Cofnjrtia7ifr,3.$g>7,
OLD RF IN CA>
FRANC
UTTLE,
Jean Guion before Boulle.
THE
OLD REGIME IN CANADA.
FRANCE AND ENGLAND IN
NOETH AMERICA.
PART FOURTH.
BY
FRANCIS PARKMAN,
BOSTON:
LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY,
1910.
i% :-!
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874,
BY FRANCIS PARKMAN,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
Copyright, 1893,
BY FRANCIS PARKMAN.
Copyright, 1897,
BY LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY.
Copyright, ipo2t
BY GRACE P. COFFIN.
-TK/
^
957882
TO
GEORGE EDWARD ELLIS, D.D.
MY DEAR DR. ELLIS :
When, in my youth, I proposed to write a series of books
on the French in America, you encouraged the attempt, and
your helpful kindness has followed it from that day to this.
Pray accept the dedication of this volume in token of the
grateful regard of
Very faithfully yours,
FRANCIS PARKMAN.
NOTE TO REVISED EDITION.
WHEN this book was written, I was unable to
gain access to certain indispensable papers relat-
ing to the rival claimants to Acadia, — La Tour
and D'Aunay, — and therefore deferred all at-
tempts to treat that subject. The papers having
at length come to hand, the missing chapters are
supplied in the present edition, which also con-
tains some additional matter of less prominence.
The title of " The Old Regime in Canada " is
derived from the third and principal of the three
sections into which the book is divided.
JUNE 16, 1893.
PEEFACE.
HE physiognomy of a government," says
Tocqueville, " can best be judged in its colo-
nies/Tor^-there its characteristic traits usually
appear larger and more distinct. When I wish
to judge of the spirit and the taults of the ad-
ministration of Louis XIV., I must go to Can-
ada. Its deformity is there seen as through a
microscope/^J
The monarchical administration of France, at
the height of its power and at the moment of
its supreme triumph, stretched an arm across the
Atlantic and grasped the North American conti-
nent. This volume attempts to show by what
methods it strove to make good its hold, why it
achieved a certain kind of success, and why it
failed at last. The political system which has
fallen, and the antagonistic system which has
prevailed, seem, at first sight, to offer nothing
but contrasts ; yet out of the tomb of Canadian
absolutism come voices not without suggestion
X PREFACE.
even to us. Extremes meet, and Autocracy and
Democracy often touch hands, at least in their
vices.
The means of knowing the Canada of the past
are ample. The pen was always busy in this
outpost of the old monarchy. The king and the
minister demanded to know everything ; and
officials of high and low degree, soldiers and
civilians, friends and foes, poured letters, de-
spatches, and memorials, on both sides of every
question, into the lap of government. These
masses of paper have in the main survived the
perils of revolutions and the incendiary torch of
the Commune. Add to them the voluminous
records of the Superior Council of Quebec, and
numerous other documents preserved in the civil
and ecclesiastical depositories of Canada.
The governments of New York and of Canada
have caused a large part of the papers in the
French archives relating to their early history to
be copied and brought to America, and valuable
contributions of material from the same quarter
have been made by the State of Massachusetts
and by private Canadian investigators. Never-
theless, a great deal has still remained in France
uncopied and unexplored. In the course of sev-
eral visits to that country, I have availed myself
PREFACE. xi
of these supplementary papers, as well as of
those which had before been copied, sparing
neither time nor pains to explore every part of
the field. With the help of a system of classi-
fied notes, I have collated the evidence of the
various writers, and set down without reserve
all the results of the examination, whether fav-
orable or unfavorable. Some of them are of a
character which I regret, since they cannot be
agreeable to persons for whom I have a very
cordial regard. The conclusions drawn from
the facts may be matter of opinion, but it will
be remembered that the facts themselves can be
overthrown only by overthrowing the evidence
on which they rest, or bringing forward counter-
evidence of equal or greater strength ; and
neither task will be found an easy one.1
I have received most valuable aid in my inqui-
ries from the great knowledge and experience of
M. Pierre Margry, Chief of the Archives of the
Marine and Colonies at Paris. I beg also
warmly to acknowledge the kind offices of
Abbe* Henri Raymond Casgrain and Grand
1 Those who wish to see the subject from a point of view oppo-
site to mine cannot do better than consult the work of the Jesuit
Charlevoix, with the excellent annotation of Mr. Shea. (History
and General Description of New France, by the Rev. P. F. X. de
Charlevoix, S.J., translated with notes by John Gilmary Shea. 6
vols. New York: 1866-1872.)
Xli PREFACE.
Vicar Cazeau, of Quebec ; together with those of
James Le Moine, Esq., M. Eugene Tache, Hon.
P. J. 0. Chauveau, and other eminent Canadians,
and Henry Harrisse, Esq.
The few extracts from original documents
which are printed in the Appendix may serve as
samples of the material out of which the work
has been constructed. In some instances their
testimony might be multiplied twenty-fold.
When the place of deposit of the documents
cited in the margin is not otherwise indicated,
they will, in nearly all cases, be found in the
Archives of the Marine and Colonies.
In the present book we examine the political
and social machine ; in the next volume of the
series we shall see this machine in action.
BOSTON, July 1, 1874.
CONTENTS.
SECTION FIRST.
THE FEUDAL CHIEFS OF ACADIA.
CHAPTER I.
1497-1643.
LA TOUR AND D'AUNAY.
The Acadian Quarrel. — Biencourt. — Claude and Charles de la
Tour. —Sir William Alexander. — Claude de Razilly.—
Charles de Menou d'Aunay Charnisay. — Cape Sable. — Port
Royal. — The Heretics of Boston and Plymouth. — Madame
de la Tour. — War and Litigation. — La Tour worsted : he
asks help from the Boston Puritans 3
CHAPTER II.
1643-1645.
LA TOUR AND THE PURITANS.
La Tour at Boston : he meets Winthrop. — Boston in 1 643. —
Training Day. — An Alarm. — La Tour's Bargain. — Doubts
and Disputes. — The Allies sail. — La Tour and Endicott. —
D'Aunay's Overture to the Puritans. — Marie's Mission . . 21
CHAPTER III.
1645-1710.
THE VICTOR VANQUISHED.
D'Aunay's Envoys : their Reception at Boston. — Winthrop
and his " Papist " Guests. — Reconciliation. — Treaty. — Be-
havior of La Tour. — Royal Favors to D'Aunay : his
Hopes; his Death; his Character. — Conduct of the Court
xiv CONTENTS.
PAOR
towards him. — Intrigues of La Tour. — Madame D'Aunay.
— La Tour marries her. — Children of D'Aunay. — Descend-
ants of La Tour 41
SECTION SECOND.
CANADA A MISSION.
CHAPTER IV.
1653-1658.
THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA.
The Iroquois War. — Father Poncet: his Adventures. — Jesuit
Boldness. — Le Moyne's Mission. — Chaumonot and Dablon.
— Iroquois Ferocity. — The Mohawk Kidnappers. — Critical
Position. — The Colony of Onondaga. — Speech of Chau-
monot. — Omens of Destruction. — Device of the Jesuits. —
The Medicine Feast. — The Escape 54
CHAPTER V.
1642-1661.
THE HOLT WARS OF MONTREAL.
Dauversiere. — Mance and Bourgeoys. — Miracle. — A Pious De-
faulter.— Jesuit and Sulpitian. — Montreal in 1659. — The
Hospital Nuns. — The Nuns and the Iroquois. — More Mira-
cles.—The Murdered Priests.— Brigeac and Closse. — Sol-
diers of the Holy Family 96
CHAPTER VI.
1660, 1661.
THE HEROES OF THE LONG SAUT.
Suffering and Terror. — Francois Hertel. — The Captive Wolf.
— The Threatened Invasion. — Daulac des Ormeaux. — The
Adventurers at the Long Saut. — The Attack. — A Desperate
Defence. — A Final Assault. —The Fort taken . .118
CONTENTS. XV
CHAPTER VII.
1657-1668.
THE DISPUTED BISHOPRIC.
PAGK
Domestic Strife. — Jesuit and Sulpitian. — Abbs' Queylus. —
Francois de Laval. — The Zealots of Caen. — Galilean and
Ultramontane. — The Rival Claimants. — Storm at Quebec.
Laval Triumphant 140
CHAPTER VIII.
1659, 1660.
LAVAL AND ARGENSON.
Francois de Laval: his Position and Character. — Arrival of
Argenson. — The Quarrel 161
CHAPTER IX.
1658-1663.
LAVAL AND AVAUGOUB.
Reception of Argenson: his Difficulties; his Recall. — Dubois
d'Avaugour. — The Brandy Quarrel. — Distress of Laval.
— Portents. — The Earthquake 173
CHAPTER X.
1661-1664.
LAVAL AND DUME8NIL.
Pe'ronne Dumesnil. — The Old Council. —Alleged Murder.—
The New Council. — Bourdon and Villeray. — Strong Meas-
ures.— Escape of Dumesnil. — Views of Colbert 189
CHAPTER XL
1657-1665.
LAVAL AND MEZY.
The Bishop's Choice. — A Military Zealot. — Hopeful Begin-
nings. — Signs of Storm. — The Quarrel. — Distress of Mezy :
ha refuses to yield ; his Defeat and Death 204
xvi CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XII.
1662-1680.
LAVAL AND THE SEMINARY.
PAGE
Laval's Visit to Court. — The Seminary. — Zeal of the Bishop :
his Eulogists. — Church and State. — Attitude of Laval . 219
SECTION THIRD.
THE COLONY AND THE KING. ^
CHAPTER XIII.
1661-1665.
ROYAL INTERVENTION.
Fontainebleau. — Louis XIV. — Colbert. — The Company of the
West. — Evil Omens. — Action of the King. — Tracy, Cour-
celle, and Talon. — The Regiment of Carignan-Salieres. —
Tracy at Quebec. — Miracles. — A Holy War 229
CHAPTER XIV.
1666, 1667.
THE MOHAWKS CHASTISED.
Courcelle's March : his Failure and Return. — Courcelle and
the Jesuits. — Mohawk Treachery. — Tracy's Expedition. —
Burning of the Mohawk Towns. — French and English. —
Dollier de Casson at St. Anne. — Peace. — The Jesuits and
the Iroquois 246
CHAPTER XV.
1665-1672.
PATERNAL GOVERNMENT.
Talon. — Restriction and Monopoly. — Views of Colbert. — Po-
litical Galvanism. — A Father of the People 268
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XVI.
1661-1673.
MARRIAGE AND POPULATION.
PAGK
Shipment of Emigrants. — Soldier Settlers. — Importation of
\\rives. _ Wedlock. — Summary Methods. — The Mothers of
Canada. — Bounties on Marriage. — Celibacy Punished. —
Bounties on Children. — Results 276
CHAPTER XVII. t
1665-1672.
THE NEW HOME.
Military Frontier. — The Canadian Settler. — Seignior and Vas-
sal. — Example of Talon. — Plan of Settlement. — Aspect of
Canada. — Quebec. — The River Settlements. — Montreal. —
The Pioneers 292
CHAPTER XVIII.
1663-1763.
CANADIAN FEUDALISM.
Transplantation of Feudalism. — Precautions. — Faith and Hom-
age. — The Seignior. — The Censitaire. — Royal Intervention.
— The Gentilhomme. — Canadian Noblesse 304
CHAPTER XIX.
1663-1763.
THE RULERS OF CANADA.
Nature of the Government. — The Governor. — The Council. —
Courts and Judges. — The Intendant : his Grievances. —
Strong Government. — Sedition and Blasphemy. — Royal
Bounty. — Defects and Abuses 326
CHAPTER XX. •-
1663-1763.
TRADE AND INDUSTRY. ^
Trade in Fetters. — The Huguenot Merchants. — Royal Pat-
ronage. — The Fisheries. — Cries for Help. — Agriculture.
xviii CONTENTS.
PAGE
— Manufactures. — Arts of Ornament. — Finance. — Card
Money. — Repudiation. — Imposts. — The Beaver Trade. —
The Fair at Montreal. — ( Contraband Trade. — A Fatal Sys-
tem. — Trouble and Change. — The Coureurs de Bois. — The
Forest. — Letter of Carheil 352
CHAPTER XXI. l/
1663-1702.
THE MISSIONS. — THE BRANDY QUESTION.
The Jesuits and the Iroquois. — Mission Villages. — Michili-
mackinac. — Father Carheil. — Temperance. — Brandy and
the Indians. — Strong Measures. — Disputes. — License and
Prohibition. — Views of the King. — Trade and the Jesuits 380
CHAPTER XXII. V
1663-1763.
PRIESTS AND PEOPLE.
Church and State. — The Bishop and the King. — The King
and the Cures. — The New Bishop. — The Canadian Cure. —
Ecclesiastical Rule. — Saint-Vallier and Denonville. — Cleri-
cal Rigor. — Jesuit and Sulpitian. — Courcelle and Chatelain.
— The Recollets. — Heresy and Witchcraft. — Canadian
Nuns. —Jeanne Le Ber. — Education. — The Seminary. —
Saint Joachim. — Miracles of Saint Anne. — Canadian Schools 396
CHAPTER XXIII. v
1640-1763.
MORALS AND MANNERS.
Social Influence of the Troops. — A Petty Tyrant. — Brawls. —
Violence and Outlawry. — State of the Population. — Views of
Denonville. — Brandy. — Beggary. — The Past and the Pres-
ent. — Inns. — State of Quebec. — Fires. — The Country Par-
ishes. — Slavery. — Views of La Hontan, — of Hocquart ; of
Bougainville ; of Kalm ; of Charlevoix 434
CONTENTS. xix
CHAPTER XXIV.
1663-1763.
CANADIAN ABSOLUTISM.
PAGE
Formation of Canadian Character. — The Rival Colonies. — Eng-
land and France. — New England. — Characteristics of Race.
— Military Qualities. - The Church. — The English Conquest 46 1
APPENDIX.
A. La Tonr and D'Aunay 469
B. The Hermitage of Caen 476
C. Laval and Argenson 481
D. Peroune Dumesnil 484
E. Laval and Mesy 488
F. Marriage and Population . 493
G. Ch&teau St. Louis 496
H. Trade and Industry 500
I. Letter of Father Carheil 506
J. The Government and the Clergy 512
K. Canadian Cures. Education. Discipline 520
INDEX , 527
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SECTION FIEST.
THE FEUDAL CHIEFS OF ACADIA,
CHAPTER I.
1497-1643.
LA TOUR AND D'AUNAY.
THE ACADIAN QUARREL. — BIBNCOURT. — CLAUDE AND CHARLES
DE LA TOUR. — SIR WILLIAM ALEXANDER. — CLAUDE DE RA-
ZILLT. — CHARLES DE MENOU D'AUNAY CHARNISAY. — CAPE
SABLE. — PORT ROYAL. — THE HERETICS OF BOSTON AND PLY-
MOUTH.— MADAME DE LA TOUR. — WAR AND LITIGATION. — LA
TOUR WORSTED: HE ASKS HELP FROM THE BOSTON PURITANS.
WITH the opening of the seventeenth century
began that contest for the ownership of North
America which was to remain undecided for a century
and a half. England claimed the continent through
the discovery by the Cabots in 1497 and 1498, and
France claimed it through the voyage of Verrazzano
in 1524. Each resented the claim of the other; and
each snatched such fragments of the prize as she
could reach, and kept them if she could. In 1604,
Henry IV. of France gave to De Monts all America
from the 40th to the 46th degree of north latitude.
4 LA TOUR AND D'AUNAY. [1604-29.
including the sites of Philadelphia on the one hand
and Montreal on the other ; 1 while, eight years after,
Louis XIII. gave to Madame de Guercheville and
the Jesuits the whole continent from Florida to the
St. Lawrence, — that is, the whole of the future
British colonies. Again, in 1621, James I. of Eng-
land made over a part of this generous domain to a
subject of his own, Sir William Alexander, — to
whom he gave, under the name of Nova Scotia, the
peninsula which is now so called, together with a
vast adjacent wilderness, to be held forever as a fief
of the Scottish Crown.2 Sir William, not yet satis-
fied, soon got an additional grant of the " River and
Gulf of Canada," along with a belt of land three
hundred miles wide, reaching across the continent.3
Thus thev King of France gave to Frenchmen the
sites of Boston, New York, and Washington, and
the King of England gave to a Scotchman the sites
of Quebec and Montreal. But while the seeds of
international war were thus sown broadcast over the
continent, an obscure corner of the vast regions in
dispute became the scene of an intestine strife like
the bloody conflicts of two feudal chiefs in the depths
of the Middle Ages.
After the lawless inroads of Argall, the French,
with young Biencourt at their head, still kept a
1 See " Pioneers of France in the New World," 247.
2 Charter of New Scotland in favour of Sir William Alexander.
8 Charter of the Country and Lordship of Canada in America, 2 Feb.,
1628-29, in Publications of the Prince Society, 1873.
1629.] YOUNG LA TOUR. 5
feeble hold on Acadia. After the death of his father,
Poutrincourt, Biencourt took his name, by which
thenceforth he is usually known. In his distress he
lived much like an Indian, roaming the woods with
a few followers, and subsisting on fish, game, roots,
and lichens. He seems, however, to have found
means to build a small fort among the rocks and fogs
of Cape Sable. He named it Fort Lome'ron, and
here he appears to have maintained himself for a
time by fishing and the fur-trade.
Many years before, a French boy of fourteen
years, Charles Saint-Etienne de la Tour, was brought
to Acadia by his father, Claude de la Tour, where
he became attached to the service of Biencourt
(Poutrincourt), and, as he himself says, served as
his ensign and lieutenant. He says, further, that
Biencourt on his death left him all his property in
Acadia. It was thus, it seems, that La Tour became
owner of Fort Lome'ron and its dependencies at Cape
Sable, whereupon he begged the King to give him
help against his enemies, especially the English,
who, as he thought, meant to seize the country; and
he begged also for a commission to command in
Acadia for his Majesty.1
In fact, Sir William Alexander soon tried to dis-
possess him and seize his fort. Charles de la Tour's
father had been captured at sea by the privateer
"Kirke," and carried to England. Here, being a
widower, he married a lady of honor of the Queen,
1 La Tour au Roy, 25 July, 1627.
6 LA TOUR AND D'AUNAY. [1629.
and, being a Protestant, renounced his French
allegiance.
Alexander made him a baronet of Nova Scotia, a
new title which King James had authorized Sir
William to confer on persons of consideration aiding
him in his work of colonizing Acadia. Alexander
now fitted out two ships, with which he sent the
elder La Tour to Cape Sable. On arriving, the
father, says the story, made the most brilliant offers
to his son if he would give up Fort Lom^ron to the
English, — to which young La Tour is reported to
have answered in a burst of patriotism, that he would
take no favors except from his sovereign, the King
of France. On this, the English are said to have
attacked the fort, and to have been beaten off. As
the elder La Tour could not keep his promise to
deliver the place to the English, they would have no
more to do with him, on which his dutiful son offered
him an asylum under condition that he should never
enter the fort. A house was built for him outside
the ramparts; and here the trader, Nicolas Denys,
found him in 1635. It is Denys who tells the above
story,1 which he probably got from the younger La
Tour, — and which, as he tells it, is inconsistent
with the known character of its pretended hero, who
was no model of loyalty to his king, being a chameleon
whose principles took the color of his interests.
Denys says, further, that the elder La Tour had
been invested with the Order of the Garter, and that
1 Denys, Description geographique et historique.
1630.] THE BROTHERS KIRKE.
the same dignity was offered to his son; which is
absurd. The truth is, that Sir William Alexander,
thinking that the two La Tours might be useful to
him, made them both baronets of Nova Scotia.1
Young La Tour, while begging Louis XIII. for a
commission to command in Acadia, got from Sir
William Alexander not only the title of baronet, but
also a large grant of land at and near Cape Sable, to
be held as a fief of the Scottish Crown.2 Again, he
got from the French King a grant of land on the river
St. John, and, to make assurance doubly sure, got
leave from Sir William Alexander to occupy it.8
This he soon did, and built a fort near the mouth of
the river, not far from the present city of St. John.
Meanwhile the French had made a lodgment on
the rock of Quebec, and not many years after, all
North America from Florida to the Arctic circle,
and from Newfoundland to the springs of the St.
Lawrence, was given by King Louis to the Company
of New France, with Richelieu at its head.4 Sir
William Alexander, jealous of this powerful rivalry,
caused a private expedition to be fitted out under the
brothers Kirke. It succeeded, and the French settle-
1 Grant from Sir William Alexander to Sir Claude de St. Etienne
(de la Tour), 30 Nov., 1629. Ibid, to Charles de St. Etienne, Esq.,
Seigneur de St. Denniscourt and Baigneux, 12 May, 1630. (Hazard,
State Papers, i. 294, 298.) The names of both father and son appear
on the list of baronets of Nora Scotia.
51 Patent from Sir William Alexander to Claude and Charles de la
Tour, 30 April, 1630.
3 Williamson, History of Maine, i. 246.
* See "Pioneers of France," 440.
8 LA TOUR AND D'AUNAY. [1632.
ments in Acadia and Canada were transferred by
conquest to England. England soon gave them
back by the treaty of St. Germain ; 1 and Claude de
Razilly, a Knight of Malta, was charged to take pos-
session of them in the name of King Louis.2 Full
powers were given him over the restored domains,
together with grants of Acadian lands for himself.3
Razilly reached Port Royal in August, 1632, with
three hundred men, and the Scotch colony planted
there by Alexander gave up the place in obedience to
an order from the King of England. Unfortunately
for Charles de la Tour, Razilly brought with him an
officer destined to become La Tour's worst enemy.
This was Charles de Menou d'Aunay Charnisay, a
gentleman of birth and character, who acted as his
commander's man of trust, and who, in Razilly 's
name, presently took possession of such other feebl-e
English and Scotch settlements as had been begun
by Alexander or the people of New England along
the coasts of Nova Scotia and Maine. This placed
the French Crown and the Company of New France
in sole possession for a time of the region then called
Acadia.
When Acadia was restored to France, La Tour's
1 TraitS de St. Germain en Laye, 29 Mars, 1632, Article 3. For
reasons of the restitution, see " Pioneers of France/' 454.
2 Convention avec le Sieur de Razilly pour aller recevoir la Restitution
du Port Royal, etc., 27 Mars, 1632. Commission du Sieur de Razilly t
10 May, 1632.
8 Concession de la riviere et baye Saincte Croix d M. de Razilly, 29
May, 1632.
1635.] THE TWO RIVALS. 9
English title to his lands at Cape Sable became
worthless. He hastened to Paris to fortify his posi-
tion; and, suppressing his dallyings with England
and Sir William Alexander, he succeeded not only in
getting an extensive grant of lands at Cape Sable,
but also the title of lieutenant-general for the King in
Fort Lome'ron and its dependencies,1 and commander
at Cape Sable for the Company of New France.
Razilly, who represented the King in Acadia, died
in 1635, and left his authority to D'Aunay Charnisay,
his relative and second in command. D'Aunay made
his headquarters at Port Royal; and nobody dis-
puted his authority except La Tour, who pretended
to be independent of him in virtue of his commission
from the Crown and his grant from the Company.
Hence rose dissensions that grew at last into war.
The two rivals differed widely in position and
qualities. Charles de Menou, Seigneur d'Aunay
Charnisay, came of an old and distinguished family
of Touraine,2 and he prided himself above all things
on his character of gentilhomme frangais. Charles
1 Revocation de la Commission du Sieur Charles de Saint-Etienne,
Sieur de la Tour, 23 Fev., 1641.
2 The modern representative of this family, Comte Jules de
Menou, is the author of a remarkable manuscript book, written
from family papers and official documents, and entitled L'Acadie
colonisee par Charles de Menou d'Aunay Charnisay. I have followed
Comte de Menou's spelling of the name. It is often written
D'Aulnay, and by New England writers D'Aulney. The manu-
script just mentioned is in my possession. Comte de Menou is also
the author of a printed work called Preuves de VHistoire de la
Maison de Menou.
10 LA TOUR AND D'AUNAY. [1635.
Saint-feienne de la Tour was of less conspicuous
lineage.1 In fact, his father, Claude de la Tour, is
said by his enemies to have been at one time so
reduced in circumstances that he carried on the trade
of a mason in Rue St. Germain at Paris. The son,
however, is called gentilhomme d'une naissance dis-
tinguee, both in papers of the court and in a legal
document drawn up in the interest of his children.
As he came to Acadia when a boy he could have had
little education, and both he and D'Aunay carried
on trade, — which in France would have derogated
from their claims as gentle-men, though in America
the fur- trade was not held inconsistent with noblesse.
Of La Tour's little kingdom at Cape Sable, with
its rocks, fogs, and breakers, its seal-haunted islets
and iron-bound shores guarded by Fort Lome'ron,
we have but dim and uncertain glimpses. After the
death of Biencourt, La Tour is said to have roamed
the woods with eighteen or twenty men, "living a
vagabond life with no exercise of religion."2 He
himself admits that he was forced to live like the
Indians, as did Biencourt before him.3 Better times
had come, and he was now commander of Fort
1 The true surname of La Tour's family, which belonged to the
neighborhood of Evreux, in Normandy, was Turgis. The designa-
tion of La Tour was probably derived from the name of some
family estate, after a custom common in France under the old
regime. The Turgis's arms were " d'or au chevron de sable, accom-
pagne' de trois palmes de mSme."
2 Menou, L'Acadie colonisee par Charles de Menou d'Aunay
Charnisay.
» La Tour au Roy, 25 Juillet, 1627.
1641.] PORT ROYAL. 11
Lomdron, — or, as he called it, Fort La Tour, — with
a few Frenchmen and abundance of Micmac Indians.
His next neighbor was the adventurer Nicolas Denys,
who with a view to the timber trade had settled
himself with twelve men on a small river a few
leagues distant. Here Razilly had once made him a
visit, and was entertained under a tent of boughs
with a sylvan feast of wild pigeons, brant, teal,
woodcock, snipe, and larks, cheered by profuse white
wine and claret, and followed by a dessert of wild
raspberries.1
On the other side of the Acadian peninsula
D'Aunay reigned at Port Royal like a feudal lord,
which in fact he was. Denys, who did not like him,
says that he wanted only to rule, and treated his
settlers like slaves ; but this, even if true at the time,
did not always remain so. D'Aunay went to France
in 1641, and brought out, at his own charge, twenty
families to people his seigniory.2 He had already
brought out a wife, having espoused Jeanne Molin
(or Motin), daughter of the Seigneur de Courcelles.
What with old settlers and new, about forty families
were gathered at Port Royal and on the river
Annapolis, and over these D'Aunay ruled like a
feudal Robinson Crusoe.8 He gave each colonist a
farm charged with a perpetual rent of one sou an
arpent, or French acre. The houses of the settlers
1 Denys, Description geographique et historique.
2 Rameau, Une Colonie feodale en Amerique, i. 93 (ed. 1889).
8 Ibid., i. 96. 97.
12 LA TOUR AND D'AUNAY. [1641.
were log cabins, and the manor-house of their lord
was a larger building of the same kind. The most
pressing need was of defence, and D'Aunay lost no
time in repairing and reconstructing the old fort on
the point between Allen's River and the Annapolis.
He helped his tenants at their work; and his con-
fessor describes him as returning to his rough manor-
house on a wet day, drenched with rain and
bespattered with mud, but in perfect good humor,
after helping some of the inhabitants to mark out a
field. The confessor declares that during the eleven
months of his acquaintance with him he never heard
him speak ill of anybody whatever, a statement which
must probably be taken with allowance. Yet this
proud scion of a noble stock seems to have given
himself with good grace to the rough labors of the
frontiersman; while Father Ignace, the Capuchin
friar, praises him for the merit, transcendent in
clerical eyes, of constant attendance at mass and fre-
quent confession.1
With his neighbors, the Micmac Indians, he was
on the best of terms. He supplied their needs, and
they brought him the furs that enabled him in some
measure to bear the 'heavy charges of an establish-
ment that could not for many years be self-support-
ing. In a single year the Indians are said to have
brought three thousand moose-skins to Port Royal,
besides beaver and other valuable furs. Yet, from
a commercial point of view, D'Aunay did not
1 Lettre du Pere Ignace de Paris, Capucin, 6 Aoust, 1653.
1642.] PORT ROYAL. 13
prosper. He had sold or mortgaged his estates in
France, borrowed large sums, built ships, bought
cannon, levied soldiers, and brought over immigrants.
He is reported to have had three hundred fighting
men at his principal station, and sixty cannon
mounted on his ships and forts; for besides Port
Royal he had two or three smaller establishments.1
Port Royal was a scene for an artist, with its fort ;
its soldiers in breastplate and morion, armed with
pike, halberd, or matchlock ; its manor-house of logs,
and its seminary of like construction; its twelve
Capuchin friars, with cowled heads, sandalled feet,
and the cord of Saint Francis; the birch canoes of
Micmac and Abenaki Indians lying along the strand,
and their feathered and painted owners lounging
about the place or dozing around their wigwam fires.
It was medievalism married to primeval savagery.
The friars were supported by a fund supplied by
Richelieu, and their chief business was to convert the
Indians into vassals of France, the Church, and the
Chevalier d'Aunay, Hard by was a wooden chapel,
where the seignior knelt in dutiful observance of
every rite, and where, under a stone chiselled with
his ancient scutcheon, one of his children lay buried.
In the fort he had not forgotten to provide a dungeon
for his enemies.
1 Certificat d I'egard de M. d'Aunay Charnisay, signe Michel
Boudrot, Lieutenant General en I'Acadie, et autres, anciens habitans au
pays, 5 Oct., 1687. Lettre du Roy de gouverneur et lieutenant general es
costes de I'Acadie pour Charles de Menou, Sieur d'Aulnay Charnisay,
Fevrier, 1647.
14 LA TOUR AND D'AUNAY. [1642.
The worst of these was Charles de la Tour.
Before the time of Razilly and his successor
D'Aunay, La Tour had felt himself the chief man in
Acadia ; but now he was confronted by a rival higher
in rank, superior in resources and court influence,
proud, ambitious, and masterful.1 He was bitterly
jealous of D'Aunay; and, to strengthen himself
against so formidable a neighbor, he got from the
Company of New France the grant of a tract of land
at the mouth of the river St. John, where he built a
fort and called it after his own name, though it was
better known as Fort St. Jean.2 Thither he removed
from his old post at Cape Sable, and Fort St. Jean
now became his chief station. It confronted its rival,
Port Royal, across the intervening Bay of Fundy.
Now began a bitter feud between the two chiefs,
each claiming lands occupied by the other. The
Court interposed to settle the dispute, but in its
ignorance of Acadian geography its definitions were
so obscure that the question was more embroiled than
ever.3
1 Besides succeeding to the authority of Razilly, D'Aunay had
bought of his heirs their land claims in Acadia. Arrets du Conseil,
9 Mars, 1642.
2 Concession de la Compagnie de la Nouvelle France d Charles de
Saint-Etienne, Sieur de la Tour, Lieutenant General de I'Acadie, du
Fort de la Tour, dans la Riviere de St. Jean, du 15 Jan., 1635, in
Memoires des Commissaires, v. 113 (ed. 1756, 12mo).
8 Louis XIII d d'Aunay, 10 Fev., 1638. This seems to be the
occasion of Charlevoix's inexact assertion that Acadia was divided
into three governments, under D'Aunay, La Tour, and Nicolas
Denys, respectively. The title of Denys, such as it was, had no
existence till 1654.
1633-42.] ENGLISH INTERLOPERS. 15
While the domestic feud of the rivals was gather-
ing to a head, foreign heretics had fastened their
clutches on various parts of the Atlantic coast which
France and the Church claimed as their own. English
heretics had made lodgment in Virginia, and Dutch
heretics at the mouth of the Hudson; while other
sectaries of the most malignant type had kennelled
among the sands and pine-trees of Plymouth; and
others still, slightly different, but equally venomous,
had ensconced themselves on or near the small penin-
sula of Shawmut, at the head of La Grande Baye, or
the Bay of Massachusetts. As it was not easy to
dislodge them, the French dissembled for the present,
yielded to the logic of events, and bided their time.
But the interlopers soon began to swarm northward
and invade the soil of Acadia, sacred to God and the
King. Small parties from Plymouth built trading-
houses at Machias and at what is now Castine, on
the Penobscot. As they were competitors in trade,
no less than foes of God and King Louis, and as
they were too few to resist, both La Tour and
D'Aunay resolved to expel them; and in 1633 La
Tour attacked the Plymouth trading-house at Machias,
killed two of the five men he found there, carried off
the other three, and seized all the goods.1 Two
years later D'Aunay attacked the Plymouth trading-
station at Penobscot, the Pentegoet of the French,
and took it in the name of King Louis. That he
might not appear in the part of a pirate, he set a
1 Hubbard, History of New England, 163.
16 LA TOUR AND D'AUNAY. [1638-42.
price on the goods of the traders, and then, having
seized them, gave in return his promise to pay at
some convenient time if the owners would come to
him for the money.
He had called on La Tour to help him in this raid
against Penobscot; but La Tour, unwilling to recog-
nize his right to command, had refused, and had
hoped that D'Aunay, becoming disgusted with his
Acadian venture, which promised neither honor nor
profit, would give it up, go back to France, and stay
there. About the year 1638 D'Aunay did in fact go
to France, but not to stay ; for in due time he reap-
peared, bringing with him his bride, Jeanne Motin,
who had had the courage to share his fortunes, and
whom he now installed at Port Royal, — a sure sign,
as his rival thought, that he meant to make his home
there. Disappointed and angry, La Tour now lost
patience, went to Port Royal, and tried to stir
D'Aunay's soldiers to mutiny; then set on his Indian
friends to attack a boat in which was one of
D'Aunay's soldiers and a Capuchin friar, — the
soldier being killed, though the friar escaped.1 This
was the beginning of a quarrel waged partly at Port
Royal and St. Jean, and partly before the admiralty
court of Guienne and the royal council, partly with
bullets and cannon-shot, and partly with edicts,
decrees, and proems verbaux. As D'Aunay had taken
a wife, so too would La Tour; and he charged his
agent Desjardins to bring him one from France
1 Menou, L'Acadie colonisee par Charles de Menou d'Aunay.
J642.] LA TOUR SURRENDERS. 17
The agent acquitted himself of his delicate mission,
and shipped to Acadia one Marie Jacquelin, —
daughter of a barber of Mans, if we may believe the
questionable evidence of his rival. Be this as it
may, Marie Jacquelin proved a prodigy of mettle and
energy, espoused her husband's cause with passionate
vehemence, and backed his quarrel like the intrepid
Amazon she was. She joined La Tour at Fort St.
Jean, and proved the most strenuous of allies.
About this time, D'Aunay heard that the English
of Plymouth meant to try to recover Penobscot from
his hands. On this he sent nine soldiers thither,
with provisions and munitions. La Tour seized them
on the way, carried them to Fort St. Jean, and,
according to his enemies, treated them like slaves.
D'Aunay heard nothing of this till four months
after, when, being told of it by Indians, he sailed in
person to Penobscot with two small vessels, reinforced
the place, and was on his way back to Port Royal
when La Tour met him with two armed pinnaces. A
fight took place, and one of D'Aunay's vessels was
dismasted. He fought so well, however, that Cap-
tain Jamin, his enemy's chief officer, was killed;
and the rest, including La Tour, his new wife, and
his agent Desjardins, were forced to surrender, and
were carried prisoners to Port Royal.
At the request of the Capuchin friars D'Aunay set
them all at liberty, after compelling La Tour to sign
a promise to keep the peace in future.1 Both parties
1 Menou, L'Acadie coloniste par Charles de Menou d'Aunay.
2
18 LA TOUR AND D'AUNAY. [1642.
now laid their cases before the French courts, and,
whether from the justice of his cause or from superior
influence, D'Aunay prevailed. La Tour's commis-
sion was revoked, and he was ordered to report him-
self in France to receive the King's commands.
Trusting to his remoteness from the seat of power,
and knowing that the King was often ill served and
worse informed, he did not obey, but remained in
Acadia exercising his authority as before. D'Aunay's
father, from his house in Rue St. Germain, watched
over his son's interests, and took care that La Tour's
conduct should not be unknown at court. A decree
was thereupon issued directing D'Aunay to seize his
rival's forts in the name of the King, and place them
in charge of trusty persons. The order was precise ;
but D'Aunay had not at the time force enough to
execute it, and the frugal King sent him only six
soldiers. Hence he could only show the royal order
to La Tour, and offer him a passage to France in one
of his vessels if he had the discretion to obey. La
Tour refused, on which D'Aunay returned to France
to report his rival's contumacy. At about the same
time La Tour's French agent sent him a vessel with
succors. The King ordered it to be seized ; but the
order came too late, for the vessel had already sailed
from Rochelle bound to Fort St. Jean.
When D'Aunay reported the audacious conduct of
his enemy, the royal council ordered that the offender
should be brought prisoner to France ; l and D'Aunay,
i Arrit du Conteil, 21 Fev.t 1642.
1643.] LA TOUR ASKS AID OF BOSTON. 19
as the King's lieutenant-general in Acadia, was again
required to execute the decree.1 La Tour was now
in the position of a rebel, and all legality was on the
side of his enemy, who represented royalty itself.
D'Aunay sailed at once for Acadia, and in August,
1642, anchored at the mouth of the St. John,
before La Tour's fort, and sent three gentlemen in a
boat to read to its owner the decree of the council
and the order of the King. La Tour snatched the
papers, crushed them between his hands, abused the
envoys roundly, put them and their four sailors into
prison, and kept them there above a year.2
His position was now desperate, for he had placed
himself in open revolt. Alarmed for the conse-
quences, he turned for help to the heretics of Boston.
True Catholics detested them as foes of God and
man ; but La Tour was neither true Catholic nor true
Protestant, and would join hands with anybody who
could serve his turn. Twice before he had made
advances to the Boston malignants, and sent to them
first one Rochet, and then one Lestang, with pro-
posals of trade and alliance. The envoys were
treated with courtesy, but could get no promise of
active aid.3
La Tour's agent, Desjardins, had sent him from
Rochelle a ship, called the "St. Clement," manned
1 Menou, L'Acadie colonisee.
2 Menou, L'Acadie colonisee. Moreau, Histoire de I'Acadie, 169,
170.
8 Hubbard, History of New England, chap. liv. Winthrop, ii.
42, 88.
20 LA TOUR AND D'AUNAY. [1643.
by a hundred and forty Huguenots, laden with stores
and munitions, and commanded by Captain Mouron.
In due time La Tour at his Fort St. Jean heard that
the "St. Clement" lay off the mouth of the river,
unable to get in because D'Aunay blockaded the
entrance with two armed ships and a pinnace. On
this he resolved to appeal in person to the heretics.
He ran the blockade in a small boat under cover of
night, and, accompanied by his wife, boarded the
"St. Clement" and sailed for Boston.1
1 Menou, L'Acadie colonize.
CHAPTER H.
1643-1645.
LA TOUR AND THE PURITANS.
LA TOUR AT BOSTON: HIS MEETING WITH WINTHROP. — BOSTON
IN 1643. — TRAINING DAY. — AN ALARM. — LA TOUR'S BARGAIN.
— DOUBTS AND DISPUTES. — THE ALLIES SAIL. — LA TOUR AND
ENDICOTT. — D'AUNAY'S OVERTURE TO THE PURITANS. — MARIE'S
MISSION.
ON the twelfth of June, 1643, the people of the
infant town of Boston saw with some misgiving a
French ship entering their harbor. It chanced that
the wife of Captain Edward Gibbons, with her
children, was on her way in a boat to a farm belong-
ing to her husband on an island in the harbor. One
of La Tour's party, who had before made a visit to
Boston, and had been the guest of Gibbons, recog-
nized his former hostess ; and he, with La Tour and
a few sailors, cast off from the ship and went to
speak to her in a boat that was towed at the stern of
the "St. Clement." Mrs. Gibbons, seeing herself
chased by a crew of outlandish foreigners, took refuge
on the island where Fort Winthrop was afterwards
built, which was then known as the "Governor's
Garden," as it had an orchard, a vineyard, and
22 LA TOUR AND THE PURITANS. [1643.
"many other conveniences."1 The islands in the
harbor, most of which were at that time well wooded,
seem to have been favorite places of cultivation, as
sheep and cattle were there safe from those pests of
the mainland, the wolves. La Tour, no doubt to the
dismay of Mrs. Gibbons and her children, landed
after them, and was presently met by the governor
himself, who, with his wife, two sons, and a daughter-
in-law, had apparently rowed over to their garden for
the unwonted recreation of an afternoon's outing.2
La Tour made himself known to the governor, and,
after mutual civilities, told him that a ship bringing
supplies from France had been stopped by his enemy,
D'Aunay, and that he had come to ask for help to
raise the blockade and bring her to his fort.
Winthrop replied that, before answering, he must
consult the magistrates. As Mrs. Gibbons and her
children were anxious to get home, the governor
sent them to town in his own boat, promising to
follow with his party in that of La Tour, who had
placed it at his disposal. Meanwhile, the people of
Boston had heard of what was taking place, and were
in some anxiety, since, in a truly British distrust of
all Frenchmen, they feared lest their governor might
be kidnapped and held for ransom. Some of them
accordingly took arms, and came in three boats to
the rescue. In fact, remarks Winthrop, " if La Tour
had been ill-minded towards us, he had such an
1 Wood, New England's Prospect, part i., chap. x.
2 Winthrop, ii. 127.
1643.] BOSTOtf IN 1643. 23
opportunity as we hope neither he nor any other shall
ever have the like again."1 The castle, or fort,
which was on another island hard by, was defenceless,
its feeble garrison having been lately withdrawn, and
its cannon might easily have been turned on the town.
Boston, now in its thirteenth year, was a straggling
village, with houses principally of boards or logs,
gathered about a plain wooden meeting-house which
formed the heart or vital organ of the place. The
rough peninsula on which the infant settlement stood
was almost void of trees, and was crowned by a hill
split into three summits, — whence the name of
Tremont, or Trimount, still retained by a street of
the present city. Beyond the narrow neck of the
peninsula were several smaller villages with outlying
farms; but the mainland was for the most part a
primeval forest, possessed by its original owners, — >
wolves, bears, and rattlesnakes. These last unde-
sirable neighbors made their favorite haunt on a high
rocky hill, called Rattlesnake Hill, not far inland,
where, down to- the present generation, they were
often seen, and where good specimens may occasion-
ally be found to this day.2
Far worse than wolves or rattlesnakes were the
Pequot Indians, — a warlike race who had boasted
i Winthrop, ii. 127.
* Blue Hill in Milton. " Up into the country is a high hill which
is called rattlesnake hill, where there is great store of these
poysonous creatures." (Wood, New England's Prospect.) "They
[the wolves] be the greatest inconreniency the country hath."
(Ibid.)
24 LA TOUR AND THE PURITANS. [1643.
that they would wipe the whites from the face of the
earth, but who, by hard marching and fighting, had
lately been brought to reason.
Worse than wolves, rattlesnakes, and Indians
together were the theological quarrels that threatened
to kill the colony in its infancy. Children are taught
that the Puritans came to New England in search of
religious liberty. The liberty they sought was for
themselves alone. It was the liberty to worship in
their own way, and to prevent all others from doing
the like. They imagined that they held a monopoly
of religious truth, and were bound in conscience to
defend it against all comers. Their mission was to
build up a western Canaan, ruled by the law of God;
to keep it pure from error, and, if need were, purge
it of heresy by persecution, — to which ends they set
up one of the most detestable theocracies on record.
Church and State were joined in one. Church-
members alone had the right to vote. There was
no choice but to remain politically a cipher, or
embrace, or pretend to embrace, the extremest
dogmas of Calvin. Never was such a premium
offered to cant and hypocrisy ; yet in the early days
hypocrisy was rare, so intense and pervading was
the faith of the founders of New England.
It was in the churches themselves, the appointed
sentinels and defenders of orthodoxy, that heresy
lifted its head and threatened the State with disrup-
tion. Where minds different in complexion and
character were continually busied with subtle ques-
1643.] PURITAN TROUBLES. 25
tions of theology, unity of opinion could not be long
maintained ; and innovation found a champion in one
Mrs. Hutchinson, a woman of great controversial
ability and inexhaustible fluency of tongue. Persons
of a mystical turn of mind, or a natural inclination
to contrariety, were drawn to her preachings; and
the church of Boston, with three or four exceptions,
went over to her in a body. " Sanctification, " " justi-
fication," "revelations," the "covenant of grace,"
and the "covenant of works," mixed in furious battle
with all the subtleties, sophistries, and venom of theo-
logical war; while the ghastly spectre of Antinomian-
ism hovered over the fray, carrying terror to the souls
of the faithful. The embers of the strife still burned
hot when La Tour appeared to bring another firebrand.
As a "papist" or "idolater," though a mild one,
he was sorely prejudiced in Puritan eyes, while his
plundering of the Plymouth trading-house some
years before, and killing two of its five tenants, did
not tend to produce impressions in his favor ; but it
being explained that all five were drunk, and had
begun the fray by firing on the French, the ire
against him cooled a little. Landing with Winthrop,
he was received under the hospitable roof of Captain
Gibbons, whose wife had recovered from her fright
at his approach. He went to church on Sunday, and
the gravity of his demeanor gave great satisfaction,
— a solemn carriage being of itself a virtue in Puritan
eyes. Hence he was well treated, and his men were
permitted to come ashore daily in small numbers.
26 LA TOUR AND THE PURITANS. [1643.
The stated training-day of the Boston militia fell
in the next week, and La Tour asked leave to exer-
cise his soldiers with the rest. This was granted ;
and, escorted by the Boston trained band, about
forty of them marched to the muster-field, which
was probably the Common, — a large tract of pasture-
land in which was a marshy pool, the former home
of a colony of frogs, perhaps not quite exterminated
by the sticks and stones of Puritan boys. This pool,
cleaned, paved, and curbed with granite, preserves to
this day the memory of its ancient inhabitants, and
is still the Frog Pond, though bereft of frogs.
The Boston trained band, in steel caps and buff
coats, went through its exercise; and the visitors,
we are told, expressed high approval. When the
drill was finished, the Boston officers invited La
Tour's officers to dine, while his rank and file were
entertained in like manner by the Puritan soldiers.
There were more exercises in the afternoon, and this
time it was the turn of the French, who, says
Winthrop, "were very expert in all their postures
and motions." A certain "judicious minister," in
dread of popish conspiracies, was troubled in spirit
at this martial display, and prophesied that " store of
blood would be spilled in Boston," — a prediction
that was not fulfilled, although an incident took
place which startled some of the spectators. The
Frenchmen suddenly made a sham charge, sword in
hand, which the women took for a real one. The
alarm was soon over; and as this demonstration
1643.] LA TOUR'S REQUEST. 27
ended the performance, La Tour asked leave of the
governor to withdraw his men to their ship. The
leave being granted, they fired a salute and marched
to the wharf where their boat lay, escorted, as before,
by the Boston trained band. During the whole of
La Tour's visit he and Winthrop went amicably to
church together every Sunday, — the governor being
attended, on these and all other occasions while the
strangers were in town, by a guard of honor of
musketeers and halberd men. La Tour and his chief
officers had their lodging and meals in the houses of
the principal townsmen, and all seemed harmony and
good-will.
La Tour, meanwhile, had laid his request before
the magistrates, and produced among other papers
the commission to Mouron, captain of his ship, dated
in the last April, and signed and sealed by the Vice-
Admiral of France, authorizing Mouron to bring
supplies to La Tour, whom the paper styled Lieuten-
ant-General for the King in Acadia; La Tour also
showed a letter, genuine or forged, from the agent of
the Company of New France, addressed to him as
lieutenant-general, and warning him to beware of
D'Aunay: from all which the Boston magistrates
inferred that their petitioner was on good terms with
the French government,1 notwithstanding a letter
1 Count Jules de Menou, in his remarkable manuscript book now
before me, expresses his belief that the commission of the Vice-
Admiral was genuine, but that the letter of the agent of the Com-
pany was a fabrication.
28 LA TOUR AND THE PURITANS. [1643.
sent them by D'Aunay the year before, assuring
them that La Tour was a proclaimed rebel, which in
fact he was. Throughout this affair one is perplexed
by the French official papers, whose entanglements
and contradictions in regard to the Acadian rivals are
past unravelling.
La Tour asked only for such help as would enable
him to bring his own ship to his own fort; and, as
his papers seemed to prove that he was a recognized
officer of his King, Winthrop and the magistrates
thought that they might permit him to hire such
ships and men as were disposed to join him.
La Tour had tried to pass himself as a Protestant;
but his professions were distrusted, notwithstanding
the patience with which he had listened to the long-
winded sermons of the Reverend John Cotton. As
to his wife, however, there appears to have been but
one opinion. She was approved as a sound Protestant
" of excellent virtues ; " and her denunciations of
D'Aunay no doubt fortified the prejudice which was
already strong against him for his seizure of the
Plymouth trading-house at Penobscot, and for his
aggressive and masterful character, which made him
an inconvenient neighbor.
With the permission of the governor and the
approval of most of the magistrates, La Tour now
made a bargain with his host, Captain Gibbons, and
a merchant named Thomas Hawkins. They agreed
to furnish him with four vessels; to arm each of
these with from four to fourteen small cannon, and
1643.] DISPUTES. 29
man them with a certain number of sailors, La Tour
himself completing the crews with Englishmen hired
at his own charge. Hawkins was to command the
whole. The four vessels were to escort La Tour and
his ship, the "St. Clement," to the mouth of the St.
John, in spite of D'Aunay and all other opponents.
The agreement ran for two months; and La Tour
was to pay £250 sterling a month for the use of the
four ships, and mortgage to Gibbons and Hawkins
his fort and all his Acadian property as security.
Winthrop would give no commissions to Hawkins or
any others engaged in the expedition, and they were
all forbidden to fight except in self-defence ; but the
agreement contained the significant clause that all
plunder was to be equally divided according to rule
in such enterprises. Hence it seems clear that the
contractors had an eye to booty; yet no means were
used to hold them to their good behavior.
Now rose a brisk dispute, and the conduct of
Winthrop was sharply criticised. Letters poured in
upon him concerning "great dangers," "sin upon the
conscience," and the like. He himself was clearly in
doubt as to the course he was taking, and he soon
called another meeting of magistrates, in which the
inevitable clergy were invited to join; and they all
fell to discussing the matter anew. As every man of
them had studied the Bible daily from childhood up,
texts were the chief weapons of the debate. Doubts
were advanced as to whether Christians could law-
fully help idolaters, and Jehoshaphat, Ahab, and
30 LA TOUR AND THE PURITANS. [1643.
Josias were brought forward as cases in point. Then
Solomon was cited to the effect that " he that med-
dleth with the strife that belongs not to him takes a
dog by the ear; " to which it was answered that the
quarrel did belong to us, seeing that Providence now
offered us the means to weaken our enemy, D'Aunay,
without much expense or trouble to ourselves.
Besides, we ought to help a neighbor in distress,
seeing that Joshua helped the Gibeonites, and
Jehoshaphat helped Jehoram against Moab with the
approval of Elisha. The opposing party argued that
"by aiding papists we advance and strengthen
popery;" to which it was replied that the opposite
effect might follow, since the grateful papist, touched
by our charity, might be won to the true faith and
turned from his idols.
Then the debate continued on the more worldly
grounds of expediency and statecraft, and at last
Winthrop's action was approved by the majority.
Still, there were many doubters, and the governor
was severely blamed. John Endicott wrote to him
that La Tour was not to be trusted, and that he
and D'Aunay had better be left to fight it out
between them, since if we help the former to put
down his enemy he will be a bad neighbor to us.
Presently came a joint letter from several chief
men of the colony, — Saltonstall, Bradstreet, Nathaniel
Ward, John Norton, and others, — saying in sub-
stance: We fear international law has been ill
observed; the merits of the case are not clear; we
1643.] WINTHROP BLAMED. 31
are not called upon in charity to help La Tour (see
2 Chronicles xix. 2, and Proverbs xxvi. 17); this
quarrel is for England and France, and not for us ; if
D'Aunay is not completely put down, we shall have
endless trouble; and "he that loses his life in an
unnecessary quarrel dies the devil's martyr."
This letter, known as the "Ipswich letter," touched
Winthrop to the quick. He thought that it trenched
on his official dignity, and the asperity of his answer
betrays his sensitiveness. He calls the remonstrance
"an act of an exorbitant nature," and says that it
"blows a trumpet to division and dissension." "If
my neighbor is in trouble," he goes on to say, "I
must help him." He maintains that "there is great
difference between giving permission to hire to guard
or transport, and giving commission to fight," and he
adds the usual Bible text, " The fear of man bringeth
a snare; but whoso putteth his trust in the Lord
shall be safe."1
In spite of Winthrop's reply, the Ipswich letter
had great effect; and he and the Boston magistrates
were much blamed, especially in the country towns.
The governor was too candid not to admit that he
had been in fault, though he limits his self -accusation
to three points : first, that he had given La Tour an
answer too hastily; next, that he had not sufficiently
1 Winthrop's Answer to the Ipswich Letter about La Tour (no date),
in Hutchinson Papers, 122. Bradstreet writes to him on the 21st of
June, " Our ayding of Latour was very grievous to many hereabouts,
the design being feared to be unwarrantable by dyvers."
32 LA TOUR AND THE PURITANS. [1643.
consulted the elders or ministers ; and lastly, that he
had not opened the discussion with prayer.
The upshot was that La Tour and his allies sailed
on the fourteenth of July. D'Aunay's three vessels
fled before them to Port Royal. La Tour tried to per-
suade his Puritan friends to join him in an attack ;
but Hawkins, the English commander, would give
no order to that effect, on which about thirty of
the Boston men volunteered for the adventure.
D'Aunay's followers had ensconced themselves in a
fortified mill, whence they were driven with some
loss. After burning the mill and robbing a pin-
nace loaded with furs, the Puritans returned home,
having broken their orders and compromised their
colony.
In the next summer, La Tour, expecting a serious
attack from D'Aunay, — who had lately been to
France, and was said to be on his way back with
large reinforcements, — turned again to Massachusetts
for help. The governor this time was John Endicott,
of Salem. To Salem the suppliant repaired; and as
Endicott spoke French, the conference was easy.
The rugged bigot had before expressed his disap-
proval of "having anything to do with these idola-
trous French ; " but, according to Hubbard, he was
so moved with compassion at the woful tale of his
visitor that he called a meeting of magistrates and
ministers to consider if anything could be done for
him. The magistrates had by this time learned
caution, and the meeting would do nothing but write
1643.] D'AUNAY'S ARRIVAL. 83
a letter to D'Aunay, demanding satisfaction for his
seizure of Penobscot and other aggressions, and
declaring that the men who escorted La Tour to his
fort in the last summer had no commission from
Massachusetts, yet that if they had wronged him he
should have justice, though if he seized any New
England trading vessels they would hold him an-
swerable. In short, La Tour's petition was not
granted.
D'Aunay, when in France, had pursued his litiga-
tion against his rival, and the royal council had
ordered that the contumacious La Tour should be
seized, his goods confiscated, and he himself brought
home a prisoner; which decree D'Aunay was empow-
ered to execute, if he could. He had returned to
Acadia the accredited agent of the royal will. It
was reported at Boston that a Biscayan pirate had
sunk his ship on the way ; but the wish was father to
the thought, and the report proved false. D'Aunay
arrived safely, and was justly incensed at the support
given by the Puritans in the last year to his enemy.
But he too had strong reasons for wishing to be on
good terms with his heretic neighbors. King Louis,
moreover, had charged him not to offend them, since,
when they helped La Tour, they had done so in the
belief that he was commissioned as lieutenant-general
for the King, and therefore they should be held
blameless.
Hence D'Aunay made overtures of peace and
friendship to the Boston Puritans. Early in October,
3
34 LA TOUR AND THE PURITANS. [1644.
1644, they were visited by one Monsieur Marie,
"supposed," says the chronicle, "to be a friar, but
habited like a gentleman." He was probably one of
the Capuchins who formed an important part of
D'Aunay's establishment at Port Royal. The gov-
ernor and magistrates received him with due consid-
eration; and along with credentials from D'Aunay
he showed them papers under the great seal of
France, wherein the decree of the royal council was
set forth in full, La Tour condemned as a rebel and
traitor, and orders given to arrest both him and his
wife. Henceforth there was no room to doubt which
of the rival chiefs had the King and the law on his
side. The envoy, while complaining of the aid
given to La Tour, offered terms of peace to the gov-
ernor and magistrates, — who replied to his com-
plaints with their usual subterfuge, that they had
given no commission to those who had aided La
Tour, declaring at the same time that they could
make no treaty without the concurrence of the com-
missioners of the United Colonies. They then desired
Marie to set down his proposals in writing ; on which
he went to the house of one Mr. Fowle, where he
lodged, and drew up in French his plan for a treaty,
adding the proposal that the Bostonians should join
D'Aunay against La Tour. Then he came back to
the place of meeting arid discussed the subject for
half a day, — sometimes in Latin with the magis-
trates, and sometimes in French with the governor,
that old soldier being probably ill versed in the classic
1644.] MARIE'S MISSION. 35
tongues. In vain they all urged that D'Aunay
should come to terms with La Tour. Marie replied,
that if La Tour would give himself up his life would
be spared, but that if he were caught he would lose
his head as a traitor; adding that his wife was worse
than he, being the mainspring of his rebellion.
Endicott and the magistrates refused active alliance ;
but the talk ended in a provisional treaty of peace,
duly drawn up in Latin, Marie keeping one copy and
the governor the other. The agreement needed rati-
fication by the commissioners of the United Colonies
on one part, and by D'Aunay on the other. What
is most curious in the affair is the attitude of Massa-
chusetts, which from first to last figures as an inde-
pendent State, with no reference to the King under
whose charter it was building up its theocratic
republic, and consulting none but the infant confed-
eracy of the New England colonies, of which it was
itself the head. As the commissioners of the confed-
eracy were not then in session, Endicott and the
magistrates took the matter provisionally into their
own hands.
Marie had made good despatch, for he reached
Boston on a Friday and left it on the next Tuesday,
having finished his business in about three days, or
rather two, as one of the three was "the Sabbath."
He expressed surprise and gratification at the atten-
tion and courtesy with which he had been treated.
His hosts supplied him with horses, and some of
them accompanied him to Salem, where he had left
86 LA TOUR AND THE PURITANS. [1644.
his vessel, and whence he sailed for Port Royal, well
pleased.
Just before he came to Boston, that town had
received a visit from Madame de la Tour, who, soon
after her husband's successful negotiation with
Winthrop in the past year, had sailed for France in
the ship " St. Clement." She had labored strenuously
in La Tour's cause; but the influence of D'Aunay's
partisans was far too strong, and, being charged with
complicity in her husband's misconduct, she was
forbidden to leave France on pain of death. She set
the royal command at naught, escaped to England,
took passage in a ship bound for America, and after
long delay landed at Boston. The English ship-
master had bargained to carry her to her husband at
Fort St. Jean ; but he broke his bond, and was sen-
tenced by the Massachusetts courts to pay her £2, 000
as damages. She was permitted to hire three armed
vessels then lying in the harbor, to convey her to
Fort St. Jean, where she arrived safely and rejoined
La Tour.
Meanwhile, D'Aunay was hovering off the coast,
armed with the final and conclusive decree of the
royal council, which placed both husband and wife
under the ban, and enjoined him to execute its sen-
tence. But a resort to force was costly and of doubt-
ful result, and D'Aunay resolved again to try the
effect of persuasion. Approaching the mouth of the
St. John, he sent to the fort two boats, commanded
by his lieutenant, who carried letters from his chief,
1645.] AN ENRAGED AMAZON. 37
promising to La Tour's men pardon for their past
conduct and payment of all wages due them if they
would return to their duty. An adherent of D'Aunay
declares that they received these advances with
insults and curses. It was a little before this time
that Madame de la Tour arrived from Boston. The
same writer says that she fell into a transport of fury,
"behaved like one possessed with a devil," and
heaped contempt on the Catholic faith in the presence
of her husband, who approved everything she did;
and he further affirms that she so berated and reviled
the Re'eollet friars in the fort that they refused to
stay, and set out for Port Royal in the depth of
winter, taking with them eight soldiers of the fort
who were too good Catholics to remain in such a nest
of heresy and rebellion. They were permitted to go,
and were provided with an old pinnace and two
barrels of Indian corn, with which, unfortunately for
La Tour, they safely reached their destination.
On her arrival from Boston, Madame de la Tour
had given her husband a piece of politic advice. Her
enemies say that she had some time before renounced
her faith to gain the favor of the Puritans ; but there
is reason to believe that she had been a Huguenot
from the first. She now advised La Tour to go to
Boston, declare himself a Protestant, ask for a min-
ister to preach to his men, and promise that if the
Estonians would help him to master D'Aunay and
mquer Acadia, he would share the conquest with
tern. La Tour admired the sagacious counsels of
38 LA TOUR AND THE PURITANS. [1645.
his wife, and sailed for Boston to put them in prac-
tice just before the friars and the eight deserters
sailed for Port Royal, thus leaving their departure
unopposed.
At Port Royal both friars and deserters found a
warm welcome. D'Aunay paid the eight soldiers
their long arrears of wages, and lodged the friars in
the seminary with his Capuchins. Then he ques-
tioned them, and was well rewarded. They told him
that La Tour had gone to Boston, leaving his wife
with only forty-five men to defend the fort. Here
was a golden opportunity. D'Aunay called his
officers to council. All were of one mind. He mus-
tered every man about Port Royal and embarked
them in the armed ship of three hundred tons that
had brought him from France; he then crossed the
Bay of Fundy with all his force, anchored in a small
harbor a league from Fort St. Jean, and sent the
Re'collet Pdre Andre* to try to seduce more of La
Tour's men, — an attempt which proved a failure.
D'Aunay lay two months at his anchorage, during
which time another ship and a pinnace joined him
from Port Royal. Then he resolved to make an
attack. Meanwhile, La Tour had persuaded a
Boston merchant to send one Grafton to Fort St.
Jean in a small vessel loaded with provisions, and
bringing also a letter to Madame de la Tour contain-
ing a promise from her husband that he would join
her in a month. When the Boston vessel appeared
at the mouth of the St. John, D'Aunay seized it,
1645.] FORT ST. JEAN ATTACKED. 39
placed Grafton and the few men with him on an
island, and finally supplied them with a leaky sail-
boat to make their way home as they best could.
D'Aunay now landed two cannon to batter Fort
St. Jean on the land side ; and on the seventeenth of
April, having brought his largest ship within pistol-
shot of the water rampart," he summoned the garrison
to surrender.1 They answered with a volley of can-
non-shot, then hung out a red flag, and, according
to D'Aunay's reporter, shouted "a thousand insults
and blasphemies " ! 2 Towards evening a breach was
made in the wall, and D'Aunay ordered a general
assault. Animated by their intrepid mistress, the
defenders fought with desperation, and killed or
wounded many of the assailants, not without severe
loss on their own side. Numbers prevailed at last;
1 The site of Fort St. Jean, or Fort La Tour, has been matter of
question. At Carleton, opposite the present city of St. John, are
the remains of an earthen fort, by some supposed to be that of La
Tour, but which is no doubt of later date, as the place was occupied
by a succession of forts down to the Seven Years' War. On the
other hand, it has been assumed that Fort La Tour was at Jemsec,
which is about seventy miles up the river. Now, in the second
mortgage deed of Fort La Tour to Major Gibbons, May 10, 1645,
the fort is described as " situe pres de I'embouchure de la riviere de St.
Jean" Moreover, there is a cataract just above the mouth of the
river, which, though submerged at high tide, cannot be passed by
heavy ships at any time ; and as D'Aunay brought his largest ship
of war to within pistol-shot of the fort, it must have been below the
cataract. Mr. W. F. Ganong, after careful examination, is con-
vinced that Fort La Tour was at Portland Point, on the east side of
the St. John, at its mouth. See his paper on the subject in Transac-
tions of the Royal Society of Canada, 1891.
a Proces Verbal d' Andre Certain, in Appendix A.
40 LA TOUR AND THE PURITANS. [1645.
all resistance was overcome; the survivors of the
garrison were made prisoners, and the fort was pil-
laged. Madame de la Tour, her maid, and another
woman, who were all of their sex in the place, were
among the captives, also Madame de la Tour's son,
a mere child. D'Aunay pardoned some of his pris-
oners, but hanged the greater part, "to serve as an
example to posterity," says his reporter. Nicolas
Denys declares that he compelled Madame de la
Tour to witness the execution with a halter about her
neck; but the more trustworthy accounts say nothing
of this alleged outrage. On the next day, the eigh-
teenth of April, the bodies of the dead were decently
buried, an inventory was made of the contents of the
fort, and D'Aunay set his men to repair it for his
own use. These labors occupied three weeks or more,
during a part of which Madame de la Tour was left
at liberty, till, being detected in an attempt to corre-
spond with her husband by means of an Indian, she
was put into confinement; on which, according to
D'Aunay's reporter, "she fell ill with spite and
rage," and died within three weeks, — after, as he
tells us, renouncing her heresy in the chapel of the
fort.
CHAPTER III.
1645-1710.
THE VICTOR VANQUISHED.
D'AUNAY'S ENVOYS TO THE PURITANS : THEIR RECEPTION AT
BOSTON. — WINTHROP AND HIS " PAPIST " GUESTS. — RECON-
CILIATION, — TREATY. — BEHAVIOR OF LA TOUR. — ROYAL,
FAVORS TO D'AUNAY : HIS HOPES ; HIS DEATH ; HIS CHARACTER.
— CONDUCT OF THE COURT TOWARDS HIM. — INTRIGUES OF LA
TOUR. — MADAME D'AUNAY. — LA TOUR MARRIES HER. — CHIL-
DREN OF D'AUNAY. — DESCENDANTS OF LA TOUR.
HAVING triumphed over his rival, D'Aunay was
left free to settle his accounts with the Massachusetts
Puritans, who had offended him anew by sending
provisions to Fort St. Jean, having always insisted
that they were free to trade with either party.
They, on their side, were no less indignant with
him for his seizure of Graf ton's vessel and harsh
treatment of him and his men.
After some preliminary negotiation and some rather
sharp correspondence, D'Aunay, in September, 1646,
;nt a pinnace to Boston, bearing his former envoy,
[arie, accompanied by his own secretary and by one
[onsieur Louis.
It was Sunday, the Puritan Sabbath, when the
three envoys arrived; and the pious inhabitants were
42 THE VICTOR VANQUISHED. [1646.
preparing for the afternoon sermon. Marie and his
two colleagues were met at the wharf by two militia
officers, and conducted through the silent and dreary
streets to the house of Captain, now Major, Gibbons,
who seems to have taken upon himself in an
especial manner the office of entertaining strangers
of consequence.
All was done with much civility, but no ceremony ;
for the Lord's Day must be kept inviolate. Winthrop,
who had again been chosen governor, now sent an
officer, with a guard of musketeers, to invite the
envoys to his own house. Here he regaled them
with wine and sweetmeats, and then informed them
of "our manner that all men either come to our
publick meetings, or keep themselves quiet in their
houses."1 He then laid before them such books in
Latin and French as he had, and told them that they
were free to walk in his garden. Though the diver-
sion offered was no doubt of the dullest, — since the
literary resources of the colony then included little
besides arid theology, and the walk in the garden
promised but moderate delights among the bitter
pot-herbs provided against days of fasting, — the
victims resigned themselves with good grace, and, as
the governor tells us, "gave no offence." Sunset
came at last, and set the captives free.
On Monday both sides fell to business. The
envoys showed their credentials ; but, as the commis-
sioners of the United Colonies were not yet in
i Winthrop, ii. 273, 276.
1646.] THE ENVOYS. 43
session, nothing conclusive could be done till Tues-
day. Then, all being assembled, each party made
its complaints of the conduct of the other, and a
long discussion followed. Meals were provided for
the three visitors at the "ordinary," or inn, where
the magistrates dined during the sessions of the
General Court. The governor, as their host, always
sat with them at the board, and strained his Latin to
do honor to his guests. They, on their part, that
courtesies should be evenly divided, went every
morning at eight o'clock to the governor's house,
whence he accompanied them to the place of meet-
ing; and at night he, or some of the commissioners
in his stead, attended them to their lodging at the
house of Major Gibbons.
Serious questions were raised on both sides; but
as both wanted peace, explanations were mutually
made and accepted. The chief difficulty lay in the
undeniable fact, that, in escorting La Tour to his
fort in 1643, the Massachusetts volunteers had
chased D'Aunay to Port Royal, killed some of his
men, burned his mill, and robbed his pinnace, for
which wrongs the envoys demanded heavy damages.
It was true that the governor and magistrates had
forbidden acts of aggression on the part of the volun-
teers ; but on the other hand they had had reason to
believe that their prohibition would be disregarded,
and had taken no measures to enforce it. The
envoys clearly had good ground of complaint; and
here, says Winthrop, "they did stick two days." At
44 THE VICTOR VANQUISHED. [1646.
last they yielded so far as to declare that what
D'Aunay wanted was not so much compensation in
money as satisfaction to his honor by an acknowledg-
ment of their fault on the part of the Massachusetts
authorities ; and they further declared that he would
accept a moderate present in token of such acknowl-
edgment. The difficulty now was to find such a
present. The representatives of Massachusetts pres-
ently bethought themselves of a "very fair new
sedan " which the Viceroy of Mexico had sent to his
sister, and which had been captured in the West
Indies by one Captain Cromwell, a corsair, who
gave it to "our governor." Winthrop,. to whom it
was entirely useless, gladly parted with it in such a
cause; and the sedan, being graciously accepted,
ended the discussion.1 The treaty was signed in
duplicate by the commissioners of the United Colonies
and the envoys of D'Aunay, and peace was at last
concluded.
The conference had been conducted with much
courtesy on both sides. One small cloud appeared,
but soon passed away. The French envoys displayed
the fleur-de-lys at the masthead of their pinnace as
she lay in the harbor. The townsmen were incensed ;
and Monsieur Marie was told that to fly foreign
colors in Boston harbor was not according to custom.
He insisted for a time, but at length ordered the
offending flag to be lowered.
On the twenty-eighth of September the envoys bade
1 Winthrop, ii. 274.
1647.] BEHAVIOR OF LA TOUR. 45
farewell to Winthrop, who had accompanied them to
their pinnace with a guard of honor. Five cannon
saluted them from Boston, five from "the Castle,"
and three from Charlestown. A supply of mutton
and a keg of sherry were sent on board their ves-
sel; and then, after firing an answering salute from
their swivels, they stood down the bay till their sails
disappeared among the islands.
La Tour had now no more to hope from his late
supporters. He had lost his fort, and, what was
worse, he had lost his indomitable wife. Throughout
the winter that followed his disaster he had been
entertained by Samuel Maverick, at his house on
Noddle's Island. In the spring he begged hard for
further help; and, as he begged in vain, he sailed
for Newfoundland to make the same petition to Sir
David Kirke, who then governed that island. Kirke
refused, but lent him a pinnace and sent him back to
Boston. Here some merchants had the good nature
or folly to intrust him with goods for the Indian
trade, to the amount of four hundred pounds. Thus
equipped, he sailed for Acadia in Kirke 's pinnace,
manned with his own followers and five New England
men. On reaching Cape Sable, he conspired with
the master of the pinnace and his own men to seize
the vessel and set the New England sailors ashore,
— which was done, La Tour, it is said, shooting one
of them in the face with a pistol. It was winter,
and the outcasts roamed along the shore for a fort-
night, half frozen and half starved, till they were
46 THE VICTOR VANQUISHED. [1617.
met by Micmac Indians, who gave them food and a
boat, — in which, by rare good fortune, they reached
Boston, where their story convinced the most infatu-
ated that they had harbored a knave. "Whereby,"
solemnly observes the pious but much mortified
Winthrop, who had been La Tour's best friend, "it
appeared (as the Scripture saith) that there is no
confidence in an unfaithful or carnal man."1
When the capture of Fort St. Jean was known at
court the young King was well pleased, and promised
to send D'Aunay the gift of a ship;2 but he forgot
to keep his word, and requited his faithful subject
with the less costly reward of praises and honors.
After a preamble reciting his merits, and especially
his "care, courage, and valor" in "taking, by our
express order, and reducing again under our authority
the fort on the St. John which La Tour had rebel-
liously occupied with the aid of foreign sectaries,"
the King confirms D'Aunay's authority in Acadia,
and extends it on paper from the St. Lawrence to
Virginia, — empowering him to keep for himself such
parts of this broad domain as he might want, and
grant out the rest to others, who were to hold of him
as vassals. He could build forts and cities, at his
own expense ; command by land and sea ; make war
or peace within the limits of his grant; appoint
officers of government, justice, and police; and, in
short, exercise sovereign power, with the simple
* Winthrop, ii. 266.
2 Le Roy d M. d'Aunay Charnisay, 28 Sept., 1645,
1647. ] D' AUN AY'S REWARD. 47
reservation of homage to the King, and a tenth part
of all gold, silver, and copper to the royal treasury.
A full monopoly of the fur-trade throughout his
dominion was conferred on him; and any infringe-
ment of it was to be punished by confiscation of ships
and goods, and thirty thousand livres of damages.
On his part he was enjoined to " establish the name,
power, and authority of the King ; subject the nations
to his rule, and teach them the knowledge of the
true God and the light of the Christian faith."1
Acadia, in short, was made an hereditary fief; and
D'Aunay and his heirs became lords of a domain as
large as a European kingdom.
D'Aunay had spent his substance in the task of
civilizing a wilderness.2 The King had not helped
him; and though he belonged to a caste which held
commerce in contempt, he must be a fur-trader or a
bankrupt. La Tour's Fort St. Jean was a better
trading-station than Port Royal, and it had wofully
abridged D'Aunay's profits. Hence an ignoble com-
petition in beaver-skins had greatly embittered their
quarrel. All this was over; Fort St. Jean, the best
trading-stand in Acadia, was now in its conqueror's
hands ; and his monopoly was no longer a mere name,
but a reality.
1 Lettre du Roy de Gouverneur et Lieutenant General es costes a*
PAcadie pour Charles de Menou d'Aulnay Charnisay, Fevrier, 1647.
Lettre de la Reyne regente au meme, 13 Avril, 1647.
2 His heirs estimated his outlays for the colony at 800,000 livres.
Memoire des filles du feu Seigneur d'Aulnay Charnisay, 1686. Placet
de Joseph de Menou d'Aunay Charnisay, Jilt ain£ du feu Charles du
Menou d'Aunay Charnisay t 1658.
48 THE VICTOR VANQUISHED. [1650.
Everything promised a thriving trade and a growing
colony, when the scene was suddenly changed. On
the twenty-fourth of May, 1650, a dark and stormy
day, D'Aunay and his valet were in a birch canoe in
the basin of Port Royal, not far from the mouth of
the Annapolis. Perhaps neither master nor man was
skilled in the management of the treacherous craft
that bore them. The canoe overset. D'Aunay and
the valet clung to it and got astride of it, one at
each end. There they sat, sunk to the shoulders,
the canoe though under water having buoyancy
enough to keep them from sinking farther. So they
remained an hour and a half; and at the end of that
time D'Aunay was dead, not from drowning but
from cold, for the water still retained the chill of
winter. The valet remained alive ; and in this con-
dition they were found by Indians and brought to
the north shore of the Annapolis, whither Father
Ignace, the Superior of the Capuchins, went to find
the body of his patron, brought it to the fort, and
buried it in the chapel, in presence of his wife and
all the soldiers and inhabitants.1
The Father Superior highly praises the dead chief,
and is astonished that the earth does not gape and
devour the slanderers who say that he died in desper-
ation, as one abandoned of God. He admits that in
former times cavillers might have found wherewith
to accuse him, but declares that before his death he
had amended all his faults. This is the testimony
i Lettre du Rev. Pf Ignace, Capucin, 6 Aoust, 1653.
1651.] LA TOUR IN FAVOR. 49
of a Capuchin, whose fraternity he had always
favored. The Re*collets, on the other hand, whose
patron was La Tour, complained that D'Aunay had
ill-used them, and demanded redress.1 He seems to
have been a favorable example of his class ; loyal to
his faith and his King, tempering pride with cour-
tesy, and generally true to his cherished ideal of the
gentilhomme Franpais. In his qualities, as in his
birth, he was far above his rival; and his death was
the ruin of the only French colony in Acadia that
deserved the name.
At the news of his enemy's fate a new hope pos-
sessed La Tour. He still had agents in France
interested to serve him; while the father of D'Aunay,
who acted as his attorney, was feeble with age, and
his children were too young to defend their interests.
There is an extraordinary document bearing date
February, 1651, or less than a year after D'Aunay's
death. It is a complete reversal of the decree of
1647 hi his favor. La Tour suddenly appears as the
favorite of royalty, and all the graces before lavished
on his enemy are now heaped upon him. The lately
proscribed "rebel and traitor" is confirmed as gover-
nor and lieutenant-general in New France. His
services to God and the King are rehearsed "as ot
our certain knowledge," and he is praised with the
same emphasis used towards D'Aunay in the decree
i Papers to this effect are among the many pieces cited in the
Arret du Conseil d'Etat a Vegard du Seigneur de la Tour, 6 J/ars,
1644.
4
50 THE VICTOR VANQUISHED. [1651.
of 1647, and almost in the same words. The paper
goes on to say that he, La Tour, would have con-
verted the Indians and conquered Acadia for the
King if D'Aunay had not prevented him.1
Unless this document is a fabrication in the inter-
est of La Tour, as there is some reason to believe, it
suggests strange reflections on colonial administra-
tion during the minority of Louis XIV. Genuine or
not, La Tour profited by it, and after a visit to
France, which proved a successful and fruitful one,
he returned to Acadia with revived hopes. The
widow of D'Aunay had eight children, all minors;
and their grandfather, the octogenarian Rend de
Menou, had been appointed their guardian. He
sent an incompetent and faithless person to Port
Royal to fulfil the wardship of which he was no
longer capable.
The unfortunate widow and her children needed
better help. D'Aunay had employed as his agent
one Le Borgne, a merchant of Rochelle, who now
succeeded in getting the old man under his influence,
and induced him to sign an acknowledgment, said
to be false, that D'Aunay's heirs owed him 260,000
1 Confirmation de Gouverneur et Lieutenant General pour le Roy de
la Nouvelle France, a la Coste de I'Acadie, au Sr. Charles de St.
Etienne, Chevalier de la Tour, 27 Fev., 1651. A copy of this strange
paper is before me. Comte de Menou, and after him, his follower
Moreau, doubt the genuineness of the document, which, however, is
alluded to without suspicion in the legal paper entitled Memoire in
re Charles de St. Etienne, Seigneur de la Tour (fils) et ses freres et
soeurs, 1700. This Memoire is in the interest of the Leirs of La Tour
and is to be judged accordingly.
1653.] INTRIGUES OF LE BORGNE. 51
livres.1 Le Borgne next came to Port Royal to push
his schemes ; and here he inveigled or frightened the
widow into signing a paper to the effect that she and
her children owed him 205,286 livres. It was fortu-
nate for his unscrupulous plans that he had to do
with the soft and tractable Madame d'Aunay, and
not with the high-spirited and intelligent Amazon
Madame La Tour. Le Borgne now seized on Port
Royal as security for the alleged debts; while La
Tour on his return from his visit to France induced
the perplexed and helpless widow to restore to him
Fort St. Jean, conquered by her late husband.
Madame d'Aunay, beset with insidious enemies, saw
herself and her children in danger of total ruin. She
applied to the Due de Vendome, grand-master, chief,
and superintendent of navigation, and offered to
share all her Acadian claims with him if he would
help her in her distress ; but, from the first, Vendome
looked more to his own interests than to hers. La
Tour was not satisfied with her concessions to him,
and perplexing questions rose between them touching
land claims and the fur-trade. To end these troubles
she took a desperate step, and on the twenty-fourth
of February, 1653, married her tormentor, the foe of
her late husband, who had now been dead not quite
three years.2 Her chief thought seems to have been
for her children, whose rights are guarded, though
1 Memoire in re Charles de St. Etienne (file de la Tour), etc.
2 Rameau, i. 120. Menou and Moreau think that this marriage
took place two or three years later.
52 THE VICTOR VANQUISHED. [1654-1710.
to little purpose, in the marriage contract. She and
La Tour took up their abode at Fort St. Jean. Of
the children of her first marriage four were boys and
four were girls. They were ruined at last by the
harpies leagued to plunder them, and sought refuge
in France, where the boys were all killed in the wars
of Louis XIV., and at least three of the girls became
nuns.1
Now follow complicated disputes, without dignity
or interest, and turning chiefly on the fur- trade.
Le Borgne and his son, in virtue of their claims on
the estate of D'Aunay, which were sustained by the
French courts, got a lion's share of Acadia; a part
fell also to La Tour and his children by his new wife,
while Nicolas Denys kept a feeble hold on the shore
of the Gulf of St. Lawrence as far north as Cape
Hosiers.
War again broke out between France and England,
and in 1654 Major Robert Sedgwick of Charlestown,
Massachusetts, who had served in the civil war as a
major-general of Cromwell, led a small New England
force to Acadia under a commission from the Pro-
tector, captured Fort St. Jean, Port Royal, and all
the other French stations, and conquered the colony
for England. It was restored to France by the
treaty of Breda, and captured again in 1690 by Sir
William Phips. The treaty of Ryswick again restored
it to France, till, in 1710, it was finally seized for
England by General Nicholson.
1 Menou, L'Acadie colonisee.
1666-1830.] DESCENDANTS OF LA TOUR. 53
When, after Sedgwick's expedition, the English
were in possession of Acadia, La Tour, not for the
first time, tried to fortify his claims by a British title,
and, jointly with Thomas Temple and William
Crown, obtained a grant of the colony from Cromwell,
— though he soon after sold his share to his
copartner, Temple. He seems to have died in 1666. l
Descendants of his were living in Acadia in 1830,
and some may probably still be found there. As for
D'Aunay, no trace of his blood is left in the land
where he gave wealth and life for France and the
Church.
l Rameau, 1. 122.
SECTION SECOND.
CANADA A MISSION
CHAPTER IV.
1653-1658.
THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA.
THE IROQUOIS WAR. — FATHER PONCET : HIS ADVENTURES. —
JESUIT BOLDNESS. — LE MOYNE'S MISSION. — CHAUMONOT AND
DABLON. — IROQUOIS FEROCITY. — THE MOHAWK KIDNAPPERS.
— CRITICAL POSITION. — THE COLONY OF ONONDAGA. — SPEECH
OP CHAUMONOT. — OMENS OF DESTRUCTION. — DEVICE OF THE
JESUITS. — THE MEDICINE FEAST. — THE ESCAPE.
IN the summer of 1653 all Canada turned to fast-
ing and penance, processions, vows, and supplica-
tions. The saints and the Virgin were beset with
unceasing prayer. The wretched little colony was
like some puny garrison, starving amj. sick, com-
passed with inveterate foes, supplies cut off, and
succor hopeless.
At Montreal — the advance guard of the settle-
ments, a sort of Castle Dangerous, held by about
fifty Frenchmen, and said by a pious writer of the
day to exist only by a continuous miracle — some two
1653.] THE IROQUOIS WAR. 55
hundred Iroquois fell upon twenty-six Frenchmen.
The Christians were outmatched, eight to one ; but,
says the chronicle, the Queen of Heaven was on their
side, and the Son of Mary refuses nothing to his
holy mother.1 Through her intercession, the Iroquois
shot so wildly that at their first fire every bullet
missed its mark, and they met with a bloody defeat.
The palisaded settlement of Three Rivers, though in
a position less exposed than that of Montreal, was
in no less jeopardy. A noted war-chief of the
Mohawk Iroquois had been captured here the year
before, and put to death ; and his tribe swarmed out,
like a nest of angry hornets, to revenge him. Not
content with defeating and killing the commandant,
Du Plessis Bochart, they encamped during the winter
in the neighboring forest, watching for an oppor-
tunity to surprise the place. Hunger drove them
off, but they returned in the spring, infesting every
field and pathway; till at length some six hundred
of their warriors landed in secret and lay hidden in
the depths of the woods, silently biding their time.
Having failed, however, in an artifice designed to
lure the French out of their defences, they showed
themselves on all sides, plundering, burning, and
destroying, up to the palisades of the fort.2
Of the three settlements which, with their feeble
1 Le Mercier, Relation, 1653, 3.
2 So bent were they on taking the place, that they brought their
families, in order to make a permanent settlement. Marie de
Hncarnation, Lettre du 6 Sept., 1663.
56 THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA. [1653.
dependencies, then comprised the whole of Canada,
Quebec was least exposed to Indian attacks, being
partially covered by Montreal and Three Rivers.
Nevertheless, there was no safety this year, even
under the cannon of Fort St. Louis. At Cap Rouge,
a few miles above, the Jesuit Poncet saw a poor
woman who had a patch of corn beside her cabin,
but could find nobody to harvest it. The father
went to seek aid; met one Mathurin Franchetot,
whom he persuaded to undertake the charitable task,
and was returning with him, when they both fell
into an ambuscade of Iroquois, who seized them and
dragged them off. Thirty-two men embarked in
canoes at Quebec to follow the retreating savages and
rescue the prisoners. Pushing rapidly up the St.
Lawrence, they approached Three Rivers, found it
beset by the Mohawks, and bravely threw them-
selves into it, to the great joy of its defenders and
discouragement of the assailants.
Meanwhile, the intercession of the Virgin wrought
new marvels at Montreal, and a bright ray of hope
beamed forth from the darkness and the storm to cheer
the hearts of her votaries. It was on the twenty -sixth
of June that sixty of the Onondaga Iroquois appeared
in sight of the fort, shouting from a distance that
they came on an errand of peace, and asking safe-
conduct for some of their number. Guns, scalping-
knives, tomahawks, were all laid aside; and, with a
confidence truly astonishing, a deputation of chiefs,
naked and defenceless, came into the midst of those
1653.] PACIFIC OVERTURES. 57
whom they had betrayed so often. The French had
a mind to seize them, and pay them in kind for past
treachery; but they refrained, seeing in this won-
drous change of heart the manifest hand of Heaven.
Nevertheless, it can be explained without a miracle.
The Iroquois, or at least the western nations of their
league, had just become involved in war with their
neighbors the Eries,1 and "one war at a time" was
the sage maxim of their policy.
All was smiles and blandishment in the fort at
Montreal ; presents were exchanged, and the deputies
departed, bearing home golden reports of the French.
An Oneida deputation soon followed ; but the enraged
Mohawks still infested Montreal and beleaguered
Three Rivers, till one of their principal chiefs and
four of their best warriors were captured by a party
of Christian Hurons. Then, seeing themselves
abandoned by the other nations of the league and
left to wage the war alone, they too made overtures
of peace.
A grand council was held at Quebec. Speeches
were made, and wampum-belts exchanged. The
Iroquois left some of their chief men as pledges of
sincerity, and two young soldiers offered themselves
as reciprocal pledges on the part of the French.
The war was over; at least Canada had found a
moment to take breath for the next struggle. The
1 See "Jesuits in North America," 542. The Iroquois, it will be
remembered, consisted of five "nations," or tribes, — the Mohawks,
Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas. For an account of
them, see the work just cited, Introduction.
58 THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA. [1653.
fur-trade was restored again, with promise of plenty ;
for the beaver, profiting by the quarrels of their
human foes, had of late greatly multiplied. It was
a change from death to life ; for Canada lived on the
beaver, and robbed of this, her only sustenance, had
been dying slowly since the strife began.1
" Yesterday, " writes Father Le Mercier, "all was
dejection and gloom ; to-day, all is smiles and gayety.
On Wednesday, massacre, burning, and pillage; on
Thursday, gifts and visits, as among friends. If the
Iroquois have their hidden designs, so too has God.
" On the day of the Visitation of the Holy Virgin,
the chief, Aontarisati,2 so regretted by the Iroquois,
was taken prisoner by our Indians, instructed by our
fathers, and baptized; and on the same day, being
put to death, he ascended to heaven. I doubt not
that he thanked the Virgin for his misfortune and
the blessing that followed, and that he prayed to
God for his countrymen.
"The people of Montreal made a solemn vow to
celebrate publicly the fete of this mother of all bless-
ings ; whereupon the Iroquois came to ask for peace.
"It was on the day of the Assumption of this
Queen of angels and of men that the Hurons took at
1 According to Le Mercier, beaver to the value of from 200,000
to 300,000 livres was yearly brought down to the colony before the
destruction of the Hurons (1649-50). Three years later, not one
beaver-skin was brought to Montreal during a twelvemonth, and
Three Rivers and Quebec had barely enough to pay for keeping the
fortifications in repair.
2 The chief whose death had so enraged the Mohawki.
1653.] THE WOES OF FATHER PONCET. 59
Montreal that other famous Iroquois chief, whose
capture caused the Mohawks to seek our alliance.
" On the day when the Church honors the Nativity
of the Holy Virgin, the Iroquois granted Father
Poncet his life ; and he, or rather the Holy Virgin
and the holy angels, labored so well in the work of
peace, that on Saint Michael's Day it was resolved in
a council of the elders that the father should be con-
ducted to Quebec, and a lasting treaty made with
the French."1
Happy as was this consummation, Father Poncet's
path to it had been a thorny one. He has left us his
own rueful story, written in obedience to the com-
mand of his superior. He and his companion in
misery had been hurried through the forests, from
Cap Rouge on the St. Lawrence to the Indian towns
on the Mohawk. He tells us how he slept among
dank weeds, dropping with the cold dew; how fright-
ful colics assailed him as he waded waist-deep through
a mountain stream ; how one of his feet was blistered
and one of his legs benumbed ; how an Indian snatched
away his reliquary and lost the precious contents.
"I had," he says, "a picture of Saint Ignatius with
our Lord bearing the cross, and another of Our Lady
of Pity surrounded by the five wounds of her Son.
They were my joy and my consolation; but I hid
them in a bush, lest the Indians should laugh at
them." He kept, however, a little image of the
crown of thorns, in which he found great comfort,
i Relation, 1653, 1&
60 THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA. [1653.
as well as in communion with his patron saints, Saint
Raphael, Saint Martha, and Saint Joseph. On one
occasion he asked these celestial friends for some-
thing to soothe his thirst, and for a bowl of broth to
revive his strength. Scarcely had he framed the
petition when an Indian gave him some wild plums ;
and in the evening, as he lay fainting on the ground,
another brought him the coveted broth. Weary and
forlorn, he reached at last the lower Mohawk town,
where, after being stripped, and with his companion
forced to run the gantlet, he was placed on a scaffold
of bark, surrounded by a crowd of grinning and
mocking savages. As it began to rain, they took
him into one of their lodges, and amused themselves
by making him dance, sing, and perform various
fantastic tricks for their amusement. He seems to
have done his best to please them; "but," adds the
chronicler, " I will say in passing, that as he did not
succeed to their liking in these buffooneries (singeries),
they would have put him to death if a young Huron
prisoner had not offered himself to sing, dance, and
make wry faces in place of the father, who had never
learned the trade."
Having sufficiently amused themselves, they left
him for a time in peace ; when an old one-eyed Indian
approached, took his hands, examined them, selected
the left forefinger, and calling a child four or five
years old, gave him a knife, and told him to cut it
off, which the imp proceeded to do, his victim mean-
while singing the Vexilla Regis. After this prelimi-
1653.] PEACE CONCLUDED. 61
nary, they would have burned him, like Franchetot,
his unfortunate companion, had not a squaw happily
adopted him in place, as he says, of a deceased
brother. He was installed at once in the lodge of
his new relatives, where, bereft of every rag of
Christian clothing, and attired in leggins, moccasins,
and a greasy shirt, the astonished father saw himself
transformed into an Iroquois. But his deliverance
was at hand. A special agreement providing for it
had formed a part of the treaty concluded at Quebec ;
and he now learned that he was to be restored to his
countrymen. After a march of almost intolerable
hardship, he saw himself once more among Christians,
• — Heaven, as he modestly thinks, having found him
unworthy of martyrdom.
"At last," he writes, "we reached Montreal on
the twenty-first of October, the nine weeks of my cap-
tivity being accomplished, in honor of Saint Michael
and all the holy angels. On the sixth of November
the Iroquois who conducted me made their presents to
confirm the peace; and thus, on a Sunday evening,
eighty-and-one days after my capture, — that is to
say, nine times nine days, — this great business of
the peace was happily concluded, the holy angels
showing by this number nine, which is specially
dedicated to them, the part they bore in this holy
work."1 This incessant supernaturalism is the key
to the early history of New France.
i Poncet in Relation, 1653, 17. On Poncet's captivity see also
Morale Pratique des Jesuites, vol. xxxiv. (4to) chap. xii.
02 THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA. [1653.
Peace was made ; but would peace endure ? There
was little chance of it, and this for several reasons.
First, the native fickleness of the Iroquois, who,
astute and politic to a surprising degree, were in
certain respects, like all savages, mere grown-up
children. Next, their total want of control over
their fierce and capricious young warriors, any one
of whom could break the peace with impunity when-
ever he saw fit; and, above all, the strong probability
that the Iroquois had made peace in order, under
cover of it, to butcher or kidnap the unhappy rem-
nant of the Huions who were living, under French
protection, on the island of Orleans, immediately
below Quebec. I have already told the story of the
destruction of this people and of the Jesuit missions
established among them.1 The conquerors were
eager to complete their bloody triumph by seizing
upon the refugees of Orleans, killing the elders, and
strengthening their own tribes by the adoption of the
women, children, and youths. The Mohawks and
the Onondagas were competitors for the prize. Each
coveted the Huron colony, and each was jealous lest
his rival should pounce upon it first.
When the Mohawks brought home Poncet, they
covertly gave wampum-belts to the Huron chiefs,
and invited them to remove to their villages. It was
the wolf's invitation to the lamb. The Hurons,
aghast with terror, went secretly to the Jesuits, and
told them that demons had whispered in their ears an
1 See " Jesuits in North America."
1653.] JESUIT BOLDNESS. 63
invitation to destruction. So helpless were both the
Hurons and their French supporters, that they saw
no recourse but dissimulation. The Hurons promised
to go, and only sought excuses to gain time.
The Onondagas had a deeper plan. Their towns
were already full of Huron captives, former converts
of the Jesuits, cherishing their memory and con-
stantly repeating their praises. Hence their tyrants
conceived the idea that by planting at Onondaga a
colony of Frenchmen under the direction of these
beloved fathers, the Hurons of Orleans, disarmed of
suspicion, might readily be led to join them. Other
motives, as we shall see, tended to the same end, and
the Onondaga deputies begged, or rather demanded,
that a colony of Frenchmen should be sent among them.
Here was a dilemma. Was not this, like the
Mohawk invitation to the Hurons, an invitation to
butchery? On the other hand, to refuse would
probably kindle the war afresh. The Jesuits had
long nursed a project bold to temerity. Their great
Huron mission was ruined ; but might not another be
built up among the authors of this ruin, and the
Iroquois themselves, tamed by the power of the
Faith, be annexed to the kingdoms of Heaven and
of France ? Thus would peace be restored to Canada,
a barrier of fire opposed to the Dutch and English
heretics, and the power of the Jesuits vastly increased.
Yet the time was hardly ripe for such an attempt.
Before thrusting a head into the tiger's jaws, it
would be well to try the effect of thrusting in a
64 THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA. [1654.
hand. They resolved to compromise with the
danger, and before risking a colony at Onondaga to
send thither an envoy who could soothe the Indians,
confirm them in pacific designs, and pave the way
for more decisive steps. The choice fell on Father
Simon Le Moyne.
The errand was mainly a political one; and this
sagacious and able priest, versed in Indian languages
and customs, was well suited to do it. "On the
second day of the month of July, the festival of
the Visitation of the Most Holy Virgin, ever favor-
able to our enterprises, Father Simon Le Moyne set
out from Quebec for the country of the Onondaga
Iroquois." In these words does Father Le Mercier
chronicle the departure of his brother Jesuit. Scarcely
was he gone when a band of Mohawks, under a
redoubtable half-breed known as the Flemish Bastard,
arrived at Quebec; and when they heard that the
envoy was to go to the Onondagas without visiting
their tribe, they took the imagined slight in high
dudgeon, displaying such jealousy and ire that a
letter was sent after Le Moyne, directing him to pro-
ceed to the Mohawk towns before his return. But
he was already beyond reach, and the angry Mohawks
tvere left to digest their wrath.
At Montreal, Le Moyne took a canoe, a young
Frenchman, and two or three Indians, and began the
tumultuous journey of the Upper St. Lawrence.
Nature, or habit, had taught him to love the wilder-
ness life. He and his companions had struggled all
1654.] FATHER LE MOYNE. 65
day against the surges of La Chine, and were biv-
ouacked at evening by the Lake of St. Louis, when
a cloud of mosquitoes fell upon them, followed by a
shower of warm rain. The father, stretched under
a tree, seems clearly to have enjoyed himself. " It
is a pleasure," he writes, "the sweetest and most
innocent imaginable, to have no other shelter than
trees planted by Nature since the creation of the
world." Sometimes, during their journey, this
primitive tent proved insufficient, and they would
build a bark hut or find a partial shelter under their
inverted canoe. Now they glided smoothly over the
sunny bosom of the calm and smiling river, and now
strained every nerve to fight their slow way against
the rapids, dragging their canoe upward in the
shallow water by the shore, as one leads an unwilling
horse by the bridle, or shouldering it and bearing it
through the forest to the smoother current above.
Game abounded; and they saw great herds of elk
quietly defiling between the water and the woods,
with little heed of men, who in that perilous region
found employment enough in hunting one another.
At the entrance of Lake Ontario they met a party
of Iroquois fishermen, who proved friendly, and
guided them on their way. Ascending the Onondaga,
they neared their destination ; and now all misgivings
as to their reception at the Iroquois capital were dis-
pelled. The inhabitants came to meet them, bring-
ing roasting ears of the young maize and bread made
of its pulp, than which they knew no luxury more
66 THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA. [1054.
exquisite. Their faces beamed welcome. Le Moyne
was astonished. "I never," he says, "saw the like
among Indians before." They were flattered by his
visit, and, for the moment, were glad to see him.
They hoped for great advantages from the residence
of Frenchmen among them ; and having the Erie war
on their hands, they wished for peace with Canada.
"One would call me brother," writes Le Moyne;
"another, uncle; another, cousin. I never had so
many relations."
He was overjoyed to find that many of the Huron
converts, who had long been captives at Onondaga,
had not forgotten the teachings of their Jesuit
instructors. Such influence as they had with their
conquerors was sure to be exerted in behalf of the
French. Deputies of the Senecas, Cayugas, and
Oneidas at length arrived, and on the tenth of August
the criers passed through the town, summoning all
to hear the words of Onontio. The naked dignita-
ries, sitting, squatting, or lying at full length,
thronged the smoky hall of council. The father
knelt and prayed in a loud voice, invoking the aid of
Heaven, cursing the demons who are spirits of dis-
cord, and calling on the tutelar angels of the country
to open the ears of his listeners. Then he opened
his packet of presents and began his speech. " I was
full two hours," he says, "in making it, speaking in
the tone of a chief, and walking to and fro, after
their fashion, like an actor on a theatre." Not only
did he imitate the prolonged accents of the Iroquois
1654.] LE MOYNE AT ONONDAGA. 67
orators, but he adopted and improved their figures of
speech, and addressed them in turn by their respective
tribes, bands, and families, calling their men of note
by name, as if he had been born among them. They
were delighted ; and their ejaculations of approval —
hoh-hoh-hoh — came thick and fast at every pause of
his harangue. Especially were they pleased with the
eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh presents, whereby
the reverend speaker gave to the four upper nations
of the league four hatchets to strike their new ene-
mies, the Eries; while by another present he meta-
phorically daubed their faces with the war-paint.
However it may have suited the character of a Chris-
tian priest to hound on these savage hordes to a war
of extermination which they had themselves pro-
voked, it is certain that, as a politician, Le Moyne
did wisely ; since in the war with the Eries lay the
best hope of peace for the French.
The reply of the Indian orator was friendly to
overflowing. He prayed his French brethren to
choose a spot on the lake of Onondaga, where they
might dwell in the country of the Iroquois, as they
dwelt already in their hearts. Le Moyne promised,
and made two presents to confirm the pledge. Then,
his mission fulfilled, he set out on his return,
attended by a troop of Indians. As he approached
the lake, his escort showed him a large spring of
water, possessed, as they told him, by a bad spirit.
Le Moyne tasted it, then boiled a little of it, and
produced a quantity of excellent salt. He had dis-
68 THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA. [1654-55.
covered the famous salt-springs of Onondaga. Fish-
ing and hunting, the party pursued their way till, at
noon of the seventh of September, Le Moyne reached
Montreal.1
When he reached Quebec, his tidings cheered for
a while the anxious hearts of its tenants ; but an un-
wonted incident soon told them how hollow was the
ground beneath their feet. Le Moyne, accompanied
by two Onondagas and several Hurons and Algonquins,
was returning to Montreal, when he and his com-
panions were set upon by a war-party of Mohawks.
The Hurons and Algonquins were killed. One of
the Onondagas shared their fate, and the other, with
Le Moyne himself, was seized and bound fast. The
captive Onondaga, however, was so loud in his
threats and denunciations that the Mohawks released
both him and the Jesuit.2 Here was a foreshadow-
ing of civil war, — Mohawk against Onondaga,
Iroquois against Iroquois. The quarrel was patched
up, but fresh provocations were imminent.
The Mohawks took no part in the Erie war, and
hence their hands were free to fight the French and
the tribes allied with them. Reckless of their
promises, they began a series of butcheries, — fell
upon the French at Isle aux Oies, killed a lay brother
of the Jesuits at Sillery, and attacked Montreal.
Here, being roughly handled, they came for a time
1 Journal du Pere Le Moine, Relation, 1654, chaps, vi. vii.
2 Compare Relation, 1654, 33, and Lettre de Marie de T 'Incarnation,
18 Oct., 1664.
1655.] ONONDAGA DEPUTATION. 69
to their senses, and offered terms, promising to spare
the French, but declaring that they would still wage
war against the Hurons and Algonquins. These
were allies whom the French were pledged to protect ;
but so helpless was the colony that the insolent and
humiliating proffer was accepted, and another peace
ensued, as hollow as the last. The indefatigable Le
Moyne was sent to the Mohawk towns to confirm it,
"so far," says the chronicle, "as it is possible to con-
firm a peace made by infidels backed by heretics."1
The Mohawks received him with great rejoicing ; yet
his life was not safe for a moment. A warrior,
feigning madness, raved through the town with
uplifted hatchet, howling for his blood; but the
saints watched over him and balked the machinations
of hell. He came off alive and returned to Montreal,
spent with famine and fatigue.
Meanwhile a deputation of eighteen Onondaga
chiefs arrived at Quebec. There was a grand council.
The Onondagas demanded a colony of Frenchmen to
dwell among them. Lauson, the governor, dared
neither to consent nor to refuse. A middle course
was chosen ; and two Jesuits, Chaumonot and Dablon,
were sent, like Le Moyne, partly to gain time, partly
to reconnoitre, and partly to confirm the Onondagas
in such good intentions as they might entertain.
Chaumonot was a veteran of the Huron mission, who,
miraculously as he himself supposed, had acquired a
1 Copie de Deux Lettres envoyees de la Nouvelle France au Pere
Procureur des Missions de la Compagnie de Jesus.
70 THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA. [1655.
great fluency in the Huron tongue, which is closely
allied to that of the Iroquois. Dablon, a new-comer,
spoke, as yet, no Indian.
Their voyage up the St. Lawrence was enlivened
by an extraordinary bear-hunt, and by the antics of
one of their Indian attendants, who, having dreamed
that he had swallowed a frog, roused the whole
camp by the gymnastics with which he tried to rid
himself of the intruder. On approaching Onondaga,
they were met by a chief who sang a song of wel-
come, a part of which he seasoned with touches
of humor, — apostrophizing the fish in the river
Onondaga, naming each sort, great or small, and
calling on them in turn to come into the nets of the
Frenchmen and sacrifice life cheerfully for their
behoof. Hereupon there was much laughter among
the Indian auditors. An unwonted cleanliness
reigned in the town ; the streets had been cleared of
refuse, and the arched roofs of the long houses of
bark were covered with red-skinned children staring
at the entry of the "black robes."
Crowds followed behind, and all was jubilation.
The dignitaries of the tribe met them on the way,
and greeted them with a speech of welcome. A feast
of bear's meat awaited them ; but, unhappily, it was
Friday, and the fathers were forced to abstain.
" On Monday, the fifteenth of November, at nine in
the morning, after having secretly sent to Paradise
a dying infant by the waters of baptism, all the
elders and the people having assembled, we opened
1655.] REPLY OF THE CHIEFS. 71
the council by public prayer." Thus writes Father
Dablon. His colleague, Chaumonot, a Frenchman
bred in Italy, now rose, with a long belt of wampum
in his hand, and proceeded to make so effective a
display of his rhetorical gifts that the Indians were
lost in admiration, and their orators put to the blush
by his improvements on their own metaphors. "If
he had spoken all day," said the delighted auditors,
"we should not have had enough of it." "The
Dutch," added others, "have neither brains nor
tongues; they never tell us about paradise and hell;
on the contrary, they lead us into bad ways."
On the next day the chiefs returned their answer.
The council opened with a song or chant, which was
divided into six parts, and which, according to
Dablon, was exceedingly well sung. The burden
of the fifth part was as follows : —
"Farewell war! farewell tomahawk! We have
been fools till now; henceforth we will be brothers,
— yes, we will be brothers."
Then came four presents, the third of which
enraptured the fathers. It was a belt of seven thou-
sand beads of wampum. "But this," says Dablon,
"was as nothing to the words that accompanied it."
"It is the gift of the faith," said the orator. "It is
to tell you that we are believers ; it is to beg you not
to tire of instructing us. Have patience, seeing that
we are so dull in learning prayer; push it into our
heads and our hearts." Then he led Chaumonot
into the midst of the assembly, clasped him in his
72 THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA. [1656.
arms, tied the belt about his waist, and protested,
with a suspicious redundancy of words, that as he
clasped the father, so would he clasp the faith.
What had wrought this sudden change of heart?
The eagerness of the Onondagas that the French
should settle among them had, no doubt, a large
share in it. For the rest, the two Jesuits saw abund-
ant signs of the fierce, uncertain nature of those
with whom they were dealing. Erie prisoners were
brought in and tortured before their eyes, — one of
them being a young stoic of about ten years, who
endured his fate without a single outcry. Huron
women and children, taken in war and adopted by
their captors, were killed on the slightest provoca-
tion, and sometimes from mere caprice. For several
days the whole town was in an uproar with the crazy
follies of the "dream feast,"1 and one of the Fathers
nearly lost his life in this Indian Bedlam.
One point was clear: the French must make a
settlement at Onondaga, and that speedily, or,
despite their professions of brotherhood, the
Onondagas would make war. Their attitude became
menacing; from urgency they passed to threats; and
the two priests felt that the critical posture of affairs
must at once be reported at Quebec. But here a
difficulty arose. It was the beaver-hunting season;
and, eager as were the Indians for a French colony,
not one of them would offer to conduct the Jesuits
to Quebec in order to fetch one. It was not until
1 See " Jesuits in North America," 154.
i656.] DABLON'S JOURNEY 73
nine masses had been said to Saint John the Baptist,
that a number of Indians consented to forego their
hunting, and escort Father Dablon home. l Chaumonot
remained at Onondaga, to watch his dangerous hosts
and soothe their rising jealousies.
It was the second of March when Dablon began his
journey. His constitution must have been of iron,
or he would have succumbed to the appalling hard-
ships of the way. It was neither winter nor spring.
The lakes and streams were not yet open, but the
half-thawed ice gave way beneath the foot. One of
the Indians fell through and was drowned. Swamp
and forest were clogged with sodden snow, and
ceaseless rains drenched them as they toiled on,
knee -deep in slush. Happily, the St. Lawrence was
open. They found an old wooden canoe by the
shore, embarked, and reached Montreal after a jour-
ney of four weeks.
Dablon descended to Quebec. There was long
and anxious counsel in the chambers of Fort St.
Louis. The Jesuits had information that if the
demands of the Onondagas were rejected, they would
join the Mohawks to destroy Canada. But why
were they so eager for a colony of Frenchmen ? Did
they want them as hostages, that they might attack
the Hurons and Algonquins without risk of French
interference ; or would they massacre them, and then,
like tigers mad with the taste of blood, turn upon
1 De Quen, Relation, 1656, 35. Chaumonot, in his Autobiography
ascribes the miracle to the intercession of the deceased Brebeuf .
74 THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA. [1656.
the helpless settlements of the St. Lawrence? An
abyss yawned on either hand. Lauson, the governor,
was in an agony of indecision; but at length he
declared for the lesser and remoter peril, and gave
his voice for the colony. The Jesuits were of the
same mind, though it was they, and not he, who
must bear the brunt of danger. " The blood of the
martyrs is the seed of the Church," said one of them;
" and if we die by the fires of the Iroquois, we shall
have won eternal life by snatching souls from the
fires of hell."
Preparation was begun at once. The expense fell
on the Jesuits, and the outfit is said to have cost
them seven thousand livres, — a heavy sum for
Canada at that day. A pious gentleman, Zachary
Du Puys, major of the fort of Quebec, joined the
expedition with ten soldiers ; and between thirty and
forty other Frenchmen also enrolled themselves,
impelled by devotion or destitution. Four Jesuits,
— Le Mercier, the superior, with Dablon, Me*nard,
and Fre*min, — besides two lay brothers of the order,
formed, as it were, the pivot of the enterprise. The
governor made them the grant of a hundred square
leagues of land in the heart of the Iroquois country,
— a preposterous act, which, had the Iroquois known
it, would have rekindled the war ; but Lauson had a
mania for land-grants, and was himself the proprietor
of vast domains which he could have occupied only
at the cost of his scalp.
Embarked in two large boats and followed by
1656.] DEPARTURE. 75
twelve canoes filled with Hurons, Onondagas, and a
few Senecas lately arrived, they set out on the seven-
teenth of May "to attack the demons," as Le Mercier
writes, "in their very stronghold." With shouts,
tears, and benedictions, priests, soldiers, and inhabit-
ants waved farewell from the strand. They passed
the bare steeps of Cape Diamond and the mission-
house nestled beneath the heights of Sillery, and
vanished from the anxious eyes that watched the
last gleam of their receding oars.1
Meanwhile three hundred Mohawk warriors had
taken the war-path, bent on killing or kidnapping
the Hurons of Orleans. When they heard of the
departure of the colonists for Onondaga, their rage
was unbounded; for not only were they full of jeal-
ousy towards their Onondaga confederates, but they
had hitherto derived great profit from the control
which their local position gave them over the traffic
between this tribe and the Dutch of the Hudson, —
upon whom the Onondagas, in common with all the
upper Iroquois, had been dependent for their guns,
hatchets, scalping-knives, beads, blankets, and
brandy. These supplies would now be furnished by
the French, and the Mohawk speculators saw their
occupation gone. Nevertheless, they had just made
peace with the French, and for the moment were not
quite in the mood to break it. To wreak their spite,
they took a middle course, — crouched in ambush
1 Marie de 1'Incarnation, Lettres, 1656. Le Mercier, Relation,
1657, chap. iv. Chaulraer, Nouveau Monde, ii. 265, 322, 319.
76 THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA. [1656.
among the bushes at Point St. Croix, ten or twelve
leagues above Quebec, allowed the boats bearing the
French to pass unmolested, and fired a volley at the
canoes in the rear, filled with Onondagas, Senecas,
and Hurons. Then they fell upon them with a yell,
and, after wounding a lay brother of the Jesuits
who was among them, bound and flogged such of
the Indians as they could seize. The astonished
Onondagas protested and threatened; whereupon the
Mohawks feigned great surprise, declared that they
had mistaken them for Hurons, called them brothers,
and suffered the whole party to escape without
further injury.1
The three hundred marauders now paddled their
large canoes of elm-bark stealthily down the current,
passed Quebec undiscovered in the dark night of the
nineteenth of May, landed in early morning on the
island of Orleans, and ambushed themselves to sur-
prise the Hurons as they came to labor in their corn-
fields. They were tolerably successful, — killed six,
and captured more than eighty, the rest taking refuge
in their fort, where the Mohawks dared not attack
them.
At noon, the French on the rock of Quebec saw
forty canoes approaching from the island of Orleans,
and defiling, with insolent parade, in front of the
town, all crowded with the Mohawks and their pris-
oners, among whom were a great number of Huron
1 Compare Marie de Tlncarnation, Lettre 14 Aout, 1656, Le Jeune,
Relation, 1657, 9.
1856.] MOHAWK INSOLENCE. 7T
girls. Their captors, as they passed, forced them
to sing and dance. The Hurons were the allies, or
rather the wards, of the French, who were in every
way pledged to protect them. Yet the cannon of
Fort St. Louis were silent, and the crowd stood gap-
ing in bewilderment and fright. Had an attack been
made, nothing but a complete success and the capture
of many prisoners to serve as hostages could have
prevented the enraged Mohawks from taking their
revenge on the Onondaga colonists. The emergency
demanded a prompt and clear-sighted soldier. The
governor, Lauson, was a gray-haired civilian, who,
however enterprising as a speculator in wild lands,
was in no way matched to the desperate crisis of the
hour. Some of the Mohawks landed above and
below the town, and plundered the houses from
which the scared inhabitants had fled. Not a soldier
stirred and not a gun was fired. The French, bullied
by a horde of naked savages, became an object of
contempt to their own allies.
The Mohawks carried their prisoners home, burned
six of them, and adopted or rather enslaved the
rest.1
Meanwhile the Onondaga colonists pursued their
perilous way. At Montreal they exchanged their
heavy boats for canoes, and resumed their journey
with a flotilla of twenty of these sylvan vessels. A
few days after, the Indians of the party had the satis-
faction of pillaging a small band of Mohawk hunters,
1 See authorities just cited, and Perrot, Moeurs des Sauvages, 106.
78 THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA. [1856.
in vicarious reprisal for their own wrongs. On the
twenty -sixth of June, as they neared Lake Ontario,
they heard a loud and lamentable voice from the edge
of the forest; whereupon, having beaten their drum
to show that they were Frenchmen, they beheld a
spectral figure, lean and covered with scars, which
proved to be a pious Huron, — one Joachim Ondakout,
captured by the Mohawks in their descent on the
island of Orleans, five or six weeks before. They
had carried him to their village and begun to torture
him ; after which they tied him fast and lay down to
sleep, thinking to resume their pleasure on the mor-
row. His cuts and burns being only on the surface,
he had the good fortune to free himself from his
bonds, and, naked as he was, to escape to the woods.
He held his course northwestward, through regions
even now a wilderness, gathered wild strawberries to
sustain life, and in fifteen days reached the St.
Lawrence, nearly dead with exhaustion. The French-
men gave him food and a canoe, and the living
skeleton paddled with a light heart for Quebec.
The colonists themselves soon began to suffer from
hunger. Their fishing failed on Lake Ontario, and
they were forced to content themselves with cran-
berries of the last year, gathered in the meadows.
Of their Indians, all but five deserted them. The
Father Superior fell ill, and when they reached the
mouth of the Oswego many of the starving French-
men had completely lost heart. Weary and faint,
they dragged their canoes up the rapids, when sud-
1666.] THE ONONDAGAS. V9
denly they were cheered by the sight of a stranger
canoe swiftly descending the current. The Onondagas,
aware of their approach, had sent it to meet them,
laden with Indian corn and fresh salmon. Two more
canoes followed, freighted like the first; and now all
was abundance till they reached their journey's end,
the Lake of Onondaga. It lay before them in the July
sun, a glittering mirror, framed in forest verdure.
They knew that Chaumonot with a crowd of
Indians was awaiting them at a spot on the margin
of the water, which he and Dablon had chosen as
the site of their settlement. Landing on the strand,
they fired, to give notice of their approach, five small
cannon which they had brought in their canoes.
Waves, woods, and hills resounded with the thunder
of their miniature artillery. Then re-embarking,
they advanced in order, four canoes abreast, towards
the destined spot. In front floated their banner of
white silk, embroidered in large letters with the
name of Jesus. Here were Du Puys and his soldiers,
with the picturesque uniforms and quaint weapons of
their time; Le Mercier and his Jesuits in robes of
black; hunters and bush-rangers; Indians painted
and feathered for a festal day. As they neared the
place where a spring bubbling from the hillside is
still known as the "Jesuits' Well," they saw the
edge of the forest dark with the muster of savages
whose yells of welcome answered the salvo of their
guns. Happily for them, a flood of summer rain
saved them from the harangues of the Onondaga
80 THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA. [1656.
orators, and forced white men and red alike to seek
such shelter as they could find. Their hosts, with
hospitable intent, would fain have sung and danced
all night; but the Frenchmen pleaded fatigue, and
the courteous savages, squatting around their tents,
chanted in monotonous tones to lull them to sleep.
In the morning they woke refreshed, sang Te Deum,
reared an altar, and, with a solemn mass, took pos-
session of the country in the name of Jesus.1
Three things, which they saw or heard of in their
new home, excited their astonishment. The first
was the vast flight of wild pigeons which in spring
darkened the air around the Lake of Onondaga ; the
second was the salt springs of Salina ; the third was
the rattlesnakes, which Le Mercier describes with
excellent precision, — adding that, as he learns from
the Indians, their tails are good for toothache and
their flesh for fever. These reptiles, for reasons
best known to themselves, haunted the neighborhood
of the salt-springs, but did not intrude their presence
into the abode of the French.
On the seventeenth of July, Le Mercier and Chau-
monot, escorted by a file of soldiers, set out for Onon-
daga, scarcely five leagues distant. They followed
the Indian trail, under the leafy arches of the woods,
by hill and hollow, still swamp and gurgling brook,
till through the opening foliage they saw the Iroquois
capital, compassed with cornfields and girt with its
rugged palisade. As the Jesuits, like black spectres,
1 Le Mercier, Relation, 1667, 14.
1656.] THE IROQUOIS CAPITAL. 81
issued from the shadows of the forest, followed by
tfie plumed soldiers with shouldered arquebuses, the
red-skinned population swarmed out like bees, and
they denied to the town through gazing and admiring
throngs. All conspired to welcome them. Feast
followed feast throughout the afternoon, till, what
with harangues and songs, bear's meat, beaver-tails,
and venison, beans, corn, and grease, they were
wellnigh killed with kindness. " If, after this, they
murder us," writes Le Mercier, "it will be from
fickleness, not premeditated treachery." But the
Jesuits, it seems, had not sounded the depths of
Iroquois dissimulation.1
There was one exception to the real or pretended
joy. Some Mohawks were in the town, and their
orator was insolent and sarcastic; but the ready
tongue of Chaumonot turned the laugh against him
and put him to shame.
Here burned the council-fire of the Iroquois, and
at this very time the deputies of the five tribes were
assembling. The session opened on the twenty-fourth.
In the great council-house, on the earthen floor and the
broad platforms, beneath the smoke-begrimed concave
of the bark roof, stood, sat, or squatted the wisdom
and valor of the confederacy, — Mohawks, Oneidas,
i The Jesuits were afterwards told by Hurons, captive among
the Mohawks and the Onondagas, that, from the first, it was
intended to massacre the French as soon as their presence had
attracted the remnant of the Hurons of Orleans into the power of
the Onondagas. Lettre du P. Ragueneau au R. P. Provincial, 31
Aout, 1658.
6
82 THE JESUITS AT OtfONDAGA. [1(556.
Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas; sachems, coun-
sellors, orators, warriors fresh from Erie victories;
tall, stalwart figures, limbed like Grecian statues.
The pressing business of the council over, it was
Chaumonot's turn to speak. But, first, all the
Frenchmen, kneeling in a row, with clasped hands,
sang the Veni Creator, amid the silent admiration
of the auditors. Then Chaumonot rose, with an
immense wampum-belt in his hand, and said:
"It is not trade that brings us here. Do you
think that your beaver-skins can pay us for all our
toils and dangers? Keep them, if you like; or, if
any fall into our hands, we shall use them only for
your service. We seek not the things that perish.
It is for the Faith that we have left our homes to
live in your hovels of bark, and eat food which the
beasts of our country would scarcely touch. We are
the messengers whom God has sent to tell you that
his Son became a man for the love of you; that this
man, the Son of God, is the prince and master of
men ; that he has prepared in heaven eternal joys for
those who obey him, and kindled the fires of hell for
those who will not receive his word. If you reject
it, whoever you are, — Onondaga, Seneca, Mohawk,
Cayuga, or Oneida, — know that Jesus Christ, who
inspires my heart and my voice, will plunge you one
day into hell. Avert this ruin; be not the authors
of your own destruction; accept the truth; listen to
the voice of the Omnipotent."
Such, in brief, was the pith of the father's exhorta-
1656.] THE NEW MISSION. 83
tion. As he spoke Indian like a native, and as his
voice and gestures answered to his words, we may
believe what Le Mercier tells us, that his hearers
listened with mingled wonder, admiration, and terror.
The work was well begun. The Jesuits struck while
the iron was hot ; built a small chapel for the mass,
installed themselves in the town, and preached and
catechised from morning till night.
The Frenchmen at the lake were not idle. The
chosen site of their settlement was the crown of a
hill commanding a broad view of waters and forests.
The axemen fell to their work, and a ghastly wound
soon gaped in the green bosom of the woodland.
Here, among the stumps and prostrate trees of the
unsightly clearing, the blacksmith built his forge,
saw and hammer plied their trade; palisades were
shaped and beams squared, in spite of heat, mosqui-
toes, and fever. At one time twenty men were ill,
and lay gasping under a wretched shed of bark ; but
they all recovered, and the work went on, till at
length a capacious house, large enough to hold the
whole colony, rose above the ruin of the forest. A
palisade was set around it, and the Mission of Saint
Mary of Gannentaa l was begun.
France and the Faith were intrenched on the Lake
of Onondaga. How long would they remain there ?
The future alone could tell. The mission, it must
1 Gannentaa or Ganuntaah is still the Iroquois name for Lake
Onondaga. According to Morgan, it means " Material for Council-
Fire."
84 THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA. L1656.
not be forgotten, had a double scope, — half ecclesi-
astical, half political. The Jesuits had essayed a
fearful task, — to convert the Iroquois to God and to
the King, thwart the Dutch heretics of the Hudson,
save souls from hell, avert ruin from Canada, and
thus raise their order to a place of honor and influ-
ence both hard-earned and well-earned. The mis-
sion at Lake Onondaga was but a base of operations.
Long before they were lodged and fortified here,
Chaumonot and Me*nard set out for the Cayugas,
whence the former proceeded to the Senecas, the
most numerous and powerful of the five confederate
nations; and in the following spring another mission
was begun among the Oneidas. Their reception was
not unfriendly ; but such was the reticence and dis-
simulation of these inscrutable savages, that it was
impossible to foretell results. The women proved,
as might be expected, far more impressible than the
men; and in them the fathers placed great hope,
since in this, the most savage people of the continent,
women held a degree of political influence never per-
haps equalled in any civilized nation.1
i Women, among the Iroquois, had a council of their own,
which, according to Lafitau, who knew this people well, had the
initiative in discussion, subjects presented by them being settled in
the council of chiefs and elders. In this latter council the women
had an orator, often of their own sex, to represent them. The
matrons had a leading voice in determining the succession of
chiefs. There were also female chiefs, one of whom, with her
attendants, came to Quebec with an embassy in 1655 (Marie de
'Incarnation). In the torture of prisoners, great deference was
1657.] JESUIT COURAGE. 85
But while infants were baptized and squaws con-
verted, the crosses of the mission were many and
great. The devil bestirred himself with more than
his ordinary activity; "for," as one of the fathers
writes, "when in sundry nations of the earth men
are rising up in strife against us [the Jesuits], then
how much more the demons, on whom we continually
wage war!" It was these infernal sprites, as the
priests believed, who engendered suspicions and
calumnies in the dark and superstitious minds of the
Iroquois, and prompted them in dreams to destroy
the apostles of the Faith. Whether the foe was of
earth or hell, the Jesuits were like those who tread
the lava-crust that palpitates with the throes of the
coming eruption, while the molten death beneath
their feet glares white-hot through a thousand
crevices. Yet, with a sublime enthusiasm and a
glorious constancy, they toiled and they hoped,
though the skies around were black with portent.
In the year in which the colony at Onondaga was
begun, the Mohawks murdered the Jesuit Garreau
on his way up the Ottawa. In the following spring,
a hundred Mohawk warriors came to Quebec to carry
paid to the judgment of the women, who, says Champlain, were
thought more skilful and subtle than the men.
The learned Lafitau, whose book appeared in 1724, dwells at
length on the resemblance of the Iroquois to the ancient Lycians,
among whom, according to Grecian writers, women were in the
ascendant. " Gynecocracy, or the rule of women," continues
Lafitau, "which was the foundation of the Lycian government,
was probably common in early times to nearly all the barbarous
people of Greece." Mceurs des Sauvages, i 460 (ed. in 4to).
86 THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA. [1657.
more of the Hurons into slavery, — though the
remnant of that unhappy people, since the catastrophe
of the last year, had sought safety in a palisaded
camp within the limits of the French town, and
immediately under the ramparts of Fort St. Louis.
Here, one might think, they would have been safe;
but Charny, son and successor of Lauson, seems to
have been even more imbecile than his father, and
listened meekly to the threats of the insolent
strangers who told him that unless he abandoned
the Hurons to their mercy, both they and the French
should feel the weight of Mohawk tomahawks.
They demanded, further, that the French should
give them boats to carry their prisoners; but, as
there were none at hand, this last humiliation was
spared. The Mohawks were forced to make canoes,
in which they carried off as many as possible of their
victims.
When the Onondagas learned this last exploit of
their rivals, their jealousy knew no bounds, and a
troop of them descended to Quebec to claim their
share in the human plunder. Deserted by the
French, the despairing Hurons abandoned themselves
to their fate; and about fifty of those whom the
Mohawks had left obeyed the behest of their tyrants,
and embarked for Onondaga. They reached Montreal
in July, and thence proceeded towards their destina-
tion in company with the Onondaga warriors. The
Jesuit Ragueneau, bound also for Onondaga, joined
them. Five leagues above Montreal, the warriors
1657.] ONONDAGA TREACHERY. 87
left him behind; but he found an old canoe on the
bank, in which, after abandoning most of his bag-
gage, he contrived to follow with two or three
Frenchmen who were with him. There was a rumor
that a hundred Mohawk warriors were lying in
wait among the Thousand Islands to plunder the
Onondagas of their Huron prisoners. It proved a
false report. A speedier catastrophe awaited these
unfortunates.
Towards evening on the third of August, after the
party had landed to encamp, an Onondaga chief
made advances to a Christian Huron girl, as he had
already done at every encampment since leaving
Montreal. Being repulsed for the fourth time, he
split her head with his tomahawk. It was the
beginning of a massacre. The Onondagas rose upon
their prisoners, killed seven men, all Christians,
before the eyes of the horrified Jesuit, and plundered
the rest of all they had. When Ragueneau pro-
tested, they told him with insolent mockery that
they were acting by direction of the governor and
the superior of the Jesuits. The priest himself was
secretly warned that he was to be killed during the
night; and he was surprised in the morning to find
himself alive.1 On reaching Onondaga, some of the
Christian captives were burned, including several
women and their infant children.2
The confederacy was a hornet's nest, buzzing with
1 Lettre de Ragueneau au R. P. Provincial,^ Aout, 1657 (Eel, 1657),
2 Ibid., 21 Aoiit, 1658 (Rel, 1658).
88 THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA. [1657
preparation, and fast pouring out its wrathful swarms.
The indomitable Le Moyne had gone again to the
Mohawks, whence he wrote that two hundred of
them had taken the war-path against the Algonquins
of Canada ; and, a little later, that all were gone but
women, children, and old men. A great war-party
of twelve hundred Iroquois from all the five cantons
was to advance into Canada in the direction of the
Ottawa. The settlements on the St. Lawrence were
infested with prowling warriors, who killed the
Indian allies of the French, and plundered the
French themselves, whom they treated with an insuf-
ferable insolence; for they felt themselves masters
of the situation, and knew that the Onondaga colony
was in their power. Near Montreal they killed
three Frenchmen. "They approach like foxes,"
writes a Jesuit, "attack like lions, and disappear
like birds." Charny, fortunately, had resigned the
government in despair in order to turn priest, and
the brave soldier d'Ailleboust had taken his place. He
caused twelve of the Iroquois to be seized and held
as hostages. This seemed to increase their fury.
An embassy came to Quebec and demanded the
release of the hostages, but were met with a sharp
reproof and a flat refusal.
At the mission on Lake Onondaga the crisis was
drawing near. The unbridled young warriors, whose
capricious lawlessness often set at naught the moni-
tions of their crafty elders, killed wantonly at
various times thirteen Christian Hurons, captives at
1658.] FRIGHTFUL POSITION. 89
Onondaga. Ominous reports reached the ears of the
colonists. They heard of a secret council at whicli
their death was decreed. Again, they heard that
they were to be surprised and captured, that the
Iroquois in force were then to descend upon Canada,
lay waste the outlying settlements, and torture them,
the colonists, in sight of their countrymen, by which
they hoped to extort what terms they pleased. At
length a dying Onondaga, recently converted and
baptized, confirmed the rumors, and revealed the
whole plot.
It was to take effect before the spring opened ; but
the hostages in the hands of d'Ailleboust embarrassed
the conspirators and caused delay. Messengers were
sent in haste to call in the priests from the detached
missions ; and all the colonists, fifty-three in number,
were soon gathered at their fortified house on the
lake. Their situation was frightful. Fate hung
over them by a hair, and escape seemed hopeless.
Of Du Puys's ten soldiers, nine wished to desert;
but the attempt would have been fatal. A throng
of Onondaga warriors were day and night on the
watch, bivouacked around the house. Some of them
had built their huts of bark before the gate, and
here, with calm, impassive faces, they lounged and
smoked their pipes; or, wrapped in their blankets,
strolled about the yards and outhouses, attentive to
all that passed. Their behavior was very friendly.
The Jesuits, themselves adepts in dissimulation,
were amazed at the depth of their duplicity; for the
90 THE JESUITS AT ONCWDAGA. [1658.
conviction had been forced upon them that some of
the chiefs had nursed their treachery from the first.
In this extremity Du Puys and the Jesuits showed
an admirable coolness, and among them devised a
plan of escape, critical and full of doubt, but not
devoid of hope.
First, they must provide means of transportation ;
next, they must contrive to use them undiscovered.
They had eight canoes, all of which combined would
not hold half their company. Over the mission-house
was a large loft or garret, and here the carpenters
were secretly set at work to construct two large and
light flat-boats, each capable of carrying fifteen men.
The task was soon finished. The most difficult part
of their plan remained.
There was a beastly superstition prevalent among
the Hurons, the Iroquois, and other tribes. It con-
sisted of a " medicine " or mystic feast, in which it
was essential that the guests should devour every-
thing set before them, however inordinate in quantity,
unless absolved from duty by the person in whose
behalf the solemnity was ordained, — he, on his part,
taking no share in the banquet. So grave was the
obligation, and so strenuously did the guests fulfil it,
that even their ostrich digestion was sometimes
ruined past redemption by the excess of this benevo-
lent gluttony. These festins a manger tout had been '
frequently denounced as diabolical by the Jesuits,
during their mission among the Hurons; but now,
with a pliancy of conscience as excusable in this case
1658.] THE MEDICINE FEAST. 91
as in any other, they resolved to set aside their
scruples, although, judged from their point of view,
they were exceedingly well founded.
Among the French was a young man who had
been adopted by an Iroquois chief, and who spoke
the language fluently. He now told his Indian
father that it had been revealed to him in a dream
that he would soon die unless the spirits were
appeased by one of these magic feasts. Dreams were
the oracles of the Iroquois, and woe to those who
Blighted them. A day was named for the sacred
festivity. The fathers killed their hogs to meet the
occasion, and, that nothing might be wanting, they
ransacked their stores for all that might give piquancy
to the entertainment. It took place in the evening of
the twentieth of March, apparently in a large enclosure
outside the palisade surrounding the mission-house.
Here, while blazing fires or glaring pine -knots shed
their glow on the wild assemblage, Frenchmen and
Iroquois joined in the dance, or vied with each other
in games of agility and skill. The politic fathers
offered prizes to the winners, and the Indians entered
with zest into the sport, the better, perhaps, to hide
their treachery and hoodwink their intended victims ;
for they little suspected that a subtlety, deeper this
time than their own, was at work to countermine
them. Here too were the French musicians, and
drum, trumpet, and cymbal lent their clangor to the
din of shouts and laughter. Thus the evening wore
on, till at length the serious labors of the feast began.
92 THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA. [1658
The kettles were brought in, and their steaming
contents ladled into the wooden bowls which each
provident guest had brought with him. Seated
gravely in a ring, they fell to their work. It was a
point of high conscience not to flinch from duty on
these solemn occasions ; and though they might burn
the young man to-morrow, they would gorge them-
selves like vultures in his behoof to-day.
Meantime, while the musicians strained their lungs
and their arms to drown all other sounds, a band of
anxious Frenchmen, in the darkness of the cloudy
night, with cautious tread and bated breath, carried
the boats from the rear of the mission-house down to
the border of the lake. It was near eleven o'clock.
The miserable guests were choking with repletion.
They prayed the young Frenchman to dispense them
from further surfeit. " Will you suffer me to die ? "
he asked, in piteous tones. They bent to their task
again; but Nature soon reached her utmost limit,
and they sat helpless as a conventicle of gorged
turkey-buzzards, without the power possessed by
those unseemly birds to rid themselves of the burden.
"That will do," said the young man; "you have
eaten enough : my life is saved. Now you can sleep
till we come in the morning to waken you for
prayers."1 And one of his companions played soft
airs on a violin to lull them to repose. Soon all were
asleep, or in a lethargy akin to sleep. The few
remaining Frenchmen now silently withdrew and
1 Lettre de Marie de V Incarnation d son fils, 4 Oct ., 1668.
1658.] PERPLEXITY OF THE IROQUOIS. 93
cautiously descended to the shore, where their com-
rades, already embarked, lay on their oars anxiously
awaiting them. Snow was falling fast as they pushed
out upon the murky waters. The ice of the winter
had broken up, but recent frosts had glazed the sur-
face with a thin crust. The two boats led the way,
and the canoes followed in their wake, while men in
the bows of the foremost boat broke the ice with
clubs as they advanced. They reached the outlet
and rowed swiftly down the dark current of the
Oswego. When day broke, Lake Onondaga was far
behind, and around them was the leafless, lifeless
forest.
When the Indians woke in the morning, dull and
stupefied from their nightmare slumbers, they were
astonished at the silence that reigned in the mission-
house. They looked through the palisade. Nothing
was stirring but a bevy of hens clucking and scratch-
ing in the snow, and one or two dogs imprisoned in
the house and barking to be set free. The Indians
waited for some time, then climbed the palisade,
burst in the doors, and found the house empty.
Their amazement was unbounded. How, without
canoes, could the French have escaped by water?
And how else could they escape ? The snow which
had fallen during the night completely hid their
footsteps. A superstitious awe seized the Iroquois.
They thought that the " black-robes " and their flock
had flown off through the air.
Meanwhile the fugitives pushed their flight with
94 THE JESUITS AT ONONDAGA. [1658.
the energy of terror, passed in safety the rapids of the
Oswego, crossed Lake Ontario, and descended the
St. Lawrence with the loss of three men drowned
in the rapids. On the third of April they reached
Montreal, and on the twenty-third arrived at Quebec.
They had saved their lives ; but the mission of Onon-
daga was a miserable failure.1
i On the Onondaga mission, the authorities are Marie de
1'Incarnation, Lettres Historiques, and Relations des J&suites, 1657
and 1668, where the story is told at length, accompanied with
several interesting letters and journals. Chaumonot, in his Auto-
biographic, speaks only of the Seneca mission, and refers to the
Relations for the rest. Dollier de Casson, in his Histoire du Mon-
treal, mentions the arrival of the fugitives at that place, the sight
of which, he adds complacently, cured them of their fright. The
Journal des Supfrieurs des Jesuites chronicles with its usual brevity
the ruin of the mission and the return of the party to Quebec.
The contemporary Jesuits, in their account, say nothing of the
superstitious character of the feast. It is Marie de ITncarnation
who lets out the secret. The later Jesuit Charlevoix, much to his
credit, repeats the story without reserve.
Since the above chapter was written, the remarkable narratives
of Pierre Esprit Eadisson have been rescued from the obscurity
where they have lain for more than two centuries. Radisson, a
native of St. Malo, was a member of the colony at Onondaga ; but
having passed into the service of England, he wrote in a language
which, for want of a fitter name, may be called English. He does
not say that the feast was of the kind known a-sfestin d manger tout,
though he asserts that one of the priests pretended to have broken
his arm, and that the Indians believed that the " feasting was to be
done for the safe recovery of the father's health." Like the other
writers, he says that the feasters gorged themselves like wolves and
became completely helpless, " making strange kinds of faces that
turned their eyes up and downe," till, when almost bursting, they
were forced to cry Skenon, which according to Radisson means
"enough/' Radisson adds that it was proposed that the French,
" being three and fifty in number, while the Iroquois were
but 100 beasts not able to budge," should fall upon the impotent
1658.] STATEMENT OF ALLET. 95
savages and kill them all, but that the Jesuits would not consent.
His account of the embarkation and escape of the colonists agrees
with that of the other writers. See Second Voyage made in the
Upper Country of the Iroquoits, in Publications of the Prince Society,
1885.
The Sulpitian Allet, in the Morale Pratique des Jesuites, says
that the French placed effigies of soldiers in the fort to deceive the
Indians,
CHAPTER Y.
1642-1661.
THE HOLY WARS OF MONTREAL.
DAUVERSIERE. — MANCE AND BOURGEOYS. — MIRACLE. — A Pious
DEFAULTER. — JESUIT AND SULPITIAN. — MONTREAL IN 1659. —
THE HOSPITAL NUNS. — THE NUNS AND THE IROQUOIS. — MORE
MIRACLES. — THE MURDERED PRIESTS. — BSIGEAC AND CLOSSE.
— SOLDIERS OF THE HOLT FAMILY.
ON the second of July, 1659, the ship "St. Andrd "
lay in the harbor of Rochelle, crowded with passengers
for Canada. She had served two years as a hospital
for marines, and was infected with a contagious
fever. Including the crew, some two hundred persons
were on board, more than half of whom were bound
for Montreal. Most of these were sturdy laborers,
artisans, peasants, and soldiers, together with a troop
of young women, their present or future partners ; a
portion of the company set down on the old record
as " sixty virtuous men and thirty-two pious girls."
There were two priests also, Vignal and Le Maitre,
both destined to a speedy death at the hands of the
Troquois. But the most conspicuous among these
passengers for Montreal were two groups of women
in the habit of nuns, under the direction of Marguerite
1659.] BOURGEOYS AND MANGE. 97
Bourgeoys and Jeanne Mance. Marguerite Bourgeoys,
whose kind, womanly face bespoke her fitness for the
task, was foundress of the school for female children
at Montreal; her companion, a tall, austere figure,
worn with suffering and care, was directress of the
hospital. Both had returned to France for aid, and
were now on their way back, each with three recruits,
— three being the mystic number, as a type of the
Holy Family, to whose worship they were especially
devoted.
Amid the bustle of departure, the shouts of sailors,
the rattling of cordage, the flapping of sails, the
tears and the embracings, an elderly man, with heavy
plebeian features, sallow with disease, and in a sober,
half-clerical dress, approached Mademoiselle Mance
and her three nuns, and, turning his eyes to heaven,
spread his hands over them in benediction. It was
Le Royer de la DauversiSre, founder of the sister-
hood of St. Joseph, to which the three nuns belonged.
"Now, O Lord," he exclaimed, with the look of one
whose mission on earth is fulfilled, " permit thou thy
servant to depart in peace ! "
Sister Maillet, who had charge of the meagre
treasury of the community, thought that something
more than a blessing was due from him, and asked
where she should apply for payment of the interest
of the twenty thousand livres which Mademoiselle
Mance had placed in his hands for investment.
Fauversiere changed countenance, and replied with
troubled voice: "My daughter, God will provide
98 THE HOLY WARS OF MONTREAL. [1642-57.
for you. Place your trust in Him." l He was bank-
rupt, and had used the money of the sisterhood to
pay a debt of his own, leaving the nuns penniless.
I have related in another place 2 how an association
of devotees, inspired, as they supposed, from heaven,
had undertaken to found a religious colony at
Montreal in honor of the Holy Family. The essen-
tials of the proposed establishment were to be a semi-
nary of priests dedicated to the Virgin, a hospital to
Saint Joseph, and a school to the Infant Jesus ; while
a settlement was to be formed around them simply
for their defence and maintenance. This pious pur-
pose had in part been accomplished. It was seven-
teen years since Mademoiselle Mance had begun
her labors in honor of Saint Joseph. Marguerite
Bourgeoys had entered upon hers more recently; yet
even then the attempt was premature, for she found
no white children to teach. In time, however, this
want was supplied, and she opened her school in a
stable, which answered to the stable of Bethlehem,
lodging with her pupils in the loft, and instructing
them in Roman Catholic Christianity, with such
rudiments of mundane knowledge as she and her
advisers thought fit to impart.
Mademoiselle Mance found no lack of hospital
work, for blood and blows were rife at Montreal,
where the woods were full of Iroquois, and not a
i Faillon, Vie de M'lle Mance, i. 172. This volume is illustrated
with a portrait of Daurersiere.
8 The Jesuits in North America.
1657-58.] A WONDERFUL EVENT. 99
moment was without its peril. Though years began
to tell upon her, she toiled patiently at her dreary-
task, till, in the winter of 1657, she fell on the ice
of the St. Lawrence, broke her right arm, and dis-
located the wrist. Bonchard, the surgeon of Montreal,
set the broken bones, but did not discover the dis-
location. The arm in consequence became totally
useless, and her health wasted away under incessant
and violent pain. Maisonneuve, the civil and mili-
tary chief of the settlement, advised her to go to
France for assistance in the work to which she was
no longer equal; and Marguerite Bourgeoys, whose
pupils, white and red, had greatly multiplied, resolved
to go with her for a similar object. They get out
in September, 1658, landed at Rochelle, and went
thence to Paris. Here they repaired to the seminary
of St. Sulpice; for the priests of this community
were joined with them in the work at Montreal, of
which they were afterwards to become the feudal
proprietors.
Now ensued a wonderful event, if we may trust
the evidence of sundry devout persons. Olier, the
founder of St. Sulpice, had lately died, and the two
pilgrims would fain pay their homage to his heart,
which the priests of his community kept as a precious
relic, enclosed in a leaden box. The box waa
brought, when the thought inspired Mademoiselle
Mance to try its miraculous efficacy and invoke the
intercession of the departed founder. She did so,
touching her disabled arm gently with the leaden
100 THE HOLY WARS OF MONTREAL. [1658-59.
casket. Instantly a grateful warmth pervaded the
shrivelled limb, and from that hour its use was
restored. It is true that the Jesuits ventured to
doubt the Sulpitian miracle, and even to ridicule it;
but the Sulpitians will show to this day the attesta-
tion of Mademoiselle Mance herself, written with the
fingers once paralyzed and powerless.1 Neverthe-
less, the cure was not so thorough as to permit her
again to take charge of her patients.
Her next care was to visit Madame de Bullion, a
devout lady of great wealth, who was usually desig-
nated at Montreal as "the unknown benefactress,"
because, though her charities were the mainstay of
the feeble colony, and though the source from which
they proceeded was well known, she affected, in the
interest of humility, the greatest secrecy, and
required those who profited by her gifts to pretend
ignorance whence they came. Overflowing with zeal
for the pious enterprise, she received her visitor with
enthusiasm, lent an open ear to her recital, responded
graciously to her appeal for aid, and paid over to her
the sum, munificent at that day, of twenty-two
thousand francs. Thus far successful, Mademoiselle
Mance repaired to the town of La Fldche to visit Le
Royer de la Dauversiere.
It was this wretched fanatic who, through visions
and revelations, had first conceived the plan of a
1 For an account of this miracle, written in perfect good faith
and supported by various attestations, see Faillon, Vie de M'llt
Mance , chap. iv.
1659.] THE HOSPITAL NUNS. 101
hospital in honor of Saint Joseph at Montreal.1 H
had found in Mademoiselle Mance a zealous and
efficient pioneer; but the execution of his scheme
required a community of hospital nuns, and therefore
he had labored for the last eighteen years to form
one at La Fl£che, meaning to despatch its members
in due time to Canada. The time at length was
come. Three of the nuns were chosen, — Sisters
Bre'soles, Mace*, and Maillet, — and sent under the
escort of certain pious gentlemen to Rochelle. Their
exit from La Fl£che was not without its difficulties.
Dauversi£re was in ill odor, not only from the multi-
plicity of his debts, but because, in his character of
agent of the association of Montreal, he had at
various times sent thither those whom his biographer
describes as " the most virtuous girls to be found at
La FISche," intoxicating them with religious excite-
ment, and shipping them for the New World against
the will of their parents. It was noised through the
town that he had kidnapped and sold them ; and now
the report spread abroad that he was about to crown
his iniquity by luring away three young nuns. A
mob gathered at the convent gate, and the escort
were forced to draw their swords to open a way for
the terrified sisters.
Of the twenty-two thousand francs which she had
received, Mademoiselle Mance kept two thousand for
immediate needs, and confided the rest to the hands
of Dauversi£re, who, hard pressed by his creditors,
1 See " The Jesuits in North America."
102 THE HOLY WARS OF MONTREAL. [1659.
used it to pay one of his debts; and then, to his
horror, found himself unable to replace it. Racked
by the gout and tormented by remorse, he betook
himself to his bed in a state of body and mind truly
pitiable. One of the miracles, so frequent in the
early annals of Montreal, was vouchsafed in answer
to his prayer, and he was enabled to journey to
Rochelle and bid farewell to his nuns. It was but a
brief respite; he returned home to become the prey
of a host of maladies, and to die at last a lingering
and painful death.
While Mademoiselle Mance was gaining recruits in
La Flejche, Marguerite Bourgeoys was no less success-
ful in her native town of Troyes ; and she rejoined
her companions at Rochelle, accompanied by Sisters
Chatel, Crolo, and Raisin, her destined assistants in
the school at Montreal. Meanwhile, the Sulpitians
and others interested in the pious enterprise, had
spared no effort to gather men to strengthen the
colony, and young women to serve as their wives;
and all were now mustered at Rochelle, waiting for
embarkation. Their waiting was a long one. Laval,
bishop at Quebec, was allied to the Jesuits, and
looked on the colonists of Montreal with more than
coldness. Sulpitian writers say that his agents used
every effort to discourage them, and that certain
persons at Rochelle told the master of the ship in
which the emigrants were to sail that they were not
to be trusted to pay their passage-money. Hereupon
ensued a delay of more than two months before
1659.] DELAY AND DIFFICULTY. 103
means could be found to quiet the scruples of the
prudent commander. At length the anchor was
weighed, and the dreary voyage begun.
The woe-begone company, crowded in the filthy
and infected ship, were tossed for two months more
on the relentless sea, buffeted by repeated storms and
wasted by a contagious fever, which attacked nearly
all of them and reduced Mademoiselle Mance to
extremity. Eight or ten died and were dropped
overboard, after a prayer from the two priests. At
length land hove in sight; the piny odors of the
forest regaled their languid senses as they sailed up
the broad estuary of the St. Lawrence and anchored
under the rock of Quebec.
High aloft, on the brink of the cliff, they saw the
fleur-de-lis waving above the fort of St. Louis, and,
beyond, the cross on the tower of the cathedral traced
against the sky, the houses of the merchants on the
strand below, and boats and canoes drawn up along
the bank. The bishop and the Jesuits greeted them
as co-workers in a holy cause, with an unction not
wholly sincere. Though a unit against heresy, the
pious founders of New France were far from unity
among themselves. To the thinking of the Jesuits,
Montreal was a government within a government, a
wheel within a wheel. This rival Sulpitian settle-
ment was in their eyes an element of disorganization
adverse to the disciplined harmony of the Canadian
Church, which they would fain have seen, with its
focus at Quebec, radiating light unrefracted to the
104 THE HOLY WARS OF MONTREAL. [1659.
uttermost parts of the colony. That is to say, they
wished to control it unchecked, through their ally
the bishop.
The emigrants, then, were received with a studious
courtesy, which veiled but thinly a stiff and persist-
ent opposition. The bishop and the Jesuits were
especially anxious to prevent the La Fl£che nuns
from establishing themselves at Montreal, where they
would form a separate community under Sulpitian in-
fluence ; and in place of the newly arrived sisters they
wished to substitute nuns from the H6tel Dieu of Que-
bec, who would be under their own control. That
which most strikes the non-Catholic reader throughout
this affair is the constant reticence and dissimulation
practised, not only between Jesuits and Montrealists,
but among the Montrealists themselves. Their self-
devotion, great as it was, was fairly matched by their
disingenuousness. l
All difficulties being overcome, the Montrealists
embarked in boats and ascended the St. Lawrence,
leaving Quebec infected with the contagion they had
brought. The journey now made in a single night
cost them fifteen days of hardship and danger. At
length they reached their new home. The little
settlement lay before them, still gasping betwixt life
and death, in a puny, precarious infancy. Some
i See, for example, chapter iv. of Faillon's Life of Mademoiselle
Mance. The evidence is unanswerable, the writer being the par-
tisan and admirer of most of those whose pieuse tromperie, to use the
expression of Dollier de Casson, he describes in apparent uncon-
sciousness that anybody will see reason to cavil at it.
1659.] MONTREAL. 105
forty small, compact houses were ranged parallel to
the river, chiefly along the line of what is now St.
Paul's Street. On the left there was a fort, and on
a rising ground at the right a massive windmill of
stone, enclosed with a wall or palisade pierced for
musketry, and answering the purpose of a redoubt
or block-house.1 Fields studded with charred and
blackened stumps, between which crops were grow-
ing, stretched away to the edges of the bordering
forest; and the green, shaggy back of the mountain
towered over all.
There were at this time a hundred and sixty men
at Montreal, about fifty of whom had families, or at
least wives. They greeted the new-comers with a
welcome which, this time, was as sincere as it was
warm, and bestirred themselves with alacrity to pro-
vide them with shelter for the winter. As for the
three nuns from La Fleche, a chamber was hastily
made for them over two low rooms which had served
as Mademoiselle Mance's hospital. This chamber
was twenty-five feet square, with four cells for the
nuns, and a closet for stores and clothing, which for
the present was empty, as they had landed in such
destitution that they were forced to sell all their
scanty equipment to gain the bare necessaries of
existence. Little could be hoped from the colonists,
who were scarcely less destitute than they. Such
was their poverty, — thanks to Dauversiere's breach
1 Lettre du Vicomte d'Argenson, Gouverneur du Canada, 4 Aout{
1659, MS.
106 THE HOLY WARS OF MONTREAL. [1657-61,
of trust, — that when their clothes were worn out,
they were unable to replace them, and were forced
to patch them with such material as came to hand.
Maisonneuve the governor, and the pious Madame
d'Ailleboust, being once on a visit to the hospital,
amused themselves with trying to guess of what stuff
the habits of the nuns had originally been made, and
were unable to agree on the point in question.1
Their chamber, which they occupied for many
years, being hastily built of ill-seasoned planks, let
in the piercing cold of the Canadian winter through
countless cracks and chinks; and the driving snow
sifted through in such quantities that they were
sometimes obliged, the morning after a storm, to
remove it with shovels. Their food would freeze on
the table before them, and their coarse brown bread
had to be thawed on the hearth before they could cut
it. These women had been nurtured in ease, if not
in luxury. One of them, Judith de Bre*soles, had in
her youth, by advice of her confessor, run away from
parents who were devoted to her, and immured her-
self in a convent, leaving them in agonies of doubt
as to her fate. She now acted as superior of the
little community. One of her nuns records of her
that she had a fervent devotion for the Infant Jesus ;
and that, along with many more spiritual graces, he
inspired her with so transcendent a skill in cookery,
that "with a small piece of lean pork and a few herbs
1 Annales des Hospitalises de Villemarie, par la Sceur Morin, — a
contemporary record, from which Faillon gives long extracts.
1657-61.] THE SISTERS. 107
she could make soup of a marvellous relish." l Sister
Macd was charged with the care of the pigs and hens,
to whose wants she attended in person, though she
too had been delicately bred. In course of time, the
sisterhood was increased by additions from without,
— though more than twenty girls who entered the
hospital as novices recoiled from the hardship, and
took husbands in the colony. Among a few who
took the vows, Sister Jumeau should not pass
unnoticed. Such was her humility that, though of
a good family and unable to divest herself of the
marks of good breeding, she pretended to be the
daughter of a poor peasant, and persisted in repeating
the pious falsehood till the merchant Le Ber told her
flatly that he did not believe her.
The sisters had great need of a man to do the
heavy work of the house and garden, but found no
means of hiring one, when an incident, in which they
saw a special providence, excellently supplied the
want. There was a poor colonist named Jouaneaux,
to whom a piece of land had been given at some dis-
tance from the settlement. Had he built a cabin
upon it, his scalp would soon have paid the forfeit;
but, being bold and hardy, he devised a plan by
which he might hope to sleep in safety without
abandoning the farm which was his only possession.
Among the stumps of his clearing there was one hol-
i " CMtait par son recours a 1'Enf ant Jesus qu'elle trouvait tous
ces secrets et d'autres semblables," writes in our own day the
excellent annalist, Faillou.
108 THE HOLY WARS OF MONTREAL. [1657-61.
low with age. Under this he dug a sort of cave, the
entrance of which was a small hole carefully hidden by
brushwood. The hollow stump was easily converted
into a chimney ; and by creeping into his burrow at
night, or when he saw signs of danger, he escaped
for some time the notice of the Iroquois. But though
he could dispense with a house, he needed a barn for
his hay and corn ; and while he was building one, he
fell from the ridge of the roof and was seriously hurt.
He was carried to the Hotel Dieu, where the nuns
showed him every attention, until, after a long con-
finement, he at last recovered. Being of a grateful
nature and enthusiastically devout, he was so touched
by the kindness of his benefactors, and so moved by
the spectacle of their piety, that he conceived the
wish of devoting his life to their service. To this
end a contract was drawn up, by which he pledged
himself to work for them as long as strength
remained; and they, on their part, agreed to main-
tain him in sickness or old age.
This stout-hearted retainer proved invaluable;
though had a guard of soldiers been added, it would
have been no more than the case demanded. Montreal
was not palisaded, and at first the hospital was as
much exposed as the rest. The Iroquois would
skulk at night among the houses, like wolves in a
camp of sleeping travellers on the prairies; though
the human foe was, of the two, incomparably the
bolder, fiercer, and more bloodthirsty. More than
once one of these prowling savages was known to
1657-61.] PERIL OF THE NUNS. 109
have crouched all night in a rank growth of wild
mustard in the garden of the nuns, vainly hoping
that one of them would come out within reach of his
tomahawk. During summer, a month rarely passed
without a fight, sometimes within sight of their
windows. A burst of yells from the ambushed
marksmen, followed by a clatter of musketry, would
announce the opening of the fray, and promise the
nuns an addition to their list of patients. On these
occasions they bore themselves according to their
several natures. Sister Morin, who had joined their
number three years after their arrival, relates that
Sister Bre*soles and she used to run to the belfry
and ring the tocsin to call the inhabitants together.
"From our high station," she writes, "we could
sometimes see the combat, which terrified us extremely,
so that we came down again as soon as we could,
trembling with fright, and thinking that our last
hour was come. When the tocsin sounded, my
Sister Maillet would become faint with excess of
fear; and my Sister Mace', as long as the alarm con-
tinued, would remain speechless, in a state pitiable to
see. They would both get into a corner of the rood-
loft, before the Holy Sacrament, so as to be prepared
for death, or else go into their cells. As soon as I
heard that the Iroquois were gone, I went to tell
them, which comforted them and seemed to restore
them to life. My Sister Bre*soles was stronger and
more courageous; her terror, which she could not
help, did not prevent her from attending the sick
110 THE HOLY WARS OF MONTREAL. [1657-61.
and receiving the dead and wounded who were
brought in."
The priests of St. Sulpice, who had assumed the
entire spiritual charge of the settlement, and who
were soon to assume its entire temporal charge also,
had for some years no other lodging than a room at
the hospital, adjoining those of the patients. They
caused the building to be fortified with palisades,
and the houses of some of the chief inhabitants were
placed near it, for mutual defence. They also built
two fortified houses, called Ste. Marie and St.
Gabriel, at the two extremities of the settlement, and
lodged in them a considerable number of armed men,
whom they employed in clearing and cultivating the
surrounding lands, the property of their community.
All other outlying houses were also pierced with
loopholes, and fortified as well as the slender means
of their owners would permit. The laborers always
carried their guns to the field, and often had need to
use them. A few incidents will show the state of
Montreal and the character of its tenants.
In the autumn of 1657 there was a truce with the
Iroquois, under cover of which three or four of them
came to the settlement. Nicolas God6 and Jean
Saint-Pere were on the roof of their house, laying
thatch, when one of the visitors aimed his arquebuse
at Saint-Pere, and brought him to the ground like a
wild turkey from a tree. Now ensued a prodigy;
for the assassins, having cut off his head and carried
it home to their village, were amazed to hear it speak
1657-61.] PRODIGIES. Ill
to them in good Iroquois, scold them for their per-
fidy, and threaten them with the vengeance of
Heaven; and they continued to hear its voice of
admonition even after scalping it and throwing away
the skull.1 This story, circulated at Montreal on the
alleged authority of the Indians themselves, found be-
lievers among the most intelligent men of the colony.
Another miracle, which occurred several years
later, deserves to be recorded. Le Maitre, one of
the two priests who had sailed from France with
Mademoiselle Mance and her nuns, being one day at
the fortified house of St. Gabriel, went out with the
laborers in order to watch while they were at their
work. In view of a possible enemy, he had girded
himself with an earthly sword ; but seeing no sign of
danger, he presently took out his breviary, and, while
reciting his office with eyes bent on the page, walked
into an ambuscade of Iroquois, who rose before him
with a yell.
He shouted to the laborers, and, drawing his
sword, faced the whole savage crew, in order, prob-
ably, to give the men time to snatch their guns.
Afraid to approach, the Iroquois fired and killed
him; then rushed upon the working party, who
escaped into the house, after losing several of their
number. The victors cut off the head of the heroic
priest, and tied it in a white handkerchief which
they took from a pocket of his cassock. It is said
that on reaching their villages they were astonished
1 Dollier de Casson, Hittoire du Montreal, 1657-1658.
112 THE HOLY WARS OF MONTREAL. [1657-61.
to find the handkerchief without the slightest stain
of blood, but stamped indelibly with the features of
its late owner, so plainly marked that none who had
known him could fail to recognize them.1 This not
very original miracle, though it found eager credence
at Montreal, was received coolly, like other Montreal
miracles, at Quebec; and Sulpitian writers complain
that the bishop, in a long letter which he wrote to
the Pope, made no mention of it whatever.
Le Maitre, on the voyage to Canada, had been
accompanied by another priest, Guillaume de Vignal,
who met a fate more deplorable than that of his com-
panion, though unattended by any recorded miracle.
Le Maitre had been killed in August. In the
October following, Vignal went with thirteen men,
in a flat-boat and several canoes, to Isle a la Pierre,
nearly opposite Montreal, to get stone for the semi-
nary which the priests had recently begun to build.
With him was a pious and valiant gentleman named
Claude de Brigeac, who, though but thirty years of
age, had come as a soldier to Montreal, in the hope
of dying in defence of the true Church, and thus
reaping the reward of a martyr. Vignal and three
or four men had scarcely landed when they were set
upon by a large band of Iroquois who lay among the
bushes waiting to receive them. The rest of the
1 This story is told by Sister Morin, Marguerite Bourgeoys, and
Dollier de Casson, on the authority of one Lavigne, then a prisoner
among the Iroquois, who declared that he had seen the handker-
chief in the hands of the returning warriors.
1657-61.] DEATH OF VIGNAL. 113
party, who were still in their boats, with a cowardice
rare at Montreal, thought only of saving themselves.
Claude de Brigeac alone leaped ashore and ran to aid
his comrades. Vignal was soon mortally wounded.
Brigeac shot the chief dead with his arquebuse, and
then, pistol in hand, held the whole troop for an
instant at bay ; but his arm was shattered by a gun-
shot, and he was seized, along with Vignal, Rend
Cuille'rier, and Jacques Dufresne. Crossing to the
main shore, immediately opposite Montreal, the
Iroquois made, after their custom, a small fort of
logs and branches, in which they ensconced them-
selves, and then began to dress the wounds of their
prisoners. Seeing that Vignal was unable to make
the journey to their villages, they killed him, divided
his flesh, and roasted it for food.
Brigeac and his fellows in misfortune spent a wo-
ful night in this den of wolves ; and in the morning
their captors, having breakfasted on the remains of
Vignal, took up their homeward march, dragging the
Frenchmen with them. On reaching Oneida, Brigeac
was tortured to death with the customary atrocities.
Cuillerier, who was present, declared that they could
wring from him no cry of pain, but that throughout
he ceased not to pray for their conversion. The
witness himself expected the same fate, but an old
squaw happily adopted him, and thus saved his life.
He eventually escaped to Albany, and returned to
Canada by the circuitous but comparatively safe
route of New York and Boston.
8
114 THE HOLY WARS OF MONTREAL. [1657-61.
In the following winter, Montreal suffered an
irreparable loss in the death of the brave Major
Closse, a man whose intrepid coolness was never
known to fail in the direst emergency. Going to the
aid of a party of laborers attacked by the Iroquois,
he was met by a crowd of savages, eager to kill or
capture him. His servant ran off. He snapped a
pistol at the foremost assailant, but it missed fire.
His remaining pistol served him no better, and he
was instantly shot down. "He died," writes Dollier
de Casson, "like a brave soldier of Christ and the
King." Some of his friends once remonstrating with
him on the temerity with which he exposed his life,
he replied: "Messieurs, I came here only to die in
the service of God; and if I thought I could not die
here, I would leave this country to fight the Turks,
that I might not be deprived of such a glory."1
The fortified house of Ste. Marie, belonging to the
priests of St. Sulpice, was the scene of several hot
and bloody fights. Here, too, occurred the follow-
ing nocturnal adventure. A man named Lavigne,
who had lately returned from captivity among the
Iroquois, chancing to rise at night and look out of
the window, saw by the bright moonlight a number
of naked warriors stealthily gliding round a corner
and crouching near the door, in order to kill the first
Frenchman who should go out in the morning. He
silently woke his comrades ; and, having the rest of
the night for consultation, they arranged their plan
1 Dollier de Casson, Histoire du Montreal, 1661, 1662.
1657-61.] A YEAR OF DISASTER. 115
so well that some of them, sallying from the rear of
the house, came cautiously round upon the Iroquois,
placed them between two fires, and captured them all.
The summer of 1661 was marked by a series of
calamities scarcely paralleled even in the annals of
this disastrous epoch. Early in February, thirteen
colonists were surprised and captured; next came a
fight between a large band of laborers and two hun-
dred and sixty Iroquois ; in the following month, ten
more Frenchmen were killed or taken; and thence-
forth, till winter closed, the settlement had scarcely
a breathing space. "These hobgoblins," writes the
author of the Relation of this year, "sometimes
appeared at the edge of the woods, assailing us with
abuse; sometimes they glided stealthily into the
midst of the fields, to surprise the men at work;
sometimes they approached the houses, harassing us
without ceasing, and, like importunate harpies or
birds of prey, swooping down on us whenever they
could take us unawares."1
Speaking of the disasters of this year, the soldier-
priest, Dollier de Casson, writes : " God, who afflicts
the body only for the good of the soul, made a mar-
vellous use of these calamities and terrors to hold the
people firm in their duty towards Heaven. Vice
was then almost unknown here, and in the midst of
war religion flourished on all sides in a manner very
different from what we now see in time of peace."8
* Le Jeune, Relation, 1661, p. 3 (ed. 1858).
* Histoire du Montreal, 1660, 1661.
116 THE HOLY WARS OF MONTREAL. [1657-61.
The war was, in fact, a war of religion. The
small redoubts of logs, scattered about the skirts of
the settlement to serve as points of defence in case
of attack, bore the names of saints, to whose care
they were commended. There was one placed under
a higher protection, and called the " Redoubt of the
Infant Jesus." Chomedey de Maisonneuve, the
pious and valiant governor of Montreal, to whom its
successful defence is largely due, resolved, in view
of the increasing fury and persistency of the Iroquois
attacks, to form among the inhabitants a military
fraternity, to be called " Soldiers of the Holy Family
of Jesus, Mary, and Joseph ; " and to this end he
issued a proclamation, of which the following is the
characteristic beginning : —
"We, Paul de Chomedey, governor of the island
of Montreal and lands thereon dependent, on infor-
mation given us from divers quarters that the Iroquois
have formed the design of seizing upon this settle-
ment by surprise or force, have thought it our duty,
seeing that this island is the property of the Holy
Virgin,1 to invite and exhort those zealous for her
service to unite together by squads, each of seven
persons ; and after choosing a corporal by a plurality
of voices, to report themselves to us for enrolment in
our garrison, and, in this capacity, to obey our
orders, to the end that the country ma3r be saved."
1 This is no figure of speech. The Associates of Montreal, after
receiving a grant of the island from Jean de Lauson, placed it undei
the protection of the Virgin, and formally declared her to be the
proprietor of it from that day forth forever.
1657-61.] A HOLY WAR. 117
Twenty squads, numbering in all one hundred and
forty men, whose names, appended to the proclama-
tion, may still be seen on the ancient records of
Montreal, answered the appeal and enrolled them-
selves in the holy cause.
The whole settlement was in a state of religious
exaltation. As the Iroquois were regarded as actual
myrmidons of Satan in his malign warfare against
Mary and her divine Son, those who died in fighting
them were held to merit the reward of martyrs,
assured of a seat in paradise.
And now it remains to record one of the most
heroic feats of arms ever achieved on this continent.
That it may be rated as it merits, it will be well to
glance for a moment at the condition of Canada,
under the portentous cloud of war which constantly
overshadowed it.1
1 In all that relates to Montreal, I cannot be sufficiently grate-
ful to the Abbe Faillon, the indefatigable, patient, conscientious
chronicler of its early history ; an ardent and prejudiced Sulpitian,
a priest who three centuries ago would have passed for credulous,
and, withal, a kind-hearted and estimable man. His numerous
books on his favorite theme, with the vast and heterogeneous mass
of facts which they embody, are invaluable, provided their partisan
character be well kept in mind. His recent death leaves his princi-
pal work unfinished. His Histolre de la Colonie Franfaise en Canada
— it might more fitly be called Histoire du Montreal — is unhappily
little more than half complete.
CHAPTER VL
1660, 1661.
THE HEROES OF THE LONG SAUT.
SUFFERING AND TERROR. — FRANQOIS HERTEL. — THE CAPTIVB
WOLF. — THE THREATENED INVASION. — DAULAC DBS ORMEAUX.
— THE ADVENTURERS AT THE LONG SAUT. — THE ATTACK. — A
DESPERATE DEFENCE. — A FINAL ASSAULT. — THE FORT TAKEN.
CANADA had writhed for twenty years, with little
respite, under the scourge of Iroquois war. During
a great part of this dark period the entire French
population was less than three thousand. What,
then, saved them from destruction? In the first
place, the settlements were grouped around three for-
tified posts, — Quebec, Three Rivers, and Montreal,
— which in time of danger gave asylum to the fugi-
tive inhabitants. Again, their assailants were con-
tinually distracted by other wars, and never, except
at a few spasmodic intervals, were fully in earnest
to destroy the French colony. Canada was indis-
pensable to them. The four upper nations of the
league soon became dependent on her for supplies;
and all the nations alike appear, at a very early
period, to have conceived the policy on which they
1660-61.] SUFFERING AND TERROR. 119
afterwards distinctly acted, of balancing the rival
settlements of the Hudson and the St. Lawrence, the
one against the other. They would torture, but not
kill. It was but rarely that, in fits of fury, they
struck their hatchets at the brain; and thus the
bleeding and gasping colony lingered on in torment.
The seneschal of New France, son of the governor
Lauson, was surprised and killed on the island of
Orleans, along with seven companions. About the
same time, the same fate befell the son of Godefroy,
one of the chief inhabitants of Quebec. Outside the
fortifications there was no safety for a moment. A
universal terror seized the people. A comet appeared
above Quebec, and they saw in it a herald of destruc-
tion. Their excited imaginations turned natural
phenomena into portents and prodigies. A blazing
canoe sailed across the sky; confused cries and
lamentations were heard in the air; and a voice of
thunder sounded from mid-heaven.1 The Jesuits
despaired for their scattered and persecuted flocks.
"Everywhere," writes their superior, "we see infants
to be saved for heaven, sick and dying to be baptized,
adults to be instructed; but everywhere we see the
Iroquois. They haunt us like persecuting goblins.
They kill our new-made Christians in our arms. If
they meet us on the river, they kill us. If they
find us in the huts of our Indians, they burn us and
them together." 2 And he appeals urgently for troops
1 Marie de 1'Incarnation, Lettre, Septembre, 1661.
1 Relation, 1660 (anonymous), 3.
120 THE HEROES OF THE LONG SAUT. [1658.
to destroy them, as a holy work inspired by God,
and needful for his service.
Canada was still a mission, and the influence of
the Church was paramount and pervading. At
Quebec, as at Montreal, the war with the Iroquois
was regarded as a war with the hosts of Satan. Of
the settlers' cabins scattered along the shores above
and below Quebec, many were provided with small
iron cannon, made probably by blacksmiths in the
colony; but they had also other protectors. In each
was an image of the Virgin or some patron saint;
and every morning the pious settler knelt before the
shrine to beg the protection of a celestial hand in his
perilous labors of the forest or the farm.
When, in the summer of 1658, the young Vicomte
d'Argenson came to assume the thankless task of
governing the colony, the Iroquois war was at its
height. On the day after his arrival, he was wash-
ing his hands before seating himself at dinner in the
hall of the Chateau St. Louis, when cries of alarm
were heard, and he was told that the Iroquois were
close at hand. In fact, they were so near that their
war-whoops and the screams of their victims could
plainly be heard. Argenson left his guests, and,
with such a following as he could muster at the
moment, hastened to the rescue; but the assailants
were too nimble for him. The forests, which grew
at that time around Quebec, favored them both in
attack and in retreat. After a year or two of experi-
ence, he wrote urgently to the court for troops. He
1661.] FRANCOIS HERTEL. 121
adds that, what with the demands of the harvest and
the unmilitary character of many of the settlers, the
colony could not furnish more than a hundred men
for offensive operations. A vigorous, aggressive
war, he insists, is absolutely necessary, and this
not only to save the colony, but to save the only true
faith; "for," to borrow his own words, "it is this
colony alone which has the honor to be in the com-
munion of the Holy Church. Everywhere else
reigns the doctrine of England or Holland, to which
I can give no other name, because there are as many
creeds as there are subjects who embrace them. They
do not care in the least whether the Iroquois and the
other savages of this country have or have not a knowl-
edge of the true God, or else they are so malicious as
to inject the venom of their errors into souls incapable
of distinguishing the truth of the gospel from the
falsehoods of heresy ; and hence it is plain that religion
has its sole support in the French colony, and that, if
this colony is in danger, religion is equally in danger." l
Among the most interesting memorials of the time
are two letters written by Francois Hertel, a youth
of eighteen, captured at Three Rivers, and carried to
the Mohawk towns in the summer of 1661. He
belonged to one of the best families of Canada, and
was the favorite child of his mother, to whom the
second of the two letters is addressed. The first is
to the Jesuit Le Moyne, who had gone to Onondaga,
1 Papiers d'Argenson; Memoire sur le sujet de la guerre dea
I roquois, 1659 (1660?). MS.
122 THE HEROES OF THE LONG SAUT. [1661.
in July of that year, to effect the release of French
prisoners in accordance with the terms of a truce.1
Both letters were written on hirch-bark : —
MY REVEREND FATHER, — The very day when you left
Three Rivers I was captured, at ahout three in the after-
noon, by four Iroquois of the Mohawk tribe. I would
not have been taken alive, if, to my sorrow, I had not
feared that I was not in a fit state to die. If you came
here, my Father, I could have the happiness of confessing
to you ; and I do not think they would do you any harm ;
and I think that I could return home with you. I pray
you to pity my poor mother, who is in great trouble. You
know, my Father, how fond she is of me. I have heard
from a Frenchman, who was taken at Three Rivers on the
1st of August, that she is well, and comforts herself with
the hope that I shall see you. There are three of
us Frenchmen alive here. I commend myself to your
good prayers, and particularly to the Holy Sacrifice of the
Mass. I pray you, my Father, to say a mass for me. I
pray you give my dutiful love to my poor mother, and
console her, if it pleases you.
My Father, I beg your blessing on the hand that writes
to you, which has one of the fingers burned in the bowl
of an Indian pipe, to satisfy the Majesty of God which
I have offended. The thumb of the other hand is cut off ;
but do not tell my mother of it.
My Father, I pray you to honor me with a word from
your hand in reply, and tell me if you shall come here
before winter.
Your most humble and most obedient servant,
FRANCOIS HERTEL.
1 Journal des J&uites, 300.
1661.] LETTER OF HERTEL. 123
* The following is the letter to his mother, sent
probably, with the other, to the charge of Le
Moyne : —
MY MOST DEAR AND HONORED MOTHER, — I know very
well that my capture must have distressed you very much.
I ask you to forgive my disobedience. It is my sins that
have placed me where I am. I owe my life to your
prayers, and those of M. de Saint-Quentin, and of my
sisters. I hope to see you again before winter. I pray
you to tell the good brethren of Notre Dame to pray to
God and the Holy Virgin for me, my dear mother, and
for you and all my sisters.
Your poop
FANCHON.
This, no doubt, was the name by which she had
called him familiarly when a child. And who was
this "Fanchon," this devout and tender son of a fond
mother? New England can answer to her cost.
When, twenty-nine years later, a band of French and
Indians issued from the forest and fell upon the fort
and settlement of Salmon Falls, it was Francois
Hertel who led the attack; and when the retiring
victors were hard pressed by an overwhelming force,
it was he who, sword in hand, held the pursuers in
check at the bridge of Wooster River, and covered
the retreat of his men. He was ennobled for his
services, and died at the age of eighty, the founder
of one of the most distinguished families of Canada.1
1 His letters of nobility, dated 1716, will be found in Daniel's
Histoire des Grandes Families Francises du Canada. 404.
124 THE HEROES OF THE LONG SAUT. [1660.
To the New England of old he was the abhorred chief
of Popish malignants and murdering savages. The
New England of to-day will be more just to the brave
defender of his country and his faith.
In May, 1660, a party of French Algonquins
captured a Wolf, or Mohegan, Indian, naturalized
among the Iroquois, brought him to Quebec, and
burned him there with their usual atrocity of torture.
A modern Catholic writer says that the Jesuits could
not save him; but this is not so. Their influence
over the consciences of the colonists was at that time
unbounded, and their direct political power was very
great. A protest on their part, and that of the newly
arrived bishop, who was in their interest, could not
have failed of effect. The truth was, they did not
care to prevent the torture of prisoners of war, —
not solely out of that spirit of compliance with the
savage humor of Indian allies which stains so often
the pages of French American history, but also, and
perhaps chiefly, from motives purely religious.
Torture, in their eyes, seems to have been a blessing
in disguise. They thought it good for the soul, and
in case of obduracy the surest way of salvation.
" We have very rarely indeed, " writes one of them,
"seen the burning of an Iroquois without feeling
sure that he was on the path to paradise; and we
never knew one of them to be surely on the path to
paradise without seeing him pass through this fiery
punishment."1 So they let the Wolf burn; but
1 Relation, 1660, 31.
1660.] QUEBEC IN DANGER. 125
first, having instructed him after their fashion, they
baptized him, and his savage soul flew to heaven out
of the fire. "Is it not," pursues the same writer, "a
marvel to see a wolf changed at one stroke into a
lamb, and enter into the fold of Christ, which he
came to ravage ? "
Before he died, he requited their spiritual cares
with a startling secret. He told them that eight
hundred Iroquois warriors were encamped below
Montreal ; that four hundred more, who had wintered
on the Ottawa, were on the point of joining them;
and that the united force would swoop upon Quebec,
kill the governor, lay waste the town, and then
attack Three Rivers and Montreal.1 This time, at
least, the Iroquois were in deadly earnest. Quebec
was wild with terror. The Ursulines and the nuns
of the Hotel Dieu took refuge in the strong and ex-
tensive building which the Jesuits had just finished,
opposite the Parish Church. Its walls and palisades
made it easy of defence ; and in its yards and court
were lodged the terrified Hurons, as well as the
fugitive inhabitants of the neighboring settlements.
Others found asylum in the fort, and others in the
convent of the Ursulines, which, in place of nuns,
was occupied by twenty-four soldiers, who fortified
it with redoubts, and barricaded the doors and
windows. Similar measures of defence were taken
at the Hotel Dieu, and the streets of the Lower
Town were strongly barricaded. Everybody was in
1 Marie de 1'Incarnation, Lettre, 25 Juin, 1660.
126 THE HEROES OF THE LONG SAUT. [1660
arms, and the Qui vive of the sentries and patrols
resounded all night.1
Several days passed, and no Iroquois appeared.
The refugees took heart, and began to return to their
deserted farms and dwellings. Among the rest was
a family consisting of an old woman, her daughter,
her son-in-law, and four small children, living near
St. Anne, some twenty miles below Quebec. On
reaching home, the old woman and the man went to
their work in the fields, while the mother and chil-
dren remained in the house. Here they were
pounced upon and captured by eight renegade
Hurons, Iroquois by adoption, who placed them in
their large canoe, and paddled up the river with their
prize. It was Saturday, a day dedicated to the
Virgin; and the captive mother prayed to her for
aid, "feeling," writes a Jesuit, "a full conviction
that, in passing before Quebec on a Saturday, she
would be delivered by the power of this Queen of
Heaven." In fact, as the marauders and their cap-
tives glided in the darkness of night by Point Levi,
under the shadow of the shore, they were greeted
with a volley of musketry from the bushes, and a
band of French and Algonquins dashed into the
water to seize them. Five of the eight were taken,
and the rest shot or drowned. The governor had
heard of the descent at St. Anne, and despatched a
1 On this alarm at Quebec compare Marie de 1'Incarnation, 26
Juin, 1660 ; Relation, 1660, 6 ; Juchereau, Histoirt de VHdtel-Dieu de
Quebec, 125, and Journal des Jesuites, 282.
1660.] THE CAPTORS CAPTURED. 127
party to lie in ambush for the authors of it. The
Jesuits, it is needless to say, saw a miracle in the
result. The Virgin had answered the prayer of her
votary, —"though it is true," observes the father
who records the marvel, "that, in the volley, she
received a mortal wound." The same shot struck
the infant in her arms. The prisoners were taken to
Quebec, where four of them were tortured with even
more ferocity than had been shown in the case of the
unfortunate Wolf.1 Being questioned, they con-
firmed his story, and expressed great surprise that
the Iroquois had not come, adding that they must
have stopped to attack Montreal or Three Rivers.
Again all was terror, and again days passed and no
enemy appeared. Had the dying converts, so chari-
tably despatched to heaven through fire, sought an
unhallowed consolation in scaring the abettors of
their torture with a lie ? Not at all. Bating a slight
exaggeration, they had told the truth. Where,
then, were the Iroquois? As one small point of
i The torturers were Christian Algonquins, converts of the
Jesuits. Chaumonot, who was present to give spiritual aid to the
sufferers, describes the scene with horrible minuteness. " I could
not," he says, " deliver them from their torments." Perhaps not :
but it is certain that the Jesuits as a body, with or without the
bishop, could have prevented the atrocity, had they seen fit. They
sometimes taught their converts to pray for their enemies. It
would have been well had they taught them not to torture them.
I can recall but one instance in which they did so. The prayers
for enemies were always for a spiritual, not a temporal good. The
fathers held the body in slight account, and cared little what
happened to it.
128 THE HEROES OF THE LONG SAUT. [1660.
steel disarms the lightning of its terrors, so did the
heroism of a few intrepid youths divert this storm of
war, and save Canada from a possible ruin.
In the preceding April, before the designs of the
Iroquois were known, a young officer named Daulac,
commandant of the garrison of Montreal, asked leave
of Maisonneuve, the governor, to lead a party of
volunteers against the enemy. His plan was bold to
desperation. It was known that Iroquois warriors in
great numbers had wintered among the forests of the
Ottawa. Daulac proposed to waylay them on their
descent of the river, and fight them without regard
to disparity of force. The settlers of Montreal had
hitherto acted solely on the defensive, for their num-
bers had been too small for aggressive war. Of late
their strength had been somewhat increased, and
Maisonneuve, judging that a display of enterprise
and boldness might act as a check on the audacity of
the enemy, at length gave his consent.
Adam Daulac, or Dollard, Sieur des Ormeaux, was
a young man of good family, who had come to the col-
ony three years before, at the age of twenty-two. He
had held some military command in France, though in
what rank does not appear. It was said that he had
been involved in some affair which made him anxious
to wipe out the memory of the past by a noteworthy
exploit; and he had been busy for some time among
the young men of Montreal, inviting them to join
him in the enterprise he meditated. Sixteen of them
caught his spirit, struck hands with him, and pledged
1660.] DAULAC DES ORMEAUX. 129
their word. They bound themselves by oath to
accept no quarter ; and, having gained Maisonneuve's
consent, they made their wills, confessed, and
received the sacraments. As they knelt for the last
time before the altar in the chapel of the Hotel Dieu,
that sturdy little population of pious Indian-fighters
gazed on them with enthusiasm, not unmixed with
an envy which had in it nothing ignoble. Some of
the chief men of Montreal, with the brave Charles
Le Moyne at their head, begged them to wait till the
spring sowing was over, that they might join them ;
but Daulac refused. He was jealous of the glory
and the danger, and he wished to command, which
he could not have done had Le Moyne been present.
The spirit of the enterprise was purely mediaeval.
The enthusiasm of honor, the enthusiasm of adven-
ture, and the enthusiasm of faith were its motive
forces. Daulac was a knight of the early crusades
among the forests and savages of the New World.
Yet the incidents of this exotic heroism are definite
and clear as a tale of yesterday. The names, ages,
and occupations of the seventeen young men may
still be read on the ancient register of the parish of
Montreal; and the notarial acts of that year, pre-
served in the records of the city, contain minute
accounts of such property as each of them possessed.
The three eldest were of twenty-eight, thirty, and
thirty-one years respectively. The age of the rest
varied from twenty-one to twenty-seven. They were
of various callings, — soldiers, armorers, locksmiths,
130 THE HEROES OP THE LONG SAUT. [1660.
lime-burners, or settlers without trades. The
greater number had come to the colony as part of the
reinforcement brought by Maisonneuve in 1653.
After a solemn farewell, they embarked in several
canoes well supplied with arms and ammunition.
They were very indifferent canoe-men ; and it is said
that they lost a week in vain attempts to pass the
swift current of St. Anne, at the head of the island
of Montreal. At length they were more successful,
and entering the mouth of the Ottawa, crossed the
Lake of Two Mountains, and slowly advanced against
the current.
Meanwhile, forty warriors of that remnant of the
Hurons who, in spite of Iroquois persecutions, still
lingered at Quebec, had set out on a war-party, led
by the brave and wily Etienne Annahotaha, their
most noted chief. They stopped by the way at
Three Rivers, where they found a band of Christian
Algonquins under a chief named Mituvemeg.
Annahotaha challenged him to a trial of courage,
and it was agreed that they should meet at Montreal,
where they were likely to find a speedy opportunity
of putting their mettle to the test. Thither, accord-
ingly, they repaired, the Algonquin with three
followers, and the Huron with thirty-nine.
It was not long before they learned the departure
of Daulac and his companions. "For," observes the
honest Dollier de Casson, " the principal fault of our
Frenchmen is to talk too much." The wish seized
them to share the adventure, and to that end the
1660.] INDIAN ALLIES. 131
Huron chief asked the governor for a letter to
Daulac, to serve as credentials. Maisonneuve hesi-
tated. His faith in Huron valor was not great, and
he feared the proposed alliance. Nevertheless, he at
length yielded so far as to give Annahotaha a letter,
in which Daulac was told to accept or reject the
proffered reinforcement as he should see fit. The
Hurons and Algonquins now embarked, and paddled
in pursuit of the seventeen Frenchmen.
They meanwhile had passed with difficulty the
swift current at Carillon, and about the first of May
reached the foot of the more formidable rapid called
the Long Saut, where a tumult of waters, foaming
among ledges and bowlders, barred the onward way.
It was needless to go farther. The Iroquois were
sure to pass the Saut, and could be fought here as
well as elsewhere. Just below the rapid, where the
forests sloped gently to the shore, among the bushes
and stumps of the rough clearing made in construct-
ing it, stood a palisade fort, the work of an
Algonquin war-party in the past autumn. It was a
mere enclosure of trunks of small trees planted in a
circle, and was already ruinous. • Such as it was, the
Frenchmen took possession of it. Their first care,
one would think, should have been to repair and
strengthen it; but this they seem not to have done,
— possibly, in the exaltation of their minds, they
scorned such precaution. They made their fires,
and slung their kettles on the neighboring shore;
and here they were soon joined by the Hurons and
132 THE HEROES OF THE LONG SAUT. [1660.
Algonquins. Daulac, it seems, made no objection
to their company, and they all bivouacked together.
Morning and noon and night they prayed in three
different tongues ; and when at sunset the long reach
of forests on the farther shore basked peacefully in
the level rays, the rapids joined their hoarse music to
the notes of their evening hymn.
In a day or two their scouts came in with tidings
that two Iroquois canoes were coming down the Saut.
Daulac had time to set his men in ambush among
the bushes at a point where he thought the strangers
likely to land. He judged aright. The canoes,
bearing five Iroquois, approached, and were met by
a volley fired with such precipitation that one or
more of them escaped the shot, fled into the forest,
and told their mischance to their main body, two
hundred in number, on the river above. A fleet of
canoes suddenly appeared, bounding down the rapids,
filled with warriors eager for revenge. The allies
had barely time to escape to their fort, leaving their
kettles still slung over the fires. The Iroquois made
a hasty and desultory attack, and were quickly
repulsed. They next opened a parley, hoping, no
doubt, to gain some advantage by surprise. Failing
in this, they set themselves, after their custom on
such occasions, to building a rude fort of their own
in the neighboring forest.
This gave the French a breathing-time, and they
used it for strengthening their defences. Being
provided with tools, they planted a row of stakes
1660.] THE FORT ATTACKED. 133
within their palisade, to form a double fence, and
filled the intervening space with earth and stones to
the height of a man, leaving some twenty loop-holes,
at each of which three marksmen were stationed.
Their work was still unfinished when the Iroquois
were upon them again. They had broken to pieces
the birch canoes of the French and their allies, and,
kindling the bark, rushed up to pile it blazing against
the palisade ; but so brisk and steady a fire met them
that they recoiled, and at last gave way. They
came on again, and again were driven back, leaving
many of their number on the ground, — among them
the principal chief of the Senecas. Some of the
French dashed out, and, covered by the fire of their
comrades, hacked off his head, and stuck it on the
palisade, while the Iroquois howled in a frenzy of
helpless rage. They tried another attack, and were
beaten off a third time.
This dashed their spirits, and they sent a canoe to
call to their aid five hundred of their warriors who
were mustered near the mouth of the Richelieu.
These were the allies whom, but for this untoward
check, they were on their way to join for a combined
attack on Quebec, Three Rivers, and Montreal. It
was maddening to see their grand project thwarted
by a few French and Indians ensconced in a paltry
redoubt, scarcely better than a cattle-pen; but they
were forced to digest the affront as best they might.
Meanwhile, crouched behind trees and logs, they
beset the fort, harassing its defenders day and night
134 THE HEROES OF THE LONG SAUT. [1660.
with a spattering fire and a constant menace of
attack. Thus five days passed. Hunger, thirst, and
want of sleep wrought fatally on the strength of the
French and their allies, who, pent up together in
their narrow prison, fought and prayed by turns.
Deprived as they were of water, they could not
swallow the crushed Indian corn, or "hominy,"
which was their only food. Some of them, under
cover of a brisk fire, ran down to the river and filled
such small vessels as they had; but this pittance
only tantalized their thirst. They dug a hole in the
fort, and were rewarded at last by a little muddy
water oozing through the clay.
Among the assailants were a number of Hurons,
adopted by the Iroquois and fighting on their side.
These renegades now shouted to their countrymen in
the fort, telling them that a fresh army was close at
hand ; that they would soon be attacked by seven or
eight hundred warriors; and that their only hope
was in joining the Iroquois, who would receive them
as friends. Annahotaha's followers, half dead with
thirst and famine, listened to their seducers, took the
bait, and, one, two, or three at a time, climbed the
palisade and ran over to the enemy, amid the hoot-
ings and execrations of those whom they deserted.
Their chief stood firm ; and when he saw his nephew,
La Mouche, join the other fugitives, he fired his
pistol at him in a rage. The four Algonquins, who
had no mercy to hope for, stood fast, with the cour-
age of despair.
J660.] THE REINFORCEMENT. 135
On the fifth day an uproar of unearthly yells from
seven hundred savage throats, mingled with a clatter-
ing salute of musketry, told the Frenchmen that the
expected reinforcement had come; and soon, in the
forest and on the clearing, a crowd of warriors
mustered for the attack. Knowing from the Huron
deserters the weakness of their enemy, they had no
doubt of an easy victory. They advanced cautiously,
as was usual with the Iroquois before their blood was
up, screeching, leaping from side to side, and firing
as they came on ; but the French were at their posts,
and every loophole darted its tongue of fire. Besides
muskets, they had heavy musketoons of large calibre,
which, scattering scraps of lead and iron among the
throng of savages, often maimed several of them at
one discharge. The Iroquois, astonished at the per-
sistent vigor of the defence, fell back discomfited.
The fire of the French, who were themselves com-
pletely under cover, had told upon them with deadly
effect. Three days more wore away in a series of
futile attacks, made with little concert or vigor; and
during all this time Daulac and his men, reeling with
exhaustion, fought and prayed as before, sure of a
martyr's reward.
The uncertain, vacillating temper common to all
Indians now began to declare itself. Some of the
Iroquois were for going home. Others revolted at
the thought, and declared that it would be an eternal
disgrace to lose so many men at the hands of so
paltry an enemy, and yet fail to take revenge. It
136 THE HEROES OF THE LONG SAUT. [1660.
was resolved to make a general assault, and volun
teers were called for to lead the attack. After the
custom on such occasions, bundles of small sticks
were thrown upon the ground, and those picked
them up who dared, thus accepting the gage of
battle, and enrolling themselves in the forlorn hope.
No precaution was neglected. Large and heavy
shields four or five feet high were made by lashing
together three split logs with the aid of cross-bars.
Covering themselves with these mantelets, the chosen
band advanced, followed by the motley throng of
warriors. In spite of a brisk fire, they reached the
palisade, and, crouching below the range of shot,
hewed furiously with their hatchets to cut their way
through. The rest followed close, and swarmed like
angry hornets around the little fort, hacking and
tearing to get in.
Daulac had crammed a large musketoon with
powder, and plugged up the muzzle. Lighting the
fuse inserted in it, he tried to throw it over the
barrier, to burst like a grenade among the crowd of
savages without ; but it struck the ragged top of one
of the palisades, fell back among the Frenchmen and
exploded, killing and wounding several of them, and
nearly blinding others. In the confusion that fol-
lowed, the Iroquois got possession of the loopholes,
and, thrusting in their guns, fired on those within.
In a moment more they had torn a breach in the
palisade; but, nerved with the energy of despera-
tion, Daulac and his followers sprang to defend it.
1660.] THE FORT TAKEN. 137
Another breach was made, and then another. Daulac
was struck dead, but the survivors kept up the fight.
With a sword or a hatchet in one hand and a knife
in the other, they threw themselves against the
throng of enemies, striking and stabbing with the
fury of madmen; till the Iroquois, despairing of
taking them alive, fired volley after volley and shot
them down. All was over, and a burst of triumph-
ant yells proclaimed the dear-bought victory.
Searching the pile of corpses, the victors found
four Frenchmen still breathing. Three had scarcely
a spark of life, and, as no time was to be lost, they
burned them on the spot. The fourth, less fortunate,
seemed likely to survive, and they reserved him for
future torments. As for the Huron deserters, their
cowardice profited them little. The Iroquois, regard-
less of their promises, fell upon them, burned some
at once, and carried the rest to their villages for a
similar fate. Five of the number had the good
fortune to escape; and it was from them, aided by
admissions made long afterwards by the Iroquois
themselves, that the French of Canada derived all
their knowledge of this glorious disaster.1
i When the fugitive Hurons reached Montreal, they were un-
willing to confess their desertion of the French, and declared that
they and some others of their people, to the number of fourteen,
had stood by them to the last. This was the story told by one of
them to the Jesuit Chaumonot, and by him communicated in a
letter to his friends at Quebec. The substance of this letter is
given by Marie de ITncarnation, in her letter to her son of June 25,
1660. The Jesuit Relation of this year gives another long account
of the affair, also derived from the Huron deserters, who this time
138 THE HEROES OF THE LONG SAUT. [1660.
To the colony it proved a salvation. The Iroquois
had had fighting enough. If seventeen Frenchmen,
four Algonquins, and one Huron, behind a picket
fence, could hold seven hundred warriors at bay so
long, what might they expect from many such, fight-
only pretended that ten of their number remained with the French.
They afterwards admitted that all had deserted but Annahotaha,
as appears from the account drawn up by Dollier de Casson, in his
Histoire du Montreal. Another contemporary, Belmont, who heard
the story from an Iroquois, makes the same statement. All these
writers, though two of them were not friendly to Montreal, agree
that Daulac and his followers saved Canada from a disastrous
invasion. The governor, Argenson, in a letter written on the fourth
of July following, and in his Memoire sur le sujet de la guerre des
Iroquois, expresses the same conviction. Before me is an extract,
copied from the Petit Registre de la Cure de Montreal, giving the
names and ages of Daulac's men.
Radisson, the famous voyageur, says that, on his way down the
Ottawa from Lake Superior, he passed the Long Saut eight days
after the destruction of Daulac and his party ; and he gives an
account of the fight that answers on the whole to those of the
other writers. He addg, however, that the Hurons remained out-
side the fort, which was too small to hold them, and that only the
seventeen Frenchmen and four Algonquins — or twenty-one in all
— were under cover. He also says that the reinforcement which
joined the two hundred Iroquois who began the attack consisted of
" five hundred and fifty Iroquoits of the lower nation [Mohawks]
and fifty Orijonot " (Oneidas?), — making with the original assail-
ants eight hundred in all. (Publications of the Prince Society, 1885,
233.) Radisson, whose narratives were not written till some years
after the events that they record, forgets the date of the fight at the
Long Saut, which would appear from him to have happened three
years after it really took place.
Abbe Faillon took extreme pains to collect the evidence touch-
ing Daulac's heroism, and, though Radisson's writings were
unknown to him, his narrative should be consulted by those in-
terested in the subject. See his anonymous Histoire de la Coloni«
Francaise au Canada, ii. chap. xv.
1660.] THE IROQUOIS BAFFLED. 189
ing behind walls of stone? For that year they
thought no more of capturing Quebec and Montreal,
but went home dejected and amazed, to howl over
their losses, and nurse their dashed courage for a day
of vengeance.
CHAPTER VII.
1657-1668.
THE DISPUTED BISHOPRIC.
DOMESTIC STRIFE. — JESUIT AND SULPITIAN. — ABBE QUEYLUS. —
FRANCOIS DE LAVAL. — THE ZEALOTS OP CAEN. — GALLICAN
AND ULTRAMONTANE. — THE RIVAL CLAIMANTS. — STORM AT
QUEBEC. — LAVAL TRIUMPHANT.
CANADA, gasping under the Iroquois tomahawk,
might, one would suppose, have thought her cup of
tribulation full, and, sated with inevitable woe,
have sought consolation from the wrath without in a
holy calm within. Not so, however; for while the
heathen raged at the door, discord rioted at the
hearthstone. Her domestic quarrels were wonderful
in number, diversity, and bitterness. There was
the standing quarrel of Montreal and Quebec, the
quarrels of priests with one another, of priests with
the governor, and of the governor with the intendant,
besides ceaseless wranglings of rival traders and rival
peculators.
Some of these disputes were local and of no special
significance; while others are very interesting,
because, on a remote and obscure theatre, they repr*-
1657.] JESUIT AND SULPITIAN. 141
sent, sometimes in striking forms, the contending
passions and principles of a most important epoch of
history. To begin with one which even to this day
has left a root of bitterness behind it.
The association of pious enthusiasts who had
founded Montreal 1 was reduced in 1657 to a remnant
of five or six persons, whose ebbing zeal and over-
taxed purses were no longer equal to the devout but
arduous enterprise. They begged the priests of the
Seminary of St. Sulpice to take it off their hands.
The priests consented; and, though the conveyance
of the island of Montreal to these its new proprietors
did not take effect till some years later, four of the
Sulpitian fathers — Queylus, Souart, Galinde, and
Allet — came out to the colony and took it in charge.
Thus far Canada had had no bishop, and the
Sulpitians now aspired to give it one from their own
brotherhood. Many years before, when the Re*collets
had a foothold in the colony, they too, or at least
some of them, had cherished the hope of giving
Canada a bishop of their own. As for the Jesuits,
who for nearly thirty years had of themselves consti-
tuted the Canadian church, they had been content
thus far to dispense with a bishop; for having no
rivals in the field, they had felt no need of episcopal
support.
The Sulpitians put forward Queylus as their candi-
date for the new bishopric. The assembly of French
» See " Jesuits in North America/' chap. xxii.
142 THE DISPUTED BISHOPRIC. [1657.
clergy approved, and Cardinal Mazarin himself
seemed to sanction, the nomination. The Jesuits
saw that their time of action was come. It was they
who had borne the heat and burden of the day, the
toils, privations, and martyrdoms, while as yet the
Sulpitians had done nothing and endured nothing.
If any body of ecclesiastics was to have the nomina-
tion of a bishop, it clearly belonged to them, the
Jesuits. Their might, too, matched their right.
They were strong at court; Mazarin withdrew his
assent, and the Jesuits were invited to name a bishop
to their liking.
Meanwhile the Sulpitians, despairing of the
bishopric, had sought their solace elsewhere. Ships
bound for Canada had usually sailed from ports
within the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Rouen,
and the departing missionaries had received their
ecclesiastical powers from him, till he had learned to
regard Canada as an outlying section of his diocese.
Not unwilling to assert his claims, he now made
Queylus his vicar-general for all Canada, thus cloth-
ing him with episcopal powers, and placing him over
the heads of the Jesuits. Queylus, in effect though
not in name a bishop, left his companion Souart in
the spiritual charge of Montreal, came down to
Quebec, announced his new dignity, and assumed the
curacy of the parish. The Jesuits received him at
first with their usual urbanity, an exercise of self-
control rendered more easy by their knowledge that
1657.]
ABBE QUEYLUS.
143
one more potent than Queylus would soon arrive to
supplant him.1
The vicar of the Archbishop of Rouen was a man
of many virtues, devoted to good works, as he
understood them ; rich, for the Sulpitians were under
no vow of poverty; generous in almsgiving, busy,
indefatigable, overflowing with zeal, vivacious in
temperament and excitable in temper, impatient of
opposition, and, as it seems, incapable, like his
destined rival, of seeing any way of doing good but
his own. Though the Jesuits were outwardly cour-
teous, their partisans would not listen to the new
curd's sermons, or listened only to find fault; and
germs of discord grew vigorously in the parish of
Quebec. Prudence was not among the virtues of
Queylus. He launched two sermons against the
Jesuits, in which he likened himself to Christ and
them to the Pharisees. "Who," he supposed them
to say, " is this Jesus, so beloved of the people, who
comes to cast discredit on us, who for thirty or forty
years have governed church and state here, with
none to dispute us?"2 He denounced such of his
1 A detailed account of the experiences of Queylus at Quebec,
immediately after his arrival, as related by himself, will be found
in a memoir by the Sulpitian Allet, in Morale Pratique des Jesuites,
xxxiv. chap. xii. In chapter ten of the same volume the writer
says that he visited Queylus at Mont St. Valerien, after his return
from Canada. " II me prit a part ; nous nous promenames assez
longtemps dans le jardin et il m'ouvrit son coeur sur la conduite
des Jesuites dans le Canada et partout ailleurs. Messieurs de St.
sulpice savent bien ce qu'il m'en a pu dire, et je suis assure' qu'ils
diront pas que je 1'ai dCi prendre pour des mensongea."
2 Journal des Jesuites, Octobre, 1657.
144 THE DISPUTED BISHOPRIC. [1657.
hearers as came to pick flaws in his discourse, and
told them it would be better for their souls if they
lay in bed at home, sick of a "good quartan fever."
His ire was greatly kindled by a letter of the Jesuit
Pijart, which fell into his hands through a female
adherent, the pious Madame d'Ailleboust, and in
which that father declared that he, Queylus, was
waging war on him and his brethren more savagely
than the Iroquois.1 "He was as crazy at sight of a
Jesuit," writes an adverse biographer, "as a mad
dog at sight of water."2 He cooled, however, on
being shown certain papers which proved that his
position was neither so strong nor so secure as he had
supposed; and the governor, Argenson, at length
persuaded him to retire to Montreal.3
The queen-mother, Anne of Austria, always in-
clined to the Jesuits, had invited Father Le Jeune,
who was then in France, to make choice of a bishop
for Canada. It was not an easy task. No Jesuit
was eligible, for the sage policy of Loyola had
excluded members of the order from the bishopric.
The signs of the times portended trouble for the
Canadian church, and there was need of a bishop
who would assert her claims and fight her battles.
Such a man could not be made an instrument of the
Jesuits; therefore there was double need that he
should be one with them in sympathy and purpose.
1 Journal des Jesuites, Octobre, 1657.
* Viger, Notice Historique sur l'Abb€ de Queylus.
* Papiers d' Argenson.
1657.] LAVAL. 145
They made a sagacious choice. Le Jeune presented
to the queen-mother the name of Frangois Xavier de
Laval-Montmorency, Abbe" de Montigny.
Laval, for by this name he was thenceforth known,
belonged to one of the proudest families of Europe,
and, churchman as he was, there is much in his
career to remind us that in his veins ran the blood
of the stern Constable of France, Anne de Mont-
morency. Nevertheless, his thoughts from childhood
had turned towards the Church, or, as his biographers
will have it, all his aspirations were heavenward.
He received the tonsure at the age of nine. The
Jesuit Bagot confirmed and moulded his youthful
predilections ; and at a later period he was one of a
band of young zealots formed under the auspices of
Bernieres de Louvigni, royal treasurer at Caen, who,
though a layman, was reputed almost a saint. It
was Bernieres who had borne the chief part in the
pious fraud of the pretended marriage through which
Madame de la Peltrie escaped from her father's roof
to become foundress of the Ursulines of Quebec.1
He had since renounced the world, and dwelt at
Caen in a house attached to an Ursuline convent,
and known as the "Hermitage." Here he lived like
a monk, in the midst of a community of young
priests and devotees, who looked to him as their
spiritual director, and whom he trained in the
maxims and practices of the most extravagant, or, as
1 See " Jesuits in North America," chap. xiv.
10
146 THE DISPUTED BISHOPRIC. [1657-62.
his admirers say, the roost sublime ultramontane
piety. 1
The conflict between the Jesuits and the Jansenists
was then at its height. The Jansenist doctrines of
election and salvation by grace, which sapped .the
power of the priesthood and impugned the authority
of the Pope himself in his capacity of holder of the
keys of heaven, were to the Jesuits an abomination ;
while the rigid morals of the Jansenists stood in
stern contrast to the pliancy of Jesuit casuistry.
Bernieres and his disciples were zealous, not to say
fanatical, partisans of the Jesuits. There is a long
account of the " Hermitage " and its inmates from
the pen of the famous Jansenist Nicole, — an oppo-
nent, it is true, but one whose qualities of mind and
character give weight to his testimony.2
"In this famous Hermitage," says Nicole, "the
late Sieur de Bernieres brought up a number of
young men, to whom he taught a sort of sublime
and transcendental devotion called passive prayer,
because in it the mind does not act at all, but merely
receives the divine operation; and this devotion is
the source of all those visions and revelations in
which the Hermitage is so prolific." In short, he
and his disciples were mystics of the most exalted
type. Nicole pursues : " After having thus subtilized
1 La Tour in his Vie de Laval gives his maxims at length.
8 Me'moire pour faire connoistre I 'esprit et la conduite de la Com-
pagnie etablie en la ville de Caen, appellee I'Hermitage (Bibliotheque
Nationale. Imprimes. Partie Re'servee). Written in 1660.
1657-62.]
THE ZEALOTS AT CAEN.
14T
their minds, and almost sublimed them into vapor,
he rendered them capable of detecting Jansenists
under any disguise, insomuch that some of his fol-
lowers said that they knew them by the scent, as
dogs know their game; but the aforesaid Sieur de
Bernieres denied that they had so subtile a sense of
smell, and said that the mark by which he detected
Jansenists was their disapproval of his teachings or
their opposition to the Jesuits."
The zealous band at the Hermitage was aided in
its efforts to extirpate error by a sort of external
association in the city of Caen, consisting of mer-
chants, priests, officers, petty nobles, and others, all
inspired and guided by Bernieres. They met every
week at the Hermitage, or at the houses of one
another. Similar associations existed in other cities
of France, besides a fraternity in the Rue St.
Dominique at Paris, which was formed by the Jesuit
Bagot, and seems to have been the parent, in a cer-
tain sense, of the others. They all acted together
when any important object was in view.
Bernieres and his disciples felt that God had
chosen them not only to watch over doctrine and
discipline in convents and in families, but also to
supply the prevalent deficiency of zeal in bishops and
other dignitaries of the Church. They kept, too, a
constant eye on the humbler clergy, and whenever a
new preacher appeared in Caen, two of their number
were deputed to hear his sermon and report upon it.
If he chanced to let fall a word concerning the grace
148 THE DISPUTED BISHOPRIC. [1657-62.
of God, they denounced him for Jansenistic heresy.
Such commotion was once raised in Caen by charges
of sedition and Jansenism, brought by the Hermitage
against priests and laymen hitherto without attaint,
that the Bishop of Bayeux thought it necessary to
interpose ; but even he was forced to pause, daunted
by the insinuations of Bernieres that he was in secret
sympathy with the obnoxious doctrines.
Thus the Hermitage and its affiliated societies con-
stituted themselves a sort of inquisition in the interest
of the Jesuits; "for what," asks Nicole, "might not
be expected from persons of weak minds and atra-
bilious dispositions, dried up by constant fasts,
vigils, and other austerities, besides meditations of
three or four hours a day, and told continually that
the Church is in imminent danger of ruin through
the machinations of the Jansenists, who are repre-
sented to them as persons who wish to break up the
foundations of the Christian faith and subvert the
mystery of the Incarnation; who believe neither in
transubstantiation, the invocation of saints, nor
indulgences ; who wish to abolish the sacrifice of the
Mass and the sacrament of Penitence, oppose the
worship of the Holy Virgin, deny free-will and sub-
stitute predestination in its place, and, in fine, con-
spire to overthrow the authority of the Supreme
Pontiff?"
Among other anecdotes, Nicole tells the following :
One of the young zealots of the Hermitage took it
into his head that all Caen was full of Jansenists,
1657-62.] EXTRAVAGANCE. 149
and that the cure's of the place were in league with
them. He inoculated four others with this notion,
and they resolved to warn the people of their danger.
They accordingly made the tour of the streets, with
out hats or collars, and with coats unbuttoned,
though it was a cold winter day, stopping every
moment to proclaim in a loud voice that all the cure's,
excepting two, whom they named, were abettors of
the Jansenists. A mob was soon following at their
heels, and there was great excitement. The magis-
trates chanced to be in session, and hearing of the
disturbance, they sent constables to arrest the authors
of it. Being brought to the bar of justice and ques-
tioned by the judge, they answered that they were
doing the work of God, and were ready to die in the
cause ; that Caen was full of Jansenists, and that the
cure's had declared in their favor, inasmuch as they
denied any knowledge of their existence. Four of
the five were locked up for a few days, tried, and
sentenced to a fine of a hundred livres, with a
promise of further punishment should they again
disturb the peace.1
The fifth, being pronounced out of his wits by the
physicians, was sent home to his mother, at a village
near Argentan, where two or three of his fellow
zealots presently joined him. Among them, they
persuaded his mother, who had hitherto been devoted
1 Nicole is not the only authority for this story. It is also told
by a very different writer. See Notice Historique de I'Abbaye de Ste-
Claire d' Argentan, 124.
150 THE DISPUTED BISHOPRIC. [1657-62.
to household cares, to exchange them for a life of
mystical devotion. "These three or four persons,"
says Mcole, "attracted others as imbecile as them-
selves." Among these recruits were a number of
women, and several priests. After various acts of
fanaticism, "two or three days before last Pentecost,"
proceeds the narrator, "they all set out, men and
women, for Argentan. The priests had drawn the
skirts of their cassocks over their heads, and tied
them about their necks with twisted straw. Some of
the women had their heads bare, and their hair
streaming loose over their shoulders. They picked
up filth on the road, and rubbed their faces with it;
and the most zealous ate it, saying that it was neces-
sary to mortify the taste. Some held stones in their
hands, which they knocked together to draw the
attention of the passers-by. They had a leader,
whom they were bound to obey; and when this
leader saw any mud-hole particularly deep and dirty,
he commanded some of the party to roll themselves
in it, which they did forthwith.1
"After this fashion, they entered the town of
Argentan, and marched, two by two, through all the
streets, crying with a loud voice that the Faith was
perishing, and that whoever wished to save it must
quit the country and go with them to Canada,
1 These proceedings were probably intended to produce the
result which was the constant object of the mystics of the Her-
mitage ; namely, the " annihilation of self," with a view to a
perfect union with God. To become despised of men was an im-
portant if not an essential step in this mystical suicide.
J657-62.] EULOGY ON LAVAL. 151
whither they were soon to repair. It is said that
they still hold this purpose, and that their leaders
declare it revealed to them that they will find a vessel
ready at the first port to which Providence directs
them. The reason why they choose Canada for an
asylum is, that Monsieur de Montigny (Laval),
Bishop of Petrsea, who lived at the Hermitage a long
time, where he was instructed in mystical theology
by Monsieur de Berni£res, exercises episcopal func-
tions there; and that the Jesuits, who are their
oracles, reign in that country."
This adventure, like the other, ended in a collision
with the police. "The priests," adds Nicole, "were
arrested, and are now waiting trial; and the rest
were treated as mad, and sent back with shame and
confusion to the places whence they had come."
Though these pranks took place after Laval had
left the Hermitage, they serve to characterize the
school in which he was formed; or, more justly
speaking, to show its most extravagant side. That
others did not share the views of the celebrated
Jansenist, may be gathered from the following pas-
sage of the funeral oration pronounced over the body
of Laval half a century later : —
" The humble abbe* was next transported into the
terrestrial paradise of Monsieur de Bernieres. It is
thus that I call, as it is fitting to call it, that famous
Hermitage of Caen, where the seraphic author of the
* Christian Interior ' [Bernieres] transformed into
angels all those who had the happiness to be the
152 THE DISPUTED BISHOPRIC. [1657-62.
companions of his solitude and of his spiritual exer-
cises. It was there that, during four years, the
fervent abb£ drank the living and abounding waters
of grace which have since flowed so benignly over
this land of Canada. In this celestial abode his ordi-
nary occupations were prayer, mortification, instruc-
tion of the poor, and spiritual readings or conferences ;
his recreations were to labor in the hospitals, wait
upon the sick and poor, make their beds, dress their
wounds, and aid them in their most repulsive
needs."1
In truth, Laval's zeal was boundless, and the
exploits of self-humiliation recorded of him were
unspeakably revolting.2 Bernieres himself regarded
him as a light by which to guide his own steps in
ways of holiness. He made journeys on foot about
the country, disguised, penniless, begging from door
to door, and courting scorn and opprobrium, "in
order," says his biographer, "that he might suffer
for the love of God." Yet, though living at this
time in a state of habitual religious exaltation, he
was by nature no mere dreamer; and in whatever
heights his spirit might wander, his feet were always
planted on the solid earth. His flaming zeal had for
its servants a hard, practical nature, perfectly fitted
for the battle of life, a narrow intellect, a stiff and
1 Elogefunebre de Messire Francois Xavier de Laval-Montmorency ,
par Messire de la Colombiere, Vicaire General.
2 See La Tour, Vie de Laval, liv. i. Some of them were closely
akin to that of the fanatics mentioned above, who ate *' immondicea
d'animaux" to mortify the taste.
1657.] GALLICAN AND ULTRAMONTANE. 153
persistent will, and, as his enemies thought, the love
of domination native to his blood.
Two great parties divided the Catholics of France,
— the Gallican or national party, and the ultramontane
or papal party. The first, resting on the Scriptural
injunction to give tribute to Caesar, held that to the
King, the Lord's anointed, belonged the temporal,
and to the Church the spiritual power. It held also
that the laws and customs of the Church of France
could not be broken at the bidding of the Pope.1
The ultramontane party, on the other hand, main-
tained that the Pope, Christ's vicegerent on earth,
was supreme over earthly rulers, and should of right
hold jurisdiction over the clergy of all Christendom,
with powers of appointment and removal. Hence
they claimed for him the right of nominating bishops
in France. This had anciently been exercised by
assemblies of the French clergy, but in the reign of
Francis I. the King and the Pope had combined to
wrest it from them by the Concordat of Bologna.
Under this compact, which was still in force, the
Pope appointed French bishops on the nomination of
the King, — a plan which displeased the Gallicans,
and did not satisfy the ultramontanes.
The Jesuits, then as now, were the most forcible
exponents of ultramontane principles. The Church
to rule the world; the Pope to rule the Church; the
Jesuits to rule the Pope, — such was and is the
1 See the famous Quatre Articles of 1682, in which the liberties
of the Gallican Church are asserted.
154 THE DISPUTED BISHOPRIC. [1657.
simple programme of the Order of Jesus; and to it
they have held fast, except on a few rare occasions
of misunderstanding with the Vicegerent of Christ.1
In the question of papal supremacy, as in most
things else, Laval was of one mind with them.
Those versed in such histories will not be surprised
to learn that when he received the royal nomination,
humility would not permit him to accept it ; nor that,
being urged, he at length bowed in resignation, still
protesting his unworthiness. Nevertheless, the royal
nomination did not take effect. The ultramontanes
outflanked both the King and the Gallicans, and by
adroit strategy made the new prelate completely a
creature of the papacy. Instead of appointing him
Bishop of Quebec, in accordance with the royal
initiative, the Pope made him his vicar apostolic for
Canada, — thus evading the King's nomination, and
affirming that Canada, a country of infidel savages,
was excluded from the concordat, and under his (the
Pope's) jurisdiction pure and simple. The Gallicans
were enraged. The Archbishop of Rouen vainly
opposed, and the parliaments of Rouen and of Paris
vainly protested. The papal party prevailed. The
King, or rather Mazarin, gave his consent, subject
to certain conditions, the chief of which was an oath
of allegiance; and Laval, grand vicar apostolic,
decorated with the title of Bishop of Petraea, sailed
1 For example, not long after this time, the Jesuits, having a
dispute with Innocent XL, threw themselves into the party of
opposition.
1657.] LAVAL AND QUEYLUS. 155
for his wilderness diocese in the spring of 1659. *
He was but thirty-six years of age, but even when a
boy he could scarcely have seemed young.
Queylus, for a time, seemed to accept the situation,
and tacitly admit the claim of Laval as his ecclesias
tical superior; but, stimulated by a letter from the
Archbishop of Rouen, he soon threw himself into an
attitude of opposition,2 in which the popularity which
his generosity to the poor had won for him gave him
an advantage very annoying to his adversary. The
quarrel, it will be seen, was three-sided, — Gallican
against ultramontane, Sulpitian against Jesuit,
Montreal against Quebec. To Montreal the recal-
citrant abbe', after a brief visit to Quebec, had again
retired j but even here, girt with his Sulpitian
brethren and compassed with partisans, the arm
of the vicar apostolic was long enough to reach
him.
By temperament and conviction Laval hated a
divided authority, and the very shadow of a schism
was an abomination in his sight. The young King,
who, though abundantly jealous of his royal power,
was forced to conciliate the papal party, had sent
instructions to Argenson, the governor, to support
Laval, and prevent divisions in the Canadian
1 Compare La Tour, Vie de Laval, with the long statement in
Faillon, Colonie Franpaise, ii. 316-335. Faillon gives various docu-
ments in full, including the royal letter of nomination and those
in which the King gives a reluctant consent to the appointment of
the vicar apostolic.
8 Journal des Jesuites, Septembre, 1657.
156 THE DISPUTED BISHOPRIC. [1659.
Church.1 These instructions served as the pretext
of a procedure sufficiently summary. A squad of
soldiers, commanded, it is said, by the governor him-
self, went up to Montreal, brought the indignant
Queylus to Quebec, and shipped him thence for
France.2 By these means, writes Father Lalemant,
order reigned for a season in the Church.
It was but for a season. Queylus was not a man
to bide his defeat in tranquillity, nor were his brother
Sulpitians disposed to silent acquiescence. Laval,
on his part, was not a man of half measures. He
had an agent in France, and partisans strong at
court. Fearing, to borrow the words of a Catholic
writer, that the return of Queylus to Canada would
prove "injurious to the glory of God," he bestirred
himself to prevent it. The young King, then at
Aix, on his famous journey to the frontiers of Spain
to marry the Infanta, was induced to write to
Queylus, ordering him to remain in France.3
Queylus, however, repaired to Rome; but even
against this movement provision had been made:
accusations of Jansenism had gone before him, and
he met a cold welcome. Nevertheless, as he had
powerful friends near the Pope, he succeeded in
removing these adverse impressions, and even in
obtaining certain bulls relating to the establishment
1 Lettre du Roi a d'Argenson, 14 Mai, 1659.
2 Belmont, Histoire du Canada, A.D. 1659. Memoir by Abb£
d'Allet, in Morale Pratique des J&uites, xxxiv. 725.
8 Lettre du Roi a Queylus, 27 Fev., 1660.
1660-61.] ANOTHER STORM. 157
of the parish of Montreal, and favorable to the
Sulpitians. Provided with these, he set at nought
the King's letter, embarked under an assumed
name, and sailed to Quebec, where he made his
appearance on the third of August, 1661, l to the
extreme wrath of Laval.
A ferment ensued. Laval's partisans charged the
Sulpitians with Jansenism and opposition to the will
of the Pope. A preacher more zealous than the rest
denounced them as priests of Antichrist; and as to
the bulls in their favor, it was affirmed that Queylus
had obtained them by fraud from the Holy Father.
Laval at once issued a mandate forbidding him to
proceed to Montreal till ships should arrive with
instructions from the King.2 At the same time he
demanded of the governor that he should interpose
the civil power to prevent Queylus from leaving
Quebec.3 As Argenson, who wished to act as peace-
maker between the belligerent fathers, did not at
once take the sharp measures required of him, Laval
renewed his demand on the next day, — calling on
him, in the name of God and the King, to compel
Queylus to yield the obedience due to him, the vicar
apostolic.4 At the same time he sent another to the
offending abbe*, threatening to suspend him from
priestly functions if he persisted in his rebellion.6
1 Journal des Jesuites, Aotit, 1061,
2 Lettre de Laval a Queylus, 4 Aotit, 1661.
8 Lettre de Laval a d' Argenson, Ibid.
* Ibid., 5 Aout, 1661.
* Lettre de Laval d Queylus, Ibid.
158 THE DISPUTED BISHOPRIC. [1061
The incorrigible Queylus, who seems to have lived
for some months in a simmer of continual indigna-
tion, set at nought the vicar apostolic as he had set
at nought the King, took a boat that very night, and
set out for Montreal under cover of darkness. Great
was the ire of Laval when he heard the news in the
morning. He despatched a letter after him, declar-
ing him suspended ipso facto, if he did not instantly
return and make his submission.1 This letter, like
the rest, failed of the desired effect; but the gover-
nor, who had received a second mandate from the
King to support Laval and prevent a schism,2 now
reluctantly interposed the secular arm, and Queylus
was again compelled to return to France.3
His expulsion was a Sulpitian defeat. Laval,
always zealous for unity and centralization^ had
some time before taken steps to repress what he
regarded as a tendency to independence at Montreal.
In the preceding year he had written to the Pope:
"There are some secular priests [Sulpitians] at
Montreal, whom the Abbe* de Queylus brought out
with him in 1657, and I have named for the functions
of cure* the one among them whom I thought the
least disobedient." The bulls which Queylus had
obtained from Rome related to this very curacy, and
greatly disturbed the mind of the vicar apostolic.
He accordingly wrote again to the Pope: "I pray
1 Lettre de Laval a Queylus, Q Aotit, 1661.
* Lettre du Roi a d'Argenson, 13 Mai, 1660.
8 For the governor's attitude in this affair, consult the Papiers
d'A.-~gtnsony containing his despatches.
1661.] VICTORY OF LAVAL. 159
your Holiness to let me know your will concerning
the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Rouen. M.
1'Abbe" de Queylus, who has come out this year as
vicar of this archbishop, has tried to deceive us by
surreptitious letters, and has obeyed neither our
prayers nor our repeated commands to desist. But
he has received orders from the King to return imme-
diately to France, to render an account of his diso-
bedience ; and he has been compelled by the governor
to conform to the will of his Majesty. What I now
fear is that on his return to France, by using every
kind of means, employing new artifices, and falsely
representing our affairs, he may obtain from the
Court of Rome powers which may disturb the peace
of our Church; for the priests whom he brought
with him from France, and who live at Montreal,
are animated with the same spirit of disobedience
and division; and I fear, with good reason, that all
belonging to the Seminary of St. Sulpice, who may
come hereafter to join them, will be of the same dis-
position. If what is said is true, that by means of
fraudulent letters the right of patronage of the pre-
tended parish of Montreal has been granted to the
superior of this seminary, and the right of appoint-
ment to the Archbishop of Rouen, then is altar
reared against altar in our Church of Canada; for
the clergy of Montreal will always stand in opposition
to me, the vicar apostolic, and to my successors."1
1 Lettre de Laval au Pape, 22 Oct., 1661. Printed by Faillon,
from the original in the archives of the Propaganda.
160 THE DISPUTED BISHOPRIC. [1668.
These dismal forebodings were never realized.
The Holy See annulled the obnoxious bulls; the
Archbishop of Rouen renounced his claims, and
Queylus found his position untenable. Seven years
later, when Laval was on a visit to France, a recon-
ciliation was brought about between them. The
former vicar of the Archbishop of Rouen made his
submission to the vicar of the Pope, and returned to
Canada as a missionary. Laval's triumph was com-
plete, to the joy of the Jesuits, — silent, if not idle,
spectators of the tedious and complex quarrel.
CHAPTER VIII.
1659, 1660.
LAVAL AND ARGENSON.
FRANCOIS DB LAVAL: HIS POSITION AND CHARACTER. — ARRIVAL
OF ARGENSON. — THE QUARREL.
WE are touching delicate ground. To many excel-
lent Catholics of our own day Laval is an object of
veneration. The Catholic university of Quebec
glories in bearing his name, and certain modern
ecclesiastical writers rarely mention him in terms
less reverent than "the virtuous prelate," or "the
holy prelate." Nor are some of his contemporaries
less emphatic in eulogy. Mother Juchereau de
Saint-Denis, Superior of the H6tel Dieu, wrote
immediately after his death: "He began in his
tenderest years the study of perfection, and we have
reason to think that he reached it, since every virtue
which Saint Paul demands in a bishop was seen and
admired in him ; " and on his first arrival in Canada,
Mother Marie de Plncarnation, Superior of the
Ursulines, wrote to her son that the choice of such a
prelate was not of man, but of God. "I will not,"
she adds. " sav that he is a saint ; but I may say with
11
162 LAVAL AND ARGENSON. [1659
truth that he lives like a saint and an apostle."
And she describes his austerity of life ; how he had
but two servants, a gardener — whom he lent on
occasion to his needy neighbors — and a valet ; how
he lived in a small hired house, saying that he would
not have one of his own if he could build it for only
five sous; and how, in his table, furniture, and bed,
he showed the spirit of poverty, even, as she thinks,
to excess. His servant, a lay brother named Houssart,
testified, after his death, that he slept on a hard
bed, and would not suffer it to be changed even
when it became full of fleas; and, what is more to
the purpose, that he gave fifteen hundred or two
thousand francs to the poor every year.1 Houssart
also gives the following specimen of his austerities :
"I have seen him keep cooked meat five, six, seven,
or eight days in the heat of summer; and when it
was all mouldy and wormy he washed it in warm
water and ate it, and told me that it was very good."
The old servant was so impressed by these and other
proofs of his master's sanctity, that " I determined, "
he says, "to keep everything I could« that had
belonged to his holy person, and after his death to
soak bits of linen in his blood when his body was
opened, and take a few bones and cartilages from his
breast, cut off his hair, and keep his clothes, and
such things, to serve as most precious relics."
1 Lettre du Frtre Houssart, ancien serviteur de IWg'r de Laval a
M. Tremblay, 1 Sept., 1708. This letter is printed, though with one
or two important omissions, in the Abeille, vol. i. (Quebec, 1848.)
1659.] FRANgOIS DE LAVAL. 163
These pious cares were not in vain, for the relics
proved greatly in demand.
Several portraits of Laval are extant. A drooping
nose of portentous size; a well-formed forehead; a
brow strongly arched; a bright, clear eye; scanty
hair, half hidden by a black skullcap ; thin lips, com-
pressed and rigid, betraying a spirit not easy to move
or convince ; features of that indescribable cast which
marks the priestly type, — such is Laval, as he looks
grimly down on us from the dingy canvas of two
centuries ago.
He is one of those concerning whom Protestants
and Catholics, at least ultramontane Catholics, will
never agree in judgment. The task of eulogizing
him may safely be left to those of his own way of
thinking. It is for us to regard him from the stand-
point of secular history. And, first, let us credit
him with sincerity. He believed firmly that the
princes and rulers of this world ought to be subject
to guidance and control at the hands of the Pope,
the vicar of Christ on earth. But he himself was
the Pope's vicar, and, so far as the bounds of Canada
extended, the Holy Father had clothed him with his
own authority. The glory of God demanded that
this authority should suffer no abatement; and he,
Laval, would be guilty before Heaven if he did not
uphold the supremacy of the Church over the powers
both of earth and of hell.
Of the faults which he owed to nature, the prin-
cipal seems to have been an arbitrary and domineer-
164 LAVAL AND ARGENSON. [1659.
ing temper. He was one of those who by nature
lean always to the side of authority; and in the
English Revolution he would inevitably have , stood
for the Stuarts ; or, in the American Revolution, for
the Crown. But being above all things a Catholic
and a priest, he was drawn by a constitutional neces-
sity to the ultramontane party, or the party of cen-
tralization. He fought lustily, in his way, against
the natural man ; and humility was the virtue to the
culture of which he gave his chief attention; but
soil and climate were not favorable. His life was
one long assertion of the authority of the Church,
and this authority was lodged in himself. In his
stubborn fight for ecclesiastical ascendency, he was
aided by the impulses of a nature that loved to
rule, and could not endure to yield. His principles
and his instinct of domination were acting in perfect
unison, and his conscience was the handmaid of his
fault. Austerities and mortifications, playing at
beggar, sleeping in beds full of fleas, or performing
prodigies of gratuitous dirtiness in hospitals, how-
ever fatal to self-respect, could avail little against
influences working so powerfully and so insidiously
to stimulate the most subtle of human vices. The
history of the Roman Church is full of Lavals.
The Jesuits, adepts in human nature, had made a
sagacious choice when they put forward this con-
scientious, zealous, dogged, and pugnacious priest
to fight their battles. Nor were they ill pleased
that, for the present, he was not Bishop of Canada,
1659.] APPROACHING CHANGE.
but only vicar apostolic; for such being the case,
they could have him recalled if on trial they did not
like him, while an unacceptable bishop would be an
evil past remedy.
Canada was entering a state of transition. Hitherto
ecclesiastical influence had been all in all. The
Jesuits, by far the most educated and able body of
men in the colony, had controlled it, not alone in
things spiritual, but virtually in things temporal
also; and the governor may be said to have been
little else than a chief of police, under the direction
of the missionaries. The early governors were
themselves deeply imbued with the missionary spirit.
Champlain was earnest above all things for convert-
ing the Indians ; Montmagny was half-monk, for he
was a Knight of Malta ; d'Ailleboust was so insanely
pious that he lived with his wife like monk and nun.
A change was at hand. From a mission and a trad-
ing station, Canada was soon to become, in the true
sense, a colony; and civil government had begun to
assert itself on the banks of the St. Lawrence. The
epoch of the martyrs and apostles was passing away,
and the man of the sword and the man of the gown
— the soldier and the legist — were threatening to
supplant the paternal sway of priests ; or, as Laval
might have said, the hosts of this world were
beleaguering the sanctuary, and he was called of
Heaven to defend it. His true antagonist, though
three thousand miles away, was the great minister
Colbert, as purely a statesman as the vicar apostolic
166 LAVAL AND ARGENSON. [1659.
was purely a priest. Laval, no doubt, could see
behind the statesman's back another adversary, — the
Devil.
Argenson was governor when the crozier and the
sword began to clash, which is merely another way
of saying that he was governor when Laval arrived.
He seems to have been a man of education, modera-
tion, and sense, and he was also an earnest Catholic ;
but if Laval had his duties to God, so had Argenson
his duties to the King, of whose authority he was
the representative and guardian. If the first col-
lisions seem trivial, they were no less the symptoms
of a grave antagonism. Argenson could have pur-
chased peace only by becoming an agent of the
Church.
The vicar apostolic, or, as he was usually styled,
the bishop, being, it may be remembered, titular
Bishop of Petrsea in Arabia, presently fell into a
quarrel with the governor touching the relative posi-
tion of their seats in church, — a point which, by the
way, was a subject of contention for many years,
and under several successive governors. This time
the case was referred to the ex-governor, d' Ailleboust,
and a temporary settlement took place.1 A few
weeks after, on the f£te of Saint Francis Xavier,
when the Jesuits were accustomed to ask the digni-
taries of the colony to dine in their refectory after
mass, a fresh difficulty arose, — Should the governor
or the bishop have the higher seat at table? The
1 Lalemant, in Journal des Jesuites, Septembre, 1659.
1659-00.] DISPUTES OF PRECEDENCE. 167
question defied solution; so the fathers invited
neither of them.1
Again, on Christmas, at the midnight mass, the
deacon offered incense to the bishop, and then, in
obedience to an order from him, sent a subordinate
to offer it to the governor, instead of offering it him-
self. Laval further insisted that the priests of the
choir should receive incense before the governor
received it. Argenson resisted, and a bitter quarrel
ensued.2
The late governor, d'Ailleboust, had been church-
warden ex qfficio ; 3 and in this pious community the
office was esteemed as an addition to his honors.
Argenson had thus far held the same position; but
Laval declared that he should hold it no longer.
Argenson, to whom the bishop had not spoken on
the subject, came soon after to a meeting of the
wardens, and, being challenged, denied Laval's right
to dismiss him. A dispute ensued, in which the
bishop, according to his Jesuit friends, used language
not very respectful to the representative of royalty.4
On occasion of the "solemn catechism," the bishop
insisted that the children should salute him before
saluting the governor. Argenson, hearing of this,
declined to come. A compromise was contrived.
It was agreed that when the rival dignitaries entered,
1 Lalemant, in Journal des J&uites, Decembre, 1659.
2 Ibid. ; Lettre d' Argenson a MM. de la Compagnie de St. Sulpice.
8 Livre des Deliberations de la Fabrique de Quebec.
* Journal des Je&uites, Novembre, 1660.
168 LAVAL AND ARGENSON. [1661.
the children should be busied in some manual exer-
cise which should prevent their saluting either.
Nevertheless, two boys, " enticed and set on by their
parents," saluted the governor first, to the great
indignation of Laval. They were whipped on the
next day for breach of orders.1
Next there was a sharp quarrel about a sentence
pronounced by Laval against a heretic, to which the
governor, good Catholic as he was, took exception.2
Palm Sunday came, and there could be no procession
and no distribution of branches, because the gov-
ernor and the bishop could not agree on points of
precedence.8
On the day of the F£te Dieu, however, there was
a grand procession, which stopped from time to time
at temporary altars, or reposoirs, placed at intervals
along its course. One of these was in the fort,
where the soldiers were drawn up, waiting the
arrival of the procession. Laval demanded that they
should take off their hats. Argenson assented, and
the soldiers stood uncovered. Laval now insisted
that they should kneel. The governor replied that
it was their duty as soldiers to stand; whereupon the
bishop refused to stop at the altar, and ordered the
procession to move on.4
The above incidents are set down in the private
journal of the superior of the Jesuits, which was not
1 Journal des J&uites, Fevrier, 1661.
« Ibid.
» Ibid., Avril, 1661. * Ibid., Juin, 1661.
1661.]
APPEAL OF ARGENSON.
169
meant for the public eye. The bishop, it will be
seen, was, by the showing of his friends, in most
cases the aggressor. The disputes in question,
though of a nature to provoke a smile on irreverent
lips, were by no means so puerile as they appear.
It is difficult in a modern democratic society to con-
ceive the substantial importance of the signs and
symbols of dignity and authority at a time and among
a people where they were adjusted with the most
scrupulous precision, and accepted by all classes as
exponents of relative degrees in the social and
political scale. Whether the bishop or the governor
should sit in the higher seat at table thus became a
political question, for it defined to the popular under-
standing the position of Church and State in their
relations to government.
Hence it is not surprising to find a memorial,
drawn up apparently by Argenson, and addressed to
the council of State, asking for instructions when
and how a governor — lieutenant-general for the
King — ought to receive incense, holy water, and
consecrated bread ; whether the said bread should be
offered him with sound of drum and fife; what
should be the position of his seat at church; and
what place he should hold in various religious cere-
monies; whether in feasts, assemblies, ceremonies,
and councils of a purely civil character, he or the
bishop was to hold the first place; and, finally, if
the bishop could excommunicate the inhabitants or
others for acts of a civil and political character,
170 LAVAL AND ARGENSON. [1659-60.
when the said acts were pronounced lawful by the
governor.
The reply to the memorial denies to the bishop the
power of excommunication in civil matters, assigns
to him the second place in meetings and ceremonies
of a civil character, and is very reticent as to the
rest.1
Argenson had a brother, a counsellor of State, and
a fast friend of the Jesuits. Laval was in corre-
spondence with him, and, apparently sure of sym-
pathy, wrote to him touching his relations with the
governor. " Your brother, " he begins, "received me
on my arrival with extraordinary kindness ; " but he
proceeds to say, that, perceiving with sorrow that he
entertained a groundless distrust of those good ser-
vants of God, the Jesuit fathers, he, the bishop,
thought it his duty to give him in private a candid
warning which ought to have done good, but which,
to his surprise, the governor had taken amiss, and
had conceived, in consequence, a prejudice against
his monitor.2
Argenson, on his part, writes to the same brother,
at about the same time. " The Bishop of Petrsea is
so stiff in opinion, and so often transported by his
zeal beyond the rights of his position, that he makes
no difficulty in encroaching on the functions of
others; and this with so much heat that he will
1 Advis et Resolutions demandts sur la Nouvelle France.
2 Lettre de Laval a M. d' Argenson, fr$re du Gouverneur, 20 Oct^
1669.
1659-60.] CLERICAL VIGOR. 171
listen to nobody. A few days ago he carried off a
servant girl of one of the inhabitants here, and
placed her by his own authority in the Ursuline
convent, on the sole pretext that he wanted to have
her instructed, — thus depriving her master of her
services, though he had been at great expense in
bringing her from France. This inhabitant is M.
Denis, who, not knowing who had carried her off,
came to me with a petition to get her out of the
convent. I kept the petition three days without
answering it, to prevent the affair from being noised
abroad. The Reverend Father Lalemant, with whom
I communicated on the subject, and who greatly
blamed the Bishop of Petrsea, did all in his power to
have the girl given up quietly, but without the least
success, so that I was forced to answer the petition,
and permit M. Denis to take his servant wherever he
should find her; and if I had not used means to
bring about an accommodation, and if M. Denis, on
the refusal which was made him to give her up, had
brought the matter into court, I should have been
compelled to take measures which would have caused
great scandal, — and all from the self-will of the
Bishop of Petraea, who says that a bishop can do
what he likes, and threatens nothing but excom-
munication."1
In another letter he speaks in the same strain of
this redundancy of zeal on the part of the bishop,
1 " — Qui diet quun Evesque peult ce gu'il veult et ne menace que
^excommunication."— Lettre d'Argenson a son Frtre, 1659.
172 LAVAL AND ARGENSON. [1659-60.
which often, he says, takes the shape of obstinacy
and encroachment on the rights of others. "It is
greatly to be wished," he observes, "that the Bishop
of Petraea would give his confidence to the Reverend
Father Lalemant instead of Father Ragueneau ; " l
and he praises Lalemant as a person of excellent
sense. "It would be well," he adds, "if the rest of
their community were of the same mind ; for in that
case they would not mix themselves up with various
matters in the way they do, and would leave the
government to those to whom God has given it in
charge."2
One of Laval's modern admirers, the worthy Abbe*
Ferland, after confessing that his zeal may now and
then have savored of excess, adds in his defence that
a vigorous hand was needed to compel the infant
colony to enter "the good path," — meaning, of
course, the straitest path of Roman Catholic ortho-
doxy. We may hereafter see more of this stringent
system of colonial education, its success, and the
results that followed.
1 Lettre d'Argenson a son Frere, 21 Oct., 1659.
* Ibid., 7 July, 1660.
CHAPTER IX.
1658-1663.
LAVAL AND AVAUGOUR.
RECEPTION OF ARGENSON : HIS DIFFICULTIES ; HIS RECALL. —
DUBOIS D' AVAUGOUR. — THE BRANDY QUARREL. — DISTRESS OF
LAVAL. — PORTENTS. — THE EARTHQUAKE.
WHEN Argenson arrived to assume the govern-
ment, a curious greeting had awaited him. The
Jesuits asked him to dine; vespers followed the
repast; and then they conducted him into a hall,
where the boys of their school — disguised, one as
the Genius of New France, one as the Genius of the
Forest, and others as Indians of various friendly
tribes — made him speeches by turn, in prose and
verse. First, Pierre du Quet, who played the
Genius of New France, presented his Indian retinue
to the governor, in a complimentary harangue. Then
four other boys, personating French colonists, made
him four nattering addresses, in French verse.
Charles Denis, dressed as a Huron, followed, bewail-
ing the ruin of his people, and appealing to Argenson
for aid. Jean Francois Bourdon, in the character of
an Algonquin, next advanced on the platform,
174 LAVAL AND AVAUGOUR. [1658.
boasted his courage, and declared that he was ashamed
to cry like the Huron. The Genius of the Forest
now appeared, with a retinue of wild Indians from
the interior, who, being unable to speak French,
addressed the governor in their native tongues, which
the Genius proceeded to interpret. Two other boys,
in the character of prisoners just escaped from the
Iroquois, then came forward, imploring aid in piteous
accents; and, in conclusion, the whole troop of
Indians, from far and near, laid their bows and
arrows at the feet of Argenson, and hailed him as
their chief.1
Besides these mock Indians, a crowd of genuine
savages had gathered at Quebec to greet the new
"Onontio." On the next day — at his own cost, as
he writes to a friend — he gave them a feast, consist-
ing of "seven large kettles full of Indian corn, peas,
prunes, sturgeons, eels, and fat, which they devoured,
having first sung me a song, after their fashion." 2
These festivities over, he entered on the serious
business of his government, and soon learned that his
path was a thorny one. He could find, he says, but
a hundred men to resist the twenty-four hundred
warriors of the Iroquois ; 3 and he begs the proprietary
1 La Reception de Monseigneur le Vicomte d' Argenson par toutes les
nations du pais de Canada d son entre'e au gouvernement de la Nouvelle
France ; d Quebecq au College de la Compagnie de Jesus, le 28 de
Juillet de I'anne'e 1658. The speeches, in French and Indian, are
here given verbatim, with the names of all the boys who took part
in the ceremony.
2 Papiers d' Argenson. Kebec, 5 Sept., 1658.
8 jtfemoire sur le subject (sic) de la Guerre des Iroquois, 1659.
1658-59.] TROUBLES OF ARGENSON. 175
company which he represented to send him a hundred
more, who could serve as soldiers or laborers, accord-
ing to the occasion.
The company turned a deaf ear to his appeals.
They had lost money in Canada, and were grievously
out of humor with it. In their view, the first duty
of a governor was to collect their debts, which, for
more reasons than one, was no easy task. While
they did nothing to aid the colony in its distress,
they beset Argenson with demands for the thousand
pounds of beaver -skins, which the inhabitants had
agreed to send them every year in return for the
privilege of the fur-trade, — a privilege which the
Iroquois war made for the present worthless. The
perplexed governor vents his feelings in sarcasm.
"They [the company] take no pains to learn the
truth ; and when they hear of settlers carried off and
burned by the Iroquois, they will think it a punish-
ment for not settling old debts, and paying over the
beaver-skins."1 "I wish," he adds, "they would
send somebody to look after their affairs here. I
would gladly give him the same lodging and
entertainment as my own."
Another matter gave him great annoyance. This
was the virtual independence of Montreal ; and here,
if nowhere else, he and the bishop were of the same
mind. On one occasion he made a visit to the place
in question, where he expected to be received as gov-
ernor-general; but the local governor, Maisonneuve,
* Papiers d' Argenson, 21 Oct., 1659.
176 LAVAL AND AVAUGOUR. [1658-59.
declined, or at least postponed, to take his orders
and give him the keys of the fort. Argenson accord-
ingly speaks of Montreal as " a place which makes so
much noise, but which is of such small account.'*1
He adds that, besides wanting to be independent, the
Montrealists want to monopolize the fur-trade, which
would cause civil war; and that the King ought to
interpose to correct their obstinacy.
In another letter he complains of d'Ailleboust, who
had preceded him in the government, though himself
a Montrealist. Argenson says that, on going out to
fight the Iroquois, he left d'Ailleboust at Quebec, to
act as his lieutenant; that, instead of doing so, he
had assumed to govern in his own right; that he had
taken possession of his absent superior's furniture,
drawn his pay, and in other respects behaved as if he
never expected to see him again. " When I returned, "
continues the governor, "I made him director in
the council, without pay, as there was none to
give him. It was this, I think, that made him
remove to Montreal; for which I do not care, pro-
vided the glory of our Master suffer no prejudice
thereby."2
These extracts may, perhaps, give an unjust
impression of Argenson, who, from the general tenor
of his letters, appears to have been a temperate and
reasonable person. His patience and his nervous
1 Papiers d' Argenson, 4 Ao&t, 1659.
2 Ibid. Double de la lettre escripte par le Vaisseau du Gaigneur,.
parti le 6 Septembre (1658).
1658-59.] TROUBLES OF ARGENSON. 177
system seem, however, to have heen taxed to the
utmost. His pay could not support him. "The
costs of living here are horrible," he writes. "I
have only two thousand crowns a year for all my
expenses, and I have already been forced to run into
debt to the company to an equal amount."1 Part of
his scanty income was derived from a fishery of eels,
on which sundry persons had encroached, to his great
detriment.2 "I see no reason," he adds, "for staying
here any longer. When I came to this country, I
hoped to enjoy a little repose, but I am doubly
deprived of it, — on one hand by enemies without,
and incessant petty disputes within; and, on the
other, by the difficulty I find in subsisting. The
profits of the fur-trade have been so reduced that all
the inhabitants are in the greatest poverty. They
are all insolvent, and cannot pay the merchants their
advances."
His disgust at length reached a crisis. "I am
resolved to stay here no longer, but to go home next
year. My horror of dissension, and the manifest
certainty of becoming involved in disputes with
certain persons with whom I am unwilling to quarrel,
oblige me to anticipate these troubles, and seek some
way of living in peace. These excessive fatigues
are far too much for my strength. I am writing to
Monsieur the President, and to the gentlemen of the
Company of New France, to choose some other man
1 Papiers d'Argenson. Lettre d M. de Morangi, 5 Sept., 1658.
2 Deliberations de la Compagnie de la Nouvelle France,
12
178 LAVAL AND AVAUGOUR. [1661.
for this government." l And again, " If you take any
interest in this country, see that the person chosen to
command here has, besides the true piety necessary
to a Christian in every condition of life, great firm-
ness of character and strong bodily health. I assure
you that without these qualities he cannot succeed.
Besides, it is absolutely necessary that he should be
a man of property and of some rank, so that he will
not be despised for humble birth, or suspected of
coming here to make his fortune ; for in that case he
can do no good whatever."2
His constant friction with the head of the Church
distressed the pious governor, and made his recall
doubly a relief. According to a contemporary writer,
Laval was the means of delivering him from the
burden of government, having written to the Presi-
dent Lamoignon to urge his removal.5 Be this as it
may, it is certain that the bishop was not sorry to be
rid of him.
The Baron Dubois d'Avaugour arrived to take his
place. He was an old soldier of forty years' service,4
blunt, imperative, and sometimes obstinate to per-
verseness, but full of energy, and of a probity which
even his enemies confessed. " He served a long time
in Germany while you were there," writes the minis-
1 Papiers d'Argenson. Lettre a son Frere, 1659.
2 Ibid. Lettre (a son Frere?), 4 Nov., 1660. The originals of
Argenson's letters were destroyed in the burning of the library of
the Louvre by the Commune.
8 Lachenaye, M&moire sur le Canada.
4 Avaugour, Memoire, 4 Aotit, 1663.
1661-62.] THE BRANDY QUARREL. 179
ter Colbert to the Marquis de Tracy, " and you must
have known his talents, as well as his bizarre and
somewhat impracticable temper." On landing, he
would have no reception, being, as Father Lalemant
observes, "an enemy of all ceremony." He went,
however, to see the Jesuits, and "took a morsel of
food in our refectory."1 Laval was prepared to
receive him with all solemnity at the Church; but
the governor would not go. He soon set out on a
tour of observation as far as Montreal, whence he
returned delighted with the country, and immediately
wrote to Colbert in high praise of it, observing that
the St. Lawrence was the most beautiful river he had
ever seen.2
It was clear from the first that, while he had a
prepossession against the bishop, he wished to be on
good terms with the Jesuits. He began by placing
some of them on the council; but they and Laval
were too closely united ; and if Avaugour thought to
separate them, he signally failed. A few months
only had elapsed when we find it noted in Father
Lalemant's private journal that the governor had
dissolved the council and appointed a new one, and
that other "changes and troubles" had befallen.
The inevitable quarrel had broken out; it was a com-
plex one, but the chief occasion of dispute was fortu-
nate for the ecclesiastics, since it placed them, to a
certain degree, morally in the right.
1 Lalemant, Journal des Jesuites, Septembre, 1661.
2 Lettre d' Avaugour au Ministre, 1661.
180 LAVAL AND AVAUGOUR. [1661-62.
The question at issue was not new. It had agi-
tated the colony for years, and had been the spring
of some of Argenson's many troubles. Nor did it
cease with Avaugour, for we shall trace its course
hereafter, tumultuous as a tornado. It was simply
the temperance question, — not as regards the
colonists, though here, too, there was great room for
reform, but as regards the Indians.
Their inordinate passion for brandy had long been
the source of excessive disorders. They drank
expressly to get drunk, and when drunk they were
like wild beasts. Crime and violence of all sorts
ensued; the priests saw their teachings despised and
their flocks ruined. On the other hand, the sale of
brandy was a chief source of profit, direct or indirect,
to all those interested in the fur-trade, including the
principal persons of the colony. In Argenson's time,
Laval launched an excommunication against those
engaged in the abhorred traffic; for nothing less
than total prohibition would content the clerical
party, and besides the spiritual penalty, they demanded
the punishment of death against the contumacious
offender. Death, in fact, was decreed. Such was
the posture of affairs when Avaugour arrived; and,
willing as he was to conciliate the Jesuits, he per-
mitted the decree to take effect, although, it seems,
with great repugnance. A few weeks after his
arrival, two men were shot and one whipped, for
selling brandy to Indians.1 An extreme though
1 Journal des Jesuites, Octobre, 1661.
1661-62] THE BRANDY QUARREL. 181
partially suppressed excitement shook the entire
settlement; for most of the colonists were, in one
degree or another, implicated in the offence thus
punished. An explosion soon followed; and the
occasion of it was the humanity or good-nature of
the Jesuit Lalemant.
A woman had been condemned to imprisonment
for the same cause, and Lalemant, moved by compas-
sion, came to the governor to intercede for her.
Avaugour could no longer contain himself, and
answered the reverend petitioner with characteristic
bluntness. "You and your brethren were the first
to cry out against the trade, and now you want to
save the traders from punishment. I will no longer
be the sport of your contradictions. Since it is not
a crime for this woman, it shall not be a crime for
anybody."1 And in this posture he stood fast, with
an inflexible stubbornness.
Henceforth there was full license to liquor-dealers.
A violent reaction ensued against the past restriction,
and brandy flowed freely among French and Indians
alike. The ungodly drank to spite the priests and re-
venge themselves for the " constraint of consciences, "
of which they loudly complained. The utmost con-
fusion followed, and the principles on which the pious
colony was built seemed upheaved from the founda-
tion. Laval was distracted with grief and anger.
He outpoured himself from the pulpit in threats of
divine wrath, and launched fresh excommunications
1 La Tour, Vie de Laval, liv. v.
182 LAVAL AND AVAUGOUR. [1662-63.
against the offenders ; but such was the popular fury
that he was forced to yield and revoke them.1
Disorder grew from bad to worse. "Men gave
no heed to bishop, preacher, or confessor," writes
Father Charlevoix. " The French have despised the
remonstrances of our prelate, because they are sup-
ported by the civil power," says the superior of the
Ursulines. "He is almost dead with grief, and
pines away before our eyes."
Laval could bear it no longer, but sailed for
France, to lay his complaints before the court, and
urge the removal of Avaugour. He had, besides,
two other important objects, as will appear hereafter.
His absence brought no improvement. Summer and
autumn passed, and the commotion did not abate.
Winter was drawing to a close, when, at length,
outraged Heaven interposed an awful warning to the
guilty colony.
Scarcely had the bishop left his flock when the
skies grew portentous with signs of the chastisement
to come. "We beheld," gravely writes Father
Lalemant, "blazing serpents which flew through the
air, borne on wings of fire. We beheld above Quebec
a great globe of flame, which lighted up the night,
and threw out sparks on all sides. This same meteor
appeared above Montreal, where it seemed to issue
1 Journal des Jesuites, Ffvrier, 1662. The sentence of excom-
munication is printed in the Appendix to the Esquisse de la Vie de
Laval. It bears date February 24. It was on this very day that
he was forced to revoke it.
1663.] PORTENTS. 188
from the bosom of the moon, with a iioise as loud as
cannon or thunder; and after sailing three leagues
through the air, it disappeared behind the mountain
whereof this island bears the name." l
Still greater marvels followed. First, a Christian
Algonquin squaw, described as "innocent, simple,
and sincere," being seated erect in bed, wide awake,
by the side of her husband, in the night between the
fourth and fifth of February, distinctly heard a
voice saying, "Strange things will happen to-day;
the earth will quake ! " In great alarm she whispered
the prodigy to her husband, who told her that she
lied. This silenced her for a time; but when, the
next morning, she went into the forest with her
hatchet to cut a fagot of wood, the same dread
voice resounded through the solitude, and sent her
back in terror to her hut.2
These things were as nothing compared with the
marvel that befell a nun of the hospital, Mother
Catherine de Saint-Augustin, who died five years
later, in the odor of sanctity. On the night of the
fourth of February, 1663, she beheld in the spirit
four furious demons at the four corners of Quebec,
shaking it with a violence which plainly showed their
purpose of reducing it to ruins; "and this they
would have done," says the story, "if a personage of
admirable beauty and ravishing majesty [Christ],
whom she saw in the midst of them, and who from
1 Lalemant, Relation, 1663, 2.
2 Ibid., 166^ 6.
184 LAVAL AND AVAUGOUR. [1663.
time to time gave rein to their fury, had not restrained
them when they were on the point of accomplishing
their wicked design. " She also heard the conversa-
tion of these demons, to the effect that people were
now well frightened, and many would be converted;
but this would not last long, and they, the demons,
would have them in time. "Let us keep on shak-
ing," they cried, encouraging one another, "and do
our best to upset everything." 1
Now, to pass from visions to facts : " At half-past
five o'clock on the morning of the fifth," writes
Father Lalemant, " a great roaring sound was heard
at the same time through the whole extent of
Canada. This sound, which produced an effect as
if the houses were on fire, brought everybody out of
doors; but instead of seeing smoke and flame, they
were amazed to behold the walls shaking, and all the
stones moving as if they would drop from their
places. The houses seemed to bend first to one side
and then to the other. Bells sounded of themselves;
beams, joists, and planks cracked ; the ground heaved,
making the pickets of the palisades dance in a way
that would have seemed incredible had we not seen
it in divers places.
" Everybody was in the streets ; animals ran wildly
about; children cried; men and women, seized with
1 Ragueneau, Vie de Catherine de St. Augustin, liv. iv. chap. i.
The same story is told by Juchereau, Lalemant, and Marie de
1'Incarnation, to whom Charleroix erroneously ascribes the vision.
as does also the Abbe La Tour.
1663.] THE EARTHQUAKE. 185
fright, knew not where to take refuge, expecting
every moment to be buried under the ruins of the
houses, or swallowed up in some abyss opening under
their feet. Some, on their knees in the snow, cried
for mercy, and others passed the night in prayer; for
the earthquake continued without ceasing, with a
motion much like that of a ship at sea, insomuch that
sundry persons felt the same qualms of stomach
which they would feel on the water. In the forests
the commotion was far greater. The trees struck
one against the other as if there were a battle between
them ; and you would have said that not only their
branches, but even their trunks, started out of their
places and leaped on one another with such noise and
confusion that the Indians said that the whole forest
was drunk."
Mary of the Incarnation gives a similar account,
as does also Frances Juchereau de Saint-Ignace ; and
these contemporary records are sustained to some
extent by the evidence of geology.1 A remarkable
effect was produced on the St. Lawrence, which was
so charged with mud and clay that for many weeks
the water was unfit to drink. Considerable hills and
large tracts of forest slid from their places, some into
1 Professor Sterry Hunt, whose intimate knowledge of Canadian
geology is well known, tells me that the shores of the St. Lawrence
are to a great extent formed of beds of gravel and clay resting on
inclined strata of rock, so that earth-slides would be the necessary
result of any convulsion like that of 1663. He adds that the evi-
dence that such slides have taken place on a great scale is very
distinct at various points along the river, especially at Les Eboule-
mens, on the north shore.
186 LAVAL AND AVAUGOUR. [1663.
the river, and some into adjacent valleys. A number
of men in a boat near Tadoussac stared aghast at a
large hill covered with trees, which sank into the
water before their eyes; streams were turned from
their courses ; water-falls were levelled ; springs were
dried up in some places, while in others new springs
appeared. Nevertheless, the accounts that have
come down to us seem a little exaggerated, and some-
times ludicrously so ; as when, for example, Mother
Mary of the Incarnation tells us of a man who ran
all night to escape from a fissure in the earth which
opened behind him and chased him as he fled.
It is perhaps needless to say that "spectres and
phantoms of fire, bearing torches in their hands,"
took part in the convulsion. " The fiery figure of a
man vomiting flames " also appeared in the air, with
many other apparitions too numerous to mention. It
is recorded that three young men were on their way
through the forest to sell brandy to the Indians,
when one of them, a little in advance of the rest, was
met by a hideous spectre which nearly killed him
with fright. He had scarcely strength enough to
rejoin his companions, who, seeing his terror, began
to laugh at him. One of them, however, presently
came to his senses, and said: "This is no laughing
matter; we are going to sell liquor to the Indians
against the prohibitions of the Church, and perhaps
God means to punish our disobedience." On this
they all turned back. That night they had scarcely
lain down to sleep when the earthquake roused
1663.J
AVAUGOUR RECALLED.
187
them, and they ran out of their hut just in time to
escape being swallowed up along with it.1
With every allowance, it is clear that the convul-
sion must have been a severe one, and it is remark-
able that in all Canada not a life was lost. The
writers of the day see in this a proof that God meant
to reclaim the guilty and not destroy them. At
Quebec there was for the time an intense revival of
religion. The end of the world was thought to be
at hand, and everybody made ready for the last judg-
ment. Repentant throngs beset confessionals and
altars; enemies were reconciled; fasts, prayers, and
penances filled the whole season of Lent. Yet, as
we shall see, the Devil could still find wherewith to
console himself.
It was midsummer before the shocks wholly ceased
and the earth resumed her wonted calm. An extreme
drought was followed by floods of rain, and then
Nature began her sure work of reparation. It was
about this time that the thorn which had plagued the
Church was at length plucked out. Avaugour was
summoned home. He took his recall with magna-
nimity, and on his way wrote at Gaspe* a memorial to
Colbert, in which he commends New France to the
attention of the King. "The St. Lawrence," he
says, "is the entrance to what may be made the
1 Marie de I'lncarnation, Lettre du 20 Aout, 1663. It appears
from Morton, Josselyn, and other writers, that the earthquake
extended to New England and New Netherlands, producing similar
effects on the imagination of the people.
188 LAVAL AND AVAUGOUR. [1663.
greatest state in the world; " and, in his purely mili-
tary way, he recounts the means of realizing this
grand possibility. Three thousand soldiers should
be sent to the colony, to be discharged and turned
into settlers after three years of service. During
these three years they may make Quebec an impreg-
nable fortress, subdue the. Iroquois, build a strong
fort on the river where the Dutch have a miserable
wooden redoubt, called Fort Orange (Albany), and
finally open a way by that river to the sea. Thus
the heretics will be driven out, and the King will be
master of America, at a total cost of about four hun-
dred thousand francs yearly for ten years. He closes
his memorial by a short allusion to the charges
against him, and to his forty years of faithful service ;
and concludes, speaking of the authors of his recall,
Laval and the Jesuits : " By reason of the respect I
owe their cloth, I will rest content, Monseigneur,
with assuring you that I have not only served the
King with fidelity, but also, by the grace of God,
with very good success, considering the means at my
disposal."1 He had, in truth, borne himself as a
brave and experienced soldier; and he soon after
died a soldier's death, while defending the fortress
of Zrin, in Croatia, against the Turks.2
1 Avaugour, Memoire, Gaspt, 4 Ao&t, 1663.
2 Lettre de Colbert au Marquis de Tracy, 1664. Mtmoirc du Roy,
pour servir d' instruction au Sieur Talon.
CHAPTER X.
1661-1664.
LAVAL AND DUMESNIL.
P±RONNE DUMESNIL. — THE OLD COUNCIL. — ALLEGED MURDER. —
THE NEW COUNCIL. — BOURDON AND VILLERAY. — STRONG MEAS-
URES. — ESCAPE OF DUMESNIL. — VIEWS OF COLBERT.
THOUGH the proposals of Avaugour's memorial
were not adopted, it seems to have produced a strong
impression at court. For this impression the minds
of the King and his minister had already been pre-
pared. Two years before, the inhabitants of Canada
had sent one of their number, Pierre Boucher, to
represent their many grievances and ask for aid.1
Boucher had had an audience of the young King,
who listened with interest to his statements; and
when in the following year he returned to Quebec,
he was accompanied by an officer named Dumont,
who had under his command a hundred soldiers for
the colony, and was commissioned to report its con-
1 To promote the objects of his mission, Boucher wrote a little
book, Histoire Veritable et Naturelle des Moeurs et Productions du
Pays de la Nouvelle France. He dedicates it to Colbert.
190 LAVAL AND DUMESNIL. [1660-63,
dition and resources.1 The movement seemed to
betoken that the government was wakening at last
from its long inaction.
Meanwhile the Company of New France, feudal
lord of Canada, had also shown signs of returning
life. Its whole history had been one of mishap,
followed by discouragement and apathy; and it is
difficult to say whether its ownership of Canada had
been more hurtful to itself or to the colony. At the
eleventh hour it sent out an agent invested with
powers of controller-general, intendant, and supreme
judge, to inquire into the state of its affairs. This
agent, Pe*ronne Dumesnil, arrived early in the
autumn of 1660, and set himself with great vigor to
his work. He was an advocate of the Parliament of
Paris, an active, aggressive, and tenacious person, of
a temper well fitted to rip up an old abuse or probe
.a delinquency to the bottom. His proceedings
quickly raised a storm at Quebec.
It may be remembered that, many years before,
the company had ceded its monopoly of the fur-trade
to the inhabitants of the colony, in consideration of
that annual payment in beaver-skins which had been
so tardily and so rarely made. The direction of the
trade had at that time been placed in the hands of a
council composed of the governor, the superior of
the Jesuits, and several other members. Various
changes had since taken place, and the trade was
1 A long journal of Dumont is printed anonymously in the
Relation of 1663.
1660-63.] MONOPOLISTS. 191
now controlled by another council, established with-
out the consent of the company,1 and composed of
the principal persons in the colony. The members
of this council, with certain prominent merchants in
league with them, engrossed all the trade, so that
the inhabitants at large profited nothing by the right
which the company had ceded ; 2 and as the council-
lors controlled not only the trade, but all the financial
affairs of Canada, while the remoteness of their scene
of operations made it difficult to supervise them,
they were able, with little risk, to pursue their own
profit, to the detriment both of the company and the
colony. They and their allies formed a petty trading
oligarchy, as pernicious to the prosperity of Canada
as the Iroquois war itself.
The company, always anxious for its beaver-skins,
made several attempts to control the proceedings of
the councillors and call them to account, but with
little success, till the vigorous Dumesnil undertook
the task; when, to their wrath and consternation,
they and their friends found themselves attacked by
wholesale accusations of fraud and embezzlement.
That these charges were exaggerated there can be
little doubt; that they were unfounded is incredible,
in view of the effect they produced.
The councillors refused to acknowledge DumesniFs
1 Registres du Conseil du Roy ; Reponse a la requeste presentee au
Roy.
2 Arret du Conseil d'Etat, 7 Mars, 1657. Also Papiers d'Argen-
ton, and Extrait des Registres du Conseil d'Etat, 15 Mar$t 1656.
192 LAVAL AND DUMESNIL. [1661.
powers as controller, intendant, and judge, and
declared his proceedings null. He retorted by char-
ging them with usurpation. The excitement in-
creased, and Dumesnil's life was threatened.
He had two sons in the colony. One of them,
Pe*ronne de Maze*, was secretary to Avaugour, then
on his way up the St. Lawrence to assume the
government. The other, Pe'ronne des Touches, was
with his father at Quebec. Towards the end of
August this young man was attacked in the street in
broad daylight, and received a kick which proved
fatal. He was carried to his father's house, where
he died on the twenty-ninth. Dumesnil charges
four persons, all of whom were among those into
whose affairs he had been prying, with having taken
part in the outrage; but it is very uncertain who
was the immediate cause of Des Touches 's death.
Dumesnil, himself the supreme judicial officer of the
colony, made complaint to the judge in ordinary of
the company; but he says that justice was refused,
the complaint suppressed by authority, his allegations
torn in pieces, and the whole affair hushed.1
At the time of the murder, Dumesnil was confined
1 Dumesnil, Memoire. Under date August 31 the Journal des
Jesuites makes this brief and guarded mention of the affair : " Le
fils de Mons. du Mesnil . . . fut enterr6 le mesme iour, tue d'vn
coup de pie par N." Who is meant by N. it is difficult to say.
The register of the parish church records the burial as follows : —
"L'an 1661. Le 30 Aoust a este enterre au Cemetiere de Quebec
Michel peronne dit Sr. des Touches fils de Mr. du Mesnil decede
le Jour precedent a sa Maison."
1662-63.] THE NEW GOVERNMENT. 193
to his house by illness. An attempt was made to
rouse the mob against him, by reports that he had
come to the colony for the purpose of laying taxes ;
but he sent for some of the excited inhabitants, and
succeeded in convincing them that he was their
champion rather than their enemy. Some Indians
in the neighborhood were also instigated to kill him,
and he was forced to conciliate them by presents.
He soon renewed his attacks, and in his quality of
intendant called on the councillors and their allies to
render their accounts, and settle the long arrears of
debt due to the company. They set his demands at
naught. The war continued month after month.
It is more than likely that when in the spring of
1662 Avaugour dissolved and reconstructed the
council, his action had reference to these disputes;
and it is clear that when in the following August
Laval sailed for France, one of his objects was to
restore the tranquillity which Dumesnil's proceed-
ings had disturbed. There was great need; for,
what with these proceedings and the quarrel about
brandy, Quebec was a little hell of discord, the earth-
quake not having as yet frightened it into propriety.
The bishop's success at court was triumphant.
Not only did he procure the removal of Avaugour,
but he was invited to choose a new governor to
replace him.1 This was not all; for he succeeded
in effecting a complete change in the government of
the colony. The Company of New France was called
1 La Tour, Vie de Laval, liv. v.
13
194 LAVAL AND DUMESNIL. [1663.
upon to resign its claims ; ] and by a royal edict of
April, 1663, all power, legislative, judicial, and
executive, was vested in a council composed of the
governor whom Laval had chosen, of Laval himself,
and of five councillors, an attorney-general, and a
secretary, to be chosen by Laval and the governor
jointly.2 Bearing with them blank commissions to
be filled with the names of the new functionaries,
Laval and his governor sailed for Quebec, where they
landed on the fifteenth of September. With them
came one Gaudais-Dupont, a royal commissioner
instructed to inquire into the state of the colony.
No sooner had they arrived than Laval and Mdzy,
the new governor, proceeded to construct the new
council. Mdzy knew nobody in the colony, and was,
at this time, completely under Laval's influence.
The nominations, therefore, were virtually made by
the bishop alone, in whose hands, and not in those of
the governor, the blank commissions had been
placed.3 Thus for the moment he had complete con-
trol of the government; that is to say, the Church
was mistress of the civil power.
1 See the deliberations and acts to this end in Edits et Or don-
nances concernant le Canada, i. 30-32.
2 ]£dit de Creation du Conseil Superieur de Quebec.
8 Commission actroyee au Sieur Gaudais. Memoire pour servir
d' Instruction au Sieur Gaudais. A sequel to these instructions, marked
" secret," shows that, notwithstanding Laval's extraordinary success
in attaining his objects, he and the Jesuits were somewhat dis-
trusted. Gaudais is directed to make, with great discretion and
caution, careful inquiry into the bishop's conduct, and with equal
secrecy to ascertain why the Jesuits had asked for Avaugour's
recall.
1663.] THE COUNCIL. 19b
Laval formed his council as follows : Jean Bourdon
for attorney -general ; Rouer de Villeray, Juchereau
de la Ferte, Ruette d'Auteuil, Le Gardeur de Tilly,
and Matthieu D'Amours for Councellors; and Peuvret
de Mesnu for secretary. The royal commissioner,
Gaudais, also took a prominent place at the board.1
This functionary was on the point of marrying his
niece to a son of Robert Giffard, who had a strong
interest in suppressing Dumesnirs accusations.2
Duinesnil had laid his statements before the commis-
sioner, who quickly rejected them, and took part
with the accused.
Of those appointed to the new council, their enemy
Duinesnil says that they were " incapable persons ; "
and their associate Gaudais, in defending them
against worse charges, declares that they were
"unlettered, of little experience, and nearly all
unable to deal with affairs of importance." This
was, perhaps, unavoidable; for except among the
ecclesiastics, education was then scarcely known in
Canada. But if Laval may be excused for putting
1 As substitute for the intendant, an officer who had been ap-
pointed but who had not arrived.
2 Dumesnil here makes one of the few mistakes I have been able
to detect in his long memorials. He says that the name of the
niece of Gaudais was Marie Nau. It was, in fact, Michelle-Therese
Nau, who married Joseph, son of Robert Giffard, on the 22d of
October, 1663. Dumesnil had forgotten the bride's first name.
The elder Giffard was surety for Repentigny, whom Dumesnil
charged with liabilities to the company, amounting to 644,700
livres. Giffard was also father-in-law of Juchereau de la Ferte,
one of the accused.
196 LAVAL AND DUMESNIL. [1663.
incompetent men in office, nothing can excuse him
for making men charged with gross public offences
the prosecutors and judges in their own cause; and
his course in doing so gives color to the assertion of
Dumesnil that he made up the council expressly to
shield the accused and smother the accusation.1
The two persons under the heaviest charges
received the two most important appointments, —
Bourdon, attorney-general; and Villeray, keeper of
the seals. La Fert6 was also one of the accused.2
Of Villeray, the governor Argenson had written in
1659 : " Some of his qualities are good enough, but
confidence cannot be placed in him on account of his
instability."3 In the same year he had been ordered
to France, " to purge himself of sundry crimes where-
1 Dumesnil goes further than this, for he plainly intimates that
the removing from power of the company, to whom the accused
were responsible, and the placing in power of a council formed of
the accused themselves, was a device contrived from the first by
Laval and the Jesuits to get their friends out of trouble.
2 Bourdon is charged with not having accounted for an immense
quantity of beaver-skins which had passed through his hands
during twelve years or more, and which are valued at more than
300,000 livres. Other charges are made against him in connection
with large sums borrowed in Lauson's time on account of the
colony. In a memorial addressed to the King in council, Dumesnil
says that in 1662 Bourdon, according to his own accounts, had in
his hands 37,516 livres belonging to the company, which he still
retained.
Villeray's liabilities arose out of the unsettled accounts of his
father-in-law, Charles Sevestre, and are set down at more than
600,000 livres. La Ferte's are of a smaller amount. Others of the
council were indirectly involved in the charges.
8 Lettre d' Argenson, 20 Nov., 1659.
1663.] VILLERAY AND BOURDON. 197
with he stands charged."1 He was not yet free of
suspicion, having returned to Canada under an order
to make up and render his accounts, which he had
not yet done. Dumesnil says that he first came to
the colony in 1651, as valet of the governor Lauson,
who had taken him from the jail at Rochelle, where
he was imprisoned for a debt of seventy-one francs,
"as appears by the record of the jail of date July
eleventh in that year." From this modest beginning
he became in time the richest man in Canada.2 He
was strong in orthodoxy, and an ardent supporter of
the bishop and the Jesuits. He is alternately praised
and blamed, according to the partisan leanings of the
writer.
Bourdon, though of humble origin, was, perhaps,
the most intelligent man in the council. He was
chiefly known as an engineer, but he had also been a
baker, a painter, a syndic of the inhabitants, chief
gunner at the fort, and collector of customs for the
company. Whether guilty of embezzlement or not,
he was a zealous devotee, and would probably have
died for his creed. Like Villeray, he was one of
Laval's stanchest supporters, while the rest of the
council were also sound in doctrine and sure in
allegiance.
In virtue of their new dignity, the accused now
claimed exemption from accountability; but this was
not all. The abandonment of Canada by the com-
1 Edit du Roy, 13 Mai, 1659.
2 Lettre de Colbert a Frontenac, 17 Mai, 1674.
198 LAVAL AND DUMESNIL. [1663.
pany, in leaving Dumesnil without support, and
depriving him of official character, had made his
charges far less dangerous. Nevertheless, it was
thought best to suppress them altogether, and the
first act of the new government was to this end.
On the twentieth of September, the second day
after the establishment of the council, Bourdon, in
his character of attorney-general, rose and demanded
that the papers of Jean Pe'ronne Dumesnil should be
seized and sequestered. The council consented ; and,
to complete the scandal, Villeray was commissioned
to make the seizure in the presence of Bourdon. To
color the proceeding, it was alleged that Dumesnil
had obtained certain papers unlawfully from the
greffe, or record office. "As he was thought," says
Gaudais, "to be a violent man," Bourdon and Villeray
took with them ten soldiers, well armed, together
with a locksmith and the secretary of the council.
Thus prepared for every contingency, they set out
on their errand, and appeared suddenly at Dumesnil's
house between seven and eight o'clock in the even-
ing. " The aforesaid Sieur Dumesnil," further says
Gaudais, "did not refute the opinion entertained of
his violence; for he made a great noise, shouted
rollers! and tried to rouse the neighborhood, out-
rageously abusing the aforesaid Sieur de Villeray
and the attorney-general, in great contempt of the
authority of the council, which he even refused to
recognize."
They tried to silence him by threats, but without
1663.] DESIGNS OF THE COUNCIL. 199
effect; upon which they seized him and held him
fast in a chair, — " me," writes the wrathful Dumesnil,
"who had lately been their judge." The scldiers
stood over him and stopped his mouth, while the
others broke open and ransacked his cabinet, drawers,
and chest, from which they took all his papers,
refusing to give him an inventory, or to permit
any witness to enter the house. Some of these
papers were private; among the rest were, he says,
the charges and specifications, nearly finished, for the
trial of Bourdon and Villeray, together with the
proofs of their "peculations, extortions, and malver-
sations." The papers were enclosed under seal, and
deposited in a neighboring house, whence they were
afterwards removed to the council-chamber, and
Dumesnil never saw them again. It may well be
believed that this, the inaugural act of the new
council, was not allowed to appear on its records.1
On the twenty-first, Villeray made a formal report
of the seizure to his colleagues ; upon which, " by rea-
son of the insults, violences, and irreverences therein
set forth against the aforesaid Sieur de Villeray, com-
missioner, as also against the authority of the
council," it was ordered that the offending Dumesnil
should be put under arrest; but Gaudais, as he
declares, prevented the order from being carried into
effect.
1 The above is drawn from the two memorials of Gaudais and of
Dumesnil. They do not contradict each other as to the essential
facts.
200 LAVAL AND DUMESNIL. [1663.
Dumesnil, who says that during the scene at hia
house he had expected to be murdered like his son,
now, though unsupported and alone, returned to the
attack, demanded his papers, and was so loud in
threats of complaint to the King that the council
were seriously alarmed. They again decreed his
arrest and imprisonment, but resolved to keep the
decree secret till the morning of the day when the
last of the returning ships was to sail for France.
In this ship Dumesnil had taken his passage, and
they proposed to arrest him unexpectedly on the
point of embarkation, that he might have no time to
prepare and despatch a memorial to the court. Thus
a full year must elapse before his complaints could
reach the minister, and seven or eight months more
before a reply could be returned to Canada. During
this long delay the affair would have time to cool.
Dumesnil received a secret warning of this plan, and
accordingly went on board another vessel, which was
to sail immediately. The council caused the six
cannon of the battery in the Lower Town to be
pointed at her, and threatened to sink her if she left
the harbor; but she disregarded them, and proceeded
on her way.
On reaching France, Dumesnil contrived to draw
the attention of the minister Colbert to his accusa-
tions, and to the treatment they had brought upon
him. On this Colbert demanded of Gaudais, who
had also returned in one of the autumn ships, why
he had not reported these matters to him. Gaudais
1663.] CHARGES OF DUMESNIL. 201
made a lame attempt to explain his silence, gave his
statement of the seizure of the papers, answered in
vague terms some of Dumesnil's charges against the
Canadian financiers, and said that he had nothing to
do with the rest. In the following spring Colbert
wrote as follows to his relative Terron, intendant of
marine : —
"I do not know what report M. Gaudais has made
to you, but family interests and the connections
which he has at Quebec should cause him to be a
little distrusted. On his arrival in that country,
having constituted himself chief of the council, he
despoiled an agent of the Company of Canada of all
his papers, in a manner very violent and extraordi-
nary ; and this proceeding leaves no doubt whatever
that these papers contained matters the knowledge of
which it was wished absolutely to suppress. I think
it will be very proper that you should be informed of
the statements made by this agent, in order that,
through him, an exact knowledge may be acquired of
everything that has taken place in the management
of affairs."1
Whether Terron pursued the inquiry does not
appear. Meanwhile new quarrels had arisen at
i Lettre de Colbert a Terron Rockelle, 8 Fev., 1664. "II a spolie
un agent de la Compagnie de Canada de tous ses papiers d'une
maniere fort violente et extraordinaire, et ce procede'ne laisse point
a douter que dans ces papiers il n'y eut des choses dont on a voulu
absolument supprimer la connaissance." Colbert seems to have
received an exaggerated impression of the part borne by Gaudais
in the seizure of the papers.
202 LAVAL AND DUMESNIL. [1663.
Quebec, and the questions of the past were obscured
in the dust of fresh commotions. Nothing is more
noticeable in the whole history of Canada, after it
came under the direct control of the Crown, than the
helpless manner in which this absolute government
was forced to overlook and ignore the disobedience
and rascality of its functionaries in this distant
transatlantic dependency.
As regards Dumesnil's charges, the truth seems to
be, that the financial managers of the colony, being
ignorant and unpractised, had kept imperfect and
confused accounts, which they themselves could not
always unravel; and that some, if not all of them,
had made illicit profits under cover of this confusion.
That their stealings approached the enormous sum
at which Dumesnil places them is not to be believed.
But, even on the grossly improbable assumption of
their entire innocence, there can be no apology for
the means, subversive of all justice, by which Laval
enabled his partisans and supporters to extricate
themselves from embarrassment.
NOTE. — Dumesnil's principal memorial, preserved in the ar-
chives of the Marine and Colonies, is entitled Memoire concernant les
Affaires du Canada, qui montre etfait voir que sous pretexts de la
Gloire de Dieu, d' Instruction des Sauvages, de servir le Roy et defaire
la nouvette Colonie, il a etc" pris et diverti trois millions de livres ou
environ. It forms in the copy before me thirty-eight pages of
manuscript, and bears no address, but seems meant for Colbert, or
the council of state. There is a second memorial, which is little
else than an abridgment of the first. A third, bearing the address
Au Roy et d nos Seigneurs du Conseil (d'Etat), and signed Peronne
Dumesnil, is a petition for the payment of 10,132 livres due to him
1668.] DUMESNIL'S PRINCIPAL MEMORIAL. 203
by the company for his services in Canada, " ou il a perdu son fils
assassin^ par les comptables du dit pays, qui n'ont voulu rendre
compte au dit suppliant, Intendant, et ont pille* sa maison, ses
meubles et papiers le 20 du mois de Septembre dernier, dont il y
a acte."
Gaudais, in compliance with the demands of Colbert, gives his
statement in a long memorial, Le Sieur Gaudais Dupont a Monsei-
gneur de Colbert, 1664.
Dumesnil, in his principal memorial, gives a list of the alleged
defaulters, with the special charges against each, and the amounts
for which he reckons them liable. The accusations cover a period
of ten or twelve years, and sometimes more. Some of them are
curiously suggestive of more recent " rings." Thus Jean Gloria
makes a charge of thirty-one hundred livres (francs) for fireworks
to celebrate the King's marriage, when the actual cost is said to
have been about forty livres. Others are alleged to have embezzled
the funds of the company, under cover of pretended payments to
imaginary creditors ; and Argenson himself is said to have eked
out his miserable salary by drawing on the company for the pay of
soldiers who did not exist.
The records of the Council preserve a guarded silence about
this affair. I find, however, under date 20 Sept., 1663, " Pouvoir a
M. de Villeray de faire recherche dans la maison d'un nomme du
Mesnil des papiers appartenants au Conseil concernant Sa Ma-
jestfe ; " and under date 18 March, 1664, " Ordre pour Touverture du
coffre contenant les papiers de Dumesnil," and also an " Ordre
pour mettre 1'Inventaire des biens du Sr. Dumesnil entre les mains
du Sr< Fillion."
CHAPTER XI.
1657-1665.
LAVAL AND M&ZY.
THE BISHOP'S CHOICE. — A MILITARY ZEALOT. — HOPEFUL BEGIN-
NINGS. — SIGNS OP STORM. — THE QUARREL. — DISTRESS OF MEZY :
HE REFUSES TO YIELD ; HIS DEFEAT AND DEATH.
• WE have seen that Laval, when at court, had
been invited to choose a governor to his liking. He
soon made his selection. There was a pious officer,
Saffray de Me*zy, major of the town and citadel of
Caen, whom he had well known during his long
stay with Bernieres at the Hermitage. Me'zy was the
principal member of the company of devotees formed
at Caen under the influence of Bernieres and his
disciples. In his youth he had been headstrong and
dissolute. Worse still, he had been, it is said, a
Huguenot ; but both in life and doctrine his conver-
sion had been complete, and the fervid mysticism of
Bernieres acting on his vehement nature had trans-
formed him into a red-hot zealot. Towards the
hermits and their chief he showed a docility in
strange contrast with his past history, and followed
1657-59.] A MILITARY ZEALOT. 205
their inspirations with an ardor which sometimes
overleaped its mark.
Thus a Jacobin monk, a doctor of divinity, once
came to preach at the church of St. Paul at Caen;
on which, according to their custom, the brotherhood
of the Hermitage sent two persons to make report
concerning his orthodoxy. MeYy and another mili-
tary zealot, "who," says the narrator, "hardly
know how to read, and assuredly do not know their
catechism," were deputed to hear his first sermon;
wherein this Jacobin, having spoken of the necessity
of the grace of Jesus Christ in order to the doing of
good deeds, these two wiseacres thought that he
was preaching Jansenism; and thereupon, after the
sermon, the Sieur de Me'zy went to the proctor of
the ecclesiastical court and denounced him."1
His zeal, though but moderately tempered with
knowledge, sometimes proved more useful than on
this occasion. The Jacobin convent at Caen was
divided against itself. Some of the monks had
embraced the doctrines taught by Berni^res, while
the rest held dogmas which he declared to be
contrary to those of the Jesuits, and therefore
heterodox. A prior was to be elected, and with the
help of Bernieres his partisans gained the victory,
choosing one Father Louis, through whom the
Hermitage gained a complete control in the convent.
But the adverse party presently resisted, and com-
1 Nicole, Memoire pour faire connoistre I'esprit et la conduite de la
Compagnie appellee I' Hermitage.
206 LAVAL AND M^ZY. [1663
plained to the provincial of their order, who came to
Caen to close the dispute by deposing Father Louis.
Hearing of his approach, Bernieres asked aid from
his military disciple, and De Me'zy sent him a squad
of soldiers, who guarded the convent doors and barred
out the provincial.1
Among the merits of Me'zy, his humility and
charity were especially admired; and the people of
Caen had more than once seen the town major stag-
gering across the street with a beggar mounted on
his back, whom he was bearing dry-shod through the
mud in the exercise of those virtues.2 In this he
imitated his master Bernieres, of whom similar acts
are recorded.3 However dramatic in manifestation,
his devotion was not only sincere but intense. Laval
imagined that he knew him well. Above all others,
Me'zy was the man of his choice ; and so eagerly did
he plead for him that the King himself paid certain
debts which the pious major had contracted, and
thus left him free to sail for Canada.
His deportment on the voyage was edifying, and
the first days of his accession were passed in harmony.
He permitted Laval to form the new council, and
supplied the soldiers for the seizure of Dumesnil's
papers. A question arose concerning Montreal, a
subject on which the governors and the bishop rarely
1 Nicole, Memoire pour fairs connoistre V esprit et la conduite de la
Compagnie appellee I' Hermitage.
a Juchereau, Histoire de I' H6tel-Dieu, 149.
8 See the laudatory notice of Bernieres de Loimgny in the
Nouvelle Biographic Universelle.
1663.] SIGNS OF STORM. 207
differed in opinion. The present instance was no
exception to the rule. Me*zy removed Maisonneuve,
the local governor, and immediately replaced him, — •
the effect being, that whereas he had before derived
his authority from the seigniors of the island, he now
derived it from the governor-general. It was a
movement in the interest of centralized power, and
as such was cordially approved by Laval.
The first indication to the bishop and the Jesuits
that the new governor was not likely to prove in
their hands as clay in the hands of the potter, is said
to have been given on occasion of an interview with
an embassy of Iroquois chiefs, to whom Me'zy, aware
of their duplicity, spoke with a decision and haughti-
ness that awed the savages and astonished the eccle-
siastics. He seems to have been one of those natures
that run with an engrossing vehemence along any
channel into which they may have been turned. At
the Hermitage he was all devotee; but climate and
conditions had changed, and he or his symptoms
changed with them. He found himself raised sud-
denly to a post of command, or one which was meant
to be such. The town major of Caen was set to rule
over a region far larger than France. The royal
authority was trusted to his keeping, and his honor
and duty forbade him to break the trust. But when
he found that those who had procured for him his
new dignities had done so that he might be an instru-
ment of their will, his ancient pride started again
into life, and his headstrong temper broke out like a
208 LAVAL AND M^ZY. [1664.
long-smothered fire. Laval stood aghast at the
transformation. His lamb had turned wolf.
What especially stirred the governor's dudgeon
was the conduct of Bourdon, Villeray, and Auteuil,
those faithful allies whom Laval had placed on the
council, and who, as Me'zy soon found, were wholly in
the bishop's interest. On the thirteenth of February
he sent his friend Angoville, major of the fort, to
Laval, with a written declaration to the effect that
he had ordered them to absent themselves from the
council, because, having been appointed "on the
persuasion of the aforesaid Bishop of Petrsea, who
knew them to be wholly his creatures, they wish to
make themselves masters in the aforesaid council,
and have acted in divers ways against the interests
of the King and the public for the promotion of
personal and private ends, and have formed and
fomented cabals, contrary to their duty and their
oath of fidelity to his aforesaid Majesty."1 He
further declares that advantage had been taken of
the facility of his disposition and his ignorance of the
country to surprise him into assenting to their nomi-
nation; and he asks the bishop to acquiesce in their
expulsion, and join him in calling an assembly of the
people to choose others in their place. Laval refused ;
on which Me'zy caused his declaration to be placarded
about Quebec and proclaimed by sound of drum.
1 Ordre de M. de Mezy de fairs sommation a VEveque de Petree, 13
Fev., 1664. Notification du dit Ordre, meme date. (Registre du
Conseil Suptfrieur.)
1664.1 DISTRESS OF M^ZY. 209
The proposal of a public election, contrary as it
was to the spirit of the government, opposed to the
edict establishing the council, and utterly odious to
the young autocrat who ruled over France, gave
Laval a great advantage. "I reply," he wrote, "to
the request which Monsieur the Governor makes me
to consent to the interdiction of the persons named
in his declaration, and proceed to the choice of other
councillors or officers by an assembly of the people,
that neither my conscience nor my honor, nor the
respect and obedience which I owe to the will and
commands of the King, nor my fidelity and affection
to his service, will by any means permit me to
do so."1
Me'zy was dealing with an adversary armed with
redoubtable weapons. It was intimated to him that
the sacraments would be refused, and the churches
closed against him. This threw him into an agony
of doubt and perturbation ; for the emotional religion
which had become a part of his nature, though
overborne by gusts of passionate irritation, was still
full of life within him. Tossing between the old
feeling and the new, he took a course which reveals
the trouble and confusion of his mind. He threw
himself for counsel and comfort on the Jesuits,
though he knew them to be one with Laval against
him, and though, under cover of denouncing sin in
general, they had lashed him sharply in their
sermons. There is something pathetic in the appeal
l Rfponse de I'EvSque de Petree, 16 Fev., 1664.
14
210 LAVAL AND M^ZY. [1664.
he makes to them. For the glory of God and the
service of the King, he had come, he says, on Laval's
solicitation, to seek salvation in Canada; and being
under obligation to the bishop, who had recommended
him to the King, he felt bound to show proofs of his
gratitude on every occasion. Yet neither gratitude
to a benefactor nor the respect due to his character
and person should be permitted to interfere with
duty to the King, "since neither conscience nor
honor permit us to neglect the requirements of our
office and betray the interests of his Majesty, after
receiving orders from his lips, and making oath of
fidelity between his hands." He proceeds to say
that, having discovered practices of which he felt
obliged to prevent the continuance, he had made a
declaration expelling the offenders from office; that
the bishop and all the ecclesiastics had taken this
declaration as an offence; that, regardless of the
King's service, they had denounced him as a calum-
niator, an unjust judge, without gratitude, and per-
verted in conscience ; and that one of the chief among
them had come to warn him that the sacraments
would be refused and the churches closed against
him. "This," writes the unhappy governor, "has
agitated our soul with scruples; and we have none
from whom to seek light save those who are our
declared opponents, pronouncing judgment on us
without knowledge of cause. Yet as our salvation
and the duty we owe the King are the things most
important to us on earth, and as we hold them to be
1664.] ADVICE OF THE JESUITS. 211
inseparable the one from the other; and as nothing
is so certain as death, and nothing so uncertain as
the hour thereof; and as there is no time to inform
his Majesty of what is passing and to receive his
commands; and as our soul, though conscious of
innocence, is always in fear, — we feel obliged, despite
their opposition, to have recourse to the reverend
father casuists of the House of Jesus, to tell us in
conscience what we can do for the fulfilment of our
duty at once to God and to the King." l
The Jesuits gave him little comfort. Lalemant,
their superior, replied by advising him to follow the
directions of his confessor, a Jesuit, so far as the
question concerned spiritual matters, adding that in
temporal matters he had no advice to give.2 The
distinction was illusory. The quarrel turned wholly
on temporal matters, but it was a quarrel with a
bishop. To separate -in such a case the spiritual
obligation from the temporal was beyond the skill of
Me'zy, nor would the confessor have helped him.
Perplexed and troubled as he was, he would not
reinstate Bourdon and the two councillors. The
people began to clamor at the interruption of justice,
for which they blamed Laval, whom a recent impo-
sition of tithes had made unpopular. Me'zy there-
upon issued a proclamation, in which, after mentioning
his opponents as the most subtle and artful persons
1 Mizy aux PP. Jesuites, Fait au Chdteau de Quebec ce dernier
jour de Fevrier, 1664.
a Lettre du P. H. Lalemant d Mr. le Gouverneur.
212 LAVAL AND M^ZY. [1664.
in Canada, he declares that, in consequence of peti-
tions sent him from Quebec and the neighboring
settlements, he had called the people to the council-
chamber, and by their advice had appointed the
Sieur de Chartier as attorney-general in place of
Bourdon.1
Bourdon replied by a violent appeal from the gov-
ernor to the remaining members of the council;2
on which Me'zy declared him excluded from all public
functions whatever, till the King's pleasure should
be known.3 Thus Church and State still frowned
on each other, and new disputes soon arose to widen
the breach between them. On the first establish-
ment of the council, an order had been passed for the
election of a mayor and two aldermen (echevins) for
Quebec, which it was proposed to erect into a city,
though it had only seventy houses and less than a
thousand inhabitants. Repentigny was chosen mayor,
and Madry and Charron aldermen; but the choice
was not agreeable to the bishop, and the three func-
tionaries declined to act, influence having probably
been brought to bear on them to that end. The
council now resolved that a mayor was needless, and
the people were permitted to choose a syndic in his
stead. These municipal elections were always so
controlled by the authorities that the element of
liberty which they seemed to represent was little but
1 Declaration du Sieur de Mezy, 10 Mars, 1664.
2 Bourdon au Conseil, 13 Mars, 1664.
8 Ordre du Gouverneur, 13 Mars, 1664.
1664.] M^ZY REFUSES TO YIELD. 213
a mockery. On the present occasion, after an unac-
countable delay of ten months, twenty-two persons
cast their votes in presence of the council, and the
choice fell on Charron. The real question was
whether the new syndic should belong to the gov-
ernor or to the bishop. Charron leaned to the
governor's party. The ecclesiastics insisted that the
people were dissatisfied, and a new election was
ordered, but the voters did not come. The governor
now sent messages to such of the inhabitants as he
knew to be in his interest, who gathered in the
council-chamber, voted under his eye, and again
chose a syndic agreeable to him. Laval's party
protested in vain.1
The councillors held office for a year, and the year
had now expired. The governor and the bishop, it
will be remembered, had a joint power of appoint-
ment; but agreement between them was impossible.
Laval was for replacing his partisans, Bourdon,
Villeray, Auteuil, and La Fertd. Me'zy refused;
and on the eighteenth of September he reconstructed
the council by his sole authority, retaining of the
old councillors only Amours and Tilly, and replacing
the rest by Denis, La Tesserie, and Pe'ronne de Maze*,
the surviving son of Dumesnil. Again Laval pro-
tested ; but Me'zy proclaimed his choice by sound of
drum, and caused placards to be posted, full, accord-
ing to Father Lalemant, of abuse against the bishop.
On this he was excluded from confession and absolu-
1 Registre du Conseil Superieur.
214 LAVAL AND MfiZY. [1664.
tion. He complained loudly ; " but our reply was, *'
says the father, "that God knew everything." l
This unanswerable but somewhat irrelevant re-
sponse failed to satisfy him, and it was possibly on
this occasion that an incident occurred which is
recounted by the bishop's eulogist, La Tour. He
says that M£zy, with some unknown design, appeared
before the church at the head of a band of soldiers,
while Laval was saying mass. The service over,
the bishop presented himself at the door, on which,
to the governor's confusion, all the soldiers respect-
fully saluted him.2 The story may have some foun-
dation, but it is not supported by contemporary
evidence.
On the Sunday after Me*zy's coup d'Stat, the pulpits
resounded with denunciations. The people listened,
doubtless, with becoming respect; but their sympa-
thies were with the governor; and he, on his part,
had made appeals to them at more than one crisis of
the quarrel. He now fell into another indiscretion.
He banished Bourdon and Villeray, and ordered
them home to France.
They carried with them the instruments of their
revenge, — the accusations of Laval and the Jesuits
against the author of their woes. Of these accusa-
tions one alone would have sufficed. Mdzy had
appealed to the people. It is true that he did so
1 Journal des Jesuites, Octobre, 1664.
2 La Tour, Vie de Laval, liv. vii. It is charitable to ascribe thia
writer's many errors to carelessness.
^664.1 MtfZY'S DEFEAT.
from no love of popular liberty, but simply to make
head against an opponent; yet the act alone was
enough, and he received a peremptory recall. Again
Laval had triumphed. He had made one governor
and unmade two, if not three. The modest Levite,
as one of his biographers calls him in his earlier days,
had become the foremost power in Canada.
Laval had a threefold strength at court, — his high
birth, his reputed sanctity, and the support of the
Jesuits. This was not all, for the permanency of
his position in the colony gave him another advan-
tage. The governors were named for three years, and
could be recalled at any time ; but the vicar apostolic
owed his appointment to the Pope, and the Pope
alone could revoke it. Thus he was beyond reach
of the royal authority, and the court was in a certain
sense obliged to conciliate him. As for Me'zy, a man
of no rank or influence, he could expect no mercy.
Yet, though irritable and violent, he seems to have
tried conscientiously to reconcile conflicting duties,
or what he regarded as such. The governors and
intendants, his successors, received, during many
years, secret instructions from the court to watch
Laval, and cautiously prevent him from assuming
powers which did not belong to him. It is likely
that similar instructions had been given to Me'zy,1
1 The royal commissioner, Gaudais, who came to Canada with
Me'zy, had, as before mentioned, orders to inquire with great secrecy
into the conduct of Laval. The intendant, Talon, who followed
immediately after, had similar instructions.
216 LAVAL AND M^ZY. [1665.
and that the attempt to fulfil them had aided to
embroil him with one who was probably the last man
on earth with whom he would willingly have
quarrelled.
An inquiry was ordered into his conduct; but a
voice more potent than the voice of the King had
called him to another tribunal. A disease, the result
perhaps of mental agitation, seized upon him and
soon brought him to extremity. As he lay gasping
between life and death, fear and horror took posses-
sion of his soul. Hell yawned before his fevered
vision, peopled with phantoms which long and lonely
meditations, after the discipline of Loyola, made real
and palpable to his thought. He smelt the fumes of
infernal brimstone, and heard the bowlings of the
damned. He saw the frown of the angry Judge, and
the fiery swords of avenging angels, hurling wretches
like himself, writhing in anguish and despair, into
the gulf of unutterable woe. He listened to the
ghostly counsellors who besieged his bed, bowed his
head in penitence, made his peace with the Church,
asked pardon of Laval, confessed to him, and received
absolution at his hands; and his late adversaries,
now benign and bland, soothed him with promises of
pardon, and hopes of eternal bliss.
Before he died, he wrote to the Marquis de Tracy,
newly appointed viceroy, a letter which indicates that
even in his penitence he could not feel himself wholly
in the wrong.1 He also left a will in which the
1 Lettre de Mezy au Marquis de Tracy, 26 Avril, 1665.
1665.] DEATH OF M^ZY. 217
pathetic and the quaint are curiously mingled.
After praying his patron, Saint Augustine, with
Saint John, Saint Peter, and all the other saints, to
intercede for the pardon of his sins, he directs that
his body shall be buried in the cemetery of the poor
at the hospital, as being unworthy of more honored
sepulture. He then makes various legacies of piety
and charity. Other bequests follow, — one of which
is to his friend Major Angoville, to whom he leaves
two hundred francs, his coat of English cloth, his
camlet mantle, a pair of new shoes, eight shirts with
sleeve-buttons, his sword and belt, and a new blanket
for the major's servant. Felix Aubert is to have
fifty francs, with a gray jacket, a small coat of gray
serge, "which," says the testator, "has been worn for
a while," and a pair of long white stockings. And
in a codicil he further leaves to Angoville his best
black coat, in order that he may wear mourning for
him.1
His earthly troubles closed on the night of the
sixth of May. He went to his rest among the
paupers; and the priests, serenely triumphant, sang
requiems over his grave.
NOTE. — Mezy sent home charges against the bishop and the
Jesuits which seem to have existed in Charlevoix's time, but for
which, as well as for those made by Laval, I have sought in vain.
The substance of these mutual accusations is given thus by the
minister Colbert, in a memorial addressed to the Marquis de Tracy,
in 1665 : " Les Jesuites 1'accusent d'avarice et de violences ; et lui
1 Testament du Sieur de Mezy. This will, as well as the letter, is
engrossed in the registers of the council.
218 LAVAL AND MfiZY. [1665.
qu'ils voulaient entreprendre sur 1'autorite qui lui a et6 commise
par le Hoy, en sorte que n'ayant que de leurs creatures dans le
Conseil Souverain, toutes les resolutions s'y prenaient selon leurs
sentiments/*
The papers cited are drawn partly from the Registres du Conseil
Superieur, still preserved at Quebec, and partly from the Archives
of the Marine and Colonies. Laval's admirer, the Abbe La Tour,
in his eagerness to justify the bishop, says that the quarrel arose
from a dispute about precedence between Mezy and the intendant,
and from the ill-humor of the governor because the intendant
shared the profits of his office. The truth is, that there was no
intendant in Canada during the term of Me'zy's government. One
Robert had been appointed to the office, but he never came to the
colony. The commissioner Gaudais, during the two or three months
of his stay at Quebec, took the intendant's place at the council-
board ; but harmony between Laval and Mezy was unbroken till
after his departure. Other writers say that the dispute arose from
the old question about brandy. Towards the end of the quarrel
there was some disorder from this source, but even then the brandy
question was subordinate to other subjects of strife.
CHAPTER XII.
1662-1680.
LAVAL AND THE SEMINARY.
LAVAL'S VISIT TO COURT. — THE SEMINARY. — ZEAL OF THE BISHOP;
HIS EULOGISTS. — CHURCH AND STATE. — ATTITUDE OF LAVAL.
THAT memorable journey of Laval to court, which
caused the dissolution of the Company of New
France, the establishment of the Supreme Council,
the recall of Avaugour, and the appointment of
Mdzy, had yet other objects and other results.
Laval, vicar apostolic and titular Bishop of Petraea,
wished to become in title, as in fact, Bishop of
Quebec. Thus he would gain an increase of dignity
and authority, necessary, as he thought, in his con-
flicts with the civil power; "for," he wrote to the
cardinals of the Propaganda, "I have learned from
long experience how little security my character of
vicar apostolic gives me against those charged with
political affairs: I mean the officers of the Crown,
perpetual rivals and contemners of the authority of
the Church."1
1 For a long extract from this letter, copied from the original in
the archives of the Propaganda at Rome, see Faillon, Colonie
Franyais, Hi. 432.
220 LAVAL AND THE SEMINARY. (1662-80.
This reason was for the Pope and the cardinals.
It may well be believed that he held a different
language to the King. To him he urged that the
bishopric was needed to enforce order, suppress sin,
and crush heresy. Both Louis XIV. and the Queen
Mother favored his wishes;1 but difficulties arose,
and interminable disputes ensued on the question
whether the proposed bishopric should depend imme-
diately on the Pope or on the Archbishop of Rouen.
It was a revival of the old quarrel of Gallican and
ultramontane. Laval, weary of hope deferred, at
length declared that he would leave the colony if he
could not be its bishop in title ; and in 1674, after
eleven years of delay, the King yielded to the Pope's
demands, and the vicar apostolic became first Bishop
of Quebec.
If Laval had to wait for his mitre, he found no
delay and no difficulty in attaining another object no
less dear to him. He wished to provide priests for
Canada, drawn from the Canadian population, fed
with sound and wholesome doctrine, reared under his
eye, and moulded by his hand. To this end he
proposed to establish a seminary at Quebec. The
plan found favor with the pious King, and a decree
signed by his hand sanctioned and confirmed it.
The new seminary was to be a corporation of priests
under a superior chosen by the bishop ; and, besides
1 Anne d'Autriche a Laval, 23 Avril, 1662; Louis XIV. au Pape,
28 Jan. 1664; Louis XIV. au Due de Crequy, Ambassadeur a Romet
28 June, 1664.
1662-80.] THE PARISH PRIEST. 221
its functions of instruction, it was vested with dis-
tinct and extraordinary powers. Laval, an organizer
and a disciplinarian by nature and training, would
fain subject the priests of his diocese to a control as
complete as that of monks in a convent. In France,
the curd or parish priest was, with rare exceptions, a
fixture in his parish, whence he could be removed
only for grave reasons, and through prescribed forms
of procedure. Hence he was to a certain degree
independent of the bishop. Laval, on the contrary,
demanded that the Canadian cure should be remov-
able at his will, and thus placed in the position of a
missionary, to come and go at the order of his
superior. In fact, the Canadian parishes were for a
long time so widely scattered, so feeble in popula-
tion, and so miserably poor, that, besides the disciplin-
ary advantages of this plan, its adoption was at first
almost a matter of necessity. It added greatly to
the power of the Church; and, as the colony
increased, the King and the minister conceived an
increasing distrust of it. Instructions for the " fixa-
tion " of the curds were repeatedly sent to the colony,
and the bishop, while professing to obey, repeatedly
evaded them. Various fluctuations and changes
took place; but Laval had built on strong founda-
tions, and at this day the system of removable curds
prevails in most of the Canadian parishes.1
1 On the establishment of the seminary. Mandement de I'Eveque
de Petre'e, pour I'Etablissement du Stminaire de Quebec ; Approbation
du Roy (Edits et Ordonnances, i. 33, 35) ; La Tour, Vie de Laval, liv.
222 LAVAL AND THE SEMINARY. [1662-80
Thus he formed his clergy into a family with him-
self at its head. His seminary, the mother who had
reared them, was further charged to maintain them,
nurse them in sickness, and support them in old age.
Under her maternal roof the tired priest found repose
among his brethren ; and thither every year he repaired
from the charge of his flock in the wilderness, to
freshen his devotion and animate his zeal by a season
of meditation and prayer.
The difficult task remained to provide the neces-
sary funds. Laval imposed a tithe of one-thirteenth
on all products of the soil, or, as afterwards settled,
on grains alone. This tithe was paid to the seminary,
and by the seminary to the priests. The people,
unused to such a burden, clamored and resisted;
and Me*zy, in his disputes with the bishop, had taken
advantage of their discontent. It became necessary
to reduce the tithe to a twenty-sixth, which, as there
was little or no money among the inhabitants, was
paid in kind. Nevertheless, the scattered and
impoverished settlers grudged even this contribution
to the support of a priest whom many of them rarely
saw; and the collection of it became a matter of the
greatest difficulty and uncertainty. How the King
came to the rescue, we shall hereafter see.
Besides the great seminary where young men were
trained for the priesthood, there was the lesser semi-
vi. ; Esquisse de la Vie de Laval, Appendix. Various papers bear-
ing on the subject are printed in the Canadian Abeille, from origi-
nals in the archives of the seminary.
1662-80.] ENDOWMENTS OF LAVAL. 223
nary where boys were educated in the hope that they
would one day take orders. This school began in
1668, with eight French and six Indian pupils, in the
old house of Madame Couillard; but so far as the
Indians were concerned it was a failure. Sooner or
later they all ran wild in the woods, carrying with
them as fruits of their studies a sufficiency of prayers,
offices, and chants learned by rote, along with a
feeble smattering of Latin and rhetoric, which they
soon dropped by the way. There was also a sort of
farm-school attached to the seminary, for the training
of a humbler class of pupils. It was established at
the parish of St. Joachim, below Quebec, where the
children of artisans and peasants were taught farming
and various mechanical arts, and thoroughly grounded
in the doctrine and discipline of the Church.1 The
Great and Lesser Seminary still subsist, and form one
of the most important Roman Catholic institutions
on this continent. To them has recently been added
the Laval University, resting on the same foundation,
and supported by the same funds.
Whence were these funds derived? Laval, in
order to imitate the poverty of the apostles, had
divested himself of his property before he came to
Canada; otherwise there is little doubt that in the
fulness of his zeal he would have devoted it to his
1 Annales du Petit Stminaire de Quebec, see Abeille, vol. i. ; Notice
Historique sur le Petit Seminaire de Quebec, Ibid., vol. ii. ; Notice
Historigue sur la Paroisse de St. Joachim* Ibid., vol. i. The Abeille
is a journal published by the seminary.
224 LAVAL AND THE SEMINARY. [J.662-80.
favorite object. But if he had no property he had
influence, and his family had both influence and
wealth. He acquired vast grants of land in the best
parts of Canada. Some of these he sold or exchanged ;
others he retained till the year 1680, when he gave
them, with nearly all else that he then possessed, to
his seminary at Quebec. The lands with which he
thus endowed it included the seigniories of the
Petite Nation, the Island of Jesus, and Beaupre*.
The last is of great extent, and at the present day of
immense value. Beginning a few miles below Quebec,
it borders the St. Lawrence for a distance of sixteen
leagues, and is six leagues in depth, measured from
the river. From these sources the seminary still
draws an abundant revenue, though its seigniorial
rights were commuted on the recent extinction of the
feudal tenure in Canada.
Well did Laval deserve that his name should live
in that of the university which a century and a half
after his death owed its existence to his bounty.
This father of the Canadian Church, who has left so
deep an impress on one of the communities which
form the vast population of North America, belonged
to a type of character to which an even justice is
rarely done. With the exception of the Canadian
Garneau, a liberal Catholic, those who have treated
of him have seen him through a medium intensely
Romanist, coloring, hiding, and exaggerating by
turns both his actions and the traits of his character.
Tried by the Romanist standard, his merits were
1662-80.] LAVAL'S POSITION. 225
great; though the extraordinary influence which he
exercised in the affairs of the colony were, as already
observed, by no means due to his spiritual graces
alone. To a saint sprung from the "haute noblesse,
Earth and Heaven were alike propitious. When
the vicar-general Colombi£re pronounced his funeral
eulogy in the sounding periods of Bossuet, he did
not fail to exhibit him on the ancestral pedestal
where his virtues would shine with redoubled lustre.
" The exploits of the heroes of the House of Mont-
morency," exclaims the reverend orator, "form one
of the fairest chapters in the annals of Old France ;
the heroic acts of charity, humility, and faith
achieved by a Montmorency form one of the fairest
in the annals of New France. The combats, victories,
and conquests of the Montmorency in Europe would
fill whole volumes; and so, too, would the triumphs
won by a Montmorency in America over sin, passion,
and the Devil." Then he crowns the high-born
prelate with a halo of fourfold saintship: "It was
with good reason that Providence permitted him to
be called Francis, for the virtues of all the saints of
that name were combined in him, — the zeal of Saint
Francis Xavier, the charity of Saint Francis of Sales,
the poverty of Saint Francis of Assisi, the self-
mortification of Saint Francis Borgia; but poverty
was the mistress of his heart, and he loved her with
incontrollable transports."
The stories which ColombiSre proceeds to tell of
Laval's asceticism are confirmed by other evidence,
15
226 LAVAL AND THE SEMINARY. [1662-80.
and are, no doubt, true. Nor is there any reasonable
doubt that, had the bishop stood in the place of
Brdbeuf or Charles Lalemant, he would have suffered
torture and death like them. But it was his lot to
strive, not against infidel savages, but against country-
men and Catholics, who had no disposition to burn
him, and would rather have done him reverence than
wrong.
To comprehend his actions and motives, it is neces-
sary to know his ideas in regard to the relations of
Church and State. They were those of the extreme
ultramontanes, which a recent Jesuit preacher has
expressed with tolerable distinctness. In a sermon
uttered in the Church of Notre Dame, at Montreal,
on the first of November, 1872, he thus announced
them : " The supremacy and infallibility of the Pope ;
the independence and liberty of the Church; the
subordination and submission of the State to the
Church ; in case of conflict between them, the
Church to decide, the State to submit rf for whoever
follows and defends these principles, life and a bless-
ing; for whoever rejects and combats them, death
and a curse."1
These were the principles which Laval and the
1 This sermon was preached by Father Braun, S. J., on occasion
of the "Golden Wedding/' or fiftieth anniversary of Bishop
Bourget of Montreal. A large body of the Canadian clergy were
present, some of whom thought his expressions too emphatic. A
translation by another Jesuit is published in the "Montreal
Weekly Herald " of Nov. 2, 1872 ; and the above extract is copied
verbatim.
1662-80.] MENTAL CONDITION OF LAVAL. 227
Jesuits strove to make good. Christ was to rule in
Canada through his deputy the bishop, and God's
law was to triumph over the laws of man. As in
the halcyon days of Champlain and Montmagny, the
governor was to be the right hand of the Church, to
wield the earthly sword at her bidding; and the
council was to be the agent of her high behests.
France was drifting toward the triumph of the
parti devot, the sinister reign of petticoat and cas-
sock, the era of Maintenon and Tellier, and the fatal
atrocities of the dragonnades. Yet the advancing
tide of priestly domination did not flow smoothly.
The unparalleled prestige which surrounded the
throne of the young King, joined to his quarrels with
the Pope and divisions in the Church itself, dis-
turbed, though they could not check, its progress.
In Canada it was otherwise. The colony had been
ruled by priests from the beginning, and it only
remained to continue in her future the law of her
past. She was the fold of Christ; the wolf of civil
government was among the flock, and Laval and the
Jesuits, watchful shepherds, were doing their best to
chain and muzzle him.
According to Argenson, Laval had said, " A bishop
can do what he likes; " and his action answered rea-
sonably well to his words. He thought himself above
human law. In vindicating the assumed rights of
the Church, he invaded the rights of others, and
used means from which a healthy conscience would
have shrunk. All his thoughts and sympathies had
228 LAVAL AND THE SEMINARY. [1662-80.
nm from childhood in ecclesiastical channels, and he
cared for nothing outside the Church. Prayer, medi-
tation, and asceticism had leavened and moulded
him. During four years he had been steeped in the
mysticism of the Hermitage, which had for its aim
the annihilation of self, and through self-annihilation
the absorption into God.1 He had passed from a life
of visions to a life of action. Earnest to fanaticism,
he saw but one great object, — the glory of God on
earth. He was penetrated by the poisonous casuistry
of the Jesuits, based on the assumption that all
means are permitted when the end is the service of
God; and as Laval, in his own opinion, was always
doing the service of God, while his opponents were
always doing that of the Devil, he enjoyed, in the
use of means, a latitude of which we have seen him
avail himself.
* See the maxims of Bernieres published by La Tour.
SECTION THIRD.
THE COLONY AND THE KING.
CHAPTER XIII.
1661-1665.
ROYAL INTERVENTION.
FONTAINEBLEATJ. — LOUIS XIV. — COLBERT. — THE COMPANY OJ
THE WEST. — EVIL OMENS. — ACTION OF THE KING. — TRACY,
COURCELLE, AND TALON. — THE REGIMENT OF CARIGNAN-SALI-
ERES. — TRACY AT QUEBEC. — MIRACLES. — A HOLY WAR.
LEAVE Canada behind; cross the sea, and stand,
on an evening in June, by the edge of the forest of
Fontainebleau. Beyond the broad gardens, above
the long ranges of moonlit trees, rise the walls and
pinnacles of the vast chateau, — a shrine of history,
the gorgeous monument of lines of vanished kings,
haunted with memories of Capet, Valois, and
Bourbon.
There was little thought of the past at Fontainebleau
in June, 1661. The present was too dazzling and
too intoxicating; the future, too radiant with hope
and promise. It was the morning of a new reign;
230 ROYAL INTERVENTION. [1661.
the sun of Louis XIV. was rising in splendor, and
the rank and beauty of France were gathered to pay
it homage. A youthful court, a youthful king; a
pomp and magnificence such as Europe had never
seen; a delirium of ambition, pleasure, and love, —
all this wrought in many a young heart an enchant-
ment destined to be cruelly broken. Even old cour-
tiers felt the fascination of the scene, and tell us of
the music at evening by the borders of the lake ; of
the gay groups that strolled under the shadowing
trees, floated in gilded barges on the still water, or
moved slowly in open carriages around its borders.
Here was Anne of Austria, the King's mother, and
Marie The*ro»se, his tender and jealous queen; his
brother, the Duke of Orleans, with his bride of six-
teen, Henriette of England; and his favorite, that
vicious butterfly of the court, the Count de Quiche.
Here, too, were the humbled chiefs of the civil war,
Beaufort and Conde*, obsequious before their triumph-
ant master. Louis XIV., the centre of all eyes, in
the flush of health and vigor, and the pride of new-
fledged royalty, stood, as he still stands on the
canvas of Philippe de Champagne, attired in a
splendor which would have been effeminate but for
the stately port of the youth who wore it.1
Fortune had been strangely bountiful to Louis
1 On the visit of the court at Fontainebleau in the summer of
1661, see Memoires de Madame de Motteville, Memoires de Madame d«
La Fayette, Memoires de VAbbt de Choisy, and Walckenaer's Me-
moires sur Madame de Stvigne".
1661.] LOUIS XIV. 231
XIV. The nations of Europe, exhausted by wars
and dissensions, looked upon him with respect and
fear. Among weak and weary neighbors, he alone
was strong. The death of Mazarin had released him
from tutelage ; feudalism in the person of Condd was
abject before him ; he had reduced his parliaments to
submission ; and in the arrest of the ambitious prodi-
gal Fouquet, he was preparing a crushing blow to
the financial corruption which had devoured France.
Nature had formed him to act the part of King.
Even his critics and enemies praise the grace and
majesty of his presence, and he impressed his cour-
tiers with an admiration which seems to have been to
an astonishing degree genuine. He carried airs of
royalty even into his pleasures; and while his
example corrupted all France, he proceeded to the
apartments of Montespan or Fontanges with the
majestic gravity of Olympian Jove. He was a
devout observer of the forms of religion ; and as the
buoyancy of youth passed away, his zeal was stimu-
lated by a profound fear of the Devil. Mazarin had
reared him in ignorance ; but his faculties were excel-
lent in their way, and in a private station would
have made him an efficient man of business. The
vivacity of his passions and his inordinate love of
pleasure were joined to a persistent will and a rare
power of labor. The vigorous mediocrity of his
understanding delighted in grappling with details.
His astonished courtiers saw him take on himself the
burden of administration, and work at it without
232 ROYAL INTERVENTION. [1661.
relenting for more than half a century. Great as
was his energy, his pride was far greater. As king
by divine right, he felt himself raised immeasurably
above the highest of his subjects; but while vindi-
cating with unparalleled haughtiness his claims to
supreme authority, he was, at the outset, filled with
a sense of the duties of his high place, and fired by
an ambition to make his reign beneficent to France
as well as glorious to himself.
Above all rulers of modern times, Louis XIV. was
the embodiment of the monarchical idea. The
famous words ascribed to him, "I am the State,"
were probably never uttered; but they perfectly
express his spirit. " It is God's will, " he wrote in
1666, "that whoever is born a subject should not
reason, but obey;"1 and those around him were of
his mind. "The State is in the King," said Bossuet,
the great mouthpiece of monarchy ; " the will of the
people is merged in his will. O Kings! put forth
your power boldly, for it is divine and salutary to
humankind."2
For a few brief years, this King's reign was indeed
salutary to France. His judgment of men, when
not obscured by his pride and his passion for flattery,
was good ; and he had at his service the generals and
statesmen formed in the freer and bolder epoch that
had ended with his accession. Among them was
Jean Baptiste Colbert, formerly the intendant of
1 (Euvres de Louis XIV., ii. 283.
2 Bossuet, Politique tiree de I'ficriture sainte, 670 (1843).
1664.] COLBERT. 233
Mazarin's household, — a man whose energies
matched his talents, and who had preserved his
rectitude in the midst of corruption. It wlas a hard
task that Colbert imposed on his proud and violent
nature to serve the imperious King, morbidly jealous
of his authority, and resolved to accept no initiative
but his own. He must counsel while seeming to
receive counsel, and lead while seeming to follow.
The new minister bent himself to the task, and the
nation reaped the profit. A vast system of reform
was set in action amid the outcries of nobles, finan-
ciers, churchmen, and all who profited by abuses.
The methods of this reform were trenchant and some-
times violent, and its principles were not always in
accord with those of modern economic science; but
the good that resulted was incalculable. The
burdens of the laboring classes were lightened, the
public revenues increased, and the wholesale plunder
of the public money was arrested with a strong hand.
Laws were reformed and codified; feudal tyranny,
which still subsisted in many quarters, was repressed ;
agriculture and productive industry of all kinds were
encouraged, roads and canals opened, trade was
stimulated, a commercial marine created, and a
powerful navy formed as if by magic.1
It is in his commercial, industrial, and colonial
policy that the profound defects of the great minis-
1 On Colbert, see Clement, Histoire de Colbert ; Cle'ment, Lettres
et Memoires de Colbert; Cheruel, Administration monarchique en
France, ii. chap. vi. ; Henri Martin, Histoire de France, xiii., etc.
234 ROYAL INTERVENTION. [1664.
ter's system are most apparent. It was a system of
authority, monopoly, and exclusion, in which the
government, and not the individual, acted always
the foremost part. Upright, incorruptible, ardent for
the public good, inflexible, arrogant, and domineer-
ing, he sought to drive France into paths of prosper-
ity, and create colonies by the energy of an imperial
will. He feared, and with reason, that the want of
enterprise and capital among the merchants would
prevent the broad and immediate results at which he
aimed; and to secure these results he established a
series of great trading corporations, in which the
principles of privilege and exclusion were pushed to
their utmost limits. Prominent among them was
the Company of the West. The King signed the
edict creating it on the twenty-fourth of May, 1664.
Any person in the kingdom or out of it might become
a partner by subscribing, within a certain time, not
less than three thousand francs. France was a mere
patch on the map, compared to the vast domains of
the new association. Western Africa from Cape
Verd to the Cape of Good Hope, South America
between the Amazon and the Orinoco, Cayenne, the
Antilles, and all New France, from Hudson's Bay to
Virginia and Florida, were bestowed on it forever, to
be held of the Crown on the simple condition of
faith and homage. As, according to the edict, the
glory of God was the chief object in view, the com-
pany was required to supply its possessions with a
sufficient number of priests, and diligently to exclude
1664-68.] MONOPOLY. 235
all teachers of false doctrine. It was empowered to
build forts and war-ships, cast cannon, wage war,
make peace, establish courts, appoint judges, and
otherwise to act as sovereign within its own domains.
A monopoly of trade was granted it for forty years.1
Sugar from the Antilles and furs from Canada were
the chief source of expected profit; and Africa was
to supply the slaves to raise the sugar. Scarcely was
the grand machine set in motion, when its directors
betrayed a narrowness and blindness of policy which
boded the enterprise no good. Canada was a chief
sufferer. Once more, bound hand and foot, she was
handed over to a selfish league of merchants, —
monopoly in trade, monopoly in religion, monopoly
in government. Nobody but the company had a
right to bring her the necessaries of life ; and nobody
but the company had a right to exercise the traffic
which alone could give her the means of paying for
these necessaries. Moreover, the supplies which it
brought were insufficient, and the prices which it
demanded were exorbitant. It was throttling its
wretched victim. The Canadian merchants remon-
strated.2 It was clear that if the colony was to live,
the system must be changed; and a change was
accordingly ordered. The company gave up its
monopoly of the fur- trade, but reserved the right to
levy a duty of one-fourth of the beaver-skins, and
one-tenth of the moose-skins; and it also reserved
1 Edit d'Etablissement de la Compagnie des Indes Occidentals.
* Lettre du Conseil Souverain d Colbert, 1668.
236 ROYAL INTERVENTION. [1664-66.
the entire trade of Tadoussac, — that is to say, the
trade of all the tribes between the lower St.
Lawrence and Hudson's Bay. It retained, besides,
the exclusive right of transporting furs in its own
ships, — thus controlling the commerce of Canada,
and discouraging, or rather extinguishing, the enter-
prise of Canadian merchants. On its part, it was
required to pay governors, judges, and all the colonial
officials out of the duties which it levied.1
Yet the King had the prosperity of Canada at
heart; and he proceeded to show his interest in her
after a manner hardly consistent with his late action
in handing her over to a mercenary guardian. In
fact, he acted as if she had still remained under his
paternal care. He had just conferred the right of
naming a governor and intendant upon the new
company; but he now assumed it himself, the com-
pany, with a just sense of its own unfitness, readily
consenting to this suspension of one of its most
important privileges. Daniel de Re*my, Sieur de
Courcelle, was appointed governor, and Jean Baptiste
Talon intendant.2 The nature of this duplicate
1 Arret du Conseil du Roy qm accorde a la Compagnie le quart des
castors, le dixieme des orignaux et la traite de Tadoussac : Instruction
deMonseigneurde Tracy et a Messieurs le Gouverneur et I' Intendant.
This company prospered as little as the rest of Colbert's trad-
ing companies. Within ten years it lost 3,523,000 lirres, besides
blighting the colonies placed under its control. (Recherches sur les
Finances, cited by Clement, Histoire de Colbert.)
2 Commission de Lieutenant General en Canada, etc., pour M. de
Courcelle, 23 Mars, 1665; Commission d' Intendant de la Justice,
Police, et Finances en Canada, etc., pour M. Talon, 23 Mars, 1665,
1665.] ARRIVAL OF TRACY. 237
government will appear hereafter. But before
appointing rulers for Canada, the King had appointed
a representative of the Crown for all his American
domains. The Mare'chal d'Estrades had for some
time held the title of viceroy for America; and as he
could not fulfil the duties of that office, being at the
time ambassador in Holland, the Marquis de Tracy
was sent in his place, with the title of lieutenant-
general.1
Canada at this time was an object of very consid-
erable attention at court, and especially in what
was known as the parti devot. The Relations of the
Jesuits, appealing equally to the spirit of religion
and the spirit of romantic adventure, had for more
than a quarter of a century been the favorite reading
of the devout, and the visit of Laval at court had
greatly stimulated the interest they had kindled.
The letters of Argenson, and especially of Avaugour,
had shown the vast political possibilities of the young
colony, and opened a vista of future glories alike
for Church and for King.
So, when Tracy set sail he found no lack of fol-
lowers. A throng of young nobles embarked with
him, eager to explore the marvels and mysteries of
the western world. The King gave him two hun-
dred soldiers of the regiment of Carignan-Salieres,
and promised that a thousand more should follow.
After spending more than a year in the West Indies,
1 Commission de Lieutenant General de VAmerique Meridionale et
Septentrionale pour M. Prouville de Tracy, 19 Nov., 1663.
238 ROYAL INTERVENTION. [1665-
where, as Mother Mary of the Incarnation expresses
it, " he performed marvels and reduced everybody to
obedience," he at length sailed up the St. Law-
rence, and on the thirtieth of June, 1665, anchored in
the basin of Quebec. The broad, white standard,
blazoned with the arms of France, proclaimed the
representative of royalty; and Point Levi and Cape
Diamond and the distant Cape Tourmente roared
back the sound of the saluting cannon. All Quebec
was on the ramparts or at the landing-place, and all
eyes were strained at the two vessels as they slowly
emptied their crowded decks into the boats along-
side. The boats at length drew near, and the
lieutenant-general and his suite landed on the quay
with a pomp such as Quebec had never seen before.
Tracy was a veteran of sixty-two, portly and tall,
"one of the largest men I ever saw," writes Mother
Mary; but he was sallow with disease, for fever had
seized him, and it had fared ill with him on the long
voyage. The Chevalier de Chaumont walked at his
side, and young nobles surrounded him, gorgeous in
lace and ribbons and majestic in leonine wigs.
Twenty-four guards in the King's livery led the way,
followed by four pages and six valets;1 and thus,
while the Frenchmen shouted and the Indians stared,
the august procession threaded the streets of the
Lower Town, and climbed the steep pathway that
scaled the cliffs above. Breathing hard, they reached
1 Juchereau says that this was his constant attendance when he
went abroad.
1665.] THE REINFORCEMENT. 239
the top, passed on the left the dilapidated walls of
the fort and the shed of mingled wood and masonry
which then bore the name of the Castle of St. Louis ;
passed on the right the old house of Couillard and
the site of Laval's new seminary, and soon reached
the square betwixt the Jesuit college and the cathe-
dral. The bells were ringing in a frenzy of wel-
come. Laval in pontificals, surrounded by priests and
Jesuits, stood waiting to receive the deputy of the
King ; and as he greeted Tracy and offered him the
holy water, he looked with anxious curiosity to see
what manner of man he was. The signs were auspi-
cious. The deportment of the lieutenant-general left
nothing to desire. A prie-dieu had been placed for
him. He declined it. They offered him a cushion,
but he would not have it; and, fevered as he was,
he knelt on the bare pavement with a devotion that
edified every beholder. Te Deum was sung, and a
day of rejoicing followed.
There was good cause. Canada, it was plain, was
not to be wholly abandoned to a trading company.
Louis XIV. was resolved that a new France should
be added to the old. Soldiers, settlers, horses, sheep,
cattle, young women for wives, were all sent out in
abundance by his paternal benignity. Before the
season was over, about two thousand persons had
landed at Quebec at the royal charge. " At length, "
writes Mother Juchereau, " our joy was completed by
the arrival of two vessels with Monsieur de Courcelle,
our governor; Monsieur Talon, our intendant, and
240 ROYAL INTERVENTION. [1665.
the last companies of the regiment of Carignan."
More state and splendor, more young nobles, more
guards and valets: for Courcelle, too, says the same
chronicler, "had a superb train; and Monsieur
Talon, who naturally loves glory, forgot nothing
which could do honor to the King." Thus a sun-
beam from the court fell for a moment on the rock of
Quebec. Yet all was not sunshine ; for the voyage
had been a tedious one, and disease had broken out
in the ships. That which bore Talon had been a
hundred and seventeen days at sea,1 and others were
hardly more fortunate. The hospital was crowded
with the sick; so, too, were the Church and the
neighboring houses ; and the nuns were so spent with
their labors that seven of them were brought to the
point of death. The priests were busied in convert
ing the Huguenots, a number of whom were detected
among the soldiers and emigrants. One of them
proved refractory, declaring with oaths that he would
never renounce his faith. Falling dangerously ill,
he was carried to the hospital, where Mother
Catherine de Saint- Augustin bethought her of a plan
of conversion. She ground to powder a small piece
of a bone of Father Bre*beuf, the Jesuit martyr, and
secretly mixed the sacred dust with the patient's
gruel; whereupon, says Mother Juchereau, "this
intractable man forthwith became gentle as an angel,
begged to be instructed, embraced the faith, and
,. > Talvn au Ministre, 4 Oct., 1665.
1665.] TRACY'S DEVOTION. 241
abjured his errors publicly with an admirable
fervor."1
Two or three years before, the Church of Quebec
had received as a gift from the Pope the bodies or
bones of two saints, — Saint Flavian and Saint
Felicite*. They were enclosed in four large coffers
or reliquaries, and a grand procession was now
ordered in their honor. Tracy, Courcelle, Talon,
and the agent of the company bore the canopy of the
Host. Then came the four coffers on four decorated
litters, carried by the principal ecclesiastics. Laval
followed in pontificals. Forty-seven priests, and a
long file of officers, nobles, soldiers, and inhabitants,
followed the precious relics amid the sound of music
and the roar of cannon.2
" It is a ravishing thing, " says Mother Mary, " to
see how marvellously exact is Monsieur de Tracy
at all these holy ceremonies, where he is always the
first to come, for he would not lose a single moment
of them. He has been seen in church for six hours
together, without once going out." But while the
lieutenant-general thus edified the colony, he
betrayed no lack of qualities equally needful in his
position. In Canada, as in the West Indies, he
showed both vigor and conduct. First of all, he had
been ordered to subdue or destroy the Iroquois ; and
the regiment of Carignan-Sali£res was the weapon
1 Le Mercier tells the same story in the Relation of 1665.
2 Compare Marie de ITncarnation, Lettre 16 Oct., 1666, with La
Tour, Vie de Laval, chap. x.
16
242 ROYAL INTERVENTION. [1665,
placed in his hands for this end. Four companies
of this corps had arrived early in the season; four
more came with Tracy, more yet with Salie»res,
their colonel, — and now the number was complete.
As with slouched hat and plume, bandoleer, and
shouldered firelock, these bronzed veterans of the
Turkish wars marched at the tap of drum through
the narrow street, or mounted the rugged way that
led up to the fort, the inhabitants gazed with a sense
of profound relief. Tame Indians from the neigh-
boring missions, wild Indians from the woods, stared
in silent wonder at their new defenders. Their
numbers, their discipline, their uniform, and their
martial bearing filled the savage beholders with
admiration.
Carignan-Salieres was the first regiment of regular
troops ever sent to America by the French govern-
ment. It was raised in Savoy by the Prince of
Carignan in 1644, but was soon employed in the
service of France; where, in 1652, it took a con-
spicuous part, on the side of the King, in the battle
with Conde' and the Fronde at the Porte St. Antoine.
After the peace of the Pyrenees, the Prince of
Carignan, unable to support the regiment, gave it to
the King, and it was, for the first time, incorporated
into the French armies. In 1664 it distinguished
itself, as part of the allied force of France, in the
Austrian war against the Turks. In the next year
it was ordered to America, along with the fragment
of a regiment formed of Germans, the whole being
1665.] A HOLY WAR. 243
placed under the command of Colonel de SaliSres.
Hence its double name.1
Fifteen heretics were discovered in its ranks, and
quickly converted.2 Then the new crusade was
preached, — the crusade against the Iroquois, enemies
of God and tools of the Devil. The soldiers and
the people were filled with a zeal half warlike and
half religious. "They are made to understand,'*
writes Mother Mary, " that this is a holy war, all for
the glory of God and the salvation of souls. The
fathers are doing wonders in inspiring them with
true sentiments of piety and devotion. Fully five
hundred soldiers have taken the scapulary of the
Holy Virgin. It is we [the Ursulines], who make
them; it is a real pleasure to do such work;" and
she proceeds to relate a "beau miracle," by which
God made known his satisfaction at the fervor of
his military servants.
1 For a long notice of the regiment of Carignan-Salieres
(Lorraine), see Susane, Ancienne Infanterie Fran$aise, v. 236. The
portion of it which returned to France from Canada formed a
nucleus for the reconstruction of the regiment, which, under the
name of the regiment of Lorraine, did not cease to exist as a sepa-
rate organization till 1794. When it came to Canada it consisted,
says Susane, of about a thousand men, besides about two hundred
of the other regiment incorporated with it. Compare Memoire du
Roy pour servir d' instruction au Sieur Talon, which corresponds very
nearly with Susane's statement.
2 Besides these, there was Berthier, a captain. " Voila," write*
Talon to the King, " le 16me converti ; ainsi votre Majeste' moi*-
sonne dejk k pleines mains de la gloire pour Dieu, et pour elle
de la renommee dans toute Fetendue de la Chre'tientfc." (Lettre
7 Oct., 1665.)
244 ROYAL INTERVENTION. [1665.
The secular motives for the war were in themselves
strong enough; for the growth of the colony abso-
lutely demanded the cessation of Iroquois raids, and
the French had begun to learn the lesson that in the
case of hostile Indians no good can come of attempts
to conciliate, unless respect is first imposed by a
sufficient castigation. It is true that the writers of
the time paint Iroquois hostilities in their worst
colors. In the innumerable letters which Mother
Mary of the Incarnation sent home every autumn,
by the returning ships, she spared no means to gain
the sympathy and aid of the devout; and, with
similar motives, the Jesuits in their printed Relations
took care to extenuate nothing of the miseries which
the pious colony endured. Avaugour too, in urg-
ing the sending out of a strong force to fortify and
hold the country, had advised that, in order to furnish
a pretext and disarm the jealousy of the English and
Dutch, exaggerated accounts should be given of
danger from the side of the savage confederates.
Yet, with every allowance, these dangers and suffer-
ings were sufficiently great.
The three upper nations of the Iroquois were com-
paratively pacific; but the two lower nations, the
Mohawks and Oneidas, were persistently hostile;
making inroads into the colony by way of Lake
Champlain and the Richelieu, murdering and scalp-
ing, and then vanishing like ghosts. Tracy's first
step was to send a strong detachment to the Richelieu
to build a picket fort below the rapids of Chambly,
1665.] PACIFIC OVERTURES. 245
which take their name from that of the officer in
command. An officer named Sorel soon afterwards
built a second fort on the site of the abandoned
palisade work built by Montmagny, at the mouth of
the river, where the town of Sorel now stands ; and
Salieres, colonel of the regiment, added a third fort,
two or three leagues above Chambly.1 These forts
could not wholly bar the passage against the nimble
and wily warriors who might pass them in the night,
shouldering their canoes through the woods. A
blow, direct and hard, was needed, and Tracy
prepared to strike it.
Late in the season an embassy from the three
upper nations — the Onondagas, Cayugas, and
Senecas — arrived at Quebec, led by Garacontie', a
famous chief whom the Jesuits had won over, and
who proved ever after a stanch friend of the French.
They brought back the brave Charles Le Moyne of
Montreal, whom they had captured some three
months before, and now restored as a peace-offering,
taking credit to themselves that " not even one of his
nails had been torn out, nor any part of his body
burnt."2 Garacontie made a peace speech, which, as
rendered by the Jesuits, was an admirable specimen of
Iroquois eloquence ; but while joining hands with him
and his companions, the French still urged on their
preparations to .chastise the contumacious Mohawks.
1 See the map in the Relation of 1665. The accompanying text
of the Relation is incorrect.
2 Explanation of the eleven Presents of the Iroquois Ambassadors,
N. Y. Colonial Docs., ix. 37.
CHAPTER XIV.
1666, 1667.
THE MOHAWKS CHASTISED.
COURCELLE'S MARCH : ms FAILURE AND RETURN. — COURCELLB
AND THE JESUITS. — MOHAWK TREACHERY. — TRACT'S EXPEDI-
TION. — BURNING or THE MOHAWK TOWNS. — FRENCH AND ENG-
LISH. — DOLLIER DE CASSON AT ST. ANNE. — PEACE. — THE
JESUITS AND THE IROQUOIS.
THE governor, Courcelle, says Father Le Mercier,
"breathed nothing but war," and was bent on imme-
diate action. He was for the present subordinate to
Tracy, who, however, forbore to cool his ardor, and
allowed him to proceed. The result was an enter-
prise bold to rashness. Courcelle, with about five
hundred men, prepared to march in the depth of a
Canadian winter to the Mohawk towns, — a distance
estimated at three hundred leagues. Those who
knew the country vainly urged the risks and diffi-
culties of the attempt. The adventurous governor
held fast to his purpose, and only waited till the St.
Lawrence should be well frozen. Early in January,
it was a solid floor; and on the ninth the march
began. Officers and men stopped at Sillery, and
knelt in the little mission chapel before the shrine of
1666.] COURCELLE'S MARCH. 247
Saint Michael, to ask the protection and aid of the
warlike archangel; then they resumed their course,
and, with their snow-shoes tied at their backs,
walked with difficulty and toil over the bare and
slippery ice. A keen wind swept the river, and the
fierce cold gnawed them to the bone. Ears, noses,
fingers, hands, and knees were frozen; some fell
in torpor, and were dragged on by their comrades
to the shivering bivouac. When, after a march of
ninety miles, they reached Three Rivers, a consid-
erable number were disabled, and had to be left
behind; but others joined them from the garrison,
and they set out again. Ascending the Richelieu,
and passing the new forts at Sorel and Chambly,
they reached at the end of the month the third fort,
called Ste. ThdrSse. On the thirtieth they left it,
and continued their march up the frozen stream.
About two hundred of them were Canadians, and
of these seventy were old Indian-fighters from
Montreal, versed in wood-craft, seasoned to the
climate, and trained among dangers and alarms.
Courcelle quickly learned their value, and his " Blue
Coats," as he called them, were always placed in the
van.1 Here, wrapped in their coarse blue capotes,
with blankets and provisions strapped at their backs,
they strode along on snow-shoes, which recent storms
had made indispensable. The regulars followed as
they could. They were not yet the tough and
experienced woodsmen that they and their descend-
1 Dollier de Casson, Histoire du Montreal, A. D. 1665, 1666.
248 THE MOHAWKS CHASTISED. [1666.
ants afterwards became ; and their snow-shoes embar-
rassed them, burdened as they were with the heavy
loads which all carried alike, from Courcelle to the
lowest private.
Lake Champlain lay glaring in the winter sun, a
sheet of spotless snow; and the wavy ridges of the
Adirondacks bordered the dazzling landscape with
the cold gray of their denuded forests. The long
procession of weary men crept slowly on under the
lee of the shore ; and when night came they bivouacked
by squads among the trees, dug away the snow with
their snow-shoes, piled it in a bank around them,
built their fire in the middle, and crouched about it
on beds of spruce or hemlock, 1 — while, as they lay
close packed for mutual warmth, the winter sky
arched them like a vault of burnished steel, sparkling
with the cold diamond lustre of its myriads of stars.
This arctic serenity of the elements was varied at
times by heavy snow-storms, and before they reached
their journey's end the earth and the ice were buried
to the unusual depth of four feet. From Lake
Champlain they passed to Lake George2 and the
frigid glories of its snow- wrapped mountains, thence
crossed to the Hudson, and groped their way through
the woods in search of the Mohawk towns. They
1 One of the men, telling the story of their sufferings to Daniel
Gookin, of Massachusetts, indicated this as their mode of encamp-
ing. See Mass. Hist. Coll. first series, i. 161.
2 Carte des grands lacs, Ontario et autres . . . et des pays traversez
par MM. de Tracy et Courcelle pour alter attaquer les agnies [Mohawks],
1666.] FAILURE OF COURCELLE. 249
soon went astray; for thirty Algonquins, whom they
had taken as guides, had found the means of a grand
debauch at Fort Ste. The're^se, drunk themselves into
helplessness, and lingered behind. Thus Courcelle
and his men mistook the path, and, marching by way
of Saratoga Lake and Long Lake,1 found themselves,
on Saturday the twentieth of February, close to the
little Dutch hamlet of Corlaer, or Schenectady.
Here the chief man in authority told them that most
of the Mohawks and Oneidas had gone to war with
another tribe. They however caught a few strag-
glers, and had a smart skirmish with a party of
warriors, losing an officer and several men. Half
frozen and half starved, they encamped in the neigh-
boring woods, where, on Sunday, three envoys
appeared from Albany, to demand why they had
invaded the territories of his Royal Highness the
Duke of York. It was now that they learned for the
first time that the New Netherlands had passed into
English hands, a change which boded no good to
Canada. The envoys seemed to take their explana-
tions in good part, made them a present of wine and
provisions, and allowed them to buy further supplies
from the Dutch of Schenectady. They even invited
them to enter the village, but Courcelle declined, —
partly because the place could not hold them all, and
partly because he feared that his men, once seated in
a chimney-corner, could never be induced to leave it.
Their position was cheerless enough ; for the vast
1 Carte . . . des pays traversez par MM. de Tracy et Courcelle, etc
250 THE MOHAWKS CHASTISED. [1666.
beds of snow around them were soaking slowly under
a sullen rain, and there was danger that the lakes
might thaw and cut off their retreat. " Ye Mohaukes, ' *
says the old English report of the affair, "were all
gone to their Castles with resolution to fight it out
against the french, who, being refresht and supplyed
wtt the aforesaid provisions, made a shew of marching
towards the Mohaukes Castles, but with faces about,
and great sylence and dilligence, returned towards
Cannada." "Surely," observes the narrator, "so
bould and hardy an attempt hath not hapned in any
age."1 The end hardly answered to the beginning.
The retreat, which began on Sunday night, was
rather precipitate. The Mohawks hovered about
their rear, and took a few prisoners , but famine and
cold proved more deadly foes, and sixty men perished
before they reached the shelter of Fort Ste. The*rese.
On the eighth of March, Courcelle came to the
neighboring fort of St. Louis or Chambly. Here he
found the Jesuit Albanel acting as chaplain; and,
being in great ill humor, he charged him with caus-
ing the failure of the expedition by detaining the
Algonquin guides. This singular notion took such
possession of him, that, when a few days after he
met the Jesuit Fre*min at Three Rivers, he embraced
him ironically, saying, at the same time, " My father,
I am the unluckiest gentleman in the world; and
1 A Relation of the Govern*, of Cannada, his March with 600 Volun-
eirs into ye Territoryes of His Royatt Highnesse the Duke of Yorke it
America. See Doc. Hist. N. Y. L 7L
1666.] MOHAWK TREACHERY. 251
you, and the rest of you, are the cause of it." 1 The
pious Tracy and the prudent Talon tried to disarm
his suspicions, and with such success that he gave up
an intention he had entertained of discarding his
Jesuit confessor, and forgot or forgave the imagined
wrong.
Unfortunate as this expedition was, it produced
a strong effect on the Iroquois by convincing them
that their forest homes were no safe asylum from
French attacks. In May, the Senecas sent an embassy
of peace; and the other nations, including the
Mohawks, soon followed. Tracy, on his part, sent
the Jesuit B6chefer to learn on the spot the real
temper of the savages, and ascertain whether peace
could safely be made with them. The Jesuit was
scarcely gone when news came that a party of officers
hunting near the outlet of Lake Champlain had been
set upon by the Mohawks, and that seven of them
had been captured or killed. Among the captured
was Leroles, a cousin of Tracy; and among the
killed was a young gentleman named Chasy, his
nephew.
On this the Jesuit envoy was recalled; twenty-
four Iroquois deputies were seized and imprisoned;
and Sorel, captain in the regiment of Carignan, was
sent with three hundred men to chastise the per-
fidious Mohawks. If, as it seems, he was expected
to attack their fortified towns or "castles," as the
English call them, his force was too small. This
1 Journal des Jesuites, Mars, 1666.
252 THE MOHAWKS CHASTISED. [1666.
time, however, there was no fighting. At two days
from his journey's end, Sorel met the famous chief
called the Flemish Bastard, bringing back Leroles
and his fellow-captives, and charged, as he alleged,
to offer full satisfaction for the murder of Chasy.
Sorel believed him, retraced his course, and with
the Bastard in his train returned to Quebec.
Quebec was full of Iroquois deputies, all bent on
peace or pretending to be so. On the last day of
August there was a grand council in the garden of
the Jesuits. Some days later, Tracy invited the
Flemish Bastard and a Mohawk chief named Agariata
to his table, when allusion was made to the murder
of Chasy. On this the Mohawk, stretching out his
arm, exclaimed in a braggart tone, " This is the hand
that split the head of that young man." The indig-
nation of the company may be imagined. Tracy told
his insolent guest that he should never kill anybody
else ; and he was led out and hanged in presence of
the Bastard.1 There was no more talk of peace.
Tracy prepared to march in person against the
Mohawks with all the force of Canada.
On the day of the Exaltation of the Cross, "for
whose glory," says the chronicler, "this expedition
1 This story rests chiefly on the authority of Nicholas Perrot,
Afceurs des Sauvages, 113. La Potherie also tells it, with the ad-
dition of the chief's name. Golden follows him. The Journal des
Jesuites mentions that the chief who led the murderers of Chasy
arrived at Quebec on the sixth of September. Marie de Tlncarna-
tion mentions the hanging of an Iroquois at Quebec, late in the
autumn, for violating the peace.
1666.] MARCH OF TRACY. 253
is undertaken," Tracy and Courcelle left Quebec
with thirteen hundred men. They crossed Lake
Champlain, and launched their boats again on the
waters of St. Sacrament, now Lake George. It was
the first of the warlike pageants that have made that
fair scene historic. October had begun, and the
romantic wilds breathed the buoyant life of the most
inspiring of American seasons, when the blue-jay
screams from the woods, the wild duck splashes
along the lake, and the echoes of distant mountains
prolong the quavering cry of the loon ; when weather-
stained rocks are plumed with the fiery crimson of
the sumach, the claret hues of young oaks, the amber
and scarlet of the maple, and the sober purple of the
ash ; or when gleams of sunlight, shot aslant through
the rents of cool autumnal clouds, chase fitfully along
the glowing sides of painted mountains. Amid this
gorgeous euthanasia of the dying season, the three
hundred boats and canoes trailed in long procession
up the lake, threaded the labyrinth of the Narrows,
— that sylvan fairy-land of tufted islets and quiet
waters, — and landed at length where Fort William
Henry was afterwards built.1
About a hundred miles of forests, swamps, rivers,
and mountains still lay between them and the
Mohawk towns. There seems to have been an
Indian path, for this was the ordinary route of the
Mohawk and Oneida war-parties; but the path was
narrow, broken, full of gullies and pitfalls, crossed
1 Carte . . . des pays traversez par MM. de Tracy et Courcelle, ett
254 THE MOHAWKS CHASTISED. [1666.
by streams, and in one place interrupted by a lake
which they passed on rafts. A hundred and ten
"Blue Coats," of Montreal, led the way, under
Charles Le Moyne; Repentigny commanded the
levies from Quebec. In all there were six hundred
Canadians, six hundred regulars, and a hundred
Indians from the missions, who ranged the woods
in front, flank, and rear, like hounds on the scent.
Red or white, Canadians or regulars, all were full of
zeal. "It seems to them," writes Mother Mary,
" that they are going to lay siege to Paradise, and
win it and enter in, because they are righting for
religion and the faith."1 Their ardor was rudely
tried. Officers as well as men carried loads at their
backs, whence ensued a large blister on the shoulders
of the Chevalier de Chaumont, in no way used to such
burdens. Tracy, old, heavy, and infirm, was inop-
portunely seized with the gout. A Swiss soldier
tried to carry him on his shoulders across a rapid
stream; but midway his strength failed, and he was
barely able to deposit his ponderous load on a rock.
A Huron came to his aid, and bore Tracy safely to
the farther bank. Courcelle was attacked with
cramps, and had to be carried for a time like his
commander. Provisions gave out, and men and
officers grew faint with hunger. The Montreal
soldiers had for chaplain a sturdy priest, Dollier de
Casson, as large as Tracy and far stronger; for the
incredible story is told of him that when in good
1 Marie de 1'Incarnation, Lettre du 16 Oct., 1666.
1666.] THE MOHAWK TOWNS. 255
condition he could hold two men seated on his
extended hands.1 Now, however, he was equal to
no such exploit, being not only deprived of food, but
also of sleep, by the necessity of listening at night to
the confessions of his pious flock ; and his shoes, too,
had failed him, nothing remaining but the upper
leather, which gave him little comfort among the
sharp stones. He bore up manfully, being by nature
brave and light-hearted ; and when a servant of the
Jesuits fell into the water, he threw off his cassock
and leaped after him. His strength gave out, and
the man was drowned; but a grateful Jesuit led
him aside, and requited his efforts with a morsel of
bread.2 A wood of chestnut-trees full of nuts at
length stayed the hunger of the famished troops.
It was Saint Theresa's day when they approached
the lower Mohawk town. A storm of wind and rain
set in; but, anxious to surprise the enemy, they
pushed on all night amid the moan and roar of the
forest, — over slippery logs, tangled roots, and oozy
mosses, under dripping boughs and through saturated
bushes. This time there was no want of good
guides; and when in the morning they issued from
the forest, they saw, amid its cornfields, the palisades
of the Indian stronghold. They had two small pieces
of cannon brought from the lake by relays of men,
but they did not stop to use them. Their twenty
1 Grandet, Notice manuscrite sur Dottier de Casson, extract given
by J. Viger in appendix to Histoire du Montreal (Montreal, 1868).
2 Dollier de Casson, Histoire du Montreal, A. D. 1665, 1666.
256 THE MOHAWKS CHASTISED. [1666.
drums beat the charge, and they advanced to seize
the place by coup-de-main. Luckily for them, a
panic had seized the Indians: not that they were
taken by surprise, for they had discovered the
approaching French, and, two days before, had sent
away their women and children in preparation for a
desperate fight; but the din of the drums, which
they took for so many devils in the French service,
and the armed men advancing from the rocks and
thickets in files that seemed interminable, so wrought
on the scared imagination of the warriors that they
fled in terror to their next town, a short distance
above. Tracy lost no time, but hastened in pursuit.
A few Mohawks were seen on the hills, yelling and
firing too far for effect. Repentigny, at the risk of his
scalp, climbed a neighboring height, and looked down
on the little army, which seemed so numerous as it
passed beneath, "that," writes the superior of the Ur-
sulines, " he told me that he thought the good angels
must have joined with it: whereat he stood amazed."
The second town or fort was taken as easily as
the first; so, too, were the third and the fourth.
The Indians yelled, and fled without killing a man ;
and still the troops pursued, following the broad
trail which led from town to town along the valley
of the Mohawk. It was late in the afternoon when
the fourth town was entered,1 and Tracy thought
1 Marie de ITnearnation says that there were four towns in all.
I follow the Acte de prise de possession, made on the spot Five art*
here mentioned.
1666.] VICTORY. 257
that his work was done; but an Algonquin squaw
who had followed her husband to the war, and who
had once been a prisoner among the Mohawks, told
him that there was still another above. The sun
was near its setting, and the men were tired with
their pitiless marching; but again the order was
given to advance. The eager squaw showed the
way, holding a pistol in one hand and leading
Courcelle with the other; and they soon came in
sight of Andaraque*, the largest and strongest of the
Mohawk forts. The drums beat with fury, and the
troops prepared to attack; but there were none to
oppose them. The scouts sent forward reported that
the warriors had fled. The last of the savage strong-
holds was in the hands of the French.
"God has done for us," says Mother Mary, "what
he did in ancient days for his chosen people, — strik-
ing terror into our enemies, insomuch that we were
victors without a blow. Certain it is that there is
miracle in all this ; for if the Iroquois had stood fast,
they would have given us a great deal of trouble
and caused our army great loss, seeing how they
were fortified and armed, and how haughty and bold
they are."
The French were astonished as they looked about
them. These Iroquois forts were very different
from those that Jogues had seen here twenty years
before, or from that which in earlier times set
Champlain and his Hurons at defiance. The Mohawks
had had counsel and aid from their Dutch friends,
17
THE MOHAWKS CHASTISED. [1666.
and adapted their savage defences to the rules oi
European art. Andaraqu^ was a quadrangle formed
of a triple palisade, twenty feet high, and flanked by
four bastions. Large vessels of bark filled with
water were placed on the platforms of the palisade
for defence against fire. The dwellings which these
fortifications enclosed were in many cases built of
wood, though the form and arrangement of the
primitive bark-lodge of the Iroquois seems to have
been preserved. Some of the wooden houses were a
hundred and twenty feet long, with fires for eight
or nine families. Here, and in subterranean caches,
was stored a prodigious quantity of Indian-corn and
other provisions; and all the dwellings were sup-
plied with carpenters' tools, domestic utensils, and
many other appliances of comfort.
The only living things in Andaraque*, when the
French entered, were two old women, a small boy,
and a decrepit old man, who, being frightened by
the noise of the drums, had hidden himself under
a canoe. From them the victors learned that the
Mohawks, retreating from the other towns, had
gathered here, resolved to fight to the last; but at
sight of the troops their courage failed, and the
chief was first to run, crying out, "Let us save
ourselves, brothers! the whole world is coming
against us ! "
A cross was planted, and at its side the royal
arms. The troops were drawn up in battle array,
when Jean Baptiste du Bois, an officer deputed by
1666.]
ENGLISH JEALOUSY.
259
Tracy, advancing sword in hand to the front, pro-
claimed in a loud voice that he took possession in
the name of the King of all the country of the
Mohawks ; and the troops shouted three times, Vive
le JKoi.1
That night a mighty bonfire illumined the Mohawk
forests ; and the scared savages from their hiding-
places among the rocks saw their palisades, their
dwellings, their stores of food, and all their posses-
sions turned to cinders and ashes. The two old
squaws captured in the town threw themselves in
despair into the flames of their blazing homes.
When morning came, there was nothing left of
Andaraqu6 but smouldering embers, rolling their
pale smoke against the painted background of the
October woods. Te Deum was sung and mass said ;
and then the victors began their backward march,
— burning, as they went, all the remaining forts,
with all their hoarded stores of corn, except such as
they needed for themselves. If they had failed to
destroy their enemies in battle, they hoped that
winter and famine would do the work of shot and
steel.
While there was distress among the Mohawks,
there was trouble among their English neighbors,
who claimed as their own the country which Tracy
had invaded. The English authorities were the
more disquieted, because they feared that the lately
conquered Dutch might join hands with the French
1 Acte de prise de possession, 17 Oct., 1666.
260 THE MOHAWKS CHASTISED. [1666.
against them. When Nicolls, governor of Ne~w
York, heard of Tracy's advance, he wrote to the
governors of the New England colonies, begging
them to join him against the French invaders, and
urging that if Tracy's force were destroyed or
captured, the conquest of Canada would be an easy
task. There was war at the time between the two
Crowns; and the British court had already enter-
tained this project of conquest, and sent orders to
its colonies to that effect. But the New England
governors — ill prepared for war, and fearing that
their Indian neighbors, who were enemies of the
Mohawks, might take part with the French — hesi-
tated to act, and the affair ended in a correspondence,
civil if not sincere, between Nicolls and Tracy.1
The treaty of Bre'da, in the following year, secured
peace for a time between the rival colonies.
The return of Tracy was less fortunate than his
advance. The rivers, swollen by autumn rains,
were difficult to pass; and in crossing Lake Cham-
plain two canoes were overset in a storm, and eight
men were drowned. From St. Anne, a new fort
built early in the summer on Isle La Motte, near the
northern end of the lake, he sent news of his success
to Quebec, where there was great rejoicing and a
solemn thanksgiving. Signs and prodigies had not
been wanting to attest the interest of the upper and
nether powers in the crusade against the myrmidons
1 See the correspondence in N. Y. Col. Docs., iii. 118-156. Com-
pare Hutchinson Collection, 407 and Mass. Hist. Coll, xviii. 102.
1666.] THE CURE OF ST. ANNE. 261
of hell. At one of the forts on the Richelieu, " the
soldiers," says Mother Mary, "were near dying of
fright. They saw a great fiery cavern in the sky,
and from this cavern came plaintive voices mixed
with frightful howlings. Perhaps it was the demons,
enraged because we had depopulated a country
where they had been masters so long, and had said
mass and sung the praises of God in a place where
there had never before been anything but foulness
and abomination."
Tracy had at first meant to abandon Fort St.
Anne; but he changed his mind after returning to
Quebec. Meanwhile the season had grown so late
that there was no time to send proper supplies to the
garrison. Winter closed, and the place was not
only ill-provisioned, but was left without a priest.
Tracy wrote to the superior of the Sulpitians at
Montreal to send one without delay ; but the request
was more easily made than fulfilled, for he forgot to
order an escort, and the way was long and dangerous.
The stout-hearted Dollier de Casson was told, how-
ever, to hold himself ready to go at the first oppor-
tunity. His recent campaigning had left him in no
condition for braving fresh hardships, for he was
nearly disabled by a swelling on one of his knees.
By way of cure he resolved to try a severe bleeding,
and the Sangrado of Montreal did his work so
thoroughly that his patient fainted under his hands.
As he returned to consciousness, he became aware
that two soldiers had entered the room. They told
262 THE MOHAWKS CHASTISED. [1666.
him that they were going in the morning to Chambly,
which was on the way to St. Anne ; and they invited
him to go with them. "Wait till the day after
to-morrow," replied the priest, "and I will try."
The delay was obtained; and on the day fixed the
party set out by the forest path to Chambly, a dis-
tance of about four leagues. When they reached it,
Dollier de Casson was nearly spent; but he concealed
his plight from the commanding officer, and begged
an escort to St. Anne, some twenty leagues farther.
As the officer would not give him one, he threatened
to go alone, on which ten men and an ensign were
at last ordered to conduct him. Thus attended, he
resumed his journey after a day's rest. One of the
soldiers fell through the ice, and none of his com-
rades dared help him. Dollier de Casson, making
the sign of the cross, went to his aid, and, more
successful than on the former occasion, caught him
and pulled him out. The snow was deep; and the
priest, having arrived in the preceding summer, had
never before worn snow-shoes, while a sack of cloth-
ing, and his portable chapel which he carried at his
back, joined to the pain of his knee and the effects
of his late bleeding, made the march a purgatory.
He was sorely needed at Fort St. Anne. There
was pestilence in the garrison. Two men had just
died without absolution, while more were at the
point of death, and praying for a priest. Thus it
happened that when the sentinel descried far off,
on the ice of Lake Champlain, a squad of soldiers
J666.] THE CURE OF ST. AtfNE. 263
approaching, and among them a black cassock, every
officer and man not sick or on duty came out with
one accord to meet the new-comer. They over-
whelmed him with welcome and with thanks. One
took his sack, another his portable chapel, and they
led him in triumph to the fort. First he made a
short prayer, then went his rounds among the sick,
and then came to refresh himself with the officers.
Here was La Motte de la Luci£re, the commandant;
La Durantaye, a name destined to be famous in
Canadian annals ; and a number of young subalterns.
The scene was no strange one to Dollier de Casson,
for he had been an officer of cavalry in his time, and
fought under Turenne;1 a good soldier, without
doubt, at the mess table or in the field, and none the
worse a priest that he had once followed the wars.
He was of a lively humor, given to jests and mirth ;
as pleasant a father as ever said Benedicite. The
soldier and the gentleman still lived under the cas-
sock of the priest. He was greatly respected and
beloved; and his influence as a peace-maker, which
he often had occasion to exercise, is said to have been
remarkable. When the time demanded it, he could
use arguments more cogent than those of moral
suasion. Once, in a camp of Algonquins, when, as
he was kneeling in prayer, an insolent savage came
to interrupt him, the father, without rising, knocked
the intruder flat by a blow of his fist ; and the other
1 Grandet, Notice manuscrite sur Dollier de Casson, extracts from
copy in possession of the late Jacques Viger.
264 THE MOHAWKS CHASTISED. [1666.
Indians, far from being displeased, were filled with
admiration at the exploit.1
His cheery temper now stood him in good stead ;
for there was dreary work before him, and he was
not the man to flinch from it. The garrison of St.
Anne had nothing to live on but salt pork and half-
spoiled flour. Their hogshead of vinegar had sprung
a leak, and the contents had all oozed out. They
had rejoiced in the supposed possession of a reason-
able stock of brandy ; but they soon discovered that
the sailors, on the voyage from France, had emptied
the casks and filled them again with salt-water. The
scurvy broke out with fury. In a short time, forty
out of the sixty men became victims of the loathsome
malady. Day or night, Dollier de Casson and
Forestier, the equally devoted young surgeon, had
no rest. The surgeon's strength failed, and the
priest was himself slightly attacked with the disease.
Eleven men died ; and others languished for want of
help, for their comrades shrank from entering the
infected dens where they lay. In their extremity
some of them devised an ingenious expedient.
Though they had nothing to bequeath, they made
wills in which they left imaginary sums of money to
those who had befriended them; and thenceforth
they found no lack of nursing.
In the intervals of his labors, Dollier de Casson
would run to and fro for warmth and exercise on a
1 Grandet, Notice manuscrite sur Dollier de Casson, cited by Fail-
Ion, Colonie Fran$aisey iii. 395, 396.
1666-67.] JESUITS AND IROQUOIS. 265
certain track of beaten snow, between two of the
bastions, reciting his breviary as he went, so that
those who saw him might have thought him out of
his wits. One day La Motte called out to him as he
was thus engaged, "Eh, Monsieur le cure*, if the
Iroquois should come, you must defend that bastion.
My men are all deserting me, and going over to you
and the doctor." To which the father replied, "Get
me some litters with wheels, and I will bring them
out to man my bastion. They are brave enough
now; no fear of their running away." With banter
like this, they sought to beguile their miseries ; and
thus the winter wore on at Fort St. Anne.1
Early in spring they saw a troop of Iroquois
approaching, and prepared as well as they could to
make fight ; but the strangers proved to be ambassa-
dors of peace. The destruction of the Mohawk
towns had produced a deep effect, not on that nation
alone, but also on the other four members of the
league. They were disposed to confirm the promises
of peace which they had already made; and Tracy
had spurred their good intentions by sending them
a message that unless they quickly presented them-
selves at Quebec, he would hang all the chiefs whom
he had kept prisoners after discovering their treach-
1 The above curious incidents are told by Dollier de Casson, in his
Itistoire du Montreal, preserved in manuscript in the Mazarin Library
at Paris. He gives no hint that the person in question was himself,
but speaks of him as un ecclesiastique. His identity is, however,
made certain by internal evidence, by a pafssage in the Notice of
Grandet, and by other contemporary allusions.
266 THE MOHAWKS CHASTISED. [1667.
ery in the preceding summer. The threat had its
effect : deputies of the Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas,
and Senecas presently arrived in a temper of befitting
humility. The Mohawks were at first afraid to
come, but in April they sent the Flemish Bastard
with overtures of peace, and in July a large deputa-
tion of their chiefs appeared at Quebec. They and
the rest left some of their families as hostages, and
promised that if any of their people should kill a
Frenchman, they would give them up to be hanged.1
They begged, too, for blacksmiths, surgeons, and
Jesuits to live among them. The presence of the
Jesuits in their towns was in many ways an advan-
tage to them; while to the colony it was of the
greatest importance. Not only was conversion to
the Church justly regarded as the best means of
attaching the Indians to the French and alienating
them from the English ; but the Jesuits living in the
midst of them could influence even those whom they
could not convert, soothe rising jealousies, counter-
act English intrigues, and keep the rulers of the
colony informed of all that was passing in the
Iroquois towns. Thus, half Christian missionaries,
half political agents, the Jesuits prepared to resume
the hazardous mission of the Iroquois. Fre*min and
Pierron were ordered to the Mohawks, Bruyas to
the Oneidas, and three others were named for the
1 Lettre du Pere Jean Pierron, de la Compagnie de Jesus, escripte
de la Motte [Fort Ste. Anne] sur le lac Champlain, le I2me d'aoust,
1667.
1667.] TRACY'S EXPEDITION. 267
remaining three nations of the league. The troops
had made the peace; the Jesuits were the rivets to
hold it fast, — and peace endured without absolute
rupture for nearly twenty years. Of all the French
expeditions against the Iroquois, that of Tracy was
the most productive of good.
NOTE. — On Tracy's expedition against the Mohawks compare
Faillon, Histoire de la Colonie Franfaise au Canada, iii.
CHAPTER XV.
1665-1672.
PATERNAL GOVERNMENT.
TALON. — RESTRICTION AND MONOPOLY. — VIEWS OF COLBERT.—
POLITICAL GALVANISM. — A FATHER OF THE PEOPLE.
TRACY'S work was done, and he left Canada with
the glittering noblesse in his train. Courcelle and
Talon remained to rule alone; and now the great
experiment was begun. Paternal royalty would try
its hand at building up a colony, and Talon was its
chosen agent. His appearance did him no justice.
The regular contour of his oval face, about which
fell to his shoulders a cataract of curls, natural 01
supposititious; the smooth lines of his well-formed
features, brows delicately arched, and a mouth more
suggestive of feminine sensibility than of masculine
force, — would certainly have misled the disciple of
Lavater.1 Yet there was no want of manhood in
him. He was most happily chosen for the task
placed in his hands, and from first to last approved
himself a vigorous executive officer. He was a true
1 His portrait is at the Hotel Dieu of Quebec. An engraving
from it will be found in the third volume of Shea's Charlevoix.
1665-72.] RESTRICTION AND MONOPOLY. 269
disciple of Colbert, formed in his school and animated
by his spirit.
Being on the spot, he was better able than his
master to judge the working of the new order of
things. With regard to the company, he writes that
it will profit by impoverishing the colony; that its
monopolies dishearten the people and paralyze enter-
prise; that it is thwarting the intentions of the
King, who wishes trade to be encouraged; and that
if its exclusive privileges are maintained, Canada in
ten years will be less populous than now.1 But
Colbert clung to his plan, though he wrote in reply
that to satisfy the colonists he had persuaded the
company to forego the monopolies for a year.2 As
this proved insufficient, the company was at length
forced to give up permanently its right of exclusive
trade, still exacting its share of beaver and moose
skins. This was its chief source of profit; it
begrudged every sou deducted from it for charges of
government, and the King was constantly obliged to
do at his own cost that which the company should \^
have done. In one point it showed a ceaseless activ-
ity ; and this was the levying of duties, in which it
was never known to fail.
Trade, even after its exercise was permitted, was
continually vexed by the hand of authority. One of
Tracy's first measures had been to issue a decree
lucing the price of wheat one half. The council
1 Talon a Colbert, 4 Oct., 1665.
* Colbert a Talon, 6 Avril, 1666.
270 PATERNAL GOVERNMENT. [1665-72,
took up the work of regulation, and fixed the price
of all imported goods in three several tariffs, — one
for Quebec, one for Three Rivers, and one for
Montreal.1 It may well be believed that there was
in Canada little capital and little enterprise. Indus-
trially and commercially, the colony was almost
dead. Talon set himself to galvanize it; and if one
man could have supplied the intelligence and energy
of a whole community, the results would have been
triumphant.
He had received elaborate instructions, and they
indicate an ardent wish for the prosperity of Canada.
Colbert had written to him that the true means to
strengthen the colony was to " cause justice to reign,
establish a good police, protect the inhabitants, dis-
cipline them against enemies, and procure for them
peace, repose, and plenty."2 " And as, " the minister
further says, "the King regards his Canadian sub-
jects, from the highest to the lowest, almost as his
own children, and wishes them to enjoy equally with
the people of France the mildness and happiness of
his reign, the Sieur Talon will study to solace them
in all things, and encourage them to trade and
industry. And, seeing that nothing can better pro-
mote this end than entering into the details of their
households and of all their little affairs, it will not be
amiss that he visit all their settlements one after the
other in order to learn their true condition, provide
1 Tariff of Prices, in N. Y. Colonial Docs. ix. 36.
a Colbert a Talon, 5 Avril, 1666.
1665-72.] ACTIVITY OF TALON. 271
as much as possible for their wants, and, performing
the duty of a good head of a family, put them in the
way of making some profit." The intendant was
also told to encourage fathers to inspire their children
with piety, together with "profound love and respect
for the royal person of his Majesty. " 1
Talon entered on his work with admirable zeal.
Sometimes he used authority, sometimes persuasion,
sometimes promises of reward. Sometimes, again, he
tried the force of example. Thus he built a ship to
show the people how to do it, and rouse them to
imitation.2 Three or four years later, the experi-
ment was repeated. This time it was at the cost of
the King, who applied the sum of forty thousand
livres 3 to the double purpose of promoting the art of
ship-building, and saving the colonists from vagrant
habits by giving them employment. Talon wrote
that three hundred and fifty men had been supplied
that summer with work at the charge of government.4
He despatched two engineers to search for coal,
lead, iron, copper, and other minerals. Important
discoveries of iron were made ; but three generations
were destined to pass before the mines were success-
fully worked.6 The copper of Lake Superior raised
1 Instruction au Sieur Talon, 27 Mars, 1665.
2 Talon a Colbert, Octobre, 1667 ; Colbert a Talon, 20 Ftv., 1668.
8 De-peche de Colbert, 11 Fdv., 1671.
4 Talon a Colbert, 2 Nov., 1671.
* Charlevoix speaks of these mineg as having been forgotten for
seventy years, and rediscovered in his time. After passing through
various hands, they were finally worked on the King's account.
272 PATERNAL GOVERNMENT. [1655-72.
the intendant's hopes for a time, but he was soon
forced to the conclusion that it was too remote to be
of practical value. He labored vigorously to develop
arts and manufactures; made a barrel of tar, and
sent it to the King as a specimen; caused some of
the colonists to make cloth of the wool of the sheep
which the King had sent out; encouraged others to
establish a tannery, and also a factory of hats and of
shoes. The Sieur Follin was induced by the grant
of a monopoly to begin the making of soap and
potash.1 The people were ordered to grow hemp,2
and urged to gather the nettles of the country as
material for cordage; and the Ursulines were sup-
plied with flax and wool, in order that they might
teach girls to weave and spin.
Talon was especially anxious to establish trade
between Canada and the West Indies ; and, to make
a beginning, he freighted the vessel he had built with
salted cod, salmon, eels, pease, fish-oil, staves, and
planks, and sent her thither to exchange her cargo for
sugar, which she was in turn to exchange in France
for goods suited for the Canadian market.3 Another
favorite object with him was the fishery of seals and
white porpoises for the sake of their oil; and some
of the chief merchants were urged to undertake it,
as well as the establishment of stationary cod-fisheries
along the Lower St. Lawrence. But, with every
1 Registre du Conseil Souverain.
* Marie de 1'Incarnation, Choix des Lettres de, 371
* Le Mercier, Eel. 1667, 3; Depeches de Talon.
1665-72.] POLICY OF TALON. 273
encouragement, many years passed before this valu-
able industry was placed on a firm basis.
Talon saw with concern the huge consumption of
wine and brandy among the settlers, costing them, as
he wrote to Colbert, a hundred thousand livres a year ;
and to keep this money in the colony, he declared
his intention of building a brewery. The minister
approved the plan, not only on economic grounds,
but because " the vice of drunkenness would thereafter
cause no more scandal by reason of the cold nature
of beer, the vapors whereof rarely deprive men of the
use of judgment."1 The brewery was accordingly
built, to the great satisfaction of the poorer colonists.
Nor did the active intendant fail to acquit himself
of the duty of domiciliary visits, enjoined upon him
by the royal instructions, — a point on which he was
of one mind with his superiors, for he writes that
"those charged in this country with his Majesty's
affairs are under a strict obligation to enter into the
detail of families."2 Accordingly, we learn from
Mother Juchereau that "he studied with the affec-
tion of a father how to succor the poor and cause the
colony to grow; entered into the minutest particu-
lars; visited the houses of the inhabitants, and
caused them to visit him; learned what crops each
one was raising ; taught those who had wheat to sell
it at a profit, helped those who had none, and
encouraged everybody." And Dollier de Casson
1 Colbert a Talon, 20 Fto., 1668.
* Mtmoire de 1667.
18
274 PATERNAL GOVERNMENT. [1665-72.
represents him as visiting in turn every house at
Montreal, and giving aid from the King to such as
needed it.1 Horses, cattle, sheep, and other domestic
animals were sent out at the royal charge in consider-
able numbers, and distributed gratuitously, with an
order that none of the young should be killed till the
country was sufficiently stocked. Large quantities
of goods were also sent from the same high quarter.
Some of these were distributed as gifts, and the rest
bartered for corn to supply the troops. As the
intendant perceived that the farmers lost much time
in coming from their distant clearings to buy neces-
saries at Quebec, he caused his agents to furnish
them with the King's goods at their own houses, —
to the great annoyance of the merchants of Quebec,
who complained that their accustomed trade was thus
forestalled.2
These were not the only cares which occupied the
mind of Talon. He tried to open a road across the
country to Acadia, — an almost impossible task, in
which he and his successors completely failed.
Under his auspices, Albanel penetrated to Hudson's
Bay, and Saint-Lusson took possession in the King's
name of the country of the Upper Lakes. It was
Talon, in short, who prepared the way for the
remarkable series of explorations described in another
work.8 Again and again he urged upon Colbert and
1 Histoire du Montreal, A. D. 1666, 1667.
2 Talon a Colbert, 10 Nov., 1670.
« La Salle, and the Discovery of the Great West.
1665-72.] TALON'S FIDELITY. 275
the King a measure from which, had it taken effect, mo-
mentous consequences must have sprung. This was
the purchase or seizure of New York, — involving the
isolation of New England, the subjection of the Iroquois,
and the undisputed control of half the continent.
Great as were his opportunities of abusing his
trust, it does not appear that he took advantage of
them. He held lands and houses in Canada,1 owned
the brewery which he had established, and embarked
in various enterprises of productive industry; but,
so far as I can discover, he is nowhere accused of
making illicit gains, and there is reason to believe
that he acquitted himself of his charge with entire
fidelity.2 His health failed in 1668, and for this and
other causes he asked for his recall. Colbert granted
it with strong expressions of regret; and when, two
years later, he resumed the intendancy, the colony
seems to have welcomed his return.
1 In 1682, the Intendant Meules, in a despatch to the minister,
makes a statement of Talon's property in Quebec. The chief items
are the brewery and a house of some value on the descent of
Mountain Street. He owned, also, the valuable seigniory, after-
wards barony, Des Islets, in the immediate neighborhood.
2 Some imputations against him, not of much weight, are, how-
ever, made in a memorial of A :bert de la Chesnaye, a merchant of
Quebec.
CHAPTER XYI.
1661-1673.
MARRIAGE AND POPULATION.
SHIPMENT OF EMIGRANTS. — SOLDIER SETTLERS. — IMPORTATION or
WIVES. — WEDLOCK. — SUMMARY METHODS. — THE MOTHERS OF
CANADA. — BOUNTIES ON MARRIAGE. — CELIBACY PUNISHED. —
BOUNTIES ON CHILDREN. — RESULTS.
THE peopling of Canada was due in the main to
the King. Before the accession of Louis XIV. the
entire population — priests, nuns, traders, and settlers
— did not exceed twenty-five hundred ; l but scarcely
had he reached his majority when the shipment of
men to the colony was systematically begun. Even
in Argenson's time, loads of emigrants sent out by
the Crown were landed every year at Quebec. The
Sulpitians of Montreal also brought over colonists to
people their seigniorial estate ; the same was true on a
small scale of one or two other proprietors, and once
at least the company sent a considerable number: yet
the government was the chief agent of emigration. X
Colbert did the work, and "the King paid for it.
In 1661, Laval wrote to the cardinals of the Propa-
ganda that during the past two years the King had
spent two hundred thousand livres on the colony;
1 Le Clerc, Jftablissement de la Foy, ii. 4.
1661-65] EMIGRANTS. 277
that since 1659 he had sent out three hundred men a
year; and that he had promised to send an equal
number every summer during ten years.1 These
n? <m were sent by squads in merchant-ships, each
one of which was required to carry a certain number.
In many instances, emigrants were bound on their
arrival to enter into the service of colonists already
established. In this case the employer paid them
wages, and after a term of three years they became
settlers themselves.2
The destined emigrants were collected by agents
in the provinces, conducted to Dieppe or Rochelle,
and thence embarked. At first men were sent from
Rochelle itself, and its neighborhood; but Laval
remonstrated, declaring that he wanted none from
that ancient stronghold of heresy.3 The people of
Rochelle, indeed, found no favor in Canada. Another
writer describes them as " persons of little conscience,
and almost no religion," — adding that the Normans,
Percherons, Picards, and peasants of the neighbor-
hood of Paris are docile, industrious, and far more
pious. "It is important," he concludes, "in begin-
ning a new colony, to sow good seed."4 It was,
accordingly, from the northwestern provinces that
most of the emigrants were drawn.5 They seem in
1 Lettre de Laval envoyde a Rome, 21 Oct., 1661 (extract in Faillon
from Archives of the Propaganda).
2 Marie de ITncarnation, 18 Aout, 1664. These engages were
sometimes also brought over by private persons.
3 Colbert a Laval, 18 Mars, 1664.
4 Mfmoire de 1664 (anonymous).
* See a paper by Garneau in Le National of Quebec, 28 Oct.,
2T8 MARRIAGE AND POPULATION. [1665-72.
the main to have been a decent peasantry, though
writers who from their position should have been
well informed have denounced them in unmeasured
terms.1 Some of them could read and write, and
some brought with them a little money.
Talon was constantly begging for more men, till
Louis XIV. at length took alarm. Colbert replied
to the over-zealous intendant that the King did not
think it expedient to depopulate France in order to
people Canada ; that he wanted men for his armies ;
and that the colony must rely chiefly on increase
from within. Still the shipments did not cease ; and,
even while tempering the ardor of his agent, the
1856, embodying the results of research among the papers of the
early notaries of Quebec. The chief emigration was from Paris,
Normandy, Poitou, Pays d'Aunis, Brittany, and Picardy. Nearly
all those from Paris were sent by the King from houses of charity.
1 "Une foule d'aventuriers, ramasse's au hazard en France,
presque tous de la lie du peuple, la plupart oberes de dettes ou
charges de crimes," etc. (La Tour, Vie de Laval, liv. iv.) " Le vice
a oblige la plupart de chercher ce pays comme un asile pour se
mettre a couvert de leurs crimes." (Meules, Dfyeche de 1682.)
Meules was intendant in that year. Marie de 1'Incarnation, after
speaking of the emigrants as of a very mixed character, says that
it would have been far .better to send a few who were good
Christians, rather than so many who give so much trouble. Lettre
du — Octobre, 1669.
Le Clerc, on the other hand, is emphatic in praise, calling the
early colonists "tres honnetes gens, ayant de la probite, de la
droiture, et de la religion. . . . L'on a examine et choisi les habi-
tants, et renvoye en France les personnes vicieuses." If, he adds,
any such were left, " ils effa9aient glorieusement par leur penitence
les taches de leur premiere condition." Chanevoix is almost as
strong in praise as La Tour in censure. Both of them wrote in the
next century. We shall have means hereafter of judging between
these conflicting statements.
1665-72.] SOLDIER SETTLERS. 279
King gave another proof how much he had the growth
of Canada at heart.1
The regiment of Carignan-SaliSres had been ordered
home, with the exception of four companies kept in
garrison,2 and a considerable number discharged in
order to become settlers. Of those who returned,
six companies were a year or two later sent back,
discharged in their turn, and converted into colonists.
Neither men nor officers were positively constrained
to remain in Canada ; but the officers were told that
if they wished to please his Majesty this was the way
to do so ; and both they and the men were stimulated
by promises and rewards. Fifteen hundred livres
were given to La Motte, because he had married in
the country and meant to remain there. Six thou-
sand livres were assigned to other officers because
they had followed, or were about to follow, La
Motte 's example; and twelve thousand were set
apart to be distributed to the soldiers under similar
conditions.3 Each soldier who consented to remain
and settle was promised a grant of land and a hun-
dred livres in money; or, if he preferred it, fifty
livres with provisions for a year. This military
colonization had a strong and lasting influence on
the character of the Canadian people.
1 The King had sent out more emigrants than he had promised,
to judge from the census reports during the years 1666, 1667, and
1668. The total population for those years is 3418, 4312, and 5870,
respectively. A small part of this growth may be set down to
emigration not under government auspices, and a large part to
natural increase, — which was enormous at this time, from causes
which will soon appear.
2 Colbert a Talon, 20 Ftv., 1668. • Ibid.
280 MARRIAGE AND POPULATION. [1665-72.
But if the colony was to grow from within, the new
settlers must have wives. For some years past the
Sulpitians had sent out young women for the supply
of Montreal ; and the King, on a larger scale, contin-
ued the benevolent work. Girls for the colony were
taken from the hospitals of Paris and of Lyons,
which were not so much hospitals for the sick as
houses of refuge for the poor. Mother Mary writes
in 1665 that a hundred had come that summer, and
were nearly all provided with husbands, and that two
hundred more were to come next year. The case
was urgent, for the demand was great. Complaints,
however, were soon heard that women from cities
made indifferent partners ; and peasant girls, healthy,
strong, and accustomed to field-work, were demanded
in their place. Peasant girls were therefore sent; but
this was not all. Officers as well as men wanted wives ;
and Talon asked for a consignment of young ladies.
His request was promptly answered. In 1667, he
writes : " They send us eighty-four girls from Dieppe
and twenty-five from Rochelle ,• among them are fifteen
or twenty of pretty good birth ; several of them are
really demoiselles, and tolerably well brought up."
They complained of neglect and hardship during the
voyage. " I shall do what I can to soothe their discon-
tent," adds the intendant; "for if they write to their
correspondents at home how ill they have been treated,
it would be an obstacle to your plan of sending us
next year a number of select young ladies." l
* " Des demoiselles bien choisies." — Talon a Colbert, 27 Oct., 1667.
1665-72.] ASPERSIONS OF LA HONTAN". 281
Three years later we find him asking for three 01
four more in behalf of certain bachelor officers. The
response surpassed his utmost wishes ; and he wrote
again : " It is not expedient to send more demoiselles.
I have had this year fifteen of them, instead of the
four I asked for."1
As regards peasant girls, the supply rarely equalled
the demand. Count Frontenac, Courcelle's succes-
sor, complained of the scarcity: "If a hundred and
fifty girls and as many servants," he says, "had been
sent out this year, they would all have found hus-
bands and masters within a month."2
The character of these candidates for matrimony
has not escaped the pen of slander. The caustic La
Hontan, writing fifteen or twenty years after, draws
the following sketch of the mothers of Canada:
"After the regiment of Carignan was disbanded,
ships were sent out freighted with girls of indiffer-
ent virtue, under the direction of a few pious
old duennas, who divided them into three classes.
These vestals were, so to speak, piled one on the
other in three different halls, where the bridegrooms
1 Talon a Colbert, 2 Nov., 1671.
2 Frontenac a Colbert, 2 Nov., 1672. This year only eleven girls
had been sent. The scarcity was due to the indiscretion of Talon,
who had written to the minister, that, as many of the old settlers
had daughters just becoming marriageable, it would be well, in
order that they might find husbands, to send no more girls from
France at present.
The next year, 1673, the King writes, that, though he is involved
in a great war, which needs all his resources, he has nevertheless
gent sixty more girls.
282 MARRIAGE AND POPULATION. [1665-72.
chose their brides as a butcher chooses his sheep out
of the midst of the flock. There was wherewith to
content the most fantastical in these three harems;
for here were to be seen the tall and the short, the
blond and the brown, the plump and the lean ; every-
body, in short, found a shoe to fit him. At the end
of a fortnight not one was left. I am told that the
plumpest were taken first, because it was thought
that, being less active, they were more likely to keep
at home, and that they could resist the winter cold
better. Those who wanted a wife applied to the
directresses, to whom they were obliged to make
known their possessions and means of livelihood
before taking from one of the three classes the girl
whom they found most to their liking. The mar-
riage was concluded forthwith, with the help of a.
priest and a notary; and the next day the governor-
general caused the couple to be presented with an
ox, a cow, a pair of swine, a pair of fowls, two
barrels of salted meat, and eleven crowns in money." *
As regards the character of the girls, there can be
no doubt that this amusing sketch is, in the main,
maliciously untrue. Since the colony began, it had
been the practice to send back to France women of
the class alluded to by La Hontan, as soon as they
became notorious.2 Those who were not taken from
1 La Hontan, Nouveaux Voyages, i. 11 (1709). In some of the
other editions the same account is given in different words, equally
lively and scandalous.
2 This is the statement of Boucher, a good authority. A case of
the sort in 1658 is mentioned in the correspondence of Argenson.
1665-72.] THE MOTHERS OF CANADA. 283
institutions of charity usually belonged to the families
of peasants overburdened with children, and glad to
find the chance of establishing them.1 How some of
them were obtained appears from a letter of Colbert
to Harlay, Archbishop of Rouen. "As in the
parishes about Rouen," he writes, "fifty or sixty
girls might be found who would be very glad to go
to Canada to be married, I beg you to employ your
credit and authority with the curds of thirty or forty
of these parishes, to try to find in each of them one
or two girls disposed to go voluntarily for the sake
of a settlement in life."2
Mistakes nevertheless occurred. "Along with
Boucher says further, that an assurance of good character was
required from the relations or friends of the girl who wished to em-
bark. This refers to a period anterior to 1663, when Boucher wrote
his book. Colbert evidently cared for no qualification except the
capacity of maternity.
1 Temoignage de la Mere du Plessis de Sainte-Helene (extract in
Faillon).
2 Colbert a I'Archeveque de Rouen, 27 Fev., 1670.
That they were not always destitute may be gathered from a
passage in one of Talon's letters : " Entre les filles qu'on fait passer
ici il y en a qui ont de legitimes et considerables preventions aux
successions de leurs parents, meme entre celles qui sont tirees de
THopital General." The General Hospital of Paris had recently
been established (1656) as a house of refuge for the "Bohemians,"
or vagrants of Paris. The royal edict creating it says that " les
pauvres mendiants et invalides des deux sexes y seraient enfermes
pour estre employes aux manufactures et aultres travaux selon leur
pouvoir." They were gathered by force in the streets by a body of
special police, called "Archers de 1'Hopital." They resisted at
first, and serious riots ensued. In 1662, the General Hospital of
Paris contained 6262 paupers. See Clement, Histoire de Colbert, 113.
Mother de Sainte-Helene says that the girls sent from this asylum
had been there from childhood in charge of nuns.
284 MARRIAGE AND POPULATION. [1065-72.
the honest people," complains Mother Mary, "comes
a great deal of canaille of both sexes, who cause a
great deal of scandal."1 After some of the young
women had been married at Quebec, it was found
that they had husbands at home. The priests became
cautious in tying the matrimonial knot, and Colbert
thereupon ordered that each girl should provide her-
self with a certificate from the cur6 or magistrate of
her parish to the effect that she was free to marry.
Nor was the practical intendant unmindful of other
precautions to smooth the path to the desired goal.
"The girls destined for this country," he writes,
"besides being strong and healthy, ought to be
entirely free from any natural blemish or anything
personally repulsive."2
Thus qualified canonically and physically, the
annual consignment of young women was shipped to
Quebec, in charge of a matron employed and paid by
the King. Her task was not an easy one, for the
troop under her care was apt to consist of what
Mother Mary in a moment of unwonted levity calls
"mixed goods."3 On one occasion the office was
jf- ;
\
1 " Beaucoup de canaille de Tun et 1'autre sexe qui causent beau-
coup de scandale." — Lettre du — Octobre, 1669.
2 Talon a Colbert, 10 Nov., 1670.
8 "Une marchandise meMe." — Lettre du — 1668. In that year,
1668, the King spent 40,000 livres in the shipment of men and girls.
In 1669, a hundred and fifty girls were sent ; in 1670, a hundred and
sixty-five ; and Talon asks for a hundred and fifty or two hundred
more to supply the soldiers who had got ready their houses and
clearings, and were now prepared to marry. The total number of
girls sent from 1665 to 1673, inclusive, was about a thousand.
1865-72.] THE MOTHERS OF CANADA. 285
undertaken by the pious widow of Jean Bourdon.
Her flock of a hundred and fifty girls, says Mother
Mary, " gave her no little trouble on the voyage ; for
they are of all sorts, and some of them are very rude
and hard to manage." Madame Bourdon was not
daunted. She not only saw her charge distributed
and married, but she continued to receive and care
for the subsequent ship-loads as they arrived summer
after summer. She was indeed chief among the
pious duennas of whom La Hontan irreverently
speaks. Marguerite Bourgeoys did the same good
offices for the young women sent to Montreal. Here
the "King's girls," as they were called, were all
lodged together in a house to which the suitors
repaired to make their selection. " I was obliged to
live there myself," writes the excellent nun, "because
families were to be formed ; " l that is to say, because
it was she who superintended these extemporized
unions. Meanwhile she taught the girls their cate-
chism, and, more fortunate than Madame Bourdon,
inspired them with a confidence and affection which
they retained long after.
At Quebec, where the matrimonial market was on
a larger scale, a more ample bazaar was needed.
That the girls were assorted into three classes, each
penned up for selection in a separate hall, is a state-
ment probable enough in itself, but resting on no
better authority than that of La Hontan. Be this as
it may, they were submitted together to the inspec-
1 Extract in Faillon, Colonie Franqaise, iii. 214.
286 MARRIAGE AND POPULATION. [1665-72.
tion of the suitor; and the awkward young peasant
or the rugged soldier of Carignan was required to
choose a bride without delay from among the anxious
candidates. They, on their part, were permitted to
reject any applicant who displeased them; and the
first question, we are told, which most of them asked
was whether the suitor had a house and a farm.
Great as was the call for wives, it was thought
prudent to stimulate it. The new settler was at
once enticed and driven into wedlock. Bounties
were offered on early marriages. Twenty livres were »J
given to each youth who married before the age of
twenty, and to each girl who married before the age
of sixteen.1 This, which was called the "King's
gift," was exclusive of the dowry given by him to
every girl brought over by his orders. The dowry
varied greatly in form and value ; but, according to
Mother Mary, it was sometimes a house with pro-
visions for eight months. More often it was fifty
livres in household supplies, besides a barrel or two
of salted meat. The royal solicitude extended also
to the children of colonists already established. " I
pray you, " writes Colbert to Talon, " to commend it
to the consideration of the whole people, that their
prosperity, their subsistence, and all that is dear to
them depend on a general resolution, never to be
departed from, to marry youths at eighteen or nine-
teen years and girls at fourteen or fifteen; since
abundance can never come to them except through
l Arret du Conseil d'lZtat du Roy (see Edits et Ordonnances, i. 67),
1665-72.] CELIBACY PUNISHED. 287
the abundance of men." 1 This counsel was followed
by appropriate action. Any father of a family who,
without showing good cause, neglected to marry his
children when they had reached the ages of twenty
and sixteen w&s fined ; 2 and each father thus delin-
quent was required to present himself every six
months to the local authorities to declare what
reason, if any, he had for such delay.3 Orders were
issued, a little before the arrival of the yearly ships
from France, that all single men should marry within
a fortnight after the landing of the prospective
brides. No mercy was shown to the obdurate
bachelor. Talon issued an order forbidding unmar-
ried men to hunt, fish, trade with the Indians, or go
into the woods under any pretence whatsoever.4 In
1 Colbert a Talon, 20 Ffv., 1668.
2 Arrets du Conseil d'tftat, 1669 (cited by Faillon) ; Arrtt du
Conseil d'fitat, 1670 (see Itdits et Ordonnances, i. 67) ; Ordonnance du
Roy, 5 Avril, 1669. See Cle'ment, Instructions, etc. de Colbert, iii. 2me
Partie, 657.
8 Registre du Conseil Souverain.
* Talon au Ministre, 10 Oct., 1670. Colbert highly approves this
order. Faillon found a case of its enforcement among the ancient
records of Montreal. In December, 1670, Francois Le Noir, an
inhabitant of La Chine, was summoned before the judge, because,
though a single man, he had traded with Indians at his own house
He confessed the fact, but protested that he would marry within
three weeks after the arrival of the vessels from France, or, failing
to do so, that he would give a hundred and fifty livres to the church
of Montreal, and an equal sum to the hospital. On this condition
he was allowed to trade, but was still forbidden to go into the
woods. The next year he kept his word, and married Marie Magde-
leine Charbonnier, late of Paris.
The prohibition to go into the woods was probably intended to
prevent the bachelor from finding a temporary Indian substitute
for a French vrife.
288 MARRIAGE AND POPULATION. [1665-72.
short, they were made as miserable as possible.
Colbert goes further. He writes to the intendant,
" Those who may seem to have absolutely renounced
marriage should be made to bear additional burdens,
and be excluded from all honors; it would be well
even to add some marks of infamy."1 The success
of these measures was complete. "No sooner," says
Mother Mary, "have the vessels arrived than the
young men go to get wives; and, by reason of the
great number, they are married by thirties at a time."
Throughout the length and breadth of Canada, Hy-
men, if not Cupid, was whipped into a frenzy of activ-
ity. Dollier de Casson tells us of a widow who was
married afresh before her late husband was buried.2
Nor was the fatherly care of the King confined to
the humbler classes of his colonists. He wished to
form a Canadian noblesse, to which end early mar-
riages were thought needful among officers and others
of the better sort. The progress of such marriages
was carefully watched and reported by the intendant.
We have seen the reward bestowed upon La Motte
for taking to himself a wife, and the money set apart
for the brother officers who imitated him. In his
despatch of October, 1667, the intendant announces
that two captains are already married to two damsels
of the country; that a, lieutenant has espoused a
daughter of the governor of Three Rivers ; and that
1 " II serait a propos de leur augmenter les charges, de les priver
de tous honneurs, meme d'y ajouter quelque marque d'infamie."
Lettre du 20 F0o.t 1668.
2 Hi$toire du Montreal, A. D. 1671, 1672.
1665-72.] BOUNTIES ON CHILDREN. 289
" four ensigns are in treaty with their mistresses, and
are already half engaged." l The paternal care of gov-
ernment, one would think, could scarcely go further.
It did, however, go further. Bounties were offered
on children. The King, in council, passed a decree
"that in future all inhabitants of the said country of
Canada who shall have living children to the number
of ten, born in lawful wedlock, not being priests,
monks, or nuns, shall each be paid out of the moneys
sent by his Majesty to the said country a pension of
three hundred livres a year, and those who shall have
twelve children, a pension of four hundred livres;
and that, to this effect, they shall be required to
declare the number of their children every year in
the months of June or July to the intendant of
justice, police, and finance, established in the said
country, who, having verified the same, shall order
the payment of said pensions, one-half in cash, and
the other half at the end of each year."2 This was
1 " Quatre enseignes sont en pourparler avec leurs mattresses et
sont deja a demi engage's." (Depeche du 27 Oct., 1667.) The lieutenant
was Rene Gaultier de Varennes, who on the 26th September, 1667,
married Marie Bochart, daughter of the governor of Three Rivers,
aged twelve years. One of the children of this marriage was Varennes
de la Verendrye, whose son discovered the Rocky Mountains.
2 fidits et Ordonnances, i. 67. It was thought at this time that the
Indians, mingled with the French, might become a valuable part of
the population. The reproductive qualities of Indian women, there-
fore, became an object of Talon's attention, and he reports that they
impair their fertility by nursing their children longer than is
necessary ; " but," he adds, " this obstacle to the speedy building up
of the colony can be overcome by a police regulation." Memoir*
sur I'jtftat Present du Canada, 1667.
id
290 MARRIAGE AND POPULATION. [1665-72
applicable to all. Colbert had before offered a
reward, intended specially for the better class, of
twelve hundred livres to those who had fifteen
children, and eight hundred to those who had ten.
These wise encouragements, as the worthy Faillon
calls them, were crowned with the desired result. A
despatch of Talon in 1670 informs fhe minister that
most of the young women sent out last summer are
pregnant already; and in 1671 he announces that
from six hundred to seven hundred children have
been born in the colony during the year, — a pro-
digious number in view of the small population.
The climate was supposed to be particularly favorable
to the health of women, which is somewhat surpris-
ing in view of recent American experience. "The
first reflection I have to make," says Dollier de
Casson, "is on the advantage that women have in
this place [Montreal] over men; for though the cold
is very wholesome to both sexes, it is incomparably
more so to the female, who is almost immortal here."
Her fecundity matched her longevity, and was the
admiration of Talon and his successors, accustomed
as they were to the scanty families of France.
Why with this great natural increase joined to an im-
migration which, though greatly diminishing, did not
entirely cease, was there not a corresponding increase
in the population of the colony? Why, more than
half a century after the King took Canada in charge,
did the census show a total of less than twenty-five
thousand souls ? The reasons will appear hereafter.
1665-72.] DECREASE OF EMIGRATION. 291
It is a peculiarity of Canadian immigration, at this
its most flourishing epoch, that it was mainly an
immigration of single men and single women. The
cases in which entire families came over were com-
paratively few.1 The new settler was found by the
King, sent over by the King, and supplied by the
King with a wife, a farm, and sometimes with a
house. Well did Louis XIV. earn the title of
Father of New France. But the royal zeal was spas-
modic. The King was diverted to other cares ; and
soon after the outbreak of the Dutch war in 1672
the regular despatch of emigrants to Canada well-
nigh ceased, — though the practice of disbanding
soldiers in the colony, giving them lands, and turn-
ing them into settlers, was continued in some degree,
even to the last.
1 The principal emigration of families seems to have been in
1669, when, at the urgency of Talon, then in France, a considerable
number were sent out. In the earlier period the emigration of
families was, relatively, much greater. Thus, in 1634, the physician
Giffard brought over seven to people his seigniory of Beauport.
Before 1663, when the King took the colony in hand, the emigrants
were for the most part apprenticed laborers.
The zeal with which the King entered into the work of stocking
his colony is shown by numberless passages in his letters, and
those of his minister. " The end and the rule of all your conduct,"
says Colbert to the intendant Bouteroue, " should be the increase
of the colony ; and on this point you should never be satisfied, but
labor without ceasing to find every imaginable expedient for pre-
serving the inhabitants, attracting new ones, and multiplying them
by marriage." — Instruction pour M. Bouteroue, 1668.
CHAPTER XVII.
1665-1672.
THE NEW HOME.
MILITARY FRONTIER. — THE CANADIAN SETTLER. — SEIGNIOR AND
VASSAL. — EXAMPLE OF TALON. — PLAN OF SETTLEMENT. — AS-
PECT OF CANADA. — QUEBEC. — THE RIVER SETTLEMENTS. —
MONTREAL. — THE PIONEERS.
WE have seen the settler landed and married ; let
us follow him to his new home. At the end of
Talon's administration, the head of the colony — •
that is to say, the island of Montreal and the borders
of the Richelieu — was the seat of a peculiar coloni-
zation, the chief object of which was to protect the
rest of Canada against Iroquois incursions. The
lands along the Richelieu, from its mouth to a point
above Chambly, were divided in large seigniorial
grants among several officers of the regiment of
Carignan, who in their turn granted out the land to
the soldiers, reserving a sufficient portion as their
own. The officer thus became a kind of feudal chief,
and the whole settlement a permanent military can-
tonment admirably suited to the object in view.
The disbanded soldier was practically a soldier still,
but he was also a farmer and a landholder.
1665-72.] MILITARY FRONTIER. 293
Talon had recommended this plan as being in ac-
cordance with the example of the Romans. "The
practice of that politic and martial people," he wrote,
" may, in my opinion, be wisely adopted in a country
a thousand leagues distant from its monarch. And
as the peace and harmony of peoples depend above
all things on their fidelity to their sovereign, our first
kings, better statesmen than is commonly supposed,
introduced into newly conquered countries men of
war, of approved trust, in order at once to hold the
inhabitants to their duty within, and repel the enemy
from without."1
The troops were accordingly discharged, and settled
not alone on the Richelieu, but also along the St.
Lawrence, between Lake St. Peter and Montreal, as
well as at some other points. The Sulpitians, feudal
owners of Montreal, adopted a similar policy, and
surrounded their island with a border of fiefs large
and small, granted partly to officers and partly to
humbler settlers, bold, hardy, and practised in bush-
fighting. Thus a line of sentinels was posted around
their entire shore, ready to give the alarm whenever
an enemy appeared. About Quebec the settlements,
covered as they were by those above, were for the
most part of a more pacific character.
To return to the Richelieu. The towns and vil-
lages which have since grown upon its banks and
along the adjacent shores of the St. Lawrence owe
their names to these officers of Carignan, ancient
i Projets de Reglemens, 1667 (see J&dits et Ordonnances, ii. 29).
294 THE NEW HOME. [1665-72.
lords of the soil, — Sorel, Chambly, Saint Ours,
Contrecoeur, Varennes, Verchdres. Yet let it not
be supposed that villages sprang up at once. The
military seignior, valiant and poor as Walter the
Penniless, was in no condition to work such magic.
His personal possessions usually consisted of little
but his sword and the money which the King had
paid him for marrying a wife. A domain varying
from half a league to six leagues in front on the
river, and from half a league to two leagues in depth,
had been freely given him. When he had distributed
a part of it in allotments to the soldiers, a variety of
tasks awaited him, — to clear and cultivate his land ;
to build his seigniorial mansion, often a log hut; to
build a fort; to build a chapel; and to build a mill.
To do all this at once was impossible. Chambly, the
chief proprietor on the Richelieu, was better able
than the others to meet the exigency. He built
himself a good house, where, with cattle and sheep
furnished by the King, he lived in reasonable com-
fort.1 The King's fort,' close at hand, spared him
and his tenants the necessity of building one for
themselves, and furnished, no doubt, a mill, a chapel,
and a chaplain. His brother officers, Sorel excepted,
were less fortunate. They and their tenants were
forced to provide defence as well as shelter. Their
houses were all built together, and surrounded by a
palisade, so as to form a little fortified village. The
1 Frontenac au Ministre, 2 Nov., 1672. Marie de Tlncarnation
speaks of these officers on the Richelieu as tres honnetes gens.
1665-72.] THE CANADIAN SETTLER. 295
ever-active benevolence of the King had aided them
in the task, for the soldiers were still maintained by
him while clearing the lands and building the houses
destined to be their own ; nor was it till this work
was done that the provident government despatched
them to Quebec with orders to bring back wives.
The settler, thus lodged and wedded, was required
on his part to aid in clearing lands for those who
should come after him.1
It was chiefly in the more exposed parts of the
colony that the houses were gathered together in
palisaded villages, thus forcing the settler to walk or
paddle some distance to his farm. He naturally
preferred to build when he could on the front of his
farm itself, near the river, which supplied the place
of a road. As the grants of land were very narrow,
his house was not far from that of his next neighbor ;
and thus a line of dwellings was ranged along the
shore, forming what in local language was called a
cdte, — a use of the word peculiar to Canada, where
it still prevails.
The impoverished seignior rarely built a chapel.
Most of the early Canadian churches were built with
1 " Sa Majeste semble pretendre faire la depense entiere pour
former le commencement des habitations par 1'abattis du bois, la
culture et semence de deux arpens de terre, 1'avance de quelques
farines aux families venantes," etc. (Projets de Reglemens, 1667.)
This applied to civil and military settlers alike. The established
settler was allowed four years to clear two arpents of land for
a new-comer. The soldiers were maintained by the King during
a year, while preparing their farms and houses. Talon asks that
two years more be given them. Talon au Roy, 10 Nov., 1670.
296 THE NEW HOME. [1665-72.
funds furnished by the seminaries of Quebec or of
Montreal, aided by contributions of material and labor
from the parishioners.1 Meanwhile mass was said in
some house of the neighborhood by a missionary
priest, paddling his canoe from village to village, or
from cdte to cdte.
The mill was an object of the last importance. It
was built of stone and pierced with loopholes, to
serve as a blockhouse in case of attack. The great
mill at Montreal was one of the chief defences of the
place. It was at once the duty and the right of the
seignior to supply his tenants, or rather vassals, with
this essential requisite ; and they on their part were
required to grind their grain at his mill, leaving the
fourteenth part in payment. But for many years
there was not a seigniory in Canada where this frac-
tion would pay the wages of a miller; and, except
the ecclesiastical corporations, there were few seign-
iors who could pay the cost of building. The first
settlers were usually forced to grind for themselves
after the tedious fashion of the Indians.
Talon, in his capacity of counsellor, friend, and
father to all Canada, arranged the new settlements
near Quebec in the manner which he judged best,
and which he meant to serve as an example to the
rest of the colony. It was his aim to concentrate
population around this point, so that, should an
enemy appear, the sound of a cannon-shot from the
Chateau St. Louis might summon a numerous bod"y
1 La Tour, Vie de Laval, chap. x.
1665-72.] MODEL SEIGNIORY. 297
of defenders to this the common point of rendezvous.1
He bought a tract of land near Quebec, laid it out,
and settled it as a model seigniory, hoping, as he
says, to kindle a spirit of emulation among the new-
made seigniors to whom he had granted lands from
the King. He also laid out at the royal cost three
villages in the immediate neighborhood, planning
them with great care, and peopling them partly with
families newly arrived, partly with soldiers, and
partly with old settlers, in order that the new-comers
might take lessons from the experience of these
veterans. That each village might be complete in
itself, he furnished it as well as he could with the
needful carpenter, mason, blacksmith, and shoe-
maker. These inland villages, called respectively
Bourg Royal, Bourg la Reine, and Bourg Talon, did
not prove very thrifty.2 Wherever the settlers were
allowed to choose for themselves, they ranged their
dwellings along the watercourses. With the excep-
tion of Talon's villages, one could have seen nearly
every house in Canada, by paddling a canoe up the
St. Lawrence and the Richelieu. The settlements
formed long thin lines on the edges of the rivers, — a
convenient arrangement, but one very unfavorable
to defence, to ecclesiastical control, and to strong
government. The King soon discovered this; and
repeated orders were sent to concentrate the inhab-
1 Projets de Reghmens, 1667.
2 In 1672 the King, as a mark of honor, attached these Tillages
to Taion'e seigniory. See Documents on Seigniorial Tenure.
298 THE NEW HOME. [1665-72.
itants and form Canada into villages, instead of cotes.
To do so would have involved a general revocation
of grants and abandonment of houses and clearings,
— a measure too arbitrary and too wasteful, even for
Louis XIV., and one extremely difficult to enforce.
Canada persisted in attenuating herself, and the royal
will was foiled.
As you ascended the St. Lawrence, the first har-
boring place of civilization was Tadoussac, at the
mouth of the Saguenay, where the company had its
trading station, where its agents ruled supreme, and
where, in early summer, all was alive with canoes
and wigwams, and troops of Montagnais savages,
bringing their furs to market. Leave Tadoussac
behind, and, embarked in a sail-boat or a canoe,
follow the northern coast. Far on the left, twenty
miles away, the southern shore lies pale and dim, and
mountain ranges wave their faint outline along the
sky. You pass the beetling rocks of Mai Bay, a
solitude but for the bark hut of some wandering
Indian beneath the cliff, the Eboulements with their
wild romantic gorge and foaming waterfalls, and the
Bay of St. Paul with its broad valley and its woody
mountains, rich with hidden stores of iron. Vast
piles of savage verdure border the mightv stream, till
at length the mountain of Cape Tourmente upheaves
its huge bulk from -the bosom of the water, shadowed
by lowering clouds, and dark with forests. Just
beyond, begin the settlements of Laval's vast seign-
iory of Beaupre*, which had not been forgotten in the
1665-72.] QUEBEC. 299
distribution of emigrants, and which, in 1667, con-
tained more inhabitants than Quebec itself.1 The
ribbon of rich meadow land that borders that beauti-
ful shore was yellow with wheat in harvest time;
and on the woody slopes behind, the frequent clear-
ings and the solid little dwellings of logs continued
for a long distance to relieve the sameness of the
forest. After passing the cataract of Montmorenci,
there was another settlement, much smaller, at
Beauport, the seigniory of the ex-physician Giffard,
one of the earliest proprietors in Canada. The neigh-
boring shores of the Island of Orleans were also
edged with houses and clearings. The promontory
of Quebec now towered full in sight, crowned with
church, fort, chateau, convents, and seminary.
There was little else on the rock. Priests, nuns,
government officials, and soldiers were the denizens
of the Upper Town; while commerce and the trades
were cabined along the strand beneath.2 From the
gallery of the chateau, you might toss a pebble far
down on their shingled roofs. In the midst of them
was the magazine of the company, with its two round
towers and two projecting wings. It was here that
1 The census of 1667 gives to Quebec only 448 souls ; C6te de
Beaupre, 656 ; Beauport, 123 ; Island of Orleans, 629 ; other settle-
ments included under the government of Quebec, 1,011; Cote de
Lauzon (south shore), 113; Trois Rivieres and its dependencies, 666 ;
Montreal, 766. Both Beaupre and Isle d'Orleans belonged at this
time to the bishop.
2 According to Juchereau, there were seventy houses at Quebec
about the time of Tracy's arrival.
300 THE NEW HOME. [1665-72.
all the beaver-skins of the colony were collected,
assorted, and shipped for France. The so-called
Chateau St. Louis was an indifferent wooden struc-
ture planted on a site truly superb, — above the
Lower Town, above the river, above the ships, gaz-
ing abroad on a majestic panorama of waters, forests,
and mountains.1 Behind it was the area of the fort,
of which it formed one side. The governor lived in
the chateau, and soldiers were on guard night and
day in the fort. At some little distance was the
convent of the Ursulines, ugly but substantial,2
where Mother Mary of the Incarnation ruled her
pupils and her nuns ; and a little farther on, towards
the right, was the Hotel Dieu. Between them were
the massive buildings of the Jesuits, then as now
facing the principal square. At one side was their
church, newly finished; and opposite, across the
square, stood and still stands the great church of
Notre Dame. Behind the church was Laval's semi-
nary, with the extensive enclosures belonging to it.
The sSnechaussee or court-house, the tavern of one
Jacques Boisdon on the square near the church, and
a few houses along the line of what is now St. Louis
Street comprised nearly all the civil part of the Upper
Town. The ecclesiastical buildings were of stone,
and the church of Notre Dame and the Jesuit
1 In 1660, an exact inventory was taken of the contents of the
fort and chateau, — a beggarly account of rubbish. The chateau
was then a long low building roofed with shingles.
2 There is an engraving of it in Abbe Casgrain's interesting Vu
de Marie de ['Incarnation. It was burned in 1686.
1665-72.] THE RIVER SETTLEMENTS 301
College were marvels of size and solidity in view of
the poverty and weakness of the colony.1
Proceeding upward along the north shore of the
St. Lawrence, one found a cluster of houses at Cap
Rouge, and, farther on, the frequent rude begin-
nings of a seigniory. The settlements thickened on
approaching Three Rivers, a fur-trading hamlet
enclosed with a square palisade. Above this place,
a line of incipient seigniories bordered the river,
most of them granted to officers, — Laubia, a captain ;
Labadie, a sergeant; Moras, an ensign; Berthier, a
captain; Raudin, an ensign; La Valterie, a lieuten-
ant.2 Under their auspices, settlers, military and
civilian, were ranging themselves along the shore,
and ugly gaps in the forest thickly set with stumps
bore witness to their toils. These settlements rapidly
extended, till in a few years a chain of houses
and clearings reached with little interruption from
Quebec to Montreal. Such was the fruit of Tracy's
chastisement of the Mohawks, and the influx of
immigrants that followed.
As you approached Montreal, the fortified mill
1 The first stone of Notre Dame de Quebec was laid in Sep-
tember, 1647, and the first mass was said in it on the 24th of
December, 1650. The side walls still remain as part of the present
structure. The Jesuit College was also begun in 1647. The walls
and roof were finished in 1649. The church connected with it,
since destroyed, was begun in 1666. See Journal des J&uites.
2 See Documents on the Seigniorial Tenure ; Abstracts of Titles.
Most of these grants, like those on the Richelieu, were made by
Talon in 1672 ; but the land had, in many cases, been occupied and
cleared in anticipation of the title.
302 THE NEW HOME. [1665-72.
built by the Sulpitians at Point aux Trembles towered
above the woods; and soon after the newly built
chapel of the Infant Jesus. More settlements fol-
lowed, till at length the great fortified mill of
Montreal rose in sight; then the long row of com-
pact wooden houses, the Hotel Dieu, and the rough
masonry of the Seminary of St. Sulpice. Beyond the
town, the clearings continued at intervals till you
reached Lake St. Louis, where young Cavelier de la
Salle had laid out his seigniory of La Chine, and
abandoned it to begin his hard career of western
exploration. Above the island of Montreal, the
wilderness was broken only by a solitary trading
station on the neighboring Isle Pe'rot.
Now cross Lake St. Louis, shoot the rapids of La
Chine, and follow the southern shore downward.
Here the seigniories of Longueuil, Boucherville,
Varennes, Verche»res, and Contrecceur were already
begun. From the fort of Sorel one could visit the
military seigniories along the Richelieu or descend
towards Quebec, passing on the way those of
Lussaudiere, Becancour, Lotbiniere, and others still
in a shapeless infancy. Even far below Quebec, at
St. Anne de la Pocatiere, River Ouelle, and other
points, cabins and clearings greeted the eye of the
passing canoeman.
For a year or two the settler's initiation was a
rough one ; but when he had a few acres under til-
lage he could support himself and his family on the
produce, aided by hunting, if he knew how to use
1665-72.] THE PIONEERS. 303
a gun, and by the bountiful profusion of eels which
the St. Lawrence never failed to yield in their season,
and which, smoked or salted, supplied his larder for
months. In winter he hewed timber, sawed planks,
or split shingles for the market of Quebec, obtaining
in return such necessaries as he required. With
thrift and hard work he was sure of comfort at last;
but the former habits of the military settlers and of
many of the others were not favorable to a routine
of dogged industry. The sameness and solitude of
their new life often became insufferable ; nor, married
as they had been, was the domestic hearth likely to
supply much consolation. Yet, thrifty or not, they
multiplied apace. "A poor man," says Mother
Mary, " will have eight children and more, who run
about in winter with bare heads and bare feet, and a
little jacket on their backs, live on nothing but bread
and eels, and on that grow fat and stout." With
such treatment the weaker sort died, but the strong
survived; and out of this rugged nursing sprang
the hardy Canadian race of bush-rangers and bush-
fighters.
CHAPTER XVIII.
1663-1763.
CANADIAN FEUDALISM.
TRANSPLANTATION OF FEUDALISM. — PRECAUTIONS. — FAITH AND
HOMAGE. — THE SEIGNIOR. — THE CENSITAIRE. — ROYAL INTER-
VENTION.— THE GENTILHOMME. — CANADIAN NOBLESSE.
ICANADIAN society was beginning to form itself, and
at its base was the feudal tenure. European feu-
dalism was the indigenous and natural growth of
political and social conditions which preceded it.
Canadian feudalism was an offshoot of the feudalism
of France, modified by the lapse of centuries, and
further modified by the royal will}
In France, as in the rest of Europe, the system
had lost its vitality. The warrior-nobles who placed
Hugh Capet on the throne, and began the feudal
monarchy, formed an aristocratic republic ; and the
King was one of their number, whom they chose to
be their chief. But through the struggles and vicis-
situdes of many succeeding reigns royalty had waxed
and oligarchy had waned. The fact had changed,
and the theory had changed with it. The King,
once powerless among a host of turbulent nobles,
1663-1763.] TRIUMPH OF ROYALTY. 305
was now a king indeed. Once a chief, because his
equals had made him so, he was now the anointed of
the Lord. This triumph of royalty had culminated
in Louis XIV. The stormy energies and bold indi-
vidualism of the old feudal nobles had ceased to
exist. They who had held his predecessors in awe
had become his obsequious servants. He no longer
feared his nobles : he prized them as gorgeous decora-
tions of his court and satellites of his royal person,
vlt was Richelieu who first planted feudalism in
Canada.1 The King would preserve it there, because
with its teeth drawn he was fond of it; and because,
asjbhe feudal tenure prevailed in Old France, it was
natural that it should prevail also in the New. But
he continued as Richelieu had begun, and moulded it
to the form that pleased him. Nothing was left
which could threaten his absolute and undivided
authority over the colony. In France, a multitude
of privileges and prescriptions still clung, despite its
fall, about the ancient ruling class. Few of these
were allowed to cross the Atlantic, while the old
lingering abuses, which' had made the system odious,
were at the same time japped away. Thus retrenched,
Canadian feudalism * was made to serve a double
end, — r to produce a faint and harmless reflection of
French aristocracy, and simply and practically to
supply agencies for distributing land among the
settlers. /
I A
1 By the charter of the Company of the Hundred Associates,
1627. \
20
306 CANADIAN FEUDALISM. [1663-1763.
The nature of the precautions which it was held to
require appear in the plan of administration which
Talon and Tracy laid before the minister. They
urge that, in view of the distance from France,
special care ought to be taken to prevent changes
and revolutions, aristocratic or otherwise, in the
colony, whereby in time sovereign jurisdictions might
grow up, as formerly occurred in various parts of
France.1 And in respect to grants already made an
inquiry was ordered, to ascertain "if seigniors in
distributing lands to their vassals have exacted any
conditions injurious to the rights of the Crown and
the subjection due solely to the King." In the same
view the seignior was denied any voice whatever in
the direction of government; and it is scarcely neces-
sary to say that the essential feature of feudalism in
the day of its vitality, the requirement of military
service by the lord from the vassal, was utterly
unknown in Canada. The royal governor called out
the militia whenever he saw fit, and set over it what
officers he pleased. f \
The seignior was usually the immediate vassal of
the Crown, from which he 1 3d received his land
gratuitously. In a few cases he niade grants to other
seigniors inferior in the feudal scale, and they, his
vassals, granted in turn to their vassals, — the habi-
tants^ or cultivators of the soil.2 Sometimes the
1 Projet de Reglement fait par MM. de Tracy et Talon pour la jus-
tice"etla distribution des terres du Canada, Jan. 24, 1667-
2 Most of the seigniories of Canada were simple fiefs ; but there
we* t some exceptions. In 1671, the King, a^i a mark of honor to
1663-1763.] FAITH AND HOMAGE. 307
habitant held directly of the Crown, in which case
there was no step between the highest and lowest
degrees of the feudal scale. The seignior held by
the tenure of faith and homage, the habitant by the
inferior tenure en censive. Faith and homage were
rendered to the Crown or other feudal superior when-
ever the seigniory changed hands, or, in the case of
seigniories held by corporations, after long stated
intervals. The following is an example, drawn from
the early days of the colony, of the performance of
this ceremony by the owner of a fief to the seignior
who had granted it to him. It is that of Jean
Guion, vassal of Giffard, seignior of Beauport.
The act recounts how, in presence of a notary,
Guion presented himself at the principal door of the
manor-house of Beauport; how, having knocked,
one Boulle*, farmer of Giffard, opened the door, and
in reply to Guion 's question if the seignior was at
home, replied that he was not, but that he, Boull^,
was empowered to receive acknowledgments of faith
and homage from the vassals in his name. "After
the which reply," proceeds the act, "the said Guion,
being at the principal door, placed himself on his
Talon, erected his seigniory Des Islets into a barony ; and it was
soon afterwards made an earldom, comte. In 1676, the seigniory of
St. Laurent, on the island of Orleans, once the property of Laval,
and then belonging to Fra^ois Berthelot, councillor of the King,
was erected into an earldom. In 1681, the seigniory of Portneuf,
belonging to Rene Robineau, chevalier, was made a barony. In
1700, three seigniories on the south side of the St. Lawrence were
united into the barony of Longueuil. (See Papers on the Feudal
Tenure in Canada, Abstract of Titles.)
308 CANADIAN FEUDALISM. [1663-1763.
knees on the ground, with head bare, and without
sword or spurs, and said three times these words:
4 Monsieur de Beauport, Monsieur de Beauport,
Monsieur de Beauport! I bring you the faith and
homage which I am bound to bring you on account
of my fief Du Buisson, which I hold as a man of
faith of your seigniory of Beauport, declaring that I
offer to pay my seigniorial and feudal dues in their
season, and demanding of you to accept me in faith
and homage as aforesaid.' " J
The following instance is the more common one of a
seignior holding directly of the Crown. It is widely
separated from the first in point of time, having oc-
curred a year after the army of Wolfe entered Quebec.
Philippe Noel had lately died, and Jean Noel, his
son, inherited his seigniory of Tilly and Bonsecours.
To make the title good, faith and homage must be
renewed. Jean Noel was under the bitter necessity
of rendering this duty to General Murray, governor
for the King of Great Britain. The form is the
same as in the case of Guion, more than a century
before. Noel repairs to the Government House at
Quebec, and knocks at the door. A servant opens
it. Noel asks if the governor is there. The servant
replies that he is. Murray, informed of the visi-
tor's object, comes to the door, and Noel then and
there, "without sword or spurs, with bare head,
1 Ferland, Notes sur les Registres de Notre Dame de Quebec, 65.
This was &fief en roture, as distinguished from &fief noble, to which
judicial powers and other privileges were attached.
1663-1763.] THE SEIGNIOR. 309
and one knee on the ground," repeats the acknowl
edgment of faith and homage for his seigniory. He
was compelled, however, to add a detested innova-
tion, — the oath of fidelity to his Britannic Majesty,
coupled with a pledge to keep his vassals in obedi-
ence to the new sovereign.1
The seignior was a proprietor holding that relation
to the feudal superior which, in its pristine character,
has been truly described as servile in form, proud
and bold in spirit. But in Canada this bold spirit
was very far from being strengthened by the changes
which the policy of the Crcwn had introduced into
the system. The reservation of mines and minerals,
oaks for the royal navy, roadways, and a site (if
needed) for royal forts and magazines, had in it
nothing extraordinary. (^ The great difference between
the position of the Canadian seignior and that of the
vassal proprietor of the Middle Ages lay in the extent
and nature of the control which the Crown and its
officers held over him. J A decree of the King, an
edict of the council, or an ordinance of the intendant,
might at any moment change old conditions, impose
new ones, interfere between the lord of the manor
and his grantees, and modify or annul his bargains,
past or present. He was never sure whether or not
the government would let him alone ; and against its
most arbitrary intervention he had no remedy.
One condition was imposed on him which may be
riK
See the act in Observations de Sir L. H. Lafontaine, Bart., tut
**--* Seigneur iale, 217, note.
310 CANADIAN FEUDALISM. [1663-1763.
said to form the distinctive feature of Canadian
feudalism, — that of clearing his land within a
limited time on pain of forfeiting it. The object
was the excellent one of preventing the lands of the
colony from lying waste. As the seignior was often
the penniless owner of a domain three or four leagues
wide and proportionably deep, he could not clear it
all himself, and was therefore under the necessity of
placing the greater part in the hands of those who
could. But he was forbidden to sell any part of it
which he had not cleared. He must grant it without
price, on condition of ~& small perpetual rent; and
this brings us to the cultivator of the soil, the cen-
sitaire, the broad base of the feudal pyramid.1
The tenure en censive, by which the censitaire held
of the seignior, consisted in the obligation to make
1 The greater part of the grants made by the old Company of
New France were resumed by the Crown for neglect to occupy and
improve the land, which was granted out anew ur der the adminis-
tration of Talon. The most remarkable of these 'forfeited grants
is that of the vast domain of La Citiere, large enough for a
kingdom. Lauson, afterwards governor, had obtained it from the
company, but had failed to improve it. Two or three sub-grants
which he had made from it were held valid ; the rest was reunited
to the royal domain. On repeated occasions at later dates, negli-
gent seigniors were threatened with the loss of half or the whole
of their land, and various cases are recorded in which the threat
took effect. In 1741, an ordinance of the governor and intendant
reunited to the royal domain seventeen seigniories at one stroke ;
but the former owners were told that if within a year they cleared
and settled a reasonable part of the forfeited estates, the titles
should be restored to them, (ifdits et Ordonnances, ii. 555.) I g£.e
case of the habitant or censitaire, forfeitures for neglect to im:hicre
the land and live on it are very numerous.
1663-1763.] THE CENSITAIRE. 311
annual payments in money, produce, or both. In
Canada these payments, known as cens et rente, were
strangely diverse in amount and kind; but in all
the early period of the colony they were almost
ludicrously small. A common charge at Montreal
was half a sou and half a pint of wheat for each
arpent. The rate usually fluctuated in the early
times between half a sou and two sous; so that a
farm of a hundred and sixty arpents would pay from
four to sixteen francs, of which a part would be in
money and the rest in live capons, wheat, eggs, or
all three together, in pursuance of contracts as amus-
ing in their precision as they are bewildering in their
variety. Live capons, estimated at twenty sous
each, though sometimes not worth ten, form a con-
spicuous feature in these agreements ; so that on pay-
day the seignior's barnyard presented an animated
scene. Later in the history of the colony grants
were at somewhat higher rates. Payment was com-
monly made on St. Martin's day, when there was a
general muster of tenants at the seigniorial mansion,
with a prodigious consumption of tobacco and a cor-
responding retail of neighborhood gossip, joined to
the outcries of the captive fowls bundled together
for delivery, with legs tied, but throats at full
liberty.
A more considerable but a very uncertain source
of income to the seignior were the lods et ventes, or
ir 2n^pn fines. The land of the censitaire passed
f: 3 Lettre his heirs ; but if he sold it, a twelfth part
312 CANADIAN FEUDALISM. [1663-1763,
of the purchase-money must be paid to the seignior.
The seignior, on his part, was equally liable to pay
a mutation fine to his feudal superior if he sold his
seigniory; and for him the amount was larger, —
being a quint, or a fifth of the price received, of
which, however, the greater part was deducted for
immediate payment. This heavy charge, constitut-
ing as it did a tax on all improvements, was a prin-
cipal cause of the abolition of the feudal tenure
in 1854.
The obligation of clearing his land and living on
it was laid on seignior and censitaire alike ; but the
latter was under a variety of other obligations to the
former, partly imposed by custom and partly estab-
lished by agreement when the grant was made. To
grind his grain at the seignior's mill, bake his bread
in the seignior's oven, work for him one or more
days in the year, and give him one fish in every
eleven, for the privilege of fishing in the river before
his farm, — these were the most annoying of the
conditions to which the censitaire was liable. Few
of them were enforced with much regularity. That
of baking in the seignior's oven was rarely carried
into effect, though occasionally used for purposes of
extortion. It is here that the royal government
appears in its true character, so far as concerns its
relations with Canada, — that of a well-meaning
despotismuT It continually intervened between censi-
taire and seignior, on the principle that "im"' 6^s
Majesty gives th3 land for nothing, he c; e
1663-1763.] ROYAL INTERVENTION. 313
what conditions he pleases, and change them when
he pleases."1
These interventions were usually favorable to the
censitaire. On one occasion an intendant reported
to the minister, that in his opinion all rents ought to
be reduced to one sou and one live capon for every
arpent of front, equal in most cases to forty superfi-
cial arpents.2 Everything, he remarks, ought to be
brought down to the level of the first grants " made
in days of innocence," — a happy period which he
does not attempt to define. The minister replies
that the diversity of the rent is, in fact, vexatious,
and that for his part he is disposed to abolish it
altogether.3 Neither he nor the intendant gives the
slightest hint of any compensation to the seignior.
Though these radical measures were not executed,
many changes were decreed from time to time in the
relations between seignior and censitaire, — sometimes
as a simple act of sovereign power, and sometimes
on the ground that the grants had been made with
conditions not recognized by the Coutume de Paris.
This was the code of law assigned to Canada; but
most of the contracts between seignior and censitaire
had been agreed upon in good faith by men who
knew as much of the Coutume de Paris as of the
Capitularies of Charlemagne, and their conditions
1 This doctrine is laid down in a letter of the Marquis de Beau
harnois, governor, to the minister, 1734.
8 Lettre de Raudot, pere, au Ministre, 10 Nov., 1707.
3 Lettre de Ponchartrain a Raudot, pere, 13,/atn, 1708.
314 CANADIAN FEUDALISM. [1663-1763.
had remained in force unchallenged for generations.
These interventions of government sometimes contra-
dicted one another, and often proved a dead letter.
They are more or less active through the whole
period of the French rule.
The seignior had judicial powers, which, however,
were carefully curbed and controlled. His jurisdic-
tion, when exercised at all, extended in most cases
only to trivial causes. He very rarely had a prison,
and seems never to have abused it. The dignity of
a seigniorial gallows with high justice or jurisdiction
over heinous offences was granted only in three or
four instances.1
Four arpents in front by forty in depth were the
ordinary dimensions of a grant en censive. These
ribbons of land, nearly a mile and a half long, with
one end on the river and the other on the uplands
behind, usually combined the advantages of meadows
for cultivation, and forests for timber and firewood.
So long as the censitaire brought in on Saint Martin's
day his yearly capons and his yearly handful of
copper, his title against the seignior was perfect.
There are farms in Canada which have passed from
father to son for two hundred years. The condition
of the cultivator was incomparably better than that
of the French peasant, crushed by taxes, and oppressed
by feudal burdens far heavier than those of Canada.
1 Baronies and comtts were empowered to set up gallows and
pillories, to which the arms of the owner were affixed. See, for
example, the edict creating the Barony des Islets.
1663-1763.] THE HABITANT. 315
In fact, the Canadian settler scorned the name of
peasant, and then, as now, was always called the
habitant. The government held him in wardship,
watched over him, interfered with him, but did not
oppress him or allow others to oppress him. Canada
was not governed to the profit of a class ; and if the
King wished to create a Canadian noblesse, he took
care that it should not bear hard on the country.1
Under a genuine feudalism, the ownership of land
conferred nobility; but all this was changed. The
King and not the soil was now the parent of honor.
France swarmed with landless nobles, while roturier
land-holders grew daily more numerous. In Canada
half the seigniories were in roturier or plebeian
hands, and in course of time some of them came
into possession of persons on very humble degrees of
the social scale. A seigniory could be bought and
sold, and a trader or a thrifty habitant might, and
often did, become the buyer.2 If the Canadian noble
1 On the seigniorial tenure, I have examined the entire mass of
papers printed at the time when the question of its abolition was
under discussion. A great deal of legal research and learning was
then devoted to the subject. The argument of Mr. Dunkin in
behalf of the seigniors, and the observations 6f Judge Lafontaine
are especially instructive, as is also the collected correspondence
of the governors and intendants with the central government on.
matters relating to the seigniorial system.
2 In 1712, the engineer Catalogne made a very long and elaborate
report on the condition of Canada, with a full account of all the
seigniorial estates. Of ninety-one seigniories, fiefs, and baronies,
described by him, ten belonged to merchants, twelve to husband-
men, and two to masters of small river craft. The rest belonged
to religious corporations, members of the council, judges, officials
of the Crown, widows, and discharged officers or their sons.
316 CANADIAN FEUDALISM. [1663-1763.
was always a seignior, it is far from being true that
the Canadian seignior was always a noble.
In France, it will be remembered, nobility did not
in itself imply a title. Besides its titled leaders,
it had its rank and file, numerous enough to form a
considerable army. Under the later Bourbons, the
penniless young nobles were, in fact, enrolled into
regiments, — turbulent, difficult to control, obeying
officers of high rank, but scorning all others, and
conspicuous by a fiery and impetuous valor which on
more than one occasion turned the tide of victory.
The gentilhomme, or untitled noble, had a distinctive
character of his own, — gallant, punctilious, vain ;
skilled in social and sometimes in literary and artistic
accomplishments, but usually ignorant of most things
except the handling of his rapier. Yet there were
striking exceptions; and to say of him, as has been
said, that " he knew nothing but how to get himself
killed," is hardly just to a body which has produced
some of the best writers and thinkers of France.
Sometimes the origin of his nobility was lost in the
mists of time ; sometimes he owed it to a patent from
the King. In either case, the line of demarcation
between him and the classes below him was perfectly
distinct; and in this lies an essential difference
between the French noblesse and the English gentry,
a class not separated from others by a definite barrier.
The French noblesse, unlike the English gentry,
constituted a caste.
The gentilhomme had no vocation for emigrating.
1663-1763.] CANADIAN NOBLESSE. 317
He liked the army and he liked the court. If he
could not be of it, it was something to live in its
shadow. The life of a backwoods settler had no
charm for him. He was not used to labor; and he
could not trade, at least in retail, without becoming
liable to forfeit his nobility. When Talon came to
Canada, there were but four noble families in the
colony.1 Young nobles in abundance came out with
Tracy; but they went home with him. Where,
then, should be found the material of a Canadian
noblesse ? First, in the regiment of Carignan, of
which most of the officers were gentilshommes ;
secondly, in the issue of patents of nobility to a few
of the more prominent colonists. Tracy asked for
four such patents ; Talon asked for five more ; 2 and
such requests were repeated at intervals by succeed-
ing governors and intend ants, in behalf of those
who had gained their favor by merit or otherwise.
Money smoothed the path to advancement, so far
had noblesse already fallen from its old estate. Thus
Jacques Le Ber, the merchant, who had long kept a
shop at Montreal, got himself made a "gentleman"
for six thousand livres.3
All Canada soon became infatuated with noblesse ;
1 Talon, Mfmoire sur I'Etat present du Canada, 1667. The fami-
lies of Repentigny, Tilly, Potherie, and Ailleboust appear to be
meant.
2 Tracy's request was in behalf of Bourdon, Boucher, Auteuil,
and Juchereau. Talon's was in behalf of Godefroy, Le Moyne,
Denis, Amiot, and Couillard.
8 Faillon, Vie de Mademoiselle Le Ber, 325.
318 CANADIAN FEUDALISM. [1663-1763.
and country and town, merchant and seignior, vied
with each other for the quality of gentilhomme. If
they could not get it, they often pretended to have
it, and aped its ways with the zeal of Monsieur
Jourdain himself. "Everybody here," writes the
intendant Meules, "calls himself Esquire, and ends
with thinking himself a gentleman." Successive
intendants repeat this complaint. The case was
worst with roturiers who had acquired seigniories.
Thus Noel Langlois was a good carpenter till he
became owner of a seigniory, on which he grew lazy
and affected to play the gentleman. The real
gentilshommes, as well as the spurious, had their
full share of official stricture. The governor Denon-
ville speaks of them thus : " Several of them have
come out this year with their wives, who are very
much cast down ; but they play the fine lady, never-
theless. I had much rather see good peasants; it
would be a pleasure to me to give aid to such,
knowing, as I should, that within two years their
families would have the means of living at ease ; for
it is certain that a peasant who can and will work is
well off in this country, while our nobles with noth-
ing to do can never be anything but beggars. Still
they ought not to be driven off or abandoned. The
question is how to maintain them." l
The intendant Duchesneau writes, to the same
effect: "Many of our gentilshommes, officers, and
other owners of seigniories, lead what in France is
1 Lettre de Denonville au Ministre, 10 Nov., 1686.
1663-1763.] CANADIAN NOBLESSE. 319
called the life of a country gentleman, and spend
most of their time in hunting and fishing. As their
requirements in food and clothing are greater than
those of the simple habitants, and as they do not
devote themselves to improving their land, they mix
themselves up in trade, run in debt on all hands,
incite their young habitants to range the woods, and
send their own children there to trade for furs in the
Indian villages and in the depths of the forest, in
spite of the prohibition of his Majesty. Yet, with
all this, they are in miserable poverty."1
Their condition, indeed, was often deplorable.
"It is pitiful," says the intendant Champigny, "to
see their children, of which they have great numbers,
passing all summer with nothing on them but a shirt,
and their wives and daughters working in the
fields."2 In another letter he asks aid from the King
for Repentigny with his thirteen children, and for
Tilly with his fifteen. "We must give them some
corn at once," he says, "or they will starve."3
These were two of the original four noble families
of Canada. The family of Ailleboust, another of the
four, is described as equally destitute. " Pride and
sloth," says the same intendant, "are the great faults
of the people of Canada, and especially of the nobles
and those who pretend to be such. I pray you grant
1 Lettre, de Duchesneau an Ministre, 10 Nov., 1679.
2 Lettre de Champignij au Ministre, 26 Aout, 1687.
Ibid., Q Nov., 1687.'
320 CANADIAN FEUDALISM. [i663-1763.
no more letters of nobility, unless you want to
multiply beggars." l
The governor Denonville is still more emphatic:
"Above all things, Monseigneur, permit me to say
that the nobles of this new country are everything
that is most beggarly, and that to increase their
number is to increase the number of do-nothings.
A new country requires hard workers, who will
handle the axe and mattock. The sons of our coun-
cillors are no more industrious than the nobles ; and
their only resource is to take to the woods, trade a
little with the Indians, and, for the most part, fall
into the disorders of which I have had the honor to
inform you. I shall use all possible means to induce
them to engage in regular commerce; but as oar
nobles and councillors are all very poor and weighed
down with debt, they could not get credit for a
single crown piece."2 {^Two days ago," he writes in
another letter, "Monsieur de Saint-Ours, a gentle-
man of Dauphiny, came to me to ask leave to go back
to France in search of bread. He says that he will
put his ten children into the charge of any who will
give them a living, and that he himself will go into
the army again. His wife and he are in despair;
and yet they do what they can. I have seen two
of his girls reaping grain and holding the plough^
Other families are in the same condition. They
1 Mtmoire instructif sur le Canada, joint a la lettre de M. de Cham-
pigny du 10 Mai, 1691.
* Lettre de Denonville au Ministre, 13 Nov., 1685.
1663-1763.] CANADIAN NOBLESSE.
come to me with tears in their eyes. All our married
officers are beggars ; and I entreat you to send them
aid/J There is need that the King should provide
support for their children, or else they will be
tempted to go over to the English."1 Again he
writes that the sons of the councillor D' Amours have
been arrested as coureurs de bois, or outlaws in the
bush ; and that if the minister does not do something
to help them, there is danger that all the sons of the
noblesse, real or pretended, will turn bandits, since
they have no other means of living.
The King, dispenser of charity for all Canada,
came promptly to the rescue. He granted an alms
of a hundred crowns to each family, coupled with a
warning to the recipients of his bounty that " their
misery proceeds from their ambition to live as
persons of quality and without labor." 2 At the same
time, the minister announced that no more letters of
nobility would be granted in Canada; adding, "to
relieve the country of some of the children of those
who are really noble, I send you [the governor] six
commissions of Gardes de la Marine, and recommend
you to take care not to give them to any who are not
actually gentilshommes." The Garde de la Marine
answered to the midshipman of the English or
American service. As the six commissions could
1 Lettre de Denonville au Ministre, 10 Nov., 1686. (Condensed in
the translation.)
2 Abstract of Denonville's Letters, and of the Minister's Answers,
in N. Y. Colonial Docs., ix. 317, 318.
21
322 CANADIAN FEUDALISM. [1663-1763
bring little relief to the crowd of needy youths, it
was further ordained that sons of nobles or persons
living as such should be enrolled into companies at
eight sous a day for those who should best conduct
themselves, and six sous a day for the others.
Nobles in Canada were also permitted to trade, even
at retail, without derogating from their rank.1
They had already assumed this right, without
waiting for the royal license; but thus far it had
profited them little. The gentilhomme was not a
good shopkeeper, nor, as a rule, was the shopkeeper's
vocation very lucrative in Canada. The domestic
trade of the colony was small; and all trade was
exposed to such vicissitudes from the intervention of
intendants, ministers, and councils, that at one time
it was almost banished. At best, it was carried on
under conditions auspicious to a favored few and
withering to the rest. Even when most willing to
work, the position of the gentilhomme was a painful
one. Unless he could gain a post under the Crown,
which was rarely the case, he was as complete a
political cipher as the meanest habitant. His rents
were practically nothing, and he had no capital to
improve his seigniorial estate. By a peasant's work
he could gain a peasant's living, and this was all.
The prospect was not inspiring. His long initia-
tion of misery was the natural result of his position
and surroundings; and it is no matter of wonder
that he threw himself into the only field of action
1 Lettre de Meules au Ministre, 1685.
1663-1763.] CANADIAN NOBLESSE. 323
which in time of peace was open to him. It was
trade, but trade seasoned by adventure and ennobled
by danger, defiant of edict and ordinance, outlawed,
conducted in arms among forests and savages; in
short, it was the Western fur- trade. The tyro was
likely to fail in it at first, but time and experience
formed him to the work. On the Great Lakes, in
the wastes of the Northwest, on the Mississippi and
the plains beyond, we find the roving gentilhomme,
chief of a gang of bush-rangers, often his own habi-
tants, — sometimes proscribed by the government,
sometimes leagued in contraband traffic with its
highest officials; a hardy vidette of civilization,
tracing unknown streams, piercing unknown forests,
trading, fighting, negotiating, and building forts.
Again we find him on the shores of Acadia or Maine,
surrounded by Indian retainers, a menace and a
terror to the neighboring English colonist. Saint-
Castin, Du Lhut, La Durantaye, La Salle, La Mothe-
Cadillac, Iberville, Bienville, La Ve*rendrye, are
names that stand conspicuous on the page of half-
savage romance that refreshes the hard and practical
annals of American colonization. But a more sub-
stantial debt is due to their memory. It was they,
and sucn as they, who discovered the Ohio, explored
the Mississippi to its mouth, discovered the Rocky
Mountains, and founded Detroit, St. Louis, and New
Orleans.
Even in his earliest day, the gentilhomme was not
always in the evil plight where we have found him.
324 CANADIAN FEUDALISM. [1663-1763.
There were a few exceptions to the general misery,
and the chief among them is that of the Le Moynes
of Montreal. Charles Le Moyne, son of an inn-
keeper of Dieppe and founder of a family the most
truly eminent in Canada, was a man of sterling
qualities who had been long enough in the colony to
learn how to live there.1 Others learned the same
lesson at a later day, adapted themselves to soil and
situation, took root, grew, and became more Canadian
than French. As population increased, their seign-
iories began to yield appreciable returns, and their
reserved domains became worth cultivating. A
future dawned upon them; they saw in hope their
names, their seigniorial estates, their manor-houses,
their tenantry, passing to their children and their
children's children. The beggared noble of the early
time became a sturdy country gentleman, — poor,
but not wretched ; ignorant of books, except possibly
a few scraps of rusty Latin picked up in a Jesuit
school; hardy as the hardiest woodsman, yet never
forgetting his quality of gentilhomme ; scrupulously
wearing its badge, the sword, and copying as well as
he could the fashions of the court, which glowed on
his vision across the sea in all the effulgence of
1 Berthelot, proprietor of the comte of St. Laurent, and Robineau,
of the barony of Portneuf, may also be mentioned as exceptionally
prosperous. Of the younger Charles Le Moyne, afterwards* Baron
de Longueuil, Frontenac the governor says, " son fort et sa raaison
nous donnent une idee des chateaux de France fortifiez." His fort
was of stone and flanked with four towers. It was nearly opposite
Montreal, on the south shore
1663-1763.] CANADIAN NOBLESSE. 325
Versailles, and beamed with reflected ray from the
Chateau of Quebec. He was at home among his
tenants, at home among the Indians, and never more
at home than when, a gun in his hand and a crucifix
on his breast, he took the war-path with a crew of
painted savages and Frenchmen almost as wild, and
pounced like a lynx from the forest on some lonely
farm or outlying hamlet of New England. How
New England hated him, let her records tell. The
reddest blood-streaks on her old annals mark the
track of the Canadian gentilhomme.
CHAPTER XIX.
1663-1763.
THE RULERS OF CANADA.
NATURE OF THE GOVERNMENT. — THE GOVERNOR. — THE COUNCIL,
— COURTS AND JUDGES. — THE INTENDANT: HIS GRIEVANCES. —
STRONG GOVERNMENT. — SEDITION AND BLASPHEMY. — ROYAL
BOUNTY. — DEFECTS AND ABUSES.
THE government of Canada was formed in its chiei
features after the government of a French province.
Throughout France the past and the present stood
side by side. The kingdom had a double adminis-
tration ; or, rather, the shadow of the old administra-
tion and the substance of the new. The government
of provinces had long been held by the high nobles,
often kindred to the Crown; and hence, in former
times, great perils had arisen, amounting during the
civil wars to the danger of dismemberment. The
high nobles were still governors of provinces; but
here, as elsewhere, they had ceased to be dangerous.
Titles, honors, and ceremonial they had in abundance ;
but they were deprived of real power. Close beside
them was the royal intendant, an obscure figure, lost
amid the vainglories of the feudal sunset, but in the
name of the King holding the reins of government, —
1663-1763.] GOVERNOR AND ISTTENDANT. 327
a check and a spy on his gorgeous colleague. He
was the King's agent; of modest birth, springing
from the legal class ; owing his present to the King,
and dependent on him for his future ; learned in the
law and trained to administration. It was by such
instruments that the powerful centralization of the
monarchy enforced itself throughout the kingdom,
and, penetrating beneath the crust of old prescrip-
tions, supplanted without seeming to supplant them.
The courtier noble looked down in the pride of rank
on the busy man in black at his side ; but this man
in black, with the troop of officials at his beck, con-
trolled finance, the royal courts, public works, and
all the administrative business of the province.
The governor-general and the intendant of Canada
answered to those of a French province. ^The gov-
ernor, excepting in the earliest period of the colony,
was a military noble, — in most cases bearing a title
and sometimes of high rank. The intendant, as in
France, was usually drawn from the gens de role, or
legal class.1 The mutual relations of the two officers
were modified by the circumstances about them. The
governor was superior in rank to the intendant; he
commanded the troops, conducted relations with
foreign colonies and Indian tribes, and took pre-
cedence on all occasions of ceremony. Unlike a
1 The governor was styled in his commission, Gouverneur et Lieu-
tenant-G&ne'ral en Canada, Acadie, Isle de Terreneuve, et autres pays
de la France Septentrionale ; and the intendant, Intendant de la Justice,
Police, et Finances en Canada, Acadie, Terreneuve, et autres pays de la
France Septentrionale.
828 THE RULERS OF CANADA. [1683-1763.
provincial governor in France, he had great and
substantial power. The King and the minister, his
sole masters, were a thousand leagues distant, and
he controlled the whole military force. If he abused
his position, there was no remedy but in appeal to
the court, which alone could hold him in check.
There were local governors at Montreal and Three
Rivers; but their power was carefully curbed, and
they were forbidden to fine or imprison any person
without authority from Quebec.1
The intendant was virtually a spy on the governor-
general, of whose proceedings and of everything
else that took place he was required to make report.
Every year he wrote to the minister of state one, two,
three, or four letters, often forty or fifty pages long,
filled with the secrets of the colony, political and
personal, great and small, set forth with a minuteness
often interesting, often instructive, and often exces-
sively tedious.2 The governor, too, wrote letters of
pitiless length ; and each of the colleagues was jealous
of the letters of the other. In truth, their relations
to each other were so critical, and perfect harmony
so rare, that they might almost be described as
natural enemies. The court, it is certain, did not
1 The Sulpitian seigniors of Montreal claimed the right of
appointing their own local governor. This was denied by the
court, and the excellent Sulpitian governor, Maisonneuve, was re-
moved by De Tracy, to die in patient obscurity at Paris. Some
concessions were afterwards made in favor of the Sulpitian claims.
2 I have carefully read about two thousand pages of these
letters.
1663-1763.] THE COUNCIL. 329
desire their perfect accord; nor, on the other hand,
did it wish them to quarrel : it aimed to keep them on
such terms that, without deranging the machinery of
administration, each should be a check on the other.1
The governor, the intendant, and the supreme
council or court were absolute masters of Canada
under the pleasure of the King. Legislative, judi-
cial, and executive power, all centred in them. We
have seen already the very unpromising beginnings
of the supreme council. It had consisted at first of
the governor, the bishop, and five councillors chosen
by them. The intendant was soon added, to form the
ruling triumvirate ; but the appointment of the coun-
cillors, the occasion of so many quarrels, was after-
wards exercised by the King himself.2 Even the name
of the council underwent a change in the interest of
his autocracy, and he commanded that it should no
longer be called the Supreme, but only the Superior
Council. The same change had just been imposed on
all the high tribunals of France.3 Under the shadow
of the fleur-de-lis, the King alone was to be supreme.
1 The governor and intendant made frequent appeals to the court
to settle questions arising between them. Several of these appeals
are preserved. The King wrote replies on the margin of the paper,
but they were usually too curt and general to satisfy either party.
2 D&laration du Roi du 16 Juin, 1703. Appointments were made
by the King many years earlier. As they were always made on the
recommendation of the governor and intendant, the practical effect
of the change was merely to exclude the bishop from a share in
them. The West India Company made the nominations during the
ten years of its ascendancy.
8 Cheruel, Administration Monarchique en France, ii 100.
330 THE RULERS OF CANADA. [1663-1763.
In 1675 the number of councillors was increased to
seven, and in 1703 it was again increased to twelve ;
but the character of the council or court remained
the same. It issued decrees for the civil, commer-
cial, and financial government of the colony, and
gave judgment in civil and criminal causes according
to the royal ordinances and the Coutume de Paris. It
exercised also the function of registration borrowed
from the parliament of Paris. That body, it will be
remembered, had no analogy whatever with the
English parliament. Its ordinary functions were
not legislative, but judicial ; and it was composed of
judges hereditary under certain conditions. Never-
theless, it had long acted as a check on the royal
power through its right of registration. No royal
edict had the force of law till entered upon its books,
and this custom had so deep a root in the monarchical
constitution of France, that even Louis XIV., in the
flush of his power, did not attempt to abolish it.
He did better; he ordered his decrees to be regis-
tered, and the humbled parliament submissively
obeyed. In like manner all edicts, ordinances, or
declarations relating to Canada were entered on the
registers of the superior council at Quebec. The
order of registration was commonly affixed to the
edict or other mandate, and nobody dreamed of dis-
obeying it.1
1 Many general edicts relating to the whole kingdom are also
registered on the books of the council; but the practice in this
respect was by no means uniform.
1663-1763.] INFERIOR COURTS. 331
The council or court had its attorney-general, who
heard complaints, and brought them before the
tribunal if he thought necessary; its secretary, who
kept its registers, and its huissiers or attendant
officers. It sat once a week; and, though it was the
highest court of appeal, it exercised at first original
jurisdiction in very trivial cases.1 It was empowered
to establish subordinate courts or judges throughout
the colony. Besides these, there was a judge
appointed by the King for each of the three districts
into which Canada was divided, — those of Quebec,
Three Rivers, and Montreal. To each of the three
royal judges were joined a clerk and an attorney-
general, under the supervision and control of the
attorney-general of the superior court, to which
tribunal appeal lay from all the subordinate jurisdic-
tions. The jurisdiction of the seigniors within their
own limits has already been mentioned. They were
entitled by the terms of their grants to the exercise
of "high, middle, and low justice;" but most of
them were practically restricted to the last of the
three, — that is, to petty disputes between the habi-
tants, involving not more than sixty sous, or offences
for which the fine did not exceed ten sous.2 Thus
limited, their judgments were often useful in saving
1 See the Registres du Conseil Sup€rieur, preserved at Quebec.
Between 1663 and 1673 are a multitude of judgments on matters
great and small, — from murder, rape, and infanticide, down to
petty nuisances, misbehavior of servants, and disputes about the
price of a sow.
2 Doutre et Lareau, Histoire <*u Droit Canadien, 135.
332 THE RULERS OF CANADA. [1663-1763.
time, trouble, and money to the disputants. The
corporate seigniors of Montreal long continued to
hold a feudal court in form, with attorney-general,
clerk, and huissier ; but very few other seigniors were
in a condition to imitate them. Added to all these
tribunals was the bishop's court at Quebec, to try
causes held to be within the province of the Church.
The office of judge in Canada was no sinecure. The
people were of a litigious disposition, — partly from
their Norman blood ; partly, perhaps, from the idleness
of the long and tedious winter, which gave full leis-
ure for gossip and quarrel ; and partly from the very
imperfect manner in which titles had been drawn and
the boundaries of grants marked out, whence ensued
disputes without end between neighbor and neighbor.
"I will not say," writes the satirical La Hontan,
"that Justice is more chaste and disinterested here
than in France ; but, at least, if she is sold, she is sold
cheaper. We do not pass through the clutches of ad-
vocates, the talons of attorneys, and the claws of clerks.
These vermin do not infest Canada yet. Everybody
pleads his own cause. Our Themis is prompt, and
she does not bristle with fees, costs, and charges. The
judges have only four hundred francs a year, — a great
temptation to look for law in the bottom of the suitor's
purse. Four hundred francs ! Not enough to buy a
cap and gown; so these gentry never wear them."1
Thus far La Hontan. Now let us hear the King
i La Hontan, i. 21 (ed. 1705). In some editions, the above is ex
pressed in different language.
1663-1763.] THE COUNCILLORS. 333
himself. " The greatest disorder which has hitherto
existed in Canada," writes Louis XIV. to the
intendant Meules, "has come from the small degree
of liberty which the officers of justice have had in
the discharge of their duties, by reason of the
violence to which they have been subjected, and the
part they have been obliged to take in the continual
quarrels between the governor and the intendant;
insomuch that justice having been administered by
cabal and animosity, the inhabitants have hitherto
been far from the tranquillity and repose which can-
not be found in a place where everybody is compelled
to take side with one party or another." l
Nevertheless, on ordinary local questions between
the habitants, justice seems to have been administered
on the whole fairly; and judges of all grades often
interposed in their personal capacity to bring parties
to an agreement without a trial. From head to foot,
the government kept its attitude of paternity.
Beyond and above all the regular tribunals, beyond
and above the council itself, was the independent
jurisdiction lodged in the person of the King's man,
the intendant. His commission empowered him, if
he saw fit, to call any cause whatever before himself
for judgment; and he judged exclusively the cases
which concerned the King, and those involving the
relations of seignior and vassal.2 He appointed sub-
1 Instruction du Roy pour le Sieur de Meules, 1682.
2 See the commissions of various intendants, in iZdits et Or don
nances iii.
334 THE RULERS OF CANADA. [1663-1733.
ordinate judges, from whom there was appeal to
him; but from his decisions, as well as from those of
the superior council, there was no appeal but to the
King in his council of state.
On any Monday morning one would have found
the superior council in session in the antechamber of
the governor's apartment, at the Chateau St. Louis.
The members sat at a round table. At the head was
the governor, with the bishop on his right, and the
intendant on his left. The councillors sat in the
order of their appointment, and the attorney-general
also had his place at the board. As La Hontan
says, they were not in judicial robes, but in their
ordinary dress, and all but the bishop wore swords.1
The want of the cap and gown greatly disturbed the
intendant Meules ; and he begs the minister to con-
sider how important it is that the councillors, in
order to inspire respect, should appear in public in
long black robes, which on occasions of ceremony
they should exchange for robes of red. He thinks
that the principal persons of the colony would thus
be induced to train up their children to so enviable a
dignity; "and," he concludes, "as none of the coun-
cillors can afford to buy red robes, I hope that the
King will vouchsafe to send out nine such. As for
the black robes, they can furnish those themselves."2
The King did not respond, and the nine robes never
arrived.
1 Compare La Potherie, i. 260 ; and La Tour, Vie de Laval,liv. vii
2 Meules au Ministre, 28 Sept., 1685.
1663-1763.] THE COUNCILLORS. 336
The official dignity of the council was sometimes
exposed to trials against which even red gowns
might have proved an insufficient protection. The
same intendant urges that the tribunal ought to be
provided immediately with a house of its own. " It
is not decent," he says, "that it should sit in the
governor's antechamber any longer. His guards and
valets make such a noise that we cannot hear one
another speak. I have continually to tell them to
keep quiet, which causes them to make a thousand
jokes at the councillors as they pass in and out."1
As the governor and the council were often on ill
terms, the official head of the colony could not
always be trusted to keep his attendants on their
good behavior. The minister listened to the com-
plaint of Meules, and adopted his suggestion that the
government should buy the old brewery of Talon, —
a large structure of mingled timber and masonry
on the banks of the St. Charles. It was at an easy
distance from the chateau; passing the H6tel Dieu
and descending the rock, one reached it by a walk of
a few minutes. It was accordingly repaired, partly
rebuilt, and fitted up to serve the double purpose
of a lodging for the intendant and a court-house.
Henceforth the transformed brewery was known as
the Palace of the Intendant, or the Palace of Justice ;
and here the council and inferior courts long con-
tinued to hold their sessions.
Some of these inferior courts appear to have needed
1 Meules au Ministre, 12 Nov., 1684.
336 THE RULERS OF CANADA. [1663-1763.
a lodging quite as much as the council. The watch-
ful Meules informs the minister that the royal judge
for the district of Quebec was accustomed in winter,
with a view to saving. fuel, to hear causes and pro-
nounce judgment by his own fireside, in the midst of
his children, whose gambols disturbed the even
distribution of justice.1
The superior council was not a very harmonious
body. As its three chiefs — the man of the sword,
the man of the church, and the man of the law —
were often at variance, the councillors attached them-
selves to one party or the other, and hot disputes
sometimes ensued. The intendant, though but third
in rank, presided at the sessions, took votes, pro-
nounced judgment, signed papers, and called special
meetings. This matter of the presidency was for
some time a source of contention between him and
the governor, till the question was set at rest by a
decree of the King.
The intendants in their reports to the minister do
not paint the council in flattering colors. One of
them complains that the councillors, being busy with
their farms, neglect their official duties. Another
says that they are all more or less in trade. A third
calls them uneducated persons of slight account,
allied to the chief families and chief merchants in
Canada, in whose interest they make laws; and he
adds, that, as a year and a half or even two years
usually elapse before the answer to a complaint is
1 Meules on Ministre, 12 Nov., 1684.
1663-1763.] THE INTENDANT. £87
received from France, they take advantage of this
long interval to the injury of the King's service.1
These and other similar charges betray the con-
tinual friction between the several branches of the
government.
The councillors were rarely changed, and they
usually held office for life. In a few cases the King
granted to the son of a councillor yet living the right
of succeeding his father when the charge should
become vacant.2 It was a post of honor and not of
profit, at least of direct profit. The salaries were
very small, and coupled with a prohibition to receive
fees.
Judging solely by the terms of his commission, the
intendant was the ruling power in the colony. He
controlled all expenditure of public money, and not
only presided at the council, but was clothed in his
own person with independent legislative as well as
judicial power. He was authorized to issue ordi-
nances having the force of law whenever he thought
necessary, and, in the words of his commission, "to
order everything as he shall see just and proper."3
He was directed to be present at councils of war,
though war was the special province of his colleague,
1 Meules au Ministre, 12 Nov., 1684.
2 A son of Amours was named in his father's lifetime to succeed
him, as was also a son of the attorney-general Auteuil. There are
several other cases. A son of Tilly, to whom the right of succeed-
ing his father had been granted, asks leave to sell it to the merchant
La Chesnaye.
8 Commissions of Bouteroue, Duchesneau, Meules, etc.
22
338 THE RULERS OF CANADA. [1663-1763.
and to protect soldiers and all others from official
extortion and abuse; that is, to protect them from
the governor. Yet there were practical difficulties
in the way of his apparent power. The King, his
master, was far away; but official jealousy was busy
around him, and his patience was sometimes put to
the proof. Thus the royal judge of Quebec had
fallen into irregularities. "I can do nothing with
him," writes the intendant; "he keeps on good
terms with the governor and council, and sets me at
naught." The governor had, as he thought, treated
him amiss. "You have told me," he writes to the
minister, " to bear everything from him and report to
you ; " and he proceeds to recount his grievances.
Again, "the attorney-general is bold to insolence,
and needs to be repressed. The King's interposition
is necessary." He modestly adds that the intendant
is the only man in Canada whom his Majesty can
trust, and that he ought to have more power.1
These were far from being his only troubles. The
enormous powers with which his commission clothed
him were sometimes retrenched by contradictory
instructions from the King;2 for this government,
not of laws but of arbitrary will, is marked by fre-
quent inconsistencies. When he quarrelled with the
governor, and the governor chanced to have strong
1 Meules au Ministre,l2 Nov., 1684.
2 Thus, Meules is flatly forbidden to compel litigants to bring
causes before him (Instruction pour h Sieur de Meules, 1682) ; and this
prohibition is nearly of the same date with the commission in
which the power to do so is expressly given him.
1663-1763.] THE INTEND ANT. 339
friends at court, his position became truly pitiable.
He was berated as an imperious master berates an
offending servant. " Your last letter is full of noth-
ing but complaints." "You have exceeded your
authority." "Study to know yourself, and to under-
stand clearly the difference there is between a gov-
ernor and an intendant." "Since you failed to
comprehend the difference between you and the
officer who represents the King's person, you are in
danger of being often condemned, or rather of being
recalled; for his Majesty cannot endure so many
petty complaints, founded on nothing but a certain
quasi equality between the governor and you, which
you assume, but which does not exist." "Meddle
with nothing beyond your functions." "Take good
care to tell me nothing but the truth." "You ask
too many favors for your adherents." "You must
not spend more than you have authority to spend, or
it will be taken out of your pay." In short, there
are several letters from the minister Colbert to his
colonial man- of -all- work, which, from beginning to
end, are one continued scold.1
The luckless intendant was liable to be held to
account for the action of natural laws. "If the
population does not increase in proportion to the
pains I take," writes the King to Duchesneau, "you
are to lay the blame on yourself for not having exe-
1 The above examples are all taken from the letters of Colbert
to the intendant Duchesneau. It is an extreme case, but other in-
tendants are occasionally treated with scarcely more ceremony.
340 THE RULERS OF CANADA. [1663-1763.
cuted my principal order [to promote marriages], and
for having failed in the principal object for which I
sent you to Canada."1
A great number of ordinances of intendants are
preserved. They were usually read to the people at
the doors of churches after mass, or sometimes by
the cure' from his pulpit. They relate to a great
variety of subjects, — regulation of inns and markets,
poaching, preservation of game, sale of brandy, rent
of pews, stray hogs, mad dogs, tithes, matrimonial
quarrels, fast driving, wards and guardians, weights
and measures, nuisances, value of coinage, trespass
on lands, building churches, observance of Sunday,
preservation of timber, seignior and vassal, settle-
ment of boundaries, and many other matters. If a
curd with some of his parishioners reported that his
church or his house needed repair or rebuilding, the
intendant issued an ordinance requiring all the
inhabitants of the parish, "both those who have
consented and those who have not consented," to
contribute materials and labor, on pain of fine or
other penalty.2 The militia captain of the cote was
to direct the work and see that each parishioner did
his due part, which was determined by the extent of
his farm, so, too, if the grand voyer, an officer
charged with the superintendence of highways,
reported that a new road was wanted or that an old
1 Le Roi a Duchesneau, 11 Juin, 1680.
2 See, among many examples, the ordinance of 24th December,
1715. Edits et Ordonnances, ii. 443.
1663-1763.] ABSOLUTISM. 341
one needed mending, an ordinance of the in tend ant
set the whole neighborhood at work upon it, directed,
as in the other case, by the captain of militia. If
children were left fatherless, the intendant ordered
the cure* of the parish to assemble their relations or
friends for the choice of a guardian. If a censitaire
did not clear his land and live on it, the intendant
took it from him and gave it back to the seignior.1
Chimney-sweeping having been neglected at
Quebec, the intendant commands all householders
promptly to do their duty in this respect, and at the
same time fixes the pay of the sweep at six sous a
chimney. Another order forbids quarrelling in
church. Another assigns pews in due order of pre-
cedence to the seignior, the captain of militia, and
the wardens. The intendant Raudot, who seems to
have been inspired even more than the others with
the spirit of paternal intervention, issued a mandate
to the effect, that, whereas the people of Montreal
raise too many horses, which prevents them from
raising cattle and sheep, " being therein ignorant of
their true interest. . . . Now, therefore, we com-
mand that each inhabitant of the cdtes of this govern-
ment shall hereafter own no more than two horses, or
mares, and one foal, — the same to take effect after
the sowing-season of the ensuing year, 1710, giving
them time to rid themselves of their horses in excess
of said number, after which they will be required to
1 Compare the numerous ordinances printed in the second and
third volumes of iSdits et Ordonnances.
342 THE RULERS OF CANADA. [1663-1763.
kill any of such excess that may remain in their
possession."1 Many other ordinances, if not equally
preposterous, are equally stringent; such, for
example, as that of the intendant Bigot, in which,
with a view of promoting agriculture, and protecting
the morals of the farmers by saving them from the
temptations of cities, he proclaims to them: "We
prohibit and forbid you to remove to this town
[Quebec] under any pretext whatever, without our
permission in writing, on pain of being expelled and
sent back to your farms, your furniture and goods
confiscated, and a fine of fifty livres laid on you for
the benefit of the hospitals. And, furthermore, we
forbid all inhabitants of the city to let houses or
rooms to persons coming from the country, on pain
of a fine of a hundred livres, also applicable to the
hospitals."2 At about the same time a royal edict,
designed to prevent the undue subdivision of farms,
forbade the country people, except such as were
authorized to live in villages, to build a house or
barn on any piece of land less than one and a half
arpents wide and thirty arpents long ; 3 while a sub-
sequent ordinance of the intendant commands the
immediate demolition of certain houses built in con-
travention of the edict.4
The spirit of absolutism is everywhere apparent.
"It is of very great consequence," writes the intend-
ant Meules, "that the people should not be left at
1 jtfdits et Ordonnances, ii. 273. 2 Ibid., ii. 399.
' Ibid., i. 585. * Ibid., ii. 400.
1663-1763.] ABSOLUTISM. 343
liberty to speak their minds. " 1 Hence public meet-
ings were jealously restricted. Even those held by
parishioners under the eye of the cur£ to estimate
the cost of a new church seem to have required a
special license from the intendant. During a number
of years a meeting of the principal inhabitants of
Quebec was called in spring and autumn by the
council to discuss the price and quality of bread, the
supply of firewood, and other similar matters. The
council commissioned two of its members to preside
at these meetings, and on hearing their report took
what action it thought best. Thus, after the meet-
ing held in February, 1686, it issued a decree, in
which, after a long and formal preamble, it solemnly
ordained " that besides white-bread and light brown-
bread, all bakers shall hereafter make dark brown-
bread whenever the same shall be required."2 Such
assemblies, so controlled, could scarcely, one would
think, wound the tenderest susceptibilities of author-
ity ; yet there was evident distrust of them, and after
a few years this modest shred of self-government is
seen no more. The syndic, too, that functionary
whom the people of the towns were at first allowed
to choose, under the eye of the authorities, was con-
jured out of existence by a word from the King.
Seignior, censitaire, and citizen were prostrate alike
1 "II ne laisse pas d'etre de tres grande consequence de ne pas
laisser la liberte* au peuple de dire son sentiment." — Meule? au
Ministre, 1686.
* Edits et Ordonnances, ii. 112.
844 THE RULERS OF CANADA. [1663-1763.
in flat subjection to the royal will. They were not
free even to go home to France. No inhabitant of
Canada, man or woman, could do so without leave ;
and several intendants express their belief that with-
out this precaution there would soon be a falling off
in the population.
In 1671 the council issued a curious decree. One
Paul Dupuy had been heard to say that there is noth-
ing like righting one's self, and that when the
English cut off the head of Charles I. they did a
good thing, with other discourse to the like effect.
The council declared him guilty of speaking ill of
royalty in the person of the King of England, and
uttering words tending to sedition. He was con-
demned to be dragged from prison by the public exe-
cutioner, and led in His shirt, with a rope about his
neck and a torch in his hand, to the gate of the
Chateau St. Louis, there to beg pardon of the King;
thence to the pillory of the Lower Town to be
branded with a fleur-de-lis on the cheek, and set in
the stocks for half an hour ; then to be led back to
prison, and put in irons " till the information against
him shall be completed." 1
If irreverence to royalty was thus rigorously chas-
tised, irreverence to God was threatened with still
sharper penalties. Louis XIV., ever haunted with
the fear of the Devil, sought protection against him
by his famous edict against swearing, duly registered
on the books of the council at Quebec. "It is out
1 Jugements et Deliberations du Conseil Suptrieur.
1603-1763.] CANADIAN JUSTICE. 345
will and pleasure, " says this pious mandate, " that all
persons convicted of profane swearing or blaspheming
the name of God, the most Holy Virgin his mother,
or the saints, be condemned for the first offence to a
pecuniary fine according to their possessions and the
greatness and enormity of the oath and blasphemy;
and if those thus punished repeat the said oaths, then
for the second, third, and fourth time they shall be
condemned to a double, triple, and quadruple fine;
and for the fifth time, they shall be set in the pillory
on Sunday or other festival days, there to remain
from eight in the morning till one in the afternoon,
exposed to all sorts of opprobrium and abuse, and be
condemned besides to a heavy fine ; and for the sixth
time, they shall be led to the pillory, and there have
the upper lip cut with a hot iron ; and for the seventh
time, they shall be led to the pillory and have the
lower lip cut; and if, by reason of obstinacy and
inveterate bad habit, they continue after all these
punishments to utter the said oaths and blasphemies,
it is our will and command that they have the tongue
completely cut out, so that thereafter they cannot
utter them again."1 All those who should hear
anybody swear were further required to report the
fact to the nearest judge within twenty-four hours,
on pain of fine.
This is far from being the only instance in which
the temporal power lends aid to the spiritual.
1 Edit du Roy contre les Jureurs et Blasph&mateurs, du 30rae Juillet*
1666. See fidits et Ordonnances, i. 62.
346 THE RULERS OF CANADA. [1663-1763.
Among other cases, the following is worth mention-
ing: Louis Gaboury, an inhabitant of the island of
Orleans, charged with eating meat in Lent without
asking leave of the priest, was condemned by the
local judge to be tied three hours to a stake in
public, and then led to the door of the chapel, there
on his knees, with head bare and hands clasped, to
ask pardon of God and the King. The culprit
appealed to the council, which revoked the sentence
and imposed only a fine.1
The due subordination of households had its share
of attention. Servants who deserted their masters
were to be set in the pillory for the first offence, and
whipped and branded for the second; while any
person harboring them was to pay a fine of twenty
francs.2 On the other hand, nobody was allowed to
employ a servant without a license.8
In case of heinous charges, torture of the accused
was permitted under the French law; and it was
sometimes practised in Canada. Condemned mur-
derers and felons were occasionally tortured before
being strangled; and the dead body, enclosed in a
kind of iron cage, was left hanging for months at the
top of Cape Diamond, a terror to children and a
warning to evil-doers. Yet, on the whole, Canadian
justice, tried by the standard of the time, was neither
vindictive nor cruel.
1 Doutre et Lareau, Histoire du Droit Canadien, 163.
2 Re'glement de Police, 1676.
8 Edits et Ordonnances, ii. 63.
1663-1763.] ABUSES. 347
In reading the voluminous correspondence of gov-
ernors and intendants, the minister and the King,
nothing is more apparent than the interest with
which, in the early part of his reign, Louis XIV.
regarded his colony. One of the faults of his rule is
the excess of his benevolence; for not only did he
give money to support parish priests, build churches,
and aid the seminary, the Ursulines, the missions,
and the hospitals ; but he established a fund destined,
among other objects, to relieve indigent persons, sub-
sidized nearly every branch of trade and industry,
and in other instances did for the colonists what
they would far better have learned to do for
themselves.
Meanwhile, the officers of government were far
from suffering from an excess of royal beneficence.
La Hontan says that the local governor of Three
Rivers would die of hunger if, besides his pay, he
did not gain something by trade with the Indians;
and that Perrot, local governor of Montreal, with one
thousand crowns of salary, traded to such purpose
that in a few years he made fifty thousand crowns.
This trade, it may be observed, was in violation of
the royal edicts. The pay of the governor-general
varied from time to time. When La Potherie wrote,
it was twelve thousand francs a year, besides three
thousand which he received in his capacity of local
governor of Quebec.1 This would hardly tempt a
1 In 1674, the governor-general received 20,718 francs, out of
which he was to pay 8,718 to his guard of twenty men and officer*
348 THE RULERS OF CANADA. [1663-1763.
Frenchman of rank to expatriate himself; and yet
some at least of the governors came out to the colony
for the express purpose of mending their fortunes.
Indeed, the higher nobility could scarcely, in time of
peace, have other motives for going there ; the court
and the army were their element, and to be else-
where was banishment. We shall see hereafter by
what means they sought compensation for their exile
in Canadian forests.
Loud complaints sometimes found their way to
Versailles. A memorial addressed to the regent duke
of Orleans, immediately after the King's death,
declares that the ministers of state, who have been
the real managers of the colony, have made their
creatures and relations governors and intendants, and
set them free from all responsibility. High colonial
officers, pursues the writer, come home rich, while
the colony languishes almost to perishing.1 As for
lesser offices, they were multiplied to satisfy needy
retainers, till lean and starving Canada was covered
( Ordonnnance du Roy, 1675.) Yet in 1677, in the Jtftat de la Depense
que le Roy veut et ordonne estre faite, etc., the total pay of the gover-
nor-general is set down at 3,000 francs, and so also in 1681, 1682,
and 1687. The local governor of Montreal was to have 1,800
francs, and the governor of Three Rivers 1,200. It is clear, how-
ever, that this fitat de depense is not complete, as there is no pro-
vision for the intendant. The first councillor received 500 francs,
and the rest 300 francs each, equal in Canadian money to 400. An
ordinance of 1676 gives the intendant 12,000 francs. It is tolerably
clear that the provision of 3,000 francs for the governor-general was
meant only to apply to his capacity of local governor of Quebec.
1 Memoire addresse" au Regent, 1716.
1663-1763.] THE KING AND THE MINISTER. 349
with official leeches, sucking, in famished despera-
tion, at her bloodless veins.
The whole system of administration centred in the
King, who, to borrow the formula of his edicts, "in
the fulness of our power and our certain knowledge,"
was supposed to direct the whole machine, from its
highest functions to its pettiest intervention in private
affairs. That this theory, like all extreme theories
of government, was an illusion, is no fault of Louis
XIV. Hard-working monarch as he was, he spared
no pains to guide his distant colony in the paths of
prosperity. The prolix letters of governors and
intendants were carefully studied; and many of the
replies, signed by the royal hand, enter into details
of surprising minuteness. That the King himself
wrote these letters is incredible ; but in the early part
of his reign he certainly directed and controlled
them. At a later time, when more absorbing inter-
ests engrossed him, he could no longer study in
person the long-winded despatches of his Canadian
officers. They were usually addressed to the minister
of state, who caused abstracts to be made from them
for the King's use, and perhaps for his own.1 The
minister, or the minister's secretary, could suppress
or color as he or those who influenced him saw fit.
In the latter half of his too long reign, when cares,
calamities, and humiliations were thickening around
the King, another influence was added to make the
i Many of these abstracts are still preserved in the Archives of
the Marine and Colonies.
350 THE RULERS OF CANADA. [1663-1763.
theoretical supremacy of his royal will more than ever
a mockery. That prince of annalists, Saint-Simon,
has painted Louis XIV. ruling his realm from the
bedchamber of Madame de Main tenon, — seated with
his minister at a small table beside the fire, the King
in an arm-chair, the minister on a stool, with his bag
of papers on a second stool near him. In another
arm-chair, at another table on the other side of the
fire, sat the sedate favorite, busy to all appearance
with a book or a piece of tapestry, but listening to
everything that passed. "She rarely spoke," says
Saint-Simon, "except when the King asked her
opinion, which he often did ; and then she answered
with great deliberation and gravity. She never, or
very rarely, showed a partiality for any measure, still
less for any person; but she had an understanding
with the minister, who never dared do otherwise
than she wished. Whenever any favor or appoint-
ment was in question, the business was settled
between them beforehand. She would send to the
minister that she wanted to speak to him, and he did
not dare bring the matter on the carpet till he had
received her orders." Saint-Simon next recounts the
subtle methods by which Maintenon and the minister,
her tool, beguiled the King to do their will, while
never doubting that he was doing his own. "He
thought," concludes the annalist, "that it was he
alone who disposed of all appointments; while in
reality he disposed of very few indeed, except on the
rare occasions when he had taken a fancy to some-
1663-1763.] CANADA NEGLECTED. 351
body, or when somebody whom he wanted to favor
had spoken to him in behalf of somebody else." J
Add to all this the rarity of communication with
the distant colony. The ships from France arrived
at Quebec in July, August, or September, and
returned in November. The machine of Canadian
government, wound up once a year, was expected to
run unaided at least a twelvemonth. Indeed, it was
often left to itself for two years, such was sometimes
the tardiness of the overburdened government in
answering the despatches of its colonial agents. It
is no matter of surprise that a writer well versed in
its affairs calls Canada the "country of abuses."2
1 Mtmoires du Due de Saint-Simon, xiii.38, 39 (Cheruel, 1857).
Saint-Simon, notwithstanding the independence of his character and
his violent prejudices, held a high position at court; and his acute
and careful observation, joined to his familiar acquaintance with
ministers and other functionaries, both in and out of office, gives a
rare value to his matchless portraitures, and makes him indispen-
sable to the annalist of his time.
* &at present du Canada, 1758.
CHAPTER XX.
1663-1763.
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
TRADE IN FETTERS. — THE HUGUENOT MERCHANTS. — ROYAL PAT-
RONAGE. — THE FISHERIES. — CRIES FOR HELP. — AGRICULTURE.
— MANUFACTURES. — ARTS OF ORNAMENT. — FINANCE. — CARD
MONEY. — REPUDIATION. — IMPOSTS. — THE BEAVER TRADE. —
THE FAIR AT MONTREAL. — CONTRABAND TRADE. — A FATAL
SYSTEM. — TROUBLE AND CHANGE. — THE COUREURS DE Bois.
— THE FOREST. — LETTER OF CARHEIL.
WE have seen the head of the colony, its guiding
intellect and will: it remains to observe its organs
of nutrition. Whatever they might have been under
a different treatment, they were perverted and
enfeebled by the regimen to which they were
subjected.
The spirit of restriction and monopoly had ruled
from the beginning. The old governor Lauson,
seignior for a while of a great part of the colony,
held that Montreal had no right to trade directly with
France, but must draw all her supplies from Quebec ; l
and this preposterous claim was revived in the time
of Me'zy. The successive companies to whose hands
the colony was consigned had a baneful effect on
i Faillon, Colonie Fran$aise, ii. 244.
1663-1763.] TRADE IN FETTERS. 353
individual enterprise. In 1674 the charter of the
West India Company was revoked, and trade was
declared open to all subjects of the King; yet com-
merce was still condemned to wear the ball and
chain. New restrictions were imposed, meant for
good, but resulting in evil. Merchants not resident
in the colony were forbidden all trade, direct or
indirect, with the Indians.1 They were also for-
bidden to sell any goods at retail except in August,
September, and October;2 to trade anywhere in
Canada above Quebec, and to sell clothing or domestic
articles ready made. This last restriction was
designed to develop colonial industry. No person,
resident or not, could trade with the English colonies,
or go thither without a special passport, and rigid
examination by the military authorities.3 Foreign
trade of any kind was stiffly prohibited. ' In 1719,
after a new company had engrossed the beaver-trade,
its agents were empowered to enter all houses in
Canada, whether ecclesiastical or secular, and search
them for foreign goods, which when found were
publicly burned.4 In the next year the royal council
ordered that vessels engaged in foreign trade should
be captured by force of arms, like pirates, and con-
fiscated along with their cargoes ; 5 while anybody
having an article of foreign manufacture in his pos-
session was subjected to a heavy fine.6
1 Element de Police, 1676. Art. xl.
2 Edits et Ordonnances, ii. 100. » Ibid., i. 489.
* Ibid., i. 402. 6 Ibid., i. 425. « Ibid., i. 505.
354 TRADE AND INDUSTRY. [1663-1763.
Attempts were made to fix the exact amount of
profit which merchants from France should be allowed
to make in the colony; one of the first acts of the
superior council was to order them to bring their
invoices immediately before that body, which there-
upon affixed prices to each article. The merchant
who sold and the purchaser who bought above this
tariff were alike condemned to heavy penalties ; and
so, too, was the merchant who chose to keep his
goods rather than sell them at the price ordained.1
Resident merchants, on the other hand, were favored
to the utmost: they could sell at what price they
saw fit; and, according to La Hontan, they made
great profit by the sale of laces, ribbons, watches,
jewels, and similar superfluities to the poor but
extravagant colonists.
A considerable number of the non-resident mer-
chants were Huguenots, for most of the importations
were from the old Huguenot city of Rochelle. No
favor was shown them; they were held under rigid
restraint, and forbidden to exercise their religion, or
to remain in the colony during winter without
special license.2 This sometimes bore very hard upon
them. The governor, Denonville, an ardent Catholic,
states the case of one Bernon, who had done great
service to the colony, and whom La Hontan mentions
as the principal French merchant in the Canadian
trade. "It is a pity," says Denonville, "that he
1 jSdits et Ordonnances, ii. 17, 19.
2 Rtfglement de Police, 1676. Art. xxxrii
1663-1763.] ROYAL PATRONAGE. 355
cannot be converted. As he is a Huguenot, the
bishop wants me to order him home this autumn, —
which I have done, though he carries on a large busi-
ness, and a great deal of money remains due to him
here."1
For a long time the ships from France went home
empty, except a favored few which carried furs, or
occasionally a load of dried pease or of timber. Pay-
ment was made in money when there was any in
Canada, or in bills of exchange. The colony, draw-
ing everything from France and returning little
besides beaver-skins, remained under a load of debt.
French merchants were discouraged, and shipments
from France languished. As for the trade with the
West Indies, which Talon had tried by precept and
example to build up, the intendant reports in 1680
that it had nearly ceased; though six years later it
grew again to the modest proportions of three vessels
loaded with wheat.2
The besetting evil of trade and industry in Canada
was the habit they contracted, and were encouraged
to contract, of depending on the direct aid of govern-
ment. Not a new enterprise was set on foot with-
out a petition to the King to lend a helping hand.
Sometimes the petition was sent through the gov-
ernor, sometimes through the intendant ; and it was
rarely refused. Denonville writes that the merchants
1 Denonville au Ministre, 1685.
2 Ibid., 1686. The year before, about 18,000 minots of grain were
sent hither. In 1736 the shipments reached 80,000 minots.
356 TRADE AND INDUSTRY. [1663-1763.
of Quebec, by a combined effort, had sent a vessel
of sixty tons to France with colonial produce; and
he asks that the royal commissaries at Rochefort be
instructed to buy the whole cargo, in order to
encourage so deserving an enterprise. One Hazeur
set up a saw-mill at Mai Bay. Finding a large
stock of planks and timber on his hands, he begs the
King to send two vessels to carry them to France ;
and the King accordingly did so. A similar request
was made in behalf of another saw-mill at St. Paul's
Bay. Denonville announces that one Riverin wishes
to embark in the whale and cod fishery, and that
though strong in zeal he is weak in resources. The
minister replies that he is to be encouraged, and that
his Majesty will favorably consider his enterprise.1
Various gifts were soon after made him. He now
took to himself a partner, the Sieur Chalons ; where-
upon the governor writes to ask the minister's pro-
tection for them. " The Basques, " he says, " formerly
carried on this fishery, but some monopoly or other
put a stop to it." The remedy he proposes is homoeo-
pathic. He asks another monopoly for the two
partners. Louis Joliet, the discoverer of the Missis-
1 The interest felt by the King in these matters is shown in a
letter signed by his hand in which he enters with considerable detail
into the plans of Riverin. (Le Roy a Denonville et Champigny, 1
Mai, 1689.) He afterwards ordered boats, harpooners, and cordage
to be sent him, for which he was to pay at his convenience. Four
years later he complains that, though Riverin had been often
helped, his fisheries were of slight account. " Let him take care,"
pursues the King, " that he does not use his enterprises as a pretext
to obtain favors." Me'moire du Roy a Frontenac et Champigny, 1693.
1663-1763.] THE FISHERIES. 357
sippi, made a fishing-station on the island of Anticosti ;
and he begs help from the King, on the ground that
his fishery will furnish a good and useful employment
to young men. The Sieur Vitry wished to begin a
fishery of white porpoises, and ,he begs the King to
give him two thousand pounds of cod-line and two
thousand pounds of one and two inch rope. His
request was granted, on which he asked for five
hundred livres. The money was given him; and the
next year he asked to have the gift renewed.1
The King was very anxious to develop the fisheries
of the colony. "His Majesty," writes the minister,
"wishes you to induce the inhabitants to unite with
the merchants for this object, and to incite them by
all sorts of means to overcome their natural laziness,
since there is no other way of saving them from the
misery in which they now are."2 "I wish," says the
zealous Denonville, "that fisheries could be well
established to give employment to our young men,
and prevent them from running wild in the woods; "
and he adds mournfully, "they [the fisheries] are
1 All the above examples are drawn from the correspondence of
the governor and intendant with the minister, between 1680 and
1699, together with a memorial of Hazeur and another of Riverin,
addressed to the minister.
Vitry's porpoise-fishing appears to have ended in failure. In
1707 the intendant Raudot granted the porpoise- fishery of the
seigniory of Riviere Ouelle to six of the habitants. This fishery is
carried on here successfully at the present day. A very interesting
account of it was published in the Opinion Publigue, 1873, by my
friend Abbe Casgrain, whose family residence is the seigniorial
mansion of Riviere Ouelle.
2 Mf moire pour Denonville et Champigny, 8 Mars, 1688.
358 TRADE AND INDUSTRY. [1663-1763.
enriching Boston at our expense." "They are our
true mines," urges the intendant Meules; "but the
English of Boston have got possession of those of
Acadia, which belong to us, and we ought to prevent
it." It was not prevented; and the Canadian
fisheries, like other branches of Canadian industry,
remained in a state of almost hopeless languor.1
The government applied various stimulants. One
of these, proposed by the intendant Duchesneau, is
characteristic. He advises the formation of a com-
pany which should have the exclusive right of export-
ing fish ; but which on its part should be required to
take, at a fixed price, all that the inhabitants should
bring them. This notable plan did not find favor
with the King.2 It was practised, however, in the
case of beaver-skins, and also in that of wood-ashes.
The farmers of the revenue were required to take
this last commodity at a fixed price, on their own
risk, and in any quantity offered. They remonstrated,
saying that it was unsalable, — adding, that, if the
inhabitants would but take the trouble to turn it into
1 The Canadian fisheries must not be confounded with the
French fisheries of Newfoundland, which were prosperous, but were
carried on wholly from French ports.
In a memorial addressed by the partners Chalons and Riverin to
the minister Seignelay, they say: "Baston [Boston] et toute sa
colonie nous donne un exemple qui fait honte a nostre nation,
puisqu'elle s'augmente tous les jours par cette pesche (de la morue)
qu'elle fait la plus grande partie sur nos costes pendant que lea
Fran£ois ne s'occupent a rien." Meules urges that the King should
undertake the fishing business himself, since his subjects cannot or
will not.
2 Ministre a Duchesneau, 15 Mai, 1678.
1663-1763.] APPEALS FOR HELP. 359
potash, it might be possible to find a market for it.
The King released them entirely, coupling his order
to that effect with a eulogy of free-trade.1
In all departments of industry the appeals for help
are endless. Governors and intendants are so many
sturdy beggars for the languishing colony. "Send
us money to build storehouses, to which the habitants
can bring their produce and receive goods from the
government in exchange." "Send us a teacher to
make sailors of our young men : it is a pity the colony
should remain in such a state for want of instruction
for youth."2 "We want a surgeon: there is none in
Canada who can set a bone." 3 " Send us some tilers,
brick-makers, and potters."4 "Send us iron-workers
to work our mines."5 "It is to be wished that his
Majesty would send us all sorts of artisans, especially
potters and glass- workers."6 "Our Canadians need
aid and instruction in their fisheries; they need
pilots. "^
In 1688 the intendant reported that Canada was
entirely without either pilots or sailors ; and as late
as 1712 the engineer Catalogue informed the govern-
ment, that, though the St. Lawrence was dangerous,
a pilot was rarely to be had. " There ought to be
1 Le Roy a Duchesneau, 11 Juin, 1680.
2 Memoire a Monseigneur le Marquis de Seignelay, presents pal
es Sieurs Chalons et Riverin, 1686.
8 Champigny au Ministre, 1688.
* Ibid.
6 Denonville au Ministre, 1686.
6 Memoire de Catalogue, 1712.
7 Denonville au Ministre, 1686.
360 TRADE AND INDUSTRY. [1663-1763
trade with the West Indies and other places," urges
another writer. "Everybody says it is best, but
nobody will undertake it. Our merchants are too
poor, or else are engrossed by the fur-trade."1
The languor of commerce made agriculture languish.
"It is of no use now," writes Meules, in 1682, "to
raise any crops except what each family wants for
itself." In vain the government sent out seeds for
distribution; in vain intendants lectured the farmers,
and lavished well-meant advice. Tillage remained
careless and slovenly. "If," says the all-observing
Catalogue, "the soil were not better cultivated in
Europe than here, three-fourths of the people would
starve." He complains that the festivals of the
Church are so numerous that not ninety working-
days are left during the whole working season. The
people, he says, ought to be compelled to build
granaries to store their crops, instead of selling them
in autumn for almost nothing, and every habitant
should be required to keep two or three sheep. The
intendant Champigny calls for seed of hemp and flax,
and promises to visit the farms, and show the people
the lands best suited for their culture. He thinks
that favors should be granted to those who raise
hemp and flax as well as to those who marry.
Denonville is of opinion that each habitant should be
compelled to raise a little hemp every year, and that
the King should then buy it of him at a high price.2
1 Mgmoire de Chalons et Riverin pr&sente' au Marquis de Seignelay.
2 Denonville au Ministre, 13 Nov., 1685.
1663-1763.] MANUFACTURES. 361
It will be well, he says, to make use of severity,
while at the same time holding out a hope of gain ;
and he begs that weavers be sent out to teach the
women and girls, who spend the winter in idleness,
how to weave and spin. Weaving and spinning,
however, as well as the culture of hemp and flax,
were neglected till 1705, when the loss of a ship
laden with goods for the colony gave the spur to
home industry; and Madame de Repentigny set the
example of making a kind of coarse blanket of nettle
and linden bark.1
The jealousy of colonial manufactures shown by
England appears but rarely in the relations of France
with Canada. According to its light, the French
government usually did its best to stimulate Canadian
industry, with what results we have just seen. There
was afterwards some improvement. In 1714 the
intendant B^gon reported that coarse fabrics of wool
and linen were made ; that the sisters of the congre-
gation wove cloth for their own habits as good as the
same stuffs in France ; that black cloth was made for
priests, and blue cloth for the pupils of the colleges.
The inhabitants, he says, have been taught these arts
by necessity. They were naturally adroit at handi-
work of all kinds ; and during the last half-century
of the French rule, when the population had settled
into comparative stability, many of- the mechanic arts
were practised with success, notwithstanding the
assertion of the Abbe* La Tour that everything but.
1 Beauharnois et Baudot ay Ministre, 1705.
362 TRADE AND INDUSTRY. [1663-1763.
bread and meat had still to be brought from France.
This change may be said to date from the peace of
Utrecht, or a few years before it. At that time one
Duplessis had a new vessel on the stocks. Catalogue,
who states the fact, calls it the beginning of ship-
building in Canada, — evidently ignorant that Talon
had made a fruitless beginning more than forty years
before.
Of the arts of ornament not much could have been
expected ; but, strangely enough, they were in some-
what better condition than the useful arts. The
nuns of the Hotel-Dieu made artificial flowers for
altars and shrines, under the direction of Mother
Juchereau ; 1 and the boys of the seminary were
taught to make carvings in wood for the decoration
of churches.2 Pierre, son of the merchant Le Ber,
had a turn for painting, and made religious pictures,
described as very indifferent.3 His sister Jeanne, an
enthusiastic devotee, made embroideries for vest-
ments and altars, and her work was much admired.
The colonial finances were not prosperous. In the
absence of coin, beaver-skins long served as currency.
In 1669 the council declared wheat a legal tender, at
four francs the minot or three French bushels ; 4 and,
five years later, all creditors were ordered to receive
inoose-skins in payment at the market rate.5 Coin
would not remain in the colony: if the company or
. ! Juchereau, Hist, de I' H6tel-Dieu, 244. 2 AMlle, ii. 13.
8 Faillon, Vie de Mile. Le Ber, 331. * tfdits et Ord.t ii. 47.
5 Ibid., ii. 55.
1663-1763.] FINANCE. 368
the King sent any thither, it went back in the return-
ing ships. The government devised a remedy. A
coinage was ordered for Canada one-fourth less in
value than that of France. Thus the Canadian livre
or franc was worth, in reality, fifteen sous instead of
twenty.1 This shallow expedient produced only a
nominal rise of prices, and coin fled the colony as
before. Trade was carried on for a time by means
of negotiable notes, payable in furs, goods, or farm
produce. In 1685 the intendant Meules issued a
card currency. He had no money to pay the soldiers,
"and not knowing," he informs the minister, "to
what saint to make my vows, the idea occurred to me
of putting in circulation notes made of cards, each
cut into four pieces ; and I have issued an ordinance
commanding the inhabitants to receive them in
payment."2 The cards were common playing-cards,
and each piece was stamped with & fleur-de-lis and a
crown, and signed by the governor, the intendant,
and the clerk of the treasury at Quebec.3 The
example of Meules found ready imitation. Governors
and intendants made card-money whenever they saw
fit; and, being worthless everywhere but in Canada,
it showed no disposition to escape the colony. It
was declared convertible not into coin, but into bills
of exchange ; and this conversion could only take
place at brief specified periods. " The currency used
1 This device was of very early date. See Boucher, Hi»t. Vfri-
table, chap. xiv.
2 Meules au Ministre, 24 Sept., 1685.
8 Me*moire address^ au Regent 1715.
364 TRADE AND INDUSTRY. [1663-1763
in Canada," says a writer in the last years of the
French rule, "has no value as a representative of
money. It is the sign of a sign."1 It was card
representing paper, and this paper was very often
dishonored. In 1714 the amount of card rubbish
had risen to two million livres. Confidence was lost,
and trade was half dead. The minister Ponchartrain
came to the rescue, and promised to redeem it at half
its nominal value. The holders preferred to lose
half rather than the whole, and accepted the terms.
A few of the cards were redeemed at the rate named ;
then the government broke faith, and payment ceased.
"This afflicting news," says a writer of the time,
"was brought out by the vessel which sailed from
France last July."
In 1717 the government made another proposal,
and the cards were converted into bills of exchange.
At the same time a new issue was made, which it
was declared should be the last.2 This issue was
promptly redeemed; but twelve years later another
followed it. In the interval, a certain quantity of
coin circulated in the colony; but it underwent
fluctuations through the intervention of government,
and within eight years at least four edicts were issued
affecting its value.8 Then came more promises to
pay, till, in the last bitter years of its existence, the
colony floundered in drifts of worthless paper.
One characteristic grievance was added to the
i Considerations sur I'lZtat du Canada, 1758.
« tfdits et Ordonnances, i. 370. 3 Ibid., 400, 432, 436, 484.
1663-1763.] IMPOSTS. 365
countless woes of Canadian commerce. The govern-
ment was so jealous of popular meetings of all kinds,
that for a long time it forbade merchants to meet
together for discussing their affairs ; and it was not
till 1717 that the establishment of a bourse, or
exchange, was permitted at Quebec and Montreal.1
tlLi respect of taxation, Canada, as compared with
France, had no reason to complain. If the King
permitted governors and intendants to make card-
money, he permitted nobody to impose taxes but
himself. The Canadians paid no direct civil tax,
except in a few instances where temporary and local
assessments were ordered for special objects. It was
the fur-trade on which the chief burden fell. One-
fourth of the beaver-skins, and one-tenth of the
moose-hides belonged to the King ; and wine, brandy,
and tobacco contributed a duty of ten per cent.
During a long course of years these were the only
imposts. The King also retained the exclusive right
of the fur-trade at Tadoussac. A vast tract of wilder-
ness extending from St. Paul's Bay to a point eighty
leagues down the St. Lawrence, and stretching indefi-
nitely northward towards Hudson's Bay, formed a
sort of royal preserve, whence every settler was
rigidly excluded. The farmers of the revenue had
their trading-houses at Tadoussac, whither the
northern tribes, until war, pestilence, and brandy
consumed them, brought every summer a large
quantity of furs.
1 Doutre et Lareau, Hist, du Droit Canadien, 264.
366 TRADE AND INDUSTRY. [1663-1763.
When, in 1674, the West India Company, to
whom these imposts had been granted, was extin-
guished, the King resumed possession of them. The
various duties, along with the trade of Tadoussac,
were now farmed out to one Oudiette and his asso-
ciates, who paid the Crown three hundred and fifty
thousand livres for their privilege.1
uVe come now to a trade far more important than
all the others together, one which absorbed the enter-
prise of the colony, drained the life-sap from other
branches of commerce, and, even more than a vicious
system of government, kept them in a state of chronic
debility, — the hardy, adventurous, lawless, fascinat-
ing fur-trade) In the eighteenth century, Canada
exported a moderate quantity of timber, wheat, the
herb called ginseng, and a few other commodities;
but from first to last she lived chiefly on beaver-
skins. The government tried without ceasing to
control and regulate this traffic; but it never suc-
ceeded. It aimed, above all things, to bring the
trade home to the colonists; to prevent them from
1 The annual return to the King from the ferme du Canada was,
for some years, 119,000 francs (livres). Out of this were paid from
35,000 to 40,000 francs a year for " ordinary charges." The gover-
nor, intendant, and all troops, except the small garrisons of Quebec,
Montreal, and Three Rivers, were paid from other sources. There
was a time when the balance must have been in the King's favor ;
but profit soon changed to loss, owing partly to wars, partly to the
confusion into which the beaver-trade soon fell. " His Majesty,"
writes the minister to the governor in. 1698, " may soon grow tired
of a colony which, far from yielding him any profit, costs him
immense sums every year."
1663-1763.] THE BEAVER-TRADE. 367
going to the Indians, and induce the Indians to come
to them. To this end a great annual fair was estab-
lished by order of the King at Montreal. Thither
every summer a host of savages came down from the
lakes in their bark canoes. A place was assigned
them at a little distance from the town. They
landed, drew up their canoes in a line on the bank,
took out their packs of beaver-skins, set up their
wigwams, slung their kettles, and encamped for the
night. On the next day there was a grand council
on the common, between St. Paul Street and the
river. Speeches of compliment were made amid a
solemn smoking of pipes. The governor-general was
usually present, seated in an arm-chair, while the
visitors formed a ring about him, ranged in the order
of their tribes. On the next day the trade began in
the same place. Merchants of high and low degree
brought up their goods from Quebec, and every
inhabitant of Montreal, of any substance, sought a
share in the profit. Their booths were set along the
palisades of the town, and each had an interpreter,
to whom he usually promised a certain portion of his
gains. The scene abounded in those contrasts — not
always edifying, but always picturesque — which
mark the whole course of French -Canadian history.
Here was 'a throng of Indians armed with bows and
arrows, war-clubs, or the cheap guns of the trade,
— some of them being completely naked, except for
the feathers on their heads and the paint on their
faces; French bush-rangers tricked out with savage
368 TRADE AND INDUSTRY. [1663-1763.
finery; merchants and habitants in their coarse and
plain attire, and the grave priests of St. Sulpice robed
in black. Order and sobriety were their watchwords ;
but the wild gathering was beyond their control.
The prohibition to sell brandy could rarely be
enforced ; and the fair ended at times in a pandemo-
nium of drunken frenzy. The rapacity of trade,
and the license of savages and coureurs de bois, had
completely transformed the pious settlement.
A similar fair was established at Three Rivers,
for the Algonquin tribes north of that place. These
yearly markets did not fully answer the desired
object. There was a constant tendency among the
inhabitants of Canada to form settlements above
Montreal, in order to intercept the Indians on their
way down, drench them with brandy, and get their
furs from them at low rates in advance of the fair.
Such settlements were forbidden, but not prevented.
The audacious " squatter " defied edict and ordinance
and the fury of drunken savages, and boldly planted
himself in the path of the descending trade. Nor is
this a matter of surprise; for he was usually the
secret agent of some high colonial officer, — an
intendant, the local governor, or the governor-
general, who often used his power to enforce the
law against others, and to violate it himself.
This was not all ; for the more youthful arid
vigorous part of the male population soon began to
escape into the woods, and trade with the Indians
far beyond the limits of the remotest settlements.
1663-1763.] THE FOREST-TRADE. 369
Here, too, many of them were in league with the
authorities, who denounced the abuse while secretly
favoring the portion of it in which they themselves
were interested. The home government, unable to
prevent the evil, tried to regulate it. Licenses were
issued for the forest-trade.1 Their » number was
limited to twenty-five, and the privileges which they
conferred varied at different periods. In La Hontan's
time, each license authorized the departure of two
canoes loaded with goods. One canoe only was after-
wards allowed, bearing three men with about four
hundred pounds of freight. The licenses were some-
times sold for the profit of government; but many
were given to widows of officers and other needy
persons, to the hospitals, or to favorites and retainers
of the governor. Those who could not themselves
use them sold them to merchants or voyageurs, at a
price varying from a thousand to eighteen hundred
francs. They were valid for a year and a half; and
each canoeman had a share in the profits, which, if
no accident happened, were very large. The license
system was several times suppressed and renewed
again; but, like the fair at Montreal, it failed com-
pletely to answer its purpose, and restrain the young
men of Canada from a general exodus into the
wilderness.2
The most characteristic features of the Canadian
1 Ordres du Roy au sujet de la Traite du Canada, 1681.
2 Before me is one of these licenses, signed by the governor
Denonville. A condition of carrying no brandy is appended to it.
24
370 TRADE AND INDUSTRY. [1663-1763.
fur-trade still remain to be seen. Oudiette and his
associates were not only charged with collecting the
revenue, but were also vested with an exclusive right
of transporting all the beaver-skins of the colony
to France. On their part they were compelled to
receive all beaver-skins brought to their magazines,
and, after deducting the fourth belonging to the
King, to pay for the rest at a fixed price. This price
was graduated to the different qualities of the fur;
but the average cost to the collectors was a little
more than three francs a pound. The inhabitants
could barter their furs with merchants ; but the mer-
chants must bring them all to the magazines of
Oudiette, who paid in receipts convertible into bills
of exchange. He soon found himself burdened with
such a mass of beaver-skins that the market was
completely glutted. The French hatters refused to
take them all ; and for the part which they consented
to take they paid chiefly in hats, which Oudiette was
not allowed to sell in France, but only in the French
West Indies, where few people wanted them. An
unlucky fashion of small hats diminished the con
sumption of fur and increased his embarrassments,
as did also a practice common among the hatters of
mixing rabbit fur with the beaver. In his extremity
he bethought him of setting up a hat factory for him-
self, under the name of a certain licensed hatter,
thinking thereby to alarm his customers into buying
his stock.1 The other hatters rose in wrath, and
1 Mtmoire touchant le Commerce du Canada, 1687.
1663-1763.] TROUBLE AND CHANGE. 371
petitioned the minister. The new factory was
suppressed, and Oudiette soon became bankrupt.
Another company of farmers of the revenue took his
place with similar results. The action of the law of
supply and demand was completely arrested by the
peremptory edict which, with a view to the prosper-
ity of the colony and the profit of the King, required
the company to take every beaver-skin offered.
All Canada, thinking itself sure of its price, rushed
into the beaver-trade, and the accumulation of unsal-
able furs became more and more suffocating. The
farmers of the revenue could not meet their engage-
ments. Their bills of exchange were unpaid, and
Canada was filled with distress and consternation.
In 1700 a change of system was ordered. The
monopoly of exporting beaver was placed in the
hands of a company formed of the chief inhabitants of
Canada. Some of them hesitated to take the risk;
but the government was not to be trifled with, and
the minister, Ponchartrain, wrote in terms so per-
emptory, and so menacing to the recusants, that, in
the words of a writer of the time, he "shut every-
body's mouth." About a hundred and fifty mer-
chants accordingly subscribed to the stock of the new
company, and immediately petitioned the King for
a ship and a loan of seven hundred thousand francs.
They were required to take off the hands of the
farmers of the revenue an accumulation of more than
six hundred thousand pounds of beaver, for which,
however, the}' were to pay but half its usual price.
372 TRADE AND INDUSTRY. [1663-1763.
The market of France absolutely refused it, and the
directors of the new company saw no better course
than to burn three-fourths of the troublesome and
perishable commodity ; nor was this the first resort to
this strange expedient. One cannot repress a feel-
ing of indignation at the fate of the interesting and
unfortunate animals uselessly sacrificed to a false
economic system. In order to rid themselves of
what remained, the directors begged the King to
issue a decree, requiring all hatters to put at least
three ounces of genuine beaver-fur into each hat.
All was in vain. The affairs of the company fell
into a confusion which was aggravated by the bad
faith of some of its chief members. In 1707 it was
succeeded by another company, to whose magazines
every habitant or merchant was ordered to bring
every beaver-skin in his possession within forty-eight
hours; and the company, like its predecessors, was
required to receive it, and pay for it in written
promises. Again the market was overwhelmed with
a surfeit of beaver. Again the bills of exchange
were unpaid, and all was confusion and distress.
Among the memorials and petitions to which this
state of things gave birth, there is one conspicuous
by the presence of good sense and the absence of
self-interest. The writer proposes that there should
be no more monopoly, but that everybody should be
free to buy beaver-skins and send them to France,
subject only to a moderate duty of entry. The pro-
posal was not accepted. In 1721 the monopoly of
1663-1763.] THE COUREURS DE BOIS. 378
exporting beaver-skins was given to the new West
India Company; but this time it was provided that
the government should direct from time to time,
according to the capacities of the market, the quan-
tity of furs which the company should be forced to
receive.1
Out of the beaver-trade rose a huge evil, baneful
to the growth and the morals of Canada. All that
was most active and vigorous in the colony took to
the woods, and escaped from the control of intend-
ants, councils, and priests, to the savage freedom of
the wilderness. Not only were the possible profits
great; but, in the pursuit of them, there was a fasci-
nating element of adventure and danger. The bush-
rangers, or coureurs de bois, were to the King an
object of horror. They defeated his plans for the
increase of the population, and shocked his native
instinct of discipline and order. Edict after edict
was directed against them; and more than once the
colony presented the extraordinary spectacle of the
greater part of its young men turned into forest out-
1 On the fur-trade the documents consulted are very numerous.
The following are the most important : Me'moire sur ce qui concerns
le Commerce du Castor et ses de'pendances, 1715 ; Me'moire concernant
le Commerce de Traite entre les Francois et les Sauvages, 1691 ; Me'-
moire sur le Canada addresse' au Regent, 1715 ; Me'moire sur les Affaires
de Canada dans leur Estat present, 1696 ; Me'moire des Negotiants de
la Rockelle qui font Commerce en Canada sur la Proposition de ne plus
recevoir les Castors et d'engager les Habitants a la Culture des Terres
et Pesche de la Molue, 1696 ; Me'moire du Sr. Riverin sur la Traite et
la Ferme du Castor, 1696 ; Me'moire touchant le Commerce du Canada,
1687, etc.
374 TRADE AND INDUSTRY. [1663-1763.
laws. But severity was dangerous. The offenders
might be driven over to the English, or converted
into a lawless banditti, — renegades of civilization
and the faith. Therefore, clemency alternated with
rigor, and declarations of amnesty with edicts of pro-
scription. Neither threats nor blandishments were
of much avail. We hear of seigniories abandoned;
farms turning again into forests ; wives and children
left in destitution. The exodus of the coureurs de
bois would take, at times, the character of an organ-
ized movement. The famous Du Lhut is said to
have made a general combination of the young men
of Canada to follow him into the woods. Their plan
was to be absent four years, in order that the edicts
against them might have time to relent. The intend-
ant Duchesneau reported that eight hundred men
out of a population of less than ten thousand souls
had vanished from sight in the immensity of a bound-
less wilderness. Whereupon the King ordered that
any person going into the woods without a license
should be whipped and branded for the first offence,
and sent for life to the galleys for the second.1 The
order was more easily given than enforced. " I must
not conceal from you, Monseigneur, " again writes
Duchesneau, "that the disobedience of the coureurs
de bois has reached such a point that everybody
boldly contravenes the King's interdictions; that
there is no longer any concealment; and that parties
l^Le Roy a Frontenac, SQAvril, 1681. On another occasion, it was
ordered that any person thus offending should suffer death.
1663-1763.] THE COUREURS DE BOIS. 375
are collected with astonishing insolence to go and
trade in the Indian country. I have done all in my
power to prevent this evil, which may cause the ruin
of the colony. I have enacted ordinances against the
coureurs de bois ; against the merchants who furnish
them with goods; against the gentlemen and others
who harbor them ; and even against those who have
any knowledge of them, and will not inform the
local judges. All has been in vain; inasmuch as
some of the most considerable families are interested
with them, and the governor lets them go on and
even shares their profits."1 "You are aware, Mon-
seigneur," writes Denonville, some years later, "that
the coureurs de bois are a great evil, but you are not
aware how great this evil is. It deprives the country
of its effective men; makes them indocile, debauched,
and incapable of discipline, and turns them into pre-
tended nobles, — wearing the sword and decked out
with lace, both they and their relations, who all
affect to be gentlemen and ladies. As for cultivat-
ing the soil, they will not hear of it. This, along
with the scattered condition of the settlements,
causes their children to be as unruly as Indians,
being brought up in the same manner. Not that
there are not some very good people here, but they
are in a minority."2 In another despatch he enlarges
on their vagabond and lawless ways, their indiffer-
1 N. Y. Colonial Docs., ix, 131.
2 Denonville, Mtmoire sur I'Estat des Affaires de la Nouvelle
France.
376 TRADE AND INDUSTRY. [1663-1768,
ence to marriage, and the mischief caused by their
example; describes how, on their return from the
woods, they swagger like lords, spend all their gains
in dress and drunken revelry, and despise the peas-
ants, whose daughters they will not deign to marry,
though they are peasants themselves.
It was a curious scene when a party of coureurs
de bois returned from their rovings. Montreal was
their harboring place, and they conducted themselves
much like the crew of a man-of-war paid off after a
long voyage. As long as their beaver-skins lasted,
they set no bounds to their riot. Every house in the
place, we are told, was turned into a drinking-shop.
The new-comers were bedizened with a strange mix-
ture of French and Indian finery; while some of
them, with instincts more thoroughly savage, stalked
about the streets as naked as a Pottawattamie or a
Sioux. The clamor of tongues was prodigious, and
gambling and drinking filled the day and the night.
When at last they were sober again, they sought
absolution for their sins; nor could the priests ven-
ture to bear too hard on their unruly penitents, lest
they should break wholly with the Church and dis-
pense thenceforth with her sacraments.
Under such leaders as Du Lhut, the coureurs de
"bois built forts of palisades at various points through-
out the West and Northwest. They had a post of this
sort at Detroit some time before its permanent settle-
ment, as well as others on Lake Superior and in the
valley of the Mississippi. They occupied them as
1663-1763.] THE COUREURS DE BOIS. 377
Jong as it suited their purposes, and then abandoned
them to the next comer. Michilimackinac was,
however, their chief resort; and thence they would
set out, two or three together, to roam for hundreds
of miles through the endless mesh-work of inter-
locking lakes and rivers which seams the northern
wilderness.
T'"^
LDJo wonder that a year or two of bush-ranging
spoiled them for civilization. Though not a very
valuable member of society, and though a thorn in
the side of princes and rulers, the coureur de bois had
his uses, at least from an artistic point of view ; and
his strange figure, sometimes brutally savage, but
oftener marked with the lines of a dare-devil cour-
age, and a reckless, thoughtless gayety, will always
be joined to the memories of that grand world of
woods which the nineteenth century is fast civilizing
out of existence?^ At least, he is picturesque, and
with his red-skin companion serves to animate forest
scenery. Perhaps he could sometimes feel, without
knowing that he felt them, the charms of the savage
nature that had adopted him. Rude as he was, her
voice may not always have been meaningless for one
who knew her haunts so well, — deep recesses where,
veiled in foliage, some wild shy rivulet steals with
timid music through breathless caves of verdure;
gulfs where feathered crags rise like castle walls,
where the noonday sun pierces with keen rays
athwart the torrent, and the mossed arms of fallen
pines cast wavering shadows on the illumined foam ;
378 TRADE AND INDUSTRY. [1663-1763.
pools of liquid crystal turned emerald in the reflected
green of impending woods; rocks on whose rugged
front the gleam of sunlit waters dances in quivering
light ; ancient trees hurled headlong by the storm, to
dam the raging stream with their forlorn and savage
ruin ; or the stern depths of immemorial forests, dim
and silent as a cavern, columned with innumeiable
trunks, each like an Atlas upholding its world of
leaves, and sweating perpetual moisture down its
dark and channelled rind, — some strong in youth,
some grisly with decrepit age, nightmares of strange
distortion, gnarled and knotted with wens and goitres ;
roots intertwined beneath like serpents petrified in
an agony of contorted strife; green and glistening
mosses carpeting the rough ground, mantling the
rocks, turning pulpy stumps to mounds of verdure,
and swathing fallen trunks as, bent in the impotence
of rottenness, they lie outstretched over knoll and
hollow, like mouldering reptiles of the primeval
world, while around, and on and through them,
springs the young growth that battens on their decay,
— the forest devouring its own dead ; or, to turn from
its funereal shade to the light and life of the open
woodland, the sheen of sparkling lakes, and moun-
tains basking in the glory of the summer noon,
flecked by the shadows of passing clouds that sail
on snowy wings across the transparent azure.1
1 An adverse French critic gives as his opinion that the sketch
of the primeval wilderness on the preceding page is drawn from
fancy, and not from observation. It is, however, copied in every
1663-1763.] LETTER OF CARHEIL. 379
Yet it would be false coloring to paint the half-
savage coureur de bois as a romantic lover of Nature.
He liked the woods because they emancipated him
from restraint. He liked the lounging ease of the
camp-fire, and the license of Indian villages. His
life has a dark and ugly side, which is nowhere
drawn more strongly than in a letter written by the
Jesuit Carheil to the intendant Champigny. It was
at a time when some of the outlying forest posts,
originally either missions or transient stations of
coureur s de bois, had received regular garrisons.
Carheil writes from Michilimackinac, and describes
the state of things around him like one whom long
familiarity with them had stripped of every illusion.1
But here, for the present, we pause ; for the father
touches on other matters than the coureurs de bois,
and we reserve him and his letter for the next
chapter.
particular, without exception, from a virgin forest in a deep moist
valley by the upper waters of the little river Pemigewasset in
northern New Hampshire, where I spent a summer afternoon a few
days before the passage was written.
1 See the letter in Appendix I.
CHAPTER XXI.
1663-1702.
THE MISSIONS. — THE BRANDY QUESTION.
THE JESUITS AND THE IROQUOIS. — MISSION VILLAGES. — MICHILI*
MACKINAC. — FATHER CARHEIL. — TEMPERANCE. — BRANDY AND
THE INDIANS. — STRONG MEASURES. — DISPUTES. — LICENSE AND
PROHIBITION. — VIEWS OF THE KING. — TRADE AND THE JESUITS.
FOB a year or two after De Tracy had chastised
the Mohawks, and humbled the other Iroquois na-
tions, all was rose-color on the side of that dreaded
confederacy. The Jesuits, defiant as usual of hard-
ship and death, had begun their ruined missions
anew. Bruyas took the Mission of the Martyrs
among the Mohawks; Milet, that of Saint Francis
Xavier, among the Oneidas; Lamberville, that of
Saint John the Baptist among the Onondagas ;
Carheil, that of Saint Joseph among the Cayugas;
and Raffeix and Julien Gamier shared between them
the three missions of the Senecas. The Iroquois,
after their punishment, were in a frame of mind so
hopeful that the fathers imagined for a moment that
they were all on the point of accepting the faith.
This was a consummation earnestly to be wished, not
1663-1702.] THE JESUITS AND THE IROQUOIS. 381
only from a religious, but also from a political, point
of view. The complete conversion of the Iroquois
meant their estrangement from the heretic English
and Dutch, and their firm alliance with the French.
It meant safety for Canada, and it insured for her
the fur-trade of the interior freed from English
rivalry. Hence the importance of these missions,
and hence their double character. While the Jesuit
toiled to convert his savage hosts, he watched them
at the same time with the eye of a shrewd political
agent; reported at Quebec the result of his observa-
tions, and by every means in his power sought to
alienate them from England, and attach them to
France.
Their simple conversion, by placing them wholly
under his influence, would have outweighed in
political value all other agencies combined; but the
flattering hopes of the earlier years soon vanished.
Some petty successes against other tribes so elated
the Iroquois that they ceased to care for French
alliance or French priests. Then a few petty reverses
would dash their spirits, and dispose them again to
listen to Jesuit counsels. Every success of a war-
party was a loss to the faith, and every reverse was
a gain. Meanwhile a more repulsive or a more criti-
cal existence than that of a Jesuit father in an
Iroquois town is scarcely conceivable. The torture
of prisoners turned into a horrible festivity for the
whole tribe ; foul and crazy orgies in which, as the
priest thought, the powers of darkness took a special
382 MISSIONS. — BRANDY QUESTION. [1663-1702.
delight; drunken riots, the work of Dutch brandy,
when he was forced to seek refuge from death in his
chapel, — a sanctuary which superstitious fear with-
held the Indians from violating, — these, and a thou-
sand disgusts and miseries, filled the record of his
days; and he bore them all in patience. Not only
were the early Canadian Jesuits men of an intense
religious zeal, but they were also men who lived not
for themselves but for their Order. Their faults
were many and great, but the grandeur of their self-
devotion towers conspicuous over all.
At Caughnawaga, near Montreal, may still be seen
the remnants of a mission of converted Iroquois,
whom the Jesuits induced to leave the temptations
of their native towns and settle here, under the wing
of the Church. They served as a bulwark against
the English, and sometimes did good service in time
of war. At Sillery, near Quebec, a band of Abenakis,
escaping from the neighborhood of the English
towards the close of Philip's War, formed another
mission of similar character. The Sulpitians had a
third at the foot of the mountain of Montreal, where
two massive stone-towers of the fortified Indian town
are standing to this day. All these converted
savages, as well as those of Lorette and other missions
far and near, were used as allies in war, and launched
in scalping-parties against the border settlements of
New England.
Not only the Sulpitians, but also the seminary
priests of Quebec, the Recoil ets, and even the
1663-1702.] MICHILIMACKLNTAC. 383
Capuchins, had missions more or less important, and
more or less permanent. But the Jesuits stood
always in the van of religious and political propa-
gandism ; and all the forest tribes felt their influence,
from Acadia and Maine to the plains beyond the
Mississippi. Next in importance to their Iroquois
missions were those among the Algonquins of the
northern lakes. Here was the grand domain of the
beaver- trade ; and the chief woes of the missionary
sprang not from the Indians, but from his own
countrymen. Beaver-skins had produced an effect
akin to that of gold in our own day, and the deep-
est recesses of the wilderness were invaded by eager
seekers after gain.
The focus of the evil was at Father Marquette's
old mission of Michilimackinac. First, year after
year came a riotous invasion of coureurs de lois, and
then a garrison followed to crown the mischief.
Discipline was very weak at these advanced posts,
and, to eke out their pay, the soldiers were allowed
to trade, — brandy, whether permitted or interdicted,
being the chief article of barter. Father Etienne Car-
heil was driven almost to despair ; and he wrote to the
intendant, his fast friend and former pupil, the long
letter already mentioned. "Our missions,'' he says,
" are reduced to such extremity that we can no longer
maintain them against the infinity of disorder, brutal-
ity, violence, injustice, impiety, impurity, insolence,
scorn, and insult, which the deplorable and infamous
traffic in brandy has spread universally among the
384 MISSIONS. — BRANDY QUESTION. [1663-1702.
Indians of these parts. ... In the despair in which
we are plunged, nothing remains for us but to abandon
them to the brandy-sellers as a domain of drunken-
ness and debauchery." He complains bitterly of the
officers in command of the fort, who, he says, far
from repressing disorders, encourage them by their
example, and are even worse than their subordinates,
"insomuch that all our Indian villages are so many
taverns for drunkenness and Sodoms for iniquity,
which we shall be forced to leave to the just wrath
and vengeance of God." He insists that the garri-
sons are entirely useless, as they have only four occu-
pations, — first, to keep open liquor-shops for crowds
of drunken Indians ; secondly, to roam from place to
place, carrying goods and brandy under the orders of
the commandant, who shares their profits; thirdly,
to gamble day and night ; fourthly, to " turn the fort
into a place which I am ashamed to call by its right
name ; " and he describes, with a curious amplitude
of detail, the swarms of Indian girls who are hired to
make it their resort. "Such, Monseigneur, are the
only employments of the soldiers maintained here so
many years. If this can be called doing the King
service, I admit that such service is done for him
here now, and has always been done for him here ;
but I never saw any other done in my life." He
further declares that the commandants oppose and
malign the missionaries, while of the presents which
the King sends up the country for distribution to
the Indians, they, the Indians, get nothing but a
1663-1702.] MICHILIMACKINAC. S8ii
little tobacco, and the officer keeps the rest for him-
self.1
From the misconduct of officers and soldiers, the
father passes to that of the coureurs de bois and
licensed traders ; and here he is equally severe. He
dilates on the evils which result from permitting the
colonists to go to the Indians instead of requiring
the Indians to come to the settlements. " It serves
only to rob the country of all its young men, weaken
families, deprive wives of their husbands, sisters of
their brothers, and parents of their children ; expose
the voyagers to a hundred dangers of body and soul ;
involve them in a multitude of expenses, some neces-
sary, some useless, and some criminal; accustom
them to do no work, and at last disgust them with it
forever; make them live in constant idleness, unfit
them completely for any trade, and render them use-
less to themselves, their families, and the public.
But it is less as regards the body than as regards the
soul that this traffic of the French among the savages
is infinitely hurtful. It carries them far away from
churches, separates them from priests and nuns, and
severs them from all instruction, all exercise of
1 Of the officers in command at Michilimackinac while Carheil
was there, he partially excepts La Durantaye from his strictures,
but bears very hard on La Mothe-Cadillac, who hated the Jesuits
and was hated by them in turn. La Mothe, on his part, writes that
" the missionaries wish to be masters wherever they are, and cannot
tolerate anybody above themselves " (N. Y. Colonial Docs., ix. 587.)
For much more emphatic expressions of his views concerning them,
see two letters from him, translated in Sheldon's Early History oj
Michigan.
25
386 MISSIONS. — BRANDY QUESTION. ([1663-1702.
religion, and all spiritual aid. It sends them into
places wild and almost inaccessible, through a thou-
sand perils by land and water, to carry on by base,
abject, and shameful means a trade which would
much better be carried on at Montreal."
But in the complete transfer of the trade to
Montreal, Father Carheil sees insuperable difficulties ;
and he proceeds to suggest, as the last and best
resort, that garrisons and officers should be with-
drawn, and licenses abolished, that discreet and
virtuous persons should be chosen to take charge of
all the trade of the upper country ; that these persons
should be in perfect sympathy and correspondence
with the Jesuits ; and that the trade should be car-
ried on at the missions of the Jesuits and in their
presence.1
This letter brings us again face to face with the
brandy question, of which we have seen something
already in the quarrel between Avaugour and the
bishop. In the summer of 1648 there was held at
the mission of Sillery a temperance meeting, — the
first in all probability on this continent. The drum
beat after mass, and the Indians gathered at the
summons. Then an Algonquin chief, a zealous con-
vert of the Jesuits, proclaimed to the crowd a late
edict of the governor imposing penalties for drunken-
ness, and, in his own name and that of the other
1 Lettre du Pere iZtienne Carheil de la Compagnie de J&us a I'fn-
tendant Champigny, Michilimackinac, 30 Aout, 1702 (Archives No-
tionafes),_Appendix I.
1683-1702.] BRANDY AND THE INDIANS. 387
chiefs, exhorted them to abstinence, declaring that
all drunkards should be handed over to the French
for punishment. Father Jerome Lalemant looked on
delighted. "It was," he says, "the finest public
act of jurisdiction exercised among the Indians since
I have been in this country. From the beginning of
the world they have all thought themselves as great
lords, the one as the other, and never before sub-
mitted to their chiefs any further than they chose to
do so."1
There was great need of reform; for a demon of
drunkenness seemed to possess these unhappy tribes.
Nevertheless, with all their rage for brandy, they
sometimes showed in regard to it a self-control quite
admirable in its way. When at a fair, a council, or
a friendly visit, their entertainers regaled them with
rations of the coveted liquor, so prudently measured
out that they could not be the worse for it, they
would unite their several portions in a common
stock, which they would then divide among a few of
their number, — thus enabling them to attain that
complete intoxication which, in their view, was the
true end of all drinking. The objects of this singular
benevolence were expected to requite it in kind on
some future occasion.
A drunken Indian, with weapons within reach, was
very dangerous, and all prudent persons kept out of
his way. This greatly pleased him ; for, seeing every-
body run before him, he fancied himself a great chief,
1 Lalemant, Relation, 1648, p. 43.
388 MISSIONS. — BRANDY QUESTION. [1663-1702.
and howled and swung his tomahawk with redoubled
fuiy. If, as often happened, he maimed or murdered
some wretch not nimble enough to escape, his country-
men absolved him from all guilt, and blamed only
the brandy. Hence, if an Indian wished to take a
safe revenge on some personal enemy, he would
pretend to be drunk ; and not only murders but other
crimes were often committed by false claimants to
the bacchanalian privilege.
In the eyes of the missionaries, brandy was a fiend
with all crimes and miseries in his train; and, in
fact, nothing earthly could better deserve the epithet
infernal than an Indian town in the height of a
drunken debauch. The orgies never ceased till the
bottom of the barrel was reached. Then came
repentance, despair, wailing, and bitter invective
against the white men, the cause of all the woe. In
the name of the public good, of humanity, and above
all of religion, the bishop and the Jesuits denounced
the fatal traffic.
Their case was a strong one ; but so was the case
of their opponents. There was real and imminent
danger that the thirsty savages, if refused brandy by
the French, would seek it from the Dutch and
English of New York. It was the most potent lure
and the most killing bait. Wherever it was found,
thither the Indians and their beaver-skins were sure
to go, and the interests of the fur-trade, vital to the
colony, were bound up with it. Nor was this all,
for the merchants and the civil powers insisted that
1663-1702 J STRONG MEASURES. 389
religion and the saving of souls were bound up with
it no less; since, to repel the Indians from the
Catholic French, and attract them to the heretic
English, was to turn them from ways of grace to
ways of perdition.1 The argument, no doubt, was
dashed largely with hypocrisy in those who used it;
but it was one which the priests were greatly per-
plexed to answer.
In former days, when Canada was not yet trans-
formed from a mission to a colony, the Jesuits entered
with a high hand on the work of reform. It fared
hard with the culprit caught in the act of selling
brandy to Indians. They led him, after the sermon,
to the door of the church; where, kneeling on the
pavement, partially stript and bearing in his hand
the penitential torch, he underwent a vigorous flagel-
lation, laid on by Father Le Mercier himself, after
the fashion formerly practised in the case of refractory
school-boys.2 Bishop Laval not only discharged
against the offenders volleys of wholesale excommu-
nication, but he made of the offence a "reserved
case ; " that is, a case in which the power of granting
absolution was reserved to himself alone. This pro-
duced great commotion, and a violent conflict between
religious scruples and a passion for gain. The
bishop and the Jesuits stood inflexible; while their
1 " Ce commerce est absolument necessaire pour attirer les
sauvages dans les colonies fran9oises, et par ce moyen leur donner
les premieres teintures de la foy." — Mtmoire de Colbert, joint a sa
lettre a Duchesneau du 24 Mai, 1678.
2 Mtmoire de Dumesnil, 1671.
390 MISSIONS.— BRANDY QUESTION. [1663-1702.
opponents added bitterness to the quarrel by charging
them with permitting certain favored persons to sell
brandy, unpunished, and even covertly selling it
themselves.1
Appeal was made to the King, who — with his
Jesuit confessor, guardian of his conscience on. one
side, and Colbert, guardian of his worldly interests
on the other — stood in some perplexity. The case
was referred to the fathers of the Sorbonne; and
they, after solemn discussion, pronounced the selling
of brandy to Indians a mortal sin.2 It was next
referred to an assembly of the chief merchants and
inhabitants of Canada, held under the eye of the
governor, intendant, and council, in the Chateau St.
1 Lettre de Charles Aubert de la Chesnaye, 24 Oct., 1693. After
speaking of the excessive rigor of the bishop, he adds : " L'on dit,
et il est vrai, que dans ces temps si facheux, sous pretexte de
pauvrete dans les families, certaines gens avoient permission d'en
traiter, je crois toujours avec la reserve de ne pas enivrer." Du-
mesnil, Me'moire de 1671, says that Laval excommunicated all brandy-
sellers, " a Texception, neanmoins, de quelques particuliers qu'il
voulait favoriser." He says further that the bishop and the
Jesuit Ragueneau had a clerk whom they employed at 500 francs
a year to trade with the Indians, paying them in liquors for their
furs ; and that for a time the ecclesiastics had this trade to them-
selves, their severities having deterred most others from venturing
into it. La Salle, Me'moire de 1678, declares that, " Us [les J&uites]
refusent 1'absolution a ceux qui ne veulent pas promettre de n'en
plus vendre, et s'ils meurent en cet etat, ils les privent de la
sepulture ecclesiastique : au contraire, ils se permettent a eux
mesmes sans aucune difficulte ce mesme trafic, quoyque toute sorte
de trafic soit interdite a tous les ecclesiastiques par les ordonnances
tiu Boy et par une bulle expresse du Pape." I give these asser-
tions as I find them, and for what they are worth.
2 Delibe'ration de la Sorbonne sur la Traite des Boissons, 8 Mars,
1675.
1663-1702.] VIEWS OF THE KING. 391
Louis. Each was directed to state his views in
writing. The great majority were for unrestricted
trade in brandy ; a few were for a limited and guarded
trade; and two or three declared for prohibition.1
Decrees of prohibition were passed from time to time,
but they were unavailing. They were revoked,
renewed, and revoked again. They were, in fact,
worse than useless ; for their chief effect was to turn
traders and coureurs de bois into troops of audacious
contrabandists. Attempts were made to limit the
brandy-trade to the settlements, and exclude it from
the forest country, where its regulation was impossible ;
but these attempts, like the others, were of little avail.
It is worthy of notice that when brandy was forbid-
den everywhere else, it was permitted in the trade of
Tadoussac, carried on for the profit of government.2
In spite of the Sorbonne, in spite of Pdre La
Chaise, and of the Archbishop of Paris, whom he
also consulted, the King was never at heart a pro-
hibitionist.3 His Canadian revenue was drawn from
the fur-trade; and the singular argument of the
partisans of brandy, that its attractions were needed
1 Proces-verbal de I' Assembled tenue au Chateau de St. Louis de
Quebec, le 26 Oct., 1676, et jours suivants.
2 Lettre de Charles Aubert de la Chesnaye, 24 Oct., 1693. In the
course of the quarrel, a severe law passed by the General Court of
Massachusetts against the sale of liquors to Indians was several
times urged as an example to be imitated. A copy of it was sent
to the minister, and is still preserved in the Archives of the Marine
and Colonies.
3 See, among other evidence, Mfmoire sur la Traite des Boissons,
1678.
392 MISSIONS.— BRANDY QUESTION. [1663-1702.
to keep the Indians from contact with heresy, served
admirably to salve his conscience. Bigot as he was,
he distrusted the Bishop of Quebec, the great
champion of the anti-liquor movement. His own
letters, as well as those of his minister, prove that
he saw, or thought that he saw, motives for the
crusade very different from those inscribed on its
banners. He wrote to Saint-Vallier, Laval's suc-
cessor in the bishopric, that the brandy -trade was
very useful to the kingdom of France ; that it should
be regulated, but not prevented; that the consciences
of his subjects must not be disturbed by denuncia-
tions of it as a sin ; and that " it is well that you [the
bishop] should take care that the zeal of the eccle-
siastics is not excited by personal interests and
passions."1 Perhaps he alludes to the spirit of
encroachment and domination which he and his
minister in secret instructions to their officers often
impute to the bishop and the clergy; or perhaps he
may have in mind other accusations which had
reached him from time to time during many years,
and of which the following from the pen of the most
noted of Canadian governors will serve as an example.
Count Frontenac declares that the Jesuits greatly
exaggerate the disorders caused by brandy, and that
they easily convince persons " who do not know the
interested motives which have led them to harp con-
tinually on this string for more than forty years. . . .
They have long wished to have the fur-trade entirely
1 Le Roy a Saint-Vallier, 7 Avril, 1691.
1663-1702.J TRADE OF THE JESUITS,
to themselves, and to keep out of sight the trade
which they have always carried on in the woods, and
which they are carrying on there now." l
TRADE OF THE JESUITS. — As I have observed in a former
volume, the charge against the Jesuits of trading in beaver-
skins dates from the beginning of the colony. In the private
journal of Father Jerome Lalemant, their superior, occurs the
following curious passage, under date of November, 1645:
Pour la traite des castors. Le 15 de Nov. le bruit estant qu'on
s'en alloit icy publier la defense qui auoit est4 publie'e aux
Trois Riuieres que pas vn n'eut & traiter auec les sauuages, le
P. Vimont demanda k Mons. des Chastelets commis general
si nous serious de pire condition soubs eux que soubs Messieurs
de la Compagnie. La conclusion fut que non et que cela iroit
pour nous a I' ordinaire, mais que nous le fissions doucement.1'
(Journal des Jesuites.} Two years after, on the request of
Lalemant, the governor Montmagny. and his destined successor
Ailleboust, gave the Jesuits a certificate to the effect that " les
peres de la compagnie de Jesus sont innocents de la calomnie
qui leur a dtd imputee, et ce qu'ils en ont fait a ete pour le bien
de la communaute et pour un bon sujet." This leaves it to be
inferred that they actually traded, though with good inten-
tions. In 1664, in reply to similar " calumnies," the Jesuits
made by proxy a declaration before the council, stating, " que
les dits Re've'rends Peres Je'suites n'ont fait jamais aucune
profession de vendre et n'ont jamais rien vendu, mais seulement
que les marchandises qu'ils donnent aux particuliers ne sont que
pour avoir leurs ne'cessite's." This is an admission in a thin
disguise. The word ne'cessite's is of very elastic interpretation.
In a memoir of Talon, 1667, he mentions, " la traite de pelle-
teries qu'on assure qu'ils [les Jesuites] font aux Outaouacks et
au Cap de la Madeleine; ce que je ne sais pas de science
certaine."
That which Talon did not know with certainty is made
reasonably clear for us by a line in the private journal of
1 Frontenac au Ministre, 29 Oct., 1676.
394 MISSIONS. — BRANDY QUESTION. [1663-1702.
Father Le Mercier, who writes under date of 17 August, 1665,
" Le Pere Fremin remonte supe'rieur au Cap de la Magdeleine,
ou le temporel est en bon estat. Comme il est delivre de tout
soin d'aucune traite, il doit s'appliquer a llnstruction tant des
Montagnets que des Algonquins." Father Charles Albanel
was charged, under Fremin, with the affairs of the mission,
including doubtless the temporal interests, to the prosperity
of which Father Le Mercier alludes, and the cares of trade
from which Father Fre'min was delivered. Cavelier de la
Salle declared in 1678, "Le pere Arbanelle [Albanel] jesuite
a traite au Cap [de la Madeleine^ pour 700 pistoles de peaux
d'orignaux et de castors ; luy mesme me 1'a dit en 1667. II
vend le pain, le vin, le bled, le lard, et il tient magazin au Cap
aussi bien que le frere Joseph a Quebec. Ce frere gagne 500
pour 100 sur tous les peuples. Us [les Jesuites] ont bati leur col-
lege en partie de leur traite et en partie de 1'emprunt." La Salle
further says that Fremin, being reported to have made enormous
profits, " ce pere repondit au gouverneur (qui lui en avait fait des
plaintes) par un billet que luy a conserve*, que c'estoit une
calomnie que ce grand gain prdtendu ; puisque tout ce qui se
passoit par ses mains ne pouvoit produire par an que quatre
mille de revenant bon, tous frais faits, sans comprendre les
gages des domestiques." La Salle gives also many other
particulars, especially relating to Michilimackinac, where, as
he says, the Jesuits had a large stock of beaver- skins. Accord-
ing to Pe'ronne Dumesnil, Memoire de 1671, the Jesuits had at
that time more than 20,000 francs a year, — partly from trade
and partly from charitable contributions of their friends in
France.
The King repeatedly forbade the Jesuits and other ecclesi-
astics in Canada to carry on trade. On one occasion he
threatened strong measures should they continue to disobey
him. (Le Roi a Frontenac, 28 Avril, 1677.) In the same year
the minister wrote to the intendant Duchesneau : " Vous ne
sauriez apporter trop de precautions pour abolir entierement
la coustume que les Ecclesiastiques seculiers et reguliers avaient
pris de traitter ou de faire traitter leurs valets," 18 Avril, 1677.
The Jesuits entered also into other branches of trade and
1663-1702.] TRADE OF THE JESUITS. 395
industry with a vigor and address which the inhabitants of
Canada might have emulated with advantage. They were
successful fishers of eels. In 1646 their eel-pots at Sillery are
said to have yielded no less than forty thousand eels, some of
which they sold at the modest price of thirty sous a hundred.
(Ferland, Notes sur les Eegistres de N. D. de Quebec, 82.) The
members of the Order were exempted from payment of duties,
and in 1674 they were specially empowered to construct mills,
including sugar-mills, and keep slaves, apprentices, and hired
servants. Droit Canadien, 180.
CHAPTER XXII.
1663-1763.
PRIESTS AND PEOPLE.
CHURCH AND STATE. — THE BISHOP AND THE KING. — THE KING
AND THE CURES. — THE NEW BISHOP.— THE CANADIAN CURE. —
ECCLESIASTICAL RULE. — SAINT- VALLIER AND DENONVILLE. —
CLERICAL RIGOR. — JESUIT AND SULPITIAN. — COURCELLE AND
CHATELAIN. — THE RECOLLETS. — HERESY AND WITCHCRAFT. —
CANADIAN NUNS. — JEANNE LE BER. — EDUCATION. — THE SEM-
INARY. — SAINT JOACHIM. — MIRACLES OF SAINT ANNE. — CANA-
DIAN SCHOOLS.
WHEN Laval and the Jesuits procured the recall of
Me*zy, they achieved a seeming triumph ; yet it was
but a defeat in disguise. While ordering home the
obnoxious governor, the King and Colbert made a
practical assertion of their power too strong to be
resisted. A vice-regal officer, a governor, an intend-
ant, and a regiment of soldiers were silent but con-
vincing proofs that the mission days of Canada were
over, and the dream of a theocracy dispelled forever.
The ecclesiastics read the signs of the times, and for
a while seemed to accept the situation.
The King on his part, in vindicating the civil
power, had shown a studious regard to the sensibili-
ties of the bishop and his allies. The lieutenant-
1665-70.] COURCELLE AND THE JESUITS. 397
general Tracy, a zealous devotee, and the intendant
Talon, who at least professed to be one, were not
men to offend the clerical party needlessly. In the
choice of Courcelle, the governor, a little less caution
had been shown. His chief business was to fight the
Iroquois, for which he was well fitted; but he
presently showed signs of a willingness to fight the
Jesuits also. The colonists liked him for his lively
and impulsive speech; but the priests were of a
different mind, and so, too, was his colleague Talon,
— a prudent person, who studied the amenities of
life, and knew how to pursue his ends with temper
and moderation. On the subject of the clergy he
and the governor substantially agreed, but the ebulli-
tions of the one and the smooth discretion of the
other were mutually repugnant to both. Talon
complained of his colleague's impetuosity; and
Colbert directed him to use his best efforts to keep
Courcelle within bounds, and prevent him from
publicly finding fault with the bishop and the
Jesuits.1 Next we find the minister writing to
Courcelle himself to soothe his ruffled temper, and
enjoining him to act discreetly, "because," said
Colbert, "as the colony grows, the King's authority
will grow with it, and the authority of the priests
will be brought back in time within lawful bounds. " 2
Meanwhile, Talon had been ordered to observe
carefully the conduct of the bishop and the Jesuits,
1 Colbert a Talon, 20 F<fv., 1668.
« Colbert a Courcelle, 19 Mai, 1669.
398 PRIESTS AND PEOPLE. [1665-70.
"who, "says the minister, "have hitherto nominated
governors for the King, and used every means to
procure the recall of those chosen without their
participation ; l filled offices with their adherents, and
tolerated no secular priests except those of one mind
with them."2 Talon, therefore, under the veil of a
reverent courtesy, sharply watched them. They
paid courtesy with courtesy, and the intendant wrote
home to his master that he saw nothing amiss in
them. He quickly changed his mind. "I should
have had less trouble and more praise," he writes in
the next year, "if I had been willing to leave the
power of the Church where I found it."3 "It is
easy," he says again, "to incur the ill-will of the
Jesuits if one does not accept all their opinions and
abandon one's self to their direction even in temporal
matters ; for their encroachments extend to affairs of
police, which concern only the civil magistrate," —
and he recommends that one or two of them be sent
home as disturbers of the peace.4 They, on their
part, changed attitude towards both him and the
governor. One of them, Father Bardy, less discreet
than the rest, is said to have preached a sermon
against them at Quebec, in which he likened them
to a pair of toadstools springing up in a night, —
adding that a good remedy would soon be found, and
1 Instruction au Steur Talon.
2 Memoire pour M. de Tracy.
8 Talon au Ministre, 13 Nov., 1666.
* Talon, Memoire de 1667.
1665-1700.] THE BISHOP AND THE KING. 399
that Courcelle would have to run home like other
governors before him.1
Tracy escaped clerical attacks. He was extremely
careful not to provoke them ; and one of his first acts
was to restore to the council the bishop's adherents
whom Mezy had expelled.2 And if, on the one hand,
he was too pious to quarrel with the bishop, so, on
the other, the bishop was too prudent to invite col-
lision with a man of his rank and influence.
After all, the dispute between the civil and eccle-
siastical powers was not fundamental. Each had
need of the other; both rested on authority, and
they differed only as to the boundary lines of their
respective shares in it. Yet the dispute of bounda-
ries was a serious one, and it remained a source of
bitterness for many years. The King, though rigidly
Catholic, was not yet sunk in the slough of bigotry
into which Maintenon and the Jesuits succeeded at
last in plunging him. He had conceived a distrust
of Laval, and his jealousy of his royal authority
disposed him to listen to the anti-clerical counsels of
his minister. How needful they both thought it to
prune the exuberant growth of clerical power, and
how cautiously they set themselves to do so, their
letters attest again and again. "The bishop," writes
Colbert, " assumes a domination far beyond that of
1 La Salle, Memoirs de 1678. This sermon was preached on the
12th of March, 1667.
2 A curious account of his relations with Laval is given in a
letter of La Mothe-Cadillac, 28 September, 1694.
400 PRIESTS AND PEOPLE. [1665-1700.
other bishops throughout the Christian world, and
particularly in the kingdom of France." l "It is the
will of his Majesty that you confine him and the
Jesuits within just bounds, and let none of them
overstep these bounds in any manner whatsoever.
Consider this as a matter of the greatest importance,
and one to which you cannot give too much atten-
tion."2 "But," the prudent minister elsewhere
writes, "it is of the greatest consequence that the
bishop and the Jesuits do not perceive that the
intendant blames their conduct."3
It was to the same intendant that Colbert wrote,
"it is necessary to diminish as much as possible the
excessive number of priests, monks, and nuns in
Canada." Yet in the very next year, and on the
advice of Talon, he himself sent four more to the
colony. His motive was plain. He meant that they
should serve as a counterpoise to the Jesuits.4 They
were mendicant friars, belonging to the branch of the
Franciscans known as the Re"collets; and they were
supposed to be free from the ambition for the aggran-
dizement of their Order which was imputed, and
with reason, to the Jesuits. Whether the R^collets
were free from it or not, no danger was to be feared
from them; for Laval and the Jesuits were sure to
oppose them, and they would need the support of the
1 Colbert a Duchesn&au, 1 Mai, 16-77.
2 Ibid., 28 Avril, 1677;
8 Instruction pour M. Bouteroue, 1668.
4 Me'moire suecinct des principaux points des intentions du Roy sur ie
pays de Canada, 18 Mai, 1669.
1665-1700.] THE KING AND THE CHURCH. 401
government too much to set themselves in opposition
to it. " The more Re'collets we have, " says Talon,
"the better will the too firmly rooted authority of
the others be balanced."1
While Louis XIV. tried to confine the priests to
their ecclesiastical functions, he was at the same
time, whether from religion, policy, or both com-
bined, very liberal to the Canadian Church, of
which, indeed, he was the main-stay. vln the yearly
estimate of " ordinary charges " of the colony, the
Church holds the most prominent place; and the
appropriations for religious purposes often exceed all
the rest together. Thus, in 1667, out of a total of
36,360 francs, 28,000 are assigned to Church uses.2 V"
The amount fluctuated, but was always relatively
large. The Canadian cure's were paid in great part
by the King, who for many years gave eight thousand
francs annually towards their support. Such was
the poverty of the country that, though in 1685 there
were only twenty-five cure's,3 each costing about five
hundred francs a year, the tithes utterly failed to
meet the expense. As late as 1700, the intendant
declared that Canada without the King's help could
i Talon au Mmistre, 10 Oct., 1670.
a Of this, 6,000 francs were given to the Jesuits, 6,000 to the
Ursulines, 9,000 to the cathedral, 4,000 to the seminary, and 3,000
to the Hotel-Dieu. (fitat de dfyense, etc., 1677.) The rest went to
pay civil officers and garrisons. In 1682 the amount for Church
uses was only 12,000 francs. In 1687 it was 13,500. In 1689 it rose
to 34,000, including Acadia.
8 Increased soon after to thirty-six by Saint- Vallier, Laval's
successor.
20
402 PRIESTS AND PEOPLE. [1665-1700)
not maintain more than eight or nine cure's. Louis
XIV. winced under these steady demands, and
reminded the bishop that more than four thousand
cure's in France lived on less than two hundred francs
a year.1 "You say," he wrote to the intendant,
" that it is impossible for a Canadian cur£ to live on
five hundred francs. Then you must do the impos-
sible to accomplish my intentions, which are always
that the cure's should live on the tithes alone."2 Yet
the head of the Church still begged for money, and
the King still paid it. " We are in the midst of a
costly war, " wrote the minister to the bishop, " yet
in consequence of your urgency the gifts to ecclesi-
astics will be continued as before."8 And they did
continue. More than half a century later, the King
was still making them, and during the last years of
the colony he gave twenty thousand francs annually
to support Canadian curds.4
The maintenance of cure's was but a part of his
bounty. He endowed the bishopric with the revenues
of two French abbeys, to which he afterwards added
a third. The vast tracts of land which Laval had
acquired were freed from feudal burdens, and emi-
grants were sent to them by the government in such
numbers that, in 1667, the bishop's seigniory of
Beaupre and Orleans contained more than a fourth
1 M&noire a Duchesneau, 15 Mai, 1678 ; Le Roy a Duchesneau, 11
Juin, 1680.
2 Le Roy a Duchesneau, 30 Avril, 1681.
« Le Ministre a I'fiveque, 8 Mai, 1694.
4 Bougainville, Mfmoire, 1757.
1665-1700.] THE KING AND THE CHURCH. 403
of the entire population of Canada. l He had emerged
from his condition of apostolic poverty to find him-
self the richest land-owner in the colony.
If by favors like these the King expected to lead
the ecclesiastics into compliance with his wishes, he
was doomed to disappointment. The system of
movable cure's, by which the bishop like a military
chief could compel each member of his clerical army
to come and go at his bidding, was from the first
repugnant to Louis XIV. On the other hand, the
bishop clung to it with his usual tenacity. Colbert
denounced it as contrary to the laws of the kingdom.3
"His Majesty has reason to believe," he writes, "that
the chief source of the difficulty which the bishop
makes on this point is his wish to preserve a greater
authority over the cure's."3 The inflexible prelate,
whose heart was bound up in the system he had
established, opposed evasion and delay to each
expression of the royal will ; and even a royal edict
failed to produce the desired effect. In the height
of the dispute, Laval went to court, and, on the
ground of failing health, asked for a successor in the
bishopric. The King readily granted his prayer.
The successor was appointed; but when Laval pre-
1 Entire population, 4,312 ; Beaupre and Orleans, 1185. (Recense-
ment de 1667.) Laval, it will be remembered, afterwards gave his
lands to the seminary of Quebec. He previously exchanged the
Island of Orleans with the Sieur Berthelot for the Island of Jesus.
Berthelot gave him a large sum of money in addition.
2 Le Ministre a Duchesneau, 15 Mai, 1678.
8 Instruction a M. de Meules, 1682.
404 PRIESTS AND PEOPLE. [1665-1700.
pared to embark again for Canada, he was given to
understand that he was to remain in France. In vain
he promised to make no trouble ; 1 and it was not till
after an absence of four years that he was permitted
to return, no longer as its chief, to his beloved
Canadian Church.2
Meanwhile Saint- Vallier, the new bishop, had
raised a new tempest. He attacked that organization
of the seminary of Quebec by which Laval had
endeavored to unite the secular priests of Canada
into an attached and obedient family, with the
bishop as its head and the seminary as its home, — a
plan of which the system of movable cure's was an
essential part. The Canadian priests, devoted to
Laval, met the innovations of Saint- Vallier with an
opposition which seemed only to confirm his purpose.
Laval, old and worn with toil and asceticism, was
driven almost to despair. The seminary of Quebec
was the cherished work of his life, and, to his think-
ing, the citadel of the Canadian Church ; and now he
beheld it battered and breached before his eyes. His
successor, in fact, was trying to place the Church of
Canada on the footing of the Church of France. The
conflict lasted for years, with the rancor that marks
the quarrels of non-combatants of both sexes. " He "
1 Laval au Pere la Chaise, 1687. This forms part of a curious
correspondence printed in the Foyer Canadien for 1866, from origi-
nals in the Archev£che of Quebec.
2 From a mtmoire of 18 Feb., 1685 (Archives de Versailles), it is
plain that the court, in giving a successor to Laval, thought that
it had ended the vexed question of movable cures.
1683.] THE NEW BISHOP. 405
[Saint- Vallier], says one of his opponents, " has made
himself contemptible to almost everybody, and par-
ticularly odious to the priests born in Canada; for
there is between them and him a mutual antipathy
difficult to overcome." * He is described by the same
writer as a person " without reflection and judgment,
extreme in all things, secret and artful, passionate
when opposed, and a flatterer when he wishes to gain
his point." This amiable critic adds that Saint- Vallier
believes a bishop to be inspired, in virtue of his
office, with a wisdom that needs no human aid; and
that whatever thought comes to him in prayer is a
divine inspiration to be carried into effect at all costs
and in spite of all opposition.
The new bishop, notwithstanding the tempest he
had raised, did not fully accomplish that establish-
ment of the cure's in their respective parishes which
the King and the minister so much desired. The
Canadian cure* was more a missionary than a parish
priest; and Nature as well as Bishop Laval threw
difficulties in the way of settling him quietly over
his charge.
On the Lower St. Lawrence, where it widens to an
estuary, six leagues across, a ship from France, the
last of the season, holds her way for Quebec, laden
with stores and clothing, household utensils, goods
for Indian trade, the newest court fashions, wine,
brandy, tobacco, and the King's orders from Ver-
1 The above is from an anonymous paper, written apparently in
1695, and entitled Memoire pour le Canada
406 PRIESTS AND PEOPLE. [1683.
sallies. Swelling her patched and dingy sails, she
glides through the wildness and the solitude where
there is nothing but her to remind you of the great
troubled world behind and the little troubled world
before. On the far verge of the ocean-like river,
clouds and mountains mingle in dim confusion ; fresh
gusts from the north dash waves against the ledges,
sweep through the quivering spires of stiff and
stunted fir-trees, and ruffle the feathers of the crow,
perched on the dead bough after his feast of mussels
among the sea-weed. You are not so solitary as you
think. A small birch -canoe rounds the point of
rocks, and it bears two men, — one in an old black
cassock, and the other in a buckskin coat, — both
working hard at the paddle to keep their slender
craft off the shingle and the breakers. The man in
the cassock is Father Morel, aged forty-eight, — the
oldest country cure* in Canada, most of his brethren
being in the vigor of youth, as they had need to be.
His parochial charge embraces a string of incipient
parishes extending along the south shore from Riviere
du Loup to Riviere du Sud, a distance reckoned at
twenty-seven leagues, and his parishioners number
in all three hundred and twenty-eight souls. He has
administered spiritual consolation to the one inhabi-
tant of Kamouraska ; visited the eight families of La
Bouteillerie and the five families of La Combe ; and
now he is on his way to the seigniory of St. Denis
with its two houses and eleven souls.1
1 These particulars are from the Plan g€n€ral de I'estat present des
missions du Canada, fait en I'annte 1683. It is a list and description
1665-1700.] THE CANADIAN CUR& 407
The father lands where a shattered eel-pot high
and dry on the pebbles betrays the neighborhood of
man. His servant shoulders his portable chapel, and
follows him through the belt of firs and the taller
woods beyond, till the sunlight of a desolate clear-
ing shines upon them. Charred trunks and limbs
encumber the ground; dead trees, branchless, bark-
less, pierced by the woodpeckers, in part black with
fire, in part bleached by sun and frost, tower ghastly
and weird above the labyrinth of forest ruins, through
which the priest and his follower wind their way, the
cat-bird mewing, and the blue-jay screaming as they
pass. Now the golden-rod and the aster, harbingers
of autumn, fringe with yellow and purple the edge
of the older clearing, where wheat and maize, the
settler's meagre harvest, are growing among the
stumps.
Wild-looking women, with sunburnt faces and
neglected hair, run from their work to meet the cur6 ;
a man or two follow with soberer steps and less
exuberant zeal; while half-savage children, the
coureurs de lois of the future, bareheaded, barefooted,
and half-clad, come to wonder and stare. To set up
his altar in a room of the rugged log-cabin; say
mass, hear confessions, impose penance, grant abso-
lution; repeat the office of the dead over a grave
made weeks before ; baptize, perhaps, the last infant ;
of the parishes with the names and ages of the cures, and other
details. (See Abeille, i.) This paper was drawn up by order of
Laval.
408 PRIESTS AND PEOPLE. [1665-1700.
marry, possibly, some pair who may or may not have
waited for his coming ; catechise as well as time and
circumstance would allow the shy but turbulent
brood of some former wedlock, — such was the work
of the parish priest in the remoter districts. It was
seldom that his charge was quite so scattered and so
far extended as that of Father Morel ; but there were
fifteen or twenty others whose labors were like in
kind, and in some cases no less arduous. All summer
they paddled their canoes from settlement to settle-
ment; and in winter they toiled on snow-shoes over
the drifts, while the servant carried the portable
chapel on his back, or dragged it on a sledge. Once,
at least, in the year the cur6 paid his visit to Quebec,
where, under the maternal roof of the seminary, he
made his retreat of meditation and prayer, and then
returned to his work. He rarely had a house of his
own, but boarded in that of the seignior or one of
the habitants. Many parishes or aggregations of
parishes had no other church than a room fitted up
for the purpose in the house of some pious settler.
In the larger settlements there were churches and
chapels of wood, thatched with straw, often ruinous,
poor to the last degree, without ornaments, and
sometimes without the sacred vessels necessary for
the service.1 In 1683 there were but seven stone
churches in all the colony. The population was so
thin and scattered that many of the settlers heard
1 Saint- Vallier, Estat present de I'figlise et de la Colonie Fran$aise}
22 (ed. 1856).
1665-1700.] THE CANADIAN CURE. 409
mass only three or four times a year, and some of
them not so often. The sick frequently died with-
out absolution, and infants without baptism.
The splendid self-devotion of the early Jesuit
missions has its record; so, too, have the unseemly
bickerings of bishops and governors. But the patient
toils of the missionary curd rest in the obscurity
where the best of human virtues are buried from age
to age. What we find set down concerning him is,
that Louis XIV. was unable to see why he should
not live on two hundred francs a year as well as a
village curd by the banks of the Garonne. The King
did not know that his cassock and all his clothing
cost him twice as much and lasted half as long ; that
he must have a canoe and a man to paddle it; and
that when on his annual visit the seminary paid him
five or six hundred francs, partly in clothes, partly
in stores, and partly in money, the end of the year
found him as poor as before except only in his
conscience^
The Canadian priests held the manners of the
colony under a rule as rigid as that of the Puritan
churches of New England, — but with the difference
that in Canada a large part of the population was
restive under their control, while some of the civil
authorities, often with the governor at their head,
supported the opposition. This was due partly to
an excess of clerical severity, and partly to the con-
tinued friction between the secular and ecclesiastical
powers. It sometimes happened, however, that a
410 PRIESTS AND PEOPLE. [1685.
new governor arrived, who was so pious that the
clerical party felt that they could rely on him. Of
these rare instances the principal is that of De-
nonville, who, with a wife as pious as himself, and
a young daughter, landed at Quebec in 1685. On
this, Bishop Saint- Vallier, anxious to turn his good
dispositions to the best account, addressed to him a
series of suggestions or rather directions for the
guidance of his conduct, with a view to the spiritual
profit of those over whom he was appointed to rule.
The document was put on file, and the following are
some of the points in it. It is divided into five
different heads, — "Touching feasts," "touching
balls and dances," "touching comedies and other
declamations," "touching dress," "touching irrever-
ence in church." The governor and madame his
wife are desired to accept no invitations to suppers,
— that is to say, late dinners, — as tending to noc-
turnal hours and dangerous pastimes; and they are
further enjoined to express dissatisfaction, and refuse
to come again, should any entertainment offered
them be too sumptuous. "Although," continues the
bishop under the second head of his address, "balls
and dances are not sinful in their nature, neverthe-
less they are so dangerous by reason of the circum-
stances that attend them and the evil results that
almost inevitably follow, that, in the opinion of Saint
Francis of Sales, it should be said of them as physi-
cians say of mushrooms, that at best they are good
for nothing; " and, after enlarging on their perils, he
1685.] SAINT-VALLIER AND DENONVILLE. 411
declares it to be of great importance to the glory of
God and the sanctification of the colony, that the
governor and his wife neither give such entertain-
ments nor countenance them by their presence.
"Nevertheless," adds the mentor, "since the youth
and vivacity of mademoiselle their daughter requires
some diversion, it is permitted to relent somewhat,
and indulge her in a little moderate and proper dan-
cing, provided that it be solely with persons of her
own sex, and in the presence of madame her mother ;
but by no means in the presence of men or youths,
since it is this mingling of sexes which causes the
disorders that spring from balls and dances." Private
theatricals in any form are next interdicted to the
young lady. The bishop then passes to the subject
of her dress, and exposes the abuses against which
she is to be guarded. "The luxury of dress," he
says, "appears in the rich and dazzling fabrics
wherein the women and girls of Canada attire them-
selves, and which are far beyond their condition and
their means ; in the excess of ornaments which they
put on ; in the extraordinary head-dresses which they
affect, their heads being uncovered and full of
strange trinkets; and in the immodest curls so
expressly forbidden in the epistles of Saint Peter
and Saint Paul, as well as by all the fathers and
doctors of the Church, and which God has often
severely punished, — as may be seen by the example
of the unhappy Pretextata, a lady of high quality,
who, as we learn from Saint Jerome, who knew her,
412 PRIESTS AND PEOPLE. [1685
had her hands withered, and died suddenly five
months after, and was precipitated into hell, as God
had threatened her by an angel; because, by order
of her husband, she had curled the hair of her niece,
and attired her after a worldly fashion."1
Whether the Marquis and Marchioness Denonville
profited by so apt and terrible a warning, or whether
their patience and good-nature survived the episcopal
onslaught, does not appear on record. The subject
of feminine apparel received great attention, both
from Saint- Vallier and his predecessor, each of whom
issued a number of pastoral mandates concerning it.
Their severest denunciations were aimed at low-
necked dresses, which they regarded as favorite
devices of the enemy for the snaring of souls; and
they also used strong language against certain knots
of ribbons called fontanges, with which the belles of
Quebec adorned their heads. Laval launches strenu-
ous invectives against "the luxury and vanity of
women and girls, who, forgetting the promises of
their baptism, decorate themselves with the pomp of
1 " Temoin entr'autres Texemple de la malheureuse Pretextate,
dame de grande condition, laquelle au rapport de S. Jerome, dont
elle etoit connue, eut les mains dessechees et cinq mois apres
mourut subitement et fut precipitee en enfer, ainsi que Dieu Ten
avoit menacee par un Ange pour avoir par le commandement de
son mari frise et habille mondainement sa niece." (Divers points
a repre'senter a Mr. le Gouverneur et a Madame la Gouvernante, signJ
Jean, e'vesgue de Quebec. Registre de I'Eveche' de Quebec.} The
bishop on another occasion holds up the sad fate of Pretextata
as a warning to Canadian mothers ; but in the present case he
slightly changes the incidents to make the story more applicable
to the governor and his wife
1663-1700.] CLERICAL SEVERITY. 413
Satan, whom they have so solemnly renounced ; and,
in their wish to please the eyes of men, make them-
selves the instruments and thfc captives of the fiend. " l
In the journal of the superior of the Jesuits we
find, under date of February 4, 1667, a record of the
first ball in Canada, along with the pious wish, " God
grant that nothing further come of it." Neverthe-
less more balls were not long in following; and,
worse yet, sundry comedies were enacted under no
less distinguished patronage than that of Frontenac,
the governor. Laval denounced them vigorously,
the Jesuit Dablon attacked them in a violent sermon;
and such excitement followed that the affair was
brought before the royal council, which declined to
interfere.2 This flurry, however, was nothing to the
storm raised ten or twelve years later by other
dramatic aggressions, an account of which will
appear in the sequel of this volume.
^The morals of families were watched with unre-
lenting vigilance. Frontenac writes in a mood
unusually temperate, " They [the priests] are full of
virtue and piety, and if their zeal were less vehement
and more moderate, they would perhaps succeed
better in their efforts for the conversion of souls ; but
1 Mandement contre le luxe et la vanlte" desfemmes et des files, 1682.
(Registres de I'Eveche" de Quebec.) A still more vigorous denuncia-
tion is contained in Ordonnance contre les vices de luxe et d'impurete,
1690. This was followed in the next year by a stringent list of
rules called Re"glement pour la conduite des fideles de ce dioce'se.
2 Arrets du 24 et 28juin par lesquels cette affaire (des come'des) est
renvoyte a So, Majesty 1681. (?) Registre du Conseil Souverain.
414 PRIESTS AND PEOPLE. [1663-1700
they often use means so extraordinary, and in France
so unusual, that they repel most people instead of
persuading them. I sometimes tell them my views
frankly and as gently as I can, as I know the mur-
murs that their conduct excites, and often receive
complaints of the constraint under which they place
consciences. This is above all the case with the
ecclesiastics at Montreal, where there is a cure* from
Franche Comte' who wants to establish a sort of in-
quisition worse than that of Spain, and all out of an
excess of zeal.'^^
It was this cure*, no doubt, of whom La Hontan
complains. That unsanctified young officer was
quartered at Montreal, in the house of one of the
inhabitants. "During a part of the winter I was
hunting with the Algonquins ; the rest of it I spent
here very disagreeably. One can neither go on a
pleasure party, nor play a game of cards, nor visit
the ladies, without the cure* knowing it and preach-
ing about it publicly from his pulpit. The priests
excommunicate masqueraders, and even go in search
of them to pull off their masks and overwhelm them
with abuse. They watch more closely over the
women and girls than their husbands and fathers.
They prohibit and burn all books but books of devo-
tion. I cannot think of this tyranny without cursing
the indiscreet zeal of the cure* of this town. He
came to the house where I lived, and, finding some
books on my table, presently pounced on the romance
1 Frontenac au Ministre, 20 Oct., 1691.
1663-1700.] LA MOTHE AND THE PRIESTS. 415
of Petronius, which I valued more than my life
because it was not mutilated. He tore out almost
all the leaves, so that if my host had not restrained
me when I came in and saw the miserable wreck, I
should have run after this rampant shepherd and torn
out every hair of his beard." 1
La Mothe-Cadillac, the founder of Detroit, seems
to have had equal difficulty in keeping his temper.
" Neither men of honor nor men of parts are endured
in Canada; nobody can live here but simpletons and
slaves of the ecclesiastical domination. The count
[Frontenac] would not have so many troublesome
affairs on his hands if he had not abolished a Jericho
in the shape of a house built by messieurs of the
seminary of Montreal, to shut up, as they said, girls
who caused scandal; if he had allowed them to take
officers and soldiers to go into houses at midnight
and carry off women from their husbands and whip
them till the blood flowed because they had been at
a ball or worn a mask ; if he had said nothing against
the curds who went the rounds with the soldiers, and
compelled women and girls to shut themselves up in
their houses at nine o'clock of summer evenings ; if
he had forbidden the wearing of lace, and made no
objection to the refusal of the communion to women
of quality because they wore a fontange ; if he had
not opposed excommunicatioRS flung about without
sense or reason, — if I say, the count had been of this
1 La Hontan, i. 60 (ed. 1709). Other editions contain the game
utory in different words.
416 PRIESTS AND PEOPLE. [1663 1700.
way of thinking, he would have stood as a nonpareil,
and have been put very soon on the list of saints,
for saint-making is cheap in this country."1
While the Sulpitians were thus rigorous at Montreal,
the bishop and his Jesuit allies were scarcely less so
at Quebec. There was little good-will between them
and the Sulpitians, and some of the sharpest charges
against the followers of Loyola are brought by their
brother priests at Montreal. The Sulpitian Allet
writes : " The Jesuits hold such domination over the
people of this country that they go into the houses
and see everything that passes there. They then tell
what they have learned to each other at their meet-
ings, and on this information they govern their
policy. The Jesuit, Father Ragueneau, used to go
every day down to the Lower Town, where the
merchants live, to find out all that was going on in
their families ; and he often made people get up from
table to confess to him." Allet goes on to say that
Father Ch&telain also went continually to the Lower
Town with the same object, and that some of the
inhabitants complained of him to Courcelle, the gov-
ernor. One day Courcelle saw the Jesuit, who was
old and somewhat infirm, slowly walking by the
chateau, cane in hand, on his usual errand, — on
which he sent a sergeant after him to request that he
would not go so often to the Lower Town, as the
people were annoyed by the frequency of his visits.
The father replied in wrath, " Go and teil Monsieur
1 La Mothe-Cadillac a , 28 Sept., 1694.
1663-1700.] JESUIT ACTIVITY. 417
de Courcelle that I have been there ever since he was
governor, and that I shall go there after he has ceased
to be governor;" and he kept on his way as before.
Courcelle reported his answer to the superior, Le
Mercier, and demanded to have him sent home as a
punishment; but the superior effected a compromise.
On the following Thursday, after mass in the cathe-
dral, he invited Courcelle into the sacristy, where
Father Chatelain was awaiting them; and here, at
Le Mercier's order, the old priest begged pardon of
the offended governor on his knees.1
The Jesuits derived great power from the confes-
sional; and, if their accusers are to be believed,
they employed unusual means to make it effective.
Cavelier de la Salle says : " They will confess nobody
till he tells his name, and no servant till he tells the
name of his master. When a crime is confessed,
they insist on knowing the name of the accomplice,
as well as all the circumstances, with the greatest
particularity. Father Chatelain especially never fails
to do this. They enter as it were by force into the
secrets of families, and thus make themselves for-
midable ; for what cannot be done by a clever man
devoted to his work, who knows all the secrets of
every family ; above all, when he permits himself to
tell them when it is for his interest to do so ? " 2
1 Mtmoire d'Allet. The author was at one time secretary to
Abbe* Quelus. The paper is printed in the Morale pratique des
Je'suites. The above is one of many curious statements which it
contains.
2 La Salle, Memoire, 1678.
27
118 PRIESTS AND PEOPLE. [1663-1700,
The association of women and girls known as the
Congregation of the Holy Family, which was formed
under Jesuit auspices, and which met every Thursday
with closed doors in the cathedral, is said to have
been very useful to the fathers in their social investi-
gations.1 The members are affirmed to have been
under a vow to tell one another every good or evil
deed they knew of every person of their acquaintance;
so that this pious gossip became a copious source of
information to those in a position to draw upon it.
In Talon's time the Congregation of the Holy Family
caused such commotion in Quebec that he asked the
council to appoint a commission to inquire into its
proceedings. He was touching dangerous ground.
The affair was presently hushed, and the application
cancelled on the register of the council.2
The Jesuits had long exercised solely the function
of confessors in the colony, and a number of curious
anecdotes are on record showing the reluctance with
which they admitted the secular priests, and above
all the Re*collets, to share in it. The Re'collets, of
whom a considerable number had arrived from time
to time, were on excellent terms with the civil
powers, and were popular with the colonists; but
with the bishop and the Jesuits they were not in
1 See " La Salle, and the Discovery of the Great West," 111.
a Representation faite au conseil au sujet de certaines assemblies de
femmes oufilles sous le nom de la Sainte Famille, 1667. (Registre du
Conseil Souverain.) The paper is cancelled by lines drawn over it ;
and the following minute, duly attested, is appended to it : " Raye
du consentement de M. Talon."
1663-1700.] THE RECOLLETS. 419
favor, and one or two sharp collisions took place.
The bishop was naturally annoyed when, while he
was trying to persuade the King that a curd needed
at least six hundred francs a year, these mendicant
friars came forward with an offer to serve the parishes
for nothing; nor was he, it is likely, better pleased
when, having asked the hospital nuns eight hundred
francs annually for two masses a day in their chapel,
the Re'collets underbid him, and offered to say the
masses for three hundred.1 They, on their part,
complain bitterly of the bishop, who, they say, would
gladly have ordered them out of the colony, but, being
unable to do this, tried to shut them up in their con-
vent, and prevent them from officiating as priests
among the people. "We have as little liberty," says
the Re'collet writer, "as if we were in a country of
heretics." He adds that the inhabitants ask earnestly
for the ministrations of the friars, but that the bishop
replies with invectives and calumnies against the
Order; and that when the Re'collets absolve a peni-
tent, he often annuls the absolution.2
In one respect this Canadian Church militant
achieved a complete success. Heresy was scoured
1 " Mon dit sieur 1'evesque leur fait payer (aux hospitalieres 800 /.
par an pour deux messes qu'il leur fait dire par ses S^minaristes
que les Re'collets leurs voisins leur offrent pour 300 I." — La Barre
au Ministre, 1682. xl
2 M e moire instruct!/ contenant laconduite des PP. Recollets rf^tion
en leurs missions de Canada, 1684. This paper, of whichjns Q£
fragment is preserved, was written in connection with a
the Recollets with the bishop who opposed their attempt
a church in Quebec.
420 PRIESTS AND PEOPLE. [1662-1700.
out of the colony. When Maintenon and her ghostly
prompters overcame the better nature of the King,
and wrought on his bigotry and his vanity to launch
him into the dragonnades; when violence and lust
bore the crucifix into thousands of Huguenot homes,
and the land reeked with nameless infamies ; when
churches rang with Te Deums, and the heart of
France withered in anguish, — when, in short, this
hideous triumph of the faith was won, the royal tool
of priestly ferocity sent orders that heresy should be
treated in Canada as it had been treated in France. l
The orders were needless. The pious Denonville
replies, "Praised be God! there is not a heretic
here." He adds that a few abjured last year, and
that he should be very glad if the King would make
them a present. The Jesuits, he further says, go
every day on board the ships in the harbor to look
after the new converts from France.2 Now and then
at a later day a real or suspected Jansenist found his
way to Canada, and sometimes an esprit fort, like La
Hontan, came over with the troops ; but on the whole
a community more free from positive heterodoxy per-
haps never existed on earth. This exemption cost
no bloodshed. What it did cost we may better judge
hereafter.
If Canada escaped the dragonnades, so also she
du Roy a Denonville, 31 Mai, 1686. The King here
a j?ejhe imprisonment of heretics who refuse to abjure, or the
femmes ouT of soldiers on them. What this meant, the history of
Conseil Soflades will show.
and the fol'/^e au Ministre, 10 Nov., 1686.
du consente
1662-1700.] THE NUNS. 421
escaped another infliction from which a neighboring
colony suffered deplorably. Her peace was never
much troubled by witches. They were held to exist,
it is true ; but they wrought no panic. Mother Mary
of the Incarnation reports on one occasion the dis-
covery of a magician in the person of a converted
Huguenot miller, who, being refused in marriage by
a girl of Quebec, bewitched her, and filled the house
where she lived with demons, which the bishop tried
in vain to exorcise. The miller was thrown into
prison, and the girl sent to the Hotel-Dieu, where
not a demon dared enter. The infernal crew took
their revenge by creating a severe influenza among
the citizens.1
If there are no Canadian names on the calendar of
saints, it is not because in byways and obscure places
Canada had not virtues worthy of canonization.
Not alone her male martyrs and female devotees,
whose merits have found a chronicle and a recog-
nition; not the fantastic devotion of Madame
d'Ailleboust, who, lest she should not suffer enough,
took to herself a vicious and refractory servant girl,
as an exercise of patience; and not certainly the
medieval pietism of Jeanne Le Ber, the venerated
recluse of Montreal, — there are others quite as
worthy of honor, whose names have died from
memory. It is difficult to conceive a self-abnegation
more complete than that of the hospital nuns of
Quebec and Montreal. In the almost total absence
1 Marie de 1'Incarnation, Lettre de — Septembre, 1661.
422 PRIESTS AND PEOPLE. [1662-17H.
of trained and skilled physicians, the burden of the
sick and wounded fell upon them. Of the two
communities, that of Montreal was the more wretch-
edly destitute, while that of Quebec was exposed,
perhaps, to greater dangers. Nearly every ship from
France brought some form of infection, and all infec-
tion found its way to the H6tel-Dieu of Quebec.
The nuns died, but they never complained. Removed
from the arena of ecclesiastical strife, too busy for
the morbidness of the cloister, too much absorbed in
practical benevolence to become the prey of illusions,
they and their sister community were models of that
benign and tender charity of which the Roman
Catholic Church is so rich in examples. Nor should
the Ursulines and the nuns of the Congregation be
forgotten among those who, in another field of labor,
have toiled patiently according to their light.
Mademoiselle Jeanne Le Ber belonged to none
of these sisterhoods. She was the favorite daughter
of the chief merchant of Montreal, — the same who,
with the help of his money, got himself ennobled.
She seems to have been a girl of a fine and sensitive
nature; ardent, affectionate, and extremely suscep-
tible to religious impressions. Religion at last gained
absolute sway over her. Nothing could appease her
longings or content the demands of her excited con-
science but an entire consecration of herself to
Heaven. Constituted as she was, the resolution
must have cost her an agony of mental conflict.
Her story is a strange, and, as many will think, a
1662-1714.] JEANNE LE BER. 423
very sad one. She renounced her suitors, and wished
to renounce her inheritance ; but her spiritual directors,
too far-sighted to permit such a sacrifice, persuaded
her to hold fast to her claims, and content herself
with what they called "poverty of heart." Her
mother died, and her father, left with a family of
young children, greatly needed her help; but she
refused to leave her chamber where she had immured
herself. Here she remained ten years, seeing nobody
but her confessor and the girl who brought her food.
Once only she emerged, and this was when her
brother lay dead in the adjacent room, killed in a
fight with the English. She suddenly appeared
before her astonished sisters, stood for a moment in
silent prayer by the body, and then vanished without
uttering a word. "Such," says her modern biogra-
pher, "was the sublimity of her virtue and the
grandeur of her soul." Not content with this
domestic seclusion, she caused a cell to be made
behind the altar in the newly built church of the
Congregation, and here we will permit ourselves
to cast a stolen glance at her through the narrow
opening through which food was passed in to her.
Her bed, a pile of straw which she never moved, lest
it should become too soft, was so placed that her
head could touch the partition which alone separated
it from the Host on the altar. Here she lay wrapped
in a garment of coarse gray serge, worn, tattered,
and unwashed. An old blanket, a stool, a spinning-
wheel, a belt and shirt of haircloth, a scourge, and a
424 PRIESTS AND PEOPLE. [1662-1714.
pair of shoes made by herself of the husks of Indian-
corn, appear to have formed the sum of her furniture
and her wardrobe. Her employments were spinning
and working embroidery for churches. She remained
in this voluntary prison about twenty years ; and the
nun who brought her food testifies that she never
omitted a mortification or a prayer, though commonly
in a state of profound depression, and what her
biographer calls "complete spiritual aridity." When
her mother died, she had refused to see her; and,
long after, no prayer of her dying father could draw
her from her cell. "In the person of this modest
virgin," writes her reverend eulogist, "we see, with
astonishment, the love of God triumphant over
earthly affection for parents, and a complete victory
of faith over reason and of grace over nature."
In 1711, Canada was threatened with an attack by
the English; and Mademoiselle Le Ber gave the
nuns of the Congregation an image of the Virgin on
which she had written a prayer to protect their
granary from the invaders. Other persons, anxious
for a similar protection, sent her images to write upon ;
but she declined the request. One of the disappointed
applicants then stole the inscribed image from the
granary of the Congregation, intending to place it on
his own when the danger drew near. The English,
however, did not come, their fleet having suffered a
ruinous shipwreck ascribed to the prayers of Jeanne
Le Ber. " It was, " writes the Sulpitian Belmont,
"the greatest miracle that ever happened since the
1662-1714.] JEANNE LE BER. 425
days of Moses." Nor was this the only miracle of
which she was the occasion. She herself declared
that once when she had broken her spinning-wheel,
an angel came and mended it for her. Angels also
assisted in her embroidery, "no doubt," says Mother
Juchereau, " taking great pleasure in the society of
this angelic creature." In the church where she had
secluded herself, an image of the Virgin continued
after her death to heal the lame and cure the sick.1
Though Jeanne rarely permitted herself to speak,
yet some oracular utterance of the sainted recluse
would now and then escape to the outer world.
One of these was to the effect that teaching poor
girls to read, unless they wanted to be nuns, was
robbing them of their time. Nor was she far wrong,
for in Canada there was very little to read except
formulas of devotion and lives of saints. The
dangerous innovation of a printing-press had not
invaded the colony,2 and the first Canadian news-
paper dates from the British conquest.
All education was controlled by priests or nuns.
The ablest teachers in Canada were the Jesuits.
Their college of Quebec was three years older than
Harvard. We hear at an early date of public dis-
putations by the pupils, after the pattern of those
1 Faillon, L' Heroine chrttienne du Canada, ou Vie de-Mlle. Le Ber.
This is a most elaborate and eulogistic life of the recluse. A
shorter account of her will be found in Juchereau, H6tel-Dieu. She
died in 1714, at the age of fifty-two.
2 A printing-press was afterwards brought to Canada, but was.
soon sent back again.
426 PRIESTS AND PEOPLE. [1663-1763.
tournaments of barren logic which preceded the reign
of inductive reason in Europe, and of which the
archetype is to be found in the scholastic duels of the
Sorbonne. The boys were sometimes permitted to
act certain approved dramatic pieces of a religious
character, like the Sage Visionnaire. On one occa-
sion they were allowed to play the Cid of Corneille,
which, though remarkable as a literary work, con-
tained nothing threatening to orthodoxy. JThey were
taught a little Latin, a little rhetoric, ami a little
logic; but against all that might rouse the faculties
to independent action, the Canadian schools pru-
dently closed their doors. There was then no rival
population, of a different origin and a different faith,
to compel competition in the race of intelligence
and knowledge. The Church stood sole mistress of
field. Under the old regime the real object of
education in Canada was a religious and, in far less
degree, a political one. The true purpose of the
schools was : first, to make priests ; and, secondly, to
make obedient^enTants of the Church and the King!\
All the rest was extraneous and of slight accoulf£7
In regard to this matter, the King and the bishop
were of one mind. "As I have been informed,"
Louis XIV. writes to Laval, " of your continued care
to hold the people in their duty towards God and
towards me by the good education you give 'or cause
to be given to the young, I write this letter to
express my satisfaction with conduct so salutary,
and to exhort you to persevere in it.'*1
1 Le Roy a Laval, 9 Avril, 1667 (extract in Faillon).
1663-1763.] THE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL. 427
The bishop did not fail to persevere. The school
for boys attached to his seminary became the most
important educational institution in Canada. It
was regulated by thirty-four rules, " in honor of the
thirty-four years which Jesus lived on earth." The
qualities commended to the boys as those which they
should labor diligently to acquire were "humility,
obedience, purity, meekness, modesty, simplicity,
chastity, charity, and an ardent love of Jesus and
his Holy Mother."1 Here is a goodly roll of Chris-
tian virtues. What is chiefly noticeable in it is, that
truth is allowed no place. That manly but unaccom-
modating virtue was not, it seems, thought important
in forming the mind of youth. Humility and obedi-
ence lead the list; for in unquestioning submission
to the spiritual director lay the guaranty of all other
merits.
tSKe have seen already, that, besides this seminary
for boys, Laval established another for educating
the humbler colonists. It was a sort of farm-school ;
though besides farming, various mechanical trades
were also taught in it. It was well adapted to the
wants of a great majority of Canadians, whose ten-
dencies were anything but bookish; but here, as
elsewhere, the real object was religious. It enabled
the Church to extend her influence ov-er classes
which the ordinary schools could not reacL/ Besides
manual training, the pupils were taughr to read and
1 Ancien r/fglement du Petit Stminaire de Que'bec, see Abeille, viil
no.
428 PRIESTS AND PEOPLE. [1663-1763.
write; and for a time a certain number of them
received some instruction in Latin. When, in 1686,
Saint- Vallier visited the school, he found in all
thirty-one boys under the charge of two priests;
but the number was afterwards greatly reduced, and
the place served, as it still serves, chiefly as a retreat
during vacations for the priests and pupils of the
seminary of Quebec. A spot better suited for such a
purpose cannot be conceived.
From the vast meadows of the parish of St.
Joachim, which here border the St. Lawrence, there
rises like an island a low flat hill, hedged round with
forests like the tonsured head of a monk. It was
here that Laval planted his school. Across the
meadows, a mile or more distant, towers the moun-
tain promontory of Cape Tourmente. You may climb
its woody steeps, and from the top, waist-deep
in blueberry-bushes, survey, from Kamouraska to
Quebec, the grand Canadian world outstretched
below; or mount the neighboring heights of St.
Anne, where, athwart the gaunt arms of ancient
pines, the river lies shimmering in summer haze, the
cottages of the habitants are strung like beads of a
rosary along the meadows of Beaupre*, the shores of
Orleans bask in warm light, and far on the horizon
the rock of Quebec rests like a faint gray cloud ; or
traverse the forest till the roar of the torrent guides
you to the rocky solitude where it hold£ its savage
revels. High on the cliffs above, young ' birch-trees
stand smiling in the morning sun ; while in the abyss
^663-1763.] SAINT ANNE. 429
beneath the snowy waters plunge from depth to
depth, and, halfway down, the slender harebell
hangs from its mossy nook, quivering in the steady
thunder of the cataract. Game on the river; trout
in lakes, brooks, and pools ; wild fruits and flowers
on meadows and mountains, — a thousand resources
of honest and wholesome recreation here wait the
student emancipated from books, but not parted for a
moment from the pious influence which hangs about
the old walls embosomed in the woods of St. Joachim.
Around on plains and hills stand the dwellings of a
peaceful peasantry, as different from the restless
population of the neighboring States as the denizens
of some Norman or Breton village.
Above all, do not fail to make your pilgrimage to
the shrine of St. Anne. You may see her chapel
four or five miles away, nestled under the heights of
the Petit Cap. Here, when Ailleboust was governor,
he began with his own hands the pious work, and a
habitant of Beaupre*, Louis Guimont, sorely afflicted
with rheumatism, came grinning with pain to lay
three stones in the foundation, in honor probably of
Saint Anne, Saint Joachim, and their daughter the
Virgin. Instantly he was cured. It was but the
beginning of a long course of miracles continued
more than two centuries, and continuing still. Their
fame spread far and wide. The devotion to Saint
Anne became a distinguishing feature of Canadian
Catholicity, till at the present day at least thirteen
parishes bear her name. But of all her shrines, none
430 PRIESTS AND PEOPLE. [1663-1763.
can match the fame of St. Anne du Petit Cap.
Crowds flocked thither on the week of her festival,
and marvellous cures were wrought unceasingly, as
the sticks and crutches hanging on the walls and
columns still attest. Sometimes the whole shore
was covered with the wigwams of Indian converts
who had paddled their birch canoes from the farthest
wilds of Canada. The more fervent among them
would crawl on their knees from the shore to the
altar. And, in our own day, every summer a far
greater concourse of pilgrims — not in paint and
feathers, but in cloth and millinery, and not in
canoes, but in steamboats — bring their offerings
and their vows to the "Bonne Sainte Anne."1
To return to Laval's industrial school. ^Judging
from repeated complaints of governors and intendants
of the dearth of skilled workmen, the priests in
charge of it were more successful in making good
Catholics than in making good masons, carpenters,
blacksmiths, and weaversjf\and the number of pupils,
even if well trained, was at no time sufficient to meet
the wants of the colony,2 for, though the Canadians
1 For an interesting account of the shrine at the Petit Cap, see
Casgrain, Le Ptterinage de la Bonne Sainte Anne, a little manual of
devotion printed at Quebec. I chanced to visit the old chapel in
1871, during a meeting of the parish to consider the question of re-
constructing it, as it was in a ruinous state. Passing that way again
two years later, I found the old chapel still standing, and a new one,
much larger, half finished.
2 Most of them were moreover retained, after leaving the school,
by the seminary, as servants, farmers, or vassals. (La Tour, Vie d«
Laval, liv. vi.)
1663-1763.] RESULTS. 431
showed an aptitude for mechanical trades, they pre-
ferred above all things the savage liberty of the
backwoods.
The education of girls was in the hands of the
Ursulines and the nuns of the Congregation, of whom
the former, besides careful instruction in religious
duties, taught their pupils " all that a girl ought to
know."1 This meant exceedingly little besides the
manual arts suited to their sex ; and, in the case of
the nuns of the Congregation, who taught girls of
the poorer class, it meant still less. It was on nuns
as well as on priests that the charge fell, not only of
spiritual and mental, but also of industrial, training.
Thus we find the King giving to a sisterhood of
Montreal a thousand francs to buy wool, and a thou-
sand more for teaching girls to knit.2 The King also
maintained a teacher of navigation and surveying at
Quebec on the modest salary of four hundred francs.
During the eighteenth century, some improvement
is perceptible in the mental state of the population.
As it became more numerous and more stable, it
also became less ignorant ; and the Canadian habitant^
towards the end of the French rule, was probably
better taught, so far as concerned religion, than the
mass of French peasants. Yet secular instruction
was still extremely meagre, even in the noblesse.
1 " A lire, a e'crire, Ics prieres* les moeurs- cliretiennes, et tout ce
qu'une fille doit savoir." — Marie de FIncarnation, Lettre du 9 Aoutt
1668.
3 Denonville au Ministre, 13 Nov., 1685.
432 PRIESTS AND PEOPLE. [1663-1763
"In spite of this defective education," says the
famous navigator, Bougainville, who knew the colony
well in its last years, " the Canadians are naturally
intelligent. They do not know how to write, but
they speak with ease, and with an accent as good as
the Parisian."1 He means, of course, the better
class. "Even the children of officers and gentle-
men," says another writer, "scarcely know how to
read and write; they are ignorant of the first ele-
ments of geography and history."2 And evidence
like this might be extended.
When France was heaving with the throes that
prepared the Revolution; when new hopes, new
dreams, new thoughts — good and evil, false and true
— tossed the troubled waters of French society, —
Canada caught something of its social corruption,
but not the faintest impulsion of its roused mental
life. The torrent surged on its way; while, in the
deep nook beside it, the sticks and dry leaves floated
their usual round, and the unruffled pool slept in the
placidity of intellectual torpor.8
1 Bougainville, Memmre de 1757 (see Margry, Relations intdites).
2 Mtmoire de 1736 ; Detail de toute la Colonie (published by the
Hist. Soc. of Quebec).
' 8 Several Frenchmen of a certain intellectual eminence made
their abode in : Canada from time to time. The chief among them
are the Jesuit Lafitau, author of MCE.UTS des Sauvages Amtfricains ;
the Jesuit Charlevoix, traveller and historian ; the physician Sarra-
zin ; and the Marquis de la Galisonniere, the most enlightened of
the French governors of Canada. Sarrazin, a naturalist as well as
a physician, has left his name to the botanical genus Sarracenia, of
which the curious American species, S, purpurea, the "pitcher-
1663-1763.] MICHEL SARRAZIN. 433
plant," was described by him. His position in the colony was sin-
gular and characteristic. He got little or no pay from his patients ;
and though at one time the only genuine physician in Canada
( Callieres et Beauharnois au Ministre, 3 Nov., 1702), he was dependent
on the King for support. In 1699 we find him thanking his Majesty
for 300 francs a year, and asking at the same time for more, as he
has nothing else to live on. ( Callieres et Champigny au Ministre, 20
Oct., 1699.) Two years later the governor writes, that, as he serves
almost everybody without fees, he ought to have another 300 francs.
(Ibid., 5 Oct., 1701.) The additional 300 francs was given him; but,
finding it insufficient, he wanted to leave the colony. " He is too
useful," writes the governor again; "we cannot let him go." His
yearly pittance of 600 francs, French money, was at one time rein-
forced by his salary as member of the Superior Council. He died
at Quebec in 1734.
CHAPTER XXIII.
1640-1763.
MORALS AND MANNERS.
SOCIAL INFLUENCE OF THE TROOPS. — A PETTY TYRANT. — BRAWLS.
— VIOLENCE AND OUTLAWRY. — STATE OF THE POPULATION. —
VIEWS OF DENONVILLE. — BRANDY. — BEGGARY. — THE PAST
AND THE PRESENT. — INNS. — STATE OF QUEBEC. — FIRES. — THE
COUNTRY PARISHES. — SLAVERY. — VIEWS OF LA HONTAN, — OF
HOCQUART; OF BOUGAINVILLE; OF KALM; OF CHARLEVOIX.
THE mission period of Canada, or the period
anterior to the year 1663, when the King took the
colony in charge, has a character of its own. The
whole population did not exceed that of a large
French village. Its extreme poverty, the constant
danger that surrounded it, and, above all, the con-
tagious zeal of the missionaries, saved it from many
vices, and inspired it with an extraordinary religious
fervor. Without doubt an ideal picture has been
drawn of this early epoch. Trade as well as propa-
gandism was the business of the colony, and the
colonists were far from being all in a state of grace ;
yet it is certain that zeal was higher, devotion more
constant, and popular morals more pure, than at any
later period of the French rule.
1663-73.] CHANGE OF MANNERS. 435
The intervention of the King wrought a change.
The annual shipments of emigrants made by him
were, in the most favorable view, of a very mixed
character, and the portion which Mother Mary calls
canaille was but too conspicuous. Along with them
came a regiment of soldiers fresh from the license of
camps and the excitements of Turkish wars, accus-
tomed to obey their officers and to obey nothing else,
and more ready to wear the scapulary of the Virgin
in campaigns against the Mohawks than to square
their lives by the rules of Christian ethics. "Our
good King," writes Sister Morin, of Montreal, "has
sent troops to defend us from the Iroquois, and the
soldiers and officers have ruined the Lord's vineyard,
and planted wickedness and sin and crime in our soil
of Canada."1 Few, indeed, among the officers fol-
lowed the example of one of their number, — Paul
Dupuy, who, in his settlement of Isle aux Oies,
below Quebec, lived, it is said, like a saint, and on
Sundays and fete days exhorted his servants and
habitants with such unction that their eyes filled with
tears.2 Nor, let us hope, were there many imitators
of Major La Frediere, who, with a company of the
regiment, was sent to garrison Montreal, where he
ruled with absolute sway over settlers and soldiers
alike. His countenance naturally repulsive was
made more so by the loss of an eye ; yet he was irre-
pressible in gallantry, and women and girls fled in
1 Annales de l'H6tel-Dieu St. Joseph, cited by Faillon.
2 Juchereau, Hdtel-Dieu de Quebec, 611.
436 MORALS AND MANNERS. [1663-73
terror from the military Polyphemus. The men, too,
feared and hated him, not without reason. One
morning a settler named Demers was hoeing his field,
when he saw a sportsman gun in hand striding
through his half -grown wheat. "Steady there,
steady ! " he shouted in a tone of remonstrance ; but
the sportsman gave no heed. " Why do you spoil a
poor man's wheat?" cried the outraged cultivator.
"If I knew who you were, I would go and com-
plain of you." "Whom would you complain to?"
demanded the sportsman, who then proceeded to
walk back into the middle of the wheat, and called
out to Demers, " You are a rascal, and I '11 thrash
you." "Look at home for rascals," retorted Demers,
" and keep your thrashing for your dogs. " The sports-
man came towards him in a rage to execute his threat.
Demers picked up his gun, which, after the custom
of the time, he had brought to the field with him,
and, advancing to meet his adversary, recognized La
FrediSre, the commandant. On this he ran off. La
Frediere sent soldiers to arrest him, threw him into
prison, put him in irons, and the next day mounted
him on the wooden horse, with a weight of sixty
pounds tied to each foot. He repeated the torture
a day or two after, and then let his victim go, saying,
"If I could have caught you when I was in your
wheat, I would have beaten you well."
The commandant next turned his quarters into a
dram-shop for Indians, to whom he sold brandy in
large quantities, but so diluted that his customers,
1663-73.] BRAWLS. 437
finding themselves partially defrauded of their right
of intoxication, complained grievously. About this
time the intendant Talon made one of his domiciliary
visits to Montreal, and when, in his character of
father of the people, he inquired if they had any
complaints to make, every tongue was loud in accusa-
tion against La FredieTe. Talon caused full deposi-
tions to be made out from the statements of Demers
and other witnesses. Copies were deposited in the
hands of the notary, and it is from these that the
above story is drawn. The tyrant was removed, and
ordered home to France.1
Many other officers embarked in the profitable
trade of selling brandy to Indians, and several garri-
son posts became centres of disorder. Others of
the regiment became notorious brawlers. A lieu-
tenant of the garrison of Montreal named Carion,
and an ensign named Morel, had for some reason
conceived a violent grudge against another ensign
named Lormeau. On Pentecost day, just after
vespers, Lormeau was walking by the river with his
wife. They had passed the common and the semi-
nary wall, and were in front of the house of the
younger Charles Le Moyne, when they saw Carion
coming towards them. He stopped before Lormeau,
looked him full in the face, and exclaimed, " Coward! "
"Coward yourself," returned Lormeau; "take your
1 Information contre La Freditre. (See Faillon, Colonie Fran$aise^
iii. 386.) The dialogue, as here given from the depositions, is
translated as closely as possible.
438 MORALS AND MANNERS. [1663-73.
self off!" Carion drew his sword, and Lormeau
followed his example. They exchanged a few passes,
then closed, and fell to the ground grappled together.
Lormeau's wig fell off; and Carion, getting the
uppermost, hammered his bare head with the hilt of
his sword. Lormeau's wife, in a frenzy of terror,
screamed murder. One of the neighbors, Monsieur
Bel£tre, was at table with Charles Le Moyne and a
Rochelle merchant named Baston. He ran out with
his two guests, and they tried to separate the com-
batants, who still lay on the ground foaming like a
pair of enraged bull-dogs. All their efforts were
useless. "Very well," said Le Moyne in disgust,
"if you won't let go, then kill each other if you
like." A former military servant of Carion now ran
up, and began to brandish his sword in behalf of his
late master. Carion's comrade, Morel, also arrived,
and, regardless of the angry protest of Le Moyne,
stabbed repeatedly at Lormeau as he lay. Lormeau
had received two or three wounds in the hand and
arm with which he parried the thrusts, and was
besides severely mauled by the sword-hilt of Carion,
when two Sulpitian priests, drawn by the noise,
appeared on the scene. One was Fre*mont, the cur6 ;
the other was Dollier de Casson. That herculean
father, whose past soldier life had made him at home
in a fray, and who cared nothing for drawn swords,
set himself at once to restore peace, — upon which,
whether from the strength of his arm, or the mere
effect of his presence, the two champions released
1663-73.] THE OUTLAW OF MONTREAL. 439
their gripe on each other's throats, rose, sheathed
their weapons, and left the field.1
Montreal, a frontier town at the head of the colony,
was the natural resort of desperadoes, offering, as we
have seen, a singular contrast between the rigor of
its clerical seigniors and the riotous license of the
lawless crew which infested it. Dollier de Casson
tells the story of an outlaw who broke prison ten or
twelve times, and whom no walls, locks, or fetters
could hold. "A few months ago," he says, "he was
caught again, and put into the keeping of six or
seven men, each with a good gun. They stacked
their arms to play a game of cards, which their
prisoner saw fit to interrupt to play a game of his
own. He made a jump at the guns, took them under
his arm like so many feathers, aimed at these fellows
with one of them, swearing that he would kill the
first who came near him, and so, falling back step
by step, at last bade them good-by, and carried off
all their guns. Since then he has not been caught,
and is roaming the woods. Very likely he will
become chief of our banditti, and make great trouble
in the country when it pleases him to come back
from the Dutch settlements, whither they say he is
gone along with another rascal, and a French woman
so depraved that she is said to have given or sold
two of her children to the Indians."2
1 Requete de Lormeau a M, d'Aillebout. Depositions de MM. de
Longueuil [Le Moyne] de Boston, de Beletre, et autres. Cited by
Faillon, Colonie Fran$aise, iii. 393.
* Dollier de Casson, Histoire de Montreal, 1671-72.
440 MORALS AND MANNERS. [1670-90
When the governor, La Barre, visited Montreal,
he found there some two hundred reprobates gam-
bling, drinking, and stealing. If hard pressed by
justice, they had only to cross the river and place
themselves beyond the seigniorial jurisdiction. The
military settlements of the Richelieu were in a condi-
tion somewhat similar, and La Barre complains of a
prevailing spirit of disobedience and lawlessness.1
The most orderly and thrifty part of Canada appears
to have been at this time the cdte of Beaupre", belong-
ing to the seminary of Quebec. Here the settlers
had religious instruction from their curds, and indus-
trial instruction also if they wanted it. Domestic
spinning and weaving were practised at Beaupre'
sooner than in any other part of the colony.
When it is remembered that a population which in
La Barre 's time did not exceed ten thousand, and
which forty years later did not much exceed twice
that number, was scattered along both sides of a
great river for three hundred miles or more ; that a
large part of this population was in isolated groups
of two, three, five, ten, or twenty houses at the edge
of a savage wilderness ; that between them there was
little communication except by canoes; that the
settlers were disbanded soldiers, or others whose
lives had been equally adverse to habits of reflection
or self-control; that they rarely saw a priest, and
that a government omnipotent in name had not arms
long enough to reach them, — we may listen without
1 La Barre au Ministre, 4 Nov., 1683.
1670-90.] SOCIAL DISORDER. 441
surprise to the lamentations of order-loving officials
over the unruly condition of a great part of the colony.
One accuses the seigniors, who, he says, being often
of low extraction, cannot keep their vassals in order.1
Another dwells sorrowfully on the "terrible disper-
sion " of the settlements where the inhabitants " live
in a savage independence." But it is better that
each should speak for himself, and among the rest
let us hear the pious Denonville.
"This, Monseigneur, " he says, "seems to me the
place for rendering you an account of the disorders
which prevail not only in the woods, but also in the
settlements. They arise from the idleness of young
persons, and the great liberty which fathers, mothers,
and guardians have for a long time given them, or
allowed them to assume, of going into the forest
under pretence of hunting or trading. This has
come to such a pass, that, from the moment a boy
can carry a gun, the father cannot restrain him and
dares not offend him. You can judge the mischief
that follows. These disorders are always greatest in
the families of those who are gentilshommes, or who
through laziness or vanity pass themselves off as
such. Having no resource but hunting, they must
spend their lives in the woods, where they have no
cure's to trouble them, and no fathers or guardians to
constrain them. I think, Monseigneur, .that martial
law would suit their case better than any judicial
sentence. Monsieur de la Barre suppressed a certain
1 Catalogne, Mtmoire address^ au Ministre, 1712.
442 MORALS AND MANNERS. [1670-90.
order of knighthood which had sprung up here, but
he did not abolish the usages belonging to it. It was
thought a fine thing and a good joke to go about
naked and tricked out like Indians, not only on
carnival days, but on all other days of feasting and
debauchery. These practices tend to encourage the
disposition of our young men to live like savages,
frequent their company, and be forever unruly and
lawless like them. I cannot tell you, Monseigneur,
how attractive this Indian life is to all our youth. It
consists in doing nothing, caring for nothing, follow-
ing every inclination, and getting out of the way of
all correction."
He goes on to say that the mission villages gov-
erned by the Jesuits and Sulpitians are models of
good order, and that drunkards are never seen there
except when they come from the neighboring French
settlements ; but that the other Indians, who roam at
large about the colony, do prodigious mischief, because
the children of the seigniors not only copy their way
of life, but also run off with their women into the
woods.1 " Nothing, " he continues, "can be finer or
better conceived than the regulations framed for the
government of this country; but nothing, I assure
you, is so ill observed as regards both the fur-trade
1 Raudot, who was intendant early in, the eighteenth century, i§
a little less gloomy in his coloring, but says that Canadian children
were without discipline or education, had no respect for parents or
cure's, and owned no superiors. This, he thinks, is owing to "la
folle tendresse des parents qui les empeche de les corriger et de leur
former le caractere qu'ils ont dur et f^roce."
1670-90.] SOCIAL DISORDER. 443
and the general discipline of the colony. One great
evil is the infinite number of drinking-shops, which
makes it almost impossible to remedy the disorders
resulting from them. All the rascals and idlers of
the country are attracted into this business of tavern-
keeping. They never dream of tilling the soil ; but,
on the contrary, they deter the other inhabitants
from it, and end with ruining them. I know seign-
iories where there are but twenty houses, and more
than half of them dram-shops. At Three Rivers
there are twenty-five houses, and liquor may be had
at eighteen or twenty of them. Villemarie [Montreal]
and Quebec are on the same footing."
The governor next dwells on the necessity of find-
ing occupation for children and youths, — a matter
which he regards as of the last importance. " It is
sad to see the ignorance of the population at a dis-
tance from the abodes of the cur6s, who are put to
the greatest trouble to remedy the evil by travelling
from place to place through the parishes in their
charge."1
La Barre, Champigny, and Duchesneau write in a
similar strain. Bishop Saint- Vallier, in an epistolary
journal which he printed of a tour through the colony
made on his first arrival, gives a favorable account of
the disposition of the people, especially as regards
religion. He afterwards changed his views. An
abstract made from his letters for the use of the
King states that he "represents, like M. Denonville,
1 Denonville au Ministre 13 Nov., 1685.
444 MORALS AND MANNERS. [1670-90
that the Canadian youth are for the most part wholl}
demoralized."1
"The bishop was very sorry," says a correspondent
of the minister at Quebec, " to have so much exag-
gerated in the letter he printed at Paris the morality
of the people here."2 He preached a sermon on the
sins of the inhabitants and issued a pastoral mandate,
in which he says, "Before we knew our flock we
thought that the English and the Iroquois were the
only wolves we had to fear; but God having opened
our eyes to the disorders of this diocese, and made us
feel more than ever the weight of our charge, we are
forced to confess that our most dangerous foes are
drunkenness, luxury, impurity, and slander."3
Drunkenness was at this time the most destructive
vice in the colony. One writer declares that most
of the Canadians drink so much brandy in the morn-
ing that they are unfit for work all day.4 Another
says that a canoe-man when he is tired will lift a keg
of brandy to his lips and drink the raw liquor from
the bung-hole, after which, having spoiled his appe-
tite, he goes to bed supperless ; and that, what with
drink and hardship, he is an old man at forty.
Nevertheless the race did not deteriorate. The pre-
valence of early marriages, and the birth of numer-
ous offspring before the vigor of the father had been
1 N. Y. Colonial Documents, ix. 278. 2 Ibid., ix. 388.
* Ordonnance contre les vices de I'ivrognerie, luxe, et impurete', 31 Oct .,
1690.
* N. Y. Colonial Documents, ix. 398.
1670-1715.] IMPROVEMENT. 445
wasted, insured the strength and hardihood which
characterized the Canadians. As Denonville describes
them, so they long remained. "The Canadians are
tall, well-made, and well set on their legs [bien
plantes sur leurs jambes], robust, vigorous, and accus-
tomed in time of need to live on little. They have
intelligence and vivacity, but are wayward, light-
minded, and inclined to debauchery.'*
As the population increased, as the rage for bush-
ranging began to abate, and, above all, as the cures
multiplied, a change took place for the better. More
churches were built, the charge of each priest was
reduced within reasonable bounds, and a greater
proportion of the inhabitants remained on their farms.
They were better watched, controlled, and taught by
the Church. The ecclesiastical power, wherever it
had a hold, was exercised, as we have seen, with an
undue rigor, yet it was the chief guardian of good
morals ; and the colony grew more orderly and more
temperate as the Church gathered more and more of
its wild and wandering flock fairly within its fold.
In this, however, its success was but relative. It is
true that in 1715 a well-informed writer says that the
people were " perfectly instructed in religion ; " J but
at that time the statement was only partially true.
During the seventeenth century, and some time
after its close, Canada swarmed with beggars, — a
singular feature in a new country where a good farm
could be had for the asking. In countries intensely
1 Mfmoire address? au Regent.
446 MORALS AND MANNERS. [1670-1700.
Roman Catholic begging is not regarded as an
unmixed evil, being supposed to promote two cardinal
virtues, — charity in the giver, and humility in the
receiver. The Canadian officials nevertheless tried
to restrain it. Vagabonds of both sexes were ordered
to leave Quebec, and nobody was allowed to beg
without a certificate of poverty from the cur6 or the
local judge.1 These orders were not always observed.
Bishop Saint- Vallier writes that he is overwhelmea
by beggars,2 and the intendant echoes his complaint
Almshouses were established at Montreal, Three
Rivers, and Quebec ; 3 and when Saint- Vallier founded
the General Hospital, its chief purpose was to serve,
not as a hospital in the ordinary sense of the word,
but as a house of refuge, after the plan of the General
Hospital of Paris.4 Appeal, as usual, was made to
the King. Denonville asks his aid for two destitute
families, and says that many others need it. Louis
XIV. did not fail to respond, and from time to time
he sent considerable sums for the relief of the Cana-
dian poor.6
Denonville says, "The principal reason of the
1 Rtglement de Police, 1676.
2 2V. Y. Colonial Documents, ix. 279.
8 tfdits et Ordonnances, ii. 119.
4 On the General Hospital of Quebec, see Juchereau, 355. In
1692, the minister writes to Frontenac and Champigny that they
should consider well whether this house of refuge will not " aug-
menter la faine'antise parmi les habitans," by giving them a sure
support in poverty.
6 As late as 1701 six thousand livres were granted. Callieres au
Ministre, 4 Nov., 1701.
1670-1700.] POVERTY. 447
poverty of this country is the idleness and bad con-
duct of most of the people. The greater part of the
women, including all the demoiselles, are very lazy."1
Meules proposes as a remedy that the King should
establish a general workshop in the colony, and pay
the workmen himself during the first five or six
years.2 "The persons here," he says, "who have
wished to make a figure are nearly all so overwhelmed
with debt that they may be considered as in the last
necessity."3 He adds that many of the people go
half -naked even in winter. " The merchants of this
country," says the intendant Duchesneau, "are all
plunged in poverty, except five or six at the most; it
is the same with the artisans, except a small number,
because the vanity of the women and the debauchery
of the men consume all their gains. As for such of
the laboring class as apply themselves steadily to
cultivating the soil, they not only live very well, but
are incomparably better off than the better sort of
peasants in France."4
All the writers lament the extravagant habits of
the people; and even La Hontan joins hands with
the priests in wishing that the supply of ribbons, laces,
brocades, jewelry, and the like might be cut off by
act of law. Mother Juchereau tells us, that, when
the English invasion was impending, the belles of
1 Denonvilk et Champigny au Ministre, 6 Nov., 1687.
2 Meules au Ministre, 12 Nov., 1682.
8 Meules, Me~moire touchant le Canada et VAcadie, 1684,
* Duchesneau au Ministre, 10 Nov., 1679.
448 MORALS AND MANNERS. [1645-63.
Canada were scared for a while into modesty in order
to gain the favor of Heaven ; but, as may be imagined,
the effect was short, and Father La Tour declares
that in his time all the fashions except rouge came
over regularly in the annual ships.
The manners of the mission period, on the other
hand, were extremely simple. The old governor,
Lauzon, lived on pease and bacon like a laborer, and
kept no man-servant. He was regarded, it is true,
as a miser, and held in slight account.1 Magdeleine
Bochart, sister of the governor of Three Rivers,
brought her husband two hundred francs in money,
four sheets, two table-cloths, six napkins of linen
and hemp, a mattress, a blanket, two dishes, six
spoons and six tin plates, a pot and a kettle, a table
and two benches, a kneading-trough, a chest with
lock and key, a cow, and a pair of hogs.2 But the
Bocharts were a family of distinction, and the bride's
dowry answered to her station. By another marriage
contract, at about the same time, the parents of the
bride, being of humble degree, bind themselves to
present the bridegroom with a barrel of bacon, deliver-
able on the arrival of the ships from France.8
Some curious traits of this early day appear in the
license of Jean Boisdon as innkeeper. He is required
to establish himself on the great square of Quebec,
close to the church, so that the parishioners may con-
1 Memoire d'Aubert cte la Chesnaye, 1676. •
2 Control de mariage, cited by Ferland, Notes, 73.
8 Control de, manage, cited by Benjamin Suite in Revue Canadi-
enne, ix. 111.
1672-1701.] STATE OF QUEBEC. 449
veniently warm and refresh themselves between the
services; but he is forbidden to entertain anybody
during high mass, sermon, catechism, or vespers.1
Matters soon changed; Jean Boisdon lost his
monopoly, and inns sprang up on all hands. They
did not want for patrons, and we find some of their
proprietors mentioned as among the few thriving men
in Canada. Talon tried to regulate them, and, among
other rules, ordained that no innkeeper should furnish
food or drink to any hired laborer whatever, or to
any person residing in the place where his inn was
situated. An innkeeper of Montreal was fined for
allowing the syndic of the town to dine under his
roof.3
One gets glimpses of the pristine state of Quebec
through the early police regulations. Each inhabi-
tant was required to make a gutter along the middle
of the street before his house, and also to remove
refuse and throw it into the river. All dogs, without
exception, were ordered home at nine o'clock. On
Tuesdays and Fridays there was a market in the
public square, whither the neighboring habitants,
male and female, brought their produce for sale, as
they still continue to do. Smoking in the street was
forbidden, as a precaution against fire ; householders
were required to provide themselves with ladders,
and when the fire alarm was rung all able-bodied
1 Acte officielh, 1648, cited by Ferland, Cours d'Histoire du Canada^
i. 366.
2 Faillon, Colonie Francaise, iii. 405.
29
450 MORALS AND MANNERS. [1672-1701.
persons were obliged to run to the scene of danger
with buckets or kettles full of water.1 This did not
prevent the Lower Town from burning to the ground
in 1682. It was soon rebuilt, but a repetition of the
catastrophe seemed very likely. "This place," says
Denonville, " is in a fearful state as regards fire ; for
the houses are crowded together out of all reason,
and so surrounded with piles of cord-wood that it is
pitiful to see."2 Add to this the stores of hay for
the cows kept by many of the inhabitants for the
benefit of their swarming progeny. The houses were
at this time low, compact buildings, with gables of
masonry, as required by law; but many had wooden
fronts, and all had roofs covered with cedar shingles.
The anxious governor begs, that, as the town has not
a sou of revenue, his Majesty will be pleased to make
it the gift of two hundred crowns' worth of leather
fire-buckets.3 Six or seven years after, certain citi-
zens were authorized by the council to import from
France, at their own cost, " a pump after the Dutch
fashion, for throwing water on houses in case of
fire."4
How a fire was managed at Quebec appears from a
letter of the engineer, Vasseur, describing the burn-
ing of Laval's seminary in 1701. Vasseur was then
at Quebec, directing the new fortifications. On a
Monday in November, all the pupils of the seminary
1 Ee'glement de Police, 1672. Ibid., 1676.
2 Denonville au Ministre, 20 Aout, 1685.
» Ibid.
* Rdglement de 1691, extract in Ferland.
1701.] BURNING OF THE SEMINARY. 451
and most of the priests went, according to their
weekly custom, to recreate themselves at a house and
garden at St. Michel, a short distance from town.
The few priests who remained went after dinner to
say vespers at the church. Only one, Father Petit,
was left in the seminary, and he presently repaired to
the great hall to rekindle the fire in the stove and
warm the place against the return of his brethren.
His success surpassed his wishes. A firebrand snapped
out in his absence and set the pine floor in a blaze.
Father Boucher, cur6 of Point Levi, chanced to come
in, and was half choked by the smoke. He cried
fire ! the servants ran for water ; but the flames soon
mastered them; they screamed the alarm, and the
bells began to ring. Vasseur was dining with the
intendant at his palace by the St. Charles, when he
heard a frightened voice crying out, " Monsieur, you
are wanted! you are wanted!" He sprang from
table, saw the smoke rolling in volumes from the top
of the rock, ran up the steep ascent, reached the
seminary, and found an excited crowd making a
prodigious outcry. He shouted for carpenters. Four
men came to him, and he set them at work with such
tools as they had to tear away planks and beams, and
prevent the fire from spreading to the adjacent parts
of the building ; but when he went to find others to
help them, they ran off. He sent new men in their
place, and these too ran off the moment his back was
turned. A cry was raised that the building was to
be blown up, on which the crowd scattered for their
452 MORALS AND MANNERS. [1700-63,
lives. Vasseur now gave up the seminary for lost,
and thought only of cutting off the fire from the rear
of the church, which was not far distant. In this he
succeeded, by tearing down an intervening wing or
gallery. The walls of the burning building were of
massive stone, and by seven o'clock the fire had spent
itself. We hear nothing of the Dutch pump, nor
does it appear that the soldiers of the garrison made
any effort to keep order. Under cover of the con-
fusion, property was stolen from the seminary to the
amount of about two thousand livres, — which is
remarkable, considering the religious character of the
building, and the supposed piety of the people.
" There were more than three hundred persons at the
fire," says Vasseur; "but thirty picked men would
have been worth more than the whole, of them."1
August, September, and October were the busy
months at Quebec. Then the ships from France
discharged their lading, the shops and warehouses of
the Lower Town were filled with goods, and the
habitants came to town to make their purchases.
When the frosts began, the vessels sailed away, the
harbor was deserted, the streets were silent again,
and like ants or squirrels the people set at work to
lay in their winter stores. Fathers of families packed
their cellars with beets, carrots, potatoes, and cab-
bages ; and, at the end of autumn, with meat, fowls,
game, fish, and eels, all frozen to stony hardness.
1 Vasseur au Ministre, 24 Nov., 1701. Like Denonville before
him, he urges the need of fire-buckets.
1700-63.] THE COUNTRY PARISHES. 453
Most of the shops closed, and the long season of
leisure and amusement began. New Year's day
brought visits and mutual gifts. Thence till Lent
dinner-parties were frequent, sometimes familiar and
sometimes ceremonious. The governor's little court at
the chateau was a standing example to all the aspir-
ing spirits of Quebec, and forms and orders of pre-
cedence were in some houses punctiliously observed.
There were dinners to the military and civic digni-
taries and their wives, and others, quite distinct, to
prominent citizens. The wives and daughters of the
burghers of Quebec are said to have been superior in
manners to women of the corresponding class in
France. "They have wit," says La Potherie, "deli-
cacy, good voices, and a great fondness for dancing.
They are discreet, and not much given to flirting;
but when they undertake to catch a lover, it is not
easy for him to escape the bands of Hymen."1
So much for the town. In the country parishes,
there was the same autumnal stowing away of frozen
vegetables, meat, fish, and eels, and unfortunately
the same surfeit of leisure through five months of the
year. During the seventeenth century, many of the
people were so poor that women were forced to keep
at home from sheer want of winter clothing. Noth-
ing, however, could prevent their running from house
to house to exchange gossip with the neighbors,
who all knew one another, and, having nothing else
to do, discussed each other's affairs with an industry
i La Potherie, i. 279.
454 MORALS AND MANNERS. [1685-1763.
which often bred bitter quarrels. At a later period,
a more general introduction of family weaving and
spinning served at once to furnish clothing and to
promote domestic peace.
The most important persons in a parish were the
cure*, the seignior, and the militia captain. The
seignior had his bench of honor in the church.
Immediately behind it was the bench of the militia
captain, whose duty it was to drill the able-bodied
men of the neighborhood, direct roadmaking and
other public works, and serve as deputy to the
intendant, whose ordinances he was required to
enforce. Next in honor came the local judge, if
any there was, and the church-wardens.
The existence of slavery in Canada dates from the
end of the seventeenth century. In 1688 the attorney-
general made a visit to Paris, and urged upon the
King the expediency of importing negroes from the
West Indies as a remedy for the scarcity and dearness
of labor. The King consented, but advised caution,
on the ground that the rigor of the_ cltmate would
make the venture a critical one.1 A number of
slaves were brought into the colony; but the system
never flourished, the climate and other circumstances
being hostile to it. Many of the colonists, especially
at Detroit and other outlying posts, owned slaves of
a remote Indian tribe, the Pawnees. The fact is
1 Instruction au Sr. de Frontenac, 1689. On Canadian slavery, see
a long paper, L'Esclavage en Canada, published by the Historical
Society of Montreal.
1736.] CANADIAN LIFE. 455
remarkable, since it would be difficult to find another
of the wild tribes of the continent capable of subjec-
tion to domestic servitude. The Pawnee slaves were
captives taken in war and sold at low prices to the
Canadians. Their market value was much impaired
by their propensity to run off.
It is curious to observe the views of the Canadians
taken at different times by different writers. La
Hontan says : " They are vigorous, enterprising, and
indefatigable, and need nothing but education. They
are presumptuous and full of self-conceit, regard
themselves as above all the nations of the earth, and,
unfortunately, have not the veneration for their
parents that they ought to have. The women are
generally pretty ; few of them are brunettes ; many of
them are discreet, and a good number are lazy. They
are fond to the last degree of dress and show, and
each tries to outdo the rest in the art of catching a
husband."1
Fifty years later, the intendant Hocquart writes:
"The Canadians are fond of distinctions and atten-
tions, plume themselves on their courage, and are
extremely sensitive to slights or the smallest correc-
tions. They are self-interested, vindictive, prone to
drunkenness, use a great deal of brandy, and pass for
not being at all truthful. This portrait is true of
many of them, particularly the country people : those
of the towns are less vicious. They are all attached
to religion, and criminals are rare. They are vola-
i La Hontan, ii. 81 (ed. 1709).
456 MORALS AND MANNERS. [1749.
tile, and think too well of themselves, which prevents
their succeeding as they might in farming and trade.
They have not the rude and rustic air of our French
peasants. If they are put on their honor and gov-
erned with justice, they are tractable enough; but
their natural disposition is indocile."1
The navigator Bougainville, in the last years of
the French rule, describes the Canadian habitant as
essentially superior to the French peasant, and adds,
"He is loud, boastful, mendacious, obliging, civil,
and honest; indefatigable in hunting, travelling, and
bush-ranging, but lazy in tilling the soil."2
The Swedish botanist, Kalm, an excellent observer,
was in Canada a few years before Bougainville, and
sketches from life the following traits of Canadian
manners. The language is that of the old English
translation: "The men here [at * Montreal] are
extremely civil, and take their hats off to every
person indifferently whom they meet in the streets.
The women in general are handsome ; they are well
bred and virtuous, with an innocent and becoming
freedom. They dress out very fine on Sundays, and
though on the other days they do not take much
pains with the other parts of their dress, yet they are
very fond of adorning their heads, the hair of which
is always curled and powdered and ornamented with
glittering bodkins and aigrettes. They are not averse
to taking part in all the business of housekeeping;
1 Mfmoire de 1736.
* M&naire de 1757, printed in Margry, Relations Incites.
1749.] CANADIAN LIFE. 457
and I have with pleasure seen the daughters of the
better sort of people, and of the governor [of
Montreal] himself, not too finely dressed, and going
into kitchens and cellars to look that everything be
done as it ought. What I have mentioned above of
their dressing their heads too assiduously is the case
with all the ladies throughout Canada. Their hair
is always curled, even when they are at home in a
dirty jacket and short coarse petticoat that does not
reach to the middle of their legs. On those days
when they pay or receive visits, they dress so gayly
that one is almost induced to think their parents
possess the greatest honors in the state. They are
no less attentive to have the newest fashions, and
they laugh at one another when they are not dressed
to one another's fancy. One of the first questions
they propose to a stranger is, whether he is married ;
the next, how he likes the ladies of the country, and
whether he thinks them handsomer than those of his
own country; and the third, whether he will take
one home with him. The behavior of the ladies
seemed to me somewhat too free at Quebec, and of a
more becoming modesty at Montreal. Those of
•Quebec are not very industrious. The young ladies,
especially those of a higher rank^ get up at seven and
dress till nine, drinking their coffee at the same time.
When they are dressed, they place themselves near a
window that opens into the street, take up some
needlework and sew a stitch noTP and then, but turn
their eyes into the street most of the time. When a
458 MORALS AND MANNERS. [1749.
young fellow comes in, whether they are acquainted
with him or not, they immediately lay aside their
work, sit down by him, and begin to chat, laugh,
joke, and invent double-entendres ; and this is reckoned
being very witty. In this manner they frequently
pass the whole day, leaving their mothers to do the
business of the house. They are likewise cheerful
and content, and nobody can say that they want
either wit or charms. Their fault is that they think
too well of themselves. However, the daughters of
people of all ranks without exception go to market
and carry home what they have bought. The girls
at Montreal are very much displeased that those at
Quebec get husbands sooner than they. The reason
of this is that many young gentlemen who come over
from France with the ships are captivated by the
ladies at Quebec and marry them; but as these
gentlemen seldom go up to Montreal, the girls there
are not often so happy as those of the former place." J
Long before Kalm's visit, the Jesuit Charlevoix, a
traveller and a man of the world, wrote thus of
Quebec in a letter to the Duchesse de Lesdiguieres :
"There is a select little society here which wants
nothing to make it agreeable. In the salons of the
wives of the governor and of the intendant, one finds
circles as brilliant as in other countries." These
circles were formed partly of the principal inhabi-
tants, but chiefly of military officers and government
1 Kalm, Travels into North A merica, translated into English by
John Remold Forster (London, 1771), 66, 282, etc.
1720.] CANADIAN LIFE. 459
officials, with their families. Charlevoix continues:
"Everybody does his part to make the time pass
pleasantly, with games and parties of pleasure, —
drives and canoe excursions in summer, sleighing
and skating in winter. There is a great deal of
hunting and shooting, for many Canadian gentlemen
are almost destitute of any other means of living at
their ease. The news of the day amounts to very
little indeed, as the country furnishes scarcely any,
while that from Europe comes all at once. Science
and the fine arts have their turn, and conversation
does not fail. The Canadians breathe from their
birth an air of liberty, which makes them very pleas-
ant in the intercourse of life, and our language is
nowhere more purely spoken. One finds here no rich
persons whatever, and this is a great pity; for the
Canadians like to get the credit of their money, and
scarcely anybody amuses himself with hoarding it.
They say it is very different with our neighbors the
English; and one who knew the two colonies only
by the way of living, acting, and speaking of the
colonists would not hesitate to judge ours the more
flourishing. In New England and the other British
colonies there reigns an opulence by which the people
seem not to know how to profit; while in New
France poverty is hidden under an air of ease which
appears entirely natural. The English colonist keeps
as much and spends as little as possible ; the French
colonist enjoys what he has got, and often makes a
display of what he has not got. The one labors for
460 MORALS AND MANNERS. [1720
his heirs; the other leaves them to get on as they
can, like himself. I could push the comparison
further, but I must close here; the King's ship is
about to sail, and the merchant vessels are getting
ready to follow. In three days, perhaps, not one
will be left in the harbor."1
And now we, too, will leave Canada. Winter
draws near, and the first patch of snow lies gleaming
on the distant mountain of Cape Tourmente. The
sun has set in chill autumnal beauty, and the sharp
spires of fir-trees on the heights of Sillery stand stiff
and black against the pure cold amber of the fading
west. The ship sails in the morning; and before the
old towers of Rochelle rise in sight there will be time
to smoke many a pipe, and ponder what we have seen
on the banks of the St. Lawrence.
1 Charlevoix, Journal Historique, 80 (ed. 1744).
CHAPTER XXIV.
1663-1763.
CANADIAN ABSOLUTISM.
FORMATION OF CANADIAN CHARACTER. — THE RIVAL COLONIES.—
ENGLAND AND FRANCE. — NEW ENGLAND. — CHARACTERISTICS
OF RACE. — MILITARY QUALITIES. — THE CHURCH. — THE
ENGLISH CONQUEST.
NOT institutions alone, but geographical position,
climate, and many other conditions unite to form the
educational influences that, acting through succes-
sive generations, shape the character of nations and
communities.
It is easy to see the nature of the education, past
and present, which wrought on the Canadians and
made them what they were. An ignorant popula-
tion, sprung from a brave and active race, but trained
to subjection and dependence through centuries of
feudal and monarchical despotism, was planted in
the wilderness by the hand of authority, and told to
grow and flourish. Artificial stimulants were applied,
but freedom was withheld. Perpetual intervention
of government, — regulations, restrictions, encourage-
ments sometimes more mischievous than restrictions,
a constant uncertainty what the authorities would do
462 CANADIAN ABSOLUTISM. [1663-1763.
next, the fate of each man resting less with himself
than with another, volition enfeebled, self-reliance
paralyzed, — the condition, in short, of a child held
always under the rule of a father, in the main well-
meaning and kind, sometimes generous, sometimes
neglectful, often capricious, and rarely very wise, -
such were the influences under which Canada grew
up. If she had prospered, it would have been sheer
miracle. A man, to be a man, must feel that he
holds his fate, in some good measure, in his own
hands.
But this was not all. Against absolute authority
there was a counter influence, rudely and wildly
antagonistic. Canada was at the very portal of the
great interior wilderness. The St. Lawrence and
the Lakes were the highway to that domain of savage
freedom; and thither the disfranchised, half -starved
seignior, and the discouraged habitant who could find
no market for his produce naturally enough betook
themselves. Their lesson of savagery was well
learned, and for many a year a boundless license and
a stiff-handed authority battled for the control of
Canada. Nor, to the last, were Church and State
fairly masters of the field. The French rule was
drawing towards its close when the intendant com-
plained that though twenty-eight companies of regular
troops were quartered in the colony, there "were not
soldiers enough to keep the people in order.1 One
cannot but remember that in a neighboring colony,
l Mfmoire de 1736 (printed by the Historical Society of Quebec).
1663-1763.] THE RIVAL COLONIES. 463
far more populous, perfect order prevailed, with no
other guardians than a few constables chosen by the
people themselves.
Whence arose this difference, and other differences
equally striking, between the rival colonies ? It is
easy to ascribe them to a difference of political and
religious institutions; but the explanation does not
cover the grouncj. The institutions of New England
were utterly inapplicable to the population of New
France, and the attempt to apply them would have
wrought nothing but mischief. There are no political
panaceas, except in the imagination of political
quacks. To each degree and each variety of public
development there are corresponding institutions,
best answering the public needs; and what is meat
to one is poison to another. Freedom is for those
who are fit for it ; the rest will lose it, or turn it to
corruption. Church and State were right in exercis-
ing authority over a people which had not learned
the first rudiments of self-government. Their fault
was not that they exercised authority, but that they
exercised too much of it, and, instead of weaning the
child to go alone, kept him in perpetual leading-
strings, making him, if possible, more and more
dependent, and less and less fit for freedom.
In the building up of colonies, England succeeded
and France failed. The cause lies chiefly in the vast
advantage drawn by England from the historical
training of her people in habits of reflection, forecast,
industry, and self-reliance, — a training which enabled
464 CANADIAN ABSOLUTISM [1663-1763.
them to adopt and maintain an invigorating system
of self-rule, totally inapplicable to their rivals.
The New England colonists were far less fugitives
from oppression than voluntary exiles seeking the
realization of an idea. They were neither peasants
nor soldiers, but a substantial Puritan yeomanry, led
by Puritan gentlemen and divines in thorough sym-
pathy with them. They were neither sent out by the
King, governed by him, nor helped by him. They
grew up in utter neglect, and continued neglect was
the only boon they asked. Till their increasing
strength roused the jealousy of the Crown, they
were virtually independent, — a republic, but by no
means a democracy. They chose their governor and
all their rulers from among themselves, made their
own government and paid for it, supported their own
clergy, defended themselves, and educated them-
selves. Under the hard and repellent surface of
New England society lay the true foundations of
a stable freedom, — conscience, reflection, faith,
patience, and public spirit. The cement of common
interests, hopes, and duties compacted the whole
people like a rock of conglomerate ; while the people
of New France remained in a state of political segre-
gation, like a basket of pebbles held together by the
enclosure that surrounds them.
It may be that the difference of historical ante-
cedents would alone explain the difference of charac-
ter between the rival colonies ; but there are deeper
causes, the influence of which went far to determine
1663-1763.] MILITARY QUALITIES. 465
the antecedents themselves. The Germanic race,
and especially the Anglo-Saxon branch of it, is pecu-
liaiiy masculine, and, therefore, peculiarly fitted
for self-government. It submits its action habitually
to the guidance of reason, and has the judicial faculty
of seeing both sides of a question. The French Celt
is cast in a different mould. He sees the end dis-
tinctly, and reasons about it with an admirable clear-
ness ; but his own impulses and passions continually
turn him away from it. Opposition excites him ; he
is impatient of delay, is impelled always to extremes,
and does not readily sacrifice a present inclination to
an ultimate good. He delights in abstractions and
generalizations, cuts loose from unpleasing facts,
and roams through an ocean of desires and theories.
While New England prospered and Canada did not
prosper, the French system had at least one great
advantage. It favored military efficiency. The
Canadian population sprang in great part from
soldiers, and was to the last systematically reinforced
by disbanded soldiers. Its chief occupation was a
continual training for forest war; it had little or
nothing to lose, and little to do but fight and range
the woods. This was not all. The Canadian gov-
ernment was essentially military. At its head was a
soldier nobleman, often an old and able commander;
and those beneath him caught his spirit and emulated
his example. In spite of its political nothingness, in
spite of poverty and hardship, and in spite even of
trade, the upper stratum of Canadian society was
30
466 CANADIAN ABSOLUTISM. [1663-1761
animated by the pride and fire of that gallant noblesse
which held war as its only worthy calling, and prized
honor more than life. As for the habitant, the forest,
lake, and river were his true school; and here, at
least, he was an apt scholar. A skilful woodsman,
a bold and adroit canoe-man, a willing fighter in time
of need, often serving without pay, and receiving
from government only his provisions and his canoe,
he was more than ready at any time for any hardy
enterprise ; and in the forest warfare of skirmish and
surprise there were few to match him. An absolute
government used him at will, and experienced leaders
guided his rugged valor to the best account.
The New England man was precisely the same
material with that of which Cromwell formed his
invincible "Ironsides;" but he had very little forest
experience. His geographical position cut him off
completely from the great wilderness of the interior.
The sea was his field of action. Without the aid 'of
government, and in spite of its restrictions, he built
up a prosperous commerce, and enriched himself by
distant fisheries, neglected by the rivals before whose
doors they lay. He knew every ocean from Green-
land to Cape Horn, and the whales of the north and
of the south had no more dangerous foe. But he
was too busy to fight without good cause ; and when
he turned his hand to soldiering, it was only to meet
some pressing need of the hour. The New England
troops in the early wars were bands of raw fishermen
and farmers, led by civilians, decorated with military
1663-1763.] THE ENGLISH CONQUEST. 467
titles, and subject to the slow and uncertain action of
legislative bodies. The officers had not learned to
command, nor the men to obey. The remarkable
exploit of the capture of Louisburg, the strongest
fortress in America, was the result of mere audacity
and hardihood, backed by the rarest good luck.
One great fact stands out conspicuous in Canadian
history, — the Church of Rome. More even than the
royal power, she shaped the character and the desti-
^s.qf_ the colony. She was its nurse and almost
its mother ; and, wayward and headstrong as it was,
it never broke the ties of faith that held it to her. It
was these ties which, in the absence of political fran-
chises, formed under the old regime the only vital
coherence in the population. The royal government
was transient; the Church was permanent. The
English conquest shattered the whole apparatus of
civil administration at a blow, but it left her
untouched. Governors, intendants, councils, and
commandants, all were gone; the principal seigniors
fled the colony ; and a people who had never learned
to control themselves or help themselves were sud-
denly left to their own devices. Confusion, if not
anarchy, would have followed but for the parish
priests, who, in a character of double paternity, half
spiritual and half temporal, became more than ever
the guardians of order throughout Canada.
This English conquest was the grand crisis of
Canadian history. It was the beginning of a new
life. With England came Protestantism, and the
468 CANADIAN ABSOLUTISM. [1663-1763.
Canadian Church grew purer and better in the
presence of an adverse faith. Material growth; an
increased mental activity; an education, real though
fenced and guarded ; a warm and genuine patriotism,
— all date from the peace of 1763. England imposed
by the sword on reluctant Canada the boon of rational
and ordered liberty. Through centuries of striving
she had advanced from stage to stage "of progress,
deliberate and calm, — never breaking with her past,
but making each fresh gain the base of a new success,
— enlarging popular liberties while bating nothing of
that height and force of individual development
which is the brain and heart of civilization ; and now,
through a hard-earned victory, she taught the con-
quered colony to share the blessings she had won.
A happier calamity never befell a people than the
conquest of Canada by the British arms.
APPENDIX.
SECTION FIRST.
LA TOUR AND D'AUNAY.
PROCI&S VERBAL D' ANDRE CERTAIN.
[Literatim.]
Collection de M. Margry.
I/ AN mil six cent quarante quatre le vint cinq joui
d'octobre deux mois apres la signification faits de 1'arrest
du conseil en date du 5 mai de la mesme annee au Sieur
de la Tour et a tous ceux qui estoient avec luy dans le
fort de la Riviere St. Jean par la Montjoie le 15 8bre 1644
Mr Charles de Menou chevalier Seigneur d'Aunay Charni-
say, gouverneur et Lieutenant general pour le Roy dans
toute PEtendue descostes d'Acadie pais de la Nouvelle
France, veu le refus du d. de la Tour et 1'obstination dans
laquelle estoient ses gens, equipa de rechef deux de ses
chaloupes pour tenter par les voies de douceur de ramener
ces esprits rebelles a 1'obeissance qu'ils doivent £ sa Majeste
pour lequel effet mon dit Sieur deputa un lieutenant de son
vaisseau pour commander une d'icelles et son sergent pour
1'autre auec commandement de sa part d'aller a la riviere
470 APPENDIX.
St. Jean faire tout effort pour adroitement remonter quel-
qu'uns de ces esprits rebelles, les emboucher et leur donner
lettres pour leur camarades signes de mou dit Sieur avec
assurance d'abolition de leurs crimes et payements de leurs
gages s'ils se rangeoient a leur devoir de veritables sujets,
leur devant montrer com me les arrets du conseil obligeoient
mon dit Sieur a pareils traitemens. Ce qu'ayant fidellement
execute ils ne receurent pour toute reponse qu'injures et
imprecations de ces malheureux et huit jours apres la
femme du dit Sieur de la Tour arrivant a la riviere de
St. Jean conduite par un vaisseau anglois obligea son
mary d'aller a Boston vers les Anglois se declarer de leur
religion, comme elle venoit de faire et leur demander
un ministre pour son habitation et par la obliger tout le
corps des Anglois a les maintenir dans leurs biens avec offre
qu'ils partageroient toute la coste d'Acadie apres qu'ils s'en
seroient rendus maistres : Et le 28 de Janvier 1645 la dite
dame parla si insolemment aux reverends peres Recollects
qui pour lors estoient dans son habitation que faisant la
Demoniaque et mepris scandaleux de la religion Catholique,
apostolique et Romaine son mary present, qui adhe'roit a
toutes ses actions, ils furent contraints de sortir et chercher
moyen de se retirer quoyque dans ces contre'es 1'Hiver soit
tres rigoureux, ce que le dit Sieur de la Tour et sa femme
leur octroierent avec derision et injures leur donnant pour
cet effet une vieille pinasse qui couloid quasy bas d'eau avec
deux bariques de bled d'Inde pour toutes vitailles, ce qui
sera justifie par une attestation de ceux mesmes qui estoient
dans le service du Sr de la Tour et sa femme et une lettre
d'un des susdits peres Recollects superieur dans le d. lieu
et huit ou neuf des gens du d. Sr de la Tour counoissant le
deplorable estat de cette habitation ed la formelle rebellion
du Sr de la Tour sa femme et du reste de leurs camarades
contre le devoir qu'ils doivent a dieu et au Roy se retirement
APPENDIX. 471
Bemblablement et accompagnerent les dits reverends p&res
Recollects, lesquels avec beaucoup de perils se vinrent rendre
dans le Port Royal demeure ordinaire du Sr. d'Aunay,
lequel apres avoir este* imbu de tout ce que dessus les receut
tons humainement envoiant les deux religieux Recollects
dans la maison des Reverends peres Capucins missionaires
qui les receurent avec tant d'affection et les firent tant de
charite et saints offices qu'ils en demeurent tous confus aussy
bien que les huid personnes qui les accompagnoient voyant
le favorable accueil que leur fit mon dit Sieur qui ne se con-
tenta pas de les loger et nourrir corame les siens propres mais
les paya leurs gages que le dit La Tour de tant d'anndes qu'ils
Pavoient servy leur avoid refus^. Ce qui est prouv^ par une
reconnoissance de ces mesmes personnes pour les sommes qui
leur ont est£ mises entre les mains, signee de leurs mains.
Ce regalement ayant est£ donn£ comme dessus est dit, Mon
dit sieur s'informant plus particulierement de Pestat au quel
estoient ces miserables esprits, Pobstination du reste de ceux
qui estoient demeurez avec le dit la Tour, et qu'il estoit
party pour aller vers les Anglois dans Boston pour tascher
de renvoyer comme ja cy dessus est dit le traitte de paix fait
avec les dits Ajaglois et le sieur Marie confident de Mon
d. Sieur D'Aunay et engager par mesme moyen quelque
marchand pour amener quelques vitailles dans la riviere de
Saint Jean dans la quelle il n'avoit laiss£ que quarante cinq
personnes, ce que mon dit sieur considerant fit assemblies de
tous les ofnciers qui pour lors estoient aupr&s de sa personne,
ou il fut conclud de prendre cette occasion aux cbeveux. Et
quoyque ne le peut quasy permettre et qu'il falloit risquer
pour une affaire de telle consequence, ce qui obligea mon dit
sieur de monter le plus grand de ces navires du port de trois
cents tonneaux, equip^ en guerre, pour se mettre en garde 4
Pentre*e de la Rivi&re St. Jean afin de surprendre le dit La
Tour avec une partie de son monde, qui pensoit a la faveur
472 APPENDIX.
de la rigueur de 1'Hiver faire son voyage sans qu'il en fust
aucune nouvelle, ce que mon dit sieur ayant execute et pria
rade a une lieue du fort de la Riviere St. Jean assist^ d'un
religieux Capucin missionnaire et des deux susdits Recol-
lects, envoya de rechef vers la dite femme La Tour et tous
ceux qui pour lors estoient avec elle le Reverend Pere
Andre Recollect par une de ses chaloupes, le quel se pro-
mettoit d'attirer peutestre quelquuns a resipiscence , leur
faisant connoitre le bon accueil que luy et leurs camarades
avoient receu de mon dit Sieur, ce qui ne reussit non plus
que les autres fois du passe. Deux mois s'ecoulerent dans
semblable attente, apres quoy mon dit Sieur prid resolution
de battre le fer pendant qu'il estoit chaud, voyant un de ses
navires aussy equipe en guerre qui 1'estoit venu trouver du
Port Royal selon qu'il 1'avoit ainsy ordonne* accompagne'
d'une pinasse aussi charged de monde et apres avoir realli^
de toutes ses Habitations les personnes capables de porter
mousquets, il fit descendre une bonne partie de ses hommes
& terre ed mettre deux pieces de canon avec ordre de les
mettre promptement en batterie le plus proche du fort de la
Riviere de St. Jean qu'ils pourroient avec assurance qu'aus-
sytost qu'ils avoient effectue son commandement ils appro-
cheroient ce navire a la portee du pistolet, afin que sans
donner jour aux assiege's de se reconnoistre on pust faire un
tonnerre et par mer et par terre, donner a mesme temps
qu'il y auroit breche faite, pendant 1'execution de ces ordres
un petit navire Anglois se pr^senta pour entrer dans la dite
riviere charge de vitailles et munitions de guerre, dans
lequel il y avoit un des domestiques du d. La Tour qui
estoit charge* de Lettres de son maistre pour la ditte dame
sa femme qui Passuroit dans un mois ou deux venir la
trouver en meilleur estat et posture qu'il pourroit. Le dit
domestique avoit outre plus une lettre du gouverneur de la
grande baye des anglois addressante a la dite dame par
APPENDIX. 473
laquelle il 1'exhortoit a faire son profit des instructions
qu'elle avoit recues pendant sa residence. Le dit navire
fut pris et arreste par mon dit Sieur et 1'equipage renvoye
au lieu d'ou il estoit party, avec une chaloupe que mon dit
sieur leur donna pour cet effet, lequel estant une fois de
retour fit rapport a Messieurs les magistrats du gouvernement
des Anglois que leur navire avoid este pris en negotiant avec
les francois et que le traite de paix quils avoient fait avec le
Sieur Marie nestoit garde avec mil autres plaintes dont ils
vouloient couvrir le sujet de leur voyage, ce qui obligea ces
Messieurs de deputer un expres vers mon dit Sieur pour luy
demander raison du bien pris par luy sur un de leurs mar-
chands centre les articles de paix que le Sieur Marie, confi-
dent, leur avoit laisse signer de sa part — A quoy mon dit
Sieur leur fit response et declara a leur depute la fourbe de
leur dit marchand, le quel par un desir de lucre abusoit de
leur commission et au lieu d'aller negotiant dans les Habita-
tions des veritables Francois, II alloit rompant par luy
mesmes ce traite de paix passe entre ses magistrats et le
Sieur Marie, confident, portant ainsi frauduleusement des
munitions de vivres et de guerre pour maintenir des re-
belles dans leur desobeissance et centre le devoir qu'ils
doivent k leur prince naturel. Toutes les quelles raisons
payerent entierement et le depute et Messieurs les Magis-
trats de la Grande Baie le susdit depute estant party et mon
dit Sieur D'Aunay ayant recue nouvelle que la batterie
estoit en estat et ses gens qui estoient a terre disposes
a faire ce quil leur ordonneroit, se resolut de haster le
pas et avant que le d. Sieur De la Tour en eust le
vent faire tout son effort, ce qui luy arriva si Heureuse-
ment qu'apres avoir encore une fois somme' ces malbeureux,
lesquels lui envoierent pour response une volle'e de canon a
balle, aborant le pavilion rouge sur leurs bastions avec mil
injures et blasphemes et avoir fait battre le dit fort de la
474 APPENDIX.
Riviere de St Jean tant par terre que par son grand navire,
qu'il avoit eminent & portee de pistolet d'iceluy ce qui rasa
une partie de leur parapets il s'en rendit maistre par UR
assaut general qu'il tit donner sur le soir de la mesme
Journee le Lendemain Pasques ce qui fut accompagn^ d'une
si grande benediction de Dieu, que quoyque la perte des
Hommes que mon dit sieur a fait soit grande elle eut este
encore plus sanglante. Une partie des assiegez furent tuez
dans la chaleur du combat et 1'autre fait prisonniers entre
autres la femme du dit La Tour, son fils et sa fille de
Chambre et une autre femme qui est tout cequ'il y avoit
dans le dit fort de sexe feminin toutes lesquelles ne recurent
aucun tort ny a leur Honneur ny k leurs personnes. Une
partie des prisonniers recut grace de mon dit Sieur et le reste
des plus seditieux fut pendu et etrangle pour servir de
memoire et d'exemple, a la posterite d'une si obstinee re-
bellion ce qui est prouve* par 1'attestation qu'en ont rendue
et signe'e une bonne partie de ceux qui ont recue la vie et
pareille gratification. Le Lendemain 18 Avril 1645 mon
dit sieur fit inhumer tous les morts tant de part que d'autre
avec la distinction pour tant requise en telle rencontre du
party faisant prier Dieu et faire un service solemnel & tous
ceux que deux reverends peres Capucins missionnaires qui
avoient est£ presens a tout jugement estre deu, ce qui est
prouve aussi bien que tout ce que dessus par une attestation
authentique des mesmes susd. reverends peres Capucins
missionnaires apres quoy mon dit Sieur fit travailler pour
combler les travaux de dehors faits par les assiegeans et re*
parer ceux de la place mettre ordre aux deffauts d'icelle par
luy reconnus et faire inventaire de tout ce qui se trouva de
reste dans icelle apres le pillage fait par les compagnons que
mon dit sieur leur avoit donne* et faire ensuite renvituailler
le dit lieu de toutes choses" necessaires pour la conservation
d'iceluy et enfin poser une personne capable et fidele pour
APPENDIX. 475
le service du Roi ce que dura 1'espace de trois semaines ou
un mois pendant le quel la femme du dit La Tour qui estoit
dans le Commencement en Liberte fut resserre'e par une
Lettre qu'on trouva qu'elle ecrivoit a son mary et pratique
qu'elle faisoit de lui faire tenir par le moyen des Sauvages
afin de la pouvoir par la premiere occasion envoyer en
France a nos Seigneurs du Conseil en bonne sauve garde,
ce qui 1'alarma de telle sorte que de depit et de rage elle
tomba malade et nonobstaht tous les bons traitemens et
Charites que L'on exercja en son endroit mourut le 15 Juin
apres avoir abjure* publiquement dans le chapelle du mesme
fort L'Heresie qu'elle avoit professee parmy les Anglois
ala grande Baye. Ce qui est Justine par Fattestation
de'sja cy dessus alleguee des deux reverends peres Capucins
Missionaires.
Le present proems verbal a est£ fait par nous, Andre
Certain prevost et garde du Seel Royal de La Coste
d'Acadie pays de la Kouvelle f ranee a la requeste de
Monsieur d'Aunay Charnisay Gouverneur et Lieutenant
general pour le Roy en toute 1'Etendue de la Coste d'Acadie
pays de la Nouvelle France le 10e jour de may 1645 et
rendu et des le mesme jour et an que dessus pour lui servir
et valoir aussi que de raison. Le tout en presence de
tesmoins et principaux chefs des Francois qui sont dans
la dite coste signe Longvilliers Poincy, Bernard Marot,
Dubreuil Vismes, Javille, Jean Laurent, Henry Dans-
martin, Barthelemy Aubert, Leclerc et Certain prevost et
Garde du Sceau RoyaL
476 APPENDIX.
[The following extracts are printed, letter for letter, from copies at
the original documents.]
SECTION SECOND.
B.
THE HERMITAGE OF CAEN.
MEMOIRE POUR FAJRE CONNOISTRE L'ESPRIT ET LA
CONDUITE DE LA COMPAGNIE ESTABLIE EN LA VILLE
DE CAEN, APPELEE L'HERMITAGE.
(Extrait. ) 1 Bibliotheque Nationale.
C'EST en ce fameux Hermitage que le dit feu Sieur de
Bernieres a esleve plusieurs jeunes gens auxquels il en-
seignoit une espece d'oraison sublime et transcendante que
Ton appelle 1'oraison purement passive, parceque 1'esprit
n'y agit point, mais reqoit seulement la divine operation ;
c'est cette espece d'oraison qui est la source de tant de
visions et de revelations, dont I'Hermitage est si fecond; et
apres qu'il leur avoit subtilize et presque fait evaporer
1'esprit par cette oraison rafinee, il les rendoit capables de
reconnoistre les Jansenistes les plus cachez; en sorte que
quelques uns de ces disciples ont dit qu'ils le connoissoient
au flairer, comme les cbiens font leur gibier, pour ensuite
leur faire la cbasse, ndantmoins le dit Sieur de Bernieres
disoit qu'il n'avoit pas Podorat si subtil, mais que la
marque a laquelle il connoissoit les Jansenistes estoit quand
1 This mfmoire forms 116 pages in the copy in my possession.
APPENDIX. 477
on improuvoit sa conduite ou que Ton estoit oppose aux
Jesuites. . . . Au commencement les personnes de cette
compagnie ne se mesloient que de 1'assistance des pauvres,
mais depuis que le feu Sieur de Bernieres qui estoit un
simple la'ique, qui n'avoit point d'estude, s'en estant rendu
le niaistre, il persuada a ceux qui en sont qu'elle n'estoit
pas seulement establie pour prendre soin des pauvres, mais
de toutes les autres bonnes oeuvres, publiques ou parti-
culieres, qui regardent la Piete et la E-eligion et que Dieu
les avoit suscitez, principalement pour suppler aux defatits
et negligences des Prelats, des Pasteurs, des Magistrats, des
Juges et autres Superieurs Ecclesiastiques et Politiques qui
faute de s'appliquer assez aux devoirs de leurs charges, ob-
mettent dans les occasions beaucoup de bien qu'ils pour-
roient procurer, et negligent de resister a beaucoup de maux,
d'abus et d'erreurs qu'ils pourroient emp§cher ; et que pour
reme'dier a ces manquements, il estoit expedient qne Dieu
suscitat plusieurs gens de bien de toutes sortes de conditions
qui s'unissent ensemble pour travailler a 1'avancement du
bien qui se peut faire en chaque profession, et pour extirper
les erreurs, les abus et les vices qui s;y glissent souvent, par
la negligence ou connivence mesme de ceux qui sont le plus
obligez par leur ministere d'y donner ordre.
Et c'est dans cette pense'e que ces messieurs croyent avoir
droit a se mesler de toutes choses, de s'ingerer de toutes les
actions un peu e"clantes qui regardent la Religion, de
s'inge'rer en censeurs publics, pour corriger et controller
tout ce qui leur deplaist, d'entrer et de penetrer dans les
secrets des maisons et des families particulieres, comme
aussi dans la conduite des communautez Eeligieuses pour y
gouverner toutes choses a leur gre ; et bien que ces messieurs
soient fort ignorans, bien qu'ils n'ayent aucune experience
des affaires et qu'ils passent dans le jugement de tous ceux
qui les connoissent pour personnes qui n'ont qu'uii Zele
478 APPENDIX.
impetueux et violent, sans lumieres et sans discretion, neant-
moins ils presument avoir assez de capacity pour reformer la
vie, les moeurs, les sentimens et la doctrine de tous les
autres. Et ce qu'il y a de plus fascheux et de plus dange-
reux en cela, c'est que si on ne defere aveugle'ment a tous
leurs sentimens, si on improuve leur conduite et si Ton op-
pose la inoindre resistance a leurs entreprises, quoyqu'in-
justes et violentes, ils unissent toutes leur forces pour les
faire reussir et pour cet effet ils reclament les secours de tous
ceux qui leur sont unis, a Paris, a Rouen et ailleurs, pour
decrier, pour diffamer et pour perdre ceux qui leur re'sistent
et qui veulent s'opposer au cours de leurs violences et de
leurs injustice, de sorte qu'on peut assurer avec verite' que
cette compagnie a degenere en une cabale et en une faction
dangereuse et pernicieuse, tant a PEglise qu'a la Patrie,
estant certant que depuis peu d'annees ils ont excite* beau-
coup de troubles et de divisions dans toute la ville de Caen,
et notamment dans le clerge* et mesme en plusieurs autres
lieux de la Basse-Normandie ainsi qu'il paroistra par les
articles suivants de ce memoire.
II est arrive quelques fois qu'ayant eu de faux avis que
des maris maltroitoient leurs femmes ou que des femmes
n'estoient pas fideles a leurs maris ou que des filles ne se
gouvernoient pas bien, ils se sont ingerez sur le rapport qui
en estoit fait en leur assemble de cbercher les moyens de
reme'dier k ces maux, et ils en ont choisi de si impertinents
et de si indiscrets que cela a este capable de causer bien du
desordre et de la division dans les families et dans toute la
ville ; car souvent voulant empescher une legere faute, on en
fait naistre de grands scandales, lorsque Ton agit par em-
porteinent plustost que par prudence.
Ce n'est pas seulement dans les families particulieres qu'ils
s'introduisent pour en fureter les secrets, pour en connoitre
les d^fauts et pour en usurper la direction et le gouverne<
APPENDIX. 4T9
ment, mais encore dans les maisons Religieuses, dont les
unes se sont soumises a leur domination, comrae les Ursu-
lines de Caen, les moynes de PAbbaye d'Ardenne de Pordre
de Premontre, proche de cette ville et depuis pen les filles de
Sainte-Marie ; et les autres leur ayant tesmoigne quelque
resistance, ils ont employe toute leur Industrie pour en
venir a bout ; et ou 1'artifice a manque, ils y ont adjoute les
violences et les menaces. . . .
Mais il ne faut point chercher de marques plus visibles de
la perseverance, pour mieux dire du progres de ces faux
ermites dans leurs emportemens que ce qu'ont fait cet hiver
passe* cinq jeunes homines nourris en 1'Hermitage et Sieve's
sous la direction et discipline du feu Sieur de Bernieres.
On leur avoit si bien imprime dans 1'esprit que tout estoit
rempli de Jansenistes dans la ville de Caen, et que les curez
en estoient les fauteurs et protecteurs, qu'un d'entre eux
s'imagina que Dieu 1'inspiroit fortement advertir le peuple
de Caen que les curez estoient des fauteurs d'Heretiques et
par consequent des excomuniez; et ayant persuade a ses
compagnons d'annoncer publiquement a toute la ville ce
crime pretendu des Curez d'une maniere qui touchast le
peuple et qui fut capable de Fexciter centre ces Pasteurs,
ils resolurent de faire cette publication le mercredi qua-
trieme du mois de Febvrier dernier, et jugerent que pour
se disposer a executer dignement ce que Dieu leur avoit in-
spire, il falloit faire ensemble une communion extraordinaire,
immediatement avant que de 1'entreprendre. Ils assisterent
done pour cet effet et dans la paroisse de Saint-Ouen £ la
messe d'un prestre qu'on dit estre de leur cabale, et conmu-
nierent tous cinq de sa main; et apres leur communion, le
plus ze'le' mit bas son pourpoint et le laissa avec son chapeau
dans 1'Eglise; et accompagn^ des quatre autres qui le sui-
voient sans chapeaux, sans colets et le pourpoint deboutonne',
non-obstant la rigueur extreme du froid ; ils marcherent en
480 APPENDIX.
cet Equipage par toute la ville, annon^ant & haute voix que
les curez de Caen a 1'exception de deux qu'ils nomraoient
etoient fauteurs de Jansenistes et excorarauniez, parce qu'ils
avoient signe un acte devant 1'official de Caen, ou ils attestent
qu'ils ne connoissent point de Jansenistes dans la dite ville
et repetoient cet advertissement de dix pas en dix pas, ce
qui emeut toute la ville et attira a leur suite une graride
multitude de populace qui se persuadant que ces gens es-
toient envoyes de Dieu pour leur donner cet advertissement,
temoignoient desja de 1'emotion contre les curez. Mais les
magistrats qui estoient alors au siege en ayant este* advertis,
ils envoyerent leurs huissiers pour les arrester et les emme-
ner, et ayant este interrogez par le juge sur le sujet d'une
action si extraordinaire, ils respondirent hardiment qu'ils
1'avoient entreprise pour le service de Dieu et qu'ils estoient
prests de souffrir la mort pour soustenir la verite de ce qu'ils
annonqoient, qu'ils avoient connoissance certaine qu'il y avoit
grand nombre de Jansenistes en la ville de Caen, et que les
curez s'en estoient declarez les fauteurs, par la declaration
qu'ils avoient donnee qu'ils n'en connoissoient point ; ensuitte
de quoy quatre d'entre eux furent renvoyez en prison et le
cinquieme fut mis entre les mains de ses parents sur une
attestation que donnerent les medecins qu'il estoit hypo-
condriaque et peu de jours apres le lieutenant criminel ayant
instruit le procez, les quatre prisonniers furent condamnez a
cent livres d'amende ; il leur fut deffendu et k tous autres de
s'assembler ni d'exciter aucun scandale, il fut ordonne qu'ils
seroient mis entre les mains de leur parents pour s'en
charger et en faire bonne et seure garde, ayec deffense de
les laisser entrer dans la ville et aux fauxbourgs, sur peines
au cas appartenantes. . . .
Car de quelles entreprises ne sont- pas capables des per-
sonnes d'esprit faible et d'humeur atrabilaire que d'ailleurs
on a dessechees par des jeunes, des veilles et d'autres
APPENDIX. 481
auste'ritez contumelies et par des meditations de trois on
quatre heures par jour, lorsque Ton ne les entretient presque
d'autre chose, si non que leur Religion et 1'Eglise sont en
un tres grand danger de se perdre, par la faction et la con-
spiration des Jansenistes lesquels on leur represente dans les
livres, dans les sermons et dans les conferences, comrne des
gens qui veulent renverser les fondements de la Religion et
de la Pie'te Chrestienne, qui veulent detruire le mystere de
T Incarnation, qui ne croyent point a la Transubstantation
ni Plnvocation des Saints, ni les Indulgences, qui veulent
abolir le sacrifice de la messe et le sacrement de la Peni-
tence, qui combattent la devotion et la culte de la Sainte-
Vierge, qui nient le franc arbitre et qui substituent en sa
place le destin et la fatalite des Turcs, et enfin qui ma-
chinerit la ruine de 1'authorite des Souverains Pontifes. Qu'y
a-t-il de plus aise que d'animer les esprits imbeciles d'eux
mesmes et preVenus de ces fausses imaginations centre des
Evesques, des Docteurs, des Curez, et contre d'autres per-
sonnes tres vertueuses et tres catholiques, lorsqu'on leur fait
croire que toutes ces personnes conspirent a establir une
heresie abominable !
C. i£v
LAVAL AND ARGENSON.
LETTRE DE L'EVESQUE DE PETBEE A M. D'ARGENSON,
FRERE DU GTOUVERNEUR.
(Extrait.) Papier s d'Argenson.
JAI reqeu dans mon entree dans le pays de Monsieur votre
frere toutes les marques d'une bienveillance extraordinaire;
lay fait mon possible pour la recongnoistre et luy ay rendu
31
482 APPENDIX.
tous les respects que je dois a une personne de sa vertu et
de son m^rite joint a la qualit£ qu'il porte ; comme son plus
veritable amy et fidelle serviteur lay cm estre oblige de luy
donner un ad vis important pour le bien de PEglise et qui
luy devoit estre utile s'il 1'eust pris dans la mesme disposi-
tion que ie suis asseure que vous 1'auries receu ; cestoit seul
a seul a cceur ouvert avec marques assez evidentes que ce
que ie luy disois estoit vray veu qu'il estoit fondd sur des
sentimens que i'avois veu moy mesme paroistre en diverses
assemblies publiques; cependant il ne fist que trop cong-
noistre qu'il ne trouvoit auqunnement bon que ie luy don-
naisses cet advertissement et me voullut faire embrasser le
party de ceux qui avaient tout subject de se plaindre de son
precede envers eux, mais que je ne pretendois auqunne
ment justifier n'en ayant auqunne plainte de leur part pour
luy faire et d'ailleurs estans asses desinteresses ; vous pouvez
bien iuger quels sont ceux dont ie veux parler sans vous les
nommer puisque vous mesme qui avez une affection sincere
et bien r£gl£e pour ces dignes ouvriers eSvangeliques m'avez
avou£ que vous aviez doulleur de le voir partir dans les
sentiments ou il estoit a leur esgard sans beaucoup de fonde-
nient du moins suffisamment recongneu pour lors; ce que ie
luy dis avoir sceu de vous pour ne rien omettre de ce que je
me persuadois qui estoit capable de lui faire avouer une v^rite"
qui nestoit que trop apparente, ce qui devoit un peu le
calmer son esprit sembla 1'aigrir et se fascha de ce que vous
m'aviez faict cette ouverture, ie ne scais depuis ce qu'il a
pens6 de moy, mais il semble que je luy sois suspect et qu'il
aye cru que i'ernbrasse la cause de ces bons serviteurs de
Dieu a son preiudice, mais ie puis bien asseurer qu'ils n'ont
pour luy que des sentimens de respect et que la plus forte
passion que iaye est de le voir dans une parfaite union et
intelligence avec eux.
QUEBEC, ce 20 Octobre 1668.
APPENDIX. 483
LETTRE DE M. D'ARGENSON, 1660.
(Extrait.} Papiers d'Argenson.
Monsieur de Petre'e a une telle adherence & ses sentiments
et un zele qui le porte souvent hors du droict de sa charge
qu'il ne faict aucune difficulte d'empieter sur le pouvoir des
aultres et avec tant de chaleur qu'il n'ecoute personne. II
enleva ces jours derniers une fille servente d'un habitant
d'icy, et la mit de son autorite' dans les Hursulines sur le
seul pretexte qu'il vouloit la faire instruire, et par la il priva
cet habitant du service qu'il pretendoit de sa servente qui
luy avoit faict beaucoup de depense a amener de France.
Cet habitant est Mf Denis lequel ne cognoissant pas qui
1'avoit soubstret me presenta requeste pour 1'avoir. Je garde
[sic] la requeste sans la repondre trois jours pour empescher
1'eclat de cette affaire. Le R. P. Lalement avec lequel j'en
communiqu^ et lequel blasma fort le precede de MT de
Petree s'employa de tout son pouvoir pour la faire rendre
sans bruit et n'y gaigna rien, si bien que je fus oblige* de
repondre la requeste et de permettre & cet habitant de
reprendre sa servente ou il la trouveroit, et si je n'eusse
insinue soubs main d'accommoder cette affaire et que 1'habi-
tant a qui on refusa de la rendre 1'eut poursuivi en justice
j'eusse este oblige de la luy rendre et de pousser tout avec
beaucoup de scandal et cela (a cause de) la volonte* de
M!" de Petree qui diet qu'un evesque peult se qu'il veult, et
ne menace que dexcommunication.
LETTRE DE M. D'ARGENSON.
(Extraits.) Papiers d'Argenson.
KBBEC LE 7 JUILLET, 1660.
Mf de Petrel a faist naistre cette contestation et ie puip
dire auec verite que son zele en plusieurs rencontres approche
484 APPENDIX.
fort d'une grande atache a son sentiment et d'empietement
sur la charge des aultres comme vous le verrez par un
billet icy joint. . . . De toutes ces contestations que i'ay
en auec M? de Petree i'ay tousjours faist le R. P. Lalemand
mediateur; c'est une personne d'un si grand merite et d'un
sens si acheve que ie pense qu'on ne peult rien y adjouter;
il seroit bien a souhaiter que touts ceux de sa maison
suivissent ses sentiments; ils ne se mesleroient pas de
censurer plusieurs choses comme ils font et laisseroient le
gouvernement des affaires a ceux que Dieu a ordonne pour
cela.
D.
PERONNE DUMESNTL.
LE SIEUR GAUDATS DU PONT X MONSEIGNEUR
DE COLBERT. 1664.
(Extrait.) Archives de la Marine.
QUELQUE 7 ou 8 jours apres Petablissement du Conseil
Souverain, en consequence des lettres patentes de Sa
majeste, le Procureur General du dit Conseil jugeant qu'il
etait de sa charge de reprendre les (papiers} de cette plainte
pour ne pas laisser un tel attentat impuni, fit sa requite
verbale au dit Conseil tendante a ce qu'il lui fut donne'
commission pour informer centre le dit Sieur Du Mesnil ; et
que si le dit Sieur Du Mesnil, avait avis de la dite commis-
sion qu'il ne manquerait pas de detourner ces dits papiers
demandant qu'il lui fut permis de saisir et de sequestrer ici
et apposer le sceau au coffre ou armoire en laquelle se
trouveraient les dits papiers, et pour ce faire qu'il plut au
dit Conseil nommer tel Commissaire qu'il jugerait a propos.
APPENDIX. 486
Le dit Conseil enterinant la requete du dit Procureur
General, nomma le Sieur de Villeray, pour, en la presence
du dit Procureur General et assistance de son Greffier vaquer
a la dite information, &c.
Et d'autant que le dit Sieur Du Mesnil etait estime
homme violent et qu'il pourrait faire quelque boutade, pour
donner main forte a la justice, Mr. le Gouverneur fut prie
par les dits Conseillers de faire escorter le dit Sieur Com-
missaire par quelque nombre de soldats.
Le dit Sieur de Villeray assiste, comme dit est pour
Pexecution de sa commission, se transporta au logis du dit
Sieur Du Mesnil, laissant £ quartier 1'escorte de soldats
pour s'en servir en cas de besoin.
Le dit Sieur Du Mesnil ne trompa pas 1'opinion que Ton
avait eue de sa violence, fit grand bruit, cria aux voleurs,
voulant emouvoir son voisinage, outrageant d' injures les
dits Sieurs de Villeray et Procureur General au grand
mepris de 1'autorite du Conseil, refusant m§me de le
reconnaitre. Ce qui n'empScha pas le dit Sieur de Villeray
d'executer sa commission de saisir les papiers du dit Sieur
Du Mesnil, qui en donna la clef, y fit apposer le sceau et
icelui sequestrer es mains d'un voisin du dit Sieur Du
Mesnil et de son consentement.
Le lendemain le dit Sieur de Villeray rapporta son
proces verbal au dit conseil, attest^ du dit Procureur
General, et signs' du Greffier du dit Conseil et sur les in-
jures, violences et irreverences y contenues tant contre le
dit Sieur Commissaire que 1'autorite du Conseil, fit decerner
un ddcret de prise de corps contre le dit Sieur Du Mesnil,
dont j'empe'chairexe'cution.
486 APPENDIX.
MEMOIBE DE DUMESNIL CONCERNANT LES AFFAIRES
DU CANADA.
(JEJxtrait.) Archives de la Marine.
10 SEPTEMBER, 1671.
Les dits Sieurs de Mdsy, Gouverneur, de Pe'tree, Eveque,
et Dupont Gaudais, arrives au dit Quebec le 16e jour de
Septembre 1663, furent le lendemain salues et visiles par le
dit Du Mesnil precedent juge, lequel par devoir et civilite
leur dit par forme d'avis que par des arr§ts du conseil du Roi,
qu'il leur representa en date du 27 Mars 1647 et 13 Mai 1659
tous les comrais et receveurs des dits deniers publics etaient
exclus de toutes charges publiques, jusqu'a ce qu'ils eussent
rendu et assure leurs comptes, et le nomme' Villeray chasse*
du conseil de la traite pour y avoir entre* par voies et
moyens illicites ; et ordonne qu'il viendrait en France pour
le purger de ses crimes ; ce qu'il n'a pas fait, et pour nom-
mer les autres commis, receveurs, auxquels il aurait com-
mence a faire le proces pendant qu'il etait juge.
"Nonobstant lesquels dires, actes et arrSts repr^sentes, les
dits Sieurs de Me'sy, Eveque de Petrel, et Dupont Gaudais,
n'ont d^laiss^ de prendre et admettre avec eux au dit
Conseil Souverain les dits comptables; lesquels par ce
moyen se pretendent a convert et exempts de rendre les
dits comptes. Le dit e'tablissement de conseil fait et
arrete par les dits Commissaires le 18 du mois de Septembre,
deux jours apres leur arrivee; et pour Procureur G^n^ral
prennent un nomm^ Jean Bourdon, boulanger et cannonier
au fort et aussi comptable de 8 a 900,000 livres, comme il
sera montre* et qu'il a prete' son nom.
Le 20 du mois de Septembre, deux jours apres 1'etablisse-
ment du dit conseil, les dits Villeray soi-disant conseiller et
commissaire et Bourdon, Procureur Ge'ne'ral accompagnes de
deux sergents, d'un serrurier et de dix soldats du fort, bien
APPENDIX. 487
arme*s vont en la maison du dit Du Mesnil, Intendant el
Controleur General, et peu auparavant leur juge souverain,
sur les 7 a 8 heures du soir pour piller sa maison ; ce qu'ils
firent; ayant fait rompre la porte de son cabinet, ses
armoires et un coffret ; pris et emporte ce qu'ils ont trouve'
dedans et notamment tous ses papiers dans lesquels £taient
leurs proces presque faits, et les preuves de leurs pe'culats,
concussions et malversations, sans aucun inventaire ni forme
de justice, e'tant le dit Du Mesnil, lors des dites violences,
tenu et arrete sur un siege et rudement traits' par les soldats
jusques a 1'empScher d'appeler du secours et des te'moins
pour voir ce qui se passait en sa maison et comme il etait
lie' et arrete'.
Cette action violente ainsi faite et le dit Du Mesnil se
voyant delivre du massacre de sa personne dont il e'tait
menace*, et d'etre assassins' comme son fils s'en va trouver le
dit Sieur Dupont Gaudais prenant qualit^ d'Intendant pour
lui en faire plainte, qu'il ne voulut entendre, disant que
c'e'tait de son ordonnance et du dit Conseil que la dite action
et prise de papiers avait e'te faite ; a quoi le dit Du Mesnil
repartit qu'il s'en plaindrait au Roi, et lui en demanderait
justice, ce qui obligea le dit Dupont Gaudais de dire au dit
Du Mesnil qu'il donn§,t sa requite ; ce qui f ut fait, et sur
laquelle fut par le dit Conseil ordonne le 22 du dit mois de
Septembre, deux jours apres cette violence que le dit
Dupont Gaudais serait commissaire pour verifier les faits
d'icelle requete; ce que poursuivant le dit Du Mesnil, il
eut ordre verbal du dit Sr. Gaudais de mettre au Greffe ses
causes et moyens de re'cusation, de nullite* de prise a partie
et de demandes ; ce que le dit Du Mesnil fit comme appert
par Tacte signs' du Greffier du dit Conseil du 28 du dit mois
de Septembre sur lesquelles re'cusations, prises a partie et
demandes, le dit Conseil n'a rien voulu ordonner, comme
appert par autre acte du dit Grefner du 21 Octobre ensnivant,
488 APPENDIX.
jour ordonne* pour Tembarquement et depart des vaisseaux
du dit Quebec pour retourner en France.
Mais au lieu de statuer et ordonner sur les faits, moyens
et conclusions du dit Du Mesnil, le dit Conseil sans plainte,
sans partie et sans information a dresse emprisonnement du
dit Du Mesnil et cache le decret sans le mettre au GrefFe
dans Fintention de le faire paraitre et executer du merne
temps que le dit Du Mesnil se voudrait embarquer pour
revenir en France, afm qu'il n'eut pas le temps de donner
avis des violences qu'on lui faisait: de quoi averti il
s'embarqua quelques jours auparavant les autres et fut re$u
par le Capitaine Gardeur dans son navire, nonobstant les
defenses qui lui en avaient etc* faites par le dit nouveau
Conseil et que six pieces de canon de la plate forme d'eii
bas fussent pointees contre son navire pour le faire obeir
a leurs ordonnances.
Tous ces massacres, assassins et pillages n'ont e*te faits au
dit Du Mesnil, Intendant, par les dits comptables, ordonna-
teurs et preneurs de bien public et leurs parents et allies que
pour tacher a couvrir et s'exempter de compter, payer et
rendre ce qu'ils ont pille, savoir. . . .
E.
LAVAL AND
ORDRB DE M? DE MESY DE FAIRE SOMMATION A
I/EVEQUE DE PETREE.
(Extrait.) Registre du Conseil Superieur.
13 FEVRIER, 1664.
LE Sieur d'Angoville, Major de la Garnison entretenue
par le Koi dans le Fort de S* Louis a Quebec pays de la
Nouvelle France, est cOmmande par nous Sieur de Mesy,
APPENDIX. 489
Lieutenant General et Gouverneur pour Sa Majeste dans
toute 1'etendue du dit pays, aller dire et avertir Monsieur
PEveque de Petre"e etant presentement dans la chambre qui
servait ci-devant aux Assemblies du Conseii au dit pays,
que les Sieurs nomines pour Gonseillers et le Sieur Bourdon
pour Procureur du Roi au dit conseii a la persuasion du dit
Sieur de Petree qui les connaissait entierement ses crea-
tures s'etant voulu rendre les maitres declares et portes en
diverses manieres dans le dit Conseii centre les Interets du
Roi et du public pour appuyer et autoriser les interets
d'autrui en particulier, il leur a ete commande par notre
ordre pour la conservation des interets du Roi en ce pays,
de s'absenter du dit Conseii jusqu'a ce que a notre diligence
par le retour des premiers vaisseaux qui viendront. Sa
Majeste ait ete' informee de leur conduite, et qu'ils se soient
justifies des cabales qu'ils ont formees, fomentees et entrete-
nues centre leur devoir et le serment de fidelite qu'ils
etaient obliges de garder k Sa dite Majeste*.
Priant le dit Sieur Ev§que acquiescer a la dite interdic-
tion pour le bien du service du Roi, et vouloir proceder par
1'avis d'une Assemblee publique a nouvelle nomination
des Conseillers en la place des dits Sieurs Interdits pour
pouvoir rendre la justice aux peuples et habitants de ce
pays, Declarant que nous Sieur de Me*sy ne pouvons en
nommer aucun de notre part en la fa^on en laquelle nous
avons 6t6 surpris par notre facility lors de la premiere
nomination manque d'une parfaite connaissance, et que s'il
est fait quelque chose au prejudice de cet avertissement par
aucun des dits Conseillers interdits, ils seront traites comme
desobeissants, fomenteurs de rebellions et contraires au
repos public.
MESY
490 APPENDIX.
DE L'EVEQUE DE
Registre du Conseil Superieur.
16Fnv. 1664.
Laissant a part les paroles offensives et accusations injuri-
euses qui me regardent dans 1'afficbe mise au son du tambour
le treizieme de ce mois de Fevrier, au poteau public, dont
je pretends me Justine r devant Sa Majeste je reponds a la
priere que Monsieur le Gouverneur m'y fait d'agreer 1'in-
terdiction des personnes qui y sont comprises, et de vouloir
proceder a la nomination d'autres Conseillers ou Officiers
et ce par 1'avis d'une assemble publique, que ni ma con-
science ni mon honneur, ni le respect et ob&ssance que je
dois aux volontes et commandements du Roi, ni la fid61it6
et Faffection que je dois a son service ne me le permettent
aucunement jusques a ce que dans un jugement legitime
les desnomme's dans la susdite afficbe soient convaincus des
crimes dont on les y accuse.
A Quebec ce seizieme FeVrier mil-six-cent-soixante-
quatre.
(Signe) FRANCOIS, EVEQUE DE QUEBEC.
Enregistre a la requite de Mgr. 1'EvSque de P^tree ce
16 Fevrier 1664 par moi Secretaire au Conseil Souverain
soussigne.
(Signe) PEUVRET, Secret"
avec paraphe.
f«:f t:l5ff!.>v^^-:.5 > f^ J!KI flh "':TJU ifjirt. :'fi ft^orio *>•
LETTRE DE MisY AUX JESUITES.
(Extrait.) Collection de VAbbe Ferland.
Comme ainsi soit que la gloire de Dieu, le service du
Roi et le service du public nous aient engage's de venir en
ce pays pour y rencontrer notre salut par la eollicitation de
APPENDIX. 491
M. FEvSque de P6tr3e qui nous a fait agre*er au Eoi pour
avoir Fhonneur d'etre son Lieutenant General et Gou-
verneur de toute la Nouvelle France, repre*senter sa personne
dans le Conseil Souverain qu'il a etabli dans ce dit pays
pour exercer la justice, police et finance, ce qui nous tient
lieu d'obligation vers mon dit Sieur FEveque pour lui
dormer des marques de reconnaissance en toutes rencontres.
A quoi nous sommes aussi obliges par son merite particulier
et par le respect qui est du a son caractere, mais qui ne
doit entrer en nulle consideration pour le regard du service
et de la fidelity que nous sommes oblige de rendre a S. M. ;
n'etant pas ni de notre conscience ni de notre honneur
d'avoir accept^ la commission dont il nous a honore, pour
n'en pas faire le deub de notre charge et de trahir les
inter§ts de Sa dite Majeste*; lui en ayant fait le serment
de fidelite entre ses mains et d'en avoir requ le commande-
ment par sa bouche. Pourquoi ayant rencontre plusieurs
pratiques que nous avons cru en conscience par devoir etre
oblige* d'en emp^cher la suite, nous aurions fait publier
notre declaration du 13e jour de Fevrier dernier, et ne
1'ayant pu faire faire sans y int^resser le Sr Ev§que, notre
dite declaration nous fait passer dans son esprit et de tous
Messieurs les Eccle'siastiques qui considerent ce point d'une
pre'tendue offense sans avoir egard aucunement aux intere'ts
du Roy pour un calomniateur, mauvais juge, un ingrat et
conscience erronne"e et plusieurs autres termes injurieux
qui se publient journellement contre Fautorite' du Koy, en
faisant un point de reprobation de la dite pretendue offense,
un des principaux nous etant venu avertir que Fon nous
pourrait faire fermer la porte des Eglises et nous empecher
de recevoir les S*' Sacrements, si nous ne r^parions la dite
pr^tendue offense, ce qui nous donne un scrupule en l'§,me ;
et de plus ne pouvant nous adresser pour nous en e*claircir
qu'a des personnes qui se declarent nos parties et qui jugent
492 APPENDIX.
du fait sans en savoir la cause; mais n'y ayant rien de si
important au monde que le salut et la fidelite* que nous
devons garder pour les interests du Roi que nous tenons in-
se'parables Tun de 1'autre, et reconnaissant qu'il n'y a rien
de si certain que la mort et rien de si inconnu que 1'heure,
et que le temps est long pour informer Sa Majeste de ce
qui se passe, pour en recevoir ses ordres, et qu'en attendant,
une &me est toujours dans la crainte quoiqu'elle se connaisse
dans 1'innocence, nous sommes oblige avoir ne'anmoins
recours aux Ke've'rends Peres Casuistes de la maison de
Jesus pour nous dire en leur conscience ce que nous pouvons
pour la decharge de la notre et pour garder la ridelite que nous
devons avoir pour leaser vice du Roi, les priant qu'ils aient
agreable signer ce qu'ils jugeront au bas de cet ecrit, afin
de nous servir de garantie vers sa Majeste.
Fait au Chateau de Quebec, ce dernier jour de Fevrier,
1664.
MiSY.
APPENDIX. 493
SECTION THIRD.
F.
MABKIAGE AND POPULATION.
LETTRE DE COLBERT A TALON.
(Extrait.) Archives de la Marine.
PARIS, 20 FEVRIER, 1668.
SA Majest^ a fait une gratification de 1500 livres a Mr de
Lamotte, 1CT Capitaine au Regiment de Carignan-Sali&res,
tant en consideration du service qu'il rend en Canada, de la
construction des forts et de ses expeditions qui ont ete
faites centre les Iroquois, que du mariage qu'il a contract^
dans le pays, et de la resolution qu'il a prise de s'y habituer.
Elle a ordonne de plus la somme de 6000 livres pour §tre
distributes aux officiers des mSmes troupes, ou qui s'y sont
deja mane's ou qui s'y marieront afin de leur donner des
moyens de s'&ablir et de mieux s'affermir dans la pensee ou
ils sont de ne pas revenir en France. Elle fait un autre
fond de 12,000 livres pour Stre distribue* aux soldats qui
resteront aux pays et qui s'y marieront, autres que ceux des
quatre compagnies qu'elle y laisse, ces derniers etant entre-
tenus par le paiement de leur solde. . . . 1200 livres pour
celui des meilleurs habitants qui a 15 enfants, et 800 livres
pour 1'autre qui en a dix. Elle a aussi gratifie M. 1'Evgque
de Petrel d'une somme de 6000 livres pour continuer a
494 APPENDIX.
1'assister pour soutenir sa dignite, fournir aux besoins de
son Eglise et de son s^minaire, et enfin 40,000 livres pour
§tre employees a la leve'e de 150 hommes et de 50 filles
depuis 16 jusqu'a 30 ans et non au dela; outre 235 que la
Compagiiie y fait passer cette annee, et qui devaient y etre
passees 1'aiinee derniere ; 12 Ca vales, 2 etalons, 2 gros anes
de Mirbelais et 50 brebis; a quoi Ton travaille dans les
provinces du royaume, et 1'on n'oublie rien pour 1'embarque-
ment partant de la Rochelle vers la fin du mois prochain.
. . . Je vous prie de bien faire considered a tout le
pays que leur bien, leur subsistance, et tout ce qui peut les
regarder de plus pres depend d'une resolution publique a
laquelle il ne soit jamais contrevenu de inarier les gardens
a 18 ou 19 ans, et les filles a 14 ou 15 ans; que les opposi-
tions de n'avoir pas suffisamment pour vivre doivent etre
rejetees, parceque dans ces pays et le Canada premierement
ou tout le monde travaille, il se produit pour tous la sub-
sistance et que 1'abondance ne peut jamais leur venir
que par 1'abondance des hommes. ... II serait bon
de rendre les charges et servitudes doubles a 1'egard des
garqons qui ne se marieraient point a cet age . . . et a
1'egard de ceux qui sembleraient avoir absolument renonc^
au mariage, il serait a propos de leur augmenter les charges,
de les priver de tous honneurs, mSme d'y ajouter quelque
marque d'infamie.
. . . Bien que le Royaume de France soit autant
peuple qu'aucun pays du monde, il est certain qu'il serait
difficile d'entretenir de grandes armees et de faire passer en
me*me temps de grandes Colonies dans les pays eloigries. . . .
II faut done se reduire a tirer seulement chaque annee
avec precaution un nombre d'habitants de Tun et de 1'autre
sexe, pour les envoyer au Canada, et fonder principalement
1'augmentation de la colonie sur Taugmentation des mariagea
a mesure que le nombre des colons augmentera.
APPENDIX. 495
LETTRE DE TALON A COLBERT.
(Extrait.) Archives de la Marine.
10 Novembre, 1670.
. . . De toutes les filles venues cette annee au nombre
de 165, il n'en reete pas 30 a marier. Apres que les soldats
venus cette annee auront travaille a faire une habitation, il
se porteront au mariage ; pour quoi il serait bon qu'il pltit a
Sa Majeste d'envoyer encore 150 a 200 filles.
... II serait bon de recommander que les filles des-
tinees a ce pays ne soient nullement disgraciees de la nature,
qu'elles n'aient rien de rebuttant a Fexterieur; qu'elles
soient saines et fortes pour le travail de campagne, ou du-
moins qu'elles aient quelqu'industrie pour les ouvrages de
main.
. . . Trois ou quatre filles de naissance et distinguees
par la qualite serviraient peut-§tre utilement a Her par le
mariage des officiers qui ne tiennent au pays que par les
appointements et remolument de leurs terres, et qui par la
disproportion des conditions ne s'engagent pas davantage.
Si le Roi fait passer d'autres filles ou femmes veuves de
TAncienne a la Kouvelle-France, il est bon de les faire
accompagner d'un certificat de leur Cure ou du jnge du lieu
qui fasse connaitre qu'elles sont libres et en etat d'etre
mariees, sans quoi les Ecclesiastiques d'ici font difficulte de
leur conferer ce sacrement; a la verite ce n'est pas sans
raison, 2 ou 3 doubles manages s'etant reconnus ici; on
pourrait prendre la mSme precaution pour les hommes
veufg.
496 APPENDIX.
LETTRE DE TALON A COLBERT.
(Extrait.) Archives de la Marine.
2 Novembre, 1671.
. . . Le nombre des en f ants n£s cette annee est de 6 a
700. . . . J'estime qu'il n'est plus necessaire de faire passer
des demoiselles, en ayant regu cette ann^e quinze ainsi
qualifies au lieu de quatre que je demandais'pour faire des
alliances avec les officiers ou les principaux habitants
d'ici. ,
G.
CHlTEAU ST. LOUIS.
THIS structure, destined to be famous in Canadian history,
was originally built by Samuel de Cham plain. The cellar
still remains, under the wooden platform of the present
Durham Terrace. Behind the chateau was the area of the
fort, now an open square. In the most famous epoch of its
history, the time of Frontenac, the chateau was old and
dilapidated, and the fort was in a sad condition. " The
walls are all down, " writes Frontenac in 1681 ; " there are
neither gates nor guard-house; the whole place is open."
On this the new intendant, Meules, was ordered to report
what repairs were needed. Meanwhile La Barre had come
to replace Frontenac, whose complaints he repeats. He says
that the wall is in ruin for a distance of a hundred and
eighty toises. " The workmen ask 6, 000 francs to repair it.
I could get it done in France for 2, 000. The cost frightens
me. I have done nothing." (La Barre au Ministre,
1682.) Meules, however, received orders to do what was
APPENDIX. 497
necessary ; and, two years later, he reports that he has re-
built the wall, repaired the fort, and erected a building,
intended at first for the council, within the area. This
building stood near the entrance of the present St. Louis
Street, and was enclosed by an extension of the fort
wall.
Denonville next appears on the scene, with his usual dis-
position to fault-finding. The so-called chateau, he says
(1685), is built of wood, " and is dry as a match. There is
a place where with a bundle of straw it could be set on fire
at any time ; . . . some of the gates will not close ; there
is no watch-tower, and no place to shoot from. " (Denonville
au Ministre, 20 Aout, 1685.)
When Frontenac resumed the^ government, he was much
disturbed at the condition of the chateau, and begged for
slate to cover the roof, as the rain was coming in everywhere.
At the same time the intendant, Champigny, reports it to be
rotten and ruinous. This was in the year made famous by
the English attack and the dramatic scene in the ha}l of the
old building, when Frontenac defied the envoy of Admiral
Phipps, whose fleet lay in the river below. In the next
summer, 1691, Frontenac again asks for slate to cover the
roof, and for 15,000 or 20,000 francs to repair his mansion.
In the next year the King promises to send him 12,000
francs, in instalments. Frontenac acknowledges the favor;
and says that he will erect a new building, and try in the
mean time not to be buried under the old one, as he expects
to be every time the wind blows hard. (Frontenac au
Ministre, 15 Sept., 1692.) A misunderstanding with the
intendant, who had control of the money, interrupted the
work. Frontenac writes the next year that he had been
obliged to send for carpenters, during the night, to prop up
the chateau, lest he should be crushed under the ruins.
The wall of the fort was however strengthened, and partly
498 APPENDIX.
rebuilt to the height of sixteen feet, at a cost of 13,629
francs. It was a time of war, and a fresh attack was ex-
pected from the English. (Frontenac et Champigny au
Ministre, 4 Nov., 1693.) In the year 1854, the workmen
employed in demolishing a part of this wall, adjoining the
garden of the chateau, found a copper plate bearing an in-
scription in Latin as follows : " In the year of Redemption
1693, under the reign of the most august, most invincible,
and most Christian King of France, Louis the Great, four-
teenth of that name, the most excellent Louis de Buade,
Count of Frontenac, governor for the second time of all
New France, seeing that the rebellious inhabitants of New
England, who three years ago were repulsed, routed, and
completely vanquished by him when they besieged this town
of Quebec, are threatening to renew the siege this very year,
has caused to be built, at the expense of the king, this cit-
adel, with the fortifications adjoining thereto, for the defence
of the country, for the security of the people, and for con-
founding yet again that nation perfidious alike towards its
God and its lawful king. And he [Frontenac] has placed
here this first stone."
A year later, the rebuilding of the chateau was begun in
earnest. Frontenac says that nothing but a miracle has
saved him from being buried under its ruins; that he has
pulled everything down, and begun again from the founda-
tion, but that the money has given out. (Frontenac au
Ministre, 4 Nov., 1694.) Accordingly, he and the intend-
ant sold six licenses for the fur trade ; but at a rate unusually
low, for they brought only 4,400 francs. The King, hear-
ing of this, sent 6,000 more. Frontenac is profuse in
thanks; and at the same time begs for another 6,000 francs,
" to complete a work which is the ornament and beauty of
the city" (1696). The minister sent 8,000 more, which
was soon gone ; and Frontenac drew on the royal treasurer
APPENDIX. 499
for 5,047 in addition. The intendant complains of his
extravagance, and says that he will have nothing but per-
fection; and that, besides the chateau, he has insisted on
building two guard-houses, with Mansard roofs, at the two
sides of the gate. " I must do as he says, " adds the intend-
ant, "or there will be a quarrel." (Champigny au Mi-
nistre, 13 Oct., 1697. ) In a letter written two days after,
Frontenac speaks with great complacency of his chateau,
and asks for another 6,000 francs to finish it. As the case
was urgent, he sold six more licenses, at 1,000 francs each;
but he died too soon to see the completion of his favorite
work (1698). The new chateau was not finished before
1700, and even then it had no cistern. In a pen-sketch of
Quebec on a manuscript map of 1699, preserved in the
D^pot des Cartes de la Marine, the new chateau is dis-
tinctly represented. In front is a gallery or balcony, rest-
ing on a wall and buttresses at the edge of the cliff. Above
the gallery is a range of high windows along the face of the
building, and over these a range of small windows and a
Mansard roof. In the middle is a porch opening on the
gallery; and on the left extends a battery, on the ground
now occupied by a garden along the brink of the cliff. A
water-color sketch of the chateau taken in 1804, from the
land-side, by William Morrison, Jr., is in my possession. The
building appears to have been completely remodelled in the
interval. It is two stories in height; the Mansard roof is
gone, and a row of attic windows surmounts the second
story. In 1809 it was again remodelled, at a cost of ten
thousand pounds sterling. A third story was added; and
the building, resting on the buttresses which still remain
under the balustrade of Durham Terrace, had an imposing
effect when seen from the river. It was destroyed by fire
in 1834.
500 APPENDIX.
H.
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
(Extrait.) Archives de la Marine.
LETTRE DE DENONVILLE AU MINTSTRE.
A QUEBEC LB 13 NOVEMBRE, 1685.
. . . J'AI remarque*, Monseigneur que les femmes et
filles, y sont assez paresseuses par le manque de menus
ouvrages a se donner, il y a un peu trop de luxe dans la
pauvrete ge'nerale des demoiselles ou soi disantes ; les menus
ouvrages de capots et de chemises de traite les occupent un
peu, pendant 1'hiver, et leur font gagner quelque chose, mais
cela ne dure pas, 1'endroit de pauvret^ de ce pays, est le
manque de toilles et de serges ou draps, cependant c'est ici
le pays du monde le plus propre & faire des chanvres, et du
fil, et par consequent de la toille, si on s'en voulait donner
la peine. Mr. Talon s'y est donne du soin pour cela, aussi
y a-t-il une cote qui est celle de Beaupre', ou on en fait, mais
ce n'est que chez quelques habitans. J'ai fort exorte la
dessus tous les peuples d'y travailler, pour y reussir, il faut
y apporter de la severite et de 1'utilite si il y a moyen, ce
dernier avec le temps et 1'industrie arrivera, et le premier de
ma part ne manquera pas, je n'ai pu avoir d'autre raison,
pourquoi on ne faisait point de chanvres, si ce n'est que
Pon n'avait pas assez de temps, & cause que les saisons de
labourer, semer et recueillir sont trop courtes, car en ce pays
le bled ne se seme qu'en Avril et May. Si le Roy voulait
acheter les chanvres un peu plus cher jusques & ce que Ton
fut en train, cela pourait les animer, aveo un ordre a chacun
d'en fournir une certaine quantity on pourra les faire agir,
si outre cela on avait quelques ouvriers tisserands k dis-
tribuer par paroisses, et qui ne fussent a la charge du peuple
APPENDIX. 501
que pour leurs nouritures, ce serait un moyen pour faire
apprendre aux enfants. Les Cure's nous rendraient compte
du nombre de ceux qui apprendraient a preparer la chanvre
et fillasse, et a faire de la toille ; avant que d'en venir la il
faudrait montrer a filer aux filles et aux femmes, car il y
en a tres peu, qui sachent tenir le fuseau, c'est en cela que
les filles de la congregation de Montreal feront merveilles.
II nous est venu de la part de Mr. Arnoul deux bariques
de graine de chanvre que je ferai distribuer et dont je me
ferai rendre compte.
Je croyais, Monseigneur, une ordonnance necessaire en-
core a faire pour engager chaque habitant a avoir deux ou
trois brebis, n'y en ayant pas suffisament dans le pays.
... II n'est pas possible qu'on ne puisse faire uiie
verrerie en ce pays, la plus grande affaire sont les ouvriers
qui encherissent tout car Ton donne ordinairement et
commune'ment a chaque ouvrier par jour quarente sols
nouris, cinquante sols et un e*cu, et tons ces maraux n'en
sont pas plus riches car ils mettent tout & boire.
(Signe) LE MQUIS DE DENONVILLE.
M&MOJRE A MONSEIGNEUR LE MARQUIS DE SEIGNELAT,
SUR L'ETABLISSEMENT DU COMMERCE EN CANADA,
PRESENTS PAR LES SlEURS CHALONS ET ElVERIN.
(Extrait.) Archives de la Marine.
(JOINT A LA LETTRE DU SlEUR DE RlVERIN, DU 7 FfiVRIER, 1686.)
... En effet si cette colonie n'a pas avanc^ depuis le
temps de son etablissement, c'est que les habitants qui la
composent ou par leur negligence ou par leur peu d'exp^rience
dans les affaires, ou enfin par leur impuissance ne se sont
pas mis en estat de se servir des avantages qu'elle renferme
502 APPENDIX.
en elle-mesme, et des moyens qu'elle leur fournit pour un
commerce solide et considerable.
Car il ne faut pas regarder la traitte des pelleteries &
laquelle seule on s'est attache jusqu'a present et qui iinira
avec le temps par la destruction des bestes, comme un
moyen propre a son avancement, au contraire 1'experience a
fait connoistre qu'elle rend les habitans faineans et vaga-
bonds, qu'elle les detourne de la culture des terres, de la
pesche, de la navigation et des autres entreprises.
MEMOIRE DU SIEUR DE CATALOGNE, ING£NIEUR, SUR LES
PLANS DES HABITATIONS ET SEIGNEURIES DES GOU-
VERNEMENS DE QUEBEC, DE MONTREAL ET DES TROIS-
K-IVIERES.
(Extrait?) Archives de la Marine.
7 NOVEMBRE, 1712.
Observations sur Vetablissement. — Que par rapport &
la grande etendue qu'on a donnee a 1'etablissement, il n'y a
pas le quart des ouvriers qu'il faudroit pour bien etendre et
cultiver les terres.
Que les laboureurs ne se donnent pas assez de soin pour
cultiver les terres, etant certain que la semence d'un niinot
de ble, seme sur de la terre cultivee comme en France,
produira plus que deux autres comme on seme en Canada.
Que comme les saisons sont trop courtes et souvent tres
mauvaises, il serait a souhaiter que FEglise permit les
travaux indispensables, que les f§tes d'ete obligent de
chdmer, etant tres vrai que depuis le mois de Mai que les
semences commencent jusques ^, la fin de Septembre, il n'ty
1 This mfmoire \% 70 pages in length.
APPENDIX. 503
a pas 90 journe*es de travail, par rapport aux fetes et au
mauvais temps. C'est pourtant dans cette espace quo roule
la solidit^ de cet e*tablissement. II faudrait assujetir les
habitans ne'gligens a travailler a la culture des terres, en les
privant des voyages qui les dispensent de travailler, et cela
parce qu'un voyage de deux ou trois mois leur produit 30 ou
40 escus en perdant la saison du travail a la terre, quisles
fait demeurer en friche.
Les obliger de seraer quantite de chanvre et lin qui
vient en ce pays plus gros qu'en Europe. Us s'en re-
lachent parceque, disent-ils, il y a trop de peine et de soins
6 le mettre en oeuvre. II est vrai qu'il y a peu de gens
qui s'entendent et qui le font payer bien cher.
Assujetir les habitans a nourrir et a Clever des b§tes a
comes, au lieu du grand nombre de chevaux qui ruinent le
Pacage et qui entrainent les habitans a des grosses de'penses,
tant que pour leurs equipages qui sont fort chers que par la
grande quantity de fourages et de grains qu'il faut pendant
7 ou 8 mois de Tannee, etant tres vrai que Tentretien d'un
cheval coiite autant que deux boeufs.
Obliger les Seigneurs pour faciliter 1'etablissement de
leurs Seigneuries de donner suffisamment des terres pour
commencer a un prix modique et a construire des moulins
et les commodites publiques ; plusieurs consomment le tiers
de leur temps a aller faires leur farines a 15 ou 20 lieues,
et que les Seigneurs, des que les Seigneuries sont e'tablies,
eonc&dent des terres sans que les tenanciers soient obliges
de payer des rentes qu'apres 6 ans que les terres soient en
valeur.
Ordonner au grand voyer de donner son application a
faire e*tablir les chemins et ponts necessaires au public,
qui est une ne'cessite' fort essentielle.
Obliger les habitans ou ceux qui sont en e*tat, de faire
des greniers pourque chacun fut en £tat de conserver du
504 APPENDIX.
grain pour deux armies; cela fait une fois, 1'abondance se
trouvera toujours au Canada au lieu que la plupart, faute
de cette commodity en manquent tr&s souvent, £tant oblig6
de le vendre & vil prix.
Ch£tier s^verement tous ceux qui sont convaincus de
fraude, mauvaise foi et imposture, qui est un mal qui com-
mence a etre bien en racine et qui indubitablement le
privera de tout commerce, les marchands des lies et de
Plaisance s'en £tant ddja plaints.
Que comme il n'y a pas de notaires dans tous les lieux,
que les conventions et les marches faits en presence de deux
t^moins vaudront pendant un temps fix&
II serait a souhaiter que S. M. voulut dtablir dans chaque
ville des conseils a juger sans frais sur le fait du commerce
et des affaires qui n'entrent pas dans la coutume. Ces sortes
de procedures aussi bien que les autres, ne prennent aucune
fin que lorsque les parties n'ont plus d'argent pour plaider,
qui est la ruine des families.
Engager un certain nombre de gens du pays a etudier le
pilotage, m§me les officiers des troupes, particulierement du
fleuve St. Laurent qui est tr&s dangereux, la plupart du
temps ne se trouvant pas un seul pilote en Canada, et
cependant on commence a donner dans la construction; le
capitaine du Port et M. Duplessis ayant mis un vaisseau
de 3 a 400 tonneaux sur les chantiers.
Cong&lier de temps en temps des soldats en leur permet-
tant de se marier, apres qu'ils auront un ^tablissement.
II s'est £tabli une coutume dans ce pays autoris^e par
le magistrat, qui meme ne me parait pas naturelle, de
laisser des bestiaux a 1'abandon qui la plupart gatent les
grains et les prairies, n'y ayant presque point de terres
closes qui causent des contestes et de la mesintelligence
entre les voisins; pour obvier a cela il faudrait qu'il y eut
des gardiens pour chaque nature d'animaux pour les mener
APPENDIX. 505
dans les communes, car tel qui n'a pas un pouce de terre,
envoie ses animaux paitre sur les terres de ses voisins,
en disant que Fabandon est donne; si S. M. voulait couper
la racine a une pepiniere de proces et de mesintelligence
entre les Seigneurs et habitans, il serait a souhaiter qu'elle
voulut donner une ordonnance tendante a ce que les Sei-
gneuries et autres concessions demeureraient dans les limites
qu'elles se trouvent a present, sans avoir egard aux titres
portes dans les contrats, pour la quantity et les rumbs de
vent qui y sont annonces, etant a remarquer que les anciens
Seigneurs et habitans se sont e'tablis de bonne foi, que les
terres ont ete* limite'es par des arpenteurs peu intelligens,
et aujourd'hui que la chicane est en vogue, chacun veut
suivre les termes de son contrat qui tendent la plupart
a 1'impossible. Mr. Raudot a donne* une ordonnance a ce
sujet pour File de Montreal seulement.
Comme la plupart des rues de Quebec et de Montreal sont
souvent impraticables, tant par les rochers que par les bour-
biers, s'il plaisait a S. M. d'ordonner que les deniers qui
proviennent des amendes et certaines confiscations seraient
employes a les mettre en etat.
Que la subordination du vassal a son Seigneur n'est point
objet a . Cette erreur vient qu'il a ete accorde
des Seigneuries a des roturiers qui non pas su maintenir
le droit que la raison leur donne a 1'egard de leur co-sujets,
mime les officiers de milice qui leur sont dependants, n'ont
la plupart aucun egard pour leur superiority et veulent dans
les occasions passer pour independants.
II serait a souhaiter que S. M. voulut envoyer dans ce
pays toute sorte d'artisans, particulierement des ouvriers en
cordages et filages, des potiers et un verrier, et ils trou-
veraieftt a s'occuper. Si S. M. Voulait faire envoyer en
merchandises une partie des appointemens de Messrs, les
officiers, cela leur adoucirait la durete* qfu'eux seuls trouvent
506 APPENDIX.
dans le pays, par la grande cherte* des marchandises cause's
par le mauvais retour de la monnaie de cartes qui fait
acheter 3 et 4 pour 100.
VEU : VAUDBEUIL.
VEU:BEGON. CATALOGNB.
I.
LETTER OF FATHER CARHEIL.
LETTRE DU PERE ETIENNE DE CARHEIL, DE LA COM^
PAGNIE DE JESUS, A L'lNTENDANT DE CHAMPIGNY.
(Extrait.)* Archives Nationales.
A MlCHILIMAKINA, LB 30 D*AOU8T, 1702.
. . . Nos Missions sont reduites a une telle extre'mite,
que nous ne pouvons plus les soutenir centre une multitude
infinie de desordres, de brutalitez, de violences, d'injustices,
d'impietez, d'impudicitez, d'insolences, de mepris, d'irisultes
que 1'infame et funeste traitte d'eau-de-vie y cause univer-
sellement dans toutes les nations d'icy haut, ou Ton vient
la faire, allant de villages en villages et courant les lacs
avec une quantite prodigieuse de barils, sans garder aucune
raesure. Si Sa Majeste avoit veu une seule fois ce qui se
passe et icy et a Montreal, dans tous les temps qu'on y fait
cette malheureuse traitte, je suis sur qu'elle ne balanceroit
pas un moment, des la premiere vue, a la d^ffendre pour
jamais sous les plus rigoureuses peines.
Dans le desespoir ou nous sommes, il ne nous reste point
d*autre party a prendre que celui de quitter nos Missions et
de les abandonner aux traittants d'eau-de-vie, pour y ^tablir
1 This letter is 45 pages long.
APPENDIX. 507
le domaine de leur traitte, de Tivrognerie et de 1'impuret^.
C'est ce que nous aliens proposer a nos superieurs en
Canada et en France, y e'tant contraints par I'e'tat d'inutilite'
et d'impuissance de faire aucun fruit ou 1'on nous a reduits
par la permission de cette deplorable traitte, permission que
Ton n'a obtenue de Sa Majeste que sous un pretexte aparent
de raisons que Ton scait etre fausses, permission qu'elle
n'accorderoit point, si ceux auxquels elle so raporte de la
verit^ la lui fesoient connoistre comnie ils la connoissent
eux-memes et tout le Canada avec eux, permission enfin
qui est le plus grand mal et le principe de tous les maux qui
arrivent presentement au pays, et surtout des naufrages
dont on n'entendoit point encore parler ici et que nous
apprenons arriver maintenant presque touttes les annees ou
dans la venue ou dans le retour de nos vaisseaux en France,
par une juste punition de Dieu qui fait perir par 1'eau ce
que 1'on avoit mal acquis par l'eau-de-vie, ou qui entend
ernpecher le transport pour prevenir le mauvais usage qu'on
en feroit. Si cette permission n'est reVoquee par une de"f-
fense contraire, nous n'aurons plus que faire de demeurer
dans aucune de nos Missions d'icy haut, pour y perdre le
reste de notre vie, et touttes nos peines dans une pure
inutilite sous 1'empire d'une continuelle ivrognerie et d'une
impurete' universelle qu'on ne permet pas moins aux trait-
teurs d'eau-de-vie que la traitte meme dont elle est Paccom-
pagnement et la suite. Si Sa Majeste veut sauver nos
missions et soutenir 1'etablissement de la Religion, comme
nous ne doutona point qu'elle le veuille, nous la suplions
tres-humblement de croire, ce qui est tres veritable, qu'il
n'y a point d'autre moyen de le pouvoir faire que d'abolir
les deux infames commerces qui les ont r^duites a la n^ces-
site' prochaine de p^rir et qui ne tarderont pas a achever de
les perdre, s'ils ne sont au plus tost abolis par ses ordres et
mis hors d'etat d'etre r^tablis. Le premier est le commerce
508 APPENDIX.
de l'eau-de-vie ; le second est le commerce des femmes sau-
vages avec les Francois, qui sont tous deux aussy publics
Tun que 1'autre, sans que nous puissions y reme'dier, pour
n'estre pas appuyez des commandans qui, bien loin de les
vouloir empScher par les remontrances que nous leur faisons,
les exercent eux-m8mes avec plus de libert^ que leurs
inferieurs, et les autorisent tellement par leur exemple qu'en
le regardant on s'en fait une permission ge'ne'rale et une
assurance d'impunite' qui les rend communs a tout ce qui
vient icy de Francois en traitte, de sorte que tous les villages
de nos Sauvages ne sont plus que des cabarets pour J'ivro-
gnerie et des Sodomes pour 1'impurete, d'oti il faut que
nous nous retirions, les abandonnant a la juste colere de
Dieu et a ses vengeances.
Vous voyez par la que, de quelque mamere qu'on ^tablisse
le commerce Francois avec les Sauvages, si 1'on veut nous
retenir parmi eux, nous y conserver et nous y soutenir en
qualit^ de missionnaires dans le libre exercice de nos
fonctions avec espdrance d'y faire du fruit, il faut nous
delivrer des commandans et de leur garnisons qui, bien loin
d'estre necessaires, sont au contraire si pernicieuses que
nous pouvons dire avec verite* qu'elles sont le plus grand
mal de nos missions, ne servant qu'a nuire & la traitte
ordinaire des voyageurs et a 1'avancement de la Foy.
Depuis qu'elles sont venues icy haut, nous n'y avons plus
veu que corruption universelle qu'elles ont re'pandues par
leur vie scandaleuse dans tous les esprits de ces nations qui
en sont presentemerit infectees. Tout le service pretendu
qu'on veut faire croire au Roy qu'elles rendent se r^duit k
quatre principales occupations dont nous vous prions instam-
ment de vouloir bien informer le Roy.
La premiere est de tenir un cabaret public d'eau-de-vie
ou ils la traittent continuellement aux Sauvages qui ne
cessent point de s'enyvrer, quelques opositions que nous y
APPENDIX. 509
puissions faire. C'est en vain que nous leur parlons pour
les arre" ter ; nous n'y gagnons rien que d'etre accusez de nous
oposer nous-m§mes au Service du Roy en voulant empScher
une traitte qui leur est permise.
La seconde occupation des soldats est d'estre envoyez d'un
poste a Pautre par les Comniandans, pour y porter leurs inar-
chandises et leur eau-de-vie, apres s'Stre accommodes ensein-
ble, sans que les uns et les autres ayent d'autre soin que
celuy de s'entr'ayder mutuellement dans leur commerce, et
afin que cela s'execute plus facilement des deux costez
comme ils le souhaitent, ils faut que les commandans se
ferment les yeux pour user de connivence et ne voir aucun
des de'sordres de leur soldats, quelques visibles, publics et
scandaleux qu'ils soient, et il faut reciproquement que les
soldats, outre qu'ils traittent leurs propres marchandises, se
f assent encore les traitteurs de celles de leurs Commandans
qui souvent m§me les obligent d'en acheter d'eux pour leur
permettre d'aller ou ils veulent.
Leur troisi&me occupation est de faire de leur fort un lieu
que j'ay honte d'apeler par son nom, ou les femmes ont
apris que leurs corps pouvoient tenir lieu de marchandises et
qu'elles seroient mieux reques que le castor, de sorte que
c'est pr^sentement le commerce le plus ordinaire, le plus
continuel et le plus en vogue. Quelques efforts que puissent
faire tous les missionnaires pour d&jrier et pour 1'abolir, au
lieu de diminuer, il augmente et se multiplie tous les jours
de plus en plus; tous les soldats tiennent table ouverte a
touttes les femmes de leur connaissance dans leur maison ;
depuis le matin jusqu'au soir, elles y passent les journees
entires, les unes apr&s les autres, assises a leur feu et
souvent sur leur lit dans des entretiens et des actions propre
de leur commerce qui ne s'ach&ve ordinairement que la nuit,
la foule £tant trop grande pendant la journde pour qu'ils
puissent 1'achever, quoyque souvent aussy ils s'entrelaissent
510 APPENDIX.
une maison vide de monde pour n'en pas diffe'rer 1'achSve-
ment jusqu'a la nuit.
La quatrieme occupation des soldats est celle du jeu qui a
lieu dans les terns ou les traitteurs se rassemblent; il y va
quelquefois a un tel point que n'etaiis pas contens d'y passer
le jour, ils y passent encore la nuit entiere, et il n'arrive
meme que trop souvent dans 1'ardeur de 1'aplication qu'ils
ne se souviennent pas, ou s'ils s'en souviennent, qu'ils
meprisent de garder les postes. Mais ce qui augmente en
cela leur desordre, c'est qu'un attachement si opiniatre au
jeu n'est presque jamais sans une ivrognerie commune &
tous les joueurs, et que 1'ivrognerie est presque toujours
suivie de querelles qui s'excitent entre eux lesquelles venant
a paroitre publiquement aux yeux des Sauvages, causent
parmi eux trois grands scandales: le premier de les voir
ivres, le second de les voir s'entrebatre avec fureur les uns
contre les autres jusqu'a prendre des fusils en main pour
s'entretuer, le troisieme de voir que les Missionnaires n'y
peuvent apporter aucun remade.
Voila, Monseigneur, les quatre seules ocupations des garni-
sons que Ton a tenues ici pendant taut d'annees. Si ces
sortes d'ocupations peuvent s'apeler le service du Roy,
j'avoue qu'elles luy ont actuellement et toujours rendu
quelqu'un de ces quatre services, mais je n'en ai point veu
d' autres que ces quatre-la; et par consequent, si on ne juge
pas que ce soit la des services necessaires au Roy, il n'y a
point eu jusqu'a present de necessite de les tenir icy, et
apres leur rapel, il n'y en aura point de les y re'tablir.
Cependant comme cette ndcessite pretendue des Garnisona
est 1'unique pretexte que Ton prend pour y envoyer des
Commandans, nous vous prions, Monseigneur, d'etre bien
persuadd de la faussete* de ce pretexte, afin que, sous ces
spe*cieuses aparences du service du Roy, on ne se fasse pas
une obligation d'en envoyer, puisque les Commandans ne
APPENDIX. 511
viennent icy que pour y faire la traitte de concert avec leurs
soldats sans se mettre en peine de tout le reste. Ils ii'ont
de liaison avec les Missionnaires que par les endroits ou ils
les croient utiles pour leur temporel, et hors de la ils leur
sont contraires des qu'ils veulent s'opposer au desordre qui,
ne s'accordant ny avec le service de Dieu ny avec le service
du Roy, ne laisse pas d'etre avantageux a leur commerce,
au quel il n'est rien qu'ils ne sacrifient. C'est la Punique
cause qui a mis le dereglement dans nos Missions, et qui les
a tellement desolees par 1'ascendant que les Commandans
ont pris sur les Missionnaires en s'attirant toute Pautorite
soit a 1'egard des Frangois, soit a Pegard des Sauvages, que
nous n'avons pas d'autre pouvoir que celui d'y travailler
inutilement sous leur domination qui s'est elevee jusqu'a
nous pour nous faire des crimes civils et des accusations
pretendues juridiques des propres fonctions de notre e"tat et
de notre devoir, comme 1'a toujours fait Monsieur de la
Motte qui ne voulait pas m§me que nous nous servissions
du mot de desordre et qui intente en effet procez au pere
Pinet pour s'en etre servi.
. . . Vous voyez, Monseigneur, que je me suis beau-
coup etendu sur les articles des Commandans et des garni-
sons pour vous faire comprendre que c'est la qu'est venu
tout le malheur de nos Missions. Ce sont les Commandans,
ce sont les garnisons, qui, se joignant avec les traitteurs
d'eau-de-vie les ont entierement de'sole'es par Pivrognerie et
par une impudicite presque universelle que Pon y a ^tablie
par une continuelle impunit^ de Pune et de Pautre, que les
puissances civiles ne tolerent pas seulement, mais qu'elles
permettent, puisque les pouvant empScher, elles ne les
empSchent pas. - Je'ne crains done 'point de vous declarer
que si Ton remet icy haut dans nos missions des Commas-
dans traitteurs et des garnisons de soldats traitteurs, noua
ne doutons point que nous ne soyons contraints de les
512 APPENDIX.
quitter, n'y pouvant rien faire pour le salut des §,mes.
C'est a vous d'informer Sa Majeste de I'extre'mit^ ou Pon
nous re'duit et de luy demander pour nous notre delivrance,
afin que nous puissions travailler a 1'etablissement de la
Religion sans ces empechemens qui 1'ont arr§te jusqu'a
present.
J.
THE GOVERNMENT AND THE CLERGY.
MEMOIRE DE TALON SUR L'ETAT PRESENT DU
CANADA, 1667.
(Extrait.) Archives de la Marine.
. . . L'EccLESiASTiQUE est compost d'un Evesque,
ayant le tiltre de Pe'tree, In partibus infidelium, et se ser-
vant du caractere et de 1'autorite de Vicaire Apostolique.
II a soubs [sows] luy neuf Prestres, et plusieurs clercs
qui vivent en communaute quand ils sont pres de lui dans
son Seminaire, et separement a la campagne quand ils y
sont envoyez par voye de mission pour desservir les cures
qui ne sont pas encore fondees. II y a pareillement les
P&res de la Compagnie de Jesus, au nombre de trente-cinq,
la pluspart desquels sont employ ez aux Missions etrangeres :
ouvrage digne de leur zele et de leur pie'te s'il est exempt
du meslange de 1'interest dont on les dit susceptibles, par la
traitt'e des pelleteries qu'on assure qu'ils font aux StaSaks
\_0utaoudlcs], et au Cap'de la Magdelaine; ce queje'he
sQay pas de science certaihe.
La vie de ces Eccle'siastiques, par tout ce qui paroist' au
dehors, est fort regie's, et peut servir de bon exemple et
APPENDIX. 513
d'un bon modele aux seculiers qui la peuvent imiter; mais
com me ceux qui composent cette Colonie ne sont pas tous
d'esgale force, ny de vertu pareille, ou n'ont pas tous les
mesmes dispositions au bien , quelques-uns tombent aysement
dans leur disgrace pour ne pas se conformer k leur maniere
de vivre, ne pas suivre tous leurs sentimens, et ne s'aban-
donner pas a leur conduite qu'ils estendent jusques sur le
temporel, empietant mesme sur la police exterieure qui
regarde le seul magistrat.
On a lieu de soupconner que la pratique dans laquelle ils
sont, qui n'est pas bien conforme a celle des Eccldsiastiques
de 1'Aucieime France, a pour but de partager 1'autorite
temporelle qui, jusques au temps de Parrivee des troupes du
Koy en Canada, residoit principalement en leur personnes.
A ce mal qui va jusques a ge'henner \_gener~\ et contraindre
les consciences, et par la desgouter les colons les plus at-
tachez au pays, on peut donner pour remade 1'ordre de
balancer avec adresse et moderation cette autorite* par celle
qui reside ez [dans les"] personnes envoye'es par Sa Majeste
pour le Gouvernement : ce qui a desja 6t6 pratique; de
permettre de renvoyer un ou deux Ecclesiastiques de ceux
qui reconnoissent moins cette autorite temporelle, et qui
troublent le plus par leur conduite le repos de la Colonie,
et introduire quatre Ecclesiastiques entre les se*culiers ou
les reguliers, les faisant bien autoriser pour 1'administration
des Sacremens, sans qu'ils puissent estre inquie"tez: autre-
ment ils deviendroient inutiles au pays, parce que s'ils ne se
conformoient pas a la pratique de ceux qui y sont aujourd'huy
M. 1'Evesque leur deffendroit d'administrer les Sacremens.
Pour estre mieux inform^ de cette conduite des consciences,
on peut entendre Monsieur Dubois, Aumosnier au regiment
de Carignan, qui a ouy plusieurs Confessions en secret, et a
la desrobee, et Monsieur de Bretonvilliers sur ce qu'il a
appris par les Ecclesiastiques de son Seminaire establi 4
Mont-K^al. 33
514 APPENDIX.
LETTRE DU MINISTRE A MR. TALON, 20 FEVRIER,
1668.
(Extrait.) Archives de la Marine.
... II faut que Fapplication d'un Gouverneur et d'un
Intendant aide a adoucir le mal, et non a 1'effet que le Gou-
verneur ne se porte a aucune extremite, centre les Sieurs
EvSque et les P. P. Jesuites, quand bien meme ils auraient
abuse du pouvoir que leur habit et le respect qu'on a natu-
rellement pour la religion leur donne. En se contentant par
des conferences particulieres de resserrer ce pouvoir, autant
que se pourra, dans les bornes d'une legitime autorite' et
esperant que, quand le pays sera plus peupte, qui est la
seule et unique chose que doit convier le dit Sr. Gou-
verneur et Intendant a y donner leurs soins quand a present,
I'autorite' Royale qui sera la plus reconnue des peuples
pr^vaudra sur 1'autre et la contiendra dans de justes limites.
. . . Je ne m'explique point avec vous sur ce sujet,
parceque je sais qu'a part ses bonnes quality's il \_M. de
Courcelle~] a us£ d'emportement dont il est bon qu'il se cor-
rige. lusinuez lui aussi honnetement les sentiments qu'il
doit avoir et ce que je viens de vous dire au sujet du Sieur
de Kessan, et qu'il ne doit jamais blamer la conduite de
1'Evgque de Pe'tre'e ni des Jesuites en public, £tant assez
d'en user avec eux avec grande circonspection, se contentant
seulement lorsqu'ils entreprendront trop de leur faire con-
naitre et d'en envoyer des m^moires, afin que je confere
avec leurs Sups' rieurs de ces entreprises et en cas qu'il& en
fassent qu'on puisse les iuterdire.
APPENDIX. 515
INSTRUCTION POUR M. DE BOUTEROUE, 1668.
(Extrait.) Archives de la Marine.
II faut empescher autant qu'il se pourra la trop grande
quantite des prestres, religieux, et religieuses . . . s'entre-
mettre quelquefois et dans les occasions pour les porter a
adoucir cette trop grande severit^, estant tres-important que
lesdits evesque et Jesuites ne s'aperqoivent jamais qu'il
veuille blasmer leur conduite.
(Sign6) COLBERT.
For the instructions on this subject, more precise and em-
phatic than the above, given by the King to Talon in 1665,
see N. Y. Colonial Docs., ix. 24.
LETTRE DE COLBERT A DUCHESNEAU, 15 AVRIL, 1676.
(Extrait.) Archives de la Marine.
Eviter les contestations . . . sans toutefois prejudicier
aux precautions qui sont & prendre et aux mesures a garder
pour empescher que la puissance ecclesiastique n'entreprenne
rien sur la temporelle, k quoy les ecclesiastiques sont assez
portds.
LETTRE DU MINISTRE A DUCHESNEAU, LE 28 AVRIL,
1677.
(Extrait.) Archives de la Marine.
. . . Je vous dirai premi&rement que Sa Majest^ est bien
persuad^e de la pi£t£ de tous les Ecclesiastiques et de leurs
bonnes intentions pour le succez du sujet de leurs missions.
516 APPENDIX.
mais Sa Majeste* veut que vous preniez garde qu'ils n'entre-
prennent rien tant sur son authorite Royalle que sur la
justice et police du pays et que vous les resserriez pr^cise-
ment dans les bornes de 1'authorit^ que les Ecclesiastiques
ont dans le Royaume, sans souffrir qu'ils les passent en
quelque sorte et mani&re que ce soit, et cette maxime gene-
ralle vous doit servir pour toutes les difficultez de cette
nature qui pourront survenir ; mais pour parvenir a ce point
il seroit necessaire que vous-mesme vous travailliassiez a
vous rendre habil sur ces matures en lisant les autheurs qui
en ont traitt^, observer tout ce qui se passe et k envoyer
tous les ans des memoires sur les difficultez que vous aurez
et auxquelles vous n'aurez pas pu rem&lier; considerez cette
matiere comme tres importante et a laquelle vous ne S9auriez
donner trop d'application.
LETTBB DU MINISTRE A DUCHESNEAU, LE PREMIER
MAY, 1677.
(Extrait.) Archives de la Marine.
. . . Je suis encore oblig^ de vous dire que Ton voit claire-
ment qu'encore que le dit Sieur Evesque soit un homme
de bien et qu'il fasse fort Men son devoir, il ne laisse pas
d'affecter une domination qui passe de beaucoup au dela
des bornes que les Evesques ont dans tout le monde
chrestien et particuli&rement dans le E/oyaume et ainsy
vous devez vous appliquer a bien connoistre et k SQavoir
le plus parfaitement que vous pourrez Pestendue du pouvoir
des Evesques et les remedes que 1'authorite Royalle a
apporte pour en empescher 1'abus et leur trop grande
domination, afin que vous puissiez de concert avec Monsieur
le Comte de Frontenac dans les occasions importantes y
apporter les mesmes rem&des, en quoy vous devez toujours
APPENDIX. 517
agir avec beaucoup de moderation et de retenue. . . . Comme
je vois que Monsieur 1'Evesque de Quebec, ainsi que je
viens de vous dire affecte une authority un peu trop inde-
pendante de Pauthorit^ Royalle et que par cette raison
il seroit peut-estre bon qu'il n'eust pas de seance dans le
conseil, vous devez bien examiner toutes les occasions et
tous les moyens que Ton pourrait pratiquer, pour luy donner
a luy-mesme 1'envie de n'y plus venir; mais vous devez
en cela vous conduire avec beaucoup de retenue, et bien
prendre garde que qui ce soit ne descouvre ce que je vous
escris sur ce point.
M^MOIRE DU EOI AUX SlEUBS DE FRONTENAC ET DE
CHAMPIGNY, ANNEE 1692.
(Extrait.} Archives de la Marine.
. . Sa Majeste veut aussy qu'ils \_Frontenac et Cham-
pigny~\ assistent de leur authorise les Jesuites et les Re'colets
et tous autres Ecclesiastiques sans n^antmoins souffrir qu'ils
portent Pautorite eccle'siastique plus loin qu'elle ne doit
s'estendre. Elle ne veut pas qu'ils se dispensent de faire
doucement et avec toute la discretion possible des remon-
strances au dit Sieur Evesque dans les occasions ou ils
reconnoistront que les Ecclesiastiques agissent par un zele
immode're ou par d'autres passions, afin de 1' engager a y
remedier et a faire tout ce qui depend avec lui pour pro-
curer le repos des consciences. Les dits Sieurs de Fron-
tenac et de Champigny doivent se tenir en cela dans les
voyes de la seule excitation et informer sa Majeste de tout
ce qui se passera a cet egard.
APPENDIX.
LETTRE DE MONSIEUR DE LA MOTHE CADILLAC.
(Extrait.) Archives de la Marine.
28 SEPTEMBRE, 1694.
... La chose ne se passa pas ainsi qu'il 1'a racont^ dana
cet article et le suivant; ceux qui savent 1'histoire de ce
temps 1& en parlent autrement et voicy le fait: Monsieur
de Laval fit diverges tentatives & peu pr&s comme celles
qu'on void aujourd'huy dont le but a toujours 6t6 de pr3-
valoir sur I'autorit^ du gouvernement; Monsieur de Tracy
pour lors Vice-roy de ce pays, voyait tranquillement le ddsir
de cette £l£vation, et comme c'estoit un homme d^vot,
il ne jugea pas & propos de prater le colet a cette cohorte
Ecclesiastique, dont la puissance dtoit redoutable. Mon-
sieur Talon dans cette conjoncture fit paroitre une plus
forte resolution et risqua pour Pint^rest du Koy de perdre
son credit et sa fortune; il vid qu'il falloit ^touffer cet
orage dans son berceau et enfin par ses remontrances et par
ses soins, il fit donner un arr§t favorable et tel qu'il se
l'£toit propos^. Monsieur de Laval voyant alors qu'on
1'avoit rengaine* et qu'on 1'avoit coup£ & demi-vent, il creut
suivant la politique de 1'Eglise qu'il falloit attendre un
temps plus favorable; ayant done mis armes bas, on tacha
de rajuster les affaires par Tentremise rneme de Monsieur de
Tracy qui obtint de Monsieur Talon au jour de sa recon-
ciliation que l'arr§t en question seroit raye et batonn^, non
pas pour le d^saprouver ou pour 1'avoir trouv£ contraire
k toute bonne justice, comme le veut persuader le procureur
g&i^ral ; mais afin que Monsieur de Laval ne f ut pas repro-
chable de ses hearts et de ses injustes pretentions; ce fut
une foiblesse a Monsieur Talon de s'etre laiss^ vaincre par
de telles soumissions.
i. . . II faut §tre ici pour voir les menses qui se font tous
APPENDIX. 519
ies jours pour renverser le plan et les projets d'un Gou-
verneur. II faut une tete aussi ferme et aussi plomb^e que
celle de Monsieur le Comte pour se soutenir centres les
ambusches que partout on lui dresse ; s'il veut la paix cela
sumt pour qu'on s'y oppose et qu'on crie que tout est perdu ;
s'il veut faire la guerre, on lui expose la ruine de la collonie.
II n'auroit pas tant d'affaires sur les bras, s'il n'avoit pas
aboli un Hiericho qui etait une maisori que Messieurs du
S^minaire de Montreal avoient fait bdtir pour renfermer,
disoient-ils, les filles de mauvaise vie. S'il avoit voulu leur
permettre de prendre des soldats et leur donner des officiers
pour aller dans les maisons arracher des femmes a minuit et
couchees avec leurs maris, pour avoir et£ au bal ou en
masque et les faire fesser jusques au sang dans ce Hiericho;
s'il n'avait rien dit encore centre des Cur^s qui faisoient la
ronde avec des soldats et qui obligeoient en est£ les filles et
les fenimes a se renfermer a neuf heures chez elles, s'il avoit
voulu d^ffendre de porter de la dentelle, s'il n'avoit rien dit
sur ce qu'on refusoit la communion a des femmes de qualit£
pour avoir une fontange, s'il ne s'opposoit point encore aux
excommunications qu'on jette a tort et a travers, aux scan-
dale» qui s'en suivent, s'il ne faisoit les officiers que par la
voye des communautds, s'il vouloit ddffendre le vin et 1'eau
de vie aux sauvages, s'il ne disoit mot sur le sujet des cures
fixes et droits de patronage, si Monsieur le Comte estoit de
ces avis-la, ce seroit assurement un homme sans pareil et il
seroit bientot sur la liste des plus grands saints, car on lea
canonise dans ce pais a bon marche.
520 APPENDIX.
K.
CANADIAN CURES. EDUCATION. DIS-
CIPLINE.
LETTRE DU MARQUIS DE DENONVILLE AU MINISTBE.
(Extrait.) Archives de la Marine.
A QUEBEC 16 NOVEMBRE, 1685.
. . . Vous me permettrez, Monseigneur, de vous
demander la gr&ce de faire quelques reflections sur les
moyens d'occuper la jeunesse du pays, dans son bas §,ge,
et dans l'age le plus avarice', que je vous rende compte de
mes pense'es la dessus, puisque c'est une des choses la plus
essentielle de la colonie.
Pour y parvenir, Monseigneur, le premier moyen k mon
gre*, est de multiplier le nombre des Cure's, et de les rendre
plus fixes et residentaires, Mr. notre EvSque en est si con-
vaincu par la connaissance qu'il a prise de son diocese dans
ses visites, et dans le voyage que nous avons fait ensemble,
qu'il n'a point de plus grand enipressement que de pouvoir
contribuer a cet etablissement qui serait un moyen sur, pour
faire des e'coles, auxquelles les cures s'occuperaient et ainsi
accoutumeraient les enfans de bonne heure a s'assugetir et a
s'occuper: Mais, Monseigneur, pour faire cet etablissement
utilement, il faudrait multiplier le nombre des cures jusques
au nombre de cinquante et un. Le me* moire que je vous
en envoye, vous fera assez bien voir, que si on les £tend
davantage et qu'il faille que les cures passent et repassent
la riviere, comme ils font a present pour faire leurs fonc-
tions, ils employent avec bien du travail tout le temps qu'ils
pourraient donner & instruire la jeunesse, si leurs cures
e'taient moins e*tendues. Outre cela, Monseigneur, a I'entre'e
APPENDIX. 521
et a la sortie de Phiver, il y a pres de deux mois que Ton
ne saurait passer la riviere, qui en bien des endroits a une
lieue de largeur, et beaucoup plus en d'autres. Si bien que
dans ces temps il faut que les malades demeurent sans aucun
secours spirituel.
C'est une pitie, Monseigneur, que de voir 1'ignorance
dans laquelle les peuples eloignes du sejourdes Cures vivent
en ce pays, et les peines que les missionnaires et Cures se
donnent pour y remedier en parcourant leurs cures, sur le
pied qu'elles sont selon le memoire que je vous en envoye.
Vous y verrez, Monseigneur, le cheinin qu'il leur faut faire
pour visiter leurs paroisses dans les rigueurs de Phiver.
Puisque j'ai entame' 1' affaire des Cures vous me per-
mettrez d'achever de vous dire que pour la subsistance d'un
cure selon les connaissances que j'ai pu prendre du pays,
depuis que j'y suis, selon le prix des denrees, on ne saurait
donner moins a un cure* pour sa subsistance que quatre
cents livres, monoye de France, attendu qu'il ne faut pas
compter sur aucun revenant bon du dedans de PEglise.
II est bien vrai qu'il y a quelques cures qui sont mieux
peuplees dont les dismes sont assez raisonables pour pou-
voir suffir a leur entretien, mais il y en a tres peu sur ce
pied la.
J'ai trouve ici dans le Seminaire de I'Eve'che', le com-
mencement de deux etablissements qui seraient admirables
pour la Colonie, si on les pouvait augmenter, ce sont, Mon-
seigneur, deux maisons ou Pon retire des enfans pour les
instruire, dans 1'une on y met ceux auquels on trouve de
la disposition pour les lettres, auxquelles on s'attache de les
former pour TEglise, qui dans la suite peu vent rendre plus
de- service que les pretres Francois e*tants plus faits que les
autres-aux fatigues et aux raanieres du pays. ^
Dans Pautre maison on y met ceux qui ne sont propres que
pour e*tre artisans, et k ceux Ik on apprends des metiers.
522 APPENDIX.
Je croirais que ce sorait la un moyen admirable pour com-
mencer un etablissement de manufactures, qui sont absolu-
ment necessaires pour le secours de ce pays.
Mr. notre Evgque est charrne de ces etablissements, et
voudrait bien §tre en etat de les soutenir et augmenter.
Mais comme tout cela ne se peut faire sans de'pense tant
pour 1'augmentation du nombre des Cures que pour cette
espece de manufacture, et qu'il conviendrait d'en faire de
grandes, pour y reussir, je ne vois qu'un moyen assure pour
cela, qui serait que le Roy voulut bien donner une grosse
abbaye a Mr. notre Eveque sans 1'attacher a l'Ev§che,
comme il n'a Pesprit et le coeur occupes que des soins de
faire du bien aux pauvres et augmenter la foi et le salut des
ames, il est certain que Sa Majeste, aurait le plaisir de
voir employer le revenu de ce benefice en bonnes et saintes
oeuvres, qui feraient merveille pour le bien de la colonie son
soutien et son augmentation.
J'ai trouv^ a Villemarie en Pisle de Montreal, un eta-
blissement de soeurs de la congregation, sous la conduite
de la soeur Bourgeois, qui fait de grands biens a toute la
colonie, elles furent brulees Pan passe ou elles perdirent
tout; il seroit fort ne*cessaire qu'elles se retablissent, elles
n'ont pas le premier sol, j'y ai trouve un autre etablissement
de filles de la providence qui travaillent ensemble, elles
pourront commencer qnelque manfacture de ce cote* Ik,
si vous avez la bonte* de continuer la gratification de mil
livres pour les laines, et mil livres pour apprendre a tricoter.
II y a encore un troisieme Etablissement pour faire des
maitres d'ecoles.
II faut revenir s'il vous plait, Monseigneur, a voir ce qui
se peut faire pour dissipliner les grands gar^ons, et pour
donner de 1'occupation aux enfans des gentilsnommes et
autres soi-disans et vivans comme tels.
Avant tout, Monseigneur, vous me permettrez de vous
APPENDIX. 523
dire que la noblesse de ce pays nouveau, est tout ce qu'il
y a de plus gueux et que d'en augmenter le nombre est
augmenter le nombre des faineants. Un pays neuf demande
des gens laborieux et industrieux, et qui mettent la main
a la hache et a la pioche. Les enfans de nos conseillers
ne sont pas plus laborieux, et n'ont de ressource que les
bois, ou ils font quelque traite, et la plupart font tous
les d^sordres dont j'ai eu 1'honneur de vous entretenir,
je ne m'oublierai en rien de ce qu'il y aurait a faire pour
les engager a entrer dans le commerce, mais comme nos
nobles et conseillers sont tous fort pauvres et accable's de
debtes, ils ne sauraient trouver de credit pour un e*cu.
Le seul moyen qui me parait le plus assure pour disci-
pliner cette jeunesse serait que le Boy voulut bien entre-
tenir en ce pays, quelques compagnies, dont on donnerait
le commandement a gens d'authorite et de bonnes moeurs
et applique's, comme a Mr. le Chevalier de Cailliere, a Mr.
de Vare'nes, Gouverneur des trois Rivieres, ou au Sr.
PreVot, Major de Quebec, avec des Lieutenants du pays
que Ton choisirait, lesquels ne devraient point avoir peine
d'obeir, a ceux auxquels naturellement ils doivent obeir.
INDEX,
INDEX.
ABENAKI Indians, the, at Port
Royal, 13, 382.
Absolutism, in Canada, 342, 461-
468.
Acadia, quarrel between England
and France over, 3 ; the French
keep a feeble hold on, 5 ;
Charles de la Tour applies for
a commission to command in, 5 ;
French settlements transferred
by conquest to England, 8 ;
restored to France by the treaty
of St. Germain, 8 ; France and
the Company of New France in
sole possession of, 8; D'Aunay
succeeds Razilly in command in,
9 ; inexact assertion of Charle-
voix concerning division of, 14 ;
invaded by the Plymouth trad-
ers, 15; 50; Le Borgue gets a
lion's share of, 52 ; conquered
for England by Major Robert
Sedgwick, 52 ; restored to
France by the treaty of Breda,
52 ; recaptured by Sir William
Phips, 52; again restored to
France by the treaty of Rys-
wick, 52 ; ; finally seized for
England by General Nicholson,
52 ; Talon tries to open a road
to, 274, 323, 383.
Adirondack, the, 248.
Africa, 234, 235.
Agariata, Chief, 252.
Ailleboust, the family of, 319.
Ailleboust, D', succeeds Charny as
governor of Quebec, 88; his
dealings with the Iroquois, 88 ;
insanely pious, 165, 166, 167;
Argenson complains of, 176,
393, 429.
Ailleboust, Madame d', 106, 144 ;
fantastic devotion of, 421.
Aix, 156.
Albanel, Father Charles, the Jesuit,
at the Fort of St. Louis, 250 ;
penetrates to Hudson's Bay, 274 ;
39
Albany, 113, 188,249.
Alexander, Sir "William, grant
made by James I. to, 4 ; attacks
Charles de la Tour at Fort Lo-
me'ron, 5 ; makes Claude de la
Tour a baronet of Nova Scotia,
6 ; sends Claude de la Tour to
Cape Sable, 6; makes the La
Tours baronets of Nova Scotia,
7 ; grants Charles de la Tour
land near Cape Sable, 7 ; jeal-
ous of the Company of New
France, 7; fits out a private
expedition under the brothers
Kirke, 7 ; succeeds in transfer-
ring by conquest the French
settlements in Acadia and Can-
ada to England, 7 ; gives up
Port Royal to Razilly, 8 ; 9.
Algonquins, French, 124.
528
INDEX.
Algonquin Indians, the, 68, 88.
126, 134.
Algonquin missions, the, 383.
Allen's River, 12.
Allet, Father, the Sulpitian, 95,
141, 156 ; on the Jesuits at Que-
bec, 416.
Almshouses, established in Can-
ada, 446.
Amazon River, the, 234.
American Revolution, the, 164.
Amours, D', Matthieu, the coun-
cillor, 195, 213, 321.
Amours, D' (son), 337.
Andaraque, largest and strongest
of the Mohawk forts, 257 ; taken
by the French, 257 ; description
of, 258.
Andre, Pere, tries to seduce La
Tour's men, 38 ; 472.
Angoville, Major d', 208, 217,
488.
Annahotaha, Etienne, 130 ; offers
to reinforce Daulac, 131 ; at the
Long Saut, 131-133 ; deserts
Daulac, 134, 138.
Annapolis River, the, 11, 12, 48.
Anne of Austria, 144, 220, 230.
Anne, St., shrine of, 429 ; Ca-
nadian devotion to, 429.
Anticosti, the island of, 357.
Antilles, the, 234, 235.
Antiuomianism, the ghastly spec-
tre of, 25.
Aontarisati, the Iroquois Chief,
58.
Arabia, 166.
Argall, lawless inroads of, 4.
Argenson, Vicomte d', 105 ; be-
comes governor of the colony,
120 ; his efforts to save the col-
ony, 121 ; on the desertion of
Daulac by the Hurons, 138; 144,
155, 157, 158 ; characteristics of,
166; Laval quarrels with, 166,
167 ; his memorial to the council
of state, 169 ; his reception by the
Jesuits, 173 ; difficulties of, 174 ;
the Company of New France
refuses aid to, 175 ; annoyed by
the virtual independence of
Montreal, 175 ; complains of
Ailleboust, 176; his troubles,
177; resigns his position in
disgust, 177; Laval urges the
removal of, 178; his opinion of
Villeray, 196 ; 203.
Argenson, D' (brother of the gov-
ernor), 170, 178; correspond-
ence between Laval and, 481-
484.
Argentan, town of, 150.
Arnold, M., 501.
Arts of ornament, the, in Canada,
362.
Associates of Montreal, the, see
Montreal, the Association of.
Aabert, Barthelemy, 475.
Aubert, Felix, 217.
Austrian War, the, 242.
Auteuil, Ruette d', appointed coun-
cillor at Quebec, 195 ; removed
from the council by Mezy, 208 ;
213.
Auteuil, D' (son), 337.
Avaugour, Baron Dubois d', takes
Argenson's place, 178; de-
scription of, 178 ; his reception,
1 79 ; wished to be on good
terms with the Jesuits, 179 ;
the brandy quarrel, 180; Laval
urges the removal of, 182 ;
summoned home, 187 ; his
memorial to Colbert, 187 ; death
.of, 188 ; 198.
BAGOT, the Jesuit, 145, 147.
Balls, in Canada, 413.
Bardy, Father, 398.
Baronies, 314.
INDEX.
529
Basques, the, 356.
Baston, the merchant, 438, 439.
Bayeux, the Bishop of, 148.
"Beaufort, 230.
Beauharnois, Marquis de, 313, 361,
433.
Beauport, Monsieur de, 308.
Beauport, settlement of, census of,
299, 307.
Beaupre', Laval's seigniory of,
224, 298, 299; census of, 402;
population of, 403, 428, 429,
440, 500.
Beaver-skins, serve as currency,
362 ; effect produced by, 383.
Beaver-trade, the, Canada depend-
ent upon, 58 ; largeness of, 58 ;
Oudiette granted monopoly in,
366, 371 ; a surfeit in, 372; the
West Indian Company given a
monopoly in, 373.
Becancour, the seigniory of, 302.
Bechefer, the Jesuit, 251.
B€gon, the intendant, 361, 506.
Bele-tre, M., 438, 439.
Belmont, the Sulpitian, on the
desertion of Daulac by the Hu-
rons, 138 ; on the struggle for
the bishopricof Canada, 156; 424.
Bernieres, Sieur de, see Louvigni,
Bernieres de.
Bernon, 354.
Berthelot, Fra^ois, 307, 324, 403.
Berthier, Captain, 243, 301.
Biencourt, keeps a feeble hold on
Acadia, 4, 5 ; takes the name of
Foutrincourt, 5 ; at Fort Lome-
ron, 5 ; La Tour becomes at-
tached to the service of, 5 ;
bequeaths his property to La
Tour, 5.
Bienville, 323.
Bigot, the intendant, 342.
"Blue Coats" of Montreal, the,
247, 254.
34
Blue Hill in Milton, the, 23.
Bochart, Du Plessis, defeated and
killed by the Mohawk Iroquois,
55.
Bochart, Magdeleine, 448.
Bochart, Marie, 289.
Boisdon, Jacques, 300.
Boisdon, Jean, 448.
Bologna, the Concordat of, 153;
Canada excluded from, 154.
Bonchard, the surgeon of Mont-
real, 99.
Bonsecours, the seigniory of, 308.
Bossuet, 232.
Boston, site of, 4 ; La Tour sails
for, 20; La Tour arrives in, 21 ;
description of, 23; undesirable
neighbors of, 23 ; antagonisms
of the Pequot Indians, 23 ; dan-
gers of the theological quarrels
to, 24; training-day in, 26;
Governor Winthrop allows La
Tour to hire allies in, 28;
Madame La Tour in, 36;
D'Aunay sends envoys to, 41 ;
358, 470.
Boucher, Father Pierre, cure of
Point Levi, 189, 282, 363, 451.
Boucherville, the seigniory of, 302.
Boudrot, Michel, Lieutenant-Gen-
eral in Acadia, 13.
Bougainville, the famous naviga-
tor, 402, 432; his view of the
Canadians, 456.
Boulle, 307.
Bourbon, 229.
Bourbons, the, 316.
Bourdon, Jean, appointed attor-
ney-general at Quebec, 195, 196 ;
early life of, 1 97 ; removed from
the council by Me'zy, 208 ; 213 ;
banished to France, 214 ; 486
489.
Bourdon, Madame Jean, 285.
Bourdon, Jean Fran^oie, 173.
530
INDEX.
Bourgeoys, Marguerite, returns to
Canada, 96 ; her labors at Mont-
real, 98 ; returns to France, 99 ;
gains recruits in Troves, 102;
on the miracles at Montreal,
112; 285.
Bourget, Bishop of Montreal,
fiftieth anniversary of, 226.
Bourg la Reine, village of, 297.
Bourg Royal, village of, 297.
Bourg Talon, village of, 297.
Bourse, the, established at Quebec,
365
Bouteroue, the intendant, 291,337,
400 ; Colbert's instructions re-
garding the government and the
clergy in Canada, 515.
Bradstreet, signs the "Ipswich
Letter," 30; Governor Win-
throp's reply to, 31 ; letter to
Governor Winthrop, 31.
Brandy, love of the Indians for,
180, 387 ; quarrel between
Laval and Avaugour concern-
ing, 180, a fiend with all crimes
and miseries in his train, 388;
its sale necessary to the interests
of the fur-trade, 388 ; penalties
for selling, 389 ; question of its
sale submitted to the fathers of
the Sorbonne, 390; the King's
views concerning, 391.
Brandy quarrel, the, 180, 386-
393.
Brauu, Father, 226.
Brebeuf, Jean de, the Jesuit, 73,
226, 240.
Breda, the treaty of, restores Aca-
dia to France, 52, 260.
Bre'soles, Sister Judith de, 101 ;
early life of, 106 ; made Supe-
rior at Montreal, 106, 109.
Bretonvilliers, M. de, 513.
Brigeac, Claude de, ,112 ; tortured
to death by the Iroquois, 113.
British colonies, the, 4.
British conquest, the, 425.
Brittany, 278.
Bruyas, the Jesuit, ordered to the
Oneidas, 266; takes the Mis-
sion of the Martyrs, 380.
Bullion, Madame de, visited by
Mile. Mance, 100; designated
as " the unknown benefactress,"
100.
CABOTS, the, discovery of North
America by, 3.
Caen, 145 ; the zealots at, 147, 148,
149 ; 204 ; the Jacobin convent
at, 205 ; 207, 479, 480.
Cffisar, 153.
Cailliere, Chevalier de, 523.
Callieres, 433, 446.
Calvin, John, the extreme dogmas
of, 24.
Canada, charter of the country
and lordship of, 4 ; French
settlements transferred by con-
quest to England, 8; restored
to France by the treaty of St.
Germain, 8 ; turned to fasting
and penance, 54 ; the beaver
her only sustenance, 58 ; the
Iroquois wish for peace with,
66 ; writhes under the scourge
of the Iroquois War, 118; still
a mission, 120; domestic quar-
rels in, 140; struggle for the
bishopric of, 141-160; excluded
from the Concordat of Bologna,
154; entering into a state of
transition, 1 65 ; the chief suf-
ferer from the monopoly of the
Company of the West, 235;
Louis XIV. has at heart the
prosperity of, 236 ; an object of
very considerable attention at
conrt, 237 ; not to be wholly
abandoned to a trading company,
INDEX.
531
239 ; little capital and little enter-
prise in, 270 ; Talon sets himself
to galvanize, 270 ; concern of
Colbert for the prosperity of,
270; Talon's attempt to estab-
lish trade between the West
Indies and, 272 ; the peopling
of, 276; emigration to, 277;
young women sent to, 280 ;
premium placed on marriage,
282; celibacy punished, 287;
bounties offered for children,
289 ; satisfactory results, 290 ;
the settler of, 295 ; persists in
attenuating herself, 298; the
river settlements, 301 ; feudalism
of, 304 ; Richelieu first plants
feudalism in, 305 ; not governed
to the profit of a class, 315 ; its
condition in 1712, 315 ; becomes
infatuated with noblesse, 317;
the King the dispenser of charity
for all, 321 ; its government,
326 ; the intendant, 326 ; the
Governor-General, 327 ; the coun-
cil, 329 ; the King alone su-
preme in, 329 ; inferior courts,
331 ; the judge, 332 ; the spirit of
absolutism everywhere apparent
in, 342, 461-468 ; justice in,
344-346 ; abuses, 347 ; neg-
lected, 351 ; its organs of nu-
trition, 352 ; its trade in fetters,
353 ; appeals for help, 359 ; man-
ufactures of, 361 ; ship-building
in, 362 ; condition of ornamen-
tal arts in, 362 ; finances of, 362 ;
a coinage ordered for, 363 ; a
card currency issued, 363 ; im-
portance of the fur-trade to,
366; the forest-trade, 368 ; filled
with distress and consternation,
371 ; the coureurs de bois, 373 ;
the first ball in, 413; clerical
severity in, 418 ; heresy scoured
out of, 419; never troubled by
witches, 421 ; threatened with
an attack by the English, 424 ;
miracles in, 425 ; education in,
425 ; catches some of the French
corruption, 432 ; extreme pov-
erty of, 434 ; influence of the
troops on, 435 ; lawlessness in,
435-441 ; drunkenness the most
destructive vice in, 444 ; swarms
with beggars, 445; slavery in,
454 ; formation of character in,
461 ; the very portal of the great
interior wilderness, 462 ; com-
pared with New England, 463-
467 ; the Church of Rome
stands out conspicuous in the
history of, 467 ; the English
Conquest a happy calamity to,
468 ; memorial of Dumesnil
concerning the affairs of, 286-
288 ; marriage and population
in, 493-496 ; trade and industry
in, 500-506 ; the government and
the clergy in, 512-519.
" Canada, the River and Gulf of,"
4.
Canadian Church, the, 103; its
influence paramount and pervad-
ing, 120; 159; Laval the father
of, 224 ; liberality of the King
to, 401 ; grows purer in the
presence of Protestantism, 468.
Canadian fisheries, the, see Fish-
eries.
Canadian government, the, 326-
346 ; essentially military, 465.
Canadian noblesse, 315.
Canadian settler, the, 295.
Canadians, the, strength of, 445 ;
views of different writers on,
455.
Capet, Hugh, 229, 304.
Cap Rouge, 56, 59, 301.
Capuchin Friars, tho, at Port
532
INDEX.
Royal, 13 ; supported by Riche-
lieu, 13 ; the missions of, 383.
Capucins, the, 471, 472, 474, 475.
Card currency, in Canada, 363;
loses its value, 364 ; converted
into bills of exchange, 364.
Carheil, Father Etienne, his letter
to Champigny, 379, 506-512;
takes the mission of Saint
Joseph, 380; in despair over
the Jesuit missions, 383 ; his
severe condemnation of tlie
coureurs de hois, 385 ; his sug-
gestions concerning the govern-
ment of Canada, 386.
Carignan, the Prince of, 242.
Carignan-Salieres, the regiment
of, 237, 240, 241 ; history of,
242 ; ordered back to France,
279, 292, 293, 317, 493, 513.
Carillon, 131.
Carion, Lieutenant, attacks on
Lormeau, 437, 438.
Carleton, supposed site of Fort La
Tour at, 39.
Casgrain, Abbe, 300, 357 ; on the
shrine at the Petit Cap, 430.
Casson, Dollier de, 94, 104 ; on the
miracles at Montreal, 111, 112;
on the death of Major Closse,
114; on the year of disaster at
Montreal, 115 ; on the principal
fault of Frenchmen, 130; on
the desertion of Daulac by the
Hurons, 138 ; on Courcelle's
"Blue Coats," 247; great
strength of, 254; sent to St.
Anne, 261 ; description of, 263 ;
at Fort St. Anne, 264 ; on the
policy of Talon, 273; on the
frenzy for marriage in Canada,
288 ; on the advantages of the
Canadian climate for women,
290 ; at Montreal, 438 ; on the
outlaw of Montreal, 439.
Castine, 15.
" Castle," the, 45.
Catalogue, the engineer, 359, 360,
362, 441 ; his memorial, 502-506.
Catholics, the, of France, divided
by two great parties, 153 ; Laval
an object of veneration to, 163.
Oaughnawaga, Jesuit mission at,
382.
Cayenne, 234.
Cayuga Indians, the, 57, 66 ; at
Onondaga, 82 ; the Jesuits
among, 84 ; send an embassy to
Quebec, 245 ; sue for peace, 266 ;
Carheil among, 380.
Celibacy, punishment of, 287.
Censitaire, the, 310, 341, 343.
Certain, Andre, his official report
on La Tour and D'Aunay, 469-
475.
Chalons, Sieur, 356 ; memorial pre-
sented by, on the establishment
of commerce in Canada, 358,
501, 502.
Chambly, the chief proprietor on
the Richelieu, 294.
Chambly, Fort of, 250, 262.
Chambly, Rapids of, 244, 245, 247.
Chambly, town of, 292, 294.
Champagne, Philippe de, 230.
Champigny, the intendant, on the
Canadian nobility, 319, 320; 357,
359, 360; letter from Father
Carheil to, 379, 506-512; 386,
433, 443, 446, 447 ; on Chateau
St. Louis, 497-499 ; his memorial
to the King, 517.
Champlain, Lake, 244, 248, 253,
260, 262.
Champlain, Samuel de, on the
political influence of women
among the Indians, 85 ; his
earnestness in converting the
Indians, 165; builds Chateau
St. Louis, 496.
INDEX.
533
Charbonnier, Marie Magdeleine,
287.
Charlemagne, the Capitularies of,
313.
Charles I., 344.
Charlestown, 45, 52.
Charlevoix, Father, inexact asser-
tion concerning division of
Acadia, 14 ; on the Medicine
Feast, 94 ; on the brandy quarrel,
182 ; on the earthquake at Que-
bec, 184 ; on the copper mines
of Lake Superior, 271 ; on the
early colonists of Canada, 277 ;
in Canada, 432 ; his letter to the
Duchesse de Lesdiguieres, 458.
Charnisay, Charles de Menou
d'Aunay, in Razilly's company,
8 ; succeeds Razilly in com-
mand in Acadia, 9 ; dissen-
sions with La Tour, 9 ; his posi-
tion and qualities compared with
La Tour, 9 ; his reign at Port
Royal, 11 ; returns to France,
11 ; marries Jeanne Molin,
11 ; his life at Port Royal,
11-13 ; on good terms with the
Indians, 12; reduced financial
condition of, 13 ; bitter en-
mity for La Tour, 14; his
feud with La Tour, 14, 15;
attacks the Plymouth trading
station at Penobscot, 15 ; La
Tour plots against, 16; battle
with La Tour, 17; takes La
Tour prisoner, 17; releases
La Tour, 17 ; ordered to seize
La Tour's forts, 18; returns
to France, 18; endeavors to
seize La Tour, 19, 20; La
Tour asks Governor Winthrop
for aid against, 22, 27, 28 ;
La Tour hires allies against,
28, 30 ; flees from La Tour and
his allies, 32; letter from the
Massachusetts magistrates to,
33; ordered by the King to
keep peace with the Puritans,
33 ; makes overtures of friend
ship to the Puritans, 33 ;
joined by the Recollet friars,
38; attacks and captures Fort
St. Jean, 39 ; captures Ma-
dame La Tour, 40; his treat-
ment of his prisoners, 40;
sends envoys to the Puritans,
41 ; their reception in Boston,
41 ; makes a treaty with
D'Aunay, 43, 44; royal favors
to, 46 ; his hopes, 47 ; his
death, 48; tribute to his charac-
ter, 48, 49 ; his children, 52 ; no
trace of his blood left in the
land, 53 ; official report of Andre*
Certain on La Tour and, 469-475.
Charnisay, Madame Charles de
Menou d'Aunay, see Molin,
Jeanne.
Charnisay, Joseph de Menou
d'Aunay, 47.
Charny, son and successor of
Lauson, 86 ; weakness of his
character, 86 ; resigns the
government and becomes a
priest, 88.
Charron, chosen alderman of Que-
bec, 212.
Chartier, Sieur de, appointed at-
torney-general by Mezy, 212.
Chasy, nephew of Tracy, 251 ;
murder of, 252.
Chatelain, Father, at Quebec,
416 ; his episode with Courcelle,
416, 417.
Chatel, Sister, 102.
Chaulmer, on the French colony
among the Onondagas, 75.
Chaumonot, sent among the Onon-
dagas, 69 ; arrival at Onon-
daga, 70; harangues the Indi
534
INDEX.
ans, 71, 82 ; at Onondaga,
79, 80 ; sets out for the Cayugas,
84 ; on the Seneca mission,
94 ; on the Jesuits' belief in tor-
ture, 127 ; on the desertion of
Daulac by the Hurons, 137.
Chaumont, Chevalier de, 238, 254.
Ch€ruel, on Colbert, 233 ; 329,351.
Children, bounties offered on, 289.
Choisy, Abb<? de, 230.
Chomedey, Paul de, see Maison-
neuve, Chomedey de.
CMment, on Colbert, 233, 236;
on the paupers of Paris, 283 ; on
the premium on marriage in
Canada, 287.
Closse, Major, killed by the Iro-
quois, 114.
Colbert, Jean Baptiste, the true
antagonist of Laval, 165; his
opinion of Avaugour, 1 79 ;
Avaugour's memorial to, 1 87 ;
197 ; Dumesnil reports his griev-
ances to, 200; on the mutual
accusations of Laval, Mezy, and
the Jesuits, 217; the intendant
of Mazarin's household, 232;
reforms of, 233; defects in his
policy, 233 ; Talon a true dis-
ciple of, 268; his concern for
the prosperity of Canada, 270;
reluctantly recalls Talon, 275 ;
peoples Canada, 276, 283 ;
places a premium on marriage
in Canada, 286 ; offers a bounty
on children in Canada, 290 ; sat-
isfactory results, 290 ; his letters
to Duchesneau, 339; report on
the brandy question to, 389, 390 ;
orders Courcelle to be kept
within bounds, 397; his letter
to Courcelle, 397 ; on the rela-
tions of Laval and the King,
399 ; plans against the Jesuits,
400; letter from Du Pont con-
cerning Dumesnil to, 484 ; his
correspondence with Talon re-
garding marriage and popula-
tion, 493-496; letter from
Denonville concerning trade
and industry in Canada, 500,
501 ; his letter to Talon on
the government and the clergy
in Canada, 514 ; his instruc-
tions to Bouteroue regarding
the government and the clergy
in Canada, 515; his letters to
Duchesneau, 515, 516 ; letter
from Denonville on Canadian
cures, education, and discipline
in Canada, 520, 523.
Golden, 252.
Colombiere, the vicar-general, pro-
nounces the funeral eulogy of
Laval, 225.
Comet, the, appears above Quebec,
119.
Commerce, in Canada, 358, 501.
Commune, the, 178.
Company of New France, the,
North America given by Louis
XIII. to, 7; Richelieu at the
head of, 7 ; Sir William Alexan-
der jealous of, 7 ; in sole posses-
sion of Acadia, 8 ; Charles de la
Tour made commander at Cape
Sable for, 9 ; grants land to La
Tour on the St. John, 14; 27;
refuses aid to Argenson, 175;
Argenson replaced by Avaugour,
178; shows signs of returning
life, 190; called upon to resign
its claims, 193 ; grants made by,
310.
Company of the Hundred Associ-
ates, the, 305.
Company of the West, the, 234;
monopoly of trade granted to,
235 ; fails to prosper, 236.
Comte's, 314.
INDEX.
535
, 230, 231, 242.
Congregation of the Holy Family,
the, 418, 422, 424,431.
Contrecoeur, town of, 294, 302.
Copper mines of Lake Superior,
the, 271.
Corlaer (Schenectady), Dutch
hamlet of, 249.
C6te, a, 295,341.
Cotton, Rev. John, 28.
Couillard, 239.
Couillard, Madame, 223.
Council of Canada, the, powers of,
329.
Courcelle, Sieur de, see Re'my,
Daniel de.
Courcelles, Seigneur, de, 11.
Coureurs de bois, 321, 368; an ob-
ject of horror to the King, 373 ;
edicts directed against, 373 ; their
return to Montreal, 376 ; build
palisades, 376 ; spoiled for civili-
zation, 377 ; had their uses, 377 ;
their riotous invasions of Michili-
mackinac, 383 ; Father Carheil's
severe condemnation of, 385.
Continue de Paris, the, 313, 330.
Crequy, Due de, ambassador of
France at Rome, 220.
Croatia, 188.
Crolo, Sister, 102.
Cromwell, Captain, 44.
Cromwell, Oliver, 52, 202.
Crown, William, obtains a grant
of Acadia from Cromwell, 53.
Cuillerier, Ren^, 113.
Cures, Canadian, 520.
DABLON, the Jesuit, sent among
the Onondagas, 69; arrival at
Onondaga, 70 ; harangues the
Indians, 70; his journey home,
73 ; at Quebec, 73 ; joins the col-
ony among the Onondagas, 74;
denounces balls in Canada, 413.
D' Amours, see Amours, D9.
Daniel, 123.
Dansmartin, Henry, 475.
Daulac, Adam, early life of, 128 ;
his expedition against the Iro-
quois, 129 ; Chief Aunahotaha
offers to reinforce, 130 ; his en-
counter with the Iroquois at the
Long Saut, 131-139 ; deserted
by Annahotaha, 134 ; death of,
137 ; saved Canada from a dis-
astrous invasion, 138.
D' Aulnay, D'Aulney , see D'Aunay.
D'Aunay, see Charnisay, Charles
de Menou d'Aunay.
Dauphiny, 320.
Dauversiere, see La Dauverstere,
Le Rot/er de.
Demers, 436.
De Monts, grant made by Henry
IV. to, 3.
Denis, Charles, 173, 213.
Denis, M., 171, 483.
Denonville, Mademoiselle, 410.
Denonville, Marchioness, 410.
Denonville, Marquis, the governor,
on the Canadian nobility, 318,
320, 321, 354, 355, 357, 360, 369 ;
on the coureurs de bois, 375 ; his
arrival in Canada, 410; the di-
rections of Bishop Saint- Vallier
to, 410, 420; on the education
of girls in Canada, 431 ; on the
lawlessness in Canada, 441-443 ;
on the strength of the Canadi-
ans, 445 ; asks aid from the
King for the Canadian poor,
446, 450 ; on Chateau St. Louis,
497; his letter to Colbert con-
cerning trade and industry in
Canada, 500, 501 ; his letter to
Colbert on Canadian cures, edu-
cation, and discipline in Canada,
520-523.
Denys, Nicolas, the trader, 6 ; at
536
INDEX.
Fort Lome'ron, 11; his title in
Acadia, 14 ; on the capture of
Fort St Jean by D'Aunay, 40 ;
keeps a feeble hold on his pos-
sessions, 52.
De Quen, see Quen, De.
Des Islets, 275, 307, 314.
Desjardins, La Tour's agent, 16 ;
taken prisoner by D'Aunay, 1 7 ;
released by D'Aunay, 17 ; sends
a ship to La Tour, 19.
Des Touches, Peronne, 192; his
murder, 192.
Detroit, 323 ; post of the coureurs de
bois at, 376; La Mothe-Cadillac
the founder of, 415 ; slavery at,
454.
Diamond, Cape, 75, 238, 346.
Dieppe, 277.
Dollard, see Daulac, Adam.
Dollier, see Casson, Dollier de.
Doutre, 331, 346, 365.
Dream Feast, the, 72.
Dreams, the oracles of the Iro-
quois, 91.
Drunkenness, the most destruc-
tive vice in the colony, 444.
Du Bois, Jean Baptiste, 258.
Dubois, M., 513.
Du Buisson, 308.
Duchesneau, the intendant, on the
Canadian nobility, 318, 319, 337 ;
letters from Colbert to, 339, 400 ;
letters from the King to, 339,
394 ; attempts to apply a stimu-
lus to Canadian trade, 358 ; ap-
peals for help, 359 ; on the cou-
reurs de bois, 374 ; his report on
the brandy question, 389 ; 402,
403, 443 ; on the poverty of
Canada, 447; letters from Col-
bert to, 515, 516.
Dufresne, Jacques, 113.
Du Lhut, 323, 374 ; the leader of
the wireurs de bois, 376.
Dumesnil, Jean Peronne, 190;
his power not recognized, 191 ;
his life threatened, 192, 193;
his statements rejected by the
council, 195 ; his papers seized
by the council, 198 ; designs of
the council against, 199; his
escape, 200 ; returns to France,
200; reports his grievances to
Colbert, 200 ; memorials of,
202 ; 389 ; on the brandy quarrel,
390 ; on the trade of the Jesuits,
394 ; letter of Du Pont to Col-
bert concerning, 484, 485 ; his
memorial concerning affairs in
Canada, 486-488.
Dumont, 1 89 ; journal of, 190.
Dunkin, Mr., 315.
Duplessis, 362, 504.
Du Pont, Gaudais, letter to Col-
bert concerning Dumesnil from,
484 ; 486, 487.
Dupuy, Paul, 344, 435.
Du Puys, Major Zachary, 74 ; at
Onondaga, 79, 89 ; admirable
coolness of, 90.
Du Quet, Pierre, 173.
Durham Terrace, 496, 499.
Dutch, the, 63, 71, 75, 84, 381,
388.
Dutch War, the, outbreak of, 291.
EBOULEMENS, the, 185, 298.
Education, in Canada, 520.
Endicott, Governor John, warns
Governor VVinthrop against La
Tour, 30; La Tour asks aid
from, 32 ; refuses to grant La
Tour's petition, 33; D'Aunay
proposes terms of peace to, 34,
35.
England, claims the North Ameri-
can continent, 3; Sir William
Alexander transfers the French
settlements in Acadia and Can-
INDEX.
537
ada by conquest to, 8 ; restored
by treaty of St. Germain, 8 ;
war breaks out between France
and, 52 ; 121 ; jealousy of Co-
lonial manufactures shown by,
361 ; succeeded in the building
up of colonies, 463.
English, the, attack Fort Lome-
ron, 6; 381, 388; threaten to
attack Canada, 424.
English colonist, the, compared
with the French colonist, 459.
English conquest, the, the grand
crisis of Canadian history, 467.
English gentry, the, 316.
English revolution, the, 164.
Erie Indians, the, at war with the
Iroquois, 57 ; the best hope of
peace for the French lay in the
Iroquois' war with, 67.
Estrades, the Mare'chal d', viceroy
for America, 237.
Evreux, in Normandy, 10.
FAILLON, Abbe*, on Dauversiere
and the Sisterhood of St.
Joseph, 98 ; on the miraculous
cure of Mile. Mance, 100; on
the reticence and dissimulation
practised by the Jesuits and
the Montrealists, 104 ; on the
privations of the nuns at Mont-
real, 106; tribute to, 117; on
the heroism of Daulac, 138 ; on
the struggle for the bishopric of
Canada, 155; on Laval's letter
to the Pope, 159; on Laval's
desire for the title of Bishop of
Quebec, 219 ; on Dollier de Gas-
sou at St. Anne, 264 ; on Tracy's
expedition against the Iroquois,
267 ; on the peopling of Can-
ada, 277, 285 ; on the premium
placed on marriage in Canada,
287, 290 ; on the right of Mont-
real to trade with France, 352 ;
on the ornamental arts in
Canada, 362 ; on Mile. Le Ber,
425 ; on education in Canada,
426; on the influence of the
troops on Canada, 435 ; on the
brawls at Montreal, 439 ; on
the laws controlling innkeepers,
449.
Felicite, Saint, 241.
Ferlaud, Abbe', his admiration of
Laval, 172; 308; on the trade
of the Jesuits, 395 ; 448, 449,
450 ; on the letter from Mezy to
the Jesuits, 490.
" Festins a manger tout," 90, 94.
Fete Dieu, the, 168.
Feudalism, in Europe, 304; in
Canada, 304 ; in France, 304 ;
first planted in Canada by
Richelieu, 305.
Fillion, Sieur, 203.
Finances of Canada, the, not pros-
perous, 362.
Fisheries of Canada, the, 357,
358.
Flavian, Saint, 241.
Flemish Bastard, the, 64, 252,
266.
Florida, 4, 7, 234.
Follin, Sieur, 272.
Fontainebleau, the forest of, 229.
Fontanges, 231.
Forestier, at Fort St. Anne, 264.
Forest-trade, the, 368.
Forster, John Reinold, 458.
Fouquet, the arrest of, 231.
Fowle, Mr., 34.
France, claims the North Ameri-
can continent, 3 ; the French
settlements in Acadia and Can-
ada restored by the treaty of
St. Germain to, 8 ; in sole
possession of Acadia, 8; war
breaks out between England
538
INDEX.
and, 52; drifting toward the
triumph of the parti de'vot, 227 ;
feudalism loses its vitality in,
304 ; past and present stand
side by side throughout, 326 ;
failed in the building up of
colonies, 463.
France, the Church of, 153.
Franche Comte, 414.
Franchetot, Mathurin, captured
by the Iroquois, 56 ; burned by
the Iroquois, 61.
Francis, Saint, 13.
Francis Borgia, Saint, 225.
Francis I., of France, 153, 155,
156.
Francis of Assisi, Saint, 225.
Francis of Sales, Saint, 225, 410.
Franciscans, the, 400.
Fre'min, Father, joins the colony
among the Onondagas, 74; at
Three Rivers, 250 ; ordered
to the Mohawks, 266 ; 394.
Fremont, the cure, 438.
French, the, keep a feeble hold
on Acadia, 4 ; make a lodg-
ment on the rock of Quebec,
7 ; peace concluded with the
Indians at Quebec, 61 ; their
best hope of peace lay in the
Iroquois' war with the Eries,
67 ; Mohawk attacks on, 68 ;
the Mohawks make insolent de-
mands of, 86 ; abandon the
Hurons to their fate, 86; the
principal fault of, 130.
French Celt, the, 465.
French colonist, the, compared
with the English colonist, 459.
French fisheries of Newfoundland,
the, 358.
French noblesse, the, 316.
Fronde, 242.
Frontenac, Count, 197, 281 ; on
the life of Chambly on the
Richelieu, 294 ; on the younger
Charles Le Moyne, 324 ; re-
ports on the coureurs de bois to,
374 ; on the brandy quarrel,
392, 393 ; his patronage of
balls in Canada, 413 ; on the
clerical severity in Canada,
413, 414; 446; on Chateau
St. Louis, 496, 497-499; his
memorial to the King, 517.
Fundy, Bay of, 14, 38.
Fur- trade, the, not held inconsis-
tent with noblesse, 10; disputes
concerning, 52 ; again restored
to Canada after the Iroquois
War, 58 ; rendered worthless
by the Iroquois War, 175; the
Montrealists want to monopolize,
176; at Tadoussac, 365; the
importance of, 366.
GABOURY, Louis, 346.
Galinee, Father, 141.
Gallican Church, the, 153.
Gallican (National) Party, the,
153 ; tenets of, 153 ; outflanked
by the Ultramontanes, 154 ; its
struggle against the Ultramon-
tanes, 155.
Gannentaa, meaning of the word,
83.
Ganong, W. F., on the supposed
site of Fort La Tour, 39.
Ganuntaah, meaning of the word,
83.
Garacontie, the famous chief, 245.
Garde de la Marine, the, 321.
Garneau, the Canadian, 224; on
the emigration to Canada, 277.
Garnier, Julien, at the Seneca mis-
sions, 880.
Garonne River, the, 409.
Garreau, the Jesuit, murdered by
the Mohawks, 85.
Gaspe', 187.
INDEX.
539
Gaudais-Dupont, 194, 195, 198, 199,
200, 201, 203, 215, 218.
General Court oi Massachusetts,
the, 43 ; severe law against the
sale of liquor to the Indians
passed by, 391.
General Hospital of Paris, the, 446.
General Hospital of Quebec, the,
founded by Saint- Vallier, 446.
Gentilhomme, the, 316.
Gentry, English, 316.
George, Lake, 248, 253.
Germanic race, the, 465.
Gibbons, Capt. Edward, 21, 25;
joins La Tour against D'Aunay,
28, 29, 32 , returns to Boston,
32; entertains D'Aunay's en-
roys, 42, 43.
Gibbons, Mrs. Edward, 21, 22, 25.
Giffard, the physician, 291, 299,
307.
Giffard, Robert, 195.
Gloria, Jean, 203.
Code', Nicolas, 110.
Godefroy (son), death of, 119.
Good Hope, Cape of, 234.
Gookin, Daniel, 248.
Government House, the, at Que-
bec, 308.
Governor-General of Canada, the,
powers of, 327; his relations
with the intendant, 328.
" Governor's Garden," the, 21.
Grafton, sent to Fort St. Jean with
provisions, 38; captured by
D'Aunay, 38,41.
Grande Baye, La, 15.
Grandet, 255, 263, 264, 265.
Grand voyer, the, in Canada, 340.
Great Britain, the King of, 308.
Great Lakes, the, 323, 462.
Great Seminary, the, at Quebec,
220; founded by Laval, 220;
Laval's arrangement for the
support of, 223.
Greenland, 466.
Guercheville, Madame de, grant
made by Louis XIII. to, 4.
Guiche, the Count de, 230.
Guienne, the admiralty court of,
16.
Guimont, Louis, 429.
Guion, Jean, 307.
Gynecocracy, among the Indians,
85.
HABITANT, the, 315, 333, 360, 431,
466.
Harlay, Archbishop of Rouen,
283.
Harvard College, 425.
Hawkins, Thomas, joins La Tour
against D'Aunay, 28, 29, 32;
returns to Boston, 32.
Hazard, 7.
Hazeur, 356 ; memorial of, 357.
Henriette of England, 230.
Henry IV., of France, grant made
to De Monts by, 3.
"Hermitage," the, 145; account
of, 146; the zealots at, 147;
204, 205, 207, 228, 476-481.
Hertel, Francois, his letter to Le
Moyne, 121, 122; captured by
the Mohawks, 122 ; his letter to
his mother, 123 ; adventures of,
123; death of, 123; letters of
nobility of, 123; estimates of,
124.
Hocquart, the intendant, his view
of the Canadians, 455.
Holland, 121, 237.
Holy Family, the, attempt to found
a religious colony at Montreal
in honor of, 98.
Holy See, the, 160.
Holy Wars of Montreal, the, 96-
117.
Horn, Cape, 466.
H6tel Dieu of Montreal, tne, 302,
540
INDEX.
Hotel Dieu of Quebec, the, 104,
125; Talon's portrait at, 268,
300; the nuns of, 362 ; 401, 421,
422.
Houssart, 162.
Hubbard, 15, 19, 32.
Hudson's Bay, 234, 236, 365.
Hudson River, the, Dutch heretics
at the mouth of, 15 ; settlements
of, 119; 248.
Huguenots, the, 204, 240, 354, 420,
421.
Huissier, the, in Canada, 331.
Hundred Associates, the, 305.
Hunt, Prof. Sterry, on the evi-
dences of the earthquake at
Quebec, 185.
Huron Colony, the, coveted by the
Iroquois, the Mohawks, and the
Onondagas, 62.
Huron Indians, the, destruction of,
58; Iroquois plans to destroy,
62 ; turn to the Jesuits for aid,
62 ; attack of the Mohawks on,
76 ; abandoned to their fate by
the French, 86 ; joined by Father
Ragueneau, 86; slaughtered by
the Onondagas, 87 ; take refuge
in Quebec, 125; at the Long
Saut, 134; desert Daulac, 134,
137, 138.
Huron mission, the, 63.
Hutchinson, Mrs., preaching of,
25.
IBERVILLE, Le Moyne d', 323.
Ignace, Father, the Superior of the
Capucins, at Port Royal, 12;
tribute to D'Aunay, 48.
Incarnation, Marie de T, on the
Mohawk Iroquois attack on Du
Plessis Bochart, 55 ; on the cap-
ture of Father Le Moyne by the
Mohawks, 68; on the French
colony among the Onondagas,
75 ; on the Mohawks' attack on
the Hurons, 76 ; on the politi-
cal influence of women among
the Iroquois, 84 ; on the Medi-
cine Feast, 92 ; on the Onon-
daga mission, 94; on the ap-
pearance of the comet above
Quebec, 119; on the threatened
attack of the Iroquois, 125; on
the desertion of Daulac by the
Hurons, 137; her eulogy on
Laval, 161 ; on the earthquake
at Quebec, 184, 185, 186, 187;
on the appointment of the Mar-
quis de Tracy as lieutenant-
general of America, 238, 241;
on the Holy War in Canada,
243; her letters home, 244;
252; on Tracy's expedition
against the Mohawks, 254, 256 ;
on Tracy's success, 257 ; 261 ;
on Talon's zeal for the success
of the colony, 272 ; on the peo-
pling of Canada, 277 ; on the
emigration to Canada, 278, 280;
on the " King's gift," 286 ; on
the premium on marriage in
Canada, 287 ; her estimate of
the officers on the Richelieu,
294; at the Ursuline Convent
in Quebec, 300 ; on the Canadian
settler, 303 ; on witches in
Canada, 421 ; on the education
of girls in Canada, 431 ; on the
influence of the troops on Can-
ada, 435.
Indians, the, grand council held at
Quebec, 57 ; conclude treaty
with the French, 61 ; celebra-
tion of the Dream Feast, 72;
political influence of women
among, 84 ; their fur-trade
with the French, 367 ; forest-
trade with, 368; severe law
passed by the General Court of
INDEX.
541
Massachusetts against the sale
of liquor to, 391.
Indian women, the, reproductive
qualities of, 289.
Infant Jesus, the chapel of the, at
Montreal, 302.
Innocent XI,, Pope, 153, 154, 156,
158, 159, 220.
Intendant of Canada, the powers
of, 326 ; his relations with the
Governor-General, 328 ; the rul-
ing power in the colony, 337.
" Ipswich Letter/' the, 30 ; Gov-
ernor Winthrop's reply to, 31 ;
great effect of, 31.
" Ironsides," Cromwell's invinci-
ble, 466.
Iroquois Indians, the, attack the
French at Montreal, 55 ; cap-
ture Father Poncet, 56 ; at war
with the Eries, 57 ; make peace
with the French, 57; the five
"nations" of, 57; grant life to
Father Poncet, 59 ; native fickle-
ness of, 62 ; plans to destroy the
Hurons, 62 ; their friendly re-
ception to Father Le Moyne,
66; desire peace with Canada,
66 ; the capital of, 81 ; dissimu-
lation of, 81 ; political influence
of women among, 84 ; dealings
of Ailleboust with, 88 ; dreams
the oracles of, 91 ; their attacks
on Montreal, 109-116; the
French ma fee a truce with, 110;
kill Le Maitre and Vignal, 111,
112 ; their threatened attack on
the French, 125; captured by
the French, 127 ; Daulac's ex-
pedition against, 129; their
encounter with Daulac at the
Long Saut, 131-139 ; 244 ; sue
for peace, 265 ; the hopes of the
Jesuits for, 380.
Iroquois missions, the, 38S.
Iroquois War, the, 54-57 ; Canada
writhes under the scourge of,
118; at its height, 120; renders
the fur-trade worthless, 175.
Isle a la Pierre, 112.
Isle aux Oies, 68, 435.
Isle La Motte, 260.
JACOBIN convent, the, 205.
Jacobin monks, the, 205.
Jacquelin, Marie, marries Charles
de la Tour, 1 7 ; proves a valu-
able ally to La Tour, 17 ;
taken prisoner by 'D'Aunay, 17 ;
released by D'Aunay, 17; sails
for Boston, 20 ; in Boston, 28 ;
returns to France, 36 ; forbidden
to leave France, 36 ; escapes to
England and sails to America,
36 ; arrives in Boston, 36 ; re-
joins La Tour, 37 ; captured by
D'Aunay, 40; her death, 40;
470.
James I. of England, grant made
to Sir William Alexander by, 4.
Jamin, Captain, 17.
Jansenism, 148, 157, 205.
Jansenists, the, their struggle with
the Jesuits, 146 ; 420, 4-76, 479,
480.
Javille, 475.
Jemsec, supposed site of Fort La
Tour at, 39.
Jerome, Saint, 411.
Jesuit College, the, at Quebec, 301,
Jesuit missions, the, 380 ; import-
ance of, 381 ; extremities of,
383 ; the splendid self-devotion
of, 409.
Jesuits, the, grant made by Louis
XIII. to, 4; the Hurons apply
for aid to, 62 ; invited by the
Onondagas to plant a colony
among them, 63 ; send Father
Le Moyne among the Onon-
542
INDEX.
dagas, 64; at Onondaga, 70,
80 ; decide to establish a colony
among the Onondagas, 74 ;
Governor Lauson makes a grant
of land to, 74; fearful task
essayed by, 84 ; among the
Cayugas, the Senecas, and the
Oneidas, 84 ; frightful position
of, 89 ; admirable coolness of,
90; the Medicine Feast, 91;
escape from the Indians, 93 ;
arrival at Quebec, 94 ; jealousy
for the Sulpitians at Montreal,
103 ; reticence and dissimulation
practised by, 104; in despair,
119 ; torture considered a bless-
ing in disguise by, 124 ; their
struggle to obtain the bishopric
of Canada, 142-145; animosity
of Father Queylus to, 143, 144;
conflict with the Jansenists,
1 46 ; the most forcible expo-
nents of ultramontane princi-
ples, 153 ; their struggle against
the Sulpitians, 155 ; triumph
over the Sulpitians, 160 ; adepts
m human nature, 164; their
sagacity in choosing Laval to
be Bishop of Canada, 164;
Avaugour desires to be on good
terms with, 179; M£zy appeals •
to, 209 ; accusations against |
Mezy, 214; M£zy's charges
against, 217 ; their ideas in re- '
gard to the relations of the i
Church and State, 226 ; victory
over the Iroquois, 265-267 ; be- |
gin their ruined missions anew, j
380; their hopes of converting
the Iroquois, 380 ; always in the i
van of religious and political j
propagandism, 383 ; La Mothe's
hatred for, 385 ; denounce the !
brandy traffic, 388 ; enter on the
work of reform, 389 ; trade of, j
393-395 ; forbidden by the King
to carry on trade, 394 ; the re-
call of Mezy a defeat in dis-
guise for, 396 ; Courcelle's op-
position to, 397 ; Talon ordered
to watch, 397 ; Colbert plans
against, 400; rigorous at Que-
bec, 416; derive great power
from the confessional, 417;
form the Congregation of the
Holy Family, 418 ; reluctant to
share their power with the
Recollets, 418; the ablest
teachers in Canada, 425 ; letter
from Mezy to, 490-492 ; 517.
" Jesuits' Well," the, 79.
Jesus, the Company of, 69, 512.
Jesus, the Island of, 224, 403.
Jesus, the Order of, see Order oj
Jesus.
Joachim, Saint, 429.
Jogues, Father Isaac, 257.
Joliet, Louis, 356.
Joseph, Brother, 394.
Joseph, Saint, the labors of Mile.
Mance in honor of, 98 ; hos-
pital at Montreal in honor of,
101.
Josselyn, on the earthquake at
Quebec, 187.
Jouaneaux, at Montreal, 107 } de-
votes himself to the service of
the Sisters, 107.
Juchereau, see Saint-Ignace> Fran-
ces Juchereau de.
Judge, the, in Canada, 332.
Jumeau, Sister, at Montreal, 107.
KALM, the Swedish botanist, 456 ;
his view of the Canadians, 456,
Kamouraska, 406, 428.
" King's gift," the, 28G.
« King's girls," the, 285.
" Kirke," the, 5.
Kirke, the brothers, Sir William
INDEX.
543
Alexander fits out a private ex
pedition under, 7 ; success of
the expedition, 7.
Kirke, Sir David, gives assistance
to La Tour, 45.
LABADIE, Sergeant, 301.
La Barre, Governor, 419, 440, 441,
443, 496.
La Bouteillerie, 406.
La Chaise, Pere, 391 ; his corre-
spondence with Laval, 404.
Lachenaye, 178.
La Ohesnaye, Charles Aubert de,
memorial of, 275 ; on the brandy
quarrel, 390, 391 ; 448.
La Chine, 65, 287, 302.
La Chine Rapids, the, 302.
La Citiere, vast domain of, 310.
La Combe, 406.
La Dauversiere, Le Royer de,
founder of the sisterhood of St.
Joseph, 97 ; appropriates for
himself the money of the sister-
hood, 98, 102; portrait of, 98;
visited by Mile. Mance, 100; a
wretched fanatic, 100 ; agent of
the Association of Montreal,
101 ; death of, 102.
Ladies, the, in Canada, 457.
La Durantaye, 263, 323 ; at Mich-
ilimackinac, 385.
La Fayette, Madame de, 230.
La Ferte, Juchereau de, appointed
councillor at Quebec, 195, 196;
213.
Lafitau, on the political influence
of women among the Iroquois,
84 ; on the resemblance between
the Iroquois and the ancient
Lyciansi 85 ; 432.
La Fleche, town of, 100, 101, 102.
La Fleche Nuns, the, 102; in
Canada, 104; extreme poverty
of, 105.
Lafontaine, Judge, 315.
Lafontaine, Sir L. H., 309.
La Frediere, Major, sent to garri-
son Montreal, 435 ; his tyranny,
436 ; accusations against, 437 ;
ordered home to France, 437.
La Galisonniere, Marquis de, 432.
La Hontan, 281, 282, 285, 332, 334,
347, 354, 369 ; complains of the
clerical severity in Canada, 414,
415 ; 420, 447 ; his view of the
Canadians, 455.
Lalemant, Charles, 226.
Lalemant, Father Jerome, 166,
167, 171, 172, 179, 181, 182, 183,
184, 211, 213, 387 ; on the trade
of the Jesuits, 393 ; 483, 484.
La Luciere, La Motte de, 263, 265,
279, 288, 493.
Lamberville, among the Onon-
dagas, 380.
Lamoignon, President of the Com-
pany of New France, 178.
La Mothe-Cadillac, 323 ; at Mich-
ilimackinac, 385 ; his hatred
for the Jesuits, 385 ; on the re-
lations of Laval and the King,
399; the founder of Detroit,
415 ; on the clerical severity in
Canada, 415, 416, 518, 519.
La Motte, see La Luciere, La
Motte de.
La Mouche, Chief, 134.
Langlois, Noel, 318.
La Peltrie, Madame de, 145.
La Potherie, 252, 334, 347 ; on the
women of Quebec, 453.
Lareau, 331, 346, 365.
La Salle, 274, 302, 323; on the
brandy quarrel, 390; on the
trade of the Jesuits, 394 ; on
Father Bardy's sermon against
the governor, 399 ; on the power
derived by the Jesuits from the
confessional, 417.
544
INDEX.
La Tesserae, appointed councillor
at Quebec, 213.
La Tour, Abbe, 146, 152, 155, 181,
184, 193, 214, 218, 221, 228, 241,
278, 296, 334, 361, 430, 448.
La Tour, Charles Saint-Etienne
de, brought to Acadia, 5 ; be-
comes attached to the service of
Biencourt, 5 ; Biencourt be-
queaths his property to, 5 ; be-
comes owner of Fort Lomeron
and its dependencies, 5 ; appeals
to the King for a commission to
command in Acadia, 5 ; attacked
by Sir William Alexander, 5 ;
made a baronet of Nova Scotia,
7 ; receives grants of land near
Cape Sable and on the St. John
River, 7 ; builds a fort on the
St. John River, 7; his English
titles to lands at Cape Sable
become worthless, 9 ; returns to
Paris, 9 ; extensive grants of
lands made to, 9 ; made lieuten-
ant-general in Fort Lomeron
and commander at Cape Sable,
9 ; dissensions with D'Aunay,
9 ; his position and qualities
compared with D'Aunay, 9 ; his
little kingdom at Cape Sable,
10; the true surname of his
family, 10; bitter enmity for
D'Aunay, 14 ; receives a land
grant on the St. John, 14 ; re-
moves from Cape Sable to Fort
St. Jean, 14 ; his feud with
D'Aunay, 14, 15 ; attacks the
Plymouth trading-house at Ma-
tthias, 15; refuses to aid
D'Aunay against Penobscot,
16 ; plots against D'Aunay, 16;
marries Marie Jacquelin, 1 7 ;
she proves a valuable ally to, 17 ;
captures some of D'Aunay's sol-
diers, 1 7 ; battle with D'Aunay,
17; taken prisoner by D'Aunay,
17; released by D'Aunay, 17;
his commission revoked, 18 ;
refuses to obey the King's com-
mand, 18; in open revolt, 19 ;
sails for Boston, 20 ; arrives
in Boston, 21 ; asks Governor
Winthrop for aid against
D'Aunay, 22 ; among the Puri-
tans, 25 ; attends training-day
in Boston, 26; allowed by
Governor Winthrop to hire
allies against D'Aunay, 28 ;
sails with his allies from Boston,
32; D'Aunay flees before, 32;
asks aid from Governor Eudi-
cott, 32 ; his petition not granted,
33 ; rejoined by his wife, 37 ;
D'Aunay captures Fort St.
Jean, 39 ; his wife captured,
and her death, 40 ; entertained
by Samuel Maverick, 45 ; re-
ceives assistance from Sir David
Kirke, 45 ; treachery of, 45 ;
death of D'Aunay, 48 ; suddenly
appears as the favorite of roy-
alty, 49; his fruitful visit to
France, 50; return to Acadia,
50 ; marries Madame d'Aunay,
51 ; his share of Acadia, 52 ;
obtains a grant of Acadia from
Cromwell, 53 ; sells his share to
Temple, 53 ; his death, 53 ; his
descendants, 53 ; official report
of Andre Certain on D'Aunay
and, 469-475.
La Tour, Madame Charles de, see
Jacquelin, Marie.
La Tour, Claude de, 5 ; captured
by the privateer " Kirke," 5 ;
his marriage, 5 ; renounces his
French allegiance, 6 ; made a
baronet of Nova Scotia, 6 ; sent
to Cape Sable, 6 ; early history
of, 10.
INDEX.
545
La Tour, Fort, supposed site of,
39 ; see also Lomfron, Fort.
Laubia, Captain, 301.
Laurent, Jean, 475.
Lauson, Governor, Jean de, re-
ceives the Onondaga deputation,
69 ; favors the establishment of
the Onondaga colony, 74 ; makes
a grant of land to the Jesuits,
74 ; not matched to the desper-
ate crisis of the hour, 77; 116,
196, 310, 352,448.
Lauson, son of the governor, the
seneschal of New France, 119;
death of, 119.
Lauzon> Cote de, census of, 299.
Laval- Mo ntmorency, Fran9ois
Xavier de, bishop at Quebec,
102 ; allied to the Jesuits, 102 ;
looks on the colonists of Mont-
real with more than coldness,
102 ; maxims of, 141 ; appointed
Bishop of Canada, 145 ; sketch
of, 145 ; eulogy on, 151 ; bound-
less zeal of, 152; of one mind
with the Jesuits, 154; sails for
Canada, 154 ; Queylus puts him-
self in opposition to, 155; his
dislike of divided authority, 155 ;
not a man of half measures,
156; Queylus in conflict with,
158 ; his letter to the Pope, 159 ;
reconciliation with Queylus,
160; his triumph complete, 160;
an object of veneration to Cath-
olics, 161 ; eulogies on, 161 ; his
austerity of life, 162; sanctity
of, 162 ; portraits of, 163 ; char-
acteristics of, 163; Colbert the
true antagonist of, 165 ; quarrels
with Argenson, 166, 167, 168,
170, 171 ; Ferland's admiration
for, 172; urges the removal of
Argenson, 178; the brandy
quarrel, 181 ; sails for France,
86
182; urges the removal of
Avaugour, 182 ; his triumph,
193 ; constructs a new council,
194; his selection of Mezy as
governor, 206 ; signs of storm,
207 ; Mezy in opposition to,
209, 213 ; accusations against
Mezy, 214 ; Mezy recalled, 215 ;
his threefold strength at court,
215; the death of Mezy, 216;
Mezy's charges against, 217 ;
his desire to obtain the title of
Bishop of Quebec, 219; obtains
his desires, 220 ; proposes to
establish a seminary at Quebec,
220 ; his idea of the parish priest,
221 ; his arrangement for the
support of the seminary, 222;
acquires vast grants of land in
Canada, 224 ; the father of the
Canadian Church, 224 ; tribute
to, 224 ; his funeral eulogy, 225 ;
stories of his asceticism, 225;
his ideas in regard to the rela-
tion of Church and State, 226;
cared for nothing outside the
Church, 228 ; receives the Mar-
quis de Tracy, 239 ; on the
peopling of Canada, 277; his
seigniory of Beaupre*, 298 ; his
opposition to the brandy traffic,
389 ; the King distrusts, 392 ;
his relations with the King,
399; returns to France, 403;
asks to have a successor ap-
pointed, 403 ; forbidden to return
to Canada, 404 ; his correspond-
ence with Pere La Chaise, 404;
his invectives against the luxury
and vanity of women, 412; de-
nounces balls in Canada, 413;
encourages education in Canada,
426 ; his industrial school, 430 ,
letters between D'Argenson
(brother of the governor) and,
546
INDEX.
481-484; 486; order received
from Mezy, 488 ; his reply, 490 ;
517, 518, 520.
Laval's Seminary, at Quebec, 450 ;
the burning of, 450.
La Valterie, Lieutenant, 301.
Laval University, of Quebec, 161,
223.
Lavater, 268.
La Ve'rendrye, Varennes de, 289,
323.
Lavigne, 112 ; nocturnal adventure
of, 114.
Le Ber, the merchant, 107.
Le Ber, Jacques, 317.
Le Ber, Jeanne, 362; the vener-
ated recluse of Montreal, 421 ;
sketch of, 422-425.
Le Ber, Pierre, 362.
Le Borgne, unscrupulous plans
agaiust Madame d'Aunay, 50,
51 ; gets a lion's share of Aca-
dia, 52.
Leclerc, 475.
Le Clerc, 276 ; on the early colo-
nists of Canada, 278.
Le Jeune, Father, on the Mo-
hawks' attack on the Hurons,
76; on the Iroquois attacks on
Montreal, 115; asked by Anne
of Austria to select a bishop for
Canada, 144 ; sagacious choice
of, 145.
Le Maitre, the priest, 96; killed
by the Iroquois, 111.
Le Mercier, Father, on the French
victory over the Iroquois at
Montreal, 55 ; on the close of
the Iroquois War, 58 ; on the
sale of beaver-skins in Canada,
58 ; on the departure of Father
Le Moyne to the Onondagas,
64 ; joins the colony among the
Onondagas, 74 ; falls ill, 78 ; at
Onondaga, 79, 80; on Chaumo-
not's power among the Indians
83 ; 241 ; on Courcelle's desire
for war, 246; on Talon's at-
tempt to establish trade between
Canada and the West Indies,
272 ; his punishment of the
brandy traffic, 389; private
journal of, 393; 417.
Le Moyne, Charles, 129, 245; at
the head of the "Blue Coats"
of Montreal, 254 ; a man of
sterling qualities, 324.
Le Moyne, Charles (the younger),
324 ; his fort, 324 ; 437, 438.
Le Moyne, Father Simon, sect
among the Onondagas, 64 ; his
journey, 64 ; reception by the
Iroquois, 65 ; his haraugue, 66,
67 ; discovers the famous salt-
springs of Onondaga, 68 ; re-
turns to Quebec, 68 ; captured
by the Mohawks, but released,
68 ; among the Mohawks, 69 ;
returns to Montreal, 69 ; goes
again among the Mohawks, 88 ;
letter from Hertel to, 122.
Le Noir, Fra^ois, 287.
Leroles, cousin of Tracy, 251.
Lesdiguieres, Duchesse de, letter
from Charlevoix to, 458.
Lesser Seminary, the, at Quebec,
223.
Lestang, 19.
Levi, Point, 126, 238, 451.
Levite, 215.
Lome'ron, Fort, Biencourt at, 5;
Charles de la Tour becomes the
owner of, 5; attacked by Sir
William Alexander, 5, 6 ;
Charles de la Tour made lieu-
tenant-general in, 9; his life at, 1 1 .
Long Lake, 249.
Long Saut Rapids, the, 131 ; en-
counter of Daulac with the Iro-
quois at, 131-139.
INDEX.
547
Longueuil,the seigniory of, 302,307.
Longueuil, Baron de, see Le
Moyne, Charles (the younger).
Lorette, the mission of, 382.
Lormeau, Ensign, Carion's attack
on, 437, 438.
Lorraine, the regiment of, 243.
Lotbiniere, the seigniory of, 302.
Louis, Father, 205, 206.
Louis, M., goes to Boston as
D'Aunay's envoy, 41 ; completes
treaty with the Puritans, 44;
returns to D'Aunay, 45.
Louis XIII., of France, grant
made to Madame de Guerche-
ville and the Jesuits by, 4 ; La
Tour begs a commission to
command in Acadia from, 5,
7 ; gives North America to the
Company of New France, 7 ;
revokes La Tour's commission,
18; orders D'Aunay to keep
peace with the Puritans, 33.
Louis XIV., of France, pleased
with D'Aunay's capture of Fort
St. Jean, 46 ; grants royal favors
to D'Aunay, 46 ; reverses the
decree against La Tour, 49 ; re-
flections on the colonial adminis-
tration of, 50 ; favors Laval's
wishes for the bishopric of Que-
bec, 220 ; his sun rising in
splendor. 230 ; fortune strangely
bountiful to, 230; formed by
nature to act the part of a king,
231; the embodiment of the
monarchical idea, 232; has the
prosperity of Canada at heart,
236 ; resolved that a new France
should be added to the old, 239 ;
peoples Canada, 276 ; alarmed
by Talon's demands for more
men, 278 ; offers a bounty on
children, 289 ; the Father of
New France, 291 ; his zeal
spasmodic, 291 ; the triumph
of royalty culminates in, 305;
preserves feudalism in Canada,
305; the dispenser of charity
for all Canada, 321 ; alone
supreme in Canada, 329 ; on
justice in Canada, 333 ; letter
to Dnchesneau, 339 ; ever
haunted with the fear of the
Devil, 344; his edict against
swearing, 344; the excess of
his benevolence, 347 ; death of,
348; Saint-Simon's portrait of,
350 ; influence of Madame de
Maiutenon on, 350 ; retains ex-
clusive right of the fur-trade
at Tadoussac, 365 ; the coureurs
de bois an object of horror to,
373 ; appeal made in the brandy
quarrel to, 390 ; never at heart
a prohibitionist, 391 ; distrusts
Laval, 392 ; his attitude on the
brandy quarrel, 392 ; forbids the
Jesuits from carrying on trade,
394 ; his relations with Laval,
399 ; his liberality to the Cana-
dian Church, 401 ; on education
in Canada, 426 ; contributes to
the relief of the Canadian poor,
446; his instructions to Talon
regarding the government and
the clergy in Canada, 515.
Louisburg, the capture of, 467.
Louvigni, Bernieres de, royal
treasurer at Caen, 145, 151 ;
sketch of, 145-147; 204, 206;
laudatory notice of, 206 ; the
maxims of, 228 , 476, 477, 479.
Louvre, the, library of, 178.
Loyola, Ignatius de, sage policy
of, 144; followers of, 416.
Lussaudicre, the seigniory of, 302,
Lycians, the, ancient resemblance
of the Iroquois to, 85.
Lyons, 280.
548
INDEX.
MACE, Sister, 101 ; at Montreal,
107, 109.
Machias, Plymouth trading-houses
at, 15 ; attacked by La Tour,
15.
Madeleine, Cape, 393.
Madry, chosen alderman of Que-
bec, 212.
Magdelaine, Cape, 512.
Maillet, Sister, 97, 101, 109.
Maine, State of, 8, 323, 383.
Maintenon, Madame de, 227, 350 ;
influence on Louis XIV., 350,
420.
Maisonneuve, Chomedey de, gov-
ernor of Montreal, 106 ; forms
a military fraternity at Mont-
real, 116 ; proclamation of, 116 ;
128, 130, 131, 175 ; removed by
Mezy, 207 ; removed by Tracy,
328 ; his death in obscurity,
328.
Mai Bay, 298, 356.
Malta, Knights of, 165.
Mance, Jeanne, returns to Canada,
97; her labors in honor of St.
Joseph, 98 ; her hospital work
at Montreal, 98 ; loses the use
of her arm, 99 ; returns to
France, 99 ; her miraculous cure,
99 ; her visit to Mme. de Bul-
lion, 100; her visit to Dau-
versiere, 100 ; gains recruits in
La Fleche, 102; attacked by
fever, 103 ; returns to Montreal,
103 ; description of her hospital,
105.
Mans, 17.
Manufactures, at Canada, 361.
Margry, 432, 456; on La Tour
and D'Aunay, 469-475.
Marie, M., visits the Puritans, 34 ;
his reception by the magistrates,
34 ; his terms of peace from
D'Aunay, 34 : his return to
Port Royal, 35 ; returns to
Boston as D'Aunay 's envoy, 41,
44 ; completes treaty with the
Puritans, 44 ; returns to D'Au-
nay, 45.
Marie, Sieur, 471, 473.
Marie The'rese, 230.
Marine and Colonies, the Archives
of the, 349, 391.
Marot, Bernard, 475.
Marquette, Father, his old mis-
sion at Michilimackinac, 383.
Marriage in Canada, bounty on,
286.
Martin, Henri, on Colbert, 233.
Martyrs, the mission of the, 380 ;
Bruyas at, 380.
Massachusetts, Bay of, 15.
Massachusetts, State of, figures as
an independent state, 35.
Massachusetts magistrates, the,
grant aid to La Tour against
D'Aunay, 28; letter to D'Au-
nay, 33; refuse to grant La
Tour's second petition, 33 ; re-
ception of M. Marie, 34; his
terms of peace from D'Aunay,
34.
Maverick, Samuel, La Tour en-
tertained by, 45.
Mazarin, Cardinal, 142, 154 : death
of, 231.
Mazarin library at Paris, the, 265,
Maze', Peronne de, secretary to
Avaugour, 192; appointed coun-
cillor at Quebec, 213.
Medicine Feast, the, 90-92.
MtSnard, joins the colony among
the Onondagas, 74 ; sets out for
the Cayugas, 84.
Menou, Comte Jules de, 9, 10, 16,
17,19, 20,27, 50, 51.
Menou, Rene' de (father of D'Au-
nay), 18, 50.
Mesnu, Peuvret de, appointed
INDEX.
549
secretary of the council at Que-
bec, 195.
Meules, the intendant, 275, 278,
318, 322, 333, 334, 335,336, 337,
338, 342, 343, 358, 360; issues
a card currency, 363 ; 403, 447,
496.
Mexico, the viceroy of, 44.
Mezy, Saffray de, appointed gov-
ernor of Quebec, 1 94 ; youth
of, 204 ; a military zealot, 205 ;
merits of, 206 ; removes Maison-
neuve, 207 ; signs of storm,
207 ; removes Bourdon, Villeray,
and Auteuil from the council,
208; his appeal to the Jesuits,
209 ; appoints Chartier attorney-
general, 212 ; banishes Bourdon
and Villeray to France, 214;
accusations of Laval and the
Jesuits against, 214 ; receives
a peremptory recall, 215; his
defeat, 215; his death, 216 ; his
letter to Marquis de Tracy, 216 ;
his will, 216; his charges
against Laval and the Jesuits,
217; on the right of Montreal
to trade with France, 352 ; his
recall a defeat in disguise for
the Jesuits, 396 ; 486 ; his order
to Laval, 488; Laval's reply,
490; his letter to the Jesuits,
490-492.
Michael, Saint, 247.
Michilimackinac, the chief resort
of the coureurs de bois, 377, 379 ;
Father Marquette's old mission
at, 383; abuses at, 383-385;
difficulties in transferring trade
to Montreal from, 386; Jesuit
beaver-skins at, 383.
Micmac Indians, the, at Cape Sa-
ble, 11; at Port Royal, 12 ;
give assistance to La Tour's
outcasts, 46.
Milet, among the Oneidas, 380.
Milton, the Blue Hill in, 23.
Missions, the Jesuit, 380.
Mississippi River, the, 323, 356,
383.
Mississippi Valley, the, posts of the
coureurs de bois in, 376.
Mituvemeg, Chief, 130.
Mohawk Iroquois Indians, the, 55 ;
defeat and kill Du Plessis Bo-
chart, 55; Three Rivers beset
by, 56 ; make overtures of peace,
57 ; 59 ; covet the Huron
colony, 62 ; pretended indigna-
tion with the Jesuits, 64 ; cap-
ture Father Le Moyne, 68 ; at-
tacks on the French, 68; take
no part in the Erie War, 68;
attack on Montreal, 68 ; Father
Le Moyne among, 69 ; their, op-
position to the French colony
among the Onondagas, 75 ; at-
tack on the Hurons, 76; at
Onondaga, 81 ; murder the
Jesuit Garreau, 85 ; make inso-
lent demands of the French, 86;
Father Le Moyne again goes
among, 88 ; capture Hertel, 122 ;
138; 244; the French plan to
chastise, 245 ; Courcelle's march
against, 246; his failure, 249;
sue for peace, 251 ; their treach-
ery, 251 ; Sorel sent against,
251 ; Tracy sets out against, 253 ;
the French victorious against,
257 ; sue for peace, 266 Fremin
and Pierron ordered to, 266;
Bruyas among, 380.
Mohawk town, the lower, 60.
Mohawk towns, the, 248; Tracy
attacks, 255 ; captured by the
French, 257.
Mohegan Indians, the, 124.
Molin (Motin), Jeanne, marries
D'Aunay, 11, 16; death of her
550
INDEX.
husband, 48; in need of help,
50 ; oppressed by Le Borgne,
50, 51 ; applies to the Due de
Vendome, 51 ; marries La Tour,
51 ; her children, 52.
Montagnais Indians, the, 298.
Montespan, Madame de, 231.
Montiguy, Abbe de, see Laval-
Montmorency, Francois Xavier
de.
Montmagny, Governor, 165, 393.
Montmorenci, the cataract of, 299.
Montmoreiicy, Anne de, Constable
of France, 145.
Montreal, site of, 4; attacked by
the Iroquois, 54 ; the Onondaga
Indians at, 56 ; attacked by the
Mohawks, 68 ; holy wars of,
96-117; school for female chil-
dren at, 97 ; attempt to found a
religious- colony in honor of the
Holy Family at, 98 ; blood and
blows rife at, 98 ; a government
within a goverument, 103 ; pop-
ulation of, 105; attacks of the
Iroquois on, 109 ; character of
its tenants, 110; miracles at,
110-112; a year of disaster at,
115 ; Maisonneuve forms a mili-
tary fraternity at, 116; 118; in
danger from the Iroquois, 125,
133, 139; Father Souart left
in spiritual charge of, 142 ; its
struggle against Quebec, 155 ;
the virtual independence of,
175; ariff of prices at, 270;
young women shipped to, 285 ;
the great mill at, 296; local
government at, 328 ; the corpo-
rate seigniors of, 332 ; her right
to trade with France, 352 ; a
bourse established at, 365 ; great
annual fair established at, 367 ;
the harboring-place of the
coureurs de bois, 376; difficul-
ties in transferring trade from
Michilimackinac to, 386 ; the
Sulpitians rigorous at, 416; the
sisterhood at, 431 ; the natural
resort of desperadoes, 439 ;
almshouse established at, 446 ;
502.
Montreal, the Association of, 101,
116.
Montreal, Island of, 130; passes
into the possession of the Sulpi-
tian priests, 141 ; the head of
the colony, 292.
Montrealists, the, reticence and
dissimulation practised by, 104;
ascend the St. Lawrence, 104;
reach their new home, 104 •
want to monopolize the fur-
trade, 176.
Monts, De, see De Monts.
Morangi, M. de, 177.
Moras, Ensign, 301.
Moreau, 19, 50, 51.
Morel, Ensign, 437, 438.
Morel, Father, 406 ; the charge of,
406-408.
Morin, Sister, 106; in Montreal,
109 ; on the miracles at Mont-
real, 112; on the influence of
the troops on Canada, 435.
Morgan, 83.
Morrison, William, Jr., 499.
Morton, on the earthquake at
Quebec, 187.
Motteville, Madame de, 230.
Mouron, Captain, 20, 27.
Murray, General, 308.
NATIONAL (Gallican ) party, the,
153 ; tenets of, 153.
Nau, Michelle-The'rese, 195.
New England, 187 ; the Puritan
churches of, 409 ; the colonists
of, 464 ; compared with Canada,
463-467.
INDEX.
551
Newfoundland, 7, 45 ; the French
fisheries of, 358.
New France, La Tour becomes
governor in, 49 ; incessant su-
pernaturalism the key to the
early history of, 61 ; political
segregation in, 464.
New France, the Company of, see
Company of New France, the.
New Hampshire, State of, 379.
New Netherlands, 187 ; passes
into English hands, 249.
New Orleans, city of, 323.
New Scotland, charter of, 4.
Newspaper, the first Canadian, 425.
New York, site of, 4 ; 113 ; Talon
urges the purchase or seizure
of, 274, 275.
Nicholson, General, finally seizes
Acadia for England, 52.
Nicole, the Jaiasenist, on the zeal-
ots at the " Hermitage," 146-
151 ; 205, 206.
Nicolls, governor of New York,
260.
Noblesse, Canadian, 315; French,
316.
Noddle's Island, 45.
Noel, Jean, 308.
Noiil, Philippe, 308.
Normandy, 278.
Normans, the, 277.
North America, contest for owner-
ship of, 3; given by Louis
XIII. to the Company of New
France, 7.
Norton, John, signs the " Ipswich
Letter," 30; Governor Win-
throp's reply to, 31.
Notre Dame, the brethren of, 123.
Notre Dame, the Church of, at
Montreal, 226.
Notre Dame, the Church of, at
Quebec, 300, 301
.Nova Scotia, 4, 8.
' Nuns, the, at Montreal, 105 ; pri-
vations of, 106; additions to,
107 ; Jouaneaux devotes himself
to the service of, 108.
Nuns, the, at Quebec, 421, 422.
OHIO RIVER, the, 323.
Olier, Jean Jacques, founder of
St. Sulpice, 99 ; death of, 99.
Ondakout, Joachim, adventures
of, 78.
Oneida Indians, the, 57, 66 ; at
Onondaga, 81 ; the Jesuits
among. 84 ; 244 ; send deputies
to Tracy, 266 ; Bruyas ordered
to, 266 ; Milet among, 380.
Onondaga, the famous salt springs
of, 68; the Jesuits at, 54-95;
Le Moyueat, 121
Onondaga colonists, the, journey
of, set out from Quebec, 74 ;
77 79 ; evil designs of the In-
dians upon, 89 ; the Medicine
Feast, 91 ; their escape, 93 ;
their arrival in Quebec, 94.
Onondaga Iroquois Indians, at
Montreal, 56 ; covet the Huron,
colony, 62; invite the French
to plant a colony among them,
63 ; Father Le Moyne sent
among, 64 ; demand a French
colony to be established among
them, 69 ; Chaumonot and
Dablon sent among, 70, 71 ;
their punishment of prisoners,
72 ; celebration of the Dream
Feast, 72 ; the Jesuits decide to
establish a colony among, 74 ;
at Onondaga, 82 ; jealousy for
the Mohawks, 86; slaughter
their Huron prisoners, 87 ; dia-
bolical plots against the Jesuits,
89 ; send an embassy to Quebec,
245 ; sue for peace, 266 ; Lam-
berville among, 380.
552
INDEX.
Onondaga, the Lake of, 67, 79, 80 ;
France and the Faith intrenched
on, 83.
Ouondaga, the Mission of, see
Saint Mary of Gannentaa, the
Mission of.
Onondaga River, the, 65, 70
"Onontio," 174.
Ontario, Lake, 65, 78.
Orange, Fort (Albany), 188.
Order of Jesus, the, 154.
Orinoco River, the, 234.
Orleans, the Duke of, 230, 348.
Orleans, the Island of, 62, 76 ; cen-
sus of, 299 ; 307, 346, 403, 428.
Orleans, the seigniory of, 402 ;
population of, 403.
Ormeaux, Sieur des, see Daulac,
Adam.
Oswego River, the, 78, 93, 94.
Ottawa River, the, 125, 128, 130.
Oudiette, granted monopoly in the
Tadoussac trade, 366 ; estab-
lishes a hat factory, 370; be-
comes bankrupt, 371.
Ouelle River, the, 302, 357.
PALACE OF JUSTICE, the, 335,
Palace of the Intendaut, the, 335.
Papal (Ultramontane) Party, the,
153 ; tenets of, 153.
Paris, 9, 99, 278.
Paris, the Archbishop of, 391.
Paris, the General Hospital of,
283.
Paris, the Parliament of, 154, 190.
Parishes, the country, 453.
Pawnee Indians, the, 454.
Pays d'Aunis, 278.
Pemigewasset River, the, 379.
Peiiobscot, the Pentegoet of the
French, 15 ; Plymouth trading
station at, 15; attacked by
D'Aunay, 15; 17.
Penobscot River, the, 15.
Pentegoet of the French, the, 15.
Pequot Indians, the, antagonism
to the whites, 24.
Percherons, the, 277.
Perot, Isle, 302.
Perrot, Governor of Montreal, 347,
Perrot, Nicolas, 77, 252.
Petit Cap, the, heights of, 429 ;
shrine at, 430.
Petit, Father, 451.
Petite Nation, the, seigniory of,
224.
Petraea, Bishop of, see Laval-
Montmorency, Francois Xavier
de.
Peuvret, Laval's secretary, 490.
Philadelphia, site of, 4.
Philip's War, 382.
Phipps, Admiral, 497.
Phips, Sir William, captures
Acadia for England, 52.
Picards, the, 277.
Picardy, 278.
Pierron, Father Jean, ordered to
the Mohawks, 266.
Pijart, the Jesuit, 144.
Plymouth, 15.
Plymouth trading-houses, at
Machias, 15; attacked by
La Tour, 15; at Penobscot, 15;
attacked by D'Aunay, 15.
Poincy, Longvilliers, 475.
Point aux Trembles, 302.
Poitou, 278.
Poncet, Father, captured by the
Iroquois, 56 ; his life spared by
the Iroquois, 59 ; his adventures
among the Iroquois, 59-61.
Ponchartrain, 313, 364, 371.
Porpoise-fishing, 357.
Porte St. Antoine, the, 242.
Portland Point, supposed site of
Fort La Tour at, 39.
Portneuf, the seigniory of, 307.
Port Royal, Razilly reaches. 8 ;
INDEX.
553
D'Aunay makes his headquarters
at, 9; D'Aunay's reign at, 11;
description of, 13 ; 32, 36, 37, 38,
48; captured by Maj Robert
Sedgwick, 52; 471,472.
Pottawattamie Indians, the, 376.
Poutrincourt, 5.
Pretextata, 411.
Prevot, Major of Quebec, 523.
Priests, the Canadian, 409.
Printing-press, the first, in Canada,
425.
Propaganda, at Rome, the, 219.
Protestantism in Canada, 467.
Puritans, the, threaten to destroy
the infant colony by their theo-
logical quarrels, 24 ; their ideas
of religious toleration, 24 ;
troubles of, 25; Louia XIII.'s
desire to keep peace with, 33 ;
D'Aunay makes overtures of
friendship to, 33; M. Marie
visits, 34; D'Aunay sends
envoys to, 42.
Pyrenees, the, peace of, 242.
QUATRE ARTICLES of 1682, the,
153.
Quebec, site of, 4; least exposed
to Indian attacks, 56 ; grand
council of the Indians at, 57 ;
fur-trade at, 58 ; peace con-
cluded with the Indians at, 61 ;
the Canadian Church focussed
at, 103; 118; a comet appears
above, 119; in danger, 125, 133,
139 ; its struggle against
Montreal, 155 ; portents of com-
ing evil, 182 ; the earthquake at,
185-187 ; a little hell of dis-
cord, 1 93 ; the new government,
194 ; plan to make a city of, 212 ;
political troubles at, 213 ; Laval
proposes to establish a seminary
at, 220 ; tariff of prices at, 270 ;
young women shipped to, 284 ;
settlements about, 293 ; Talon
aims to concentrate the popu-
lation around, 296 ; census of,
299 ; the superior council at,
330 ; chimney-sweeping neg-
lected at, 341 ; a bourse estab-
lished at, 365 ; the Jesuits
rigorous at, 416; the Congre-
gation of the Holy Family in,
418; almshouse established at,
446 ; early police regulations of,
449 ; the Lower Town burned to
the ground, 450 ; busy months
at, 452 ; the women of, 453 ; 502.
Quebec, the Chateau of, 325.
Quebec, the Church of, 241.
Quebec, the College of, 425.
Quebec, the Council of, created
by Laval, 191 ; refuses to ac-
knowledge the powers of
Dumesnil, 191 ; the members
of, 195; seize the papers of
Dumesnil, 198; Me'zy in op-
position to, 208 ; changes made
by Me'zy in, 213.
Quebec, the Rock of, the French
made a lodgment on, 7 ; 103, 428.
Quen, De, on the Jesuits at Onon-
daga, 73.
Queylns, Abbe' de, 141 ; the
Sulpitian candidate for the
bishopric of Canada, 141 ; made
vicar-general for all Canada,
142 ; description of, 143 ; his
experiences in Quebec, 143 ; his
animosity to the Jesuits, 143,
144 ; opposes Laval, 155 ; shipped
to France, 1 #6 ; ordered to Rome,
156'; receives a cold welcome,
156; disobeys the King's orders
and returns to Canada, 157 ; in
conflict with Laval, 157 ; again
compelled to return to France,
158 ; his expulsion a defeat
554
INDEX.
for the Sulpitians, 158; bulls
obtained from Rome by, 158;
finds his position untenable, 160 ;
reconciliation with Laval, 160;
returns to Canada as a mission-
ary, 160; 417.
RADISSON, Pierre Esprit, remark-
able narratives of, 94 ; ac-
count of Daulac's fight with
the Iroquois, 138.
Raffeix, at the Seneca missions,
380.
Ragueneau, Father, on the dis-
simulation of the Iroquois, 81 ;
joins the Huron fugitives, 86 ;
172; on the earthquake at Que-
.bec, 184; his trade with the
Indians, 390 ; at Quebec, 416.
Raisin, Sister, 102.
Rameau, 11, 51, 53.
Rattlesnake Hill, 23.
Raudin, Ensign, 301.
Raudot, the intcndant, 313, 341,
357, 361, 442, 505.
Razilly, Claude de, takes posses-
sion of the French settlements
in Acadia and Canada for
France, 8 ; reaches Port Royal,
8 ; grants of Acadian lands made
to, 8 ; death of, 9 ; succeeded by
D'Aunay, 9; 11.
Re'collet Friars, the, in Fort St.
Jean, 37 ; join D'Aunay, 38 ;
complain that D'Aunay ill-used
them, 49 ; cherished hope of,
141 ; missions of, 382 ; sent to
Canada by Colbert, 400 ; Talon
favors, 401 ; the Jesuits reluctant
to share their power with, 418 ;
in dispute with the bishop,
419; 470, 471,472, 517.
" Redoubt of the Infant Jesus,"
the, 116.
Remy, Daniel de, Sieur de Cour-
celle, 236; appointed governor
of Canada, 236; his arrival at
Quebec, 239 ; breathed nothing
but war, 246 ; his march against
the Mohawks, 246 ; his " Blue
Coats," 247 ; failure of his ex-
pedition, 249 ; his second expedi-
tion against the Mohawks, 253 ;
characteristics of, 397 ; Talon
complains to Colbert of, 397 ;
Colbert's letter to, 397 ; his op-
position to the Jesuits, 397 ;
his episode with Father Chate-
lain, 416; 514.
Repentigny , 1 95 ; chosen mayor
of Quebec, 212 ; joins Tracy
against the Mohawks, 254, 256 ;
asks aid from the King, 319.
Repentigny, Madame de, 361.
Richelieu, Cardinal, at the head
of the Company of New France,
7 ; supports the Capuchin friars,
13 ; first plants feudalism in
Canada, 305.
Richelieu River, the, 133, 244, 247,
261, 292, 293, 294, 297, 301,
302.
Riverin, 356 ; memorial on the
establishment of commerce in
Canada presented by, 357, 501,
502.
Riviere du Loup, 406.
Riviere du Sud, 406.
Robert, appointed intendant of
Canada, 218.
Robineau, Rene, 307, 324.
Rochefort, 356.
Rochelle, Huguenot city of, 18, 96,
99, 101, 102, 277, 354, 460.
Rochet, 19.
Rocky Mountains, the, discovery
of, 289, 323.
Roman Catholic Church, the,
422 ; stands out conspicuous in
the history of Canada, 467.
INDEX.
555
Romans, the, 293.
Rome, 156, 158.
Rome, the Court of, 159.
Rosiers, Cape, 52.
Rouen, 283.
Rouen, the Archbishop of, 142,
154, 155, 159, 160, 220, 283.
Rouen, the Parliament of, 154.
Royalty, the triumph of, 305.
Ryswick, the treaty of, restores
Acadia to France, 52.
SABLE, Cape, 5, 6, 7 ; Charles de
la Tour made commander at,
9 ; La Tour's little kingdom
at, 10; La Tour removes to
Fort St. Jean from, 14 ; La Tour
returns to, 45.
Saguenay River, the, 298.
"St. AndreY' the ship, 96; the
company on board, 96.
St. Anne, Fort, 260, 261 ; Dollier
sent to, 262; the garrison at,
264.
St. Anne, heights of, 428.
St. Anne, settlement of, 126.
St. Anne de la Pocatiere, 302.
St. Anne du Petit Cap, 430.
St. Anne River, the, 130.
Saint-Augustin, Mother Catherine
de, 183, 240.
Saint-Castin, 323.
St. Charles River, the, 335, 451.
"St. Clement," the, 19, 20; in
Boston Harbor, 21 ; sails for
France, 36.
St. Croix Bay, 8.
St. Croix, Point, 76.
St. Croix River, the, 8.
St. Denis, the seigniory of, 406.
Saint-Denis, Mother Juchereau de,
Superior of the Hotel-Dieu, 161 ;
her eulogy on Laval, 161.
St. Etienne, Charles de, son of
La Tour, 51.
Saint Francis Xavier, the mission
of, 380 ; Milet at, 380.
St. Gabriel, the fortified house of,
110, 111.
St. Germain, the treaty of, restores
the French settlements in
Acadia and Canada to France,
8.
Saint-Iguace, Frances Juchereau
de, 126; on the earthquake at
Quebec, 184, 185 ; on the merits
of Mezy, 206 ; on the Marquis
de Tracy, 238 ; on the arrival of
the Marquis de Tracy at Que-
bec, 239 ; on Talon's zeal for
the success of the colony, 273 ;
on the population of Quebec,
299 ; on the condition of the
ornamental arts in Canada, 362 ;
on the miracles in Canada, 425 ;
on Paul Dupuy, 435 ; on ex-
travagance in Canada, 447.
St. Jean, Fort, La Tour removes
from Cape Sable to, 14; loca-
tion of, 14; 16, 17, 18, 20, 36;
attacked and captured by
D'Aunay, 39; site of, 39; 41,
46 ; its value as a trading sta-
tion, 47 ; La Tour regains pos-
session of, 51, 52; captured by
Maj. Robert Sedgwick, 52.
St. Joachim, the parish of, semi-
nary at, 223 ; 428, 429.
St. John, city of, 7, 39.
St. John River, the, Charles de la
Tour receives grants of land on,
7, 14 ; Charles de la Tour builds
a fort on, 7 ; 29, 36, 38, 469,
470, 471, 472, 474.
Saint John the Baptist, the mis-
sion of, 380; Lamberville at,
380.
Saint Joseph, the mission of, 380 ;
Carheil at, 380.
St. Joseph, the Sisterhood of,
556
INDEX.
founded by Dauversiere, 97 ;
left penniless, 98.
St. Laurent, the seigniory of, 307,
324.
St. Lawrence, the Gulf of, 52.
St. Lawrence River, the, 4, 7, 46,
56, 59, 64, 73, 78, 88, 94, 103, 104,
119, 165, 179, 185, 187, 224,236,
238, 246, 272, 293, 297, 298, 301,
303, 359, 365, 405, 428, 460,
462.
St. Louis, the castle of, 239.
St. Louis, Chateau, 120, 296, 300,
334, 344, 390 ; history of, 496-
499.
St. Louis, city of, 323.
St. Louis, Fort, at Quebec, 488.
St. Louis, Fort of, 56, 73, 77, 86,
103, 250.
St. Louis, the Lake of, 65, 302.
Saint-Lusson, takes possession of
the country of the Upper Lakes,
274.
St. Malo, 94.
St. Martin's Day, 311, 314.
Saint Mary of Gannentaa, the
mission of, the beginnings of,
83 ; crisis drawing near at, 88 ;
a miserable failure, 94.
St. Michel, 451.
Saint-Ouen, the parish of, 479.
Saint-Ours, Monsieur de, 320.
Saint Ours, town of, 294.
St. Paul, the Bay of, 298, 356,
365.
Saint-Pere, Jean, 110.
St. Peter, Lake, 293.
Saint-Quentin, M. de, 123.
Saint-Simon, Due de, his portrait
of Louis XIV., 350, 351.
St. Sacrament, Lake (Lake
George), 253.
St. Sulpice, the Seminary of, 99 ;
founded by Olier, 99 ; 141, 159,
302, 401 ; attacked by Saint-
Vallien, 404 ; the citadel of the
Canadian Church, 404.
St. Vale'rien, Mont, 143.
Saint- Vallier, Bishop of Quebec,
succeeds Laval, 392; letter
from the King to, 392 ; 401 ;
attacks the Seminary of Que-
bec, 404 ; estimates of, 405 ; 408 j
his directions to Denonville,
410 ; his invectives against the
vanity of women, 411 ; 428, 443 ;
overwhelmed with beggars, 446 ;
founds the General Hospital of
Quebec, 446.
Ste. Claire d'Argentan, the abbey
of, 149, 150.
Sainte-Helene, Mother du Plessis
de, 283.
Ste. Marie, the fortified house of,
110; the scene of hot and
bloody fights, 114.
Ste, The'rese, Fort, 247, 249, 250.
Salem, La Tour in, 32 ; M. Marie
in, 35.
Salieres, Colonel de, 242, 243, 245.
Salina, the salt springs of, 80.
Salmon Falls, fort and settlement
of, 123.
Saltonstall, signs the "Ipswich
Letter," 30 ; Governor Win-
throp's reply to, 31.
Sangrado of Montreal, the, 261.
Saratoga Lake, 249.
Sarrazin, Michel, the physician,
432 ; sketch of, 433.
Savoy, 242.
Schenectady, 549.
Schools, in Canada, 426.
Sedgwick, Major Robert, conquers
Acadia for England, 52.
Seignelay, the minister, memorial
on the establishment of com-
merce in Canada, presented by
Chalons and Riverin to, 358,
359, 501, 502.
INDEX.
557
Seignior, the, in Canada, 306, 331,
343.
Seigniorial tenure, in Canada, 297,
315.
Seigniories, in Canada, 297, 306.
Seneca Indians, the, 57, 66, 75;
at Onondaga, 82; the Jesuits
among, 84 ; 133 ; send an em-
bassy to Quebec, 245 ; sue for
peace, 251, 266.
Seneca missions, the, 94, 380 ;
Raffeix and Gamier at, 380.
Seven Years' War, the, 39.
Sevestre, Charles, 196.
Se'vigne, Madame de, 230.
Shawmut, the peninsula of, 15.
Shea, J. G., 268.
Sheldon, 385.
Ship-building in Canada, 362.
Sillery, 68, 75, 246; Jesuit eel-
pots at, 395 ; the heights of, 460.
Sillery, the mission of, 382, 386.
Sioux Indians, the, 376.
Slavery in Canada, 454.
" Soldiers of the Holy Family of
Jesus, Mary, and Joseph," 116.
Sorbonne, the, the Fathers of,
390 ; the scholastic duels of, 426.
Sorel, 245 ; sent against the Mo-
hawks, 251 ; 294.
Sorel, Fort of, 302.
Sorel, town of, 245 ; new forts at,
247, 294.
Souart, Father, 141 ; left in spir-
itual charge of Montreal, 142.
South America, 234.
Spain, 414.
Stuarts, the, 164.
Sulpitians, the 1 00 ; efforts to
strengthen the colony at Mont-
real, 102; jealousy of the
Jesuits for, 103 ; assume entire
spiritual charge of Montreal,
110; the Island of Montreal
passes into the possession of,
141 ; their plans to obtain the
bishopric of Canada, 141 ; de-
spair of obtaining the bishopric,
142 ; their struggle against the
Jesuits, 155 ; the expulsion of
Queylus a defeat for, 158 ; their
plan of land-grants, 293 ; claim
the right to name their own
local governor, 328 ; missions of,
382 ; rigorous at Montreal, 416.
Suite, Benjamin, 448.
Superior, Lake, 138 ; the copper
of, 271 ; posts of the coureurs de
bois on, 376.
Susane, on the regiment of Ca=
rignan-Salieres, 243.
Swearing, Louis XIV.'s famous
edict against, 344.
Syndic, the, in Canada, 343.
TADOUSSAC, 186, 236, 298; fur-
trade at, 365.
Talon, Jean Baptiste, 188, 215;
appointed intendant of Canada,
236 ; his arrival at Quebec, 239 ;
the chosen agent of paternal
royalty, 268 ; his personal ap-
pearance, 268 ; his portrait, 268 ;
a true disciple of Colbert, 268,
269; sets himself to galvanize
Canada, 270 ; Colbert's instruc-
tions to, 270; his zeal for the
colony, 271-275 ; his policy, 273,
274 ; urges the purchase or
seizure of New York, 275; his
fidelity to his trust, 275 ; failing
health, 275 ; asks for his recall,
275 ; resumes the intendancy,
275 ; his property, 275 ; his
efforts to people Canada, 278,
280, 281 ; places a premium on
marriage, 287 ; satisfactory re-
sults, 290; his plan of dividing
the lands into seigniorial grants,
293; on the Canadian settler,
558
INDEX.
295 ; aims to concentrate the
population around Quebec, 296 ;
his model seigniory, 297; his
villages, 297; grants of land
made by, 301 ; his plan of ad-
ministration, 306 ; asks for pa-
tents of nobility, 317; the old
brewery of, 335 ; his attempt
to establish trade with the West
Indies, 355 ; 393, 397 ; complains
of Courcelle, 397 ; ordered to
watch the Jesuits, 397; favors
the Re'collets, 401 ; orders La
Frediere home to France, 437 ;
tries to control the inns, 449 ;
his correspondence with Col-
bert regarding marriage and
population in Canada, 493-496 ;
500; his memorial of the pres-
ent condition of Canada, 512 ;
his letter from Colbert on the
government and the clergy in
Canada, 514 ; instructions re-
ceived from the King regarding
the government and the clergy
in Canada, 515 ; 518.
Tellier, 227.
Temple, Thomas, obtains a grant
of Acadia from Cromwell, 53.
Terron, 201.
Theresa, Saint, the day of, 255.
Thousand Islands, the, 87.
Three Rivers, settlement of, 55,
56 ; beset by the Mohawks, 56 ;
fur-trade at, 58; 118, 121, 122,
125, 127, 130, 133, 247, 250;
tariff of prices at, 270 ; 288, 289,
301 ; local governor at, 328 ;
347 ; annual fair established at,
368; 393, 443; almshouse es-
tablished at, 446 ; 502.
Tilly, the seigniory of, 308.
Tilly, Le Gardeur de, appointed
councillor at Quebec, 195, 213 ;
asks aid from the King, 319.
Tilly (son), 337.
Torture, considered by the Jesuits
to be a blessing in disguise, 124.
Tourmente,Cape, 238,298, 428,460.
Tracy, Marquis Prouville de, 179,
188, 216, 236; appointed lieu-
tenant-general of America, 237 5
description of, 238 ; his arrival
at Quebec, 238; received by
Laval, 239; sets out against
the Mohawks, 253 ; success of
his expedition, 257 ; trouble
with the English, 260; his re-
turn to Quebec, 260; the Iro-
quois sue for peace, 265 ; his ex-
pedition against the Iroquois
the most productive of good,
267; leaves Canada, 268; his
tariff of prices, 270 ; the fruit
of his chastisement of the Mo-
hawks, 301 ; his plan of admin-
istration, 306 ; asks for patents
of nobility, 317 ; removes Mai-
sonneuve, 328 ; 397 ; escapes
clerical attacks, 399 ; 518.
Trade in Canada, restrictions upon,
353.
Tremblay, M., 162.
Tremont, 23.
Trimount, 23.
Troyes, town of, 102.
Turenne, 263.
Turgis, the true surname of La
Tour's family, 10 ; the arms of, 10.
Turkish Wars, the, 435.
Turks, the, 188, 242.
Two Mountains, the Lake of, 130.
ULTRAMONTANE (Papal) Party,
the, 153; tenets of, 153; out-
flank the King and the Galli-
cans, 1 54 ; its struggle against
tie Gallicans, 155.
United Colonies, the, commission'
ers of, 34, 35, 42, 44.
INDEX.
559
Upper Lakes, the, Saint-Lusson
takes possession of the country
of, 274.
Ursuline Convent at Quebec, the,
171, 300; engraving of, 300;
burned, 300.
Ursulines, the, of Caen, 479.
Ursulines, the, of Quebec, 125,
145, 243, 272,300,347,401,422,
431.
Utrecht, the Peace of, 362.
VALOIS, 229.
Varennes, town of, 294, 302.
Varennes, Rene Gaultier de, 289,
523.
Vasseur, describes the burning of
Laval's seminary, 450.
Vaudreuil, 506.
Vendome, Due de, Madame
d'Aunay applies for help to, 51.
Vercheres, town of, 294, 302.
Verd, Cape, 234.
Verrazzano, voyage of, 3.
Versailles, 325, 348, 405.
Viger, J., 144, 255.
Vignal, Guillaume de, the priest,
96; killed by the Iroquois, 112,
113.
Villemarie, see Montreal.
Villeray, Rouer de, appointed
councillor at Quebec, 195 ;
Argenson's opinion of, 196 ;
becomes the richest man in
Canada, 197 ; 203 ; removed
from the council by Mezy, 208 ;
213 ; banished to France, 214 ;
485, 486.
Vimont, Father, 393.
Virginia, English heretics in, 15;
46, 234.
Vismes, Dubreuil, 475.
Vitry, Sieur, 357.
WALCKENAER, 230.
Ward, Nathaniel, signs the "Ips-
wich Letter," 30 ; Governor
Winthrop's reply to, 31.
Washington, site of, 4.
West, the Company of the, 234.
West India Company, the, 329,
its charter revoked, 353 ; ex-
tinguished, 366 ; revived, 373 ;
given a monopoly of exporting
beaver-skins, 373.
West Indies, the, 44, 237, 241;
Talon's efforts to establish trade
between Canada and, 272, 355,
360 ; 370 ; slaves imported into
Canada from, 454.
William Henry, Fort, 253.
Williamson, 7.
Winthrop, Fort, 21.
Winthrop, Governor, 19; La
Tour asks aid against D'Aunay
from, 22; entertains La Tour,
23-27; allows La Tour to
hire allies, 28, 29; sharply
criticised for giving assistance
to La Tour, 29 ; his action
approved by the majority, 30;
the " Ipswich Letter," 30 ; his
reply to, 31 ; letter from Brad-
street to, 31 ; entertains
D'Aunay's envoys, 42 ; ar-
ranges a treaty with D'Aunay,
43, 44 ; deceived in La Tour, 46.
Witches, Canada never troubled
by, 421.
Wolf Indians, the, 124.
Wolfe, 308.
Women, political influence among
the Iroquois of, 84.
Wood, 22, 23.
Wooster River, 123.
XAVIER, Saint Francis, fe"te of,
166 ; 225.
YORK, the Duke of, 249.
ZRIN, the fortress of, 18&
314
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