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1949951

REYNOLDS HISTORICAL
GENEALOGY COLLECTION

ALLEN COUNTY PUBLIC LIBRARY .

3 1833 01715 3583

Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive

in 2010 witii funding from

Allen County Public Library Genealogy Center

http://www.archive.org/details/provincestateshi01good

^ 3 7S
THE

ProViqce apd tbe States

A HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE OF LOUISIANA UNDER

FRANCE AND SPAIN, AND OF THE TERRITORIES

AND STATES OF THE UNITED STATES

FORMED THEREFROM

IN SEVEN VOLUMES

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS MAPS AND PORTRAITS

Public Library

AUG6 1964

Dallas, Texas

Weston Arthur Goodspeed^ LL. B.
Editor-in-Chief

VOL. I

Madison, Wis.

TilE WlCSTliKN IllSTOKKAL ASSOCIATION

iya<.

1949951

BY THE

Western Historical Association
Madison, Wis.

I'reas of Uiu Deiuocial rilutlng Co., Madison, Wis.

t«

,4J /.- :j ^'iP
K/

Table of Contents

CHAPTER I.

Spanish Exploration — Americus Vespucci — Francisco D'Garay —
Cabeza D'Vaca — Hermando de Soto — Luis de Moscoso de
Alvarado — Roger I^' Estrange— -Diego de Guzman — Francisco
Vasquoz Coronado— Diego D'iVaalosa — Juan D'Onate — Juan

Douiinguez 17-57

CHAPTER n.

French Exploration— Sir Robert Heath— Daniel Coxe— Colonel
Wood— Captain Bolt — Hudson's Bay Company — Lord Sel-
kirk— the Coureurs de Bois — Jean Nicolet — Nicholas Perrot —
Duluth — Chouard and Esprit — James Marquette — Louis Joliet
— Robert de la Salle — Henry de Tonty — Louis Hennepin —
Michael Accault — Henry Joulel 58-110

CHAPTER HL

Seitlements by D'Iherville— Pierre le Moyne— Pensacola Bay-
Mobile Bay — Mississippi River — Red River — Pontchartrain
and Maurepas — D'Bienville — Fort Biloxi — M. Sagan — Site of .
New Orleans — English Turn — Pierre le Sueur — Natchitoches
— L'Huillier— St. Denis— Fort Mobile— Fort Iberville— Con-
cessions— Negroes Introduced III-133

CHAPTER IV.

The Grant to Crozat— Cadillac — Young Women Colonists —
Commerce with Mexico — Marquis du Chatel — The Patent —
Discordant Elements — Policy Wrong — Juchereau D'St. Denis
• — Donna Maria Villescas — Natchitoches — Indian Slaves — Min-
ing— Indian Massacres — D'Bienville's Sacrifices — The Mis-
souri Coimtry — English Designs — Crozal's Failure — Suffer-
ings of the Colonists — Kniglil of (he Golden Calf ... 134-152

.-^

12 TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER V.

PAGES

Western Company — The Patent — Deception Practiced — Law's
Mississippi Bubble — Mines Misrepresented — Company of the
Indies — Agriculture Neglected — Many Concessions — Germans
Purchased — Black Code — Indian Attacks — Many Negroes In-
troduced— German Coast — La Harpe — Fort Rosalie — Charle-
voix— Spanish Expedition — Dubois — Fort Chartres — Royal
India Company — D'Renault — D'Bourgmont — D'Belislc — Cas-
ket Girls — Father Poisson — Natchez Tribe Destroyed — Colo-
nial Expenses 153-202

CHAPTER VI.

Louisiana Under the French Cabinet — D'Perier — D'Bienville —
Negro Insurrection — War on the Cbickasaws — Expetlition
Against the Sacs and Foxes — Fort Beauliarnais — Fort As-
sumption— St. Genevieve — Illinois Prosperous — Ohio Valley —
D'Kerlerec — Fort Orleans — New Fort Chartres — Population
1744 — First Sugar Cane — Indian Massacres — Iroquois — Veren-
drye — Sea of Beaver — D'Vaudreuil — Fort Massac — St. Louis —
Acadian Coast— Jesuits Expelled — Population 203-233

CHAPTER VIL

D'Ulloa and O'Reilly — ProHigacy of the French Court — Result
of the Seven Years' War — Treaty of Foulaiiubleau — Louisi-
ana Ceded to Spain — Protests from llie I'^-cnch Residents —
Their I'inal Revolution —Debate of the Spanish Cabinet —
D'Ulloa sent out — His Trials and Expulsion — O'Reilly's Fleet
— Arrest and Execution of the Leading Revolutionists — Was
O'Reilly Justified ? 234-272

CHAPTER VIII.

Louisiana under the Spanish Caiiinet — The Cabildo — Laws In-
troduced by O'Reilly — L^pper Louisiana Quiet — Trade Regula-
tions— Ecclesiastical Changes — Black Code Re-ordained — The
Militia Organized — Education Neglected — The Inquisition Shut
Out — D'Unzaga — Bernardo de tialvez — His Wonderful Suc-
cess— George Rogers Clark — West b'lorida Cai)tured — Im-
mense Trade afler 1783 — Miro's Administration— Natcluv. Dis-
trict— Contraband — The V/estern People — New Madrid — Gen-
eral Wilkinson — Louisiana 'I'hreateued —Sugar Cane — Treaty
of 1795— Connnercial Exclusion 273-300

TABLE OF CONTENTS. i.-^

CHAPTER IX.

PAGES

Expedition of Lewis and Clark — Jeflfcrson's Plan — Meriwether
Lewis — William Clark — The Personnel — The Materiel — Leave
St. Louis — Fort Mandan — Treaties — Buffaloes — Grizzly Bears
— Christmas — War Party — Sacajaweah — Mosquitoes — The
Forks — The Falls — Beauty of the Country — Rocky Mount-
ains Crossed — Down the Columbia — The Return — John
Colter — Lewis Kills an Indian — Party Reunited — Lewis Ac-
cidentally Wounded — Results 301-331

CHAPTER X.

Expeditions of Lieutenant Pike — First Expedition — Leaves St.
Louis — De Moyen Rapids — River de Roche — Julien Dubuque
— St. Peter's River — Lake Pepin — St. Anthony's Falls — Their
Fort — Pike Visits the Briti>li Posts — Treaties with the Sioux
and Chippewas — Indian Tratle Regulated — Sites Selected for ,

Posts — Two Tracts of Land Bought — Indians Play Ball —
Results — Second Expedition — Leaves St. Louis — Reaches the
Osages — Buffaloes — Chouteau — The Pawnees — Attack Threat-
ened— Journey Resumed — Lieutenant Wilkinson's Parly —
Pike Reaches the Mountains — Terrible Hardships — Reaches
the Rio Grande — Is Captured by the Spanish — Is Sent Back
to the United States— Obscr\ alions 332-362

CHAPTER XI.

FuK Tkapkus, Santa Fe Com mi'.uci:, Ivrc. — Hudson's Bay Com-
pany— Private Trapi)ers — Louiiurs iic lh)is — French Canadi-
ans— Northwest Company — X Y Company — Their Rivalries —
Hardihood of the Trappers — American Fur Company — Mis-
souri Fur Company— Southwestern Fur Company — Mackinaw
Company — Mallet Brothers — Jonathan Carver — St. Louis Fur
Company — Posts Established — Conllicts with the Savages —
Colter — Trapping Expeditions — Astoria — The Mountains —
Beaver Packs — Buft'aloes — Battle of Arickaree — Rocky Mount-
ain Fur Company — The Furts — Expeditions to Santa Fe —
The Pony Express 363-390

CHAPTER XII.

ExPLORATioN.s i!Y THE Uniteu States — John Sibley — Dunbar and
Hunter— Captain Sparks — H(iiry Leavenworth — Henry Atkin-
son- .S. II. I.ouK- Hcnjamiii ()'l"alloM --Western I'ji^ineer —
John R. Bell — Lewis Ca^s — Henry Schoolcraft — -Tliomas J

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGES

Nuttall— Hugh Glenn— B. E. Bonneville— Henry Dodge— I.
N. Nicollet— James Allen— John C. Fremont— J. W. Abert—
S. W. Kearney— W. H. Emory— Mormons— R. B. Marcy—
L. Sitgreaves — Howard Stansbury— James Bridger— Samuel
Woods— T. A. Culbertson— Colonel Loring— I. I. Stevens—
J. W. Gunnison— A. W. Whipple— W. S. Harney— E. F.
Beale— W. F. Raynolds— M. Crawford— J. L. Fisk— H. H.
Sibley— J. A. Sawyer— J. N. Macomb— H. D. Washburn 391-427

CHAPTER XHI.

Indian Tribes— Earliest Found Here— Tribes to be Removed
West— License System— English Intrigues— Factory System-
Private Traders— Reservations Set Apart— Whisky— Peace
Treaties— Exchanges of Land Made— Agents— Factory Sys-
tem Abandoned— Western Territory— Tribes in 1825— The In-
dians Unwisely Treated— Separate Indian Country— Solemn
Pledges of the Government— Indians Enumerated— Attached
to the Interior Department— Wars— Massacres— Blanket In-
dians—Confederate Indians— Losses— Change in Indian Pol-
icy—Wards—Grant's Pulicy—Sciuawmen— Cattle— Allotment
in Severalty— Schools— Courts— Tribal Laws Abandoned

428-469

■i

Illustrations

D'Gakay's Map, 1521

D'SoTo's Map, 1543

Earliest Maps of Florida and the

Jouiet's Map, 1673

Marquette's Map, 1673

Jesuit Map, Parkman, 1673 .

Law's Map of Louisiana, 1721

Hennepin's Map, 1698 .

Fkanoi'elin's M.\i', i(>84

La Hontan's Long River

Gulf Coast,

1502

[513

PAGE
25

128

176

192

240

288

336

The Province and the States

CHAPTER I

Spanish Explorations and Discoveries

THE discovery of America by Columbus opened to Spain an
opportunity such as never again fell to the lot of that ignor-
• ant and expiring nation. She had passed the summit of her
glory, had sanctioned the barbarities of innumerable conquests,
and had witnessed the moth-like delight of her fawning nobles;
but with fatuous blindness had wholly disregarded the call of the
scythe and the grateful peans of the plow. • Her civilization had
sprung from the gospel of the Tncjuisition, from the creak of the
lack, from the expulsion of learning, from the death chants of
burning heretics.and from the nightmare of a distorted, brutal and
barbarous Christianity. The husbandman and his family were
classed with the swine that root in the ground. He was kicked,
cowed, cursed and robbed by court and church, by state and
supernumerary. The glory of Spain had become the exile and
degradation of labor and the enthronement and deification of
caste, ignorance and priest-craft. The blasting stupidity of the
priests perverted the religion established by the Almighty and
proclaimed to all mankind by Jesus of Nazareth. The priestly
orders gave their consent to murderous conquest, crime for gold
and the unprincipled splendors of church and state. The wealth
of the nation in rippling fields of grain, homes of intelligent and
happy children, the reign of liberty's beneficent laws, the nobility
of labor, ami the piety of perpetual peace, was undreamed of and
unknown to the swaggering grandees, who thronged the fair

1—2

l8 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES. .

Spanish cities and jeered at the laborer rooting in the adjacent
soil. The nation that took delight in the hideous spectacle of the
Spanish bull-fights could not be expected to emblazon "Kind-
ness" on its bloody banner. A people who regarded all persons
other than Catholics as heretics fit only for the rack or the stake,
found an easy excuse for the deliberate slaughter of the Indian
heretics in the New World. In the name of God — Jesus — Mary
the glittering Toledo blades of De Soto's grandees and Cor-
onado's cavaliers drank the blood of the natives with the sanction
of the priests, just as the Inquisition destroyed other unbelievers
in Old Spain. The religion of Castile and Aragon was the mur-
der of heretics ; and murderous conquest was the Spanish colonial
policy. So the golden opportunity of adding to this miserable
civilization a splendid realm of domestic happiness and industrial
wealth was wholly unai)i)rcciated by the priests and the nobility
who dominated the Spanish court. She passed blunderingly by
a magnificent empire, which later shone in the West like a* star,
inviting the wise men of the East to come here to worship at the
shrine of domestic happiness and a just Christianity. But her
wise men were wanting. They had overridden their camels of
conquest and were lost in the desert of their own crimes. She
was doomed to decadence from the inherited evil festering in her
own cruel and ignorant heart. But listen to the cruel story.*

So far as known Americus Vespucci and his companions were
the first persons to view the coast of what is now Louisiana.
His numerous business reverses in early life caused him to join
the large class of discontented explorers and adventurers then
abounding in Spain; luul having heard, of course, of the discov-
ery by Columbus of a land to the westward filled with gold and
other treasures, he determined to sail at the first opportunity that
should offer satisfactory advantages. He accordingly applied
to King Ferdinand for service in one of the expeditions destined
by the crown for the New World. The Spanish monarchs had
previously granted a monopoly of exploration in the west to
Columbus; but in April, 1495, this order was revoked and free-
dom of navigation was opened to all "merchant-adventurers."
Four ships were accordingly sent out May 10, 1497, upon one of
which stood the man, who, wholly unknown to himself, was thus
embarked on the voyage which was destined to perpetuate his
name so long as the human race should exist.

It should be said that the monopoly of exploration in the West

•Don Bartholomew de las Casas, bishop of Chiapa, states that thei'Spaniards
destroyed forty millions of people in the Americas.

SPANISH EXPLORATIONS.

was renewed to Columbus in June, 1497, but too late to stay the
sailing of the fleet of Vespucci. It is not known what position
in the fleet was assigned to him ; but it is known that he pos-
sessed a considerable degree of freedom and authority. He was
qualified for the duties of astronomer, pilot and navigator and
for ship or fleet supercargo, and probably officiated in one of these
responsible positions. Although not certainly known, it is pre-
sumed on good grounds that Vincente Yanez Pinzon, who had
formerly seen service in one of the western expeditions under
Columbus, and Juan Diaz de Solis were the chief commanders of
the fleet. There is no surviving account of the expedition by
cither of the above captians, there is but a partial one by Ves-
pucci. Attempts often and even yet made to besmirch the good
name of Vecpucci have given place in recent years to the dis-
covery that this expedition passed entirely round the Gulf of
Mexico, examining in many places the coast, and occasionally
landing where the shore and weather conditions were propitious,
instead of passing southward along the coast of South America,
as has been so persistently urged by many historians, particularly
the Spanish. Varnhagen was the first to show that the expedi-
tion of 1497 should not be confounded with any other, and that
the whole Gulf coast was traversed and partially explored by
this expedition. It cannot be shown that Vespucci was dishon-
est or that he ever tried to deprive Columbus of any discovery
10 which he was entitled. On the contrary, his name, which he
jilacod on the maps of the New World made by him, was applied
by others to the newly discovered continent. Columbus himself,
in a letter to his son Diego Columbus, dated February 5, 1505,
said of him: "I spoke with Amerigo Vespucci, the bearer hereof,
who is going yonder on business of navigation. He has ever had
a desire to do me pleasure ; he is a very worthy man ; fortune has
been adverse to him as to many others ; his labors have not
profited him so much as justice would require. * * * Jje
goes resolved to do for me everything that shall be possible to
him. See yonder in what he can be benefited, and exert yourself
for him." Inasmuch as the narratives of Vespucci were already
in circulation and had unquestionably been seen by Columbus, it
must be admitted that the latter made no complaint, and hence
had suffered no wrong by act of the former. The old charge of
fraud should, therefore, be withdrawn. The text of the Lcttnra
of Vespucci recently published shows all the features of orig-
inality— faults of grammar and style, errors of location, the blend-
ing of coarse words, the narration of indelicate incidents, which

20 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

would never have appeared in a letter intentionally prepared to
deceive.

There is no doubt that an account of the first voyage of Ves-
pucci was promptly published in Spain, but like thousands of
other records of that time it has since disappeared. The positive
fact that the account of the first voyap^e, thou,q"h circulated both
by the participants and by the press, was not disputed with last-
ing emphasis from a dozen sources, is convincing- evidence that
the voyage was actually made. Neither Columbus nor his rela-
tives ever denied that the expedition was accomplished in 1497-8.
"But upon one point, it is to be observed, there is no difference
among them; the voyage of 1501 — the first from Portugal — is
always the third of the four voyages of Vespucci. This dis-
poses, as Humboldt ])oints out, of the charge that ^''espucci
waited till after the death of Columbus, in 1506, before he ven-
tured to assert publicly that he had made two voyages by order of
the King of Spain prior to entering the service of the King of
Portugal."* Thus it is positively known that before the death
of Columbus in 1506, Vespucci publicly asserted that he had made
four voyages, and that the assertion was not challenged by
Columbus, nor after his death by his relatives. Neither was
Vespucci such a nonentity as is claimed by some. In 1508 he
was appointed major j'tilot of the kingdom of Spain by King
Ferdinand, and probably still occupied the office at the time of
his death February 22, 1512.

With the New World and all relating to it on everybody's lip,
with the first voyage of W-spucci made public in print, by maps
and by the eager tonj^iios of participants, it is preposterous now,
in the absence of strong and positive proof, to attempt to show
that Vespucci did not make his first voyage substantially as
claimed by him at the time and not disputed. If the claim had
been false, it would have been known to be so by scores then liv-
ing; yet there is no record to show that any protest against it was
then registered, in face of the fact that the claim was publicly and
widely heralded. On the contrary, almost from the start, car-
tographers, or map-makers, began to apply the name "America"
to their representations of the mainland of the New World.
There was no cry^ then of the great injustice done Columbus.
The strong fact remains that the continent was named America
within ten or fifteen years after its discovery and while scores
of men were yet living in Spain who were familiar with all the

♦Narrative and Critical History of America, Vol. II, p.l46-

SPANISH EXPLORATIONS. 21

circumstances of the voyages. If a wrong was done, why did
ihey not publicly proclaim the fact, as they would certainly have
duue with emphasis? Were there no other facts to sustain the
rights of Vespucci, it would be sufficient to state that his claims,
though published within ten years after the close of the voyage,
remained undisputed and uncontroverted until all the participants
were in their graves.

There does not appear any good reason for supposing that
from 1492 to 1 521 the northern coast of the Gulf was not trav-
ersed and partially explored. This was a long period — nearly
thirty years.ij: The white inhabitants of the West Indies had
become numerous, and were all a sea-faring people. It is more
than probable that the coast of Florida and of the country still
farther to the west, probably as far as the coast of Louisiana,
was explored by clandestine expeditions or others, even though
no general attempt was made to penetrate the interior nor to form
colonies. That the coast had been traversed prior to the pub-'
lication of the map of 1521, is pretty conclusively shown by sev-
eral maps printed at an earlier date, notably that of 1513,* which
gives generally the peninsula of Florida, and shows the Gulf coast
with a considerable degree of accuracy, and a large river with
several mouths farther to the westward, embracing many features
of that of the Mississippi.

There no longer can be any doubt that the first white men to
explore thoroughly the present coast of Louisiana and the mouth
of the mighty Mississippi, were those who accompanied the fleet
commanded by Alonso Alvarez de I'ineda from Jamaica to the
northwest in the year 1519.! This exploration was made under
the direction and at the expense of Francisco D'Garay, governor
of the island of Jamaica, a man of no little wealth, prestige and
ambition, who was mainly influenced to do so by the reports
received from Cordova and Grijalva of the immense wealth of
what is now Mexico, from which land they had but recently
returned, laden with gold ornaments of immense value and with
tales of the still greater wonders of the country.** These tales
were too alluring for D'Garay to resist; therefore, having
secured from the sovereign of Spain permission to prosecute dis-
coveries to the west and northwest or elsewhere, and having

t Henry Harrisse states that between 1492 and 1504 no less than sixty six exoe-
m"dL^*'''' "" ''• ^^^^ Discovery of North America. 1892.

•The Geojir.'iijhy of Ploloineus, priiilec] at Venice in 1513.
t Peter Martyr.
•♦ They bruuiiht back tjold to the value of $37,000.

22 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

learned all that was possible from discoveries already made in
that section of the world, particularly of the coast in the vicinity
of what is now Panuco, Mexico, where the natives were reported
immensely rich, he fitted out a fleet of four caravels, having on
board two hundred and forty men, including- a detachment of
cavalry, and many cross-bowmen and musketeers, and in 15 19
set sail in the direction of the Florida coast. The sovereign of
Spain had graciously appointed him adelantado and governor of
the provinces through which ran the river San Pedro and San
Pablo (in Mexico) and of any other lands which he should be so
fortunate as to discover. The supreme command of the fleet was
committed to the distinguished navigator, Alonso Alvarez de
Pineda.* They sailed directly to the coast of Florida (then
called Bimini), which at that time was thought to be an island
by many persons, because they believed that they could more
easily conquer an island than a portion of the mainland of equal
size and strength. In due time they landed on the Florida'coast ;
but the natives were so savage and such terrible fighters and
wounded so many of them, that they boarded their vessels again
and continued along the coast to the westward, passing the
region called Amichel, the first term applied by Europeans to
Louisiana, landing often, communicating with the natives and
learning all they could concerning tiie wealth of the country.
They finally came to the river Panuco, about five hundred leagues
to the westward of Florida. At no place had they found the
natives friendly; all had shown the most intense hostility, and had
bitterly opposed any all«.nii)t to land, but notwithstanding this
opposition they often went ashore and took possession of the adja-
cent country in the name of the king of Spain. Many of the
Spaniards were killed at the landing near the mouth of the river
Panuco, on what is now the coast of Mexico. The natives were
cannibals, eating all who fell into their hands and hanging their
skins in their temples to commemorate the victories.:!:

"They sailed eight or nine months. * * * Among other
lands low and barren which they discovered, they came across the
country of Florida found by Ponce de Leon ; and having sighted
and noticed the same, endeavored to range it, so as to advance
further. But they were unable to do so, on account of the land
which barred the way in extending eastwardly. For that reason,
and owing to constant head winds and strong currents, they were

* Mi.-4loria veidadera de la coiiquista dc la Nueva Kspaua: Diaz.
The nieiuoirs of tlie conquistador: J^ockhart."
X Tialado, que comuos e iiol<ie & iiolaiiel capilao Antonio Galuao.

SPANISH EXPLORATIONS. 23

compelled to alter the course of the ships, and followed the coast
towards the west, examining- carefully the country, harbours,
rivers, inhabitants, and all that which deserved to be noted on the
said coast. They thus continued sailing until they met with
Fernando Cortes and the Spaniards who were in the same locality.
When there, they marked the limit of the country which they had
discovered; and wherever they made discoveries and coasted,
which extended over more than three hundred leagues, they took
possession in our name. They then turned back with the said
ships, and entered a river which was found to be very large and
deep, at the mouth of which they said they found an extensive
town, where they remained forty days and careened their vessels.
The natives treated our men in a friendly manner, trading with
them, and giving what they i)ossessed. The Spaniards ascended
a distance of six leagues up the river, and saw on its banks, right
and left, forty villages."* This is the description of the voyage
of 1519, written on the letters patent to D'Garay.

"Francisco D'Garay appeared and said that with the authoriza-
tion of His Majesty, and at his own cost, he sent four ships to
discover new countries for the service of the Crown; which were
found and discovered by the grace of God our Lord, who showed
the way. Nor was a landing effecled in any land or part already
found or disclosed by any r.ne else at any time. This was from
the Rio del lispiritu Santo (Mississippi) over a great extent of
country, further below in the direction of the north (sic) towards
the river called San Pcciro e San Pablo, where the ships
arrived. "t The authorities unite in locating the San I'edro and

♦Navarette. The orijiiiial Spanish of this account is as follows: "Anduvieron
pchq 6 nucve mescs ♦ * entre otia lieria baja esteril que descubrieron toj aron
la t.erra Monda, * * y reconocida y vista quisieron la costear paripasar
adelante, ^nopudieron.porquelesahalatierrapor la proas en derecho donde
nuce el sol, y por eslo y por el viento que res fu^ sienipre contrario y nor la
nuichacornentequeansimismohallaron, fueles forzado volver cosiean Jola tierrT
hacia el poniente por la cual costa fueron nuiy bien inirando la ticrra puertos
<5 rios t Rente de a, 6 todo lo demas que se del)ia niiror, i tanto andovrcron hasla
que toparou con Ileinandp Cortd-s e.los espanoles que con el estaban en la ni sn a
costa 6 legadosalh aniojon aron el ternuno hasta donde habian descubierto 6
en todo lo cpie descubieron e costearon, que fueron mas de tres cienlas leiruas 'se
tomo posesion ien nuestro noniore, 6 feclio todo esto, se tornaron con los dichos
navios hacias otras y entraron por un no que liallaron nuiy grande y may cauda-
losa.Alaentradadelcuald.zque hallaron un urande pueblo, yesloveron en ll
mas de cuarenla diaslos navios dandu carena, e la Rente de la tierra muy pacilica
con los espanoles que en la diclia armada idan. tralando con ellos y candolcs
«leIaquetenianentennino de seis leRuas que entraron por el diclio rio arriba
I.OS dichos navios hallaron cuarenta pueblos de una parte y de otra." '"""^•

. t "'Parescio Francisco de Garay ... con licencia de S. M. e a su propria costa
uibio cot. qualro navios,a descobnr ticrras nuevas en sn Real Servicio las qiiales
fueron falladas e descobiertas per Rracia de Dios Nuestro Senor, que h e can tno
m.n toca.ulo a Tierra ni en patre alRuna que otra persona ol.lese alia nin
descnblorto eu nniRUml llenipo, qu<: file dende Rio <lel ICspirltU Santo e a
mudia iKtite . e tu-ria mas aba.v., hacia el Norte, hacia el rio que disceu de S
1 edro e Sau I'aljlo, donde IcRarou los navios." The sworn testimony of Francisco
c e Caray concernimi the discoveries made by himself or under his authority and
direction at that dale and filed in the Archives of the Indias t Seville

24 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

San Pablo river as far south on the Gulf coast as Tampico, Mex-
ico. The Rio del Espiritu Santo is the Mississippi. According
to these statements it seems clear that DXiaray, in 1519, coasted,
if he did not actually discover, the shore from the Mississippi
southwest to within about three score of miles of Vera Cruz. The
sworn statement of D'Garay was necessarily short, and was
designed merely to embrace the substance of his discoveries, with-
out particularizing the two trips back and forth along the coast,
i.'or without entering into an account of his discoveries, such detail
not being germane to the purposes of the teslimony. The affidavit
of D'Claray was no doubt intended to i)e used as an official docu-
ment to establish the right of Spain to the lands discovered under
his patent. In his affidavit he says, "Nor was a landing effected
(by the expedition) in any land or part already found or disclosed
by any one else at any time." J This is only saying that he made
no landing whatever on land that had been discovered before by
any one else at any time ; or that all the land that this expedition
did discover had not previously been discovered by others. The
truth of the above description in the letters patent, may be
depended upon ; because the entry was placed there by the regents,
who were acting for Charles V, of Spain, in his absence, and
who received it fresh from the expedition and inscribed it in per-
manent form on the patent itself, a precaution doubtless intended
to prevent the separation of the patent and an account of the dis-
covery made under its authorization. At the mouth of the Missis-
sippi they found a large Indian village, but on which side is not
stated. Here tiiey remained forty days, beaching their boats,
re-caulking them doubtless, securing fresh water, conversing and
trading with tiie friendly natives, ascending the river to the dis-
tance of fifteen miles and observing forty other villages on both
sides of the river, and taking possession of the whole country in
the name of the king of Spain.*

Of course, the large village which D'Garay stated had been
found by his expedition at the mouth of the Rio del Espiritu
Santo, must not be regarded as one of fixed habitation and other
conditions of permanency. Nearly all of the coast Indians were
accustomed to go to the interior during the season of ripe fruits ;
but when these supplies were unripe or exhausted they sought the

X See Las Casas Lib. II and III; also Herrera; also Navaretle.

♦ It should l)i- borne in mind that D'Caray did not make the voyaiie himself.
De I'ineda romniaiKled llie o^pcdition. and tNiinurKo was one of the eaplains nn-
<l<'r lilm. 'I'lirsi- men or llicir aMsislants made a full and comiili'ie reinnt to
D'daray, who (hercnpoti sent iin aceoiinl of the same to Uie court of Spain, in ac-
cordance with the stiimlations of his charter or patent. D'Ciaray did not witness
the events he described.

SPANISH EXPLORATIONS. 25

coast for the shell-fish, etc., cast up by the ocean. Consequently,
they lived in temporary huts or wig-warns, which could be
removed and taken with them on their journeys. They were
found here by the Spaniards in July and August, 15 19, before
the fruits of the interior had become ripe, and before the annual
excursion had begun. It would seem at the first glance that forty
villages were too g-reat a number to be strung along the Missis-
sippi on both sides for the distance of six leagues or about fifteen
miles upward from its mouth ; but they were unquestionably
.small collections of wigwams, probably from ten to thirty, with
a iialf dozen occupants to each wigwam, the representatives, no
doubt, of some tribe which then occupied the coast near the mouth
of the Mississippi.

On the accompanying map the Spanish statement "La Florida,
que decian P)imini, que descubrio Juan Ponce," means "The Flor-
ida, called I'imini, disc<)\ercd by Juan Ponce." "llasta acpii
descubrio Juan IVnice" means, "As far as this was discovered by.
Juan Ponce." "Desde a([ui comenzo a descubrir Francisco Garay."
interpreted means '"From here Francisco Garay commenced
to discover." "Rio del Hspiritu Santo" means "River of the Holy
Spirit," and is the present Mississippi. "Rio Panuco" is the
"River Panuco." "Hasta aqui descubrio Francisco de Garay
hacia el uste, y Diego Velazquez hacia el Leste hasta el cabo de
las Higueras (figs), que descubrieron los Pinzones, y se les ha
ilado la poblacion," means, "As far as this place l-'rancisco
de Garay discovered toward the west, and Diego Velazquez
toward the east, as far as Cabo de las Higueras, wliich the Pin-
zons discovered, and the country has given it to them to settle."
"Co. y Pa. de las Higueras" means "Cape antl Beach of the Figs."
Thus, according to this map, D'Garay (or Pineda for him) was
the discoverer of the coast from what is now probably Pensjcola
bay, or possibly Appalachicola bay, westward and then southward
along the Gulf coast to the vicinity of Tampico, Mexico. The
map was entitled, "Traza de las costas de tierra firme y de las
tierras nueves," meaning "Tracing of the coast of the main land
and of the new lands."*

Apparently in order to avoid conflict between the explorers of
the (uilf coast, their spheres of tliscovery and con(|uest seem to
have been surveyed and apportioned to them by the patents or
commissions under which they aeled. Thus it was that Pineda, act-
ing for D'Garay, directed his movements against i'anuco instead

♦Historia verdadera de la conqiiista de la Niieva Espatui: Diaz Also ■;oe
Loleccioii df loK ViaKCS y iJesculjriiiiiciitoH: Navarclte. ' '

26 THE PROVINCE AND THE STaVES.

of some other point of the Gulf coast. Thus, also, the map-
makers of Europe became aware of their spheres of action, and
marked the same on some of the early charts of discovery. On
one of these maps published in 1521,* the Gulf coast is traced
and the boundaries of the respective spheres of conquest are fully
defined. The four explorers who, at this period, were most
active on this coast were Leon, D'Garay, Pineda, Grijalva and Cor-
dova. By reference to the map herewith, it will be observed that
the sphere of action for Ponce de Leon was the coast of Florida,
probably as far west as Appalachicola bay; thence to the west
about as far as Pensacola bay was a vacant or neutral zone of
discovery, ready, doubtlessly, for some ambitious discoverer;
thence to the west and southwest past Panuco was the field con-
ceded to D'Garay and his representative, De Pineda ; and so on
to the southeast for the others. Within the field of D'Garay and
Pineda will be seen marked Rio del l£spirito Santo (River of the
Holy Spirit), the only stream named on the map. This was the
Mississippi, and was the first lemi applied to that mighty river.
This designation (1521) seems to have been the first imquestion-
able notice and naming of the Mississippi. Other earlier maps,
showing rivers, cannot be said to have definitely and positively
located the Mississippi, nor assigned it a name.

The experiences of Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca and his com-
panions, Andres Dorantes, Alonso del Castillo Maldonado and
Estevanico, an Arabian, seem to be well authenticated. They
accompanied the expedition of Pamphilo de Narvez in 1527 from
the West Indies to the Florida coast, were shipwrecked, and
afterward sailed westward along the shore in small boats, passing
the mouth of the Mississippi, which they noticed poured such a
large stream into the Gulf that they took fresh water from the
sea. This was in November, 1528. The boat in which was De
Vaca was finally cast ashore, citiier on the western Louisiana or
the eastern Texas coast, on an island about thirteen miles long
by one and a half miles broad. The island was named Malhado,
or Misfortune, by the Spaniards. The Indians at this spot were
called Cadoques and Hans. In all, about eighty of the Spaniards
reached this island ; but at the end of a year they were reduced to
about fifteen by death from disease and from the arrows of the
savages. The men mentioned above passed five or six years in
this vicinity, living like Ihe Indians and with them. During a
considerable portion of llie time their only food was the prickly

♦Culfccioii de los Viages y Dc.scubriuuenloa: Vol. III.— Navaixtte.

SPANISH EXPLORATIONS. 27

pear, which fact alone proves that they were in Texas. The Ata-
yos referred to by De Vaca were the Adais of later times. The
Htiacos were the Wacos, and the Querechos were the Apaches of
the plains, all in modern Texas. The mountains mentioned were
those of central Texas. The Querechos were the same as those
encountered by Coronado a few years later. Having passed north-
west through modern Texas, they finally turned southwest and in
due time reached the Spanish settlements of Mexico.

With the explorations of Hernando de Soto, these volumes
have nothing to do save as they relate to the tract of country
embraced within what is now called the "Louisiana Purchase."
His expedition to Florida was for the purpose of finding gold
and jewels. He expected to find the conditions similar to those
of Mexico and Peru, and therefore took with him an army of
about 1,000 soldiers and cavaliers, three hundred and fifty horses,
many fierce bloodhounds, and a large herd of swine. They left
San Lucar in April, 1538, and reached Cuba the latter paft of
May, where they remained a year, making thorough preparations
for the conquest of Florida. They landed at Tampa bay, and
afterward marched through Florida, Georgia, Alabama and Mis-
sissippi, consuming much time, slaughtering the inhabitants as
they advanced, forcing at the point of the sword provisions from
the hapless natives, and inquiring eagerly for gold and jewels.

They finally came to a small village called Chisca situated near
the banks of the largest river they had ever beheld — no other, in
fact, than the mighty Mississippi. So far as known, this was the
third discover)' by while meji of this river.* At this spot the
stream was about a mile and a half in width, and the Spaniards
noted that on its vast bosom were borne large quantities of trees
and brush-wood. They were wholly unaware of the importance
of their discovery. Their dreams of riches had fixed wholly in
their minds the thought that every other object than gold was
too base and ignoble to be entertained by the nobility of Spain
in the expedition. It was to them but another difiicult stream to
be crossed, only another bar stretched between them and tiicir
gossamer dreams of opidcnce. They recked not that the navies
of the Old World might ascend the mighty stream, conveying the
commerce of the centuries to millions of civilized beings on its
fertile banks. No such visions lighted their weary marches, vigils
and battles — the only castle in this Nfw vSpain was that (jf (i()i,i>.

Across the wide and rolling river the v^jjaniards saw a fair and

♦TliJH spot was i)rol)a1)]y a sliort dislance t)el(>w the present city of Helena,
Aikaii!ia'i, anil also l)eli>w tlic c/ii in«iilli <>( Uie SI. I'laiii'is river.

28 THE PROl'INCE AND THE STATES.

fertile land. There, it was hoped, tiieir chances would improve
and the expected eldorado be found. The Indians of Chisca had
heard nothing of the approach of the Spaniards, but the excesses
of the intruders soon roused them to war. Their province was
called by them Chucagua, and the same name was applied by
them to the great river. The Spaniards had now dwindled to
about five hundred men, from whom the dreams of glor)', wealth
and fame had long since fled. It was. now almost a solemn pro-
cession of warriors, resigned to their fate in the wilderness under
the unconquerable De Soto. With great ditficulty, permission
was obtained from the chief to remain at the village for six days
to nurse his sick and wounded.* Peace must be sought at almost
any price, because it Vv'as seen by De Soto that about four thou-
sand warriors had been assembled in the space of three hours,
and there was no telling how soon as many more might be sum-
moned. At the end of the stay, De Soto warmly thanked the
cacique, as the chief was called by his subjects, and the Spanfards
marched up the eastern bank of the river. After four days of
passage through almost impenetrable thickets, following the
windings of the stream, during which time they progressed but
twenty-eight miles, they reached a broad opening on elevated
ground, covered with rich grass, at which point the river was
about a mile and a half \vide. During this time they no doubt
passed the mouth of the St. Francis river on the opposite shore.
From the hills large numbers of Indians could be seen on the
opposite bank, apparently drawn up in battle array, with hun-
dreds of canoes lining the shore. Ivegardless of the hostile array
across the river, De Soto resolved to cross at this point. He
encamped, and for twenty days wa« busily engaged in construct-
ing four large flat boats designed to carry his expedition to the
other side. The Indians on the eastern bank became quite
friendly and supplied the Spaniards with provisions ; but those
on the west side showed their hostility by coming as near to the
shore as possible and firing showers of arrows at the intruders.

One day while thus engaged, the Spaniards saw to their sur-
prise a fleet of fully two hundred large canoes filled with Indians
descending the river, decked in the array of war, with gaudy
plumes and military paraphernalia, all gleaming in the sun, and
greatly impressing the Spaniards with their fighting strength.
The latter made friendly overtures, and the boats drew near the

♦This .ircoiinl is taken mainly from the record of tlie Inca (^arcilas^o de la
Veira, translated from the French version of Pierre Kichelet, which was translated
from the original Spanish.

SPANISH EXPLORATIONS. 29

■shore. The Indians were armed with bows, arrows, lances and
shields of buffalo hide and were powerfully built and athletic.
De Soto stood on the shore to ^reet them, and was thus addressed
hy the leadinpf cacique or chief: "T am told that you are the
loadins: officer of the most powerful Cacique in the world. I
have, therefore, come to tender you my friendship and to aid you
so far as I am able." But this fair speech had an immediate set-
back. Treacherous intentions were discovered amonc: llie whites,
hostile movements were made, and the Indians drew off, dischar^-
inp^ a flij^ht of arrows as they went, and receiving in return a
volley from the cross-bows of the Spaniards, which killed several
and wounded others.

From this time forward durinc: the process of construction of
the boats, it was necessary to i^uard them night and day to pre-
vent their being burned by the savages, who seemed determined
to prevent the attempt to cross the river. Four boats were finally
finished and launched with one hundred and eighty Spaniards,
who upon landing found no one to oppose them on the Arkansas
side. Rapidly the trips were made until the entire expedition
was safe across. They were the second body of Europeans known
positively to navigate the Mississippi and to stand upon the soil
of what later became the "Louisiana Purchase." After demol-
ishing their boats and saving the iron therefrom, they set off in
a northwesterly direction and after four days of arduous travel
through an uninhabited region, saw from an eminence which
they had ascended an Indian town of al)out four hundred houses
''upon the banks of a river larger than the Guadalquiver which
passes by Cordova." Large fieUls of corn and many fruit trees
were seen spread over the valley. This town was undoubtedly
on the St. Francis river, probably in wiiat is now either the county
of Cross or St. Francis, Arkansas. It was probably not lower,
because the distance traveled to reach it — four days — must be
accounted for. The inhabitants had learned of their approach
and came out to meet and greet them. They placed their prop-
erty and persons under the protection of the Spaniards and sup-
plied them with provisions. "The capital, the province and the
Cacique were called Casquia or Casquin. The Spaniards stopped
six days in the town, because of the provisions which they found
there. And after two days of marching they arrived at some
small villages where the lord of the country held his court, and
which were ilistant four leagues from the capital in ascending the
river," ^'^ Here the Spaniards were well received and made com-

■This wa^^ sliM^ou the St. Frantis river, wliich the SuaiiiimlH had not yd left.

THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

fortable, a decided relief from the incessant war they had encoun-
tered on the other side of the Mississippi. Thus the inhabitants
of the Louisiana Purchase from the start have been friendly and
hospitable. The fields of corn, pumpkins, beans, etc., were so
large and numerous, that the Portuguese account speaks of them
as "gardens."

While at Casquin (which was probably in either Cross or St.
Francis county, Arkansas), the cacique came to Dc Soto, and
after stating that he believed the God of the Spaniards was more
powerful than that of the Indians, begged him to ask for rain, of
which the fields of the natives stood greatly in need. De Soto
agreed, and in order to impress the Indians, directed his carpen-
ters to prepare an immense cross from the tallest pine tree they
?ould find in the vicinity, which they planted on a very "high
/noil on the borders of the river.'"'' The next day a large pro-
cession of Spaniards and Indians, marching side by side, mounted
the knoll and advanced toward the cross, the priests and flie
monks chanting their litanies, to which the soldiers responded.
Upon reaching the cross, they fell upon their knees, ofifering their
prayers to God, imploring- for rain and for the success of the
expedition. "On the other side of the river there were about
fifteen or twenty thousand persons of all ages and sexes ; they
raised their hands and eyes to heaven, and showed by their pos-
ture that they prayed God to grant to the Christians the favor
which they desired. There was also heard among them cries as
of people who wept, to obtain from heaven as soon as possible
their demand. So that the Spaniards had much joy to sec their
Creator acknowledged and the cross adored in a country where
Christianity was unknown. Afterward the clergy sang the *Te
Deum,' and the Spaniards and the Indians returned to the vil-
lage in the same order that they had come. This lasted in all
more than four hours. In the meantime our Lord was pleased
to show the subjects of the Cacique Casquin that he heard the
prayers of his servants ; for toward the middle of the following
night it began to rain. Some say that it rained during three
entire days and other six; so that the inhabitants of the province,
rejoicing at the favor which God granted them through the means
of the Christians, came with the Cacicjue to render thanks to the
general (l)e Sot(j) for it."* Whether the rain came as a result
of the prayers of these wicked Spaniards, or the prayers of the :^: ;.

*TliiH wiiH IK) (liiulit (III- firNl [oriniil CliriHliaii crreniuiiv in llie I,oiiisi;iiiii Pur-
cIiiiHC. It ocelli led uii tlie banks u( the St. I'riiiiciH river. It lia.s liceii iiiaiiitaiiied
by Home wiiti'iH tliat this cereuioiij' transpired on the banks of the MiHsissipnl,
and i.' order tu meet the description tliey have been obliifed to uMHiiine that tlie

SPANISH EXPLORATIONS. 31

barbarous Indians, has never been satisfactorily explained. But
the Spaniards had gained great prestige with the natives, which
served them in good stead afterward.

After about ten days, accompanied voluntarily by the cacique
and many servants carrying provisions, etc., and by a large troop
of armed Indians, who designed to attack their enemies, the
inhabitants of the province of Capaha, to which point the Span-
iards desired to go, they again set forth in a northerly direction.
With five thousand armed Indians and three thousand more car-
rying provisions and being likewise armed, the advance was
made, the Indians leading, but being constantly in communication
with tiie Spaniards. Early in the morning of the fourth day out,
they came to a very large swamp, which divided the two prov-
inces, and beyond which the enemy might be expected to be
encountered. Having crossed the swamp after great difficulty,
and having, traveled three uktc days,* they reached an eminence
from whicli they saw the capital of the province of Capaha. The
town stood upon elevated ground, and comprised about five hun-
dred houses, and was distant from the Chucagua or Mississippi
river about nine miles. A canal or lagoon extended from the
Mississippi to the town and tlience completely around it, and was
"at least as deep as a pike-stalT, and so wide that two large boats
abreast could ascend or descend it." This town probably stood
in southeast Missouri, near New Madrid. The canal was prob-
ably a natural lagoon or bayou, improved somewhat by the
Indians. This assumed location meets the requirements of the
Portuguese description ; no other supposition will. The ditch
which surrounded the town wa's no doubt a loup of the bayou or
canal proper, as it is called by the Portuguese writer, because,
as it was very broad, deep and extended, it is not probable that the
Indians themselves ever dug it. They simply took advantage of
the surroundings by building their village on an island which was
surrounded by a deep lagoon or bayou, but which they may have
improved somewhat. "The ditch which is filled by the canal,
surrounds the town, except in a place which is closed by a palisade
of large posts fixed in the ground, fastened by other cross-pieces
of wood, and plastered with loam and straw. There were,

Mi.s.sissippi wa.s 80 narrow that the faces of ll»e natives could be seen and their
weepinu heurcl by those at tlie cross. The river where tlie cross was erected was
tiie St. l''rancis (our days' journey norlliwest fioni their crossing place on the
Mississippi. Ni> other assumption nuets tlie description.

•They tlitis traveled nine days up llic St. iMancis river and were now very t)rob-
ably in llie vicinity of Kennelt or (iayoso, Missouri, or perJiaps as hi^h as New
Madrid.

THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

besides, in this ditch and in this canal such a quantity of fish
th'at all the Spaniards and Indians who followed the general (De
Soto) fished from it without it appearing that they had taken a
single fish from it."

The cacique, Capaha,* perceiving the approach of the enemy,
and nearly all his warriors being absent, retreated a considerable
distance and took refuge on an island formed by the high waters
of the Mississippi, or Chucagua river, where he was protected
until the return of his warriors by the inaccessibility and heavy
timber of the position. The subjects of Casquin pillaged the
town, but were prevented from burning it by the efforts of De
Soto. They desecrated the tombs, killed about one hundred and
fifty persons, who were unable to escape, pillaged the "temple,"
and did everything they could to offend and insult tlieir enemies. |
But De Soto, by , means of messengers, communicated with i,
Capaha, induced him to return, checked the attack of Casquin,
which he had not authorized, and ended finally by bringing' the
two caciques, Casquin and Capaha, together in friendshfp, or
assumed friendship. But this was not accomplished until after
a battle had been fought, in which the warriors of Casquin and
the Spaniards had emphatically the worst of it. This so alarmed
the former that they tied, leaving the Spaniards to shift for them-
selves. Thus left to the mercy of probably twenty thousand
fighting warriors, who were far more valiant than any he had
yet encountered, De Soto very prudently and artfully made peace
with Capaha. The wisdom, of the latter, who was described as
young and very handsome, oontributctl to the success of this dip-
lomatic negotiation. The following remarkable occurrence is
narrated, to show the primitive dignity and sense of honor of the
natives, reproduced fromi the original description by the Portu-
guese writer, Garcilasso de la Vega :

"Capaha replied to De Soto that the greatest mark he could give
of his obedience was to do what he requested of him, and that he
was ready willingly to unite in friendship with Casquin; and
thereupon the tw-o Caciques embraced each other, but apparently
their caresses were constrained. Nevertheless, they did not omit
to converse ingeniously with the general concerning Spain and
the provinces of Florida. Their conversation lasted until they
came to inform him that it was time to dine, and immediately they
passed into another room, where the table was set for tliree. The

♦TIr- Ciipiiliiis, or Pacahas, were the modern Quapaws, and the CaHciiiius were
the Ka.skaski:is. who tlien lived on the vSt. I'rancis river.

SPANISH EXPLORATIONS. 33

pcneral placed himself at the upper end, and Casquin at his right,
but Capaha civilly remonstrated with Casquin that as the most dis-
tinguished, most powerful and of a more illustrious nobility, that
place belonged to him. De Soto, who saw this contest, wished to
know the cause of it, and when he had learned it, he said without
regard to the advantages which the one had over the other, Capaha
ought to have respect to the white hairs of Casquin, and accord
lo him the place the most honorable ; that it was becoming a young
Ktrd, well-bred, to have consideration for the aged. Capaha
replied that if Casquin was liis guest he would willingly concede
the first place to him without even having regard lo his age, but
that eating at the table of a third person, he ought not to lose his
rank ; and that if he were not jealous of his honor, all his subjects
would complain of it ; that for these considerations, if the general
wished that he should eat with him, he should not suffer him to
derogate from his rank nor from the glory of in's ancestors; that
otherwise it would be better for him to go and dine with his so^
(Hers, who knowing his conduct, would love him the more for it.
Casquin, who wished to appease Capaha, and who knew that this
lord was right, arose and said to De Soto that Capaha demanded
nothing but what was very just, and that he begged him to invite
him to take his place; that as for him, he esteemed himself so
honored to be at his table, that it was of no importance on which
side he sat. As he spoke he passed to the left of the general and
calmed Capaha, who during all the time of dining, did not show
any resentment. These circumstances show that even among bar-
barians, the raidc \vhich givi-s title is something of importance.
'JMie Spaniards were astonished at the jiroceedings of these two
chiefs, for they never would have believed that the Indians would
have been so sensitive upon the point of honor."

Previous to this time, the Spaniards had suffered greatly from
the lack of salt, and having complained to the Indians, were told
that "there was some in the mountains at forty leagues from
Capaha. They also said that there was found there the yellow
metal of which they had spoken to them. Our people rejoiced
at this news. Moreno and Silvera, who were careful and wise,
offered to go with the (native) merchants and find out the truth
of all these things. The general immediately dispatched them
with orders to notice the quality of the land through which they
should ])ass; and Capaha had them escortetl by Indians, and gave
them pearls, deer-skins and beans with which to purchase gold
and salt. Then they left and at the end of eleven days returned
with six loads of fossil salt, clear as crystal, which gave great joy
1—3

THE PRO I INCH AND THE STATES.

to the Spaniards. Tlicy also brout^^lit back some copper, very
yellow, and said that the country whence they came was sterile
and very poorly populated."*

Soon after this occurrence, De Soto "resumed the route to the
town of Casquin, in order from there to direct his course towards
the West and to explore its lands." After five days spent at
Casquin 4 resting and recruiting, he "marched four days dowri
the river (the St. Francis) tiirough a country fertile and popu-
lated, and arrived at the province of Quiguate." He was now
probably in the county of Phillips, Arkansas, near the old mouth
of the vSt. Francis river. He encountered a friendly reception
at the Ixirders of this province, and was requested to continue on
down the river to the caj^ital, which was likewise called Quiguate.
Accordingly, the "general believed what they told him, and con-
tinued five days his journey, descending along the Mississippi
river through places abounding in provisions, and on the fifth
arrived at the capital. The town was divided into three fjuar-
ters. The Spaniards lodged in two, and the Indians in the third,
where was the house of the cacique."**

The inhabitants of Ouiguateff showed themselves to be suspi-
cious, and the Spaniards did not receive at the capital the welcome
they had expected and had been assured they would be accorded.
However, after a few preliminary skirmishes, peace was patched
up, and the Spaniards remained at Quiguate six days. "They
left the seventh, and after marching five days down along the
river, which passes by Casquin, f they arrived at the capital of
the l*ri)viiice of Colima." Here they were not well received,
but the unllinching De StHo again managed to placate or hood-
wink the natives. After three days spent here in recruiting and
laying in provisions, "they continued their journey through fer-
tile fields, pleasant forests, easy to pass, and at the end of four

*This trip was made, no doubt, to the mountains in tlie Houtliwesleni part of
Missouri, where the natives collected salt from the many salt sjjrinns or deposits
ill tliat renioii. It is probable that they did not have t" Ko the entire distance of
forty leaKues and return— 240 miles— because they could not have covered the dis-
tance in tlie time mentioned— eleven days. Or jjerhaps the distance was less.

J The Portutitiese account says, that " the capital, the province and the cicique
were called Casciuin." Wlien, therefore, they ' resumed the route to the town of
Casquin," it is to be presumed it was to the capital of Casquin on the ,St. Krancis
river, where they had been so royally enteitained befme.

♦♦They were now iirobably on the Mississippi below the mouth of the Arkansas.

jtUwill be noticed that the description located QulKUate on tlie Mississippi
river, and not on the St. Uraucis, as some writers niaintain, because, alter leavmjr
(Jninuati-, tlicy marched " down and alonn the river which passes by t^as(|uin"
until they an ived at the capital of (Niliiua. The proviiue of t\'is(|nin evident I y
lay between the Mississipi)! and the St. iMancls.

\ riainly, the term Cas(|uin here used refers to llie province, and not to its chief
town, or capital.

SPANISH EXPLORATIONS.

clays arrived at the borders of a river where the army encamped."
Here they spent some time and made salt from what De la Vega
calls "sand of an azure color."** 1949951.

The Elvas Narrative"| describes the journey down the river
from the province of Capaha in the following- language: "The
governor rested forty days in Pacaha (Capaha). From thence
he sent thirty horsemen and fifty footmen to the province of
Caluca to see if he might travel to Chisca,* where the Indians
said there was work of gold and copper. They traveled seven
(eleven?) days' journey ihrough a desert and returned. The
governor, seeing that toward that part of the country was poor
in maize, demanded of the Indians which way it was most inhab-
ited, and they said they had notice of a great province, which was
called Quiguate, and that it was towards the south. The Cacique
of Casf|uia (afterward the Kaskaskia) commanded the bridge to
be repaired, and the governor returned through his country and
lodged in a field near his town. He gave us a guide and merr for
carriers. The governor lodged at a town of his, and. the next day
at another near a river (the St. Francis) f whither he caused
canoes to be brought for him to pass over. The governor took
his journey toward Ouiguate.§ The fourth of August he came
to the town. The town was the greatest that was seen in Flor-
ida." The account given by Luis Fernandez de l^iedma, who
likewise accompanied the expedition to the end, was as follows:
"We remained at Pacaha (Capaha) twenty-six or seven days,
anxious to learn iif we could take the northern route and cross
to the South Sea. We then marched northeast. We traveled
eight days through swamps, after which we met a troop of
Indians who lived under movable tents. We next came to the
Province of Caluca. Seeing there was no way to reach the South
Sea, we returned toward the north, and afterward in a southwest

♦* Judging by the number of days they had thus marched southward this stream
could liave been no other than Ked river.

t This narrative was prepared by the "Portuguese gentleman of Rlvas " a writer
whose name is unknown, but who accompanied the expedition of De Soto to the
end, and thus participated in the events which he describes.

♦This trip was presumably to the mountains of southwest Missouri as alreadv
narrated from the de la Vega account. ^

tit will be noticed that the Klvas Narrative cannot escape the conclusion that
another river than the Chucagua (Mississippi) was referred to; and it is amusine-
to observe the confusion of subsequent writers in attempting to locate all tliese
niovenieritson the Mississippi. The St. Francis river is, in many places but a
short (lislaiice from the Mississippi, and as the country is comparatively level
the coiiiiiiimicatioii between the two was easy but slow. By considering the move'
nients to have been on the vSt. Francis, all confusion is avoided.

§ Quiguate was situated on the Arkansas river near its mouth. The Indians
■were afterward called the Akanseas, or Arkansas.

Note.— Colinia was probably the same as Tanico near the mouth of Red river.

36 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

direction to a province called Quiguate, where we found the larg-
est village we had yet seen in all our travels. It was situated on
one of the branches of a great river." *

Tiie Elvas Narrative further says, "As for Quiguate, Casqui
and Pacaha, they were plain countries, flat grounds and full of
good meadows on the rivers, where the Indians sowed large fields
of maize." It must be admitted that the country was full of corn
and other provisions to support four or five hundred Spaniards
and their horses for months at a time. They had now been from
two to three months in the provinces of Casquia, Capaha and
Quiguate, and had been supported the whole time by the
Indians — partly through fear, but as much so from kindly
motives, which put to shame the savagery and base intentions of
the Spaniards. The Indians were war-like, and the women were
even more savage and courageous in battle than the men. They
did not hesitate to take up the same wea])ons as the men and join
in the desperate struggles against the intruders. Numerous
instances are narrated of their prowess. The Elvas Narrative
says, "From Pacaha (Capaha) to Quiguate may be a hundred
leagues." The actual distance was probably fully that far, count-
ing from near the mouth of the Arkansas upward to about the
Missouri state line. It further says, "The governor asked which
way the country was most inhabited. They said that toward the
south, down the river, were great towns and Caciques, which com-
manded great countries and much peof)le.f And that toward the
northwest there was a province, near to certain mountains, called
Coligoa. From Quiguate to Coligoa may be forty leagues."

The account of de la Vega states, that after leaving Quiguate,
they marched doii)n the River Mississippi five days and reached
the town of Colima, capital of the province of the same name.
Leaving here, they seem to have taken a northwesterly direction,
continuing for four days, when they arrived "at the borders of a

♦ Particular atteiilioii is called to this description of an eye witness of the scenes
which he describes so briefly. He says tiiey inarched northeast, but this could not
have been so. because they would have had to cross the Mississippi, which they
evideiitly did not do. He says tliey marched eiRlit days on the trip for nold and
salt: the Ivlvas Narrative says seven and de la Vega eleven. Biednia says they
returned toward the north, but, of ccnnse 'it was toward the south. He could
hardly have none northeast and then returned north. Thi-y went northwest and
returned, and according to ISiediua wer«- uone about sixteen days, eiuiit r.oinii antl
preHuniahly tiie same returning. Upon their return they went in a soutiiwest di-
rection, airiviuK finally at QuiKuate, which he says was sitiiateil on a "branch of
a great river." This branch could have been no otiicr than llic A rkansan Thus
the llui'o .iccounls of de la Ve);a, liicduia and the Ivlv'is Nariatives hx tlic vSt.
I'mnci;. as Hie river, upon which liiese oixi ations weie conductt-d, and where stood
the capitals of Capaha i^nd CafKiuia or Cas<iuin.

\'V\w I'Mvas Nairalive fails to k'vc an account of the journey to Colima, niven
by de la Vcua. This was doubtless because of the aljsence of excitinij or import-
ant events: but the details liiven by the latter are too vivid and definite not Ui
avvi b.'jii l)ased upon actual observations.

SPANISH EXPLORATIONS.

river."* The description shows this to have been a different
river from any they had yet seen. Their entire journey during
the four days had been tlirough large and well-cultivated fields of
com, pumpkins, beans, etc. The country was very smooth and
"easy to pass." The Elvas Narrative continues, "The governor
with an Indian, which was his guide, passed through great woods
without any way seven days' journey through a desert, where at
every lodging they lodged in lakes and pools of very shoal water :
there was such store of fish that they killed them with their cud-
gels. We then crossed vast plains and high mountains, when
suddenly we came to Coligoa. The Indians of Coligoa had not
known of the Christians, and when they came so near the town
that the Indians saw them, they fled up a river which passes near
the town and some leaped into it; but the Christians went on
both sides of the river and took them. We inquired here for
other villages, and they directed us to go south and southwest
and we should find them. We traveled five days and came to'the
province of Palisema.** He found much people, but by reason
of the roughness of the country he took none save a few women
and children."

From Coligoa De Soto went southwest for five days, at the end
of which time he arrived at Tatel Coya, probably on Red river.
Thence he marched four days up the river to the province of
Cayas, where he stopped at the town called Tanico. In the
province of Cayas, the Spaniards made salt and discovered
springs of hot water. From Tanico he went to Tulla, a day and
a hail's journey, biU to reach it was obliged to cross high hills.
These operations were doubtless along Red river in modern
Louisiana. f

The Elvas Narrative says, "We were told that if we were to
ascend this river (the Washita) we should find a large province
called Cayas. We repaired thither and found it a mountainous
country and composed of populous villages. This town was
called Tanico (Cayas appears to be Spanish). He pitcfied his
tent in the best part of it, and here, in the province of Cayas, the
governor rested a month ; in which time the horses fattened, and
they drank of very hot water and somewhat brakish. On

, * It was probably Washita river. The Spajiish league is two and one third miles.

♦♦Probably on the Washita in what is now northern I^ouisiana.

til niiisl be adniitltd that the dc'HcriiJtion of tlie cxumtry over which tlie expe-
dition p;is',ed is so doubtful from the conlrailiclory statements made, that the
route cannot be laid down witli certainty. It is possible tliat, instead of l)einK on
Red river, these operations were on the Arkansas river, from Little Rock to its
mouth. All the latest and best authorities, however, locate these movements along
Red river in modern .Louisiana.

TUB I'KOVISCE AND THE STATES.

both sides of the river the country was full of sown fields, and
there was a store of maize. '■'' * * The governor asked the
Caciques which way the country was best inhabited. lie
answered that the best country thereabout was a province
toward the south a day and a half journey, which was called
Tulla." But the Indians there resented the coming of the
Spaniards, and De Soto concluded to return to Cayas or Tanico
to si)end the winter. He carried the cacique (of Tulla) with
him; and of all his men there was not one found who under-
stood the speech of Tulla." * * * "The governor informed
himself (of) all the country round about, and understood
that toward the west was a scattering dwellmg, and that
toward the southeast were great towns, especially in a
province called Autiamque ; he traveled five days over rough
mountains and came to the town of Cuipana, situated at the foot
of high hills. Where no Indians could be taken for the rough-
ness of the country, and the town being between hills, there was
an ambush laid wherewith they took two Indians, which told them
that Autiamque* was six days' journey from thence, and that
there was another province towards the south, eight days' jour-
ney off, called Guahata. But because Autiamque was nearer, the
governor made his journey that way, and in three days he came
to a town called Anoixi. Within two days after he came to
another town called Catamaya and lodged in the fields of the
town. The next day they went to the town and took as much
maize as they needed. That day they lodged in a wood and the
next day they came to AtianKpie. Hard by this town passed a
river that came out of the province of Cayas (Tanico) and, above
and below, it was very well peopled. They stayed in Atiamque
three months (wintered there). "f

"Upon Monday, the 6th of March, 1542, the governor departed
from Atiamque to seek Nilco, which the Indians said was near the
great river (Red). The governor spent ten days in traveling
from Atiamque to a province called Ayays (Adayes in western
Louisiana), and came to a town that stood near the river that

♦They had traveled from Tanico (Cayas), which lay up and near the Red river a
considerable distance over high hills. Autiamque was ten days' journey from
Tulla, though in a zi^-zag course, l-'rotn Guipana he turned easterly, crossed the
higlJ mountains again and descended into a plain, very fertile, where stood
Autiamque ou the banks of both the Mississippi and the Red rivers. Here he re-
solved to spend the winter.

tTlie province of Cayas (Tinico^ seems, then, to have been located in the mod-
rn parishes of Concordia and Catahoula, Louisiana, bordering

Red, Washita and Mississippi.

ig on the three rivers,

SPANISH nXPLORATIONS. 39

passeth by Cayas and Autiainque (the Red).t There he com-
manded a barge to be made wherewith he crossed the river.
When he had crossed the river, he went three days' journey
through a wilderness and a country so low and so full of lakes
and evil ways that he traveled a whole day in water, sometnnes
knee deep, sometimes to the stirrups, and sometimes they swam.
'J'hey came to a town called Tutelpinco. There i)assed by it a
lake that entered unto the river which carried a great stream and
force of water. The governor went a whole day along the lake
seeking a passage but could find none. They made rafts where-
with they crossed the lake;* they traveled three days and came
to a town in the province of Anilco or Nilco called Tianto. They
passed through three or four great towns. In the town where
the Cacique resided, which was two leagues from the place where
the governor remained, they found many Indians who, as soon
as they saw the Christians coming, set fire to the Cacique's house
and fled over a lake that passed near the town, through which the
horses could not pass. The next day being Wednesday, the
29th of March, the governor came to Nilco : he lodged with his
men in the Cacique's town, which stood in a jjlain held, which was
inhabited for the space of a quarter of a league, and within a
league and a half were other very great towns. This was tlie
best inhabited country that Nvas seen in Florida, and had most
stores of maize except Coca and Apalache. The river which
passed by Nilco was that which passed by Cayas and Autiamque
antl fell into the l\io Grande (the Mississippi), which passed by
racaha and A(|uixo, ami near unto the province »)f Cuacho)a, the
lord of which came up the river to make war" with him of Nilco.
Within a few days the governor determined to go to Guachoya.
As he crossed the river Nilco (Red) there came in canoes the
Indians of Guachoya up the stream, and when they saw him they
returned down the river. The governor (having crossed) sent
a captain with fifty men in six canoes down the river and went
himself by land with the rest. lie came to Guachoya:}: upon Sun-
day, the 17th day of April: he lodged in the town of the Cacique,
which was enclosed about (by palisades probably), and seated a
cross-bow shot from the river (Mississippi). That day came an

tTliis ten days' journey was unquestionably westward across the State of Loui-
siana to tlie province of Adayes, partly in f,ouisiana and partly in Texas. The
low country hclween Natchitoches and Texarkana was where they were obliged
to wade in water.

♦This lake seems to!lmve been one of the many bayous situated on Ked river.

t It is admitted that the towti of Guachoya stood on tlie west bank of the Missis-
sippi.Inear the mouth of the Red river.

THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

Indian to the governor from the Cacique of Guachoya. The next
day they saw many canoes come up the river; and on the other
side of tiie Great River (the Mississippi) they consulted whether
they should come or not, and at length concluded to come, and
crossed the river. In them came the Cacique of Guachoya. The
governor asked him whether he had any notice of the sea. He
answered 'no/ nor of any towns down the river on that side,
save that at two leagues from thence was a town of a subject of
his : and on the other side of the river was the province of
Quigalta.""'* While the army was stationed here, one of the
cavaliers — a gentleman of high character and education, Diego de
Guzman, by name — voluntarily left the army and took up his
abode with the Indians and refused to return, lie had fallen in
love with an Indian girl and refused to desert her.

Here it was that De Soto, in the words of Biedma, "fell sick
and died." The Klvas Narratives are scarcely more explicit, to
the following effect: "The 21st of May, 1542, departed out of
this life the valorous, virtuous and valiant Captain Don Ferdi-
nand de Soto, Governor of Cuba, and Adelantado of P'lorida."
The death of De Soto was concealed from the Indians, who had
been led to believe that the "Christians" were immortal. Having
kept his body for three days, his comrades, finally, under cover
of darkness, buried him within the walls of the town, near one
of the principal gates. The next day the Indians noticed the
fresh earth and asked what it meant. The question was evaded,
but fearing they might proceed to dig there to satisfy iheir curi-
osity, (lie new eouuuaiuKr, I.uis de Moscoso de .Alvarado, had
his body remo\etl in the middle of the night and quietly and
secretly taken out into the Mississippi river, where, having been
weighted with sand, etc., and no doubt enclosed in a rude wooden
coflin, it was consigned forever to the mighty river, the discovery
of which, in so definite a way, js destined to perpetuate his name
through all the coming centuries.

The subsequent route of the expedition under Moscoso is even
more in doubt than that under De Soto. However, it is clear
that in July, 1542, he marched northwest or west, and after
traversing about one hundred leagues, arrived at a province called
Auche or Aguacay. C(jntinuing a westerly direction, they
reached Naguatex in six days. They were now west of the
province of TuUa (mentioned before) antl were doubtless in
modern Texas. He passed many Indian villages and crossed

♦ * The lUviis Narrative, by one who i)aitic-i paled in tlie exiu'diliuii.

SPANISH EXPLORATIONS. 4I

many streams, and reached the province of Dacoyo on or near
the Trinity river, scncHng out side expeditions to explore the
country through which he passed. Upon his return, he seems ta
have crossed liis route going out, but arrived finally at Guachoya.
Near this place, at the villages of Aminoia, or Minioia, or Minoya,
they passed the winter of 1542-3, the inducement being 18,000
measures of corn in the possession of the Indians. While here
tiiey made brigantines, in which to pass down the Mississippi the
following spring on their way to Mexico. They departed on the
day of St. John the Baptist, but were pursued and harassed con-
stantly by large bodies of Indians in excellent boats. During the
nineteen days required to reach the Gulf, there was scarcely an
hour when they were not* required to repel an attack. Many of
the Spaniards were killed, and every remaining horse was
destroyed. In one engagement forty-eight Spaniards were
killed, being either drowned, or knocketl on the heads with the
oars of the savages. The remnant finally reached the Gulf»
whereupon, the boats of the Indians not permitting further pur-
suit being withdrawn the survivors were left in peace. They
finally succeeded in reaching Mexico.

The expedition was wholly barren of results. No gold nor
precious stones were discovered. It was learned that the country
contained no such minerals. But the Spaniards found a land of
wonderful fertility, possessing inexhaustible quantities of timber,
wild game in great abundance, a splendid climate, and conditions
generally which promised every reward to the agriculturalist.
But the army of De Solo did not seek the wilderness of Louisiana
for the purpose of founding a colony in anything but a land flow-
ing with gold and jewels. They did not see the wonderful pos-
sibilities of the soil, the climate, the sun and the velvet savannas.
They forced the natives to guide tl;em to their villages that they
might despoil them of provisions and of life. For more than a
hundred years, while Spain was still in the flower of her somber
glory, she had no thought of Louisiana. An empire the fairest
the sun ever shone ujwn went begging so far as miserable Spain
was concerned. She was busy thinking how to kill the 40,000,000
savage heretics in the two Americas.

Among the incidents growing out of the journey of De Soto
westward of the Mississippi was the detention by the cacique,
Anilco, of Roger D'Jvslrangc, wiio had been sent by De Soto to
conciliate that chief after the relurn of the expedition to the
Mississippi. Having finally managed to escape, in com])any with
an Indian friend named C.Tkxjuo, he wandered around through

42 THE FROriNCli AND THE STATES.

eastern Arkansas, his i)recise route beinc^ wholly uncertain, until
at last, through the influence of Choquo, he fell in with a friendly
tribe, amoujj whom there was living- Diego cle Guzman, who had
voluntarily left or deserted from the army, mainly by reason of
his ardent love for a beautiful Indian girl, Winona, and with
whom he desired to live. He had been made a chief by the
Indians, and was living with them on Avhat is now believed to have
been Washita river in the province called Carguta. In order to
possess the advantage to be derived from the superior knowledge
of the white man, the cacique had adopted I)e Guzman, and now
for the sam reason, inlluenced by the hitler, D'Mstrange was
likewise adopted and made a sub-chief. Both men married
Indian maidens, and made themselves very useful to the Indians,
in improving their military and domestic service. It is claimed
that they succeeded in making rude copper and iron vessels, imple-
ments, tools and weapons, having first prepared charcoal. Upon
the return of the army under Moscoso from the west, he encoun-
tered the Indians under l)e Guzman, and tried to induce the latter
to rejoin the Spanish forces ; but he refused, whereu{)on Moscoso
threatened to have him arrested, brought into the Spanish camp,
and punished for desertion. But in the end this course was
found to be wholly impracticable, owing to the deplorable condi-
tion of the Spanish army and to the unwisdom of stirring up the
nation of Indians, whom, no doubt, De Guzman could bring to
his assistance. However, D'Estrange, who had long cherished
such a resolution, determined to leave the Indians and the country,
and accordingly did so, taking with him his Indian wife, to whom
he was legally married at the fust opportunity. With the army
•of Moscoso he sailed down the Mississippi, and thence along the
Gulf of Mexico.*

The "Seven Cities of Cibolo," about which there has been and
doubtless will be a vast degree of conjecture, and the location of
which will always be more or less an uncertainty, seem to have
had once an actual existence. The towns of the Pueblos, with
their many squares, enclosing buildings three hundred and four
hundred feet long and over one Innnlred fifty feet wide, varying
from two to seven stories high and built of solid walls several
feet thick, had dcjubtless attained among the natives themselves
distinction and perhaps fame long before luiropeans attempted

♦ How much (k'peiuleiice may bo placed in tljis story of D'lCsUaiiue Is largely a
iiialUr iif <.oiiJttturi'. liiiisiiiiuli as Hurt' httiiis no koocI reason to dispute its
main (eatnies, the above brief account is tlierefore here inserted, thuutjh not
vouched (or.

SPANISH EXP LOR A TIONS.

to reach them. The rich spoils which had fallen to the con-
querors of Mexico and Peru, indicated to the Spaniards of the
former the probability of finding similar plunder in the region
of the "Seven Cities," and still further cast a glamour of splendor
over the idea of the conquest that should subject another empire
to the kingdom of Spain. The 5:tories of the Indian slave, Tejos,
contributed to tlie belief in the existence of the cities and in the
extravagant tales of their magnitude and wealth. His statements
were eagerly believed that he had visited the "Cities," and that
they were as large and as populous as the City of Mexico. All
these reports taken together seemed based upon substantial facts —
upon something more real and promising than idle dreams or
fantasies. Accordingly, Nuno de Guzman, the master of Tejos,
determined to send an expedition to find the "Seven Cities," and
reduce them to Spanish authority. He was then at the liead of
the Royal Audience of Spain, ])ossessed sufficient power in official
quarters, and soon succeeded in raising an army of four hundred
Spaniards and twenty thousand Indians, and set forth on his
journey through an unexplored wilderness of six hundred miles.
But his expedition was wholly unprepared for such a journey.
The hardships melted his army away, dissipated their dreams,
and revealed the impracticability of such a conquest on the lines
which he had adopted. It soon came to an abrupt tcrniinalion
followed by a straggling return to Mexico.

But the tales remained unshaken and the dreams undimmed.
The arrival of Cabeza de \''aca and his companions revived the
iilea of coiuiuest. He told of passing through populous lands,
where the inlelligeiit and friendly natives lived in fixed habita-
tions in large and nourishing towns. He told of their pursuits,
their broad acres of grain, their prodigious wealth, and kindled
anew the designs of immediate conquest. The governor of New
Gallacia, Francisco Vasquez Coronado, caught the fiame and deter-
mined to act. He first sent out an expedition of inquiry under
Fray Marcos de Nizza, guided by Stephen the Arabian, who had
accompanied De Vaca on his journey across the continent. Upon
their return after a long time, they told that they had found the
"Seven Cities," but had not been permitted to enter therein and
that the Arabian had been killed. The stories told surpassed
anything yet circulated.

The sentiment of the people would not wait for the return of
advices from the crown of Si)ain. Tiie Spanish blood in the New
World was too rapid for such lethargic proceedings, and within
a few weeks the people took fire, and began to form themselves

44 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

into bodies for the exploration of the country. This was a spon-
taneous movement of the Franciscans, but it was an index of the
wishes of the people to be led to the land about which so many
golden tales had been told. No doubt, Fray Marcos had much
to do in setting the tire raging. Finally, so general became the
movement, that the viceroy was obliged to take control of the
body of men bent upon making the journey. It now assumed an
aristocratic character. Coronado was appointed the commander.
At once, courtiers and nobles — the proudest in all Mexico —
flocked to his standard, and from them the bravest, richest and
most influential were selected — grandees, in whose blood ran the
pride of a thousand years. Profiting by the experience of De
Guzman, he limited his army and prepared for the liardships of
an uncertain and unpropitious future; because battles, continuous
and bloody, in the land of the enemy, were expected, and it was
realizetl that many woukl never return. The forces were rendez-
voused at Compostella, tlic cai)ital of New Gallacia. Late in Feb-
ruary, 1540, the army, consisting of about three hundred
Spaniards and eight hundred Indians, set out with great pomp
and with hopes fluttering far higiier than their own high-flown
banners. The Viceroy himself accompanied the party for two
days, so great was the enthusiasm. But as each man had a heavy
load to carry, the labor soon took the gloss from the enthusiasm,
as Coronado had intended. When they reached Chiametla they
were ready to stop for a few days in order to rest and to secure
a fresh supply of provisions. Here their fust collision with the
nativi's, an unfortunate allair, occurred, and several Indians were
lianged. About this time, also, Melchior Diaz, who liad been sent
out on a preliminary expedition by Coronado, returned with sad ^.
tales of the condition of things to the north. His account dif- '|
fered materially from the gauzy tales of Fray Marcos,

Coronado now left the main body of the Spaniards to the com
mand of 'JVistan de Arellano, and with fifty horsemen and a few
men on foot set out in a northeast direction, leaving instructions
for the others to follow him in a fortnight. After traveling for
more than a month, he came to a desert, on the border of which
was a village. He had thus far met with disappointment every-
where, because the tales told by De Vaca and Fray Marcos were
in no respects verified. The natives were poor and had few provi-
sions; but Were friendly, doubtless because it would have been
folly for them to be otherwise. The village on the border of the
desert was called Chichilticalli, or the Red House; and instead of
being a jKjpnlous place not far from the sea, it consisted of a

SPANISH EXPLORATIONS.

single house, lon^, ruined, roofless, but bearing- the appearance of
liaving been at one time a fortified work of an intelligent people.
Contiiun'ng- in a northeast direction over the desert for two weeks,
they came to a turbid river which they called Vermejo. They
now learned that they were only eight leagues from Cibola.
Karly the next day, they barely escaped an ambuscade of the hos-
tile natives, and soon arrived at the famous city of Cibola. What
a disappointment! It was a little village of not more than two
hundred inhabitants, located on rocky heights and very difficult
of access. Coronado renamed it Granada, owing to its rocky situ-
ation, and because the name Cibola did not apply to any one
village, but to the whole province, which contained seven prin-
cipal towns. The inhabitants indicated a hostile spirit, and
refused the friendly advances of the whites; whereupon, being in
sore need of water and provisions, it was resolved to try to carry
the place by assault. The attack was accordingly made, but had
it not been for the armor of the Spaniards they would doubtless
have lost many men, so desi)erate was the resistance encountered.
Clubs, showers of stones, arrows and other missiles met the
Spaniard at every turn. Coronado himself was felled to the
earth, and came near losing his life. In about an hour's time the
place was captured, wliich strong position gave the Spaniards the
command of the entire district or province. But the expected
gold was not forthcoming. The turquoises were missing. The
dreams of the Spaniards began to dissipate in fleecy clouds along
the edges of the Apache desert. Curses and maledictions were
heaped on the heads of Fray Marcos and De Vaca. It was soon
realized that the great object of the exjiedition — gold and other
riches — woidd not be realized ; whereupon it was determined to
make the most of what there was in the way of spoils. No
thought was given to the savages by the merciless Spaniards, who
prepared to visit their wrath on them for the lies which scores of
years had accumulated. The Spaniards did not scruple to take
the last in the larder of the poverty-stricken savages. It was
done, however, in the name of God and Mary and the cross, amid
the prayers of the many priests who accompanied the expedition
for the principal purpose of saving the souls of the soldiers who
should be wounded, by administering to them extreme unction
just before their wicked souls should slip over the divide between
the here and the hereafter.

Here Coronado determined to await the arrival of the remainder
of his forces, before deliberately ransacking and destroying the
villages of the unfortunate natives. In the meantime he sent

THE PRO]' I NCR AND THE STATES.

dispatches containing an account of his expedition thus far to the
viceroy under date of Aus;ust 3, 1540, the year of our Lord. The
diaboHcal designs of these gold-maddened wretches put one in
mind of tlie atrocities of that other historic, Spanish institution —
the Holy Inquisition. All was done in the name of God. The
zealous jiriest had before the dying eyes of the murdered native
the cross of Christ, thinking to save his heathen spirit, but really
to quiet his own consciousness for dastardly wrongdoing and to
impress his miserable followers with the glories of the Catholic
faith. Nothing could stay the ruthless intentions of the savage
Spaniards. Their disappointment must be glutted in the blood
of the Indians, in the ruin of their villages, in the desecration of
their simple temples, in the ravishment of their homes and the
enslavement of the people. What matter if these unknown
wretches should be wholly swept from the earth? On these hills
would rise the missions of the Catholics and the cross of Christ.
It was right that the gold of the heathen should advance the Cause
of the true God. It was right that the worshippers of the sun
and the monstrous idols should give way to the avarice and the
sword of the so-called Christians. So it came to pass that not
one thought was given the doomed savages by the no less savage
and barbarous grandees.

In November, 1540, they reached the province of Tiguex,
through which flowed a large river, since called the Rio Grande
del Norte. While here, they heard tales of immense quantities
of gold farther to the east — always farther away like a will-of-
the-wisp. Coronado was assured by a native called "The Turk"
(hat large quantities of gold could lie found by traveling toward
the rising sun. Here the harsh treatment of the natives by the
Spaniards to compel them to tell all they knew in regard to gold
kindled the indignation and eventual hostility of all the natives.
The nature of the Spaniards was such that they could not treat
the natives humanely ; they must necessarily abuse and maltreat
them beyond the point of forbearance or endurance. The trouble
arose over some gold bracelets which "The Turk" said the natives
possessed; but which they denietl, calling "The Turk" a liar.
The leaders were accordingly taken by the Spaniards and kept
in chains for six months in order to force them to tell where the
bracelets were. It transpired that there were no such bracelets
in existence. "The Turk" had really lied. But the punishment
fell on the native leaders, and their incarceration set the inhabi-
tants on fire.

It was in Tiguex that the Spaniards saw private liouses seven

SPANISH EXPLORATIONS. .y

stories in height. It was now December, 1540, and snow fell
ahnost every night. The cold was severe, but thbre was an abun-
dance of fuel, so that the troops were kept from freezing. But
the natives had revolted and were now all hostile, owing to the
harsh treatment they had received. Gold, the root of all evil, had
caused the trouble. They demanded a large quantity of cloth of
the natives, and, when it was not forthcoming soon enough, pro-
ceeded forcibly to strip the clothing from the natives they met.
This led to open war, in which the savages acquitted themselves
\yith the greatest courage. An act of base treachery, whereby the
Spaniards violated the coninioncst rules of warfare, still further
kindled the wrath of all the natives against them and led to the
widening of the fields of combat. One town after another began
to fall, but not without severe loss to the Spaniards, from the
poisoned arrows of the natives and otherwise. Whole provinces
were soon subjugated.

As soon as the ice began to. break in the spring of 1541, Coro-
iiado made preparations to advance eastward to the country
where "The Turk" had declared so much gold existed— Quivira,
Arche, Guyas, etc. The arni}^ departed from Tiguex on April 23',
1541, taking a southeasterly course; and after five days of travel
reached a river so large that they were forced to build a bridge to
cross it. Tills is thought to have been the Tecos. After passing
this river, they still pursued a southeast direction over the rich
plains, and after many days came upon an immense herd of buf-
faloes, which was being pursued by a band of puerechos. The
latter were friendly and told Coronado that farlher to the east
were the people who possessed the gold. The Querechos pos-
sessed large packs of hunting dogs, and were very strong and
skillful with the bow, being able to drive an arrow entirely
through a bufifalo. They said that to the east was a large river,
where a dense population dwelt, and that their nearest village
was called Haxa. Ten men under Diego Lopez were sent to
find and explore this village; but, after marching twenty leagues,
they returned without having found anything of note. The
gaudy stories of 'The Turk" began to be discredited from this
moment. The guides conflicting in their advices, Coronado sent
out another expedition of a few men on a scout before advancing
with his whole army, but learned nothing, except that an old
native told them that he had seen the party of La Vaca which had
passed there a few years before. The whole army coming up,
they deliberately took possession of all the tanned skms of the
natives— a large quantity— greatly to their indignation. Thus the

THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

Spaniards eternally continued to rob, cheat, or hoodwink the
friendly natives, changing them to deadly enemies and stultifying
themselves. Civil words will never quite wipe out tlie record of
the infamous treatment inflicted on the natives, who, at first, were
exceedingly friendly, giving up their last robe and provision to
the strangers, but who were then robbed of the remainder of their
possessions and shot, if they dared to show resentment, which
they invariably did, be it said to their credit. It was coax, cajole,
rob, shoot, ravish and devastate, until history should stamp the
word "knave" or "murderer" on the name of every Spaniara who
had any dealings with the native Americans.

A reconnoitering party sent out came upon a small band of
wandering Indians who called tl>emselves Teyas (probably
Texas), and who conducted the army for three days to their vil-
lage called Cona. Here tlie Spaniards learned that Quivira was
distant about thirty days' march in a northerly direction. A little
farther on they reached a very large and fine valley, where wild
fruits were abundant, and here they rested. It was now evident
that the stories of gold were false, that "The Turk" had lied, that
many natives had been guilty of the same offense, and that the
object of the expedition had dissipated in visions. A council of
war was held and it was determined that Coronado should take
about thirty of the stron<4est and bravest horsemen and set out
in search of Quivira, while the remainder of the army under
Arrellano should return to Tiguex. This decision met with con-
siderable opposition from the soldiers, who did not wish to be
separated from Coronado and especially from the search after
Quivira. But something must he done and this was regarded
as the wisest course. They were now, doubtless, in northern,
central Texas.

Coronado set out to find Quivira, taking a northerly direction,
and for thirty or forty days traveled over the dry plains of Texas,
Indian Territory, and Kansas, until he finally arrived at a large
river, which was doubtless, tlie Arkansas. He must have
arrived in the vicinity of the modern Kinsley, Kansas, because,
when he continued, he journeyed dozvn the river in a northeasterly
direction, which would have been impossible had he reached any
other portion of that river. It could not have been the Missouri,
because no where does the Missouri flow northeasterly. The
only other river it might have been was the Republican fork of
the Kansas in Nebraska, but it is not likely that this branch was
the one reached. It couhJ not have been the Red river, because
it had required thirty or forty days of travel to reach it after

SPANISH EXPLORATIONS.

leaving the main army. The Arkansas is the only river that
answers all the conditions. They had heen in Texas, where, it
was recorded, two crops a year were raised by the Indians. The
distance covered — about three hundred sixty miles — in the time
mentioned would be about right, because they had to travel in
the heat of midsummer and had to cross all the water courses
at right angles, which would necessarily make their progress com-
paratively slow. He named the river Saints Peter and Paul and
stopped to rest on its banks. Anolher much larger river was far
ahead, it was reported, and was called Teucarea, no doubt the
Missouri or Platte. During the wearisome journey across the
plains he and his men had lived almost exclusively on buffalo
meat, and had often used the milk of that animal to drink.
Learning that there were villages down the river, he crossed the
stream and continued down the same along the north bank in a
northeasterly direction, until finally on a branch of the main river
he reached the first of the lowns on this water course. Continu-
ing four or five days more he reached in succession six or seven
other villages, until finally he arrived at one called Quivira, on
one of the northern branches of the Arkansas. But v/hat a sore
disappointment ! Instead of the six or seven-storied, stone build-
ings, the spacious squares, a happy people clad in warm, thick
cloth, and an abundance of gold and silver ornaments, the infuri-
ated Spaniards beheld only straw-built huts, a savage people who
ate their buffalo meat raw, no cloth whatever, but in its place only
tanned buffalo skins, and not an ounce of gold or silver in the
entire jirovince, if the people were intelligent enough to have such
a civic subdivision, 'i'he Spaniards had for some time antici-
pated such a finality, and as a matter of precaution had placed
"The Turk" in chains to prevent his possible escape. They now
closely questioned him as to his motive in thus so roundly lying
to them. He replied that, as his own country lay beyond Quivira,
he had done so to prevent the Spaniards from visiting and
impoverishing his people; and that the inhabitants of Cibola had
begged him to lead the Spaniards astray in the desert in hopes that
tiiey would all perish and never again be seen in Cibola. One
night, while at Quivira, he endeavored to incite an attack on the
Spanish forces, hoping thus to massacre all of them, but the
attemi)t was discovered before any damage had been done. How-
ever, his |)articipancy in the attempt was discovered, whereupon
the S|)aniards in fury fell upon him and strangled him to death.
Thus fell a man whose falsehoods were of such gigantic character
f-4

50 THE PROIINCH AND Til II STATES.

that his name should be placed by the side of those of Ananias
and Munchausen; but it may be said that this man lied to save
his people and his race, and that, therefore, his falsehoods were
justifiable. The statement should be permitted to stand as against
the murderous Spaniards.

Coronado fixes Quivira in forty degrees of north latitude; but
of course not having suitable instruments he may have missed
the correct location by thirty minutes or more. He said the soil
was rich and black and watered by many streams and had an
abundance of grapes and plums. He remained in the vicinity
of these villages, possibly on Republican river, for about twenty-
five days, sending out exploring parlies in the meantime in hopes
of making some discovery of importance. But in this he was
doomed to disappointment. The plains of Kansas had no gold for
him. But the soil was there offering a bountiful harvest to the
husbandman, the streams were tlicre witii their never-failing
supply of moisture for the grain of the civilized man; the* rich
pastures, rolling like green silk beneath the stirring breeze and
the glowing sun, ofifered food to thousands of cattle and sheep.
But these happy pictures were the last in the minds of the gold-
mad Spaniards. Filled with bitterness, they prepared to leave
the fabled Quivira enveloped in maledictions, while they pointed
doubtless with grim satisfaction to the rude grave of "The Turk,"
who had lied so well to save his poor people from the Spanish
barbarians. The Spaniards collected all the corn they could from
the inhabitants, and the latter part of July started to rejoin their
comrades at Tiguex. They returned over the route they had
come as far as the river Saints i'eter and Paul, but then instead
of going nearly southward, turned somewhat toward the west
and finally came out at the spot where they had first met the
Querechos, and had been turned from the direct course to Qui-
vira by the subterfuge of the poor "Turk." Thus they traversed
again Kansas, Indian Territory, and Texas. Finally, after forty
days of travel on their return, they reached Cicuye.

The erpedition of Don Diego D'Penalosa, which left Santa Fe
in March, 1662, in search of Quivira, consisted of about eighty
Spanish dragoons, half a dozen priests, i,ck:)o Indians on foot,
thirty-six carts loaded with supplies, eight hundred horses and
three hundred mules. The expedition appears to have reached
the same Quivira that was visited by Coronado. Some writers
insist that there were scvend f)uiviras. 'J^lie fads will ever
remain in doubt and be the subject of dispute. It seems that

SPAXISH EXPLORATIONS. 5 1

Ouivira was more or less mytliical. The savages, in order to get
rid of the pestiferous Spaniards, wlio were despoihng them of
everything they possessed, promptly and gladly pointed onward,
when asked to locate Quivira. It was anywhere that would get
rid of the robbers. His precise route is unknown. Oilier expe-
ditions from New Mexico to what afterward became the
Louisiana Purchase were doubtless made. There are records to
prove that, in 1599, Juan l^'Onate, with a band of adherents,
marched eastward in pursuit of riches, Capt. Don Juan Domin-
guez in 1684 visited Quivira, wherever it may have been.

Doubtless, the extravagant stories of gold in the regions of the
west and southwest were founded upon fact. The semi-civilized
people of Mexico, for centuries before America was discovered
by Europeans, had inhabited all the western country far up along
the Pacific coast, and had slowly accumulated from year to year
much of the free, surface, or placer gold, worth in the aggregate,
no doubt, many millions of dollars, all of which had gradually
sought the more populous towns, to be converted into ornaments
and vessels for the native rulers. These stories were realities to
the natives ; but, after the conquest of Mexico and Peru, the
bewildered Spaniards greedily drank the golden tales, enlarged
from their own desires and vivid imaginations, and in mysterious
pictures of fancy they turned the western country, particularly
the unknown portions, into populous lands, burdened with the
accumulated gold of many centuries. The results of the con-
quests of Mexico and Peru and the true tales of the Indians,
must account for the ready belief of the Spaniards in the existence
of large quantities of gold in Arizona. and New Mexico; and also
account for the fanciful vision of the "Seven Cities of Cibola,"
and of "Ouivira."

When the Spaniards under D'Garay beached their boats at the
mouth of the Mississippi for the purpose of cleaning and repair-
ing them, the natives met the new-comers with pleasant words
and smiles, accompanied with gifts of all they had to l^estow.
Here the Spaniards remained for forty days, taking all the natives
had in the way of pearls and provisions, and giving in exchange
beads, hawk's-bclls and other useless trinkets and trifles. But
the Indians were satisfied — were, in fact, pleased to be permitted
to render any service to the Spaniards in their power, without
recomixnse. While here the Spaniards went in parlies up the
river to the distance of fifteen miles, observing as many as forty
villages on both sides of the river — only temi)orary villages of

52 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

canes, robes, etc. ; because tbe annual overflow of the river pre-
vented the erection of permanent structures. 'J'here is no evi-
dence to show that the Spaniards misused the Indians, or that
the latter were displeased with their visitors. It may be set down,
therefore, that the iirst visit of the Spaniards to the modern Louis-
iana Purchase was one of peace and friendly barter with the
natives, but through no fault of tiie Spaniards. They simply
were not given an opportunity of showing the material of which
tiiey were made. P>ut the fact that no unpleasant incident
occurred is worthy of note.

The experiences of Cabeza de Vaca with the natives of what
is now the state of Texas are especially worthy of being
remembered. After suffering incredibly from hardships put upon
him by the natives who had previously been abused by the Span-
iards, he finally n^arched toward the north where no whiteman
had ever been, and a new heaven and a new earth opened before
him. He was everywhere regarded, much to his astonish'ment,
as a superior being. In other words, when he left the regions
where the cruelties of the Spaniards had alienated the friendship
of the Indians, and reached regions where their barbarities were
unknown and unfelt as yet, he began to be treated more like a
god than a human being. He had no sooner ailvanced into the
interior, than he was received by the natives with a pomp, cere-
mony and distinction that surprised yet delighted him Ijeyond
measure. The simple and confiding natives thought him a mes-
senger from Cod, and deemed it a mark of extreme distinction
to be permitted to touch his garments, to render him menial serv-
ice, and to lug his contraptions through forests and marshes,
rain and shine, cold and heat, across pleasant valleys and over
barren mountain divides, lids was an agreeable change which
De Vaca and his wondering companions were careful not to dis-
courage or restrain. Their journey westward through Texas
was a continual ovation ; they were feasted, carried over streams
and fairly worshipped by every nation they met. In return they
modestly posed as special messengers from God, sent to the world
to befriend the humble natives and to bless their belongings and
them. Thus everything they touched was deemed consecrated
and was ever afterward regarded as sacred— until otiier Spaniards
had dispelled the fantastic vision.

Tint a change was destined to come over the spirit of their
dreams. The poor Querechos of Kansas or Texas, whose goods
De Vaca and his comrades had blessed in 1536, could scarcely

SPANISH EX FLO RATIONS.

believe their eyes when the Spaniards under Coronado in 1542
cruelly appropriated not only those robes, but all others they
could lay their hands on. During- their trip through Texas to
the Rio Grande, De Vaca and his companions met with nothing
but surprising hospitality and homage, simply because they
treated the Indians with a kindness and consideration that com-
pletely won their hearts. They used no particular arts to accom-
plish this result. The instincts of the Indians recognized the
a[)parcnt superiority of the S])aniards, and in the absence of ill-
usage and in the presence of kindly ofiices, spontaneously raised
them to the height of gods. There was no mystery about it.
Tiic same causes would produce again the same effects. Kind-
ness and wise offices would again kindle the light of love and
iiomage. Thus runs the way of the human heart. First under
D'Garay and seconil untler iJe Vaca, the mystic chords of benev-
olent ilisinterestedness opened a i)alhway to the willing subserv-
iency of the natives. Was the religion of Christ as excmplifial
by the Spanish priests equal to the splendid task of rekindling
this glorious light of love and homage?

When De Soto crossed the iMississipi)i, the caciques of Cas-
quin, Capaha and Akansea tendered him their services, houses,
provisions and women — shared with his soldiers everything they
had ; nay, denied themselves that the strangers might be com-
fortable and happy. The object of the Spaniards was unknown
to the natives — their cruel i)ast was a blank, so the greetings were
friendly. But the Spaniards began at once to impoverish the
country, desecrate the native temples, scorn their simple yet
sincere religious and other ceremonies, debauch their women,
make slaves of the people ; but even yet the natives regarded
the newcomers so highly that they continued friendly and sub-
servient. At Capaha the Spaniards encountered war, because
they went there to wage war. From this time forward the sav-
ages sullenly submitted to the Spaniards rather than rendered
them homage and honor. The nobility of the caciques, shown
in all their doings, shines in sparkling contrast to the diabolical
designs of the Spaniards. In every respect the savage was nobler
than the civilized. The savage was more civilized and the civ-
ilized more savage. The splendid dignity and magnificent hos-
pitality of Casquin and Capaha were the wonderment of the
Ijrazoi and treacherous representatives of Aragon and Castile.

'J'he inhabitants of Oniguatc received the Spaniards with sus-
picion, because stories of their abuses had preceded them. They

54 THE PKOViNCE AND THE STATES.

met the same reception at Colinia, for the same reason. These
towns were all close together. Farther away, at Caligoa and
Palisema they were well received; but did not tarry long", because
the poor natives had lilile the visitors required or wanted. At
Cayas they found the Indians friendly ; but at Tulla they encoun-
tered war, because the story of their evil deeds had preceded
them. At Guipana, Anoixi and Catamaya they were welcomed
and supplied with immense quantities of maize and other provi-
sion, for which they gave little or nothing. Where tiiey were
unknown, they were invariably received with friendliness and
distinction and offered all the natives had; but just as invariably
they left the natives their enemy, because of the outrageous
wrongs they committed. Think a moment what it meant to the
natives to be compelled to support such an army for months at a
time, under penalty of being cut to pieces, — five hundred vora-
cious men, several hundred heatl of horses and as niany swine —
all swine in fact; fully as many more camp-followers— ^l)Oor fi
natives impressed at the point of the sword to do menial duty,
and deliberately run through their bodies if they shirked or
refused.

In the rich province of Atiamque this hungry and merciless
army remained all winter, consuming the stores, debauching the
people, desecrating every sacred object they possessed, and forc-
ing many of them to do menial duty in the Spanish camp. Recol-
lect, that all these villages were in the modern Louisiana and
Arkansas, a lancj the sun kissed with sunshine, and blessed with
shinuhering harvests of golden grain, as well as of golden mines.
Not finding the latter, the Castillian nobles consumed all they
could of the former. In the spring, at Ayayes, Tutelpinco,
Tianto, Nilco-and Guacho\a, the Spaniards were warmly received
and given practical possession of the provinces. At the latter
place De Soto died. He could have been spared from earth long
before and no vigorous complaint been raised. He had left a
trail of devastation, cruelty, wickedness and murder which no
prayers nor pens can wipe out. Rut after he ha<l been called
hence, the same tale of friendly reception by the natives may be
told of his successor, Moscoso, in the wearisome journey to
Texas and return, across the central part of modern Louisiana.
Kind treatment encountered the friendship and submission of
the natives. Kind words and simple gifts brought guides and
provisions; swords and bnllels brought war clubs and poisoned
arrows. Was there ever better ground for the seeds of Chris-

SPANISH EXPLORATIONS. 55

tianity? If there was merit in the cross carried by the Spanish
priests, here was the opportunity for its glorious exempHfication
on this miserable little earth. But the cross was in ignorant and
unclean hands ; the simple beauty of the Nazarene's teachings
never glorified the steps of De Soto's army; the beatitudes were
forgotten by the grandees who burned for the possession of gold
and great riches; the sincere religious ceremonials of the natives
that recognized a supreme being, were unfeelingly spurned instead
of adroitly turned in the direction of truth and divinity. While
the priests were chanting mass, the troopers were cutting throats
in the nearest thickets. The butcheries were a poor fulfillment
of the boundless promises of the priests. The untutored mind of
the savage unbecomingly associated the atrocity with the relig-
ion. The good seed had been sown with too many tares. Hence
the priests made no proselytes in Akansea of the Louisiana Pur-
chase. The savages preferred the religion of the .perpetual sun
and of the emerald plains spread out forever.

From the moment the army of De Soto landed on the coast of
Florida to that when his whipped and slinking survivors hurriedly
reached the mouth of the Mississippi on their way to Mexico,
it is probable that not one of the participants gave a solitary
glance at that" object of the expedition which provided for the
establishment of a permanent colony. The army, composed
almost wholly of the pride of Spain, gave to colonization not the
glimmer of a thought. They were in pursuit of riches and fame —
and they received both with a vengeance. The sober and steady
life of a colonist — the cultivation of the soil, the harvesting of
grain, the rearing of cattle — was beneath the nobles who shone
in De Soto's army.

The Spanish ministry realized the great importance of found-
ing colonies to hold the lands discovered ; but the army of De Soto
was wholly unsuited for this object. What a splendid opportun-
ity Spain had ! A- magnificent new empire was hers for the price
of a few colonies. This pleasing truth was recognized by the
Spanish court, be it said to their credit. But the conquest of
Mexico had turned every brain to fire and every heart to stone.
Unscrupulous adventurers, instead of agriculturalists and arti-
sans, sought the new shores. "Conquest !" was the cry. The
ring of gold was the slogan that swept throughout the Moresque
corridors of Spain ; and by that heartless and bloody battle-call
she lost the fairest land the sun ever shone upon. The tremen-
dous eflfort expended by the army of De Soto would have saved

56 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

the whole Mississippi valley to Spain, had it been applied prop-
erly to the formation of happy colonial homes on the banks of
the great river.

If the expedition of De Soto was valueless to Spain, that of
Coronado was both valueless and villainous. While both were
ostensibly designed for the esta])lishment of colonies in the coun-
tries invaded, the real oljject was the pursuit of gold and other
forms of riches. Both were aimed at the heart of the modern
Louisiana Purchase — at the gold and silver which had actually
been seen by the natives in Colorado, iMontana and the Black
Hills. The avowed object of the expedition of Coronado was
the conquest and subjugation of the famous "Seven Cities of
Cibola," in order that the golden stream might be turned into the
exhausted coffers of the Spanish crown. The bloody yet golden
promises prompted the ready acquiescence of the "Most Catholic
Monarch" in the nefarious expedition. JUit the ministry Fjoped
that the expedition would likewise acconiplish the establishment
of colonies in the conquered country. Again, as in the case of
De Soto's army, the forces of Coronado were composed of court
favorites, the self-constituted dilettante exquisites, who had
sprung up, like mushrooms in a manure heap, from the ashes of
the Aztec ruins and from the crimes of unforgivable murders.
No thought was given to colonization. The purpose was mostly
murder, and the priests were taken along to grant absolution to
the butchered natives. Perhaps, also, the confessional might be
prostituted to compel the expiring savages to reveal the hiding
places of their gold and precious stones. The denial of the chiefs
of Tiguex that they had golden bracelets was met by binding
them in chains and flinging them into prison. The candor of the
Querechos in exhibiting their many valuable robes — their only
acquired wealth — was met by the heartless appropriation of the
whole lot. Everywhere the Indians were compelled to support
the army. If a levy were not forthcoming, murder was com-
mitted, and the priests were hurriedly called to dangle the cross
before the fading eyes of the bleeding wretches. If ever there
was hell upon earth, it followed the swish of the Spanish swords
of Coronado's army in the beautiful valley of the Rio Grande.
If ever civilized man should flush with shame, he should do so
at the mention of the name of Coronado.

No wonder that such a nation went down "to chaos and old
night." No wonder the gilt of the cavalier looked pale and poor
when compared with the gleaming plow of the hardy and honest

I
SPANISH EXPLORATIONS. cj \

colonist. But the sacrifice was made. Spain had not the splen-
did prevision to claim and possess the land now peopled with
millions and golden with the triumphs of man and the glories of
God. Her wretched civilization failed to comprehend the won-
derful wealth of the sun, the rain, the soil, the forests with their
whispering lullahies and the streams with their melodious laugh-
ter. So she surrendered without regret a realm, bursting with
the blossoms of beauty, an empire of possibilities, which the kind
years, through the grace of God, have transformed into castellated
homes more substantial than dreams of gold.

58 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

CHAPTER II

French Explorations and Discoveries

THE most surprising fact in connection with the formation
and growth of the colonies in North America, is the vast
extent of time that was permitted to elapse from the dis-
covery of San Salvador by Columbus to the establishment of
permanent settlements by the principal European nations. It
was more than a hundred years before Jamestown was founded
by the English. France did better in the valley of the St. Law-
rence; and Spain also did better, or worse, in Florida and in
Mexico. It is safe to say that could the statesmen of the six-
teenth century have looked ahead to the beginning of the twen-
tieth century and have scon this marvelous country as it is today,
they not only wouUl have exhausted every national resource they
possessed to colonize the whole country, but from time to time
would have taken every means to prevent the colonies from
attaining their independence. Even after the wonderful natural
resources of this country had become well known to Europeans,
attempts at settlement were strangely lukewarm and the wishes
of the colonists were unfeelingly disregarded. The ill-treatment
of the Atlantic colonies by Great Britain was a piece of stupen-
dous folly, which only the imbecile George III would have been
guilty of. The oppression of the Louisiana colonists by the
monopolies of Crozat and the Western Company, under sover-
eign sanction, was no less unwise, nor less destructive of French
ascendency in America. For more than a century and a half
Spain refused to take Louisiana or Texas as a gift. All three
countries — Spain, Great Britain and France — looked first for
gold, second for other colonial profits, third for means of out-
witting one another, and fourth for an agricultural empire. At

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS.

all times the colonies must be ojipressed for the benefit of the
crowns. International jealousy and individual enterprise and
adventure had more to do in settling the ownership to North
America than any other factors. It will be well to note what
France did toward the settlement of the present Louisiana Pur-
chase.

The grant to Sir Robert Heath by the English crown in 1627
embraced the Carolina coast from the thirty-first to the thirty-
sixth parallels of latitude and extended westward to the South
Sea. Later this patent was sold to Lord Maltravers and by him
to Doctor Daniel Coxe, who, it is claimed in some quarters, sent
Colonel Welch to explore the country, and who, the English main-
tained, traversed the region from Charleston to the Mississippi
river. But it has been doubted on good grounds whether such
a journey was made. The rights of Doctor Coxe passed to his
son, who, in order to lual.c somolhing of value out of his estate,
published a journal which he claimed had been kept by com-
panions of Colonel Welch, and prepared a map of the colony in
1722, showing the route claimed to have been traversed by that
officer, and further showing English factories and settlements in
the wilderness of modern Alabama and Mississippi, It has been
presumed that this map and this journal were prepared, to use a
modern phrase, "for advertising purposes." The younger Coxe
anxiously wanted settlers for his colony, and made great efforts
to secure them. It was claimed that the English sent their ves-
sels, commanded by Colonel Wood, up tiie Mississippi as early
as iTqS, and again in i(^y6, that he spent nearly ten years in
exploring the Mississippi and its branch.es, and that explorers
from Virginia crossed the Alleghanies and penetrated the upper
Ohio river valley in 1654 and in 1664. It was claimed that in
1670 a vessel commanded by Captain Bolt navigated the Mis-
sissippi in the interests of England.* But these claims are usu-
ally disregarded by historians. It is not probable that Colonel
Welch made the alleged journey to the Mississippi river. It is
not likely that he ever saw any portion of the Louisiana Purchase,

When the charter of Hudson's Bay Company was granted in
1670, Charles the II and his minister were themselves uncertain
of their boundaries in Canada. As early as 1630 the French
Beaver Company secured a portion of the territory afterward
claimed by Hudson's Bay Company. Owing to the unccr-

♦Jeffery's Natural and Civil History of the French Dominions in North and
South America. London, 1760.

6o THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

tainty of their limits, the Enj^lish ministry, therefore, inserted
a proviso in the charter of Hudson's lUiy Company, excUul-
in^" therefrom "all the lands, territories, 'etc., at that time
possessed hy any other Christian prince or state." It later
became known that lon£^ before the luit^lish traders had
ventured far from Hudson Hay, the French voyageurs and
explorers had penetrated as far west as the Saskatchewan river,
and were in comnmnication with all the intervening tribes of
Indians. The rights of France and England in the vicinity of
Hudson Bay wei'e still undefined at the time of the treaty of
Ryswick in 1697, as is shown by an article therein which provides
that the country occupied there previously by France, but retaken
by England, should be restored to the former. "It is not possi-
ble to conceive a more distinct and national acknowledgment that
those countries did not belong to the crown of England at the
time they were taken in the peace ])receiling the war, nor a for-
tiori at an earlier period." Thus it is clear that the territory
granted to Hudson's liay Company in 1670 could not have
included any of the territory rightfully belonging to France.
The treaty of R)swick jjrovided for the ap{)oiuimL'nt of com-
missioners on both sides "to examine and determine the rights
and pretensions which either of the said kings hath to the places
situated on Hudson Bay ;" but such a commission seems never to
have acted. But even upon the su])position that Hudson's Bay
Company's charter embraced the territory claimed by the French,
the treaty of Ryswick runuilU'd the C()nipan)'s rights in that
quarter by cetling to France all the I'.nglish territory there. In
other words "the country granted by Charles H to Hudson's Bay
Company was definitely and unreservedly made over to France."
From the treaty of Ryswick in 1697 to the treaty of Utrecht in
1713, nearly all of the territory around Hudson Bay remained
in the possession of France. At the latter date all of Hudson
Bay passed to England for the first time.

But what did the Hudson Bay country include? All the ter-
ritory draining- into that bay, including the basins of the Albany,
Souris, Assiniboine and Saskatchewan rivers and Red River of
the North. Thus a considerable portion of the modern "Minne-
vSota and North Dakota and a small portion of Montana belonged
to the basin of Hudson Bay. Inasmuch as that portion of the
basin now within the United States could not have been granted,
owing to the above reasons, to the Hudson's Bay Company in
1670, the grant made at a later day to Eord Selkirk could not
have been valid. In 181 1 he was granted a tract of sixteen thou-

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS. 6l

sand square miles in the valley of the Rqd River of the North,
and he extended his limits into the present houndaries of the
United States. In fact, he selected the most valuable land in the
whole northwest. In 1818, when the forty-ninth parallel was
established as the boundary between Canada and the United
States, England deliberately divided the grant of Hudson's Bay
Company to Lord Selkirk, throwing a portion of the same within
the boundaries of the United States without consulting that com-
pany; nor did the latter make any complaint, nor ask for com-
pensation for the loss. Lord Selkirk was a member of Hudson's
Bay Company, and became a strong factor in that organization
at certain periods of its distress, taking a large block of its stock.
When the Northwest bur Company appeared on the scene at a
later day asking for a division of the spoils, it was bitterly
oi)posed by Hudson's Bay Com])any; they finally united. Fear-
ing too great an invasion of their territory, the Comj)any from
the very start opposed all altemi)ts to discover a "northwest pass-
age." It was publicly charged that Captain Middleton, who was
sent in 1740 to find such a j^assage, received a bribe of $25,000
from Hutlson's Bay Company, either to give up the exploration
or to conceal what he should find.*

There is no doubt that the beautiful water-courses and velvet
plains of the Upper Mississippi valley were visited and admired
by French courcnrs long l)efore an attempt was made to pene-
trate the swampy mazes and tangled forests of the lower Louis-
iana country west of the great river. Canada, which had been
settled many years before I, a Salle explored the Mississippi in
1682, sought every means to secure the fur trade of the north-
western tribes. From conditions in which there w^ere immense
profits there sprang up the famous conreurs dc bois, who refused
to be governed by the grants of trade privileges of the king and
began an irregular traffic, first on the shores of the great lakes,
and a little later on the branches of the upper Mississippi.
Doul)tless, many of these venturesome men, whose names are
wholly unknown to history, traversed the country and opened the
trade which became so valuable and so sought after by the mer-
chants of Montreal and Quebec. The Indians were eager for
guns, powder, lead, hatchets, scalping knives and merchandise,
and readily parted with ten — yes, a hundred — times their valua-
tion in furs and robes to these venturesome traveling traders, for

* An Examination of the Charter and Proceedings of the Hudson Bay Company,
&c. James Kdward FitzKerald, I.ondon. 1849.

62 THE PROriNCE AND THE STATES.

such the coiircurs de hois were. It is well known that this class
of bush rangers largely absorbed the northwest fur trade during
the period of the earliest explorations and settlement. The king
complained, the Company of the West complained, but what could
be done when the courcnrs were sustained by the merchants of
Montreal? At first secrecy was enjoined, but when this course
was found unnecessary and more or less burdensome, their deal-
ings with the courcnrs were openly transacted, despite the serv-
ants of the king. When such men as Du Lhut ( Duluth ) and
Le Sueur openly placed themselves at the head of roving bantls
of courcnrs and invaded the northwest, building palisaded forts
here and there, forming their own treaties with the Indians, and
obtaining the bulk of the immensely valuable fur trade, and when
the merchants of Canada, knowing the power of such leaders and
facing ruin if they opposed them, deliberately bid for their custom
and openly sustained them, what could tiie King or the King's
ofiicers do but submit? Thus the Upper Mississippi valley came
to be explored long before the slow-acting officers of the King
had started west of the great lakes to find the Mechasipi or Mis-
sissipi)i, called the "Great River," with the hope that it would
lead them to the South Sea.

One of the earliest Frenchmen to visit the Mississippi basin
was Jean Nicolet. In 1643 he passed from Montreal to Georgian
Bay, thence into Lake Huron, thence to the straits of Mackinac,
whence he discovered La]<e Michigan, and having coasted along
its western shore in a small canoe, he entered Green Bay and
there fouiul the Ouinipe^ous ( Winnebagoes), by v»hom he was
well received. He brought with him a robe of gold cloth of some
fanciful Chinese pattern, either for the purpose of impressing the
Indians, or because he thought he might reach China, in which
case he could appear in court costume without extra trouble or
expense. Having robed liimsclf in this garment, he astonished
and awed his savage beholders. He told them that his object
was to secure peace between the Indians and the French, and the
savages gave him a royal feast, at which were served oVie hun-
dred and twenty beavers. He went up the river Fox to the port-
age, and then down the Wisconsin, until, according to his own
story, he was within three days' sail of the sea, as he supposed
from the statements of the Indians, but really of the great water,
the Mississippi. He thus narrowly missed a fame that would
have made his name far more prominent in the annals of Amer-
ican discovery and exploration than the one he attained.

Nicholas Perrot accompanied the expedition under M. St.

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS. . 63

Lusson, who took possession of the western country at the Sault
Ste. Marie in 1671. In time he attained great intluence over the
western tribes, particularly over the B^oxes, with whom the French
had more trouble than with any other tribe, not excepting even
the Sioux. The Foxes called him Metamenens, or Little Maize.
IJe accompanied St. Lusson in the capacity of interpreter, and
was sent to Green Bay and to the river Wisconsin to secure dele-
gates to the conference at the Sault and to take possession of the
western country in the name of France. The Foxes and Mas-
coutins refused to send delegates to the conference at the Sault.
All the others in modern Wisconsin did. Ihit the temper of the
other two tribes was mollified by the courageous i'errot. On this
visit he reached the headwaters of the Wisconsin river.

In the spring of 1685 Perrot was commissioned to go to Green
Bay and was made commandant of the new countries he should
discover. Taking twenty Frenchmen with him, representatives
of Canadian merchants, he reached that point, and a few days
later arrived at the portage between the Fox and the Wisconsin
rivers, and there encountered opposition from a small band of the
llurons; but he continued on, reached the Mississippi, where he
built a fort which was called St. Nicholas, sent a few Winneba-
goes to open friendly communication with the Aiouez (lowas)
to the westward, and ascended the river for the purpose of find-
ing another suitable location for a fort. One was selected on the
Wisconsin shore of Lake Pepin, and the stockade was speedily
erected and named Fort St. Antoine. The following year the
Foxcii, Kickapoos, Mascoulins and others to the number of one
hundred made an attempt lo surprise and destroy the fort, and
would have done so if it had not been for the sagacity and cour-
age of Perrot. He had been away and only six men were left in
charge of the fort. Returning as the attack was on the point of
being made, he deceived them into believing that the fort con-
tained forty men, all well armed ; but he would not have been able
to accomplish this ruse had it not been for a friendly Mascoutin
chief, who informed him of the intentions of the savages. A lit-
tle later Perrot was ordered on important eastern service, and
during his absence the fort was evacuated, owing to the hostility
of the Indians, particularly the Sioux. In 1688 he returned, and
with him at this time came forty Frenchmen, also representatives
of Canadian merchants, all well armed and prepared to invade the
territory of the dreaded Sioux. At Green Bay the wily and
treacherous Foxes attempted to dissemble, but Perrot refused
their feast until they had explained iheir recent hostile conduct.

64 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

Having humbled them, he contmued down the Wisconsin and up
the Mississippi to Fort St. Antoine. Here he soon made his influ-
ence felt, backed as he was by forty Frenchmen armed to the
teeth. The Sioux became tamer and finally friendly. In the
spring- of 1689 they sent for him and escorted him to their vil-
lages, where he was received with great enthusiasm, real or
affected. He was carried around on a beaver robe, iollowed by
many Indians, all smoking, and was wept over after the custom
of the savages by the head chiefs. He was probably now in the
region of St. Croix river, the principal land of the Sioux. At
this time he visited the Alantantans on St. Peter's river,* and
other bands of the Sioux nation on the upper branches of the Mis-
sissippi. Descending the river to Fort St. Antoine or Anthony
he took formal possession of the country in the name of the king
of France, as shown by the following document :

"Nicholas Perrot, commanding for the King at the post of
the Nadoucsioux, comniissioncd by the Marquis D'Denonville,
governor and liL'utenanl -general of all New France, to manage
the interests of commerce among all the Indian tribes and peo-
ples of the Bay des Puants, Nadouesioux, Mascoutins and other
western nations of the Upper ?\Iississippi, and to take possession
in the King's name, of all the places where he has hitherto been
and whither he will go. We this day, the 8lh of May, 1689, do
in presence of Father Marest of the Society of Jesus, missionary
among the Nadouesioux ; of M. D'Borie-Guillot, conmianding the
French in the neighborhood of Ouiskonche (Wisconsin) of the
Mississippi; vVugustin Pogardeur, Sicur D'Caumonl and MM. Le
Sueur, lU'berl, Poinire ;uul lUoin: Declare to all whom it may
concern, that having come from the Bay des Puants and to the
lake of the Ouiskonchcs and to the river Mississippi, we did
transport ourselves to the country of the Nadouesioux on the bor-
der of the river Saint Croix, and at the mouth of the river Saint
Peter, on the bank of which were the Mantantans, and farther
up into the interior to the northeast of the Mississippi as far as
the Mencliokatoux, with whom dwell the majority of tlie Songes-
tokous and other Nadouesioux, who are to the northeast of the
Mississipj)! to take possession for, and in the name of the King,
of the countries and rivers inhabited by said tribes and of which
they are proprietors. The present act, done in our presence,
signed with our hand and subscribed by Father Marest, MM

*Tlie river St. Peter was no doubt named in honor of Peter Le Suenr, who later
built h'ort I.'IIuillier on one of its branches. He was present when Perrot thus
took possession of the country in the name of France.

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS.

D'Borie-Guillot and Caumont and the Sieurs Le Sueur, Hebert,
Lemire and Blein. Done at the post, St. Anthony, the day and
year aforesaid."

About the year 1676 an engineer named Randin, who had
assisted in laying out Fort Frontenac, was commissioned by the
provincial government to visit the nations of the Ojibways and
the Sioux living at the head of Lake Superior, to make them
valuable presents for the purpose of gaining their good will. A3
nothing further is heard of this expedition, it is probable that it
was abandoned.*

In September, 1678, Daniel Greysolon du Lhut (Du Luth) was
granted the privilege of visiting the Sioux and Assiniboin nations
for purposes of trade and discovery. With three French com-
panions he went to Lake Huron, where he wintered, and early
in April of the following year reached Sault Ste. Marie. Early
in July he arrived at the country of the Issatis, a branch of the
Sioux living at this time on Mille Lacs in the modern State ot
Minnesota, and formally took possession of the country for
France. He had no doubt gone up the St. Louis river, thence
crossed over to the Mississippi and descenaed to Sandy lake,
then having on its shores the principal villages of this branch of
the Sioux. He seems to have remained here a considerable length
of time, and had the courage to make a long journey to tlie coun-
try of the Sissetons, another branch of the Sioux living about two
hundred and fifty miles to the westward. His companions were
MM. Lamonde, La Taupine ami Dupny. The following winter he
lived at a rude post on the norihern border of Minnesota, trading
for all the beaver skins the Indians had, and collecting a large
quantity. He and his companions were coiireurs de hois, and
did not scruple to take all the beaver skins offered. No doubt
the authorities at Montreal divided the profits with him as a con-
sideration for mutual benefits. In June, 1680, with four French
companions and an Indian, he went again to the Sioux (Issatis)
country, and while there learned of the presence of two whitemen
farther south on another branch of the Mississippi. Thinking
they might be Englishmen, bent on invading the territory which
he had taken possession of in the name of France, he went down
to investigate, and met Father Hennepin and his companion, as
elsewhere narrated. Through the instrumentality of Du Lutli
they were set at liberty, and the Indians were severely rebuked
for having treated them so shamefully.

♦ New York Colonial Documents, Vol. IX.

1-5

66 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

Soon after this date Du Luth returned to Montreal, and later
went to France. Upon iiis return in 1683, he was again licensed
to trade with the western Indians and was authorized to hold them
in suhjection. About the time of his arrival at Keweenaw point
of Lake Superior, two French traders there were murdered and
plundered by the Indians. He immediately appreliended the
murderers, gave them a fair trial and shot them in the presence
of four hundred of their friends. By this date there were many
French traders with lieadquarters at Keweenaw point — probably
as many as one hundred. In performing this act of retaliation,
Du Luth had back of liim forty-two of these resolute men.

As early as 1659 J^itdard Chouard des Groseilliers and Peter
Esprit de Radisson, two French runaways, who had assisted the
English on Hudson iiay as against the I'Vench, were located at
St. Esprit Point, or Chequamegon, on Lake Superior, about mid-
way between the modern cities of Ashland and Washburn, Wis-
consin. On that date they were engaged in trading with the
Indians ; and for the protection of their goods against the weather
and the Indians, had erected a log fort. They had on hand guns,
ammunition, hatchets, kettles, bells, beads, tobacco, etc., to be
traded for the furs of the redmen. About this time, or a little
later, it is known that they went as far to the northwest as the
Mille Lac in Minnesota and Lake Assiniboine in Manitoba, and in
doing so very probably passed across the divide to the Mississippi
a short distance below the town of La Prairie, Minnesota. They
were not alone, but no doubt had a number of French Canadians
with them for the purpose of visiting the Indian tribes and trad-
ing for their furs. 'J'iiere is some evidence to show that they
went to that point in abcjut 1655; and it is claimed liy some writers
that they went there by the way of the Wisconsin and the Mis-
sissippi rivers, but this is not known to be a fact. If it were true,
their discovery of the Mississippi would ante-date that of Joliet
and Marquette by fifteen to eighteen years. Father Rene
Menard had come to this section about the same time as a mis-
sionary among the Tinnontates, the Tobacco band of tHe Hurons,
who had fled west to Lake Superior before the hostile Irociuois.
It is claimed that the Tinnontates fled to Green Bay, thence across
to the Mississippi via the Wisconsin, thence up the former and
either the Chippewa or the St. Croix to Lake Superior, and that
Father Menard accompanied them. If so, he may have been the
discoverer of the upper Mississippi. But it is not known to be
true. It is known, however, that Radisson and Groseilliers met
the Tinnontates among the marshes of the upper Chippewa

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS. 67

branches. Here and on Lake Superior this tribe met the Otta-
was and formed an alHance with them against the Sioux. They
seem to have located finally on Black river, Wisconsin, where
Father Menard served them until his disappearance in about
i(.)6o-i. His hassock and breviary found later among the Sioux
proved what had become of him. In 1660 Radisson and Groseil-
liers returned to Canada with sixty canoes loaded with valuable
furs and were accompanied and assisted by several hundred
Indians. They had heard of the great river to the westward.

Every attempt made by the French to explore the northwest,
was governed by the particular ol)ject of limiting the advances
of the English in that direction. Du Euth, although one of the
most prominent and indefatigable of the conreurs de bois, took
upon himself nevertheless the task of preventing the English
from reaching the upper branches of the Mississippi or the south-
ern and western borders of Lake Superior. The dauntless Per-
rot assumed the same responsibility. In fact the licenses of t^ie
coiircnrs were granted at Montreal upon the distinct proviso that
the English must be forcstalleil, as one of the primary objects of
the westward movements of the French traders. But notwithstand-
ing this injunction which was faithfully observed, and notwith-
standing the covert approval of the illicit trade of the conreurs at
Montreal and the friendship and encouragement of the merchants
there, the former found it decitledly to their advantage to take
their furs to the English settlements along the Atlantic coast.
By doing so they often received double the price for their furs.
It was reportetl that during the summer of 1679, the trader La
Taupine obtaineil from the Ottawas in two tlays' trading about
nine hundred beaver skins. Others were equally lucky, and the
trade went to the English. In 1681 amnesty was granted to the
conreurs, and after th.at date they were duly licensed, but their
operations would have continued the same, license or no license.
Unquestionably, the presence of Du Luth on the upper branches
of the Mississippi and along the western border of Lake Superior,
prevented the English of Hudson Bay from invading that rich
fur country and fastened the claim of France to that soil.

Father Marquette reached La Pointe de Esprit in September,
1669. The French traders had been there for more than ten
years. He writes, "When the Illinois (Indians from the west
side of the Mississippi, near the mouth of the Des Moines river)
come to La Pointe, they cross a great river, which is nearly a
league in width, flows from north to south and to such a distance
that the Illinois, who do not know what a canoe is, have not yet

68 THE PROVING II AND THE STATES.

heard any mention of its mouth. . . . It is liard to behove
that that great river discharges its waters into Virginia, and we
rather think it has its mouth in Cahfornia. If the savages who
promise to make me a canoe do not break tiieir word to me, we
shall explore this river as far as we can, with a Frenchman and
this young man (an Illinois .Indian), who was given me (to be
his slave) and who knows some of those languages (of the tribes
along the Mississippi), and has a facility for learning th$ others.
We shall visit the natives dwelling there, in order to open the
passage to such of our Fathers as have been awaiting this good
fortune for so long a time. This discovery will give us full
knowledge either of the South sea or the Western sea." Father
Marquette would have gone to the Mississippi at this time had it
not been for the threats of the Sioux. Through his Indian slave
and otherwise he heard much of the Illinois across the Mississippi
and earnestly desired to open that field to the missionary service.
At this time the Illinois had eight large villages west of the Mis-
sissippi near the mouth of the Des Moines, and invited visits
from the missionaries. It was an opportunity, or "good fortune"
as he termed it, which greatly impressed the good Father Mar-
quette. Wliere so many nations received the Fathers indifferently
or with death, it was an important epoch to be invited to visit
them. He tlierefore waited impatiently to make the journey to
the Illinois on the Mississippi.

Father AUouez wrote in 1669 of the Wisconsin river that "it
leads to the great river calletl Messisipi* which is only six days*
sail from here." Ivithcr Oablon wrote in 1670 that the Indians
rejKjrted the great river to flow over three hundred leagues to the
south and that it was more than a league wide. It was in 1669
that La Salle went down the Ohio river to the falls at Louisville.
The same year two French traders at La Pointe de Esprit, while
out on the lake fishing, were surprised by a sudden and violent
storm and drowned. West of La Pointe about fifty or sixty
leagues were the fierce and unrelenting Sioux, standing as a bar-
rier against the westward advancement of the eastern Indians
or the Frenchmen. But by going in considerable numbers and
well armed, the latter steadily made inroads in their domain.
Good results were anticipated from these visits. Father Claude

♦Father Andr6. while on Green Bay and Fox river in 1672, learned that Missip-
issi was Uie Neptune, or evil Manitou, of Hie Indians tlien there— Menonionees,
I'ottuwal tomies and others. At their villaiie of Clinnskouel)ika (pr()hal)lv the
modern I'lMisaiikee), the Indians ttave feasts and saerifices to Rain the favorof this
deify. As the name Missipissi is much like Mississippi, and as il sii'iii(ic<l the
deity of llic water or ureat wiiter, may not lliis liave Ijeen llie origin of tlie latier
which si^;nifies ureal water?

PRENCH EXPLORATIONS. 69

Alloiiez wrote in 1672, "Thus our holy faitli is more and more
gaining a foothold among these peoples, and we have good hope
that in a short time we shall carry it as far as the famous river
named Missisipi and perhaps even to the South Sea."

The zeal of the missionaries for the conversion of the Indians —
for the salvation of their souls — led to their visits to the savage
villages. As early as 1559 the Dominicans traversed the coun-
try from Pensacola to the Mississippi — may have even crossed
that river. They felt amply repaid for all their dangers and hard-
ships when they were permitted to baptize dying infants or
adults, believing, as they did, that the souls of such were sent
thereby to heaven. It was not until 1658 that the Jesuits of Can-
ada determined to visit the country of the Foxes, Illinois, and the
tribes on the Mississippi. The missons at Sault Ste. Marie,
Green Bay and Mackinac were the first in the West. Rene
Menard went to Keweenaw on Lake Superior in 1660, and Claude
Allouez followed him in 1665, Roin.c: to Chequamcgon. He w^s
the first missionary to meet the Sioux and to learn of the existence
of the Mississippi. A few years later Maniucttc was prevented
from visiting the Sioux by their hostility, Init he likewise learned
of the Mississippi and determined to visit the tribes thereon at the
first opportunity, for the purpose of carrying the light of the
gospel to those heathen. Then came the Kaskaskia mission
founded by Marquette and continued by Allouez and Gravier.
The Marests, Mermet, Pinet and Bennetau, soon came to the
Illinois. With Iberville, came Jesuits to the mouth of the Mis-
sissippi, but a mission was not established there until later. In
1698 St. Come and Davion were sent to Louisiana by the Catholic
Seminary at Quebec. Poisson was nuu-dcred at Natchez, Souel at
Yazoo, Senat burnt at the stake, and Doutreleau wounded at a later
date. Aubcrt was killed while with D'Verendrye in the north-
west. Guignas had failed to found a mission among the Sioux.
It remained for men like Du Luth to compel the Sioux to treat
(he missionaries as befitted their eflforts and to permit the estab-
lishment of missions among them. At no time was the policy of
France toward her missionaries as favorable and encouraging as
that of Spain toward hers. The latter in almost every instance
backed the missions with detachments of soldiers, with colonists,
seeds, stock, implements, etc. The former permitted the missions
to take care of themselves. If they were destroyed by the
Indians, the French government did little or nothing to repair
them. The Most Christian King did not prove himself such in
the wilds of America. Hence the well-meaning Fathers were

70 THE PROllNCE AND THE STATES.

derided, starved, burnt and butchered, and yet tliey immensely
assisted in advancing the colonial interests of their country.

Before the nature of the Indians was fully known to Europe-
ans, the policy of Louis XIV v as to civilize them, and Frontcnac
was told to amalgamate them with the whites. His first efforts
were aimed at this object; but his course was not ajjproved by the
Jesuits, who were later accused of having at heart a much greater
interest in their propert} than in the usefulness of their missions.
In fact, this was one of the charges against them when they were
expelled from the colony in 1764. Ikit whatever may be said
against them, they cannot be charged with lack of zeal, nor of
willingness to face hardships and danger. It is true, however,
that their efforts to convert the Indians, likewise the efforts to
civilize them, were wholly wasted. The nature of the Indian was
hostile to both these prerogatives of the white race.

It was destined that Louis Joliot and Lather James Marquette
should lay the foundation of French discoveries and claims on the
Mississippi river. The former was born in Canada, and educated
at the Jesuit college at Quebec, and was afterward in close s}'m-
pathy with the Jesuit missionary work, though himself engaged
in the fur trade. His experience in the western wilderness,
familiarity with the Indian tongues, skill in overcoming the hos-
tility of the natves, and hardihof^l and invincil)le courage, caused
him to be selected by the Provincial Government for the discovery
of a route to the South Sea. This expedition was incited by
M. Talon, Intendant of Canada, to whom the distinguished credit
should be given. lie sclcctcil Louis Joliet as the fittest man then
available in the Province, to conduct the expedition ; and further
decided that one of the Jesuit priests should accompany him in
the capacity of companion and assistant.

At this stage of the proceeding that was destined, undreamed
of by the actors, to become so prominent a feature in subsequent
French negotiations in America and in the history of the United
States, M. Talon, the father of the enterprise, was recalled to
France upon his own request, owing to serious disagreements
between him and Governor Courcelles, and was thus no longer
identified with the expedition. However, he was succeeded
luckily by an able and amljitious man, Count Frontenac, who con-
tinued his laudable yet daring project of sending out the expedi-
tion under Joliet for the primary purpose of discovering the South
Sea and incidentally a practicable route to the same. Frontenac
charged Joliet with the leadership of the expedition upon the rec-
ommendation of Talon, who had described him "as being a man

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS.

experienced in this kind of discovery, and who had been already
very near that river." The object of the expedition was to go to
the Mississippi river (then unnamed and unknown, save as called
by the Indians, "The Great River," or the Mechisipi, and extrava-
gantly described by them) and explore it with the expectation of
finding some water route leading by it, or from it, to the South
Sea. Some writers lose sight of the paramount object — the dis-
covery of a route to the , South vSea. They presume that the
design was to discover the Mississippi, which had been discovered
by the Spaniards more than one hundred and fifty years before.
Numerous Spanish and Portuguese maps, showing the Missis-
sipi)i extending up into the heart of the continent, had been
published long before and circulated throughout Europe.
Unquestionably, copies had reached Paris. Making all due
allowances for the imperfect means then existing for the com-
munication of such information, accounts of the expeditions of
D'Garay and De Solo had no doubt attained the same wiele pub-
licity. In other words, it is reasonable to suppose that France
had learned of the existence of the Mississippi from the Spanish
accounts and maps. But this, of course, was the lower Missis-
sippi.

The French of Canada learned from the missionaries, who
obtained their information from the Indians, of the existence of a
''great river" far to the west of Lake Michigan. But it is not
unreasonable to suppose that the idea entered the minds of Talon
and Frontenac that the "great river" of the Spanish might be the
same as the "great river" west of Canada and tiie lake system;
but this surmise is not known to be a fact. The air was full of
rumors concerning the mysteries of the western wilderness. The
"great river" reputed to lie there might lead southwestward to
the South Sea. The "great river" of the Spanish might not
extend so far to the north, or might turn to the east or the west.
Therefore, there is nothing to show that prior to the expedition
of Joliet and Marquette any one had determined the identity of
the two "great rivers." The object of the expedition is unmis-
takably laid bare by the following letter from Frontenac to the
French minister of state, ColI)ert, after the return of the
explorers. In the caption and in the text the object is shown to
be the discovery of the South Sea. It will be admitted that no
one could speak with higher authority on this subject than Fron-
tenac, unless it was Talon :

72 THE PROIINCE AND THE STATES.

"RivTURN OF SifvUU JoiJI'T FROM IIlS VoYAGi: FOR THl;

DiscfA'ivRV (.)F Tiiiv South Ska:

"The Sieur Joliet, whom M. Talon advised me when I arrived
from France to send to discover the South Sea, returned here
three months ago, and has discovered some achnirahle countries,
and a navigation so easy by the line rivers, that he found that from
Lake Ontario and Fort hronteiKic they could go in barques to the
Gulf of Mexico, having only to unload once, where Lake Erie
falls into I^ake Ontario. These are some of the enterprises they
could work upon when peace is established, and it shall please the
king to push these discoveries. He has been wilhin ten days
of the Gulf of Mexico and believes that (through) the rivers,
which empty into the great river from the west . . , they
will find some communicatioi/ Ity these waters which will lead to
the Vermillion Sea and that of California. I send y(Hi by my sec-
retary the map which he has made and the remarks which he is
able to remember, having lost all his memoirs and journals in the %
shipwreck which he suffered in sight of Montreal, where, after a I
voyage of twelve hundred leagues, he came near being drowned
and lost all his papers and a little Indian that he v/as bringing
back with him. He had loft at Lake Superior, with the Fathers
at Sault Ste. Marie, coj)ies of his journals, which we cannot
obtain imtil next year; through these you will learn more of the
particulars of that discovery in which he acquitted himself very
creditably."

"FronTENac."

"Quebec le 14 Novemb., 1674."

The expedition, then, presents two important features: First,
a commercial one, represented by Louis Joliet, an experienced
fur-trader and explorer, who was charged to find a route to the
South Sea, in order that the commerce of Asia and its adjacent
islands might find thereby a shorter route to the marts of Europe;
and was further cliarged to find and explore the "great river"
with the hope that it would solve the riddle which had thus puz-
zled Europe for nearly three centuries; Second, a religious one,
whereby the powerful and invaluable influences of the Jesuits
upon the Indians might conlributc to the success of the expedition
and -open the way to an easier coiKjuest of the country by the
crown of hVance.

The companion and assistant of Joliet was chosen upon the
recommendalion of the su])erior general of the Jesuits at Quebec,

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS. y^

and proved to be James Marquette, who had spent many years
among tlie various Indian tribes, could speak several of their lan-
guages fluently, possessed to a remarkable degree the power to
assuage the fiery spirit of the savages, and was endowed by his
Creator with one of the most lovable souls ever offered to martyr-
dom in the American wilds, lie had been west as far as
Green Bay and the southwestern shore of Lake Superior; but in
1672 was stationed at Sault Ste. Marie, which, with Father Dab-
Ion, he had previously founded, engaged in his holy work of
instructing the savages in the rites of the Catholic faith. While
in the west, he continued to hear of the "great river," which the
Indians called variously "Mechisipi," "Mesissipi," etc.,* learned
of the fierce and powerful Sioux and other large nations along
its banks or in its vicinity, and formed the resolution with all the
fervor and piety of his ardent nature to carry to them at the first
opportunity the blessings of Christianity. His enthusiasm pos-
sessed no touch of comnicrcialisiu ; he was there to save the souls
of the heathen, and was ready to brave every danger and hardship
to carry the cross to new tribes. As the sequel proved, his selec-
tion was eminently wise, because his peaceful demeanor and fine,
magnetic presence more than once unquestional)ly prevented an
attack upon the little expedition.

Owing to the loss of Joliet's journal, it has been necessary for
historians to rely for details upon the accounts given by Father
Marquette. Doubtless, this has led some writers to put him in
the first place of importance in the expedition. Without dispar- -
aging his eminent services, it is not just to slight, nor omit just
recognition of, the heroic Jolivt, (he official head and commander
of the expedition. No doubt the comparative prominence given
to the services of Father Marquette has resulted from the pub-
licity given to his account by the Jesuits and by historians. Joliet
seems to have set out from Montreal, passing up the lakes to
Michillimackinac, where he found Father Marquette at his
mission house and chapel at Point St. Ignace. The latter says
in his journal: "In 1673, the Count de Frontenac, our governor,
and M. Talon, then our intendant, knowing the importance of
this discovery, either to seek a passage from here to the China
sea by the river which empties into the California or Red sea, or

* Many names were applied to the Mississippi, aniontr which are tlie following:
Kspiritii .Santo; La Plicada and Rio T';scondido by the Spanianis; I.a Conception
(Manpiette). St. I.oiiis (La SaUe), Huade, tlit- family nani;» of Frontenac Joliet),
Colbert l)y tlie French; Match-cha-sipi, Malbonchia or IJalbouchia, Mirabichi
Chacainia, Messippi, Mescha^^elii, Ociucchiton by the Indians. It i.s claimed that

Miss" means "tjreat" and "sipi" means "water."

74 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

to verify what was afterward said of the two kingdoms of The-
guaio and Quivira, which border on Canada, and where gold
mines are, iT is said, abundant, these gentlemen, T say, both at
the same time selected for the enterprise the Sieur JoUyet, whom
ihey deemed competent for so great a design, wishing to see
Father JNIarquette accompany him. They were not mistaken in
their choice of the Sieur Jollyet, for he was a young man, born
in this country, and endowed with every quality that could be
desired in such an enterprise. . . . The day of the Immac-
ulate Conception of the Blessed Virgin, whom I had always
invoked since I have been in this (Ottawa country, to obtain of
God the grace to be able to visit the nations of the river Missisipi,
was identically that on which M. Jollyet arrived withorders of the
Count de Frontenac, our go\ernor, and M. Talon, our intendant,
to make this discovery with me. 1 was the more enraptured at
this good news, as I saw my designs on the point of being accom-
])lished, and myself in the happy necessity of cxjjDsing m\' lile for
the salvation of all these nations, and particularly for the Illinois,
who had, when I was at La I'ointe du St. Ivsprit, very earnestly
entreated me to carry the word of God to their country. We
were not long in preparing our outfit, although we were tmbarked
on a voyage the duration of which we could not foresee. Indian
corn, with some dried meat, was our whole stock of provisions.
\Vith this we set out in two bark canoes, M. Jollyet, myself, and
five men, firmly resolved to do all and suffer all for so glorious
an enterprise."

From this extract is learned what the object of the expe-
dition was thought by them to be — to seek a passage to China or
to verify the old stories of gi>ld at Ouivira, or the "Seven Cities
of Cil)ola," tales based upon actualities. No mention is made
that the object was to discover the Mississippi. The expedition,
consisting of seven men, left Si. Ignatius on May 17, 1673, having
been since the previous December engaged in preparing for the
journey. Marquette says, "As we were going to seek imknown
countries, we took all possible precautions, that, if our cnter()rise
was hazardous, it should not be foolhanly ; for this reason we
gathered all possible information from the Indians who had fre-
quented those parts, and even from their accounts traced a map
of all the new country, marking down ihe rivers on which we were
to sail, the names of the nations and places through which we
were to pass, the course of the great river, and what direction we
should take when we got to it."

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS.

They passed up the Fox river, carried their canoes across the
portage, re-embarked on the Wisconsin river, and slowly sailed
down that treacherous stream. I'hey were assisted as far as the
portage by Indians from Green Liay; there their guides stopped,
not daring to go farther, as their nation was at war with the
tribes farther down the Wisconsin river. Finally they reached
the "great river," which Father Marquette had so earnestly
longed to visit; and he says, "After forty leagues on this same
route, we reached the mouth of our river, and finding ourselves
at 42J/2 N., we safely entered the Mississippi on the 17th of June,
with a joy that I cannot express."*

On sounding, they found ten fathoms of water. They floated
down with the current, rowing to assist, and having passed about
half a degree, observed that the surrounding woods and moun-
tains had disappeared, and that the "islands are more beautiful,
and covered with finer trees." lie describes the various animals
in detail, and the natural features of the country. "Proceeding
south and south-southwest, we Cmd ourselves at 41 north: then
at 40 and some minutes, partly by southeast and partly by south-
west, after having advanced more than sixty leagues since enter-
ing the river, without discovering anything." He meant by the
latter clause that they had encountered no human beings. Con-
tinuing, "at last, on the 25111 of June, we perceived footprints of
men by the water side, and a beaten jiath entering a beautiful
prairie. We stopped to examine it, and concluded that it was a
path leading to some Indian village, we resolved to go and recon-
noitre; we accordingly left our two canoes in cliarge of our peo])le,
cautioning them strictly to beware of a surprise; then M. Jollyet
and I undertook this rather hazardous discovery for two single
men, who thus put themselves at the discretion of an unknown
and barbarous people." This was a remarkable undertaking, and
signifies the heroic character of the two explorers. They had
been told again and again that the Mississippi tribes would kill
them on sight, and for aught they now knew they were approach-
ing their dooms of torture. That knowledge did not deter tlK-m "
in the slightest degree : they had come for the purpose of visiting
the tribes along the river and exploring its shores and the sur-
lounding country, and were prepared to meet death at any
moment in the discharge of their duty. Although the narrative
does not say so, the maps show that this landing was made on the

♦Joliet imined the Mississippi "Buade," the family iiaiueof Governor Fronteiiac.

76 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

west side of the Alississippi river; they were, therefore, upon
modem Iowa soil, near tlie mouth of the Des Moines river.*

The narrative contnuies, "Wo followed the little path in silence,
and iiavinij^ advanced about two leagues (a little more than five
miles), we discovered a village on the banks of the river, and
two others on a hill half a league from the former." The loca-
tion of these villages will always be a matter of doul)t. From the
accompanying map made by Marquette, it will be seen that the
three villages are placed on what appears to be an island of a
river surely too small to be, as claimed, the Des Moines. But it
is now generally conceded that no other river was meant, and that
the landing was at or near the modern village of Montrose, a
small creek to the west of it forming a curve, and the land beyond
appearing like an island. Two of the villages are named by Mar-
quette— Peouarea and Moingvvena. The latter is known to have
been the modern Des Moines, and the former the modern Peoria,
branches of the lllini family.

The narrative continue^i (after they had caught sight of the
Indian villages), "Then, indeed, we recommended ourselves to
God, with all our hearts; and having implored his help, we passed
on undiscovered, and came so near that we even heard the Indians
talking. We then deemed it tiuie to announce ourselves, as we
did by a cry, which we raised with all our strength, and then
halted without advancing any further. At this cry the Indians
rushed out of their cabins, and having probably recognized us as
French, especially seeing a black gown (Marciuette evidently had
on his priestly garb), or at least having no reason to distrust us,
seeing we were but two ami had made known our coming, they
deputed four old men to come and s])eak with us. Two carried
tobacco pipes well adorned, and trimmed with many kinds of
feathers. They marched slowly, lifting their pipes toward the
sun, as if offering them to him to smoke, but yet without uttering
a single word. They were a long time coming a little way from
the village to us. Having reached us at last, they stopped to J

consider us attentively."

They immediately made friends with the Frenchmen, and said
they were of the Illinois nation, presented their pipes to be
smoked, and invited the visitors to the village "where all the tribe
awaited us with impatience." At the door of the main cabin,
they were received by an old man, who was standing stark naked,

♦Along the Des Moines river Joliet planes the Illinois, Peorias, Moinprwenas.
Pawnees, Omahas, Otontantas, Pawlets, and others. He says that the Peorias had
300 cabins.

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS. yy

with his hands raised as if to shield his eyes from the sun, and
who dcHvercd this sahilalion : "How hcautiful is the sun, O
Frenchmen, when tliou comest to visit us! y\ll our town awaits
thee, and thou shaU enter all our cabins in peace." There could
hardly have been rendered a finer compliment or a more heautiful
greeting. The reaction in the feelings of the two Frenchmen
from iron to sunny peace, must have afforded them tlie most
intense delight. The whole village was theirs for the asking.
Then succeeded a long round of ceremony, of feasting and smok-
ing, of friendly speeches and greetings. ''You must not refuse
the calumet, unless you would pass for an enemy, or at least for
being impolite. It is, however, enough to pretend to smoke.
While all the old men smoked after us to honor us, some came
to invite us on behalf of the great sacliem of all the Illinois to
proceed to his town, wliere he wished to hold a council with us.
We went with a good retinue, for all the jjeople wiio had never
seen a Frenchman among them could not tire looking at us; they
threw themselves on the grass by the wayside, they ran ahead,
then turned and walked back to see us again. All this was done
without noise, and with marks of a great respect entertained
for us."

At the great sachem's town, they were received by the sachem
himself at his cabin door, standing between two old men like
himself, all three stark naked, and with their calumets turned
toward the sun. The Frenchmen were greeted as usual, and
then the designs of the Frenchmen were made known to the fol-
lowing elTocl, Mar(iuelte acting as spokesman: 1st, They were
on their jouniey by this river to the sea; 2d, They came to reveal
God to them ; 3d, The French chief sent word "that he had spread
peace everywhere and had overcome the Iroquois ;" 4th, They
desired all the information the Indians could give them of the sea
and the nations along the river banks to the south. "When I
had finished my speech, the sachem rose, and laying his hand on
the head of a little slave, whom he was about to give us, spoke
thus, 'I thank thee, Blackgown, and thee, Frenchman (Joliet),
for taking so much pains to come and visit us ; never has the
earth been so beautiful nor the sun so bright as today; never has
our river been so calm nor so free from rocks, which your canoes
have removed as they passed ; never has our tobacco had so fine
a flavor, nor our corn appeared so beautiful as we behold it today.
Here is my son that I give thee, that thou mayst know my heart.
I pray thee to take pity on me and all my nation. Thou knowest
the Crcat vS|)irit who has made us all; thou speakest to him and

78 THE PROl'lNCE AND THE STATES.

hearest his word ; ask liim to ^ive me life and hcaltli, and come
and dwell witii us, that we may know him.' Saying this, he
placed the little slave near us and made us a second present, an
all-mysterious calumet, which ihey value more than a slave."
How was it possihlc to j)rove his friendship in a stronger way?
Gave his son to Joliet for a slave; gave away liis sacred calumet;
offered a free home to Father Marquette ; said the earth was
more beautiful for their coming. Thus the savages in Iowa
greeted the first Frenchmen to visit them — men who were there
to fasten the chains of I'^rancc to their limbs and bring to ihcni
an unknown and unappreciated religion. .- 'i

At the conclusion of this ceremony, a great feast followed
consisting of four courses: ist, Indian meal boiled in water and
seasoned with grease ; 2d, Fish with tlie bones removed ; 3d, a
large dog, which was politely declined by the guests; 4th, a piece
of wild ox (probably buffalo), ''the fattest portions of wiiich were
put into our mouths." In fact, the Frenchmen were fed by the
Indians with spoons as little children are. This village was a
large one, consisting of "full three hundred cabins." The French-
men were made all sorts of presents, and were finally escorted to
their boats by nearly six hundred ijcrsons. "We take leave of our
Illinois (friends) about the end of June, at three o'clock in the
afternoon, and embark in sight of all the tribe, who admire our
little canoes, having never seen the like. We descend, following f
the course of the river, toward another called Pekitanoui, which *^
empties into the Missisipi, coming from the northwest, of which %
I have something considerable to say, after I have related what I ;,;^
have remarked of this river. From the start they used every
precaution against surprise. "We advanced constantly, but as
we did not know where we were going, having already made
more than a hundred leagues (from Wisconsin) without having }|
discovered anything but beasts and birds, we kept well on our
guard (written when above the Des Moines). Accordingly, we
make only a little fire on the shore at night to prepare our meal
and after supper keep as far off from it as possible, passing the
night in our canoes, which we anchor in the river pretty far from
the bank. Even this did not prevent one of us being always as
a sentinel for fear of a surprise."

When they reached the mouth of the Pekitanoui, while rowing
in clear water, they suddenly heard a noise like a waterfall, and
looking ahead, saw a large mass of trees floating across their
course, and threatening to engulf them. "The agitation was so
great that the water was all muddy and could not get clear."

'■1

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS.

He did not know then that the normal condition of the Missouri
water was "all muddy." For this was the great Missouri.*
"Pekitanoui is a considerable river which coming- from very far
in the northwest, empties into the Missisipi. Many Indian towns
are ranged along this river, and I hope by its means to make the
discovery of the Red or California sea. We judged by the direc-
tion the Missisipi takes, that if it keeps on the same course it lias
its mouth in the Gulf of Mexico; it would be very advantageous
to find that which leads to the South sea, toward California and
this, as I said, I hope to find by Pekitanoui."

Proceeding, they reached the mouth of the Ouaboukigou, or
Ohio, above which, evidently on the west side of the river, they
"perceived an iron mine, which they deemed very rich; there are
many veins and a bed a foot thick. Large masses are found com-
bined with pebbles." Going on, they saw Indians with guns,
who proved to be Chicachas, or Chickasaws, ant! who received
them with friendly greetings, and fed them on wild beef,. bear's
oil and white plums. "They have guns, axes, hoes, knives, beads,
and double glass bottles in which they keep their powder. . . .
They assured us that it was not more than ten days' journey to
the sea; that they bought stuffs and other articles of Europeans
on the eastern side; that these Europeans had rosaries and pic-
tures ; that they played on instruments. . . . This news roused
our courage and made us take up our paddles with renewed ardor.
We advanced then, and now begin to see less prairie land, because
both sides of the river are lined with lofty woods." They
heard wild cattle bellowing. "We had now descended to near
33 tlegrees north, having almost always gone south, when on the
water's edge we perceived a village called Mitchigamea." This
was situated on the west side of the river, in modern Arkansas.
Here it was that they ])assed successfully their greatest danger
during the journey. The Indians made preparations to attack
them both by land and water, but were finally pacified by the
sight of the calumet. They remained here all night, but received
little information, though they were told that down the river
eight or ten leagues they would reach a great village called
Akamsea (Arkansas), where they would learn all they desired to
know. Arriving at Akamsea (near the mouth of the River
Arkansas),! they were well received and feasted for an entire
day, evidently to a surfeit, on sagimity, Indian corn whole, pieces

♦Joliet omitted to name the Missouri on his map; but he places the Missouris,
Kansas, Osajjes, Pawnees and others along its course.
tJoUct named the Arkansas river "IJazire" after a Quebec merchant.

8o THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

of dog- flesh, etc. During the night a secret council was held by
some o'f the sachems "on the design to kill us for plunder, but the
chief broke up all their schemes, and sending- for us, danced the
calumet in our presence as a mark of perfect assurance : and then
to remove all fears presented it to me."

"M. JoUyet and 1 hekl another council to deliberate on what
we should do, whether \\c should push on, or rest satisfied with
the discovery that we hail made. After having attentively con-
sidered that we were not far from the Gulf of Mexico, the basin ■: \
of which is 31 degrees, 40 minutes north, and we at 33 degrees
and 40 minutes, so that we could not be more than two or three
days' journey oft"; that the Missisipi undoubtedly had its mouth
in Florida or the Gulf of Mexico, and not on the east in Viriginia,
whose seacoast is 34 degrees north, nor on the western side in Cal- ^

ifornia, because that would re'iuire a west or west-southwest
course, and we had always been going south. We considered, •
moreover, that we risked losing the fruit of this voyage, of wiiich
we could give no information, if we should throw ourselves into
the hands of the Si)aniard.s, who would undoubtedly, at least, hold
us as prisoners. Besides, it was clear, that we were not in a con-
dition to resist Indians allied to luiropeans, numerous and expert
in the use of firearms, who continually infested the lower part
of the river. Lastly, we had gathered all the information that
could be desired from the expedition. All these reasons induced
us to resolve to return : this wc announced to the Indians, and
after a day's rest prepared for it. After a month's navigation
down the Missisipi from the 4J(1 to below (he 34lh degree, and
after having published the gospel as well as I could to the nations
I had met, we left the village of .\kamsea on the 7th of July, to ;

retrace our steps. We accordingly ascended the Missisipi, which .^';

gave us great trouble to stem its currents. We left it indeed,
about the 38th degree, to enter another river, which greatly short-
ened our way, and brought us, with little trouble, to the lake of
the Illinois." Marquette remained in the west, but Joliet contin-
ued on to Montreal, to make his report to the Provincial Govern-
ment. When within a few miles of that place, and while still on
the river St. Lawrence, his boat was upset in the rapids, and the
journal of the expedition was lost, together with the little Indian
boy, whom the chief of the Peorias had given him in what is now
Lee county, la. It is said that Joliet struggled several hours in
the water before he succeeded in reaching shore.

The object of the expedition was accomplished in part only —
the South sea had not betn discovered; neither had the golden

fREXCIl EX FLU HAT IONS. 8 1

land of Quivira, if that had been one of the objects; but the upper
Mississippi had been found, explored from the mouth of the Wis-
consin to about the mouth of the Arkansas; its identity with the
Rio del Espiritu Santo of the Si^aniards established; and the fact
that it flowed into the Gulf of MV'xico instead of the Vermillion
sea definitely settled. It was further learned that the Missouri
extended far westward, and that via it a way might yet be found
to reach the South sea. The great Joliet and his no less great
assistant and companion, Marquette, secured at once among
Frenchmen the credit to which they were entitled for the results
of their hazardous expedition. Joliet was obliged to make his
report from memory, but this was sufficient to satisfy the Provin-
cial Government, lie had merely carried the route to the South
sea one step nearer its destination. Unknown to him, he had also
invaded the modern Louisiana Purchase at several points, and
had made one of the first mai)s of its eastern border, of the river
course, and of llie Imlian villages in that M.cii()n of the provinc;c.

As an adtlitional proof that the paramount object of tiiis expe-
dition was the discovery of the South sea and not that of the
Mississippi, it may be noted that no action was taken by the Pro-
vincial Government to establish settlements in the region thus
explored under Joliet — to take advantage of the discovery, which
added to France a splendid new empire, which she was not slow
to estimate at its true value a few years later. For ten years this
land, flowing with milk and honey, went begging for occupancy
by the nations of Europe. Had the English at that time estab-
lished a few settlements on the upper Mississi])i)i, the war of
1755-62 might have been avoided, and lunopean history vastly
changed. Had Spain, during this i)eriod, sent colonies to the
upper and lower Mississippi, she would have secured what she
struggled so hard to obtain in subsequent years — the exclusive
right to navigate that river, and the establishment of the Gulf of
Mexico as a mare clansem, or closed sea. However, no matter
which nation had profited by this expedition of Louis Joliet, the
end would have been the same — the transfer of the river and the
country to the United States in spite of all Europe.

It appears strange at first glance to observe that France did not
take immediate advantage of this discovery of the Upper Missis-
sippi; but it does not seem so strange when the object of the
French is taken into consideration. They were not looking for
a country to colonize, nor for the ultimate object of finding the
Mississippi ; but were in search of a water route to the South sea
[—6

82 THE PROl INCH .LND THE STATES.

(Pacific ocean). When it was learned that the Mississippi did
not lead to the South sea, exci'iH perhaps remotely through the
Missouri, the object of France was accomphshed. This view
seems to afford the only reasonable conclusion as to why France
did not follow up the discovery with colonies along the Missis-
sippi. Father Marquette, on the other liand, desired to reach
tile "great river" in order to establish missions among the Indians
there — particularly among the Illinois. His object was wholly
realized. But the time liad not come for France to feel the
imperative necessity, in order to forestall Spain and Great Brit-
ain, of establishing permanent colonies on -the banks of the Missis-
sippi. She therefore waited; and in the meaniime other important
discoveries were made. The following patent explains itself;

"Louis, BY Tiiii Gu.vcE oi" Goo, King ok France and Na\'arue:

To Our Dear and \Vi:i-L-r>i:L0\i:i) Roijert Ca\i:lier, Sieuu , •
DE L\ Salle, Gkei:tin(;: .

"We have received with favor the very humble petition, which
lias been presented to us in your name, to permit you to endeavor
to discover the western part of New France ; and we have con-
sented to this proposal the more willingly, because there is noth-
ing we have more at heart than the discovery of this country,
through which it is probable a road may be found to penetrate to
Mexico; and because your diligence in clearing lands which we
granted to you by the decree of our council of the 13th of May,
1675, and by Letters Patent of the same date, to form habitations
upon the Jaid lands, and to put Fort Fronlcnac in a good state of
defense, the seiguicry and government whereof we likewise
granted to you, afionls us every reason to hope that you will suc-
ceed to our satisfaction and to the advantage of our subjects of
the. said country.

"For these reasons, and others thereunto moving us, we have
permitted and do hereby jjcrmit you by these presents, signed by
our hand, to endeavor to discover the western part of New France,
and for the execution of this enterprise to construct forts wher-
ever you shall deem it necessary ; which it is our will that yon
shall hold on the same terms and conditions as Fort Frontenac,
agreeably and conformably to our said Letters Patent on the 13th
of March, 1675, which we have confirmed as far as is needful,
and hereby confirm by these presents. And it is our pleasure
that they be executed according to their form and tenor.

"To accomplish this and everything above mentioned we give
you full [)Owers ; on condition, iiowever, that you shall finish this

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS.

enterprise within five years, in default of whicii these presents
shall be void and of no effect ; that you carry on no trade what-
ever with the savages called Outaouacs and others who bring
their beaver skins and other peltries to Montreal; and that the
whole shall be done at your expense and that of your company,
to which we have granted the privilege of the trade in buflPalo
skins. And we command the Sieur de Frontenac, our Governor
and Lieutonant-Gcneral, and the Sieur Duchesne, Intendant, and
the other officers who compose the supreme council of the said
country, to affix their signatures to these presents; for such is our
pleasure. Given at St. Germain en Laye, this 12th day of May,
1678, and of our reign the thirty-fifth.

"(Signed) Louis."

Inasmuch as the above "letters patent" were the basis and
authority for the proceedings of M. de la Salle in his attempt to
explore the western country for his king, it may be well to rega'rd
it with more than a passing glance. The king acknowledged that
he received with favor "the very humble petition" of M. de la
Salle to explore for the glory and benefit of his sovereign "the
western part of New France" upon the conditions that he should
finish the enterprise within five years, that lie should carry on no
trade with the Indian tribes which brought their beaver and other
skins to Montreal, and that the whole expense should be borne
by M. de la Salle and his company, their only recompense being
"the privilege of the trade in bulTalo skins." If La Salle expected
any other remuneration for this extraordinary service, he seems
to have been left free to gel such as he could from tlie forts he
should establish and the savage tribes through which he should
pass. After he had already done such good service for his coun-
try, which Was duly acknowledged by his sovereign, it seems
passing strange that the whole expense of this expedition of dis-
covery, from wliicli France was sure to gain such immense benefit
in knowledge and territory, should have been coolly placed on the
shoulders of this heroic man. But if the King of France was not
actuated by noble motives, his "humble" subject, the Sieur de la
Salle, most certainly was. He did not hesitate to risk all his prop-
ertv and his life on the explorations which he knew meant so
much to the colonial importance and grandeur of France. lie
was pre-eminently, if not the leader, one of the leaders of the
newly developed movement to place the whole of the Mississippi
valley under the control and sovcreij:^iity of France before any
other nation could forestall the attempt. The king's patent shows

84 Tim I'R01'[NCIL .l.\D THE STATES.

nothinj:^ of all this. The kinj^ seems to have iiad no other or
higher motive than to permit M. de la Salle to explore the western
part of New France at his own risk and expense. The vast qnes-
tion that was destined soon to shake the world in war — the right-
ful possession of the Mississippi valley through the sovereignty
of that river — had yet found no serious consideration at the Court
that was seeking hy force of arms to dismember all Europe in
order that it might bind tlie fragments to its emaciated self. The
mighty Louis, therefore, in response to the '"humble" petition of his
faithful subject, M. de la Salle, condescended to permit him under
severe restrictions to go among the Western savages, where death
was almost certain to be encouritered, and make important and
valuable discoveries for the enlightenment and benefit of France.
He may have known the man to whom he committed this privi-
lege. If so, he knew him to be Itrave, intelligent, uncon([uerable
by hardships, loyal to his sovereign, patriotic in every beat of.his
great heart and faithful unto dedlh.

La Salle hoped to secure; recompense from the seignory of the
forts which he should erect and from certain other privileges;
hut this was merely a hope, from which nothing was realized. It
was necessary for him to abandon all his own pursuits, to suffer
serious losses at the outset, to fight against severe sickness and
other discouraging misfortunes, to put everything he possessed
into the venture, and to borrow extensively from his friends, for
people instinctively trusted this uncommon man. He was
expected to establish forts in the wilderness, around which should
grow up prosperous colonies, yielding him a pleasing revenue.
His past was excellent, lie hail written his name deei) in the
tomes of the peri)etual wooils, by the deadly swamp and the roar-
ing river, along the i)erilous trails where cannibals skulked and
prowling wolves waited their repast. His views were correct.
The Mississippi flowed into the Gulf; forts established along its
course cemented the ownership of France ; the marvelous fertility
of the great valley was revealed ; the establishment of a sjilendid
empire for France in the New Wtnld kindled the heail. All this
he saw, and it passed with his blood. He fought down ill report;
overcame all opposition to his scheme of adding to the crown of
France a jewel of dazzling radiance; and willingly placed in the
balance the fortunes of himself and his friends and the glorious
reputation he had earned with his vital breath on other deadly
journeys among the savages.

It would seem that Colbert, the French minister, had in view
in thus sending out M. de la Salle, the establishment of forts

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS.

along the Mississippi for the purpose of hampering the move-
ments of the Spaniards in their mining operations farther to the
west. It became known to the French that Spain was receiving
immense amounts of gold and silver from her American posses-
sions, and the hearts of the great Louis XIV and Colbert became
exceedingly envious. It was a period in the history of liuman
events when the prosperity of one nation was succeeded by the
jealous hostility of every other. If one made a lucky find or
stroke, others demanded a division, and war followed a refusal,
all for the glory of the King and ihe Holy Church. Thus it was
natural and politic that France should want a division of the
spoils wrested from the American savages. Incidentally, they
may have thought that the possession of the iFississippi valley
might be advantageous to French finances and pride. La Salle
was just the man to suit their wishes, because he was wholly
unselfish, devoted to his country, and an earnest adherent of the
Catholic Church. His inliuence upon the Indians was sure to be
beneficial ; his power to cement men and hold them to broad ideas
of improvement, was all important where organization was every-
thing. He was )'oung, his birth having occurred at Rouen, in
•Normandy, France, November 22, 1643; he was therefore fuller
of vigor and less liable to become dogmatic than an older person
would have been. After having performed a number of impor-
tant services among the savages of America, all with uncommon
success, he was now, without suitable compensation, to be sacri-
ficed in the terrible Mississii)pi country.

In preparing for his expodiiion La Salle requested that Father
Louis Hennepin, the Kecollet friar, might accompany him in the
capacity of chaplain and niisisonary. As it turned out, Hennepin
became the chief chronicler of the expedition, but it is not always
possible to tell when he is recording history and when sailing on
the seas of fancy. Luckily for La Salle, he had a powerful
assistant in the redoubtable Henry de Tonty, who could always
be depended upon in any emergency, but about whom unfortu-
nately very little is positively known. Though an Italian, he
had lost his right hand in battling for the king of France, but this
loss was partly remedied or supi)lied by an iron or a copper one.
The expedition journeyed westward by stages, first to Niagara,
in the vicinity of which their boat was built, the first of consider-
able size to navigate the upper lakes. It was begun January 22,
1679, and continued under the immediate supervision of Sieur de
Tonty. It was necessary to guard it constantly to prevent its
being burned by the Senecas. It was finished and launched above

86 Tllli I'KOVINCU. AND Till- STATES.

the Falls by the middle of July and towed up the river nearly to
Lake Erie, to be rigged before being set adrift on the treacherous
waters of the inland lakes. It was a sail-rigged and sea-going
schooner, armed with five small cannon and three large muskets.
At the bow was rudely carved the armorial bearings of the Count
de Frontenac, a griffin, which gave name to the ship. It was of
about sixty tons burden, and cost according to Father Hennepin
about $12,000, but this estimate was made at the time it was
loaded with furs, worth say $2,000.

At length the start wa-. madi' August 7, 1679, amid the dis-
charge of the cannon and the chanting of the Te Denm. They
ascended through Lake vSt. Clair, Lake Huron, where they ^ '^
weathered a terrible gale, passetl through the straits of Michil-
liniackinac, stopping at the chapel at St. Ignace, continued the
voyage about the 2d of September, and in due time arrived at
Green Bay, on the western shore of Lake Michigan. It was here
that L,a Salle received large quantities of furs, to be sent back to
Montreal on the Griffin for his private account. It does not
appear to have been a violation of his patent, provided he did not
deal in beaver skins. But the vessel after setting forth on her
return was never again heard from. Whether she foundered in
a gale, was burned by the Indians at some stopping place, or was
scuttled by the saiU)rs, after they had first sold the furs for their
own gain, will never be known. Jt has been stated that La Salle
himself long entertained tlie latter notion. He had previously
lost so often and so heavily from similar dishonest practices, that
this view is ni)t ti) l)e wiindtied at. nor is it probably wrong.

He had committed the (uiffin to a pilot and five sailors, which
act reduced his ft)rces to fourteen men. On the I9tli of Septem-
ber, he proceeded in four canoes along the western shore of Lake
Michigan, rounding the southern end and finally landing at the
mouth of the St. Joseph river, Michigan. It was now about the
first of November. Here they awaited the arrival of Sieur de
Tonty with twenty-four men, and in the meantime built a wooden
fort eighty feet long and forty feet wide near the mouth of the
river, and named the same Fort Miami, after the tribe of Indians
in the neighborhood. On December 3, the Tonty party having
arrived, the forces now aggregating about thirty-three persons,
ascended the St. Joseph river or its branches to the vicinity of
South Bend, Ind., thence by pc^rtage passed across to the
Kankakee, and thence down the same to the Illinois river, which
they slowly descended in their boats. During much of this jour-
ney, snow mantled the earth, and the cold was severe. Near

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS. 8/

Starved Rock they found the principal village of the Illinois
Indians, consisting of four hundred and sixty lodges or wigwams.
Here La Salle arrived Decemher 25. After securing a quantity
of maize from the Indian stores, they continued their journey, the
village hcing deserted. The Indians were away on their annual
juuit. In two days they arrived at Lake Peoria or Lac i'imiteoui.
They were well received by the village, comprising about eighty
lodges, and treated to a feast of buffalo meat. At this point some
of his men deserted iiim. Messengers from the Iroquois pre-
judiced the Peorias against him. He was poisoned by some of
his own men, but an antidote saved him.

Under these and other almost insuperable obstacles, La Salle
was at last forced to the conclusion to proceed no farther until
the return of si)ring. The remainder of his men were set to work
to build a fort on a hill in what is now the suburb of Peoria. By
about the first of March, 1680, it was so near finished that it was
occupied by the whites and named Crevecoeur, or Broken Heart,
after a fortress of that name in the Netherlands. During this
time, also, he put his best mechanics to work on a brigantine to
be used in navigating the Illinois and the Mississippi rivers the
ensuing year. Finally, leaving the faithful Tonty in charge of
the forces and fort, La Salle returned to Canada to procure appli-
ances that were absolutely needed, leaving instructions with
Michael Accault to proceed to tlie Mississippi as soon as the ice
should break up and explore the upper course of that river. La
Salle promising to sentl men down the Wisconsin as soon as pos-
sible to meet him and assist him in making the exploration.
'JMuis, after the most herculean labors, the exi)edition was brought
to a temporary standstill. Although the Griffin had likely been
sent to the bottom ; her valualjle cargo of furs had probably been
sold and the proceeds confiscated by his men; his best forces had
deserted him; all had been saved from starvation only by the
Indians; some of his men had tried to murder him with poison,
and he was ruined financially and his friends ruined with him,
this remarkable man did not for an instant falter in the line of
duty marked out for him by his king, but resolutely set forth anew
to build and equip a brigantine that should yet carry him to suc-
cess on the waves of the surging Mississippi. Struck by the
severest adversity, he showed like flint the fire that was in his
adan;;inline heart. His fort should have been named Coeur de
T ,eon .

J le had left with Tonty at h'orl Crevecceur fifteen men, and had
taken with himself four and in addition his Mohegan hunter.

88 THE PRO I' INCH AND THE STATES.

They passed up the Illinois river, tiience across the portage to
Lake Michigan, thence around to Fort Miami on the St. Joseph
river, thence across Michigan to Detroit, thence down the lakes,
and finally arrived at Fort Frontenac May 6, 1680. Here La
Salle found that his affairs had gone from bad to worse, and his
creditors were preparing to seize the residue of his estate. While
here he learned, also, that the deserters from Fort Crevecoeur had
captured and destroyed Fort Miami. With a party of men, he
waylaid these rascals on their return to Canada, killed two and
imprisoned the others at Frontenac. Nothing was heard from the
Griffin ; it had disappeared forever. A vessel for liis relief from
France was wrecked in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and much of
the cargo was lost. As a whole, matters could scarcely be worse,
and would have taken the heart out of any other person than this
iron man.

On the loth of August, with a new outfit and a company of
twenty-five new men, and assisted by a lieutenant named La'For-
est, he started for Fort Crevecoeur and the relief of Tonty. Upon
his arrival there he found the fort dismantled, the camp deserted,
although his unfinished brigantine was apparently uninjured. He
continued on down the Illinois to its mouth, and saw for the first
time the mighty stream to which his name was destined to be
insei)arably linked through all history. Not fintling Tonty nor
any trace of liim, he resolved to tuni back, despite the counsel of
his associates to go on down the Mississippi. But he well knew
that he would need all b.is forces, especially the invincible and
faithful Tonty, and so' resolved lo fiml him before continuing the
journey. Accordingly, he passed back to Fort Miami on Lake
M'ichigan, arriving in January, 1681.

In the meantime, Tonty had been deserted by all his men but
five, and the tleserters liad dismantled Fort Crevecanir, and gone
back to Canada. LInder the direction left by his chief, he went
up the Illinois and fortified Starved Rock, and afterward repaired
partially the dismantled Fort Crevecceur. The five men who
remained with him were Francois de Boisrondet, Etienne Renault,
Fathers Ribourde and Membre and L'FsiK-rance, the servant of
La Salle. Here they would have been found by La Salle on his
return, had they not been tlispersed by the Iroquois, who came
to attack the Illinois. The extraordinary dealings of Tonty with
the Iroquois on this occasion — his tact, courage, persistence and
generalship — have scarcely ever been surpassed in the history of
Indian mgoliation. He saved the Illinois tribe from destruction,
though they were dispersed and he was finally compelled to start

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS. 89

back for Canada. He was several times wounded and a dozen
times witliin an inch of death. ( )n this journey Father Ribourde
was murdered by a small band of Kickapoos. After extraordi-
nary hardships, the remainder of the little party reached Green
Bay, and were saved from starvation in mid-winter by the
friendly Pottawattomies. In the spring they continued on to
Mackinac to await the return of La Salle. The latter had made
no mistake in selecting the heroic Tonty for his lieutenant.

While La Salle was away from I'^ort Crevecceur, Michael
Accault as instructed took two men and a canoe, rowed down
the Illinois to the Mississippi, and thence up that stream on a
vo)'agc of discovery. La Salle had told h'ather Louis Hen-
nepin that he should expect him to accompany tlie expedition. He
gave Accault a calumet of peace and one man to row the canoe
and assist him, and commodities to the value of about $200, to
be used in making jireseiUs to the savages, whom they were sure
to encounter. Ten knives, twelve shoemaker's awls, tw(-) ponnds
of colored glass beads, a parcel of needles, were included in the
outfit. Thus provided Accault and his two companions set out
down the Illinois on the 29th of February, 1680. Hennepin says,
"When we had gone fifty leagites down the river, we came to
the place where it falls into the Mississip{)i. . . . The
ice which came down stopt us here till the 12th of IVIarch."
Hennepin claims' that the expedition went south to the sea, but it
could not possibly have done so in the time he mentions. His
story is so irregular, and so manifestly incorrect, that no absolute
dependence can be placed in his narratix'c. It seems, however,
that they went up the Mississij)pi, as they had been told to do, or
were taken up, as far as the Falls of St. Anthony, which Henne-
pin really named ; and they were thus apparently the first white
men to explore the Mississij)pi above the mouth of the Wiscon-
sin. They were captured a short distance above the mouth o£
the Illinois by a large war party of savages (Sioux) on their way
down the river and came near being killed through the ardor of
the young warriors. "Having thus traveled nineteen days in our
canoe by water, we came within six leagues of the fall of St.
Anthony, where they held an assembly to consult what they
should do v.'ith us." (Upon reaching Lake Pepin, Hennepin named
it Lake of Tears from the wailing of some of the Indians.) At
last they separated and gave us to three of their chiefs, instead of
three of their sons which had been killed in the war; then they
seized our canoe (when near St. Paul) and took away all our
equippage; our canoe they pulled to pieces; their own they liid

THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

among the alders, so thai though we micj^ht have gone conven-
iently enough quite up to their country hy water, yet we were
obliged by their conduct to travel no less than sixty leagues
afoot."

According to the account of 1 lennepin, they \vere taken far
to the. north, on the Rum or St. hVancis river in Minnesota, near
Mille Lac, where they were adopted into (hfferent l.'ands of the
same tribe, after which their treatmnt was about the same as that
of the Indians. Hennepin became the son of Aquipaguetin, a
sub-chief of the Issati, or Issanti, a division of the great Sioux
nation, the terror of all the nations to the south and east. The
three whites made themselves useful, and soon gaint^d the good
graces of their captors. The principal chief, Ouasicoude, became
their fast friend — was really angry that they had been despoiled
of their goods. Finally, they all went on a grand buffalo hunt
to the mouth of the St. Francis or Rum river. ITere Hennepin
prevailed upon the princijud chief to permit him to go to the
mouth of the Wisconsin, to meet his friends whom T.a Salle had
jM'omised to sen<l there to join him. Michael .\ccanli, who likrd
the wild Indian life, refused to go with him; but Pickard Du Gay
accompanied him. The two were given a small birch canoe, an
earthen pot, a gun, a knife and a robe of beaver skin. They soon
reached the Falls of St. Anthony and passing round it, continued
down the Mississippi, suffering intensely from want of sufficient
food, reaching and ]:)assine' Fake I'epin. They soon after met
Aquipaguetin and a party of warriors, who reported that no while
traders had yet reached the mouth of the ^Yiscons^n ; whereupon,
in sheer tlesperation, ihey vletermined to join a large party of
Sioux hunters, to save themselves from starvation. Among this
band they found Accault. AH i)articii)ati'd in the grand hunt
along the borders of the Mississippi, in the heat of July and amid
the wonderful foliage of the upper river. While thus engaged
they learned that a party of whitemen from Fake Superior were
approaching their vicinity, and soon afterward there arrived
Daniel Greysolon du IJuit and four other Frenchmen, all well
armed. They were now east of the Mississippi on the Chippeway
river. Du Fhut had already become famous as a discoverer in
the region of Lake Superior. All being French, and having in
view the same general objects, they went back with the Sioux to
their villages on Mille Lac. After this, undoubtedly through the
influence of Du Lhut, FTennepin and his jiarty were feasted and
permitted to do as they pleased. Du Lhut and his party finally
determined to accompany FTennepin on his journey to the mouth

■A

FRENCH EXP LOR A TIONS.

of the Wisconsin, and thence to Green Bay. It was now autumn,
hut the journey was made withcMU accident. The men wliom La
Salle had promised would be sent to the mouth of the Wisconsin
were not seen, and the travelers continued on to Green Bay, and
thence on to Canada.
i The incursion of the Iroquois into the Illinois country, evi-

I dently an attempt of the English to extend the Iroquois domain
well into the valley of the JMississipjji and lience a corresponding
I extension of their own territory, was estimated at its true import
I by the observant La Salle. To counteract the attempt, he resolved
to try to cement the western trilies a,L;ainst the Iroquois, and to
center them around a strong fort which he should erect on the
Illinois river. In the spring, La Salle went with a small party
from Fort Miami to the Illinois river, and while there learned
what had become of Tonty, and also learned that Father Henne-
pin had passed through the Wisconsin country on his way to Can-
ada. After attempts to cement the friendship of the Miamis and
and the Illinois, La Salle returned to Mackinac, and there met
Tonty and his little party. Their adventures were recounted
and their ready sympathies exchanged. One would think that
they were now ready to give up the project of exploring and tak-
ing possession of the Mississippi, but not for an instant was this
paramount object lost sight of by La Salle and Tonty. It was
determined to return to Canada, recruit themselves thoroughly,
and try again.

With a force of thirty men and with ten or a dozen heavily-
laden canoes, La Salle again finally set forth, passing up Lake
(Ontario to about the present Toronto, thence across to Georgian
bay, thence through the straits and down the eastern side of Lake
Michigan to Fort Miami, thence around the lake to the Chicago
river, thence up the same and across the portage to the Des
Plaines, and thence down the same and the Illinois. It was now
January, 1682, and the prairies were covered with snow and the
rivers with ice, so that the journey was made mostly by sledge.
Some of his men had deserted him at Mackinac, but at Fort Miami
he had recruited his forces with French-Canadians and Indians
to forty-one men and a number of squaws to do the cooking.
Arriving at Peoria Lake, they resolved not to finish the brigantine,
but to proceed as they were, and accordingly continued, and on
February 6, 1682, reached the Mississippi, which was then filled
with floating ice and formed a beautiful but dangerous sight. On
February 13, the river having become comparatively clear, they
all started down on the swift current. Thus, after the lapse of

92 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

two years and a half from the date of first setting out, the expe-
dition was afloat on the s\veej)ing- Mississippi, a fact all important
to the modern inhahitants of the Louisiana Purchase.

"We descended the river and found six leag^ues helow on the
right a great river (the Missouri— Eix), which comes from the
west, on which there are numerous nations. We slept at its
mouth. The next day we went on to the village of Tamarous, six
leagues ofif on the left. There was no one there, all the people
being at their winter quarters in the woods. We made marks to
inform the savages that we had passed, and continued our route
as far as the river Ouabachc (Wabash), which is eighty leagiies
from that of Illinois. It comes from the east, and is more than
500 leagues in length. It is by this river that the Iroquois advance
to make war against the nations of the south. Continuing our
voyage about sixty leagues we came to a place which Was named
Fort Prudhomme (Memphis), because one of our men lost him-
self there when out hunting and was nine days without food. As
they were looking for him they fell in with two Chikasas sav-
ages, whose village was three days' journey inland. .
M. de la Salle sent back one of them with presents to his village,
so that if they had taken Prudhomme they might send him back,
but we found him on the tenth day, and as the Chikasas (Chicka-
saws) did not return we continued our route as far as the village
of Cappa, fifty leagues off (one hundred and thirty miles below
Memphis). We arrived there in foggy weather, and as we
heard the sound of the tambor we crossed over to the other (west)
side of the river, where in less than half an hour we made a fort.
The savages having bei-ii infMnned that we were comin-;- down
the river, came in their canoes to look for us. We made them
land and sent two Frenchmen as hostages to their village; the
chief visited us with the calumet and we went to the savages.
They regaled us with the best they had, and after having danced
the calumet (dance) to M. de la Salle, they conducted us to their
village of Toyengan, eight leagues from Cappa. They received
us there in the same manner, and from thence they went with us
to Toriman two leagues further on, where we met with the same
reception.

"It must be here remarked that these villages, the first of
which is Osotonoy, are six leagues to the right descending the
river, and are commonly called Akancas (Arkansas). The first
three villages are situated on the river (Mississippi). M de la
Salle erected the arms of the King there; they have cabins made
with the bark of cedar; they have no other worship than the

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS. 93

adoration of all sorts of animals. Their country is very beauti-
ful, having abundance of peach, plum and apple trees, and vines
nourish there; buffaloes, deer, slags, bears, turkeys are very
numerous. They have even domestic fowls. They have very
little snow during the winter, and the ice is not thicker than a
dollar. They gave us guides to conduct us to their allies, the
Taencas, six leagues distant. The first day we began to see and
to kill alligators, which are mnnerous and from fifteen to twenty
feet long. When we arrived opjiosite to the village of the Taen-
cas, M de la Salle desired me to go to it and inform the chief of
his arrival. I went with our guides, and we had to carry a bark
canoe for ten arpens (nearly two-thirds of a mile), and to launch
it on a small lake in which their village was placed. I was sur-
prised to find their cabins made of mud and covered with cane
mats. The cabin of the chief was forty feet square, the wall
ten feet high, a foot thick, and the roof, which was of a dome
shape, about fifteen feet high. 1 was not less snr])riscd when bn
entering I saw the chief seated on a camp bed, with three of his
wives at his side, surrounded by more than sixty old men, clothed
in large white cloaks, which are made by the women out of the
bark of the mulberry tree and are tolerably well worked. .The
women are clothed in the same manner; and every time the chief
spoke to them, before answering him, they howled and cried out
several times, "O-o-o-o-o-o-o !" to show their respect for him, for
their chiefs are held in as much consitleration as our kings.

"When T was in his cabin, the chief told me with a smiling
countenance the pleasure he felt at the arrival of the French. T
saw that one of his wives wore a pearl necklace. I presented her
with ten vards of blue glass beads in exrliange for it. Sh;- made
some difficulty, but the chief having told her to let me have it,
she did so. I carried it to A I de la Salle, giving him an account
of all that I had seen, and told him that the chief intended to visit
him the next day, which he did. Tie (La Salle) would not have
done this for savages, but the hope of obtaining some merchandise
induced him to act thus. He came the next day with wooden
canoes to the sound of the tambour and the music of the women.
■ The savages of the river use no of her boats than these. M de la
Salle received him with much politeness and gave him some pres-
ents; they gave us in return plenty of ])rovisions and some of
their robes. The chiefs returned well satisfied. We stayed dur-
ing the day, which was the 22(1 of March. An observation gave
thirly-one degrees of latitude. We left on the twenty-second and
slept in an island ten leagues off. The next day we saw a canoe,

THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

and M. de la Salle ordered me to chase it, which I did, and as I
was just on the point of taking it, more than one hundred men
appeared on the banks of the river to defend their people. M. de
la Salle shouted out to me to come back, which I did. We went
on and encamped opposite them. Afterward, M. de la Salle
expressing a wish to meet them peaceably, I offered to carry them
the calumet, and embarking went to them. At first they joined
their hands as a sign that they wished to be friends ; I who had
but one hand told our men to do tlie same thing. I made the chief
men among them cross over to JM. de la Salle, who accompanied
them to their village three leagues inland and passed the night
there with some of his men. 'i'he next day he returned with
the chief of the village wlure he had slept, who was a brother of
the great chief of the Natchez; he conducted us to liis Ijrother's
village, situated on the hili^^ide near the river at six leagues dis-
tance. Wc were well received there. This nation counts more
than 300 warriors. Here the men cultivate the ground, hunt and
fish, as well as the Taencas, and their manners are the same.

"We departed thence on Good Friday, and after a voyage of
twenty leagues, encamped at the mouth of a large river, which
runs from the west (Red River). We continued our journey and
crossed a great canal, which went toward the sea on the right
(probably Atchafalaya river). Thirty leagues further on we saw
some fishermen on the bank' of the river and sent to reconnoitre
them. It was the village of the Quinipissas, who let fly their
arrows upon our men, who retired in conse(|Uence. As I\I. de la
Salle wouUl not fight against an\- nation, he made us embark.
Twelve leagues from this village, on (he left, is that of the Tangi-
baos. Scarcely eight days before this village had l)een totally
destroyed. Dead bodies were lying on one another and the
cabins were burnt. We proceeded on our course, and after sail-
ing forty leagues arrived at the sea on the 7th of April, 1682."*

Concerning the mouth of the Mississippi, or rather the mouths,
Tonty wrote as follows: "M. de la Salle sent canoes to inspect
the channels ; some of them went to the chaimel on the right hand,
soine to the left, and M. de la Salle chose the center. In the
evening each made his report, that is to say, that the channels
were very fine, wide and deep. We encam]ied on the right bank;
we erected the arms of the king, and returned several times to
inspect the channels. The same report was made.

* MtMiioir by Uie Sieiir <le la Tonly, sent in 1693, on llie discovery of the Missis-
sippi and llie neiiiliborinjj nations.

FRENCH, EXPLORATIONS. 95

Provisions failing, we were obliged to leave the sea coast sooner
than we wished, in order to obtain provisions in the neighboring
villages. We did not know how to get anything from the village
of the Quinipissas, who had so ill-treated us as we went down
the river. We lived on potatoes until six leagues from their vil-
lage, when we saw smoke." Here the Indians made every pre-
tense of friendship, but the next morning at day break attacked
the whites. They were vigorously repulsed, and the journey up
the river was continued. Wlien the Natchez nation was reached,
again protestations of friendship were made, but the signs of hos-
tility were too numerous. "We went up to their village, and as
we saw no women there we had no doubt of their having some
evil design. In a moment we were surrounded by 1,500 men.
They brought us something to eat, and we ate with our guns in
our hands. As they were afraid of fire-arn]s they did not dare to
attack us. The chief begged M'. de la Salle to go away, as his
young men had not much sense, which we very willingly did—
the game not being equal, we having only fifty men, French and
savages. We then went on to the Taencas and then to the Akan-
sas, where we were very well received. From thence we came
to Fort Prudhomme, where M. de la Salle fell dangerously ill,
which obliged him to send me forward on the 6th of May to
arrange his affairs at Michillimackinac. In passing near tlie
Ouabache (Wabash meaning the Ohio), I found four Iroquois,
who told us that there were one hundred men of their nation
coming on after them. This gave us some alarm. There is no
pleasure in meeting warriors on one's road, esjK'cially when they
have been unsuccessiul. 1 left them and at about twenty leagues
from Tamaraas we saw smoke. 1 ordered our people to prepare
their arms, and we resolved to advance, expecting to meet the
Iroquois. When we were near the smoke, we saw some canoes,
which made us think that they could only be Illinois or Tamaraas.
They were in fact the latter. As soon as they saw us, they came
out of the wood in great numbers to attack us, taking us for
Iroquois. I presented the calumet to them; they put down their
arms and conducted us to their village without doing us any
harm. The chiefs held a council, and taking us for Iro-
quois, resolved to burn us; and but for some Illinois among us
we should have fared ill. They let us i)roceed. We arrived
about the end of June, 1682, at the river Chicagou, and by the
middle of July at Michillimackinac. M. de la Salle having recov-
ered, joined us in September."

After reaching the mouth of the Mississippi, they ascended a

96 THE PROVI.\'CE AND THE STATES.

short distance to a considerable elevation, prepared a column and
a cross, and upon the column fastened the arms of France antl the
following inscription :

LoLMS Lii Grand, Koi de h'kANci-: Er oe

Navarre, Kecne: Le i\'uu\ ii:.\iE

April, 1682.

"The whole party under arms chanted the Te Deum, the Exau-
diat, the Domine Salvum fac Rcgem ; and then, after a salute of
firearms and cries of Vive le ivoi, the column was erected by ' ^i
M. de la Salle, who, standing near it, saitl with a loud voice, in
French: 'In the name of the most high, mighty, invincible, and
victorious prince, Louis the Great, by the grace of God, king
of France and Navarre, fourteenih of that name, this ninth day
of April, one thousand six hundred and eighty-two, 1, in virtue
of the commission of his Majesty (Louis XIV), which I JK^ld
in ni}' hand, and which ma\- be seen by all whom it may conoern,
have taken, and do now take in the name of his Majesty and of •'.
his successors to the crown, possession of this country of Louis-
iana, the seas, harbors, ports, ba}S, adjacent straits; and all the
nations, people, provinces, cities, towns, villages, mines, min-
erals, fisheries, streams, autl rivers comprised in the extent of
Louisiana, from the month of the great river St. Louis on the
eatsern side, otherwise called (.)hio, Alighinsipou (Alleghany), or -jfj

Chickagoua, and tliis with the consent of the Chouanons (Shawa- ;'

noes), Chicachas (Chickasaws) , and other people dwelling
therein, with whom we have made alliance; as also along ihe !

River Colbert or Alississipiii, and rivers which discharge them- \

selves therein, from its source; beyond the country of the Kious
(Sioux) or Nadouessions, ami this with their consent, and with
the consent of the IMotantees, Illinois, INlesigameas (Metchiga- A

mias), Akansas, Natches, and Koroas, which are the most con-
siderable nations dwelling therein, with whom also we have made
alliance either by ourselves or by others in our behalf; as far a^
the mouth at the sea or Gulf of Mexico, abcjut the 27th degree of
the elevation of the north pole, and also to the mouth of the river
of Palms (Rio de I'almas) ; upon the assurance which we have
received from all these nations that we are the first Europeans
who have descended or ascended the River Colbert, hereby pro-
testing against all those wb.o may in future undertake to invade
any or all of these countries, i)eo])le, or lands above described to
the prejudice of the right of his Majesty acquired by the con-
sent of the nations herein named, of which and all that can be

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS. 97

needed, I hereby take to witness those who hear me, and demand
an act of the notary as required by law.'

"To wliich the whole assembly responded with shouts of Vive
le Roi and with salutes of fire-arms. Moreover, the said Sieur
de la Salle caused to be buried at the foot of the tree to which the
cross was attached a leaden plate, on one side of which were
eng-raved the arms of France and the following Latin inscription :

"LUDOVICUS MAGNUS KICCNAT.
NONO Al-KlUS CIO IQC I.XXXII.
ROBERTUS CAVELIliR, CUM DOMIN(J DE TONTV, LliOATO K. P. ZENOUIO
MEMBRE, RECOLLECTO, ET VIGINTI GALLIS, PRIMUS HOC FLUMEN,
INDE AB ILINEORUM PAGO, ENAVIGAX'IT, EJ USQUE OSTIUM FECIT
PERVIUM, NONO APRILIS ANN I CIO IOC LXXXII.''

"After which the Sieur de la Salle said that his Majesty, as
eldest Son of the Church, woukl annex no country to his crown
without making it his chief care to establish the Christian religion
tiierein, and that its symbol must now be planted, which was
accordingly done at once by erecting a cross, before which the
Vexilla and the Domine Salvum fac Regem were sung, where-
upon the ceremony was concluded with cries of Vive le Roi. Of
all and every of the above the said Sieur de la Salle having
required of us an instrument, we have delivered to him the same
signed by us, and by the undersigned witnesses, this ninth day of
April, one thousand six hundred and eighty-two."

"DcLa Salle. "Pierre You.

*'1\ Zenobe, Recollect Missionary. "Gilles Meucret.

"Henry De Tonty. "Jean Michel, Surgeon.

"Francois de Boisrondet. "Jean Mas.

"Jean Bourdon. "jean Dulignon.

"Sieur D'Autray. "Nicolas de La Salle."

"Jaques Cauchois, "La Metairie, Notary."

In a letter to the French minister under date of November 6,
1787, Governor D'Denonville wrote, "The year after, in 1672, the
Mississippi river was discovered, as well as the Illinois, Chaouna-
nons (Shawanese) and other tribes unknown to the Europeans,
by Sieur Jolliet and the Jesuit Father Marquette, who reached
the thirty-second degree, planting the royal arms and taking over
in the King's name the newly discovered countries. A few years
later, Sieur de la Salle pushed his discoveries further onward as
1-7

f^8 THE I'kOnXCE ASU THE STATES.

iar as the sea, taking possession everywhere by planting the
royal arms."

The following order was issued by the king, pursuant to the
request of La Salle, to be permitted to establish a colony at the
mouth of the Mississippi :

"Louis, bv the Grace of God, Kins of France and Navarre,
Greeting:

"Having resolved to cause some expeditions to be undertaken
in North America, to subject to our dominion divers savage
tribes, and to convey to them the light of the faith and of the
Gospel, we have been of the opinion that we could, not make a
better choice than of Sieur de la Salle to command in our name
all the Frenchmen and Indians whom we will employ for \he
execution of the orders we have entrusted unto him. For these
and other reasons us moving, and being moreover well informed
of his affection and fidelity for our service, we have by these
presents signed by our own hand constituted and ordained^ and j ]
do commission and ordain, the i^aid Sieur de la Salle to command
under our authority, as well in the country which will be subject
anew to our dominion in North America, from Fort St. Louis
on the Illinois river unto New jliscay (Durango), as well among
the French and Indians whom he will employ in the expedition
we have entrusted to his care, cause them to live in union and
concord the one with the other , keep the soldiers in good order
and police according to our rules ; appoint governors and special
commanders in the places he shall think proper, until it shall be
by us otherwise ordered; maintain trade and traffic and generally
to do and to exercise for us in the saiil country all that shall api)er-
tain to the oiTice of conmiandanl, and enjoy its powers, honors,
authorities, prerogatives, franchises, liberties, wages, rights,
fruits, profits, revenues and emoluments during our pleasure, to
execute which we have given and do give unto you power by these
presents, whereby we command all our said subjects and soldiers
to acknowledge, obey, and hear you in things relating to the
present power. For such is our pleasure. In witness whereof
we have caused our privy seal to be affixed to these presents.
Given at Versailles the 14th of April, 1684."

"(Signed) "Louis."

After his voyage to the mouth of the Mississippi, La Salle
returned to France, made his report and his recommendations,
and was received with such favor that his losses and misfortunes
were, to a great degree, removed and settled. France and Spain

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS. 99 !

were now at war. La Salle proposed to the French court to estab-
lish a fortified colony on the Mississippi, about sixty leagues from
its mouth, and make it the principal depot of the trade of the
river valley. In order to carry this design into execution he
asked for one war vessel of about thirty guns, necessary ordnance
for the fort that he should erect, and two hundred men to be
recruited in France, to protect the fort and the colony. Should
every thing go well with the colony, he ' further assured the
French court that he would have no serious difficulty in raising
a large force of Indians for the conquest of New Biscay
(Durango) from the Spaniards. These schemes were disclosed by
La Salle to Louis XIV in person, who received them with evi-
dences of satisfaction. That monarch was then in the heyday of
his ambition and military splendor, and the idea of a vast increase
in his American dominions at the expense of the Spanish gov-
ernment met his hearty approbation.

, Instead of one vessel, the king offered La Salle four. The
little fleet, consisting of the July, a frigate of thirty-six guns, the
Belle, a small frigate of six guns, the Aimable, a store-ship and
the St. Francois, a ketch of two masts, set sail from Rochelle on
July 24, 1684. The latter was captured by the Spanish, which
was a serious loss, as she was laden with stores and ammunition.
After stopping some time at St. Domingo to replenish the losses
so far as possible they again set out on the 25th of November,
the fleet now reduced to three ships. Rounding the western
extremity of Cuba, they steered northward, but through a series
of baffling currents and shifting winds were driven far out of
their intended course and finally came to anchor in Espiritu Santo
Bay on the coast of Texas. After consultation they decided to
retrace their steps, and accordingly sailed eastward ten or twelve
leagues and anchored in what is now the Bay of St. Bernard, or
Matagorda. It had been ordered that Capt. Beaujeu should com-
mand the vessels while at sea, and that La Salle should command
on shore. This arrangement had already occasioned considerable
trouble, but at St. Bernard an unfortunate disagreement arose
over the provisions. La Salle, in order to save the provisions
designed for the colonists from the sailors resolved to land at
this bay, which he accordingly did. It was realized that the ves-
sels had missed the mouth of the Mississippi, but La Salle
resolved to make the most of the mistake. He wanted to go to
the Mississippi, but as he and Capt. Beaujeu could not agree
regarding water and stores, he soon learned that if the object of

lOO THE PROl'INCH AND THE STATES.

the expedition was to be accomplished it would be necessary to
land at once and begin operations where they were.

Accordingly, he resolved to make a permanent landing where
they were. Orders were given to disembark tb.e colonists and
troops on the western shore of Matagorda liay. The Belle was
anchored in the bay \\ithout accident on the i8th of February;
but the Aimable was intentionally run upon the shoals by her
captain, D'Aigron, who had formed a dislike for La Salle. There
it remained for three weeks or more, and in the meantime all was
saved from her that was possible. Finally a storm tore her in
pieces and scattered her along the coast. Barring this wholly
unnecessary and criminal accident, the landing was etTected suc-
cessfully, including the ordnance, stores, colonists, etc. A total
of eight iron cannon was landed for the armament of the fort
that should be built. About the middle of March, Captain Beau-
jeu prepared to return to France, his mission having ceased with
the landing of the colonists. Several of the latter, wIk) had
become timorous regarding the fate of those who were to remain
with La Salle, returned on the vessel with Beaujeu. There had
been considerable ill feeling between La Salle and Beaujeu, but
at the moment of separation friendly overtures prevailed. It is
to be remarked, however, that had it not been for the hostility
engendered between them during the voyage, La Salle would not
have remained at ATatagorda Bay, but would have gone on to the
Mississippi as originally intended. tLnd he done so, the results
of the expedition might have been far more successful. As a
matter of fact, T,a Salle should have insisted to be taken to the
Mississippi, and to havi- thrown the responsibility of any other
course on the shouKlers of Beaujeu. But the nature of La vSalle
was to make the most of circumstances, without losing sight of
his main object. He thought that he could reach the Mississippi
from Matagorda Bay without much trouble, or that at the worst
could erect a fort where he was, and thus take possession of
the coast much farther to the westward, for the benefit of France,
than was the mouth of the Mississippi.

Beaujeu was no sooner gone than the colonists set to work to
build a fort, largely from the wreck of the ship. The men began
to desert — first two and then four or five others; in the meantime
La Salle accompanied by about fifty men went up the river at
that point to find if it was an arm of the Mississippi, as was sus-
pected by some. He left in the fort about one hundred and thirty
persons inidcr the command of Ifcnry Joutei. Strict orders were
left to have nothing to do witb the natives, who, it had been

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS. loi

learned, were not to be trusted. La Salle reported upon his
return that the country above was very rich and abounded in all
sorts of wild animals ; and announced that he had resolved to
build his fort higher up the stream in a much better locality.
Preparations were made to secure the necessary timbers, which
were cast up by the sea. 1 Uit many days elapsed before the build-
ing was at length completed. For want of better designs. La
Salle was himself the architect of the building. "He marked
out the lengths, the tenons and mortices and made good the
defects of the workmen." To complete it, timber was brought
up from the coast. "The timber we brought was a mighty help
toward carrying on his design, and much fitter than what we had
hewed in the wood with so much labor ; so that this timber occa-
sioned the raising another structure contiguous to the former.
All was covered with planks, and bullcx-ks' hides over tlu-m.
The aparlments were divitk'd, and all of them well covered. The
stores had a place apart, and that dwelling had the name of St.
Louis given it, as well as the neighboring bay." Several of the
men died from one cause or another, and others continued to
desert. They named the river on which they erected their fort
"La Riviere aux Baaifs," the River of the Bullocks.

Finally, La Salle set out with several men to find the Missis-
sippi, leaving Joutel, as before, in command of the fort. He left
in his charge, also, "eight pieces of cannon, two hundred fire-
locks, as many cutlasses, a hundred barrels of powder, three thou-
sand weight of balls, about three hundred weight of other lead,
some bars of iron, tweiit\ packs of iron to make nails, some iron
work and tools, as hatchets and the like. As for provisions, all
that were left me amounted to twenty casks of meal, ojie cask and
a half of wine, three-quarters of a cask of brandy, and for living
creatures some few swine, and a cock and a hen." The settlers
had sowed some grain, but for unknown reasons it did not grow.
Joutel denied afterward the stories told that he was left well
supplied, and concerning the fort he said, "there being nothing
but the house T have mentioned, palisaded whh some old stakes."
Joutel was left in charge of thirty-four persons, men, women, and
children. He soon built another little wooden structure, "and in
it I lodged the women and maidens by themselves." He says,
"We were in about the twenty-seventh degree of north latitude,
two leagues up the country (evidently from the sea-coast), near
the P.av of St. Louis and the bank of the river aux Boeufs, on a
little hillock, whence we discovered vast and beautiful plains,
extending very far to the westward, all level and full of greens.

I02 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

which afford pastures to an infinite number of beeves and other
creatures. Turniuij from the west to the southward tliere
appeared other plains adorned with several littl^ woods of various
sorts of trees. Towards the south and east were the bay and the
plains that hem it in from the east. To the northward was the
river running- along by a little hill, beyond which there were other
large plains."

Finally, La Salle returned al)out the middle of March, 1686.
He iiad gone far up the river, had discovered several others, but
had not found the Mississippi. After fully recovering from the
effects of the journey, he resolved to try again to find the Missis-
sippi, or as Joutel calls it, "the fatal Mississippi." He took
twenty men with him. While ho was gone their only remaining
sea-going vessel "Belle" was also run upon the shoals, and in the
end proved a loss. Constant encounters were had with the natives.
The settlers managed to live pretty comfortably upon buft'ajoes,
fish and wild fowls. La Salle returned some time in August,
bringing with him five horses which he had obtained from the
Indians. He had traveled over a large portion of what is now
northeastern Texas, had made friends with the Cenis Indians and
others, but still had not found the Mississippi. Only eight of
the twenty men who had gone out with him returned. It seems
that at this time La Salle had in view the journey to the Illinois
country, and thence to Canada, for the purpose of securing- suc-
cor for his colony. While others were repining, he was cheer-
ful and took all the misfortunes as a matter to be expected and
affably met. Joutel says of him, "The even temper of our chief
made all men easy, and he found by his great vivacity of spirit
expedients which revived the lowest ebb of hope." Finally, he
set out for the Illinois, intending to find the Mississippi on his
way there. He left Sieur Harbier in charge of the settlement.
Joutel accompanied him, and the start was made January 12, 1687.
They left behind about thirty persons, and La Salle took with him
the following: II. Cavelier, his brother, Father Anastasius, the
priest, MM. Moranget and Cavelier, the nephews of La Salle,
the Sieurs Dehaut. the elder L'Arcleveque, Hiens. Li., tot the
surgeon, young Talon, an Indian, and a footman, Saget, besides
enough more to make a total of seventeen persons. Deaths and
desertions had reduced the colony to such an extent, that one of
the principal objects of the attempt to reach Canada was to secure
a fivsh ship-load of colonists, 'j'liey started northeastward,
crossing many rivers, large and small and, through the skill and
presence of La Salle, appearing upon friendly terms with the

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS. 1 03

Indian tribes encountered. Finally about the 20th of l*^Iarch,
when in the vicinity probably of the present Bryan, Texas, a con-
spiracy was formed for the death of La Salle on the ground of
revenge for alleged wrongs inilicted by him on several of his
men. According to Joutel, who was present, the fatal shot that
ended the life of La Salle, was fired by Dehaut, who shot him
through the head, killing him instantly. The murderers stripped
the body and left it in the bushes for the beasts or birds of prey.
Thus died a remarkable man. He possessed exceptional abili-
ties, which would have ranked him high in any walk of life.
He was devoted to the cause of France, and his death resulted
from the hazardous risks he took to attach the Mississippi val-
ley, in fact all of the Louisiana Purchase, to the colonics of his
king. Often to carry liis measures through it was necessary for
him to call the rough and lawless men under him sharply to
account. He thus t)rfended many. H he possessed one fault, it
was that of being too irascible, and of thus incurring the ill-wiU
of men who likewise l>ad ideas of their own as to how he sliould
conduct his affairs. But the greatness of his character and the
glory of his death in the line of duty shine high over all. He
was pure, truthful, loyal ; and mainly through his instrumentality
the Louisiana Purchase became a colony of France and not one of
Spain or Great Britain. He really accomplished in a large
degree what he undertook — the occupation of the Mississippi val-
ley by the French.

■ After the death of La Salle the murderers took charge of his
effects. To save tliemselves from the same fate, the others sub-
mitted to their dictation, and all continued on their journey forty
leagues farther to the northeast, or until they reached the village
of the Cenis in the vicinity of the present Nacogdoches, Texas.
They everywhere found evidences of the presence of the Span-
iards farther to the west. Among the Cenis were found several
Frenchmen, Buter and Grollet, who had deserted from La Salle
on his first expedition, and were living naked like the Indians.
They were now in northeast Texas. While here a disagreement
arose as to the route to be taken. The murderers did not dare
to go on to the Mississippi, while the others wished to do so,
Hiens, a German by birth, who had been a buccaneer, finally
formed a combination against the murderers, and in an alterca-
tion shot Dehaut dead. As he and his companions desired to
remain with the Indians, the effects were divided, and Fathers
Joutel, Anastasius, Cavelier, young Cavelier, Sieur de Marie,
Teissier and Bartholomew, with six horses and three Indians for

I04

THE PROl'INCH AND THE STATES.

guides, set out alone in a northeast direction for the Mississippi,
After a while they reached the allied nation on Red River —
Assouis (or Nassouis), Nachitos (Nachitoches), antl Cadoda-
quois, arriving" at the village t)f the latter suh-tribe near Texar-
kana. They passed eastward through the present Louisiana,
reached the nation of the Cahaynohonas, and learned that the
Cappas, for whom they inquired, were on the big river still farther
to the eastward. They continued their journey amid great hard-
ships until they finally came to tlie Arkansas villages on the i\Iis-
sissippi, and there disco\ered Tonty's post and three of the men
he had left there — Coutoure, Charpentier and DeLaunay. Here
they left young Bartholomew, but the others continued on to the
Illinois country, where they met Tonty, and then on to Canada.

As soon as the Spaniards learned of the building of Fort St.
Louis on St. Bernard's Bay, they resolved to destroy it and break
up the French settlenient there. Accordingl)-, an army of live
hundred men was sent to the nation of the Ceuis, where'they
found the two I'^renchmen. JauKs Cirollet and John L'Archevetiue,
and took them prisoners. A few days later another body of two
hundred Spaniards arrived, bringing with them Peter Talon and
one Memier, who had belongetl to the La Salle fort, but had been
captured by the bloody Clamcoets, the Indians residing in the
vicinity of St. Bernard's liay. A short time after the departure i

of La Salle, these Indians, partly by means of friendly overtures
and partly by strategy and treachery, had overcome the small
force at the fort, and massacred all excej)! the three sons of TaUm,
their sister, a Barisian nauu'd Fustace D'Uremen, and one
MC'inier, whom the}' took to their villages antl redncetl to slav-
ery. All were finally freed and found their way to civilization.
The bodies of those killed at the fort were left unburied and were
found by the Spaniards wlio later came there. With the Span-
ish army above mentioned were several b'ranciscan friars, sent
out to reside among the Cenis antl to hold the country against
the French. A fort was Iniilt and a small garrison left to guard
the rights of Spain, and tlic army, having no occasion to go to St.
Bernard Bay, returned to Mexic(j. The two Frenchmen named
above, who were living among the Cenis, were prevailed upon to
remain there in the interests of Spain, which they could readily
do, being deserters from the French expeditions.

The I'.ost wliich b.ad been estaljlislied by Tout)' seems to
have been situated on the east bank of the Arkansas river, but
near its mouth. The men in charge had erected a large cross,
which was the first object noticed by leathers Joutel, Caveliei- and

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS. 105

Anastasius, as they approached from the west. vSeeing across
the river that eniblein of their faith in the wilderness, they knelt
on the sand and thanked God for their great joy. White men
came across the river in boats and conveyed them over and made
them comfortable during their stay. Joutel writes, "It is hard
to express the joy conceived on both sides; ours was unspeakable,
for having at last found what we had so earnestly desired, and
that the hopes of returning to our dear country were in some
measure assured by that happy discovery. The others were
pleased to see such persons as might bring them news of that
commander, from whom they expected the performance of what
he had promised them ; but the account we gave them of M. de la
Salle's unfortunate death was so afflicting that it drew tears from
them, and the dismal history of his troubles and disasters ren-
dered them almost inconsolable. ... We were informed
by them (the men at Tonty's post), that they had been six, sent
by M. Tonty, when he returned from the voyage he had Inade
down the Colbert or Mississippi river, pursuant to the orders sent
him by the late M. de la Salle, at his departure from France, and
that the said Sieur Tonty had commanded them to build the
aforesaid house. That having never since received any news from
the said M. de la Salle, four of them were gone back to M. Tonty
at the fort of the Illinois."

The Arkansas nation consisted of four principal -villages:
Assotoue or Otsotchove or Osotome (near which was Tonty's
post), Torriman, Tongenga and Cappa. The first two were
apparently on or near the Arkansas river, but near its mouth,
while the second two were on the Mississippi, according to Joutel.
Tonty says of the Assotoue that "they lived on a branch of the
river coming from the west," evidently on the Arkansas, or one
of its lower branches. Joutel, Cavelier and their party left with
Coutoure all their horses, for which they had no further use, fif-
teen pounds of powder, eight hundred balls, three hundred flints,
twenty-six knives, ten axes, several pounds of beads, some linen
cloth, and other articles not needed. That the village of Asso-
toue was not situated on the main channel of the Mississippi^ is
shown by the following extract from Joutel's journal: "The
remaining part of the day was spent in going with Sieur Coutoure
to see the fatal river so much sought after by us, called Colbert
when first discovered, and Mississii)]n or Mechassippi by the
natives that were near us. It is a very fine river and deep; the
breadth of it about a ([uarter of a league and the stream very
rapid. The Sieur de Coutoure assured us that it.has two branches

Io6 THE PROt'INCE AND THE STATES.

or channels which parted from each other above us, and that we
had passed its other branch when we came to the first village of
the Arkansas, with which nation we still were." From this state-
ment, it would seem that Ass(jloue was on a western bend of the
Mississippi, and not on the Arkansas, though near it. The early
maps show it situated on an island at the mouth of the Arkansas.
But it must have been some distance from the main channel of
the Mississippi.

In 1686 Sieur de Tonty having learned that La Salle had sailed
from France for the mouth of the Mississippi, resolved to join
him. He was now at Fort St. Louis (Starved Ror.k on the Illi-
nois river). He says, '"1 dei)arted thence on the i6th of Febru-
ary, 1686, with thirty Frenchmen and five Illinois and Chawanons
(probably Shawanese, a nation supposed to be the remnant of the
Fries, who had been almost totally destroyed by the Iroquois)
for the sea, which I reached in Holy Week. After having p.;)ssed
the above named nations, 1 was very well received. I sent out
two canoes, one towards the c(xist of Mexico and the other
towards Carolina to see if they could discover anything. They
each sailed about thirty leagues, but proceeded no farther for WcOit
of fresh water. They reported that where they had been the
land began to rise. They brought me a porpoise and some
oysters. As it would take us five months to reach the French
settlements, I proposed to my nun that if they would trust to me
to follow the coast as far as Manhatte (Manhattan, New York),
that by this means they shouUl arrive shortly at Montreal ; that
we shoulil not lose our time, because we nught discover some fine
country, aiul nnght even take some booty on our way. Fart of
my men were willing to adoj^t my plan ; but as the rest were
opposed to it, I decided to return the way I came. The tide does
not rise more than two feet pcrpi ndicularly on the sea coast, and
the land is very low at the entrance of the river. We encamped
in the place where M. de la Salle had erected the arms of the
King. As they had been thrown down by the fioods, I took them
five leagues further up and placed them in a higher situation. I
put a silver ecu in the hollow of a tree to serve as a mark of time
and place.

"We left this place on Easter Monday. When we came oppo-
site the Quinipissas village the chiefs brought me the calumet,
and declared the sorrow they felt at the treachery they had per-
petrated against me on our first voyage. I made an alliance with
them. Forty leagues higher up, on tlie right, we discovered a
village inland, with the inhabitants of which we alstj made an

FRENCH EXI'LORATIONS. 107

alliance. These are the Oumas, the bravest savages of the river.
When we were at Arkansas, ten of the Frenchmen who accom-
panied me asked for a settlement on the river Arkansas, on a
seignory that M. de la Salle had given me on our first voyage. I
granted the request to some of them. They remained there to
build a house surrounded with stakes. The rest accompanied
me to Illinois, in order to get what they wanted. I arrived there
(Illinois) on St. John's Day (June 24)."

Sieur de Tonty thus failed to find La Salle, but he established
the first colony of the French in the Louisiana Purchase aljout
the first of June, 1686. Part of the men who had asked for the
settlement remained at their house on the Arkansas, while the
others went on to the Illinois to get necessary supplies, tools, etc.,
and no doubt returned as soon as possible. Later, Tonty says,
"On the 7th of April, 1688, one (Frenchman) named Coutoure
brought to me two Akansas, who danced the calumet. They
informed me of the death of ]\[. de la Salle, with all the circum-
stances which they had heard from the lips of M. Cavelier, who
had fortunately discovered the house I had built at Arkansas,
where the said Coutoure stayed with three Frenchmen. He told
me that the fear of not obtaining from me what he desired had
made him (M. Cavelier) conceal the death of his brother, but
that he had told them of it. M. Cavelier (had) told me that the
Cadodaquis had proposed to accompany him if he would go and
fight against the Spaniards. He had objected on account of there
being only fourteen Frenchmen. They replied that their nation
was numerous, that they only wanted a few musiiueleers, and that
the Spaniards had mucii money, which they (the French) should
take; and as for themselves they only wished to keep the women
and children as slaves. Coutoure told me that a young man
whom M. Cavelier had left at Arkansas had assured him that this
was very true. I would not undertake anything without the con-
sent of the Governor of Canada. I sent the said Coutoure to the
French remaining at Nicondiche (Nachitoches) to get all the
information he could. He set off, and at one hundred leagues
from the fort was wrecked, and having lost everything returned."
In 1688 the Sieur de Tonty, learning that war had been
declared by France against Spain, resolved to go to "Nacomlirhe
(Nachitoches) "to execute what M. Cavelier had ventured to
undertake and to bring back W. de la Salle's men, who were on
the sea-coast not knowing of the misfortune that had befallen
him." He embarked five Frenrluncn, one Chawanon, and two
slaves, and reached the moutli. of the Illinois October 17, 1C88.

I08 THE PROl'lNCE AND THE STATES.

On January i6, he readied tlie village of the Cappas down the
Mississippi, on the 20th reached Tongenga and on the 22(1, Torre-
mans (these were the Arkansas villages otherwise spelled hy
Tonty Toyengan and 'rorinirni). Leaving my crew (at Torre-
mans) I set off the next day for Assotoue, where my commercial
house is." This was the house above mentioned which he had
ordered built for the ten men of his seignory, below the mouth
of the Arkansas river. He refers to it as "the house I had built
at Arkansas." This was really a small manor, of which he was
the lord. "The savages had nd yet seen me, as tliey lived on a
branch of the river coming from the west. They did their best,
giving me two woiuen of the Cadodaquis nation, to uhom I was
going."

From this admission, it is clear that his paramount intention
was to join the Cadodaquis in an attack on the Spaniards, as had
been suggested to M. Cavelier. From the 22d of January to
about the 12th of I"\-bruary, he made his pre[)arations at the vil-
lages of Cappa, Torremans, Tor.genga, and Assortuue, etc., and
finally rendezvoused at a i)oint on what is now the Tensas river.
"We set off on the 12th (of February, i6yo,) with twelve Taencas,
and after a voyage of twelve leagues to the northwest, we left
our boat and made twenty leagues portage, and on the 17th of
February came to Nachiloches. They niade us stay at the place,
which is in the midst of the three villages called Nachitoches,
Ouasita (Washita), and t'apiche." Thus, it ai)pears that Tonty
went up the Tensas, or perhaps the Washita river some ilistance,
tlience left his boat and joiiine)e(l across to Red river ami up the
same to Nachitoches. lie remained here several days and then
departed for Vataches (Yaltasse). About eighty miles up Red
river from Nachitoches he foimd fifteen cal)ins of the Natchez,
and about one hundred miles farther up reached Yataches, arriv-
ing there the i6th of March. Standing there together were three
villages — Yataches, Nadas, and Choye. Here he ^v'as feasted
and given guides to the Ca.l()daf|uis, but nuich against their will.
The Cadodaquis nation still higher up Ka^X river was reached on
the 28th of March.

He says, "During the time I was there, I learned from them
that eighty leagues off were the seven Frenchmen whom M. Cav-
elier had left. I hoped to finish my troubles by rejoining them,
but the Frenchmen who accompanied me would go no further. |

They were unmanageable ])ersons, over whom T could exercise
no authority in this distant country. I was obliged to give way.
All that I could do w^as to engage one of them, with a savage, \o

PRENCII EXPLORATIONS. 109 1

I
accompany me to the village of Naoudiche, where I hoped to
find the seven Frenchmen. I told those who abandoned me that
to prevent the savages knowing this, it was best to say that I had
sent them away to carry back the news of my arrival, so that the
savages would not suspect our disunion. The Cadodaquis are
united with two other villages called Natchitoches and Nassoui
(or Assoui) situated on Red river. All the nations of this tribe
speak the same language. Their cabins are covered with straw,
and they are not united in villages, but their huts are distant one
from the other. Their fields are beautiful. They fish and hunt.
There is plenty of game, but few cattle (boeufs). The Cadoda-
quis possess about thirty horses, which tliey .call cavali (from
Spanish caballo, a horse). They call this the Red river, because
in fact it deposits a sand which makes the water as red as blood.

"I left this place on the 6th of April, directing our route south-
wards, with a iM'enchman, a Chaganon and a little slave of mine,
and five of their savages, whom they gave me as guides to
Naouadiche. . . . On our road we found some Naoua-
diches savages hunting, who assured me that the Frenchmen were
staying with them. This gave me great pleasure, hoping to suc-
ceed in my object of finding them. On the 23d we slept half a
league from the village, and the chiefs came to visit us at night.
I asked them about the Frenchmen." The conflicting stories
caused Tonty to suspect that the Frenchmen had been killed.
"I told them that they had killed the Frenchmen. Directly all
the women began to cry, and thus I saw that what I had said was
true. T would not, therefore, accept the calumet. I told the
chief that I wanted four horses for my return, and having given
him seven hatchets and a string of large glass beads, I received
the next day four Spanish horses. Horses are very common
among them. There is not a cabin which has not four or five.
As this nation is sometimes at peace and sometimes at war with
the neighboring Spaniards, they take advantage of a war to carry
off the horses. We harnessed ours as well as we could, and
departed on the 29th, greatly vexed that we could not continue
our route as far as M. de la Salle's camp. ... It was at
the distance of three days' journey from thence that M. de la
Salle was murdered." Tonty returned to the Cadodaquis nation,
arriving May loth. He then started for the Coroas village on
the Mississippi and after incredible hardships arrived there on the
14th of July, 1690.

Henry de Tonty has never been given the credit he deserves
for his sacrifices and discoveries. He seems to have been utterly

■ I

no THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES. |l

without selfishness. The courac^e and address shown by him in
all his dealings with the Indians proved that he possessed per- !

sonal forces which few credit to him. He had the highest admira-
tion for La Salle, of whom he wrote, "Such was the end of one
of the greatest men of the age. He was a man of wonderful
ability and capable of undertaking any discovery." His fidelity
was remarkable in this period when few if any men could be
trusted. When on the Illinois, he no sooner heard of the sailing
of La Salle for the mouth of the Mississippi than he started to
join him for the purpose of rendering him any assistance in his
power. He did every thing he could to assist in carrying out his
designs, knowing they had been sanctioned by the French court.
He obeyed orders promptly, with a cheerfulness that always set
a good example. He was both truthful and generous, and it
may be said that next to La Salle, he did more than any other
person to place the Mississippi valley under the flag of France.

;■'

THE SETTLEMENTS MADE BY D' IBERVILLE. m |

CHAPTER III

The Settlements Made by D'Iberville

T\\\i lerniinalion oi war in luirope by the treaty of RyswicU
in 1697, presented the opiiortunity which Louis XIV had
desired of estahhshing a permanent colony at the mouth
of the Mississippi. His haste at this juncture was occasioned as
much by his jealousy of both Spain and (h'eat Britain as by Jiis
own wish to add to his crown an empire of wilderness in the New
World. Spain, after two centuries of opportunity, had continu-
ously turned her back on the Mississippi valley and had fastened
her grasp on the islands and mainland farther to the south. Great
Britain was directing her energy and attention to the Atlantic
coast ; but was complacently expecting that, later, she would have
an opportunity to despoil France and Spain of the colonies they
had established at such an immense sacrifice of blood and treasure.
Thus, this was the beginning of a prolonged system of strategy
between the leading nations of Juirope for colonial supremacy on
the American continent.

Accordingly, orders were issued in 1698 by Louis XIV for
the despatch of an expedition of colonists to the Mississippi, the
command of which was intrusted to Pierre le Moyne (Captain
D'Iberville), who had recently distinguished himself in the
French naval service. The squadron comprised two frigates, the
Marin and Badine, each carrying thirty guns, the former com-
manded by Compte de Surgeres and the latter by D'Iberville him-
self, and two smaller vessels bearing nearly two hundred colon-
ists and a company of marines. Among the colonists were
women and children, who were destined to see harder times
before they again saw France than they dreamed of. They were
mostly the families of ex-soldiers, who had been granted extra

112 Tini PRoriNCt: and the states.

liberal inducements to join the expedition. Amonjj the colonists
were agriculturalists and meclianics, and all were well supplied
with provisions and clothing and the necessary articles and imple-
ments required in the new settlement.

The expedition set sail from Rochelle on September 24, 1698,
and late in December, was joined by a war ship, the Francois,
carrying fifty guns, commanded by the Marquis de Chateaumo-
rant, while stopping for refreshments at St. Domingo. Doub-
ling the coast of Cuba January 15, 1699, they sighted the Florida
coast on the 24th of January, and soon afterward reached
Apalachicola Bay, where they found a Spanish colony. Conlinu-
ing westward, they reached IVnsacola l>ay, where it was found |
that another Spanish setllemenl had been formed within the last
three months. Thus they were ai)i)arently none too soon to
secure the mouth of the Mississippi, before the Spaniards located
therein. On the 31st of Jamiary, they arrived in Mobile Day,
but not liking the anchorage, they continued westward aliout
thirteen or fourteen leagues farther, where they found excellent
anchorage and protection from storms between several islands
and the mainland. Having landed his colonists on Ship island,
some distance from the mainland, and having learned of a large
river to the southwest called by the natives, Malabouchia, and
inferring that it must be the Mississippi, he resolved to leave his
vessels where they were safe and go in search of it.

The frigate, Francois, which had escorted him from St.
Domingo, not being needed, was sent back. With two strong
row-boats, several bark canoes and fifty-three men, Iberville now
started to find the mouth of the Mississippi. "We entered this
river (Colbert or Mississijipi) on the night of the 2d of March.
I found it obstructed by rafts of jietrified wood of a sufficient
hardness to resist the action of the sea. I found there twelve feet
of water, and anchored tv/o leagues from the mouth of the river,
where the depth is from ten to twelve fathoms, with a breadth of
from four to five hundred yards. On the 3d, the winds prevented
me from making soimdings between the rafts and the three out-
lets, which extend some three leagues before entering the sea.
I resolved to go as far up as the Bayagoulas, whom we had met
with at the Bay of Biloxi, and who had given us to understand
that their village was at the distance of eight days' travel in a
canoe from the bay, which would be equal to about sixty leagues.

"As I had already gone thirty leagues, and as it was necessary
that I should ascend the river to become acquainted with its
depth, observe the places proper for establishments, and visit the

THE SETTLEMENTS MADE BY D'IBERFILLE. 113

various Indian villages, which our Frenchmen said they had seen
upon its hanks in asccndino- and descending the river, and as tliey
pretended that the Quinipissas were established at a distance of
thirty leagues from the mouth ol the Mississippi, I took advan-
tage of a favorable wind from the southwest to continue my route,
leaving until my return the work of sounding the passes. On
the seventh, at a distance of about thirty-five leagues up the
river, I met witii some Indians who told me that it vvas yet three
and a half days' travel before I could reach the P.ayagoulas, and
that theirs was the first village 1 should reach. I look one of
these Indians with me as a guide, as well as for information. On
the 14th I reached the village, where I was received with friendly
embraces after their manner. By exact observations, I found its
position was sixty-four leagues from the mouth of the river. The.
chief of the Mongoulachas, a nation allied with the Bayagoulas,
had on a poitou-cloak of blue serge, which he told me was i^re-
sented to him by iM. de Tonty. I was, moreover, confirmed with
regard to his visit, by seeing in their hands axes and knives : but
from the sea up to this village I found no other sign of the French
having visited this section.' I met with none of the Tangipahoes
nor Quinipissas mentioned in the narratives of the Jesuits, and
concluded they must be false, as .well as those writings about
Canada, Hudson Bay, and the relurn of Sieur Cavalier from the
liay of St. l.ouis. The Bayagoulas told me that the Ouinip-
issas dwelt fifty leagues in the interior and consisted of six vil-
lages. They assured me that the river was never obstructcil and
was navigable very high up. They named all the nations that
inhabited its banks above.

"But seeing myself so far up the river without positive proof
that this was the Mississippi, and that it might be said in France
I was deceived, not having met with any of those tribes mentioned
in the narratives, I concluded that I ought to visit the Houmas
on the east side of the river, among whom I knew M. de Tonty
had been ; and believing, moreover, that in the course of at least
thirty leagues I must meet with that branch of the river spoken
of in the narratives, down which I could send a chaloupe and
canoe for the purpose of exploration, and ascertain which of the
two rivers would be most suitable for settlements. T was appre-
hensive the Indians only desired to conceal from me that branch
in order to get me to remain upon theirs, as they hoped to reap
some advantage thereby. T renewed my journey in comi)any
with the chief of the liayagoulas, who ofTeri'd to go with me witii
1—8

114 ^'^^^^ PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

eight of his men, and arrived at the village of the Houmas, distant
thirty-five leagues. On the morning of the twentieth, at ten
o'elock, I entered the village, which is situated two leagues and a
half in the interior, where 1 wa-, well received ; hut 1 could learn
nothing more than I had been informed of before. They sjioke
much of M. de Tonty, who had remained some time among them
and made them many presents.

"On the 2 1 St I returned to my boats, much embarrassed as to
the course I should pursue, seeing that I was one hundred and
thirty leagues from the ships and one hundred from the sea;
having procured no other provisions than Indian corn, without
meat and without grease, my men were fatigued with stemming
the strong currents; and having little hope of finding that branch
I was in search of, 1 thought the Iloumas would have the same
motives as the iJayagoulas in concealing from me the truth. I
told them I knew there was a l)ranch, and desired to descend by
it to the sea with a portion of m\- men; that this branch ougfit to
be near a river coming from the west and falling into the Mala-
bouchia (Mississippi). They told me it was the Tassenoeogoula
(Red river). Finally I told them I would visit the Natchez or
Tpelois, who are their nearest neighbors in ascending the river.
They offered to conduct me there, and for this purpose gave me
six men and a canoe. I left the I loumas on the 22d and took with
me a Tensas, who was acquainted with the country and had trav-
eled over as far as the Arkansas. He si)oke to me of the Sablon-
iere (Red river), which he calkd the Tassenoeogoula. He also
mentioned the nations dwelling along its banks, and across which
M. de Cavalier had passed upon his return from the Bay of St.
Louis (St. r>ernard, Texas).

"Not doubting but that these Indians as well as the Tensas had
an understanding with each other to conceal from me what I was
eagerly desirous to know, in the hope that T would go to their vil-
lage near which I already was, I deemed it prudent to enter into
no further engagements. Besides, it was time for me to return
and look out for a proper place to make a settlement, which
hitherto I had been unable to find. Moreover, the fleet was fall-
ing short of provisions. I retraced my steps to the Iloumas, after
having gone beyond their village three leagues and a half, very
much vexed at the Recollet,* whose false narratives had deceived
every one and caused our sufferings and total failure of our enter-
pri.se by the time consumed in search of things which alone existed

* Nan.ilive of Ifiithor I.oiiis ll(.-iii)(i)iii.

THE SETTLEMENTS MADE BY D' IBERVILLE. 115

in his imagination. On the 24th, I arrived at a small river or
stream, about five leagues above the Bayagoulas on the east side
of the river, which empties into the sea. This was the only
branch of the Malabouchia the Indians pointed out to us. I
descended to the sea by this stream (the ]\]anshac) in two bark
canoes witii four men and sent the chaloupes down the river
with orders to sound the passes. I entered this small river, which
is not more than eight or ten paces wide and about five feet in
depth in low water. It was full of logs, which in places totally
obstructed the navigation, so that in many places we were under
the necessity of making several portages during its entire length
of eight or nine leagues. After a while other rivers fall into it,
by which its volume is increased, with a good depth of water at
all times, from two to three fathoms in the river and seven to
eight in the lakes. It terminates by emptying at the extremity
of the Bay of Lago de Lodo, eight leagues west of the place
where our ships were anchored. It passes tlirough a fine country.
The lake I crossed was about three leagues wide and twenty-five
long. Its direction runs parallel with the Mississippi, and in
many places they are separated only by a narrow strip of land,
from a quarter to half a league wide, for a distance of twenty-
five, thirty, forty and forly-eight leagues, as far as the mouth of
the Malabouchia. I reached the ships upon the 31st."

Father Douay accomi)anied D'Iberville on this trip up the
Mississippi, because he had been one of La Salle's companions on
his last Mississippi expedition, lie thought he recognized the
great river from ils sn'lhuig waters, but was not certain. The
Bayagoulas e\Iiil)iletl many evidences of bairopean visits, among
which were cloth stuffs and domestic poultry, which, according
to the Indians, had been obtained from the nations farther to the
westward, doubtless originally from the Spaniards. The Tangi-
pahoes, whom D'Iberville expected to find on the Mississippi,
had been exterminated or driven away by the Bayagoulas, who
were really the Ouinipissas mentioned by La Salle and his lieu-
tenant, Tonty. The finding among the Indians by D'Iberville of
a letter left by Tonty for La Salle, dated at the village of the
Ouinipissas April 20, 1685 (meant to be 1686), settled all
doubts as to the river they were now on. An old suit of Spanish
armour, no doubt left by De Soto's army, found among the
Indians, still further identified the river. Probably the highest
land they saw on their ascent of the river, was at Ikiton Kougc.
Farther up they noticed the wide detour in the river, which after-
ward became Lointe Coupee. .Still higher, at the village of the

Il6 THE PROJ'INCE AND THE STATES.

Houmas, they saw other domestic fowls in considerable numbers.
D'Iberville was really in search of the Atchafalaya, which
extended from near the mouth of Red river to the Gulf westward
of the Mississippi. At this time the Bayagoulas comprised about
350 people and 100 fighting men. The Houmas were more
numerous, having more than 300 warriors. D'Bienville, afterward
so long the governor of Louisiana, the younger brother of D'Iber-
ville, accompanied this expedition up the Mississippi. He was
sent down to the mouth of the main river to sound the passes,
while D'Iberville went down the Manshac to rejoin the ships. It
seems strange now that they should have had any misgivings as
to the identity of the Mississippi. It was so wide^ deep and
swift that their doubt seems now unaccountable. No doubt their
misgivings resulted, as D'Iberville says, from the deceptions of
the Recollect missionary, who had drawn so largely upon his very
vivid imagination.

It was at once perceived by D'Iberville that the most expedi-
tious route to the Bayagoulas was via the lakes and river Man-
shac. M. D'Sauvolle accompanied Bienville, to assist in sounding
the passes of the Mississippi; but they found this task impractica-
ble, owing to the strong winds blowing at the time. On his way
down D'Sauvolle observed at llie distance of thirty leagues from
the sea a spot sufficiently elevated not to be inundated; also still
farther down a similar tract extending back a league or more
from the river, which they were unable to examine, owing to the
ijnmensc growth of canes along the shore. It was observed that
the Mississippi was from eighteen to twenty fathoms deep
throughout its whole course so fas as they examined. D'Bienville
obtained for an ax the letter of Tonty on his trip down the river.
In it the faithful Tonty deplored not having met I^a Salle, and
said that the savages greatly feared him since the attack of
La Salle upon them. D'Iberville proceeded to build a fort on the
Bay of Biloxi, around which were erected many log cabins for
the colonists. Here nearly one hundred people were left, while
he returned to France. M. D'Sauvolle de la Villantry (Sauvolle),
naval ensign, was left in command, with D'Bienville as king's
lieutenant; Le Vasseur de Boussouelle, a Canadian, as major;
D'Bordenac as chaplain ; M. Care, surgeon, and about eighty
men, consisting of two captains, two cannoniers, four sailors,
eighteen filibusters, ten mechanics, six masons, thirteen Canadians
and twenty sub-officers and sohliers, who comprised the garrison.
D'Iberville left on the 3d of May.

It is noteworthy how many erroneous impressions and ideas

THE SETTLEMENTS MADE BY D' IBERVILLE. u;

prevailed in Europe concerning the American colonies. Rumors
of the most ridiculous and extravagant nature were circulated
and believed by many men who ought to have known better.
Consider for a moment the following instructions to D'Iberville,
when he sailed for the mouth of the Mississippi for the purpose
of founding a colony: "One of the great objects proposed to
the king, when he was urged to discover the mouth of the Micis-
sipi, was to obtain wool from the cattle oi thai country ; and for
this purpose these animals must be tamed and parked and calves
sent to France. Although the pearls sent to his Majesty are not
fine, either in water or shape, they must nevertheless be carefully
sought, as others may be found; and his Majesty desires
M. D'Iberville to bring all he can, ascertain where the fishery
is carried on, and see it in operation." The cattle here referred
to were the wild buffaloes which roamed over all the western
country. The Indians used the hair of these animals for some
of their rude garments ; but why any sane and civilized white man
should arrive at the conclusion that it was worth a second thought
as an article of clothing may be marveled at. Domestic cattle
were first introduced into the Illinois country in 171 1. In a com-
paratively short time, beef was as common and as cheap as pork.
Now that D'Iberville had gone, the real metal of the colonists
was put to the test. Unfortunately, there were too many among
them who cared nothing for agricvilture and who from the start
set forth on expeditions to obtain gold, jewels and valuable furs
from the natives. They were soon nearly out of provisions and
in sore straits. HiU it is not llic intention here, nor is it the
province of this work, to follow the fate of the colonists, except
so far as they were connected with what afterward became Louis-
iana proper. The French and the missionaries had become well
establisiied on the Illinois river by this time. The colonists at
Biloxi Bay were not a little pleased early in July to receive two
small canoes containing Fathers Davion and Montigny and a few
Frenchmen, who had journeyed all the way from the Illinois in
those frail vessels down the treacherous current of the mighty
Mississippi. They had really come down to establish a mission
among the Indians of the lower river, but learning from the
Houmas of the presence of the French at Biloxi, they determined
to go there before taking other action. After a visit of about ten
days they returned uj) the river as far as the Tonicas, where they
founded a mission. There arrived at Mobile in May, 1700,
M. Sagan, a traveler from Canada, who showed a memoir from
the Frencii minister, Poulcharirain, to the effect (hat he had

Il8 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

traversed the entire Mississippi valley and had ascertained that
gold mines existed in that country. The minister requested that
M. San:an be supplied by Al. D'SauvoUe with twenty-four
pirogues and one hundred Canadians for the purpose of making
an exploration of the Missouri river and its branches.

After the departure of D'lbeiville, the men left behind began
the task of exploring the country, among the first objects being
a careful exainination of the Mississippi, with the view of finding
a suitable site for a fort and a village. This soon was seen to
be more difficult than was thought probable at the outset, owing
to the low banks and the evident fact that they were often inun-
dated. D'Bienville commanded one of these expeditions. He it
was who named Massacre Island from the large pile of human
bones found there. Still later, with a body of men, he endeavored
to reach the Mississippi over the route traversed by D'lberville
on his return from the voyage up the Mississippi. Having
reached the large lake mentioned by the latter, he named it P6nt-
chartrain, from the south shore of which they made preparations
to leave their boats and cross over to the Mississippi. "Having
crossed these canes for a quarter of a league, we arrived on the
borders of the Mississippi, at which we were greatly rejoiced.
We regarded this beautiful river with admiration. . . . We
encamped that night on the river's bank, inuler the trees, upon
which a vast number of wild turkeys roosteil. We killed as many
of them as we wanted, by moonlight, as they were not in the least
disturbed by the firing of our ginis. I can truly say that I never
saw turkeys in I'rance so fat and large as these were, as their
net weight was about thirty ])ounds. The next day we returned
to our boats; and our comr)anions, whom we had left as a guard,
were highly delighted to learn wc had slept on the banks of the
mighty river."* This encampment was no doubt on the present
site of New Orleans, probably the first ever there by white men.
Think of the experience — the bright fire of the camp,' the multi-
tude of wild turkeys roosting overhead yet unafraid of man, the
rejoicing and feasting Frenchmen, the moonlight sifting down
like golden mist and the gurgling voices of the hurrying waters.
An agreeable introduction it was to the future metropolis of the
great South. Here came messages from the distant Rockies,
from the gnarled Alleghanies and from the sunny summits of the
heights of Minnesota. Frotn a thousand tribes and from the per-
petual hills overlooking iniunnerible velvet vales came swelling

♦ Annals of Louisiana from 1698 to 1722, l)y M. Peiiicaut.

THE SETTLEMENTS MADE BY D' IBERVILLE.

119

tributes on the stentorian tones of the rushing- river. The next
day they journeyed on, passing through Lake Maurepas, and
th.en for several days continuing 10 explore the surrounding
country without again approaching the Mississippi before return-
ing to the fort at Biloxi. Here their report was made to D'Sau-
volle, who was presented with a fine assortment of pearls which
had been collected on the expedition.

While on one of these expeditions in the absence of D 'Iberville,
his brother, D'Bienville, on the i6th of December, 1699, saw at
what has since been called the "English Turn," a small English
vessel carrying sixteen guns and commanded by Captain Barr.
He informed the Englishman that he was on the iMississi[)pi,
upon which the French had established settlements, and that
therefore he was a trespasser. After satisfying himself to his
satisfaction, the Englishman, who had really come prepared to
lay claim to the Mississippi and Louisiana, returned down the
river to its mouth and rejoined another vessel which had remained
there while he made his discoveries. The spot where the Eng*-
lish vessel turned about has ever since been called from that cir-
cumstance "Detour dcs Anglais," or Turn of the English, Thus
the French were none too soon to prevent the English as well
as the Spaniards from settling on the Mississippi. It has even
been claimed that D'Bienville deceived the English captain as
to the number and extent of the French settlers on the Mississippi.
As a matter of fact the French had not a single settlement on the
Mississippi at this time, and had the English captain brought
with him a load of colonists, which he may have done, he would
have been justified in huuling them and taking possession. The
mere fact that the French under La Salle had taken possession
of the banks of the river in their king's name, and had explored
the river, was not yet sufficient to fix the claims of the French to
the river as against an actual settlement by the English or the
Spanish. There may be some truth, therefore, in the statement
that D'Bienville hoodwinked the English captain, either by declar-
ing the river not to be the Mississippi, or by making it appear
that the French occupancy was too certain and strong to be dis-
puted.

All were anxious for the return of D'Iberville, but it was not
till the 6th of January, 1700, that he reappeared at Biloxi. He
was in command of the Renommee of fifty guns, and M. de Sur-
geres in command of the Gironde with forty-six guns. He
brought with him sixty Canadian immigrants and a large supply
of provisions and stores. "M. de Iberville was received with

120 THE PROVINCE .IND THE STATES.

every possible demonstration of joy; but he only remained a few
days at the fort, at the end of which time lie selected sixty men
to go with him to the Mississii)pi, among whom were his two
brothers, D'liicnvilic and D'Chateauguay, D'Boisbriant, D'Si.
Denis, and others" who afterward distinguished themselves one
way or another in the new country. D'Sauvolle was left in com-
mand of the fort and in charge of the ships. The exploring party
departed in three long boats, or ciialoupes, as they were called,
and in due time reached the mouth of the Mississippi and
encamped on the left bank. The next day being the 15th, having
ascended ten leagues, they came to a dense forest bordering both
sides of the river. "Eight leagues higher up W, D'Iberville
observed a spot very convenient for the erection of a fort, which
he resolved to construct wlien he descended the river. Eight
leagues beyond is a bend in the river, three leagues around, which
is called the English Turn, the reason for which I will give in its
proper place. Twenty-four leagues higher up on the left is a
river called Chetimachas (Bayou La Forche), and five leagues
beyond this is the first Indian nation inhabiting the banks of the
river, called the Bayagoulas, where we arrived on the 19th
of February." Here they secured a supply of provisions.
"M. D'Iberville told the chief that we would dei)art in the morn-
ing, and would like some fowls to take with him. The village
was filled with them, and they supplied us bountifully. We took
four of this nation as guides, and left with them a young French-
man to leanl their language."

They loft the next morning and in five leagues reached the
river i\lansiiac and live k'a:;iK'S ho\ontl reached the Idull's (eco-
res), or as tiie Indians called the place, Istrouma, which in French
was Baton Rouge, or Red Stick. This was the boundary line
between the Bayagoulas and tlie Iloumas. Reaching what after-
ward l)ecame called Pi.inte Coupee, many walked across the j)ort-
age rather than go the long distance around by the river. Eight
leagues higher up was a cross which had been planted by
M. D'Iberville on his former visit. Here on a small island was
chanted the Vexilla Regis, all on their knees, while the wonder-
ing savages looked on. Tliis spot was called Portage de la Croix,
from which, two leagues inland, a path led to the main village of'
the Houmas. The boats made the wide detour, while the officers
and guards cut across the portage, visiting the Ilouma village
on the way, and securing a supj^ly of provisions, such as game
and poultry. Soon after this they passed the mouth of a large
river called Sabloniere (Red river). Sixteen or seventeen leagues

THE SnTTLEMHNTS MADli BY iriBEIU'lLLE. 121

farther and they passed Ellis' cliffs, above which they landed to
visit the village of the Natchez, "the most civilized of all the
nations." \\\i\\ them a treaty of peace was concluded on the 5th
of March. Going on they, in turn, passed Petit Gulf and Grand
Gulf, journeying- from the latter westward four leagues in the
interior to visit the Tensas Indians. ' While here the French wit-
nessed a thrilling sight. The Tensas were sun worshippers, and ,
were allied to the Natchez. "A sudden storm burst upon us.
The lightning struck the temple, burned all their idols and
reduced the whole to ashes. Ouickly the Indians assembled
around, making horrible cries, tearing out their hair, elevating
their hands to heaven, their tawny visages turned toward the burn-
ing temple, invoking their Cu-eat Si)irit, with the howling of devils
possessed, to come down and extinguish the flames. They took
up mud with which tliey besmeared their bodies and faces. The
fathers and mothers then brought their children and after having
strangled them threw them into (he flames. M. D'Iberville \yas
horrified at seeing such a cruel si^ectacle, and gave orders to stop
it by forcibly tal:ing from them the little innocents; but with all
our efforts seventeen perished in this manner; and had we not
restrained them the number would have been over two hundred."
D'Iberville succeeded in inducing the Tensas to remove to the
banks of the Mississippi. As the time was fast approaching
when he would have to return to France, he now began to descend
the river. At Natchez he met Fatiier D' St. Come, a missionary,
who had recently come down from the Illinois country with
Father Gabriel Marest, they having left the mouth of the Illinois
on necoml.'cr (). loito, :\\v\ ha\'ii'.g stopped several times on the
way. With them had come the ever famous Tonty.

Having reached the spot where he had decided to built his fort,
D'Iberville found waiting him a gunboat which iiad been brought
there by D'Bienville, who some time before had been dispatched
from the expedition for that purpose. On the vessel was every-
thing necessary for the construction of the fort, except the timber,
and that stood ready on the banks. This spot was below the
English Turn, and on the left bank of the river. A commence-
ment had been made by D'Bienville in the absence of D'Iberville.
The latter at once drew up the jjlans, showing the measurement
and size, and the fort was rajjidly completed. D'Hicnvillc was
then left in command of the same with a force of twenty-five men,
and D' Iberville returned to Biloxi for supplies and cannons. By
this time ihe news had reached the Illinois country that the French
had established settlements on the lower Mississippi ; and accord-

122 THE PROI'INCE AND THE STATES.

mgly boat loads of hardy Canadians began to arrive from the
upper country. While the French were building the fort, five
loads arrived; they wert- taken to Uiloxi. l'"roni tlie fact that the
Canadians were familiar with the habits of the Indians and with
the peculiarities of the country, they were regarded as a most
desirable acquisition at any time to the )oung colony. Many of
them who were not coiircurs Jc hois, took readily to the cultiva-
tion of the soil. In fact it ma)- be truthfully said that the success
of the French settlements on the lower Mississippi was as nuich
due to the industrious habits of their French Canadian inhabit-
ants as to any other cause. lUit the courcur dc bois were a
greater curse than a bU'Ssing, and they led many others astray
with fanciful tales of the fortunes to be made in the fur trade and
with the easy life in the deep woods, under the burning stars,
without restriction from church or state.

On the 3d of May, 1700, i^" Iberville starteil on his second
return to h^rance, but lieforc dniiig so, rrcouuncndcd t(i M.
D'SauvoUe, who was Iclt in comniand at liiloxi, to send twenty
men under the ilirection of Pierre le vSueur, to the copper mines
of the Sioux Indians, on ihe upper Mississippi, in the interests of
France, they having been sent down by the Canadian merchants
for that purpose. Near the end of April, 1700, Le Sueur set forth
with twenty-five men in one long boat, and was soon stemming
the terrible current of the mighiy river. So strong was the How
at this season of the year, that it took them twenty-four days to
reach the Tensas country a little above the mouth of the Arkan-
sas. At the Iiulian villages above the luouth of the Yazoo river,
on the east siile, they met a I'rench priest and aiioiher French-
man, both of whom were delighted to see Le Sueur and his party.
They passed the Arkansas river, which they called the Tonty, and
soon afterward reached the Arkansas nation, where they received
a kind reception. Here they found an English fur trader. A
little higher up they named a small river on the west side the
St. Francis, which it retains to this day. Fifteen leagues above
the mouth of the Ohio, on the east side, they passed the Cape of
St. Anthony, where the early French settlers came to obtain their
mill-stones. In this vicinity, their provisions gave out and they
were compelled to wait tweiUy-two days for a fresh supply. They
were forced to go into the woods in the meantime to kill game,
gather buds, young leaves anrl si\]> on which to live.

"Three of our comrades went on the other side of the Missis-
sippi (the west side) with a canoe, where, having landed, they
fastened it to a tree, and, being separated in the hunt, they killed

THE SHrTLEMENTS MADE BY D'IBERyiLLE. 123

some bears, which we found excellent eating." They had sent
to the Illinois country for provisions by a priest whom they had
met in the vicinity of the Prudhomme Uluffs, or Memphis.
Finally, a large canoe loaded with "every kind of provision"
reached them, in charge of Father Limoges and four Frenchmen,
who continued on their way to Biloxi. Continuing their journey,
they passed the mouth of the Kaskaskia and about sixty miles
farther, at a village of the Illinois Indians, encountered several
Canadian traders, who v/ere engaged in purchasing furs and
skins. Besides there were four French missionaries and other
Frenchmen in the village. Mere four of the Frenchmen in the
Le Sueur i)arly left but their places were sujjplied with five others,
among whom was Chapougar, an excellent interpreter, "as he
spoke nearly all the Indian languages." Going on they reached
the mouth of the Missouri about six leagues above the village of
the Illinois, and a little farther up the mouth of the Illinois, where
they were joincil by three Canadian travelers, who bore a letter to
Le Sueur from Father iMarest. "Opposite its mouth (the Illi-
nois) commences a series of the most beautiful and most exten-
sive prairies in the world."

Ten leagues higher they reached Boeuf (Buffalo) river, which
they ascended half a league and encamped on its banks. Here
four of the men killed a buffalo about half a league distant and
returned for assistance to convey it to camp. "When it was
cooked we ate a good part of it, at the same time emptying sev-
eral bottles of brandy, which greatly invigorated us." They fm-
allv came to the IMoingona (I)es Moines), and a league higher
reached the rapids, where ihey were obliged to unload and i)ush
the boats along near the shore by hand. Thus they continued for
seven leagues! "On the left of these rapids (on the west side)
are open prairies, extending ten leagues from and along the banks
of the Mississippi. The grass upon these prairies is like clover,
upon which an infinite number of animals browse." A little
higher, on the right, they noticed the lead mines, called Nicholas
Perrot. They noticed the mouth of the Wisconsin as they passed.
Ten leagues above the Wisconsin they observed Prairie aux Ailes
(Winged Prairie) on the east side, and on the west side a beauti-
ful prairie called Paquitanet, but not so large as Winged Prairie.
They finally reached Lake Pepin, and on the right saw the fort
which had been built by Perrot. Upon rellection, they concluded
not to carry their boats around the Falls of St. Anthony ; instead,
thev went up .St. Peter river (Minnesota) until they reached

124

THE PROyiNCE AND THE STATES.

Green (Blue Earth) river, which they ascended. Here was the
copper country, it was reasoned, because tlie soil was tinged green
by the large quantity of that mineral prevailing. After traveling
up Blue Earth river about a league, M. Le Sueur determined to
build a fort. It was now the last of September, and ice often
formed during the nights. "The weather had become rough and
tempestuous."

It was necessary to build a fort and other house accommoda-
tion for the men; because it was impossible to survive the terri-
ble winters without such structures. The men were divided into
two parties, and half began to construct the fort and half to
hunt and kill buffaloes for the winter's supply. They succeeded
in killing four hundred of ihcsc animals, which they placed on
scaffolds in the fort, after having skinned them and cut them up.
Several cabins were built within the enclosure of tht- fort, for the
comfort of the men. The boais were securely taken care of.
Soon after the erection uf tlie fort had been comnienced, seven
French traders from Canada arrived, stating that they had been
robbed of all their merchandise and strij)ped of all their clothing
by the Sioux, and asked perinissi()n to remain with the Le Sueur
party during the winter, which was grantetl. The fort was named
L'Huillier in honor of the leading merchant who had sent out the
expedition. Here these men remained all winter — about thirty
of them — with nothing to live on during the cold dreary months
but buffalo meat and such green messes — buds, bark, etc. — as
they could gather from the svu'rounding woods. No telling how
bad the meat became before spring. No telling how earnestly
these men longetl for a change. There was no alternative — stale
buffalo beef or starve. When to this state of affairs is added the
other that they had no vegetables, were obliged 'to endure the
stinging cold and eat their rotten buffalo meat without salt, the
picture of discomfort and hardship is rendered complete.

On the 3d of April, 1701, the weather having become somewhat
settled, twelve of the men and four hunters set out for the reputed
copper mine situated about a league from the fort, and there in a
comparatively short space of time took out about 30,000 pounds
of ore, from which they selected about 4,000 pounds of the pur-
est, carried it to the fort, and later had it transported to France.
As nothing further was ever heard from this exportation, it is
to be presumed that the chemists pronounced it of no commercial
value. The men worked twenty-two days at the mines and then
returned to the fort, where the Sioux came to exchange their furs

THE SETTLEMENTS MADE BY D'lDERllLLE. 125

for the merchandise in the possession of the Frenclimcn. Le
Sueur secured more than four hundred beaver roljes, together
with many other rare skins. This vahiable purcliase compensated
to some extent for the disappointment over the copper ore. Tliis
had been a terrible winter. }.f. J'enicaut, one of tiie party,
declares that the snow lay on the ground to the depth of tliree
feet on the level, and that the smaller streams were frozen to the
bottom. In the early part of May, they loaded their ore and pel-
tries in their boats and made preparations to return down the
rivers. Before going", I.e Sueur held a council with the leading
Sioux chiefs — three brothers — and formed what he supposed and
hoped would be a permanent treaty of peace with their nations.
He then left M. D'Eracfue and a dozen men in charge of Fort
L'Huillier, made valuable i)rescnts to the three great chiefs, and
after promising to send up sup]>lies from the Illinois country for
the men who remained at the fort, set forth with about a dozen
men for the mouth of the Mississippi. Upon reaching the- Illi-
nois he secured a boat antl loaded it with j,ooo pounds of powder
and lead and sent it by three men back to Fort L'Huillier.

Le Sueur and his party succeeded in reaching I'ort Iberville,
afterward called Fort la Boutaye, near the mouth of the Mis-
sissippi commanded by D'Bienville. Here after a while came
the three men whom Le Suein^ had sent with the boat load of war
munitions to Fort L'Huillier, who declared that the boat had
broken in pieces and every thing been lost just opposite the mine
of Nicholas Perrot on the Mississi])})i. D'lJienville immediately
loadetl antUher boat with military stores and provisit)ns and tlis-
patched it up the rivers to the relief of h'ort L'Huillier. In the
meantime, M. D'lu'aque and his little force of twelve men at Fort
L'Huillier ran out of provisions and well nigh out of ammuni-
tion, and after waiting as long as possible, and having been
attacked by the fierce Sioux and had three of their number killed
in the woods, embarked all their merchandise in their boat, aban-
doned the fort and descended the rivers to the mouth of the Mis-
sissippi. On their way down they fell in with Juchereau D'St.
Denis, who was conducting from Canada a party of thirty-five
Frenchmen to the Illinois country for the purpose of establishing
a tannery, which they did at the mouth of the Ohio.

When D'Ibcrvillc, returne(l from France to the Mississippi in
January, 1700, he brought with him commissions for the officers
of the colony. D'Sauvolle was made governor, D'Hienxille lieuten-
ant and D'l'oisbriant major. Many b'rencliiiien were now con-
stantly going up and down the Mississippi river and ni> iloubt up

126 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

the various branches flowing imm the west. The country was
thoroughly explored by the merchants of Canada with the hope and
expectation of finding mines of some valuable mineral, and in the
event of failure, to secure all the beaver and other rare furs they
could find. The missionaries, too, thronged the Mississippi
country ; and at all the leatling Indian tribes there was soon found
one of their representatives. The Louisiana Purchase began to
be penetrated in earnest. Its rushing rivers, beautiful plains,
vast forests and snowy mountains with their ribs of gold, silver
and copper, could not long remain unenvied and undeveloped.
The establishment of Fort L'Huillier within its boundaries was
followed by a continuous stream of exploration and settlement.
In 1700 Father James Gravier and a party of Frenchmen
descended the Mississippi from the Illinois, reached Biloxi ; but
soon after returned to the Illinois where he resumed his mission-
ar}' labors.

While Pierre le Sueur was engaged in the difiicult and danger-
ous task of establishing a permanent fort in the Sioux country
for the purpose of controlling the Indians and opening copper
and other mines, the Frenchmen at Fort Iberville VN-ere not idle.
D'Bienville and D'St. Denis were dispatched up Ked river to
explore the country and open friendly communication with the
Indian tribes resitling there. These two able men, accompanied
by twenty Canadians and a body of Indians, all Avell provisioned
and armed, set off on the 22d of March, 1700. They passed up
Red river until they reached the Ouachita (Washita), then rowed
up the latter a considerable distance, and finally struck westward
across the country to the Red river, up which they journeyed
until they reached the country of the Natchitoches. While here
they made careful and prudent inquiries, unrler their instructions,
in regard to the settlements of the Spaniards to' the west, it hav-
ing been reported to the PVench commander at Biloxi that the
white people of Mexico were aiiuing to poach on the French pre-
serves in the Natchitoches region. They heard of the Spaniards
farther to the west, but learned that they had not yet reached the
Natchitoches country. While here, they were well entertained
by the Indians. They were finally conducted by "White Chief"
and ten of his Indians, up the river about one hundred leagues to
the country of the Cadodaquis, in what is now Indian Territory,
passing on the way the Yatasses, who were related to the Natchi-
toches and the Cadodacjuis. No Spaniards were found among
any of these tribes, after learning which important fact, and after
making every effort to secure the perpetual friendship of these

THE SETTLEMENTS MADE BY D' IBERVILLE. 127

Indians and after ascertaining that there were no important mines
in the country, the Frenchmen returned down the Red and Mis-
sissippi rivers to Fort Iberville.

In July, 1701, Governor D'Sauvolle having died, the command
of the colony was placed in the hands of D' Bienville, and about the
same time Fort Iberville was intrusted to the command of D'St.
Denis. At this time, it seems that the veteran Tonty was often
in Louisiana, although he no doubt still was governor of, and
retained an interest in, the Illinois colony. He assisted the gov-
ernor of the Louisiana colony in the expeditions to secure the
friendship of the various Indian tribes. Very few of the early
explorers possessed greater skill and sagacity in this respect than
Tonty, and he was regarded at all times as a valuable acquisition
to any party desiring to negotiate a treaty of peace with the sav-
ages.

In December, 1701, D'Iberville again returned to the colony
from France with a large supply of provisions, arms, merchauihse
and a number of colonists. So great had been the distress during
his absence that sickness had reduced the inhabitants to about one
hundred and fifty and the provisions had been reduced to a lim-
ited quantity of maize, as they continued to call it. At this tune
the principal colony was transferred from Biloxi to Mobile, where
a large fort had been built. Thus far Fort Iberville on the Mis-
sissippi and Fort L'Huillier on the Blue Earth river (in Min-
nesota) were the only establishments of the French on, or west
of, the ^lississippi. lUit the latter had been abandoned, so that
Fort Iberville was the only positive claim the Frencli had to the
great river. They did not possess a single settlement in what is
now the Louisiana Purchase. This vast and beautiful tract of
country was still anybody's property. But English traders were
along the Mississippi and Spanish colonies were moving eastward
from Mexico, though the French still held the lead by a consid-
erable distance in this race for a golden empire.

In June, 1702, D'Iberville again returned to France. A few
days after his departure, Tonty came down from the Illinois with
a body of Canadian merchants, and all were warmly welcomed by
D'Bienville. At this time, it was customary for the Frenchmen
to secure permission from the governor to reside among the
Indian tribes for the purpose of trade. The Indians desired their
arms, ammunition and merchandise in exchange for their furs ;
and in these exchanges were immense profits to the Frenchmen
daring enough to assume the risks. Soon French traders began
to go \\\) all the western rivers— the Arkansas, IMissouri, Red, Dcs

128 Tim PROlINCIi AND THE STATES.

Moines, jMinncsota and the smaller streams. About this time,
the Tensas Indians made war upon the IJayagoulas, defeated
them, burned their villai^es, and the few who escaped death came
to Fort Iberville, and besought protection from D"St. Denis.
They were given cabins near the fort. In October, 170J, the
fort was visited by Father Davion from the Yazoo country and
Father Limoges from the Natchez, who reported that the Coroas
had killed Father Foucault. In January, 1703, D\St. Denis, com-
manding at Fort Iberville, received intelligence that Father D'St.
Come and four other Frenchmen had been murdered by the
Chetimachas near the Ikiyagoulas villages ; whereupon he trans-
mitted the information to D'Hienville at Mobile, and suggested
that the death of these Frenchmen should be avenged. D'liien-
ville directed that he should come immediately to Mobile for the
purpose of holding a council of war. It was decided to attack
the Chetimachas in their vilkiges on the , Chetimachas river
(15ayou Lafourche), and acconlingly, ten Frenchmen and two
hundred warriors of the Hounias, Chicachas and liayagoulas
nations were assembled at I'\ort Iberville for that purpose. The
party j^assed u[) the Mis.'-issijjpi to the Chetiniachas river, thence
down that stream to the enemies' towns. They surprised the
Chetimachas, killed fifteen of them, and captured about forty
prisoners, men, women and chiUlren. One of the murderers of
D'St. Come was recognized, i^laced in irons and taken to Mobile,
where he was placed upon a wooden horse, his brams beaten out
with clubs, his scalp torn off and his body thrown in the river,
by the onlers of D'lJienville, to serve as an example of French
vengeance.

It is known that in 1703 about twenty Canadians attempted to
make their way from the Illinois to New Mexico by way of the
Missouri river, and that tliey built some sort of a structure, pos-
sil)ly a stockade, where Fort (Orleans was afterward located.
Their design was to open trade with the Spaniards of New Mex-
ico, to search the country for mines, and to win the friendship of
the tribes on th.e Missouri and its branches. Their advance west-
ward was no doul)t prevented bv the Indians.* In 1704 there
were more than one hundred Frenchmen scattered in small bands
along the Mississippi and the Missouri rivers. f The next year,
one Laurain, with a small party, passed up the Missouri, but how
far is uncertain. Three years latef, Nicholas D'La Salle in-oposed

♦ IlierviUc to IS Fcv, 170,1.

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THE SETTLEMENTS MADE BY D' IBERVILLE.

129

to go up the Missouri with one Inmdretl men ; lie proljaUy did so,
and it may have heen tlie work of tliis parly in tlie mines of the
Osas^e country, which was stiU sicn extensively hy explorers sent
out hy the United Slates after iNn^.''

It is fairly certain that at this time the French explorers
ascended the Missouri as far as the Platte river of Nehraska, hut
were there prevented from goiug any higher by the Panis or
Pawn.ees. Governor D'Bicnville jiarticularly desired to go far
enough up the Missouri and its hranches to reach those Indian
nations which had large numhers of Spanish horses and which
had an established trade v\ ith the Spaniartls of New Mexico. It
was thought by him that the Spaniards would be found among
the Pawnees, but when tliat trilje was reached about the year
1704, it was learned that they were still further to the west or
southwest. So much was heard from the Indians of the Spanish
mines of copper, silver and gold, that the French were eager to
reach the mining country. It was even reported that the Span-
iards used pack-mules to carry iA'i the ore. The few Sioux {hat
were seen spoke of a river llowing to the westward. It was the
mystery that the French were ever after — the unknown river,
mines, riches, so they pushed on until the dream was dissipated
in mist.

Soon after this event, D'Rienville sent messengers to the
Madeline river (Bayou Tcche) to ascertain what tribes resided
thereon ; and by this means learned that seven natirms occupied
the course of that stream, among whom were the Attakapas, or
man-eaters. In the siuunier of 170^ M. D'Chateauguay, the
brother of D'lberville and n'l'.ienville, arrived at Mobile with
seventeen Canadian colonists, a goodly supply of provisions and
an abundance of agricullural impletuents, etc. In Miy, 1704,
there arrived at Mobile from France the ship Pelican, mounting
fifty guns, and having on l)oard Father D'Lavente engaged in the
missionary service, four priests, two grey nuns, and twenty-three
poor, but wholly respectable, young women, all of whom or nearly
all of whom were afterward married to the single men of the col-
ony. They were under the care of Father Iluct, one of the
priests. This was the first shipment of unmarried women to
Louisiana, but was not the last. The Pelican also brought out
two companies of soldiers to reinforce the colonial ranks, which
had become sadly depleted by death and other causes. In Feb-
ruary, 1703, a boat came down the river with the news that
JuchiTau D'St. DiMiis, lieutenant general of Montreal, had

♦Hi:iiii.iiii , Jdui iral 1 1 i^;l()n■(lllf■.

I30 THE rROriNCE AND THE STATES.

reached the mouth of the Ouabache (Ohio) river with thirty-four
Canadians, and designed to form a settlement there for the pur-
pose of trading with the Indians for buffalo skins, robes, etc.
This settlement was actiiall)' made, as before stated, and seems
to have thrived. M. D'l^ambert commanded the settlement for
M. D'St. Denis. Late in January, 1705, he arrived at Mobile
with all his force, having been scared away by tlie hostility of
the neighboring savages among themselves, ^nd leaving beliind
13,000 buffalo skins belonging to his employer. The site of this
camp was probably where Cairo, 111., was afterward located;
but this is disputed and is uncertain.

In December, 1704, intelligence was received by D'Bienville
that an English armament was fitting out in the Carolinas for the
capture of Mobile and the reduction of the French fort on the
Mississippi. As France and Great Britain were now at war, and
as the report seemed true and the attack imminent, D'lUenville
instructed D'St. Denis to abandon F'ort Iberville, ami U) bring all
his munitions of war, all his merchandise and all his sokliers to
]\Iobile to assist there should an attack be made. This abandon-
ment left the settlers on the Mississippi in the vicinity of the fort
without protection from tlie Indians as well as from the English;
accordingly, tlie most of them also v.ent to iMobile for security,
thus leaving not a single settlement of the French on the mighty
Mississippi in what is now the I,ouisiana Purchase.

In January, 1705, the melancholy news was received in the
colony that D'Iberville had died of yellow fever at sea. It was
now realized that, owing to the European war, (he colony would
very prt)l)abiy be left pretty nnich to its own fate. Thus far the
cc^lonisls, strange as it may seem, had not becoiue self-sustaining
so far as provisions were concerned; they had continued to be
dependent on the supplies received from France and brought out
by D'Iberville. Now, it was realized, they must depend on them-
selves ; and the outlook was black, indeed, to these poor people,
who did not seem to liave sense enough to go to work. In their
distress they received much assistance from the Spaniards of
Florida, for Spain and France were at war with luigland. In
November, 1705, there arrived at Mobile two boats of courciirs de
hois from the Illinois country, among whom was M. Laurain who
claimed to have explored the Missouri river for a long distance,
lie gave an account of the Indian tribes inhabiting that river and
its branches.

In I'Vbruary, 1708, the news was received that M. D'Muys had
been appointed to succeed D'Bienville as governor of the colony.

Tim SETTLEMENTS MADE BY D' IBERVILLE.

131

and Diron D'Artaguette had been appointed intendant commis-
sary to succeed M. D'La Salle. But M'Muys died on the voyage,
and D'Bienville continued to serve as governor. The latter was
charged with divers acts of mismanagement and misconduct; and
it was concluded that contentions over him in the colony war-
ranted his removal. D'Artaguette was a man of great force of
character. He first made inquiries as to the needs of the colon-
ists and was told that they were satisfied with the country and" the
climate, but wanted horses to work the plantations, which had
recently been opened. Many concessions along the Mississippi,
on both sides of the river, had been granted to Frenchmen, and
the time was now opportune to improve them, so it was thought.
D'Artaguette, himself, had a large grant on the west side of the
Mississippi at Cannes Brusles (Burnt Canes). At this time,
early in 1708, the colony consisted of fourteen officers, seventy-
six soldiers, thirlcen sailors, three priests, six mechanics, one
Indian interpreter, twenty-four laborers, twenty-eight women,
twenty-six children and eighty Indian slaves. All the others had
been cut olT by death or had returned to France. About this time
D'Eraque and six men were sent to the Illinois country with
orders to the French there to prevent war being made by the
Indians of the upper Mississippi against those of the lower stream.
These men visited Kaskaskia and Cahokia, and journeyed a long
distance up the Missouri river, having in view particularly the
establishment of peace with all the tribes along that river and its
branches, especially the r)sagc river.

The death of D'Tbcrville w,as the occasion of an attack on the
character of D'Bienville. The onl)' physician in the ccjlony. Bar-
rot, attempted to weaken his inlluence. D'La Salle, whom the his-
torian Gayarre depicts as a public nuisance, did everything in his
power to crush D'Bienville. The latter felt that, owing to the
fact that he had so few soldiers, his prestige with the Indians had
almost entirely vanished. Two parties arose: One which sus-
tained D'Bienville, and one which bitterly opposed him. At a
l)eriod in which all should have been united, all were at sword's
points, writing violent and more or less false letters to the French
court, and doing everything in iheir power to crush the opposition
and rise to the control of affairs. D'l'ienville did not take the
])ro[)er j)recautions to protect bis name with the iM-ench minister,
and accordingly was dismissed by that individual iq)on the reit-
erated requests of his enemies and without having been heard in
his own defense. After the death of D'Muys, who was appointed

132 TUB PROllNCE AND 111 LI STATES.

to succeed him, the ministry seems to have gained more Hglit on the
subject, because D'Bienville was reappointed and D'l.aSalle was
recalled. A reaction followed and the administration of D'Bien-
ville was approved. Diron D'Artaguette, who had been appointed
to succeed D'La Salle, rci)orted that the accusations against the
governor were slanders of the most pronounced character. In
the meantime the colony languished, and it is not to be wondered
at. The population remainetl at a standstill, there being not over
two hundred and eighty persons of settled habits in the colony.
In addition, there were about sixty Canadian traders who con-
stantly shifted their locations. There were about 102 cattle,
1,400 hogs and 2,000 fowls in the colony. This was the state of
things in 1708.

Little continued to be done of a self-sustaining nature, and in
1709 the colonists were reduced to a sustenance of acorns.
D'ljienville requested that he might be permitted to exchange his
Indian slaves for negroes, olTering three Indians for two negroes;
but his request was not \\ ell received by the ministry. He further
requested that a few of the colonists who had managed to make
some money, and desired to return to France, should be prevented
from doing so. It was not long before the old recriminations
against D'Bienville broke out with greater violence than ever; but
he now was awake to the slanders and retaliated with as much vir-
ulence as his enemies. Provisions became so scarce in 1710 that
the men in the colony were distributed around among the Indians
in order that they might obtain ioo(\. In this miserable condition
the colony i)assed io Cro/at.

Prior to 171J military law ruled the Louisiana colony. The
military commandant was chief constabulary and chief executive.
His word was law, but he was accountable to his king, and was
sometimes sharply taken to task. Considering the weakness of
the colony and the comparative strength of the British settle-
ments on the Atlantic coast, the wonder grows why the latter did
not, during some of the wars between France and luigland, invade
and capture the feeble French establishments on the Mississippi.
Plad England taken such a course at an early date, she w^ould
have been saved the tremendous strain of the Seven Years' War.
In 1712 the total population of Canada was about 18,000, while
that of the Knglish colonics was fully 400,000. How easy it
would have been, with the aid of the Iroquois and the Chickasaws,
the latter called "the Iro(|uois of the South," to have crossed tiie
Alleghanies to the Monongahela, thence sailed down to the mouth

THE SETTLEMENTS MADE BY D'IBERVILLE. 133

of the Ohio, where they could have fortified a powerful post, and
prepared for operations both up and down the Mississippi. An
army of 5,000 whites and as many Indians could easily have per-
formed this exploit, and within one year have transformed Louis-
iana into an English dependency. This could have been done by
the British Atlantic colonies, without asking- the mother country
for a dollar or a man. Think of the enormous expenditures of
blood and treasure at a later date by the En.i.dish, and wonder why
a conquest that could have been so cheaply bought was not ordered
into execution during Queen Anne's War from 1702 to 171 3.
The only excuse offered7or not having done so is that the acquisi-
tion of Louisiana was not considered worth the i)rice of its pur-
chase. The genius of Pitt a little later retrieved this oversight.

134 THE PROriNCE AMD THE STATES.

CHAPTER IV

The Grant to Crozat

NF.VER under the sun was liiere a more promising or a more
beautiful land tlian that which was given to the merchant
Crozat. Never was there a man better fitted from per-
sonal experience to measure the new country at its true worth.
It had been a time for memory and for tears ; but now the won-
derful fertility of the soil, the balm of the cHmate, the kisses of
the fragrant winds, the cheerful music of the rivers, and the land-
scapes spread out in hazy encliantment, invited millions from
plebeian existence in Europe to the nobility of free and happy
homes in the New World. Would the promises of the exhaust-
less acres and the sweetness of domestic life meet a responsive
sound in the breast of the cavalier, who had sprung from an
ancestry of gold-worshippers and from a history of chivalric con-
quest? Did Crozat possess the superb penetration that bases the
wealth of a state upon the innumerable products of the soil?
Were the bloody lessons of Mexico and Peru destinetl still to
spread a gauzy cobweb of gold over the brain of European mer-
chants and statesmen? It was the duty of Crozat to go to his
colony, and give it the light of his personal supervision. It
remained for him to crown the acliievements of his life with an
immediate dissipation of tlie idle dreams about Louisiana. His
opportunity was to visit the colony, learn of its minerals, ascertain
the wealth of the soil, publish the truth to the world, and build up
an empire from the prodigal gifts of nature. His mission was to
eliminate from the bright prospect the restless cavalier, the
unprincipled adventurer, the disairected noble, and to herald on
every lunopean breeze the certainty of i)ermanent contentment
and abundant means in beautiful Louisiana. An excellent com-

THE GRANT TO CROZAT. 135

nicntary on the times is afforded l)y an observation of what lie did
in this splendid opportunity.

On the 17th of March, 171 3, the frigate Baron de la Fosse
arrived at Mobile with the news that a treaty of peace had
recently been concluded at Utrecht between France and England.
This intelligence was received with the roar of cannons. It was
also learned that the king had granted a monopoly of the colony
for a term of years to M. Crozat, who designed to improve the
conditions prevailing in Louisiana to the utmost, for his own
profit and for the happiness and prosperity of the people. Among
the passengers on the above vessels was Antoine de la Motte
Cadillac, who had been appointed governor-general of Louisiana,
and Iiis family consisting of Mde. de la Motte, their sons and
daughter and servants. On the same vessel came twenty-five
young women from Brittany, who had volunteered to cast their
lots in the new colony under M. Crozat, with the expectation of
securing husbands and obtaining respectable homes. Undei' this
new regime M. Duclos became intendant commissary ; M. Le Bas,
comptroller of finances ; AL De Richebourg, AL Dirigoin and La
Loire des Ursins, agents and directors of the proprietor, M. Crozat.
At the time the colony was thus turned bodily nolois volens over
to M. Crozat, it comprised about four hundred persons, and by
this time twenty negroes had been added to the inhabitants, all
the slaves of the whites. There were not to exceed three hun-
dred homed cattle in the colony. The ship that brought
over these people also brought an immense supply of arms, amnui-
nition and provisions, all of which was deposited in the magazines
and public stores for future distribution. The old colonists were
now jubilant, because it was thought their season of trials and
dangers was past. Ever) body assumed a more cheerful tone, and
all began to put their hearts in their work of building up homes
in Louisiana. Many grants were made along the Mississippi in
what is now Louisiana, on both sides of the river. The proprietor
ordered Frenchmen sent westward and eastward to the colonies
of the Spaniards in Mexico and Florida, for purposes of trade;
and others were ordered sent to the Illinois country to explore
for mines of any valuable mineral. MM. Jonquiere and Dirigoin,
the latter one of the directors of the proj^rietor, were sent to Vera
Cruz to exchange merchandise for the cattle and horses of the
Spaniards, and if possible to establish a free trade between Louis-
iana and Mexico. The laller request was refused, but the for-
mer was partially comiilied with, whereupon the I'Venchmen were
ordered to depart from the country. A}ceuls were sent up the

136 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

Mississippi with instructit)ns to visit all the Indian tribes and
exchange merchandise for their valuable furs. F.very means was
sought by the proprietor to make his patent profital)le. His
fortune, as well as his reputation, was at stake. Hut he did not
understand the country. He made the same mistake they all
made in supposing the land was tlowing with gold, silver and
jewels. He also presumed thai an immense fortune could be
made from the furs alone, and hv was riglit if he could have had
a cold country and the monopolx of that trade.

The Marquis du Chatcl, otherwise known as M'. Crozat, to
whom the king granted Louisiana, September 14, 1712, for the
term of fifteen years, was an able and prominent financier, who
had rendered himself conspicuous during the reign of Louis XIV.
The patent reads as follows :

"Lou'.s, by tlie grace of (lod. King of France and Navarre: To
all who shall see these present Letters, (jreeting. 'I'he care, we
have always had to procure the welfare and atlvantage of our
subjects have induced us, notwithstanding the almost continual
wars which we have been obliged to support from the beginning
of our reign, to seek for all possible opportunities of enlarging
and extending the trade of our American colonies, we did in the
year 1683 give our orders lo undertake a discovery of the coun-
tries and lands which are situated in the northern part of Amer-
ica, between New France and New INTcxico ; and the Sieur de la
Salle, to whom we committed that enterprise having had success
enough to confirm a belief that a communication might be settled
from New France to the Culf of Mexico by means of large
rivers ; this obliged us immediately after the peace of Ryswick to
give orders for the establishing a Colony there, and maintaining
a garrison which has kept and preserved the possession, we had
taken in the very year 1683 of die Lands, Coasts and Islands
which are situated in the Gulf of Mexico between Carolina on
the east and Old and New Mexico on the west. But a new war
having broke out in Europe shortly after, there was no possibility
till now of reaping from that new colony the advantages that
might have been expected from thence, because the private men
who are concerned in the sea trade, were all under engagements
with other colonies, which they have been obliged to follow ;
and whereas upon information we have received concerning the
disposition and situation of the said countries known at present
by tile name of the Province of Louisiana, we are of o|)inion that
there may be established therein a considerable commerce, so
much the more advantageous to our kingdom in that there has

THE GRANT TO CROZAT. 137

hitherto been a necessity of fetching from foreigners the great-
est part of the commodities which may be brought from thence,
and because in exchange thereof we need carry thither nothing
but commodities of the growth and manufacture of our own
kingdom: we have resolved to grant the commerce of the country
of Louisiana to the Sieur Anthony Crozal our Councillor, Secre-
tary of the Household, Crown and Revenue, to whom we entrust
the execution of this project. We are the more readily inclined
hereto, because his zeal and the singular knowledge he has
acquired in maritime commerce, encouraged us to hope for as
good success as he has hitherto had in the divers and sundry
enterprises he has gone upon, and which have procured to our
kingdom great quantities of gold and silver in such conjunctures
as have rendered them very acceptable to us.

"For these reasons being desirous to show our favor to him,
and to regulate the conditions ui)on which we mean to grant him
the said commerce, after having deliberated this affair irt our
Council, of our certain knowledge, full power and royal author-
ity, we by these presents signed by our hand, have appointed and
do appoint the said Sieur Crozat solely to carry on a trade in all
the lands possessed by us and bounded by New Mexico and by the
lands of the English of Carolina, all the establishments, ports,
havens, rivers, and principally the port and haven of the Isle of
Dauphine, heretofore called Massacre ; the river of St. Louis,
heretofore called Mississippi, from the aXgO: of the sea as far as
the Illinois; together with the river of St. Philip, heretofore
called the Missouri; autl of St. Jerome, heretofore called Oua-
bache, with all the countries, territories, lakes within land, and
the rivers which fall directly or indirectly into that part of the
river of St. Louis.

"I. Our pleasure is, that all the aforesaid Lands, Countries,
Streams, Rivers and Islands be and remain under the Government
of Louisiana, which shall be dependent upon the General Gov-
ernment of New France, to which it is subordinate ; and further,
that all the lands which we possess from the Illinois be united, so
far as occasion requires, to the General Government of New
France, and become part thereof, reserving however to ourselves
the liberty of enlarging, as we shall think fit, the extent of the
government of the Country of Louisiana.

"11. We grant to the said Sieur Crozat for fifteen successive
years, to be reckoned from the day of enrolling these presents, a
right and power to transport all sorts of goods and merchandise
from iM-aiicc into the said Country of Louisiana, and to traffic

138 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

thither as lie shall think fit. We forhid all and every person and
persons, company and companies, of what (piality and condition
soever, and nnder any pretence whatever, to trade thither, under
penalty of confiscation of floods, ships and otlier more severe pun-
ishments, as occasion sliall recpiire ; and for this purpose we order
our Governors and other officers commanding- our troops in the
said country forcibly to abet and assist the directors and agents
of the said Sieur Crozat."

He was permitted to open all sorts of mines in Louisiana, and
was required to turn over one-fifth of the gold, pearls and
precious stones discovered, and one-tenth of the product of other
mines, to the king. It was stipulated that his pru[)riotary in the
mines should be forfeited if they were left unworked for the
period of three years. lie was granted the exclusive right to
vend all sorts of merchandise, including powder and fire-arms to
the wliiles and the Indians; and was likewise grantctl the exclu-
sive right to buy of the nali\'es or otherwise furs, skins, leather,
wool, etc., but was forbidden to dial in castor (beaver). He was
given proi:)erty in all settlements for the culture of silk, indigo,
wool, leather, and the working of mines, veins, minerals, mills,
etc., and the ownership of lands on which the same should be sit-
uated. Three years of neglect worked a forfeiture. The "erlicts,
ordinances and customs and the usages of the mayoralty and,
shrievalty of Paris" were prescribed fur the laws and customs
"in the said country of Louisiana." Crozat was required to send
to Louisiana every year two ships laden with "twenty-five tuns
of victuals, elTects and necessary amunition for the maintenance
of the garrison and forts of the Louisiana:" and to carry out the
troops destined for the colony. "He shall be furthermore obliged
to send on board each shijj, whicli he shall cause to set out for
the said country, ten young men or women, at his own election."
The king bound himself to furnish Crozat ten thousand pounds
of gunpowder each year at actual cost. All wares and merchan-
dise sent out by Crozat to his colonies were exempted from duty;
and all exported by him, or re-exported from French ):)orts, were
likewise exempted. In case he desired goods, not to be obtained
in France, he could procure them by i)assing them through the
government custom-houses. The canoes, feluccas and other ves-
sels owned by the king, then in Louisiana, were ordered turned
over to Crozat, upon condition that he should replace them at
the end of his charter,

"XIV. If for the cultures and jflantations which the said Sieur
Crozat is minded to make, be linds it proper to have blacks in the

THE GRANT TO CROZAT.

139

said country of the Louisiana, he may send a ship every year to
trade for them directly upon tlie coast of Guinea, taking permis-
sion from the Guinea Company so to do; he may sell those blacks
to the inhabitants of the colony of Louisiana, and we forbid all
other companies and persons whatsoever, under any pretense
whatsoever, to introduce blacks, or traffic for them in the said
country, nor shall the said Sieur Crozat carry any blacks else-
where."

"XV. He shall not send any ships into the said country of
Louisiana but directly from France, and he shall cause the said
ships to return thither again; tlie whole under pain of confiscation
and forfeiture of the present privilege."

"XVL The said Sieur Crozat shall be obliged, after the expira-
tion of the first nine )ears of this grant, to pay the officers and
the garrison which shall be in said country during the six last
years of the continuance- of this ])rcscnt privilege: the said Sieur
Crozat may in that time pruj)ose and nominate the officers, as
vacancies shall fall, and such officers shall be confirmed by us if
we approve them."

The tenns of the charter to Crozat were as liberal as could be
desired. It remained now for that shrewd business man to work
success from the deploral)le conditions. In the colony were
about three hundred ])ersons, besides seventy-five Canadian
traders and one hundred soldiers. In addition there were prob-
ably twenty negroes and a number of Indian slaves. But Crozat
himself did not put in an appearance. He attempted by pn^xy to
succeed in a most difficnll undertaking, where tremendous energy,
large expenditures and supreme tact and experience were recjui-
site. Crozat so far misunderstood the conditions as to instruct
Cadillac to look for mines and seek the far-off and elusive trade
of Mexico. Ere long there were again two parties struggling for
the mastery and control, as if tiie mastery was really worth strug-
gling after, with Cadillac the leader of one side, and D'Bien-
ville the leader of the other. Unquestionably, the latter, though
only lieutenant governor, was endeavoring to dictate the policy,
of colonial administration. Cadillac was not the man to receive
unsolicited advice with perfect e(|uanimity, much less could he
endure dictation; war between the factions therefore resulted.
Cadillac refused even to be dictated to by the company. When
told to give every encouragement to agriculture, he appeared to
take great offense; and instead of tloing so continued his search
after precious stones. 1 le wrote to the ministry, "Give the colon-
ists as nuich land as they please. Why stint the measuie? The

I40

THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

lands are so bad that there is no necessity to care for the number
of acres. A copious distribution of them would be cheap lib-
erality." He was not the only man in the colony mentally blind.
Expeditions. after gold were sent in all directions, and the call of
the fertile soil was disregarded.

The effort to open and carry on commercial relations with the
Spanish colonies on the west was not easily given up by the pro-
prietor. He determined to send an expedition overland to Mex-
ico for the double purpose of instituting commercial relations and
of learning the intentions of the Spaniards as to the colonization
of the country which had already become called Texas. For the
leaders of this important expedition, he selected Jucliereau -D'St.
Denis, a brave and experienced officer, who accepted the responsi-
bility. He was given five strong canoes loaded v.'ith ten thou-
sand livres worth of merchandise, was furnished with the neces-
sary passports to the Si^anish governor of Mexico, and was
accom[)anied by twenty experienced men and a number of Natchi-
toches Indian guides. Thus equipped, the valiant D'St. Denis
proceeiled up the ]\Iississi|^pi. At or ntar the river Manshac,
they stopped long enough to kill on two successive days twenty-
three buffaloes and eight deer. They passed beyond the mouth
of the Red river, going uj) the ^Mississippi as far as the country
of the Tonicas to secure as large a stock of provisions as possible.
Here he secured the assistance of the chief of the Tonicas and
fifteen warriors upon the agreement to recompense tiiem for their
services. He then returned to the mouth of Red river, which he
ascended, passing the Ouachita (\\'ashita or l>lack) river at the
distance of eight leagues. Nine U-agues father they reached Salt
river, and six leagues higher reached the Tassengoula nation
(Nation of the Rocks). Nine leagues farther up they reached
the falls, around which they were obliged to carry their boats and
provisions. A league farther they were compelled to repeat tlie
trying experience. From this i)oint onward they encountered
great liardships until they finally reached the principal village of
the Natchitoches situated on an island in the middle of Ived river.
Here an important conference was held with the Indians, who
were told that the French desired they should begin to cultivate
the soil, antl for that purpose he had brought along corn, wlieat
and other seed for them, i'ickaxrs, hoes and axes were distril)-
uted among them. Here ihe D'St. Denis i)arty remained six
weeks, and in the meantinn' constructed two strong store-houses
in which to house their mercliamlisc and in which to h^dge. Hav-
ijig made French interests secure here, D'St. Denis again set forlli

THE GRANT TO CROZAT.

141

on the 23d of August, 17 13, to explore Spanish territory to tiie
westward, taking with him twelve Frenchmen, fifteen Tonioas
and about as many more of the Natchitoches as guides. Under
his instructions, he was recjuircd to penetrate tiic Spanish coun-
try as far as the Kio del Norte i J-iio Cirande) and to note all the
advanced settlements of the Spaniards in what is now Texas.
Ten men were left to care for the stores at Natchitoches, and were
strictly enjoined to keep constant watch over both the Indians
antl the Spanianls. It is claimed that they built lujrt Dout, west
of the Sabine in 1714, and thai the fort was occupied uninter-
ruptedly until the province clianged hands. The D'St. Denis
party went first by land to the country of the Cenis (or Assinais,
as the name is often written), reaching there after twenty-two
days' travel. They were now in the vicinity of the modern Waco,
Tex., or perhaps a little farther to the west and south. During
this march, the daily rations of each man were an ear of com
and a i>iece of buffalo meat. Here they found evidences that the
Spanish had fomierly been among these Indians. Continuing
again for a month and a half, they finally reached the Rio del
Norte and stopped at El Presidio del Norte, a Spanish village on
or near that river. D'St. Denis made known his mission to Cap-
tain Raymond of the Spanish army, but the latter could do noth-
ing until he had heard from his superior officer in Mexico. After
waiting fully six weeks, an officer and twenty-five cavalrymen
appeared, with instructions to escort IM. D'St. Denis to Gaspardo
Anaya, governor of Caouis, in Mexico. Leaving everything
behind, D'St. Denis accompanied the Spaniards. After a month
of waiting, those left behind received word from him to return
at once to Natchitoches, which they accordingly did. D'St. Denis
was taken to the city of Mexico, where he arrived on the 25th of
June, 1 7 14. Here he was detained on one pretext or another
until the year 171 5, when he returned without iiaving accom-
plished his mission. While on the Rio Grande waiting for the
reply of the Spanish governor, D'St. Denis was made welcome
at the pleasant home of Don Pedro de Villescas, who had two
very beautiful daughters, one of whom. Donna Maria, D'St. Denis
fell deeply in love with.

D'St. Denis returned via the Presidio del Norte, where he
remained a considerable length of time and married the bewitch-
ing Donna Maria. After a while, it became necessary for him
to return to Mobile, which he did, reporting to Governor Cadillac
in detail the results of his visit to the Spanish territory. As soon
as possible, he made prej)arations to undertake a similar journey

142 Tin: I' KOI' I sen AND Tllli STATUS.

to tlie same country on his own account. Accordingly, he formed
a husiness partnership with i\Ii\J. Le Roy, La Freniere, Gravehne,
Derbanne, Freres and IJcauhcu, all ow wliom were Canadians, and
together they purchased of AI. Crozat from the proprietary stores
at Mobile merchandise to the value of sixty thousand livres
($ii,ioo), and with a number of Indians for guides and several
Frenchmen for assistants set forth up Red river. Their design
was to traverse the same territory D'St. Denis had passed over
on the former trip, and finally to dispose of their merchandise in
New Leon, one of the provinces of Mexico. They left Mobile
on the loth of October. The venture did not prove successful,
owing to the hostile feeling existing between the French of Louis-
iana and the Spanish of Mexico. The romantic marriage of D'vSt.
Denis had interfered witli his business judgment. He was for
the second time imprisoned by the Spanish authorities, and his
merchandise was held ; but he succeeded in effecting his escape,
and returned to Louisiana in 1719. Soon after the abandpn-
ment of the post at Natchitoches by the twelve men left there by
D'St. Denis, Cadillac, realizing the importance of liolding that
position, sent there a sergeant and a few soldiers, with instruc-
tions to take possession of the buildings there and guard French
interests in that quarter. It was not only an important point
from which to trade with the Indian tribes, but was a notable
strategic center for the preservation of French colonial rights on
the Mexican border.

Early in the year 1716, a post was established among the Toni-
cas on the Mississippi, or near it, and abtnU two leagues above
the mouth of Red river, on the borders of a small l:d:e. It was
formed for the. i)iu-p()se of liolding the Indians in check and to
secure their provisions. It was learned by Governor D'Bienville
that, in 17 15, the Spanish of New Mexico had sent nine mission-
aries to the countries of the Adayes, Nacogdoches, Youays,
Assinays, Natchitoches and Nadacoes in the province of Las-
tikas, the Spaniards claiming that the borders of the province
were along Red river. When the missionaries were ordered out
of the territory of Red river by the French, they withdrew to
the west of the Sabine, though the Spanish officials in Mexico
did not admit the French contentions. The Spanish mission on
the Adayes was established on January 29, 1717, by Father
Augustin, Patron de Guzman of the Order of Franciscans, and
was named by him St. Michel-Archange de Lignares. The
Adayes river was the .same as the present Sabine, and tluis the

rilE GRANT TO CROZAT.

143

mission was an alleged invasion of French territory. A little
later it was broken up by the French.

About this time it was the common practice of the Spanish,
French and English traders to go among the nations friendly to
themselves and incite them to war against other nations for the
purpose of cai)turing prisoners to be sold as slaves. While negro
slaves had been introduced in Louisiana, they were not yet siiffi-
tiently numerous to meet the demands, and accordingly Indians
were substituted. Particularly, the luiglish incited the tribes of
the Carolinas to attack the ISlississiiipi nations, buying from them
at good prices all the prisoners they cai)turetl. The Fnglish of
the Carolinas even came to the Mississippi to purchase Indian
slaves, to be used on their ])lantations. Upon the return of the
D'St. Denis party, in 1714, tliey found on the Mississippi among
the Natchez three luiglishmeii from the Carolinas busily engaged
in buying all the Indian prisoners tiiey could secure. It was about
this time that Cadillac ortlercd the arrest of an English lord, who
apparently was thus engaged among tiie Natchez. Fearing inter-
ference from tlie French, tliese Englishmen usually concealed
their designs, declaring that thiey came to buy, or exchange mer-
chandise for, furs and peltries. The hjiglish lord made this
explanation, but was nevertheless arrested and taken to Mobile.
He was finally set at liberty, but a few days later was slain by the
Indians. The inuiiense number of negroes brought into the Caro-
linas soon ternu'nated the (raftic in Indians for the purposes of
shivery. It was found that the negroes made much belter slaves,
because they were more tradable and obsequious. It was claimed
that a mistake was made in the arrest of the Fnglish lord, that he
really had with him a considerable quantity of merchandise, and
(hat at the time of his arrest he was engaged in sketching and
objected strenuously to the proceedings.

Upon hearing that the French had captured the English lord,
the Choctaws immediately put to death all the English traders
among them, desiring thus to gain the good will of tliC French,
who were located nearer to them and whose friendship they more
earnestly desired. This act led to a general hostile movement
of the Mississippi tribes, doubtless at the instigation of the
French, against the English of the Carolinas, in which the Choc-
taws, Cherokees, Alibamos, Abeikas and other nations joined,
for a general attack on the English settlements. They burned
and pillaged many dwellings, captured a large number of men,
women, children and negroes, and brought them to their villages.
This was carrying matters farther than the French desired ;

144 '^'^^^ PROVINCE AND THE STATFS.

whereupon D'Bienville provided with the Indians for the redemp-
tion of all the Knglish prisoners. During the latter part of the
year 1714, Cadillac passed up the Mississippi and visiteil the
Illinois, and later sent tifty miners to that quarter to commence
mining- operations. Tlic present Missouri was embraced in the
Illinois, and no doubt these men began work in what is now the
southeastern portion of that state. Late in 1714, the twelve
Frenchmen who had been left at Natchitoches by D'St. Denis in
charge of the stores there, grew tired of waiting; and, running
short of supplies, returned dov\ n the rivers and the Gulf to Mobile,
thus comi)letely deserting that important post. It was specially
desired that this post should stand to prevent the Spanish of the
southwest from encroaching too near the mouth of the Missis-
sippi. But it was now abandoned and all the merchandise
removed to Mobile.

Late in December, 1714, several Canadians arrived from the
Illinois with s[)ecimcns of mineral ore from southeastern, Mis-
souri. Upt)n an analysis, under the direction of ]\L Cadillac, the
ore was found to be lead with traces of silver. This seemed so
encouraging that Cadillac hims-elf resolved to visit that section
for the purpose of ascertaining the extent of the deposit and
accordingly set out for that section of Louisiana in January, 171 5.
It was reported that the mines were located about fourteen leagues
to the westward of the Mississippi, and presumably to the west-
ward of Kaskaskia. While there, M. Cadillac found considerable
iron ore and a limited cpiantity of lead ore; but the silver, which
he had hoju'd to find in i)aying (|uantities, was not present. How-
ever, tills westward movement of exjiloration and mining led soon
to the opening of mines higher up the ^Missouri and the Osage
rivers.

During the absence of M. Cadillac to the lead mines of Mis-
souri, D'ljienville received orders from the proprietor of the
colony to proceed to Natchez and construct a fort at that point.
This was deemed necessary to ])revcnt the murder of French and
English traders in that vicinity, to hold the savages in check, and
to stimulate trade in furs, peltries and provisions. vSeveral Cana-
dians while descending ilic rivrr had recently been killed bv the
Natchez. At this time there was a French trading post ann^ng
the Tonicas on the west side of the Mississippi above the mouth
of Red river and one at the mouth of the Arkansas river. It was
about this time also that four Frtnchmen who were ascending- the
Mississippi to the Illinois werr treacherously murdered by the
Natchez at Petit Gulf. This act hurried the I'Vcnch in the allenipt

THE GRANT TO CROZAT. 145

to build a fort among- the Natchez. Tliey demanded the heads
of the murderers; also that the Natchez should furnish the lum-
ber for the fort to be built in their country, all of which was par-
tially granted. With many Frenchmen and a large number of
Indians, D'liienville rushed the fort to completion, and by the
5th of August, 1716, had it fully enclosed and covered. On the
25th it was dedicated by the French and six hundred Indians with
the famous dance of the calumet. Fxcejjt for short intervals,
Fort Jberville on the east side of the Mississippi below New
Orleans was occupied regularly by a detachment of French troops.
The fort among the Natcliez was named Rosalie, and D'Pailloux
was appointed by D'Bienville the first commandant. He was left
with a squad of soldiers in charge of the fort on the 28th of July,

1716. About this time M. de L'b^pinay was appointed governor of
the colony to succeed Cadillac, but in the absence of the former
D'Bienville continued to rule. De L'Epinay arrived in March,

1717. With him came MM. D'Artaguette, Gouris, Dubreuil,
I\lossy, Trefontaine, Guenot, Aruths de lionil and other wealthy
and prominent Frenchmen, who were, or had been, granted con-
cessions in the new colony. Various changes had been made in
the directory of the proprietary company as time passed. Numer-
ous vessels had arrived from France, loaded with provisions and
merchandise, and nearly all brought few or many new colonists.

At this time there was a continuous stream of boats ascending
and descending the Mississippi ; and every tributary to the west-
ward was thoroughly explored fi^r hundreds oi leagues and their
important features marked. Goxernor de F'l\pina)' brought with
him the Cross of St. Louis,. which the king of France sent out as
a special reward to D'Bienville for his long, faithful and distin-
guished services in the interest of French ascendency on the Mis-
sissippi. An honor of that character was never more worthily
bestowed. Despite the statements of enemies, despite the tongue
of slander, D'Bienville had ever been the stanch friend of Louis-
iana, had made immense sacriiices, and had largely shortened
his life by the hardships he had endured. While D'Tberville had
lived, he had ever been his faithful lieutenant and assistant; and
after his death had chuig to the colony through good and evil
report, determined that it should not be a1)andone(l ; and in the
darkest hours of starvation, sickness and (les])air he had fought
against the relinquishment of any advantage that had tlius bi-(n
gained al such cost for (Ii<- |dorv of Imwuci'. 'riioiigh (tften .s\ib-
ordinadd thrt)Ugh the jialousies autl iiUrigues (^f rivals, he had
1-10

146 THE PROVINCE 'AND THE STATES.

never for a moment faltered in liis devotion to the colony and to
the crown of France. It is safe to say that had it not been for his
unbending resolution, the colony would have been abandoned
soon after the death of D'lberville. He therefore richly deserved
the brilliant Cross of St. Louis.

Repeated attempts were matle to reach Mexico by way of the
Missouri and its branches. Miners and explorers were sent up
that river, but did not succeed in reaching- the Spanish. While
D'St. Denis and La llarpe were cxjjloriniL;- Red river, the French
were not idle on the Arkansas and the Missouri. It is reasonal)ly
certain that there were fur traders on the Missouri as early as
1703. It was learned that both the Pawnees and the Comanches
were in direct coinniuiiicaiion wiih the S]ianish. Later, Dntisnct,
with a small party of Frenchmen and Indians, reached the Pawnee
country at what is now b'ort Riley, Kansas, in 1719, and there
planted the French standard. Attempts were made to lind
La 1 Ionian's famous Lon^; river, which was reported to extend
westward from the Mississippi in the vicinity of Lake Pepin until
it readied the great divide between the Mississippi and the Pacific
basins. An Indian trail led westward from the extremity of
Lake Superior past the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky moun-
tains. This route was recommended as early as 1717 by Vau-
dreuil and approved by the Rej;ent of France. The following
year a party was sent out and two forts were built, one on the
Lake of the Woods and the other on Lake Winnipef;-, which was
at this time thought to be the source of the Mississippi. This
movement accomplihiud wliat il was desiiMied to do— keep the
l'!nglish from descending iiUo the sources of the Mississi])pi.
Indeed this was one of the principal o])jects of French colonial
policy at this time, and was the cause of many expeditions to the
upper branches of the Mississippi and led directly to the re-build-
ing of Fort Chartres across the Mississi])pi below St. Louis.

The very men who disregarded the monopoly granted to Cro-
zat and penetrated the country of the Mississippi and its branches
were the ones who erected the barrier that jirevented the Fnglish
from getting a foothold in the Mississippi valley. In other words,
it was largely individual enterprise that gave to iMance that
important basin. Under Crozal Louisiana was attached to
Canada, but under the Western Com])any Illinois v.as attached
to Louisiana. The treaty of lUrecht (hM niu'-h t.) check the
western advancement of the b'nglish, but it must be said that as
a whole Louis XfV did lillle for the pros])erily of his American
colonies. Le Crande Roi was t(H) busy with liis European con-

THE GRANT TO CROZAT. i^y

quests and domination. His unconcern in America led to Eng-
lish aggressions in the Ohio valley and in a large measure to the
Seven Years War of 1755-62. Governor Spotswood of Virginia
early perceived the intentions of the I'Vench— to join Canada and
Louisiana in the rear of the English settlements and thus he ahle
to fall upon them at any moment. It was through his efforts
that many of the English traders sought the Mississippi. As
early as 171 5, Young, an English fur trader, reached the Missis-
sippi, and may have gone up the Missouri. His principal object
was to sound the Indian tribes on the question of a treaty with the
English. But he was too late. The rapid settlement of Louisi-
ana under the charter to the Western Company completely
blocked the plans of the English colonial authorities. As early
as 1716 the government of South Carolina said, "It is obvious
how formidable the French will grow tiiere during peace, con-
sidering how industrious they are in frequently supplying their
settlements with people." If this was true in 1716, how much
more was it true in 1720 before Law's bubble had burst. The
English soon noticed the large number of colonists that were
leaving France for "Luciana in Mississippi, which by the small
number of inhabitants in Carolina, the French had the opportunity
to begin, and by the j)resent hostilities with the Indians are
encouraged to increa.se." It was about the year 1717 that the
Carolina colonists petitioned the Lords of Trade to settle the dis-
puted boundaries in America with France by making the "Mes-
chacebe by them styled Messesipy" the line of demarkation
between the t\\(i Crowns.

Iiefore the surrender of the charter of M. Crozat, the plan of
establishing on the right bank of the Mississippi a city that should
become the metropolis of Louisiana was projected, but had not
been carried into execution, owing to the lack of the necessary
colonial strength. The poor colonists had had all they could do
to keep body and soul together, without thinking of immense
commercial emporiums on the banks of the mighty river. But
the expediency of such a project had long before occurred to
them. No sooner had the charter of M. Crozat been surrendered
and the Western Company takm the reins of government, than
steps were taken to remove the seat of the colony frcHU the
unhealthy site at Mobile and I'.iloxi to the banks of the Missis-
sippi. The new proprietors wisely and promptly appointed
D'r.icnville governor of the colony, and made preparations
on a colossal scale to expand the commercial interests of the
inhabitants with the view, of course, of their own aggrandize-

148 THE PROI'IXCE AND THE STATES.

ment. By this time the English had been effectually checked
from advancing westward of the Carolinas, so that nothing was
to be feared from that source. l>ut it was different on the west.
By reason of the construction of Fort St. Louis on the Bay of
St. Bernard by La Salle in 1685, the French claimed as far to the
westward as that river and its branches. This claim was denied
by the Spaniards, who insisted that the relinquishment of that
colony, if no other cause existed, had extinguished the rights of
France in that quarter. Undoubtedly, this contention of Spain
was based upon sound reasoning and justice. This was seen to
be so by France, and therefore she never pressed the claim to a
finality on these grounds during tlie long period of negotiation
and colonization prior to the cession of Louisiana to the United
States. The unsoundness of the French claims to the country
westward as far as the Bay of St. Bernard had more to do with
the attitude of the United States toward Spain after 1803 than
any other consideration. The United States, it was reasoned, suc-
ceeded to the claims of France; and if the rights of the latter to
that western territory were so fallacious as not to be prudently
enforced for nearly a century, the rights of the United States were
no better. Therefore, no unbending claim to that territory was
set up by the United States. Ihit morals and princii)les were
loose and unestablished in those early days. France then regarded
her claim to the country as far west as the Bay of St. Bernard
as eminently just; and the Louisiana colony iiad not the strength
and vitality to take pi>ssessiou of the disputed territory by found-
ing colonies tlu'ii-iu. It \\;is at lirst ver\' unciTtaiu whether tlie
parent cokmy at Biloxi and Mobile would not have to be aban-
doned. Had the Louisiana colony possessed the necessary
strength at this early period, there is no doubt that settlements
would have been formed by them in the strip which a little later
caused so much contention. As it was, Spain, having greatly
the advantage by reason of the proximity of Mexico, proceeded
to form missions, posts and settlements in the country as far east
as the Sabine — perhaps farther, as she claimetl. But the French
determined to assert their rights to the Red river country.
Accordingly, D'l'ienville himself sent up to Natchitoches in 1717
and had constructed a square, palisaded fort, which ever after-
ward was occupied by a small French garrison.

There is no doubt that if M. Crozat had confined his operations
wholly to agriculture and the Tndi;m trade, he would have made
money under his charter. lUu neither he nor his agents could
dispossess themselves of the glittering fantasy that the interior

THE GRANT TO CROZAT. 149

of the country contained large (juantities of the precious metals.
As a matter of fact, nearly all his largest and bulkiest expendi-
tures were made to equi]) the expeditions sent to all quarters of
his grant in search of gold, silver or other valuable minerals.
His agents were more to blame than he, because they were on
the ground and he was not, and they were in a position to deter-
mine the false from the true. He was governed by the reports
of his agents, and met their suggestions with enormous expendi-
tures. He sent at great cost elaborate expeditions to the upper
Red river, the Washita, the Yazoo, the Coosa, the Cumberland,
the Missouri, the Illinois and to interior points away from any
considerable stream. All were after valuable minerals and all
found nothing. His agents enlarged small findings into vast
discoveries, and every ship returning to France was burdened
with their golden tales. The only valuable minerals found were
the lead and iron of Missouri and Illinois. Thit the venturesome
Crozat realized nothing from ihem. He lost heavily, but the
colony as a whole was benefited by his ex])lorations. The Illinois
country, during his short proprietorship, became famous for the
valuable minerals which it did not possess, and received large
accession to its white inhabitants. Finding no gold or silver,
they went to work in most cases. The others established trading
posts among the natives and exchanged merchandise, shop-worn
and undesirable, for the splendid furs of the northern country.
The money of Crozat advertised the colony and filled the land
with desirable inhabitants.

One of his jiet schemes, as before stated, was to establish an
overland commerce with the Spaniards of Mexico; but his over-
tures were repulsed. The English and th.e coureurs dii bois cut
his prices and carried on a large and lucrative contraband traffic
with the Indians of the Mississippi country. Tlie Canadians
invaded his grant on the north, the Spaniards on the southwest
and the English and irregular traders everywhere. In the mean-
time, he was misinformed by his agents, ignorantly of course, but
none the less damaging and ruinous ; and he pursued their dreams,
with his wealth and his patriotism. Under the shining stories,
of golden hills were concealed the real sources of revenue — agri-
culture and the fur trade. In four years he spent in round num-
bei-s aliout 425,000 Hvres, and received in return less than
300.000 livres. Finding himself unable to withstand this strain
and seeing no chance for improvement, he wisely surrendered his
charter and pocketed his losses. It is estimated that at the close
of his proprietorship the whole of Louisiana contained about

I50 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

700 persons, the most of whom were located east of the Missis-
sippi.

The principal markets were St. Domingo and Pcnsacola. \'eg-
ctables, com and poultry were sent to Pensacola. Sugar, tobacco,
cacao and French goods came from St. Domingo. Few engaged
in the cultivation of the soil. They traded, hunted, endeavored
to defraud the Indians, and dealt in planks, bear, deer and cat
skins, and many went to the St. hVancis river every winter after
bear's grease, buffalo tongues and robes. Not a little profit was
made by these illicit traders in dealing in both negro and Indian
slaves. The fort at Nalchitoclies, which had been rebuilt by
Sieur Dutisnet about 1714 under the orders of Cadillac, was
occupied in January, 1717, by a sergeant and six soldiers. From
this important point, a large trade with all the Indians of that
region, far out into what is now Texas and up into Indian Terri-
tory, was carried on by the intrepid -I'Dycv^curs or courcurs. It
was learned that tobacco, rice, cotton, indigo, silk, etc., couFd be
raised, but where were the settlers and the workers? Even the
trading vessels from the Indies ceased coming when his charter
went into efifect. All this evasion was the reaction from the
monopoly. When the settlers were told that they must not go to
Pensacola to trade — must do all such through the agents of the
company — they found nuans to evade the restriction, by reach-
ing the English of Carolina and the French of Canada. Many
became smugglers; the present site of New Orleans was largely
cleared in 17 18 by salt smugglers. It was impossible for Crozat
to vSucoeed inuler the existing conditions.

M. Crozat had just cause of complaint against the government
of France. He had a right to demand that his chartered privi-
leges should be protected ; but the weakness of France in dealing
with the Indians, particularly with those of the lower Missis-
sippi, drew upon the colonists the contempt of the savages; the
English were permitted to trade westward to the Mississippi ; the
illicit trade which was not crushed by France reduced the com-
merce of Crozat to almost nothing; and the government, by not
registering his patent in Louisiana and by otherwise neglecting
his chartered privileges, occasioned the open, continued and fatal
invasion of his trade and the disfavor of all parties in the colony.
Particularly, was the Crozat charter disregarded by the French
traders who dealt with the Spanish of Mexico. However, had
Crozat himself been present in Louisiana, he could have corrected
many of the alnises which crept in througli the indifTercnce of
the French government. On the other hand, the monopoly of

THE GRANT TO CROZAT. 151

Crozat was so exclusive, that had it been carried into effect liter-
ally, every colonist would have iicen made a slave of the company.
They nuist pay what he asked for his goods, and could receive
only what he chose to give for their products. 'I'he only relief
from this serfdom was the institution of a clandestine trade. The
success of the Crozat grant depended upon two principal things;
1st, settlers in considerable numbers must be sent to Louisiana;
and 2(1, they must consume the goods of the company and dis-
pose of their products lilcewise ; neither of which essential con-
ditions of success was rLuli/.ed.

Under the severe exactions of the company the colonists at last
petitioned that all nations should be permitted U) trade with the
colony; that they should have the right to leave the province at
their option ; that the monopoly should be restricted to whole-
saling; and that the ])rolits of the company should not exceed
fifty per cent above the cost. Cadillac wrote to the ministry,
"Their petition contains several otlicr demands et|ually :\J)surd.
In order to cut all these intrigues in the bud, I declared that if
(his petition was ever presented to me, I would hang the bearer.
A certain fellow by the name of Miragoin had taken charge of
this precious i)iece of composition, and had assumed the responsi-
bility of its presentation ; but on his being informed of my inten-
tions, he tore it to pieces." Soon after this the first Natchez war
was carried to a successful conclusion by D'Bienville, who had
at his command only a handful of men and had in addition to con-
tend with the enmity of Cadillac, who ordered him on the peril-
ous expetlition. In June, \y\i\ Cadillac wrote, "Deoiiledly, this
colony is a monster williout head or tail and its government is a
shapeless absurdity. + + 1- 11^^ jj- ,iq{; jjeen asserted that
there are mines in Arkansas and elsewhere? It is a deliberate
error. Has not a certain set of novel-writers published that this
country is a paradise, when its beauty or utility is a mere phauv
tasm of the brain ?. I protest that, having visited and examined
the whole of it with care, I never saw anything so worthless.
* * * What can I do with a force of forty soldiers, out of
whom five or six are disabled ? A pretty army that is, and well
calculated to make me respected by the inhabitants or by the
Indians. * h: * Verily, I do not believe that there is in the
whole universe such another government."

Tin-re api)eared so much independence and lawlessness in the
colony that Cachllac came to imagine that some gigantic con-
spiracy or sedition was brewing. He therefore issued a procla-
mation jirohibiting all the lower classes from wearing a sword

152

THE PROVIXCE AND THE STATES.

under a severe penaUy and fine and requiring- the nobility, those
who had the right to wear a sword, to produce their titles and
have tiiem reg-islercd. His enemies, and there were man)/,
embraced this opportunity of making- spurt of his proclamation.
Seemingly, every fellow jjreparcd a mock certificati.- of nobility,
and all were referred for examination to Cadillac. His enemies
went still further and either organized, or pretended to organize,
a society of nobility and chivalry, and amid great ceremony,
elected him its principal ofiicer, with the ludicrous title of "Knight
of the Golden Calf," with a humorous reference to his trip to the
Illinois in search of that metal. A humorous song was com-
posed also whicli compared him with the Knight of the Doleful
Countenance.* In other ways he was ridiculed and derided.
About this time he was recalled.

Governor L'Epinay and D' Bienville could not agree. The
former did not know the w ants of the colony ; the latter did. Soon
the colony was divided into two factions, and the war of recrim-
ination was resumed. The search for precious metals had failed;
so had the attempt to open trade with Mexico; the Indians' fur
trade was not large, because the climate wa's too warm for that
industry. There was no cohesion in the colony. Trade restric-
tions could not be enforced upon men who could not be found.
Had Crozat been present it might have been different, but he at
last perceived impending failure and acc(jrdingly asked to be
relieved of his charter.

♦History of Louisiana by Cliarks (layaire, Vol. I.

THE WESTERN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS. 153

CHAPTER V

The Western Company and its Successors

I^IIE treatment of the colonics in America by every European
govennnent possessini^- such, was characterized by grcxss
injustice and the most insupportable oppression. Colonies
were usually founded to keep rival nations from occupying the
soil and to afford revenues to enhance the splendors of the Euro-
pean courts. Incidentally, they were used as dumping grounds
for outcasts, convicts, imbeciles and other undesirable inhabitants.
No European nation considered for a moment the proposition of
buying- the soil of the Indians for any sum approximating in
value its actual worth. A few trinkets were deemed amply suffi-
cient, and if not accejited were pr(jminly succeeded and seconded
by (he nuiskel and the sworil. In the case of the Wosteni Com-
l)any, indiviiluals who luul been caught in the net of the stock-
holders with false tales of gold, ground down in turn upon the
colonists to squeeze out flitting and evanescent dividends. The
Western Company was an oligarcliy, pure and simple, or perhaps
pure and compound, because their offenses, perhaps felonies, were
compounded. The colonists were worse than serfs, because the
latter are supjjorted by their lords and masters. 1'he former
were ex|)ecled to make their own living, and besides return liberal
dividends to the company. The colonial system of every Euro-
pean government was wrong, because based upon injustice,
tyranny and unbearable exactions. It led in the end to the rebel-
lion and independence of the Spanish and the English American
colonies ; and would have met the same fate in Louisiana had
Napoleon not ceded that province to the United States in 1803."
Following is tlie cudgel held over the colonists by the Western
Company:

154 THE PROFINCB AND THE STATES.

"Louis, by the Gkace of (Ion, of Fraxcf and NavarrI' King,
TO all to Whom Thf.sk Ol'u 1'ri:.si:nt Lktti:i'.s Shaf.l (o.mf.,
Gri:1':ting:

"From the time of our accession to the crown, we have been
successfully engaged in establishing good order in our finances,
and in reforming the abuses which long-protractetl wars had
caused in them; nor liave we paid less attention to the re.-,tora-
tion of the trade of our subjects whicli contributes to their pros-
perity as much as the good administration of our finances. Bui
having taken cognizance of the state of our colonies situated in
the northern parts of America, we have remained satisfied that
they were so much the more in need of our protection.
M. Anthony Crozat, to whom the late King, our most honored
lord and great grandfather, had, by letters patent of the month
of September, 1712, granted the privilege of exclusive trade in
our government of Louisiana, having humbly prayed tJiat we
might allow him to resign it, Ahich we dk\ allow him by the order
of our council of the 2^d of the present month of August, and
the contract made with Messrs. Atibert, Neret and Gayot, on the
loth of May, 1706, for the trade of beaver in Canada, expired at
the end of the present year : We have thought fit, for the good
of our service and the advantage of lioth colonies, to establish a
company capable of upholding their trade and of undertaking the
different species of hui-l)andry and plantations that may be estab-
h'shed there: Wherefore, and for olher reasons us thereto
inducing, l)y and with liie advice of our dearly beloved uncle, the
Duke (if Orleans kegent, J'rlit ills dc I'rdiicc, of our dearly
beloved cousin, the Duke of Roiirbon. of our dearly beloved
cousin, the Prince of Conty. i)rinces of our blood, of our dearly
beloved uncle the Duke of Maine, of our dearly-beloved uncle the
Count of Toulouse, legitimated princes, and other peers of France,
prandees and notable persons of our kingdom and by our certain
knowdedge and royal authority we have said, determined and
ordained, do say, determine an<l ordain, it is our will and pleasure:

"I. That there be formed, bv virtue of these present letters,
a trading comi^any by the style of the jrcsfcrn Conif^aiiv, in which
it shall be allowed to all our subjects, of what ever rank and (|ual-
ity they may be, as well as to all other companies formed or to be
formed, and to all bodies and rorporations, to lake an interest for
such Mini or sums as they may think fit, and (hey shall not. on
accoiiiil of tlu' said (■iigageinenls. be considei (mI ;is having
degraded their title, quality or nobility; our intention being that

THE WEST URN COMTANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS.

15s

they may enjoy the benefit expressed in our proclamations of the
montlis of May and xA-ugust, 1664, August, 1669, and December,
1 70 1, which shall be executed according to their form and tenor.

"II. We grant to the said company, for the space of twenty-
five years, beginning from the day of the registration of these
present letters, the exclusive right of trading in our province and
government of Louisiana, and also the privilege of receiving, to
the exclusion of all other persons, in our colony of Canada, from
the first of January, 1718, until and including the last day of
December, 1742, all the beaver, fat and tlr)-, which the inhabitants
of the said colony shall have traded for, whilst we shall regulate,
according to the accounts which shall be sent over to us from the
said country, the quantities of the different sorts of beaver, that
the company shall be bound to receive each year from the said
inhabitants of Canada, and the prices they shall be bound to pay
for them.

"ill. We forbid all our otlier subjects any sort of trade,
within the limits of the government of Louisiana, as long as the
charter of tiie Western Company shall last, upon pain of forfeit-
ure of goods and vessels ; not intending, however, by the said
prohibition, to put any restraint upon their trading within the
said colony, either among themselves or with the savages.

"V. With a view to give the said Western Company the means
of forming a firm establishment, and enable her to execute all
the speculations she may undertake, we b.ave given, granted
and concedetl, do give, grant and concede to her, by these present
letters and forever, all the lands, coasts, j)orts, havens and islands,
which compose our province of l,ouisiana, in the same way and
extent as we have granted them to M. Crozat, by our letters i)at-
ent of 14th September, 171 2, to enjoy the same in full property,
seigniory and jurisdiction, keeping to ourselves no other rights or
duties than the fealty and liege homage the said company shall
be bound to pay us and to the kings our successors at every new
reign, with a golden crovvn of the weight of thirty marks.

"VI. The said company shall be free, in the said granted
lands, to negotiate and make alliance in our name, with all the
nations of the land, except those which are dependent on the
otlier powers of Europe ; she may agree with them on such con-
ditions as she may think fit, to settle among them, and trade
freely with them, and in case they insult her, she may declare
war against them, attack them or defend lierself by means of
arms, and negotiate with them for peace or a truce."

156 Tllli PROl'INCI: AND THIS STAllsS.

Tlie company was granted all mines opened by it ; was given
the right to sell or give away land, or even to grant it in free-hold,
but could not dispossess priur holders ; was empowered to con-
struct such forts, castles and strongholds, as deemed necessary,
and garrison them with soldiers raised in France, under the
king's commission ; and was authorized to appoint any uflicers
wanted, and could remove them at pleasure and install others.

"XI. We allow all our military officers who are at present in
our government of Louisiana and who may wish to remain there,
as also those who may \s ish to go there and serve as cai)tains and
subalterns, to serve under the company's commissions, without
losing on that account the rank or degree they actually enjoy,
either in our fleet or in our army, and it is our will that in conse-
quence of the permission thereto that we shall deliver to them,
they may be considered and accounted as still in our service, and
we shall take into considerations their service under the said com-
pany as if it had been rendered to ourselves.

"XII. The said company siiall likewise be free to fit out and
arm for war as many ships as she may think fit, for the increase
and security of her trade, and to place in them as many guns as
she pleases, and to hoist the flag on the hindcastle and the bow-
sprit, but on no other mast : she shall also be at liberty to cast
cannons and mark them with our arms, under which she shall put
those we shall grant her hereafter."

Being constituted "I^ord of the Manor," the company was
empowered to appoint or dismiss any and all subordinate officers,
civil and criminal — justices, judges, police magistrates, judges of
admiralty, sovereign councillors, all to be commissioned by the
king] and to act in conformity to the laws of France, "and more
particularly according to the common law of the provosty and
viscounty of Paris, which shall be followed in all the contracts
the inhabitants shall pass, and no other law shall be allowed to
be introduced to avoid variety."'

"XVIT. We shall grant no letter or respite, supersedeas or
certiorari, to any person who shall buy goods of the company,
and they shall be compelled to ])ay their debt by the means and
in the way they have engaged to do it.

"XVIII. We promise to protect and defend the said company,
and to employ the force of our arms, if it be necessary, in order
to maintain her in the full freedom of her trade and navigation;
as likewise to see that juslice be done to her for all ihe injury or
ill treatment she may surfer from any nation whatever."

The company was prohibited from trading- in any but French

THE WESTERN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS.

157

vessels with French crews, in French ports, and from trading
directly with Guinea, upon pain of forfeiture of their vessels ; but
the company's vessels might take as prizes any French vessels
trading- in the company lantls contrary to the tenor of the patent.

"XXIIl. It is our pleasure that such of our subjects as shall
go over to the lands granted to the said company, enjoy the same
liberties and immunities as if they had remained living in our
kingdom, and that those who shall be born there of French inhab-
itants of the said lands and even of foreigm Europeans, profess-
ing the Roman Catholic Iveligion, who may come to settle there,
be considered and rei)uted as inhabitants of, our kingdom, and as
such capable of inheriting and receiving gifts, legacies and other
advantages without being bound to take letters of free deniza-
tion."

"XXIV. And in order to favor such of our subjects as shall
settle within the said lands, we have declared and declare them,
as long as the charter of the company lasts, free of all duties, sub-
sidies and taxes whatever, as well on their persons and those of
their slaves as on their merchandise."

It was provided that the goods and merchandise shipped by the
company for the lands granted it, and those needed by it for build-
ing, outfitting and victualling its vessels, should be free of duty;
and the company was declared free of toll, crossing, passage or
other taxes levied for the king's profit on the river Seine and
Loire, on certain supplies. It was further provided that should
the com[)any find it necessary to have certain goods from foreign
countries, it could do so by passing them first through the French
customdiouses, etc. It was stipulated that the gtRxls imported by
the company for its account, from the lands granted to it in the
ports of France, should i)ay during the first ten years of the
charter's life, one-half the duty usually required.

"XXIX. If the company construct vessels in the lands granted
to her, we consent to pay to her, as a bounty, out of our royal
treasury, the first time the said vessels enter into the ports of our
kingdom, the sum of six livres jier tun, for all vessels not below
two hundred tuns burthen, and of nine livres also per tun, for
those not below two hundred and fifty tuns, which shall be paid
on delivery of certificates of the directors of the company in the
said lands, showing that the said vessels have been built there."

Leave was given the cc^mpaay to grant si)ecial licenses to
French vessels to trade with the colony upon conditions deemed
jusl. but ihey were not to be discriminated against.

"XXXI. We shall deliver to the said company out of our

1^8 'i'ili'- 1' KOI- INCH AND TUB STATES.

magazines every year during the time of her charter, forty thou-
sand pounds of gunpowder, for which we shall charge her na
more than the prime cost."

"XXXII. Our intciuion heing that the greatest numher pos-
sihlc of our subjects participate in the trade of this company and
in the advantages we grant her, and that all sorts of persons may
take an interest according to their fortunes; it is our pleasure
that the stock of this company be divided in shares of five hun-
dred livres each, the value of which shall be paid in exchcnpier
bills, and the interest be due from the lirst of January of the
present year; and when the directors of the said coin])any shall
have declare.! that a suliicient number of shares have been deliv-
ered, we shall close the books of the company."

"XXXIII. The certificates of the said shares shall be made
payable to the bearer, signed by the treasurer of the company,
and approved by one of the directors. Two sorts of certificates
shall be delivered, viz. : Certificates of single shares and certifi-
cates of ten shares."

"XXXV. All foreigners may take as many shares as they
may think fit, though they should not reside in our kingdom; and
we have declared, and do declare, that the shares belonging to the
said foreigners shall not be subject to the right of anba'inc/'' nor
to any confiscation for cause of war or otherwise, it being our
pleasure that they enjoy the said shares as fully as our subjects.

"XXXVI. And whereas the profits and losses in trading com-
panies are uncertain and the shares of the said company can be
considered in no oilier light than as merchandise, we permit all
cm- sul)jecls and all foreigners, in company or for their private
account, to buy, sell and trade in them as they shall think fit.

"XXXVII. Every shareholder, bearer of fifty shares, shall
have a vote in the court of proprietors, and if he is bearer of one
hundred shares he shall have two votes and so forth, augmenting
the number of votes by one for every fifty shares.

"XXXVIII. The exchequer bills received in payment for the
shares shall be converted in a stock bearing four per cent interest,
the said interest to begin from the first of January of the present
year; and as security for the payment of the said interest, we have
pledged and assij^iied, do pledge and assign our revenues of the
comptrol of notaries' deeds, ai llic small .seal and of lay registra-
tion, in consecjuence whereof the commissioners of our council,

* 'I'lic ii):lil (' riiuily imssissi'd l)y tlu' kiiiK of Krntu'f IcaU the personal property
of wliicli an ;iUt 11 (lied ])Ossesstd. Aliolislnd in IKiy.

THE WESTERN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS.

159

that we shall name to that end, shall make in our name and in
favor of the said company bonds for a perpetual and inheritable
annuity of forty thousand livres, each bond representing the
interest of a capital of one million at four per cent, against the
finance receipts that shall be delivered by the treasurer of our
royal treasury, in office this present year, who shall receive from
the said company one million of exchequer bills at each payment
until the moneys deposited for shares in the said com[)any shall
be exhausted."

It was stipulated that the interest of the annuities should be
promptly paid, but the company was prohibited fiom making use
of the interest of future years in advance. Dividends were to be
declared annually, and were to be paid in the order of the num-
bers of the shares, the company not being at liberty to make any
change in the order.

"XLIV". Neither the shares of the company, nor her eflfects,
nor the salaries of the directc^rs, officers or agents of the said com-
})any, shall be subject to distress by any person or under any pre-
tence whatever, not even for our own moneys and affairs,
excepting only that the creditors of the shareholders shall be at
liberty to attach in the hands of the treasurer and bool'ckeeper of
the said company the moneys due to the saicl shareholders, accord-
ing to the accounts closed by the company, to which the said
creditors shall be bound to subiiiit without obliging tl)e said
directors to show tliem the state of the comj^any's effects or render
them an acc(nmt, neither shall the said creditors establish any
commissaries or seiiueslrees oi the said ellects, ami all acts con-
trary to the present eilict shall be vt)id."

'"L. We bestow in gift to the said company the forts, ware-
houses, houses, cannons, arms, gunpowder, brigantines, boats,
canoes and all other effects and utensils we possess at present in
Louisiana, all of which shall be delivered over to her on our
orders, which shall be dispatched by our navy council."

"LI. We bestow likewise in gift to the said company, the ves-
sels, goods and effects which M. Crozat delivered over to us, as
explained in the decree of our council on the 23d day oi the pres-
ent month, of whatever nature they may be, and whatever may be
their amount, provided that in the course of her charter she carry
over to the lands granted to her, no less than six thousand white
persons and three thousand negroes."

It was a<;'reed that if, after the lapse of the charter's life, tlie
king did not see fit to prolong the life of the company, the entire
grant should pass to it absolutely, with liberty to dispose of the

l6o THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

same as it sa\v fit. The compiuiy was required to instruct the
Indians and the people in the estabhshed religion. It was also
permitted "to take for its coat of arms an escutcheon vert, waved
at the base argent, lying thereon a river god proper, leaning on a
cornucopia ; or, in chief azure service of lleur de lys, or bearing
upon a closet, or supporters two savages ; crest a trefoiled crown ;
and we grant it the said arms that it may make use of them on its
seals, and place them on its buiUlings, vessels, guns and wherever
it may think fit." -

"LVI. Whereas it is not our intention that the special pro- | ]
teclion we grant to the said comi)any be in any respect prejudicial
to our otlier colonies whom we wish also to favor, w'e forbid tlie ■, ,i
said company to take or receive under any pretence whatever, any
inhabitant established in our colonics, and transfer them to ;(" i
Louisiana, unless they have obtained the necessary permission
in writing of the governors general of our said colonies, authenti-
cated by the Intendants or chiefs of the commissariat." (Signed
August, 1 71 7.)

As under Crozat so under the Western Company, exaggera-
tions and misrepresentations were resorted to by the proprietors
to influence the people of France to immigrate to Louisiana.
The stories of gold were adopted to induce colonization and to
fortify the paper-money scheme of Mr. Law. Louisiana was
used as a cat's-paw to snatch the chestnuts out of the fire of finan-
cial disaster and disgrace that might result to the monetary sys-
tem of France. Law was not at heart a knave, as has been
alleged; but was himself ileceived by false principles of money
and credit. Th.e mines of Mississippi were declared by the French
ministry to be sunicient to su>tain the paper money emitted
by the bank established by Law. If any deception was prac-
ticed upon the people of France, it was by the Regent and not by
Law. They deceived the ])ublic only by deceiving themselves.
When the collapse came, tlie name of Mississippi became mal-
odorous, not through any fault of its own, but by association with
banlcruptcy and distress. The faith of T<aw in his system is
shown by the fact that he kept up an enormous expenditure to
sustain his Arkansas colon\ to the very last and was beggared by
the collapse. The distresses and calamities in Louisiana were
largely concealed from the ])eople of FVance; correspondence was
secret; but the true state ol affairs was known to clear-headed
French statesmen.

Under both Crozat and the Western Company many of the
worst classes in France were sent to the colony. "The people

THE WESTERN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS. i6l

who are sent there are miserable wretches driven from France
for real or supposed crimes or bad conduct, or persons who have
enlisted in the troops or enrolled themselves as emigrants in order
to avoid the pursuit of their creditors. Botii classes regard the
country as a place of exile. Everything there disheartens them;
nothing interests them in the progress of a colony of which they
are only members in spite of tliemselves. You are not ignorant
of the reasons which lexl to its being reported that Louisiana pos-
sessed in its bosom great treasures, and that its occupation
brought us into the neighborhood of the famous mines of St.
Barbe and of others still rich.er, from which we llattered our-
selves with the prospect of easily driving away the present pos-
sessors."* Du Pratz declares that all the letters sent to France
were intercepted, meaning that they were opened and examined
and those of an injurious nature withheld or destroyed. The
proprietors did not dare let the whole truth become known in
France.

When the Company of the Indies took the reins in 1723, there
was no reform nor no relief from the distresses in the colony.
The monopoly became more grinding and burdensome than ever.
The tariffs and exactions drove many out of the colony. The
company plunged into debt and ere long mortgaged its capital.
Bankruptcies and law-suits resulted. In order "to attach the
governor and the intendant to the interests of tiie Company there
was assigned to them an annual gratuity and an allowance on the
exports of the staple commodities of I'^rance.'" L'nder this
extreme order of affairs, the governor and the intendant in 1726
were the creditors of Louisiana to the amount of $587,190. The
colonists did not dispute this debt, but there was no way to com-
pel them to pay it. They refused the police protection of the
troops sent out, and engaged in the fur trade. Soon they were
involved in intemiittent and diminutive wars with the natives,
whom, of course, they cheated and otherwise wronged. The
massacre at Natchez was one of the direct results of the lack of
control over the colony by the company.

The formation of the Western Company was the signal for an
important change in colonial proceedings. The new company
determined to make agriculture an important feature in the col-
ony. It was determined to form a permanent settlement on the
]\Iississipi)i, as near its mouth as the banks would allow and be

* I.cUiT i)t CliarUvuix to tlif DiU'lu's-i dc Ics DiLMiicrcs, wliicli \\';is kept secret
for attoiit IweiUv-five j'ears, in order tliat its iiiifavorahle review of Louisiana
niitjlit nut ))e known to the people of France.

I— II

l62 THE PROl'INCR AND THE STATES.

above overflow. The mistake of the past in rctaininj^ the seat of
government at Mobile was admitlud. It had already been learned
that rice, indigo and tobacco could be grown in the fertile soil
along the Mississippi. In the auiumn of 1717, D'Bienville again
prospected the various sites along tliat river and final 1}' selected the
present position of New Orleans as the most eligible. One of
the earliest acts of the new administration was to send laborers
and mechanics to lay the foundations of the new town. There
were trees to be cut down, ditches to be filled, drains to be dug,
brush to be removed, plans to be drawn, and considerations of
great moment to be considered concerning the periodical over-
flow and the facility of communication by ships with the Gulf.
No doubt, the proximity of Lake I'ontclK'rtriiin, as well as that
of the Mississippi, influenced the selection of the present site of
New Orleans. From the very start, embankments were thrown
up around the town to protect it from tiie overflows of the Missis-
sippi. D'Hienville supplied the name New Orleans. .

The great influence of the new company was felt in the arrival
of a large number of colonists and in the stimulus given to agri-
culture, as well as to the Indian trade. In IMarch, 1718, over five
hundred persons arrived and established themselves on their con-
cessions. The first important grant was that to Paris du Vernay,
who brought over with him his brother, two sisters and twenty-
five other persons. He was gi\en a large tract twenty-eight \
leagues above New Orleans at the old Indian village of the Bay-
agoulas and opposite Manshac. I'rejiarations were made to culti-
vate the soil, rear silk worms and manufacture silk, plant and
raise rice, indigo and tobacco. 'I'he seconil concessioji was made
to M. de Muyes at the oKl 'IVnsas village. That gentleman sciit
out his two nephews, MM. DTvoire des Ursins, and two associates,
Chastan and Roue, in charge of about eighty persons, all pro-
vided with the necessary tools and implements for the cultivation
of the soil. Two merchants of the city of I.yons, Brossart
brothers, were given a l.'u-ge grant on Red river in the vicinity ui
Natchitoches. They, likewise, sent over laborers and mechanics.
To Benard de la riar[)e, of the h'rench town of St. Malo, was
granted a large concession one hundred leagues above Natchi-
toches among the Cadodaquois on Red river. This was in what
is now northeast Texas. He sent over twenty-five persons to form
this settlement, so far on the outsldrts of the colony. In fact, the
country of the Cadodaquois was claimed by the Spaniards for
many years after this event. A i;rant among the Tunicas was
given to M. St. Reine, and one al I'oinle Coupee to M. Dilleusi-.

THE WESTERN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS. 163

Diron D'Artaguette received the grant at Baton Roug-e; and
Marquis D'Artagnac that at Uurnt Canes. Concessions were
also made at the old Natchez and the old Chonpitoulas villages
on the east side of the Mississippi. Ere lung M. D'lioisbriant
was made a knight of the Ortler of ,St. Louis and appointed gov-
ernor of the Illinois, which district then embraced all west of the
Mississippi and above the yXrkansas. A company of troops
destined for the Illinois was placed under the command of Major
Failloux and Captain Diron, brother of M. D'Artaguette.

In October, 1718, M. D'Buisbriant set out for his destination
in the Illinois; and at the same time M. de la llarpe, accompanied
by about fifty men, started up Red river for his concession among-
the Cadodaquis. At this time M. Bonded was ordered to Natchi-
toches to relieve M. Dutismt, the latter being, sent to the Illi-
nois with Governor D'lioisbriant. Lieutenant de L'lioidaye, with
thirty men, was sent by Onvernor D'Bienville, to build a fort,
among the Vazoos on or near the river of the same name. lie
erected the fort on the Yazoo, four leagues from the Mississippi.
M. Dubuisson, who v/as in charge of the concession of Du Ver-
nay at the Bayagoulas, complained that there was no safety there
so long as the French continued at war with the Chetimachas.
Accordingly, a treaty of peace was concluded with the chiefs of
that tribe, greatly to their satisfaction, as well as to that of the
inhabitants at Bayagoulas. They agreed upon their removal to
the banks of the ]\lississippi about a leagrie above the Vernay con-
cession. ]\rany more colonists came over from France in the
spring of 17 19. On three vessels came one hundred and thirty.
M. D'Montplaisir arrived with thiny persons prepared to estab-
lish a tobacco factory; and an Irish gentleman brought over sixty
men to form a settlement on his concession on the Ouachita
(Washita) river, eight leagues from its moutli. M. D'Serigny,
commander of one of the vessels, brought to the colony several
hundred workmen and soldiers and about two hundred and fifty
negroes, the first large importation of Africans to the colony-
After this date, however, they continued to arrive rapidly, because
the company was bound by its charter to introduce a considerable
number each year.

On the 6th of June, 17 19, two ships arrived from the coast of
Guinea with five hundred negroes, all of whom were sold to the
concessionaries. On the 1st of September, four ships arrived,
having on board eight hundred and tliirty men, all destined to
remain in the colony. In the war which broke out between
France and Spain and extended to the Louisiana colony, the con-

164 THE ['ROl'INCE AND THE STATES.

cessionaries were called upon for assistance and responded as
became faithful subjects of the French crown. No attempt was
made by the Spanish vessels to ascend the Mississippi fur the jnir-
pose of attackinj;^ the settlements alons^ its banks. The large
number of soldiers sent over served to protect the Mississippi set-
tlements, but the outlyins;- districts suffered. Late in Septcml)er
there arrived from France two hundred and fifty miners and sev-
eral companies of soldiers, and with them came immense quanti-
ties of ammunition, merchandise and stores for the colony. The
miners were destined for the Illinois, and boats were at once
constructed for their transportation up the Mississippi. Thus,
the Western Company had fallen into the dangerous habit of look-
ing after minerals instead of crops of corn, tobacco and rice.
In October the news was received that the two comjianies — F.ast-
ern and Western — had been uniteil by an edict of May 12, 1719.
At the saiue time the ship brought several scores of Cermans who
had been secured from one of the German princes to be used in
colonizing Louisiana. They wrre the first installment of twelve
thousand, which had bi en thus "purchased." At this time,
M. Pailloux was appointed major-general ; Diron D'Artaguette
inspector-general; and D'Chalcaugue lieutenant of the king.
D'Artaguette was ordered to remove from Dauphine Island to the
Mississippi, because the lands lliere were too sterile to be culti-
vated.

In August, 1718, there arrived in the colony sixty persons
designed for the concession of .\|. De la Harpe in the country of
the t"ad()dai|uis on Red ri\er. \\ hen the I'lastern and \W\vti'rn
Comi)anies were uniUnl by the edict of May 12, 1719, the colon-
ists learned that they could procure the merchandise of the new
company by paying at New Orleans five per cent above cost, at
Natchitoches twenty-five per cent above cost, and in Missouri
and Illinois fifty per cent abov-/ cost. All articles that were not
specified in the official schedule were procural)le upon the pay-
ment of fifty per cent, above cost. In September, 1720, two hun-
dred and fifty colonists arrived under the direction of MM. EHas
and Le Bouteaux for the concession of M. Law on the Arkansas.
They were nearly all Germans, and were a most desirable class of
immigrants, because they were agriculturists. Many more of
the same class for the Law concession arrived in the spring of
172T.

In February, 1720, over five hundred colonists arrived from
France, and were distributed among the concessionaries. Every
effort was made to make them contented with their lot, in order

■ THE WESTERN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS. 165

that favorable intelligence might be sent back to France of life
in the colony. M. Hubert, director-general of the province,
removed all his possessions from New Orleans to Natchez.
With him were sixty laborers aiid domestics. He sent a large
batteaux loaded with merchandise and ammunition up the river
to Governor D'Boisbriant in the Illinois. M. De la Harpe, whose
concession was in the country of the Cadodaquis, used every argu-
ment for the Western Compan)' to colonize the country still
farther to the westward than his concession. He -showed that it
would be immensely to the advantage of the comi)any to open
commercial relations as soon as ])ossible with the Spaniards on
the southwest. He had himself visited many of the Indian tribes
of that region and still farther west, and felt that a large trade
could be built up with those nations.

In January, 1721, aljout three hundred persons arrived for the
concessions of I.e Rlanc and Count Belleville on the Yazoo, and
for others. A little later, sixty colonists arrived for the conces-
sion of Marquis D'Ancenis on the Iloumas (Washita). About
this time Governor Bienville sent an armed vessel to the river
Madeline (liayou Tcche), with a considerable body of soldiers
and workmen and an abundant su[)ply of provisions and merchan-
dise, prepared to build a fort and make a settlement on that river.
This was the stream from which the Chetimachas had previously
committed so many attacks on the Bayagoulas along the Missis-
sippi. M. Dc la Har])e, who commanded this exi)edition, met
with opposition from the start. A large body of natives met him
and slated that llioy desin.il no change and ditl not \\ish to form
an alliance with the iM'encIi. TIk y were made many presents and
treated royally, and in the tnd the French were permitted to build
the fort and open a trading post. In February, 172 1, three lum-
dred and forty-seven Swiss troops arrived and were distributed
to the different posts throughout Louisiana. The same vessel
brought a letter to D'Bienville, dated October 31st, 1720, and
informing him that "it was with great regret they had heard of a
disagreement between him and the director-general of the com-
pany, and that the king believed him to be at fault. It was, how-
ever, contemplatetl to ai)])oint another director, which act they
hoped would prevent any future disagreement in regard to the
govenuuent of the ])rf>vince." At Ibis time, al.'^o, the colonists
of Louisiana heard of the failure and llighl of Jcjhn f.aw, comj)-
troller-grneral of llnance of iMance. This failure, so important
in the history of J'rance and of all l\ur<)i)e, produced no serious
edect in Louisiana. There was some shifliuf^ on the conces-

l66 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

sions, but otherwise there was no serious result. Of course,
Law's settlement on the Arkansas, was forced to the wall, and
compelled to remove to other porlitnis of the colony. But the loss
of one locality was the gain of another.

The famous black code of Louisiana was drafted by D'Rienville
under the orders of the Western Company in 1724 and was kept
in force with few alterations unlil 1803. I'he company had found
it absolutely indispensable to intnuluce Africans to work the fields
of the south, and it was necessary that they should be thoroughly
controlled. Under this code Jews were expelled from the colony,
and all other religion than the Catholic was prohibited. In
November, 1721, D'Bienville was informed by M. Renard, of
Natchitoches, that Marquis Agu^yo, governor of the province of
Lastikas, had arrived at the Adayes with thirty thousand dollars
in gold, four hundred horsemen, and all the necessary materials to
build a strong fort at that point. This visit was actually made,
but the fort was not built, owing to tiie opi)osition of the French.
In the autumn of 1721, INT. D'Bonrgmont commanded the district
of Missouri, and M. D'Laboulay of the Arkansas. The latter by
permission of Governor D'Bienville, removed with his troops to
Wiiite river in order to be handier to the concession of M. Law
and to be in a position to receive assistance to better advantage.
Canadians from the Illinois, with pirogues loaded with i:)rovisions,
continued to be murdered by the savages along the Mississippi
probably at the instigation of the Knglish. They were rich prizes
for the starving Indians, who camiot be blamed, in view of the
treatment Ihey had ri'celved from the Spanish anil the French.
So great l)ecame the dan<;(.-r to these pirogues that the custom
was adopted for many to come at the same time in what were
called "convoys," where all the men were armed and often num-
bered several dozen. Constant watch was kept day and night,
and any inquisitive Indians were summarily dealt with. In
November, 1721, a hospital was ordered built in New Orleans by
the commissioners. It was twenty-one feet wide by seventy feet
long, and was constructed of cypress boards. In 1722, a negro
who had killed a Frenchman was burned alive in New Orleans.

From the first to the fourth of September, 1722, four shi])S
which arrived at New Orleans (Hscbarged provisions and mer-
chandise to the value of nine hundred thousand livres ($166,500).
There arrived before this date from France, as before stated,
M. D'Hourgmont, a kiiigiil of the Order of vS(. Louis, sent out
for the purpose of visiliiii', Ibe Cdunlry of the i'adoiicas (Coni-
auches), tlien the allies of v'^pain, and located on the headwaters

THE IVESTIikN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS. 167

of the Kansas and tlie Platte rivers, to induce them to form a
treaty with France. Thus far tliose Indians had been an
effectual bar to the advancement of the French traders l^eyond
: their country. Several expeditions had gone to their villages,

but were unable to advance beyond, owing- to the influences of
I the Spaniards on New Mexico, who su])[)lied them with horses,

4 merchandise, arms and ammunition. So many were returning

4. to France from the colony at this time that the commissioners

) ordered that no further desertions from Louisiana would be per-

f mitted wdthout their consent. In September, 1722, a violent hur-

j ricane blew down many of the houses in New Orleans, and

I seriously damaged all the rice, corn and beans of the lower val-

' ley. About this time, also, the commissioners were mformed by

A several of the directors of the concessions that they had success-

i fully cultivated indigo tluring the past season, and requested that

•) a vessel might be dispalchud to St. Domingo for a further sup[)ly

I of seed. The recpiest was grantetl. M. I)'Artaguett<i made

I three or more voyages up the Mississippi from 1718 to 1722, dur-

ing which time he noted accurately the many phases and courses
I of the current for the benefit of all navigators.

Late in 1722 a request was received from the Spaniards of
^^ Vera Cruz to permit several of their vessels to visit New Orleans

for the purpose of procuring a supply of flour; but after delibera-
i tion the council refused permission, it not being deemed prudent

to permit them to come up the Mississippi, which was not forti-
fied and could not rcjjcl an attack should one be made. The
Spanianls were told that they could obtain the flour at Moliile,
whither it was sent. It will be observed from this circumstance
\ that New Orleans had already become known as a produce mar-

'^ ket to the cities of the Gulf. As a matter of fact, large quantities

comparatively of flour and pork had already begun to descend
the river, mainly from the Illinois country, but considerable from
the Alissouri, Arkansas and Red rivers. Late in 1722, D'Bien-
ville received word that five hundred persons under the command
^^ of the vSjjanish Mar(|uis D'Guallo, had entered the province of

I Lastikas to the westward of Natchitoches. It was learned later

I that the number of persons was much exaggerated, but that many

' had actually arrived there for settlement.

1 Among the most serious obstacles to retard the progress of the

I colony were the hostility of the Indians, the shipment to the col-

n ony of convicts and abandoned women, the lack of women of

' good character, the dissipation and (Kbauchery of the .soldiers,

\ the prohibition of any croj) in the colony which could be raised

l68 THE riiOVlNCE AND THE STATES.

in France, the oppressive nature of the company's monopoly, the
jealousy and ill-will between the colonial otBcers, the refusal of
the colonists to till the soil, and the lack of enough soldiers to
protect the remote inhabitants, scattered as they were from the
Illinois to Biloxi. From the 25th of October, 1717, to the 22nd
of May, 1 72 1, seven thousand and twenty persons were trans-
ported by the company to the colony in forty-three vessels. At
the latter date there were remaining in the colony five thousand '^' •*

four hundred and twenty jiersons, all the others having either j; •

died, deserted, or returned to France or gone elsewhere. ^: j

In 1/20 Louisiana Pro\'ince was divided into nine civil and f ]

military posts or districts: Biloxi,- Mobile, Alibamos, Yazos, Vj

Natchitoches, New Orleans, Ark:;nsas and Illinois. Over each i\

was placed a military commantler and judge, and each was pro- ?

tected by a fort. All were constituted three ecclesiastical dis- |

tricts — the first under the Capuchins extending from th.e mouth of '■

the JMississippi to the Illinois river; the second under the OSv- ^,

melites extending from the Mobile to the .Mibamos, and the third ;^

under the Jesuits extendin.;- over the Ohio, Illinois and other
tributary streams of the Mississippi. The prosperity in Louis-
iana under the Law system was unnatural and could not last.
A check was therefore cast upon colonization and impro\'ement
on the various concessions, which t)Ccasioned a re-orgauization to
meet the new conditions of trade and prosperity. The extensive
grant to Law himself on llie Arkansas river near its mouth, was
deserted by his German colon isls as soon as the news of his col-
lapse reacheil l.iHiisiana. However, they had come to stay if they
could be made ci)mfortable ; and accordingly they were given a
large and valuable tract on lutih sides of the Mississipjti at what
has since been known as the "German Coast," a short distance
above New Orleans. It cannot be said that the desertion of some
of the outlying settlements was due lo the failure of the Law sys-
tem. Of course the collapse of the Lau^ scheme removed one of
the princii)al sui)ports of the W'estvrn Company; and this lack of
su()port to the latter prevented them from properly sustaining tlie
colonists as they had faithfully promised to do. Ihtt it is true that
comparatively few ])eople rettn-ned to France as a result of the
failure of the Mississippi scheme. If some of the outlying set-
tlements were abandoned, tlu' people joined other cc^binies and
remaineil a source of strength to Louisiana as a whole.

In 171M. there again caiin' down lo Ww ( )ih'aiis from
Canada i\l. I'lilisnel ( soiiKtiiiK's wiitt'-n 1 )uli' tiiir and hiilisne),
lo t'uter the service of M. Cro/at. lie e\hibitrd sainplcs of sil-

THE WESTERN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS. 169

ver, which he claimed had been found in the Illinois country.
He was given every assistance in the power of Governor DTiien-
ville, and later with a force of men and a liberal supply of provi-
sions, passed up the Mississippi, thence up the Alissouri, or at
least in its valley, to the country of the Osages, thence about a
hundred miles up to the Panis or Pawnees, and thence more than
a hundred miles farther to the prairie country of the Padoucas,
or what is now the Kansas river region of Kansas. In all these
regions M. Dutisnct explored and examined the mineral sec-
tions, but found nothing more valuable than lead and rock salt.
He took possession of all the territory visited in the name of the
king of France. In the Padouca country he planted a large col-
umn and carved thereon the flciir dc Us of his country. This
important expedition was made partly by water and partly by
land. It was noted that the waters of the Missouri were very
nuuldy, were lilled willi lloaling timl)rr and that the current was
strong and uncertain. Much of the country visited was luoun-
tainous, particularly in the country of the Osages, where many
lead mines were found. It was observed that the nations far to
the northwest were not stationary, but spent the winters in hunt-
ing and following the buffalo herds. They were a vigorous
peoi)le, and the men ^vere great warriors and nearly always on
the war path.

Late in November, 1721, the colonial commissioners ordered an
expedition sent up the Arkansas river to learn if that stream was
navigable as far as the villages of the Indians who had visited
I)e la Ilarpe in 1719 at Fort St. Louis de Carlorette, probably
about as far up as the mouth of the Canadian branch. IM. de la
Plarpe was placed in command of this expedition, the following
being his orders and instructions: "We, John IJaptist D'Picn-
ville, Chevalier of the order of St. Louis and commanding gen-
eral of the Province of Louisiana, give orders to M. De la Ilarpe,
commandant of the Bay of St Bernard, to set out with a detach-
ment of sixteen soldiers to the Arkansas and there remain a suf-
ficient time to collect i)rovisions ; and further to take with hmi
]\L D'Franchome to act as second in command. That the said
De la Ilarpe will ascend the headwaters of the Arkansas, to exam-
ine the quality of the land and ascertain what Indian tribes live
there, with whom he can make treaties of alliance, as well as to
do all other things he may judge necessary to be done, keep an
exact journal of his route, mark- the courses of the streams, their
currents, and their islands, and ascertain what mines are in the
country; and if by chance tin- Spaniards wisli to make any srtlie-

170

Tllli I' KOI' INCH AND TllLL STATES.

ments there, to inform them that all the countries lying on these
rivers are dependencies of l'" ranee; that when the said Sieur de la
Ilarpe shall have performed all of these duties in a manner that
requires nothing further to he done, he will return to headquar-
ters, leaving j\l U'Franchome at his post." (Dated Fort St
Louis, Mobile, December 10, 1721.)

The post was to be established there to supply the colony with
cattle and to protect the new settlements that were about to spring
up in that region. The expedition set forth on the i6tli of Decem-
ber, taking along a considerable quantity of merchandise to be
exchanged for the corn and beans of the Indians. He really
took with him eighteen men and provisions for fort} -five days.
He advanced up the Mississippi, passing Fort Rosalie, at Natchez,
on January 20, 1722. Near the mouth of the Yazoo river he
passed two pirogues of Canadians, who were taking a cargo of
five thousanil pounds of salt meat from the Illinois country to
New Orleans. On the 27th of February he reached the lowest
branch of the Arkansas, which he entered and sailed up, passing
White river, upon which hii;her uj) lived the Osages, and which
entered the Arkansas near the villages of the Soutoues, a tribe
of the Arkansas nation. 'I'heir i)rincipal village at this time
comprised about forty cabins and three hundred and thirty inhab-
itants. Here he found M. D'Laboulay, who had been sent here
tlie previous September by (".overni)r D'l'ienville to protect from
capture the boat loads of provisions sent down the river from tiie
Illinois to New Orleans. The Indians seemed adverse to giving
any informatii)n, and he \\;is loKi ihat live iMcnchmen from
Law's concessii)!!, who hail ascemled the .Arkansas river to pur-
chase horses, had been killed on its headwaters by the Osages.
It was afterward learned that one of these men, Richards, evaded
the Osages and succeeded in reaching the country discovered in
1719 by De la Harpe, where lie was well recciveil. After remain-
ing at Arkansas post until March lo, De la Harpe advanced up
the Arkansas river with l:is li'.lach.iient increased to tv,enty-two
men, including M. D'Franchoine, who had been serving as ensign
of this post. He arrived at PVencIi Ivock on the 9th of April.
"This rock is on iIk- ri!;iil of ihe river ascending, and forms three
slecj) hills of one hundred and sixty feet in height, near to which
are several fine slate ciuarries." He continued ascending until the
17th of April, when running short of provisions and his men
being attacked by dysentery, he concluded t(» return, lie pro-
ceeded by land five or six days' journey and then tm-ned back.
However, he had ascended far enough to feel assured that the

Tin: WILSTERN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCliSSORS. 171

river was navig-able as far as the country of the Padoucas. The
object of the expedition was not acconipHshed.

On the loth of November, 1721, Fath.er Peter F. X. Charlevoix
made the descent of the Mississippi from Kaskaskia. He was
accompanied by three companions. They passed Cape St.
Anthony on the 12th on the left. Before reachin;^ the mouth of
the Ohio, they passed a spot wlicre th.e Clierokees had killed about
fort)' hrcnchmen, amon.'^- wliorn were sons of M. de Kame/.ai, i;'ov-
ernor of Montreal, and Karon de Longueuil, the king's lieutenant
of the same city. Tliey passed the country of the Chicachas
(Chickasaws), where tiiey saw a monument which had been set
up to mark the site of the slaugliter of some of the tribe by an
expedition of the Illinois. On December 2, they arrived at the
first of the Arkansas villages, situated in a beautiful meadow on
the west side of the Mississip])i. "There are three others in the
space of eight leagues and ench makes a nation or particular
tribe; there is also one of the four which unites two tribes; but
they are all comprised under the name of Arkansas. The West-
ern Company have a magazine here which expects some mer-
chandises, and a clerk who fares but poorly in the meantime and
who is heartily weary of living here. The river of the Arkansas,
which they say comes a great way, runs into the Mississippi by
two channels four leagues distant from each other. The first is
eight leagues from hence. . . . The sejiaration of its two
branches is made at seven leagues above the second, and the
smallest of its two mouths but only at two leagues above the first.
* * * Two leagues in'gher (up the Mississippi) are the Tori-
mans and the Tongingas, w ho make but one village. Two leagues
higher as the Sothouis ( Assotoue). The ("aj.ji'is arc a little
further. . . . Over against their village we see the sad
ruins of Mr. Law's grant, of which the company remain the
proprietors. Tt is here that the nine thousand Germans were to
be sent which were raised in the Palatinate and 'tis a great pity
they never came. . . . Put Mr. T^aw was ill-used, as well
as tlie greatest part of the other grantees." Continuing, they
reached the mouth of the Yasous or Yachoux (Yazoo) on the
9th of December, and passing up the same three leagues reached
the fort, where M. Bizart, the commanding officer, had just died.
He was spoken of verv highly as a most exemplary man and offi-
cer. "The company has in this post a magazine of expectation,
as at the Arkansas; but the fort and the land belong to a society
com|)(^se(l of M le Blanc, secretary of slate, M le Compte de
T*.elK-Tslr, M le Mar(|uis D'A-^frld,' and 'M le .MlMiid. bri"-idier

172 THli PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

engineer. ... On the 15th we arrived at Natchez. This
canton, tlie finest, most fertile and the most populous of all Louis-
iana, is forty leagues distant from the Yasous and on the same
hand." On the top of the hill was a small redoubt, enclosed with
palisades. "The late M. D'iberville, who was the first that entered
the Mississippi by its mouth, being come as high as the Natchez,
found this country so charming and so advantageously situated
that he thought he could find no better situation for ihe metrop-
olis of tlie new colony. He traced out the plan of it and intended
to call it Rosalie, which Avas tlie name of Madam de Tontchar-
train."

On January 10, 1722, Charlevoix writes, "I am at length
arrived in this famous cit\', which they have called la Nouvcile
Orleans. Those who have given it this name thought that
Orleans was of the feminine gender; but what signifies that?
Custom has established it, and that is above the rules 01 grammar.
This city is the fust, which one ol liie greatest rivers in the wofld
has seen raisetl <>n its banks. The eight lunulred line houses
and the five i)arishes, which the news]japers gave it some two
years ago, are reduced at present to a hundred barracks, placed
at no very great order; to a great storehouse built ol wood; to
two or three houses, which wouUl be no ornament to a village in
France ; and to the half of a sorry .storehouse, which they agreed
to lend to the lord of the place, and which he had no sooner taken
possession of, but they turned him out to dwell under a tent.

Two leagues lower than the ri\er of the Tonicas, we leave
on the riglit hand the Red i\i\er or Rio Colorado.
There are several grants siuiated here, which in all appearance
will not grow very rich. 'IMie motive of this settlement is the
neighborhood of the Spaniards, wliich at all times has been a fatal
enticement to this colony. In hopes of trailing with them, they
leave the best lands in the world uncultivated. The Natchitoches
are settled on Red River, ami we have judged it convenient to
build a fort among tliem, to hinder the Spaniards from settling
nearer us." Passing the famous cut-ofT just below the mouth
of Red river, they came to the grant called St. Reyne, at the head
of which were Messrs. Coetlogon and Kolli. "We went a league
further and came to the grant of Madam de Mezieres." At both
of these settlements they v>'ere in sore need of men, because the
residents were not inclined to labor, but preferred to wander and
explore.

On New \'ear's day they went to say mass three leagues from
Madam de Mezieres, in a grant \ery well situated and which

THE WESTERN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS. 173

belonged to M.Diron D'Artaguettc, inspector-general of the troops
of Louisiana." "We staid all the day in this grant, which is not
much forwarder than the rest, and which they call la Baton
Rouge (The Red Stick). The next day we made eleven leagues
and encamped a little below the Bayagoulas, which we had left
on the right hand, after having visited here the ruins of the
ancient village. It was very populous about twenty years since.
The smallpox has destroyed a part of its inhabitants, tlie rest are
gone away and dispersed. They have not so much as even heartl
anv news of them for several )ears, and it is a doubt whether
there is a single family remaining. The land they ])Ossess is
very rich. Messrs. Paris ha\e a grant here, where they have
planted in rows a great number of white mulberry trees, and they
make very tine silk here already. They also begin to cultivate
here, with much success, indigo and tobacco." A little later they
passed the night on the fine spot where they had "settled the
grant of M le Marquis D'Ancenis, at present Duke de Bethune,

- which by a lire happening in the great magazine anil by several
other accidents, one after another is reduced to nothing. The
Colapissas had here formed a little village, which did not subsist
long. On the 4th of January we arrived at the great village of the
Colapissas. It is the finest village of Louisiana, yet they reckon
in it but two hundred warriors." Five leagues farther down was
Cannes Brulees (or Brunt Reeds), where was located the grant
to M. le Comte D'Artaguiere. This was on the east side of the
river. On the west side, between the Colapissas and the Cannes
Brulees was (he site of ihe nbi Taensas vilkige; lure AT. de Meuse
liad a grant, where was a (hi-.ector, but no men nor merchandise.
At the distance of three le;ignes of New Orleans was Choupiloulas,
where considerable improvements had been made. Here were
Sieur du Breuil and three Canadian brothers named Chauvins.
"I have nothing to add to what I have said in the beginning of
the former letter concerning the present state of New Orleans.
The truest idea you can form of it, is to represent to yourself two
hundred persons that are sent to build a city, and who are

■ encamped on the side of a great river," where they have thought
on nothing but to shelter themselves from the injuries of the air,
whilst they wait for a plan, and have built themselves houses.
M de Paugcr, whom f have still the honor to accompany, has
just now showed me one of his drawing. It is very fine and
very regular, but it will not be so easy to execute it as it ^vas to
trace it on paper. I'rtweeii New Orleans and ihe sea there arc
no gr.'nits ; they would have loo lillle (Ie])lh ; there are only some

C i

174 'i'il^ PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

small private habitations and some magazines for the great
grants."

In 1 7 19 the Western Company fixed the prices at which the
products of the colonists would be received by them. Deer skins
ranged from fifteen to t\venty-five cents each, dressed thirty
cents; hides (buffalo) eight cents per pound; the best tobacco five
dollars per hundred; extra flour three dollars; rice four dollars;
wheat two dollars ; barley and oats ninety cents ; silk from one
dollar and a half to two dollars per pound. The only market
for the colonists living in the modem Louisiana Purchase was
at New Orleans. The settlement had no sooner been formed at
Biloxi than the Illinois country began to send down fiour, pork
and hides. This was the beginning of a trade down the Mis-
sissippi which long afterward would have caused war had not
the differences been adjusted by Spain and the United States in
1795 and again in 1802-3. It is well known that nearly all the
remote Indian tribes of the west, from the time of the earliest
settlement of Louisiana, were visited by w hite traders, who boldly
went among them for the pur()Ose of obtaining their various
commodities and to exchange therefor the goods of the French
people. But Spain had preceded France in securing the trade of
the far western tribes ; and for many years it was the paramount
object of Crozat and the Western Company to divert this trade
down the water courses to New Orleans; hence expeditions were
sent up Red and Arkansas rivers to form treaties with those
tribes. The Spaniards had selllcil Sanla Fe as early as about
158J-3; anil by the lime llic 1m-ouc1i established Biloxi they were
numerously located in the n|)per valley of the Rio Grande and had
already monoplized the Indian trade of all the far western tribes.
But the French expeditions failed to afienate the western tribes
from the Spanish, and finally the latter determined to retaliate by
an attack on the French of the Illinois. An expedition was sent
out, of which the following is an account :

"In 1720 the Spaniards formed the design of settling at the
Missouris, who are near the Illinois, in order to confine us (the
French) more on the eastward ; the Missouris are far distant from
New Mexico, which is the most northerly province the Spaniards
have. They believed that in order to put their colony in safety,
it was necessary they should entirely destroy the Missouris; but
concluding that it would be impossible to subdue them with their
own forces alone, they resolved to make an alliance with the
Osages, a people who were the neighbors of the Missouris and at
the same time their mortal enemies. With that view they formed

THE WESTERN COME ANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS. 175

a cavaran at Santa Fe, consistinj^^ of men, women and soldiers,
having- a Jacobin (Dominican) priest for their chaplain and an
engineer captain ior their chief and condnctor, with the liorses
and cattle necessary for a permanent settlement. The caravan
being set out mistook its road and arrived at the Missouris, taking
them to be the Osages. Immediately the conductor of the cara-
van ordered his interpreter to speak to the chief of the Missouris,
as if he had been that of the Osages, and telling that they were
come to make an alliance \\ilh liini, in order to destroy together
their enemies, the Missouris. The great chief of the Missouris
concealed his thoughts upon this expedition, showed the Span-
iards signs of great joy and promised to execute a design with
them which gave him much pleasure. To that purpose he invited
them to rest for a few days after their tiresome journey till he
had assembled his warriors and held council with the old men ;
but the result of that council was that they should entertain their
guests very well and affect the sincerest friendship for them.
They agreed together to set out in three days. The Spanish cap-
tain immediately distributed fifteen (five) hundred muskets, with
an equal number of pistols, sabres and hatchets; but the very
morning after this agreement the Missouris came by break of day
into the Spanish camp and killed them all except the Jacobin
j)riest, whose singular dress did not seem to belong to a warrior.
All these transactions the Missouris themselves related, when
they brought the ornaments of the chapel hither (to Fort Char-
tres on the Mississippi). These peojile, not knowing the respect
due the sacred utensils, hmig the chalice to a horse's neck, as if it
had been a bell. 'I'hey were tlressed out in these ornaments, the
chief having on the naked skin the chasuble, with the paten sus-
pended from his neck. The Missouris told him (D'Eoisbriant) that
the Spaniards intended to have destroyed them ; that they had
brought liim all these things as being of no use to them, and that
if he would he might give them such goods in return as were
more to their liking. Accordingly, he gave them some goods, and
sent the ornaments to M D'Bienville, who was tlien the governor
of the Province of Louisiana. It has been claimed that D'Bois-
briant planned the destruction of this Spanish army. As the
Indians had got a great number of Spanish horses from the cara-
van, the chief of the Missouris gave the finest of them to
M D'T.oisbriant. They had likewise brought with tlum the map
which had conductetl them so ill."*

♦Noiiveau Voyapes aux Indies DrcideiitaUs, p.Tr M. Iki.ssu, caj)taiiie dans lc9
troupes de i;i inaiiue. ICntili-sh edilion, I.oinlon, 1771.

176 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

It is well known that some time prior to 1705, a number of
Frenehmen ascended the Misstjuri river and built a rude post
amonq' the jNlissouris. Jt is tokl that one of the leaders, Dubois,
lon^" afterward married the chief's dauj^hter, took her and other
Indians to Europe with liim, where she was received by royalty
and thus signall}- honored ; that he finally returned with her to
the tribe via New Orleans and was entertained by the company ;
and that the Frenchmen, inchuline;- Dubois, were all finally mas-
sacred by the bride's pe(>])le at her su,q|;estion and perhaps insti-
gation. It is also related that lon^; before the French occupancy,
an Indian, probably of the Yazoos, ascended the jNlississippi and
the Missouri rivers, thence crossed the Rocky mountains and
passed down the Columbia river to the Pacific ocean. Finally,
after years of wandering-, he relurned to his people on the banks
of the Mississippi and lived t^ tell the tale, when an old man,
to the first Frenchmen t(j visit the West. His name was Mon-
caehtabi. This tale is wraj)ped in doubt.

Fort Chartres, built on the Mississippi river, a short distance
above Kaskaskia by D'Boisbriant in 1720, was for a long time the
headi[uarters of the traders wl;o ascended the Missouri to carry
on traffic with the natives. The construction of this fort was
followed by the extension of the Illinois settlements to the banks
of the Mississippi, and snon led to the establishment of trading
posts on the Missouri. J'rairie du Rocher, St. Philippe and
Cahokia were built in Illinois in the vicinity of the fort. The
Sulpitians erected a water mill ior grinding corn and for sawing
lumber at Cahokia ; and :i large warehouse of the \\'eslern Com-
pany was biiill at I'orl Ch.irtres. Soon the lead and the pelts and
furs obtained ivom (he Missouri country began llowing down the
muddy current of the river. It was under the governments of
Crozat and the Western Company that the colonists began to
demand titles to their plantations or farms. Tlie French king
was lord paramount of the soil; but armed with authority from
him the proprietors granted tracts to the colonists, which were
later to be confirmed by the I'Vench government. When it was
found by the various adventurers that the exi)ected gold and sil-
ver was not in the country, they were forced to do something
else for a livelihood, and accordingly many of them accei)ted
plantation grants and began to till the soil and form substantial
and permanent homes. D'P>oisbriant executed the first of these
grants in the Misscwri comilry soon after the establishment (^f
Fort Chartres. Whether all the conditions were complied with
or not, the more or less permanent occupation of tlie grants per-

5^'5^^«^£/<?;'^fi>^^?»^e'^"' P* ''

Hi3si3eMppi Valley, 1672^3
After a Jesuit ^ap, rarl<:iT^an

TllL WliSTEKN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCBSSOKS. 177

fectcd the titles in most cases. These primitive grants are the
bases of many of the titles to land in Missouri, Arkansas and
Louisiana.

In 1723 the Royal Indian Company succeeded to the rights
of the Western Company so far as Louisiana was concerned.
The changes and depression caused by the failure of Law, the
great cost of tlie Indian wars, the absence of the expected precious
minerals, the rupture of the monopoly of the company by the
irregular trade of the coiircnrs de hois and by the invasion of the
Spaniards on the west and the hjiglish to the Mississippi, and
the many desertions from the colony, induced the comi)any lin-
ally to petition for the relinc|uishmcnt of its charter, and the sur-
render was granted. The proclamation of the king on April 10,
1732, transferred the control of Louisiana Province to the French
government. Prior to 1711 the scattered French settlements on
the upper and lower Mississippi, the lllincjis, the Arkansas and
the ivod rivers, were obscure dependencies of New France or
Canada and were without organization as a whole, though each
had its specific name, as Illinois, Arkansas, Natchitoches, Bikjxi,
etc. I'.ut in 1711 all the tract of country from the Alleghanies
to the Rockies and from the Gulf to Minnesota was constituted
Louisiana Province, with a government subordinate to Canada.
The Province was ruled by a governor, a commandant general
and various subordinate officers, with headquarters at Mobile.
Owing to the death of D'Muys. the first appointive governor,
Diron D'Artagiiette, served as provisional governor, until the
arrival of .Xntoine D'Lamolhe Cadillac, who had been appointed
in place of D'Muys. The latter served until March, 1717, when
he was succeeded by M. D'Epinay. The governorship passed
to D'Bienville in February, 1718, and remained with him until
1725, when, owing to the jealousy of his subordinates, he was
recalled. D'Perier succeeded, the interim being filled by D'Bois-
briant.

In the autumn of 1723, it is known that the Missouri river and
its various branches, up probably as far as the mouth of the
Platte river in Nebraska, were thoroughly explored by the French
miners under Phillip Francois D'Renault. He came with two
hundred Frenchmen and three hundred slaves to Fort Chartres,
whence they spread out over the west as far as they could do so in
safety, and opened many lead and other mines in the. present State
of Missom-i. Not finding the precious melals exi^ccted, they fin-
nllv dispersed, and D'Ronnult was comivMi'-at'-d wilh six grants of

T— 12

178 THE PROl'INCE AND THE STATES.

land and many of his companions engaged in agricultnre. \Yhen,
in 1725, D'Bicnville was deposed from the governorship of the
colony, D'Boisbriant was sent 10 New Orleans from Fort Char-
tres to serve as such until the arrival of M. D'Perier, his succes-
sor, who reached New Orleans in August, 1/j6.

In order to gain the friendship of the western Indians, par-
ticularly of Padoucas or Tawn-es living in the present States of
Kansas and Nebraska, and thereby, through them, be enabled to
open commercial commiuiicatiun with the Spaniards of New
Mexico, the governor of Louisiana, with the ap.proval of the
Royal India Company and the government of France, dispatched
M. D'Bourgmont (who had previously gone up the Missouri sev-
eral times, but without important results) up the Mississippi and
the Missouri rivers in the spring of 1724, with instructions to
organize a sufficient force on tlie Missouri river near the present
Jefferson City, to enable him to reach the country of the Pawnees.
Accom[)anied by a small body of Frenchmen, M. D'P>ourgniont
duly reached the mouth of the Osage river near which, upon an
island in the Missouri, he built a fort which he named Fort
Orleans, and soon afterward Ixgan preparations for the journey.
He secured the assistance of abnit one hundred and sixty Imlians
of the Missouri and Osage tribes, who were commanded by their
great chiefs; and, l)eing well supplied with provisions and mer-
chandise to be presented to tiie u])per tribes, set forth up the
Missouri on the 3d of July, 'i'liey did not go by water, but jour-
neyed by land, with horM's anil Indians to carry the goods and
supplies. On the seventh the)' reached the out()osts of the Kan-
sas tribe, and on Ib.e follow ing day crossed the Missouri, swim-
ming their horses, and a few hours later arrived at the first
villages of that tribe, situated n(-)t far from the mouth of Kansas
river. They had come up on tlie north side of the river, but had
crossed over, and late on the 8th arrived at the principal Kansas
towns. They were well received, and determined, before going
farther, to secure a rendezvous of as many of the western tribes
as possible at this point. Messengers were sent to the various
tribes; and in the meatitime, a firm coalition was established w itli
the Kansas nali(jn. In two da)S representatives of the Olhouez
(Otoes) arrived and j)ledged tluir friendship and assistance. A
large body of them agreed to Inmt for him and keep him sui)ijlied
with fresh meat. ]{nvoys came from several othei" nations, but
were not authorized to ccmuIuiK' ti-rms of prace. \ mmibir of
I'awuees present proniisrd ihr fiiendship of their tribe.

i leri' 1 )'r.ourginont remained until the --ph, wdi'ii he set out

■'

THE WESTERN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS. 179

with about three hunched warriors of four or more tribes, with
their head cliiefs in command, accompanied by about three hun-
I dred women, five hundred young- people "and at least three

hundred dogs," the women and the dogs being assigned to the
distinguished ( ?) service of carrying the goods, supplies and
baggage. Following the trail to the Pawnee villages, they seem
to have left both the Missouri and the Kansas rivers, and directed
their course in a northwesterly direction through northeast Kan-
sas, because the narrative of the commander speaks of crossing
•the headwaters of many small streams which unite and fall into
the Kansas river. On the 30th, D'Buurgmont became so ill that
he was obliged to return to Fort Orleans, but sent on to the
I Pawnees several messengers under one Gaillard to announce his

V coming as soon as he could again travel. With Gaillard were

f two Pawnee slaves whom D'iJourgmont had set free ami sent

on in order to gain the good will of that nation. On the^25th of
1 August, Gaillard arrived at the Pawnee villages and was well

received. He showed the French flag and told them the object
of the expedition, and was assured of the friendship of the tribe.
Upon his return, the head chief sent back with Gaillard twenty
of his leading warriors, to cement a permanent friendship with
i the Kansas nation. D'Bourgmont having recovered, the expedi-

tion again started on September 20th from Fort Orleans, with
^ the same large following of Indians and dogs. Marching rap-

i idly, they reached the Kansas villages on the 27th. Gaillard and

I his companions arrived at tliis point on the 2d of October. Here

were gathered representatives of the ^lissouris, Osages, Otoes,
I lowas, Pawnees, and perhaps others. D'Bourgmont assembled

them around a large fire in front of his tent, where their presents
\ had been spread out ; and there with much ceremony made them

a dignified speech, stating the object of the expedition— to cement
I a permanent friendship between the several tribes and between

i the tribes and the French. He asked all to smoke the peace

calumet, which was done wilii the rude but dignified ceremonials
\ of the Indians. On the 6th, all joined in the peace dance, which

^ concluded the treaty at this point. Three large lots of goods

; were presented to the Otoes, lowas and Panimahas who had just

I arrived.

The start for the Pawnees was made on October 8th, but the
' company was greatly reduced, and all the gooils, supplies, etc.,

i\ were carried on horses. MM. Gaillard and Ouenel and two

Pawnees were sent ahead to announce the coming of the expedi-
tion. The main bodv contimied on ■ the souih side of Kansas

l8o THE PROl'L\CE AND THE STATES. (:

river until the nth, whrn they waded that stream, there being
•but three feet of water. They tlien took a northwest direction,
passing over the headwaters of the streams ilowing- into Kansas
river, and noting the beautiful meadows and the immense herds
of buffaloes and elks. Advancing rapidly, they came to an aban-
doned camp of the Padoucas on the I7tii, and here set fire to the
prairie in order to signal their arrival. It was answered a long
way in advance, and the march was resumed. On the i8th they
passed another abandoned camp of the tribe and answered a fire
signal as before. L,ate this day they were met by a large troop
of Pawnees on horses, nvIio conducted them to their villages, the
Frenchmen marching under arms on the Pawnee horses with as
great a show of force as possible. On the afternoon of the i8th
they reached the principal villages and encamped at the distance
of a gunshot. Since leaving tlie villages of the Kansas, they
had marched ten days, and had covered about two hundred
miles, or about twenty miles a day, and were now probably in the
southern part of the present Nebraska near the center of the
State, east and west, or in the northern part of modern Kansas.

The next day, having asseml)le(l the tribe, and having placed
their presents in full view, D'Hourgmont addressed them as he.
had those at che towns of the Kansas, informed them of the
objects of the visit and asked them to smoke the calumet of peace.
Speeches were delivered by the leading chiefs and assurances '
given of perpetual peace with the French goveniment. After
the peace pipe had been passed around, the presents were distrib-
uted, consisting of red and blue Limburgs, shirts, fusils, sabres,
gunpowder, balls, nuisket-llints, gunscrews. mattocks, hatciiets,
looking-glasses, Flemish knives, wood-cutters' knives, axes,
clasp-knives, scissors, combs, Ik'IIs, awls, needles, drinking
glasses, brass wire, rings, etc. The Indians appeared highly
pleased with the gifts, and of course promised everything asked
for by D'Bourgmont. They readily agreed to live at peace with
the Kansas, Omahas, Otoes, lowas, Missouris, Osages, and Illi-
nois, and accepted the French Hag offered them by D'l'.ourgmont.
They asked that French traders might be sent among them, and
stated that the Spanish were distant to the westward about twelve
days' journey. The head chief said, "You may command all my
warriors; 1 can furnish you with ui)war(ls of two thousand."

The expedition started on its return on October 22d, and on
the 31st arrived at the villages oi the Kansas. The next dav
they arrived at the mouth of Kansas river, and in due tin)c
reached I'orl OrK.uis. Here 1 )'i!oingm(jnl icmained some time,

THE WESTERN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS. i8i

but finally descended to New Orleans, leaving a small detach-
ment of soldiers to guard the fort. How it came about will
never be known, but in a short time the garrison was murdered
by the Indians, not a soul being left alive to tell the tale.
Whether the massacre resulted from the outrages of the French-
men or from the treachery of the Indians will never be known.
But another detachment was soon sent to this important post,
and communication was kept up with the Pawnees.

During the continuance of tlie proprietary government of the
Western Company, the western branches of the Mississippi were
explored to a great distance. IM. De la iiar|)c, who^-e concessi(jn
lay on Red river in the nation of the Cadodaquis, or in what is '
now northeast Texas, went about eighty leagues up the river to
the villages of the Nassonites, and having secured their friend-
ship and permission, he had built a strong log block-house, which
he had named h^ort St. Louis de Carlorette, for protection
against them in case of an outbreak, and to serve as a store-house
for the security of his goods, etc. From this far-outlying point,
which lie employed as a basis for his operations, he sent expedi-
tions, it is claimed, up the river as far as the base of the Rocky
mountains. He formed alliances with the Indian tribes living in
that region in accordance with the policy of the French, and
endeavored to open traffic with the Spaniards of New Mexico, but
without avail.

At this time M. Blondel commanded the fort at Natchitoches,
while Father Manuel rei)rosentetl hVench and church interests at
a mission wliicli bad been establi^lled at liie .Adavts, some dis-
tance west of Nalciiitoclies. W iiile at the latter place De la
liarpe learned of the visit to Natchitoches of Don Martin ile Alar-
conne, the Spanish commander of the province of Lastekas. He
claimed to have established on Matagorda Bay (called by the
Spaniards, Espiritu Santo Bay) a military post for Spain in the
vicinity of the Guadalupe and St. Mark rivers. As it was
rejiorted that this Spanish official had gone on to the country of
the Cadodaquis likewise to establish a post for Spain, De la Harpe
started for the country of the Nassonites on the 6th of February,. '
1 7 19, and after a harassing journey arrived at the villages of the
latter people on the 21st of April, having traveled one hundred
and fifty leagues northwest of Natchitoches. The Assonites
(Nassonites), Natsooes, Natchitoches, Yatassees and Cadoda(|uis
were tlosily related tribes and all dwelt along Red river, often
on bolli sides of tiie i-liainni. I I ere I )i' la I lai'pe was royally
received and feasted on bullalo meat and smr)ked fish. He

1 82 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

learned that the Spanish officer had not yet arrived. He was
informed hy the Inchans tliat they had recently suffered severely
from the attacks of the Chicachas (Chickasaws) living far to the
eastward.

Making- searching inquiries, De la Ilarpe ascertained that
the Spaniards had formed settlements to the southwest about fifty
leagues, probably among the Cenis; and also that at the distance
of about sixty leagues up Red river, on the right of the stream
ascending, they had estal^lished themselves — had constructed a
small fort or block-house, 'i'liey were in the country occupied
by the Panis, or Tawnees. Attempts were made to build a fort
on a branch of the Red river in the country of the Natsooes about
ten miles from the Nassonites; but the desertion of his Indian
workmen prevented De la Harpe from efTecting this object. They
had agreed not only to assist him in the work, but had also agreed
to sujjply him with provisions. At this time the Cadoilaquis lived
about ten leagues above the Nassonites and the Natsooes and
Natchitoches about three leagues above the Cadodaquis on the
right of the river ascending. 'I'hey had considerably changed
their location, and were now scattered over the plains the better
to hunt ; but they had become decimated by the attacks of hostile
tribes by reason of being thus dispersed. They were scattered
through what is now the southwi st part of Arkansas. i\l. De la
Harpe established his concession on the lands of the Nassonites,
on the right bank of the river in ascending, and in latitude thirty-
three degrees fifty-five mimites north latitude. In December,
1 718, De la Harpe, having recii\ed a letter addressed to Don
Martin D'Alarconne by D'Rienville, forwarded it to him at the
Assinays villages in the province of Lastikas (northeast Texas).
At the same time, De la Harpe v, rote the following letter to the
same individual: "I am chargeil with a letter from M. D'Bien-
ville, commanding general of the Province of Louisiana, which
I have the honor of sending you. In confiding to me the post of
the Nassonites, he has recjucsted me to render all the services in
my power to the Spanish nation. I can assure you, sir, nothing
can give me more pleasure than to execute his orders on every
occasion in which they may be needed." Under the instructions
of the Western Company, he likewise opened communication
with Father Marcillo, su|i'jri(jr <if the missions at the Spanish
province of Lastikas. He wrott.-, "Inform your friends of New
Mexico and Hoca de Le<in thai I hey can procure at the Nassnn-
iles or Nalchiloches all the g(joils ihey may need at a moderate
price, up(jn which T will allow ymi a commission of two or thiee

THE jvEsrER.y comp.lw and its successors. 183

per cent on all sales that may Le made, and thus you may have it
in your power to establish your mission upon a solid basis.

In May, 17 19, havinj^' learned from a Nassonite chief of the
existence of metallic ores in the mountains thirty or forty leagues
to the northward, De la 1 larpe, accompanied by nine soldiers and
several Indian guides, set forth to find the treasure. As the
country above was filled with liostile Indians, the guides deserted
him after three days' marching, having seen smoke a long way in
advance. On the way back, De la I larpe and ])arty came near
J being captured ])y the hostile Osages. The soldiers made salt at

J a spring ab(Mit ten leagues northeast of the post. Under dale of

*' May 20, 1719, D'Alarcoune rejilied to IX- la llarpe, in part as fol-

lows: "I am comjK'lled to say that your arrival at the Nassonite
I village surprises me very much. Your governor could not be

I ignorant that the post you now occupy belongs to my government,

I and that all the lands west of the Nassonites are dependencies of

^ New jMexico. I counsel 30U to give advice of this to M. DMiien-

f; ville, or you will force me to oblige you to abandon lands that the

( French have no right to occui)y."

An opportunity to answer this letter did not occur until the 8th
of July, when De la Ilarpe forwarded the following missive,
dated at Nassonite: "The orders from His Catholic Majesty
(the King of Spain) to maintain a good understanding with the
French of I/Ouisiana, and the kind intentions you have yourself
expressed towards them, accords but little with your ])roceedings.
Permit me to inform you that M. l)'P>ienville is perfectly informed
of the limits of his govmuneul, and .is very certain that the post
of Nassonite is not a dcpeudtiicy of llis Catholic Majesty. He
knows also that the j'rovince of I.astikas, of which you say you
are governor, is a part of Louisiana. M. de la Salk- took possession
of it in 1685, in the name of His Most Ciiristian Majesty (the
King of France) ; and since the above epoch possession has been
renewed from time to time. Respecting the post of Nassonite,
I cannot comprehend by what right you pretend that it forms a
part of New Mexico. I beg leave to represent to you that Don
Antoine du Morior, who discovered New Mexico in 1683, never
penetrated cast of that province or the Rio Bravo (Rio Grande).
It was the French who first made alliances with the savage tribes
of this region ; and it is natural to conclude that a river that flows
into the Mississippi and the lands it waters, belong to the King,
my master. If you will do me the pleasure to come into this
<|uarter, T will convince you that I iiold a post T know how to
defend."

184 'liH'^ PROVINCE ANn THE STATES.

Wliile at this station, De la Hari)c endeavored to form alliances
with all the neighboring Indian tribes. They came to his post
from the banks of the far /vrkansas. ()n the 24th of July, 1719,
he received intelligence tliat war had been declared between
France and Spain. As this possilily meant trouble with both the
Indians and the Spanish, the soldiers at the post strengthened it
in every jjossible way and oilierwi^o made preparations to receive
any enemy after the bloody fashion of war. A few days later,
information was received that the Spanish were at work, on the
headwaters of Red river, digging for gold or other valuable min-
erals. Soon after this, the news arrived that 1\I. Blondel, com-
mantler at Natchitoches, hail driven away the hVanciscan fathers
from the Adayes and pillaged their missions there. The Spanish
had thus formed a settlement east of the Sabine (sometimes called
the Adayes) river. News was also received that the Spaniards
liad all departed from the Trinity (river), or the country' of the
Assinays (Cenis), whence 1 )'.\larc()nne had written his warlil^e
letters. This being true, De la ILu'iJe had nothing to fear from
the Spaniards.

He now resolved to explore the country much farther to the
northwest than he had yet done. "I'or this purpose he took with
him an escort of two officers, three soldiers, two negroes and sev-
eral Indians who spoke the language of the country, and set out
on the nth of August. By the 21st he had traveled forty-nine
leagues through a fine country, with sloping hills and prairies
abounding in game. Pie met a party of Natsooe Indians who had
been on a hunting expedition and bad killed forty-six buffaloes.
On the 2Jd he passed several prairies and a little river which
empties mio \\C(\ river. I le then entered into an exteiisi\e jirairie
surrounded by mountains. l!y the 26th he had gone eighteen
leagues farther, when he met with a party of Osage Indians, who
seemed disposed to attack him, but >et suffered him to pass on.
On the 27th he traveled six leagues farther, over a beautiful
prairie country filled with deer and buffalo, and entered the
mountains, where he found a number of Indian huts. iVaveling
six leagues farther he met a party of Kansas, who were encamped
on the banks of the Ouachita with forty farriors, and were in
pursuit of the Tancaros. On (he jSth he i)assed a beautiful
prairie, interspersed with hills, and a large herd of buffaloes fol-
lowed by a pack of wolves as large a^ those ui France. On tlie
29th he traveled six leagues farther to a branch of the Ouachita
river, whicii had about two feel of water in it. Near its banks he
met a party of Nacogckxdies, who were occupied in smoking

THE WESTERN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS. 185

meat. On the 31st he reached a branch of the Arkansas, and on
September 2d came to several lead mines. Farther on he met
six chiefs who had come to meet him from a village called
Imaham, and to assure him of their friendship. De la llarpe told
them that the great chief of his nation had sent him to assure them
of his protection against their enemies; and his desire was that
they be at peace with each other. These chiefs had brought
Indian bread and smoked beef, with which they regaled the party.
They belonL;etl to the Tancaros, /\da)es, Ouaciiitas,
Ositas, Assinays antl 'i'ayas. They number about four thousand
people who live in tents and are the allies of the i'anis ( Pawnees),
a nation living about forty leagues to the north. The Panis are
at peace with the Usages, a nation who are continually at war
with the Kansas, the Paduucas, the Arickarees and other tribes.

"The old chiefs told I\l. De la Harpe that a white people (the

Spaniards of New Mexico) traded for metals with the Padoucas,

fifteen days' journey oil, in a UDrllnvesl direction, where the.moini-

tains furnish rock-salt. On the 4th of September, more than five

thousand Indians assembled U) chant the calumet of peace. The

old chiefs of tiie Arkansas and Tayas performed this ceremony

and made speeches. Late at night De la llarpe retired to sleep,

I and in the morning the chiefs came to wake him uj). They

* washed his head and feet, painteil his lace blur and red, and

i placed a cap of eagle feathers upon his head. 'J'hey also threw

buffalo robes and other presents at his feet and presented him

^ with a Kan.sas slave of about eight years of age, who had escaped

out of seventeen prisoners, which they luul eaten at a public feast.

I De la llarpe thanketl tliem for their favors, and regretted it had

i, not been in his power lo save these unfortunate victims of their

( vengeance. He concluded to leave .three of his men in this

' country, until the governor of Louisiana decided whether it was

A expedient to establish a post here; but afterward changed his

V mind, as he was informed that the Indians abandoned their vil-

j lages in the autumn to hunt bulTaloes, and in the following spring

1 they returned to sow Indian corn, beans and other seed. .

On the 8th he was invited by the chiefs of the Canicons to feast
at his village about two leagues from the Tancaros, where he met
a great many chiefs who i^rofessed a great deal of friendsliip for
him. This tribe consists of a few families who live in a very
fertile countrv. ... On the Toth he erected a cross there
and ])lanted a post near it, on which he carved the arms of the
King. On the 13th he set (Mit to return to the Nassonites.
. On the I St of October, he was surprised by a party of

1 86 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

Kansas Indians, and had only time to make his escape by leaving
his bagg-age behind, lie was obliged to make his way back over
mountains without any compass to the village of the Nadacos,
where he arrived on the 13th of October. t)n the 21st he reached
the portage of the Natchitoches, wiiere he fell sick, ile sent sev-
eral Frenchmen from this \)\:w<- to I he Adayes for provisions, and
remained here until the 4(h of JXcember to recruit his health.
On the 10th he reached Natchitoches, and on the 26th arrived at
New Orleans."

It is not too much to say that the services of i\I. De la llarj)c
prevented the Spaniards from gaining permanent foothold on the
Upper Red river and ciYectually established the rights of Fran-ce
to that important region of country. Had it not been for his
courageous and emphatic o])position to Spanish settlement there,
all the Upper Red river country, or what is now much of Indian
and Oklahoma Territories, would have been left outside of what
afterward became the Louisiana J'urchase. How well his serv-
ices were estimated is shov.u by the following certificate from
Governor D'Rienville, dated lUloxi, July i, 1720:

"I John Baptist D'Bienville, Knight of the Military Order of
St. Louis, and Commanding General of the Province of fyouisiana,
ci^irriKV, that the M llernard De la Ilarpe, commander (jf the
troops sent to the Cailodaquis, Natsooes, Natchitoches and Nas-
sonites, Indian nations on Red River, and on the confines of the
Province of Lastikas, has, during a residence of eighteen months
among them, conducteil himself witli great prudence and wisdom;
tiiat lie has ilisco\(.'red other tribes of Indians on tlu' Red and
Arkansas rivers, adjoining nations to the vSpaiiiards of New Mex-
ico, and made alliances with them in the name of- the King: In
faith of which I have signed this certificate and affixed the King's
seal."

France continuetl to claim the territory as far to the westward
as the Pay of St. Pernard, or Matagorda, and the policy of send-
ing a colony to that point was often urged by the Western Com-
j)any's officials ; but no action had l)een taken by the Council of
Louisiana. Early in August, 1721, Captain Beranger was sent
there to make a reconnoissance, but returned without having
accomplished much of importance. In 1721, now that the Louis-
iana colony had acquired great comparative strength, it was
deemed oj^portune to commence the colonization of the country
beyond the Sabine. It was realized tliat such a course would
doubtless be succeeded by war not only with the Spaniards, but
with the Indian tribes inhabiting that territory. Did the com-

•^

THE WESTERN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS. 187!

! pany, then, wish to risk the chances and results of such wars, in

* order to win tiie territory and tiie consequent important trade?

\ It was finally determined to take the risk. In August, 1721, after

« due deliheralion and after the return of the re<onnoissance, it was

V determined to send AT. De la Harpe in charge of the first expedi-

( tion to Matagorda Bay. Accordingly, the following official

I order was issued :

\ "We, Jean l)ai)tiste D'lh'enville, chevalier of the military order

I cf St. Louis, and comiuandant-general for the King in the Prov-

I ince of Louisiana: It is hereby decreed that ]\L De la llarpe,

> commandant of the Bay of St. Bernard, shall embark in the

J packet 'Subtile,' commanded by Beranger, with a detachment of

twenty soUliers under D'Belisle, and shall proceed forthwith to tlie

i Bay of St. Bernard belonging to this province and take pos-

j session in the name of the King and the Western Company;

shall plant the arms of the King in the ground and build a fort

uj)on whatsoever si)Ot appears most advantageous for the defence

of the place. If the Spaniards or any other nation have taken

possession, i\I. De la llari)e will signify to them that they have no

: right to the country, it being known that possession was taken in

' 1685 by M. de la Salle in the name of the King of France, etc."

i August 10, 1721. B-i-K-N-v-i-i.-i.-i:.

The ship was provisioned with fifteen quarters of Hour, fifteen
\ of meat and a qtiantity of French brandy, and had on b(Xird

besides the crew, a force of twenty soldiers, who were under tht
conunand-of the famous D'Belisle, \vh() recmti)' had seen sucl:
severe hartlships in the vicinity of St. I'ernard Hay. M. De h
llarpe was constituted commandant of the colony that should be
established there, lie was instructed that "if the Spaniards 01
any other nation lias already taken possession of it, Al De la
Harpe will inform them that they have no right to this country
as it was taken possession of by AI de la Salle in the name of th(
King of France. And in case they make any opposition, Al Dt
la Harpe will take possession of it by force in conformity wit!
the orders of the King, dated i6th November, 17 18." The shij
set sail on the i6th of August, 1721, and on the 27th reached wha
was i)resuined to be the bay sought. Owing to the large numbei
of Indians that assembled and opposed his landing and the pro
posed settlement, De la Harpe and his companions deemed i
imprudent to attempt to form a colony at that time, and accord
ingiy sailed back to Alobile. where tliey arrived in October
They learned that although the Spam'ards had been there, the]
had departed without making attemi)t at settlement.

l88 THE I'ROyiNCJ: AND THE STATES.

A French ship, the Alarcchal D'Estres, mounting thirty-six
g-uns, and commanded by M. do la Godelle, was lost in 17 18 off the ||

coast of Texas. She was loaded with troops and convicts for the
colony of Louisiana. It was afterward ascertained from sur-
vivors that she had mistaken her ccxirse and had arrived at a
large bay west of the Mississippi, probal)ly the Bay of St. Ber-
nard, where a dreadful epidemic broke out among the convicts
on board. Here a number of the men resolved to land and take
their chances in the wilderness among the Indians rather than
with the sickness on board. Accordingly JNIM.D'Belisle, Legendre,
Allard, Ducloss and Corl^ett took arms and eight days' provisions
and went ashore. The ship was never heard from afterward.
After more than two months of wantlering in scnithern Texas,
all live luid died except Semiars D'Beiisle. He finally fell in with
three Indians, who stripped him and took him to their nation
where lie lived for eighteen months. A tin l)ox in which he kept
his papers iinally fell into the hands oi the A.ssinays and still*
later reached D'St. Denis, the hVench conunandant at Natchi-
toches, who effected his rescue. He was a knigiit of the Military
Order of St. Louis, and in the end proved to be one of the bravest
and most capable officers sent Ijy France to the Louisiaiia colony.
He served in many capacities with signal distinction.

The earliest forts i)uilt west of the Mississippi by the French
were those of St. Louis erected on the Bay of St. Bernard or
Matagorda, by La Salle, in 1685, and Fort Arkansas erected the
same )'ear by Tonty on the Arkansas river about three leagues
from its mouth. Tlie former was abandoned within two or three
vears; becau.-e the iMench k'ft there by La Salle were driven
off" by the Spaniards, or were massacred by the Indians. Fort
Arkansas, as built by Tonty, -was very rude, but was afterward
made strong and secure by the French governor of Louisiana.
It was built of stockades in the form of a polygon, the interior of
each side measuring about one hiuidred and eighty feet, and a
half dozen or more of cannon were mounted to command the
approaches. The fort at Natchitoches was founded in 1713-14,
and Fort Dout was built west of it a little later. Fort Chartrcs
on the east bank of the Mississipi>i, about twcnly-five miles above
Kaskaskia, was the strongest erected by the French in the Missis-
sippi basin. It was built in 1720, and served as a base for all the
expeditions which ascended the Missouri and the upper Missis-
sippi and its higher branches. Fort Orleans was built on tiie
Missouri near JelTer.son City in .i/J.I- 'IMie fort built at I'ointe
Coupee about the year 1720 was a (|na(lraiiglc having four bas-

THE WESTERN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS. 189

' tions and niounted several cannon. It was constructed of stock-

I ades and stood on the west l)ank of the river. Fort Rosahe, at

) Natcliez, was one of the most important in the valley.

A Fort St. Louis de Carlorrtte was Ijuilt on the stjuth hank of

y Red river hy Bernard De la Uarpe in 1719, under the orders of

I D'liienville, for the purpose of securing the rights of the French

to the country of the Upper Red river, as against the Spanish,

who had already visited the head-waters of Red river and w orked

on the lead mines there. It was located in latitude thirt\-three

degrees fifty-five minutes north, and stood in riortheast Texas.

Fort Balize, at the mouth of the Mississippi, was erected in 1699,

as a protection against any foreign ships that might try to ascend

the Mississi])pi. However, it was not always garrisoned during

the early history of the Louisiana colony. New Orleans was

I early fortified a.'ter tlie manner, it is said, of Vauhan. A ditch

J was dug around the city, ahoiU eighteen feet wide, with ramparts

> _ of earth and palisades about six feet high extending aK)ng the

, interior. Strong bastions and redoulits were erected at regular

I and commanding intervals. /Ml the features of a strong fort

were present, including many large cannon — in fact the entire city

was thus enclosed and em])raced in the end several fcjrts. Two,

St. Charles and Conde, were standing when Louisiana was ceded

to the United States in 180,^. The fort at the present Xatchi-

toches, La., was built in 1713 by D' Bienville and D'St Denis

under the orders of l-'ranci' in order to hold the Spaniards in

check and to secure the friendshij) of the Indi.ui tribes of tlvat

j region. It at lirst consisted of two strong \o'^ houses enclosed

[^ with palisades, but was afterward greatly strengthened, and

I except for very short intervals was always garrisoned liy the

•^ French, who well realized its importance. It was the key to

< the southwest, and was later reinforced by Fort St. Louis ile Car-

["* lorette still higher u]) Red river. Some time after this date,

I probably about 17 14-15, the French establish posts on the Sabine

j and at Nac(5gdoches for the ];uri)Ose of ])reventing the S].>aniards

^ from advancing beyond the Sabine; and maintained them for sev-

^ ' eral years. Fort Iberville on tlie east bank of the Mississippi

'^ was built in 1700, and was an im|)ortant shieUl against the Indians

during the first few years of the colony.

F.arly in 1728 there arrived a vessel containing a nmnber of

young girls who afterward became known as the "lillies a la

cassette," t)r the casket girls, owing to the fact that each was

. possessed of a small casket in which were her clothes. From the

fact that these girls were highly respectable, though poor, and

I'.t

190 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

from the fact that many of the other girls sent out had heen taken
from the houses of correct iun, the proud descendants of later
years were always eager to have it known that they Avere the
descendants of one of the casket girls rather than of the others.
Governor D'Perier gave great encouragement to agriculture, and
under his direction slave lahor became well governed. In 1728
it was decreed that those who had not properly improved their
concessions should surrender them to the company. A tax was
levied for the building of churches and hospitals. The colonial
expense for the year 1728 was $89,9 19.

In 1726 Father ]V>isson wrote as follows concerning the Law
grant on the Arkansas river: "The French settlement of the
Arkensas would be an iriii)t>rlant one had Aloiisicur Laws contin-
ued four or five years. His grant was here on a boundless prairie,
the entrance of which is two gunsiiots from the house in which
T am. The C"omp;my of the Indies bad granted him a trad six-
teen leagues scpiare; that makes, I think, fully a bundiXHl leagaies
in circuit. Ilis intention was to fmnul a city here, to establish
manufactures, to have numbers of vessels and troops, and to
found a Duchy. He began the work only a year before his fall.
The property which he then sent into this country amounted to
more than 1,500,000 livrcs ($277,500). Among other things he
meant to arm and superbly equip two hundred cavalrymen. He
had also bought three hundred negroes. The Frenchmen
engaged for this grant were men of all sorts of trades. The
directors and subalterns with one hundred men ascended the
river in five boats in order to come here to begin the settlement;
they nnist at the start procme provisions that they might be ready
to receive those pcoi)le whom they bad left down the river. The
chaplain died on the way and was buried in one of the sand-
banks of the Mississippi. Twelve thousand Germans were
engaged for this grant. This was not a bad beginning for the
first year, but Monsier Laws was disgraced ; of the three or four
thousand Germans who had already left their country, a large
number died in the East, nearly all on landing in the country;
the others were recalled. The Company of the Indies took back
the grant and shortly after abandoned it ; the entire enterprise
has, therefore, fallen to pieces. About thirty Frenchmen have
remained here ; only the excellence of the climate and of the soil
has kept them, for in other respects they have received no assist-
ance. My arrival here has pleased them, because they now think
that the Company of the Indies has no intention of abandoning
this district, as they had supj^osed it would, inasnuich as they have

THE WESTERN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS. 191

. sent a missionary here. I cannot tell you with what joy these

I good people received me. I found them in great need of all

things." =1^

;\ The financial scheme of John Law only incidentally affected

', Louisiana. There were probably not to exceed 2,000 people in

all of Louisiana while this experiment was being tried in France,

and they were distributed at a score of settlements along tiie

^ Mississippi and its Ijranches. Very little money or credit was

needed here, because traffic was carried on mainly by the primi-

( tive system of exchanges — Ihe trader gave his merchandise for

* the furs of the Indian. The latter did not want his money —

had no use for it ; so the trader immediately converted his money

into merchandise again and repeated the exchange, pocketing his

profits. There was very little use for money, and constHpiently

very little was in circulation. Nor was there any credit, because

all were strangers, shifting hither and thither, and it would have

, been folly to extend credit to any man.

Ikit while Law's scheme wonderfully stimulated the financial
system of France, and no doubt affected somewhat the rudi-
mentary monetary operations at the centers of settlement in
Louisiana, it cannot be shown, never has been shown, that any
serious shock was occasioned here by the bursting of the Missis-
sippi bubble. The failure of Crozat to find gold and silver in
Louisiana had largely undeceived France concerning the reputed
riches of this colony. Ihit Law and his associates, and particu-
larly the \\^'stern Company, look advantage of the marvelous
advance of credits in iMauci' still farllier to strengthen their s) s-
tem by reviving the attractive tales of gold and silver in Louis-
iana. Ingots of gold and silver were falsely exhibited in Paris
as the products of Louisiana ; the object being to show the \vealth
and resources underlying the Law monetary and credit system,
which had been adopted by the French government. To transfer
all the furor and excitement to the wilderness of Louisiana is
ridiculous in the extreme — v/orse, because there is no truth in the
statement that the excitement in France seriously affected in any
important way the finances of this colony. While the Missis-
si])pi people were made a medium to bolster the insecure and
tottering system over which all of France and half of Furope had
gone mad, the failure of the system did not strike Louisiana a
hard blow, mainly because there was nothing here for it to hit, or
next lo nothing. Of course, it is popular and customary to

■ K. C. Tliwaili'.-H'rt ifissiicuf Uie Ji:.ui( Kcliilioiis .iinl otliL-r Jiocuiiieiils. Tonic VI.

192 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

envelop the Louisiana wilderness in a shifting tornado of financial
excitement and eventual paral)sis, hut this is a perversion of facts
and of history.

That Law should employ the sujjposed gold and silver and the
undouhted fur trade of the Mississippi valley as a hasis to
strengthen his hank, did not produce any api)recialjle ett'ect in the
poverty-stricken and miserahle hamlets of Louisiana. It is
improhahle that any considerahle quantity of the hank's hills were
at any time held in the Mississii)pi colony. Jn adopting the
Louisiana colony as one of the hases of his system, Law was ahso-
lulely safe, hecause in doing so he dealt in futures — was selling
short for present prosperity and strength! and taking his chances
of covering at some hoped-lo-he distant day. Thus, the Missis-
sippi scheme was only one of the alleged sources of revenue of the
French crown to sustain the Law s)stem of finance. Jvxcept as
it incidenlally affected the operations of the Western Company,
the scheme had little hearing and no consequential existence on
the hanks of the Mississijjpi. As a matter of fact, however, it
must he conceded that the identification of the Western Company
with the Law financial system immensely henefited Louisiana,
hecause the stimulus thus kindled was used as a means to induce
a large numher of wealthy and prominent people to secure con-
cessions therein, send out ag'cnts, lahorers, imjilements, etc., and
endeavor to huild up rich and i)rosperous plantations. If there
was any resultant tlurry in Louisiana, therefore, when the Law
system collapsed, it fell only ujion the conditions which that sys-
tem had originated and ft)slered.

The i)uying and selling of stt)cks, whicli occasioned the wild
speculation antl gamhling so cons[)icuous in France at tliat time,
saw no counterpart whatever in the Li)uisiana colony. The Mis-
sissippi scheme was developed, hecause Louisiana was unkmown,
mysterious, supposedly filled with gold, and could therefore he
exploited without danger that the sham would soon he unveiled.
But the few ancl scattered people here, struggling to eke out an
existence little hetter than that of tiie savages, were compara-
tively unafi'ectefl hy the disaster which finally sent credit to the
bottom of the financial pit in France. Therefore it must he admit-
ted that incidentally the adoption of the Western Comjjany hy
Law and his associates as one of the means to invigorate his sys-
tem, was an enormous advantage to Louisiana. Thousands of
colonists — men, women and. childn-n were si'ut out, and vast
sums of money were spent. Il is even said that the stnils and
pi'isons of I'aris and other large eilies were (.inptied of their

■■'■'3

&..

3f -^ t

THE WESTERN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS. 193

mendicants and vagabonds to swell the colonial stream. These
were the laborers sent to wurk tiie various concessions in Louis-
iana. Jt will thus be seen that the L,aw system was really an
advantage to Louisiana ; that it occasioned no harm to the colony
as a whole, and that the speculation in stocks was not present
here. In the spring of 1720 the system collapsed, having lasted
about four years, estimating from the establishment of the Law
bank in May, 1716. Louisiana felt the existence of the system,
if at all, for only about two and a half years.

The concession to John Law on the Arkansas was one of great
extent and great value. It was in the heart of the famous Indian
country — the territory of the Arkansas nation, and the lands had
been mostly cultivated for a period of centuries by that tribe.
Here was grown much of the maize that had sustained the army
of De Soto for months when he was engaged in planning the
destruction of this faithful people. The tract was twelve miles
s([uarc,''' and located about thirt) miles above the mouth of the
river. Here the German settlers whom it is alleged he had
"bought," were sent — many of them ; and here was established
the post which was intended to protect them from the savages,
and the store-house where they were enabled to obtain their sup-
plies of tools, provisions and merchandise — for the cash or for
valuable furs. Upon the failure (if the concessionaire, the settle-
ment was abandoned, though the post was occupied for many
years by the soldiers from New Orleans. The tract was situated
on the right of the river ascending. In March, 1722, M. de la
llarpe f(»uud here forly-sexen persoiis of both sexes. 'I'hey had
sown wheat, and had conunenced olher agricullural operations.
Thus at this time the concession was nearly abandoned. It was
deemed unwise by the colonial commissioners, owing to the great
improvements already made there, to permit the Law concession
to be abandoned. They accordingly appointed M. Dufresne
director of that colony with a salary of 2,000 livres per annum,
and directed him to make arrangements for all persons who
desired to cultivate the soil autl secure permanent homes in that
quarter.

What crushed the Western Company more than any otlier
cause were the various Indian wars — against the Natchez, the
y\libamos and the CMiickasaws. It re(|uired an enormous expendi-
ture to e<niip and sustain an ;irmy of from five hundred to a thou-
sand nun for several monlbs al a lime. W'ben lo this di'pressing

♦Fattier Poisson said twelve leagues square.

194

THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

expense are added the feverish investments under the Missis-
sippi scheme, there could he no oiher result than distress until
natural commercial conditions had heen resumed. These various
hurdens, at a lime when they were most vexatious and hinder-
some, prevented the Louisiana conmiissioners from obeying the
orders of the king to advance and take possession of the country
now called Texas. Spain then made the most of her opportunity
and preceded France with settlements in what was called the
province of Lastikas, or northeast Texas. It is asserted that
France established a permanent post at Nacogdoches about the
year 1718, but there is no evidence to show that it was permanent,
and very little to show that it was made at all. The Western
Company had all it could do at the time to build a fort at Natchi-
toches and another in the country of the Cadodaquis or what is
now Southwest Arkansas, without trying to extend its cl.juiain.even
under the positive orders of the iMench monarch. It is known
that the orders of the king to this effect remained unacted upon
by the commissioners of Louisiana fcjr several years before De la
Ilarpe was finally made governor of the Ikiy of St. Bernard, and
before the expedition was sent there under him for the purpose of
forming a permanent colony. The Western Company lacked the
strength, and Si)ain took the lead in the settlement of Texas.

One of the most interesting letters of the missionary era is that
of Father Paul du Poisson. dated at the Akensas (Arkansas) in
1726, and addressed to Father Patonillet. The following are
extracts from the same : "I lere is another anecdote, which shows
how generous they are. P.i) before yesterday 1 received a visit
from a chief and J offered bun a i>ipe; to fail in that would be to
fail in jx)liteness. A moment after he went for a matache (a robe
painted in many figures and colors) buckskin, wdiich he had left
in the entry of the house in whicli I live, and put it upon my
shoulders; this is their way when they make presents of that sort.
I begged a Frenchman to ask him, without appearing to do it for
me, what he wished that I should give him. T have given with-
out design,' he answered, 'am I trading with my father?' (trad-
ing here means paying). Nevertheless, a few moments afterwartl
he said to the same Frenchman th;it his wife had no salt and his
son no powder; his aim was that this Frenchman should repeat
it to me. A savage gives nothing for nothing, and we must
observe the same rule towards them; otherwise we should he
exposed lo iheir conlempl."'' Mc further says, ''Finally they

* K. G. Tliwailes's rei.ssue of Uie Jesuit Rchdions and oilier Docunuuts. Tome VI.

THE WESTERN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS. 195

returned again to the charge, in order to ask if I would at least
be willing that their young men should come to dance in my vil-
lage, zvitlioiit design, the reconnoitre dance (this is the one they
dance when they send to reconnoitre the enemy). I answered
that it would not trouble me, that their young men could come
to dance, and that I would look at them with pleasure. All the
people of the village, except the women, came the next day at
\ dawn ; we had nothing but dances, songs and harangues until

^ noon. Their dances, as you may well imagine, are somewhat

\ odd. ... I saw well that 1 must n(jt send them away with-

out giving Ihem a great kcUle (feast) ; 1 borrowed from a
Frenchman a kettle similar to those which are in the kitchen of
the Invalides, and I gave them corn without stint. Everything
went on without confusion; two of their number performed the
office of cooks, dividing the portions with most exact impartiality
and distributing them in like manner; there was heard only the
usual exclamation "IIo!"' which each one pronounced when his
portion was given him. I never saw a meal eaten with worse
manners or with better appetite. They went away well satis-
fied."

Father Poisson and several companion missionaries ascended
the Mississippi in pirogues, leaving New C.~)rleans May 25, 1727.
lie says he was taken up by engages, "the men who are hired
to paddle a pirogue or boat — and, it may be added, to make those
people whom they conduct furious." lie noted five concessions
above New Orleans: Dubreuil's, three occupied by three Cana-
dian brothers and une o\\ ut-d by a Parisian, with M. D'Kole in
charge, (^n each concession were from fifty to sixty negroes,
engaged in cultivating rice, indigo, corn, tobacco, etc. In Paris
during the Law regime, the Louisiana concessions were called
"Counties" and "Marquisates." Concessionaires were the prom-
inent men in France who received grants or concessions. They
were expected to send out vessels with laborers, agents, provi-
sions, etc., for the purpose of putting their concessions on a profit-
paying basis. The vicissitudes of colonization obliged many to
neglect or abandon their vassals, and the latter often took their
pay by helping themselves to the stores of their lord. "Do you
not recognize in this the Frenchman?" asks Father Poisson. "It
is partly this which has prevented this country from being settled
as it should be, after the immense expenditure that has been made
for that purpose."

A small tract upon which a single family located was called a
plantation. The man would clear a few acres, place his house

196 . THE PROVINCli AND THE STATUS.

on piles, cover it with sheets of hark, get a few negro slaves about
him, raise com, rice, tobacco, etc., and soon be independent. Sev-
eral of such plantations close togelher became known as a settle-
ment. Young women from the liosi)itals of i'aris and from the
SalpC'triere, all of good r(.i)ute, made the long voyages in the
pirogues; and, according to Faiher I'oisson, many of them
shunned marriage as too severe a life, and preferred service, or
to take their chances in the Illinois country, ilere were young
men, too, who had been sent to Louisiana "for various reasons"
by relatives and by the law, who ])referred rowing on the river
or other traveling rather than digging in the soil. Here also
were the hunters who ascended the river two or tliree hundred
leagues every year to kill the caltle (buffaloes) on ,St. Francis
river and make their plats cotes, h\ which they dried part of the
flesh in the sun. They salted the rest; made bear's oil, obtained
bulTalo robes, and sent all down the river to market in New
Orleans. At this lime the iHilTalois were fust found about thirty
leagues above the mouth of the Arl<ansas. Father i^oisson states
that in 1726, a Frenchman brought down the river to New
Orleans four hundred and eighty buffalo tongues, which he and
his partner securetl during the previous winter — 1725-6. At the
Cannes Hrulees was the D'Artaiaiette concession, M. D'Benac
being in charge. A little liigher were les /Vllemands. "This is
the district that has been assigned to the feeble remnant of that
German company (Law's) which perished from destitution either
at the b'ast or \\y>on arri\ing in L(un'siana." .At Oumas was
ant)lher I'^rench settU-ment, and still another ;it IJayagonlas, where
M. du l)uisson was in ehaige. \t ilatoii Kouge was an aban-
doned concession. A little higher was the. grant to M. Mezieres.
Here was a gan_>;' of negroes. .\i)ove were a few habitations,
and a few I'renchmeii at the Tonica villages, b'ather I'oisson
reached Arkansas July 7. He wrote, "The villages of the Aken-
sas are wrongly placed in the map. The river at its mouth makes
a fork ; into the upper branch tlows a river that the savages call
Niska — White water — which is not marked on the map, although
it is a large stream. We entered by the lower branch; from the
moutii of this branch to tlu: place where the river divides it is
seven leagues. Thence it is two Kagues to the first village, which
contains two tribes, the Touriman:. and the Tongingas ; from this
first village to the second it is two leagues by water and one by
land. This is called the »Southonis village. The ihinl village is
a little higher up on the same side of the river and the inhabitants
arc callcil the Cappas ; on the other bank and opposite this last

THE WESTERN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS.

UJ7

village are the French habitations. The three savage villages
which contain four tribes that bear different names, make only
one tribe under the common name of Akensas, which the French
have also given to the rivcr,*although the savages call it 'Ni-gitai,'
Red water. They speak the same language and number in all
about twelve hundred souls."*

Immediately succeeding the Natchez uiassacre forts were built
at Choupitoulas, Cannes llrulees, I,es Allcmands, UaNagoulas and
Pointe Coupee, in 1728 Father Michel Cuignas visited the Sioux
near the sources of the Mississippi. lie established a mission
there, at least in part, but was made a prisoner by the Kickapoos
and Mascoutins and kept as such for live months, at the end of
which time they made preparations to burn him.- He was saved
by an old Indian who adopted Iiim and finally gave him his lib-
erty.

The Chickasaw's were ever the friends of the English and the
enemies of the Im-cucIi ; consequently, that nation was the ■i)rin-
cipal one to attack the French i^rogues as they floated down the
Mississippi. They were regarded by the members of that nation
as legitimate and most desirable prizes. In spite of all the French
could do, the convoys, though armed and strong, occasionally
fell before the prowess of that war-like nation. The hostility of
the Natchez tribe was incurred, as it was in nearly all other cases,
by the rapacity and abuse of the French. They retaliated to the
wrongs and oppressions by slaughtering nearly all the French at
their post on November 29, i7-'9. and repeating the massacre a
few weeks later at the iovt on the Yazoo river. They killed about
two hundred and fifty men, and made most of the women and
children captives and slaves. The news of this bloody act caused
the greatest consternation throughout all of Louisiana. Fort
Chartres and. every other ])Ost was strengthened, and preparations
were made to ])unish the Natchez tribe. The Choctaws joined
the French, but the wily foe managed to evade the army sent
against them. They fled before the French and located west of
the Mississipj)i, where they established three villages at or near
the modern town of Trinity, Fa. Here they strengthened them-
selves to the best of their abilitv, and later were harassed by the
Oumas and the Bayagoulas, allies and friends of the French.
Relieving that the latter had instigated the attacks upon them,
they captured the French fort which was being built near, and in
which were ten Frenchmen and twenty negroes, bnl)- one white

* TliwMites's reissue of Uie Jc ;iiit Ri-'alioiis and other nociiiii;-nts.

198 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

man and two negroes escaping. The capture of this post served
to intensify the bitterness of the French against the Natchez tribe.
They must be severely punished. Immediate steps were taken |

to raise a large force, but considerable time elapsed, though
finally all was ready.

The army was divided into three battalions', the marines under
D'Salvert on the right, the militia under D'Benac on the left, and
the Louisiana troops, the grenadiers and fusiliers under General
D'Perier in the center, with D'Crcsnay and D'Artagu.tte in sub-
ordinate command. The Indians were in a connnand by them- 1 1
selves, and the negroes were scattered through all the companies.
There were five hundred and fifty \vhites and negroes, and about
one hundred and fifty Indians. An advance corps of twenty-
four under D'Coulenges and D'Beaulieu, sent to recoimoitre, was
surprised by the Natchez and sixteen were killed or captured,
including both of the commanders. This act roused the French
to desperation. On January 4, 1731, the army reached the moufli
of Red river, and on the i_nh that of Black river, up which was
the entrenched camp of the enemy. On the 20th their camp was
reached and immediately attacked. The battle was resumed on
the 2 1st, with shells from wooden mortars, and during the day
several were killed and wounded on both sides. Both the 22d
and the 23d were repetitions of the .2ist. On the 24th the Natchez
raised the white flag, and hostilities ceased. A messenger came
out with the calumet and offered to surrender all the negroes.
Governor D'Perier insisted on talking with the head chivf, but this
was evailod during several inler\'ic\\s. Negroes to the number
of nineteen were delivereil, but the head chief still held back, with
very good grounds.

D'Perier finally refused to talk longer with messengers, and sent
word that unless the head chief came out that day no quarter
would be shown the savages. The Natchez warriors to a man
objected to the head chief's going out to meet D'Perier. They, of
course, felt that he would be detained, and that was the deliberate
intention of Governor D'Perier. At this point reingorcements with
cannon arrived. Threats to use the cannon at once brought out
St. Come, the son of the Woman chief and successor to the Sun.
He attempted to dissemble, but D'Perier again insisted on seeing
the Sun himself, and refused any further negotiations until his
demands were complied with. In half an hour out came St.
Come, the head Sun and the I'lour Chief, the latter being the real
author of the Natchez massacre, thuugh St. Come had tried pre-
viously to conceal that fact. 'V\\u vSun made an apologelic s|)eech

THE WESTERN COMPANY AND TTS SUCCESSORS. 199

and promised good behavior in future. They were detained and
placed under guard; but during the night, while it was raining,
all attempted to escape, and the Flour Chief, the biggest rascal
of all, succeeded. He was smart enough to see the inevitable,
and accordingly, with eight or ten warriors and their wives and
children, escaped from the fort the same night down an unguarded
ravine. The next day about thirty-five warriors and two hundred
women surrendered. The others refused, and during the suc-
ceeding night many warriors likewise managa-d to elude the
guards and escape. The captures the next day were swelled to
forty men and three hundred and eighty-seven women and chil-
dren. The same day, the 27th of January, the army left and on
the 5th of February reached New Orleans.

But the Flour Chief and other leaders about as renowned as
himself, with a force variously estimated at from two hundred to
three hundreil warriors, were far from being conquered. Pnj-
fessing friendship for the Tonicas and pretending to desipc their
good offices to form an alliance with the French, they treacher-
ously fell upon them and killed their head chief and abtmt a dozen
of his warriors ; but were dauntlessly held in check for live days
by the war chief of the Tonicas, who remained master of his vil-
lage. In this desperate encounter thirty-three of the Natchez
were killed, and a few days later three who ha<l been captured
were burnt at the stake.

At this time Natchitoches was commanded by the brave
D'St. Denis, who had at his disposal forty soUliersand twenty
settlers. In order to crush him whom ihey greatly feared, more
so than any other oflicer in the colony, the survivors sent against
him a force of one hundred and fifty of their best warriors, among
whom was the Flour Chief. They hoijed to sur[)rise him ; but
upon being discovered by his sentinels, they sent a deputation
with the calumet and a message to the effect that, having had
some trouble with the French below, they desired him to act as
mediator to settle the difficulty, announcing that they had with
them a French woman whom they desired to set free as an evi-
dence of their good faith. D'St. Denis replied that he would be
pleased to comply with their request if they would at once release
the white woman uniler an escort of ten warriors only; but the
Natchez refused unless all their numbers were received.
D'St. Denis, who knew the Indian tactics thoroughly and had
suspected this large force from the start, replied that W was
aware of (heir designs and I lu'w thai they medilaled treachery,
and offered lo pay a ransom for IJie J'^'ench woman. The answer

200 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

of the savages was to burn the white woman in sight of the fort,
capture a small Natchitoches village near by, and thoroughly
intrench themselves against any attack that might be attempted
by the French. But in D'St. Denis they had a foe who was more
than able to cope with them, either in strategy or in battle. He
resolved immediately to attack their camp. Leaving twenty sol-
diers in charge of the fort, and taking with him tvventy soldiers
and twenty picked Natchitoches warriors, he struck their intrench-
ments with great fury before daylight one morning, and so
daring and unexpected was iiis attack that he carried all before
him. He routed them, killed eighty-lvvo and lost not a man, and
many who were wounded were holly pursued and tomahawked
in the depths of the forests. The savage Flour Chief, as well
became him, fell fighting with his face to his foe. This was one
of the most notable of the victories of the French over the Indians
in the annals of the Louisiana colony, and it is doubtful if any
other officer than D'St. Denis then in tiie colony would have had
the boldness, hardihood and skill to accomplish so sweeping a
victory over such a select and vigilant enemy.

There still remained in Louisiana fully one hundred warriors
of the Natchez tribe, living in scattered' bands along Red river
and its branches. A little later they combined witli the Yazoos
and the Caraoes, and for a long time continued to harass the
French settlements. After many years they were so decimated
and reduced by the remorseless vengeance of the French, that
the few survivors lost their identity and became merged' with
other tribes. All wlio had been captured were sent to St. Domingo
and sold into slavery and the proceeds turned into the treasury
of the company.

_ Thus perished the Natchez tribe, the most intelligent and civ-
ihzed of all the nations living in what is now the United States.
They worshipped the great sun— kept a fire forever burning in
lus^ honor; indeed their highest nder was called "The Sun."
This alone was the highest form of nature worship, a recogni-
tion in the savage heart of the power and glory of the sun. They
surrounded their chief with guards, revered him, obeyed his
lightest word, and lived in fix-ed habitations, which tliev kept
scrupulously clean, one of the best evi<lences of their superior
civilization. At first their utmost hospitality was freely tendered
to the visiting Frenchmen ; but the abuses of the latter soon alien-
ated then). It was the old story of the Spaniards repeated— lios-
pitality ami kindness repaid with im))ositi(jns and grievous
wrongs. The climax came when the iMctich commandant, Clio-

THE WESTERN COMPANY AND ITS SUCCESSORS. 201

part, ordered the abandonment of their time-honored village site
that it might be occupied by the white people. The sun and his
chiefs remonstrated willi respectful mien and language, but were
cut short by the French bully and given a fixed time in which to
comply with his commands. Seeing no escape, and being unwill-
ing to surrender the homes of their fathers, they saw no better
course than to destroy all the French in Louisiana, root and
branch. The massacre followed. It was the natural and inevi-
table result of oppression and outrage. J lad the Natchez su]iinely
submitted they would not now be renowned in history for their
courage and enlightenment. IkU the French must win — must
possess all the land ; and therefore the Nachez must be crushed.
D'Soto and Coronado robbed the Indians, and slaughtered them
when they resented the robbery. After all, was the hVench treat-
ment any better than that of the Spanish? Both sacrificed the
Indians to gain their possessions. It matters little as to the
means adopted. ♦

The attitude of D'liicnville toward the Indians was always
fair and humane; that of DT'erier was just the reverse, lie vis-
ited upon them the same atrocities they perpetrated upon the
French, going so far on more than one occasion of burning them
publicly in New Orleans and elsewhere. This attitude of severity
was regarded as unwise by many of the colonists. Beauchanrp
wrote to the French ministry, "The evil is now wiihout a remedy
unless M. D'Bienville could come back. Perhaps he could suc-
ceed in changing the state of things, on account of the considera-
tion which the Indians have always had for him, and of the serv-
ices which he has rendered them, particularly to the Choctaws."
Beauchamp comi)lained bitterly of the stale of affairs and further
said, "You see to what a state of things is reduced this colony,
which has so long groaned under a harsh command (D'Perier's).
The colonists are in a miserably wretched condition, and are ill-
supplied with the provisions and the merchandise they want.
When flour is sent here the heads of the colony take hold of it, as
they do with all the brandy and cordials which arc imported, and
they do not part with these articles except at exorbitant prices.
It is, after all, what they do for every sort of merchandise." It
is not at all improbable that the French commandant at Natchez,
Clu)i)arl, did nothing innrc than he was directed to do by D'l'crier
in demanding that the savages should leave their village to the
I'Vench, thus inciting tiie massacre of the whites at that i)ost.
Such an order was in accord with the policy of the governor
toward the savages, and Chopart woidd hardly have issued so

nnr^r\-'j

202 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

important an edict on his own responsibility. Beauchamp, com-
manding- at Afobile, further wrote, "Since the departure of
D'15ienville all the Indians are spoiled. In spite of the augmenta-
tion of merchandise we have to supply them with, and of the
reduction in the quantity of furs which they give us back in
return, they are not satisfied. On the contrary, they are insolent
and less tractable. . . . The Chickasaws had sent three
emissaries to the Illinois to urge them to side against us, but these
emissaries have been delivered inlo our hands, and M. D'Pericr
intends to have them burnt." The writer was emphatic in request-
ing the return of D'Bienville; but there were other forces at
work.

From 1717 to 1731, the company spent "in a profitless attempt to
carry its charter into execution" $3,700,000. It had emitted a
considerable number of bonds of its own known as billets de
caisse, which were still in circulation at the latter date. Though
such a course caused serious loss to many of the colonists, these
bonds were withdrawn from circulation, upon an order of Gov-
ernor D'Perier, in fifteen da)s, and a financial crisis was thus occa-
sioned. This step was taken in clcjsing up the affairs of the com-
pany, which on the 23d of January, 1731, had asked to have its
charter taken up by the king. The request was grantetl, and two
commissioners, Bru and Brusle, were sent to the colony by the
king to settle the accounts l)et\veen the comj)any and the govern-
ment. Slowly the alTairs were wound up, and the JMench gov-
ernment assumeil the direct inanagemeul of the colony.

Thus ended the alleuipis ol cine nl the worst nuiuiJiiolies ever
instituted, to govern the colony of Louisiana. The Indians were
usually mismanaged and alw.iys abused. Almost every murder
of a Frenchman by them may be traced directly or indirectly to
some outrageous act of the whites. The policy of Perier was
extermination — the unjust and deliberate acquisition of the prop-
erty of the Indians and their slaughter if they showed resentment
or oj)position. The official corruption and perfidy of the com-
pany's agents were recognized by every settler. The exactions
of the company under their charter annihilated conunerce, and
were the despair of the pooi people who sought to keej) their
heads above the waves of desii uction. The only ray of light shin-
ing through the gloom was the large number of settlers sent out
from 1717 to 1721, tiie most of whom were forced Ui remain and
become iiolciis volciis integral parts of the colony. This \v;is the
only factor which saved tiie colony from abandonment and extinc-
tion.

LOUISIANA UNDER THE FRENCH CABINET.

203

CHAPTER VI

Louisiana Under the French Cabinet

THE relinquishment of the charter of the iRoyal India Com-
pany was the signal for the reorganization of affairs in
Louisiana Province. The supericjr council was placed on
a new hasis hy patent bearing" date May 7, 1732. Louisiana was
made no longer a dependency of New France, or Canaila, and to it
was attached the Illinois country. UTerier was made governor,
Salmon intendant, D'Artaguette and Loubois the king's lieutenant
governors, and Fleuriau attorney general. Attention was paid
to ecclesiastical affairs by the appointment of a vicar-general
with residence at New Orleans. In order to revive commerce, all
duty was removed from merchandise exported from France into
the colony and from the produce of Louisiana imported into
I'Vance. This at last was a step in the right direction, and it
met an immediate response from the colonists and from the mer-
chants of France. D'Perier served but one year under the new
order, and was succeeded l)y D'Pnenville upon the re(iuest of the
colonists. The latter expected great relief from the new condi-
tions and were not disappointed, though the many Indian wars
hampered commercial transactions in the interior. Better protec-
tion from the Indians was afforded to the outlying districts, and
the currency circulating in the colony was improved. l^'Perier
retired with credit, but his departure was not mourned by the
inhabitants. His treatment of the Indians ccndd not have been
worse, and all felt that a more pacific and conciliat(-)ry policy
might have prcwenti'd many of the misunderstandings with the
savages and saved many a l''rench life. I'ublic rejoicing accom-
panied the reception of (iovernor jyilienville. I'iirre D'Arta-
guette, brother of l)irt)n, was appointed major-commandant of
the district of Illinois, his bc,'id(|uaiU'rs bt-iiij; at I'oit Chaitres.

■3

204 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

In nearly aU the wars with llie Indians, the negroes were
employed to swell the meager ranks of the French soldiers. This
would not have been done at all had not dire necessity required
it as a measure of safety, lint it served to excite and embolden
the negroes and in the end led to iheir insurrection. It became
known to them that by turning against the French, they could
secure their own liberty among- the Indians. It thus came to pass
that all the tribes hostile t(; the French had with them neg-roes
who had gained their freedom owing- to this circumstance. Sev-
eral of the most crafty and bold of the runaway slaves among the
Chickasaws secretly went among- the negroes of the settlements
along- the Mississippi and succeeded in inciting- the insurrection.
At last a night was set, on whch it was determined to make the
attempt to capture New Orleans, kill all the men, possess them-
selves of the arms, ammuniliun and stores, and thus be enabled
to conquer the whole colony. The \)\i\n was revealed by a negro
woman and the leaders were- ])romptly captured; four of the nten
were broken on the wheel, iheir lu-uls fastened on poles or posts
at the gates of the city, and one \\t)man was hung-. This exam-
ple, publicly executed, was sufliciiiuly fearful and impressive to
prevent any further uprisin;(s.

In Aug-ust, 1734, it was ordered by the king that two soldiers
annually out of every company should be granted a furlough and
a tract of land, a portion of which, to be designatetl by the gov-
ernor, was to be cleared williln three years. As there were in the
colony six hundred and Inly soldiers, or thirteen companies,
twenty-six grants were thus made annually alone to the soldiers.
The Swiss troops were graiUed the same privilege. This act was
the means of making- in the end good farmers out of tiie soldiers,
and was a decided advantage to the colony. Annuallv the gov-
ernor selected the men thus to become fanners. The scarcity of
current money led to the emission of a card currency in 1735 to
the amount of about forty thousand dollars, which needed act
greatly stimulated connnercial exchanges among the colonists.
This act was distinctively a Louisiana measure, the cards being
signed by the local ol'licials and being a legal tender for all obliga-
tions. Kut oppressive measures were still thought proper. The
price of tobacco was arbitrarily fixed for 1733 at 35 livres per
lumdred pounds; for 1734 and 1735 at 30 livres; for 1736 and
1737 at -7 livres; and for 1 73.S ;i[ J5 livres. ]\\\[ the colonists
near the monlli of (be Missi'sippi eonlinued to be in sore straits,
while those in the Illinois country had passed the crucial stage,
had an abundance of prf>visi(*ns and clothing and were compai-a-

;-/■-

LOUISIANA UNDhR TlUi FRENCH CABINET.

205

lively safe and happy. The most extraordinary fact in connection
with the Louisiana colony was that after the lapse of thirty-five
}'ears the colonists were not able to sui)port themselves in the
most fertile soil in the world, where nature provided in great
abundance every necessity. That fact stands as a most fearful
arraignment of either the management or the character and
habits of the colonists.

It was in 1735 that steps were taken to confirm the titles to the
various concessions and grants in the colony. ■ Coniplaints were
made that the colonists were obliged to pa\' two hundred per cent
more for the same articles than the traders ; more negroes were
called for. It is said that at the mouth of the Mississippi in 1733,
the colonists were compelled to live for some time on the seeds
and grains of reeds. This is a crushing commentary on some-
body— on the managemenl of course, because the poor i)eoi)le did
as they must, or were told. At the same time they of the Illinois
country were living on corn, wheat, pork, beef, vegetables, .and
a wonderful profusion of wild game, lint very little went down
the Mississipi)i at this time, however, owing. to the fierce hostil-
ity of the Chickasaws. The old company of the Indies had a
hard time to collect the debts due it, because the only tribunal was
in the colony and in sympathy with the j^eople and in all cases
favored them. The colony cost the crown in 1734 over one hun-
dred and sixty thousand dollars. D'Bienville wrote in 1735 that
at Pointe Coupee one hundred thousand pounds of tobacco were
made. Cotton began to appear in considerable quantity. Early
in 1735 the river was so high that New Orleans was deep under
water. The drouth was so severe for four months the succeeding
sunuiier that the river fell fifteen feet, "a circumstance which had
never been seen before."

The Chickasaws, the terror of the south, had now become so
troublesome that D'Bienville determined to try to crush them.
They even tried to alienate the Illinois from the French, but were
not successful. The project of an invasion of the Chickasaw
country by a large army met the approval of the king of France,
and preparations were accordingly made. As many Frenchmen
as could be spared were sent down the river from Fort Chartres
to assist him. In March, 1736, D'Bienville, witli an army of
about six hundred Frenchmen and negroes (forty-five of the lat-
ter) set out from New Orleans for the place of rendezvous, or
Fort Mobile. On the Tombigbee river they were joined by about
six hundred Choctaws. 7\rriving at the i)rincipal Indian strong-
hold, at wliat is now the town of Pontotoc, Mississipi)i, they found

2o6 THE PKOVlNCll AND THE STATES.

the Chickasaws so well pre])ared to receive them that they were
repulsed with the loss of thirty-two killed and sixty wounded.
Greatly humiliated, D'Bienville retreated, leaving in the hands of
the savages several prisoners. Previously, D'y\rtaguette, who had
come down from the Illinois to join him, had fallen into the hands
of the enemy, lie had descended the Mississippi with thirty
regular soldiers, one hundred volunteer Frenchmen and two hun-
dred Indians of the Illinois and Missouri nations. At the third
Chickasaw Ijluff, or h\)rt Prudhonime, he met Sieur D'Vincennes
with twenty Frenchmen and aboui one hundred and twenty-five
Ivliamis, who had come down from the Wabash to join the army.
Another detachment under Sieur D'Moncherval from the Illinois
was expected. D'Granpre, commandant at the Arkansas, sent
a body of warriors to his assistance. After tlue deliberation,
D'Bienville not having arrived, Major D'Artaguettc conchuled to
attack the Chickasaws in their stronghold, and accordingly set
forth. Though partially successful, he was finally defeated, many
of the leaders were captured, and the Illinois and Missouris
assisting the French were iiercely pursued for more than one
hundred miles by the unrelenting Chickasaws. The retreat was
conducted by a young man of sixteen years named Voisin, and is
said by writers to have been "a masterpiece of skill and bravery."
He conducted his small force the whole distance without food, and
handled them so well that there was no rout, nor was any of his
wounded left in the hands ot the enemy, lie inllicted as much
punishment on tlie Chickasaws as was imposed upon his force.
His name deserves proudly lo be told in story and sung in song.
I'he I'Vench leaders who were captured were tortured at the stake
over slow fires. Thus perished Father Senat, D'Artaguettc,
St. Ange, D'Vincennes, Courlonges, Dutisnet, D'Esgiy, D'Tonty,
Courcelas and other brave men distinguished in the early annals
of the Louisiana I'rovince.

Dating from the time the French first met them, the Fox nation
of Indians proved hostile to the advancement of the whites. They
usually refused to send peace envo)s to the treaties, and often
killed the whitemen who entered their domains, or the domains
claimed by them. At last, in 1734, the French of Canada resolved
to send an expedition against them. Many friendly Indians,
jirincipally the Iroquois, accompanied the expedition to assist in
chastising their ancient cnem>. Before this date, the Foxes had
lift their old haunts on the Wisconsin, and taken up their abode
in Iowa, principally on the Des Moines river. Under the com-
mand of Col. Nicholas D'No)elle, the expedition marehed over

LOUISIANA UNDER THE FRENCH CABINET.

207

seven hundred leag'ues, starting from Montreal in August. They
found the Foxes prepared for their reception, being thoroughly
intrenched on or near the river Des Moines. The attack was only
partly successful, for though many of the Fo.xes were killed, their
intrenclunents were not cajiturcd. lIowe\'er, it was a blow from
wiiich they did not soon recover, and one which they never for-
got. The Sacs assisted the Fo.xes, and part of the punishment
fell upon them. The following year, a treaty of peace was con-
cluded with them, after a continuous war of twenty-five years.*

In 1727, as before staled, a ])art)' of Frenchmen under the com-
mand of 15oucher de la I'erriere, marclutl from Montreal to the
Mississippi by way of the Green Bay and Wisconsin route and
built l-'ort Jieauharnais at I.ake I'epin on the west side of the
river. Other l)uildings were constructed, and it was late in Octo-
ber Ijefore all were comfortably housed. A great Hood the fol-
lowing spring forced them to abandon the buildings. The Si»nix
proving unfriendly, the party returned to Canada, but came qgain
in 1 73 1, erected buildings on higher ground, and succeeded in
opening trade with the Indians. The post was finally abandoned
in 1737 by Legardcur de Saint Pierre, who was then m command.
This was an attemi)t made by a Canadian company to monopolize
the fur trade among the Sioux. f

The Chickasaws now jjecame more insolent and dangerous than
ever. A -second expedition was sent against them. Whether
merited or not, the previous disasters had seriously injured
D'Bienville's reputation w ith the French government. Smarting
under the combined humiliation and criticism, he resolved to
retrieve all the prestige he had lost, and having secured the
approval of the colonial minister he began active and elaborate
preparations in the spring of 1739. Every settlement in the prov-
ince was called upon for assistance, and tlie point of rendezvous
was fixed on the St. Francis river near its mouth and near the
Mississippi. Here a temporary fort and a number of cabins were
built for the protection of the supplies while preparations were
under way. In August the army was moved up the river to a
point opposite the present city of Memphis ; and, having crossed
the river, they built Fort Assumption, with strong fortifications,
barracks for the soldiers, a small house for D'Aime, the com-
mander, store-houses, ammunition houses, etc. Here the army
was reinforced until it aggregated about twelve hundred Frencli-

♦Sce Iliil)l)iU(l'.s "Wisconsin t'ndoi tlic Doiiiiniini ui Imiimcc.
t Menioire de IJcauliarnais, I 7JH.

2o8 Til Li I'ROl'lNCE AND TUB STATES.

men and double that many Intlians, toj^ether with a few negroes.
Two hundred Frenchmen and three hundred Indians under Capt.
Alplionse D'Buissoniere came down irom the lUinois — from Fort
Cliartres. Captain D'Celoron arrived from Canada with Ihirtv
cadets and many Indians. For some reason not wholly clear, the
command of this army had been intrusted to J\I. D'Noailles
D'Aime insteati of D'liienville, which necessarily occasioned jeal-
ousy between tliose two valualile ofhcers. The result might have
been anticipated. The army remained at Fort Assumption for
six months, doing- nothing, yet suffering everything until the men
were reduced to horse-flesh for food and were stricken with a
terrible sickness which swe])t so many off, that by March, 1740,
there were probably not to exceed three hundred white men fit
for active duty. In tliis extremity, the heroic D'Bienville was in
despair. It was seen that not only must the expedition be given
up, but Fort Assumption nuist.be abandoned, a stei) likely to be
fraught with serious consccpiencLS. y\t this jimcture D'Aime
seems to have been superseded in supreme command by J)T>ien-
ville. Finally, Capt. D'Celoron, with as large a hotly of the well
men as could be spared, was sent to reconnoitre the Chickasaw
camp. Observing his advance, and believing he was followed by
the main army, the Indians opened negotiations for jjcace. A.s
this had been hoped and provided for, terms were soon reached.
This finality was much bettci- than liad been ex[)ecled a( one time.
After the peace treaty had Ik en ct)ncluded, D'liienville dismantled
tlie fortificati(Mis at Memphis and on the St. I'rancis river, sent
the vohinlei'rs lo their hom^ s, and w ilh the regulars sailed down
the Mississippi to New ()i'U'ans. This second failure to crush
Llie Chickasaws so impaireil the re])utation of I^'Ilienville that he
was retired and the Marqui,^ D'Vaudreuil-Cavagnal was sent to
govern the province in 174-'. But the Chickasaws were cpiieted
by this disi)lay of force, anil the French colonists enjoyed another
peaceful breathing spell.

On the upper Mississippi, many years had ela])sed and large
settlements been made. in tlie Illinois country east of the river,
before aJiy strong and permanent colony was formed west of the
river. About the year 1735 a f<^'^^■ families located across the
river op])osite Kaskaskia f<ir the purpose of being near the
salt works estaljlished there, where I he men were employed. 'J'bis
little village was located on the bottom lands and was called
Misere, because of the annual ovi'rllow of the river and the conse-
(|uent distress. y\fler many \ears, t>r about 17H5, the village was
removed to higher land near, or on, the present site of St. Gene-

LOUISIANA UNDER Tilli FRENCH CABINET. 209

vicve, Missouri. As the years flew 1)y the place seemed to absorb
the strenj^th of the settlements east of the Mississippi above the
mouth of'^he Kaskaskia ; because, while they slowly died, it stead-
ily flourished and ere long became the center of French people of
that vicinity. It even yet retains its Gallic characteristics.
]:)escendanls are yet living there whose ancestors were among the
first to settle in the upper Alississippi valley. French manners
and speech, with perennial and Parisian vivacity and freshnesS)
may be ol)served on the streets of this ancient village.

In 1736 Father Jean Pierre Aulneau was among the Sioux and
the Kristinaux or Krees.- He had ccmuc out with the \\'rendryes,
but was finally slain by the Prairie Sioux, together with a party
of about twenty Frenchmen, who seem to have been surprised ni
the night, as they were not tortured, but all had their heads cut
off. This occurred very close to the northern boundary of Min-
nesota, perhaps south of the boundary.

In 17 V ^"^ ordinance was issued by the French government,
exempt'ing from duty for ten years the productions exported to
the French West Indies and the productions of those island
imported into Louisiana. Considerable tar and pitch was made
at this time— six or seven thousand barrels. Tlie production of
cotton was not verv profitable, owing to the difficulty of getting
rid of the seed. From thirty to ihirty-five thousand pounds of
indigo were produced annually. The manufacture of tobacco had
increased, but the pro.luclions lacked an outlet. In 1741 several
very severe hurricanes destroyed nearly all ihe crops ol the lower
Mississippi, so thai the people there were reduced almost to Uie
I)oint of starvation, in July, Loiihois wrote, "There are many
families reduced to such a state of destitution that fathers when
they rise in the morning do not know where they will get the
food required by their children." Flour was not to be had at any
price. A cask of common wine sold for nearly one hundred dol-
lars in Spanish money, or one hundred arid forty-eight dollars in
the currency of the colony. Starvation was avoided by bringing
in produce from adjacent districts. The reason why provisions
did not come down from the Wabash or the Illinois is shown by
the following incident : A party of twenty-four Frencli traders
and trappers, accompanied by a woman and a young girl, were
attacked by a force of one hundred and fifty Natchez and Chick-
asaws at or near Point Coupee, and for six hours presented a
stern and successful <lefense. PM>th women showed great brav-
ery, venturing out and cutting oil' the powder-horns of those wlio
1-14

2IO ^I'llI'^ rROl'lNCI' AND THE STATES.

had fallen. They were botii finally shot. Sixteen of the men
perished, but the others cut iheir way out and, thouf^ii some of
tlum were wounded, effected their escape.

The expenses of I<ouisiana in 1741 amounted to $59,091, and
in 1742 to $59,686. At this time tlure is noticed a stead v advance
in all the functions of civil ami colonial government. I,aw began
to be enforced more than ever before in the colony. Increase of
trade occasioned commercial friction, and friction was followed
by suits at law. D'Bienville, the "father of Louisiana," sailed
l)ack to France, never again to set foot on the soil where so many
years of his active life had been spent. Vaudreuil took the reins,
but had many difficulties to encounter. Metallic money had wholly
disappeared, antl card currency had considerably tkpreciated.
Little relief was exjK-rienced l)y the emission of treasury notes and
the strengthening of the treasury at New Orleans.

In 1740 Capt. lU'uoist D'St. Clair became major commandant in
place of Captain DTuiissoniere of the post of the Illinois; but
was himself succeeded three years later by the Chevalier D'Ber-
thel, who remained in command until 1749. The settlers along
the Missouri and its aflluents and in the i)resent Slate of Missouri
along the Mississi]ipi were under the jurisdiction of these officers,
being a part of the district iA Illinois. The settlements in Mis-
souri were built up largely from those along the Illinois river and
along the Kaskaskia delta. No doubt some came directly from
Canada and from New Orleans. According to Father Louis
Yivier, the five French villages of the Kaskaskia delta, or between
the Kaskaskia and the Mississipjii nvers, conlaineil in 1750 about
eleven hundred whites and ab(jut three hundred negro slaves
and sixty Indian slaves. Sieur D'vSt. Clair under a reappoint-
ment, served as major commandant of the Illinois from 1749 to
1751. Fie was then succeeded by Major Macarty, who after nine
years surrendered the command to Capt. Neyon D'Villiers. In
I'A'bruary, 1753, M. D'Kerlerec succeeded DA'aurlreuil as gov-
ernor of the Province of Louisiana. The latter was appointed
governor-general of Canada. Tiie former served until June, 1763,
when M. D'/Xbluidie assumed the reins of government of ihe Prov-
ince as director-general.

New Orleans was beginning to have a steady trade with the
other Gulf cities and with J'jnope. karge (pianlilies of food sup-
plies, stich as corn, Horn-, i)ork, etc., flowed down from the upper
Mississippi country; in fad Niw ()ileans could not gi'l along
without such shipments. As for Ihe JMcnch settlers of the upper
coimlry, it may be said ihal Mew ( )rleans was their only marl;et.

\ LOUISIANA UNDER THE FRENCH CABINET. 21 1

I and was absolutely indispensable. Life in Louisiana at this time

j was extremely picturesque. Everywhere the soil was cultivated;

mining- and adventure had been largely given up. Hunting and
trading- were extensively carried on. Many Spanish horses began
L to arrive from the West. Large convo)s or llutillas descended

♦ > the Mississippi loaded with the products of the upper country.

These voyages dou-n \vere usually matle from December to Feb-
ruary ; as soon as th.e cargoes had been sold, such boats as were
needed were filled with sugar, tobacco, rice, cotton, tea, cofTee,
. etc., and the tiresome journey up the river was begun. In New
Orleans the jaunty and effeminate airs of Parisian society were
to be observed at all social functions. Vaudreuil, himself a court
favorite, encouraged the introduction of Hurojican fashions and
social conduct. The I'nglish were not only crowding into the
Mississippi valley, but were stirring up the Chickasaws to war
on the French. Perhaps they also incited the Sioux to tjireaten
so seriously I'^ort lleaubarnais at I^ike Pepin on the Mississippi
,\ that the French garrison there abandoned the post for a time.

About this time the I^dississipj)! between Kaskaskia and New
Orleans was actually captured by the Choctaws, and the communi-
cation was cut off with the ui)per country. All this indicated the
mfluences of the ]\nglish, and was a prelude to the Seven Years'
} War which began in 1755. liut the French were aroused and

j commenced to fortify all the exposed points. Fort Chartres later

\ became the most powerful ix)St in America, thanks to Governor

V IVKerlerec. lU' 1750 the French had eight iiUieiielied p^sts in

^' Louisiana oiUside of New Orleans, among which were those at

Natchitoches. Pointe Coupee, on the Mississippi near the mouth
of Red river, one at the mouth of the Arkansas, and one at Saint
Genevieve, Missouri. Regardless of the claims and protests of
the French, the Ohio Company received a grant of 600,000 acres
on the south side of the Ohio river. Christopher Gist had pene-
trated this country for them in 1750. When Captain D'Aubrey
evacuated Fort Duqucsne (Pittsburg) at the commencement of
the Seven Years' War, he retreated down the Ohio to Fort
Massac, and thence up the Mississippi to Fort Chartres.

As early as 1724 when Fort Orleans was built in the Missouri
country, that portion of the Province began to be called "Mis-
souri," in distinction to the TUinois country proper. Its trade had
become very large and valuable,, but prior to 1745 had not been
stibjeete<l lo many oflicial annoyances. P>eginnini^'- on the 1st of
January, 1745, Governor V^'uidreuil, following tlie old and i)er-
nicioUs custom of granting monopolies in order to secure revenues

212

THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

for the crown, gave the exchisive right of trading on the Mis-
souri and its branches and all the territory drained by them for
the term of a little more than five years to M. D'Rousscau. The
grantee was required to build a fort in the Missouri country, sup-
ply the garrison with subsistence, pay its chief officer annually
$360, maintain peace with the Indians of the district at his own
expense, keep on hand enough merchandise to supply the wants
of the Indians, and to transport to llie fort the supplies needed by
its commander. Vaudreuil rcgardicl this monoi)oly as a wise
step, because it would restrict the illicit trading with the natives
and force the colonists to cultivate the soil, lie even deprecated
the introduction of negroes into the Missouri country, believing
that their absence would compel the inhabitants to go to work
for themselves. He was a believer in the value of the mines of
the upper country, and spent considerable crown money uselessly
in that direction. The following was the estimated population of
the Province in 1744:

White male Blacks of
inhabitants. both sexes.

At the Balize vSome soldiers 30

New Orleans - 800 300

German Coast 100 200

I'ointe Coupee 200 400

Natchitoches 60 200

Natchez 8 15

Arkansas 12 10

Illinois 300 600

Petit Ougas 40 5

Missouri 200 10

Pascagoulas 10 60

Mobile 150 200

Totals 1,880 2,030

Women and children estimated ... 1.500

Total 3..^So

Troops 800

Grand Total 4,180 2,030

In 17.13 Governoi- Vaudreuil issued an ordinance rei|uiring all
])lanters almig- the Mississippi to |>ul their levees in safe- condition
within a given time u[)(>n ]»aiii of l<jrfeiting their [;lanlalii)ns to

{

LOUISIANA UNDER THE FRENCH CABINET.

213

; the crown. The card currency which had been issued to take

, the place of the depreciated money of the India Company, became

itself so depreciated within ten years that it required three dollars
I to equal one of coin. In i\pril, 1744, these card promises were

f ordered retired on the basis of two and a half 10 one of coin, and

(\ the holders were paid in drafts of the treasury of France, sulTer-

I ing again a severe shave or discount.

Owing to the war with Hngland, preparations to defend the
mouth of the Mississippi were made Iiy Governor Vaudreuil. He
built two forts, one on each side of the river, at English Turn, and
at Plagueniine Turn, down the river from New Orleans, "of mud
, and facines, with epaulments, the shelving sides of which are to

y be fenced and secured with hurdles, according to the plans and

I drawings of Devergcs. I'or the construction of these fortifica-

tions, I have ordered, jointly with Mr. Lenormant, the inhabitants
of New Orleans and of the neighboring country to send in the
fifth of their negroes during six weeks. I hope that in ten days
there will be a battery of ten eighteen-pounders in each fort."
He further said, "With regard to the forces of the colony, I can
dispose of four hundred white men, five or six hundred Indians
belonging to the small nations, and from two to three hundred
negroes who are to be relietl upon. But we are wanting in arms
and aniniuniti(jn." As no attack by the llritish was anticipated
on the upjjcr Mississippi country, no altein])t to fortify any post
there was considered. In 1746 a terrible hurricane destroyed the
crops of the lower country to such an extent as to threaten famine
for that portion of the col(.)ny ; it \vas saved by shipments from the
Illinois. Governor V'^audreuil wrote, "We receive from the Illi-
nois flour, corn, bacon, hams both of bear and hog, corned pork,
wild beef, myrtle and beeswax, cotton, tallow, leather, tobacco,
lead, copper, bufifalo, wool, venison, poultry bear's grease, oil,
skins, fowls and hides. Their boats come down annually in the
latter part of December and return in February." But the set-
tlers of the upper country were forced to come down in convoys
(in order to withstand the attacks of the alert and savage Chicka-
saw s.
I By 1747 the expenses of the colony amounted to $92,582. At

^ this time Chevalier D'Berthel was commander of the Illinois dis-

V trict, which embraced all the Missouri country. All the tribunals

} ' of the upper country were subordinate to the superior council at

New Orlerms. 'I'he period of exemption from duly on exports
and unports was extended beyond the fixed term of ten years, and
was re-extended, A little later the granting to the Ohio Com-

214 '^'''^^- PROi'IXCII AM) THE STATES.

- Vi

pany of an immense tract in the ( )hio valley filled all Louisiana J ]

with excitement and forebodinj^^s. Conilicts began to occur i

between the French and the F.ngli^^h traders, in which the hidian
tribes became involvetl. In 1750 there were at the ctmimand of
the governor eight hundred ami fifiy soldiers, divided into seven-
teen companies. The government agreed to take all the tobacco
raised in tlie colony at $5.50 per hundred. British agents, it was
thouglit, were busily at work among the savages, because at no
time in the history of the colony were so many attacks made upon
the French settlements from Quebec to the Balize. The Seven
Years' War had already commenced in America. Even the tribe
of the Illinois was on the point of joining the Fnglish against the
French. About this date sugar cane was introduced into the col-
ony from Cuba for th.e first time by the Jesuits, and the first crop
was grown by them in the St. Mary suburb of New Orleans.
Wax for candles from berries was (juite a "fad." Owing to the
numerons attacks of the Indians ami to the threatened invasion by
the English, the colony in 1751 was supplied with better protec-
lion than ever before, there being here two thousand regulars, of
whom 975 were at New Orleans, 300 in the Illinois, and 50 each
at the Arkansas, Natchitoches, i'ointe Coupee and the Cicrman
Coast. The commander at the Arkansas was Ensign Delino.
Serious complaints were forwarded to France against the corrup-
tion existing in the colony under the administration of Governor
Vaudreuil, and the lalkr was openly accused of dishonoral)le con-
ducl. In 1751 the last shipment of poor girls to the colony was
made, tlure being sent over si\l>, and the most of them wore
married to soldiers who were honorably discharged, under the
rule previously mentioned. Upon their marriage, they were given
a start in life Jjy the government. The Illinois district was at this
time placed under tiie command of Lieutenant IMacarty, and
embraced six villages: Fort Chartres, Kaskaskia, Cahokia,
St. Philip, Prairie de Rocher and St. Genevieve. The upper
country was in an exceedingly prosperous condition. They
raised from three to five times as much produce as they could
find a market for. The lower country was also in better condi-
tion than ever before.

Probably through British influence the Chickasaws froin 1747
to 1752 nnewed their attacks on tlu- iM-ench sclllemenls and on tin:
fleets' of i)irogues which descended the Mississip|)i to New
Orleans with the produce of the u|)per country. Again the sit-
uation became unbearable, antl again it was resolved to send an
expedition against them. In 1752, Governor I)' Vaudreuil, with

LOUISIANA UNlJliR TlUi FRENCH CABIN tiT. 215

a force of seven hundred Frenchmen and a larg-e number of Choc-
taws, advanced up tlie Mobile and Tombigbee rivers, but the
Chickasaws evaded liim. Having destroyed many of tlieir vil-
lages and improvements and left a detachment of soldiers at Fort
Tombigbee to cliecU their Uiarauding expeditions against the
Mississippi convoys and the French settlement, he returned and
disbanded his army. But they were again subdued and quieted
for a term of years.

Much of the trouble between the Iro(iuois and the western
tribes was due to the intrigues and vv'ars between the Frencii and
the English. Both countries struggled to secure an alliance with
the powerful Six Nations, but the Hnglish were successful, owing
to their proximity. The French secured the friendship of nearly
all the western nations. As a result, all wars between France and
Fngland were followed by wars l.ietween the Irocjuois on one side
and the western tribes on the other. The friendship of the
Indians was sought for the purpose of obtaining tiieir fur frade,
as well as a claim to the soil occupied by them. At a later day,
the English, through their treaiy with the Iroquois, claimed all
the Ohio and Wabash valleys as a {jart of the Iroquois domain.
This contention cut an important figure at a later date — when the
all-important time came to draw the lines of demarkation between
the two countries in America. The Iroquois claimed, as a matter
of fact, the Ohio valley as far as the Mississippi, and persistently
permitted the English traders to reach that river through tlieir
territory. But the right of the English to any part of the Mis-
siss!p])i bank was emphalically denied by the French, ami in real-
ity was wholly unfounded, l^veii on the rights of the Iroquois,
their claims were unsound, because that consolidated tribe did
not conquer the country to the Mississippi. Through the Iro-
quois, the English ever tried to induce the western tribes to break
with the French but their efforts were not often successful.

Tlie ex])lorations of Pierre CJaultier Verendrye and his sons
in the northwest were very important to the interests of France
in that quarter. With a small company of Canadian boatmen
and hunters and a Jesuit missionary, he left Montreal in June,
1731, and in due time reached Fake Superior. They went to
Pigeon river, now part of the boundary between Canada and
Minnesota, ascended the same till they came to Ixainy Fake, and
there built a fort and passed the winter. This ff)rt was called
St. Pierre. The following year they passed on up the rivers and
in July built Fort vSt. Charles on the Fake of the W^oods, locating
it on the west side. Here they passed the winter of I73--3-

2i6 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

Their large supply of peltries was sent to Montreal. In 1734
Verendr^e sent one of his sons antl a number of Frenchmen to
Lake Winnipeg where tliey built Fort Alaurepas and from this
point they again sent to Canada an immense quantity of peltries.
In 1735 one of his sons died at Fort St. Charles on the Lake of the
Woods, from wounds inflicted by the Sioux. In 1736 they built
Fort Rouge at or near the mouth of Assiniboine river. So bad
was the outlook in 1737, that it seemed likely they would be
forced to leave the country. Only the forts and the guns of the
Frenciimen prevented the massacre of the whole party by the
Sioux. The next year they became quieter, whereupon Veren-
drye went further into the Sioux country and built Fort de la
Rcine on the water course near Lake Afanitoba. During all their
stay in this country they had often heard of the ATandans, a nation
of very intelligent Indians living far to the southwest. Late in
1738 V^erendrye determined to seek them. Takins^- with him
about twenty Frenchmen and about thirty friendly Indians, he
pushed westward to what is thought to have been Turtle moun-
tains. On November 28, he reached the ATandan outposts and
on the 3d of December entered their villages, lie left two men
among them, with their consent, to learn their language, took
possession of the country in the name of France, and returned
to Fort de la Reine, arriving February, 1739. In this year Fort
Dauphine was built near Lake Alanitoba by a party under the
orders of one of the two remaining sons of Verendrye. While
here the son went out and exploretl the v^askalchewan country.
In this year, also, \'eren(h)e returned to Canada for a sup[)ly of
merchandise, but came back in 1741.

The stories which the two men mentioned brought to \^eren-
drye after a year or two, concerning tlie western country, deter-
mined him to make another attemjit to reach the mountains. lie
sent his eldest son Pierre and two other men to tiie Alandans, but
as they could procure there no guides they v/ere forced to return.
In 1742 another attempt was made. Pierre and his younger
brother, accompanied by two of the bravest and best Canadians
in the West, went to the ATandans, and, having procured horses,
marched in a westerly direction across the plains. They crossed
the Little Alissouri, thence marched to the headwaters of Tongue
river, and, still advancing westward, reached a spur of the Big
Horn mountains. They now turned back, but passed farther to
the south, reaching probably the l^lack Hills, whence they
marched almost directly eastward to the villages of the Sioux on
the Missouri. They rejoined their coiupanioiis at I'ort La I\ciue

LOUISIANA UNDER THE FRENCH CABINET. 217 ^

on the 2d of July. Tlie object of finding- the great divide between
the Missouri basin and tiie Pacilic slope ^vas not accomplished.

The explorations of Verendr3'e were continued in the north-
west by Le;;-ardeur D'St. Pierre, who went out in 1750; but after
three years he had acconi[)lished nothing more than his predeces-
sor, lie sent an expedition to the Saskatchewan under Chevalier
D'Niverville, and a fort called La Jonquiere, was built on that
river three hundred miles from its mouth; but it was soon aban-
doned and the party fell l;ack to Fort La Reine. It was in 1745
that the Dritish parliament olTw-red a reward of twenty thousand
pounds to the discoverer of a practical northwest passage. It
was at this time, also, that F.ngland put forth her strongest claims
to the Ohio and the Wabash valleys, based princiijally upon the
treaties with the Iroquois many years before and with the Miamis
in 1748. In addition it was claimed that the English colonial
traders had entered the Wabash valley as early as the year 1723;
but this claim made no weight against the French who had -been
tliere for many previous years.

While the French explorations in the West under government
auspices were ostensibly undertaken for the purpose of discov-
ering a water route to the South Sea, the participants usually
lost sight of that object. Father Nau writing to Bather Bonin in
1735 said, "The v^'estern sea would have been discovered long
ago, if people had wished it. Alonsieur, the Count D'Maurepas,
is right when he says that the officials in Canada are looking not
for the western sea, but for the sea of beaver."

Tlie prices of American commodilies did not vary greatly from
year to year. A silver fox was worth six beavers, twenty sols
being the price of one beaver. Marten, otter, and bear cubs were
worth the same price as the beaver. A black fox v^'as worth
twenty or more beavers. Father Vivier said in 1750: "In for-
mer years when eig^ht or ten ships entered the Mississippi, that
was considered a great number; this year over forty entered;
mostly from Martinique and San Domingo." At this period the
largest settlement on the Mississippi above New Orleans was at
the German coast. A palisaded fort stood at Pointe Coupee. In
this vicinity were more tlian sixty residences strung along the
river for five or six leagues, according to Father Vivier. At
Natchez was a garrison and a fort. Near the mouth of the
Arkansas was also a fort and a garrison. This fort was a famous
resoil (if (ho (•(HIvovs which (Ksccndecl the river and slopped Ju're
lo rest and secure fresli provisions. Thi'y likewise received pro-
tection here from (he Chickasaws to the cast, fn 17^18 a large

2l8 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

band of that tribe attacked this post, killed several persons and
carried away thirteen captives, 'i'he rest of the whites managed
to g-et inside of the fort, where there were fourteen soldiers; but
two of the latter were killed. It was afterward discovered that
among the attacking party was a French drummer who had
deserted from the Arkansas garrison itself. At this time nearly
all of the Indian .slaves among tlic Illinois were of the Panis tribe
beyond the Mississippi — this was true to such an extent that the
word "slave" was locally supplanted by that of "Panis," meaning
the same thing. The Panis wer^' the modern Pawnees.

One of the early missionaries, J'^alher l^niis Vivier, seems to
liave a very high opinion of the Missouri river. Here is what he
wrote in 1750: "Mississipi>i in llie Illinois language means 'The
Great River.' It seems to have usurped that name from the Mis-
souri. Before its junction with that river, the Mississippi is of
no great size, its current is slight, while the Missouri is wider,
deeper, more rapid, and takes its rise much farther away. Sev-
eral rivers of considerable size empty into the Mississippi ; but the
Missouri alone seems to pour into il more water than all the other
rivers put together. Here is the proof of it ; The water of most—
I might say all — of the rivers that fall into the Mississippi is only
piassably good, and that of several is positively unwholesome ; that
of the Mississip])i itself, above its junction witii the Missouri, is
none of the best; on the contrary, that of the Missouri is the best
water in the world. Now that 01 the Mississiiipi, from its junc-
tion with the Missouri to llie. sea, becomes e\i-ellenl ; the water
of the Missouri must iherel'oK.' pudomiuate. The lirsl traveler.s
who cum- tfirougii Canada discowietl the Mississippi; that is the
reason wli)' the latter has ac(|uired the name of 'gr',.at' at the
expense of the glory of the other."''

In 1752 the expenses of the colony ai.uounted to $172,191.
D'Kerlerec succeeded D'Vautlreuil as governor in 1753, and one
of his first steps was to undertake to alienate the Choctaws from
the Knglish traders, who wore claiming and exercising the right
to coine to the left bank of the Mississippi and to both banks of
the Wabash and the Ohio. Put the Choctaws answered that they
Vv'ere belter treated by the luiglish, who studied their wants and
let them have merchandise at a less i)rice than the French traders.
They said, "Satisfy ail our wants ;ind we shall now and forever
renounce the Knglish." To meet this state of afTairs, the gov-
ernor called for lar}>;er shipments of merchandise, lie olTered

■■ ♦TliwiiiU'ii's icisHiie ol Jt-swit Kfliil inns iiiil oUicr l>n( uiiiriihi.

LOUISIANA UN Dim THE FRUNCII CABINET. 219

ransoms for Frencii prisoners among the Indians, and made
important changes in the oflicers of the various posts. Mis
troops were reduced to tliirteen hundred and fifty regulars and
about five hundred mihtia. In 1754 D'Kerlercc wrote, "The
Knglish are moving everywhere about us, and threaten to niier-
rupt our communications willi the lUinois." It Vv-as this year
tliat Captain Vilhers, with a cohnnn of troops from Fort Ciiartres,
went down the Mississippi and up the Ohio to Peiuisylvania to
assist in repelhng thic Enghsh from the Aheghany valley. The
colonial expense of 1754 amounted to $178,177. D'lverlerec,
having propitiated the Choctaws, received the designation from
them of ''Father of the Choctaws." This year Ca[)tain Favrot
was sent to the Illinois country with four companies of fifty men
each and an abundant supply of provisions and ammunition. The
upper country for the first time was thought to be in danger from
the British of the Atlantic coast, and was strengthened. Addi-
tional forces were sent to Ship Island, and the fortifications at the
English Turn were repaired, lie appealed to France for five
hundred more soldiers, but Louis XV was too indifferent to pay
much attention to his wants or his demnnds. It was at this time
that a bitter war for supremac)' was waged between the Capu-
chins and the Jesuits.

By 1757 the English fleets had almost cut off all communication
between Eouisiana and France; so much so that D'Kerlerec was
forced to send to Vera Cruz for gunpowder. English privateers
Mailed like sharks around the mouths of the Mississippi, reaily
to pounce down ou any iMcnch \essel that dared mal;e its appear-
ance, going or coming. D'Kerlerec felt his insecurity, as he had
to guard the whole line of the ]\lississipi)i with a handfid of men.
The Indians began to be troublesome, when in 1758 a ship-load
of supjilies arrived just in time to quiet them. The Choctaws
and the Alibamons could place in the field seven thousand war-
riors. "These two nations are the bulwarks of the colony, and
they must be conciliated cost what it may," wrote D'Kerlerec.

It was at this time that he formulated his plan of uniting all
the triljcs of the Mississippi with the object of moving against
the English of the Atlantic coast in order to divert them from a
concentration upon Canada. The plan was an excellent one, and
should have received the assistance and support of the home gov-
ernmciu. It is not improbable that such an expedition nn'ght
even have saved Crmada by (liv'idiii,g the I'ritish force sent to that
I'rovince. General Wolfe Avould hardly have appeared on the
Plains of Abraham with so nmch confidence and prestige, had a

220 TUB I'ROriXCE AND THE STATES.

force of ci.<jht tliousand to twelve tliousand French and Indians
threatened the Eng-Hsh colonies in his rear. But Louis XV was
asleep in the arms of his courtesans, and his courtiers were
steeped in debauchery ; they had no time nor inclination to listen
to the death wails of the most magnificent colony in all the world.
The Knglish, in 1758, suffered a terrihle defeat at the hands of the
French and Indians imder Ca])tain D'Aubrey of Louisiana at h'ort
Duquesne or what is now Pittsburg. Had that attack been fol-
lowed up as it should have been by the whole strength of the
West, the disastrous results of this war to France might have
assumed a different stor}-. The impotence of the French court,
not the French people, caused the loss of Canada and all of
Louisiana to France. The victory of Captain D'Aubrey was one
of the most notable of the war, :unl opened a path to the heart of
the Atlantic settlements of the 1-nglish. It was accomplished by
the men of the Illinois, the Wabash and the Mississippi, men who
knew how to fight after t!ie savage or the civilized method. ' P>ut
they were not sustained and in the end were compelled to fall
back.

Trouble arose between Governor D'Kerlerec and Inlendent
Rochemore. The latter without authority called in 1,800,000
livres of paper nioney circulating in the colony, and replaced it
with an ccpial amount of a new emission in order to distinguish
his administration. He was shariily reprimanded for this insane act.
He attacked Governor D'Kerlerec. anil accusetl him of carrying on
an illegal traffic with the Indians, antl announced that the most
ONlravaganl expenses were inilul;;ed in. The governor retaliated,
and in 1751^ Kocheniore was dismisseit from ollice, together with
several others, all of whom were found to have wrongfully put
their hands in tiie public treasury. Their dishonesty was only
another evidence to prove that the officials of Louisiana from start
to finish had robbed the colony and crushed it in the dust. Could
the facts be knowii of the corruption under the governments of
Crozat and the Company of the Indies, history would no doubt
assume an altogether different aspect. The annual deficit on
Louisiana was considered a great hamper on the struggles of
France for life and commercial supremacy; in fact France was
tired of the annual losses of the colony, but should not have been,
owing to the immense value of th.- I'rovince, which all statesmen
now recognized. Instead of reinforcing the army in Louisiana,
the king withdrew thirty-six com|)anies in order to reduce the
expense, and in order that they might be used elsewhere. Late
in 1760 New Orleans was fortified. In 1761 it was ascertained

LOUISIANA UNDER THE FRENCH CABINET. 221 \

"\
that over seven million livres of paper money vv^ere in circulation
in the colony and that it had depreciated from four to five hun-
dred per cent. At this time the Choctaws, who had heen
neglected, were on the point of taking the warpath against the
French, and assistance was asked for, prayed for, but in vain.

At this juncture, late in 1761, France applied to vSpain for
assistance against England. In order to incite Spain to this
course, France stated that she could no longer hold Louisiana •
against the English, in which case there would no longer he a
bulwark between the Si)anish and the British colonies. Spain
was asked for pecuniary assistance, and due restitution was faith-
fully promised by the French amljassador. U'Kerlerec, upon the
receipt of tins news, sent couriers in all directions to acquaint the
Indians and the Spanish that France and Spain would unite to
crush England. But Spain was slow to act. And in the mean-
time the Indians were again becoming importunate for their cus-
tomary supplies. D'Kerlerec w as now in despair, and no wonder,
ThePVench armies and lleets were melting away before the Eng-
lish onset, and he only too plainly saw that if affairs continued
long- in the same straits Louisiana would go with the rest to the
British crown. His letters show the extremity in which he was
placed. To add to his perplexity and indignation, another fierce
attack was made upon him by under officers at New Orleans,
who were themselves stealing everything they could lay their
hands on, and in the meantime were crying loudly "Stop thief."
The up[)er country was com[)aratIvely (piiet and prosperous.
This was the contlition oi thin-s when all of the Frovince east of
the Alississijjpi was ceded to the English.

Governor D'Kerlerec was accused of various offences, among
which were imjustifiable assuniiyLions of authority, violations of
official duty and the expenditure of ten millions of livres in four
years. It was during h.is t( rm that the new Fort Charlies
was built at a cost of about one million dollars, a sum out of all
proportion, apparently, to the actual expense. The fort was the
strongest and best ever erectcrl in the Mississippi valley, and was
in form an irregular quadrangle, with sides four hundred and
ninety feet in length. The wall was built of free-stone and was
over two feet thick, pierced with looj^holes and flanked with
powerful bastions. The interior was thoroughly appointed with
all the- necessary buildings and magazines. It d(X's not api)ear
that h'Kerlerec deserved (he op])ri)brinm cast upon him b\' the
government of France, ilowever, upon his arrival in I'aris, he
was thrown into the Bastile and kept there for many months, and

222

THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

soon after his release, so intense was his grief over the accusa-
tions and the imprisonment, he died of sorrow and humihation.

An examination of the facts convinces that a great injustice
was done him. There is nothing to show that he [)Ocketed any
of the large sums spent for civic and military improvement; on
the contrary, he is known to have been an earnest advocate of the
importance of strengthening all the French posts on the Missis-
sippi, o\ving to the threats of tlie English colonies. Two years
after he took the helm, England and France were convulsed in
the dreadful Seven Years' War. which shook all Europe and
causetl many a throne to tremlUe and many a king to quake.
Under the stipulations of the "family compact," France and
Spain later were allied for the purpose of checking the preten-
sions of Great Britain to the masrery of the seas and to colonial
supremacy in America. Under llie magical leadership of the
elder l^itt, the navy of Great iSrilain not only swept every fleet
before it, but tiireatened wholly lo destroy the naval power* of
France and Spain and capture the maritime commerce of both
nations. Canada was soon in lIic hands of the victors. The
passes of the Alleghanies were Idled with the colonial troops,
among whom was the youthful George Washington, learning his
first lessons of war. New Orleans was threatened from the
gulf; and had the war continued would likewise have fallen to
the prowess of the English fleets. It was a time to make heroic
efforts, even though the cost v/as an almost limitless expenditure
of money and sacriflce of human blood. D'Kerlerec seems to
have realized not only the inimincncy of the danger to the Mis-
sissipi)i valley, but the crushing ell'ect of its loss upon the com-
mercial and naval strengtii of I'^ance. lie therefore spent
immense sinns to fortify and equip every post along the Missis-
sippi. Why not, when such a course was prudent, consistent
and necessary, so far as he could surmise, to maintain French
interests along that river? i'\:)rt I Ji;\rtres was the French outpost
to the north on the Mississippi. Upon it would fall the first blow,
sb.ould the English gain the mastery of Canada or succeed in
j)enetrating westward through the notches of the Alleghanies. It
would seem that a prudent olticer, with the glory of France warm
in his heart, C(nfld not dt) (nherwise, under the burning impulses
of loyalty, than make every ( Tfort If) meet liis country's ftjc with
bristling cannon over adamantine walls. Nor could he watch
Avhere all the money went. IK' must trust subordinates. The
lilies of iM.mce — [Iw. nieniorabli- tidrs of history, streaming back
a thousand years — could not be weighed in the balance with the

LOUISIANA UNDER THE FRENCH CABINET.

223

sordid counting of a few miserable livres or the shedding of loyal,
volunteer blood. He spent tiie money necessary to protect his
country's honor — reared imprc,i;nal)le walls, mounted with impas-
siuned cannon, anil heard thereby the silver voice of his own
patriotism in approval. But what did he receive in return? The
slander of associates, the calumny of rivals, the ingratitude of
his king, the pitiless walls of the Bastile, the ignominious brand
of the criminal. No wonder he grieved at the glaring injustice
and pined under the displeasure of the French court. Rascals
do not feel such stings ; the deliberate criminal is proof against
both ingratitude and injustice. The honest, the patriotic, are
killed by such blows, and thus in all probability died Governor
D'Kerlerec.

When the French were driven down tlie Ohio river from Fort
Duquesne (Pittsburg) in 1758, they v/ere connnaniled by Capt.
Charles D'Aul)ry, who had gone there from the Illinois country
with a detachment of French and Indians to assist in repelling
the Fnglish. Passing down the beautiful Ohio, he stopped about
thirty-five miles from its mouth, where, on the north bank, he
built Fort Massac, named in honor of the young officer left there
in command with one hundred men. D'Aubry continued on
down the Ohio, and then up the Mississippi to Fort Chartres,
whence he had gone. Under the terms of the treaty of peace in
1763, both forts — Massac and Chartres — were turned over to the
British. Maj. Arthur T.oftus of the Twenty-second English
regiment, was sent u]) the Mississippi from Pensacola to take
military possession of the post of Fort Chartres. lie started in
February, 1764, with a force of over three hundred men and a
considerable number of women and children, all loaded in ten
heavy boats and two pirogues ; but when opposite Davion BlufT
was attacked from both sides of the river by the Indians and
about a dozen of his men were killed and wounded. Presuming
that the French were responsible for this attack, Major Loftus
returned to New Orleans, but was emphatically informed by
D'Abbadie that the French were in no way responsible for the
outrage. A little later, another attempt made by the English
under the command of Captain Piltnian to ascend the Missis-
sippi to take possession of the French ])Osts was prudently checked
at New Orleans, owing to the threatem'ng aspect of the Indians
along the Mississippi. They were still the friends of the French,
and could not be so soon ri'conciled to their new masters. Maj.
Ivobert Farmer, of the Thirly-fourth English regiment, started a

224 Tim I'RonxcE .iND Tin: states.

little later with the same object in view ; but he also stopped owing
to the threats of the Indians.

This persistent hostility of the savages along the Mississippi
and in the Illinois country at last became unbearable. In Decem-
ber, 1765, a force was again sent up the river under Major
Farmer sufikient to withstand any attack from the Indians ; but
Fort Chartres was already in the possession of the English. In
the autumn of 1765, Capt. Thomas Sterling descended the Ohio
from Fort Pitt with over one hundred soldiers of the Forty-second
regiment, sailed up the J^.iississippi to Fort Chartres, and took
possession of that important stronghold. This possession did
not quiet the Indians ; whereupon it was resolved to remove all
the French officers in the Illinois country and replace them with
those of the British army. An expedition sent down the Oiiio
and up the Mississippi to Kaskaskia under the command of Lieu-
tenant Fraser, was too weak to effect this object, the commander
being glad to escape with his life and in disguise down the Mis-
sippi to New Orleans. At this time the famous Ottawa chief,
Pontiac, was encamped near Fort Chartres with about four hun-
dred warriors. lie called upon St. Ange D'Bellcrive, then in
command of the fort, and requested an alliance of the French and
the Indians against the English, but was prudently evaded by that
officer, because peace existed between the two countries. In the
spring of 1765, Col. George Croghan sailed down the Ohio from
Pittsburg with a small force of lM\'nchmcn and Indians. While
at the "Old Shawanee Village," a few miles below the mouth of
the Wabash, they were attacked by a body of Mascoutins and
Kickapoos and several were killed and the others taken prisoners.
They were conveyed to the present Vincennes, and thence to Fort
Ouatanon near the present Lafayette, Ind., where Croghan was
released through the influences of the French residents there, an
act which should have been performed by the French at Vin-
cennes. Without going to Fort Chartres, as he had originally
intended, Croghan contented himself with securing the friend-
ship of the Indians in what is now northern Indiana and southern
Michigan, among whom was Pontiac. As the conciliation of the
savages was the paramount ol)iect of these efftjrts of the iMiglish,
llicy were given up when that finality was reached. Captain
St. Ange gracefully surrendered Fort Chartres ; but not wishing
to become an English subject, retired across the river to the pres-
ent St. Louis, where he still nn'ghl witness the Iri-color of France
flying proudly in (he air.

It was during 1765 that the exiled Acadians, driven from their

LOUISIANA UNDER THE FRENCH CABINET.

225

homes in Nova Scotia, came to the hospitable lands of Louisiana
to begin anew the strugg-le of life. In that year, prior to the
middle of May, there arrived of them about six hundred and
fifty men, women and children, in some instances with broken
family groups and all poverty stricken and almost helpless. But
it was realized that they must he provided for. In their veins
flowed tlie blood of France and in their hearts were the precious
memories of ancestral and national i)ride. 'i'he acting governor
gave orders that for some weeks they should draw from the mili-
tary stores tlie same rations drawn by the soldiers. They were
assigned a fine stretch of land along the western bank of the
Mississippi in the district of tlie Attakapas and Opelousas, where
the extraordinary fertility of the soil promised abundance to the
gardener or other agriculturalist. Mere they built their rude
houses and formed their vine-clad homes. Early the next year,
over two luuulrcd more arri\Td and joined their friends along the
Mississippi. Soon they were all comfortably homed from a* point
below Baton Rouge ui/w.-ird to Pointc Coupee on a tract which
from that day to this has been called the "Acadian Coast." Their
thriftiness enablerl them soon to forget the distresses oiF their
inhuman exile. They were intelligent, moral, and industrious;
and from them have sprung some of the proudest and wealthiest
families of the Pelican State.

An account of the western country, written by Le Page du
Pratz previous to the Seven Years' War of 1755-62, contains a
singularlv strong and correct view of the importance of the Kas-
kaskia region. The account was first i)ublished in 1758, before
the results of that war had been reached. If the reader will
recollect that there were no railways then, and that navigable
water courses into the heart of the continent were all important,
the force of the following observations will be recognized : "The
most important place in this country, and perhaps in all North
America, is at the forks of the Mississippi, where the Ohio 'falls
into that river, which like another ocean is the general receptacle
of all the rivers that water the interior parts of that vast conti-
nent. Here those large and navigable rivers, the Ohio River of
the Cherokees (Tennessee), Wabache, Illinois, Missouri and
Mississippi, besides many others which spread over the whole
continent from the Apalachian mountains to the mountains of
New Mexico, upwards of one thousand miles, all meet together
at this spot. ... In short, this place is the center of that
vast continent ami of all the nations in it, and seems to be intended
by nature to command them both; for which reason it ought no
I-15

I ■

226 THE PRO y INCH AND THE STATES.

longer to be neglected by Britain. . . . The Canadians
who are numerous in Louisiana are most of them at the Illinois.
They bring their wives with them or marry the French
or India women. The ladies even venture to make this long and
painful voyage from Canada, in order to end their days in a
country which the Canadians look upon as a terrestrial paradise.
It is this that has made the French undergo so many long and
perilous voyages to North America, upwards of two thousand
miles, ... in order to get to this settlement of the Illinois,
which is nigh the forks of the Mississij^pi, the most important
place in all the inland parts of North America, to which these -j,
French will sooner or later remove from Canada and there erect
another Montreal that will be much more dangerous and prejudi-
cial to us than ever the other in Canada was. They will here be
in the midst of all their old friends and allies and much more con-
venient to carry on a trade with them, to spirit them up against
the English, &c., than ever they were at Montreal. To this settle-
ment, where they likewise are not without good hopes of finding
mines, the French will forever be removing as long as any of
them are left in Canada. . . . The great river Missouri
which runs to the northwest parts of New Mexico, much farther
than we have any good accounts of that continent. . . .
affords the most extensive navigation of any river we know ; so
that it may justly be compared to an inland sea, which spreads
over nine-tenths of all the continent of North America ; all of
which the French pretend to lay claim to for no other reason but
because they were possessul of a petty settlement at the mouth
of that river (the Mississijipi). . , . The hills on the west
side of the Mississippi are generally suspected to contain mines,
as well as the mountains of New Mexico, of which they are a
continuation. But the fertile plains of Louisiana are perhaps
more valuable than all the mines of Mexico, which there would
be no doubt of if they were duly cultivated. They will breed
and maintain ten times as man) peoj)le and supply them with
many more necessaries and articles of trade and navigation than
the richest mines of Peru."*

This was a remarkably correct view of the importance of the
western country — Louisiana Province. The vast interior from
the Alleghanies to the Pockies, when densely populated, must
send its immense commerce down the ATissouri, the upper Missis-
sippi, the Ohio and its branches (ilie Tennessee, Cumberland and

*I,e I'aj'.f till Pratz.

LOUISIANA UNDER THE FRENCH CABINET. 227

Wabash), to the central point on tlTe Mississippi from the Mis-
souri to the Ohio. This spot was pre-eminently the commercial
heart of the continent; and had not railways arrived on the scene
to destroy all calculations, this would have become the most
important business point in all the world. Had the genius of
man not devised railways, the banks of all the large rivers would
now be occupied by continuous towns; and what would now be
the extent of the river commerce? Figures are worse than use-
less—they are confounded. No, the writer above, reasoning from
the wisdom of that day, was wholly correct: so was Governor
D'Kerlcrec, who built Fort Chartres on such a grand scale to with-
stand the probable attacks of the English, advancing through the
notches of the Alleghanies or westward on the blue and billowy
waters of the Great Lakes.

It cannot be said that Louis XIV was an enthusiastic advocate
of American exploration and discovery. He was willing that
such should be carried on, and that France should get the benefit
of it, but did not empkjy heroic measures nor spend any large
sums of French revenue to found colonies in the New World.
At all times when Louisiana was under the direct rule of the
French government, the colonies were permitted to languish, suf-
fer and take care of tln-mselves. The heroic La Salle received
little assistance from him. Had it not been for the jealousy of
France at the threatened encroachments of the Spanish and the
English up and along the Mississippi river, the French govern-
ment would have placidly permitted individual enterprise alone to
colonize the valley of that stream and its alKluents. What set a
spur in the ribs of his Most Christian Majesty, was the report
that an expedition was forming in England to establish a settle-
ment on the Mississippi near its mouth. A fleet was hurriedly
prepared under D' Iberville and dispatched, with what result is
known lo the world. On the 8th of April, 1699, the French
Minister of Marine wrote as follows: "The King does not
intend at present to form an establishment at the mouth of the
Mississippi, but only to complete the discovery in order to hinder
the English from taking possession there." He further stated
that the king did not think the discoveries of the Canadians in the
western parts of America would prove of much value to France,
unless gold or silver mines siiould be discovered. Such nn'nes
were soon reported lo exist, 'i'his inft)rma(i(>n was part of the
inductuK-ul under which l.ouis XiV pennilled I ,a Salle to make
his sacrilices; the ollnr indiici inenls were pearls and bulfalo
wool.

228 THE PROI'JNCE .IND THE STATES.

Perhaps liumanity never suffered more than did the unfortunate
people who were inthiced to cor.ie to tlie mouth of the Mississippi
with D'Iberville — all for the purpose of cementing- the claims of
France to that river and keeping the Si^anish and the English
out. And the trials coniinued until Cro^^at made some improve-
ment in 1713-17. The real relief arrived with the ships of the
Western Company from 171 7 10 1732. Prior to 1713, the real
bone and sinew of th.e Louisiana colony came from Canada — up
the Great Lakes and down the rushing Mississippi. La Salle at
his own expense and the missionaries at their own risks had set-
tled the Illinois country and made it "a terrestrial i)aradise."
Hundreds of French Canadians, accomijanied by tlieir \vives and
children, risked the hanlships of the journey and the dangers
from hostile savages, to reach this far-famed land, the fertility
and ricluiess of winch tliey liad heard so much. Many came
down the mighty Mississi])])! to swell the numbers and the courage
of the settlement at the moutli of the river. They knew' the
country, knew the Indians, knew how to make a living, and
taught the green settlers at i'.ilo-.i, Mobile and New Orleans how
to survive in spite of the neglect of the French government.
These Canadians did more than France did to make the colony at
the mouth of th.e river a permanent one. Crozat would have done
more for the colonists had he taken personal supervision of affairs.
He soon found that government at long range was not practical
nor successful. Had he lived in Louisiana he would certainly
have seen that, if he had done noihing el.^e for the colony than
to sell the ship-load of slaxes, which he was permitted to sell annu-
ally, he could have easily maintained his colony, and probably
saved his own private fortune.

The Western Company firmly established the colony, but after
1732, when the government of France again assumed the reins,
affairs were loose and uncertain. But the colony now could take
care of itself and did so. Under the teachings principally of the
Canadians, they had learned how to live from the resources of
the country. The first colonists at Biloxi were ignorant, indolent
or wicked enough not to be able to maintain themselves from'
their gardens, at least in part ; but sat down and waited for provi-
sions, while they chewed the cud of discontent and found it con-
tained very little nourishment. If the soil was bad where the
fort stood, that structure should have been built a little higher up
where the black alluvial laud lay, and where a ('erman could have
sustained himself the year round on a tract one hundred feet
stpiare. After 1732 the selilers fcnuid they cotdd live from their

LOUISIANA UNDER THE FRENCH CABINET. 229

gardens, the chase, by traffic, etc. They were now independent
of the government so far as a Hvelihood was concerned, and doubt-
less the latter was heartily glad of it. But the officials were high-
priced, and the expense was wormwood on the honied tongue
of the French monarch. The building of Fort Chartres was
regarded as a piece of almost criminal usclessness, though an act
of the highest wisdom, from the light then shining in the world.
The extravagance of the Frencli nobility, and the folly of many
of the Furopean wars, had much to do with the charges of defal-
cation in Louisiana. The views of the French monarch concern-
ing Louisiana seemed like those of the Indians mentioned by
Father Poisson, missionary to the Arkansas nation in 1728-9,
"They gave nothing for nothing." Louis XV wanted a reve-
nue—wanted it or wanted no further outlay. The prodigality
and splendor of his court must not be dimmed by a thouglit of the
necessities and wretchedness in America.

The Jesuits were expelled from Louisiana by the-Freneh m
1764, the year all the territory east of the Mississippi passed to
the English as a result of the Seven Years' War. All the mis-
sionaries were obliged to leave the territory west of the river as
well as east of it. Owing to the apathy of both the Indians and
the French, Father Carett'e had left the Illinois country some time
before. There was no longer any chapel in the fort (Chartres) —
no place to say mass except in the dining room where the com-
mandant took his meals. There bad language prevailed; notlnng
was sacred. While an attempt was made to hold service, a
domestic chicken Hew in and ui^set the chalice; whereupon an
•Indian present exclaimed, "Ah! behold the shop of the good C^.od
thrown down." So Father Curette became tired of his well-
doing and departed from the wicked post. The good fathers at
Natchitoches, the Arkansas and New Orleans were compelled to
quit the country. The decree of condemnation against the Jesuits
was, 1st, that they did not take care of their missions; 2d, that
they cared only for their estates ; 3(1, and that they were usurpers
o7 the vicariate-general for New Orleans. All these charges
were afterward disproved. Notwithstanding the injustice of the
decree and the unquestionable outrage and manifest persecution
of the act, all their church property was taken from them and sold
for the benefit of tlie king. Nay, even the personal property of
the l-'athers was seized and soM. Slaves, cattle, sacred pictures,
furniture, provisions, religious vessels and vestmenis— all were
"unjustly seized, confiscated and sold by the I- rench government
after the'cession of the country lo Fjigland." I'orly-eighl negroes

230 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

belonging- to the Jesnits of Kasl;askia and Saint Genevieve were
confiscated and shipped down the river to New Orleans for con-
veyance to France. They set ont from Fort Chartres Novem-
ber 24, 1764, and were in charge of a squad of French soldiers.
At the same time there went down twenty Englishmen who had
been captured in the West by the Indians and the French. At
New Orleans the Jesuits Avere shown scant consideration by the
French officials; but the Cupuchin Fathers there, be it said to their
credit, made their unfortunate rivals as comfortable as possible.
The expulsion was an undoubted act of absolute persecution.
The good Fathers who had done so much for the cause of France,
as well as for the cause of humanity, in the inhospitable wilder-
ness of America through the trying and dangerous years of
exploration and discovery, were now wronged, persecuted and
exiled. The act savors in inhumanity of the exile of the Acadi-
ans, and can have no justification in the light of human advance-
ment and civilization.

After the expulsion of the Jesuits and the arrival of the English
garrison at Fort Chartres, the cmielery at Kaskaskia was used
as a garden and the cha])el as a store-house. Tliey rented them
from Jean Baptiste Bauvais, "who under the decree of confisca-
tion and the contract of sale and purchase of the property was
obliged to demolish the chapel and leave its site and that of the
cemetery uncultivated under the debris." Bauvais claimed that
the executor of the decree sold the property to him. "By what
right?" asks Father tVleurin in 1 ;(')>>. "The i)resses used for the
vestments ami sacretl vessels are now used in his apartments, as
well as the altar-cruets and the lloor, etc." h'ather Meurin minis-
tered to Kaskaskia and Saint (icnevieve at this period. Though
France, Sjjain, I'ortugal and Prussia had expelled the Jesuits,
the English had not done so, and hence Father Meurin hatl come
to this post. But the English did not favor the Jesuits; they
merely tolerated them. "Since the English have taken possession
of this country, there has been as yet no procession of tlie blessed
sacraments (there being on the west side of the Mississippi
French, Spanish and English), 'i'his year, at the request of the
inhabitants, I asked Messieurs, the commandants, to allow the
militia to turn out under arms, as is the custom among Koman
Catholics, to escort the blessed sacrament. This they refused.
The weather was not settled; T was indisposed and fatigued,
through having had a proci ssiou very early on the other side at
Sainte (unevieve. llere 1 had one only in the church and like-
wise on tile day of the octave."

•>.'!

LOUISIANA UNDER THE FRENCH CABINET. 231 j

Concerning Saint Genevieve, Father Francois Philibert Watrin
wrote as follows in 1764: "Fifteen years ago, at a league from
the old village on the other hank of the Mississippi, there was
established a new village under the name Sainte Genevieve.
Then the Cure of Cascakias found himself obliged to go there
to administer the sacraments, at least to the sick; and when the
new inhabitants saw their houses multiplying, they asked to have
a church built there. This being granted them, the journeys of
the missionary became still more frequent, because he thought
that he ought then to yield himself still more to the willingness
of his new parishioners and to their needs. However, in order
to go to this new church he must cross the Mississippi, which in
this place is three-eights of a league wide. He sometimes had to
trust himself to a slave who alone guided the canoe: it was neces-
sary in fine to expose himself to the danger of perishing, if in the
middle of the river they had been overtaken by a violent stonn.
None of all these inconveniences ever prevented the Cure of Cas-
cakias from going to Sainte Genevieve when charity called him
thither, and he was always charged with this care until means
were found to place at Sainte Genevieve a special Cure, which
occurred only a few years ago, when the inhabitants of the place
built a house for the pastor."'^

Father Vivier seemed to have had a very high opinion of the
country west of the Mississippi, not merely on account of its
natural resources, but as well on account of its strategic advan-
tages. He wrote in 1750, "For the rest, this country (the Illi-
nois) is of far greater importance than is imagined. Tlnough
its position alone, it deserves tliat France should spare nothing to
retain it. It is true that it has not enriched the king's coffers and
that convoys to and fro are costly; but it is none the less true thai
the trauquiliity of Canada and tlie safety of the entire lower part
of the colony depend upon it. Assuredly, without this post (Fort
Chartres) there would be no connuunication of land between
Louisiana and Canada. There is another consideration : Several
regions of the same Canada and all those on the lower part of the
river would be deprived of the provisions they obtain from the
Tllinois, which are often a great resource to them. By founding
a solid establishment here (in the Illinois country), prepared to
meet all these troubles, the king would secure tlie possession of
the most extensive and the finest country in North America." In
the h'i;hl of subs((|nent events how true was the view of Iwdlief

♦TliwiiilL-.s's leissut of llio Jtsuil Kchitiorin ami otlRr Dociimciits.

232

THE I'ROVL\CE AND THE STATES.

Vivier. But he was nut the only Frenchman who saw the
immense possiljihties of the ^^•estel•n country. Governor Kcr-
lerac reahzcd the vast importance to France of not only holding
but of materially strengtlicninc^ the Illinois country; he therefore
made h'ort Chartres the strongest fort in the Mississippi valley,
but was disgraced for this most proper and loyal act.

"On the river Marameg on the west side of the Mississippi
they found those mines tlsat ga\e rise to the Mississippi scheme
in 1719. In 1742, when John 1 toward, Sallee and others were
sent from Virginia to view those countries, they were made pris-
oners by the French, who came from a settlement they had on an
island in the Mississippi a little above the Ohio, where they made
salt, lead, etc., and went from thence to New Orleans in a fleet
of boats and canoes guarded by a large armed schooner."*

In 1708 Nicolas de la vSulle reported that there were in Louis-
iana i:'2 persons at the gi'rrison — men, boys and priests; yy out-
side inhabitants, men, women and children; and 80 Indian sla'ves.
It is uncertain whetb.er these included the few at Natchitoches, the
Arkansas and the Illinois, but i)robably not, as the numbers at
those places could not ha\e been known to iiim. In 1712 there
were .joo perstnis and 20 negroes in the colony — reported to be.
At the time L'Fi)inay succeeded Cadillac in March, 1717, there
were said to be present yoo jiersous, including negroes, but not
including- Indians. In 172 1 there were 5,420 persons in all Louis-
iana, of whom about 600 were colored. According to La llarpe
there were in the colony in 1724, 5,000 whites and 3,000 blacks.
In 173-' the Company of the Indies reported 5,000 wiutes and
2,cxx) blacks in Louisiana. In 17.15, they wire said to number 6,0-'o,
of whom a few less than 4,000 wei'c white. /\.t no time was an exact
enumeration made of the iidiabitants of the whole colony. Esti-
mates, of course, varied, so that tlie above figures must be received
with some grains of allowance ; still, they are no doubt approxi-
mately correct. Every ship that arrived or departed, changed
the populaticjn, because, while luunbers came from bVance, other
numbers and their slaves in some cases returned to tiie mother
country. There will be noticed two important periods of growth :
During the Crozat administratio]i, and during the early part of
the government of the Western Company — before the failure and
flight of Mr. Law. bVom 1721 to 1732 there was an actual
decrease.

♦Ki'lioil Ml llu' (lovi'iiiiiKiil (>( Viiijiiiiii. I

LOUISIANA UNDER THE FRENCH CABINET.

233

Est.

1769.

New Orleans 3.190

Bayou St. John and Gentilly. . . . 307

lialize to the city 570

At the Terre aux Jjoeufs ...

Karataria

Tchoupitoulas 4,i9-

Parish of St. Charles
St. John the Baptist ,

St. James

Lafourche

Lafourche, interior . ,

Iherville ,

Pointe Coupee

Opclousas

Attakapas

New Iberia

Ouachita

Rapides

Avoyelles

Natchitoches

Arkansas

St. Genevieve

St. Louis

Manshac

Galveston

P>at()n Rouj^e

Feliciana

Natchez

Mobile

Carondelet

St. Charles

St. Fernando

J\Tarais des Liards . .

Maramec

St. Andrew

New BourbcMi

Cape Girardeau ....

Ni'W Madrid

lyiltlc Mradnws ....

639

544

267

376
783

409

47
3H
811

891

1785-
4,980

678
2,100

576

7,046

1.903
1,300

1.332
646

352

673

1,521

1,211

1,070

125

207

287

756
196

594
897

77
2 12
270

1.550
746

Totals 14.238 31,433 42.34^' <"'-028

1788.
5,338

772

2,378

661

7.589
2,381
1,368

1.559
1,164
1,500

944
2,004

1,985

2,541

190

232

147

209

1,021

119

896

1,197
284
268
682

730
2,679
1,468

1799.

949
925

184

875
276

376
115
393
560

521

782

234 '^''^''■' l'l<Ol'L\Cll A.\'I) Tim STATES.

CHAPTER Vn

D'Ulloa and O'Reilly

N SUCCESSION the golden opportunity of possessing the
vvliole of the Mississippi basin was presented to Spain, France
and Great Britain and in turn was lost to each througli its
own misconduct and blinthiess. Dazzled with the gold of Peru
and Mexico, Sixiin was unable to descend from her dizzy dreams
of wealth to the exacting experiences and expenditures of coloni-
:aition in a purely agricultural country; and therefore took no
steps whatever to settle her subjects along the banks of the "great
river." Her daring navigators led the way to the Gulf, exploring
the Vv'hole of its treacherous coa^i and ceremoniously took posses-
sion of the same and of tlie lower Mississippi river; but the Spai:-
ish government made no elToi t to ac(|uire permanently tliis
invaluable pos.session. .\iier ihe Si)anisii abamlonment the
opportunity of securing the wonderful Mississippi basin remained
open tt) any nation for more than a century; or until France,
actuated more by international jealousy than by praiseworthy
enterprise, permitted her voya-eurs and explorers, mainlv at their
own expense, to re-discover the .\lississippi, and thus attach that
vast and marvelous basin to the i''rench y\merican possessions.

After thus accpiiring the terriloiy, it may even be admitted that
France did all that wds necessary to do to lioUl it, and still it may
be far from adniiltin,>'; that she did all that she should have done.
As in the case of Spain, blindness lost her the Mississippi basin;
so in the case of France, in(nrferencc lost her the same glori(jus
possession. Ix)uis XIV did, or perhaps permitted his cabinet to
do, barely all that was necessary lu hold the wlioK' of (lu- Missis-
si|)()i valliy, except possibl\' the u[iper ( )hio basin; and his boyish
successor, Louis .XV, or Ibe Kei'/iicy, endeavored to pursue llie

D'ULLOA AND O'REILLY.

235

same course, and for many years succeeded, more by reason of
good luck than by ability and fitness to wage war and resist attack.
France was almost bankrupt when Louis XIV passed from the
earthly stage of action ; and no wonder little had been done for the
poor colonists of Louisiana. The government had been obliged
to borrow money at four hundred per cent, was in debt two thou-
sand four hundred millions of livres at the time of his death in
1 71 5, and three thousand millions a few years later, and taxation
had become something crushing and frightful. Meanwhile, the
splendors of the court of Versailles had dazzled all of Europe,
and are even imitated to this day by all civilized countries. The
Mississippi Scheme still further burdened the French peoi)le with
vexation and debt.

When at last Louis XV took the reins, it soon seemed that the
devil himself had broken loose in that kingdom. The wdiims of
the young king's mistresses regulated the national and colonial
policies. Imbecile courtiers and designing prelates occupied the
principal offices and shaped the destinies of the commonwealth.
Madam D'Chotearoux, the king's paramour, became the supreme
ruler; and was succeeded by Miadam D'Pompadour, another wan-
ton, who had no eyes nor ears for the sulTering colonists of Louis-
iana. Under their dictum Fleury and Choiseul were the only
prime ministers who accom])lislu(l anything of consequence fc;r
France or for Louisiana. The galling taxation and the wicked
extravagance of the Versailles court were the twin evils that
cnishetl and humiliated France nutl prevented the nuich-needLil
assistance anil attention from being extended to Louisiana.
Louis XV at first became "the well beloved," because he permit-
ted everything to be ruled by the devil, and he himself appeared
to enjoy the society of that mythical individual. Thus it may be
said humorously and to some extent literally that Louisiana was
between the devil (France) and the deep sea (England). In fact
it is not too much to say that Vice became the actual ruler of
France, and that the rule v/as extended to Louisiana. Defeat in
war and dishonor in both war and peace, bowed the heads of all
right-minded Frenchmen with shame. All resulted from the
weakness, profiigacy and licentious.ness of the king and his butter-
fly and brilliant court. This epliemeral glitter, extravagance and
wickedness were transferred in modified form to the j^rovince of
Louisiana. The deli!)erale maU'easance and c(M-rupli()n of tiie
colonial oflicials li'd to llu'ir conliiiuous and oulrageoiis (piarrels
to see which shoidd get the licjn's share of the s|)oils. 'Phus the
burden fell like a curse on the colonists of Louisiana; but all was

236 THE PROriNCE AND THE STATES.

accompanied with the soft and entrancing manners and the
knightly bearing and radiance of the courtiers and nobles — exotics
that had no proper place in the primitive soil of the colonies,
because the worm of corruption was gnawing industriously at the
roots and contaminating the virgin earth. Even the "family
comi)act," which was occasioned by the jealousy of France and
Spain for Great Britain, did not avail when the crisis came,
because England obtained all cast of the Mississippi and vSpain
all west of that river; wiiile l'"'r:nice v>'as left to mourn through all
time for the severest los^, that ever fell to the lot of that wonderful
people.

It will now be seen how England, influenced by both blindness
and indifference, lost her American colonies — lost the greatest
opportunity ever offered to her political and territorial develop-
ment. No one doubts that had the English American colonists
been treated on terms of e(iuality with the residents of England
proper, they would have remained faithful and loyal subjects of
King George III, just as Canada, though almost wholly French,
has remained to this day. Under this probability what a vast field
is offered to conjecture and fancy! The stupidity, blindness and
ill-treatment of the English king and his cabinet alone severed
from the ro3-al crown tiie whole of the present United States;
because those offences led to the insult, oppression and alienation
of the colonists. Had this course not been taken ; had the col-
onists been treated with fairness and honor, and as the equals of
their brothers, the residents of fair Albion's isle; and had such
kind treatment been conlinued as the toiling years crawled by,
all of North America above Mexico, and perhaps both Mexico
and Central America, woidd today be willingly and proudly flying
the glittering Cross of St. George. This country would have
become the seat of the English kings and of the British nobility;
and Great Britain, instead of now being a decadent nation, would
be safe in the Western Ifemispliere from her ancient and implac-
able rivals, and would be like Rome was at the summit of her
splendor — the undoubted- and undisputed Mistress of the World.
While there may have been some excuse for the blindness of
Spain and the indifl'erence of li'rance, there was none whatever
for the" ill-treatment by ivngland under George III. His course
was that of the spendthrift who threw away his patrimony with-
out hope of relief; and wds worse than that of the Prodigal Son,
because he had no kind old father to forgive his wrong-doings,
receive him again to his bosom, and kill for him the fatted calf.
Hie Colonies were t?one forever.

D'ULLOA AND O'REILLY.

237

Tlie colony of Louisiana had been maintained by France with
Ihe principal, perhaps the sole, object of keeping the Spanish and
the Hnglish out of the Mississippi valley. Louis XIV had hur-
riedly sent D' Iberville there in 1798, and none too soon, in order
to forestall the ships of both of the other countries. Only sufii-
cicnt colonists and means were sent out from time to time to
maintain his frail tenure to the soil, because the expense was
large and the revenue nothing. Siimulaled with the hope of
acquiring great wealth, either from the mines or from the Indian
' and Spanish trade, Crozat took the colony, but lost a fortune and

I retired from sight. The Western Company and its successor,

I the Company of the Indies, did no better, but sank 20,000,000 of

* livres ($3,700,000) in fourteen years in a vain attempt to place

the colony on a profit-pa)ing basis. Afterward, the colony was
maintained at the expense of the government, but no returns
,) rewarded the outlays. It is safe to say that France alone, from

' first to last, spent 50,000,000 of livres ($9,250,000) to sustain

! the colony. The court of Louis XV, plunged as it was in extrav-

' agance and licentiousness, liad become weary v/ith carrying this

load; but realizing its ultimate value, had clung to it, hoping that
in time all the outlay would come l)ack with profits added, and
hoping also that the ancient enemy, England, would thus be kept
confnied to the Atlantic coast.

IJut the Seven Years' War (1755 to 1762) instantly changed
this panorama of events. I'rance became deejjly indebted to
Spain for assistance, and besides had lost all of her .Xmerican pos-
) sessions east o{ the Mississippi to I'lngland. Tiie latter now

possessed much of what France hail wrested from the savages
through many years of untold dangers and hardships, and stood
A on the left bank of the Mississippi with bristling bayonets and

tawny cannons. France was in no condition, nor was she likely
to be for many years to come, to defend the remainder of the col-
ony— that portion west of the river. Her old, cherished, and war-
I like scheme of a line of impregnable forts stretching from Canada

to New Orleans, was now dissolved in a cloud of mist. The vast
^ empire of the interior, peoi)led with French subjects and domi-

nated by the French cabinet, was i\ow a dream of the past, never
to be realized in actuality. The territory west of the river was
certain to become the prey of Fngland at the outbreak of the first
war. The colony had always been a burden, and was likely to
be so f(M- many years to come. Now was the time to turn it over
to Si)ain to repay her for her losses during the Seven Years' War.
France thus had every reason to get rid of the colony, and none

238 THE FRO ^' INCH AND THE STATES.

whatever under tlie circumstances to retain it. But there is evi-
dence 10 prove that Spain was not anxious to take the new Louis-
iana, either in payment for tlie French ohhgations, or upon any
terms. Slie iiad had licr own experiences with expensive and
rebelHous colonies. She saw the danger from the proximity of
the Knglish across the river, but finally consented to take it.
It is evident that one of the conditions of transfer was that
France should re-acquire the colony, either upon her own demand,
or upon the request of Spain, 'ihe latter found no occasion to
make such a request, but the former did find occasion to make
such a demand in 1800.

Prior to the Seven Years' War, the Province of Louisiana east
of the Mississippi extended on the Gulf eastward to the river
Perdido, and farther north to an indefinite and undetermined dis-
tance eastward of the Mississippi. Liy provisional treaty dated
at Fontainebleau, November 3, 1762, all of Louisiana Province
east of the Mississippi, except the Island of New Orleans* was
ceded by France to England ; and at the same time and place all
of the territory possessed by Spain cast of the Mississippi was
likewise ceded to England. These treaties v/ere duly ratified by
the three governments, respectively (Spain, France and Great
Britain), and hence date from November 3, 1762. On the same
day (November 3), by secret treaty and wholly unknown to Eng-
land, France ceded the remainder of Louisiana Province to
Spain, i. c., all of Louisiana west of the Mississijjpi" and the
Island of New Orleans cast of that river. Neither England nor
the colonists knew anything of this secret treaty until about a year
afterward.*

Did France cede Louisiana to Spain because she felt herself
unable to retain it — becau.se she saw that tiie wiiole of it was
destined at no distant day to pass to Great Britain, and wished
to throw the responsibility of its retention upon Spain ; or was it
transferred to the latter, as alleged, to recompense her for losses
in that war? There can be no doubt that had England followed
the advice of Pitt and now pressed France to the utmost, when

fi,«^nw VLi .1 '"1 ^'^'PlaininKthp provisions of these treaties, insist on phicine
the cart before the hprs;e-on endeavorin- to make it appear thai France firVt b?
pl^r.r f"^ U'^^^^' "/ November .3, cedel all of French Louisiana ea.t to 'the
PerclKloonthesouthandfareaslof the .Mississippi on the noith ), to Spain • ami
. 1 r?.Vi' ' '' r ^■'*'"*' '^-'^T^'^^J ""-■ ^;""^' l"iilory,-asl of the M issi^sipp to V; "it
•1 r tain h ance could not pos^ib y 1kiv<- done this. iManre and .Sp, n on , e
.side .■.■drd..P,ntclaml all thev,.„,.i(luM uf ih.Mii, po-,s<ss.(l ,^•,^t .,f ij/r^I issis' i ,,,1
of 'n. ;;■ 'l^" V "^ Nrw (),h.,n.... Thi- was dunV nocmlv, wiMn, . k , u v llue
IL I . »^"V.-nin|.„ s Th.cloie, Man.f conl.l not. on the same day have

heei II V .•...I,., to Si.,-nn thai porlnm of iMrn.-h I,onisiana cast of the Mississippi
when .Spain already knew that such tra. i had just been ceded to Greai jnUai '

irULLOA AND O'REILLY.

239

the chance of doing so was open, all the remainder of Louisiana
could have been acquired by Great IJritain. The English colonies
alone had ten times the flighting- strength of the French colonies.
After Kngland should be in possession of all the country east of
the Mississii)pi, it would recjuire only the pretense of another
war to secure all the country west of that river to the Rocky
mountains or to the Pacific ocean. There is evidence to prove
that the French cabinet took this view, and hence that it was
determined to alienate Louisiana to Spain before Kngland could
take possession of it under any pretext. It would seem that the
transfer of Louisiana from France to Spain was not made in good
faith, because the latter w as under some sort of an agreement to
return it to the former upon demand, as was actually done in
1800, when Napoleon required it. Thus it would appear that the
transfer was made to escape the clutches of Hngland. But Spain
had also just been at war with England, although it was well
known to the latter that she hail been so because of the require-
ments of the "family comi)act." However, the view is generally
taken, and is usually allowed, that b'rance made the transfer to
Spain to reimburse her for the losses she had sustained in Florida
and elsewhere.

It was a bitter experience for the French to give up to Eng-
land even that portion of Louisiana east of the Mississippi, but
they did so upon the orders of the king. Thus the west side of
that river received a large influx of settlers — those who came
from the east side, when luigland took possession of that portion
of the province. Many of these ])eople made great sacrifices to do
this, but they loved the tri-color of France and preferred to make
the change, rather than remain within the domain of England.
For the first time British vessels now came up the mighty Mis-
sissippi, and the redcoats began to be seen at the posts on the east
side of the river. 'Fhis was wormwood to the French, but could
not be helped. All who went to the west side of the Mississippi,
including the Indian tribes, were given liberal grants of land
by the French government. It was in June, 1763, that D'Abbadie
arrived to succeed D'Kerlerec as governor of the Province of
Louisiana.

From this time forward, the term "Louisiana" was applied to
the country west of the Mississippi only, but included the Island
of New Orleans on the east side. By agreement between France
and Spain, the alienation of Lcniisiana by the former Id the latter
was kept from the knowledge of all the world ; and the more effec-
tually to carry into effect this agreement, the colony was left under

240 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

the government of France for a year before the order was issued
for the transfer of the offices to the representatives of Spain.
As soon as the colonists of that portion of Louisiana east of the
Mississippi became assured that tiiey were irrevocably located
on English soil, all who did not wish to become British subjects
were permitted to sell out and leave, taking- their belongings with
them. On the lower Mississippi many tiius crossed to the west
side and founded Attakapas, Avoyelles, Natchitoches, and Opel-
ousas ; and on the upper course of that river others went to
St. Louis, St. Genevieve and several points that afterward became
large settlements. Soon the territory east of the Mississippi and
south of the thirty-first degree of latitude which had been acquired
by England from Spain, was constituted West Florida, and placed
under Governor George Johnston. Above tiie thirty-first paral-
lel and east of the Mississippi, the country continued to be called
"Illinois," and was i)laced luider Governor Loftus, a major of the
British army. In taking possession of this territory, England
encountered the hostility of the Indian tribes allied to the
French — were even fired upon and suffered losses of men and
munitions. In fact the Indians who were the friends of the
French, were greatly incensed at the transfer of the country to
Great Britain, and did not become reconciled to the change for
several years.

The new Louisiana, that west of the Mississippi, but including
the island of New Orleans, suffered many little vexations at the
beginning of its career. The French inhabitants east of the
river were required, against the slipidations of the treaty of Paris,
to take the oath of allegiance within three months U])on pain of
not having their property protected. They were likewise pro-
hibited from disposing of their lands until their titles thereto had
been verified, registered and approved by the British commander.
This order scared many of the French residents, who, under the
liberal colonial laws of France, had nothing to show for their
lands but their periods of occupancy, which among themselves
were regarded as sufficient titles. The English tried first to reach
the Illinois country via Canada, but the hostility of the Indians
prevented this step. They next tried to reach it by ascending the
Mississippi, but were attacked by the Indians, and hence declared
that these attacks were at the instigation of the French, which
ciiarge was pro1)ably not correct. Major Loftus was even driven
back after having started from New Orleans. Loftus* Heights
received its name from this circinustance. About four himflred
Indians of the Taensas and Ali1)amons tribes passed westward

D'ULLOA AND O'REILLY. 241

across the river, and were assigned lands by the French authori-
ties at Dayou Lafourche.

M. D'Ahbadie seems to have been an honest and conscientious
man. In June, 1764, he wrote to his government of what he
beheved to be the causes of the serious troubles which had for
many years retarded the progress of the colony. He said, "The
disorder existing in the colony, and particularly in its finances,
proceeds from the spirit of jobbing which has been prevalent here
at all times, and which has engrossed the attention and faculties
of the colonists. It began in 1737, not only on the currency of
the country, but also on the bills of exchange, on the merchan-
dise in the king's warehouses, and on everything which was sus-
ceptible of it. It is to this pursuit that the inhabitants have been
adilicted in preference to cultivating their lands, and to any other
occupation, by which the prosi)erity of the colony would have
been promoted. I have entirely suppressed the abuse existing in
connection with the king's warehouses. ... If the inhal)i-
tants of Louisiana had turned their industry to anything else
beyond jobbing on the king's paper and merchandise, they would
have found great resources in the fertility of the land and the
mildness of the climate. I'.ut the facility offered by the country
to live on its natural i)roiliiclit)iis has created habits of laziness.
The immoderate use of taflia (a kind of rum) has stupified the
whole population. The vice of drunkenness has even crept into
the highest ranks of socirly, from which, however, it has lately
disappeared, ilence the spirit ol insubordiiialion ant! independ-
ence which has manifested itself under several ailministrations. .
Notwithstanding the present trantjuillity the same spirit
of sedition does not the less exist in the colony. . . . The
uncertainty in which I am with regard to the ultimate fate of the
colony, has prevented me from resorting to extreme measures to
repress such license ; but it will be necessary to come to it at last
to re-establish the good order which has been destroyed and to
regulate the conduct and morals of the inhabitants. To reach
this object, what is first to be done is to make a thorough reform
in the composition of the superior council. . . . Three-
fourtiis, at least, of the inhabitants are in a state of insolvency."
Tiiere is no doubt that this Irmgiiage was too severe, because he
called "seditious" and "insubordinate" the act of the merchants
of New ( )rleans in complaining to the king of the wretclu'd con-
dition ol the colony, the poslpoiuinent of the withdrawal from
circulation of the depreciated currency, and of the monopoly
granted b\' l)'/\bbadie to a eoiiipan\' to trade with the Indians.
1 -16

242 Tllli PROViy^CE A\'D THE STATES.

In a letter dated April 21, 1764, D'Abbadie was informed by
the kin- that Louisiana had been ceded to Spain, and copies of.
the act of cession and of the various acceptances accompanied the
communication. Re was told to turn over the Province to the
accredited Spanish representatives upon the receipt of the letter,
and was advised wiiat sliould be done to completely carry the
transfer into efi'ect. Ilavin- fully effected the transfer, D'Abba-
die was instructed to return to b ranee to report. All papers and
documents, posts or for Is, and the town and island of New
Orleans were to be delivered to the representatives of Spam,
so far as they were necessary to the new management. All prop-
erty not strictly relating to the colony was to be returned to
France. If the division of the Province in 1762-3 had been a
severe blow to all persons who loved Louisiana, the alienation to
Spain of the remainder in 1764 completely broke their hearts.
For a long time after the first nmiors to that effect appeared, it
could not be believed in the Province that the French government
would take such a step. When the official conmumication was
received and proclaimed in October, 1764,- the consternation and
despair were universal and deep-rooted. It took years to wipe
out the effects of the blov;— in fact the regret was never wholly

assuaged.

Put while the French inhabitants welcomed the British goods,
they intensely regretted having to become subjects of Spain. Of
French extraction and birth, and with the love of their country
strong in iheir hearts, many of tliem could not become reconciled
to the Ihougbl of taking the oalh of allegiance to the Spanish
crown. This discontent nnally ripened into action. It was deter-
mined to make such representations to the French king of their
sentiments of loyalty and devotion as would be likely to cause hrni
to secure an annulment of the cession of Louisiana to Spain. A
meeting was called to be held at New Orleans, and every parish
in the colony was represented. It was a spontaneous outburst of
loyalty to the French crown, and the best elements of the colony
were present and outspoken. Here came Lafreniere, Doucet,
Jean TMilhet, Joseph Milhet, D'Arensbourg, Villere, St. Lctte,
Pin, IVLacbaise, Si. Maxent, Caric, T\lar(|uis, Poisblanc, C.rand-
Mai'son, Noyan, Massan-e, Lalande, Masan, Poupel, I'.raiid,
Dessales. Carrere, Kerniou, Lesassier, and others, all promiiunt
in the affairs, not only of the colony, but of I'Vance as well.
Lafreniere the alorney-g* neral, addressed the meeting at length,
advocating the ])reparation of a i)ctiti()n to tlie French tlnxjne,
praying that such an arrangement might be made as would not

D'ULLOA AND O'REILLY.

243

separate tlie colonists from the government of France. The
proposition was warmly received and accepted without a dissent-
ing voice.

Jean Milhet was chosen to lay the petition before the king of
France ; and upon his arrival in Paris first secured the co-opera-
tion of the venerable D'lJienville, who had spent so many years
in Louisiana and whose heart was bound up in the success and
prosperity of that colony, and together they waited upon the prime
minister to formally and feelingly lay their case before him.
]\lil!ict's appeal v/as directed to show the ultimate value of the
colony to France, while D'Bienville's took more of the form of a
sent<nental entreaty. The Duke of Choiseul listened with grave
and respectful attention, but stated that he could not change the
state of the case. Upon thus hearing the doom of Louisiana pro-
nounced, D'Bienville burst into tears, fell upon his knees, and
sobbingly begged the minister "for a reconsideration of the.decrce
against the colony." I'he latter was greatly moved and embraced
the venerable man, now nearly eighty-six years old, and finally
said with much emotion, "Gentlemen, I must put an end to this
painful scene. I am deeply grieved at not being able to give you
any hope. I have no hesitation in telling you that I cannot
address the king on this subject, because \, myself, advised the
cession of Louisiana. Is it not to your knowledge that the colony
cannot continue its precarious existence, except at an enormous
expense, of which France is now utterly incapable? Is it not
better, then, that Louisiana should be given away to a friend and
a faithful ally, than be wrested from us by an Jiereditary foe?
Farewell, you have my best wishes. I can do no more." Thus
Ciioiseul relinquished Louisiana in 1762-3 ])ecause he knew that
France could not keep it from falling into the hands of England,
just as Napoleon relinquished it forty years afterward for pre-
cisely the same reason. To maintain it against England meant
the expenditure of many millions of dollars to establish powerful
forts and maintain a vast army stationed along the west bank of
the Mississippi. As Choiseul said, France was "utterly incapa-
ble" of this expense, and so reluctantly and tearfully, yet gladly,
gave it to her "friend and faithful ally," Spain.

In 1765 Philip Aubry became governor of the colony, D' Abba-
die having died in February of that year. One of his first acts
was to care for the exiled Acadians who arrived by May to the
num1)er of about six hundred and fifty, many of whom were sent
to the settlements of Attakapas and Opelousas. The appearance
of great numbers of ] British troops, the many English vessels

244

THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

wliich passed up and down the river, the evident rapid work of the
British commandants in taking- jiossession of the east bank of
the river, and their announced design of opening- the channel
through Bayou Manshac anil Lakes IMaurepas and Bontchartrain
to the sea, were matters of great concern to Governor Aubry.
Having- ceded Louisiana west of the river to Spain, France, of
course, felt under no obligations to strengthen the posts and the
army there ; nor did Spain do so, because she was not yet in pos-
session. Thus, while the Lnglish made themselves strong and
secure on the river, the colonists across on the west side realizetl
their weakness, because they were in no way assisted in lines of
defense or resistance. At Manshac the English built Fort Bute,
and likewise made themselves strong at Natchez and Baton
Rouge. The appearance of the b'.nglish and the opening of the
river were the signal for all sorts of smuggling. In fact, the
introduction- of English goods against the trade laws of Frauce
was almost the salvation of Louisiana, because no such relief was
extended by either France or Spain to relieve the absolute needs
of the suffering colonists. As a matter of fact the new order of
affairs gave a great stimulus to Louisiana; it began to thrive and
grow as never before. The restrictive and repressive trade laws
of France were wlioUy disregarded, and the smugglers were wel-
comed.

Notwithstanding the failure of Alilhet to secure for Louisiana
a revocation of the act of cession to Spain, the inhabitants, owing
to the failure of the latter to take ])Ossession, were impelled to the
tiiought that for some unlaiown reason the transfer had been
annulled. It was afterward learned that Choiseul had diplomat-
ically prevented Miliict frDHi reaching the ear of the king with
his petition, doul)tless knowing that he could accomplish nothing
in that quarter. But the nihabilants continued to cling to the
belief that the colony would not in the end be alienated, the wish,
no doubt, being father to the thou(;ht or hope. Finally, in the sum-
mer of 1765, an official comnuuiication was received from Don
Antonio D'Ulloa, dated at Havana, announcing that he would
soon appear at New Orleans, pursuant to the orders on the Span-
ish crown, for the purpose of formally taking possession of the
Province. So strong had become the belief that the act of cession
would be annulled, that the citizen ;, upon receipt of the amiounce-
ment from IVlIlloa, showed U^y llie first lime a spirit of resist-
ance and independence. It appeared to them that as they had
been practically aliandoncd by France, they ought to be given tin*
privilege oi saying what shoidd be llieir fate and how they should

D'ULLOA AND O'REILLY. 245

be disposed of. This sentiment was still further strengthened
when the entire autumn passed away without bringing D'UUoa.
"Many of the colonists adopted the conviction that the treaty of
cession was nothing but a sham instrument, conceaHng some
diplomatic maneuvering.* During the winter of 1765-6 the spirit
of independence continued to grow in strength and seemingly was
not checked in the least by the conservative advice of a few of
the leaders of the colony.

At lengtli D'Ulloa arrived in March, 1766, with two companies
of infantry commanded by Piernas, and was given a "cold and
sullen" reception. However, instead of assuming the reins at
once, he announced that he intended to postpone taking posses-
sion until a sufficient force had arrived to protect and defend the
inhabitants, and in the meantime visited the various posts of the
colony, spending several weeks at Natchitoches and studying in
detail the means of defense. Under his direction a census was
taken, showing in the colony 1,893 able-bodied men, i,044.women,
1,375 male cliildren, and 1,240 female children, and about as many
negro slaves as there were Vvhites. D'Ulloa was a very amiable
and learned man, but wholly unfitted to become the governor of
a colony like Louisiana, where both insubordination and destitu-
tion were to be encountered and overcome. Mis salary was fixed
at $6,000; that of D'llienville had- been $2,000 and that of Vau-
drcuil long afterward had been $10,000. He announced that he
had no dealings with liie supreme council, but was simply author-
ized to receive from Covernor y\ubry the colony as it llicn was.
The refusal to recognize tiie council gave great umbrai^e to that
body, which was shari)ly shown a little later. Under his instruc-
tions he could make no change in the colonial administration.
The colony was made independent of the ministry of the Indies,
but all relative thereto was rccpiired to pass through the ministry
of state. Surely, nothing more could be asked.

It cannot be said that D'UUoa, upon his arrival in New Orleans,
encountered an extraordinary state of affairs. In the light of
subsequent events, it is clear that the wisest course would have
been to take possession positively and firmly of all the affairs of
the colony. The chances are that patient, if not quiet, submission
would have followed. ?Ie seems to have made the mistake of
being too kind and conciliatory. No doubt this course had been
recommended by the Spanish cabinet. Having received the col-
ony from a friend and ally, Spain had no occasion to resort lo

♦ Oayarre.

246 THE l'KUl'L\CE A.\l) THE STATES.

severe and arbitrary measures. It was presumed that tb.e olive
branch woulil be promptly accepted by the inhabitants. Hence,
no doubt, D'UUoa was following his instructions when he took
extreme steps to gain the approval and good will of the Louis-
ianians. But they were in just tb.e state of mind to wholly mis-
understand such a pacific policy. Tliey were already on tlie point
of revolting from the authority of Spain. It needed only such a
mild policy to fan the fires of independence into tlie flame of oi)en
resistance and rebellion.

The French residents, having expressed their misgivings as to
the treatment that would be accorded their discredited currency,
D'UUoa promptly and considerately bought a considerable quan-
tity of it at the French depreciated price of seventy-five cents on
the dollar, and tendered it to his soldiers in payment of their
wages; but they refused to take it, nor did the act suit the inhalii-
tants, who unreasonably demandcHl jiar. The good intentions of
D'UUoa were thus wholly misunderstood and thwarted. Under
the agreement with Spain, France ordered her trooi)s then in the
colony to continue in the service of the former until tlie arrival
of the forces of the latter; liut the order was peremptorily refused
by the soldiers, who declared that their time of service had
expired. Trouble yvas also occasiuued by tb.e difference in wages
paid to the French and the Spanish soldiers respectively ; Ijut this
was soon adjusted. An examination of the records of Louisiana
showed D'UUoa that the colony since its establishment had been
depentient upon France even for its provisions, and at all times
was rent with dissensions, disorder and corruption. As this state
of things did not accord with tlie representations of the French
cabinet at the time of the cession to Spain. D'UUoa made careful
note of what he discovered. He visited all portions of the prov-
ince except the Missouri re;;ion, cmiversed freely with the inhab-
itants, and studied the reciuiremeiits of tlie colony.

.Later he brought more soldiers, but still refused to take formal
possession of the colony. 1 !e entered into an alliance with Aubry,
under which the latter agreed to execute his orders. The French
extremists made fun of this partial surrender of the colony to
the representative of S])ain, l;ecause they had come to believe that,
owing to the mild course of D'UUoa, they could dictate the policy
of the colonial administration. They had now ap[)arcntly lost
sight of the great wrong alleged to iiave been done them in seji-
araling them from lM-;uice, and were bent on something far
deeper and more sweeping. Apparently, they had taken the bit
in their teeth, delerniined to !,^■Ull tiieir independence at the fn-it

D'ULLOA AND O'REILLY. 247

opportunity, and expected themselves to provide the opportunity.
The truth is, they (Ud not know when they were well off, or were
determined to try to throw oil the yoke of Spain, win their inde-
pendence and take the conseH|Ucnces of their failure to accomplish
that result. D'LUloa had cc.me to ihem with the olive hranch
extended, and they had not only refused to receive it; but had
gone so far as to reject every pacilic and reasonable proposition.
Everywhere the Spaniards were derided and ridiculed. Aubry
was hooted for having suljinitted to the dictation of D'UUoa.
The extrearasts, under their enthusiastic leaders, regarded the
conciliatory policy of D'UUoa as a manifestation of weakness,
not only of that officer, but of the proposed Spanish administra-
tion as well. But in spite of this o})position, he went bravely
along, doing the best he could under the circumstances, and under
the pacific directions of his sovereign. He issued orders for the
construction of forts at Bayou Manshac, on the west side of the
river near Natcliez, and two on Red river below the moutji of the
Black. A strong detachment was also sent to Missouri.

As a matter of fact, tlie French inhabitants were grievously and
almost criminally at fault in not promptly accepting the pacific
overtures of D'UUoa, unless they expected to gain their inde-
pendence. He would have been abundantly justified in resort-
ing to severe, if not heroic, measures to enforce the authority of
Spain; but he had undoubtedly been instructed to render the
transfer to Spain as agreeable as possible to the inhabitants. All
tb.e surroundings show this to have been his instructions. Spain
could have had no other object than to gain the confidence and
good will of her new. subjects. An arbitrary and abusive policy
would not only have been the height of folly, but would have
been an insult to France, the friend and ally of the crown of
Spain, whose subjects the Louisiana people were and had always
been. Of course, it is ])opular in order to condone the mistake
of the French residents of New Orleans, to magnify their
imdoubted loyalty and devotion to France and to dwell on the
brutality and savagery of the second Spanish governor. But the
truth demands the emphatic statement that the inhabitants were
in the first instance openly Hostile to Spain, that their insuliordina-
tion would have been crushed by France herself, and that the
failure to welcome the pacific administration of D'UUoa was an
art (if blindness or indrpcndence that could have had but one
outcome under ihe government of any l'<uropean country. Tiie
wisdom of D'Ulloa's mild measures was wholly lost, upon tlie
insubordinate and independent leaders of the revolutionary move-

248 rmi PRoriNCE and niii states.

ment. who should either have wholly thrown off the Spanish yoke
or placed their necks with the best g:race possible within the bur-
densome loop.

Dating from the preliminary treaty of November 3, 1762,
France endeavored to cast upon Spain the burden of sustaining
Louisiana; but previous to possession being taken bv the latter
she advanced the amounts necessary, only, however,'until 1766,
at which time colonial drafts were no longer honored at the treas-
ury of France. In May, 1766, a decree of the Spanish govern-
ment opened the ports of Louisiana to the commerce of the other
Spanisii American colonies under severe restrictions, in order to
prevent smuggling and other evasions. Corn, lumber, tobacco,
rice, etc., Uj)on wliich an export duty of five per cent was laid',
were permitted to pass out of Louisiana in French ships, and flouri
wme, fruits, etc., were ])erniitted to pass in. Among the import-
ant conditions of the commercial decree was one that no ship
should unload until a bill of lading had been signed by D'Llk.a,
and until the price at which the commodity was to be sold had been
defineil and recorded. Merchants were required to accept the cur-
rency of the country for their merchandise, and to receive one-
third of their return cargo in lumber or other colonial production.
Although this order,' as a whole, was fair and for the manifest
benefit of llie colony, it was promptly denounced by the merchants
and shii)-owners, who had adopted the popular fashion of oppos-
ng everytlu'ng suggested under Spanish auspices. Petitions were
prepared both by the merchants and by the ship-owners, remon-
slraling against the e.xecuiion of the order; and for a time, to
secin-e their g(K)d will, it was ])anially suspended.

There was never a duty, ordinance, or law laid down that did
not restrict some man's business or ambition. It is the order of
civilization that the good of the few mustyield, if necessary, to the
benefit of the many. The consumers of Louisiana were certain
to be greatly benefited by these reasonable Spanish requirements ;
and the merchants and ship-owners could soon have shaped their
businesses to the new comlitions without serious loss. The tem-
porary suspension of the decree was but another concession to
the element that opposed everything Si)anish. It cannot be said
that the opijosition was actuated by the belief that the cession
would yet be annulled, because it was known that all of Louisiana
cast of the river was already in the possession of the Hritish ;
and Ihe i-oulinuaiice in the col(.nv of D'HlJoa, the pronutigalioii
and execution of his many orders, the refusal of France to pay
the current expenses of the colony, the opening of trade; witli llic

irULLOA AND O'REILLY. 249

Spanish Gulf colonies, and the actual construction of various
posts and forts by the Spanish soldiers, gave ample proof that
the cession was an irrevocable finality. Neither was the exceed-
ing loyalty to France the cause of the hostility to Spain; nor
the sale of the colony "like a flock of sheep" so unusual and mon-
strous as to kindle the fires of defiance and open resistance. In
almost every war of ancient or modern times, sections of inhabited
country have passed from the vanquished to tlie victor upon the
conclusion of peace, and no agonized cry beeu raised of "a sale
like a Hock of sheep."

Almost every order or movement made by D'Ulloa was
opposed, derided or thwarted. Dound by his instructions of paci-
fication, he was not authorized to use harsh measures ; but he saw
that his rule had not been benelicial to the colony nor honorable
to Spain. He reported all that bad taken place, or had not taken
place, in the colony since liis arrival, to the Spanish ministry, and
in September, 1766, left New Orleans and took up his aboile at
the Dalize, where he remained during ihe succeeding fall and
winter, leaving the colony pretty much to its own devices. Hav-
ing made his report, he was simply waiting for the next step of
his government, and did not care to live longer at New Orleans,
where his orders were disobeved and himself and his country
ridiculed and abused, lie also went there to meet his lady love,
to whom he was there married- in the following spring, a perform-
ance afterward complained of as of questionable legality under
the rules of the Catholic church.

In March, 1767, steps were taken at the Balize by D'Ulloa to
assume possession of the Province, but the next day were revolted,
the whole of which proceeding kindled the ridicule of the opposi-
tion at New Orleans. In the meantime not a Spanish vessel had
come to Louisiana with merchandise; all ocean traffic thus far had
been done in French ships. S])ain was in no hurry "to run after
an onerous burden." She had agreed to accept the colony for
the same reason that France wanted to get rid of it — "to prevent
its being possessed by another nation." It was thought to be in
less danger in the hands of Spain than in those of France; and
so the latter had agreed to assume the burden of $250,000 to
$300,000 per annum in order to save the colony from the clutches
of England; but she refused to pay the expenses of the colony
previous to the arrival of D'Ulloa.

'Pile arrival of jean INlilhet from France late in 1767, with the
final report that his mission to secure the annullment of the ces-
sion to Spain had failetl, was the occasion of pronounced hostil-

250

THE PRO r I. yen and this states.

ity to every attempt of Spain to govern the colony. "There
secnK'd to he a fixed determination to construe into an offense
anylhinL^- that D'lJlloa could say or do."'^ The leaders of the
opposition had heen apprised of the reasons which induced, per-
haps compelled, France to cede the colony to Spain, and which
ohliged the latter, against her will, to accept it. They now
learned that the cession was irrevocahle. Why then their hitter
opposition ? Was it hccause they preferred to become a colony
of England ratlier than one o'i Spain? Was it because of their
determination to attain their indepentlence? Or was it because
of a lack of good judgment — just as mobs are led by tlieir enthus-
iasm to follow hot-headed and eloquent captains. It would seem
the t\vo former, because it afl^rward became known that they
opened communication with the British commandei at Pensacola
and tendered him the colony if he would take possession and
afford them protection. There could have been no object for
their course but revolution. In no way had they been o[ipr<\sscd
by. Spain ; the reverse was true. Every change made, though for
the general benefit, was turned to sport and mockery. Kvery act,
public and private, of ])'Ulloa was burlesqued and caricatured,
and his conversations and houseliold customs (for he had returned
with his wife to New Orleans) became the object of satire and
disrespect, all without the slightest justification.

But D'UUoa was not without his supi)orters. All the. Spanish
officials — Loyola, tlie commissary and intendant; Navarro, the
treasurer; Gayarre, the comptroller; Piernas, the commander of
the small Sp;uiish force — stood staiu;hly by the governor. In
addition such men as Aul)ry, Crandpre, Grandmaison, Bellevue,
Roche, St. Protais, Vaugine, D'\'ezin, IMaxent, D'Lachaise, Reg-
^lo, Dreux and others gave him their respectful consideration and
moral support. By January, lyi'S, the transfer of possession was
an accomplished fact, although Aubry still governed and the for-
malities of taking possession were yet to be observed. The Span-
ish flag was flying in Missouri, at the Balize, over the post
opposite Natchi'/., and on the haul: of the .Manshac, at which four
]:)laces forts had been built and Spanish garrisons placed. But the
French Hag was also kepi Hying over all of Louisiana, although
many Spanish subjects ha<] come in since 1763. In fact so many
Spanish innovations had l)een introduced that Aubry wrote to
France, "When Spain shall take formal possession, I shall feel

'Chalks Ciuyarre.

D'ULLO.l AND O'REILLY. 251

authorized to say to Mr. D'Ulloa tliat I deliver into his hands a
Spanish colony."

Btit the revolution was vigilant and inidyinjj. It assumed tlie
form of a conspiracy to eject e\'erything Spanish from the col-
on)'. Among- them were th.e arch-consijirator, "the head and
front of the oFfending-," Lafreniere, the atloniey-general ; Fou-
coult, tlie intondant; Masan, a retired captain; Mar(juis, a cap-
tain; Noyan, a captain; I5ienville. a lieutenant, and the nephew of
Governor I'ienville; Doucet, a prominent lawyer; jean and Joseph
Milhet, v^'ealthy mercliant;; P)ois!)lanc, wlio had heen a memhcr of
the Supreme Council; N'^illere, commander at the German Coast;
and I'etit, Caresse and I'oupct, pn>minent merchants. Soon the
revolutionists met in secret to dcliherate and plan their course of
action against the vSpanisli control of the colony, and very prob-
ably to consider tlie (juestion of joininrj the hjiglisli colonies, after
having first gained their intle|HMidence. Neither Aubrey nor
D'LTlloa knew of the existence oi tlie secret movement until Octo-
ber, 1768. In th.e nieantime the insurrectionary course had spread
its roots throughout all of Loui.siana. Every settlement, even as
far up the river as Missomn, liad been tampered v.dth by tlie
agents of th.e movement, and everywiiere adherents were foimd,
by reason mainly of misrepresentations as to the strength of the
revohitionists. I^y pre-rirrangenient the guns of New Orleans
were spiked on the night of October 26; and early the next day a
large force of insurgents, at the head of whom was Marquis in
supreme command, and .Noyan ;ind \'ilK're, subijrdinatt's, enU red
(he cily and look pivsst-sion of the puiilio places, .\ubry toi^k
immediale .^lejts lo prolecl U'llloa and v'^pauish interests gener-
ally. In the conference whicli followed, no conciliation was
effected ; whereupon, by tlie advice of Aubry, D'Ulloa and his
wife went on board the Spanish frigate for security, while the
Spanish officers barricaded houses and prepared to resist to the
last. The intense excitement prevailing bewildered everybody.
The streets were thronged with citizens crying "Vive la Roi,"
and attacks upon the barricades seemed imminent, but were
diverted by the leaders of both factions.

At a meeting of the so-called Supreme Council, though really
of the insurgent leaders, held on the 2Sth, a petition signed by
about six hundred persons was ])repared, in which were demanded
the restoration of previous rights and privileges and the expulsion
from the colony of D'Ulloa and the other vSpanish officials. This
residt was accomplished by the hurried eli'Clion of exlra-superior
nieniln-rs of the Council, amid the vigorous and vehenunt

252 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

addresses of the rebellious leaders. It was declared that D'Ulloa
had departed from the instructions of the Spanish crown by issu-
ing orders and decrees vvhicli contravened the existing laws and
customs of the colony, though guaranteed to the inhabitants by
the act of cession. Lafreniere took the lead and prescribed the
course that should be taken, and his views were listened to with
enthusiastic attention and approbation. On the 29th about one
thousand armed insurgents, bearing a white ilag, congregated on
the public square, prepared to carry into execution the provisions
of the petition which demanded the expulsion of the Spaniards.

The repeated remonstrances of Aubry were unavailing. Pie-
indicated the consequences certain to follow the revolution ; but
his remarks fell upon deaf ears, because no ears are so deaf as
those that won't hear. All the violent measures advocated by
Lafreniere were adopted, and D'Ulloa was ordered to leave Louis-
iana within three days.* The other Spanish officials were per-
mitted to remain long enough to settle their affairs. Un the
street it api)eared that ever\ body was wild with enthusiasm.
Many who were perfectly willing to shout "Long live the King,"
were not at all in sympathy with the insurrectionary movement.
Many v^'ere led into the maelstrom, because the Supreme Cotmcil
apparently headed the rebellion. When so august a body sanc-
tionetl tiic proceedings, what coidd the mass of the people do but
foljow where they led? Rousing acclamations and protracted
festivities crowned thest- extra; axlinary proceedings. The colony
was now in the hands of the Supreme Council; the authority even
of .Aubry IkuI vanishetl. Tlu' Spanish administration was wholly
uprooted and soallered t) the fiun* winds. I'oth sitles now began
to see what was to follow, and their representatives were dis-
patched to France with voluminous memorials, manifestoes and
vvliat-nots. While D'Lilloa w;is pained and humiliated, he saw
the coming storm and could alTord to be generous. Remarlcable
to say. he directed the S])anish commissary to continue to pa)' the
French troops. To him the revolution was but an episode, some-
what exciting, perhaps dangerous and certainly inconvenient, yet
a knot which the sword of Spain would sever without the slightest
doubt, On November i, he departed in a French vessel for
Havana.

His expulsion was succeeded by an elaborate manifesto which
attempted to justify the revolution and recapitulated the alK ged
grievances of the colonists. Almost every article of this instru-

'Cliai 'e3 Gayarre.

D'ULLOA AND O'REILLY.

253

ment seems unsound and untenable. Every complaint made has
a pardonable counterpart in the government of every civilized
country of the present day. Almost every strike of modern
times is based upon sounder justice and broader humanitarianism.
The matters complained of were either trilling in the extreme or
abundantly excusable from the surroundings. It is evident that
the revolution was endeavoring to patch up a truce or divert the
approaching hurricane. The manifeiUo was more of a causeless
attack upon the personality of D'Ulloa than an exposition, based
upon reason and fairness, of his usur[jations and wrong-doings.
In other respects, it is a laudatory stump-speech, delivered to the
king of France, glorifying his lecherous person and his prolligate
court. Aubry wrote as follows to the French minister: "I was
waiting only for the arrival of the Spanish troops, to deliver up
the colony and to return to France to render an account of my
conduct, when a general rebellion of the inhaljitants of this Prov-
ince against the Spanish governor and his nation, and which
occurred on the 28t!i and 29th of October, destroyed in a moment
the work of four years, and all the disj)ositions which I have taken
on behalf of the crown of Spain. An audacious petition, insult-
ing to the Spanish nation, rebellious against the king of France,
whose orders it set at naught, and signed by six hundred planters
and other inhabitants, was presented to demand D'Ull'oa's expul-
sion."

The Germans and Acadians were i)revailed upon to go to New
Orleans i)arily upon the representation that they would be reim-
bursed for their Canadian bonds, and upon their arrival arms
were placed in their hands, nuich to their surprise. The mer-
chants of New Orleans were willingly jjrcssed into the revolution
on the ground of securing the revocation of the objectionable com-
mercial decree. But nearly all regretted their action as soon as
the rebellion had triumphed. Many of the residents were induced
through fear to side temporarily with the insurgents. Lafre-
niere was the unquestioned leader of the revolution. Though
unpolished, he possessed much persuasive power and eloquence,
lie it was who prepared the monster petition addressed to the
throne; and he it was who swayed the proceedings of the Supreme
Council and the enthusiastic assemblages of the msurrection.
Prcviou>l', , uinler (loveruor D'KerliM cc, he bad advocated in secret
the independence of the colony from France, and his intrigues
then ha<! di'-lurbed the Iraniiiiillity of the inhabitants .'it a lime
when iMance and j''n;;"land were eui^aged in war. The spirit of
independence breathing thron;;li all his utterances is singularly

254 '^'ii^'- i'KOl'lNCl'. AND THE STATFiS.

like that which at the same time was appearing in the l^ng-Hsh
American colonies. lie Cvjutinued the same tactics under
D'Ahbadie, who comjilained to the French ministry of his revo-
lutionary influences. In his addresses tiiere is shown a spirit of
opposition to all governmental restraint— a spirit that could have
hut one fate under either France or Spain, one which demanded
practical independence, while requiring- assistance and protection
from tlie honie government. Of course, the demands were illog-
ical and inconsistent, because they would have made the Supreme
Council superior in authority to the throne of either France or
Spain. j

Immediately succeeding- the expulsion of D'Ulloa, the revolu- '
tionists, as before stated, prepared their defense in the form of a
manifesto and forwarded it lo the king of France; but in the i
meantime they did not delay to take other steps to complete the j
work of revolution. Tliey prepared a petition addressed to the
Council, now the governing body, soliciting Aubry to "invtte the I
captain of the Spanish frigate, the Volante, to hasten his departure !
in the interest of public tranijuillity." The prayer of the peti-
tioners was granted, and the frigate was required to leave New
Orleans. Report of whnt had hai)pened at New Orleans was sent
to the other settlements, and the small scjuads of Spanish trcxjps ;
agreed (piietly to deiniri Irorii the colony. Aubry summetl up j
the situation admirably in a letter to the French minister: "I find !
myself under the sad necessity of speaking and of telling all, in !
spite of my reluctance lo do so. The Council behaved badly. j
The attorney-general, Lafrenieie, is one of the principal leaders. j

Mr. DTJlloa committed severed faults, but never perpetrated 1

crimes, and, setting aside his rank and his character, did not j

deserve the treatment which lie underwent. It is necessary to |

send here a battalion aud a new council. The one to drive out i
of the country from ten to twehe fire-brands, who rule it as they
please and are the causes of all t!ie harm done ; the other to admin-
ister justice, which is almost entirely set aside. Should this revo-
lution produce no change in the arrangements between France
and Spain in relation to this colony, would it not be proper that
his Majesty should transmit his orders here as soon as possible
and announce his ullimale and irrevocable will on the cession to
Spain, promising pardon and oblivion, save to a few who are
guilty and whom it is absfjhitely necessary to punish? liesides,
it is probable that the guiliirst will lake refuge among the l'!ng-
lish, wlun ihey shall leai'ii of the arrival of lroo])s.
Should the province remain lo iMance, its inhabitants would be

D'ULLOA AND O'REILLY.

-\S5

transported with joy. It would be the most agreeable news they
could receive, as tliey generally liave French hearts. But I am
certain that at present they would prefer passing under the Eng-
lish domination than the Spanish, unless his Catholic Majesty
should be disposed to grant them some privileges and advantages,
to induce them to live under his Hag." Thus in the opinion of
Aubry himself it was '"absolutely necessary to punish" some of
the leaders of the revolution. ] If doubtless meant that the spirit
of insubordination, of independence, manifested would have to
be crushed by the punishment of the leaders. It is to be noted,
also, that Aubry was of the opinion that the colonists would rather
pass to the English than to the Spanish. This contingency had
been taken into consideration by the revolutionists, but had not
been carried into effect because they still hoped, if they could not
gain their independence, to be retained under the Hag of France,
as is shown by their fulsome praises of the French king.

D'Ulloa duly reached Havana, and there found eight hivndred
Spanish troops on their way to New Orleans, under the com-
mand of D'Urissa, who h.ad in his possession one million of dol-
lars to be used in paying the expenses of Louisiana. Had this
sum of money and this force reached Louisiana before the out-
burst of rebellion, it is ])robable there would have been no revolu-
tion. It retjuired about forty days for the news to reach Spain;
then a cabinet session was promptly called to cconsider all features
of the situation, the meeting being held Feljruary ii, 1769.
Among the council were men who had been, and were afterward,
famous in the iliplomalic conloiiions of I'iurope. All were given
time to c<jnsiiler anil were retinireil to make their reports in writ-
ing to the minister of stale, D'Cirimaldi. Their opinions were
submitted in March. The Duke of Alba advocated the retention
of the colony in order to define the western limits of the English
domain; the subjugation of the people by striking all disorders
at the root; a complete ckiangc in the form of government so that
future revolutions wouhl lie impossible; a reiluction in the inhab-
ited limits so that the cost of maintenance might be as light as
possible; "but finally what to my judgment appears to be of more
importance than all the rest, is that it be seen throughout the
world and particularly in America, that the king knows and is
able to repress any attempt whatever derogatory to the respect
due to the royal majesty." Jaime D'Lima recommended about
the same course, and favored "the most sewre and rigorous pun-
ishment" for the inhabitants guilty of tiie revolution. Me thcnight
a thorough understanding with France should be arrived at with-

256 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

out delay regarding- all steps of the cession, and finally said, "The
better to provide for the future, I recommend a stipulation by
which it should be understood that France shall never cede that
province, either to the English or to the colonists themselves,
reserving its reversion to us, whenever France shall feel disposed
to part with it." This important observation was called out by
the consideration of the question whether, on the one hand, Eng-
land should gain the colony, or, on the other, it should remain
with either France or Spain; and if France should retain it what
should he the status of Spain.*

Juan D'Arriaga recommended the retention of the province, not
because it might become profitable, but because the Mississippi
defined the western bounds of the English beyond cavil. He
advised a suitable government for the colony, because, as D'UUoa
had said, it was "made up of all sorts of people, without fealty,
without law, and without religion." He further recommended
that the "most vitiated prjrtion of the pojndation" should iTe cut
off and removed. The Marquis St. Juan D'Piedras Albas joined
in advocating the retention of Louisiana. He thought it of
"extreme importance" that Spain should keep it; that the "vol-
untary donation" of tne colony by France imposed upon Spain
the duty of maintaining her authority there; and that the inso-
lence of the inhabitants should be suitably resented. Miguel
D'Muzquiz favored the abanchjiunent of the colony by Spain.
He gave as his reasons the conilicis that were sure to result from
the free navigation of the Mississipjn; the disagreements proba-
ble between the I'Vench inhabitaius and the Spanish, as shown by
the revolution ; the enormous expenses of maintaining the col-
ony; the additional burden of sustaining it in case of war; and
that if the colony were retained by France, the Spanish province
of Texas would be bounded on the cast by the domain of an ally
and a friend instead of a foe, such as Great Britain was. Juan
Gregorio Muniain believed that Spain should take possession of
the colony because tlie Mississippi established a definite boundary;
because Louisiana could be used as a barrier to protect the com-
merce of Mexico; because the cultivation of wheat, etc., was sure
to be of great benefit to Havana and the other Spanish Gulf cities;
and because the encroachments of France upon Texas, or for that
matter of England, would ])e wholly obviated.

• IliishiiiitMstion may liavc bicn Uicimiim 0/ (lie slinulatinii. wliidi afterward
rut so im|M.rlaiilalit:iue.l)y\vlii.lil)()lli I'l iru-e ami Si.aiii aiT.-t-d luvtr to alienate
I,iMUsiana. hlit.wliieli was violated by NaiM)leoii when he ceded the i.iovinee to the

United Slate!- in 18U.1.

D'ULLOA AND O'RIULLY.

257

The Count D'Araiula, one of the foremost statesmen of Europe,
favored the possession of tlie colony by Spain. He noted the
importance of extending the Mexican boundary to the Mississippi
and the value of having such a river and sucii a land barrier
between the English colonies and Mexico. Under the supposition
that Louisiana might some da)' become a republic, he drew a
strong picture of the proliable consequences to Spain and said,
"The favorable circumstances in which Louisiana would then
be placed, would not only increase her population, but also enlarge
her limits, and transform her into a rich, flourishing and free
state, in sight of our provinces, which would present the melan-
choly contrast of exhaustion and of the want of cultivation.
From the example under their e)es, the inhabitants of our vast
Mexican domains would be led to consider their utter want of
commerce, the extortions of their difTerent governors, the little
esteem in which they are held, the few offices which they are per-
mitted to fill, and would v\eigh the great inducement which they
would have to hate still more ihe Spanish domination, and to
think that they can brave it with more security, when they shall
see that a weak province, com[)ared with their extensive and popu-
lous country, can make good h.er position with impunity and
secure her prosperity."

He noted that the possession by France threatened the integrity
of Texas and the commerce of \mA\\ Texas and Mexico; and indi-
cated the startling possibility that should Spain fail to take the
gift, Louisiana might be abandoned by France, and thus imme-
diately become independent or fall into tlie hands of England,
l-'rance had already signified that she was unable to sustain it,
which probably meant her immediate abandonment of what she
realized must soon fall into the grasp of luigland. What would
then be the consequences should Louisiana either become inde-
pendent or fall to the possession of Great Britain? Either final-
ity meant eternal injury to the Spanish-American colonies,
because the limits between Louisiana and Texas had never been
defined, and England would be sure to stretch them to the utmost.
So would the inhabitants of Louisiana should the colony set up a
republic. Spain for her own protection should take possession,
but should refrain from making the colony strong and prosper-
ous, because to do so would be to invite attack. In other words,
Louisiana should be kept weak, inconspicuous, unpoimlated and
barren to serve as a shield to ward off the attacks of the b'nglish
on Texas and Mexico. What a prosj)cct for the richest tract of
I-17

' .) i;

258 '/V//r PROl'INCli AND THE STATES.

the same extent on the face of the globe. And yet such was the
subsequent Spanish poHcy with Louisiana, as shown by the
restrictions placed upon her, and by the refusal to permit her
people to trade with the citizens of the United States. The Count
D'Aranda, with all his sa,i,Mcily, could not foresee tiie impos-
sibility of keeping such a wonderful tract of country from being
transformed into a populous empire, governed by law and blessed
with liberty. He advocated immediate possession, with sufficient
force to sustain Spanish authority and honor, and suggested the
expulsion of the leaders of the rebellion and the confiscation of
their property, tlie establishment of enough Spanish families there
to serve as the root for a new population, the transportation out
of the colony of all wlio were unwilling to abide by S'panish dom-
ination, the limitation of culoni/.ation, and the establishment of a
chain of forts along the iMissii^sippi about every thirty miles to
emphasize the authority of Spain.

It now remained for the king himself to decide what should be
done with Louisiana. D'Crimaldi, tlie minister of State, advo-
cated the retention of tlie colony: in fact it had been chiefly
tlirouph his advice that it had been accepted at the outset. He
saw clearly the wisdom of possessing it, though not upon the
basis of subsequent development, and added his recommendations
to those of the otlier statesmen. The recommendations of the
Council received the approval of the king, who further considered
more seriously the moral elTect of the revolution upon the other
Spanish American colonies. The seeds of sedition and inde-
pendence thus sown broadcast could not result otherwise than in
a harvest of reve^lutionary whirlwinds, a probable consequence
far more momentous than the puny rebellion itself. The king
also decided that i)ractic;il possession had been taken of the col-
ony, that the inhabitants were, therefore, his subjects, and that it
rested with Spain alone to retake possession and punish the heads
of the conspiracy. It seemed to him that Spain should show to
tlie world that she was fully capable of protecting her crown and
of crushing any rebellion within her borders. "In accordance
with these principles, his Majesty has resolved to use force to
reduce the rebels to submission, and has ordered that the neces-
sary measures to that effect he taken without delay."*

While waiting to see what would be done with the colony, and
what steps would be taken in regard to the rebellion, the inhabi-

♦ Letter i)f tlie Marquis D'Griiualdi to tlie Count D'Huentes, Spanish ambassador
to the coil it of France.

D'ULLOA AND O'RlilLLY. 259

tants of Louisiana were tortured with anxiety and misgivings.
Hundreds not imbued with the principles oif hberty were sorry of
the course they had taken. Tlie Spanish officers, Loyola, Cay-,
arre, Navarro and others were shown more favor and considera-
tion tlian they had reason to expect. Kault began to be found
with the course of tiie revolutionists, but they were not intimidated
and boldly advocated their measures of revolution. That they
had become weaker in inlluence was shown when the Supreme
Council reissued its decree of expulsion to the Spanish frigate.
Aubry succeeded in collecting a force of about four hundred
Spanish and French, and declared that the Spanish vessel would
. depart only at the time set by D'Ulloa. His ability to assemble
so large a force and defiantly to carry his point, still further
increased the reaction against the rebclhon. On the 15th of
February, 1769, he wrote as follows to the captain general of
Cuba: "I hope that Mr. D'Ulloa does me justice and tha; he
has testified to my good conduct ; for no one ever loved and ven-
erated the Spanish nation more than I do. This revolution dis-
graces the h'rench of Louisiana. Although it has not as yet spent
its fury and its frienzied course, yet it seems to me that some of
the most obstinate among the insurgents begin to look into the
future with some uneasiness and even fear; and if in these cir-
cumstances we were favored with the arrival" of a battalion and
the receipt of some money, coupled with assurances that all that
has occurred ^hall be forgotten or forgiven, tranquillity would
soon he restored, after the infliction of the great punishments
which they deserve, on a small number of seditious persons, who
have usurped all powers in the colony and have done all the
harm."

Both sides continued to send to the courts of France and Spain
manifestos of all sorts and deputies provided with elaborate docu-
ments distorting more or less, while trying to explain, the series
of comedies and tragedies which had been enacted on the colonial
stage. The currency which D'Ulloa had offered to redeem at
seventy-five per cent was ordered converted into five i)er cent
bonds at three-fifths of their face value. The Spanish frigate
commanded by Captain D'Acosta was permitted to depart under
the orders of D'Ulloa. Even Lafreniere used his influences to
restore normal order under the rule of the Supreme Council.
The leaders of the revoluti(Mi, seeing their power waning and
wishing to rekindle the revolutionary ilame, finally conceived the
bold project of forming a republic, the chief officer of which
., should be termed Protector. As a co-ordinate branch of the pro-

26o THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

posed government, a council of forty men to be elected by tbe
people was provided for. While the project of forming a rei)ub-
lic was not carried into eltect, it was seriously considered, and
is claimed to have been the first republic to be proposed in the
New World. A national bank was likewise planned. Under
the revival movement, some went so far as to advise the expulsion
of Aubry. It \N'as clear that the serpent of rebellion was not dead
but sleeping.

When all the circumstances in the case are considered, it
appears that the revolution was due to a variety of causes. Since
the establishment of the colony by D'lbervill'e in 1698, the col-
onists, being wietchedl)' poor, few in number and crushed in
spirit, were accustomed to do about as they pleased, because they
could do no harm by being permitted to live under lax laws, and
very few even of them. There had thus grown up an inde]Knd-
ence of all law, but not a disloyalty to the rightful sovereign.
This independence was un(|uesiiona1jly tlie dominating spii^it of
the revolutionary movement. The alleged devotion to France
was not so pronounced as was the spirit of independence. The
hatred of Sixain and all things Spanish contributed not a little to
the flames of opposition. lUit the weakness of the administration
of D'Ulloa and the accompanying belief that the cession to Spain
would be annulled, owing to the unaccountable delay in taking
possession, were the immediate i-auses of the insurrection. Other
motives may have conlril iited. No grave and contributing error
was committed by O'IUKm. The inhabitants were not opi^ressed
more than thev had been pre\uiusly under French administra-
tions. All these claims were nurely the jM-etexts which the revo-
lutionary leaders employed, when the crisis came, to condone their
veiled spirit of independence. But neither France, Spain nor
England, to whose officer at Pensacola an appeal for help had been
made, was in sympathy with a ])rinciple so hostile to their forms
of government. The independent movement, the first to employ
force in America, must stand upon its own bottom ; this it could
not do, and therefore was crushed under the iron heel of O'Reilly.

It does not a])i)ear that Alexander O'Reilly was specially
selected to undertake the suppression of the rebellion in Louisiana.
He was an inspector and lieutenant-general of the Spanish army,
and had been already ordered to Havana for the purpose of
reviewing in the Spanish Culf cities the royal armaments and
c(|uipmenls, and was upon the pdint of saiMng. Not deeming it
necessary to make a special appointment for that purpose, the
king intrusted the subjugation of the revolutionists to O'Reilly.

D'VLLOA AND O'REILLY. ' 261

It was thought best to conceal the object of his mission so far as
Louisiana was concerned : iiis departure was hastened, and he
embarked without forces or ecjuipment, it being well known that
he could secure everytiiing necessary at Havana. Upon his
arrival in Cuba he was ordered to take whatever he deemed neces-
sary in infantry and ammunition, have all conveyed to New
Orleans, there take formal possession of the colony, and have tiie
leaders of the rebellion duly tried and punished after the pre-
scribed forms of law. All others likely to disturb the public tran-
quillity were to be transported from the colony. He was given
large powers — was aulhorized to provide rules for the adminis-
tration of finance, justice, commerce; in fact, to frame a new form
of government and carry it into execution. He was also author-
ized to use whatever force was necessary to carry all his orders
into effect. "It seemed proper to invest Don Alexandre O'Jieilly
with lliese extensive ]iowcrs on account of tlic distance at which
we are from that country. lUit as the king, whose character is
well known, is always inclined to be mild and clement, he has
ordered O'Reilly to be informed that his will is, that a lenient
course be pursued in the colony, and that expulsion from it be
the only punishment inllicted on those who have deserved a more
severe one."*

General O'Reilly was not the sort of man to take half way
measures. Abilities of an exactly opposite character had made
him one of the foremost military commanders of Europe. There-
fore, in coming to a colony ^vhich had rebelled against his king,
for the purpose of restoring the royal authority and of punishing
the rebel leaders, he came as befitted his genius and the dignity
and supremacy of the court which he represented. He was aware
of the military strength of the revolutionists and made prepara-
tions of sufficient amplitude to overawe and overcome any force
likely to be trained against him. He embarked about four thou-
sand five hundred selected Spanish soldiers on board of a frigate
and twenty-eight transports, and on the 23(1 of July, 1769, arrived
at the mouth of the MississipjM. When the news of the presence
of this formidable ilect reached New Orleans early the next morn-
ing, the excitement may well be imagined. Of course the whole
town was soon on the streets and in an uproar. It is reasonable
to suppose that all persons who had taken part in the rebellion
were in more or less trepidation, now that the crisis was seen to
be at hand. Several of the revolutionary leaders still openly

♦Lellerof Marquis D'Griiualdi to Count D'Fueiites.

262 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

counseled resistance to the landing of the Spanish forces, but the
folly of such a covirsc was shown by the size of the ai)proaching
fleet and by the fact that the ranks of the opposition liad melted
away almost to a corporal's guard. In their extremity, the
leaders waited upon Aubry, signified their wish to yield to the
Spanish authority, and cast tlicmselves upon his mercy and pro-
tection. He advised absolute submission, and told them freely
that he did not think so kind a king as his Catholic Majesty would
resort to extreme measures wlure the revolution had as yet shed
no blood. Having in a measure tranquilizcd the inhabitants, and
having sent messengers to the oiher settlements near New Orleans
to effect the same object, Atibry made preparations to receive the
Spanish general and his forces as befitted the solemnity of the
occasion.

Late at night on th.e 2.1th, a Si)anish messenger arrived at New
Orleans, bearing dispatches from General O'Reilly, and was
received at the landing by all the resident Spanish officer^ and
their friends and sympathizers; in fact, the whole town witnessed
his arrival, although long after dark. The messenger Francisco
Bouligny immediately in(|uired for Aubry, and was conducted
to the residence of that gentleman, to whom he delivered his dis-
patches. They announced that General O'Reilly had come to take
possession of the colony for Sixain, and requested that all steps
necessary for such ceremony should be ordered by Aubry. The
latter returned answer of his readiness and anxiety to turn the
colony over to the Spani ;,h authority. The messenger remained
over until the 26th, and was introduced to many of the leading
citizens, including the chiefs of the revolution. Aubry took ])ains
to make it clear to Bouli-nythat the revolution was a thing of
the past and that no opposition whatever would be offered to the
authority of Governor O'Reilly nor to the landing of the Spanish
forces. The reception of the messenger became almost an ova-
tion, so marked was the attention shown him. The resident
Spanish officials, who so recently had suffered many threats
and insults, were likewise shown every consideration of deference
and respect. On the morning of the 2r)th Aubry announcetl to
the entire town in open air at the public square, the arrival of
0'R<;illy, stated why a general of such prominence and such a
large force had been seiu, txplained that bis arrival was sanc-
tioned by the kings of both iMance and S])ain, and advised all
who in any way had supposed the revolution lo desist and ri'nder
immediate submission and oliedieuce. lie said, "I think that in
these delicate circumstances T can assume the responsibility to

D'ULLOA AND O'REILLY. ' 263

assure you that if you offer no resistance, General O'Reilly will
treat you favorably, and that you will not be deceived in having
full reliance on the clemency and tenderness of disposition of his
Catholic Majesty."

Succeeding- this ceremony, three leaders on the revolution,
Lafreniere, Marquis and J(jsei)h Milhet, waited upon- Governor
Aubry, and announced their intention of visiting General O'Reilly
at the Balize, providing AuJjry would favor them with a letter
of introduction to that officer. The latter willingly complied, and
encouraged the revolutionists to take the initiative of submission.
Accordingly, when the Spanish messenger returned down the
river with Aubry's reply, he was accompanied by those three men.
The latter were received ceremoniously by O'Reilly on the deck
of the flag-ship, where all tlie princi])al officers of the fleet had
assembled. On behalf of the revolutionists, Lafreniere delivered
an address in which he acknowledged the sovereignty of Spain,
signified his perfect submission, declared that it would -not be
necessary to conquer Louisiana, and explained that the causes
of the revolution v/ere tlie harshness of D'Ulloa and the contra-
vention by him of the ancient j^rivileges of the colonists. O'Reilly
gravely and politely informed him that as yet, in the absence of
facts and evidences, it was impossible for him to pass judgment
on the merits of the insurrection, that he should take pains to
learn the whole truth, that ids tlisposition was to "render good
services to the colonists," that he was pleased at the submission
of Lafreniere and his associates, anil that he deprecateil the
fren/ied course whicli the revi)lutii)nisls had taken, lie con-
cluded as follows: "I will listen to your reasons when the time
shall come. Tlianks to Goil, I am free from prejudice, and I
know that many things, which at a distance seem as if clothed
in the dark garb of guilt, are often decked in the white robes of
innocence." lie invited them to remain and dine with him,
favored them with polite consideration, and from his deference
led them to believe that their conduct would, at the worst, receive
but a light punishment.

Messengers were sent to New Orleans by O'Reilly to make
preparations for the disemljarkation of the Spanish forces and
for the assignment of their quarters; but this required time and
it was not imtil the 151)1 of /\ugust that Governor Aubry went
down the river to confer witli O'lveilly and to have a time set for
the transfer of possession to the new authority. Finally, on the
morning of the T7th of August, the entire fleet arrived and cast
anchor before the city or moored at the wharves. I'y proclama-

264 ^^'lll^ PROnXCLi A.\D Till: STATUS.

tion Aubry had notified all the inhabitants of the town and the
surronnding plantati(ins to assemble to witness the ceremony of
transfer and to pledge their submission and fidelity to Spain. On
the i8th Aubry and his staf¥ visited the Sj^anish fleet, and Gov-
ernor O'Reilly returned the courtesy by coming ashore and dining
with the retiring Frenchmen. He then returned to the fleet and
made preparations to land all his forces. A signal gun at five
o'clock announced that the di;icmbarkation had commenced.
Aubry and all his troops were drawn up to receive them, and all
the citizens were assembled to witness the imposing ceremony.
The Spanish soldiers, with great precision, marched d<3wn the
flying bridges, in solid columns, clad in the glittering parapher-
nalia of war, with arms blazing in the sun, and with an appear-
ance of strength and invincibility that elicited the admiration of
all beholders. Moving on like clock-work, they drew up in battal-
ions, forming the three sides of a square, and were followed by
the artillery of more than fifty cannons and mortars, and by about
one hundred mounted men. Of course, it was the most imposing
scene ever witnessed in New Orleans up to that time. Every flag
was flying from the vessels and from the houses, for now every-
body seemed loyal to Spain. Every bell in the city was adding
its silver notes to the song of thanksgiving that the uncertainties
of the wretched past were at an end. There was no mistaking
this splendid display of military force. It was meant to crush
at the outset the spirit of revolution ami of indepentlence. It
was now too late to exhibit any ollur sentiment than servility.

iMually, (UMieral O'Keilly came down the bridge of the flag-
ship, preceded by attendants in royal livery, bearing long silver
maces, and surrounded with a splendid escort of officers, garbed
in the brilliant uniforms of the Spanish army and navy. He
advanced to the center of the square, where Governor Aubr>'
stood with his retinue, waiting to receive him, and where from
a tall mast still flew the tri-color of France. Here the credentials
were exhibited and exchanged, and here the instruments were
read which transferred Louisiana to the crown of Spain. As a
conclusion of the ceremony, the Flag of France was hauled down
and that of Si)ain run up, amid the flaunting of baimers, tlie
strains of martial music and the roar of muslcctry and artillery.
The new sovereignty was hailed with loud ai'clamations by many
who a .short time before had anathematized everything vSpruiisli
and had invokt'd every saint in the calendar against the cession
of Louisiana. Proceeding lo the cathedral, the new authorities
were received in stately fashion by the chinch dignitaries, who

D'ULLOA AND O'REILLY. 265

signified their willing submission to his Catholic Majesty. The
orderly and imposing dismissal of the troops closed the cere-
monies. Louisiana was now a Spanish province in name as well
as in fact.

Up to this time the bearing of O'Reilly was so free from any
exhibition of enmity toward the revolutionists, that they were led
to believe that forgiveness for their offenses would be duly
bestowed. He had not said so; but his urbanity and politeness
gave all the impression that he possessed a kind heart and a for-
giving nature. Aubry had previously expressed the belief that,
inasmuch as the revolutionists had spilled no Ijlood, they would
be leniently dealt with, providtnl they rendered ready obedience
and homage to the new authority. It cannot justly be said, that
O'Reilly at any time jirevious to liis taking possession of the
province, practiced any deception as to his future course with the
offenders. It has been asserted that his excessive suavity and
courtesy were used by him as a cloak to conceal the dagger •which
he expected soon to slip between the ribs of the leading revolu-
tionists. I'his charge is not probable. There is nothing to siiow
that he was a martinet. Every writer of those memorable occur-
rences speaks pointedly of his evident fairness and justice.
Despite assertions to the contrary, he was no doubt fair-minded
and kind-hearted. lUit iiaving risen to great military i)rominence
in a foreign country (for he was an Irishman) by strict adherence
to discipline and by prompt and undeviating obedience of orders,
and liaving received his chief promotions and highest honors by
rigorous ilevotion to an exacting sovereignty, it was beyond his
nature and his training to brtiolc the slightest infractions of duty
or homage to his king. His excessive politeness was common
to every courtier and every court in all the capitals of Europe;
for such was the custom of the times under the old monarchies.
His conduct thus far in Louisiana was eminently wise and con-
sistent.

Even while the ceremonies of taking possession were in prog-
ress, O'Reilly was not idle. He had already set in motion the
forces which were destined to search for every scraji of evidence
both for and against the revolutionists. The ililigence with which
he pursued this search, i)roves his desire to get all the evidence
before taking any definite action. The taking of depositions was
already in progress. He wrote to Aubry, "I beg you to make
me ac(|uainted with all these events and their true causes and to
furnish me with the names of the persons who induced the people
to commit the offense of presenting themselves with arms in their

266 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

hands to enforce the violent expulsion of Don Antonio D'Ulloa
and to renew tlie same excesses against all the Spanish officers
and troops in the colony. . • It is expedient that you have the
kindness to communicate to me as soon as possible all that you
may know in relation to said revolution, without omitting to
quote literally all the orders, protests and public or secret docu-
ments, to which you may have had recourse, in order to reduce to,
and to keep within, the bounds of duty the chief agents of the
conspiracy. . . . It is very essential that I should know
who is the person who wrote, printed and circulated the docu-
ment having for its title: 'Decree of the Council,' dated October,
1768, and under what authority this was done. I desire the same
information with regard to the other document entitled: 'Memo-
rial of the Inhabitants of Louisiana on the Event of the 29th of
October, 1768,' because all the articles of said documents claim
my special attention. I shall put entire faith in your informa-
tions, and I again beg you not to omit any circumstance relative
to men and things in what concerns said revolution."

About this time Aubry wrote to France as follows: "At the
very moment when all seemed lost. Providence took compassion
on our calamities, and when we were near being submerged by
the storm, sent us a liberator, who by his mere presence and by
his wisdom has in an instant re-established order and tranquil-
lity in a countr)' which for a long time past was in an indescribable
state of disorder and confusion. After having experienced the
most terrible alarms and afilictions in governing a colony, which I
several times saw on the very brink of ruin and destruction, it has
been my good luck, by the grace of God, to deliver it up in its
integrity into tlie hamls of a generak to whose presence, wisdom
and firmness it is now indebted for its tranquillity. Listening
with the greatest kindness to those who have any business to
transact with him, he fills with hojie and satisfaction all the inhab-
itants, vs'ho after so many disturbances and disorders see at last
the restoration of peace and justice in the country."* It is well
known that Aubry (avored th.e punishment of the leaders, but
there is nothing to show that he was actuated by any other senti-
ment than that of justice. To him the treatment of D'Ulloa was
a most outrageous ix-rformance, little less atrocious than an attack
on the crown itself would have been, lie was actuated not by
revenge, but by justice.

Having secured all the evidence possible, O'Keilly set the

♦Charles r.ayaire.

D'ULLOA AND O'REILLY. 267

wheels of the law in motion. The communication of Aubry was
so sweeping and conclusive, so like an indictment by a grand
jury, that it served as a basis for the proceedings of the prosecu-
tion. In the mind of O'Reilly it warranted the immediate arrest
of the leaders and their confinement to await trial. On the 21st
of August, on one pretense or another, nearly all of the leaders
were attracted to the house of the governor, and when there were
informed that they were under arrest. Those thus arrested were
Nicolos Chauvin Lafreniere, Joseph Villere, Jean iJai)tiste
D'Noyan, Pierre Marquis, Pierre Caresse, Joseph Milhet, Bal-
thasar D'Masan, Joseph I'etit. Pierre Poupet, Hardy D'Poisblanc
and Jerome Julien Doucet. They were informed of the nature
of their offenses, and were told that O'Reilly had been ordered
to bring them to trial according to the laws of the kingdom of
Spain. Having expressed the wish that all might be able to prove
their innocence, he disarmed tliem and ordered them into confine-
ment, some on the Spanish shii)s and some in houses, but all under
guard. They were not permitted to communicate with each
other nor with their friends. Under the laws of Spain, he
onlered all the property of the accused secpiestered, and permit-
ted them to a])point an assistant to take the inventory of their
estates.

A scjuad of soldiers having Joseph Villere in charge conveyed
him on board of one of the ships. Here within a short 'time he was
killetl by his guards with bayonet thrusts, probably in an attempt
during an outburst of ])assion either to resist his captors or to
escape. His death and the arrest oi the leaders producetl the
utmost consternation; but a proclamation of O'Reilly to the ettect
that no others would be brought to trial served to quiet the public
mind, although every breath was held in expectancy as to what
would be done with the oth.ers. By another proclamation,
O'Reilly requested all the people to appear at New Orleans on the
26th to take the oath of fealty to the Spanish crown. Subsequent
dates were set ajiart for the more remote settlements to do like-
wise. Upon further investigations, the arrest of both Foucault
and the printer, Ikaud, was ordered ; but the latter upon establish-
iner his innocence, was released, while Foucault was sent to France
upon iiis own demand and was there incarcerated in the bastde.
The Acadians and the Cermans took the oalh of allegiance on the
271)1. Messengers were seiU to all (he distant settlements appris-
ing llu'in of tlu' change in riders ; and (he messengers were author-
ized (o see that the French Hag was lowered and that of Spain
raised. Prompt and em-rgetic measures were taken to put the
colony in such a condition of confidence as bail never before been

268 THE PROriXCE J.VD THE STATES.

witnessed in Louisiana. The eiicrf^y of the commander seemed
to Ije infused into all classes of tlie population. For almost the
first time in the history of I,ouisiana, there was present a governor
in fact as well as in name. Tliis is the reason why Auhry wrote
so enthusiastically, as quoted abuve.

He wrote on another occasion, "After so many disturbances
and disorders, which had so long desolated this colony, it is sur-
prising that the mere presence of one individual should in so
short a time have restored good order, peace and tranquillity.
Had it been the good fortune of this province that General
O'Reilly had arrived sooner, it would never have seen all the
calamities from which it lias sulYcred. With the exception of a
small number of families, which are in a state of consternation
on account of what has so justly befallen some of their members,
who have been arrested, all the rest of the colonists are quiet and
satisfied. They are grateful to his Catholic Majesty for having
sent them a governor, who listens with kindness to those who Irave
any business with him, and who, although respected and feared,
is not the less loved for his generosity, his magnanimity and his
equity, of which all of us feel the effects. He will make the hap-
piness of this colony."* Can it be possible that Aubry thor-
oughly mistook the character of ihe new governor? Even after
the arrest of the leaders, he was still enthusiastic over the quali-
ties of O'Reilly. It cannot be said that he was influenced by fear,
for no smell of sedition was upon his garments. He was influ-
enced solely by his desire to ha\c the guilty leaders brought to
justice. Had he concealed ilie e\'idences against the leaders, or
connived at their escape, lie would have been guilty as an acces-
sory after the fact. Rut he has been blamed for furnishing the
evidence in such detail and for refraining or neglecting to recom-
mend the leaders to the cUinency of O'Reilly. He thought they
should be punished, and tlierefore made no recommendations of
the kind.

The trial of the revolutionists is the most momentous event in
the history of Louisiana Province. The bringing to trial for
sedition and high treason of twelve of its most prominent citizens
was an occurrence tragical in i\\c extreme. Besides, they were
related by ties of blood to hunchi'tls of their fellow citizens, and
were arrested while induls-'ing the fond ho])e that their offenses
would hi' forgiven. Whilr not given a trial such as is known to
prcsinl I'tiirraliiius, llicn' is ndlbiiii;' to show that they were not

'Traiislaliuii of Mr. CMiaili-s OuvariL-.

VULLOA AND O'REILLY. 269

given every opportunity to answer the charges preferred against
tiiem. In fact, their own confessions, coupled with the corroho-
rative evidence of many crediljle witnesses, left no room for the
shghtest doubt of tiieir guiU. Any judge of the present day, with
the same evidences bL-fore him, woukl lie forced to "arrive at the
same conclusions.

Tile defense endeavored to show that, as the province had never
been taken possession of by D'UUoa, antl, as a corollary, liad
never been surrendered by J'rance, the charge of sedition or
treason could not lie as against Spain. The Spanish i)rosecutor
took the ground that th.e cession v^^as alone sufficient to pass the
title without an act of formal possession. He went farther and
contended that practical possession of the province had been taken
by Si>ain. This was shown by the acknowledgment of the French
colonial leaders of D'Ulloa as t!ie representative of Spain and the
accredited governor of the colony ; by the fact that he was ten-
dered more than once complete possession ; by his declination
solely on the ground that lie h.ad not sufficient force to defentl the
colony; by the surrender of French administrative authority and
the assumption of governmental duties by D'Ulloa and the execu-
tion of his decrees by Aubry ; by the payment of the colonial
expenses after March, 1766, from the Spanish treasury; by the
recognition of the SiKuiish orders by the Supreme Council ; by
the passage of commercial, financial and military control to
D'Ulloa; by the payment from Spanish funds of the salaries of
Lafreniere, tlie chief revolutionist, and of others; by passports to
the merchants, continuances in office, supplies of provisions sent
to famishing colonists, payment of the clergy, granting of privi-
leges of export and of the right to buy negroes — all ordered by
D'Ulloa and executed by Aubry. It was shown that for two
years, possession was an accomplished fact, and that the formality
of taking possession was not necessary when actual possession
was abundantly recognized as an actuality. Unquestionably, the
revolutionists failed to show sufficient cause to justify their course.
The evidence was conclusive that Spain had taken practical pos-
session, and, therefore, the course of the revolutionists was sedi-
tion and treason against Spain.

At the conclusion of the evidence and of the addresses of the
attorneys, the court, by OT-icilly, president, pronounced judgment
to the following effect: That T.afreniere, Marquis, Noyan, Car-
esse, and Joseph Miliict, the iirincipal authors of the revolution,
shouUl be mounted ui)on asses, each of the condemned with a
rojie around his neck, should thus be led to the place of execution.

270 THE PROl'lNCE AND THE STATES.

and should there be hung- by ihc neck until dead; that Joseph
Villere, already dead, but likewise g-uilty, sliould be rendered
infamous; and that the others should be condemned to imprison-
ment as follows : Petit for life ; Doucet and Masan for ten years ;
and Poupet, Jean Milhet and Boisblanc for six years. The prop-
erty of all was sequestered, and the documents, manifestos, etc.,
of the revolution were g-athered into a heap and publicly burned.

As soon as this sweei)inj^ sentence became known, the friends
of the condemned lucn made every effort possible to save them,
but without avail. l\ven the kulies made tearful and passionate
appeals to O'Reilly, but he would not be swerved from what he
considered his duty. However, the impossibility of fmding- a
hang-man even among- the negroes, finally induced him to commute
the sentence to shooting instead of hanging. Accordingly, on
the 25th of October, 1769, Lafreniere, Marquis, Caresse, Noyan
and Joseph Milhet were shot deafl in public by platoons of Span-
ish grenadiers. Those who had been condemned to imprisonment
were pardoned, after having served a short time. Owing to the
numerous relatives left Ijv the men who were shot, their trial,
condemnation and execution are to this day regarded by many of
their descendants as wholly unwarranted. It has been claimed,
upon wb.at good authority is not mentioned, that the governments
of both France and Sjiain blamed O'Reilly for having ordered too
rigorous a punishment. J{ven \ubry, wh.ose loyal and consis-
tent course throughout challenges admiration, has not escaped
the odium of subsequent, s)n;]:rrihi?:iiig generations. Put what-
ever may be said in tliis con.iieeiion, the truth is clear that the
course of the revolutionists was sedition and treason, for which
the legal punishment was death. (VReilly's barbarity on the one
hand, or his devotion to duty on the other, does not alter the
nature of the offense against Spain.

Whether O'Reilly was justified in rendering so vigorous a
sentence will never cease to be a matter of dispute, because his
comi)lete authority has never been published. If D'Grimaldi was
right in his letter to Fuentes, O'iieilly exceeded his authority — •
in fact was prohibited from going beyond a sentence of expulsion
from the colony. On the other hand, the almost boundless
authority known to have been given to O'Reilly, his high char-
acter, his strict obedience of orders and his devotion to duty, lead
to the conclusion that, in the face of positive directions to the con-
trary, he never would have been -guilty of an act so grave as to
shoot these men, if he had not had ample and definite discretion
and authority; indeed, he would not have dared to do so, because

D'ULLOA AND O'REILLY. 271

it would have been a positive disobedience of his king's com-
nianils. It would thus seem that he must have had abundant
authority for his rigorous course ; but it also seems that he must
have liad considerable discretion, and could therefore have
refrained from ordering the death penalty.

But it must be admitted that the shooting of some of these men
and the iniprisonment of tlie others, was the first martyrdom on
the altar of liberty in the Western Hemisphere. A\'hy did these
men hate Spain ? Because she represented the servitude of the
common people to a degree far beyond any other nation of that
period ; her rule in Louisiana meant the serfdom of the colonists.
Her plan of crushing Louisiana in the dust for the benefit of
Mexico and as a barrier against Great iJritain, had become known
to the inhabitants. They, therefore, desired to remain with
France, or to join the Knglish, or to become independent — any-
thing rather than become the slaves of the Spanish grandees.
There was no disloyalty to I'rance. Great effort was made, Qven
the tender of money, to secure the co-operation of the English
governor, Elliott, of Pensacola. But independence, the highest
boon, was a remote hope, owing to their numerical weakness.
There was shown a splendid and memorable love of liberty in
both the "Decree of the Council" and the "Memorial of the Inhab-
itants of Louisiana," the first declaration of indepeiidence in the
New World. Whether the prol^able course of Spain was suffi-
cient to justify the revolution, has nothing to do with the spirit
of liberty sounding high through all the si)eeches and manifestos.
The commercial decree v.as declared to be an attack upon the
ancient liberties of the mcrchanls. Lafreniere insisted that they
were threatened with slavery. He maintained that the subjuga-
tion of the Supreme Council by Governor D'UUoa was a death
stroke at the rights of the people ; that the cession itself guaran-
teed the preservation of existing customs and rights ; and that
"population and commerce are fed by liberty and competition,
which are the nursing mothers of the State, of which the spirit
of monopoly is the tyrant and step-mother. IVithout liberty there
are but feiv I'irtiies. Despotism breeds pusillanimity and deepens
the abyss of vices. Man is deemed as sinning before God, only
because he retains his free will. Where is the liberty of our
planters, of our merchants, and of all our inhabitants?" That
sounds as if it might have been uttered by Patrick Henry a few
years later. Lafreniere goes on to specify the various wrongs
imposed upon Louisiana, just as the usurjjations and injuries of
George HI are defined in the Declaration of Independence.

2^2 THE PROriNCH AND THIS STATES.

However, his cause was clouded, and the spirit of independence
shown was weak. The wrongs complained of were not sufificient
to warrant revolution. The movement was doomed from the
start, because the reasons were too faint and remote to carry all
the people along on the golden tide, and because the revolution-
ists were not numerically strong enough to conquer success with
the sword. The conquered rebel is a conspirator and traitor;
the successful rebel is a hero and patriot, and becomes the founder
of a State. If the British had conquered George Washington,
he would have been ^either shot or hung; his success placed his
name high above the glittering titles of kings and conquerors.
What would have been the fame of Lafreniere and his liberty-
loving associates, had they succeeded in achieving tlieir inde-
pendence? It would have been done had they been strong
enough. It made all the difference in the world whether they
failed or succeeded.

LOUISIANA UNDER THE SPANISH CABINET. 27 Z i

CHAPTER VIII

Louisiana Under the Spanish Cabinet

IMiMEDIATELY succeeding the stern measures of O'Reilly in
suppressing the revolution and punishing the leaders^ steps
were taken wholly to reorganize the military, judicial and
conunercial doi)artnients of the province. Although it had been
the intention of Spain to retain the established order of affairs in
Louisiana, the revolution caused the abandonment of this design
and the substitution therefor of a rule wholly in accordance with
the Spanish colonial policy. Tiie Supreme Council, which had in
reality headed the revolutionary movement, was succeeded by the
Cabildo, composed of six i)erpetual regidors, two ordinary
alcaldes, an attorney-general Syndic and a clerk, over which body
the jirovincial governor was authorized wholly to preside. 'Fhe
governor was UKuie subordinale to the captain-general of Cuba,
and the intendant controlled the revenues. Many subonlinate
officers were provided for, and the Spanish language was
stibstituted for that of the French in all proceedings, except the
judicial and notarial acts of the commandants. The Cabildo con-
vened in its first session December i, 1769, with O'Reilly presid-
ing. He had been given "special power to establish in this new
part of the king's dominions with regard to the military force,
police, administration of justice and finances, such a form of gov-
ernment as might most effectually secure its dependence and
subordination, aiul promote the king's service and the happiness
of his subjects." Judge Martin says, "It is oppressive in the
highest degree to require that a conuuunity should instantane-
ously submit to a total change in the laws that hitherto governed
il, and be comi)elled to regulate its conduct by rules of which it is
f— iH

-••«

274 ^'-^^^^ PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

totally ignorant." While that statement is true, it must also be
admitted that, in vie\v of the rev(jlution, the colonists had forfeited
their rights to ordinary and proper treatment and had brought
upon their own heads repressive measures, which would not have
been resorted to under normal conditions. Under his instruc-
tions, O'Reilly was authorized to render the province dependent
and sul)()rdinale, and was given unlimited power for the acconir
plishment of these ends. Tlie fact that O'lveilly thouglu it neces-
vsary to execute several of the leaders of the revolution, furnishes
the reason why he also thought it necessary to change the laws
governing tiie province, ft was necessary to root out the spirit
of independence i)revailing throughout the entire province; hence
a complete change of laws and customs was employed to show the
power and authority of Sijain.

But the change did not produce serious hardship, because the
law of Spain, which was substituted for that of France, likewise
originated in the Roman Civil Law, and hence its general prin-
ciples were familiar to tl.c colonists, in several proclamations,
O'lveilly made known hi> will to the people. .Ivvery i)arish was
provided with a civil and military commandant, who was required
to attend to the observance of law, to examine the passports of
travelers, to permit no one to settle within his jurisdiction without
a license from the government, to preside in the trial of civil
causes where the contention did not exceed twenty dollars, to pim-
ish slaves, to arrest and imprison free persons guilty of offenses,
to serve as notary public, lo attend to the sales of the estates of
deceased persons, and to execute" the judgments rendered in New
Orleans against citizens of iiis parish. It will thus be seen that
the commandant possessed extreme power over the people within
his jurisdiction ; but as he was sv. orn to maintain and defend the
Catholic faith, he was subordinate to the parish priest in all eccle-
siastical matters. ' In fact, inasmuch as the Catholic church ruled
Spain at that date, the will of the church prevailed in all things
where a conflict between church and state occurred.

In 1763, vi^hen all of Louisiana Province east of the Missis-
sippi passed to Great Britain, there was but one settlement in
upper Louisiana west of the rivei— Ste Genevieve. D'Ulloa had
ordered the Spanish flag raised in "the Illinois," and doubtless
that ceremony was performed at the little village of Ste Gene-
vieve; also at St. Louis, wliich was founded as a consequence of
the division of the upper country between Si)ain and Great Brit-
ain. The people of the U[)i)er colony, thougli entertaining the
same sentiments toward Spain as did tlieir nei;^libors lo the south,

■ \

LOUISIANA UNDER THE SPANISH CABINET. 275 ^

resorted to no extreme measures, and hence escaped the rigor of
O'Reilly. In fact, St. Ange had communicated his allegiance to
Spain soon after the appearance of D'Ulloa at New Orleans, and
as a reward for his promptness and adherence had been appointed
commandant of Upper Louisiana. Although St. Ange was a
. Frenchman, it was not found necessary to retire him even under
the rigorous policy of O'Reilly. On the contrary, Upper Louis-
iana was constituted more of an independent province than ever
before, though still subordinate to the jurisdiction of the colonial
governor. It embraced all of the province north of a line fixed
approximately near the ])resent Mempliis, and had an estimated
population of eight hundred ninety-one. During the Spanish
reign, no settlements were formed in Upper Louisiana except in
what is now the State of Missouri. But the province as a whole
received such an inllux cjf population that many new towns were
founded in what is now Louisiana, Arkansas and Missouri.

All new laws went into ojHration December i, 1769. 'They
were precisely like those prevailing in the other Spanish American
colonies, and hence were the same as those governing the Council
of the Indies. As a wh.ole, the province was made a dependency
of Cuba. Among other things, O'Reilly instructed the com-
mandant at Natchitoches to terminate the illicit trade between
that point and the Mexican provinces and took steps to prevent
the future enslavement of the Indians. He issued the following
order: "The aforesaid commandants shall take special care that
the inhabitants carry on no trade with the Lnglish vessels which
navigate the Mississippi, nor with any of the settlements situated
on the territory of his IWitannic ATajesty, and that the king's sub-
jects do not go out of the limits of this province without a written
permission from the governor general. Those acting in viola-
tion of the provisions of this article shall be arrested by said com-
mandants and sent to this town (New Orleans), in order that
their case be submitted to the further consideration of the gov-
ernment, but the first ])roceeding shall be to sequestrate their
property." The wisdom of every order issued by O'Reilly is not
questioned at this day. The kind treatment of the Indians,
charity to the poor, proper respect for the church, consideration
for the rights of foreigners on the Mississippi, vigilance in
uprooting immorality, the rigid observance of law, and many
other sound prnciples were instituted. lie issued the following
instruction: "The gre:it distance from the capital to the Illinois
requires ]:)roportionate discretion and prudence in the commandant
of tluit remote district. There are three important objects recom-

276 THE PROVli^CE AXD 71111 STATES.

mended to his special vigilance and attention. Those are: That
the domination and government of his Majesty be loved and
respected; that justice be administered with promptitude and
impartiality and in conformity to law ; and that commerce be pro-
tected and extended as much as possible. . . . Should any
subject of his Catholic Majesty commit any excess or trespass in
the territory of the English, or offer any insult to those of that
nation who navigate the Mississippi, the commandant shall do
prompt justice, and shall give full and immediate reparation, on
the just complaints of the Kngli^h officer, but without failing to
observe the formalities prescribetl by law. . . . The com-
mandant shall take care that all the Indians who may come to
St. Louis and St. Genevieve be well treated, and be paid an equi-
table price for the hides they may bring to market, and for what-
ever other things they may have for sale, and that in the barters
or purchases they may make, they be served with good faith. ^ In
this way they will derive more benefit from their trade with us;
they will provide themselves with what their wants require, with-
out its being at the expense of the king ; and the Juiglish will not
reap all the profits of a commerce which ought to be in our hands.
This province wants flour, wine, oil, iron instruments,
arms, ammunition, and ev^ery sort of manufactured goods for
clothing and other domestic purposes. These can only be obtained
through the exportation of its productions, which consists of
timber, indigo, cotton, furs and a small quantity of corn and rice.
. By granting to this province, as formerly to Florida,
the benefit of a free trade with Spain and with Havana, its inhab-
itants would find in that very city of Havana a market for all
their produce, and would provide themselves with all the articles
of which they stand in need. ... It would also be proper
that the vessels belonging to this colony be received in Havana
and the ports of Spain on the same condition and footing with
Spanish vessels; but with Ihe understanding that no vessels,
cxcei)t they be Spanish or belong to the colony, shall.be ailmitted
in this port, or emj^loyed in transporting goods, and that this be
recommended to the special care of my successor. ... I
found the Knglish in complete possession of the commerce of the
colony. They had in this town their merduuits and traders with
open stores and shops, and 1 can safely assort that they pf)ckit(d
nine-leulhs of the money spent lu-re. The commerce of Krance
used to riceive Ihe productions of the colony in jxiyment of tiie
articles imported into it from the mother country; but the English,
selling Iheir goods much cheapi r, iiad the gathering of all the

LOUISIANA UNDER THE SPANISH CABINET. 277

money. I drove off all the English traders and the other indi-
viduals of that nation whom I found in this town, and I shall
admit here none of their vessels."

The laws and regulations put in force by O'Reilly lowered the
colonial expenses to one-half of what they had previously been;
but, in accomplishing this reform, he so restricted commerce that,
with the large advent of settlers, there succeeded almost a famine
from the shortage of provisions, tlour advancing to twenty dol-
lars per barrel. At this time a brig load of Hour owned by Oliver
Pollock was sold in New Orleans for fifteen dollars per barrel.
In spite of this extremity, the inhabitants were not permitted to
purchase anything from persons navigating the Mississippi or the
lakes without a passport. They were permitted to sell fowls and
other provisions to boats and other vessels, if delivered on the
river bank for cash payment. A violation of this order subjected
the offender to a fine of one hundred dollars, to the confiscation of
the article thus sold, one-ihird of the penalty going- to the
informer.

No change was made in the ecclesiastical organization of the'
province ; the Capuchins remained in absolute control with Father
Dagobert in charge of the pastoral functions at New Orleans and
in the administration of the southern part of the diocese of Que-
bec. A Capuchin was placetl in charge of tlie settlements of
Upper Louisiana. The Catholic church was aided from the royal
treasury in the construction of buildings, grants of land, etc.
"The Catholic king, to show his regard for this religious cor-
poration (the Charity Hosjjital of the Ursuline Nuns in New
Orleans), decided that two of the nuns should be maintained at
his own expense, for each of whom sixteen dollars was to be paid
monthly to the convent out of his royal treasury."

By special proclamation, O'Reilly re-enacted the Black Code
that had proved so beneficial for so long a time. Under his
orders a body of militia was organized, called the "Regiment of
Louisiana," and placed under the command of Col. Don J. Estech-
eria. The Spanish law of the Indies promptly supplanted the
colonial law of France in all parts of the province. That no mis-
take might be made as to the change, O^Reilly issued an abridg-
ment of the Law of the Indies and of Castile, which was the
foundation of all actions during the term of the Spanish domina-
tion. All causes begun under French procedure were ordered
transferred to the vSpanish tribunals instituted in the province.
Although it has been disputed there is nothing to show that the
acts of O'Reilly were not fully approved by the Spanish king,

278 Tim PKOViX'CE .iXI) THE STATES.

In fact, the king's council, "having- carefully examined all the
documents to whicli tlie king had called their attention, could dis-
cover in the acts of O'Reilly nothing which did not deserve the
most decided approhation, and which was not a striking proof
of the extraordinary genius of tiiat general officer."

But Spain gave no encouragement to the education of the
masses. It was deemed sufficient for them to ohey the laws of
church and state provided, witiiout any inquiry on their part.
The bible was the word of God ; the Pope was the vicegerent of
God on earth ; and the holy Catliolic church was the interpreter
of scripture. The king and his counselors prescribed and exe-
cuted tlie laws. What mc.re was wanted of the good people but
to obey the priest and tlie king? Both spiritual and temporal
wants were fully provided for by the supreme grace of Pope and
King. A little later, when settlers were so earnestly wanted,
Protestants were permitted to become subjects; but were not per-
mitted to build churches, and the second generation was expected
to become Catholic. A school of general learning started in New
Orleans, failed totally for want of support. Tlie children grew
to manhood and womanhood without learning to read or write.
The "Ifoly Inquisition" endeavored to secure a footliold in the
province ; but this was too nnich even for the intolerance of Spain.
The Capuchin Father, Antonio de Sedella, became the represent-
ative of the Inquisition in Louisiana : but was escorted to Cadiz
against his will by Governor Miro. The latter by guaranteeing
protection to the Protestants had secured a large accession of
them tln-oughout Louisiani. The supremacy of the Inquisition
in Louisiana meant the death of every one of them on the charge
of heresy. Such an order of affairs meant the destruction of
the province and could not be permitted. Strange as it may
seem, the course of Governor Miro received the sanction of the
king, himself an uncompromising- Catholic and the supporter of
the Inquisition.

Over Upper Louisiana was placed a lieutenant governor, who
was subordinate only to the governor general and the intendent
general of the whole province. Tie was a sub-delegate to the
intendent, and superintendvd all financial operations within his
jurisdiction. In this capacity he had charge of Indian affairs,
commerce, the sale and grant <>\ Irmds, the levy and collection
of revenue; and next to the governor was at the head of the mili-
tary (Kpartment, selecting the c<onmandants and other officers
of his prtndnce. He likewise had hiidi judicial jurisdiction
within bis province, and under him llu- courts became models of

LOUISIANA UNDER THE SPANISH CABINET. 279 \

promptness and efikiency. It is even stated that the administra-
tion of law at St. Louis was so satisfactory that when the Amer-
ican courts were instituted in 1803, with their long and vexatious
delays, they were derided by the inhabitants.* With an export
duty of only six per cent, tlie hrst shipments of the Missouri
country — salt and timber — were profitable to the producer. Tlie
officials of Upper Louisiana were paid in the bills which they
drew on the ro} al treasury at New Orleans. Prior to the Revolu-
tion, the British had monopolized the Indian trade of the Missouri
and the upper Mississip])i rivers, including- the Dcs Moines and
the Minnesota: and St. Louis found it to her interest under both
French and Spanish rule to send her furs to Canada and obtain
there goods for the Indian trade : but found a better market for
lead and provisions at New Orleans, where she purchased the
most of her groceries. However, salt, lead, and other commod-
ities were sent to Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Pittsburg near the
close of the Spanish domination.

Don Louis de Unzaga succeeded O'Reilly to the governorship
of the province in October, 1770. Pie found commerce at the
lowest ebb, owing to the restrictions of O'Reilly and his prede-
cessors. Under D'Ulloa exports had been confined to the Span-
ish towns of Malaga, Carthagena, Barcelona, Seville, Alicant,
and Corunna, and to Spanisli bottoms commanded by Spaniards.
Some changes had been made in this rule, but others equally
oi)pressive had been substituted in their place, and as a conse-
(juence distress and poverty were the portion of the colonists.
But Unzaga instituted a revolution in this state of affairs. Ife
almost completely overlooked the commercial and fiscal laws of
Spain, and permitted Pritish (American) merchants- to trade
pretty much as they pleased, with the result that in a short time
the trade of the colony was wholly in the hands of foreigners and
the condition of the colonists had changed from lethargy and
intense distress to activity and prosperity. British vessels navi-
gated the Mississippi in great numbers dealing in all sorts of
goods and provisions, even fitting up their boats with counters
for the convenience of the peojile of Louisiana. Ocean-going
vessels from Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston, keel-boats
from up the Mississijipi, traders from the interior — all flourished
with the connivance of the Spanish officials, though the trade was
a direct violation of the laws of the province. Here was a
remarkable condition of things: Spain standing bade wilh her

* History of iVlissoiiri : Cair.

280 THE PROVINCE AX D THE STATES.

obsolete laws, while her officials winked at an illicit trade that
was a god-send to the people of the province. A better com-
mentary on the contradictory policy of that decaying monarchy
could scarcely be given.

But complaint arose, owing to the diminution in the revenues
of the king. The monopoly of the provincial trade by the British
and the consequent prosperity of the colonists, poured the revenue
into British pockets instead of into the royal exchequer. The
floating stores, the warehouses at Manshac, Baton Rouge, and
Natchez, the trading vessels moored in the river near New-
Orleans, the numerous keel-boats, deprived the Spanish monarch
of the means of gratifying his vanity and profligacy. The pros-
perity of the reign of Unzaga made the colonists partially forget
the severity of that of O'Reilly. But as might have been
expected, the prosperity led to an enormous extension of credit ;
so much so that, when the restrictions began again to be enforced,
many were obliged to ask for an extension of credit or were
forced into involuntary assignnunt. One important truth is
proved by these events: That the removal of the restrictions
meant the unbounded prosperity of the province. But the king
pressed the thumb-screw on the colonists, as the Inquisition
pressed it on the quivering form.s of heretics, forcing out the
heart's blood in agonizing driblets and rendering the victim pale,
weak, and almost lifeless.

The rebellion of the British American colonies was an impor-
tant event in the history of Louisiana province. With the con-
nivance of the Spanish oflicials arms and ammunition were sent
to Pittsburg for use in the western districts upon the solicitation
of Col. George Morgan and others. Unzaga reported fully to
the Spanish cabinet on the defenseless condition of Louisiana,
pointing out that it was vulnerable on all sides and easy of con-
quest by a comparatively small force. As no assistance could
be expected from Havana, he hitiinated that in case of attack, he
would retire to Mexico after hope of saving the colony had been
abandoned. About this time he was relieved of the governor-
shi]:) at his own reciuest, and was succeeded by Don Bernardo de
Oalvez, colonel of the "Regiment of Louisiana." Under him the
trade of the Americans w.is sonivwhat restricted in favor of
l^'rance ; but in spite of his rulings American and I'.nglish vessels
in large mnnbers navigated the lower Mississip|)i in violation of
the Spanish laws. In the spring of 1777, he ordered the seizure
of eleven T\nglish vessels, and soon afterward no more T'ritisb
boats aj)[)eared on the river; S|)ain and Lngland were at war.

o8^

LOUISIANA UNDER THE SPANISH CABINET. 281

Jn 1776 a royal schedule reduced the export duty of the prov-
ince from four per cent to two per cent. In addition, the king
agreed to huy for tlie present all the tohacco the colonists could
raise : evidentl)' the price had advanced in the European markets.
In fact, tobacco was the staple used by the rebellious Americans to
buy munitions of war from France. The king- agreed to give
seven livres per pound for leaf tobacco and ten livres per pound
for the weed in carots. The distinct object of this agreement was
to assist in populating Louisiana, and was ordered at the sugges-
tion of Unzaga. The revolution of the British American colonies
had been follo^vcd by a large accession to the population on the
left bank of the Mississippi. Tories, cowards and many others,
who felt under no obligation to assist the rebels and who desired
to avoid the danger and distress farther to the east, gathered
there, but refrained from crossing until they had learned how
they were likely to be received on the other shore. In the end,
Louisiana was tluis benetited, though many persons located at
Natchez.

The suggestion of Col. George Morgan to Governor Galvez
that the rebels be permitted to descend the Ohio and Mississippi
rivers with a large force for the purpose of attacking the British
posts of Mobile and Pensacola, was properly refused by that able
official and astute strategist, lie had other important designs,
as was soon shown. Already had the Americans secured too
much of a foothold in Louisiana. Should they be allowed to
comiuer \\\'st I'lorida, they would have possession of the left
bank of the Mississipi)i and h.ave the right to navigate that river.
It meant nothing less than the invasion of Louisiana by them and
the creation of New Orleans as a free port. In self defense,
Louisiana must prevent the aggressions of the rebels as well as of
the British. Luckily for Louisiana and the cause of Spain gen-
erally, Governor Galvez, though still in his twenties, possessed
by nature military genius of a high order. He realized that war
between Spain and Great Britain was likely to be followed by the
invasion of Louisiana up the IMississippi by the British fleets.
He therefore waited only until war had been actually declared
by Spain before he began operations for the reduction of the
British forts on the Mississippi. He determined to strike,
although opposed by all his K;gal advisors.

He accordingly built four large boats, each carrying either a
24-iK)under or an 18-pounder, and provided with both oars and
sails, so that quick action in either shoal water or during calms
was assured. He knew that he would thus have the advantage

282 THE PROl'lNCE AND THE STATES.

of a British fleet, which could advance neither in shallow water
nor without wind. Before striking, he sent spies to Pensacola
and Mobile to learn the British strength ; he also ascertained that
the Creeks, Choctaws and Chickasaws were the firm friends of
the British. He began operations none too soon, because the
Americans under Col. George l\. Clark had conquered the Brit-
ish Illinois country, and a movement by tiiem down the Missis-
sippi was contemplated. Others had also crossed the mountains
and taken possession of ])ortions of what is now East Tennessee,
claiming at the same time an extension to the I\lississi))pi.
Further than this. Captain Willing, an American, with a small
force of about fifty men, pick;.il up from any quarter, openly
attacked the British settlements on the lower Mississippi, burn-
ing farm-houses and capturing slaves and other property of Brit-
ish subjects, nmch to the regret of Governor Galvez, who as
soon as jiossible terminated the movement. The wisdom on the
part of Spain of striking at once thus became apparent. 'The
course of Captain Willing was both without the sanction of Gal-
vez and against the designs of Spain. That country had deter-
mined to secure both banks of the Mississippi, in order to
monopolize the commerce of the Gulf; and accordingly, Galvez
was empowered to effect the redaction of the British posts along
the Mississippi and, if possible, along the Gulf in West b'lorida.

Although Galvez had assisted ib.e Americans to the extent of
about seventy thousand dollars' worth of arms and ammu-
nition, there was notliing t^ prevent him from carrying
into etTect ihe desi^yns ul" Spain as to ihe concjuest of \\'est
b'loritLi from Great nrilain. Si)ain. miwilling to accede to
the lerms of the Americans as to the navigation of the
Mississij^pi, refused to enter into an alliance with them, as
France had done, and determined to strike Great Britain, the
common enemy, and if jjossible effect for her own benefit the
conquest of the Floridas. She now saw that her interest was
likely to conflict with that of the Americans, who, when they
should secure their independence, might prove a dangerous Jieigh-
bor. In order to assist tlie colonists, Spain removed the restric-
tions on trade between T,()uisiana and the West Indies, but ])]acecl
such operations under the coiitrnl of coimnissioners. About this
time, also, Galvez made New ( )rleans practically a free port to
France and the Americans; and the king, in October, 177X,
exlendtd the exports of l.onisian.i to any port of ,S]);iin to wliirh
Ihe commerce ol' the ln(br,s was open. /\ided from I be roval
treasury, siweral ship loads of new colonists arrived from ibe

LOUISIANA UNDER THE SPANISH CABINET. zHt,

Canary Islands and settled in Louisiana. In fact, Spain granted
the annual sum of forty thousand dollars "to facilitate the estab-
lishment of the new colonists who may come to Louisiana." Set-
tlements were thus formed at Xew Iberia, Terre aux lia-ufs, on
the river Amite, Bayou Lafourche and elsewhere.

No doubt the inhabitants of the Missouri country assisted Oov-
ernor Galvez in the conquest of West Florida. They likewise
assisted Colonel Clark to reduce the British posts of Kaskaskia,
Vincennes, etc. After war between Spain and Great 1 Britain ha J
been declared, they drove the Hn*,dish traders from the u^jper
Mississippi, the Missouri, the Des Moines, but left them in jjos-
session of their posts in what is now Minnesota. Partly in retal-
iation for this hostile course, and partly to aid a general
movement of the British against the claims of the Spaniards on
the ]\Iississippi, an expedition of tories and Indians was organ-
ized in Canada in 1780 to attack and reduce St. Louis and to
effect the conquest of Upper Louisiana. About one hundred
forty Canadians and Englisliinen and fifteen hundred Indians
rendezvoused at Michillimackinac, and, while the Spanish
and the English on the Gulf were struggling for the mas-
tery, marched across the country and attacked St. Louis,
but found it too strong to be taken with the force at
their disposal. Having killed sixty persons and captured thirty,
hearing that Colonel Clark was likely to attack them with
a large force of Americans, and being deserted by many of their
Indian allies, the British abandoned their designs and returned
hurriedly to Canada. Though there is much dispute over the
results of this expedition, the facts seem substantially as above
narrated. The expedition of Capt. Kugenio Pierre in 1780, v.'ith
a force of Spaniards from St. Louis across the country in the
dead of winter to what is now St. Joseph, Michigan, a British
post, restilting in its capture, did much ,to establish the subse-
quent claims of Spain to the British territory north of the Ohio
and east of the Mississippi. It was an important cotmter move-
ment which checked any further attempt of the British to
capture St. Louis or any other post on the Upper Mississippi.

War was declared by Sj^ain against Great Britain on the 8th of
May, .1779; and as soon as the news reached Galvez he prei)ared
to art. lie adroitly comi)elled the jx-ople of New Orleans to
agree to assist him, by refusing to accept the commissicjn as y;ov~
ern(')r, which arrived wilh the news of the declaration of war,
unless they complied wilh his wishes and demands. With a force
of about i,.loo Spaniards, Americans and Indians ami an anna-

284 ■ 'fli^ PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

ment of ten pieces of cannon, he advanced np the river in Septem-
ber, 1779, captured Fort Manshac with an EngHsh force of
twenty-three men, reduced and captured the strong fort at Baton
Rouge with five hundred men, iuchiding Lieut. -Col. Dickson, the
British commander on the Mississippi, and thirteen pieces of
heavy artillery, and at the same time obtained the surrender at
discretion of Fort Panmure at Natchez with about eighty men.
In the meantime, Captain Grandpre had captured the two small
British posts on the Amite and on Thompson's creek. In the
end, the Spaniards captured eijdit vessels, three forts and two
posts, five hundred fifty regulars and many militiamen and free
blacks. It was a splendid accomplishment, against great opi^o-
sition at New Orleans, and in spite of many obstacles, and
reflected the highest credit on the courage, sagacity and genius
of the young commander.

But he had now only well begun. He planned the conquest
of all of West Florida, and in the spring of 1780 moved with a
force of about t^vo thousand upon Fort Charlotte, at Mobile, and
having invested it and made a breach in its walls, received its sur-
render on the 14th of March. The British General Campbell,
who arrived before Mobile a fev/ days later with a considerable
force, was chagrined to find the place, not only in possession of the
Spaniards, but too strong to be retaken, and was therefore com
pelled to return to Pensacola. Galvez now determined to attack
Pensacola, providing he could secure assistance from Havana.
He solicited reinforcements, which were promised, but not sent.
Still determined, he himself wenl to Havana, and succeeded in
assembling a satisfactory licet and force, all of which a little later
was scattered and disi)erscd by a fearful storm on the Gulf. But
he persevered, and in February, 1781, had at his command a
larger and stronger force than before, and a formidable fleet
under the command of Admiral Irazabal. Arriving in front
of Pensacola early in March, he prepared to attack; but was
opposed by the admiral, owing to some trifling considerations of
navigation. Receiving reinforcements from Mobile under Cap-
tain D'Espeleta and from New Orleans under Captain Miro, Gal-
vez determined, with the assistance of the small naval force at his
command, to attempt the reduction of Fort George. Assuming
all responsibility, and actinj; indei-eiidently of Irazabal, he orderecl
the advance of his little fleet, and amid a severe fire from the
iMiglish, successfully passed ihe fort and joined his land forces
beyond, greatly to their delight. Irazabal now perceived that he
must either co-o])erate or run the risk of being dishonored before

LOUISIANA UNDER THE SPANISH CABINET. 285

the enemy, and accordingly, the next day, he passed the fort as
Galvez liad done, amid a severe fire. The gallant feat of Galvez,
in advancing in an open boat amid shots that fell all around him,
to meet the fleet of the admiral, aroused the admiration even of
the enemy. The fort and the marine redoubt near it, were imme-
diately invested, the English commander having refused to sur-
render as had been demanded of him. Early in April, the attack
was begun with all the force at the command of the Spaniards,
but was met by a continuous and heavy fire from the English.
The latter were well supplied with ammunition and provisions,
were aware that their works could not be carried by assault ; and
thus accordingly held out for about a month. Early in May, a
shell having set fire to the magazine in one of the English
redoubts, a terrific explosion made a breach in the walls, through
which the Spaniards poured, taking possession and turning the
guns on the English. This decided the contest, 'i'erms of capit-
ulation were agreed on, and over eight hundred men were surren-
dered prisoners of war. In fact, Governor Chester, of West Flor-
ida, being among the prisoners, surrendered without further ado
the whole of West Florida. This magnificent victory completed
the heroic work of the gallant young Galvez. lie was appointed
a lieutenant-general, was made a count, was commissioned cap-
tain-general of the provinces of Louisiana and Florida, and was
decorated with the cross of knight pensioner of the Royal and Dis-
tinguished Order of Charles 111. In the meantinic, an F,nglish
force under General Eyman had retaken Fort Panmure, at
Natchez, but now abaniliiued it upon leaiuing of the capture of
Pensacola and the surrender oi West Florida. Thus the con-
quest of that province was complete, solely through the determi-
nation, daring and gencralshi]) of Galvez. That the army of
Galvez contained men from U])per Louisiana cannot be doubtetl,
though how many seems never to have been recorded.

The importance of this conquest to Spain can scarcely be over-
estimated and is often overlooked. At the conclusion of peace in
1783, by which the British-American colonies gained their inde-
pendence and all the territory on the left bank of the Mississippi
north of the thirty-first degree of latitude, Spain also, by reason
of the conquest of Galvez, secured all of West Florida south of
that line, and at the same time was ceded East Florida as well.
Had Galvez permitted the Americans to make this conipiest, as
they desired to do, or had he not effected it himself, the conclu-
sion of the peace of 1783 would doubtless have been followed by
the transfer of West Florida to the triumphant rebels. Owing to

286 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

the determination of the /vmericans at a hiter day to possess West
Florida in any event, the result made little difference either to
Spain or to the United States. However, judging hy ordinary
standards, the conquest of Galvez was not only hrilliant, but a
measure of extreiue wisdom.

The movements of the armies on the lower Mississippi caused
an almost complete abandonmeni of commerce ; to such an extent
in fact that as early as January, 1780, provisions in New Orleans
were very scarce, and commanded almost fabulous prices. In
this emergency all restrictions were abandoned, and even the
king caiue to the relief of the colonists with liberal measures.
But as time passed the siluati(in became graver instead of better.
Galvez recommended free trade with all countries, but, not being
in harmony with Spanish jjolicy, bis suggestions were not adopted.
The peace of 1783 was followed by the greatest prosperity Louisi-
ana ever enjoyed. An immense trade sprung up at New Orleans,
and was largel)' in the hands oi" the Americans. Soon the* old
trouble arose — complaint of the encroachments of the Americans;
and the restrictions, which had never been rejicaled, were again
enforced to ciieck their advance from all commercial quarters.
As a Ijar to the advancement oi the Americans, Spain, at great
expense, concluded a jjcrmanent treaty of friendship and alliance
with the Talabouches, Creeks, Apalaches, Chocluws, Chickasaws,
and Alibamous, and took' care that those ])owerful nations were
afterward hostile to the Americans. The half-breetl chief,
McCiillivray, was pronrpth' grante>l a pension of six hundred dol-
lars per annum h\ Spain, ow in;.', to his strong inlluence over all
the southern tribes. Strange as it may seem, he even hinted
as early as January i, 1784, at the separation of the west-
ern territory from the United Slates, his language being, "This
expedient (the levying of duties and taxes by the United
States) has producetl so unfavorable an impression, that a good
many of their citizens, in order to escape from the burden of taxa-
tion, have abantloned their dwellings for the woods, and have
marched toward the alississippi, in order to unite with a certain
number of disbanded soldiers, who are anxious to possess them-
selves of a considerable portion of the territory watered by this
river; and they ]jro|)ose estal)lishing what they call The Western
Independence, and tiirowin"; aside the authority of the American
Congress. The emigrants are so numerous that, in a short time,
it is possible that they may find flu niselves sirong enough to carry
into execiuion their scheme of sep.iration ; and, if they once form
settlements on the Mississijjpi, it will require luuch time, trr)uble

LOUISIANA UNDER THE SPANISH CABINET. 287

and expense to dislodge them." This was remarkable language
and remarkable prevision for a half-breed savage. He ended by
suggesting that the best way to avoid the advances of the Ameri-
cans was to unite the Indians and the Spaniards. His advice was
adopted, and the suggested union was consummated.

In September, 1784, the exclusion of all foreign trading vessels
from the Mississippi, and the de})reciation of the colonial paper
money to about one-half its face value, brought on the old com-
mercial distress. In the resulting extremity, the i)eople even
regretted the absence of tlie Liritish trading boats on the Missis-
sippi, liut in spite of all this sulVering, bolh upi)er and lower
Louisiana began to till up with aggressive Americans, and boat
loads of provisions from Kentucky and the Ohio and Illinois
regions began to appear at New Orleans. Don Estevan Miro suc-
ceeded Galvez as governor in 1785; he at once granted every
commercial privilege possible and v.inked at the violation of many
of the iron clad restrictions, suspended like the sword of Damocles
over the heads of the colonists. In April, 1786, there were seen
at one time on the river at New Orleans forty vessels engaged
mostly in an illicit trade with the inhabitants. In addition, large
numbers of keel-boats loaded with tlour, pork, com, tallow, lard,
hides and other provisions were there to be exchanged for gro-
ceries and other necessaries. Again the colonists were pros-
perous, but the trade was almost wholly monopolized by the
Americans through violations of the Spanish laws. The sword
was still suspended over tiie people. At this time the annual trade
of New Orleans with Mobile and Pensacola amounted to about
one luuulred thousand dollars; with Texas, six thousand dollars;
with Arkansas not over half so much; and with the Missouri
country about as much as with Texas. The trade of the latter
Vv'as largely monopolized by the English traders from Michilli-
mackinac. The trade of the upper Mississippi, including that of
the River Des Moines, was also in the hands of the English of
Canada, with the Americans making steady inroads on their
profits.

vSpain claimed the Natchez district and as far north as the
mouth of the Yazoo river by riglit of her conquest of West Flor-
ida. The United States claimed as far south as the thirty-first
degree of latitude by virtue of the treaty of peace with Great
Britain in 1783. Under the latter claim, Georgia, in 1785, sent
commissioners to New Orleans to demand the territory as far
south as the thirty-first degree, and of course was met with the
statement that the territory <leinanded belonged to »Spain. The

288 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

policy of alternaLely violatinj^ and enforcing the commercial
restrictions at New Orleans, subjected not only the colonists to
the whims of the colonial ofiicials, but all tlie western people of
the United States as well. A uniform policy, even if exacting
and oppressive, would nul have been violently objected to by the
western people. What they did object to was to be thrown at
any time wholly out of the New Orleans market and to have their
goods confiscated at the caprice of the colonial officials.

But Spain rightly thought more of her own revenues and of
the perpetuation of her ancient policy of commercial exclusion
than she did of the iiappiness of the people in the western part
of the United States. She was under no obligation to make any
sacrifice for their gratification or prosperity. If they were unfor-
tunately situated, it was not her fault or concern. She had the
undoubted right to exclude the American merchants from New
Orleans if she saw fit. She had no right to prevent their navigat-
ing the Mississippi, nor did she try to do so at any time, jler
only objects were to save the profits of trade to her own subjects,
and to turn the revenues arising from her commercial policy over
to her king. But the western people complained as if she were
at fault, and refused to be comforted until she supinely surren-
dered her rights and revenues that they might wax rich and fat.
There can l)e no (|uestion tliat, from this time forwanl, the west-
em people in their extremity and the United States as a whole,
were determined to trade with Now Orleans, regardless of Span-
ish laws, rights and customs. The course of the colonial officials,
until the i)rovinre passed from ihe control of Spain, was one of
miiiided (npidalion, resistance, concession and lunniliation. With-
out the power of prevention, Spain saw her ancient policy crumb-
ling in ruin before the commercial and independent assaults of
the Americans.

The necessity of populating Louisiana in order to resist the
encroachments of the Americans, caused Governor Miro to relax
from the strict observance of the provincial laws of Spain. The
Indian nations were deenud a sufficient barrier between the Flor-
idas and the Americans, i'.ut tlie Mississippi could be easily
crossed ; and so long as the Western peoi)le possessed the right to
navigate that river, constant infringenunts of the immemorial
customs of Spain might be expected, it was, therefore, neces-
sary to populate Louisiana with a large body of colonists, devotid
to Si)ain and hostile to every advancement of the Americans.
Thus, at Ihe worst, the colony, though contaminated somewhat
with republican principles, would serve as an elieclual barrier

^ Franquelln's :^lap, 1684

LOUISIANA UNDER THE SPANISH CABINET. 289

against the march of the Americans on the provinces of Mexico.
Thus, the first steps of Spain were to retain both banks of the
Mississippi. When that failed, she endeavored to prove her right
to the Natchez district, with a northern extension to the mouth
of the Yazoo river, the latitude of which formed the northern
boundary of West P'lorida under the liritish. Spain consistently
maintained this claim until, by the treaty of 1795, she surrendered
the left bank of the ^Mississippi as far south as the thirty-first
parallel of latitude. This surrender was deemed advisable to gain
the good will of the Americans, and was not the result of a change
in the opinion of Spain as to iier right to the territory.

The ordinance of 1787, which excluded slavery from the ter-
ritory northwest of the River Ohio, caused many slaveholders to
cross the Mississippi and settle in Louisiana province. The Mis-
souri country received a large accession, as did Louisiana and
Arkansas. In order to please the Americans east of the river as
well as to benefit the Louisianians, both Governor Miro and Don
Diego de Gardoqui, the Spanish minister near the United States,

V permitted almost a free trade between the western people and the

Y provincials. Finally, Gardoqui, influenced by some whini most
t probably, called the intendant, Navarro, sharply to account for
I permitting such a contraband trade; whereupon the latter, in

February, 1787, forwarded to Spain a lengthy memorial, showing
the necessity of such a course. Among other things he said,
"The powerful enemies we have to fear in this province are not
i the Knglish, but the Americans, whom we must opi)ose by active

S, and eflicient measures. It is not enough to have granted Loui-

siana u restricted commerce for ten years ; it is indispensable to
use other resources. . . . This toleration contributes to the
daily increase of the white and black population of this colony,
extends commerce, quickens industry, spreads the domain of agri-
culture, and gives rise to a state of things, which, in a few years,
\ will be productive of considerable sums to the king. Without

H this toleration, and without the commercial franchises granted by

the royal schedule of the 22d of January, 1782, this country would
have been a desert, when it is calculated to become one of the
most important portions of America. There is no time to be
lost. Mexico is on the other side of the Mississippi, in the vicin-
ity of the already formidable establishments of the Americans.
v^ 'J'jie only way to check them is with a j)roportionate population,

i' and i( is not by imposinj;" commercial restrictions that this popu-

' lation is to be ac(|uired, but by granting a prudent extension and

freedom of trade." Tint the restrictions instigated by Gardocpii
1-19

290 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

caused the complete stagnation of coninierce and proved a bar to
the continued settlement of the piuvinee. I'.y December, 1787,
all business was at a standstill. Sixain should either have thrown
open the ports to the world, or have closed them absolutely to
every trader, and have taken the consequences in either case.

It was at this time that Si)ain entered actively into the scheme
of separating- the western sections from the rest of the United
States and attaching them to Louisiana. It was realized that
the dissatisfaction of the wesrern people might lead to a concerted
attack on New Orleans; but if they should be attached to Loui-
siana, not only would that trouble be removed, but they would
prove a barrier between Louisiana and the United States. Unwill-
ing to concede the demands of the western people, Spain early
perceived the wisdom of encouraging their designs to separate
from the United States, and held out the hope of free tratle with
New Orleans and of the protection of Spain. Thus, Gen. James
Wilkinson was favored, because l:e seemingly represented tltt
western peoi)le and was the most prominent man west of the Alle-
ghanies. If his iniluence and efforts could be gained to aid the
scheme of separation, what mattered that his boat-loads of pro-
visions were entered free of duty at New Orleans? It is well
known that Governor Miro carefully weighed the chances of being
deceived by the general. He even states that it would be better
thus to be deceived than to run the risk of offending the Ameri-
cans by opi^osing their scheme of separation and their probable
attachment to Louisiana. Wilkinson was accordingly received
with great distinction. Even if he did not favor the scheme of
separation, he no doubt took advantage of the ofYers of the Span-
iards to transport the products of Kentucky to New Orleans free
of duty. Whether he favored the scheme of separation, or merely
employed it to fill his pocket and those of his neighbors in Ken-
tucky with Spanish gold, will always remain a matter of dispute.
The provincial officials showed him the favors, paid him the gold
and took their chances.

Gardoqui so far receded from his restrictive orders late in 1787,
that he granted to Col. George Morgan a large tract of land on
the right bank of the Mississii)])i a short distance below the mouth
of the Ohio, provided he would conduct there, as lie agreed to do,
a large number of emigrants, Morgan partly com|)lie(l with his
agreement by founding the town of New Madrid. It is well
known (hat Wilkinson counstlcd the Louisiana officials to grant
no concessions to the Americans, in oriler to force the western
people to .separate themselves from the rest of the United States

LOUISIANA UNDER THE SPANISH CABINET. 291

and to sue for attachment to Louisiana. He pointed out that if
they were given free trade with New Orleans, the inducements of
separation would be removed. By shuUing that port absolutely
against them, Spain would compel them for their own protection
to unite with Louisiana, providing the United States did not come
to their relief. Every thing possible, short of giving the United
States cause for war, was done by Spain to encourage the western
people to divide the Union. Within certain limitations, they were
promised the right to practice the Protestant religion — a great
concession from Catholic Spain.

In the spring of 1788 u[)on the retirement of Navarro, Miro
became intendant, as he was also governor. One of the last offi-
cial acts of Navarro was to caution Spain against the aggressions
of the Americans. He predicted that the United States would not
be satisfied until its domain was extended to the Pacific. He
declared that the only way to thwart these pretensions was to sep-
arate the East from the West and unite the latter with'l^uisiana.
As a means to effect this oliject, he advised Spain to "grant every
sort of commercial privileges to the masses in the western region,
and shower pensions and honors on their leaders." It will thus
be seen that his recommendation differed materially from that of
General Wilkinson, who advised against granting any conces-
sions whatever to the western people. As it came to pass, Wilkin-
son was right and Navarro wrong, because the western people
had no desire to separate from the rest of the Union, unless it was
necessary to do so in order to obtain a niarket for their protlucts.
Miro. ('iardo(|ui and Moriihi lUauca diil all in (heir power to ilis-
niember the American Lhiit»n. They sent spies to every part of
the United States to effect this object. Much more would have
been accomplished had they not issued conflicting directions to
subordinates.

The separation of Kentucky from Virginia in 1788 was thought
to be an opportune time for its attachment to Louisiana ; but the
government of the United States had become so much stronger
tiiat its promises of relief deterred the western people from resort-
ing to extreme measures. The anxiety of Spain to divide the
Union, caused her officials in Louisiana to j^ermit almost unre-
stricted trade, and so long as that state of things continued the
western people wanted no change. The adoption of the federal
const it ution in 178() and the inauguration of George Washington
as lirst president Of the United Stales, gave every indication of
a government strong eiiougii, not only to take care of the western
settlers, but to prevent wifli force, if necessary, their .separation

292

THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

from the Union. These inchcations were not lost upon the Span-
ish leaders. They reahzed that noi a moment was to be lost, if a
separation was to he effected. Lar^e sums of money were sent
to Wilkinson and others to he eiajiloyed in accomplishing- the
design of Spain. A boat load of latahles was sent to Kentucky
from New Orleans and ordered sold at the same price they com-
manded in that city. The deleg-ale of Kentucky to Congress, a
man named Brown, opposed the incorporation of that State into
the Union, on the grounds that the prosperity of the people
demanded their .se[)aration. Jlut ihe incorporation of Kentucky
into the Union and the vigorous course of President Washington
in asserting- the pre-eminent authority of the government, com-
pletely checkmated the designs of General Wilkinson (if such
were his designs) and those of Spain. The western people were
given positive assurance that their requirements would receive
proper attention in due time. Wilkinson accordingly informed
Governor Miro of this change in the sentiments and opinions of
the western people.

Immediately succeeding tliese important events, others equally
important came to light. Tlie British of Canada made an attempt
to induce the settlers in the western part of the United States
to join them in a movement to ilisposses Spain of Louisiana.
The British agent, Colonel Connolly, visited General Wilkinson
in Kentucky, and, in order to gain his approval and assistance,
laid bare all the plans of the leaders. Connolly informed Wil-
kinson that L(ird Dorchesur W()uld arm antl ecjuip ten thou-
sand UKii, if the KeuLucki.ins wi.iild untlcrtake the enterprise.
Wilkinson was olfcred aliiiost any position and emolument he
might desire to lead the movement. He was promised the assist-
ance of a fleet", which would move up the Mississippi and co-oper-
ate with his land operations. But Connolly seems to have received
no encouragement from Wilkinsoii. The latter was too bright
not to see that any attempt to separate the West from the Kast
would be promptly suppressed b\' President Washington. No
sooner had Connolly informed Wilkinson of the designs of the
British of Canada to unite with tlie western people to deprive
Spain of Louisiana, than he transmitted the intelligence with his
comments to Miro. This act of Wilkinson was rewarded by his
appointment as the agent of Spain and by the payment to him of
a large sum of money, it was in i78rS, also, that Col. John
Si'vier, as ihc repi'csenlalivr of llu' Slate of I'rankland, aniuMmced
to the I.onisiana officials that his people desired to form an alli-
ance with vSpain and to place themselves under her protection.

LOUISIANA UNDER THE SPANISH CABINET. 293 f

So earnest were the people on the Cumberland river in this move-
ment, they named one of their districts Miro in honor of the
Spanish governor. The Spanish duty of fifteen per cent, on
American products shii)ped into Louisiana was declared hy Miro
to be unsound policy, because it removed the necessity of the west-
ern people to join Louisiana.

In order to retain the good will of General Wilkinson, Miro, on
behalf of the Spanish government, bought of him in April, 1789,
tobacco to the amount of two hundred and thirty-five thou-
sand pounds. If Wilkinson was not now the friend of S])ain
he was making his pretense of being so a' very profitable
venture for himself and his Kentucky neighbors. 'i'he two
districts of Frankland and Miro, known formerly as Cumber-
land, desired to join Spain. James White, a member of con-
gress from the Miro district (now Memphis), communicated this
desire to both Gardoqui and Miro. But when the conditions of
annexation were announced by the latter, it was found that the
Americans were not willing to accept them. They were reason-
able and highly proper in every particular; but the Americans
wanted to remain practically independent and at the same time to
be protected by Spain. The terms granted by Gardoqui to
Colonel Morgan were disapproved by Miro, who '"called the
attention of the cabinet of INLndrid to the danger of tlnis having
an impcrium in imperio, a government within a government."
Miro informed Spain that had he agreed to the Morgan grant, an
independent republic would have been organized in Louisiana and
the states would have been depopulated to settle all of T^ouisiana
upon similar terms. In order to check this independent move-
ment, Miro sent a s(|uad of about thirty-five soldiers under the
command of Lieut. Pierre Foucher to build a fort at or near New
Madrid, and commissioned that ofticer civil and military com-
mandant of that district. He was instructed to be extremely
friendly to the Americans.

As an indication of the course the United States intended tc
pursue in regard to the land of the Natchez district, it is sufilicienl
to observe that the State of Georgia sold to the South Carolina
Company in 1789 a tract of 52,900 square miles on the left banL
of the Mississip[)i and extending from the mouth of the Yazoc
river down to a short distance above Natchez. The coinpan)
endeavored to secure the co-operation of Wilkinson, but wer(
only partly succossfid. Of course, the movement encountered th<
pr(;inpl and i'm])lia(ic oi)posilion of the vSpanish officials at New
Orleans. Miro wrote to Wilkinson, "Spain is in possession o

294

THE PROVINCE AM) THE STATES.

all that she cuiujucrcd from Great Britain in the last war, and
consequently of the territory which these gentlemen have ohtained
from the State of Georgia, and therefore so long as tlie question
of limits shall not he settled, every attempt to seize on any portion
of the land to which we have a previous right of possession, will
he an act of hostility which we must resist." Colonel Morgan,
in order to retain the good graces of Spain, was forced to coun-
tenance the plans of the provincial administration. His town of
New Matlrid (L'Anse a la Graisse) did not fulfill his expecta-
tions. The settlers there, in a memorial prepared hy them, found
fault with the exactions of their leader anil complained of the
lawlessness of their surrountlings. An intimation hy Wilkinson
to I\liro that a body of Americans would be [)leased to form a set-
tlement at Walnut Hills (Vicksburg) was discountenanced by the
latter.

It was the design of Miro to pco])le the Natchez district with
Spanish subjects. This he accomplished, but they were mostly
Americans, with a decided predilection to revolution and inde-
pendence. West of the Mississippi the inhabitants were submis-
sive and usually opposed to the inroads of the Americans. The
pretensions of the Virginia Company to a large tract on the left
bank of the Mississippi above the mouth of the Yazoo were denied
by Miro; but he did not oppose, tlKnigh he did not countenance,
the claims of the Tennessee Compan\' to a tract on the Tennessee
river near its mouth. In August, 1789, he wrote as follows to
the Spanish cabinet : "This leads me to renew the propositions
which I have maile, to declare Xew ( )rleans a free port for all the
Kuropean nations, and even for the Tnited States of America, and
to clothe me with the power, either to restrain, or to stop alto-
gether, as I may deem it opportune, the commerce of Kentucky
and the other settlements on the Ohio. You will theii see Loui-
siana densely populated in a few years. ... I believe that
I am not in error when I affirm, that to confine Louisiana to trade
with our nation (Spain), would be to ruin her. ... I have
recommended them (the Indians) to remain quiet, and told them,
if these people (the Americans) presmted themselves with a view
to settle on their lands, then to makt no concessions and to wani
them off; but to attack them in case they refused to withdraw;
and I have promised that I would supply them with powder and
ball, to defend their legitimate rights." All attempts by the
Americans to gain the favor of the Indians under McGillivray
were fruitlrss.

The ro\al schedule of May, i7iS(), concerning the education and

LOUISIANA UNDER THE SPANISH CABINET. 295 |

occupation of slaves, was so strongly objected to that the Cabiklo
forwarded a remonstrance to the Spanish cabinet. In 1790, war
with Great Britain over the Nootka Sound controversy seemed
imminent, and agahi rumors of a military movement down the
Mississippi were circulated. The fears of the Louisianians were
finally dispelled by the announcement from Philadelphia that the
British would not be permitted to cross the territory of the United
States to attack Louisiana. P.ut the United States took advantage
of this circumstance to press its claims to the right of navigating
the Mississippi. The entire revenue of the province in 1790
amounted to sixty-six thousand one hundred and sixty-three
dollars. The revolution in St. Domingo in 1791 sent many new
settlers to Loiiisiana. in December of this year, the Baron de
Carondelet succeeded Miro as governor and intendant of
Louisiana and West Florida. His baiido dc biicn gohierno, or
proclamation of orders to the inhabitants, inaugurated many
innovations. He wrote to the Spanish cabinet that an expenditure
of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars would be necessary to
put I^uisiana in a proi)er stale of defense. The French revolu-
tion was raging, and trouble might be expected. In fact war
between Spain and Great Britain seemed likely at this date.

In June, 1793, a royal schedule granted improved commercial
regulations to tlie Louisianians. l{ven the Spanish cabinet
"winked at" violations of the trade restrictions, and, as a conse-
quence, the people were prosperous and liapjiy. A large trade
was carried on between New Orleans and Philadelphia. News
was received this year ihat Louis XVI had perished on the scaf-
fold and that Spain had declared war against the French republic.
So many of the Louisianians favored tlie French revolution that
there was little mourning over the death of tlie king ; but the war
between France and Spain was an important matter. However,
sympathizers with the French revolution v/ere held totally in
check by Governor Carondelet. He fortified New Orleans and
other points, and wrote to the Spanish cabinet that had it not been
for this fact, and for his strict measures of repression, a revolution
would have taken place in Louisiana. He recommended the aban-
donment of Fort Panmure at Natchez for the occupation of Fort
Nogales at Walnut Hills. The war declared in 1793 between
France and Great Britain gave him so much concern that, consid-
ering the limitation of his means, he init the colony in an excel-
lent state of defense. About this time the Indian slaves applied
for the freedom that had been promised them as far back as the
administration of O'Reilly. On this subject, he reported adversely

296 THE PROVINCE AMD THE STATES. .

to the Spanish cabinet. In 1794, tJie first newspaper pubhshed
in the province, Le Monitciir dc la Loiiisiane, was issued at New
Orleans.

In 1794, the Jacobins of Louisiana, led by a society of French
revolutionists in Philadelphia, attempted to inaugurate a rebellion
at New Orleans. At first public meetings were held, and fiery
pamphlets were circulated among the i)eople. But Carondelet
promptly prohibited such assemblages, suppressed the circulars,
and transported six of the leaders to Cuba. The attempts of the
French minister near the United States, Genet, to organize an
expedition among thi western people of the United States for the
purpose of descending the Mississippi to attack New Orleans,
greatly alarmed the I^uisianians ; but the course of the govern-
ment at Philadelphia in i)rou!ptly demanding the recall of>Cenet,
and in suppressing the whisky insurrection in western Penn-
sylvania, largely removed the a])prehensions of Carondelet. How-
ever, he put all the men — soldiers and militia — at his 'command,
in all about six thousand, in readiness to repel any movement of
that character. At this time he diplomatically removed more of
the trade restrictions, in order to appease the western people ; but
as soon as the danger was past he ordered the restoration of the
restrictions.

The first successful manufacture of sugar on an extensive scale
in Louisiana was effected in 1795 by Etienne D'Bore. His crop
sold for twelve thousand dollars, a large sum in those days. It
is related that many persons interested in the success of the experi-
ment gathered to witness the sugar granulate, and that, when they
sav/ that it did without a doubt, a great shout of joy arose, and
Bore was overwhelmed with congratulations. By 1800 there were
sixty sugar plantations in Louisiana, with an annual product of
four million pounds of sugar.

The treaty of 1795 betvv-een Spain and the United States, by
which the latter was conceiled the ownership of the Natchez dis-
trict, the right to navigate the Mississippi, and the privilege of
deposit at New Orleans for three years, did much to quiet the
western people and to advance their prosperity and that of the
Louisianians. By 1795 the population of the province had liecome
so large that it was found necessary to appoint six additional
regidors. So strict were the rules adopted, that almost every
subject was constituted a s])y in the interest of the Spanish gov-
ernment. Carondelet evidently believed, and he certainly j^rac-
ticed, that "etenial .vigilance is the price of safety."

The revolution of France drove many royalists to T^ouisiana.

LOUISIANA UNDER THE SPANISH CABINET. 297

among others being Marquis de Maison Rouge, Baron de Bas-
trop and Jacques Ceran de Lassus de St. Vrain. Maison Rouge
was granted thirty thousand acres, St. Vrain ten thousand square
arpens (nearly five-sixths of an EngHsh acre), and De Bastrop
twelve square leagues on the Ouichita in Louisiana. But the con-
ditions under which the grants were made were never complied
with, and hence a full title did not pass to the grantees. These
grants were accompanied by terms of great liberality to individual
families. In 1796 still greater inducements were offered. Fami-
lies were given farms at little more than the cost of the office fees
and tiie surveys. Farms of eiglit hundred acres were obtained for
about forty-one dollars. The ol^ject of this liberality was hur-
riedly to furnish Louisiana, particularly the Missouri region, witii
a sufficient population, loyal to Spain, to resist any probable attack
of the Canadians or the Americans. The Spanish fort opposite
the mouth of the Ohio, built by D'Lemos, was made a port of
entry, at which all American vessels were required to land to
declare their cargoes. This step was taken to prevent the entrance
of contraband into Louisiana. The fort was also established to
serve as an outpost to check any movement of the British down
the river.

In 1795 a conspiracy of the blacks to massacre the white inhab-
itants at New Orleans and vicinity, was crushed, and twenty-
three of them were hung along the Mississippi from Pointe
Coupee to New Orleans and tliirty-one were severely whipped.
The next year Carondelet renewed the Spanish attempts to sep-
arate the western people from the rest of the United States ; and,
in order that no time might be lost, he retained the forts in the
Natchez district, upon the order of the Spanish cabinet, regard-
less of the fact that such a step was a violation of the treaty of
1795. He rightly reasoned that, if Louisiana was to be attacked
either by the Canadians, or by the Americans, the possession of
those forts would give liim an immense advantage at the com-
mencement of hostiiitics. FJab< irate plans were laid by Carondelet
and the western people, at tlie head of whom was Wilkinson
again, to divide the Union and attach the western portion to Loui-
siana.' Thus everything was ih.ought to be ready when Spain
declared war against Creat Ihitain on the 7th of October, 1796.
Carondelet still held the forts of the Natchez district, employed
every resource to };ain the adl'dHiice of the western people, put
his fighting strength in the best i)ossible condition, -.xuA^ grimly
wailed for the advance of the Canadians gathered on the St. Law-
rence, or for the api)earance of a I'.ritish lleet at the mouth of the

298 THE PKOl'ii^CE AND THE STATES.

JMississippi. lie knew that one hostile aet by the Unitetl Slates
woukl annul the treaty of 1795 and justify Si)ain in retaining
possession of the forts of tlie Katehez (hslriet. Ihit tlie United
States neither countenaneed a hostile act of its own against Spain,
nor permitted the Canadians to march across its territory to attack
Louisiana; and hence, in 1798, tlie forts at Natchez, Walnut Hills
and Chickasaw Bluffs were evacuated. The only other impor-
tant event prior to the cession of the province to the United States
was the interdiction of the deposits at New Orleans in 1802, under
the orders, probably, of the French Republic, designed to test the
spirit of the western people. The design was fully accomplished.

The reign of Louisiana by Spain was unwise and without fore-
sight. Had the ports freely been opened to all countries, though
with some disadvantages to the Americans, and had the Protest-
ants been permitted to i)ractice their religion without serious
o})position, the province woukl luive been so densely populated by
1790, that no fear whatever need have been felt by the Spanish
officials from either the United States or Great Britain. The
only precaution necessary would have been to hold a large stand-
ing army in readiness throughout the province to check at its
incipiency any manifestation of independence. But the inherent
blindness of Spain, and her extraordinary religious intolerance,
caused her to lose this invaluable possession.

The policy of commercial exclusion, to which Spain adhered
so rigidly, was deemed unwise l)y her own statesmen, but was
insisted on by her '"Council of the Indies." At the date of the
treaty of Utrecht, M. Mesuager, then one of the greatest states-
men in r{uropc, favored tiie free trade of the Spanish-American
colonies. He said, "It would be ailvantageous even to the inter-
ests of that monarchy (S])ain), lo secure to all the nations of
Europe the commerce of tl.e rs'ew World." It seems also that the
King of Spain was not averse to such a policy.* But this project
was overruled bv the Royal and .Supreme Council of the Indies,
which recognized no colc^nial j^irosperity not founded upon an
exclusive monoi)oly. There can lie no doubt that the restrictions
placed upon the trade of L<nusiana Province by both France and
Spain, had nuich to do with the misery of the colonists and the
lack of prosperity of the colony for so many years. The moment
the restrictions relaxed, the colony bomidcd forward to a sur-
prising (legrl'(^ only again to l)e n pri'ssed by the exactions of the
monopol)'. "From 177S. a r(>)al ordinance had aliowi'd a trade

* Neeotiutions for the Succession of Spain : By M. Colbert de Torcy.

LOUISIANA UNDLli THE SPANISH CABINET.

299

between the colonies and the principal ports and places of the
mother country. The success of this experiment surpassed every
one's expectation, and yet the eyes of the Spanish ministers were
not opened. Intercourse with the colonies was more rigorously
than ever forbidden to foreigners. The severity had degenerated
into an absolute despotism, when, in 1785, internal commotions
announced dispositions tending to a general insurrection of the
aborigines and even of the colonists." f The rebellion which
was crushed by O'lveilly in 1769 was the first step to cast off the
yoke of commercial despotism.

It was the Royal Council of the Indies that thwarted the designs
of Count D'Aranda to form three great Spanish-American states;
that body would thereby have lost its powers and its influence.
D'Aranda had foreseen from the commencement of the American
revolution the prol)ahility 01 the s|)read of indei)cndent princi])les
to the possessions of Spain in Aiuerica ; and it was largely through
his advice and instrumentality that Spain evaded the persist^'Ut
requests of the American revolutionists to join them against
dreat Britain. The rising of the Mexican Indians against Spain
in 1778 was an imitation of the example of the American revo-
lutionists. It was clear to the leading statesmen of both France
and Spain that every concession to their American colonists meant
aid and encouragement to revolution. l\very enactment for the
prosi)erit)' of the Spanish-American colonies weakened Spain and
strengthened indejK'ndent principles. This was well known,
and furnishes the reason for the tenacity with which Spain chmg
to her policy of restriction ;iud rxi lusion. vSlie thus made extrav-
agant claims lo territory at ilie elw>c' of the revolution. She even
demanded in 1788, as a con^idt r:iiion of the grant to the free
navigation of the Mississippi, "llial it should only take effect in
case they (th.e western j^eoiile") determined to form an emi)ire
distinct from that of the Atlantic States. This overture, in
which the intention of destroying ilie federal union so indiscreetly
appeared, was not even taken into consideration (by the United
States). "t

There is no doubt that, in the first instance, France attempted
to avail herself of the revolution of the liritish American colonies
to regain her former possessions in the St. Lawrence and the Mis-
sissippi basins. I'revious to the treaty between the colonies and
France, the Count de Verjrennes, in 1 778, atte'mpled tf) re-estab-
lish the claims of France in Anuiiea on the grouiuls of ])riority
of disc(n'ery, and suggested in a projcl to the Fnglish court a

t History of t<ouisiatia: Marljoi.s.

I'i

300 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

"practicable means to reconcile the pretensions of the English and
French as to the limits of their North American possessions,"
requiring- the renunciation by luigland of Canada and every por-
tion of ancient Louisiana. But Great Britain refused to agree
to the pro jet for two reasons: i. She expected to conquer the
colonies and thus retain both Canada and that portion of Loui-
siana east of the Mississippi; and 2, She would rather see the
colonies independent than see them fall into the hands of her
ancient enemy — France. Thus, unable to regain her American
colonies by intrigue, France, incensed still more by this refusal
and realizing that the battle of Saratoga rendered it fairly certain
that the colonies would succeed, agreed to the treaty of mutual
hostility against England.*

♦History of Louisiana: Maibois.

THE EXPEDITION Of LEWIS AND CLARK. 30I

CHAPTER IX

The Expedition of Lewis and Clark

I Q TRANGE as it may seem, the expedition of Lewis and Clark

O i-iP tl^e Missouri river, across the Rocky mountains, and
down the valley of the Columhia river to the Pacific, was
projected before the territory west of the Mississippi was ceded
to the United States, but not before it was known to President
Jefferson that the expedition would be permitted to proceed. The
schedule of instructions to Cajjtain Lewis was prepared in April,
1803 ; while the cession to the Uniteil Slates was not signed by
Bonaparte until the last day of the same month and year, and
could not, therefore, have been known to Jefferson, who wrote
the instructions. They were signed by the President June 20,
i8i\^, about leu days before he learnetl that the cession to the
Ihiited Stales had been signed al Paris.

The instructions recite thai "the object of your mission is to
explore the Missouri river, and such principal streams of it as,
by its course and communication with the waters of the Pacific
ocean, whether the Columbia, Oregon, Colorado, or any other
river, may ofifer the most direct and practicable water communi-
cation across the continent, for the purpose of commerce."
Owing to the fact that Louisiana was not in possession of the
United States at the time the instructions were drafted, it became
necessary to procure i)assi)orls for the party from the rightful
sovereignty, France, and from both Spain and Great Britain to
insure proper reception by their agents and traders scattered
throughout the territory. Jefferson became aware of the cession
about the ist of Jidy, and five days later Capt. Meriwether Lewis,
whom Ihe Picsidenl had selccied to command the expedition, left
Wasliington for Pittsburg-, wbere a portion of the nun were to be
secured and suitable eciuipment was to be providi-d. Various

302 THE PKOl'lNCE AND THE STATES.

delays occurrctl, until the season was so far advanced as to render
it inadvisable to start before tlie spring of 1804.

It was determined by the I'resitlent to associate two com-
manders of the expedition, and accordingly Capt. William Clark
was chosen, and given co-ordinate powers with Captain Lewis.
Both men were members of well-known and prominent families
of that period. Captain Lewis was a Virginian, and his great
uncle had married a sister of George Washington. Captain
Clark was the younger brother of George Rogers Clark, who had
wrested the western country from Great iiritain near the close '

of the Revolution. Both Lewis and Clark had already distin-
guished themselves in the army, and a better selection of leaders
for sucii an important expedition could scarcely have been made.
To the highest qualities of leadership, they added broad compre-
hension, unwavering persistence, wonderful endurance, and a
dauntless courage that knew no fear nor recognized no failure.
Every citizen of the United States became at once intensely iirter-
ested in the results, and waited anxiously for the return of the
expedition. Particularly were the results vitally interesting to
the western people, who prayed tliat a practical water-way to the
Pacific might be discovered.

Captain Clark joined the exi)edition at Louisville, and all
arrived in St. Louis in December, 1803. ^^ntil the Spanish com-
mandant should receive official intelligence from his government
of the cession to the United States, he retpicsted the expedition
to remain on the east side of the Mississipi)i ; and therefore winter
encampment was ciiosen at the mouth of W^ood river, beyond his
jurisdiction. The start was made lAIay 14, 1804, the expedition
consisting of nine Kentuckians, two experienced French boatmen,
fourteen soldiers, one interpreter, one hunter and a colored serv-
ant; and in addition a corporal, six soldiers and nine boatmen,
who were instructed to assist the expedition as far as the Mandan
country. There was taken along a considerable quantity of
clothing, implements, ammunition and Indian presents, such as
richly-laced coats and pants, metlals, flags, scalping-knives, toma-
hawks, beads, pigments, handkerchiefs, looking-glasses, etc.
They emliarkcd in three boats— one a keel-boat, fifty-five feet
long, bearing one large sail and arranged for twenty-two oars-
men, having a deck provided with cabin and forecastle, and
protected amidships by lockc-rs and by a breastwork that could be
raised in case of attack. Tn addition there were two pirogues of
six and sevrn oars rrspeclivelv. 'l\vo horses were ridden along
the bank, desi,t^iied (o bring in the game killed, upon which it was
planned llie expedition wtndd largely suJjsist. Full provision

THE EXPEDITION OF LEWIS AND CLARK. 303

was made for a complete recoi^d of all noteworthy discoveries and
occurrences.

It should be borne in mind that the principal cause of the
intense interest in the expedition was the wish to learn the secrets
hidden in the unknown western country. Previous to this time,
only fugitive and contradictory accounts of tlie upper Missouri
territory had reached the ears of the Americans. Now, all that
country was theirs; and tliey wished to learn how true were the
fabulous tales of lofty mountains, fertile plains, arid deserts,
splendid water-courses, wild animals, savai^e tribes and rich min-
erals, which had come down to them from the French and
Spanish voyageurs, traders and trappers, and which were so
shadowy that little depentlence had ever been placed in their
accuracy. All the vast territory was now at last to be opened to
the enterprise of the Americans ; and Lewis and Clark were dis-
patched to take the first step in tiie primeval darkness of the
wilderness. ,

They reached tlie town of St. Charles on May 15, passed Osag"e
Woman river on Afay 23, and on June i reached the mouth of the
Osage river. On the ipth they arrived at the two Chariton rivers.
Everything of note was duly recorded. On the 26th the mouth
of Kansas river was reached, and on Jvme 21 they arrived at the
Platte of Nebraska. Passing- up the Missoiu^i, they encamped at
what is now Council P)lurfs, wiure later a council was held with
the chiefs of the neighboring" tril)es. Another council was held
farther up the river on August 3, with the Otoes and the Mis-
souris. A council was held with the Omahas on the iSth and
19th. Continuing to ascend, they held a council with the Sioux
Aug'ust 30. Teton river was reached September 24, and the next
day a council was held with the most powerful band of the Sioux.
At its conclusion they tried to prevent the advance of the expedi-
tion, and a bloody conflict was narrowly averted. The expedi-
tion continued to ascend. Cheyenne river was reached October i.
Four days later an old, deserted village of the Arickarees was
reached. On the 8th Grand river was passed. The next day a
council was held with the Arickarees. Unlike almost every other
tribe, they refused to drink whisky, and questioned the friendship
of the whites who offered it to them. They had never seen a
negro until they saw York, the servant of Captain Clark. They
examined him with astonishment, and tried to rub out his color
with their fingers wet with spit. They considered it a great
honor (o serve him.

No sooner had the news of the arrival of the Americans been
circulated among the Mandans, than the numerous villages f<ir

304

THE FKOyiNCE AND THE STATES.

several miles around sent their informal delegations to see and to
g"reet the strangers. Mr. AlcCracken and another agent of the
Northwest Company were among the Mandans to buy buffalo
robes, furs and horses. The bocUs proceeded along the stream,
followed by many of the Indians, who trudged along the shore.
Camp was finally spread on the west side. The two Captains
visited the villages, and were received with lavish protestations of
friendship. In return the entire population of the village came
with the Americans to their cami), where they were shown the
various curiosities, such as the air-gun, an iron corn-mill, etc.
At both places the pipe of perpetual peace was smoked. From an
adjacent Ahnahaway village came Jesseaume, another French
trader, to visit the arrivals.

All were assembled in a general council at the American camp
on the 29th — Mandans, Minnetarces and Ahnahaways. In order
to impress the savages as nuich as possible, the soldiers were
paraded under arms and the swivel was fired. Under the saiLof
the boat, which had been spread to ward off the cold wind, the
usual speeches were delivered, and afterward the presents were
distributed. All promised peace- with the Arickarees and obedi-
ence to the laws of the United States. Captain Lewis asked the
Mandans to return the goods that had recently been taken from
the two Frenchmen previously mentioned, and they promised to
comply. Of all the presents given on this occasion, the Indians
prized the corn-mill highest. The principal chiefs present were
Big White, or Sha-ha-ka ; Little Raven, or Ka-go-ha-mi ; Big
Man, or Oh-hee-naw, an adopted Cheyenne ; Coal, or Sho-ta-haw-
ro-ra ; lUack Cat, or Po-cap-sa-he ; Raven Man Chief, or Ka-go-
no-mok-she ; White Buffalo Kobe Unfolded, or Te-luck-o-pin-
re-ha; Black Moccasin, or Omp-se-ha-ra ; Red Shield, or
E-a-pa-no-pa ; Neighing Horse, or Min-nis-sur-ra-ree; Old
Woman at a Distance, or Lo-can-go-ti-ha ; Little Fox, or Oh-haw ;
Big Thief, or Mah-no-tah; Tail of the Calumet Bird, or Mah-se-
ras-sa; Two Tailed Calumet Bird, or Wan-ke-ras-sa ; Cherry on
a Bush, or Cal-tah-co-ta ; and Wolf Man Chief, or Ah-rat-tan-a-
mock-she. Presents ^vere sent to the chiefs who were absent.

While at this village the Americans witnessed a prairie fire
that started, no one knew how, and traveled so fast that several
of the Indians were burned to death and their lodges destroyed.
Others were dreadfully scorched and had narrow csca|)es from
death : one little savage was saved by his mother, who spread over
him a green buffalo ro1)e. It having been determined to pass the
winter near the Mandan villages ; Captain Clark was sent up the
river to locale a suitable site; but soon retmned, not finding suffi-

THE EXPEDITION Of LEWIS AND CLARK. 305

ciciit timber. A site was finally scleclcd on the cast side a short
distance below their camp, where there was an abundance of tim-
ber and good water. The men were at once set to work cutting
down trees and shaping logs for the rude structures. In the
meantime the Mandans were visited and their gCK^d will was
secured. Much of tlie stolen pro[)erty of the two Frenchmen
was returned to them. The head chief of the Mandans promised
to visit his "great father" at Washington, but wanted to be pro-
tected from the lower Sioux, with whom they were at war.
Large quantities of corn were ol)tained from the Indians for
presents and services. The agents of the Northwest Company
were strictly cautioned against stirring the Indians to make war
either on each other or on the Americans. The Mandans
declared that the Arickarees were the aggressors in the trouble
between the two nations. While the log houses were being built,
many Indians came to watch the proceedings. As soon as they
were ready for occupancy, the traders in tlie vicinity came'to live
with the Americans.

l)y the 8th of November, the log cabins were well advanced
toward completion. At this time large flocks of wild geese, brants,
ducks and other water fowl passed southward high in the air. On
November 13th the boat was unloaded, its contents were placed
in one of the cabins, and all day the snow fell heavily, leaving a
white mantle of great beauty on the landscape. About this time
the Mandans were visited by ])arties of Assiniboines and Kriste-
naux (Krees) from the country around Lake Winnipeg. The
two Frenchmen mentioned al.ove, caught twenty beavers in one
(lav on the river and its small branches. It had become quite
coid, and much ice began to run in the river. Part of thenien —
the best hunters — were kept out constantly to supply the fort witii
fresh meat. On November iTith, the log huts, though still unfin-
ished, were occupied by tlie soldiers. It was observed that in the
intercourse between the Indians, the Mandans were treated by
the Assiniboities as the Arickarees were treated by tlie Sioux, i. e.,
as partly under subjection. The hunters who had been out for
several days, returned on the 19th Avith thirty-two deer, eleven
elks, and five buffaloes. The meat was preserved for future use.
The following day the log cabins were fully completed and
were wholly (Kcupied, and (he place was formally named Fort
Mandan. There were two rows of huts or sheds "forming an
angle where they joined each other, each row containing four
rooms of fourloen square feel and seven feet hii.di, with plank
ceilin-vs, and (he roof sl;mtiii;v so as to form a loft above the
F-jo

3o6 Tin: PROVlNCll AND THE STATES.

rooms, the hit^iicst part of which is eighteen feet from the
ground; the hacks of the hnls i\)rmed a waU of that height, and
opposite the angle the phice of the wall was snpplied by picket-
ing; in the area were the rooms for, stores and provisions." The
latitude of the fort was found to be 47 degrees, 21 minutes and
47 seconds, and the distance from the mouth of the Missouri
one thousand six hundred miles. At this time the implacable
Sioux seemed bent on war with the IMandans: they abused some
of the Arickarees for exhibiting friendship for the IMandans and
the Americans. Within the fort, Captains Lewis and Clark felt
safe from any numbers of Indians likely to be l)rought against
them ; but it was realized that the savages might starve them out
by driving ol'f the game or by attacking the hunlers. In the
immediate vicinity of the fort, were five villages of the IMandans,
Minnelarees and Abnahaways. As soon as the Americans were
well settled in their new i|uarters, almost daily conferences were
held with the Indians, and every effort was made to gain their
permanent good will. But all attempts to secure the friendship
of the Sioux were repulsed. Evidently that arrogant tribe needed
a sound threshing. On the 27th, seven traders of the Northwest
Com])any arrived from the y\ssiniboine country. When one of
their interpreters covertly circulated among the Indians damaging
stories concerning the Americans, they were informed by Captain
Clark that a repetition of such conduct would lead to their expul-
sion from the ATandan country. Among the Mandan chiefs not
previously mentioned was Tlorned \Yeasel. or "Mah-pah-pa-pa-ra-
l)as-sa-loo.

I'Juring the last few davs of .November, snow fell to the depth
of thirteen inches on the level, and the mercury dropped to about
zero. Mr. Laroche, the leader of the traders from the Assini-
boin, was told that under no circumstances should British medals
or flags be given to the Indians ; whereupon he replied that he had
no such intentions. About this time, several of the Mandans
having been killed by the Sioux, Cai)tain Clark, with n force of
tw^enty-three soldiers, visited the former, and volunteered to assist
them in punishing the latter. This course was adopted to con-
vince the Mandans that tht> friendship of the Americans had been
promised in good fallh, as well as to i)unish the Sioux. The
Mandans were greatly phased al this act, because they had been
told by the Arickarees that the Americans intended to join the
Sioux against them. The complete confidence of the Mandans.
was secured, but thev l)oinled lo the fad that the cold weather
• and (he deep snow were an effectual bar to a war expedition to the
Sioux territory.

THE EXPEDITION OF LEWIS AND CLARK.

307

Karly in December bands of Cheyennes and Piawnees visited
the Mandans. Mr. iienderson, of the Hudson's Jiay Company,
who had coniie to tlie IMinnetarees, also called upon tiie American
oflicers. A message was sent to Messrs. Tebeau and Gravelines,
who were in the Arickaree villages, to employ their best endeavors
to prevent the Sioux from waging war on the Mandans. On
December 7, a large herd of buffalo being in the vicinity of the
fort, the Indians and the whites engageil in a general hunt. Only
live animals were secured 1)\- the latter. Tlie next morning the
thermometer stood at twelve degrees below zero. On this day
eight more bu Haloes were secured, but many of the men were
frost-bitten. Nine more buffaloes were killed the following day,
but the whites were compelled to go so far from the fort that they
were forced to spend I he night in the dee]) snow antl the intense
cold. On the J ith the thermometer showed twenty-one degrees
bel(jw zero, and the men \vere not permitted to leave the fort.
Karly the next morning it showed thirty-eight degrees beldw zero.
On the 17th it stood at forty -five below zero, and the following
day at thirt}-two below. Large herds of buffalo crossed the river
on the ice. During the mild weather several of the men were
kept at work completing the stockade. On Christmas day. the
American Hag was hoisted over the fort for the first time. The
best provisions in their possession and a little brandy enabled all
^1 to celebrate the day fittingly.

The new year, 1805. was ushered in "by two shots from the
swivel anil a round of small arms. In the morning we permitted
sixti'en men with their music, lo go to the first village, where they
delighted the whole tribe with their dances, particularly with the
movements of one of the Frenchmen, who danced on his head.
In return they presented the dancers with several buffalo robes
and quantities of corn. We were desirous of showing this atten-
tion to the village, because they had received an impression that
we had been wanting in regard for them, and because they had
in consequence circulated invidious comparisons between us and
the northern traders." About this time war became imminent
between the Minnetarees and the Ahnahaways over a girl of the
former who had been stolen by the latter ; but the maiden was
returned and peace was patched up. This is a common expres-
sion in the journal: "Po-caivsa-he visited us today and brought
some meat on his wife's back." It was no imcomnion sight to see
the lordly buck stalking along empty-handed while his faithful
S(|uaw staggered by his side bearing a burden weighing one hun-
dred pounds. Among the Americans was a blacksmith, who was

3o8 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

regardetl as a superior medicine man by tlio Indians ; particularly
was his bellows an object of intense veneration. They never tired
watching- his liauiing forge and ihc coruscating sparks. lie was
kept busy all winter niendmg and making all sorts of articles for
both whites and reds. The laiter purcliai>ed repairs with the
various grains, 'ilie hulians luid two warm-weather dances
which were unique in the extreme. The description of one of
them in the journal was v/ritten in Latin. Thus a naked, indeli-
cate and barbarous custom was clothetl in the somber and secret
garments of a dead language.

The weather became extremely cold again, tlie thermometer
standing at twenty-one degrees below zero on the 9th, forty below
on the ioth, thirty-eight below on the nth, twenty below on the
12th, and thirty-four below on the i3lh, after winch it began to
moderate. Krom time to time die Indian chiefs were permitted
to pass nights at the fort. Un the 15th a total eclipse of the moon
was observed. A large band of the jMinnetarees visited the* fort
on tlie i6tli. and their friendsliij) was secured — not promised.
When the trader, J^aroche, asked permission to accompany the
expedition to the month of the Yellowstone, he was refused by
Captain Lewis, who doubted his friendship where his own inter-
ests were concerned, and <lid ncjl care to identify a ])rivate enter-
prise with a public movement. The American captains were
greatly impressed with the hrmness, intelligence and integrity of
the chief, Po-cap-sa-he, w ho, in their estimation, was the superior
of any Indian tiiey had \el iiiei. . Strange as it may seem, the
horses of this region preiirred ihe bark and twigs of the cotton-
wood trees to meal bran moistv-ned with water. "These horses-
are very severely treated; for whole days they are |>ursuing the
buffalo or burdened with the fruits of the chase, during which
they scarcely ever taste food, and at night return to a scanty
allowance of wood; yet tlie spirit of this valuable animal sustains
him through all these dilViculties, and he is rarely deficient either
in llesh or vigor."

A hunting party which h.ad been out for several days returned
February 13th with forty deer, nineteen elks and three buffaloes;
but unfortunately much of the il'.sh was too lean to be of any use,
except to the wolves, ravens and magpies. The party had gone
fifty miles from the fori, and had suffered intensely from the
severe cold. About this lime anolher small party of hunters were
surrounded l)y a band of ,SioUN, who cut their traces and slole
two of their horses and sev(.rrd knives. l'\;r this fk'igrant act it
was determined to pursue and punish them. The Mandaiis were

THE EXPEDITION OF LEWIS AND CLARK.

309

asked if they wished to assist: as nearly all of the warriors were
away on a hunt, only a few could be secured. These few joined
^ the expedition under Captain l<ewis, whicli set out at sunrise on

the 15th with over twenty men. The herce cold and snow-
blindness forced several to return. Tliou;j;h the Sioux were fol-
lowed a long distance, they v/ere not overtaken ; in default of
which Captain Lewis formed a Ifuntinj^ party and brought in
about three thousand pounds of butTalo, deer and elk meat.

It now being the middle of Februar}', prei)arations were made
to ascend the river as soon as the ice should melt and the river
become clear. The boats were cut out of the ice and put in good
condition ; tools and weapons were cleaned and sliar[)ened, and
the supplies of clothing, trinkets, amnumition and provisions
looked after. I,arge trees were cut down to be used in making
boats to take the place of the large batteaux, which had brought
them thus far ou their journey. About this time it was learned
from the Ari':karees th;;l the .Sioux h:id declared they intfuded
to kill all Americans who came to their country, Karly in March
the weather became quite warm, and the ice ou the river began to
break. During the v/inter all knowledge possible of the R(Kky
mountain regiiiu had been ol)taiued from the various Indian and
French visitors. A INlinnetaree chief who luul not yet seen the
Americans, visited the fort, and asked particularly to see the
negro, York, >f wliom he had heard extravagant stories from his
tribe. He was astonished at the sight of the negro, and having
wet his finger with spit he tried to rub out the color of the skin.
"Nor was it until the negro uncovered his head and showed his
short hair, that the chief could be persuaded that he was not a
painted white man."

Just before the departure of the Americans, there was an enor-
mous demand from the Indians for battle-axes made of sheet iron
by the blacksmith. Taking advantage of this demand, large
quantities of corn were obtained for use in the upper country,
when game should grow scarce. All the traders in the vicinity
and all the Indian chiefs visited the fort once more before the
expedition again started on its historic journey. Despite the
influence of the Americans and the traders, the Sioux continued
on the war-path, and in self defense the other nations were forced
to take up the hatchet. Previous to the departure of the exjxfli-
tion, several war parlies of the Minnelarees set out to rctrdiate on
(he SiiMix. The Mandans wei-e pre|)ariug for similar }'rim action.
. Thus one of the missions of the expeditif)n at least — to bring
about peace between the tribes — was far from accomplislnnent.

310 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

The Sioux were wholly to blame, and needed a trouncini^. The
misfortune was great that ihe exiKnliiion was not strong enougii
to give them at this time a praetical lesson of the strength of their
great father at Washington.

By the middle of March there was every indie'ation of approach-
ing spring. The snow hail ahnost wholly disappeared from the
plains, and terrible prairie lires could be seen in every direction
racing faster than tlie swiftest hor>e. These fires were set by the
Indians so that the tender grass would soon draw to the region
the vast herds of bullalo, antelojje, elk, deer, etc. Countless
numbers of wild fowl were obser\ed Hying north day and night.
The ice in the river began to break, and on it were caught many
buffaloes that tried to cross. The river began to rise and the
rushing rainstorms swept furiously across the plains. Prepara-
tions for the earliest start possible were completed. The barge
which was to be sent down the rivers, freighted with articles for
President Jefferson, was loaded on the 4th of April; and the fal-
lowing day was spent in preparing those intended for the up
journey. Finally, the barge was sent away, carrying a total of
fifteen hands, among whom were five traders and several Indian
chiefs on their way to Washington.

The party to ascend the river consisted of thirty-two persons :
Captains Lewis and Clark; Sergeants John Ordway, Patrick
Gass and Nathaniel Pryor ; Privates William liratton, John Col-
lins, John Colter, Peter Cruzatte, Reuben Fields, Josej)!! Fields,
Robert Frazier, Ceorge (nbscMi, Silas Goodrich, Hugh Mall,
Thomas I'. lhn\ard, iM-aneis I.abiche, I'aptiste Papage. Hugh
McNeal, John Potts, John Shields, George Shannon, John B.
Thompson, William AVerner, Joseph Whitehouse, Alexander
Willard, Richard Windsor and Peter Wiser. The two interpre-
ters were George Drewyer, a halt-breed, and Touissant Chabo-
ncau, a French, adventurer and the husband of Sa-ca-ja-we-ah,
or Bird Woman, a Shoshone Indian, who, with her little child,
accompanied the expedition. She had been born in the Rocky
mountain region ; but had been captured by the Minnetarees of
the prairie when a child ; and later had been purchased by Cha-
boneau, who finally married her. During the winter, while at
Fort Mandan, she had given birth to her first child, lioth inter-
preters were adepts at prairie and wood craft, could speak several
ot the Indian tongues and were well versed in the sign language,
by whicii it was C(^m])arativt'ly easv to converse with anv tribe.
With the expedition was N'oik, the negro servant of Captain
Clark. Cru/.atte was the fiddler and Shields the blacksmith.

777/1 EXPEDITION OF LEIVIS AND CLARK. 311

As they ascended, many hunting parties of the various tribes
were seen along tlie banks. Tiie mounds made by the pocket
gopher were observed as soon as the frost was out of the ground.
"Our old companions, the mosquitoes, have renewed their visit,
and gave us much uneasiness." The ijttle Missouri river was
reached the 12th of April. Game was scarce and wild fowl shy.
Having passed Chaboneau creek, the Americans were told that
no white man had gone nuich higher, liy the ijtii, bulialo, elk,
deer, antelope, wolves and bears began to be seen, and soon the
camp was well supplied with an abundance of fresh meat. The
men relished the tlesh of the beaver better than that of any other
variety of animal. The timber began to be scanty, but every
little grove was found to contain the ruins of some recent Indian
encampment. In the vicinity of White iurth river, the soil was
found in places almost white with some salt. For some reason
not learned, the men suffered greatly from sore eyes ; they thought
it was caused by the sand storms, which sometimes hid the. oppo-
site shore of the river from sight.

Upon reaching the Yellowstone river, the expedition halted
long enough to enable Captain Lewis to take celestial observa-
tions, etc. This river was ku' *\vn to the French as Roche Jaune.
The journey was resumed on the 27th, and game was found to be
very abundant. At one spot it was noticed that a tree nearly
three feet in diameter had been eaten off by beavers. On the
28th, Captain Lewis ami a companion killed a griz/cly bear. After
being wounded, it pursued them, though not so fast as to pre-
vent their loading their guns, when two more shots ended its life.
Martha's river was reached the 29th, and Porcupine river
May 31I. They had never before seen such a profusion of wild
game as now covered the plains and river valleys. Grizzly bears
were numerous, and several wore killed, though not without great
danger to the hunters. It was something new for the party to
meet a wild animal that not only refused to retreat, but immedi-
ately started in for a light. This liear was the monarch of the
plains and the mountains ; every other animal fled before it. Even
the Indians gave it a wide berth. It thus had formed the habit
of chasing every living thing and investigating every object it
saw. When the white hunters appeared, the bears made a bee
line for them, with open mouth anfl at a rate of speed that
re(|viire(l a swift horse Id jjlace them at a point of safety. It was
rare that one of these huge animals was killed at one shot ; it
often recpiired ten or fifleen before it succumbed, fn the mean-
time, after being wounded, it imrsued the hunters, who were thus
often placed in extreme i)erif I'orlunately, none was killed, but

312

THE PROl'INCn AND THE STATES.

several had narrow escapes. More than once the pursued hunter
was obhgctl to jump down sleep euihankmenls, or into the river,
before the savage aniiiial could be avoided. One killed May 5th
weighed over live hundred pounds, had fore-claws nearly five
inclies long, and was not killed until ten shots had been fired into
his body, 'five of which passed through the lungs. The only
single shot that was sufficient to instantly terminate life was
through the brain.

Big Dry river was reached May Oth. "The game is in such
plenty that it has become a mere anuisement to supply the party
with provisions." Many bald cagUs v.xre o])served. Milk river
was passed on the 8th. '"ihe water has a peculiar whiteness,
such as might be produced by a tcaspoonful of milk in a dish of
tea." The water of the Missouri had now become much clearer.
An Indian dog joined them on the loth, but could not be induced
to remain. It was conjectured that an encampment as Assini-
boins was not far away. Another large grizzly was killed oy
the nth, and here again the wonderful vitality of the animal
caused all to marvel. ''We had rather encounter two Indians
than meet a single Ijrown bear." The skin of tliis bear was "suf-
ficient burden for two men, and eight gallons of oil were obtained
from the carcass." Near Gil)Son creek, another was killed after
the most intense excitement and danger. ICight balls were fired
through his body in difl'ercnt directions without seriously incom-
moding him ; finally a shot through the brain brought him to the
ground. I'y this time, the men. of the expedition began to enter-
tain a most profound resjiecl for llu' coin-age and vitality of this
wonderfid animal.

Near l\attlesnake creek it was observed that the channel of the
Missouri was much narrower than before. Almost the only tim-
ber was a little cottonwood along the streams and small clumps
of scrubbv pine and cedar on the hills. Soon after this, an unoc-
cupied, yet fortified, Indian encampment was passed. Mussel-
shell river was reached on the 20th. A branch of this river was
named for Chaboneau's Indian wife, Sah-ca-ja-we-ah, or Bird
Woman. In this region immense (juantities of prickly pear cov-
ered the ground. The weather was so cold that severe 'frosts
appeared every night : ice was even formed along the margin of
the river, "and the water froze on our oars." The remarkable
fertility of the soil in several f)f the vrdleys was observed. Many
of the largest creeks were found wholly dry. api)arently serving
nu-rcly lo carry oil the suri>his waur in limes of flood. About
this time difficult rai)id-- were found in the river; and the value
of the water power, the obstructions to navif^ation, the regularity

THE EXPIIDITION OF LEIVIS AND CLARK. 313 ]

of the supply, etc., were noted. The game began to grow scarcer
as they approached the mountains, because this was the season
when it sought tlie plains for the luxuriant and nourishing grass.
The rough country where they now were was a continuation of
the Black Hills. By the 26th, they reached the highest point^of
the hills, where the'vallevs were reduced to narrow strips. The
journal reads: "It was' here that, after ascending the highest
summits of the hills on the north side of the river, Ca^jtain Lewis
first caught a distant view of the Rocky mountains, the object of
all our hopes and the reward of all our ambition."

From time to time great danger was encountered in the rapids,
where often the boats were on the point of being dashed in i)ieces.
The towline was in almost constant use while advancing. Large
numbers of beavers and "big horns" were seen. '"We came to a
handsome stream which dir^charges itself on the south and which
we named Judith river." Near this spot, on the same date,
May 29th, was seen an Indian encampment of one hundred and
twenty-six lodges, "which appeared to have been deserted about
twelve or fifteen days, and on the other side of the ^Tissouri a
large encampment, a])parently made by the same nation." Near
the mouth of Judith river and at the bottom of a high cliff, were
heaped the carcasses of at least one hundred buffaloes. The ani-
mals had no doubt been chased over the brink by the Indians, as
such was a common practice among them. Slaughter river was
duly reached and named for this circumstance; and at this time
it was observed that the air was "astonishingly pure." The expe-
dition continued to pass many abandoned Indian encampments,
thought to be those of the Miimetarees of the Saskatchewan.
Some snow fell in the hills as late as June. The wonderful clifi'
formations, worn by water into shapes resembling rocky castles,
with galleries, parapets, minarets and columns, were greatly
admired. The mow on the distant mountains, glistening in the
summer sun, cheered the hearts of all with the prospect of cool
breezes for the hot months.

Farly in June two of the hunters had narrow escapes from a
grizzly bear, which they finally succeeded in killing. When
Maria's river was reached the two captains were in doubt as to
which was the main branch of the Missouri and which would
lead by the shortest and most practicable route to the navigable
waters of the Columbia river. It was realized that, in a large
measure, the fate of the expedition depended upon a right selec-
li(.n. Accordinglv, detachments of men were sent up each to
ascertain so far as j.ossible the upjx^r courses of both, before the

^
^

314 THE riiOl'lNCli AND THE STATES.

expedition was committed to cither. The open country was also
explored for additional light on the subject. In spite of these
investig-ations, there remained almost as much doubt after their
return as before. A much more extensive preliminary explora-
tion was therefore decided upon, l-'.ach of the captains, with a
small squad of men, set oft up the two branches and remained
absent several days. It was ascertained that the u])per branch,
to which they had given the name Maria's river, pursued a course
much too far to the north, and that the southern branch was more
likely to lead by a short route to the Columbia. During their
exploration, Teton river was discovered and named Tansy.
Thinking that they might be forced to return, they determined to
"cache" the most of their supplies and then ascend the southern
branch. When Captain Lewis, who had gone in advance, at last
discovered the great falls of the Missouri, it was no longer
doubted that they were on the right course.

The marvelous beauty of the country was a great surprise and ,
a constant delight to the men. The broad plains covered with
wild animals, the numerous water-courses with their picturescpie
rai)ids, the stojie castles carved by the ages from the pcr[)etual
hills, the myriads of birds in the fragrant groves, and the gleam-
ing mountains in the distance, were a great inspiration to every
man in the party. On one plain they saw "infinitely more buffalo
than they iiad ever before seen at a single view." The entire
expedition reached the great falls on the i6th of June. It now
became a momentous question how to pass around the falls ; but
it was finally accomplished after a vast amount of liard work.
Here another boat thirty-six feet in length was built for use in
sliallower water, and the as^cenl of the river \vas resumed. Buf-
faloes, elks, deer, wolves, bears, beavers, wild fowl, rattlesnakes
and grasshop])ers abounded. Every few days some one of the
party had a narrow escape from a grizzly bear. When closely
pursued, the hunters often sought safety in the depth of the river.
One of these animals was found to have a forefoot which
measured nine inches across. They finally became so bold that
they entered the camp in the night and kindled consternation.
The fury of the mountain storms was a cause of great Avonder.
The many fine springs of i)ure and of mineral water, both hot and
cold, were greatly enjoyed, after the many months spent in drink-
ing the muddy and insii)id water of the Mis.souri. I5y the 5th of
July, the boat was finished: it consisted of a light framework of
wood, covcn-d principally with the hides of elk, deer, bulTalo, etc.
It was designed to carry four tons, besides the com|)lement of

THE EXPEDITION OF LEWIS AND CLARK. 315

hands necessary for rowing. The launching occurred on the 9th
of July, "and it swam perfectly well." Unfortunately, it was
found impossihle to use it, owing to the lack of material with
which to close the seams. All the labor was thus thrown away.
It was then tletermined to build several canoes to take the place
of the large boat. Accordingly, two were made twenty-five and
thirty-three feet long respectively, and with them the advance was
resumed July 15th. Food was abundant, the mountains would
be reached in a short time, and all were happy. They hoped soon
.to meet the Indians for two reasons: In order to procure horses
to carry them over the mountains, and in order to be guided over
the best route to the Columbia. Dearborn river was reached on
the 1 8th. In the deep valleys, the heat was almost insupportable,
while on the hill tops the frost fell nearly every night. High
above them like Tan talus were the everlasting snows on the mount-
ain toi)s. An extraordinary range of rocks was named Gates of
the Rocky iMountains. The mos(|uitoes were so numerous and
so fierce, that it was found necessary to use "biers" clurfng the
nights as a protection against ihem. Sa-ca-ja-we-ah, the wife of
Chaboneau, herself a Snake or Shoshone Indian, now recognized
the country as having been her home vvhen she was a child and
before she was captured by the Minnetarees. She announced
that the three upper ftjrks of the Missouri were not far distant;
and the announcement revived the hopes and llagging energies of
the party. INIany kinds of edible fruits were found in the groves,
while every day members <-)f the party were v»'ounded by the
prickly iH-ar. iMually to the relief of all, the three forks Avere
reacheil on the J/lh. I Ure a long rest was taken and all neces-
sary preparation was made, liefore the expedition advanced to
cross the mountains. The Missouri river was no longer a pilot
to their course. They must find other means of guidance, and
it was realized that the knowledge of the Indians must be secured
and made available.

The three branches were named Madison, Jefferson and Gal-
latin, and the surrounding country was thoroughly explored. It
was near the forks of the river that Sa-ca-ja-we-ah was captured
when a child. Many of her tribe were slain at the time, and she
among several others was carried into caj:)tivity. The captains
finally decided to ascend Jefferson river. Philosophy river was
reached and named on the 31st of July. The next day (^aptain
Lewis and three others went in advance to find the most i)racti-
cable route, while the rest of the e\i)e(lilion followeil more slowlv
in liuir trail. Upon arriving at Ueaver J lead, Sa-ca-ja-we-ah

3i6 THE PROi'lNCli AND THE STATES.

said that only a short distance to the westward the upper branches
of the Cohinibia could be reached. She said that the Shoshones
were encamped on those streams. As tlie river became narrower
and shallower, the indispensability of horses became apparent.
But horses could not be procured except from the Indians, and
every effort was therefore made to hold comnuuiication with the
members of some tribe. Intiian sivns were wanted. Wisdom
river was finally reached and ascended, and every eye was kept
open. Finally, Captain Lewis and his little party saw far ahead
a sing-le horseman and the glass revealed an Indian. He was
approached with every sign of friendship known to the whites,
but was very suspicious and finally set off at full speed and was
soon out of sight. They followed his trail for a long time, but a
rain storm at last blotted out all traces of his flight, for it was
nothing else. On the 12th of August, Captain Lewis and his two
companions, Drewyer and Shields, reached the remote source of
Wisdom river, or strictly, the Miss(juri river, where the stream,
was so small that one of the men "thanked God that he had lived
to bestride the Missouri." A few hours later "as tliey went along
their hope of soon seeing the waters of the Columbia arose almost
to painful anxiety; when after four miles from the last abrupt
turn of the river, they reached a small gap formed by the high
mountains which recede on each side, kaving room for the Indian
ford. From the foot of one of the lowest of these mountains,
which rises with a gentle ascent of about half a mile, issues the
remotest water of the Missouri. They had now reached the
hidden sources of that river, which liad never yet been seen by
ci\'ili/ed man; ami as they (luciiclied tluir thirst at the chaste and
icy fountain — as they sat down b\' the brink of that little rivulet,
which } ieldcd its distant and modest tribute to the parent C)Cean —
they felt themselves rewarded for all their labors and all their
difficulties."

The journal reads, "They left reluctantly this interesting spot,
and pursuing the Indian road througli the interval of the hills,
arrived at the top of a ridge, from wliich they saw high mount-
ains partially covered with snow still to the west of them. The
ridge on which they stood formed the dividing line between the
waters of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. They followed a
descent much steeper than that on the eastern side, and at the
distance of three-quarters of a mile reached a handsome, bold
creek of cold, clear water running to the westward. They
stop])ed to taste for the first tiiiu' llic waters of the Columbia."
Tht-y passed the succeeding- night in this vicinilv. Tlie next

THE EXPEDITION OF LEWIS AND CLARK. 317 '

morning' they resumed the Indian road, which wound "along- a
waving plain parallel to the valley for about four miles, when they"
discovered two women, a man and some dogs on an eminence at
the distance of a mile before them." Seeing the approaching
whites, the Indians precipitately fled, apparently in great fear.
Knowing from the presence of women that an Indian encamp-
ment was near, Captain Lewis and party f(jllowed the trail left
by the man and women for several miles, until they suddenly
came within thirty paces of three females, from whom they had
been concealed by a ravine.

The narrative continues, "(3ne of them, a young woman, imme-
diately took to flight ; the otlier tv/o, an elderly woman and a little
girl, seeing we were too near for them to escape, sat on the
ground, and holding down their heads seemed as if reconciled to
the death which they supposed awaited them. . . . Caj)-
tain Lewis instantly jnit down his rifle, and advancing toward
them, took the woman by the iiand, raised her up, and reijcaled
the words 'tabba bone,' at the same time stripping up his shirt
sleeve to prove that he was a white man, for his hands and face
had become by constant exposure quite as dark as their own. She
apjieared immediately relieved from her alarm, and Drewycr and
Shields now coming up, Cajjtain Lewis gave them some beads, a
few awls, [jewter minurs and a little paint, and told Drewyer to
request the woman t(j recall iicr companion who had escaped to
some distance, and by alarming the Indians might cause Ihem to
attack him without an\' time for cxplanatitjn. She ditl as she was
desired, and the voung' woman retuiiieil almost out of breath;-
Captain Lewis gave ber an ecpial portion of trinkets, aiid painted
the tawny cheeks of all three of them with vermillion, a ceremony
which among the Shoshones is emblematic of peace. After they
had become composed, he informed them by signs of his wish to
g-o to their camp in order to see their chiefs and warriors: they
readily obeyed, and conducted the i)arty along the same road
down the river. In this way they marched two miles, when they
met a troop of nearly sixty warriors, mounted on excellent horses,
riding at full speed toward them. As they advanced Ca])tain
l<ewis put down bis gun, and went with the flag about fifty paces
in advance. The chief, who, with two men, was riding in front
of the main body, spolsc to the womrm, who now explained that
the party was C()m]K)sed of white men, and showed exullingly
the presents they hml nreivcd. 'I'lie three nu'U imnu-dialely
leaped from their hoiscs, came up to Captain Lewis and embraced
liim with great cordiality- putting- their left arm over his right.

3i8 THE PROV.JXCE A.\'D THE STATES.

shoulder and clasping his back ; applying- at the same time their
left cheek to his, and frequently vociferating- 'ah hi e! ah hi e !'
(I am nnich pleased, 1 am much rejoiced). The whole body of
warriors now came forward, anil our men received the caresses
and no small share of the grease and paint of their new friends."

A|l now seated themselves in a circle, and Captain Lewis
lighted a pipe and ottered it to tliem to smoke; but liefore doing
so they all removed their moccasins, "a custom, as we afterward
learnt, which indicated a sacred sincerity of their professions
wiien they smoke with a stranger, and which imprecates on them-
selves the misery of going barefoot forever if they are faithless
to their words, a penalty by no means light to those who rove over
the thorny [)lains of their country." The chief, whose name was
Ca-me-ah-wait, was told that the a isit of the whites was friendly ;
and he explained the same to his warriors. The whites were
then conducted to th.e Shoshone cam]\. distant about four miles,
where all again smoked the peace pipe, and where Captain Le\Vis
explained more elaborately the (.objects of the expeilition. All
the presents they had with them were distributed aniong tlie
women and children. Captain Lewis was informed that he was
on a stream that Howed west to the Pacific ; and when he saw
salmon tlesh among the Indians, he no longer doubted that he had
really crossed the divide.

It was now learned that the Indians who had been seen previ-
ously iiad mistaken the whites for a war party of the Minneta-
rees, and had hurried back to their villages with the news in order
that preparations might be niadc to re])el the expected attack.
The advance of the sixty wariior^ was for tlie ])urpose of strik-
ing the enemy the first lilow. L'aptain Lewis and his party
remained at the Indian camp all night, and the next morning,
accomjjanied by many of the Indians, started on their return to
meet the remainder of the exj)edition. As they proceeded, a
report was circulated among the huliatis that the whites were but
an advance of their enemy and were trying to lead them into an
ambush; whereu])on, in spite of all the endeavors of Captain
Lewis, many of the Indians left them, and even the chiefs stopped
for further consideration before jiroceeding. The women began
to cry, which was another proof that an attack from an enemy
was ex])ecte(l. Ca])tain Lewis and his men did everything in
their ])o\ver to inspire conlidence and anxiously hoped for the
appearance of the reniainder of the expedition, as it was realized
(hat alone would fully remove the fe.u-s of the Indians. It was
found thai (he Indians who bad started back, were still follow-

THE EXPEDITION OF LEWIS AND CLARK.

3^9

ing in the rear, and that thi;y were advancing on the wings ready
to strike an enemy shonKl one iippear. Thns several days passed,
and the fears of the Indians seemed to increase rather than sul)-
side. They used the greatest precautions by senchng out scouts
in advance and on tiie Hanks, and conducted themselves in every
resi)ect as if they were in tlie presence of their enemy. They
even went so far as to place their own headgear and other articles
of clothing on the whilemen, so that in case they proved to be
members of the enemy they could not be distinguished from the
Shoshones. Finally, in order to inspire confidence, if it was pos-
sible, Captain Lewis and his companions delivered their riiles to
the Indian chiefs and told them to kill them the moment their
statements were found untrue. This was an extreme and dan-
gerous proceeding, because any sudden alarm might cause the
unwarrantetl shooting of the lln-ee men ; but in tlieir dangerous
situation they concluded lo take desperate chances. In the mean-
time they looked an.xiously h)r the appearance of the expeililiiMi.

While these scenes were [massing, the whole party, both whites
and reds, were in the direst straits for food. Game was exceed-
ingly shy and scarce, and all were forced to live on roots. The
Indians were armed with nothing but bows and arrows, and could
not, therefore, bring lUnvn the larger game except untler the
most favorable circumstances. Captain Lewis sent his compan-
ions out to hunt (before they relinquished their guns), but they
were followed closely b\- their suspicituis friends. Innally, one of
the Indian spies came runnim; back at full speed, and as soimi as
the others lieard his fir>t words, the whole band, to the astonish-
ment of Captain Lewis, dashed forward as fast as their hearses
could carry them, and b.e was borne aUmg for nearly a mile before
he learned with great satisfaction tliat the rush vras caused by the
spy's announcement tliat one of the white men had killed a deer.
"When they readied the place v/here Drewyer had thrown out
the intestines, they all (bsniouiUed in confusion and ran tumbling
over each other like famished dogs ; each tore away whatever part
he could and instantly began to eat it ; some had the liver, some
the kidneys ; in short no ]:)art on which we are accustomed to
look with disgust escaped them, (^ne of them who had seizetl
about nine feet of the entrails, was chewing at one end, while with
his band he was diligently clearing his way by discharging the
contents at the other. It was indeed imjiossible to see these
wretclu-s rav^■nously feeding on the filth of animals, and the blood
streaming from their nmiUhs, without deploring how nearly the
condition of the savages ap|)r(uches that of the brute creation;

320 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

yet though suffering with liunger they did not attempt, as tliey
might have done, to take by force the whole deer, but contented
themselves with what had been thrown away by the hunter.
Captain Lewis now had the deer skinned and after reserving a
quarter of it, gave the rest tjf the animal to the chief to be divided
among the Indians, who immediately devoured nearly the whole
of it without cooking. Tliey now went forward to the creek,
wliere there was some brushwood io make a lire, and found Drew-
yer, who had killed a second deer; the same struggle for the
entrails was renewed here, and on giving nearly the whole deer
to the Indians, they devoured it, c\ en to the soft part of th.e hoots.
A fire being made, Captain ] ,ev,'is had his breakfast, during which
Drewyer brought in a third deer ; this too after reserving one
quarter, was given to the Indian , Vvho now seemed completely
satisfied and in good humor."

As soon as the march wa-- resunicil, the old fear of an ambush
was manifested, nolwilhstaiuling tlie friendly act of killing the
deer and feeding them to the Indians; and the same precautions
were taken as before. Finally, after th.e lapse of several days, an
Indian scout, to the intense relief of Captain Lewis and his two
companions, came running liack with the announcement that he
had seen the rest of the expeditii)n a short distance below. '"The
Indians were all transported with j.)y, and the chief in the warmth
of his satisfaction renev/ed his embrace to Captain Lewis, who
was quite as much delighteil as the Indians themselves." The
report of the experience of the main body of the expedition is
e(|ually interesting. "0\\ selling out at sewn o'cl(~)ck. Captain
Clark, with ('haboiieau autl \\\> wiie, walked on sh(~>re ; but they
had tuit gone more than a mile beiore Captain Clark saw Sa-ca-
ja-we-ah, who was with her husband one hundred yards ahead,
begin to dance and show every mark of the most extravagant
joy, turning round him and pejintin;'- to several Indians, \\hom he
now saw advancing on horse! >ack, sucldng her fingers at the same
time to indicate that they were of her native tribe. As they
advanced Captain Clark discovered among them Drewyer dressed
like an Indian, from whom he learnt the situation of the party.
Wliile the boats were ])erforming the circuit he went toW'ird the
forks with the Indians, who as they went along sang aloud with
the greatest appearance of delight. We soon drew near to the
camp, and just as we apprnached it, a woman made her way
through thi' crowd towards Sa-ea-jn we-ah, and recognizing each
oilier, tliev I'Mibrated willi (be iiio:.i tender alVeclion. 'iMie meet-
ing of IJK'se two young" woiiun b.el in it somethings peiuliarly

■ \

THE EXPEDITION OF LEWIS AND CLARK. 321 ^

touching, not only in the ardent manner in which their feehngs
were expressed, but from the real interest of their situation.
. After this the conference was to be opened, and glad of
an opportunity of being able to converse more intelligently, Sa-ca-
ja-we-ah was sent for; she came into the tent, sat down, and was
beginning to interpret, when in the person of Ca-me-ah-wait she
recognized her brother; she instantly jumped up and ran and
embraced him, throwing over him her blanket and weeping pro-
fusely; the chief was himself moved, though not in the same
degree. After some conversation between them, she resumed
her scat and attempted to interpret for us ; but her new situation
seemed to overpower her, and she was frequently interrupted by
iier tears. After the council was finished, the imfortunate woman
learnt that all her family were dead except two brothers, one of
whom was absent, and a son of her eldest sister, a small boy, who
was immediately adopted by her."

Tlie objects of the expedition were fully explained to the chief
and the warriors j^resent ; and they exi^ressed their gratification
at the prospect of being taken care of and protected from their
enemies. Tiiey showed great regret that they would not be sup-
plied with arms for a year or more. They were requested to
furnish horses and a guide over the mountains, and were prom-
ised remuneration therefor. All the usual treaty ceremonies were
observed — speeches delivered, medals and flags bestowed and
presents distributetl. During the conference, the whites were
careful to learn all possible regarding. the western country and the
best methods of getting there. A few horses were traded for on
the 18th and a few more on the 19th. As game was very scarce,
it was thought best to jiroceed at once, and the advance was
resumed on the i8th. Two days later the Indian encampment
was passed, and here another council was held and presents were
distributed. At last an Indian who professed to know the west-
ern country, \vas engaged to guide the party over the mountains,
and assistants to help carry the baggage were secured.

Having advanced far enough to escape the importunities of the
Indians, they decided to cam]), while scouting parties went on
ahead and explored the country through which they expected to
pass. Captain Clark, with a small party, undertook to find a
practicable route over the mountains. He started and encoun-
tercMJ small bands of Sliosborus every day. All were astonished,
thouijh friendly; ihey were found to have an abundance of salmon,
but liltle olliei' food. A slrcam was reached on (he 21 si, a
head branch of the Columl)ia, which was named Lewis in honor
T— 21

322 THE PROi'lSCE AND THE STATES.

of Captain Lewis. But Captain Clark failed utterly to find a
satisfactory path down tlris stream. Hvcrywhcrc he was con-
fronted with steep mountains, arLmnd which tlie streams wound,
with perpendicular banks rising fruni the water's edge to a great
height. The streams themselves w ere so deep that a passage along
their beds was impracticable. At length they were forced to leave .|^

their horses in order to make any ])rogress at all; but after several
days spent in climbing almost inaccessible acclivities, it was seen
that a path in tliat direction was out of the question, and it w:is
determined to return to the main i)arty, where they arrived on
the 26th.

As it was now thought that the crossing of the mountains
would be attended with the utmost hardships and difficulties, it
was determined to "cache" tlie bulk of the supplies, in order to
lighten the burden of tlie as>istant> and the horses and thus facili-
tate the advance. The onl\ unfriendly act of the Indians thus far
was an attempt to steal the gun of one of tlie white hunteis,
Drewyer; but owing to his courage and persistence the attempt
was unsuccessful. Tlie empty boats were sunk in the river and
weighted down, and more iiorses were obtained through another
council. The Indians generally were now leaving the mountains
for the plains to be near the wild game. All except Sa-ca-ja-
we-ah ami Captain Lev^ds were on foot, and the latter mounted
only for the purpose of riding ahead to find the best path. It will
thus be observed that althougli; the ex])edilion had really crossed
tlie divide and reached the waters of the Ct)lumbia, the route
down the streams there could not be followetl, owing to the
extreme roughness of the count i")'. It was therefore necessary to
find another pass.

After a sufficient number of horses was obtained to carry the
goods, provisions, etc., of the expedition, and all was apparently
ready for a start, it was discovered ihat the guides and assistants
were unwilling to prticeed, because they wished to accompany
their tril.)e to the plains. The chief, Ca-me-ah-wait, had promised
faithfully to provide assistants for the expedition ; but it now
transpired that he and other chiefs had counseled their desertion ;
this fact was leamed through Sa-ca-ja-we-ah. Accordingly, the
chief was taken to task by Cai)tain Lewis, and hesitatingly
admitted the truth of the charge ; but excused himself by the state-
ment that members of the tribe were compelled to follow the wild
game or starve. .An appeal was made to bis honor; wliiTeupon
he couiiU-rmandiMl his (h'ri'Clions for deseition, aud the guides and
assistants again cauie prounlly foiward. It was severely cold at

. 1

THE EXPEDITION OP LEWIS AND CLARK. 323 '

this time (August 26th), the ice forming: nearly a quarter of an
incli thicU. "Due of the women who had heen leaihnjr two of
our i)aciv horses halted al a ri\ ulet about a mile behind, and sent
on the two horses by a female frientl; on inquiring- of Ca-me-ah-
wait the cause of her detention, he answered with great appear-
ance of unconcern that she had just stopped to lie in, but would
soon overtake us. In fact we were astonished to see her in about
an hour's time come on with her new-born infant and pass us
on her way to the camp, apparently in perfect health."

But in spite of all that could be done to prevent it, tJie Indian
assistants continued to desert and join their tribe destined for
the buffalo meadows to the eastward, until, when the journey was
resumed on the 30th, oidy the guides remained, "an old Indian,
his four sons and another Indian." However, they managed to
secure enough horses to raise I he number owned liy the expedi-
tion to about thirty. As they advanced, they could see fires from
all (|nariers in the mountains, signaling the various bands to join
the general exodus to the bulTalo meadov/s. Soon they were
again in trouble, owing to the fact that they undertook to cross
the mountains at another impracticable spot. They succeeded in
crossing the divide, but again met the same difficulties encoun-
tered by Captain Clark and his ])arty, for everywhere steep mount-
ains, deep streams and other inaccessibilities sternly confronted
them. They endeavored to pass down Fish creek on the west
side, but were unable to do so. Often they were obliged to cut
their way for a considerable distance, only to find themselves con-
fronted by some insm-niountable obstacle. Several of the horses
were permanently injured by falling down some steep tleclivity,
in one instance one rolling over and over for nearly a hundred
yards. In the meantime every member of tiie expedition was
restricted to the most meager allowance of food, as the wild ani-
mals had almost wholly lied to the green meadov/s to the east-
ward.

At length, by moving northwest, they crossed a very diflicult
ridge and found themselves on the headwaters of another river,
which they later named Clark, in iionor of Captain Clark. All
their previous operations were in the valleys of the Missouri or
the l.ewis river; but in the Clark river valley they had no S(x>ner
crosse<l the divide than the countrv began to descend in milder
lines Id (lie northward and the route steadily became easier. On
Septemlur 4lh, a large encampment of the r)()l-la-shoot Indians
was reached, and a council was immediately held. h!leven more
horses were traded for from a herd of about five hundred fine ones

324 'i^iii^ PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

owned by this band. The Indians were friendly and supplied the
expedition with such articles of food as they possessed. On the
6th, the main channel of Clark river was reached. They were
now almost wholly dependent on their hunters for food, having
nearly exhausted the suppl)' of Hour and pork they had thus far
brought with them. Tiuy continued down this river almost
directly northward, with tlie snow capped mountains on their left
and the river valley on tlieir right, until they at last reached a
creek which they named Travelers' Rest. From this point, their
guides informed them, a path led over the mountains to the val-
ley of the Lewis river and to the open and level country.

They now made preparations to leave the streams and scale the
low mountains to the westward, and were told by their guides that
after five days' journey they woidd reach the Lewis river valley.
Travelers' Rest creek was ascended to its source, and then a
northwest direction was tahcn o\i'r a very rough country. Their ,H

supply of food was now wholly exhaustetl, and the hunters coidd *

find no game. ( )n the 14111 they were on Kooskooskee creek', and
here they were compelled lo slaughter their first colt f(jr sui)per.
They were at last across tlie divide and in the modern State of
Idaho. On the i6th six inches of snow fell; they were compelled
to kill another colt for food. 'I'lic cold was severe and the route
extremely rough; but by tie lytli they could see far to the west-
ward a broad, level valley. In the meantime they had killed sev-
eral other horses for food. The w estern descent was so steep that
again several of the horsrs were disabled by falling down the
sides of the mouiUains. .\ small slream was reacheil which was
appropriately named Hungry crei.k.

The level country was al last reached on the 20th of Septem-
ber, to the indescribable joy of every member of the party. Indian
villages were seen dotting th.e banks of Kooskooskee creek, and
soon the hunters began as of old to bring fat deer into cam]).
The Indians were found to be the Pierced Nose, or Cho-pun-nish
tribe, the iiead chief of which was Twisted Hair, who lived some
distance farther down stream. After this the exi)edition had no ^

serious difficulty in reaching the mouth of the Columbia; but as j

the route was now outside of the boundary of the Louisiana pur- '

chase, the leading events only will be mentioned. The horses
were finally turned over to the Indians to be kept until the return
of the expedition ; and canoes were built, in which to float the
baggai';e (V^wn the streams. Colter's creek was reached Oclo- |^

ber 81I1. and the main channel of Ihi- Columbia on the irtlh. The »>

great falls were passed al)oul the 1 st of November, and late in ibis

TllLi liXPHDlTlON OF LEWIS AND CLARK. 325

month all were delighted with a sight of the mighty Pacific.
They remained encamped near the mouth of the Columbia during
the winter of 1805-6, and in .March set out up the river on their
return. On the 5th of May they arrived at the mouth of the
Kooskooskce, antl on the 8th reached Twister Hair's camp. The
horses had become scattered, but about twenty-one were finally
assembled; and on the 10th of June preparations were fully com-
pleted for the trip across the mountains to Travelers' Rest creek.

They advanced with great trouble up the steep acclivity, and
were at length compelled wholly to stop at or near Hungry creek
on account of the deep snow. When it had sufficiently melted,
they resumed the terriijle journey, and in the course of tima
passed over the divide, tlown the course of Travelers' Rest creek
and encamped at the mouth of that stream. Here it was deter-
mined to divide the parly for the j)urpose of more thoroughly
cxj)loring the country to the eastward. Ca])tain Lewis and nine
men were to proceed on a direct course to the great falls' of the
Missouri, wiiere three men were to be left to build carriages to
carry the baggage around the falls, while Captain Lewis and the
other six were to advance northward and explore I^Iaria's river
to its source. The remainder of the party were to go to the head-
waters of JefTerson river, where the deposits were, and there
divide. Sergeant Ordway and nine men were to descend the
river with the stores, etc. Captain Clark and ten men were to
proceed#o the headwaters of the Yellowstone river, taking with
them all the horses, and upon their arrival there were to build
boats and lloat down that stream to its mouth, where they were
to await the arrival of :he other detachments ; but in the meantime
Sergeant Pr}or and two other men were to drive the horses across
the country to the Mandan villages on the Missouri, where they
were to be left, and Pryor and his companions were then to take
a message to the British post on the Assiniboine river in Canada.
So far as possible, these designs were carried into execution.

While the exijcdition was together, it consisted of over thirty
ex])erienced riflemen of well-known courage, a force that all the
Indian tribes except the Sioux fully respected; but when it was
divided into detachments of three or even of nine or ten men
danger from roving war parties of Indians might be expected at
every encounter. Rut the datnitless men were willing to take their
chances, either with roving bands of Lulians or with grizzly
bears; in fact, the majority of (he men cotnted stirring and dan-
gerous adventure, because they enjoyed it and l)ecause they were
willing to tak'e hazardous chances in order to distinguish them-

^26 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

selves. The detachments separated Jul)' 3d. With Captain Lewis,
in addition to nine men, were tlve Indians. They took an east-
erly direction, and on the odi arri\ed on the divide between the
Clark and the Missouri rivers. Two days later Dearborn river
was reached, after Vvhieh tliey t(X)k a course almost directly north
to Medicine river, dame was ai^ain abundant and the men fared
"sumptuously." In one herd it was estimateil that there were ten
thousand buffaloes witliin a circuit of two miles. The mouth of
Medicine river was reached on tlic iith; but it was found that
much of the stores "cached" there bad si)oile(.l. About this time,
McNeal, one of the party, wliile out huntin>^- on horseback, came
suddenly and unexpectedly within a few feet of a large grizzly
bear. The horse promptl\' ilirew Ids rider and galloped awa}'.
The bear advanced with open mouth ui)on the hunter, who struck
it so violent a blow on the head tliat the animal was felled to the *' '

ground, but the stock of the gun w;is broken. Uefore the animal
could renew the attack, Mc.Veal .sprang into the branches of'a
willow tree, and thus escai)ed almost certain death ; but was com-
pelled to remain tb.ere until late in the afternoon beft)re the bear
left the spot.

Leaving Medicine river on the 17th of July, they took a north-
erly direction, aiming to arrive at Maria's river at a spot above
that reached by Captain Lew is in 1805. Indian signs were seen,
and the mosquitoes were so thick ;ind fierce as to make the dogs
howl. Tansy river was crossed on the 17th, and Maria's river
reached on the i8lh. I'hey ascended ihe latter stream nearly to the
moimtains ami until it was seen that it was not navigable beyond
the fd'lielh parallel of latitude, wlureupon they started to return,
striking southeast toward the Tan>\- or Teton river. While yet
on one of the branches of Maria's river, they suddenly saw ahead
of them at the side of a grove some thirty horses, several of wdiich
Avere saddled, and a few Indians, who apparently were engaged
in looking on Drewyer in the valley in advance. As it was seen
that an encounter was inevitable. Captain Lewis and his party
advanced with friendly signs; but instantly it was observed that
the Indian camp was in great confusion. A scout rode rapidly
out to examine the whiles; but regartUess of i)acific signs returned
to his companions as rapidl\' as he had come. Finally Captain
Lewis went forward alone, ancl soon a small i)arty of Indians came
forward and shook liands with him. Drewyer, who h.ad the peac
])ipe, was sent for, and upon bis anival all smoked togetluT. .As
had been frared, they jjroved to be a band f>f the Minnetarees of
the i^rairit', notorious thieves and ll)r enemies of nearly all the

THE EXPEDITION OF LEWIS AND CLARK. ^27 ]

Other tribes. Luckily the band consisted of only eight warriors,
of whom Captain Lewis felt no fear, as they had but two guns.
They said that at the distance of a journey of a day and a half, a
large band of their tribe was encamped. Whites and reds then
encamped together and slept side l)y side; but early the next
morning, before the former were aware of it, the latter
appropriated several of their guns, and a struggle immediately
occurred for possession. Several of the Indians ran ol'f with
the guns, but were promptly pursued; and one of them was
stabbed to the heart by Utjbert Fields. Weapons were flour-
ished and several other personal encounters took place, much
to the advantage of tlit whites. The Indian having Captahi
Lewis' gun was on the point of escaping with it, when the Captain
fired and shot him through the bowels; this Indian, who had one
of their two guns, rclurned the tire, and Captain Lewis felt the
wind of the ball on liis face. The Indians nuw lied, driving off
several of the horses ridden by Captain Lewis and his. comi)an-
ions, but leaving more of their own than they took away belong-
ing to the whites. They left, also, considerable of their war outfit.
Concluding that tlie Indians would make all possible speed to
the larger band for reinforcements, the whites now rode very fast,
determined to escape any pursuit. After riding eight miles they
crossed a stream which the)' named I'.altle river, to commemorate
their encounter of the morning. Continuing, they rode sixty-
three miles witiiout slopping, and then encamped to let the horses
feed and to dine themselves. After an hour and a half, they
proceeded, but again sio]:)ped when they had gone seventeen mdes.
In two hours they again advanceil, though it was after dark, and
alter riding twenty miles, stopped for the night, having covered
exactly one hundred miles since leaving the battleground and now
feeling safe from pursuit. The next morning after going twenty
miles they met a ]xirty of their friends coming down the valley
of the Missouri; they proved to ])e the men under vSergeant Ord-
way. They had descended without noteworthy incident. The
two detachments passed the portage of the great falls, and all
moved rapidlv down the river. They arrived at the Musselshell
August 1st, Milk the 4th and the mouth of the Yellow Stone the
7thrand there found a letter from Captain Clark, who had arrived
there before them and gone on down the river. They followed,
but did not overhaul his iKirty until the 12th. In the meantime
Captain Lewis, while out bunting, was accidentally shot through
Ibe left thigh by one of his comixuiions. Though a. severe wound
he fullv recovered from it in about two weeks.

32{

THE PROVINCI'. AND THE STATES.

After separating from the Lewis party on Travelers' Rest
creek, the party under Captain Clark, consisting of fifteen men,
having in charge hfty horses, took a southerly course up Clark
river, and on the 6th c'rossed the divide near the headwaters of
Lewis, Clark and Missouri rivers. Sa-ca-ja-we-ah again recog-
nized the country, and pointed out objects she had seen in her
childhood on Glade creek, one of the branches of Wisdom river.
On the 9th they lost nine horses, which strayed away, but were
subsequently recovered. Jefferson river was reached on the 8th,
and there the contents of the "caches" were found to be in good
condition. Many of the men, who had been without tobacco so
long, no sooner came in sight of the spot, than they dropped every-
thing and ran with all their speed to the "caches," where they
were soon supplied with a plentiful quantity of "the weed."
Wiiile doing without it, they had even broken up their pipes into
small fragments and chewed them, to satisfy the intense craving.
The boats were raised from the bed of the river, and after being*
repaired were loaded with the baggage. On the loth the party
divided into two detachments, une under Sergeant Ordway, with
nine men, going down the river, as !)efore stated, and the other
under Captain Clark striking east to the headwaters of the Yellow-
stone river. With Clark were ten men and the wife and child of
Chaboneau and the fifty hors^-s. Tlie Clark party reached the
divide between the Gallatin and the Yellowstone river on the 15th,
and the same day they named Shields river. Fresh Indian signs
were seen here. The Yellow.^iiMie was also reached on the 15th,
at the place where il issues l"r. mu the !\ocky nn)untains. .About
this time twenty- four horses disappt'ared one night ami no doubt
were stolen by a band of hullans, whose scouts, it was learned,
had shadowed them for several davs.'

Two canoes were built here, each twenty-eight feet long, and
all their su]i]:»lies were loaded therein. The Clark i)arty now
divided, three men under Sergeant Pryor undertaking to drive the
horses across the country to the villages of the Mandans, an easy
task- should they encounter no hostile band of Indians, but other-
wise just the reverse. The boats wi're completed on the 23d,
and the down journey was begun the same day. Clark's fork was
passed on the 24th, and two davs later they reached the mouth of
the Big Horn, where they had their last look at the Rocky mount-
ains. Herds of buffaloes literally covered the plain as far as
the eye could reach. Several gi i/zlv 1h ars were killed amid scenes
of great danj^ir and excitement. On (he 2<)th Lazeka or Tongue
river was p:issed, and the next dav they arrived at FieM's creek

THE EXPEDITION Of LEWIS AND CLARK. 329 ' )

near the mouth of the Yellowstone. Upon reaching the mouth
of the latter, being without fresh food and being almost eaten
alive by the swarms of mosquitoes, they left a note for Captain
Lewis, and continued on down ihe river, swn passing two Ameri-
can traders from the Illinois, Dickson and Hancock, who had
passed the previous winter on the Yellowstone with a French
trader named Ceautoin. From the traders it was learned the Alan-
dans and Minnetarees were at war with the Arickarees ; and the
Assiniboines with the T^handans. About this time they were jomed
by Sergeant Pryor and party, who reported that their horses had
been run off in the night by the Indians, and could not be over-
taken. They reported that they had experienced much trouble
in driving the horses, which, having had Indian training at hunt-
ing the buffaloes, wouhl scatter at the sight of a herd and chase
them as if riders were on their backs.

The entire party was reunilid on the 12th, and the down jour-
ney was begun with great elation. The Minnetaree villages were
reached on\he 14th, and a council was held by Captain Clark, who
was informed that the Sioux had killed eight men of this trd)e
since the expedition was there l>efore. Two of the Arickarees had
been killed by the Minnetarees for attemi)ting to steal horses. In
short war had gone on between the tribes as if the whites had
never been there. Large supplies of corn were obtained here, the
first they had eaten for a year or more. P>ig White, the head
chief agreed to go with the party to Washington. Here at the
Arickaree villages, Chaboneau and wife kft the expe.htion.
They had been extremely serviceable to the party, the husband as
a general interpreter and assistant, and the wife as a special mler-
preter among the Shosh.ones. They were paid hve hundred dol-
lars and thereafter the faithful wife at least was heard of no more.
John Colter, a member of tlie party, asked leave to remain at the
Minnetaree villages, and was permitted to do so. The down jour-
ney was resumed the 17th. The Arickarees presented senous
complaints again^-t both the Sioux and the .Mandans. Near their
.encampment" was a large village of the Cheyennes. On the 22(1
Captain Lewis began to walk for the f^rst time since the accident.
The Teton villages were reached on the 30th ; Captain Clark took
them severely to task for their many misdeeds, informed thein
that all their bad conduct would have to he accounted for, ordered
them away from the boats, and would have nothing furlher to do

with them.

They were now on Ihe home strelch; and the anxiety to see
their friends seemed to double the strength of every man, and the

330

TtlE I'KOVlNCli AND THE STATES.

boats fairly flew over the water. On more than one day they
rowed over seventy miles. Numerous parties of traders were
overtaken or met as they proceeded. James Airs was seen Sep-
tember 3. Augustus Choteau and party, destined for the Upper
jM'issouri, were passed on the 6th. Tlie mouih of the I'latte was
reached on the 9th. T\vo parties of traders were met on tlie
JOth, one bound for the Loupe river and the other for the villages
of the Mahas. Several parties were met on the 12th, among them
being Messrs. McClellan, Gravelines and the elder Durion. l>elow
the old Kansas villages, three parties bound for the Yanktons and
the Mahas were passed. On the i()th two parties destined for
the Pawnee and the Maha countries were met. Captain McClel-
lan and his soldiers were met on the lyih. Two days later they
passed the Osage river, and on the 2^d reached St. Louis "where
we arrived at twelve o'clock, and having hred a salute, went on
shore and received the heartiest and most hospitable welcome
from the whole village."

Tlie expedition of Lewis and Clark, which was coeval with
those of Lieutenant Pike, was the first to reach the Rocky mount-
ains and the Pacihc ocean. The objects were only partially
accomplished. Owing to the refusal of the Sioux to accept the
overtures of the Americans, the Indian tribes in the two modern
Dakotas were not pacified. Their continuance of Avar with their
neighbors forced the latter to defend themselves; and war parties
from all the tribes of that region immediately succeeded the sail-
ing westward of the expedition in the spring of 1805. It was
(liiTereiit wilh rdl the tribes of the Pocky niouiUain and the Colum-
bia river countries; they were liieiidh' to the .Americans and
generally at peace anuuig themsehcs. . lUit from the expedition
it was learned what might be expected from the tribes encoun-
tered. That information was vastly important; and it was
promptly succeeded by .the advent of the fur companies and the
many private trajjpers, who boldly penetrated to the heart of the
territories occupied by fierce and h.ostile tribes, in search of the
beaver and other fur-bearing animals. Neither can the expedi-
tion be said to have discovered a practicable water route across
the Rocky mountains for the benefit of commerce ; but it did learn
that the portage between the headwaters of the Missouri and
the Columbia rivers was b'Otli long and extremely difficult. Th'dt
knowledge was also valuable. 'Phe most im|)ortant results of
the exjjedition sprang from the description of the country through
which llu' ohscrvani Americans passed. 'IMie vast ntmibers of
wild animals, the splendid w;iter-courses. the luxuriant natural

THE EXPEDITION OF LEWIS AND CLARK. 331

nieadows, the fertile and beautiful valleys, the wonderful mount-
ains probably containing stores of rich minerals, the astonishing
variety of climate— all revealed' to the citizens of the United
States the marvelous value of their new possession. It was only
a question of time until the whole tract would be peopled with
milhons and glorified with the intricate tracery of modern civil-
ization.

332

THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

CHAPTER X

The Expeditions of Ivieutenant Pike

THE exploration of the Missouri river country, of the Rocky
niounluins and of the valley ot Colunihia river, was pro-
vided for in the ex[)edilion under Captains Lewis and
Clark. But other explorations were e(iually important and neces-
sary. It was imperative to find the remote source of the Missis-
sii)pi river, in order to settle the dispute over the boundary between
the United States and the British possessions on the north. It
was likewise vitally necessary, in order to prevent a probable war
between the United States and Spain, to find at once the sources
of the Arkansas and the Red rivers, the territory drained by
which beint^ claime<l by both nations. Spain endeavored to secure
this immense tract by sending; envoys (o the \arious Indian tribes
residinn" on the headwaters nf tiiose rivers lor the purpose of
forminj^- an alliance w ith them. She likewise undertook, Ijy send-
\\\^ out an army nearly to Natcliitoches and nearly to the Mis-
souri river, to impress the Indians with her power and the
Americans with the rightfulness of her claims to the country. To
thwart these pretensions and ortravac^-ant claims, the Pike expedi-
ti(m was sent out. The United States claimed, as she had a
ri<;ht to do, all the country we.4 of the Mississi])pi drained by its
branches. It was, therefore, necessary to find without delay the
divide which separated the Mississijipi basin from those of the
Columbia, the Colorado of the West, the Rio Grande, and the
rivt'rs of modern Texfis, which How into the dulf of Mexico.

Under the orders of CVn. James WilKinson, of the War Depart-
ment, then with hi'ad(|uarlers at (he villai;e of vSl. T/mis,
I.icul. Zebulon M. TiKc, on ihe otii of AutMisi, i8i)c;, with a force
consist ill!,;' ol one seri.'eant, two coipoials and seventeen ])riva(es,
and with a k-eel-boat seventy feet loni-;, wi-11 provisioned U>y foiu'

THE EXPEDITIONS OE LIEUTENANT PIKE. ;^^^

months, set sail up the Alississippi river, intending to visit the
Indian tribes on its upper branehes, hold peace treaties with them,
locate sites for military estal^lishments along- the river and else-
where, inquire into the liabits and customs of the wiiite traders,
ascertain to what extent liritish influences stirred up hostilities
among the various tribes, locate the source of the Mississippi,
and generally to look after the interests of the United States in
the upper Alississippi country. On the nth they passed the
mouth of the Illinois river, and on the 14th came upon a small
party of Sac Indians engaged in fishing. The men of the expedi-
tion caught this day one thousand three hundred and seventy-
five fish from the river as they passed along. The next
day, opposite Hurricane Island, on the west side in what is
now Missouri, they saw a French plantation, with cattle and
growing corn. In tliis vicinity they learned there were fif-
teen or twenty families. On the 17th they passed three loaded
batteaux coming down, and two days later struck a "sa>vyer,"*
stove in a plank of their boat and came near sinking, but man-
aged to make shore, wliere they repaired the break by inserting
another plank. While they were thus engaged, three canoes of
Indians went by on tlieir way down. On the 20th they reached
the "De Moyen" rapids, but had hard work getting through
them. They were assisted Isy William Kwing, a representative of
the United States among the Indians, placed there to teach them
the art of agriculture, who had with him a French interpreter, and
four chiefs and fourteen warriors of the Sacs, all in canoes flying
the stars and stripes. They were on their way down to St. Louis,
l)ut returned to the Sac village on the Iowa side just above the
rapids, where t>n tlie upposiie side of the river st(X")d the house of
Mr. Ewing. Here Pike held a council of the leading chiefs of the
Sacs, explained to them how Louisiana had become the territory
of the United States, and enjoined upon them the importance of
maintaining peace with the Americans and with the neighboring
tribes. They all promised peace and obedience, whereupon they
were presented with tobacco, knives and whisky.

Continuing up the river, Pike selected a spot about forty miles
from the Sac village for the erection of a military post. It was
on high groimd on tlie west bank, with plenty of ground back of
the river front for gardens, etc. On the 25th they passed the
month of Towa river, and (•nram])e(l at Oirant's l^-airie. On the
I'r.lh there went down three pirogues of Indians, and on the 27th
Uiver de l\oche (lvo«k) was passed. Here they met a Scolch-

* A ooiircalcd Irtc, loK of siiiijc in (lie river.

334 ^^ti^ PROl'lNCli ANJ> THE STATES.

man named James Aircl, who had a (juantity of goods and was on
his way to the Indian country to trade. He was very communi-
cative, thoroughly posted on the Indian trihes, and wilhngly gave
Major I'ike nmch vahiahle informalion. Here on the east side
stood another village of the Sacs. ( )n tiie 30th they saw Indians
in pirogues going down; and on the 31st passed several encamp-
ments, one of which stood on a beautiful eminence on the west
side, and had the appearance of ha\ing been the site of a town
for many years. They were now not far from the lead mines ; in
fact reached them the next day at no.m. They were saluted with
a field piece from the lead works, and were hosintably received by
Monsier Julien Dubuciue, who took pleasure in showing them
marked attention. The mines were Ijeing worked six miles from
the river, no nearer.

Under the instructions of the government. Lieutenant Pike
asked Monsier Du])U([ue a series of i[uestions, and he replied as
follows: "What is the date of yom- grant of the mines from the*
savages? Answer: The copy of the grant is in Mr. Soulard's
office at St. Louis. What is ihe dale of the confirmation by the
Si)aniartls. Ans. The same as to first query. What is the
extent of your grant? Ans. The same as above. What is the
extent of the mines? Ans. Twenty-eight or twenty-seven
leagues long and from one to three broad. What the lead made
]X'r annum? Ans. From twenty million to forty million pounds.
What ([uantity of lead per cwt. of mineral? Ans. Seventy-five
per cent. What quantity of le;id in pigs? Ans. All I make, as I
neither manufactme bar, sheet lead nor shot. Is it mixed with
any other mineral? Ans. We have seen some cop[)er but hav-
ing no person sufficientl}' acquainted with chemistry to make the
experiment ])roperly, I cannot say as to the proportion it bears to
the lead. Signed at Dubuque, or Lead Mines, September i,
1805."

From Dubuque it was learned thai the Sioux and the Chip-
pewas were at war as usual, that the former had recently killed
fifteen of the latter, and the latter had in turn killed ten of the
former, at or near the mouth of St. I'eter's (Minnesota) river.
On September 2(1 they reache<l Turkey river, on which, near its
mouth, was a JA>x vilknge. Jvverywiiere it was fountl by I'ike
that the Indians had a great dread of the Americans, whom they
regarded as great fighters and very brave men. To a certain
dej^ree, ibis belief ha<l been caust-il b\ the I'rench and tlu* Span-
ish, with wlioni lh(' Indians iiad bei'u associated so slroiij;- \ery
recently. Thus, whenever the Indiims oI)Sei"ve(l the Fik-e |)arty

THE EXPEDITIONS OF LIEUTENANT TIKE. 335 ]

with the Hag- of the United States flying-, they generally steered
clear unless spoken to. Small parties invariably tied before the
Americans. It had been, and was )ct, to the interest of the
French and Spanish trailers to influence the Indians against the
Americans ; and previous to the cession o[ the province to the
United States the Aniericans had little show of securing the
Indian trade, because iliey were not permitted to cross the Mis-
sissippi. But now all was changed. Kverywhere the American
traders began to root out the others and to gain the savage cus-
tom. One of the objects of Tike's exijedilion was to pro\e to the
savages that the Americans were now their best friends, that
the government was ready to assist them with money and prcn'is-
ions, arms and iniijreinents, and to establish posts among them
for their ])enefit. So, from the start, Tike made every effort to
secure peace between ilie tribes, to make them see that the gov-
ennnenl was their be>i friend, to open friendly comnuuncations
with them, and to obtain cessions of land, upon which to build
trading or military posts. In this he was very successful.

The mouth of the Wisconsin was reached September 4, and a
little later the party arrived at Trairie du Chien. Here was fouiid
a strong post of traders. Two sites for military posts were
selected near this point. Here a council was heUl with the Tuants
or Winnebagoes. At the mouth of the Upper Iowa river a coun-
cil was held with a band of Sioux. September i6th they reached
Lake Tepin, and five days later arrived at the mouth of St. Teter's
river. Here a little later a council was held with the Sioux for
the |)ur])ose of cementing" a permanent peace l)etween them ami
the Chipi)ewa^s. At this time he succeeded in securing from them
two valuable tracts of land. They agreed, provisionally only, to
maintain peace with the Chippev/as. Late in September, the
exi)edition passed around St. Anthony's falls. On the 13th they
arrived at the mouth of Clear river, and here saw their first buf-
falo signs. It was resolved to build a fort near this spot, in which
to pass the winter; this was soon accomplished.

In the meantime, Tike put himself in communication with the
traders and the Indian bands of the surrounding country, his
object being to regulate the Indian trade, which was here in the
hands of Tritish agents. Finally, he left part of his force at the
fort in charge of a sergeant, and with the others started to find
the source of the I\1ississip])i, to visit several of the Tritish
agencies, and to meet the chiefs of the upi)cr tribes. They jiasscd
the mouth of Tine river on the 31st of December. A few days
later they arrivc'd at tlie T.i'ilish camp near Ted Cedar lake, and
soon afterward at Lake de Sable, where stood their pi"incii)al

336 THE I'KOi'lNCLi AMD THE STATES.

camp. Pike required the British llag to be hatiled down, and
exacted from the agents promises to conform to the government
requirements. Succeeding in this, they passed up to Leech lake,
and at the British post there saw Hugh McGilhs, the agent.
Here the British ilag was also taken down. The British agents
were required to take out licenses, were prohibited from selling
liquor to the Indians, were forbidden to distribute British medals
to the chiefs, and were told to hold no councils with the Indians
on political subjects. Here a large council was held with the
tribes of liainy lake, Red Cedar lake, Lake of the Woods, and
otlier distant points — all Chippewas or their relatives. While
here, Pike discovered what was supposed to be the source of the
MississipjM. Returning down the riser he reached his fort early
in March. On his way down the Mississipi)i he held councils
with other bands of the Sioux. St. Louis was reached April 30.
While they were at "Prairie des Cbiens," they witnessed a g-amc
of ball between the Indians, which was thus described by Lieu-,
tenant Pike: "This afternoon they liad a great game of the cross
on the prairie between the Sioux on the one side and the Puants
and Reynards on the other. The ball is made of some hard sub-
stance and covered with leather, the cross sticks are round and
net work, with handles of three feet long. The parties being
ready, and bets agreed upon (sometimes to the amount of some
thousanil dollars), the goals arc set up on the prairie at the dis-
tance of half a mile. The ball is tlnown up in the middle, and
each party strives to drive it to the opposite goal ; and when either
party gains the first rubber, whicli i^ driving it quick arouutl the
post, the ball is again taken to the center, the ground changed and
the contest renewed; and this is contimied until one side gains
four times, which decides the bet. It is an interesting sight to
see two or three hundred naked savages contending on the i)lain
who shall bear off the palm of viotor\- ; as he who drives the ball
round the goal is much shouted at by his companions. It some-
times happens that one catches the ball in his racket, and depend-
ing on his si)ecd, endeavors to carry it to the goal, and when he
finds himself too closely pursued, he burls it with great force and
dexterity to an ama/.ing distance, where then' are other Hankers
of both parties ready to receive it. It seUlom touches the ground,
but is sometimes kept in the air for hours before either party can
gain the victory. In the game which 1 witnessed, the Sioux were
victorious, more, T believe, fr(»m the superiority of their skill in
throwing the ball, than by their s\* illness, for I thought the
Puants and l\e>'nards the swiftest riuniers."

THE EXPEDITIONS OF LIEUTENANT PIKE. 337

The objects of this expedition, which were to estabhsh peace
between the huhan tribes of the Upper Mississippi, to regulate
trade with the Indians, to conlirm the authority of the United
States, to discover more accurately the sources of the Mississippi,
to select suitable sites for the construction of military and trading
posts, and to shake off the hold of the Spanish, French and Eng-
lish upon the savage nations, had thus been accomplished so far
as it was possible to l)e done. As a whole, the results justified
the confidence reposed in (then ) Lieutenant Pike, and warranted
his promotion and his selection for duties of a similar nature
farther to the west. His expedition to the sources of the Mis-
sissippi is one of the most inieresting and memorable made in
the Louisiana Purchase in early times.

Under the orders of tiie War Department, Lieut. Zebulon M.
Pike, with a force consisting of two lieutenants, one surgeon, one
sergeant, two corporals, sixteen privates and one interpreter, set
out in two boats from Belle Fountaine near St. Louis, on July 15,
1806, for the purpose of "exploring the internal parts of Loui-
siana." Accompanying him were chiefs and other members of the
Osages and the Pawnees, through which nations it was intended
the expedition should pass. Many were women and children who
were returning to their nations from captivity among the Potta-
wattomies, having been freed by the I'nited States government.
Late on the 16th. the expcditiim reached St. Charles, where \'as-
quez, the interpreter, was arrested under a writ of attachment for
debt, ])y Manuel Lisa, one of the leading agents of the Mis-
souri Fur Comjiany. This occasioned a delay, but he was finally
released. La Charette was reached on the 21st, and there they
found waiting them Lieut. James B. Wilkinson, son of Gen. James
Wilkinson, Dr. John H. Robinson, and another interpreter, all of
whom had gone on before. Almost from the start it was neces-
sary for them to kill game for their subsistence, and the hunters
who accompanied the expedition were kept constantly in the
woods. On the 2.itii they killed three deer,' one bear and three
turkeys. The next day they reached the mouth of Gasconade
river, and on the 28th arrived at the mouth of Osage river, near
which a trading post had been established for many years. The
Indians of the party had become tired of the .slow and tedious
advant r of the boats, and spiiil tiieir time on the banks, marching
along under the comniand of Te lo-ba-si. or P.ig Soldier. Scarcely

1-22

338 THE PROVINCE A.\'D THE STATES.

a ilay jKissed that did nnt add to tl.cir subsistence deer and other
wild animals; on one day tiiey killed as hi;;h as nine deer. Wan-
ton cervicide was forbidden by Lieutenant I'ike.

Having- reached the mouth of the Osage river, they commenced
the ascent of that stream, imd on .\ug-ust 8, arrived at the Nian-
gua, or as Pike called it, the Yuiiger river, and on the same day
passed Old Man's Rapids. On tl.e 12th they passed Vermillion
and Grand rivers, and two days later arrived at the Park, wliere
there were several white traders in the employ of the Chouteans
of St. Louis. While here I'ike was informed that a war party |.

of the Little Osages had gone against the Kansas, and that a war | k,

party of the Great Osages had gnue to attack the whites located 'i^

on the Arkansas river. ( )n the 18th, the advance expedition |

under Lieutenant Wilkinson arri\ed so near the Osage villages f

that the friends of the Indians reinrning from captivity came out |

to meet them. 'I'liis meelini'; is thus described by Pike and Wilkin-
son : ''Wives throwing themsehes into the arms of their hus-
bands, parents embracing- their children and children their parents,
brothers and sisters meeting, one from ca[)tivity, the others from
the towns — they at the same tiir.e returning- thanks to God for
having- brought them once more together; in short the tout cnsciii-
ble was such as to make polished society blush, when compared
with those savages, in whom the passions of the mind, either joy,
grief, fear, anger, or revenge, ha\'e their full scope ; why can we
not correct the baneful passions without weakening the good?
Sans Oreille (Big Soldier, or Te-to-ba-si, or \\ ithout ]{ars), made
them a speech in which he remarked, 'Osage, you now see your
wives, }our brothers, your daughlers, your sons, redeemed from
captivity. Who did this? Was it the Spaniard? No. The
French ? No. Had either of th(jse people been governors of the
country, your relatives might have rotted in captivity, and you
never would have seen them; but the Americans stretched forth
their hands, and they are returned to you. What can you do for
all this goodness? Nothing; all your lives would not suffice to
repay their goodness.' This man (Te-to-ba-si) had children in
captivit}', not one of whom were we able to obtain for him."

The main exi)edition reached Prairie Hills on August 13th, and
passed Sac river above Osceola the 16th. The next day they
reached a spot where the Spanish had erected a fort which they
called Carondelet, and had fortified it and placed several swivels
high enitugh to command tiie surroundings. Here about ten
families resided, mostly of I'Vencl) origin. Having- reached the
forks on the 18th, they passed up the left branch, and the next

THE EXPEDITIONS OF LIEUTENANT PIKE. 339

day, with the assistance of the Indians, who came out with forty
or fifty horses, tiiey carried their baggage across to the vicinity of
the Osage villages and near the trading establishment of Lisa.
While here Pike inquired particularly into the proceedings of the
traders, as had been enjoined upon him by General Wilkinson,
and learned that many abuses existed, which he ordered corrected.
Among them was the disrespect shown the American government
by Lisa and the Cliouteaus, v.ho had not yet become reconciled
to the change in their nationality. Neither had they taken out
the licenses and passpoils ri..|uired by the government. The
Indians were informed of the change in govermnents, and pres-
ents were made them on behalf of the LTnited States. The expe-
dition was met 1)y practically the whole of each village, and as
all the men were very thirsty, they were given a "stiff drink"
each. The old medals of the Spaniards and the French were
taken up and new ones, representing America, were given in their
places. The Indians were informed that the traders ha'd no
power to make or unmake chiefs. White Llair, or Ca-ha-ga-
ton-ga, and Tutt-a-sug-gy, the Wind, the former of the Great
Osages and the latter of the Little Osages, both head chiefs, were
very friendly to Captain Pike. At least they professed to be, but
when it came to supplying the expedition with horses, it was very
difhcidt to procure them except at an extravagant price. Pike
wondered at this fact, when they had seven or eiglit iuindred
iiorses, professed such undying friendshij) for the whites, and yet
at Inst would i)art willi only alxmt ten horses. One of the objects
of lliv.' expedition was to lake along several of the highest chiefs
of the Osages to meet the Pawnees for the purpose of assisting in
establishing permanent i)eace between the two nations, but the
leading chiefs evaded the re(|uest, and several of the under chiefs
who started afterward der.crted and returned to their villages.

The villages of the Great and the Little Osages were about six
miles apart. While here they learned that a war party of l\iw-
nces had recently attacked an expediti(jn of 7\mericans on the
Arkansas river, had killed two and wounded two, and had killed
an Osage warrior, who was with them. The camp of the Pike
expedition among the C)sages was called Independence. A big
council was held the 221I, with the two villages together, on which
occasion Pike delivered a long and carefully prejjared "tall;" or
speech, pointing out to the Indians what was necessary for them
to do to retain the };-ood will of the United Slati-s and avoid hav-
ing an army sent against them for their forcible subjection, ft
is clear that Pike did not use good judgment at this council,

340

THE PROl'INCE AND THE STATES.

because lie delivered the presents of the government before he
made his demands for horses and for chiefs to accomi)any tlie
expedition to the country of the Pawnees, tiad he reversed this
course, it is probable he would have obtained all he asked for at
the outset.

The act of freeing the captive Osages among the Pottawat-
tomies and sending them U> their homes by Captain Pike, was a
step taken by the government to convince the savages of the well-
wishes of the United States and to gain in return the good will of
the Indians. The immediaie correction of the many abuses of
the traders was another step in the same direction. Preliminary
proceedings were talcen also to establish military posts in the
country of the Osages, so that the interests of the United States
and the safety of the traders and the few settlers might be con-
served. A careful report cm the fauna, ilora, topography, etc.,
was also required. ;At the council the rights of the Indians and
of the P^nited Slates were severalls' set forth, and the importan'ce
to the savages of permanent peace with the government purposely
dwelt upon. The next step was to secure peaccal^le relations
Ijetwcen the Osages and their savage neighbors.

Having sold his batteaux. obtained horses enougli to carry his
baggage, and engaged a number of sub-chiefs to go to the coun-
try of the Pawnees, the expedition, on the ist of September, pre-
pared to leave. There were now fifteen loaded horses, two
lieutenants, one doctor, two sergeants, one cori)oral, fifteen pri-
vates, two interpreters, three Pawnees relurniug from captivit}',
and four sub-chiefs of tlu' ()w:\\ ( )sages, one being Slien-ga-
was-sa, or Beautiful llird. After having started, it was learned
by Captain Pike that Mr. Cliouteau of St. Louis had just arrived
among the Osages, whereupon hv returned, because lie desired
particularly to have a serious talk w ilh that well known and some-
what famous individual. The many abuses of which the Indians
and the government agents comiilained were pointed out to him
and their correction demanded to which Mr. Chouteau acquiesced,
apparently without any expectaiion of complying therewith,
because i'ike soon afterward learned that after he had gone Chou-
teau told the Indians that l!,e .Xmericans were "bad men," and
that in a short time the country wnuld again pass to Spain, as a
war was then in |)rosi)ect. When an accfntnt of this outrageous
course was sent to General Wilkinson at St. Louis, he informed
Mr. Cbouh-au llial a rcpelilinu of sucji slalemenls would be fol-
l()we<i by expulsion from the Indian country, and directed him to
correct bis inifriendlv condu' I al onre.

)

[

THE EXPEDITIONS OF LIEUTENANT PIKE. 341

The transfer of Louisicina Province to the Uni'ted States meant
the early invasion of all that territory hy American settlers, whom
both the French and the Spanish residents and traders had been
taught to detest and avoid. The old regime of commercial seclu-
sion, it was realized, must give way to the energetic and progres-
sive customs of the American settlers. This meant the decatlence
of French and Spanish prestige and power among the savages.
Thus it was that the Americans at first met with rebuffs, not only
from the white residents, but from the Indians who were yet
under the inlluences of the French and the Spanish. Pike early
realized this state of affairs, and did all he coukl to correct it.
But it required several years before the savages fully admitted
the authority of the United States.

After the expetlilion had been out a few days, several of the
Osages who had agreed to go to the Pawnee villages announced
that they "had been dreaming," which meant that they had
changed their minds about accompanying Pike any forther.
September 5, all but two went back. The next day, the company
arrived in the vicinity of what is now Xenia and Harding, Kan.,
and passed over the divide se])arating the Osage valley from the
Neosho valley. On September 10, they reached the divide
between the Neosho and the Verdigris valleys, and on the nth
camped on the latter stream not far from what is now the town
of Bazar, Chase county. Iwery day they killed enough game for
their subsistence. The hunters began to bring in caljrie, or ante-
lopes. The beautiful prairies, covered with wild flowers and
wild game, kindUnl tlu' warmest praises of Captain Pike. hVom
the lop dl" a bill, he writes, on September u, he saw at one
view on the bellowered plain below butTalo, elk, deer, antelope
and panther. On this day five buffaloes were killed, almost the
first. This was the Kaws (Kansas) hunting ground, and the
animals began to appear almost without numbers. Pike gave
strict injunctions to kill no more than was needed, but no limits
were placed on the needs, and the camp was feasted on buffalo
hump, tongue, tenderloin, and marrow, with variations of elk,
deer, cabrie and wild fowl. (3n the 14th all day long they jour-
neyed through an unending herd of buffaloes, which simply
ojjcned ranks to let the intruders pass, and then closed again as if
nothing had happened. The report of guns seemed new to the
animals, showing that the Indians had not yet secured those
weapons. TNke asserted that one hunter could support two hun-
dred men with bis rille. lie forbade unnecessary killing "not
because of a scarcity of ammunition, but as I conceived the laws

342 THE i'KOVlNCE AMD THE STATES.

of morality forbid it also." In luoking- over his report, one is
astonished at the quantity of game killed, however. From three
to ten animals were slaug-htered every day without a thought that I |

a fewer number might have answered just as well. Only the
choicest portions of the animals were eaten : the remainder was |>

left to the wolves and panthers.

They passed on the 15th a large unoccupied encampment of the
Kansas Indians, and on this day observed in the distance the
bufTaloes running, which indicated the presence either of Indians
or white men. On this day they camped near what is now Tampa,
Marion county. Two days later they reached the Smoky hill
branch of the Kansas river, and after this game began to grow
scarcer. September 21st, Pike learned that the only remaining
Osage Indians with him were preparing to take horses and depart
from the expedition, fearing, no doubt, the consequences of their
meeting the Kansas, with \\hom iliey were at war; but when
taken to task by Pike and called C(; wards, they boastingly deter-
mined then to remain at all hazards. Pike writes, "Thus were S
we obliged to keep ourselves on our guaril against our own com-
I>anions and felkjw-travelers, men of a nation highly favored by
the United States, but whom I believe to be a faithless set of
poltroons, incapable of a great or generous action ; among them,
indeed, there may be some exceptions." Probably among the
exceptions was the Indian woman who had informed Captain
Pike of the intended desertion of her own people, one of whom
•was her husband. Or was tliis because she was not to be taken
ivith them?

Some days previous to this event, I )(jctor l\(,)binson and a Paw-
nee hunter had been sent on in advance, so as not to surprise the
Pawnee village, but to preparr them for the visit of the American
expedition. On the 22d a Pawnee messenger arrived with the
intelligence that the i3octor and several chiefs and a band of war-
riors had come out to meet tliem, bu.t had passed them far to the
north. It was afterward learned that the Osage guides with the
ex|)editicjn, fearing an attack from (he I'awnees or the Kansas,
had purposely led the expedition much too far to the south and
west in order to avoid the ennny as h^ng as possible. 'JMie mes-
senger told Pike that the Tetons (or letans, c^r Conianches), had
recently killed six of the Kansas and Pawiu-es and had stolen
many of their horses, lie also stated that a large body of Span-
ish cavalry, numl)ering sever.il hundreds, had lately been to the
j'awiiee villages f<;r ihe purpo^.^• of ),aining (he friiiulshij) of that
liibe. This was somewhat slarlliuf news, aiul si-t Cajilain Pike

THE EXPEDITJONS OF LIEUTENANT PIKE.

343

to thinking of the consequence should such an army meet his com-
paratively small force. There could be no reasonable doubt that
the Spaniards had no right thus to invade the probable territory
of the United States unless war was already in progress. Of
course Pike was aware of the strained relations on the Texas bor-
der between the United States and Siiain and knew that the
boundary had not been estaljiished. lie realized as a conseciuence
that the invasion of the country by the Spaniards might mean that
war had already commenced, and that his own capture might be
the result of a meeting between the above-mentioned Spanish
force and his own. From this time forward, therefore, he was
not without concern at all times regarding what might hajjpen
should his little command meet a considerable body of the Span-
ish troopers.

As the command continued to advance they met members of
the Pawnee tribe — several on the 23d and more on the 24th^ — all
of whom were well mounted and well supplied with Spanish
mules, horses, bridles and blankets. Some were clothed in Span-
ish garments, ^vhile others not so well favored had on notliing
except the usual breech cloth ; indeed some had on nothing but a
buffalo robe. On the 25th i'ike crossed the Spanish trail, and
knew from the tracks that there were several hundred of them.
Finally, when he arrived within three miles of the Republican
Pawnee villages, he was asked to wait imtil the tribe was ready
to receive him iillingly. 1 le was now on the l^epublioan branch
of the Kansas river, near llie present boundary between Kansas
and Nebraska, having just crossed llie Creat Saline, the Little
Saline and Solomon's l-'ork. .Ml having seated themselves in the
open, a large Ijody of Pawnee warriors advanced toward them,
all splendidly mounted and armed as if for actual war; indeed the
reception had all the realistic features of an attack. Several hun-
dred of them came toward the Americans at full speed, circling
out on each side as if to flank the visitors, all brandishing their
arms and yelling at the top of their voices. This was a custom-
ary ceremony of all the Indian tribes, when wishing to impress
visitors with their strength and i)rowess. In fact they outdid
themselves on this occasion, in order to impress the Osages who
were present as well as the Americans. Finally, all drew rein,
and the chiefs. White Wolf, or Char-ac-ter-ish, and Rich Man,
or Is-ka-tap-pe, advanced and extended their hands, after whicii
all mingled in friendship. The pipe of ])eace was passed and all
blew up cl(Mids of smoke, while they were thinkinj;- of how to
outwit each other.

344 THE FROyiNCF. AND THE STATES.

Succeeding tliis event, all were escorted to the Pawnee villages
where the whites were feasted on thr hest the savages had, which'
IS not making a very strong statement. The whites were plenti-
fully supplied with corn, but remained encamped at some distance
from the Indians. On September 26, twelve Kansas arrived and
were warmly received by the Pawnees. A big council was c'alled
for the 29th, and on that day all the Indians were present, i,rob-
ably because they knew that they were to be given many valuable
presents. In reality, the friendship of the Pawnees was one of
the principal objects of the e.xpedition, and Pike took extra pre-
cautions to impress the savages with the power and good will of
the United States. But he encountrred an obstacle he had not
at first figured on: Namely, the inlliunces of the Spaniards par-
ticularly of their last visit of three or l-air weeks before. I W was
not without misgivings as to the eliVn on the four Jumdred war-
riors present of his little force as oMiipared with that of the
Spaniards, which numbered nearly four hundred. In the end it'
transpired that his misgivings weie well founded. Having
noticed that the Spanish flag was Hying over the villages, he
mquired why it was permitted in tlie territory of the United
States. He was told that it was because of the recent visit of the
Spanish dragoons, the friends of the 1 'awnees. He asked to have
It removed, and dead silence followed. Finally, an old Indian
advanced and pulled it down and handed it to Captain Pike
who immediately returned it to him, saving that it was
not the act that he condemned, but the outward appearance
of hosl.hty to the United Slat... This act of giving
back the Spanish flag was a stroke of excellent policv, which after
events fully confinued; because the ] 'awnees at once assisted in
raising an .American Hag. and so shuued a friendlier altitude
Init the act brought shari,ly to the attention of the ok^ervant
like that the savages might at any moment turn against the
Americans; m fact, it was clear that aiuong the younger savages
at least, the large body of Si)anish dragoons, with iheir bright
un.torms and glittering arms, Nvas regarded much more Iwghlv
than Ins own insigiiifieant force. The act of the Pawnees in rais-
ing the flag of the United Slates greatly pleased the Kansas
and the Osage Indians present, i.ecause it betokend the friendship
of their tribes and those of the Pawnees ; and hence would result
in the accomplishment of the designs <,f the expedition.

a soon became appaienl |o Pikv that be had not succee.jed in
removing the favorable opinion of Uu^ savages f.,r ihe Spanish

rilE EXFEDJTIONS OF LIEUTENANT PIKE. 345

When, in the course of the council, he intimated his intention of
going' on west as far as the Spanish country, the Indians were
sternly silent and cast down their eyes ; and when he reiterated
his intentions, he ohscrved that a hostile spirit was manifested in
the assemhly. In this instance, the usually impassive counte-
nances of the savages told only too clearly their thoughts. When
the Spanish flag- was pulled down, I'ike notecl that sorrov/ was
plainly manifested on many countenances. He therefore thought
quickly of how he might overcome this prejudice in favor of the
Spaniards. The occasion was presented when he returned the
Spanish flag to the Indians after it had been lowered. Pike
merely told the Indians not to raise the Spanish flag during his
stay in their village, which request was strictly complied with.
His course was fully appreciated by the savages, who raised a
great shout of applause. The council was continued several days,
and the savages used all the arguments and arts in their power to

^ prevail upon the Americans to go no farther; but as {his, of

course, could not be accorded, Pike was finally told that the sav-
ages would feel called upon to use force to prevent his advance.
This finality was reached by the Indians only after all other means
had been exhausted by them to induce Captain Pike to
return to the states. Char-ac-ter-ish told Pike that the
Spanish had proposed to go nuich farther to the east, but that he
had persuaded them not to do so. And now for the same reasons,
he would advise the Americans to advance no farther. The chief
went to the extent of saying tliat he had promised the Spanish
conuuander not to permit the Americans to pass beyond his
villages.

The position thus taken by the Pawnees, and nearly all seemed
to favor it, sharply definetl the pending issue and showed at once
the metal that was in Captain Pike, He spoke at considerable
length in reply to these points, saying that all this region belonged
to the United States, and was not seriously disputed even by the
Spanish themselves; that the Father at Washington had sent him
out to see all the red children in the territory of the United States

j in the West; that he had come to make the red children presents

^H. and to tell them to live in peace with one another; that he was

compelled to proceed by the orders of. the Father, that if he did
not at this time there would be sent out a large army that would
not be so kind lo Ihem, and that he was deli'rmined to proceed
as he had bei n orikred. lie said, "I have been sent out by our

^ Great leather to expl(M-e the western country, to visit all his red

346 THE PROVINCLi AND THE STATES.

children, to make peace between them, and turn tlieni from the

shedding- of blood; and you may see how I l.ave caused the Osage ||

and Kaws to meet to smoke the pipe of peace together, and take

each other by the hands like brothers; that as yet my road has

been smooth, and a blue sky over our heads. I have not seen any

blood in our paths ; but you must know that the young warriors

of our Great American Fatlier are not women to be turned back

by words, that I shall therefore i)r<jceed, and if you think proper

to stop me, you can attempt it; but we are men, well armed, and

will sell our lives at a dear rate to your nation, and we know our

Great Father will send our young warriors there to gather our

bones and revenge our deaths on >our people; when our spirits

will rejoice in hearing our exploits sung ii; the war songs of our

chiefs."

Having thus spoken. Pike "then left the lodge and returned to
camp in considerable perturbation of mind." He writes under
date of October Jd, "\\V^ received .idvice from our Kansas th^t
the chief had given publicit)- to his idea of stopping us by force
of arms, which gave serious rellections to me, and was productive
of many singular expressions from my brave lads, which called
for my esteem at the same time that they excited my laughter."
Pike was fortunate in having only men with him who would stand
by him la any extremity; for all now favored advancing and
taking what consequences the Indians might offer. He continued
to make preparations, and sought to buy horses, but was unable
to do so at first. He noticed a hostile sentiment throughout the
villages, and accordingly kei)t to h.imself, and strengthened his
l\>rce at all i)oints, guarding cveryiliing securely at night to pre-
vent possible surprise. On ( October 7, all things being ready, he
started, passing around the villages instead of through them, and
having everything in readiness to repel an attack. He coolly says
that he calculated that his force could kill one hundred savages
before they were wlioUy annihilated. As he passed their village
he saw much commotion, and rode up to the lodges to ascertain
what was the matter. Having learned that no attack was con-
templated, although he saw that many of the warriors had their
arms in their hands, he returned to his little army and continued
to advance, "feeling immensely relieved." He said, "All the evil
I wished the Pawnees was that T might be the instrument in the
hands of our government to open their ears and eyes with a strong
h.'uid tf> convince \\w\w of (^ur power."

The expedition passed on and was soon far away from the

THE HXFEDiriONS OF LlEUTllNANT PIKE. 347

Pawnee villag-es ; but extra i^uard was posted for several days,
lest the savages should ehan-e their minds. There were now
two officers, one doctor, eighteen soldiers, one interpreter, three
Osag-es and one woman. On the 8th they came again upon the
Spanish trail, and at one of the camps counted fifty-nhie fires,
which, at six men to a fire, signified a force of three hundred
fifty-four troopers. On Octoljer 9, the Pawnees put in an appear-
ance, and were guilty of many threatening acts, stealing small
articles, and circling fiercely around on the prairie; hut they
finally withdrew, though they returned again the next tlay.

Solomon's Fork was again crossed the 9th much farther to the
west than on December 23, and here another camii of the Spanish
army was found. It was the plan of Pike to follow the Spanish
trail, because it would no doubt lead by the most direct route to
the mountains where the head of Red river was to be found, the
objective now of the expedition. On the 9th Pike says he saw
for the first time a buUahj hunt on a grand scale by the Indians
armed only with their native weapons, lie writes, "The buffalo
took back in sight of the Pawnees, who immediately mounted fifty
or sixty young men and joined in the pursuit; then for the first
time in my life I saw animals slaughtered by the true savages,
witii their original weapons, bows and arrows: they buried the
arrow to the plume in the animal." They reached the Smoky
Hill Fork on the 13th, not far from the boundary line t)f the
counties of Russell and KHsworlh, and the following day arrived
at the divide between the the .\rkansas and the Kansas rivers.
Here Pike and a small party l)ecame lost on the prairie, and did
not turn up for several days : in the meantime the expedition con-
tinued to advance to the Arkansas river, where the lost party
under Pike overtook it. The river was crossed by all hand§ on
the 19th.

Here an important change had been ordered. The expedition
was to be divided, part returning down the Arkansas and part
going on up to the mountains for the purpose of discovering the
headwaters of Red river, and then of descending that unknown
j,tt-oam — unknown to the Americans. Canoes were made of buf-
falo and deer hides and wood and were fdlcd with provisions,
arms and ammunition. Finally, on the 28th of October, Lieuten-
ant Wilkinson, accompanied by five men and an Indian, started
down the river, while the remainder of the force under the com-
ni.iiid of Captain Tike advanced u|) the stream. 'iMiis parting was
not without tears on both sides. They had become used to one

348

rilE I'KOyiNCIi AND THE STATES.

another, had passed through the same dangers, and slept under
the same blankets, and now reahzing, as only companions in great
dangers can, the sorrows of parting.

Tlie i)arty under Lieutenant Wirkinson soon found that it was
hnpracticable to use their boats, as they soon grountled and were
in danger any moment of upsetting and depositmg all their pro-
visions and ammunition in the middle of the river. On tlie 30th
the river froze over and obliged them wholly to abandon the
boats. The next day they threw away everything they could not
carry or did not want to do so, and started ahead on foot. They
had but one fear: That some war party of Pawnees might
descend upon them. The country was almost wholly barren,
scarcely a shrub, and not a tree, being in sight for several days.
By the 8th of Novembei-, cotlon-woods began to line the water
courses, and the herds of buffalo began to make their appearance.
Lieutenant Wilkinson states that on one day he saw fully nine
thousand buffaloes. On the lolh he says he saw a tree that Avas'
not a cotton- wood, and' felt as. if he had met an old friend. By
the I2th the buffalo began to disappear, and the deer became more
abundant. By the 15th, trees large enough to make canoes were
found, and it was resolved to try once more to float down instead
of walk down. While several began on the canoes, the others
went hunting for their winter's supply of meat. Everything
being ready by the 24th, they tried a;;ain, but as before the boats
grounded. But they pushed ihem along, the men jumping into
the icy water bare-legged and bare-fooled to put iheir shoulders
l<> the boals. iM'iiaily, on (he .\Sih, one of the canoes upset and
ileposikHJ all of their provision^ and (he most of their ammunition
in the river, after which they again abandoned them and took to
the bank, managing to save enough for present needs.

A band of Osage Indians was encountered the 30th, who
brotight word that the chief. Wind, was sick on the opposite side
of the i)rairie and desired to see Lieutenant Wilkinson. Accord-
ingly, he went out and found him seriously ill. lie complained
that, after the departure of Pike's party from the Osage villages,
Chouteau. had done al^out all he could to inlhience the Indians
against the Americans, and that because he (Wind) liad sus-
tained the /\merieans, the Fnnchnirm had caused him to be
deprived of provisions and goods and had shamefully mistreated
him in manv other ways, le;iving himself and family almost
wholly withonl cloljiin'.;-. Will insou Imnished (he old chief all
he needed, and wrote a sharp letter lo (ieneial Wilkinson cr)n-

Tur. iixi'iLnirioNs of lulVThmant riKn. 349

•corning the conduct of Chouteau, which in the end brought about
the desired reforms.

Their ammunition began to run short, and all were cautioned to
waste none. The weather was very cold, and the men had no
stockings, and only cotton trousers. (Ireat sultering resulted.
December i6 Sabine river was passed, and on the 2y\.h the \'erdi-
gris and the Grand. Two days later the mouth of the Illinois
was reached, and on January 9 they arrived at Arkansas Post
and took a rest from their extremely arduous trials and severe
sufferings.

iXfter parting with Lieutenant Wilkinson, the party under
Captain Pike advanced rapidl)' up stream along the valley of the
river. On the 29th of October they saw two wild horses feeding
among the bufifaloes, and tried to catch them by running, but
failed, as they were too fast for the horses of the expedition. On
the 31st they saw nuich crv.slalline salt on the surface of the
ground. The countr)- was now covered with snow : they were
not far from what is now Kinsley, E<.1 wards county, Kan. On
November ist, a large herd of wild horses observed the intruders,
and came rapidly toward them, making the earth tremble with
their tread. Among them were animals of all colors — bays,
blacks, grays and mixed colors, and several were very fine An
attempt was made to "crease"* a fine black stallion, but the attempt
failed. They would advance, paw the earth antl whinney, all
the time circulating around the strangers with the greatest curi-
osity. The next day an attempt was made to "noose" some of
them. Six men mounted on the best horses were sent out ; but
although the wild ones came within forty yards of them, it was
found impossible to capture one, because no one in the party knew
how to lasso them. W^hen they were chased, two of the nien, it
was found, were so well mounted that they easily came u[> with
the herd, but all efforts to ca^t the noose over their heads failed.
Pike writes, "I have since laughed at our folly; for taking the
wild horses in that manner is scarcely ever attempted even with
the fleetest horses and most expert ropers." They did not seem
to know the meaning of the word "lasso," and certainly did not
know how to use it.

Tt was observed by Pike the 3d, that the wild animals were all
heading for the south, occasioned, of course, by the snow and the

* 'I'll slioot Uie fUiiiiKil tliroiiiili Uip iicclc just tiltovt? llie hdIikiI column, Ihe .sliot
beiiii; sufTioieiit to drop the aiiinial in its tracl<s loiifj lmioiu^Ii for tlic lumters to
catch it, without injuring: it pennanentlv.

350 TlUi PROriNClL AM) THE STATES.

consequent difficulty of finding feed under the white covering,'-,
'i'liey began to see many salt ponds, and an excellent salt marsh
grass was observed. On the 4th ihey encountered immense herds
of buffalo cows and their calves; iiaving previously seen only
bulls. They saw three thousand in one herd. Cow buffalo meat
was infinitely superior to that of tlie bulls; in fact Pike avers that
it was the best meat in the world, superior to the best beef. He
wrote of November 6, "I will not attempt to describe the droves
of animals we now saw on our route ; suffice it to say, that the face
of the prairie was covered with them on each side of the river;
their numbers exceed imagination."

By the 9th of November, they were in the vicinity of the pres-
ent town of Hartland, Kearney county. Here, at one of the
Spanish encampments, they counted ninety-six fires, which signi-
fied that the force had been augmented to from six hundred to
seven hundred troopers. Ey the loth their horse feed began to
grow scarce and the next day two of the poor animals gave out.
The following- day they were obliged to leave these animals.
They now saw fresh signs of hulians; and being in a hostile
country, began to take extra precautions not to be caught napping.
On the 15th, for the first time, the)- perceived in the blue distance
the mountains. So glad were they to leave the wearisome plain,
the men gave three cheers "for tl.e Mexican mountains." On
this day they reached Purgatory ri\er, a branch of the Arkansas.
On November 18, the hunleis sent out without restrictions killed
seventeen buffahu's and wounded twenty more greatly to the
morlirualion of Pike. Auoilur lioisc die^l on the ujth. On this
day they leasted on one hundretl thirty-six marrow bones of the
buft'aloes killed the day before, and regarded it as one of the
most enjoyable feasts they had ever survived. They took on their
horses about nine hundred pounds (jf buffalo meat, notwithstand-
ing that they had one less horse, and all the others were extremely
weak. 'J'hus while the men feasted, the poor horses were liter-
ally starving. The tracks of two men were crossed about this
time, which occasioned fresh words of caution. Hostile Indians
or hostile Spaniards might be encountered at any time now, so
that everything was kept in condition for resistance.

On the 22d a large war party of Grand Pawnees, who were in
pursuit (,f the Tetaus, rode up to the expedition. They were
sixty warriors, about half of whom bad gmis. After the manner
of the Indians, when they did not wish to make an open attack,
but had no respect for the others, llicy began to take all sorts of

Tllli EXPEDITIONS OF LIEUTENANT PIKE. 351

liberties with tlic expedition — helped themselves to articles of all
sorts, a sword, a tomahawk, a broad ax, five canteens, and many
other small articles. They even attempted to take the arms of the
white men. When they at last began to take liberties with the
bag'gage, it was deemed prudent to stop their nonsense. Pike
accordingly ordered his men to their arms, and informed the
Indians through his interpreter, that if they touched his baggage,
he would open fire upon them; whereupon they immediately drew
off. Finding they could gain nothing, they finally departed.
Pike wrote as follows: "When I rellectcd on the subject 1 felt
myself severely mortified that the smallness of my numbers
obliged me thus to submit to the insults of a lawless banditti, it
being the first time ever a savage took anything from me with
the least appearance of force."

What Pike called the third fork was reached November 23.
He writes, "As the river appeared to be dividing itself into many
small branches and of course nuist be near its extreme source, I
concluded to put the ])arty in a defensible situation; and then
ascend the north fork to the high point of. the blue mountain,
which we conceived would be one day's march, in order to be
enabled from its pinnacle to lay down the various branches and
positions of the country." The third fork was the St. Charles
river, and their encampment was made at what he called the
"grand forks," or at the junction of the Fountain river with the
Arkansas. The high point he referred to was I'ike's peak. The
north fork which they determined to ascend was Fountain river.
They cut the necessary logs the next day, and erected a strong
breastwork, five feet high on three sides, with the other opening
on the south bank of the Arkansas. They were now on the i)res-
ent site of Pueblo. Leaving all the others at the fort. Pike, Rob-
inson, Miller and Brown started for the mountains. By the 26th
they had ascended so high that they looked down on the clouds
rolling across the plain to the east. On the 27th they reached
the summit, but had had a very difficult time, being obliged often
to wade in snow waist deep. As the soldiers had on only light
cotton overalls and were without stockings, and as the weather
was severely cold, they suffered intensely. Game was very
scarce, but they succeeckd in killing two buffaloes on the 28th,
and, as Pike says, had the fust good meal in three days. C)n their
way back, (hey noted (hat (lu- soil was very rich, and (hat (he val-
lays were fidl of old drserteil le(an camps. The fort was reaclKnl
on the 29th, and all there were found well.

352 THE PROVLVCE A.\'D THE STATES.

It was now December jst, the snow lay a foot deep, the ther-
mometer hovered around zero, the men were only half clad; but
they could not remain itlle; the country must be explored; all
must keep moving-, for self preservation, if for nothing more.
The poor horses were forced to subsist on the tops of trees cut
down for them. The hungry magpies became so bold, they
lighted on the horses' backs and pecked at the wounds made by
the packs; they even lighted on ihe arms of the men to dispute
with them the title to the pieces of meat that had just been roasted.
Finally, all hands tleparted, and on the 5lh of Deceml)er they
reached the mountains. Having encamped, they tried to find a
pass through the mountains, but did not succeed until .the loth,
i. e., through what is now Oil creek. They saw around them
abandoned camps both of tlie leians and the Spaniards. They
continued to ascend the Arkansas, but made frequent side excur-
sions for purposes of disct)very. Their camp was on the main
stream at the entrance of Wet mountain. On the 6th, they
ascended the river and reached llie Royal Gorge; but failed to
find the Spanish trace for which they were in search; though the
next day they found it north of the Arkansas, (^n one of their
excursions they reached the south branch of the I'latte river.

As a precautionary measure, a permanent camp was established
on the north bank of the Arkansas, at wliat is now Canon City,
which served as a rallying jjoint, while the surrounding country
was being explored. One of the excursion i)arties ascended the
Arkansas in a northwest direction nearly or cjuite to its remote
source, or until the ri\er was merely a small brook. W'hile thus
engaged Pike ascertained that a large i>ariy of Spaniards had
recently been in this vicinity: he also found an abandoned Indian
encampment, where several thousand head of horses had been
kept for some time. Having learned, as he thought, that the
Spaniards had ascended the river, lie writes, Deceml)er 14, "We
determined to pursue them, as the geography of the country had
turned out to be so dift'erent from our expectations. We were
somewhat at a loss what course to pursue." Where they struck
the riatte was at the head of l<Uev< n Mile Canon. In the mean-
time, Tike and his companions ke])! wondering where the head-
waters of ketl river were; their design being to decend that
stream. On the i.Sth, havini>; been to tiie nt^rth of the Arkansas,
they marched southwest and again reached that river, allhough
lliey IJK.U'dil at fnsi ii was ihc Kid. Descending the same ihey
finally ihscovered their mistake, 'i'hey then began to reason that

I THE EXriiDITIUA'S OF LIEUTENANT I' IKE. 353

the sources of the Red must be to the southwest. At one time
they nearly starved, but the foUowiug- . day "from beiny- in a
' starving- eontliiiun, we had eight beeves in camp."

Christmas was spent together feasting on fresh buttalo meat,
f without salt or other accom]janiment ; the men "appeared gen-

erally to be content." Thus far i'ike liad ascertained the sources
. of the Lrittle Osage and the Neosha rivers; had passed round the
head of the Kansas river; and had discovered the headwaters of
the South i'latle. lie was now intent on finding the ui)per
j sources of the Red. December 25th, he writes, "Here eight hun-

^ dred miles from the fronlier.-. of our country, in the most inclem-

i ent season of the year, not one person clothed for the winter, many

without blankets, having been obliged to cut them up for socks,
etc., and now lying down at night on the snow or wet ground, one
side burning whilst the olher was pierced with the cold wind —
such was in part the situalion of the i)arly, whilst some were
endeavoring to make a miserable substitute of raw buffa'lo hide
for shoes, etc. 1 will not speak of diet, as I conceive that to be
beneath tiie serious consideration of a man on a voyage of such a
nature." Soon their JKjrses began to give out, and on January 2,
one of them, having fallen and seriously hurt itself, was shot to
get it out of its misery. On the 4th of January, tiiey divided
into eight small parties, in order the better to make discoveries
and kill game. It was on the 7th that Pike learned to his great
mortification that they were not on the Red river as they had for
some time supposed. All ihe party reoccupied the camp at
Canon City on the yth.

Pike wrote under date of January 9th, "The whole party were
once more joined together, whew we felt comparatively happy,
. notwithstanding the great mortification I experienced at having
been so egregiously deceived as to the Red river. I now felt at
considerable loss how to proceed, as any idea of services at that
time from my horses was entirely preposterous. After various
plans formed and rejected, and the most mature deliberation, I
determined to build a small place for defense and deposit; leave
part of the baggage, horses, my interpreter and one man; and
with the balance, our packs of Indian presents, ammunition, tools,
etc., on our backs, cross the mountains on foot, find the Rerl river,
and then send back a party to ((jiiduct the horses and baggage by
the most eligible route we could discover; i)y which time the
horses would be so recovered as to be able to endure the fatigues
of the march. In conse(|uence of this determination, some were

354

THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

put to constructing the blockhouse, some to hunting, some to tak-
ing care of horses, etc." This blockhouse was built at their
encampment on the present site of Canon City.

The start on their perilous journey was made January 14, each
man carrying about sevcnly pounds. Barony X'^asquez, the inter-
preter, and Patrick Smith were left in charge of the blockhouse, I
The party advanced up what Pike calls the south fork, but which
is now known as Grape creek, and marched in a southerly direc-
tion. (_)n the 17th the gre:it Saiigre de Cristo range of mount-
ains came in full view around a spur of the Wet mountains.
This day it was found that nine of the men had frozen their feet;
and within the next few days, no game having been killed, all
came near starvation, but by good luck finally brought down a
buffalo, which was immediately and hurriedly taken to camp.
Pike writes, "We arrived there about twelve o'clock, and when I
threw my load down, it was with dilTictdty I prevented m)'^self
from falling: I was attacked with a giddiness of the hcail, which
lasted for some minutes. On the countenances of the men was
not a frown, not a desponding eye; all seemed happy to hail their
officer and companions, yet not a mouthful had they eaten for
four days." As a matter of fact, had it not been for the many
buffaloes and deer wintering in the mountains, not a man would
have survived to tell the tale. As it was, it must ever stand as a
case of remarkable hardihood and elidurance, rarefy if ever sur-
passed in the annals of western exi)loration.

It was found that the feet of two of the men, Thomas Dough-
erty aiul John Sparks, were so badly frozen, that they could not
proceed. They were accoidingl)' left as comfortable as possible,
and the others again set forth. "I furnished the two poor lads
who were to remain, with amnuinition, made use of every argu-
ment in my power to encourage ihem to have fortitude to resist
their fate, and gave them assurance of my sending relief as soon
as possible. We parted, but not without tears." On the 24th
Pike admits that for the first time he began to feel discouraged.
Nearly all the buffaloes had quit the mountains, and the snow lay
several feet on the level. ( )n the 27th it was determined to leave
one man, Hugh Menaugh, with the most of the goods, while the
others made the effort to cross tl;e Sangre de Cristo mountains,
believiu!^- that by so doinj^ they would reach the sources of
Ped v'wvv. This step was lakeii. They were now in the extreme
soulhwistern corner of the pres^ nt Custer county, Col. Tiiey
set forth throuHi the mounlains, and in a short time found them-

THE EXPEDITIONS OF LIEUTENANT PIKE. 355

selves on a small stream (Sand creek) running west "which we
liailed with fervency as the waters of Red river." Soon the
broad San Luis valley opened before them. Ascending a large
sand hill, Pike with his glass saw far ahead a large river flowing
in a southerly direction ; this was believed to be the Red, and all
were elated. Around were seen evidences of the late presence of
Spaniards or other white men. They marched almost directly
southward, and on the evening of January 30th arrived on the
bank of the Rio Grande, believed by them to be the long-sought
Red river. Not finding any timber, they continued to descend
until they arrived at the Conejos, up v^hich they ascended live
miles and prepared to build a stockade, to be used as a base, while
some of the party returned for the men who had been left behind.
They accordingly erected a strong stockade of heavy cotton-wood
logs on the north bank of the Conejos, of which Pike writes,
"Thus fortified, I should not have had the least hesitation of put-
ting the one hundred Spanish horse (that arrived later) at
defiance until the first or second night, and then to have made our
escape under cover of the darkness ; or made a sally and dispersed
them, when resting under a full confidence of our being panic-
struck by their numbers and force." By February 15, the fort
was practically complete. On the 7th, Corporal Jackson, with
four men, was sent back over the mountains to bring up the bag-
gage and the men who had been left behind.

In the meantime, or on February 6, Doctor Robinson, who had
volunteered to accompany tlie expedition, determined to make the
attempt from this point to reach Santa Fe, this plan having been
determined upon by Roliiiison and Pike as an excuse to pene-
trate to that city. Pike had been commissioned to collect a large
debt due William Morrisun, of ICaskaskia, who had sent out
to the Indian country a man named P)aptiste La Lande with a
valuable supply of goods ; but no sooner had La Lande reached
the Spanish country, than he converted the goods to his own
use, and took up his residence in Santa Fe. To collect this
sum and bring the culprit to ju^tice was the ostensible object of
Doctor Robinson's visit to that city, lie set out on the 7th,
and in due time reached Santa hV-.

While out hunting on the 161I1, Pike and one of the men dis-
covered two horsemen apinoaching, and after considerable maneu-
vering llicy came near enough for conversation. Tiiey (old Pike
that they had been out four days from Santa I'e, that Doctor Kob-
inson had arrived there, and had been kindly received by Cov-
ernor Allencaster. Pike salislied himself that they were spies.

356 rilLi PRO I' INCH AM) THE STATES.

and was conFirmed when he fouiul that they did not intend to
leave at once. They were taken to tlie fort and remained over
nis^ht, de[)artin^ on the i7lh. On this day several of the men of
the relief expedition returned with the statement that the others
would not be out much longer. J )ougherty and Sparks were not
yet aijle to come, but sent in bones from their feet, a result of the
freezing- and the consequent g^angrene. The 19th two men, Will-
iam E. Meek and Theodore Miller, were sent back to bring on
Vasquez and Smith, who had been left at the stockade on the
Arkansas river, and Dougherty and Sparks, on the horses. "I
must here remark," writes Pike, "the effect of habit, discipline
and example, in two soldiers soliciting a command of more than
one hundred and eighty miles over two great ridges of mountains
covered with snow, inhabited by bands of unknown savages, in
the interest of a nation with which we were luit on the best under-
standing. To perform this journey each had about ten poui^ds
of venison. Only let me a^k, What would our soldiers generally
think, on being ordered on such a tour, thus e(iui[)])ed? Yet
lht)se men volunteereil it with others and \vere chosen; for which
they thought themselves highly honored."

From the fact that Doctor Rt;binson had no doubt told the
Spanish governor of the presence of the wdiite men, and from the
visit of the two Spanish emissaries. Pike well knew that he might
expect at any time the appearance of the Spaniards at his fort;
therefore he issued strict injunctions as to the method of pro-
cedure should such an event occur. On the 26th a party of fifty
dragoons and fifty moinitctl militia, under the conuuand of Don
Ignatio Saltelo, arrived and a conference was held. They
announced that they had been sent to conduct the Americans to
Santa Fe, and later to the headwaters of Ived river, where they
had heard the Americans were aiming. "What," exclaimed Pike,
"is not this Red river?" "No, sir," answered Saltelo, "the Kio
del Norte." Pike imimediately ordered the American flag taken
down. The Spanish commander urged the immediate departure
of all hands to Santa Fe, but Pike would not listen to such a step
without first providing for the others of the expedition away in
the mountains. Although told that no force would be employed
to compel him to go to Santa V\:, Pike .saw that sucli a step was
fully provided for, and n ali/.ed that compulsory measures of
some .sort would no donbl in (he end be applied. Saltelo was so
courteous and mild, that after he had agreed to i)rovide for the
safety of the men in the mountains, Pike deemed it best to com-

THE EXPEDITIONS OF LIEUTENANT PIKE. 357

ply with his request before the leader changed his mind and used
force. Five or six men against a hundred could do nothing even
in this strong fort. He accordingly left orders with two men
who were detailed to remain for the others, and having mouHted
a horse, with the others of his men, they all set forth for Santa Fe.
Late on the 3d of iNIarch, that city was reached.

Pike was closely catechised by Governor AUencaster, and
though given considerable liberty, felt that he was practically
under arrest. All tiie Americans were well treated. Doctor
Robinson was tliere. After ihe conference. Pike was informed
that it would be necessary for him to go to tlie commandant gen-
eral at Chihuahua, who alone was fully empowered to consider
the case. They set out under an armed escort, and arrived at
Albuquerque March 7, III Paso del Norte March 21, and Chi-
huahua April 2d. After fully investigating all features of the
case, Commandant-general Salcedo determined to conduct all the
Americans back to their country at the expense of the United
States. This was done. Pike and six others were mounted;
and, accompanied by an escort, started back ; but returned through
the present Texas, reaching San Antonio June 7. There they
were received with great cortliality by Governor Cordero and
General Herrara. June 24, they arrived at Nacogdoches, and
July i^t at NatchitcKhes. The others of the party were well
treated, and in due time returned to the United States.

The schemes of A;inm Purr and the undoubted connection
therewith of (kMieral Wilkinson, who sent to the West Captain
Pike, were not only the cause i>f arousing the susiMcion of Gov.
Joachin K. .AUencaster ami (an. Nemesio Salcedo against the
expedition of Pike, but was also the cause of the subsecpient
belief by many in the United States that the latter himself might
have been knowingly connected with the Purr conspiracy. The
Spanish leaders were kept fidly posted of the progress of the
scheme in the United States ; and were also aware of every move-
ment, hostile or otherwise, against their frontier. The expedition
of Captain Sparks up Red river became known in Mexico soon
after it was projected; and therefore a large force was sent to the
Caddoe nation to check its advance, as told elsewhere herein.
They were also aware of the movements of the expedition under
Cai^tain Pike; but miscalculated the date of his arrival at the
Republican Pawnee villages, owing to his delay with the Osages
ami til his slow movements up (he Osage river. Therefore, the
Spanish army which had turned back Cajjtain Si)arks on Red

358 TUli I'KUl'lNCli AND THE STATES.

river, arrived at the Pawnee villagL-s about three weeks too early
to encounter Captain Pike. It would have been an excellent
stroke of policy for them, had Ca[)tain I'ike been met by the
Spanish army in the presence of the i^awnees and been forced to
return: the object lesson with the I'awnees would have been to
increase immensely the prestige of Spain with that powerful
tribe. This was undoubtedly the oi)ject aimed at by Lieutenant
Malgares, the commander of the Spanish expedition: even as it
was, Pike was almost obliged to use force in order to proceed
beyond the Pawnee villages, so favorable had been the reception
of the Spanish dragoons by the Indians.

Lieut. Don Faciendo Malgares, th.ough young, was already a
distinguished officer in the New World. He was an accomplished
courtier; and, while Pike was in New Mexico, showed him and
his party every consideration in his power, consistent with his
position as an officer of Spain. l*ikc became greatly attached to
him for his gentlemanly qualities and his spontaneous friendship.
The army with whicli he invaded the territory claimed by the
United Stales consisted at fn;.l of luUveen three huiulred and four
hundred dragoons and mounted militia, we'll armed and otherwise
equipped for fast movement aiul active service. Later reinforce-
ments raised the force to over six hundred men. It has been
claimed that the Spanish authorities knew the army was invading
the territory of the United Stales; but such claim has only the
color of fact. As will be soen elsewhere herein, the boundary
between Spain and the United States was yet indehnite. The
United Stales secured Louisi;iua with its western boundary unde-
termined. Spain claimed the sources of the Red and the Arkan-
sas, as did also the United Slates. The first proposition of Spain
for a settlement asked that the boundary be established at the
Aroyo Hondo in the present State of Louisiana; thence by a line
northwest to the Missouri; tlience down the .Missouri to the Mis-
sissippi ; and thence up the latter to its source, 'i'he United States
first clainiecl westward to the l\io (ii-ande; and there can be no
doubt that, had I'rance retainrd Lciiisiana, the western boundary
of the same would have been lixt'd niucli farther toward ]\Texico
than the Sabine. Thus the territory invaded by Lieutenant Mal-
gares and by Captain Pike was in <lis])ute, and one had as much
right to inv;ule it as the other until the dispute was settled. Pike's
niovenii'iils were iusti(i('(l niilil lie < iit<'rrd the \';dle\' of the Kio
Craiule in Nt'w Mexico, wluie (lie Spanish had been e.slablisiied
for more than a hundred years.

THE EXPEDITIONS OP LIEUTENANT PIKE.

359

It is claimed by some writers that Pike knew he was not on
Red river when he built his blockhouse on the Conejos west of
the Rio Grande; that his expedition, under the pretense of making
explorations on Ijchalf of the United States, penetrated past the
Spanish frontier for the i)urp(jbe of ascertaining the vulnerability
of Spain ; and that, should the Burr conspiracy succeed, a large
tract of the Spanish domain would be wrested from her and made
a part of the new republic or empire that was designed to be estab-
lishctl with lUirr as its supreme ruler. It is well known that Pike
himself, having stated in his journal under date of February 7,
1807, that "the demands which Doctor Robinson had on persons
in New Mexico, althougli legitimate, were in some degree spu-
rious ill his Jiands," sanctioned the visit of Doctor Robinson to
Santa Fe. Indeed, Pike wrolc as follows in the same footnote in
explanation of that statement: "In the year 1804 William Mor-
rison, Ksq., an enterprising merchant of Kaskaskia, sent a man by
the name of Baptiste la Lande, a Creole, to the country. up the
Missouri and La Platte, directing him, if possible, to push into
Santa Fe. He sent Indians to that town, and the Spaniards came
out with horses and carried him and his goods into the province.
Finding that he sold the goods high, had land offered him and
the women kind, he concluded to expatriate himself and convert
the property of Morrison to his own benefit. When I (Pike)
was about to sail, Morrison, conceiving it was possible I might
meet some Spanish factors (merchants) on Red river, intrusted
me with the claim, in order, if they were acquainted with
La Lande, 1 might negotiale ilie thing with some of them. When
on tlie frontiers, the idea suggested itself to us of making this
claim a pretext for Ivobinson to visit Santa Fe. We therefore
gave it th.e j^roper appearance, and he marched for that place.
Our views were to gain a knowledge of the country, the prospect
of trade, force, etc., whilst, at the same time, our treaties with
Spain guaranteed to him as a citizen of the United States the
right of seeking the recovery of all just debts or demands before
the legal and authorized tribunals of the country, as a franchised
inhabitant of the same, as specified in the 22d article of said
treaty."

Thus the claim was i)lace(l in Pike's hands for adjustment.
"When on the frontiers," in a starving and almost fielpless condi-
tion, it occurred to Pike and Robinson to use the claim for the
(li)uble purpose of oblainin;; assistance for the jxrishing nun, and
of iiilrring New Mixiro "to \\\\\\\ a kuowlr(l);e of the counliy,

360

THE I'ROllNCli AND Tilli STATES.

tlie prospect of trade, force, etc." iVccordiuL^- to Pike this idea
did not occur to them until iiiey were "on the frontiers." The
expression of Pike in the alx)\'e fooinote that tlie "demands were
in some degree spuritnis /// liis (Poliinson's) hands," meant noth-
ing- more than that Pike, and not Rul)inson, had heen authorized
to adjust the demands of Morrison.

It is arj^ued by some writers that Robinson, at least, was a spy
of tlie Burr conspiracy actinr^- under the orders of General Wilkin-
son; that his ostensible object of gning to Santa Fe to collect a
debt had been devised previously to be used if necessary to save his
life in case he should be arretted as a spy; and that wlien he was
met by Pike the latter alTected not t') know him, in order thereby
to save him from possible arrest. .\s a matter of fact, when the
expedition reached the mountains, U.\\\ Pike and Robinson became
l(jst, because, as i'il;e expreh>eil it. (he region was so dillerent
from wiiat they expected. Thou-h in search of the head-
waters of Red river, they were also instructed to explore the
sources of Arkansas river; thi> they proceeded to do. The reason
why bcjth Pike and J\t)binsoii sought to find s(jme occui)ied Span-
ish camp, was in order to learn where the)' were and to ascertain
the shorest route to Red river. Tlie\' were aware that any Span-
iard could furnish them just the information they wanted. But
the Spaniards and the Indians had left that section; and there-
fore Pike and his freezinj^ and stai'ving- comrades wandered in
the deep snow for more than a month before they learned that
Red river ;.';//.v/ be farther to ilie sr.nih or the southwest. Pike
had nothing- to fear from the Spaniards because he ccMisidered
himself wiihin the territory of the I'niied Slates. The two coun-
tries, though disputing over the boundary, were at peace; besides,
the army mider AFalgares had invackd such territory, and, at the
worst, Pike had the right to do the same on behalf of tlie United
Slates.

Doctor Robinson, on his arrival in New Mexico, told Malgares
that he was one of Pike's |).-irly, and Malgares told Governor
Allencaster. Put Pike denied it to .Allencaster. If both were
in the ihirr cnnsi)iracy, would they thus have contradicted each
other? The contradiction proves there was no elaborate concert
of action. Doctor Robinson also told of the presence of Pike
on the Conejos. Why did he do so when he knew their capture
would certainly and s)K'edil\ follow? Was it not because he
tlioughl it belter for lliem to be succored l)y the Spaniards than to
perish from cold and starvation? ^\ hat reason could either Pike

THE EXPEDITIONS OF LIEUTENANT PIKE. 361

or Robinson have had to desire to be captured by the Spanish,
other than to save the expethlion or to examine the interior of
New Mexico? Would I'iive have kept his soldiers in the mount-
ains until they were frozen and almost helpless skeletons, if he
had gone out either to attack the Spaniards or to s\)y upon them?
What could he si)y with his force that he could not better spy
alone or with two or three companions? When once on Si)anish
soil that had so long been jerdously guarded from the sight of
Americans, it was natural for them to observe everything possible.
Doctor Robinson was not a part of the expedition exc(.'])t in a vol-
untary capacity, for he was at liberty to leave it when he chose;
so that Pike really told the truth when he informetl Governor
AUencaster that he was not a member of the expedition. But
Doctor RIobinson also told the truth wdien he said that he had
come as a part of the expedition. This contradiction may have
been the principal cause of the suspicion of Governor AUencaster
and of his determinatirjn to send Pike to General Salcedo, at
Chihuahua.

There is no good reason to doubt Pike's statement that he
thought he was on Red river. He felt justified in building his
blockhouse on a western branch of Red river, because the United
States claimed the whole Mississippi basin, of which all branches
of Red river were a part. I'he fact that he built at all is alone
sufilicient proof that he thought he was on Red river; because he
never wouUl have had the uinnitigated audacity to build beyond
the ]\io Grande, thus remleriiig a misuntkrstanding, hkely a con-
flict, between tiie two countries possible through his act. Both
countries at that time pushed their claims as far as possible by
actual occupancy. So Spain crossed the Sabine and went north
to the Caddoes and the Pawnees; and the Americans went west
of the Sabine and the Red. When Pike became aware that he
was west of the Rio Grande, he realized at once that he had gone
beyond the widest claims of the United States. He accordingly
hauled down his ilag; and not fearing anything serious, and desir-
ing to succor his men, reach the sources of Red river, and exam-
ine the interior of New Mexico, he wisely yielded and agreed
to go to Santa Fe.

Rut the Spanish governor at Santa Fe at first took an altogether
different view. He sus])ected that Pike was leagued with Burr
{() dilach a ])orlion of Spanish territory. He therefore cate-
cbisrd him idnseh' ;md e:wiiiiiiied niinuti'ly all his papers, and then
not being fully satisfied, and b^'in;,^ unwilling to take the responsi-

36:

THE PKOVINCli AND THE STATES.

bility, sent him to Commandant-General Salcedo, at Chihuahua.
The latter finding not a scrap to connect Inm with the Burr con-
spiracy, treated iiim and his men as respectable Americans,
advanced him one thousand dollars on the credit of the United
States for the pressing needs of him and his soldiers, and escorted
him safely to Natchitoches, which town was conceded to be within
the American domains. But it will be observed that Pike was not
permitted to return via Red river, because all the upper course of
that stream was claimed by Spain. Had Salcedo permitted him
to do so, it would have been tantamount to a recognition that
American territory extended to that river. From tiie above
observations it will be seen that, wliile, in a certain sense, both
Pike and Robinson were spies for the United States, though act-
ing on their own violition, they cannot in any particular be con-
nected with the Burr conspiracy. It will also be seen that not all
the objects of Pike's second expcdilioii were accomplished.

THE I'UR TRADERS. 363

CHAPTER XI

The Fur Traders, the Santa Fe Commerce,
the Pony Express, Etc.

THE United States possesses a cl'.apter of history so unique
as not to be matched in many particulars by any other por-
tion of the globe. The settlement of the Great West con-
tains such a wealth and such a blending of remarkable incidents,
as to place an account of it in a class of absorbing- interest by
itself. First, the fur trappers and traders appeared, penetrating
to the heart of the hostile Indian country with a fearlessness that
seems almost unaccountable. Then came the i)rivate trading
expeditions, with their gooils for the Indians, their hunts of the
bulYalo, and their privations from thirst and starvation. The
opening of the Santa Fe trade opened at the same time another
wonderful era in the West-thai of the caravans, their herds of
horses, cattle and mules, their large stocks of merchandise, their
dealings with tlie crafty Spaniards, and their skirmishes with the
Indians. Following immediately, came the post and the express
lines, ending with the pony riders, a v.-onderful exhibiton of what
intelligence, pluck and endurance can accomplish. Later, the
gold discoveries kindled hope in many despondent hearts; and
soon the plains were lined with wagon trains and strewn with
brolvjen vehicles, discarded household articles and the skeletons of
oxen, mules and men. P)Ul all this has vanished. The Inififalo,
like the Indian, being the product of uncivilized conditions, has
almost wholly passed away. The wagon trains are but a thrilling
memory. A nobler order of affairs has riaen over the aNlics of
the past, and it seems idle n(nv to coimt the cost. All of the topics
are so filled with sur()rising incidents, that scores of volumes
might be employed in their recital.

364, '^'^^^'' PROllNCLi ANt) THE STATES.

The Hudson's Bay Company was organized in 1670, but before
that event the Indian tradj in furs had become immensely val-
uable to Canada. Charles Fort had been built by Zachariah j
Gilliam on I'rinco Rupert's river; and IMedard Chouart and Pierre
Esprit Radisson had already distinguished themselves among the
Indians. Although it was j/rovitled by the treaty of Rysw ick that
commissioners should be appointed to establish the boundary
between France and England in America, it does not appear that
they performed their duties, even if they were appointed. The
treaty of Utrecht also provitled that commissioners should run the
line, bul they were slow in doing so. Immediately succeeding this
treaty, came the designs to discover a northwest passage, the
father of wdiich project was Arthur Dobbs, whose real object is
said to have been to found a rival organization to Hudson's Bay
Company. The two treaties of Ryswick and Utrecht, obliged
France to leave Hudson Bay and enter the Lalce Sui)erior coun-
try. But the re-discovery of the Mississippi river by France did
not solve the problem of a northwest passage, though it was
thought probable that the Missouri river might lead to the coveted
route. Soon after the treaty of L'trecht, Pierre Gaultier Ver-
endr}'e learned frtim meriibers of the Assinil)oine tribe of the
existence of the river of their name and of its many branches, all
superior beaver country. This dislingushed explorer set out in
1728 and in due time, as elsewhere narratcxl, built several forts
north of the present Minnc^^ola. [n 1738, accompanied by over
fifty persons, he visited the Mandan villages on the Missouri,
made famous later by the visit of Lewis and Clark. Four years
later his son and a few companions, not only visited the Mandan
villages, but ascended the Missouri by its Yellowstone branch to
the first chain of mountains.

General Wolfe had scarcely overthrown the Canada of France
in 1759, before 'the English traders, clerks, agents and wood-
rangers began to ])ierce the western country. Finally, the Mon-
treal merchants in 1783-4 organizetl the Northwest Company;
but were at first handicapped, owing to a division in their ranks,
though all differences were adjusted by 1787. By this time the
two conipanies — lliulson's liay and Northwest — were involved in
intense rivalry for the western fur trade. Important stations were
established on the Souris and the Assiniboine rivers by both eom-
j)anies. iM-om them nearly all the tribes of Indians living in what
is now the v^^t.'ttes of Wis<-onsin, Minnesota, North Dakota, South
J)ak'ola and Montana were snp])lied with goods and fire-arms in

THE FUR TRADERS. 365

exchange for their vahiable furs. David Thompson, who at first
was associatctl with the Hudson's Bay Company, finally joined the
force of the Northwest Company about the year 1796,. He was
dispatched by the latter to visit the Mandan villages on the Mis-
souri, and was accompanied by Rene Jussaume and Hugh
McCracken, both of whom could speak the Mandan tongue.
They took with them a supply of goods for the Indians, several
horses, and about thirty dogs to draw the sleils. Thompson
learned by this visit that traders of the Hudson's I'ay Company
had previously made Hying trips to the Alandan villages. In
February, 1798, with a few companions, he went up Red river of
the North, found at i'embina a trading station under Charles
ChaboiUez, another at Grand Forks under J. Baptiste Cadol ; and
from this point marched eastward to Red Lake river, thence up
the same to Red lake, ibence across to Turtlelake, and four days
later stood on what he thought was the source of the INIississippi
river. He was mistaken. He visited the Northwest Coni])any's
forts on Red Cedar lake, Sand lake, St. Louis river and the
portage.

It was at this time that the X Y Company began to rival the
Northwest Company, and for several years the struggle for the
western trade was conducted with great spirit, enterprise and
audacity. The union of the two companies in 1805 so strength-
ened them that they at once became a powerful rival of the Hud-
son's Bay Company. The junction of the Souris and the
Assiniboine soon became the most central and important point
of the Indian traile in all the northwest. The sharp rivalry for
the furs of the Indians was the cause of the introduction of large
quantities of whisky among them. The Indians turned over
their furs to the traders who treated them the best — in other
words, who gave them the largest supply of spirits. Francois
Antoine Larocque, Charles McKenzie and five others were at the
Mandan villages when Lewis and Clark reached there. . These
traders afterward visited these villages.

Nearly a hundred )cars before the I^iglish race ascended the
Missouri river, the French Canadian trappers and voyageurs had
gone as far up as the mouth of the Yellowstone, and thence U]) the
latter river to the mountains. The French Canadians feared the
Knglish colonists, the Iroquois Indians, who Avere the friends of
the I'Jiglish, and the Canadian government, which wouKl confis-
cate their furs upon sight, under the laws which granted a
monopoly to the Canadian companies. The Knglisli interfered
with their trade as far west as the Mississippi, but did not go

366 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

much beyond that stream, and lience tlie French Canadian was
for a. long- time unmolested in his operations in the I\Iissouri val-
ley. This immunity from molestation continued until the cession
of Louisiana Province to the United States in 1803, when all the
western country was thrown open in an instant to the English
colonist, or rather, the American colonist. This proved the death
knell to the prestige of the old French Canadian voyageur so far
as the Missouri country was concerned. Here and there they
continued to linger, and at all times had more inlluence with the
Indian tribes than the Americans. Nearly all of the interpreters
of the earliest expeditions .set on foot by the United States were
French Canadian. Alexander McKenzie, of the Northwest Fur
Company, went westward from I,ake Superior and crossed the
Rocky mountains to the Pacific in 1793; this was the first really
important expedition throui^h the western mountain system; but
as it was done under busimss or private auspices, the details did
not at once become known. Among the most important fur coiii-
panies organized for private profit were the Mackinaw Fur Com-
pany, which operated from the Creat Lakes to the Mississippi;
the American Fur Company, which entered the Missouri river
valley and that of the Columbia river; the Missouri Fur Company,
on the Missouri and in the Rocky mountains; the Southwestern
Fur Company, an amalgamation by the Astors of tiie American
and the Mackinaw companies; and in Canada were Hudson's Bay
Company, the Northwest Company, and the X Y Company.
When all these organizations were in full operation, there were
lively limes in the mountains and en the prairie. Their rivalries,
maneuvers, intrigues and battles would fill half a dozen volumes
with incidents of thrilling interest.

In 1739 two brothers named Mallet, accompanied by six com-
panions, set out up the Missouri river, and when at the Arickaree
villages learned that they should have gone west before coming
so far north. They finally retraced their steps, ascended the
1 latte, passed the Pawnee villages, continued to the mountainous
country and at last arrived in Santa Fe. They had with them a
small stock of goods— how much i.. not known. Theirs was the
first commercial enteri)rise to go from the Mississippi to Santa Fe
Having disposed of their goods and learned considerable of the
customs of the Spaniards, they sl.irted homeward, but divided
mlo two parties, one returning iVnxn the Platte and the other
<I'>wn (he AiKansas. It is l,,..un lliat anolher parly of j.Vench
traders lc..,k a slock of goods hvUnc 1763 to ll.e R(x:kv mountai-i
country and Uwd u^ sell it parlly to the Indians and partly to the

THE FUR TRADERS. 367

Spanish at Taos and Santa Fe. Before this could be accom-
pHshed, they were arrested, their goods confiscated ; but the affair
was finally settled by the governments of France and Spain, and
the men were released and sent to their homes on the Mississippi.
'After the treaty of 1762-3, by which the English obtained all
the territory east of the Mississippi, all of the country as far west
as that river began to be overrun with English ex-jjlorerb,
hunters and trappers. Jonathan Carver of Boston, wishing to
serve his country, and at the same time gain a competence for
himself, secured permission to explore and started for the West.
In due time he arrived at Michillimackinac, anil on September
18th, was at Green Bay. On the 25th he reached the villages of
the Winnebagoes, October 7 arrived at the portage, and Octo-
ber 15 reached the Mississippi. Here he left a number of traders,
who bad come this far with him, and continued on up the Mis-
sissip[>i with some goods cjn the lylh. On November ist, he
reached Lake Pepin, and on the 17th arrived at the Falls of
St. Anthony. Three days later he reached the St. Francis river,
which he ascended to the Sioux \illages. Later he descended the
rivers to the mouth of St. Peter's river, up which stream he went
and arrived at the villages of the Nadissiou on December 7th.
These villages were on the headwaters of St. Peter's river, and
here Carver passed the winter. Although the Sioux were hostile,
he managed to secure their favor and passed the winter without
serious event. In April of the following year he started down
the streams, and at the mouth of the Wisconsin obtained a supply
of Indian goods, which had been sent him by the government, and
without which no person then had any business in the Indian
country. Carver was in the sci\ice of the British government,
because these goods were obtained from that source. After
securing liis goods, he pa^?ed up the Chippewa river, trading as
he went, and finally crossed over to Lake Superior, and coasted
around the entire northern shore of that body of water to Sault
Ste. Marie, where stood Cadot's fort. In 1768 he returned to
Canada with nuich valuable information for his government.

It is well known that, v.hile Louisiana was still a province of
France, the traders of New Orleans began to penetrate the coun-
try beyond the Mississippi for the purpose of trading, not only
with the Indian, but with the Spanish of Ni'W Mexico, [)roviding
they CDuld be reached. Aiiw i'/(^>,^, at whieli dale Spain secured
the whole country west of Ihe Mississippi, the trade beyond that
river became wholly the possission of Spain; and as the policy of
that country was commercial seclusion and exclnsioii, nuich of

3o8 THE PROI'IXCIS AND THE STATES.

what transpired thereafter is unknown to history. It is clear
that, in 1762, Maxent, Laclede ^S: Company were granted the
right to the exclusive trade on the Missouri and on the Missis-
sippi as far up as the nioulli of the Minnesota, and that tliey and
others under their directions conducted a large husiness. No
douht their fur trade and that of all others enianatuig from
St. Louis aggregated a total of over one h.undred thousand dol-
lars hy 17^5. Ihit in the nicanlime, undeterred by the French
or the Spanish, the British fur companies of the Lake Supe-
rior country, were steadily ])enetrating the territory as far souUi
as the present states of Iowa and Nebraska. These commer-
cial encroachments w^ere continued by those companies long
after the Louisiana Province had ])assed to the United States.
St. Louis, soon after it was founded, became the center
of the western fur trade. All her old merchants were thus
engaged, scwner or later, ;uid' several of their names are famous
in history— Chouteau, Lisa, Ashlew Sublette, Campbell and m;iny
others. Manuel Lisa arrixed at St. Louis about 1790, and ten
years later i)ossessed the right to the exclusive trade with the
Osage!-. Linallv, when the province passed to the Ihiited Stales
in 1803, St. Louis was the most remarkable of the many wonder-
ful towns of the great West. It had a cosmopolitan poi)ulation
of French, Spanish, Dutch, English, French half-breeds, Indians,
negroes; and was alive with the i)eculiar llavor of the plains and
the mountains. Iwerythin;; was ripe iov the opening of the
province to the aggressiveness of the Americans.

The exi)loi-ations of Lewis and Clark and of Lieutenant Pike
were still unfmished when the traihng parties began to stem the
rapid current of the tur1)id Missouri. New partnerships and
connnercial combinations were formed to take advantage of the
opportunity offered by the ac(iuisition of the province. The rich-
ness of the territory in vahiable furs was already well known to
the St. Louis traders. The fur company of IManuel Lisa,
Francis M. Renoit, Oregoire Sarpy and Charles Sanguinet was
doing husiness in St. I^uis in 1802. Manuel Lisa, who had pre-
viously formed a business connection with William Morrison and
Pierre Menard of Kaskaskia, passed up in 1807. About • the
same time Pierre R. Chouteau ascended the river with a large
assortment of goods and a considerable force of trappers and
hunters. The St. Louis Missouri h\ir C()m])any was organized
in 170H (), but is known to historv as the T\Tissouri Fur Company
Amoni;- the lirst i)artners were the folknving men: TVTanuel Lisa,
Pierre Chouteau, Sr., P.cnjamin Wilkinson, Auguste Chou-

»:•'

THE I'UR TRADERS. 369

tcau, Jr., Reuben Lewis, Sylvester Labadie, William Clark,
William Morrison, Pierre Menard, Andrew Henry, and Dennis
Fitzbug"h. This company sent its first expedition up the Mis-
souri in the spring- of 1809. The design was to establish several
trading" posts, and about one hundred and fifty men were sent up
to be distributed among tliem. Under the agreement by wdiich
the Missouri Company was formed all the posts, horses, men
traps and other accoutrements of the Lisa partnership were turnetl
over to the company. Thus the Lisa post on the IJig 1 lorn passed
to the new management, an'd was occupied by uiembcrs of the
first expedition.

In the year 1804 the go/ernmcnt agreed to provide the Osage
Indians with a trading-house, and the promise was repeated in
1S06 to another deputation that bad gone to Washing-ton. The
promise was not carried out until November, 1808, when Pierre
Chouteau, the United States ageiU for the Osages, held a treaty
with them at Fort Clark, and made arrangements for the erection
of the post. At this time, it has been claimed, a large tract was
obtained from them by fraudulent methods; because they were
given no alternative but cither to surrender the lands wanted or
sufifer the enmity of the ITnited States. Of course the chiefs
present relinquished the lands wanted, particularly as the demand
was accompanied by valuable gifts. Many of the chiefs of the
tribe knew nothing of this treaty. The tradingdiouse was kept
up until 1813, when the war with Creixt Pritain obliged the gov-
ernment to abandon it. Neither were the aniuiities agreed upon
by the treaty paiil by tlu- government according to agreement.
But the land was retained.

In the spring of 1807, v\'itb Drouillard, one of Lewis and
Clark's men, as a gmde and interpreter, and with a force of
about twenty experienced trajijjers and a large sui)])ly of provis-
ions and Indian ])resents loaded in a strong keel-boat, Manuel
Lisa started up the Missouri from St. Louis on a hunting and
trapping expedition. With this party was the afterward famous
Bijeau or Bissonette, who deserted at Fort Osage. On the trip
up the river, they met John Colter in a small dug-out of his own
manufacture, calmly floating down the streams, having come all
the way from the mountains. He had been a member of the
Lewis and Clark expedition, but bad remained behind at his own
request, antl after hair-l)readth escapes from the Indians, was on
his way to civili/cation. This Colter was a remarkable man.
I'efore the Lewis and Clark expedition, be had been up the
river among the savages, and afUr the expedition had returned
1-24

370

THE PKOl'lNCli AND TllLi STATES.

he remained beliind to limit ami trap. A trapper named Potts
remained with him. One day they were captured by the Black-
feet on the Jefferson fork of the Missouri in southwestern Mon-
tana. Potts showed fear, tried to escape and was riddled with
arrows. Colter did not Hindi, and was given an opportunity to
run for his life. lie was taken out in front three hundred yards,
the word was given, and away he went with six hundred yelling
Blackfeet after him. Only one man out of that number gained on
him. When within a few yartls of Colter, the savage made ready
to throv/ liis spear. Colter sto])ped sudilenly, turned and threw up
his hands, which so disconcerted the Indian that he trii>ped and
fell, breaking his spear handle. Colter instantly caught up the
upper part, and plunged it thron;.[h th.e body of the savage, whose
only strong qualification seems lo have been speed. The white
man continued his desperate race, reached the river, plunged in,
and succeeded in reaching some l)rushwot)d, ^vhere he so adroitly
concealed himself that the Indians did nt^t find him during the
remainder of the day. When ni>ht came, he swam cautiously out
in the micUUe of the strciim, continued down the river and man-
aged to get away; Init had to travel seven days belore he readied
a fort of the Missouri Fur Conij'any on the Big Horn, and in the
meantime subsisted wholly on roots and [)erries. \Vhen he told
this story on his return to civilization, the trappers generally dis-
credited it; but historians have generally regarded it as substan-
tially true.

The party under I,isa continued up the Missouri and the Yel-
lowstone to the mouth of the J'ig Horn, where they built a strong
stockade among the Crovvs and were siwn ready for business.
In 1808 the keel-boat was sent down the river to St. Louis so
heavily loaded with skins, fhat the astonishment and avarice of
every merchant was kindh-d. The expedition had, in fact, secured
the accumulations of the Crows for many previous years. The
fort was located in the In art of the Crow country, where few if
any trappers had evir belure ])eiietraled; The immense profit in
this one boat load, stinndated to an intense degree the western
fur trade. The Missouri Pur Company at once began very active
operations. Their plan al first was to secure the services of all
the best and most experienced trappers and Indian interpreters
and l)ind them up with contracts so strong that they could not
evade the iron rule of tin comiiany. Unscrupidous tactics were
resorted to — anything in fact to crush rivals and win the fur
trade. At the head of this company were many alile mcii, who
pushed the interest of the organization to the utmost. Witliin

Tim I'UK TRADERS. 371

six niontlis after their orjj;-anization, the company had in their
employ two hiuulrecl and lift)' experienced trap[)ers, among- whom
were tifty trained riflemen, kept for no other purpose tlian to pro-
tect tiie trappers when at work ; but in spite of this precaution
thirty of tlie men were killed by the Indians during the first two
years; not all, however, from the Lisa party. Other posts had
been established,' notably the one at the forks of the Missouri
among the fierce Blackfeet. Drouillard was himself thus killed;
and so venemously was lie hated by the savages for having killed
nuuiy of their number ami so great was their respect for his cour-
age, that when they finally succeeded in killing him, they tore
him in pieces and ate his ilesh, in order thereby, as they believed,
to acquire his strength and courage.

The American Fur Company, which also sprang into existence
in i8(;8, succeeded in securing tlie interests of the Mackinaw
Company's trade in the United Slates, and at once became a
powerful rival of the Missouri Company for the northwe-slern
trade. Many fierce contlicts ami elaborate intrigues occurred
between the trapjMug parties of these companies. Soon the
Northwestern Fur Company was merged in the American Com-
pany, and at the head of this strong organization was Mr. Astor.
As elsewhere stated, Lisa did all in his power to prevent Captain
Hunt of the Astor company from getting a foothold in the north-
west. His first step was to buy the guides and interpreters as
fast as they were hired by Hunt. But the latter succeeded by
reason of having plenty of money and au abundance of courage
and persistence. The party under Andrew Henr}', of the Mis-
souri Company, in the couiUry of the Blackfeet, were really com-
pelled to retreat from the country by the hostility of those
savages; but was reinforced by a party of picked men sent out by
Lisa. The Hudson's r)ay Company cut an important figure,
because they crossed into the United States and invaded the pre-
serves of the other companies. They also gave anus, ammunition
and encouragement to hostile bands within the United States,
which, upon being pursued, could find safety by fleeing across
the border into Canada. Fort Douglas and Fort Gibralter, posts
respectively of the Hudson's Bay Company and of the Northwest-
ern Company, were located on or near Lake Winnipeg; and here
was the battle-ground between those two great rivals. Wlien
Lisa died in 1820 there were over three hundred trappers in the
mountains who had been under his supervision. Pilcher, who
succeeded Ilim, never gained llie prestige aC(|uired by the redoubt-
able Lisa. Li fact the Missom"i Comi)any began to wane with

37^

Tim rRoriMii axd Tin- states.

the dcalli of Lisa, probably, however, not by reason of that event
solely. More likely, the deeadenee was due to the active work
of the free trappers, or in other words, to the great number of men
who engag'ed on their own account in the fur trade.

When the expedition of Lewis and Clark was at the Mandan
villages on the Missouri in the Dakotas, they induced the princi-
pal chief. Big White, or Sha-ha-ka, to go to Washington with
them. At first he declined, because on his return he would be
compelled to pass through the country of the Sioux and would
be certain to be killed. But he was promised escort back to his
village, and accordingly accepted the invitation. In the spring
of 1807, tv/enty men under the command of Capt. Ezekiel Will-
iams started up the Missouri from St. Louis on an expedition of
discovery, having in their company the Mandan chief. Each
man in the party was well ;!rnu"(l, had ammunition for two years,
and carrietl six traps for operallDU on the head-waters of the
Platte anil elsewhere. The)' left the I^Lmdan chief at the mouth
of the Yellowstone, and returned to the Platte, up which they
proceeded to advance. Tluy marched ab(jut twenty-five miles
per day, and at first had pKnly to eat and a good time; but when
the timber disai)|)eared and the game became scarce, their real
trials began. For a time tlicy were obliged to use buffalo chips,
bois lie z'ache, for fuel. Tlie most of the men were soldiers, who
had seen no experience in the West, and upon whom the hard-
ships fell with crushing force. l{verything was to them a won-
der— the treeless plains, the henls of butYalo and elk, the prairie
storms, the tieUls of ileep grass, tlie wolves and the Indians. One
day all were invited to hunt the buffalo with the Indians, and
many accepted the invitation; but while the Indians killed sev-
eral dozen the whites did not "ground" a single animal. Hven
the horses of the whites were inexperienced — several stampeded,
and one in his fright was ;.';ored lo death by a wounded buffalo
bull. A little later the expedition narrowly escaped being
crushed to death by a stampede of buffaloes, and would have
been so had it not been for the few leaders, who with all their
force advanced to meet thi' herd, waving their arms and firing,
wliich s])lit the line of advancing, frightened and maddened ani-
mals. This occurred far up the river, where the buffaloes roamed
in immense herds. Near the junciion of the North and the South
forks, the expedition crossed the main stream to the south side,
i\\u\ srK'ii began to meet troubleMMue bamls of Indians. They
escaped one hostile band of Pawnees by secretly deserting thi-ir
camp in the early part of ibe nii'hl :uid marohinj,'' westward till

THE J<UR TRADERS. 373

daylight. In fact, this tactic was repeated more than once. Fin-
ally the mountains were reached, and here for a time they led
an ideal hunter's life, hunting, trapping, exploring and feasting
on game of all sorts. /\t last, one day, ten men engaged in a
buffalo hunt, and advanced several miles from camp, and were
there surprised by about one hundred lilackfeet, who killed and
scalpeil five of them, the others succeeding in reaching camp.
They had been for several days dogged by the Indians, who,
down on all fours, and dressed like wolves, had observed all iheir
motions without arousing their susjncions. A little later they
encountered the Crows, but they professed friendship. Here one
of. the experienced men of the expedition left and went to live
with the Indians. Mis name was Rose, and he had previously
been a pirate on the Mississippi. He married an Indian girl,
and became a chief among the tribe. Of all tlie men in this expe-
dition, he was the strongest, standing over six feet in height.
He led many a successful attack against the lilackfeet, but was
finally killed by them. On one occasion he shot one and struck
down four others with an Indian war-club. For this act they
called him Che-ku-kats, or The Man Who Killed Five.

But the inexperienced men of this expedition were destined to
pass through still more trying experiences. The crafty Crows
soon revealed their covert hostility. Their chief at this time was
.\ra-poo-ish, but later be was sticceeded by the famous James
Beckworth, who soon made the Crows a terror to all the other
mountain tribes. The first hostile act of the Crows was to steal
the horses of the whites. W'luu they were pursued, they formed
an ambush to capture their pursuers; but the seven whites ran
and took refuge in a tleuse thicket, though five of them were killed
before this retreat v.'as reached. The camp was roused by the
firing, and the remainder of the men came to the rescue, and all
barricaded themselves in the timber, and kept up a constant fire
on the Indians who were in tlie open. Nineteen of the Indians
were killed of the approximate sixty which were in the party.
They were finally repelled, aiul the ten whites remaining moved
away, but were now wholly without horses, and so reduced in
numbers that they could be annihilated at the will of any large
band. They gathered u]) all their traps, and having packed and
cached their valuables, (lei)arte(l ; but were slowly cut away, until
Williams and two others were the only ones left to tell the tale.
The two tried to reach St. Louis and may have done so; but Will-
iams \\n\\ lo ihc valley of the Arkansas, where he found succor
aiKJ inauaged to s;ivit both bis hair aud his life.

374 '^^i^ PROVINCE AND THli STATES.

The American I'\ir Company was organizetl in New York in
1808, with the following memljcrs: John J. Astor, Wallace P.
, Hunt, Alexander McKay, Duncan McDougal, Donald McKenzie,
Ramsay Crooks, Robert AlcLelh.n, josej)!! Aliller, David Stuart,
Robert Stuart, and John Clarke. This company immediately
formed the design of occu|)ying tiie Pacitic region, particularly the
valley of the Columbia river, wiih the view of monopolizing the
fur trade of the whole western coast. Two expeditions were
planned: One to go by water around Cape Horn to the mouth
of the Columbia; and the other to go overland across the Rocky
mountains to the same dcr^tinatiun. Mr, Hunt was selected to
conduct the overland party. Imoui the start lie was strenuously
opposed in all his operations by the Missouri Fur Company, in
fact by every company of St. l.ouis. The Missouri Company
bought up his guides and interpreters as fast as they were hirecl.
When (hat ctmrse failed, lliey attached the body of his princii)al
guide, claiming that he owed the company for goods advanced.
It is clear that such debts were intentionally permitted to accu-
mulate in onler that the trappers and guides might be retained.
Such men were absolutely necessary in the upper country for the
purpose of holding communication with the Indians and of find-
ing the best beaver fields. However, in October, 1810, he
managed to start, but it was too late to reach the mountains before
winter set in. He accordingly wintered on the Nodawa river;
and during the winter returned U> St. Louis still further to com-
plete iiis party and its equi|)ment. In April, 1811, the party left
its winter quarters, sailed up the Missouri, passing the mouth of
the Platte on the 28th, the ( )maha villages May 10, and arriving
at the Arickaree villages about a week and a half later.

In the meantime, Mr. I.isa and a party of about twenty men
endeavored to overhaul the Hunt jiarty before it should pass the
Sioux and the Arickaree villages. His object seems to have been
to secure protection against those hostiles. When well up the
riycr, seeing that he was likely to fail in this object, he sent a
messenger by land to ask Hunt (o wait until his arrival. Mr.
Hunt agreed to do so, but iiumedialely set out up the river
regardless of this agrecmenl. However, by going day and night,
Lisa managed to catch him near (he Sioux villages, from which
point tlicy sailed together to the villages of the .Arickarees.
Hunt seems to have been justified in his failure lo meet his agree-
ment by the opposition (hat had been olTere<| (o his expedition by
Lisa ;ind his friends, al(h()Ui;h i( was known (o tlu' latter that the
Hunt prnly was desdned for (he niondi of (he Cohnnbia, and

THE FUR TRADERS.

375

would not likely interfere with the operations of the Missouri
Company.

Hearing of ' the furtlier hostility of the Blackfeet along- the
Upper Missouri and the Yellowstone, Hunt determined to aban-
don his boats and, after procuring horses, to march westward
across the open country south of those rivers. After about a
month silent in CHpiippung his party, they all set forth on nearly
a westward course from the Arickarees, sixty-four men in all,
with eighty-two horses, of which seventy-six were loaded with
merchandise. On the 30th of August, they were at the foot of
tlie Big Horn mountains, on September 9th at Wind river, and
on the 15th crossed the continental divide. Small parties of
trappers were left in the mountains to begin operations. Of the
party only fifty-four succeeded in reaching Astoria.

In the autumn of 1808, Ramsay Crooks and Robert McLellan,
with eighty men and a large stock of merchandise, advanced by
the St. L,ouis merchants to be sold on shares, set sail up the Mis-
souri river, intending to go to the Rocky mountain country to
trade for furs, or perhaps to Santa Fe to dispose of the goods to
the Spaniards. When well up the river, they met Captain l-'ryor
with bad accounts of the Indians, and turned back, wintering at
Council Bluffs. In the spring of 1809, they again proceeded,
but were stopped at the Sioux villages by about six hundred
warriors. As they had with them at this time only about forty
men, open opposition to the demands of the Indians to tuni back
would have been to invite annihilation. Intrigue was therefore
resorted to, and the villages were passed by part of the expedi-
tion. l)Ut finally all saiK'd down the river, and abandoned the
enterprise. They alleged that tht^ conduct of the Indians was
due to the machinations of Mr. Lisa; which allegation was prob-
ably true. It is likely that Lisa took this method to thwart the
aspirations of business rivals in the Indians' country. Both
Crooks and McLellan joined the forces of the American Hur
Company and crossed the mountains with the Hunt party.

It was necessary for the government to send back to their
homes in safety the Indian chiefs who had gone to Washington
in response to their agreement with Lewis and Clark. In May,
1807, Knsign Pryor. with thirteen soldiers, and Lieutenant Kim-
ball, with about twenty-five vSioux, went up from St. Louis to the
Mandan villages with the returning chiefs; but were attacked
bv the Arickarees and after a sharp conflict were driven l)ack.
ll \vas atlet'X'd llial lliis allaek' was instigated by Lnglish traders,
and there is I'ood evidence to sup|)orl the charge. Previous to

376 TUii i'kon.wcL and this states.

the visit of Lewis and Clark to the Maiidans and Arickarees, the
KngHsh had no opposition with those people; they now saw that
their trade anioni;- these trihes was rapidly (lrawin_i( to a close.
They also saw that hy making friends of the Indians, orhy insti-
gating them against the Americans, they could prolong their com-
mercial existence in this valuahle field.

Manuel Lisa was very active wliile connected with the Missouri
Fur Company, lie went up lij the Jhg Horn in 1807, hut
returned the following 3 ear. In the spring of 1809, he again
went to the Big Horn, hut came down to St. Louis again in
Octoher of the same year. The next year he uKule another round
trip, l^arly in 181 1, he siarled up to learn what had hecome of
Major Henry. With him on this trip were only ahout twenty
men, and this was the occasion when he made such a remarkahle
spurt to overtake the party under J\lr. Hunt. The Missouri Fur
Company was reorganized in 1811-12, Lisa hecoming still more
important and inlluential under the new order of affairs. ,He
conducted an expedition t(> the Alandans in the spring of 1812,
but returned in June of the following )'ear. While thus engaged,
the war with England broke out and the Indians of the upper
country became very restless. In this emergency, tiie govern-
ment, knowing his influence with the trihes of the upper Mis-
souri, appointed him sub-agent and authorized him to maintain
at all hazards the friendshij) of the Indians as against the repre-
sentatives of Great Britain. There is no doubt that it was largely
due to his cfiforts and influence that the Missouri tribes refrained
from taking up the hatciiei against the .Americans, notwithstand-
ing that the agents of Creat Mriiain went among them with belts
of wampum to incite them to war. The tribes on the upper Mis-
sissippi, being as the\' were more directly under the eye of the
English, were almost from the coiumcncement of war hostile to
the United States and friendly to Great Britain. Lisa even suc-
ceeded in organizing war parties on the LTp])er Missouri to attaclc
the Chii)iKnvas in their liomes on the LI|)per Mississippi. In the
spring of 1815 he brought down to St. Louis forty-three chiefs
and head men of the lli)pir Missouri tribes for the jnirpose of
signing treaties with the government. He resigned his sub-
agency in 1817, and rd)out (his lime became president of his com-
pany, but died in 1820.

It was in 1810 that the Missouri Com])any built a ff>rt about
two miUs above the conlhu-nce of the Jefferson and Madison
rivers. In this vicinity a htMl\' of Mappers uuiUt Andrew Henry
and I'ierre Menard took out tluw hundred packs of 1)raver in

THE FUR TRADERS. yjl '

a comparatively short time, but were finally driven out by the
hostility of the Dlackfeet. Joshua Pilcher, who succeetled Lisa
as president of the company, built Fort Benton in 1821. The
following year the company sent a lari^e expedition under
Messrs. Jones and Immel to the mountains : the latter sent down
the same year about twenty-five tliousand dollars worth of furs.
In 1823 the same men tried to reach the Ijlackfcjot country, but
were finally ambushed by an overwhelming" force and seven were
killed and four wounded, both Jones and Immel being among
the slain. This attack was laid to the instigation of the English.
It was afterward learned that the guns, hatchets and ammunition
used by the Blackfeet were obtained from British agents on the
Assiniboine, and that the furs cai)tured by the Indians were sold
to the same agents. At this time the Missouri Company had over
three hundred trappers and hunters in the mountains; but the'
defeat of Henry caused the company to withdraw all to the terri-
tory below the mouth of the Platte. Thus the company under
Pilcher was not so successful as it had been under Lisa.

Late in the year 1812, it was determined by the Rocky Mount-
ain Fur Company to send a hunting and trapping party up the
Platte river to the mountains f.ir the winter, and the following
year Gen. William II. Asldey. one of the princijial officers of
the company, was selected to ccMiimand this expedition. Under
him was jjlaced a force of thirty-four men, the most of whom
were experienced hunters and trappers, but several of whom
were criminals and refugees. 'I'he most distinguished afterward
in the party except Ashley, was James Beckworth, a boy in iiis
teens and the future chief of the Crows. After a few days' jour-
ney, two Si^aniards of the party, who were guilty of an atrocious
act, were given the choice of hanging or of one hundred lashes
on the bare back : they chose the latter and were accordingly
whipped until the blood ran down. They took their revenge the
following night by running away with two of the best horses and
such articles as they wanted and could carry. For a short time
the valley of the Platte seemed wholly deserted by the buffaloes —
in fact by game of every sort — and the whites were driven to
the last extremity.

Fvery expedition to cross the i)lains at that time relied on game
for means of subsistence while on the trip. If the game was
absent, it meant intense privations, if not absolute starvation.
The men were finally reduced (o half a pint of (lour a day. 'i'hey
were compelled to organize piolracled hunts. It is claimed that
the boy, Jim Beckworth, save<l the expedition from disaster on his
first hunt by killing a deer and three elks, and that thereafter he

378 THE PROP'L\'Cn AXD THE STATES.

was the hero of the camp. It wa.-, niitl-winter, the snow was deep
and the cold intense. When tin-y reached the Pawnee Loup
villages, they found an ahundance of iUilTalo meat. While there
the Indians organized a ,^rand huffalo hunt. They employed
their whole force of several thousand, and surrounded a stretch
of country prohahly ten miles sc[uare. They then bet^an the
march toward a common center, making- a great noise; and
when all the animals ^vere driven to common ground, the
slaughter began. There were killed in this hunt fourteen hun-
dred buffaloes, General Ashley counting the tongues to make
certain of the number. This hunt had been instituted ■ before
the arrival of the Ashley party, who were not permitted to pro-
ceed until it had terminated. They were then given all the meat
they wanted. Thus it was with the hunting and trapping par-
ties, first a feast and then a famine, amid the fierce blizzards or
burning heats of the plains or the mountains. Between two thou-
sand and three thousand Indian.s participated in this circular
hunt. The supply of meat lasted for niany days, but again the
expedition was reduced to corn and beans, when far out toward
the mountains.

At Pilot 'Butte the Crows stole nearly all of their horses; and
soon afterward they were so reduced in means of subsistence that
they organized a general hunt. From the mountain tops, they
saw far ahead countless buffaloes in the valley of Green river.
All were soon industriously engaged in trapping beaver, divided
into parties for greater opportmiities for search, but strong
enough to make a stubborn ilefense against the Indians in case
of attack, and all within easy reach of each other. In the spring
they made canoes of wcxjd and buffalo hides, and descended
Green river, and were at last in Utah mountains. Here they
again divided into parties, scattered in all directions, but under
instructions to return to a certain spot July ist. In the
meantime the bulk of their furs and supplies were cached. One
party on Horse creek took one hundred beaver in a few days.
At this time beaver skins of the first class were worth ten dollars
per pound in St. Louis, and sixty dried skins made one hundred
pounds. On Le Brache creek another party caught about as
many more in a few days. While here they were attacked by a
war party of sixteen Indians and one man. La lirache, was killed,
which occurrence gave rise to the name of the stream. By June
the entire p.arty had collecte<l seven or eight packs of sixty skins
each of beaver. While in these moinitains they met another
party of sixteen trappers, who had been out for two years and
iiad a largi; numlur of hides. I'iiially the Ashley jjarty returned
to their h. ines with a valuable lot of skins.

rini I'UR TRADERS. 379

In 181 2 it became necessary to send important dispatches from
Astoria to New York, and accordingly, Robert Stuart was sent
overland by the Astor Company. With him were Ben Jones and
John Day, both famous in ihe West, two Canadians, Le Clerc and
Vallee, and several others among- whom were McClellan and
Crooks. The start was made on the 29th of June, and was
intrusted to Stuart, because he was experienced, cool-headed,
knew tlie country, could speak nearly all the western Indian
tongues, possessed great strength and did not know what fear
.or hardship meant. John Day soon became demented -and was
sent back. McClellan was mutinous and gave the leader much
concern. When they reached the country of the Snakes and the
Crows, they began to experience trouble. They likewise nearly
starved to death in the mountains and the desert regions of the
mountainous country. Here it was that the nerve of nearly all
was exhausted, except that of the dauntless leader. Never for
a moment did he falter or think of turning back. He met alL the;
wiles of the Indians with superior wiles and courage. His
mutinous men were steadily pressed into the harness and obliged
to proceed. He took the brunt of everything and bore the dread-
ful cold without a murmur. Finally, on October 26, they reached
the headwaters of the Platte of Nebraska, where they prepared
to pass the winter, because it would never do to try to cross the
plains at that time of the year. They selected a suitable location
and built a log house eight feet wide, eighteen feet long, with
walls six feet high, with buffalo skins for a roof, and with a hole
left in the center to let out the smoke. While some were thus
engaged, the others went on a grand hunt, and in two days suc-
ceeded in killing thirty-two buffaloes, and a little later killed
fifteen more, which then gave them sufficient meat to last them
all winter.

They now prepared to hunt and trap and "live on tiie fat of the
land" during the remainder of the winter. They killed many
deer (twenty-eight in two days) for their skins, with which they
made moccasins, mittens, clothing, etc., and had plenty of bear
steak from time to time. All would have gone well had they not
been discovered by the Indians. One day when all were in their
hut, they heard a yell outside, and knew that it meant Indians.
No one seemed willing to go out, so Stuart, accompanied by one
man, opened the door and slei)pcd out to what was thought death.
It ^vas a war ])arty t)f Arapahoes, out after the Cheyennes and
Crows, who they claimed had slaughtered their women and chil-
dren in their absence. They had followed their enemy so jicrsist-

.380 THE PROriNCE AND THE STATES.

ently that they had not taken linie to hnnt for food, and were of
conseqnencc ahnost starved. Tlicre were twenty-three of them
and Ihey hej^ged for food. Stuart saw at once that it would never
do to let this many enter the Imi; so he told them that he would
give them food, but thai only ihe principal chief and one other
would be permitted to enter tlie cabin. They did so and food
was passed to the others outside of the door. All were armed
with bows and arrows, knives, tomab.awks and a few ^uns, but
were short of powder, bor two ilays they gorged themselves
like swine with the buffalo meat that Stuart gave them ; but then
left, being supplied with six days' rations of meat.

After they had gone it becaiue apparent to all that their posi-
tion was no longer tenable. The hostile Crows were on one side
of them and the Arapaliues and Cheyenncs on the other, their
presence was now known, because the trail of the visitors would
be followed by their enemies, the size of Stuart's party was
known, and any considerable l);nul of Indians could at anytime,
by taking advantage, of which there was abundant opportunity,
crush them in a single encounter. After fully deliberating, they
finally determined to brave the awful storms and cold of the
plains to the eastward rather tlian remain and risk the tomahawks
of .the Indians. They accordingly paclced up everything they
could carry (they had one hor^^e), and for fourteen days jour-
neyed eastward down the valley of the Platte. They now had
come about three hundred miles, the snow was fifteen inches deep,
and the timber was very small and scant. They finally concluded
to retrace their steps tbi\e days to a thick grove, tlie last they
had passed, wlure there was a suitable camping place. They
tm-ned about on I)ecemI>cT 27, and on New Year day had one
wall of their new cabin up. They rested and observed, the day
as well as they could, feasting on buffalo roasts and broils. On
January 6 the cabin was finished, and here they were free from
molestation from the Indians and passed the remainder of the'
winter in comfort, feasting, hunting and swapping stories. Dur-
ing the winter they made several canoes from the trunks of trees,
but as it turned out, they could not use them the next spring,
owing to the shallowness of the Platte. On the 8lh of March
they started down the river, using their one horse to carry all he
could of their outfit. Tluy were driven back bv bad wealhcr, but
on (he .jotb again set fdrtli, and in due time arrived a( Pe Crande
Isle. Iliiis named by Im-cucIi Canadians. A little later lliev nu't
two white tra!)pers who (<ild llirni of Ihe war belweeii the Utiiled
Slates and j\ngland. From ibem they bought boats, tloriled
down to Port Osaj^-e, and on April 30 re:icbed Si. Ponis.

THIS FUR TRADLIRS. 381

It was about the year 1822 that the Rocky Mountain Fur Com-
pany bcj;an active operations, anioni:^ its leading members at the
start being- Gen. AVilham H. Ashley, Andrew Henry, Will-
iam L. Sublette, Milton Sublette, l^avid E. Jackson, Jedediah S.
Smith, Robert Campbell, James Bridger, Thomas Fitzpatrick,
Etienne Provost, Samuel Tulloch, and James Beckworth. Ash-
ley conducted the following- important expeditions to the upper
Missouri country: To the Yellowstone in 1822, to the Arick-
aree villages in 1823, to tlie Green river valley in 1824, to Great
Salt Lake valley in 1825, and to the Rocky niountains in 1826,
at which latter time he sold out to the i^artnership of Smith,
Jackson & Sublette, who in turn sold to the Rocky Mountain
Fur Company in 1830. F.ilher this was a revival of that com-
pany, or General Ashley was operating independently. At a
little later date, Fitzi)atrick, Sublclle & I'ridger were active oper-
ators in the niountains.

The fight of Ashley with the Arickarees in 1823 is notable* for
having brought on one of the lirst encounters between the gov-
ernment and the Indians of the Upper Missouri. With Ashley
were about forty men with two or three keel-boats loaded with
goods. At daylight on the morning of June 2d, they were
attacked by a large force of Arickarees armed with London
fusils, and twelve were killed on the spot, two mortally wounded
and nine severely wounded, there being twenty-three casualties
in all. Their horses and nearly all their other property were
captured by the Indians. Under a hot hre, the rest of the force
manageil to reach a small ishuul l)elow and finally to escape down
the river. Ashley promptly called for assistance, and Col. ITenry
Leavenworth, then at b'ort .Atkinson, near Council IMuffs,
advanced up the river with two hundred and twenty soldiers of the
Sixth infantry, two Tj-pounders, three small swivels and three keel-
boats. Ashley co-operated with the remnant of his force: so did
Henry with all his men except twenty, wIk^ were left to hold the
fort on the Yellowstone. Tilcher assisted with about forty men
under Major Henry Vanderburg, a 5'-j-inch howitzer and a liody
of Sioux and Yankton warriors numbering from four hundred
to five hundred. The total force under Colonel Leavenworth
aggregated about one thousand one hundred. Opjiose'd to them
were between six hundred and eight hundred warriors at the
Arickaree villages. The battle occurred on the 9th and inth of
August, and should have been ;in overwhelming victory for the
allied whites and reds; but ini-tead resuUi'd in a compromise,
under wliiih the Ariekar-cs v.ere not ;.iil»diie(l and the white

382 run pRoriNCii and riin states.

traders were not satislied. Colonel I.eaveinvorth was sharply
criticised by I 'Holier, /vsMey ar.d others, and no doubt deserved
censure for his unaccouuiable elcniency. \\\'c\\ the Indian allies
deserted iiini ovvin;^ to llie mildness and inefhcienoy of his con-
duct during- the battle. It is reasonal)ly clear that the hostility
of the Arickarees \vas caused by the British agents on the Assini-
boine.

By 183 1 the American Fur Conipany had practically monopo-
lized the fur trade of the West. Farnam & l)avenport operated
among the Sacs and Foxes, the VVinncbagoes and the lowas;
Mr. Rolette on the Mississippi as high as St. Anthony's Falls
and on the Minnesota; Mr. C.ibanne on the Missouri as high as
Council Bluffs and among the Pawnees; A. P. Chouteau among
the Osages; and Messrs. Mcl-Cenzie, FaiiUaw & Lamont, who
called themselves the Columliia I^U' Conipany, in the Missouri
river country above Council lUuffs. Every sjjring an immense
sui-»idy of goods for the weslein trade was sent on from. New
York to St. Louis, and thence dispatched up the IMissouri in a
small steamboat and distributed to the various posts. The furs
were brought down to St. I<nuis, opened, examined, weighed,
repacked, and shijjp-ed to New Orleans, and thence sent by water
to New York, where tliey were finally assorted, packed in bales
and sent to tlie European marhets. Extensive credit w^as given
to the Indians, but at a much iiigher price than usual to cover
probable losses.

l\v 1831, the mountain counhy was overrun with hunters and
trap|X'rs, and furs began to diminish. Rascals of every race
and crime infested the camps and i)osts, and life became cheaper
tlian whisky. A lone man with money or furs or both, need to
make haste to get rid of it, because if he did not he would nolens
rolcjts soon be deprived of his plunder. It was diamond cut
diamond among the rough elements of the camps, while the hon-
est trappers fro.^e in the mountains for the furs. Wild men from
the Sonlli, from New I'aigland, from the Mississippi valley, from
Canada; deserters from the army, escapt-d convicts, horse-thieves,
pirates from the Culf, cut-tbroals from heaven only knew where,
bullies, desperadoes and highwaymen, thronged the posts and
levied their deadly tributes on the labors of the trappers. Aftei
the treaty of 1S18 between the United States and Great Britain,
the traders of the latter were prohibited from coming south of
the ffirty-ninth parallel, and all of their posts south of that line
were iiDUidit by the American b'ur Company. Kennelh McKenzie
had extended a line of posts Irom Crcen I'.av to the Missrniri

77//: l^UK TRADHKS. 383

river, but had done business in an American's name, as he him-
self was a Britisher; but when his forts and posts passed to the
American Company, he remained in the service of the latter, and
built a fort at the junction of the Missouri and the Yellowstone.
In that vicinity he afterward became a great power, and he kept
much better order at his post tlian many of the other company
agents could do. Here he entertained Audubon, the naturalist,
Catlin, the artist, Prince Maximilian, Lord JlamiUon, ami other
persons famous in the world at that tiuie. It is certain that
Mclvenzie managed either to outl)id or outwit the agents of the
Rocky Mountain Comi)any, because he soon secured nearly all
of the Indian trade in the northwest. The Bescluunps made
theniselves famous, or rather infamous, at tlie McKenzie i)Ost;
but v/ere finally wiped out of existence by his directions.

In 1832 Captain William vSublette, a member of the Rocky
Mountain l-'ur Com[)any, i)assed up the I'lalle valley witli a strong
party of sixty men, among whom x^.'S the veteran hunter- and
trapper, Robert Campbell. While at Independence, Mo., he had
met a party of about twenty "teiiderfeet" under the command of
Nathaniel J. Wyetli, nearly all of whom were from the remote
Hast and Vvdiolly inexperienceil in western methods of living —
and dying. For certain considerations Captain Sublette agreed
to permit the Wyeth parly to join his, and together they advanced
up the rivers. The green men were very valiant so long as there
was no danger, but after that they were seriously demoralized.
The hardships soon tamed their fiery spirits, l)ut at first the nov-
elty w as a delight. The design of Wyeth was to cross the mount-
ains 10 the Columbia river for the purj)ose of engaging in the
salmon industry. Although their sufferings v.'pre severe in the
valley of the Platte, they finally reached its headwaters without
serious accident. In July, they met a party of fifteen free traj)-
pers, who had had excellent success,- although opposed by all the
companies and by the Indians incited against them.

About this time eleven of tlie Wyeth men, while out hiuiting,
were attacked by a jiarty of lUackfeet, Init took refuge in a strip
of thii.:k timber, where tliey were safe luitil the arrival of their
comrades, when in turn the Indians were surrounded in a swamp.
Tlie battle lasted several days, but the lilackfeet finally succeeded
in making their escape U]) the side of the mountain during dark-
ness. Many of the Nez Perces assisted the whites in this engage-
ment, which became called the "Swamp Fight." Five white men
and one half-l)reed were killed and ten or a dozen wounded, and
the friindly Indians suffered to about the same extent. Twenty

384 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

or thirty of the Blackfeet were killed and wounded. This was
stern experienee to the new men, but they began "to get their
mountain clothes on" at last, and were not such weak objects as
they had been at first. Several afterward became noted in the
West for their courage, skill and hardihood. Soon after the
Swamp Fight, six or eight of the Wyeth party resolved to return
to the States and not go on to the mouth of the Columbia. Tliey
started, but were finally annihilated by the Blackfeet, not one
remaining to tell the tale. After securing many beaver skins
the Sublette party duly returned to St. Louis.

The famous Fort Laramie was built in 1834 by William Sub-
lette and Robert CamplKll, of the American Fur Company, and
was at first called Fort William after the former, but later was
named Fort John, and finally Fort Laramie after a French Cana-
dian, Joseph Laramie, wlio had been kilK-d by the Indians near
the place. A trading post had been established in 1832 by Louis
\'^asc(ne2 at the mouth oi Clear creek-, and had been name'l for
him, Fort Yasquez. in 1835 1'"^' ^0"'^ <it Laramie was sold to
IMikon Sublette and James I'ridger and others of the American
Fur Comjxmy; but in 1849 it became a government post. In its
busiest times Fort Laramie was not surpassed by any other trad-
ing post in the LInited Slates. Here it was that all the trajipers
of the mountains came for their supplies and to disjiose of their
furs. Mere came Kit Carson, Jim Bridger, Jim Baker, Jim Beck-
worth and a score of others little less noted in border history.
The officials of the fur company ruled this section with an iron
hand, as it was nccessar\- for tluin to do among these reckless and
lawless men. Here came the criminals from the states to evade
the law, and here was dealt out at the end of a pistol or at the
noose of a rope sudden death and retribution to many of them. It
was seven hundred miles to a spot where the laws of the United
States were executed, bui liere the fur company was a law unto
itself.

Quite a large settlemuit grew up around this sjjot — wives of
the half savage men and their half naked children. Here were
the Indian wife and children of many of them, and the gambling
fever raged all (he time, day and night. Many a trapper, who
had worked and' frozen in the mountains all the i)revious winter,
came here to drop his ])ile of money so (piiekly that he had no
time to lliink of where more w.is to come from. The (rappers
of all llie eastern sb^pe of liu' moiinlains were, with few excep-
tions, in the power of the fur companies; because the latter took
advaiil.'ige of ibem wln'U lliey Iiad f.ambled aw.ay all lliey pos-

THE fUK TRADERS. 385

sessed by advancing them a fresh outfit upon the condition tliat
the furs they should bring- in mubl go to the company. The wikl
famihes assembled here lived almost wholly on dried buffalo
meat at first, and not infrcqucnlly the hunters had to go fifty
miles before the buffaloes were encountered.

James Bridger became a member of Colonel Ashley's expedi-
tion in 1826, and in 1843 huilt Fort Bridger in the mountains of
Wyoming, which became an important rendezvous. It consisted
of two adjoining log houses, with sod roofs, and surrounded with
palisades eight feet high, and was located on iin island in the
Black fork of Green's river, in the southwestern part of what is
now Wyoming. It is famous to this tlay. Kre long there gath-
ered around this fort a considerable settlement, it seems that
Vasquez had an interest in the fort and no doubt assisted in erect-
ing it. Fort J'latte was built on the left bank of the North
I'latte about three-fourths of a mile above the mouth of Laramie
river by the American Fur Company, at the head of which was
John Jacob Astor. Fort I'latte and Fort John (Laramie), being
thus close together, there was intense rivalry between them to
see which should get the major share of the furs brought in by
the trappers. The trappers usually arrived abotit tlie same time,
and were immediately the targets of the agents of the fur com-
panies. Whisky, though four dollars a pint, flowed like water,
and often the season's catch was staked on the turn of a card.
The- agents resorted to any and every means to get the most
furs, even to the extent of winking at crime. Possibly, worse
might be saiil with perfect truth. It is known that occasionally
kuukmum and arsenic were em|)h)yed to carry their point; could
all the truth be known, stories that would curdle the blood would
come to the surface. In 1853 the Mormons scattered the people
at Fort Bridger.

In June, 1855, Gen. W. S. Harney assembled six thousand
troops at Fort Leavenworth preparatory to their march over the
I'latte route to Utah as the ".'\.rin\ of Occu[)ation." They took
with them an immense supply train, and thousands of cattle.
Supply contractors were made rich out of this expedition, and
favoritism ran rampant through the army commissary depart-
ment. In 1857 a train of over one hundred i)ersons from Mis-
souri and Arkansas, with thirty \vago|is, six hundred cattle, and
thirty horses and muli's, crossed (hi- plains over the I'latte route,
hut in Siptembcr of the same year nearly all were slaughteri-d
by the Mormons in what li.is since become c.'ilK-d "The Mountain
Mea(l(AV Massacre."
I -'5

386 THi^ PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

The expedition of RoUrt Mc Knight, James Baird and Samuel
Chambers with a stock of goods to Santa Fe in 1812 resuUed in
faihire, the merchandise being confiscated and the men— twelve
in number— imprisoned by order of the Spanish authorities. The
same penalty was visited on the party under A. P. Chouteau and
Julius De Munn in 1815-17; indeed, Chouteau came near being
shot by order of the Spanish governor of New Mexico. The
policy of Spain opposed all commercial intercourse with the
Americans, who were forbidden lo enter New Mexico with Amer-
ican goods. All such merchandise was contraband; but in spite
of the interdiction considerable quantities were smuggled across
the lines to Taos and Santa Fe, and other quantities were taken
there by the Indians to whom (hey were sold in the mountams.
It is customary for shallow thiid<crs to criticise the government
for not taking steps to redress the alleged wrongs inflicted on the
American traders who thus sought to enter the province of New
Mexico with forbidden goods iu contravention of the Sp^inish
law ; but it cannot be denied that Spain had tlie right to pass such
laws and to enforce them if she saw fit. Those American traders
who sought to evade the Spanish law took their chances, and
should not have expected the iulervention of the government in
their behalf, except to see that ihey received no more than their
just deserts. After 1821, when Mexico achieved its independence
from Spain, the law was chan-ed, and American traders were
permitted under certain restrictions to send their goods to

Santa Fe. •, , .1

The attainment of independence in 18 J i rendered possible tlie
immense general trade whicli set in immediately thereafter
between St. Louis and Santa Fe. Not only were large supplies
of merchandise sent to Santa Fe, but large herds ot Spanish
horses and mules were brought back and sold largely to the
settlers now rapidly crossing the Mississippi. In order to insure
safetv, traders found it necessary to unite and cross the plams
in large caravans, taking west merchandise of every description,
whiclffound its way far down into Mexico and the Central Amer-
ican provinces, and bringing luick mainly live stock. While the
trans-Mississippi fur trade flourished from 1807 to 1843, the
Santa l-e trade did not In gin until after 1821. During the above
period of forty years, the annu.d fur tra<le at vSt. Louis amounted
to between two hundred thous:md and ihiee hundred tlionsand
dolkn-.- and after 1821, the general trade with Santa hV probably
aniounled to about half as nun h. After the War of 181J (^.en-
cral Ashley did more tlian any other person to revive the fur

THE fUR TRADERS. 387

trade on the upper Missouri and to thwart the machinations of
the alert representatives of the Cauachan fur companies. From
first to last the policy of the Americans toward the Indians was
clumsy, illogical, unreasonable and unsuccessful. Not so with
the British policy, which imitated that of the old Canadian voy-
ageurs.

It is generally conceded that William Becknell of Missouri was
the founder of the Santa Fe trail and the father of the Santa Fe
trade. No sooner did he learn of the independence of tiie Mexi-
can provinces, than he prepared to cross the })lains to Santa Fe
with a large stock of goods. Prior to 1822 all goods taken west
had been carried on the backs of horses and mules ; but Becknell
took out the first train of wagons, besides his pack animals, lie
passed up the valley of the Arkansas, but finally struck across to
the Cimarron, thence to San Miguel, and thence to Santa Fe.
The old route led u[) the Arkansas to the mountains, thence across
to Taos, and thence down to Santa Fe. Col. Braxton Cooper
also took out a trading expedition, or caravan, to Santa Fe in
1822, and also another the following year; he used wagons
mainly, but took along a few pack animals. In 1824 an expedi-
tion under A. Le Grand numbered eighty-one men, twenty-five
wagons, one hundred and fifty-six horses and thirty thousand
dollars' worth of merchandise. This was the first expedition to
use wagons exclusively. In 1824 an expedition of twenty-six
Spaniards from Santa Fe crossed the plains to Council BlufTs to
conclude a treaty with the Pawnees. The Santa Fe trail was
greatl)' aided by Senntor Benton, who managed to get an appro-
priation of ten thousand dollars to mark the route, and twenty
thousand dollars to secure the rights of transit from the Indian
tribes. In 1825 several large expeditions to Santa Fe were out-
fitted at Franklin, Mo., one with one hundred and five men,
thirty-four wagons and two hundred and forty horses and mules,
and another with eighty-one men, two hundred horses and thirty
thousand dollars' worth of merchandise. ]\Iany caravans crossed
the plains in 1826. The following year Hzekiel Williams took
out one hundred and five men, fifty-two wagons and a large num-
ber of horses and mules. During the same year one caravan
brought back over eight hundred head of stock, worth twenty-
eight thousand dollars.

In 1827 Ceneral Asliky and a party of sixty men with a
4-poimder left Lexington, Mo., crossed the f)lains in the valley
of the I'latte, passed over to Cicnt vSrilt Lake, and returned to
I,exingtf>n in September; but again left for the same destination,

388 THE FROVIXCE AND THE STATES.

usiuf^ tlie same [)ack animals. In i8j8 two parties took to Santa
Fe mcixhamlise of the value of one luindred anil ninety tlioiisauil
dollars. With a military escort under the comnuuid of Alajor
liennett Riley, a caravan of seventy men and thirty-five wagons
was taken up the Arkansas by Capt. Charles Bent in 1829. The
Gregg caravan of 1831 consisted of nearly two hundred j)ersons,
one hundred wagons, two small cannon, and two hundred thou-
sand dollars' worth of merchandise; it was prepared at Independ-
ence, Mo. In 1831 and 1832, Capt. Charles llent took up large
caravans, the proceeds of the former year being one hundreil and
ninety thousand dollars and of ihe latter one hunilred thf)usand
dollars in specie. It is said that the town of Franldin on the
Missouri "was the cradle of the Santa Fe trade." Under the act
of congress, the Santa he trail was surveyed by lienjamin
Reeves, George C. Sibley and Thomas Mather; but instead of
going by San Miguel, the\' coniinued up the Arkansas to the
mountains and then across to 'i'aos. The caravans foUoweil'the
former route. They did not escape the bullets and arrows of the
Indians. In 1830 Milton (i. Sublette conducted probably the
first caravan to use wagons over the Oregon trail. His party
consisted of eighty-one men mounted on mules, ten wagons
loaded with merchandise, and twelve or fifteen heatl of cattle,
taken along to subsist on until they should reach the buffalo
countr}'. Almost the first caravan to use ox-wagons was the one
conducted west by Captain Ijont in 1831. "His party consisted
of from thirty to fort}- men, and if he succeeds with his
ox-wagons, the oxen will answrr the tripple purpose, ist, of
drawing these wagons; 2<.l, the Iiulians will not steal them as they
would horses and mules; iiiid T,d. in case of necessity part of the
oxen will answer for pro^■isions." Soon after this Sj^ianish mer-
chants froni the New Mexico were seen on the streets of Pilts-
burg. Pa., where they wtiU to buy iron products particularly.
They had learned that they could obtain them for a much less
price by buying them in IMttsburg and taking them across the
plains at their own experise, in^lea(l of buying them from the
St. Ivouis merchants put d.nvn in Santa Fe. The military expe-
ditions which crossed the ])lains in the "fifties" reported seeing
in New Mexico many wagons that had been manufactured in
Pittsburg. The railroads ^oon annihilated the old order of trade
The stage lines which threadid the plains and llu' mountains
in early limes were marvels of cnli'rprise in regions inhabitfd
only by savages, save at (cnli-rs of seltU'iuenl by white peopK-.
The one conducted by l^us'.cll, Majors cSj Waddcll in the "fifties,"

THE l-'UK TRADERS. 389

had stations ten or twelve miles apart.' The horses were driven
at a gallop, and no stop was nuule, day or night, except for meals.
Butterfield's was another famous line, extending from the Mis-
souri river to Sacramento. Railways carried the Eastern mail
to the Missouri, whence it was conveyed by stages to the Pacific
coast. The Jjcst time that could thus he made from New York
to San Francisco was twenty-two days. The pony express was
first tried as an experiment, but proved so successful that it was
not only continued, but greatly improved. It reduced the time
of the passage of mail from New York to Sacramento to eleven
days. There were one hundred and ninety stations from St.
Joseph to Sacramento. Five hundred horses were used, and
there were in all about eighty riders. Two liundred men were
required to guard and take care of the stations; but in the Indian
country more than one station was destro}ed ami the guards were
killed and the horses stolen. Each rider rode apj^roximately
thirty-three miles on three horses, and returned on three others,
each horse being required to go about eleven miles at his best
speed. Sometimes the riders were ambushed and killed by the
Indians ; at others they were fired at from thickets and chased,
but being splendidly mounted they usually had no difficulty in
distancing the savages. For the dangerous Indian districts, the
swiftest horses were selected : t(j this locality, also, were assigned
tiie most daring riders, those who would not hesitate for any
report of hostile bands to make their usual rides. It occasionally
happened, owing to the death of the rider oi one district, that his
nearest neighboring rider would have to cover the ilead man's ilis-
trict, in order that the mail might not be delayed. Such riders
were sometimes required to travel at full speed nearly two hun-
dred miles, without stopping for a moment and without a mouth-
ful of food. In such cases, the ritlers were obliged to cross the
dangerous Indian country where tiie other rider had been killed,
and not infrequently they, too, were attacked by the same band
of savages. Ivverything carried by each horse was made as light
as possible. The riders were small men, with courage at an
inverse ratio to their sizes. The saddles were small and light.
The heaviest articles were a light rifle and one revolver. The
charge for each letter carried the whole route was five dollars,
and every letter was required to be written in small compass on
tissue paper : all the letters were bound in a single package,
thoroughly wrapped from the weather and securely fastened to
the saddle. In March, 18O1, e.xtra elTorls were maile to carry

390 rilE I'KOl'lNCE AND Til 11 STATES.

President Lincoln's mchsage throug-h in record-breaking- time.
It required seven days antl seventeen hours to carry it by pony
express from St. Joseph to Sacramento. ]{re many years a
g-reater wonder, the modern railway, terminated tlie usefulness
of the pony riders.

EXPLORATIONS BY THE UNITED STATES. 391 j

CHAPTER XII

Explorations by the United States

THE cession of Louisiana by France to the United States in
1803 liad scarcely been ratified by congress before the gov-
enmient perceived the necessity of taking immediate steps
to circumvent the encroachments of Spain on the southwest bor-
der, to explore the various river courses preparatory to settle-
ment and to make friends of all the Indian tribes within the
borders of the new territory. Accordingly, late in 1S04, an expe-
dition under the command of iJr. John Sibley was sent up Red
River of Natchitoches for the purpose of reporting fully on the
designs of the Spaniards in that quarter and of locating the
Indians in the valley of that stream. With a small party he set
out, i)assed the village of Natchitoches, and in due time arrived
at the villages of the Caddoes in what is now southwest Arkansas.
He continued to ascend Red river, exactly how far is not
known, but certainly as far as the Pawnee villages nearly to the
mouth of the North Fork. He learned that there were few, if
any, Spaniards, on the river, encountered no serious opposition
from the Indians, and finally returned, having added much to the
general knowledge of that section.

One of the earliest ex])editions sent into the Louisiana Pur-
chase was that under Messrs. Dunbar, Hunter and others, which
passed up the Washita of Louisiana and Arkansas in 1804. The
party of about a dozen men reached the mouth of Red river on
Octol)er 17 of that year, and two days later arrived at tFe mouth
of the Washita or lUack. At the mouth of the Catahoula, a
Frenchman named Ifebard had a large plantalifMi. Up a con-
siderable (lislance slood h'orl Miro, thai had served (he vSpanish
well against the Indians. At Villemont's ])rairie was quite a

392

THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

French settlement, some of the grants there having been made
prior to 1762. Here and there scattered along the river in what
is now Lonisiana, were other French and Spanish settlers, wilh
planlations in all stages of improvement. Fost Washita was
reached November 6. Mear this was the large grant to the
IMarqnis de Maison-Rouge. On the nth of November, they
arrived at the plantation of Baron Bastrop, where there was a
settlement of about three hundred people. The baron's grant
aggregated about one million French acres. On November 15,
they passed the Island of Mallet, just south of the line between
the Territories of Orleans and ]x)nisiana, which civil divisions
had just been created by the Government of the United States.
They passed the mouth of the Little Missouri on the 24th, that of
the Cadodoqui on the 30th, and reached the Chuttes on Decem-
ber 3. On December 6, they arrived at Ellis' camp within three
leagues of Hot Springs, their objective point. On December 10,
the spangs were tiioroughly explored, and later excursions into
the surrounding country were made for purposes of discovery.
About the 6th of January, they returned down the Washita, up
which they had come. This expedition was the means of sending
many settlers into that portion of the Purchase.

In 1806 a force consisting of seventeen privates and five or six
commissioned and non-commissioned officers, all under the com-
mand of Captain Sparks and Lieutenant Humphrey, left Natchez
in several barges and small boats, intending to go to the sources
of Red river. They entered Retl river on May 3, and sixteen
days later arrived at Natchitoclus. Here they receivetl intelli-
gence that the Spanish had sent a large force to intercept them
and drive them back from the upper branches of Red river.
They were accordingly strengthened by a force of twenty men
under Lieutenant Deforest. They carried with them a supply
of flour sufficient to last nine months and other provisions in
proportion. They left Natchitoches June 2, and five days later
a message was received from that town saying that a large force
had left Nacogdoches to intercept them at the Caddoe villages.
When they arrived at a point twenty miles above the great ra:ft of
the Red, they learned positively from the Indians that over three
hundred Spanish dragoons were encamped at the Caddoe town
prepared to prevent their advance any fartlier in that direction.
On July 1st, other messengers arrived and confirmed the former
news. Tiny i'c|)orl('d that tlu- vSp,'nii;irds had usi'd i-verv endeavor
to make fii(n<ls wilb llic Caddocs; hut that the latter bad refused
under the pretext that they did not intend to side with either tbe

EKPLO RAT IONS BY THE UNITED STATES. 393

Spanish or the Americans, and that hoth must go elsewhere if
tliey wished to fi^ht ; that neither could remain in the country of
the Indians. They also reported that the Caddoes were willing
for the United States to advance up Red river to its sources for
purposes of exploration and discovery, and to visit the Pawnees
and otiier tribes there.

On July 26 word was received that the Spanish forces were
one thousand strong and that the American Hag which had been
fiying at the Caddoe villages had been supplanted by that of
Spain. The next day they "cached" their extra provisions,
papers, baggage, etc., to be in readiness for emergencies and
continued to advance. On the 28th the Spanish guns were heard
in the distance ahead. On the morning of the 29th they saw
they were not far from the Spanish camp, and were kept fully
posted by the Caddoe runners. IZverything was put in readiness,
and they continued to advance as if they did not know of the
presence of the Spaniards. An outpost was first encouutered
which fled to the main camp, and soon afterward a deputation
appeared. The Americans camped and i)repared for dinner, and
in the meantime a conference was arranged for. The Spanish
commander and Captain Sparks conferred for over half an hour,
the former showing that he had a force ten times as strong as the
latter, and insisting that the American must retreat, as he was
under orders to prevent at all hazard the advance of the Ameri-
cans up the valley of tlie Red. The Americans weighed all the
chances, and finally concluded the wisest course was to go back
and later retin-n with a nuich stronger force. They accordingly
retreated down the river. Tliis conference took place at a point
six hundred and thirty-five miles by water from the mouth of
Red river.

As soon as possible after the War of 1812, or in 1816, contrress
took steps to quiet the Indians in the territory beyond the Missis-
sippi and to check the illicit trading of the Hudson's Bay and
Northwest companies. In i8it,) Col. Henry Leavenworth, with
about a hundred soldiers, went to the mouth of the Minnesota
river and establisb.ed Fort St. Anthony, afterward nan>cd VovX
Snelling, at the suggestion of General Scott. In December, 1818,
a contract M'as made between the government anil Col. James
Johnson, of Kentucky, by which the latter agreed to provide two
steamboats an<l trans])<>rt a large force of soldiers up the Mis-
souri to certain stations to be established at Council Hlufi's, the
Mandan villages and elsewhere. Colonel Johnson failed to ful-
fill his agreement, but nevertheless the soldiers to the number of

394 '^^^^ PROVINCE AXD THE STATES.

one thousand one hundreil and twenty-seven under Col. Henry
Atkinson were sent up the river. At Council Bluffs Fort Atkin-
son was promptly built, bort I'lark was built at the Alandan
villages. This was called the INiissouri expedition to distinguisli
it from the Mississippi expeditiL>n under Colonel Leavenworth.
An important expedition was sent up the Missouri river in
. 1819 under Maj. S. H. Long, of the Topographical Engineers,
by order of the War Department, for the purpose of thoroughly
examining the country, conciliaiing the Indians and otherwise
benefiting the government. A steamboat built near Pittsburg,
called the Western Kngineer, w;is well loaded with supplies of
provisions and presents for the Indians and dispatched down the
Ohio, and about June ist reached the Mississippi. After reach-
ing St. Louis, where they remained a few days, they started up
the Missouri. On July 5 the village of Cote Sans Dessieu was
reached, on the 13th Franklin, ou July 22d Chariton, and Au-
gust 1st Fort Osage. A full report was made of the topograjjliyj
faima, ilora, minerals, soils, climaie, timber. wiKl animals, Indians,
settlements, streams, etc. l'',xcursions were occasionally made
into the surrounding country, the better to examine the character-
istics. At Fort Osage a detachment under Thomas Say, eleven
men in all, was sent up the Missouri and the Kansas rivers to
examine the country and comnnmicate with the Indians. They
made several detours, and left the mouth of the Kansas Au-
gust i^lh. Upon reaching the Kansas villages, below the moulli
of Blue Farth river, they were well received after the usual
fashion of the Indians. Passing i)n up the river, they were soon
intercepted b)' a large war party of Pawnees, who robbed them
of everything they had — horses, baggage, arms, trinkets, and
were thus forced to return. Later the Pawnees guilty of this
attack were brought to account and the most of the stolen prop-
erty was recovered.

On the Western Engineer was ]\Iajor Benjamin OT'^allon, the
Indian agent for the government, on his way up the river to
hold peace treaties with the various Indian tribes and punish them
for their many misdemeanors of the recent past. On the Mis-
souri a short distance above the mouth of the Kansas, was an
encampment of white hunters, a number of whom had fled from
the vengeance of the law farther to the east; they were little
less wild than the savages themselves, and were shunned by tlie
honest tra])pers. At this time Fwrl Osage was the rendezvous
for much of the western connlry. It was situated near the pres-
ent towji of Sibley and ha<l 1)een established in 1808. Colonel

K^C

EXFLORATIONS BY THE UNITED STATES. 395

Chambers was the commander. Near Diamond Island about five
miles above the mouth of the Little Platte, was the ruin of an old
French fortification or stockade. Below Independence river
were the old Kansas villages on the west side of the Missouri.
At this place they found Captain Martin with three companies of
riflemen, who had left St. Louis in September, 1818, had arrived
in October at Isle au Vache and liad remained there ever since,
nearly all the time without provisions, subsisting almost wholly
on the game which they killed. In that time they had killed ixom.
two thousand to three thousand deer, many bears and turkeys,
and a few bufi^aloes, the latter having migrated farther west.
They were given a plentiful supply of provisions from the boat.

It was determined to hold a council here with the various
Indian tri])es, and accordingly messengers were sent to their
villages inviting them to send delegates to the meeting to be held
at Isle au Vache on .August J4. There cauie one hundred and
sixty-one members of the Kansas tribe and thirteen of the Osage.
They were sharjjly taken 10 task for their many offenses against
th-' whites by Major O'Fallon, the Indian agent; but they prom-
ised in the most abject manner pcjssible to be "good Indians" ever
afterward, and thereupon were given valuable presents of cloth,
tools, trinkets, weapons and amnnmition. They returned to
their villages doubtless rejoicing, ready for another attack upon
the white settlers and trappers ; for they knew that thus atten-
tion would be called to them again, and another supply of pres-
ents would speedily follow.

As the steamboat was short of men, they took on here Lieuten-
ant Fields and tifteen men to assist them in going up the stream.
On the 1st of September they were near the mouth of Wolf river.
Here they were overtaken by the party under Say, which had
been driven back by the Pawnees as before related. On Sep-
tember 15 they reached the mouth of the famous Platte river of
Nebraska. At this time traders were in almost every Indian
village near the Missouri river and on many of its branches. Sev-
eral were at the mouth of the Papilion, where they were estab-
lished to trade with the Otocs, ATissouris, etc.. Tw^o days later
the steamboat reached' the trading post of the Missouri Fur Com-
pany, called Fort Lisa and named for the Spanish trapper and
hunter, Manuel Lisa. While here they selected the spot for their
winter's encampment about half a mile above Fort Lisa on the
west side of the Missouri, and about five nn'les below Coimcil
Bluffs. There they stopped on the 19th, and began to cut tim-
ber for the houses and to quarrv stone for the foundalions.

■^.

\Hl

396 TUB I'ROl'JXCE AND THE STATES.

Inasmuch as tlie Pawnees had recently been guihy of several
grave oltenses, orders were at once issued to stop ah traders froni
going to llieir villages until they had come in and given an
account of themselves. This prohibition was a severe blow to
the Indians, as they must have supplies of ammunition or their
guns were useless, and the only way to get the ammunition was
from the traders. The I'awnees had recently captured a father
and son (whites) and made slaves of them, had robbed and
severely whipped two white hunters, and had robbed and
sent back the party under Thomas Say. The Republican Paw-
nees were the particular band guilty of these offenses. The win-
ter's encampment was called l{ngineer Cantonment, and was
soon ready for occupanc)-. Peace was soon patched up between
the Otoes and the Kansas, mainly through the influences of John
Dougherty, the trapper who accompanied the expedition. On-
October 3 a council was held with the Otoes and the lowas, all
of whom promised submission to the government and were given
valuable presents. Then in succession came councils with the
Osages, Kansas, Pawnee Poups, Republican Pawnees, Grand
Pawnees, I'uncas, Omahas, Siou\, Padoucas, P.ald Heads, letans
or Comanches, Saul.s, I'oxes and lowas. The ceremony v>'as
usually introduced by the "beggar's dance," where all the Indians
gathered around a post and in turn advanced and struck it, at
the same time recounting their most notable achievements as
warriors. Many historic incidciUs thus came to light. The
Republican Pawnees made proper restitution for their past mis-
deeds. Among llie leadin-; chirl , present at the various councils
were hi in or Sba uu;ii-i.- !,iis-.i-, I ililc Soldic-r or I\li-a-ke-ta, Pig
b.lk or Shon-ga-ton-ga, Cruiicr, \An\y; Hair or Tar-ra-re-ca-wa-o,
White Cow or Ta-so-ne, Hard Heart or Wang-e-wa-ha, Proken
Arm or Pla-she-ah, and otiiers.

The steamboat was a V(jndcrlul sight to the Indians, all of
whom desired to go on board and were permitted to do so. They
feared the cannon and inquired wliat was meant when the reports
rang out. Major Long had retunu-d to Washington in October,
1819, but the proceedings were conducted by Major O'Fallen.
All the chiefs complained of l)cing poor and begged for assist-
ance. The traders took advanta-.e of the peace established by
this expedition to prom.ptly invade the Indian country with goods
of all sorts. They were forbidden to introduce whisky, but
always managed to have sonu' on hand when it was m'eded to
]^v:\\\ the fnrs or goo.l will of (be Indians. Tbc fur companies
were likewise forbidden to employ it in their trades, but they

nXl'LO RATIONS BY THE UNITED ST.ITES.

also managed always to have some on hand for emergencies.
The Missouri Fur Company openly gave li;e Indians all the gotJils
they v/anted on credit, taking their furs wlien they were ready.
Some of the trihes, particularl}' the lowas, sometimes evaded tlieir
creditors and sold the furs elsewhere. During the winter Air.
Pilcher of the Missouri Comi)any, accompanied hy Lieutenant
Swift of the expedition, vvcnt to th.e Omaha vill;\ge one hun-
dred and twenty miles up th.e Elk Horn river, and in a few
days returned with one hundred and thirty heaver skins, hesides
many others of mink, coon, deer, hear, etc. Messrs. Wootls,
Zenoni, Immel, and l'\jntanelle were in the employ of the com-
pany at this time. There was intense rivalry between the
trading companies and kLtween the companies and tlie imlepen-
dent trappers. All endeavored to incite the Indians against
the others and against triles favorahle to the others. Unques-
tionably, n:any of the ma.M^aciLS and murders on the i)luins
resulted from these conditions. Sometimes the traders of. one
company forcibly took tiie furs belonging to another, usually
under some plausible pretext Vv'hich they themselves had created.
At Camp Missouri during th.e winter, nearly one hundred sol-
diers died of scurv)', out of aljout t;iirce hundred there assembled.
This fort stood near Kngineer cantonment. On January 2, 1820,
a party of hunters retunud with twelve buffaloes which they had
killed. This was quite an achievement, because these animals
had become scarce in that vicinity. Some of the Indians had
never seen a negro until they saw the cook of the cantonment,
and aocortlingly reijarded Idm with great curiosity. An Omalia
called him lilack White Man, and another Little Black Bear or
Was-a-pa-gin-ga. I'easts and barbecues of buffalo, deer, or bear
meat occurred often throughout the winter, amid scenes of much
interest. At this time the permanent villages of the Omahas
were situated about one hundred miles up the Missouri river a
short distance up Omaha creek, and consisted of dirt lodges and
comfortable places for stock. On April 24, Major Long, accom-
panied by Capt. John 1\. I'ell and others, reached St. Louis oii
his return trip. Instead of ])assing by l)oat up the river, they
secured horses and struck across the country for Council Bluffs.
They ])assed south of b^ield's trace through Iowa ;uid Missouri
and reached the Missouri at the mouth of the Platte. They
reaclu-d L.ngineer cantonment about the (sl of June. As the deal-
ings with the (w-and Pawners had not been satisfactory, it \vas
fin,ally resolveil to send a special expedition to llicir villages oil
the Lou]) branch of the I'lalte. Accordingly, thirty-four men

398 '^'iiii I'KOriNCH AND Til LI STATES.

with seventeen well filled packb passed up the streams to their vil-
lages, and were well received l)y Long Hair, the principal chief,
doubtless because the wily chief knew they brought valuable gifts
with them. 'I'heir good will was coini)letely won, of course.
Among them at this time were Messrs. Papan and Semino, two
traders, who served as interpreters.

It had been determined by the government that the steamboat
should go no farther up the Missouri that season and that expe-
ditions should go west to the mountains to explore the valleys of
the Platte, Arkansas and Red rivers. Lieutenant Graham was
left ill charge of the boat, with instructions to leisurely return
down the rivers to St. Louis. Alajor Long was to command the
expedition to the West. Under him were Capt. T. R. Bell,
Lieut. W. PL Swift, Tliomas Say, zoologist, Edwin James, bot-
anist, geologist and surgeon, John Dougherty, hunter, interpreter
and guide. The start was made June 6, and on the nth the
Pawnee villages on the Loup were reached. They did not ri^veive
a cordial welcome, be-ause, cUiubiless, they diil not make many
valuable presents. Four mile.-; fartlier up that river they met
the Republican Pawnees, who iormerly dwelt on the Republican
fork of the Kansas river, and hence their name. The principal
chief of the Loup Pawnees was Knife Chief or La-til-e-sha, and
his son was Pe-tal-e-sha-roo, a magnificent specimen of the race.
At this time they had from six tiiousand to eight thousand horses.
•The principal guides and interpreters of the expedition were
Bijeau and Ledoux, boih of whom hail been several times to
the headwaters of the Platte and the Arkansas. The former
altenii)tcd lo desert at tiiis jilace, 'l)ut when told that if he did
all the traders would be warne.l to leave the Indian country, he
gave up and resumed his engagement.

Having reached the mouth of the North fork of the Platte on
the 22(1 of June, ih^y crossed ilie main stream to the south side
and continued their march. Here for the first time, immense
herds of buffalo were encountered. Thus far the expedition had
advanced without important evmt. Prowling bands of savages
had visited them no doulit willi the hojjc of receiving presents,
and were usually sent aw ay brijipy wdth a supply of tobacco. No
ammunition was given them, because it was not known how soon
it might be used in an attack on the whites. The treeless plains
stretched to the horizon in every direction, and the sun beat down
with pitiless fury on the parched grass. But tlie buffaloes
thrived, the gaunt Wdlve:. fcaslid on the worn-out stragglers of
the herds, the wild flowers sjimng in profusion, and the prairie

liXrLO RAT IONS BY THE UNITED STATES.

399

birds made music while they raised tlieir Httle hroods. The buf-
faloes were so tame that they, as well as the wolves, sunply opened
their ranks to let the intruders pass and then closed up again,
without having moved to right or left more than two or three
hundred yards. The tanieness of the wild animals proved that
this section had not been visited by the Indians. Neither did the
expedition meet Indians here. I-Jut after June 29th, the herds
again began to grow thinner and the Indians began to be seen.
Clumps of trees began to appear after this as the mountains were
approached. The Fourth of July was celebrated by the expedi-
tion with an extra allowance of corn meal and with a swig of
whisky to each man. By this lime every man was tired of the
plains, and eagerly watched for tiie first sight of the mountains.
The botanist, the zoologist, the geologist and the mineralogist had
observed everything and had classified many new varieties. To
them the great plains were a rich treasure house stored with
' nature's choicest gifts.

Soon the rich verdure of the mountain valleys, the deep shade
of the heavy woods, the sparkling, rushing streams, the snow-
capped mountains and the refreshing springs of pure water from
endless snows, greeted the tired men and put fresh vigor in tiieir
worn spirits. Bell's Springs ^vere named for Captain Bell of
this expedition, who first discovered them on a short side expe-
dition. James' Peak was named by Major hong for Edwin
James of this expedition, who had the hardihood to ascend to
its wintry summit for scientific discoveries. He was no doubt
the first white man to staml upon its bare crest and see the won-
derful panorama spread around— lofty peaks with tiieir crowns
of rock and snow; ileep \alle)s enveloj)ed in almost impenetrable
forests; ranges of lofty mountains far to the north and the south;
the valley to the west shining like emerald in the summer sun;
and the endless plains to the east threaded with silver streams
and intersected with belts of scrubby timber. It was a sight
well worth the labor of making the ascent, ])ut which only a stu-
dent of nature would care to undertake, and for which he alone
would feel amply re[)aid.

Having pursued his discoveries here as far as his instructions
warranted, Major Long (Hvided his command of about twenty-
five men into two divisions, one of fifteen men under Captain 15ell
to descend the Arkansas, and the f>lher of about ten men tinder
Ivoni'- himself to go south to Ked rivir and descend that stream.
These \\i iH' small |)arlit':: lo undcrlaKc such ha/ai'dous trips, but
nearly all were trained hunters, familiar with the habits of the

400 THE TROl'INCl-: AND TUB STATES.

Indians and not afraid to meet them in their own way and upon
their own ground, licjlli parties started July 24, 1820, from near
Wharf creek, one of the uj)pcr hranclies of the Arkansas. That
under Major Long struck nearly due south, expecting to reach
.he upper hranches of the Red hefore turning to the east, and
/cached the Canadian Fork of the Arkansas on the 2Slh, but
mistook it for a brancii of tl^e Red and therefore turned down
the same. They had followed the directions of the Indians, but,
in the absence of the guide, Joseph Bijeau (or Bessonet, his real
name), who had remained in the mountain country according to
arrangement, had been deceived. On August lOth they met a
large war party of Kerchies, wlio Ijccaiiie insolent and endoav-
ored to take unfriendly liberties with them ; but stern resistance
and a hostile and steady from checked the savages. From this
band they learned that a large war party of letans or Comanches
was near at hand, but (hey did not meet it. .At first the party
found very lillle game, but as ilu-y went on the henls of bjidalo
became numerous, and linally ilie animals could not be counted.
They were even tamer than they had been on the I'latte, and as
before simply moved a little to one side until the ex])edition had
passed and then closed up again. ( Jnce again the hunters' camp
was savory with the tenipting odor of roast buffalo rum]), steak
or tongue. On the 21st of August, they killed a black bear, the
first they had seen since leaving- the Missouri river.

On the loth of September, f.ong's party reacb.ed the mouth of
the Arkansas, and there for the first time learned that they had
descended the Canatlian I'ork of the Arkansas instead of the Red
as they had thought. This caused them great mortification,
because they had been duecletl particularly to descend the Red.
But it was now too late to rectify the mistake, so they continued
on down to Fort Smith aiid there found that Captain I^jcH's party
had arrived on the 9th, v^hile Roug arrived the 13th of Septem-
ber. Two days after starling, I Sell's party had reached a large
c-rnnj) of Kiavvas, Keechies, CIk venues or I'adoucas, and Ara-
pahoes. On August ist, they encountered a war j^arly of four
tiiiies their number of Cheyenne s. who tried to gel the advanlag'-e
of them, but the resolute course of the whites put a stop to their
hostile proceedings. On August 2 and 3 they came upon vast
herds of buffalo and reniarkablv large herds of antelopes. On
August 12 Ihey encountered a band of about thirty- fiveComan-
ches, wiio endeavori'd by appeal ;nu-es of fiieiidlincss to Ia1;e their
lirms, bill ibis course was soon sioppc<l. Tlie whiles had a horse
vvliicli seemed to have an interest iiig'- history on ihe plains. ITe

EXPLOKATIONS BY THE UNITED STATES. 401

was known to all the Indians, and each band had some member
who claimed him. More than once such an Indian would go to
the animal and prepare to take him away, claiming ownership;
but they were not permitted to take possession. On the 31st of
August, three men — Nolan, :\lyers and Bernard — deserted from
the expedition, taking the three best horses, and many valuable
articles, including manuscripts, drawings, Indian presents, etc.
They left in the middle of the night, and were pursued, but suc-
ceeded in escaping.

After various other stirring experiences from Indians and after
suffering severely for want of food, the party under Captain Bell
arrived in due time at Fort Smith. . . After they had been
joined by that under Major Long a few days later, an expedition
was projected to the villages of the Osages. At this time that
tribe was divided into thrci; branches: The Chancers under
Chief Clermont; the White Hairs under Che-sho-hun-go; and the
Little Osages under Ne-zu-mo-me. The first band was on the
Verdigris, the second on the Osage, and the third on the Neosho.
The expedition left on the 21st of September, and, after visiting
these bands, arrived in due season at their predetermined destina-
tion— St. Genevieve, Mo. A small party, consisting of Captain
Kearney and two other persons, passed by way of Hot Springs,
Ark., which they thoroughly examined and reported upon.

In 1820 an expedition under Lewis Cass and Henry Schoolcraft
visited the head-waters of the Mississii)pi and many of the other
upper tributaries of tha>t river in search of information of a scien-
tific iiature. They ascended the Mississippi to Cass lake, but
failed (o find the ultimate source of the Mississippi. The year
before an expedition of a scientific character, in charge of Thomas
Nuttall, passed u[) the Arkansas, exaiuining every object of inter-
est, and making an elaborate record of their discoveries. In
1823, Maj. S. H. Long, with a scientific corps, thoroughly
explored the Minnesota river and several other branches of the
Upi)er Mississij)]:)) in the i)resent Minnesota. He marched far
enough north to locate the forty-ninth parallel on the north
boundary of Minnesota. W. II. Keating was his historian.

The expedition under Col. Hugh Glenn, consisting of about
twenty men, thirty Jiorses and mules and a considerable quantity
of goods for the Indian trade, left Fort Smith on the Arkansas
on September 6, 1821, and started westward up the valley of the
Arkansas. On the second night out they were at 1 lean's salt-
works. These wells had been opened in i8jo near the Illinois
river on a small creek, under a grant to Messrs. Bean and San-

1—26

402

THE PROllNCll AND Till'. STATES.

ders. They soon reached I'orl (.Jibson, which had jusl been built.
They crossed the \''erdi!^;ris, o;i which about four uiiles from its
mouth was an important trading house. This was owned and
conchicted by Colonel Glenn, the commander of this expedition.
Here they remained until September 25, when they again
advanced, but were now reduced to fifteen men, five having left.
They soon reached the Osage village, but found nearly all the
Indians away on their annual buffalo hunt. At this time the
prairies were covered with buffaloes and elks, followed stealthily
by packs of wolves. On Octo];er 1st, tb.ey crossed Little X'erdi-
gris, and by the 4th were in what is now the Osage reservation
of Oklahoma. On the 6ih they were at a point south of the pres-
ent southern boundary of Kansas, not far from Arkansas City,
and here they encounteri-d the ( )sage Indians in great numbers.
On October 9, they crossed \V;ilnut creek not far from Arkansas
City. Many of the Indians w'ere insolent unless they were well
supplied with i)rescnts. On tlie i8th they were near Steiding,
Rice county, J\an. On the -'olh they crossed Pawnee fitrk
near Larned, and on the 25th near Dodge City, Ford county.
Here the plains v,'ere lik rally overed with herds of buffalo, elk,
deer, antelope, wild horses and wolves. CJn November 3, they
were at what is now Ilariland, Kearney county. Two days later
they were at Hollys, just across the line in Colorado, and on the
I2th reached Caddoa. The next day Spanish Peaks were passed,
and on the i6th they were near Robinson. They had passed Fort
Lyon on the 15th, anil were near Catlin on the 20th.

Scarcely a day passed that tlid not witness the visits to the
camp of niemliers oi the Kiawas, Padoueas, letans ( Conian-
ches), Arapahoes, Cheans, Sr.akes, etc. Many articles were
stolen by these pilfering bands, and often collisions were narrowly
avertetl. They were at lU)onville on December 25. At this time
the party -consisted of onl\' thinoen men. A little farther to the
westward they passed the winter, being visited often by the S]jan-
iards from New Mexico. Taos was but six days' journey to the
westward. It is claimed lliat Major Jacc^b b'owler of this party
built the first house in Pueblo ihis winter, a rude log structure.
They spent ])art of the winter in trapping and hunting in this
vicinity; but in the meanlime Colonel Cleun, with a small parly,
went across to Santa W-. vSupi)li('s of corn were procured from
Spanish traders. With ibis |)arly was fames P.cckworlli, who
afterward became the head chiir of (he Crow Indians. On the
2(;lli of Jaiuiar)', ihey rec(i\'C(l word from Colonel Cdenn lo come
on to Santa I'V, and accordingly did so, reaching 'I'aos about I'V-b-

EXPLORATIONS BY THE U NTT ED STATES.

403

ruary 8th. In April, 1822, they started back via what is now Las
Animas and Baca counties, Colo., and after reaching the
upper branches of I*urgatory river struck straight across the
country to Coolidge, Kan. Jiy June 20th they had reached the
vicinity of Raymond, Rice county, and in due time returned to
civilization without serious accident. The objects of trapping
and trading had been accomplished.

Commissioners to treat with the Indian tribes beyond the Mis-
sissippi ascended the Missouri in 1825, leaving St. Louis about the
20th of March and reaching Council Jjlufifs, April lyth. The
commissioners were Gen. Henry Atkinson and Major lienjamin
O'Falion, who were accomi)anied by an escort of one hundred. and
seventy-six soldiers. They had a large supply of Indian jjresents
and an abundance of provisions. In Fort Atkinson,, at Council
Bluffs, they remained until May \G\.\\, when, with large reinforce-
ments, they ascended the Missouri in their boats, arriving at the
Ponca villages in what is now South Dakota, June 8th. llej-e a
council was held a few days later. Ascending the river, they
reached Fort Lookout of the American V\w Company, about
twenty miles below the great bend of the Missouri, on the 17th,
where a council was held and a treaty effected with the Tetons,
Yanktons, Yanktonies and their allies on the 21st and 22d of June.
Bad river. A council was held with a band of Siou?{ at ?Iidden
creek on the 12th of July; and a treaty with the Arickarees was
concluded a week later. Late in July the Mandan villages were
reached, ami here on the y>{\\ a ct)uncil was held and a treaty
effected with the Mandans, Minnetarees and C^ros Ventres, and
four days later with the Crows. .About the middle of August,
the mouth of the Yellowstone was reached and here a trapping
party of twenty-three men under General Ashley was met coming
down tiiat river in hide canoes with a cargo of over one hundred
packs of beaver skins, floping to meet tlie Assiniboines, the com-
missioners sent a detachment up the Missouri over one hundred
miles above the mouth of the Yellowstone ; but it was obliged to
letum without effecting its object. On the 27th of August, the
expedition, accompanied by the Ashley party, boarded the trans-
ports and descended the river, reaching the Mandan villages
August 30th, Council Bluffs September 19th, where, on the 26th,
a council was held and a treaty concluded with the Otoes, Paw-
nees and Omahas. Part of the escort remained at Fort Atkinson,
but the other part descended the Missouri to St. TyOuis. The
results of this expedition were to cement friendshi|) with the
Indians and secure a large tract of territory by treaty. At this
time Major O'Falion was Indian agent on the Missouri.

404

THE F KOI' INCH AND THE STATES.

The expedition of H. B. Schoolcraft and Lieut. J. Allen to the
Northwesteni Indian tribes and to and beyond the sources of the
Mississippi in 1832, was one of the most important made in early
years. A large amount of valuable information was the result.
With Schoolcraft were twenty of his own engages or Canadian
voyagcurs, besides his assistants; and with Allen were about ten
soldiers to serve as an escort ; in all about thirty-five persons in
the expedition. They found the source of the Mississippi river
to be Lake Itasca, which they named. They described a large
number of unknown lakes and other physical features, found cop-
per ore and agates of wonderful beauty, made valuable additions
to the information concerning the origin and habits of the Indian
tribes, and made an im[<ortant contribution to the scientific infor-
mation of the territory through which they passed. Their
explorations were mainly in the present States of Minnesota and
Wisconsin. Tiie real source of the Mississii)pi was unknown
until this expedition discovered it to be in Lake Itasca.

In 1832 Capt. li. E. Jlonnevillo, of the Seventh United States
Infantry, at his own exi)ense and independent of the orders of the
government, left Fort Osage with one hundred and ten men and
twenty wagons on a trading and exploring trip to the mountains.
The start v.'as made al^out the first of May, and for a time the
journey was monotonous enough indeed ; but when the buffalo
and Indian country was reached the sc(?ne Vv'as changed, and such
a change! The wagons were rlrawn by mules and oxen, and a
large supply of provisions and Indian presents was taken along.
Many of the Indians along the whole route had never seen a
wagon before, and regarded them with ever-increasing wonder.
On May 24, when far up in the Indian country, a cry was one day
raised, "Indians, Indians!" and sure enough th.ere came a
mounted band of about sixty Crows at full si)ecd directly toward
the wagons, swinging their arms and yelling like demons, and for
a while nothing was to be seen whirling "around the camj) but
prancing ponies, yelling savajns, streaming hair and feathers,
^and brandished knives and rilhs. All this was intended by the
Indians to show their own prowess and their skill in horseman-
ship and to test the nerve of the whites. After receiving a few
presents, they departe<l at full speed as they had come. On
June 2 the party reached the Platte river at a point about twenty-
five nnles below Grand Island and on the nth were at the fork's
where the two branches of tlie river came t<')gethcr. A little below
this point, they crossed to the north side on the usual trail
traversed by all the expeditions. On June 25 they \vcre at Scf)tt's

EXPLORATIONS BY THE UNITED STATES. 405

Bluffs, on July 12 at Laramie fork on the Platte, and on July 20
caught their first glimpse of the blue mountains in the distance.
They continued, and soon \vere beyond the present boundaries of
the Louisiana Purchase.

Having gone on to the Pacific, they returned and in July, 1833,
were again in the mountains of what is now Colorado. This
party was so large and so well armed and equipped, that they had
little or nothing to fear from the Jndians. On their return they
found many trappers, free and in the employ of the companies, in
the valley of Green river, which at that time was the most noted
rendezvous for these hardy and resolute men any where in the
West. While here, Bonneville determined to go with a portion
of the party to Great Salt Lake. lie started in July with twenty-
four men, and did not return until the spring of 1835. By this
time his party had collected a large supply of skins, and it was
determined to return to the States. Accordingly, they advanced
down the valley of the Platte, and in August again stood at Fort
Usage. Captain Bonneville had gone on this expedition without
leave from the War Department, and during his absence had been
dropped from the army rolls. He was finally restored to his for-
mer rank. This was a private expedition, and many of the inci-
dents were never recorded.

A squadron of dragoons, consisting of thirty-seven men under
Captain Ford, forty men under Captain Duncan, and forty men
under Captain Lupton, all commamled by Col. Henry Dodge, was -
sent to the Rocky mountains in 1835 to hold coinicils witl^ the
Indian tribes and to look alter the interests of the United Stales
on the (then) IMexican border. A large sui)ply train of wagons
was taken along, and in addition two swivels with which to
impress the savages. Captain Gantt was guide to the expedition.
They left Fort Leavenworth ]\Iay 29, 1835, accompanied by
Major Dougherty, Indian agent to the Pawnees, and marched iip
the valley of the Missouri, reaching the mouth of the Platte river
of Nebraska on the 9th of June. Near this place was held on the
nth a council with the Otoes, of whom Ju-tan, or I-e-tan was*
head chief. Here, also, the Omahas were brought by messengers,
and a council was held with them on the 17th, Big Elk being the
principal chief present. At all the councils presents were dis-
tributed. The expedition then marched up the Platte, to the
Pawnee villages about eighty miles distant, where another coun-
cil was Iitld the 23d, Angry Man being principal chief of the
(irand Pawnees, Axe of the I'awnee Loups, Little Chief of the
Pawnee Tappeiges and Mole on the Face of the Republican
Pawnees.

4o6 THE FROriNCh AND THE STATES.

Departing" on the J4th, tlie expedition reached the lower
extremity of Grand Island the following day. When well up the
Platte a council was held on July 5th with the Arickarees, the
chiefs present being Bloody Hand, Two Bulls and Star or Big
Head. This council was held near the falls of the Platte. At
this time, immense herds of buffalo surrounded the expedition.
On the 15th the Rock\' mountains were seen for the first time
by the expedition. Tiiey were now well up the South Fork.
On the 1 8th th.ey passed the niouth of Cache de la Poudre river,
and on the 24111 reached the p..int where the Platte emerges from
the mountains. After this date the expedition marched south-
east, and on July 26, arrived al the divide between the Platte and
the Arkansas. Passing; down Boiling Springs creek and the
Arkansas, they reached Hent'h fi)rt on the 6th of August. Near
this noted place, councils were held with the Arapahoes, Chey-
eimes, lUackfect, dros N'enres nni\ others. Leaving on the 12th
of August, they moved down the Arkansas, holding councils with
the Comanches, Kiowas and others, arriving on the 24th at
Chouteau's Island. So^n afterward they left the valley of the
Arkansas and marched nurthcast to Fort L,eaven worth, where
they arrived on the 16th of September, having fully accompli^,hed
the oliject of the journe} — to quiet the Indian tribes and ascertain
what they were doing and were likely to do in the future.

In 1835-6 an expedition under the command of VV. B. Guion,
J. D. Webster and others were sent by the government to survey
the St. Francis, WHiite and Black rivers in I\Iissouri, Arkansas
nnd Louisiana. Their duties were satisfactorily i)erformed.

The exjjlorations of 1. N. Nicollet from 1838 to 1841 were of
great value to all subsei|uent explorers, owing to the thorough-
ness \vith which he reiuirted the topographical features of the
territory traversed. Lieut. John C. Fremont was one of his
assistants, and Louis Freniere one of his guides. The map he
made of the Upper Mississippi coimtry, particularly of what is
now Minnesota, was so elaborate and so singularly correct, that
all subsequent explorers have, in a large measure, been guided
by it. During this period, Fremont explored the Des Moines
river for him. He had several other assistants, all of whom per-
fonned important special duties. The Upper Mississi])pi, the
Missouri well into the rj.akotas, the Minnesota, the Des MdIiics,
the Arkansas, the Red, jjoth of the North and of Natchitoches,
and many of their smaller brau(dies were examined. 11 is map
of the hydrographical ba^in of the Upper Mississippi is consulted
to this day. He likewise reported on the fauna, the flora, the

EXPLORATIONS BY THE UNITED STATES. 407

kind of soil, the minerals, the timber supply, the Indians, and
other features.

The outposts of the government in 1844 were Fort Jessup on
tlie Red river of Louisiana ; Forts Towson and Washita on Red
river above Fort Jessup ; Forts Smith and Gibson on the navi-
gable waters of Arkansas river; Fort Scott on the southwest
frontier of Missouri; Fort Leavenworth on the Missouri; Fort
Snelling on the Mississippi, and Fort Wilkins on Lake Superior.

The upper Des Moines river was thoroughly explored in 1814
by an expedition under the command of Capt. J. Allen, of the
First Regiment of Dragoons. With fifty, rank and hie, of that
command, two privates of infantry and a train of wagons loaded
with supplies and provisions, the expedition started from Fort
Des Moines on the nth of August, passing first along the "Ore-
gon Trail ;" then crossing Beaver river and reaching the Dela-
ware battle-ground, where, three years before, a band of twenty
Delawares had been slaughtered by a large war party of Sioux.
This event occurred in a deep ravine near the Des Moines river
about five miles below tlic well-known "Iron Banks." The mouth
of the West Fork was passed on August 19th. Great trouble was
experienced in hauling the wagons through the sloughs, where
they often stuck in the black mud. As they neare<l the northern
border of the present lov.a, many small lakes were found, all cov-
ered with innumerable water fowl. When in southern Minne-
sota, the expedition was left at a suitable camp, and Captain
Allen, with twenty-five men, started to discover the remote
sources of the Des IMoines river and of the Tdue Farth river of
Minnesota. On tlie 4th ot September, they reached the St. Peter's
river; and, having passed down the same for several miles,
ascended the Blue Earth basin, examining the sources of that
stream, finally marching westward to their camp. The source
of the West Fork of the Des Moines was found to be a small lake
which was named "Lake of the Oaks." Leaving this lake, the
expedition took a westerly course, and on the 13th of September
arrived at the falls of the Big Sioux river. Previous to their
reaching the headwaters of the Des Moines, not an Indian nor a
bufifalo was seen. Even the small bands of Sioux seen after
that time seemed afraid of the expedition and soon disappeared
after being encountered. Elks were killed almost every day.
"Twenly-five miles west of the source of the Des Moines river
we stnuk iho range of the bulTalo ami continued in il to tiio Big
Sioux and down that river about eigiity-six miles. Below that
we could not see any recent sign of them. We found antelope

4o8 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

in the same range with the hulYalo, but no elk, and very seldom
a common deer. While among- the buti'alo, we killed as many as
we wanted, and without trouble." A side detachment tlescendcd
to the mouth of the Big Sioux, after which the expedition
marched almost on a bee line across the streams to Fort Des
Moines, where it arrived on the 3d of October. in

The explorations of Jolm C. Fremont, under an act of con-
gress, were of much importance in placing before the people a
faithful description of the i)lains and the Rocky mountain region.
•His first was made in 1842, with only twenty-one men. He
marched up the Platte valley, but upon reaching the forks, the
main party was sent up tlie North Fork, while a few men under f

Fremont passed up the South Fork to St. Vrain's fort. From
here they marched northward to the Nortii Fork and joined the
main fork at Fort Laramie. Although the Indians were on the
war-path farther up the river, Fremont determined to proceed.
They continued to .advance without serious interruption, arrived 1}

at the Sweetwater river, marched through South Pass, and a lit-
tle later ascended the highest peak of the Wind River mountains.
The return journey dov/n the Platte was made without notable
incident.

His second exploration was made in 1843 with about forty men.
They marched up the Republican fork of Kansas river, and fin-
ally divided, the main detachment moving by easy stages to
St. Vrain's Fort on the Platte. Fremont with a party of fifteen
made many detours in order the better to explore the plains.
UpiMi reaching St. \^rain's I'ort, they concluded to remain a con-
sidera])le length of time in order to explore the surrounding
country. Roiling Spring river was traversed, and the pueblo at
or near its mouth was visited. Frcjm Fort St. Vrain, the main
party marched straight to Fort Laramie, while the party under
Fremont passed farther to the west, skirting the mountain, and
carefully examining the country. The two detachments rejoined
on the Sweetwater river, and. having marched through South
Pass, continued on to Fort Bri<lger, and moved west down the
Bear river valley. Having marched to Calif(^rnia and passed a
considerable distance down the coast, they finally returned, reach-
ing Colorado at Brown's Hole. While in Colorado, they
explored the wonderful natural parks there. On their return
they passed down the Arkansas, visiting the "pueblo" and Bent's
Fort. 'Pliey reached (he TVIi-^souri river in August, 1844, after
an absence of fourteen months.

The third expedition mider Fremont comprised nearly one

EXPLORATIONS BY THE UNITED STATES. 409

hundred men. Many of his old companions joined him, among
wliom were Carson, Godey, Owens and several experienced Dela-
ware Indians. With him also was his favorite, Basil Lajeunesse,
and Lieutenants Abert and Peck. He had a larger force than
before, and felt equal to any emergency likely to arise. The
plains were crossed without noteworthy incident, except a scare
from the Cheyennes, and on the 2d of August Bent's Fort was
reached. While here the detachment under Lieutenant Abert
was sent to survey the country to the southward, as narrated else-
where. On the 16th of August, the exjjedition proper, consist-
ing of about sixty men, mostly picked for their known qualities
of courage, hardihood, and faithfulness, left Bent's Fort and
started on their journey. On the 20th they encamped at the
mouth of Boiling Springs river, and on the 26th at the mouth
of the great canon of the Arkansas river. On the night of Sep-
tember 2d, they reached the remote headwaters of the Arkansas,
where to their surprise I hey found a small herd of fat buffalo,
that had discovered a small, rich valley and were living in con-
tentment. They furnished the last buffalo roasts enjoyed by the
party for a long time. Two days later Fremont passed across
the divide into the valley of the Grand, and camped on Piney
river, where a goodly supply of fish was caught. The marvel-
ous beauty of the surroundings were specially noted by the
scientists accompanying the party. Continuing westward with-
out noteworthy incident, the party reached Great Salt Lake early
in October. After great hardships Sutter's Fort in California
was reached in Decembor. The following year Fremont assisted
the Califoniians in gaining their indepeiulcnce.

In the autumn of 1845 IJeiU. J. W. Ahert was detached with
twenty-eight men, four wagons, seven horses and fifty-six mules
from the Fremont expedition for the i)urpose of surveying Purga-
tory, False Washita and the Upper Canadian rivers. The fam-
ous mountaineer, Thomas Fitzpatrick, was his guide. The
objects of this side ex])e(lition were fully accomplished.

The Army of the West under the command of Gen. S. W.
Kearney v/a ssent ])y the government in 1846 to oi)erate against
New Mexico and California. The war with Mexico was raging,
and the conquest of the upper provinces "was a consununation
devoutly to be wished." The rendezvous of the army took place
at luni l.eavenworlh in June of tiiat year. The army was divided
into detachments, which were dispatched at different times across
tlie plains. It consisted of two battalions of artillery under
Major Clark, three scpiadrons of the First Dragoons under Major

4IO THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

Sumner, the First Regiment of Missouri Cavalry under Colonel
Doniphan, and two companies of infantry under Captain Agney.
Althoug-h the army crossed the plains in detachments, it again
rendezvoused at a camp nine miles liclow Fort Bent on the Arkan-
sas before advancing to strike San la Fe. With the army were
sent trains of wagons drawn by oxen and mules and loaded with
commissary stores. About the ist of August, the army advanced
in a southerly direction from near Fort Bent, mainly up the val-
ley of Purgatory river; thence across the upper branches of the
Canadian river; thence southwest to the Pecos river, and thence
to Santa Fe. At Bent's fort the army was joined by William
Bent, who was placed in charge of a company of scouts or spies.
The trail to Santa Fe was lined with dead and dying oxen and
mules and broken and abandoned \\agons. Several detachments
of the army returned over the same route in January and Febru-
ar)', 1847, and had narrow escapes from death both by freezing
and starvation. They met several expeditions of settlers going
to the western country.

As the army proceeded in sections across the plains, several
detachments were sent out from the main body to explore
branches of the Arkansas and the Red. Col. W. H. Emory com-
manded one of the detachments, which marched from Fort Leav-
enworth to San Diego, California, collecting an immense amount
of valual)le information concerning the route over which he
passed. Another detachment inuK r Lieutenant Abert likewise
made important discoveries.

It was in 1847 that the IMormons crossed"the plains in search of
a home where they could live in jjeace. The advance column,
consisting of one hundred and forty-three men, seventy-two
wagons, one hundred and seventy-fn'e horses, many mules and
oxen, seeds and agricultural implements, and rations for six
months, left the Missouri river in September. They marched up
the valley of the Platte, ascending the North Fork, but crossing
at Fort Laramie. They moved through South Pass, and in July,
1848, reached Salt Lake valley. A week or more later, the main
body arrived under the guidance of Brigham Young.

In 1849, Capt. R. B. Marcy conducted a surveying expedition
from Fort Smith to Santa Fe. "The expedition had in view
the escorting of a number of California emigrants, and at the
same time the exploration, survey ;uid construction of a wagon
mad fvi)\\\ thai post lo Sania I'e by way of llie sonili side of the
Canadian river." The escort eonsisled of twenty-live men of the
First Drag(X)ns under Lieut. John Ptuford, fifty men of the Fifth

EXPLORATIONS BY THE UNITED STATES. 411

Infantry under Lieutenants Montgomery, Harrison and Upde-
graff, nineteen six-nuiles wagons, and one six-pound howitzer.
The guide was Black Beaver, a Delaware Indian. Lieut. J. H.
Simpson accompanied the expedition. A large number of emi-
grants of the Fort Smith Company under John Dillard was pro-
tected by this escort. The expedition struck across the country to
the Shawnee Hills, after which it marched much of the time in
the valley of the Canadian. They passed Sans Bois creek,
Rocky Hills, Edwards' Old Fort, Delaware Mount, Cross Tim-
bers and Old Fort Holmes, near which had stood Chouteau's old
trading-house. On May 23d they were near Natural Mound.
Their forty-first encampment was at Antelope Hills. They
encountered many Indians, and it would have fared hard with
the emigrants had it not been for the presence of the troops. Is-sa-
kiep, head chief of the Comanches, held a letter of recommenda-
tion from Thomas b'itzpatrick, the famous western guide, at this
time Government Indian agent for the upper Platte and Arkansas
rivers. On June 22d, they saw in the distance the snow-covered
peaks of the Rockies. When well up the Canadian, they marched
southwest to the river Pecos, thence northwest to the vicinity
of Santa Fe. The road thus surveyed was afterward exten-
sively traveled.

In 1849, Capt. L. Sitgreaves was sent with an escort of thirty
men, three ox-wagons, one spring wagon for the instrument and
five spare horses, to survey and mark the north and west bouiul-
aries of the Creek' reservation. His j^arty was partly completed
at Ciui-innati, but mainly at l'\)rl Gibson, where a large party of
emigrants waited for the escort of this force. All started
July 2 1 St, and from the start encountered much opposition from
the Indians; but nevertheless Lieutenant Sitgreaves continued to
run the lines as ordered. The emigrants were taken far enough
to the west to enable them to reach Santa Fe in safety.

On the 31st of May, 1849, a party consisting of eighteen men,
five wagons and forty-six horses and mules, under tlie command
of Capt. Howard Stansbury, of the topographical engineers of the
United States army, left Fort Leavenworth to cross the plains for
the purpose of exploring the valley of Great Salt Lake. On the
7th of June, they met Mr. Brulct, of the Missouri Fur Company,
on his way from Fort Laramie to St. Louis with a large train
of wagons loaded with buffalo hides. ?Ic stated that he had been
forty days thus far on the trip, and during that time had met fully
four thousand wagons, aviraging iour persons to the wagon going
to the west for homes or to search for gold. He said that good

412 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

wagons could he bouglu a little Jarther ahead for from ten dollars
to fifteen dollars each, and that salt provisions could be Iiad for
nolhini;\ On June yih the graves of six dead eniigrants were
passed ; and on the loth three of the party's best horses were
stolen by a band of Pawnees in the night and were never recov-
ered. This band had evidently watched the train for several days.
On the same day there passed tliem a trading expedition under
Bissonet and Badeau from the villages of the Sioux with a goodly
supply of furs. On Juuv' ii they passed an emigrant party of
seventy or eighty persons bound for California. Immense num-
bers'of killdeer began to be seen, and terrible rain-storms swept
across the plains, blowing down every tent, overturning wagons,
and playing havoc generally, ainid a terrific play of electricity.
More Indians began to be seen and accordingly, the cattle and
horses at night were "corralled" and guarded. On June i8, a
government train crosscil (heir trail, having thirty-one heavy
wagons, four hundred oxen antl i.)rty men, on their way to estab-
lish a new post near Fort 1 !all within tiie Rockies. About June i8
they reached the Platte near (irand Island and the next day
camped within two miles of Fort Kearney, where they found
Colonel Bonneville in command.

Here they remained until the 21st recuperating. On June 27,
when over one hundred miles west of Fort Kearney, they killecL
their first buffalo four or live miles from the trail. On the same
day a small herd was seen in the distance. Early the next day
three cow buffaloes were killed; and later on this day the first
stoj) was made that all the expedition might enjoy a buft'alo hunt :
Result, four killed and one wounded. Previous to this, Indian
wigwams or lodges had beai occasionally seen, which upon being
examined were found to contain the dead bodies of Indians raised
on poles beyond the reach of wolves. On one occasion the body
of a beautiful Indian girl \> as thus found. It was soon learned
that they had died of cholera, (mi July 2 they were at an esti-
mated distance of one hundred and eighty miles west of Fort
Kearney. On the 5th they reached a Sioux encampment of ten
lodges, where nearly all were sicl: with cholera. Here they met
Badeau, one of the trappers of the Missouri Fur Company, who
had married an Indian girl, and ^vas regarded very highly by the
tribe. A few miles farther up was a larger village of the same
tribe consisting of about two hundred and fifty persons. On
July I J they reached Fori I.aramii', now a government post, where
were staiioned two companies of iiifanti'v and one of mounted
riflemen imder the connnand of Major vSanderson. Here they
l)Ought many fresh nudes to replace their broken-tlown ones.

EXPLORATIONS BY THE UNITED STATES. 413

The march was resumed on the i8th, and a few days later they
added to their trahi a cow wliich had been abandoned by some
emigrant. As they continued, they began to see abandoned
wagons and dead oxen on every mile of the route; and finally the
trail was literally strewn with agricultural implements, household
articles, furniture, clothing, cari)enter's tools, salt meat, stoves,
etc., at times almost in heaps. On July 17 they passed seventeen
abandoned or broken-down wagons and twenty-seven tlead oxen.
As they passed the land of all<ali and sage-brush, the wrecks
became more frequent ami mekmcholy. On July 28 they encoun-
tered thirty-one dead oxen, and on August ist passed about a
dozen burnt wagons and nineteen dead oxen. At one alkali pool,
ten oxen were found dead in a heap. They were now at "Inde-
pendence Rock" on the Sweetwater; and here the wrecks became
less frequent. The alkali ])hiins along the North Fork and at the
crossing of the Sweetwater, l;ad been found literally a charnel
house of animals. On -August 3, they met Captain Duncan of
Fort Laramie, who had been out after five deserters, and had capt-
ured them within fifty miles of Fort Bridger. Many sage-hens
were now brought into camp. On August 5, the mail from Salt
Lake City to the East passed by with about six thousand letters.
On August 6th, they entered South I'ass, and having gone
through the same, encamped at Pacific Springs on Little Sandy
Creek. Here they found a grave, well rounded up, with head-
board and name thereon ; but some time afterward learned that
it contained a large supply of whisky, which had been placed
there for safe-keeping. The sagacity of the emigrant or trader
met its reward, for tlie i^rave s\as not molested, and the whisky
was there when he returned for it. On August 9 Green river
was reached, and on the nth they arrived at Fort Bridger, where
they again rested and recuperated. Here they met the famous
"Jim Bridger," who had been in the mountain country for more
than thirty years, and who had the unbounded respect of every
passer-by. On August 20 they resumed their march. While on
Bear river, they caught many fine trout. In due time they safely
reached the famous Salt Lake valley, their objective point.

They remained west of the mountains for the space of thirteen
months, surveying the valley and making a number of important
excursions; after which they started on their return trip, reaching
Fort B.ridger September 5, 1H50, where they met both Bridger
and his |)artner, Vasquez. North of Fort Bridger were the Slio-
shoncs and Crows; easi were llie Ogallalas and other Sioux;
soullieast were the Cheyennes and south were the Utahs. While

414 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

here they received the news that President Taylor had died.
Leaving- Fort Bridger on September lO, they resolved to find, if
possible, a shorter route across the mountains than along the South
Pass, through which they had come the year before. Plaving
employed Bridger to act as their guide, they set out and a few |

days later were charged upon by a war party of Shoshones, who at
first mistook them for a band of Utahs, whom they were seeking. f

They were armed with a few guns, bayonets used as spears, bows
and arrows, etc., and were mounted on small, powerful horses.
The whites passed along the valkys of Black and Green rivers,
and thence up Bitter creek. This valley had been famous in for-
mer times for the immense herds of buft'alo which came here to
winter, owing to the little snow which fell here and to the large
tracts of rich grassland. On this account, it became a great
resort for the trappers and traders and the scene of many a sharp
contest for the furs of the Indians. At this time (1850) there
was a scarcity of buiifalo to be found here, but their rotting bodies
lay thick throughout the valley. Having passed up Bitter creek
about seventy miles they turned more still to the east, and struck
across to the valley of Muchly creek, reaching it about twenty-five
miles from its mouth. As this was still the battle ground of sev-
eral tribes, it was nccessaiy to use great precaution to prevent
being surprised by their war parties.

While encamped on thio stream, Bridger told the following
story: ''A partner of his, Kenry Frappe, had a party of what in
the language of the country are called 'free men,' that is, inde-
pendent traders, who some nine years before were encamped
about two miles from where we then were, with their squaw
partners and a party of Indians. Most of the men being absent
hunting bufifalo, a band of five hundred Sioux, Cheyennes and
Arapahoes suddenly char;-vd upmi their camp, killed a white
man, an Indian, and two women, drove off a hundred and sixty
head of cattle, and, chasing the hunters, killed several of them
in their flight, the residue escaping only by abandoning their
horses and hiding in the bushes. Intelligence of this onslaught
reached Major Bridger, then occupied in erecting a trading-post
on Green river; he sent Fni.ipe advice to abantlon his post at once,
for fear of worse consetiuences. The advice, however, was
neglected, when about ten days after, as his party was on their
way [i) join his partner, lliey were again suddenly attacked by
another large party of iheir savage allies. lie had but forty
men; but iliey instantly 'foiled' in the coiivl atlaciied to the trad-
ing i)osl and stood on tluir tlefeuse. The assault lasted from

EXPLORATIONS BY THE UNITED STATES.

415

noon to sundown, the Indians charging the pickets several times
with great bravery ; but th.ey were finally rejjulsed with the loss
of forty men. Frappe himself was killed, with seven or eight
of his people."*

In his report, Captain Stansbury says, "Ijefore noon we passed
a spot where a party of fourteen fur-traders under Mr. Vasquez,
had 'forted' and fought forty Ogallala Sioux for four hours, suc-
cessfully defending themselves and repulsing the Indians. One
of our men, a half-breed hunter, had himself been in the fight,
and pointetl out to me the localities with the most minute particu-
larity of bloody details." This was, in fact, one of the most his-
toric valleys in the whole mountain region, full of reminiscences
for the old hunters and trappers. The party continued along
Muddy creek until September 20, when they struck east again,
and ascended slowly the continental divide, and in a short time
stood at the spot where the waters divide, part flowing east to the
I\Iississipi)i and part west to the Colorado. Far to the east, they
could see the Platte valley spread out before them like a picture
and glistening in the sun. This became called Britlger's Pass.

They had now come about two hundred and seventy miles
since leaving Fort Bridger. They continued eastward down a
steady and gradual decline until at last, on the 21st, they
encamped on the North I'ork of the Platte. Here was another
famous hunting and trapping ground; and here and there could
be seen the ruins of the old Indian stockades, there being in the
valley at this time fifteen or twenty of them still standing, silent
and deserted. In every direction, also, were the bones of buf-
falo, scattered, but telling the tale of slaughter. Here the party
began to see buffalo for the first time on the return trip. Passing
down the Platte, they ascended Medicine Bow river, and on Sep-
tember 25, reached Frajiiie creek, named for the man mentioned
above, who had been rol)l)ed at its mouth several years before of
sixty horses by a war jiarty of Arickarees. On September 26,
they entered Laramie Plains, where, on the open, they were
threatened by a party of Indians ; but they hastily sought the tim-
ber, where they fortified themselves, and sent Bridger out to
reconnoiter. There were about thirty whites in the party, and
nearly all were expert riflemen and knew no fear. Bridger
returned with the report that they were Ogallalas (Sioux), and
were friendly. In fact the Tuilians all came to the camp and
became altogether too friendly, for they slyly stole several articles,

'Sl;uisl)iny's l?,x|)filitiim to llie Cical Siill I.nkc

4i6 THE PROl'lNCE AND THE STATES.

among- which was a valuable ,5;un. They were out after a war
party of Crows, with whoai ihey were at war. Brid^er knew
many of the chiefs personally. They were supplied with tobacco,
coffee, flour, sugar and given a square meal : there were several
liundred of them. It is a sin^^ular fact, yet true, that although
Bridger did not know a word of Sioux, nor the Indians under-
stand a word of English, yet he conversed with tliem for two
hours wholly by the sign language, each understanding each
other perfectly, the Indians several times bursting out in laughter
at the witticisms of the old mountaineer. This language was
understood by all the tribes, and by the old hunters and trappers,
and was the same everywhere. The whites visited th.e Ogallala
village several miles away, and v»ere entertained at dinner, but
did not linger over the meal. i\ round here were the outliers of
the BL'ick 1 fills, and lierr the i)arly slop[)ed for some time to take
observations and make measurements. The plains at this place
were strewn with buffalo carcasses, and the live animals roamed
in immense herds. On October 6 they advanced, and reached
Fort Laramie on the ulh. Fort Leavenworth was reached on
November 6, and Washing-ton, I). C, on December 6.

In the sununer of 1849, an expedition under the command of
Maj. Samuel Woods was sent to the Red River of the North to
ascertain the relations existing there between the Hudson's Bay
Company and the Indians south of the British line, and between
the latter and the white settlers also south of the boundary. With
him went Capt. John Pope, afterward famous in the Civil war,
and a compar.y of forty dragoons from Fort Snelling. The expe-
dition, well e(|uipped, marched from Sauk Rapids June 16, pass
ing in succession Sauk lake, Lightning lake, White Bear lake,
Pike lake, Flk lake. Potato ri\ er, Rabbit river, and when near
the latter meeting a train of wagons of the American Fur Com-
pany in charge of Mr. Kitson of Pembina, "We were nuich
struck with the primitive appearance of the train of carts, with-
out a particle of iron abfuit them, each drawn by a single ox in the
shafts and carrying about one thousand [tounds." The exiicdi-
tion crossed Red river a short (h'siance above the mouth of Sioux
Wood river, and, keeping out of the valley much of the time,
marched northward, crossing Cheyenne, Mai)le, Rush, Big Salt
and other streams, and rrcrossing Red river several times before
Peml)ina was reached .AuiMist i.l. They had seen their first buf-
falo July 22d. At Pembina, it was learned that, while Hudson's
Bay Ciimpany openlv si iil whisky across the boimdar\' to the
Indians south of the line, the American Company's traders were

EXPLORATIONS BY THE UNITED STATES. 417

not perniitted to do so, thus seriously reacting on their traffic.
It was seen that the abuses of the Indian trade tended to niai<e
friends between the JJritish and tiie Indians at the expense of the
Americans. The population was largely half-breeds, who lived
almost exclusively on dried buffalo meat. Here was a civiliza-
tion, or semi-civilization, different from anything the members
of the expedition had ever seen. Having accomplished its object
in this section of the country, the expedition divided, part under
Captain Pope passing up Red river, thence across the divide and
down St. Peter's river to the Mississippi,' and the other crossing
to the Mississippi southeast from Pembina. Much valuable
information concerning tlie Territory of Minnesota was gleaned
from this expedition.

An expedition under the command of Thaddeus A. Culbertson
was sent across the upper country from iM^ri Pierre to the IJttle
Missouri river in 1850. lie started in April, and by May 10th
was on the headwaters of that stream. On his return, he passed
across the uplands to tlie Black Hills, and thence through the Bad
Lands, or Mauvaises Terre. The olrject of the expedition was
two-fold: To ascertain what the Indians were doing and to find
a new and better trail for wagon and other trains. Immediately
succeeding this trip, he passed up the Missouri from Fort Pierre,
meeting and endeavoring to make friends of the warring Arick-
arees and others. On this trip he visited bort Clark and Fort
Buthold, both on the Missouri in what is now North Dakota.

What was called "the Oregon expedition" left Fort Leaven-
worih in May, 1850, uiuler the eoiuinand of Colonel I^oring, and
consisted of an entire regiment, divided into three detachments
of two companies each, accompanied by many wagons contain-
ing the supplies, and by a large party of emigrants, who availed
themselves of this opportunity to secure a safe escort across t.lu
plains. It is needless to say that the regiment arrived in Oregon
in due season. The divisions marched a few miles apart, so as
to be always in readiness to assist one another in case of an attack
by the Indians. So many wagon trains crossed the plains at this
time that the Indians soon adopted the tactics of stampeding
their stock— horses, mules, cattle ami sheep— either day or night
as seemed best. Indian scouts on horseback could be seen at all
stages of the journey watching the emigrants from a safe dis-
tance and noting the vulnerability of the trains. When a train
was too well guarde4 to permit this attack, the Indians often
approached the waj^ons undtr a Hag of truce lo beg or trade.
Many of the chiefs had vouclu-rs, given tiiein by unscrupulous
I — 27

4i8 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

traders or travelers for hay, wood, grass, etc., of the country,
calHng' for reimbursement from the government : when this was
refused they usually became indignant. It is related that, during
the progress of this expedition, the members thereof were always
in sight of wagon trains, when in the valley of the I'laite. IJy
June ist, 1850, not counting those who passed along the right
bank of the river, over four thousand wagons passed Fort Kear-
ney that year, going westward. Kstimating an average of four
persons to each wag"on, it will be seen that an aggregate of twenty
thousand persons had thus gone to the West before that date.
There were usually ten or twelve oxen to each wagon, thus aggre-
gating from forty thousand to fifty thousand oxen, to say nothing ■?!
of the large numbers of cattle, sheep, horses and mules driven
along. It was estimated that during the year 1850, fully eigiit
thousand wagons went up the Platte valley alone, representing
over thirty thousand persons and nearly one hundred thousand
animals. It was estimated that more persons went over the. Santa
Fe trail than over the IMatte trail. When the total is thus esti-
mated, the remarkable westward movement becomes apparent.
With the Loring expedition went seven hundred horses and twelve
hundred mules, all intejided for use in Oregon, where the regiment
was to be stationed. But after all, the wonderful westward erjii
gration was natural and is easily accounted for. The marvelous
agricultural resources of Oregon and California were just becom-
ing known. That fact was alone sufficii'ut to attract to the coast
large num.bers of permanent settlers. \Vhen to that magnet
is added the other of gold in almost e\er)' stream and on almost
every moiuitain side, the large emigration may be reganled as
natural and reasonable. An incidental result was to open to the
gaze of the people, the wontlerful possibilities of wh?t was for-
merly the Louisiana Province.

In 1852 Capt. Randolph B. Marcy, of the Fifth infantry, was
detached with fifty-five men of his com[jany to examine the
sources of Red river above the mouth of Cache creek. Associ-
ated with him as second in command was Capt. George B.
McClellan, afterward famous in the Civil war and as a candidate
for the presidency. v*^t range as it may seem, the country thus
designed to be explored was, as Marcy termed it, "terra incog-
nita." If it had ever been visited by white men, no record had
been ke])t. Marcy repaired to Fort Smith, and then to Preston,
Tex.; ami the rende-/vous tooK- ]>lace by delachments al the mouth
of Cache creel-:. Me look- with him a supply train of twtlve'
vva)';i)iis drawn by oxen. 'Pbe most of his troops were detached

EXPLORATIONS BY THE UNITED STATES. 419

from Fort Belknap on the Brazos river in Texas; and all assem-
bled at the mouth of Cache creek on the I3lh of May, 1852. The
start was made on the i6th, the force ascending- the ridge divid-
ing Cache creek from Red river. Indian signs were seen almost
every day from the start. Soon buffalo tracks were seen in the
prairie sand. On the 17th a panther measuring eight and a half
feet from tip to tip was killed. The next day a stray horse was
caught. A few days later they turned more to the northward,
and on the 23d reached Otter creek. Three days later their first
buffalo was killed, and the following day a party of one hundred
and fifty Witchita Indians visited the camp to inquire wiiere the
expedition was bound. With them were many horses and mules,
laden with buffalo meat ; also ten wild horses recently captured.
The chief .was Ca-ne-ja-hex-ee. The object of the expedition
was explained ; but the Indians used all their arts to dissuade the
whites from advancing, statmg, among other things, that the
country was a desert, ilestitule of water and animals, and was so
barren that even the Indians not only did not live there, but rarely
ventured there on any pretext. These stories did not deter Cap-
tain Marcy, who determined to proceed. A council was held and
presents were distributed. About this time Captain I\IcClellan
took a small force and established the one hundredth parallel of
west longitude at a point six miles below the mouth of the Dog
Town branch of the river. As it afterward turned out, this was
much too far to the east, and was partly the cause of a dispute
regarding territory between Texas and the United States.

As they advanced, the country, instead of becoming barren,
became even better than that through which they had before
passed. An excellent grass covered the plains, tlie water of the
streams was good for man and beast, many cool springs bul^bled
out from the iiills or the Washita mountains, the air was delight-
fully cool and fresh, and the cattle and the mules actually took on
flesh instead of losing it. Deer, antelope, buffalo, wild fowl, bear •
and panther afforded all a chance to prove their prowess as follow-
ers of the chase. By the 9th of June they were on Sweetwater
creek. Many Indian signs were observed, made both by war par-
tujs and by traveling villages of the Kiowas, Comanches, Wacos,
Keechies and others. Kiowa creek was reached June 14th. Hav-
ing arrived at what was thought to be the most northerly point of
the North Forlc, Captain ATarcy determined to march with a small
escort across to the Canadian river to examine the country lying
between the two streams. This was done from the 17th' to the
19th. The Canadian was reached near the mouth of Sandy

420

THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

creek. Returning, they reached the North Fork in what is now
Gray county, Tex. The North Fork was now so small that it
was thought useless to ascend it any farther, whereupon the expe-
dition marched almost directly southward, and on the 20th
reached the stream which they named McClellan creek. Two
days later they reached tlie Salt Fork of the Red and were then
in Donley county, Tex. For the last few days, they had seen
many of the wonders of the famous Llano Hstacado — mirages,
streams wholly dry, hare, hot sand, repulsive reptiles, wonderful
rock formations, strange gray grass and a hrassy sky.

They finally arrived at the Dog Town hranch of the river,
where they found its hed nine hundred yards wide, but containing
very little water. About this time Captains Marcy and McClel-
lan together killed a larj;e panther. They used a deer-bleat to
attract a doe, but also attracted a panther, which mistook it for
the cry of a fawn and came bounding to the spot. The topog-
raphy now became very rough and the water so bad that it could
scarcely be used. For some time the men were so tortured with
thirst that they talked about ice-water during the days and
dreamed about it during the nights. One man present said he
would give two thousand dollars for a bucket full of pure, cold
water. As th-ey ascended this fork the river water became better.
They now began to find an occasional spring of fine water, where
all thoroughly refreshed themselves before proceeding. By
July 1st, the water in the river was good for drinking. The
rock formations were wondered at, some l)cing eight hundred
feel high, shai)cd like foils anil castles and singularly beautiful.
Soon after this Ihey reacbed the remote headwaters of this fork,
in what is now New Mexico. There they found many fine
springs and a picturesque country. They were now according to
their calculations at the meridian of one Inmdred tliree degrees,
seven m.inutes, and eleven seconds of west longitude.

On July 4th, they stalled to retrace their steps. Mulberry
creek was reached on the 6th. l>efore arriving at the western
extremity of the Witchita mountains, they passed the sites of the
old Witchita villages, now deserted, but showing where the fields
and lodges had formerly stood. Uy the iQlh of July, they wore
at the eastern end of the mountains, whence they designed to
strike across the country \.o Fort Arbuckle f)n the Canadian river.
They marched northward alon;^^ the divide between Cache and
Beaver creeks, and when they arrived at Tvush creek, a branch of
the Washita river, they found the two principal villages of the
Witchilas and the Wacos. At both places they hchl councils and

EXPLORATIONS BY THE UNITED STATES. 421

distributed presents. To-se-quash was at this time the head chief
of the former tribe. On the 23d, Captain Marcy released from
captivity a Mexican boy aliout fifteen years of age, whom the
Indians were loth to part with; in fact did not do so until given
many presents and threatened that he would be set at liberty in
any event. On the 28th, Fort Arbuckle was duly reached, much
to the joy of the sokliei-s. In his report. Captain Marcy recom-
mended the erection of a fort near the mouth of Cache creek, or
at the forks of the Red, for the purpose of holding in better sub-
jection the tribes of the remote headwaters of the Red and the
Canadian rivers. The objects of the expedition were fully
I accomplished, and another supposed desert was found to be abun-

.\ dantly fitted for a large population.

I By act of March 3, 1853, the Secretary of War was authorized

; "to employ such portion of the corps of topographical engineers

1 and such other persons as lie may deem necessary, to make such

I explorations and surveys as he may deem advisable, to ascertain

' the most practicable and economical route for a railroad from the

V Mississippi river to the Pacific ocean," and the sum of one hun-

dred and fifty thousand dollars was appropriated to defray the
expense of such expeditions ; later forty thousand dollars more
, was appropriated to cover deficiencies. Under this act three
expeditions were projected: First, westward on a line between
the forty-seventh and the forty-ninth parallels of north latitude;
second, one between tlie thirty-seventh and the fortieth parallel ;
third, one on or near the line of the thirty-fifth parallel.
* The first above mentioned was under the command of Hon.

Isaac I. vStevens. The design was to locate the most eligible
route, for a railroad from St. Paul to Puget Sound, between the
above mentioned parallels. A large military escort accompanied
the expedition; also many surveyors and engineers. Marching
early in June from St. Paul, they reached in succession Sauk
Rapids, Sauk Lake, Lightning lake, White Bear lake, Lambert
river. Pike lake, Chippewa river. Red River of the North and
Cheyenne river July 2d. Soon after this they began to see many
herds of bufifalo. On the 15th of July, they met a large party
of Red river hunters, consisting of about thirteen hundred per-
sons, over eight hundred carts, alx)ut twelve hundred horses,
, mules and cattle, and over one hundred lodges or tents. Vast

\ numbers of buffaloes were .slaughtered and the flesh was minced

j and afterward mixed with tallow and securely packed for fuliu-e

use. The product was used by the fur companies in the far
I north during the entire seasons and commanded a j,^ood price.

422 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

Fort Union at the mouth of the Yellowstone was reached
August 1st. On the way a large party of Assiniboines were met,
but they offered no resistance. About the ist of September, Fort
Benton was reached ; and on tlie 24th they arrived at Dearborn
river. I^arly in October, liiey crossed the divide by the way of
Traveler's Rest Creek, and soon afterward passed across the line
into what is now Idaho. The report sliowed the practicability
of the route.

The honor of surveying the second or central route above men-
tioned fell to Capt. J. \V. Ounnison. His i)arty rendezvoused
at VVestport, near Kansas City, and started in June, 1853. In
tiie party were about sixty persons, all well armed, with a large
supply of provisions. Tliey marched up the left bank of Kansas
river until they came to the Pawnee or Republican fork, after
which they continued farther from the river valley, crossing Sol-
omon and Saline rivers on rafts; and soon afterward passed south
across the Smoky Hill fork, and, marching southwest, reached
Arkansas river in the vicinity of its Pawnee fork. They then
ascended the Arkansas to the mountains, crossed the same and
were soon on the soil of the present Utah, where Captain Gunni-
son and a small party, while out prospecting from the main party,
were attacked by a large band of Eutaws, and several were
slaughtered, including Ca]->tain Gunnison himself, wlio received
eighteen arrow wounds and had his right arm severed at the
elbow. This expedition was fortunate in discovering a new
route and a better pass through the mountains by way of the
Huerfano river. The report shows that this route was practi-
cable for a railroad.

The third route above mentioned was surveyed by Lieut. .A.. W.
Whipi^le and jiarty. He started from Fort Napoleon at the
mouth of the Arkansas river; but finally rendezvoused at Fort
Smith in May and June, 1853. His escort, consisting of about
fifty soldiers, moved under his command up the valley of the
Arkansas until the Canadian fcjrk was reached and then up the
right bank of the latter. On the 7th of September, they were at
Antelope Hills near the one hundredth meridian of longitude.
When near the head of the Canadian river, he turned southwest,
crossed the Pecos and entered the valley of the Rio Grande south
of Sanla Fe. Thence he marclu-d through northern Arizona to
California. Of his ])arty were l.ieuts. J. C. Ives and P. S. Stan-
ley. A practicable route for a railroad was slu)wn by this rejjort.

Under the act of congress of 1853, Capt. F. F. I'-eale, the
superintendent of Indian afTairs in Califoniiri, who had Ix en on

EXPLORATIONS BY THE UNTTED STATES. 423

a visit to the East, started from Westport, AIo., in May, 1853,
with a party of twelve rilleineii, intending to return to his work
in the West. Under the act he was instructed to locate certain
Indian reservations in California, and to provide for the subsist-
ence, protection and colonizaliou of ilie Indians thereon. The
party went first to Council Grove distant from Westport one
hundred and twenty-two miles, thence to Fort Atkinson on the
Arkansas river two hundred and thirty-nine miles, thence to the
mouth of Huerfano river two hundred and forty-seven miles,
thence to Fort Massachusetts eiglity-five miles, and so on to the
coast. He encountered no serious opposition from the Indians.

The "Sioux Expedition" of 1855, under the command of Gen.
W. S. Harney, performed as well important duties of surveying.
A detachment under Lieut. G. K. Warren marched across the
open country from St. Pierre to Fort Kearney, thence up the
Platte to Fort Laramie, thence across a wild tract of territory to
Fort Pierre, thence down to the mouth of the Big Sioux,, and
thence northeast ^througli Minnesota, passing first up the P)ig
Sioux. It was in 1856 that a wagon road was surveyed from
•Fort Ridgley in Minnesota to South Pass in the Rockies by Col.
W. H. Nobles: fifty thousand dollars had been appropriated by
the government to defray the expenses of this survey. From
1858 to 1862 a military road from Wally Wally to Fort Benton
v^as explored and surveyed by Capt. Joiin Mullan.

An expedition commanded by Gen. William F. Raynolds
explored the Yellowstone and other branches of the Upper
Missouri river in 1859. They rendezvoused at Fort Leavenworth
and St. Joseph and arrived at l'\)rt Randall June 13, and at Fort
Pierre the 18th, where a treaty was concluded with the Sioux and
their allies. From this fort the expedition marched over the
plains to the westward in the Bad and Cheyenne river basins,
crossing many small creeks, and finally reaching the Black Hills
about the middle of July. With the expedition was James
Bridger, the famous hunter, trapper and mountaineer. Leaving
the Black Hills, they marched up the North Fork of the Chey-
enne; thence across the divide to the Little Missouri; thence
across Powder, Tongue and Rosebud rivers, finally arriving at
Fort Sarpy the J^lh of August. This fort was a post of the
American Fur Company, with Robert Meldrum in command.
During the autumn of 1859 Lieut. H. I{. Maynadier was sent
with a strong detachment to explore Rosebud, Tongue and Pow-
der rivers. Passing bar!, to the r\)wder river, the expecbtion
moved up that stream, and liiially across the divide to the North

424 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

Fork of the Platte, where winier quarters were secured. Dur-
ing the following- winter, many side expeditions thoroughly
explored the surrounding country over a radius of nearly a hun-
dred miles. The winter was passed near the hig hend of the
North Fork, of tiie Platte. The following spring the party
marched m a northwest direction, partly east and partly west of
the contmental divide, explored the valleys of Jefferson, Afadison
and Gallatm rivers, and on the 14th of July arrived at Fort J Jen-
ton. Fort Union was reached August 7, Fort Pierre Septem-
ber 7, and Omaha October 4. The expedition accomplished its
objects of exploration and Indian pacification.

It was estimated by Cai.t. Edward F. Peale in 1859, that a rail-
road from Fort Smith, Ark., to San Filii^e. N. M.. would cost
oyer twenty-one million dollars. This report was the outcome
of an expedition sent by the i.overnment under his command
across the plains in 1858-9. It passed up the Canadian fork,
from the headwaters of ^vhich it inarched across to the Callinas
picking out the most pnicticable route for a wagon road It
finally crossed the Pecos and a few days later entered tlie valley
of the Rio (Grande. The n.ad thus surveyed was afterward trav-
eled to a large extent by emigrants and others.

In 1862 Capt. Medorem Crawford conducted a large party of
emigrants across the plains from Omaha: he was assisted by
Leroy Crawford. Tlie escort consisted of fifty mounted soldiers,
with twelve loaded wagcns and an ambulance. He started
June 16, and by the 28th was oi^posite Fort Kearney. July 10
he reached Castle Ruins, July U'Ah Fort Laramie, July 29th
Devils Gate. August 7th l!ig Sandy creek and August 15th the
Smith tork of Pear riyer near the Idaho line. Wally Wally was
reached October 14th. No incident of notable importance
occurred on the trip. During the same vear, another partv of
emigrants was conducted across the plains, up the valley of the
1 lattc, by Captain Mackay. He encountered no serious obstacle.
In 1863 Capt. James P. Fisk was sent with a mounted escort
of fifty soldiers juid the necessary assistants to conduct a large
party of emigrants from I'ort Ab.rcromliie on P.-d river of the
North to Fort Penton. The ccnmtry was infested with many
liostile bands of Indians: and tlie government realized that the
departure of the emigranis wilh.nit escort meant their certain
annihilatirni. All being re;.dy, the start XNas made July 3 Milk
nver A\as reached Auonist 19, and Fort Penton September 5
Ihe expedition marched a considerable distance north of the
Missouri and then well np Milk river, before passing down

EXPLORATIONS BY THE UNITED STATES. 425 ]

Maria's river to Fort Benton. By so doing-, they escaped the
Indians lying in wait along the nsual route traveled by emigrants.
There was little danger from Indians west of Fort Benton.

The next year Captain Fisk conducted another overland expe-
dition from Fort A'bercrombie to Fort Benton, his escort rendez-
vousing at St. Cloud, 'i'he principal object of the expedition
was to escort a large emigrant train across the plains through a
dangerous section of Indian country. The escort consisted of
fifty soldiers, a i2-poun(i howitzer, and wagons containing the
necessary supplies. Antoine Frcnier was present as the Sioux
interpreter, and R. D. Campbell as the Chippewa interpreter.
The expedition reached Fort Rijiky June 19, at which p(Mnt many
m.ore emigrants were added to the train. Here the equipment
was completed, Colonel Ivogers being in charge of the garrison.
Otter Tail lake was reacheil on July 8, and here were seen melan-
choly evidences of the slaughter the year before. On July ii
Dayton was reached, and here again the bloody work of the ^^re-
vious year was visil)le. At this place a mounted escort from
General Sibley's e\peditii)n was met. The next day they arrived
at the Red River of the North, and on the 13th reached Fort
Abercrombie. Squads of hostile Indians surrounded the expedi-
tion almost from the start; also packs of prowling wolves. Near
this place General Sibley was encamped. Advancing, they
crossed the Cheyenne river on the 26lh, and two days later
encountered one of the famous Red river hunting parties, con-
sisting of over six hundred hunters. Small bands of Sioux
hovered about, watching evidenlly for an opi)ortunity to strike.
Oil the Souris river, inmiense herds of buffalo were seen: it was
estimated that cmi July 2 one million of those animals were in
sight with the aid of a field glass. On the 8th of August, a large
war party of Assiniboines was met, the head chief being Is-to-
wer-a-han. Though greatly outnumbering the whites, they did
not venture to attack. The usual perfunctory peace proceed-
ings— speeches and empty promises — were observed. As a mat-
ter of fact, this escort was altogether too small to traverse the
plains at that time; because all the Indian tribes were at war with
the government, and bands that could easily have overwhelmed
the while forces were met every few days. General Sibley should
have sent at least one hundred mounted men to the assistance of
Captain Fisk. This movement was called "The Northern Over-
land Fxpcdition for the Protection of Emigrants." Open con-
flict with bands of hostiles was more ihan once narrowly averted.
Milk river was reached on the 2Sth of August, and on the same

^'.*V

426 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

day a band of thirteen Gros Venires came into camp. The jour-
nal of the expedition reads, "Their langaiage is the most extraor-
dinary and uncouth that can be imagined. It is guttural and
seems to consist of a cough, a groan, a grunt, a whistle and a
tst-tst." The following day, Captain Fisk and Doctor Gibbs
together shot a grizzly bear which weighed about nine hundred
pounds. On August 31, a party of settlers from Bannock City
on their way to Fort St. Charles to procure a quartz mill was met.
On September 5, Maria's river was reached. Mr. Dawson of the
American Fur Company was in cliarge of Fort Benton. Septem-
ber 6, Teton river was reached, and on the 20th the summit of the
Rocky mountains was crossed. Seven days later Bannock City
was reached, and here the expetlilion was dissolved.

A wagon road from Niobrara to Virginia City was explored
and surveyed by Col. James A. Sawyer in 1865. He had an
escort of one hundred and forty-three men with twenty-five ^|

wagons drawn by six nudes each. With the expedition went "five ■^|

emigrant wagons, and a private freight train of thirty-six wagons ;J

so coupled together as to be drawn by eighteen teams of six yoke |

of oxen each. Paul Dorion agreed to guide him, but failed to
appear at the last moment; Baptiste Defoud and Benjamin F.
Estes took his place. They started on the 13th of June, passing
up the Niobrara and reaching Lone Pine creek on the 26lh, Snake
river en the 30th, Antelope creek July 10, the headwaters of White
river on the 13th, on which day they saw the Black Hills for the
first time in the far distance. On the loth, they had crossed the
trail made by Lieutenant Warren in 1856, and on the 17th crossed
that made by Colonel Harney about the same time. A detach-
ment under Lieutenant Dana was sent to Fort Laramie the 21st:
he rejoined the expedition August ist. While they were near Hat
creek on the 22d, a furious hail storm swept across the plain, pros-
trating the tents and stam])eding the animals. Horse creek in
the present Wyoming was reached on the 25th and the South
Cheyenne three days later, near which their first buffalo was
killed by the expedition. The North Cheyenne was reached
August 5th, and near this stream was seen a valuable outcropping
of bituminous coal. The Indians had begun to be troublesome,
and on the T3th they killed one of the party — Hedges. Two days
later al)out five hundred Cheyennes and Sioux attacked the camp
at sunrise-: but finding they could gain nothing they sued for
peace and presents. The next day fhey tried to slamf)e(le the
cattle of Ihr expedition, but failed and departed. Had the escort
been any considerable degree weal<er, the expedition would have

EXPLORATIONS BY THE UNITED STATES. 427

been annihilated by the alHed Indian enemies. July 24th, they
arrived at Fort Connor on I'owder river, and a week later at
Tongue river, near which they were attacked in desultory fashion
by about three hundred Arapahoes, Cheyennes and others, who
succeeded in killing several of the men and in running off a few
head of stock. Captain Kellogg with twenty-seven men joined
him on the 5th of September. Ck-ncral Connor with a large force
was in the vicinity, and had whii)i)cd the Indians a few days
before in a sharp engagement. Two comixmies under Captain
Brown, sent from the connnand of Cjeneral Connor, joined the
expedition on the 13th; but on the following day they left when
on the Big Horn. Innnense numbers of buffaloes were seen,
followed as usual by packs of ravenous wolves. Pryor's Fork
was reached on the 21st, and the Yellowstone the following day.
On the 5th of October they arrived at Bozcman City in the Gal-
latin valley, and a week later reached Virginia City, their destina-
tion. They did not succeed in quivin^ the Indiana, as had been
expected, or rather hoped. During this period W. W. Brookings
conducted an expedition from the western line of Minnesota to
Montana, meeting no serious obstacle on the way.

An important survey of the Arkansas river was made in 1869
by Col. John N. Macomb and Lieut. S. T. Abert. A reconnois-
sance in 1869, under the command of Col. S. B. Holabird, per-
formed important duties in the "Department of the Dakotas."
The next year an expedition under the command of Gen. H. D.
Washburn left Fort Ellis and explored the Yellowstone river, at
the same time executing important duties for the War Depart-
ment.

428 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

CHAPTER XIII

The Indian Tribes

LONG before the discovery of America by white men, what
is now known as the Louisiana Purchase was inhabited by
both fixed and roving- IncHan tribes. Some of them* had
estabHshed villaoes of dirt and wood; others lived in tents wliicli
they removed readily and transported to the proximity of buffa-
loes and other wild game. De vSoto found the Capahas or Paca-
has, afterward called Quajjpas, on the St. Francis river. Lower
down he found the Casquins, since known as Kaskaskias.
He met the Akansea or Arkansas nation, thoug-h they at that time
seem to have been known by their local names. They were
located on the Arkansas river near its mouth as well as on the
Mississippi. In his wanderings he encountered the Cayas or
Kansas, the Tensas, the Tonicas, the NatchittKhcs, the Caddoes,
the Adayes and many oth.er tribes whose names, as used by him
can be identified with those of a later date. Joliet and Marquette
found on the Des Moines river the Peorias. Moing-onas, Odon
tontas. the Mahas or Oniahas, the Panas or Pawnees, the Aiouez
or lowas. They found on the Missouri river the Missouris, thr
O-sa.ges, tlie Kansas and farther west the Pawnees, the Padoucas
or Comanches, and north the (^uthouez or Otoes. They found
on the Arkansas river the Akanseas, the Kansas and others.
La Salle and Tonty encountered the same tribes. Duluth found
tlie [ss.-ilis. the Sissetcuis :m(l the Assinibr.iui's in the present Min-
nesota, as did also Accaull and I lennepin. Nicholas Perrot found
in Minnesota the Nadouessioux, from which term, doubtless,
came the French name "Sioux." The Indian name of the Simix
was D.ds-ola. DTbcrville found in I^ouisiana the Tloumas, Tan-
paiiahoes, Ouini|Hssas, Kayavcidas, Xatchez, (nietimaehas,
TensMs, Coroas, Attaka]i;is and many others. This was alx.ut

THE INDIAN TRIBES.

429

the siutation of the tribes when tlie province became the property
of the United States. The only important change was the
appearance of the Chippewas in nortliern Minnesota. They no
doubt invaded the lands of the Sioux, and hence the perpetual
war between those two powerful and war-like tribes. The far
western tribes — JJlackfeet, Arapahoes, Comanches, Kiowas,
Apaches and others — became known through later explorations.

As early as 1775, a committee of congress was apponnted to
devise plans to carry on trade with the Indian tribes; but, of
course, this act did not then ajjply to the territory west of the
Mississippi. Little was done under the act; but, in 1786, an
ordinance was passed, dividing ihe Indian department into two
districts, a northern and a southern one, with a superintendent
and a deputy in charge of each. Under this act the granting of
licenses was regulated, all proceedings being controlled by the
War Department. Important changes were made in 1790 under
the constitution adopted in 1789. The license system .was
retained, and a suitable bond was required. Nothing was asked
for the license, which was issued for two years; but a trader with-
out a license was required to forfeit his goods. "By the treaty of
1794 (}reat Britain captured the right of trade and intercourse
with the Indians residing in our territory ; which gave her nearly
a monopoly of the trade with the various tribes of the lakes, the
Mississippi and the Missouri, and a decided control over all their
measures. The effects of this ascendency over them must, be
remembered and lamented so long as the history of the late war
shall be ]icruscd. The most <listressing occurrences and the
greatest disasters of that period may be distinctly traced to it.
This right of intercourse and trade with the Indians, which has
proved to us so pernicious, terminated in the war, and was not
reserved by the treaty of Ghent ; and in the year 1816 congress
passed a law which authorized the president to prohibit foreigners
from trading with the Indians residing within our limits, and
instnictions have been i^^iven under the act to prevent such
trade."*

But the act of 1816 did not remedy the evil ; however, it was
thought that the erection of posts and forts in the Indian country
would do so. The act of 1802 so far repealed previous acts, that
a fine of one hundred dollars and imprisonment not exceeding
thirty days, together with a forfeiture of goods, was made the
penalty of trading without a license.

♦Tfrotii letter of Jolin C. Calhoun, Secretary of War, to the Conjrrcssiotial Com-
luittefon IVtilitary Arfiiirs, Dercinhcr, \H\'>.

430 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

The factory system was inaug-urated in 1796, but did not super-
sede the Hcense system of individuals. Congress, under tiiis act,
appropriated one hundred and fifty thousand dollars to be used
as cai)ital in the Indian trade, in addition the necessary build-
ings were erected, in whicli the goods were placed and the factors,
agents, clerks, et al., were domiciled. The sum of eight thou-
sand dollars was appropriated per annum to pay such supernu-
meraries. The factory la\y was limited to two years ; but was
re-enacted and continued to 1806, avIku sui)erintcndeiits of
Indian affairs were appointed and the caintai was increased to
$260,000 and the annual salary of the agents to $13,000. This
law was continued in force until 181 1, when the capital was still
further increased to $300,000 and the annual salaries to $19,500.
This act seems to have remained in force until the abolishment
of the system in 1822.

The United States had scarcel}' acquired the province of Loui-
siana before steps looking to the removal of the Indian tribes i.*ast
of the Mississippi to the west sitle were taken. The act of
March 6, 1804, ^Y which the province was divided into two ter-
ritories, provided also for the removal of such Indians as desired
to make the change. The plan was to give them acre for acre
lands beyond the Mississippi in exchange for their old domains
on the east side. As a matter of fact the removal to the west of
the Mississippi had begun many years before, while Louisiana
was still a province of Spain. In 1793 the Shawaneses and Dela-
w^ares had been given a tract fifteen miles square west of the
Mississippi at St. Genevieve, by Baron de Carondelet, Spanish
governor of Louisiana, and the grant had been confirmed and
recorded. Many small tri])es in Louisiana, who had come from
the east side, held tenures of a similar character from the same
source. Bands of Choctaws were in Opelousas and on the Oua-
chita; the AVasha swere on Ba}'ou Lafourche; the Tenisas ^^'ere
on Red river near the Pa.sca!2oul;i> ; the Choctaws were on Ba}'ou
Boeuf; the Pascagoulas v.ere on Red river about sixty miles
below Natchitoches; the Tonicas were at Pointc Coupee; the
Opelousas were about fifteen miles west of Opelousas church ; the
Attakapas were about twenty miles west of the Attakapas church,
and witli iheni wi're a few Tonicas and Ilumas; the I'acanas were
located about forty milrs sonlhwe'l of A^atchitoches ; the Conshrit-
tas were on the vSabine about eighty miles scnith of Natchitoches;
the Ai;.'dacliic-s were; on B.tvou i.':ipi(K'; the Alabrnnos were on
Red river near the Apakuin'es; the Boluscas were at Avoyelles
and on B.ayou Rapide; the Natcliiloclies lived near the town of

THE INDIAN TRIBES. 43I

that name; the Adayes were on Red river about forty miles above
Natchitoches; the Yattasses Hved on Stony creek near Red river,
a short distance above tlie Adayes; the Caddoes or Cadoques
lived about one hundred and twenty miles northwest of Natchi-
toches; near them were their relatives the Naudakoes, Naba-
daches, lonies or Tackics, Nacogdoches, Keechics, Adayes and
others. However, not all of these tribes, or rather small rem-
nants of tribes, had come from east of the Mississippi. Several
of them occupied lands which had been theirs from time imme-
morial. It was necessary for the United States to recognize duly
all such tenures. Owing to the fact that there was still an abun-
dance of unsettled land east of the' river, ihe United States was
in no hurry, at first, to eiYect the removal of the tribes to the west
sides.

On November 3, 1804, Gen. W. H. Harrison concluded a
treaty at St. I^uis with tlie Sacs and Foxes, by which they'ceded
any claim they might have to a small tract lying along the west
side of the Mississippi north of that city. This step was taken
more to gain the good will of those tribes than to admit the right-
fulness of their claims to such tract. This course was pursued
by the United States in the extinguishment of all Indian claims
west of the Mississippi, even in case the claims were based upon
only a shadow of right.

The expeditions of Lewis and Clark and of Pike revealed in
unmistakable characters to the citizens the immense value of the
new purchase. It was seen that the friendship of the Indians
could be secured with comparative ease, and the settlement of
the purchase could be conducted the same as on the east side.
Pike secured two tracts in the present Alinnesota. In November,
1808, Peter Chouteau, agent for the Osagcs, and Meriwether
Lewis, governor and superintendent of Indian affairs, of Louisi-
ana Territory, concluded a treaty with the Osages at Fort Clark,
above the mouth of Osage river, by which the United States
acquired all the territory possessed by that tribe between the
Arkansas and the Missouri rivers and east of a line running due
south to the Arkansas river from Fort Clark. This was the first
large cession of lands west of the Mississippi to the United States.
The government bound itself to establish and maintain a factory
(store of goods) at Fort (Mark for the benefit of the tribe, to
keep a blacksmith there to mend their arms, implements, etc., to
pay an annuity of $1,000 to the Crcat Osages and one of $500
to the Little (Usages, and to reimburse while settlers who had
recently been i)illaged b\ the tribe, but not in excess of $5,000.

:» i

432 THE PROl'IXCE A. Mi THE STATES. .

While this treaty was taken somewhat irregularly, it was duly
confirmed by both the Osages and the government at St. Louis
in August, 1809.

The step of building Fort Clark and of holding a peace treaty
with the Osages was rendered necessary to protect the settlers
from the depredations of that tribe. Capt. E. B. Clemson and his
company of regulars were accordingly sent up the river in Tune,
1808, for the purpose of building that fort. Previous to the
treaty, the Osages had been forced to peace measures by the act
of the War Department in refusing them merchandise, ammuni-
tion, etc. Peter Chouteau clainn/d a tract of thirty thousand
arpents on the Missouri at the mouth of Mine river, basing his
claim on a grant from the Osages and from the Spanish govern-
ment. His request to have this claim recognized in the above
mentioned treaty with the Osages was refused. |

As early as 1805, trading posts inider the factory system of the
United States were establislicd at Natchitoches, on the Arkansas
near its mouth, and at Belle Fontaine near St. Louis. Tn 1808
trading posts were established at J'ort Clark on the Missouri, as
before stated, and at Fort Madison, now in Iowa. The factory
buildings at Natchitoches cost $2,012; on the Arkansas, $800;
and at Fort Clark, $500. In 1808 only the posts of Natchitoches!
Arkansas, Fort Clark, and Fort Madison were in operation. The
factors were John B. Treat at Arkansas; Thomas M. Linnard at
Natchitoches; George C. Sibley at Fort Osage (Clark), and John
Johnson at Fort Madison.

Beginning about the year 1807. British agents in the West,
doubtless under the direction of tlie Canadian authorities, com-
menced systematically to incite the Indians against the Ameri-
cans. Every tribe on the Mississippi and the Missouri was
visited by them. The Indians were told that their old father, the
king of Enghnd, intended to repossess himself of all the western
country. It was mainly through the clTorts of Manuel Lisa,
who was appointed a sub-agent of (he United States for that pur-
pose, that the tribes of the Missouri did not wage a bloody war
against the Americans. Large quantities of guns and ammuni-
tion were sent by the Canadians to the western Indians long
before war with luigkmd was declared in 1812. The battle of
Tippecanoe in Indiana in 181 1 resulted directly from British
agencies. As early as 1809, many of .the western tribes began
petty acts of ho.stility, and occasionally kilU-d a settler and his
family and plundered and Innnt their hoirie. One of the first acts
was the killing of several Nmericnns at the lead mines on the

THE INDIAN TRIBES.- 433

Mississippi in January, 18 12. The Winnebagoes, or Puants, were
particularly hostile. They killed a corporal at Fort Madison,
and later shot a sentinel there. They also murdered an Ameri-
can family on the hank of the Mississippi in February, 1812.
Even after the battle of TippecancK', such hostilities were con-
tinued without cessation during the War of 1812.

As soon as possible after the treaty of Ghent in December,
1814, peace treaties were held with all of the tribes that had been
hostile to the United States, as well as with many others. Will-
iam Clark, Ninian Edwards and Auguste Chouteau were the
commissioners on the part of the United States Xo hold many of
these treaties. The Kickapoos, Pottawatomies, Sioux of the
lakes, I'iankeshaws, Sioux of the river St. Peter's (Minnesota),
Great and Little Osages, Yanctons, Mahas, Sacs and Foxes,
Tetons, Kansas, and others, agreed to maintain peace with the
United States. The most of these treaties were held at Portage
des Sioux, a short distance above the confluence of the Missouri
and Mississippi rivers. Large quantities of goods were distrib-
uted to the various tribes. The Sacs and Foxes of Rock river,
the Winnebagoes and the Kickapoos were slow to make terms —
had been so thoroughly under the influence of the British agents.
In fact they were called "the British tribes" long after the war.

Peace had no sooner been concluded, than the British traders,
taking advantage of the liberal terms of the treaty, though for-
eigners were prohibited from trading with the American trib<:S,
came almost in droves to the West with goods of every description
and of British manufacture. They promptly monopolized the
Western trade. They wont so far as to continue the tactics of
inciting the Indians against the Americans with the view of keep-
ing out the American traders, and at first were successful. Mes-
sengers sent by Governor Clark to Prairie du Chien were not
permitted to pass the Sac and Fox villages on Rock river, but
were obliged to go by way of Omaha and the St. Peter's river.
Rut a stop was soon put to tliat state of affairs. At this time
(1815) Mr. Boilvin was government agent at Prairie du Chien.

The proposition of removal to the west side of the Mississippi
was early broached to the southern Indians, and was revived fre-
<|uenlly during many years; but was steadfastly rejected by the
majorities of those tribes. However, many small bands accepted
the prr>po.sition from the start, and were guided by the govern-
ment to their future home on the west side. Small bands of
ChcroKces, in parlicular. hiok i-,-irly advantage of the pr()|)(>sition.
Il was s(K)u U'arned thai, owing to the exodus from the east 1(» the

\-2H

434 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

west side, many conflicting- claims to territory had arisen among
the tribes. The Quapaws (the tribe probably known to the early
explorers as the Capaha, or Pacaha) claimed both sides of
the Arkansas river; but their claims were disputed by the Chero-
kees on the north and east and by the Osages on the northwest.
In fact the limits between no tribes west of the river had been
definitely defined. The Arkansas nation had the best right to
all this tract of country.

In an open letter, dated January 9, 1809, Thomas Jefferson
wrote to the Cherokees, granting permission for such of them as
desired to do so to remove to the Arkansas river in what is now
Indian territory. Kre long small bands of Cherokees, Chicka-
saws, Choctaws and other triljcs accepted the offer and went
West. In 1808 the Ciierokees of the lower towns signified their
willingness to make the exchange proposed, but the upper towns
refused. It was not until 1817 that many of the Cherokees form-
ally made the exchange, and wore given a large tract between fi
the Arkansas and White nvers. In time the other tribes followed
their example, but it was many years before the last of them were
removed. It was at first the policy of the government to let
them take their time, when nothing was to Ix.- gained by pre-
cipitanc)-. In 1816 the western lines of ^Missouri and Arkansas
territories, as they were first established, were run, beyond which
the soil was reserved for the Indiims.

The proclamation of the king of Great Britain in October,
1763, prohibited the whites irom settling on the Indian lands.
This policy was continued by the United States after the Revolu-
tion, but circumstances soon demanded a change. The frontier
line was too ragged and irregular. Isolated settlements far in
the Indian country, and Indian reservations far east of the
frontier, afforded the occasion for constant tumult between the
two races. The first step was to remove all of the Indians west
of the Mississippi, and to restrain the western movements of the
whites. The law of 1804 authorized an exchange of western
land owned by the government f(3r eastern land occupied by the
Indians; but did not provide for the expense of concluding such
•exchanges. To meet this want, the following resolution, intro-
duced in the United States senate in December, 1816, became a
•law: "Resolved, That an aj^propriation be made by law to
authorize the President of the United States to negotiate treaties
with the Indian tribes, which treaties .shall have for their object
an exchange of territory owned by any tribe residing east of the
Mississip|)i for other lands west of tliat river." Manv treaties

THE INDIAN TRIBES. 435

for the removal of the IncHans soon succeeded the passage of this
law.

The annual general account of debits and credits for the fiscal
year ending April i, 1812, at the government trading j)osts west
of the Mississij)pi, showed the following result: Des Moines
trading-house, debits $33,826, credits $38,112; Osage, debits
$35.54'^^ credits $37,476; Natchitoches, debits $35,669; credits
$32,035- During the fiscal year ending March 31, 181 5, the Des
Moines trading-house produced 22,621 pounds of lead. On
March 31, 181 5, there was on hand at the Osage factory $9,896
worth of merchandise; at the Natchitoches factory $5,386 worth,
and at the Des Moines factory $12,301 worth. The Natchitoches
factoiy had on hand furs and peltries worth $8,265. I'l^e factor
at Fort Osage was George C. Sibley, at Des Moines, John
Johnson, and at Natchitoches, Thomas M. Linnard. In 181 2 the
factory buildings at Fort Madison were burned by the Indians,
entailing a loss of sixty packs of peltries valued at $i,8oo,-one
hundred and twenty bear skins worth $129, and the buildings
which had cost $3,321. The trading-house at Arkansas was
either very small, or not conducted at all, before and during the
War of 1812. The factor there received for the fiscal year ending
March 31. 1815, $2,058 for furs, |)cltries, etc., sold by him. In a
stateuKut made March 31, 1.S15, it was slu»v/n tiiat from 1811 to
1815 the Des Moines trading-house had gained $12,739, the
Osage, $14,282, and the Natchitoches, $12,003, while ever)' house
east of the Mississippi, excei)t the one at Chickasaw Bluffs, had
lost. In 1814 (k)v. William Clark, in order to counteract British
influence with the tribes of Missouri river Indians, distributed
among them presents valued at $11,847.*

In establishing the factory system, the government thought to
monojHolize traffic with the Indians ; but almost from the start,
private traders, both /\mcrican and British, managed to gain the
bulk of the trade. This they easily accom[)lished by going among
the Indians with the goods, just as commercial men of the present
day go with samples to their customers. The private traders
extended large credit to trustworthy Indians, and saved them the
trouble of a long journey to the government trading-houses. So
individu(d traders became rich, while those of the govemment
barely held their own. "In the event of the abolition of the fac-
tories, the first inquiry that naturally presents itself is. What is to
be sulislituted in place of them? To obtain all these

*Aiiicni;iii StiiU' r.iiMTs: IikIimii Alf.iiir,: Vol. II.

436 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

furs (of the Upper Missouri and Upper Mississippi rivers
and their branches), tlie government ought to estabUsh at
St. Louis a store with a capital of about one hundred
thousand dollars, which ought to be augmented according to
the augmentation of the trade. That store ought to be furnished
with all kinds of goods suited to the Indian trade, well assorted
in quality and quantity, anrl the articles in proportion to the sum. ■{«,
These goods ought to be selected on the notes of a man who under- f
stands i)erfectly well the Indian trade, and who should also know |
exactly what suits every nation in particular. That store, so ll
established, could equip (without exclusive privilege) for the |
present about twenty-five or thirty traders for the Missouri, Mis- |
sissippi and all the rivers that emjity in these two. But to enable V
those traders, so equipped, to enter into competition with the k^
British traders, the government ought, as much as possible, to |
sell these goods at a very moderate advance, and take their furs ^
and peltries at a reasonable price. By these means the govern- |

ment would employ its capital to the advantage of its citizens, to |
the annoyance of Brilisii traders; and I am bold to say, it is 'f
the only means to destroy the British trade; besides which, our |
two territories would be greatly benefited thereby. Twenty-five I
or thirty traders would employ about two hundred men. . .
I dare give here my decided opinion, which is founded on premises
that I believe just, that a company well conducted, which should ■

have the Indian trade (not exclusively) from Cedar Island, above
the Poncas, to all the forks of the Missouri, could bring down ';

aiuiually (once well established) from that extent of country,
a considerable sum in furs and pelts, which could be estimated
at more than two hundretl thousand dollars. This sum will
appear exaggerated, but 1 found my opinion on the returns of
the Northwest Comi)any of Canada, which, though not well
known, on account of the profound silence they have kept
on this subject, have been thought, through the observations of
knowing men, to be at k-ast two hundred thousand pounds
sterling; and tliis sum is j)rinci|)ally got by the trade car-
ried on with those tribes of Indians that reside in the neighbor-
hood of the branches on \hv left side of the Missouri."*

in 1815 1''^' following special agents were employed west of
the Mississippi by (he government: JVter Chouteau among the
Osages; Nicholas Hoilvin among the tribes on the Misskssippi

♦From letlerof Oov Ninian IM vnr.ls. <i,il-l at KnsVnsl:ia. Ill iin. is Territory No-
yeml.pr, IMIS, and a.Mresscil to !Imii. William If. Crawfni d, S'oiciai y of War

THE INDIAN TRIBES.

437

above the Illinois, Manuel Lisa among the Missouri river tribes
above the Kansas, "has been of great service in preventing British
influence the last year by sending large parties to war ;"* Maurice
Blondcau among the Sacs and Foxes ; Peter Menard among the
Shavvanese, Delawares, Peorias and Piankeshaws on the Missis-
sippi below St. Louis ; William Lovely among the Cherokees on
the Arkansas ; Auguste P. Chouteau special agent among the
Osages ; and Judge Bullet sub-agent on the Arkansas. The fol-
lowing interpreters were employed by the year: Samuel Solo-
mon, llypolite Bolon, John A. Cameron (Sioux), Lewis Dorion
(lowas and Sacs), Paul Louis (Osages), Noel Mograhie
(Osages).

In 1815 the Ouapaws were on the Mississippi; the Cherokees
(many of them) in what is now Indian territory; the Pianke-
shaws on St. Francis river ; the Shawanese near Cape Girardeau ;
the Delawares on White and Meramec rivers; the Peorias on St.
Francis river; the Osages on the Osage and Arkansas rivers ;" the
Kansas on the Missouri and Kansas rivers ; the lowas on the
Missouri and Grand rivers ; the Otoes on the Missouri and Platte
rivers ; the Pawnees on the Missouri and Platte rivers ; the
Omahas, Poncas, Chehaws and Arickarees on the Missouri; the
Sioux on both sides of the Missouri in the present Dakotas ; and
the Sacs and Foxes on bolh sides of the Missouri near the present
Sioux City, Iowa.

On August 24, 1818, an important treaty with the Arkansas
tribe was concluded, by which the United States obtained all of
their lands west of the Mississippi, except a reservation in the
southeast part of Arkansas territory. In Sei)tember, 1818, a
large cession in what is now Indian territory was obtained from
the Osages. From time to time, treaties of peace were held with
all the western tribes adjacent to the whites. In 1818 the gov-
ernment, by withholding merchandise, ammunition and aiinuities,
forced a peace between the Osages on one side and the Delawares,
Shawanese and Cherokees on the other. A bloody war had been
waged between those tribes; and it was afterward renewed in
violation of the treaty.

In 1817, during this war, a large body of Cherokees, Dela-
wares, Shawanese and Ouaj)aws, numbering in all about six hun-
dred men, among whom, it is claimed, were eleven Americans,
entereci the territory of the Osages under pretenses of peace, but
with the intention of cutting off Clermont's band on the Verditrris

♦ Aiuericiiii State Papers: Indian AliaiiH.

438 THE PROFI.yCE AND THE STATES.

and slaug'htering" every person therein. Clermont happened to
be away with a large hunting- i^arty, hut the next chief was
called out and promptly hutchered. This large force then fell
upon the village and slaughtered men, women and chikh-en indis-
criminately, amid scenes of barbarity and cruelty rarely wit- ■
nessed. They wound up this atrocious act by destroying- all the k
growing corn and vegetables and burning the village. Many r
were taken prisoners, to be sul)j(.cted to slavery or burned at the i,
stake. The Osages retaliated as soon as possible by killing
three Cherokee hunters whom they captured and by committing ;;'
other acts of carnage. |,

In 1818 Benjamin O'Fallon was sent to Council Blufifs as agent \
among the Pawnees, of which proceeding a full account will be .^
found elsewhere in this volume. During the same year, at the i^
suggestion of the Shawanese and Delawares near Cape Girardeau, ^
steps were taken to exchange a tract farther west for their lands >
on the Mississippi, but a long delay occurred. White setflers
persisted in crossing the river and locating on their lands in spite
of the vigilance of the gcn'ernment agents. In 1819 the Kicka-
poos exchanged their eastern lands for a tract in the present
Kansas. By this time schools had been started among the tribes
in the present Indian territory. In 1820 the Choctaws ceded a
large tract on the left bank of the Mississippi at the mouth of the
Arkansas in exchange for one of equal extent in the present
Indian territory. In this year, also, the Omahas ceded a tract
fifteen miles square at Council Bluffs. The Weas, upon crossing
the river, were at first placed among the Shawanese and Dela-
wares near Cape Girardeau. I'Vom this time for many year.s 0
there was a steady exodus to the west side. By reason of the -'
fact that the government had established the factories under treaty
ag-recments, it became necessary to secure the consent of the
Indians to their abandonment before the system could be abolished.
This consent was secured from i.S-?o to 1824 by s])ecial treaties.

In 1824 Edward W. Duval was agent among the Cherokecs on
the Arkansas; George Gray, among the Caddoes at Sulphur Fork
near Natchitoches ; Benjamin O'Fallon, among the Pawmees and
others at Council Bluffs; Riciiard Graham, a general agent at
St. Louis; Lawrence Taliafero, among the Sioux on Minnesota
river; Thomas Forsyth, among the Sacs and Foxes at Fort Arm-
strong, Rock Island : and Nicholas Boilvin, among the Winne-
bagoes and others at Prairie du Chien.

In 1824 the lowas and the Sacs and Foxes ceded all their claims
to land in northern Missouri, and the Arkansas ceded their large

THE INDIAN TRIBES. 439

reserve in southeast Arkansas. It was designed to incorporate
the Quapaws with the Cadiloes. In 1825 several otlier small
tribes g^ave their consent to removal to the west side. In 1819-20
the trouble over the boundary between Arkansas and the Indian
domain to the west occurred. In 1825 the Creeks ceded a large
tract east of the Mississippi and were given acre for acre in the
present Indian territory. From 1824 to 1826 many treaties for
the puq^ose of definitely fixing the bountlaries between the west-
ern triljes were held by tlie commissioners of the government. In
1825 other large cessions were obtained from the Osages and the
Kansas. About 1815 tiie Delawares abandoned their land in
southeast Missouri, and went farther west of their own accord.
In 1825 the Siiawanese were assigned to a tract fifty by one hun-
dred miles in the present Indian territory. In this year treaties
of limits were held with the I'oncas, Teton s, Yanctons, Yancton-
ites, Siounes, Og'allalas, Cheyennes, Ilunkpapas, Arickarees,
'Mandaus, Minnctarces, iMissouris, Otoes, Pawnees, Omahas; and
others by Major O'Fallon and General Atkinson.

An important treaty with the Assiniboines was concluded in
September, 1825, by Peter Wilson; but as he had no authority to
make it, his act was disavowed by the government authorities,
though one substantially the same was concluded later. The
Ouappas, or Ouajiaws, reached the Caddoe reserve on Red river
in March, 1826, but were later removed. Owing to continued
hostilities, a second treaty of peace between the Osages on one
side and the Shawanese, Delawares, Piankeshaws, Peorias, Weas,
Senecas, and Kickapoos on the other, was found necessary to be
made in October, 1826. Another important treaty was one held
for Uie puq)ose of cementing peace between the Sioux and their
neighbors : First, between the Sioux and the Chippewas ; sec-
ond, between the Sioux and the confederated Sacs and Foxes ;
third, between the Sioux and the lowas, all concluded at Prairie
du Chien in August, 1825. War between the Sioux and the
Chippewas had continueil almost uninterruptedly from lime im-
memorial ; the government agents, tlierefore, regarded this to be
one of the most important of the early treaties. By the treaty,
the lowas and the Sacs and Fuxcs were confined south of a line
extending across the pn-sent Iowa approximately on the parallel
of the Upper Iowa river and the Sioux north of such parallel.
The boundary between the Sioux and the Chippewas extended
across the present Minnesota a short distance north of St. Paul,
except that it jKissed up the divide between the basins of the Mis-
sissippi and the Red river of the North.

440

THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

In 1825 the Otoes resided on the Platte twenty-five miles west
of the Missouri, and consisted of a!)Out fourteen hundred persons,
of whom about two hundred and seventy-five were warriors. The
Grand Pawnees and Pawnee Loups resided on the Platte about '
one hundred and thirty miles west of the Missouri. The Pawnee
Republics lived on the Republican fork of Kansas river. The
Grand Pawnees embraced about five thousand five hundred per-
sons; the Pawnee Loups, about three thousand five hundred; and
the Pawnee Republics, about twelve hundred and fifty persons.
The three tribes could muster about two thousand warriors. The
Mahas, or Omahas, lived on Elk 1 lorn river, about eighty miles
northwest of Council llluffs, and (inbraccd about two tliousand
seven hundred and fifty persons. The Poncas, or Poncars, lived
at the mouth of White Paint creek on the Missouri, about three
hundred miles by water from Council Bluffs. They consisted of
about one thousand people. The "S'anctons had no 'i\y.i^<\ habita-
tion, but wandered over the country north of the Missouri and on
the Big Sioux. They numbered about three thousand persons.
The Yanctonites were without settled habitation and roamed over
the territory on the Upper Jacques and St. Peter's. They con-
sisted of about four thousand persons. The Tetons roamed over
the territory south of the great bend of the Missouri, and as far
west as the Black Hills. Their general rendezvous was near the
Missouri ; they numbered about three thousand souls. The
Ogallalas occupied the country between the Teton river and the
Black Hills. They rendezvoused at the mouth of the Teton, and
numbered fifteen hundred persons. The Siounes occupied the
country on both sides of the Missouri, between the Tett)n and
the Cheyenne rivers, and embraced about four thousand souls.
The Cheyennes, formerly on the Red river of the North, resided
along the river Cheyenne from near its mouth to the Black Hills ;
they numbered about three thousand persons. Their principal
rendezvous was near the Blacl: Hills. The Hunk]xinas, a branch
of the Sioux, numbering about fift-cn hundred souls, occupied
the country between the Missouri and the headwaters of St.
Peter's. The Arickarees, a branch of the Pawnees, had lived
near the Mandans for about tliirt)' Ncars ; they embraced about
twenty-five hundred persons. The Mandans and Minnelarees
lived together on Knife river on tlie Missouri at the mouth of
Knife river. They numbered about three thousand people.
Fearing \\w Assiniboincs, thr\- hunted mostly south of the Mis-
souri. The Crows occupied the country between the Black Hills
and the Pocky nioiuitains, on the I'.i;,^ Horn and other southern

THl: INDIAN TRIBES.

441

branches of the Yellowstone ; they numbered several thousand
persons. The Kiovvas and the Arapahocs occupied the country
on the headwaters of the Arkansas and the Platte, and together
numbered several thousand souls. The Black feet occupied the
country betwe(>n the great falls of the Missouri and the Rockies,
and north beyond Maria's river into Canada. They numbered
about five thousand warriors. The Assiniboines, a branch of the
Sioux, roamed over the country north of the Missouri from Lake
Traverse to Milk river. They often descended as far south as the
Missouri to attack the Mandans and Minnetarees, They had
about two thousand warriors, and were under the influence of
Hudson's Bay Company.'*'

"The events of the last two or three wars, from General
Wayne's campaigii in 1794, to the end of the operations against
the southern tribes in 1818, have entirely changed our position
with regard to the Indians. Before those events, the tribes near-
est our settlements were a formidable and terrible enemy ;' since
then their power has been broken, their warlike spirit subdued,
and themselves sunk into objects of pity and commiseration.
While strong and hostile, it has been our obvious policy to weaken
them ; now that they are weak and harmless, and most of their
lands fallen into our hands, justice and humanity require us to
cherish and befriend them. To teach them to live in houses, to
raise grain and stock, to plant orchards, to set up land marks, to
divide their possessions, to establish laws for their government,
to get the rudiments of common learning, such as reading, writ-
ing and ciphering, are the first steps toward improving their con-
dition. But, to take these steps with effect, it is necessary that
previous measures of great magnitude should be accomplished :
that is, that the tribes now within the limits of the states and
territories should be removed to a country beyond those limits,
where they could rest in peace, and enjoy in reality the perpetuity
of the lands on which their buildings and improvements would be
made. , . . And tiie country west of Missouri and Arkansas,
and west of the Mississippi river, north of Missouri, is the one
destined to receive them. ... In this way a constant tide of
Indian emigration is now going on from the Slates of Cihio,
Indiana, and Illinois to the west of the Mississippi. They cross
at St. I.ouis and St. Genevieve under rnv su])erintendency."t

"The great object to ))c accomplished is the removal of these

♦RflxMl.iifr.eii, Henry Atkiiis.jii aiul Ma). lUiijriiuin O'l^iUnn tu the War De-
parluiiMit 111 Novc'iiihcr, IK^S.

t William Clink, SiiDcriiiU-iiil.iit (,| Indian Adiiin^. Marili, IHJK,.

442 THE PRO I 'INCH AND THE STATES.

tribes to the territory designated, on conditions which shall be
satisfactory to themselv<.'s and honorable to the United States.
This can be done oidy by conveying- to each tribe a good title to an
adequate portion of land, to which it may consent to remove; and
by providing for it there a system of internal government, which
siiall protect their proi)-.rty from invasion, and, by the regular
progress of improvement and civilization, prevent that degeneracy
which has generally marked the transition from the one to the
other state."*

The military movements up the Mississippi and Missouri rivers
in 1819 were conducted on a Kirge scale and were later attended
with important results. JMie barracks near Council lUuffs were
built large enough to house one thousand soldiers. Several thou-
sand men were sent there, to lie distributed to other posts to be
established later on the Upper Missouri. A strong body of troops
was sent to the mouth of St. Peter's river for the purpose of
building a fort and of holding die Sioux in check. At this* time
various military roads, designed to unite the different posts, were
projected. The government built Jefferson barracks in 1826,
and the same year built an arsenal in St. Louis. Fort Madison,
in the present Iowa, was begun as early as 1809 or 1810. Early
in the decade of the twenties Cantonment Jesup, a short distance
southvvest of Natchitoches, Cantonment Gibson, at the mouth of
the Neosho, and Cantonment Towson, near the mouth of the
. Kimishi, were built by the war department.

The fur traders, throw n in constant contact with the Indians,
were the cause of many of the first encounters between the two
races. The party under General Ashley, which was defeated
and driven back by the Arickarees, no doubt through British
influence, was re-enforced by Colonel Leavenworth, and the
Indians were partly subdued. This was one of the first large
campaigns against them in the Louisiana Purchase. To facilitate
the movements of the troops, roads were projected between
Natchitoches, Fort Towson, Fort Gibson, Fort Smith, Little
Rock, Fort Leavenworth, Council Bluffs, Fort Des Moines, Fort
Snelling, St. Louis and Prairie du Chien. More than one mill-
ion pounds of lead ore wt:re mined in Missouri in 1826.

In the autumn of 1827 a detachment of troops was sent
from Jefferson barracks against the Winnebagoes along the Mis-
sissippi. That tribe, still under British influence, liad continued
to commit many petty ads of h..slility against the United Stales.

*Cniiuimiilcali<,nu(Jam.-,.t Muuim- I., du' (liiilcd SliiU h S.imlc, .Juimiuy. Ih.'%.

THE INDIAN TRIBES.

443

The detacliment punished them severely, captured several of the
leading hostiles, and restored tranquillity. In 1829 six companies,
commanded hy Major Riley, left Jefferson barracks to act as an
escort for a large caravan of traders bound for Santa Fe. In
the caravan were seventy-nine men and thirty-eight wagons
laden with goods. They had several engagements with the Kan-
sas tribes, but easily landed the traders in safety at their destina-
tion.

From 1828 to 1832 important treaties concerning the removal
of the Choctaws, Chickasaws, Cherokees and Creeks were con-
cluded, and large numbers of those tribes were escorted to their
homes in the west. vSmall scattered bands of Shawanese, Dela-
wares, Kaskaskias, Peorias, and other tribes, were likewise
removed.

Despite their treaty to the contrary, the Sacs and Foxes per-
sislently refused to abandon their ancient home at the mouth
of Ivoek river; indeed, many who had been removed to the west
side returned, and began rei)eated and galling acts of hostility
against the United States. They fell upon a band of friendly
Menomonies near Fort Crawford, killed twenty-six of them and
wounded many more. These various acts led to the Black Hawk
war in 1832. An arm}- under Generals Gaines and Atkinson was
sent against them, and ihey were hnally subdued and removed to
the west side.

In 1834 the Arkansas legislature memorialized congress to
remove the troops from Fort Gibson to Fort Smith. It was shown
that, when the eastern boundary of Arkansas was removed forty
miles farther to the west, the troops were moved from Fort Smith
to Fort Gibson ; but when the line was brought back, the troops
were not returned to Fort Smith, thus leaving that point exposed
to Indian depredations. The prayer of the memorialists was
granted.

In 1834 the expedition of Col. Henry Dodge, consisting of eight
companies of regulars, marched from Fort Gibson west to the
villages of the Pawnee Picts near the mountains, for the purpose
of impressing them with the strength of the United States, of
stopping their attacks on the white settlers and the caravans, of
escorting a body of traders and settlers across the plains, and of
making a stronger peace with that tribe. He met the leaders of
the Pawnees, Comanches, Kiowas, Wacos, Arapahoes and others.
The expected results were only partly realized. His second expe-
dition, described elsewhere, was made in 1835.

Under the provision of the constitution which gives congress

444

THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

power to dispose of United States territory, the Indians were
grant'jd their lands west of the Afississippi in perpetuity. It was
presumed by congress that the Indians thus sent west to lead
hunters' Hves would remain uncivilized, and that those who
remained east of the river would speedily adopt the customs of
the whites; but just the contrary state of thing-s occurred. Those
who went west put themselves from the slart under the direction
of the Indian department of bureau, and made rapid strides in
the ways of the whites. In 1824 a bureau of Indian affairs was
organized by the secretary of war as an adjunct of the war
department; but in 1832 the bureau of Indian affairs, with a
commissioner in charge, was created. Previous to this time small
squads of soktiers, sufficient in number to liold the Indians in
check, had been stationed at the various western posts. General
]\Iacomb stated in 1830 that nothing more was needed except to
mount eight companies of these troops.

As early as December 16, 1824, the committee of Indian affairs
of the house of representaiives was instructed to "inquire into the
expediency of organizing all the territory of the United States
west of the State of Missouri and the territories of Arkansas and
Michigan into a separate territory to be occupied exclusively by
the Indians," and was also required to report on the expediency
of authorizing the Presidriit to n-move the various eastern tribes
to such territory. '^I'he treaty of May 6, 1828, first formally recog-
nized the policy of removal afterward adhered to by the govern-
ment. It was improved in Ma\', 1830, and, in 1834, the policy
was fully developed antl put into execution.

The most notable fact in connection with the law of 1834
is that the faith of the Nation was pledged under the most solemn
guaranties that the Indians would never be deprived of their right
to the new lands or of their right of self government. Neither
were they ever to be constituted a territory or a state of the
United States. They could not transcend the laws of the United
States, and tiieir affairs were managed by a governor and a gen-
eral council.

In 1833 it was pro])osed that all the territory west of the Mis-
sissippi and north of the r)sage reservations, the Santa Fe trail
to where it crosses the Arkansas river, ami from the latter river
to the mountains, should be cou'-tituted a separate Indian dis-
trict, with headquarters at St. Louis, where the .superintendent
was rc(|uired to reside. All west of the river and south of that
line, extending lo tiie Mexican j)o: sessions, was to be constituted
Western territory, of which lM;in-is \V. Aniislronc was to be

THE INDIAN TRIBES. 445

made superintendent. These two districts were to be subdivided
into agencies and sub-agencies, with a representative of the gov-
ernment in each. This proposition was no sooner broached than
it was changed. All the territory of the United States west of the
Mississippi not in Missouri, f^ouisiana or Arkansas, was to be
denominated by the general term "Indian country." iJy thus
embracing all the territory in the Indian country, the laws of tiic
United States were extended to the same.

The bill that finally became a law was passed May 20, 1834.
It constituted all the territory of the United States west of the
Mississippi and south of the I'latte, not embraced in Missouri,
Louisiana or Arkansas, as the Western territory, with many sub-
divisions called agencies or sub-agencies. Previous to the pass-
age of this act, no definite steps had been taken for the govern-
ment of the Indians removed west of the Mississippi. Part of the
Cherokees had gone in 1808, and many of the rest in
1817. Many of the Choctaws ha 1 pone in 1820. In 1825 and
1826 the passage of a law for their government was pressed in
congress, but failctl. The law of May 6, 1828, as before slated,
was tlie first to provide definitely for their removal and care. It
was amended and improved by the act of May 30, J830, by the
Choctaw treaty of Septcmb-er 2y, 1830, and by the Creek treaty
of March 24, 1832. 'J'he two n".ost imp^^rtant points guaranteed
to tile Indians were security in the possession of their land and
the right of self-government. The territory was bounded east
by Arkansas and Missouri, ncM-th by the Platte river, and west
and south by the Mexican possessions. It did not embrace what
afterward became tlie Platte purchase of Missouri. It was cal-
cidated Xo contain over one hundred and thirty-two million acres.

"This territory is to be dedicated to the use of the Indian tribes
forever by a guaranty the most sacred known among civilized
connuunities — tJic faith of the nation. The committee are aware
that this guaranty, the faith of the nation, has not been illustrated
by the history of tlie past in a manner satisfactory to the Indian
tribes. They are not surprised that they should now ask, 'What
new security can you give us to the lands in the West that you did
not in times jjast give us to our lands in the East? It is admitted
that we have given them guaranties which we have not fulfilled,
pledges which we have not redeenied ; not because we desired
not to fulfill them, but because it was believed by the government
that we had no right originally to give them, and therefore
liad no power to redeem them. The Indians, however, will do us
the justice to say that we never had ourselves absolved from the

446 ' THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

obligations of indemnifying- them, and of acknowledging that
tliese very cessions of lands at the West are a portion of the
indemnity. Our inability to perform our treaty guaranties arose
from the conflicts between the rights of the states and of the
United States. Nor is it surprising that questions arising out
of such a conflict, which have bewildered wiser heads, should
not be readily comprehended or appreciated by the unlettered
Indians."''

By November, 1837, the following Indians had been removed
to the west side :

Chickasaws 549

Chippewas, Ottawas and Pottawatomies 2,i(ji

Choctaws 1 5,000

Quapaws 47^

Creeks 20,437

Seminoles 407

Apalaohicolas 265

Cherokees 7-911

Kickapoos 5*^^

Dclawares 826

Shawanese . i ,272

Ottawas 374

Weas 2J2

Piankcshaws 162

Peorias and Kaskaskias 132

Pottawatomies of Indiana 53

Senecas 251

Senecas and Shawanese 21 1

Total 51.327

In the summer of 1836, owing to a tlireatened attack from the
Indians, four comi)anies were raised in Ray and Clay counties,
Mo., for defensive purposes. The two from Ray were com-
manded by Captains Pollard and Sconce, and the two from Clay
by Ca])tains Atchison and Crawford. Col. IL G. Parks com-
manded tlie two com])anies from I\ay. They were paid for
eighteen days service by tlu' government.

In 1837 William Armstromv, acting superintendent of Western
territory, reported a total of 600 Indian scliokirs ^vithin the bor-
ders of the territory. In 1838 Joshua Pilcher, Indian agent,
rejjorted llial the Dlackfeel C()nsi^le(l of five distinct brmds :

1 \

♦Kcpoili)! llwii.sc CoiiiiiiiU<'(.' 1)11 Iiiiliiin A l.'.iiis, May. IH.M.

THE INDIAN TRIBES. 447

Blackfeet proper, Blood Indians, Searcies, Piegans, and Gros
Ventres, the latter speaking an entirely different language irom
the others.

In 1839 serious trouble arose in the Cherokee nation between
the old settlers and the new emigrants resulting in the death of
John Ridge, Maj. John Ridge and Elias Boudinot. It was occa-
sioned by jealousy, conflicting claims, and the desire to rule, the
John Ross party triumphing. No doubt grievous wrong was
committed.

In November, 1837, the following indigenous tribes were within
striking distance of the Western frontier,* of which tribes, it was
estimated that about one-fifth were warriors able to fight :

Sioux 21,600

lowas 1 ,500

Sacs 4,800

Foxes 1,600

Sacs of Missouri 500

Osages 5.120

Kansas 1,606

Omahas i ,600

Otoes and Missouris i ,000

Pawnees . . 1 2,500

Comanches 19,200

Kiowas 1 ,800

Mandans 3,200

Quapaws 450

Minnetarees 2,000

Piegans 30,000

Assiniboines 15,000

Apaches 20,280

Krees 3,000

Arapalioes 3,ooo

Gros Ventres 16,800

Eutaws 19,200

Crows 7,200

Caddoes 2,000

Poncas 900

Arickarees : 2,750

Cheyennes 3,200

Blackfeet 30,000

Total 231,806

•Report of C. A. Harris. Coimniasiotier of Indian Affairs, to the Secretary of
War, Novciiiher 22, 1H,»7.

!•

448

THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

Generally, during the decade of the thirties and forties, the
Indians of the West were quiet, there occurring- no general move-
ment against the authority of the United States. During much
of the time William Armstrong remained acting superintendent
of Western territory. What is now Indian territory and Okla-
homa territory S(X)n became Southwestern territory.

Tribes. t

Lodges.

Men.

Per-
sons.

Poncas

250

320

150

1,150

600

150

800

100

500

250

1,500

300

400

^00
80

250

750

950

500

4,000

1,80C>

120

450

300
2,50(1

300
1,200

500
4,500

650

900

450
250

800

2,500

3,000

1,500

12,000

6,000

300

1.200

800
7,000

800

2,000

13,000

2,500

1,000

800

Living on south side of Missouri, at the
mouth of I,'eau-quo-coui.

IvOwer band of Siou.x, living near Ver-
million river.

Lower baud of Sioux, south side of Mis-
souri.

Sioux; dialect a little different, same
river.

Sioux on rivers Cheyenne and Platte.

Upper band of Sioux near Mandans.

Live in dirt lodges on the Missouri.

Occupy the same village with the Man-
dans. ,

Live liw dirt villages eight miles above
the Mandans.

Wandering tribe between the Missouri
and Red River of the North.

Languafie same as Cliippewas; country
.\ssiniboiue.

Rascals on the headwaters of the Yel-
lowstone.

Wandering tribe on Platte; language
remarkable.

Wanderers near the falls of the Mis-
souri; both sides.

I'r lirie tribe between the Platte and the
Arkansas.

Wanderers between the Missouri and

the Saskatchewan.
Poor tribe in the Rocky mouutaius.
In the mountains; tribe mo^tlyon the

Columbia.

Yanctons

Tetons

Ogallalas

Souans

Yauctouies

Mandans*

Arickarees

Gros Venires* . ..

Assiniboines —

Krees

Crows

Cheyennes

Blackfeet

Arapahoes

Gros Ventres,
Prairie

Snakes

Flatheads*

+ From the Annual Report of D. ]J. Mitclic-11, Superintendent of Indian Affairs;
St. Louis, September 12, 1842.

♦All are wanderers except those marked with an *.

THE INDIAN TRIBES.

449

Names of tribes.''

I Number of
I eacli tribe
I iiidi<j;enous
,lij tlie coun-
try west of
tliC JMissib-
sippi.

Assiniboiiies

Apaches

Arapahoes . ..
Arickarees . ..
lilackfeet ....
Creeki-

Cherokees
Choctc

Chiokasaws

Cliippewas, Otlawas and Poltawatonues, j.

and Poltawatoniies of Indiana J

Cliippewas of .Swan Creek and 151ack River.
Cliippewas of the JNIississippi and Lake I

Superior J

Caddoes

Conianches

Crows

Cheyennes

Krees

Delawares

luitaws

Seniinoles

Flatheads

Gros Ventres

fowas

Kickapoos

Kansas

Kiowas

Miainis,

Menomoaies

Mandans

Minnetarees

New York Indians

Ottawas and Chippewas of Michigan

Osatjes

Oniahas

Ottoes and Missouris

Oneidasof Green Hay

Pawnees

I'eorias and Kaskaskias

Piankeshaws

Poltawatoniies of Huron

Poncas

Piet;ans

Ouaijaws

vStuckbridges, Munsees and Delawares I

mixed J

Sioux

Sacs and Foxes of the Mississippi

Sacs and Foxes of Missouri

Shawanese

Senecas and Sliawanese

Senecas f rcjm Sandusky

Snakes

Weas

7,000

2,500

1,200

13,000

2,000

19,200

4,000

2,000

800

19,200

800

J, 500

4 70

1,607
1,800

300
2,000

Winnebagoes

Wyandols ol Ohio

Total.

4,102

1,301

931

12.500

777

30,000

247

25.000

2,200

414

1,000

179,129

Number of
each tribe
wholly or
partially
removed
west.

24,594

25,911

16,359

5,090

5,779

Present

western

population

ol each

tribe,

wholly or

iPartly
removed.

24,594

25,911

13,592

4,211

4.298

7.605

826
"3,824"

588

132
162

1.039
"3,i"36'

516

650

2,5U8

3,293
7,055

720

150

100

180

1,272
211
251

225

4,500

664

90,630

268

927
241
153

176
MH3

555

124,041

* Report (if the Commissioners of Indian Alfairs, covering several years ending
with 1845, and in many instances based on close estimates only.

[-29

> ■ '

450 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

In 1847 Lieutenant Love, wilh an escort of dragoons in charge
of govcrnmenl funds, left Fort Leavenworth for Santa Fe. At
the Pawnee fork of the Arkansas, they overtook two kirge trains
of commissary stores Ixnmd for the same ]:»lace. A few days
before, these trains had been attacked by a large party of Indians,
and one man had been \\'ounded. Love's party also met a return
train of empty wagons, wliich liad suffered the loss of all their
cattle thus having over twenty wagons unable to proceed.
Through the stubbornness of one man. Love's train lost the cattle
of thirty wagons from a similar attack of the Indians. However,
the thirty wagons were taken along by dividing tlie other teams.
To prevent such attacks, Thomas Fitzpatrick, Indian agent for the
Upper Platte and the Arkansas, recommended the organi-
zation of a force of two hundred and fifty mounted rillenH-n,
one hundred dragoons, one hundred Mexicans mounted
on their native horses, and two or three mountain how-
itzers. The force, he said, should consist wholly of western* men,
who were familiar with ihc melho<ls of the Iiulians. lie insisted
that the regulars of the Unite<l States were useless against the
Indians. The war will; Mexico and the appearance of many
soldiers had roused the fighting spirit of the Kiowas, Comanches,
Chcyennes, Wichitas, K^'cchies, and others. In 1848 there were
practically two tracts of territory set apart for the Indians : One
in what is now Indian tvrritor\- and one in Minnesota territory,
the latter then extending west to tlie Missouri river and White
Kartli creek. Alexander Ramsey, governor of Minnesota ter-
ritory, was ex-olTicio superinlcudent of Indian affairs within its
border.

In 1848 a party of lowas attacked a party of Pawnees and
killed and scalped twelve of them. The Indian department
forced the former to pay the l.iilrr eight hundred dollars of their
annuities. On the Upp>.r Platte the Sioux attacked and killed
twenty-eight Pawnees and twenty-six Otoes ; they were also
forced to make reparation. The government at this time was
making heroic efforts to police the entire west along the leading
trails, but found it a difficult task, owing to the cuiming and
alertness of tlie Indians. On the Arkansas river, alone, in 1848,
were stationed live hiuidred soldiers. Along the Platte were
six hundred soldiers. The method of the Indians was, by a
sudden dash on horseback, amid a great noise, to stam])ede the
cattle and horses of the niililary trains and of the emigrants.
ihe Indians were cinining rnf)Ugh to stamjxde often the
horses or cattle even of Ih^: ;iiiiiy dilachnients. It is recorded

THE INDIAN TRIBES. 45 1

as a fact that, during the years 1846 — 50, they thus ohtained
so much plunder, they for a time stopped the attacks of their
own accord. Fitzpatrick warned the government that, owing
to the great emigration to the newly ac(|uired lands of New
Mexico, California and (Oregon, numerous attacks might be
expected from all the tril)es along the various trails. lie
declared that nothing would stop the attacks except a large
military force. Hundreds of small attacks continued to be
reported from all parts of the overland trails. This meant in
part that the Indians resented the expeditions of the whites
through their country as a violation of existing treaties. They
had been taught to believe that the timber, grass, water, buffalo,
deer, etc., were their property ; and accordingly demanded com-
pensation therefor from the emigrant trains, and caused trouble
if it was not forthcoming.

In 1849, upon the creation of the department of the interior,
the bureau of Indian afifairs was incorporated therewith, super-
visory and appellate powers being lodged with the secretary
of war. The commissioner of Indian afifairs had reported
adversely to this step, upon the following grounds: i. The
duties were too great to be assumed by the secretary of war ;
2. The step would necessitate a large standing army ; 3. It
meant perpetual war with the Indians ; 4. Already after seventeen
years of trial, the war department had failed to control the
Indians ; 5. It meant the destruction of the Indians ; 6. The war
department and the Indians were incompatible ; 7. The transfer
was offensive to the ntlians and injurious to the whites; 8. The
cost would be greatly increased.

Upon assuming the governorship of Minnesota territory, Mr.
Ramsey made an elaborate report on the tribes living there. The
Sioux and the Chippewas and their relatives were the leading, and
almost the only, tribes. They were constantly at war and one of
the principal objects of Governor Ramsey's administration was to
establish peace between tiiem. Here, as in the Indian territory,
large reservations were set apart for the Sioux and the Chippe-
was and guaranteed to them in |jerpetuity much the same as was
done with other tribes in the Indian territory. Minnesota thus
came to have almost an Indian territory of its own.

The usual objects souglu at the Indian treaties were the fol-
lowing: I. An acknowledgment Of the sovereignty of the
United States; 2. The rijdit of the govenunent to establish nxids
and military posts in the Indian country; 3. I'eace between the
various tribes and betwern the tribes and the United States;

452 THE PROriNCE AND THE STATES.

4. The restoration of captives and of all stolen property ; 5. A
liberal supply of presents for the grass, timber, buffaloes, etc., on
the Indian lands; 6. The cession of additional tracts of land;
7. The settlement on the tribes of fixed annuities ; 8. Defining- the
boundaries between the various tribes and between them and the
United States. Of this character was the famous treaty of 185 1
at Port Laramie with the Cheyennes, Arapahoes, Crows, Assini-
boines, Gros Ventres, Mandans, Arickarees, and others. It was
particularly agreed that the whites should have tlie right to cross
the Indian lands.

In 1852 it was estimated by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs
that there were five thousand white people wrongfully on the
Sioux lands west of the Mississippi: they refused to obey the
orders of the commissioner to vacate, expecting an early purchase
by the government. Such an occupancy was almost invariably
followed sooner or later by an Indian war, at an enormous expense
to the government. The pioneers actually shaped the Indian
policy of the country. When they were murdered for their
unlawful acts, the government crushed the Indians, and then
forced from tliem the tract desired by the lawbreakers. Such a
policy, if it can properly be called by so dignified a name, was
imworthy of this great countr}-, and cannot be read without
shame.

In 1854 the killing of a stray Mormon cow near Fort Laramie
by a band of Sioux, and the refusal of the Indians to surrender
the man who killed her, Kd to a conllict between about thirty sol -
diers under Lieutenant C.iatlaii and the Indians, during which
the entire party of whites was overwhelmed and butchered. This
was really the start of a long and blootly Indian war. A gov-
ernment keel-boat loaded with supplies for the Crows, was
attacked by the lilackfeet on the Teregue river and several per-
sons were killed.. The annihilation of Crattan's party seemed to
fire all the tribes with the desire to shed blood. When Vaughan,
agent to the Sioux, went to their villages with presents, Red Leaf,
a chief, cut open in a rage the bags of presents and scattered the
contents over the ground. Even the life of the agent was in
danger. The Blackfeet refused to receive their annuities, and
began the steady commission of hostile acts. The Cheyennes
were very independent antl insoliut, one of their chiefs going so
far as to demand one thousand white women as wives for the war-
riors of his tribe. J. W. Whitfield, agent at Fort Laramie, was
in the storm center of the rising cyclone. The presence of the
troops to guard the emigrant trains, the utter disregard for the

TUB INDIAN TRIBES. 453

Indians' rights, and the construction of posts and roads, seemed to
rouse the fighting instincts of the savages. Earnest efforts, to
secure peace, particularly by the Stevens expedition, met witli
almost total failure. The Sioux were especially active in these
hostilities, among other deeds killing a mail carrier. It was high
time sometliing was done to end the reign of terror in the West.
Finally, an army under Gen. W. S. Harney was sent in 1855
to crush the hostile bands. He advanced rapidly and surprised
Little Thunder's camp on Blue Water creek. . They were thought
to be the same band tliat had slaughtered Lieutenant Grattan's
party and killed the mail-carrier. With nine companies. General
Plarney struck the camp, killing eighty-six, wounding five, and
capturing about seventy women and children, together with a
large quantity of equippage and fifty ponies. Harney's loss was
four killed and seven wounded. A few side expeditions and
skirmishes closed the campaign. The operations of General
Harney and his associates were succeeded by quiet in the West,
all the agents concurring in the opinion that the Sioux and' other
hostiks h.ad been taught a memorable lesson. At this time the
northern superintenilency embraced Minnesota and part of Wis-
consin; tlie central the country from the Arkansas river north to
the forty-ninth parallel ; and the southwestern, the territory from
the Arkansas south to Red river. As each territory was after-
ward created, it was constituted a separate superintendency.
Dakota and Colorado superintendencies were established in 1861.
In 1857 occurred the Sioux outrages at Spirit Lake, Iowa.
Inkpaduta's band killed and woundcil over forty persons and took
several women prisoners. Major Williams, sent against them in
the dead of winter with three companies of thirty-seven men each,
failed to overhaul them. Captain Bee, with fifty regulars, also
failed to catch them. All that could be done was to collect and
bury the mutilated dead and care for the few survivors. Strange
as it may seem, this Sioux band was never fittingly punished by
the government.

In 1859 the Sioux of the Mississippi were engaged in almost
open war among thernseh'es. It was a contest between tlie
"improvement" and the "blanket" divisions of the tribe; or
between incipient civilization and persistent savagery. It was
necessary to send troops there to esta1)lish order. The "imi^rove-
ment" Indiims were tbose who were endeavoring to adopt the
manners and occupations of the whites. They were bitterly
opposed by the "blanket" Indians, who desired them to resume
the savage customs. It was, therefore, an indirect attack upon

.-},

'^'

454 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

the attempts of the g-overninent to civihze the trihe. The treaty
of Fort Wise in February, 1861, secured to the United States
from the Sioux and other tribes vast tracts of territory in the
West.

Naturally, -the Civil War stirred up all the Indian tribes.
Envoys of both the North and the South went among- them for ;J

the purpose of enlisting- their services. Confederate envoys /;

reached the Northwestern Indians from the British possessions, ;

and were undoubtedly largely responsible for the Sioux outbreak ij

in Minnesota in 1862. They likewise incited large factions of
the five civilized tribes in Indian Territory to take up arms i

against the g-ovemment. Settlers throughout the West were
warned by the Indian agents to be on their guard. A sudden
uprising of the Sioux in Minnesota was thought hardly possible.
The commissioner of Indian affairs said, "After a careful exam-
ination of all the data which the Indian Bureau has been able to
obtain, bearing upon the causes which produced the immediSte
outbreak, I am satisfied that the chief cause is to be found in the
insurrection of the Southoni States." Immediately after the
Mason and Slidell affair, the northwestern Indians began their
hostilities. Wam])um was sent among them by Confederate and
British emissaries. The Confederate authorities in paroling
Union soldiers, required them to pledge not to take up arms
against the Indians. The early disasters to the Federal arms
were duly reported and embellished to the various tribes not only
of Indian territory, but of all the West. The danger was real-
ized, even in Minnesota, where the Sioux tribe, by levying upon
the Missouri l)ands, could [)lace fully ten thousand warriors in
the field. The Confederate authorities well knew that a general
outbreak along the whole northern and western border would
necessitate the withdrawal of a large force from their immediate
front for the purpose of holding the savages in check. This had
been the tactics of the British during the War of 1812 and was
now adopted by the Confederates, aided by the Canadians.

In Minnesota the first intlications of Indian hostility were the
acts of certain Sioux chiefs, who visited and harangued the vari-
ous branches, advising war against the government. These
chiefs had undoubtedly been bouglil or won over to the Confed-
erate cruise l)y emissaries sent among them, and they even visited
other trilns, so that mainly through their influence a general
attack was finally i)lanned. At this time so apparent and immi-
nent was the danger, that the agent of the Overland Mail Com-
pany in the northwest telegrajjlied that war with the Indians

THE IXDLIX TRIBES. 455

east of the Missouri river was close at hand. Finally the imps
broke loose, as is fully narrated elsewhere. The promptness of
Goyemor Ramsey and of General Sibley saved the state from
still greater disaster.

But many of the savages were not conquered. They retreated
into what is now the Dakotas and found lodgment among their
kindred. Out of the uprising, however, grew one very important
result : The whites of Minnesota demanded the permanent
removal of the Sioux from the state, and included in the demand
the Winnebagoes, who, as a tribe, had little to do with the out-
break. So general and em])hatic was this demand, that the
government complied, upon the ground that, as the Sioux had
violated the stipulations of the treaties l)y going to war, the
United States was absolved from fulfilling its agreements to guar-
antee the Indians their permanent reservation in Minnesota.
Both the Sioux and the Winnebagoes, therefore, were assigned
reservations in the present Dakotas. There is no doubt that, had
the outbreak of the Sioux not been precipitated — had it been left
to take its own course and fully to develop, many other tribes
would have parlicipaied. and all the white settlements of the
northwe-.-: would have beei' brokti?!-! up. with a still n\o\c &hocktu-ji
di=7.1iy cf ir.dienity and da^'.'.wciic'r.. The \siO^\<i WAvUl n^t U-ust
the Sioux again, and demririded tr.oir roir.ov;»l.

The situation on Red river of the North was for a long liuK'
wholly dominated by the savages, who committed many hostile
acts. The Chippewas committed many petty depredations, those
of Chief Hole-in-the-Day being particularly menacing. The set-
tlers of Kansas ilemanded the removal of (he iiostiles living there
to Indian territory. Commissioner of Jnclian AlTairs VV. H. Dole
recommended the diversion of the Sioux annuities to pay for the
losses suffered by the Minnesota settlers. The government now
realized the unwisdom of not having placed greater barriers
between the Indians and the frontiers; but it was too late to
rectifv the omission.

The Federal authorities were not behind the Confederates in
efforts to secure the friendship and assistance of the Indians.
Out of two hundred and one Delaware warriors, one hundred and
seventy enlisted in the Union army. Many other smaller tribes
of the West did almost as well. A full regiment of Cherokees,
though at first listening to Confederate promises and blandish-
ments, finally joined the Union forces in a body. At first the
Confederates had the best of the argument with the tribes of
Indian territory. Their country was niainlv south of Mason and

456 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

Dixon's line, and llicir location and pursuits united their inter-
ests with those of the South rather than of the North. In
addition, and this was ])erhaps the strongest argrunent with
them, they were told that tlie success of the Federal arms meant
freedom to all the slaves held by the Indians, and they were many.
Accordingly, probably at first a majority of the five civilized
tribes (Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks, and Semi-
noles) became adherents of the Confederate cause. The result
was internecine war throughout the Indian territory, amid scenes
of arson, pilkige, murder and ferocity unknown to any other sec-
tion of the Union, except to Minnesota in 1862. Nearly all who
remained loyal to the government sulTercd the total loss of their
personal pro[jerty and were driven from their burning homes
across the border into Kansas under circumstances of intense
cruelty. Several bloody battles [jefween the two factions — Fed-
eral and Confederate — occurred. The former were defeated
three successive times, and from six thousand to eight tliousaiid
of them, at the head of whom was the Creek chief O-poth-le-yo-
ho-lo retreated in midwinter to the southern border of Kansas,
where for a long time they were fed from government rations by
General Hunter. An attempt to return them, made by the gov-
ernment with two regiments of soldiers and about two thousand
armed Indians, was defeated. Later in the war, when the tide
tumed in favor of the Federal arms, they were returned to their
ruined homes and desolate farms.

"A careful perusal of these reports (of the Indian superinten-
dents and agents) and those made during ihe existence of the
present rebellion will, 1 think, demonstrate that no i)ortions of our
people iiave suffered greater calamities, have met with more
overwhelming disasters, or have more heroically battled for the
common interests of the countr)', than have the loyal Indians
within its limits.'"''

Particularly was this true of the Indian territory. The con-
flicts there between the Federal and Confederate factions were
succeeded by a veritable reign of terror. Neither property nor
life was safe. Unscrupulous white men invaded the territory
and drove oft all the stock they could find. The commissioner of
Indian affairs estimated that in four years the five civilized
tribes lost three hundred thousand head of cattle; that the Chero-
kees alone suffered the loss of stock to the value of two million
dollars, and that all the tribes lost stock worth fom* million dol-

* From the report of W. P. Dole, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1863.

)

THE INDIAN TRIBES. 457 |

i
lars. At the close of the war, the whole territory was a scene
of ahnost unparalleled desolation, from which it required many
years to recover.

Wlien tlie war ended the most important question arose as to
what should be done with the Indians who had joined the rebel-
lion, fought against the government, and violated the treaties by
which they held tenures to their lands. It was shown that, at
first and for a long time John Ross and others had counseled
neutrality on the part of the Indians ; but had been practically
forced to take up arms against the government by the pressure,
proximity and persistence of the Confederate envoys! It was
argued tiiat, as the Indians, by fighting against the government,
had forfeited their rights under tlie various treaties, it was right
and proper to dispossess them of their lands. Great pressure
was brought to bear by home-seekers with this argument as a
bludgeon. A new territory of the United States was projected
from the Indian country. JUit congress refused to take the step
demandvrd. In accordance with a generous and pacific policy the
Indians were merei * required, ist, to enter into new treaties; 2d,
to bear thereafter n.. re of the responsibility of government; 3d,
to abandon slavery forever; 4th, to cede part of their lands for
the use of other tribes; 5th, to suV^mit to consolidation under one
government. They were promised protection from the encroach-
ments of the whites.

The Sioux of the Upper Missouri were not associated with the
Sioux of Minnesota in the massacre of 1862, but nevertheless were
insolent and (.lefiant. They coni[)lained that the protection prom-
ised them by General Harney in 1855 had not been given, in con-
sequence of which they had suffered severely from the depreda-
tions of other tribes. So bitter were they against the government,
that they refused to accept the presents set to them, and even mur-
dered Chief Bears Rib for siding with the government agent. .
The hostile majority forced the friendly minority to join their 1
ranks. They scattered and were guilty of many barbarous acts ' j
against the western settlers. It was estimated that fully one- " I
fourth of the whites living in what is now Dakota fled beyond the '
borders of the territory. They expected to see in the spring of '
1863 a repetition of the horrors of 1862 in Minnesota. General
Sully was once more sent against them, and although he managed
to save the slate from a general massacre, he was unable to crush
the savages owing to the nipidily of their movements and the skill
with which they conducted their marches. Acting Governor
Hutchinson urgently requested that the whole force under Gen-

458 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

eral Sully should be stationed in Dakota territory during the
winter of 18G3-4. He pointed out that the unconquered hos-
tiles from Minnesota had (led into Dakota, where already from
twenty-live thousand to forty thousand of their realtives were on
the point of a general outbreak, and that thus far the savages of
the northwest had not yet been fittingly chastised. The expedi-
tion of General Sibley in 1863, in pursuit of the Sioux, did not
accomplish as nuich as had been hoped ; because the savages scat-
tered and coukl not concentrate for a general engagement, though
they were defeated in several smaller movements.

"I believe the battles recently fought by General Sibley and
General Sully to be but the beginning of the war with the Indians
of the Northwest. I believe an expedition against the Indians
next year (1864) will be required and even more necessary than
the one this year. These hostile tribes must be conquered and
must be compelled to make new treaties before there will be any
safety to the white men within this superintendency."*

In the summer of 1865 General Sully conducted an army
against the Indians north and east of the Missouri river. They
scattered and avoided him. He learned that one of the leading
chiefs of the hostiles was Silting Bull, who became famous, or
rather infamous, a few years later. General Sully marched to
the vicinity of Devil's lake. Mouse river, Fort Bcrthold and
other points, but did not accomplish as much as had been hoped.
He learned that the hostiles within fifty miles of Fort Berthold
could put in the field ten thousand armed warriors. It was
necessary, therefore, to consiiler with great care the probable
results of an encounter with such a formidable force.

In the Colorado superintendcncy, the Cheyennes, Arapahoes,
Comanches, Kiovvas, Utahs, Utes and others took up the hatchet
and committed many bloody deeds. The guilty bands were
small, moved quickly, and concealed themselves in the mountain
fastnesses. The emigrant trails for two hundred miles were the
scenes of numerous massacres, and the Indian villages reveled in
the plunder captured. It was estimated that two or three million
dollars' worth of personal property was thus captured by the hos-
tiles. In the summer of 1864, the savages broke loose with
redoubled ferocity, whereupon Governor Evans called for and
raised a reginient of volunteers, which he divided and sent to
many exposed points. After the bands had been cut in pieces a
few times, the chiefs sued for peace, but were turned over to the

•Communication of Acting Governor Hutchinson, Yankton, Seplemljer 23, 1863.

THE INDIAN TRIBES.

459

military authorities by the governor. General Curtis thought they
should be given greater punishment.

The tribes of the central superintendency — Pawnees, Omahas,
Otoes, IMissouris, lowas, Sacs and Foxes of Missouri and IVIis-
sissippi, Kickapoos, Pottawatomies, Chippewas of the West,
IMunsees, Kansas, Miamis, Weas, Kaskaskias, Peqrias, Pianke-
shaws, Delawares, Wyandots, and Siiawanese, numbering in all
about thirteen thousand — remained in the main faithful to the
Union and throughout the war were comparatively quiet on their
reservations. Many of their warriors enlisted in the Federal
service.

The Civil War had no sooner ended that the government sent
conuTiissioners to nearly all the western tribes for the purpose of
concluding new treaties with them and binding them to peace.
Though the commission succeeded beyond their expectations, war
was resumed by nearly all of the tribes within a few months after
their departure. It v/as now the custom for large numbers to
band together for the avowed purpose of breaking up many ot
the government posts. This step was caused by the act of the
military authorities in taking possession of the Powder river
country and in building Forts Phil Kearney, Reno, and C. F.
Smith within the Indian country, without their consent, against
their protests, and in violation of existing treaties. A bloody war
followed, beginning with the slaughter of Fetterman's command
in Decetnber, 1866. Ninety-six nxn, sent out to protect a train
near Fort Phil Keaniey, were ambushed and slain.

In 1865 the Cheyeiuu'.s strenuously ol)jectetl io the construction
of a military road on Smoky I [ill river. Two years later a com-
mission sent to the Indian c(junlry by the president to learn the
reason of the objections reported that the opening of the road
from Fort Laramie to Montana and the passage of emigrants
miners, and settlers through the Indian country were the causes
of the hostilities. The march of a large bt)dy of troops through
their, country in July, 1866, was regarded by the savages as a
declaration of war. It was demanded that the road be abandoned
and the soldiers be sent from the Indian country. The Chiving--
ton affair, which was partly justified, drove many to join the hos-
tiles. In this emergency General Hancock was sent to the Pow-
der river country in 1S66 with a large force of infantry, cavalry,
artillery and a pontoon train. Against the protests of the Indian
agent, he finally destroyed the large Cheyenne village of Chief
Ivoman Nose, situated about lhirl)-rive miles from Fort Lamed.
The Cheyennes retaliated by taking the war-path and in the end

460 Til 11 I'ROyiNCE AND THE STATES.

killin^i;- a total of alioiit three Iniiulred soldiers and citizens and
destro}'ing several million dollars' worth of public and private
l)ro])crty. in 1868 the Clieyennes were guilty of shocking bar-
barities on Saline and Solomon rivers in Kansas. The expe-
dition against them under Fors) th was only partly successful.
In Montana Major Baker struck a camp of hostile Piegans on
]\Iaria's river and killed one hundred and seventy-three of them,
among whom were many women and children.

It had been realized for man) years by the commissioner of
Indian affairs tliat the reservation system was destined in the
end to prove a total failure. It was seen that surrounding the
reservations with white settlers meant at no distant day the total
destruction of wild game and the constant association of the two
races. The Indians v,ere sure to fall a prey to whisky and the
wiles of sharpers. It liad come to be generally thought by the
government authorities that the only remedy was the allotment
in sev^eralty of the Indian lands and the requirement that the
Indians slioidd work for a livelihood. Stei)S in this direction had
been taken by the government may years before; but had pro-
gressed not very far with the Western tribes.

Previous to the Civil War, the government did not have a
well-defined, consistent, comprehensive and harmonious Indian
policy. A usufruct right, or right of occupancy by the Indian
tribes, had been recognized by the highest court ever since the
foundation of the government, and they had been treated as inde-
pendent sovereignties as well as dependent wards, which extraor-
dinary treatment was the fust serious mistake. In spite of their
recogni/.etl rights, they had been l"orce<l by the pressure of the
home-seekers to surrender from time to time tracts that had been
solemnly guaranteed to them in previous treaties. The incongru-
ity and inefficiency of the govcriiment's course became, sharply
marked with the passage of time. "From a glance at the history
of our relations with the Indians, it will appear that we have been
governed by the course of events rather than by the adoption of
a well-settled policy."''

"The wonderful inllux of population into Colorado and the
subsequent events, indicates the extent of protection afforded.
The while man in his greed for gain robbed them of their homes
and hunting grounds, and when lliey dared to complain found
justification only in the heartless and brutal maxim, 'An Indian
has no rights which the while man is bound to respect:' a senti-

*From llin report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. April, 1864.

THE INDIAN TRIBES. 46 1

ment in which the government quietly acquiesced. ... The
testimony of some of the highest mihtary officers of the United
States is on record to the effect that in our Indian wars, almost
without exception, the first aggressions have been made by the
white man, and the assertion is supported by every civilian of
reputation who has studied the subject. . . . The history of
these Indians, since first brought into treaty stipulations with the
United Slates, is one of almost unmitigated wrongs endured. In
peace they have been the frequent victims of murderers and
marauders and the constant prey of traders and agents. In war
their own barbarities have, on some occasions, been more than
emulated by their white enemies. . , . The United States
first creates the fiction that a few thousand savages stand in the
position of equality as to cajiacity, ])o\vcr and right of negotiation
with a great civilized nation. They next proceed to impress
upon the savages, with all the forms of treaty and the solemnity
of parchment, signatures and seals, the preposterous idea that
they are the owners in fee of the fabulous tracts of country over
which their nomadic habits have led them or their ancestors to
roam. The title becomes thus settled ; they purchase and promise
payment for a portion of territory, and further bind themselves
in the most solemn manner to protect and defend the Indians in
the possession of some immense remainder defined by boundaries
in the treaty; thus becoming, as it were, particeps criminis with
the savages in resisting the 'encroachments' of covilization and
the ])rogressive movement of the age. Having entered into this
last-named impracticable obligatic^n, ihe first step of its niin-per-
formance bect)mes the occasion of disgraceful and expensive war
to subdue their victims to the point of submission to another
treaty. And so the tragedy of war and the farce of treaty have
been enacted again and again, each time with increasing shame
to the nation. . . . I-'robably all will agree that the rapid
development of our western frontiers, by which the Indians have
been driven from one reservation to another, and dishonest man-
agement and execution of treaties by bad agents, have caused most
of our Indian wars."*

The commissioners reported that, ist, the Indians should be
regarded as wards and not as independent sovereignties; 2d, they
should all be gathered in Indian territory ; 3d, every proceeding
should bo j)laced in the hands of honest men ; 4th, homes in sev-

*l''roiii tlic report of the special coniinissioii to the Iiuliaiis, appointed by Presi-
dent Grant m 1K67, William Welsh, of Pliiladelphia, being chairman, and Felix
Brunot, of Pittsburg, secretary.

462 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

eralty should be the ultimate object; ,5th, the expense of this
course would not exceed one-fifth that of a hostile course. This
report became known as "Grant's Indian Policy." It contem-
plated good treatment for small or peaceable tribes and severe
treatujent for big or hostile tribes. It was also called the 'Teace
Policy," with the military department to administer the punish-
ment, not as war, but as discipline. Indians who left their reser-
vations were to be punished, and all were required to live on some
reservation.

Owing- to the fact that the Sioux claimed and occupied Powder
river and Big Horn valleys, the Dig Horn Mining Company was
not penrutted to enter that section, as such a step would be fol-
lowed by certain war. The construction of the Central Pacific
and the Northern Pacific railways was regarded by the Sioux as
an infringement of their rights. At this time the Sioux under
Red Cloud were mostly south of Fort Laramie. Sitting Bull with
a large following separated from the others and went to Mon-
tana; he was an avowed hostile. In October, 1870, Colonel
Mackenzie severely chastised the Comanches on McClellan creek
in Indian territory, killing twenty-three and capturing one hun-
dred and twenty-four.

The many treaties with the Indians concluded from 1867 to
1871 were not ratified by congress. On March 3, 1871, that body
declared "that hereafter no Indian nation or tribe within the ter-
ritory of the United States shall be acknowledged or recognized
as an independent nation, tribe, or power, with whom the United
States may contract bv treaty." This was the doom of the Indian
treaty system. Thus were the practices of nearly a hundred
years overthrown. It n;eant a new order of afifairs, with many
difficult problems to solve. In theory there had been over sixty-
five independent nations within tlie borders of the United States.
Now all was changed. "The bounty of the government has
pauperized them (the Indians), and in some cases has tended to
brutalize more than to civilize." Cash annuities were declared
to be wrong, because they went in advance to saloon-keepers and
sharpers. The govenmient had never secured the Indians, either
in life or in property. The policy had been a Utopian dream
coupled with unpardonable stupidity.

"It belongs not to a sanguine but to a sober view of the situa-
tion, that three years will see the alternative of war eliminated
from the Indian ijuestion and the most powerful and hostile bands
of today thrown in entire helplessness on the mercy of the gov-
ernment. Indeed, the progress of two years more, if \u>i of

THE INDIAN TRIBES. 463

anoliicr summer, on tlie Northern Pacific railway, will of itself
completely solve the great Sioux problem, and leave the ninety
tliousand Indians ranged between the two transcontinental lines
as incapable of resisting the government as are the Indians of
New York or Massachusetts. Columns moving north from the
Union I'acific and south from the Northern Pacific wouUl crush
the Sioux and their confederates as between the up[)er and nether
millstones, while the rapid movement of troops along the northern
line would prevent the escape of the savages when hard pressed,
into the British possessions, which have heretofore afforded a
convenient refuge on the approach of a military expedition.''
"Except under extraordinary provocation, or in circumstances
not at all to be apprehended, it is not probable that as many as five
hundred IntUan warriors will ever again be mustered at one point
for a light; and with the conllicting interest of the dilYerent tribes
and the occupation of the intervening country by. atlvancing set-
tlements, such an event as a general Indian war can never again
occur in the United States." f

On the lieels of these rosy views, the Sioux were preparing for
war on a large scale. The Ked Cloud, Spotted Tail and Sitting
Bull bands were independent, insolent, and guilty of many depre-
dations in 1873-4. The discovery of gold in the Black Plills,
and tlie flocking there of many miners, despite danger from the
Indians, occasioned the intense hostility of the Sioux and their
allies. Ivegardless of consecpiences, the Sioux, Arapahoes, Chey-
ennes, Kiowas, Comanches, and others refused to stay on their
reservations. The invasion of their country by miners and emi-
grants roused them to the point of war. When the army of
General Custer reconnoitered the Black Hill country in 1874, the
indignation of the Indians was complete. Many expeditions of
miners were struck by the Indians and turned back. The with-
drawal of the army and the checking of the expeditions, served
for a time to prevent any general movement of hostility. It
became clear, however, that the Black Hills would have to be pur-
chased to meet the demands of miners and settlers, because new
discoveries of gold had set all the West aflame. . Notwithstand-
ing that soldiers were posted on all the trails approaching the
hills, over one thousand miners passed in during the year 1875,
and when once there j^romptly organized for nuitual protection.

The peace measures from 1868 to 1875 were pro<luctive of

♦ l<'roiii tlie report of the Coniiris'iioi'ei of Iiidiuii Affairs, 1872.
t From the report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1873.

464 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

good results, regardless of the invasion of the Indians' rights;
but during 1874 and 1875 it was necessary to use compulsion to
keep the Indians on their reservations; indeed, these attempts
were only partly successful. Strong Sioux and other bands still
remained out. So great became the pressure of the miners, that
the government ordered a survey of the hills, which was con-
ducted under an armed escort commanded by Colonel Dodge.

"From the first settlement of the country by white men until a
comparatively recent period', the Indians have been constantly
driven westward from the Atlantir. A zigzag, ever-varying line,
more or less definitely marked, extending from Canada to the
Gulf of Mexico, and always slowly moving west, has been known
as the "frontier" or "border." Along this border has been an
almost incessant struggle, the Indians to retain and the whites to
get possession ; the war being broken by periods of occasional
and temporary peace, whicli usually followed treaties whereby
the Indians agreed to surrender large tracts of their lands. This
peace would continue until Hie lands surrendered had been occu-
pied by whites, when the pressure of emigration would again
break over the border, and the Indians, by force or treaty, be
compelled to surrender anoiher portion of his cherished hunting
grounds. . . . Toward the close of the first half of this
century the tide of emigration and adventure swept even the
frontier away and rushed across the continent. Throughout the
vast regions of the West, the adventurous, grasping Anglo-Saxon
race is dominant and in possession of the fairest and richest por-
tions of the land. Except in the Indian territory and perhajis
Dakota, the white exceeds the Indian population. No new hunt-
ing-ground remains, and the civilization or the utter destruction
of the Indians is inevitable. Tiie next twenty-five years are to
determine the fate of a race. If tlicy cannot be taught, and taught
very soon, to accept the necessity of the situation and begin in
earnest to provide for their own wants by labor in civilized pur-
suits they are destined to speedy extinction."*

It was now seen that the laws of Indian territory would have
to be changed to meet the demands of better order. The consoli-
dation of reservations and the allotment in severalty of the Indian
lands, became serious questions. Hvery reservation began to be
threatened with invasion by the irrepressil)le settler or home-
seeker. Many thousands of whites were permanently established
in the Indian territory upon one pretext or another that conld

» From the report of tlie ComniissiDiier of Indian Affairs, 1H76.

THE INDIAN TRIBES. 465

not be gainsaid by the government. Tlie ultimate occupation of
every reservation by the whites was seen to be inevitable. The
only course that would prevent the utter extinction of the Indian
was seen to be allotment in severalty and in perpetuity.

The long-threatened Sioux war at last broke forth in the spring
of 1876. Armies under Generals Terry, Crook, and Custer
invaded the Powder river and Big- Horn river basins. General
Crook captured and burnt the village of Chief Crazy Horse, a
North Cheyenne. Later, he fought another severe battle in the
Rosebud valley, but was partly checked by the savages and obliged
to send for reiiiforcements. Then soon followed the complete
annihilation of the small army of General Custer on the Little
Big Horn. Colonels Miles, Otis, Reno, Gibbons, and others had
sharp engagements with small bands. The cause of the war was
revealed by the demand of the Indians at all the conferences that
the whites should at once leave llic Indian country. In October
live principal chiefs were surrendcretl as hostages; this was the
beginning of the end. But the crafty Sitting Bull managed to
escape. All the Indians at the reservations were disarmed. Dur-
ing the winter of 1876-7 many small engagements occurred. In
the spring of 1877, nearly all the bands surrendered and were
placed on their reservations.

In 1874 congress appropriated $300,000 to be used in an experi-
ment of enforced civilization among 2,000 or 3,000 Kiowas,
Comanches, and Cheyennes who had surrendered ; two years later
the plan was seen to be im[jractical)le and was abandoned. The
rumor in 1876 that the Indian bureau was soon to be transferrcil
to the war department caused great bitterness among the west-
ern tribes. In 1877 the commissioner of Indian affairs recom-
mended, 1st, a strong Indian police force;. 2d, a code of Indian
laws ; 3d, allotment in severalty ; 4th, common schools ; 5th,
christian teachers; 6th, economy; 7th, the steady concentration of
all Indians on reservations.

The Nez Perces war of 1877 was caused by the encroachments
of the whites on the Indian lands in Wyoming and Montana.
Chief Joseph headed the war party. Generals Howard, Gibbons
and Miles pursued them, fought several battles and finally
crushed them. During this year occurred the Cheyenne raid
under Chief Dull Knife across Kansas. They murdered over
forty wdiiien and children, amid ai)palling barbarities. Major
Thornburg severely chastised a band of Utes under Captain Jack
ill Colorado in 1878, for various depredations, but was himself
killed.

I — 30

466 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

Many important changes succeeded the Sioux war of 1876-7.
The Indians were forced to stay on their reservations and were
largely disarmed. The loss of the buffalo was a blessing in dis-
guise to the Indians. They were forced to go to work or starve.
The new order of affairs was followed by excellent results. Soon
many on the reservations were engaged in work. In 1878 the
supplies for the reservations were carried by the Indians in
wagons furnished by the government. The act of May, 1878,
provided for the establishment of Indian police on the reserva-
tions; and in 1882 a court of Indian offenses was provided to
break up various offensive tribal customs.

Over four million pounds were hauled by the Sioux in 1878-79.
By the last of 1879 the Indians iKid been given one thousand three
hundretl and sixty-nine wagons and two thousand five hundred
sets of double harness. Already many "squawmen," "cattlemen,"
"lessees" and others were invading every part of Indian Terri-
tory. In 1877 Cheyenne and Arapahoe teamsters hauled three
hundred thousand pounds, and in 1879, over one million pounds —
all in wagons furnished by the government. About the year 1877
the government began to furnish the tribes with stock cattle.
From July, 1879, to November, 1880, there were thus distributed
ten thousand two hundred and eighty-three head.

It was observed in 1881 that over one million dollars were being
spent annually to feed and clothe the Indians where no treaty
required such an expenditure. It was determined that this should
be stopped, and the Indians be made to work. By November,
1882, there had been furnished the Indians three thousand five
hundred and' fifty-eight wagons and the necessary sets of double
harness to go therewith. By this time the tribal system in
Indian territory was fast disappearing. What was called
the "Oklahoma Colony" gave the government much trouble
from 1881 to 1884. Beginning about 1880-1 the govern-
ment began an elaborate survey of all the Indian reservations.
This necessitated large exi)enditurcs by various commissions and
escorts, and was the preliminary to ultimate allotment of the
Indian lands in severalty. It was seen that a large body of land
in Indian territory was yet unassigned to any tribe. It was
demanded that this should be thrown into market, and the crea-
tion of Oklahoma territory soon followed.

In February, 1887, the general allotment act became a law.
This was one of the most momentous steps ever taken in Indian
legislation, but had been foreshadowed by the law of 1871. It
was preceded by the Indian crimes act of 1885, prior to which

- \
i
THE INDIAN TRIBES. 467

an Indian committing offenses against the person or property of
another Indian on a reservation could not be punished, because no
court held jurisdiction. The intrusion on Indian lands continued,
the intruders growing rich at the expense of the simple-minded
and unbusinesslike natives. Immense numbers of catlle, includ-
ing stock furnished by the government, were boldly stolen by
unscruiMilous whites from the reservations. By private contracts
the '^cattlemen," as they are called, controlled immense tracts of
Indian lands and practically dominated, not only the government
agents, but public affairs on the reservations as well.

In 1889 a united district court was established at Muskogee,
Indian territory. In 1888-9 ^^^^ Oklahoma country was cleared
of Indian claims by purchase. ]\Iany allotments on almost every
reservation were in progress after 1887. The new plan embraced
the following features: ist, ownership in severalty; 2d, oblitera-
tion of tribal relations; 3d, abandonment of the agency system;
4th, full citizenship ; 5th, education ; 6th, proper treatment by
whites; 7th, christian influences. As early as 1819 congress took
steps "to prevent the decline and extinction of the Indian tribes,"
by appropriating $10,000 annually to be expended by the Presi-
dent in teaching the Indians to read and write. This was the
foundation of the Indian educational system in the West. As
early as 1817 congress provided that, under proper circumstances,
an Indian could became a citizen : this law was improved at later
dates. The allotment act of 1887 was followed immediately by
the admission of ten thousand one hundred twenty-two Indians
to citi/enshii), as against three thousand seventy-two prior to that
date.

In the summer of 1890 the Sioux of the Pine Ridge and Rose-
bud agencies became greatly excited over what was called "ghost
dancing." It was heralded that their Messiah was about to
appear on earth to redress their many wrongs. By October an
outbreak seemed imminent. The arrest of Sitting Bull and other
chiefs was ordered with the hope of stopping the tide of disorder.
In November it was learned that the Indians were arming, and
trouble was momentarily expected. General Brooke, in command
of a strong force, was sent to Pine Ridge and arrived there on
November 20. A squad of Indian police, sent to arrest Sitting
Bull at his village, encountered resistence, during which that dis-
tinguished individual was shot twice and killed. The police were
reinforced by Caplain I'echet's command. The campaign i)racti-
cally terminated with the bloody engagement at Wounded Knee,
where eighty-four Indian men and boys, forty-four squaws, and

468 THE PROVINCE AND THE STATES.

eighteen children were killed and many were wounded. The
troops lost twenty-five killed and thirty-five wounded. The sur-
viving Indians scattered to the four winds. A few sharp skir-
mishes terminated the campaign.

In 1892 the old method of paying the tribal annuities to the
chiefs was changed to that of paying it to the heads of families;
the former method had been in vogue since 1847. It had been the
old practice to give live catlle to the Indians to be pursued and
shot down by them as they were in the habit of shooting the
buffaloes. This practice was changed. The custom of issuing
rations was also modified. In 1891 the sum of two thousand five
hundred dollars was appropriated to pay matrons for teaching
Indian women the art of housekeeping. The next year, so prom-
ising were the results, five thousand dollars was thus appropri-
ated, and nine tribes were instructed by them.

In recent years nnich trouble has been experienced from bands
which left their reservations and conmiitted various unlawful
depredations. The trouble \\\\\\ Colerow's baud of Utes in Col-
orado was due to their refusal to go to Utah and occupy a new
reservation. In 1894 Chief Crow Flies High and his band of
Gros Ventres left their reservation, but were returned without
serious difficulty. In 1895 the Bannock Indians of the Jackson
Hole country in Wyoming left their reservation, and many of
them were killed before peace was restored.

In late years among the important Indian questions are the
following: The leasing of Indian lands to whiles; irrigation on
resrrvations ; industrial schools; teaching Indian women house-
keeping; improvements in agriculture; exhibits of Indian prod-
ucts; Indian homestead rights; allotment in severalty; better laws
and courts ; extension of the Indian police system ; t^ie enrollment
of tribal members; surveying lantls and incorporating towns;
Indians not to be permitted to disburse moneys; enrollment of
freedmen ; the abandonment of tribal laws, courts, customs, etc.

The act of March, 1893, created a board of Indian commis-
sioners to the five civilized tribes. They were instructed to
enter into negotiations with the several nations of Indian Terri-
tory for the purpose of carrying into effect more fully the allot-
ment act, "it being the express determination of congress to bring
alx)ut such changes as would enable the ultimate creation of a
Territory of the United States with a view of the admission of
the same as a State of the Union." In 1898 is was provided by
the Curtis act that, as ownership in common liad proved under
modern conditions a lamentable faihire, congress should uniler-

THE INDIAN TRIBES. 469

take formally to administer upon the estate of the five civilized
tribes so as to allot them lands in severalty upon a valuation
basis. It was observed with great concern that the children
among 300,000 white people in Indian territory were wholly
without educational facilities. The rations, reservations, blank-
ets, long hair, dances, feasts of dog, etc., arc doomed to an early
disappearance. The reason is shown by the following pleasing
facts: In 1877 the government appropriated $20,000 for the
support of Indian schools, and in 1903 appropriated for the same
purpose $3,531,220. The interest on the Indian trust fund
amounted in 1902 to $1,510,248. The total amount paid them in
1902 including this interest, the gratuities, under treaty agree-
ments, from the proceeds of labor, Indian moneys, etc., was
$5,419,106.

7700723 1

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Full text of "The province and the states, a history of the province of Louisiana under France and Spain, and of the territories and states of the United States formed therefrom"

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