolinised  slates  and  sandstones.  In  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Blinman  these  strata  form  an  anticlinal  arch,  owing  to  the 
intrusion  of  igneous  rocks  (greenstone,  eurite.  &.c.~;,  which  appear  at  the 
surface  at  a  few  places.  In  the  centre  of  the  arch  the  strata  are  vertical, 
and  have  a  north  and  south  strike,  while  on  each  side  they  are  inclined 
at  various  angles  to  the  westward  and  eastward.  It  is  in  the  centre  of 
these  disturbed  strata  that  the  copper-bearing  strata  in  which  the  mine 
is  situated  occur.  Mr.  Masey,  the  colonial  director,  has  supplied  the 
following  information  concerning  this  mine : — The  value  of  copper  sold 
previous  to  the  'seven  years  drought'  (about  1874)  when  the  mine 
ceased  working,  was  £250.000.  In  1881  it  was  re-started  and  worked 
till  1884,  when  the  fall  in  the  price  of  copper  took  place,  the  output  at 
the  time  being  from  80  to  100  tons  of  28  per  cent,  ore  per  month.  In 
the  beginning  of  1889  the  mine  was  again  started,  and  was  put  into 
thorough  working  order,  the  output  being  raised  to  150  tons  of  23  per 
cent,  ore  per  month,  which  was  sent  to  the  Wallaroo  Smelting  Works. 
The  ordinary  ore  raised  averages  8  per  cent.,  and  is  dressed  up  to  23  per 
cent.,  whilst  that  from  the  crosscourses  and  leaders,  which  can  readily  be 
separated  by  hanu -picking,  averages  from  30  to  40  per  cent,  of  copper. 
The  number  of  men  employed  above  and  below,  80  ;  expenditure  in 
wages  and  general  charges  per  month,  £1,200.  It  may  be  added  that 
whilst  it  is  apparent  from  the  width  of  the  stope  between  the  50  and  70 
fathoms  levels  that  great  quantities  of  ore  were  removed  in  former  times, 
it  is  clear  that  there  is  no  falling  off  in  the  yield  as  the  mine  gets  deeper; 
and  I  am  of  opinion  that  the  strata  will  continue  to  be  ore-bearing  to  a 
great  depth,  and  that  the  mine  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  permanent 

one " 

The  Inspector  of  Mines  after  a  recent  visit  reported  that  a  strong 
lode  ran  through  the  property,  which  besides  maintaining  an  equal 
percentage  of  copper  made  at  intervals  extensive  deposits  of  ore. 
Thousands  of  tons  of  carbonates  must  have  been  extracted  formerly, 
and  poorer  places  were  left  iinworked,  because  of  lack  of  water  for 
dressing  and  the  heavy  cost  of  transit.  But  the  water  difficidty  has 
been  in  a  large  measure  overcome,  and  there  should  be  produced 
150   tons    of    23   per    cent,   copper   per  month,   besides   -40  tons   of    28 


262  SOITTH    AUSTRALIA. 

per  cent,  carbonates.  The  ore  brings  £8  per  ton  above  Chili  bar 
quotations,  and  the  cost  of  transit  to  Wallaroo  and  smelting  charges 
is  £4  12s.  per  ton,  making  the  mine  payable  even  at  the  present  low 
price  of  copper. 

Special  notice  has  been  taken  only  of  some  of  the  most  important 
copper  discoveries  which  have  been  worked.  There  are  numerous  others- 
now  lying  idle,  which,  with  the  application  of  adequate  capital  and  the 
use  of  the  best  scientific  methods  of  working  them,  would  produce 
valuable  returns.  The  low  price  of  copper  which  2)revails  just  now  does- 
not  offer  much  encouragement  for  mining  for  that  metal  ;  but  that  con- 
dition does  not  apply  to  other  metals  in  which  the  colony  is  rich,  and 
which  always  sell  at  paying  rates.  The  prosecution  of  bond  Jide  mining 
ventures  has  been  much  discouraged  by  a  vicious  principle  adopted  by 
proprietors  of  mineral  discoveries  who  place  them  in  the  market.  They 
make  large  reserves  of  "paid-up  shares"  for  their  own  exclusive  benefit, 
and  so  expect  the  public  to  find  the  capital  to  make  their  shares  pro- 
fitable. The  practice  affords  the  genuine  shareholder  who  pays  hard  cash 
an  indiff'erent  prospect  of  remuneration  until  the  promoters  who  have 
taken  no  I'isk  have  been  satisfied.  It  absolutely  forestalls  the  prospective 
rewards  of  patient  industry,  which  is  not  likely  to  thrive  under  such 
an  arransjement. 

The  production  of  copper  has  played  a  most  important  part  in  the 
prosperity  of  the  colony,  and  has  given  a  new  and  better  turn  to  its 
afifairs  when  its  commerce  was  languishing.  Even  now,  although  the 
Eurojjean  markets  are  much  more  restricted  than  in  former  days,  copper 
mining  finds  employment  for  a  large  number  of  colonists  and  trade  for 
the  inhabitants  of  the  towns  adjacent  to  the  scenes  of  their  labors.  Up 
to  the  end  of  1892,  the  latest  period  to  which  the  otficial  statistics  have 
been  brought  down,  the  value  of  copper,  copper  ore,  and  regulus  exported 
from  the  colony  amounted  to  the  large  sum  of  £14,775,739,  that  is, 
according  to  the  value  placed  upon  the  exports  at  the  ports  of  shipment. 
It  is  well  known,  however,  that  in  many  instances  the  actual  sums 
realised  were  greater  than  the  Customs  value  recorded  in  the  colony ;  so 
that  the  monetary  advantage  to  the  persons  concerned  in  all  probability 
was  considerably  greater  than  that  indicated  by  the  foregoing  figures. 
The  total  value  of  all  the  minerals  exported  from  the  colony  ujd  to  the 
end  of  1892  amounted  to  £20,778,763. 

The  following  table,  which  gives  the  prices  of  copper  in  London  from 
1872  to  the  end  of  1892,  will  be  found  interesting.  The  highest  point 
reached  was  in  June,  1872,  when  South  Australian  copper  was  sold  at 
£112  per  ton.  From  that  time  its  value  steadily  declined  until  it  came 
down  to  £43  per  ion  in  April,  1889.     Since  that  time  the  market  has 


MINES   AND    MINERALS. 


263 


recovered  to  some  extent,  but  not  sufficiently  to  encourage  the  extensive 
operations  which  were  carried  on  in  former  years : — 


Month. 


January   

February 

March 

April     

May      

June     

July     

August     

September   . .  . , 

October    

November    . . . , 
Xtecember     . . . , 


Month. 


January  . . 
February . . 
March  . .  . . 
April     . . . . 

May 

June     . . . . 

July 

August 
September 
October    . , 
November 
December 


1872. 


£ 
97 

93 

96 

102 

105 
112 

no 
108 
98 
88 
89 
90 


1873- 

1874- 

1875- 

£ 

£ 

£ 

96 

93 

93 

93 

90 

93 

92 

88 

90 

97 

«5 

90 

95 

86 

90 

90 

88 

90 

91 

88 

88 

92 

87 

89 

94 

88 

92 

93 

91 

91 

93 

95 

91 

94 

96 

91 

1876. 


£ 
90 

88 
84 
83 
84 
78 
81 
76 
78 

84 
86 

85 


1877- 


£ 
83 

77 
77 
76 

75 
76 
79 
79 
79 
79 
74 
74 


1879. 


£ 

76 

76 

74 
74 
73 
73 
73 
70 
69 
67 
67 
68 


£ 

65 
64 

64 

63 
62 
62 
60 
62 

65 
72 

73 
74 


1880.    1881. 


1882. 


77 
80 

79 
76 

71 
70 
72 

72 
72 

71 

72 
72 


72 
72 
72 
69 
69 
69 
69 
69 
69 

67 
70 

75 


74 
69 
69 
69 

71 
71 

72 
72 

73 

75 
75 
74 


1883. 

1884. 

1885. 

1886. 

1887. 

1888. 

1889. 

i8go. 

1891. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

71 

65 

« 

46 

44 

84 

82 

55 

58 

71 

64 

— 

45 

44 

82 

83 

52 

57 

70 

62 

— 

47 

44 

85 

51 

52 

60 

69 

62 

— 

47 

45 

85 

43 

53 

60 

68 

63 

— 

45 

44 

86 

45 

57 

60 

68 

61 

— 

45 

44 

87 

46 

62 

64 

68 

60 

— 

44 

45 

85 

46 

62 

62 

68 

60 

— 

44 

45 

88 

48 

64 

61 

68 

60 

— 

45 

45 

93 

48 

66 

61 

67 

60 

50 

46 

45 

83 

48 

64 

57 

66 

59 

47 

45 

60 

83 

SI 

61 

53 

05 

60 

46 

44 

70 

82 

55 

59 

53 

1892. 


£  .s. 

51  15 

49  15 
56  5 

50  10 


50 
51 


15 

5 


49  10 

50  15 
49  10 
48  17 

51  10 
51  15 


*  Nominal ;  no  sales;  from  December,  1884,  to  October,  1885. 

Silver-lead  is  very  widely  distributed  over  the  colony.  In  the  ''Record 
of  Mines  in  South  Australia"  about  170  different  mining  properties  in 
which  the  ore  is  obtainable  are  catalogued  by  the  Government  Geologist. 
Many  of  them  have  been  taken  up  as  mineral  claims,  but  have 
not  been  worked.  Of  others  that  have  been  Avorked  to  some  extent 
no  information  can  be  obtained.  Some,  no  doubt,  are  valuable,  and 
could  be  profitably  opened  out  if  properly  handled.  The  discovery  of 
silver-lead  ore  at  Glen  Osmond  was  the  first  indication  of  the  mineral 
resources  which  are  possessed  by  the  colony ;  but,  although  that  discovery 
was  not  long  afterwards  followed  by  other  discoveries  of  a  similar 
character,  the  industry  has  been  prosecuted  in  a  desultory  way  only.  The 
official  returns  of    the  total  exports  of  silver,  lead,  and  silver-lead  ore 


264  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

from  1838  down  to  the  present  time  amoiant  to  £335,386  in  value,  as 
declared  at  the  ports  of  shipment. 

Silver-lead  mininp^  has  not  taken  miich  hold  upon  the  colonists,  and, 
except  in  a  few  cases,  nothing  has  been  done  on  a  large  scale  to  test  the 
value  of  the  deposits  of  ore  which  are  known  to  exist.  The  splendid 
returns  which  the  investors  have  received  from  the  Broken  Hill  mines  in 
New  South  Wales,  close  to  the  South  Australian  frontier,  do  not  seem  to 
have  stimidated  South  Australians  to  work  their  own  silver  mines.  The 
quality  of  the  ore  in  a  few  of  the  mines  which  have  been  opened,  and 
which  at  various  periods  have  received  attention,  will  serve  to  indicate 
the  character  of  the  silver-lead  deposits  which  have  been  found  in  South 
Australia. 

The  Aclare  Mine,  situated  about  forty-three  miles  south-east  of 
Adelaide,  has  yielded  ore  varying  in  quality  from  32ozs.  to  302ozs.  of 
silver  per  ton,  and  the  lead  has  varied  from  40  per  cent,  to  50  per  cent. 
In  a  report  from  the  Inspector  of  Mines  it  is  stated  that  "  on  the  surface 
the  ore  consists  of  carbonate  of  lead,  and  at  depth  carries  gold,  silver, 
lead,  zinc,  antimony,  iron,  and  sulphur,  and  to  a  depth  of  25ft.  the 
carbonate  yields  50  per  cent,  of  lead  and  90ozs.  of  silver  to  the  ton." 
The  mine,  the  property  of  a  company  in  England,  is  still  being  worked. 

The  Almanda  Mine  distant  eighteen  miles  S.E.  of  Adelaide  was  originally 
worked  as  a  copper  mine  (1850).  The  capital  supplied  was  small,  the 
sinking  shallow,  and  the  returns  not  satisfactory  ;  operations  therefore 
ceased.  About  sixteen  years  later  the  ground  was  examined  again.  It 
turned  out  to  be  rich  in  silver.  The  "  Record  "  states  that  seven  samples 
of  ore  which  were  assayed  gave  from  44ozs.  to  115ozs.  silver  to  the  ton  of 
ore  ;  five  others  yielded  from  25ozs.  to  75ozs.  silver  to  the  ton,  and  three 
others  from  30ozs.  to  75ozs.  In  1868  a  mineral  claim  was  taken  out  and 
about  6,000oz.  of  silver  were  raised.  Deeper  sinking  brought  the  proprie- 
tors into  hard  ground.  In  1877,  at  a  depth  of  21  fathoms,  the  stone 
raised  gave  silver  88ozs.  to  163ozs.,  gold  from  loz.  13dwts.,  and  7|-  to  16 
per  cent,  of  copper  to  the  ton.  At  length  water  came  in  too  rapidly  to 
be  kept  down  by  hand  labor,  and  the  mine  ceased  working.  The  capital 
subscribed  was  too  small  to  admit  of  a  proper  exploration  of  the  deposits 
M-hich  exist  in  it.  At  one  time  this  mine  commanded  a  great  deal  of 
attention. 

The  Ediacara  Mines  in  the  north,  some  miles  west  of  Beltana, 
have  yielded  ores  ranging  from  7^ozs.  to  342ozs.  of  silver  to  the  ton.  The 
Eukaby  Hill  Mine  has  afforded  samples  of  ore  which  ran  as  high  as 
ll9ozs.  of  silver  to  the  ton.  The  Kangarilla  Mine,  twenty-two  miles  S.E. 
of  Adelaide,  has  been  very  favorably  reported  on  by  the  Inspector  of 
Mines ;  but  particulars  have  not  been  published  with  regard  to  the  rich- 


MINES    AND    MINERALS.  2S5 

ness  of  the  ore.  The  Kyneton  Mine  has  yielded  62ozs.  of  silver  and  76 
per  cent,  of  lead  per  ton.  One  hundred  and  twenty  acres  of  private 
property  are  held  by  the  company  at  a  low  rental  and  a  royalty  of  5  per 
cent.  At  Strathalbyn  a  silver  mine  yielding  6-5  per  cent,  of  lead  and 
4/)0zs.  of  silver  Avas  worked  some  years  ago,  but  is  now  idle.  The  Talisker 
Mine,  near  Cape  Jervis,  on  the  south  coast,  was  opened  in  1862,  and  was 
worked  for  about  tea  years.  Some  of  the  surface  ores  went"  as  high  as 
2OO0ZS.  of  silver  to  the  ton,  but  the  average  of  the  mine  was  about  40ozs. 
The  lead  produced  in  1870  averaged  nearly  70ozs.  of  silver  to  the  ton  and 
in  1871  the  average  rose  above  86ozs.  to  the  ton.  The  mine  has  been 
officially  reported  on  as  a  valuable  property. 

The  mines  mentioned  above  have  been  taken  here  and  there  from  the 
official  Mining  Record  in  order  to  show  how  widely  silver-lead,  silver,  and 
their  allied  metals  are  distributed  over  the  colony.  Many  more  could 
have  been  named  which  indicate  valuable  deposits,  as  far  as  quality  of 
ore  is  concerned,  but  which  have  not  been  turned  to  account.  Time 
■doubtless  will  raise  these  great  resources  of  the  colony  into  the  promi- 
nence which  their  im.portance  deserves.  Until  the  mining  industry  is 
regarded  as  a  settled  pursuit,  instead  of  being  dealt  with  as  a  means  of 
speculation,  the  development  of  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  province 
will  be  slow. 

Bismuth  has  been  found  in  several  places  in  the  province,  though 
the  Mining  Record  made  mention  of  only  three  mines.  The  Govern- 
ment Geologist,  quoting  from  a  communication  from  Mr.  J.  B.  Austin, 
states  the  Balhannah  Mine  "  was  first  worked  for  copper,  of  which 
a  considerable  quantity  was  obtained  near  the  surface.  Bismuth  was 
found  associated  with  the  copper,  and  the  quantity  increased,  until  it 
appeared  Hkely  to  prove  more  valuable  than  the  copper.  Gold  was  found 
in  the  bismuth,  and  some  beautiful  specimens  of  small  nuggets  of  pure 
gold  in  native  bismuth  were  met  with,  the  precious  metal  being  in  the 
proportion  of  5ozs.  of  gold  to  Icwt.  of  bismuth.  Cobalt  in  small 
quantities,  also  antimony  and  plumbago,  are  said  to  have  been  found 
in  this  remarkable  mine.  The  workings  were  carried  down  to  a  depth 
of  50  fathoms,  where  there  is  a  wide  but  dredgy  lode,  yielding  about 
one  ton  of  bismuth  to  the  fathom,  with  some  copper  and  gold.  F'rom 
£25,000  to  £30,000  worth  of  copper  was  raised  from  this  mine,  and  about 
£7,000  worth  of  bismuth.  Some  exceedingly  rich  specimens  of  gold  in 
ironstone  gossan  were  obtained,  and  several  nuggets,  the  largest  weighing 
about  2^ozs.  A  considerable  quantity  of  white  carbonate  of  iron  is  also 
found." 

The  Mount  MacDonald  Mine,  N.E.  of   Yudanamutana.  contains  four 
lodes,  one  of  which  only  has  been  worked  upon  at  present.     It  is  Oft. 


266  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

wide,  without  discover}'  of  walls  as  yet,  and  contains  oxide  and  car- 
bonate of  bismuth  associated  with  carbonate  of  copper.  The  yield  of 
bismuth  ranged  from  19  to  60  per  cent.,  and  of  copper  20  percent.  The 
Murninnie  Mine,  containing  bismuth  and  copper,  is  situated  on  the  western 
shore  of  Spencer's  Gulf,  six  miles  inland.  It  is  sixty-four  miles  south 
of  Port  Augusta  and  136  north  of  Port  Lincoln.  There  are  five  lodes, 
bearing  north  and  south  with  but  little  underlay.  They  vary  in  width 
fi'om  lit.  to  10ft.,  and  the  ores  they  contain  are  bismuth,  copper,  nickel, 
silver,  and  cobalt.  The  percentage  of  bismuth  varies  from  18  to  79  per 
cent.,  and  copper  10  to  20  percent.  The  country  rocks  consist  of  quartz, 
ironstone,  and  decomposed  slate  and  hard  slate.  Near  the  adit  in  the 
gully  there  is  a  little  granite.  About  1,000  tons  of  ore  have  been 
raised,  which  was  stated  to  be  worth  about  £44  per  ton  in  its  natural 
state.  A  large  quantity  of  the  ore  was  sent  to  luigland,  but  the  cost  of 
reducing  it  was  not  satisfactory  to  the  directors  of  the  mine.  The  ore» 
which  had  not  been  treated,  was  reshipped  to  the  colony,  and  was  then 
subjected  to  a  process  invented  in  South  Australia  which  it  was  thought 
would  give  more  favorable  returns  than  the  process  used  in  England. 
The  experiment  ended  in  failure,  and,  as  the  shareholders  would  pay  no 
m.ore  calls,  the  work  at  the  mine  was  discontinued  and  the  property  was. 
sold.  Plumbago  has  been  found  in  the  Murninnie  Mine  in  considerable 
quantity,  but  its  quality  is  low. 

A  few-  mineral  claims  have  been  taken  out,  supposed  to  contain  cobalt 
and  nickel.  With  one  exception  they  are  all  situated  in  the  far  north  of 
the  colony.  Only  one  at  present  gives  promise  of  being  profitable.  It 
is  comprised  in  Young's  cobalt  claims,  near  the  township  of  South 
Blinman.  The  report  of  the  Inspector  of  Mines,  made  early  in  1890,  was- 
highly  favorable,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  lodes,  when  worked,  will 
produce  results  which  eventually  may  prompt  the  exploration  of  other 
cobalt  and  nickel  deposits.  At  present  very  little  is  known  in  South 
Australia  of  these  kinds  of  minerals. 

Iron  in  various  forms  is  abundant  in  the  colonj',  but  much  has  not 
been  clone  to  make  use  of  the  very  rich  ores  which  have  been  discovered. 
Some  splendid  specimens  of  ore  were  sent  to  the  Paris  Exhibition  of 
1871.  In  1873  the  Mount  Jagged  Iron  Mine,  which  is  situated  about 
thirty-five  miles  south  of  Adelaide,  was  worked  by  a  small  company. 
Smelting  works,  consisting  of  a  furnace  and  blowing  cylinder,  were 
erected,  with  the  necessary  sheds,  &c.  Water  and  fuel  were  abundant  at 
the  site  of  the  works,  and  also  crystalline  limestone  in  large  boulders. 
The  supply  of  ore  was  from  the  summit  of  Mount  Jagged  500ft.  above 
the  woj-ks.  The  Mount  is  capped  by  a  mass  of  black  oxide,  yielding 
50  per  cent,  of  pure  iron  and  unmixed  with  any  matrix.    About  fifty  tons 


MINES    AND    MINERALS.  267 

of  iron  were  smelted  ;  but,  owing  to  the  ignorance  of  the  furnace-keeper, 
the  furnace  was  frequently  allowed  to  get  cold,  and  then  had  to  be  cut 
out.  This  so  damaged  it  that  at  last  it  became  unsafe  to  work,  and  there 
being  no  funds  in  hand  to  build  a  fresh  furnace,  the  company  was 
wound  up. 

Another  important  discovery  of  iron  has  recently  been  reported  on  by 
the  Inspector  of  Mines.  It  is  called  the  Mount  Hematite  Iron  Mine,  and 
is  situated  about  eleven  miles  north  of  Beltana,  about  two  and  a  half 
miles  east  of  the  Great  Northern  railway.  The  claims  are  under  mineral 
licences,  and  comprise  about  160  acres.  On  the  north  section  there  are 
some  large  outcrops  of  brown  hematite  iron,  which  yielded  on  assay 
56'4  per  cent,  of  iron  and  5*5  per  cent,  of  silica.  It  appears  to  be  a  bed 
resting  upon  calcareous  slates  and  sandstone.  No  correct  idea  as  to  its 
dejjth  or  as  to  the  quantity  of  ore  exists.  The  Inspector  of  Mines 
is  of  opinion  that  from  15,000  to  20,000  tons  of  ore  could  be  quarried. 
The  deposit  is  near  the  Leigh's  Creek  Coal  Mine ;  and  if  the  country 
around  is  explored  for  iron  deposits,  and  enough  ore  is  found  to  work 
for  some  years,  it  is  probable  that  it  Avould  pay  the  coal  companies  to 
make  pig  iron.  The  property  is  reported  to  be  good  and  the  ironstone  of 
good  quality. 

Manganese  deposits  have  been  found  in  a  few  places,  and  at  Boolcunda, 
north-east  of  Adelaide  about  258  miles,  they  are  abundant  and  rich.  At 
the  South  Australian  Manganese  Mine  the  yield  has  been  large,  and  for 
three  or  four  years  ending  in  1890  from  3,000  to  4,000  tons  per  annum 
have  been  sent  away. 

The  gold  discoveries  in  Australia  completely  altered  the  condition  of 
the  colonies  which  were  established  there,  with  one  excejjtion.  The 
pastoral  and  agricultiu-al  settlements,  which  were  slowly  working  their 
way  into  the  commerce  of  the  Avorld,  suddenly  developed  a  new 
importance,  which  in  an  incredibly  short  period  changed  them  from 
being  Crown  colonies  into  practically  independent  States.  The  time  of 
the  first  discovery  of  gold  in  Australia  is  uncertain.  The  first  find  is 
supposed  to  have  been  made  in  New  South  Wales  at  a  very  early  period 
of  its  existence  by  a  convict  prisoner.  The  discovery,  it  has  been 
stated,  was  kept  secret  because  of  the  confusion  which  the  knowledge  of 
the  discovery  would  have  entailed  on  the  affairs  of  a  penal  settlement. 
It  has  been  a  matter  of  common  report  that  a  prisoner  who  produced  a 
lump  of  gold,  which  he  said  he  had  found,  was  punished  for  having  it  in 
his  possession,  because  it  was  believed  that  it  had  been  obtained  by 
melting  down  a  gold  watch  case  or  some  jewellery  which  had  been 
dishonestly  obtained.  The  truth  of  these  stories  is  still  problematical, 
though  it  is  not  improbable  that  they  rest  on  some  foundation  of  truth. 


268  SOUTH    ArSTRALlA. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  first  gold  discovery  in  New  Holland  was 
made  in  South  Australia.*'  This,  however,  is  incorrect.  The  first 
authentic  discovery  of  gold  is  contained  in  an  extract  from  Assistant- 
Surveyor  James  McBrian's  field  book,  bearing  date  February  I6tb,  1823, 
in  which  the  following  note  appears  : — "  At  8  chains  50  links  to 
river,  and  marked  gum  tree — At  this  place  I  found  numerous  particles 
of  gold  in  the  sand  and  in  the  hills  convenient  to  the  river."  The  river 
referred  to  is  the  Fish  river,  at  about  fifteen-  miles  from  Bathvirst,  in 
New  South  Wales,  not  far  from  the  spot  to  which  the  gold  rush  was 
made  twenty-eight  years  afterwards.  f  According  to  the  same 
authority  Count  Strezlecki  found  gold  in  the  vale  of  Clwydd  in  1 839. 
He  reported  the  discovery  to  Governor  Sir  George  Gipps,  but  the 
matter  was  kept  secret,  lest  the  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  gold 
should  imperil  the  safety  of  the  settlement.  The  Hev.  W.  B.  Clark 
found  gold  in  the  same  neighborhood  and  in  the  Macquarie  Valley. 

It  is  believed  that  Mr.  Menge,  a  native  of  Germany,  and  a  mineralogist 
of  great  experience,  was  the  first  to  find  gold  in  this  colony.  He  was 
amongst  the  very  early  settlers,  and  devoted  much  time  and  labor  in 
examining  into  the  mineral  resources  of  the  province.  He  made  many 
important  discoveries  of  mineral  deposits,  and  also  of  precious  stones  in 
various  localities,  and  got  together  an  extensive  and  valuable  collection 
of  specimens,  amongst  which  gold  had  its  place.  Where  the  gold  or 
the  other  results  of  his  researches  came  from  is  not  kno^vn.  When 
the  goldfields  in  the  eastern  colonies  were  found  he  left  the  colony, 
and  died  on  the  Victorian  diggings  in  1852.  His  collection  was 
dispersed,  and  the  papers  he  left  behind  him  have  not  been  made 
public. 

The  Victoria  Gold  Mine  was  opened  by  a  company  in  January,  1846. 
It  is  ten  miles  east  of  Adelaide  and,  as  nearly  as  can  be  ascertained,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  Montacute ;  the  property  of  the  company 
comprised  147  acres.  Its  career  was  short.  According  to  the  Royal 
South  Australian  Almanack,  1848,  quoted  in  the  "Record  of  Mines,"  its 
history  is  summed  up  thus: — "Soon  after  the  operations  of  the  company 
commenced  a  vein  of  auriferous  gossan  was  discovered  in  the  principal 
shaft,  and  at  length  it  was  found  impregnated  with  native  gold  of  almost 
perfect  purity.  Genuine  specimens  of  the  gold  soon  adorned  the 
cabinets  of  the  curious,  and  the  Avorking  jewellers  of  Adelaide  were 
employed  to  mount  South  Australian  gems  in  some  of  the  virgin  gold 
thus  found  in  the  province.  The  excitement  was  extreme.  The  £2 
shares  went  rapidly  up  to  £30  each,  and  the  fortunate  purchasers  at  the 

*J.  B.  Austin,  in  Harcus'  South  Australia:  Adelaide,  1876. 
tWealth  and  Progress  of  New  South  "Wales:     Coghlan.     Sydney,  1890. 


MINES    AND    MINERALS.  269 

advanced  price  thought  their  fortunes  were  made.  But  all  at  once  the 
prizes  wore  very  much  the  appearance  of  blanks  ;  a  ruinous  reaction 
ensued,  and  the  price  of  shares  went  (low^l  to  £3."  From  the  old 
Adelaide  Mine,  of  which  no  record  is  extant  (unless  it  be  identical  with 
the  Victoria  Mine),  gold  was  raised  and  formed  into  a  brooch,  which  was 
sent  as  a  present  to  Her  Majesty  the  Queen.  This  was  about  1848. 
In  1851  gold,  the  produce  of  the  mine  near  the  Montacute,  was  exhibited 
at  the  Great  Exhibition  held  in  London  in  1851.  It  is  said  that  the 
cost  of  producing  that  exhibit  was  about  £10  per  ounce. 

In  the  beginning  of  1852  the  Echunga  goldfield  was  found.  The 
"  Record  of  Mines  "  gives  the  following  account  of  it  : — "  It  is  claimed 
that  this  field  was  discovered  in  the  early  part  of  the  year  1852  by  Mr. 
W.  Chapman.  The  first  sign  of  gold  was  got  on  what  was  known  as 
'  The  Company's  land,'  not  far  from  the  old  Wheatsheaf  Inn,  and  a 
thorough  search  was  begun.  Very  rich  surface  gold  was  found  on  land 
not  far  from  the  place  where  the  first  prospect  had  been  washed,  on  the 
side  of  the  hill  above  Donkey  Gully.  The  gold  was  traced  thence  to 
Chapman's  Hill,  where  it  was  found  at  the  foot  of  a  tree,  laid  bare  by 
the  dripping  of  water  from  the  branches.  Half  an  ounce  was  picked  up 
by  dry  fossicking,  and  on  the  following  day  several  ounces  of  gold  Avere 
washed  from  the  roots  of  this  tree.  An  offer  of  £1,000  reward  for  the 
discovery  of  a  payable  goldfield  Avas  published  in  the  Goverjiment 
Gazette  of  December  18th,  1851.  Mr.  Chapman,  sen.,  and  Mr.  Hampton 
went  to  town  on  August  23rd,  1852,  to  claim  the  reward,  taking  with 
them  about  7ozs.  of  rough  gold.  The  conditions  of  the  reward  were 
that  licences  (at  that  time  30s.  each)  to  the  value  of  £1,0U0  should  be 
taken  out  during  the  first  two  months,  and  that  £10,000  worth  of  gold 
must  also  be  found  within  the  same  period  of  time.  In  two  months  684 
licences  were  taken  out,  being  equal  to  £1,026  sterling.  The  Messrs. 
Chapman,  Hardiman,  and  Hampton  applied  for  the  reward  after  an 
interval  of  three  months,  but  were  not  successful.  There  was  no  proof 
that  £10,000  worth  of  gold  had  been  obtained,  except  the  statements 
made  by  diggers  and  storekeepers.  They  represented  that  £18,000 
worth  had  been  got.  The  matter  was  brought  before  the  Executive 
Council,  and  a  sum  of  £500  was  given  to  the  prospectors,  leaving  the 
question  of  the  reward  still  open.  Xuieteen  years  ago  two  sums  of  £200 
and  £300  were  paid  for  the  discovery  of  gold  at  Jupiter  Creek.  Mr. 
W.  Barker,  a  storekeeper  on  that  field,  bought  gold  to  tlie  extent  of 
£3,000." 

Although  the  Echunga  goldfield  can  in  no  sense  be  classed  amongst 
auriferous  deposits  such  as  those  of  the  Ovens,  Bcndigo,  Ballarat,  &c., 
they  have  been  constantly  worked  ever  since  they  first  became  known. 


270  SOUTH   AUSTRALIA. 

Miners  who  have  continued  upon  them  have  made  money,  and  some 
have  become  rich.  It  seems  as  if  something  more  than  a  living  can  be 
extracted  from  the  field ;  otherwise  it  would  have  been  deserted  long  ago. 
Very  large  finds  by  individuals  have  not  been  notified  to  the  authorities, 
but  there  is  no  doubt  that  an  immense  quantity  of  gold  has  been  taken 
from  Echunga.  Diamonds  have  been  found  there  also,  and  a  collection 
of  them  was  showai  at  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1871.  The  specimens 
obtained  by  miners  on  the  field  haA'e  seldom  been  officially  reported, 
although  many  have  been  shown  in  Adelaide. 

Since  the  proclamation  of  the  Echunga  goldfield  many  other  auriferous 
areas  have  been  found — at  Barossa,  twenty-two  miles  north  of  Adelaide, 
w'here  there  are  also  gold  reefs  ;  at  Gumeracha  and  Mount  Crawford, 
thirty  miles  north-east  of  Adelaide  ;  at  Para  Wirra,  twenty-two  miles 
from  the  city ;  at  Talunga  ;  at  Ulooloo,  about  thirty  miles  north  of  the 
Rurra ;  at  Mannahill,  eighty  miles  east  of  Petersburg ;  at  Oulnina, 
eighteen  miles  south-east  of  Mannahill;  at  Teetulpa,  about  fifteen  miles 
east  of  Waukaringa — where  payable  gold  reefs  are  being  worked  ;  at  the 
Peake,  in  the  far  north,  and  many  other  places.  Some  of  these  fields 
have  produced  splendid  results  ;  but,  except  in  a  few  instances,  they 
have  been  gradually  abandoned.  The  Government  Geologist  enumerates 
some  230  reputed  gold  mines  which  have  been  started  in  the  colony. 
Many  of  them  have  not  proved  to  be  of  much  value  ;  others  have  not 
been  worked,  but  a  very  large  number  have  show^n  good  results,  though 
the  operations  carried  on  to  develop  them  have  not  been  conducted  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  prove  their  real  value. 

From  what  is  stated  above,  it  is  plain  that  gold  is  very  widely  distributed 
over  the  colony.  The  various  fields  cover  an  enormous  area,  and  it  must 
be  a  matter  of  surprise  that  the  official  returns  show  such  insignificant 
results  from  the  labor  that  has  been  expended  upon  them.  In  the 
"  Record  of  Mines  "  it  is  shown  that  betAveen  1873  and  1880  inclusive 
that  5,835ozs.  of  gold,  valued  at  £22,705,  were  exported  ;  and  in  the 
"Statistical  Register"  for  1890  it  is  noted  that  70,095ozs.  of  gold, 
valued  at  £267,819,  were  exported  from  South  Australia.  There  are  no 
published  records  Avhich  show  the  export  of  gold  from  the  colony 
between  1852,  when  the  Echunga  fields  were  first  worked,  and  the  year 
1873.  During  the  twenty-one  years  which  intervened  between  the  two 
periods  when  the  Echunga  fields  and  other  auriferous  areas  were  in 
greater  or  less  active  operation  the  quantity  of  gold  produced  must  have 
been  large.  It  has  been  most  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  obtain  from 
diggers  any  reliable  account  of  what  they  may  have  found.  Even  the 
storekeepers  on  the  diggings,  who  dealt  with  the  diggers  and  took  gold 
in  payment,  could  only   surmise  as  to  who   was  doing   well  and  who 


MINES   AND    MINERALS.  271 

not.  The  quantity  of  gold  raised  has  always  been  kept  secret.  The 
wardens  of  the  field  perhaps  were  able  to  form  an  approximate 
estimate  of  what  went  on,  but,  even  with  their  opportunities,  they  were 
more  likely  to  under-estimate  than  to  over-value  the  productiveness  of  the 
different  claims ;  however,  no  reliable  returns  were  made  through  their 
agency.  The  gold  resources  of  South  Australia,  although  considerable, 
have  never  impressed  the  minds  of  the  colonists  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
induce  them  to  regard  them  as  similar  resources  are  regarded  in  the 
eastern  colonies — as  leading  factors  in  the  industries  of  the  colony.  The 
causes  of  the  apparent  lack  of  enterprise  in  this  direction  have  already 
been  explained. 

The  value  of  the  gold  exported  from  the  colony  appearing  as  no  more 
than  £267.819  in  the  course  of  forty  years  since  the  Echunga  diggings 
became  known  indicates  only  the  quantity  which  was  entered  for  export  at 
the  Custom  House.  It  is  manifestly  short  of  the  facts  of  the  case.  Mr. 
Harcus,  in  1871,  stated  that  from  the  Echunga  diggings  alone  over 
£600,000  worth  of  gold  had  been  obtained.  There  is  no  record  of  what 
has  been  raised  during  the  twenty-one  years  which  have  elapsed  since 
that  time.  In  the  '*  Record  of  Mines"  only  sixteen  claims  out  of  the 
230  which  are  reputed  to  be  gold  mines  have  made  any  report  as  to  their 
earnings.  Their  returns  amount  to  £255,269  over  and  above  the  quantity 
mentioned  by  Mr.  Harcus.  This  would  give  £855,269.  Many  other 
mines  have  produced  substantial  results,  but  they  have  not  been  published. 
Taking  into  account  Mr.  Harcus'  estimate,  the  quantity  returned  from 
mines  quoted  in  the  "  Record,"  and  the  large  quantity  taken  to 
Melbourne  by  miners  for  sale  at  the  Mint  there,  where  a  better  price 
could  be  obtained  for  gold  than  from  the  banks  in  the  colony,  it  is  not 
unreasonable  to  estimate  that  the  actual  production  of  gold  in  South  Aus- 
tralia has  not  fallen  short  of  £1,500,000  sterling  in  value.  This  would 
give  about  £37,000  per  annum.  Anything  approaching  to  spirited 
enterprise  and  good  management  in  all  likelihood  would  have  produced 
larger  results. 

About  four  years  ago  some  important  discoveries  of  valuable  gold  reefs 
were  made  at  Wadnaminga  on  the  Oulnina  sheep  run,  about  fifteen  miles 
to  the  south-east  of  the  Maunahill  station,  on  the  railway  line  to  Broken 
Hill.  A  reef  of  quartz  between  slate  rocks  was  found  cropping  out  on 
the  sm'face,  and  gold  was  plainly  visible  in  the  stone.  An  attempt  was 
made  to  open  up  the  mine,  but  it  was  abandoned  after  short  and  not  very 
energetic  operations.  Since  then  the  original  claims  have  been  taken  up 
and  worked  in  connection  with  others.  Several  claims  were  pegged  out, 
and  a  moderate  amount  of  work  was  done  in  them  ;  but  the  want  of  water 
discouraged  the  prospectors  greatly,  and  several  months  elapsed  before 


272  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

the  richness  of  the  reefs  was  fully  recognised.  About  thirteen  months 
back  some  Victorian  mining  experts  visited  Wadnaminga  and  secured 
several  claims.  They  brought  to  Adelaide  a  magnificent  collection  of 
rich  specimens  of  gold  in  qviartz  and  ii-onstone,  obtained  from  the  Countess 
of  Jersey  claim  at  Wadnaminga.  There  are  numerous  reefs,  for  the  most 
part  similar  in  character,  consisting  of  a  loose  kind  of  quartz,  occasionally 
mixed  with  ironstone,  whilst  here  and  there  the  ironstone  predominates. 
In  order  to  give  some  idea  of  the  productiveness  of  the  reefs,  a  report  was 
prepared  in  September  last  year  for  the  Government  Geologist,  showing, 
as  nearly  as  could  be  arrived  at,  the  quantity  of  gold  obtained  up  to  that 
time.  In  most  cases  the  actual  weight  of  stone  treated  is  given  with  the 
return  of  gold  therefrom,  but  in  a  lew  instances  the  amount  of  gold  is 
given.  Two  hundredweight  of  stone  from  the  Victoria  Tower  claim 
returned  60ozs.  of  fine  gold;  locwts.  from  the  same  gave  128ozs.  12dwts. 
lOgrs. ;  5cwts.  from  the  Birthday  (now  called  the  Milo)  claim  gave  6ozs. ; 
1  ton  fi'om  the  Earl  of  Jersey  claim  returned  83ozs.  ;  and  20  tons  from 
the  Virginia  gave  80ozs. — the  grand  total  of  tAventy-three  parcels  varying 
from  2cwts.  20  tons,  being  787ozs.  4dAvls.  lOgrs.  of  fine  gold.  At  the 
same  time  the  quantity  of  stone  at  grass  was  estimated  at  1,870  tons, 
which,  on  subsequent  treatment,  gave  an  average  return  of  over  3ozs.  of 
gold  per  ton.  Since  then  about  2,500  tons  have  been  raised  on  the 
various  claims,  but  the  monthly  output  is  steadily  increasing,  the  average 
produce  being  very  little  less.  The  quality  of  the  gold  fi-om  Wadna- 
minga is  very  high,  all  that  has  been  disposed  of  having  realised  from 
£3  12s.  to  £4  per  ounce.* 

Other  parcels  of  gold  quartz  have  been  assayed  in  Melbourne,  with 
splendid  results.  One  ton  of  ore  from  the  Countess  of  Jersey  Mine 
yielded  16ozs.  and  another  ton  400ozs.  These  facts  indicate  the  richness 
of  the  field.  Its  extent  is  also  remarkable.  It  is  stated  that  it  stretches 
about  fourteen  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  about  five  miles  from  north  to 
south.  This  gives  an  area  of  nearly  50,000  acres,  over  which  gold  reefs 
are  abimdant.  In  some  of  the  mines  machinery  has  already  been  erected, 
and  in  others  machinery  has  been  procured  which  will  be  set  to  work  as 
soon  as  it  can  be  placed  in  position  after  reaching  the  grormd.  The 
general  outlook  of  all  the  mines  in  the  district  is  good,  and  there  is  every 
prospect  that  before  long  these  mines  will  add  largely  to  the  general 
prosperity  of  the  colony.  Mining  in  the  Wadnaminga  mines  is  being- 
conducted  according  to  the  experience  gained  in  the  sister  colony,  and, 
when  their  richness  and  extent  have  been  substantially  proved,  other 
gold  districts  which  have  been  neglected  are  certain  to  receive  more 
notice  than  they  have  hitherto  obtained. 

S.A.  Advertiser,  September  12th,  1892. 


MIXES    AND    MINERALS.  273 

About  two  yeai's  ago  extensive  deposits  of  mineral  earths  suitable  for 
the  manufacture  of  paint  of  various  colors  were  found  at  Noarlunga,  about 
twenty-two  miles  south  of  Adelaide.  The  deposits  are  rich  and  easily 
worked,  and  have  been  manufactured  into  paint  of  excellent  quality. 

More  recently  a  limestone  resembling  the  blue  lias  limestone  of  Great 
Britain  has  been  discovered  in  large  quantity  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Brighton,  about  ten  miles  south  of  the  metropolis.  This  is  used  for 
making  cement.  The  article  produced  is  claimed  to  be  of  splendid  quality, 
superior  to  anything  that  can  be  imported  from  Phirope,  and  to 
bear  a  strain  equal  to  more  than  900lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  which  is 
above  one-third  greater  than  that  which  the  best  cement  is  required  to 
bear  in  England.  The  open  channel  in  the  extensive  waterworks  now 
being  constructed  by  the  Government  at  Happy  Valley,  about  fifteen 
miles  south-east  of  Adelaide,  will  probably  be  made  of  concrete  of  which 
this  cement  M'ill  form  the  basis.  The  cement  which  is  made  from  the 
colonial  material,  besides  being  alleged  to  be  better  in  quality  than  the 
imported  article,  it  is  said  can  be  produced  at  a  much  cheaper  rate. 

In  treating  of  the  mines  of  South  Australia  it  may  be  proper  to  give 
some  account  of  the  Broken  Hill  mines,  which,  as  far  as  is  at  present 
known,  constitute  the  largest  silver  mines  in  the  world.  They  are 
situated  in  New  South  Wales,  about  sixteen  miles  east  of  the  boundary 
of  South  Australia,  in  the  district  kno^\^l  as  the  Barrier  Kanges. 
Although  the  mines — for  the  extensive  silver  fields  include  very  many — 
are  outside  the  boundary  of  this  colony,  the  whole  of  the  trade  to  and 
from  the  silver  fields  passes  through  South  Australia,  and  the  produce  of 
the  mines  is  shipped  from  her  ports.  More  than  half  of  the  shares  in 
the  Broken  Hill  Proprietary  Mine  are  o-nTied  in  South  Australia,  as  well 
as  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  shares  in  other  mines  which  are  held 
under  the  original  leases  from  the  New  South  Wales  Government. 

As  soon  as  the  importance  of  the  mineral  discoveries  at  Broken  Hill 
became  known  the  Government  of  South  Australia  set  to  work  to  extend 
her  railway  system  to  the  New  South  Wales  frontier,  in  order  to  secure 
the  traffic.  The  Broken  Hill  railway  started  from  Petersburg  on  the 
Great  Northern  line,  and  extended  north-east  for  about  145  miles  to  the 
township  of  Cockburn  on  the  border.  From  this  point  a  line  constructed 
by  the  Silverton  Tramway  Company  extends  from  Cockbuni  north-east 
to  Silverton,  and  thence  south-east  to  Broken  Hill.  This  line  is  about  forty- 
five  miles  long.  The  line  from  Petersburg  runs  west  and  south  to  Port 
Pirie,  a  distance  of  about  seventy  miles  ;  so  that  communication  with  the 
seaboard  of  South  Australia  is  secured  from  Broken  Hill  to  Port  Pirie  at 
250  miles,  which  is  less  than  one-third  of  the  distance  between  the  mines 
and  the  eastern  ports  of  New  South  Wales. 
s 


274  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

"  The  Broken  Hill  silver  fields  M'ere  discovered  towards  the  end  of 
September,  1883,  by  Charles  Rasp,  an  employe  on  the  Mount  Gipps  run, 
whilst  mustering;  sheep  in  the  Broken  Hill  paddock,  in  the  neiffhborhood 
of  the  since-formed  township  of  Silverton.  He  was  much  struck  with 
the  mineral  appearance  and  formation  of  Broken  Hill.  In  conjunction 
■with  Messrs.  Poole  &.  James,  contractors  on  the  run,  Rasp  pegged  off 
and  applied  for  the  first  block  (now  lease  12)  on  the  Broken  Hill.  Rasp 
mentioned  the  matter  to  Mr.  McCulloch,  manager  and  part  owner  of  the 
Mount  Gipps  run,  intimating  that  he  believed  the  bluff  at  the  end  of  the 
hill  to  be  a  mass  of  tin.  McCulloch  and  Rasp  then  immediately  pegged 
off  blocks  (now  leases  13,  14,  and  15),  which  take  in  the  whole  of  the 
Broken  Hill  itself,  the  aboriginal  name  of  which  is  Wilyu-Wilyvi-Yong. 
These  blocks  were  applied  for  in  the  names  of  G.  McCulloch,  G.  Urquhart, 
and  G.  A.  M.  Lind,  the  two  latter  being  respectively  overseer  and  store- 
keeper on  the  Mount  Gipps  run.  Two  more  blocks  Avere  applied  for 
(leases  10  and  11)  south  of  No.  12,  and  one  to  the  north  of  15  (now 
lease  16),  and  thus  seven  blocks,  being  nearly  two  miles  in  length,  were 
secured  on  the  line  of  reef.  The  interest  in  the  seven  blocks  was  then 
amalgamated  into  one  private  company  or  syndicate,  under  the  name  of 

the  Broken  Hill  Mining  Company After  a  little  surface 

prospecting  had  been  done,  exposing  large  bodies  of  comparatively  lower 
grade  cai-bonate  of  lead  ore,  and,  not  knowing  or  not  having  tested  the 
richer  iron  and  kaolin  siu-face  ores,  two  of  the  original  proprietors  sold 
out  of  the  concern.  The  company  was  then  re-formed  into  one  made  up 
of  fourteen  shares.  Towards  the  end  of  1884  the  existence  of  chlorides 
was  first  noticed.  This  gave  an  impetus  to  prospecting,  and  shortly  after- 
wards chlorides  were  found  on  the  surface  in  the  iron  ore 

The  rich  surface  kaolin  ore  was  accidently  dropped  across  by  an  aboriginal 
in  the  employ  of  the  manager  of  the  mine.  Since  the  beginning  of  1885 
the  prosperous  advance  of  the  company  was  most  satisfactor}-,  without 
check  or  hindrance,  and  perhaps  unparalleled  in  this  respect  in  the  mining- 
history  of  the  colonies The  '  Broken  Hill  Mining  Com- 
pany '  was  floated  into  the  •  Broken  Hill  Proprietary  Company,  Ld.'* 
in  August,  1885." 

Mr.  Purvis  in  the  same  report  furnishes  the  following  statement  of  the 
physical  aspect  and  geology  of  the  mines  :  — "■  The  Broken  Hill  vein  is  a 
large  fissure  vein,  extending  with  interruptions  .  .  .  for  a  distance  of 
nine  miles.  It  is  most  prominent  in  the  Broken  Hill  Proprietary  Com- 
pany's claims,  where  it  stands  out  conspicuously  on  the  crest  of  the  hill, 
extending  from  block  10  on  the  south-west  to  the  middle  of  block  15  in 
the  north-east.     Beyond  this  point  to  the  north  it  becomes  broken  into 

*  Appendix  to  directors'  report,  1886. 


mine;s  and  minerals,  275 

•smaller  branches,  and  takes  a  different  course.  These  branches,  however, 
reunite  in  places,  forming  bold  bluffs  or  blows  of  rock  usually  consisting 
of  ironstone  or  quartzite.  Throughout  the  Proprietary  Company's  claim 
the  outcrop  of  this  vein  is  very  remarkable,  standing  out  in  several 
places  t^Oft.  to  40ft.  above  the  hill  in  the  form  of  rugged  black  rocks. 
This  outcrop  mainly  consists  of  an  ironstone  (locally  termed)  of  varying 
hardness,  and  with  a  variable  proportion  of  silica.  On  blocks  1 0  and  1 1 
this  ironstone  is  very  hard  and  compact.  It  is  really  what  is  known  as 
black  hematite,  and  contains  a  very  large  percentage  of  manganese.  On 
the  western  side  of  the  hill  the  country  is  somewhat  undulating,  but  on  the 
eastern  siHe  the  hill  rises  abruptly  from  the  plain.  The  country  rock  is 
schist  whose  planes  of  cleavage  are  parallel  with  the  vein.  On  the  west 
side  are  two  distinct  dykes  of  quartzite  traversing  the  hill  in  a  parallel 
direction  with  the  vein.  In  the  soiith-east  portion  of  Xo.  10  one  of  these 
dykes  runs  close  with  the  vein,  following  the  same  course.  At  a  short 
distance  the  vein  splits  up  into  branches,  running  more  to  the  east,  and 
the  quartzite  continues  in  the  course  of  the  vein.  The  underlay  or  dip 
cannot  yet  be  accurately  ascertained,  inasmuch  as  it  varies  considerably. 
In  the  north  shaft  it  dips  to  the  east ;  in  Rasp's  shaft  to  the  west :  and 
as  far  as  the  210ft.  level  in  McCulloch's  shaft  to  the  west;  but  2()ft. 
below  this  level  it  forms  a  curve,  and  dips  toward  the  east  at  the 
316ft.  level.  The  angle  of  inclination  is  as  yet  very  little,  being  only 
seven  degree-;  from  the  vertical  at  the  216ft.  level.  The  vein  presents 
many  geological  and  mineralogical  features  of  great  interest.  Apparently 
the  ironstone,  or  iron  ore,  was  the  primary  constituent  of  the  vein,  and 
boulders  of  country  rock  have  also  fallen  into  the  fissure.  At  a  subsequent 
period  the  carbonate  of  lead  was  deposited,  and  the  kaolin,  and  still  more 
recently  the  chloride  of  silver.  These  carbonates  and  chlorides  are  pro- 
bably the  result  of  the  decomposition  of  other  lead  and  silver  ores,  and  a 
change  in  the  nature  of  the  ores  may  be  expected  at  a  lower  depth." 

The  mineralogy  of  the  mine  is  thus  described  : — "  The  ]irincipal 
mineral  constituents  of  the  vein  are  o.xides  of  manganese,  iron,  and 
■carbonate  of  lead  and  kaolin  (resulting  from  the  decomposition  of  the 
felspar  in  the  enclosing  rocks).  In  connection  with  these  minerals  the 
silver  occurs  almost  entirely  as  chloride,  chloro-bromide.  and  less  com- 
monly iodide,  either  in  the  form  of  thin  plates  or  seams  or  ^more 
frequently)  in  small  crystals  in  tlie  cavities  between  the  seams  in  the 
vein.  It  has  also  been  found  in  rounded  nodules  and  cellular  masses. 
Manganese  occurs  in  the  mineral  psilomelane,  which  forms  the  massive 
black  •  iron  ore '  outcrop.  It  is  also  found  abundantly  in  the  vein  in 
reniform,  botryoidal,  and  stalactitic  varieties.  Iron  is  distributed  through- 
out the  vein  in  various  forms.      It  is  found  as  an  earthv  oxide,  mixed 


276  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

Avith  carbonate  of  lead  and  silica.  Impure  varieties  of  spathic  and 
specular  iron  also  occur.  Lead  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  constituents 
of  the  vein,  in  the  form  of  cerussite  or  carbonate  of  lead.  It  is  par- 
ticularly plentiful  in  the  north-east  working.  Galena  occurs  also  in  very 
small  quantities  in  the  bottom  of  the  north  shaft.  Red  oxide  (cuprite) 
and  green  carbonate  (malachite)  of  copper  have  been  found  in  the  stopes- 
at  Rasp's  shaft  and  also  in  the  No.  1  tunnel.  Both  these  ores  are  highly 
argentiferous  here.  Silver  is  generally  distributed  throughout  the  vein.. 
The  silver  ores  already  found  are  kerargyrite,  or  chloride  of  silver ; 
embolite,  or  chloro-bromide  ;  and,  less  commonly,  iodyrite  or  iodide  of 
silver.  Native  silver  has  been  found  in  connection  with  cuprite  in  the 
stopes  at  Rasp's  shaft,  and  partially  decomposed  sulphides  of  silver  at 
the  water  level  in  McCulloch's  shaft.  Many  other  minerals  have  been 
found  to  occur,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  pyromaphite  or  phos- 
phate of  lead,  atacamite  or  chloride  of  copper,  chrysocolle  or  silicate  of 
copper,  garnet  felspar,  quartz,  and    mica." 

The  company  has  extensive  smelting  works  at  Broken  Hill,  and  are 
about  to  have  others  at  Port  Pirie,  so  as  to  enable  them  to  work  up  the 
low-class  ores  at  a  profit.  The  financial  results  of  the  Broken  Hill 
mines  have  surpassed  anything  heretofore  known  in  the  annals  of  mining. 
The  dividends  paid  since  July,  1886,  to  December,  1892,  have  amounted 
to  £4,552,000. 

About  two  years  ago  the  discovery  of  a  coalfield  at  Leigh's  Creek  was^ 
announced.  The  distance  from  Adelaide  by  railway  measurement  is  given 
as  3731  miles  N.,  and  from  Port  Augusta  164  miles  N.  and  by  E.  In 
1891  Mr.  H.  y.  L.  BrowTi,  F.G.S.,  Government  Geologist,  reported  upon 
the  discovery,  and  from  his  report  some  extracts  are  given,  which  indicate 
the  nature  and  extent  of  the  deposit,  to  which  considerable  importance 
has  been  attached  by  the  proprietors  of  the  field. 

After  describing  the  primary  rocks  which  exist  in  the  surrounding 
country  Mr.  Brown  observes  that  ''  The  secondary  rocks,  which  contain 
the  coal-bearing  shales  of  Leigh's  Creek,  appear  to  occupy  deep  basins, 
which  have  been  eroded  in  the  softer  parts  of  the  older  rocks,  and  which 
at  one  time  formed  a  chain  of  lakes  of  various  sizes  and  irregular  shapes, 
extending  northwards  towards  the  region  of  Lake  Eyre.  These  lake 
depressions  were  formed  after  the  upheaval  of  the  primary  strata  into 
their  present  position  with  regard  to  one  another,  although  there  is 
evidence  that  there  has  been  a  gradual  sinking  of  the  whole  of  the  rocks 
since  the  deposition  of  the  shale  deposit  which  now  fills  these  lake 
depressions.  'I"he  fossils  are  of  a  character  indicating  vegetable  and 
animal  life  of  a  kind  which  could  have  existed  only  in  fresh  water.  To 
allow  of  these  lakes  containing  fresh  water  at  that  time  it  was  necessary 


MINES    AND    MINERALS.  277 

that  they  should  have  outlets  to  the  sea,  or  to  some  larger  lake  further 
northward,  otherwise  their  waters  would  have  become  salt.  They  must 
therefore  haAe  been  above  the  sea  level.  At  present  the  depth  attained 
by  the  diamond  drill  is  1,800ft.,  which  is  over  1, 000ft.  below  sea  level. 
The  surface  of  the  country  and  the  surroundinoj  mountain  ranges  must 
therefore  have  been  elevated  more  than  1,000ft.,  and  probably  to  a  much 
greater  height,  above  the  present  level.  This  greater  altitude,  and  con- 
sequent increased  moisture  of  the  atmosphere,  would  account  for  the  then 
different  vegetation.  The  general  elevation  of  the  surface  of  the  flat 
■coimtry  at  Leigh's  Creek,  according  to  the  railway  measurements,  is  777ft., 
and  it  falls  gradually  going  northwards,  being  at  Farina — a  distance  of 
thirty-five  miles — 3i)0ft.,  and  at  Hergott — a  distance  of  sixty-eight  miles 
— 152ft.  above  sea  level. 

"The  upper  rock  of  mesozoic  or  secondary  age  at  Leigh's  Creek  are 
in  descending  order: — 1st,  quartzite  and  sandstone:  2ncl,  argillaceous 
■sandstode  on  conglomerate.  At  the  Cutaway  Hills,  near  to  the 
Leigh's  Creek  railway  station,  these  rocks  form  cappings,  more  or 
less  horizontally  disposed  on  the  primary  claystones  and  slates.  There 
are  two  exposures  of  these  rocks :  the  elevation  of  the  higher  is  about 
200ft.,  and  of  the  lower  170ft.  above  the  plain.  They  form  escarpments 
on  nearly  all  sides,  and  the  greatest  thickness  is  about  loOft.  Fifty 
feet  of  this  is  quartzite,  50ft.  sandstone,  and  the  remainder  argillaceous 
sandstone  and  pebble  conglomerate,  chiefly  quartz.  The  thickness  of  the 
beds  varies  greatly,  even  in  the  small  area  covered  by  them.  Both  the 
quartzite  and  sandstone  show  impressions  or  casts  of  large  strap-like 
leaves  of  plants,  and  smaller  recd-like  markings,  which  have  proved  too 
indefinite  for  identification  by  a  palaeontologist.  The  rocks  are.  however, 
lithologically  and  in  position  very  similar  to  those  at  Mount  Babbage  and 
Mount  Adams,  at  which  places  I  found  fossil  plant  remains  a  few  years  ago, 
which  were  examined  by  Dr.  H.  Woodward,  of  the  British  Museum,  who 
published  notes  concprning  them  in  the  Geological  Magazine  of  July, 
1885.  The  conclusion  he  arrived  at  was  that  they  were  probably  of  the 
lower  cretaceous  age.  At  three  or  four  different  places  to  the  southward 
of  the  Cutaway  Hills,  on  the  plain  beneath  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
present  bore,  there  are  small  outcrops  of  quartzite  and  sandstone,  which 
I  take  to  be  outlying  patches  of  the  same  rocks. 

"Resting  on  the  carbonaceous  shale,  the  slates,  and  other  primary  rocks 
in  horizontal  beds,  and  forming  tablehills  and  tablelands  w  ith  high  escarp- 
ments, there  is  a  thin  but  widely  spread  formation,  comjiosed  of  boulder 
gravel  and  shingle,  in  some  places  unconsolidated,  at  others  mixed  with 
•soft  gypsum  and  limestone,  and  again  as  a  hard  limestone  conglomerate 
which  covers  a  large  portion  of  the  area.     The  boulders  constituting  this 


278  SOI.TH     MSIHALIA. 

deposit  consist  of  qviartzite,  sandstone,  slate,  limestone,  dolomite,  quartz,. 
&c.  Underlj'ing-  this  there  are  often  white  kaolin  and  sandstone  beds,, 
with  gypsum  mottled  clays  and  ironstone.  In  some  places  this  boulder 
drift  and  conglomerate  is  replaced  by  a  thin  bed  of  yellow  jasper  rock 
and  flinty  quartzite  which  caps  the  tablehills  in  the  same  manner.  This 
rock  becomes  more  common  to  the  northward  towards  the  edge  of  the 
main  range,  where  it  overlies  the  gypseous  clays,  kaolin,  and  sandstone  of 
the  marine  cretaceous  rocks  or  artesian  water  formation.  This  rock 
fonnation,  which  has  since  proved  to  be  coal-bearing  shale,  was  first  found 
during  the  excavation  of  the  Government  dam  about  half  a  mile  south- 
west of  Leigh's  Creek  railway  siding.  It  outcrops  at  various  places  along 
the  course  of  Leigh's  Creek  for  some  twelve  miles  north,  and  has  been 
exposed  in  wells  at  various  places  along  that  creek. 

'"  The  first  basin  occupied  by  the  shale  formation  is  that  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  railway  siding  and  township.  It  is  almost  entirely 
siuTounded  by  primary  rocks,  and  has  only  a  narrow  outlet  to  the  north. 
Its  length  is  about  two  miles,  and  the  width  varies  from  one  and  a  half 
to  two  miles.  At  the  Government  dam  carbonaceous  shale  was  found, 
and  in  a  shaft  sunk  to  the  depth  of  about  70ft.  near  to  the  same  place 
thin  seams  of  coal  were  passed  through.  This  shaft  was  abandoned  on 
accoimt  of  the  influx  of  water.  On  the  western  side  blue  and  variegated 
clays,  with  ferruginous  claystone  bands,  dip  eastwards  al  an  angle  from 
20°  to  30°  off  sandstone  and  calcareous  slates  of  primary  age.  These 
clays  are  the  decomposed  outcrops  of  the  carbonaceous  shale,  and  the 
ferruginous  claystones  are  interstratified  with  the  shale. 

"  The  second  basin  lies  to  the  northward  of  that  just  mentioned,  and 
is  much  larger  than  the  last  described,  widening  out  or  narrowing  accord- 
ing as  it  is  restricted  by  the  outcrop  of  the  older  rocks.  The  bores  sunk  by 
the  Government  are  in  this  basin.  There  the  geology  of  the  shale 
formation  can  best  be  studied  by  means  of  the  natural  outcrops  of  the 
rock,  and  by  the  records  of  the  diamond  drill  bores  which  have  been 
sunk.  The  surface  of  the  basin  is  a  plain  which  runs  through  Leigh's 
Creek,  which  forms  wide  flats  at  a  slightly  lower  elevation.  The  surface 
of  the  higher  plain  is  strewn  with  more  or  less  Avater-worn  boulders, 
gravel,  and  shingle,  which  have  resulted  from  the  denudation  of  the 
limestone  conglomerate  which  rests  horizontally  with  gypsums  and 
calcareous  clays  on  the  superincumbent  rocks.  These  consist  of  blue 
clav  and  shale  interstratified  with  numerous  bands  of  brown  iron  ore, 
clay,  ironstone,  and  sandstone,  Avhich  constitute  the  outcropping  portions 
of  the  Leigh's  Creek  carbonaceous  shale  formation.  These  feiTuginous 
bands  are  generally  very  peculiar  in  position,  extending  in  long  more  or 
less  parallel  lines  and  dipping  at  various  angles  from  10°  to  15^  and  30° 


MIXES    AND    MINERALS.  279 

to  40°  towards  the  centre  of  the  basin.  Twenty  or  thirty  of  these 
parallel  outcrops  may  be  discerned  in  passing  over  a  few  acres  of  ground. 
The  lines  of  outcrops  are  often  continuous  for  a  considerable  distance ; 
sometimes  they  thin  out  to  nothing,  and  at  other  times  their  outcrop  is 
marked  by  a  disconnected  line  of  cii'cvdar  ironstone  mounds.  In  structure 
they  are  also  peculiar,  the  beds  being  composed  of  large  and  small 
irregular  lenticular  and  globular  concentric  masses  of  brown  oxide  of 
iron  and  clay  ironstone,  having  cavities  in  the  centre  containing  oxide  of 
iron  (red  and  yellow  ochre)  in  a  finely-divided  state.  Elsewhere  they 
consist  of  claystone  and  clay  ironstone,  and  sometimes,  but  rarely,  of 
sandstone.  In  thickness  they  vary  from  that  of  a  sheet  of  paper  to  2ft. 
or  3ft.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  basin  they  dip  at  a  high  angle  (35° 
to  40°)  off  cleared  clay  slates  and  strike  W.S.W.  and  E.  and  W.  On  the 
eastern  portion  of  Leigh's  Creek  they  dip  at  angles  from  5°  to  20°;  on 
the  northern  portion  at  angles  of  25°  to  30°  off  calcareous  flags  of 
limestone. 

"  In  the  southern  portion  there  is  what  appears  to  be  the  outcrop  of  a 
coal  seam  about  3ft.  thick  dipping  northward  towards  the  diamond  drill 
bore   at   an  angle   of    15°  to   20°.      This  outcrop  is   much  mixed  with 
gyjisum  and  earthy  matter,  but  may  be  the  outcrop  of  the  seam  passed 
through  at  l,o00ft.  in  the  bore.     If  it  is  the  same  seam,  and  continues 
without  faults,  then  there  is  a  thickness  of  500ft.  of  shale  below  the  coal 
seam  to  be  passed  through  before  the  primary  rocks  will  be  met  with  in 
the  bore.     Two  diamond  drill  bores  have  been  sunk.     No.   I   bore  was 
sunk  to  a  depth  of  about  170ft.  in  the  shak ,  which,  with  the  seams  of 
coal  here,  dip  S.E.  and  towards  No.  2  bore,  at  an  angle  of   lu°  to  15°. 
The  distance  between  the  bores  is  about  one  and  a  quarter  miles.     In 
neither  bore  have  the  bands  of  oxidised  iron  been  met  with  ;  but  in  eacli 
numerous   bands    of    fine-grained    argillaceous    (sometimes    calcareous) 
sandstone   have    been   passed  through   at   intervals   in  the  shale,   which 
probably  represent  them,     'llic  decomposition  of  these  near  the  surface 
has  doubtless  caused  the  formation  of  beds  of  claystone  and  brown  iron 
ore.     On  the  surface,  along  the  outcrop  of  iron  oxide  and  clay  ironstone, 
numerous  casts  of  freshwater  mussels,  composed  of  o.xide  of  iron,  have 
been  found.      The  same  fossil,  composed  of  iron  pyrites,  has  also  been 
found  at  No.  1   bore  in  the  shaft  since  sunk.     A  cast  of  what  may  have 
been  a  univalve  shell  was  also  found  at  the  same  place.     In  No.  2  bore 
fossils  of  the  same  genus,  with  portions  of  the  shell  adhering,  have  been 
met  with  in  boring  at  intervals  down  to  a  depth  of  some  l,7U()ft.  or  more. 
Numerous  impressions  of  plants,  chiefly  ferns,  occur  in  the  shale  in  both 
bores  down  to  nearly  the  lowest  depth  yet  reached.      Some  of  these  were 
fairly  well  preserved,  and  have  been  identified  by  Mr.  Etheridge,  who 


280  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

has  written  the  accompanying  valuable  paper  on.  the  subject  from  speci- 
mens supplied  by  me.  Similar  leaf  remains  have  also  been  obtained 
from  the  shale  in  shallow  excavations  at  several  other  places  in  the 
neighborhood. 

"  The  shale  raised  from  the  bores  is  found  to  contain  a  considerable 
percentage  of  carbonaceous  and  bituminous  matter.  It  varies  in  color 
from  a  light  slate  to  black,  and  when  placed  in  a  fire  often  emits  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  inflammable  gas,  which  leaves  a  solid  white  ash. 
When  heated  in  a  retort,  gas,  water,  tar,  and  od  are  produced.  The 
shale  when  seen  at  its  junction  with  the  primary  rocks  dips,  as  previously 
mentioned,  off  them  towards  the  centre  of  the  basin  unconformably  at 
various  angles  from  10°  and  20°  to  40°.  Originally  it  must  have  been 
deposited  horizontally  in  the  still  water  of  the  lake,  and  the  present  dip 
of  the  beds  therefore  points  to  a  subsidence  of  the  central  portion  of  the 
basin,  which  may  have  been  caused  by  a  sinking  of  the  primary  rocks 
underlying  it  at  the  time  of  the  deposition  of  the  formation,  or  by  the 
shrinking  or  settling  down  of  the  beds  through  their  becoming  more 
consolidated,  or  through  some  other  change  taking  place  below.  In  the 
cores  raised  there  are  often  evidences  of  faults  or  joints  in  the  shale, 
caused  by  a  fracture  of  the  mass,  and  the  sliding  of  one  side  up  or  down 
against  the  other,  resulting  from  such  movements  of  the  strata.  Faults 
of  this  kind  doubtless  account  for  some  of  the  numerous  parallel  out- 
crops of  the  ferruginous  bands,  all  dipping  in  the  same  dii'ection,  which 
appear  in  some  parts  of  the  basin.  The  stratification  of  the  shale  in  the 
No.  2  bore  in  its  deeper  parts  is  sometimes  distinctly  horizontal  ;  at 
others,  judging  by  the  layei-s  of  leaf  impressions,  at  an  angle  from  20° 
to  40°,  but  as  a  rule  there  are  no  lines  of  stratification  visible.  A  high 
percentage  of  carbonaceous  and  bituminous  matter  has  been  noticed  in 
the  shale  of  No.  2  bore  for  a  considerable  depth,  some  of  the  core  con- 
taining as  much  as  30  and  40  per  cent.  An  analysis  by  Mr.  Cosmo 
Newberry,  C.M.G.,  shows  that  free  petroleum  is  also  present  in  it.  This 
points  to  the  fact  of  the  shale  having  absorbed  petroleum  from  some 
source  or  other,  and  indicates  the  probability  of  petroleum  being  met 
with  in  larger  quantities  below.  Whether  it  will  pay  to  extract  from 
the  shale,  oil,  tar,  and  other  products  developed  by  heat  during  the 
process  of  distillation  is  a  question  which  will  have  to  be  settled  by 
future  experiment  under  the  conditions  of  cheap  fuel  and  an  economical 
process. 

"  Northward  of  the  second  shale  basin  the  primary  rocks  again 
approach  the  surface  and  form  islands  rising  out  of  the  plain,  the  valley 
of  Leigh's  Creek  becoming  contracted  for  some  distance,  and  again 
widening  out  into  plains  in  the  neighborhood  of  Lyndhurst  Siding,  and 


MINES    AND    MINERALS.  281 

•eastward  and  westward  of  that  place.  Although  this  is  the  case,  these 
plains  are  occupied  at  intervals  by  the  primary  slates,  sandstones, 
quartzites,  limestones,  Sec,  which  are  often  observed  to  form  the  bases 
of  the  flat-topped  hills  and  escarpments  of  the  tablelands.  North  of 
Sunday  Creek,  near  the  railway  cottages,  the  shale  comes  to  the  surface, 
as  also  do  the  bands  of  ironstone,  and  at  one  place  a  band  of  carbona- 
ceous matter  with  gypsum  and  brown  iron  ore,  and  the  outcrop  of  a 
'Coal  seam  from  1ft.  to  2ft.  thick,  are  visibl?.  From  the  great  thickness 
of  the  Leigh's  Creek  shale  formation  it  is  to  be  expected  that  it  will  be 
found  to  extend  northwards  towards  and  under  the  great  central  plain. 
The  coal-bearing  shale  on  the  eastern  side  of  Lake  Eyre  may  represent 
the  same  formation.  This  point,  however,  is  one  which  will  have  to  be 
determined  by  future  fossil  evidence.  On  the  Frorae,  south  of  Mun- 
dowdna  station,  and  at  Attraction  Hill,  near  Hergott,  there  are  ironstone 
and  conglomerate  beds  which  bear  a  great  resemblance  to  some  of  the 
ferruginous  bands  of  the  Leigh's  Creek  basins,  and  may  be  their  repre- 
sentatives. What  portions  of  the  marine  cretaceous  series  of  the  great 
plain  to  the  north  is  underlaid  by  these  freshwater  coal-bearing  shales  it 
is  impossible  to  say  until  a  thorough  examination  has  been  made  of  the 
country  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  outcrops  of  primary  rocks  bounding 
them,  or  until  bores  have  been  sunk,  as  suggested  in  my  annual  report, 

1883 

"  Besides  this  seam  of  coal  in  No.  1  bore  the  carbonaceous  shale  from 
r25ft.  to  135ft.  above  the  seam,  and  from  137ft  to  14'2ft.  below  it,  con- 
tained thin  layers  of  coal  and  coaly  matter  interstratified  with  it.  The 
coal  here  resembles  lignite  and  brown  coal,  and  is  softer  and  more  easily 
broken  up  on  drying  than  that  found  in  No.  2  bore.  This  may  be  due  to 
its  proximity  to  the  surface,  and  the  consequent  lessened  pressure  it  has 
•undergone.  According  to  the  analyses  it  is  a  hydrous  coal  of  a  similar 
class  to  that  in  No.  2  bore,  so  that  I  see  no  reason  why  the  two  seams  may 
not  be  connected  and  be  parts  of  the  same  bed.  The  great  depth  of  the 
basin  in  comparison  with  its  area,  and  the  fact  of  the  shale  beds  dipping 
towards  its  centre,  in  my  opinion  render  it  probable  that  the  coal  beds 
^11  be  irregular  in  thickness,  and  have  a  cake-like  form,  attaining  the 
:§reatest  thickness  in  the  deepest  ground.  In  No.  2  bore,  from  near  the 
surface  to  a  depth  of  1,496ft.  8in.,  the  drill  passed  through  shale,  with 
silicious  and  calcareous  bands,  containing  a  varying  percentage  of  carbo- 
■naceous  and  bituminous  matter.  At  1,496ft.  Sin.  a  bed  of  coal  was  met 
with,  which  continued  down  to  1,544ft.  6in.,  at  which  depth  the  drill 
again  passed  into  carbonaceous  shale.  This  has  continuinl  with 
occasional  thin  seams  of  coal  and  coal  shale  (or  coal  containing  a  large 
percentage  of  ash)  to   the  present  depth   of  1,800ft.     At  from  1, 764ft. 


282  SOITH    AISTKALIA. 

to  1,774ft.  the  occurrence  of  this  coal  and  coal  shale  was  most  noticeable. 
The  total  thickness  of  the  main  seam  of  coal  proved  to  be  47ft.  Klin." 

Seven  J  samples  of  the  coal  have  been  analysed  by  Mr.  Goyder,  Govern- 
ment Analyst,  and  have  given  highly  favorable  results.  Mr.  Cosmo 
Newbery,  C.M.G.,  has  also  specially  reported  upon  samples  submitted  to 
him  for  examination.     He  states  : — 

"  In  many  of  its  characteristics  this  coal  differs  from  the  bituminous 
coals  of  Great  Britain.  New  South  Wales,  and  Victoria,  and  in  some 
respects  resembles  the  most  dense  brown  coal  of  Europe.  Posiibly  it  is 
an  intermediate  body,  having  some  of  the  characteristics  of  both  the 
brown  coal  and  the  true  bituminous  coal.  Like  a  brown  coal  it  is  jiartly 
soluble  in  caustic  potash,  has  no  tendency  to  cake,  and  leaves  no  cinder 
after  burning.  The  ash  is  only  from  2-4  to  o'9  per  cent.,  and  is  a  fine 
white  powder.  On  the  other  hand,  it  burns  like  a  true  coal,  and  the 
products  of  combustion  and  distillation  are  those  of  true  coal.  The 
amount  of  absorbed  water — 18  to  20  per  cent. — is  more  like  the  property 
of  a  brown  coal.  None  of  the  true  coals  absorb  water  to  this  extent. 
But  taking  all  its  characters  and  properties  I  think  it  should  be  classed  as 
a  bituminous  coal  and  not  as  a  brown  coal.  All  the  drill  cores  given  to 
me  were  made  of  irregular-shaped  fragments  of  two  varieties — one  a 
bright  black  coal  and  the  other  a  dull  black  with  a  shade  of  brown,  and 
with  a  slate  or  shale-like  texture.  The  composition  of  both  was  almost 
identical  in  the  first  samples  submitted,  but  in  the  las  the  ash  in  the  drill 
portions  rose  to  30  per  cent,  and  over,  while  the  bright  jet-like  parts  had 
not  altered.  Probably  ihe  bore  is  passing  our.  of  the  best  portion  of  the 
seam.  The  coal  does  not  take  the  fire  easily,  but  when  lighted  it  burns 
well,  and  will  be  an  excellent  fuel  for  steam  and  domestic  purposes  ;  but 
owing  to  the  absence  of  cinder  and  the  small  powdery  ash  it  will  not  be 
burnt  with  economy  on  ordinary  firebars,  as  all  the  small  fragments  of 
unconsumed  coal  would  fall  through  into  the  ashpit  and  be  wasted.  Mr. 
J.  J.  Woolgar,  Melbourne,  has  designed  bars  for  burning  our  brown  coal, 
whi(  h  I  think  would  burn  this  coal  with  great  economy  for  either 
stationary  or  locomotive  engines.  Mr.  Meekesen,  the  Inspecting  Engineer 
of  our  Department  of  Mines,  is  now  reporting  on  these  bars,  and  I  would 
suggest  that  you  should  obtain  a  copy  of  his  report.  Mr.  H.  Y.  L.  Brown 
saw  them  in  use  with  brown  coal  on  his  recent  visit  here.  I  find  that  the 
coal  when  exposed  to  a  perfectly  dry  atmosphere  for  less  than  twenty-four 
hours  loses  almost  all  its  absorbed  water,  and  I  think  it  does  so  without 
becoming  much  more  friable.  This  is  a  very  important  point,  and  I 
would  suggest  that  some  further  tests  should  be  made,  as  it  would  of 
course  greatly  increase  the  fuel  value  if  the  water  can  be  easily  evaporated 
and  the  coal  not  rendered  brittle.     The  water  determinations  were  made 


MINES    AND    MINERAI-S.  283 

at  a  temperature  of  lOO'^  C,  and  are  not  quite  correct  where  the  ash  is 
high,  as  the  kaoHn  of  which  it  is  composed  would  not  give  up  its  com- 
hined  water  at  that  tenii)erature.  The  first  sample  brought  by  Mr.  Brown 
„ave: — Water,  18-80  ;  hydro-carbons,  24  95  :  fixed  carbon,  52-90  ;  ash, 
3-35=  100-00.  A  portion  of  the  bright  jet-Hke  part  of  the  above  gave  : — 
Water  and  hydro-carbons,  43  15  ;  fixed  carbons, o4-45  ;  ash,  2-40=100-00. 
The  later  samples,  after  the  drill  had  passed  throvigh  over  20ft., 
oave  : — Water,  12-30;  hvdro-carbons,  17-15;  fixed  carbon,  41-00  ;  ash, 
29-55=  100-00.  Bright  black  coal  separated  from  the  above  : —Water, 
23-20;  hydro-carbons,  19-90:  fixed  carbon,  5295;  ash,  3-95=100-00. 
When  exposed  to  a  dry  atmosphere  the  first  sample  lost  its  water,  and 
•gave  a  result  equal  to — Water,  nil ;  hydro-carbons,  30-73  ;  fixed  carbon, 
65-14  ;  ash,  4-12=  100*00.  This  represents  a  fuel  of  very  high  value,  but 
further  experiments  should,  as  before  stated,  be  carried  out  to  ascertain 
to  what  extent  the  drying  renders  the  coal  friable." 

The  conditions  under  which  this  coal  deposit  exists  being  unusual,  it 
has  been  deemed  advisable  to  record  its  description  and  characteristics  as 
fully  as  possible,  and  also  because  of  the  immense  importance  of  the 
discovery  to  the  future  of  the  colony  if  the  coal  should  prove  to  be  of  a 
generally  serviceable  kind  and  obtainable  in  sufficient  quantities  for 
general  use.  The  Government  Geologist  has  recently  made  a  fresh 
examination  of  the  coalfield  and  of  the  explorations  which  have  been 
carried  on  there.  It  confirms  his  previous  report,  and  indicates  a  larger 
deposit  of  the  mineral  foimd  there  than  had  been  previously  announced. 
Other  reports  (unofficial)  recently  made  public  claim  a  discovery  of  true 
coal  in  places  where  the  Government  Geologist  suggested  new  borings. 
Some  trials  of  the  Leigh's  Creek  coal  were  made  in  the  Locomotive 
Department  of  the  South  Australian  railways,  in  order  to  ascertain  how 
far  the  mineral  was  suitable  for  the  general  working  of  the  railway 
traffic.  It  was  found  that  it  was  not  as  well  adapted  to  railway  purposes 
as  the  New  South  Wales  coal,  which  is  at  present  in  use  on  the  Govern- 
ment railway  lines. 

Reference  has  been  made  in  preceding  pages  to  the  great  mineral 
wealth  of  South  Australia,  and  to  the  number  and  variety  of  the  minerals 
which  arc  found  within  its  limits.  It  is  only  during  the  last  few  years 
that  their  nature  and  extent  have  become  known  with  much  accuracy.  A 
list  of  minerals  was  published  in  the  Royal  South  Australian  Almanack  for 
1841,  which  was  compiled  by  the  late  Dr.  Menge ;  a  catalogue  of  South 
Australian  minerals,  by  T.  C.  Cloud,  Esq.,  of  the  Wallaroo  and  Moonta 
mines,  appeared  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  South 
Australia  of  1882-3  ;  and  a  catalogue  of  minerals  and  localities,  compiled 
by  Mr.  G.  A.  Goyder,  was  issued  in  1883  by  the  Crown  Lands  Department. 


284  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

Since  then  a  great  development  has  taken  place  in  mineral  discoveries  in 
the  colony.  *  Recently  another  "Catalogue  of  South  Australian  minerals, 
with  the  mines  and  localities  where  found,  and  brief  remarks  on  the 
mode  of  occurrence  of  some  of  the  principal  metals  and  ores,"  has  been 
prepared,  under  the  authority  of  the  Commissioner  of  Crown  Lands,  by 
Mr.  H.  Y.  L.  Brown,  Government  Geologist.  The  author  states  that  the 
"  publication  does  not  pretend  to  be  complete,  as  there  are  probably 
mineral  collections  in  the  possession  of  private  persons  which  have  not 
been  available."  It  is  a  useful  pamphlet,  and,  subject  to  this  qualifica- 
tion, the  catalogue  may  be  regarded  as  including  all  Jthat  is  known  upon 
the  subject  up  to  the  date  of  its  comjjilation. 

*  Published  early  in  the  present  year. 


PASTORAL.  285 


CHAPTER  XYIII. 

Suitability  of  the  Australian  Clim*te  to  the  Bkeedikg  or  Sheep  and  Cattle 
— Importance  of  the  Pastoral  Interest  in  the  Early  Days — Sheep 
Brought  from  Van  Dieman's  Land— Number  of  Sheep  in  1841 -Mr. 
Inman — Sheep  from  Cape  of  Good  Hope — Rapid  Increase  of  Flocks — 
Statistics — Sheep-farming  by  the  First  Settlers — Their  Difficulties 
— Grazing  Licences — Pastoral  Leases — Land  Resumed  for  Agricultural 
Use — Position  of  the  Squatters— Their  Difficulties — Assessments  in 
Stock — Security  of  Tenure  —  Report  of  the  Surveyor-General — 
Payments  for  Improvements  —  New  Legislation  —  Liability  of  the 
Colony  for  ImpiiOvements — The  Rabbit  Pest — Area  of  Land  Depastured. 
— Rabbit-proof  Fences— The  Merino  Sheep — The  Fleece  Improved  by 
Australian  Climate— Other  Breeds  of  Sheep — Price  of  Mutton — 
Diseases  of  Sheep — Production  of  Wool — Export  Price  of  Wool  in 
.  London— Countries  to  ■which  Exported — Value  of  Exports — Cattle 
Breeding — Statistics  of  Increase — Quality  of  South  Australian  Cattle 
— Market  Prices  of  Sheep  .\nd  Cattle — Horse-breeding  -  Introduction 
of  Arab  Stock  into  New  South  Wales  — The  Australian  Bred  Horse — 
His  Endurance — Drought  Stock — Mules — Camels — He.\lth  Precautions 
Relating  to  Flocks  and  Herds^Legislation  Thereon — Extermination  of 
Scab  in  South  Australia — Other  Diseases  of  Cattle — Laws  Respecting 
Them — Healthy  IJondition  of  Stock  in  South  Australia. 

The  suitability  of  the  climate  and  the  natural  vegetation  of  Australia  to 
the  breeding  of  cattle  and  sheep  had  been  demonstrated  in  New  South 
Wales  many  years  before  South  Australia  was  founded.  Very  early  in 
the  history  of  the  new  settlement,  sheep-breeding  was  commenced,  and 
for  a  long  period  the  pastoral  interest  was  the  paramount  interest  of  the 
province.  The  first  sheep  brought  into  the  colony  were  landed  by  Governor 
Hindmarsh,  but  most  of  them  were  lost.  In  February,  1837,  Mr.  J.  B. 
Hack  introduced  between  ;iOO  and  400  sheep,  half  a  dozen  heifers,  and  a 
Devon  bull,  and  a  short  time  afterwards  some  cows  were  landed  from  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Messrs.  Hallett  and  Malcolm  brought  sheep  over 
from  Van  Diemen's  Land.  In  1838,  thirty-seven  vessels  laden  with 
stock  arrived  in  the  colony,  und  in  1839  fifty  vessels  brought  stock, 
principally  sheep.  They  also  brought  a  few  horses.  Captain  Hart 
brought  400  head  of  cattle  from  Portland  Bay,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
drove,  about  400,  were  driven  overland.  They  were  the  first  lot  of  cattle 
introduced  from  Port  Philip,  as  it  was  then  called.  They  were  the  first 
that  travelled  by  Major  Mitchell's  track,  through  Victoria  to  Portland, 
from  Manoora,  in  New  South  Wales.  The  first  wool  dispatched  to 
England  was  sent  in  the  Goshawk,  which  took  ten  months  to  mike  the 
voyage.     In  the  Statistical  Register  (1890)  it  is  recorded  that  as  early 


286 


SOlTll    AUSTRALIA. 


as  1838  there  were  28,000  sheep  in  the  colony.  In  1841  Mr.  Innian, 
who  was  in  charge  of  a  flock  of  7,0i)0  sent  from  the  Port  Philip  district, 
was  attacked  by  a  tribe  of  blacks  near  the  X.W.  Bend  of  the  Murraj', 
and  deprived  by  them  of  all  his  stock.  Some  were  introduced  from  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  the  South  Australian  Cjmpany  imported 
valuable  stud  stock  from  Europe.  In  1839  the  number  of  sheep  in  the 
colony  is  recorded  as  amounting  to  108,700,  and  at  the  end  of  1840  to 
200,160.  Since  that  time,  although  there  have  been  considerable 
fluctuations  in  the  number  of  sheep  depastured  in  the  colony,  in  the  year 
1890-91  the  total  amounted  to  7,004,642.  The  statistics  which  are  given 
below  show  the  number  of  sheep  in  the  province  at  the  end  of  five-yearly 
periods  from  1836  to  1890,  and  the  value  of  the  wool  exported  during 
the  same  periods  : — 


Five  years  ending  in 


1840 

1845 
1850 

1855 
i860 
1865 
1870 

1875 
1880 
T885 
1890 


No.  of  Sheep. 


200,160 
480,669 
984,199 
1,768,724 
2,824,811 
3,779,308 
4,400,655 

6,179,395 
6,453,222 
6,696,406 
7,004,642 

Value 


Value  of  Wool 
Exported. 


9,860 

218,453 
501,492 
966,083 

.2,395-972 
3.571.236 
5,126.163 
8,032,531 
9,803,329 
8,398,132 
9,145484 


£48,168,735 


The  number  of  sheep  in  the  colony  in  1891  was  7,646,239,  and  the 
value  of  the  wool  exported,  £2,166,125;  and  in  1892  there  were 
7,152,047  sheep,  and  the  value  of  the  wool  exported,  £1,954.405.  This 
brings  the  value  of  the  wool  exports  to  the  end  of  the  latter  year  up  to 
a  total  of  £52,289,263. 

In  the  early  days  of  pastoral  settlement  the  sheep  stations  were  close 
to  the  city  of  Adelaide.  By  degrees,  as  the  land  was  required  for  agri- 
cultural purposes,  stockowners  were  compelled  to  move  their  flocks 
further  and  further  away  from  the  capital.  There  was  very  little  hard- 
ship in  this,  because  the  land  for  two  or  three  hundred  miles  was 
excellent  for  grazing.  It  was  well  watered,  and  there  was  no  difficulty 
in  bringing  the  wool  in  for  shipment.  Sheepowners  were  prosperous  in 
those  days.  The  flocks  increased  rapidly,  and  the  number  of  sheep 
seems  to  have  been  doubled  at  the  end  of  every  five  years  down  to  1855, 
iifter  which  progx'ess  was  somewhat  more  slow.  Sheep-farming,  however. 


I'AsroRAi..  287 

was  nut  without  its  drawbacks.  The  natives  were  sometimes  troublesome  ; 
wild  dogs  did  much  mischief ;  bush  fires  were  occasionally  very  destruc- 
tive ;  and  the  disease  called  scab,  f(ir  a  long  time  the  scourge  of  the 
Australian  sheepowner,  often  heavily  discounted  the  returns  upon  which 
he  depended  to  repay  him  for  his  outlay.  The  measures  which  were 
adopted  in  order  to  stamp  out  that  disease  have  been  so  effectual  that  no 
case  of  scab  has  occurred  in  the  colony  for  very  many  years. 

Prior  to  1851  grazing  rights  on  the  waste  lands  of  the  Crown  were  let 
by  licence.  Those  rights  were  first  limited  to  the  holders  of  purchased 
land,  who  were  entitled  to  depasture  two  square  miles  of  country  in 
viitue  of  every  eighty  acres  held  by  them.  Grazing  rights  under  the 
licensing  system  were  gradually  extended  until  the  year  1851,  when 
Royal  Orders  in  Council,  passed  at  Buckingham  Palace  in  1850,  which 
authorised  the  leasing  of  the  waste  lands  of  the  Crown  for  depasturing 
purposes,  came  into  force.  Under  those  orders  the  rent  for  land  of  the 
first  quality  was  fixed  at  £l  per  square  mile,  for  land  of  the  second 
quality  at  15s.  per  square  mile,  and  for  land  of  the  third  quality  at  10s. 
per  square  mile.  The  lands  held  under  these  leases  could  be  resumed  if 
required  for  agricultural  purposes  at  six  months'  notice.  At  first  the 
squatters  who  received  notices  of  resumption  were  able  to  move  their 
sheep  further  back  into  the  bush ;  but  later,  as  good  land  became  more 
scarce  the  pastoralists,  who  were  unable  to  find  suitable  runs  within 
reasonable  distances,  were  forced  either  to  sacrifice  their  stock  or 
purchase  as  much  of  the  fee-simple  of  the  country  they  held  under  lease 
as  they  were  able  to  do.  The  latter  course  was  followed  in  many  cases, 
and  some  of  the  sheepowners  became  possessed  of  magnificent  estates 
in  the  best  parts  of  the  covmtry.  Runs  which  were  not  immediately 
required  for  agricultural  settlement  were  put  up  for  sale  in  order  to 
provide  revenue,  when  the  exigencies  of  the  colony  offered  no  readier 
means  of  filling  the  public  coffers  tlian  by  the  sale  of  land  occupied  by 
pastoralists. 

The  sqixatters,  prosperous  as  they  have  been,  were  not  in  a  position  to 
meet  the  demands  upon  them  for  the  purchase  of  the  lands  they  occupied. 
Land  bought  at  the  land  sales  at  the  fall  of  the  hammer  had  to  be  jiaid 
for  in  cash.  The  banks  were  resorted  to  to  furnish  the  necessary  funds, 
and  some  of  the  now  wealthy  squatters  were  in  the  hands  of  those 
institutions,  and  struggled  on  for  years  before  they  became  free.  At  one 
period  the  directors  of  the  banks  in  England  became  alarmed  at  the 
magnitude  of  the  advances  which  had  been  made  to  siockowners,  and 
local  managers  were  pressed  from  honi"  to  close  many  of  the  large 
accounts  wliich  were  outstanding.  This  ])olicy  could  not  be  follo\\cd  out. 
It  would  have  brought  about  wholesale  ruin.     Time  was  wanted  to  allow 


288  SOUTH    AUSTRA],1A. 

the  pastoralists  to  fulfil  their  obligations,  and  that  having  been  secured 
the  pressing  difficulties  of  the  situation  were  solved.  The  banks  lost 
nothing — indeed  they  were  large  gainers.  The  struggling  squatters  of 
those  days  are  now  amongst  the  most  wealthy  of  the  colonists. 

After  a  few  years  had  elapsed  since  tlie  issue  of  the  first  leases  it  was^ 
considered  that  the  rent  paid  by  the  lessees  was  too  low.  An  assessment 
Avas  made  on  the  sheep  and  cattle  depastured  on  the  Crown  lands  of  Id. 
to  2d.  per  head  for  sheep  and  6d.  to  Is.  per  head  for  great  cattle.  The 
country  in  the  outlying  districts  was  leased  for  fourteen  years  at  a  rental 
of  2s.  6d.  per  square  mile,  with  an  assessment  of  Id.  per  head  for  sheep 
and  Is.  per  head  for  cattle.  At  the  end  of  the  fourteen  years  the  assess- 
ment was  doubled  during  the  extension  of  the  leases  tor  a  second  term  of 
fourteen  years,  at  the  end  of  which  all  the  improvements  made  on  the 
runs  became  vested  absolutely  in  the  Crown,  without  any  compensation 
to  the  lessees.  That  arrangement  gave  rise  to  much  dissatisfaction 
among  the  leaseholders.  Further  legislation  altered  the  state  of  affairs.  The 
tenure  was  extended  and  at  the  expiry  of  the  leases  the  Government  took 
over  all  the  improvements,  paying  for  them  in  full  after  a  fair  valuation. 
The  Crown  lessees  were  not  only  dissatisfied  with  this,  but  they  com- 
plained of  the  insecurity  of  the  tenure  under  which  the  leasses  were  held. 
On  this  subject  the  Surveyor-General  reported  as  follows  :* — "  It  is  not 
necessary  that  the  various  Acts  under  which  these  leases  have  been  dealt 
with  should  be  enumerated,  but,  as  it  has  been  urged  that  insecurity  of 
tenure  has  militated  against  the  more  successful  occupation  of  lands 
leased  for  pastoral  purposes,  I  may  be  permitted  to  state  that  lands  leased 
in  1851  with  the  conditions  that  all  improvements  should  be  given  up  to 
the  State  at  the  end  of  the  term  (fourteen  years),  when  the  lands  were 
to  be  relet  by  auction,  were,  until  the  end  of  188S,  when  they  expired  by 
effluxion  of  time  (as  above  stated),  still  in  the  hands  of  the  same  lessees  or 
their  assigns,  when  the  lessees  received  by  the  various  concessions  granted 
during  the  thii'ty-seven  years  that  elapsed  from  the  date  of  the  first  leases 
in  1851  payment  in  full  for  water  improvements  and  pro  rata  according 
to  the  date  of  resumption  for  others,  comprising  a  sum  equal  to  about  a 
third  of  the  entire  rentals  paid  to  the  Go.vernment  during  the  period 
specified."  The  amount  received  by  the  Government  on  account  of  rents 
of  pastoral  leases  from  the  end  of  June,  1851,  came  to  £1,889,035,  so 
that  according  to  the  statement  of  the  Surveyor- General  the  payments 
for  improvements  have  amounted  to  about  £629,000.  The  actual  receipts 
of  the  Government  on  account  of  land  occiipied  for  pastoral  purposes 
including  commonage  licences  from  1843  to  June,  1892,  appears  to  be 
£2,181,118.  The  policy  of  paying  the  pastoral  lessees  for  the  value  of 
*  Parliamentary  Paper,  No.  6  of  1890. 


PASTORAL,  289 

the  improvements  made  on  the  runs  at  the  expiration  of  the  lease  has 
not  proved  to  be  as  satisfactory  as  had  been  expected.  A  measure  is  now 
before  Parliament  which  proposes  to  alter  existing  arrangements,  and  to 
leave  the  question  of  payment  of  improvements  to  be  arranged  between 
the  outgoing  and  the  incoming  tenants  when  leases  expire,  and  the  land 
is  leased  anew.  This  plan  is  in  force  in  New  South  Wales,  where  it 
seems  to  operate  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  According  to  the  Surveyor- 
General's  report,  the  liability  of  the  colony  to  pastoral  lessees  will  amount 
at  the  end  of  1907,  when  a  niunber  of  existing  leases  fall  in,  to  £2,500,000. 

Although  in  former  years  sheep  and  cattle  raising,  but  especially  the 
former,  were  highly  profitable  pursuits,  stations  cannot  now  be  carried 
on  imder  the  favorable  conditions  which  generally  prevailed  in  the  early 
days  of  the  colony.  Agricultural  settlement  has  driven  the  squatter  far 
back  into  the  bush,  where  the  country  is  of  inferior  quality,  the  rainfall 
light  and  precarious,  and  where  the  growth  of  vegetation  in  abundance  is 
seldom  certain.  Added  to  these  drawbacks,  the  swarms  of  rabbits  wliich 
infest  some  parts  of  the  countrj'  matei'ially  diminish  the  supply  of  feed 
ou  which  the  stockholder  can  depend.  Very  large  sums  of  money  have 
been  expended  both  by  the  Government  and  the  pastoral  lessees  in 
endeavoring  to  clear  the  land  of  vermin,  biit  all  efforts  up  to  the  present 
time  have  not  succeeded  in  eradicating  the  nuisance.  The  area  of  land 
leased  for  depasturing  purposes  in  1892  was  153,429  square  miles  or 
98,194,560  acres,  so  that  the  difficult}'  of  exterminating  vem\in  scattered 
over  such  an  enormous  tract  of  country  may  be  imagined.  Drought  has  in 
many  instances  materially  decreased  the  rabbit  pest,  but  the  season  which 
leaves  rabbits  without  food  leaves  the  sheep  in  a  similar  condition  ;  still 
considerable  relief  has  been  experienced  in  some  places  from  this  cause. 
Within  a  few  years  the  experiment  has  been  tried  of  isolating  stations  by 
means  of  rabbit-proof  fences,  and  where  tracts  of  country  are  protected 
from  incursions  by  the  vermin  living  outside  their  numbers  can  be  con- 
siderably reduced.  A  rabbit-proof  wire  fence  has  been  constructed  at  a 
large  expense  on  the  frontier  line  between  South  Australia  and  Victoria, 
though  how  far  that  expedient  has  been  efficacious  in  diminishing  the 
trouble  on  either  side  of  the  border  is  not  known  with  much  approach  to 
certainty. 

The  flocks  in  this  colony  consist  almost  entirely  of  Merino  sheep, 
although  some  other  kinds  are  bred  in  a  few  places.  The  Merino,  it  has 
been  generally  thought,  was  first  introduced  into  New  South  Wales  by 
Captain  J.  McArthur,  in  1797.  This,  however,  is  incorrect.  The  gentle- 
man to  whom  the  credit  really  belongs  w\as  a  Captain  Waterhouse,  who 
came  to  New  South  Wales  in  H.M.S.  Sinus,  the  flagship  of  the  first 
fleet  that  brought  prisoners  to  Botany  Bay.     That  ship  was  wrecked  at 


290  SOUTH     AUSTRAl.lA. 

Norfolk  Island  in  1790,  and  Waterhouse  settled  in  the  colony.  In  1797 
he  was  sent  by  the  Governor,  Captain  King,  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
to  purchase  stock  for  the  Government.  About  the  time  of  his  arrival  a 
Colonel  Gordon,  who  was  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch  Government,  died, 
and  his  property  was  put  up  for  sale.  A  portion  of  it  included  a  flock  of 
pure-bred  Spanish  Merinos,  most  of  which  were  bought  by  Waterhouse 
and  brought  on  to  New  South  Wales.  Here  he  offered  them  to  the 
Governor,  who  declined  to  purchase  them,  being  apparentlj-  satisfied  with 
the  fact  that  they  were  in  the  colony.  When  Captain  Waterhouse  left 
New  South  Wales  he  sold  his  flock  to  Mr.  Cox,  the  paymaster,  with  the 
•exception  of  a  few  sheep,  which  he  disposed  of  to  Captain  McArthur. 
'J'he  foregoing  facts  are  taken  from  an  autograph  letter  by  Captain 
Waterhouse,  recently  discovered  and  reproduced  in  a  leading  paper  in 
New  South  Wales.* 

The  quality  of  the  Merino  sheep,  by  careful  attention  and  the  judicious 
introduction  of  the  best  strains  of  blood,  has  attained  a  very  high  pitch 
•of    excellence,    and    the    wool    exported    from    the    colonial    flocks    is 
regarded  as  amongst  the  very  best  in  the  world.     The  weight  of  the 
-carcase  of  the  merino  is  not  great ;  taking  an  average  of  good  and  bad 
seasons  it  may  be  stated  as  being  about  551bs.     The  weight  of  the  fleece 
•of  a  full-grown  Merino  sheep  of  a  full  year's  growth,  in  a  fairly  good 
season,  is  about  71bs.     The  meat  is  remarkably  well  flavored,  and  is  not 
inferior  to  that  of  the  Southdown  sheep  so  highly  esteemed  in  the  mother 
country.     Larger  breeds  of  sheep  have  been  introduced,  and  are  numerous, 
but  they  are  bred  principally  for  carcase,  and  they  find  a  ready  sale  in 
the  colonial  markets  for  general  consumption.      Sheep  in  extraordinary 
seasons  have  been  so  plentiful  that  their  carcases  have  been  boiled  down 
for  the  sake  of  the  tallow,  there  being  no  better  way  of  turning  them  to 
;account.     The  price   of   mutton  is  generally  very  low,  and  seldom  rises 
beyond  2^d.  per  pound.     It  is  largely  consumed,  inasmuch  as,  at  certain 
seasons,  animal  food  of  this  kind  is   the  cheapest  article  of  animal  diet 
procurable.     Sheep  are  not  subject  to  many  diseases  in  South  Australia. 
Scab,  once  prevalent,  has  been  completely  eradicated.     Fluke  sometimes 
makes  its  appearance  amongst  flocks  depastured  in  moist  and  swampy 
situations,  and  foot  rot  is  also  occasionally  met  with  in  similar  places ; 
these    ailments,    however,    prevail    to    a   limited    extent    only.       Sheep 
depastured  on  country  which  abuts  on  the  seashore  are  subject  to  what 
is  called  the  coast  disease.     At  first  the  flocks  fatten   rajjidly  in  such 
localities,  but  after  a  time  they  become  giddy  and  stagger  about,  and, 
if  not  removed,  soon  lose  condition  and  eventually  die.     When  "  coasty" 
symptons  become  manifest  amidst  a  flock  the  only  remedy  is  to  remove 
*  Town  atid  Country  Journal,  Sydney,  September  10th,  1892. 


PASTORAL. 


291 

The  precise 


them  from  the  coast  country,  when  they  speedily  recover. 
cause  of  this  disorder  is  not  well  understood. 

The  following  figures  indicate  the  export  of  wool  the  produce  of  South 
Australia  for  ten  years  ending  in  1892  : — 


Year. 


United 
Kingdom 


7883 
1884 
1885 
1886 
.1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 
189I 
1892 


Lbs. 
35,768,713 
39.569,250 
39.727,458 
34,855,989 
34,577,371 
35,250,164 
37,024,094 
31.354,027 
38,979,971 
33,462,144 


Victoria. 


New  South 
Wales. 


Lbs. 

4,525,423 
6,060,403 

4,919,104 
4,853,783 
4,742,904 
4,858,886 

4,549,263 
5,436,651 
5,797,290 
5,706,809 


Lbs. 
1,512 
116,648 
16,480 

4,900 

16,799 


81,000 


Other 
Countries. 


Lbs. 
823,395 

994,774 
704,024 

5,082,841 

2,737,704 
2,781,608 

3,253,115 
2,490,769 
6,703.244 
6,681,339 


The  subjoined  table  shows  the  price  per  pound  of  Adelaide  (average 
■greasy)  wool  at  the  London  sales  for  the  same  period  as  the  foregoing  :  — 


Sales. 

1883. 

1884. 

1885. 

i886. 

1887. 

1888. 

1889. 

1890. 

1891. 

1892. 

d. 

d. 

d. 

d. 

d. 

d. 

d. 

d. 

d 

d. 

Januai-y    

— 

— 

9 

7^ 

Sh 

7^ 

— 

— 

— 

February  

9* 

9i 

— 

9 

10 

cS 

34 

MapL-h   

8  to  10 

9 

H 

6 

7^ 

7t 

— 

— 

April 

— 

9h 

9 

8 

6^ 

May 

9h 

9k 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

June 

8i  to  9i 

9l 

7i 

8 

8 

8 



July 

10 

H 

-.1 
/  4 

5f 

August 

9 

9 



— 

— 

— 



September    

8  to  82 

9i 

6f 

9 

7f 

8^ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

October     

— 

10? 

9 

5-T 

November    

9! 

9l 

7 

-1 

'2 

-1 
/a 

9 

December 

II 

8 

6i 

64 

The  countries  to  which  South  Australian  wool  is  exported  are  the 
United  Kingdom,  Victoria.  Belgium,  France,  and  Germany.  In  18i)2 
Great  Britian  took  199,120  bales;  Victoria,  17,945;  Belgium,  8,970 : 
France,  7,191  ;  and  Germany,  4,165.  The  total  value  was  £1.380.409, 
distributed  thus :— United  Kingdom,  £1,018,719;  Victoria,  £194,392; 
Belgium,  £58,15.3;    Fiance,  £63,(531  ;  and  Germany,  £45,514. 

The  pursuits  of  cattle  and  horse  breeding  have  never  developed  to 
a  very  large  extent  in  the  province.  In  the  first  years  of  the  colony's 
existence  the  adventurers  who  introduced  stock  of  both  kinds  from 
New  South  "Wales  and  the  Port  Philip  district  did  well  with  the  cattle 
they  brought  with  them,  but  it  was  soon  found  that  sheep-breeding  and 


292 


SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 


wool-growing  were  much  more  jnofitable  than  the  raising  of  horses  or 
cattle,  so  that  the  former  industry  naturally  took  the  lead.  For  this 
reason,  amongst  others,  the  number  of  cattle  and  horses  has  never 
increased  very  rapidly  in  South  Australia.  The  local  market  for  beet  is 
not  extensive.  The  distances  of  some  of  the  cattle  runs  from  the  centres 
of  consumption  are  great,  and  the  difficulty  of  di-iving  the  stock  to 
market  in  dry  seasons  is  considerable,  so  that  the  colony  is  dependent  to 
some  extent  on  the  eastern  colonies,  but  mostly  on  Queensland,  for 
supplies  of  beef.  The  extension  of  the  Great  Northern  railway  into  the 
far  north  has  overcome  many  of  the  difficulties  which  stockowners 
experienced  in  bringing  cattle  to  market. 

The  figures  show  the  progressive  increase  of  liorses  and  cattle  at  the 
end  of  every  five  years  since  the  foundation  of  the  colony  : — 


Year. 


Horses. 


1840    .  . . 

1845  ... 
1850    ... 

1854*... 
i860  ... 
1865  ... 
1870  ... 

1875  ... 
1880  ... 
1884  ... 
1890-93 


Cattle. 


1,060 

15,100 

No  return 

26,146 

6,488 

60,034 

10,184 

74,220 

49,399 

278,265 

73,993 

158,057 

83,744 

136,832 

107,164 

219,240 

157,915 

307,177 

168,420 

389,726 

186,726 

411,793 

•No  returns  in  1885. 


The  fluctuations  in  the  numbers  of  cattle  during  these  periods  have 
been  considerable,  as  may  be  seen,  but  in 'the  intermediate  years  they 
have  been  more  marked.  This  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  effects  of 
drought  and  by  the  transfer  of  stock  to  Queensland  in  many  instances, 
and  the  removal  of  herds  to  new  country  in  the  Northern  Territory. 

The  quality  of  the  cattle  raised  in  South  Australia  is  excellent.  Most 
of  the  principal  owners  of  herds  have  gone  to  great  expense  in  intro- 
ducing bulls  and  cows  of  the  best  blood  procurable  in  Great  Britain,  for 
stud  purposes.  The  shorthorned  cattle  predominate.  They  appear  to 
do  well  in  most  places  as  long  as  they  can  obtain  sufficient  feed. 
Herefords  have  been  bred  to  some  extent,  and  for  dairy  purposes 
Alderneys  have  been  imported  and  have  thriven  well.  At  one  time 
bullocks  were  largely  employed  in  agricultural  work,  and  much  of  the 
ploughing  was  done  by  them.  They  were  also  used  in  drays  for  the 
transport  of  heavy  loads.      They  are  very  little   used  now  in  farming 


PASTORAL. 


293 


operations,  and  are  employed  as  beasts  of  draught  only  in  remote 
districts,  where  there  are  no  roads  at  all,  or  such  as  are  too  bad  for  the 
travelling  of  horses. 

A  table    showing  the  prices    of  fat  sheep  and  cattle  in  the  Adelaide 
markets  for  1892  is  subjoined  : — 


Moi 

Fat  Cattle. 

Month. 

First  Class. 

Second  Class. 

First  Class. 

Second  ClaKS. 

Bullocks. 

Cows. 

Bullocks. 

Cows. 

.s. 

d. 

s. 

d. 

s.   d. 

s. 

d. 

£ 

i-. 

£ 

.s. 

£ 

s. 

£  s. 

;^^- 

£  s. 

£  ^■ 

£  s. 

.lanuarv  ... 

8 

o 

Q 

0 

6    0 

7 

0 

7 

0 

9 

0 

.s 

0 

0  10 

5    0 

6     0 

3   0 

4  10 

FebruaiT... 

0 

6 

10 

6 

7    0 

8 

0 

7 

10 

Q 

10 

,s 

0 

6  10 

6    0 

7     0 

3  ^o 

4  10 

March 

Q 

o 

II 

0 

7     0 

8 

0 

8 

0 

10 

0 

,s 

0 

6  10 

6     0 

7  10 

3  10 

4  10 

April 

II 

o 

1.3 

0 

8     0 

10 

0 

7 

10 

10 

0 

.■; 

0 

6  10 

5  10 

7     0 

3  10 

4  10 

Mav  

12 

0 

14 

0 

10    0 

II 

0 

7 

10 

10 

0 

.s 

0 

6  10 

5  10 

7     0 

3     0 

4     0 

June 

M 

o 

IS 

0 

10    0 

12 

0 

q 

0 

12 

0 

7 

0 

10    0 

6    0 

8     0 

5    0 

6    0 

July  

14 

o 

i.S 

0 

II     0 

n 

0 

8 

0 

10 

0 

6 

0 

7  10 

5  10 

7     0 

4    0 

5    0 

August 

li 

0 

17 

0 

12     0 

14 

0 

P 

0 

II 

0 

7 

0 

9  10 

6    0 

8     0 

5    0 

6    0 

September . 

14 

0 

i6 

0 

12    0 

1,1 

0 

Q 

0 

12 

0 

7 

0 

q     0 

6    0 

8     0 

5     0 

6    0 

'October    . . . 

n 

0 

15 

0 

II     0 

12 

0 

8 

0 

12 

0 

6 

0 

8    0 

6    0 

7  10 

4     0 

5  10 

November.. 

8 

o 

10 

0 

7     0 

7 

6 

8 

0 

10 

10 

6 

0 

7  10 

6    0 

7  10 

4    0 

5    0 

December.. 

9 

0 

10 

6 

8    0 

g 

0 

8 

0 

10 

0 

7 

0 

10    0 

6    0 

7  10 

5    0 

6    0 

vSouth  Australia  is  as  well  suited  to  the  breeding  of  horses  as  it  is  to  the 
breeding  of  sheep,  and  the  animals  which  are  reared  here  are  generally 
good  and  serviceable.  The  finest  horse  stock  that  was  brought  into  the 
•colony  came  from  New  South  Wales.  At  a  very  early  stage  in  its  career 
some  thoroughbred  Arabians  were  imported  from  India.  The  introduction 
of  the  Arab  blood  and  its  admixture  with  that  of  the  horses  Avhich  were 
then  in  New  South  Wales  produced  a  stamp  of  animal  which  was 
eminently  suited  to  the  conditions  of  a  country  where  good  horses  were 
as  indispensable  in  those  days  as  railways  are  now.  The  New  South 
Wales  horse  was  tough,  hai'dy,  ancj  enduring.  Ho  throve  splendidly  on 
the  indigenous  vegetation,  and  was  capable,  without  detriment,  of 
performing  journeys  that,  even  now,  can  well  be  regarded  as  splendid. 

"  *  For  a  week  together  one  would,  on  a  pinch,  travel  from  fifty  to 
seventy  miles  a  days,  and  a  hundred  miles  a  day  has  often  been  covered 
by  the  Australian  horse.  The  journey  from  the  Burra  to  Adelaide  is  that 
distance,  and  some  of  the  old  colonists  have  accomplished  it  within 
twelve  hours  on  a  single  horse."  Equally  good  records  may  be  found  in 
other  places  where  Australian  horses  have  been  put  to  the  proof.  The 
stock  in  South  Australia  has  not  deteriorated.  It  has  been  strengthened 
and  improved  by  the  importation  of  some  of  the  best  blood  horses  and 
mares  of  the  mother  country.  The  horses  bred  here  bear  a  high  character, 
and  are  not  inferior  to  any  that  are  produced  in  others  parts  of  Australia. 
*  Stow:   South  Australia.     Adelaide,  18-51. 


294  SOll'H     ALS'l'RAl.lA. 

Much  of  the  stock  of  heavy  draught  horses  was  imported  at  one  time  from 
Tasmania,  but  the  introduction  of  similar  breeds  from  the  best  stnds  in 
Great  Britain  and  elsewhere  has  rendered  the  colony  quite  independent 
of  that  source  of  supply. 

Mules  at  one  lime  were  much  used  in  carting  ore  from  the  mines  and 
for  general  purposes  on  stations  in  the  bush.  They  were  found  to  be 
serviceable,  and  they  throve  and  worked  under  conditions  which  were 
not  favorable  to  animals  of  a  more  expensive  kind,  that  were  neither 
so  hardy  nor  so  enduring. 

In  the  North  camels  are  extensively  employed  in  keeping  up  com- 
munication with  distant  sheep  and  cattle  stations,  which  without  them, 
would  not  be  acces.sible,  unless  at  great  expense  and  loss  of  time.  The 
regions  of  the  province  where  the  camels  are  used  are  w-ell  adapted  to- 
their  constitutions  and  habits  both  as  regards  climate  and  food.  Their 
importance  in  developing  the  traffic  of  the  interior  where  roads  do  not  exist 
and  railways  cannot  be  made  is  now  fully  recognised.  Large  numbers  of 
them  have  been  imported  for  use  in  the  Far  North,  and  in  the  recent 
explorations  in  the  country  westw-ard  of  the  boundary  betweeu  South 
Australia  and  West  Australia,  which  was  organised  and  equipped  by  Sir 
T.  Elder,  they  were  employed  with  the  most  satisfactory  results.  There 
are  two  camel-breeding  stations  in  South  Australia — one  at  Heltana  and 
the  other  near  to  Hergott,  on  the  Transcontinental  railway  line.  The- 
animals  are  bred  for  station  purposes  and  for  travelling  into  the  interior,, 
w  hich,  Avithout  their  aid,  had  hitherto  proved  to  be  most  difficult. 
The  animals  bred  in  South  Australia  are  in  no  way  inferior  to  the  stock 
from  which  they  have  been  derived.  The  climate  suits  them,  and  the 
young  stock  are  healthy.  The  experiment  of  camel-breeding  has  been, 
completely  satisfactory. 

Ostrich  farming  has  taken  a  place  in  the  industries  of  the  colony 
within  the  last  ten  or  twelve  years.  There  is  an  establishment  near  Port 
Augiista,  where  the  rearing  of  ostriches  is  carried  on  on  a  large  and 
important  scale.  The  birds  -were  procured  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  have  multiplied  to  an  extent  that  shows  that  the  conditions  of  the 
country  where  they  are  located  are  such  as  are  favorable  to  their  habits. 
Up  to  the  present  time  the  export  of  feathers  has  not  been  large;  but 
there  is  good  reason  to  expect  that  in  a  short  time  South  Australian- 
grown  ostrich  feathers  will  take  a  prominent  place  in  the  trade. 

At  a  very  early  stage  of  the  existence  of  South  Australia  the  condition 
of  the  flocks  and  herds,  which  were  gradually  spreading  over  the  country, 
occupi<;d  the  attention  of  the  Government.  The  cattle  and  sheep  which 
were  imported  for  stocking  the  nms  brought  with  them  either  diseases 
or  the  germs   of   diseases,   which   haa  a  prejudicial   eflEect  upon   their 


PASTORAL.  295 

increase.  The  parasite  commonly  known  as  '•  scab  "  fucariis  psoroptes 
oris  J,  which  was  the  most  common  form  of  disease,  soon  developed  itself 
to  such  an  extent  as  seriously  to  affect  the  quality  as  well  as  the  quantity 
of  wool  ])roduced  in  the  colony,  and,  besides  impairing  the  general  health 
of  the  flocks,  restricted  their  productiveness  and  rendered  their  flesli 
unfit  for  human  food.  As  early  as  1840  an  Act  was  passed  for  the 
dealing  with  (-cab  in  sheep  and  preventing  its  spread.  This  Act  proved 
to  be  far  from  effective,  and  betAveen  that  date  and  1852  three  additional 
Acts  were  brought  into  operation.  In  the  last  year  a  law,  much  more 
stringent  than  any  of  the  ordinances  which  had  preceded  it,  was  enacted. 
It  compelled  sheepowners  to  dress  their  flocks  wherever  there  was  scab,  or 
the  conditions  under  which  their  flocks  existed  gave  reasonable  grounds 
for  suspicion  that  scab  prevailed  amongst  them.  Inspectors  of  sheep  were 
appointed  to  see  that  the  provisions  of  the  Act  were  duly  observed.  This 
legislation  was  not  followed  by  the  results  which  had  been  anticipated, 
and  four  short  amending  Acts  were  passed  in  order  to  remedy  certain 
defects  in  the  original  law,  which  was  frequently  ignored  altogether,  and 
in  many  cases  successfully  evaded.  In  1859  a  still  more  rigorous  Act 
was  brought  into  force.  It  imposed  penalties  on  stockowners  who  had 
scabby  sheep  on  their  runs,  and  compelled  them  to  take  out  licences  for 
terms  of  three  months  or  more  to  enable  them  to  dress  their  flocks,  on 
payment  of  a  fee  of  sixpence  per  head.  Increased  fees  were  imposed  in 
certain  cases,  and  until  the  disease  was  certified  by  the  inspectors  to  have 
been  eradicated,  all  infected  sheep  were  required  to  be  branded  with  the 
letter  S  as  a  general  warning  to  flockmasters.  The  new  Act  was  so  ablv 
administered  by  Mr.  H.  T.  Morris,  J. P.,  the  Chief  Inspector  of  Sheep, 
that  at  the  beginning  of  1865  scab  was  eradicated  from  the  colony;  at 
least,  as  far  as  close  examination  could  establish  the  fact,  scab  was  not 
known  to  exist  in  any  part  of  the  province.  Unfortunately  in  the  latter 
part  of  that  year  some  infected  sheep  either  strayed  or  were  brought 
across  the  border,  and  the  disease  once  more  spread  through  several 
flocks  with  which  infected  animals  had  come  into  contact.  In  1867,  in 
consequence  of  a  fresh  and  unexpected  outbreak  of  the  disease,  a  short 
Act  was  hurriedly  passed  through  Parliament,  which  provided  for  the 
proclamation  of  districts,  within  which  infected  or  suspected  sheep  were 
compulsorily  confined,  until  they  were  ascertained  by  the  inspectors  to  be 
free  from  scab.     This  measure  was  completely  successful. 

In  1870  the  last  licence  to  permit  sheepowners  to  dress  their  stock  for 
scab  was  issued,  and  within  a  few  months  after  the  beginning  of  1871 
the  Chief  Inspector  (Mr.  C.  J.  Valentine)  was  able  to  recommend  the 
removal  of  the  last  restriction  which  had  been  imposed.  Since  that  time 
scab  has  been  unknown  in  South  Australia. 


296  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

Up  to  this  time  very  little  attention  had  been  extended  to  other 
diseases  to  which  horses  and  horned  cattle  are  liable.  The  only 
lep;islation  on  the  subject  was  a  short  Act  which  prohibited  the  intro- 
duction of  animals  affected  with  pleur o -pneumonia .  The  increase  of 
other  ailments  in  cattle  and  the  necessity  for  [)reventing  the  introduction 
of  other  infectious  diseases  into  the  flocks  and  herds  of  South  Australia 
showed  the  necessity  for  further  legislation.  The  powers  conferred  on 
the  inspectors  of  stock  by  the  Public  Health  Act  were  found  to  be 
insufficient  and  ineffective,  because  those  powers  could  only  be  exercised 
with  regard  to  cattle  which  had  been  imported  into  the  province.  The 
Government,  in  1888,  introduced  an  Act  into  the  Legislature  to  provide 
against  the  spread  of  contagious  and  infectious  diseases  amongst  horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  and  other  animals,  &c.  This  Act  provides  for  the 
destruction  of  diseased  animals — as  well  as  meat  which  is  unfit  for 
human  consumption — and  for  the  detention  in  quarantine  of  animals 
within  certain  defined  limits,  so  as  to  prevent  them  from  moving  about 
the  coimtry.  It  deals  with  all  infectious  and  contagious  diseases  with 
which  animals  are  known  to  be  affected,  and  in  addition  prohibits  the 
introduction  of  any  animals  into  the  province,  except  under  well  defined 
restrictions.  This  Act  is  the  first  Act  which  has  been  passed  in  any  of 
the  colonies  to  provide  for  the  compulsory  inoculation  of  cattle  for  the 
preA'ention  of  pleur o-pneumonia.  The  Chief  Inspector  of  Stock  is  of 
opinion  that  when  a  full  staff  of  inspectors  is  established  throughout  the 
colony  contagious  diseases  amongst  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  pigs,  kc.  will 
be  completely  eradicated,  and  South  Australia  will  be  able  to  show  to  the 
world  flocks  and  hei'ds  free  from  all  contagious  or  infectious  disorders. 
As  it  is,  the  colony  shows  a  freedom  from  ailments  of  these  kinds  which 
will  compare  favorably  with  the  state  of  any  country  in  the  world. 


COMMERCE. 


•297 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

•COMMEKCE     01      THE      PROVINCE  —  I.MPOKT     AND     ExPORT      TrADES — TltEIH     \  ALVE  — 

Markets  for  South  Australian  Produce — Port  Adelaide — The  Marine 
Board — Shipping  Belonging  to  the  Province  -Ships  Inwards  and 
Outwards — Mail  Communication  avith  Europe— Steamships  and  Sailing 
Ships — Customs  Duties — Amount  Collected  at  Port  Adelaide — The 
Customs  Revenue — Population  and  Rate  per  Head  for  Ten  Years — 
Tonnage  and  Light  Dues — Exemptions  Therefrom — Table  of  Exports 
FROM  the  Province  for  Five  Years — Intercolonial  Trade— Table  of 
Custom  Duties  Collected  in  the  Province  for  Five  Years — The 
Principal  Outports— Wallaroo — Port  Pirie — ^Port  Augusta- South- 
eastern Ports— Victor  Harbor — The  River  Murray — Trade  on  the 
River — Trade  with  Foreign  Countries— Chief  Exports  to  those  Places 
— The  United  States — Commerce  with  that  Country  Limited — France 
— Value  of  Imports  and  Exports  from  Germany — Trade  with  Nor- 
way AND  Sweden,  Belgium,  Java — Lights  and  Lighthouses — Pilot 
Service— Chamber  of  Commerce— The  Currency — Bank  and  Banking 
Statistics— The  Savings  Bank— Post  Office — Telegraphs — Statistics — 
Postal  and  Telegraph  Rates. 

The  rise  and  progress  of  the  special  industries  from  which  the  principal 
productions  of  South  Australia  are  derived,  and  the  large  trade  which 
has  been  developed  by  them,  have  already  been  recorded  in  preceding 
chapters.  A  general  view  of  the  trade  of  the  province  will  show  the 
position  the  colony  occupies  in  the  commerce  of  the  Australian  group. 
For  the  last  ten  years,  with  one  exception  (in  1886),  the  combined 
import  and  export  trades  (in  money  value)  have  never  fallen  below 
£10.000,000  sterling,  and  in  1891  they  exceeded  the  sum  of  £20.000,000.- 
Notwithstauding  the  many  unfavorable  circumstances  which  have  affected 
production  during  the  last  three  or  four  years — such  as  deficient  cereal 
crops,  the  low  prices  of  copper  and  wheat,  and  the  fluctuations  in  the 
value  of  wool  in  the  London  market,  and  more  recently  of  silver — the 
colony  has  steadily  and  substantially  gained  ground  during  the  ten  years 
which  ended  in  1892.  The  proximity  of  our  eastern  frontier  to  the 
Broken  Ilill  silver  mines,  and  the  facilities  afforded  by  our  railways, 
enable  the  inhabitants  of  the  silver  mining  districts  to  draw  a  considerable 
portion  of  their  supplies  from  South  Australia,  or  through  her  agency. 
A  very  large  intercolonial  trade  has  grown  up  in  conseipience.  The 
general  increase  in  the  imports  into  and  the  exports  from  the  province  is 
shown  in  the  following  table,  taken  from  the  official  returns  for  1892. 


298 


SOUTH    AX  STRALIA. 


Decennial  Return  sfmving  the   Combined  Import  and  Export   Trade  of 

South  Australia. 


Combined 

Imports 

Exports 

Year. 

Import 

and 
Export 
Trade. 

Total 
Imports. 

Retained  for 
Home 
Consump- 
tion. 

Imports 
Re-exported. 

Total 
Exports. 

of 

Produce 

of  the 

Colony. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

1883    .... 

11,193,516 

6,310,055 

4.914,421 

1,395,634 

4,883,461 

3,487,827 

1884    

12,373,057 

5,749,353 

4,417,871 

1,331,482 

6,623,704 

5,292,222 

1885    .... 

10,706,159 

5,289,014 

4,257,468 

1,031,546 

5,417,145 

4,385,599 

1886    .... 

9.341,758 

4,852,750 

3,185,880 

1,666,780 

4,489,008 

2,822,138 

1887    .... 

10,427,073 

5,096,293 

3, 1 '4,074 

1,982,219 

5,330,780 

3,348,561 

1888    

12,397,736 

5,413,638 

3,^00,313 

2,313,325 

6,984,098 

4,670,773 

1889    

14,063,816 

6,804,451 

3,239,778 

3,564,673 

7,259,365 

3,694,692 

1890    

17,090,051 

8,262,673 

3,845,357 

4.417,316 

8,827,378 

4,410,062 

[891    

20,468,591 

9,956,542 

4,129,806 

5,826,736 

10,512,049 

4,685,313 

1892    

15,214,717 

7,395.178 

2,807,898 

4,587,280 

7,819,539 

3.232,259 

From  the  above  the  following  facts  are  derived : — The  value  of  the 
combined  imports  and  exports  for  the  year  1891,  the  year  of  the  greatest 
trade  (£20,468,591 ),  gives  the  rate  of  £63  17s.  7d.  per  head  of  the  popu- 
lation for  that  year.  The  value  of  the  imports  (£9,956,542)  is  equal  to 
£31  Is.  5d.  per  head,  and  that  of  the  exports  (£10,512,049)  shows  the 
rate  of  £32  16s.  2d.  per  head. 

The  imports  consumed  in  the  colony,  valued  at  £4,129,806,  amount  to 
£12  I7.S.  Id.  per  head,  and  the  exports  the  produce  of  the  colony 
(£4,685,313)  amount  to  £14  12s.  5d.  per  head.  In  the  following  year 
there  was  a  falling  off  in  the  combined  exports  and  imports  to  the  extent 
of  about  one-fourth.  That  year,  however,  was  one  of  very  general  depres- 
sion, which  was  greatly  aggravated  by  the  closing  of  the  Broken  Hill 
mines,  owing  to  a  strike  which  lasted  for  several  weeks.  Taking  the 
average  of  ten  years  ending  in  1892  the  annual  value  of  the  combined 
imports  and  exports  has  been  £13,327,674.  This  gives  an  annual  mean 
of  £42  16s.  lOd.  per  head  of  the  mean  population  for  the  period,  311,069. 
The  mean  annual  imports  amount  to  £6,512,995.  or  £20  18s.  9d.  per 
head.  The  mean  annual  exports  come  to  £6.814,653,  or  £21  18s.  Id. 
per  head.  The  imports  consumed  in  the  colony  show  an  annual  mean  of 
£3,701,287,  or  £11  17s.  lid.  per  head,  and  the  mean  yearly  exports,, 
being  the  produce  of  the  colony,  total  £4,002,945,  or  £12  17s.  5d.  per 
head. 

The  principal  market  for  the  produce  of  South  Australia  is,  of  course, 
England.  In  1892  the  total  value  of  the  exports  to  the  United  Kingdom 
amounted  to  £3,167,298,  or  £9  10s.  lid.  per  head  of  the  population. 
The  imports  from  the  mother  country  in  the  same  year  were  valued  at 


COMMERCE. 


299 


£2,372,18.5,  or  £7  3s.  per  head.  The  balance  in  the  value  of  exports 
over  imports  was  £795,113,  or  £2  7s.  lid.  per  head  in  favor  of  South 
Australia. 

The  following  briefly  summarises  the  value  of  the  imports  and  exports 
for  the  year  : — 


Imports. 

Exports. 

Thp  United  Kinardom     

£ 

2,372,185 

4,052.896 

219,405 

750,692 

£7.395.178 

£ 
3.167,298 

3,610,852 

716,629 

The  Australian  Colonies    

Other  British  Possessions 

Foreign  Countries 

324,760 

All  Countries 

£7,819,539 

The  province  of  South  Australia  is  almost  without  navigable  inland 
waters,  so  that  her  seaports  are  for  the  most  part  situated  on  the  coast. 
The  coastlines  of  Spencer's  Gulf  and  St.  Vincent's  Gulf,  however, 
afford  sites  for  numerous  shipping  places  at  which  inland  produce 
brought  to  the  sea  by  railway  and  road  can  be  safely  placed  on  shipboard 
for  transport.  The  principal  harbor  in  the  province  is  Port  Adelaide, 
formed  by  an  arm  of  the  sea  about  eight  or  nine  miles  long  running 
parallel  to  the  coast  at  a  distance  of  about  a  mile  and  a  half.  Near 
the  southern  end  of  this  inlet  on  the  eastern  side  the  town  of  Port 
Adelaide  is  built.  It  is  well  supplied  with  warehouses  and  bonded  stores, 
and  has  extensive  and  commodious  wharves.  The  Port  is  connected  w'ith 
the  capital  by  a  railroad  seven  miles  and  a  half  in  length,  which  is 
extended  along  the  wharves,  from  which  merchandise  can  be  loaded  into 
trucks  from  the  shipping  and  from  the  trucks  into  the  vessels  which  lie 
alongside.  Port  Adelaide  contains  about  6,000  inhabitants.  It  is 
well  lighted  with  gas,  and  has  an  abundant  water  supply  drawn  fi-om 
the  Adelaide  waterworks  system,  which  begins  at  the  Torrens  gorge 
in  the  hills,  about  ten  miles  east  of  the  city.  Merchandise  can  be  trans- 
ported from  the  Port  to  any  station  on  the  railway  lines  w'hich  are  con- 
nected with  Adelaide.  Port  Adelaide  finds  access  to  LeFevre's  Peninsula 
by  means  of  a  bridge,  which  carries  the  railway  trains  and  at  the  same 
time  is  available  for  carriages  and  foot  passengers.  On  the  peninsula 
there  is  the  corporation  of  the  Semaphore,  which  contains  over  7,000 
inhabitants.  Port  Adelaide  and  the  Semaphore  are  included  in  one 
electoral  district,  which  return  two  members  to  the  House  of  Assembly. 


300 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 


The  shipping  is  berthed  principally  in  the  stream  or  along  the  wharves, 
but  there  is  a  clock  at  the  port  in  which  large  ships  can  be  accommo- 
dated. On  the  shore  of  the  peninsula  opposite  to  the  port  there  are 
extensive  Government  workshops,  some  ship  yards,  and  a  patent  slip 
suitable  for  large  vessels  which  may  require  repairs.  Near  the  mouth  of 
the  Port  River,  on  the  seacoast,  stands  a  lighthouse,  the  light  from 
which  is  visible  for  about  twenty-five  miles.  The  light  revolves  and 
flashes  every  thirty  seconds.  The  navigation  of  the  channel  to  the  port 
was  formerly  obstructed  by  two  limestone  bars,  each  more  than  a  mile 
iong.  These  have  been  dredged  awa}'  so  as  to  leave  a  fairway  of  300ft. 
with  a  depth  of  24ft.  This  channel  is  marked  off  by  thirteen  light 
beacons,  each  showing  a  light  after  sunset.  That  at  the  entrance  is 
red,  the  others  show  white  lights  along  the  course  of  the  fairway.  The 
river  can,  in  consequence,  be  navigated  in  safety  by  night  as  well  as  by 
day.  There  is  an  efficient  pilot  service  for  the  assistance  of  shipmasters 
who  are  strangers  to  South  Australian  waters.  Port  Adelaide  is  the 
head  quarters  of  the  Customs  Department. 

The  maritime  affairs  of  the  province  are  under  the  control  of  the 
Marine  Board,  presided  over  by  the  Collector  of  Customs.  The  board  is 
constituted  by  wardens,  who  are  in  part  nominated  and  in  part  elected  by 
shipowners  and  others.  It  controls  the  lighthouses  within  the  limits  of 
the  colony,  regulates  the  different  harbors  and  their  moorings,  licenses 
pilots,  takes  cognisance  of  ofiences  against  the  shipping  regulations, 
and  deals  with  the  certificates  of  masters  and  officers  of  ships  who  may 
endanger  the  safety  of  vessels  by  reason  of  neglect,  incompetency,  or 
some  default  in  navigation.  All  the  harbor  works,  such  as  deepening 
operations  and  other  improvements,  are  carried  out  under  its  direction 
and  superintendence.  The  Marine  Board  has  the  management  of  the 
jetties  at  the  outports,  unless  they  are  taken  charge  of  by  local  bodies, 
and  also  of  the  lifeboats,  of  which  five  are  stationed  at  suitable  places  on 
the  coast ;  there  are  also  twelve  rocket  stations. 

The  table  below  shows  the  number  of  steamships  and  sailing  vessels 
belonging  to  Port  Adelaide  for  the  ten  years  ending  in  1892  : — 


uj 

'^ 

0 

0 

0 

^ 

ScJS 

0) 

be 

icZ 

bo 

c 

a 

s 

I. 

s 

S 

s 

— ■  X 

a 

Zi 

0 

■3J5 

0 

aj 

2 

0 

■3  i. 

0 

>• 

T. 

c- 

■1> 

H 

r^ 

X 

C"* 

■jr.  > 

^ 

1883 

84 

10,781 

218 

26,425 

1888 

81 

8,755 

220 

25,890 

1884 

88 

10,665 

220 

27,931 

1889 

86 

10,171 

218 

25,164 

188s 

91 

10,979 

224 

27.4t'7 

1890 

«S 

10,051 

219 

25,263 

1886 

92 

11,716 

220 

26,767 

I89I 

89 

14,336 

221 

25,403 

1887 

«4 

10,013 

225 

27,473 

1892 

90 

15,852 

215 

23,909 

COMMERCE. 


301 


The  mimber  of  vessels  which  entered  Port  Adelaide  in   1892  appears 
below  : — 


British. 

Foreign. 

With  cargo    

In  ballast   

No. 
540 
17 

Tons. 
756,018 
9,019 

With  cargo 

In  ballast     

Totals 

No. 
114 
16 

Tons. 
206,445 

9,515 



Totals  . . 

557 

765,037 

130 

215,960 

Makin^^  a  total  of  687  vessels  of  980,997  tons. 

The  number  of  vessels  which  cleaved  from  Port  Adelaide  in  the  same 
year  was : — 


British. 

Foreign. 

With  cargo    

In  ballast 

No. 
467 
51 

Tons. 

696,830 

39,156 

735,986 

With  cargo 

In  ballast     

Totals 

No. 

57 
34 

Tons. 

176,570 

30,358 

Totals     

518 

121 

206,918 

Port  Adelt^ide  is  the  port  of  call  for  the  royal  mail  steamers,  but  these 
vessels  do  not  come  into  the  Port  River  Their  stay  is  very  brief — not 
more  than  a  few  hours,  and  they  usually  anchor  in  Largs  Bay,  where  the 
mails  and  such  cargo  as  may  reqiure  to  be  shipped  or  landed  are  trans- 
ported to  and  fro  by  means  of  steam  launches  and  lighters.  The 
principal  steamship  com^janies  whose  vessels  call  at  Largs  Bay  are  the 
Peninsular  and  (Jriental  8team  Navigation  Co.,  the  Orient  Line,  the 
Messageries  Maritimes  (French),  and  the  Nord  Deutscher  (German). 
There  is  a  mail  to  England  every  week,  the  service  being  performed 
alternateh-  by  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  and  the  Orient  boats.  Mails 
are  also  made  up  for  the  P^'rench  and  German  steamers  as  required. 
Besides  these  regular  traders  other  steamships  visit  South  Australian 
waters  from  time  to  time  as  inducements  present  themselves.  The  largest 
part  of  the  South  Australian  maritime  trade  is  carried  on  by  steamers. 
In  the  year  1892  693  steamships  came  to  the  colony,  the  aggregate 
measurements  of  which  amoimted  to  9o3,201  tons  ;  in  the  same  period 
313  sailing  ships,  measuring  249,067  tons,  entered  South  Australian  ports. 
The  clearances  of  steam  and  sailing  craft  were  about  the  same  in  number 
in  the  above  year. 

The  Customs  duties  are  levied  on  im})orted  merchandise  by  special 
rates,  and  on  an  ad  valorem   scale :  at   the  same  time  there  is  a  free  list. 


302 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 


The  former  vary,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  articles  charged  with 
<luty,  and  the  latter  range  between  10  and  25  per  cent.  The  following 
figures  give  the  amount  of  duties  collected  at  Port  Adelaide  for  five  years 


ending  with  1892:— 

i888. 

£ 
494,019 

82,498 
476,517 

1889. 

1890. 

1891. 

1892. 

Port  Adelaide 

470,105 
97,199 

534,181 
1^0,503 

y; 

565TI89 
107,588 

672,777 

^20,827 

Adelaide  Branch     

98,961 

567,304 

644,684 

619,788 

The  table  below  shows  the  net  Customs  revenue  for  ten  years  ending 
in  1892,  the  mean  population,  and  the  amount  per  head  of  taxation  raised 
by  Customs  duties:  — 


Year. 


Customs 
Revenue. 


1884.. 
1885., 
i886.. 


1888. 
1889. 
1890. 
1891. 
1892. 


618. 811 
517,980 

57m358 
435,918 
468,037 

533,691 
529,505 
602,478 

614,957 
580,715 


Rate  per 
Head. 


300,100 

307,433 
306, 2  1 2 

304,336 
308,215 
306,641 
311,112 

314,195 


£    s.    d. 

2       I       2 
I    16     8i 


I  i: 


J2 


J.3',/ 


1,721 


I     8     7a 


I  10  4^ 

I  14  9^ 

I  14  oi 

I  18  4i 

I  18  I 

I  15  o 


XoTE. — In  the  year  1883  the  highest  rate  of  ad  valorem  duty  was  10  per  cent. ;  in 
1885  the  duties  on  some  articles  were  increased  to  15  and  20  per  cent.  ;  and  in  1887  a 
further  increase  on  some  commodities  to  25  per  cent,  took  place.  The  tariff  includes  an 
■extensive  free  list. 

Besides  the  Customs  duties,  tonnage  and  light  dues  are  levied  on  ships 
visiting  the  colony,  which  vary  according  to  the  size  of  the  vessels.  There 
are  exceptions,  however,  such  as  British  war  vessels  and  troop  ships, 
foreign  war  ships,  ships  of  the  Royal  Yacht  Squadron,  pleasure  yachts, 
and  ships  refitting  or  oiitfitting  for  whale  fisheries. 


COMMEKCE. 


303 


The  following  statement  shows  the  gross  amount  of  Customs  duties 
received  upon  the  principal  and  other  articles  imported  subject  to  duty 
for  the  years  1888-92  :— 


Rated  Goods — 

Beer     

Boots  and  shoes 

Candles   

Cement    

Cheese     

Chicory   

•Chocolate  and  cocoa 

•Coffee 

Fish,  Preserved 

Fruits,  Diied 

Hops    

Iron — Galvanized  corrugated 

Live  stock 

Ma]t     

Oil,  in  bulk     

Potatoes 

Rice     

Salt 

Spirits 

Sugar — Molasses  and  treacle 

Tea 

Tobacco,  cigars,  and  snuff    . . 

Wines 

Woods     

All  other  rated  articles 


Ad  valorem — 

Agricultural  implements  

Apparel  and  slops 

Boots  and  shoes 

Carpeting    

Clocks,  watches,  and  jewellery.. 

Drapery 

Drugs 

Earthen  and  china  ware    

Fancy  goods       

Furniture    

Leather   

Musical  instruments 

Plate  and  plated  ware     

Tweeds  and  cloth 

All  other  ad  valorem  goods    .... 


Excise  duty  on  colonial  distilled 

spirits 

Total    gross    revenue    collected 


1888. 


l88q. 


1890. 


i8qi. 


£ 

12,997 
10,963 

5,235 
1,800 

5,579 
1,728 

2,743 
4,817 
5,397 
18,012 
6679 
8,071 

7,371 
8,372 

15,677 
1,694 
2,  (66 

.5,J53 

98,139 
38,041 

32,002 

51,345 

4,802 

8,376 

56,077 


13,567 

11,773 
4,706 
1,402 
3,868 

1,542 
2,256 

4,350 
6,045 

18,363 
6.584 
2,391 
9,759 
7,520 

14,594 

3,093 
2,120 

1,295 

102,381 

40,263 

27,821 

58,183 

4.817 

4,977 

48,419 


411,436  1   402,087 


1,656 

31,932 
6,212 
2,631 
4,311 

55.743 
6,239 
2.397 
5,290 
4,972 

1-439 
2,106 

2,130 
10,588 

56,361 


1,661 

33,141 

6.113 

2.268 

4,496 

47,907 
6,259 
3,023 

4,509 
5,460 

959 

2,156 

2,688 

8,742 

56,897 


2,623 


3,712 


£ 

14,854 
9,964 
5,785 
1,736 

1,275 
2,200 

3,488 
4,625 

8,139 
20,113 

7,438 

4,457 

16,373 
8,692 

19,367 
3,947 
2,360 

1,959 

111,413 

43,532 

27,690 

63,763 

4,732 
11,019 
61,924 


460,851 

2,208 

38,883 

6,373 

2,551 

6,846 

50,812 

7,430 

3,309 

5,736 

7,688 

878 

3,667 

2,748 

8.715 
66,390 


£ 

13,585 
9,358 
3,809 

1,932 

358 

1,494 

4.461 

7,300 

19,016 

5,907 

6,923 

10,616 

8,169 

20,056 

2,405 

2,541 

•■532 

108,258 

41,689 

29,577 

70,088 

4,020 

8,344 
63,218 


194,007  186,279  I  214,234 


4,522 


from  Customs  duties  i  608,066   592,078   679,607 


2,304 
40,716 
6,804 
2,819 
7,8b8 
56,070 
7,553 
3,135 
6,888 

8,080 
1,119 
3,967 
4,667 
9,218 

87.334 


6.228 


)8g2. 


£ 
11,300 

7,340 
4,066 
1,856 
1,123 
843 
3,049 
4,470 
6,867 

22,551 
5.833 
3,591 

13,644 

10,616 

18,680 

207 

2,539 

1,041 

102,051 

41.314 
30,560 
70,318 
3,342 
9,772 
62,246 


448.239  439,219 


1,668 

36,429 
6,067 
1.982 
4,772 

44-759 
6,635 

3,589 
4,903 
6,839 
768 
3,027 

3-357 
6,980 

71,597 


248,542      203.372 


6,410 


703,009      649,001 


304 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 


lielow  is  added  an  abstract  showinjj  the  value  of  the  exports  from  the 
province  for  five  years  ending  in  1892  : — 


-Coin 


Bark    . 
Bullion- 
Drapery  

Eggs    .■ 

Grain  and  Hour  . .  . . 
Hay  and  chaff  . .  . . 
Hides  and  skins . . . . 
Jams  and  preserves 

Leather   

Live  stock 

Metal — Copper  . .  . . 
Silver-lead 

Ore — Copper 

Silver-lead   . . 

Spirits 

Sugar      

Tallow     

Wine    

Wool   


Other  goods 


Total  exports. 


1888. 


1880. 


£ 
41,299 

84.213 

121,292 

45.717 

2,212,593 

64,106 

220,734 
25.834 
33,929 
30,749 

254,062 

914,569 
73,500 
5,233 
34,197 
33,326 
11,878 

47,444 
[,610,456 

[,119,067 


/■ 

42,979 
168,839 

71,522 

37,899 
966.908 

117,276 

186,879 

19,566 

40,227 

81,462 

214,496 

1,900,932 

82,890 

15,277 

32,039 

38,746 

9,096 

53,277 
2,194,701 

984,354 


6,984,098 


7,259,365 


1890. 


56,000 
687,712 

85.788 

44.204 
2,023,943 

18,340 
175,220 

19,593 
21,429 

64,294 

155.687 
2,189,120* 

71,575 
20,521 

30,498 
43,656 
16,952 

57,674 
1,871,277 

1,173,889 


8,827,378 


1801. 


£ 
40,090 

560,582 

116,867 

48,544 

1,935,630 

18,305 

231,353 
19,294 

32,497 

77,466 

182,886 

3,i66,i2ot 
53,175 
104,391 
34,197 
44,743 
31,929 
70,122 

2,166,125 

1,577,733 


10,512,049 


£ 
34,244 
633,426 

78,554 
27,771 
952,20 

23,189 

225,684 

18,032 

41,373 
53,597 
133,503 
2,241,706+ 

43,485 
19,293 

29,724 

64,107 

22,793 

72,387 

1,954,403 

1,150,063 


7,819,539 


*  Includes  metal — Lead,  ;£^82,294.  t  Includes  metal— Lead,  ;^  119,017. 

t  Includes  metal — Lead,  £'111,788. 

Formerly  a  large  intercolonial  trade  in  wheat  and  flour  was  carried  on,, 
but  the  market  for  South  Avistralian  produce  in  the  other  colonies  has 
gradually  become  much  restricted.  Victoria  has  supplied  her  own  wants 
for  some  years,  and  now  exports  her  surplus  cereal  produce.  New  South 
Wales  may  be  expected  to  do  so  within  a  short  period.  These  circum- 
stances necessarily  limit  the  demand  for  our  cereals  to  those  Australian 
colonies  which  do  not  produce  enough  for  themselves,  and  tend  to 
confine  the  export  of  South  Australian  breadstuft's  principally  to  the 
English  market. 

The  extension  of  agricultural  settlement  and  the  founding  of  new 
centres  of  population  necessitated  the  establisliment  of  other  ports  besides 
Port  Adelaide,  of  which  there  are  now  twenty-four,  situated  at  various 
points  on  the  seaboard  and  on  the  River  Murray.  These  have  drawn 
away  some  of  the  trade  from  Port  Adelaide,  which  for  many  years  was 
the  onlv  shipping  place  in  the  province.  With  the  discovery  of  the  copper 
mines  at  Wallaroo  and  Moonta,  the  port  of  Wallaroo  came  into  existence, 
and  for  several  years  it  was  the  most  prosperous  of  the  outports.  The 
gradual  decline  in  the  price  of  copper,  and  the  consequent  diminution  of 


COMMERCE.  305 

the  quantity  i)roduced,  have  considerably  lessened  its  importance,  although 
a  profitable  trade  is  still  carried  on  there.  The  bay  at  Wallaroo,  which 
constitutes  the  harbor,  is  commodious  and  safe,  and  has  excellent 
anchorage  :  but  the  ships  visiting  the  place  moor  alongside  the  jetty, 
which  is  connected  with  Kadina  by  railway,  and  also  with  Moonta,  from 
which  the  copper  ore  is  brought  down  to  the  sea.  It  is  situated  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  Spencer's  Gulf,  on  Yorke's  Peninsula.  Large  smelting 
works  are  established  there,  which  are  supplied  with  coal  from  New- 
castle, New  South  Wales.  The  richest  kinds  of  ore  are  treated  there  and 
reduced  to  fine  copper.  Formerly  the  inferior  grades  were  sent  to  New- 
castle as  ballast  in  the  colliers  which  brought  the  coal,  to  be  dealt  with 
at  smelting  works  established  there,  where  coal  could  be  procured  at 
the  cheapest  rate.  There  is  an  extensive  area  of  agricultural  land  on 
Yorke's  Peninsula  to  the  south,  and  inland  to  the  north  and  east,  the 
produce  of  which  i^  brought  do\\Ti  to  Wallaroo  Bay  for  shipment.  The 
population  of  the  mining  district  of  Wallaroo,  which  comprises  Wallaroo, 
Kadina,  and  Moonta,  is  about  5,000 ;  but  with  the  adjacent  agricultural 
districts,  more  or  less  connected  with  the  mining  centres,  it  contains 
about  15,000  souls. 

Port  Pirie,  which  lies  to  the  north  of  Wallaroo,  has  lately  become  a 
place  of  considerable  importance.  It  rests  on  an  arm  of  the  sea,  not 
dissimilar  in  character  to  that  at  Port  Adelaide.  The  entrance  was 
blocked  by  a  bar,  and  the  channel  was  shallow,  but  deepening  operations 
have  been  carried  on  there,  and  large  ships  can  now  be  brought  up  to  the 
wharves,  which  are  extensive,  and  are  connected  with  the  railway.  The 
trade  at  this  town  is  mainly  dependent  on  the  Broken  Hill  mines,  a  very 
large  quantity  of  the  produce  of  these  mines  being  sent  thither. 
Extensive  smelting  and  ore-reducing  and  refining  works  are  established 
there,  and  they  furnish  employment  to  a  great  number  of  persons.  The 
population  is  about  3,000.  A  strike  of  the  miners,  which  took  place  at 
Broken  Hill  during  1892,  seriously  crippled  the  trade  of  Port  Pirie 
during  its  continuance,  but  it  has  now  recovered  from  the  efPccts  of 
the  disturbance.  Port  Pirie  forms  an  outlet  for  the  extensive  agricul- 
tural districts  which  are  accommodated  by  the  railway  leading  from 
Broken  Hill.  It  i>^  a  corporate  town,  and  is  well  lighted  and  supplied 
with  water. 

Port  Augiista,  the  most  northern  port  in  the  province,  is  situated 
at  the  head  of  Spencer's  Gulf,  where  the  town  is  built.  It  is  one  of 
the  termini  of  the  Transcontinental  railway  line,  and  the  shipping  place 
for  the  pastoral  produce  of  the  country  to  the  north  and  west.  Almost  all 
the  wool  which  is  raised  on  the  north-eastern  sheep  runs  is  sent  thither 
for  shipment.  Ships  of  large  tonnage  can  come  up  to  the  wharf  in  tlie 
u 


306  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

town.     As  the  shores  close  in,  the  appearance  of  the   arm  of   tlie  sea 
resembles  that  of  a  tidal  river.     It  deceived  Captain  Flinders  when  he 
discovered  it.     He  had  expected  to  find  a  stream  of  fresh  water  at  the 
head  of  the  indentation  in  the  coast,  but  was  sorely  disappointed.      It  is  a 
corporate  town,  well  supplied  with  water  and  very  conveniently  laid  out. 
Port  Augusta  gives  its  name  to  a  Roman  Catholic  Episcopal  See,  which 
includes  the  northern   portion   of    South  Australia  proper.     It  contains 
about  7,000  inhabitants.     Ever  since  its  establishment,  in  the  time  of  Sir 
Henry  Young,  after  Avhose  wife  it  was  named,  Port  Augusta  has  been 
growing  in  importance,  and  eventually  must  become  the  depot  for  all  the 
stock  and  wool  produced  in  the  south-west  districts  of  Queensland,  and 
of  which  it  already  receives  a  large  part.  A  railway  line  to  the  Queensland 
border   has  been  contemplated  for   some  years  past,  although  no  active 
steps  have   yet  been  taken  to  put  the   project  into  execution.     In   all 
probability  the  subject  will  be  taken  in  hand  at  no  very  distant  date.     The 
passage  by  water  to  the  head  of  the  gulf  from  the  Eastern  Shoal,  where 
the  land  begins  to  close  in,  is  probably  one  of  the  most  picturesque  to  be 
found  in  the  colony.     The  Flinders  Range  approaches  it  very  nearly.    The 
scenery  is  wild,  rugged,  and  almost  Alpine  in  grandeur.     The  singular 
eminence  called  the  Devil's  Peak,  which  is  the  highest  point  visible  from 
the  water,  forms   a   striking  object,  towering  above   all  the  surrounding 
hills.     It  is  remarkable  in   outline,  tapering  almost  to   a  point,  which 
seems  as   if  it   had  been  twisted  at  the  top  by  some  violent  com-ulsion. 
About  twenty  miles  to  the  north  lies  the  township  of   Quorn.  the  centre 
of  a  fertile   agricultural  district,   and    the    place  where    the    Northern 
railway  from  Adelaide  joins  on  to  the  Transcontinental  line.     The  line 
from  Port  Augusta  north  to  and  through  Quorn  into  the  Far  North  is 
made  on  the  narrow  gauge  of  3ft.  6in. 

In  the  earlier  days  of  the  colony  a  considerable  amount  of  trade  was 
carried  on  with  the  south-eastern  districts  through  Guichen  Bay  and 
MacDonnell  Bay,  which  lie  on  the  south  coast  not  far  from  the 
Victorian  border.  These  places  are  now  practically  abandoned.  They  were 
dangerous  open  roadsteads  with  bad  anchorage,  and  at  times  unapproach- 
able. Many  ships  were  lost  there.  The  construction  of  railways  into 
the  south-eastern  country  and  on  to  Melbourne  has  diverted  what  traffic 
there  was  to  Rivoli  Bay  and  Lacepede  Bay,  where  there  is  shelter  at  all 
times  and  good  anchorage.  Lacepede  Bay  is  singularly  free  from  sea 
dangers,  being  always  calm,  no  matter  what  weather  may  prevail  in  the 
ocean  outside.  The  former  bay  takes  most  of  the  trade  from  the  western 
districts  of  Victoria  which  are  contiguous  to  our  eastern  boundary. 

Victor  Harbor,  at  the  north-western  end  of  Encounter  Bay,  on  the 
south  coast,   has  a  splendid  harbor  and  excellent  anchorage.       It  was 


COMMERCE.  307 

formed  by  running  out  a  breakwater  east  from  Granite  Island.  Ships 
tif  any  tonnage,  and  in  large  numbers,  could  find  suitable  and  safe 
quarters  there.  It  is  not  much  in  use,  however.  The  produce  which 
comes  down  the  Murray  from  the  interior  must  be  unloaded  at  Goolwa 
on  to  railway  trucks,  and  at  Victor  Harbor  unloaded  again  into  lighters 
for  shipment.  This  is  a  serious  disadvantage,  because  the  river  steamers 
discharge  into  railway  trucks  at  Morgan  and  the  wool  is  transported  to 
the  wharves  at  Port  Adelaide  without  delay.  The  breakwater  was  a  costly 
work,  and  is  effective  for  all  maritime  purposes,  but  as  a  commercial 
amdertaking  it  has  not  been  a  success.  The  outlay  on  the  breakwater 
and  jetty  was  £115,000, 

A  considerable  quantity  of  the  wool  grown  in  the  country  bordering 
on  the  River  Murray  is  brought  to  South  Australia,  the  cheapness  of 
water  carriage  down  the  river  forming  the  chief  inducement  to  ship  the 
wool  to  England  and  elsewhere  from  South  Australia.  There  is  much 
competition  amongst  the  colonies  w^hich  abut  upon  the  Murray  and  its 
affliients,  but  the  railways  which  join  the  stream  a  long  w^ay  above 
the  boundary  of  this  colony  take  away  from  it  an  immense  quantity  of 
the  can-ying  trade. 

The  principal  foreign  countries  to  which  the  colony  exports  produce 
are  Belgium,  France,  Germany,  Java,  New  Caledonia,  and  the  United 
States.  The  chief  articles  of  commerce  are  wool  and  breadstuffs.  The 
foreign  States  from  which  goods  are  imported  into  the  province  are 
Belgium,  China,  France,  Germany,  Norway  and  Sweden,  and  the  United 
States.  The  trade  with  China  (import)  has  fallen  away  greatly  within 
the  last  four  years,  but  the  trade  with  Ceylon,  India,  Hong  Kong, 
Singapore,  and  British  India  has  compensated  for  the  decline  in  the 
business  with  China.  Much  of  the  tea  which  came  into  the  colony 
from  China  has  been  supplanted  by  supplies  from  Ceylon  and  India, 
;and  the  importations  from  those  ])laces  are  likely  to  grow  larger  every 
year. 

The  commercial  interchange  with  the  United  States  of  America  has 
never  been  extensiA^e.  The  exports  thither  have  irot  amounted  to 
£62,000  in  any  one  of  the  last  five  years.  During  the  whole  of  that 
period  the  value  of  South  Australian  produce  which  has  been  exported 
to  the  States  was  no  more  than  £201,278.  The  largest  importation  from 
the  United  States  during  the  last  five  years  was  to  the  value  of  £319,005, 
and  the  total  for  the  whole  period  was  valued  at  £1,131,996.  The  chief 
articles  which  the  colony  takes  from  America  are  kerosene  and  other 
illuminating  oils,  hardware,  timber,  and  tobacco.  At  present  South 
Australia  has  little  to  offer  to  her  in  exchange  except  wool;  but  the  duty 
levied  on  it  in  the  States  is  so  high  as  to  be  virtually  prohibitory. 


308 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 


The  trade  with  France  is  small.  The  imports  from  that  country  were 
something  below  £90,000  during  the  last  five  years,  and  in  the  same 
period  the  exports  thither  exceeded  half  a  million  sterling.  The  trade, 
however,  is  very  uncertain.  The  exports  to  Germany  amounted  to 
£173,764  in  the  five  years  ending  in  1892,  the  principal  article  being 
wool;  the  imports  thence  for  the  same  term  were  valued  at  £1,051,952^ 
the  goods  being  of  a  miscellaneous  character.  Norway  and  Sweden  sup- 
plied the  colony  with  produce,  chiefly  timber,  to  the  value  of  £257,853- 
in  the  five  years  to  the  end  of  1892,  but  took  nothing  from  South 
Australia  in  return.  A  trade  is  gradually  growdng  with  Belgium.  In 
the  five  years  ending  in  1892  she  imported  goods  valued  at  £78.621,  and. 
received  from  the  colony  produce  to  the  extent  of  £409,149.  The 
Dutch  settlement  of  Java  is  a  constant,  but  not  a  large,  customer  for 
South  Australian  breadstuffs.  The  value  of  the  exports  to  that  island 
was  £75,011  for  the  five  years  ending  in  1892,  and  the  imports  thence 
came  to  £243,604. 

The  total  value  of  the  foreign  trade  of  South  Australia  for  the  five 
years  ending  in  1892  is  shown  in  the  figures  below.  It  amounts  to 
£4,708,557. 


Yeai-b— 

1888. 

1889. 

1890. 

£ 

660,083 

278,453 

1891. 

1892. 

Imports 

Exports 

302,542 
441.253 

411,182 

339,"3 

841,590 
358,888 

£ 
750,692 

324,760 

Totals     

743,795 

750,296 

938,536 

1,200,478 

1,075,452 

The  coast  of  South  Australia  is  well  lighted.  There  are  twenty-two 
principal  lighthouses  on  the  seaboard  in  South  Australian  waters,  which 
extends  for  about  1,600  nautical  miles  ;  and  the  navigation,  as  far  as  lights 
assist  it,  is  generally  free  from  danger.  Besides  these,  lights  on  jetties 
which  project  into  the  sea  are  shown  on  seven  of  the  most  important. 
The  channel  at  Port  Adelaide  is  marked  by  thirteen  light  beacons,  and 
the  arm  of  the  sea  w'hich  runs  up  to  Port  Pirie  by  ten  light  beacons. 
Both  of  these  inlets  can  be  navigated  after  dark. 

South  Australia  possesses  an  efficient  staff  of  pilots  for  all  the  ports. 
Sea  pilotage  is  not  compulsory  on  shipmasters,  but  pilots'  services  are 


COMMEKCE.  309 

indispensable  for  all  ships  entering  or  leaving  ports.  At  Port  Adelaide 
masters  of  vessels  which  trade  regularly  to  and  fro,  on  satisfying  the 
Marine  Board  of  their  competency  to  pilot  their  own  ships,  can  obtain 
certificates  of  exemption  from  harbor  pilotage. 

A  Chamber  of  Commerce  is  established  in  Adelaide,  composed  of  the 
principal  business  men  in  the  city.  It  concerns  itself  with  all  subjects 
which  affect  trade  and  shipping  and  other  affairs  connected  with  them. 
It  is  the  medium  of  communication  between  the  mercantile  community 
and  the  Government  on  questions  in  which  trading  interests  may  be 
concerned.  Mercantile  charges  for  transacting  business  of  various  kinds 
are  regulated  by  a  scale  determined  on  by  the  Chamber  of  Commerce 
in  1883. 

The  currency  of  the  colony  is  similar  to  that  of  Great  Britain, 
being  reckoned  in  pounds  sterling,  shillings,  and  pence,  the  same  as  in  all 
of  the  Australian  colonies.  The  specie  in  circulation  is  not  provided  by 
the  Government  of  the  province,  but  is  supplied  by  the  different  banks, 
which  import  the  coin  required  by  them  and  their  customers.  Besides 
the  gold,  silver,  and  copper  which  are  in  circulation,  bank  notes  of 
various  nominal  values  from  £l  upwards  are  issued  by  the  banks  for 
their  own  convenience,  and  these  constitute  the  larger  portion  of  the 
currency.  The  notes  are  subject  to  a  tax  of  £2  per  cent,  per  annum, 
and  are  a  first  charge  upon  the  assets  of  the  banks  which  issue  them. 
The  Government  issues  no  notes.  It  confines  its  monetary  operations  to 
the  receipt  of  revenue  and  the  payment  at  the  Treasury  of  the  public 
claims  upon  it.  The  desirability  of  establishing  a  State  Bank  in  the 
colony  has  been  strongly  advocated  in  public  as  well  as  in  Parliament, 
but  at  present  there  appears  no  probability  that  any  such  project  will  be 
carried  into  effect.  In  1892  there  were  nine  banking  establishments  in 
the  city  of  Adelaide.  Only  one  of  them  is  a  purely  local  institution. 
Some  of  the  others  have  their  head  establishments  in  England  or 
Scotland,  besides  branch  banks  in  the  other  colonies  :  some  also  have 
local  branches  or  agencies  in  various  towns  in  South  Australia.  The 
banks  issue  drafts  and  letters  of  credit  available  anywhere  in  Great 
Britain  or  Ireland,  as  also  in  Europe,  India,  or  in  America.  They 
purchase  bills  and  make  remittances  at  the  current  rates  of  exchange. 
They  also  receive  money  on  deposit  for  various  terms,  and  allow  such 
interest  as  may  be  determined  on,  or  at  the  prevailing  rates.  The 
terms  vary  according  to  the  periods  for  which  the  deposits  may  be  made. 
The  banks  are  associated  for  certain  purjjoses.  The  rates  of  exchange 
are  fixed  by  them,  and  they  regulate  their  transactions  with  the 
Government  and  other  matters,  according  as  they  affect  their  conimon 
interests. 


310  SOUIH    AUSTRALIA. 

The  following  figures  show  tlic  position  of  the  various  banks  at  the 
close  of  the  year  1892  :  — 

Average  Aviotmt  of  Coin  and  Bullion  held  by  the  Banks. 

£  s.  d. 

Bank  of  Australasia 220,740  8  7 

Union  Bank  of  Australia , 348, 133  710- 

National  Bank  of  Australasia 386,900  1 1  4 

English,  Scottish,  and  Australian  Chartered  Bank 147,917  12  11 

Bank  of  Adelaide 106,526  17  6 

Bank  of  New  South  Wales     240,306  8  5 

Commercial  Bank  uf  Australia   69,453  ^4  ' ' 

Bank  of  New  Zealand 57. 560  9  9 

Federal  Bank  of  Australia 54.323  15  ©■ 

Total ^1,631.863  6  3. 

Average  Amount  of  the  Notes  of  the  several  Banks  in  Circulation. 

£  ^-  ^- 

Bank  of  Australasia 26,950  18  6 

Union  Bank  of  Australia     74.034  ^  1 1 

National  Bank  of  Australasia     1 12,628  6  1 1 

English,  Scottish,  and  Australian  Chartered  Bank 37. 061  3  o 

Bank  of  Adelaide 75,845  8  5 

Bank  of  New  South  Wales 38,936  2  3 

Commercial  Bank  of  Australia 1 7, 103  4  o 

Bank  of  New  Zealand 3>436  7  8 

Federal  Bank  of  Australia 14, 160  13  I  l 

Total £'\'^,  1 56  1 1  T 


The  notes  of  the  banks  issued  in  South  Australia  do  not  constitute  a 
legal  tender.  The  law  is  with  regard  to  tender  the  same  as  it  is  in 
England.  The  position  of  the  banks  towards  the  public  is  determined 
by  the  Bank  Act  No.  25  of  1863. 

The  average  amount  of  the  liabilities  and  assets  of  the  several  banks- 
within  the  province  at  the  end  of  1892  is  given  beneath. 

Liabilities.         £        s.    d.  £        s.   d. 

Notes  in  circulation     400, 15611     7 

Bills  in  circulation , .  . .  10, 733     4     6 

Balances  due  to  other  hanks 49,629  10     6 

460,519     6     7 

Deposits,  bearing  interest  5,800,405     6    6 

"         not  bearing  interest    1,699,112   18   10 

7,499,518     5     4. 

Total  average  liabilities  ... .  —  ;^7>96o,037   11   11 


Government  deposits,  bearing  interest  . .         340,256    8     i 
*'         not  hearing  interest  67,795  '9    ^ 

408,052     7     9. 


(I 


COMMERCE. 


311 


Assets.  £  s.  d. 

Coined  gold,  silver,  &c 1,612,820  7     o 

Gold  and  silver  in  bullion  or  ingots     19,042  19     3 

Government  securities    223, 700  o     o 

Landed  property  and  bank  premises    402,504  19     8 

Notes  and  bills  of  other  banks     30,302  1 1     7 

Balances  due  from  other  banks    132,099  12     5 

Notes  and  bills  discounted  and  other  debts  due  to  banks  not 

before  enumerated 7,271,150  i   10 

Total  average  assets ;^9,<J9i  .620  1 1     9 

Percentage  the  reserve  of  coin  and  bullion  bear  to  the  banks' 

liabilities 205 

The  average  liabilities  and  assets  of  the  several  banks  for  ten  years 
ending  in  1892  were  as  follows: — 


Year. 


1883 
1884 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 

1890 

I89I 

1892 


£ 
5.306,595 
5.553,159 
6,504,792 
5,474,662 
5.712,295 

6,651,262 

7,368.528 

7,759,926 
8,303,506 
7,960,037 


d. 

10 
6 
2 
o 

ro 

3 

7 
7 

8    II 
II    II 


Assets. 


£  J.    d. 

11,868,024  17     4 

11,546,828  10  10 

12,380,722  II     8 

11,446.883  I     4 

10,412,042  19  II 

10,757,663  I   lO 

11,189,194  6  II 

11,489,842  II     9 

10,805.5^7  12     4 

9,691,620  II     9 


Note.  —  In  the  present  year  whilst  this  work  was  passing  through  the  press  severe 
financial  troubles  overtook  the  whole  of  the  Australian  colonies.  South  Australia,  of 
course,  did  not  escape  their  influence,  though  their  effects  were  less  felt  here  than 
tbey  were  in  other  places.  As  the  banks  in  other  colonies,  which  were  represented  in 
this  colony,  ilosed  their  doors,  the  branches  which  represented  them  in  Adelaide  were 
compelled  to  close  also.  It  seems  certain  that  the  South  Australian  branches  of  the 
banks  which  suspended  payment  were  able  to  meet  the  whole  of  their  local  liabilities, 
and  ceased  to  transact  business  solely  because  of  the  failure  of  their  head  offices  else- 
where. The  Bank  of  Australasia,  the  Union  Bank,  the  Hank  of  Adelaide,  the  Bank  of 
New  South  Wales,  and  the  Bank  of  New  Zealand  easily  met  all  the  demands  which 
were  made  upon  them. 

The  Savings  Bank  of  South  Australia  plays  an  important  part  in 
indicating  the  prosperity  of  the  people.  It  is  not  a  Government  institu- 
tion, but  is  managed  by  trustees  appointed  by  the  Government,  and  its 
accounts  are  subject  to  examination  annually  by  the  Commissioners  of 
Audit.  The  chief  office  is  in  Adelaide,  but  all  or  nearly  all  the  post  offices 
in  the  colony  receive  deposits  on  behalf  of  the  head  establishment.     It 


312 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 


commenced  business  in  1848,  in  which  year  there  were  293  depositors, 
and  the  amount  paid  in  by  them  at  the  close  of  that  year  was  £6,48 
18s.  5d.  The  number  of  depositors  and  the  sums  deposited  by  them 
have  steadily  increased  every  year  down  to  the  present  time. 

The  Savings  Bank  will  receive  any  amount  from  Is.  up  to  £500,  but 
interest  is  not  allowed  on  sums  over  £250.  The  deposited  money  is  lent 
on  mortgage  or  invested  in  Government  or  other  public  securities  and  the 
interest  allowed  to  depositors  varies,  according  to  the  yearly  profits  on 
investments,  less  expenses  of  management.  At  the  outset  the  rate  of 
interest  charged  on  loans  was  10  per  cent.,  at  which  rate  it  remained  for 
several  years  ;  after  1860  it  gradually  fell  till  it  is  now  no  more  than 
5  per  cent  In  the  beginning  the  interest  allowed  to  depositors  was  3 
per  cent.  In  one  year  it  was  only  1  per  cent.  ;  it  has  been  as  high  as 
5i ;  at  present  it  is  4^^,  at  which  rate  it  has  been  stationary  for  the  last 
four  years. 

The  table  underneath  shows  the  condition  of  the  Savings  Bank  for 
ten  years  ending  in  1892  : — 


Year. 


1883. 
1884. 
1885. 
i88b. 
1887. 
1888. 
i88q. 
1890. 
1891. 
1892. 


46,388 
49,237 
53.1^4 
55.204 
56.685 
60,301 
64,320 

69,193 
74,686 

78,795 


1,500,248 

1,433,509 
1,571,283 
1,653,080 
1,581,100 
1,627,541 
1,896,248 
1,924,292 
2,158,227 
2,217,419 


5i 

5 

4l 

5 

5 

4i 

4^ 

4i 


s. 


The  actual  state  of  the  institution   at  the  end  of  1892  may  be  seen 
from  the  following  :  — 

Number  of  depositors  in  the  year 7^,795 

Increase  over  previous  year 4, 109 

Amount  deposited  in  the  year 1,247,309 

Amount  withdrawn  in  the  year 1,280,413 

Depositors'  balances  at  close  of  the  year 2,217,431 

Average  amount  at  credit  of  each  depositor 28 

Amount  of  reserve  fund 60,000 

Total  funds  at  the  end  of  the  year     2,292,^ 

Office  expenditure  during  the  year     10,050  14     6 

Amount  lent  on  mortgage  in  the  j'ear    1,121,771    19   11 

Amount  of  Government  and  public  securities   800,311     5   10 

Interest  charged  on  mortgage  loans    5  per  cent. 

Interest  allowed  to  depositors 4J  per  cent. 


d. 
7  6 
o  10 

7  9 

2  10 

o  o 

15  6 


COMMERCE. 


313 


The  post  office  and  telegraph  services  are  so  intimately  connected 
with  the  commerce  of  a  country  that  some  particulars  of  their  progress 
•cannot  be  without  interest.  This  is  best  shown  by  the  published  returns 
quoted  below,  which  indicate  the  bu.siness  of  the  establishments  for  the 
last  ten  years  :  — 


Postal.                                    i 

Telegraphs. 

Year. 

No.  of 
Offices. 

Income. 

No.  ot 
I^etters. 

1 

1 

1 

No.  01        j 

Newspapers.  ! 

0  ■" 

Miles 
ot  Wire. 

No.  of 
Telegrams. 

Income. 

vC 

£ 

1883.. 

4^1 

109,144 

6,029,426 

12,381,600 

179 

8,824 

696,453 

70,113 

1884.. 

sss 

105,745 

6,891,810 

12,679,142 

188 

9,067 

731,128 

73,850 

1885.. 

sss 

108,895 

0.070,227 

13,158,626 

190 

9,378 

713,379 

72,162 

1886.. 

S69 

104,585 

6,572,013 

13,119,121 

200 

10,310 

669,442 

68,131 

1887.. 

S88 

106,959 

7,376,953 

15,381,309 

205 

11,008 

757,363 

74,835 

1888.. 

594 

109,178 

7,884,453 

17,012,577 

210 

11,448 

994,930 

91,153 

1889.. 

59  > 

107,560 

9,085,714 

16,388,007 

210 

11,677 

984,180 

87,464 

1890., 

609 

111,491 

9,460,075 

16,794,679 

218 

12,178 

1,068,282 

90,874 

1891.. 

629 

114,607 

8,883,103 

17,836,092 

220 

12,707 

985,633 

79,310 

1892.. 

638 

118,227 

8,733,718 

17,409,769 

247 

12,911 

853,273 

08,630 

The  inland  postage  rate  is  2d.  per  ?^oz.  for  letters  ;  parcels  without 
letters,  ^d.  per  ounce;  book  rate,  4ozs.  Id.;  parcels  by  parcel  post, 
21bs.  9d.,  and  3d.  per  pound  for  weight  beyond  that.  Letters  may  be 
registered  at  a  charge  of  od.  The  rate  for  newspapers  inland  is  ^d.,  or 
to  the  other  colonies  A^d..  to  Great  Britain  Id.,  to  foreign  places  Id. 
for  4ozs.,  and  ^d.  per  ounce  tor  weight  in  excess  of  4ozs.  South  Australia 
belongs  to  the  Postal  Union.  The  telegraph  rates  are  : — Inland  messages, 
short  distances,  6d.  for  ten  words;  beyond,  Is.  for  ten  words,  and  Id. 
for  each  additional  word.  Intercolonial  telegrams  are  charged  as 
follows: — To  Victoria,  New  South  Wales,  and  Western  Australia,  2s. 
for  ten  words  and  2d.  for  each  additional  word  :  to  Queensland  and 
Tasmania,  3s.  for  ten  words  and  3d.  for  each  additional  word :  to  New 
Zealand,  4s.  6d.  for  ten  words  and  6d.  for  each  additional  word:  by  the 
Transcontinental  line  the  charjic  to  Port  Darwin,  Northern  Territory, 
is  6s.  for  ten  words  and  lid.  per  additional  word ;  to  Great  Britain  the 
charge  is  4s.  per  word :  Government  messajjes  are  taken  at  special  rates, 
and  Press  messages  at  a  great  reduction  on  all  the  telegraph  lines.  On 
the  Australian  continent  all  Government  (intercolonial)  messages  pass 
free.  Post  office  orders  are  obtainable  at  nearly  all  j^ost  offices  in  the 
colony.  They  can  be  obtained  \ip  to  £20  inland  and  in  the  colonies,  but 
•to  Great  Britain   the  limit  is  £10.     Postal  notes  up  to  £1  in  value  are 


314  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

issued  for  tlie  convenience  of  persons  wishing  to  transmit  small  sums  of 
money,  and  they  are  made  payable  to  order  or  to  beai-er  as  may  be 
required. 

The  telegraph  line  which  crosses  the  continent  from  south  to  north, 
and  is  connected  at  Port  Darwin  by  submarine  cable  with  the  Indian 
and  European  telegraph  systems,  was  constructed  by  Sovxth  Australia 
at  her  own  cost,  and  is  her  exclusive  property.  The  establishment 
of  telegraphic  communication  with  the  mother  country  is  the  result  of 
her  unaided  enterprise  and  perseverance.  The  other  colonies  which 
make  use  of  the  line  pay  a  portion  of  the  subsidy  guaranteed  to  the 
company  which  laid  the  submarine  cables  connecting  Australia  with  the 
Island  of  Java.  This  amount  is  apportioned  according  to  the  population 
of  each  participating  colony. 


M%    b    b    «« 


REVENUE:     PI  KI.IC    DEBl   :     PUBLIC    WORKS.  315 


CHAPTER    XX. 

Eevenve  of  the  Colony — How  Raissed — Loans — Returns  from  them — Revenue 
AND  Expenditure  for  Ten  Years — The  Financial  Year — Mean  Annual 
Revenue    and    Expenditure — Rate    per     Head    of    the     Population — 
Revenue     from    Taxation    alone — Rate    per    Head — Land    and    Income 
Taxes — How   Collected — Modes   of  Assessment — Revenue   therefrom — 
Stamp  Duties — How  Charged — Licences — Probate  and  Succession  Duties 
— Municipal    Taxation — Rate — Tahle    of  Municipal  Taxation  for  Ten 
Years — Government    Aid — Land     Sales — Revenue     from — Loans    "when 
FiKST  Raised — Revenue  from  "Works  Constructed  by  them — Amount  of 
THE    PuHLic    Debt    I^    1892 — Rate    per    Head — Interest    per    Head  — 
Position     of     Bondholders— Expenditure      of     Loan     Money— Amount 
Spent   on    Public  Works    apart    from   Loans— Total   Expenditure  on 
"Works — Railavays — Their  Extent — Broad  and  Narrow  Gauge — Capital 
Cost — Directions   of   Lines — Railway    Systems — The   Railway    Commis- 
sioners— XuMBER   OF  Persons  Employed — Progress   of   Railways  up  to 
1892— Revenue  from  them — Comparison  with  other  Colonies — Railway- 
Business  IN  1892 — Comparison  of  Results  with   Results  in  the  United 
Kingdom — Locomotive    "Workshops — Locomotive   Engines    and    Holling 
Stock — Railway"    Accidents — Waterworks — Initiated    in    1856 — Supply 
for   the    City    of    Adelaide — The    Adelaide    Water    District  — Daily 
Consumption — Hope  Valley  Works — Statistics  for  Ten  Years  to  1892 
— Drainage   AVorks    for    Adelaide   and    Suburbs — The    Sewage  Farm — 
The    Beetai.oo    Waterworks — Their    Extent — Total    Expenditure    on 
Waterworks — Water     Conservation     in     the     L^nsettled     Districts — 
Expenditure  on — Main  Roads — Expenditure  on — Length  of  Main  Roads 
— Overland  Telegraph    Line — Western   Australian  Telegraph  Line — 
Length  and  Cost — Harbor  Improvements — Military    Defence  Works — 
Drainage  in  the  South-Eastern  District — Public  Buildings — Schools, 
&c. — Prudent  Expenditure  of  Loan  Moneys. 

The  revenue  of  South  Australia  is  derived  from  soiu'ces  which  may 
be  arranged  under  four  general  heads,  viz.  :  — Taxation,  Public  "Works 
and  Services.  Territorial  Revenue,  and  Miscellaneous.  The  first  includes 
all  Customs,  excise,  stamp,  and  succession  duties,  land  and  income  taxes, 
and  licences,  kc. ;  the  second  embraces  the  receipts  from  railways,  water- 
works, the  post  office  and  telegra})hs.  education  fees,  kc. ;  the  third 
comprises  land  sales,  rents  from  Crown  lands,  rents  of  buildings,  &c.;  and 
the  last  is  made  up  of  fines,  forfeitures,  fees,  sales  of  Government  ])ro- 
])crty,  and  sundries.  In  the  early  days  of  the  colony  the  revenue  was 
divided  into  two  branches — the  general  revenue  and  the  land  fund  The 
former  was  applied  to  the  ordinary  requirements  of  Government,  and  the 
latter  to  special  purposes,  such  as  immigration  and  public  improvement? 


316 


SOUTH    AUSTKALIA. 


That  distinction  is  no  longer  made.  The  receipts  from  all  sources  are 
now  merged  into  one  general  fund,  which  is  dealt  with  according  to  the 
determination  of  Parliament.  Besides  the  heads  of  receipt  which  have 
been  mentioned,  ihe  colony,  from  time  to  time,  has  obtained  considerable 
sums  of  money  from  loans  raised  in  London.  These  amounts  have  not 
been  included  in  revenue,  but  have  been  kept  apart  and  applied  to  the 
construction  of  i-ailways  and  the  other  ])ub]ic  purposes  for  which  they 
"were  borrowed.  The  returns  from  these  undertakings  have  become 
important  factors  in  the  annual  income  of  the  colony  ;  these  will  be 
noticed  more  particularly  elsewhere.  Besides  the  loans,  which  are  repre- 
sented by  bonds  redeemable  at  special  dates  or  by  inscribed  stock,  further 
sums  have  been  raised  on  Treasury  bills  at  short  dates,  carrying  a  daily 
rate  of  interest 

The  following  table  shows  the  gross   revenue  and  ex})enditure  for  a 
period  of  ten  years,  from  1883  to  1892,  inclusive :  — 


Year. 


1882-3. 
1883-4. 
1884-5. 
1885-6. 
1886-7. 
1887-8. 


Revenue. 


Expenditure. 


I«88-9.. 
1889-90 
1890-I . . 
1891-2.  . 


£  s.  d. 

2,092,286  6  8 

2,009,484  5  6 

2,157,93'  o  5 

2,270,038  II  6 

1,869,942  14  9 

2,354-743  6  5 

2,302,493  12  7 

2,478,981  8  5 

2,732,222  9  9 

2,741,623  I  10 


Totals 


£  s.  d. 

2,225,3.^0  o  6 

2,370,242  7  7 

2,430,513  4  7 

2,383,289  15  10 

2,165,245  14  10 

2,172,931  7  8 

2,265,949  4  ID 

2,404,179  3  II 

2,603,498  9  II 

2,687,133  4  I 

^23,708,362  13  9 


The  financial  year  in  South  Australia  runs  from  the  1st  of  July  to  the 
30th  June  in  the  following  year.  The  mean  annual  revenue  for  the 
above    period    was    £2,301,875,    and    the    mean    annual    expenditure 


revenue:    public  debt:    public  works.  317 

£2,370,836.     The  mean  annual   population  for  the  term  was  311,069, 

so  that   the  revenue  stands  at  the  rate  of  £7  8s.  lid.  per  head,  and  the 

expenditure  at  that  of  £7  1 2s.  5d.  per  head. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  Commissioners  of  Audit  the  amount  of 

revenue  raised  by  taxation  alone  during  the  six  years  ending  in   1891-2 

was  — 

£ 

1889-90     745I518 

1890-91     827,302 


£ 

1886-7 588,072 

1887-8 740,834 

1888-9 713,872 


1891-2 812,869 


The  amount  of  taxation  per  head  of  the  population  in  each  of  the 
ibove  vears  is  set  out  beneath  : — 


1886-7 
1887-8 
1888-9 


£ 

s. 

d. 

I 

18 

2 

2 

8 

3f 

2 

5 

10^ 

1889-90 2     7    5j 

1890-91 211     7 

1891-2  2    9    o 


The  mean  population  for  the  six  years  was  315,435  ;  so  that  the  mean 
annual  taxation  per  head  may  be  taken  as  £2  6s.  Q^d.  during  the  period. 
The  proportion  of  taxation  to  revenue,  according  to  the  return  for  1891-2, 
was  29-94  per  cent.  In  the  United  Kingdom  the  proportion  is  8233  per 
cent. 

The  land  and  income  taxes  are  not  heavy.  The  land  tax  is  at  present 
|d.  in  the  pound ;  the  income  tax  for  1 891-2  is  3d.  in  the  pound  on  income 
derived  from  personal  exei-tion  onlyand6d.in  the  pound  on  income  received 
from  interest  on  capital  invested,  shares  in  companies,  rents,  &c.  In- 
comes under  £200  are  exempt,  and  this  exemption  extends  to  £200  on 
all  incomes.  The  land  and  income  taxes  are  not  collected  in  the  ordinary 
way.  Every  person  is  required  to  forward  to  the  Commissioner  of  Taxes 
early  in  each  year  a  form  setting  out  the  particulars  of  his  individual 
income,  and.  after  it  has  been  examined,  notice  is  forwarded  to  each  person 
liable,  showing  the  amount  due  by  him.  He  is  required  to  remit  this 
direct  to  the  Taxation  Office,  or  else  to  pay  it  at  any  post  office,  within  one 
month  after  the  issue  of  the  notice.  There  is  an  appeal  against  the 
Commissioner's  decision  as  to  the  amount  of  tax  payable,  in  the  event  of 
over  assessment.  Persons  who  do  not  pay  within  a  certain  time  are 
charged  interest  at  the  rate  of  10  per  cent,  per  annum  on  the  amounts 
due  by  them,  and  are  further  liable  to  a  penalty  of  2s.  in  the  pound.  In 
rendering  the  income  tax  return  anyone  who  makes  any  wilfully  false 
statement  in  reference  thereto  may  be  prosecuted  as  for  perjury.  The 
land  tax  is  based  upon  a  triennial  assessment,  and  where  there  is  any 
dispute  or  reasonable  doubt  the  value  is  determined  by  the  Local  Court 
on  appeal.  In  determining  the  value  of  property  the  impro\cments  upon 
it  are  not  assessed,  bvit  the  unim])roved  value  of  the  land  only. 


318 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 


In  the  report  of  the  Commissioners  of  Audit  (1891-2)  the  amounts  of 
the  land  and  income  taxes  collected  since  the  commencement  are  shown 
as  follows: — 


:  884-5  \  T\ro  years  collected 

1888-6)      in  one 

1886-7    

1887-8    

1888-9   

1889-90 

1890-91 

1891-2    


Land. 


200 

145.817 

100,347 

88,158 

70,118 

65,998 
69,636 

65,443 


J. 
12 

ID 

5 
3 
8 

15 

17 

8 


d. 

6 

10 

/ 

I 

10 

6 


Income. 


;d'6o5,72i     I     7 


121 

57,255 
16,734 

35,433 
36,635 
44,038 
47,121 
49,062 


s. 

18 

16 

14 
II 
8 
16 
10 
12 


a. 
5 
o 
4 
II 
10 

10 


Total. 


£ 
322 
203,073 
117,081 

123,591 
106,753 
110,037 
116.758 
114,506 


s. 

10 

7 

19 
15 
17 
12 
8 
o 


d. 

II 
I 

II 
o 
8 
I 
o 


^286,404    9    3  ;  ;f892,i25  10  10 


It  will  be  observed  that  whilst  the  land  tax  has  been  fluctuating  in 
-amount  in  every  year,  the  income  tax  has  shown  a  steady  annual  increase 
for  the  past  five  years.  The  official  returns  do  not  indicate  the  number 
■of  persons  who  pay  income  tax,  so  that  the  average  per  caput  of  this 
■class  of  taxpayers  is  not  estimated. 

Stamp  duties  form  a  portion  of  the  direct  taxation  of  the  colony. 
They  are  levied  on  bank  notes  at  the  rate  of  10s.  per  cent,  quarterly  on 
the  issue  for  the  term.  Bills  of  exchange  and  other  bills,  cheques,  or 
■orders  payable  on  demand  are  charged  Id.  ;  bills  of  exchange  under  £20 
pay  3d.  ;  above  that  amount  up  to  £50,  6d. ;  and  above  £50  and  every 
fractional  part  thereof,  a  further  siun  of  6d.  Bills  of  lading  are  rated  at 
•6d.  each,  and  such  bills  must  be  stamped  before  they  are  executed,  under 
a  penalty  of  £50.  On  the  transfer  of  stock  or  shares  in  any  company 
-whatever  in  South  Australia  3d.  is  chargeable  on  the  amount  of  the 
consideration  expressed,  where  the  amount  is  under  £20,  and  above  that, 
up  to  £50,  6d. ;  and  6d.  for  each  succeeding  £50  or  any  fractional 
part  of  £50.  On  conveyances  of  any  property,  real  or  personal,  not 
otherwise  specified,  the  charge  is  5s.  on  the  value  of  £100,  and  above 
that  5s.  for  each  £100  or  any  fractional  part  thereof.  The  stamp  duties 
realised  £35,810  in  1891-2. 

The  chief  item  in  the  revenue  derived  fi-om  licences  comes  from 
publicans'  licences.  They  average  about  £19,000  per  annum,  though  in 
1891-2  they  were  under  £15,000.  In  that  year  the  receipts  from  licences 
of  all  kinds,  except  those  issued  under  the  Customs  Department,  came  to 
£21,122.  The  probate  and  succession  duties  produced  £25,698  in  the 
same  year.  These  duties  are  likely  to  be  increased.  At  present  they  are 
generally  similar  to  those  charged  in  Great  Britain. 


REVENUE  :  PUBLIC  DEBT  :  PUBLIC  WORKS. 


319 


The  taxes  which  are  imposed  by  the  State  for  the  purposes  of  revenue 
:are  not  the  only  taxes  which  are  paid  by  the  colonists.  There  are  rates 
levied  by  corporations  and  district  councils.  These  are  fixed,  according 
to  the  assessed  annual  value  of  the  properties  included  within  their 
respective  limits.  In  corporate  towns  they  range  from  Is.  to  Is.  7d.  in 
the  pound.  In  district  councils  they  vary  from  4d.  to  Is.  4d.  in  the  poimd. 
The  amounts  raised  in  this  way  for  ten  years  to  the  end  of  1892  are  given 
below  : — 


1883 
1884 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 


Coi-porations. 

District  Councils. 

£ 

£ 

59,174 

46,172 

67,119 

47,418 

58,257 

40,390 

54,053 

49,449 

50,064 

44,371 

49,316 

46,148 

61,039 

61,329 

62,162 

63,137 

64,182 

73,890 

65,355 

64,269 

The  amounts  raised  by  rates  are  supplemented  by  the  Government  by 
grants  from  the  general  revenue  ;  and  the  sums  so  received,  as  well  as 
those  from  other  sources,  are  expended  almost  entirely  on  public  works. 

A  considerable  portion  of  the  revenue  has  ahvays  been  derived  from 
sales  of  land.  Of  late  years  this  has  diminished  considerably,  the 
reason  being  that  much  land  has  been  sold  on  deferred  payments,  whilst 
formerly  it  was  disposed  of  for  cash  only.  The  actual  amount  paid  into 
the  Treasury  as  the  proceeds  of  land  sales  from  1835  down  to  the  end  of 
the  financial  year  1892  was  £9,588,736  14s.  9d.  The  revenue  derived, 
from  Crown  lands,  apart  from  land  sales,  consists  of  rents  ;  pastoral, 
mineral,  and  other  leases  and  claims  ;  and  sundries.  In  ten  years  the 
receipts  from  Crown  lands  amounted  to  £3,139,478,  which  is  13-64  per 
cent,  of  the  total  revenue  for  the  period. 


320 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 


The  following  table  shows  the  revenue  from  lands  sales  and  rents,  &c.,. 
from  Crown  lands  for  the  ten  5  ears  ending  in  1892  : — 


Year. 


1883. 
1884. 
1885. 
1886. 
1887, 
1888. 
1889. 
1890. 
1891. 
1892. 


Totals 


Land  Sales. 

£        s.  d. 

365,793  15  3 

290,394  2  4 

333,369  18  6 

127,076  19  6 

77,142  I  3 

123,354  8  4 

61,342  17  o 

68,415  15  8 

72,964  9  2 

59,922  17  I 


Leases,   Rents, 
Licences,  &c. 


1,579,7; 


4      I 


£ 
113.226 
120,153 
146,869 
148,342 

139,713 
193,242 

161,411 

174,235 
180,142 
182,361 


Totals. 


s.    d. 

16  5 

I  4 

18  5 
12  3 

9  10 

3  5 

19  I 

15  9 
6  9 

18  II 

I 


£        s.  d. 

479,020  II  8 

410,547  3  8 

480,239  16  II 

275,419  II  9, 

216,855  "  I 

316,596  II  9. 

222,754  16  I 

242,651  II  5. 

253,107  3  II 

242,284  16  o 


1,559,700  10  2  I  3,139,477  14  3 


Reference  has  been  made  to  loans  contracted  by  the  Government  of 
the  colony  for  various  objects.  The  first  public  loan  was  sanctioned  by 
the  Legislative  Council  by  Act  No.  18  of  1853,  for  the  construction  of 
the  City  and  Port  railway,  and  other  loans  have  been  contracted  at 
various  periods  since  then  down  to  the  year  1890.  The  money  raised  in 
this  manner  has  contributed  in  an  immense  degree  to  the  development  of 
the  colonial  resources,  and  has  created  sources  of  income  which  go  far 
towards  the  payment  of  the  interest  on  the  capital  which  has  been  borrowed 
to  construct  them.  The  returns  from  the  railways  and  waterworks  alone 
yield  an  annual  income  exceeding  two-thirds  of  the  interest  payable  upon 
the  whole  of  the  public  debt.  The  Commissioners  of  Audit,  reporting  in 
1891  on  the  subject  of  loans,  wrote  as  follows  : — "  The  total  loans 
issued  on  account  of  South  Australia  proper  amount  to  £20,509,600. 
The  net  amount  received  (allowing  for  discount  on  railway  loans)  was 
£20,232,157,  of  which  £1,521,723  had  not  been  expended.     The  outlay 


REVENUE  :     PUKLIC    DEBT  :     PUBLIC    WORKS.  321 

on  loan  Avorks  Avas  therefore  £18,710,434,  which  may  be  summed  np  as 

■follows  : — 

"  "Works  yielding  direct  revenue  to  Treasurer — 

Railways 10,950,455 

Telegraphs    846, 727 

Waterworks;     1,966,977 

Adelaide  sewers  466,967 

14,161,126 
"  Works  not  yielding  direct  revenue,  or  on  which  the  revenue 
is  mixed  with  other  receipts — 

Main  roads,  harbors,  and  jetties    2,403,980 

Improvements,  pastoral  leases  purchased    534>938 

Development  of  interior  and  drainage 502,439 

Defences,  military  and  naval    234, 105 

School  buildings 399)489 

Other  buildings 299,806 

4>374.757 
Aid  to  revenue  and  portion  of  premiums     174,551 

;^i8,7io,434 

"  The  liability  on  this  expenditure  has  been  reduced  by  the  redemption 
of  £1,148,700  out  of  the  general  revenue,  and  as  the  greater  part 
consisted  of  the  older  bonds,  which  bore  interest  at  6  per  cent.,  the 
amount  of  interest  has  been  reduced  by  £68,322  per  annum. 

"The  interest  payable  on  loans  for  the  financial  year  1890-91  was 
£733,766.  This,  of  course,  included  not  only  interest  upon  the  actual 
outlay  for  works,  but  upon  the  unexpended  balance,  and,  after  deducting 
receipts,  the  net  amount  paid  by  revenue  was  £7ol,295.  Against  this  the 
net  revenue  derived  from  loan  works  in  the  first  list  was  as  follows : — 

Railway,  ntt  earnings  for  year 606,820 

Telegraphs  (mixed  with  post  office)  25,000 

Waterworks,  receipts  less  expenditui-e 65, 167 

Adelaide  sewers,  contributed  out  of  rates     13.352 

/7Jo,339 

or  nearly  95  per  cent,  of  the  amount  required  for  the  interest  on  the  whole 
of  the  public  debt,  and  leaving  only  £40,956  to  be  provided  out  of  the 
general  revenue  as  interest  on  loan  moneys. 

"  The  loan  works  in  the  second  list,  although  not  placed  by  us  among 
the  direct  revenue-producing  accounts,  actually  bring  in  a  certain  amount 
of  direct  revenue  and  indirectly  create  a  much  larger  amount."  *     Up  to 

*  South  Australia :     Some  Particulars  ot  its  Development  and  Financial  Position. 
Adelaide,  1892. 
X 


322  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

the  end  of  the  financial  year  ending  in  1892  the  total  amount  borrowed 
on  loans  was  £22,450,000,  of  which  £1,195,700  had  been  redeemed. 
Tlie  rates  at  which  the  loans  were  raised  were — 

At  6  per  cent 2,245,500 

"5         "               390,000 

•'4         " 17,5(^4.400 

"35       "           2,250,100 


;^22,450,000 

The  balance  of  the  debt  unredeemed  in  1892  was  £21,254,300.  and  the 
sum  required  to  meet  the  interest  in  the  same  year  £867,561 ,  which 
shows  a  mean  rate  of  interest  of  £4  Is,  7|^d.  per  cent,  on  the  total  liability. 
The  apparent  individual  liability  of  the  population  on  account  of  loans  is 
£64  per  head,  and  the  annual  amount  of  interest  per  head  £2  12s.  S^d. 
The  debt  on  the  basis  of  the  revenue  for  1 892  is  equal  to  8.V  years 
income.  The  actual  net  revenue  from  the  railways  and  waterworks,  apart 
from  all  other  results  from  reproductive  works  created  by  loans,  amounted 
in  1892  to  £621,181,  which  is  £2  18s.  b^d.  per  cent,  on  the  total  debt  of 
the  colony,  leaving-  £246,380  to  be  provided  for  by  the  returns  from  other 
public  works  and  from  the  general  revenue.  This  amounts  to  £1  3s.  2d. 
per  cent,  on  the  whole  debt.  Having  regard  to  the  facts  which  have 
been  detailed  above,  the  public  debt  of  South  Australia,  though  it  may 
seem  large  in  proportion  to  the  population  of  the  colony,  cannot  be 
regarded  as  affording  any  ground  for  anxiety  either  in  the  mother  country 
or  in  the  colony. 

The  national  debt  of  South  Australia,  as  well  as  the  debts  of  the  other 
colonies  which  form  the  Australian  group,  are  totally  different  from  the 
l)ublic  debts  of  Great  Britain  and  other  countries.  For  the  most  part 
the  national  debts  of  the  latter  represent  nothing  but  the  liability  of  the 
various  Governments  for  the  money  which  has  been  borrowed  and  spent, 
chiefly  on  expensive  and  profitless  wars,  and  in  providing  the  material 
by  means  of  which  future  wars  may  be  carried  on.  The  debts  of 
the  Australian  colonies,  on  the  other  hand,  represent  public  projjerty 
possessing  a  definite  commercial  value,  which  could,  if  necessary,  be 
realised  at  an  immense  advance  upon  its  actual  cost.  The  Austra- 
lian public  debts  are  fertile  sources  of  revenue ;  the  European 
public  debts  constitute  the  necessity  for  oppressive  taxation.  The  one 
series  is  constantly  growing  in  value  and  in  productiveness,  and  adds 
largely  to  colonial  prosperity  :  the  other  achieves  nothing  in  the  shape 
of  adding  to  the  national  prosperity.  As  the  colonies  progress,  their 
investments  tend  to  diminish  the  necessity  for  taxation,  whilst  the  con- 
stant danger  of  fresh  wars  in  Europe  renders  an  increase  of  debt  as  well 


revenue:    public  debt:    public  works.  323 

as  of  taxation  always  more  or  less  imminent.  Regarded  in  this  light,  the 
uosition  of  Australian  bondholders  is  as  free  from  risk  as  that  of  other 
capitalists  who  invest  their  money  in  any  of  the  public  securities  which 
are  bought  and  sold  on  the  London  Stock  Exchange. 

The  present  distribution  of  the  proceeds  of  the  loans  contracted  by 
the  colony  may  be  taken  approximately  as  follows  :  — 

*Eaihvays 11,118,509 

♦Waterworks  and  sewers     2,587.231 

*Water  conservation  and  development  of  the  interior     917,584 

*Telegiaphs   846,727 

Harbors,  jetties,  and  wharves,  and  lighthouses    985,655 

M  ilitary  defences 245, 598 

Miscellaneous,    including    roads,    bridges,    schools,     and    other 
buildings,  improvement  of  pastoral  leases  purchased,  balances 

of  loans  not  yet  expended,  &c 5.738,696 

,^22, 450,000 

This  amount  is  subject  to  the  deduction  of  £1,195,700,  which  has  beea 
paid  oflf.  The  debt,  as  before  stated,  is  now  £21,254,300.  The  items 
designated  by  a  star  are  revenue-producing  investments;  the  others, 
although  not  directly  reproductive  in  the  shape  of  revenue,  contribute 
extensively  to  the  general  welfare.  Besides  the  expenditure  on  public 
works  derived  from  loans,  ever  since  the  foundation  of  the  colony  there 
has  been  an  annual  outlay  on  other  works  of  various  descriptions,  which 
have  been  paid  for  either  out  of  the  proceeds  of  land  sales  or  from  the 
general  revenue.  In  the  very  early  times  they  were  necessarily  small, 
but  as  the  colony  progressed  they  steadily  increased,  and  in  one 
year  (1866)  the  expenditure  exceeded  £400,000.  The  total  expenditure 
incurred  in  this  way  down  to  the  end  of  1892  amounted  to  £8,206,527, 
whicli.  added  to  the  loan  expenditure,  brings  the  general  outlay  on  public 
works  and  improvements  to  £30,650,257.  The  additional  value  which 
this  outlay  has  conferred  upon  the  public  estate,  as  well  as  on  property 
in  private  hands,  can  scarcely  be  estimated. 

The  public  works  of  the  province  are  so  intimately  connected  with  its 
public  debt  that  some  account  of  their  nature  and  extent  may  properly 
be  given  in  this  place.  First  in  importance,  as  in  extent,  are  the  rail- 
ways, the  total  length  of  which  in  1892  was  l,662i^  miles.  Of  these 
1,173  miles  were  constructed  on  a  narrow  gauge  of  3ft.  6iu.,  and  467 A  on 
a  broad  gauge  of  5ft.  3in.  The  capital  cost  on  the  length  opened  and 
completed  has  been  £11,714,434,  ecpial  to  £7,054  per  mile.  Adelaide  is 
the  central  terminus  of  all  the  trunk  lines.  On  the  north  the  railway, 
including  a  portion  of  the  Transcontinental  line,  extends  to  Oodnadatta, 


324  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

550  miles  from  Adelaide.  On  the  west  lines  run  to  the  eastern  shore  of 
Spencer's  Gulf,  at  Port  Augusta,  Port  Pirie.  Wallaroo  and  Moonta.  On 
the  north-east  the  railway  stretches  to  Cockburn,  on  the  New  South 
^Vales  border,  where  it  meets  a  short  line  to  the  Broken  Plill  mines.  On 
the  east  the  line  is  continued  to  Morgan,  on  the  River  Murray,  and  con- 
nects that  place  with  Port  Adelaide.  On  the  south-east  there  is  a  line  to 
Wolseley,  on  the  Victorian  border,  joining  the  Victorian  railway  system, 
and  is  continued  to  Melbourne.  There  is  also  a  line  from  Adelaide  south 
to  Victor  Harbor,  at  the  northern  end  of  Encounter  Bay.  From 
Wolseley  the  line  is  continued  south  to  Naracoorte,  and  thence  west  to 
Kingston,  at  the  south  end  of  Encounter  Bay.  From  Naracoorte  the 
railway  turns  south  to  Mount  Gambler,  and  thence  strikes  north-west  tO' 
Rivoli  Bay.  Besides  these  there  are  two  short  lines  to  Glenelg,  on  the 
seacoast,  one  of  which  starts  fron  the  central  station,  on  North  terrace,, 
in  Adelaide,  and  the  other  from  Victoria-square,  in  the  centre  of  the  city. 
These  two  are  the  property  of  a  private  company.  A  line  from  Blyth  to 
Gladstone  is  in  course  of  construction,  and  a  short  one  to  connect  that 
line  with  the  railway  from  Barunga  to  Kadina  and  Wallaroo.  A  line 
runs  inland  from  Port  Hroughton,  on  Spencer  Gulf,  for  a  distance  of  teui 
miles,  and  is  not  connected  with  the  general  i-ailway  system.  For  the 
purposes  of  management  the  railways  are  grouped  into  five  systems. 
The  Midland  extends  140  miles  north  from  Adelaide  to  Terowie.  The 
Western  system  includes  the  lines  which  branch  from  the  North  line  to 
Wallaroo  and  Moonta,  and  accommodates  the  settlers  in  the  intermediate 
country.  The  Northern  system,  from  Terowie  to  Oodnadatta,  embraces 
the  lines  to  Broken  Hill,  on  the  north-east,  as  well  as  those  to  Port  Pirie,. 
Port  Augusta,  and  Quorn,  on  the  west.  The  Southern  system  traverses 
the  country  south-east  to  the  Victorian  border,  at  a  length  of  252  miles,, 
and  the  South-eastern  system  comprises  the  local  lines  to  Naracoorte,. 
Mount  Gambler,  Kingston,  and  Rivoli  Bay. 

The  general  control  of  all  the  railways  is  confided  to  Railway  Com- 
missioners, of  whom  there  are  three,  responsible  to  the  Parliament,  to 
which  they  report  annually.  The  chairman,  who  is  at  the  head,  is  the 
chief  authority,  and  he  receives  a  salary  of  £2,500  per  annum.  The 
other  commissioners  receive  £1,000  a  year  each.  Besides  their  func- 
tions as  Railway  Commissioners,  they  form  a  board  to  receive  all  tenders 
for  goods  and  supplies  required  by  the  local  Government.  The  manage- 
ment of  the  raihvays  is  divided  into  three  branches — traffic,  locomotive,, 
and  maintenance.  The  traffic  branch  employs  1,015  persons,  the  loco- 
motive and  carriage  branch  1,841,  and  the  maintenance  branch  1,114. 
The  commissioners'  and  comptroller's  staff  number  73,  making  4,043 
in  all. 


REVENUE  :     PUBLIC   DEBT  :     PUBLIC    WORKS. 


325 


*"The  progress  of  the  railways  during  the  last  ten  years  will  be  readily 


•seen  from  the  following 

statement : 

— 

rear. 

Mileage 
Open. 

Capital  Cost 

of 
Miles  Open. 

Gross 
Earnings. 

Working           Net 
Kxpcnses.      Revenue. 

Per  Cent. 

of 

Revenue 

on 

Capital 

Cost. 

1883  

1884  

1885  

1886  

1887  

1888  

1889  

1890  

1891  .. 

1892  

972 
i,036i 
1,063^ 

i,2iii 

1,4191 
1,500 

1,543 
i,6io|- 
1,666 
i,66oJt 

£ 

5,923,159 
6,663,614 
7,242,605 
7,533,500 
8,461,274 

9,395,533 

9,720,078 

10,234,749 

11,398,839 

11,714,434 

£ 
485,660 

557,055 
659,104 

549,092 

595,192 

883,713 

887,065 

1,043,878 

1,223,999 

1,213,290 

£ 

333,790 
372,187 
403,800 
370,653 
382,306 

432,274 
493,326 
529,005 
617,179 
652,941 

£ 

151,870 
184,868 

255,303 
178,438 

212,886 
451,439 

393,739 
514,874 
606,820 

560,349 

2-56 

2-77 

3-53 
2-37 
2-52 
4-80 

4-05 
503 
5-32 
4-78 

+  The  decrease  In  the  mileage  is  due  to  the  renioval  of  Sg  miles  of  line  between  Kadina  and 
Wallaroo,  which  were  no  longer  required. 

"  The  average  yearly  return  yielded  by  the  railways  for  the  above  period 
■was  3"77  per  cent.  The  amount  of  interest  payable  to  the  bondholders 
for  the  year  on  the  loans  raised  for  the  construction  of  railways,  and 
not  redeemed,  was  £451,709,  or  at  the  rate  of  £4  2s.  2d,  per  cent, 
per  annum.  As  the  net  revenue  from  the  working  of  the  railways 
amounted  to  £560,349,  the  balance  available  for  the  general  revenue  was 
£108,640. 

"  Notwithstanding  the  increase  in  the  working  expenses  for  the  past 
year  of  3"40  per  cent.,  it  will  be  seen  from  the  following  statement  that 
the  South  Australian  railways  are  worked  at  a  lower  rate  and  with  better 
financial  results  than  any  other  railway  systems  in  Australasia  : — 


CS 

5 

C 

-    -^ 

> 

0 

a> 

22 

Si 

^          1 

^ 

0 

r^ 

■^ 

y. 

Percentage    of     working 

53-82 

69-08 

6r6c 

60-76 

63-34 

87-51 

99-22 

expenses    to    revenue, 

year  1891-2 

Percentage  of  net  revenue 

4-78 

2-s8 

3-58 

2-57 

2-70 

0-68 

o-o6 

to  capital  cost  on  aver- 

age miles  open 

*  Report  of  Railway  Commissioners,  1892. 


32t>  sorni  .vrsTijALiA. 

"•  The  summar>  underneath  exhibits  the  "eneral  business  done  by  the- 
South  Australian  railways  for  1892  : — 
Coaching  Traffic - 

Passengers     5,744,487  in  number 

Total  nuniher  of  miles  travelled    77,670,015  miles 

Average  mileage  per  passenger I3'52  miles 

Gross  amount  received  from  passengers    £^^9''191 

Average  receipts  per  passenger  per  mile    0'83d. 

Gross  amount  received  from  coaching  traffic    _i^'349,42i 

Average  receipts  per  train  mile 52-55(1. 

Average  receipts  per  average  mile  ojien    ^^210 

Mercbaadise  Traffic  - 

Total  weight  of  freight  paying  goods   1,303,392  tons 

Total  weight  of  live  stock 34,46"  tons 

Total  weight  of  goods  free   135,764  tons 

Mileage  of  tons  goods  (freight  pa3'ing)  and  live  stock        135,828,658  miles 

Avei-age  mileage  per  ton  (freight  paying) ioi'53  miles 

Gross  amount  received  from  merchandise  traffic ^'863,869 

Average  receipts  per  ton  per  mile  (freight  paj'ing) . .  1  ■53d. 

Average  receipts  per  train  mile 8o-29d. 

Average  receipts  per  mile  open ....  ^520 

Gross  amount  received     ^'1,213,290 

Receipts  per  train  mile    69-69d. 

Receipts  per  average  mile  open £'ii^ 

The  Commissioners  in  their  report  supply  some  figures  which  permit  of 
a  comparison  between  the  results  of  the  railway  traffic  in  the  United 
Kingdom  and  South  Australia  respectively.  In  the  United  Kingdom  the 
ordinary  capital  of  the  railways,  amounting  to  £340,000,000,  returned  a 
dividend  of  £4-24  per  cent.  ;  the  -'preference"  capital,  £339,182,845, 
produced  a  dividend  of  £4*08  per  cent.  ;  and  the  capital  raised  by  loans, 
£239.881,845,  yielded  a  dividend  of  £3*95  per  cent.  The  proportion  of 
working  expenses  to  the  total  receipts  was  55*4  per  cent.  ;  the  receipts 
per  train  mile  were  58-12d.,  and  the  cost  of  working  per  train  mile,  32'22d. 
This  was  in  1891.  In  South  Australia  the  capital,  which  is  classed  in  the 
report  as  "  preference,"  amounting  to  £1 1,714,434,  returned  a  dividend  of 
£4 "78  per  cent.  The  proportion  of  working  expenses  to  the  total  receipts 
was  58'82  per  cent.  :  the  receipts  per  train  mile  came  to  69*69d.,  and  the 
cost  of  working  per  train  mile  to  37"50cl.  Although  the  rate  of  wages 
is  higher,  and  the  cost  of  fuel,  &c.,  greater  in  the  colony  than  they  are  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  the  financial  return  is  better  in  South  Australia 
than  it  is  in  the  mother  country. 

The  business  of  the  locomotive  branch  of  the  railways  is  can*ied  on  at 
Islington,  four  and  a  half  miles  from  Adelaide,  on  the  North  line.  The 
workshops  there  are  extensive,  covering  eight  and  a  half  acres  of  ground. 
When  complete  they  will  cover  twice  that  area.  The  area  of  the  site  is 
nearly  forty  acres,  of  which  now  more  than  one  half  are  laid  with  rails 
and  provided  with  other  appliances  necessary  for  the  work  carried  on  there. 
The  shops  are  supplied  with  machinery  of  the  best  kind,  with  all  the 
latest  improvements  as  far  as  procurable,  for  the  repair  of  engines  and  for 


kex'enue:    public  deht  :    pivblic  works.  327 

the  construction  and  renewal  of  passenger  carriages,  freight  wagons,  and 
trucks,  all  of  which  are  constructed  thete,  and  are  quite  eqwal  in  comfort 
and  workmanship  to  any  that  are  constructed  either  in  British,  American, 
or  European  workshops.  In  many  respects  they  are  superior  to  those  that 
have  been  imported,  because  they  are  built  with  material  which  has  been 
seasoned  in  the  colony,  and  is  therefore  better  fitted  to  withstand  the 
effects  of  the  great  summer  heat,  which  at  times  is  very  trying.  The 
locomotive  engines  which  work  the  traffic  are  principally  of  British 
manufacture.  Within  the  last  few  years  locomotives  have  been  con- 
structed in  the  colony,  at  the  woi'kshopsof  James  Martin  &  Co.,  Limited, 
at  Gawler,  twenty-five  miles  to  the  north  of  Adelaide,  close  to  the  main 
North  line.  These  engines  are  good  specimens  of  the  work  that  can  be 
executed  in  the  colony,  and  as  far  as  they  have  been  worked  on  the  rail- 
ways have  shown  satisfactory  results.  Although  the  railway  authorities 
have  not  yet  built  locomotive  engines  for  use  on  the  railways,  they  could 
be  produced  here  without  difficulty  with  a  moderate  extension  of  the 
plant  which  is  now  in  operation  at  Islington.  It  is  not  improbable  that 
the  experiment  may  be  tried  at  no  very  distant  period.  The  rolling-stock 
of  the  railways  consist  of  241  engines,  steam  cars,  and  motors  ;  331 
passenger  carriages;  and  5,691  wagons,  trucks,  &c.  Pullman's  sleeping 
cars  are  attached  to  the  express  trains  Avhich  travel  from  Adelaide  to 
Melbourne  and  from  Adelaide  to  Broken  Hill.  The  Locomotive  Depart- 
ment is  conducted  by  Mr.  T.  Roberts,  M.I.C.E.  The  traffic  is  carried  on 
under  the  block  system.  Very  few  accidents  happen  on  the  railways. 
In  1892  fifteen  persons  were  killed  on  the  lines  and  forty-one  injured. 
Every  one  of  the  fatal  casualties  which  are  recorded  was  owing  to  mis- 
conduct or  want  of  caution  on  the  part  of  the  sufferer.  Only  two  of  the 
fatalities  befel  passengers ;  the  others  occurred  to  servants  in  the  employ 
of  the  Railway  Department.  Three  pei'sons  only  were  injured  by  causes 
beyond  their  own  control,  of  whom  two  were  passengers  and  one  a 
railway  servant.  The  remainder  of  the  injuries  sustained  were  due  to 
action  or  neglect  on  the  part  of  the  sufferers,  for  which  they  alone  were 
to  blame.  The  fatal  accidents  to  passengers  amounted  to  a  very  small 
proportion,  about  one  in  3,000,000  of  the  persons  travelling.  All  of  the 
colonies  in  Australia  with  the  exception  of  Western  Australia  arc  connected 
by  railways,  so  that  a  passenger  can  travel  from  South  Australia  to  any 
part  of  Victoria,  New  South  Wales,  or  Queensland,  as  far  as  the  lines 
extend.  The  fares  are  moderate,  averaging  in  South  Australia  about  2A^d. 
per  mile  for  first-class  passengers,  and  l.Ul.  for  second.  There  are  no 
third-chrss  carriages  now  in  use.  Return  tickets  are  issued  at  all  stations 
at  the  rate  of  a  single  fare  and  a  half  for  the  double  journey,  and  are 
available  for  six  months. 


328 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 


The  first  loan  for  waterworks  purposes  was  authorised  in  1856.  It 
was  intended  to  provide  a  water  supply  for  the  city  of  Adelaide  alone. 
The  project  was  carried  out  on  a  small  scale,  a  capital  of  only  £200,000 
being  raised.  A  very  short  experience  of  the  convenience  and  comfort 
of  a  constant  supply  of  pure  water  necessitated  an  extension  of  the 
.system.  The  ori<j;inal  scheme  provided  for  a  supph*  to  a  population  of 
20,000  persons  at  the  rate  of  20galls.  per  head  per  diem.  Now  the 
population  served  amounts  to  about  140.000,  the  mains  having  been  ex- 
tended to  all  the  suburbs  of  Adelaide,  Port  Adelaide,  the  Semaphore, 
Glenel^,  Mitcham,  and  other  places  within  a  distance  of  ten  miles  round 
Adelaide.  The  water  is  stored  in  two  principal  reservoirs — one  at  Thorn- 
don  Park,  and  the  other  at  Hope  Valley.  The  former  contains  138 
millions  of  gallons,  the  latter  about  700  millions.  Some  smaller  reservoirs 
have  been  built  in  various  places  to  provide  for  local  requirements.  The 
reservoirs  belonging  to  the  Adelaide  water  district  contain  in  the  aggregate 
1,000  millions  of  gallons.  The  area  of  the  district  is  110  square  miles, 
and  the  length  of  mains  laid  down  46.5  miles.  The  daily  consumption  of 
water  in  the  district  averages  four  millions  of  gallons  daily.  In  order  to 
provide  against  an  insufficient  reserve  of  water,  which  might  be  likely  in 
exceptionally  hot  and  dry  seasons,  an  additional  reservoir  is  in  process  of 
construction  at  Happy  Valle}-,  about  twenty  miles  south  of  the  city,  which 
will  be  filled  from  the  River  Onkaparinga  above  Clarendon,  some  five 
miles  further  south,  by  means  of  a  tvmnel  under  the  intervening  hills.  This 
reservoir  will  be  capable  of  impounding  nearly  3,000  millions  of  gallons, 
so  that  when  completed  the  storage  of  water  for  the  city  and  subm-bs  wiU 
be  4,000  millions  of  gallons,  equal  at  the  present  rate  of  consumption  to 
to  the  requirements  of  three  years.  The  cost  of  these  new  works  will  be 
£500,000.  The  value  of  the  Adelaide  waterworks  undertaking  as  a 
commercial  enterprise  may  be  seen  from  the  following  table,  which  shows 
the  financial  results  of  the  concern  for  the  last  ten  years  : — 

Adelaide   Waterworks. 


1 

Year.              Capital  Cost. 

Revenue. 

Working 
Expenses. 

Net  Revenue. 

Per  cent,  on 
Capital  Cost. 

/; 

1883  8397475 

1884  859,513 

1885  876,818 

J  886    890,882 

1887    897,472 

1888    903,467 

1889   918,121 

1890   943,217 

1891    958,237 

'892    964.313 

r 

557478 

57,732 

64,047 
60,146 

56,782 
57,734 
59,214 
59,189 
.59,236 
60.699 

£ 
167720 

15,525 
23,622 

19,677 
19,380 

18,365 
15,627 
13,605 

14,905 
14,984 

38,759 
42,208 
40,425 
40,470 

38,471 
39,368 
43,586 
42.585 
44,335 
45,715 

4"02 

4-91 

460 

4-54 
4-29 
4-35 

474 
4-51 
4-62 

474. 

REVENUE  :  PUKLIC  DEBl"  :  PUBLIC  WORKS.         329 

The  falling  off  in  the  net  revenue  in  1886-7  was  caused  by  a  reduction 
in  the  charges  for  water  and  abolition  of  rent  for  the  use  of  meters.  The 
average  annual  returns  on  the  capital  invested  amounts  to  nearly  £'4  12s. 
per  cent. 

Connected  Avith  the  metropolitan  waterworks  is  a  complete  system 
of  sewerage,  which  extends  to  some  of  the  eastern  and  western 
suburbs.  The  sewage  as  it  runs  from  the  houses  is  led  through  tlie 
drains  to  the  sewage  farm,  near  the  Islington  railway  workshops,  where 
it  is  deodorised,  and  the  residue  used  in  the  cultivation  and  irrigation 
of  400  acres  of  land.  The  whole  of  the  drainage  works  are  not  yet 
complete,  so  that  the  actual  financial  results  cannot  at  present  be  given. 
It  is  certain,  however,  that  they  will  amply  repay  the  cost  of  the  outlay. 
At  present  about  150  miles  of  drains  have  been  laid.  The  working  of 
the  sewage  farm  has  been  attended  with  some  difficulty.  Fruit, 
vegetables,  beet  and  other  roots,  of  the  finest  quality  and  of  great  size, 
are  produced  at  the  farm,  besides  butter  and  other  marketable  articles. 
Popular  prejudice,  however,  rose  against  the  products  of  a  farm  fertilised 
by  '-sewage,"  and  for  a  long  time  people  would  not  buy  them  when  sent 
to  market.  For  some  time  the  farm  did  not  pay  its  expenses  :  it  is  now 
worked  at  a  good  profit.  The  drainage  system  of  Adelaide  and  suburbs 
is  most  effective,  and  has  been  attended  with  excellent  sanitary  results 
wherever  it  has  been  extended.  All  the  houses  within  its  area  have 
been  connected  with  it,  and  are  furnished  with  proper  closets  and  drains, 
so  that  no  waste  water  is  found  lying  about,  and  no  accumulation  of  filth  is 
possible.  The  abominable  cesspit  system  is  entirely  done  away  with,  and 
the  city  and  suburbs  of  Adelaide  are  in  consequence  amongst  the 
healthiest,  in  these  res^iects,  in  the  world.  The  works  were  planned  and 
carried  out,  for  the  most  part,  by  Mr.  Oswald  Brown.  M.I.C.E..  formerly 
Hydraulic  Engineer  to  the  South  Australian  Government,  and  now 
consulting  engineer  in  England  to  that  Government. 

The  most  extensive  water  system  apart  from  that  of  Adelaide  is  at 
Beetaloo,  208  miles  north  of  Adelaide.  The  works  there  are  designed 
to  supply  a  tract  of  country  having  an  area  of  about  1,725  square  miles. 
The  cost  up  to  the  present  time  has  been  £620.221.  The  storage  reser- 
voirs (of  which  there  are  twelve)  have  a  capacity  of  nearly  850  million 
gallons.  About  400  miles  of  mains  have  been  laid.  The  present  returns 
from  these  works  are  a  little  over  \^  per  cent,  on  the  capital  cost.  All  the 
principal  country  towns  in  the  colony  have  water  laid  on  at  the  public  cost, 
and  they  return  from  1  to  6  per  cent,  on  the  capital  invested  in  construct- 
ing them.  The  total  amount  expended  on  all  the  waterworks  established. 
in  the  colony  has  been  £1,825,124  up  to  the  end  of  1892.  The  average 
rate  of  interest  returned  on  this  amount  comes  to  £3  6s    8d.  per  tent. 


330  SOITH    AUSTRALIA. 

In  addition  to  the  loans  iai>cd  for  the  supply  of  water  to  popvilous- 
places  and  towns  a  sum  of  £926,626  has  been  borrowed  for  the  conser- 
vation of  water  in  various  places  in  the  unsettled  districts  to  provide  for 
the  wants  of  travelling  stock,  and  for  the  sinking-  of  artesian  and.  other 
wells  in  localities  where  there  are  no  creeks  and  no  surface  water.  These 
undertakings  have  already  clone  much  in  opening  uj)  country  which  with- 
out them  would  have  remained  unoccupied.  The  expenditure  on  this 
account  amounts  to  £433,103;  the  balance  is  being  used  as  circum- 
stances require.  The  revenue  from  this  outlay  is  not  great ;  l)Ut  any 
shortage  in  this  respect  is  more  than  compensated  by  the  value  conferred 
on  tracts  of  country  which  were  partially  or  wholly  unserviceable. 

Before  railways  were  constructed  the  colony  had  inaugurated  a  main 
ruad  systein,  managed  by  a  board,  whose  operations  extended  to  all  parts 
of  the  country.  The  money  expended  in  making  these  lines  of  com- 
munication was  proAided  by  the  Government  out  of  the  land  fund  whilst 
it  existed,  and  subsequently  out  of  the  general  revenvie.  Later,  money 
was  borrowed  for  their  construction.  As  railways  extended,  the  necessity 
for  expenditure  on  road  works  became  less  pressing,  and  eventually  the 
Government  ceased  to  construct  thein  in  the  settled  districts,  and  handed 
the  lines  which  had  been  made  over  to  the  district  councils,  which  are 
now  required  to  maintain  them.  A  certain  sum  is  annually  voted  by 
Parliament  for  the  preservation  of  these  roads,  which  is  allotted  accord- 
ing to  circumstances  to  the  councils  of  the  districts  through  which  they 
run.  About  £4,000,000  sterling  has  been  expended  out  of  loan  moneys 
in  road-making.  The  total  length  of  the  main  roads  is  now  4,747  miles, 
of  which  more  than  2,000  miles  have  been  thoroughly  made.  'J'he  rest 
are  for  the  most  part  situated  in  outlying  country,  and  the  expenditure 
upon  them  is  devoted  to  bringing  them  into  such  condition  as  to  make 
them  faii-ly  passable  at  all  times.  The  care  of  the  roads  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  district  councils  is  undertaken  by  the  Government,  and  the 
funds  are  provided  by  parliamentary  votes. 

The  Overland  Telegraph  line  from  Adelaide  to  Port  Darwin  has  already 
been  mentioned  in  a  former  page.  It  is  1,569  miles  in  length,  'ihe 
greater  part  of  the  line  is  carried  on  iron  poles.  It  is  substantially 
erected  and  stands  well.  Its  total  cost  has  been  £479.175.  The  work  was 
carried  out  by  the  South  Australian  (Jovernment  imder  the  direct  super- 
vision of  Mr.  (now  Sir)  Charles  Todd,  Postmaster-General.  It  is  the 
exclusive  property  of  South  Australia,  and  is  the  result  of  her  unaided 
enterprise.  This  line  crosses  the  Australian  continent  from  south  to  north. 
In  addition  to  this  line,  another  line  connects  the  colony  Avith  Western 
Australia.  The  South  Australian  portion,  which  tei*minates  at  Eucla,  at^ 
the   head  of  the  Great  .Australian  Bight,  is  1,231  miles  in  length.     That 


IIEVEXI  K  :     PI  HLU     DEliT  :     PIHLIC    WORKS, 


331 


part  whieli  was  ei-ectecl  by  Western  Australia  is  752  miles  in  length. 
The  South  Australian  section  cost  £68,205.  All  the  messages  from  the 
eastern  colonies  for  Great  Britain,  Europe,  India,  China,  Sec.,  pasa 
through  Adelaide  and  travel  by  means  of  the  South  Australian  tele- 
graphs from  the  junctions  on  the  South  Australian  border.  Western 
Australia  possesses  a  cable  communication  of  her  own  with  the  Dutch 
settlements  in  Java,  and  is  thus  connected  with  the  European,  Indian^ 
and  other  telegraphs.  Details  of  the  receipts  and  expenditure  on 
the  Port  Darwin  and  West  Australian  lines  are  not  given  separately^ 
being  merged  in  the  general  accounts  of  the  post  office,  which  is  amalga- 
mated with  the  telegraph  department.  The  general  results  have  been 
shown  elsewhere. 

A  large  expenditure  has  taken  place  in  harbor  improvements,  in 
deepening  operations,  the  construction  of  wharfs,  and  in  other  works. 
The  improvements  at  Port  Adelaide,  the  chief  harbor  of  the  colony,  have 
absorbed  the  largest  amount.     The  expenditure  has  been  — 

Port  Adelaide ^690,072 

Port  A\igusta    54;96o 

Port  Pirie 1 1 1,828 

Port  Wakefield    i7,357 

Port  Broiighton    1, 203 

Franklin  Harbor 1,295 

Outports   27,420 

^^904, 134 

These  works  do  not  produce  any  direct  return  in  the  form  of  interest,  but 
they  add  to  the  general  revenue  of  the  colony  in  other  ways.  Various 
jetties  have  also  been  erected.  On  coast  defences  £230.000  has  been 
expended  in  the  erection  of  forts  for  the  protection  of  the  entrance  to 
Port  Adelaide  and  providing  them  with  suitable  guns,  ammunition,  stores, 
&c.,  the  construction  of  a  military  road  parallel  to  the  coast,  and  the 
construction  and  equipment  of  a  jiowerful  gunboat.  Considerable  sums 
have  also  been  devoted  to  drainage  works  in  the  south-east  district,  by 
means  of  which  immense  tracts  of  country  which  were  nothing  but 
imwholesome  and  useless  swamps  have  been  reclaimed  and  converted 
into  valuable  agricultural  land.  Commodious  schoolhouses  have  been 
erected  in  every  district  in  the  colony;  new  Parliament  buildings,  a  new 
country  residence  for  the  Governor,  and  a  variety  of  other  buildings, 
which  it  is  unnecessary  to  particularise,  have  also  been  erected.  These 
works,  though  not  reproductive,  contribute  their  share  towards  the  pros- 
perity and  well-being  of  the  community.  From  what  has  been  written 
above,  it  is  abundantly  clear  that  the  sums  which  have  been  raised  by 
loans  are  in  no  degree  in  excess  of  the  means  of  the  colony,  and.  instead 


332 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 


of  being  a  burthen  to  the  colonists,  the  returns  from  thorn  are  consider- 
able items  in  their  annual  ways  and  means,  and  valuable  aids  to  the 
development  of  the  colonial  resources. 


EDUCATION.  333 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

Education  in  South  Australia — Its  Rise,  Pkogress,  and  Present  Condition — 
The  State  School  System — Course  of  Instruction — Training  College — 
Advanced  School  —  Scholarships  and  Bursaries —How  Obtained — 
Regulations — Education  Compulsohy — Education  amongst  the  People 
— Statistics — Numrer  of  Schools — Roman  Catholic  Objections  to 
State  Education — Anglican  Church  School — St.  Peter's  College — 
Wesleyan — Prince  Alfred  College — Congregational — Way  College — 
Roman  Catholic  High  School— Attendance  at  Schools  in  the  Pro- 
vince— Private  Schools -The  Adelaide  University — Its  Foundation 
AND  Progress — The  School  of  Mines — Its  Foundation  and  Develop- 
ment— The    Agricultural    College. 

There  was  no  system  of  State  education  in  South  Australia  before  the 
year  1847.  Previous  to  that  time  all  the  schools  were  established  by 
private  persons,  and  were  conducted  by  them  without  Government  inter- 
ference or  control.  There  was  a  school  in  Adelaide  in  the  very  early 
days  which  was  founded  on  the  lines  laid  down  by  the  British  and 
Foreign  School  Society,  but  it  was  far  from  supplying  the  growing  wants 
of  the  colony.  Under  an  Ordinance  (No.  11  of  1847)  a  capitation  grant 
was  paid  by  the  Government  to  schools  established  by  private  persons, 
but  that  plan  gave  rise  to  so  many  objections  that  the  Ordinance  was 
repealed  in  1851  by  an  Act  wliich  came  into  operation  in  the  following 
year.  The  purpose  of  that  Act  was  to  establish  public  schools  in  which 
good  secular  instruction,  based  on  Christian  principles  apart  from  sectarian 
differences  of  belief  or  opinion,  should  be  provided.  A  Central  Board  of 
Education  was  created,  consisting  of  seven  members  selected  by  the 
Governor.  That  board  was  empowered  to  grant  licences  to  teachers,  and 
to  pay  them  salaries  varying  from  £40  to  £100  per  annum.  Inspectors 
were  appointed,  who  periodically  visited  the  schools  and  reported  the 
results  of  their  inspections  to  the  central  board.  The  school  buildings- 
were  erected  by  means  of  local  subscriptions,  which  were  subsidised  by 
the  Government,  according  to  the  circumstances  of  each  case,  by 
amounts  not  exceeding  £200.  Tne  working  of  this  system  did  not 
prove  satisfactory,  so  that  a  new  Education  Act  was  passed  in  1875. 
That  Act  transferred  the  management  of  the  public  schools  from  the 
education  board  to  a  Council  of  Education,  imder  the  presidency  of  an 
officer  paid  by  the  State.  After  being  in  force  for  about  three  years  a  fresh 
Act  was  passed,  which  superseded  the  Council  of  Education  and  placed 
the  control  of  the  schools  directly  under  the  Minister  of  Education,  with 


334  SOUTH    AUSTKAhlA. 

competent  school  inspectors  to  assist  him.     The  school  system  is  that  of 
com])nlsory  and  free  education. 

•^  The  immediate  management  of  the  schools  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
Education  Department,  which  is  subject  to  the  authority  of  the  Minister 
•of  Education.  The  permanent  head  of  the  department  is  the  Inspector- 
General  of  Schools.  The  colony  is  divided  into  six  districts,  the  super- 
vision of  which  is  entrusted  to  six  inspectors — one  to  each  district.  A 
large  portion  of  the  settled  districts  of  the  colony  is  divided  into  school 
districts.  For  each  of  these  there  is  a  board  of  advice,  in  part  elected  and 
in  part  appointed  by  the  Government.  The  members  of  these  boards 
advise  the  Minister  on  general  matters  connected  with  their  schools,  but 
they  receive  no  payment  for  their  services.  They  are  entrusted  especially 
with  the  care  of  the  school  buildings,  and  are  provided  with  limited 
funds  from  the  general  revenue  for  expenditure  in  improvements  and 
repairs.  They  decide  when  prosecutions  are  to  be  instituted  against 
parents  and  others  who  do  not  comply  with  the  compulsory  clauses  of 
the  Act.  For  the  effectual  carrying  outof  these  clauses,  more  particularly 
in  large  centres  of  population,  there  are  six  school  visitors,  whose  time  is 
chiefly  occupied  in  looking  after  absentee  scholars. 

"  The  schools  are  of  two  kinds — public  and  provisional.  A  pviblic 
■school  is  one  which  has  an  average  attendance  of  not  less  than  twenty 
scholars,  and  is  in  charge  of  a  certified  teacher.  A  provisional  school  is 
one  in  charge  of  an  uncertificated  teacher,  or  one  in  charge  of  a  certi- 
ficated teacher  at  which  the  average  attendance  of  pupils  is  under 
twenty.  Children  under  5  years  of  age  are  not  reckoned  in  computing 
averages  of  attendance,  except  in  the  cases  of  large  schools  with  a  triple 
organisation.  Some  of  the  smaller  provisional  schools  are  open  for  half 
time,  generally  in  alternate  weeks,  and  one  teacher  undertakes  two  of 
them.  In  Adelaide  and  in  some  of  the  larger  provincial  towns  each 
public  school  is  divided  into  separate  departments  for  boys,  girls,  and 
children  under  7.  In  other  schools  the  sexes  are  taught  together. 
The  course  of  instruction  is  alike  in  all  schools.  There  is  also  an 
advanced  school  for  girls  in  Adelaide.  All  apiDointments  of  teachers  are 
made  by  the  Minister  Controlling  Education,  and  all  teachers  are 
transferable  from  school  to  school,  at  his  discretion.  For  serious  offences 
they  are  liable  to  summary  dismissal.  In  other  cases  the  engagements 
are  terminable  on  either  side  at  one  months  notice  expiring  at  the  end 
of  a  school  quarter.  Although  teachers  are  paid  by  the  Government 
they  are  not  members  of  the  Civil  Service. 

'*  There  is  a  training  college  in  Adelaide  for  those  who  -wish  to  qualify 
themselves  for  the  profession  of  teaching.  The  students  are  mainly 
those   who  have  served  their  time  as  pupil    teachers.      The  period  of 


EDUCATION'.  335 

"trainini^  is  at  present  one  year.  No  fee  is  charged,  and  an  allowance  for 
maintenance  is  made  to  each  student,  who  is  bound,  in  return,  to  take 
service  under  the  department  for  a  limited  term,  after  the  period  of 
training  has  expired.  Persons  outside  the  service  of  the  department 
may  receive  instruction  at  that  college  on  the  payment  of  certain  fees. 
All  schools  are  open  for  secular  instruction  at  930  a.m.  An  interval  of 
not  less  than  one  hour  is  prescribed  for  midday  recess,  and  the  minimum 
time  devoted  to  actual  teaching  is  four  and  a  half  hours  in  each  school 
day.  The  Bible  may  be  read  by  a  teacher  to  any  pupils  who  attend 
for  that  purpose,  for  not  more  than  half  an  hour  before  9-30  a.m. ;  but 
no  religiovis  instruction  is  permitted,  nor  is  attendance  at  this  time  com- 
pulsor3\  The  Minister  Controlling  Education  has  power  to  require  such 
Bible-reading  in  any  school,  on  receiving  a  written  request  to  that  effect 
from  the  parents  of  not  less  than  ten  children.  The  course  of  instruc- 
tion includes  reading,  spelling,  writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  grammar, 
history,  composition,  poetry,  elementary  science,  special  lessons  in  general 
or  moral  subjects,  drawing,  drill,  and  sewing  for  girls.  Singing  is  en- 
couraged. The  satisfying  of  an  inspector  of  schools  in  the  first  four 
subjects  entitles  a  pupil  to  a  "  compulsory  certificate."  which  exempts 
the  holder  from  all  further  attendance  at  school.  In  the  Advanced 
School  for  Girls  the  course  of  instruction  comprises  the  usual  branches 
of  an  English  education,  French  and  German,  drawing,  class  singing, 
•and  elementary  natural  science,  with  Latin  and  mathematics  for  the 
more  advanced  pupils.  This  school  is  open  to  girls  who  have  passed 
the  compulsory  standard  in  a  public  or  provisional  school,  or  an  equiva- 
lent e.Kamination.  A  fixed  charge  is  made  for  instruction  in  this  estab- 
lishment. 

"  The  following  exhibitions,  bursaries,  and  scholarships  are  annually 
offered  for  competition  : — (1)  Six  exhibitions,  tenable  for  three  years, 
and  of  the  value  of  £20  (or  £40  for  those  who  have  to  reside  away  fi-om 
home),  open  to  pupils  under  14  years,  boys  and  girls  alike,  who  attend 
the  public  schools.  The  successful  competitors  are  required  to  enter  at 
some  advanced  school  approved  by  the  Minister.  (2)  Six  bursaries, 
tenable  for  three  years,  and  giving  the  right  of  education  at  the  advanced 
school,  open  to  all  girls  in  the  public  scSools  who  are  under  14.  (3) 
Three  University  scholarships  of  the  value  of  £50,  enable  for  three 
years,  and  open  to  all  candidates  under  18  who  have  been  one  year  in 
the  province. 

"  The  Education  Department  is  guided  by  regulations  which  are  laid 
before  both  Houses  of  Parliament,  and  have  the  force  of  law,  unless 
disallowed  within  one  month  by  express  resolution  of  either  House. 
The  regulations  are  revised  periodically,  and   such  alterations  are  made 


336  SOUTH    AUSTKAf.IA. 

in  them  as  may  appear  to  be  in  harmony  with  the  best  modern  views  on 
])rimary  education."* 

When  the  census  was  taken  in  1891  full  particulars  were  collected  as. 
to  the  condition  of  the  people  in  respect  of  elementary  education.     From 
the  information  thus  obtained  comparisons  have  been  made  between  the 
results  which  AA^ere  shown  at  the  time  of  the  census  in   1871,  five  years 
before  the  existing  State  school   system  was  established ;    those  which 
were  ascertained  in  1876,  the  year  in  which  that  system  came  into  opera- 
tion ;  the  educational  state  of  the  colonists  in   1881,  when  the  law  had 
been  in  force  for  five  years ;  and  the  progress  that  had  been  made  in 
education  in  1891,  ten  years  later.     The  total  population,  as  shown  else- 
Avhere,  was  320,431  in  that  year.     Of  these  246,085  persons  were  able  to 
read,  236,514  were  also  able  to  write,  and  74,346  were  not  able  to  read. 
Those  who  could  read  and  write  formed  73-81  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion, those  who  could  read  only,  2-99  per  cent.,  and  those  who  could 
neither  read  nor  write  23*20  per  cent.     At  the   census  of  1871  62  per 
cent,  of  the  people  could  read  and  write;  in  1876,  69  per  cent.;  in  1881, 
71    per    cent.;    and  in   1891   nearly  74  per   cent,   were  similarly  profi- 
cient.    In  arriving  at  these  figures  the  children  under  5  years  of  age 
have  been  considered  as  being  unable  to  read  or  write ;    they  number 
45,281.  and  form  1413  per  cent,  of  the  population.     Of  the  persons  of 
5   years  of  age  and  upwards  (275,150)  236,514,  or  8596  per  cent.,  can 
read  and  write;   9,571,  or  3-48  per  cent.,  can  read  only  ;  and  29,065,  or 
10-56  per  cent.,  cannot  read.      If  the  number  of  children  under  5  years 
of  age  be  deducted  from  the  total  population,  the  proportion  of  persons 
who  can  read  and  write  appears  in  a  more  favorable  light,  because  the 
percentage  of    persons  at    and    above  that    age    increased   from  74-33 
per  cent,  in  1871  to  81-55  per  cent,  in  1876;  to  84-0  per  cent,  in  1881  ;. 
and  to  85-96  per  cent,  in   1891.     As  regards  those  persons  whose  ages- 
range  between  15  and  20,  most  of  whom  have  been  brought  within  the 
influence  of  the  State  school  system,  it  appears  that  all  but  2-32  per  cent, 
can  now  read  and  write,  as  against  4-28  per  cent,  of  the  similar  class  in 
1881  and  9-39  per  cent,  in   1871.     The  actual  increase  which  has  taken 
place  in  this  respect  between  1871   and   1891   amounts  to  about  7  per 
cent.     Taking  the  school  age  as  being  the  period  between  the  ages  of  5^ 
and  14  the  following  results  are  apparent; — In  1871   55-31  per  cent,  of 
the  children  within  the  period  could  read  and  write  ;  in  1876,  64-30  per 
cent.;    in   1881,  69-56  per  cent. ;    and  in  1891,  72-05  per  cent ;    so  that 
whilst  there  was  only  one  child  in  two  who  could  read  and  write  in  1871 
three  out  of  four  children  can  do  so  now.     With  respect  to  elementary 
education,  persons  of  15  and  over  that  age  are  regarded  as  adults.     The 
*Froin  a  paper  prepared  by  L.  W.  Stanton,  Esq.,  Inspector  of  Schools  in  South  Australia.. 


EDUCATION.  337 

returns  show  that  of  this  class  in  1871  there  were  84-29  per  cent.;  in 
1876,  89-74  per  cent.:  in  1881,  89-65  per  cent.;  and  in  1891,  91-75  per 
cent,  who  could  read  and  write.  Of  the  men  and  women  of  full  a<;e 
8268  per  cent,  could  read  and  write  in  1871  ;  83-37  per  cent,  in  1876; 
88-06  per  cent,  in  1881  ;   and  90-34  per  cent,  in  1891. 

The  sexes  stand  nearly  on  an  equaKty  in  the  possession  of  elementary 
education.  In  1871  the  number  of  females  able  to  read  and  write  was 
less  than  that  of  the  males  ;  at  the  present  time  it  is  slightly  greater.  In 
1871  the  proportion  of  females  was  60-56  per  cent,  and  that  of  the  males 
63-53;  in  1891  the  proportion  of  females  had  risen  to  74-16,  and  that  of 
the  males  to  73-47.  The  ages  at  which  attendance  at  school  is  made 
compulsory  are  between  7  and  13  inclusive.  In  1871,  five  years 
before  the  Education  Act  of  1875  came  into  operation,  there  were 
15,815  boys  and  15,606  girls.  The  proportion  that  could  read  and  w^ite 
was  63-66  per  cent,  of  the  former  and  64-32  of  the  latter.  In  1876  when 
the  present  system  was  brought  into  force,  17.71 1  boys,  or  71-05  per  cent., 
could  read  and  write,  and  there  were  17,471  girls,  of  whom  75-49  per  cent, 
were  able  to  do  so.  In  1881  there  were  19,811  boys,  of  whom  79-90 
could  read  and  write,  and  19,859  girls,  of  whom  80-96  could  read  and 
write.  In  1891  the  number  of  boys  was  24,267.  86-64  per  cent,  of  whom 
could  read  and  write,  and  23,515  girls,  87-05  per  cent.,  who  were 
similarly  advanced  in  elementary  instruction.  The  progress  of  education 
amongst  females  between  the  ages  of  13  and  20  shows  a  marked 
improvement.  The  number  of  males  between  these  a^es  in  1871  was 
14,661  and  that  of  females  14,967.  The  proportion  of  the  first  who 
could  read  and  write  was  87-57  per  cent.,  and  of  the  second  91-39  per 
cent.  In  1876  the  numbers  of  the  sexes  were  nearly  equal,  viz.,  19.259 
males  and  19,2.'39  females;  98-85  per  cent,  of  the  former  could  read  and 
write  and  95-37  of  the  latter.  In  1881  there  were  24.154  males,  of 
whom  94*30  were  able  to  read  and  write,  and  'z4,278  females,  of  whom 
96-99  per  cent,  were  equally  proficient.  In  1891  of  26,007  males  96-86 
per  cent,  could  read  and  write,  and  of  26,030  females  98*66  per  cent. 

The  question  as  to  whether  elementary  instruction  is  evenly  disti-ibuted 
throughout  the  province  may  be  determined  by  comparing  the  degree  of 
education  stated  to  be  possessed  by  residents  in  thickly  populated 
corporate  towns  and  the  thinly  peopled  country  districts.  Children 
under  5  years  of  age  are  not  included  in  the  comparison.  Exclusive 
of  these  it  is  found  that  the  residents  in  municipalities  in  1871  who 
could  read  and  write  represented  80-66  per  cent,  of  their  total  population 
of  and  above  that  age.  In  1876  there  were  8530  per  cent.;  in  1881, 
8834  per  cent.;  and  in  1891,  89-46  per  cent.  The  rural  districts  showed 
72-39   per  cent,  in   1871,  81  55   in   1876,  8200  per  cent,  in  1^81,  and 

T 


338  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA 

83"75  in  1891.  It  appears  from  this  that  in  the  town  and  suburban 
districts  the  ratio  has  increased  8  80  per  cent,  and  in  the  country  districts 
11-36  per  cent.* 

The  number  of  State  schools  open  during  1892  was  257,  and  the 
number  of  provisional  schools  307.  There  were  264  head  teachers  and 
672  assistants — 936  in  all.  The  general  total  of  scholars  attending 
school  was  47,094,  and  the  average  daily  attendance  29,H01.  The  cost 
of  education  for  the  year,  exclusive  of  that  of  school  buildings,  was 
£92,830.  and  the  expenditure  on  buildings  £15,042.  The  expenditure  on 
education  at  })er  head  of  the  population,  including  the  cost  of  buildings, 
amounted  to  6s.  9d.,  or  £2  5s.  9^d.  per  scholar. 

Although  education  is  compulsory  in  the  province,  it  is  not  compulsory 
on  parents,  or  others  who  have  the  care  and  control  of  children  within 
the  specified  ages,  to  send  them  to  the  State  schools;  but  children 
between  the  ages  of  7  and  9  must  attend  a  public  school,  or  a 
certified  efficient  school,  for  thirty-five  days  in  each  quarter  of  a  year, 
if  there  be  such  a  school  within  two  miles  of  the  child's  residence. 
Children  between  the  ages  of  9  and  13  are  required  to  attend 
school,  if  the  school  is  not  more  than  three  miles  from  their  residences, 
unless  reasonable  excuse  is  given  by  the  parent.  Reasonable  excuse  is 
defined  by  the  Act  to  be — That  the  child  is  under  efficient  instruction  at 
home  or  elsewhere  ;  that  the  child  has  been  prevented  from  attending 
school  by  sickness,  danger  of  infection,  temporary  or  permanent 
infirmity,  or  other  unavoidable  cause,  or  that  the  child  has  been  educated 
up  to  the  compulsory  standard. 

The  State  school  system  does  not  embrace  the  whole  of  the  popula- 
tion which  comes  within  the  scope  of  elementary  education.  .Many  persons 
object  to  send  their  children  to  thf^  State  schools.  Those  who  do  so 
object  principally  on  religious  grounds.  The  Roman  Catholics  as  a  body 
decline  to  avail  themselves  of  the  public  schools.  Their  views  are  that 
religious  instruction  is  a  fundamental  and  indispensable  part  of  the 
education  of  the  young,  and,  as  a  matter  of  conscience,  they  can  have 
nothing  to  do  with  any  schools  in  which  their  children'cannot  be  in- 
structed in  their  own  faith.  The  State,  however,  recognises  no  religious 
or  sectarian  teaching  in  schools,  and  subsidises  no  religious  body  either 
for  school  purposes  or  otherwise.  State  education  is  free  and  unsectarian, 
and  the  public  schools  are  open  to  all  children  without  distinction.  If 
children  within  the  school  ages  do  not  attend  the  Government  schools, 
under  the  Education  Act  of  1891,  they  may  be  instructed  privately  or  in 
other  schools,  but  they  must  be  educated.  The  Roman  Catholics  provide 
their  own  schools  at  their  own  cost,  and  these  schools  are  carried  on  quite 

*  Superintendent  of  Census,  1892. 


EDUCATION,  a39 

separate  and  distinct  from  the  public  schools.  The  position  taken  by  the 
Roman  Catholics  in  their  relation  to  the  Government,  as  far  as  regards 
education,  is  that  they  make  no  objection  to  the  inspection  of  their 
schools  by  the  State,  in  order  that  the  authorities  may  be  satisfied  that 
the  elementary  education  imparted  in  them  is  equal  to  that  which  has 
been  fixed  by  the  regulations.  Beyond  this  they  object  to  any  official 
interference  with  their  schools.  They  consider  that  they  are  entitled  to 
participate  in  the  public  expenditure  on  education  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  children  in  the  schools  conducted  by  them  who  come  up  to 
the  Government  standard.  The  Legislature,  however,  has  not  deemed  it 
advisable  to  make  any  concession  in  that  direction. 

The  Anglican  Church  has  established  a  large  number  of  schools  con- 
nected with  its  parishes  in  the  country  districts.  The  children  who 
attend  them  are  instructed  in  the  tenets  of  the  church  to  which  they 
belong.  St.  Peter's  Collegiate  School,  which  M-as  established  in  1849,  is 
the  principal  educational  institution  belonging  to  the  above  denomination. 
Its  affairs  are  managed  by  a  board  of  governors,  of  whom  the  bishop  of 
the  diocese  is  the  president.  There  is  also  another  school  in  Adelaide 
of  which  the  bishop  is  the  visitor.  They  are  both  largely  attended,  and 
in  the  former  the  education  pi-ovided  is  of  the  highest  class. 

The  Wesleyan  body  has  established  a  high-class  school,  called  the 
Prince  Alfred  College.  The  foundation  stone  of  the  building,  which  is 
one  of  the  most  extensive  in  the  colony,  was  laid  by  H.R.II.  the  Duke  of 
Edinburgh  on  November  5th,  1867,  during  his  official  visit  to  South 
Australia.  The  building  is  a  handsome  Elizabethan  structure.  It  was 
erected  by  volvintary  contributions,  and  cost  over  £31,000.  The  Prince 
Alfred  College  has  a  number  of  pupils,  larger  than  that  attending  any 
similar  institution  in  the  colony. 

The  Bible  Ciiristians  also  have  a  college,  named  the  Way  College. 
It  is  largely  attended,  and  the  education  provided  there  is  quite  equal  to 
that  of  any  collegiate  estabhshment  in  the  province 

The  High  School,  conducted  by  the  Christian  Brothers,  founded  under 
the  auspices  of  the  late  Archbishop  of  Adelaide,  provides  for  the  education 
of  Roman  Catholic  boys  whose  friends  des-re  them  to  obtain  a  hifrh 
standard  of  instruction.  There  are  seven  Catholic  schools  in  Adelaide, 
which  are  conducted  by  Dominican  Nuns  and  Sisters  of  Mercy — three 
of  these  are  superior  schools  for  girls — besides  the  College  of  the 
Christian  Brothers  for  boys.  The  aggregate  attendance  at  the  Catholic 
schools  in  Adelaide  is  about  900.  The  education  of  children  in  the  suburbs 
of  the  city  and  in  the  country  districts  of  the  colony  is  carried  on  princi- 
pally by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  except  in  the  South-East,  where  the 
Sisters  of  Mercy  are  employed.     There  is  also  a  superior  school  for  girls 


340 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 


at  Port  Piric,  which  is  under  the  charge  of  the  Nuns  of  the  Good 
Samaritan.  The  attendance  at  the  Catholic  schools  in  the  colony,  con- 
ducted b}^  members  of  religious  orders,  is  stated  to  be  about  3,500. 

The  following  figures,  derived  from  that  part  of  the  census  of  1891 
which  treats  of  the  education  of  the  people,  show  the  general  attendance 
at  the  schools  in  the  province  :  — 


Asres  of  Scholars. 


Under  5  years    Males 

Females 
Between  5  and  6  years 


Between  7  and  12  years  . 
Between  13  and  19  years 


.  Males 

Females 
.  Males 

Females 
.  Males 

Females 


Totals 


1 

■/: 

5J  ui 

"i 

■s« 

^9. 

>  0 

c  0 

240 

277 

533 

38 

223 

260 

535 

35 

2,610 

1,371 

953 

192 

2,163 

1,401 

1,167 

228 

15,468 

4,972 

1,108 

736 

13,277 

(5,195 

1,371 

718 

1,970 

1,245 

188 

131 

2,266 

1,781 

410 

181 

38,217 

17,502 

6,265 

2,259 

5c.£ 


21,876 

21,175 

4,053 

4,072 

1,926 

1,925 
18,853 
18,266 

92,146 


From  these  figures  it  appears  that  out  of  156,389  persons  included  in 
the  education  returns  as  scholars — 

92,146  or  58-93  i)er  cent,  did  not  attend  school. 

38,217  or  24-42  per  cent,  attended  State  schools. 

19,761  or  12-65  per  cent,  attended  private  schools. 

6,265  or     4'00  per  cent,  were  taught  privately. 

156,389       100-00 


Besides  the  establishments  which  have  been  noticed,  there  are  many 
superior  schools  for  boys  and  girls  carried  on  by  private  teachers,  which 
are  well  attended,  and  stand  high  in  public  estimation,  in  consequence  of 
the  success  of  their  scholars  at  the  University  examinations.  From  what 
has  gone  before  it  will  be  seen  that  ample  provision  has  been  made  in  the 
province  for  the  education  of  the  children  of  all  classes  of  colonists. 
When  free  education  Avas  established  in  the  State  schools  it  was  thought 
that  it  would  prejudice  the  attendance  of  children  trained  in  private 
establishments.  It  may  possibly  have  produced  that  effect  in  some  iew 
cases,  but  not  to  an  extent  that  has  been  substantially  injurious  to  private 
teachers.  The  general  attendance  at  State  schools  has  been  increased, 
but,  as  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  it  has  not  reduced  that  of  scholars  who 
do  not  avail  themselves  of  the  facilities  offered  by  the  State  schools. 
In  the  Catholic  schools  the  attendance  has  not  been  affected. 


EDUCATION.  341 

Prior  to  1874  there  v\'as  no  University  in  South  Australia.  Colonists 
who  desired  their  sons  to  pass  through  the  courses  of  study  prescribed 
in  Universities  had  to  send  them  away  from  the  colony  to  places  where 
such  courses  were  obtainable.  For  their  daughters  there  was  nothing 
but  such  private  establishments  as  the  colony  afforded,  or,  if  anything 
of  a  higher  kind  were  required,  to  send  them  away  from  the  province. 

Early  in  1872  the  Baptist,  Congregational,  and  Presbyterian  associa- 
tions had  determined  to  establish  a  college  for  the  training  of  young 
men  for  the  ministry.  They  commenced  work  in  June  of  that  year. 
Soon  after.  Sir  Walter  Watson  Hughes  offered  the  sum  of  £20,000  to 
the  Union  College,  as  the  new  institution  was  named.  The  Council  of 
that  institution  determined  that  the  large  endowment  that  had  been 
offered,  and  the  certain  attendance  of  a  large  number  of  students, 
rendered  it  desirable  that  the  basis  of  the  college  should  be  extended, 
and  that,  instead  of  a  college,  a  University  should  be  established  m  its 
place.  A  meeting  of  the  leading  members — of  clergymen  and  laymen — - 
of  denominations  other  than  those  included  in  the  original  college  was 
summoned  to  confer  with  the  Council  on  the  question  of  founding  a 
University.  The  outcome  of  this  conference  was  the  establishment  of  a 
Universitv  Association  in  September,  1 872,  which  from  that  time  managed 
all  the  business  connected  with  the  founding  of  the  University  until  the 
passing  of  the  Act  of  Parliament  in  1874.  The  first  meeting  of  the 
University  Council  was  held  on  December  11th,  1874,  at  which  Sir 
R.  D.  Hanson,  Knt.,  Chief  Justice  of  the  province,  was  elected  Chancellor, 
and  the  Right  Rev.  A.  Short,  U.D..  Anglican  Bishop  of  Adelaide,  Yice- 
Chancellor. 

Sir  W.  \V.  Hughes'  endowment  was  applied  to  the  founding  of  two  pro- 
fessorships— one  for  classics  and  comparative  philology  and  literature, 
and  the  second  for  English  language  and  literature  and  mental  and 
moral  philosophy.  Sir  W.  W.  Hughes  nominated  the  first  professors 
to  the  respective  chairs.  Shortly  after  Sir  Thomas  Elder,  G.C.M.G., 
promised  a  donation  of  £20,000,  which  enabled  the  Council  to  foimd  a 
professorship  for  mathematics  and  another  of  natural  science.  The 
Council  did  not  think  it  advisable  to  open  the  University  until  the  arrival 
of  the  Elder  professors  in  the  colony,  but  in  the  meantime  they  decided 
to  avail  themselves  of  such  assistance  as  the  Hughes  professors  were 
willing  to  render,  and  they  arranged  for  the  delivery  by  those  pro- 
fessors of  popular  lectures  upon  subjects  connected  with  their  chairs, 
and  by  other  gentlemen  whose  services  were  available.  These  lectures 
were  given  in  the  South  Australian  Institute,  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
the  Coimcil  by  the  Governors  of  the  Public  Library.  In  this  year  the 
Council  created  a  lectureship  of  physiology  and  appointed  a  lecturer. 


342  SOI  TH    AUSTRALIA. 

In  addition  to  the  private  endowments  which,  had  been  bestowed  on 
the  University,  the  Government  made  a  grant  to  the  Council  of  50,000 
acres  of  land  for  revenue  purposes,  as  Avell  as  of  five  acres  on  North - 
terrace  as  a  site  for  the  necessary  University  buildings.  They  hIso 
undertook  to  subsidise  all  endowments,  to  the  extent  of  5  per  cent,  per 
annum,  and  to  contribute  to  the  expense  of  the  buildings  as  well.  The 
new  University  was  incorporated  in  1874,  and  Royal  Letters  Patent  were 
granted  in  March,  1881. 

The  University  consists  of  a  Chancellor,  Yice-Chancellor.  a  Council, 
and  a  Senate,  and  has  power  to  confer  degrees  in  law,  medicine,  arts, 
science,  and  music.  All  degrees  conferred  by  its  authority  are  entitled 
to  the  same  rank,  precedence,  and  consideration  as  fully  as  if  such 
degrees  had  been  conferred  by  any  University  in  the  United  Kingdom. 
Degrees  are  also  conferred  on  women.  The  Government  of  the  Uni- 
versity is  vested  in  a  Council  of  twenty  members  and  a  Senate.  Ttie 
Senate  roll  now  numbers  nearly  200,  of  whom  one-third  are  graduates 
of  the  University.  The  remainder  are  graduates  of  other  Universities, 
who  have  been  admitted  ad  eundem  gradum. 

The  academical  year  is  divided  into  three  terms ;  the  first  term  begins 
in  March,  and  the  third  ends  in  December.  Degrees  may  be  conferred 
at  any  time,  but  are  visually  given  at  the  annual  commemoration,  which 
is  held  in  December.  The  Chancellor,  who  prior  to  election  need  not 
necessarily  be  a  member  of  Council,  holds  office  for  five  years,  and  the 
Vice-Chancellor,  who  must  be  a  member  of  the  University,  holds  office 
for  three  years.  Both  appointments  are  made  by  the  Council.  Members 
of  Council  hold  office  for  three  j-ears,  but  the  warden  and  clerk  of  the 
Council  are  elected  annually  by  the  Senate. 

The  academical  work  of  the  University  was  commenced  in  March,  1876. 
The  number  of  matriculated  students  who  commenced  the  course  was 
eight,  but  fifty-two  non-graduating  students  attended  the  different  courses 
of  lectures.  The  first  matriculation  examination  took  place  in  September, 
1876,  when  ten  students  passed.  At  the  ordinary  examination,  held  in 
November,  two  undergraduates  passed  the  first  year  of  the  course  for  the 
B.A.  degree,  and  eleven  passed  in  English  language  and  literature  and 
mental  and  moral  philosophy.  In  December,  1883,  a  school  of  law  was 
established,  and  in  March  in  the  following  year  a  lecturer  was  appointed. 
Subsequently  a  professorship  of  laws  was  created. 

In  December,  1883,  Sir  Thomas  Elder  offered  £10,000  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  medical  chair ;  and  in  March,  1884,  the  Hon.  J.  H.  Angas 
endowed  a  chair  of  chemistry  by  a  donation  of  £6,000.  The  University 
Council  at  once  provided  for  the  first  two  years  of  the  medical  course, 
and  appointed  a  lecturer  on  biology  and  physiology  and  a  professor  of 


EDUCATION.  343 

chemistry.  A  school  of  music  was  established  in  1884,  mainly  through 
the  exertions  of  His  Excellency  the  Governor,  Sir  W.  F.  C.  Kobinson, 
G.C.M.G.,  who  obtained  promises  of  subscriptions  amounting  to  £530 
per  annum  for  five  years,  and  a  professor  of  music  was  appointed.  Since 
the  term  for  which  the  subscriptions  were  promised  expired  the  chair 
has  been  maintained  by  means  of  the  ordinary  revenue  of  the  University, 
although  it  is  almost  self-supporting.  In  1886  the  Council  was  enabled 
to  provide  for  the  full  medical  curriculum,  and  in  March  the  various 
lecturers  were  appointed. 

The  University  bmldings  were  commenced  in  1879.  The  foundation 
stone  was  laid  on  July  uOth  by  His  Excellency  Lieutenant- General  Sir 
W.  F.  D.  Jervois,  G.C.M.G.,  who  also  opened  them  on  April,  1882.  The 
cost  was  £24,736,  of  which  sum  £18,014  was  furnished  by  the  Govern- 
ment and  £l,89<>  by  private  subscriptions.  The  buildings  contain  all 
the  accommodation  necessary  for  the  prosecution  of  the  different  studies 
in  which  the  >tudents  are  engaged. 

The  following  are  the  endowments  of  the  University  : — Her  Majesty's 
GoAernment,  50,000  acres  of  country  lands  and  five  acres  in  Adelaide  for 
the  site  of  the  University  buildings;  Sir  W.  W.  Hughes,  £20,000  :  Sir 
Thomas  Elder.  £20,OOo':  Sir  Thomas  Elder,  £10,000  for  medical  school ; 
Sir  Thomas  Elder,  £1.000  for  evening  classes;  Hon.  J.  H.  Angas, 
£6,000.  chair  of  chemistry ;  Hon.  J.  H.  Angas,  £4,000,  Angas  Scholar- 
ship and  Kxhibitions;  W.  Everard,  Esq.,  £1,000,  medical  scholarship; 
Stow  Prizes  and  Scholarship  (law  school),  subscription  £500  ;  Charles 
Gosse  Lectureship  (medical  school),  subscription  £800  ;  J.  H.  Clark 
Scholarship  (arts  school),  subscription  £500 ;  S.A.  Literary  Societies' 
Union  (evening  classes),  £220 ;  Commercial  Travellers'  Scholarship 
(arts,  science,  and  music).  £150  :  St.  Alban's  Scholarship  (founded  by 
the  Freemasons'  Lodge,  St.  Albans),  £150. 

In  addition  to  the  above  Sir  Thomas  Elder  subscribed  £300  per  annum 
for  hvc  years  towards  the  chair  of  mvisic,  and  other  persons  £230.  Sir 
Thomas  Elder  also  pays  yearly  the  sum  of  £20  for  prizes  for  physiolojjy. 
Her  Majesty's  Government  also  contributes  £800  a  year  towards  the 
medical  school. 

The  Stow  prize  is  of  the  value  of  £15,  and  may  be  awarded  annually. 
Every  undergraduate  who  at  each  of  the  three  examinations  for  the  hrst, 
second,  and  third  years  of  his  course  obtains  t^e  prize  is  styled  the 
"Stow  Scholar,"  and  receives  a  gold  medal.  I'he  Howard  Clark 
Scholarshi])  is  of  the  annual  value  of  £50,  and  is  tenable  for  two  years. 
The  scholarships  established  by  the  Education  Department  are  awarded 
annually — three  in  each  year.  They  are  of  the  value  of  £50  each,  and 
are    tenable   for  three   years.     The  Angas    Engineering   Scholarship  is 


344  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

awarded  triennially.  It  is  of  the  value  of  £200  pei*  annum,  and  tenable 
for  three  years.  The  Angas  Engineering  Exhibitions,  of  which  there 
are  three,  are  of  the  value  of  £60  jier  annum,  and  are  tenable  for  three 
years;  one  is  awarded  in  each  year.  The  Everard  Scholarship  is  of  the 
value  of  £50,  and  is  awarded  annually  to  the  best  undergraduate  in  the 
fifth  year  of  the  M.B.  course. 

The  business  of  the  institution  commenced  in  1876  in  a  very  unpre- 
tending manner,  with  the  arts  course  and  matriculation  examinations. 
Other  schools  were  gradvially  added,  until,  within  thirteen  years  of  the 
foundation,  graduates  in  law,  medicine,  arts,  science,  and  music  were  able 
to  obtain  degrees  from  the  University  of  Adelaide.  The  following 
figures  show  the  progress  made  in  the  work  of  the  University.  In 
addition  to  the  former  matriculation  examination,  now  known  as  the 
senior  public  examination,  there  are  the  preliminary  junior  public  and 
the  senior  public  examinations,  as  well  as  public  examinations  in  the 
theory  and  practice  of  music. 

The  number  of  students  who  presented  themselves  for  the  various 
examinations  is  given  below  : — 

Jimior  theory  of  music 136 

"       practice  of  music    143 

Senior  theory  of  music 28 

"       practice  of  music   61 

Preliminary  examinations     422 

Junior  public  examination    116 

Senior  public  examinations 96 

Higher  public  examination 44 

LL.D.  degree i 

LL.B.  degree 25 

M. D.  degree  i 

M.B.  degree    30 

M.A.  degree    i 

B.A.  degree    9 

B.Sc.  degree , 12 

Mus.  Bac.  degree  8 

1,133 

As  a  further  encouragement  to  students  in  the  schools  of  arts  and 
science  the  Council  have  provided  what  is  known  as  the  higher  public 
examination,  whereby  students  may  take  up  separate  subjects  and  thus 
complete  the  first  and  second  years  for  the  B.A.  or  the  B.Sc.  degree.  In 
the  third  year,  however,  they  must  enrol  as  undergraduates,  and  either 
attend  lectures  or  obtain  a  dispensation  from  the  Council.  By  this  means 
many  who  are  engaged  during  the  day  and  cannot  attend  the  ordinary 
lectures  may,  by  attending  the  evening  classes,  qualify  in  a  great  measure 


EDUCATION. 


345 


for  either  of  the  above-mentioned  degrees.  The  Council  have  also 
authorised  the  holding  of  local  examinations,  viz.,  the  preliminary, 
junior  public,  and  senior  public  examinations,  and  also  public  examina- 
tions in  music  in  places  other  than  in  Adelaide.  Advantage  is  gradually 
bein":  taken  of  this  concession. 

In  1884  various  literary  societies  initiated  a  movement  towards  the 
establishment  of  evening  classes.  Sir  Thomas  Elder  gave  a  donation  of 
£1.000  for  the  purpose,  and  £220  was  subscribed  by  the  public.  These 
amounts  were  handed  to  the  University  as  an  endowment  fund,  and 
several  classes  were  formed.  Although  the  University  authorities,  from 
year  to  year,  announce  their  willingness  to  provide  instruction  in  a  variety 
of  subjects, there  has  been  no  enthusiastic  response  to  their  offers.  In  1 892 
provision  was  made  for  holding  the  following  classes : — Latin,  Greek, 
mathematics,  physics  (including  practical  physics),  inorganic  chemistry 
(including  practical  chemistry),  biology,  mineralogy,  geology,  English, 
French,  German,  or  any  other  class  for  which  ten  students  applied.  The 
only  classes  formed  were  in  physics,  chemistry,  biology,  geology,  and  a 
special  class  in  electric  engineering. 

The  following  tables  show  the  number  of  graduating  and  non- 
srraduatinir  students  attending  lectures  in  each  year  since  the  formation 
of  the  University;  also  the  degrees  conferred  from  1879  to  1892, 
inclusive. 


students.                 j 

Year. 

Students. 

Vear. 

Graduating. 

Non- 
graduating. 

Graduating. 

Xon- 
graduating. 

1876    

1877    

1878    

1879    

1880    

1881    

6 
18 
29 

35 
44 

15 
12 

47 
53 

2 
29 
22 

35 

56 

59 

99 

106 

09 

1S85     

1886    

188:     

'     1888     

1889    

1 890    

1     1891     

1892     

95 

108 

no 
109 
118 
122 

94 
89 
69 

77 
198 
167 

1882    

1883    

1884    

no 

87 

136 
117 

346 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 
Degrees  Conferred, 


Years. 

M.I). 

I 
I 

M.A. 

LL.B. 

M.B. 

B.A. 

I 

4 
I 
6 

4 

3 
2 

I 

I 
2 

3* 
3 

B.  Sc. 

Mus.  Bac. 

1879  

1880  

1881  

1882  

1883  

1884  

1885  

1886  

1887  

1888  

1889  

1890  

1891  

1892  



2 



6 

3 
8 
6 
8 
4 
3 
8 
2 

4 
2 

5* 
2 



I 



I* 

I 

2 

5t 

4 

4 

I 

2 

3 

48 

'3 

45 

18 

I 

Total 130 

•  1  Lady.        t  4  Ladies. 

The  professors  on  the  foundation  of  the  University  control  the  follow- 
ing subjects  of  study : — Classics  and  comparative  philology  ;  English 
language  and  literature  and  mental  and  moral  philosophy;  mathematics  ; 
natural  science  ;  chemistry  ;  music  ;  laws  ;  anatomy.  The  lecturers,  who 
are  not  professors,  instruct  the  students  in  the  following  branches  of 
study: — Mathematics  and  physics;  laws  (2);  physiology;  principles 
and  practice  of  medicine  and  therapeutics  ;  principles  and  practice  of 
surgery  (2)  ;  obstetrics  and  diseases  peculiar  to  women  and  children ; 
materia  medica  ;  ophthalmic  surgery  ;  forensic  medicine  ;  lunacy  ;  aural 
surgery ;  pathological  anatomy  and  operative  surgery ;  clinical  medicine 
(3)  ;  and  clinical  surgery  (3). 

His  Excellency  the  Governor  is  ex  ojficio  visitor  to  the  University. 
The  Hon.  S.  J.  Way,  LL.D.,  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  and 
Lieutenant-GoAernor,  is  Chancellor,  and  the  Venerable  Archdeacon 
Farr,  M.A..  LL.D.,  Vice-Chancellor.      Mr.  C.  R.  Hodge  is  registrar.* 

In  1886,  in  consequence  of  a  strong  expression  of  public  opinion,  the 
Government,  of  which  Sir  John  Downer,  K.C.M.G.,  was  the  head, 
appointed  a  board  "  to  inquire  into  and  report  upon  the  best  means  of 
developing  a  general  system  of  technical,  including  agricultural,  education 
in  the  province."  Li  1888  that  board  recommended  that  a  School  of 
Mines  and  Industries  should  be  established.     The  Council  of  the  School 

*  The  information  contained  in  the  above  account  of  the  University  was  kindly 
supplied  by  this  gentleman. 


EDUCATION.  347 

of  Mines  was  appointed  in  November  in  that  year.  It  consisted  of  twelve 
members,  six  of  whom  were  nominated  by  the  Government,  and  the  re- 
maining six  by  the  University,  the  Board  of  Governors  of  the  Public 
Library,  Museum,  and  Art  Gallery,  the  Chamber  of  Manufactures,  and  the 
Trades  and  Labor  Council.*'"  "  The  policy  of  the  council  has  been  one  of 
alliance.  They  have  been  anxious  wherever  possible  to  utilise  the 
facilities  affording  by  existing  institutions  for  the  education  the  school 
specially  aims  at,  in  order  to  avoid  a  duplication  of  work.  It  is  therefore 
connected  with  the  chief  educational  agencies  of  South  Australia.  Its 
students  attend  lectures  at  the  University  and  at  the  School  of  Design, 
and  it  was  associated  with  the  Chamber  of  Manufactures  in  conducting  a 
series  of  popular  free  lectures."  The  actual  work  of  the  school  began  in 
March,  1889,  but  it  was  not  formally  opened  until  June  in  that  year, 
when  the  ceremony  was  performed  by  His  Excellency  the  Governor. 

The  year  is  divided  into  three  terms,  and  the  course  of  study  extends 
over  three  years,  at  the  end  of  which  students  who  pass  the  required 
examinations  are  entitled  to  receive  diplomas  as  associates.  The  course 
for  the  associateship  for  the  first  year  includes  preliminary  mathematics, 
physics,  and  chemistry,  wood  or  metal  work  and  drawing  (plane  and  solid, 
geometric,  freehand,  model  and  perspective),  in  each  of  which  the  can- 
didate must  pass  an  examination.  In  the  second  year  the  following  are 
the  subjects  of  study  : — [I)  Drawing  (elementary),  machine  construction, 
advanced  geometric :  (2)  geology  and  mineralogy  ;  (3)  wood  or  metal 
work;  (4)  chemistry ;  (5)  assaying;  (6)  metallurgy  and  assaying;  (7) 
applied  mathematics  and  mechanics;  (8)  advanced  physics.  These  are 
to  be  taken  by  students  of  different  departments  as  follows: — Geology 
and  mineralogy  (1,  2,  3,  4,  5),  metallurtry  and  assaying  (1,  2,  3,  4,  6), 
mining  (1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  7),  and  mechanical  engineering  (1,  3,  7,  8).  Of 
students  in  the  last-mentioned  department  a  knowledge  is  required  of 
subjects  7  and  8  more  extensive  than  that  required  from  students  in 
any  other  departments.  In  the  third  or  further  years  the  candidate 
devotes  himself  to  the  special  subjects  of  the  departrnent  in  which  he 
proposes  to  take  his  associateship.  Candidates  may  be  excused  from 
attending  at  lectures  or  examinations,  provided  they  can  produce  evidence 
of  previous  stud}"  and  examination  satisfactory  to  the  education 
committee. 

Besides  the  technical  classes  which  are  included  in  the  foregoing, 
industrial  classes  have  been  formed,  which  are  much  resorted  to.  They 
include  carpentry,  fitting  and  turning,  pattern-making  and  shop  drawing, 
bookbinding,  plumbing  and  gasfitting,  a  class  for  engine-drivers,  and 
classes  for  cookery  and  dressmaking.     These  classes  assemble  in  the  day- 

*  Report  of  the  Council  of  the  School  of  Mines,  1889. 


348 


SOUTH    .\rSTKAI.lA. 


time,  and  in  the  evenings  to  give  opportunities  of  improvement  to  persons 
who  are  engaged  during  the  day. 

The  School  of  Mines  is  increasing  in  influence  and  attractiveness.  In 
1889  the  number  of  students  was  348,  in  1890  it  Avas  341,  and  in  1891  it 
had  increased  to  468,  and  in  1892  to  620.  The  Government  has  placed 
at  the  disposal  of  the  Council  of  the  School  of  Mines  a  large  portion  of 
the  building  which  was  erected  for  the  Jubilee  Exhibition,  which  has 
been  properly  sub-divided  and  sviitably  fitted  up.  As  far  as  has  been 
practicable  all  the  necessary  fixtures  and  plant  for  the  various  departments 
of  the  school  have  been  manufactured  on  the  premises.  A  museum  and 
library  belonging  to  the  school  are  available  for  the  use  of  the  students. 

'Ihe   substantial  value  of  the  instruction  imparted  at  the   School  of 

Mines,  and  the  moderate  charges  which   are  made,  are  so  thoroughly 

appreciated  by   the  piiblic   that  amongst  the   persons   who  attend   the 

various  courses  may  be  found  representatives  of  almost  every  class  in  the 

community.     The  following  list  of  the  occupations  of  the  students  who 

avail  themselves  of  the  opportunities  for  improvement  which  the  school 

affords  is  published  in  the  annual  report  for  1892.     No  better  evidence 

could  be  adduced  of  the  widespread  public  interest  which  is  taken  in 

the  institution  :  — 

Painter     i 

Photographers     i 

Plumbers      12 

Potters 2 

Saddlers   2 

Scholars 58 

School  teachers 10 

Sewing  machinists     . .  5 

Students 42 

Stationers     4 

Storekeepers    4 

Surveyors     4 

Toilet  soapmaker    ....  i 

Warehousemen   9 

Watchmaker    I 

Xot  stated    90 


Agents     .    

2 

Drapers'  .salesmen 
Dyer 

.    12 
I 
r    ' 

2 

•  34 

•  3 
I 

I 

I 

.     3 

•  4 
.     6 

I 

1 

0 

2 

I 
J 

•  3 

Apprentices     

Assayers 

Baker 

•  •   57 

••     5 

I 

Electrician     

Engine- drivers 

Engineers       

Gardeners      

Grocer    

Blacksmiths    

Bookbinders    

Bra*5Sworkprs 

..     3 
•  •     4 
■•      3 

I 

'.'.     8 

Gunner 

Cadets 

Carpenters 

Hairdresser   

Ironmoulders     

Ironworkers      

Ironmongers      .... 

Librarian 

Masons 

Chemists 

...     6 

Clerks 

Cooks  

Coachhiiilders 

..   52 
. .    II 

..    15 

I 

...   85 

•  •    13 
...23 

Dental  surgeon  . . . 
Domestic  duties . . . 
Draughtsmen  ...    . 
Dressmakers    

Milliners    

Music  teacher   .... 
Nurses    

Patternmaker    

620 


The  ages  of  the  students  who  attend  the  school  are  little  less  varied 
than  their  occupations.     They  consist  of — 

Persons  under  16  years  of  age     1 1 7 

Between  16  and  20  years  of  age 253 

Between  21  and  25  years  of  age I39 

Between  26  and  30  years  of  age   44 

Between  30  and  45  years  of  age 5^ 

Above  45  ye-irs  of  age 7 

Age  not  stated    4 


620 


EDUCATION,  349 

The  School  of  Mines  and  Industries,  as  it  is  officially  designated,  is 
governed  by  a  council  of  tAvelve,  of  which  J.  L.  Bonython,  Esq  ,  .I.P.,  is 
the  chairman.  They  are  appointed  by  the  GoA'ernor,  and  hold  office  for 
twelve  months,  but  are  eligible  for  re-appointment.  The  council  was 
incorporated  by  Act  of  Parliament  m  1892.  The  Act  of  Incorporation 
contains  the  usual  provisions  for  conferring  powers  on  corporate  bodies, 
but  requires  that  their  accounts  shall  be  subject  to  audit  by  the  Audit 
Commissioners. 

An  agricultural  college  has  been  established  at  Koseworthy,  about 
thirty  miles  north,  of  Adelaide.  This  establishment  is  under  the  control 
of  the  Minister  of  Education,  but  is  managed  by  Mr.  William  Lowrie, 
M.A.,  B.Sc,  who  is  the  principal.  In  this  institution  instruction  is  given 
in  all  branches  of  practical  agriculture,  with  carpentry,  blacksmithing, 
&c.,  chemistry  and  natural  science,  veterinary  science,  bookkeeping, 
botany,  viticulture,  and  surveying.  There  is  a  farm  attached  to  the 
college,  but  at  present  it  is  barely  of  sufficient  extent  to  meet  all  require- 
ments. In  addition  to  the  farm,  special  blocks  of  land  in  other  parts  of 
the  colony  are  under  the  control  of  the  principal,  which  are  used  for  the 
experimental  culture  of  various  kinds  of  farm  produce  under  various 
conditions  of  soil,  climate,  kc.  Up  to  the  present  time  the  agricultural 
college  has  not  met  with  the  support  of  the  cultivators  of  the  soil  in  the 
colony  to  the  extent  to  which  its  merits  should  entitle  it;  but  it  is  grow- 
ing in  popularity  and  in  importance,  and  its  full  development  is  only  a 
matter  of  time.  Besides  conducting  the  routine  of  the  college,  and 
managing  the  farm  and  the  experimental  blocks,  the  principal,  Mr. 
Lowrie,  and  Mr.  Perkins,  the  Government  A^iticulturist,  lecture  at 
various  times  and  places  in  the  colony  upon  subjects  connected  with 
farming,  vine-growing,  and  wine-making,  and  these  lectures  are  of  great 
service  to  persons  engaged  in  agriculture,  &.c.,  who  cannot  avail  them- 
selves of  the  instruction  imparted  at  the  college  itself.  The  report  on 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1892  does  not  give  the  number 
of  students  who  receive  instruction  at  the  college. 


350  SOUTH     AVSTJtALlA. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

Xo  State  Church  in  South  Australia — Ai'pointment  of  Chaplains — Repeal 
OF  the  Power — State  Aid  to  Religion  first  Established — Arohtion  of 
Grants  to  Churches — The  Religions  of  the  People — Churches  in  South 
Australia — Church  of  England — Koman  Catholic  Church — "Wesleyan 
Methodist  Church — Baptist  Church — Presbyterian  Church — Primitive 
Methodists — Bible  Christians — Congregationalists — Lutheran  Church 
Other  Churches — No  Poor  Laws  in  the  Colony — Charitable  Insti- 
tutions—  The  Destitute  Board — State  Children's  Council — The 
Boakding-Out  System — The  Adelaide  Hospital— Statistics  of  the 
Hospital  for  the  Insane — Proportion  of  the  Insane  to  the  Popula- 
tion— Statistics  of  Insanity  in  the  Colony — Private  Charitable 
Institutions — The  Children's  Hospital — The  Blind,  Deaf,  and  Dumb 
Asylum— Cottage  Homes — The  Convalescent  Hospital — Home  for 
Incurables — Orphan  Home — Roman  Catholic  Orphanage — Refuges 
AND  Female  Reformatory — House  of  Providence — The  Prisoners' 
Aid  Association — The  Prison  Brigade,  &c. 

The  Act  of  the  Imperial  Parliament  under  which  South  Australia  was 
founded  (4  &  5,  William  IV.,  cap.  95)  did  not  directly  provide  for  the 
establishment  of  a  State  church  in  the  province,  although  one  of  its 
clauses  empowered  the  Crown  "  to  appoint  chaplains  and  clergymen 
of  the  established  churches  of  England  and  Scotland."  Governor 
Hindmarsh,  under  its  authority,  appointed  the  Kev.  C.  B.  Howard, 
of  the  Church  of  England,  to  be  Colonial  Chaplain.  The  inclusion 
of  such  a  power  in  the  Act  was  not  regarded  by  the  colonists  with 
satisfaction,  and  it  was  omitted  from  the  Act  1  &,  2  Victoria,  cap.  60, 
which  amended  the  law  of  William  IV.  in  many  imjDortant  particulars. 
Until  the  year  1847  no  attempt  was  made  to  provide  stipends  for  ministers, 
or  to  afford  aid  from  the  State  to  any  of  the  religious  bodies  which  had 
become  established  in  the  colony.  In  that  year  an  Ordinance  (No.  10  of 
1847)  was  passed  by  the  Governor  (Colonel  Robe)  and  his  Executive 
Council  which  placed  the  churches  in  a  new  position  with  regard  to 
their  relations  to  the  State.  That  Ordinance  proclaimed  the  expediency 
of  affording  aid  from  the  revenue  to  ministers  of  religion  and  missionaries 
engaged  in  religious  teaching,  such  aid  to  be  rendered  on  the  following 
scale: — An  allowance  of  £50  a  year  to  every  clergyman  whose  place 
of  worship  contained  fifty  sittings  rented  and  paid  for;  10s.  for  each 
sitting  beyond  that  number,  also  paid  for,  up  to  150;  and  5s.  for 
every  sitting  beyond  that  number.  It  was  provided,  however,  that  no 
stipend  granted  to  any  clergyman  should  exceed  £200  in  any  one  year. 
In  places  where  no  churches  or  chapels  had  been  erected,  and  not  less 
than  luO  persons  were  desirous  of  securing  religious  ministrations,  £50  a 


RELIGIOUS     ANT)     CHARITABLE    INSTITUTIONS. 


351 


year  would  be  granted  to  a  missionary  or  minister,  provided  that  not  less 
than  £50  a  year  was  subscribed  by^  the  congregation  for  his  support. 
The  Governor  could  withhold  the  payment  in  certain  cases.     Under  this 
law  the  Governor  could  grant  lands  for  church  sites  and  ministers'  dwell- 
ings, and  also  money  in  aid  of  the  erection  of  churches,  kc,  under  certain 
conditions  with  regard  to  subscriptions,  trusteeships,  and  the  audit  of 
accounts  of  expenditure  connected  with  such  buildings.     It  was  under 
the  authority  of  this  Ordinance  that  the  Governor  (Colonel  Robe)  made 
the  gift  of  an  acre  of  land  in  Victoria-squai-e,  in  the  centre  of  the  city 
of  Adelaide,  as  a  site  for  an  Anglican  cathedral.*     The  law  remained  in 
force  until  1851,  when  it  was  repealed.     The  practice  of  paying  religious 
ministers  out  of  the  public  funds  was  never  regarded  in  the  colony  as 
politic  or  desirable.     In  fact  the  preponderance  of  public  opinion  was 
absolutely  opposed  to  it.  and  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  acts  of  the  new 
Legislative  Council  (which  superseded  the  old  Executive  Council,  and 
came  into  authority  in   1851)  was  to  abolish   State  aid  to  religion  for 
good  and  all.     The  law  was  in  operation  for  four  years,  and  the  amount 
expended  about  £4,500  a  year.     The  last  payments  were  made  in  1851, 
and  distributed  as  under  : — 


Ministers' 
stipends. 

In  Aid  of 
Buildinjfs. 

Totals,  t 

^      s.   d. 

£     s- 

d. 

£       ^-    d. 

Church  of  England 

1^1     5    o 

572  II 

0 

l,2'J()    16      0 

Roman  Catholic  Church 

626    8    9 

261    0 

0 

887     8     9 

Wesleyan  Church     

452  10    0 

1,500   0 

0 

1,952  10    0 

Scotch  or  Preshyterian    

89    5    0 

150   0 

0 

239    5    0 

Lutheran   

72    9    6 

— 

72    9    6 

1 

;^i,947  18    3 

^2,483  II 

0 

^4,431     9    3 

+  Obtained  from  the  Audit  Office. 

The  Colonial  Chaplain  from  the  beginning  had  received  a  fixed  salary 
voted  annually  on  the  Estimates.  This  salary  was  not  affected  by  the 
withdrawal  of  the  State  grants-in-aid,  but  was  continued  until  the 
death  of  the  Very  Rev.  Dean  Farrell,  who  held  the  appointment,  after 
which  time  it  ceased  to  appear  on  the  Estimates  laid  before  Parliament. 
Since  1851  the  churches  and  religious  bodies  established  in  the  colony 
have  had  no  connection  with  the  State,  beyond  the  enrolment  of 
officiating  ministers  under  the  Marriage  Act  to  become  authorised  to 
celebrate  marriages. 


*See  ante,  p.  77. 


352 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 


At  the  time  of  taking  the  census  in  1891  the  number  of  persons  of 

diflferent  religious  denominations  in  the  province  was  ascertained  to  be: — 

Church  of  England 89,271 

Roman  Catholic   47i  1 79 

Weslevan 49,  i59 

Lutheran    23,328 

Presbyterian j8,2o6 

Congregationalist     1 1,882 

Bible  Christinn     15,7^12 

Primitive  Methodist     1 1,(^54 

Baptist   17-547 

Christian  Brethren 465 

Metliodist  New  Connexion 39 

Unitarian 688 

Church  of  Christ 3>3(>7 

Society  of  Friends 100 

Salvation  Army    4,35^ 

New  Jerusalem  Church 168 


Jews 840 

Protestants  (undefined)    5>532 


Mohammedans 


299 


Confucians,  &c 3,884 

Other  religions I,7I9 

Object    6,940 

Not  stated 8,046 


Total 320,431 


The  item  in  the  above  list  "  Other  religions  "  includes 


the  following 


as  returned  : — 

Agnostics 

Atheists    

Believers  in  Christ . 

Buddhists     

Calvinists     

Christadelphians 

Christians    , 

Christ's  Chapel   

Christian  Israelites 
Christian  Socialists 
Church  of  God  ... 
Cosmopolitans     ... 

Deists  

Evangelists 

Exclusive  Brethren 

Free  Church    

Free  Methodists ... 

Freethinkers    

Followers  of  Christ 
Gospel  Meeting  . .  . 

Greek  Church 

Huguenot 

Hussite     


50 
22 

4 
52 
46 

134 
308 

9 

2 

6 
6 

3 

14 
60 

8 
21 

5 
258 

8 

II 

44 
2 
I 


Infidels     

Maronites     

Memnonist 

Moravians    

Mormons 

Naturalists 

Orthodox 

Others  (indefinite) 

Pagans 

Pantheists    

Plymouth  Brethren    . . . . 

Rationalists 

Reformers    

Secularists   

Seventh-day  Adventists. , 

Shaker 

Shintoists     , 

Spiritualists     

Theosophists    

Town  (City)  Mission 

Welsh  Church     

Zoarastrians     

Zwinglian 


9 
2 

I 

139 

4 

2 

4 
17 
20 

3 
III 

4 
7 

12 

203 

I 

24 

37 

9 

16 

27 

2 

I 


The  Church  of  England, 
those  of  any  other  church  in 
the  population — is  presided 


whose  adherents  are  more  numerous  than 
the  colony — constituting  27-86  per  cent,  of 
over  by  a  bishop,  the  Right  Rev.  G.  W. 


RELIGIOUS     AND     CHARITABLE     INSTITUTIONS.  353 

Kennion,  D.l).  There  are  also  a  dean,  an  archdeacon,  and  six  canons, 
besides  seventy-three  clergymen,  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  various 
parishes  in  the  colony.  The  general  affairs  of  the  diocese  are  managed 
by  a  synod,  presided  over  by  the  bishop,  consisting  of  the  clergy  and  lay 
representatives  from  the  several  parishes.  Attached  to  the  diocese  there 
is  a  theological  college  for  the  training  of  persons  desirous  of  entering 
the  church  and  numerous  ordinary  schools,  besides  Sunday  schools  in  con- 
nection with  the  local  churches.  These  Sunday  schools  are  attended  by 
10,920  scholars,  who  are  instructed  by  295  male  and  680  female  teachers. 
According  to  the  returns  for  1892,  the  Church  of  England  had  150 
churches,  or  chapels,  and  thirty-two  other  buildings  used  for  public 
worship. 

In  the  organisation  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  South  Australia  is  an 
ecclesiastical  province.  It  is  divided  into  two  sees — the  Archdiocese  of 
Adelaide  and  the  Bishopric  of  Port  Augusta.  The  Archdiocese  of 
Adelaide  extends  north  to  the  Burra,  east  to  the  Victorian  boundary — 
including  the  country  south  of  the  Murray — and  west  to  Banks'  Peninsula, 
as  far  as  Talia.  It  contains  64  churches  and  12  other  places  used  for 
Divine  service,  and  36  schools,  attended  by  3,500  scholars.  These  are 
all  taught  by  members  of  religious  orders.  The  Bishoprics  of  Port 
Augusta,  Perth  (Western  Australia),  Victoria,  in  Northern  Australia 
(at  present  vacant),  and  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Palmerstou  are 
suffragan  to  the  archdiocese.  The  religious  communities  established 
there  are  the  Society  of  Jesus,  the  Carmelites,  and  the  Christian 
Brothers,  as  also  the  Dominicans  (nuns),  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph, 
and  the  Sisters  of  Mercy.  The  education  of  the  Catholic  youth  of 
both  sexes  is  entrusted  to  the  four  last-named  societies.  An  ecclesias- 
tical seminary  is  established  at  Sevenhills  College,  ninety  miles  north 
of  Adelaide,  under  the  direction  of  the  Jesuit  fathers.  The  Diocese  of 
Port  Augusta  takes  in  the  rest  of  the  colony,  south  as  far  as  the  Burra 
(which  it  includes),  east  to  the  Victorian  border,  and  west  all  the  country 
above  Ta'ia  to  the  West  Australian  boundary.  In  this  diocese  there  are 
30  churches,  16  clergymen,  and  16  schools,  attended  by  920  scholars.  The 
schools  are  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  and  there  is  a 
superior  school  for  girls  at  Port  Pirie,  under  the  charge  of  the  Nuns  of 
the  Good  Samaritan.  The  churches  are  served  chiefly  by  the  Jesuit 
fathers,  whose  headquarters  are  at  Sevenhills. 

The  Wesleyan  Methodist  Church  is  governed  by  the  conference. 
This  denomination  has  80  officiating  ministers  ;  27.>  churches  ;  other 
preaching  places,  106;  local  preachers,  440  ;  Sabbath  school  teachers, 
2,674  ;  class  leaders,  330  ;  church  members,  7,774  ;  on  trial  for  member- 
ship, 214  ;  junior  members,  770;  Sabbath  school  scholars,  22,299  :  and 
z 


354  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA 

attendants  at  public  worship,  61,340  (1892.)  For  the  purposes  of  this 
church  the  colony  is  divided  into  five  districts,  besides  the  colony  of 
Western  Austra  ia,  which  is  at  present  under  the  authority  of 
Conference  of  South  Australia. 

The  Baptists  have  57  churches,  4.128  members  of  churches,  34 
ministers,  oo  Sunday  schools,  570  teachers,  and  6,193  scholars  :  they 
have  also  seven  preaching  stations.  The  South  Australian  Baptist 
Association  is  incorporated.  Connected  with  this  denomination  is  a 
missionary  society,  sustaining  four  native  missionaries  and  five  European 
ladies  as  zenana  missionaries  in  India,  besides  one  European  missionary. 
The  association  has  a  denominational  magazine,  an  aged  ministers'  and 
building  fund,  and  a  jubilee  fimd. 

Ihe  Presbyterian  Church  of  iSouth  Australia  is  governed  by  a  general 
assembly,  which  meets  in  March  and  September  in  each  year.  There  are 
three  presbyteries — one  at  Adelaide,  one  at  Onkaparlnga,  and  one  at 
Belalie.  This  church  has  22  churches,  12  stations.  28  Sabbath  schools, 
257  teachers,  and  2,204  scholars ;  the  churches  accommodate  6,000 
persons.  There  is  also  a  Free  Presbyterian  Church  with  six  places  of 
worship. 

The  Primitive  Methodists  have  117  chapels,  12  other  preaching  places, 
"23  parsonages,  31  ministei'S,  2,832  members,  196  local  preachers,  93 
Sabbath  schools,  811  teachers,  6,050  scholars,  77  class  leaders,  and 
12,342  adherents.     It  is  divided  into  twenty-eight  circuits. 

The  Bible  Christians  have  133  chapels,  which  contain  about  19,000 
sittings.  !5  meeting  rooms  with  600  sittings,  42  ministers,  212  local 
preachers,  108  Sunday  schools,  874  teachers,  6,052  scholars,  and  3,080 
members  in  church  fellowship.  For  the  purposes  of  this  body  the 
colony  is  divided  into  five  districts,  Avhich  are  sub-divided  into  thirty-two 
circuits.  Its  affairs  are  controlled  by  a  conference,  which  meets  in 
February  in  each  year,  under  which  there  are  five  committees — the  general 
connexional  committee,  the  stationing  committee,  and  the  missionary 
committee,  the  trust  debts  committee,  and  a  book  committee.  The 
Way  College  belongs  to  this  religious  organisation. 

The  Congregationalists  possess  47  places  of  worship  with  10,550 
sittings,  24  rooms  with  3,835  sittings.  The  total  number  of  places 
where  worship  is  held  by  Independents  is  67,  providing  sittings  for 
14,415  attendants.  They  have  43  Sunday  schools,  498  teachers,  and 
4,974  scholars  The  Congregational  Union  and  Home  Mission  for 
assisting  smaller  churches  is  incorporated,  as  are  also  the  Congregational 
Chapel  Building  Society,  the  Ministers'  Provident  Fund,  the  Parkin 
Trust,  and  the  Parkin  Congregational  Mission  for  providing  annuities  for 
Avidows,  and  eventually  for  bush  mission  purposes. 


RELIGIOUS    AND     CHARITABLE     INSTITUTIONS.  355 

The  members  of  the  German  ]'>vangelical  Lutheran  Church  possess  90 
places  of  worship,  which  afford  sittings  for  about  12,000  persons  ;  60 
of  these  are  churches  or  chapels  with  sittings,  the  rest  school  or  other 
rooms  used  for  worship.  They  have  40  schools,  45  teachers  and  1,350 
scholars  attending  denominational  day  schools  in  connection  with  the 
various  chapels.  The  Lutherans  have  two  missions  to  the  aborigines, 
one  at  the  Finke  river,  in  the  Northern  Territory,  and  the  other  at 
Cooper's  Creek,  in  Central  Australia. 

The  United  Free  Church  of  South  Australia  has  10  places  of  worship 
with  about  1,00'^  attendants,  82  Sunday  school  teachers,  and  900  scholars. 
This  association  is  incorporated. 

The  Church  of  Christ  has  31  chapels  and  places  for  worship  and  the 
preaching  of  the  gospel,  which  give  accommodation  for  4,220  persons. 
They  have  20  Sunday  schools,  over  1,800  scholars,  and  2,199  church 
members.  This  church  does  not  recognise  any  distinction  between  the 
clergy  and  laity,  and  does  not  make  use  of  the  title  of  "reverend"  as 
belonging  to  their  ministers. 

The  Unitarian  Christian  Church  has  3  churches,  the  New  Jerusalem 
Church  1,  and  the  Society  of  Friends  2.  There  is  a  Hebrew  con- 
gregation in  South  Australia,  whose  synagogue  is  in  Adelaide  ;  attached 
to  it  is  a  Hebrew  Sabbath  school. 

The  above  includes  the  chief  religious  organisations  in  South  Australia, 
as  far  as  they  are  known  and  their  establishments  publicly  recorded. 
Many  of  these  ecclesiastical  bodies  have  philanthropic  or  charitable 
institutions,  which  are  either  conducted  by  them  or  are  in  connection 
with  them. 

Poor  laws  such  as  exist  in  the  United  Kingdom  are  not  established 
in  South  Australia.  There  are  no  poor  rates.  The  fmids  required  for 
the  relief  of  the  destitute  are  furnished  from  the  general  revenue.  The 
control  of  all  matters  relating  to  the  destitute  poor  is  vested  in  a  board, 
acting  under  the  authority  of  a  statute  "  The  Destitute  Persons  Relief 
Act,"  No.  2]{)  of  1881.  The  board  consists  of  a  chairman  and  five  other 
members  to  form  a  board  of  advice,  all  of  whom  arc  appointed  by  the 
Governor.  The  chairman  is  the  chief  executive  officer,  and  is  charged 
with  the  administration  of  all  the  powers  vested  in  the  board,  subject  to 
its  advice  and  control,  and  pursuant  to  the  regulations  of  the  public 
service.  The  Destitute  Board  has  the  administration  of  all  funds  voted 
by  Parliament  for  the  relief  of  the  destitute  poor,  or  given  or  left  to  them 
by  the  benevolent;  the  care  and  management  of  all  places  for  the 
reception  and  relief  of  destitute  persons,  of  all  children  born  in  any 
establishment  imder  its  control,  and  of  all  other  illegiiimatc  children 
nursed  by  any  foster-mother  outside  of  such  establishment,  and  to  grant 


366 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 


licences  to  suitable  persons  to  act  as  foster-mothers.  It  has  also  authority 
for  the  ordering-  of  the  persons  and  property  of  destitute  persons  and  chil- 
dren for  so  long  as  they  may  be  inmates  of  any  institution  under  the  control 
of  the  board.  The  relations  of  any  poor  or  destitute  persons  who  are  not 
able  to  support  themselves  are  primarily  liable  for  their  care  and  main- 
tenance. This  liability  extends  to  the  father,  grandfather,  mother,  grand- 
mother, child,  or  grandchild  of  any  such  person,  who,  if  able  to  do  so,  can 
be  compelled  to  maintain  them.  Husbands  are  liable  for  the  support  of 
their  wives'  children,  whether  such  children  be  legitimate  or  not,  until 
they  are  16  years  of  age,  if  boys,  or  18,  if  girls.  The  cost  of  main- 
taining destitute  persons  may  be  enforced  against  their  relations  at 
any  time  within  six  years.  All  applications  for  relief  for  persons  in  the 
city  of  Adelaide  are  made  to  the  Destitute  Board,  which,  after  inquiry, 
deals  with  each  case  on  its  merits.  Relief  is  granted  in  the  country  on 
application  to  chairmen  of  district  councils,  subject  to  approval  by  the 
board,  or  by  representing  officers  in  various  centres  of  population.  Aged 
and  infirm  persons,  and  sick  and  deserted  children,  are  received  into  the 
Destitute  Asylum,  but  no  able-bodied  persons  are  admitted  at  any  time. 
Male  and  female  adults  may  receive  out-door  reHef  in  cases  of  sickness 
on  a  medical  certificate.  Widows  with  families  in  certain  cases  are 
relieved  by  the  board,  as  also  women  with  families  who  have  been 
deserted  by  their  husbands,  or  whose  husbands  are  away  in  search  of 
employment  or  detained  in  the  Lunatic  Asylum,  or  incarcerated  in  gaol. 
The  out-door  relief  consists  of  rations,  and  in  some  cases  clothing.  Ac- 
cording to  the  report  of  the  Destitute  Board,  4,156  persons  w^ere  relieved 
during  1892.  This  gives  a  proportion  to  the  actual  population  for  the  year 
of  125  per  cent.  The  expenditure  for  the  year  on  the  relief  of  the  poor 
was  £16,518,  being  at  the  rate  of  lid.  per  head  of  the  total  population. 
The  figures  underneath  show  the  number  of  persons  relieved,  the 
total  cost,  the  cost  per  head,  and  the  ratio  to  the  population  for  the  five 
'ears  ending  in  1892. 


Year. 

Population. 

Persons 
Relieved. 

Per  Cent  of 
Population. 

Total  Cost. 

Cost  per  Head. 

Cost    per 

Head  of 

Population. 

i888    

:889   

1890   

1891    

1892    

306,641 
,  311,112 

314,195 
320,723 

331,721 

7,428 
6,014 

4,979 
4,216 

4,156 

2-42 

1-93 

1-58 
1-31 

1-25 

£^ 
23,789 
21,001 
18,702 
16,924 
16,518 

£    s.    d. 

3     4    0 

3    9    5i 

3  15     li 
403! 

3  19    6i 

J.    d. 
I      6i 

I      7 
I      2i 
I     Oi 
0   II 

The  amount  of    destitution,   as  may  be   seen  from  the   above,  is  not 
great  in  South  Australia,  nor  is  the  condition  of  the  destitute    nearly 


RELIGIOUS    AND    CHARITABLE    INSTITUTIONS.  357 

as  bad  as  it  is  in  larger  Australian  capitals.  The  greatest  number  of 
recipients  of  relief  are  children  whose  fathers  have  died  or  abandoned 
their  families.  In  all  cases  where  a  husband  has  left  his  wife  and 
children  unprovided  for  the  Destitute  Board  prosecutes,  if  the  person 
can  be  found,  wife  desertion  being  a  misdemeanor,  and  punishable  with 
imprisonment  for  twelve  months. 

Previous  to  the  year  1886  the  Destitute  Board  took  charge  of  all 
destitute,  neglected,  or  deserted  children,  and  the  Industrial  and 
Reformatory  Schools  were  under  their  control.  The  Industrial  School 
was  the  receptacle  of  all  children  of  the  classes  named  above.  The 
Reformatory  School  received  only  boys  and  girls,  under  the  ages  of  16 
and  18  respectively,  who  had  been  convicted  of  offences  by  justices 
of  the  peace  or  other  magistrates,  and  committed  to  the  school  by 
them.  These  two  schools  were  kept  entirely  distinct.  The  powers 
formerly  t-xercised  by  the  board  were  transferred  in  1886  to  the  State 
Children's  Council,  created  by  an  Act  of  the  colonial  Legislature  (387  of 
1886).  The  classes  which  fall  within  their  jurisdiction  are  destitute 
children,  neglected  children,  and  convicted  children.  The  first  class 
consists  of  such  as  have  no  sufficient  means  of  subsistence,  or  whose 
parents  arc  unable  to  maintain  them.  The  second  class  includes  children 
found  begging,  or  wandering  about  streets,  or  sleeping  in  the  open  air, 
or  who  have  no  settled  places  of  abode,  those  who  may  be  found  in 
brothels,  or  with  ^ny  known  prostitutes,  whether  their  mothers  or  not.  or 
■who  associate  or  live  with  persons,  not  their  parents,  known  as  reputed 
thieves  or  drunkards,  or  who  have  been  convicted  of  vagrancy,  those 
who  are  convicted  of  petty  offences,  those  who  are  uncontrollable 
by  their  parents,  who  wish  them  to  be  sent  to  the  Industrial  or  Reforma- 
tory School,  and  illegitimate  children  whose  mothers  or  friends  are 
not  in  a  position  to  maintain  them.  The  last  class  is  composed  solely  of 
children  who  have  been  convicted  of  offences  punishable  with  imprison- 
ment and  committed  io  the  schools  by  magistrates.  The  State  Children's 
Council  consists  of  twelve  honorary  members  (ladies  as  well  as  gentlemen), 
appointed  by  the  Governor,  who  have  power  to  board  out,  licence  out 
to  service,  or  to  apprentice  any  children  who  come  under  their  control, 
and  to  take  all  necessary  steps  and  precautions  to  secure  their  proper 
care,  instruction,  and  treatment.  The  boarding-out  system  is  followed 
by  the  council  as  far  as  circumstances  will  allow,  and  is  generally 
successful  in  its  opei'ation.  The  children  are  removed  from  the 
surroundings  of  a  pauper  establisliment.  and  are  brought  within  the 
influence!^  of  home  life  as  far  as  possible.  When  children  are  placed  out 
or  apprenticed  they  are  visited  frcq\icntly  by  some  member  of  the 
council,  or   some  other  duly  authorised  person,  wlio  report><  upon  the 


358 


SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 


conduct  of  the  children  and  on  the  condition  of  the  homes  in  which  they 
are  living.  These  visits  must  take  place  at  least  once  in  every  four 
months.  According  to  the  last  report  of  the  council  945  children  had 
been  placed  out.  They  were  disposed  of  in  the  following  way : — 573 
boarded  out;  235  licensed  to  service;  36  adopted;  11  placed  out 
without  subsidy:  58  with  parents  or  relatives  on  probation  ;  1  appren- 
ticed ;  7  in  hospital ;  2  in  the  Blind  Asylui^. ;  1  in  the  Lunatic 
Asylum  ;  1  in  the  Lying-in  Home;  5  (boys)  absconded  ;  and  10  out  of 
the  colony  with  their  guardians.  Every  effort  possible  is  made  to  haA'e 
the  children  regularly  visited  and  their  homes  inspected,  with  the  result 
that  in  the  year  1892-3  6,722  reports  were  received.  The  states  of  the 
children  and  homes  respectively  were  reported  and  classified  as 
follows  :  — 


Condition  of  Homes. 


Good 

Fair    

Indifferent 
Bad     


5.040 

51 
12 


5,110 


As  far  as  these  reports  go,  the  results  of  the  placing-out  system  must 
be  regarded  as  satisfactory,  and  that  the  interests  of  the  children  are 
actively  watched  is  certain  from  the  number  of  transfers  and  removals  of 
children  which  have  taken  place  during  the  year.  These  amounted  to 
453.  The  reasons  assigned  for  the  changes  which  took  place  are  mis- 
conduct of  children,  unsuitability  of  the  homes,  mutual  dissatisfaction 
between  the  children  and  their  guardians,  expiration  of  terms,  ill  health, 
and  other  reasons  not  specified.  The  law  which  empowers  the  c xmcil 
to  take  charge  of  children  who  otherwise  must  become  a  trouble,  if  not 
a  source  of  danger  to  the  community,  carefvdly  regards  their  religious  as 
well  as  their  secular  welfare.  Justices  of  the  peace,  whenever  com- 
mitting any  child  to  the  care  of  the  council,  are  required  to  inform 
themselves  as  fully  as  they  can  of  the  age  and  religion  of  the  child,  and  to 
insert  in  the  mandate  for  detaining  it  a  statement  of  its  age  and  religion, 
and  in  boarding  or  placing  out  children  regard  is  had  to  the  religion 
of  the  persons  with  whom  they  may  be  placed,  so  that  the  children  shall 
not  be  unduly  influenced.  When  children  are  licensed  out  for  service  or 
apprenticed,  the  wages  to  which  they  become  entitled  are  deposited  in 
the  Savings  Bank  to  their  credit ;  but  those  deposits  are  not  allowed  to 
be  withdrawn  by  them  without  the  consent  of  the  chairman  of  the 
council  until  after  the  expiration  of  the  term  of  the  licence  or  apprentice- 


RELIGIOUS     AXU     CHARITABLE     INSTITUTIONS.  359 

ship,  or  until  they  are  18  years  of  age.  Before  placing  out  children 
strict  inquiries  are  made  by  the  council  into  the  characters  and  circum- 
stances of  the  persons  to  whom  they  may  be  entrusted,  and  every 
application  for  a  child  must  be  accompanied  by  a  certificate  from  a 
justice  of  the  peace  or  a  clergyman,  to  the  effect  that  he  is  acquainted 
with  the  applicant,  her  husband,  and  family :  that  he  can  recommend 
them  as  being  pers'ms  of  sober  habits  and  kindly  character,  and  fit 
persons  to  be  entrusted  with  the  physical  and  moral  training  of  children. 
Some  cases  occur,  in  which,  as  the  council  state  in  their  report,  the 
justices  or  clergymen  do  not  make  proper  inquiries  before  signing  the 
certificates,  bvit  the  careful  investigations  made  by  the  council  and  its 
officea-s  are  generally  sufficient  to  prevent  any  wrong  which  might  follow 
upon  the  adoption  of  such  certificates  as  conclusive.  The  average 
number  of  children  under  the  control  of  the  council  for  the  year  was 
1,041.  The  total  cost  of  the  department  was  £13,575  3s.  6d.,  made 
up  as  follows  : — Industrial  School,  £721  7s.  :  Girls'  Reformatory. 
£1,023  3s.  Id.;  Boys'  Reformatory,  £1,752  8s.  Id.  ;  placing  out  and 
supervision  of  children  placed  out,  £1,365  2s.  5d.  ;  subsidies  for 
boarded-out  children.  £7,104  10s.  lid.;  and  expenses  of  administration. 
£1,703  10s.  3d.  The  cost  per  head  per  week  was  Is.  ^d.  The  funds  of 
the  council  are  derived  from  the  general  revenue,  and  the  sale  of  the 
produce  from  the  reformatory,  which  amounted  to  £412  19s.  8d.  The 
number  of  children  placed  out  was  911  ;  in  the  Industrial  School,  43  :  in 
the  Girls'  Reformatory,  29 ;  and  in  the  Boj-s'  Reformatory,  oK.  The 
proportion  of  criminal  children  is  small,  being  8'35  per  cent,  of  the  total 
number  under  the  control  of  the  council,  or  0*68  per  cent,  of  th**  total 
number  of  children  in  the  colony  under  fifteen  years  of  age.  It  is 
intended  to  introduce  a  new  Hill  into  Parliament  to  regulate  the  control 
of  State  children,  and  to  enlarge  the  powers  of  the  council. 

The  Adelaide  Hospital  was  established  by  the  Government  at  a  very 
early  stage  of  the  colony's  existence,  and  for  many  years  it  was  a  branch  of 
the  public  service  conducted  by  the  Colonial  Surgeon  for  the  time  being, 
with  an  assistant,  and  the  occasional  aid  of  private  medical  practitioners. 
It  is  now  managed  by  a  board  appointed  by  the  Governor,  which  at 
present  consists  of  sixteen  members,  one-half  of  whom  are  physicians  or 
surgeons,  and  the  remainder  laymen.  The  income  of  the  institution  is 
drawn  from  the  general  revenue  and  from  private  contributions.  It  is 
essentially  a  charitable  institution,  the  patients  being  restricted  to 
per.sons  who  are  unable  to  pay  for  medical  attendance.  Exceptions  to 
this  rule  are  made  in  the  cases  of  sailors  and  some  few  other  persons 
whose  means  will  not  enable  them  to  procure  such  medical  attendance 
as  their  cases  require   in  any  other  way,  who  may  be  admitted  on  i)ay- 


360 


SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 


ment  in  advance  of  maintenance  fees  for  thirty  days,  and  Kivinpj  an 
agreement  to  the  secretary  to  the  board,  guaranteed  by  the  person 
sending  the  recommendation,  for  payment  at  a  fixed  rate  of  3s.  per  diem 
for  any  further  time  that  they  remain  in  the  hospital.  Subscribers  of 
£2  annually  have  the  privilege  of  recommending  one  indoor  patient 
during  the  year;  of  £5  annually,  three  indoor  patients  for  the  year;  and 
of  £10  annually,  that  of  having  one  patient  always  in  the  hospital.  Life 
subscribers  are  entitled  to  the  same  privileges  in  proportion  to  their 
donations,  the  contributions  being  estimated  as  annual  subscriptions  of 
one-tentli  of  the  amount.  The  hospital  contains  250  beds  ;  a  new  wing 
has  recently  been  added,  which  gives  accommodation  for  seventy  more. 
There  are  four  resident  house  surgeons,  two  of  whom  are  always  in 
attendance,  and  a  number  of  honorary  physicians  and  surgeons,  chosen 
from  the  leading  members  of  the  medical  profession  in  the  colony. 
Attached  to  the  hospital  there  is  a  school  of  medicine  in  connection 
with  the  Adelaide  University.  For  the  outdoor  relief  of  necessitous 
persons  there  is  a  dispensary  at  which  out-patients  are  treated.  In 
addition  to  the  nomination  of  in-patients,  contributors  to  the  funds  of  the 
hospital  of  £2  annually  may  recommend  six  patients  for  relief  at  the 
dispensary;  of  £5,  twelve  patients;  and  of  £10.  fifteen  patients. 
Severe  accidents  and  cases  of  real  emergency  may  be  admitted  at  all 
times  by  the  resident  medical  officer  on  duty.  The  number  of  cases 
admitted  into  the  hospital  in  1892  was  2,2.51,  which  shows  a  percentage 
of  0-67  to  the  total  population.  The  average  daily  number  of  patients 
in  hospital  for  the  year  was  195,  the  largest  number  known  since  1869. 
The  following  gives  the  statistics  of  the  hospital  for  the  last  ten  years  : — 


Year. 


1883 
1884 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 


No  of  Cases. 

No  of 
Deaths. 

2,119 

174 

2,129 

159 

2,024 
1,878 

1,895 
2.003 

164 
144 
180 

2,075 
2,026 

169 
J91 

2,147 

205 

2,251 

193 

Cost  per 

Patient. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

58 

14 

2 

56 

6 

6 

53 

4 

8 

51 

14 

lOi 

51 

16 

10 

49 

13 

23. 
04 

64 

5 

3 

63 

4 

loi 

66 

7 

10^ 

66 

17 

lOi 

Outdoor 
Patients. 


7,661 
8,218 

7,445 
10,320 

10,554 
10,983 
13.046 
12,877 
13,003 
12,495 


Annual 
Expenditure. 


£ 
10,548 

10,693 

9,755 
9,679 
9,686 

9875 
12,877 
12,416 


'J 
II 
18 

4 
13,699  18 
14,011   10 


d. 

3 
9 
o 
6 
II 

6 
2 

5 
II 


The  Hospital  for  the  Insane  in  South  Australia  is  entirely  under  the 
management  and  control  of  the  Government,  there  being  no  private 
lunatic  asylums  in  the  colony.  All  the  insane,  therefore,  who  are  not 
taken  care  of  by  their  friends  are  sent  to  the  general  lunatic  asylum 
for  safe  custody  and  treatment.     All  the  inmates  except  pauj^er  lunatics 


HELIGIOLS     AM)    CHA1HTAI5LE     INSTITUTIONS. 


361 


must  be  paid  for,  the  charge  for  maintenance  varying  according  to  the 
special  circumstances  of  each  case.  There  are  two  asylums  under  the 
charge  of  the  Colonial  Surgeon  (Dr.  A.  Paterson),  one  on  North-terrace, 
the  other  at  Parkside,  under  the  care  of  Dr.  W.  L.  Cleland,  where 
criminal  lunatics  and  dangerous  patients  are  confined.  There  is  a  board 
of  official  \isitors  appointed  by  the  Governor,  who  may  visit  at  any  time 
and  who  report  to  the  Chief  Secretary,  as  they  may  think  desirable,  any 
matters  which,  in  their  opinion,  require  special  notice.  In  addition  to 
these,  all  justices  of  the  peace  are  authorised  to  visit  the  asylums  at  any 
hour  of  the  day  or  night,  and  to  see  any  patient  they  may  wish.  In  case 
the  application  to  see  a  pittient  should  not  be  complied  with,  the 
authorities  must  enter  in  a  book  kept  for  the  purpose  a  statement  of  the 
reason  for  the  refusal.  Pauper  lunatics  maybe  committed  to  the  lunatic 
asylums  upon  a  medicar  certificate  by  any  justice  of  the  peace.  The 
charge  for  maintaining  lunatics  may  be  enforced  by  the  order  of  two 
jiistices  against  their  estate  or  against  their  relations  who  may  be  legally 
liable  fur  their  support. 

The  number  of  persons  who  become  inmates  of  the  Hospital  for  the 
Insane,  taken  in  proportion  to  the  population,  does  not  appear  unfavor- 
able when  brought  into  comparison  with  the  proportion  of  insane  persons 
in  other  cormtries.  According  to  the  report  of  the  Colonial  Surgeon 
there  were  822  persons  in  the  asylums  at  the  close  of  1892,  which  gives 
a  proportion  to  the  population  of  South  Australia  of  2-42  per  1,000. 
This  is  lower  than  that  in  any  of  the  Australian  colonies  except  Tasmania, 
where  it  is  2-00  per  1,000.  The  most  recent  available  returns  from  the 
United  Kingdom  give  the  proportion  there  as — England,  2-88  ;  Scotland, 
2  91;  and  Ireland,  316  per  1,000.  The  following  are  the  lunacy 
statistics  of  the  colony  for  the  last  ten  years  : — 


+ 

« 

3 

'o-S 

'it 

■?,! 

•d 

0 
0 

0 
c 

Year. 

•r. 

f, 

C 

0 

if 

1-2 

•53 

u 
0 

> 
0 

s 

> 

U 

g 

1 

c 
0 

c- 

•/■, 

^ 

- 

-■ 

A 

iz; 

» 

1883  .... 

310,022 

671 

2-i6 

213 

114 

63 

63 

51 





1884  .... 

317,064 

684 

2-i6 

209 

132 

64 

83 

44 

4 

I 

1885  .... 

3'5.579 

727 

2-30 

219 

131 

45 

89 

39 

3 

— 

1880  .... 

313,467 

744 

2-37 

207 

122 

68 

74 

46 

2 

— 

1887  .... 

317,134 

750 

2-36 

192 

lOI 

85 

56 

45 

— 

— 

1888  .  .. 

315,372 

7.58 

240 

190 

132 

50 

73 

57 

2 

— 

1889  .... 

319,676 

790 

2-47 

218 

132 

54 

67 

64 

I 

— 

1890  .. 

322,614 

817 

2-53 

239 

F49 

63 

80 

68 

I 

— 

1891  .... 

328.755 

81S 

248 

224 

1.36 

90 

68 

68 

— 

— 

1892  .... 

339,488 

822 

2-42 

214 

i3« 

69 

80 

54 

4 

•  Inehidins  Xorthcni  TonitDrv. 


+  At  the  end  of  each  rear. 


s. 

a. 

i8 

10 

i8 

9 

II 

■S 

6 

II 

i8 

5 

19 

0 

5 

4 

3 

11 

4 

9 

I 

3 

362  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

The  ratio  of  the  admissions  to  the  population  fluctuates  from  year  to 
year  in  an  inexplicable  way.  Males  always  preponderate  over  females. 
Habits  of  intemperance,  privation,  and  exposure  to  the  solitude  of  bush 
life  probably  account  for  the  greater  susceptibility  of  the  male  sex  to 
mental  disease. 

The  actual  expenditure  on  lunatic  asylums  for  the  last  ten  years 
appears  underneath  : — 

1883 21,161 

1884    ..    23,941 

1885  25,346 

1886  25,033 

1887  22,067 

1888  21,83819 

1889  21,644 

1890  22,410 

1891  22,971 

1892  24,045 

^^230,46 1     8     7 

The  cost  of  each  inmate,  reckoning  on  the  basis  of  the  average  annual 
number  resident  in  the  asylum  for  the  ten  years,  is  nearly  £31. 

The  patients  are  employed  as  much  as  possible.  The  men  work  at 
gardening,  tailoring,  hair-teasing,  white-washing  and  painting,  and 
general  ward  work,  and  the  women  do  needle  Avork  and  the  various 
duties  of  the  laundry.  All  the  clothing  for  the  women  and  nearly  all 
the  clothing  of  the  men  are  made  in  the  institution,  and  fruit  and  vege- 
tables of  all  kinds  are  raised  in  more  than  sufficient  quantity  to  meet  the 
wants  of  the  establishments  on  North-terrace  and  at  Parkside.  Various 
amusements  are  provided  for  the  patients.  They  have  garden  parties 
within  the  grounds,  musical  performances  by  bands,  theatrical  perform- 
ances by  professional  artists,  and  concerts  by  amateurs  of  both  sexes. 
Some  of  them  are  occasionally  taken  to  the  theatre ;  they  also  go  on 
walking  excursions  into  the  country,  to  the  races,  and  to  the  Zoological 
Gardens.  These  are  in  addition  to  foi'tnightly  dances  and  other  ordinary 
amusements.  On  one  occasion  a  play  was  arranged  to  be  acted  in  the 
open  air,  and  the  result  was  very  satisfactory  to  the  authorities  of  the 
asj-lum  as  well  as  to  the  patients  who  took  part  in  the  performance. 

The  Destitute  Asylum,  the  Adelaide  Hospital,  the  State  Children's 
Department,  and  the  Hospital  for  the  Insane  comprise  all  the  charitable 
institutions  which  are  under  the  control  of  the  Government  and  supported 
by  public  money.  There  are,  however,  other  establishments,  such  as 
hospitals,  established  in  places  in  the  country,  which  receive  Government 
assistance,  and  the  subsidies  paid  to  them  are  included  in  the  general 
hospital  expenditure. 


RELIGlOrs     AND     CHARITABLE     INSTITUTIONS. 


363 


The  following  table  sets  out  the  amounts  paid  by  the  G<.vernment  foi' 
the  charitable  institutions  named  in  it  for  ten  years  ending  in  1892  : — 


i  E 
2  iS 


■s  =J 


^•3 
«  5 


w    On   00 


^ 


o 


00 

o 

00_ 

o" 

00 


CO 

o 

oo" 
00 


LO     ^      « 


00 


o 

00 


o 


o 

00 


o 


00 


00 


o 

00 


00    LD    rO    I-'    >-"    I^ 


0^ 


o   - 


'^ 


I^ 


•-1-  Lo  00  "<  -*•  LO  Th 
O  N  ■^  O  OO  >-  U-) 
—     O    OO     Cn    "     «^    N 


M 


1  ^ 
1^ 


t^O^^O'^-^'-OC^C^ 


00    00    •- 


OO    o. 


LO    ro    ^    — 


—    ►-Ornt^OO-^O    —    "" 
"    "-^   "^   ^    0_   OO   O^   -Th   O   O 


1^         N         NOOO         fOO         k-OO         fOrO 
!-:  ^O  —  ^00  I^roCNTj-O 


Vi 


O    N    '- 
d         '         ' 


00 


oc   -t- 
-   o 


ro   CO 


N    00 
M    OO 

O    00 


o 

M     M 


M 


P) 


r< 


"^00     1~.    C)     1-"     O    M 
I-'    N    —    -tj-    —    CN   00 


ON   I'i   "^ 

O   CN   o 


^ 


00 


o 

OO 


IT) 


00 


LO   O    O    N    ^ 
r-^   Lo   i^   —    ri 


O 

d 

OC 


ON 

NO 


O 


00 


NO 

o' 

N 


00 

o 


ON 


ON 
O 


o 


C 

S 


■>«     Tt-    O     —     On    On 
J     -1-    O     ■T^    C^    -^ 


.     O    1^   r-.   c^    O 
S?   I^   00    00    t^   00 

On    On    On    On    O 


o   o 

iy-1   NO 


-J-    '*-   J^ 


•«    - 


"^ 


On 
00 
M 


o 


OO 
M 


00 

o 


o 


IT) 

00 


o 
o 


o 


M 

ON 

00 

On 

•rf 
O 


00 

00 

<N< 

"^ 

LO 


o   o 

0^    ON 


LO 


LO 


ON 


i 
M 
00 
00 


00 
00 


CO 
00 


I 

LO 

00 
00 


o 

OO 
OO 


OO 
00 


00 

<N) 

P( 


o 

On 
I 

o- 

CO 
00 


o 

00 


o> 
I 
o 

On 
00 


00 


On 

o 


00 

CN| 

O; 
pT 

LO 


364  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

The  expenditure  on  charitable  institutions,  as  shoAvn  in  the  table, 
amounted  in  1892  to  £86,544  16s.  lid.,  which  is  at  the  rate  of  os.  2^d. 
per  head  of  the  population  for  the  year.  For  the  ten  years  ending  at 
the  same  date  the  average  annual  expenditure  was  5s.  5^d.  per  head. 

The  public  establishments  which  has  been  mentioned  embrace  all  the 
charitable  foundations  which  have  been  created  by  the  Government  and 
are  dependent  upon  it,  entirely  or  neaidy  so,  for  support.  In  the 
principal  country  and  seaport  towns  branch  hospitals  are  established, 
which  are  sut)sidised  by  the  Government,  for  the  treatment  of  local  sick 
and  indigent  persons.  These  subsidies  are  all  paid  out  of  the  general 
vote  for  hosjiitals  annually  agreed  to  by  Parliament.  Cases  of  lunacy 
Avhich  occur  in  the  country  are  sent  to  Adelaide  for  treatment  at  the 
asylum  t'nere. 

Several  other  charitable  institutions  have  been  founded  bv  private 
exertions  to  provide  for  cases  which,  though  to  a  certain  extent  are 
of  public  concern,  are  not  altogether  such  as  the  Government  could 
properly  be  called  upon  to  provide  for.  Amongst  these  are  the 
Children's  Hospital,  the  Institution  for  the  Blind,  Deaf,  and  Dumb, 
the  Orphan  Home,  the  Catholic  Orphanage,  the  Home  for  Incurables, 
and  many  others,  the  inmates  of  which  could  otherwise  be  dealt  with 
only  by  the  agency  of  the  Destitute  Hoard,  who-e  regulations  are  not 
adapted  to  the  special  requirements  of  such  persons.  The  most 
important  of  these  is  the  Children's  Hospital  and  training  school  for 
nurses  It  is  situated  in  a  healthy  situation  In  North  Adelaide,  in  an 
elegant  and  commodious  building  provided  with  all  the  appliances 
necessary  for  the  work  to  which  it  is  applied.  It  was  founded  by  private 
persons  who  Avished  to  provide  for  poor  and  other  sick  children  atten- 
dance and  comfort  more  suited  to  their  condition  than  they  could  obtain 
in  a  public  general  hospital.  It  is  supported  by  voluntary  subscriptions 
and  donations,  besides  a  subsidy  of  £1,000  annually  voted  by  Parlia- 
ment. The  building  at  present  contains  forty-three  cots  for  patients,  all 
of  which  are  generally  occupied.  The  hospital  is  divided  Into  four 
general  wards,  two  special  wards,  an  ophthalmic  ward,  and  a  contagious 
ward.  The  want  of  better  accommodation  for  out-patients  and  for  the 
treatment  of  contagious  diseases  which  had  for  some  time  pressed  itself 
on  the  attention  of  the  board  of  management  is  now  being  supplied  by 
new  buildings,  which  are  being  erected  at  the  cost  of  the  Hon.  J.  H. 
Angas,  M.L.C.  These  additions  will  enable  the  board  greatly  to  extend 
its  sphere  of  usefulness.  The  out-of-door  department  supplies  the 
needs  of  a  wide  circle  of  poor  families  in  the  cure  of  minor  or  temporary 
ailments,  or  where  the  cases  can  be  treated  by  weeklj^  consultations  with 
the  medical  officers.     In  1892  297  children  were  admitted  as  in-patients. 


RELIGIOUS     AND    CHARITABLE     INSTITUTIONS.  365 

being  sixty  less  than  in  the  preceding  year,  but  the  number  of  out- 
patients increased  from  2,29b  to  3,005.  The  hospital  has  been 
established  for  about  seventeen  years.  The  training  school  for  nurses, 
which  is  connected  with  the  hospital,  has  proved  to  be  of  great  public 
benefit.  Before  it  was  established  trained  nurses  were  scarcely  obtain- 
able in  the  colony.  The  facilities  which  the  Children's  Hospital  offer  to 
those  who  desire  to  undertake  the  duties  of  nursing  are  so  much  appre- 
ciated that  more  persons  ajjply  for  positions  than  can  be  received. 
Weekly  lectures  are  given  to  the  nurses  by  the  resident  medical  officer, 
and  quarterly  examinations  are  held,  and  clinical  instruction  is  imparted 
in  the  wards  by  the  superintendent  of  nurses  and  others  in  charge  to  all 
such  as  are  under  training.  Certificates  are  granted  to  nurses  who  jjass 
the  examination  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  board  of  examiners.  The 
office  of  house  surgeon  is  filled  by  Miss  Laura  Fowler,  M.B.  Js:  Ch.B., 
the  first  lady  who  received  the  qualification  of  a  medical  practiiioner 
from  the  Adelaide  University. 

The  Blind,  Deaf,  and  Dumb  Asylum  was  founded  in  1874  by  the 
late  Mr.  William  Townsend,  M.P.  The  objects  of  the  institution  are  to 
provide  the  benefits  of  education  and  a  home,  and,  as  far  as  practicable, 
the  advancement  in  life  of  blind,  deaf,  and  dumb  children.  Children 
afflicted  in  this  way,  between  the  ages  of  six  and  twelve  j-ears.  whose 
parents  are  resident  in  the  colony,  are  admissible  as  inmates,  irrespective 
of  creed  or  national  distinction.  Children  deficient  in  intellect,  subject 
to  fits,  or  contagious  or  offensive  diseases  are  not  eligible  subjects  for 
admission.  In  ordinary  cases  the  candidates  must  not  be  under  six  nor 
more  than  twelve  years,  except  in  special  cases,  when  the  rule  may  be 
relaxed.  Children  whose  parents  are  unable  to  pay  are  educated  and 
maintained  gratuitously,  and,  when  their  education  is  completed,  are 
apprenticed  to  suitable  trades,  as  far  as  the  funds  will  permit.  The  deaf 
and  dumb  children  are  trained  by  the  sign  and  manual  method.  There 
is  an  industrial  school  for  the  blind  in  North  Adelaide,  to  which  pupils 
are  sent.  The  institution  has  its  establishment  at  Brighton,  near  the  sea. 
It  is  a  handsome  and  well  appointed  building,  with  a  considerable  acre- 
age of  land  attached  to  it,  where  gardening  and  farm  work  are  carried 
on.  As  the  cultivation  of  the  land  extends  the  inmates  will  be  able  to 
supply  fruit,  vegetables,  milk,  and  butter  sufficient  for  the  establishment. 
The  number  of  persons  who  have  received  the  benefits  of  the  institution 
is  about  120.  The  asylum  is  supported  by  subscriptions,  donations,  and 
fees  for  maintenance,  supplemented  by  a  Government  grant  of  £800. 

Less  prominent,  Init  not  less  useful  in  their  degree,  are  the  Cottage  Homes 
(incorporated),  which  provide  homes  in  their  old  age  for  infirm  poor 
persons.     The  society  has  three  establishments — one  in  North  Adelaide, 


<366  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

which  contains  thirty- eight  inmates  ;  one  at  Brompton  Park,  with  eight; 
and  one  at  Glcnelg,  with  eleven  inmates.  It  is  supported  by  voluntary 
donations  and  subscriptions.  The  Convalescent  Hospital  was  founded  to 
assist  patients  discharged  from  hospital  to  a  quick  and  full  recovery ;  it 
also  helps  poor  patients  with  small  gifts  of  money  to  enable  them  to 
return  to  work.  This  society  has  a  comfortable  and  picturesque  estab- 
lishment at  the  Semaphore,  on  the  coast.  It  is  supported  by  voluntarj 
subscriptions.  The  Home  for  Incurables  has  its  head  quarters  at 
Fullarton,  near  the  hills  to  the  east  of  the  city.  This  society  is 
maintained  in  operation  by  voluntary  contributions.  The  Orphan 
Home,  for  the  reception  and  training  of  orphan  girls,  is  established 
in  Adelaide,  and  is  conducted  by  a  ladies'  committee  in  connection 
Avith  the  Church  of  England.  Ihe  Roman  Catholic  Orphanage  is 
situated  at  Goodwood,  and  is  under  the  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy. 
The  children  admitted  to  this  charity  must  be  the  lawful  children  of 
Roman  Catholic  parents.  In  the  suburbs  of  Adelaide  there  are  three 
institutions  for  the  reception  of  women  of  the  unfortunate  class — one  at 
Norwood  (Protestant) ;  one  (Roman  Catholic),  also  at  Norwood,  under 
the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  ;  and  one  at  Walkerville  (Church  of  England). 
The  Roman  Catholics  have  also  a  place  of  reception  called  The  House 
of  Providence,  in  which  servants  out  of  place  and  other  deserving 
women  find  temporary  homes.  There  is  also  a  Female  Reformatory 
carried  on  by  various  nonconformist  bodies.  All  of  these  charities  are 
carried  on  without  any  assistance  from  the  public  purse. 

One  of  the  most  truly  charitable  and  useful  amongst  the  various 
benevolent  societies  in  operation  in  South  Australia  is  the  Prisoners'  Aid 
Association.  The  sole  object  that  this  society  has  in  view  is  the 
aiding  of  discharged  prisoners  to  make  a  new  start  in  life.  The  com- 
mittee of  the  society  are  in  constant  communication  with  the  various 
prison  authorities,  and  make  themselves  acqviainted  with  the  character 
and  history  of  those  who  are  on  the  eve  of  discharge,  so  as  to  enable 
them  to  find  them  employment,  and  open  out  a  future  to  them  where  the 
past  will  be  forgotten.  This  society  has  been  the  means  of  helping 
scores  of  prisoners  to  start  new  lives,  and  some  of  them  have  done 
remarkably  well,  though,  of  course,  there  has  been  a  certain  proportion 
of  failures.  The  work  of  the  society  is  carried  on  without  publicity, 
and  has  done  an  amount  of  excellent  work,  the  value  of  which  to 
society  can  hardly  be  estimated.  The  Salvation  Army  has  lately 
started  a  prison  brij^ade.  Their  operations  are  princijjally,  if  not 
entirely,  confined  to  the  Adelaide  Gaol  and  its  inmates,  'hey  meet 
prisoners  at  the  gates  on  their  discharge,  and  take  them  (male  or 
female,  as  the  case  may  be)  to   an   establishment  devoted   to  the    re- 


RELIGIOUS     AND     CHARITABLE    INSTITUTIONS.  867 

ception  of  such  persons,  and  give  them  an  opportunity  of  reforming 
and  preparing  themselves  to  earn  an  honest  livelihood.  There  are 
many  other  societies  and  institutions  whose  members  devote  their 
energies  to  the  relief  of  the  ever  varying  forms  of  distress  and 
suffering  which  are  found  in  all  communities.  The  most  prominent 
have  been  mentioned  above.  Although  poverty  in  South  Australia  is 
not  so  severely  felt  nor  so  widely  spi'ead  as  it  is  in  other  Australian 
cities,  still  it  presses  hardly  on  many  who  are  unable  to  help  them- 
selves. It  will  be  seen  from  what  has  been  recorded  above  that  the 
colony  generally  has  not  overlooked  the  necessities  of  those  who  have 
met  with  adversity. 


368  SOI :TH    AUSXkAJ.lA. 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 

General   Matters — Municipal    Government — Corporate    Towns — Their    Con- 
stitution   AND    POWEKS — iS'UMBER    OF    ToWNS — RECEIPTS    AND    EXPENDITURE 

— Assessments  —  The  District  Councils  —  How  Constituted  —  Their 
Powers — Receipts  and  Expenditure — The  City  of  Adelaide — General 
Description — Streets,  Buildings,  &c. — Places  of  Worship — Places  of 
Amusement — Mercantile  Institutions,  Banks,  &c. — Scientific  Societies 
— Fire  Brigades — Watering  Places  near  Adelaide  and  on  the  Coast — 
Port  Elliot,  Victor  Harbor,  Port  Lincoln,  Kangaroo  Island — 
Colonial  Defences — Xaval  Forces— Local  Military  Forces — Reserves 
The  Renmark  Irrigation  Colony. 

Several  matters  illustrative  of  the  prog^ress  of  the  colony  which 
have  not  been  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  pages  are  brought  under 
the  reader's  notice  in  this  chapter.  The  first  in  importance  is  municipal 
government.  There  are  two  systems  of  local  government  in  operation  in 
South  Australia — one  carried  on  under  the  Municipal  Corporations  Act, the 
other  under  the  District  Councils  Act.  The  first  is  framed  so  as  to  meet 
the  conditions  and  requirements  of  large  and  compact  centres  of  popula- 
tion ;  the  second  is  adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  rural  districts,  whose 
interests  are  diff^erent  and  where  population  is  scattered.  The  powers 
conferred  upon  the  corporations  are  more  extensive  than  those  which 
have  been  prescribed  for  the  district  councils.  The  difference  between 
them  lies  chiefly  in  the  extent  of  their  powers  to  make  by-laws  and  the 
operation  within  corporate  limits  of  special  statutes,  such  as  the  Building 
Act,  which  would  be  inapplicable  in  country  places,  where  dwellings  and 
other  buildings  are  not  massed  together  as  they  are  in  towns.  Corpora- 
tions are  constituted  in  the  first  instance  by  proclamation  in  the 
Government  Gazette  under  the  hand  of  the  Governor.  A  corporation  at 
the  time  of  proclamation  is  divided  into  wards,  to  be  represented  by  two 
councillors  for  each  ward,  who,  as  well  as  the  mayor,  are  appointed  by  the 
proclamation  and  retain  office  for  one  year.  After  the  first  election  has 
taken  place,  one  councillor  for  each  ward  retires  annually,  but  he  may  be 
re-elected.  The  election  of  councilloi-s  takes  place  by  the  several  wards 
in  which  only  the  ratepayers  of  such  wards  are  entitled  to  vote,  but  the 
mayor  and  the  aldermen,  where  there  are  any,  are  elected  by  the  whole  of 
the  burgesses  voting  as  one  district.  Every  person  of  full  age  may  be 
elected  either  as  mayor,  alderman,  or  councillor  in  any  corporation,  except 
a  person  absent  from  the  province  at  the  time  of  the  election  who  has  not 
consented  in  writing  to  be  nominated,  a  female,  a  minor,  or  an  uncertifi- 
cated   insolvent.       Vacancies    in    the    offices  of    mayor,    alderman,    and 


MUNICIPAL    INSTITUTIONS    AND    GENERAL    MATTERS.  369 

councillor  are  created  by  death,  lunacy,  insolvency,  assignment  of  estate, 
or  composition  with  creditors  for  less  than  20s.  in  pound.  Mayors 
receive  such  salaries  as  may  be  voted  to  them  by  the  councils  out  of  the 
funds  of  the  corporations,  but  aldermen  and  councillors  receive  no 
remuneration  for  their  services.  Auditors  for  corporations  are  elected  by 
the  ratepayers  at  the  time  of  the  election  of  mayors  and  councillors,  and 
are  paid  by  fees  fixed  by  the  council  and  taken  from  the  corporation  funds. 
One  of  them  retires  annually,  but  he  may  be  re-elected.  The  causes  which 
create  vacancies  in  the  auditorships  are  the  same  as  those  which  affect  the 
tenure  of  office  of  mayors,  aldermen,  and  councillors,  besides  absence 
from  the  colony  at  the  time  of  audit,  failure  to  attend  the  audit  after 
receipt  of  notice  in  writing,  or  the  order  of  any  duly  authorised  court  or 
justices  declaring  the  office  vacant.  The  polls  are  open  on  the  days  of 
election  from  8  a.m.  till  7  p.m.,  and  the  elections  take  place  by  ballot.  All 
persons  owning  or  occupying  ratable  property  in  the  municipality, 
except  aliens  and  persons  in  receipt  of  public  relief  or  alms,  are  entitled 
to  vote  as  ratepayers,  but  a  ratepayer  is  entitled  to  record  one  vote 
only  for  the  property  in  the  ward  for  which  he  is  rated.  Persons 
who  have  not  paid  their  rates  at  the  time  of  an  election  are  not  entitled 
to  vote,  but  if  the  landlord  of  any  ratable  property  in  a  corporate  town 
has  agreed  to  pay  the  municipal  rates,  and  has  made  default  therein,  the 
occupier  of  the  premises  is  not  deprived  of  his  vote  by  reason  of  such 
default  if  he  produces  a  receipt  from  his  landlord  for  the  payment  of  all 
the  rem  due  at  the  time  of  voting.  In  the  towns  where  there  are 
aldermen  no  person  is  entitled  to  be  elected  to  the  office  of  mayor  unless 
he  shall  have  previously  served  in  a  council  for  one  year.  At  present 
the  only  municipality  w^hich  has  aldermen  is  the  city  of  Adelaide.  The 
position  of  alderman  carries  with  it  no  privileges  or  functions  beyond  those 
which  pertain  to  the  office  of  a  town  councillor.  The  aldermen  are 
appointed  by  proclamation  by  the  Governor  in  the  Government  Gazette^ 
following  on  a  petition  in  favor  of  such  proclamation  from  the  council  of 
the  municipality  concerned.  The  petition  for  tlie  addition  of  aldermen 
cannot  be  presented  until  a  poll  of  the  citizens  has  been  taken,  affirming 
a  proposition  in  favor  of  this  part  of  the  Municipal  Corporations  Act  being 
applied  to  the  municipality,  and  of  the  intention  to  hold  which  one 
month's  previous  public  notice  shall  have  been  given  by  the  council,  nor 
unless  the  petition  be  accompanied  by  a  certificate,  under  the  hands  of  the 
mayor  and  town  clerk,  of  the  result  of  such  poll.  The  proposition  to  be 
submitted  to  the  citizens  at  the  poll  is: — "That  for  the  future  there  shall 
be  aldermen  in  the  council  of  the  municipality  as  well  as  councillors,  and 
no  person  shall  be  eligible  for  election  as  mayor  unless  he  shall  have 
previously  served  in  a  council  for  one  year."  The  only  advantage 
a2 


370  SOUTH    ALSTRALIA. 

attendant  on  the  appointment  of  aldermen  is  an  increase  in  the  represen- 
tation of  the  ratepayers  in  the  town  council.  Mayors  of  corporate  towns 
are  ex  officio  justices  of  the  peace  for  the  province  during  their  term  of 
office  only,  but  it  has  been  customary  for  the  Government  to  add  their 
names  to  the  commission  of  the  peace  after  their  term  of  office  has 
expired.  Persons  who  have  been  elected  to  offices  under  the  Corporation 
Act  can  be  compelled,  under  a  penalty,  to  serve  for  the  term  for  which 
they  have  been  elected.  Disputes  as  to  the  validity  of  elections  are  tried 
before  two  justices  and  decided  in  a  summary  way.  The  powers  of 
corporations  are  extensive,  but  too  numerous  to  be  recited  in  detail.  The 
most  important  of  those  powers  in  relation  to  the  ratepayers  is  that  of 
borrowing  money  for  special  objects.  The  consent  of  the  ratepayers, 
however,  is  required  before  a  loan  can  be  contracted,  and  then  it  must 
not  exceed  ten  times  the  amount  which,  at  the  time  of  borrowing, 
would  result  from  a  rate  of  Is.  in  the  pound  on  the  assessed  annual 
value  of  the  ratable  property  in  the  municipality  or  the  portion  sepa- 
rately^ rated,  as  the  case  may  be.  All  corporations  form  local  boards  of 
health  -within  their  limits.  Their  power  to  make  by-laws  is  very  far 
reaching,  but  all  such  by-laws  are  subject  to  revision  by  the  Supreme 
Court,  upon  application  by  any  citizen,  who  must,  however,  deposit  the 
sum  of  £15  as  security  for  costs.  Before  becoming  valid  all  by-laws 
must  be  laid  before  the  Parliament  for  a  period  of  thirty  days,  confirmed 
by  the  Governor,  and  published  in  the  Government  Guzette. 

In  the  year  1892  there  were  thirty-three  corporate  towns  in  the  colony. 
The  total  amount  of  the  assessments  of  property  included  in  them  was 
£1,018,717;  the  total  revenue,  including  rates.  Government  subsidies 
in  aid,  grants  for  main  roads  and  special  purjDoses,  licence  fees,  and 
miscellaneous  receipts,  was  £135,254;  the  rating  was  slightly  in  excess 
of  Is.  in  the  pound.  The  expenditure  for  the  j^ear  was  £135,234, 
distributed  thus :— Public  works,  £51,403,  or  38'01  per  cent.;  miscel- 
laneous expenditure,  £66,621,  or  48'26  per  cent.  ;  and  salaries  and  office 
expenses.  £17,209,  or  12*72  per  cent,  on  the  total  outlay  for  the  year. 
The  principle  of  the  assessment  upon  which  rates  are  levied  is  according 
to  the  fair  estimated  annual  rent,  clear  of  all  outgoings,  at  which  the 
property  could  be  let  for  a  term  of  seven  years,  if  the  rent  should  be 
more  than  5  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  fee  simple,  and,  if  not,  at  5  per 
cent,  on  such  value.  Blocks  of  not  less  than  twenty  acres,  not  divided  by 
roads  or  unused,  except  for  pastoral  or  agricultural  purposes,  are  rated  at 
2^  per  cent.  An  appeal  against  the  assessment  of  any  property  can  be 
made,  in  the  first  instance,  to  the  council  of  the  corporation,  and  from 
that  to  the  nearest  Local  Court  of  Full  Jurisdiction,  whose  decision  is 
final.     The  council  of  any  corporation  may  declare  a  rate  of  Is.  in  the 


MUNICIPAL    INSTITUTIONS     AND     GENERAL     MATTERS.  371 

pound  for  general  purposes,  a  rate  of  kl.  in  the  pound  for  lighting  the 
municipality,  and  a  rate  of  3d.  in  the  pound  for  the  improvement  of  the 
park  lands,  squares,  or  reserves  of  the  municipality.  The  consent  of  the 
ratepayers  is  required  before  special  rates  can  be  declared  by  the  council. 
A  rate  for  street-watering  at  a  particular  rate  may  be  declared,  but  onU' 
those  persons  whose  properties  have  frontages  to  the  places  watered  can 
be  called  upon  to  pay  it.  Special  rates  may  be  declared  for  special 
works  on  memorial  signed  by  one-half  of  the  ratepayers  representing 
two-thirds  of  the  ratable  value  of  the  property  within  the  town  affected. 
Such  rates,  however,  are  dealt  with  separately  and  are  payable  only  by 
the  persons  concei'ned.  Corporations  may,  without  the  consent  of  the 
ratepayers,  borrow  money  upon  the  security  of  tbe  general  rates  for  the 
purpose  of  repaying  loans  contracted  before  the  passing  of  the  Corpora- 
tion Act  (1890),  and  may  issue  debentures.  The  interest  on  such 
debentures  becomes  a  first  charge  upon  the  rates,  and  a  proportionate 
amount  must  be  set  apart  ovit  of  the  rates  for  the  payment  of  the  deben- 
tures as  they  fall  due.  The  money  so  set  apart  must  be  invested  at 
interest  in  a  manner  to  be  approved  of  by  the  Minister  of  the  Crown  who 
is  charged  with  the  administration  of  the  Act  or  any  portion  of  it  to 
which  his  function  relates.  In  no  case  must  the  interest  on  corporation 
debentures  exceed  £6  per  cent,  per  annum.  In  the  event  of  any  default 
in  the  payment  of  the  interest  or  the  principal  sum  borrowed  the  Supreme 
Court  may  appoint  a  receiver,  wlio  exercises  the  same  jjowers  of  collect- 
ing and  obtaining  payment  of  the  rates,  on  the  security  of  which  the 
money  was  borrowed,  as  the  council  of  the  corporation  would  have. 

The  above  is  a  brief  summary  of  the  powers  of  municipal  corporations. 
The  first  corporation  established  in  Australia  was  that  of  the  city  of 
Adelaide,  which  was  called  into  existence  by  an  Ordinance  passed  by 
Governor  Gawler  and  his  Executive  Council  on  August  19th,  1840,  and 
the  first  elections  under  it  were  held  on  October  31st  in  the  same  year. 
After  a  short  and  unsatisfactory  career  the  Act  which  constituted  it  was 
repealed.  The  repealing  Act  vested  the  whole  of  the  property  that  had 
belonged  to  the  corporation  in  the  Crown,  which,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
empowered  to  pay  the  debts  due  by  the  corporation.  It  also  authorised 
the  Governor  to  levy  rates  upon  all  ])roperties  and  houses  within  the 
limits  of  the  police  district,  calculated  iqjon  the  net  annual  value  of  the 
property  assessed.  In  1849  the  powers  exercised  by  the  Governor  over 
the  affairs  of  the  city  of  Adelaide  were  transferred  to  five  city  commis- 
sioners, who  continued  in  office  until  the  year  1852,  when  the  Adelaide 
( 'orporation  was  revived.  It  consisted  of  a  mayor,  four  aldermen,  and 
twelve  councillors.  Since  then  the  corporation  has  continued  in  active 
operation,  and  has  carried  out  its  functions  with  credit  and  success.     The 


372  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

assessed  annual  value  of  the  property  within  the  city  of  Adelaide  is  now 
£392,8-0,  and  the  total  revenue  £53,420.  The  sum  raised  by  the 
assessment  in  1892  was  £19,G40  19s.  9d. 

The  district  council  system,  under  which  the  regulation  of  local  affairs 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  colony  is  carried  on,  was  introduced  by  Sir 
Henry  Young  in  the  year  1850.  Previous  to  that  time  the  outlay  upon 
all  local  improvements  fell  upon  the  piiblic  revenues.  Outside  Adelaide 
there  were  no  local  governing  bodies,  and  no  machinery  was  in  existence 
to  enable  settlers  in  countr}-  districts  to  combine  for  any  purposes  in 
which  local  interests  or  requirements  were  concerned.  The  District 
Councils  Act,  when  it  came  into  force,  relieved  the  Government  to  a 
great  extent  from  responsibility  with  regard  to  country  affairs,  and  by 
calling  iiito  existence  local  representative  bodies  furnished  with  pywers 
of  taxation  largely  reduced  the  demands  which  w^ere  constantly  pressed 
upon  the  State  for  assistance  in  carrying  out  objects  of  purely  local 
intei'est  or  necessity.  In  order  to  encourage  the  establishment  of  district 
councils  the  Government  began  by  supplementing  the  amount  of  the 
rates  collected  by  an  equal  amount  fi'om  the  general  revenue,  and,  in 
addition,  a  sum  equivalent  to  any  private  subscriptions  for  public  works 
which  might  be  collected  besides  the  ordinary  rates.  The  liberality  of 
the  Government  in  the  matter  of  private  subscriptions  was  unfairly  used 
in  some  cases,  and  was  considerably  curtailed.  The  grants  which  are 
now  bestowed  even  in  aid  of  the  rates  are  verj-  much  reduced  in  amount. 
The  district  council  system  is  firmly  rooted  in  the  colony,  and  its  intro- 
duction has  been  followed  by  the  best  results.  At  present  there  are 
135  district  councils  in  the  province,  exercising  jurisdiction  over  an  area 
of  about  42,500  square  miles  of  country.  One  great  advantage  attached 
to  the  district  council  system  is  economy  in  working.  The  total  outlay 
in  salaries  and  office  charges  amounted  in  1892  to  8'35  per  cent  upon  the 
total  expenditure,  whilst  that  of  corporations  stood  at  12'72  per  cent, 
during  the  same  year. 

District  councils  are  constituted  by  proclamation  by  the  Governor  in 
the  Government  Gazette,  in  which  the  councillors  are  appointed  and  the 
district  divided  into  wards  or  left  as  one  district,  as  may  be  required. 
The  Governor  has  power  to  alter  the  boundaries  of  districts,  to  sub- 
divide them  or  to  unite  them  with  other  districts  or  municapalities,  but 
in  all  cases  he  proceeds  only  on  petition  from  the  ratepayers  concerned,. 
which  is  acceded  to  or  refused  according  to  the  merits  of  each  case. 
All  ratepayers  (males)  of  districts  of  the  full  age  of  21  years  are 
eligible  for  the  office  of  councillor,  except  ministers  of  religion, 
stipendiary  magistrates,  uncertificated  insolvents,  persons  holding  offices 
of  profit  under  the  council,  or  who  are  interested  in  any  contract  with  the 


MUNICIPAL     INSTITUTIONS     AND     GENERAL     MATTERS.  373 

council,  except  councillors  acting  as  returning  officers  for  council  elections, 
for  which  they  may  be  paid,  or  being  members  of  jniblic  companies 
interested  in  any  contracts  or  dealings  with  the  council,  and  all  such 
persons  are  compellable  to  serve  when  elected,  except  non-residents 
within  the  district  who  have  not  consented  in  waiting  to  serve  if  elected, 
persons  ceasing  to  reside  within  the  district,  persons  who  having  served 
their  full  term  as  councillors  or  elected  before  the  expiry  of  three  years 
after  their  former  service,  persons  who  after  being  elected  may  become  60 
years  of  age,  persons  receiving  any  salary  from  the  Government,  and 
members  of  Parliament.  ^Ministers  of  religion,  it  will  be  noticed,  are  not 
disqualified  from  acting  as  members  of  corporations,  nor  are  stipendiary 
magistrates.  Vacancies  in  the  office  of  councillor  are  created  by  death, 
hmacy,  idiotcy,  insolvency,  assignment  of  estate  for  the  benefit  of  creditors, 
or  composition  with  creditors  for  less  than  20s.  in  the  pound.  Non- 
attendance  at  council  meetings,  absence  from  the  province,  and  other 
technical  reasons  also  create  vacancies.  One  half  of  the  councillors 
retire  every  year,  but  are  eligible  for  re-election.  Chairmen  of  district 
councils  are  not  ex  officio  justices  of  the  peace  and  receive  no  pay- 
ment for  their  services,  but  councillors  in  some  cases  may  be  paid 
their  expenses.  Councillors  of  corporations  who  act  as  returning 
officers  cannot  receive  any  remuneration  without  vacating  their 
offices.  Auditors  are  elected  by  the  ratepayers,  and  one  retires 
every  year,  but  is  eligible  for  ro-electicn.  All  elections,  whether  for 
•corporate  towns  or  district  councils,  are  by  ballot,  and  are  regulated  by 
the  Ballot  Act  of  1862.  District  councils  have  powder  to  levy  rates,  and, 
with  the  consent  of  the  ratepayers,  to  borrow  money  for  imdertakings  of 
a  public  nature,  and  assign  the  rates  as  security  for  the  loans.  The 
•councils  form  local  boards  of  health  and  have  power  to  make  by-laws 
within  certain  limits,  but  they  must  be  ])assed  at  a  meeting  at  which  at 
least  two-thirds  of  the  members  are  present,  and  such  by-laws  cannot 
come  into  force  until  signed  by  the  chairman  or  clerk,  confirmed  by  the 
■Governor,  and  published  in  the  Governmo.nt  Gazette,  and  until  one  week 
has  elapsed  since  the  date  of  such  publication.  The  by-laws  may  be 
altered  by  subsequent  by-laws,  by  regulations  made  by  the  Governor 
under  any  Acts  which  are  inconsistent  with  such  by-laws,  and  bv  a 
proclamation  by  the  Governor  published  in  the  Government  Gazette 
■exjjressly  altering  or  repealing  such  bv-law. 

Considering  the  immense  area  over  which  the  jurisdiction  of  district 
councils  extends,  and  the  multifarious  claims  upon  their  resources,  the 
funds  at  their  disposal  are  but  small.  The  amount  of  the  assessments  on 
the  property  liable  to  be  rated  by  them  was  £1,596,377  in  1802,  which 
produced   the  sum  of  ,£64,.57.'3  in  rates,  and  the  total  receipts  of  all   the 


374  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

councils,  ineludin<;-  the  Government  subsidy,  the  grant  for  the  main- 
tenance of  main  roads,  and  miscellaneous  receipts,  were  only  £240,472. 
The  extent  of  the  work  which  has  been  performed  in  the  country  by  the 
councils  with  their  limited  means  is  remarkable.  Only  the  most  pressing; 
matters,  it  may  be  believed,  can  be  attended  to,  but  the  roads  are  kept  in 
good  order,  and  the  lines  of  internal  communication  through  them  are 
fairly  passable  in  the  worst  seasons,  as  far  as  it  depends  upon  them.  The 
District  Councils  Acts  can  justly  be  I'egarded  as  amongst  the  most 
beneficial  of  the  laws  which  have  contributed  to  the  development  of  South 
Australia,  not  alone  on  account  of  the  valuable  work  which  has  been 
accomplished  under  them,  but  also  on  account  of  the  feeling  of  self- 
reliance  that  has  been  established  in  small  communities,  which  other- 
wise would  have  been  a  continual  burthen  upon  the  Government  of  the 
colony. 

The  city  of  Adelaide,  the  capital  of  South  Australia,  is  situated  on  an 
extensive  plain,  on  the  banks  of  the  River  Torrens,  in  lat.  34°  57'  S.,  and 
long.  138°  38"  E.  Its  western  boundary  is  about  five  and  a  half  miles 
distant  from  the  shore  of  St.  Vincent's  Gulf,  and  its  eastern  boundary 
about  four  and  a  half  miles  distant  from  a  range  of  hills  known  as  the 
Mount  Lofty  Range,  which  almost  touches  the  sea  at  Cape  Jervis,  fifty 
miles  south  of  Adelaide,  and  stretches  in  a  north-west  direction  beyond 
Port  Augusta,  180  miles  almost  due  north  from  Adelaide.  The  city 
contains  1.042  acres,  and  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  park  lands,  about 
2,300  acres  in  extent.  A  portion  of  these  lands,  nearly  a  mile  wide, 
divides  South  from  North  Adelaide,  and  is  intersected  by  the  waters  of 
the  Torrens  Lake,  a  sheet  of  water  formed  by  damming  up  the  river  at  a 
point  adjacent  to  its  western  limit.  The  area  of  Adelaide,  including  the 
park  lands,  is  somewhat  above  five  and  a  half  miles.  The  park  lands  are 
dedicated  in  perpetuity  to  the  use  and  recreation  of  the  citizens,  and 
cannot  be  alienated  unless  by  authority  of  a  distinct  Act  of  the  Legis- 
lature. The  affairs  of  the  city  are  managed  by  a  corporation,  consisting 
of  a  mayor,  six  aldermen,  and  twelve  councillors.  The  powers  of  the 
corporation  have  already  been  noticed.  The  streets  under  the  control  of 
the  city  council  are  over  eighty  miles  in  length  and  vary  in  Avidth  from 
132ft.  down  to  20ft.  ;  none  of  the  principal  streets,  however,  are  less  than 
66ft.  wide.  The  city  is  bounded  by  terraces  on  its  north,  west,  south, 
and  east  sides  in  South  Adelaide,  all  of  w^hich  front  the  park  lands, 
and  similar  boundaries  enclose  the  North  Adelaide  section  of  the  munici- 
pality. The  roadways  in  all  the  streets  are  admirably  macadamised,  and 
in  the  principal  thoroughfares  the  footpaths  are  either  flagged  or 
asphalted.  The  footways  so  made  extend  for  over  fifty  miles  in  length. 
The  northern    and    southern    parts  of  the    city    are    connected  by   five 


MUNICIPAL     INSTITUTIONS    AND     GENERAL     MATTERS,  375 

substantial  bridges  with  excellent  approaches.  Adelaide  is  well  supplied 
with  water,  the  delivery  being  constant  and  the  service  at  high  pressure. 
The  sewerage  of  the  city  is  carried  away  by  means  of  an  extensive  system 
of  sewers,  which  discharge  their  contents  at  the  sewage  farm,  four  miles 
north  of  Adelaide,  where  the  water  is  filtered  and  used  for  irrigating  the 
land  under  cultivation,  w'hilst  the  solid  parts  serve  as  manure.  The 
streets  are  well  lighted  with  gas ;  and  besides  the  cabs  and  omnibuses 
which  ply  for  hire,  are  otherwise  served  with  excellent  tram  lines  which 
carry  passengers  to  all  the  suburbs  at  very  moderate  rates.  There  are 
five  squares  in  South  Adelaide  and  one  in  North  Adelaide  ;  all  of  these  are 
enclosed  with  iron  railings,  planted  with  trees,  and  laid  out  with  grass. 
The  borders  of  the  terraces  which  surround  the  city,  and  those  of  man}'  of 
the  footways  of  the  wide  streets,  are  also  lined  with  trees,  which  relieve 
the  monotony  of  the  long  straight  thoroughfares  which  run  at  right 
angles  from  each  other  from  north  to  south  and  east  to  west,  and  give 
them  a  fresh  and  lively  appearance.  The  widest  street  in  Adelaide  is 
King  William -street,  which  is  132ft.  in  breadth  and  a  mile  in  length 
from  South -terrace  to  North-terrace,  and,  with  Rundle  and  Hindley 
streets  and  Grenfell  and  Currie  streets,  forms  the  principal  business  centre 
in  the  city.  The  Law  Courts  are  situated  at  the  corners  of  King  William- 
street  on  tlie  soutli  side  of  Victoria-square,  and  one  branch  of  the  Govern- 
ment offices  is  on  the  east  side  of  the  square.  The  principal  Government 
offices  and  the  General  Post  Office  are  built  in  King  William-street  at  the 
north  end  of  Victoria-square,  and  the  Town  Hall  and  several  of  the  banks 
and  other  public  buildings  follow  on  to  North-teirace  on  either  side  of 
the  road.  The  north  side  of  North-terrace  is  occupied  entirely  by 
public  buildings.  The  central  railway  station  lies  to  the  west  of  King 
William-road,  which  leads  from  King  William-street  to  North  Adelaide. 
This  is  the  main  terminus  of  all  the  railway  lines  in  the  colony. 
Passengers  may  be  booked  there  for  all  the  other  colonies  and  for  all 
parts  of  South  Australia  to  which  the  lines  extend.  Trains  start  twice  a 
day  from  this  point  for  Victoria,  New  South  Wales,  and  Queensland, 
and  twice  daily  for  the  silver  mining  districts  which  centre  at  Broken 
Hill.  Trains  runs  hourly,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  day  more  frequently, 
to  Port  Adelaide,  the  Semaphore,  and  Largs  Bay  (where  the  mail 
.steamers  anchor),  and  at  intervals  to  the  Grange,  Henley  Beach,  and 
Glenelg.  Trains  also  depart  from  Victoria-square  for  the  latter  watering- 
place,  alternating  in  point  (jf  time  with  those  which  leave  North-terrace. 
Next  to  the  railway  station  the  Parliament  Houses  are  built;  these  are 
contained  in  a  magnificent  edifice  constructed  of  mai-ble  from  Kapunda. 
The  structure  is  only  partly  completed.  Attached  to  the  Legislative 
Chambers    is   the   Parliamentary  library,  containing  upwards  of  20,000 


376  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

vohimes.  In  the  rear  is  the  Government  Printing  Office.  On  the  eastern 
side  of  King  William-road  Government  House,  the  town  residence  of  the 
Governor,  is  situated  in  large  and  well  laid  out  grounds.  In  the 
rear  of  the  domain  the  parade  ground  for  the  local  militar}-  forces  is 
located.  Next  to  the  Government  House  and  grounds  a  little  eastward 
stands  the  Circulating  Library,  containing  about  18,000  volumes,  founded 
by  the  State,  but  now  supported  principally  by  annual  subscriptions. 
The  books  and  buildings  are  the  property  of  the  Government.  It  is 
connected  with  the  Public  Library  and  Museum,  which  are  immediately 
adjacent  to  it.  At  one  time  these  constituted  the  South  Australian 
Institute,  which  has  now  given  place  to  the  Public  Library,  Museum, 
and  Art  Gallery  of  South  Australia,  established  by  Act  of  Parliament 
(296  of  1883-4),  and  is  managed  by  a  Board  of  Governors  elected  by 
various  bodies  connected  with  educational  objects.  It  has  a  School  of 
Design  and  Painting  in  connection  Avith  the  general  establishment.  The 
reading-room  is  free,  and  open  from  9'30  a.m.  till  9'30  }).m.,  and  on 
Sundays  from  2  till  6  p.m.  The  Public  Library  contains  about  35,000 
volumes,  and  is  also  free.  It  is  open  to  the  public  for  the  purpose  of 
reading  in  the  library  from  10  a.m.  till  6  p.m.,  and  on  Sundays  from 
2  p.m.  till  dusk.  The  Museum  is  open  (free)  from  10  a.m.  till  dusk, 
and  on  Sundays  from  2  p.m.  till  dusk.  The  Art  Gallery,  which  is  in  the 
Exhibition  Building  on  North-terrace  towards  its  eastern  limit,  is  open 
free  on  week  days,  in  the  spring  and  summer  months  from  10  a  m.  till 
5  p.m.,  and  on  Sundays  from  2  till  5  p.m.  In  the  autumn  and  winter 
months  it  is  open  from  10  a.m.  till  4  p.m.,  and  on  Sundays  from  'I  till 
4  p.m.  The  School  of  Painting  and  School  of  Design  are  open  on 
various  mornings  and  afternoons  during  the  week.  The  Miiseum  and 
Public  Library  when  complete  will  form  an  immense  and  imposing 
structure  ;  at  present  only  one  wing  has  been  erected.  J'he  University 
Buildings  are  immediately  contiguous  to  the  Public  Library.  The 
Exhibition  Building  was  erected  on  a  block  of  land  extending  east  and 
north  of  the  University,  containing  about  18 J-  acres,  and  now  affords 
accommodation  for  a  Technological  .Museum,  the  Art  Gallery,  the 
Chamber  of  Manufactures,  and  the  School  of  Mines  and  Industries.  It 
is  also  used  by  the  Agricultural  and  Horticultural  Society  for  its  periodic 
shows,  for  which,  in  the  principal  hall  and  the  extensive  grounds 
connected  with  it,  there  is  abundant  space.  The  Hospital  and  the 
Lunatic  Asylum,  the  only  other  public  buildin2:s  on  the  eastern  end  of 
Norrh-terrace,  have  already  been  noticed. 

The  Botanic  Gardens,  which  intervene  between  these  last-mentioned 
establishments,  occup}-  an  area  of  forty  acres,  which  extend  from  North- 
terrace  to  the   River   Torrens.     They  are   most  tastefully  laid  out  and 


MUMCIPAL     INSTITUTIONS     AND     GENERAL     MATTERS.  377 

form  one  of  the  principal  sights  of  Adelaide.  They  contain  over 
13,000  different  species  of  plants.  The  gardens  are  well  supplied  with 
water,  which  enables  the  director  to  maintain  them  in  good  order  dui'ing 
the  most  trying  season  of  the  year.  Within  the  gardens  there  is  a 
museum  of  economic  botany,  a  museum  of  specimens  of  Australian 
woods,  a  beautiful  palm  house,  orchid  houses,  a  Victo7'in  Regia  house, 
where  this  magnificent  South  American  water  lily  comes  to  perfection  in 
its  season,  and  an  experimental  garden,  besides  numerous  fountains,  orna- 
mental statues,  and  other  appropriate  decorations.  These  gardens  were 
brought  to  their  present  state  of  perfection  by  the  late  Dr.  Schomburgk, 
whose  exertions  in  promoting  botanic  science  had  obtained  for  him 
decorations  from  most  of  the  reigning  sovereigns  of  Europe.  These 
gardens  are  open  free  on  every  day  in  the  year.  To  the  north  of  the 
gardens  a  space  of  over  eighty  acres  has  been  laid  out  as  a  Botanic  Park, 
which  is  intersected  by  an  elegant  carriage  drive,  and  sub-divided  by  broad 
shaded  paths  and  walks.  The  park  and  the  gardens  are  most  favorite 
places  of  resort  in  Adelaide. 

A  small  section  of  the  reserve  which  has  been  converted  into  the  park 
is  used  by  the  Zoological  (formerly  the  Acclimati-;ation)  Society  as  the 
site  of  the  Zoological  Gardens.  These  are  of  comparatively  small  extent 
as  far  as  acreage  is  concerned,  but  they  ai'e  admirablv  planned  and  most 
complete  in  arrangement.  The  collection  of  animals  is  the  largest  in 
Australia,  comprising  about  1.200  different  zoological  specimens. 
Want  of  space  is  gradually  pressing  upon  the  committee  of  management 
and  it  has  been  proposed  that  the  grounds  should  be  extended  to  a  ])or- 
tion  of  the  park  lands  on  the  nortli  bank  of  the  Torrens,  with  which  it 
would  be  connected  by  a  light  ornamental  bridge.  The  proposal,  however, 
is  not  yet  sufficiently  matured  to  be  put  into  execution.  The  garden 
is  supported  by  annual  subscriptions  and  the  entrance  fees  payable  at  the 
gate,  aided  by  a  grant  from  the  Government.  The  charge  for  admission 
is  6d.  The  grounds  are  open  to  the  public  dailv  from  morning  till 
evening.  On  Saturdays  admission  is  free.  The  gardens  were  laid  out 
and  arranged  by  Mr.  K.  K.  Minchin  (lately  deceased). 

The  Torrens  Lake  is  a  fine  sheet  of  water,  which  stretches  from  the 
dam,  near  the  gaol,  eastward  for  nearly  two  miles.  Before  the  weir  was 
■ccmstructcd  the  appearance  of  the  Kiver  Torrens  was  most  imsightly.  In 
the  winter  months  it  was  a  dangerous  torrent,  and  in  summer  a  narrow 
shallow  streak  of  water,  running  slowly  and  scantily,  with  sand  and  mud 
flats  on  either  side,  hemmed  in  by  perj)endicular  high  banks,  which  were 
continually  falliuic  into  the  bed  of  the  watercoiirse,  and  loading  it  with 
(l('bj-is.  Rough  stones,  ])atchcs  of  reeds,  and  here  and  there  snags  of 
jjartiidly  buried  drift  timber  sticking  out  from  the  lianks,  in  the  water, 


378  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

and  in  the  mud  and  sand  patches,  gave  the  whole  channel  a  broken  and 
dilapidated  appearance,  which  harmonised  badly  with  the  cheerful  look 
of  the  park  lands,  which  come  down  to  the  extreme  edge  of  the  river 
banks.  A  wooden  dam  was  constructed  near  the  site  of  the  present  one, 
and  it  answered  its  purpose  for  a  time  ;  but  it  was  swept  away  in  a  heavy 
flood  which  came  down  in  October,  1867.  A  stone  weir  was  subsequently- 
erected,  and  is  apparently  a  permanent  structure.  By  means  of  this  weir 
a  stretch  of  water  about  two  miles  long,  of  considerable  depth  and  great 
though  varying  width,  runs  through  the  city  from  east  to  west,  and  gives 
ample  scope  for  the  amusement  of  those  who  are  fond  of  aquatic  sports. 
Boat  races  are  held  on  the  lake  at  c  ertain  seasons  of  the  year,  and  the 
lake  is  well  supplied  with  boathouses  and  other  conveniences  necessary 
for  rowing.  The  forming  of  the  lake  has  added  greatly  to  the  beauty  of 
the  city.  The  waters  are  under  the  control  of  the  corporation,  and  both 
the  fish  in  them  and  the  wild  birds  which  flock  to  them  at  various  periods 
of  the  year  are  strictly  preserved  from  molestation  or  capture. 

The  Town  Hall,  on  the  east  side  of  King  William-street  north, 
is  a  handsome  though  somewhat  massive  structure,  built  of  freestone. 
The  portico.  Avhich  e.x.tends  to  the  edge  of  the  footpath,  is  surmounted 
by  a  tower  138ft.  high.  The  bviilding  contains  an  elegant  council 
chamber,  reception  and  banqvieting  rooms,  extensive  offices,  and 
a  great  hall  lUSft.  long,  67ft.  broad,  and  44ft.  high.  A  magnificent 
organ  fills  the  eastern  end  of  the  hall,  which  is  capable  of  seating 
1,500  persons.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  street,  but  a  little  further 
sovith,  stands  the  General  Post  Office.  This  is  a  splendid  edifice,  in  the 
Italian  style.  From  the  centre  of  the  building,  at  the  junction  of  King 
William-street  and  Victoria-square,  two  wings  branch  off  north  and 
west  containing  the  public  and  private  offices  required  for  the  postal  and 
telegraphic  services.  The  centre  forms  the  foundation  of  the  clock  tower. 
The  tower  itself  is  154ft.  high,  and  is  furnished  with  a  clock  with  four 
dials  facing  the  cardinal  points.  These  dials  are  illuminated  at  night. 
The  incoming  and  outgoing  mails  are  signalled  from  a  flagstaff,  springing 
from  a  lookout  or  cage  at  the  summit  of  the  tower.  The  clock  chimes 
the  hours  and  quarters.  The  hours  are  struck  on  a  deep  toned  bell,  whiclr 
weighs  upwards  of  2  tons ;  the  quarters  are  rung  upon  four  smaller 
bells,  weighing  about  7cwts.  each.  A  commodious  and  tastefully 
decorated  vestibule  runs  east  and  west  of  the  building  from  the 
clock  tower,  provided  with  entrances  from  Victoria-square  and  King 
William-street.  It  is  91ft.  long,  38tt.  wide,  and  40ft.  high,  and  around  it 
are  arranged  the  letter  receivers,  the  inquiry  office,  the  stamp  department, 
the  money  order  office,  the  private  letter  boxes,  and  other  offices  for 
public   business.     The   telegraph    branch  of  the   department    is    at    the 


MUNICIPAL     INSTITUTIONS     AND     GENERAL     MATTERS.  379 

northern  end  of  the  building,  and  is  the  central  terminus  of  the  Eastern 
Intercolonial,  the  West  Australian,  the  Transcontinental,  and  the  Indian 
and  European  telegraph  lines.  The  foundation  stone  of  the  tower  was  laid 
by  H.R.H.  the  Uuke  of  Edinburgh  on  November  5th,  1867.  Since  that 
time  the  Post  Office  buildings  have  been  considerably  enlarged  owing  to 
the  large  increase  in  the  general  business,  the  extension  of  telegraphic 
communication,  and  the  adoption  of  the  telephone  system,  which  is 
extensively  used  in  the  city  and  suburbs.  About  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
from  the  Post  Office,  to  the  west  of  Victoria-square,  the  Central 
Market,  for  fish,  meat,  fruit,  and  vegetables,  is  situated.  This  is  the 
property  of  the  corporation,  and  is  under  its  control.  The  chief  market 
for  fi-uits  and  garden  produce  is  at  the  north-eastern  corner  of  South 
Adelaide,  near  the  junction  of  North  and  East  terraces.  It  was  estab- 
lished by  a  private  company,  and  its  business  is  regulated  bv  a  special 
Act  of  Parliament.  The  cattle,  sheep,  and  pig  market  is  located  at  the 
western  end  of  North-terrace,  beyond  the  railway  station  and  goods  sheds- 
The  market  is  open  on  Wednesdays.  Beyond  the  market,  but  separated 
from  it  by  an  extensive  olive  plantation,  lies  the  Adelaide  Gaol.  The 
plantation  is  cultivated  by  prison  labor.  Further  to  the  west  and  close 
to  the  city  boundary  the  public  abattoirs  are  established ;  they  belong 
to  tho  corporation  and  are  managed  under  its  supervision.  The  cemetery 
is  situated  at  the  south  end  of  West-terrace  outside  the  city,  and  is  under 
the  charge  of  a  curator  responsible  to  the  Government.  A  new  site  for  a 
cemetery  has  been  purchased  about  seven  miles  north  of  Adelaide  beyond 
the  Dry  Creek,  which  has  been  partially  laid  out,  and  will  probably 
before  long  be  brought  into  use  and  the  present  one  closed.  It  has  been 
in  use  for  over  fifty  years,  and  most  of  the  available  ground  has  been 
occupied.  Moreover,  it  is  considered  undesirable  to  have  the  cemetery  in 
such  close  proximity  to  the  city. 

The  city  of  Adelaide  is  well  supplied  with  places  for  religious  services. 
The  Church  of  England  has  one  cathedral  and  five  other  churches  ;  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  has  a  cathedral,  two  churches,  and  two  mission 
stations.  Five  places  are  conducted  by  Wesleyan  ministers,  and  three  by 
Congregational  ministers.  There  are  also  three  Presbyterian  churches  and 
four  Baptist  churches.  The  Hebrews  have  a  neatly  built  synagogue,  the 
Society  of  Friends  a  meeting  house,  the  Unitarians  one  church  and  other 
places  are  also  devoted  to  the  observances  of  the  various  sects  which  are 
represented  in  Adelaide.  The  "City  of  Chapels,"  as  Adelaide  has  been 
called  by  facetious  writers  in  the  eastern  colonies,  is  also  liberally 
provided  with  places  of  amusement.  An  excellent  racecourse,  with  a 
handsome  grand  stand  and  the  various  conveniences  for  racing  meetings, 
is  laid  out  on  the  East  Park  Lands.      Football  grounds  are  marked  out  in 


380  SOUTH    AUSTRAIJA. 

many  places  for  the  different  clubs.  The  cricketing  oval,  the  best  in 
Australia,  is  on  the  North  Park  Lands.  There  is  another  racecovxrse  at 
Glenelg,  near  the  scacoast,  where  some  of  the  principal  races  take  place. 
There  are  two  theatres,  a  cyclorama,  three  clubs,  and  a  philharmonic 
society,  which  gives  its  concerts  in  the  Town  Hall.  There  are  also  many 
other  places  where  balls  and  other  social  gatherings  take  place  from  time 
to  time.  The  mercantile  interest  has  its  Royal  Exchange,  Chamber  of 
•Commerce,  Stock  Exchange,  nine  banks,  besides  the  Savings  Bank — the 
Union  Bank  of  Australia,  the  Adelaide  Bank,  the  Bank  of  New  South 
Wales,  the  Bank  of  Australasia,  the  Bank  of  New  Zealand,  the  Com- 
mercial Bank  of  Australia,  the  National  Bank,  and  the  English,  Scottish, 
and  Australian  Chartered  Bank.  Learned  and  scientific  societies  have 
their  places  in  the  social  arrangements  of  the  capital.  The  Royal 
Society  is  the  leading  scientific  organisation  in  the  colony.  It  holds 
its  meetings  in  the  Public  Library  buildings,  and  is  under  the  patronnge 
of  Her  Majesty  the  Queen.  Its  transactions  are  published  annually, 
and  they  embrace  papers  on  all  branches  of  natural  science.  The 
naturalists'  section  of  the  Royal  Society  of  South  Australia  devotes 
its  energies  chiefly  to  botany,  geology,  and  natural  history.  The  Geo- 
graphical Society  does  excellent  work  in  encouraging  all  researches 
into  matters  connected  with  the  exploration  and  internal  geography  of 
the  continent  as  well  as  the  historj'  of  its  aboriginal  inhabitants. 
There  is  an  institute  of  engineers  and  surveyors  which  deals  with  all 
subjects  connected  with  mechanics  and  architecture.  A  medical  society 
concerns  itself  with  affairs  which  concern  the  medical  profession,  and 
there  is  a  medical  board,  presided  over  by  the  Colonial  Surgeon,  where 
duly  qualified  medical  practitioners  register  their  diplom.as.  This  last  is 
a  Government  establishment. 

The  Fourth  Estate  occupies  a  strong  position  in  Adelaide,  and  in  all  the 
country  toM'us  in  the  colony.  Two  daily  mornins^  pa])ers  are  published 
in  the  city.  The  Reyistet-,  the  first  one  established  in  South  Australia, 
dates  its  existence  from  the  foundation  of  the  colony,  the  first  number 
being  printed  in  England  just  previous  to  the  departure  of  the  first 
batch  of  colonists,  and  with  a  change  of  name  the  paper  has  been  con- 
tinued uninterruptedly  ever  since.  The  Evening  Journal,  which  is  issued 
by  the  proprietors  of  the  South  Australian  Register,  appears  every 
evening.  The  Aclvt-rtiser  was  founded  about  thirty  years  ago  by  the 
late  Hon.  John  Barrow,  M.L.C.  This  paper  has  also  its  evening  edition, 
which  appears  under  the  name  of  the  Express  and  Telegraph.  The 
dailies  are  first-class  newspapers  of  large  size,  and  are  quite  equal  in 
ability  and  usefulness  to  any  that  are  produced  in  Australia.  A  weekly 
paper  is  i^^sued  from  each  of  the  above  offices,  called  respectively  the 


MUNICIPAL     INSTITUTIONS     AND     GENERAL     MATTERS.  381 

Observer  and  the  Chronicle.     Besides  these  there  is  the  German  paper 
(Die  Sud  Anstralishe  ZeitungJ,  Quiz  (a  comic  paper),  and  three  religious  ■ 
and   four   other   newspapers   >yhich   appear   weekh'.       All   of   the  large 
country  towns  have  their  local  newspapers,  some  of  which  are  published 
twice  a  week  and  the  others  once  only.     There  are  twenty-three  country 
papers.     A  German  religious  paper  is  brought  out  fortnightly,  and  there 
are  half  a  dozen  magazines  and  jjapers  devoted  to  special  subjects  which 
are  published  monthly.       General   literature   has   not   been  neglected  in 
the  colony.     A  small  book  was  published  by  Mr.  T.  Gill,  of  the  Treasury 
Department*,  giving  a  catalogue  of  all  the  known  works  published  in 
South  Australia,  or  on  subjects  connected  with   it.     There  were   then 
abovit  150  persons  who  are  named  as  authors,  most  of  them  South  Aus- 
tralians, many  of  whose  works  are  well  known  in  England.     History  (of 
the  colony),  fiction,  poetry,  science,  political  history,  iec,  have  had  their 
representatives,  and  their  works  for  tlie  most  part  display  ability  of  a  high 
order.     Since  1885  many  additions  have  been  made  to  the  list  of  South 
Australian  books,  which  have  not  been  inferior  in  merit  or  in  usefuluess 
to  those  which  have  preceded  them. 

The  British  and  many  foreign  insurance  companies  are  strongly  repre- 
sented in  Adelaide.  A  well-organised  fire  brigade  looks  after  the  safety 
of  the  city  from  conflagration,  and  is  controlled  by  a  board  established 
by  Act  of  Parliament.  The  brigade  has  two  stations  in  Adelaide  and 
some  in  the  suburbs,  as  well  as  other  stations  in  country  towns  which  are 
connected  with  and  controlled  by  the  Board.  Others  of  the  suburbs, 
such  as  the  towns  of  Norwood  and  Kensington,  St.  Peters,  and  Hind- 
marsh,  have  their  own  fire  brigades,  managed  by  committees  appointed  by 
the  several  corporations. 

At  the  census  of  1891  the  population  of  Adelaide  numbered  37,837, 
and  the  city  contained  7,474  houses.  The  inhabitants  are  considerably 
over  40,000  now,  and  the  houses  number  between  8,000  and  9,000. 
Being  well  supplied  with  water  and  admirably  drained,  Adelaide  is  one 
of  the  healthiest  cities  in  Australia.  It  is  certainly  the  cleanest,  and  is 
said  to  possess  the  best  situation  and  to  be  the  most  beautiful.  A  writer 
in  the  Satioday  Review  describes  it  as  a  ''model  city,"  and  he  says  there 
is  in  it  "  something  wholly  impossible  to  define — a  combination  it  may  be 
of  the  sunshine,  the  dark  trees,  the  low  houses,  and  an  all-pervading  look 
of  cleanliness  and  freshness  in  which  Adelaide  stands  alonef." 

Several  watering  places  are  established  on  the  coast,  namely,  Glenelg, 
Henley  Beach,  the  Grange,  the  Semaphore,  and  Largs  Bay,  which  are 
much  resorted  to  during  the  hot  season,  and  may  all  be  reached  within 

•Bibliography  of  South  Australia  :  T.  Gill,  Glen  Osmond      1885. 
f  Jubilee  of  Municipal  In.stitulions  in  Australia:  T.  Worsnop,  Town  Clerk,  Ad.     1890. 


382  SOUTH    AUSTRAl.lA. 

half  an  hour  by  rail.  The  favorite  seaside  resorts,  however,  for  those 
who  wish  for  a  more  complete  change  than  can  be  obtained  at  those  which 
lie  in  Holdfast  Bay,  near  the  city,  arc.  at  Port  Elliot  and  Victor  Harbor, 
which  are  situated  on  the  east  end  of  Encounter  Bay,  sixty-seven  miles 
from  Adelaide.  The  delicious  climate  of  these  places  is  almost  unsur- 
passed in  the  colony.  They  are  reached  by  railway  trains,  two  of  which 
leave  Adelaide  daily.  On  the  east  side  of  Yorke  Peninsula,  in  Spencer's 
Gulf,  other  pleasant  -watering-places  are  established,  as  at  Edithburg  or 
Ardrossan,  within  five  hours,  steaming  from  Port  Adelaide.  One  of  the 
most  delightful  spots  for  a  seaside  residence  is  at  Port  Lincoln,  on  the 
east  side  of  Banks'  Peninsula,  but  this  can  be  reached  only  by  steamer 
once  a  week;  it  is  210  miles  west  of  Adelaide.  By  far  the  most  enjoy- 
able climate  in  South  Austi-alia  is  found  on  Kangaroo  Island,  ninety 
miles  south  of  Port  Adelaide.  'I'his  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  an 
established  summer  resort,  because  there  is  no  regular  steamboat  com- 
munication and  the  accommodation  for  visitors  is  very  limited.  For 
those  who  do  not  care  for  the  seaside,  most  agreeable  summer  quarters 
can  be  found  in  the  Mount  Lofty  Ranges.  Their  great  elevation  above  tiie 
se-i  level  (1,500ft.  to  2,0()0ft.)  renders  them  most  refreshing  retreats  from 
the  great  heats  that  at  times  prevail  on  the  plains.  They  display  very 
grand  scenery  and  abound  in  beautiful  gardens,  which  produce  almost  all 
kinds  of  European  fruits,  as  well  as  others  which  are  peculiar  to  many 
sub-tropical  regions. 

A  beautiful  place  of  recreation  has  been  set  apart  for  public  use  at 
what  was  known  as  the  Government  Farm,  about  ten  miles  south  of  the 
city.  It  contains  4,000  acres.  It  is  managed  by  a  board,  and  is 
supported  by  means  of  a  Government  grant.  It  is  a  delightful  spot,  and 
is  much  frequented  by  pleasure  seekers  in  holiday  times. 

A  country  residence  has  been  built  for  the  use  of  the  Governor  of  the 
colony.  It  is  situated  at  Marble  Hill,  about  twelve  miles  east  of  the 
city.  Situated  as  it  is  on  one  of  the  highest  of  the  hills  in  the  Mount 
Lofty  ranges,  it  commands  a  magnificent  view  of  the  city  and  the  plains. 
The  house  stands  in  grounds  400  acres  in  extent.  It  is  a  magnificent 
stone  building,  and  it  has  a  tower  75ft.  high.  The  cost  of  the  structure 
was  nearly  £22,000. 

The  defence  of  South  Australia,  as  indeed  that  of  the  whole  of  the 
Australian  colonies,  must  depend  mainly  upon  the  naval  forces  of  Great 
Britain.  For  many  years  Australia  has  constituted  a  naval  station,  but 
the  squadron  until  lately  was  limited  to  a  very  few  ships  of  small  size,  and 
decidedly  inferior  in  armament  and  in  speed  to  the  requirements  of  the 
colonies.  They  w'ere  under  the  command  of  a  commodore.  The  force 
has  latterly  been  increased,  and  the  squadron  is  now  commanded  by  a 
rear-admiral.  In  addition  to  the  vessels  required  for  services  exclusively 
Imperial,  a  number  of   cruisers,  gunboats,  and  torpedo  boats  have  been 


MUNICIPAL     INSTITUTIONS     AND     GENERAL     MATTERS.  383 

added  to  the  squadron,  under  an  agreement  between  the  Home  Govern- 
ment and  the  different  colonial  Governments,  for  M'hieh  the  latter  pay 
a  yearly  sum  of  £9U,00(J,  contributed  by  each  separate  colony  on  the 
basis  of  its  population.  Besides,  South  Australia  has  its  own  small  naval 
defence  force,  which  consists  of  a  gunboat,  the  Protector^  of  1.000  tons, 
carrying  an  armament  of  one  lOin.  lli^-ton  B.L.R.  gun,  seven  Gin.  4-ton 
guns,  four  Sin.  Hotchkiss  quick-firing  guns,  five  Gatling  machine  guns, 
and  ten  14in.  Whitehead  torpedoes.  The  shijj  draws  14ft.  of  water,  and 
is  manned  by  a  crew  of  six  officers  and  sixty  men.  There  is  also  a  naval 
reserve  of  four  officers,  two  warrant  officers,  five  petty  officers,  and 
seventy  A.B.'s.  The  force  includes  two  torpedo  boats  and  a  torpedo 
station.  The  land  forces  consist  of  a  commandant  and  stafi:  (ten),  the 
Permanent  Military  Force  of  fifty-nine  officers  and  men,  who  are 
employed  in  manning  the  two  forts  erected  at  Glanville  and  Largs  Bay 
for  the  defence  of  Port  Adelaide.  The  Active  Militia  Force  includes  one 
corps  of  lancers,  three  batteries  of  artillery,  and  three  regiments  of 
militia  infantry,  a  reserve  of  cavalry,  artillery,  and  infantry,  which,  with 
the  officers  on  the  effective  retired  list,  give  a  total  strength  of  1,650 
officers  and  men.  In  addition  to  these  there  is  a  reserve  force  of  416 
mounted  infantry  and  400  infantry,  making  a  total  available  force, 
including  the  naval  branch,  of  2,609.  Most  of  the  reserves  are  in  the 
country  districts  some  distance  away  from  Adelaide,  but  all  are  within 
reach  of  the  city  by  railway.  In  the  event  of  threatened  invasion  or 
rebellion  the  Militia  Force  and  the  Militia  Reserve  (Volunteer)  Force 
are  liable  to  be  called  out  for  permanent  service.  If  called  out  by 
proclamation  for  actual  service  the  Militia  may  be  ordered  to  serve  in  the 
other  colonies  in  case  of  danger,  for  "  the  defence  of  a  neighboring 
colony  might  in  some  cases  be  the  most  rational  means  of  defending 
South  Australia." 

The  irrigation  colony  of  Renmark,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Murray, 
140  miles  N.E.  of  Adelaide,  was  established  in  1887  by  Messrs.  G.  and 
W,  B.  Chaffey  under  a  special  Act  of  Parliament,  founded  on  an  agree- 
ment with  the  Government  of  that  day.  The  Messrs.  ChafFey  had  had  a 
long  experience  in  irrigation  works  in  California,  and  in  visiting  Australia 
in  1881  were  struck  with  the  adaptability  of  certain  tracts  of  country 
bordering  on  the  River  Murray  to  irrigation  purposes  In  a  dry  climate 
like  that  of  South  Australia,  where  the  prosperity  of  the  countrv  from 
year  to  year  is  almost  entirely  dependent  on  the  rainfall,  the  value  and 
importance  of  a  constant  and  abundant  supply  of  water  as  an  aid  to 
cultivation  cannot  be  over-estimnted.  Irrigation  (except  in  a  very  few 
places,  and  in  them  only  upon  the  smallest  scale)  had  not  been  under- 
taken in  the  colony.  The  feasibility  of  constructing  irrigation  works  of 
large  extent  had  been  discussed  occasionally  by  persons  interested  in 
agriculture ;  but  no  tangible  schemes  were  projected  and  the  subject  did 


384  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

not  engag;e  the  atteution  of  the  Legislature.  Having  examined  the 
country  and  satisfied  themselves  as  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  climate, 
and  on  other  matters,  the  Messrs.  Chaffey  entered  into  negotiations  with 
the  Government  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  a  tract  of  land  upon  the 
Murray  for  the  purpose  of  founding  an  irrigation  colony  there,  similar  to 
one  which  they  had  successfully  established  in  California.  The  negotia- 
tions ended  in  an  agreement  with  the  Commissioner  of  Cro^vll  Lands, 
subsequently  ratified  by  Act  of  Parliament,  by  which  it  was  provided 
that  the  Messrs.  Chaffey  were  to  receive  a  grant  of  250,000  acres  of  land 
on  a  site  agreed  on,  upon  condition  that  they  expended  within  twenty 
years  the  sum  of  £300,000  on  the  construction  of  irrigation  works  and 
other  substantial  and  permanent  improvements  on  the  lands,  to  be 
expended  in  the  following  way : — During  the  first  five  years  £35,000 
were  to  be  spent  ;  during  the  second  five  years,  £140,000  ;  during  the 
third,  £75,000 ;  and  £50,000  during  the  last  term.  The  agreement 
further  provided  "that  in  every  sale,  disposition,  or  transfer  of  the  land 
by  Messrs.  ChafPey,  or  anyone  claiming  through  them,  a  sufficient  water 
right  shall  be  secured  to  the  purchase  to  be  held  with  and  run  with  the 
land  as  a  perpetual  easement,"  and  that  "  they  will  use  all  reasonable 
exertions  to  establish  on  the  land  to  be  granted  under  the  agreement, 
within  the  period  of  five  years,  the  business  or  industries  of  fruit  drying, 
preserving,  and  canning,  and  that  during  the  remainder  of  the  term 
carry  on  such  businesses  or  industries."  There  is  a  further  condition 
that  the  Messrs.  Chaffey  will  set  apart  one-twentieth  part  of  all  the 
in-igated  land  which  shall  be  granted  to  them  by  the  Crown,  with  a 
sufficient  water  right  attached  thereto  for  the  purpose  of  endowing  an 
agricultural  school  or  college.  The  land  so  set  apart  shall  consist  of 
either  80  acres  or  160  acres,  or  less  out  of  every  twenty  parcels  of  80 
acres  or  160  acres,  or  less  as  the  case  may  be,  the  Messrs.  Chaffey  to 
convey  such  land  free  from  incumbrances  to  the  Commissioner  of  Crown 
Lands,  or  to  such  person  or  corporation  as  the  Government  may  direct. 
The  clause  concludes  by  enacting  that  the  Messrs.  Chaffey  are  to  establish 
the  college  in  a  suitable  building  to  be  erected  by  them  for  instructing 
persons  as  to  the  best  modes  of  constructing  irrigation  works,  cultivating 
fruit  trees,  preserving  and  drying  fruits,  and  also  for  instruction  in 
agriculture.  As  each  successive  instalment  of  land  is  handed  over  by  the 
Government  to  Messrs.  Chaffey  and  a  complete  system  of  irrigation 
established  thereon  the  irrigation  works  are  in  turn  transferred  to  the 
Renmark  Irrigation  Company,  who  hold  the  property  in  trust  for 
settlers,  each  of  whom  receives  paid-up  shares  in  the  company  propor- 
tioned to  the  acreage  of  his  holding,  and  this  constitutes  his  water  right. 
The  price  at  which  the  land  is  sold,  including  this  right,  is  £20  per  acre. 


MUNICIPAL    INSTITUTIONS    AND    GENERAL    MATTERS,  385 

Five  or  ten  years  respectively  are  allowed  for  payment  if  the  purchaser 
wishes,  5  per  cent,  being  added  in  such  cases,  on  the  building  society 
principle.  By  this  arrangement  the  settlers  themselves  become  owners 
of  the  pumps  and  channels,  and  the  Irrigation  Company  levies  a  rate  on 
all  the  land,  amounting  to  about  6s.  per  acre  per  annum,  whether  culti- 
vated or  not.  to  defray  the  expenses  of  working  the  plant.  On  the 
interpretation  and  application  of  this  part  of  the  agreement  differences 
have  arisen  between  the  Messrs.  ChafFey,  or  the  company  which  they 
represent,  and  land  buyers  ;  these,  however,  are  in  progress  of  settlement 
by  legislation.  The  horticultural  land  is  di\'ided  into  ten-acre  blocks ; 
eighty  acres  is  the  maximum  allowed  under  the  Act  to  be  conveyed  to 
any  one  purchaser,  except  by  the  permission  of  the  Government. 

The  following  extract  from  the  report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Public 
Works  (1891)  will  give  some  idea  of  the  progress  of  the  settlement: — 
"•  This  colony  is  making  steady  progress.  The  area  of  land  sold  this  year 
was  2,200  acres,  and  the  company  had  an  additional  area  of  6,200  acres 
surveyed  and  partially  pegged  out.  This  has  been  divided  by  Messrs. 
Chaffey  into  township,  villa,  and  horticultural  blocks,  the  whole  being 
bounded  by  a  continuous  vermin-proof  fence  thirty  miles  in  length.  The 
greater  part  of  this  has  been  sold,  and  the  work  of  clearing  and  general 
development  carried  on  with  vigor.  The  district  comprehended  within 
the  township  boundaries  has  been  divided  into  forty  sections,  comprising 
a  total  area  of  about  200  acres,  averaging  about  thirty-two  lots  to  each 
section  ;  the  general  measurement  of  these  lots  is  33ft.  frontage  by  155ft. 
depth,  and  already  more  than  half  has  been  sold.  The  town  is  inter- 
sected by  three  main  arteries— magnificent  thoroughfares  three  chains 
wide — the  sub-dividing  streets  being  one  and  a  half  chains.  With  the 
exception  of  a  valuable  site  abutting  on  the  river  and  reserved  for 
Government  offices,  the  entire  township  is  being  dealt  with,  and  is  being 
rapidly  built  upon  at  the  present  time.  The  following  buiklings  have 
been  constructed  : — Three  places  of  public  worship,  seventeen  stores  and 
offices,  post  office,  bank,  &cc."  "  The  estimated  population  of  the  settle- 
ment as  a  whole  is  approximately  600."  The  surveyed  land  is  also  divided 
into  villa  areas  and  a  horticultural  area.  These  are  being  dealt  with 
under  the  terms  of  the  Act.  "  The  irriixation  channels  have  already  been 
constructed  to  a  length  of  seventeen  and  a  half  miles,  nearly  four  miles 
of  which  are  concreted.  Of  this  distance  nine  and  a  half  miles  consist 
of  main  and  the  remainder  of  subsidiary  channels,  and  several  additional 
miles  are  in  course  of  construction  or  laid  out.  The  pumping  stations 
for  irrigation  purposes  are  three  in  number — one  at  the  west  end  of  the 
township,  on  the  bank  of  the  river,  and  the  other  two  upon  different 
points  oi"  the  Renmark  reservoir.  The  combined  capacity  of  the  various 
b2 


386  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

pumps  at  present  employed  is  22,000galls.  per  minute.  For  the  purpose 
of  supplying  the  township  with  water  a  station  upon  the  wharf  is  fitted 
with  power  to  raise  85,000galls.  per  hour.  The  nearest  point  of  contact 
with  the  railway  system  is  at  Morgan,  seventy-five  miles  away,  which 
can  be  reached  either  by  steamer  or  mail  coach  once  or  twice  a  week 
respectively.  There  are  two  mails  in  and  out  weekly,  and  the  local  post 
office  is  in  direct  communication  with  Adelaide."  The  report  further 
says  that  "  the  conditions  of  the  agreement  have  been  satisfactorily 
carried  out  by  the  Messrs.  Chaffey,  and  the  colony  appears  to  be  in  a 
satisfactory  condition." 

In  the  Report  on  Public  Works  (1892)  it  is  stated  that— "The  area  of 
land  granted  to  the  Messrs..  Chaffey  now  amounts  to  10,819  acres,  of 
which  on  June  30th  2,000  acres  had  been  sold  and  1,305  acres  were 
under  cultivation,  as  follows:  —  770  acres  cereals  and  lucerne,  327  acres 
vines,  and  208  acres  fruit  and  olives.  Very  little  has  been  done  yet  in 
the  way  of  sales  of  produce,  and  we  must  wait  further  results  before 
pronouncing  whether  the  colony  is  going  to  prove  a  success  financially. 
The  orchards  and  vineyards  first  planted  are  just  coming  into  bearing, 
and  a  year  or  two  will  probably  give  some  definite  results.  The  settle- 
ment has  every  appearance  of  permanence,  and  comfortable  buildings  are 
being  erected,  so  that  it  is  evident  that  the  settlers  themselves  have  faith  in 
the  future.  In  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  Act  a  site  has  been 
selected  for  an  Agricultural  College,  the  erection  of  which  will  no  doubt 
be  commenced  at  an  early  date." 

Messrs.  Chaffey  state  that  they  have  spent  over  £100,000  in  Renmark. 
The  area  at  present  handed  over  to  them  is  1 5,000  acres.  They  have 
now  five  pumping  stations  for  irrigation  purposes  in  the  settlement.  All 
kinds  of  temperate  and  sub-tropical  fruits  and  vegetables  can  be  success- 
fully grown  in  the  settlement.  Apricots,  raisins,  and  currants  of  the 
finest  quality  have  been  raised  and  exported,  while  peaches,  apples,  pears, 
figs,  oranges  and  lemons,  nectarines,  plums,  strawberries,  and  many  other 
fruits  have  been  grow-n  in  great  jDcrfection,  but  as  yet  only  in  small 
quantities.  About  20  tons  of  dried  fruits  were  exported  in  the 
season  of  1892-3.  From  the  daily  journals  it  appears  that  some  of  the 
preserved  fruits  have  fetched  larger  prices  in  London  than  those  realised 
by  the  best  Californian  brands.  The  f ui-ther  progress  of  this  settlement 
is  regarded  with  the  greatest  interest.  Young  enterprises  do  not  develop 
rapidly  in  thinly-populated  countries,  but  the  lesson  that  can  be  leai-ned 
from  the  results  of  irrigation  at  Renmark,  whilst  certain  to  advance  the 
progress  of  that  undertaking,  cannot  fail  largely  to  influence  agriculture 
in  places  where  water  can  be  made  available  for  its  processes. 


ABORIGIXES.  387 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

The  Aborigines  of  South  Australia — Supposed  Origin — Similarity  of  Skull 
TO  that  of  Pre-histokic  Man  —  Stone  Weapons — Numbers  of  the 
Aborigines — Preponderance  of  Males  over  Females — Proportion  of 
Adults  to  Children — Polygamy— Immorality — Infanticide — Conditfon 
of  the  Women  a  Cause  —  Fondness  for  Children  ■ —  Cannibalism — 
Mutilations — Mortality  Amongst  the  Natives — Decay  of  the  Abori- 
gines— Causes  Which  Lead  to  Their  Dying  Out — -Hostility  of  the 
Natives — Attacks  Upon  White  Travellers— Retaliatory  Measures — 
Character  of  the  Wild  Blacks — Tribes  Existing  at  the  Foundation 
OP  the  Colony — Their  Disappearance  —  Their  Dialects— Origin  of 
the  Languages — Physical  Characteristics  of  the  Aborigines — Their 
Intelligence — Dependence  on  the  White  Men — Marriage  Customs — 
Making  Men — Funeral  Rites  —  Native  Dwellings — Making  Fire — 
Native  Weapons — Food  of  the  Aborigines — Their  Cookery — Religion 
OF  THE  Natives  — Amusements — Mlsic — Sorcery — Rainmakers — Doctors 
—  Arts  of  the  Natives — Smoke  Signals  —  Training  Institutions  — 
Conclusion. 

The  region  from  which  the  Australian  aborigines  originally  came  is 
not  known.  It  is  supposed  that  they  are  of  Malaysian  origin,  and  that 
they  found  their  way  to  the  continent  of  Australia  from  some  of  the 
islands  which  are  not  far  distant  from  its  northern  shores.  It  is  knowni 
that  a  long:  time  ago  at  certain  times  craft  of  some  kind  visited  North 
Australian  waters  from  those  islands  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  trepang 
or  beche  de  mer  f  HolothuriumJ ,  and  that  their  crews  have  continually 
landed  at  different  spots,  but  when  these  visits  began,  or  what  part,  if 
any,  they  have  played  in  peopling  Australia,  can  only  be  matter  of  con- 
jecture. It  is  believed  by  a  few,  whose  intimate  acquaintance  with 
particular  tribes  is  entitled  to  some  weight,  that  they  consist  of  two 
distinct  races,  but  of  this  there  is  no  substantial  proof.  The  habits  and 
customs  of  the  native  people  all  over  the  continent  exhibit  a  great  uni- 
formity. Such  divergences  as  have  been  noticed  amongst  them  are 
not  so  distinctive  as  to  establish  the  fact  that  there  were  originally  more 
races  than  one.  Science,  however,  throws  a  little  light  on  one  part  of 
the  question.  At  a  meeting  of  the  congress  for  the  advancement  of  social 
science,  held  not  long  since  in  Adelaide,  in  a  paper  upon  "  Pre-historic 
Man"  by  Dr.  E.  C.  Stirling,  lecturer  on  physiology  in  the  University  of 
Adelaide,  it  was  stated  that  "  the  prevailing  type  of  Australian  skull  has 
a  remarkable  resemblance  to  the  Neanderthal  skull.  Professor  MacAlistcr, 
of  Cambridge,  one  of  the  leading  anatomists  and  anthropologists  of  the 
day,  to  whom  a  cast  of  King  Billy  Riifus'  skull  was  presented,  said  it  was 
the  most  Neanderthaloid  skull  he  had  seen.  We  have  others  in  the  Museum 


388  SOUTH   AUSTRALIA. 

very  similar  to  it,  and  it  may  be  takeu  as  typically  Australian 

Another  curious  point  of  resemblance  between  paleolithic  man  and  the 
modern  Australian  aboriginal  is  the  fibula  or  outer  bone  of  the  leg 
below  the  knee.     In  each  case  it  was  remarkably  flattened  or  fluted." 

There  is  another  point  of  resemblance  in  the  weapons  used  by  the  abori- 
gines. They  are  of  wood  and  stone.  None  of  the  tribes  have  shown  any 
knowledge  of  iron  or  other  metals,  or  of  their  uses,  and  whatever  they  may 
have  learned  respecting  them  has  been  gained  from  their  intercourse 
with  white  men.  In  time  to  come  more  evidence  may  be  brought  to 
light  which  may  tend  to  connect  the  Australian  savage  with  the  paleo- 
lithic stage  of  human  progress.  Caves  are  abundant  in  various  parts  of 
the  continent,  where  large  aceumulations  of  the  bones  of  animals  (some 
of  them  extinct)  have  been  discovered.  It  is  not  recorded  that  any 
special  search  has  been  made  for  flint  or  stone  weapons  in  such  places. 
If  they  can  be  found  anywhere  in  Australia  they  are  likely  to  be  dis- 
covered in  caves  and  in  other  spots  where  there  are  large  osseous 
deposits.  Hatchets  or  stone-cutting  implements  used  by  paleolithic  man 
have  a  distinctive  character,  and  are  not  difficult  to  identify  by  persons 
who  may  have  seen  specimens  of  such  articles,  or  have  attentively 
studied  the  numerous  drawings  of  them  which  are  published  in  most  of 
the  recent  geological  books.  Amongst  the  refuse  heaps  (kitchen 
middens)  in  Denmark  which  have  been  studied  by  antiquaries  and 
n  aturalists  no  implements  of  metal  have  been  detected.  All  the  knives 
hatchets,  and  other  tools  are  of  stone,  horn,  bone,  or  wood.  With  them 
were  often  intermixed  fragments  of  rude  pottery,  charcoal,  and  cinders, 
and  the  bones  of  the  quadrupeds  on  which  the  rude  people  fed. 
As  there  is  an  entire  absence  of  metallic  tools,  these  refuse  heaps  are 
referred  to  what  is  called  the  age  of  stone,  which  immediately  preceded 

(in   Denmark)  the  age  of  bronze As  the   ages  of   stone, 

bronze,  and  iron  merely  indicate  successive  stages  of  civilisation,  they 
may  all  have  co-existed  at  once  in  different  parts  of  the  globe,  and  even 
i  n  contiguous  regions  amongst  nations  having  little  intercourse  with  each 
other.  In  Australia  no  buried  weapons  have  as  yet  been  brought  to 
light.  Those  which  are  known  are  confined  to  the  few  which  were  in 
use  amongst  the  natives  when  the  Europeans  first  came  to  Australia. 
No  metallic  implements  of  their  own  contrivance  have  ever  been  seen 
amongst  them,  so  that  to  all  appearances,  and  so  far  as  present  knowledge 
respecting  the  aborigines  extends,  it  would  seem  that  they  have  not 
advanced  t)eyond  the  condition  of  the  savages  of  the  stone  age  who 
existed  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 

The  aborigines  of  South  Australia,  to  whom  the  following  observations 
generally  refer,  are  composed  of  numerous  tribes,  the  number  of  which  is 


ABORIGINES.  389 

not  ascertained,  and  are  scattered  over  a  territory  which  covers  an  area 
of  900,000  square  miles.  How  many  there  were  when  the  white  race 
established  themselves  upon  it  is  not  even  a  matter  of  speculation.  It  is 
only  within  comparatively  recent  years  that  efforts  have  been  made  to 
ascertain  their  numbers.  In  1842  Dr.  Moorhouse,  Protector  of  Abori- 
gines, estimated  them  at  about  3,000,  but  this  was  merely  a  general 
estimate,  and  referred  only  to  a  tract  of  country  not  more  than  80,000 
square  miles  in  area.  Probably  the  total  was  over-stated,  because  in 
]87fi,  when  the  census  was  taken,  the  number  of  the  natives  in  South 
Australia,  exclusive  of  the  Northern  Territory,  was  ascertained  to  be  only 
3,953.  The  area  of  this  part  of  the  colony  was  300,000  square  miles. 
"When  the  census  of  1891  was  taken  it  was  ascertained  that  there  were 
23,789  aboriginal  natives  in  the  whole  province.  The  males  were 
14,510,  and  the  females  9,279.  Those  who  inhabited  the  Northern 
Territory,  i.e.,  from  the  26th  degree  of  S.  lat.  to  the  Indian  Ocean, 
formed  the  larger  part  of  the  native  population.  They  amounted  to 
20,655,  of  whom  12,849  were  males  and  7,806  females.  The  natives 
of  South  Australia  proper,  that  is,  within  the  territory  which  extends 
from  the  26th  parallel  of  S.  lat.  to  the  Southern  Ocean,  numbered 
only  3,134,  comprising  1,6^1  males  and  1,473  females.  There  is 
nothing  to  enable  it  to  be  determined  whether  the  aborigines  in  the 
Northern  Territory  have  increased  or  decreased  since  that  part  of 
the  country  was  taken  up  by  the  whites.  In  all  probability  they 
have  greatly  diminished  in  numbers,  because  the  excess  of  males 
over  females  is  so  great  as  to  render  an  increase  scarcely  possible. 
The  proportion  between  the  sexes  in  the  whole  province  stands 
thus  : — Males,  61  per  cent.  ;  females,  39  per  cent.  In  the  Northern 
Territory,  taken  alone,  there  are  62'21  jier  cent  of  males  to  37*79 
per  cent,  of  females;  and  in  South  Australia  proper  the  relative 
proportions  are — males,  53  per  cent. ;  and  females,  47  per  cent.  The 
number  of  the  children  beionsrins  to  the  tribes  of  the  Northern  Terri- 
tory  could  not  be  ascertained  with  sufficient  exactness  to  be  of  much 
iise,  so  that  the  reserve  strength  of  these  people — if  it  may  be  so  termed 
— is  not  a  measurable  quantity.  In  the  southern  portion  of  the  colony 
there  has  been  no  difficulty,  and  it  is  recorded  that  there  are  no  more 
than  506  children.  The  number  of  adults  of  both  sexes  is  given  as 
2,628,  so  that  the  fact  is  established  that  the}'  outnumber  the  cliildren  in 
the  proportion  of  five  to  one.  Since  the  males  in  the  Northern  Territory 
preponderate  over  the  females  in  a  much  greater  ratio  than  they  do  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  province,  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  dispro- 
portion between  the  adults  and  the  children  in  the  north  is  even  more 
marked  than  it  is  in  the  south. 


390  SOLTH    AUSTRALIA. 

Whatever  effect  the  disproportion  between  the  sexes  may  have  in 
checking-  increase  amongst  the  natives,  the  arbitrary  and  unequal  distribu- 
tion of  the  marriageable  women  emphasises  it  more  strongly.  Polygamy 
is  a  custom  common  to  all  of  the  tribes,  and  whilst  the  old  men  may 
possess  two,  three,  or  more  wives,  most  of  the  other  men,  but  especially 
the  young  ones,  have  none  at  all.  Under  such  circumstances  it  cannot 
be  surprising  that  immorality  and  licentiousness  are  everywhere  prevalent, 
and  are  not  regarded  as  circumstances  of  any  great  moment."  Such  con- 
ditions of  life  cannot  fail  to  operate  adversely  against  the  multiplication 
of  the  progeny  of  the  blacks.  The  practice  of  infanticide — especially 
the  destruction  of  female  infants — is  universal  throughout  Australia. 
None  of  the  tribes  which  have  been  met  with  in  any  portion  of  the 
continent  are  untainted  with  it.  Mr.  Eyre,  who  Avas  Protector  of 
Aborigines  at  Moorundi  (whose  account  of  the  tribes  amongst  whom  he 
was  stationed  is  the  most  complete  that  has  been  A^Titten  about  them), 
states  that  each  of  the  aboriginal  women  has  on  the  average  five  children, 
nine  being  the  greatest  number  known,  but  that  each  mother  rears  on  the 
average  not  more  than  two  of  her  offspring.  Some  of  them,  it  is  clear, 
must  occasionally  be  taken  off  by  natural  causes,  and  the  remainder  that 
are  not  put  out  of  the  way  is  all  that  can  be  depended  on  for  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  race.  One  reason  why  infanticide  is  so  prevalent  is 
that  the  women  are  the  absolute  slaves  of  their  husbands.  They 
are  literally  beasts  of  burthen,  and  have  to  do  all  the  hard  work  that 
can  be  imposed  upon  them.  Dereliction  of  duty  or  disobedience  is 
visited  by  the  most  brutal  personal  chastisement  inflicted  with  heavy 
sticks.  Sometimes  the  wives  are  speared  by  their  owners  or  husbands, 
and  at  times  fatally.  Childi-en,  especially  the  females,  are  intolerable 
burthens  to  the  women,  and  to  some  extent  drags  upon  their 
fathers.  The  fewer  of  them  therefore  the  better.  There  is  less  toil  and 
drudgery  for  the  women  and  less  trouble  for  the  men  as  fathers  of 
families ;  thus  the  smallest  number  of  unprofitable  mouths  to  tax  the 
resources  of  the  tribes  is  secured.  It  must  not  be  concluded  from  this 
that  the  natives  are  devoid  of  affection  for  their  children.  Dr.  Moor- 
house,  Protector  of  Aborigines  in  Adelaide,  remarks  on  this  subject*  as 
follows : — "  In  their  dispositions  they  display  strong  affection  for  each 
other,  great  fondness  for  children,  and  attachment  to  persons  who  are 
kind  to  them.  On  the  other  hand,  they  indulge  in  every  evil  passion  to 
excess,  and,  estimating  human  life  as  of  low  value,  do  not  hesitate  to 
sacrifice  it  for  a  trivial  insult.  As  their  women  are  obtained  from  other 
tribes,  by  theft  or  otherwise,  female  infants  at  birth  are  not  infrequently 
put  to  death  for  the  sake  of  more  valuable  boys,  who  are  still  being 
*The  Native  Tribes  of  South  Australia.     E.  S.  Wigg  &  Son,  Adelaide,  1879. 


ABORIGINES.  391 

suckled,  though  three  or  four  years  old,  or  even  more.  A  female  infant 
just  born  was  thus  about  to  be  destroyed,  for  the  benefit  of  a  boy  about 
four  years  old,  whom  the  mother  was  nourishing,  while  the  father  was 
standing  by  ready  to  commit  the  deed.  Through  the  kindness  of  a  lady 
to  whom  the  circumstances  became  known,  and  our  joint  interference, 
this  one  life  was  saved,  and  the  child  was  properly  attended  to  by  its 
mother,  although  she  at  first  urged  the  necessity  of  its  death  as 
strenuously  as  the  father."  In  other  parts  of  the  country  the  women  do 
the  horrible  work  themselves.  They  are  not  content  with  destroying  the 
life  of  the  infants,  but  they  eat  them.  One  instance  is  recorded  by 
W,  H.  Willshire*  in  which  a  native  woman  killed  her  child,  cooked, 
and  ate  it.  This  took  place  not  400yds.  from  the  spot  where  the 
magistrates  and  police  were  attending  an  inquiry  into  charges  brought  by 
the  missionaries  against  the  police  on  the  Finke  river.  The  police  did 
not  know  of  this  at  the  time  it  was  done.  More  instances  of  a  like 
nature  coidd  be  mentioned,  but  one  is  sufiicient.  Other  practices  are 
followed  by  some  of  the  tribes  which  must  interfere  largely  with  the 
continuance  of  the  race.  Rites  are  performed  on  the  youth  of  either  sex, 
but  particularly  in  Central  Australia,  which  destroy  the  possibility  of 
procreation  by  those  who  are  subjected  to  them.  In  the  case  of  males 
the  result  is  inevitable ;  in  the  case  of  females  it  is  not  so  certain,  though 
the  rite  infiicts  permanent  physical  injury  upon  them.  Wars,  epidemic 
and  other  diseases,  dearth  of  food,  accidents,  and  cannibalism  must  be 
reckoned  amongst  the  causes  which  make  continual  inroads  upon  the 
numerical  strength  of  the  native  population,  and  will  ultimately  lead  to 
its  extinction. 

The  official  returns  which  relate  to  population  and  vital  statistics  do 
not  include  information  as  to  the  number  of  deaths  which  occur  amongst 
the  natives,  or  the  causes  that  bring  them  about ;  but  comparison  of  the 
numbers  ascertained  to  be  in  existence  at  various  census  periods  affords 
some  measure  of  the  progress  of  their  decay.  Nothing  certain  was 
recorded  respecting  their  number  before  1876,  and  it  was  then  ascer- 
tained that  3,953  aboriginal  natives  were  alive  within  the  limits  of 
the  settled  districts.  In  1881  there  were  3,646,  and  in  1891  3,134. 
Between  1876  and  1891  819  deaths  have  taken  place  amongst  them, 
giving  a  decrease  of  20*71  per  cent.  The  enumeration  of  1881  shows 
that  there  were  307  fewer  aborigines  alive  than  there  were  in  1876,  the 
decrease  for  the  five  years  amounting  to  7  79  per  cent.  Between  1881 
and  1891  516  natives  had  died,  showing  a  decrease  of  14-04  per  cent, 
in  the  ten  years.  As  far,  then,  as  statistics  go  it  seems  that  the  blacks 
are  fading  away  in  the  settled  country  at  the  rate  of  about  1^  per  cent. 
*  The  Aborigines  of  Central  Australia.     Adelaide,  1891,  p.  39. 


392  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

per  annum,  so  that  in  another  half  century  the  probability  is  that  there 
will    not   be    a   solitary   blackfellow    left.      Wars,    want    of   food,    and 
cannibalism  must  be  eliminated  from  the  causes  which  operate  against 
the  survival  of  the  aborigines  in  the  settled  districts.     Wars  and  the 
incentives  to  war  died  away  as  the  tribes  died  out.     Care  is  taken  by  the 
Government  that  those  who  are  in  need  shall  not  be  left  uncared  for ; 
and  cannibalism,  which  never  prevailed  in  the  south  to  the  extent  that 
it  does  in  the  north  of  Australia,  has  completely  disappeared.     On  the 
subject  of  infanticide  nothing  can  be  said,  except  that  the  proportion  of 
children  to  mothers  and  fathers  remains  about  the  same  now  as  it  was 
fifty  years  ago,  when  Eyre  was  Protector  of  Aborigines.     Amongst  the 
natives  who  are  within  the  influence  of  mission  institutions  it  may  be 
believed  that  for  many  years  it  has  ceased  to  be  practised.      But,  as  Mr. 
Taplin,  who  had  charge  of  the  mission  station  at  Point  McLeay,  wrote : 
* "  This  terrible  crime  of  infanticide  is  covered  up  and  concealed  from 
the  whites  with  extreme  care.     The  bush  life  which  they  lead  affords 
every  facility  for  so  doing.     I  was  myself  for  some  time  in  ignorance 
that  it  existed  to  such  an  extent  as  it  does."     It  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  probably  not  one-fourth  of  the  natives  who  wander  about  the  country 
are  under  the    control  or  influence  of  the  institutions  which  have  been 
established  for  their   benefit,  and   not   a  great  deal   is  known  of  their 
actions  when  they  are  by  themselves  in  the  bush      Old  men  of  the  tribes 
are  tenacious  of  their  early  customs,  and  cannot  be  induced  to  relinquish 
them.      Moral  influences  are  possible  amongst  the  younger  ones  only. 
The  mutilations  which  are  inflicted,  upon  males  especially,  are  not  known 
in    the  extreme  north,  nor  in  the  south.      They  are  mostly  practised  in 
Central  Australia.     Unfortunately  so  little  has  been  brought  to  light  with 
regard  to  the  aborigines  of  that  large  tiact  of  country  that  it  is  at  present 
impossible  to  define  the  limits  within  which  the  usage  is  confined. 

The  irruption  of  the  whites  into  the  territories  of  the  blacks  has  con- 
tributed to  some  extent  towards  the  disappearance  of  the  native  races. 
The  territories  were  theirs,  and  they  were  sufiicient  to  sustain  the  wild 
animals  on  which,  for  the  most  part,  they  fed.  The  occupation  of  the 
land  drove  the  game  away,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  as  it  went  on, 
exterminated  the  roots  which  formed  some  portion  of  their  food.  They 
thus  became  by  degrees  entirely  dependent  on  the  settlers,  and  by  so 
so  doing  fell  into  some  of  the  habits  of  white  people,  harmless,  perhaps, 
to  them,  but  highly  detrimental  to  the  natives  who  were  not  accustomed 
to  them.  Clothing,  unsuitable  food,  the  use  of  strong  drinks  (for  which 
they  very  rapidly  formed  a  liking),  the  loss  of  their  wonted  free  life,  and 
the  contraction  of  diseases  not  previously  existing  amongst  them,  did 
*  Native  Tribes  of  South  Australia.     Adelaide:   1879,  p.  14. 


ABORIGINES.  393 

their  work.  Eyre  is  emphatic  as  to  one  cause.  Archdeacon  Hale, 
afterwards  Bishop  of  Perth,  in  Western  Australia,  who  founded  the 
Poonindie  institution,  wrote  as  follows  (the  date  is  not  given,  but  it  is 
apparently  in  1850) :  —  "In  an  unhealthy  season  in  which  there  would  be 
amongst  Europeans  an  unusual  prevalence  of  sickness  (as  in  influenza, 
&c.),  but  perhaps  no  unusual  number  of  deaths,  the  sickness  amongst  the 
natives  would  assume  a  much  more  serious  and  deadly  character,  and 
the  number  of  deaths  amongst  them  would  be  very  greatly  increased. 
.  .  .  With  reference  to  the  rapidity  with  which  certain  tribes  die 
out  and  disappear  ...  I  may,  as  an  instance,  refer  to  the  tribe 
which  formerly  occupied  the  country  whereon  the  city  of  Adelaide  and 
the  surrounding  townships  now  stand.  In  1836,  as  I  have  been 
repeatedly  informed  by  old  colonists,  there  dwelt  in  that  coiintry  a 
numerous  tribe.  Fourteen  yeai-s  from  that  time,  viz.,  in  1850,  when  my 
acquaintance  with  the  natives  commenced,  the  tribe  was  on  the  very 
verge  of  extinction.  The  members  of  it  had,  in  that  short  time,  become 
so  few  that,  although  I  have  received  from  Adelaide  for  this  institution 
sixt3'-seven  individuals,  six  only  belonged  to  the  tribe  I  speak  of.  .  .  . 
I  knew  also,  from  my  own  observation  during  my  residence  here,  that 
the  process  of  extinction  amongst  the  natives  of  this  district  has  been 
going  on  at  a  very  rapid  rate  "*  Other  authorities  might  be  quoted,  all 
to  the  same  effect. 

Much  stress  has  been  laid  upon  the  supposed  fact  that  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  blacks  has  been  in  a  great  degree  attributable  to  acts  of 
violence  on  the  part  of  the  whites,  which  have  thinned  and  broken  down 
the  tribes.  This  has  been  asserted  in  writing  and  reiterated  in  speech 
so  frequently  as  to  have  carried  some  conviction  of  its  truth  to  the  minds 
of  many  who  have  had  no  personal  opportunities  of  investigating  the 
subject.  From  the  foundation  of  the  colony  the  natives  when  in  and 
about  Adelaide  w^ere  regarded  with  care  and  solicitude  by  the  white 
settlers.  Amongst  the  earliest  of  the  colonial  appointments  was  a 
Protector  of  Aborigines.  The  blacks  did  not  oppose  the  settlement  of 
the  whites,  nor  did  they  molest  them.  The  whites  treated  them  with 
imiform  kindness,  and  no  attempt  was  ever  made  to  drive  them  away 
from  their  locations.  Other  tribes — for  instance,  those  which  freqiiented 
the  banks  of  the  Murray  and  lived  in  the  country  adjacent  to  the  over- 
land routes  from  Victoria  and  New  South  Wales  to  Adelaide,  along  which 
sheep  and  cattle  for  the  new  settlement  travelled — were  hostile  and  tierce. 
They  stole  cattle  and  sheep  whenever  they  could  surprise  the  parties  in 
charge,  and  killed  as  many  of  both  as  they  could.     All  this  was  done 

♦  Aborigines  of  Australia,  by  the  Riglit  Rev.  Bishop  Hale,  London,  published  by  the 

S.l'.C.K.,  London. 


394  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

without  any  provocation,  beyond  the  fact  that  the  whites  with  their 
flocks  and  herds  had  come  into  the  country  belonging  to  the  hostile 
tribes,  and  such  an  act  was  always  deemed  by  the  blacks,  amongst  them- 
selves, to  be  an  act  of  war.  The  first  serious  trouble  with  the  natives 
arose  in  1840.  In  the  month  of  July  in  that  year  a  brig,  named  the 
Maria,  was  wrecked  on  the  south  coast,  not  far  from  Rivoli  Bay.  The 
survivors — ten  men,  five  women,  and  some  children — came  ashore.  They 
separated  into  two  parties,  one  of  which  crossed  the  Coorong,  when  they 
were  set  upon  by  the  blacks,  who  killed  them  and  took  possession 
of  all  their  property.  As  soon  as  the  news  of  these  murders  reached 
Adelaide  Lieut.  PuUen,  R.N..  was  sent  away  with  a  party  of  men  to  in- 
vestigate the  matter.  On  arri^-ing  in  the  country  there  was  no  difficulty 
in  finding  several  of  the  bodies  of  the  murdered  men  and  women.  They 
had  been  partially  buried  in  the  sand,  and  the  flesh  had  been  stripped 
from  the  bones  of  one  of  the  victims  —a  woman.  There  is  very  little 
doubt  that  it  had  been  devoured  by  the  murderers.  On  Lieut.  Pullen's 
return  the  Governor,  Col.  Gawler,  sent  out  an  expedition  under  the  com- 
mand of  Major  O'Halloran,  Commissioner  of  Police,  in  order  to  chastise 
the  offenders.  With  the  assistance  of  the  Encounter  Bay  tribe,  inquiries 
were  made  as  to  the  actual  murderers.  Four  men  of  the  Narrinyeri 
tribe  were  clearly  identified  as  amongst  the  perpeti'ators.  Two  of  them 
were  shot  as  they  ran  away  to  escape  capture,  and  the  other  two  weie 
hanged,  after  trial,  on  sheaoak  trees  over  the  graves  of  their  victims  in 
the  presence  of  as  many  of  the  tribes  as  could  be  collected  to  witness 
the  punishment.  Col.  Gawler  was  censured  for  sanctioning  such  an 
application  of  martial  law.  Right  or  wrong,  the  executions  had  a  most 
salutary  eff"ect  upon  the  tribes  in  that  part  of  the  country.  In  the 
following  year,  some  nine  months  after  this  had  taken  place,  a  party  of 
men  bringing  sheep  overland  was  attacked  by  the  Rufus  tribe  of  natives 
near  that  part  of  the  River  Murray  called  the  North- West  Bend.  The 
leader,  Mr.  Inman,  and  two  of  his  men  were  severely  wounded,  and  the 
sheep  they  had  with  them,  about  7,000,  Avere  carried  off  by  the  blacks. 
Major  O'Halloran  was  again  sent  out  with  a  force  to  punish  the  assailants 
if  they  could  be  discovered,  but  it  returned  in  a  few  days  without 
having  accomplished  anything-.  Another  party  was  got  together  under 
Lieut.  Field,  R.N.,  which  set  out  to  recover  some  of  the  stolen  sheep. 
There  was  no  attempt  made  to  attack  the  tribes.  After  nine  days' 
travelling  the  white  men  were  met  by  about  200  blacks,  who  at  once 
attacked  and  endeavored  to  surround  them.  Field  had  some  difficulty  in 
getting  away  with  his  small  party,  after  shooting  eight  of  the  assailants. 
Three  of  the  white  men's  horses  Avere  speared  and  one  was  killed.  None 
of  the  sheep  were  recovered  on  this  occasion.     A  third  expedition  was 


ABORIGINES.  395 

sent  out,  under  strict  instructions  not  to  make  war  on  the  natives,  and 
after  a  journey  of  three  weeks  the  party  fell  in  with  a  white  man  who 
was  one  of  the  survivors  of  a  few  overland  cattle  drovers  who  had  been 
set  upon  by  the  blacks.    Three  of  his  men  had  been  killed,  one  wounded, 
and  all  the  cattle,  about  700,  had  been  driven  off.     All  efforts  to  capture 
the  offenders  were  unavailing,  and  the  expedition  returned.     After  this 
complaints  were  frequently  made  to  the  Government  of  the  conduct  of 
the   blacks,  which   was  so  hostile  that  it  was  dangerous  to  travel  that 
country  with  stock.     Mr.  Shaw  was  then  sent  out  with  a  party  of  twenty- 
nine  mounted  men  to  meet  some  people  who  were  coming  overland,  in 
order  to  protect  them  and  their  stock.     They  were  late  in  the  field,  for  the 
natives  had  already  attacked  the  overlanders,  but  had  been  repulsed  with 
a  loss  of  fifteen  of  their  number.     A  few  days  afterwards  the  party  com- 
manded by  Sub-Inspector  Shaw  was  set  upon  by  a  very  large  number  of 
blacks.       They    had    refused   all    friendly   overtures,  probably    feeling 
assured  that  their  large   number  was   sufficient  to  enable  them  to  over- 
come the  whites.     A  quarter  of  an  hour's  fighting  brought  the  engage- 
ment to  a  close.     The  blacks  lost  thirty  men  killed  and  ten  wounded. 
A  close  investigation  was  made  into  the  case  when  Mr.   Shaw  brought 
his  party  back  to  the  city,  which  ended  in  the  complete  exoneration  of 
those  concerned  in  the  fight  from  all  blame.     The  appointment  of  Mr. 
Eyre  as  Police  Magistrate  and  Protector  of  Aborigines  at  Moorundi  took 
place  shortly  afterwards,  and  from  that  time  no  further  outrages  were 
committed  by  the  natives.     These  are  all  the  wars,  if  they  can  be  so  con- 
sidered, which  took  place  between  the  white  settlers  and  the  aborigines. 
On  the   Port  Lincoln  side,  in   the  north-west  and  far   north   country, 
isolated  attacks  were  made  upon  shepherds,  who  were  speared,  and  some 
stations  were  also  •'  stuck  up  "  by  them.     The  exertions  of  the  police, 
however,   were   sufficient  in   most  cases   to   bring  the  guilty  parties  to 
justice.     No  doubt  some  of  the  aborigines  were  killed  by  settlers  in  the 
far  off  country,  but  wherever  a  clue  could  be  obtained  to  those  who  shot 
them  they  were  invariably  brought  to  Adelaide  to  stand  their  trial  for 
their  acts.     They  were  very  few,  however,  and  no  instance  of  a  convic- 
tion is  on  record.     From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  acts  of  violence 
committed  by  the  white  men  upon  the  natives  have  had  but  an  insignificant 
share  in  contributing  to  the  disappearance  of  the  aboriginal  races.    Black - 
fellows  are  generally  well  treated  by  the  settlers  and  are  often  employed 
on  stations.      They  make  excellent  stock  riders  and  careful  shepherds 
whenever  they  are  engaged  in  that  work.     They  are,  however,  imcertain 
in  their  habits.     They  may  remain  in  their  employment  for  many  months, 
often  for  two,  three,  or  even  four  years,  when  suddenly  their  wandering 
instincts,  after  being  dormant  for  a  period,  reassert  themselves,  and  they  as 


396  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

suddenl}- return  to  their  original  courses  of  life.  After  their  appetite  for 
change  has  been  satisfied  they  almost  always  go  back  to  the  places 
where  they  had  previously  been  at  work.  At  the  time  of  the  census  of 
1891  352  adult  males  were  employed  on  stations  in  South  Australia, 
and  420  in  the  Northern  Territory. 

Collisions  between  the  whites  and  the  natives  have  taken  place  in 
recent  years  in  the  Northern  Territory,  but  the  loss  of  life  consequent 
upon  them  has  been  small.  Many  occurred  between  exploring  parties 
and  unknown  tribes  which  were  met  with  in  the  unknown  interior. 
Stuart's  party  was  compelled  more  than  once  to  resort  to  firearms  to 
drive  off  their  assailants,  who  otherwise  would  have  killed  them  all. 
Mr.  John  McKinlay  also  met  with  his  share  of  trouble  on  this  account 
when  he  crossed  from  Adelaide  to  Brisbane  in  search  of  Burke  and 
Wills,  whose  journey  has  already  been  mentioned.  In  desultory  en- 
counters such  as  those  the  loss  of  life  amongst  the  natives  could  not 
have  been  great,  for,  imless  the  natives  are  in  superior  numbers,  they  do 
not  attack  in  open  ground,  and  small  detachments  are  not  difficult  to 
drive  away.  The  most  serious  business  with  the  blacks  in  the  Northei-n 
Territory  was  the  attack  on  Barrow's  Creek  station,  1,240  miles  from 
Adelaide,  on  the  Transcontinental  Telegraph  line,  which  occurred  on 
Sunday,  February  23rd,  1873.  The  natives  belonghig  to  the  surround- 
ing country  had  always  been  on  excellent  personal  terms  with  the  people 
who  were  living  at  the  station,  although  a  couple  of  months  before  they 
had  cut  the  telegraph  wires  and  had  speared  some  horses  ;  but  they  were 
always  treated  with  the  greatest  kindness,  and  had  received  flour  and 
clothing,  besides  other  articles  of  small  value  to  which  they  might  take 
a  fancy.  The  white  people  had  no  suspicion  of  them  and  took  no  pre- 
cautions against  surprise.  The  blacks  had  evidently  contemplated  the 
attack  for  some  time.  A  repairing  party  of  eleven  men  had  gone  north 
on  duty  on  the  22nd,  and  when  the  blacks  thought  they  were  far  enough 
away  to  be  unable  to  return  to  render  assistance  they  set  to  work.  About 
8  p.m.,  without  any  warning,  the  blacks,  who  had  hidden  in  the  scrub 
which  was  within  tAventy  yards  of  the  station,  sent  a  shower  of  spears, 
one  of  which  mortally  wounded  Mr.  Stapleton,  the  officer  in  charge,  who 
had  been  sitting  in  the  open  ground  not  far  from  the  station  gate. 
Another  officer  was  speared  in  the  thigh,  and  a  third,  who  endeavored  to 
run  past  the  blacks  into  the  building,  was  speared  as  he  ran,  and  fell 
dead  inside  the  open  square  of  the  station.  The  natives  were  afraid  to 
enter  the  enclosure,  and  they  were  fired  at  through  loop-holes  in  the 
walls,  but  with  what  effect  is  not  known.  It  could  not  have  been  great, 
because  the  attack  was  resumed  on  the  following  day.  On  the  Wednes- 
day the  repairing  party  communicated  with  the   station  from  a  point 


ABORIGINES.  397 

many  miles  away,  and,  on  learning  what  had  happened,  returned  as 
quickly  as  they  could.  About  twenty  miles  from  the  station  they  were 
attacked  by  a  large  party  of  natives,  who  had  been  lying  in  wait  for  them; 
they  were  repulsed  with  some  loss.  On  the  Thursday  the  return  party 
went  in  pursuit  of  the  savages,  with  what  i-esult  is  not  reported.  What- 
ever it  was,  there  has  been  no  further  hostile  demonstration  of  that  kind 
by  the  blacks  in  that  part  of  the  country. 

The  regions  of  Central  Australia  are  patrolled  for  the  protection  of  the 
very  few  white  settlers  that  live  on  the  cattle  and  other  stations  by  police 
officers,  who  are  assisted  by  native  troopers  collected  from  the  tribes, 
without  whom  they  would  be  of  little  use.  Considering  the  ferocious 
disposition  of  the  savages  who  dwell  in  that  region,  order  is  fairly  well 
kept.  Stations  are  no  longer  "  stuck  up  "  by  them,  although,  as  is  not 
surprising,  cattle  are  frequently  speared  and  other  depredations  com- 
mitted. Retaliatory  measures  are  certainly  taken  by  the  whites  when 
the  police  are  not  at  hand,  but  none  of  them  have  been  sufficiently 
authenticated  to  call  for  the  intervention  of  the  Government.  The 
officers  who  have  been  stationed  in  this  wild  country  for  years  give  the 
blacks  a  very  bad  character.  One  of  them  says : — *"•  They  are  ungrate- 
ful, deceitful,  wily,  and  treacherous.  They  are  indolent  in  the  extreme, 
squalid  and  filthy  in  their  surroundings,  as  well  as  disgustingly  impure 
amongst  themselves."  This  remark  applies  to  the  aborigines  of  Lake 
Amadeus  and  the  George  Gill  Ranges.  In  another  place  he  says  : — 
"They  have  been  described  as  they  were  found — lazy,  treacherous,  and 
impure  ;  and  on  the  Finke  river,  where  they  ought  to  be  better,  they  are 
worse  than  the  other  tribes  which  live  in  the  smTOunding  country." 
Another  officer  (Mr.  S.  Gason),  who  for  some  years  lived  in  the  country 
watered  by  Cooper's  Creek  (more  properly  designated  the  Barcoo  river), 
has  written  a  most  interesting  account  of  the  Dieyerie  tribe,  and  describes 
their  character  as  follows  : — "  A  more  treacherous  race  1  do  not  believe 
exists.  They  imbibe  treacherj-  in  infancy,  and  practice  it  until  death, 
and  have  no  sense  of  wrong  in  it.  Gratitude  to  them  is  an  imknown 
quality .  No  matter  how  kind  or  generous  you  may  be  to  them,  you 
cannot  assure  yourself  of  their  affection.  Even  amongst  themselves  for 
a  mere  trifle  they  woidd  take  the  life  of  their  dearest  friend,  and  conse- 
quently are  in  constant  dread  of  each  other,  wliile  their  enmity  to  the 
white  man  is  only  kept  in  abeyance  by  fear.  Tliey  will  smile  and  laugh 
in  your  face,  and  the  next  moment,  if  opportunity  offers,  kill  you  with- 
out remorse.  Kindness  they  construe  into  fear,  and  had  it  not  been  for 
the  determination  and  firmness  of  the  early  settlers  they  would  never 
have  been  allowed  to  occupy  the    country They  seem 

•  Aborigines  of  Centrnl  Australia  :  AV.  H.  Willshire,  Adelaide,  1891,  pp.  28  and  40. 


398  SOLTH    AUSTRALIA. 

to  take  a  delight  in  lying,  especially  if  they  think  it  will  please 
you.  Should  you  ask  them  a  question,  be  prepared  for  a  falsehood 
as  a  matter  of  course.  They  not  only  lie  to  the  white  man,  but  to 
each  other,  and  do  not  appear  to  see  any  wrong  in  it.  Notwithstanding, 
hnwever,  what  has  been  said  of  their  treachery,  and  however  paradoxical 
it  may  appear,  they  possess  in  an  eminent  degree  the  three  great  virtues 
of  hospitality,  reverence  for  old  age,  and  love  for  their  children  and 
parents.  Should  a  stranger  arrive  at  their  camp,  food  is  immediately  set 
before  him."* 

The  Lutheran  missionaries  who  are  located  at  Kopperamanna,  in  the 
Far  North,  and  on  the  Finke  river,  in  Central  Australia,  have  formed  a 
very  different  estinsate  of  the  character  of  the  blacks.  Ihey  believe 
them  to  be  endowed  with  far  better  .and  higher  qualities,  and  think  that 
thev  are  capable  of  being  civilised  and  turned  into  useful  men  and 
women,  and  entirely  weaned  from  their  barbarous  habits.  'J'he  Superior 
of  the  Mission  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers  (the  Very  Rev.  D.  McKillop),  which 
is  formed  in  a  fertile  tract  of  country  on  the  Daly  river,  in  the  Northern 
Territory,  is  equally  certain  that  they  can  be  reclaimed  and  brought  easily 
M'ithin  the  restraints  of  civilisation.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  their  views 
are  correct,  and  that  their  efforts  may  meet  Avith  the  fullest  success. 
The  probabilities  are  against  the  realisation  of  their  expectations,  but 
time  will  solve  the  question.  Some  of  the  gentlemen  who  devote  their 
energies  to  the  civilisation  of  the  blacks  in  the  wildest  parts  of  the 
continent  attribute  the  bad  features  of  the  native  character  to  the 
treatment  they  receive  at  the  hands  of  the  whites.  No  doubt  they  see 
the  blacks  under  much  more  favorable  circumstances  than  the  class  of 
men  who  form  the  bulk  of  the  station  hands  in  the  far  interior,  and 
perhaps,  also,  they  do  not  attach  sufficient  weight  to  those  habits 
amongst  the  tribes  of  which  they  cannot  be  supposed  to  be  ignorant. 
The  blacks  have  for  years  given  the  station  holders  an  immense  deal 
of  trouble.  Murder,  arson,  and  cattle  spearing  are  what  they  have  to 
contend  against,  and  it  is  hardly  to  be  expected  that  rough  stockmen 
will  be  very  gentle  or  considerate  to  savages  who  resort  to  such  acts,  and 
which  if  not  punished  at  once  would  in  all  likelihood  never  be  punished 
at  all.  A  great  deal  of  stress  has  been  laid  vipon  the  fact  that  white 
men  have  taken  away  the  blackfellows'  women,  and  upon  the  bad  effect 
this  procedure  has  upon  the  males  of  the  tribes.  No  doubt  it  is  a  deep 
injury,  but  the  following  extract  from  Mr.  Willshire's  book,  quoted  above 
(p.  36),  will  explain  the  matter  and  place  it  in  another  light : — "  It  is  a 
common  practice  amongst  the  native  tribes  to  capture  and  steal  females 

*  Native  Tribes  of  South  Australia.     Adelaide:  E.  S.  Wigg  &  Son,  1879,  pp.  258 

and  259. 


ABORIGINES.  399 

one  froin  the  other.  Such  acts,  as  already  stated,  are  as  often  followed  up 
hy  acts  of  retaliation,  not  because  of  any  moral  injury  thai  has  been 
inflicted  upon  the  blacks  who  have  lost  one  or  more  of  their  women,  but 
because  they  have  lost  one  or  more  of  their  slaves,  for  the  largest  portion 
of  the  hard  work  and  of  the  privations  of  the  tribe  fall  to  the  lot  of  the 
-women.  When  they  desire  to  propitiate  one  another  their  women  are 
for  the  time  exchanged,  and  when  they  are  favorably  disposed  towards 
any  white  men  they  may  encounter  the  first  thing  that  is  done  is  to  place 
the  women  at  their  disposal.  Moreover,  the  lubras  themselves  will  go  to 
the  whites  ;  indeed,  willing  or  not,  the  men  compel  the  females  to  go 
after  them,  and  will  follow  white  travellers  on  foot  for  miles  with  their 
women  if  the  least  inducement  is  held  out.  There  are  more  males 
than  females  amongst  the  tribes,  and  if  the  whites  were  to  take  away  many 
more  than  the  number  that  has  gone  with  them  it  would  be  much  better 
for  the  women  themselves.  At  least  they  would  be  fed,  clothed,  and 
humanely  treated,  and  that  kind  of  treatment  is  what  they  never  would 
receive  at  the  hands  of  the  males  amongst  whom  their  lot  was  cast." 
The  reader  will  be  able  to  judge  from  what  has  gone  before  how  far  the 
active  hostility  has  hastened  the  decay  of  the  aborigines. 

When  the  whites  landed  in  South  Australia  tribes  of  natives  were 
spread  over  the  country  surrounding  Adelaide  for  some  distance  aw^ay. 
According  to  the  accounts  of  early  colonists,  they  were  fairly  numerous. 
They  dwelt  about  Adelaide,  Port  Adelaide  :  Brighton,  Noarlunga.  Onka- 
paringa,  Willunga,  Aldinga,  Goolwa,  and  Encounter  Bay  in  the  south; 
at  Gawler,  Kapunda,  Kooringa,  on  the  Gilbert,  Wakefield,  and  Hill 
rivers,  at  Clare,  and  the  country  between  that  and  the  coast,  and  at  Mount 
Remarkable  in  the  north  ;  at  Yorke  Peninsula,  Port  Augusta,  Port 
Lincoln,  Fowler's  Bay,  Venus  Bay,  the  Gawler  Ranges,  and  the  country 
west  and  north-west  of  Adelaide.  In  the  east  there  were  the  Overland 
Corner,  the  Moorundi,  Narrinyeri,  the  Rufus,  and  the  tribes  Avho  lived  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Lakes  Alexandrina  and  Albert.  Further  east  there 
were  the  Boandik,  the  Tatiara,  Padthaway,  Naracoorte,  and  the  south- 
east coast  tribes,  which  occupied  the  country  as  far  east  as  the  Glenelg 
river,  near  the  Victorian  border.  These  have  all  disappeared  as  tribes, 
and  the  only  memorials  of  their  existence  are  such  records  as  have  been 
made  by  persons  who  were  brought  into  contact  with  them  officially  as 
protectors  of  aborigines,  or  conductors  of  schools  instituted  for  their 
reclamation  from  barbarism. 

Most  of  these  accounts  have  been  published,  and  are  accompanied  by 
glossaries,  but  they  are  all  more  or  less  imperfect,  and  do  not  afford  any 
great  insight  into  the  scope  of  the  dialects  to  which  they  belong. 
Outlines  of  the  grammatical  structure  of  some  of  the  forms  of  speech 


400  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

were  compiled  and  published  very  early  in  the  history  of  the  colony,  but 
they  are  now  unobtainable.  From  all  that  can  be  gathered,  it  seems  as 
if  the  various  forms  of  speech — or  dialects — in  Southern  Australia,  at 
least,  had  a  common  origin.  As  far  as  is  known,  they  are  deficient  of 
the  following  consonants  : — c,y,  h,j,  ^,  s,  t",  x,  andz.  All  the  words  ter- 
minate in  vowels.  The  nouns  have  the  singular,  dual,  and  plural  numbers, 
and  three  genders — masculine,  feminine,  and  neuter.  There  is,  however, 
another  gender,  or  an  inflection  almost  equivalent  to  another  gender, 
which  includes  two  or  more  persons  or  things  of  opposite  or  different 
genders  when  spoken  of  together  or  collectively.  In  numeral  adjectives 
all  the  dialects  are  defective.  They  seldom  go  beyond  the  first  three. 
In  counting,  the  natives  formed  combinations  of  the  three  ;  four  would 
be  expressed  by  the  equivalent  for  two  two ;  five  by  two,  two,  and  one  ; 
six  by  two,  two,  two,  &,c.  Beyond  twenty  expression  does  not  seem  to 
extend.  Above  that  number  the  idea  of  a  multitude  is  all  that  can  be 
conve)'ed.  The  nomadic  habits  of  the  blacks  and  the  strange  way  in 
which  they  divide  into  small  groups  and  scatter  through  the  country 
would  not  require  the  use  of  words  to  denote  large  numbers  of  men, 
women,  or  children,  for  they  rarely  gathered  together  in  masses  except 
on  special  occasions,  such  as  those  of  corrobborees  or  fights,  or  on  the 
occurrence  of  some  extraordinary  event  which  might  prompt  them  to 
assemble.  The  native  languages  possess  inflections  which  many  European 
tongues  do  not.  They  are  wanting  in  abstract  terms  and  generic  words. 
Dr.  Wyatt  observed  that  one  of  the  greatest  impediments  to  becoming 
acquainted  with  an  aboriginal  dialect  was  the  general  indifference  of  the 
natives  and  their  slovenly  habit  of  clipping  or  contracting  the  words  in 
ordinary  use,  and  of  substituting  different  vowels  and  hard  for  soft  con- 
sonants, or  vice  versa.  Dr.  Wyatt  also  stated  that  the  natives  (of  Adelaide 
and  Encounter  Bay)  evinced  great  facility  in  compounding  words,  in 
forming  new  ones  to  represent  objects  previously  unknown  to  them,  and 
also  in  inventing  figurative  expressions.  Mr.  Taplin,  however,  expresses  a 
different  opinion  on  this  point.  In  speaking  of  the  Narrinyeri  tribe,  who 
were  near  neighbors  to  the  Encounter  Bay  tribe,  and  had  considerable 
intercourse  with  them,  Mr.  Taplin  says  that  the  principal  characteristics 
of  the  language  are  ellipsis  and  the  abbreviation  of  words,  but  that 
he  could  not  discover  in  any  of  the  dialects  he  had  examined  any  traces 
of  figurative  expressions.  "  Amongst  the  Narrinyeri  the  poetical  kind  of 
speech  so  much  admired  by  the  Maori  is  not  to  be  found.  I  do  not  know 
a  single  phrase  worthy  to  be  called  a  metaphor.''  Further,  "  that  it 
would  not  be  possible  to  translate  the  Scriptures  into  the  aboriginal 
tongue  without  the  introduction  of  many  foreign  words."  The  necessity 
for  the  whites   to  make  a  special   study  of  native  forms  of  speech  soon 


ABORIGINES.  401 

■disappeared  before  the  ease  and  rapidity  with  which  the  natives  acquired 
the  language  of  the  Avhite  colonists,  or,  at  least,  enough  of  it  to  enable 
them  to  understand  when  spoken  to  and  to  convey  a  knowledge  of  their 
ideas  and  wants  to  others.  The  English  spoken  by  the  blacks,  however, 
was  of  a  strange  kind.  It  bore  as  much  resemblance  to  the  Queen's 
English  as  the  pigeon  English  which  is  met  with  in  Canton  and  in 
the  Straits  Settlements  amongst  the  Chinese.  For  this  the  aboriginal  is 
not  to  blame ;  he  merely  learned  and  repeated  that  which  was  taught 
him.  The  pigeon  English  of  the  blackfellow-  owes  its  origin  to  the 
sapient  notion  (put  into  practice  by  the  early  settlers)  that  savages  who 
were  utterly  ignorant  of  English  of  any  sort  would  more  readily  under- 
stand a  jargon  of  broken  English,  which  the  speakers  had  to  invent 
as  they  went  on,  than  the  kind  of  English  they  commonly  used  amongst 
themselves.  The  natives  who  have  been  instructed  at  Point  McLeay  and 
other  mission  stations  speak  excellent  English  and  do  not  resort  to  the 
"lingo"  which  prevails  amongst  the  blacks  who  wander  about  the 
country  at  will.  According  to  Mr.  H.  E.  Meyer,  in  his  sketch  of  the 
Encounter  Bay  tribe,  the  natives  say  that  "  Languages  originated  from  an 
ill-tempered  old  woman.  In  remote  time  an  old  woman  named  Wurruri 
lived  towards  the  east,  and  generally  walked  with  a  large  stick  in  her 
hand  to  scatter  the  fires  round  which  others  were  sleeping.  Wurruri  at 
length  died.  Greatly  delighted  at  this  circumstance,  the  natives  sent 
messengers  in  all  directions  to  give  notice  of  her  death ;  men,  women, 
and  children  came,  not  to  lament,  but  to  show  their  joy.  The  Raminjei-ar 
were  the  first  who  fell  upon  the  corpse  and  began  eating  the  flesh,  and 
immediately  began  to  speak  intelligibly.  The  other  tribes  to  the  east- 
ward, arriving  later,  ate  the  contents  of  the  intestines,  which  caused  them 
to  speak  a  language  slightly  different.  The  northern  tribes  came  last, 
and  devoured  the  intestines  and  all  that  remained,  and  immediately  spoke 
a  language  diff'ering  still  more  from  that  of  the  Raminjerar." 

Space  will  only  permit  of  a  brief  and  general  sketch  of  the  South 
Australian  blacks  and  some  of  their  most  remarkable  habits  and  customs. 
The  males  generally  are  strong  and  well  formed,  and  between  5ft.  and 
6ft.  in  height,  but  seldom  more  than  5ft.  Sin.  The  women  are,  of  course, 
smaller,  5ft.  being  about  the  average,  though  some  few  are  taller.  They 
have  broad  foreheads,  wide  mouths,  and  flat  noses.  Their  eyes  are  dark 
and  piercing,  and  set  deep  in  the  skull.  The  facial  angle  is  about  85°, 
according  to  Professor  Owen.*     The  hands  and  feet  are  not  large  and  are 

*  The  incisor  teeth  of  the  aborigines  show  a  peciiliaritv  not  observahlo  in  the  teeth 

of  Europeans.     It  was  first  noticed  by  Eyre.     Subsequently  attention  was  called  to 

the  tact  by  the  author  of  this  work.     His  view  was  supported  by  Professor  Tate, 

M'ho  referred  to  a  skull  procured  from  Euda  to  confirm  it.     On  this  subject  II.  M. 

c2 


402  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

well  formed.  The  development  of  the  loAver  limbs  is  scanty,  the  calves- 
of  the  legs  and  the  muscles  of  the  thighs  being  much  less  robust  than  the 
limbs  of  white  men  of  equal  height.  The  chest  is  from  34in.  to  36in.  in 
circumference.  The  body  is  well  shaped  and  the  figures  (of  the  men) 
are  generally  good.  Their  carriage  is  erect  and  their  gait  graceful  and 
elegant.  Their  features  are  not  handsome  according  to  European  ideas, 
but  those  of  the  women  are  ugly  in  the  extreme,  3'et  not  actually  repul- 
sive. Their  physical  development  is  by  no  means  equal  to  that  of  the 
men,  biit  the  lives  they  lead  and  the  treatment  they  are  exposed  to  will 
account  for  a  great  deal.  Sir  George  Grey,  K.C.  B..  Mr.  Eyre,  Mr.  Taplin, 
and  the  Rev  D.  McKillop,  all  of  whom  have  had  intimate  knowledge  of 
various  Australian  tribes,  speak  in  high  terms  of  their  intellectual 
capacity.  Grey  said  that  they  were  as  able  and  intelligent  as  any  other 
race  of  men  he  Avas  acquainted  with.  Others,  however,  have  formed 
strong  opinions  on  the  other  side.  The  value  of  these  depends  much 
upon  the  conditions  imder  which  they  may  have  been  formed.  Whatever 
ability  or  intelligence  they  may  possess,  they  have  certainly  not  yet  pro- 
duced very  remarkable  results.  As  long  as  they  are  under  tutelage  and 
in  the  care  of  the  conductors  of  the  missions  they  generally  turn  out  well. 
It  seems,  however,  as  if  they  rarely  contract  ideas  and  habits  of  self- 
reliance  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  take  their  places  in  the  world  as 
civilised  men.  Isolated  instances  have  been  occasionally  known  where 
this  has  occurred,  but  the  bulk  of  the  natives  who  come  under  the 
control  of  the  white  men  remain  so,  and  do  not  strike  out  or  adopt  an 
independent  course  for  themselves.  In  the  last  report  of  the  Aborigines' 
Friends'  Association  (1892)  an  instance  is  given  of  a  native  educated  at 


Shand,  Esq.,  M.D.,  of  Port  Elliot,  wrote — "  In  order  of  dentition  and  in  differential 
characters  the  permanent  teeth  of  the  aborigines  are  similar  to  those  of  their  white 
brethren,  the  general  conformation  being  more  substantial.  Approaching  middle  life 
the  surfaces  of  the  incisors  are  very  much  altered  in  appearance,  and  can  generally, 
about  40,  be  found  entirely  different  from  European  races.  Gradually  the  incisors 
become  more  and  more  altered  in  aspect,  and  in  old  age  are  most  interesting.  Towards 
middle  life  they  are  not  unlike  the  nippers  in  the  horse,  as  incisors  are  there  commonly 
called,  but  as  the  wear  continues  the  suiiace  is  not  only  fiat,  but  the  relative  measure- 
ments change,  and  the  teeth  measure  more  from  backwards  than  from  side  to  side. 
The  resemblance  to  the  horse  is  further  exhibited  in  the  central  brown  mark  as  seen  in 
aged  horses.  I  do  not  believe  that  any  section  of  the  teeth  in  the  young  adult  could 
be  shaped  to  the  condition  presented  in  middle  life,  as  the  measui-ement  from  before 
backwards  is  distinctly  increased  by  use.  The  process  I  regard  as  almost  physio- 
logical." Mr.  Taplin,  of  the  Point  McLeay  Mission,  did  not  agree  in  the  opinion 
that  the  teeth  of  the  aboriginal  differed  from  those  of  the  white,  although  he  acknow- 
ledged the  alteration.  He  attributed  the  change  "  to  the  attrition  of  masticating 
fibrous  substances."  Whatever  the  cause  may  be,  the  facts  are  as  stated  above,  but 
the  subject  of  the  teeth  of  the  aborigines  deserves  a  more  careful  and  minute  scientific 
examination  than  has  yet  been  bestowed  upon  them. 


A150RIG1NES.  403 

the  mission  who  lived  in  an  aboi-iginal  section  and  was  able  to  support 
himself  and  his  family.     The  Right  Rev.  Bishop  Salvado,  of  New  Nursia, 
in  West  Australia,  mentions  other  instances,  but  these  are  exceptions  to 
the  o-eneral  rule.     The  natives,  it  cannot  be  denied,  are  naturallv  indolent 
and  cannot  easily  be  trained  into  settled  habits  of  industry.      They  are 
physically  unsuited  to  severe  labor.     The  Right  Rev.  Bishop  Hale,  in 
writing  about  the   natives  at  the  Poonindie  Statioii,  says  that  ''in  con- 
sequence  of  their  want  of  stamina  or  power  of  endurance  the  working 
hours  at  Poonindie  were  much  shorter  than  the  actual  working  hours  of 
white  men."     They  can  travel  long  distances  with  little  food  or  water, 
and  in  the  bush  are  able  to  endure  privations  as  well  as  any  white  men, 
hut   continuous   and    protracted   daily   labor   is    generally   beyond  their 
powers.       In  their  native  state  the  hardest  work  they  ever  do  is  hunting. 
In  this  kind  of  labor  there  is  excitement,  and  the  reward  is  certain  and 
directly  personal :   such  conditions  are  not  often  attached  to  the  kinds  of 
labor  which  civilisation  exacts  from  a  worker.      One  reason  why  the 
faculty  of   self-dependence  amongst  the  natives  who  have  been  trained 
and  properly  instructed  has  not  been  better  exemplified  may  be  traced  to 
the   fact    that   they   disappear   from  the  face   of    the   earth    before    the 
civilisation  which  has  been  developed  in  them  has  had  time  to  bear  fruit. 
As  regards  marriage  customs,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Meyer  says  that  the  girls 
are  given  in  marriage  at  the  early  age  of  ten  or  twelve  years.     It  is  more 
an  exchange  than  a  ceremony.     Marriages  always  are  between  persons 
of  different  tribes  and  never  in  the  same  tribe.     The  father,  if  alive,  gives 
his  daughter  away,  but  generally  she  is  the  gift  of  the  brother.     The 
girls  have  no  choice  in  the  matter.     A  man  who  has  several  girls  at  his 
disposal  speedily  obtains  several  wives.     The  man  regards  them  more  as 
slaves  than  in  any  other  light,  and  employs  them  entirely  to  his  own 
advantage.     They  are  obliged  to  provide  him  with  shell  fish,  roots,  and 
edible   plants.      If  a  member   of  another   tribe   should   arrive   and   see 
anything  he  may  desire  to  obtain,  he  may  make  a  bargain  with  the  owner 
by  letting  him  have  one  of  his  wives  for   a  longer  or  shorter  period. 
This  corresponds  with  what  Mr.  Willshire  has  stated  with  regard  to  the 
t;-ibes  in  Central  Australia.     Mr.  Meyer  does  not  mention  the  fact,  but 
if,  as  must  have  been  the  case,  many  of  the  men  had  no  wives  at  all,  it 
was  a  common  occurrence  for  them  to  steal  one  from  some  other  tribe 
when  a  suitable  opjjortunity  presented  itself.     The  fact  that  marriage 
does  not  take  place  between  members  of  the  same  tribe,  or  is  forbidden 
amongst  them,  does  not  at  all  include  the  idea  that  chastity  is  observed 
within    the    same    limits.      In    fact,  chastitv   as    a    virtue    is    absolutelv 
imknown  amongst  all  the  tribes  of  which  there  are  records.     The  buying, 
taking,  or  stealing  of  a  wife  is  not  at  all  influenced  by  considerations  of 


404  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

antecedent  purity  on  the  part  of  the  woman.  A  man  wants  a  wife 
and  he  obtains  one  somehow.  She  is  his  slave,  and  there  the  matter 
ends. 

At  a  certain  period  the  boys  undergo  the  process  of  being  made  men. 
Sometimes  they  are  covered  with  blood  drawn  from  the  arms  of  the  older 
men  and  allowed  to  trickle  all  over  the  boys'  bodies.  This  was  practised 
by  the  Adelaide  tribe.  The  hair  on  the  face  and  body  was  plucked  out, 
and  other  rites  performed,  from  all  of  which  women  were  most  rigorously 
excluded.  At  these  times  circumcision  was  performed  amongst  certain 
of  the  tribes,  but  the  custom  was  not  universal.  Other  mutilations, 
which  have  been  referred  to  elsewhere,  are  also  inflicted  in  the  course 
of  such  rites.  These  practices,  however,  are  not  in  use  amongst  the 
southern  tribes.  The  ceremony  of  tattooing  is  performed  at  the  age  of 
early  manhood,  and  is  frequently  afterwards  repeated.  The  flesh  is  cut 
several  times  so  that  the  cicatrix  becomes  elevated  considerably  above 
the  surrounding  flesh.  It  is  done  with  the  shell  of  the  mussel,  a  sharp 
stone,  or  a  piece  of  glass.  The  women  undergo  the  operation  also.  The 
marks  arc  made  on  the  shoulders,  arras,  back,  and  breast,  but  not  on  the 
face  or  below  the  waist.  In  the  southern  part  or  the  province,  beyond 
that  of  tattooing,  the  women  are  not  subjected  to  any  special  ordeal,  but 
they  do  not  undergo  the  process  without  considerable  resistance.  Youths 
of  the  Adelaide  tribe  passed  through  four  stages  before  they  became  men. 
From  the  first  to  the  tenth  year  they  were  let  alone,  though  not  permitted 
to  eat  of  certain  kinds  of  food.  After  the  tenth  year  they  were  covered 
with  human  blood,  as  above  stated.  Three  or  four  years  afterwards  they 
were  circumcised,  and  kept  away  from  all  the  women  and  children  and 
fed  only  on  vegetables  until  they  had  recovered.  The  fourth  stage  was 
that  of  tattooing,  which  took  place  about  the  twentieth  year.  The  fifth 
stage  could  only  be  attained  by  grey-headed  old  men.  The  rites  on  these 
last  occasions  have  not  been  described.  They  are  conducted  with  the 
utmost  secrecy. 

The  funeral  ceremonies  differ  considerably  in  different  localities.  The 
Adelaide  tribe,  according  to  Eyre,  used  to  envelop  the  corpse  of  a  dead 
person  in  the  clothing  that  belonged  to  him,  and  then  place  it  on  a  kind 
of  bier  formed  of  the  branches  of  trees.  It  was  then  carried  upon  the 
shoulders  of  some  half  dozen  others  to  the  places  the  deceased  had 
frequented.  Under  the  bier  another  native  was  concealed,  who  spoke  to 
the  corpse  and  inquired  who  it  was  that  had  killed  him.  If  the  reply 
was  "  No  one  "  the  business  ceased  and  the  corpse  was  buried.  If  it 
was  answered  that  some  one  had  killed  him,  the  corpse  was  moved  round 
with  the  bier  by  supernatural  agency,  if  the  slayer  was  supposed  to  be 
present,  so  that  one  of  the  branches  touched  him.     A  fight  then  took 


ABORIGINES.  405 

place  on  the  spot  or  within  a  day  or  two  afterwards.  The  body,  when 
removed  from  the  bier,  was  laid  in  a  grave  from  4ft.  to  6ft.  deep  with  the 
head  to  the  west.  Children  of  tender  age  who  died  (not  those  who  were 
put  out  of  the  way)  were  not  buried  for  months  after  death.  They  were 
wrapped  up  and  carried  about  by  their  mothers  until  they  became  dried 
up,  when  they  were  buried. 

Amongst  the  Encounter  Bay  and  the  Narrinyeri  tribes  young  and 
middle-aged  persons  were  disposed  of  thus  : — "  As  soon  as  the  person  is 
dead  the  knees  are  drawn  up  towards  the  head  and  the  hands  placed 
between  the  thighs.  Two  fires  are  kindled,  and  the  corpse  is  placed 
between  them,  so  as  to  receive  the  heat  of  the  fires  and  the  sun.  After 
a  few  days  the  skin  becomes  loose  and  is  taken  of.  .  .  .  After  this 
all  the  openings  of  the  body  are  sewn  up  and  the  whole  surface  rubbed 
with  grease  and  red  ochre.  Thus  prepared  the  corpse  is  placed  upon  a 
stage  in  a  hut  so  arranged  that  the  head  and  arras  can  be  tied.  It  is 
then  placed  with  the  face  to  the  east  and  the  arms  extended,  and  a  fire  is 
kept  constantly  burning  beneath.  It  remains  thus  until  it  is  quite  dry, 
when  it  is  taken  by  the  relations,  packed  in  mats,  and  then  carried  from 
one  place  to  another — the  scenes  of  his  former  life.  After  having  been 
carried  about  thus  for  several  months  it  is  placed  on  a  platform  of  sticks 
and  left  until  completely  decayed.     The  head  is  then  taken  by  the  next 

of  kin  and  serves  him  as  a  drinking  vessel Rather  aged 

persons  are  not  treated  with  all  the  ceremonies  above  mentioned,  but  are 
merely  wrapped  up  in  mats  and  placed  upon  an  elevated  platform  formed 
of  sticks  and  branches  supported  by  a  tree  and  two  ])osts,  and  after  the 
flesh  has  decayed  the  bones  are  buried.  The  very  old  are  buried  imme- 
diately after  death." — (Me3'er.)  "■  The  mode  of  burial  observed  by  the 
Port  Lincoln  natives  is  described  by  themselves  as  being  attended  with 
many  ceremonies,  which  are  sometimes  dispensed  with,  as  was  the  case 
with  an  old  man,  the  only  one  I  have  seen  buried.  A  pit  about  .5ft.  in. 
depth  and  only  4ft.  in  length  was  dug ;  on  the  bottom  some  dry  grass 
was  spread,  and  on  this  the  body  was  laid  with  the  legs  bent  upwards. 
The  head  was  placed  towards  the  west — a  custom  that  is  always  observed, 
and  is  founded  on  the  belief  that  the  soul  goes  to  an  island  in  the  east. 
The  body  is  covered  with  a  kangaroo  skin  and  strong  sticks  arc  placed 
lengthwise  over  the  mouth  of  the  grave,  one  end  being  stuck  in  the  earth 
a  little  below  the  surface,  the  other  resting  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
grave.  On  these  the  earth  is  put,  so  as  to  leave  a  space  between  them 
and  the  body  to  form  a  mound  of  earth  over  the  grave.  A  few  branches 
or  bushes  carelessly  thrown  round  the  mound  complete  the  ceremony." — 
(Schiirmann.)  The  fimcral  rites  of  the  Dicyerie  tribe,  inhabiting  the 
country  about  the  Barcoo  and  Lake  Hope  in  Central  Australia,  are  unlike 


406  SOUTH    AITSTRAMA. 

those  which  have  been  mentioned  above,  and  the  account  g:iven  by  Gason 
is  the  only  published  record  of  the  burial  ceremonies  of  the  natives  in 
that  part  of  the  coimtry : — "When  a  man,  woman,  or  child  dies  the  big 
toes  of  each  foot  are  tied  together,  and  the  body  is  enveloped  in  a  net. 
The  grave  is  dug  to  about  3ft.  and  the  body  carried  thither  on  the  heads 
of  three  or  four  men.     On  arrival  it  is  placed  on  its  back  for  a  few 
mimiles.       Then   three   men   kneel  down   near   the   grave  whilst   other 
natives  place  the  body  on  the  heads  of  the  kneeling  men.      One  of  the 
old  men.  usually  the  nearest  relative,  takes  two  light  rods,  each  about 
3ft.  long,  holds  one  in  each   hand,  standing  about  2yds.  away  from  the 
corpse     ....     and  questions  it  as  to  how  he  died.       The  men  who 
sit  round  speak  or  interpret  for  the  dead  man,  and,  as  opinion  prevails, 
give  some  fictitious  name  of  a  native  of  another  tribe.      When  the  old 
men  stop  beating  the  rods,  called  '  coonya,'  the  men  and  women  com- 
mence crying,  and  the  body  is  removed  from  the  heads  of  the  bearers 
and  is  lowered  into  the  grave,  into  which  a  native,  not  related  to  the 
deceased,  steps,  and  cuts  off  all  the  fat  adhering  to  the  muscles  of  the 
face,  thighs,  arms,  and  belly,  and  passes  it  round  to  be  swallowed.   .     .    . 
The  order  in  which  the}'  partake  of  their  dead  relatives  is :    The  mother 
€ats  of  her  children  ;  brothers  and  sisters  in  law  eat  of  each  other;  uncles, 
aunts,  nephews,  nieces,  grandchildren,  grandfathers,  and  grandmothers 
eat  of  each  other;    but  the  sire  does  not  eat  of  his  offspring  or  the  off- 
spring of  the  sire.     After  eating  of  the  dead  the  men  paint  themselves 
with  charcoal  and  fat,  marking  a  black  ring  round  the  mouth.     The 
women  do  likewise,  beside  painting   two   white  stripes   on   their  arms, 
which  marks  distinguish  those  who  have  partaken  of  the  late  deceased, 
the  other  men  smearing  themselves  all  over  with  white  clay  to  testify  their 
grief.     The  grave  is  covered  in  with  earth,  and  a  large  stack  of   wood  is 
placed  over  it.     The  first  night  after  the  burial  the  women  dance  round 
the  grave,  crying  and  screaming  incessantly  till   sunrise,  and  so  continue 
for  a  week  or  more.     Should  the  weather  be  cold  when  a  native  dies  fires 
are  lighted  near  the  grave  so  that  the  deceased  may  warm  himself,  and 
often  they  place  food  for  him  to  eat.     Invariably  after  a  death  they  shift 
their  camp,  and  never  after  speak  of  or  refer  to  the  defunct."     This 
custom    of    avoiding    all    mention    of    the    dead    is    universal    over   all 
Australia,  as  far  as  the  tribes  are  known,  and  it  is  not  likely  that  tribes 
that  have  not  yet  been  met  with  pursue  a  different  practice.     It  is  carried 
to  so  great  an  extent  that  persons  haA'ing  the  same  name  are  called  by 
others   temporarily  given  to  them  or  by  any  remaining  names  that  may 
belong  to  them.     They  even  change  the  names  of  places,  animals,  and 
things  of  every  description  Avhich  may  have  a  name  similar  to  that  of  a 
dead  person.     This  custom  creates  considerable  confusion  in  the  forms 


AHORIGIXES.  407 

of  speech,  and  presents  a  A'ery  great  difficulty  to  any  stranger  who  desires 
to  master  any  of  the  dialects. 

The  dwellings  of  the  blacks  are  of  the  most  rude  kind  ;  they  are 
simply  boughs  dragged  together  so  as  to  keep  off  the  wind,  and  sometimes 
daubed  over  with  clay  or  earth  to  keep  out  rain.  The  entrances  to  these 
werles  (or  wurleys)  are  so  low  that  the  people  must  go  on  their  hands 
and  knees  to  enter  them.  Fires  are  always  alight  in  front  of  these 
primitive  dwellings,  and  they  sei've  various  purposes.  They  are  supposed 
to  keep  oft'  evil  spirits  at  night,  and  are  always  available  for  cookery  of 
tmything  that  may  be  wanted.  Fire  is  procured  by  friction.  A  small 
piece  of  soft  wood,  such  as  the  spathe  of  the  grasstree,  is  laid  upon  the 
ground,  and  a  piece  of  pointed  hardwood  is  pressed  into  it  and  rubbed 
rapidly  between  the  hands  until  a  little  red  hot  spark  appears ;  this  is 
gently  blown  with  the  breath  to  spread  it,  and  a  little  dried  grass,  gum 
leaves,  and  fine  bits  of  stick  are  added  bj-  degrees  until  a  flame  is  raised, 
when,  of  course,  the  business  is  done.  The  process  appears  to  be 
exceedingly  simple.  The  black  brings  fire  in  a  very  short  time  :  but, 
like  everything  else,  the  art  requires  to  be  learned,  and  white  men,  with 
all  their  superior  intellect,  find  that  it  takes  a  surprisingly  large  amount 
of  practice  before  the  knack  can  be  acquired. 

The  natives  are  almost  entirely  independent  of  clothing ;  both  sexes 
wear,  or  are  supposed  to  wear,  girdles  with  fringes  attached  to  cover 
the  front  part  of  the  body.  In  very  cold  weather  some  of  them  have 
kangaroo,  wallaby,  or  opossum  skins,  the  latter  from  their  smaller  size 
being  neatly  sewn  together  with  sinews  of  kangaroos.  They  wear  no 
coverings  on  their  heads.  It  seems  surprising  to  white  people  to  see 
them  moving  about  without  any  protection  from  the  fierce  heat  of  the  sun 
in  the  height  of  summer,  without  apparently  experiencing  the  least 
inconvenience  from  it. 

The  weapons  and  implements  used  by  the  blacks  consist  of  clubs, 
spears,  wommerahs  (or  throwing  sticks),  boomerangs,  and  shields.  Some 
of  the  tribes,  notably  those  on  the  Murray  and  the  Lakes,  and  on  the 
south  coast,  have  nets  of  their  own  manufacture.  It  seems  strange  that 
the  Port  Lincoln  blacks,  who  lived  near  the  sea  and  procured  much  of 
their  food  by  fishing,  had  none  imtil  the  white  folks  came.  The  women 
have  sharp  sticks,  which  are  used  for  digging  up  bulbs  and  roots,  for  it  is 
their  business  to  provide  vegetable  food  for  the  males.  For  war  purposes 
most  of  the  tribes  have  shields.  These  are  about  2ft.  long  and  oval  in 
shape.  The  handles  are  placed  transversely  in  the  centre,  by  which  they 
are  held  when  in  use.  They  offer  no  protection  to  the  body,  but  they  are 
useful  instruments  for  warding  off  spears  in  fights,  and  the  dexterity  with 
which  they  are  handled  is  remarkable.     The  sjiears  used  by  the  natives 


408  SOUTH    Al  STRALIA. 

are  made  of  wood  or  reed,  the  latter  topped  with  hard  wood,  charred  and' 
scraped  to  a  pomt.  Some  of  them  are  barbed  on  one  or  both  sides,  the- 
number  of  bai-bs  varying  according  to  the  length  of  the  weapon.  The 
barbs  are  sometimes  pieces  of  wood  firmly  fixed  to  the  shaft,  and  some- 
times of  pieces  of  flint  or  other  sharp  stones.  At  the  end  of  the  spear  a 
notch  is  cut.  The  wommerah,  or  throwing  stick,  varies  in  length 
according  to  the  length  of  the  spear,  and  at  one  end  a  kangaroo's  tooth 
is  fixed  so  as  to  fit  into  the  notch  as  the  spear  is  prepared  for  throwing. 
The  wommerah  is  used  as  a  lever  to  add  greater  force  to  the  missile  than 
could  be  given  by  the  unassisted  arm  and  hand.  Barbed  spears  are  not 
generally  employed  in  the  fights  which  take  place  amongst  the  natives 
themselves,  though  they  have  been  used  with  deadly  effect  upon 
Europeans  Avho  incurred  their  vengeance.  It  is  quite  impossible  tO' 
draw  ovit  a  barbed  spear  from  the  body  or  limb  of  any  animal  or  being 
that  may  be  pierced  by  one.  It  must  be  either  cut  out  of  the  muscle  or 
else  pushed  through  till  the  barbs  are  clear  of  the  flesh,  when  the  barbed 
end  is  cut  or  broken  off,  and  the  rest  of  the  weapon  is  then  drawn  out 
without  difficulty.  Some  of  the  tribes  use  stone  hatchets  and  knives 
fashioned  out  of  similar  material.  No  trace  of  iron  or  other  metal  has 
yet  been  discovered  amongst  them,  and  no  word  to  signify  any  metal  can 
be  found  in  any  of  their  dialects. 

The  boomerang  is  a  weapon  peculiar  to  the  Australian  native.  It 
is  a  flat  curved  piece  of  wood,  varying  from  18in.  to  as  much  as  3ft. 
or  4ft.  in  length.  A  piece  of  a  root  possessing  the  requisite  curve  is 
found,  and  is  then  charred  and  scraped  down  to  the  required  degree 
of  thinness.  It  is  thro^vn  by  hand,  and  mounts  to  a  great  height  in 
the  air ;  it  has  the  singular  property  of  returning  to  the  point  from 
which  it  was  cast.  It  is  used  to  strike  enemies  or  game  that  may  be 
behind.  It  is  a  formidable  weapon,  and  inflicts  serious  and  often  fatal 
injuries.  Prior  to  the  arrival  of  the  whites  the  natives  did  not  know 
the  use  of  fish-hooks.  The  fish  they  captured  were  taken  in  nets  (where 
nets  were  in  use),  by  spearing  them  in  shallow  water  or  from  bark 
canoes,  or  by  driving  shoals  of  fish  before  them  with  boughs  into  very 
shallow  water  (as  at  Port  Lincoln)  and  then  throwing  them  out  by  hand, 
on  to  the  beach,  where  they  were  picked  up  by  the  women  and  others 
who  were  waiting  for  them.  Large  game,  such  as  kangaroos,  emus,  &;c.,. 
were  cunningly  stalked.  One  or  more  blackfellows  hidden  behind 
bushes  would  make  slight  noises,  like  the  breaking  of  small  twigs,  to 
attract  the  animal's  attention,  while  another  would  steal  slowly,  spear 
in  hand,  towards  the  game,  his  body  being  all  the  while  concealed  by  a 
large  bush  carried  in  advance  in  the  left  hand ;  as  soon  as  the  hunter 
got  near  enough  he  w'ould  hurl  the  spear  with  all  his  force,  and  the  aim. 


ABORIGINES.  409 

was  rarely  missed.  At  other  times  the  game  was  rounded  up  by  beaters 
and  driven  past  places  where  the  hunters  were  lying  in  ambush,  when 
the  prey  was  either  speared  or  knocked  over  by  clubs  as  might  be  most 
convenient  at  the  moment.  Opossums  are  taken  from  their  holes  in 
trees.  The  himter  looks  for  the  marks  of  the  animal's  claws  on  the 
bark,  and,  if  fresh,  he  ascends  the  trunk  by  cutting  notches  in  the  thick 
green  bark  at  intervals  deep  enough  for  the  insertion  of  the  big  toe.  A 
short  hard  spear  thrust  into  the  bark  furnishes  a  support  while  cutting  a 
notch.  When  the  notch  is  cut  the  stone  axe  is  driven  in  the  bark  as 
a  support  whilst  the  spear  is  being  withdrawn  and  driven  in  a  little 
higher  up.  A  tree  is  scaled  very  quickly,  and  apparently  without  diffi- 
culty, in  this  way.  The  next  thing  is  to  explore  the  hole  with  a  stick 
or  spear.  If  the  opossum  is  there,  the  hunter  feels  his  way  cautiously 
imtil  he  is  able  to  thrust  the  pointed  stick  or  spear  through  its  body, 
when  it  is  easily  taken  out.  This  last  operation  has  some  risk  in  it, 
because  opossums  are  very  tenacious  of  life  and,  if  nor  disabled,  bite 
savagely.  There  is  little  fear  of  the  same  escaping,  because  opossums 
do  not  leave  their  holes  until  dusk,  night  being  the  time  when  they  come 
down  from  the  trees  to  feed  on  the  ground. 

The  food  of  the  aborigines  is  multifarious.  Animals,  birds,  fishes, 
reptiles,  grubs,  and  insects  (such  as  white  ants),  roots,  and  indigenous 
fruits  are  all  laid  under  contribution  for  their  sustenance.  Some  kinds 
are  not  used  at  all  as  food,  other^  are  forbidden  to  females  at  ail  times 
and  to  boys  and  youths  until  they  are  made  men,  when  they  may  eat 
whatever  they  feel  disposed  to  eat.  Snakes  and  lizards  are  much  prized  ; 
the  former,  however,  are  not  used  unless  the  blacks  who  may  eat  them 
have  either  killed  them  themselves  or  seen  them  killed.  They  have  a 
notion  that  the  snake  can  bite  itself,  in  which  case  the  flesh  is  believed 
to  become  poisonous.  The  cookery  of  the  natives  is  very  simple.  They 
either  roast  their  food  on  embers  or  steam  it  in  ovens.  The  oven  is 
a  hole  dug  in  the  ground,  in  which  a  fire  is  kindled  and  allowed  to 
burn  down  to  hot  cinders.  Stones  are  placed  on  them  to  make  a  flat 
sui-face.  On  this  comes  a  layer  of  damp  grass,  then  the  food,  then  more 
grass,  which  is  finally  covered  over  with  earth.  In  a  short  time  a  stick 
is  passed  through  the  mound  down  to  the  hot  stones,  and  into  the  hole 
so  made  water  is  poured  sufficient  to  generate  a  great  deal  of  steam 
without  quenching  the  fire.  When  the  food  is  supposed  to  be  cooked 
the  earth  is  carefully  removed  and  the  dinner  or  meal  is  disposed  of. 

Of  the  religion  of  the  aborigines  little  can  be  said.  They  all  believe 
in  one  or  more  spirits  of  evil,  and  are  in  great  ch-ead  of  them,  and  they 
have  a  vague  idea  of  a  future  state.  Fire  is  supposed  to  keep  the  evil 
spirits  away,  and  few  blacks  will  move  about,  even  from  hut  to  hut,  at 


410  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

night  without  taking  a  firestick  with  tlieni  for  protection  against  their 
influenoe.  They  have  no  distinct  notion  of  one  Supreme  Ahnighty 
Creator  who  made  the  universe  and  rules  over  it.  Their  superstitions  are 
almost  as  various  as  the  tribes  which  entertain  them.  Many  of  them  are 
■given  at  length  in  "  The  Native  Tribes  of  South  Australia,"  mentioned 
in  a  former  page,  but  are  too  long  to  be  inserted  here.  The  natives 
are  easily  impressible,  and  it  does  not  seem  an  arduous  task  to  make 
them  assent  to  the  doctrines  of  Christianity.  The  difficulty  is  to  induce 
them  to  practise  the  requirements  of  the  Christian  religion.  In  order  to 
accomplish  this  it  is  indispensable  that  they  should  be  entirely  Aveaned 
from  their  original  habits  and  customs.  This  is  absolutely  impossible 
as  regards  the  old  men  of  the  tribes,  who  rule  over  everything.  The 
younger  ones  are  more  practicable,  but  to  reach  them  they  must  be 
completely  freed  from  the  influences  of  the  old  people.  Unless  this  can 
be  done  they  are  constantly  tempted  to  rejoin  their  tribes,  and  if  they  do 
they  invariably  become  Avorse  in  every  respect  than  they  were  before. 
Mr.  Taplin  said  in  1879  : — ''  There  are  now  three  classes  of  natives — old 
■blacks  who  hold  fast  to  the  customs  of  the  tribes ;  the  natives  who  have 
imitated  the  worst  vices  of  the  Eurojoeans  and  become  dnmkards  (these 
have  neither  religion  or  morality  and  are  utterly  lawless) ;  and,  lastly, 
the  Christian  natives,  who  are  every  year  increasing  in  numbers  and  are 
the  healthiest  of  their  race."  It  has  been  shown  that  the  aborigines  as 
a  whole  have  greatly  diminished  in  numbers  since  Mr.  Taplin  wrote,  but 
whether  the  Christian  natives  taken  separately  have  increased  at  all,  or 
to  what  extent,  there  is  no  information. 

The  aborigines  have  amusements  of  their  own.  Wrestling,  ball  play, 
spear  throwing,  kc,  are  practised  by  them,  but  chiefly  by  the  younger 
men.  The  most  important  is  the  corrobboree,  called  "  koore  "  by  the 
Adelaide  and  Encounter  Bay  tribes  and  "  ringbalin  "  by  the  Narrinyeri. 
This  is  a  dance  in  which  both  men  and  women  take  jjart,  but  only  a 
very  few  women  join  in  at  any  time.  What  its  sjjecial  signification  may 
be  depends  upon  the  circumstances  under  which  it  takes  place.  War, 
himting,  and  other  pursuits  and  ideas  are  represented  at  these  festivals. 
They  nearly  always  occur  when  the  moon  is  full,  but  fires  are  lit  all 
around  the  spot  where  the  dance  is  held.  The  males  paint  themselves 
with  white  clay  on  the  face,  arms,  ribs,  thighs,  and  legs  so  that  the 
•outlines  of  the  bones  are  marked.  Bunches  of  twigs  with  green  leaves, 
and  sometimes  of  feathers,  are  tied  round  the  legs  and  ankles,  and  their 
heads  are  ornamented  with  plumes  or  tufts  of  grass.  The  mai'kings  of 
the  men  with  Avhite  clay  are  different  in  different  tribes.  The  women  are 
seated  round  the  scene  of  action,  and  sing  a  monotonous  chant,  beating 
time  on  opossum  rugs  folded  and  resting  on  their  knees.     Mr.  Taplin 


AHORTOINF.S.  411 

says  : — "  In  most  '  ringbalin  '  the  men  only  dance  ;  the  women  sit  on  the 
ground  and  sing.  The  songs  are  sometimes  harmless  and  the  dances  not 
indecent,  but  at  other  times  the  songs  will  consist  of  the  vilest  obscenity. 
I  have  seen  dances  which  were  the  most  disgusting  displays  of  obscene 
gesture  possible  to  be  imagined.  .  .  .  The  corrobboree  of  the  natives 
is  not  necessarily  a  religious  observance ;  there  is  nothing  of  worship 
connected  with  it.  It  is  used  as  a  charm  to  frighten  away  disease,  and 
also  in  some  ceremonies ;  but  its  real  character  is  only  that  of  a  song  and 
a  dance."  Many  of  the  songs  which  are  sung  on  these  occasions  have 
no  meaning.  Some  of  the  old  men  say  that  they  were  handed  down  to 
them  by  their  ancestors.  If  they  had  a  signification  at  any  time  it  has 
been  lost.  As  far  as  the  musical  powers  of  the  natives  are  concerned. 
Dr.  Wyatt  says  that  they  possess  a  correct  musical  ear,  and  have  learned 
to  play  tunes  on  the  violin  and  to  sing  simple  melodies.  In  Mr.  Taplin's 
"Aboriginal  Folklore"  one  of  the  corrobboree  songs  has  been  reduced 
to  musical  notation.  There  is  nothing  in  it,  except  that  it  is  a  specimen 
of  the  musical  expression  of  primitive  savages. 

All  of  the  known  tribes  believe  in  sorcery,  but  it  is  practised  by  them 

in  different  ways.     The  most  effective  as  well  as  the  most  prevalent  form 

is  that  of  the  bone.     This  instrument  is  either  a  bone  of  some  animal, 

bird.  Of  fish  of  which  an  enemy  or  a   person  against  whom   he  has  a 

-grudge  has  eaten  or  a  small  bone  of  a  human  leg.     This  is  scraped  to  a 

point  and  inserted  into  a  lump  compounded  of  fish  oil,  red  ochre,  the  eye 

of  a  Murray  cod,  and   a  piece  of  human  flesh.     This  is  stuck  into  a 

human  corpse  in  order  to  give  it  deadly  potency  from  the  decomposition 

of  the  body.      When  it  is  wanted  for  use  the  owner  sticks  the  bone  into 

'the  ground  near  a  fire,  so  that  the  lump  may  gradually  melt  away.     The 

person   who    plants   it  firmly  believes  that   as  it  melts  it  will  produce 

■disease  in  the  person  for  whom  it  is  designed,  no  matter  how  far  away 

he  may  be.     The  entire  melting  of  the  lump  is  supposed  to  cause  death. 

Amongst  the  Dieyerie  tribe  the  bone  is  pointed  towards  the  place  where 

the  intended  victim  is  supposed  to  dwell.     When  a  native  finds  that  he 

Jias  got  the  bone  he  is  certain  that  his  doom  is  pronounced,  and  he 

gradually  pines  away  and  dies.     A  black  will  follow  another  who  has 

vgiven  the  bone  to  one  of  his  tribe  for  an  immense  distance  in  order  to 

-avenge  his  death.     Secret  assassination  is  resorted   to   by  some  of  the 

natives.     They  will  puncture  a  foot  or  other  part  of  a  sleeping  enemy 

with  a  sharp  bone  poisoned  by  being  placed  in  the  body  of  a  dead  person 

•or  animal.      This  being  done,  the  death  of  the  victim  is  almost  certain. 

Another  mode  of  dispatching  a  foe  is  to  creep  upon  him  whilst  asleep 

with  a  thin  bone  scraped  very  fine  and  sharp,  which  is  thrust  into  the 

^neck  above  the  collar-bone  in  a  slanting  direction  for  6iu.  or  Sin.  and 


412  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

then  withdrawn,  the  finger  and  thumb  of  the  left  hand  being  ready  to- 
close  the  wound.  The  orifice  is  kept  closed  by  pressure  for  a  short  time, 
and  a  little  earth  is  taken  up  and  sprinkled  on  the  part,  so  that  no  blood 
can  be  seen. — [Wyatt.]  The  natives  believe  that  the  bone  has  no  power 
over  white  men. 

North  American  Indians  have  their  medicine  men,  African  negroes 
their  rainmakers,  and  the  Australian  native  possesses  both.  The  medi- 
cine men  cure  all  diseases  by  sucking  the  part  supposed  to  be  affected 
and  extracting  from  the  spot  pieces  of  stick,  stones,  string,  charcoal,  or 
anything  else  which  can  be  conveniently  concealed  by  the  operator 
whilst  his  incantations  are  proceeding.  Mr.  Taplin  mentions  one  instance 
where  a  white  man  allowed  himself  to  be  operated  on  by  a  native  doctor 
for  a  rheumatic  pain  in  his  shoulder.  The  result  of  the  process  was  the 
apparent  extraction,  after  various  charms,  besides  whistling  and  dancing 
about  the  patient,  of  a  small  piece  of  the  leg  of  an  old  chair  which  had 
been  kicking  about  the  back  yard  for  weeks  before.  Some  of  the  doctors 
bind  up  fractured  limbs  with  splints  and  bandages  [Eyre],  and  others 
case  them  in  a  coating  of  clay,  which  has  the  same  effect  as  the  starch 
bandage  of  modern  surgery.  The  process  of  rainmaking  is  accompanied 
by  various  charms  and  incantations ;  all  of  them  are  mysterious,  and  vary 
according  to  the  ingenuity  of  the  men  who  perform  them.  In  Central 
Australia,  according  to  Gason,  it  is  a  most  solemn  function,  but  the 
details  are  too  long  for  insertion  here. 

A  kind  of  rude  art  prevails  amongst  all  ihe  tribes,  such  as  the  fashion- 
ing of  their  spears,  shaping  clubs  and  boomerangs,  Avhich  are  all  done 
with  sharp  stones,  and  must  require  an  immense  amount  of  labor.  The 
natives  on  the  southern  coast  and  on  the  Murray  make  nets,  canoes,  and 
very  handy  baskets  and  mats.  In  North -West  Australia  sti'ange  paint- 
ings have  been  discovered  on  the  walls  of  caves,  but  whether  these  are 
the  work  of  the  aborigines  is  by  no  means  certain.  No  traces  of  any 
permanent  marks  or  carvings  upon  wood  or  stone  which  would  indicate 
the  smallest  idea  of  writing  have  been  found  anywhere.  The  blacks 
signal  to  each  other  by  means  of  fires,  which  give  off  a  considerable 
amount  of  smoke,  and,  as  far  as  their  meaning  has  been  authenticated, 
they  seem  merely  to  denote  the  whereabouts  of  different  sections  of  tribes 
who  are  scattered  at  distances  apart,  or  the  occurrence  of  something 
imusual  which  might  perhaps  prompt  those  who  see  them  to  make  for 
the  place  whence  the  smokes  arise.  It  has  recently  been  claimed  for  the 
smoke  signals  that  they  afford  means  of  sending  abroad  special  items  of 
news,  and  that  thej-  are  not  only  various  in  their  characters  but  strangely 
complex  and  at  the  same  time  effective.  Of  these  it  may  be  sufficient  to 
say  here  that  they  have  not  yet  been  supported  by  evidence  sufficient 


ABORIGINES.  413 

to  establish  the    existence   of   any  such    signalling  codes  amongst   the 
natives  as  a  reliable  fact. 

Several  institutions  have  been  established  for  the  civilisation  and  train- 
ing of  the  blacks  in  South  Australia.     Native  schools  were  founded  in 
Adelaide  in  the  very  early  days  of  the  colony,  but  they  were  not  attended 
Avith  any  great  degree  of  success.     The   adult  natives  who  hung  about 
Adelaide  often  got  the  children  away  for  days  and  even  weeks  together, 
and  most  of  the  good  that  was  done  to  them  was  neutralised.     Moreover, 
there  was  no  means   in  existence  by  which    the  young  who  had    been 
properly  looked  after  could  be  guided  and  protected  after  they  had  left 
school.     To  meet  this  difficulty  Archdeacon  Hale,  subsequently  Bishop 
of  Perth,  in  Western  Australia,  established  the  Poonindie  mission  near 
Port  Lincoln,  which  was  carried  on  by  him,  with  Government  and  other 
assistance,  for  many  years.     The  mission  was  established  in  1850  and  is 
still  in  existence,  though    the  Government  grant-in-aid   has  ceased  for 
some  years.     In  its  time  the  Poonindie  institution  has  done  much  good, 
but,  owin''  to  the  gradual  decrease  in  the  number  of   natives,  limited 
resources,   and   other    causes,   the   establishment  is  not  now  in  a  very 
flourishing  condition.      The   Aborigines'    Friends'   Association  have   an 
establishment   at    Point    McLeay,    on    Lake    Alexandrina,    which   was 
founded    in     1859    and    placed    under    the    charge    of    the    late    Rev. 
George  Taplin.       It  was  established   for  the  instruction  and   evangeli- 
sation of   the  lake  tribes   of  aborigines.     The  society  receives  a  grant 
from    the    Government    of    £1,000    a    year.       The    operations   of    the 
managers  have  been  generally  successfid  as  far  as  they  have  extended, 
and  there  are   now  about   200  natives   living  on  the  station.      In  the 
busy    season,    when    wool-washing,    &c.,    are    being    carried    on,    the 
number  increases  to  about  400.     The  society  holds  about  4,500  acres  of 
land  under  lease  from  the  Government,  which  is  used  partly  for  cultiva- 
tion and  partly  for  depasturing  sheep.     The  area  of  land,  however,  is 
very  small,  and,  not  being  of  good  quality,  the  returns  are  not  great. 
There  is  a  school  attached  to  the  station,  with  sixty-two  scholars  on  the 
roll,  viz.,  thirty-four  boys  and  twenty-eight  girls,  with  an  average  daily 
attendance  of  twenty-nine.     At  Point  Pearce,  on  Yorke  Peninsula,  there 
is  a  mission  station  under  the  care  of  a  private  religious  body.     This  is 
not  in  receipt  of  any  Government  aid.     The  Lutheran  missionaries  have 
two  establishments  in  Central  Australia — one   at   Kopperamauna  (near 
Lake  Hope)  and  another  at  Hermannsberg  (on  the  Finke  river).     They 
hold  land  from  the  Government  on  lease,  and  have  a  small  yearly  grant. 
The  missions   themselves   are   in   a  fairly  prosperous   condition ;   but   at 
present  the  value  of  the  hibors  of  the  nussionaries  amongst  the  very  wild 
blacks  which  live   around   them   cannot   be   properly  estimated.     Some 


414  SOI  I'H    AISTRALIA. 

years  ago  a  mission  was  established  in  the  Northern  Territory,  about 
seven  miles  distant  from  Palmerston,  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers.  The  bad 
influences  to  which  the  natives  were  exposed  by  their  close  proximity  to. 
a  town  inhabited  by  Europeans  and  Chinese  hampered  the  clergymen  in 
charge  to  so  serious  a  degree  that  they  were  obliged  to  relinqviish  their 
undertaking  there.  They  have  now  a  station  on  the  Daly  river,  under 
the  charge  of  the  Very  Rev.  Donald  McKillop,  S.J.  This  mission  has  a 
lease  of  land  from  the  Government,  for  the  purposes  of  civilising  and 
instructing  the  natives,  and  a  small  annual  grant.  The  undertaking  is 
in  its  infancy,  but  those  who  have  the  conduct  of  its  affairs  are  sanguine 
as  to  their  ultimate  success.  The  real  difficulties  which  beset  those  who 
endeavor  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the  blacks  are,  in  the  first  place,, 
the  influence  of  the  old  men  of  the  tribes  over  those  who  are  brought 
Avithin  the  scope  of  the  mission,  and  the  next  is  the  intercourse  they  are 
certain  to  have  with  the  white  settlers.  Unless  these  two  destructive 
causes  can  either  be  obviated  or  neutralised,  no  greater  success  is  likely 
to  attend  new  enterprises  of  this  kind  than  has  attended  those  which 
have  been  in  operation  amongst  the  natives  for  the  last  fifty  years. 

It  has  been  said  aboA'e  that  the  Australian  black  is  impressible.  The 
evil  spirits  which  terrify  him  seem  to  be  less  powerful  than  the  spirits,. 
evil  or  otherwise,  which  attach  to  the  w^hite  man.  It  might  be  an  inte- 
resting inquiry  to  ascertain  how  much  of  this  kind  of  thing  prevails 
amongst  the  civilised  blacks.  At  present  the  evidences  are  singularly 
unsatisfactory.  This,  however,  is  a  matter  which  shoidd  concern  the 
conductors  of  the  native  institutions.  Over  forty  years'  experience  has 
not  shown  to  the  writer  much  difference  between  the  blacks  as  they  were 
and  as  they  are.  Well  managed  they  go  on  very  Avell ;  without  manage- 
ment they  take  an  opposite  direction.  It  is  impossible  to  manage  or 
control  them  all ;  and,  if  they  die  out,  it  may  be  some  consolation  to 
those  who  have  interested  themselves  on  behalf  of  the  aborigines  to  find 
that  human  agencies,  however  much  they  may  strive  for  good,  have  not 
been  able  to  conquer  that  tendency  which  asserts  itself  M^henever  civili-^ 
sation  and  barbarism  are  brought  on  one  common  ground. 


NORTHERN    TERRITORY.  415^ 


THE    NORTHERN    TERRITORY. 


Compiled  by  Mr.  H.  D.   Wilson. 


On  the  6th  July,  1863,  in  the  twenty-seventh  year  of  Her  Majesty's- 
reign,  the  Northern  Territory,  until  that  time  a  part   of  the  colony  of 
New  South  Wales,  was  by  Royal  Letters  Patent  annexed  to  the  province 
of   South   Australia.     The  large   tract   of  country  thus   joined    to  this 
colony  is  described  in  the   patent  deed  as  "  so  much  of  our  said  colony 
of  New  South  Wales  as  lies  to  the  northward  of  the  twenty-sixth  parallel 
of  south  latitude   and   between   the  one  hundred  and   twenty-ninth  and 
one  hundred  and  thirty-eighth  degrees  of  east  longitude,  together  with 
the  bays  and  gulfs  therein,  and  all  and  every  the  islands  adjacent  to  any 
part  of  the  main  land   within   such  limits  as  aforesaid,  with  the  rights, 
powers,  and  appurtenances."       The  area  comprised  in    the  land   thus 
annexed    is    523,620   square  miles,   or   335,116,800  acres;  and  its  nor- 
thernmost-point  nearly  touches  the  eleventh  parallel  of  south  latitude. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  that  portion  of  the  Indian  Ocean  known, 
as  the  Arafura  Sea ;  on  the  south  by  the  twenty-sixth  parallel  of  south 
latitude,  which  is  the  line   of  demarcation  between  it  and  South  Aus- 
tralia proper;    on  the  east  by  the    138th  meridian   of    east   longitude, 
which  divides  it  from    Queensland;     and    on    the    west  by    the    129th 
meridian  of  east  longitude,  which  separates  it  from  Western  Australia. 
The   eastern  boundary   line  of    this  territory  cuts  the  coast  near   the 
mouth  of  the  Wentworth  river,  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpen- 
taria, and  the  western  boundary  near  Cape  Domett,  east  of  Cambridge 
Gulf.     The  first  British   settlements   were  formed  in   1825,  on  Melville 
Island,  and  in   1827  at  Raffles  Bay.     In  1837  a  settlement  was  made  at 
Port  Essington  by  Sir  Gordon  Bremer,  which  was  for  the  purposes  of  a 
military  post  and  a  harbor   of  refuge  for  distressed  vessels.     This  settle- 
ment was  abandoned  in  1849. 

John  McDouall  Stuart  (the   explorer)  made  the   passage   across  the 
continent  in  1862,  and  in  1884  the  tree  marked  by  him  and  described  iii 


416  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

his  diary  was  found  by  a  Government  exploring  party  sent  from  Port 
Darwin.  Stuart  gave  such  a  favorable  report  of  the  character  of  the 
country  on  the  northern  coast  that  the  South  Australian  Government 
petitioned  the  Home  Government  and  obtained  the  grant  specified  in 
the  Letters  Patent.  In  1864  the  Government,  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
ducing settlement,  sold  a  large  quantity  of  land  at  a  low  rate,  and  Colonel 
Finniss,  first  Government  Resident,  was  sent  out  with  a  full  staff  to 
execute  the  surveying.  This  expedition,  from  various  causes,  but  chiefly 
from  the  landowners  objecting  to  the  site  selected  by  Mr.  Finniss  for 
the  chief  town  of  the  new  settlement  (^Escape  Cliffs),  proved  a  total 
failure,  and  was  recalled,  after  having  undergone  many  changes,  in  18B8, 
without  having  accomplished  the  survey,  thus  causing  an  immense  waste 
of  both  time  and  money.  In  the  following  year  another  expedition  was 
fitted  out  under  the  command  of  Mr.  G.  W.  Goyder,  by  whom  the  whole 
of  the  survey  required  was  completed  in  1870.  The  .«ite  then  selected  was 
Palmerston,  situated  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Port  Darwin,  a  magnificent 
harbor.  Shortly  after  this  Captain  Douglas  was  appointed  Government 
Resident,  and  a  permanent  staff  selected  to.  assist  in  the  official  manage- 
ment of  the  settlement;  he  retired  in  May,  1873,  and  was  succeeded  by 
the  late  Mr.  G.  B.  Scott,  S.M.,  who  remained  until  the  end  of  1876. 
when  he  resigned,  and  was  followed  by  Mr.  E.  W.  Price,  S.M.,  who  filled 
the  ofiice  for  a  period  of  seven  years.  In  1884  the  Hon.  J.  Langdon 
Parsons,  who  as  member  of  the  Bray  Government  and  Minister  for  the 
Territory  had  closely  identified  himself  with  the  country,  was  appointed 
to  the  position,  which  he  held  until  1890,  when  he,  together  with  Mr. 
T.  K.  Pater,  late  Police  Magistrate  of  Adelaide,  who  was  "appointed 
at  the  same  time  as  Judge  of  the  Territory,  relinquished  office  in 
consequence  of  retrenchments  made  in  the  Estimates  of  the  Territorj\ 
Afterwards  Mr.  J.  G.  Knight,  S.M.  and  the  senior  warden  of  the  gold- 
fields,  was  appointed  to  the  position.  Upon  the  death  of  Mr.  Knight 
in  1892,  Mr.  C.  J.  Dashwood  was  appointed  Resident  and  Judge. 

The  chief  to\vn  in  the  Northern  Territory  is  Palmerston,  very  often 
erroneously  called  Port  Darwin,  situated  upon  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  harbor  of  Port  Darwin,  and  laid  out  upon  an  extensive  ironstone 
ridge,  so  level  as  almost  to  justif}'  its  being  called  a  tableland. 
Its  frontage  to  the  sea  is  formed  by  white  stone  cliffs  from  60ft.  to 
80ft.  in  height  above  sea-level,  fringed  with  tropical  trees  of  luxuriant 
foliage,  in  every  imaginable  shade.  The  site  chosen  for  the  town  is 
excellent.  It  commands  a  magnificent  view  of  the  harbor,  and  cannot  be 
surpassed  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  its  elevated  and  exposed  position 
ensuring  all  the  advantages  of  the  health-giving  sea  breezes,  and  pro- 
viding natural  facilities  for  a  perfect   system  of  drainage.     The  streets 


NORTHERN     TERRITORY.  417 

are  wide  and  well  laid  out,  and  the  esplanade  bordering  the  town  for  nearly 
two  miles  could  not  well  be  improved  upon  as  a  beautiful  drive  or  place 
of  recreation.  The  township  is  under  the  control  of  a  district  council, 
possessing  a  fine  stone  town  hall,  in  which  its  monthly  meetings  are  held; 
the  members  of  the  district  council  are  also  the  local  board  of  health. 
There  is  a  strong  force  of  police  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  law 
and  order  amongst  a  large  alien  population,  under  the  control  of  Inspector 
Paul  Foelsche  and  a  corporal.  Courts  of  limited  and  full  jurisdiction 
are  held  every  month,  the  special  magistrates  being  Messrs.  C.  J. 
Dashwood  and  Paul  Foelsche.  Messrs.  Paul  Foelsche  (chairman),  J.  C. 
Hillson,  J.  A.  G.  Little,  H.  W.  H.  Stevens,  and  Dr.  O'Flaherty  constitute 
the  licensing  bench.  A  circuit  court,  presided  over  by  a  Judge  appointed 
by  commission  under  the  Northern  Territory  Justice  Act  of  1875,  sits 
every  six  months,  having  the  same  jurisdiction  over  all  cases  as  the 
Supreme  Court.  There  is  a  Government  hospital  situated  on  an 
elevated  site  fronting  the  harbor.  This  is  controlled  by  a  local 
board  of  management,  of  which  there  are  five  members,  with  a 
secretary  and  a  medical  officer.  The  Government  Resident's 
Department  consists  of  the  Government  Resident  and  Judge,  a 
secretary,  accountant,  &c.,  and  a  clerk.  The  Post  and  Telegraph 
Office  is  under  the  control  of  the  senior  (also  inspecting)  officer 
for  the  Northern  Territory  section  and  postmaster,  having  under  him 
five  telegraph  operators,  two  entering  clerks,  and  two  post  office  clerks. 
The  Customs  Office  is  supervised  by  an  officer  who  holds  the  positions 
of  sub-collector,  warehousekeeper,  registrar  of  shipping,  inspector 
of  distilleries  and  public-houses,  and  issuer  of  pearl  and  trepang  licences, 
having  under  him  an  assistant  landing-waiter,  three  clerks,  and  a 
messenger.  The  Survey  and  Lands  Office  is  controlled  by  a  chief 
clerk  and  draughtsman. 

The  Colonial  Surgeon,  Health  Officer,  and  Protector  of  Aborigines 
is  assisted  by  three  local  health  officers.  The  position  of  harbor-master 
and  other  minor  appointments,  such  as  returning  officer,  teacher  of 
public  school.  Government  gardener,  keeper  of  gaol,  stock  inspector,  &c., 
are  suitably  filled.  The  office  of  the  Eastern  Extension  Cable  Company 
immediately  adjoins  the  Overland  Telegraph  Office,  and  is  officered  by 
a  superintendent,  a  senior  clerk,  and  eight  operators.  The  population 
of  Palmerston  is  estimated  at  256  Europeans  and  920  Chinese  and  other 
Asiatics.  There  are  numerous  banks,  stores,  and  hotels,  a  newspaper 
(The  Northern  Territory  Times  and  Gazette),  and  all  other  trades  are 
fairly  represented.  The  local  Botanical  Garden,  formerly  under  the 
control  of  the  curator  of  the  Adelaide  Botanical  Gardens,  is  now 
controlled  by  his  son,  and  is  situated  about  a  mile  from  the  town- 
1)2 


418  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

ship,  and  shows  a  varied  and  large  collection  of  different  species  of 
tropical  and  semi-tropical  flora.  Outdoor  amusements  are  provided  for 
by  a  well  improved  cricket  ground  overlooking  the  harbor  and  a  lawn 
tennis  court.  The  harbor  affords  every  facility  for  rowing  and  sailing, 
and  a  well  fenced  in  swimming  bath  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  Fort  Hill, 
close  to  the  town.     The  other  towns  in  the  Territory  are — 

Burrundic,  situated  on  the  McKinlay  river,  and  passed  by  the 
Palmerston  and  Pine  Creek  railway  line  and  Transcontinental  telegraph 
line,  was  established  in  1884,  and  is  distant  from  Palmerston  124  miles 
south  ;  the  up-country  hospital,  under  the  supervision  of  Dr.  Lynch,  is 
located  here,  together  with  warden's  office,  post  and  telegraph  office,  and 
railway  and  police  stations.  Courts  of  limited  and  full  jurisdiction  are 
established,  and  hotel,  store,  and  other  trades  are  fairly  represented. 

Union  Town,  distant  from  Palmerston  139  miles,  is  the  centre  of 
a  large  mining  district.  It  has  a  post  and  telegraph  office,  railway 
station,  stores,  hotel,  and  other  necessary  trade  adjuncts. 

Pine  Creek,  the  present  terminus  of  the  Port  Darwin  end  of  the 
Transcontinental  railway  line,  is  situated  146  miles  south  of  Palmerston, 
on  the  Transcontinental  telegraph  line ;  Mr.  Oiaf  Jensen  is  resident 
J. P.,  and  the  Government  buildings  consist  of  post  and  telegraph  offices 
and  railway  station  (controlled  by  Mr.  J.  M.  Johnston,  assisted  by  one 
operator),  and  police  station ;  stores,  hotels,  and  other  businesses  well 
represented. 

Katherine,  216  miles  south  of  Palmerston,  situated  on  the  border  of 
fine  pastoral  land,  possesses  post  and  telegraph  station.  Two  constables 
and  a  black  tracker  are  stationed  here.  There  are  two  resident 
magistrates.     Store,  hotel,  and  other  trades  are  represented. 

Borroloola,  situated  on  the  McArthur  river,  Gulf  of  Carpentaria, 
the  distance  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  being  forty-seven  miles,  and,  by 
sea,  about  700  miles  from  Port  Darwin,  was  established  in  1885.  Com- 
munication with  Port  Darwdn  is  maintained  by  steamer  every  ten  weeks, 
and  overland  mails  arrive  from  and  are  dispatched  to  Camooweal,  on 
the  Queensland  border,  every  month.  This  township  promises  in  the 
near  future  to  be  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  Northern  Territory, 
as  it  is  the  natural  outlet  for  a  very  large  tract  of  pastoral  country. 
The  head  of  the  Government  here  is  the  warden.  Customs  officer,  and 
magistrate  over  courts  of  limited  and  full  jurisdiction ;  two  constables 
with  black  trackers  are  stationed  here.  There  are  two  hotels,  two 
stores,  and  the  various  other  trades  w'hich  help  to  form  the  nucleus  of 
a  new  settlement  are  well  represented. 

Several  mining  camps  are  established  in  the  settlement. 


NORTHERN    TERRITORY.  419 

Fountain  Head  is  situated  a  few  miles  off  the  Overland  Telegraph 
line,  and  about  108  miles  south  of  Palmerston. 

Brock's  Creek,    about  three  miles  north  of  Fountain  Head,    on  the 
line  of  railway. 

Howley,    on   the   Overland  Telegraph  line,    101  miles  south  of  Pal- 
merston. 

Grove  Hill,  about  four  miles   from   the   railway  and  telegraph  line, 
118  miles  south  of  Palmerston. 

Woolwonga  Camp  is  about  six  miles  to  the  north  of  Grove  Hill. 

Maude  Creek,  on  the  Overland  Telegraph  line,  230  miles   south  of 
Palmerston. 

Extended  Union  is  about  seven  miles  from  the  Union  raihvay  station, 
and  148  miles  from  Palmerston. 

There  are  other  settlements,  such  as  the 

Roper  River,  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  police  station  and  post  office. 

Anthony's    Lagoon,    130    miles    east    of   Powell's    Creek,    telegraph 
station. 

Camooweal,  on  the   Queensland  border,  police  station  and  Customs 
office. 

The  Overland  Telegraph  stations  are — 

Daly  Waters,  368  miles  from  Palmerston. 

Powell's  Creek,  506  miles  from  Palmerston. 

Tennant's  Creek,  619  miles  from  Palmerston. 

Barrow's  Creek,  766  miles  from  Palmerston. 

Alice  Springs,  937  miles  from  Palmerston,  is  the  central  telegraph 
station,  with  one  senior  and  inspecting  officer  and  three  operators. 

Charlotte  "Waters,  1,169  miles  from  Palmerston. 

Port  Darwin  is  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  Australia,  second  only  in 
magnitude  and  importance  to  that  which  is  claimed  to  be  the  best — Port 
Jackson,  N.S.W.  It  was  named  after  Dr.  Darwin,  who  sailed  with  King 
in  his  survey  of  the  north  coast  of  Australia  (1818  to  1822),  and  is 
situated  in  latitude  12°  28'  22"  S.,  and  longitude  130°  50'  26-04"  E. 
Vessels  of  any  tonnage  can  enter,  and  when  inside  are  perfectly  secui'e, 
as  the  harbor  is  almost  completely  landlocked.  The  entrance  is  two  miles 
wide,  with  a  depth  of  water  of  about  fifteen  fathoms.  The  harbor  itself 
has  a  varying  depth  of  from  four  to  fifteen  fathoms,  is  entirely  free  from 
obstructions,  and  has  deep  water  very  close  in  to  the  shore.  It  is  high 
water  at  full  and  change  5  hours  25  minutes.  Springs  rise  from  16ft.  to 
24ft. ;  neaps  2ft.  to  12ft. ;  the  tides  are  irregular,  the  ebb  stream  making 
40  minutes  before  high  water  ;  the  harbor  possesses  one  of  the  best 
natural  dry  docks  in  the  world,  a  sloping  sandy  bank  at  the  foot  of  Fort 
Hill,  on  to  which  vessels  can  be  taken  at  high  water  during  spring  tides, 


420  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

repaired  at  low  water,  and  floated  again  on  the  incoming  tide.  After 
the  volcanic  eruptions  in  the  Straits  of  Sunda  the  ocean-going  steamer 
Menmuir,  when  crossing  the  Arafura  Sea  from  Hongkong,  had  her 
propeller  blades  broken  off  by  contact  with  vast  fields  of  pumice  stone, 
thi-own  up  by  the  eruptions.  She  had  duplicates  on  board,  and  these  were 
seciu-ely  fixed  on  in  this  natural  dry  dock.  In  November,  1886,  the  new 
railway  jetty  was  completed.  It  is  a  very  fine  specimen  of  workmanship, 
and  unique  in  that  it  is  the  only  copper-sheathed  pile  jetty  in  the  colonies, 
and  has  some  of  the  longest  piles  on  record.  The  contractor  Avas  Mr. 
W.  Wishart,  and  the  price  tendered  was  £39,817  16s.  8d.  The  jetty 
has  berths  for  four  vessels — two  on  each  side — and  the  depth  of  water 
shoidd  be  sufficient  for  almost  any  ship  afloat,  ranging  from  38ft.  at  the 
outer  to  25ft.  at  the  inner  end  at  low  water  springs.  At  low  tide  the 
deck  of  the  jetty  is  31ft.  above  the  water,  while  at  high  tide  there  is 
only  a  distance  of  6ft.  The  total  length  of  the  jetty  is  1,1 20ft.,  the  narrow 
portion  being  670ft.  long  by  20ft.  wide,  while  the  wide  part  is  450ft. 
long  and  55ft.  wide.  The  piles  used  in  the  jetty  run  from  20ft.  to  86ft. 
long,  with  a  diameter  of  from  iSin.  to  2ft.  4in.  The  piles  and  framing  are 
all  sheathed  with  20oz.  Muntz  metal  up  to  high-water  mark,  and  bolted 
together  with  Muntz  metal  bolts.  Boat  steps,  fitted  with  chequer  foot- 
plates, have  been  built  at  the  inner  end  of  the  wide  portion  on  the  west 
side,  and  a  lighthouse  placed  at  the  extreme  end.  The  jetty  is  fitted 
with  mooring  posts  and  chains.  Passenger  vessels  in  want  of  water, 
ballast,  or  ships'  stores  can  always  obtain  a  ready  supply  in  Port  Darwin. 
The  harbor  until  1880  was  a  free  port,  all  Customs  duties,  harbor,  light, 
tonnage,'  pilotage,  and  other  dues  being  abolished.  In  1880  the  Customs 
tariff  of  South  Australia  proper,  with  one  or  two  additions,  was  adopted 
and  is  still  in  force. 

The  Northern  Territory  is  possessed  of  many  magnificent  rivers,  some 
of  them  being  navigable  for  very  large  ships  for  considerable  distances, 
and  all  of  them  navigable  with  suitable  craft. 

The  Mc Arthur  empties  into  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  directly  oppo- 
site the  Sir  Edward  Pellew  Group,  its  mouth  being  close  to  Centre  Island. 
It  is  navigable  for  small  vessels  for  fifty  miles — three  miles  beyond  the 
township  of  Borroloola.  Although  only  navigable  for  small  craft,  the 
fact  is  not  of  much  importance,  since  there  are  excellent  harbors  at  the 
mouth.  The  outer  bar  of  the  channel,  which  Captain  Carrington  considers 
the  best,  is  approximately  south-west,  distant  five  miles  from  the  south- 
east point  of  Centre  Island.  The  bar  has  6ft.  to  7ft.  at  low  water,  and 
the  channel  carries  from  12ft.  to  30ft.  up  to  and  inside  the  river  proper. 
The  country  through  which  the  McArthur  flows  is  held  on  pastoral 
lease. 


NORTHERN     TERRITORY.  421 

The  Roper  river  empties  its  waters  into  the  extreme  south-west 
part  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  at  Limmen's  Bight.  Its  mouth  is  to  some 
extent  sheltered  by  Maria  Island,  lying  some  fourteen  miles  east  of  it. 
The  river  is  navigable  for  vessels  drawing  10ft.  to  12ft.  for  a  distance  of 
upwards  of  ninety  miles.  The  Rojier  is  the  best  knoAA-n,  and  has  been 
frequented  more  by  Europeans  than  any  stream  on  our  northern  coast. 
Stores  and  material  were  landed  there  for  the  construction  of  the  northern 
portion  of  the  Overland  Telegraph  line.  The  land  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  for  a  long  distance,  during  the  wet  season,  is  subject  to  inundation. 
The  Hodgson  and  Wilton  rivers  flow  into  it ;  the  latter  is  unnavigable 
and  filled  with  rocks  at  its  junction  with  the  Roper.  About  three  miles 
from  the  junction  of  the  Hodgson  with  the  Roper  there  is  a  rocky  bar 
extending  across  it.  The  country  on  either  side  is  described  as  good,  grass 
and  herbage  being  abundant. 

The  Walker  is  the  only  river  which  empties  into  Blue  Mud  Bay. 
Further  to  the  south-west,  in  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  it  was  struck  by 
Lindsay  in  1883,  when  exploring  Arnheim's  Land. 

The  Goyder,  which  empties  into  Castlereagh  Bay,  is  another  stream 
which,  from  description,  will  never  be  of  much  service  to  settlers  in  the 
vicinity.  The  banks  are  lined  with  dense  impenetrable  mangroves,  and 
the  head  of  navigation  is  about  thirteen  miles  from  the  entrance. 

The  Blyth,  which  empties  into  Boucaut  Bay,  is  navigable  for  a  dis- 
tance of  eighteen  miles.  The  country  on  its  banks  is  described  as  fair  to 
good  pastoral.  At  ten  miles  from  its  mouth  it  divides,  the  western  branch 
being  named  the  Cadell. 

I'he  Liverpool,  with  its  tributaries,  the  Tomkinson  and  Taylor,  empties 
a  few  miles  from  the  Blyth,  and  is  also  described  as  running  through 
good  pastoral  country. 

The  Alligator  rivers,  three  in  number,  were  discovered  in  1820  by 
Captain  Philip  King,  who  named  them  respectively  the  East,  South, 
and  West  Alligators,  owing  to  their  similarity.  The  Government  steamer 
Palmerston  ascended  the  South  river  without  difficulty  a  distance  of 
thirty  miles  ;  the  East  river  was  examined  for  a  distance  of  forty-five 
miles,  forty  of  which  can  be  na-v-igated  by  small  craft  drawing  from  8ft. 
to  10ft.  ;  there  is  a  large  tidal  rise  in  these  rivers,  and  the  streams  run 
with  great  strength.  The  three  streams  empty  into  Van  Dicmcn  Gulf, 
close  to  Fincke  Bay,  on  the  shore  of  which  Stuart's  marked  tree  was 
found  in  1884. 

The  Adelaide  and  the  Victoria  are  the  two  finest  rivers  on  the 
northern  coast.  The  Adelaide  empties  into  Adam  Bay.  It  is  navigable 
at  tide  time  for  vessels  drawing  16ft.  to  18ft.,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Beatrice  Rock  and  the  bar,  the  ujiper  reaches  are  apparently  clear 


422  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

of  any  obstruction.  The  only  difficulties  are  at  its  entrance  through 
Adam  Bay  and  the  first  reach  after  passing  the  narrows.  It  is  accessible 
to  vessels  drawing  10ft.  to  12ft.,  and  M'as  navigated  by  the  s.s.  Palmer- 
ston  for  over  eighty  miles.  The  river  winds  through  magnificently  grassed 
plains,  with  lagoons  at  frequent  intervals ;  Escape  Cliffs,  the  first  settle- 
ment, was  at  the  mouth  this  I'iver. 

The  Daly  river,  which  empties  into  Anson  Bay,  is  navigable  with 
light  draught  boats  for  a  distance  of  about  sixty  miles.  Langdon  Island 
lies  just  inside  the  mouth,  thus  making  two  channels.  There  is  not  more 
than  3ft.  on  the  bar  at  low  water  spring  tides  ;  the  rise  of  tide  is,  how- 
ever, large,  being  from  18ft.  to  24ft.,  so  that  large  ships  can  enter  and 
find  good  anchorage.  Splendid  agricultural  lands  exist  on  its  banks, 
and  the  Daly  river  copper  mines  are  situated  only  five  miles  from  the 
bank  of  the  stream.  There  is  an  aboriginal  mission  station  on  the  Daly, 
under  the  charge  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers. 

The  Victoria  river  was  discovered  and  surveyed  by  Captain  Stokes, 
of  H.M.S.  Beagle,  in  1839.  It  penetrates  further  into  the  continent  than 
any  other  river  on  the  northern  coast,  and  empties  its  waters  into  the 
Indian  Ocean  in  latitude  14°  40"  S.  and  longitude  129°  21"  E.,  or  twenty 
miles  east  of  om-  western  boundary.  Its  mouth  is  twenty-six  miles  wide 
between  Turtle  and  Pierce  points.  The  Victoria  is  navigable  for  ships 
of  the  largest  class  for  a  distance  of  fifty  miles  from  the  sea,  and  further 
for  a  distance  of  sixty  miles  with  suitable  river  craft  drawing  not  more 
than  3ft.  This  is  to  a  point  known  as  Gregory's  Camp,  where  that 
explorer  camped  for  some  months,  and  may  be  considered  the  head  of 
navigation.  The  navigation  of  the  Victoria  presents  little  difficulty,  even 
for  a  stranger.  The  best  route  into  the  river  is  by  Queen's  Channel,  the 
entrance  to  which  is  between  two  sand  heads  a  mile  apart.  The  northern 
sandy  head  is  the  extreme  of  Quoin  Island  spit;  the  southern  is  an 
isolated  shoal  and  liable  to  shift,  as  the  Admiralty  chart  gives  the  dis- 
tance as  two  miles.  Speaking  of  the  Victoria  river,  Captain  Carrington 
says : — "  Perhaps  the  value  of  this  magnificent  stream  as  a  commercial 
highway  may  be  better  shown  by  comparison.  In  comparing  it  with 
others  I  have  only  in  view  its  capability  as  a  harbor  and  its  easiness  of 
access.  Bearing  this  in  mind,  I  have  no  hesitation  whatever  in  saying 
that  the  Victoria  is  far  superior  to  the  Thames,  Mersey,  or  Hooghly. 
The  quantity  of  country  that  the  Victoria  is  the  natural  and,  I  believe, 
the  only  outlet  for  is  approximately  90,000  square  miles,  or,  say, 
57,000,000  acres.  This  includes  a  small  strip  of  Western  Australia.  Of 
the  major  portion  of  this  vast  tract  little  is  generally  known ;  it  is,  how- 
ever, all  or  nearly  all  taken  up  by  pastoralists,  and  is  being  rapidly 
stocked." 


NORTHERN     TERRITORY.  423 

The  foregoing  is  an  indorsement  of  the  opinion  of  Captain  Stokes,  its 
discoverer.  A  glance  at  the  map  will  show  that  they  have  not  overrated 
its  importance,  and  it  must  be  admitted  that  as  the  Murray  is  to  south- 
eastern Australia,  so  in  value  and  importance  is  the  great  River  Victoria 
to  the  opposite  side  of  the  continent. 

In  the  northern  portion  of  the  Ten-itory  the  year  is  regularly  divided 
into  two  climatic  periods — the  wet  season,  which  extends  from  about  the 
end  of  October  until  the  end  of  April,  and  the  dry  season,  from  May  to 
September. 

Mr.  J.  A.  G.  Little,  who  has  charge  of  the  Overland  Telegraph  Depart- 
ment and  Observatory  at  Port  Darwin,  gives  the  following  interesting 
description  of  the  climatic  changes: — "Signs  of  the  approach  of  the  wet 
season  appear  immediately  after  the  sun  has  crossed  the  equator  during 
the  spring  equinox  in  September,  when  the  strong  east-south-east  mon- 
soon, which  has  been  blowing  continually  throughout  the  dry  season, 
ceases,  and  is  succeeded  by  calms  and  light  variable  winds ;  the  weather 
becomes  intensely  hot,  and  small  thunderclouds  gather  over  the  land, 
increasing  in  size  and  density  day  by  day,  until  they  burst  into  terrific 
thunderstorms,  accompanied  by  hurricane  squalls  of  wind  and  rain. 

"  These  squalls  at  first  take  place  every  four  or  five  days,  gradually 
increasing  in  number  until  the  end  of  November,  when  they  occur  almost 
daily.  They  come  up  in  a  dense  black  bank,  and  travel  so  very  rapidly 
that  they  are  generally  out  of  sight  on  the  western  horizon  within  forty 
minutes.  About  an  inch,  or  sometimes  more,  of  heavy  driving  rain 
accompanies  each  storm. 

'•During  December  the  north-west  monsoon  gradually  gains  the  ascen- 
dency, and  blows  steadily,  with  an  occasional  break  of  calm  weather;  the 
thunderstorms  disappear,  the  sky  becomes  overcast  and  clouded,  and  the 
atmosphere  gets  thoroughly  saturated  with  moisture. 

"  This  is  felt  to  be  an  agreeable  change  after  the  intensely  hot  weather 
during  the  change  of  the  monsoon  in  October  and  November,  and 
although  the  humid  moist  atmosphere  induces  profuse  perspiration,  the 
effects  of  the  weather  are  not  nearly  so  impleasant  or  severe  as  those 
attending  the  dry  heat  experienced  in  the  southern  portion  of  Australia 
during  the  same  and  two  succeeding  months. 

"The  north-west  monsoon  is  accompanied  by  rain  almost  daily,  and 
increases  in  force  until  the  latter  end  of  January  or  beginning  of  February, 
when  it  is  blowing  with  full  force  and  penetrates  with  its  copious  and 
fertilising  showers  into  the  very  centre  of  Australia. 

"  During  this  period  thick  damp  weather  prevails,  the  clouds  being  very 
low,  and  scud  and  banks  of  nimbus  pass  over  almost  constantly  from  the 
north-west  to  the  south-east  with  great  rapidity.     The  maximum  tern- 


424  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

perature  in  the  shade  during  the  day  in  this  weather  is  96°  and  the 
minimum  during  the  night  is  65°. 

''On  the  approach  of  the  autumn  equinox  the  north-west  monsoon 
gradually  dies  away,  and  is  succeeded  by  calms,  variable  winds,  thunder- 
storms, and  oppressive  weather,  until  about  the  end  of  April,  when  cooler 
weather  is  felt,  the  south-east  monsoon  sets  in,  and  the  dry  season  may 
be  said  to  have  fairly  commenced.  This  season  is  characterised  by  a  clear 
sky,  enjoyable  weather,  heavy  dews,  and  cold  mornings  and  nights,  so 
much  so  that  blankets  can  be  used  when  sleeping.  It  blows  off  the  coast 
Avithout  intermission,  and  with  great  force,  almost  throughout  the  season, 
being  in  full  force  between  June  and  July. 

"  At  Port  Darwin  and  other  places  adjacent  to  the  coast  the  monsoon 
generally  drops  in  the  afternoon,  and  is  sometimes  succeeded  by  a  sea 
breeze,  which  is  merely  local,  and  only  extends  a  few  miles  inland.  The 
atmosphere  is  clear  and  dry  and  rather  hot  during  the  middle  of  the  day, 
the  maximum  temperature  in  the  day  being  89°  and  the  minimum  durinsc 
the  night  56°.  With  regard  to  the  suitability  of  the  country  for  European 
labor,  a  man  cannot  perform  the  amount  of  constant  work  that  he  is 
capable  of  accomplishing  in  a  more  temperate  climate,  but  still  there  is 
nothing  to  prevent  a  moderate  day's  work  being  done,  and,  further,  there 
is  an  almost  entire  absence  of  those  enervating  influences  which  prostrate 
the  European  laborer  in  other  tropical  countries,  such  as  India,  Java, 
Singapore,  or  Afi-ica.  Workmen  carry  out  their  various  avocations 
throughout  the  day  without  taking  any  precaution  to  ward  off  the  rays 
of  the  sun,  the  eight  hours  system  being  usually  adopted,  as  in  other 
parts  of  Australia.  The  climate  in  fact  may  be  said  to  be  more  of  that 
type  which  is  generally  known  as  Australian,  rather  than  tropical,  and 
the  same  remark  will,  with  very  few  exceptions,  also  apply  to  the  flora, 
fauna,  and  perspective  of  the  country. 

"  It  is  free  from  cholera  and  other  scourges  of  hot  countries,  and  on  the 
whole  may  be  considered  health^'.  Intermittent  fever,  commonly  -known 
as  fever  and  ague,  is  prevalent  at  times,  especially  in  low-lying  localities, 
or  immediately  after  the  wet  season,  but  this  complaint  is  not  dangerous 
in  itself,  and  can  often  be  prevented  by  a  moderate  and  judicious 
use  of  medicine  and  a  small  amount  of  bodily  exercise.  Clothing  of  a 
light  description  is  worn  throughout  the  j'ear,  white  being  the  best.  Cloth 
or  tweed  clothing  is  not  often  used,  and  flannel  is  not  recommended,  as  it 
produces  attacks  of  prickly  heat.  Persons  contemplating  planting  any  kind 
of  tropical  produce  should  arrange  to  have  their  ground  cleared  in  the 
dry  season,  and  ready  for  seed  during  the  commencement  of  the  rains  in 
October,  so  that  the  plants  may  have  the  full  benefit  of  the  wet  season 
"and  humid  weather.     Vegetable  growth  is  very  rapid  immediately  after 


NORTHERX     TERRITORY.  425 

the  rain  sets  in,  and  the  country  becomes  covered  with  grass  knee  deep  in 
the  course  of  a  few  weeks.  This  grass  runs  up  to  a  height  of  about  6ft. 
or  8ft.  during  the  wet  season,  and  ripens  early  in  May,  when  it  is 
burnt.  It  springs  again  on  flats  or  damp  places,  and  generally  continues 
green  and  fit  for  fodder  throughout  the  year." 

The  rainfall  during  the  past  twenty  years  has  averaged  from  45in.  to  ' 
81in.  in  each  season,  the  general  average  being  about  60in.,  the  largest 
proportion  of   which  falls   during   the  months  of  December,   January, 
February,  and  March. 

The  following  is  a  record  of  the  rainfall  during  the  past  ten  years  for 
the  wet  season,  calculated  from  the  month  of  August  to  the  month  of 
July  :— 

1882-3     63-106  inclies 

1883-4     64-770      «' 

1884-5  66-320  " 

1885-6  61-085  " 

1886-7  63-458  " 

1887-8  68-620  " 

1888.9  49-550  " 

1889-90  66-545  " 

1890-91  74-080  " 

1891-2  43'67o  " 

All  laws  which  are  in  force  in  South  Australia  proper  are  also  operative 
in  the  Northern  Territory  except  such  as  are  specially  exempted.  In 
addition  to  the  South  Australian  statutes  the  following  are  the  principal 
special  Acts  applying  to  the  Northern  Territory  only : — The  Northern 
Territory  Gold  Mining  Act  of  1873,  which  deals  with  alluvial  and  quartz 
gold  mining;  the  Gold  Mining  Act  Amendment  Act  of  1886,  which 
prevents  Asiatic  aliens  v/orking  upon  new  goldfields  until  two  years  after 
the  same  have  been  proclaimed ;  the  Northern  Territory  Mineral  Act, 
No.  445  of  1888,  which  regulates  the  manner  of  taking  up  and  working 
of  Crown  lands  for  all  minerals  and  metals  other  than  gold;  the 
Northern  Territory  Crown  Lands  Act  of  1890,  providing  for  the  sale 
and  lease  of  Crown  lands  for  agricultural,  pastoral  and  other  purposes ; 
the  Northei-n  Territory  Justice  Acts,  1875,  1884,  and  1885,  and  the 
Northern  Territory  Justice  Act  Amendment  Act,  1891,  provide  for 
the  trial  of  all  criminal  cases  by  juries  of  six,  except  capital 
offences,  which  have  to  be  tried  by  juries  of  twelve ;  the  Indian 
Immigration  Acts  of  1882  and  1890  legalise  the  introduction  of  Indian 
laborers  for  employment  \ipon  plantations  and  upon  public  works,  and 
permit  the  Government  Resident  for  the  time  being  to  act  as  immigra- 
tion agent. 


426  sorxH  Australia. 

The  Northern  Territory  Registration  Act  of  1879  establishes  a  regis- 
tration office  for  bills  of  sale  and  other  documents  at  Palmerston.  The 
Northern  Territory  Representation  Act  of  1888  gave  two  separate 
representatives  to  the  electors  of  the  Northern  Territory,  and  at  the  first 
election  held  under  this  Act  in  April,  1890,  Mr.  Vaiben  Louis  Solomon 
and  the  Hon.  John  Langdon  Parsons  were  retui*ned  to  serve  in  the  House 
of  Assembly.  The  Customs  Act  of  1882  imposed  similar  duties  upon 
goods  imported  into  the  Northei-n  Territory  to  those  levied  in  South 
Australia  proper,  with  the  exception  of  the  duties  upon  opium,  rice, 
sugar,  and  tea,  all  of  which  were  increased.  A  subsequent  amending 
Act,  passed  iu  1886,  under  the  title  of  the  Northern  Territory  Amendment 
Act,  further  increased  the  duty  upon  rice  to  Id.  per  pound  and  opium  to 
30s.  per  pound,  and  imposed  a  duty  of  10s.  per  ton  upon  rice  offal  and 
Is.  per  gallon  upon  Chinese  oil. 

By  the  Insolvent  Act  of  1887  the  Local  Court  of  Palmerston  was 
granted  all  the  powers  of  a  local  court  of  insolvency.  The  Chinese 
Immigration  Restriction  Acts  of  1888  and  1890  limited  the  number 
of  Chinese  to  be  carried  by  any  vessel  entering  South  Australian 
ports  to  one  for  eveiy  500  tons  register,  and  a  subsequent  Act, 
No.  534  of  1891,  continued  the  previous  Acts  in  force  until 
repealed,  and  exempted  Chinese  naturalised  in  South  Australia  or 
any  other  Australian  colony  which  may  afford  similar  privileges  to 
Chinese  naturalised  in  South  Australia,  and  also  the  wives  of  any  such 
Chinese. 

During  the  year  1880  a  large  area  of  land  was  taken  up  for  pastoral 
purposes,  a  portion  of  Avhich  has  since  been  abandoned  owing  to  the 
absence  of  permanent  waters,  prevalence  of  the  redwater  disease,  and 
other  causes.  At  present  the  area  held  by  pastoral  lessees  is  165,140 
square  miles,  for  which  the  Treasury  receives  the  sum  of  £18,208 
(eighteen  thousand  two  hundred  and  eight  joounds)  annual  rent,  which  is 
passed  to  the  credit  of  the  Territory  revenue  account.  A  large  portion 
of  this  area  is  stocked  with  horned  cattle  and  sheep,  and  on  a  few  stations 
horse  breeding  is  now  being  commenced  with  every  prospect  of  success. 

The  census  return  of  1891  gives  the  number  of  stock  in  the  Northern 
Territory,  principally  on  land  held  under  pastoral  leases,  as  follows : — 
Horses,  11,919;  milch  cows,  1,259;  horned  cattle,  212,835;  sheep,  45,902; 
goats,  3,056  ;  pigs,  1,806.  Hitherto,  although  pastoralists  have  had  every 
reason  to  be  satisfi.ed  with  the  annual  increase  with  their  herds,  the  great 
drawback  with  which  they  have  had  to  contend  has  been  the  great 
distance  from  a  market  for  their  fat  stock.  In  some  instances  cattle  have 
been  driven  from  the  McArthur  river,  on  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  to 
Bourke,  New  South  Wales,  a  distance  of  over  1,500  miles,  and  when  sold 


NORTHERN    TERRITORY.  427 

only  realised  about  30s.  per  head  clear  of  droving  expenses,  which  were 
extremely  hea\'y.  During  a  recent  session  of  Parliament  the  Government 
entered  into  a  contract  for  a  regular  line  of  steamers  to  run  between 
Ports  McArthur,  Darwin,  Victoria,  and  other  ports  on  the  north  coast, 
and  Sourabaya,  Batavia,  Amboyna,  Samarang,  Atjeh,  and  Singapore, 
carrying  live  cattle  at  a  low  rate  of  freight.  The  first  steamer  of  this 
line  has  been  specially  built  for  the  service,  and  is  expected  to  arrive  in 
Port  Darwin  early  in  the  year.  The  pastoralists  on  the  north  coast  are 
hopeful  that  this  service  will  give  them  a  market  for  their  surplus  stock, 
and  from  inquiries  and  the  result  of  a  few  small  trial  shipments  of  cattle 
to  Batavia,  Sourabaya,  and  Hongkong,  there  is  every  reason  to  hope 
that  such  a  market  can  be  obtained  in  those  ports  for  almost  an  unlimited 
number  of  cattle. 

If  the  result  of  the  present  experiment  is  satisfactory,  new  life  will  be 
giA-en  to  the  pastoral  industry  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  continent. 
The  steamer  contract  is  for  a  term  of  five  yeai-s,  at  a  subsidy  of  £5,000 
(five  thousand  pounds)  a  year,  and  the  rate  of  freight  for  large  cattle  is 
50s.  per  head. 

Referring  to  the  subject  of  breeding  horses  for  the  Indian  market,  it 
will  be  noted  by  the  figures  given  that  already  thei'e  ai-e  11,919  horses  in 
the  Territory,  and  all  who  are  capable  of  judging  state  that  the  country 
is  well  fitted  for  horse  breeding.  Up  to  the  present  time  all  experiments 
which  have  been  tried  in  this  direction  have  met  with  most  gratifying 
success,  and  it  is  pleasing  to  note  that  not  only  in  the  temperate  climate 
of  the  Macdonnell  Ranges,  Central  Australia,  do  horses  increase  and 
thrive  well,  but  in  the  Far  North  country  at  the  back  of  the  Gulf  of  Car- 
pentaria, on  the  Victoria  and  Adelaide  rivers,  and  on  the  country  to  the 
south  of  Port  Darwin,  horse  breeding  has  been  carried  on  with  most 
encouraging  results.  Many  pastoralists  in  the  northern  portion  of  the 
continent  are  now  turning  their  attention  to  horse  breeding,  and  are  import- 
ing high-class  stock  from  the  southern  colonies  for  that  purpose,  and  the 
knowledge  that  there  is  a  ready  market  for  horses  fitted  for  the  remount 
service  in  India  within  a  few  days'  steam  of  ports  handy  to  their  stations 
should  give  an  increasing  impetus  to  this  important  producing  industry'. 

On  the  Herbert  river  country,  and  on  many  other  large  tracts  of 
country  in  the  central  and  northern  portions  of  the  continent,  great  diffi- 
culty has  been  experienced  by  pastoralists  owing  the  scarcity  of  permanent 
waters,  but  efforts  are  now  being  made  by  some  of  the  pastoral  lessees  to 
obtain  reliable  supplies  by  boring.  The  South  Australian  Government 
has  consented  to  subsidise  the  first  of  these  boring  experiments  on  the 
Herbert  river  country,  leased  by  Messrs.  Mcllwraith  k  Forrest,  to  the 
extent  of  £4,000,  the  lessees  finding  all  appliances  and  conducting  the 


428  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

boring  operations.  Should  this  endeavor  prove  even  moderately 
successful  there  is  little  doubt  that  boring  operations  will  be  extended, 
and  a  great  impetus  be  thereby  given  to  the  pastoral  industry. 

During  the  years  1889  and  1890  the  value  of  wool  exported  amounted 
to  £8,876,  and  the  value  of  the  cattle  exported  to  southern  markets 
totalled  £42,471. 

Although  the  Northern  Territory  possesses  large  tracts  of  land  suitable 
for  the  growth  of  tropical  and  semi-tropical  products,  so  far  experiments 
in  the  way  of  planting  upon  a  large  scale  have  not  been  as  successful  as 
anticipated. 

Many  causes  have  combined  to  prevent  the  rapid  development  of  agri 
cultural  pursuits.  First  the  somewhat  stringent  land  laws  in  the  pas 
prevented  the  ready  acquisition  of  suitable  land,  and  in  one  or  two 
instances  when  this  difficulty  has  been  overcome  the  work  of  planting  has 
been  entrusted  to  men  who  were  inexperienced  in  tropical  agriculture, 
and  who  did  not  exercise  good  judgment  in  the  selection  of  their  land. 
Another  difficulty  with  which  the  pioneer  planters  had  to  contend  was 
the  scarcity  of  suitable  cheap  colored  labour,  for  although  Europeans 
can  work  well  on  the  mines  and  in  nearly  all  manual  work,  they  are 
admittedly  quite  unfitted  for  work  in  cane  or  rice  fields,  or  on  tobacco 
plantations,  not  only  because  the  climate  is  extremely  trying  in  the  field, 
but  also  owing  to  the  necessity  tor  the  cheapest  description  of  labor  to 
enable  planters  to  compete  with  other  tropical  countries  where  cheap 
native  labor  is  available.  Both  these  initial  difficulties  have  now  been 
to  a  great  extent  overcome,  that  in  regard  to  the  selection  of  land  for 
agricultural  purposes  having  been  remedied  by  the  passing  of  the 
Northern  Territory  Crown  Lands  Act,  1890,  which  contains  most  liberal 
provisions  for  the  selection  and  occupation  of  suitable  land  for  agricul- 
ture. Part  IV.  of  this  Act  permits  the  selection  of  land  anywhere  north 
of  the  seventeenth  parallel  of  south  latitude  without  the  expense  and 
delay  of  survey,  in  blocks  of  not  more  than  640  acres,  upon  lease  for  five 
years  at  a  rental  of  6d.  per  acre  per  annum. 

The  applicant  must  first  mark  out  the  land  he  selects  conspicuously, 
and  within  the  first  two  years  of  the  term  the  lessee  is  bound  to  cultivate 
one-tenth  of  the  area  selected,  and  during  the  following  three  years  to 
cultivate  an  additional  twentieth  of  the  area  in  each  successive  year. 
During  the  term  of  lease  he  is  further  required  to  enclose  the  land  with 
a  substantial  fence  or  wall.  Upon  proof  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
Minister  controlling  the  Territory  that  these  conditions  have  been 
complied  with,  and  ui^on  payment  of  the  cost  of  survey,  the  lessee  is 
entitled  to  the  fee-simple  of  the  land.  These  terms  are  the  most  liberal 
ever  ofi'ered  to  intending  settlers  either  in  South  Australia  proper  or  in 


NORTHERN     TERRITORY.  429 

the  Northern  Territory,  "  selection  before  survey "  never  having;  been 
previously  legalised. 

The  difficulty  in  regard  to  cheap  labor  has  also  been  overcome  by  the 
passing  of  the  Indian  Immigration  Act  of  1890,  which  provides  for  the 
Government  Resident  of  the  Northern  Territory  acting  as  Indian 
immigration  a2;ent,  and  thus  renders  the  Act  of  1882  workable. 

Planters  who  desire  to  settle  in  the  Territory,  and  require  Indian  labor 
for  field  work,  will  now  be  able  to  obtain  it,  through  the  Government, 
under  the  Acts  of  1882  and  189u,  and  as  the  authorities  are  most  anxious 
to  encourage  the  cultivation  of  tropical  products  it  may  be  taken  for 
granted  that  every  assistance  will  be  given  to  them  in  this  direction. 

An  unlimited  supply  of  laborers  suitable  for  plantation  work  can  be  readily 
obtained  from  India,  which  is  only  a  few  days'  steam  from  Port  Darwin, 
at  a  low  I'ate  of  wage,  which  should  ensure  a  highly  profitable  result  to 
any  energetic  settler  with  moderate  capital  and  some  knowledge  of  agri- 
culture who  may  give  the  rich  lands  of  the  Northern  Territory  a  fair  trial. 

Visitors  from  Java,  Singapore,  Ceylon,  and  China,  who  were  familiar  with 
tropical  agriculture  in  those  countries,  have  spoken  in  the  highest  terms  of 
the  suitability  of  the  soil  and  climate  of  the  Northern  Territory  for  the 
growth  of  sugar,  coffee,  tobacco,  rice,  indigo,  and  other  ti'opical  products, 
and  wondered  why  the  lands  of  the  country  were  not  occupied  by  pros- 
perous planters. 

There  are,  it  is  admitted  by  all  who  have  visited  the  country,  tens  of 
thousands  of  acres  of  land  suitable  for  cultivation  on  the  banks  of  the 
Daly,  Adelaide,  and  other  rivers  within  easy  reach  of  the  coast,  and 
with  an  average  rainfall  of  from  60in.  to  65in.  each  season,  and  the  liberal 
provisions  of  the  new  Land  Act,  every  encouragement  is  given  to  agricul- 
tural settlement.  At  the  Government  Gardens,  situated  about  one  mile 
from  the  town  of  Palmerston,  about  100  acres  of  land  have  been  cleared, 
and  a  large  portion  of  it  brought  under  cultivation. 

Sugarcane,  rice,  tapioca,  maize,  oil  and  fibre  plants,  cotton,  indigo,  and 
himdreds  of  valuable  tropical  products  and  fruits  have  been  successfully 
cultivated,  and  the  curator,  Mr.  Holtze,  is  not  only  willing  to  give  settlers 
every  information  in  regard  to  the  best  season  and  mode  of  cidtivation  of 
such  plants  as  they  may  desire  to  raise,  but  is  also  permitted  to  supply 
them  with  plants  and  seeds  with  which  to  make  a  start.  A  visit  to  the 
Government  Garden  would  convince  the  most  sceptical  that  the  soil  and 
climate  of  the  Territory  are  eminently  suited  for  the  growth  of  nearly  all 
the  valualde  commercial  products  which  are  so  successfully  grown  in  Java 
and  other  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  and  it  is  no  exaggeration  to 
say  that  intending  settlers  will  find  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers  adjacent  to 
Port  Darwin   many  thousands  of  acres  of  land  quite  as  well  suited  for 


430  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

cultivation  as  that  which  shows  such  excellent  results  in  this  garden. 
To  give  some  idea  of  the  magnificent  fertility  of  the  soil,  I  apj^end  the 
following  condensed  accovmt  of  a  visit  paid  to  the  Government  Garden 
by  the  writer  of  this  article  : — "The  first  thing  to  strike  a  visitor  to  the 
garden  is  the  grand  block  of  about  ten  acres  of  maize,  planted  only  a 
few  weeks  ago,  and  now  standing  over  9ft.  high,  with  fine  cobs  of  corn 
just  filling  out.  In  addition  to  the  maize  I  noticed  Kaffir  corn,  dholl, 
Indian  gram,  sorghum,  Californiau  millet,  and  nearly  200  different  sorts  of 
fodder  grasses,  most  of  which  seem  to  thrive  amazingly  well,  and  a 
number  of  kinds  of  native  grasses,  which  are  being  carefully  tested. 
Next  in  importance  to  corn  and  fodder  plants  the  large  collection  of 
fibre  plants,  which  seem  to  thrive  in  only  moderate  soil  like  a  wild  weed, 
seems  to  be  of  great  practical  value. 

'•Jute  or  sun  hemp,  a  fine  plant  which  grows  wild  in  the  Territory,  seems 
to  require  little  cultivation  or  care,  and  would  doubtless  prove  highly 
remunerative  if  grown  upon  a  large  scale,  with  suitable  machinery  to 
prepare  it  for  market.  The  small  trial  patch  of  this  plant  looks  extremely 
well,  being  over  8ft.  in  height,  and  as  straight  as  an  arrow.  The  peanut, 
from  which  the  oil  used  in  China  is  manvifactured,  grows  like  a  weed, 
while  the  areca  nut,  palm,  cocoanut,  sugar  palm,  Panama  palm,  from 
which  valuable  straw  for  hats  is  manufactured,  and  a  host  of  other  speci- 
mens of  the  palm  family  seem  to  grow  rapidly  and  sturdily. 

"The  chili,  tomato,  onion,  capsicum,  and  many  other  edible  products  are 
most  prolific,  while  the  pineapple,  banana,  papaw,  and  mango  w^ould  pay 
to  grow  for  local  consumption  or  export,  requiring  little  or  no  attention, 
and  producing  regular  and  large  crops  of  fruit.  A  plot  of  land  was 
planted  with  ben-oil  trees  some  fourteen  months  ago,  and  they  now  have 
trunks  about  6in.  in  diameter,  and  are  from  16ft.  to  20ft.  in  height.  The 
ramee  or  grass  cloth  plant  has  proved  highly  suitable  to  the  soil  and 
climate  ;  a  number  of  the  shrubs  planted  only  four  months  ago  are  now 
over  8ft.  high,  and  look  wonderfidly  vigorous.  The  fibre  from  this  plant 
is  extremely  valuable,  and  the  machinery  necessary  to  clean  it  and  make 
it  fit  for  the  market  is  not  expensive.  A  large  number  of  coffee  plants  are 
being  prepared  for  planting  out,  and  a  few  well-growai  trees  appear  to  be 
healthy,  but  not  as  promising  as  many  of  the  other  plants  under  cultivation. 

"  Cotton  is  the  next  plant  worth  noticing,  and  the  varieties  now  being 
cultivated,  namely.  Sea  Island  and  upland  cotton,  look  extremely  healthy 
and  productive.  Of  course  the  difficulty  to  be  encountered  in  the  profit- 
able cultivation  of  cotton,  although  the  plant  grows  readily  enough,  is  that 
no  suitable  cheap  colored  labor  is  obtainable  for  picking.  Chinese  labor 
is  far  too  expensive,  and  the  aborigines  will  not  w^ork,  even  at  light 
employment  of  this  kind. 


NORTHERN     TERRITORY.  431 

'*  Rice  is  apparently  Avell  suited  both  to  the  soil  and  the  climate  ;  the 
Saigon  swamp  rice  seeming  to  flourish  well  in  low  swampy  ground. 
There  are  about  nineteen  sorts  of  rice  under  cultivation.  Saigon  swamp 
rice  and  the  China  hill  rice  are  the  two  kinds  which  are  best  suited  to 
this  portion  of  the  colony.  Castor  oil  and  tobacco  grow  rapidly,  and  give 
handsome  returns  for  the  time  and  labor  expended  upon  them,  but  the 
tobacco  must  be  carefully  watched  to  prevent  caterpillars  destroying  the 
leaf,  and  must  be  cured  or  prepared  for  market  by  thoroughly  skilled  men. 
That  both  of  these  valuable  plants  will  grow  well  in  the  Territory  has 
been  amply  demonstrated  at  the  experimental  garden,  where  intending 
planters  can  see  quite  sufficient  evidence  to  warrant  them  giving  one 
or  both  a  trial.  Sugarcane  also  grows  well,  and  the  few  attempts 
which  have  been  made  to  cultivate  it  in  the  Territory  have  been  assisted 
by  the  planters  having  the  advantage  of  obtaining  all  the  cane  they 
required  for  planting  from  the  Government  Garden.  The  present  patch 
of  cane,  although  only  second  season  ratoons,  looks  healthy  and  well 
advanced. 

"  The  teelseed  oil  plant,  chufa  oil,  and  sunflower  all  appear  to  be  of 
vigorous  growth,  while  the  tapioca  and  arrowroot  plants  are  simply  mar- 
vellous, towering  to  a  height  of  8ft.  to  9ft.  Amongst  the  numerous  plants 
of  commercial  value  with  which  the  garden  is  planted  should  be  added  the 
follo^^ing,  all  of  which  are  giving  the  most  gratifying  results : — Japan 
clover  (a  useful  fodder  now  being  cultivated  in  the  southern  colonies), 
chicory,  carob  tree,  American  broom  corn,  cinnamon,  indigo,  pepper, 
arnotto  (a  dye  plant),  mirobolan  (another  dye  plant),  and  dozens  of  herbs 
valuable  for  medicinal  purposes." 

In  the  neighborhood  of  Palmerston  and  all  the  mining  centres 
Chinese  gardeners  have  cultivated  small  plots  of  ground,  alluvial  flats  on 
the  banks  of  creeks  and  in  sheltered  gullies  being  chosen  as  the  best  sites. 
These  gardens  are  intensely  cultivated  by  the  Chinese,  who  resort  to 
irrigation,  and  the  result  is  that  European  settlers  are  supplied  with 
abundance  of  fruit  and  vegetables  at  reasonable  prices. 

During  the  survey  of  the  blocks  of  country  lands  for  land-order  holders 
in  1869,  Mr.  Burton,  of  Mr.  Goyder's  party,  reported  the  discovery  of 
gold  on  the  Charlotte  river,  west  of  Tumbling  Waters ;  but,  although 
this  belt  of  coimtry  has  since  been  prospected  in  a  desultory  manner,  no 
payable  deposits  of  the  precious  metal  have  been  found. 

In  1870,  during  the  construction  of  the  Overland  Telegrajih  line, 
Messrs.  McLachlan  and  H.  J.  Masson  discovered  gold  thirty-five  miles 
east  of  Pine  Creek,  and  in  1871  the  same  parties  obtained  5Jozs.  at  Pine 
Creek,  near  the  present  terminus  of  the  northern  section  of  the  Trans- 
continental railway.     In  the  same  year  Dalwood  and  Darwent's  party 


432  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

also  discovered  gold  about  four  miles  from  the  same  place.  The  report 
of  these  discoveries  led  to  the  dispatch  of  Westcott's  prospecting  party 
from  Adelaide  in  February,  1872.  This  party,  which  was  sent  out  by  a 
small  company  formed  in  Adelaide,  after  about  six  months'  prospecting 
work,  found  rich  gold-bearing  reefs  in  the  neighborhood  of  Yam  Creek, 
about  115  miles  from  Palraerston,  and  the  report  of  the  wonderful  richness 
of  the  stone  led  to  the  formation  of  a  large  number  of  mining  companies 
in  Adelaide.  The  majority  of  these  companies  were  formed  to  work 
claims  which  were  utterly  valueless,  and  the  result  was  the  great  mining 
boom  of  1872-3,  which  brought  disaster  to  hundreds  of  innocent  investors, 
in  South  Australia.  That  the  collapse  of  some  of  these  ventures  was  not 
owing  to  the  woi'thlessness  of  the  claims,  but  to  incompetent  management 
and  inexperience,  has  since  been  amply  demonstrated  by  the  successful 
working  of  the  same  propex'ties  by  experienced  miner's.  Those  engaged 
in  the  mining  industry  have  had  many  drawbacks  to  contend  with. 
Amongst  the  most  serious  may  be  mentioned  the  difficulty  of  obtaining 
competent  miners  at  a  reasonable  rate  of  wage,  the  heavy  cost  of  carriage 
of  stores  and  machinery  to  the  mining  districts,  the  export  duty  on 
gold,  and  the  high  impprt  duties  upon  machinery  for  the  development 
of  the  mines,  and  last,  but  not  least,  faulty  mining  laws  too  leniently 
administered.  After  the  stoppage  of  most  of  the  companies  floated 
during  1873,  the  claims  which  were  worth  working  and  the  machinery 
belonging  to  the  defunct  companies  fell  into  the  hands  of  private  indi- 
viduals and  small  parties  of  working  miners,  at  a  merely  nominal  price, 
and  in  many  instances  properties  which  were  then  thrown  up  have  since 
yielded  large  returns  of  gold. 

The  most  important  gold-reefing  districts  now  being  worked  in  the 
Northern  Ten'itory  are  the  Howley,  Yam  Creek,  Woolwonga,  Fountain 
Head,  Union,  Pine  Creek,  Eureka,  and  Maude  Creek,  at  all  of  which 
mining  centres  batteries  have  been  erected.  The  extent  of  this  belt  of 
gold-bearing  country  can  be  roughly  estimated  as  120  miles  in  length 
from  north  to  south,  and  a  width  of  twenty  miles  east  and  west,  and  the 
gold  exported  from  these  districts  through  the  Customs  for  a  period  of 
eleven  years — from  1881  to  1892 — amounted  to  261,070ozs.,  valued  at 
£919,700.  In  addition  to  this  return,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe 
that  many  thousands  of  ounces  of  gold  were  taken  away  by  Chinese 
passengers  without  reporting  at  the  Custom-house,  in  order  to  avoid  the 
payment  of  the  export  duty.  No  strict  official  record  of  the  crushings 
from  various  districts  has  been  kept,  but  it  is  estimated  by  the  best 
authorities  that  the  average  yield  of  many  thousands  of  tons  taken  from 
large  reefs  has  been  from  9dwts.  to  ISdwts.  to  the  ton,  and  the  average 
yield  from  smaller  reefs,  varying  in  width  from  1ft.  to  3ft.,  has  been  from 


NORTHERN     TERRITORY.  433 

l^oz.  to  2ozs.  to  the  ton.  This  estimate  does  not  include  the  smaller 
reefs  and  leaders  from  Sin.  to  18in.  in  width,  many  of  which  have 
returned  from  oozs.  to  SOozs.  to  the  ton,  from  parcels  of  stone  varyinjj 
from  ten  to  fifty  tons. 

Silver  Mining  has  been  carried  on  for  the  past  five  years  with  varying 
success,  and  although  no  very  large  lodes  have  been  discovered  some 
excellent  returns  have  been  obtained  from  lodes  varying  from  2ft.  to 
10ft.  in  width.  Amongst  the  most  successful  of  the  silver  mines  yet 
opened  arc  the  Evelcen  Mine,  situated  about  thirty  miles  from  the  Union 
railway  station ;  the  McKinlay  and  Mount  Wells  Company's  Mine,  about 
four  miles  from  the  McKinlay  river :  and  the  Flora  Bell  Mine,  which 
adjoins  the  last  named  property.  The  export  of  silver  ore  and  silver  and 
lead  bullion  from  these  three  mines  during  the  past  seven  years  totals  1,196 
tons  7cwts  ,  A-alued  at  £46,567,  and  the  general  average  yield  of  the  crude 
ore  from  these  mines  has  been  from  40028.  of  silver  and  50  per  cent,  of 
lead  to  150ozs.  of  silver  and  65  per  cent,  of  lead  per  ton.  Owing  to  the 
lack  of  capital  the  companies  formed  to  work  these  mines  have  been 
unable  to  develop  the  properties  upon  a  scale  which  their  apparent  richness 
deserved  ;  but  an  effort  is  now  being  made  to  raise  further  capital,  and 
there  is  every  probability  of  active  operations  being  resumed  shortly. 

In  referring  to  the  Eveleen  Silver  Mine,  Mr.  Parkes,  the  Government 
Inspector  of  Mines,  who  recently  visited  the  Territory,  writes : — '•  I 
consider  this  mine  has  not  been  properly  developed  or  worked  as  it  should 
be.  The  surface  has  been  rooted  about  for  the  rich  deposits  of  ore.  I 
am  of  opinion  that  it  is  a  first-class  mine  and  well  worth  better  working 
than  it  has  had."  Mr.  Parkes  also  reports  favorably  of  the  prospects  of 
the  McKinlay  and  Mount  Wells  and  Flora  Bell  mines,  and  recommends 
further  develojiment  of  both  properties. 

Copper. — In  1873  the  first  copper  lode  of  importance  was  discovered 
about  five  miles  from  Pine  Creek,  but  this  property  was  not  worked  until 
1889,  when  Messrs.  C.  G.  Millar  and  J.  C.  Hillson,  who  purchased  the 
lease  at  auction,  raised  511  tons  of  ore,  averaging  25  per  cent,  metal, 
which  was  shipped  to  Newcastle,  New  South  Wales.  Since  this  shipment 
the  owners  of  the  mine  have  allowed  the  property  to  lie  idle;  but  Mr. 
Parkes  considers  that  the  expenditure  of  capital  in  works  of  develop- 
ment would  render  the  mine  productive. 

The  Daly   River  Copper  Mine  and  Wheal   Danks  Copper  Mine  are 

.situated  about  five  miles  from  the  Daly  river,  at  the  highest  point  of 

navigation,  and  were  discovered  in  1884  and  1885.     Since  that  date  both 

these  mines  have  been  worked  with  varying  success ;  but,  similarly  to 

other  mines  in  the  Territory,  the  want  of  adequate  capital  has  prevented 

the  proper  and  systematic  opening  of  both  these  properties,  a  fact  readily 
e2 


43-4 


SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 


recognised  and  commented  upon  by  the  Inspector  of  Mines  in  his  report 
to  the  Government.  The  total  export  of  copper  ore  from  the  mines  above 
mentioned  for  a  period  of  seven  years,  from  1886  to  1H9'2,  according  to 
stJitistics  supplied  by  the  Customs  Department,  was  3,171  tons,  valued  at 
£38,702. 

'I'iN. — The  first  discoveries  of  stream  tin  in  quantity  and  tin  lodes  were 
made  in  1880,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Snadden's  Creek  and  Mount  Wells, 
and  in  1882  the  first  parcel  of  27  tons  13cwts.  of  stream  tin  from  these 
districts  was  shipped  to  Sydney,  where  it  realised  £1,650.  Since  that 
date  tin  lodes  have  been  discovered  and  worked  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Mount  Wells,  Mount  Shoobridge,  Mount  LjTies,  Mount  Tolmer,  and 
Bvnoc  Harbor,  a  stretch  of  country  extending  over  150  miles,  and  from 
these  deposits  large  quantities  of  oxide  of  tin  have  been  exported.  From 
1882  to  1892  the  quantity  of  tin  ore  entered  for  export  through  the 
Customs  has  been  466  tons,  valued  at  £22,834. 

The  following  table  showing  the  export  of  mineral  ores  and  metal 
from  Port  Darwin  for  a  period  of  twelve  years  from  January,  1881,  to 
December,  1892,  will  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  vast  mineral  wealth  of  the 
northern  portion  of  the  Territory  : — 


Gold. 

Copper. 

Tin  Ore. 

Silver  Ore  and 
Bullion. 

Year. 

Ounces. 

Value. 

Tons. 

Value. 

Tons. 

Value. 

Tons. 

Value. 

l88l 

31,509 

111,945 

— 

£ 

— 

c 

— 

£ 

1882 

23,016 

80, 720 

— 

— 

27 

1,650 

— 

— 

1883 

21,806 

77,195 

— 

— 

20 

871 

— 

— 

1884 

21,675 

77,935 

— 

— 

18 

814 

— 

— 

1885 

19,606 

70,414 

— 

— 

3 

135 

— 

— 

1886 

17,491 

63,139 

809 

9,492 

II 

78 

16 

303 

1887 

18,846 

68,775 

566 

5,888 

29 

1,322 

295 

13,675 

1888 

9,713 

34,802 

81 

1,360 

84 

3,159 

283 

16,948 

1889 

13,956 

47,339 

876 

",565 

89 

4,360 

198 

6,161 

1890 

23.235 

80,524 

402 

4,600 

114 

6,142 

193 

3,720 

1891 

28,629 

98,149 

268 

3,642 

29 

1,870 

98 

4,120 

1892 

31,588 

108,763 

168 
3,171 

2,155 

39 

2,433 

112 

1,640 

261,070 

^^919.700 

;^38,702 

466 

i  22, 834 

1,196 

^^46,567 

NORTHERN     TERRITORY.  435 

It  will  be  seen  by  these  figures  that  the  value  of  gold  exported  for  the 
past  ten  years,  tin  for  a  period  of  nine  years,  and  silver  and  copper  for 
five  years,  totals  the  considerable  sum  of  £1,027,803. 

MiNKRAL   Lands    Helo. 

Area  under  mineral  leases 45337  acres 

Area  under  mineral  licences     2,384     " 

.Area  under  gold-mining  leases    1,844     " 

In  1886  the  late  Rev.  J.  E.  Tenison  Woods,  one  of  the  most  noted 
geologists  Australia  has  ever  seen,  paid  a  visit  to  Port  Darwin,  and  at  the 
earnest  request  of  the  settlers  engaged  in  mining  the  Government  aiTanged 
with  that  gentleman  to  examine  and  report  upon  the  mineral  fields  of  the 
Northern  Territory.  At  the  conclusion  of  a  most  exhaustive  and  interest- 
ing report  upon  the  geological  formation  of  the  districts  examined  by  him 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Woods  emphatically  expressed  his  opinion  of  the  country 
in  the  following  words  : — "  I  have  in  this  report  dealt  with  the  general 
conclusions  as  far  as  the  details  warrant,  and  I  must  record  here  my 
complete  satisfaction  at  the  result  of  the  prospecting  tour.  1  confidently 
assert  that  the  Northern  Territory  is  exceptionally  rich  in  minerals,  only 
a  small  portion  of  which  have  been  made  known  to  the  public.  I  do  not 
believe  that  the  same  quantity  of  mineral  veins  of  gold,  silver,  tin, 
copper,  and  lead  will  be  found  in  any  equal  area  in  Australia ;  in  fact,  I 
■doubt  if  many  provinces  will  be  found  in  any  country  so  singularly  and 
exceptionally  favored  as  Arnheim's  Land  is  in  respect  to  mineral  riches. 
'Of  the  mines  that  have  already  been  worked,  in  gold  especially,  they 
cannot  be  said  to  have  gone  to  any  depth,  but  all  nearly  have  shown 
unusually  good  ore,  and  it  is  unquestionable  that  not  2.5  per  cent,  of  the 
veins  visible  have  ever  been  worked  at  all.  As  to  the  causes  of  this,  and 
the  depression  in  the  mining  interest  in  the  Territory  generally,  the  report 
will  give  ample  details,  but  it  is  from  no  want  of  mineral  deposits;  years 
will  not  exhaust  the  discoveries  to  be  made  here.  When  the  difficulties 
•of  labor  have  been  got  over,  as  they  will  be  surely  ere  long,  the  ])eninsula 
•of  Arnheim's  Land  will  become  one  of  the  great  mining  centres  of 
Australia." 

In  1891  the  Government,  being  anxious  to  obtain  still  later  information 
in  reference  to  the  mines  and  mineral  districts  of  the  Northern  Territory, 
:8ent  the  Government  Inspector  of  Mines,  Mr.  J.  V.  Parkes,  to  make  a  full 
-examination  of  the  country.  This  gentleman's  report,  which  has  just 
been  ])ublished,  fully  indorses  the  high  encomiums  passed  ujxm  the 
country  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Woods.  In  concluding  a  most  valuable  report, 
Mr.  Parkes  writes  as  follows  : — '*  Having  now  concluded  my  report  on  the 
individual  properties,  which  I  have  made  as  brief  as  possible  consistent 
"with  their  importance,  I  feel  ccmstrained  to  say,  and  I  have  no  hesitation 


436  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

in  saying  it,  that  the  Northern  Territory  of  South  Australia  is  phenome- 
nally rich  in  minerals,  but  more  especially  in  gold  and  tin,  and  I  feel 
assured  that  in  course  of  time  it  will  become  one  of  the  chief  producers 
of  these  two  metals.  A  careful  perusal  of  the  returns  I  have  given  of 
the  yield  from  the  various  mines  will,  I  am  convinced,  be  a  surprise  even 
to  those  who  had  previously  had  a  high  opinion  of  the  gold-producing 
capabilities  of  the  country,  and  when  better  facilities  are  afforded  to 
mining  investors  for  visiting  the  country,  and  systematic  mining  is  carried 
on,  and  efficient  appliances  are  introduced  for  treating  the  ores,  I  am 
positive  that  my  expectations  will  be  fully  realised.  Hitherto  mining  haa 
been  carried  on  in  only  the  most  primitive  fashion  by  fossicking  or  rooting 
along  the  surface,  or,  at  most,  to  only  shallow  depths  in  following  the 
rich  leaders.  At  the  Union,  Pine  Creek,  Fountain  Head,  Yam  Creek,. 
Woolwonga,  Bridge  and  Maude  Creeks,  and  the  Howley  the  reefs  are  all 
indicative  of  permanency,  and  give  promise  of  large  yields  when  syste- 
matically worked.  The  gold  found  at  Maude  Creek  is,  however,  very 
fine  and  will  require  other  means  for  its  extraction  than  the  ordinary 
battery.  On  the  other  fields,  with  an  exception  here  and  there,  the  gold 
is  sufficiently  coarse  to  be  saved  by  ordinary  criishing  and  amalgama- 
tion  Some   of   the   tin   properties — notably  those  at 

Mount  Tolmer,  Mount  Shoobridge,  and  Bynoe  Harbor — promise  a  rich 
reward  when  properly  developed  and  equipped  wnth  suitable  dressing 
machinery.  One  specimen  of  tin  oxide  which  I  obtained  from  Mount 
Lynes,  Bynoe  Harbor  district,  weighed  no  less  than  76lbs.  Copper  is  to 
be  found  over  a  large  area,  but  no  property  has  been  developed  to  any 
great  extent.  The  copper  as  a  rule  is  rich,  and  in  some  cases  carries  a 
fair  percentage  of  silver,  notably  at  Maude  Creek  and  the  Eveleen  district;, 
but  at  the  present  price  of  copper  the  mines  cannot  be  expected  to  be 
remunerative.  The  two  best  silver  properties  are  the  Eveleen  and 
McKinlay  and  Mount  Wells,  and  these  should  pay  if  properly  worked. 
Most  of  the  ore  at  the  Eveleen  is,  however,  very  refractory,  containing  a 
large  percentage  of  sulphide  of  zinc,  and  will  require  very  careful  treat- 
ment.    As  depth  is  obtained  it  will  probably  become  less  refractory." 

It  is  well  known  that  for  the  past  eighty  years  the  north  coast  of 
Australia  has  been  visited  annually  by  a  fleet  of  Malay  proas  from 
Maccassar,  carrying  a  large  number  of  men,  who  w^ere  profitably  employed 
in  collecting  and  curing  trepang  or  beche-de-mer,  a  valuable  article  of 
commerce.  The  proas  usually  arrive  on  the  coast  at  the  beginning  of  the 
north-west  monsoon,  and  after  a  stay  of  a  few  weeks  return  to  Maccassar 
directly  the  south-east  monsoon  sets  in,  taking  with  them  large  quantities- 
of  beche-de-mer.  In  1885  the  Customs  Department  at  Port  Darwin 
appointed  a  landing  waiter  at  Boweu  Straits  to  collect  import  duties  from. 


NORTHERN     TERRITORY.  437 

the  Malays  upon  tobacco,  rice,  spirits,  &c.,  large  quantities  of  which  they 
brought  with  them  for  the  use  of  their  crews  and  to  pay  the  natives  for 
their  work  in  assisting  them  to  gather  and  cure  the  beche-de-mer.     From 

1885  to  1890  the  (histoms  Department  received  a  revenue  of  about  £oOO 
a  your  from  this  source,  and  obtained  the  valuable  information  that  the 
quantity  of  trepang  exported  during  the  period  of  six  years  totalled  1,012 
tons,  valued  at  £42,363.  In  addition  to  trepang  the  Maccassar  men  have 
for  many  years  taken  away  large  quantities  of  tortoise  shells,  pearl  shell, 
and  seed  pearls,  all  of  which  are  collected  by  the  natives  and  bartered  to 
the  Malays  for  rice,  tobacco,  arrac,  and  gaudy  handkerchiefs.  In  1884 
mother-of-pearl  shell  was  discovered  in  Port  Darwin  harbor,  and  a  rush 
of  pearling  boats  set  in  from  Torres  Straits.      During  the  years  1885  and 

1886  49  tons  IScwts.  of  pearl  shell,  valued  at  £7,040,  was  exported  from 
Port  Darwin,  but  the  new  industry  was  gradually  abandoned,  principally 
owing  to  the  heavy  tides  and  consequent  muddiness  of  the  water  pre  vent- 
ins  the  divers  working  more  than  a  few  davs  in  each  month.  During  the 
year  1891  another  attempt  has  been  made  to  discover  new  patches  of 
shell,  and  two  well-equipped  boats  are  now  being  employed  prospecting. 
In  addition  to  pearl  and  trepang  fishing  a  trade  is  now  springing  up  in 
■dry  salted  fish,  which  the  Chinese  net  in  large  quantities  in  the  harbor 
and  along  the  coast,  and,  after  curing,  ship  to  Hongkong,  where  there  is 
almost  an  unlimited  market.  Buffalo  hides  and  horns  have  also  been  a 
material  item  in  the  export  returns  The  swamp  buffalo  was  introduced 
into  the  Territory  when  the  Imperial  (jovernment  established  the  first 
settlement  at  Raffles  Bay  in  the  year  1827,  and  since  then  they  have 
increased  so  rapidl)'  that  during  the  past  few  years  shooting  parties  have 
found  ])rofitablc  occupation  in  destroying  them  for  the  sake  of  their  hides 
and  horns,  many  thousands  of  which  have  been  exported.  During  the 
period  of  five  years  from  1886  to  1890  the  value  of  the  hides  exported 
amounted  to  £8,439. 

Some  idea  of  the  trade  and  commerce  of  the  Northern  Territory  can  be 
obtained  from  the  following  (Xistoms  statistics,  extending  a  little  over  ten 
years,  from  August,  1880.  to  December,  1890  : — 

During  this  period  863  vessels  of  a  total  tonnage  of  854,079  tons  arrived 
in  the  harbor  of  I'ort  Darwin,  bringing  15,650  passengers,  while  895 
vessels,  854,095  tons,  carrying  11,310  passengers,  left  the  harbor. 

The  total  value  of  goods  imported  for  the  ten  years  amounted  to 
£1,842,476,  while  the  exports  for  the  same  period  were  valued  at 
£1,056,108,  and  the  Customs  revenue  collected  totalled  £305.077  4s.  lOd, 
A  large  portion  of  the  difference  between  the  imports  and  exports 
represents  the  value  of  iron  rails,  sleepers,  bridge  work,  and  rolling-stock 
for  the  Palmerston  and  Pine  Creek  railway. 


438  SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

Shipping  — 1880    to    1890. 

Inwards Vessels,  863  ;  tonnage,  854,079  ;  passengers,  1 5,650. 

Outwards    "       895;          "         854,094;            "  11,310. 

Note. — The  list  of  vessels  inwards  includes  the  hulk  Belle  of  South  Ksk,  540  tons,, 
which  still  remains  in  Pore  Darwin  harbor  ;  and  the  list  of  vessels  outwards  includes  a 
number  of  small  pearling  boats  which  were  brought  to  Port  Darwin  by  steamers  as- 
cargo,  and  therefore  were  not  included  in  the  list  of  vessels  inwards. 

Customs  revenue,  1880  to  1890 .2^305,077  4s.  lod. 

Exports    and    Imports — 1880    to    1890. 

Exports.  £ 

Gold,  2o8,3i6ozs..  valued  at     739i3io 

Silver  ore  and  bullion,  985  tons  i6cwts 40,807 

Copper  ore,  2,734!  tons     32,905 

Tin  ore,  397^  tons 18,531 

Beche-de-mer,  1,011  tons     42,363 

Pearl-shell,  49  tons  I5cwts 7,04O' 

Dried  fish     483 

Horned  cattle 42,471 

Wool    8,876 

Horses 350 

Tortoise-shell 2,025 

Hides    8,439. 

Sugar  (manufactured)     i  )675 

Gold  concentrates 312. 

British  and  foreign     33)493 

Sundries  (unenumerated) 77)028 


Total  Exports    , ^^1,056,  io8- 


Imports. 
British,  foreign,  and  colonial,  including  railway   materials,   rails, 
sleepers,  and  rolling-stock  for  the  Palmerston  and  Pine  Creek 
railway jf  1,842,476 


Exports    and    Imports   for    Tear    1891. 

Exports.  £ 

Gold,  28,629ozs.,  valued  at 98,149. 

Silver  ore  and  bullion,  99  tons 4, 140- 

Copper  ore,  256  tons 3,619 

Tin  ore,  41  tons 1,870. 

Gold  concentrates,  26  tons    552 

Trepang,  103  tons 2,725 

Sugar,  manufactiu'ed     480 

Tobacco  loaf,  5,373lbs 426 

Dried  fish,  93.802  lbs i  ,048 

Tortoise-shell,  2,29olbs 1,125 

Hides  and  horns 3,020- 

Horned  cattle,  5.875  head     1 7,625 

Sheep,  7,500  head 2,250 

Wool    1,315 

Sundries  unenumerated 6,053 


Total  Exports ;i^i44,397 

Imports. 
British,  foreign,  and  colonial    £1 19,450- 


NOKTHERN     TERKIIORY.  439 

Shipping — 1891. 

Inwards    Vessels,  83  ;  tonnage,  85,347  ;  passengers,  442 

Outwards     "       82;        «          85,295;           "  645 

Total  Customs  revenue  for  year  1891 ^32,734  2s.  3d. 

Exports    and    Imports — 1892. 

Exports.  £ 

Gold.  3i,588ozs 108.763 

Copper,  1,681  tons 2,155 

Tin  ore,  39  tons     2,433 

Silver  ore,  112  tons  i  ,640 

Trepan g,  127  tons 4,525 

Peail-shell,  10  tons    1,705 

Hides  and  horns 2,587 

Cattle,  7,446  24,605 

Wool,  i37,487lbs 6, 154 

Dried  fish,  52,432 691 

Tortoise-shell,  2,30olbs 860 

Horses,  13    1 78 

Gold  ore,  23  tons    430 

Sundries 370 

British  and  foreign     1 1,043 


Total  Exports .2^168, 139 

Imports. 
British,  foreign,  and  colonial   ^Tii 7.9 10 

Shipping — 1892. 

Inwards    Vessels,  85  ;  tonnage,  81,123;   passengers,  505 

Outwards "      84;         >'        80,690;  "         549 

Total  Customs  revenue ^31,581  3s.  8d. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  following  condensed  table  that  the  revenue  of 
the  Northern  Territory  from  the  first  settlement  in  1864  to  June,  1890, 
amounted  to  £833, 02U  14s.  Id.,  the  bulk  of  which  has  been  received 
from  land  sales,  rents,  and  Customs  duties.  In  addition  to  this  amount 
proceeds  of  b(mds  totalled  £611,115  6s.  3d.  The  expenditure  upon 
maintenance,  surveys,  buildings,  interest,  iic,  has  amounted  to 
£1,417,966  28.  6d.,  of  which  sum  £385,231  19s.  '2d.  was  devoted  to 
interest  upon  and  redemption  of  bonds,  and  repayment  of  sums  advanced 
by  South  AustraUa. 


440 


SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 
Summary    of    Receipts    and    Expenditure. 


Receipts — 

Land  sales  

Customs  duties    ... 

Interest  on  land  sales  proceeds 

Repayment  of  commission  on 
repayments  to  land  holders 

Proceeds  of  bonds  sold 

Land  rents,  licences,  fines, 
fees,  &c -. 

Expenditure — 

Cost  of  maintenance,  surveys', 
buildings,  salaries,  &c 

Commission  to  South  Australia 

Repayments  to  land  order 
holders,  interest,  costs,  &c. 

Retiring  allowances    

Introduction   Chinese    coolies 

Interest  and  redemption  of 
bonds  and  repayments  to 
South  Australia 


1864  lo  1880. 


£  J.  d. 

92,973  O  2 

14,489  12  II 

5,619  13  I 

3,422  4  7 

325,601  I  7 

49,685  3  5 


1881  to  1890. 


Total. 


£      s.    d. 

72,570     I     o 

295,068  18     6 


s.    d. 


285,514 
299,198 


4  iO 

o  5 


^491.790  15  9  ^£9S2,2,S^     4  9 


£ 

165,543  I  2 

309,558  II  5 

5,619  13  I 

3,422  4  7 

611,115  6  5 

348,883  3  10 


;^i,444,i42  o  6 


£        s.    d.\        £ 
432,747  10  II  I  455,566 


13,83: 


73,531  8 

5 

8,621  r 

7 

5,817  12 

9 

37,913 


4,7°: 


385,231 


;fS34,55i  o  9  1^883,415 


s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

6 

3 

888,313 

17 

2 

6 

4 

51,746 

13 

5 

73,531 

8 

5 

10 

0 

13,324 

II 

7 

5,817 

12 

9 

19 

2 

385,231 

19 

2 

I 

9 

£^ 

,417,966 

2 

6 

Note.— The  Palmerston  and  Pine  Creek  railway  and  ietty  loan 
statement. 

Receipts   and    Expenditure. 
Heeeipts. 


is  not  included  in  the  above 


Taxation 

Receipts  from  Public  "Works 

and  Services    

Other  Receipts    

Territorial  Revenue    


I 890-1. 


£  -f-   '^■ 

33,229  14  10 

16,319  19  [I 

3,330  5    9 

19,625  3  10 


^72,505     4    4 


1891-2. 


£      s.  d. 

36,128  14  7 

16,963      O  2 

484    14  II 

16,067     4  II 


^^69,643  14 


1892-3. 


£  s.  d. 

34,933  4  o 

16,358  4  3 

638  o  8 

13,689  2  4 


;^65,6i8  II     3 


■Government  Resident 

Police 

Gaol 

'Charitable  Institutions 

Law  Officers    

■Customs  and  Marine  . . 

•Stock  Inspector 

Botanic  Garden 

Survey     

>Goldfields  and  Mining 

Education    

■Postal 

Railways ....   

Public  Works 


'Retiring  Allowances 


Miscellaneous  .... 
Adelaide  Office  . . 
Interest  on  Bonds 


NORTHERN     TERRITORY. 

Hzpenditure. 


441 


-Interest  on  Account  Cun-ent 
with  South  Australia .... 


I 890-1. 


2,478  13  6 

8,341  6  I 

2,031  13  10 

3,615  3  o 

783  15  4 

3,804  13  2 

20  16  8 

878  3  10 

801  17  8 

2,464  o  6 

230  6  9 

3,647  18  6 

14,549  4  o 

3,639  7  10 

136  2  s 

3,006  17  9 

70,160  10  o 


j^i2o,59o  10  10 


£ 
2,745 
8,487 
1,293 

3,389 
420 

3,509 

25 

403 

655 


3,167 


225 

3,898 

12,684 

1,807 

2,761 

125 
70,160 


s.  d. 

o  7 

4  5 

19  10 

19  3 

2  5 

2  2 

o  o 

19  10 

6  8 

16  2 

19  I 

12  9 

16  6 

2  10 

o  10 

II  o 

o  o 

10  o 


1892-3. 


£  s.  d. 

2,440  6    9 

8,296  14     I 

1,489  3  II 

3,287  3  " 

557  II     4 

4,706  12    9 

25  o    o 

373  17  II 

698  12    4 

1,208  13     8 

219  9     8 

3,505  5    8 

11,403  18  II 

1,440  19    5 

7,206  14    7 

310  o    o 

70,160  10    o 

6,000  o    o 


^^116,136    4    4  l;Ci23,i50  14  II 


The  population  of  the  Northern  Territory,  estimated  according  to  last 
'-census  returns  taken  in  1891,  was  4,560  males  and  338  females,  making 
a  total  of  4,898. 

Of  this  population  3,392  are  Chinese  adult  males. 


442  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

The  bulk  of  the  population  is  settled  within  200  miles  of  the  north 
coast,  and  on  the  pastoral  country'  near  the  McArthur  and  Roper  rivers». 
Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  only  about  220  being  employed  in  pastoral  pursuits 
and  upon  the  telegraph  line  between  Pine  Creek  and  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  Territory,  and  some  280  engaged  principally  in  pastoral 
pursuits  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Macdonnell  Ranges. 

The  Wesleyan  Church  at  Palmerston  was  established  in  1873,  the  late 
Rev.  A.  J.  Bogle  being  the  first  minister.  The  church  property  consists 
of  a  wooden  church  erected  upon  brick  pillars  and  a  comfortable  par- 
sonage constructed  of  galvanized  iron  upon  a  cement  and  stone  foundation. 
Morning  and  evening  services  are  held  every  Sunday,  and  there  is  also  a 
well  attended  Sunday  school  conducted  by  the  resident  minister  and 
several  lady  assistants. 

The  Church  of  England  Avas  first  established  in  Palmerston  in  1871,  when 
the  services  were  conducted  by  the  late  Dr.  Milner.  Since  that  date  a 
block  of  land  in  Mitchell-street  has  been  purchased,  and  a  substantial  par- 
sonage has  been  erected,  but  owing  to  the  small  attendance  at  the  services 
(which  were  held  in  the  courthouse)  they  have  lately  been  discontinued. 

The  Catholic  Church  has  established  mission  stations  on  the  Daly 
river,  under  the  direction  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers.  A  pretty  little  church 
has  also  been  erected  in  Smith-street,  Palmerston,  where  services  are 
held  morning  and  evening  every  Sunday. 

The  mission  stations  at  the  Daly  river  are  under  the  control  of  the 
Rev,  Fathers  D.  McKillop  and  Josejjh  Conrath,  and  the  church  work  at 
Palmerston  was  conducted  by  the  Very  Rev.  A.  Strele,  superior  of  the 
whole  mission  and  administrator,  and  the  Rev.  J.  F.  O'Brien.  The  Rev. 
Father  D.  McKillop  is  now  in  charge. 

The  natives  of  the  northern  coast  of  the  Territory  are  as  a  general 
rule  treacherous  and  lazy,  relying  entirely  upon  game,  fish,  yams,  and 
other  indigenous  edible  roots  for  their  sustenance.  Like  other  aborigines 
of  Australia,  the  women  do  most  of  the  work,  gathering  roots  and  other 
articles  of  food,  carrying  wood  and  water,  and  camp  necessaries  when 
travelling.  In  physique  the  natives  are  superior  to  the  southern  tribes, 
especially  those  tribes  which  are  settled  upon  the  large  coastal  streams,, 
such  as  the  Daly,  Adelaide,  and  Alligator  rivers,  where  an  abundant 
supply  of  game  and  fish  is  obtainable  without  much  trouble. 

There  have  been  many  instances  of  brutal  murders  of  white  settlers  by 
the  natives  since  the  settlement  first  commenced,  but  as  the  influence  of 
the  Europeans  spreads  such  crimes  have  become  less  frequent,  partly 
owing  to  a  better  friendly  understanding  having  been  established  with 
the  natives,  and  partly  to  the  quietening  influence  of  prompt  reprisals 
made  by  the  whites  upon  offending  tribes. 


NORTHERN    tp:rritory.  443- 

The  Jesuit  F'athers  established  a  native  mission  station  at  Rapid  Creek, 
about  seven  miles  from  Palmerston,  in  1882,  but  that  country  having 
been  found  unsuitable,  the  mission  has  been  removed  to  the  Daly  river. 
The  Jesuit  Fathers  having  b'een  granted  a  tract  of  land  by  the  Govern- 
ment for  missionary  purposes,  are  endeavoring  to  train  the  young  men  of 
the  tribe  to  field  labor,  and  are  also  striving  hard  to  educate  and  civilise 
the  younger  children. 

Two  of  the  reverend  fathers  have  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
native  language,  and  are  thus  able  to  communicate  readily  with  the  chiefs 
of  the  tribes,  and  exercise  a  beneficial  influence  over  them. 

If  they  succeed  in  their  present  experiment  in  the  utilisation  of  native 
labor  for  tropical  agriculture  other  settlers  will  be  encouraged  to  start 
plantations  upon  the  same  lines.  The  tribes  settled  upon  Melville  Island 
and  upon  the  large  rivers  are  extremely  warlike  and  fearless,  but.  unlike 
the  natives  of  New  Guinea  and  many  of  the  adjacent  islands,  they  do  not 
use  poisoned  weapons. 

It  has  been  stated  by  some  of  the  early  explorers  and  settlers  that  the 
natives  of  North  Australia  practised  cannibalism,  but  there  has  been  no 
reliable  evidence  of  such  being  the  case  since  the  permanent  settlement 
of  Port  Darwin  by  Europeans. 

The  northern  portion  of  the  Transcontinental  railway,  the  construction 
of  which  was  authorised  by  the  South  Australian  Parliament  in  1883, 
was  commenced  by  the  contractors,  Messrs.  Millar  Bros.,  in  August, 
1886,  and  completed  in  October,  1889.  The  line,  which  extends  from 
Palmerston  in  a  southerly  direction  to  Pine  Creek,  is  146  miles  in  length, 
running  almost  parallel  with  the  Overland  Telegraph  line,  and  passing 
through  a  belt  of  rich  mineral  country  from  the  Stapleton  to  the  terminus 
at  Pine  Creek,  a  distance  of  some  seventy-six  miles.  The  whole  of  the 
work  of  construction,  with  the  exception  of  that  portion  which  required 
skilled  mechanics,  was  done  with  Asiatic  labor,  as  many  as  3,000 
Chinamen  being  employed  upon  the  line  at  one  time.  The  line  is  well 
and  solidly  built  on  the  3ft.  Gin.  gauge,  the  earthworks  being  protected 
from  the  rush  of  flood  waters  in  the  wet  season  by  numerous  cement 
concrete  culverts  and  flood  openings.  The  bridges,  which  are  all  con- 
structed of  iron,  and  were  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Martin  k  Co.,  of 
Gawler,  are  substantially  erected  upon  solid  cement  foundations. 

Owing  to  the  well-known  terrible  ravages  of  the  white  ants,  which  in 
the  Northern  Territory  rapidly  destroy  every  description  of  timber,  it 
was  found  necessary  to  lay  the  rails  upon  hollow  steel  sleepers.  The 
only  native  timbers  known  to  resist  the  white  ants  are  the  Cypress  pine 
and  ironwood,  neither  of  which  were  obtainable  in  the  Territory  in 
sufficient  quantities  to  permit  of  their  being  used  for  the  work.     Since 


444  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

the  completion  of  the  line  the  earthworks  have  required  the  close  atten- 
tion of  repairing  gangs  during  the  wet  season,  but  so  far  no  serious 
damage  has  been  done  to  the  line.  Two  trains  carrying  goods  and 
passsengers  are  dispatched  weekly  from  Talmerston  to  Pine  Creek, 
leaving  the  former  station  on  Tviesdays  and  Fridays,  returning  on  Wed- 
nesdays and  Saturdays.  Passenger  fares,  first-class,  are  4d.  per  mile, 
with  a  reduction  of  25  per  cent,  for  return  tickets  ;  second-class,  3d.  per 
mile,  with  a  reduction  of  25  per  cent,  for  retiirn  tickets. 

Transcovtinental    Railway. 

Palmerston  and  Pine  Creek  Line. 
Stations.  Mileage. 

McMinn's  Lagoon 21 

Southport-road 38 

E.um  Jungle 57 

Stapleton    70 

Adelaide  River   77 

Goodilla 87 

Howley  River    loi 

Fountain  Head 108 

Grove  Hill 114 

Burrundie    124 

Boomleera   132 

Union  Reefs    139 

Pine  Creek 146 

The  Overland  Telegraph  line,  which  connects  Australia  with  the 
European  world,  was  completed  by  the  South  Australian  Government  in 
1872,  the  entire  work  of  survey  and  construction  being  accomplished 
yvith  European  labor  under  the  able  superintendence  and  direction  of  the 
present  Postmaster-General  and  Superintendent  of  Telegraphs,  Mr.  (now 
Sir)  Charles  Todd.  At  the  time  this  great  work  was  first  proposed  it  was 
looked  upon  by  many  prominent  colonists  as  far  too  vast  an  undertaking 
for  so  young  a  colony  as  South  Australia  ;  but,  although  for  many  years 
the  receipts  of  the  line  did  not  pay  for  interest  upon  the  cost  of  con- 
struction, the  traffic  has  of  late  years  increased  in  a  thoroughly  satisfactory 
manner.  The  indirect  benefit  to  the  commerce  and  advancement  of 
Australia  which  has  been  the  outcome  of  the  establishment  of  telegraphic 
communication  with  Europe  cannot  be  overestimated.  Since  the  com- 
pletion of  the  line,  which  was  first  built  on  wooden  poles,  a  great  portion 
of  them  have  been  replaced  by  iron  poles,  which  have  made  the  work 
more  permanent  and  substantial,  and  materially  reduced  the  cost  of 
maintenance. 

The  northern  terminus  of  the  Overland  Telegraph  line  at  Port  Darwin 
■is  also  the  landing  place  of  the  two  European  cables,  which  were  laid  by 
the  Eastern  Extension  Australia  and  China  Telegraph  Company,  Limited, 
in  1872  and  1879. 


NORTHERN     TERRITORY. 


445 


The  teleoraph  rates  from  stations  in  South  Australia  to  stations  north 
of  the  twenty-sixth  parallel  of  south  latitude  are  as  follows  :^ 


First  Ten  AVords.       Every  Extra  Word. 


Adelaide  to  Charlotte  Waters     

"         Alice  Springs 

"         Barrow's  Creek    

' '         Tennant's  Creek 

"         Powell's  Creek    

"  Daly  Waters    

"         Katherine     

"         Biirrundie     

"         Port  Darwin     

Port  Darsvin  to  Biirnindie 

"  Katherine 

"  Ualy  Waters 

••  PoweU's  Creek 

*«  Tennant's  Creek   

"  BaiTOw's  Creek 

"  Alice  Springs     

"  Charlotte  Waters ._. 

"  other  stations  in  South  Australia 


3s. 

3d. 

3s. 

3d- 

4s. 

4d. 

5s- 

5d. 

5s. 

5d. 

5s- 

5d. 

6s. 

6d. 

6s. 

6d. 

6s. 

6d. 

28. 

2d. 

2S. 

2d. 

3s. 

3d. 

48. 

4d. 

5s. 

5d. 

"is. 

5d. 

5s. 

5d. 

68. 

6d. 

6s. 

6d. 

Deferred  telegrams  between  South  Australia  and  Northern  Territory 
stations  are  charged  half  the  above  rates,  and  press  telegrams  at  the  rate 
of  6s.  for  the  first  100  words,  and  Is.  6d.  for  every  additional  twenty-five 
words. 

Port  Darwin  to  any  station  in  New  South  Wales  or  Victoria,  8s.  for  the 
first  ten  words,  8d.  e.\tra  for  every  additional  word;  and  to  any  station 
in  Queensland,  9s.  for  the  first  ten  words,  9d.  for  each  additional  word. 
Names  and  addresses  are  not  counted  as  portion  of  message. 

Monthly  mails  between  Adeiade  and  Port  Darwin  are  conveyed  by 
the  E.  and  A.  Company's  steamers,  generally  calling  at  Brisbane,  Towns- 
ville,  and  Thursday  Island.  These  steamers  extend  to  China  and  Japan. 
Mails  are  also  carried  by  the  China  Navigation  Company's  steamers  from 
Sydney  to  Port  Darwin,  calling  at  Queensland  ports.  These  steamers 
are  dispatched  about  every  three  weeks,  and  also  extend  from  Port 
Darwin  to  China  and  Japan.  Mails  from  Port  Darwin  for  the  southern 
colonies  are  dispatched  by  the  steamers  of  the  Eastern  and  Australian 
Steamship  Company  and  China  Navigation  Company,  one  of  which  usually 
calls  at  Port  Darwin  fortnightly,  en  route  from  Hongkong  to  Sydney 
by  way  of  Queensland  ports.  Inland,  intercolonial,  and  British  and 
foreign  postal  rates  are  the  same  as  in  South  Australia.  From 
Palmerston  (Port  Darwin)  there  are  mail  services  by  train  every 
Tuesday  and  Friday  to   Pine  Creek,  via  intermediate  stations,  returning 


446  SOUTH     AUSTRALIA. 

on  Wednesday  and  Saturday.  Pitie  Creek  to  the  Katharine  river  and 
Maude  Creek  by  mail  coach  every  Saturday,  returning  every  Tuesday. 
Burrundie  to  Eveleen  every  Saturday  by  mail  coach,  returning  following 
Tuesday.  Borroloola  (Mc Arthur  river)  to  Camooweal  (Queensland 
border). — Mails  are  dispatched  overland  on  alternate  Thursdays  from 
Camooweal  and  from  Borroloola,  arriving  at  their  respective  destinations 
every  alternate  Wednesday,  the  trip  taking  thirteen  days  each  way. 

The  country  from  Palmerston  to  Pine  Creek  is  generally  rich  in  minerals, 
but  good  patches  of  land,  suitable  for  both  pastoral  and  agricultural 
pursuits,  are  frequently  met  with.  Palmerston  is  about  70ft.  above 
low-water  leA'el,  and  travelling:  south  the  country  gradually  rises,  Pine 
Creek  being  6.50ft.  above  sea  level.  Between  Pine  Creek,  the  southern 
terminus  of  the  northern  section  of  the  Transcontinental  railway  line,  and 
the  twenty-sixth  parallel  of  south  latitude,  which  is  the  southern  boundary 
■of  the  Northern  Territory,  a  distance  of  about  1,050  miles,  the  country 
Taries  considerably  in  character,  but  a  large  portion  of  it  withm  easy 
■distance  of  the  Overland  Telegraph  line  is  described  by  travellers  as  fairly 
good  pastoral  country,  with  a  moderate  rainfall  in  the  southern  portion, 
increasing  as  the  more  northern  country  is  reached.  The  whole  of  the 
line  of  route  is  fairly  watered  by  creeks,  and  water  can  be  obtained  by 
sinking  to  moderate  depths  even  in  the  driest  districts.  Belts  of  country 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Macdonnell  Ranges  and  other  places  in  the 
interior  are  said  to  have  every  apjDcarance  of  mineral  wealth,  but  so  far 
they  have  only  been  examined  in  a  desultory  manner. 


§-  ^^f  4