TIGHT BINDING BOOK
Drenched Book
^ DQ
DO
PSYCHOLOGY
OF MUSIC
BY
CARL E. SEASHORE,
PH.D., LL.D., BC.D., D.LITT.
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.
NEW YORK AND LONDON
COPYRIGHT, 1938, BY THB
McGRAW-HiLL BOOK COMPANY, INC.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
All rights reserved. This book, or
parts thereof* may not be reproduced
in any form without permission of
the publishers.
To my comrades in research
for the last forty years
this volume is affectionately
dedicated.
npms volume is dedicated to my comrades in research, professors
J. and students, for the last forty years. I am writing as a spokes-
man for them all, attempting to present in high lights the new
approaches developed during this period. This involves the right
to draw freely from more than one hundred publications emanating
from the group. Wherever possible I have named the person pri-
marily responsible for the contribution; but the text embodies
facts which in large part are common stock in the laboratory.
In doing the overhead work for all these years, it has been
difficult to separate my own ideas from the ideas of collaborators
because our policy has been to share ideas with the utmost gener-
osity. In the interest of condensation and clarity, I have interpreted
and classified as much as is consistent with the purpose and, there-
fore, have not used quotation marks extensively.
It is difficult to give proper acknowledgment to all the persons
and sources represented. All authors of publications from which
substantial units are drawn are mentioned in the text with a super-
script number which refers to the corresponding number in the
bibliography. The sources of illustrations are indicated in the text.
Acknowledgment to authors and publishers for permission to use
material is herewith gratefully extended.*
Owing to the nature of the situation, I have counted upon
many of my collaborators to read and criticize the manuscript in
whole or in part both from the point of view of science and from
the point of view of music.
*The following note from the Music Educator* Journal, September, 1937, IB self-
explanatory :
"In a series of reports from the laboratory-studio for the Psychology of Music, Carl E.
Seashore has presented to Journal readers specimens of scientific findings dealing with
various phases of the psychology of music. Appearing in the October issue of the Journal
will be the tenth in a series, which will deal with the problem of the tempered scale a*
x PREFACE
The Psychology of Musical Talent, 1 * 7 published by Silver
Burdett & Company, in 1919, is a monograph which marks a ne\v
vantage ground in the psychology of music. It covers a restricted
field in which it has permanent value and should, therefore, not
be revised, but supplemented. In the present volume, I have aimed
to avoid duplication of that work to which this is a logical sequel.
Concentration in this field of work has been favored by a gen-
erous attitude on the part of the University of Iowa toward this
project and through a series of generous fellowships provided by
Mr. George Eastman, the National Research Council, the Guggen-
heim Foundation, and the Carnegie Foundation. Through a special
interest in this subject and such generous financial support, it has
been possible to maintain a continuous project through trained
investigators, working on a unified program for a generation.
The purpose of this book is to stimulate and guide the student
of music in scientific observation and reasoning about his art. It
is, therefore, not a summary of all the known facts on any subject,
but rather a series of flashes illustrating the scientific approach
from as many angles as space and material permit in an elementary
textbook. Since the book is written for beginners, no technical
description of apparatus or method is given except in most
elementary general principles. Material for the student to work
upon is, however, furnished abundantly. My attitude throughout
may be expressed in the invitation, "Come with me into the
laboratory-studio for the psychology of music and see how the
study of science of the art of music works." As in my other text-
books the motto has been
Not psychology but to psychologize.
This book has been many years in the making. Certain chapters
have been revised periodically as knowledge in the field has
advanced. The present edition may, therefore^ be regarded as a
report of progress subject to revision in the near future; yet an
effort has been made to deal only with firmly established facts,
opposed to the natural scale and others. Beginning in March, 1936, successive issues of the
Journal have Carried articles on the following subjects: (1) Pitch Intonation in Singing, (2)'
Approaches to the Experimental Psychology of Music; (3) Quality of Tone: Timbre,
(4) Quality of Tone: Sonance; (5) Measurement of Musical Talent: The Eastman Experi-
ment; (6) The Vibrato: What Is It?; (7) The Vibrato: What Makes It Good or Bad?;
(8) The Vibrato: How Can We Approach an Ideal Vibrato?; (9) A Performance Score
with Phrasing Score for the Violin."
PREFACE xi
even though fragmentary. Diversity in the style of figures is
justified on the policy of retaining the form given each figure by
its original author.
Upon invitation from my Alma Mater to give the so-called
academic address at an anniversary celebration last year, I chose
as my subject The Power of Music. This had been the subject of
my class oration when graduating from the academy fifty-one
years before. Half a century ago the adolescent lover of music
began his oration as follows:
Music is the medium through which we express our feelings
of joy and sorrow, love and patriotism, penitence and praise.
It is the charm of the soul, the instrument that lifts mind to
higher regions, the gateway into the realms of imagination. It
makes the eye to sparkle, the pulse to beat more quickly. It
causes emotions to pass over our being like waves over the far-
reaching sea.
That was what the music I lived in meant to me half a century
ago. It was the expression of the genuine thrill of young enthusiasm.
Considering what music meant to me then and what it means to
me now after a life career in the science of music, there comes to
me an analogy from astronomy. Then I was a stargazer; now I am
an astronomer. Then the youth felt the power of music and gave
expression to this feeling in the way he loved and wondered at
the stars before he had studied astronomy. Now the old man feels
the same "power of music," but thinks of it in the manner that the
astronomer thinks of the starry heavens. Astronomy has revealed
a macrocosm, the order of the universe in the large; the science of
music has revealed a microcosm, the operation of law and order
in the structure and operation of the musical mind. It is a wonder-
ful thing that science makes it possible to discover, measure, and
explain the operations of the musical mind in the same attitude
that the astronomer explains the operation of the stars.
It is not easy to pass from stargazing to technical astronomy.
It is not easy to pass from mere love and practice of mu. ic to an
intelligent conception of it. To help the lover of music bridge this
gap is the purpose of this volume.
CARL E. SEASHORE.
PAQH
PREFACE ix
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii
CHAPTER
1. THE MUSICAL MIND 1
The sensory capacities Musical imagery, imagination, and memory
Musical intelligence Musical feeling Musical performance The
meaning of this analysis
2. THE MUSICAL MEDIUM IS
Musician, music, listener Characteristics of the sound wave Fre-
quency: pitch Musical aspects of pitch intonation Intensity: loud-
ness Musical aspects of loudness Duration: time Musical aspects
of time Wave form: timbre Musical aspects of tonal timbre The
musical performance score
3. THE SCIENCE OP Music 3
Scope of the subject The performer, the music, the listener General
principles of science Basic principles in the psychology of music
4. A MUSICAL ORNAMENT, THE VIBRATO 33
Nature of the vibrato An example of the vocal vibrato An example
of instrumental vibrato Frequency of occurrence, extent and rate of
vibratos Normal illusions which make for beauty of vibrato The
nature of beauty in the vibrato Ear training for the vibrato Use
and abuse of the vibrato The vibrato, good, bad, indifferent, and ideal
5. PITCH: FREQUENCY 53
The nature of pitch Limits of audible pitch Pitch discrimination
^Absolute pitch-^The significance of individual differences Normal
illusions of pitch Subjective tones The first difference tone Other
difference tones Summation tones Subjective harmonics The dif-
ference tone a substitute for a low fundamental Pitch performance
6. LOUDNESS: INTENSITY 76
The role of intensity Sensitivity or hearing ability Deterioration
with age : presbycousis Children's hearing Discrimination : the sense
of intensity Number of audible differences in loudness Motor
xiii
xiv CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
capacities Intensity characteristics of musical tones Amplification
of sound
7. DURATION: TIME 90
Nature of the perception of time Discrimination : the sense of time
Normal illusions of time Motility
8. TIMBRE: WAVE FORM 95
The nature of timbre Harmonic analysis Synthetic tones Timbre
discrimination: the sense of timbre
9. TONE QUALITY: SONANCE 1015
Analogy in moving pictures Types of sonance Sonance in attack,
release, and portamento The inside of ji vocal tone What is m a
name? Sonance in speech Nature of the vowel in music and speech- */
The problem of formant regions Dependence of harmonic structure
upon fundamental pitch and total intensity in the vowel Conversa-
tional vs. audience voice ^
10. CONSONANCE . . . 125
The nature of consonance The psychological approach Six psycho-
logical problems Order of merit in each of four criteria Order of
rank on three criteria combined The sense of consonance
11. VOLUME 134
Spatial factors Quantitative factors Qualitative factors Temporal
factors Subjective factors Carrying power
12. RHYTHM , . . . 138
v/
The nature of rhythm What rhythm does Individual differences in
musical rhythm Psychology of rhythm ^
/13. LEARNING IN Music . 14P
Twelve rules for efficient learning in music (to the pupil) Some
specific applications (to the instructor)
14. IMAGINING IN Music 161
The analogy in sculpture and painting Comparison of musicians and
scientists R. Schumann Mozart Berl "'>z Wagner Supplemen-
tary imagery Living in a tonal world The development of imagery
Individual differences in mental imagery
/15. THINKING IN Music 173
The issue The nature of musical intelligence How musicians rate
46. NATURE OF MUSICAL FEELING . 178
Determined by capacities Intensified by pursuit Characterized by
intelligence and motor skills Transfer to other situations
CONTENTS xv
CHAPTER PAO
17. TIMBRE OF BAND AND ORCHESTRAL INSTRUMENTS 182
The bassoon The clarinet The French horn The baritone horn
The cornet The slide trombone The flute The oboe The tuba
18. VIOLIN 199
The violin performance score The violin phrasing score Comparison
of the performance of two players The pitch factor The intensity
factor The temporal aspect The timbre aspect Intervals: the
problem of scales
19. PIANO 225
Piano touch The piano camera The piano performance score
Section of Chopin Nocturne No. 6 Similarity in statement and
restatement Consistency of interpretation Asynchronization of
chords
20. VOICE 254
Singing The tonal aspect: pitch The dynamic aspect: intensity
The temporal aspect: time Time and stress: rhythm The qualita-
tive aspect; timbre and sonance
21. PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE IN Music 286
The problem Paving the way Reminiscent incidents Principles of
measurement and guidance Sources of error in guidance procedures
22. MEASURES OF MUSICAL TALENT 302
What can we measure ? Principles involved in the elementary battery
of measures of musical talent Criticisms of this approach Purpose
of the phonograph records and supplementary procedures Reliability
The basis for rank order The uses of these measures
23. ANALYSIS OF TALENT IN A Music SCHOOL 312
Origin of the Eastman School experiment Plan and purpose of the
experiment Classification Representative profiles Stability of the
classification Retests of adults and children Bearing on success in
the college music course
24. ANALYSIS OF TALENT IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOL .321
The Lincoln experiment The Rochester service Procedure in the
guidance program The training of teachers and supervisors The
organization of a guidance program for the public school
%5. THE INHERITANCE OF MUSICAL TALENT 330
The nature of the inheritance of musical talent Basic approaches now
available Possible ways of organizing investigation The naturalist's
point of view
xvi CONTENTS
CEU.FTBB PAQB
6. PRIMITIVE Music 346
Musical anthropology through phonophotography Negro songs
27. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUSICAL SKILLS 360
Control of pitch intonation Control of intensity Control of time and
rhythm The rhythm meter Training for precision in rhythmic
action Control of timbre General significance of specific training
for skills
28. MUSICAL ESTHETICS 373
Approaches to musical esthetics Esthetics as a normative science
The musical message
APPENDIX 383
BIBLIOGRAPHY . 387
INDEX TO AUTHORS MENTIONED OR QUOTED IN THE TEXT 399
INDEX TO MUSICIANS 401
INDEX TO COMPOSITIONS 403
SUBJECT INDEX 405
LIST OF
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAOB
Oscillogram of a pure and steady tone 16
The Bach-Gounod Ave Maria as sung by Herald Stark 35
Bach's A ir for the G String, as played by Arnold Small 39
Drink to me only with thine eyes, as sung by Lawrence Tibbett 48
Variation with frequency level and sensation level 60
A scale of just perceptibly different pitch steps 61
Number of times filter condition was correctly preserved as function of cut-off
frequency for the piano 69
Audible frequency range for music, speech, and noise 71
Compass of musical instruments 73
Audiograms showing types of hearing loss 79
Limits of audible sound 82
Loudness-level contours 83
The number of just noticeable steps in loudness (j.n.d.) between the thresh-
old of audibility and the threshold of pain 85
Dominant partials in a violin tone 98
Tone spectrum in terms of percentage of energy 98
Tone spectrum in terms of decibel values 98
Types of vocal attack 106
The harmonic structure of a beautiful tone 107
Record of the speech from The Judgment Day by Josephine Victor 112
Timbre and sonance in a vowel; same vowel spoken twice by the same person 114
Timbre and sonance in a vowel; the same vowel spoken by two persons . . 115
Formant regions 116
The effect of variations in pitch, intensity constant, and variations in inten-
sity, pitch constant, on the harmonic composition of the vowel "Ah " . 119
The variation of harmonic constitution with pitch 120
Acoustic spectra and total intensity level under the three conditions. . . . 122
Order of merit of interval in the consonance-dissonance series 1S2
xvii
xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Distribution of ratings in tonal auditory imagery 163
The bassoon 189
The clarinet 191
The French horn 191
The baritone horn 193
The cornet 193
The slide trombone 195
The flute 195
The oboe 197
The tuba 197
Ave Maria as played by Slatkin 200, 202
Ave Maria as played by Small 201, 203
Phrasing score for first half of Fig. 1 204
Phrasing score for Fig. 2 204
Pitch, intensity, and temporal deviations for the Air for the G String (Bach-
Wilhelmj) as played by Small 208
Pitch, intensity, and temporal deviations for the Tzigane (Ravel) as played
by Menuhin 208
Intensity and temporal deviations for the Air for the G String (Bach- Wil-
helmj) as played by Elman 209
Intensity and temporal deviations for the Air for the G String (Bach- Wil-
helmj) as played by Small (second performance) 209
G string 216
D string 216
A string 217
E string 217
Score of the Kreutzer Etude showing passage, between the two arrows, which
was played 218
Phrasing score for pitch rendition of the passage in Fig. 13 by four players 219
Group performance for five intervals 221
Comparison of performances in three selections 222
Comparison of the tempered and the natural scales with the Pythagorean
scale 223
Drawing from actual photogram taken with the Iowa piano camera .... 234
Schematic drawing of the mechanism of the piano camera 235
The photogram of Fig. 1 transcribed into the musical pattern score .... 238
The chorale section of Chopin's sixth nocturne 239
The musical pattern score of the chorale section of Chopin's sixth nocturne,
as played by pianist A 240
The musical pattern score of the chorale section of Chopin's sixth nocturne,
as played by pianist B 241
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xix
PAOI
Relative duration of melody notes and the corresponding relative intensity
values 245
Duration of measures in two renditions of the first 24 measures of Chopin's
Polonaise, op. 40, no. 1, by Bauer 246
Duration of phrases in same performance as for Fig. 8 246
Duration of the first 4 phrases in three renditions of the first 4 phrases in
Beethoven's Sonata, op. 57, by Clapp 247
Comparison of artistic time and attempted metronomic time in the rendition
of the first 25 measures of Chopin's Nocturne, op. 27, no. 2, by Clapp 247
Asynchronization of chords 250
Drink to me only with thine eyes as sung by Arthur Kraft 256
All through the night as sung by Arthur Kraft 258
The aria Come unto Him (Messiah) as sung by Lucy Marsh 260
The aria Come unto Him (Messiah) as sung by Mrs. Carl Seashore, Jr.. . . 263
Samples of mean-pitch lines from Stark 269
Samples of mean-pitch lines from Kraft 270
Type forms of gliding, rising attack 271
Type forms of portamento 272
Spread of tonal powers within a song 275
Durational progress of the songs from measure to measure 276
Durational progress of the songs from phrase to phrase 277
Kraft 1 and Tibbett. The role of several factors in rhythm 280
Samples of types of profiles 816
Distribution of Test 1 and Test 2 raw scores in five measures with a 3-year
interim between measurements 317
Distribution of Test 1 and Test 2 raw scores for three groups in five measures,
with a 3-year interim of musical training between measurements . . . 318
The percentage of students graduating within 4 years in each of the five
groups 319
Family pedigree chart of musical talent of the Rho group 343
On ma journey 350
Att my days 353
You ketch dis train 355
Negro laugh 356
Transfer of training in pitch intonation 364
The effect of training for precision in rhythmic action 370
PSYCHOLOGY OF MUSIC
THE MUSICAL MIND
npHE late Horatio Parker once said in the way of a witticism,
JL "There are no musicians in this country," and to my intimation
that there must be some near-musicians he said, after some delibera-
tion, "Well, there is one." On inquiry as to what his particular
merits were, it came out that he was a composer. "But," I asked,
"how about our great singers and instrumental performers?"
"Ah, they are technicians." Ranging from such a conception of the
musical mind to that of the mind of Blind Tom or, in a more
extreme case, the musicial prodigies which we frequently find in
the institutions for the feeble-minded, it is possible to recognize
countless varieties of musical minds.
Avoiding as much as possible the account of technical methods
of approach, analysis, and measurement, I shall aim to set up in this
introductory chapter a skeletal structure in terms of which musical
minds may be described and interpreted.
The point of view here presented as a result of laboratory
experience is based upon the analysis of the musical medium
the physical sound. This rests upon the assumption that a^musical
mind must be capable of sensing sounds, of imaging these sounds in
reproductive and creative imagination, of being aroused by them
emotionally, of being capable of sustained thinking in terms of
these experiences, and ordinarily, though not necessarily, of giving
some form of expression of them in musical performance or in
creative music.)
( In this objective approach, we must keep in the foreground the
fundamental fact that the musical mind does not consist of its
* Reprinted by permission from the Atlantic Monthly. IM
1
2 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
dissected parts, but in an integrated personality. In its evaluation
we must always have regard for the total personality as functioning
in a total situation.
Musical talent is not one, but a hierarchy of talents, branching
out along certain trunk lines into the rich arborization, foliage, and
fruitage of the tree, which we call the "musical mind." The normal
musical mind is first of all a normal mind. What makes it musical is
the possession, in a serviceable degree, of those capacities which are
essential for the hearing, the feeling, the understanding, and,
ordinarily, for some form of expression of music, with a resulting
drive or urge toward music.
THE SENSORY CAPACITIES
The psychological attributes of sound, namely, pitch, loudness,
time, and timbre, depend upon the physical characteristics of the
sound wave: frequency, amplitude, duration, and form. In terms of
these we can account for every conceivable sound in nature and
art vocal or instrumental, musical or nonmusical. We therefore
recognize that the musical mind must be capable of apprehending
these four attributes of sound.
But in this apprehending we find an inner screen which is more
significant musically, being composed of the four fundamental
sensory capacities in complex forms, namely, the sense of tone
quality, the sense of consonance, the sense of volume, and the sense
of rhythm. These four complex forms of capacity must be evaluated
by themselves and not in terms of their elemental components.
For example, rhythm depends upon the sense of time and the sense
of intensity, as hydrogen and oxygen combine int^o water; yet water
and rhythm are practical entities in themselves. )/
This classification of sensory capacities is probably complete,
because it is based upon the known attributes of the sound wave.
It must be borne in mind that the sound wave is the only medium
through which music as such is conveyed from the performer to
the listener; everything that is rendered as music or heard as
music may be expressed in terms of the concepts of the sound wave.
As in good reading we are not aware of letters or phonetic elements
as such, but read for meaning, so in music we are, as a rule, not con-
scious of specific tonal elements or sound waves as such, but rather of
musical design or impression as a whole. The lover of flowers may
derive deep pleasure from flowers through his senses without knowl-
THE MUSICAL MIND 3
edge or thought of the physics or chemistry of their structure(So it
is possible to enjoy and perform music without insight or knowledge
of its true nature; but the musician who knows his medium and
thinks intelligently ab^uLit Jiai^^IvasiTy greater satisfaction than
the one
On the basis of our experiments in measuring these sensory
capacities, we find that the basic capacities, the sense of pitch, the
sense of time, the sense of loudness, and the sense of timbre are
elemental, by which we mean that they are largely inborn and
After a comparatively early age
^
they do not vary with intelligence, with training, or with increasing
age, except as the exhibition of these capacities is limited by the
child's ability to understand or apply himself to the task. This fact
is of the utmost importance in that it makes diagnosis of talent
possible before training is begun and points to certain very definite
principles of musical education. We can measure these capacities
reliably by the age of ten in the normal child; and this measure is
likely to stand, except for the numerous vicissitudes of life which
may cause deterioration. To take an example, the sense of pitch
depends upon the structure of the ear, just as acuity of vision
depends upon the structure of the eye. As no amount of training or
maturing tends to increase the acuity of the eye, so no amount of
training or maturing can improve the pitch acuity of the ear. How-
ever, training and maturing in both cases can greatly increase the
functional scope of these capacities. The ear, like the eye, is an
instrument, and mental development in music consists in the
acquisition of skills and the enrichment of experience through this
channel. This is analogous to the fact that touch and acuity of hear-
ing are really on the whole as keen in seeing persons as in the blind
who show apparently marvelous power of orientation through these
senses.
The apparently complex forms of sensory capacities also tend to
be elemental to a considerable degree; that is, the young child has
the sense of tone quality, of volume, of rhythm, and the sense of
consonance long before he begins to sing or know anything about
music. It is the meaning, and not the capacity, of these forms of
impression which we train and which matures with age in propor-
tion to the degree of intelligence and emotional drive.
There seem to be four large trunks in the family tree of musical-
ity, each of which may develop and ramify to a large extent hide-
4 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
pendently of, or out of proportion to, the others. These four are
the tonal, the dynamic, the temporal, and the qualitative. Each is
the main trunk of a musical type. Those of the tonal type are
peculiarly sensitive to pitch and timbre and dwell upon music in all
its tonal forms melody, harmony, and all forms of pitch variants
and compounds; the dynamic have a fine acuity of hearing and
sense of loudness and dwell by preference upon stress, or the
dynamic aspect of music, in all forms and modifications of loudness;
the temporal are peculiarly sensitive to time, tempo, and rhythm,
and by preference dwell upon the rhythmic patterns and other
media for the temporal aspect of music; the qualitative are pecul-
iarly sensitive to timbre and are capable of its control, dwelling
preferentially upon the harmonic constitution of the tone.
Of course, a great musician, or a balanced musician of any
degree of greatness, tends to have these four trunks of capacity
branching out in balanced and symmetrical form, but such cases
are comparatively rare. Many distinguished musicians are domi-
nantly of one of these types; their performance and appreciation
and their musical creations all give evidence favoring dominance
of one of the trunk lines, although within these trunk lines large and
distinctive subbranchings may be recognized. Furthermore, great
capacity in each of these types is not essential to marked distinc-
tion in musical achievement; very extreme sensitivity in one or more
of them may even be a drawback to balanced musical development.
Let me give a very striking illustration on this last point. In
measuring certain phases of musical talent in all of the available
living members of six of the foremost musical families in the United
States, Dr. Stanton found that the brother of one of the protagons
of these musical families said that he had no musical talent what-
ever, and this seemed to be the opinion of the family. But the
experimenter found that in the five basic capacities measured, this
man was extraordinarily keen, indeed, conspicuously keener than
his brother, the famous musician. The interesting confession came
out that the reason he was not musical was that practically all the
music that he heard seemed to him so bad that it jarred upon him
and was intolerable. That was the reason that he was not musical in
the conventional sense of the word; he was so keen that the ordinary
humdrum of music, even in a musical family, continually jarred
him. Is he in reality musical or is he not? The psychologist would
say, "In terms of all the evidence at hand, he has extraordinary
THE MUSICAL, MIND 5
musical capacities." Yet in his family he was the one who had not
"amounted to anything" in music.
Generalizing on the basis of all types of record available we may
say that, so far as the sensory capacities are concerned, a balanced
and distinctly gifted musical mind will in these capacities measure
in the highest 10 per cent of the normal community. But great
musical achievement may be attained by persons who may have as
low as average sensory capacity in one of these four main lines.
But here it must be pointed out, of course, that success depends
upon following the lead of natural capacity. For example, a person
who has only an average sense of pitch can never become a good
violinist or a great singer; but, with the other three skills well
developed, he may become a pianist or a composer of great distinc-
tion. A person relatively lacking in dynamic capacities cannot
become a great pianist, but might well find success with voice or
wind instruments. It is not that the musician always engages in
fine distinctions; it is rather that his possession of a fine sensitivity
makes him live dominantly in that musical atmosphere to which he
is most sensitive and responsive, even when he employs the most
dissonant, rough, or unrhythmic characteristics of sound.
MUSICAL IMAGERY, IMAGINATION, AND MEMORY
Granting the presence of sensory capacities in adequate degree,
success or failure in music depends upon the capacity for living in a
tonal world through productive and reproductive imagination. The
musician lives in a world of images, realistic sometimes even to the
point of a normal illusion. This does not mean that he is aware of
the image as such any more than he needs to be aware of sensation
in seeing an object. But he is able to " hear over " a musical program
which he has heard in the past as if it were rendered in the present.
He creates music by "hearing it out," not by picking it out on the
piano or by mere seeing of the score or by abstract theories, but by
hearing it out in his creative imagination through his "mind's
ear." That is, his memory and imagination are rich and strong in
power of concrete, faithful, and vivid tonal imagery; this imagery
is so fully at his command that he can build the most complex
musical structures and hear and feel all the effects of every detailed
element before he has written down a note or sounded it out by
voice or instrument. This capacity, I should say, is the outstanding
mark of a musical mind at the representation level the capacity of
6 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
living in a representative tonal world. This capacity brings the
tonal material into the present; it colors and greatly enriches the
actual hearing of musical sounds; it largely determines the char-
acter and realism of the emotional experience; it is familiarity with
these images which makes the cognitive memory for music realistic.
Thus, tonal imagery is a condition for learning, for retention,
for recall, for recognition, and for the anticipation of musical facts.
Take out the image from the musical mind and you take out its
very essence.
No one maintains at the present time that a person can be of a
single imaginal type; but, in natural musicians with a rich feeling
for music, the auditory type dominates, and perhaps largely
because realistic imagery is always intimately associated with
organic responsiveness. The motor imaginal type is ordinarily
also well developed. It is not necessary for us to quarrel about the
relation of kinesthetic imagery to kinesthetic sensation, but we can
agree upon this: that the motor tendency to image the tone or
execute it in inceptive movements is highly developed in the musical
mind. The auditory and the motor images are normal stimuli for
organic reaction in musical emotion.
The necessity of living in a world of representation tends to
bring out vivid visual imagery as well as imagery in the other
senses, because there is a general tendency to reinstate, in the repre-
sentation of a sensory experience, the whole of the original setting.
Thus a musician not only hears the music but often lives it out so
realistically in his imagination and memory that he sees and feels a
response to the persons, instruments, or total situation in the rendi-
tion represented. Without this warmth of experience, music would
lose its essential esthetic nature. It is a well-known fact that many
persons who ply the art or business of music report having no devel-
oped imaginal life or concrete imagination. And it has been very
interesting to observe in many such cases that, although they are
engaged in the practice of music, their musical life is quite devoid of
the genuine musical experience. They are often mere pedagogues or
musical managers.
The power of mental imagery may be developed to a marked
degree with training. There is also good evidence to show that the
power of vivid imagery deteriorates with nonuse. A comparison of
musicians and psychologists shows that the musicians stand very
high in auditory imagery and the psychologists as a class compara-
THE MUSICAL MIND 7
lively low. This marked difference is probably due partly to selec-
tion and partly to training. There seems to be no doubt but that
there are very great differences in the original nature of children in
this respect.
Mere strength and fidelity of imagery is, however, of little value
except insofar as it is the medium for imagination. Music is an art,
and he who plies it successfullyjias the power of creative imagina-
tion.. This may be of the sensuous type which Is characterized by
luxuriant and realistic imagery without much reflection; it may be
of the intellectual type in which creation takes the form of purpose,
theories, or postulates as to the material of musical content; it may
be of the sentimental type in which the flow of imagery is under
the sway of the higher sentiments which are often nursed into
esthetic attitudes, sometimes called "musical temperament"; it
may be of the impulsive type in which the drive or urge of emotion
flares up but is not long sustained; it may be of the motor type,
sometimes called "architech tonic," which takes the form of a realistic
experience of action or of mere performance. According as a person
is dominantly of any one or of a combination of these types, his
personality as a whole may in large part be designated by such a
pattern. Thus, among others, we may recognize as types the
sensorimotor, sentimental, impulsive, reflective, motile, and the
balanced musician.
While retentive and serviceable memory is a very great asset to a
musical person, it is not at all an essential condition for musical-
mindedness. A person may have naturally very poor memory of all
kinds and get along well in music, just as an absent-minded philoso-
pher may get along very well in his field. Furthermore, the possibility
for the development of memory is so very great that with careful
training a person with very poor memory may improve this many-
fold to the point of serviceability. The musical mind that can repro-
duce many repertoires with precision is, however, a different mind
from one which has neither large scope nor fidelity in retention or
reproduction. But both may be musical. The personal traits in
memory and imagination color and condition the musical life and
often set limits to achievement in music.
MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE
Insofar as the power of reflective thinking is concerned, musical
intelligence is like philosophical, mathematical, or scientific
8 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
intelligence. Intelligence is musical when its background is a store-
house of musical knowledge, a dynamo of musical interests, an
outlet in musical tasks, and a warmth of musical experiences and
responses. Here, as in the case of imagination, the type and the
degree of intelligence may characterize or set limits for the musical
achievement. The great composer, the great conductor, the great
interpreter live in large intellectual movements. They have the
power of sustained thought, a great store of organized information,
and the ability to elaborate and control their creative work at a
high intellectual level. At the other extreme are the various kinds of
small musicianship in which reflective thinking does not function;
the experience and the performance are on a sensorimotor level.
Such music is to real music as fantasy is to creative imagination.
Between these extremes we may sort musicianships into markedly
different qualities and levels in terms of some sort of intelligence
quotient a hypothetical musical intelligence quotient which we
might designate as M.I.Q. Thought is, however, not limited to the
difficult and ponderous in music, for, as in all other realms of
reflection, the highest and most beautiful achievements of thought
often have the charm of simplicity.
We should not infer from this that a great mathematician or
philosopher, who plays the violin or sings beautifully, does so as a
great thinker. The violin and the voice are often a relief to him from
the strain of sustained cogitation. He may not create music at all;
he may not even interpret at the level at which he philosophizes;
yet his sensuous and his imaginative experiences are chastened,
mellowed, and balanced by the fact that he is a contemplative man.
Again the great intellect in music may dwell so exclusively upon
the musical forms and upon conceptions of new musical structures
as to become calloused to the more spontaneous appreciation and
expression of music. He becomes hypercritical and may even lose
the ability to enjoy music. The penetrating critic often derives more
pain than pleasure out of music as it is.
My main point, however, is : as is the intelligence of a man, so is
his music. If he is in a school for feeble-minded, his music may be
spontaneous and appealing to a high degree; but it will, neverthe-
less, be feeble-minded. If it is the expression of the philosophical
and highly trained composer or conductor, it will be a thought
creation whether or not it has the more elemental musical appeals
which reach the masses.
THE MUSICAL MIND 9
MUSICAL FEELING
' Music is essentially a play upon feeling with feeling. It is ap-
preciated only insofar as it arouses feeling and can be expressed
only by active feeling. On the basis of the degree and the kind of
feeling, we may again classify persons into characteristic types in
terms of affective responsiveness. )
As a fundamental proposition we may say that the artistic
expression of feeling in music consists in esthetic deviation from
the regular from pure tone, true pitch, even dynamics, metro-
nomic time, rigid rhythms, etc. All of these deviations can be
measured so that we can now compare singers quantitatively in
terms of their use of a particular one of the countless devices for
deviating from the regular or rigid, including also adherence to the
regular as a means of expressing emotion in music. The emotional
medium at one moment may be primarily fine modulation in tonal
timbre, at another in rhythm, at another in stress, and each of these
in countless forms of sublimation or hierarchies. In the ensemble of
such deviation from the regular lies the beauty, the charm, the
grandeur of music. When Tetrazzini catalogues among the chief
faults of singing "faulty intonation, faulty phrasing, imperfect
attack, scooping up to notes, digging or arriving at a note from a
semitone beneath" she, of course, is right but may fail to realize
that in just such variables lie the resources for beauty and power of
music.
In other words, our concept of feeling as expressed in music
may become concretely scientific, so that, if the music critic praises
or blames a singer for a certain emotional quality, it need no longer
remain a question of dispute or opinion; but, just as we could snap
the profile of the singer with the camera, we can get the profile of
the sound wave and settle the dispute about the musical
quality. The music critics, of course, have not yet adopted this
technique, but the next generation will make a beginning. The ex-
pression of feeling in music, that mysterious and enchanting retreat
for all things musical, is being explored; trails are being blazed, and
the music critic will soon talk about musical expression of feeling in
terms of precise and scientific concepts.
When Grace Moore sings in New York and the critics opine
about the technique of quavers in her voice, we may have at the
footlights a recording instrument which photographs every sound
10 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
wave and enables us to preserve for all time the form of her expres-
sion of emotion. We are, of course, not thinking here about that
mystic inner something which is spoken of as feeling, as such, but
of the expression of feeling. In modern psychology, to feel is always
to do, to express something action of the organism. The expression
does not take ethereal, magical, or even mystic form but comes to
us through the media to which our senses are open.
(There are two other aspects of feeling in music. One is the nature
of esthetic experience, and the other is what we may call the
"creative feeling" as it operates in the composer. It is evident that
both of these will stand out in an entirely new light the moment the
conception of the concreteness, describability, and tangibleness of
the expression of emotion in music is recognized.
MUSICAL PERFORMANCE
Musical performance, like all other acts of skill involving un-
usually high capacity, is limited by certain inherent and inherited
motor capacities. For example, a child may be slow and sure or
quick and erratic in certain specific activities, or he may be found in
any other combinations of the two series from the extremely slow
to the extremely quick, and extremely precise to the extremely
erratic. And, as a child is found, so will be the youth and the man.
Such a "personal equation" is a personal trait, like stature or color
of hair. Singing involves the possession of a favorable structure of
the vocal organs and motor control. Playing various kinds of instru-
ments calls for a high order of natural capacity, for speed and accu -
racy in control. Such motor capacities can be measured before
musical training is begun. Musical action is, of course, also limited
by limitations in each and all of the talents heretofore discussed; for
example, a person who is low in sense of rhythm will of necessity be
low in rhythmic performance. In the next generation, the music
student and the music teacher and theorist will rate progress and
quality in musical performance in relation to capacity, just as at the
present time we are beginning to consider it reasonable not to
expect as much from a moron as we do from a philosopher.
It is quite possible to recognize fundamental types of motor
resourcefulness in musical performance, but for the present purpose
the main thing to be stressed is that there is nothing indescribable
about it and that individual motor fortes or faults of a basic char-
acter often determine the character of the musician.
THE MUSICAL, MIND 11
' The musician, in passing judgment upon a prospective musician,
rightly says, "Give me the child with the musical instinct." By
that he does not mean any one of the specific capacities we have
discussed, but rather a fundamental urge, drive, or emotional
dominance, craving expression in music from early childhood. This
general trait is often feigned, fragmentary, or imaginary, but when
genuine it constitutes the most certain indication of the presence
of the musical mind that we have. When submitted to analysis, it is
found to represent an effective grouping, dominance, or balance
of fundamental sensory and motor capacities and therefore yields
to measurement and scientific description and evaluation. *
THE MEANING OF THIS ANALYSIS
This, in brief, is the skeletal structure I promised. In many
respects it is but dangling and rattling dry bones. "Atomistic!"
some of my confreres will say. Now, atoms are not roses, resplendent
in bloom, fragrance, and configuration living roses! The esthete,
whiffing and raving about the beauty of the rose, can ignore the
atom, but the botanist cannot. It is to the botanist that we look for
a true revelation of the origin, the growth, the nature, and the role
of roses in the economy of nature. It is the botanist who can make
verifiable and permanent distinctions among roses.
Fifty years ago, Wundt was asked, "What have you learned
from the reaction experiment?" to which his whole laboratory
force had devoted its first three years. His reply was, "It has given
me a new conception of the human mind." Speaking for those who
take the scientific point of view in the psychology of music, I may
say that experiment has given us a new conception of the musical
personality as a whole its infinite capacities and the intimate
relationships among them, the marvelous range for possible train-
ing, growth, and substitution, the sublimation of musical interests
in daily life, the necessity of viewing the personality as a dynamic
whole.
Does this point of view oversimplify the musical mind? The
argument I have made is that it can and should vastly enrich and
deepen the concept; if you ask one question of nature in the labora-
tory, nature asks you ten, and each of these when pursued in turn
multiplies into tens of tens of tens. For laboratory procedure is
but the setting of conditions for more and more precise observations
of specific, concrete, verifiable facts or features. What I have stated
12 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
is, after all, merely a point of view. The details remain to be worked
out, filled in, modified as science progresses. The whole appeal is to
and for verifiable facts.
What shall it profit ? Perhaps I may bring together in a construc-
tive way some of the features which seem to me to be involved in the
acceptance of scientific procedure in the interpretation, evaluation,
and education of the musical mind.
It gives us a psychology of music in that it furnishes describable
and verifiable facts as a basis for classification. The particular data I
have presented are just plain psychology; not any particular brand,
but rather an attempt to select and consolidate what is usable in the
various modern points of view.
It furnishes us a technique for the development of musical
esthetics. The armchair deductions about the nature of beauty in
music give way to experiment, and conclusions must be limited to
factors under control. Musical esthetics will soon loom up as one of
the applied and normative sciences.
It forms a basis for the analysis and evaluation of musical talent
and will furnish helpful data for vocational and avocational guid-
ance in music.
It develops an intimate relationship between music and speech.
Speech, especially dramatic art, is gaining recognition in esthetics
because of its close relationship to music.
It lays the foundations for musical criticism, musical biography
and autobiography, and musical theory in general, even for intelli-
gent parlor conversation about musical thrills.
It furnishes the foundation for the essential facts for the con-
struction of the curriculum, for the selection and motivation of the
musically educable, for the evaluation of progress in training, and
for countless improvements in the technique and economy of teach-
ing. If a committee of scientifically trained musicians should make
a survey of the economies or wastes involved in current methods of
teaching music and should be free to set forth the pedagogical
consequence of facing the new scientifically known facts about the
musical mind, very radical changes would follow.
It helps to give music its true place and influence by enhancing
the musical life for the musically gifted and thereby furnishing a
natural drive for the effective functioning of music in the life of the
people.
THE MUSICAL MEDIUM
THE medium with which the musician works is the sound wave;
his works of art take the form of artistically built sound struc-
tures. The painter creates his work of art through the medium of
physical paints; the sculptor models his creation in clay, or chisels,
hews, and molds in metals or stone. The musician has but one
medium, the physical sound.
MUSICIAN, MUSIC, LISTENER
^The psychology of music may be divided into three large fields
dealing with the musician, the music, and the listener, respectively.
It is concerned with the description and explanation of the opera-
tions of the musical mind, the music as a thing in itself, and the
musical activities of the listener. Naturally, it deals primarily with
the music as a work of art in sound and from that works back to the
producer of music and forward to the listener who hears it musically .
Psychology proceeds systematically by analyzing situations and
reducing them progressively to their simplest terms. The first great
step in approaching the psychology of music is to recognize that
everything that the singer or player conveys to the listener is con-
veyed through sound waves or in terms of these. This conception
simplifies our approach immensely in that it frees us from confusion
with unnecessary accessories, furnishes us with a basis for classifica-
tion and terminology, and paves a way for preservation of findings,
measurement, and scientific explanation.
v^But, the reader may say, music is more than sound. It must have
atmosphere; it ordinarily involves some degree of dramatic action;
it is modified by the character of the audience, the personal appear-
13
14 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
ance, manners and mannerisms of the performed the total situation
of which the performance is a part. In other words, music is essen-
tially tied up with a larger setting in which it plays a leading role.
This must be taken for granted, and we may recognize that there is
a very interesting psychology of each of these accessories, such as
the picture hat, the smile, the anticipated applause, the sentiment
connected with the national anthem, or the mood of the listener.
These contribute to the atmosphere and should be cultivated with
care, but they are not the music. They present very interesting
psychological problems; but it is to the advantage of the psychology
of music to separate clearly the music in itself from its accessories.
(It also is admitted that the music is in the first and last instances,
in the mind of the composer and in the mind of the listener, not
actual sounds but images, ideas, ideals, thoughts, and emotions.
We shall find, however, that these are always in terms of the
physical sound to which they refer. In this respect, the creations of
the musician are analogous to the creations of the painter and the
sculptor; they are purely objective, j
The musical instrument or voice or any other sound-producing
body sends out puffs or waves of air which radiate in all directions
from the source. When segments of these waves strike the ear, they
set up vibrations in the tympanic membrane. These in turn are
transmitted through the middle ear as vibrations of three bones.
They are taken up by the oval membrane, which in turn transmits
them to the liquid of the inner ear. The vibrations in this liquid
are transferred to the receiving mechanism of the nerve cells, the
end organs of hearing in the inner ear. For each vibration, the
mechanical shaking of the end organs of the auditory nerve sets
up a nerve impulse. These nerve impulses are transmitted to the
brain and give rise to the tone that is heard.
Thus, in terms of waves, we may trace the physical medium
of sound from the vibration of the sounding body, such as a reed or
the vocal cords, through the air as air waves and through the tym-
panic membrane, the bony system, the oval membrane, the liquid
of the inner ear, and the receiving mechanism of the nerve cells, as
physical vibrations of material bodies. Then follow the physio-
logical stages consisting of the arousing of the nerve impulse in the
end organ, its transmission over the auditory nerve, and the action
set up in the various brain centers reached. It is this nerve impulse
that primarily determines the tone which we hear.
THE MUSICAL, MEDIUM 15
In this way nature has provided a means of transforming the
musical medium from one form of energy to another; and in this
process the waves are adapted progressively to each medium,
finally resulting in brain activity associated with the musical
experience. The experience is not that of a wave, but of a tone
having pitch, duration, loudness, and timbre. The following state-
ment in The Psychology of Musical Talent 1 * 7 is apposite:
Thinking of musical experience in terms of this physical
medium, we are confronted with one of the greatest marvels
of nature, the wondrous "transformation from matter to mind":
out of mere vibration is built a world of musical tones which
do not in themselves suggest vibration at all. So it is in all the
senses. The vibrations of light reflected from the landscape give
us the mental experience of color and form, and our minds are so
endowed that we can experience beauty and see meaning in this
display. It is the physical flower that we love and admire and
seek to understand. No one doubts the existence of this physical
flower; no one doubts the experience of its beauty. The love and
understanding of things seen in nature and art take for granted
this physical-physiological-mental series as an integrated unit.
The artist and the common man who experience it need not think
in terms of light vibrations, but the scientist who is to explain
the experience must think in terms of physical, physiological, and
mental processes as units in terms of light waves, nerve
impulses, and mental process.
So it is with music. Musical art and the everyday experience
of sound may proceed without any knowledge of physics,
physiology, or psychology; but when the scientist attempts to
explain these experiences he must deal with the series as a whole,
the sound wave, the nerve impulse, and the experience of sound.
The object of our study is music from the psychological point of
view. Music is the center and core of our interest, the goal toward
which we are working.
It is possible to intercept the sound wave by measuring instru-
ments at any of these stages : in the condensation and rarification of
the air, in the physical vibration of the various parts of the ear, or
in the physiological pulsations of the nerve impulse in the end organ,
the nerve, or the brain center.
16 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
The most serviceable approach is that of phonophotography,
by which the air waves are intercepted and recorded faithfully
with cameras suitable for the purpose. Our descriptions of the
musical medium will, therefore, be given largely in terms of these
phonophotograms which reveal all the characteristics of the sound
wave in measurable form.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SOUND WAVE
As we have seen, sound waves have four, and only four, char-
acteristics; namely, frequency, amplitude, duration, and form.
Sounds of every conceivable sort, from pure tone to the roughest
noise, can be recorded and described in terms of these four. The
same four characteristics may be traced in the nerve impulse which
results from the physical vibration; corresponding to these four
FIG 1. Oscillogram of a pure and steady tone.
characteristics of physical wave and nerve impulse, we have the
four characteristics of musical tones. The full and serious recogni-
tion of this parallelism vastly simplifies our problem and furnishes
us a key to the understanding, the recording, the production, the
description of musical phenomena; it enables us to know that we
are taking all factors into account, since these four are all-inclusive;
it furnishes us a terminology which is simple, consistent, and
verifiable; it facilitates the adoption of units of measurement; it
does away with the notion that tones may vary in an " infinite
and unknowable variety of ways"; it furnishes a cornerstone for the
psychology of music and musical esthetics.
Figure 1 is a phonophotogram of a pure tone, lasting 0.1 sec.
In this picture there are 5 waves in this tenth of a second. There-
fore, the number of waves in 1 second is 50, the frequency of the
tone. The pressure or energy of the sound wave, which determines
the intensity of the physical tone and loudness of the tone as heard,
is expressed in terms of the amplitude or height of the wave from
crest to trough. The duration* is, of course, expressed in terms
* In physics, duration is not spoken of as a characteristic of the wave except insofar
as it refers to wave length, which is the reciprocal of frequency. For psychological reasons,
THE MUSICAL MEDIUM 17
of time length of the tone, that is, the continuation of the sound
waves as recorded over the time line. The form of the wave deter-
mines its harmonic constitution, which gives us the experience of
timbre. In this case, the smooth sine curve is an indication of the
pure tone.*
Before proceeding to describe the sounds which we hear
in terms of these four characteristics, it should be made clear that
in reality the hearing of tones is rarely an exact copy of these phys-
ical characteristics of the sound, because hearing is seldom complete
and many principles of distortion operate. We are subject to a
great variety of faults and errors in hearing. These are due primarily
to five sources: the physical limit of the sense organ, the physiolog-
ical limitations, inaccurate or inadequate perception, principles of
economy in hearing, and principles of artistic hearing. These devia-
tions from direct correspondence to the actual physical sound we
call " normal illusions." It is significant that they are not mere
errors but may serve in the interests of economy, efficiency, and
the feeling of beauty in mental life. And it is particularly significant
for us at this stage that all these illusions may themselves be
measured in terms of these same four attributes of the sound wave.
This principle is true in all our perception. When we see the
color and form of the Japanese cherry tree in blossom, we rarely
see the exact color or the exact detail or shape of the parts of the
tree, yet we assert that we see the tree and recognize that it is the
actual thing which really exists and which we ought to see. But we
know numerous laws of illusion of color and form and the limits
of sensation, all of which tend to modify the thing that we see. So,
in musical hearing, we are fully justified in speaking in quantitative
terms of the physical sound wave as the true description of the
physical tone. But a large and very interesting part of the psy-
chology of musical hearing consists of principles of deviation from
the actual physical tone.
FREQUENCY: PITCH
The terms "frequency," "double vibrations" (d.v.), "number
of vibrations per second," "cycles," and "waves" are synonymous
duration of the recurrence of waves is here spoken of as a wave characteristic; that is,
something that can be measured in terms of waves.
* For latest definitions of terms in hearing see Report of Committee on Acoustical
Standardization . a
18 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
and may be used interchangeably to designate frequency and pitch.
It is now customary to use the sign ~ to designate these. Histor-
ically, the term " pitch" has been used appropriately in two mean-
ings : first, in the narrow sense, to denote an attribute of the sound
as heard, that is, the mental experience; second, in a broader sense,
to denote the total process, physical, physiological, and psycholog-
ical. Current practice attempts to use " pitch" to designate the
psychological experience and "frequency " to designate the physical
vibration. However, in the science of music and speech we con-
stantly have occasion to mean the whole situation mental,
physiological, physical; and then we employ the term "pitch" in
the broader sense. The context generally indicates which of these
connotations is intended.
In determining frequency, we count the number of waves per
second or we measure the length of successive waves, counting
from characteristic points such as from crest of one wave to the
corresponding point in the next.
In musical hearing and performance, we demand answers to
questions like these: What is the actual pitch of the tone? How
faithful is it? How does it vary artistically? In what respects is it
faulty? What license has the performer taken? How is pitch ren-
dered in the attack, the release, or the portamento? What unusual
characteristics of intonation, if any, are there? We may picture
problems of this kind in terms of the following skeletal outline:
Musical aspects of pitch intonation
Actual pitch in terms of frequency
Faults of intonation
Ex. Level flatting or sharping; progressive flatting or sharping; erratic
fluctuations
Musical ornaments
Ex. Trills and grace notes indicated in the score; vibrato and other periodic
inflections not indicated in the score
Other varied inflections involving art principles
Unconventional artistic license
Ex. Pitch swoops in primitive music or semispeech intonation for dramatic
effect
Glides in attack, release, or portamento
Intervals: melody, harmony
THE MUSICAL MEDIUM 19
INTENSITY: LOUDNESS
For psychological purposes, the intensity of tone is expressed in
terms of decibels (db). The decibel is a new term devised by elec-
trical engineers for the measurement of sound in radio, talking
pictures, sound abatement, and architecture; but it is destined to
take its place among the common units of measurements, such as a
degree of temperature. Like pitch and loudness, the decibel is a
psychological unit representing the degree of loudness. Its physical
counterpart, intensity, is expressed in terms of units of electrical
energy. On the physical side, we speak of dynamic value in terms of
intensity and on the mental side in terms of loudness.
However, intensity is frequently used to designate either the
mental or the physical, or both, for the reason that it is the recog-
nized term expressing an attribute of sensation in psychology, and,
in a great variety of situations, the object is not to distinguish
between the physical and the mental but to represent the total
situation. Likewise, the decibel is used to designate both the phys-
ical and the mental. Types of questions which may be answered in
terms of decibels are indicated in the following skeletal outline:
Musical aspects of loudness
Degree of loudness, or absolute intensity
Dynamic modulation
Ex. Periodic variations in intensity as in the vibrato; progressive variations
in intensity as in crescendo, diminuendo, swell, circumflex; dynamic
license, as in acute swells and dips characteristic of primitive music and
certain rare artistic modulations for the dramatic effect; and attack,
release, and portamento
Dynamic rhythm (see Chap. 12)
Volume (see Chap. 11)
Ex. Dynamic changes in relation to pitch, time, intensity, and timbre
Erratic changes in intensity
DURATION: TIME
Pitch and intensity are always recorded against time, expressing
the duration of notes, pauses, or any specific feature of these. We
may, therefore, take our time values from either the pitch record or
the intensity record. Some of the musically significant time values
are shown in the following skeletal outline:
20 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
Musical aspects of time
Actual duration of tones, pauses, or any specific aspect of these
Time and tempo
Temporal rhythm
Ex. Measure rhythm, phrase rhythm, or sentence rhythm
Time of attack and release
Ex. Asynchronization of chords or overlapping of notes through pedal
action and syncopation
Artistic variations
Ex. Accelerando, retardando, holds, legato, staccato, vibrato
Erratic and faulty variations in time
WAVE FORM: TIMBRE
Timbre is described in terms of the form of the sound wave. It
ranges from the pure tone through an infinite number of changes in
complexity up to the pitchless sound we call "noise." As we shall see
later, timbre is determined primarily by the number, the order,
and the relative intensity of the fundamental and its overtones as
expressed in the wave form. It also is modified by the absolute pitch
and total intensity of the tone as a whole. The physical structure of
the complex sound is called its "harmonic composition." Psycholog-
ically it may be spoken of as the overtone structure. This is fully
illustrated in Chaps. 8, 9, and 17.
In actual music, it is possible to have as many as 30 or 40
partials in combination, constituting a rich tone. As we shall see
in the chapter on timbre, the wave form may be analyzed so as to
show how many partials are present, the form of their distribution,
and the relative amount of energy that each contributes. In terms
of such facts, we can represent the harmonic constitution and,
therefore, the timbre of the tone by a graph called a "tone
spectrum."
An unscientific person listening to all the sounds in art and
nature is tempted to pronounce the variety of differences indescrib-
able; but, from the physicist's point of view, every physical tone is
describable in terms of its partials which, from the point of view of
hearing, we call "overtones," as expressed in timbre. In other words,
the sound wave is capable of as many types of form as nature and
THE MUSICAL MEDIUM 21
art may be capable of sounding as variations in tone quality. We
should here recognize that timbre as a fourth attribute of tone is by
far the most important aspect of tone and introduces the largest
number of problems and variables. Some of these may be indicated
in the following skeletal outline:
Musical aspects of tonal timbre
The actual description of the quality of any tone
Ex. The exact and objective description of any voice, any instrument, any
vowel
\
Variation in tone quality
Ex. Variation of timbre with register, loudness, duration, location of tone,
nasality, placement, breathing
Norms
Ex. The determination of norms of beauty in tones, either actual or ideal:
the relation of timbre to art forms
Ex. The expression of love, grief, fear, rage: musical mood
Any musician could extend this list in terms of questions about
tone quality which he would like to have measured. Many of these
questions arise alike in both music and speech, and the findings in
one transfer to the other.
In this very brief outline, we have become aware of the ele-
ments which function in the musical medium, which are measurable
in terms of the sound wave and which have distinct psychological
and musical meaning. For full illustrations and discussion, we must
pursue in turn Chaps. 5, 6, 7, and 8.
THE MUSICAL PERFORMANCE SCORE
If we bear in mind that all of these aspects of music which have
been mentioned are measurable and capable of description and
statement in exact scientific form, the question of scientific musical
notation becomes urgent. Without such notation, the psychology
of music would be in a position of mathematics without mathe-
matical symbols. As has been outlined, every aspect of the musical
medium can be measured, analyzed in great detail, recorded, de-
scribed, and explained. We should soon be swamped with the mass
of that type of information unless we had some standardized, very
simple, scientifically accurate, and musically significant graphical
22 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
language or symbols in which the facts could be preserved and made
readily available in music.
Such language has been devised in the form of what has been
called the musical performance score. Instead of taking space to
illustrate and explain such scores at this stage, we may ask the
reader to turn to Figs. 1 and 2 in Chap. 4, Fig. 1 in Chap. 18,
Fig. 3 in Chap. 19, and Fig. 3 in Chap. 20, where we have full
illustrations of its nature and use. It will be observed that these
performance scores record three factors: namely, pitch, time, and
intensity. Timbre is of such a complex nature that it must be re-
ported in individual tone spectra as seen and explained in Chaps.
8, 9, 17, 18, and 20.
THE SCIENCE OF MUSIC
THE preceding chapter was an attempt to introduce the reader to
the psychology of music by showing how this science describes
and explains musical phenomena in terms of the musical medium.
Let us now seek further insight into this new field of applied science
and art, and obtain a bird's-eye view of the ground which lies before
us. A full science of music cannot be written in one or in 3, small
number of volumes. It therefore is necessary to select a specific
point of view and recognize important limitations of the subject
treated in this volume.
SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT
1. The subject is limited to a scientific approach. Description
and explanation in music draw upon several sciences: primarily,
physics, mathematics, physiology, anatomy, anthropology, and
psychology, as well as the history and theory of musical practice.
But it has come to be a function of the psychologist, as a student of
human experience and behavior, to integrate these under the gen-
eral concept of the "psychology of music." Although there may be
much practical wisdom in popular psychology, resting on loose
theory not suitable for verification by scientific method, such topics
are excluded, and so is also the legitimate subject of philosophy of
music ^
2. It is limited to those topics which are peculiarly amenable to
treatment in the psychological laboratory, thus excluding problems
specific to other sciences, such as physics, physiology, and mathe-
matics, except as accessories.
3. It is further limited to the treatment of topics on which the
author has firsthand experience, emanating directly or indirectly
24 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
from the psychological laboratory. It therefore is necessarily selec-
tive, skeletal, and illustrative rather than systematic. It constitutes
only a series of fair samples of problems, procedures, facts, and
principles, both theoretical and applied.
Psychology of music, even in a narrow sense, is unlimited,
because music involves countless varieties of musical performance,
countless varieties of moods, emotions, and ideas to be expressed,
and countless attitudes, capacities, urges, and interests of the
listener. In a way it involves all psychology; because the under-
standing, description, and explanation of musical experience and
behavior implies understanding, description, and explanation
of fundamental experience and behavior in general. We must
therefore seek to confine ourselves to the most essential situations
exhibited in music and, among these, to those immediately essen-
tial for the understanding, appreciation, and expression of music.
Yet the treatment is not restricted to music. It carries many
implications and interpretations which have a bearing on the science
of fine arts in general. Because of the common elements involved,
the analysis of the situation in the psychology of music has its
analogies in other fine arts and interests, such as graphic and
plastic art, dramatic art, and poetry. In other words, the science of
music transfers in various degrees to each of these fields, in both
their pure and their applied aspects. Furthermore, any contribution
to the psychology of music becomes also a contribution to general
psychology. Therefore, while music is our specific objective, a
study of this kind throws much light upon the interrelations of the
fine arts and their common problems, particularly with reference to
vocational and educational guidance and training for skills.
THE PERFORMER, THE MUSIC, THE LISTENER
The musical performer. We must consider here the performer,
either vocal or instrumental, his instrument, his physical organism
and physiological condition on the physical side, and on the mental
side, the cognitive, affective, and motor aspects of his performance.
On the physical side, we are concerned with the instrument,
which may be the human voice or any other sound-producing
mechanism that may have musical significance. The self-expression
of the musician is naturally related to, and characterized by, the
physical instrument which serves as his tool.
THE SCIENCE OF Music 25
With reference to this aspect, we must take into account not
only natural capacity for voice, as in singing, but also a number of
other physical and neural mechanisms which favor or interfere with
successful performance, in either voice or instrument. The character
of the performance and the limits of achievement often are set by
the physique of the performer, his physiological condition, such as
the state of health, fatigue, adaptation, and other chronic or
temporary physiological factors which affect sensitivity, mental
alertness, muscular tonus, and general attitudes and impulses of the
performer.
Given favorable physical and physiological conditions, we still
find the largest variables in the psychological and educational
aspect of the performer. Among these are the character of his
knowledge and training, the development of his temperamental and
emotional life, and the motor and interpretative skills which are
the media of his musical expression. Each of these may be regarded
from the point of view of natural ability, including his inheritance
and environmental influences. On the other hand, each may be
regarded from the point of view of mental development, maturation,
musical tastes and leanings, and acquired skills. Thus the psy-
chology of the performer involves the psychology of his instru-
ment, his neuromuscular equipment, and all the factors which are
determined by knowledge, feeling, action, and will power, both
from the view of the natural capacity and as a result of nurture in
his environment and of training.
The music. The central problem in the psychology of music is
the description and explanation of the musical creation the
actual music regarded on the one hand as the expression of musical
feeling and on the other as the stimulus for arousing musical feeling.
The psychology of music on the whole begins with and centers
around the performance. The first step is to record it adequately,
measure it, and analyze it as a work of art. As has been pointed out,
the four characteristics of the sound wave may be recorded, meas-
ured, and classified in a relatively complete system and to a degree
which far exceeds the limits of musical hearing. They may be
reported in scientific terminology which is complete and adequate
for the description of every possible element or variant in the song
or' instrumental performance as an art object. Therefore, the
psychology of musical performance implies an adequate knowledge
26 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
of the physical characteristics of sound, the mode of its transmis-
sion, and the countless physical and physiological conditions which
determine its functioning.
The psychological problem here is to convert the objective
record of the physical aspects of music as performed into terms of
psychological experiences and responses which have musical mean-
ing. Thus, instead of being concerned with frequency, intensity,
duration, and form of sound waves, we shall speak and think in
terms of pitch, loudness, time, and timbre, and all their derivatives
and variants, giving a scientific account of the performance in
terms of musical terminology. Here we must deal with a vast array
of principles, such as the psychophysics of hearing, musical evolu-
tion, musical knowledge and training, the limits of the organism,
individual differences, health, musical environment, musical
guidance, practical norms, and esthetic principles, and shall aim in
general to give an interpretative account of that which is trans-
mitted from the performer to the listener as music.
Central to the interpretation of performance as musical art are
a number of facts which are strictly musical; such as musical form
and all its variants, musical theory involving all its aspects of
composition, setting of words and themes, racial and historical
aspects, and many other matters of musical esthetics.
The listener. Having considered the psychology of the per-
former and the performance, there remains the very important
stage of the psychology of the listener. What is characteristic of the
musical message as it is received ? What are the factors, physiolog-
ical, physical, psychological, and esthetic, which determine this
response in hearing, interpretation, and enjoyment of music? Evi-
dently the problems in the psychology of the listener are, in general,
the same as the psychology of the performer, which we need not
here repeat. Central among these, however, are the psychology of
musical appreciation, the limits of the capacity for hearing, for
interpreting and reliving the musical emotion which the artist has
attempted to convey.
From these considerations it is evident that our subject is
enormously involved and that therefore a single coherent treatment
will of necessity be fragmentary and restricted. With this in mind,
the present volume presents an outline in high lights for the purpose
of stimulating and guiding the student in dealing with observation,
reading, and thinking on the subject. Our aim is primarily to pre-
THE SCIENCE OF Music 27
sent the psychology of the subject in such a way as to lead the reader
to psychologize about music himself.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE
Most of our knowledge is of the common-sense variety gained in
uncontrolled observation. Very little is based upon experiment;
yet, where there is no experiment, there can be no science. Further-
more, in a new applied science like this, there is a vast amount of
so-called "experimentation" that is neither scientific nor valid. In
planning an experiment or in evaluating the results of an experi-
ment in the psychology of music, we should check the procedure
against such criteria as the following six. Let us consider, for exam-
ple, an experiment to determine the carrying power of voice or
instrument.
1. The factor under consideration must be isolated in order that
we may know exactly what it is that we are measuring. For exam-
ple, we must take one factor, such as pitch, intensity, timbre,
tempo, size of the room, or the acoustical treatment of the walls and
isolate and define it adequately.
2. All other factors must be kept constant while the selected
factor is varied under control. For example, if intensity is a selected
factor, we must vary that factor in graded steps while all other
factors in the tone and in the total environment are kept constant.
3. The observed facts must be recordable. For example, the in-
tensity may be recorded in terms of the energy or power of the tone.
4. The situation must be repeatable for verification. It should
be possible for any scientist with proper equipment to repeat the
experiment under identical conditions.
5. The conclusion must be validated in relation to the total
personality and in the total musical situation.
6. The conclusion must be limited to the factor under control.
For example, we can only say that the most favorable intensity
here found holds for the conditions here controlled and that it must
therefore be integrated with other factors in a series of experiments
in which each of these is taken in turn.
If the plan for an experiment fails on any one of these points,
this may invalidate the conclusion to be drawn. If we wish to weigh
the reliability of evidence from experiment, here is a fair scale. We
should not maintain that every serious study in psychology should
be scientific. There is nothing sacred about science. Science simply
28 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
strives for accuracy and logical coherence of facts. In the interest
of progress and practice, we must put up Tjvith a great many make-
shifts, often of no scientific value but very useful in the process of
trial and error at our present state of limited knowledge. The
scientist makes the supreme sacrifice of being willing to devote
time and energy to the study of one specific isolated factor at a time,
regardless of how small a part it may be of the whole; but the re-
ward for this sacrifice is adequate the discovery of verifiable truth.
The musician as a practical man must draw upon currently ac-
cepted truths through tradition, common-sense observation, and
general knowledge, and do the best he can in the practical situation;
but as science progresses, he will be more and more open-minded
and eager for the fragments of scientific facts that dribble in or that
he may discover by his own experiments.
The criteria here set up represent the bedrock requirements of
science. A survey of the experimental literature in psychology shows
that experiments generally accepted as more or less scientific range
from those which conform rigidly to these requirements to those
which can scarcely be said to follow any of them. In this situation
formative science can be tolerated on the ground that "doing the
best we can" from time to time is often a preliminary stage to
mastery. In all sciences we find such regions of exploratory effort.
Therefore, while we should not flaunt the criteria for simon-pure
experiment in a censorious way, we should always hold before our-
selves a goal which must be approached in a stabilized science and
temper and evaluate our conclusions by the limitations thus set
up in relation to this goal.
BASIC PRINCIPLES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY
OF MUSIC
f Laboratory experiments in the psychology of music have re-
vealed progressively a number of principles which seem to facilitate
experiment, introduce important elements of economy, insure
exhaustive treatment, furnish criteria of validity, and form bases
for the foundation of esthetic theories.
Some principles have emerged incidentally throughout the fore-
going chapters. A selected number of these are here thrown into
high relief in the interest of a combined review and forecast. It has
been suggested that we call these a duo-decalogue for the
psychology of music.]
THE SCIENCE OF Music 29
1. All that is conveyed from the musician to the listener as
music is conveyed on sound waves. As was pointed out in Chap. 2,
countless other factors dramatic action, gesture, grimaces, smiles
and frowns, picture hats and jewelry, personal charm, environment,
and audience all contribute to the pleasure or displeasure in the
musical situation, but they are not music. Recognition of this fact
simplifies our problem.*
2. The sound waves are measurable, and there are only four
variables which have musical significance: frequency, intensity,
duration, and form. Recognition of this is a great forward leap in
that it brings order and simplicity out of chaos and despair;
physically, the infinite variety of musical sounds can be reduced to
these four variables and measured in terms of them.
3. The psychological equivalents or correlates of these char-
acteristics of sound are pitch, loudness, time, and timbre. Rhythm,
harmony, volume, and tone quality are compounds of these;
thought, feeling, action, memory, and imagination are in terms of
these. We thus obtain a basic classification of all musical
phenomena and give each its place in the family tree with its four
large branches: the tonal, the dynamic, the temporal, and the
qualitative.
4. The correspondence between the physical fact and the mental
fact is not entirely direct or constant; there are many illusions of
hearing. While we describe, for example, the pitch of A conven-
tionally and practically as having a frequency of 440 cycles per
second (abbreviated 440 ~), which is an invariable factor, the
experience of that pitch may vary under a large variety of condi-
tions resulting in illusions of pitch, many of which are very interest-
ing and of practical significance in actual music. It is a triumph
of science, however, that we can identify, measure, and explain
each of these illusions. Thank God for illusions! Without illusions
there could be no musical art.
5. The medium of musical art lies primarily in artistic devia-
tion from the fixed and regular: from rigid pitch, uniform intensity,
fixed rhythm, pure tone, and perfect harmony. Therefore the
* The reader will do the author the kindness to assume that qualifying phrases could
be added for this and other direct and categorical statements which lack of space compels
us to make without qualifications. Such phrases as "other things being equal," "as a general
principle," "subject to exceptions in minor detail," "in our present state of knowledge,"
etc., should be understood throughout.
30 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
quantitative measurement of performance may be expressed in
terms of adherence to the fixed and so-called "true," or deviation
from it in each of the four groups of musical attributes.
6. In each of the four categories, we have a zero point for a
scale of measures. Thus, for pitch we may start from a standard
tone; for intensity, from silence; for duration, from zero duration;
and for timbre, from the pure tone.
7. On the basis of the above considerations, we may develop a
definable, consistent, and verifiable musical terminology. For
example, we shall be able to say exactly what timbre is and adopt
adequate terminology for its variants. In the same way we shall be
asked to scrap the hundreds of loose and synonymous terms used
to designate timbre and be enabled to use the selected term cor-
rectly in the light of its new definition.
8. All measurements may be represented graphically in what
we have called the musical pattern score or performance score,
which symbolizes the language of scientific measurement in a
graph that has musical meaning. This score carries the three factors,
pitch, intensity, and time. Timbre must be represented in a series
by itself in the form of tonal spectra.
9. Norms t)f artistic performance may be set up in terms of objec-
tive measurement and analysis of superior performance for the pur-
pose of evaluating achievement and indicating goals of attainment.
10. The best performance of today can be improved upon. We
must therefore look forward to experimental procedures to deter-
mine ideal norms which will set up new standards of attainment,
vastly increased resources, power and beauty in music.
11. In the future, musical esthetics will be built upon the bases
of scientific measurement and experimental analysis. With modern
means of measurement, any advocated theories may be put to the
acid test.
12. Where there is no experiment, direct or indirect, there is no
science. Science, by virtue of its adherence to minute detail, is
always fragmentary and incomplete. Its findings must always be
supplemented by practical intuition, common sense, and sound
philosophical theories of the art. Science deals with selected topics.
The musician must deal with the situation as a whole with the
means at his command.
There is an important scientific approach in the clinical field;
for music may have marked therapeutic value. Clinical psychology
THE SCIENCE OF Music 31
of music will draw upon psychiatry, sociology, criminology, and
education for scientific principles. But the field is yet quite un-
worked. Van de Wall's Music in Institutions 20 * furnishes a good
introduction to this subject and contains a full bibliography.
13. Musical talent may be measured and analyzed in terms of a
hierarchy of talents as related to the total personality, the musical
medium, the extent of proposed training, and the object to be
served in the musical pursuit.
14. For musical guidance on the basis of scientific measure-
ment, the application must be restricted to the factors measured;
but it should be supplemented by an adequate audition, case
history, and consideration of personality traits and avenues for
achievement. All musical guidance should be tempered by the
recognition of the extraordinary resourcefulness of the human
organism and the vast variety of the possible musical outlets for
self-expression.
15. Successful performance rests upon the mastery of funda-
mental skills which may be isolated and acquired as specific habits;
but in artistic performance, these skills should be integrated so that
in the musical mood there is no consciousness of habits, skills, or
techniques as such.
16. To facilitate the acquisition of musical skills, objective
instrumental aids may be used to great advantage, for both
economy of time and precision of achievement. Among such aids
are visual projection or quantitative indication of pitch, intensity,
time, and timbre at the moment the tone is produced.
17. In the coming electrical organs, pianos, and other instru-
ments, and in the criticism which all instruments will be subjected
to as a result of the possibility of measurement, future progress
will depend upon the adoption of the scientific point of view and
the utilization of measurement. We are on the frontier of a new
music. With the application of science, the composer will be set new
tasks and given new opportunities; the performer will constantly be
facing new problems; the listener will always be expecting some-
thing new.
18. If the pedagogy of music in the public schools is to keep
pace with the pedagogy of all the other subjects, it must frankly
face and adopt the scientific point of view. Music will have its
first scientific approaches in the public schools rather than in the
private studios or conservatories.
32 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
19. The psychology of music is ultimately not a thing in itself.
In employing a technique peculiar to that field, one must fall back
upon a general grounding in psychology. After all, the laws of sensa-
tion, perception, learning, thinking, feeling, and action in general
need only be specifically adapted to the demands of the musical
situation.
20. While the cold details of musical facts can be recorded and
organized by a mere psychologist, validity and interpretation de-
pend upon an intimate knowledge of music and feeling for it. The
applied science will progress at its best when the musician can set
the problem in compliance with the criteria enumerated above for
scientific experiment.
4
A MUSICAL ORNAMENT,
THE VIBRATO
THE vibrato is the most important of all musical ornaments, both
in voice and in instrument.* It is the most important because
it occurs in practically all the tones of artistic singing and in
sustained tones of various instruments; because, of all orna-
ments, it produces the most significant changes in tone quality;
and because it is the factor on which artistic singing and playing are
most frequently judged, whether the factor is consciously recog-
nized as vibrato or not.
NATURE OF THE VIBRATO
Definition. A good vibrato is a pulsation of pitch, usually
accompanied with synchronous pulsations of loudness and timbre,
of such extent and rate as to give a pleasing flexibility, tenderness,
and richness to the tone.
* The purpose of this chapter is to give a single sustained illustration of the sort of
facts which can be ascertained about any musical phenomenon taken into the psychological
laboratory-studio for experiment. It is based upon the author's Psychology of the
Vibrato in Voice and Instrument. IM The mass of statements represents the principal con-
clusions reached in that book and the volume of studies, The Vibrato, 119 on which it was
based. This chapter will make heavy reading because all of the detailed descriptions and
illustrations in the original are omitted. The interested student will turn to the original for
deeper satisfaction.
Fifteen years ago, practically none of the facts here cited was known. The vibrato was
a bone of contention, grossly misunderstood and misinterpreted. The reader may judge for
himself whether or not the present presentation of findings constitutes a fair sample of the
science of a musical phenomenon. While every item in this chapter is based upon experiment
and is verifiable, the condensation and abbreviation of findings necessarily calls for limita-
tions, qualifications, and explanations which can only be given in a fuller treatment. The
chapter should not be read as a story, but item for item, with time for reflection.
33
34 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
In general, we may say that a bad vibrato is any periodic pulsa-
tion of pitch, loudness, or timbre which, singly or in combination,
fails to produce pleasing flexibility, tenderness, and richness of
tone. Likewise, if we desire a generic definition of all vibratos, we
might say that the vibrato in music is a periodic pulsation of pitch,
loudness, or timbre, singly or in combination. In quantitative terms
of these factors, any particular vibrato may be discussed
adequately.
An experiment. To prepare for an actual and effective apprecia-
tion of the magnitude, the universality, and the complication of the
vibrato in good music, let the reader perform the following experi-
ment at this stage: Select the most beautiful song you have avail-
able on a phonograph record and play it once, listening critically for
the vibrato. Then slow down the phonograph turntable to about 30
or 40 revolutions per minute and observe that: (1) these pulsations
become shockingly bold; (2) they are present in every note; (3)
there is a confusion of pitch, loudness, and timbre; (4) the slow rate
makes the vibrato very ugly.
AN EXAMPLE OF THE VOCAL VIBRATO
Figure 1, from Harold Seashore, 155 is an example of the musical
performance score. It is explained as follows: The pitch frequency
of each note is designated by a graph. The wave in that graph on
each note represents the pitch vibrato based on very precise meas-
urement. Each vertical space for the pitch graph represents a half-
tone step. Thus it will be seen that, while the extent of the pitch
pulsation varies from note to note, the average for the whole song
is about a semitone. In order to identify the graph, each note from
the conventional musical staff is interpolated at the point at which
the tone begins. The duration of the tone is indicated by the vertical
bars which mark off seconds and by the dots and dashes which
mark tenths of a second.
The loudness or intensity changes are indicated in terms of
decibels. In this staff, one vertical space designates 4 db of
intensity; zero is taken as the softest tone which is heard in the
song. Thus, the first note comes in very softly and rises to 16 db
during the first second, remains around 16 db in the second second,
then goes up to 20 db in the third, and 22 db in the fourth. The main
thing to bear in mind is that, as the curve rises, the intensity
increases. Pauses are indicated by the drop in the intensity curve.
A MUSICAL ORNAMENT, THE VIBRATO
35
This score contains a vast amount of information about the
character of the rendition of this song, but let us here consider
only what it shows about the vibrato. To aid the reader, a series of
FIG. 1. The Bach-Gounod /lt^ Maria as sung by Herald Stark. (From H Seashore. 1 )
Frequency (pitch) is represented by a graph for each note on a semitone staff, intensity,
by the lower parallel graph in a decibel scale; and duration by dots in tenths of a second.
Measures are numbered at the bottom of the btaff for ready reference.
statements are made with the suggestion that for each one he turn
to the score and verify the statement.
1. The pitch vibrato is present in every tone throughout the song, whether
the tone is long or short, high or low, weak or strong.
2. It is present in the portamentos of the legato rendition and in the attacks
and releases of the tones.
3. The pitch extent, that is, the width of the pulsation of pitch, averages
about a semitone.
4. The rate of the vibrato cycles averages about 6.5 pulsations per second.
36
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
c
A
24
16
6
O
. ----
A'
*". " ft*
FIG. 1. (Continued).
A MUSICAL ORNAMENT, THE VIBRATO 87
5. The form of the pitch pulsation is fairly smooth and constant, approxi-
mately that of a sine curve.
JJi
FIG. 1. (Continued}.
6. The extent of the pulsation of pitch is fairly constant and regular.
7. The rate of pulsation in pitch is fairly constant.
8. An intensity vibrato, though very small and often insignificant, is observ-
able about one-third of the time.
38
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
9. The intensity vibrato is weak and quite irregular, seldom present at the
beginning of a tone or in transitions.
~jV~
.
'*"?*
^f^^^^
VY
r^~^
^X^x*-
-.-.-I
iX-
-vx^CC
Fia. 1. (Continued).
10. In view of the relative weakness and infrequent occurrence of the intensity
vibrato, it must be regarded as incidental and subordinate to the pitch vibrato,
which is dominant.
11. The rate of the intensity vibrato when present is about the same as for
the pitch vibrato.
A MUSICAL ORNAMENT, THE VIBRATO 39
12. The crest of a pitch wave tends to coincide with the crest of the intensity
wave, that is, as the pitch goes up in a vibrato cycle the intensity increases, but
this relationship is neither uniform nor regular.
13. The mean pitch, that is, the mean between the crest and the trough of the
vibrato cycles, coincides fairly with the true pitch.
14. The singer did not hold any note on even or true pitch.
15. If there is beauty in this pitch intonation it must lie in the artistic devi-
ation from true pitch.
Here we have a very important array of scientific facts observa-
ble in a single song. Many of these facts are common to all singing.
Many other specific details about vibrato are to be seen in this
score; such as, the variation with length of tone, register, loudness,
and vowel.
The timbre vibrato is not shown in the score but may be de-
duced in many respects from the pitch score. By an adequate
selection of samples of songs arid a fair sampling of singers, we can
build up the science of the vibrato in vocal art.
Now turn to Fig. 3, and check to see to what extent the above
facts apply to the singing of Lawrence Tibbett.
AN EXAMPLE OF INSTRUMENTAL VIBRATO
A perusal of Fig. 2 will reveal the following facts about the violin
vibrato as summarized by Small: 166
Pitch. 1. The vibrato is present in practically all tones produced by com-
pletely stopping the string, except in a trill. Ordinarily there is no pitch vibrato
present when the open string is employed.
2. The vibrato is present throughout the entire duration of the tone in
which it is employed.
3. As a rule, it is not present in the portamentos, although there are numer-
ous exceptions.
4. The form of the pitch pulsation is fairly smooth and regular, approxi-
mating a sine curve.
5. The rate of pitch pulsation is relatively constant about six pulsations
per second.
6. The extent of the pitch vibrato is about a quarter tone and is fairly con-
stant and regular.
7. The mean pitch of the tones tends to coincide with the pitch indicated in
the printed score.*
* Exception to this rule is found m what may be called "tendency notes," for which
there are recognized reasons for augmenting or diminishing the interval. Samples of
tendency notes are C# to G in the third measure, and B to F in the fourth measure The
first represents both a natural tendency upward of a leading tone C# and the tendency of a
diminished interval (here the diminished fifth) to contract. The second represents likewise
the tendency of contraction in a diminished fifth, as well as the natural tendency of the
fourth or subdominant step of a scale downward toward the mediant.
40
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
8. The movement responsible for the pitch vibrato is initiated most fre-
quently with the movement toward the bridge, and the final vibrato movement
is most frequently toward the scroll.
20-
10
O
FIG. 2. Bach's Air for the G String, as played by Arnold Small. (From Small. 1 **)
Frequency (pitch) is represented by a graph for each note on a semitone staff, intensity,
by the lower parallel graph in a decibel scale; and duration by dots in tenths of a second.
Measures are numbered at the bottom of the staff for ready reference.
A MUSICAL ORNAMENT, THE VIBRATO 41
9. Change of bow does not interrupt the vibrato-producing movement.
Likewise, change of finger within a single position does not interrupt the vibrato-
producing movement.
10. Tones devoid of vibrato occur infrequently.
11. The extent and possibly the rate tend to diminish toward the end of a
tone which just precedes the use of the open string.
12. The extent of the vibrato increases with the increase of intensity of the
tone over a large range in an extended crescendo.
FIG. 2. (Continued).
The trill. 1. The trill in measure 2 resembles the vibrato, but is faster (7.3 per
second). As here employed, it begins slowly at the rate of 5 per second and
increases in speed up to the third trill, from whence it is quite constant.
2. The interval between the main note and the accessory note remains quite
constant from trill to trill.
Intensity. 1. The sustained intensity vibrato is present less than half as
frequently as the pitch vibrato.
2. It is present on the open string as a result of the sympathetic vibrato
produced intentionally by appropriate fingering.
42 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
3. It is seldom present throughout the entire duration of a tone.
4. The rate of pulsation tends to coincide with the rate for pitch, the average
rate for intensity being 6.27 as compared with 6.10 pulsations per second for pitch.
5. The average extent of pulsation is 3.3 db and is quite irregular.
6. The phase relationship between the intensity pulsation and the pitch pul-
sation is not uniform or regular.
7. The intensity vibrato is of secondary importance in comparison with the
pitch vibrato.
8. The extent of intensity pulsations due to sympathetic vibrations depends
upon the resonance characteristics of the instrument in that they determine the
prominence of the partials involved in the intensity pulsations.
9. These same pulsations may be eliminated by damping the string which is
vibrating sympathetically.
The sympathetic vibrato. 1. The sympathetic vibrato is an intensity vibrato.
2. It exhibits practically the same rate as all other intensity vibratos, but is
wider in extent (5.1 db).
FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE, EXTENT
AND RATE OF VIBRATOS
The presence of the vibrato. How frequently does the vibrato oc-
cur in the best music of today ? Among reasons for the existence of
confusion upon this issue in musical circles are the following: the
failure to know what the vibrato is; the fact that the vibrato can-
not be heard by many people; the fact that it is heard as very
much smaller than it really is; the assumption that the vibrato is
eliminated when only the grosser and uglier forms have been
omitted; habits of hearing in terms of tone quality rather than in
recognition of periodic pulsations ; the fact that an even and satis-
fying pitch, corresponding to the "true" pitch, is heard; musical
versus analytical listening; absence of recording instruments.
All recognized professional singers sing with a pitch vibrato in
about 95 per cent or more of their tones. Sustained tones, short
tones, portamentos, attacks, releases, and other forms of transi-
tions in pitch carry the vibrato. Successful voice students and well-
trained amateurs exhibit the vibrato about as do recognized artists.
Primitive peoples, such as the uneducated Negro or the Indian,
exhibit the vibrato in acceptable form when singing with genuine
feeling. The vibrato may appear early in childhood, as soon as the
child begins to sing naturally and with genuine feeling. Great
singers, teachers of voice, and voice students who are opposed to
the vibrato and profess not to use it, do exhibit it in their best
singing. A talented student who has no vibrato may develop it to a
A MUSICAL ORNAMENT, THE VIBRATO 43
very satisfactory degree in just a few lessons. Well-trained singers
may find it difficult to produce a song or even an isolated tone
without the use of the vibrato. Crooners and jazz performers in
general employ the excessive vibrato ad nauseam. The vibrato fre-
quently appears in emotional speech. The tendency today is for
TABLE I. THE AVERAGE EXTENT AND RATE OF PITCH VIBRATO FOR
29 SINGERS
Average rate Average extent
per second of a step
All artists 66 48
de Gogorza . ..78 46
Schumann-Hemk . . 76 38
Galli-Curci . 73 44
Macbeth . . . 72 31
Caruso ... . 71 47
Rethberg . 7 49
Martinelli . 6 9 44
Ponselle . . 6 9 48
Chaliapin 68 54
Jeritza ... ... 6 8 53
Lashanska . .68 43
de Luca . ... 6 8 58
Tetrazzini . 68 37
Talley ... . 67 54
Braslau ... . . 66 36
Marsh 66 52
Tibbett . . 66 55
Crooks .... 65 47
Gigli . . 65 57
Rimini . 65 98
Stark .... 65 48
Onegin .... . . .... 64 41
Dadmun . . . 63 46
Seashore 63 44
Baker .... ... 62 45
Hackett ... 59 47
Homer 59 51
Kraft . . 59 59
Thompson . . ..59 53
In thia table from H. Statkore,"* data from Mttfetiel** are included with those o! ZX/fwi" 1 and
//. Seaihon.M
players on the violin, viola, and cello to use the vibrato on all
sustained tones. The vibrato may be used in any of the band or
orchestral instruments, but artists generally discourage it for wood-
wind or brass instruments, except for isolated and specific effects.
It is probable that the vibrato was present in the feelingful self-
expression of even the most primitive speech and song. The canary
44 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
bird which is taught to sing songs can sing with a good vibrato.
It is the main appeal in the cooing of the dove. The vibrato is pres-
ent in the hearty laughter of the adult and in the vigorous crying of
the infant.
In general, we may say that a pulsating quality of tone in the
form of periodic rise and fall in pitch is almost universal in good
singing, is freely imitated by instruments, notably by the string
instruments, and frequently is present in emotional speech.
The extent and rate of the vocal pitch vibrato. The average
extent and rate of the pitch oscillation varies to some degree with
the character of the song and the singer, but the figures in Table I
represent averages for fair samples of the singers listed. The reader
must refer to the original articles for names of selections, size of
samples, distribution of extent and rate, and other data for each
singer.
The average extent of the pitch pulsation for good singers is 0.5
of a tone. This may vary among different singers from 0.3 to 1.0, or
more, with a normal distribution. For about three-fourths of the
singers, the extent is between 0.45 and 0.55. Each singer tends to
have a characteristic average, but may vary from this from selec-
tion to selection and from tone to tone. The variation of individual
vibrato cycles from this average in acceptable vibrato may be from
0.1 to 1.5 of a tone in a given singer. There are no marked and con-
sistent variations with the sex of the singer, the vowel quality, the
musical mode, the pitch level, or the loudness of the tone. For
short tones, it is slightly wider than for long tones. The extent of
the vibrato does not differentiate emotions expressed.
The intensity vibrato. The intensity vibrato, both vocal and
instrumental, is seen in the performance scores, Figs. 1, 2, and 3.
In general, we find for singers that the intensity vibrato is present
about one-third of the time. Ordinarily it is less conspicuous than
the pitch vibrato, but, like the pitch vibrato, it is underestimated in
hearing.
In general, we may say that the intensity vibrato is less fre-
quent, less regular, and less prominent perceptually than pitch
vibrato. It is probably secondary to it, and is modified by room
resonance. The phase relationship between the two varies widely.
The timbre vibrato. The timbre vibrato is a periodic pulsation
in the harmonic structure of a complex tone (see Chap. 9). Every
periodic change of pitch of a complex tone causes a parallel periodic
A MUSICAL ORNAMENT, THE VIBRATO 45
change in each of its partials. Each partial may have its own
intensity vibrato depending in part upon the permanent resonance
regions of the vocal cavities, and the resonance characteristics
of the instrument or the room. The timbre vibrato is ordinarily of
such magnitude as to make it distinctly audible to the critical ear.
Stringed instruments. All violin artists of today employ the
pitch vibrato on practically all stopped notes of sufficient duration
to permit its execution. An intensity vibrato frequently occurs as a
result of sympathetic vibration, produced either intentionally by
fingering an unbowed string or as a result of coincidence of intervals.
Each artist tends to have a characteristic rate which varies but
little with emotional moods but increases with proficiency. The
average rate is about 7, the extremes ranging from 5 to 10. The
average pitch extent is about a quarter tone and does not vary
significantly with emotional moods. The mean pitch of the vibrato
cycles coincides with the true pitch except in the case of tendency
tones, in which deviation from true pitch would be made in the
absence of the vibrato. The rate and extent are approximately the
same for the violin, the viola, and the cello.
Wind instruments. The vibrato occurs in all wind instruments
but is comparatively rare, intermittent, and irregular, probably
owing to the difficulty of its production. In solo parts, flutists,
clarinetists, and trumpeters often exhibit a beautiful and well-
sustained vibrato. The intensity vibrato of the organ is used
excessively and with monotonous uniformity, probably on account
of the simplicity of its mechanical control by a stop.
NORMAL ILLUSIONS WHICH MAKE FOR BEAUTY
OF VIBRATO
1. The vibrato is always heard as of very much smaller extent
than it is in the physical tone. For example, a pulsation of a semi-
tone is ordinarily heard as less than 0.2 of a tone. It is this illusion
which makes the vibrato tolerable.
The larger the pitch and intensity extent, the more it will be underestimated.
The faster the rate, within limits, the more the extent will be underestimated.
The richer the tone, the more the extent will be underestimated.
For good singing, pitch extent and intensity extent are heard as a small
fraction of their true extent.
Instead of the full extent of the pulsation, we tend to hear only the extent of
deviation from the main pitch or intensity.
46 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
The end result in hearing may be higher or lower than this, depending upon
the presence or absence of other motives for illusion.
These reductions in the extent of hearing of pulsations tend to make the actual
vibrato tolerable.
2. Much of the most beautiful vibrato is below the threshold
for vibrato hearing and is perceived merely as tone quality. Individ-
ual differences in the capacity for hearing the vibrato are very large.
In a normal population, one individual may be 50 or 100 times as
keen as another in this hearing. Talent for hearing of the vibrato
may be measured in two separate tests : (a) the capacity for hearing
the presence of the vibrato and (6) the capacity for recognizing
differences in vibratos. The most important factors which deter-
mine capacity for hearing of the vibrato are the structure and
function of the ear and the brain, knowledge of the existence of the
vibrato and of its nature, the attitude of the listener, and favorable
forms of the vibrato.
In view of these large and often relatively fixed individual
differences each individual has his own illusion, and his individual
sense of the vibrato determines what shall be good or bad for him.
This introduces a most serious obstacle to the efforts toward
establishing norms for a vibrato which shall be pleasant to all
listeners.
3. Regardless of the extent of pitch, intensity, or timbre pulsa-
tion, we always hear an even mean pitch corresponding to the true
pitch, an even intensity and continuous timbre.
4. In addition to the mean pitch, a trained observer may hear
an even pitch somewhat below the crest and another somewhat
above the trough, so that he can hear in all four distinct pitches,
namely, a pulsating pitch, a mean pitch, the upper limit pitch, and
the lower limit pitch, by directing attention to them in turn.
5. The blending of pitch, intensity, and timbre vibratos.
6. Sonance (to be explained in Chap. 9), the vibrato as an
aspect of tone quality.
THE NATURE OF BEAUTY IN THE VIBRATO
Beauty in the vibrato is found in artistic deviation from the
precise and uniform in all the attributes of tone.
The vibrato is the most systematic, natural, and essential of
musical ornaments.
A MUSICAL OKNAMENT, THE VIBRATO 47
Its beauty lies in a richness of tone, flexibility of tone, and ex-
pression of emotional instability.
It represents the periodic changes of pitch, intensity, and timbre
in sonance.
Richness of tone results from successive fusion of changes of
tone.
Flexibility of tone results from indefiniteness of outline.
Tenderness of tone results from awareness of organic trembling.
The genuine vibrato is automatic and expresses the truth like
the smile and the frown.
To cultivate the vibrato, do not cultivate a sign of feeling which
is not present, but cultivate the power to feel music genuinely.
The expression of feeling. Does the vibrato differentiate
the emotions? Our answer to this question is "No." We cannot dis-
tinguish feelings of love from hatred, attraction from repulsion,
excitement from tranquillity, by the vibrato. The expression of all
kinds of feeling, even the most divergent, tends to take the same
general character of the vibrato. It reveals feeling but does not
differentiate in kind. This finding came to us as a great surprise in
the laboratory.
We are therefore forced to the conclusion that, while the vibrato
in both voice and instrument is a means for the expression of musical
feeling of the first order, and is even essential to the expression of
feeling, it does not differentiate among the feelings. Indeed, it is
like an organ stop. So long as the stop is out, all tones have the
quality represented by that stop. The vibrato merely indicates that
we feel genuinely ; it does not reveal the degree of feeling or the kind
of feeling.
The desirability of the vibrato. The desirability of the vibrato
is attested by the universality of its use, its automatic nature, its
use in instruments, its survival in conflict with precision, and its
place in tone quality.
EAR TRAINING FOR THE VIBRATO
Directions are given for training the ear with the eye by listen-
ing to a phonograph record and following the pattern score as in
Fig. 3. This score is designed to show only the pitch vibrato. For
each note, the upper number denotes the average extent of the
pitch vibrato and the lower number the number of pulsations per
second.
48
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
iwfr*
-"."hK)T
W
wwo
-"""TVCf
#*---
^WW
v MAAAA-
l-wfe*^-
ij^/W /VWV /v\^
^~ "
.46
o\/V\/V
__6.
j^jf^yfJ^
vwwv
..6_
^AA
F:
FIG. 3. Drink to me only with thine eyes, a3 sung by Lawrence Tibbett. (Victor Record
1238.) (II. Seashore. 1 ) For explanation of this figure, please see legend for Fig. 1.
A MUSICAL ORNAMENT, THE VIBRATO
49
Directions for training in the recognition of the rate of the vibrato
in the singing of artists. First, play the phonograph record for Fig.
3 one or more times, and coordinate what you hear with the details
of what you see in the performance score (Fig. 3) as to the rate of
the pulsation. Then drill extensively on the calling out of the number
which designates the rate the moment each tone has been heard,
and have someone check for each whether you are right or wrong.
Directions for training in the recognition of the vibrato in one's
own voice. First, sing a song with a playing record in the effort to
G
I*
FIG 3. (Continued).
determine whether or not your vibrato is larger or smaller in pitch
extent than that of the artist. Select only sustained tones. Then
proceed in the same manner with the same song in determining
whether or not your rate is faster or slower than that of the artist.
The same procedure may be applied to the study of the extent of
the pulsation.
There are three stages in the development of good vibrato
through training. The first is the acquisition of scientific informa-
tion and critical artistic appreciation of the true nature of the
vibrato. The second is the training of the ear to acquire skills in
critical hearing and judgment of performance. The third is the de-
velopment of corrective adjustment.
50 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
USE AND ABUSE OF THE VIBRATO
As aids to the hearing, the evaluation and execution of a good
vibrato, and the eradication of bad vibratos, the following contribu-
tions have been made:
1. Definition, description, and explanation of the true nature
of the vibrato as an aspect of tone quality.
2. The invention of instruments of precision and technique for
the adequate qualitative as well as quantitative measurement of
the vibrato in any and all of its possible manifestations in the nor-
mal and actual musical situation.
3. The construction of a " language of the vibrato " by furnish-
ing a consistent and adequate terminology and eliminating all
redundant terminology which has grown up topsy-turvy in an
unscientific atmosphere.
4. The development of the musical performance score, which
enables us to represent graphically and with musical meaning all
findings of exact observation and measurement.
5. A statistical survey of actual uses and abuses of the vibrato
by accepted artists and other groups.
6. The beginnings of the factual array of the vast variety of
modes of production of the vibrato, in both voice and instrument,
with assignment of probable consequences.
7. The analysis of the affective values which the vibrato
engenders in the beautiful and feelingful tone.
8. The discovery of the astounding difference between the
actual vibrato as it exists in the physical tone and the vibrato as it
is heard in the musical situation.
9. The explanation of some of the vast number of illusions
which contribute toward the tolerance, beauty, or ugliness of the
tone.
10. The determination of the limits of tolerance and the range
of variability of rate and extent of the vibrato.
11. The isolation of the roles of pitch, intensity, and timbre as
the media of pulsation, singly or in combination.
12. The exposure of the vibrato as militant against correct
intonation, interval, melody, harmony, rhythm, and pure tone.
13. The explanation of the hearing of an even pitch, intensity,
and timbre in the fact of the flagrant absence of these in the
physical tone.
A MUSICAL ORNAMENT, THE VIBRATO 51
14. The tracing of the origin of the vibrato and its genetic
development as a biological fact.
15. The provision of training devices for the effective hearing,
rating, and evaluation of vibrato in one's own performance or the
performance of another.
16. Suggestions for training and adjustment in its control.
17. The invention of tone integrators and other instruments by
which any conceivable form of vibrato may be produced syn-
thetically for experimental purposes.
18. Suggestions and procedure in the experimental musical
esthetics for the purpose of determining ideals of vibrato in defina-
ble situations.
19. Demonstration of the fact that the vibrato does not dif-
ferentiate particular feelings such as love and rage, quiescence or
excitement.
20. The establishment of the probability that we are here
dealing with a physiological rhythm, present not only in man but
also in the higher animals whenever paired muscles are innervated
under emotional tension.
These scientifically established facts are in contrast with ex-
pressed opinions of musical authorities.
THE VIBRATO, GOOD, BAD, INDIFFERENT,
AND IDEAL
The most desirable average extent of pitch, intensity, and
timbre, singly or in combination, is that which produces flexibility,
tenderness, and richness of tone, without giving prominence to
the pulsating quality as such.
Freedom from irregularity in extent is essential to a good
vibrato.
An extent of the pulsation smaller than that first defined fails, in
proportion to its smallness, to contribute toward the betterment
of tone quality.
The most desirable average rate is that which causes the best
fusion of tone quality in sonance, without producing a chattering
through excessive rate.
In vocal vibrato the pulsations in pitch should be primary and
dominant.
The combination of synchronous pulsations in the three media
ordinarily makes a larger contribution toward tone quality than its
occurrence in one or two.
52 PSYCHOLOGY OP Music
In instrumental music relatively pure intensity pulsation is
permissible, as in organ stops and in the use of beats within a
region of tolerance for rate.
Artistic performance demands variation in extent and rate
throughout a performance.
In solo parts, both vocal and instrumental, the artist has larger
latitude for giving prominence to the vibrato than he has in
ensemble.
The more nearly alike the timbres of the instruments within an
orchestral choir, the greater may be the demand for the vibrato in
that choir.
However, an ideal vibrato which can be gradually developed
through musical criticism and musical education will probably
be smooth in variations of rate and extent, will have a cycle which
approaches the perfect sine curve, will probably be one cycle per
second faster than the present, will have a higher artistic variabil-
ity, will be adapted to solo and ensemble performances, will have a
pitch extent of approximately one-half of the present average for
voice, and will probably be present in all tones and transitions ex-
cept where the nonvibrato is used for specific effects.
If this should come true, largely as the result of scientific
investigations, one might well ask, "What is it worth?" And this
question we can answer only by asking other questions : How would
it affect musical theory ? How would it facilitate musical training ?
How would it affect musical criticism? How much sweeter would
music be to the listener ?
PITCH: FREQUENCY
THE NATURE OF PITCH
PITCH is that qualitative attribute of auditory sensation which
denotes highness or lowness in the musical scale and is condi-
tioned primarily on the frequency of sound waves.
We note in this definition (1) that pitch is one of the four at-
tributes of tonal sensation, and that it is qualitative in that it
designates the kind of sensation, thus distinguishing sensations of
tone from the other sensory modalities, such as color, odor, and
taste; (2) that it denotes highness or lowness in the tonal continuum
along which we locate the musical scale; and (3) that it is the mental
and musical correlate of the frequency of the vibrations which
constitute the physical tone.
While all music is objectively due to physical sound waves,
we must bear in mind that we can never be directly aware of the
rate of vibration as such, for we hear it as musical pitch. This is
one of the wondrous transformations "from matter to mind. 5 '
Out of mere vibration is built a world of musical tones which do
not in themselves suggest vibration at all. Yet the human ear
may be so keen as to detect in nature a difference of a fraction of
a vibration in frequency. It is fortunate that we can live in a
world of music without thinking at all of the physical counter-
part; still, for the science of music and for the study of musical
talent, such reference is necessary.
The ear is a most wonderful mechanism with its membranes,
levers, and liquid conductors carrying the vibration to the
harp structure, its means of analysis of all pitches in that
structure, and its means of transmission of each pitch over
S3
54 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
its particular line to the brain. We cannot here undertake to
discuss the structure of the ear, its physiology, and the numerous
technical problems or theories of hearing. The reader who is
interested in this phase of the subject must turn to books on the
anatomy and physiology of the ear. But, for psychological pur-
poses, it is necessary to make certain assumptions, of which the
essential one is that there is a pitch-differentiating mechanism in
the ear, capable of serving as a physical basis for the sensory
phenomena with which we deal in the psychology of hearing;
namely, pitch, loudness, timbre, volume, fusion, and consonance,
and their derivatives or variants. For pitch, the harp theory
furnishes at least a good analogy. Seashore. 131
LIMITS OF AUDIBLE PITCH
Lower limit. The lower limit of pitch is that frequency which
gives us the lowest sensation of tone. The lowest audible tone is
usually said to be about 16 ~, but it varies with a large number of
factors. There are two primary factors that determine the lower
limit, the strength or intensity of the sound wave, and its form.
If low tones are to be heard at all they must be relatively very
strong. Therefore, the lower limit will vary with the intensity of the
tone within a very wide range. The most favorable form of the
wave is that smooth curve which gives us a pure tone. Under most
favorable conditions, a good listener can get tonal fusion as low as
12 ~, whereas if the wave comes in the form of more and more
acute puffs, as, in an extreme case, the sound waves coming from
electrical sparks, the lower limit of tonality may be as high as 100 ~.
Upper limit. The average upper limit for an unselected group
under the age of forty is probably about 1 6,000 ~, but this limit
varies greatly with a number of important conditions, such as
advanced age, and various types of defects and diseases of the
inner ear. Even in the so-called "normal" ear, there are very large
individual differences in the upper limit. These differences may have
far-reaching significance for the character of what one hears.
Reliable measurements still are not available for determination
of the upper limit under the most favorable conditions and in
sufficient detail for classification of types. It seems possible that
the upper limit for human hearing in youth may rise to the height
of 25,000 ~ in the most sensitive ear under the most favorable
conditions. Yet, many people with apparently normal hearing can-
not hear above 5,000 ~. In an unselected population, there is
PITCH: FREQUENCY 55
probably a large percentage of persons who cannot hear tones above
10,000.
The average frequency in the chirp of a cricket is about 8,000 ~,
but cricket tones as high as 32,000 have been recorded. Certain
birds are also known to produce tones higher than those produced
by voice or musical instruments. It is probable that such animals,
capable of producing high tones, can hear tones at least as high as
those they produce.
Sounds in nature as high as 40,000 have been recorded and
artificially produced. Supersonic frequencies have been recorded as
high as 2,000,000. In brief, we are living in a world in which
physical tones may exist within a very wide range, but each human
being or animal can hear only a short section of these frequencies
because the limits of audible tones for man or animal are set by the
character of the receiving instrument, the ear. This normal limita-
tion of the pitch range is a great blessing, in that it saves us from
bombardment by the masses of higher frequency in nature which
would serve but little purpose in auditory orientation.
Decline of the upper limit with age and disease. When Madam
Gadski and her daughter were visiting the psychological laboratory,
we tested them for upper limit of hearing and found that the famous
prima donna could not hear any tone or overtone above 12,000 ',
whereas the young daughter could hear up to about 20,000.
This was a shocking discovery for the mother, but certainly no
discredit to her as a musician. The simple explanation was that the
mother was older. The upper limit of hearing suffers a normal and
predictable drop owing to the fact that, as age comes on, the highest
pitch mechanisms in the ear progressively become nonfunctional.
Since this loss is a function of the intensity of the sound, further
consideration of this matter will occur under that head.
PITCH DISCRIMINATION
The ability to hear small differences in pitch is called "pitch
discrimination" and determines what is generally called the "sense of
pitch." It is a measure of the capacity for using pitch in musical
hearing and tone production. We shall use interchangeably the
terms "pitch discrimination" and "sense of pitch."*
* The sense of pitch, pitch discrimination, sensory discrimination for pitch, threshold
of pitch discrimination, differential pitch hearing are all more or less synonymous terms.
It is usually abbreviated as Af.
56 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
Measurement. Pitch discrimination is measured by sounding
two pure tones in quick succession and gradually reducing the
difference in frequency until the observer is unable to tell which of
the two tones is the higher. The steps usually employed in such a
series are 30, 23, 17, 12, 8, 5, 3, 2, 1, 0.5 ~, at the level of interna-
tional A, 435^. The standard procedure has been to use tuning
forks with resonators, but various forms of electrical oscillators
are now available and more convenient.*
For group measurements, the test material from the best avail-
able instruments is recorded on a phonograph record which is
economical, standard, durable, and relatively foolproof in use.
There are two fundamental methods of procedure. One is to
begin with the smallest differential and take about 100 trials on
each step up to the step in which 80 per cent of the answers are
right. This step is regarded as the threshold of pitch discrimination,
which is a measure of the sense of pitch. This is the best method
to use in individual testing. The other method, better adapted for
group testing, is to take a block of the 10 steps named above, mak-
ing 10 trials for each step, and, using the 10 units as a single block,
determining what per cent of right judgments can be made in all
of these 100 trials as a block. This is the method used in the
phonograph record. 125
Norms. On the basis of thousands of trials by the above method,
norms have been established in terms of centile rank. This method
is convenient in that the same scale can be used for all kinds of
measurements that are made and for which sufficient data are
available to determine norms. According to the scale, rank 50
means average, rank 1, the lowest or poorest 1 per cent found, and
rank 100, the highest 1 per cent found, intervening ranks being
proportional to the numbers.
The average threshold for an unselected group of adults is
about 3~ at the level of international pitch, 435 ~. This is % 7 of a
tone, but a very sensitive ear can hear as small a difference as
0.5 ~ or less, which, at this level, is less than 0.01 of a tone. Some
persons who pass in a community as having normal hearing may not
* These tuning forks with resonators may be obtained from the C. H. Stocking Com-
pany, Chicago, but anyone desiring to do so can take forks of 485^ or 440~ and tune
them by filing near the tip of the prongs and counting beats. Resonators may also be
improvised by partly filling a half-pint cream bottle with water until it " speaks" to the
fork. For a full account of the standardization of this measurement see Seashore. 1 * 1
PITCH: FREQUENCY 57
be able to hear a half-tone or even a whole-tone difference. In ex-
treme cases we may have pitch deafness.
Stucker 1 ** examined the discrimination of 16 professional
musicians in the Royal Opera in Vienna and found that for A 3 in
international pitch, they had the following thresholds in terms of
vibrations: 0.1, 0.2, 0.2, 0.2, 0.3, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.5, 0.6, 0.8, 0.8, 0.9,
0.9, 1.1, 1.1. At this level one whole-tone step represents 54~.
Therefore, the keenest of these musicians could hear )ls4o of a tone,
and the poorest ^9 of a tone. These exceptionally fine records are
not to be attributed significantly to training. They are probably due
primarily to the principle of selection, in that persons with unusu-
ally fine ears have sought and received this high order of training
and recognition.
Physiological limit. The physiological limit of any sense organ
is that limit for sensation and perception which is set by the struc-
ture of the sense organ and the brain. In measurements of this
kind we do not always reach this limit but attain what is called a
cognitive limit of discrimination. A good test in the hands of an
expert may properly establish the physiological limit of pitch dis-
crimination in the first trial for a majority of the subjects in a group
test, whereas in an individual test the physiological limit may be
determined with a high degree of certainty for practically all.
The difference between these two limits, the physiological and the
cognitive, is an indication of the uncertainty and the unreliability
of a test. It usually is due to a lack of understanding of the test
requirements, or a lack of mental development, or of good will, or of
general power of application on the part of the subject tested. This
margin may be reduced or eliminated by a repetition and by indi-
vidual testing by an expert.
Relation to intelligence. The physiological limit for the sense of
pitch does not vary significantly with intelligence. The moron may
have as keen a sense of pitch as the philosopher. Measurements on
children and adults in which pitch discrimination is compared with
intelligence show no significant correlation. The slight correlation
that is found is due primarily to lack of the capacity for under-
standing the test conditions and not to the capacity for pitch hear-
ing as such.
There are three significant issues with which we must not con-
fuse this negative finding about intelligence: (1) It has no bearing
upon the opprobrious question often heard, "Are musicians
58 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
dumb?'' We have no evidence to show that the distribution of
intelligence among musicians differs from the distribution in an
unselected population. Our best guess is that the distribution is
approximately the same. The common observation that musicians
live more in the realm of feeling proves nothing in regard to the
distribution of the capacity for intelligence. There also may be such
a thing as a f eelingf ul intelligence. (2) It does not imply that intelli-
gence is not essential to a high degree of musicianship. Music is a
learned occupation. Like lawyers and physicians, the musician must
show a high order of intelligence in order to gain professional
distinction. (3) It does not depreciate the necessity for employing
intelligence in the use of pitch in all phases of musical performance.
Relation to age. In the absence of disease, the physiological
limit for the sense of pitch does not vary with age. A standard group
test can be made on children as low as the fifth grade. The average
achievement of children in the grades is not so high as for adults.
As we have seen, there are different age norms. The reason for this
lies, of course, in the relative cognitive immaturity and not in the
capacity of the sense organ. However, an expert working with
intelligent children may reach this limit in individual tests as early
as at the age of five.
It seems probable that just as the physical eye of the child at the
age of three is as keen as it ever will be, so the pitch sensitiveness in
the ear probably reaches its maximum very early. Development in
the use of the sense of pitch with maturation consists in acquiring
habits and meanings, interests, desires, and musical knowledge,
rather than in the improvement of the sense organ.
Relation to training. The physiological limit for hearing pitch
does not improve with training. Training, like maturation, results in
the conscious recognition of the nature of pitch, its meaning, and
the development of habits of use in musical operations. Training
probably does not modify the capacity of the sense organ any more
than the playing of the good violin may improve the quality of its
tone.
Fortunes have been spent and thousands of young lives have
been made wretched by application of the theory that the sense
of pitch can be improved with training. It is the cause of the out-
standing tragedy in musical education. On the other hand, ear
training is one of the most neglected elements of musical education.
However good the sense of pitch may be, it demands training in
PITCH: FREQUENCY 59
proportion to the natural capacity in this sense. The training is
significant not only for the appreciation of "pitch play'* in music,
but even more significant for the control of performance. The
trouble with flatting, -slovenly intonation, inability to sing inter-
vals, poor timbre control of voice or instrument by a person with
a good sense of _p itch, may Ibe a slovenly ear, an uncritical ear, or an
untrained ear, not motor 6F muscular trouble.
Limit elemental. The physiological limit is elemental in the
sense that it indicates a specific capacity in one sense attribute
which is relatively independent of intelligence, age, and training.
It is a moot question whether any psychophysical capacity can be
elemental, in view of the fact that a certain amount of knowledge
and experience is necessary in order to make the test. It is probable
that in this particular measurement of pitch discrimination we come
as near to securing an elemental measure as can be found in any
of the senses. However, we must always bear in mind the possibility
and probability that we may be dealing with the cognitive limit
instead of the physiological one. Nevertheless the concept is a use-
ful one. We should not think of the physiological limit as fixed,
because within a small range it in itself can vary with factors which
either raise or lower the functions of the nervous system, such as
fatigue, rest, the action of either depressive or stimulative drugs, or
disease.
Inheritance. There is good evidence to show that a musical ear,
by which we mean primarily an ear with good sense of pitch, is
inherited to considerable extent and that with this inheritance
follows variability in the tonal capacities which depend upon pitch
discrimination, such as tonal memory, the sense of timbre, the sense
of consonance, and auditory imagery. This topic will be discussed in
a later chapter.
Frequency level and sensation level. Pitch discrimination varies
in a systematic manner with the frequency within the tonal range
and with the intensity of the tone. This is shown graphically in Fig.
1. In brief, the figure shows that (1) pitch discrimination is poorest
for low tones and best above 1,000~; (2) this variation with fre-
quency holds for all sensation levels from 5 to 60 db; and (3) it is
keener for strong tones than for weak.
Figure 1 is based upon measurements with pure tones. It is well
known that discrimination is finer for rich tones. It varies with both
degree and kind of richness.
60
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
Number of just -noticeable differences. How many differences
in pitch can the average person hear? This is determined by start-
ing with the lowest audible pitch and proceeding step by step in
terms of just-noticeable differences (j.n.d.). Figure 2 is a typical
record. It has been found that the average ear can hear approxi-
0.07
0.05
0.04
1
0.03
0.02
E 0.01
v
\
\
X
\
62
125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 600011,700
Frequency, f
FIG. 1. Variation with frequency level and sensation level. The numbers at the bottom
denote frequency; at the side, the increment in per cent of frequency. The numbers within
the figure denote sensation level, that is, number of db above the threshold of audibility.
For example, for the frequency of 125-^', the increment must be 6 per cent for a 5 db tone, 4
per cent for a 10 db tone, and between 2 and 3 per cent for 20, 40, and 60 db tones, respec-
tively. (Shower and Biddulph. 161 )
In music it is helpful to think of the data in Fig. 1 in terms of fractions of a tone rather
than in terms of per cent of the fundamental frequency. Since a whole-tone step is 9/8 of
the fundamental frequency f -v J i we may convert the figures at the left of the table into
hundredths of a whole-tone step by multiplying each by 8. These numbers would then
read, from top downward: 0.56, 0.48, 0.40, 0.32, 0.24, 0.16, and 0.80.
mately 1,400 steps of difference in pitch of a medium-loud pure
tone. However, it must be remembered that this is an average
figure and that this number varies with several factors, among
which four are outstanding: (1) individual differences one person
may hear more than a hundred times as many pitch differences as
another; (2) intensity more steps in pitch can be heard in strong
tones than in weak tones; (3) duration the most favorable dis-
crimination occurs when there is an abrupt transition from one
PITCH: FREQUENCY
61
pitch to the next within a tone; (4) timbre more steps in pitch can
be heard for rich tones than for pure tones. This concept of the
number of perceptible steps in pitch is a very important one because
it is an index of the extent to which hearing differences function in
daily life.
Binaural versus monaural discrimination. Binaural is finer than
monaural discrimination by about 10 per cent for most musical
tones. The difference decreases gradually to about 2 per cent for
tones at or above 500^.
Duration. There are three types of musical situations which may
be recognized in the measurement of pitch discrimination: (1) going
fb t?oo
/
fc
Q
-2j woo
fc
(
/
/
/
v coo
/
/
JLo
/
.00
o
^MMMH
6 3
_
6
.
.^ -^
^
1
2 125 2.
K> 500 10
FREQUEN
|
OO 2000 40
c, |
00 80
00 (
XX>
FIG. 2. A scale of just perceptibly different pitch steps (j n d ). (Lewis. 77 )
from one note to another with a complete break between them, as
in the standard test where we sound two notes, each of which is one
second in duration but differing in pitch and separated by a very
short interval of time; (2) legato rise or fall in pitch or pitch vibrato;
and (3) sudden shift in a single note without break in tone, as in
erratic intonation.
The discrimination is different for each of these three, the neces-
sary increment being about twice as large for the first type as the
third, and the second falling between these two. These differences
are related to the differences in total duration of each tone.
The minimum duration necessary in order to identify the pitch
of a tone clearly varies with the frequency and to some extent with
62 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
the loudness. It has been found that in order to be heard clearly as
of definite pitch, a tone at 128 ~ must have a duration of 0.09
second; for 256 ~, about 0.07 second; for 384 ~, about 0.04 second;
and for 512 ~, about the same.
Masking. The damping of one tone by another is called "mask-
ing." This is due to interference of vibrations in the basilar
membrane of the inner ear. A low pure tone tends to "drown out"
a higher tone of any frequency, but a high tone has but little effect
upon a lower tone. It is much easier to talk or sing against high
noises than against noises of low frequency. The low partials in a
rich tone tend to dampen the higher partials. Therefore, as a piano
tone is made stronger and stronger, the timbre of the tone changes
because the low partials become more and more effective in drown-
ing out the higher partials.
This is a phenomenon which plays an exceedingly important
role in the determination of tone quality. In the past the artistic
composer and performer have taken facts of this kind .into account
more or less intuitively, but experiments by Fletcher* 1 have estab-
lished definite laws of masking which now can guide the composer in
producing certain effects. Stewart 1 ** gives a good account for musi-
cians. Likewise, these laws guide the performer in the modifying of
tone quality by control of intensity and in the balancing of chords
for the same purpose, with knowledge of masking effects.
\i ABSOLUTE PITCH
/
(The term "absolute pitch" is used with various meanings.
It is common practice to say that a person has absolute pitch if he
can name instantly any key that is struck on the piano. This capac-
ity is rather common) The term probably should be restricted to
possession of the ability to identify tones by much smaller steps
than those of the musical scale, for example, from 0.01 to 0.1 of a
tone. If the violinist is right when he says, for example, that a
given violin is tuned 0.05 of a tone above international pitch, or any
other recognized standard, without having had any chance for
comparing the tone to any audible standard of reference, then he
has absolute pitch. Such capacity is very rare. The possession of
absolute pitch to any degree is a safe guarantee of a good sense of
pitch and of ear-mindednessv
To measure absolute pitch, it is necessary to make only one
trial at a time and to make that just after waking up and before
PITCH: FREQUENCY 63
any comparison of tone has been heardJThe measurement can be
made by a series of tuning forks differing in small steps as in the
discrimination test. It is generally believed that the musical ear
acquires a standard reference tone, perhaps C 3 or A 3 , and that any
tone that is sounded in the musical continuum is placed with refer-
ence to that in the musical scale. That answers the question as to
how it is possible to identify all the audible tones. A more important
question pertains to the basis of the reference tone. It is quite
generally agreed that the identification is not only in terms of pitch,
but also in part in terms of timbre or tone quality, particularly in
relation to a similar instrument.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Since pitch is the fundamental character of a tone, and pitch
discrimination is a measure of the capacity of this sense, it ordi-
narily may be regarded as the most basic measure of musical
capacity that we have. It determines not only what we shall hear,
but fundamentally what we shall remember, imagine, and think,
and, most important of all, it determines in large part what emo-
tional reaction we shall have for the tone. These differences, often
enormously large, must therefore be taken into account in selection
and guidance for musical education, in musical criticism, in choice
of instruments, and in judgment concerning extraordinary capacity
or incapacity, for musical purposes.
NORMAL ILLUSIONS OF PITCH
"Things are not what they seem." As was pointed out in Chap.
2, the ratio of 1 : 1 between the physical fact, such as frequency,
and the mental fact, pitch, is not always exact. Thus 440 ~ does not
mean always the same pitch. The pitch would vary in predictable
ways with differences in intensity, duration, and harmonic constitu-
tion of the tone, that is, with amplitude, duration, and form of the
sound wave. In a predictable way, we speak of the deviation as a
normal illusion. An illusion is said to be normal when all persons
under similar circumstances tend to get the same result. It is called
illusion because the perception does not correspond to the physical
object to which it refers. The illusory perception is always positive;
that is, it represents a genuine perception and may be just as strong
and clear as the perception in which no illusions are involved. The
normal illusions often represent short cuts to meaning and an
64 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
economy in our response to nature and art. A single illusion may be
due to half a dozen causes or motives, some cooperative and some
inhibiting. Since illusions are measurable and play a very important
role in our hearing and rendition of music, the future psychology of
music will be expected to state the fundamental laws of illusion of
pitch as well as other sensory characteristics.
A beautiful example of the measurement of illusion of pitch due
to the varying of the intensity of the tone has been made recently
by Fletcher. Indeed, his measurements reveal several normal illu-
sions of pitch governing the relation of pitch to intensity. The
reader who is interested in good examples of law in illusion of tone
should consult this authority.
In general it has been found that tones having frequencies
below 2,000^ become lower in pitch while those having frequencies
above this level become higher when the intensity of a pure tone
is increased.
Three general problems were suggested by his experiment. (1)
Would the same be true of rich tones? It was found that for rich
tones, such as violin tones, the illusion is only one-fifth as large as
for pure tones. (2) Will two such tones of different intensity sound
discordant when produced together? It was found that they will
not. (3) Does the violinist make correction for these illusions in his
playing of intervals? Lewis and Cowan 7 * conducted a series of
experiments on this and found that he does not. Knowledge of this
illusion, is, of course, of very great interest and significance to the
musician, and it explains many of the well-known inconsistencies
between pitch and frequency.
Six illusions were illustrated in Chap. 4. The entire field of
"subjective tones" falls largely within the realm of normal illusion.
SUBJECTIVE TONES*
A very large number of the tones which play leading roles in
music are purely subjective; that is, the frequencies represented are
not present in the physical tone but are supplied by the individual
in hearing. When two or more tones are sounded together, the
trained listener can hear not only these two generators but a con-
* The content of the remainder of this chapter overlaps with Chap. 8. Therefore,
those readers to whom this material is new will do well to coordinate the reading of thia
ection with that chapter.
PITCH: FREQUENCY 65
siderable number of subjective tones which may be quite conspicu-
ous and always play a very important role in music. In order to
illustrate the character of subjective tones, we shall draw upon the
following experiment.
A subjective-tone experiment. Wegel and Lane 211 devised a very
fine illustration of the existence of four kinds of subjective tones.
They used two strong pure generating tones. To detect the presence
of subjective tones, they employed an "exploring tone" which
could be varied through a large range of frequencies. This could
be set so as to differ 1 or 2~ from a theoretical subjective tone. If
TABLE I. SUBJECTIVE TONES DETECTED IN A TWO-CLANG TONE
COMPOSED OF 700~ (A) AND 1,200~ (B) PURE TONES AT 80 DB SENSATION
LEVEL
(Adapted from Wegel and Lane* 11 )
1. 600 (B - A)
2. 200 (*A - B) ; 900 (3 A - B) ; 1,700 (2B - A);
1,000 (2 - 2,4); 2,900 (35 - A)
3. 1,900 (A + B)
4. 2,600 CU -f B) ; 3,800 (2,4 -f SB), 3,100 (A + 2B);
4,300 (A + 3#) ; 3,300 (SA + B)
6. 1,400 (*A) ; 2,100 (3,4) ; 2,800 (4,4)
6. 2,400 (2) ; 3,600 (3B)
1. First difference tone
2. Other difference tones
3. First summation tone
4. Other summation tones
5. Harmonics of the lower generating tone
6. Harmonics of the higher generating tone
the subjective tone was sufficiently loud, it would beat with the
exploring tone.
This was a very simple and strategic device for the securing of
objective evidence for the existence and location of subjective
tones. Naturally many of the weaker subjective tones would be too
faint to cause a perceptible beat, but a sufficient number of them
were strong enough to present a most formidable array of the sub-
jective tones that can occur in such a simple situation.
They used two pure tones, 700 and 1,200^^, each 80 db above a
standard, as generators. Let us call the first A and the second B.
These tones were sounded together and a search was made through-
out the audible range for subjective tones which would beat with
the exploring tone. The location of these was, of course, predictable
according to theory. By this method they were able to demonstrate
that, in this two-clang combination, 17 subjective tones were pres-
66 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
ent and sufficiently loud to cause beats. The results are expressed
in Table I, which is very illuminating and helpful in the classifica-
tion of these phenomena. The black-faced numbers denote the
pitch of each of the 17 subjective tones recorded. The structure of
each tone may be seen at a glance in the formula given in paren-
theses where A denotes 700 ~ and B 1,200~.
This table is a revelation to the student of music, showing that
in this very simple situation 17 distinct subjective tones could be
heard clearly enough to have their pitch measured with precision.
Incidentally, it may be said that they also were strong enough so
that their actual loudness could be measured. Theoretically, more
are predictable and may be identified with further refinement of
measuring technique.
But it is even more baffling to realize that the complexity of the
situation increases in geometric ratio with the addition of one or
more tones to the chord or discord and that again it increases
vastly with the utilization of rich generating tones, such as those of
stringed instruments which have prominent harmonics, since each
harmonic may act as an independent generator.
Fortunately, in musical hearing we do not ordinarily hear these
subjective tones individually. Like overtones, they fuse into the
complex tone which we hear and are, in large part, recognized as
the determinants of timbre and tone quality. But by numerous
forms of experiment, they may be classified, isolated, and studied
one by one. Let us here give some consideration to each of the three
main groups.
THE FIRST DIFFERENCE TONE
The most conspicuous and best known of the subjective tones
is ordinarily the first difference tone (B A) in the first line of the
table. If we use two pure tones, keeping one constant and varying
the other, we may produce as many difference tones of this order as
there are differences in the frequencies ranging from the lowest
audible up to the highest audible tones. For example, the first
difference tone for the clang 200 and 300~ is 100~; for 200 and
800 ~ it is 600 ~; for 200 and 1,000~ it is 800 ~.
The identification of these difference tones throughout the
audible range furnishes a most excellent exercise in ear training.
The best technique is to use vacuum tubes for producing pure
tones. The old method was to use glass whistles, called Quinke's
PITCH: FREQUENCY 67
tubes, which produced relatively pure tones. These Quinke's tubes
can easily be made by the student himself from the description in
some textbook of physics.
OTHER DIFFERENCE TONES
As is shown in the second item of Table I, other difference tones
are present, at the frequencies of 200, 900, 1,000, 1,700, and 2,900~,
respectively. These are all equivalent to a number of pure tones
added to enrich the clang. None of them belong in the harmonic
series, and they contribute by the introduction of more or less
discordant elements in the quality of the clang.
SUMMATION TONES
Items 3 and 4 in Table I give examples of summation tones,
each represented by the sum of the frequencies of the two generators
or the sum of some multiple of the two fundamentals. The most
conspicuous of these is perhaps the first summation tone, A + B.
None of these falls in the harmonic series and, therefore, their func-
tion, like that of the second group of difference tones, is to increase
the complexity of the clang by more or less discordant elements.
SUBJECTIVE HARMONICS
The reader who is not familiar with the harmonic structure
of musical tones will do well to cast a preliminary glance at Chap.
8, which is devoted to that subject. In accordance with har-
monic theory, a good rich musical tone is composed of a funda-
mental and a series of partials, each being a multiple of the
fundamental. In the experiment reported, pure tones were used.
That means that no physical partials were present. If the tone from
a stringed instrument had been used, the partials for the lower
generator could have been 700, 2,100, 2,800, 5,600, etc., each a
multiple of the fundamental, and for the higher tone they would be
1,200, 2,400, 3,600, 7,200, etc., depending upon the richness of
the tone. Theoretically, in this experiment, if the tone had been
weaker, no physical partials should have been present, but 80 db
is a very strong tone, and the effect of such intensity upon the
inner ear is to produce subjective partials; that is, partials which
have a distinct pitch, loudness, and harmonic relation to the funda-
mental but have no corresponding physical frequency. For the
68 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
lower generating tone, Line 5, Table I, the second, third, and fourth
partials were observed in spite of the faet that they came from a
tone which generated no physical partials. Likewise, for the
second generator, the second and third partials were present under
the same circumstances. Here we have a third type of contribu-
tion to the character of the clang as heard, namely, the presence of
five partials, each of which contributed to the richness of the tone
of each generator in spite of its physical purity. It should be noted,
however, that these subjective harmonic partials are produced
only for extremely loud tones, such as do not ordinarily function in
musical performance. To what extent they are present in ordinary
musical tones in a lower degree of loudness than that here measured
remains to be shown by experiment.
In the interest of clarity, the illustrations here given have been
carried in the simplest terms, namely, a clang composed of two
pure tones. It is easy to see that if we add one or more pure generat-
ing tones to the musical chord, we shall increase the complexity of
the situation in geometric ratio but all in accordance with the prin-
ciples here laid down for two generators. Again, if instead of pure
tone generators in the chord, we use rich tones, such as those of
orchestral instruments, we shall again increase the complexities of
the situation to a most baffling degree, and yet one not defying
analysis and experimental illustration.
THE DIFFERENCE TONE A SUBSTITUTE FOR
A LOW FUNDAMENTAL
A rich tone from a musical instrument may be modified by
introducing a filter, either mechanical or electrical. A filter is a
means for eliminating completely the frequencies of any desired
partial or group of partials in the musical tone. Suppose now that
we have a tone of 200 ~ played on the G string of a violin, and we
eliminate the fundamental frequency by filtering, without inter-
fering at all with the partials above the fundamental. The musical
listener may fail to notice any difference between this tone and the
tone in which the fundamental is present and is absolutely certain
to hear the pitch of the missing fundamental, namely, 200^. If,
again, we eliminate the fundamental and the second and third
partials, we still hear the tone definitely as of a pitch of 200 ~ 9
although there is no physical frequency present lower than 800^.
Furthermore, as we shall see in Chap. 17, there is comparatively
PITCH: FREQUENCY
69
little energy in the fundamental of low tones in voices and instru-
ments. But the fundamental not only gives the pitch to the tone as
a whole, but often stands out as dominant, owing to reinforcement
by the subjective tone.
The reason for these phenomena is that successive partials are
always multiples of the fundamental; in this case 200 (first partial
or fundamental) has 400, 600, 800, 1,000 etc., as multiples of it-
self. The difference between the fundamental and the first overtone
is, therefore, 200, and the difference of any two adjacent higher
partials is always the same 200, which is the pitch of the
90
60
70
60
f
PIANO
s
\n
/
\
/
'\ RANGE OF FUNDAMENTALS
\
f
CONCERT ETUDE-LOW-*
\
/
MARCH MILITAIRE-o
\
-y-
CONCERT F.TUDE-HICH-o
*n
H
Ch
PAS
1
S F
ILTERS
LOW P,
^SS F
ILTl
:R
I
50
100 500 1,000 5,000 10,000
FIG 3 Number of times filter condition was correctly preserved as function of cutoff
frequency for the piano. Figures at the bottom denote frequencies; figures at the left,
per cent of correct judgments. The instrument was the piano The range of the fundamentals
for each selection is shown by the arrowed lines under the name of the selection. "High-
pass filters" means that low frequencies were eliminated; "low-pass filters'* means that
high frequencies were eliminated. Thus m the Concert Etude, symbolized by a dot, the range
was from 82 to 800~. For the Afarche Mihtaire, symbolized by a circle, from 42 to
1,800~; and for the Concert Etude, symbolized by a square, from 192 to 2,500~. (Snow?. 170 )
fundamental. The result is that we get a difference tone of the pitch
of the fundamental for each successive pair of partials; and, since
this is always the same, the effect becomes cumulative and adds to
the loudness of the subjective fundamental. This is equivalent to
the sounding together of a number of pure tones of 200 ~.
The limits of effective frequency in the piano. Snow 1 performed
a very interesting series of experiments to determine to what extent
the highest and the lowest frequencies of the musical tone are
negligible. He used trained observers under most favorable condi-
tions in observing low and high tones in the three musical selections.
His findings are summarized in Fig. 3 for the piano. Let us consider
first only the low tones.
70 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
His method was to compare the regular nonfiltered tone of the
piano, which we shall call N 9 with the same tone, F, which had
various lower frequencies eliminated by filtering. He eliminated, in
turn, all frequencies below 70, 80, 90 and 100~ to determine
whether or not the fundamental below these limits would be heard,
and whether or not the F tone could be distinguished from the N
tone. His records were kept in terms of the percentage of right
judgments on whether or not the two tones sounded alike. The
result may be seen at the left side of Fig. 3.
We see that when all notes below 55 ~ were eliminated, the
judgments were 50 per cent right, which is what they would be
by chance. Therefore, the observers had no ability to distinguish
the B tone from the A tone. When he eliminated frequencies below
65 ~, the judgments were 65 per cent right. When he eliminated all
frequencies under 100^, the judgments were about 78 per cent
right. When he eliminated frequencies below 130~, the judgments
were 90 per cent right. To get judgments 100 per cent right, he
would have to eliminate all below 165~.
What does this mean, then, in general terms? It means (1) that,
although the fundamental frequency was completely eliminated
in these low tones, it was still heard as the fundamental pitch of
the tone; and (2) that a considerable amount of filtering could take
place in tone B without altering the perceived character of the
tone. This is a very impressive illustration of the role of subjective
tones in the everyday hearing of piano music.
On the other side of the chart, we see what happens if we com-
pare N and F tones when the F tone has certain higher partials
eliminated. The conclusion from this is that, above the region of
5,000^, the high overtones gradually cease to be heard either as
pure tones in themselves or as modifying the character of the tone
perceptibly.
Audible frequency range for music, speech, and noise. Follow-
ing the same method of experimentation, Snow m investigated the
principal types of instruments and voices, with the result shown in
Fig. 4. The whole solid line shows the normal frequency range of the
instrument; the circle on a line shows the limit below which lower
frequencies could be eliminated before the observers could make
80 per cent right judgments in distinguishing the F tone from the
N tone. The same principle applies to the upper limit. The regions
indicated by short bars at the right are the regions of accessory
PITCH: FREQUENCY
71
noises for each type of tone. Snow 170 summarizes his findings as
follows :
1. The piano was alone in producing tones with inaudible
fundamentals.
2. Audible frequencies down to 40 cycles were produced by
the musical instruments, but reproduction only to 60 cycles was
considered almost as satisfactory.
AUDIBLE FREQUENCY RANGE
FOR MUSIC SPEECH AND NOISE
ACTUAL TONE RANGE
mmimt ACCOMPANYING NOISE RANGE
-CUT-OFF FREQUENCY OF FILTER
DETECTABLE IN 80% OF TESTS
SNARE DRUM
FRENCH HORN-
BASS SAXOPHONE -
CLARINET --
SOPRANO SAXOPHONE-
HAND CLAPPING
KEY JINGLING
4
100 500
1,000 5,000 1
0,000 2O.C
FREQUENCY IN CYCLES PER SECOND
FIG. 4. Audible frequency range for music, speech, and noise. (Snow. 170 )
3. It was found that transmission of the highest audible
frequencies was needed for perfect reproduction of musical
instruments, mainly because of the noises accompanying the
musical tones. A 10,000 cycle upper cut-off had slight effect
upon the tone quality of most instruments, but a o,000 cycle cut-
off had an appreciable effect upon all except the large drums.
4. The quality of reproduction of orchestral music continued
to improve materially as the lower cut-off was extended to about
72 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
80 cycles and the upper cut-off to about 8,000 cycles. Reproduc-
tion of the full audible range was preferred to any limitation of
band width.
5. Noises required reproduction of the highest audible fre-
quencies. A 10,000 cycle cut-off caused appreciable reduction of
naturalness on common noises. It was felt that this cut-off
probably would never preclude recognition of a noise.
Phonograph and radio. Let us take an illustration from the
situation with the phonograph and radio before the perfection
of electrical recording. Little did the listeners realize in the early
period of the phonograph records and radio transmissions that the
recording instruments did not respond satisfactorily to low tones.
These reproductions, therefore, furnished their own filters for low
tones tending to eliminate the fundamental frequency and some-
times even the second partial, and yet we heard with unquestioned
certainty the fundamental pitch of these musical tones, fixed
and unwavering. What we did hear as the fundamental pitch in
these low tones was purely subjective.
Thus, we see that this purely subjective difference tone is
psychologically and musically not only an impressive reality but
frequently an indispensable factor in the determination of the
pitch of musical tones. To the composer, the instrument-maker,
the performer, as well as to the listener, they are stern realities and
essential factors in the structure of musical tones. As to the physi-
ological theory of all these subjective tones, we have but little to
say at the present time, but in the last five years such progress has
been made in the experimental work on the theory of the pitch-
differentiating mechanism in the human ear that we may reason-
ably soon expect to have a physiological explanation in terms of
the function of the inner ear.
It should be noted that although we must deny the physical
existence of frequencies corresponding to these tones, the oscillo-
graph faithfully records wave patterns in terms of which many of
the subjective tones may be identified. The theoretical existence
may, of course, be predicted in purely mathematical terms, the
only psychological problem being to determine to what extent
they are audible.
Audible frequency range in voice and instrument. Each voice
or instrument has its typical frequency range for acceptable tone
PITCH: FREQUENCY
73
74 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
quality. This is illustrated in Fig. 5, which is a copy of a chart
issued by the National Association of Musical Instrument Manu-
facturers, 101 1927. The chart is self-explanatory. The limits here
indicated are merely approximations and can vary under a large
number of circumstances.
PITCH PERFORMANCE
We have dealt with the ability to hear tones and to hear differ-
ences in tones. There is a parallel on the side of tone production;
namely, in the range of tone production of voice or instrument and
the precision of intonation. Various aspects of this will be discussed
in the chapter on Musical Skills.
Control of intonation. The ability to control the pitch of tones
presents three types of situations: (1) the reproduction of a stand-
ard tone; (2) the making of fine deviations from the standard; and
(3) the production of intervals.
The capacity for reproducing a standard tone is relatively
elemental. It depends primarily upon a good sense of pitch. Natu-
rally one cannot control pitch any finer than he can hear it; but
the control of pitch is frequently subject to considerable improve-
ment by training, principally the type of discipline that makes the
ear more critical. Ordinarily the fault is not in the voice or instru-
ment but in the fidelity of the ear and auditory imagery. To exercise
critical control, it follows that the capacity for pitch control in
intonation varies in a way somewhat parallel to a variation in
capacity for pitch discrimination. However, in stringed instru-
ments and in wind instruments, a large element of skill is required,
and that comes only with rigorous training.
The power of precision in controlling artistic deviation from
true pitch is again primarily a matter of a sensitive ear, rather than
muscular control, although in both voice and instrument a certain
amount of experience and training is necessary. In Chap. 27, we
shall see some exercises for training in this respect.
The control of intervals hinges primarily upon interval concepts.
Some of the intervals are natural; others are more or less arbitrary.
But a certain amount of training is necessary in order to standard-
ize the concept of interval. Historically speaking, there has been a
variety of scales, and even at the present time in modern music
there is considerable dispute about minor differences in intervals
which constitute scales. But, given the concept of interval, preci-
PITCH: FREQUENCY 75
sion in singing or playing intervals depends to a great degree upon
precision in the reproduction of a tone and in the control of fine
differences in pitch.
Interval. Melody and harmony are both built upon the con-
ception of intervals, some aspects of which we shall discuss under
the head of Consonance. There is a very extensive literature on this
subject, particularly with reference to musical scales. Much of it
awaits verification, criticism, and extension by means of laboratory
experiments. As an example, we may mention the contest over the
tempered scale and just intonation in violin playing.
LOUDNESS: INTENSITY
THE ROLE OF INTENSITY
WE have seen that there are four fundamental aspects of all
music: the tonal, the dynamic, the temporal, and the qualita-
tive. The tonal aspects are primarily the outgrowth of pitch and
timbre; the dynamic are usually reduced mainly to intensity; the
temporal rest basically upon time but are greatly modified by
intensity; the qualitative rest primarily upon timbre, but this is
greatly modified by pitch, intensity, and time in sonance. We see,
therefore, that intensity plays one of the four basic roles in all
music.
We are perhaps less conscious of intensity than any of the other
three attributes in music, for several reasons. In terms of pitch,
we have musical scales, melody, and harmony with exact quantita-
tive determinations for each. The musical score shows pitch and
time with precision but shows only very crude indications of inten-
sity. Therefore, owing to the relative absence of definite concepts,
their conspicuous absence in the score and, until recently, the ab-
sence of units of measurement, little or nothing is said in musical
literature about intensity or loudness, and yet this attribute of
tone is comparatively conspicuous for musical hearing and musical
expression.
In phrasing, for example, which is the very heart of musical
interpretation for both the performer and the listener, the pianist
can do comparatively little or nothing to modify pitch and com-
paratively little to modify timbre. The pianist's musical interpreta-
tion deals almost entirely with intensity and time. The singer
expresses his musicianship primarily in two ways: in the control of
76
LOUDNESS: INTENSITY 77
the quality of tone and in phrasing. The quality of tone assumes a
fairly fixed character at a given stage of training, but the musical
phrasing is the most plastic unit in terms of which the singer or the
violinist expresses personality and musical interpretation, and
phrasing is largely a matter of time and intensity.
The builder of instruments, the musical critic, the teacher, and
the scientist dealing with the art of music must develop a more
conscious recognition of the role of intensity than that which now
prevails in judging the beauty of music. The student must become
aware, not only of principles of dynamics in music, but also of his
own sensitivity and power of discrimination, and the countless
devices which must be at his command in controlling, modifying,
and utilizing loudness characteristics in tone production. Funda-
mentally, there are two goals, effectiveness and agreeableness.
The former pertains to carrying power and intelligibility of the
sound, the second to the art of dynamic modulation as an element
of beauty in itself and as a medium for the control of tone quality.
There are two measures which are basic to all dynamic aspects
of tone, sensitivity and discrimination. The first is the measure of
the natural capacity of the ear for becoming aware of sounds; the
second is a measure of the capacity of the ear for hearing differences
and, therefore, the power to use the ear in a musically significant
way dynamically, that is, to assign musical meaning to loudness
characteristics. On the motor side, we are correspondingly con-
cerned (1) with the ability to control the intensity in intonation,
and (2) with the ability to produce artistic deviations in intensity.
SENSITIVITY OR HEARING ABILITY
Audiometry. The art of measuring the sensitivity, usually
called hearing ability or acuity of hearing, is just coming into the
medical profession and into activities which are affected by keen-
ness of hearing or hearing loss, such as music, speech, and various
industries. This is largely because it is only within the last few
years that reliable measuring instruments and units of measure-
ment have been available in the fields of psychology, physics, and
engineering.
Sensitivity is best measured with an audiometer, which
produces pure tones at different levels of pitch in the tonal register.
The measurement consists in determining the weakest sound that
can be heard. This measure, as we have seen, is expressed in decibels.
78 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
It usually is plotted in terms of the number of decibels of deviation
from standards for normal hearing of persons not above forty
years of age and is designated as "hearing loss." Thus, we say a per-
son has so many decibels hearing loss for different levels of
frequency.*
On the conventional hearing chart in Fig. 1, various types of
hearing loss are represented. A word of comment in regard to each
of these is in order.
Normal hearing. The straight line numbered represents normal
hearing for young adults and is taken as a base line from which
hearing loss is measured. The ear is probably as sensitive to sound
* Very rapid progress is now being made in the design and marketing of audiometers.
Dr. Scott Reger, specialist in matters pertaining to audiometry, lists instruments now
available as follows:
A. Western Electric No. 2- A Audiometer. Battery operated: generates eight fre-
quencies in octave intervals from 64 to 8,192 cycles.
B. Western Electric No. 6- A Audiometer. A.C.-D.C. operated: generates a con-
tinuously variable range of frequencies from 128 to 10,000 cycles.
C. Western Electric No. 4- A Audiometer. Designed to test the hearing for spoken
speech reproduced from phonograph records of as many as 40 pupils simultaneously. This
instrument is used principally for the group testing of school children.
D. Western Electric No. 5-A Audiometer. A.C. operated: generates a single complex
"buzzer" tone.
E. Western Electric No. 3-A Audiometer. Battery operated version of the Western
Electric No. 5-A Audiometer. The Western Electric No. 5-A and 3-A Audiometers were
designed for use in various industries where a rapid approximation of hearing acuity is
desired. The Western Electric Audiometers may be obtained from the Graybar Electric
Co., Graybar Building, New York City.
F. Sonotone Jones-Knudsen Model 1 Audiometer. A.C.-D.C. operated: generates
seven frequencies in octave intervals from 128 to 8192 cycles. Also provides a continuous
sweep of frequencies from 2500 up to 16,000 cycles in two ranges: 2500 to 7500, and 8000 to
16,000 cycles. Sonotone Corporation, 19 West 44th Street, New York City.
G. Maico Model D-4 Audiometer. Generates frequencies from 32 to 12,288 cycles.
(Complete detailed information on this instrument is lacking.) The Medical Acoustic
Instrument Co., 730 Hennepin Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.
H. Auragraph Audiometer. A.C.-D.C. operated: continuously variable from 64 to
8192 cycles. The Marvel-Clark Co., Grand Rapids, Mich.
I. Brenco 34-C Audiometer. A.C. operated, generates eight frequencies in octave
intervals from 64 to 8192 cycles, plus the additional three frequencies of 12,000, 16,000,
tnd 20,000 cycles. Physicians Supply Co. of Philadelphia, 116 South 16th Street, Phila-
delphia, Pa.
Audiometers C, D, and E measure hearing acuity in terms of percentage loss; A, B,
F, G, and I are so calibrated that the results are read in terms of decibels hearing loss;
nothing is known about the intensity calibration of H. All of the above Audiometers except
C, D, and E are equipped with both headphones and bone conduction vibrators for testing
acuity for both air and bone conducted vibrations. Audiometers B and F are also equipped
with microphones to enable conversation and the selection of hearing aids for the hard of
hearing.
LOUDNESS: INTENSITY
79
in the first year of childhood as it ever will be thereafter. The
change that takes place with maturation and education consists of
the development of the ability to assign meaning, develop habits
of selection, and give accurate account of it. There is, of course, a
considerable latitude of variation around this normal, up to 10 db
or more above or 10 db or slightly more below at all frequencies.
-20
</>20
LJ
CD
Id'
o
60
-'SO
e>
2noo
UJ
120
140
NORMAL HEARING^
512 1024 2048 4096 8192
64 128 256
PITCH C c c C 2 63 C 4 c a C
FIG. 1. Audiograms showing types of hearing loss. Straight line at zero, normal
hearing regarded as a base line; A, normal loss due to age; B, middle-ear lesion, advanced
in impairment; C, acoustic neuritis, hearing loss approximately uniform; D, extreme form
of acoustic neuritis. The dash lines show the average deviation from line A for persons
above 60.
There may also be ups and downs of a minor sort within this range
of about 10 db on each side.
Acoustic neuritis. Line B shows a typical case of acoustic neuri-
tis due to some form of pathology in the inner ear. This, as the
curve shows, is rather severe and usually does not respond to
treatment.
Middle-ear lesion. This is commonly due to disturbances in the
bones or membranes of the middle ear. Line C shows a mild type, in
which the subject clearly recognizes that he is hard of hearing but
does not ordinarily need a hearing aid; whereas, Line D is of a se-
80 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
vere type in which it becomes advantageous to wear some hearing
aid. In certain types of middle-ear lesions, the patient may obtain
better results from a bone-conduction hearing aid than from the
ordinary sound-amplifying (air-conduction) instrument.
The threshold of pain. The dotted line at the bottom represents
the limits at which sounds are loud enough to produce a feeling of
pain. This pain is located in the eardrum and serves as a protection
for the ear.
DETERIORATION WITH AGE: PRESBYCOUSIS
There is a tendency for aged people to have some degree of loss
of hearing. Such loss of plasticity is observable in other sense
organs as well as in the muscles and glands; but in hearing we have a
peculiar situation in that, while hearing in the lower register may
remain normal into old age, there is always a very radical and
progressive loss of hearing for the higher tones.
Line A in Fig. 1 is from Kelley's recent investigation. He
selected only the cases of old persons between sixty and seventy-
five years of age who had approximately normal hearing, at least
up to 500 ~, in order to get cases which are unquestionably due to
deterioration with age. This condition was certified by otological
examination. The curve shows that, on the average, these people
had a hearing loss of 8 db at 1,000, 24 db at 2,000, 44 at 4,000, and
probably would have about 60 at 8,000~.
The dash lines above and below the line A show the average
deviation from this average in 70 cases. This close agreement
with the average indicates that this type of decline follows a
fairly fixed law. As we grow old, we may therefore have the comfort
of companionship in this loss for high tones.
To verify this in actual music, he took a violin tone which had a
rich spectrum of high tones and, by filtering, eliminated in different
experiments those above 2,000, 4,000, and 8,000~. Careful re-
measurements were made to see whether the aged person could tell
the difference between the filtered tone and the full violin tone.
What was predicted proved true: an aged person cannot hear any
overtones above what is indicated by his hearing loss. Therefore,
both music and speech are to him radically different from what they
were in youth. These losses come on so gradually that the sound of
the human voice or of a violin does not seem to be noticeably dif-
ferent from what it was in youth.
LOUDNESS: INTENSITY 81
This state of partial deafness arising from senile changes in
the ear is called "presbycousis." The term should be applied to that
type of hearing loss which has been described in the preceding
paragraph and should not be applied to the loss of hearing below
the region of 1,000^ due to old age.
Kelley investigated seventy cases of persons above sixty years
of age and found that about 75 per cent had normal hearing, that is,
not more than 10 db hearing loss at 64 to 500^, and only a slight
hearing loss at 1,000^. This shows that loss of hearing in the lower
register does not necessarily come from age or occur with age. In
the 25 per cent of the cases in which there was a loss in this region it
could be traced to such specific causes as may operate at any age.
This is a comfort to those who have fatalistic fear of loss of hearing.
It has been shown that where the tympanic membrane is destroyed,
a person can employ stronger hearing aids than otherwise, because
the sense organs of pain that protect the ear are located primarily in
this membrane. Lewis and Regcr 82 have shown also that the hearing
of subjective tones is not dependent upon the presence of the
tympanic membranes.
CHILDREN'S HEARING
The measuring of hearing ability of school children has been
grossly neglected on account of the absence of measuring instru-
ments and the lack of realization of the deep significance of hearing
loss in children. Many children are regarded as dull and become
problem cases simply because they do not hear. It is typical of
both children and adults, as a rule, to pretend to hear and to
develop defense reactions. They also develop skill in drawing
inferences from situations, in guessing from partly heard sounds,
and especially in the art of lip reading, which in extreme cases may
become an actual substitute for hearing.
In the public schools of today, it is found that from 5 to 10 per
cent of the school children have some significant hearing loss. Many
of these defects are unknown to schoolteachers and parents. In
fact, only one out of five can be detected by ordinary methods.
The audiometer permits a survey test that discovers all hearing-
deficient pupils. Loss of hearing may be due to a great variety of
causes, and many forms may be treated successfully, especially in a
growing child, but most important is the provision of preventive
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
measures and precautions which save the child from developing
deafness.
It is evident that loss of hearing ability becomes an impediment
to the hearing, appreciation, and performance of music. The person
so affected lives in a different sound world from the person who has
normal hearing. Many peculiarities in musical interpretation, likes,
and dislikes are due either to hypersensitivity or to loss of sensitiv-
ity to sound. Hypersensitivity is a very potent source of that type of
120
110
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50
40
30
20
10
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NOTE SOUMO LCVCL l INTCWtlTV
tCVCL IN KCIMtl. MtASUHCO
ritoM to 'WATT re* SUAC
CCNTIMCTIH
FftCQUCMCY IN CYCLES PCM SCCONO
FIG. 2. Limits of audible sound. (Courtesy of Western Electric Company.)
irritation which shows itself in eccentricities of the musical
temperament.
The field of hearing. There is an upper and a lower limit of
hearing. How strong a sound can the ear endure? The solid line
at the top in Fig. 2 indicates that at this point the sound becomes so
strong that it arouses pain and cannot be endured above that level.
This is the upper limit, in the region of 125 db.
How strong must a sound be in order to be heard? That is, what
is the lower threshold of hearing? In other words, what does "nor-
mal" hearing as represented by the base line (0) in Fig. 1 mean?
The answer is given in the lower part of Fig. 2. This figure is only an
approximation to the more recent measurements, but it shows the
important fact that the ear is highly sensitive in the region of 500
LOUDNESS: INTENSITY
83
to 4,000 ~, which is the region most significant for music and
speech. Above and below this region of frequency, sound must be
increasingly stronger in order to be heard. The broken parts
of the curve indicate high and low regions for which the curve is
more or less hypothetical.
There are very large individual differences in hearing ability
from the supersensitive to the stone deaf, and this influences their
activities in daily life to an extraordinary degree. The person who
10O 50O 1OOO
FREQUENCY IN CYCLES PER SECOND
FIG. 8. Loudness-level contours. (Fletcher.**)
5000 10000
has an especially keen ear perceives and responds emotionally to
countless sounds that his neighbors cannot hear. The person who is
hard of hearing has the advantage of freedom from disturbing
noises but also suffers a loss of power in his daily adjustments.
These limitations are, in a way, a great blessing because they
save us from hearing a great mass of rumblings and roarings which
occur in nature and also from the infinite variety of high tones
which are ever present but are of little or no significance for music
and speech. In other words, the ear is selective in that it is respon-
sive to that region of sounds which is of greatest significance and
use.
More significant than hypersensitivity in this respect is the
mental set which centers consciousness upon sound rather than
84 PSYCHO LOGY OF Music
upon other stimuli. Keen hearing ability and vivid auditory
imagery coupled with a dominating interest in sounds is what
throws the musician under the spell of sounds. Harshness, discord,
volume have meaning to him just as purity, harmony, and modula-
tion have. It is therefore important to recognize that, although a
musician may have just a normal hearing ability, he may be extra-
ordinarily responsive to sounds which to the nonmusician pass
unobserved.
Loudness versus intensity. Figure 2 suggests that there must be
great disparity between the intensity and the loudness of a sound.
However, this relation follows a definite law which is expressed in
Fig. 3. The difference between the physical intensity and the mental
experience, loudness, is greatest at the threshold of hearing and
decreases gradually up to the upper limit of hearing. Figures 1, 2,
and 3 may now be reviewed together.
Reference tone. It is now clear that the loudness of a sound
varies with a great many factors involved in frequency, duration,
timbre, and intensity level. It also varies with a great variety of
conditions in the room and the relation of the source to the ear as
well as with such factors as fatigue, attention, and alertness on the
part of the listener. Therefore, in order to determine the loudness
produced, it is necessary to define the intensity of the sound, its
physical composition, the kind of ear receiving it, and the physiolog-
ical conditions of the listener. For this reason, scientists
have adopted as a standard reference tone a pure tone of 1,000~
and provided that the reference intensity for intensity-level com-
parisons all be 10~ 16 watts per square centimeter. This furnishes us
a fixed base from which intensity and loudness measurements
can be made under all sorts of conditions.
DISCRIMINATION: THE SENSE OP INTENSITY
Intensity discrimination is measured with a special type of
audiometer by determining the smallest difference in loudness that
can be heard. For practical reasons 1 db is usually considered the
magnitude of the just noticeable difference. This, however, is an
arbitrary standard because the j.n.d. varies a great deal with the
pitch level, the absolute loudness, timbre, and duration of the tone.
It also varies in a large range with the individual differences of the
listeners.
LOUDNESS: INTENSITY
85
Intensity discrimination measures the ability to hear differences
in loudness and is therefore a measure of a person's capacity for
using loudness differences in every dynamic aspect of music and in
other hearing situations in daily life. For group measurement, the
phonograph record, "The Sense of Intensity," No. 53003-D, from
the Seashore Measures of Musical Talent, is satisfactory. The record
by this method is given in terms of centile rank in the same manner
as for the other measures, which makes such capacities readily
comparable.
400t
5 35
250
200
150
u.Z
O*
LJU
CO
50
\
64
120 256 512 102420484096 8192
FREQUENCY
FIG. 4. The number of just noticeable steps in loudness (j n d ) between the threshold of
audibility and the threshold of pain. (Rietsz. 112 )
There are very great individual differences in this capacity.
When individual measurements are made with an audiometer, it is
found that there is an approximately normal distribution of capac-
ities, ranging from 0.2 to 20 db or more. These differences are fairly
independent of age, intelligence, and training. They play a very
important role in determining success or failure in ordinary inter-
course and in vocations which involve discriminative hearing,
particularly in music and speech.
NUMBER OF AUDIBLE DIFFERENCES IN LOUDNESS
How this capacity varies with pitch level is illustrated in Fig. 4,
which shows that, at a pitch of 64^, the average ear can detect
about 45 different steps in loudness, an octave above that, about
95 steps, and at C 3 , about 175 steps, etc.; the finest discrimination
86 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
is found in the third octave above C 3 at which the average ear can
detect about 375 steps or differences of loudness.
But this curve is for an average ear. For a superior ear, it would
rise much higher at all pitch levels, and for an inferior ear, it would
fall far below the present curve.
Similar illustrations might be made to show that the capacity
for intensity discrimination varies with absolute loudness, time, and
timbre. In general, we may say that the ear is most discriminating
for differences in loud tones and least discriminating for differences
in soft tones, and that these differences for loud, medium, and weak
tones are greatest in the lower octaves. The discrimination varies
also with the duration of the tone and, in a very complicated way,
with the timbre.
MOTOR CAPACITIES
Matching intensities. The first of the two basic measures of
motor capacity for control of intensity of sound is to match or
reproduce a tone of given intensity. The subject may be required
to sing or play a tone of any intensity and then immediately repeat
it with the same intensity, all other factors held constant. The two
intensities may be read directly in decibels on the dial of a power-
level meter, such as is used in every radio studio for regulation of
the intensity of the radio sounds. We shall see later how this
principle may be used in training exercises for the development of
dynamic skill.
Differentiating intensities. This is measured in the same manner
as above with voice or instrument. The capacity thus revealed is a
measure of the ability to produce artistic deviation in loudness.
It is the fundamental key to the art of interpretation, as in musical
phrasing. While the loudness discrimination is a relatively ele-
mental capacity, the motor skill involved in its artistic use is
subject to marked refinement by training, and artistry consists
largely in the development of fine and meaningful modulations of
intensity.
Naturally the limits for matching intensities as well as for
varying intensities are set mainly by the capacity for intensity
discrimination. For two persons, one of whom can hear a difference
of only 4 db under standard conditions and the other can hear 0.4
db difference, we should expect a corresponding difference in the
ability to control the intensity. In general, however, a person can-
LOUDNESS: INTENSITY 87
not produce a given loudness so accurately as he can hear it,
because there are various elements of motor skill involved. Measure-
ments show that a fine pianist may be able to hear and reproduce
differences as small as 0.1 db in the middle register. The pianist
perhaps has the greatest responsibility for the mastery of intensity
control since this is one of the two principal media under his con-
trol, and the instrument responds favorably to fine shadings
in touch. Performance on wind and percussion instruments is far
less accurate. This topic will be discussed further in the chapter on
Musical Skills, Chap. 27.
INTENSITY CHARACTERISTICS OF
MUSICAL TONES
Beats. One of the basic determinants of harmony is the phe-
nomenon of beats, which consists of the periodic pulsation of inten-
sity. Below 12 or 15 pulsations we do not hear tones but distinct
beats. The number of beats per second indicates the number of
vibrations in the difference of the frequencies of the two beating
tones. Above the threshold of tonal fusion the tones are character-
ized as harsh or rough. The roughness decreases with the increase in
number of beats up to certain levels. Thus, a minor third is rougher
than a major third.
Beats are more conspicuous in pure tones than in rich tones.
If two pure tones beat, they tend to cancel each other, so that for
each beat +here is a moment of silence; but the richer the tone is,
the more complicated the situation becomes.
Resonance. If we suspend a violin string between two solid
supports without any resonance box, the string must be bowed
hard before the tone can be heard at all. The real tone which we
hear from the violin is caused by the sympathetic vibration in
the resonance of the box. That is, what we hear is not primarily the
vibration of the string but the vibration of the various parts of the
resonance mechanism. The same is true in principle for all forms of
instruments and especially for the human voice, in which the oscil-
lation of air caused by the vocal cords alone is significant in com-
parison with the oscillation which emanates through the mouth
from the resonating cavities.
It is this differential modification in the loudness of partials
which governs the timbre of tones.
88 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
Reverberation. Another factor which plays a large role in
modifying the character of the tone by changes in intensity is that
of reverberation. The ordinary music room or music hall is in
effect a resonance box. Every sound we have goes out to the walls,
the ceiling, the floor, the furniture, and the occupants, and is
reflected back in a mass of sound waves of increasing complexity.
Therefore, a violin tone may be radically different in one room
from what it is in another, or different in one part of the room from
what it is in any other part, because of these characteristics of
reverberation. By taking basic measurements in the dead room,
which eliminates the element of reverberation and transmission of
sounds from the outside, we can determine the character of the
instrument or the voice in itself, and then by taking corresponding
measurements in any music room or any part of the music room we
can determine exactly what it is that the room contributes. The
adoption of scientific principles in the construction and sound
treatment of auditoriums and music rooms is one of the most
recent triumphs of architecture and is destined to contribute much
to the refinement and mastery of musical performance.
AMPLIFICATION OF SOUND
The engineering development in the control of the dynamics of
tone in recording, reproducing, and broadcasting is one of the most
important contributions that has ever been made to the populariz-
ing of music. In recording a sound film, for example, not only can
the man at the instrument change instantly the loudness of the
tone as a whole, but he can deal with any particular element of
the tone selectively in such a way as to improve upon the perform-
ance of the instrument or the voice. This is called building up the
tone. As a result of this, we hear over the radio voices which are
much better balanced through the radio rendition than in the actual
delivery of the voice. One of our most famous baritones has a voice
which is naturally weak in the lower registers and, therefore, im-
presses one as thin and top-heavy. But in the radio rendition, and
to some extent in the phonograph, this voice is rebuilt so that it
approximates an ideal distribution of the loudness for each register
and for each partial in the complex tone. This phenomenon can
easily be observed when one has the opportunity of hearing the
singer in person and hearing one of his latest recordings so that a
comparison can be made between the record and the sound in the
LOUDNESS: INTENSITY 89
performance of the voice. This does not imply, necessarily, that in
every respect the recording of the tone is better than the natural
voice, but is emphasizing the fact that it is possible to make a voice
sound better than it really is. We are familiar with the analogy to
this in painting and photography.
A scale of musical dynamics. To most of the readers of this
book the term "decibel" is new. As yet it has a very slight place in
musical language; but it must be recognized that the appearance of
this term, or its equivalent, was a condition for the scientific dis-
cussion of dynamic expression in music and for the application of
exact terminology in musical composition, performance, and
criticism. When Stokowski directs his orchestra over the radio
control board, he has before himself an intensity meter which
shows the loudness of the orchestral performance from moment to
moment. He can, therefore, adopt and enforce specific standards.
It will not be long before there will be in music studios meters
which will register loudness in decibel readings for any voice or
instrument so that the terms will have a fixed value in the score and
can assume specific and permanent values in the conception of the
composer and the performance of the artist. It will require a great
deal of experimenting to standardize such norms.
At the present time we can only make a rough estimate.
Dr. Scott Reger, who is an expert in this field of measurement, sug-
gests that tentatively we may adopt the following scale: For a
75-piece orchestra in decibel equivalence above the threshold,
ppp, 20 db; pp, 40 db; p, 55 db; mf, 65 db; /, 75 db; /, 85 db;
///, 95 db.
The intensity of an average whisper when the mouth of the
speaker is 4 feet from the ear of the listener is about 20 db above the
threshold. The loudest sounds of average conversational speech are
about 60 db above the threshold under similar conditions. There is
an intensity-level range of about 73 db in a crescendo from the
average level of the softest violin playing to the peaks in the heav-
iest playing of a full orchestra. If the intensity of the softest violin
were 20 db above the threshold, the heaviest playing of the orches-
tra would be about 95 clb above the threshold.
Measurements of this kind will, of course, be of very great value
in the determination of such features as carrying power of voice and
instrument, the acoustic characteristics of each and every part of
an auditorium, discussion of the volume of voice or instrument,
and scientific statements of principles of dynamic expression.
DURATION: TIME
NATURE OF THE PERCEPTION OF TIME
rriHERE are two aspects of the sense of time; namely, that con-
JL cerned with fine distinctions of short intervals of time and
that concerned with the judging of the flow of time in longer
periods, such as seconds, minutes, or days. Individuals differ extra-
ordinarily in their abilities and habits for judging sustained inter-
vals of time. The judgment depends largely upon an appraisal of
the net result of the flow of events which occur within a time period,
such as the speaking of a sentence, the delivery of a speech, or the
work of the day. Every moment of time is filled in some way, and
an infinite variety of clues are used in judging the progression. For
example, an undesired visitor may engage in small talk for an hour
without noticing the flight of time, whereas the host may be very
restive and overestimate the duration. In other cases, the estimate
may be based upon observed events which take a fairly even, cus-
tomary course. For example, a man can get some idea about what time
he has arisen in the morning by observing the length of his beard in
shaving. There are definite, established principles of overestimation
and underestimation of time, for example, an inexperienced after-
dinner speaker always underestimates the time that he has talked.
But we need not say anything more about the judgment of the
flight of time, because that plays only a secondary role in music.
Everyone will, however, think of how differently the time passes
in a boring musical program from the way in which the time passes
in which the listener is on the verge of ecstasy in the appreciation of
music.
90
DURATION: TIME 91
Sensitivity to time differs from sensitivity to pitch, intensity,
and timbre in that there is no evidence to show that it depends
upon the structure of the ear under normal conditions. There are
very great individual differences in the capacity for hearing time,
but these differences are due to a large number of factors, such as
the capacity for differential attention, or, ear-mindedness, that is,
the tendency to live in a tonal world in which significance is at-
tached to the temporal aspects of sounds. This is characterized
as perhaps the most important factor in the capacity for imaging
the time value of tones and for remembering the time value of
sounds. We, therefore, attach no great significance to the measure-
ment of sensitivity to time but make large use of the discrimination
for time which we usually call the sense of time.
DISCRIMINATION: THE SENSE OP TIME
"The Sense of Time" record, in the Seashore Measures of
Musical Talent, illustrates a method and furnishes the means of
measuring this capacity. A series of time intervals are marked off by
clicks in which the differences of two compared intervals vary from
0.02 to 0.20 second, and the subject is asked to say which of the
two intervals is the longer. From the percentage of right answers
the centile rank is established, showing norms for adults and for
fifth- and eighth-grade children.
A common method in the laboratory is to vary the difference in
time intervals by increasing the magnitude and determining the
length of interval for which about 85 per cent of the answers are
right. This is spoken of as the threshold, or the limit for time dis-
crimination. It is found that a very fine musical ear may detect a
difference in the length of two notes as small as 0.01 second, whereas
another ear may require as much as 0.10 or 0.20 in order to hear
the difference. It is perfectly evident to anyone that these differ-
ences in the sense of time are very important determinants of what
a person can hear in music and the accuracy with which he can per-
form. Tempo rubato is one of the most important means that the
artist has for interpretation of music, and this depends upon the
ability to hear and the ability to produce fine shadings in time
in order to produce the desired modulation.
It is evident that these individual differences in the capacity for
hearing time are at the base of the capacity of feeling for time,
which plays such an extraordinary role in the enjoyment and the
92 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
production of music. A person with a fine sense of time tends to
feel the musical value of fine shadings in time corresponding to his
capacity for hearing them. The feeling aroused may be agreeable
or disagreeable. It tends to give rise to attitudes of attraction or
repulsion. In piano playing, for example, where time is one of the
only two media that the artist has for interpretation, we may say
roughly that half the feeling value for or against the musical
rendition hinges upon the role played by fine distinctions of time,
as, for example, in the asynchronization of chords, in the overlap-
ping of notes, and in all forms of artistic deviation from rigid time
or fixed tempo.
This is about all we need to say about time as a sensory capac-
ity. Of course, this capacity functions throughout music in countless
forms of perception, memory, imagination, feeling, and action.
Tempo, synchronization, rhythm, and all other forms of precision
or artistic deviation in terms of temporal aspects constitute at
least a good fourth of the content of the musical medium.
NORMAL ILLUSIONS OF TIME
The perception of time in music is subject to a great variety of
normal illusions. Aside from cases of mere incompetence and errors,
these subjective variables tend to follow natural laws and are,
therefore, predictable. In psychological measurement involving
time, such factors must be controlled. Psychologists have measured
scores of these illusions. But the significant thing for music is that
a very large part of the artistry in music lies in the utilization of
these principles. Without them, accent, rhythm, and phrasing
would be hopelessly sterile.
MOTILITY
Temporal activity will be discussed under various heads, such
as Rhythm, Tempo, and Time, which are analyzed in the actual
musical situations; but the problem of motility, which involves
various aspects of speed and accuracy in movement, underlies all
these. A person may be quick and accurate, quick and inaccurate,
slow and accurate, or slow and inaccurate in various degrees and
combinations.
In instrumental music, there is a natural limit to the speed a
musician can exhibit, and in this limit there are large individual
differences. The real significance for music, however, does not lie in
DURATION: TIME 93
the upper limit for speed of action, but rather in the fineness of the
control of time and action which is involved in musical interpreta-
tion. The problem for the musician is not so much, "How fast can I
move my fingers?" but rather, "How accurately can I make fine
time distinctions in the movement?"
Music is a form of "serial action"; that is, the time value of a
note depends upon its integration in the melodic and harmonic
progression. Therefore, measurement of skill and talent for time
must be validated in relation to the types of function that actually
occur in music. These may take countless forms. All our perform-
ance scores are measures of this sort. The record of an arpeggio at
high speed is a good measure. The complete record of artistic devia-
tion in time is by far the most significant. For specific purposes,
record of capacity for performance in metronomic time may also
have some value.
Motility represents one of the standard psychological measure-
ments of capacity. The test has been standardized by Ream, 107
and he has evaluated the extensive literature on the subject crit-
ically. The standard form of measurement is to tap with a finger on
a telegraph key which records the speed. A simpler way is merely to
tap with a minimum movement with a pencil held in the most
favorable position and count how many taps can be made in 5
seconds. But for practical purposes the test should be on a move-
ment which is identical with, or analogous to, the movement that is
to be predicted. Thus, for the prediction of speed of movement in
piano playing, the motility test might well be made by recording
the rate of tapping a piano key with one finger.
There is a slow improvement with practice. Ream found that, in
20 days of intensive practice in the act, the average for six normal
adults on the first day was 8.5 taps per second, and that this rose
gradually to 9.3 taps on the twentieth day. Men average one-half
tap per second faster than women. The rate of tapping increases
with age: age five, 3.8; age six, 4.4; age seven, 4.6; age eight, 5.5;
age nine, 5.8; age ten, 6.3.
Numerous investigations have been made of the relation of
motility to various forms of intelligence and efficiency in various
acts of practical skills in art and in industry. It is found that a
certain degree of prediction can be made if the measure of motility
takes the age and learning curves into account and is made in a
closely related form of movement; that is, for a particular type of
94 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
motion each individual manifests a natural capacity for speed of
action. In general, the correlation with intelligence in acts which
involve some degree of discrimination, choice, or deliberation is
fairly high; but for mere repetitive acts, such as tapping, it is low
or negligible.
Motility is not a simple phenomenon but a complex of such fac-
tors as rapidity, steadiness, precision, endurance, and strength of
movement. It has often been spoken of as a personal equation,
meaning the characteristic way in which a given individual can act.
It is obviously in evidence as a mark of temperament, physical
welfare, motivation, and skill and deserves the most careful con-
sideration in the selection and training of musical talent. The high-
est speed on reliable record for the simplest form of tapping is
about 12 taps per second, although rates as high as 15 have been
reported.
TIMBRE: WAVE FORM
THIS chapter and the next will deal with the broad subject of
tone quality. In nature and in art, we find an almost infinite
series of varieties of tone quality; and yet it is possible to discover in
them a fundamental and relatively simple basis for their classifica-
tion and description. Indeed, it is possible in the laboratory to
produce a million variations in the quality of a tone, any one of
which can be described in physical terms so accurately that it
can be reproduced with precision by a tone generator.
Tone quality has two fundamental aspects, namely, (1) timbre,
which is the simultaneous presence or fusion of the fundamental
and its overtones at a given moment, and (2) sonance, the suc-
cessive presence or fusion of changing timbre, pitch, and intensity
in a tone as a whole. The first may be called simultaneous fusion;
the second, successive. Each of these may be reduced to the con-
stituent factors which are recordable and measurable and, from
the physical point of view, represent the structure of the tone. The
present chapter will be devoted to the study of timbre and the
next to sonance. Chapter 17 is devoted entirely to illustrations
of the timbre of band and orchestral instruments and should,
therefore, be read in connection with the present chapter.
THE NATURE OF TIMBRE
Tones may occur in all degrees of complexity from a pure tone,
sounded by a tuning fork, up to the chaotic sound mass which we
call noise. In musical tones, there is a definite relationship among
the various groups of vibrations which give richness to the tone.
This relationship is well illustrated in the case of the violin string.
95
96 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
The open string vibrates as a whole. This represents the funda-
mental pitch of the tone. It also vibrates in a series of parts, each
part representing an overtone. Thus, a string vibrates in halves,
giving us the first overtone; it also vibrates in thirds, giving us the
second overtone. Each string also vibrates in four equal segments,
giving us the third overtone; and in five segments, giving us the
fourth overtone.
In this series, we notice the simple order that the first overtone
is twice the frequency of the fundamental; the second overtone is
three times, the third overtone is four times, the fourth overtone is
five times the frequency of the fundamental, etc. As we have seen in
Chap. 2, in physics we speak of the same phenomenon in terms of
partials. If the partials are in a harmonic series they may be spoken
of as harmonics. Since the fundamental is called the first partial in
physics, each partial is always one number higher than the cor-
responding overtone. The ordinal number of a partial always cor-
responds with the number of segments vibrating for a given
frequency; whereas, the ordinal number of an overtone corresponds
with the number of nodes in the string or other vibrating media.
A tone is rich according to the relative number and prominence
of overtones. The beauty of the violin consists mainly in the rich-
ness and balance of its overtones. This may be illustrated with a
series of tuning forks which are tuned in a harmonic series in which
each fork represents a partial. We can vary the tone by varying the
number of forks sounded and the degree of force applied to each
fork. When we take an oscillogram of any such tone, analysis will
tell us which forks were sounded and how loud each fork was in
relation to the total tone.
Insofar as we are dealing with a musical tone, aside from its
accessory noises or other disturbing elements, we have a simple
system which enables us to speak quantitatively in terms of these
components, employing exact and definable terminology. Be it the
tone of the prima donna, the harp, the drum, the sighing of the
wind, or the hum of the motor, it is described adequately by stat-
ing the components which may be derived by an analysis of the
form of the sound wave.
In general, we may say that, aside from accessory noises and
inharmonic elements, the timbre of a tone depends upon (1) the
number of harmonic partials present, (2) the relative location or
locations of these partials in the range from the lowest to the high-
TIMBRE: WAVE FORM 97
est, and (3) the relative strength or dominance of each partial.
We have, thus, not only a faithful photograph of the sound wave,
immediately verifiable and identifiable, but also a quantitative
analysis of its components and, therefore, a language which be-
comes the basis for musical terminology that is exact, verifiable,
and uniform for all lands and times.
Putting all these facts together, we obtain a definition of timbre
as follows: Timbre is that characteristic of a tone which depends
upon its harmonic structure as modified by absolute pitch and
total intensity. The harmonic structure is expressed in terms of the
number, distribution, and relative intensity of its partials. Recent
experiments show that we must also take phase relations into
account. Physically the timbre of the tone is a cross section of the
tone quality for the moment represented by the duration of one
vibration in the sound.
This array of facts may seem appalling, but, if examined in
detail, the scheme is found to be comparatively simple, convincing,
and complete. Compare this scientific procedure with the conven-
tional use of terms descriptive of tone quality, even in the most
serious instruction or musical criticism! Our terminology must be
lifted out of the chaos which now prevails in the direction of a more
and more scientific terminology for the art.
HARMONIC ANALYSIS
As was intimated in Chap. 2, we can intercept any sound wave
with a device called an "oscillograph" and by its use secure a
faithful and detailed picture of the form of the wave. The harmonic
structure, as just explained, is obtained by accurate measurements
upon the form of such a wave. It is based upon a mathematical
formula called Fourier's theorem.
It has long been known that the form of a sound wave can be
analyzed into its harmonic components. This is a broad principle
applying to the analysis of the waves of the ocean, periodicity in
the movement of the heavenly bodies, and the hum of machinery.
But we are here concerned with the musical tone. Those who are
interested in the technicalities of this measurement must turn to
treatises on that subject. Suffice it to say that modern science has
devised mechanical instruments which make this analysis of the
sound wave more or less automatically.
98
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
It is only in recent years that the oscillograph has been per-
fected so as to produce a faithful wave form, suitable for accurate
TABLE I. COMPARISON OF
PERCENTAGE OF ENERGY AND
DECIBEL VALUE IN ONE WAVE OF A
VIOLIN TONE, 196 ~, FURNISHING
DATA FOR FIGS. 1, 2a, AND 26.*
Number Percentage Decibel
of partials of energy value
Frequency
196
392
588
784
980
1176
1372
1568
1764
1960
2156
2352
2548
2744
2940
3136
3332
3528
3724
3920
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
1
26
45 2
8 8
8 5
4 5
1
4 8
0.1
1
2
1
0.0
1 1
1
2
99 9
24 2
26 6
19 5
19 3
16 5
1 3
16 8
0.6
*
1 3
*
2 4
10 4
2 6
Fio. 1. Dominant partials in a violin
tone (see Table I).
1
?
?
1
I . _ .-0
-_.
?
.
*1~
L
1 345 67891 I 342 34 567891 2 3 4
00 1000 200 1000
C, C 4 Ci C 6 C 7 C 3 C 4 C 5 C C
FIG. 2a. Tone spectrum in terms FIG. 26. Tone spectrum in terms
of percentage of energy.
of decibel values.
recording and measurement. This accounts for the fact that we
know so infinitesimally little about the quality of tones. Work also
* The partials marked * in the table fall below the 30 db range. The short partials
representing them, therefore, merely indicate the presence of relatively insignificant
partials.
TIMBRE: WAVE FORM 99
has been delayed because the analysis of a single wave in accord-
ance with the mathematical theorem is extremely elaborate and
time consuming.
There are now various forms of analyzers on the market. Of
these the Henrici harmonic analyzer illustrated in the frontispiece
is perhaps the best. In a nutshell, the process of harmonic analysis
involves the following steps: Sound waves are recorded from a
high-speed oscillograph on a moving-picture film. From this film
a desired wave is selected and enlarged to the length of
40 centimeters by means of a projection apparatus. This enlarged
wave form is laid on the platform in front of the analyzer and the
experimenter moves a tracing point over the exact contour of the
wave. As this is done, the machine accumulates on a series of dials
a record of the presence of each partial in figures from which the
exact amount of energy in each partial may be computed.
The principle of harmonic analysis may be illustrated in a
concrete case represented in Fig. 1. The top wave is a tracing of a
single wave in the oscillogram for a violin tone on the open G
string played with medium intensity. The great irregularity in this
wave is an indication of the prominence of its overtones. This
wave was analyzed up to 20 partials.
The third column in Table I shows the percentage of energy in
each partial. If we disregard those partials which carry only 1 per
cent or less of the energy as relatively insignificant, there remain
seven which are the components that in the main determine the
timbre of the tone. Thus, even the first partial, the fundamental, is
relatively insignificant and the body of the tone lies in seven
partials. These seven are represented in the individual curves
below the original wave. The number of each partial is indicated at
the left, and the relative amount of energy is indicated by the rela-
tive amplitude of each wave. We may think of the total tone as
being made up of so many partials sounded together as individual
pure tones.
Figure 2a is a graphic representation of the data in the third
column of Table I in the form of a tone spectrum in which each
vertical bar indicates the percentage of energy in a given partial in
terms of the height of the bar. Circles indicate the absence of a
partial; frequencies are given at the bottom.
However, for the purpose of psychology of music and acoustics
in general, the graphs become more significant if they are expressed
100 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
in terms of decibels instead of percentage of energy, because the
unit of decibels is on a logarithmic scale and indicates degree of
perceptibility. The fourth column of Table I gives the decibel values
corresponding to the data in column three. These are represented in
the spectrum of 26. In this figure the plat of the spectrum is laid out
for a scale of 30 db, in which the intensity of the partial is repre-
sented by the height of the bar above an arbitrary reference level,
indicated by the base line. If there should be only one partial
present, the height of that bar would present the magnitude of
total intensity for the tone.
For practical purposes, all the reader needs to think of is that
the significance of a partial is expressed in terms of the relative
height of a bar.
Here, then, we have in the table and the three figures a fairly
complete picture of the timbre of the tone under consideration.
Figure 1 shows how the form of a sound wave is determined by the
number, the distribution, the intensity, and the phase relationships
of the component partials. The difference between spectra 2a and
26 is that the former represents percentage of physical energy of a
partial, whereas the latter represents the degree of perceptibility
of each partial. The two spectra differ very materially in the propor-
tions of the partials. In 26, partial 17 is given considerable signif-
icance, and the thirteenth and the nineteenth partials gather a
higher rating than in 2a. It is evident that the degree of perceptibil-
ity in terms of decibels is more significant than in the percentage of
energy. The decibel type of spectrum will be used in the following
chapters.
In the early stages of our work in the psychology of music, we
fully realized the importance of exact measurement of timbre but
said for many years that we could pass that up for the next genera-
tion. In the last few years, however, the development of the
oscillograph, with microphones that give a linear response, and the
improvement of harmonic analyzers have opened up this field. It is
the most fascinating of all fields in the psychology of music, for
exact scientific work which has the most far-reaching significance in
the understanding of music, musical education, the evaluation and
construction of musical instruments, and musical criticism. It
certainly is one of four cornerstones of the psychology of musical
esthetics. But for the reason stated, this is all a virgin field, quite
TIMBRE: WAVE FORM 101
uncharted but certain to be explored and possessed by the musical
world in the immediate future.
Fundamentally, all musical instruments, including the human
voice, tend to produce tones composed of a series of partials whether
the tone originates from a string, a reed, a column of air, or any
other sound-producing movement. Ordinarily, however, the pure
harmonic structure is supplemented by accessory noises and in-
harmonic elements which add to the quality of the tone. These,
such as the accessory noises accompanying a piano tone or the
rasping of the violin bow, may in turn be measured and added to
our description of the timbre of the tone.
To be able to describe a tone in terms of such procedure repre-
sents a great achievement and triumph for the science of music,
but even with the best of instruments it is a slow procedure. It
is not necessary that the musician perform this experiment, or even
that he should understand the mathematics and physics underlying
the principle. What is essential for the musician is that he should
acquire a clean-cut concept of the structure of the tone and that he
should learn to think of a rich musical tone in terms of partials,
that is, the number present, their distribution, and their relative
intensities. When such terminology is once accepted, his trained ear
may enable him to hear and name the dominant characteristics of
a tone. To lay foundations for this type of understanding and
terminology we shall consider a series of illustrations from instru-
ments and voice in later chapters.
SYNTHETIC TONES
Harmonic tones of any timbre may be produced by the Iowa tone
generator recently designed by Larsen and Kurtz. 63 ' 72 This is not the
place for a technical account of the construction of a tone generator;
but it may be pointed out that with this specific generator we can
produce thousands of different tones and for each one we can say
exactly what is the fundamental frequency, what partials are pres-
ent, what percentage of energy is in each partial, what is the phase
relationship of each wave. Such a generator may be thought of as
producing one note in an electrical organ in which each key of the
organ may have the resources that this generator has for a single
tone. A series of stops have been designed to control for each key
as many types of tonal timbre as may be desired.
102 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
TIMBRE DISCRIMINATION: THE SENSE OF TIMBRE
As a result of the developments just described, we now are able
to produce and standardize measurements of talent for the hearing
of timbre differences and natural capacity for rendering timbre
musically.
The "Sense of Timbre" record in the new series of Measures of
Musical Talent is designed for tests in schools and other groups to
determine quickly what centile rank in the sense of timbre each
person tested can gain. Preliminary tests indicate that there will be
large individual differences, perhaps comparable to those in the
sense of pitch, but the test may not be quite so elemental as the
measurements for pitch and intensity.
TONE QUALITY: SONANGE
THE term "sonance" was coined in our music laboratory in order
to provide a specific name for the successive changes and fusions
which take place within a tone from moment to moment. It was
first used by Metfessel. 62 The need and significance of such a con-
cept had not been fully realized before objective analysis of tones
was undertaken.
ANALOGY IN MOVING PICTURES
We may illustrate the nature of sonance through an analogy.
Suppose we throw on the screen a single picture at the rate of 20 or
30 exposures per second; the picture we see then will stand still
and have every appearance of being a single continuous picture
because the successive snapshots fuse. If, then, we project a series
of pictures of objects in motion under the same conditions, the suc-
cessive snapshots will again fuse; and the resulting picture will
reproduce the actual motion of the object. At no moment do we see
any single exposure.
The position, form, color, and even relief may be reproduced
true to life as a result of the fusion of impressions in the eye.
The same principle of fusion appears in hearing. In tonal hear-
ing, successive waves come so fast that they cannot be heard as
individual waves; that is, we cannot separate the timbre or the
pitch or the intensity in one wave from that in the next wave by
hearing. The result is that they fuse and for a given period of time,
the mean period for clear perception, we hear a resultant pitch,
intensity, or timbre which tends to be an average for what is repre-
sented in the series of waves that can be grasped in one moment of
perception. The timbre of a tone corresponds to the single instan-
108
104 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
taneous picture; sonance corresponds to the picture progression.
Let us examine a few typical cases in order to learn the significance
of this principle.
TYPES OF SONANCE
Sonance in the vibrato. In Chap. 4 we learned that no good
singer ever sings in steady pitch. The most outstanding ornament
is the vibrato. The tone shows a periodic oscillation in frequency
covering, for example, a half tone in extent at the rate of 6 or 7
times per second; yet we hear in it a relatively even pitch. This
pitch represents an approximate average between the extremes in
the pulsation and is the result of the tendency of successive vibrato
waves to fuse.
The same principle applies to the intensity pulsations and tim-
bre pulsations in the same sound. We tend to hear a unified, single,
fairly steady tone which is, however, the resultant of a very com-
plicated series of pulsations. We hear a rich, musical, and fairly
steady tone which, through the pulsation, acquires the three char-
acteristic tone qualities of flexibility, richness, and tenderness.
Sonance in erratic fluctuations. In the typical performance
scores shown in this volume the fluctuation of pitch and intensity
is smoothed out so as to show approximately what we hear.
In very detailed recording an oscillogram shows large and
irregular differences in the length (reciprocal of frequency) of
successive sound waves, both for voice and for instrument. The more
detailed, the more ragged the record will appear. Instead of bring-
ing this out in performance scores, our recording instruments and
the methods of reading are so adapted as to smooth out these wave-
to-wave fluctuations and give us a graph which corresponds ap-
proximately to what is significant musically and what is heard as
pitch. This roughness in frequency, however, contributes to sonance
as the quality of a tone varies with the degree of roughness.
Sonance in progressive change. There is a third type of fusion
which tends to blot out fast progressive changes in the pitch,
intensity, or timbre of a tone which are not periodic. The fusion in
this case is analogous to the fusion of the vibrato, except that we
are not hearing a periodic change which has musical merit, but
rather an erratic intonation or rough tone within a narrow range.
The result is that we may credit a tone with being correct in each
of the three elements while objective analysis will show that there is
TONE QUALITY: SONANCE 105
a great variety of minor changes from moment to moment in the
tone.
Another aspect of the same principle is shown in the case of
progressive change which we note, for example, in the songs here
recorded. There may be a gradual simple or complex rise or fall
in pitch or in intensity which is clearly heard as such. Although
the objective record shows rough jags in both pitch and intensity
curves, these are blotted out, and what we hear is the general
rising or falling tendency in the mass of the tone as a whole.
The same principle applies to intensity : the intensity fluctuates
from wave to wave in various degrees, but, in the recording and
graphing of performance, we have retained only as much of this
roughness as is significant for the hearing of the intensity of the
tone. Yet the degree of roughness of this sort is a significant de-
terminant of the tone quality of sonance. The same principle
applies also to timbre irregularities.
SONANCE IN ATTACK, RELEASE,
AND PORTAMENTO
Figure 1 shows a group of typical attacks of vocal tones in
intonation. Here not only the vibrato and the wave-to-wave ir-
regularity but a steep rising or falling of the body of the tone as a
whole is a striking characteristic. All these changes tend to fuse, so
that if the attack is short the tone is heard as if attacked on an
even pitch or intensity; but if it is comparatively long, what we
hear is a clear-cut rapid rise or fall of the mass of the tone as a
whole.
The principles here illustrated for the attack apply also to
the portamento, as has been shown by Harold Seashore 1 for voice
and by Small m for violin. They apply also to the release that
becomes a part of the portamento. But the free release of a tone
tends to be relatively even, that is, free from a glide, although
there is a tendency toward a downward glide.
A very interesting adaptation has taken place in the evolution
of the attack. Lewis and Cowan* took phonograph records of
attacks like those in Fig. 1, varying in length and duration of the
glide, and reversed them so that the gliding attack became a
release and the even release became an attack. The musically
acceptable glide at the beginning of the tone became utterly
intolerable when placed at the end of the tone. This experiment
106
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
opens a very fertile field for the investigation of reasons for adap-
tive or habitual hearing.
A
f
n
I
J t
'A \
/,
R
/
It"
I
/
7 8 9
Fio. 1. Types of vocal attack. (M tiler*)
The dash line shows the form of the average gliding attack for each song; the dot line
the average form for all these songs. The top curve represents the shortest sweep of attack;
the lower, the longest sweep. The horizontal heavy dash line at the top represents the true
pitch of the main body of the tone as approached by either the smallest or the largest
glide. Horizontal spaces represent time in 0.1 second, and the vertical spaces represent
pitch in 0.1 tone.
1, Alma Gluck; 2, Frances Alda; 3, Rosa Ponselle; 4 and 5, Galli-Curci; 6, 7, 8, and 9,
Enrico Caruso; 10, Theodore de Lay.
Sonanoe in subjective tones. As we saw in Chap. 5, subjective
tones play an important part in musical hearing. These shift in
TONE QUALITY: SONANCE
107
5 7 9 II 13 17 19 2J 23 25 27 29 31 33 3& 37
FIG. 2. The harmonic structure of a beautiful tone. (Borchers. 9 )
108 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
both pitch and intensity in the same manner as the actual physical
frequencies of their generators change. That is particularly con-
spicuous in a subjective fundamental, where the physical funda-
mental is low or practically absent and yet the pitch of the
fundamental of the tone is clear and understandable.
Sonance in timbre. What has been said so far pertains to pitch
or intensity in a pure tone, or in a tone as a whole. When we recall
that a musical tone ordinarily is rich in overtones, we realize that
here sonance grows exceedingly complicated, as in Fig. 2. The
complexity of the pitch and intensity sonance is here revealed,
in that each of the simultaneous overtones behaves like a free tone
in itself. This timbre change may be periodic as in the vibrato.
It may be erratic in various ways, and it may also be progressive
in various ways. This presents the most significant sonance musi-
cally. It is particularly noticeable in the progressive changes within
a vocal tone which we shall now examine in some detail.
We are now in a position to sum up, in some concrete pictures,
the nature and significance of these various aspects of sonance,
which may be defined as follows: sonance is that aspect of tone
quality which results from fluctuations in pitch, intensity, time,
and timbre within a tone.
THE INSIDE OF A VOCAL TONE
Figure 2 is a most faithful and elaborate picture of the inside of
a tone. It shows what happens within a tone for a third of a second.
Let us enumerate its features.
The pitch vibrato. The tone represents two vibrato cycles in
pitch moving between 103 and 112^, giving us an extent of 0.7 of a
tone. Since this tone lasts a third of a second, the rate is about six
pulsations per second. Each of the zigzag lines below the base line
for total intensity represents a partial, of which there are 18 repre-
sented, each indicated by its number. Now, since a harmonic
partial is always a definite multiple of the fundamental, it follows
that, if we were representing the pitch vibrato in each partial, we
would get exactly the same curve as for the fundamental; that is,
each partial would have a pitch pulsation 0.7 of a tone in extent
and at the rate of six pulsations per second.
The graph for each partial being exactly the same as that given
at the top for the fundamental, which is the same as for the tone as
a whole, it would have cluttered our figure to draw in all these
TONE QUALITY: SONANCE 109
identical graphs. The reader is, therefore, asked to imagine the com-
plete system of pitch vibratos in these cycles by remembering that
they are present in every partial. The situation is the same as if 18
individual pure tones were played simultaneously with the same
vibrato. This gives us an enriched conception of the harmonious
movements of every partial in the production of a pitch vibrato in a
clear tone.
Relative dominance of partials. The tonal intensity of the tone
is represented by the first line marked total intensity, that is, the
loudness of the tone as a whole. In order to simplify the presenta-
tion, a tone was selected in which the total intensity is relatively
even and in which there is no intensity vibrato.
The intensity level of each partial is inversely proportional to
its distance away from the zero line, which represents total inten-
sity; that is, the intensity of a partial is represented by the number
of decibels by which it is less intense than the tone as a whole. The
numbers at the left show for each partial the mean level of the
intensity for that partial for the duration of a third of a second, as
just stated in terms of how many db it is weaker than the tone as a
whole. The up-and-down zigzag in each partial shows the fluctua-
tion in intensity during this third of a second. Only the odd-num-
bered waves in the tone were analyzed. The numbers at the bottom
represent the assigned numbers of these.
Let us notice first the relative dominance of the partials. The
sixth partial is the strongest. Next to that is the ninth and next to
that the fifth. These three dominate and give the general character
to the tone. Then follow the second and third partials. The first
partial, which is the fundamental of the tone, holds sixth place;
that is, it is not prominent. Below these follow in order the weaker
partials as numbered. The lower down below the mean intensity a
partial is, the less it contributes toward this total intensity. Yet all
are significantly present.
The intensity vibrato. As just stated, we selected a tone which
had no intensity vibrato in the tone as a whole. Yet some of the
curves for these partials show a distinct intensity vibrato. The tenth
partial, for example, represents a marked rise and fall for each
vibrato cycle. The twenty-fifth partial is the reverse, falling and
rising for each vibrato cycle. The thirtieth partial parallels the
tenth, and the twenty-fourth parallels the twenty-fifth; the fifth
parallels the twenty-fifth, and the seventh parallels the tenth.
110 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
It is this pairing of the intensity vibratos in the partials that
obliterates the effect of the intensity vibrato on the tone as a
whole. It is clear, therefore, that while the tone as a whole is of
even intensity some of its partials show very distinct intensity
vibratos, and the even intensity of the tone as a whole is accounted
for by the opposition among pairs of the partials. An intensity
vibrato in a rich tone results when a number of the leading partials
are in the same phase and, therefore, cooperate instead of
counteract.
Changing spectra. To simplify the figure we analyzed only every
other wave, the odd numbered. The spectrum for each of these
waves, as numbered at the bottom, is seen by the intersection of the
partial line with the vertical line above the number designating the
wave. Bear in mind that the relative strength of each partial is
designated by the number of db by which it is weaker than the
total intensity of the tone. It is easy to imagine a bar spectrum in
which the sixth partial is the longest, the ninth the next, and so on,
down to the higher partials, which represent comparatively small
amounts of energy. For each of these spectra we know the funda-
mental pitch, the pitch of each partial, and the relative amount of
energy in each partial.
The meaning of sonance. To return to our analogy of moving
pictures, each of these spectra represents an instantaneous picture
defining the timbre of the tone at that point. The progressive
change of spectra from wave to wave represents the character and
the movement of all the elements which fuse, just as form and
movement are expressed in a moving picture. Therefore, in order to
give a complete description of the quality of a tone it is evident
that we must know the spectrum of each wave at representative
stages and the character of the change in spectra which takes place
for the duration of the tone.
This is not all that our picture shows, but it is enough to indi-
cate what sort of questions a musician may ask and answer in
terms of this type of analysis. To repeat, our simplified scheme is
this: in our experience of hearing and feeling of tone, the sonance
depends upon the three factors of pitch, intensity, and timbre in
the change from wave to wave and from vibrato cycle to vibrato
cycle. In a secondary way, we might add to these factors the rate of
change. The psychological result of a complex situation of this
kind we may call a "tonal band," consisting of a certain range or
TONE QUALITY: SONANCE 111
massiveness of pitch, intensity, and timbre changes, with vanishing
and irregular fringes of each. When, as in this case, 18 variable
tones impinge upon the physical ear, we do not hear the details, but
we hear tone quality. This tone quality may be either musically
agreeable or disagreeable. If the changes are strong and irregular,
we get the quality of roughness. If they are smooth and moderate,
we may get the qualities of flexibility, tenderness, and richness of
tone.
There are two outstanding aspects of this phenomenon of
sonance, one of mental economy and the other esthetic. The fusion
which we have described represents economy in perception. We
have developed the power to preserve enough detail of irregularities
in a tone to give it musical unity. Nature has been satisfied with
this power, although it is quite conceivable that the human mind
should have developed the power to hear in detail a very large por-
tion of these irregularities in tone. The other aspect is that this
phenomenon is necessary in order to give the tone its beauty as a
musical meaning. The habitual perception of fine details would
take the most desirable musical quality out of tone. Sonance is,
therefore, in the process of evolution, a result of the principle
of economy in perception and the adaptation of these economies
to the demands of beauty and efficiency in music and speech.
WHAT IS IN A NAME?
It is recommended that musicians scrap a mass of the current
synonyms for tone quality, because these words do not connote any
demonstrable differences in content. The diversity of words simply
adds to the confusion. "Tone quality" is a term which is adequate
and clearly defined, and has the same meaning in music and all the
sciences of tone. When we wish to distinguish between its two as-
pects, a cross section of the tone and the whole tone, we have the
two adequately defined terms, "timbre" and "sonance"; but for
most musical purposes in daily use, the generic term, "tone quality,"
should be used in the technical sense of sonance.
SONANCE IN SPEECH
Musicians would find very illuminating reading in the elaborate
recordings of artistic speech by Cowan. 14 Figure 3 is a fair sample.
In order to realize its significance, it is suggested that this speech be
read aloud without any thought of, or reference to, the graph, and
112
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
that each word and phrase be repeated for direct comparison be-
tween hearing and the speech performance score. This record is full
of exceedingly interesting information, but at this point it is
<
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FIG. 3. Record of the speech from The Judgment Day by Josephine Victor. (Cowan. 1 *)
The pitch, time, and intensity record in this graph is analogous to a performance
score in music.
introduced only to show how sonance operates in beautiful speech.
Aside from tone quality, beauty in speech consists in large part of
fine pitch inflection and dynamic expression in rhythmic measure
TONE QUALITY: SONANCE 113
with effective pauses, all represented in the graph. The observation
suggested will reveal that we do not hear the numerous fine pitch
and intensity fluctuations represented in the graph. We hear a
smooth inflection of pitch and smooth points of emphasis in inten-
sity. Yet these graphs, like our music graphs, are already smoothed
so as to eliminate the roughness represented by fluctuations from
wave to wave.
From this dynamic record it is easy to see its analogy in song.
In artistic qualities they are parallel and closely related; but the
fusion which takes place is greater in speech than in music, because
ordinarily speech is more rapid.
NATURE OF THE VOWEL IN MUSIC AND SPEECH
/-
was intimated in Chap. 2, music and speech invglve funda-
mentally the same problems, with but minor adaptations^/Measure-
ments are made with the same instruments, by the same techniques,
and in the same attitude toward science and art. Recognition of this
fact has enabled us to effect many economies, to secure cooperative
attitudes between departments, and to deepen our insight into the
larger problem of the acoustic arts. Of this sort of participation,
the^tudy of the vowel is a good illustration.
(jhe problem of the vowel is entirely a problem of tone quality.
Whether it be in song or in speech, it is the vowel that furnishes
the body of the quality of the sound. The vowel is, however, more
sustained in music than in speech. In the remainder of this chapter
we shall touch upon some of the fundamental aspects of the science
of vowels. ^
Timbre and sonance in a vowel. Black 8 studied the pronuncia-
tion of the vowel "o " as pronounced in the word "top" in a con-
versational tone. In Fig. 4, we have the result of the effort of the
same speaker to pronounce the vowel twice in the same way. This
method of graphing was devised by Tiffin. In Fig. 5, we have com-
parative results of the pronunciation of the same vowel by two
different speakers. In other words, we have here four pictures of the
overtone structure, that is, the harmonic constitution of the same
vowel under the conditions named.
Let us first consider the timbre. Each slanting line with its
upright riders is a tone spectrum of the wave indicated by number
at the bottom. The height of the vertical lines indicates the relative
prominence of each of the respective partials represented in terms
114
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
of decibels. In other respects the terminology in these figures is self-
explanatory. In terms of these spectra we can see exactly what the
structure of the vowel was from wave to wave.
The sonance is expressed in the progressive change in the
timbre of these spectra in successive waves from the beginning of
the vowel to the end. No two spectra are alike, yet there is an
orderly progression from wave to wave.
3000
2000
100
5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14
BL-I WE NUMBER
Fio. 4 Timbre and sonance in a vowel; same vowel spoken twice by the same person.
(Black*)
The principal lesson contained in these pictures is the fact that,
in terms of the timbre spectrum of each wave and the progressive
change from wave to wave in sonance, we have a complete descrip-
tion of this vowel in terms of which definitions may be formulated.
In an elementary way, these two figures show that probably no
person can repeat the same vowel exactly the same way and no
two persons can express the same vowel even after the best of
efforts of standardization through phonetic definitions. Numerous
TONE QUALITY: SONANCE
115
other factors are illustrated in these graphs; but they must serve as
merely samples of materials that may be treated statistically in
analytical and qualitative terms. It will be very interesting to
study graphs of this kind for each of the phonetic elements of
each of the recognized variants of each vowel. Such studies will
solve many of the profound mysteries about the vowel in music and
speech and will have an immensely practical value in these arts.
3000
2000
oo -f
23456
3000,
2000,
78 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 '
BA WAVE NUMBER
3000
2000
100
7 5 9 10 II 12 13
WAVE NUMBER
IOO
D 16 17 E '
Q 5 Timbre and sonance in a vowel, the same vowel spoken by two persons. (Black. 9 )
THE PROBLEM OF FORMANT REGIONS
These pictures of the harmonic constitution of the vowel
suggest that the distinction among all variants of each vowel is
probably to be found in the number, location, and relative domi-
nance of f ormants or f ormant regions, due consideration being given
to fundamental pitch and total intensity and progressive change of
the sound. There has been a long-standing controversy in regard
to the nature and the stability of these formants in the vowels. In
116
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
the older discussion, one party contended that each vowel has a
fixed formant pattern which simply moves up or down with funda-
mental pitch. The other party contended that there are fixed for-
mant regions due to resonance characteristics of the vocal cavities.
The most recent investigations reveal a reasonable compromise
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DO 100 1000 1200" 1400"lWO "WOO 2000 2200 2400 200 2800 1000 J200 J400 JMO M0 400
FIG. 6. Formant regions. (Lewis?*)
between the two contentions, the tendency being more in favor of
the latter assumption. Some significance is also attached to the
presence of inharmonic elements in the vowel. The current work of
Lewis may be taken to illustrate some elements and some findings
in the problem. Figure 6 shows the record of a trained baritone
singer intoning five different vowels at the frequency of Ai. The
TONE QUALITY: SONANCE 117
recording was done in the dead room and therefore is free from
room resonance and outside sounds.
Frequency is given at the bottom and intensity at the side. Each
dot represents one measurement. A smooth line is drawn through
groups of these dots which seems to represent the peaks which we
call resonant regions from the point of view of the resonators in the
oral cavities, or formants from the point of view of the physical
spectrum of the sound. The peak lines here used in attempting to
get the best fit are, of course, merely "best approximations'* by
direct inspection to aid the eye in the identification of the peaks.
The legend Fr 320^, for example, indicates that the apex of this
first formant in the first tone is at about 320 ~. The DF is a tech-
nical measure which indicates the damping constant of the reso-
nator. The zero for the decibel scale is an arbitrarily chosen mean
intensity value from which decibels are indicated above and below.
With this orientation, we may see what this chart shows about
the vowels. It so happens that each vowel has five formant regions,
although there are two somewhat doubtful regions in the third
vowel, namely, a third and a sixth. These regions are somewhat
differently distributed for the different vowels. Only one formant,
the fourth, at 3,200 ~, is fairly fixed, as is indicated by the straight
vertical column of these peaks. The first region varies from 320 in
the first tone to 640 in the third tone, and the fifth region varies in
about the same degree. The prominent second region in the first
vowel and in the second vowel is absent in the other three vowels.
In the last three vowels the second region is closer to the first. With
possible theories in mind, the scientists will observe many other
significant features in these records. The assumption underlying
these figures is that the vocal cords generate the complex tone and
that those groups of partials which fall within the natural resonance
region of the oral cavity will be intensified. Variations of this sort
would be expected even if we had a perfect series of resonators, but
from this we should not conclude that the resonating regions in
the vocal mechanism are fixed.
But the main thing that stands out in this illustration is the
fact that the character of the vowel is determined primarily by the
number, the position, the width, and the relative intensities of its
formants.
This sample of a record illustrates the procedure which is
being followed in trying to solve the problem of formant regions
118 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
with all the intricate issues, theoretical and practical, involved
therein. The problem of the vowel is simplified and brought under
experimental control in this manner by our fundamental recogni-
tion of the fact that we have to deal with only the four attributes
of the sound wave. The leading issues will hinge upon the roles of
frequency, intensity, and time in the determination of formants
which characterize each vowel. Let us see an example of what can
be accomplished by varying the frequency and the intensity under
control in an experiment.
DEPENDENCE OF HARMONIC STRUCTURE UPON
FUNDAMENTAL PITCH AND TOTAL INTENSITY
IN THE VOWEL
This problem was recently approached concurrently by Laase 11
and Stout, 1 * 1 one studying the spoken vowel and the other the sung
vowel under analogous conditions. In order to make the results
comparable, they proceeded by the same techniques of measure-
ments and employed the same three vowels "AH," "EE," and "OO"
recognized as the vowels placed at the corners of the vowel triangle
by phoneticians. Trained speakers and musicians were employed as
subjects. From Laase's 71 work we may take a sample illustration
of the vowel "AH" pronounced like "o" in the word "top." Figure
7 is by this time self-explanatory.
Laase summarizes his harmonic analysis of 270 sound waves
taken from 54 separate phonations representing 18 conditions of
phonation for each of three subjects as follows:
1. Increases in intensity, pitch constant, are accompanied
in every instance by increases in the percentage of energy in the
higher partials.
2. Increases in pitch, intensity constant, with but three
exceptions in 54 phonations, are accompanied by an increase
in the amount of energy in the fundamental and a decrease in
some of the higher partials.
3. There is a tendency for the number of energy regions to
increase with a rise in intensity, pitch constant, and to decrease
with a rise in pitch, intensity constant. This tendency may or
may not be a function of these two variables.
4. The unsystematic action of the fundamental in successive
waves seems to be related to the counteracting effects of increases
in pitch and intensity.
TONE QUALITY: SONANCE
119
.5. The amount of energy in the fundamental seems to be
more a function of the vowel than of either pitch or intensity.
The fundamental is relatively less intense for the vowel "AH"
SUBJECT Cf - VOWEL IN *TOP' - LOW
PITCH A 1
a s 7 9 11
J S 7 11
NUMBER Of WAVE
S 11 14 11
SUBJECT OF - VOWEL IM 'TOP* - SOFT
PITCH 4 1
SENSATION LEVEL 51 51 49 49 48
1 OB.
PITCH - D 2
46 4T 46 47 4$
4 6 10 12
S a 11 14 17
S S 7 9 11
NUMBER OF WAVE
FIG. 7. The effect of variations in pitch, intensity constant, and variations in inten-
sity, pitch constant, on the harmonic composition of the vowel "AH" for subject GF.
than in the vowels "EE" and "OO" in which it is frequently the
most intense partial in the wave.
6. No systematic variation was found in the direction of
shift of the energy regions as a function of either pitch or inten-
sity, indicating that the location of the energy regions is probably
120
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
more a function of the use of the resonators than of either pitch or
intensity.
7. The characteristic energy regions found for the vowels in
this study agree within limits with those reported by other
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FIG. 8. The variation of harmonic constitution with pitch. (Stout. 196 )
investigators. The characteristic energy regions for "EE" and
"00" were very similar except for a difference in the amount of
energy above 2,000 ~.
TONE QUALITY: SONANCE 121
8. As many as five energy regions were found in a number
of the waves analyzed, suggesting the presence of five distinct
vocal resonators which may influence the distribution of energy
in any given phonation. There was no evidence to support the
presence of fixed resonance regions from vowel to vowel.
9. The results tend to indicate that there can be considerable
variation in the composition of the spoken vowel and the char-
acter of the vowel still be clearly recognizable.
Stout, 187 working under similar conditions with vocal tones
which involved the vibrato, represented his results on the plan
devised by Lewis. 78 Figure 8 is a sample of his record for the effect
of varying pitch. Similar records were made for the effect of varying
intensity. It is interesting to compare the findings on the sung vowel
with the findings about the spoken vowel. We therefore quote
Stout 9 s summary as follows:
The results of the present study indicate (1) that the most
important change in the harmonic structure of the vowels "AH,"
"OO" and "EE" which accompanies an increase in intensity,
pitch remaining constant, is an enhancement of the relative
importance of the partials lying above the frequency 1,800~; (2)
that this enhancement is greatest at the low pitch for the vowel
"AH," greatest at the high pitch for vowel "EE" and about the
same at all three pitches studied for vowel "OO"; (3) that the
increase in total intensity is very slight for the vowel "AH,"
considerably more for the vowel "OO" and greatest for the vowel
" EE." There were other changes which did not appear consistent
enough to warrant any general statements.
The results of the study also indicate (1) that the most
important change in the harmonic structure of the vowels "AH,"
"OO," and "EE" that occurs with a rise in pitch, intensity re-
maining constant, is a decrease in the relative intensity of the
partials lying above the frequency 1,800^; (2) that the contours
outlining the intensity areas at frequencies 600 to 800 ~ and
1,000 to 1,200~ for the vowel "AH" appear to become less
definitely two contours, the higher the pitch, until at the highest
pitch they appear to have merged into one large contour; (3)
that in the case of all three vowels, the fundamental appears to
absorb a considerable part of the energy which has shifted from
the high frequency regions to the low.
122
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
That there is no consistent change in frequency location of
the major intensity areas with either an increase in total inten-
LOUONESS IN AUDIENCE S
B
e e is
CONVCRSATIM
LLLULLUJ
3 e n 2/ e 10 w a
FIG. 9. Acoustic spectra and total intensity level under the three conditions named
(Talley.)
sity or a rise in pitch is quite definitely indicated by the results of
this study.
TONE QUALITY: SONANCE 123
CONVERSATIONAL VERSUS AUDIENCE VOICE
Talley 196 has made a comprehensive study of the vowel struc-
ture in conversational speech as compared with speech before an
audience. Figure 9 illustrates the principles of his comparisons.
Working with the single vowel "AH" pronounced as in the word
"top," he had trained speakers use this vowel in a sentence: (1)
as in ordinary conversation, (2) as in addressing an audience of
2,000 people, and (3) in an effort to maintain conversational
loudness before an audience. Typical findings are shown in Fig. 9.
This opens a most important problem in speech; namely, the prob-
lem of carrying power in public address. Talley showed what
characteristic changes the speakers made spontaneously. He
summarizes his findings as follows:
1. There was no systematic variation in either intensity of
the fundamental or duration of the vowel with the changes in
conditions of recording the vowel.
2. There was a marked tendency to increase both pitch and
intensity when a shift was made from conversation to audience
speech.
3. There was a marked shift in relative intensity from the
lower to the higher partials with the change from conversational
to audience speech.
4. Attempts to speak as if to an audience, which were accom-
panied by only a small rise in total intensity, also evidenced a
much less marked shift of energy into the higher partials.
5. Attempts to speak as if to an audience, which were accom-
panied by no rise in total intensity, showed no systematic varia-
tion in the harmonic composition of the vowel.
6. A loss of intensity during a vowel was accompanied by a
greater loss of intensity in the upper partials than in the lower.
In general, when a speaker changed from conversational to
the audience type of speech, three changes in the sound wave
produced by his voice took place simultaneously, namely,
heightened pitch, increased intensity, and a shift of energy from
the lower to the higher partials. Although similar characteristic
changes in sung tones have recently been observed, it does not
seem possible at present to evaluate the relative importance of
124 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
the three factors nor to state whether one element causally
influences the other two.
The real problem raised by this investigation must be solved
by an elaborate study of all the factors of the sound which we
have now isolated and can control in order to determine the relative
roles of each of these in determining the carrying power, sometimes
called the projection of the sound. The singer of the future may
look forward to acquaintance with a definite system of principles
that should be followed in making the voice carry before an audi-
ence. This is not simply a problem of a performer but also of the
composer and the writer of the words and for all is ultimately a
problem of tone quality.
CONSONANCE
THE NATURE OF CONSONANCE
rpiHE theories of melody and harmony represent by far the most
JL highly developed fields in the history of musical literature. They
have also attracted the serious attention of mathematicians,
physicists, anthropologists, and psychologists in the scientific
laboratories. The history of music is written largely in terms of
scales or musical modes, showing the development of the concept of
intervals from period to period. The most interesting aspect in the
field of musical anthropology has centered around the problem of
the evolution of scales and the attempt to explain why they have
arisen, why they have survived in such great variety, and what their
interrelations are in the family tree of musical modes.
Harmony as we now think of it is of comparatively recent
origin. Its precursor and present companion piece is melody. The
basic principles which now function in harmony were first developed
in the theory and practice of melody. It would be extremely inter-
esting if space could be devoted to a chapter on the origin and
evolution of melody because in that we should see the foundations
of harmony in the process of evolution. The underlying conception,
common to both, is that of the interval. The title of this chapter
might, therefore, well be The Interval; but in scientific procedure,
where we always reduce the situation to its simplest elements, it is
customary to speak of the problem in terms of kinds and degrees of
consonance. The difference between harmony and consonance is
that consonance deals with intervals in terms of two notes only;
whereas harmony usually deals with more complex situations. The
difference between consonance and melody is that consonance deals
125
126 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
with simultaneous tones in a dichord; whereas, melody deals with
sequence of tones.
Consonance depends fundamentally upon the degree of coin-
cidence of sound waves. This led very early to the mathematical
theories based on this physical fact. In the main this is correct and
applies in large part to all scales; but there are very important
exceptions, so that no such simple rule can be applied throughout to
determine the degree of consonance or dissonance. Coming out of
the vast network of modifications of this principle, modern Western
music is built largely on the diatonic scale in major and minor
modes. The ratios of successive notes to the tonic in the major
mode are 9 : 8, 5 : 4, 4 : 3, 3 : 2, 5 : 3, 15 : 8, and 2 : 1. In the minor mode
the corresponding ratios are 9 : 8, 6 : 5, 4 : 3, 3 : 2, 8 : 5, 9 : 5, and 2:1.
According to present conventions, this natural scale represents
the most desirable intervals; but in the construction of keyed
instruments, it was necessary to make a compromise on the 12
half-tone steps in order to make it possible to play in different
keys on the same instrument, such as the piano. This modified
scale is known as the "tempered scale." The relation of the natural
scale to the tempered scale is shown in Table I. 10
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH
We now recognize the following approaches to the problem:
(1) The spontaneous outcropping of intervals among primitive
peoples throughout the world and their gradual empirical develop-
ment in various culture stages up to the present, all in the absence of
theory. (2) The development of technical theory, since the time of
ancients, on the part of musicians, largely as an empirical adjust-
ment of the early-recognized mathematical ratios in terms of feeling
values. This has resulted in principles of augmentation or contrac-
tion of intervals as represented in tendency tones away from the
natural or the tempered scale. (3) The development and criticism
of these theories in terms of the harmonic structure of the tone, the
function of subjective tones, and the physiology of the mechanics
of the ear by mathematicians, physicists, physiologists, and
psychologists. (4) The psychological procedure of analyzing con-
sonance into its component factors and the determination of de-
grees of consonance on the basis of judgments reached in an
experimental situation in terms of these factors.
CONSONANCE
127
TABLE I. MUSICAL INTERVALS
Interval
Interval name
Unison
Comma
Semitone or Diesis
Limma
Minor second. .
Minor tone
Major second
Augmented second
Minor third
Major third
Diminished fourth
Augmented third
Perfect fourth
Augmented fourth
Diminished fifth
Perfect fifth
Augmented fifth
Minor sixth .
Major sixth .
Augmented sixth
Minor seventh
Major seventh
Diminished octave
Augmented seventh .
Octave
Frequency ratio
Milli octave*
Natural Tempered
Note
Natural scale
Tempered
scale
scale
scale
C
1
1
000
1
1
000
81/80
1
013
1
1
000
17
92
c#
25/24
1
042
2M 2
1
059
58
89
83
33
16/15
1
067
2M 2
1
059
93
11
83
33
D 6
27/25
1
080
2M 2
1
059
111
83
33
10/9
1
111
2^2
1
122
152
166
6
D
9/8
1
125
2K 2
1
122
169
9
166
6
D#
75/64
1
172
2^2
1
189
228
8
250
.0
E b
6/5
1
200
2^2
1
189
263
250
E
5/4
1
250
2^2
1
260
321
9
883
3
F b
32/25
1
280
*tti
1
260
356
1
333
3
E#
125/96
1
302
2^2
1
335
380,
,7
416
5
F
4/3
1
333
2
1
335
414
8
416
5
F#
25/18
1
389
2^2
1
414
473
9
500
G 6
36/25
1
440
2M 2
1
414
526
1
500
G
3/2
1
500
2K 2
1
498
585
583
3
G#
23/16
1
562
2!K2
1
587
644
666
6
A,,
8/5
1
600
2
1
587
678
1
666
6
A
5/3
1
667
2^2
1
682
737
750
A#
125/72
1
736
* 1 2
1
782
795
8
833
3
1*6
9/5
1
800
a 1 9*2
1
782
848
833
3
B
15/8
1
875
2%
1
883
906
9
916
6
C 6
48/25
1
920
2%
1
883
941
1
916
6
B#
125/64
1
953
2
2
000
965
7
1000
00
C'
2
2
000
2
2
000
1000
1000
00
SIX PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS
Among the problems which confront us in the study of con-
sonance are the following six: (1) the determination of the exact
size and number of the intervals in the building of scales; (2) the
determination of desirability and reasons for admission of tendency
tones under specific musical conditions; (3) the criteria of con-
sonance-dissonance; (4) the establishment of rank order of intervals
in the chromatic scale on different criteria; (5) a compromise best
judgment about the order of rank, taking all criteria into account;
and (6) the setting up of a measure of consonance as a member in
the battery of measures of musical talent.
Number of steps in the octave and size of the interval. This
problem has been solved progressively in the process of evolution
on the principle of natural selection, the survival of the fittest.
When we inquire why the present scale of 12 steps has survived, we
128 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
find the answer in psychological experiments in the laboratory. It is
found that, on the whole, our present half-tone step is as small a
step as the average of an unselected population can hear with
reasonable assurance, enjoy, and reproduce in the flow of melody
and harmony in actual music.
However, anthropology has shown that in the process of evolu-
tion we can discover a variety of units which have become con-
ventional in a certain culture, some of them larger and some of
them smaller than a half tone. Instrumentalists unquestionably
imitated the tendencies of the human voice in playing their
intervals; and when, in comparatively recent times, keyed instru-
ments were introduced, or a certain number of strings or other
vibrating media were played together, the prevailing tendency was
crystallized. Yet we have at the present time quarter-tone instru-
ments. Music is being written in quarter-tone steps, and this
mode of music reveals resources entirely beyond the possibilities
of the half-tone steps. Nor should we ignore the fact that in many
instruments and many types of musical performance, fixed inter-
vals are relatively ignored and the melody flows like the soaring
bird in abandon on its wings.
Two things are clear, then, on this point: (1) that artistically
there is nothing rigidly mandatory for our present diatonic scale,
and (2) that the tendency to support it is one of economy, of desire
for cooperation, and of recognition of natural limits, particularly
in the ear and the voice.
Scales and tendency tones. In the development of modern
music we find a gradual crystallization of a number of tendencies or
principles in the form of license in deviation from mathematically
equal steps, or from any of the now current scales. These principles
are never adequately treated in the musical literature. It is quite
common for an artist to speak of "his" system. As we shall see in
Chap. 21, good artists differ greatly in this respect, and probably
should; for it involves freedom in the use of artistic principles of
deviation from the regular. In current musicology this is becoming a
central problem and is being discussed with great acumen and with
marked signs of progress. To the musician it is a real problem which
can be settled only in terms of artistic demand. But it will be the
function of psychology to submit these demands to objective
analysis for the purpose of collecting fair samples from performance
CONSONANCE 129
scores and of seeking psychological explanations for their existence.
This very intricate problem we are not prepared to report upon fully
at present; but there is rich raw material to work upon in the per-
formance scores of Chaps. 18 and 20.
The physical and psychological determinants of consonance
and dissonance. This is a central problem which the psychology
of music now faces and on which an inceptive attack has been
made. Psychology must fractionate the problem and deal with one
factor at a time. It must recognize that there are kinds as well as
degrees of consonance. We cannot identify it with feeling, however
conspicuous the feeling aspect may be, but must show how and
why feelings are involved. Music employs not only consonances,
but also semiconsonances and gross dissonances in creating power
and beauty of tone. Dissonance is an essential for esthetic value in
modern music, and consonance out of place may be decidedly
disagreeable.
Preliminary experiments have revealed four factors which
represent conditions determining consonance and their respective
psychological effects in feeling value. These are smoothness, purity,
blending, and fusion. It has been found possible to make a purely
logical judgment, without involving any feeling about it, by observ-
ing, for example, that the minor third is smoother than the minor
second and that the minor third is rougher than a perfect fourth.
It is important to know that such a judgment may be purely logical
and independent of affective value, the problem being merely to
determine which is the smoother or the rougher tone. Whether we
crave or abhor roughness or smoothness is another matter. Now
roughness may be explained entirely on the basis of the operation of
beats. It is the prominence of the beats that determines the rough-
ness of the tone, and this principle operates until the interval
becomes so large that the hearing of the beat effect tends to disap-
pear. On this criterion alone, then, we can arrange dichords, at
least from the minor second up to the fifth, with certainty in a
graded series of consonance-dissonance.
Another factor is that of relative purity. It is possible to arrange
intervals in the order of purity in a purity-richness series which
corresponds largely to the order of consonance-dissonance. From
unison to the minor second we observe an increasing order of
richness as determined by harmonic analysis. But we must observe
130 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
not only the degree but also the kind of richness. These two factors,
smoothness and purity, are objective physical factors, measurable
and definable. In a way they are complementary and on the whole
tend to dovetail and agree as bases for classification.
A third factor is blending, the quality of seeming to belong
together. The two notes in the major second do not seem to belong
together; they do not blend. Likewise, the notes of the interval of
the seventh do not seem to belong together, but for entirely differ-
ent reasons from those in the minor second.
Here the issue is : do the two tones in this interval seem to belong
together? It is not a question of liking or disliking, agreeableness or
disagreeableness, but purely a logical judgment on the specific
issue. The tones may not seem to belong together because they are
too close, causing roughness, or do not seem to belong together
because they are far separated. In other words, the psychological
judgment on blending is one which ordinarily rests on the physical
facts, smoothness and purity. There is only a difference in the point
of view.
There is a further factor which we call "fusion." This was orig-
inally sponsored by Stumpf 190 and is to the effect that the difficulty
of judging whether you hear one tone or two tones becomes a
measure of the degree of consonance. This difficulty can be meas-
ured in terms of reaction-time, on the theory that the length of
time that it takes to decide whether you hear one or two tones is a
measure of the degree of fusion. This psychophysical principle
undoubtedly operates in a number of intervals, notably the more
consonant ones, and to that extent contributes to the explanation of
consonance-dissonance. But, as we shall see, it leads to contradic-
tory results.
The distinction between the logical and the affective judgment
is of the utmost importance in scientific procedure. So long as we
deal in terms of likes and dislikes we are dealing with intangibles,
grossly fluctuating factors, quite indefinable. It is only when we
define each factor and isolate it in the experiment that we can lay
down verifiable principles as to the nature of our problem.
This analysis of consonance is analogous to our analysis of the
vibrato, where we reduced the actual musical phenomenon to the
operation of three types of pulsation, each of which could be defined
and measured accurately, and where it became possible to name
corresponding specific qualities of the tone generated by them.
CONSONANCE 131
ORDER OF MERIT IN EACH OF FOUR CRITERIA
Twenty years ago we performed an experiment in the Iowa
laboratory to discover the relative merits of these four factors as
determining consonance-dissonance. The procedure in the experi-
ment conducted by Malmberg 34 was unique. It consisted of having a
jury of musicians and psychologists who sat in sessions throughout
the year under the strictest experimental conditions and with the
demand that the sessions should continue until a unanimous verdict
could be reached on all the issues involved. A paired comparison of
all the intervals in the octave was made (1) with two pure tones
TABLE II. FINAL ORDER OF MERIT AGREED UPON ON THE BASIS OF S
(SMOOTHNESS), P (PURITY), B (BLENDING), F (FUSION)
Interval S P B F
Octave .. . 1111
Minor second . . 12 12 12 2
Major second . . . .... 11 11 11 3
Minor third . 9 7 7 4
Major third . . ... 4 5 3-f 54-
Perfect fourth ... 3446
Diminished fifth .7 88 8
Perfect fifth . ..2227
Minor sixth . . 6 46 9
Major sixth . . 5 3 5 10
Minor seventh . . . .8 9911
Major seventh . . 10 10 10 12
generated by tuning forks in front of the Koenig resonator in the
natural scale; (2) by pipe-organ tones using the diapason stop; and
(3) piano tones in the tempered scale, where the two strings for
each tone were damped so as to allow the vibration of only one
string for each note.
A separate series of experiments was run for each of the four
factors: smoothness, purity, blending, and fusion; and for every
presentation of a pair of clangs a secret ballot was taken on the
question as to whether the second clang was, for example, in the
smoothness series, smoother or rougher than the first. As soon as all
agreed on a pair, that decision was regarded as final, and the experi-
ment was repeated for all the intervals for which there was disagree-
ment, a full discussion being held about the nature of the situation
before each series of ballots was taken. This method was continued
until unanimous verdicts had been reached on all the four factors.
The result of this experiment is shown in Table II. The most out-
132
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
standing finding in this table is that there is considerable agree-
ment on the first three factors, but on the fourth there is very
radical disagreement with the other three, as well as with the
generally accepted order.
ORDER OF RANK ON THREE CRITERIA COMBINED
With the recognition that the classification on the basis of
fusion did not correspond with accepted musical classification,
this was eliminated, and the experiment was repeated with the
tuning forks under the instructions that in each ballot the three
11
10
7
6
6
4
3
2
l - . . . . . ..........
o'c" c'g" c'a' c'e' cT c'a^ c'e 6 ' c'g^ c'b*' c'd' e'b' c'd&'
FIG. 1. Order of merit of interval in the consonance-dissonance series. (Mcdmhcrg**)
remaining factors should be given consideration, so that we should
obtain an order of merit on the basis of the recognition of the com-
bined results of these three factors under experimental conditions.
The result is shown in Fig. 1,
The significance of the above experiments lies not so much in
the determination of consonance-dissonance as in showing what
the contributing factors are. In general, we may say that con-
sonance-dissonance depends primarily upon two factors; namely,
roughness-smoothness and purity-richness. The factor of blending
covers both of these and does not seem to add any new element, but
merely represents a point of view in the judgment.
THE SENSE OF CONSONANCE
In the original series there was a measure of the sense of con-
sonance. While this measure has been found very significant, in the
diagnosis of talent it has certain defects which have been remedied
in the forthcoming revision. These difficulties were that (1) the
instructions, giving the directions for observation, were too
CONSONANCE 133
involved, especially for children; (2) the judgments "Better" or
"Worse" suggest agreeableness; and (3) there was a tendency to
judge in terms of likes and dislikes.
Many other tests involving consonance would be desirable and
are quite feasible, especially for measures of achievement. But for
the purpose of forecast, and independent of musical education, a
test of the present order seems essential.
VOLUME
VOLUME as a musical characteristic of tone is a complex experi-
ence resting upon the frequency, the intensity, the duration,
and the harmonic constitution of the physical stimulus, and largely
influenced by associational, affective, and motor factors in per-
ception. The following analysis outlines the principal factors
which function in the perception and control of volume.
SPATIAL FACTORS
Extensity. Extensity has often been considered a fifth attribute
of sensation as experienced in each of the different senses. Literally
it means bigness, and usually represents an association with the
size of the sounding body. For this reason it corresponds exactly
to wave length, which is the reciprocal of frequency. A low pitch
comes from the vibration of a long string or a large cavity, whereas
a high sound comes from a short string or a small cavity. Thus, as
frequency varies with the size of the sounding body, we have come
to associate bigness or littleness with the size of the sounding body.
Extensity is, therefore, entirely parallel to pitch. A low tone is
more massive than a high tone; it comes from a larger space; and
we can arrange extensities in a single series in the same way as we
arrange pitches. To secure volume, use relatively low tones.
Location. The spatial distribution of the individual tones in a
complex sound also affects the volume. This is strikingly illustrated
by the fact that the pipes or resonators of a very complicated organ
might be distributed, as in a museum, in a large number of rooms on
different floors, but all audible in the central aula. In this case,
there is an interesting illusion of space. All the tones that come
from the pipes of the same pitch, regardless of what floor or loca-
134
VOLUME 135
tion on the floor, are found to come from the same source, which
represents an accurate location determined by the loudness of each
part and the distance and direction from the listener. Thus, two
pipes of the same pitch and intensity, but located one at each
end of a long hall, will give a single tone which is located very
definitely at the midway distance. But if a third tone comes from a
similar source in a side hall, the location of the tone will shift from
its central position in the main hall into the side hall toward the
source of the third tone. The result is that the music of the organ
seems to come from all over the building and that the listener can
clearly hear each note as coming from a specific location in distance
and direction.
This may be observed on a small scale in listening to a pipe
organ at close range. A most striking illustration can be found in
the noises of nature in which similar sounds arise from within a
large area of space.
QUANTITATIVE FACTORS
Intensity. Volume is often confused with loudness, which de-
pends upon the intensity or power of the physical tone. Volume,
however, is a much more comprehensive term in which intensity is
only one of the leading elements. Yet, other things being equal, the
more intense the tone, the more volume it has. Since we are, by
this time, familiar with the role of intensity and loudness, no more
need be said here.
Number of tones. The addition of one or more tones of the
same intensity tends to increase the total intensity in the volume,
but only to a slight degree. For example, if we have a piano tone of
50 db and we add to that another tone of the same intensity, the
combined effect will be about 53 db. If we add a third tone, the
total intensity is likely to be 55 db. Thus, the addition to the total
intensity decreases with the number of units combined; and in
every case the increase is small in comparison with the original
intensity of one element. This increase in intensity results in a
corresponding increase in volume.
Reverberation. Volume is increased quantitatively by resonance
of the instrument, reverberation of the room and surrounding
bodies in that these reverberations have the effect of multiplying
the stimulation. Other things being equal, the more resonant the
instrument and environment, the greater the volume will be.
136 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
QUALITATIVE FACTORS
Timbre. Volume varies with timbre in many respects. In gen-
eral, the richer the tone, the greater the volume will be. The full
tone seems larger than the pure tone in proportion to its richness.
Volume varies also with the position of the dominant formants or
resonance regions of the rich tone. In accordance with the principle
of extensity, dominance of low partials makes the tone seem more
voluminous; dominance of high partials makes it seem less
voluminous.
Sonance. The tone quality as affected by change in the form of
a sound wave from vibration to vibration, which we call sonance,
also has a marked effect upon the apparent volume. This is illus-
trated in the case of the vibrato, in which periodic pulsations of
pitch, intensity, and timbre give the effect of a tonal band or
largeness of tone as compared with a straight tone. The same princi-
ple applies also to erratic changes in sonance.
TEMPORAL FACTORS
Duration. The duration of a tone modifies its volume. A sound
lasting 1 second is more voluminous than a sound lasting 0.01 or
0.1 second. The reason for this lies in several factors, such as the
equivalent of repetition of the stimulus, the time for reverberations,
and readiness in perception. A clap of thunder illustrates this
principle. The origin is probably an instantaneous electrical explo-
sion, but it is heard as a sustained roll. In a percussion instrument,
such as the piano or the harp, there is an immediate drop in inten-
sity after the first energizing of the string; but, for a complicated
series of psychological reasons, we tend to hear these tones as of
even loudness throughout their duration. That is, the intensity
indicated by the first impact tends to carry over throughout the
duration of the tone.
Sequence. The volume depends also upon the sequence of tones
in terms of intensity, timbre, and spatial relationships. All the laws
of contrast operate here.
SUBJECTIVE FACTORS
The experience of volume depends not only upon such physical
aspects of the stimulus as those just outlined, but also very largely
upon subjective factors. Among these, expectation, knowledge of
the source of the sound, effort, or thought required in the produc-
VOLUME 137
tion of the sound, emotional tone, such as fear or desire, and vivid-
ness of the imagination play important roles. Therefore, for purely
subjective reasons, we find large individual differences in the hear-
ing of volume, and in the same individual from moment to moment,
marked changes in the flux of receptive attitude.
CARRYING POWER
From the above it follows that volume is not a specific deter-
minant of audibility or what is generally called carrying power of
speech or music. The conductor, for example, must think and direct
in terms of specific factors of pitch, intensity, time, and timbre;
and, of these, some in more specific terms of their variants, deriva-
tives, and combinations, both in the performance and in the envi-
ronment. Nor can he ignore the subjective factors, for example,
motivation. It is not enough that the orator have great volume of
voice. The volume must have certain ingredients in certain propor-
tions in order to be heard, understood, and enjoyed.
From this skeletal analysis, which could be carried into greater
detail, the significance of knowledge of volume for the performer,
the teacher, and the pupil must be apparent. It is of supreme
importance to the composer, the performer, the instrument-maker,
and the conductor that they should know what aspects of volume
are present or demanded, how they may be produced, and the
various ways in which volume may be modulated. In the interest of
these dynamic values in music, it is the duty of the teacher to know
what is to be taught. It should be the privilege of every serious
student of music to receive early reliable instruction in regard to
the media at his command, the factors which he should hear, the
factors which he should control, in order that he may proceed
efficiently with knowledge in the mastery of each of these goals.
This subject is usually treated in the field of acoustics.
The intensity required to produce tones of equal loudness varies
with frequency. For instance, a tone at 5,000~ must be approxi-
mately 2,800 times as intense as a tone of 1,000~ in order to sound
equally loud to the average normal ear. The intensity of each
partial present in a complex tone decreases inversely as the square
of the distance. The threshold of audibility is different for each
frequency. Other things being equal, that partial of a complex tone
which has the lowest threshold of audibility will be heard at the
greatest distance. A complex sound can be heard no farther than its
most persistent component can be heard alone.
RHYTHM
THE NATURE OF RHYTHM*
rriHERE are two fundamental factors in the perception of rhythm :
JL an instinctive tendency to group impressions in hearing and a
capacity for doing this with precision in time and stress. The sub-
jective tendency is so deeply ingrained, because of its biological
service, that we irresistibly group uniform successions of sound,
such as the tick of a clock, into rhythmic measure. The supposed
limping of a clock is often purely subjective. This is called sub-
jective rhythm to distinguish it from objective rhythm, in which
the grouping is actually marked, as in music and poetry. If a long
series of quarter notes were played with absolute uniformity in
time and stress, the listener would inevitably hear them divided
into measures and would actually hear the appropriate notes ac-
cented. Such is one of nature's beneficent illusions.
A good illustration of this is found in a very crude way when one
is lying in a Pullman sleeper and the successive beats coming from
the crossing of rail joints set up a time which carries tunes that
come into one's head. The rails seem, as it were, to beat the time
emphatically into measures. The writer recalls once being haunted
by the plantation melody, "What kind o' a crown you gwine to
wear? Golden crown?" As he allowed the imagery of the melody to
flow, the accentuation of the click of the rails became very promi-
nent and satisfying as rhythm. One who is trained in observing
himself may find this tendency toward rhythmic grouping in any or
all his activities. Take, for example, the homely act of eating. One
* The first two sections of this chapter are reprinted with permission from the Musical
Quarterly. 1 "
188
RHYTHM 139
who has a highly developed sense of rhythm may, even in eating
soup, feel the various movements divided into measures with their
artistic grouping of long intervals and short intervals, come objec-
tively and others only subjectively marked with occasional
cadences. Yet a person watching the movement might not be able
to see any rhythm in the actual movements.
The objective rhythm as we find it ordinarily in prose and
poetry is marked by emphasis of time or intensity, or both.
Occasionally, it may be also through pitch, although that always
involves intensity. It is also probable that it may come through
other senses than hearing.
Subjective rhythm is more fundamental than objective rhythm
and always plays a large role in the objective. This is why we find
rhythm more essentially a matter of personality than a matter of
objective grouping. All rhythm is primarily a projection of personal-
ity. The rhythm is what I am. For him who is not endowed with this
talent the objective rhythms in nature and art are largely wasted.
While the perception of rhythm involves the whole organism, it
requires primarily five fundamental capacities. The first two of
these are the sense of time and the sense of intensity, corresponding
respectively to the two attributes of sound, which constitute the
sensory media of rhythm. The third and fourth are auditory im-
agery and motor imagery, that is, the capacity for reviving vividly
in representation the auditory experience and the motor attitudes
respectively. The fifth is a motor impulse for rhythm, an instinctive
tendency, chiefly unconscious and largely organic. These five
factors may be said to be basic to the sense of rhythm. Other
general factors, such as emotional type and temperament, logical
span, or creative imagination, are intimately woven into the warp
and woof of rhythm, but we shall probably find that these are
secondary to the primary and basic forces named.
We may now define rhythm as an instinctive disposition to
group recurrent sense impressions vividly and with precision,
mainly by time or intensity, or both, in such a way as to derive
pleasure and efficiency through the grouping.
The sense of rhythm, or perception of rhythm, as thus defined,
is to be distinguished from rhythmic action, an important aspect
with which we are not here concerned; yet it is a complex process
and involves literally the whole organism in the form of a perpetual
attitude of responsiveness to measured intervals of time or tone.
140 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
To gain some insight into the actual nature of rhythm, it may
be well to point out some of the things that rhythm does on the
side of perception as distinguished from action, which will be
equivalent to pointing out the sources of pleasure and means to
efficiency in rhythm.
WHAT RHYTHM DOES
1. Rhythm favors perception by grouping. It has been demon-
strated that, under happy grouping, one can remember approxi-
mately as many small groups as one can remember individual
objects without grouping; for example, in listening to a series of
notes, one can grasp nearly as many measures, if they are heard
rhythmically, as one could grasp individual sounds if they were not
heard rhythmically. This is a principle which is involved in all
auditory perception. Individual sounds are grouped in measures
and phrases, phrases and periods, periods and movements. The
ability to grasp in terms of larger and larger units is a condition for
achievement. The development of this ability results in power to
handle vast numbers of sounds with ease,and this success is a source
of pleasure. And that is true, not only in poetry and in music, but
in our natural hearing, even under primitive conditions. Thus,
rhythm has become a biological principle of efficiency, a condition
for advance and achievement and a perpetual source of satisfaction.
The rhythm need not be conspicuous to be effective. It need not be
objective. It need not be conscious. At best it is a habit.
2. Rhythm adjusts the strain of attention. In poetry and music,
for instance, the rhythm enables us to anticipate the magnitude of
units which are to be grasped. This, in turn, makes it possible to
adjust the effort in such a way as to grasp the unit at the strategic
moment and to relax the strain for a moment between periods.
Of this, again, we may not be immediately conscious, but it may be
readily demonstrated by experiment, as, for example, if we should
break up a measure, as in going from K to % time without warning.
Genetically, the ordinary measure in poetry and music is
determined by what is known as the attention wave. Our attention
is periodic. All our mental life works rhythmically, that is, by
periodic pulsation of effort or achievement with unnoticed inter-
mittence of blanks. This is easily observed in an elemental proc-
ess such as hearing ability. To demonstrate it in a simple way,
proceed as follows : hold a watch a distance from the ear, and then
RHYTHM 141
move it toward the ear till you can just hear it; then keep it in this
position for two or three minutes, and observe that you hear it only
intermittently. To check this, raise your finger when you hear the
sound and lower your finger when you do not hear it. Do not be
influenced by any theory, but act with the keenest decision for
every second. You will then find the hearing and silence periods
alternate with fair regularity, the periods varying from 2 to 8 or
10 seconds in the extreme. This periodicity is primarily one of
attention and reaches out into all our mental processes, being one of
nature's contrivances in the interest of the conservation of nervous
energy.
This is a principle which is made use of in nature and in indus-
try, as, for example, in our lighting current. The current which
energizes our lamps is not, as a rule, a steady, direct current, but is
"alternating," that is, it comes in pulsations, usually about 60 a
second, which are frequent enough to give us the impression of
continuous illumination. The rhythmic measure, then, is simply
taking advantage of nature's supply of pulsating efforts of atten-
tion. And when the measure fits the attention wave, it gives us a
restful feeling of satisfaction and ease. This in turn results in what
is known as secondary passive attention, which is a more econom-
ical and efficient form of attention than voluntary attention. Thus
it comes about that we acquire a feeling of ease, power, and adjust-
ment when we listen to rhythmic measures because we get the larg-
est returns for the least outlay, and the tendency to seek this
assumes biological importance because it tends to preserve and
enhance life.
3. Rhythm gives us a feeling of balance. It is built on sym-
metry, and, when this symmetry involves within itself a certain
element of flexibility which is well proportioned, we have grace.
Thus, when we read an ordinary prose sentence, we pay no atten-
tion to the structural form; but, when we scan the dactylic hexam-
eter, we fall into the artistic mood, distinctly conscious of a
symmetry and beauty in form, and in this sense rhythm becomes a
thing in itself. Poetry may contain ideas, and music may represent
sentiment; but the rhythmic structure is in itself an object of art,
and the placid perception of this artistic structure takes the
form of the feeling of balance under various degrees of delicate
support. Children sense the rhythm of poetry before they do the
meaning.
142 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
4. The sense of rhythm gives us a feeling of freedom, luxury,
and expanse. It gives us a feeling of achievement in molding or
creating. It gives us a feeling of rounding out a design. This sense
of freedom is in one respect the commonplace awareness of the fact
that one is free to miss the consciousness of periodicity in countless
ways, yet chooses to be in the active and aggressive attitude of
achievement. As, when the eye scans the delicate tracery in the
repeated pattern near the base of the cathedral and then sweeps
upward and delineates the harmonious design continued in meas-
ures gradually tapering off into the towering spire, all one unit of
beauty expressing the will and imagination of the architect, so in
music, when the ear grasps the intricate rhythms of beautiful music
and follows it from the groundwork up through the delicate tracery
into towering climaxes in clustered pinnacles of rhythmic tone
figures, we feel as though we did this all because we wished to,
because we craved it, because we were free to do it, because we were
able to do it.
5. Rhythm gives us a feeling of power; it carries. It is like a
dream of flying; it is so easy to soar. One feels as if one could lift
oneself by one's bootstraps. The pattern once grasped, there is an
assurance of ability to cope with the future. This results in the
disregard of the ear element and results in a motor attitude, or a
projection of the self in action; for rhythm is never rhythm unless
one feels that he himself is acting it, or, what may seem con-
tradictory, that he is even carried by his own action.
6. It stimulates and lulls, contradictory as this may seem.
Pronounced rhythm brings on a feeling of elation which not infre-
quently results in a mild form of ecstasy or absent-mindedness, a
loss of consciousness of the environment. It excites, and it makes us
insensible to the excitation, giving the feeling of being lulled. This is
well illustrated in the case of dancing. Seated in comfort and en-
joyment in pleasant conversation, the striking up of a waltz is a call
which excites to action. It starts the organic, rhythmic movements
of the body the moment it is heard, and one is drawn, as it were,
enticingly into the conventional movements of the dance. But no
sooner is this done, in the true enjoyment of the dance, than one
becomes oblivious to intellectual pursuits, launches himself, as it
were, upon the carrying measures, feels the satisfaction of congenial
partnership, graceful step, freedom of movement action without
any object other than the pleasure in the action itself. There comes
RHYTHM 143
a sort of autointoxication from the stimulating effect of the music
and the successful self-expression in balanced movements sustained
by that music and its associations.
The same is true of the march. When the march is struck up it
stimulates tension of every muscle of the body. The soldier straight-
ens up, takes a firmer step, observes more keenly, and is all atten-
tion; but as he gets into the march, all this passes into its opposite,
a state of passivity, obliviousness to environment, and oblivious-
ness to effort and action. The marked time and accent of the band
music swing the movements of all parts of the body into happy
adjustment. He can march farther in better form and with less
fatigue.
7. Rhythmic periodicity is instinctive. As we saw above, the
grouping into natural periods of the flow of attention is a biological
principle of preservative value. It is likewise true that the tendency
to act in rhythmic movements is of biological value, and for a
similar reason. If one does not know where to put his hand or foot
the next movement, he is ill at ease and will be inefficient in the
movement; but if movements may be foreseen and even forefelt,
and an accompanying signal sets off the movement without con-
scious effort, there results a greatly lessened expenditure of energy,
a more effective action, a feeling of satisfaction. Anything that
accomplishes these ends in the life of a species will tend to become
instinctive, to develop a natural tendency always to move in rhyth-
mic measure; and, when our movements are not actually divided
into objective periodicity, we tend to fall into a subjective rhythm.
We cannot have adequate perception of rhythm without this motor
setting. The bearing of this instinctive motor tendency on the
perception of rhythm lies in the fact that with the motor instinct
goes an instinct to be in a receptive attitude for the perception of
such rhythms, both subjective and objective.
8. Rhythm finds resonance in the whole organism. It is not a
matter of the ear or the finger only; it is a matter of the two funda-
mental powers of life, namely, knowing and acting. And, therefore,
indirectly it affects the circulation, respiration, and all the secre-
tions of the body in such a way as to arouse agreeable feeling.
Herein we find the groundwork of emotion; for rhythm, whether in
perception or in action, is emotional when highly developed, and
results in response of the whole organism to its pulsations. Such
organic pulsations and secretions are the physical counterpart of
144 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
emotion. Thus, when we listen to the dashing billows or the trickling
raindrops, when we see the swaying of the trees in the wind or the
waving of the wheat fields, we respond to these, we feel ourselves
into them, and there is rhythm everywhere, not only in every plastic
part of our body, but in the world as we know it at that moment.
This tendency to feel oneself into the music and act it out is an
exhibition of the principle known as "empathy": "feeling oneself
into." It may exist in a very highly developed form without the
accompaniment of the other two factors involving precision in the
rhythmic pattern. At the present time, we have no satisfactory
way of measuring the degree of prominence of this impulse except
by merely recording, as in moving pictures. But psychologically
that is of little value because it is the tendency to act, rather than
the free action, which is fundamentally significant. This tendency
we shall probably soon be able to measure in terms of the magnitude
of the rhythmic volleys of nerve impulses, which discharge into
the muscles but are more or less counteracted.
9. Rhythm arouses sustained and enriching association. One
need not tramp through the woods where the Wagnerian scenes
are laid in order to experience the rich flow of visual association
with a rhythmic flow of the music in Lohengrin. In most persons it
comes irresistibly through free imagination. Our consciousness of
pleasure in music is often a consciousness of seeing and doing
things, rather than a consciousness of hearing rhythm, the tendency
being to project ourselves through the sensory cue of hearing into
the more common fields of vision and action.
10. Rhythm reaches out in extraordinary detail and complexity
with progressive mastery. It makes use of novelty. The simple
rhythms soon become monotonous, but one can find endless oppor-
tunity for enrichment by the complications of which the measure,
the phrase, or the more attenuated rhythmic unit is capable. This
is true both for perception and for action. A rhythmic nature tends
to live more and more in the exquisite refinements and far-reaching
ramifications of rhythmic perceptions and rhythmic feelings of
movements, real or imagined. This power to radiate and encompass
may be vastly enhanced by training in the rhythmic arts.
The sense of rhythm is like the instinct of curiosity : it takes one
into wonders after wonders. Curiosity asks one question and nature
asks her ten. One degree of rhythmic perception acquired becomes a
vantage ground from which we may approach higher levels, and
RHYTHM 145
each of these in turn traversed leads to higher vantage grounds,
level after level, vista after vista. They need not be objective. Nor
need we be conscious of them as such. It is a state or organization
into rich meaning.
11. The instinctive craving for the experience of rhythm
results in play, which is the free self-expression for the pleasure of
expression, or, as Ruskin puts it, "an exertion of body and mind,
made to please ourselves, and with no determined end." It makes
us play, young and old. It determines the form of play, in large
part. Through play it leads to self-realization by serving as an
ever-present incentive for practice. In music and poetry we play
with rhythm, as it were, and thereby develop it in expansive and
artistic forms.
This inventory of the sources of pleasure in rhythm is frag-
mentary and inadequate, but it should at least accomplish two
ends. It should dispel the notion that the perception of rhythm is a
simple mental process or action and should make us realize that,
to the person who is endowed with this gift in a high degree, it is one
of the great sources of pleasure, not only in music and art, but in the
commonplace of humdrum life. To a person who is not so endowed,
this role of rhythm may be no more concretely patent than the
omnipresence of color is to the color blind.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN MUSICAL RHYTHM
There are three basic factors in the capacity for rhythm: (1)
the rhythmic impulse to action, (2) the cognitive capacity, and (3)
the motor capacity. Many variants of each of these may of course
be recognized.
The instinctive impulse to express rhythmic grouping. In study-
ing the rhythmic talent of a one-year-old child possessing highly
developed rhythm, we made the following observations: In listen-
ing to a rhythmic two-step on the phonograph she approached the
instrument with much interest and sat clapping her hands in correct
time with the music without any prompting or suggestion. A waltz
was then substituted for the two-step, and she immediately picked
up the % pattern. We then held her by her hands so that she stood
lightly on the floor but could not move her hands and then she
marked time with her feet. To determine her further resources,
hand and foot action were eliminated by placing her on all fours.
In this position she immediately shimmied with full bodily expres-
146 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
sion. She had the rhythmic impulse. She "had rhythm." It was
plainly untutored and executed with abandon and full swing. She
seemed to live herself into the music.
Of course, children differ markedly in this respect, and for very
different and complicated reasons. We see this sort of exhibition in
response to music, which is a form of inceptive dance, in all stages
of primitive life. The free expression of this sort tends to be at-
tenuated or repressed through the forces of maturation and culture.
It is the outstanding characteristic of spirituals and revival singing
but is thoroughly suppressed in the more dignified church service.
It finds rich development in dramatic action, not only in music but
also in the more refined arts of singing and playing.
The sense of rhythm. What we have called the sense of rhythm
is the capacity for hearing and recalling rhythmic patterns with
precision in time. It may also be regarded from the point of view of
intensity in the manner of precision of accent. This capacity can be
measured accurately by employing a graded series of musical
patterns from simplest to very complex and determining what is
the largest pattern an individual can hear and identify correctly.
There are very large individual differences in this capacity in a
normal community of individuals, and experiments have shown
that this capacity is a fairly fixed constant and is elemental to a
considerable degree in that it does not change greatly with age,
practice, or training.
Motor rhythmic capacity. This is the capacity for expressing
rhythmic patterns in music with fine discriminative action. It
underlies all skillful phrasing, both of voice and of instrument.
The natural capacity for this may be measured before musical
education has been undertaken. It consists of determining, under
experimental conditions, what degree of precision the individual
can show in tapping out rhythmic patterns, either by imitating
standard patterns or by setting up his own patterns in metronomic
time.
There are various forms of standardized apparatus for this
purpose. R. Seashore U8iUg first standardized this measure.
It is often stated that great accuracy in the hearing and the
performance of rhythm is not of much consequence because there
is such great irregularity and license in the rhythm of even the
best music. This notion is based on the assumption that rhythm
should occur in metronomic time. The musician, however, knows
RHYTHM 147
that his artistry lies not in maintaining a rhythmic pattern in even
time, but rather in the hearing and making of artistic deviations in
the pattern. This is a far more strenuous demand than a demand for
the setting of the pattern in even time. It is the delicate varying of
pattern interpretations that puts life into the music.
v , PSYCHOLOGY OF RHYTHM
Perhaps more experimental work has been done in the last fit ty
years on the psychology of rhythm than on any other musical
feature. Space does not permit us here even to summarize and
interpret the findings. In recent years, Ruckmick 114 has compiled
comprehensive bibliographies on this subject. Instead of attempt-
ing to summarize the psychology of musical rhythm, the subject is
so divided that it will be discussed in concrete terms under the
heads of Voice, Chap. 20; Violin, Chap. 18; and Piano, Chap. 19.
Sufficient work material in the form of performance scores and
phrasing scores is furnished in these chapters. The subject is
treated more fully in the researches from which these illustrations
wei;e drawn.
^ While rhythm is a conspicuous feature in music, it is also a
dominant element in nearly all phases of our daily life. The term
should, however, be restricted to grouping in accordance with our
definition above, to the exclusion of mere periodicity. It is very
common in scientific circles to speak of mere periodicity as rhythm.
The tick of a clock, for example, is periodic, but it is not rhythmic
unless it is made so by the subjective grouping of the listener.
Biologically, mere periodicity serves many of the purposes that
rhythm serves in human perception and action. But mere perio-
dicity in music has no rhythmic significance. Even a chain of four
exact 1 -second measures without regard to the internal structure
would never make rhythm in music, nor would it in speech or in
dancing. It is the internal organization of the pattern that makes
rhythm in the rhythmic arts and it would tend to clarify language
if, in the sciences and industries, the term were restricted in this
manner. Mere periodicity would never make dancing beautiful.
The rhythm in dancing must represent grace, versatility, surprise,
balance, organization.
We hear much about rhythm in typewriting, where reference
is made only to constant speed. Rhythm plays a very important
role in this activity, in that it aids development of group perception
148 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
and group actions in organized patterns adapted to the individual
capacities. The same thing is true in the industries, where skill
takes the form of gradually developed organized rhythms which are
adapted to the natural capacity of the individual workman.
In this sense of organized grouping of perception or action,
rhythm furnishes the backbone structure of all sports and games of
grace and skill, even the humdrum of the common laborer. It is a
dominant factor in the organization and facilitation of control;
witness the Negro chopping wood or "working on the railroad,"
even setting rhythmic tunes to the accompaniment of his strokes.
But whether the rhythm is consciously present or the rhythmic
impulse is suppressed by demands of culture and efficiency, rhythm
is one of the foundation structures in all motor skills. Perhaps the
poet may find a suggestion here for picturing even the humdrum of
life as involving sweet music if one but has the mind to hear it and
feel it in empathy.
( It is interesting to note that, as in music, the rhythm is not
necessarily set up by the objective situation, but always represents
an active organization on the part of the performer. In sports and
industries it is more necessary that this rhythm should take objec-
tive form. However, it may be in very large part purely subjective
rhythm and yet may play its biological role. )
LEARNING IN MUSIC
THE ordinary procedure in teaching and learning music is shame-
fully wasteful because known laws of learning are not applied.
The teaching of musical notation, ear training, and sight reading
in the public schools could be vastly improved by a simple applica-
tion of a few principles now applied in other subjects. The same is
true in acquiring techniques of skill in performance, in the memoriz-
ing of repertoires, and in the acquisition of knowledge about music.
Psychology of music therefore presents a challenge and a service to
teachers and students alike.*
{The learning process in music involves two primary aspects:
acquisition and retention of musical information and experience,
and the development of musical skills. Both of these are included
in the common use of the term "memory"; thus, we have conscious
memory, which is the making available of stored information and
experience, and subconscious or automatic memory, which is a
phase of habit, such as is exhibited in all the various types of
musical skills in performance.
Musical memory is a talent which is inherited in vastly different
degrees, the differences being greater for this special capacity than
for memory capacity in general; one student may have more than
a hundred times the capacity of another for learning music. Yet
this ability, both in the gifted and in the nongifted, is capable of an
astonishing amount of improvement by training. Training in the
art of learning can accomplish wonders. I
* This chapter is an adaptation from the author's Serviceable Memory, in Psychology
in Daily Life. 1 **
149
150 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
Psychology has furnished more experiments on problems in
learning than in any other field. Volumes of material bearing on
this subject are now available and are being applied in various
fields of learning. Instead of summarizing the facts established
by experiment, I shall put the most fundamental findings in the
form of a series of simple rules for learning music and will state
these rules with utmost brevity and clearness, for the purpose of
motivating students of music in the effort to establish right habits
of learning.
TWELVE RULES FOR EFFICIENT LEARNING
IN MUSIC
(To the pupil)
Learning anything is an act which must be performed by the
learner. It cannot be done for him by the teacher. The only thing
a teacher can do is to assist in creating favorable conditions by
motivation, supply of materials, and general guidance. The first
essential then in facing any learning problem is to place the respon-
sibility where it belongs, namely, on the pupil. This principle is
violated by pupil and teacher alike in much of current instruction
which seems to rest upon the assumption that it is the function of
the teacher to hammer something into a pupil who is sometimes
not only passive but resistant. Let us, therefore, place the respon-
sibility on the pupil who wishes to learn, recognizing that it means
work, pleasant and successful work, on the part of the pupil, and
that the responsibility for this cannot be thrown upon the teacher.
1. Select your field of interest. Select as your object of study
that in which you have a genuine interest, for which you have
natural aptitude, and which you consider worth learning. Make this
a real object to be attained at the sacrifice of many other interests.
If music cannot qualify for you on the three grounds of talent,
interest, and personal value, you should, perhaps, avoid it except
insofar as musical instruction is a routine part of your education.
In music, select first a general field and within this field from
stage to stage a specific aspect or content which you desire to
master. This is merely deciding what you are to do when entering
upon a new enterprise. Knowing exactly what is to be learned is the
first stage of mastery and making a selection on the basis of good
reasons makes the work economical, effective, and pleasant.
LEARNING IN Music 151
2. Intend to learn. This does not mean an occasional or sporadic
intention but a firm decision to give continuity of effort until
mastery is attained. Occasional intention is ruinous because
the exception tends to destroy what has been attained. Teachers
say, "Give attention, concentrate, apply yourself." The present
rule throws the full responsibility upon you for really intending in a
responsible way to reach your goal as a matter of your own choice.
If it is not your personal choice, you should, perhaps, avoid the
pursuit. It should, however, be remembered that some things are
learned for their own sake, and others, for example, reading, are
pursued as tools for the attainment of higher things. The intentions
that count in life are habitual. Therefore, make your intention a
habit and suffer no violations of that habit. When the intention to
remember has become a habit, you will have the feeling of ease,
mastery, and joy of achievement.
3. Trust the first impression. In wrestling, shooting, photo-
graphing in all acts of skill success comes to the one who most
effectively throws his best energies into a single stroke of effort.
In learning something, make a deliberate and deep first impression
and then trust that. Instead of repeating the impression, repeat the
recall or memory. At a given moment you have selected a specific
thing in music that you wish to learn. You approach it with the
habit of intending to master it, and you will save enormous time
and effort if you now trust the first impression, instead of looking or
listening in a blank manner, expecting to get it another time.
Trust the first impression and make this deeper and deeper by prac-
ticing recall instead of reimpression.
This is analogous to the taking of a picture. If you have selected
your object, determined to photograph it, and timed your exposure
properly, you may get a permanent picture from the first impres-
sion; repeating the impression will result in a blur. This principle is
opposed to the rote method by which the learner simply grinds
away blindly, thinking that something will be ground in.
When you take up a new selection, make a rapid survey of its
general characteristics to note what is familiar and what are new
features. Observe or perform the first new feature deliberately,
intending to make this first impression adequate and permanent,
repeating it in recall, or from recall, as often as is necessary to
deepen this first impression; but be determined not to go back for a
second impression. Then take the successive new features in turn in
152 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
the same manner until the whole selection is mastered. This being
done, the individual units can be woven together. Again let us say,
practice each unit, bind the successive units together, but always
by recall and not by repeating impression. Such is the practice
that counts. Trust the first impression and your memory will serve
you well.
4. Classify : learn by thinking. Thinking is meeting new diffi-
culties with deliberation and solving them. If it is a new fact, a
stroke, a phrase, a difficult fingering, note its relation to what you
already know or can do. Recognition of this relationship is the
bond that ties the new to the old, which is the act of learning.
Intelligent learning consists largely in effective classification.
Therefore, fit each new experience into its relationships to what
you already have; that is, classify it deliberately with great preci-
sion and with as full meaning as possible.
The botanist can recognize and recall thousands of plants be-
cause he has the habit of seeing relationships. One plant is like
another in this and that respect; therefore, it belongs to the same
class. Instead of remembering the thousands of individual plants,
the botanist remembers them by types and relationships, each
within the class to which it belongs. So it is in music. Note the
relationship of the new experience, classify it in the first impression,
and it will be yours. For this reason, the first impression should be
very deliberate and should be lingered upon until the details and
character of its meaning are adequately recognized. To the student
who is accustomed merely to grind away, it is difficult to realize
what a short cut to learning this principle furnishes. It is the
key to most of the systems of memory training which have been
famous from time to time in the past.
6. Cultivate concrete imagery. We see, hear, taste, touch, or
smell an object in its presence; we may recall it and see, hear,
taste, touch, or smell it in mental image. For example, last night
I heard a song; at this moment I can close my eyes and hear it,
noting in great detail the characteristics of the rendition. Full,
vivid, and accurate mental imagery is one of the most outstanding
characteristics of a musical mind. It is this that enables the musi-
cian to live in a tonal world. He occasionally hears or performs music,
but far more frequently images it either in recall or in anticipation.
Now our rule in making the first impression is to note details
that aid in classification so that they come back faithfully repro-
LEARNING IN Music 153
duced in the mental image. This concrete and faithful imagery is
most essential in the first recall, immediately after the first impres-
sion, but imagery is closely related to fantasy and fantasy is one of
the best aids to memory in that it gives us striking, interesting, odd,
and lasting impressions which aid in recall. Tie the mental image of
each impression to the next by making a sort of concrete story as
you go along. By this method it is possible for a person of average
memory to learn a list of 50 or 100 words after a single hearing so
that they may be repeated in the correct order.
I asked someone to call out slowly 10 words which apparently
had no connection. He gave me the words "boy," "grass," "glass,"
"pike," "scissors," "ventilation," "bird," "nickel," "fury," and
"gear"; and this was the way my first impression was met and
strengthened by concrete imagery. As the words were recalled I
had this experience:
Boy I see a little barefoot boy
Grass walking in the tall grass;
Glass the stalks of grass crackle like glass under his feet:
Pike therefore he is glad when he sees the open pike.
Scissors His little legs clip like scissors,
Ventilation and his lungs get good ventilation,
Bird for he flies like a bird
Nickel and swings his nickel-plated rod
Fury like fury
Gear because he is now in gear with nature.
Thus, you see, to recall the words in the proper order I had only
to recall my story woven into concrete imagery. Sometimes the
more ridiculous, funny, unnatural, the association, the better a
bond it will be. Any relationship that is striking becomes a good bond.
Teachers of children often use devices to arouse this play atti-
tude; but the gift of doing this well is a personal one, and you should
cultivate your own type of imagery as a tool in learning. As a
matter of fact this is the way we learn in daily life. You remember
Mr. Jones because he made you think of a bulldog, or Mr. Smith
because he made you think of a peacock. At the time, you see the
bulldog and the peacock in concrete mental imagery.
6. Build larger and larger units. At certain advanced stages
we learn by wholes, but the best rule for learning in general is
to learn one small specific thing at a time; then weave these larger
units together, and so on, until the task is completed. In doing this
you acquire the power to learn in larger and larger units. Take
154 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
the analogy of learning to read. The child first learns to see in-
dividual letters, to associate these with sounds, to weave the sounds
into words, the words into phrases, the phrases into clauses, clauses
into sentences, sentences into paragraphs, paragraphs into the
topic as a whole. As he learns to read, reading becomes easier
because he reads in larger and larger units. This is exactly parallel
to sight reading in music, to the performing of music, and to the
interpretation of music.
7. Practice only by recall. This was implied in rule three but is
so important that we must let it stand out in a rule by itself. If
you build in small units in which the first impression is trusted and
immediately recalled in vivid imagery, a progressive mastery of
such units should enable you to practice what has been learned
from memory without looking it up again or being retold. Doing
this is the test of whether or not you are trusting your memory.
Memory is like a friend; trust him and he will be true to you. This
rule requires a careful planning and a well-sustained policy in order
that you may not have any difficulty in practicing by recall instead
of by impression.
8. Rest economically. So far our rules force the concentration of
effort in doing a thing incisively in the first instant. Such effort
cannot be long sustained; but it carries its own reward and more in
that, when your effort has been efficiently concentrated in success-
ful attacks, you will have accomplished in a very short time what
the happy-go-lucky methods would take a very long time to do, and
you are therefore entitled to rest.
Rest should be distributed throughout a learning process so as
to occur in short periods after each small unit that is mastered and
in longer and longer periods in proportion to the size of the unit
that is mastered. Thus, instead of practicing a selection by the rote
method for two hours, work by spurts, allowing yourself complete
relaxation after each unit, and you will have accomplished your
task in but a small fraction of the hour, will have had periodic
relaxation, and will have the remainder of the period for entire
freedom. The ability to do this is an art which not only saves time in
learning but develops those traits of personality in which you show
yourself master of the situation.
Many a music student becomes a nervous wreck from ill-
adjusted study methods in the violation of this rule. Many a
student becomes disgusted with music because he cannot learn by
LEARNING IN Music 155
dull drudgery. The command to rest is fully as important as the
command to work in effective learning, and in general we say,
"Work while you work, and play while you play."
9. Recognize what is learned and express it in action. Recog-
nize your friend and he will recognize you ; cut your friend and he
will cut you. Recognize the thing once learned as it functions in
your life and keep it alive; be slovenly and negligent about its daily
role, and it will cut you.
When, as a child, you learned to walk, the best way of retaining
that skill was to walk. So when you have acquired a skill of insight,
knowledge, feeling, action, or interpretation of music, keep it alive
in action. Do not merely think about it. Treat your music as a good
friend; speak to him, work with him, play with him, laugh with him,
do something for him. Let music function in your life.
10. Review in cycles. Certain types of knowledge, skill, facility,
and efficiency need to be reviewed systematically. This is well
recognized in the organization of teaching of arithmetic in the
grades. A certain process is repeated at higher levels at larger and
larger intervals by the practice of recall or performance. In such
review, the essentials should stand out progressively more clearly.
In any account of learning, we acquire a lot of incidental accretions
in matters of no consequence. One condition of memory is the
power to forget the nonessential or irrelevant. The cycle of review
should tend to eliminate these and let the permanently valuable
stand out in higher relief.
11. Build each new acquisition into a habit. As we grow we
acquire more and more power to do things automatically. The
boy who is just learning to tip his hat to ladies and elders does it
laboriously, grudgingly, and awkwardly. No one is polite unless he
is polite by his very nature. No one acts musically until the tech-
niques have been shoved back into the subconscious where. they
take care of themselves as habits. No one can read music or play or
sing until the fundamental facts and skills have been converted into
habits which function without fail in progressively larger integra-
tions. Only then can a singer sing with feeling and abandon; only
then can the pianist pick up a complicated score and play it at
sight; only then can the conductor inspire unified effort in the
artistic playing of the ensemble.
Historically, there have been two schools of teachers: those who
cultivate conscious attention on a specific element or process in-
156 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
volved at a given stage in musical training, and those who take the
opposite view and say, for example, "Sing naturally and with feel-
ing and pay no attention to how the tone is produced." The
psychological theory combines these two and says, "At the learning
stage, be intensely conscious of the element involved in the par-
ticular that is to be learned, then relegate these elements to habit
and in musical performance give yourself up to the situation as a
whole, guided largely by a feelingful intelligence."
12. Learn at your own level. Great difficulty is involved in class
instruction in music owing to the diversity of talent in a group.
While this is a problem of the teacher, it is ultimately your problem
to see to it that your learning effort is concentrated upon the acqui-
sition, not of what you would have, but what is within your power
of acquisition at the time. Refuse to learn what you already know,
refuse to drill on what you already can perform with skill, insist
upon the privilege of working at your own natural level so that the
task that you undertake is neither too easy nor too hard. A kindly
and sympathetic attitude of this sort will be welcomed by the
teacher and will result in the enhancement of your musical train-
ing. Perhaps most frequently this will mean insistence on going
back and acquiring that which was passed over too lightly in order
that you may have the background for the making of further
progress.
SOME SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS
(To the instructor)
If we evaluate musical instruction in the public schools in
terms of the operation of these rules, we shall reveal a most shocking
waste of time and effort, the formation of demoralizing habits, and
the deadening of musical interest. There are notable and inspiring
exceptions.
When music really lives and functions in the school or in the
individual work, principles of learning, such as those just stated,
may be seen to develop spontaneously and automatically, often
without awareness of their existence by pupil or teacher.
My present appeal is most directly addressed to the teachers of
public-school teachers in music, because they hold the key situation
for the advancement of the science of their art. To make the above
message concrete from the point of view of the teacher, and at the
LEARNING IN Music 157
expense of repetition, let us note in particular some of the ways in
which instruction may be improved on the basis of experimental
psychology of learning, considering in turn notation, ear training,
tone production, and sight reading.
In all these cases the first step is to place responsibility on the
pupils, requiring them to read, or teaching them in an impressive
way to observe simple rules or their equivalents, thus establishing
a cooperative attitude. This of course will place the responsibility
on the teacher for a constant, never-ceasing, and thorough applica-
tion of the rules throughout the instruction. Making the student
want to learn and placing the responsibility on him is the first
element of successful teaching.
Notation. Make a specific list of all the items the grade pupils
should know. Such a list is surprisingly small, particularly if well
classified. Put it on the blackboard and have them write it down as
a check list. Teach it all thoroughly as a unit at one stage. For this
purpose, institute intensive competitive drill. Use memory devices;
for example, a single rule by which a pupil can tell the key and the
number of sharps and flats in a signature by the application of the
rule. Enliven with concrete and striking illustrations.
This conquest of the whole task as a unit will drive away the
notation bogey and boredom and the pupil will be spurred on by
the joy of mastery from the first effort. Keep this notation alive by
treating each item as a familiar fact daily. So organize instruction
that the pupil is conscious of the possession of a useful tool which
he employs for the personal satisfaction and achievement in actual
music.
Institute cycle reviews by competitive tests at intervals longer
and longer apart until the permanent retention is assured; but, if
the previous rule is followed rigorously, this rule will not be needed.
Do not teach the facts after the first learning; use them, prac-
tice recall not relearning.
Last and most important, "Thou that teachest others; teachest
thou thyself ?" Score your instruction by these rules.
In other words, let pupil and teacher take aim, hit hard, bag the
game, and enjoy the dinner.
Ear training. Point out that there are four and only four
fundamental things to be learned in musical hearing: the hearing
of pitch, intensity, time, and timbre. Unless this is recognized, the
task may seem, to both teacher and pupil, endless and unreasonble
158 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
Illustrate each of these by voice, instrument, or Measures of
Musical Talent records to isolate each one from the musical situa-
tion as a whole and make the pupil clearly conscious of what it is
that he is to hear. Give the pupil a concrete concept of each of these
four characteristics, first, in isolation, and, second, in the actual
musical situation. This identification well done is, in large part, the
accomplishment of the whole task. Then, however, measure the
capacity of each individual for these factors and give each his rating
on these four measures. On the basis of this rating (note the basis)
organize competitive drills in each of the four factors in turn in
order that each pupil may be treated at his natural level of suc-
cessful achievement and that no time be wasted in acquiring the
skill he already possesses.
As we are here dealing with inborn capacities, the majority
of pupils will not improve by this training after the concept of
each item has been made fully clear to them at the first stage.
This training is only for the refining of knowledge of what the factor
is, the will to recognize it, the power of application, and the recogni-
tion of its significance, not in an improvement of the ear as such.
Do not blame the pupil with a poor ear for his low capacity;
do not praise the pupil with the superior ear for his fortune. Apply
the Bible parable of the talents : hold each one responsible for what
was given to him.
Keep the ear of the pupil constantly alert to these four factors
in all training, revealing their significance in the hearing of beauty
in music. These four elements having been identified, treat in the
same manner each of the complex processes of hearing, such as
rhythm, consonance, melody, harmony, and movement, analyzing
each into its component elements, and hold the ear responsible
for discriminating identification of what is heard.
At this level of the complex processes the real ear training takes
place for the musical and unmusical alike. A command of the power
of concrete and telling illustration of musical elements is the gift of
the inspiring teacher. The analysis and the synthetic production of
rhythm, harmony, and tone quality by the pupils can be made an
exceedingly interesting game.
Take moral responsibility for checking your performance in
ear training by the parable of the talents.
In the language of the cameraman, encourage the pupil to
spot the object, focus, snap the camera, develop the picture, and
show it to friends.
LEARNING IN Music 159
Tone production. Base the training in tone production on a
clear classification of tonal hearing, both the simple and the com-
plex processes, keeping the pupil clearly conscious at every stage
about what specific factor is to be mastered.
Conduct competitive drills for the mastery of one factor at a
time. In actual singing and playing, use correct technical terminol-
ogy and drill continually in terms of the definable, solable, and
controllable factors. This is, of course, contrary to the common
practice of barely dragging through the selection over and over
again without becoming conscious of specific failures or successes or
even knowing the names of them.
Do not drill the superior pupils on what they already can do;
do not drill the inferior ones on what, after careful analysis, you are
convinced they cannot do. At the most, use the superior ones to
drill the inferior ones. Remember that the greatest returns from
musical instruction should come from the musical pupils and you
have no moral right to block their progress for exhibition purposes.
Use your constructive imagination in developing a pupil's com-
mand of voice or instrument through a conscious command of each
element involved until it becomes automatic, in order that later he
may have at his command a well-organized and serviceable autom-
atism which is a condition for the expression of feeling in music.
Make tone production a part of ear training. This has a double
advantage. It ties up hearing with action and furnishes most excel-
lent opportunity for the vitalizing of both.
In the language of the coach, let us say to pupil and teacher
alike, know your game, keep your eye on the opponent, hit hard,
and make no false moves.
Sight reading. Sight reading is a combination of notation, ear
training, and tone production and furnishes continual training in all.
Organize drills on the basis of capacity for achievement. A class
may be divided into small squads for which pupil leadership is
based upon capacity for command of the situation.
Pass by natural stages from the mechanics of sight reading to
the singing and playing for pleasure and the preparation of reper-
toires. Remember that after all music is, for the great majority, an
avocational interest; something that we do for the joy of doing it.
Introduce progressively the esthetics of music, always in terms
of the media of tonal hearing, tone production, and sight reading,
showing that the feeling of music and the expression of feeling in
music are not beyond description and understanding.
160 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
Bear particularly in mind the principle of establishing habits
without allowing exceptions, the principle of practicing recall
instead of relearning, and the principle of measuring the task for
each pupil in terms of capacity for achievement.
Make the goal of the striving the integration of skills which
furnish the medium through which the musical mind may express
itself with unhampered feeling.
Keep the pupil in the position of an artist who has his colors and
brushes, the skill to use them, an object or ideal to paint, and
expresses himself in the picture.
IMAGINING IN MUSIC
V^ERHAPS the most outstanding mark of the musical mind is
-t^auditory imagery, the capacity to hear music in recall, in
creative work, and to supplement the actual physical sounds in
musical hearing. This subject has received too little attention
in recent years, largely owing to the extreme behavioristic attitude
which ignores the existence of the mental image and partly owing
to the fact that it is a phenomenon whic^n does not lend itself
accurately to psychophysical measurements. jFor the latter reason
it is usually, but unfortunately, omitted in testing programs for
the analysis of musical talent. Personally, I am, however, disposed
to give it a central place and to expect the most immediate and
helpful leads from an informal inventory of the use of mental
imagery.
THE ANALOGY IN SCULPTURE AND PAINTING
The significance of auditory imagery may perhaps be best
recognized through its analogy to the visual imagery of the sculptor
find the painter. A sculptor who has no good visual imagery is a
mere mechanic, modeling by measurements. The visualizing sculp-
tor not only models from memory, often a single impression, but he
sees in anticipation the expression, the type, the temperament,
the "soul" which his creation is to embody. He sees in anticipation
not only the model as a whole, but in terms of the minutest detail
of fact or fidelity, of idealization or action. These features come to
him in turn as the creation grows in his mind, often during the days
and weeks before the first act of modeling or chiseling is begun.
In this wise he lives himself into his character so that the final
work of art in a human bust portrait becomes not only a living
161
162 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
and true representation of the subject, but also the embodiment of
the artist's ideals ways of conceiving, interpreting, mood, favorite
snapshot of the subject in action, or responses and as modes and
models or trial sketches gradually take shape, the material shapes
are critically compared and modified in adjustment to the imaged
creation. The creation is first imaginal. The statue is a representa-
tion of the image, that is, the image gradually built up to represent
the subject faithfully in a mood, pose, or action representing the
artist's conception of his subject. At each stage the imaginal inven-
tion precedes the material treatment. The visual image is the
working tool of the artist's imagination. Without it his workman-
ship would be condemned to mediocrity.
These same principles apply to the workmanship of the painter,
and the analogy is perhaps faithful to an adequate account of
creative power in music. It has been argued that some musicians
do not have this power and the reply is, it has been found that some
musicians are not musical. Certainly some do not have creative
power, either in invention or in interpretation of music, and the
absence of such power often correlates with the absence of musical
imagery, just as the absence of visual imagery often correlates
with mediocrity in painting and sculpture.
COMPAKISON OF MUSICIANS AND SCIENTISTS
^ Normal individuals probably differ more in capacity and mode
of the utilization of mental imagery than in any other mental
capacity. I say "probably" because we have no comprehensive
measurements. Of two equally intelligent normal persons, one may
have the capacity to recall tones or to anticipate tones as clearly
as if they were actually sounded at the moment, and the other may
say with equal certainty that he cannot image any tone at all in
its physical absence. Between these two extremes, normal persons
are distributed on a scale showing relatively few cases near the
extremes and a tendency to bunch toward medium abilities. Em-
ploying the rating scale from The Psychology of Musical Talent 1 * 7
in which, under certain experimental conditions the observers re-
port as follows: 0, no image at all; 1, very faint; 2, faint; 3, fairly
vivid; 4, vivid; 5, very vivid; and 6^ as vivid as in perception,
reports were obtained from three classes of observers as shown in
Fig. 1, where the degree of vividness is indicated by the numbers at
the bottom and the percentage of cases at each level is indicated at
IMAGINING IN Music
163
the side. In this figure, the dot-dash line represents musicians, the
dash line psychologists, and the solid line unselected adults and
children. Unselected adults and children proved to give the same
distribution, and for that reason they are shown in one curve, but
the significant thing for our present purpose is the very marked
distinction between musicians and psychologists, psychologists
being taken as representative of scientists. Fifty-five per cent of the
musicians maintained that their auditory imagery could be as clear
and vivid as in actual perception of the physical tone, and there is a
tendency among all musicians to rate themselves high, whereas the
psychologists, in spite of their professional training in the observa-
tion of imagery, rate themselves comparatively low. When we bear
60
8
ca
8
^\
6 C
\
2Y .
I
FIG 1.
4 3 2
Vividness of the image
-Distribution of ratings in tonal auditory imagery. (Agnew.*) Solid line, unselected
adults and children; dot-dash line, musicians, dash line, psychologists.
in mind that there are inherited tendencies of capacity for mental
imagery, it would seem clear that we have here a basis of selection
for musicianship.
This difference in capacity for imagery has played a large role
in the development of the school of psychological behaviorism,
represented largely by persons in whom mental imagery plays no
important role, even to the extent that many of them deny or
question its reality. I have never known a highly musical-minded
person to be a radical behaviorist one who refuses to assign an
important role to mental imagery.
In fact these large individual differences in capacity for mental
imagery are at the foundation for the choice in vocations, and
especially avocations when well considered. This difference takes
live trends; for example, a person with strong visual imagery and
164 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
weak auditory imagery tends to fall into activities in which his
visual imagery is a distinct asset, as in graphic and plastic arts.
A study of the role of imagery in the minds of composers, as
shown in their letters and autobiographies, throws much light on
this situation. As evidence of this type of testimony, we may
select certain expressions from the writings of Schumann, Mozart,
Berlioz, and Wagner, taken as representative because of their
unquestioned standing as composers. It should be borne in mind
that at the time these composers wrote, the term mental images
was not in current use. In fact, Galton's famous work on this
subject had not yet reached their ears except possibly in the
case of Wagner. They were, therefore, compelled to account for
their experience in various descriptive forms based upon their
immediate experience and couched in improvised terminology. In
order to identify some of these terms, they are italicized in the
following quotations from the gleanings made by Agnew. 95
R. Schumann
From Music and Musicians, translated by F. R. Hitter. Second Series.
London: William Reeves.
"For two long hours this motif rang in my ears' 9 (p. 239).
"He who has once heard Henselt can never forget his playing; these pieces
still haunt my memory like the recollection of a parterre of flowers" (p. 236).
"Though the inner musical hearing is the finer one, the spirit of realization has
its rights; the clear, living tone has its peculiar effects" (p. 177).
"In the pauses of the pianoforte part I am nearly always able to imagine the
filling out of the other instruments" (p. 180).
"I have sung the work over as finely as possible in imagination" (p. 450).
"What the mere fingers create is nothing but mechanism; but that which you
have listened to when it resounded within your own bosom will find its echo in the
hearts of others" (p. 283).
"The creative imagination of a musician is something very different, and
though a picture, an idea may float before him, he is only then happy in his
labor when this idea comes to him clothed in lovely melodies, and borne by the
same invisible hands that bore the 'golden bucket,' spoken of somewhere by
Goethe" (p. 60).
"We advise him not to write at his instrument, but to endeavor rather to
bring his forms from within than to draw them from without" (p. 500).
. From Music and Musicians. First Series. As above.
"I turned over the leaves vacantly; the veiled enjoyment of music which one
does not hear has something magical in it" (p. 4).
"They will be understood by those who can rejoice in music without the
pianoforte those whose inward singing almost breaks their hearts" (p. 263).
IMAGINING IN Music 165
"He is a good musician, who understands the music without the score, and
the score without the music. The ear should not need the eye, the eye should not
need the (outward) ear" (p. 63).
"In a word, the scherzo of the symphony seemed to me too slow, the rest-
lessness of the orchestra, trying to be at ease with it, made this very observable.
Yet what dost thou in Milan care about it all? And I as little, since at any
moment I can imagine the scherzo as it ought to be played" (p. 38).
"It is a pleasant sign if you can pick out pretty melodies on the keyboard;
but if such come to you unsought, rejoice, for it proves that the inward sense
of time pulsates within you" (p. 147).
"When you begin to compose, do it all with your brain. Do not try the piece
at the instrument until it is finished. If your music proceeds from your heart, it
will touch the hearts of others" (p. 417).
"People err when they suppose that composers prepare pens and paper with
the predetermination of sketching, painting, expressing this or that. Yet we must
not estimate outward influences too lightly. Involuntarily an idea sometimes
develops itself simultaneously with the musical fancy; the eye is awake as well
as the car, and this ever-busy organ sometimes holds fast to certain outlines amid
all the sounds and tones, which, keeping pace with the music, form and condense
into clear shapes. The more elements congenially related to music which the
thought or picture created in tones contains within it, the more poetic and
plastic will be the expressiveness of the composition; and in proportion to the
imaginativeness and keenness of the musician in receiving these impressions will be
the elevating and touching power of his work" (pp. 250-251).
From Early Letters. Originally published by his wife. Translated by May
Herbert. London: Bell, 1888.
"You think I do not like your 'Idyllen'? Why, I am constantly playing them
to myself" (p. 293).
"Sometimes I am so full of music, and so overflowing with melody, that I find
it simply impossible to write down anything" (p. 81).
"But if you knew how my mind is always working, and how my symphonies
would have reached Op. 100, if I had written them down" (p. 81).
"During the whole of this letter my 'Exercise Fantastique' has been running
in my head to such an extent that I had better conclude, lest I should be writing
music unawares" (p. 177).
"The piano is getting too limited for me. In my latest compositions I often
hear many things that I can hardly explain" (p. 117).
Mozart
From The Life of Mozart, Including His Correspondence. Edward Holmes
New York: Harper, 1845.
"When I am, as it were, completely myself, . . . my ideas flow best and most
abundantly. Whence and how they come, I know not, nor can I force them. Thos*
ideas that please me I retain in memory and am accustomed, as I have been told,
to hum them to myself. If I continue in this way, it soon occurs to me how I may
turn this or that morsel to account so as to make a good dish of it, that is to say,
166 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
agreeably to the rules of counterpoint, to the peculiarities of the various instru-
ments, etc.
"All this fires my soul, and, provided I am not disturbed, my subject enlarges
itself, becomes methodized and defined, and the whole, though it be long, stands
almost complete and finished in my mind, so that / can survey it, like a fine picture
or a beautiful statue, at a glance. Nor do I hear in my imagination the parts suc-
cessively, but I hear them, as it were, all at once (gleich alles zusammeri). What a
delight this is I cannot tell! All this inventing, this producing, takes place in a
pleasing, lively dream. Still, the actual hearing of the tout ensemble is, after alJ,
the best. What has been produced thus I do not easily forget, and this is perhaps
the best gift I have my Divine Maker to thank for.
" When I proceed to write down my ideas, I take out of the bag of my memory,
if I may use that phrase, what has previously been collected into it in the way I
have mentioned. For this reason the committing to paper is done quickly enough,
for everything is, as I said before, already finished, and it rarely differs on paper
from what it was in my imagination" (pp. 329-330).
Berlioz
From The Life of Hector Berlioz, as Written by Himself in his Letters and
Memoirs. Translated by Katharine F. Boult. New York: E. P. Button, 1923.
"If I had any paper I would write music to this exquisite poem; I can hear it' 1
(p. 117).
"Two years ago, when there were still some hopes of my wife's recovery, . . .
7 dreamt one night of a symphony.
"On awakening I could still recall nearly all the first movement, an allegro in
A minor. As I moved towards my writing-table to put it down, I suddenly
thought:
" 'If I do this, I shall be drawn on to compose the rest . . . ' With a shudder of
horror, I threw aside my pen, saying:
"'Tomorrow I shall have forgotten the symphony. 9
"But no! Next night the obstinate motif returned more clearly than before
I could even see it written out. I started up in feverish agitation, humming it
over and again my decision held me back, and I put the temptation aside. I
fell asleep and next morning my symphony was gone forever" (p. 225).
"Last night I dreamt of music, this morning 7 recalled it all and fell into one of
those supernal ecstasies . . . All the tears of my soul poured forth as I listened
to those divinely sonorous smiles that radiate from the angels alone. Believe me,
dear friend, the being who could write such miracles of transcendent melody would
be more than mortal" (p. 232).
Wagner
From My Life (Authorized Translation). New York: Dodd, Mead, 1911.
"My whole imagination thrilled with images; long-lost forms for which I had
sought so eagerly shaped themselves ever more and more clearly into realities that
lived again. There rose up soon before my mind a whole world of figures, which
revealed themselves as so strangely plastic and primitive, that, when I saw them
IMAGINING IN Music 167
clearly before me and heard their voices in my heart, I could not account for the
almost tangible familiarity and assurance in their demeanor" (p. 314)
In these composers, recognized as representative musicians,
the testimony is clear to the effect that they lived in a tonal world
(auditory imagery). This tonal world is realistic, concrete, penetrat-
ing, and serviceable. They have the power to hear music in anticipa-
tion and in recall. They can select out for hearing particular tone
qualities in the manner that the organist manipulates his stops.
The mental hearing is frequently regarded as of larger resource and
possibilities than the actual hearing. It is certainly resorted to far
more frequently than the actual hearing. From the testimony, we
see how they actually proceed in composing.
Although we have not collected evidence of the kind, it seems
probable that, if we should take the great artists as interpreters
in singing or playing, we should probably find analogous testimony;
for, after all, voice and instrument give us only feeble cues to the
sort of thing that the superior "mind's ear" can hear. A few quota-
tions from letters written by recognized American musicians,
secured by the author for Agnewf will indicate their opinion as to
the use of mental imagery.
"Vivid auditory imagery would seem to make the musically sensitive."
"The difference shows the degree of true musicianship."
"I consider distinct and definite auditory imagery very important. I strive
to develop it in my pupils. With its development comes greater technical accuracy
and better interpretation."
"Auditory imagery is a necessary factor in the higher appreciation of musical
effect."
"The quality of the musician and the soundness of his aesthetic judgment
depend, it seems to me, in large measure on his subjective audition."
"Significance attached to such differences depends upon whether the student
has talent for composition or whether he is merely an interpreter."
"The more musical pupils have the clearer image."
"I aim at the auditory image from the start. Those having clearest imagery
perform most artistically and only as they gain this ability, is music of real cul-
tural value."
"Those who are strong on imagery memorize easily."
" Some students are more awake to musical impressions than others. Students
differ in self -consciousness and the less self-conscious they are, the freer they are
to hear the music mentally."
"Those who have it not should desert music at once."
"The matter of tonal imagery is a vital one in musical training and education.
Together with the ability to hear tones and sense rhythms through the eye while
looking at symbols, this power of mental hearing is fundamental and absolutely
168 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
vital in music education, not only for the singer, the player, and the composer, but
for the intelligent listener as well."
"I have laid stress with my pupils upon developing auditory imagery and
urge them to study new pieces away from the piano at first."
"I consider the development of this faculty a highly important function of
musical education which has been woefully neglected thus far."
" You have found probably the weakest spot in present-day musical training.
I think nearly all children possess the faculty in rudimentary form, with great
possibilities of development; but the training should begin early, and continue
throughout the entire course. The results would be manifold: (1) more composers
and better; (2) better interpreters; (3) more intelligent listeners, whose enjoyment
of music would not only be heightened, but prolonged."
SUPPLEMENTARY IMAGERY
While the musical medium in mental imagery is the auditory
image, imagery through each and all of the other senses may func-
tion in a very prominent way in music. The above quotation from
Wagner illustrates his procedure of visualizing the dramatic situa-
tion as a whole, perhaps with eyes closed in a quiet room, living
through the scene that is to be represented as it comes to him
through all the avenues of sense. The testimony of great musicians
shows them to be peculiarly capable of reliving a situation or living
it in anticipation as a whole. Therefore, although supplementary
imagery may not be essential, high general capacity in all mental
imagery is an advantage to a musician.
But there is one in particular, the significance of which is
but little understood, and that is motor imagery. In motor imagery,
we act and feel the action. This is best illustrated in the case of
the dream. In a vivid dream, the dreamer does not think the dream
or imagine it in the usual sense. The dreamer is always the actor
or an active observer of action. Therefore, when he dreams himself
singing, he has all the experience of performing that comes through
the kinesthetic (motor) sense; that is, in mental imagery he lives
through the same sort of action that he would experience if he were
actually singing. Now in imaging music in waking life, when the
composer or, in rarer cases, the interpreter has an inspiration, he
tends to fall into a sort of dream attitude in which he becomes
oblivious to actual environment and creates within this tonal
world a full setting in action.
The motor image, like the experience of action, is the raw mate-
rial from which emotion is built up. The musician speaks of being
IMAGINING IN Music 169
moved, thrilled, heart- touched, out of himself, carried away, etc.,
always referring to the emotional situation created by the feeling or
imaging of action. Although this has not been investigated thor-
oughly, case study of motor imagery will probably show that this
is the outstanding characteristic of a musical temperament respon-
siveness to the musical situation.
LIVING IN A TONAL WORLD
From the above, it is clear that the mental image, and particu-
larly the auditory and motor images, operates in music in the follow-
ing three ways : (1) in the hearing of music; (2) in the recall of music;
and (3) in the creation of music.
What a listener shall hear in music depends upon what he is,
or is capable of putting into it, that is, hearing into it. Hearing
is not a mere registering of sounds. It is a positive, active process
of reconstruction in the mind of the listener. This may take the
form of enrichment by analyzing and supplementing the objective
sounds, or it may take the form of negative reaction, "hearing"
elements of ugliness and countless irrelevant factors which color
the interpretation of what is being heard. In the highest form of
appreciative listening, we approach the attitude of ecstasy in which
the actual sounds of the tones merely furnish the cues for the
mental reconstruction that proceeds from the mind of the listener.
To a person who is not capable of imagery, there can be no genuine
music, because, like the lines in the crayon sketch, the tones by
themselves, however accurately heard, furnish at the best a mere
skeleton for hearing. In this lies a large part of the lack of capacity
for appreciating music and the explanation of the necessity for
mere formal obeisance to the social functions and amenities attach-
ing to music.
Musical imagery is necessary in all forms of musical memory.
In vivid musical memory we relive the music. The person who does
not have the capacity to do so may recall in abstract terms; such as
the musical notation or even the most refined logical concepts of
elements in performance and musical criticism. But these are only
the cold facts. He does not relive the music. He does not feel those
organic responses which come from the re-reverberations of the
tones in the music at the moment of the recall. He may recall the
exact nature of the elements of beauty, the motif, and the forms of
treatment, and give a complete account of a high order as a musical
170 PSYCHOLOGY OP Music
critic, but, if he does not relive it concretely, the recall is musically
inadequate.
The little triggers in his autonomic nervous system which we
call the glands of internal secretion are not tripped off by cold
ideas; and the result is that the organism as a whole often is not
thrown into effective response, which is the condition for the feeling
of musical emotion. That is, the nonemotional person can recall
the cold facts, but these facts are not the essence of music, the
welling up of the musical emotion. The reason for this is simple
enough. In the performance, it was the concourse of sounds that
played upon the whole organism and stirred the musical emotions
by throwing the organism as a whole into muscular tension, affect-
ing digestion, perspiration, pose, stability, breathing, and circula-
tion; but, if the sounds do not come back in recall, this organic
reaction will be wanting, and the recall will be cold facts in mechan-
ical array.
The image is necessary for realistic anticipation in musical
thought, especially in relation to creative work. This has been
amply illustrated in the above section on the testimony from com-
posers. It may be said that all that is needed for this purpose is
imagination. Now it is quite possible to have imagination that is of
the pure, abstract, and cold-fact type, as in certain phases of
mathematics and philosophy. Scholars in general speak freely of the
operation of imagination without stopping to describe whether it
has the experiential aspect of active imagery. We often speak of
fantasy as if it meant nothing; whereas fantasy the world over has
always been very realistic in ungovernable excursions into fancied
realities. The term "imagination" in psychology designates the
ideal or logical aspect of the mental act, whereas the image desig-
nates those aspects in which the idea takes on, to some extent, a live
aspect of actual realization.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF IMAGERY
While the tendency to live in the world of representation which
we call imagery in a vivid, precise, and indispensable manner is
unquestionably an inherited trait with marked individual differ-
ences, it is equally true that, given a natural facility for imagining, it
can be developed both by incidental use and by deliberate training.
The development of imagery is analogous to the development of
thinking where there is a natural, inherited capacity in this direc-
IMAGINING IN Music 171
tion. The development consists largely in forming the habit of
noting relationships which become fixed in memory so that when a
situation is anticipated or recalled the image presents it in accurate
and vivid detail.
In the second place, it is due to growing information, knowledge,
learning, ideas, and ideals to be imaged. We say of perception that
what a man shall see or hear depends upon what he is certainly
upon what he knows and wants to know, and upon his necessity of
knowing it for practical purposes. The same is true of the image, but
to an even greater extent, on the ground of its larger availability.
The opportunity for seeing the "Sistine Madonna" is limited by
conditions of travel; but, having once been seen, it becomes, in a
sense, a companion in life who may be visited in the mind's eye,
admired, and perhaps even embellished from time to time with
ideals of beauty not actually present in the original picture. The
same is true of hearing a great musician. For those musical minds
who have heard him, Caruso lives not only in the knowledge about
his artistic singing, but in the capacity for vivid rehearing of his
song.
Development of imagery is perhaps analogous to the develop-
ment of memory. With any given degree of inborn capacity there is
certain possibility of improvement, and the magnitude of this
possible improvement increases perhaps in geometric ratio with
the quality of the inborn capacity; but, as in memory, it is by the
exercise of his capacity that it grows, and the exercise is facilitated
by natural ease, which is our inborn talent, and by the service it
renders in life situations.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN MENTAL IMAGERY
A rating scale for mental imagery should be in every battery of
measures of musical talent. Such a scale is found in the author's
Psychology of Musical Talent. 1 * 1 It is different from the regular
measures in that it is largely subjective. It calls for self -observation
and is at the best merely a self-rating, a rating under specific
conditions, which should make it rather significant. This rating is
often a revelation to the person who takes it because it does show in
a surprising way how different one may be from other people in
this respect. One person may have auditory imagery as vivid,
exact, and stable as the actual perception of the sound; whereas,
172 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
another person equally intelligent may not be able to recognize any
auditory imagery in his mental life.*
Types of imagination in music. Elsewhere 137 1 have developed a
classification of types of musical imagination in terms of which we
can readily classify musicians with whom we are acquainted. Basic
types in such a classification are the sensuous, the intellectual, the
sentimental, the impulsive, and the motor. Any given individual
may be dominantly of one of these types but ordinarily the per-
sonality represents the integration of two or more. If well
developed, such a type may be called the balanced imagination.
* Jaeobsen has performed a series of fundamental experiments demonstrating
the operation of mental imagery in purely neurological terms by what is known
as the action-current technique. By this method physiological psychologists can
detect and measure the flow of nerve impulses discharging from the brain into a
muscle. For example, he may tell his subject, "When I say 'go' raise your right
arm, raise your left arm, kick your right foot, kick your left foot." For each case
his instruments will show that a certain volley of nerve impulses are discharged
into the appropriate muscle. To demonstrate the neurological background for a
mental image he would change the instructions as follows: "When I say 'go'
imagine don't move but imagine clearly the lifting of your right arm, left
arm, etc." In a very high percentage of cases he got the appropriate discharge of
nerve impulses from the brain into the muscles that he got for the actual move-
ment, but not strong enough to cause the actual movement. When he put the
measuring instrument on the left arm and said, "liaise your right arm," there
was no response in the left arm, but when the instrument was attached to the
right arm the discharge occurred.
15
THINKING IN MUSIC
HERE we must face the analysis of a question which has been a
bogey of the musical profession and the butt for scurrilous
remark and generally an occasion for exhibiting ignorance about the
nature of intelligence; namely, Are musicians, as a class, intelligent?
Let us consider this question from three points of view: 1. Why has
the question arisen? 2. What is intelligence? 3. How do musicians
rate?
THE ISSUE
The question has arisen as a result of a number of outstanding
aspects of the musical situation which we may note in the following :
Musical education. Until recently, musical education has been
narrow, formulated and controlled from an artistic point of view
alone. This has been regarded as a necessity because the highest
achievements in music are often gained at the expense of sacrifice
of other education. It is illustrated in the character of music schol-
arship, music teachers, musical degrees, musical leadership. The
iionmusical world has, therefore, made the pronouncement that
musicians as a class do not get the privilege of an intellectual life,
do not develop sympathies with science, history, or philosophy, or
marked ability in these fields. In this there is a large element of
truth; but the situation is being redeemed by the modern recogni-
tion of music as a legitimate part in the academic curriculum, as it
was in ancient Greece when music was recognized as one of the
learned arts.
The esthetic attitude. The lifework of the musician is that of
creative art. He lives in a world of images, imagination, fiction, and
fancy, as contrasted with the rest of the population which, sup-
17$
174 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
posedly, lives in a world of facts and objects. This, again, is true and
to a certain extent necessary and commendable, but there is dan-
ger of counting it against intelligent behavior.
Poetic intuition. Insofar as a musician exhibits insight and learn-
ing, he tends to develop a life of poetic intuition. It is generally
admitted that great poets express profound truths often transcend-
ing the realms of science or philosophy, and that these are reached
through a sort of inspiration and are expressed in figurative lan-
guage, the effectiveness of which depends upon the outsider's
ability to put himself in the artistic mood of the poetical situation
and give reality to the prophetic and highly imaginative revelation.
This is true to a certain extent and may be justly regarded as an
indication of the musician's superior understanding of some part of
the world in which he lives. It tends to make him lonely and to
capitalize his feeling of superiority as the keeper and master of
great artistic truths.
Life of feeling. Musicians as a class are of the emotional type.
Their job is to play upon feeling, to appreciate, to interpret, and to
create the beautiful in the tonal realm. To be successful, the
musician must carry his audience on a wave of emotion often
bordering on the point of ecstasy. While doing this involves intel-
ligence and intelligent action, the medium through which he works
is feeling, not factual material objects or abstract philosophies.
This, again, is to a large extent necessary and to be commended.
The musical mind comes into the world with an hereditary bent in
this direction.
Social detachment. As a result of the above four' situations, the
musician is often found to be impractical, unadapted for business,
industry, or logical pursuits which have social significance. He
specializes so highly in his emotional control of the social group and
of his own affairs that he becomes the butt of criticism from persons
who regard themselves as successful in practical life, and especially
in regard to science and common sense. This is one of the penalties
of specialization which should be borne with patience, but hardly
with pride.
Musical prodigies. It is a notorious fact that some children are
born with a sort of flair for one-sided development in the astonish-
ing exhibition of certain types of musical skill, entirely unsupported
by ordinary intelligence, reason, or ability to make practical
adjustments. History reveals records of musical prodigies who, from
THINKING IN Music 175
the point of view of intelligence, are correctly classified as morons.
They are found in institutions for the feeble-minded and in all
society, even that of the successful public entertainer. These are
sports. They are rare, and yet they throw much light on the matter
of musical talent and the marvelous resources that nature exhibits
for self-expression.
Musical genius. We speak of a musical prodigy when music
exhibits itself as a spontaneous outbreak in the life of the child and
results in very exceptional achievement. We speak of musical
genius when the same type of spontaneous exhibition is carried on
a higher plane, even beyond that obtainable by the most highly
educated. While the term "genius" may be applied to a life de-
veloped in balanced proportions, as that of Paderewski, the most
conspicuous geniuses of music have been one-sided, unbalanced, and
impractical. Such geniuses have appeared particularly in the
exhibition of technical skill in performance, but also, though rarely,
at the creative level. At the latter stage, they are analogous to the
mathematical genius or the genius for invention, but they live a
life of isolation which brands them as often lacking in common
intelligence, in spite of the fact that their acts in their field of
achievement are superintelligent.
Temperament. All the above characteristics seem to come to a
focus in musical temperament which is characterized by the
fact that it represents a life of impulse and feeling, extreme sensi-
tivity and capacity for a high degree of specialization. It frequently
results in frictions and clashes with the established order. The
musical temperament is essential to the musical life, but it is often
cultivated artificially and most of the opprobrium attached to it
pertains to this affectation which may penetrate into each and
every aspect of the musical life in society. Jastroiv^ in his Qualities
of Men gives a masterly analysis of this problem.
THE NATURE OP MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE
In answer now to the primary inquiry, it is necessary for us to
ask: What constitutes musical intelligence? There is great diversity
of opinion as to the meaning of intelligence. There are scores of
definitions and terms, each representing some more or less limited
aspect of the function. According to Stoddard and Wellman's 1 * 6
most recent analysis, a person is intelligent to the extent that he is
given habitually to behavior which is characterized by: (1) diffi-
176 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
culty; (2) complexity; (3) abstractness; (4) economy; (5) adaptive-
ness to goal; (6) social value; and (7) emergence of originals. Let
us apply these criteria to the intelligent behavior of the musician.
Difficulty. All intelligent behavior pertains to the solving of
problems, not only the problems in abstract, logical situations, but
all sorts of problems in daily life which pertain to effective adjust-
ment. The capacity, will, and persistence shown in attacking diffi-
cult problems are a mark of intelligence. The more intelligent a
person is, the more difficult problems he is ready and willing to
tackle.
Complexity. A problem may be difficult but simple. The ability,
willingness, and success in dealing with problems of increasing
complexity through sustained deliberation are marks of intelligence.
Abstractness. The successful solution of problems involving
increasing difficulty and complexity is characterized by the ability
to deal with them in abstract symbols, ordinarily spoken of as
concepts and judgments in the act of reasoning.
Economy. The ability to accomplish the most mental tasks in
the least time is a mark of intelligence. Intelligent behavior is not a
matter of trial and error, but consists in the economic and logical
utilization of the insight resulting in premises based on previous
experience.
Adaptiveness to goal. Seeing the problem, anticipating the
solution, and adhering to the blue print, figuratively speaking, are
marks of intelligent behavior.
Social value. Limiting the pursuit of problems to those which
have social value is a mark of intelligent behavior and distinguishes
it from equally difficult, complex, abstract, economic, and planned
activities in all degrees of insanity or sporadic behavior.
The emergence of originals. The discovery of new and funda-
mental truths by a process which is verifiable is the highest achieve-
ment of intelligent behavior.
If this analysis is right, we come to the conclusion that intelli-
gent behavior is a solution of problems of increasing difficulty,
complexity, abstractness, necessity for economy, social value, and
the discovery of truth. Now it is evident that these are all situa-
tions which the musician must meet to the extent that he is a
rational being. Musical life demands intelligent experience and
intelligent behavior in the processes of maturation, education, and
the entire, serious pursuit of the art.
THINKING IN Music 177
This intelligence is based upon both hereditary and environ-
mental factors, and in the total population we find that there are
enormous differences due purely to heredity and other differences
due entirely to environment. The maturing personality is a product
of both. Therefore, when we say that one person is more intelligent
than another, we should take into account the raw material in the
form of capacity furnished by heredity and the molding of the
material through maturation in experience and training. It is a
commonplace observation that a person's status in life is deter-
mined in large part by the degree and kind of intelligence. This is
strikingly illustrated by elaborate statistics which came out of the
mental testing program in the army.
In predicting success in musical education, we must always take
intelligence into account. Thus, daring the 10-year experiment in
the Eastman School of Music, Stanton 11 * employed what was known
as a comprehension test. Rating on this single test has proved a very
valuable index to the degree of achievement that may be predicted
for the pupil, should he pursue his musical education. Any good
intelligence test, however, will answer the purpose.
HOW MUSICIANS HATE
After this sketchy survey of the problem, we are now prepared
to give some tentative replies to the question under consideration :
On account of the emotional bent and the necessary activities in
art, musicians live largely in the world of feeling and as a class have
sacrificed much in intellectual pursuits for their artistic goal. Their
learning is more contingent upon the feeling of appreciation and
emotional action than upon facts and reasoning. Therefore, the
cultivation of scientific and abstract thinking has been generally
neglected in musical education. On the other hand, the musical
profession makes as high a demand upon the intelligence as any
other profession. Rating on intelligence as a supplement to measure-
ment of musical talent is one of the best indices for the prediction
of success in musical education or a musical career. The distribution
of intelligence in musical activities is probably analogous to the
distribution of intelligence in any field, such as the army, where
there is a place for the corporal as well as the general.
NATURE OF MUSICAL
FEELING
IN setting out divisions, such as imagination, memory, intelli-
gence, and feeling, there is no implication that these are separate
faculties or parts of the mind. These terms simply characterize
certain dominant aspects of experience and behavior as a whole.
All perception involves memory, intelligence, and action; all feeling
involves perception, imagination, action, etc. The organism always
responds as a whole, yet in the analysis of the total response, it is
convenient to isolate dominant characteristics. The most illusive
of these old concepts of psychology is feeling.
Perception always has reference to the concrete, the objectively
definable thinking always deals with concepts, logical and analyza-
ble; but the affective life is scientifically less tangible and intelligi-
ble, although it may be the most violently responsive.
Fundamentally, all action in normal behavior represents either
attraction or repulsion, liking or dislike, agreeableness or disagree-
ableness. Music deals with the feeling of agreeableness, liking, and
attraction, but by contrast of the setting, it must always deal
with their opposites, the disagreeable, the repulsive, and the
unattractive, even if only for elimination.
DETERMINED BY CAPACITIES
Musical feeling, like all other feeling, is aroused in proportion
to a certain sensitiveness to objects, either physical, mental, or
ideal. A person who is sensitive to a difference of 0.01 of a whole-
tone step responds to the musical situation in an entirely different
affective way than the person who cannot hear any less than a
178
NATURE OF MUSICAL FEELING 179
quarter or a half tone. He will like or dislike only what he can hear,
and the sensitive person, therefore, has vastly greater occasion for
affective response to pitch than the person who is not sensitive
to pitch. This is even more true in the realm of images, ideas,
and emotions. Images of pitch, memories of pitch, thoughts of
pitch, emotions aroused by pitch, skills in the performance of
pitch, all call forth feelings of attraction or repulsion, agreeableness
or disagreeableness; but the person who is sensitive to pitch has
vastly greater resources in these higher mental processes than the
person who is not. In other words, a person who is pitch-conscious,
likes to hear pitch, is likely to build his memories, ideas, and skills
in terms of this medium, but always living under the delicate
balance of seeking the agreeable and attempting to avoid the
disagreeable.
The same is true of the sense of intensity, the sense of time, and
the sense of timbre. The degree of sensitiveness to one or all of
these determines the number of objects or experiences to which he
can respond affectively. The highly sensitive person lives in a vastly
larger field than the less sensitive, and he is more likely to select his
pursuits of life in those fields within which he has the greatest
resources, the largest number of pleasures, the greatest power. This
is the reason for the quite generally recognized classification of
musical minds into the tonal, the dynamic, the temporal, and the
qualitative. The musician may be born with superior capacity in
one or more of these, and, as a result, he concentrates his interests
around the use of these capacities in which he has the greatest
power.
What is true of sensitivity for each of the attributes of hearing is
true for each of the different sense modalities. The person with high
sensitivity for color and strong visual imagery tends to find his
outlets in this field and to be dominantly conscious by responses of
attraction and repulsion within this field. This is particularly true
in the stronger feelings, usually called emotions, which result in
marked outward expression.
INTENSIFIED BY PURSUIT
Hearing and sight are the two dominant senses, followed, per-
haps, by the kinesthetic sense as third in order. The artist in
graphic and plastic arts tends to live in a visual world ; the musician
in an auditory world, though never exclusively. Affective situa-
180 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
tions and tendencies toward affective response are increased and
intensified by the pursuit of a person's fortes. Thus, a musician
who is of the tonal type develops more and more power of discrimi-
nation, a richer storehouse of experience, and, therefore, stronger
affective reactions in music in which melody and harmony, with
their vast array of variants, play the dominant role; whereas one
whose forte is in the temporal field enriches his opportunities for
feeling dominantly in that aspect of music.
CHARACTERIZED BY INTELLIGENCE
AND MOTOR SKILLS
The limits and characteristics of the affective life of a musician
are set largely by the limits of his intelligence or natural aptness in
motor skills. What a person shall like or dislike depends upon the
degree of comprehension that he has. This is not peculiar to music;
it is true of mathematics, literature, and science. There are very
few who can develop genuine enthusiasm for Einstein's mathe-
matics. The limits of affective life are determined also by the
natural capacity for developing motor skills, as in instrumental
performance or mastery of voice.
TRANSFER TO OTHER SITUATIONS
Since the business of the musician is to produce, to create the
beautiful, he is always beauty-conscious, or, the reciprocal, ugly-
conscious. This attitude of expressiveness transfers, so that the
musician is perhaps more likely than others to be beauty-conscious
or beauty-expressive in relation to all other things in life, such as
food, dress, and other comforts. One of the results of this is the
tendency to develop irritability and oversensitiveness to all sorts
of situations. The experimental work dealing with such problems is
extensive but, on the whole, slushy and unsatisfactory. While it may
be interesting to know what we like or dislike, such inquiries do
not satisfy scientific curiosity. In Chap. 8, we laid down the
criteria of scientific experiments in music. If we apply these to the
semiscientific and so-called practical material in current publica-
tions on musical feeling, very little will stand the fire test.
Terms expressive of feeling are dealt with in numerous parts of
this book. As far as we know, the analysis of feeling for beauty and
the expression of beauty in the vibrato represent scientific proce-
dure of the type we must look forward to and follow in the future.
NATURE OF MUSICAL FEELING 181
It reveals quantitatively the factors that make for beauty of tone;
it identifies the corresponding elements in the feeling for tone and in
the expression of this feeling. It deals with scientific facts system-
atically, one at a time.
Analogous to this is the psychological approach to the problem
of consonance-dissonance. The documenting of performance scores
and phrasing scores throughout the present volume contributes
vast material for the study of how to arouse agreeable feeling in
music. After all, the psychology of musical feeling hinges upon the
general psychology of feeling and emotion. The specialist in music
cannot go far without taking this larger point of view.
17
TIMBRE OF BAND AND
ORCHESTRAL INSTRUMENTS
WE may best illustrate the nature and characteristics of timbre
by considering quantitative descriptions of instruments in
terms of their timbre spectra.
The recordings were made in an acoustically treated room which
we speak of as the "live" room. This "musically acceptable" studio
is a compromise between a good concert hall and a dead room. The
timbres here represented embody two aspects of tone production,
the instrument itself plus the room, as is characteristic of all music.
The reverberations of the room play an exceedingly important role
and vary significantly with many factors which it is essential to
keep as constant as possible in recording.
Recent experiments show that we obtain different spectra for
recordings in the dead room from those in the live room for the
simple reason that here the tone is a tone of the instrument itself
and is not modified significantly by the room; yet, even in a dead
room, there are variable factors, such as the relation of the position
of the player to the microphone. In general, the live room tends to
reinforce low partials through resonance at the expense of high
partials. Therefore, the true spectrum for any instrument by itself,
as recorded in the dead room, shows weaker low partials and
stronger high partials than in an actual music room.
It must be clearly understood that all spectra are subject to
considerable variability depending upon the character of the in-
strument, the skill of the player, the relative intensity of the
tone, the resonance of the room, and many other factors. On the
182
TIMBRE OF BAND INSTRUMENTS 183
whole, however, the group of tones presented for each instrument
may be regarded as fair samples taken under favorable circum-
stances for recording in a musically acceptable room.
The tones here presented were recorded and analyzed with the
Henrici harmonic analyzer (see Frontispiece) by Dr. Donald
Rothschild. The analysis was carried through 20 partials for each
tone.
The players of the bassoon, the clarinet, the flute, the oboe, and
the French horn were members of the wood-wind ensemble of
Bachman's band. The remaining players were soloists from the
university band. Each performer played the equivalent of an
arpeggio covering the acceptable range of his instrument. Each tone
was played twice, once/ and once p, the player being free to inter-
pret/ and p in the conventional way.
The description of instruments given in this chapter is restricted
to the barest identification of the outstanding features which are
shown in the spectra. A full account of the instrument would, of
course, take into account historical development, the physical
principles involved in the construction, various methods of
energizing, the limits of variability, and many practical observa-
tions based upon actual performance, as well as upon the musical
demands. Our main object here is merely to illustrate what a
quantitative description in terms of timbre shows and means.
The meaning of harmonic analysis and the methods of graphic
representation were explained in Chap. 8, to which we may refer
for explanation of the tables and the figures in the present chapter.
It will be recalled that the relative significance of a partial is
expressed in terms of the height of a bar and that the decibel scale
is preferred over the percentage-of-energy scale because it shows
degree of perceptibility of each partial.
The frequency scale is given at the bottom. The fundamental
pitch of the tone is given for its first partial. Decibels are repre-
sented on the vertical scale of 30 units. Loud tones are represented
by solid bars, soft tones by open bars. The small circle indicates
absence of a partial.
The first example, the bassoon, will be described in some detail,
but the remaining examples must pass with bare mention, the
reader being left to look in the spectra for the answers to numerous
questions of his own. To supplement the nine instruments in this
chapter we have further illustrations for the violin in Chap. 18.
184 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
As was explained in Chap. 8, the reading from the harmonic
analyzer constitutes a table expressing for each partial the per-
centage of the total energy in the tone that resides in this partial.
Thus in Table I for the bassoon, we see that the highest tone G 523
has but three partials in the strong tone and two in the weak. We
see also that 87 per cent of the strong tone and 96 per cent of the
weak tone lie in the first partial, the fundamental. On the other
hand, the lowest tone, E 82, is very rich. The largest portion of
energy lies in the sixth partial, and the lower partials are relatively
weak.
Please note that the tables are in terms of percentage of energy,
and the tone spectra in this chapter are in terms of their decibel
values as in Fig. 2i in Chap. 8. This accounts for the difference
between the tables and the graphs. Spectra like Fig. 2a in Chap. 8
could, of course, be made from the tables. In the tables, partials
which have less than 1 per cent of the energy are not listed, but
the spectra may show some of them significant.
Now let us take the concrete facts, stated numerically in Table
1 and represented graphically in Fig. 1, and see what they tell us
about the timbre of the bassoon.
TABLE I. THE BASSOON
Percentage of energy in each partial
C-523
/;
87
9
4
P'
96
4
G-392
/:
41
50
4
5
p:
84
14
1
1
E-329
/
40
29
25
5
p:
71
22
7
1
C-262
f:
2
96
1
1
P'
5
95
G-194
f:
1
88
10
1
P :
1
79
19
1
E-163
f:
10
87
2
1
p:
12
86
1
1
C-130
f:
8
58
23
10
0001
p:
4
14
52
29
1
G-97
f:
1
1
7
25
59
7
P>
2
2
4
62
25
5
E-82
f:
2
9
6
9
49 23 1 1 1
P'
11
3
2
16
4
42 2 1 16 1
ParUala
1
2
3
4
5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
TIMBRE OF BAND INSTRUMENTS
185
h i.
H
11
1"
^
_i_L
$
1
.
?
L ,o_
^
^n
oil
*
I ,.
1
*ji j
J ]j
T
=
II
&
1 CSj
ii
Jl
Hill
J..,
S 67891 2 345 67891 2
50 KX) WOO
Cj C 2 Cj C 4 C$ C<
FIG. 1. The bassoon.
186 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
THE BASSOON
1. The "bassoon quality " resides in the region of 500 ~, which
is the dominant resonance region, or formant, for this instrument.
Sighting vertically in the columns of the spectra, we see that all
the long bars, representing dominant energy of the tone, tend to
follow a vertical column directly above 500 ~ for all frequencies.
None of the partials falls exactly at 500 ~ but it can be seen that
there is a distinct gravitation of the dominant partials toward that
point. This grouping of strong partials in one region is explained
physically by the fact that this is the dominant resonance region of
this instrument.
2. The lower the tone the less significant the low partials become.
Thus the lowest loud tone has 49 per cent of the energy in the sixth
partial and 23 per cent in the seventh. There is only 2 per cent in the
fundamental, no energy in the second partial, 9 per cent in the third,
6 per cent in the fourth, and 9 per cent in the fifth. The same princi-
ple holds for the next higher tones, 97~, 130~, 163^. Indeed, for
130~ and 163~ there is no energy in the fundamental, that is, the
first partial.
Yet we do hear the fundamental very clearly in these low tones
as well as in the highest. This is due to the principle we discussed in
the chapter on Pitch; namely, that low tones have relatively little
energy in the fundamental, but that in hearing the fundamental is
reinforced by a series of subjective tones which represent the dif-
ference tones generated by the other partials. Thus the difference
between the first and second partials is 82 ~, the difference between
the second and third is the same, and so on. Each of these generates
a difference tone, always of the same pitch as the fundamental, so
that the strength of the fundamental becomes cumulative. That is
what makes the fundamental stand out so clearly in hearing. Other
types of subjective tones operate in like manner, each according to
its own formula.
3. As the fundamental pitch rises, the tone becomes thin and
pure, so that for the highest three tones the dominant energy is in
the first partial for the soft tone: 96 per cent in the highest, 84 per
cent in the next lower, and 71 per cent in the next lower tone. In the
bassoon, this is due to the fact that the fundamental for the high
tones falls within the dominant resonance region of the instrument.
This is characteristic of many instruments: the higher the tone
TIMBRE OF BAND INSTRUMENTS 187
within the register of the instrument, the more nearly it may
approximate a pure tone. In other words, orchestral instruments
reveal more of their differences in timbre in their lower registers
than in their higher registers.
4. In general, the highest partials, though few, are more con-
spicuous in high tones than in low tones.
5. There is an observable difference in the timbre of loud tones
and soft tones for all parts of the register. Accessory noises and
inharmonic elements, not here represented, are prominent in the
strong tones.
Here we have answered five questions about the beauty of this
musical instrument in analytical and quantitative terms. The pur-
pose of the illustration has not been to state all observable facts
but rather to create a clear picture in the mind of the reader of how
characteristics of a particular instrument may be studied and
described. The illustration should give us a clean-cut conception as
to how the characteristics of an instrument can be defined and in
what languages we can couch these definitions. Each principle that
has been demonstrated suggests a variety of other principles which
might be discussed if space permitted.
These dry facts may create a vivid and functional sense of
familiarity with this instrument. Instead of accepting the variety
of tone qualities as an irrational chaos, this line of reasoning shows
how science dispels the confusion, by analyzing the tone into its
component elements, which can be verified by exact measurements
and described and defined in terms of verifiable concepts. This
somewhat detailed description and interpretation for the bassoon is
given as an example of the reading and interpretation of the data.
THE CLARINET
Here we have a picture which differs radically from that of the
bassoon. The most outstanding characteristic is the dominance of
the fundamental.
Voxman, 20Ba who has recently made a thorough study of the
quality of the clarinet tone with recordings in the dead room, has
reached among others the following conclusions:
1. There is no evidence of a fixed formant as the determinant of clarinet
timbre.
2. There is no consistent concentration of energy in any specific partial.
188 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
3. Both odd- and even-numbered partials exist but the odd-numbered par-
tials predominate throughout. This predominance decreases with an increase of
the fundamental frequency.
4. The acoustic spectrum for a tone of a given frequency is definitely a function
of the intensity level: the louder the tone played, the more extended is the series
of overtones and the greater their intensity relative to the fundamental.
5. For a given dynamic level the relative energy in the fundamental increases
with frequency.
6. The lower partials in the spectrum are decidedly weaker when the record-
ing is made in the dead room than in the live room.
7. Sonance affects our hearing of the timbre of the clarinet because this
instrument is exceptionally capable of maintaining a constant wave form in a
sustained tone played by an artist.
THE FRENCH HORN
The French horn has a definite resonance region, spreading from
200 to 600 ~. The wide and well-balanced spread of partials within
this region gives the rich and mellow characteristic to the horn. It is
noticeable that the dominance of this region is so strong that the
fundamental is practically absent below 150 ~. There is no marked
consistency in the distribution of energy corresponding to the basic
loudness of tones.
THE BARITONE HORN
This horn has a very rich tone in the middle and the lower
registers. There are two formant regions, one at 130 to 250 ~ and
the other around 300 to 800^. The first makes the fundamental
prominent in the 130, 173, and 220 ~ tones. The second is especially
marked in the highest three tones. This wide spread of partials gives
the characteristic richness of this tone, although in the highest
register a pure tone may be produced. There is a tendency for the
loud tones to have more energy in higher partials.
THE CORNET
The cornet gives rich tones in all registers. The first partial is
comparatively weak in the 194 and 294 ~ tones. On the whole, the
timbre remains fairly uniform throughout all registers. There is a
tendency for the energy of the louder tones to be shifted to the
higher partials.
THE SLIDE TROMBONE
The trombone closely resembles the French horn in that the
dominant region is between 200 and 1,000~, without any evidence
TIMBRE OF BAND INSTRUMENTS 189
of sharp formants but with a fairly marked peak between 250
and 500 ~. All fundamentals below 200^ are weak or relatively
absent. The strong fundamentals in the highest three tones indicate
the peak response of "the region they represent. There is no con-
sistent shift of energy for the difference in the loudness of the tones.
THE FLUTE
The flute gives the purest and thinnest tone of all orchestral
instruments. The fundamental contains 100 per cent of the energy
in the highest tones and there are only five partials in each of the
lowest two. This perhaps is the characteristic to which we refer
when we speak of any tone as being flutelike. The pure flute timbre
is best sustained in soft tones. How radical the change may be for
loud tones is shown in the first two partials.
THE OBOE
The body of tone lies in the region from COO to 1,500~. The
very rich and widely spread formant around this region is what
gives the characteristic of this oboe.
THE TUBA
The tuba has a resonance region between 100 and 300 ~.
Indeed, for the lowest tone the first and second partials are practi-
cally absent, the energy lying mainly in the third and fourth. It
is this region which gives the characteristic tuba tone. In the higher
registers the tones are strikingly pure and, therefore, identical
with tones from other instruments in their upper registers.
It is very tempting to extend this chapter indefinitely because
it touches upon countless live issues in music and suggests the
possibility of objective solution, classification, and description.
Likewise, it is exceedingly tempting to review various issues
which come up throughout this book in relation to their significance
in the present illustrations, such as the relative absence of low
fundamentals, the similarity of instrument and voice, and the
implications for the building of new instruments. While we have
attempted to simplify at every turn, we have also shown the danger
of oversimplification, such as the assumption that a given wave
form represents a given instrument or remains the same from wave
to wave.
Aside from insight into the structure of the tone which harmonic
analysis has given us, such analysis will be in the future a constant
190
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
Df-1245
Al-932
G-784
Df-622
P-
P'
97
94
70
70
90
95
93
TABLE
1 2
6
1 19
5 24
3 4
5
2
II.
1
7
1
THE CLARINET
2
1
1 3
P-
99
1
A/-466
/:
18
42
1
10
10 7
P'
66
2
8
8
12
1 1
G-392
f:
38
36
5
13
0112
P :
71
1
26
1
Df311
f:
27
47
5
8
3
1231
P:
93
6
Af-232
f:
63
19
10
402
P:
73
15
3
205
G-195
f:
67
2
18
1
9
P'
86
3
8
2 1
D#-155
f:
35
6
8
44 02110012
P'-
77
4
7
5
7 1
Partials
1
2
3
4
5
6
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
TABLE III.
THE
FRENCH HORN
BM66
f: 90
9
1
p: 86
12
2
A-440
/: 99
1
p: 26
73
1
F-349
/: 66
29
4
1
p: 94
6
A-220
/: 26
31
26
5
9 2
p: 77
6
14
2
F-173
/: 14
32
46
7
1
p: 10
43
36
9
C-130
/' 1
19
21
48
4 5 t
p: 9
30
25
30
5 1
A-110
/ *
22
34
6
21 3 1
p: 11
34
4
25
11 9 4 1 1
F-87
/ 1
43
22
19
3 6 41
p:
12
7
10
15 15 27 8 32
Partials
10
TIMBRE OF BAND INSTRUMENTS
191
I 2 3456 7891
00 1000
C, C, C 4 C s
3 4
C 6 C,
FIG. . The clarinet. (Ko*man. fMa )
Fio. 3. The French horn.
192
PSYCHOLOGY or Music
F-329
/:
87 11
TABLE IV.
1 1
THE BARITONE HORN
P :
100
C-261
f:
10
81
6
2
1
P-
37
63
A-220
f:
38
5
53
1 1
1
1
P'
63
35
2
F-173
f:
71
19
6
2
P-'
91
6
3
C-130
f:
13
13
8
42 14
8
001
P-'
56
5
1
31 6
A-110
f:
2
32
17
14 4
20
21021100011
p:
18
25
36
8 11
2
F-87
f:
3
39
1
16 2
17
12
70100101
P'
19
17
3
1 3
Partials
1
2
3
4 5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 18
TABLE
V.
THE
CORNET
F-698
/:
17
50
21
6
p:
42
48
9
1
D-587
f:
10
17
34
35
2
p:
35
60
4
C-523
/.'
67
31
1
1
p:
88
11
A-440
f:
46
7
33
8
2 2
p:
75
6
13
5
F-349
f:
34
18
9
34
3 1
P-'
70
8
16
3
2
1
F-294
f:
6
13
14
52
5
1412
p:
11
' 1
21
54
2
9 3
B*-232
f:
30
12
23
15
8331221
p:
42
20
12
17
9
G-194
f:
8
18
4
48
4
4 2 10 1 1
P-
3
19
21
4
20
19 2 10 1
Partials
9 10 11
TIMBRE OP BAND INSTRUMENTS
193
S 67891
SO 100
C, (
Jl
L
-. -.Jl
345 6769J
KXX)
C, C 4 C $
z
c.
FIG. 4. The baritone horn.
i
u
{_
%J
i
. i
5
A-
1
I
i ti
i
iii
31
hi
II
c>
K
i
Ilk,
Ms
4]
.
iL
ill
LL
2 3456 7891 2 3 4
200 1000
C, C 4 C 5 C $ C
FIG. 5. The cornet.
194
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
TABLE VI. THE SLIDE TROMBONE
BM66
F-349
\
94
100
52
20
5
21
1
5
P :
82
13
5
D-294
f:
57
5
10
19
4
1
1
2
1
P:
94
1
3
2
B&-232
}>
8
47
32
1
1
8
1
1
P :
21
50
22
4
1
1
P-173
f:
5
31
4
12
6
31
6
1
1
101
P:
26
12
25
33
16
2
D-146
f:
1
16
1
4
7
37
8
9
1
4
001001
P-'
8
29
14
30
10
7
1
1
BM16
f.
14
6
21
5
4
27
9
5
1
5
p:
32
5
19
17
18
5
1
1
2
F-87
f:
27
22
2
1
19
3
8
3
3
6
012
p:
4
20
2
4
14
3
2
12
17
4 10 4 3
Partials
2 3 4 56 7 8 9 10 H 12 13 14 ,16 16 17
TABLE VII. THE FLUTE
F-1S97
D-1174
G-784
P-'
100
100
100
100
87
11
p:
100
B-494
f:
14
29
52
4
1
P-
73
16
9
2
G-392
f:
2
92
1
5
P :
88
5
4
s
Partials
TIMBRE OF BAND INSTRUMENTS
195
67891 2 3 4 5 67891 2 J
50 100 KXX)
C, C 2 C, C 4 C s C 6
FIG 6. The slide trombone.
s
I
If
1
I
I
^
1
%
i
Si
Jl 1.,
2 345 67691 2 3 4
300 1000
C, C 4 C s C 6 C
FIG. 7. The flute.
196
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
TABLE VIII. THE OBOE
G-784
f: 24
58
1
3
3
5 6
p: 26
71
2
1
E-659
/* 3
94
2
1
p: 18
82
C-523
/' 5
76
3
2
3
3 1
1 1
1 1 1
p: 11
35
22
1
15 1
2
1162
G-392
/ *
9
37
18
3
6 2
7 1
014342
p: I
20
22
40
3
8 2
1 1
E-329
f: 15
28
24
7
17
1
2 1
011002
p: 22
16
27
31
4
C-261
/; 20
6
5
32
15
3 3
3 4
113100122
P: 1
11
3
36
42
2 1
1
1
Partials
1
2
3
4
5
6 7
8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
TABLE
IX. THE TUBA
B-232
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100
G-195
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92
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1
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101
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35
42
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5
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TIMBRE OF BAND INSTRUMENTS
197
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FIG. 3. The oboe.
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FIG. 9. The tuba.
198 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
tool for gaining more intimate and accurate information in regard
to the resources and characteristics of our instruments. Tone
spectra will furnish in large part both material and measures
for the determining of artistic principles of tone quality and the
mastery of them in the development of skills.
In this analysis, we must remember that each individual spec-
trum represents a single sound wave shown as a specimen or a
cross section of the harmonic constitution, or overtone structure,
of the tone at a given moment, and that adjacent waves may vary
within a considerable range. Among such variables would be the
character of the instrument, the resonance and temperature of the
room, the position of the microphone, the skill, the type of tech-
nique, the musical mood, and a great many other factors operating
through the player.
VIOLIN
rriHE literature on the violin is perhaps more satisfactory than
JL the literature on any other instrument. A good deal of it is of
the character that could be included under the head of the Science
of Violin Playing. However, following our precedents, we shall not
attempt to survey this literature but will give a few concrete
illustrations, primarily by way of the performance score.
The following topics will be treated: (1) the violin performance
score; (2) the violin phrasing score; (3) comparison of two players;
(4) the pitch factor; (5) the intensity factor; (6) the time factor;
(7) the timbre factor; and (8) the problem of scales. The materials
for the first seven sections are drawn from the work of Sraa// 166 ' 167
and he has given most valuable assistance in the musical interpreta-
tion. The eighth section is drawn freely from the work
TABLE I. VIOLINISTS, COMPOSITIONS, AND SOURCES OF PERFORMANCE
Violinist Composition
Busch* Sonata in D minor (Bach)
Elman Air for the G string (Bach-Wilhelmj)
Kendrie Ave Maria (Schubert- Wilhelmj)
Kreisler Sonata in G minor (Bach)
fylenuhinf Sonata in C major (Bach)
Menuhin Tzigane (Ravel)
Seidl Air for the G string (Bach-Wilhelmj)
Slatkinf Ave Maria (Schubert- Wilhelmj)
Small If Air for the G string (Bach-Wilhelmj)
Small fcj Air for the G string (Bach-Wilhelmj)
Small 3f Ave Maria (Schubert- Wilhelmj)
Szigeti Sonata in G minor (Bach)
* Hereafter only the player's name will be given, the composition as listed being implied,
f These performances have been treated the most completely.
$ This performance was eight months after Small 1.
199
Source
Record, His Master's Voice D.B.
1422
Record, Victor 7103-B
Direct
Record, Victor 8079-B
Record, His Master's Voice D.B.
1370
Record, Victor 78 10- A
Record, Columbia 903 1-M
Laboratory record
Direct
Laboratory record
Laboratory record
Record, Columbia 67989-D
200
PSYCHOLOGY OP Music
THE VIOLIN PERFORMANCE SCORE
Small 1 ** recorded photographically and studied the composi-
tions listed in Table I by means of performance scores and phrasing
040-
30 -
20 -
lo-
ot
wo
30
FIG. 1. Ave Maria as played by Slatkin.
scores. Of these, a sample is taken from each of the two renditions
of Ave Maria (Schubert- Wilhelmj) as played by Slatkin and
Small (Figs. 1 and 2). These are placed on facing pages for con-
venience in comparison. The reading of the score is the same as
VIOLIN
201
in Chap. 4. Measures are indicated by a short vertical bar and
numbered, and the actual notes of the musical score are inter-
polated for reference. The decibel readings shown at the left are
FIG. 2. Ave Maria as played by Small.
not absolute but relative, in that the zero as a reference point is
placed arbitrarily at the intensity of the softest note in the selection
which had musical significance. When intensity is recorded from
phonograph records it is clearly understood that this involves
202
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
some distortion; but, in those cases, no conclusion is drawn which
would be seriously affected by that distortion. These samples give
complete records of performance for pitch, intensity, and time.
Studies on timbre are discussed in a separate section.
80
FIG. 1. (Continued.)
THE VIOLIN PHRASING SCORE
The musical significance of these scores is set out more graphi-
cally in the phrasing scores (Figs. 3 and 4) for these same per-
VIOLIN
203
formance scores. This score gives an exact profile of the musical
interpretation made in the phrasing. It is given in terms of pitch,
E
C
C40
50
20
10
G40
30
20
10
C
C
C40
50
20
10
040
50
20
10
FIG. 2. (Continued.)
intensity, and time; but through these media we represent all
possible complex forms of phrasing except for the medium of
timbre. For interpretation see the legend under Fig. 3.
204
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
COMPARISON OF THE PERFORMANCE
OF TWO PLAYERS
Since these two playings were made without either player know-
ing about the performance of the other, it is particularly interesting
FIG. 3. Phrasing score for first half of Fig 1.
Pitch, intensity, and temporal deviations for the Ave Maria (Shubert-Wilhelmj) as
played by Slatkin. Successive notes are shown on the abscissa. For pitch, units on the
ordinate represent 0.1 tone, and the zero point indicates exact intonation in the tempered
scale. The circles mark the mean-pitch level of successive notes. For intensity, units on the
ordinate represent Idb and the zero point indicates the average of the mean intensities of
the notes. The solid line indicates the mean intensity for successive notes. For duration,
units on the ordinate represent 0.1 sec. and the zero point indicates exact distribution of time
throughout a measure in accordance with the score. The dotted line indicates a temporal
overholding (+) or underholding ( ) of successive notes.
FIG. 4. Phrasing score for Fig. 2. See legend of Fig. 3 for explanation.
to see in what respects they reveal similar characteristics and inter-
pretations and in what particular respects they differ.
VIOLIN 205
The performance scores. In comparing the performances of
Slatkin and Small let us first compare item for item in the per-
formance score (Figs. 1 and 2). We must limit ourselves to the more
salient characteristics in similarities and differences. The limits of
time and space prevent us from going into fine details which may be
studied in the original large graphs. Let us call Slatkin A and
Small B.
Both played the first note with a vibrato, the mean pitch being in true
intonation. B stopped the vibrato for the last quarter of a second. In other respects,
the vibratos are of the same type and extent. The duration of the tone is approxi-
mately the same. After the first half second A held an even intensity; whereas,
B executed a crescendo of about 10 db. A has a fairly even intensity vibrato,
synchronous with pitch and of about 5 db in amplitude; whereas, B has only a
trace of the vibrato, and that mainly in the last half of the tone.
In passing to the second note there is a change in the direction of the bow,
shown by the dip in the intensity curve in both cases. B has a greater dip but of
shorter duration than A. This will be seen to indicate a characteristic difference
in bowing. Both have a pitch vibrato of narrower extent on the second note than
on the first. A's intensity vibrato is erratic, but B's seems to continue from the
first note and with increasing prominence.
At the beginning of the third note there is a change of bow. Both continue
the pitch vibrato, as in the second note, at less than 0.2 of a tone, and both fail
to carry it to the end of the tone. These two tones, like the latter part of the first,
remain at a fairly even intensity and fairly bold intensity vibrato. The char-
acteristic difference in the change of bow again appears at the end of the third
note.
At the end of the fourth note there is a glide from E to D which is similar
for the two players, except that B shows a clearer pitch vibrato in the glide.
A and B both have a bold intensity vibrato. To what this coincidence is due
is not yet definitely known. However, we can say that it is probably due to
some instrumental characteristic.
In these examinations we should look for agreements and disagreements
and anticipate possible explanations in terms of instrumental characteristics,
common difficulties in fingering, mannerisms and specific faults in performance.
In the fourth note there is a slight gap in the pitch record for A, owing to an
incomplete recording, and B ceases the vibrato for the last fifth of a second. A
increases the intensity by about 4 db; whereas, B remains on the same intensity
level.
At the beginning of the second measure we have the same characteristic dif-
ference in dip owing to the manner of change in bow. In the first note both make
a clean attack in pitch. B has a slightly wider vibrato, which ceases for the
last 0.15 second. The intensity performance is similar. After the change of bow,
both make a clean attack upon the second note. A plays it with a very faint pitch
vibrato and B with an even and average pitch vibrato. A makes a 2 db increase in
intensity, and B plays a crescendo of 10 db, with a progressive reduction in
206 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
extent of the intensity vibrato. The increase in the intensity vibrato on this note
is probably due to its proximity to the air-cavity resonance region of the instru-
ments, which is at about C#.
The following two grace notes theoretically take time from the preceding
note and differ only in that B carries the absence of the vibrato from the ending
of the preceding note to the first grace note. Both show a drop in intensity for
these two notes. Inasmuch as the grace notes are short and are played in
the same bow as the preceding note, the drop of the first note in returning to the
average intensity level indicates that the drop is due to moving outside of the
resonance region. The time for the grace notes is taken out of the preceding notes,
as is shown by the fact that the length of a quarter note in this measure is 2.41
seconds and A takes only 2.25 seconds and B 2.35 seconds, showing that the note,
even with its grace notes is underheld.
In the fifth and sixth notes, following a change of bow, A has a more normal
vibrato; B has a faulty vibrato. Both A and B connect the fifth and sixth notes
with a continuous glide, indicating again a similar use of position change, but B
makes a dip in intensity in the transition and executes a swell for each note. In
comparison with the preceding and following notes, there is relatively little
intensity vibrato.
The seventh and eighth notes, again slurred, are played approximately alike
in pitch, but both players show a significant change in the intensity vibrato of the
two members, and both also show an intensity rise of 4 or 5 db in the intensity
level for the second note. The rise in the intensity level may be accounted for by
the approach to the peak of the resonance region. The explanation of the flaring
up of the intensity vibrato on the first note and its attenuation on the second may
be due to some sympathetic vibrations of the free strings. The first note, A, is
one octave below the open A string frequency, which means that the second par-
tial of the present A corresponds in frequency to the open A string; whereas, the
second note, which is B, has no such foundation for sympathetic vibrations in
free strings.
There is not much difference in the pitch characteristic in the main body of
the first note in the third measure, but B makes a partial glide toward the follow-
ing note; whereas, A makes a clean release of the note, probably indicating that
A remained in the same position while B shifted position. The intensity char-
acteristics are also quite similar, there being a slight diminuendo for both A and B.
The pitch of the second note is quite similar for the players, but there is a
marked difference as to both intensity level and intensity vibrato. B executes a
swell and increases the intensity vibrato in contrast with the intensity of the
note following. The difference in the behavior of intensity with change in bow at
the beginning of the second and third notes in this measure may indicate a
fundamental difference in the method of bow change. There is no significant dif-
ference in the playing of the third note, except that in this case A glides, indi-
cating change in position, and B does not.
The next two thirty-second notes, played with separate bow strokes, show
about the same type of treatment, both as to pitch and intensity. The intensity
level for these two notes represented an increase of about 10 db for A and about
5 db for B above the level of the preceding note. The pitch of the next two notes,
VIOLIN 207
sixteenths, is played about the same by A and B, except that A runs the second
note into a glide. There is a marked difference in the type of intensity change. In
the character of the intensity level both have a more marked intensity vibrato
in the second note. Both players show a marked intensity pulsation in the second
note, as we found in the previous appearance of this A at the end of the second
measure. B executes a swell in the second note.
Both make transition from the seventh to the eighth note through a partial
gliding, involving a rise from the preceding note on the part of A and a rise
toward the following note on the part of B> with an interruption in the change
of bowing in both. This implies that A, in making his change in position,
utilizes the finger with which he has been playing, while B uses the finger which
will be employed in the next note.*
The phrasing scores. We may now take the data which we
have just examined from the playing of Slatkin and Small and
show how these scores, when measured with care with the enlarged
graphs, can give us a concrete and detailed picture of the way
in which each player phrased the selection.
Let us first compare the pitch, represented by the circles,
beginning with the second note because the recordings for the first
note in the Small graph are defective. Calling Slatkin A and
Small B as before, referring respectively to graphs 3 and 4, we note
the following course of pitch intonation:
A plays the second note 0.15 of a tone sharp, B plays it true; A plays the
third note true, B plays it 0.05 sharp; A plays the fourth note true, B plays it
0.2 of a tone sharp; A plays the fifth note true, B plays it 0.1 flat; A plays the
sixth note 0.05 sharp, B plays it true; A plays the seventh note true, B plays it
0.05 flat; A plays the eighth note 0.1 sharp, B plays it true.
This may suffice as a guide for the reading of phrasing through
pitch. The melody is, of course, set by the composer. The player's
interpretation consists in the adoption of a scale, for example, the
natural scale, and then deviating from this for artistic values.
In records of this sort, which may now be readily available, we
shall be able to make comprehensive studies of such remote ques-
tions as that which centers about tendency tones, both in theory
and in practice. We find that certain intervals are augmented
or contracted in accordance with recognized theory, that a great
variety of specific deviations are dictated by the player's feeling
for a particular context, that technical difficulties such as fingering,
* Anyone interested in further comparison will find further interpretations in the
original scores in Sma//. 1M>167
208
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
FIG. 5. Pitch, intensity, and temporal deviations for the Air for the G string (Bach-
Wilhelinj) as played by Small.
FIG. 6. Pitch, intensity, and temporal deviations for the Tzigane (Ravel) as played
by Menuhin. The points at which the solid line is interrupted represent the occurrence of
VIOLIN
209
interfere with the interpretation, and that even the best of players
probably make some sheer errors.
In the same manner, we may trace the comparative treatment
in terms of intensity:
FIG. 7. Intensity and temporal deviations for the Air for Hie G String (Bach-Wilhelraj)
as played by Elman.
FIG. 8. Intensity and temporal deviations for the An for the G String (Bach-Wilhelmj)
as played by Small (second performance).
A sounds the first note 4, that is, 4 db below the mean intensity; whereas,
B sounds it at 13. A rises to 1 in the second and 7? to + 2. A drops to 2
in the third note, but B rises to +3. In the fourth note A drops to 7 and B
to +1- In the fifth note A rises to 4 and B rises to +3. In the sixth note A
rises to 1 and B drops to +2.
Turning then to the temporal interpretation and calling under-
holds minus and overholds plus, in terms of tenths of a second,
210 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
we find that A underholds the first note 0.5 second, and B is not
recorded. A plays the second note +.05; whereas, B plays it in
metronomic time. A plays the third note +.15 seconds and B .2.
A plays the fourth note .7 and B .1. A plays the fifth note in
metronomic time, and B .15, etc.
These phrasing scores are a mine of information. In this sym-
bolic language, we can now discuss any fundamental issue involved
in phrasing or general interpretation.
In rhythm, for example, we see how each performer expresses
himself. We can put various theories of rhythm to the acid test.
We can discover principles of rhythm hitherto unrecognized.
Perhaps the most interesting revelation in these figures is the
light they throw on the nature of accent, showing how each
player renders his primary and secondary accent in terms of time
and intensity.
Thus it is evident that ultimately the performance score must
be transcribed into a phrasing score for ready comparison and
interpretation in musical terminology. We see here a very vivid
picture of the differences in a section of the two renditions of the
Ave Maria. While the graphs are expressed in quantitative terms,
these must be translated into the terminology of the conventional
musical interpretation of phrasing. In these scores we see in accu-
rate detail the various forms and degrees of accent for phrase
patterns in terms of three media. The reader would find it profitable
to take these examples and study one factor at a time in their
complex forms, such as rhythm, volume, tempo, in the patterns
of each of the three media.
Similar scores are shown for Small's Air for the G String (Fig. 5)
and Menuhin's Tzigane (Fig. 6). Similar phrasings in time and
intensity, not including pitch, are shown for Elman's rendition of
the Air for the G String (Fig. 7), which is comparable with Small's
(Fig. 5) and Small's second rendition of the same selection (Fig. 8).
Figures 5 and 8 furnish interesting material for comparison of the
phrasing in two renditions of the same selection by the same
player.
After this acquaintance with the reading and interpretation
of performance and phrasing scores, we may profitably summarize
Small's findings on basic issues involved in pitch, intensity, time,
and timbre scores in turn.
VIOLIN 211
THE PITCH FACTOR
The pitch vibrato. Small m summarizes his findings on the pitch
vibrato, on the basis of the recordings listed in Table I, as follows :
Summary. 1. The pitch vibrato appears in practically all
tones of the violinists studied, except on the open strings. It is
typically present throughout the whole duration of a tone.
These facts indicate a close similarity between the violinist's
and the vocalist's use of vibrato (24).*
2. The average rate of these violinists' vibrato is 6.5 cycles
per sec. with but a small range between individuals. This rate
is in agreement with previous studies on violin vibrato (12, 19),
and when compared with the vocalist's (24) rate indicates that
the typical rates for these violinists and vocalists are the same.
3. The average extent of the vibrato is approximately 0.25
tone. This confirms previous reports (12, 19) and again indicates
that the violinist's vibrato is only half as wide as the singer's.
4. Measures of regularity yield average successive cycle-to-
cycle differences of 18% in rate and 10% in extent. This is
essentially the same as for vocalists (24).
5. The form of the pitch pulsations is quite smooth and
regular; it approximates a sine curve.
6. The rate and extent of the pitch vibrato are independent
of each other, both for the individual violinists and for the group.
7. Although these measurements have yielded valid state-
ments of sound field conditions with reference to the particular
performances studied, constant caution must be used in drawing
conclusions from them concerning violin playing generally and
audition problems specifically. For the very reason that hearing
is subject to such a variety of illusions and that a linear relation-
ship does not exist between auditory stimulus and sensation (5),
an objective approach to art, such as the present, affords a
peculiar opportunity for the analysis of many technical problems
which are usually obscured by the function of perception itself.
8. Implications which are significant to the understanding of
the vibrato-producing mechanism are : (a) The cyclic movement
of hand and arm approaches simple harmonic motion, (b) The
stopping finger moves both above and below the principal pitch.
* Numbers in parenthesis here refer to bibliography in Small. 168
212 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
(c) The direction of the first and last vibrato movements in a
tone is not preponderantly of one kind, (d) The vibrato move-
ment tends to persist through changes of finger and bow, and
frequently through change of position.
9. A violinist's typical vibrato tends to remain the same in
repeated performances of the same composition and in the per-
formance of different compositions.
Precision of pitch intonation, mean pitch levels, tendency tones,
transitions. Small m summarizes his findings on this subject as
follows :
Summary. 1. The violinist deviates over 60% of the time
from the tempered scale notes with deviations .05 tone or greater
and over 31% of the time with deviations .1 tone or greater.
The average deviation is about .1 tone. The deviations are
preponderantly in the direction of sharping.
2. Some of these deviations may be due to: (a) anatomical
difficulties in the necessary spacing of fingers for some intervals,
(b) accidental causes, (c) use of Pythagorean or natural scale
intonation, (d) the division of attention, (e) the non-linear
relationship between pitch and frequency, or (f) the use of
tendency tones.
3. Frequent applications of tendencies from the tempered
scale were found, although their application is not invariable.
The tendencies applied were for (a) the fourth degree of the
scale to be lowered and the seventh raised, (b) minor and
diminished intervals to be contracted, (c) major and augmented *
intervals to be expanded and (d) chromatically altered notes to
over-shoot the alteration in the direction of the chromatic used.
The percentage of possible occasions these tendencies were
applied in these compositions is given in table form. The leading-
tone and sub-dominant tendencies are more frequent than the
remainder.
Sub-dominant Minor and di- Major and aug-
Leading-tone (kth degree) mimshed intervals Chromatics merited intervals
85% 80% 51% 50% 44%
4. The intonation in tempered scale intervals was found to
deviate .05 tone or more over 50% of the time, and .1 tone or
more about 25 % of the time. Of these deviations of .05 tone or
VIOLIN 213
over, 56% are in the direction of flatting. Of those .1 tone and
over, 65% are flat. The typical deviation is about 0.1 tone.
Intonation is slightly more accurate for intervals than for
individual pitch levels.
5. The violinist interpolates certain pitch transitions be-
tween pitch levels of the score when a change in level and a
change of position coincide, the object probably being to enhance
the legato character of a phrase or melody. The portamenti are
predominantly continuous transitions. This type of interpolation
also occurs in vocal performance (24). Three types of discon-
tinuous pitch transitions occur, verifying pedagogical theory on
this subject. The average interval covered in these pitch move-
ments is 2.5 semitones.
Gliding pitch attacks and releases as found in song (24) and
speech (4) do not occur in the performances of these violinists.
A typical steady-pitch-level attack and release are found in two
performances.
THE INTENSITY FACTOK
Range of intensity. Figures 1 to 8 show typically the range of
intensity changes. The average range of intensity between the
softest and the loudest tones for all records is 21 db, with individual
ranges from 14 to 26 db. The mean intensity differences between
successive notes is 3.5 db. The typical range of intensity variation
within individual notes was 13 db. For all violinists here studied,
except Menuhin, the mean maximum intensity is in the region of
middle C. This is probably due to the fact that the fundamental
air-cavity resonance of the violin is just above middle C, perhaps
near C#.
Change of bow. The typical drop in intensity with the change of
bow is 12 db in the dead room. Other recordings, such as that of
Menuhin, probably show a smaller drop on account of the reverber-
ations in the room. Whether these drops are heard or not depends
upon a large number of factors, both subjective and objective.
The intensity vibrato. Small m summarizes as follows:
Summary. 1. The intensity vibrato is present only 76% as
often as the pitch vibrato in the same performances. This is
essentially the proportion found in the case of singing (24, 32).
214 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
The proportion varies in individual performances from 40 to
94%.
2. The intensity vibrato is not always continuous nor does
it appear throughout the entire duration of the tone in which it
is found. It is frequently intermittent and sporadic.
3. The average rate of the intensity vibrato is 6.3 cycles per
sec., which is the same as the pitch vibrato rate.
4. The average extent is 4.4 db, which substantiates Reger's
report (19). The distribution of extents shows a wide dispersion.
5. The typical difference between successive cycles is 11%
of the average rate and 30% of the average extent. Both in-
tensity vibrato rate and extent, though particularly the latter,
are less regular than pitch vibrato rate and extent.
6. The form of the intensity pulsations, barring superim-
posed secondary fluctuations, approximates a sine curve. The
most common phase relationships between intensity and pitch
pulsations are those of phase agreement and 90 out of phase.
7. The rate and extent of the intensity vibrato exert no
significant selective influence on each other.
8. The characteristics of the intensity vibrato are very
similar for the same composition played by three different vio-
linists and for a composition played twice by the same per-
former.
9. The intensity vibrato probably is relatively more
important in violin playing than in singing.
10. Probable causes of periodic intensity fluctuations, in
addition to those already suggested (12, 19) are beats resulting
from sympathetic vibration of free strings, and movement in
and out of resonance regions due to the pitch vibrato.
11. The sympathetic vibrato is an intensity vibrato and
exhibits the same characteristics as intensity vibrato in general.
THE TEMPORAL ASPECT
The trill. It is interesting to note that the trill in these selections,
seven pulsations per second, is very near the average rate of the
vibrato. Instead of even sounding of two notes of pitch indicated in
the score, the violin trill closely resembles the pitch vibrato in the
shape of the wave. When the interval is small and of short duration,
the distinction between the trill and the pitch vibrato is largely
psychological rather than physical; somehow, if we know when
VIOLIN 215
the trill occurs, we hear the two notes which mark the interval
even in the semitone and do not hear the mean tone of the vibrato.
There is a synchronous intensity change of about 5 db in the trill,
the accessory note being the weaker. The accessory note is also
about 25 per cent shorter than the main note.
Other temporal aspects, too numerous to mention, must be
observed in the phrasing scores. In general, Small m states:
1. The violinists deviated over 80% of the time from exact
note values. Half the deviations were more than .15 sec.
2. Over-holding and under-holding were about equally
prevalent.
3. The average extent of deviations was approximately
.25 sec. Under-holding is typically greater than over-holding and
also varies more from player to player.
4. In general the longer the note duration the more liable was
the appearance of a deviation. The extent of under-holding
showed a tendency to be proportional to the duration of the
note. Such a tendency for over-holding was very slight.
5. Temporal deviations seemed to bear a somewhat closer
relationship to phrase structure of the melody than did intensity.
There was also a somewhat more general agreement among the
violinists in their use of temporal deviations than in their use of
intensity variations.
THE TIMBRE ASPECT
The objective study of violin tones presents a most fascinating
area for investigation. With the recent acquisition of adequate
means of measurement, we may look for great developments in our
understanding of the resources of the violin and the scientific
aspects of the mastery of technique in playing.
Comprehensive studies of the violin as an instrument are in
progress showing, for example, the response characteristics for all
frequencies and all degrees of intensity throughout its range. Ex-
periments are in progress in various laboratories analyzing the
merits of instruments of rare value. Such findings should, of course,
prove valuable in current design of instruments. The policy is to
study one specific feature at a time; for example, Home is analyz-
ing possibilities of modifying tone quality by the mute, varying
step after step the form, the weight, and material of the mute and
216
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
the relation of these to features in bowing. Mutes have grown like
Topsy, topsy-turvy; but there is no longer any excuse for
guesswork.
In this chapter, we can give only a single illustration (Figs. 9-
12) of timbre in the violin. Here
we have for comparison repre-
sentative spectra from each of
the four violin strings. Bearing
i
KX)
C
i
.
L
l
ll
3 4 5 67691
1000
3 C 4 C 5
III
2
C 6
34567
C 7
FlG. 9. G string (Small.)
in mind our reiterated reserva-
tions about the variability in
fair samplings, we can say that
1
- , ,.
1.1
5
\ ,\
i.L
.1.1
1
ll
J_ Ittil
II
J_ IU!L
$
f
\
1 1, iii.
iJ
Ik
\
. ..JJJlLL
> 34561
00
C 3 C,
89! 2345 67891
1000 IQOOO
C s C 6 C 7 C 8
FIG. 10. D string.
here is a good illustration of what a good violin can do when well
played and free from room and outside influences.
We are indebted to Small, sometime Eastman fellow and now a
member of the staff in the faculty of the music school in the
VIOLIN
217
University of Iowa, for these recordings and analyses. The record-
ing was made in the dead room under the most reliable control
conditions. These spectra, therefore, represent the actual violin
timbre free from admixture of room resonance and outside dis-
turbances. He used his own violin, an old Italian instrument made
i
J J
'' \ \
IE
_, L
1
II
I
J_Qiii]
1
-
.41- -
,
s
1
1 1
J 4 5 6 7891 2 3 4 5 67891
BO 1000 10.000
c, c s c, c, c 8
4 5 67891
400 1000
FIG. 11. A string. (Small.)
3456 7691
10,000
^4 ^5 Cg 7 Cg
FIG. 12. E string. (Small ."")
in 1740. All notes were played legato mezzo forte and up bow. The
instrument was tuned to 440 ~.
It is probably true that, of all instruments, the violin produces
the most beautiful tone. We may see in these spectra something of
the nature of this beauty. As is well known, it lies in the richness
and even distribution of the partials. The "pictures" must speak
for themselves, as they tell a long and complicated story. What this
218
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
story shall be depends upon what questions are in the mind of the
musician or scientist who interprets them. It may be a principle of
physics, the solution of an historical controversy, a cue to an ele-
ment in technique of playing; but to everyone it should give a
striking illustration of the resources of the violin.
INTERVALS: THE PROBLEM OF SCALES
It is generally agreed that the natural scale should be preferred
to the tempered scale in instruments which do not have a fixed
pitch. There has been a long-standing controversy as to the extent
to which artists on the stringed instruments and singers take
advantage of this feature of intonation. It is also generally rec-
Fio. 13. Score of the Kreutzer Etude showing passage, between the two arrows, which
was played. (Greene.* 8 )
ognized that there are certain sequences or other factors which
occasionally demand the augmenting or the contracting of an
interval from its theoretical value in either of these two scales.
Greene' has made an extensive study which puts into a
record in black and white the actual performance of violinists
on this issue. The study is an analysis of 11 unaccompanied per-
formances by six violinists.* The recordings were made directly
before the camera in the dead room. The players performed as
if they were playing for the radio, but without using the vibrato
in the Kreutzer Etude.
Reliability of reading in frequency varies with the length of
the note. For 78 per cent of the notes it is reliable to 0.01 of a
tone; for 20 per cent to 0.02, and for 2 per cent (the shortest notes)
to 0.03.
* The performers were Scipione Guidi, assistant director and concertina ster of the
St Louis symphony orchestra (1), Frank Estes Kendne, professor of violin at the University
of Iowa and conductor of the University of Iowa symphony orchestra () , Arnold M Small,
concertmaster of the University of Iowa symphony orchestra (4); and Felix Slatkin (8),
Ellis Levy (5), and Jacob Levme (C), members of the first violin section of the St. Louis
symphony orchestra Hereafter in this discussion the players are reported by number.
VIOLIN
219
FIG, 14. Phrasing score for pitch renditions of the passage in Fig. 13 by four players.
(Greene)
220 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
Figure 14 shows how the first four players performed that sec-
tion of the Kreutzer Etude which lies between the two arrows
in Fig. 13. The zero line denotes the pitch as established for the
whole selection. The solid jagged line indicates deviations from this
"true" pitch in the tempered scale, and the dotted jagged line
shows the same for the natural scale or just intonation.
It is evident from these pictures that none of the players per-
formed consistently in either of the two scales, although on the
average their performance deviated from the tempered scale
slightly less than from the natural scale. These situations are
typical of all the performances studied, and of artistic performance
in general.
We may now examine in Fig. 15 the composite findings for the
six players of the five intervals intensively studied; namely, the
minor second and major second, the minor third and major third,
and the perfect fourth.
Minor second. The composite graph shows that there is a strong
tendency to contract the minor second. The group as a whole
contracted the minor seconds 0.06 of a tone below the tempered
and 0.12 below the natural scale.
Major second. Reading the composite graph for the major
second in the same manner as for the minor interval, we see that
the major second is on the whole augmented. There are two values
for the natural scale indicated, the larger at +0.02 and the smaller
at 0.09 of a tone. The composite graph shows that the major
second is augmented about 0.03 of a tone above the tempered scale,
0.01 above the larger natural scale interval value, and 0.12 above
the smaller natural interval value. The smaller natural intervals are
enlarged 98 per cent of the time, and the smaller 65 per cent.
Minor thirds. For the minor thirds the composite figure shows
the arrow at 2, indicating that the average tendency of the group
was to play 0.02 of a tone below the tempered scale, which makes it
0.1 of a tone below the natural scale.
Major thirds. For the major third the natural scale is 0.07 of a
tone less than in the tempered. The average extent of its interval,
as played, however, is 0.03 of a tone greater than its value in the
tempered scale. This general tendency holds for all of the four
players.
Perfect fourth. The perfect fourth was introduced as a control
interval in which there should be no marked difference between the
VIOLIN
221
MINOR SECONDS
N-156
II ii
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 2 4 $ 8 10 12 14 16 18
tP T N +
MINOR THIRDS
Illllll
COMPOSITE
N=IS6
1412 10 864202468 10 12 14161
Pf T N
MAJOR SECONDS
MAJOR THIRDS
COMPOSITE
N277
III.
COMPOSITE
N-94
16 16 W 12 10 864202468 10 12 14 16 18
N TN| 4
.1 .
1412 108 6 4 2 I A 6 810121416(8
N T tP +
PERFECT FOURTHS
COMPOSITE
NI46
.1.1.
14 12 10 8 6 4 2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NT +
P
FIG. 15. Group performances of five intervals. On the abscissa, deviations from' the
theoretical tonal extent of the interval in the equally tempered scale (marked T) are indi-
cated in 0.01 tone. Cases of intervals contracted occur at the left, and those expanded at
the right, of the T value. The symbols N and P show the direction and amount of divergence
of the theoretical value of each interval in the natural and Pythagorean scales from its
theoretical extent in the equally tempered scale. Arrows indicate the average extent of the
given interval as played. On the ordinate, percentages of the total number of cases are
shown.
Example: In the figure for the minor second, the natural scale value of the interval
occurs at 0.06 tone from the equally tempered value, while the Pythagorean value differs
from the equally tempered value by 0.05 tone. The interval tended to be contracted as
compared with its natural and equally tempered values, the average extent occurring at
0.06 tone from the T value, and at 0.12 tone from the N value. Ninety-eight per cent
of the cases were contracted as compared with the N value, while 81 per cent were con-
tracted in relation to the T value. Further, the average extent of the played interval occurs
at 0.01 tone from the P value, thus varying from it only by an amount equal to the
expected, error of frequency measurement. Figures for the other intervals can be read
similarly. It will be seen that there are two theoretical values for the major second in the
natural scale, and the Pythagorean value for this interval coincides with the larger natural
scale value. Further, the Pythagorean value of the perfect fourth likewise agrees with the
natural scale value for that interval. (Greene.* 9 )
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
two scale values. The composite graph shows that the extent of the
interval in the natural scale is 0.01 of a tone less than in the tem-
pered. The average extent of the interval as played is at the natural
(A)
MINOR SECONDS
A
N
IR
>6S
ll
II In
Id 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 Q 2 4 6 6 10
t T N +
_L
III
ETUDE
N39
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 a 4 6 8 10
t T N +
II HUH
AVE MARIA
N*49
II
1ft 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 202 4 6 d 10
t T N +
(B)
MAJOR SECONDS
Alt
N-a
?
'<.
1
1
i
1
in
2
N T Kit
1 ll
ETUD
N*IO
E
9
II
12 10 8 6 4 2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
- N T Nf t
AVE MARIA
N
= 86
II
II
ll
|
IL
I2I0864202466IOI2I416
- N T N +
FIG. 16. Comparison of performances in three selections (Greene. 39 )
scale value. There is close agreement among the different players,
which indicates that this interval presents no tendency to augment
or diminish, although the actual performances scatter to about the
same extent as for the augmented and contracted intervals.
VIOLIN 223
Comparison of three selections. In Pig. 16 there is shown the
composite graph for minor seconds and major seconds in the three
selections studied. While the distributions are irregular and differ
in that respect, the general tendency is on the whole the same in all
selections, as may be seen by observing the position of the arrow.
The same principle holds true for the minor thirds and major thirds
and the perfect fourth.
Direction of movement. In order to determine whether the
movement of pitch up or down makes any difference, comparisons
are made in all cases of upward and in all cases of downward move-
ment for the five intervals. The conclusion was reached that, on the
Minor seconds
Av
Major seconds
Av.
-5 +6
P T N
Minor thirds
Av
I
-9 0+2
Ndo) T N(9/)
P
Major thirds
Av
i
-3 +8
P T N
-7 +4
N T P
Perfect fourths
Av
I
i i i i i i i i i i j f
-I
NT
P
FIG. 17. Comparison of the tempered and natural scales with the Pythagorean scale.
(Greene.)
whole, there is no statistically valid difference due to movement
from the lower to the higher or from the higher to the lower note in
the interval.
The Pythagorean scale. The comparisons have been made
between the natural scale and the tempered scale and, since a
player conforms to neither of these, the question arose as to whether
any other recognized scale is approximated, and it turned out that
the Pythagorean scale meets the need more closely than either of
the other two scales.
This is shown in Fig. 17. P denotes the position according to
the Pythagorean scale. Again the arrow shows where the average
tendency lies. Thus, for the minor second, the interval is con-
tracted by 0.06, which makes it within 0.01 of a tone from the
224 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
Pythagorean scale and 0.12 of a tone from the natural scale. In the
major second, the performance is again within 0.01 of a tone from
the Pythagorean value, which is the same as that for the larger
natural interval, and is 0.02 of a tone above the tempered-scale
value.
The minor third is within 0.01 of a tone of the Pythagorean
value and 0.10 from the natural value. For the major third the
average value is within 0.01 of a tone of the Pythagorean value,
0.03 away from the tempered scale, and 0.1 from the natural. For
the perfect fourth there is no significant tendency to deviate. Thus
we reached the striking conclusion that the violinist, when unac-
companied, does not play consistently in either the tempered or
the natural scale but tends on the whole to conform with the
Pythagorean scale in the intervals here studied.
PIANO
nnHE aim of this chapter is to illustrate the application of scientific
A method to the study of the theory and practice of piano playing.
We now have at our command adequate recording and measuring
instruments, and the scientific method is beginning to express
itself for various purposes; such as the purely scientific array of
facts about performance on the piano, the determination of esthetic
principles, the characterization of types of performance, descrip-
tion of individual differences, measurement of achievement,
study of faults of performance, and musical criticism.
Instead of attempting to discuss the subject as a whole, we
shall consider a few typical situations which illustrate the procedure
and should lead to further scientific thinking on the part of the
reader. The first item, piano touch, illustrates how the scientific
approach clarifies thinking; the second, the piano camera, shows
how accurate and permanent measurements of performance can be
made; the third, phrasing, gives a short sample of the kind of
facts that can be elicited from a performance score; and the fourth
shows how one minute detail in technique can be analyzed into
fundamental principles of operation.
PIANO TOUCH*
One is tempted to say that touch is the touchiest subject in
musical circles, because we are deeply impressed with the enormous
possibilities for characterizing musical artistry and expression of
musical feeling in terms of this art. The current vocabulary descrip-
tive of touch is extensive, loose, and baffling. Historically, but little
* From the Scientific Monthly. 1 * 4 *
2*5
226 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
effort has been made to aid the student in music by bringing order
out of this chaos from a scientific point of view. However, recent
scientific approaches to this subject have made progress and give
assurance of the possibility of an adequate analysis, description,
and terminology for many of these phenomena.* The best available
book on the subject for musicians is the volume by Professor
Ortmann, Director of the Peabody Conservatory of Music. It is
based upon a searching analysis of historical, theoretical, and
experimental evidences. His principal findings may be summarized
as follows:
The pianist has at his direct control only two of the four factors in music,
namely, intensity arid time. Pitch and timbre are determined primarily by the
composer and the instrument.
The pianist can control the intensity only in terms of the velocity of the
hammer, at the moment at which it leaves the escapement mechanism, and by
the action of the pedals.
There are only two significant strokes on the key: the percussion and the
nonpercnssion. The difference between these is that the former contributes more
noise to the piano tone, and the latter gives the player better control of the desired
intensity.
Aside from the addition of the noise, the player cannot modify the quality
of the tone by the manner of depressing the key or by manipulations after the
key has struck its bed except, perhaps, by a momentary partial key release and
immediate key depression, damping the tone somewhat but not entirely.
He can control the time factors which influence quality only by the action of
the dampers either through the keys or the pedals.
In general, these facts have been known for a long time by
instrument makers and leading musicians. But many musicians
have failed to recognize their significance or admit the facts. In-
deed, experts in various fields of acoustical science also have ques-
tioned the findings enough to justify taking the problem into their
laboratories for analysis and verification. However, all the investi-
gators have reached the same conclusion on the above points. Let
us examine each of the essential factors in turn.
Insofar as it depends upon the stroke of the key, intensity
(the physical fact) or loudness (the mental fact) is a function of the
velocity of the hammer at the moment that it impinges upon the
string. After that, the tone can be modified only by action of
the dampers. The piano action for any key consists of a compound
* The evidence for the view here presented is largely the work of Ortmann, 1 3 of White, 213
Hart, Fuller, and Lusby," and Ghosh.*>u
PIANO 227
lever system, the purpose of which is to facilitate and control the
force of the blow on the string. Let us consider the nature of the
blow.
If a ball is placed on the inner end of a cleared piano key and the
key is struck in the usual manner, the ball will fly from the key up
against the string. Nothing can influence the velocity or the direc-
tion of the ball after it has left the key, and the ball can energize
the string only at the moment of impact because, owing to the
resilience of the compressed felt and the throw of the string, it
bounds off instantly. The function and action of the hammer are
analogous to that of the ball. The velocity of the hammer is deter-
mined by the velocity of the escapement lever at the moment the
hammer is released for its flight, and the force of the blow is deter-
mined by the velocity of the hammer at the moment of impact.
From this, several considerations follow:
1. It makes no difference whether the key is struck by an
accelerating, retarding, even, or any form of irregular movement;
the only significant thing the player controls in the stroke is the
velocity of the key at the exact moment that it throws off the
hammer.
This easily observed physical fact has profound significance in
the theory of playing, hearing, enjoyment, and critical judgments
about music. The economic aspect is not to be ignored when we
consider what money is spent in trying to teach pupils to do some-
thing that cannot be done. It takes away a great deal of the
glamour and grace of mannerisms in the mode of depression of the
key. It reduces touch to the fundamental factor of intensity.
This should in no way detract from the resourcefulness of the
instrument and the opportunity for individual expression or the
indirect effects of intensity which are legion. On the other hand, it
clarifies, glorifies, and reveals the extraordinary refinement that is
necessary in this artistic touch. The elaborate care taken in the
development of form, weight, pressure, and rate of arm, wrist,
and finger movements is fully justified insofar as it results in a
refined control of the intensity of the tone, but not for any inde-
pendent change in tone quality.
2. The hammer is released just a trifle before the key reaches its
bed. Like the ball, it has only one form of contact with the string,
namely, an instantaneous impact followed by immediate rebound.
The movement of the key cannot influence the hammer after it has
28 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
been released any more than it can influence the flight of the ball
after it has been thrown off. Therefore, no amount of waggling,
vibrating, rocking, or caressing of the key after it has once hit
bottom can modify the action upon the string. The only way in
which the key can further affect the string is by a new stroke of the
hammer. This can easily be verified by manipulating a key near its
bed and looking at the action of the hammer.
Probably the only exception to this statement is the rare or
doubtful possibility that a partial release of the escapement mecha-
nism may reengage the hammer stem so that the hammer may
again be thrown against the string and a partial damping may
result. However, even if physically possible, this is merely a stunt
and is not attempted by artists under normal conditions of playing.
Yet this fallacy plays a role in musical circles in at least three
important respects. First, whenever this stunt is affected, the
observable finger action serves as a suggestion which produces the
desired result in the form of an illusion of hearing. Such normal
illusions have a very great influence upon musical hearing. Second,
in ignorance or defiance of the physical limitations, teachers often
attempt to train pupils in the supposed art of this type of finesse.
And third, theorists, who oppose the limitation of touch to intensity
control, frequently fall back upon this phenomenon to sustain
their claims. However, all well-informed musicians recognize that
this feature is not important in their artistic playing. Therefore,
we may ignore it in the discussion of the real factors in musical
touch.
3. The pianist can produce indirectly a great variety of tone
qualities, but only by his control of the intensity of the tone. Hav-
ing imparted a given velocity to the hammer, the pianist is entirely
at the mercy of the instrument for the determination of qualitative
changes taking place in the tone, except for manipulation of the
dampers. The piano is so constructed that it can produce a vast
series of tone qualities, each one a function of the intensity of
the tone. Each instrument has its own relatively fixed character-
istic in this respect. In general, the louder the tone, the richer it will
be in quality.
If we represent a series of intensities by the letters a, &, c, d, etc.,
and the corresponding degrees of richness and other characteristics
of the quality by the symbols a', &', c', d', etc., then whenever a
tone of intensity a is sounded, a quality a' is produced; intensity 6
PIANO 229
for the same tone will always yield a quality &'; intensity c or
any other intensity will always yield its corresponding tone quality.
It is possible, therefore, to calibrate any particular piano in this
way and to set up a scale of intensities which will yield approxi-
mately the corresponding scale of tone qualities. However, the
situation is complicated by the fact that each instrument has its
own resonance characteristics and responds differently to different
chords.
This setting up of a scale of equivalents for intensity and tone
quality is just what every pianist has to do empirically. Rarely is it
a clearly conscious effort or scale; probably it can best be described
as a relationship into which he has felt himself more or less
subconsciously.
4. In 1933, Ghosh 36 ' 37 demonstrated that, within a considerable
range of the intensities normally functioning in music, the wave
form of the vibrating string and therefore the resulting harmonic
constitution remain constant. Thus, within a moderate range of
changes in intensity, the player cannot modify the quality of the
tone as it emerges from the string.
The qualitative changes which come with changing intensity
are the result of resonance, reverberation, or damping effects of
the sounding board and the rest of the piano, the thuds and rattlings
on the keys, as well as the acoustical characteristics of the room.
The wave emitted by the sounding board and its accessories is very
much stronger than the wave emitted from the string and there-
fore becomes dominant in hearing. The wave form that impinges
upon the ear is an amplification and modification of the wave form
emitted by the string. This principle applies to all other musical
instruments.
At the present time artists regard inharmonic and percussion
accessories to piano response as legitimate and essential contribu-
tions to tone quality. Is it possible that this attitude may change ?
We are facing an era of radical change in the nature of music. It is
difficult to predict what will happen to concepts of piano playing.
Several factors must be taken into account.
1. The piano of today, the manner of its use, and the tastes and
habits of hearing are determined in large part by the heretofore
existing mechanical limitations to construction of the instrument.
This piano quality involves a variety of thuds, rattlings, raspings,
and various other forms of noise which are utilized for musical
230 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
effect and add pronounced characteristics significantly to the tonal
elements, especially in the louder intensities. It is, to a considerable
extent, in the impurities of tone that we differentiate instruments.
2. It is now possible to construct a synthetic-tone instrument
in which we may include any desired sound quality, periodic or
aperiodic, and therefore eliminate any of the present character-
istics which may be redundant or undesirable.
3. In such an instrument, it is now possible to introduce a vast
variety of tone qualities which we have not been able to produce
with our present instruments. We must, therefore, consider the
possibility of thinking of the future of music in terms of instru-
ments in which the characteristics are not due to the limitations in
mechanical construction, but are the deliberate choice, the result of
invention and discovery of entirely new tonal complexes for musical
satisfaction.
4. It is a matter of history and psychology that likes and dis-
likes, tolerance and intolerance, artistic cravings and urges, are
matters of development contingent upon the tendency to make the
best of what we have, the biological tendency toward new habit
formations, and the inherent artistic merit in innovations.
These situations the piano shares with all other instruments.
Conservatism tells us that there will be no sudden change, but
insight into the nature of the situation tells us that the change will
be radical and that it must of necessity be in the interest of higher
levels of musical achievement with new problems for the composer,
the performer, and the listener.
Is it probable that the electrical flute, clarinet, trumpet, or
violin will introduce new satisfaction in the purity of harmonic
factors, so that we can dispense with the noises which at the present
time give us the characteristics of the instrument? We may venture
to answer that these new resources in electrical instruments will
vastly enrich our world with harmonic tones and will "chasten"
or replace many of our present instruments, but there may always
be an artistic demand for inharmonic elements, and other noises
and percussion features.
5. Pianists have fairly clear concepts of characteristics of tone
quality, such as harsh, brilliant, mellow, full, singing, round, shrill,
dry, metallic, steely, brittle, shallow, poor, ringing, clear, velvety,
bell-like, jarring, and strident. Ortmann wz performed an experiment
in which a number of distinguished artists participated and were
PIANO 231
able to produce the qualities just named to their general satisfac-
tion. But a recording device attached to the piano revealed that
the only two variables that had been under their control were
the velocity of the hammer blow and the action of the dampers
which affected the duration and loudness of the tone, and that,
whenever qualitative differences were present, they were differ-
ences in intensity and time relationships.
6. The countless varieties of temporal movement are also
reduced to the operation of time, with some modification by inten-
sity. Ortmann performed experiments in which accomplished
pianists gave artistic expression to such marks as "accelerando,"
"ritardando," "affettuoso," "espressivo," "scherzando," etc. The
recording device on the piano revealed the fact that all these char-
acteristics of musical movement were completely controlled by the
two factors, the time relationships and the intensity of the tone.
7. The pianist can modify quality through controlling the time
factor in three ways: the tempo and the temporal aspects of
rhythmic features are determined largely by the duration between
the moment of incidence of successive tones; the duration of
vibration is determined by the moment of application of the damp-
ers through the release of the key; the vibration may be continued
by overholding the notes with the sostenuto pedal.
It is well known that the piano tone fades out rapidly soon
after the hammer stroke; but the listening ear tends to ignore this
and, instead of hearing tones as having sudden change in intensity
and timbre, tends to hear the initial characteristic of the tone until
the next key is struck, in spite of the fact that the physical change in
the tone is very radical. For this reason, it seems to make relatively
little difference whether a key is held down for the entire time
assigned to it in the score. As a matter of fact, the player is often
irregular and relatively indifferent in regard to the time for release
of the key, especially in rapid movements. He depends on this
tendency in hearing to carry over. In musical hearing, the effect
of overholding the note by pedal is perhaps more evident in its
modification of resulting tone quality than in the awareness of the
continuation of the note or chord as such.
8. The most profound change the artist can give to tone quality
comes through pedal action. By means of the sostenuto pedal tones
may be carried through a series of chords after the respective keys
have been released, thus producing great enrichment in the har-
232 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
mony through the gradual overlapping and fading of antecedent
tones. Refinement in the use of this medium is an outstanding
mark of artistry.
In the use of the una corda pedal the artist has a choice of strik-
ing one, two, or three strings. Two effects result. The softer felt
tends to dampen partial vibrations of the string and the remaining
string or strings vibrate in sympathetic resonance. A combination
of such tones obeys precisely the same laws as tones produced
without pedal although the basic tone-complex is altered. The
action of the soft pedal involves, of course, purely the factor of
intensity.
9. The great tonal resources of the piano as an instrument lie in
the richness of tone produced by the possibility of playing one or
many keys, with or without pedals, and thus utilizing both har-
monic and melodic progressions. But these are as a rule set i i the
score by the composer, and the possibility of legitimately introduc-
ing variants and ornaments not so indicated is limited.
10. It is, of course, recognized that the pianist has many devices
for changing the quality of tone by freedom in the use of intensity
or in time. For example, tone coloring is a very conspicuous feature
in artistic playing, but it ordinarily means that the pianist strikes
the notes in the chord with different force and thus can produce
varying resonance effects from the same chord. Likewise, there aie
considerable resources in the variety of uses of the pedals, as to both
time and intensity. The pianist has various devices by which he
can get sympathetic vibrations and modulate overtones. There are
also many ways of enhancing subjective tones which may play an
important role, clearly modifying the perceived tone quality, and
we must not overlook the vast array of illusions which have qualita-
tive significance. Last but not least, there is the power of suggestion.
11. The artist may legitimately think and perform with tone
quality as his objective and consciously control his touch in terms
of tone quality. Likewise, the listener may regard tone quality as
the primary factor and think of intensity as a secondary and even
unrelated factor. But the fact remains that, in general, the only
way in which the pianist can produce qualitative changes is through
dynamic and temporal changes, and then only within the limits set
by the characteristics of the instrument.
12. It follows from these considerations that a fairly adequate
record of musical performance can be made by recording the veloc-
PIANO 233
ity and time of the hammer blow and the action of the dampers.
With a given composition and a given instrument of which the
characteristics are known, we can describe the essentials of artistic
performance on the piano in terms of the artist's command and
use of these factors.
The Iowa piano camera is built on this principle. It registers
the performance in minute and serviceable detail in a permanent
photogram. This can be transcribed into a scientific performance
score, in terms of which objective analysis of the significant tonal
features of the rendition may be made.
The purpose of this analysis has been to pave the way for a
synthesis. In acoustics we have analyzers which may dissect any
rich tone into its component partials; conversely, we have syn-
thesizers which can take all known partials of any rich tone and
reconstruct the original single sound wave. On this analogy, it is
here suggested that the principle which justifies our reducing a
rendition to its two operating media justifies our assuming that,
by reversing the process, we may derive all the salient elements in
the performance from an adequate record of these two media. Such
matters as phrasing, personal interpretation, the principles of art
involved, errors, idiosyncrasies, and exhibitions of skill are embod-
ied in such a piano-carnera record.
THE PIANO CAMERA
We have just seen that, of the four factors in musical perform-
ance, pitch, intensity, timbre, and time, two, pitch and timbre, are
determined by the piano. Therefore, only intensity and time need
be recorded to obtain an adequate statement of piano playing.
The Iowa piano camera* was designed to record these two factors. It
has proved remarkably simple to operate, reliable and adequate in
the musical situation. It gives a photographic record of the begin-
ning, duration, moment of ending, and relative intensity of each
note in an entire selection played under normal conditions.
Figure 1 is a sample of the photographic record, actual size,
covering 0.68 second. The vertical lines show time in 0.04 second
and can be estimated to within 0.01 second. Each horizontal white
track represents a key on the entire keyboard. The dark horizontal
* This camera has been described briefly by Tiffin and Seashore, 20 * and in technical
detail by Tiffin. 196
234
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
bands are due to the inner framework of the piano, but they aid in
the identification of the keys. For each note, the length of the white
space B is proportional to the time necessary for the hammer to
move through the last 12 millimeters before striking the string. The
length of the bar A gives a similar measure of the time necessary
PIG. 1. Drawing from actual photogram taken with the Iowa piano camera,
for the hammer to travel the preceding 12 millimeters. Thus,
A + B gives the time for the movement of the hammer through
the last 24 millimeters before striking the string. From the duration
of B or the duration of A + JB, the velocity of the hammer and, in
turn, the force of the impact and intensity of the resultant tone
near the beginning of the tone may be determined. The dark bar
following this shows the time of retreat of the hammer from the
PIANO
235
string, and this, together with the white bar following, gives the
length of time that the key was held. For the duration of the white
bar the hammer was free from the strings, but at the end of that
time the strings were damped by the return of the key. The end of
the last black bar indicates the complete return of the key, and
shows the time necessary for it.
FIG. 2. Schematic drawing of the mechanism of the piano camera. Explanation in text.
The pedal action is represented by the white line at the base,
showing that the pedal was free preceding the chord, that it was put
into action in time to sustain this chord, and that it was held in so
as to cover the next note.
The mechanism by which this record is obtained is illustrated diagrammati-
cally in Fig. 2. A light strip of balsa wood approximately 7 centimeters long and
7 millimeters wide is glued to the tail of each hammer in the piano. The top of
the piano is raised and a lens focuses the region C of the tail A on the film D. This
236 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
film is Eastman No. 1 recording paper, 4 inches wide. An electric motor draws
this film through the camera at a rate of 12 centimeters per second. The film is
exposed to the bank of hammers below only through the narrow slit E. As any
key is depressed, its hammer moves forward in the direction of the arrow, and the
hole F in the balsa-wood tail passes the region C which is focused on the film.
Directly below the tails is a cylindrical electric light bulb A, approximately 2
inches in diameter, and 4 feet long. The filament of this bulb, J, which is a single
long loop of wire, is directly below the point of photography C. As the hole F in
the tail A moves forward, the region C (which is focused on the film D) is mo-
mentarily lighted from below. The result of the passage of the hole F is that a
short bar is photographed on the moving film. This is the bar A in Fig. 1. The
total length of the balsa-wood tail is such that, when the hammer strikes the
piano string and produces the sound, the tail has jiibt passed the region C, again
allowing this region to be lighted from below and thus photographing another
distinctive mark on the film. At this point in the movement of the hammer, two
marks have been photographed on the film, one caused by the hole F passing the
region C, and one caused by the end of the tail passing this region. Since the film
is being drawn through the camera during this process, it is obvious that the
faster the hammer is moving, the shorter will be the distance between the two
marks photographed. The hole F is placed 12 millimeters from the end of the tail.
Hence the record of velocity is secured during the last 12 millimeters which the
hammer travels before the string is struck. It has been shown by Ihckman^
that the velocity of a piano hammer during the last 12 millimeters of its move-
ment before striking the string is practically constant. Thus, since the intensity
of the tone is determined only by the velocity of the hammer, the record gives a
serviceable indication of the relative intensity of the tone.
The piano is so constructed that as soon as the hammers have struck their
respective strings, they fall back away from the string. However, they do not
quite fall back to the original position until the key is released. The position in
which the hammer actually stays, as long as the key is depressed, is just enough
in advance of its normal position that the hole F is within the region C. Hence,
as long as the key is depressed, light passes from below through the hole F, mak-
ing a narrow line on the moving film.
The procedure outlined above is duplicated for every hammer in the piano,
for the lens L serves to concentrate a picture of the entire bank of hammers on
the 4-inch film. Each hammer has its own pathway on the film, and the beginning,
ending, duration, and intensity of the tone contributed by each hammer may be
studied separately.
Although the film moves at a fairly constant rate, a time line is employed to
insure accuracy in the measurements. A neon tube is exposed to the film through
a slit as long as the film is wide and 0.5 millimeter in width. This slit is adjacent
to the slit E. The neon tube is connected to the secondary of an induction coil, and
a 25 ~ electrically driven tuning fork is placed in series with the primary of the
coil, a 2- volt direct current being used. This arrangement photographs 25 parallel
lines per second, each line extending across the width of the film.
The movements of the damper pedal also are recorded on the film. A lever
arm, mechanically controlled by the damper pedal, is mounted in the piano on
PIANO 237
one side of the bank of hammers. The movements of this lever arm are photo-
graphed while the record is taken and show partial or incomplete damping as
well as the extreme positions of the pedal. A similar record may be made for the
other pedals.
The camera is surprisingly simple and inexpensive. It imposes
no restrictions upon the player and does not interfere with routine
use of the piano in the studio.
Thus it is seen that all time factors, the moment of incidence,
the duration, and the moment of cessation of each tone, are meas-
ured directly in 0.01-second units on the tracing for each key and
the damper pedal.
The intensity of the tone is measured in terms of the rate of
impact of the hammer as expressed in millimeter units of the sec-
tion AB in the photogram. These units are converted into decibel
readings of 17 steps. Each step represents approximately 2 db,
thus giving a range of 34 db.
THE PIANO PERFORMANCE SCORE
The photogram of the type in Fig. 1 is a complete chart in itself,
but, for detailed analysis and publication, this photo record is
transcribed into a musical performance score as in Fig. 3. A mova-
ble scale in the form of a plat of the piano keyboard is laid vertically
across the record (Fig. 1) in front of any note that is to be read. The
bass end of the scale is at the top and the treble at the bottom in
this figure. By this means we find that in this photogram the top
note is E in the bass clef and the other note in the same dichord is
E 4 in the treble. The note following is G 3 #, and the last note is B 2 .
To represent the facts in musical notation, we utilize the con-
ventional staff and substitute bar graphs for the conventional
musical notes (Fig. 3). Thus the three bars represent the three notes
just named. The position in the staff indicates the pitch of the note.
The vertical lines show time in 0.04-second units. The dotted
slanting line is interpolated to show the degree of asynchronization
in the first chord. The left end of a bar indicates the exact moment
that the hammer struck the string. The length of the line indicates
the time that the key was held down, allowing the strings to vibrate
unhampered by action of the pedal. The line between the two clefs
denotes the pedal action, full line meaning pedal not in action,
absence of line, full pedal, and the dotted line, transition, or "half
238
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
pedaling." Here the pedal is pressed in time to catch the vibration
of the dichord and is held to cover the following note.
The relative loudness of each note is indicated by the number
above each note. These are arranged in a scale of 17, in which 1
denotes approximately the softest note which can be played with
musical significance, and 17 the loudest.
Any musician can read this score at sight and note the actual
time and intensity values insofar as they are musically significant.
The pitch and timbre factors are fixed by the structure of the
instrument and the composition, except as modified by the damper
pedal. This pattern score is so constructed that, when advanta-
geously reduced, it can be printed as a musical notation and does
FIG. 3 The photogram of Fig 1 transcribed into the musical pattern score
not require much more space than is required for the conventional
score. A sustained example of the form and use of the piano per-
formance score is given in the following section.
SECTION OF CHOPIN NOCTURNE NO. 6
In order to illustrate the nature and significance of this pattern
score in a specific case, let us consider one of the hundreds of prob-
lems that come up in the subject of phrasing. Figures 5 and 6 are
performance scores for the standard score shown in Fig. 4. A in Fig.
5 and B in Fig. 6 are professional pianists playing the same selection
with instructions to give their best personal interpretation of the
passage. Each was kept ignorant of the performance of the other.
With the description given for Fig. 3 above, the reader may now
compare these pattern scores with the performance score, item for
item. This comparison might be made with three purposes in view;
(1) gaining familiarity with the relation of the pattern score to the
standard score and skill in reading the former; (2) a comparison of
the performance of the two pianists as to technical skill and per-
PIANO
239
sonal interpretation; and (3) examination of a single element in the
interpretation in detail.
The comparison of the pattern score with the standard score
should be made in accordance with the interests of the reader and
relfgiofo
=
J JL
-I
13
FIG. 4. The chorale section of Chopin's sixth nocturne. (Henderson.* 6 )
in terms of natural questions that may arise, such as the method of
representing pitch, time, intensity, pauses, measures, chords,
synchronization, release of keys, pedal, tempo, timbre, sonance,
tone quality, crescendo, diminuendo, rubato, and accent. All these
240
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
and many other features are clearly indicated in the performance
score. With these mastered, the performance score of one player
may be compared with a standard score in terms of any of the
data just mentioned.
FIG. 5. The musical pattern score of the chorale section of Chopin's sixth nocturne, as
played by pianist A. (Henderson.* 6 )
The way is then paved for comparing the two performance
scores item for item. To write out a detailed comparison of these
two performances in full on the basis of the facts in hand would
PIANO
241
require a volume. The reader should therefore select in turn for
comparison such features as he would regard as most significant:
for example, what known principles of interpretation are illus-
Fia. 6 The musical pattern score of the chorale section of Chopin's sixth nocturne, as
played by pianist B. (Henderson. 46 )
trated? What types of devices are used to attain certain artistic
ends ? What types and degrees of deviation from metronomic time
and even intensity are employed ? What manifest faults in skill may
242 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
be found? Are there any personal idiosyncrasies? What are the
outstanding features of merit in the interpretation given by each?
What surprising features or media are here used for effect in phras-
ing? How is tone quality modified by the use of the sostenuto pedal ?
How often does emphasis on the accented beat occur through inten-
sity or through time or other means ?
When these and other questions have been answered after seri-
ous examination of the facts, the reader may be ready to sit down
and attempt to reproduce one of the performance scores on the
piano, interrupting the performance from point to point to "hear
out" the significance of a particular variant in the phrasing. To
illustrate the procedure, we may ask and answer in detail one ques-
tion: By what devices does the player give emphasis to the ac-
cented note in the measure?
The reader may think at once that the accent is made by playing
the note louder, but the score will show that this is seldom the case.
The composer has determined emphasis in large part by his choice
of harmonic elements through such means as the repetition of
identical measure patterns, pitch placement, and position of
cadences. In this selection, the first of these plays a very important
role: one pattern (a half -half-half measure) appears nine times in
the statement and ten times in the restatement of the theme. Pitch
emphasis may have functioned in six beats. The role of the cadence
is more marked in phrases than in measures.
Let us see first what role intensity plays in emphasis on the
accented beat. In the majority of cases, the accented note is not
played with greater intensity. It is a matter of coincidence that
pianists A and Ji each play the first note in the beat louder in only
19 per cent of the 31 measures. But some of these measures were the
beginning of phrases and serve the purpose of phrasal separation
rather than, or in addition to, measure accent. If these be elim-
inated, there remain only 6 per cent for A and 12 per cent for B with
undoubted intensity accent. These figures would be altered some-
what if we take into account the note preceding the accented note
because of the crescendo or diminuendo. One might expect a half
note to be struck harder than the quarter note for the purpose of
maintaining a sound, but there is no evidence of this in the per-
formance score.
This fact, that intensity is not essential to accent, was confirmed
by measurements on phonograph records of performances by
PIANO 243
Cortot (Victor 6063-B), Rachmaninoff (Victor 6731-B), and
Paderewski (Victor 6234-B), making due allowance for lack of
fidelity in the phonograph record. For all players, the same princi-
ple operated also in the secondary accent; that is, the third beat in
the 4/4 measure. Very rarely was the secondary accent achieved
through increasing intensity of that note in comparison with the
unaccented note following.
It is quite possible that the above finding may be due to some
extent to the character of the selections studied. The stressing of
measures as, for example, in the march or the bolero, may call for
overt physical stress on the accented notes.
But how shall we account for this relative absence of physical
intensity and accent ? It is a fair guess that it is due to the fact that
the compositional structure suggests the beat unit, and subjective
rhythms, for both the player and the listener, carry out the scheme.
This presents a most interesting problem in the psychology of
music, namely, what features attributed to the performer are really
due to the subjective contribution of the listener? Countless
instances might be cited in accordance with the laws of empathy
and suggestion.
But time is always a rival of intensity in giving accent. Stress
may be obtained by lengthening a note or delaying its entrance.
This is a well-known fact in classical poetry. Schramm 117 has shown
that it is largely true also of English poetry, and Harold Seashore 158
has found the same to be true in artistic vocal music. In quarter-
quarter-quarter note measures pianist A shortened the second
unaccented note from 2 to 18 per cent in 66 per cent of the cases,
and B shortened the second note in every case (from 2 to 26 per
cent). In the half-quarter note measures, A invariably lengthened
the quarter note in relation to the half note (4 to 28 per cent), and
B lengthened it 5 to 32 per cent in 88 per cent of the cases. How-
ever, this lengthening of the note accented cannot all be attributed
to measure accent. There are many compositional and other factors
that call for the relative lengthening of an accented note, such as
the feeling of finality at the introduction of a phrase or the melodic
quality between long and short notes.
Delayed entrance of the first accented note occurred in 80 per
cent of the cases for A, and 90 per cent for JB. The determination of
the cause or the nature of this delay and the principles operating in
it are too involved to be discussed here. In some, intensity plays but
244 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
a slight role in emphasis on the accented beats in the measure; time
is more frequently important, as to both length of the note and
delay of the accentuated note. Can it be that objective emphasis by
the player, either by strength or duration of the note, is compara-
tively secondary in value to the compositional emphasis which the
musical listener "feels into" the measure subjectively? That is a
matter for profitable speculation, but the facts just cited stand out
in the black and white of the performance score. There is no doubt
that both player and listener hear the accent.
These findings do not lighten the task of the player or reduce his
vast range of achievement through the control of time and inten-
sity. They do, however, complicate his problem when he realizes
that he not only has to take account of his physical control of time
and intensity but also his control of the subjective factors which
psychologically are very real, tangible, and constant. Here the
distinction between intensity as the physical fact and loudness as
the resultant mental fact becomes very real and important.
SIMILARITY IN STATEMENT AND RESTATEMENT
The two parts of this chorale are, of course, quite different in
the actual score (Fig. 4). Yet there is a surprising similarity in the
interpretation given by phrasing as is shown in Fig. 7. For each
artist the upper section records intensity; the lower, time, with
the duration of the notes indicated between them. The fidelity in
the temporal equivalence is most striking. On account of the chorale
style, the intensity phrasing is not so significant. Regarding pri-
marily the temporal phrasing, we have here proof of the possibility
and perhaps even desirability of securing identical musical effects or
messages in typical statements and restatements of music regard-
less of the difference in notes.
CONSISTENCY OF INTERPRETATION
As a second illustration of the significance of a performance
score, we may consider some questions in regard to an artist's
possibility of interpretation of a musical selection. It is fully rec-
ognized that any artist can give a great variety of interpretations,
and it is not desirable that he should have just one, but when we
consider what a large number of factors enter into a given inter-
pretation, it is interesting to inquire about the extent to which a
given interpretation can be repeated. Each artist has his own mode
PIANO
245
ftanbt A
FIG. 7. Relative duration of melody notes and the corresponding relative intensity values.
(Henderson.**)
246
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
of interpretation. This he may vary ad infinitum in accordance
with his moods and fancies. Yet there is a tendency to apply certain
principles or give the same general feeling reaction to a given
30
25
15
JJJLLLLUJL
first r
) 1 1 II I I
end ft/ on
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Second rendi tion
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20
10 15
Measures
FIG. 8. Duration of measures in two renditions of the first 24 measures of Chopin's
Polonaise, op 40, no. 1, by Bauer. (Sk inner. 16&a )
composition. Furthermore, there is a tendency to develop an
individuality which is recognizable through both limitations and
particular personal achievements. Suppose we ask the question,
First rendition
Second rendi f/on
1.5
10
Phra ses
FIG. 9. Duration of phrases in same performance as for Fig. 8. (S
how accurately can the artist repeat a given interpretation if he
should try to do so?
Two artists, Harold Bauer and Philip Greeley Clapp, took part
in this experiment and recorded samples of performances from
PIANO
247
Beethoven, each repeating a given interpretation two or three times.
One of the first considerations in attempt-
ing to apply scientific method to musical
interpretation is that we must be satisfied
to fractionate and deal with one item at a
time. In terms of these performance scores,
we could indulge in an extended discussion
as to the exact nature of the interpretation.
Let us consider only one, the element of
time, and of this only two aspects, the
duration of the measure and the duration 6 -
of the phrase. Many other aspects of time
are involved, such as the distribution
within the measure or within the phrase,
principles operating in determining the
duration of tones, the use of time for
emphasis, mode of pedal blending, in fact
any temporal aspect which is significant
for a musical interpretation.
first rend if ion
I Second rendition
Third rendition
45
2 3
Phrases
-r- oi ii i j. * ii n i. FlG - 10 - Duration of the
Figure 8 shows the duration of the first first 4 phrases in three rendl .
24 measures in two successive renditions of tions of the first 4 phrases
Chopin's Polonaise, op. 40, no. 1, as played in Beethoven's Sonata, op. 57,
by Bauer. The first rendition took 49.1 by (1app ^- 166 >
seconds and the second, 49.7. It will be observed that there is
remarkably close correspondence in that the curves have to agree
Artistic rendition
- -Attempted metronomic
rend i tion
5 10 15 20
Mea sures
PIG. 11. Comparison of artistic time and attempted metronomic time in the rendition
of the first 25 measures of Chopin's Nocturne, op. 27, no. 2, by Clapp.
248 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
for the entire 24 measures. It is clear, of course, that if he had
played without interpretation, simply reproducing the score in
metronomic time, these graphs would have been a straight
horizontal line. Figure 9 shows the consistency of interpretation in
the same selection in terms of phrases.
Clapp played a selection from Beethoven's Sonata, op. 57, from
which a short sample was taken to show to what extent his tem-
poral interpretation would be consistent in three performances of
the same unit. Figure 10 gives the record in terms of the length of
phrases. The agreement of the three performances, as to the dura-
tion of phrases, is remarkably close, particularly in view of the great
freedom expressed in the interpretation. The duration of measures
was in equally close agreement.
Clapp played a section of Chopin's Nocturne, op. 27, no. 2,
in which he first gave his normal interpretation by phrasing and
then attempted to play the same in uniform metronomic time.
The result is shown in Fig. 11, in which we see that the artist did
not succeed very well in playing in metronomic time. The curve
shows that there is a tendency to be influenced by motives for
interpretation.
In this manner, the study of consistency in interpretation
could be extended to comparisons of time and intensity in them-
selves and in their interrelationships, which give expression to
musical feeling and values.
ASYNCHRONIZATION OF CHORDS
In studying piano playing, Vernon 20 * set for himself the follow-
ing tasks:
To observe the frequency with which chords are played out of
perfect synchronization by representative artists and the extent
of their deviation: to look for consistencies in the manner of
deviating; to determine which deviations are errors and which
the result of esthetic intention; to discover which musical situa-
tions are most consistently the occasion for deviation; and finally,
to induce principles governing the playing of chords which shall
be descriptive of the playing of artists and contributory to a
general theory of the nature of beauty in music.
These studies were made before the piano camera was available,
by the use of Duo-art rolls.
PIANO 249
The prevailing attitude of teachers is to demand exact syn-
chronization, as a general rule. This is expressed typically by
Kullakf 1 who says:
In particular, the strictest simultaneity of all co-incident
beats must be maintained and an anticipation by the left hand,
which so easily becomes a habit in accompanying, resolutely
suppressed. As in the drawing the line must be sharp, not blurred,
the rhythmic entrance too must fall on one and the same point,
and the clearest accuracy prevail throughout the interweaving
threads of tone.
A second attitude is expressed by Johnstone^ who stresses the
same point but admits an exception :
In playing chord passages, watch that both hands strike
exactly together and that all the notes of the chord are played
simultaneously. ... In playing a chord of which one note is a
melody note, let the finger which plays the melody note drop
more rapidly and an almost imperceptible shade earlier than the
fingers which play notes of the accompaniment in the same chord;
thus the melody will have the stronger tone.
A third point of view, which we do not find clearly set out in
literature, but observe in practice, is to the effect that interpreta-
tion may use chord rolling,* or may delay or advance a particular
note or notes as an element of musical touch for emphasis or clear-
ness of perception, or enrichment. This practice is not based upon
recognized rules, but seems to spring from a liberal attitude toward
the use of deviations as a means of feelingful expression in the ar-
tistic mood. This view is in harmony with the main theory of the
present volume, to the effect that beauty in music lies largely in
artistic deviation from the exact or rigid.
It is generally recognized, of course, that deviations do occur,
and the question then arises as to whether they should be regarded
as errors or we should seek to discover in them principles of artistic
interpretation. We may look for both. Regarding the situation
from this point of view, psychological analysis leads us to expect
three types of deviations from the exact synchronization. These are
* The present discussion has nothing to do with chord rolling or similar effects when
indicated in the score.
250
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
(1) those which represent a recognized principle; (2) those types
which come about entirely unconsciously and automatically
through the operation of musical feeling in such a way as to pro-
g g 8 8 SS
8 2 S 8 8 S
duce effects of esthetic value without knowledge of why or how it
was done; and (3) deviations which may be classified as errors.
Errors are roughly of two considerably overlapping kinds: first,
mere evidence of lack of skill, and, second, those due to musical
PIANO 251
impediments in the way of playing, such as difficulty in fingering,
separation of the chord in the two hands, different rhythms in
the two hands, intervals of more than an octave, and chords with
many notes. Many of the errors in the latter class are readily
recognized by knowledge of the presence of particular impediments.
However, we have no satisfactory means of drawing a sharp line to
distinguish between errors and artistic principles.
The question arises at once as to how much variation from
synchronization we shall count as a deviation. Even the best
artist cannot be absolutely exact. Our first disposition was to
make a generous allowance, for example, one or two hundredths
of a second, but when Vernon investigated this experimentally
by measuring how small differences in time deviation musical
observers could detect in asynchronous chords, he found musicians
who could hear a deviation of 0.01 second from one note to another.
According to this, the required interval was larger in proportion to
the lack of time sense and of training of the observer. This made it
necessary to assume that many musicians probably can hear devia-
tions from exact synchronization as fine as 0.01 second in actual
musical performance; and, since this was the unit of measurement,
it was decided to include for the present purpose all deviations this
large or larger, without assuming that the smallest difference is
perceptible to all.
Our knowledge of individual differences, of course, assures us
that what degree of deviation shall be heard, whether as an error or
FIG. 12. A. Entire Sonata Pathttique, op. 13, rolls 5691-4, 5703-3, 5711-3, 18031
chords.
B. (Bauer) first movement, op. 13, grave and allergo con brio, roll 5691-4; 845 chords.
C. (Bauer) second movement, op. 13, adagio, roll 5703-3, i51 chords.
D. (Bauer) third movement, op 13, allegro, roll 5711-3, 530 chords.
E. (Bachaus) first movement, op. 13, grave and allegro con brio, roll 79650; 849 chords.
F. (Hofmann) Moonlight, op. 27, no. 2, adagio sostenuto, roll 6101-6, 135 chords.
G. (Paderewski) Moonlight, op. 27, no. 2, adagio sostenuto, roll 6929-8; 136 chords.
H. (Hofmann) Polonaise Militaire, op. 40, no. 1, allegro con brio, roll 7620-6; 1043
chords.
/. (Paderewski) Polonaise Militaire, op. 40, no. 1, allegro con brio, roll 6140-0; 923
chords.
In all these figures, frequency of occurrence of a deviation is indicated on a scale in
terms of per cent, the scale being divided into units of 0.1 per cent at the left of the figure,
the amount of deviation from synchronism is indicated in terms of 0.01 second at the base
of the figure. The zero, or no deviation, column is, of course, proportionately long. This
column is broken, and the number at the top gives the per cent of chords in the entire
selection which were synchronous, leaving the reciprocal percentage to be distributed among
the deviations which are classified to the left as anticipations and to the right as delays.
252 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
as artistic effect, varies among individuals within very large limits.
It also varies with the complexity of the chord, the tempo, and
other factors.
With all these qualifications in mind, we may now compare
some outstanding artists. Figure 12 tells one phase of the story.
Since all the graphs in Fig. 12 are drawn to the same scale, namely,
in terms of per cent, the form and size of the figures furnish us a
true objective picture of the characteristics of each performer on
this one specific aspect, the number, magnitude, and distribution of
deviations from true synchronization.
At a glance, we see that each performer differs materially in his
utilization of this device. Conversely, each figure shows to what
extent each performer plays in exact synchronization. Assuming a
high standard of proficiency among these artists, differences such as
those indicated may possibly be attributed to the attitude that each
artist takes toward the utilization of this device.
It also is noticeable that the utilization of this principle varies
for the same artist in different selections, and that a given selection
reveals a common tendency among artists; the Moonlight adagio
brings out more than twice as many deviations as the Polonaise
Militaire. More detailed studies show also that the same artist
varies his deviations in repetition of similar measures, phrases,
and larger units.
After preliminary study of these performances, Vernon drew
up a set of 26 principles which he thought theoretically should
function in the asynchronization of chords. In terms of these, he
undertook a statistical analysis of all the performances to deter-
mine the validity of each proposition. Some were confirmed, others
were found partly observed, and for some no evidence was found.
Any musician who has attempted to state in black and white why
he treats the chord in a given way will realize that this was a bold
venture in view of the fact that most of the asynchronization is not
done according to rules but is a spontaneous expression of feeling
values. In this statistical study Vernon excluded the rolling of
chords indicated by the composer. His findings may be generalized
in the following statements:
1. Various causes for asynchronization lie in mechanical difficulties.
2. A considerable percentage of the smaller deviations probably may be
regarded as errors.
PIANO 253
3. A number of the specific principles may be subsumed under the general
principles that notes may be brought in singly to facilitate perception.
4. Another group may be subsumed under the principle that chords may be
played with a temporal spread for the sake of emphasis.
5. Chords may be spread for the purpose of softening a sharp contour, espe-
cially in legato movements, in tempo rubato, and other musical forms requiring
softening of contour.
With the technique now available, this problem is open for
extensive and intensive investigations which are certain to throw
much light upon the nature of artistry in piano playing.
VOICE
SINGING
rriHE psychology of singing falls naturally into three large divi-
-L sions, as it deals in turn with the singer, the song, and the lis-
tener. This chapter will be devoted to a study of the song, as
represented in the musical pattern score.*
If a musician were asked to give a complete account of every
detail that he, as a trained musician, had heard in a given song, his
account at best would be extraordinarily laborious, and even then
inadequate. In the performance score, however, we have a rela-
tively complete record of everything that happened in the song,
involving a multitude of details that the musician never hears.
In the study of this score, our first task is to see in accurate
detail exactly what the physical features are in the song pattern as
rendered. After one is familiar with these features, the real study
of the score must be made in terms of musical theory, musical
interests, musical skills, and everything else that has meaning for
the musician. It presents a long and rich story which we must leave
each musician to construct for himself.
A complete description of a song would involve (1) the quanti-
tative statement of the physical features in the rendition as revealed
by measurements on sound waves; (2) the relating of these to the
musical score; (3) the discovery of principles of artistic expression;
(4) the application of musical theory in evaluating the performance;
(5) the identification of the faults in the rendition, either real or
* This chapter is based almost entirely upon the researches of Dr. Harold G. Seashore,
working as Eastman fellow in the psychological laboratory. The student of singing will find
it worth while to pursue in detail his original report. 166
254
VOICE 255
apparent; (6) an evaluation of the performance in relation to mu-
sical form and esthetic norms and ideals. The musical pattern score
presents concrete data on all these issues. What we can hope to
accomplish in this chapter must, therefore, be limited to an intro-
duction to the technique of the interpretation of songs, especially
as represented by items (1) and (2).
At the first inspection of the musical pattern score, the reader
will be surprised by the constant and relatively gross deviation of
the pattern score from the original musical score. Children delight
in a demonstration with the microscope on the fingernails. Take a
well-manicured, clean fingernail, and, to the naked eye, it looks
smooth and presents a beautiful edge; put that nail under a high-
powered microscope, and what to the naked eye had seemed smooth
and graceful now appears jagged, irregular, rough, and ugly. Ap-
plying this analogy to hearing, we find that the unaided ear, like
the unaided eye, has marked limits in sensitivity and, therefore,
does not detect the countless deviations in tones which tone photog-
raphy brings out in astonishing detail. We shall see in this score a
great many elements in performance which the limits of hearing and
artistic demands have normally smoothed over as a result of the
complexity of the musical situation, the rapid movement of the
tones, the sporadic nature of errors, and ignorance about artistic
principles which operate.
The performance score gives us for the first time a real insight
into specific features of the act of singing. The conventional
musical score, which is a message from the composer to the singer,
leaves the artist great latitude for interpretation and the exhibition
of musical skills. The performance score, which we have sometimes
called the pattern score, is a record of how the singer actually
performed. It is a tool of investigation, a graphic picture in detail.
TABLE I. THE SINGERS AND THEIR SONGS
Singer Voice Composition Source
Baker Contralto lie shall feed His flock (Messiah) Record, Victor 4026
Crooks Tenor All through the night Record, Victor 1558
Homer Contralto Calm as the night Record, Victor 6703
Kraft (1) Tenor Drink to me only with thine eyes Direct
Kraft (2) Tenor All through the night Direct
Marsh Soprano Come unto Him (Messiah) Record, Victor 4026
Seashore Soprano Come unto Him (Messiah) Direct
Stark Tenor Ave Mana (Bach-Gounod) Direct
Thompson Basso Phosphorescence (Loewe) Direct
Tibbett Baritone Drink to me only unth thine eyes Record, Victor 1238
256
PSYCHOLOGY OP Music
This chapter will furnish a certain amount of study material
with directions to the reader for actual work in this type of analysis
at first hand. A few songs are given here in extenso so that they may
FIG. 1. Drink to me only with thine eyes as sung by Arthur Kraft. (H. Seashore. 166 )
be used as working material from several points of view in this and
in other chapters.
Table I is a list of the singers with their songs which Seashore 1 **
studied intensively. The main analysis is based primarily upon
Stark's rendition of the Ave Maria (Fig. 1, in Chap. 4). There are
VOICE
257
two songs by the same singer, Kraft (1) Drink to me only with thine
eyes (Fig. 1) and Kraft (2) All through the night (Fig. 2). There are
two men singing the same song, Drink to me only with thine eyes,
Tibbett (Fig. 3, in Chap. 4) and Kraft (Fig. 1). There are also
FIG. 1. Kraft I. (Continued.)
two women who sang the same song, Come unto Him, from the
Messiah, one a professional singer, Marsh (Fig. 3), and the other an
amateur singer, Seashore (Fig. 4).
The serious student of music will take the assignment here sug-
gested and compare the performance of each of the different singers
258
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
on each topic which comes up for observation, insofar as time and
specific interests permit. By this inductive method the analysis will
FIG. 2. All through the night as sung by Arthur Kraft. (77. Seashore. 1 )
bring out with extraordinary detail and realism the musical issues
under consideration. This material will, of course, furnish a splendid
VOICE
259
starting point for the discussion of what the ear actually hears and
what the musician thinks he performs, and may be compared with
the study of violin (Chap. 18) and piano performances (Chap.
19).
We recall that the score is divided into half steps indicated
alternately by dotted lines and dash lines. If a note was steady and
in perfect pitch, the graph would be a straight line on one of these
interrupted lines. Any deviation from the true pitch is shown
by proportionate deflection above or below the true-pitch line. The
distance between two adjacent dash lines represents a whole-tone
FIG. 2. Kraft 2. (Continued.)
step, and, therefore, the distance between a dotted line and dash
line is a semitone. The measurements are in terms of a 0.01-tone
step, and we shall use that terminology. The musical notes which
are interpolated are not part of the photographic record but are
inserted merely as an aid in comparing this pattern score with the
original musical score. Each dot and dash represents 0.1 second.
The vertical bars mark off seconds, and the short heavy bars at the
bottom mark off the measures.
THE TONAL ASPECT: PITCH
General trends of intonation. In order to show how the most
salient features of the pitch score in these songs may be read, we
may suggest the reading for the first page of the Ave Maria (Fig.
1, Chap. 4) as sung by Stark.
260
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
The song is in the key of F. The first note on the syllable A was approached
from below, rose above the mean pitch, and then remained on true pitch for a
little over 3 seconds. The ve began in true pitch, but rose to about a quarter tone
FIG. 3. The aria Come unto Him (Messiah) as sung by Lucy Marsh. (H, Seashore. 166 )
sharp for three-fourths of the note. The Ma was touched but lightly on two
vibrato cycles, followed by an upward glide on the third cycle. The ri was begun
a trifle flat, but after three cycles rose to true pitch, and remained true up to the
VOICE
261
portamento to the second note on the tie; it then flirted with this note on two
wide cycles and glided upward until it was continued on the syllable a in true
pitch throughout this note. After a breath-pause the note on gra was attacked by
FIG. 3. Marsh. (Continued.)
a two-tone rising glide, followed by two cycles slightly flat, reaching the true
pitch about the third cycle, from which there was a gradual flatting followed by
a gradual return to true pitch, the portamento to the second note of the interval
262
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
being considerably overreached. The movement from the flatted second note on
the tie continued on the next two notes, ti and a, under a relatively even upward
glide in which the true notes were only touched by the crest of the very wide
vibrato cycles. Pie was sung on approximately true pitch for the first note of the
tie, and only the crest of the vibrato cycle reached the second note of the tie
from which a downward glide carried it to the true pitch of the note on na, which
was then sung on approximately true pitch.
M/Y^
w-
7T
:t*
d
WWXA
6.0.
Wt\f.
W .
5T "Tf r
_.^w\^U /vww
VV\AA/ AAAAA A/WVV
WWW
AAA-
.--.^{L...
- - ^/ywwAAAAA vw^ -
-^\\AA/VW
FIG. 3. Marsh. (Continued.)
After a breath pause, the note on Do was attacked two and one-half tones from
below and rose leisurely for 0.7 second to true pitch, which was held to the glide
on the second note, which was slightly overreached, so that on this and the next
two notes, mi and nus, we have a parallel to the three notes at the end of the
fifth measure. Both notes for the tie on te were sung flat but a half tone short.
The note on cum was attacked flat but was held on true pitch after the first two
cycles. The first note in the ninth measure reached the true pitch in three cycles,
VOICE
263
began the glide gradually, and slightly overreached the second note. From this
note through the next five notes we see the characteristic figure of the legato
Fia. 4. The aria Come unto Him (Messiah) as sung by Mrs. Carl Seashore, Jr.
(//. Seashore. 166 )
movement, that is, the notes lose individuality and are blended in a gliding,
relatively smooth inflection which constitutes a natural unit.
With this guide in the interpretation of intonation, the reader
should proceed throughout the rest of the song, noting carefully
264
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
the characteristics of the tonal movement throughout each note.
In such analysis the intonation of this song will reveal the following
features, among many others: (1) The mean pitch, which is the
o
9
4O
40
70
O
F
O
20
O
FIG. 4. Seashore. (Continued.)
actual pitch heard, tends to correspond with the true pitch of the
musical score. (2) The mean pitch is, however, frequently flatted or
sharped to a surprising degree. This is more characteristic of short
VOICE
265
than of long notes. Long notes tend to begin slightly flat and are
gradually corrected as if by hearing. (3) The tones in the upper and
lower registers are sung with equal accuracy, but there is relatively
Fia. 4. Seashore. (Continued.)
more flatting in the upper and lower registers, and there are more
sharped tones in the middle register. This is contrary to the com-
mon notion that flatting occurs primarily on high notes. (4)
266
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
The movement through the body of the tone may be characterized
as level, erratic, rising, or falling. Of the 107 notes, 48 were sung
level, 37 rising, 6 erratic, and 9 falling. The rising inflections seem to
be due in large part to the legato attack, in which the characteristic
sharp rise of the attack tapers off through a diminishing flat up to
the true pitch. (5) In the phrasing, small units tend to fall into a
more or less graceful inflection unit, rising, falling, upward bend,
downward bend, or circumflex. (6) In analogous situations for
phrasing, the same types of liberties tend to be taken, and the type
is repeated throughout the song.
Fio. 4. Seashore. (Continued.)
In this literal interpretation of the pattern score itself, the
musical reader will find numerous other characteristics of pitch
intonation; some indicating typical errors, others indicating devia-
tions from true pitch on artistic principles, and some just plain
errors.
These revelations, though shocking to the uninitiated, should
not condemn this singer. On the contrary, the original sta-
tistical tables of comparisons with famous artists show that this
artist maintains a better than average level of achievement in
each of these matters of intonation that are revealed by the pattern
score.
Sharping and flatting. The issue as to sharping and flatting as-
sumes new proportions and new phases in the light of these per-
VOICE 267
formance scores. All the singers show some surprisingly large
deviations from true pitch. Some of these undoubtedly have esthetic
value in phrasing and harmonic balancing. On the other hand, the
larger deviations we find could not occur except under cover of the
vibrato.*
Here we may inject a poser: Why should a musician perform in
the conventional intervals ? The music may demand an augmented
or a diminished interval. The soloist can and does take advantage of
a license which, if better known, might become an esthetic rule.
These deviations from true intonation are tolerated by the
listening ear for the reason that only when the listener is highly
trained and in a critical mood does he hear these deviations from
the exact and rigid. But, of course, the main justification lies in
the fact that beauty lies in artistic deviation from the rigid,
and the legato movement is perhaps a striking example of this type
of tonal license. Indeed, a rigidly true intonation without vibrato
would be uninteresting and intolerable in the singing voice.
The pitch vibrato. In judging the merits or demerits of a singer,
we must take into account primarily (1) the extent, (2) the regular-
ity, (3) the form, and (4) the rate of the pitch pulsation.
The average extent of the cycles in the first song is 0.48 of a tone, that is,
practically a semitone. This happens to be the average extent for the best singers
of today. Sixty-five per cent of the extents fall within 0.1 of a tone from this aver-
age with a standard deviation of 0.14 of a tone. The wave form is relatively
smooth, which is characteristic of a good, trained singer.
The rate of pulsation is 6.5 cycles per second, with a standard deviation of 0.6.
The average rate for good singers is 6.3 with a standard deviation of 0.7. Eighty-
three per cent of the cycles fall within 10 per cent of the average.
The extent of the pulsation is slightly larger (7 per cent) for the short tones
than for the long tones. The rate of pulsation is approximately the same for long
and short tones. The extent is slightly larger for the low tones than for the high or
medium tones. The rate is approximately the same for high, medium, and low
tones. There are no marked disturbing characteristics. The extent, the regularity,
the form of pulsation, and the rate may be characterized as being typical. In
summary, Stark's vibrato is about the average for good artists now on the
American stage.
The following questions, among hundreds of this kind, are
answered in these performance scores and can be observed by
* There is an instrument, called the "theremin," which is played by waving the hands
in front of its antennae. If played without the vibrato, the intonation is intolerable because
it is rarely true, but with the vibrato the mellow tone carries a satisfying accuracy in pitch.
268 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
detailed and critical observation. It is suggested that the reader find
his own answers from firsthand study of the scores and then com-
pare them with the summary embodied in Chap. 4.
1. How generally does the pitch vibrato occur in these songs?
2. What is the average rate of pulsation ?
8. What is the average pitch extent of the pulsation?
4. How does the pitch vary from vibrato cycle to vibrato cycle?
5. How does the vibrato vary in pitch from tone to tone and within the
same tone?
6. Is there any correlation between the rate and the extent of the pitch
vibrato ?
7. What is the relation of rate and extent of pitch vibrato to low, medium,
and high pitch?
8. What is the relation of rate and extent of pitch vibrato to soft and
loud tones?
9. What is the relation of rate and extent of pitch vibrato to long and
short tones ?
10. Does the vibrato vary with sex?
11. How does the pitch vibrato vary in two artists' versions of the same song,
or two versions of the same song by the same artist?
12. How does the pitch vibrato appear in attacks, releases, and portamenti?
This list of questions is merely a fair sample. The author has
listed over 200 such questions and many more may be added from
the point of view of particular interests. It could be extended sev-
eral times over. The answers to all except those which pertain to
timbre are in the score.
In evaluating the four most significant traits of a good singer,
Bartholomew* names the vibrato as one. In running through the
score and observing this feature alone, it will be noted that the
vibrato is present on all notes; that the shape of the pulsation is
fairly smooth, taking the form of a sine curve; that the rate of
pulsation is fairly constant; that, as a rule, the pulsation is present
in the portamento;* and that the actual beginning, and particularly
the termination, of a note is modified by the way in which it falls
into phase with the vibrato cycle.
Precision of intonation in the body of the tone. A careful study
of the above samples raises serious questions about the extent to
which exact intonation is practiced and the large number of factors
* This is not evident at first sight for the reason that the up and down glides tend to
obliterate the waves in the line; but from a geometric point of view, each line bend in the
sweeping line actually represents a vibrato wave.
VOICE 269
which have to be taken into account in judging intonation. Take,
for example, Fig. 5, enlarged from the score of the first song, and
Fig. 6, enlarged from Kraft. In the first figure we must ask: What
was the pitch of the first tone? If the salient pitch were heard as
one, it would be represented by the horizontal line. If the salient
pitch were carefully discriminated, it would take the shape of the
slowly rising line. What was the pitch of the second note? The third
note? The fourth note? Parallel these questions in the second
line. It is shockingly evident that the musical ear which hears the
tones indicated by the conventional notes is extremely generous
fc
A/U
-tff
ctus
/ven- ins
FIG. 5. Samples of mean-pitch lines from Stark. (77. Seashore. 166 )
and operates in the interpretative mood. Compare this principle for
the various singers, and you will see that the matter of hearing
pitch is largely a matter of conceptual hearing in terms of conven-
tional intervals, and the vibrato and glides are means of covering
up faulty intonation. If the last two notes in each of these samples
were sustained straight, without vibrato, but a trifle sharp or flat,
they would not be tolerated; but, with this artistic license which the
vibrato introduces, the faults tend to be covered up by an illusion
which results in gracefulness. It is interesting to compare Figs. 5
and 6 to see how common principles tend to crop out.
It is obvious that the singers never remain for as much as a
tenth of a second in true pitch as a physical fact. They hover around
it through the vibrato and other sources of deviation. However, it
has been shown that the pitch we actually hear is approximately
270
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
the mean between the crest and the trough of the vibrato cycle.
This we call the mean pitch, as distinguished from the true pitch
indicated by the keynote of the accompaniment.
All the characteristics of artistic deviation in the intonation of a
single note of course apply equally to the singing of intervals in
harmony and melody.
i/WWV
JOVES NBC- TAR SIP
SOFT THB DROW- SY
LOVE AT LONE HIS WATCH
FIG. 6. Samples of mean-pitch lines from Kraft. (H. Seashore. 156 )
Accuracy of intonation in attack, release, and portamento. The
portamento, gliding attack and release are examples of factors
which influence the effectiveness and agreeableness of the tone
movement characteristic of this song. The songs here studied are
all in the legato style. In the group we find that 40 per cent of the
VOICE 271
intertone transitions take the form of portamento, 25 per cent
of the tones are attacked with the gliding inflection, and only
35 per cent show an even attack. In the gliding attacks, 97 per
cent are rising, quite irrespective of the melodic lines. This rising
glide is especially associated with the opening of phrases. Figure 7
shows four characteristic types of rising glide. The longer the tone
the more likely there is to be a gliding attack. The average duration
of the attack in these songs is 0.2 second. The average extent of
the rising glide is about 0.9 of a tone.
About half the tones in these songs end with a level release
followed by a pause; about 40 per cent end in the portamento glide.
Our performance scores give vivid illustration of the various types
and possibilities.
/
FIG. 7. Type forms of gliding, rising attack. (77. Seashore*)
Is the gliding attack or release to be condemned? Of course,
there is much slovenliness in singing, and that is to be condemned.
But there is ample evidence in experimental studies to show that
glides are an important medium for softening the contour of the
tone by such artistic deviation from even attack or release. The
pitch glide has its parallel in the gliding form of the intensity in
attack. There are also physiological reasons for a rising form of
both pitch and intensity in that the tone has to be "built up."
The early form of the Hammond organ brought out this principle
in a striking manner. The "clean" attack of the tone was disagree-
able. Larsen 12 has devised a means of "softening" the attack by a
modulator which makes pitch and intensity come in gradually in
every note.
The portamento is, of course, a feature of the interpretation
contributed by the singer, although it is called for on principle
in legato style and partly in the score.
It may occur for any size of interval up to the octave. However,
incident to melodic movement, the large majority of portamentos
are for small intervals. Portamentos are, as a rule, shorter than
glides of the same extent, owing in large part to the rapid move-
272 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
ments in small intervals. The average duration for these porta-
inentos is about 0.15 second. The wider intervals require greater
duration of the portamento. It tends to appear in transitions in-
volving changes in vowel and in the articulation of semivowels,
transitionals, voiced and nasalized stop consonants, and voiced
fricatives. A singer glides from one vowel to another or to a diph-
thong. Figure 8 shows six types of portamentos. It will be observed
that in good singing the transition is always a function of the
! v
FIG. 8, Type forms of portamento. (//. Seashore. 1 )
vibrato, which serves to lengthen or shorten the note or the transi-
tion, according as it fits into the vibrato cycle.
THE DYNAMIC ASPECT! INTENSITY
The exact description of the dynamic aspects in singing is
complicated by many factors. As has already been pointed out,
we have no nomenclature in musical notation which is discriminat-
ing or detailed. The performer has no objective check by which
he can judge right or wrong in intensity. The measurement in the
laboratory is complicated by the fact that the reverberations in
the room, the position of the singer, the position of the listener,
the point at which the record is made, and many other factors of
that sort greatly modify the intensity that shall be performed,
heard, or recorded. Since phonograph records distort the intensity
in various ways, no intensity record is shown for the last three
songs, those which were made from phonograph records.
Yet there are many fundamental facts exhibited in these per-
formance scores which throw light on the actual nature of the
dynamic interpretation in these songs. The reader will profit most
by careful review of the performance scores of the first four songs
VOICE 273
for the answers to the following six comprehensive questions in
turn:
1. What is the dynamic pattern of a tone as to attack, sustaining, and release ?
2. What are the typical group patterns, as in beat, measure, phrase, or
sentence ?
3. What is the characteristic range of intensity inflection for each singer?
4. Is there any correlation between intensity and pitch level?
5. What are the characteristics of the intensity vibrato as to the frequency
of occurrence, extent, rates, regularity, and synchronization with the pitch
vibrato ?
6. What individual differences in types of intensity inflection are discernible ?
Since intensity is the principal medium for phrasing, we look
to the picture of the intensity movement for the complete account
of the character of the phrasing as affecting accent, measures,
phrases, and musical sentences in the true physical aspect. By
this means we may make a comparison with the theoretical
meaning or phrasing and a comparison of types and interpretation
in repeated units of the same selection as well as of interpretation
of the same selection by other singers.
The intensity score. Intensity is indicated in 4 db steps at the
left. The zero is set for the softest tone that occurs in this selection,
probably about 40 db above the threshold of hearing.
In the Ave Maria, there is a crescendo from to 20 db; there is a weak, but
even, intensity vibrato throughout all but the first 0.5 second.
After an inceptive breath pause the intensity rises to its previous level, and
then follows a decrescendo of 12 db, but the vibrato has practically disappeared.
In the third note the intensity rises again to the original maximum and is without
vibrato. Let the reader sing these three notes and observe the natural tendency to
follow this pattern, which, it will be observed, has great esthetic value.
The fourth note is maintained fairly steadily at 16 db for 2 seconds. From
there, there is a slight sagging, apparently in anticipation of and in sympathy
with the downward portamento of the pitch. It carries a fragmentary vibrato.
In the last note of the phrase there is a fairly marked intensity vibrato. Since the
intensity is one of the two principal media in artistic phrasing, w r e have in this
graphic representation of the dynamic values a perfect picture of the type of
phrasing accomplished by the artist. In the second phrase there is a gradual swell
from the just audible up to a new maximum of 9 db louder than in the correspond-
ing note of the first phrase, with a downward glide through the second note of the
tie to zero for a breath pause, from which the intensity rises parallel with the
arpeggio in pitch and drops to zero, giving the notes on ti and a the appearance
of separation and light touch. The next note rises gradually to 19 db, which is
maintained until it dips on the portamento, returns to nearly the same maximum,
and then fails gradually to zero in the pause.
274 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
The curve for the note on Do resembles the curve for the note on gra, rising
to the same maximum height and diminishing gradually through the tie. On the
following mi and nus, we have a contrast with the above movement on ti and a,
in that the two short notes are not separated from the preceding note at the
beginning and there is no rising intensity with the rising pitch, undoubtedly due
to the sequel which calls for a soft tone of 8 db only on cum, the last syllable. The
intensity vibrato is intermittent.
So much for the verbal legend for the reading of the score.
From here on, the reader may proceed throughout this and the
other selections without the verbal aid. After that has been com-
pleted, a review of the score in perspective gives a set picture of
the dynamic phrasing which should be verified by each reader in
terms of his musical knowledge, personal experience, and interests.
Tonal power. In comparing the dynamic values of tones, it is
conventional to speak of the highest intensity reached within a
tone as representing its tonal power. Thus we may speak of the
average range of an artist's tonal power; the average range
for 10 concert singers was 20 db. There is a correlation of, r = 0.61
0.05 between rise or fall in intensity and rise or fall in pitch; i.e.,
as pitch rises or falls, intensity tends to rise or fall. In terms of
"power," we describe dynamic phrasing, as in beat, measure,
accent, crescendo, or decrescendo. This is because we must use
some specific point in the intensity of the note for comparison, and
the highest peak is what we are likely to hear as the intensity of
the tone.
Figure 9 is an illustration of one of numerous ways in which
singing may be characterized in terms of tonal power as just
defined. In Tibbett and Kraft (1), we see a marked contrast in the
dynamic interpretation of their song. We see also how Marsh
and Seashore differ in their interpretation. Crooks and Kraft (2)
are in closer agreement. Kraft's range of power differs significantly
in his two selections. In other comparisons, the difference in the
character of the song must be taken into account.
The intensity vibrato. An intensity vibrato is present part
of the time. It is very significant that it shows the same general
type of intermittence and irregularity for all the singers here
studied. It may be discerned 50 to 75 per cent of the phonated
time, but it has an even rate and extent only about half that time.
For the more constant periods it has an average extent of about
6 db; this makes it far less prominent perceptually than the
VOICE
275
average semitone extent of the corresponding pitch vibrato. The
rate tends to be synchronous with the rate of the pitch vibrato, but
o 20 ~ o 20
FIG. 9. Spread of tonal powers within a song; ordinates are percentage of tones, and units
of 5 db are marked off along the base line. (H. Seashore. 166 )
there is great diversity in the phase relationships. The average
rate is about 6.5 pulsations per second, 4 and 10 being the extremes.
If we are now familiar with these songs, we may have a feeling
of familiarity analogous to what we experience after having seen
276
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
the face of a person. We tend to recognize certain characteristics
of each singer in the performance, for example, the use of breath
pauses, the sharpness of the attack, the tendency to strike an even
level, or to decrease or increase within the phrase. These things
in songs are like the mannerisms or peculiarities of the voice in
speaking, and here they are shown in the concrete.
THE TEMPORAL ASPECT! TIME
Functionally, the temporal organization is observed primarily
in tempo, meter, rhythm, and phrasing. The last two are of
,-OJ
2345 678910 II 12 13146 16 (7
234 567 89 1011 12 13 14 6 16
FIG. 10. Durational progress of the songs from measure to measure. Percentage of
deviation from the average duration of measures is plotted. (H. Seashore. 166 )
primary importance psychologically and will be considered
separately.
Phrasing. At this point we may restrict our interest to the
acquiring of a ready command of time values as represented in the
VOICE
277
performance score. This will be facilitated by the reader's attempt
to answer the following questions on the basis of a direct inspection
of the scores:
1. How are the temporal aspects of tempo, beat, meter, rhythm, and phras-
ing represented in the scores?
60-
40
20
TIBBETT
60,
40
20
2345678
KRAFT I
GO.
40
20
60
CROOKS
12345678
KRAFT 2
2345 678
I
BAKER
-^ NT MI fl F
f.
j
60
40
HOMER
20
1
INT 1
123 4 5 67 8
8o[
40
20
STARK
I 2345 67 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16
FIG. 11. Durational progress of the songs from phrase to phrase. The percentages are
calculated from the duration of the briefest phrase as the base. (//. Seashore. 1 * 6 )
2. What types of deviation from the musical score in time are observed?
3. What types of pauses may be observed?
In studying these temporal phenomena we must distinguish
clearly between the objective time and time as heard. The two
are far from parallel; that is, we do not hear time as it really is.
There is a vast mass of normal illusions of hearing involved,
partly owing to incomplete perception but perhaps more frequently
to esthetic values.
278 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
Of course, nobody sings in time indicated by the notes. Take,
for example, variations in the length of the measure, as shown for
the 10 singers in Fig. 10. If each measure were allowed the same
duration, the result would be represented by the straight line
marked "average"; this is not the case. The singer's interpretation
is accomplished by artistic deviation from this average. Thus,
Tibbett shortens the first two notes and comes to the average in
the third, then shortens the fourth note about 18 per cent, and so
on, for the first two-thirds of the phrase, and in the last third
emphasizes his phrasing by a marked lengthening of all measures
except the last. In none of these singers is there the slightest ap-
proach to an even time for a measure.*
The same principle might be illustrated for the beats within
the measure, which are the foundation work of the rhythm. Ac-
cented and unaccented notes are varied in length within a measure
in order to create briskness of artistic rhythm.
The same principle is illustrated on a larger scale, using the
phrase instead of the measure as a unit of variability in Fig. 11.
The base, zero, represents the duration of the briefest phrase.
Points above this line indicate percentage of lengthening in the
phrase.
Pauses also play a very important role in musical interpreta-
tion. The time marks for pauses in the score are of comparatively
little value to the artist, who makes various pauses in connection
with personally felt esthetic needs as well as for convenience in
articulation and intonation. It is, of course, strikingly apparent
that the temporal value of notes is greatly modified by the release,
and portamento, f
As to whether a given singer is good or bad in the use of time,
there are two ways in which we may judge: (1) by statistical
treatment of analogous features in the performance of great singers
and (2) by our own feeling as to what seems to be agreeable or
disagreeable in temporal expression. The latter is, of course, our
almost universal resource, but is fallible and inadequate.
* "Inc'' in certain graphs indicates that the reading was incomplete, or interrupted at
that point.
f The word "tempo" may be used in two meanings, as illustrated in Figs. 10 and 11.
It may mean the average time as represented by the straight line, or it may mean the
continually modified time from moment to moment, as shown by the rising and falling line
in the graph. We may call the former tempo and the latter modified tempo. Even tempo ia
rarely desired outside of large group performance.
VOICE 279
TIME AND STRESS: RHYTHM
The interpretative aspect of singing lies almost entirely in the
field of phrasing, and the medium of phrasing is primarily rhythm.
Table II gives a skeletal cue to the type of factors which must be
considered in discussing rhythm in artistic singing. The items
listed under performance in each of the four heads can be repre-
TABLE II. AN INVENTORY OF FACTORS IN RHYTHMIC EXPRESSION IN
SINGING
(From H. Seashore 166 )
I. Duration (time)
1. Composition
a. Note and rest values: the note pattern
6. Meter: the measure pattern
c. Phrase: the verse pattern
d. Tempo: the song pattern
e. Words: meter, phrasing, synchronization
/. Accompaniment: coordination with melody
2. Performance
a. Time stress: over- and underheld tones
6. Progressive shifts: rubato, accelerando
c. Special effects: arrhythm, syncopations
d. Words: scansion, phrasing, synchronization
e. Accompaniment: synchronization, tempo
II. Loudness (intensity)
1. Composition
a. Symbols: pp t ff t cresc., sfz.
2. Performance
a. Intertonal dynamics: stress, crescendo, phrase
b. Intra tonal dynamics: contour within tones
c. Words: scansion by intensity stress
d. Accompaniment: augmentation of voice stress
III. Pitch (frequency)
1. Composition
a. Melody: tones favoring accent
6. Phrase: cadence, repetition, contour
c. Words, speech, singing melody, coordination
d. Accompaniment: melody, arpeggio, chords
2. Performance
a. Ornaments: vibrato, grace notes, figures
b. Transitions: attack, release, portamento
c. Words: effect upon pitch accuracy, transition
IV. Tone quality (wave form)
1. Composition
a. Words: mood, meaning, 'color,' alliteration
b. Accompaniment: piano, orchestra, organ
2. Performance
a. Vowel: inter- and intratonal quality
6. Articulation: consonants, pauses, clarity
280
PSYCHOLOGY OP Music
sented in pattern scores. Rhythm is often thought of in terms of
accent and duration of the tone; but the situation is vastly more
E v
c
A
+50
AV
ONNKTOME OH- LY NTH-YHINEEY&-ANC
-50
15
10
T_T
I -WLL PUDGE NT!
JRLEJWEAKlSSWm IN THE CUP AM
lU NOT ASK TO
J JiJ.T.r J J, J
THI SOJtOOTHMSEOOTV
ASK ADHNK 01-
rtNE
J. J yi/JJ- J
inrMiorr IOF JOVE\
NEC TAR SIP
FIG. 12. Kraft 1 and Tibbett. The role of several factors in rhythm. Top to bottom:
pattern of note-length, melody, words, relative duration, tonal power, phrases. Vertical lines
indicate measures. (H. Seashore. 166 )
complicated. Instead of speaking of accent and length of tone, the
psychologist favors the use of the term "rhythmic advantage." A
VOICE 281
note has rhythmic advantage, if it is strong, or disadvantage, if it
is soft. It has advantage, if it is long, disadvantage, if it is short.
But there are many other factors acting singly, in combination,
or in opposition. These may occur in each of the four attributes of
sound: pitch, intensity, duration, or tempo of the tone may give
advantage or disadvantage to rhythmic emphases.
Figure 12, which is an analysis of sections from Kraft (1) and
Tibbett, gives graphic illustrations of how these factors occur and
work together. The top line for each unit gives the time values
from the musical score. The next line graphs the rise and fall in
pitch. The next line gives the words. The next gives the fluctuation
in time value, that is, overholding or underholding the note.
The last unit gives the emphasis caused by intensity. Let us follow
analyses of the graphs made for Kraft (1) and Tibbett.
The first phrase consists of two measures, less one eighth note; all the notes,
as seen in the top line, are eighth notes, except the quarter note on the second beat
of the first measure. The melodic curve is level for the first three notes, rises a
half step for the remainder of the measure, ascends a whole step on the beat note
of the second measure, and then descends by half and whole steps to a low tone
on eyes, which is then continued a step higher to end the phrase on the same pitch
as it began. The words are self-explanatory. It is seen that the first tone, Drink,
was overheld almost 35 per cent and that the next two were relatively much
shorter; to and me not only were shorter than the equally valued note of Drink,
but were relatively shorter than the average eighth note. In other words, the
tempo of the phrase was accelerated.
On-ly with, also, were relatively underheld, but they formed a little pattern of
rubato of their own. The second note of with, an eighth note, again was not given
its relative time. Apparently this time was given to the syllable thine, which is
important to the meaning of the lyric. Interestingly enough, the first tone of
eyes, in an accent position, was again hurried so that it was relatively underheld,
not only with respect to the average, but also to its neighboring tones. The phrase
closes on the second tone of eyes, which apparently was retarded a little to give
finality, although even here the value was just about the average of all eighth
notes.
In the intensity graph at the bottom, the tonal powers of the first three tones
were the same, 3 db above the smallest tonal power in the song, which is the zero
level of the graph. The syllable on was accentuated by increased tonal power, but
on ly, an unaccented tone, the power subsided. The lowest tonal power in the
phrase was found in the accented syllable with. Following this, there was a steady
increase of powers to the last tone of the phrase.
Articulation can be studied in the syllables, although such a study is incom-
plete because not all syllables were given distinct articulation; some consonants
were passed over in portamento glides. The articulation in the portamento is not
as distinct as the articulation of the opening vowel or consonant after a pause.
282 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
Also, it is not shown here which attacks were level and which were gliding; it is
quite clear that a long gliding attack after a pause will have some articulatory
rhythmic advantage. The main contribution of the graphs is the parallel por-
trayal of relative pitch, time, and tonal power.
These facts are, of course, all present in the original performance
score but are here isolated for facilitation of observation. It is well
worth while to make a detailed comparison of renditions given by
Kraft and Tibbett, item for item. No one assumes that two singers
should sing the same song alike, or that even one singer should re-
peat the same song in the same manner. But it is interesting to see
how many interpretative factors must be inherent in the music it-
self to bring about the very numerous agreements in the rhythmic
flow.
The exhibit of repeated rhythmic patterns within the same
selection is very significant. It is worth while to review the various
scores with this one objective in view. The temporal pattern is
repeated in several phrases, giving a very clear illustration of how
the composition demands phrasal patterns and how the pattern
is repeated in successive phrases, often quite in disregard of melody.
In the Messiah arias, of Marsh and Seashore, the first five phrases are repeated
in the second five with only one small change in the tenth phrases. Otherwise,
for each singer we have five rhythmic, melodic, and lyrical patterns, each done
twice. Furthermore, in the aria Come unto Him, phrases 1, 3, 6, and 8 are
identical.
Consider the first phrase, Come unto Him. Both Seashore and Marsh sang this
expression with cup-shaped patterns of relative time; Seashore's repetitions were
more uniform. Phrases 2 and 7 were done differently by the two singers, although
each singer was consistent with herself. The difference between the two singers
was in regard to the tones on la and bor. Seashore overheld the dotted eighth
note, which is the first note of /a, while Marsh chose to effect the climax of her
retard on the final tone /a, an eighth note just preceding the drop of an octave to
bor. Marsh's version was more arrhythmic.
Marsh did phrases 4 and 9 reasonably close to strict and uniform time, except
that in the second rendition, phrase 9, she shortened both of the sixteenth notes
rather excessively. Seashore's pattern is much more interesting as far as dura-
tional organization is concerned. The curve represents an accelerando-ritardando-
accelerando pattern of tempo. Each time she favored the anacrusis note opening
the phrases by lengthening it; then she favored the primary accent slightly by
curtailing the following eighth note. On beat 2, the tertiary accent, she introduced
a slight accent of relative duration; the next two notes were underheld, and then
she overheld the sixteenth note which is the secondary accent on count 3, giving
it not only a small durational stress, but also making the brief note more
perceptible.
VOICE 283
In the final phrases of each division, 5 and 10, Marsh showed great uniformity.
Marsh overheld the anacrusis and in each case to open the phrase and then favored
the He on the primary beat by over-holding it in relation to the second tone on
the same syllable. The tones on give in each repetition, being a tertiary accent on
count 2, are important from the textual standpoint; they were, therefore, held
considerably longer than if in strict time. However, the general retard of the
phrase led up to the you in an unaccented position just preceding the long tone
with rest.
Seashore stressed the meaning by accentuating He in the second repetition,
phrase 10, and in both cases syncopated by oversustairiing the second tone of
give. She closed the phrases accelerando.
Five variables in rhythm. In the above analysis, it has been
possible to take into account five variables in rhythm: (1) the note
length, which is set in the composition; (2) relative overholding
or underholding of a note in time; (3) the rise or fall in melody;
(4) tonal power or intensity; and (5) pauses.
For each of these we may recognize double advantage, simple
advantage, indifference, and disadvantage. For example, if a note
is relatively overheld with respect to both of its neighbors, it has
double advantage; if it exceeds only one neighbor, it has simple
advantage; if it is equal to its neighbors, there is indifference; and
if it is underheld, it has rhythmic disadvantage. Each of these five
factors may operate singly or in combination with other factors.
Thus, a long note may also be overheld and have an advantage of
rise in pitch and increase in tonal power, either in a primary or
secondary accent. Two or more variables may act in opposition,
thus tending to cancel the rhythmic stress. In transitions a tone
may have rhythmic advantage from a pause of over a half second
or by initiating a gliding attack or long portamento.
THE QUALITATIVE ASPECT.* TIMBRE
AND SONANCE
Timbre refers to the quality of a tone at a single moment and,
as we have seen, is measured in terms of the form of the sound
wave. But tone quality also takes into account sonance, which
embraces the rapid change of the character of the tone in timbre,
pitch, and intensity, whether artistic or erratic.
Timbre. The various objective scores presented in this chapter
show nothing about timbre. It is fully recognized that this fourth
factor in singing is by far the most important characteristic of
voice, but it is also the most complicated factor. It is not want of
284 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
material or technique, but want of space that prevents treatment
of the timbre of the voice in the scores here analyzed.
The best mode of complete representation of a tone is that
employed for Fig. 4 and similar figures in Chap. 9. The spectrum
for each sound wave is placed on a slanting base to represent the
complete overtone structure of a 500 ~ tone lasting one second.
We should have to represent 500 spectra in this manner. A simple
figure of such proportion would require a large page !
The practical thing to do in studying voice is, of course, to take
"fair samples" to the extent that time and space may permit.
That is what we have done in Chaps. 8, 9, and 17, in which the
general principles of timbre are discussed.
For practical purposes in the description of the timbre of a
voice or in the comparative study of voices, it is quite feasible to
make compact sampling of a voice with due regard for variations
with pitch, intensity, time, phonetic element, and location of the
sample within the tone. When principles of these variables are
standardized, we shall be able to add to each objective performance
score a general picture of the way in which the particular voice
conforms to recognized principles and supplement this by pictures
of specific peculiarities, good or bad, in the exhibition of timbre.
Sonance. To determine the exact quality of a singer's voice
in a given situation, we must also take into account the phenomena
of sonance. These are amply illustrated in the entire performance
scores for the singers here presented, as to pitch, intensity, and
time. Among the basic factors which must be considered are a full
and quantitative statement of the characteristics of the vibrato,
both artistic and erratic, for pitch, intensity, and timbre, all shown
in the performance score. Likewise, the stability or instability of
the tone in terms of intensity, both artistic and erratic, is a deter-
mining factor of sonance, principally as affecting roughness or
smoothness of tone.
Space will not permit a verbal description of the very detailed
comparison that can be made, but with the experience gained up
to this point, each reader may now indulge in these comparisons
to his heart's delight, observing first the gross resemblances and
differences, and then going into details from note to note, from
esthetic principle to esthetic principle, and thus gain a very rich
basis for the comparison of singers and for a deeper realization of
what any one singer actually accomplishes.
VOICE 285
This chapter has undoubtedly proved to be a severe assignment
for study. It is well adapted for such purposes, and can be made a
constant reference whenever any principle of singing is under
discussion. The student may be sent to records of this kind to
obtain original qualitative statements on the issues involved.
We now have gained a bird's-eye view of the factors with which
we may deal in a complete analysis of artistic performance in
voice. The serious student has been confronted with a very heavy
task, on the one hand, in attempting to isolate each of these facts
and, on the other hand, to integrate them into a complete picture
of tone quality. From this, there should follow a discriminating use
of terms, a deepened insight into actual resources of what con-
stitutes a voice, the development of the musical ear of the dis-
criminating listener, and musical criticism. It is in terms of this
approach that we must build the science of voice, musical esthetics,
and the scientific foundations of training in the art of singing.
21
PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE
IN MUSIC*
MODERN organized efforts in the direction of occupational
guidance of the young take three forms education for
general culture, vocational training, and avocational training.
The vocational guidance is of leading interest in the public mind
the problem of placing each youth in the occupation for which he
is best fitted. But avocational guidance is coming to be recognized;
first, because we are confronted seriously for the first time in the
modern world with the problem of educating for leisure how to
spend spare time; and second, because in the arts we find the most
marked exhibitions of talent or lack of talent, and the pursuit
of the arts is and should be far more of an avocational nature than
vocational. This is particularly true of music. The real emphasis
needs to be laid at the point of educational guidance, whether it
be for vocation or avocation. If the educational guidance is well
done, the other two will take care of themselves.
The aim of this chapter is to present in rapid review a general
picture of the present status of educational guidance in music,
setting forth underlying principles, safeguards, and objectives. It
will be restricted to a consideration of the discovery, the evaluation,
and the guidance of musical talent and will not touch upon the
problem of means of education or outlets for the trained.
* This chapter is essentially reprinted with permission, in part from School and Society 11 *"
and in part from the $th Yearbook of the National Society for Experimental Education. 1 *
It dovetails with the next three chapters, which give more specific accounts of psychological
guidance in music.
286
PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE IN Music 287
THE PROBLEM
Music is the most universal art, but the outlet for a professional
career is relatively limited to four fields, namely, those of composer,
conductor, virtuoso, and teacher.
The highest form of musicianship is that of the composer, who
represents superior creative power that is very rare. The conductor
is the supreme interpreter and represents the greatest versatility,
together with the power of leadership. The virtuoso is the winner in
a severe struggle for survival. He represents a very small percentage
of those whose ambitions lie in that direction and is often regarded
as a technician with a limited outlook on the larger aspects of
music. The teacher is the pedagogue and may or may not possess
musical talent.
The talent required for each of these four groups is radically
different; the necessary education is different; the resultant per-
sonality is radically different. Differentiated guidance toward
these fields is, therefore, of the greatest importance, as it involves
not only questions of expensive preparation, but, what is more
important, the making or breaking of human hearts in success or
failure. Yet, from the point of view of public education, it is rela-
tively unimportant, because all these vocations together comprise
less than 1 per cent of the normal population that craves musical
guidance.
The problem of guidance in public schools, therefore, becomes
primarily one of guidance toward the appreciation of music and self-
expression in music for the joy of expression in itself. That is a
problem of educational and avocational guidance, whether it be
for the various degrees of amateur performance or for the general
appreciation of music.
The outlets and media for expression in this large area of the
musical life embrace all conceivable forms of music from the most
primitive beat of drums through the countless varieties of instru-
ments, the various gifts of voice, the power of dramatization, and
the various functions and roles in the service of music in the
health and the life of the home, community, church, and art.
It is, therefore, clear that musical talent is not one thing;
musical education is not one thing; and the effective functioning of
music in the life of the people is not one thing. Hence the problem
288 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
of guidance becomes extraordinarily complicated; yet it is full
of undreamed-of possibilities.
In the popular mind, a person is either musical or nonmusical,
just as he is supposed to be either sane or insane. The fact is that
we are all more or less sane and all more or less talented; it becomes
a question of degree, kind, and value.
Musical talent is not one thing, but a hierarchy of talents as
varied, as interrelated, and as dependent upon soil, environment,
and inherited traits as is the vegetation of the forests. There are
oaks and poplars, annuals and perennials, flowers and thorns,
luscious fruits and pernicious weeds; so in the musical organism
and its function, there is vast diversity. Yet in the kingdom of
art, as in the plant kingdom, there is law and order in the relation-
ships. As in the plant kingdom, the seed is always there. But what
kind of seed is it? What chance does it have of coming to foliage
and fruitage through the operation of natural laws and planful
cultivation ?
This concept of variety, intricacy, and vastness of talent, how-
ever, does not discourage the scientific approach to its analysis;
because musical talent has its taproots, its modes of branching,
rebranching, and enfoliage, and there is a possibility of establish-
ing classifications and making quantitative measurements which
may have a wide sweep of application. This faith in possibilities
springs from the psychological laboratory where the scientist is
satisfied to fractionate the problem and deal intensively with
one issue at a time.
The scientific approach is, however, represented by a very small
minority of those who are engaged in guidance or will be so in the
future. This could not be otherwise in view of the scientific pre-
requisites in training for that point of view. It is no discredit
to the ordinary teacher or musician that he or she does not
have it.
Fortunately the situation is relieved by nature's provision for
survival. In the vast majority of cases, the question of prognosis
is not raised, but the child is thrown into the musical situation,
and, if he has it in him, he may come out happily; but at the best,
this process involves enormous waste in the field of musical nature.
At the present time, by far the best and most universal test that
we have of musical talent is achievement. Small children are thrown
into the musical situation, and, if the character of achievement
PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE IN Music 289
is watched intelligently, there is not much fault to find with that
procedure; it is safe, although wasteful.
PAVING THE WAY
Among the significant steps which have been taken in the solu-
tion of this problem, we may note the following:
1. The idea that it can be done. The development of the idea
that we can measure musical traits and can base reliable educa-
tional guidance thereon is a natural outgrowth of the testing move-
ment of this age. On this point we are still at the very first stage of
experimental procedure and readiness to accept in principle the
idea that a musical education can be guided by the measurement of
talent.
2. Instruments and methods. The gradual building up of meas-
uring instruments and methods, the standardizing of both of these,
and the establishment of norms is the first step in the constructive
program. Here, again, we are just at a beginning, but the achieve-
ments of the last twenty-five years are encouraging and rapid
progress is being made.
3. Validation. The next step has been to validate the stand-
ardized measures to show that they actually measure what they
purport to measure, that they differentiate talents which are
functionally significant in music and which can be shown to predict
characteristics of success or failure. We have come to use the term
" measure " in this program as distinguished from "test" wherever
the thing that we are measuring is a specific capacity, such as
absolute pitch, rather than a general ability.
4. Capacity versus ability. The demonstration of a tendency
toward relative fixity and stability of inherited mental traits
is furnishing the fundamental basis for a guidance program.
Aside from this idea of the tendency toward relative fixity of mental
or organic traits the natural and favorable outlets in certain
directions and the inhibitive and blocking tendencies in other
directions, from whatever cause the guidance program would
have little significance. Our only problem would be how to educate
those equally educable. For the purpose of distinguishing relatively
fixed from relatively changing traits, we use the terms "capacity 5 *
to denote the former and "ability" to denote the latter. There is no
sharp line to be drawn between these two, but countless practical
distinctions are possible, significant, and essential to a testing
290 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
program. The attempt to differentiate for practical purposes
between what constitutes relatively fixed individual traits and
what traits are educable and remediable is important; because on
this principle the work of guidance is differentiated, on the one
hand, into the organization of training and, on the other, into
remedial work for specific objectives.
5. The magnitude of individual difference. It has long been
recognized that some children are musical and others are not
musical, but it remained for the testing program to demonstrate
by quantitative measurements the enormous magnitude of these
differences and, therefore, the corresponding significance for educa-
bility. When we can say on quantitative measurement, as we can,
that this girl has ten, fifty, or a hundred times the capacity for a
certain type of achievement in music than her equally intelligent
sister has, the situation takes on a grave phase; and, when this
difference can be verified with a high order of precision as often as
desirable, it demands that one stop and ponder. Such demonstra-
tions are being made daily now where talent measures are in vogue
and the findings tend to hasten the adoption of a guidance program.
6. Aim. The educational objective which underlies all scientific
guidance is that it is the function of the educator to keep each
child busy at his highest natural level for successful achievement
in the field for which he has reasonable aptitude and in which he
will find a reasonable outlet for self-expression, in order that he
may be happy, useful, and good. We have not yet reached more
than a verbal acceptance of this undeniable principle in either music
or general education; but it is our inevitable goal. The main thing
that is blocking its acceptance is the lack of an acceptable and
thoroughgoing guidance program as a part of the educational
system.
7. The vitalizing of common sense. Considerations like those
just mentioned have injected a most astonishing vitality and
responsibility into the demand for the exercise of common sense
on such matters. Countless means already available to the intelli-
gent observer are coming to be utilized in the absence of exact
measurement and to interpret scientific facts where available.
Common sense is, therefore, rapidly assuming a new role in musical
and educational circles.
This is by far the greatest good that has come out of the testing
movement because we have known and we do know quite enough
PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE IN Music 291
in a discriminating way without the use of accurate measurements;
the principal consideration is the will to act upon what we do know
and can observe. This will has been strengthened by the experi-
mental revelation of the enormous extent of individual differences,
the relative fixity of these differences and the radical far-reaching
significance of these differences for happiness and success. The
social and educational breakdown in the craze which we have
lived through in the last half century, tending to demand that
every girl should play the piano and all children in public schools
should be taught the same music, lends great encouragement to the
use of sense and reasoning in educational guidance. But this will
not prevail unless an adequate testing program is maintained.
8. The teacher's self-examination. Many years ago the music
teachers' national organization carried on its letterhead the motto,
"Musical education in the public schools for every child at public
expense." When the association became conscious of the magnitude
of individual differences in musical talent this motto was changed
for a time to read, "Musical education in proportion to his talent
for every child in the public schools at public expense." This
marked a new insight and a vantage ground in the evaluation of
music in the public schools.
About that time I wrote in the last chapter of The Psychology
of Musical Talent 137 the following challenge to teachers in the
public schools, asking each teacher to take an inventory of his
theory and practice bearing on this issue with the challenge that
he clarify his own thinking and satisfy his own conscience in regard
to whether or not he was doing the child justice by the manner in
which he adapted the training to the nature of the child. I quote
here merely the nine questions which were elaborated in that
chapter.
1. Do I fully realize the magnitude and significance of in-
dividual differences in my pupils?
2. Do I believe in giving each individual pupil in music an
opportunity commensurate with his actual capacity and
aptitude ?
3. Do I actually, in practice, give my pupils an opportunity to
grow, each according to his talent?
4. Do I keep the pupil always at the highest level of successful
achievement ?
5. Do I justly praise or blame the pupil?
292 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
6. Do I rightly identify the retarded child? (The gifted child
who is retarded by the school lock step ?)
7. Do I motivate my work for each individual ?
8. Do I help my pupil to find himself?
9. Do I take into account the individual as a whole bodily,
social, intellectual, moral, esthetic, and religious?
REMINISCENT INCIDENTS
A few years ago, when we were organizing the new active move-
ment for scientific study in child welfare, an interesting incident
occurred in a hearing before a legislative committee. The argument
had been made that we should show as much interest and exercise
as much intelligence in the care of our children as we do for our
cattle through the application of scientific findings. One stately
senator stood up and, in a mood of self-adulation, said, "As for
me and my family, we are willing to trust Mother Nature," to
which the retort came from one of his colleagues, "You wouldn't
trust Mother Nature for your cow, or your sow, or your mare!"
Another incident is now apropos. When my first son was born,
there was a sewing society that held a meeting across the street,
and it is reported that the pastor's wife had exclaimed, "That poor
Seashore baby!" In response to this, ears were pricked and queries
came, to which she replied, "His father is a psychologist."
I grow reminiscent. In the early days of the Yale laboratory I
noticed that visitors coming in had an unconscious tendency to
put their hands to their heads, which I interpreted as a protective
reaction.
At a meeting of the Music Teachers National Association, the
music supervisor of one of the largest school systems in the country,
who had made a low score on certain measures of musical talent,
took the floor and with great gusto and assurance asserted that
these measures are not significant because he had made a low score,
to which it was my pleasure to solicit his response to these questions :
"In what field are you proficient as a performer? What creative
work have you done in music?" and similar questions, to which he
replied that throughout his career his energies had been thrown
into the direction of musical administration, from which the audi-
ence drew the conclusion that he was a successful business manager
in music, and musical talent or no talent was not much of a con-
PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE IN Music 293
sideration in his success. He should have been tested for business
ability rather than music.
A professor of violin, who was visiting the laboratory, somewhat
in an attitude of defiance dropped into a class and took the test for
sense of pitch. He brought it to me with considerable pride as if to
say "That is what your pitch test does." He had fallen down and
made a wretched record on account of a negative attitude. Looking
at the record, I took the bull by the horns and said, "Either you are
a failure as a violinist or you can improve that record. Will you do
me the honor to take the test once more?" He did, and came out at
the top.
One of my first experiences in talent testing was the analysis
of the ability of a brother and two sisters. The occasion grew out of
the fact that the older sister had been having about 10 years of
musical training without making progress and the other two chil-
dren, without much attention to education, were making splendid
progress through spontaneous and voluntary efforts. I found that
the older sister was radically lacking in fundamental capacities,
whereas the other two children were highly gifted. The action upon
my findings by the parents, a minister and his wife, was to send the
older daughter to the New England Conservatory of Music in
order that she might be able to keep ahead of her brother and sister.
A young man of twenty-one, who had spent years of study for a
professional career in music came to us for guidance, and the
examiner was astounded to find that on the sense of consonance he
made a negative record of 100 per cent; that is, all his answers were
wrong. This finding was so interesting that I made a thorough
study of the case, principally in the psychopathic hospital, and
found that it was a case of dementia praecox showing itself in
characteristic attitude of negativeness which accounted for his
reactions to consonance and his failure up to date in his career. His
perfect consistency gave him the highest rating in consonance in the
light of his negativism.
PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT AND GUIDANCE
1. Measurement fundamental. Educational guidance in music
should be based upon measurement the measurements of specific
musical talents. A program of that sort must not ignore such
considerations as intelligence, will to achieve, traditions and desires
294 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
of the family and teachers, economic status and outlets, competi-
tion and aspirations for a career in other directions, and health,
each of which may play a very important role in determining suc-
cess or failure in the educational process. On all of these issues,
relevant data may be collectible. In other words, although measure-
ment of talent is the prime consideration, this measurement must
not stand by itself but must be supplemented by and made in the
light of the total situation and all available sources of relevant
information. The objection of current Gestalt or configurational
schools, given to specific measurements, is a very superficial and
passing fad, because the moment they reach the stage of needing
verifiable facts they must become discriminating and specific.
2. Guidance on measurement progressive. The guidance
should, under the best circumstances, be a progressive one, begin-
ning with the earliest observation of infant behavior exhibiting
musical aptitude, and determining each successive stage in the
organization of the musical education from time to time, as the
actual situation for critical choice presents itself, beginning with
the second year of infancy and continuing up through the final
finishing touches upon training for a musical career of the most
talented.
Mental development tends to move in cycles with successive
and passing periods of dominant interests, urges, and exhibition
of resources. We must, therefore, insist upon a progressive adjust-
ment which shall take all these into account. Failure on this point
has been one of the most grievous errors in vocational guidance up
to date. It has been well illustrated in sectioning students on the
basis of ability in classwork, which we may say has been more or
less of a failure if based upon a flat assignment and a marked suc-
cess when based upon progressive evidences of capacity for adjust-
ment. Nevertheless, there are critical turning points at which we
must make a decision, as, for example, in using examinations as a
basis for admission. But the point is that the result of such decision
and further analysis of capacities should follow at all turning points
throughout the period of growth and training.
Making the guidance progressive removes all danger of becom-
ing fatalistic because, if the thing is done wisely from stage to
stage, the wisdom of such scientific inventory of capacity in progress
to achieve will become more apparent. This point is of fundamental
significance, because there is a popular notion that the educa-
PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE IN Music 295
tional guide in music says, "You be a musician," or "Be not a musi-
cian," and thus with one stroke makes or unmakes the future of the
aspirant. Educational guidance is just the opposite. It is primarily
the determination to utilize every type of information of the most
authentic sort that will apply to a clarification of the next turn in
the course.
3. The negative aspect of musical guidance. It is very impor-
tant to distinguish between the negative and the positive aspects of
musical guidance. The human being is equipped with marvelous
resources, most of which remain unrecognized and undeveloped.
The presence of unusual ability or talent, however, tends to express
itself in urges or cravings for self-expression through a given chan-
nel. The well-defined presence of such urge in spontaneous self-
expression is the best lead that can be offered. On the other hand,
tradition, social tendencies, and many other conditions create a
demand for a certain type of esthetic development often revealed
in the expressed wish of parents. Although this may be unwise, it
should receive adequate consideration. In both cases, the function
of the guide is to throw the floodlight of his investigation upon
possible obstacles in view, in order that the subject may not be
tripped without warning. His position is analogous to that of a
physician who attempts to ward off deterioration and disease,
or of an attorney who warns against the traps of the law, or of the
musical artist who warns against the dangers and pitfalls in a
musical career. In other words, the guide in music will recognize the
countless types of outlet possible in music and the countless possi-
bilities for finding the equivalents of music as an artistic outlet in
other fields.
When once the individual is to launch on a program, presumably
in harmony with his nature and the facilities of his environment,
it is the function of the guide to find out if there are any obstacles in
his way, whether physiological or psychological, economic or social,
hereditary or environmental. Thus the prevailing tendency of
vocational guides to say, "Be this," or "Be that," should be dis-
couraged in order that the choice of a field may rest upon natural
and permanent dominating interests and impulses. Whether it be
for vocation or avocation, the educational guide in music must,
therefore, have at his command an adequate and analyzed con-
ception of what capacities operate in a given type of musical
situation in such a way that he can take his talent chart and weigh
296 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
the evidence on the whole for or against a given musical venture
and give specific and verifiable reasons for it.
4. The positive aspect of musical guidance. As implied in the
term "negative," the procedure just described is protective and
often results in the discouragement of expressed desires. There is,
however, a very important positive function of talent measure-
ment, namely, the dragnet survey of talent which can be made
for the purpose of locating in the schools, quickly and early,
evidences of outstanding natural gifts in music. Surveys continually
reveal extraordinary findings of musical gifts in children who are not
in the least aware of having such a gift and who might pass through
life without giving any evidence to society of having such resources.
This is in the main the justification of talent surveys in public
schools, but when once discovered, the principle of negative or
protective guidance should apply to the further guidance of talents
so discovered.
Another positive aspect of musical guidance lies in the deliber-
ate selection of a particular field in music on the basis of talent
analysis. A pupil may have a great gift for music and yet lack some
specific qualification in certain aspects of music. The gifts for voice
or for instrument are largely different, and the gift for expression
through different instruments may also be specific. Here, it is the
function of the guide to give positive advice as to what avenue
of musical expression the student should follow on the basis of
talent analysis. This has its application in large scale in the assign-
ment of instruments, especially where these are furnished at public
expense. Thus, the talent-analysis program in the public schools is
essentially a positive program: a program for discovery of the
gifted and for placement within the musical fields. In this matter, it
may well be looked upon as an element in a program of conservation
of natural resources and economy in musical education.
5. Aim qualitative rather than quantitative. Educational
guidance in music is not merely for the purpose of determining
whether the child or youth is musical or unmusical, but rather to
determine into which of the various musical hierarchies the individ-
ual will best fit so that after a general training in the fundamentals
of music, his energies may be wisely directed into voice, instrument,
or theory and within each of these fields into a particular avenue
for self-expression for which he may get clearance papers on the
basis of careful analysis of capacity and forethought.
PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE IN Music 297
Educators often make the mistake of regarding music as one
thing, blissfully ignorant of the enormous divergence in outlets
and opportunities that pass under the name of music. On the basis
of such ignorance, the common demand of educators today is, "Is
the child musical or not musical?" A "Yes" or "No" answer to
that question is of very little significance unless it should be em-
phatically in the negative. Some of the most pitiful failures in
musical careers are not due to lack of musical ability but to a
misguided effort, as when the lyric singer attempts to become an
opera star or vice versa, when a highly gifted pianist attempts to
become a violinist for which he may not be fitted, or when one
whose natural outlet is in musical performance enters the field of
creative writing. Fortunately, nature often takes care of such
adjustments through natural cravings; but a critical review of the
personnel in the musical world on this issue reveals disheartening
results of misplacement which could have been forestalled by
modern guidance at early stages.
6. The whole man. Like the craze of parents for developing
precocity, the blind onrush among educational guides today is
often too narrow in the follow-up of a specific talent. Measurement
should always be evaluated in relation to the man as a whole;
all guidance should be made, not only with the objective of de-
veloping the whole man, but by giving special recognition to marked
capacity for achievement in fields other than music, in order that
there may be a wholesome development of the artistic nature of
the individual as a whole, finding outlet in various arts, and that
the artistic nature may not become top-heavy. The exclusive
cultivation of a marked talent has often proved the ruin of the
individual as a person, in relation both to himself and to society.
Musicians and educational examiners interested primarily in
music must, therefore, hold themselves responsible for this larger
view which demands that, while high specialization may be en-
couraged, it shoul be planned in relation to its effect upon the
bodily, intellectual, moral, social, esthetic, and religious nature of
the individual as a whole.
7. Discovering by doing. Talent measurement will be of little
value unless it is followed up in the plan of progressive guidance by
a system of putting the talent into practice. Findings of talent
measures are often negated by the results of formal instruction and
drill of a purely mechanical order which becomes repressive of
298 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
initiative. To aid us in "finding" him, the individual should im-
mediately be encouraged to participate and do the things indicated
by his talent chart, in large part on his own initiative and stimulated
by the progressive revelations of his powers to achieve.
In this respect dramatics in the public schools have developed
talent perhaps more successfully than music because the individual
is given an opportunity to show what he can do and, through such
encouragement, gradually develops and exhibits new powers not
previously observed. Thus we find in the utilization of voluntary
and competitive extracurricular exercises which stimulate the
individual into enthusiastic self-expression not only a necessary
sequel, but often a good substitute for further measurement.
8. Remedial work. Since a testing program reveals impediments
to progress which may be of a remediable order, the measurement of
talent loses its effectiveness if remedial work is not supplied to
remove these impediments by treatment or reeducation. The value
of that is illustrated in the field of speech, in which our freshmen
are given a thorough analytical examination for speech defects and
are then immediately thrown into sections for corrective work in
which remediable speech defects are eradicated in very short order
and thus give the individual a new sense of self-respect, power to
command through speech, and stabilizing of personality. Without
such follow-up work, the determination of speech defects would be
of no significance. The situation is analogous in music.
SOURCES OP ERROR IN GUIDANCE PROCEDURES
The way is paved, the movement is afoot, and high expectations
are afloat. I trust that the present note will not be propaganda for
unwarranted enthusiasm and wild onrush in this field of endeavor,
because it is fraught with many dangers. Some of these errors
should be pointed out specifically and boldly; and, in the light of
these, reasonable tolerance, willingness to do the best we can from
stage to stage, and perseverance should be cultivated.
1. Faulty techniques of measurement. Those who have done
their best work in the construction of tests and measures for ca-
pacity and ability for achievement are the first to recognize that we
are yet in the experimental stage, that our measures are not always
adequate for the serious purposes to which they are applied, that
while they are statistically reliable, they may not predict individual
achievement, and that the effort to use them on the part of people
PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE IN Music 299
who cannot afford the best often involves the use of dangerous
substitutes. We cannot hold out hope that this source of error will
not be entirely overcome because the more inadequacies of instru-
ments and methods we eradicate, the more new ones we discover
in the process of refinement of technique. Yet progress is very
gratifying, and practical educators are right in saying that we
should use the measures progressively available with due caution in
tempered and frank admission of their frailties.
2. Untrained guides. Speaking of the practical situation,
particularly in the public schools today, we are suffering from neces-
sary and unnecessary use of untrained guides. "God protect me
against my friends, I can defend myself against my enemies," is the
prayer of pioneers, themselves doing reliable work in the field of
guidance.
There is a tendency to overestimate quantitative data ob-
tained under more or less artificial conditions. This often results in
failure to apply what common sense dictates. Justice often mis-
carries by the experimenter's failure "to use his head," and
to this is added the very common absence of the use of hypotheses
and penetrating interpretation of the fact measured in the light of
intimate knowledge of the field of activity, which is the objective.
We are passing through a craze for physical measurements,
mental measurements, and statistics, and have not yet in large
numbers reached the stage of comprehensive and mellow insight
and reserve. Granting that serviceable facts may be determined, we
still face large dangers for the application of these facts. Intelligence,
for example, may be a good index to a stenographer, but in industrial
offices and clerical units it is not a prime consideration, and selec-
tion on that basis often leads to unreasonable turnover. A high order
of intelligence is needed mainly in the secretarial position.
This principle applies to music. For one, a high order of creative
imagination may not be necessary; for another, we can dispense
with a fine sense of pitch; and for another, with a high sense of
rhythm. On the other hand, such factors as musical memory,
musical ideation, and musical imagery may be cultivated to a
relatively high degree, even with a low native capacity.
Guidance on measurement requires knowledge and often some
degree of proficiency within the field, as, in this case, music. But it
also requires training in the art of measurement. The guidance
program often fails because it is done either by a mere musician or a
300 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
mere psychologist. We are marking time in the development of
persons in responsible positions who combine these two qualifica-
tions in the persons of psychologists in music, who not only know
measurement in music, but have a sound and mature social, moral,
and educational outlook. After all, there is an easier remedy, and
that is the sympathetic cooperation of specialists in the two fields,
psychology of measurement and music, and in this lies the real
hope of the future.
3. Improper attitude of the subject. We never secure reliable
measures of capacity unless we have the full cooperation of the
subject in an effort to achieve at his best. A common source of error
in all mental tests is the negative or indifferent attitude of the
subject. While the test in itself may be fair and significant for a life
situation, the negative attitude of the subject, a general emotional
blocking, or a lack of the will to achieve may lead to erroneous
rating. Great ingenuity is needed in the development of testing
effectively to take the individual in a cooperative mood and off
guard as to his inhibitions. The competitive attitude is essential.
This would be greatly facilitated if measurements were made only
where there is a specific purpose to serve and intention to follow up,
so that the pupil realizes the timeliness and the personal value of
the test to himself.
4. Inadequate verification of low ratings. In measurements of
this kind by rather rigid psychophysical methods, cheating being
eliminated, a high record may always be counted as reliable some-
what in proportion to the excellence; but it is the low records which
are subject to the largest number of sources of error. Therefore,
when a record which counts against an individual is found, for
example, in the lowest third of a normal group, it should always
be verified with the best of ingenuity and care in order to make sure
that the impediment indicated is really there. This requires
patience and time, which are often wanting. It is a general rule of
measurement and guidance that the lower the rating on a significant
capacity, the more thoroughly the verification should be made;
and taking the cue from this lead, the more intensive the investiga-
tion for related factors should be.
6. Inadequate sampling. Another large source of error is the
failure to secure fair sampling. Often the experimental situation
exhibits merely a measure of the tester's lack of insight into the
situation. It is a pity that "we do not know what we do not know."
PKINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE IN Music 301
In the conduct of a testing program, a vicious example of this is the
use of one or two measures of musical capacity and pronouncing on
that basis for or against a musical education. The adequacy of
sampling, of course, becomes important to the extent that the test
is to be of critical significance.
The principle of fair sampling can be best safeguarded not by
attempting to measure everything that may be involved, but by
limiting the decision or the finding to the specific factor that has
been measured. The significance of this the tyro does not under-
stand and the enthusiasm of the educational guide often overrides.
We must always guard against the pertinent taunt that the
examiner may not be measuring the ability of the subject, but
rather his own inability to give a fair test.*
6. Failure to distinguish between capacity and ability. It i one
thing to discover a low rating; quite another to determine its cause
and, therefore, its bearing. The bare fact of low rating is of rela-
tively little significance unless the real cause is revealed in the
process of organizing the measurement. Herein lies one of the most
difficult tasks in the mental testing program of today. Failure on
this point is also one of the main reasons for generous testing and
the very meager and inadequate follow-up work which is a common
curse today.
The crucial question that must be answered at each turn is this :
"Is this low rating remediable or is it not?" While musicians have
always recognized the significance of the "gift" of music, the prac-
tical attitude in the teaching profession has been that music lessons
are a remedy for all. In this attitude we recognize both humanitarian
and economic motives, but back of both is the lack of a vital
recognition of the limits of educability.
7. Failure "to do something about it." This takes two forms:
failure on the part of the student to follow advice, and failure on the
part of the teacher to base training upon the nature and extent of
talent. It all comes back to this principle of recognition of individ-
ual differences: It is the function of the teacher to keep the pupil
busy at his natural level of successful achievement.
*When the Yale psychologists reported that they had been able to show that apes
can use abstract concepts, such as the value of money, how to barter, how to hoard,
and how to cooperate all so-called "higher'* mental processes a famous scientist re-
marked, "There it is; never before has the ape had a fair chance. Instead of testing the
animal, we have been testing the testers* ability to set a fair test."
MEASURES OF MUSICAL
TALENT
MY earlier work, The Psychology of Musical Talent, 137 dealt
specifically with the analysis of the musical mind with refer-
ence to a possible guidance program. While the present volume
does not duplicate or replace the earlier manual, it does present a
great deal of new material gathered in the last twenty years to
supplement it on this issue. The reader will have gathered in pre-
ceding chapters a mass of facts and principles which have a bearing
on the present situation. This chapter will therefore be restricted to
a mere appraisal of this procedure in the light of reports and
experience.
WHAT CAN WE MEASURE?
In a suitably equipped laboratory, we can measure a hundred
or more specific features, each of which will throw light on the na-
ture and extent of a person's musical talent. These may bear on
heredity, native capacity, acquired ability, ability to learn, as well
as character, rate, and amount of achievement. They may deal not
only with sensory and motor capacities, but also with the higher
brackets of ability in the complex musical situation.
The first problem, then, that confronts the musical guide is to
determine what the immediate issue is in the analysis of a given
individual, how far the analysis should be carried, and, in the light
of varied outlets for musicians, what field of music is regarded as the
goal.
In general, we may say that in all cases the first step should be
the measurement of basic capacities, each of which measures
302
MEASURES OF MUSICAL TALENT 303
receptivity for one of the four musical avenues, namely, the tonal,
the dynamic, the temporal, and the qualitative. In addition to
these, immediate memory, a sense of consonance, tonal imagery,
and intelligence should be measured. The instrumental needs for
this battery are met for the purpose of group testing by the Sea-
shore Measures of Musical Talent. This battery should be accom-
panied by case histories and auditions. Twenty years of experience
with this battery have established and validated its significance for
the purpose of a general dragnet survey.
What further measurements should be made will depend upon
the facilities available, the seriousness of the inquiry, and the
nature of the goal. Among facilities, we should mention laboratory
equipment and a technically trained examiner. Emphasis should,
however, be laid on the latter; since, if a musician has once devel-
oped a concrete analysis of the musical mind, he can achieve many
of the objects of guidance without instruments, so long as he under-
stands what specific factors to observe and their significance.
A young person who contemplates a serious program in training
for a musical career should, wherever possible, submit himself for
analysis in a well-equipped laboratory by a trained psychologist in
music.
PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN THE ELEMENTARY
BATTERY OF MEASURES OF MUSICAL TALENT
Many years ago, I adopted the term "measures" instead of
the word "tests" in order to distinguish these experiments from
the ordinary paper and pencil tests which deal with unanalyzed
situations. The word "measure" implies standardized procedure
in accordance with laboratory principles.
These measures introduce two fundamental principles into the
psychology of music which were discussed in Chap. 3. The first
of these is the laboratory point of view that measurement deals
with a specific factor which is isolable under control. This is the first
principle of pure psychology. For example, instead of asking the
question, "Can this child hear music?" we ask, "Can he hear
pitch?" "Can he hear loudness?" "Can he hear time?" "Can he
hear timbre ?" " Can he hear rhythm ?" " Can he hear tone quality ?"
Each of these can be isolated for measurement; and, when we have
the result, it is recordable, repeatable, verifiable, and predictive.
What is true of hearing has its parallel on the side of performance as
304 PSYCHOLOGY OP Music
represented by skills. We do not ask, "Can he play?" But we ask,
"Can he play a tune in time and in rhythm?" "Can he phrase?"
"Can he produce good tone quality?" Such questions have
their parallels at the higher levels of imagination, memory, thought,
and feeling; although the higher and, therefore, the more com-
plicated the process becomes, the more it tends to resist analysis.
The second maintains that the practical conclusion drawn shall be
restricted to the factor that has been measured. Thus, if we meas-
ure the sense of pitch and we find that the record made is in the
99 centile, the conclusion is not that the child is musical, but that he
has an extraordinary sense of pitch, that he is superior in one of the
scores of talents essential to musical success. He may be utterly
incompetent in other talents. This is the first principle of applied
psychology. Amateur guides in music are gross sinners through
violation of this principle. Indeed, adherence to this principle at
any cost is the supreme safeguard of scientific guidance. The bold
and positive guidance in an unanalyzed situation is, of course,
condemned on this principle, if such guidance makes any pretense
to being scientific. In the light of our postwar experience, both of
these principles are radical departures from current testing pro-
grams but seem to gain practical recognition and will undoubtedly
stand as foundation principles in applied psychology, whenever
principles of scientific measurement are to be utilized.
When a considerable number of specific measures is used as a
battery we can begin to generalize with reference to the efficacy of
the battery in proportion to the adequacy of the sampling, but al-
ways with reservations in accordance with the principle of applied
psychology just stated. If the ranks in a fair sampling of capacities
which are essential to success are all low and have been verified, a
general negative prediction may be safe; whereas, if some or all are
high, reservation must be made for determination of other factors
which may be equally crucial signs of success. For high rating in
music, numerous other factors must be considered, such as re-
sources, conflicting interests, the will to achieve, and especially the
power of application and of hard and continuous work.
This laboratory point of view, therefore, does not assume, as has
often been charged, that the mere existence of a given number of
good capacities will make a good musician or that a low rating in
one or more capacities is necessarily discouraging. Nor can this
point of view be charged with being atomistic without at the same
MEASURES OF MUSICAL TALENT 305
time denying the possibility of psychological measurement. In-
deed, this type of measurement has done more than anything else
in the laboratory to enrich and deepen our insight into the inte-
grated and functional character of the musical personality.
CRITICISMS OF THIS APPROACH*
The application of these principles meets criticism from sev-
eral points of view. Some theoretical psychologists will say it is
atomistic and point out that genuine talent is not the sum of
specific talents. The psychologist in music accepts and is really
the sponsor of the idea that the total talent is not the sum of
specific talents. He maintains that talent is, indeed, an inte-
grated whole, but that we get truer and deeper insight into this
integrated whole by employing the scientific method of fraction-
ating, that is, by observing one aspect at a time.
Others point out that it is futile to make specific measure-
ments, because, according to our theory, there are scores and
scores of specific capacities that are integrated in the hierarchy of
musical talent as a whole, and only a small number of these can
be measured in a given case. The answer to that criticism is that
it would be unscientific to maintain that anyone would ever
have the time or the ability to measure everything, even in such
basic principles as laws of gravitation, permeability, or heat.
The value of selected measures hinges upon whether or not they
are of a basic character; for example, there are countless aspects
of rhythm in music, many of which could be isolated and meas-
ured as such, but one basic capacity for all rhythmic performance
may be a genuine sense of rhythm. Likewise, there are hundreds
of varieties of hearing of pitch, but the measure of the sense of
pitch is basic for all.
Another criticism comes from the clinical psychologist who
maintains that real insight and true interpretation are gained
only by a study of the total personality in the total situation.
There is truth in that contention, but the criticism is met by the
fact that it is possible to measure a specific capacity during
performance in unhampered musical mood, and in every respect
in the actual musical situation. In measuring capacity for per-
formance in singing at the present time, the singer performs in an
* From Yearbook.
306 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
acoustically treated music room in which there are no instru-
ments present other than a microphone (of which he may be quite
oblivious); but from that microphone there are made simul-
taneously phonograph records and records from three or four
cameras operating simultaneously in such a way that from these
records every detail of the performance as a whole, or at any
moment in the performance, may be reconstructed with high
order of precision. There the singer performs in the musical
mood and in the musical situation, but the instruments analyze
and set forth the elements involved.
Other critics say that if we limit ourselves in this way, we will
know so infinitesimally little about the total musical mind that it
may be of doubtful value. The answer to that is that such humil-
iation is true but wholesome. Awareness of the fact that you
have only a small sample of measures makes you correspondingly
cautious and restricted in your application. The musical guide
must be profoundly conscious of how little he knows of the possi-
ble mass of talent. The practical teacher wants a wholesale
judgment; the psychologist refuses to give that and simply says
that such and such facts are known and may have such and such
bearing on the problem.
Another criticism is that measures of talent do not enable us
to predict, because development of talent is merely a matter of
training. This a psychologist would simply deny.
PURPOSE OF THE PHONOGRAPH RECORDS
AND SUPPLEMENTARY PROCEDURES
In designing these measures, there were several purposes in
view: (1) to measure native and basic capacities in musical talent
before training has been begun, and, therefore, to make them
independent of musical training; (2) to measure one specific
capacity at a time; (3) to make the procedure available for group
measurements; (4) to simplify the use of instruments; and (5) to
save time.
Each of these objectives set up certain restrictions on procedure.
In the original manual, 125 it was stated thus:
These measures of musical talent comply with the following
conditions: they are based on a thorough analysis of musical
talent; they are standardized for content that does not need to be
changed; they give qualitative results which may be verified to a
MEASURES OF MUSICAL TALENT 307
high degree of certainty; they are simple and as nearly self-
operating as possible; they are adapted for group measurements;
they take into account practice, training, age, and intelligence;
they have a two-fold value in the concrete information furnished,
and in the training and pleasure gained from the critical hearing
of musical elements.
RELIABILITY
With these advantages, which have been accurately established,
certain disadvantages are evident. These are due mainly to two
[actors, namely, adaptation for group measurement and timesav-
ng. Both result in the lowering of reliability. In order to cover the
entire range of talent in an unselected group, as in surveys, it is
lecessary to have the range of the testing material wide enough to
nclude all from the best to the poorest, for example, 0.01 to 0.5 of a
tone. This virtually shortens the test because it is effective for
those only who are near the threshold; for example, in extreme
rnses, if a person can hear the finest of 10 steps, then his success on
arger steps does not contribute to the measurement. Likewise, if he
mn respond only to the largest difference, the smaller steps do not
contribute to the measurement. In the first case, the test would
probably be reliable and significant. The second would call for
'urther analysis. In the first case, the test should be repeated with
aboratory instruments in which at least 100 trials are made on the
smallest step or smaller steps if so indicated. This would lead to a
very high order of reliability. Further testing in the case of the
>ther extreme should take the form of search for possible sources
>f difficulty, such as subjective or objective disturbances, ignorance
>f the factor involved, and many other elements of procedure, the
>bject here being to discover why this absence of the sense of pitch
exists rather than its exact extent.
The known reliabilities must always be kept in mind in making
nterpretations, and it should always be understood that, if time
ind facilities are available and the case is important, the measure-
ment should be done with high precision laboratory instruments.
This might greatly increase the reliability. In the group test, the
eliability for the sense of pitch in the eighth grade is about 88, but,
tvhen this same test is made with tuning forks on the actual thresh-
old, the reliabilities will run in the high nineties. The same applies
308 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
in principle to all the other measures. Full statistical determina-
tions of the reliability of these measures is reported by Larson. 1 *
The merits of our principle that specific capacities can and
should be measured with a high degree of reliability should there-
fore be judged in the light of exact measurement rather than in the
makeshift of a short group test. This is true for all of these six
measures. The less than maximum obtainable reliability published
is, therefore, not due primarily to the phonograph records, but to the
fact that the procedure is a short group test.
THE BASIS FOR RANK ORDER
There is another fundamental difference between group testing
and testing the individual by laboratory instruments. In the former
the results are expressed in terms of centile rank on the basis of norms
established for adequate sampling of unselected groups. This has the
advantage of showing how a given individual varies from other
individuals in an unselected group on a scale from 1 to 100. It also
has the great advantage of making it possible to express all the
different measurements in the same terms.
In the laboratory procedure, however, the measurement is
made in terms of the threshold of discrimination, that is, the just
noticeable difference. This has many advantages from the point
of view of experimental procedure and these records can, of course,
be transformed into centile rank order if a sufficient number of
cases are available for statistical treatment. Thus, a person who can
hear a difference of one vibration at the standard of international
pitch will probably receive a centile rank of 97 or 98.
THE USES OF THESE MEASURES
It is interesting to note that the basic measures of musical
talent have been used and are further suitable for a number of
purposes outside of music or musical guidance purpose.
Racial characteristics. Anthropologists have adopted these
measures as standard procedure in a battery to determine racial
characteristics in anthropological investigations wherever the
musical characteristics of a race or a primitive group are being
studied. Four rather extensive investigations of differences be-
tween Negroes and whites have been published, each covering a
different type of situation. Of these, the most interesting is that by
Davenport and Steggerda, 15 in which a comparison of three groups
MEASURES OF MUSICAL TALENT 309
was made, namely, pure black, brown, and white, all found in the
same locality. Johnson* measured 3,300 American Negroes.
Murdock WOa measured 500 Hawaiians, divided into eight racial
groups. Garth^ a made an extensive comparison of Indians and
whites in Western schools. Mjoen 99 ' 100 made interesting comparisons
between Lapps and Nordics in the Scandinavian countries and
other races in central Europe. Peterson and Lanicr m have con-
ducted extensive measurements on white and Negro college stu-
dents and children in the public schools, with careful attention
given to conditions of environment. In all these cases, the measure-
ments were made in terms of the Seashore Measures of Musical
Talent. Fragments of other investigations from remote parts of the
earth have been reported.
In general, it may be said that this type of measurement is
suitable for anthropological studies and is likely to be enlarged and
refined on a considerable scale. However, the present indications are
that normal individuals in different racial groups or on different
cultural levels probably do not differ markedly in the basic capaci-
ties represented by these measures. This supports the theory that
we are here measuring fundamental capacities of modern man, the
type of capacities which are but little modified by his environment
or cultural development at the present stage of evolution. However,
it has been shown that, in analogy with the age and intelligence
differences, measurements in a given environment do bring up
significant differences; but, before we attribute these to basic
capacities, we must eliminate all social and environmental factors
which may act as deterrents to an approach toward a physiological
threshold.
Heredity. Such studies as those by Stanton, iu Mjoen 9 m and
others offer new approaches to this branch of science. General
suggestions referring to the utilization of this technique are found
in another chapter.
Where systematic surveys are made in the public school system
extremely valuable material on heredity will accumulate bearing
upon the distribution of talents in family relationships.
Surveys. Numerous surveys have been made by these measures
for various purposes; such as, comparisons of the best residence
district with the poorest, children of foreign birth with those of
American birth, children in the city with those in the country, and
culture levels in two radically distinct country communities. These
310 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
have been used in evaluation of a standard musical course in
terms of the distribution of talent, showing that the prevailing
course requirements are utterly unreasonable for children below
average capacities and superficial for students of high capacities.
They have been used for comparison of band, orchestral, and
chorus members with unselected groups, the distribution of talent
in relation to training, the distribution of talent in relation to
theory courses, the distribution of talent in relation to intelligence,
training, and age, and the comparison of normal and feeble-minded.
Speech talent. It has been shown that the talents herein men-
tioned function in speech very much as in music. This comes out
most strikingly in clinical psychology of speech, in which it is
frequently shown that defective speech is due to an absence of
ear-mindedness, and often a specific defect may be traced to lack of
a basic capacity in hearing.
Skillful occupations. It has developed that many skillful occupa-
tions depend upon the presence or absence of one or more of these
basic capacities. The most striking illustration of this was the
capacity required for the listeners who were employed during the
war to locate submarines, airplanes, and ground tunneling. During
the war, submarines were located by a device which depended
upon the keenness of the ear and certain aspects of hearing. We had
the pleasure of demonstrating that in squads of 30, which had been
selected by physicians as qualified listeners, it was possible to show
by uSe of these measures that 1 person out of 30 may locate the
direction of the deadly craft within an accuracy of 1 degree, while
another listener might not do better than 10 degrees, and that dif-
ferent men in the squad would vary within these extremes. The
significance of this in terms of human life and property can hardly
be overestimated. This method of selection had just been adopted
when two things happened: (1) the armistice and (2) invention
of an instrument which made an adequate record photographically
and, thus, replaced the listener.
Some general comments. It has been suggested frequently that
the measures should be cast in terms of distinctly musical material.
I do not regard the efforts which have been made in this direction
as successful. In a test program of this kind, we should stay as
far as possible away from anything that involves musical training
and experience, if we wish to predict success on the basis of talent.
MEASURES OF MUSICAL TALENT 311
The measures have been rightly criticized as not being ab-
solutely elemental. It should be our goal to make our tests as ele-
mental as possible. A certain amount of allowance will, however,
always have to be made for development of general capacity for
observation.
The principles involved in these tests are such as to cultivate
a discriminating and rigidly critical attitude toward a test situa-
tion. While the records are relatively "foolproof," the valid use of
them demands a certain type of knowledge about the nature of the
mind and of talent in particular, some experimental technique,
and at least a critical judgment in regard to the practical applica-
tion to the musical situation. Cold water is a good thing, but it is
often dangerous.
ANALYSES OF TALENT IN
A MUSIC SCHOOL
ORIGIN OF THE EASTMAN SCHOOL EXPERIMENT*
SOME years ago, I consulted Mr. Abraham Flexner with reference
to the possibility of securing the support of a Foundation for a
sustained experiment to introduce and validate my Measures of
Musical Talent in a city school system, having in mind a city like
Baltimore, Chicago, or Los Angeles.
His response was, "Why not take a music school instead of a
public school system? A new music school has been started in
Rochester and, if you don't mind, I will call up the president by
long distance and ask if this new music school would be interested
in the experiment." The reply came immediately inviting me to
a conference, which was held the next day, with the result that I
was invited to take personal charge of the experiment.
Since I could not consider this personal offer, an agreement was
made inviting my first assistant, Dr. Hazel Stanton, to take the
position as psychologist in the music school, with the assignment
of introducing and administering these measures and other means
that might become available for the purpose of discovering and
analyzing talent in the music school. It was distinctly understood
that this was to be an experiment and that the school would pro-
vide its best facilities for the attainment of our goal.
* Reports on the Eastman experiment have been published from time to time by Dr.
Stanton and her associates. These are all summarized in her volume The Measurements of
Muswal Talent* from which the bulk of this chapter is freely drawn by kind permission
of the author. The section on the origin of the experiment is from my editorial foreword to
that volume.
312
ANALYSES OF TALENT IN A Music SCHOOL 313
This invitation from the Eastman School and the selection of
Dr. Stanton proved to be strategical, timely, and appropriate. The
selection of the school was most fortunate because it is one of the
few music schools which are not entirely dependent upon tuitions
and which, therefore, can afford to exercise a rigorous selection of
pupils. It also was fortunate that Mr. George Eastman sponsored
the project, authorized it, and took a deep personal interest in its
furtherance up to the very last days of his life.
For the successful culmination of the experiment, however, we
owe most to the sympathetic and wise administration of the present
Eastman director, Dr. Howard Hanson. He had cordial support of
his policies from President Rhees, who formally authorized the
experiment.
The selection of Dr. Stanton proved fortunate also on account
of her indefatigible devotion to a rigorous technique, her acquaint-
ance with music and musicians, and her very extraordinary per-
sistence and meticulous care in the conduct of the work.
To the casual observer, the procedure, though novel, was
regarded as a part of personnel routine. It was more than this in the
eyes of Mr. Eastman, President Rhees, Dr. Hanson, and the
writer it was an experiment of which we now have an adequate
record covering a period of more than 10 years. The outcome of the
experiment is an evaluation and validation of these measures,
together with a critique and refinement of experimental procedure
which deserve careful study on the part of all who are interested in
the measurement of musical talent whether in a music school or
elsewhere.
In this general report on the Eastman experiment, Dr. Stanton
has restricted herself to the specific purpose of evaluating the
Measures of Musical Talent as a battery in itself in the actual
musical situation, quite apart from any other aspects which are
involved. The monograph contains a statement of her personal
point of view, her techniques, her rigorous control of the procedure
in measuring and evaluation of the measures as tools in themselves.
The problem with which she deals has been treated in many
other ways by other persons. Other methods of validating have
been utilized; the problem of inheritance has been dealt with from
several angles; numerous methods of utilizing the measures in
practical procedures have been reported; various critiques of the
method of administering the tests have developed. The most valu-
314 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
able use of the measures has been in connection with auditions on
the part of competent musicians. An attempt has been made to
weight the measures in connection with the particular types of
music and instruments.
These Measures are not in themselves an adequate measure
of musical talent as a whole. They are merely a selected battery of
measures of specific talents in which a certain degree of capacity
is essential to success in music and in which a certain degree of
incapacity is often the basis for failure in music. For the purpose
of validation, which is the aim of this monograph, the author had
to determine the significance of guidance on these Measures alone.
She has validated them in their own name, as it were, as one of
the useful tools which may be employed in scientific musical guid-
ance. But that does not imply that they should be employed in
a mechanical way without other aids. They are but one of the
tools in a system of adequate guidance. However, on account of
their basic nature, measures of this type should constitute the first
concrete information with which all serious guidance in music
should begin.
PLAN AND PURPOSE OF THE EXPERIMENT
Prom our point of view, the purpose of this experiment was to
validate the Measures of Musical Talent under as nearly ideal con-
ditions as could be obtained in a music school. We found that it was
possible to provide for this by giving the testing program such a
place in the program of administration and guidance that neither
faculty nor students would look upon it as an experiment, but
would regard it as an essential part of a modern administrative
program. It was recognized that ultimately the tests were to be a
regular part of the admission machinery and constitute a basis for
the individual guidance of the students after admission.
The testing program consisted of the administration of five of
the Measures recorded on phonograph records, namely, pitch,
intensity, time, consonance, and tonal memory. These were sup-
plemented by a subjective test of tonal imagery, an intelligence
test, and a case history.* The tests were given as the first step in
* The comprehension test was not introduced into the series until 1928, the sixth year.
The rhythm test was introduced in the third year, and the test on imagination was dropped
in the sixth year.
ANALYSES OF TALENT IN A Music SCHOOL 315
the admissions program of all students, including both children and
adults. In order to validate the records before using them as a
basis for admission, they were given under standard conditions and
studied for the first two years, without actually using them as a
basis for admission, the main purpose being to determine success or
failure of those for whom an unfavorable prognosis had been made.
A classification was gradually built up, and in terms of this predic-
tion of success or failure, the tests were made before the student
had had an audition or had been admitted. These records were
placed in the hands of the director, but they were carefully guarded
throughout the 10-year experiment so that the teachers should not
be influenced or biased by these predictions. The experiments
were conducted with most meticulous care by Dr. Stanton herself,
and, after they had been made a basis for admission, she was
included in official conferences with the admission officers in regard
to the interpretation of these records and later with the director in
regard to the organization of study programs, selection of instru-
ments, etc.
CLASSIFICATION
For a given test, a centile scale was adopted as follows: the
highest 10 per cent, A, or superior; the next highest 20 per cent, B,
or very good; the next 20 per cent, C+, or high average; the next
20 per cent, C , or low average; the next 20 per cent, D, or poor;
the lowest 10 per cent, E, or very poor. For each individual, a chart
of his profile was made in terms of centile rank (see Fig. 1). How-
ever, since a single classification had to be made for the purpose of
prediction, a cumulative key was adopted, grouping various types
of profiles under five heads: Discouraged, Doubtful, Possible,
Probable, Safe, as shown in Table I. For a full classification of types
see Stanton. 176
TABLE I. THE CUMULATIVE KEY OF TEST COMBINATIONS
AT = 978
Probable Safe
AC- A A
AD A B
B B A C-f
B C+ B A
C-f C+
The first letter is the classification of the talent profile; the second letter, the classification of the comprehen-
sion test.
Discouraged
Doubtful
Possible
C-f- E
B E
A E
C- C-h
C-f C-
B C-
C{~1
^"^ \_/
C+ D
B D
C~ D
C- A
C-f A
C- E
C- B
C-f B
316
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
REPRESENTATIVE PROFILES
These are actual cases from applicants for admission to the
school. They set forth graphically an inventory of some of the
P
I
T
C
M
Im
50
100
P
I
T
C
M
tm
C
1
II
J
> 50 10
A
p
I
T
C
M
Im
(
J
I
J
1
) 50 10
P
1
I
T
C
M
Im
SO lOi
E
FIG. 1. Samples of types of profiles: A, safe; B, probable; C, possible, D t doubtful;
E y discouraged. Ratings in intelligence are not given in these charts; but ratings in musical
imagery are. The labels at the left are the first letter for each of the respective tests.
(Stanton. 178 )
assets and liabilities of the prospective pupils. It does not require
much imagination to see their far-reaching significance. Talent has
ANALYSES OF TALENT IN A Music SCHOOL 317
its "ups and downs." A chart that may be satisfactory for one pur-
pose may not be so for another. For example, a low sense of pitch
disqualifies the player for stringed instruments; or, a low sense of
30
25
20
15
10
5
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
6063 666972 75 78 81 84879093 9699
TIME
TONAL MEMORY
.
rr
60 63 66 69 72 15 78 81 8481 90 93 % 99 6063 66 69 72 75 78 81 8487 90 93 % 99
FIG. 2. Distribution of Test 1 (solid line) and Test 2 (dotted line) raw scores in five
measures with a 3-year interim between measurements. TV 157. The ordinates represent
the percentages of cases; the abscissas, the midpoint of each three-unit step in raw scores.
(Stanton)
intensity disqualifies for the piano. That is, we cannot go only by
centile rank; we must take into account the internal structure of
the profile, the case history, and the audition.
318
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
PRE-ADOLESCENT GROUP ADOLESCENT GROUP POST-ADOLESCENT GROUP
^
-&
s
/ ^
y
N
31
AS;
vs, .
2
^
F^T
AT \
/-* ^**
** * i i i t i i !,..., i_i ,1... i i
POST-ADOLESCENT
\
ADOLESCENT
/\
ZO
15
10
5
|S
I!
^15
10
5
c
FIG. 3. Distribution of Test 1 (dotted line) and Test 2 (solid line) raw scores for three
groups in five measures, with a 3-year interim of musical training between measurements.
The ordinates represent percentages of cases; the abscissas, raw scores. (Stanton. 11 *)
PRE-ADOLESCENT
ANALYSES OF TALENT IN A Music SCHOOL 319
STABILITY OF THE CLASSIFICATION
To determine whether or not the classification thus made in the
way of prediction before admission had be correct, Stanton period-
ically retested the pupils who were admitted. Figure 2 shows the
result of the retest of 157 adults after three years of progress in
musical education. For the group as a whole, the degree of talent
seems to be about the same, with minor exceptions. Figure 3 shows
that, with minor but more significant exceptions, especially in
intensity, the same evidence of stability in the charts holds for
children as for adults. There is not so much change in children as
we might have expected with maturation.
RETESTS OF ADULTS AND CHILDREN
These facts substantiate the assumption that when the meas-
ures are given under controlled conditions by an experienced ex-
aminer, the physiological thresh-
old can be reached in the first
60
test to such a degree that there
will be little appreciable variation
in a second test. These facts con- ^ 40
o
tribute to the idea that the 30
measures tend to be elemental.
BEARING ON SUCCESS
20
10
I
il
IN THE COLLEGE Discouraged Doubtful Possible Probable Safe
MUSIC COURSE l7 23 p er 3 cent ** 6
-r,. . ,. ,. FIG. 4. The percentage of students
Figure 4 gives a realistic pic- graduating within 4 years in each of the five
ture of the significance of these groups. This covers 565 entrants in four
tests at a glance. It shows to successive classes in the university music
what extent the tests alone predict sc *^ ianton '
success in completing a four-year college course in music in the
standard time. When one considers how many other factors must
be taken into account for success, the showing for this measuring
tool in itself is remarkably good. Sixty per cent of the "safes"
graduated. How many of the remaining 40 per cent lost, because of
economic or social reasons, a good job, early marriage, a hit on
radio or in the movies, laziness, sickness, postponement of a date
320 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
any one of a score of other impediments ? So far as talent alone is
concerned, the "safe" may well be regarded as 100 per cent safe.
The same principle applies, but in decreasing order, with lower
ranks. Since the objective test record is the only factor taken into
account, it is evident that relative lack of capacity, as here meas-
ured, is a rigid deterrent which must be taken into account in
planning musical education.
If, instead of measuring in terms of success in graduation from
college, we should be able to measure the progress of music in the
life of these people, either in a professional career or in avocational
or social value, we should get a much stronger picture. It would
favor those whose "windows of the soul" were open to music. For
an adequate account of the experiment the reader must turn to the
comprehensive report. 176
24
ANALYSIS OF TALENT IN
THE PUBLIC SCHOOL
THE LINCOLN EXPERIMENT
FOR many years the public schools in Lincoln, Nebraska, have
had a reputation for high standards of achievement in music.
William Larson, 76 at the time in charge of the instrumental
instruction, performed the following experiment to determine the
significance of talent in the choice of instruction for instrumental
music and in the advancement in the opportunities offered in the
school orchestras.
He took during the same year four groups: A, B, C, and D:
A, the group of first-year students in instrumental music, 125
members; B, the junior high school preparatory orchestra, 30 mem-
bers; C, the junior high school advanced orchestra, 31 members;
and D, the high school advanced orchestra, 50 members. At the
beginning of the year, he gave each of these students the six
Seashore Measures of Musical Talent and made a study of the
principles of selection which operated to determine progress in
instrumental music.
The general conclusion reached can be stated in general terms as
follows:
Group A, admission to courses of instruction in instruments is
unselected. The average percentile rank of all these measures for
this group was 52, when 50 represents a theoretical average for all
students. This is a fairly well-known phenomenon and is inter-
preted partly in the diversity of motives which operate in making
music a desirable subject, such as the popularity of the instructor,
321
322 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
the school reputation in contests, the desire of parents, and, of
course, most of all the ignorance of the significance of talent.
As a consequence of this heterogeneity of the group, the instruc-
tion in the first year is seldom of such a nature as to operate strongly
in favor of selection.
Group B. For the junior high school preparatory orchestra, there
is no significant selection in terms of talent measures. The average
rank on these measures was 49. This is, of course, the result of the
absence of any standard requirement for admission to this orchestra
and the adaptation of the first year's instruction to all levels of
capacity insofar as possible. There was also an element of negative
selection in favor of Group C.
Group C. This group shows a marked selection in terms of the
talents measured. This is undoubtedly due to the actual survival in
the previous year's work and higher demands recognized for admis-
sion to this orchestra, although the admission was not based in any
respect on other evidence of talent and achievement in previous
years. The average rank for all the measures in Group C
was 66.
Group D. The advanced high school orchestra again showed
very marked evidence of selection above the preceding year, the
average rank for all the measures being 73.
Thus, there is evidence that various factors operate in the selec-
tion of talent in a four-year opportunity for training, so that for
each year more and more talented pupils are admitted to the
privileges of instruction on the basis of previous achievements and
interests. Larson considered carefully to what extent this rise in
talent could be attributed to training and arrived at the con-
clusion that it was principally due to natural selection rather than
training.
These figures for Group D are significant in another respect.
They show that the highest orchestra is not made up entirely of
highly talented students. If it were, the average for the group could
be in the 90's instead of 73. One naturally asks how many of the
students in this school will die with all their music in them undis-
covered and not functioning. It is also interesting to ask how many
of the gifted students in music were also highly gifted in other arts
or disciplines and were, therefore, diverted from training in music.
At any rate, we have here a fairly clear picture of what actually
ANALYSIS OF TALENT IN PUBLIC SCHOOL 323
happens in a public school.* The next question is, can we improve
upon this situation ?
THE ROCHESTER SERVICE
After reviewing the experiment in the Eastman School of Music,
Mr. George Eastman said, "You have rendered our school a great
and permanent service. You have saved large sums of money and
have rendered a humanitarian service to these pupils. But that is
largely negative; is it not possible to do something more positive?"
"Yes," I replied. "That is the great future of talent selection.
When a music psychologist is placed in the public school system
with the sole charge of attempting to discover, analyze, and certify
talent which may be discovered by dragnet tests, analyzed by case
histories, and verified by auditions, we shall be doing the positive
thing in the public schools. We can then not only inform the tal-
ented of their valuable possession, but we can give them privileges
in the public school musical activities in proportion to their capac-
ities for achievement, and, as a result of their achievement and in
the light of talent analyses, these pupils may be recommended to
the best music schools."
The most effective operation of this principle is, perhaps, to be
found in Rochester, N. Y. Such a system is now in operation and
may be briefly summarized. When the pioneer work in this field
was undertaken, Dr. Ruth Larson, in charge of this work, was
highly qualified, and has perhaps had the best opportunities and
the best encouragement of anyone in this country, for this specific
work. In a personal communication, she kindly outlined the char-
acter of her work, after the first two years of experience in the
position as follows:
PROCEDURE IN THE GUIDANCE PROGRAM
1. The placement of instruments. The instrumental depart-
ment has a large number of musical instruments as a result of
very generous gifts by philanthropists of the city. Also, prac-
tically all the schools of the city own instruments. These instru-
ments are placed with the more musical children through the aid
of the psychological tests.
* Virtually the same experiment was repeated by Larson in the school system of Iowa
City, Iowa. The outcome was a verification of the Lincoln findings in principle.
324 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
2. Recommendations concerning the purchase of instruments by
parents. More and more, parents are requesting psychological
tests before purchasing instruments for their children. Upon
request, after the test appointments, conferences are held with
the parents, and in the light of information that has been ac-
quired concerning the child and his talent, suggestions are made
as to the kind of instrument for which the child seems best
equipped.
3. Segregation of instrumental classes. Contrary to ideas that
many have had on the subject, it has been demonstrated that
there is more incentive for the majority of stvidents to work at
their highest level when they are in a homogeneous group. It is a
mistake to place the less talented student in classes with the more
musical students. Instead of the highly gifted students acting
as an inspiration to the less talented ones, it tends to discourage
them. Nor is it beneficial for the talented children; the competi-
tion is not so keen, and they are not taxed to their best efforts.
Therefore, children of like musical capacities are placed in the
same classes whenever the schedules will permit.
4. Cooperation with the music teachers in the study of unusual
cases. Close attention is given to students who are reported as
having early indications of unusual musical aptitude. These
children are studied and then given the benefit of special op-
portunities for musical development whenever possible.
5. Check on accomplishment. A report of grades for all stu-
dents receiving instrumental instruction is filed at the psychology
of music office. These reports are studied, and in case the report
varies decidedly from what might be expected from the student's
talent chart, an investigation is made in an attempt to discover
reasons for this discrepancy. If the trouble is due to a lack of
application, irregular attendance, or some other personal
indolence, the student is informed that in order to take advan-
tage of free musical instruction provided by the board of educa-
tion, he is expected to progress at a rate in conf ormance with his
capabilities. This pertains equally to those who own their instru-
ments and to those who are using school instruments. This
general check on the relation of talent to progress cultivates a
higher level of efficiency in the classes.
When there are interferences that hinder the student in mak-
ing good progress, and it is necessary to recall the instrument, it
ANALYSIS OF TALENT IN PUBLIC SCHOOL 325
is placed in the hands of one of the numerous applicants of high
talent on the waiting list, preference being given to those with
the highest talent ratings. In this group of high talents may be
found many who do not have the means to purchase an instru-
ment but must wait an opportunity for the use of a school instru-
ment or help from some other source.
6. Cooperation with various organizations interested in child
guidance. Students are often referred to the music psychologist
by such organizations as the Children's Service Bureau, Visiting
Teachers Department, Special Education Department, and
various members of the Child Study Department for a considera-
tion of their musical aptitudes, with a view to the significance the
development of musical talent might have in the readjustment of
these special cases.
7. Limitation of instrumental classes through talent testing. It
is recognized that the teaching of music is expensive. A psy-
chology of music program attempts to help conserve resources for
their most profitable use. Although it is the general policy to
adopt a positive attitude with an endeavor to help and guide the
child in music, it is necessary to protect the school and the teacher
by refusing to recommend the lowest type of talent for instru-
mental instruction.
Although the present program concentrates on work with
the instrumental department, numerous opportunities come for
service in other branches of school music. . . . Thus, an in-
fluence has incidentally carried over into another department of
school music. The vocal teachers also send students to the central
test room, sometimes for the consideration of recommending
further study beyond high school as a vocation, or for an under-
standing of why a student with a voice of excellent quality is not
capable of singing in time or tune in the vocal ensemble classes.
These are but examples of services in other branches of school
music.The growth in the demands for the psychology of music
service is taxing the present facilities, and the enlargement of
the program to include other branches of school music, where it
can be just as serviceable, is in process.
Since greater emphasis is being placed on the importance of
musical development at an early age in school, greater opportun-
ity is offered for guidance through psychology of music at this
critical time. . . . The testing of musical talent at this level has
326 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
the advantage of obviating an expensive and inefficient trial-and-
error sifting for those inherently equipped for achievements in
music.*
THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS AND SUPERVISORS
In another publication 120 I have made the following recom-
mendations on (1) the training of teachers and supervisors and (2)
on the organization of a guidance program in the public school :
The training of teachers in the art of the analysis and adjust-
ment for talent is the first great need in the realization of the goal
for musical guidance on a large scale. That the burden falls first
upon the teacher in the classroom becomes evident when we
realize that the commonest evidence of talent is, and always will
be, the character of performance in the early stages. To ap-
preciate this, requires a rather highly organized technical train-
ing in the job analysis of the musical situation, the talent analysis
of the child, and the actual organization of progress in training
on the basis of these two sets of information.
We are, however, not sanguine enough to regard it as reason-
able to expect that of all music teachers. The demand, therefore,
presses chiefly upon supervisors who themselves understand the
situation and have the power to command the few who can
cooperate in this service. The immediate responsibility for
awakening interest in the possibilities of the art of music falls
upon the training institutions for music supervisors. It is incum-
bent on them to share some of the time for methods of teaching
with expert training in music guidance. Before this is done, no
claim can be made for the application of science to the art of
teaching music.
THE ORGANIZATION OF A GUIDANCE PROGRAM
FOR THE PUBLIC SCHOOL
A guidance program calls for systematic observation in
auditions, measures of achievement, and measures of talent. In
the ordinary musical situation natural selection operates at an
enormous sacrifice, more or less through chance survival.
* In the April, 1938, number of the Educational Music Magazine, Mr. Charles
H. Miller, the supervisor of music at Rochester, gives a report on the operation of this
program during the first ten years. In this he confirms the principles just stated and gives
additional interesting suggestions.
ANALYSIS OF TALENT IN PUBLIC SCHOOL 327
Auditions. To obviate this waste and to discover and direct
talent, the scientifically trained teacher or supervisor will
organize a systematic procedure that may informally be called
auditions. It will be in the hands of a competent person who can
move unobtrusively in the actual musical situation and observe
and record specific evidences of the presence or absence of talent,
in a cumulative record that will facilitate guidance. This auditor
will, of course, get most leads from the teacher and thus furnish
every teacher an outlet for influence in this service.
We teach too much; we drill too insistently; we inspire too
little. A distinctive place in the training program should be
assigned to auditions. When this is done by a qualified person,
much of the routine teaching and drill work can give place to
spontaneous self-expression and self-direction, and the problem of
motivation will be solved. If asked how to reduce the budget in
the music department, that is the method I would pursue.
Early discovery, systematic record, and the assurance that merit
will be rewarded will furnish the greatest drive that can possibly
enter into the musical life of the school. A social and competitive
program in which the student is encouraged to live in an atmos-
phere of self-expression and service in music is extremely valuable
in the revelation of talent.
This audition service should, of course, be responsible for the
organization and conduct of all measures of achievement, and it
is now a well-established fact that the timely and adequate meas-
urement of achievement is an effective tool in the organization of
instruction. Achievement tests may often take the form of
actual competitive performance. More emphasis should be
placed on evidence of self-direction, self-motivation, and self-
criticism than upon mere passing grades on routine instruction.
The early documenting of specific abilities exhibited in perform-
ance is very valuable.
Surveys. As measures of musical talent progressively stand-
ardized, validated, and made available in inexpensive, safe, and
reliable form, surveys may be conducted in various ways. These
surveys should serve two primary purposes: (1) the discovery of
outstanding and perhaps unrecognized talent of various kinds;
and (2) the identification of persons seriously lacking in talent.
They should never be undertaken except where there is a de-
liberate and effective intention to follow up. Tests of this kind
328 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
should be of such character that their use will be fully justified
by the teaching-value alone in making the music population
conscious of the existence and significance of specific aspects of
music.
The most profitable all-city survey would be in the fifth
grade, and the second survey if undertaken should perhaps be in
the eighth, for obvious reasons. A more specific and immediately
profitable use of surveys is in the progressive organization of
music units, such as orchestras, bands, choruses, highly special-
ized organizations, and individual instruction. Here the analysis
of measures of musical talent should be a fixture in the procedure,
and every student should know exactly how he rates in this and
that.
Remedial work. Remedial work should play an important
part in the organization program in the ordinary course of in-
struction and musical activity. The pupil faces an unanalyzed
situation and may show marked defects of which he is not aware.
Our demand for analysis and measurement of specific elements in
performance favors the development of a system of remedial
work that may be undertaken to great advantage. Many a
singer who flats has simply fallen into a bad habit and can be
whipped out in a few minutes of intensive attack, if there is an
adequate sense of pitch. The same is true in each of the basic
capacities, such as volume control, time, rhythm, and tone
quality. There are now instruments available by which a person
can test, check, and correct his faulty performance in a very
short time, and to a very high degree. Such procedures make the
pupil conscious of the defects he has. Most of the faults and de-
fects may be attributed to sluggishness on the part of both pupil
and teacher in the discovery of error. The scientific method will
act as a whip. The need of this is, of course, most notoriously
exhibited in the matter of the control of tone quality. Instead of
thinking loosely in general terms of good and bad, the pupil
should be made conscious of his specific weakness and the ways
of remedying it.
In a sense, the guidance program should always be of a nega-
tive and protective character. At every turn, the pupil should be
encouraged to follow his natural urge. The musical guide will then
analyze the situation to determine whether the choice is wise and
in accordance with natural talent. This advice favoring a protec-
ANALYSIS or TALENT IN PUBLIC SCHOOL 329
tive attitude rather than a positive and directive attitude is
essential to the scientific approach. The ordinary guide is far too
ready to direct the future of the pupil on the basis of superficial
evidence.
Appreciation of music is not primarily a problem of guidance.
It is rather a problem of providing facilities, motivation, and, best
of all, forms of participation that make the pupil feel that music
is in him and of him, because appreciation is ultimately a form of
expression.
THE INHERITANCE OF
MUSICAL TALENT
THE NATURE OF THE INHERITANCE
OF MUSICAL TALENT*
FAMILY pride, musical and social history, investments in musical
education, the making or breaking of a career, hinge upon an
adequate evaluation of talent; and talent, by definition, is an
inherited trait. The world talks glibly of it in high praise and in
deep disparagement, often without a glimmering of scientific in-
sight or discriminating attitude. The concept of inheritance must
have a place in a psychology of music.
Musical talent probably lends itself better than any other
talent to the investigation of the laws of mental inheritance
because it does not represent merely a general heightening of the
mental powers, but is specifically recognized as a gift which can be
analyzed into its constituent elements, many of which may be
isolated and measured with reasonable precision. The inheritance
of musical talent may, therefore, be studied, not only for itself, but
also for the bearing that it has on the inheritance of mental traits in
general.
Yet, in approaching this problem, we are forced to face certain
complexities which tend to make the work difficult and may at first
seem insurmountable. Frank recognition of these is, however, the
first step in scientific procedure. The more of such facts we dis-
cover early and take into account, the more permanent will be the
* A considerable part of this chapter is drawn from the author's article on this subject
ill the Mutual Quarterly. lu
880
THE INHERITANCE OF MUSICAL TALENT 331
value of our labors. In this chapter, I shall try to point out some of
these elements in the situation and make a general forecast as to
procedure,
As we have seen, musical talent is not one but a group of
hierarchies of talent. The musical person may be distinguished in
voice, in instrumental performance, in musical appreciation, or in
composition; each of these is an independent field in which one
may gain eminence without giving evidence of marked ability in
the others. Then, within each of these large avenues of musical
life, we find numerous independent variables. Voice, for example,
is a physical capacity which may be distinguished in volume,
register, range, and timbre, all quite independent variables and not
necessarily associated with the musical mind.
Scope of inheritance. We have inherited every element of what
we are or can become as human organisms. We develop from this
inheritance stock through the operation of environment. Environ-
ment is selective in that (1) it permits the outcropping of certain
latent capacities, for example, walking, talking, or laughing, and
suppresses masses of other latent capacities by failure of oppor-
tunity for functioning; (2) it furnishes training and opportunity
for exercise in acts of skill, both mental and physical; (3) it favors
specialization, for example, in music, art, and leadership; (4) it
holds out rewards and goals which heighten achievement at the
sacrifice of other talents, and Hirsch^ 1 says:
Much of heredity's contribution to the individual is either not
in evidence at all or only partially active at birth. For this reason
it is often wrongly assigned to training, to learning, or to con-
ditioning. We refer to such vital characteristics as intelligence,
verbalization, walking and motor and mechanical abilities. These
are innate capacities and could never be "acquired" or "learned"
if they were not potentially present at birth. Their functioning,
it is true, is contingent upon neural and muscular structures, but
these latter are merely an aspect of the infant's entire psy-
chophysiological maturation, which is genetically pre-determined.
Too much emphasis cannot be given to the truth that an
infant's functional characteristics, and traits, and patterns of
behavior during the first few weeks of life are but a fraction of its
psychobiological and psychological nature. The rate at which its
fertile latencies develon so that thev function and heroine
332 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
"behavior," is also largely a matter of inheritance. For a "malu-
rational sequence" is more significant than training. . . . Not
only are many hereditary contributions inactive at birth, or yet
during infancy, but much if not most of our hereditary natures
never function, never become actualized either in overt behavior
or in our consciousness.
Four branches. On the sensory side we have recognized four
branches of talent content as heard, namely, pitch, time, intensity,
and timbre, each forming a main division of approaches to musician-
ship. Each one of these capacities runs as an independent branch,
not only in sensation, but through memory, imagination, thought,
feeling, and action. Each branch of this family tree throws out
similar clusters of capacities. For example, the power of imagery,
creative imagination, emotional warmth, and logical grasp, tend to
appear in all four of these channels. In the investigation of in-
heritance, we must, therefore, abandon the plan of merely counting
persons musical or unmusical and patiently settle down to the
isolation and observation of isolable traits.
Capacity versus achievement. The investigator of inheritance is
not interested primarily in the degree of achievement attained,
which is usually a circumstance of fortune or misfortune in environ-
ment; he has to do exclusively with the valuation of inborn
capacities. Skill or achievement is significant for inheritance only
insofar as it gives evidence of native capacities. It is manifestly
unjust to attempt to trace musical inheritance only in distinguished
achievement in music. Wherever we find achievement, we count it
as evidence of capacity; but we must employ ways and means of
rating undeveloped capacities fairly in comparison with capacities
which have been given natural outlets for development into
achievement.
This point of view is fundamental and must be taken seriously.
So long as we rate the presence of musical talent in terms of
musical achievement, we shall be dealing mainly with the superficial,
sociological, and pedagogical phenomena of opportunities and scope
of musical training or with the effect of inhibiting circumstance on
the spontaneous self-expression in music.
Investigation of inheritance has been made possible for the first
time by the introduction of methods of psychological examination
in which we can discover, measure, and rate the existence, kind, and
THE INHERITANCE OF MUSICAL TALENT 333
extent of natural musical capacities, quite independent of age
(beyond infancy), training, or musical performance. Most of us die
"with all the music in us," but modern methods enable us now to
observe and record the extent to which capacities are present quite
apart from their evidence in a musical life.
The normal mind versus the genius and the defective. The
normal mind is musical, and the normal body is the instrument
for adequate expression of music. As we have seen, whether or not
the person with a normal mind and body shall distinguish himself
in music is largely a matter of circumstances in the way of oppor-
tunities for development and absence of suppressing forces.
Investigation of heredity naturally centers first on what is
thought to be most tangible types of cases, that is, on the one hand
the genius and on the other the defective. But this distinction is not
so simple as it might seem at first to be, for musical genius may be of
very many kinds, many of which are due to unrelated causes. Thus,
we may have the genius in composing, in performing, or in inter-
preting music; one quite independent of the other, and in each
genus of these a variety of species. Likewise, musical deprivation
may be due to faulty hearing, inadequate association, inferior
intelligence, and, within each genus of these and similar categories,
there may be various species, many of them entirely unrelated. We
shall, therefore, not find much comfort in thinking of the genius or
the defective as representing peculiarly tangible cases, for we shall
be compelled to deal with specific factors in analyzed concepts.
The normal mind is the average mind. But such average does
not represent a single dead level for all the various human capaci-
ties. Thus, the two cases, A and B, here represented in talent
charts on the basis of the measurement of talents listed, may be
regarded as typical of "average" musical minds, yet they are
radically different. It is not illuminating to call them "normal."
What is here illustrated in musical capacity is equally true for
other capacities in human endowments. This is only saying in other
words, "We normal people are so different." If, for example, we
rank capacities on the scale from 1 to 100 per cent, we may find the
so-called "normal" endowed with a superbly high faculty in one
capacity and in another, equally important, markedly defective;
in one he may rank 99 per cent, and in the other 2 per cent. There
is nothing gained by speaking of this as representing the average;
each one must be considered by itself.
334 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
We shall, therefore, be compelled to narrow our concept of
normal and defective to the designation of these in terms of specific
and isolable talents upon which musical achievement must
depend. When this is done the popular distinction of genius,
normal, and defective loses its significance, just as the term
"insanity" has come to be merely a legal term, while the physician
deals with specific causes and symptoms of mental diseases and
finds all sorts of interweavirigs between sanity and insanity.
Genius and impulse. We should distinguish between the
talented person and the genius. The most distinctive trait of the
musical genius is the fact that he finds in music a dominant inter-
est, is driven to it by an impulse, burns to express himself in music.
He is driven by an instinctive impulse or craving for music which
results in supreme devotion to its realization. The talented person,
on the other hand, gives evidence of unusual powers which may or
may not be motivated by an instinctive impulse. The talented per-
son tends to manifest specific skills while genius actually generalizes,
creates, thinks in a large whole. To view genius merely as a talent
is to view the waterfall in terms of measures of water or height,
instead of regarding it as water in action, falling, working, entranc-
ing. The imposing manifestation of eternal grandeur in the graceful
folds of the giant veil of water is a reality. But there would be no
fall were there no gorge, quantity of water, or height of shelf. The
functioning power is implied in the structural composition. So, in
music, the impulse to live the life of music owes its existence to the
high possession of other musical talents. In laying the foundations
for a scientific study of heredity, we may, therefore, content our-
selves with describing the waterfall in terms of the shape of the
gorge, the quantity of water, and the height of fall; that is, in
terms of capacity for sensing, executing, imagining, remembering,
thinking, feeling music, including with these the instinctive urge
for self-expression in music.
Urge without talent. In literature and art, it is a well-known
fact that we often find people desperately devoted to their art, that
is, drawn by a dominant impulse to a given art objective, who never
achieve and who are finally spotted as hopeless. Although a vital
index, the impulse itself does not make the genius and may be a
misleading guide.
Versatility and plasticity of the human organism. In stressing
the classification in terms of inborn capacities as distinguished from
THE INHERITANCE OF MUSICAL TALENT 335
developed skill or achievement, we must not neglect the equally
important fact that the limits of achievement depend on the re-
lationship of one capacity to another; and that inferior and medium
capacities in some factor may constitute adequate support for
excellence in some dominant capacity; and some capacity may be
utterly lost without interfering prohibitively with the function of
another. For example, one may be stone deaf, and yet be a superior
composer if he has had normal hearing at some period of his life; but
though he be a genius of musical intelligence and lack creative
imagination, he cannot create music.
The resourcefulness of the human organism is marvelous.
Recently a one-armed man won the national honors in marksman-
ship in various forms of shooting with gun and rifle. A one-legged
man became a rope dancer. The war cripples are astonishing
us in many directions by their performances after loss of parts of the
body. The same is also true mentally, since the mind is more
complicated and plastic than the body. Therefore, it requires great
insight to distinguish real achievement reached after the over-
coming of handicaps from the possession of talent. Such achieve-
ment, under handicap, is favored in music by the fact that the
material of music is manifold and the avenues of expression are
abundant. A person without a voice may play; a person lacking
sense of tone may excel in the rhythmic aspects of music; a person
lacking the sense of time may dwell in the tonal aspects; a person
lacking emotion may excel in the more abstract processes of com-
position and musical criticism.
Now, in all such cases, it will be necessary to deal with specific
gifts, either unusual excellences or marked absence of excellences,
and in all cases to rate natural capacities as distinguished from the
acquired skill or ability.
This point of view throws a flood of light on the analysis of
likes and dislikes, character of performance, and character of
creation in music. Thus a distinguished singer was found to be
inferior in the sense of pitch, and in this was found the explanation
of the fact that she had failed in several roles of music before she
hit by chance upon the role of folk songs, in which she appeared in
solo and in which she, without apparent extravagance, makes use
of the artistic liberties which the folk singers take with their
melodies. She has a beautiful voice, wide compass, and very effec-
tive support, from a dramatic point of view, in a graceful body and a
336 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
beautiful face, so that appeal to the eye dominates the esthetic
appeal of the tonal message.
Persons who lack a sense of time or a sense of intensity are com-
mon in musical circles. The relative absence of feeling, imagination,
or intellect in persons who have attained distinction in music is a
notorious phenomenon. Many persons prominent in musical circles
perform in a certain mechanical way and are always pronounced
unmusical by the connoisseur; the voice lacks life, the rhythm is
mechanical, the tone is cold. In any investigation of heredity, we
may have to call such highly trained persons unmusical on the
basis of rating in natural capacities.
Attitude of the artist. We can apply mental tests to rate the
capacities of soldiers under military command, and the youth must
accept the consequence of the rating, whether it be favorable or
unfavorable to his military career. In the schools, there has now
been established a variety of systems of tests by which the "gifts
of nature'* in the pupil are thrown into relief for the guidance of the
educator, and children are coming to look upon the intelligence
quotient, mathematical rating, and the learning curve as matters of
routine, which they regard with the same complacence as they view
their measures of height, weight, and lung capacity. The prospec-
tive musician in the music school is eager to secure her talent
chart as a basis for the organization of her course, the identification
and analysis of encountered difficulties, and the forecast of prospects
in a musical career.
But when we attempt to follow up the individuals in a family of
musicians, with all its collateral branches, we encounter prejudices,
fears, scruples, and other negativisms. There is in the very warp
and woof of the musical temperament an attitude of mind which,
by its very esthetic glow, is opposed to cold scientific procedure
with particulars. This aloofness of the artist is also partly justified
by the fact that the necessary procedure for the investigation of
musical inheritance is yet crude and has not become a part of the
common stock of well-recognized custom.
Absence of established biological theory. This reserve is further
supported by the barren situation in regard to established biological
concepts of the physical mechanism in the inheritance of mental
traits by transmission through the germ plasm. There must, for
some time to come, be a patient procedure by "trial and error" in
an attempt to try out the best working hypotheses now available.
THE INHERITANCE OF MUSICAL TALENT 337
We have but little precedent for the application of Mendelian
principles to mental traits. But, from the point of view of modern
psychology, the prospect of drawing analogies from related experi-
ments in plants and animals is very hopeful. Indeed, that is the
only logical and economic way to proceed. We may accept as a
general working basis the Mendelian hypothesis and proceed to
ascertain what determiners in the germ plasm function for musical
talent; which are dominant and which recessive; which musical
dispositions are carried on the same determiner, and which are
carried on determiners charged with nonmusical factors, etc. In
psychology, this will be virgin soil.
Practical significance. If it should prove possible to identify
heritable musical traits, as we believe it is, and if the laws of the
operation of this inheritance should become common knowledge, it
is conceivable that the gain for the development of artistic re-
sources would be as far-reaching in consequence for musical art as
knowledge of such laws is proving to be in conservation of favorable
traits and the elimination of unfavorable traits in animals and
plants. And this may all come about without any eugenic infringe-
ment of the rights and finer sensibilities of esthetic man in human
evolution. Yet the greatest gain through studies in musical heredity
will survive mainly in an increase in our knowledge and apprecia-
tion of the nature, the resources, the limits, the significance, and
the value of this precious gift of music as we appraise it daily in
home, school, and society.
The discarding of the literature on musical inheritance. The
above facts, and many others like them, prove conclusively,
to those acquainted with the literature of the subject, that we can
get little or no help from the nonscientific works now extant on the
inheritance of musical talent. The mass of musical biography and
autobiography has sprung up in terms of loose and utterly unscien-
tific concepts. True, when we adopt a scientific terminology, it
may be possible to go back and identify specific factors in composi-
tions, published musical criticism, and a variety of other objective
evidence of the presence of similar traits in successive generations
of certain musical families. This was illustrated in our study of
musical imagery in the biography of great musicians in Chap. 14.
But it will be difficult to determine how much to attribute to nature
and nurture respectively. Even then, it will be like counting only
the ships that come in, for we can get but scant information about
338 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
the musical nature on the maternal side. The male musical genius
has often come from a mother whose extraordinary talent has
passed undiscovered until it appeared in the career of a son.
To trace inheritance we must count all the members of a family of
blood relations, including certain collaterals, and attach as much
significance to the rating of talent which has found no outlet for
expression as to that which has found expression. This has not been
done in musical biography because biography deals primarily
with achievement.
Even in the few biometric studies of traits in which musical
inheritance has been taken into account, the data obtained and the
technique developed are of little value because none of them deals
with specific capacities. To those who are not trained in the
technique of individual psychology or biometric experiments, this
discarding of the contributions of the past may seem sweeping and
even arrogant; yet such is the process of clearing away the rubbish
before breaking ground for a scientific venture in this field.
The experimental method essential. "Where there is no experi-
ment there can be no science." Scientific investigation of musical
talent had to wait for the appearance of the scientific psychology of
music. Only in comparatively recent years have we seen the begin-
ning of such a science. This science is still restricted to laboratories
and other technical activities and has not yet invaded musical
thought to any considerable extent. It is still in the inceptive
stage, and the investigator of heredity must, therefore, content
himself with a few aspects of musical talent which have been re-
duced to experimental control. In view of the considerations men-
tioned above, we must now deal tentatively with such aspects as
can be isolated, measured, and described with precision. To the
investigator it is no sacrifice to abandon the hope of tracing the
inheritance of musical talent as a whole. He prizes the opportunity
of dealing with one specific capacity at a time.
BASIC APPROACHES NOW AVAILABLE
Among the measures on specific factors of musical talent now
available for use in quantitative procedure, I would mention the
following :
The basic sensory capacities. Beyond question, the first thing
to do is to measure quantitatively the four basic capacities, namely,
THE INHERITANCE OF MUSICAL TALENT 339
the sense of pitch, the sense of intensity, the sense of time, and the
sense of timbre. For these we have standards of procedure, instru-
ments, and norms available. Each of these represents a primary
branch in the fourfold fork of the trees of musical talent; each
should be followed further into its branching. The measurement of
these four factors will reveal the actual psychophysical capacities
for the hearing of music because all musical sounds are perceived in
these four forms. Since measures of the sense of rhythm and the
sense of consonance are not adequately indicated by any one, or any
combination, of these four, they should be added to the battery.
The basic motor capacities. Singing and playing as such are not
suitable measures of inherited traits, except insofar as great dis-
tinction has been attained, because these abilities are so largely the
result of training and opportunity. Certain physical measurements
on structure of organs of voice and hand may be significant. As
corresponding to those of the basic sensory capacities, four basic
motor capacities may be used, namely, the control of pitch, the con-
trol of intensity, the control of timbre, and the control of rhythm.
For each of these we have techniques and instruments.
Musical imagery. While we relive and create music through
images in all the senses, two of these are characteristic of musical
life and essential, namely, auditory imagery and motor imagery. We
must determine auditory imagery because it is in terms of this that
we relive music in the nature of sounds which we have once heard
and express new music in creative imagination. Motor imagery,
that is, the subjective sensory experience of action in association,
is also a basic factor because it is the taproot of emotional expres-
sion and is really an index of musical emotion. For each of these, we
have only introspective measures. Crude as these introspective
measures are, they are, nevertheless, vital indices to ear-mindedness.
Memory. There are many vastly divergent aspects of musical
memory in musical talent which may be measured, but, if we shall
select only one for the present purpose, that one will undoubtedly
be auditory memory span, that is, the capacity for grasping and
retaining for a moment a group of musical sounds apart from
melodic situations. This measurement is ordinarily made in terms
of memory for pitch or rhythmic pattern.
Musical intelligence. Since the character of the musician is
determined largely by the character of his general intelligence, quite
apart from music, the first measure should be a reliable I.Q.
340 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
The rating of factors not measured. The development of
experimental technique has led to clearness of analysis and critical
procedure in the observation and recording of factors which cannot
be put under experimental control. Such observation and rating of
factors, with reasonable precision, must furnish very valuable
supplementary information for aid in the interpretation of the
quantitative measures. Quantitative measurements furnish abun-
dant opportunity for the systematic recording of relevant facts
when once knowledge of classification, relationships, and char-
acteristic evidences enter into the critical judgment of the
experimenter.
Among the items to be observed in examining the person,
record should be kept of voice quality, register, volume, evidences
of training; general motor control as in the shape of the hands,
grace and precision of movement; and general alertness. Evidences
of rhythmic tendencies, vividness and fertility of imagination,
characteristics of memory, musical centers of interests, stock of
musical ideas, the expression of musical feeling, temperament, and
artistic attitudes when off guard, physique, health, and physical
development are all significant.
Significant biographical data in the form of case history should
be gathered, bearing upons triking ancestral traits, hereditary
disease, social and vocational status, educational opportunities,
impediments which have stood in the way of successful education
and achievement, and other significant facts of life history bearing
upon the factors at issue. No set form should be followed, but
alertness and skill in observing the essentials are desirable.
In these matters of ratings and case history the experimenter
should not fill out forms or pad records but should take the same
attitude that the physician takes. The physician has in mind the
generally recognized varieties of diseases and their symptoms, and
in the best practice he makes a record of anything which, in his
judgment, may appear to be relevant.
One factor which cannot be measured, but may possibly be
observed systematically for the purpose of tracing transmission
through heredity, is that of the musical impulse as shown in a
natural craving for music, sustained interest in its pursuit, and a
deep feeling of satisfaction in things musical. This impulse, when
genuine, rests upon natural bent of mind due mainly to the posses-
sion of capacities, but also to a general artistic disposition in the
THE INHERITANCE OF MUSICAL TALENT 341
form of artistic temperament. The best that we can do, at the pres-
ent time, is to record all observable evidences of such a driving
impulse apart from artificial stimulation and simulation. We shall
undoubtedly find interesting relationships between these impulses
and the power to achieve, as to both amount and kind. It is very
desirable to learn to what extent such an instinctive impulse may be
lost by very slight untoward circumstances in early life. It will also
be interesting to see to what extent a dominating impulse of this
sort is related to lack of capacities or absence of interest in other
activities.
POSSIBLE WAYS OF OKGANIZING INVESTIGATION
The laws of the inheritance of musical traits must ultimately be
determined by actual experiment on carefully selected matings in
which the measurements may be repeated for successive genera-
tions. Such an undertaking can be fostered only by an agency
heavily endowed, of a nation-wide or international scope, adopting
a thoroughly standardized procedure which can be sustained for
many years. *
In general, it would seem feasible to follow, in an investigation
of this sort, the same methods that have been followed so suc-
cessfully with plants and animals; that is, to isolate and observe
under experimental control, one factor at a time, in all the progeny
from a given pair for a certain number of generations. There need
be only one restriction in view of the fact that we are dealing with
human beings; namely, that we cannot breed successive generations
for this specific purpose. This, however, is not serious, because we
can adopt the device of selecting from volunteers, in which the
factor under control is mated in a known way, and examine them
and their children and their children's mates in successive genera-
tions. Ratings through systematic observations and case histories
may be kept quite complete. This is undoubtedly the method of the
future. It involves not the slightest infringement upon reasonable
sensibilities or proprieties; on the contrary, it should constitute a
most fascinating cooperative search for truth.
A more direct procedure would be to aim at the same result by
examining large numbers of musical parents with their children and
taking into account the transmission of this factor, or factors, in
one generation. Here we would have the alternative of spending
time and effort in selecting conspicuous matings for a given
342 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
capacity; or taking musical families at random and depending upon
large numbers of measurements to yield reliable data. The former
of these alternatives would undoubtedly be more desirable.
The most promising immediate approach is, however, to utilize
material now available in the test programs of public schools by
selecting marked cases of talent or absence of specific talent among
children and working back from them to their parents, brothers and
sisters, and other near blood relatives.
THE NATURALIST'S POINT OF VIEW
The point of view here presented is that of the naturalist.
Musical life is made up of phenomena in nature all operating
according to determinable laws of nature analyzable, describable,
explainable, knowable, and worth knowing.
This point of view does not conflict with the artistic and
philosophical points of view, both of which regard these same
phenomena from entirely different angles. The artist may, in suc-
cessive attitudes, regard his life from each of these three points of
view. As an artist, he finds himself in esthetic rapport with nature
without and nature within human emotion. As a philosopher, he
reasons about the relations of this life of music to the life of nature
as a part of beauty and truth and weaves it into his world view. As
a scientist, he turns upon the same phenomena in a cold microscopic
attitude; he is interested in particulars, causes, conditions, and
mental laws.
This entire chapter might well have been devoted to an account
of procedure and findings in a study of certain elements of in-
heritance in six of the foremost families of musicians in this country
conducted by S/anton, 174 because that study marks the beginning of
a new epoch in the measurement of inheritance of musical talent.
Space, however, will permit only a brief mention. This investigation
was a joint undertaking between the Department of Genetics in the
Carnegie Institution of Washington and the Department of
Psychology in the University of Iowa.
Six of America's foremost musicians were selected on the basis
of their standing and rank among musicians. Each one was inter-
viewed, musical case histories were written, and four quantitative
measurements were made. The same procedure was then followed
for each of the available blood relatives in each family group.
THE INHERITANCE OP MUSICAL TALENT 343
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Figure 1 shows the result of the measures in the form of a talent-
pedigree chart for one of the foremost musical families in America.
The small profile for each individual shows the rank of that in-
dividual on each of four measurements : pitch, intensity, time, and
memory, in the order mentioned from top downward. The left of
the square represents rank of 1, or the lowest; the right of the
square, a rank of 100, or the highest; the middle vertical line repre-
sents average. The square over a profile indicates male; a circle,
female. The connecting lines indicate the family relationship.
Referring to the profiles in the middle row, we find that the
musician about whom the family study developed, No. 4, has high
musical capacities expressed by a superior talent profile. He mar-
ried No. 3, who comes from an unmusical family as known from
their family history and from their low musical capacities as seen
in the profiles of the three sisters, Nos. 1, 2, and 3, and of the
mother, No. 1 in the top row. Of their three children, Nos. 1 and 3
in the bottom row have high musical capacities. Their talent profiles
resemble the profile of the father. The talent profile of the middle
sister resembles that of her mother.
The musician's brother, No. 7 in the middle row, is very tal-
ented. He married into a musical family, two of whom were tested,
Nos. 5 and 6. His children, Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8, in the bottom row,
are all musical and show high capacities. The two complete talent
profiles of Nos. 6 and 7 resemble the talent profile of their father.
The incomplete talent profiles are due to illness. The musician's
sister, last in the middle row, was a teacher of voice and of piano
and a choral director. Of her children, Nos. 9 and 10, the daughter
has superior talent, but the son is more like his mother.
In addition to the data expressed in the talent-pedigree chart,
information was obtained regarding the musical history of each
member of the family as to early environment, education, musical
expression, creative ability, emotional reactions, likes and dislikes.
The family has musical potentialities according to measurement
and has demonstrated its musical abilities according to supple-
mentary data and information.
Tentative conclusions from these studies are that musical
parents from musical stock on one or both sides tend to have
musical children; nonmusical parents from nonmusical stock tend
to have nonmusical children; parents, one of whom is musical from
musical stock, the other of whom is nonmusical from nonmusical
THE INHERITANCE OF MUSICAL TALENT 345
stock, tend to have both musical and nonmusical children. The
method of inheritance of each capacity is too complex to be known
from the data at hand, but there is indication that the inheritance
of musical capacities seems to follow Mendelian principles.*
Mjoen 100 and his associates in the Winderen laboratory at Oslo
have made rather notable contributions to studies in race heredity in
various European countries, employing in large part these measures
in musical talent. On the point of heredity, he has drawn the follow-
ing conclusions :
Untalented parents never have very talented children,
while very talented parents never have untalented children.
The higher the average of talent in the parents, the higher
is also the average of talent in the children. When there is only a
slight divergence or none at all in the parents, the average talent
in the children is a little higher than that of the parents. When
the divergence increases the average talent in the children
declines; so that in cases of great divergence in the parents the
average for the children is lower than that of the parents. Ac-
cordingly, it seems that a great difference of talent in the parents
exercises an unfavorable influence on the degree of talent in the
children.
Another investigation of a quantitative character made with
our measures of musical talent is that of Davenport and Steggerda, 15
in which a study is made of anthropological differences between
blacks, whites, and browns, who have lived on the same island
under similar conditions for a long period of time. While this in-
vestigation was not organized primarily for the tracing of inherit-
ance, the findings throw much light upon that problem.
* The original report 174 is worth careful study. All the original records are on file in the
offices of the Carnegie Institution at Cold Springs Harbor.
26
PRIMITIVE MUSIC
MUSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY THROUGH
PHONO PHOTOGRAPHY
THE coming in of methods of recording and reproducing sounds
from a film is one of the marvels of the present century. It
enables us to live in a new world situation. When we can sit down in
a theater or private studio and see the primitive savage in his native
haunts at work and play, in ceremonial dance and song, the world is
made smaller. Concrete situations, as seen and heard, are brought
to us from all parts of the globe, regardless of distance, and may be
preserved for all time.
We have marveled at the exhibition feature, at the entertain-
ment which we enjoy in the theater, and at the possibility of col-
lecting data for all kinds of historical purposes by this extraordinary
means; but very few have realized anything of the unlimited possi-
bilities of a scientific character that this movement introduces for
music.
The tone film not only reproduces the sounds to our ears, but it
presents the message also in visual form. As a record of sound waves,
it furnishes the necessary raw material for physical and mathe-
matical treatment in the interests of the science of music. The music
thus reported becomes laboratory material, available as a key to the
anthropological and musical approaches to all the problems in-
volved in the origin and development of racial music. The sound
film which we hear in the theater has been edited by a process
analogous to the retouching of photographs. This makes it more
acceptable to the ear but, to that extent, distorts the actual raw
material. The original film is, however, preserved and it is from this
346
PRIMITIVE Music 347
tmretouched film that the scientific studies may be made. The sound
film, like the phonograph record, may be taken into the laboratory
for rephotographing for the purposes of analysis as described in
Chap. 2.
The moving picture industry is now ready to cooperate with
scientists in the interest of making their films more "educational'*
and scientifically more faithful records of primitive music and
speech. The first step that is necessary to take in this cooperation
is to employ a musical anthropologist to go into the field as a scout
and apply existing knowledge of the situation in a survey of avail-
able material. This will take two forms. First will be the determina-
tion of what is anthropologically the most significant aspect of
musical culture in a selected group. The anthropologist will prob-
ably find that it represents a definite culture stage in the develop-
ment of melody, accompaniment, musical instruments, ceremonial
value, echo of environment, and a number of other issues funda-
mental to the history of music. He may then select from these the
features which should be illustrated in order to show the most
characteristic and significant elements in the situation. These
elements may be of as good entertainment value as the hodge-
podge ordinarily assembled by the professional photographer in the
interests of stage playing.
In the second place, it will be the function of the anthropologist
to discover and organize performing units. One of his most impor-
tant functions will be to overcome the fears, prejudices, and taboos
of the people in order that he may get a full and natural response
from them. While the stage manager must have relatively free
hands in the interest of entertainment, the intelligent good will
thus established may redound to the interest of both science and
music.
These two things have never been done, but producers are ready
to make the venture and the way is entirely clear. If we consider the
problems involved in collecting primitive music at home, such as
the truly Negro music and Indian music, which is not spoiled by
contact with our own, we can realize something of the importance
of these two steps. What the ordinary "movies" collect is not truly
Indian or truly Negro music.
Cooperation with commercial producers has another advantage.
The cost of making films of this kind in remote places is very great.
There is perhaps no musical scientific agency that is ready to
348 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
promote expeditions by itself. On the other hand, by dovetailing
with the commercial producer, the scientific interests can be served
at but little additional expense and with enhancement of value to
the producer. The scientist will gain his end in two ways: he will
have an opportunity to get into the entertainment film materials
which are truly representative of the situation portrayed; and much
of this can be reworked for purely scientific purposes.
On the other hand, when the camera force is in the field and
rapport has been established with the performers, it involves a
matter of very small expense to have films taken which are of
purely scientific character under satisfactory conditions of control.
There is also a definite advantage in cooperation with the producers,
an advantage which will increase in significance as producers see
their way clear to do for music what they have attempted to do in
historical dramas; namely, to make them scientifically accurate as
materials for entertainment. The scientist will, therefore, not
only have contributed to the learned tomes that issue from the
laboratories and studios, but will have acted as a censor and an
impresario in placing a faithful representation before the public
throughout the world for amusement and enlightenment.
In recent years, we have had remarkable demonstrations of the
value of pure science to industry as illustrated in the development of
large research divisions of industrial organizations. Here we may
look for a parallel example in the advancement of the art of educa-
tional entertainment through a science faithfully performed by
research men at the critical points.
NEGRO SONGS
Before the tone film had reached its present popularity and
perfection, a project for the collecting of Negro songs by means of
the camera was carried out as a joint enterprise of the University of
Iowa and the University of North Carolina under a grant from the
Laura Spellman Rockefeller Foundation. In North Carolina,
Professor H. W. Odum and his associates had made a study of
Negro singers and their songs in adjacent territory; and, in the
University of Iowa, we had developed a field camera for the photo-
graphing of the sound waves in the actual singing situation. Pro-
fessor Milton Metfessel, then a National Research Council fellow,
had charge of the investigation and published the results in a
volume entitled Phonophotography in Folk Music, containing 32
PRIMITIVE Music 349
songs, presented in the pattern score. The object of this investiga-
tion was to make it a sort of feeler into the possibilities of this type
of recording, the ways of establishing rapport with the desired
singers, and the means of presenting the song in such a way as to be
musically significant and yet couched in rigidly scientific forms and
concepts.*
Manifestly a chapter of this kind at this time does not permit
any adequate presentation of the characteristics of primitive
music or of Negro music in particular, or even the findings in this
particular project. I shall simply call attention to some of the
features presented by Metfessel in his volume. 85 Those who are
interested in the subject must go to the original for full treatment.
Ear-eye interpretation. Figure 1 is a transcript of a section from
a phonograph record, Victor 20013-B, entitled On ma journey.
This is introduced for the purpose of demonstrating the significance
of eye-ear coordination in the description and interpretation of this
type of music, f
The student should have this record available for use in inter-
preting the score and coordinating eye and ear impressions. Such
use of the pattern score with a phonograph record is a most valuable
* Up to the time these records were made, two means, both relatively inadequate, had
been utilized in collecting primitive music. The first was the direct listening of the collector,
taking notes and giving an account in musical notation and verbal description of what he
heard The limitations of that procedure are obvious. A better procedure has been that of
using the phonograph record. Primitive music collected throughout the world has been
preserved in this form, which is now found very unsatisfactory, valuable collections are
being scrapped. The gravest source of eiror has, however, lam in the transcription of these
records by ear, which introduces countless subjective factors and limitations in the report.
Some of these records may be salvaged by photographing; but, in doing so, we find serious
faults in the softness of the record and the original timing of it.
| The notation is essentially the same as that with which we are familiar from the pre-
ceding chapters The letter in the box indicates the approximate keynote. The horizontal
lines of the staff divide into semitones as indicated by the notation at the left; the vertical
divisions indicate time in terms of seconds; and the dashes, time in terms of tenths of
seconds The measures are indicated by the heavy bars across the section at the bottom.
Below the words as pronounced by the Negro, a phonetic transcription is given in order to
show the phonetic elements of the dialect. Below this, the duration of each phonated unit is
given in hundredths of a second. The musical notes are interpolated to represent, from a
musician's point of view, what the singer probably intended, and what a listener would
probably hear. This is included with apologies, as it simply represents a musician's guess
upon inspection of the score, and might be varied as to both pitch and time. It is not a
part of the standard record. This score shows two of the four factors of performance,
namely, pitch and time, which includes the temporal aspects of rhythm. The intensity
and timbre were not recorded.
350
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
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PRIMITIVE Music 351
study and teaching device in that the visual picture aids the ear in
bringing out numerous features of detail which would otherwise
not be heard or rightly evaluated. Let us trace the tonal movement
in this pattern score.
The first note on the word On, for example, may be played over and over
until the student can actually hear, with some precision, the attack, the vibrato,
and the release, terminating in an inceptive downward dip, which is a Negro
characteristic, better illustrated in the third note. The pattern of this note, the
inverted cup, will be recognized as a type for this singing. The second note is
barely touched, as the downward dip which leads to the attack of the third
note was not voiced. The third note is most characteristic of Negro performance
in its slow, sweeping attack, shortened note, and a sweeping dip before the next
note, which is on the same pitch. It would be a very profitable exercise to hear
this over and over again. Is the fourth note heard as suggested by the inter-
polated score? Or, is it heard flat, as represented by the mean of the vibrato?
The tie on the fourth word again gives us the characteristic Negro pattern, a
slow portamento, a shortened note on the actual pitch, and a slow, sweeping re-
lease, with vibrato present in both attack and release. This tone, being slow, may
be compared with the first and the third, which are of the same general type but
shorter.
The word Mount is sung on a tie which has two distinct pitch levels with good
vibrato, the two tones being tied by a slow glide, and the second note ending in
the dip. It is worth while to note to what extent one can hear the pitch and dura-
tion of these two notes correctly and differentiate them from the glide, which itself
occupies as much time as the two notes. As has been shown by Miller, in our
volume on the vibrato, the bulge in the glide is a vibrato wave, physiologically of
approximately the same significance as the waves on the notes, the difference in
appearance being due to the fact that it is plotted on the downward sweep.
The word Zion is sung apparently on two notes of the same pitch, but the
true pitch of the first note is not reached on account of the slow portamento. Is
that pattern heard? The word ma is merely flirted with, combining two prin-
ciples: first, the dip from the preceding note; and, second, the tendency to hear a
note which is merely pointed at, if it represents a word. The same principle is
represented for the word journey as for Zion. The true pitch of the first note is
not reached for the first half of the note, the two tones together forming the
characteristic inverted cup-shaped pattern. The Negro license is well illustrated
on the word now, where relatively small time is given to the indicated pitch, and
the bulk of the time is given to a slow portamento with two grace notes.
In the second line the intonation on the word Mount, which is not really on
any note but suggests the interpolated notes, is characteristic. The merest touch
is given to the word Zion, making one syllable of it, to give time for the breath
pause, which is used with great freedom by the Negro. The next seven notes illus^
trate admirably a characteristic of the Negro singing; namely, that the note which
represents the destination is merely touched, and a large part of the time is spent
in gliding up and down with ease. The syllables nu and thin reveal the shortening
of the first to give room for the dip (downward sweep not voiced) before the quar-
352 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
ter note, which gives us again the inverted cup with the pointing to the next
note. The diphthong in Mount is sustained beautifully after he reaches it. The
word now, reveals the characteristic approach to the first note, with what may
be regarded as a grace note on the portamento and overreaching the destination
for the last note. The word Mount is embellished with a grace note between the
first and the last part, sung with a good vibrato, slightly flat. The word Zion
(t being sung as a) gives us again the cup-shaped pattern on the diphthong and
the lazy rise to the last note.
Thus, the score is found to be a mine of exact information in
regard to audible, and yet seldom heard, pitch. These phrases may
now be repeated to "hear out'* the scale, the interval values, the
feeling mode, the legato grace, the mood, and any other intona-
tional aspect which may interest the musician or be a specific
object of inquiry.
In the same manner, all the elements of time and rhythm
may be checked up in hearing against the objective facts of the
score. In the future, the pattern score will include the other two
factors, intensity and timbre, so that sample exercises for the re-
finement of the hearing of dynamic and quantitative features of
tones may be heard, the ear being sharpened by the aid of
the eye.*
In presenting the following snatches of song, we must allow
each illustration to speak for itself. Figure 2, represents the last
section of the song All my days, as sung by the famous bass of
the Hampton quartet. While this singer has appeared before
learned audiences and thrilled musicians, he is still ignorant and
sings by his primitive impulses with a most charming abandon. He
was so lazy that it was difficult to keep him awake for the recording.
The words of the song seem appropriate to the character.
His singing is characterized by a very deep voice, lazy legato
movement, conspicuous vibrato, and the characteristic Negro
ornaments, all of which operate to convey deep feeling. He could
not sing the song twice alike, but his performance conveyed the
feeling to the listener that it was one of those beautiful outpour-
ings of soul which could not be set or formalized. His rendition keeps
ringing in my ears, even to this day, as one of the most beautiful
tone pictures I have ever heard.
* Incidentally, it may be suggested that this type of eye-ear exercise, with phonograph
record checked against pattern score in artistic singing, present* a vast help in the shorten-
ing of ear training and the sharpening of musical criticism.
PRIMITIVE Music
353
\
WATIT
TO LIVt
flur
DLt
ALL
L-^
1
1 1
1
U^
1
47
-J!
63
23 33
30
HO
3d
93
ttY
DAY3
ALL
MY
DAY3
\^>^~
1
^l
193
49
1O3
93
127-
354
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
C -
I
I
WAIT
TO LIVE.
HI
|tt- DLt
ALL
MY
I
^^
64
76
15 34
4
D 113
,41
153
131
C-
B
A
G
F
E
ID)*
C
B
2,56. C,-
Ml
DO
26O
FIG. 2. (Continued.}
PRIMITIVE Music
355
D
c-
B
A
G
F
E
25S6-
DO
DOWfl h
bti
OU(-
FYWMY TO 00
HUH
wAHh
nvi
i. HON-OfiEt
Id au nL/lh
A|^T^"
da^
aU e It u|d u L
^IhAL -"V
' a 1 o m
f a
v 1/1 hA n|idid
55 21 1
7 64
20'
9 29 24 30
26 16 53
33-36
67
22 26 21
>a566
FIG. 3. You ketch dis train. (Metfessel.**)
356
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
Figure 3 is a section from a work song, You ketch dis train, as
sung in the cornfield by a man at work with hoe in hand. One must
see the dreamy attitude of the singer in order to realize that his
spirit is more in the singing than in the eradication of weeds. He did
not know that his singing was recorded. He was aware that a
moving picture was being taken but apparently was not much dis-
tracted by it. In his song, the rhythm is, of course, the conspicuous
FIG. 4.
element, with a marked breaking up of short phrases, each ending
with a grunt, "Huh!"
Figure 4 is a Negro laugh, introduced here because such laughter
plays a very important role in the jovial Negro song, and here we
have, perhaps for the first time, the preservation of a hearty laugh
in Negro style.
The feelingful abandon. When our first photograph records of
Indian and Negro songs were made, we were surprised at the ap-
PRIMITIVE Music 357
parent "wildness" of the singing, and we naturally had to ask
ourselves, "How wild is this singing ?" That led to the recording of
some of our best artists for purposes of comparison. To our aston-
ishment, these records also revealed numerous evidences of un-
suspected relative license, the appearance of which made us more
charitable toward the untutored savage. The reader will do well to
make a similar comparison. Our volume The Vibrato is most reveal-
ing on this point: all good music involves great flexibility and
freedom. The Negro indulges most lavishly in various forms of
license, and that is one of the secrets of his resourcefulness. We
make the mistake of approaching his song in terms of conventional
concepts of pitch and time. That is not his approach in his
natural habitat. If he knew the diatonic scale, he would probably
shun it. At his best, he soars through tonal regions with rhythmic
movements, sharp syncopation, and liberal frills of adornment.
Intervals. From this point of view, the moot question of
intervals favored intervals, scales, and deviations from scales, all
in relation to our conventional music gains a new significance.
From our inspection of the records, it becomes clear that it is
difficult to determine exactly at what pitch a note is heard or
intended to be heard. A large part of the intonation is carried on
transition tones. We must also realize that all American Negro
singing is influenced by current music.
Certain authors have maintained that this deviation from ac-
cepted intervals is due to the inability of the Negro to sing them
with tonal precision. Measures of Negro hearing, however, have
shown that his ear is probably as keen in natural capacity as that
of the cultured singer. He sings in his own way and likes it. The
present vogue of Negro singing and the imitation of it in the music
of the whites might suggest that there are other people who like
the same kind of freedom and that fixed intervals are not the goal of
all music.
Ornaments. Metfessel says:
The personal decorations of primitive folk are no more
tangible than the ornaments of voice, when the latter are brought
out by phonophotography. The ornaments appealing to the
hearing of their fellows may now be displayed in our museums
alongside the appeals to sight. Any vocal ornaments may be
classified and placed on exhibit as particular patterns on the new
358 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
notation. With a phonograph record or film reproducing the
music, it will be possible to hear the vocal ornaments which are
pictured.
A finished tone quality is rarely found in Negro folk singing.
The Negro may enjoy good tones, but he makes little effort to
produce them. He is interested in the more obvious embellish-
ments and rhythmical devices rather than in the subtle effects
of beauty resulting from the relatively regular vibrato of artistic
singing.
He then gives a list (Table I) of features in pitch characteristics
which may be observed in these songs. A similar table might be
made for the temporal aspects.
TABLE I*
1. Notes
a. Irregular and widely variable vibrato
b. Erratic quaver
2. Intonations (as a separate tone or in attack or release)
a. Rising
b. Falling
c. Circumflex
d. Inverted circumflex
8. Succession of notes
a. Interpolated notes
b. Grace notes
c. Slow quaver
4. Succession of intonations
a Rising with circumflex
b. Circumflex with falling
c. Rising tone with rising tone
d. Rising tone with falling tone, and vice versa
e. The dip
6. Succession of notes and intonations
a. Interpolated intonations
b. Falsetto twist
c. All intonation types in attack or release of notes
* Metfessel uses the word "note" to designate the body of a tone which resta on a recognizable
and relatively constant pitch. The transition tones, including the portamento in attack and release, as well
as the ornaments, he calls "intonations." The intonation and the note as a unit he calls a "tone."
The records show that in the best of these songs the vibrato is
as good as in recognized artistic singers. It is, however, probably
subject to larger variability and more transition forms into other
pulsations, of which the erratic quaver is characteristic.
The intonations, as we have seen, come from the characteristic
legato in rising, falling, circumflex, and inverted circumflex forms
and include many of the embellishments of the song.
PRIMITIVE Music 359
The presence of interpolated notes and grace notes, and the slow
quaver, which is a pulsation midway between a vibrato and a slow,
wide trill, are conspicuous.
In the succession of intonations, the most characteristic Negro
ornament is the dip, which tends to come at the end of each note,
and, even when not gross or conspicuous, is present in inceptive
tendencies in that direction. It perhaps contributes more to the
droll character of the singing than anything else.
The falsetto twist, which is a reverse of the dip and usually of
a much larger extent, is an upward sweep, in which the voice breaks
quickly into a falsetto. This ornament is very easily heard and is
laboriously aped in imitations of Negro singing.
The Negro dialect. Instead of singing, "I heard the voice of
Jesus say," the Negro sings, "Ah ray ah voice of Jesus zey." This is
not mere ignorant dialect or affectation but represents a natural
gravitation toward the musical vowels, especially the broad vowels
in "Lawd," "doan'," "ma(my)," "ah (the)." This principle of
intonation upon musical vowels is further aided by the shortening
of words, syllables, and consonants, which do not lend themselves
readily to this purpose.
This presentation has, perhaps, contributed but little toward
the listing of facts about Negro music; but I trust it will serve the
purpose of setting up a point of view guarding against sources of
error, creating a sympathetic attitude toward what the Negro
singer is trying to do, noting that he may be hampered by the
cultured music of his day, and that such things as the spirit of Negro
song or any other song are not something mysterious but are
couched in concrete, observable, and recordable facts.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF
MUSICAL SKILLS
TIT THEN listeners from every part of our nation can hear the same
W musician at the same time in actual performance, and when
the musician may stand up before us to be seen and heard in the
same song for generations to come, a new type of responsibility is
thrown upon the performer and his instrument. As soon as we get
our breath after finding ourselves in this marvelous situation
through the achievement of science in the transmission and re-
production of sound, interest is going to center upon improvement
of the singer and player, of the musical instrument, of the art of
teaching music and standards of artistic achievement through the
application of scientific methods. Our musical instruments are far
from perfect. Current scientific knowledge applied to the improve-
ment of musical instruments is destined to cause a revolution in
the means of instrumental tone production. At every turn, there
will be demand for application of scientific technique for the im-
provement and mastery of the art of music.
The present chapter is based on the fundamental assumption
that training in singing or playing involves a number of specific
capacities and skills which may be identified and made direct
objects of training with instrumental control in order to shorten
the time of training and increase the degree of precision that may
result from training.
This theory assumes that ability at any stage of training may
be measured and that specific training exercises may be instituted
to make the student profoundly conscious of the specific skill which
he is to acquire in order that he may attain the highest degree of
360
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUSICAL SKILLS 361
precision in the act in a minimum time, and that sufficient training
by this method will make the act automatic, so that it shall func-
tion in actual performance without consciousness of it as a specific
act of skill. That is, it gives credence to the school of music teachers
which maintains that the singer should be conscious of the specific
act and the means of its control at the time that the skill is ac-
quired as an isolated act; it also gives credence to the opposite
school which maintains that in the artistic attitude of singing or
playing the performer should not center attention upon any of the
countless specific skills involved but should enjoy the freedom of the
artistic mood, all the specific skills having been automatized. In
other words, one school is right at the training stage and the other
is right at the stage of artistic performance. If this is admitted,
th^e should be no conflict between the two.
v This distinction between attitude in the learning stage and the
attitude in artistic performance is a most fundamental and radical
contribution of experimental psychology. It rests upon the applica-
tion of the laws of learning in the acquisition of skills in order to
furnish the tools of musical performance which, when integrated
and thoroughly automatized, are thereby removed from the field
of conscious effort. It thus provides an essential condition which
will make it possible for the inspired composer or artist in musical
performance to live his music unhampered by technique and acting
spontaneously on his inspiration.
The instruments used in training are on the market and, there-
fore, need not be explained in detail here. Only enough will be
indicated to show the general character, purpose, and principle on
which they work.
In the development of musical skills by instrumental aids, our
problem is again vastly simplified by recognition of the fact that
we do not need many instruments. What we do need is convenient,
observable methods of showing pitch, intensity, time, and timbre.
From these basic measures countless complex forms of skill may be
exhibited and measured. To illustrate, if we have a simple and
direct way of observing pitch performance in voice or instrument,
then that instrument can be used for the study of all the pitch skills.
The same is true about the other three basic instruments. It, there-
fore, becomes a relatively simple problem to equip a music studio
for the training of musical skills by instrumental aids. In this chap-
ter only a few suggestions can be made in regard to the significance
362 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
and nature of the procedure. A fundamental requirement in the
selection of instruments is that the tone shall be observable im-
mediately and in detail at the moment of actual musical
performance.
CONTROL OF PITCH INTONATION
The tonoseope. 146 The tonoscope serves this purpose within a
wide range of pitch intonation. It works on the principle of moving
pictures, and the pitch performance may be seen immediately. If
desired, it may be recorded either by the performer or by an
experimenter; that is, the singer sees himself sing, the violinist
sees his pitch performance. By this visual aid, he may correct his
intonation and thereby refine his hearing of pitch and acquire
precision in the intonation.
The tone is produced on the principle of moving pictures, and
the frequency is read on the principle that when a tone corresponds
to a certain frequency of dots, that line of dots will stand still,
whereas, all other lines will appear as moving. The screen covers
one octave and reads directly in tenths of a tone; but if a tone is
steady, such as that of a tuning fork, it can be read with accuracy to
a hundredth of a tone. The octave above and the octave below the
one represented on the screen may be read as well as the one on
the screen. The notes for the octave are indicated in the chromatic
scale. For the purpose of standards to be sung or played, a phono-
graph record may be placed at the top of the instrument and the
pitch to be reproduced is carried over a head receiver to the per-
former. Since this record is fixed to the tonoscope, it synchronizes
the standard tone with the tone that is to be produced perfectly.*
Significant measures. In studying the sounding of a keynote, a
musical scale, or an actual melody, the performer simply looks at
the instrument and immediately sees the character of his perform-
ance and then has the opportunity of trying to correct or improve
upon this at will. But, if he wishes to record his performance, he
can obtain three standard measures which can be treated statis-
tically in permanent form. The first of these is the average error.
* This instrument is marketed by the C. H Stoelting Company, 424 N. Homan Ave.,
Chicago, 111 Since the instrument is accompanied by a complete manual of instructions and
suggestions for exercises, it is not necessary to go into such details here.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUSICAL SKILLS 363
Suppose that he tries to sing the interval of a major third. He makes
a number of trials and records the actual error in terms of hun-
dredths of a tone. The average of a series of 10 or more trials will be
a significant figure. This is usually designated as A.E. (average
error). The tendency to sharp or flat is given in terms of C.E.
(constant error) and the measure of reliability of the average error
as well as the constant error is given in terms of S.D. (standard
deviation).
Representative measures. Countless varieties of measures
of precision in pitch intonation in singing and playing may be
made with the tonoscope, both for the purpose of diagnosis and as
material for practice and measurement of gain by training series.
As a rule the experimenter should set up a measure to fit the pur-
pose that he has in hand. However, as a unit battery of measures
for general survey of ability, and as material for general practice,
the following three are proposed as basic and representative of
pitch control:
1. Reproduction of a tone. Reproduce the standard tone as heard
in the receiver. When all three measures are used, only a few trials
need be taken on this because the same situation is repeated in
other exercises, and, if there is need for other data, this item may be
taken from each of the following tests in which the standard tone is
reproduced and run into a single composite score.
In all these exercises, women sing the standard tone as it is
heard; namely, middle C; and men sing, as is conventional in
music, an octave lower.
2. Singing intervals.
a. The major scale. Sing or play the major scale in C upward,
beginning with the standard tone.
b. Intervals in major scale. Sing or play the intervals in the
natural scale, key of C, separately, thus, do-re, do-mi, do-fa, etc.
c. Melody. Sing or play the first three measures of America.*
3. Fine shading of pitch. Sing or play the small intervals as
played on a phonographic record, f For beginners and average
performers use the record A, which contains large intervals, 8 to
* For example, in America these might be the notes for the following syllables My,
'its, land, -ty, o/, and sing. This is for the purpose of facilitating reading. The singer should
not know this fact. For good singers it may be desirable to take a more difficult melody such
as Annie Laurie or Drink to me only with thine eyes.
f Measures of Musical Talent, "Sense of Pitch," No. 1A, Record 53004-D.
364
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
30 ~; for fine performers use the record B, which contains steps
from 12 to 5 ~. For principles of fine shading in pitch see Miles. gz
This procedure is a great improvement over the older method of
having a performer simply sharp or flat a note by minimum amount.
It gives an index to ability to shade the pitch by a small interval
and to know the size of that interval.
The transfer of training from the tonoscope to the later musical
situation. It has been shown in the University of Iowa Laboratory
that training the ear by aid of the eye results in rapid improvement
in correct pitch intonation and that the training with the instru-
ment transfers to actual performance without the aid of the eye.
For example, if a student takes remedial exercises with the tono-
Key Third Fifth Octave
FIG. 1. Transfer of training in pitch intonation. Showing how training for pitch
intonation by the aid of the eye improves this skill and that the skill so acquired transfers
to singing and playing without the instrument. (Knock. 61 )
scope, correcting his intonation at each trial, this permanently
improves the control by hearing so that a large part of the gain
thus made will be retained when he sings without the tonoscope aid.
Sample results for a training series are shown in Fig. 1, indicating
the amount of gain in special training and the transfer of this gain to
actual singing.
These relationships would vary with a large number of factors,
such as the original degree of accuracy of the singer, his personal
equation as a learner, the interval practiced, the relation of this to
previous training, and numerous other factors. But the figure may
be taken as a fair sample of what training the ear with the aid of the
eye can accomplish and the significance of this for musical per-
formance is, of course, strikingly clear as applied to accuracy of
intonation in singing and, by inference, to accuracy in playing
instruments in which the performer controls the pitch.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUSICAL SKILLS 365
In order to show the development and findings in a specific
case, Table I is presented. It is a record of the violin student who
had a good ear but was reported as unsatisfactory in pitch control.
TABLE I. RECORD OF DEVELOPMENT OF CONTROL BY VIOLIN STUDENT
(pitch discrimination, percentile rank 70)
Preliminary Final test
Average errors (A. E.) A E. % rank S.D. A.E. %rank S.D.
Standard keynote . . . 22 7 21 01 99 01
Scale 10 47 21 02 100 02
Major interval 17 9 12 03 90 02
Melodies . 11 25 03 03 93 01
Average 14 23 11 0.02 95 02
Preliminary Final test
Averages for the intervals of all exercises: A.E. C.E. S.D. A.E. C.E. S.D.
Keynote 11 11 06 00 00 00
Second 13 -0 06 04 02 -0 01 01
Third 20 -0 03 05 01 00 00
Fourth 17 -0 17 08 12 -0 12 03
Fifth 12 -0 12 03 02 02 01
Sixth 10 -0 10 10 02 -0 01 01
Seventh 32 -0 32 09 01 01 01
Octave 05 -0 05 02 01 -0 01 01
A.E fine shading test 19 09 15 07 01 02
A E Average error; C E. Constant error; S.D. Standard deviation. Minus sign
denotes flat.
Table I shows his average error and constant error in the
preliminary record to be poor. He was then given 10 half-hour
periods of training with the tonoscope, and this was followed by
a final test of performance without this visual aid. He made
marked improvement, and this improvement is carried over, since
the final test consisted in performance on new material and without
the visual aid.
One of the most significant features in training series of this
kind is the fact that the correction is made very early, almost
immediately, in the training series; so that the main advantage of
continuing the training for 10 days in persons whose pitch dis-
crimination is satisfactory is the fixing of the correction by habitua-
tion. In other words, inaccuracy in control of intonation is usually
due to either ignorance of interval or slovenliness of the ear. Both
can be corrected almost instantly under the proper spur, namely,
that of seeing his actual error.
General training may be given upon the three measures de-
scribed above, namely, the reproducing of a standard tone, the
singing of musical intervals, and fine shading in pitch. Choice of
366 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
material in these three fields may be made to suit one's taste; but
in general, drill on these three fundamentals should serve the
purpose of ear training and motor control. Indeed, whatever
specific training is to be undertaken, it would be well to precede
it with training in each of these three factors as they are indicated.
The chief purpose of these directions is to explain the method
by which remedial training may be instituted: (1) for specific
training in pitch control at an early stage as a part of the ear-train-
ing course; (2) for the correction of any recognized fault in singing
or playing true pitch; and (3) as a means of mastering artistic
deviations from true pitch.
Remedial training for specific defects. The principal faults of
intonation occur in the following factors :
1. General failure to secure true pitch. Remedy: Drill on
varied exercises in pitch intonation.
2. Sharp or flat of the principal tone in general or in some
specific region. Remedy: Practice exercises with the tonoscope
where the fault exists until the ear control has been corrected and
the fault eliminated,
3. Faulty attack, mainly slovenliness in dragging gradually
into the tone from above or below. Remedy: Practice by the aid
of the eye until the tone can be reached in a clear-cut attack. This is
a preliminary requirement to artistic deviation in attack.
4. Faulty release. The same situation applies as in attack.
5. Progressive change. Gradual sharping or flatting habitually
in a sustained tone. Remedy: Practice on actual musical tones or
phrases in which the difficulty occurs.
6. Specific tendencies to sharp or flat; as with a loud tone or a
soft tone or with certain vowels. Remedy: Specific corrective work
in actual situations.
Artistic control. When we record artistic performance of singers
or players with great precision photographically, a mass of devia-
tions in pitch intonation shows up. Many of them are, of course,
merely faulty intonation due to error or incapacity in performance;
but many have artistic value. One group of these represents
artistic intention. Another, a much larger class, represents
psychophysic tendencies for intonation of interval that are
produced unconsciously by the performer but yet serve artistic
purpose in the melodic situation or in the modification of tone
quality. The collection and classification of samples of this latter
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUSICAL SKILLS 367
class is a sort of natural-history procedure in the psychology of
music studio and presents a very fertile field for investigation.*
Reliability and validity. The accuracy of reading will improve
with practice very quickly if engaged in with well-directed and
intensive effort. Taking the act as a whole, including both errors
of performer and errors of readers, it has been found that a trained
experimenter with good singers gets a correlation of .94, .01 by
the method of chance halves in the reproduction of a tone.
It is natural to ask what is the validity of these results in terms
of relationship to accuracy in singing and playing. The answer is
that each act is taken out of the actual singing or playing situation
and is specific. The only question then is whether or not the per-
formances here selected are such as actually function in music.
The answer is self-evident. The ability to reproduce a standard
tone, the ability to sing intervals, and ability to make fine shadings
in pitch are fundamental units of action in music. But are these
the most representative samples? Insofar as we know, they are.
There is no end to the number of variants that could be introduced.
The conventional statistical method of checking of specific measure-
ments against somebody's judgment is not in place here.
The above presentation of the theory and the means of pro-
cedure in training for pitch intonation is offered as a model on which
corresponding training exercises are built for the other three ele-
ments in tone production. A brief reference to each one may be in
place. *
CONTROL OF INTENSITY
But little has been done in the study of intensity control in
spite of the fact that this is one of the four fundamental elements
* One important element of discipline in the type of training herein described, lies in the
fact that after preliminary instructions, the student may be assigned the task of training
by himself, singing or playing into the instrument and seeing immediately the error which
he has to correct and thus engage in an intensive drill in self -correction by aid of the instru-
ment. This serves two purposes. It saves the time of the instructor and creates a situation
for much finer objective recognition of errors than the teacher can set without the instru-
ment. The teacher sets a training task, and, when the student is satisfied that he has
mastered that, he may present himself for checking out.
In this free use of the instrument by the student lies one of its greatest values for
training. Like the piano, this instrument may be available for anyone who needs to practice
and, as in the case of the piano, the student practices on exercises at his stage of learning.
Wherever he is conscious of need for the measurement of attainment or guidance in achieve-
ment in the control of pitch, he resorts to this visual aid and the adequate use of this oppor-
tunity becomes a routine part of musical instruction.
368 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
in the world of musical performance, especially in the phrasing, or
what is generally called "playing with feeling." One reason for this
lies in the fact that for pitch and time we have absolute standards
and deviations from these are readily checked and noted by teachers
and performers. The need of training in this field is, however, just
as great as in pitch or time. This is especially true as regards the
necessity of isolating this factor and making it a special object
of attack in the acquisition of musical skill. Improvement will lie
largely in the consciousness of differences in intensity. The execu-
tion of the differences is different for voice and each of the
instruments.
Reading of such an excellent recent book as Klein's Great
Women Singers I Have Known is irritating to the psychologist on
account of the loose, airy, and emotional terminology that the
writer uses. In all that has been written on phrasing in music,
there seems to be very little embodying any scientific conception
of the dynamics involved. We have the terms "loud" and "soft,"
and all their cognates, equivalents, and shades; but nothing is
said in regard to what constitutes loudness and only a little about
its mastery. The time has come for analysis of the problem into
its constituent factors, the measurement of capacity and the basing
of training for the acquisition of the dynamic skills in music upon
these ascertained factors.
Indeed, the whole problem of dynamic aspect of the esthetics
of music must be reviewed to show (1) what are the media for the
expression of beauty through intensity, (2) what are the prevailing
types of error, and (3) what new principles of art in this field can
be discovered by the objective method. Basic to all these is the
technical mastery of dynamic control.
The intensity meter. There are various forms of so-called output
meters available for this purpose. The types of meters used in
radio studios are serviceable for training exercises. The intensity
of any sound in a particular position before the microphone is
registered in terms of decibels.
Three types of exercises are regarded as basic: (1) The reproduc-
tion of a given intensity either for a single tone or for a given
period of musical performance. (2) A capacity for fine shading in
intensity. For this purpose the phonograph record for intensity in
the Measures of Musical Talent may be played in front of the
microphone, setting up a definite series of degrees of difference in
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUSICAL SKILLS 369
loudness. The ability to sing or play these differences in intensity
in all the pairs of tones is employed as a measure of achievement
and as a means of training for skill in the control of intensity.
(3) Upper and lower limits in intensity in good tone production
under specific conditions. Thus, one may take these exercises to
produce a good tone very softly or with maximum loudness.
CONTROL OF TIME AND RHYTHM
There are various ways of testing one's ability to keep metro-
nomic time. The simplest way is to use a pencil as a baton and tap
the time with a metronome. One can then easily hear to what
extent the two clicks coincide; but, since the ability to vary from
metronomic time, especially as in rhythmic phrasing, a measure of
rhythmic action in phrasing is more to the point.
THE RHYTHM METER
R. H. Seashore's rhythm meter 158 is essentially a phonograph,
a disk with attachments on a turntable in which contacts can be
made at any points on the circumference. By this means, any
particular rhythm within the period of revolution of the disk can
be set up. The performer is asked to reproduce or follow this
rhythm for a minute or two, tapping on a telegraph key, so as
to make the telegraph click coincide with the stimulus. For rough
exercises in training, mere hearing of the degree of deviation is
sufficient; but, for fine work, records of the standard and the
reproduction are made with a stylus on paper placed on the
turntable.
The greatest value in this exercise lies in the training of the
ear for precision in the hearing of a rhythmic pattern and the
coordination of that with the actual performance. There is an
immediate check for the ear and the eye at the time of the per-
formance, and a particular rhythmic control can be established in
a very short series of organized exercises.
TRAINING FOR PRECISION IN RHYTHMIC ACTION
In a series of experiments on remedial training in musical skills,
Henderson**" performed the following experiment in the develop-
ment of precision in rhythmic action. He set up a specific rhythmic
pattern on the Seashore rhythm meter 158 and gave intensive train-
370
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
ing of half-hour periods for five days and recorded the measure of
the performance for each day.
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Fia. 2. The effect of training for precision in rhythmic action. (Henderson** )
The graph shows that: (1) They started at different levels of
achievement. In this rating there is but little agreement with their
classification as piano students. (2) Each had his days of ups and
downs due to a variety of conditions which modified achievement.
The subject represented by the lowest curve had a general reputa-
tion for being an erratic student; but in three extra days of training,
she made definite progress over the fifth day's performance. (3)
On the whole, the group made distinctive progress during the five
days as is illustrated by the heavy line giving the mean performance
of the group for each day. The curves rises from 2.50 in the pre-
liminary rating to 1.75 in the fifth day.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUSICAL SKILLS 371
One may wonder if any ordinary musical exercises on rhythmic
precision in piano playing ever achieved such marked progress in so
short a time. What happened in this training we may designate as a
development of ear-hand coordination; but other experiments show
that the most significant thing that happened was the whipping up
of the ear for precision in hearing. This ability is one which, of
course, transfers bodily to the playing of an instrument. That such
transfer to actual piano playing took place, in both metronomic
playing and phrasing, was verified in a tentative way. The student
had become precision-conscious for rhythm.
CONTROL OF TIMBRE
This is a most important field for training, especially in voice,
where so much depends on voice quality and knowing when to
attain it. There are various forms of instruments for the projecting
of the sound wave. A satisfactory instrument for this purpose is
rather expensive and difficult to manage, but well worth while if
training the control of tone quality is taken seriously. There are
two types of instruments: one is represented by the cathode ray
oscillograph, which projects the exact form of the wave on a large
scale; the other is a mechanical harmonic analyzer, which shows,
in a steady tone, the number of overtones present and their dis-
tribution and relative intensities. With either of these instruments,
it is possible to have standard tones of recognized good quality set
up as standards which the student is required to reproduce.
With the oscillograph countless exercises may be set up,
for example, for the control of vowel quality, training in a particu-
lar register, or exercises in the development of a desirable per-
formance region.
GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE OF SPECIFIC TRAINING
FOR SKILLS
Throughout this volume emphasis has been laid upon the possi-
bility and necessity of analyzing and isolating specific factors
which may be studied under control. The organization of researches
and the cumulative organization of discovered facts has been
immensely facilitated by the recognition of the taproots and the
family tree for each of the four elements of musical traits. Enough
has been done to show that faulty performance is due in very
large part to sluggish or inadequately critical control by the ear
372 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
and that this may be improved or sharpened for any specific factor
in very brief training for a specific skill. The cumulative integration
of such skills in the automatisms built up in the pupil furnish a
necessary control of the organism for artistic performance. Famili-
arity with the analysis of the constituents of the musical medium,
with the pupil's fortes and faults, capacities and abilities, and with
the scientific language of music places the pupil in a position of
both intelligent and artistic command of the situation; and, for
the teacher, all these stages will contribute toward the goal of
making music teachable.
MUSICAL ESTHETICS
APPROACHES TO MUSICAL ESTHETICS
ALL fine arts are creative. In this sense, they are also practical;
\. something is done to serve a purpose. This is eminently true
of music. The composer creates, the performer re-creates and
interprets, and the musical listener responds musically within the
limits of his creative power. Esthetics deals with the theory of the
nature of art, in this case, the theory of music. The great musicians
pursue both theory and practice; but the practice far outruns the
theory, because the work of genuine creation always comes from
self-expression rather than through the deliberate application of
rules. In the musical mood, theory must always be relegated to the
subconscious through which it operates automatically, if once
mastered. Furthermore, the musician's energies, both in training
and in the professional life, are so deeply engrossed in the practical
aspects of his work of creation, re-creation, and interpretation that
he must delegate the scientific problems proper to other specialists.
Musical esthetics falls into a number of stages; primarily,
physics, physiology, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, and
metaphysics. Let us consider these in turn.
Music, as rendered by voice or instrument, consists of sound
waves. Physics deals with the nature and the laws of these sound
waves, the characteristics of their structure, and the laws of their
propagation. To the musician, these facts and laws of physics are
matters of common knowledge and are taken for granted. However
well informed the musician may be in the science of structure and
propagation of sound waves, he rightly accepts these facts on the
authority of the physicist.
373
374 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
Physiology deals with those aspects of the human organism
which are involved in the sensory and central aspects of hearing,
the central and motor mechanisms for tone production, and the
organic basis of musical emotion involving both the central and
the autonomic nervous systems and both the smooth and the
striated muscular systems. However well informed the musician
may be, for example, about the function of the inner ear or the
function of the adrenal glands in strong emotion, he accepts these
facts on the authority of the physiologist. Indeed, current esthetics
is largely physiological in theory.
Psychology aims to describe and explain musical experience
and musical behavior; it investigates the nature of musical talent;
it analyzes the sensory responses to music; it traces the human
drives, which we used to call instincts and impulses, that crave
music and find their outlet in music; it examines feeling, emotion,
and musical thought processes, both functionally and structurally;
it traces the development of the musical mind from infancy
through maturation and training. One is at once impressed with the
appalling task which this inceptive science has assumed for itself
and how undeveloped the work is within this field. Yet, however
familiar the musician may be with the experimental findings about
the functioning of the musical mind, he looks to the psychologist
for the further exploration and organization of knowledge in this
field.
Musical anthropology, that is, the ethnic history of music,
deals with the origin and evolution of music in the race. It treats
of the development of instruments, of musical forms, and the
vastly varied roles of music as progressively unfolded in rising
racial cultures. This aspect of history involves a high order of
scientific technique, often closely associated with archaeology.
However versed the musician may be in the theories and the
established facts of musical anthropology, he trusts the anthro-
pologist, trained in music, to conduct further research.
These four aspects physics, physiology, psychology, and
anthropology furnish scientific approaches to the theory of beauty
in music and, conversely, also the theory of ugliness. It is in the
light of these sciences that we may look for the progressive develop-
ment of our concept of the nature and power of beauty in music.
These sciences are so interrelated and interdependent that in
dealing with the subject of esthetics it is profitable to treat them as
MUSICAL ESTHETICS 375
a single unit. Hence, we have a tendency to speak of psychophysics,
psychophysiology, psychobiology, and psychogenetics as in many
respects replacing the term "psychology."
However, it falls largely to the lot of the psychologist to inte-
grate, coordinate, and apply findings from these four specific fields.
The psychologist does not restrict himself to the study of the mind
but takes as his field the behavior of the human organism as a
whole in the musical situation. The psychology of music, in this
broad sense of musical esthetics, might more appropriately be called
the "science of music." The advantage of calling it "psychology of
music" is that, at the present time, it places responsibility and
initiative for the work of integration which would otherwise fall
for want of a sponsor. In the near future, the science of music, as
such, is likely to take possession of the field in its own rights.
In like manner, we may speak of the psychology of musical
esthetics, the science of musical esthetics, or possibly, merely
musical esthetics.
Beyond these scientific approaches, and, indeed, long anticipat-
ing them, we have two other approaches, namely, the philosophical
and the metaphysical. Man approached the problem of philosophy
and metaphysics long before he acquired the tools of science. Music
has its roots in the most primitive savage life and has evolved
through countless culture strata. Throughout the ages the un-
tutored primitive mind has asked : What is music ? What can it do ?
Where does it come from? Where does it go? As philosophy has
developed in modern times, its principal interest has come to center
around the theory of values as a specific esthetic problem. In this,
the philosophical technique has been brought to bear upon the
progressively evolving concepts. These concepts are derived from
three sources: (1) primitive impulses and intuitions; (2) gradually
emerging scientific findings in concrete situations; and (3) working
theories which are the direct outgrowth of the practice of the art.
To primitive man, music came from the gods. It was the
spirits that performed. Musical inspiration was revelation. Music
was an offering acceptable to the gods. Philosophers, throughout
the ages, have progressively rationalized, attenuated, and modern-
ized such impulses and hunches, which well up in all cultural levels.
The spiritistic conception of music still plays a dominant role in
mystical philosophy and theories of music. With the dawn of
the scientific age, the philosopher turned his attention upon the
376 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
concepts that crop out from the specific sciences. The critique of
such concepts is a large part of the business of philosophy today.
Then the philosopher must take cognizance of the more immediate
experience of the musician in which he joins the musician in the
immediate evaluation of experience. Philosophical criticism has
tended to center on the effort to find a single unitary principle,
which would account for the nature and function of beauty, and
thus explain the nature and purpose of music. This, I think, has
resulted in a succession of failures, and the philosopher of the future
will not attempt that again.
Metaphysics deals with such things as the theory of ultimate
reality, the nature of knowledge, and theories of origins. It asks,
for example, What is mind of which the power of music is a mani-
festation? What is the nature of that knowledge of which musical
inspiration is an aspect? How has the musical mind come into
existence ?
These are eternal questions, tantalizingly interesting, but their
solution is deferred from age to age. Yet, theories on each of these
issues underlie scientific approaches, although usually in purely
naive form, often an antiquated, purely materialistic, or a purely
idealistic, approach to the subject.
Practically, metaphysics and philosophy proper are not sepa-
rated, and they are not marked off in sharp distinction from science,
on the one hand, and common sense, on the other. In fact, the
historical development of any question, such as the nature of
musical value, arises as the main question and soon takes on both
metaphysical and supernatural interpretations. These are criticized
in philosophy and gradually analyzed and clarified by scientific
methods; this done, the information tends to be regarded as a
matter of common knowledge or common sense.
If philosophy be defined as the best thoughts of the greatest
men on the most important questions of life, then philosophy has
made the largest contribution to musical esthetics and this con-
tribution has come, in large part, from men who were at the same
time musicians and philosophers. Yet, with the coming in of the
scientific approach, with the techniques available for scientific
investigation, and with the philosophized attitude of the scientist,
the problem of esthetics has become almost entirely a problem of
science. It is not likely that philosophy will make any great
contribution to esthetics, for it deals with facts at second hand.
MUSICAL ESTHETICS 377
Only as philosophy and metaphysics wield the weapon of superior-
techniques in constructive and creative criticism will they make
any vital contribution to musical esthetics. The rehashing of semi-
scientific knowledge, under the name of philosophy in esthetics,
has had its day. The esthetics of the past is giving way to the
science of the art, both in investigation and in teaching on the
subject.
Let us, therefore, make bold to attempt a rough outline of the
general scheme of musical esthetics from the scientific point of
view.
ESTHETICS AS A NORMATIVE SCIENCE
For the purpose of classification and description, the coming
musical esthetics, which is based upon experimental science, may
be divided into four aspects, namely, the musical medium, the
musical form, the musical message, and the musical response. Any
classification of this kind is, however, a compromise and does not
represent sharp separation of parts. Indeed, there is an intricate
dovetailing and overlapping among these four members. This
classification, however, has an advantage over all the classifications
extant in the literature of philosophers and artists in that it is
based upon objectively verifiable grounds and follows the method
of natural history of collecting observable and verifiable facts and
arranging them in natural order.
The musical medium. The musical medium is the music proper
as executed in the form of physical sounds which have their
physiological and mental correlates. Esthetics accepts the scientific
approach to the medium as physical, psychophysical, physiological,
and psychological. Instead of assuming that millions of phenomena
of musical sounds are ethereal and unclassifiable, not reducible
to law and order, it begins at once to put order into chaos by setting
questions to nature under control. It proceeds on the assumption
that these phenomena are knowable if we have the patience and
skill to search for them; it discredits the armchair procedure of
merely thinking and talking about them; it distrusts traditions,
vogues, hobbies, and mystical and theological hunches. Instead
of beginning with the pinnacle, it starts from the ground, building
its structure patiently, block by block, even realizing that the
structure will never be completed. It will never give us the
dreamed-of theory of beauty but will progressively enrich our
378 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
insight into the nature and structure of beauty with the growing
appreciation of the infinite richness of possibilities.
It begins with the classification of the physical characteristics
of the sound wave and carries this classification through the
physical sounds, as mediated through the physiological organism,
as responded to by the psychological organism in sensory experi-
ence, and as reproduced and elaborated in memory, imagination,
thought, and emotional drives in their marvelous possibilities of
intricate relationships.
But let us not delude ourselves into thinking that the situation
is simple or solved. If there were a one-to-one relationship between
the physical sound and the mental experience or response which
it elicits, our problem would be simplified. However, such relation-
ships scarcely if ever exist. The mental process never corresponds
exactly to the physical event, and it is in this situation that the
real problem of the psychologist begins in the task of discovering
law and order in the deviations of the mental event from the physi-
cal event. This leads us first to the staggering realization that in
musical art, "All is illusion." Without the blessing of normal
illusions, musical art would be hopelessly stunted. Our profoundest
appreciations of nature and of art are detachments from the
physically exact and constitute a synthesis through the medium
of normal illusions. But the composer, the performer, and the
listener all deal with the physical medium and all the theories of
form and interpretation of message and response must in the long
run be grounded upon a true cognizance of the nature of this
medium and its possible roles.
The musical form. The musician is primarily concerned with the
nature of musical form, the organization of its art principles, its
development, and the theory of art objectives. Thus, musical form
deals with the different genres of musical composition, the rules for
composition and interpretation, and the theory as to the nature
of the esthetic appeal; in all cases, how to do this and that, and the
reason for it. It deals, for example, with sonata forms, with the rules
of harmony in the execution of such forms, and the theories under-
lying and justifying these forms and rules.
The problem is primarily that of the composer; but the com-
poser, like the architect, is at the mercy of available materials,
competent workmanship, and adequate resources of all kinds.
He is usually limited by the conventions, vogues, and culture levels
MUSICAL ESTHETICS 379
of the day, by his mastery of techniques, and most of all, by the
nature and limitations of his creative genius.
The esthetics of musical form may be reduced largely to the
cumulative body of practical principles of artistic structure,
the interpretation of these in terms of musical objectives, and the
theory of the nature of the beauty involved. Historically, the
esthetics of form is the main and almost the entire body of historical
treatises on musical esthetics, and the development and validation
of principles for composition represent the best contribution that
the musician can make toward the scientific foundation of the art.
The laws of harmony, for example, are somewhat analogous to the
laws of philology, and philology is recognized in the sisterhood of
sciences. To the musician, musical form is the primary issue
to which the medium, the message, and the response play but a
secondary role. It is in this field that musical theory has made
the most notable advances; it is in this field also that the musician
has held and must continue to assume larger and larger responsi-
bility for initiative in the building of musical esthetics; it is the
creative work.
The scientist, however, makes his entry into this field by critique
of concepts and by reducing aspects of musical form to concrete
issues which may be treated exhaustively in the laboratory for
verification, criticism, and adaptation, and even for the develop-
ment of new forms. Such problems as the analysis of scales, of
consonance and dissonance, and of rhythm, are problems of form
which may properly come up for review in the laboratory at this
time.
THE MUSICAL MESSAGE
The musical message is that esthetic experience be it feeling,
ideation, impulse, craving, wish, or inspiration which the com-
poser in the first instance and the interpreter at the next level desire
to convey to the audience through the form given by the musical
medium. In the same manner, the message may be regarded as that
experience or interpretation which the listener arrives at from hear-
ing the rendition, from scanning the score, or from reminiscent
memory in vivid and constructive imagination. The esthetics
of the message, therefore, becomes the psychological analysis,
interpretation, and explanation of the musical experience of the
sender and the receiver of music, in terms of content.
380 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
Musical literature is replete with speculations in regard to the
nature and origin of the musical message and the possibility and
means of its transmission. Here lies the battleground for those who
contend for pure music and those who argue for descriptive music.
The moot question between these two camps can be settled only
by a psychological analysis of the character of the musical message
in the mind of the originator and the limitations upon its transmis-
sion. The award will not be in favor of one party but will give new
and richer meaning to both sides.
The composer or performer who desires to transmit an experi-
ence of pure feeling places himself in a receptive mood in which the
musical material takes the form that satisfies his mood spon-
taneously. He takes the artistic attitude, which is radically opposed
to the psychological attitude; the former is the attitude of abandon
in which he feels his inspiration and allows it to develop in his own
organism under favorable conditions without regard for rule,
meaning, or the technique of analysis. The message is to him an
inspiration, a sort of surrender to pure feeling without intentional
meaning. His feelings are molded in pure tone or tone experience,
and the musical material and form take the shape of a stimulus for
feeling of the beauty of tone in itself, aside from formal art or
meaning.
On the other hand, in program music, the originator attempts to
use musical figures which convey concrete ideas that serve as a
sort of idol, stilt, or skeleton to which the musical feeling is at-
tached. Such themes aim to portray moonlight, the lover, contest,
the forces of nature. In addition to the feeling of pure beauty, which
is of but doubtful existence, the message is supposed to convey a
certain degree of objectivity intended to favor the immediacy of
the experience in the listener. Thus, in the musical description of
moonlight, the attempt is to demonstrate that music can be
a language which conveys ideas and pictures of objects that arouse
the feeling revealed in the tone conveyed in music. The short-
comings of this type of language are notorious. It is often used as a
substitute for words and the real psychological justification for it is
that, if the listener is eye-minded and sees the topic announced in
the name of the selection or from the beginning begins to read into
it any concrete situation that comes from his own mind, the feeling
is enhanced by the ease with which we experience pleasure or
MUSICAL ESTHETICS 381
displeasure in the actual presence of an object as distinguished from
an abstract situation.
The problem of understanding and explaining the nature of the
process of musical invention lies within this field of the message.
How does the composer get his ideas ? The answer to that question
presents the most fascinating aspect of biography and autobiog-
raphy of the great musicians and is one of the most fascinating in
musical esthetics. The account of the birth throes of musical ideas,
the ecstasy, the emotional upset, the inhibitions, the influence of
world view, the effect upon personality, the outcropping of genius ;
such are psychological aspects in the study of the genesis of the
musical message. This is strikingly exemplified in the later period of
Beethoven's composition.
More commonplace aspects of the same problem are those which
describe how the composer proceeds in composing. For example,
does he get a spontaneous flash image, which gives him the theme
or a key to the further development, and then work this out
according to rule in calmer moments? Does he compose by the
instrument, or does he compose every detail of the piano or
orchestral score without any aid of instruments ? In answer to such
questions, we find an interesting key to the character of the
musical genius and personality traits.
Another fascinating problem in this field is the question as to
whether or not it is necessary for the singer actually to feel the
emotions which he portrays. The old demand for a "Yes" or a
"No" answer has lost its meaning, and in its place we now inquire
as to what are the comparative bodily and mental reverberations of
emotion in the musical experience and, in the portrayal of the
experience, under what conditions these may vary.
The musical response. The same line of thought that has been
outlined for the message applies, in a general way, to the interpreta-
tion of the response. When the heat from coal is converted into
electrical energy, a large amount of energy is lost; so, when a mes-
sage is transmitted from the sender to the listener, a great deal of
the message is lost on the ground of inadequacy in sending,
inadequacy of medium, or shortcomings in the receiver. Hearing of
music is subject to vast limitations; among these are the limitations
of musical talent or aptitude, musical information, musical skills,
general intelligence, temperament, and countless other factors.
382 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
On the other hand, the listener may put a great deal more into the
music than was originally intended or is actually present in the
musical form, as, for example, the vivacious responses to primitive
tom-toms or to present-day ragtime. Fundamental to this issue is
the fact that there is not a one-to-one relationship between music as
performed and music as experienced. The hearing of music is a
response to a stimulus. It has been said that what a man shall see in
a landscape depends on what he is; so in music. The ideas and feel-
ings which constitute the response are the creation of the listener
in his own image. "To bring back the wealth of the Indies, you
must take out the wealth of the Indies."
Such, in brief, is the outline map of the territory covered by
musical esthetics from the modern scientific point of view. The
interaction of the artist and the scientist creates new situations,
asks new questions, and promises new solutions. While it is hoped
that the scientific approach to music may be productive of a great
enrichment of our understanding and control of the power of music,
it is equally true that the creative work of the musician and the
enlightening interpretation and critical observation of the practice
of the art will contribute greatly to the resources of science and
will reverberate deeply in our philosophy and attitude toward
life.
APPENDIX
(In the October, 1937, issue of the Music Educators Journal, Professor Mursell
has set forth his point of view in regard to methods of evaluating musical talent.
As his views are radically different from those presented in this volume, I take
the liberty of quoting my reply in the December issue of the same journal in the
hope that it may aid in clarifying the important issues involved.)
TWO TYPES OF ATTITUDE TOWARD THE EVALUATION
OF MUSICAL TALENT
One attitude toward this problem was expressed in the aggressive and lucid
formulation by Professor Mursell in the last issue of this Journal. Accepting the
courteous invitation of the editors, I take pleasure in giving my reaction, as one
of the spokesmen for the opposite attitude and theory.
His article should be before the reader in considering the validity of the
arguments from the two sides on the basis of specific facts. He gives the key to his
theory in one sentence.
"There is only one satisfactory method of finding out whether the Seashore
tests really measure musical ability; and that is to ascertain whether persons rating
high or low or medium on these tests also rate high and low and medium in what
one may call Musical behavior,' i.e., sight singing, playing the piano, getting
through courses in theory and applied music, and the like."
The idea seems to be this: any test or battery of tests must be validated
against behavior and success in all musical situations "musical behavior," of
the types that he mentions, "and the like/' If this is true, his entire argument can
be maintained; if not, the whole argument based thereon falls.
Let me designate his theory as the "omnibus theory" and mine as the "theory
of specifics," somewhat on the analogy of the distinction between cure-alls and
specifics in drugs. Since his view was stated specifically in part against my six
Measures of Musical Talent, now available on phonograph records, I may simplify
my argument in the limited space by speaking only of the issue involved in these
six measures.
1. They represent the theory of specific measurements insofar as they con-
form to the two universal scientific sanctions, on the basis of which they were
designed; namely, that (1) the factor under consideration must be isolated in
order that we may know exactly what it is that we are measuring, and that ()
the conclusion must be limited to the factors under control.
Each of these six tests purports to measure one of six capacities or abilities for
the hearing of musical tones. There is little overlapping in these functions, and
their isolation for the purpose of measurement has been criticized only in the case
of one. In testing, we ask, specifically, "How good a sense of pitch, of intensity, of
time, of rhythm, of consonance, of immediate tonal memory has this child?"
The measurements are stated in terms of centile rank and may well be the first
and most basic items in a musical profile which may have scores of other factors,
quite independent and equally measurable. I deliberately coined the term "meas-
383
384 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
lire" for this type of procedure in order to indicate its scientific character and
distinguish it from the ordinary omnibus theory procedure in tests.
2. They have been validated for what they purport to measure. This is an
internal validation in terms of success in the isolation of the factor measured and
the degree of control of all other factors in the measurement. When we have
measured the sense of pitch, that is, pitch discrimination, in the laboratory \\ itli
high reliability and we know that pitch was isolated from all other factors, no
scientist will question but that we have measured pitch. There would be no object
in validating against the judgment of even the most competent musician. We
would not validate the reading on a thermometer against the judgment of a per-
son sensitive to temperature.
3. They are subject to criticism on the ground of relatively low reliability.
But it must be remembered that the phonograph records are a makeshift for the
purpose of securing a dragnet group test of an unselected population in a limited
period of time and without training for observation. When such requirements are
made, we cannot expect high reliability. We should also note that these recordings
were designed when we had no precedents to go by for this type of instrument
construction and when recording was relatively inferior to what it is today. Care-
ful revision and re-recording is forthcoming.
In actual testing it has been shown that all ratings in the upper half of the
group may be counted as reliable for individual diagnosis. Those showing low
ratings must always be reinvestigated before any conclusions can be based upon
them. The ideal condition is, of course, to use the original measuring instruments
of precision. For a responsible experimenter working with laboratory instruments
testing a single subject under controlled conditions, the reliability of each of
these six measures runs in the high 90's. I would, therefore, admit that the six
measures at present are makeshifts but maintain that the principle of measure-
ment for guidance involved is right and highly reliable.
4. They should not be validated in terms of their showing on an omnibus
theory or blanket rating against all musical behavior, including such diverse and
largely unrelated situations as composition, directing, voice, piano, violin,
saxophone, theory, administration, or drums; because there are hundreds of other
factors which help to determine job analysis in each of such fields.
In view of this, the ratings found in the formidable table compiled by Professor
Mursell are unwarranted. I have been bombarded all these years by the omni-
busists for this type of validation, but I have persistently refused action on the
ground that it had little or no significance. The two experiments by Brennan in
that table which emanated from my laboratory were performed during my year's
leave of absence under the direction of an outsider inexperienced in testing and
against my protests.
For the same reason, I have always protested against the use of an average of
these six measures, or any other number of the same kind and have insisted upon
the principle of a profile in which each specific measure stands on its own. Again,
for the same reason, I have insisted that even the most superficial rating for selec-
tion or placement in musical training or adjustment should be based upon a care-
ful case history and a reliable audition with the profile of measurements in hand.
That has always been the procedure in the Eastman School. The experimenter
APPENDIX 385
works in the attitude of a physician who takes note of blood pressure, heart action,
and metabolism.
It is easy to show that we cannot find a good violinist who does not have a
good sense of pitch; or a good pianist who does not have a good sense of intensity,
which is the sine qua non of touch. But it does not follow that goodness in these
capacities alone will make a good artist.
Validation of pitch against the violinist's artistic performance in the actual
musical situation would require that we correlate the sense of pitch with objective
records of musical performance in pitch intonation or ability to hear artistic pitch
deviation in the musical situation not with the countless other merits or demerits
that the violinist may exhibit. The same principle applies to any other scientific
measure ; such as the sense of intensity with artistic touch by the pianist.
5. They play a primarily negative role in musical adjustment. If a child has
the urge, the facilities, and the support for a particular type of achievement in
music, the purpose of these measures is to see whether or not a given measure
indicates any probable impediment. Great musicians may rate low in one or more
of these six, and many other equally important capacities. The musical guide must
use his head and consider whether high or low record in a specific capacity has
any significance in the specific situation before him.
There is, however, a positive use, as in dragnet surveys in a school system, a
social center, a musical organization, or any other group in that a relatively good
profile may lead to case history, further measurement, and auditions for the
purpose of discovering and encouraging talent. My main point is that a good
profile is not in itself a guaranty of musical success, but it may furnish a good
lead and may become a basis for encouragement.
6. Their application is relatively limited in terms of the self-imposed restric-
tion that the conclusion shall be limited to the legitimate implications of the
factors measured. Such sacrifice by limitation is one of the fundamental char-
acteristics of scientific procedure. It does not permit of wholesale solutions and,
therefore, cannot meet the demands of the popular clamor for a single index or
universal practical guide.
If, for example, a child makes a record of 99 on the centile scale for pitch,
the conclusion is not that he is musical but that he has a very high capacity in one
of the very numerous capacities which function in music. The problem of applica-
tion is then to find out in what types of musical situation a keen sense of pitch
discrimination actually functions; as in the hearing of pitch, in the control of
pitch, and in the feeling for pitch. It may also be worth while to inquire to what
extent a keen sense of pitch functions in the hearing of melody, of intervals, of
harmony, and of tone quality. The guide has in hand a verifiable fact and must use
judgment in determining what application is to be made of it in the analysis of a
given situation.
7. They have suffered much from popular and superficial advertising and
propaganda. I have often paraphrased the aphorism: The Lord protect me from
my friends, I can protect myself against my enemies. Among the friends are many
who assume a blanket validity of these tests on the omnibus theory and have,
therefore, sold the notion on a large scale. This has also been the basis of many
journalistic stunts, and there are many wrong applications made. Occasionally
386 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
my own unguarded statements should have been qualified. This difficulty lies in
the fact that nonlaboratory people have been fed up on the omnibus theory.
I have here tried to state the basic issues involved in the theory of specific
measures so that comparison may be made with the omnibus theory. Musical
guidance is a new and very complicated procedure. I agree with Professor Mursell
that we should beware of easy solutions. I am glad that he has made the cleavage
in the issue so clear and that he has sounded a warning to his followers against the
use of my specific measures of musical talent on his omnibus theory. It is my
humble opinion that no creditable test of musical talent can be built on that
theory.
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394 PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
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Mentioned or Quoted in the Text
Agncw, Marie, 163, 164, 1G7
Bartholomew, W T , 268
Black, John W., 118-115
Brennan, Florence, 381
Borchers, Orville, 107
Cowan, J. M., 111-112
Davenport and Steggerda, 308-309, 345
Fletcher, Harvey, 62, 64, 83
Garth, T. "R , 309
Ghosh, R. N , 226, 229
Greene, Paul, 199, 218-224
Hart, C. II ct /, 226
Henderson, Mack T , 239 241, 245, 369-370
Hickman, C N , 236
Hirsch, Nathaniel D., 331-332
Home, Porter, 215
Jacobson, Edmond, 172
Jastrow, Joseph, 175
Johnson, G. B , 309
Johnstone, J. A., 249
Kelley, Noble, 79-81
Klein, Herman, 368
Knock, Carl J., 364
Kullak, A., 249
Laase, Leroy T., 118-119
Larsen, M J , 271
L ai son, Ruth, 308, 323-326
Larson, William, 321
Larson and Kurtz, 101
Lewis, Don, 61, 116, 121
Lewis, Don, and Cowan, Milton, 64, 105
Lewis, Don, and Reger, Scott N., 81
Malmberg, C. F., 131-132
Metfessel, Milton, 43, 103, 348-350, 353-
358
Miles, Walter R , 364
Miller, R. E., 106, 357
Mjocn, J. A., 309, 345
Murdock, Katharine M., 309
Mursell, James L., 383
Odum, H. W., 348
Ortmann, Otto, 226, 230-231
Peterson, J., and Lanier, L H , 309
Ream, M. J., 93
Reger, Scott N., 78, 89, 214
Rietsz, R. R., 85
Rothschild, Donald, 183
Ruckmick, Christian, 147
Schramm, Wilbur, 213
Seashore, Harold G , 34, 35-38, 43, 48-49,
105, 243, 254, 256-266, 269-272, 275-
277, 279-280, 369
Seashore, llobeit II., 146, 369
Shower, K. G , and Biddulph, R , 60
Skinner, Laila, 246-247
Small, Arnold, 39-42, 105, 199-215
Snow, W. B., 69-72
Stanton, Hazel, 4, 177, 309, 312-320, 342-
343
Stewart, G. W., 62
Stoddard, George, and Wellman, Beth, 175-
177
Stout, Barrett, 118, 120-121
Stiicker, N , 57
Sturnpf, Carl, 130
Talley, Horton C , 122-124
Tiffin, Joseph, 43, 113, 233
Tiffin, Joseph, and Seashore, Harold G.,
233
Van de Wall, W., 31
Vernon, L. M., 248, 252-253
Voxman, II., 186, 191
Wegel, R. L., and Lane, C. E., 65
White, William, 226
Wundt, Wilhelm, 11
399
INDEX TO
MUSICIANS
Alda, Frances, 106
Bachus, Wilhelm, 251
Baker, Elsie, 43, 255, 275-277
Bauer, Harold, 246 248, 251
Berlioz, Hector, 166
Braslau, Sophie, 43
Busch, Carl, 199
Caruso, Enrico, 43, 106
Chaliapin, Feodor, 43
Clapp, Philip Greeley, 246-248
Crooks, Richard, 43, 255, 274-277
Dadmun, Royal, 43
de Gorgoza, Emiho Eduardo, 43
de Luca, Giuseppe, 43
de Lay, Theodore, 106
Elman, Mischa, 199, 209, 210
Gadski, Johanna Amelia, 55
Galli-Curci, Arnelita, 43, 106
Gigli, Beniamino, 43
Gluck, Alma, 106
Gorgoza, Emiho Eduardo de, 43
Guidi, Scipione, 218
Hackett, Karleton, 43
Hofmann x Ludwig, 251
Homer, Louise, 43, 255, 275-277
Jeritza, Maria, 43
Kraft, Arthur, 43, 255-259, 270, 274-277,
280-282
Kendrie, Frank Estes, 199, 218
Kreisler, Fritz, 199
Lashanska, Hulda, 43
Levine, Jacob, 218
Levy, Ellis, 218
Luca, Giuseppe de, 43
Macbeth, Florence, 43
Marsh, Lucy, 43, 255, 260-202, 274-277,
282-283
Martinelh, Giovanni, 43
Menuhm, Yehudi, 190, 20S, 210
Moore, Grace, 9
Mozart, Wolfgang, 165 166
Onegin, Sigrid, 43
Paderewski, Ignace Jan, 251
Parker, Horatio, 1
Ponselle, Rosa, 43, 106
Rethberg, Elizabeth, 43
Rimini, Giacomo, 43
Schumann, Robert, 161-165
Schum.mn-IIemk, Ernestine, 43
Seashore, Helen, 43, 255, 2<>3-260, 274-277
282 283
Scidl, Toscha, 99
Slalkin, Felix, 1<>9, 200, 202, '201- -207, 18
Small, Arnold, 39- tO, 199,201 210,216 2 IP
Stark, Herald, 35-38, 255, 209, '275-277
Stokowski, Leopold, 80
Szigih, Joseph, 11)9
Talley, Marion, 43
Tetrazzmi, Luis.i, 9, 43
Thompson, Carl, 43, 255, 275-277
Tibbett, Lawrence, 40, 43, 48-49, 255, 257.
274-278
Wagner, Richard, 166-167
401
INDEX TO
COMPOSITIONS
Air for the G String, 39-40, 199, 209-210
All my days, 352-354
All through the night, 255, 257-259
America, 363
Ave Maria, 35-38, 199-200, 204, 255, 256,
273-274
Calm as the night, 255
Chopin, Nocturne, op 27, no 2, 247-248
Chopin's sixth nocturne, 239-241
Come unto Him, 255, 257, 260-205, 282-283
Drink to 7nc only with thine eyes, 48-49, 255,
257, 280-282
Etude, 69
He shall feed His flock, 255
Kreutzer, Concert Etude, 218-220
Marche Mihtaire, 69
Moonlight Sonata, op. 27, no. 2, 251
Negro Laugh, 356
On ma journey, 349-352
Phosphorescence, 255
Polonaise, op 40, no. 1, 246-247
Polonaise Militaire, op 40, no. 1, 251
Sonata in C Major, 199
Sonata in D Minor, 199
Sonata in G Minor, 199
Sonata, op. 57, 247
Sonata Pathetique, 251
The Judgment Day, 112
Tzigane, 199, 208, 210
You ketch dis tram, 355-356
403
SUBJECT
INDEX
Absolute pitch, 20, 62-63
Acoustic spectra (see Tone spectra)
Action current, measure of imagery, 172
American Musical Instrument Association,
72-74
Amplification, 88-89
Analysis, significance of, 11-12
of talent m the music school, 312-320
of talent in the public school, 321-329
Anthropology, 23, 346-348
Artistic attitude, 31, 173-174, 232, 336
Artistic deviation, 18-21, 29, 30, 40, 77,
248-251, 267
Asynchromzation, of chords, 249-253
Atlantic Monthly, 1
Attack, 106, 205-207
Audience voice, 123-124
Audiogram, 79
Audiometers, list of, 78
B
Baritone horn, 187
Bassoon, 184-186
Beats, 87
Beauty, 46-47, 107-111
Biological theory, 336
Blending, 130, 132
Bowing, 213, 223
Cornet, 187
Cumulative key, 315
Cycle (~), vibration, 18
vibrato cycle or pulsation, 33-37, 44-46,
51, 267
D
Dead room, 182, 186, 213, 217-218
Decibel (db), 19, 98-100
Development of musical skills, 360-372
Dialect, Negro, 359
Difference tones, 64-74
Dissonance, 125-133
Dynamics, musical, 89
Duo-art rolls, 248
Duration, and time, 16, 19, 90-94, 136, 214-
215, 226, 231-235, 237-239, 242-248,
276-278
E
Ear training, 47-49, 157-158, 365-366
Educational Music Magazine, 326
Elemental limit, 59, 231-233
Emotion, expression of, 9-10, 47
(See also Performance scores)
Esthetic attitude (see Artistic attitude)
Experimental method, 23-32, 338
Extensity in volume, 134
Extent, 43-44
(See also Vibrato)
Capacity vs ability, 289-290, 301
vs. achievement, 832
Carnegie Institution, 342, 345
Carrying power, 27-28, 137
Centile, 56, 304, 308, 317
Chords, 249-253
Clarinet, 186
Common sense, 27, 290
Consonance, 125-133
Feeling (see Musical feeling)
Field of hearing, 82-84
Filters, 68-69
Flexibility, 47
(See also Sonance)
Flute, 187
Formant regions, 115-118
French horn, 186-187
405
406
PSYCHOLOGY OF Music
Frequency, 17-19
(See also Pitch: frequency; Waves;
Cycle)
range, 70-74
supersonic, 55
Fusion, 130-131
Genius, 175, 334
Great Women Singers I Have Known, 368
H
Harmonic analysis, 95-100, 107-108, 182-
198, 215, 217
Harmonic analyzer, Frontispiece, 98
Harmonic composition, 20-21
Harmonic constitution, 95-124
Harmony, 75
Hearing ability, acuity of, 77-84
Illusions, 17, 45-46, 63-64, 92
Imagining in music, 5-6, 161-172
Impulse, nerve, 14-15
Individual differences (see all aspects
measured)
Inheritance of musical talent, 330-345
Intelligence, 7-8, 57, 173-177, 339
Intensity, and loudness, 16, 27, 34, 76-89,
135, 201-202, 204-206, 208, 272-274
Intensity control, 74, 272-274, 367 -369
Intensity discrimination, 84-85, 213-214
Intensity meter, 368-369
Intensity score (see Performance scores,
Phrasing scores)
Intensity vibrato, 37-42, 44, 109-110, 213-
214
J.n d., in intensity, 85-86
in pitch, 60-61
Laugh, Negro, 356
learning, in music, 149-160
rules of, for instructors, 156-160
for pupils, 150-156
Limits, pitch, 54-72
intensity, 76-89
Listener, 14, 26-27
Live room, acoustically treated, 182
Loudness, intensity, 16, 19, 76-89
(See also Intensity)
Loudness-level contours, 83
Low fundamental, 68-70
M
Major second, 127, 13'l, 220-224
Major third, 127, 131, 220-224
Masking, 62
Mean pitch, 39, 212, 269-270
Measurements of Musical Talent, 312
Measures of musical talent, 302-311
Measures of Musical Talent (records), 85, 91,
102, 302-311, 321, 363, 368
Melody, 75
Mellowness, 47
Memory, 7
(See also Learning)
Metronomic time, 248
(See also Phrasing)
Minor second, 127, 131, 220-224
Minor third, 127, 131, 220-224
M. I. Q , 8
Motihty, 92-94
Motor capacities, 10-11, 86-89, 180
Moving pictures, analogies, 103, 161, 347-
348
Music, the art object, 25-26
Music in Institutions, 31
Musical education, 149-160, 173, 360-372
Musical esthetics, 373-382
Musical feeling, 0-10, 47, 174, 178-181
Musical guidance, principles of, 286 301
Musical intervals, scales, 41, 75, 127, 218-
224
Musical medium, 13-22
Musical message, 379-382
Musical mind, 1-12, 333-334
Musical ornament, 33-52, 357-359
Musical Quaterly, 138, 330
Musician, 1, 4-6, 13, 286-289
N
National Research Council, 348
Negro songs, 348-359
Notation, 157
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