1
i«v)'.o,'jK'>;
V»^. T-^
o:n"
EAELY ENGLISH PEONUNCIATION,
WITH ESPECIAL KEFERENCE TO
SHAKSPERE AND CHAUCER,
CONTAINING AN INVESTIGATION OP THE CORRESPONDENCE OF
WRITING WITH SPEECH IN ENGLAND FROM THE ANGLOSAXON
PERIOD TO THE PRESENT DAY, PRECEDED BY A SYSTEMATIC
NOTATION OF ALL SPOKEN SOUNDS BY MEANS OF THE ORDINARY
PRINTING TYPES.
INCLUDING
A EE-AEEAJSTGEMENT OF PEOF. F. J. CHILD'S MEMOIES ON THE lANGTJAGE OF
CHATJCER AND GOWEE, AND EEPEINTS OF THE EAEE TEACTS BY SALESBTJET
ON ENGLISH, 1547, AND "WELCH, 1567, AND BY BAECLEY ON FEENCH, 1521.
BT ^
alexa:n'der j. ellis, f.r.s.,
PELLOW OF THE CAMBEIDGE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, MEMBEB OF THE LONDON MATHEMATICAL
SOCIETY, MEMBER OP THE COUNCIL OF THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY, FOBMEBLY
' SCHOLAB OP TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBBIDGE, B.A. 1837.
PAET I.
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE XIV TH, XVI TH, XVII TH, AND
XVIII TH CENTURIES.
LOITDON:
PUBLISHED FOR THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY BY
ASHER & CO., LONDON & BERLIN,
AND FOR THE EARLY ENGLISH TEXT SOCIETY, AND THE CHAUCER SOCIETY, BY
TRUBNER & CO., 60, PATERNOSTER ROW.
1869.
fK
-no. c-. 'I
Sl-EAKE TITE SpEECH I PEAT TOTT, AS I PEONOFNC'd IT TO YOU.
S/takspere, Tragedies, p. 266, fo. 1623.
LeGE>T)I SEMPEU OCCASIO est, AVDIEirDI KON SEKPEE. PeAETEREA,
MVLTO MAGIS (nT YTLGO DICITUe) VIVA VOX AFFICIT. l^AM, LICET
ACRID K A SIXT, QVAE LEG AS, ALTIVS TAMEN IN AtrEMO SEDEXT, QVAE
PROJfVKTIATIO, WLTVS, HABITVS, GESTVS ETIAil DICENTIS AEFIGIT :
KISI VERO FALSVM PVTAin'S LLLVD AeSCHXNIS, QVI, CVM LEGISSET
RnODns ORATIONEM DeMOSTHENIS, ADlIIRAlSrTrBVS CVNCTIS, ADIECISSE
EEETVR, TI AE, EI ATTOT TOT 0HPIOT AKHKOEITE ; Et ERAT
AESCIEDrES, SI DeMOSTIEENI CREDnrVS, AAMnPO*nNOTAT02 : FATE-
BATVR TAMEX, LOXGE MELIVS EADEM ELLA PROITVNXIASSE EPSVM QVI
PEPERERAT.
C. Pltnii Caecilii Secundi Epist. ii. 3.
VeRVM OETnOGRAPHIA QVOQVE CONSVETVBINI SERVIT, IDEOQVE SAEPE
HVTATA EST. NaM ILLA VETVSTISSTMA TRAXSEO TEMPORA, QVIBVS ET
PAVCTORES LITERAE, NEC SIMILES HIS NOSTRIS EARVM FORIUE FVERVNT,
ET VIS QVOQVE DIVERSA .... FoRTASSE SICVT SCRTBEBANT, EXIAM
ITA LOQVEBAXTVR .... EgO (nISI QVOD CONSVETVDO OBTLNVERIt)
SIC SCRIBENDVai QVIDQVE IVDICO, QVOMODO SONAT. HjC ENIM EST VSVS
LITERARVM, VT CVSTODIANT VOCES, ET VELVT DEPOSITVM EEDDANT
LEGENTLBVS ; ITAQVE LD EXPRIMERE DEBENT, QVOD DICTVEI SVMVS.
M. Fab. Quinciiliani, Inst. Orator, i. 7.
NOTICE.
The first portion of the Chaucer Society's publications
being ready for delivery to its members, it has been thought
advisable to issue at the same time the first four chapters
of the present work, which contain an investigation of
Chaucer's pronunciation and Prof. F. J. Child's Memoir
upon his language. The MS. of the remainder of the work,
which will be of about the same extent as the present part,
is so far advanced, that it will possibly be ready for issue
before the close of the present year ; but as the revision at
press and the construction of the indices will be very
laborious, it may have to be delayed beyond that time. A
brief summary of the contents of both parts, and an out-
line index, is here annexed. Complete Indices will be added
to make reference to the great variety of matters treated
upon, ready and convenient, as the work is intended to
give in a small space the greatest possible amount of in-
formation upon a subject hitherto almost untreated.
This treatise also replaces the paper on the Pronunciation
of the Sixteenth Century, etc., which was read by the
Author before the Philological Society, on 18 January and
1 February, 1867.
A. J. E
Kensington,
1 Feb., 1869.
CORRIGENDA IN PART I.
%* Readers observing any misprints in Part I. are respectfully
requested to communicate with tJie author, 25, Argyll Road,
Kensington, W.
p. 5. under Grh, read A. c
p. 7, 1. 5, for AasA read vaeA.
p. 53, 1. 6, for aukw'k read aukt^h.
p. 57, line 9 from bottom, for oo'w read oo'w.
p. 60, 1. 17, /or ' read-
p. 70, 1. 18/o;- ut it read ut in.
p. 80, 1. 20, for inclined suspect read inclined to suspect.
p. 85, 1. 12, for that he read than he.
p. 89, n. 1, 1. 2, for he a read he is a.
p. 106, 1. 18, /or refuse so say read refuse to say.
p. 113, 1. 21, for does seem read does not seem.
ADDENDA.
p. 12. After the paragraph commencing ** add :
L evanescent, made from [, before a single letter or combination,
denotes that it is scarcely audible, although the speaker is
conscious of placing his organs in the proper position for
speaking it.
L^ evanescents, made from [], enclose more than one CTanescent
element, or entire evanescent words, as (^'n iO keem. ^V
paahs,) := and it came to pass.
p. 12. After the paragraph commencing add:
(') prominent, the acute accent may be placed over any element of
a diphthong or triphthong, when it is considered desirable,
to shew that it has the chief stress of the inter-gliding
vowels, but not necessarily the chief stress in the whole
word, as, for example, to distinguish the paii's of diphthongs
(iu iu, ui ui, ea ea).
p. 273. Add to note 2. Compare also : whitlow, whitsour, whitster,
whitsul ; "WTiitacro, "\^'hitbalTow, Whitburn, "WTiitchurch, Whit-
field, "VMiitgift. Whithorn, "WTiitland, ^Tiitley, Whitmore, Whit-
ney, Whitetable, etc. etc.
CONTET^TS.
PART I. (Now Published).
INTRODUCTIOX. Palaeotype, or the Systematic Notation of all
Spoken Sounds by means of the Ordinary Printing Types, pp. 1-16.
CHAPTER I. On Pronunciation and its Changes, pp. 17-30.
CHAPTER II. Authorities for the Pronunciation of JEnglish during
THE Sixteenth, Seventeenth, and Eighteenth Centuries, pp. 31-48.
CHAPTER III. On the Pronunciation of English in the Sixteenth
Century, and its Gradual Change during the Seventeenth and
Eighteenth Centuries, pp. 49-240.
§ 1. Introduction, pp. 49-50.
§ 2. Combined Speech Sounds, pp. 51-59.
§ 3. The Vowels, pp. 59-184.
§ 4. The Consonants, pp. 184-223.
§ 5. Realisation of the Pronunciation of English in the xvi th, xvii th,
and xviiith centuries, pp. 223-225.
§ 6. The Direction of Change, pp. 225-240.
CHAPTER IV. On the Pronuncla.tion of English during the Four-
teenth Century, as Deduced from an Examination of the Rhymes
IN Chaucer and Gower, pp. 241-416.
§ 1. Principles of the Investigation, pp. 241-257.
§ 2. The Vowels, pp. 258-307.
§ 3. The Consonants, pp. 308-317.
§ 4. On the Pronunciation of E Final in the xiv th Century, pp. 318-342.
§ 0. Professor F. J. Child's Observations on the Language of Chaucer
and Gower, pp. 342-397.
§ 6. Chaucer's Pronunciation and Orthography, pp. 397-404.
^7. Pronunciation during the Fifteenth Century, pp. 405-6.
§ 8. Pronunciation during the Earlier Part of the xrvth Century, witb'^
illustrations from Dan Michel of Northgate, and Richard Roll'
de Hampole, pp. 406-416.
\'l CONTENTS.
PART II. (U^^>UBLISI^ED.)
CHAPTER V. On the Pronunciatiox of English during the Thir-
teenth AND PiiEviois Centuries, and of the Teutonic and Scandi-
navian Sources of the English Language.
§ I. Rliymed Poems of the xiiith Century and earlier.
No. 1. The Cuckoo Song (^vith the Music), circa A.D. 1240.
No. 2. The Prisoner's Prayer (with the Music), circa A.D.
1270.
No. 3. Miscellanies of the xiii th Century, from the Reliquiae
Antiquoc and Political Songs, with an Examination
of the Norman French EI, AI.
No. 4. The Story of Genesis and Exodus, circa A.D. 1290,
No. 6. Havclok the Dane, circa A.D. 1290.
No. 6. King Horn, circa A.D. 1290,
No. 7. Moral Ode, Pater Noster and Orison, xii th Century.
§ 2. Unrhymed Poems of the xiii th Century and Earlier.
No. 1. Orrmin's Orrmulum, end of xii th Century.
No. 3, Layamon's Brut, beginning of xiiith Century.
§ 3. Prose "Writings of the xiii th Century and Earlier.
No. 1. Only English Proclamation of Henry III, 18 Oct. 1258.
No. 2. The Ancren Riwle, xiii th Century.
No. 3. Old English Homilies, xii th Century.
§ 4. Teutonic and Scandinavian Sources of the English Language.
No. 1. Anglosaxon.
No. 2. Icelandic and Old Norse.
No. 3. Gothic.
CHAPTER YI. On the Correspondence op Orthography with Pronun-
FROM the Anglosaxon Period to the Present Day.
The Yalue of the Letters.
The Expression of the Sounds,
Historical Phonetic Spelling,
Etymological Spelling.
Standard or Typographical Spelling.
Standard Pronunciation.
CHAPTER VII. Illustrations of the Pronunciation of English
DURING the Fourteenth Century.
§ 1. Chaucer (Prologue to the Canterbury Tales).
§ 2. Gower (Punishment of Nebuchadnezzar, and Message from Venus
to Chaucer.)
§ 3. Wycliffe (Parable of the Prodigal Son.)
CHAPTER VIII. Illustrations of the Pronunciation of English
DURING THE SIXTEENTH CeNTURY.
§ 1. "William Salcsbury's Account of "Welsh Pronimciation, 1567.
^ 2. "William Salesbury's Account of English Pronunciation, 1647.
§ 3. John Hart's Phonetic Writing, 1569, and the Pronunciation of
French in the xvith Century, including Alexander Barclcy's
French Pronunciation, 1521.
CIATION
§
1.
§
2.
§
3.
§
4.
§
5.
§
6.
CONTENTS. Vll
§ 4. "William Bullokar's Phonetic "Writing, 1580, and the Pronuncia-
tion of Latin in the xvi th Century,
§ 5. Alexander Gill's Phonetic "Writing, 1621, with an Examination of
Spenser's Rhymes.
§ 6. Charles Butler's Phonetic "Writing and List of "Words Like and
Unlike, 1633-4,
§ 7. Pronouncing Vocabulary of the xvith Century, collected from
Palsgrave 1530, Salesbury, 1547, Smith 15G8, Hart 1569, Bul-
lokar, 15S0, Gill, 1621, and Butler 1633.
§ 8. Conjectured Pronunciation of Shakspere, with an Examination of
his EhjTnes and Puns.
CHAPTER IX. Illustrations of the Pb,onuncl4.tion of English during
THE Seventeenth Century.
§ 1. John "Wilkins' Phonetic "Writing, 1668.
§ 2. Noteworthy Pronunciations of the xvii th Century, —
No. 1. Pronouncing "Vocabiilary, collected from "Wallis 1653,
"Wilkins 1668, Price 1668, Cooper, 1685, Miege
1688, and Jones 1701.
No. 2. Price's Difference between Words of Like Sound, 1668.
No. 3. Cooper's "Words of Like or nearly Like Sound hut Dif-
ferent Spelling, 1685.
No. 4. Cooper's "Words of Like or nearly Like Spelling but
Different Sound, 1685.
§ 3. Conjectured Pronunciation of Dryden, with an examination of his
Rhj-mes.
CHAPTER X. Illustrations of the Pronunciation of English during
THE Eighteenth Century.
§ 1. James Buchanan's Phonetic "Writing, 1766.
§ 2. Benjamin Franklin's Phonetic "Writing, 1768.
§ 3. Noteworthy Pronunciations of the xviii th Century, collected from
the Expert Orthographist 1704, Dyce 1710, Buchanan 1766,
Franklin, 1768, Sheridan 1780.
CHAPTER XL Illustrations of English and Lowland Scotch Pro-
nunciation during the Nineteenth Century.
§ 1. Varieties of English Pronunciation in the xrx th Century.
§ 2. Prof. S. S. Haldeman's Phonetic "Writing, 1860.
§ 3. Mr. A. Melville Bell's Phonetic Writing, 1867.
§ 4. Dialectic Varieties of Pronunciation, English and Lowland Scotch,
in the xvi th and xix th Centuries.
CHAPTER XII. Results of the Preceding Intestigation.
Index of Authors cited.
Phonetic Index.
Index of all the Words of which the Pronunciation is described, indicated,
or conjectured.
OcTLiXE Index to the Lettees Explained in Part I.
Xotf—Thc figures 14.
16., 17., 18., with periods after them, refer to the centuries,
the other figures to the pages.
14.
16.
17.
18.
14,
10.
17,
18,
14.
16,
17
18
14
16
14
16
14.
16.
14.
16.
14.
16.
17.
18.
14.
16.
17.
18,
14
16
17
18
A
259,
59,
65,
74.
AI, AY
263,
118,
124,
129.
AU, AW
263,
136, 141,
147,
. 149.
B
. 308,
, 17. 18. 203.
C
. 308,
, 17. 18. 203,
214.
CH
308,
17. 18
D
308,
17. 18
E
260, 318,
77,
81,
88.
EA
260,
77,
81,
88.
EE
260,
77,
81,
88.
203
203,
EI, EY
14. 263,
16. 118,
17. 124,
18. 129.
EO
14. 260.
EU, EW
14. 301,
16. 136, 137,
17. 139,
18. 141.
F
14. 308,
16. 17. 18, 219.
G
14. 308,
16. 17. 18. 203.
GH
14. 310,
16. 17. 18. 209
GN
14. 308.
H
14. 314,
16. 17. 18. 220.
I, Y
14. 270,
16. 104,
17. 116,
18. 117.
IE
14. 260,
16. 104,
17. 116,
18. 117.
J
14. 314,
16. 17. 18. 203.
K
14. 315,
16. 17. 18. 203.
L
14. 315,
16. 17. 18. 193.
14.
16.
14.
16.
M
315,
17. 18. 188.
N
315,
17. 18. 188.
NG
14. 315,
16. 17. 18. 188.
0
266,
93,
99,
103.
OA
266,
93,
99,
103.
OE
260.
01, OY
268,
130,
133,
135.
00
266,
93,
99,
103.
OU, OW
14. 303,
16. 136, 149,
156,
160.
P
316,
16. 17. 18. 203.
PH
14. 316.
Q
14. 316,
16. 17. 18. 203,
14.
16.
17.
18.
14.
16.
17.
18.
14.
14.
16.
17.
18.
14.
16.
17.
18.
17.
18.
14.
14.
16.
14.
16.
14.
16.
14.
16.
14.
16.
14.
16.
17.
18.
14.
16.
14.
16.
14.
16.
14.
16.
14.
16.
Y
R
316,
17. 18.
S
317,
17. 18.
SH
317,
17. 18.
T
317,
17. 18.
TH
317,
17. 18.
U
298,
160, 163
171,
184.
m, UY
269,
17. 18.
Y
317,
17. 18.
W.
317,
17. 18.
WH
317,
17. 18,
X
317,
17. 18,
196.
214.
214.
203.
219.
135.
219.
184.
184.
214.
vowel, see I
Y consonant.
14. 310, 317,
16. 17. 18. 184.
Z
14. 310, 317,
16. 17. 18. 214.
UsTTRODUCTION.
Palaeotype, or the Systematic Notation of All Spoken
Sounds by means of the Ordinary Printing Types.
In order to write intelligibly on speech sounds, some
systematic means of representing them must be adopted. In
order to understand the mode in which speech sounds change,
delicate physiological actions of the vocal organs must be
indicated. In order to be generally intelligible, the letters of
the Roman Alphabet in their original Latin senses, as nearly
as may be, should form the nucleus of the system of symbo-
lisation. In order to be convenient to the Printer and
"Writer, the old types, iraXaioL tvttol (paleii* tii'^ji), should
be used, and no accented letters, few turned, and still fewer
mutilated letters should be employed. The system of writing
here proposed to fulfil these conditions will, in consequence
of the last, be termed Palaeotype (pael'iotaip). It is essen-
tially a makeshift scheme, adapted solely to scientific, not
popular use, not pretending to supersede any existing system
of writing, but sufficing to explain all such systems, and to
indicate the pronunciation of any language with great
minuteness and much typographical convenience.^
The reader will have no occasion to study the whole of the
following list before beginning to read the book. The nature
of the symbols allows by far the greater number of them to
be arranged alphabetically, so that the reader can imme-
diately discover the meaning of any symbol or usual combi-
nation, and any unusual symbol is generally explained when
it first occurs in the following pages. It is only necessary
to bear in mind that the Roman vowels (a, e, i, o, u,) are
pronounced as in Italian, and (y, oe) as the German li, o, that
1 A full account of the principles improvements. As now presented,
of the notation is given in the Trans- Palaeotype is believed to contain cha-
actions of the Philological Society for racters for all the sounds considered
1867, Supplement, Part I. The sub- by Rapp, Lepsius, Briicke, Max Mnller,
sequent appearance of Mr. Melville Haldeman, Merkcl, and Melville Bell,
Bell's Visible Speech, and the elabo- and hence to be the most coniplcte
ration of the following pages, have series of phonetic symbols which has
occasioned a few modifications and been published.
1
INTKOUUCTION.
the italics and small capitals indicate certain modifications
of these sounds, that (h, j, w) are always diacritical, having
no moaiiin<j: of their own but serving to modify the meaning
of the preceding letter, and that (h, j, w, q, o, oi, ou) repre-
sent the sounds in (//ay, yea, 2ray, s\)uj, hut, hiie, hoio).
Long vowels are indicated by reduplication", as (aa, ee, ii) ;
repeated vowels are separated by a comma as (a, a, e,e, i,i).
The other common symbols are well known.
The explanation is given by keywords, the letters ex-
pressing the sounds in question being italicised, and by the
synibols (* f- j i \- % lo Q -) which shew how some of the
letters are formed from others, (*) by attempting to pronounce
simultaneously the two letters between which it is placed,
by taking the contact ( f-) nearer the mouth, or (1 ) nearer the
throat, (t) by protruding, or (4.) by inverting the tongue,
(+) ^y clicking, {iv) by ' rounding' or labial modification,
(0) ^y 'widening' or distending the pharynx and oral pas-
sages, (-) by removing the efi'ect of the diacritic before which
it is placed, and which is inherent in the preceding letter, as
{-tc) with opened lips, (-q) with narrowed pharynx, etc. For
all English sounds, numerous other examples will be found
in Chapter VI, § 2. On p. 15, there is furnished a com-
plete comparison of Palaeotype with Visible Speech, whence
the exact value of the former can be determined by a refer-
ence to Mr. Melville Bell's work. Diagrams of the positions
of the tongue and lips during the pronunciation of the vowels,
are given on p. 14.
In the course of the following pages many explanations
and discussions of phonetic subjects become necessary. See
the nature of glides, diphthongs, and combined speech
sounds explained in Chapter III, § 2, the principal vowels
and diphthongs in the same chapter, § 3, especially under
the heading U, the nature of palatisation (j) and labialisation
(iv) in the same chapter, § 4, under P, B ; T, D ; C, K, Q ;
CH, J, and GII, and the nature of aspiration under H. The
Tables in Chapter VI, §§ 1 and 2, and the footnotes to
Chapter VIII, ^ 1, may also be consulted.
Examples of the use of Palaeotype in continuous writing
will be found in Chapter V, §§ 1, 2, 3, 4 ; Chapter VII ;
Chapter VIII, §§ 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 i Chapter IX, §§1,3; Chap-
ter X, §§ 1, 2, Chapter XI, §§ 1, 2, 3. In this Chapter XI
will be found examples of modern English and Scotch, form-
ing a convenient exercise for those who wish to study the
nature of this system of writing, and allowing of a direct
comparison with Visible Speech.
KEY TO PALAEOTYPE — LETTERS. 3
The mode of writing the "turned" or inverted letters is
explained in each particular case. Italic letters have one
horizontal line below them, as i ; small capitals have either
hvo horizontal lines, or one short oblique line, as ], below
them, tailed letters as g, j, p, q, y, when they have to be
printed as small capitals, may have a horizontal stroke above
them, like i. The letter h may be also written with its stem
crossed like t, and/ with two cross bars.
For the purposes of alphabet arrangement, ae, 03 are con-
sidered to be the same as ae, oe, and the turned letters
89a'BXAoao.i./'i modifications of
eeECLnoasrrr respectively.
Isolated letters, words, and phrases in palaeotype occurring
in the midst of ordinary spelling are enclosed in a paren-
thesis ( ) to prevent confusion.
KEY TO PALAEOTYPE.
Ahbreviations. — A. arable, C. cliinese, E. english, P. frcnch,
G-. german, I. italian, P. provincial, S. Sanscrit,
occ. occasional, = interchangeable with.
A
a
A
a
:A
A
K
a,
Aa
aa
Aa
aa
:Aa
AA
Aa^
aa^
Aah
aah
Adh.
ffflh
AaA
aaA
M
86
M^
8686
/F,8eh 9ea?h
^h
aeh
Ah
ah
Ak
ah
Ai
ai
Aa
aA
Au
au
Ay
ay
I. Letters.
= (ao), I. mrttto, F. chatte, (mat-to, shat)
= (ceq), Gr. mflnn, F. matelrts, (man, matlfl)
= {<CEw), E. w«nt, what, ««<gust', (wAnt, whAt, Agost"),
see (o)
Gaelic mrrth, good, (ma J ; nasal twang
long of (a), E. father, I. mffno, (faadhvi, maa'no)
long of (a), G. m«/men, {maa-nen)
long of (a), E. awn, (aau), see (oo)
long of (a j
long of (ah)
long of (ah)
long of (aA), see (a)
= (eq), E. man, cat, sad, (msen, kset, sasd)
long of (te), P. E. B«th, (Baeaith)
long of (aeh)
^ (fe^t,) ^ (^iio) labially modified (se) or widened (^h)
= (80), occ. E. rtsk, staff, grant (ahsk, stahf, grahnt)
= (ahdi--), Irish s/r, Austrian mrtn_ (srthr, mahn)
E. aije, G-. hrtm, (ai, nain), see (ai)
E. .an, Umps, cent, (aA, taA, soa), see (a)
G. h«MS, (naus), see (ou)
theoretical G. ewch (ay/.li)
4 INTRODUCTION.
B b E. bee, (bii)
Ji b sonant of (/>), which sec, ? = (hw)
:1J u = (bj), lower lip against teeth, Briicke's 6*
'B 'b = (b*l)), tlat Saxon b, Rapp's tt
Bh bh O. w in the middle and south, (v) without the teeth
Bj bj = (b*j)
Bi li bill = (bh^), lip trill, G. brr for stopping horses, Briicke's k
Bw hw =(b*w), F. boia, Qiwa)
C c = (s|-) ? nearly (th), Spanish z, and c before c, i, Badajoz,
(Baadaaxooc*)
C c = (zf) ? nearly (dh), Spanish d (?), ciuddid (ciucaac")
D d E. do, (duu)
J) d = (d*g), usually accepted A. (-o, Lepsius's A. la
:D D = (d|), S. ^
.D .d = (df-), tip of tongue on gums
.'D 'd = (d*t), flat Saxon (d), Rapp's r
Dh dh E. thee, Danish \ed, (dhii, vedh), Welsh dd
Dh dh (dh*gh), Newman's A. ^, Lepsius's A. 1?
:Dhh Dhh Lepsius's Dra vidian sound, nearly (nzh)
Dj dj = (d'^'j), Hungarian fft/, E. vert^ure, (vi'dji)
Div dto = (d*w), F. doit (diva)
Dzh dzh 'E.judffiag, (dzhodzh-i'q)
E e = {eo), E. met, G. fett, F. jette, (met, fet, zhet), see (e)
Jg" e = (e-o), E. Aerial, F. e'te (eer-i^l, ete), I. e chiuso
:E E = (se-o), L e aperto, occ. E. met, G. fett, (met, fst)
g[ D = (ah-o) turned e, written 9, E. hut (hot), see (a)
^ 9 = (ew) = (oe-o), tiu-ned e, F. que je me repente {k^
zh9 m? repaAt?)
:g[ a =: (a-o) turned a:, occ. E. hut (bat)
^ B = ((3?o) = («-«<'), turned a, written g , E. mention,
re«l, (men'shRU, rii'd)
Ee ee long of (e), E. m«re, M^ry, (meej, MeeJTi)
Ee ee long of (e), E. at'lmg (ee-I/q), see (eei, ee'j)
:Ee ee long of (e), like a bleat
a;a 00 long of (o), replaces (j, oj, ooj) in South E.
^9 93 long of {a)
:a_a aa long of (a)
^■B t;b long of (b)
g;oh ooh long of (oh)
g;9h aah long of {dh)
Eei eei occ. E. they, (dheei), for (dhee)
W] ee'j occ. E. fate, (fee'jt), for (feet)
EcA ecA long of (ca), see (a)
30A ooA long of (oa), ^see (a)
ah oh = {ah-w). West E. s/r, f/rst (sohr, fohrst)
,^h sh = (E?i-), occ. F. eH,
Ei ei Scotch time (teim), Portuguese ei
KEY TO PALAEOTYPE — LETTERS. 5
gi oi usual E. eye, t?ine, (ai, taim)
Ea eA F. ^in (vga), see (a)
gA 8A F. «<w emprMwt, (aAn-aApraA), see (a)
Eu eu I. ^Mropa, (Euroo-pa), Cockney and Yankee toM^n (tcun)
3U 8u usual E. lio«<se, showt (nous, shaut)
F f E. /oe, (foo), gentle hiss
F f = (f f), upper lip against lower teeth
.F .f violently hissed (f)
Fh fh ^ (f*kh)
Yio iw = (f*wh), the back of the tongue in the (u) position,
F. /ois, (fj^a)
G g E. go, (goo)
G 9 = (gj) = (g'^j), occ. E. ^ward, (i/fwd), F. ^mcux, (^ce)
:G G sonant of (k)
'G 'g = (g*k), flat (g), Rapp's k
Gh gh G. ta_^e, (taaghv), Dutch g, S. W
Gh. g\i. =. (gjh) = (gh*j), G. wie^e, (bhii«7h-6)
: Gh Gh buzz of (xh)
.Gh .gh violently buzzed (gh)
^j gj = (<7), which see
Gjh gjh = (5'h), wliich see
Grh grh = (gh^), A. ^, heard in gargling
Gmj giv = (g*V), F. goitre, (gM^atr')
-.dw GW = (g*w)
(jwh. g2fh = (gh*'w), G. au^e, (au'gwhe)
\(j;ivh. aivh. = (Gh*'w)
H H E. Ae (nii), S. H "^ ^, (bu, dn, gn), jerked utterance
H' h' jerked whisper
h with no capital, diacritic, with no meaning by itself,
but modifying the meaning of the preceding letter in
any manner that is convenient, see (ah, th, sh, 'h), &c.
H h A. ^ (Jiaa)
'h a scarcely audible (a) as Cockney park, (paa'hk)
hh with no capital, diacritic, variety of (h), see (Ihh)
mw HM' a voiced whistle
Hw'h ^wh. an ordinary whistle, distinct from (wh, k«^li)
I i = (^■-o), E. event, F. f«m, f/che, (ivcnt-, fini, fish)
I i =^ (io), E. r/ver, iimiy, f/sh, (riVJ, im-i, f«'sh) »
:I I ={\tc), occ. G. ii, Swedish y
li ii long of (i), E. eve, (iiv)
Ii ii long of {i), E. happy... (nsep-eV), in singing
:Ii n long of (i)
lu iu E. ftrtility, {^\\ii\-iii)
In iu American variety of (iu)
luu iuu E. futile, (fiuu-te'l)
6 INTRODUCTION.
J J E. yet, G.ja, (jct, laa)
j with no capital, diacritic, palatal modification of pre-
ceding letter,
'j faint sound of (j, i) into whicli E. (ee) occasionally
tapers, sec {ee'j)
Jh jh occ. E. ^ue (jhiuu), occ. G. j'a. (jhaa), occ. F. oei7 (sjli)
K k E. koj, can, coal, (kii, ksen, kool)
JT k = (kj) = (k*j), occ, E. cart (/tart), F. queue (kos)
:K K = (kj), A. (J (Kaaf)
Kh kh G. dacA, Scotch loch, (dakh, lokh)
jni ih = (kjh) = (kh*jh), G. sicch, (sziiAh)
:Kh Kh related to (k) as (kh) to (k)
Kh ks S. ^, upper G. komm., (knom)
.Kh .kh violently hissed (kh)
kj kj = (fc), which see
Kjh kjh = (^-h), which see
Krh krh = (kh^), Swiss ch, A, ^ (krhaa)
Kw kw = (k*w), E. 5'Mcen, F. quoi, (ki^-iin, "kica), Latin qu
Kwh ki4-h = (kh*wh), G. anch, (aukefh), Welsh chw, Scotch quk
cKtt'h Kwh = (Kh*wh)
L 1 E. /ow, (loo)
X I Polish barred I
:L L = (1|), S. 35
jj X turned t, written as I with ^ below, lisped (1)
.L .1 ={l\)
Lh 111 whispered (1), breath escaping on both sides the tongue,
E. fe^t = (fellht) at fuU, occ. F. tahle, (tablh)
Xh III whisper of (l)
:Lh Lh according to Lepsius, Dra-\-idian / in (Tamixh)
Xh xh whisper of (x)
Lhh Ihh = (ISh), breath escaping on the right side of the tongue
only, Welsh II
Lj Ij = (Pj), I. ffli (Iji)
Ljh Ijh whisper of (lj)
Lw Iw = (l*w), F. loi (Lt'a), Anglosaxon wl-
Lw lw = ll*w)
Lwh Iwh. = (lh*wh)
ZM^h lwh = (/h*wh)
^ m E. me, (mii)
m no capital, diacritic, = (a), which see
ifh nih voiceless (m), E. tempt (temmht) at full
'Siw mw = (m.*w), F. moi, (mwa)
E. wap (najp)
= (n*q), see (d)
= (n|), S TIT
JN
n
iV
n
:X
N
.Ts"
.n
Xh
nh
:Nli
Nh
njh
0
0
0
0
KEY TO PALAEOTYPE — LETTERS. 7
= no capital, •vrritten rj not joined to the following
letter, diacritic, French, nasality, the four French
nasals, \hi, an, on, un, are wiitten for convenience
(veA, aA, OA, 9a), though perhaps more properly
(AaeA, GA, OA, aA), according to Mr. Melville Bell
(vaeA, ahA, ohA, oa)
— (nj-), see (.d)
voiceless (n), E. tent = (tennht) at fiill
according to Lepsius, Dravidian nasal before (nh)
= (n*j), F. and I. gn, Spanish 5, Portuguese nh
whispered (nj)
= (n*w), F. Moix, (nica)
= (aw) = (oq), I. 0 aperto, F. homnie (om)
= (3.w) = (o-o) E. omit, American stone, whole,
(om«t', ston, Hol)
Q 0 = {aw) = Ao), turned c, wiitten o, being used for
small capital o which is not sufficiently distinct from
the small o, E. on, odd, (on, od)
(E oe = (ew) = (sq), F. jeune, G. bocke, (zhoen, boek*^),
Feline writes (zhsn, zhoecen), for F. j^'wne, jcune
CE ce ^= (u-w), Galic laogh, {losgh)
:(E CE = {a-Q)= {a-iv)j Rumanian or Wallachian 'a, 'e, 'i,
0, U
33 ao = (oho), wiitten so, E. f^rst, (faoist), see (i)
(Ei cei = occ. F. (ril, (oei, ceijh, ceilj) or (si), occ. Dutch tii/
CEoe ceoe long of (ce), F. jeune, (zhoecen)
CEce eeoe long of (ce)
:QE(E CECE long of (ce)
3)90 8030 long of (ao)
CEy oey occ. Dutch ui/
Oh oh = {ahw) =' (ohj), (o) modified by raising the tongue
Oh oh = (dw), (o) modified by raising the tongue
:0h oh = {3^w) = (aho), (o) modified by raising the tongue
Oi oi North G. neu, (noi), see (ay, oy)
Oi oi P. E. boy, (boi)
:0i oi usual E. oyster, (oistM)
Oa oa F. bow (boA), see (a)
Oo 00 long of (o), I. uomo, (uoo'mo), P. E. home, (noom)
Oo 00 long of (o), E. home, (noom), see {oo^w)
:Oo 00 long of (o), drawled E. odd, God, (ood, Good), different
from E. awed, gawd (AAd, gAAd)
Ooh ooh long of (oh) «
Ooh ooh long of (oh)
:0oh ooh long of (oh)
OoA ooA long of (oa), see (a)
Oou oou occ. E. know, (noou)
Oou oou niore usual E. kjiow, (noou)
Oo^w oo'w occ. E. no, {nod'w'), for (noo)
Ou ou Dutch ou, P. E. oui, (out), see (ou)
8 INTKODUCTIUX.
Oil Ml P. E. hoMse, (nous)
Oy uy occ. upptr G. cuch, (oy^-h)
I* p E. jt;ca (pii)
r p = (p*k)? = (pw)?, Lepsius's Peruvian or (Khetsh*-
wu) p
: P p = (p-| ), lower lip against teeth
Ph ph whisper of (bh), an old sound oi cf>?
Ph ])n S. "*??, Bavarian j(>/erd, (pneerd), Schmeller Gr. p. 137.
Pj r.i = (P*J)
Prli pih = (ph^), whisper of (brh), which see
Fio pw = (P*^)> ^- i^ois, (pwa)
Q q E. siw^er, li??gcr, siwker, {siq'J., Kq'gJ, s/qk'j), S ^
Q q = (qj) = (q*j), distinct from (nj), S. "^T
:Q Q =(q1)
Qh qh = voiceless (q), E. sink = (s?qqhk) at full
Qj qj = (y) which see
K r E. ray (ree), hreath passes over the tip of the tongue
which trembles slightly, Spanish r suave.
R r uvula trill, F. r provcn^al or grasseye, Paris, (Pari)
:R R = (r|), S. T_
}{ .1 turned r, written as r with " above, E. vocal r when
not preceding a vowel, ear, air, are, oar, poor, (iLi,
eej, aaj, ooj, jiuiix), heading, airing, mooring, (hiii"-
n'q, eei'n'q, mMMa"r«'q,) pervert, mz^rmwr = (pexvert*,
mai'moa) or {^j,xui-, nuTcui), or (pjvxt*,mi'nu), see {S)
}£ .1 tui'ned r, written as r ysrith " above, E. palatal vocal
r when not preceding a vowel, ear, air = (ii^, eeu)
more accurately than (iij, ecj), and (serf, surf) may
be distinguished as (se^^f, sa.if ) or {sui, sjf ), this dis-
tinction is frequently neglected in speech.
'[ T turned L, written as r with ^ below, glottal low Ger-
man tiill, nearly (g)
= (r^) strongly tiilled Italian, Spanish, Scotch r
whisper of (r)
whisper of (r)
whisper of (e)
Lepsius's Dravidian sound, neai-ly (Kzh)
whisper of (i)
= (^*^)
Polish prsez, (prshez), (r) very brief, (sh) distinct
= (r*w), F. roi, (r^ca), ^^glosaxon, and early E. tor-
= (i^w), occ. E. {djw) in place of (ouj) = our
Polish t-zaz, (rzhaz), (r) brief
E. 50, (soo)
= (s*kh), Lepsius's and usually received A. ^_/'
=^ E. she, F. cAant, G. schein, (shii, shaA, shain)
.11
.r
Rh
rh
lih
rh
:Rh
Kh
:Rhh
idih
Ih
Rj
-jh
rsh
rw
}lio
Rzh
110
rzh
S
s
S
8
Sh
sh
KEY TO PALAEOTYPE LETTERS. 9
= (shj), S. ^
= (sh'^'jli), occ. G. stellen, s^reclien, (slijtel-*?n,
shjpre^h'en)
= (s*jh), Polish s
= (s*wli), F. soi = (swa) or (sua), not (s^^a)
= (sh*wli), F. chois. = (shw«) or (shua), not [swha)
= G. initial s, so, (szoo)
E. tea, (tii)
= (t*k), Newman's and usually received A. b
= (H), S. Z
= (t\), tip of tongue on gums
= E. ^Ain, (thin), modern Greek 6
= (th*kli), Newman's A. ^^
Lepsius's Dra vidian sound, nearly (x-sh)
= (t*j) whisper of (dj), occ. E. vii'^e, (v.i*tjiu)
E. chest, match, catchmg, (tshest, msetsh, kaetsh'^'q)
= (t*w), F. toi, {twa)
= (oew), F. powle, E. Lowisa, (pul, Lu,ii*za), see {u)
= (^w) = (uq), E. pwll, cook, (pMl, kwk), generally
confused with (u)
= (tw), Swedish u short
= (^t/iv) = (tjo), I- 0 chiuso, (o) verging into («)
F. oui = (ui), F. ou'i = (u,i)
long of (u), E. pool, (puid)
long of (m)
long of (tj)
Mwh long of (2<h)
E. feal, (viil), F. v, North G. tv, see (bh)
= (vj-), buzz of (/), which see
buzz of (.f ), which see
= (v*gh), buzz of (fh), which see
\w = (v*w), F. roix, {xioa)
E. t<?itch, (witsh)
diacritic, labial modification of preceding letter
turned m, -fti-itten ni, defective lip triU, occ. E. \ewj
twue, (veuI•^ tuniu)
"Wh wh whisper of (w), E. «^/dch, (whitsh)
X X Spanish x, j, Quijjote, l^exico, or Qui;bte, Me/ico,»
(Kiixoo'tee, Mee'xiikoo)
X X buzz of (x)
Y y = {iw) = (lo), F. hMtte, G. liicke, (yt, lyk-e)
F y = (to), Welsh «, and final y, pmnp, ewyllys, (pymp,
ewalhh-ys), E. houses, goodness, (nouz-yz, gwd-nys)
:Y Y PoKsh, Bohemian, Hungarian y, Eussian (jerx)
Sh
sh
Shj
shj
sj
Swh
sivh.
Sz
sz
T
t
T
t
:T
T
.T
.t
Th
th
Th.
^h
:Thh
Thh
Tj
Tsh
tj
tsh
Tw
tw
V
u
U
u
■.V
TJ
Uh.
«h
Ui
ui
Uu
uu
Uu
itu
:Vv
uu
Uuh
uuh.
V
V
V
V
.V
.V
Yh
vh
Yw
\w
^Y
w
w
w
K
va.
z
z
z
z
Zh
zh
Z\x
zh
Zhj
Zs
zs
Zm>
7A0
ZM;h
zw\
10 INTRODUCTION.
Yi yi F. Im?', cnnw/, (lyi, a.vnyi)
Yy j-y loiiR of (y), F. ti«te, G. gcmutli, (flyyt, g<?myyt-)
Yy yy long of (y)
:Yy yt long of (y)
buzz of (s), E. zeal, miser, (ziil, moi'zj)
buzz of («), Newman's and usually received A, 1?, Lep-
sius's A. t^
buzz of nh, E. vision, F. ^ens, (vizh'Bn, zhaA)
= (zh|), buzz of (sh)
= (zh*j), buzz of (shj)
^= (z*.t), buzz of (sj)
final E. «, z, when fully pronounced, days, flies, buzz,
{({eezs, floizs, bozs)
== (z*w), see (sw)
zwh. = (zh*Tv), see (sj^h)
2. Signs.
(') turned comma, when final, simple whisper, as E. bi^, (b/t*) ;
before a vowel, diacritic, attempt to whisper the vowel,
as ('a), whispered (a) ; before a sonant, diacritic, semi-
vocalise, see ('b, 'd, 'g)
(') apostrophe, simple voice, F. abb, (abl'), E. little, rbythm,
open =(l«t;''l, rtth-'m, oo'p'n), often written (1/t'l, rrth'm,
oop-n), S. ^ ^ = ('k, '1)
(") double apostrophe, long of ('), S. "^ ^ := ("e, "1)
(-) hyphen, read words or letters that arc written apart as if
they were written close, opposed to (,), letter elided, as
F. nous avons un ami, dit-il a I'hommc, (nuz- avoAZ- 9An-
ami, flit- il a 1- om)
(-) niinus, before a diacritic, remove its effect from the pre-
ceding letter in which it is inherent, thus {ce^xx-w means
that the sound of « is heard, when (u) is fii-st pronounced
and then the lips opened
(x) tumcd 1, A. 1 (;aa-lef), Hebrew K, Greek soft breathing (?)
(,) comma, diaeresis, begin the following letter as if it had no
connection with the preceding, E. minutiae = (m/niuu'-
shi,i), E. unerring, unowned =(on,cr-Kj, on,oond-)
(„) double comma, commence the following letter so gently that
its commencement is difficult to determine, spiritus lenis (?)
(.) period, pronounce the following letter emphatically
(.,) period and comma, commence the following letter with great
abniptness, strongly marked hiatus
(;) semicolon, open the glottis suddenly, A. * (nam'za),
A. ^\j JT (;al Kiu-;rmnu)
KEY TO PALAEOTYPE SIGNS. 11
{'.) turned semicolon, close the glottis suddenly as in stammer-
ing, or suddenly cease any sound, as when startled,
leaving a sound half uttered; (ni) is a suddenly checked
emission of hreath, strongly resembling a click (J), as in
Zulu (ik.uiwa), Visible Speech, p. 126.
g turned 3, A. ^ , bleat baa =: (baegaeg)
(") turned comma and apostrophe, speak the following word in
a subdued tone or voix voilee.
(J turned apostrophe, nasalize the preceding letter, but not as
in F. nasalisation (a)
(;) turned !, attempt to pronounce the preceding letter with
inspu'ed breath, (fj, ph;), calling a bird
(J) attempt to pronounce the preceding letter with the air in
the mouth without inspiiing or expuing, click, E. tut =
(t+), E. cl'ck (tjSt)
g turned 5, Caffir dental click, Appleyard's c, = (t^), or {t\X)}
as in (iqgbha't/j, Visible Speech, p. 126.
5 turned 2, Cafiir cerebral (Lepsius) or palatal (Appleyard)
click, Appleyard's q = (t-j-J), as ia (Egugalee'u'), Visible
Speech, p. 126.
I turned 7, Cafiir (uni-) lateral click, Appleyards x, = (tj^lX)
with prolonged suction, as in (gaq2,an"ji). Visible Speech,
p. 126.
f turned 4, Hottentot palatal click, Boyce's gc, = (t^X) pro-
bably, Lepsius's Standard Alphabet, 2nd ed., p. 79.
8 turned 8, Waco click = (k;|), Haldeman, Attali/iic Ortho-
graphy, p. 120.
0 turned 0, distend the pharynx and cheeks, * widen' the
sound,
j made from f , take the preceding letter nearer the throat and
fui'ther from the lips, inner position.
|- made from f, take the preceding letter further from the
throat and nearer to the lips, outer position.
4 turned f , invert the tongue so that the under part strikes
the palate, when pronouncing the preceding letter, see
(d, l, -s, e, sh, t)
f protrude the tongue when pronouncing the preceding letter.
§ bi-lateral, allow the breath to escape on both sides of the
tongue or mouth, but not over the tip of the tongue or
through the middle of the mouth.
5 made from §, uni-latcral, allow the breath to escape on one
side of the tongue or mouth only.
1 turned ?, trill any free pai't during the utterance of the pre-
ceding consonant.
*• link, form a new position by attempting to pronounce the
two -letters between which it is placed, at the same instant,
but giving prominence to the first letter named, see (Ij)
-= (1^-v)
12 INTRODUCTION.
** governor, placed between two letters at the beginning of a
phnu^e, shews that the first is to be pronounced like the
second throughout, indicating a defect of utterance, as
(1**1,), (1) pronounced with a nasal twang; when no
letter precedes, it indicates that the eflfect of the following
letter is heard in all letters, (**.p) close lips, (**tt) pro-
truded tongue, (**,) general nasal quality, (**.') strained
voice, etc., Visible Speech, p. 81.
(•) turned period, before a word, speak the word emphatically as
(•nii dj'd tt, nii -d/d tt) ; after a letter, (■) shews that it
occiu's in an accented syllable, as (bii*«'q, m^ek'/q, ripooz')
(:) colon, before a capital letter, (in which case it is written
below it, as o,) shews that it is the capital of a small
capital letter, see (:E) capital of (e) ; after a letter, shews
that it occurs in a secondarily accented syllable, as
(t'nkom:priHcn:s«b/l-it?', H9i-we^:maen:)
^"'-"^^^ icritten under a word indicates spaced letters, used
to give prominence to a word in palaeotype, answering
to italics in ordinary printing.
Following a Word.
(..) low level tone, C. high (pniq)
(••) high level tone, C. low (pn/q)
(.•) rising tone, C. high (shaq)
(..•) tone rising from low pitch, C. low (shaq)
(.'.) rise and fall, circumflex, C. (fu-kjen shaq)
(•.) foiling tone, C. high (kHoeoe, kmu, kni)
(•..) falling tone to low pitch, C. low (knoeoe)
(*.•) fall and rise, inverted circumflex
(i') stop voice in high pitch, C. high (shui, zhii, njipi)
(i.) stop voice in low pitch, C. low (shuS, zhi!, njipi)
Preceding a Word.
(•:•) speak in a high key
( . : . ) speak in low key
Palaeotype axd Visible Speech Compared.
The diagrams on p. 14, transferred by !Mr. Mel\"ille Bell's per-
mission from p. 8 of his English Visible Speech, will be the best
guide to the pronunciation of the vowels. Each of the first nine
diagrams represents the position of the tongue for the four vowels
written below it. For the first and third vowels in each diagram, the
passages behind the narrowest part of the channel formed by the
tongue are in the usual condition, but for the second and fourth
vowel in each diagram, they are distended, making the vowels
* wide.' For the first and second vowel in each diagram, the lips are
open. For the third and fourth vowel in each diagram, the lips are
more or less rounded, — namely, for Nos. 1, 2, 3, as in No. 10, for
PALAEOTYPE AND VISIBLE SPEECH COMPARED. 13
Nos. 4, 5, 6, as in No. 11, and for Nos. 7, 8, 9 as in No. 12. As the
principal interest in the following investigation attaches to changes
in the vowel system, a careful study of these diagrams will be of
material assistance. If any reader pronounce the key words with a
vowel requiiing a different position from that here pointed out, his
pronunciation differs from the author's, and the value of the symbol
is to be detennined from the diagram in preference to the key word.
In order to fix the value of the palaeotypic letters, they are on
p. 15 compared with those of Mr. Melville Bell's Visible Speech, by
means of his "Cosmopolitan Telegraphic Table," wliich has been
here reprinted by his permission. The figures indicate the columns
and the letters the lines. The following is Mr. Bell's classification,
which will be frequently alluded to.
Columns 1, 2, 3, 4 contain cotisonants, lines a, b, c, d, e, f are
voiceless, lines ^, h, i, 1c, I, m, are voiced ; lines a, g are primary,
lines b, h are mixed, lines c, i are divided, lines d, k, are mixed
divided, lines e, I are shut, lines/, m are nasal.
Column 5 consists of glides, which are represented in palaeotype
on a different principle, see below, Chapter III, § 2. The letter
(h), 5f, is considered as the time English aspirate in palaeotype, but
Mr. M. Bell considered (h'), or 9a, to be the more correct form.
Columns 6, 7, 8 are vowels, column 6 back vowels, column 7
mixed vowels, column 8 front towels, and in each column lines a, b,
c, are primary, lines d, e, f are wide, lines g, h, i are round, lines
k, I, m are ivide round, lines a, d, g, k are high, lines b, e, h, I are
mid, and lines c, f, i, m are low vowels.
Columns 9, 10 contain the aspirates and modifiers.
GLOSSOTYPE.
An investigation of historical English spelling in Chapter VI, § 3,
suggested the possibility of enlarging the alphabet required for
writing the theoretically received pronimciation of literary English,
so as to meet the requirements of writers of oiu' provincial dialects,
who endeavour to preserve the analogies of ordinary spelling. It
was found necessary to deviate from these slightly for the repre-
sentation of our compb'cated diphthongal system, and some foreign
sounds, which occur provincially, but are uni'coognized in our or-
thogi'aphy. The use of the short mark (") to indicate the provin-
cial shortening of vowels generally long in the literary dialect, and
of the long mark (") for the lengthening of vowels generally short, is
hardly a deviation from ordinaiy usage. The piinciples of this
scheme are explained in Chapter VI, § 3, where the exact value of
the letters is explained, and its use is exemplified in Chapter XI.
But for convenience, a very brief key is given on p. 16. The name
Glossotype refers to the chief use for which it was intended — ^the
writing of provincial Glossaries. It is hoped, however, that such
a scheme, although designedly incomplete, may be found useful to
all who may occasionally wish to indicate pronunciation with some
degree of exactness, but do not care to enter upon general phonetic
investigations.
14
INTRODUCTION.
LINGUAL rOSITIONS OF THE VOWELS.
No. 1.
ce, B, u, //.
No. 4,
3, a, o, o.
No. 7.
CE, a, A, o.
No. 2.
Y, y, U, tih.
No. 5.
3, ah, oh, oh.
No. 8.
sh, 30, ^h, oh.
No. 3.
i, ?, I, y.
No. 6.
e, e, ^, oe.
No. 9.
E, ae, ^h, aeh.
LABL\L POSITIONS OF THE VOWELS.
TALAEOTYPE AND VISIBLE SPEECH COMPARED.
Mb. MELVILLE BELL'S VISIBLE SPEECH LETTERS.
12 3 4
5
(J
7
8
9 0
a
C 1 O O O
1
I f
O '
a
h
c
d
C 1 Q U 1 D
3
I
0 1
b
G O CD 3
c s^ e*3 3
J
I
X 1 ^
c
1
I
1 c
d
e
f
9
a Q D D
3
X
? •
e
f
h
i
k
I
Q D O O
J
I
<=> <
C O Q 3
i
i
^ ^
h
e ^. 05 B
}
\
e <•
•
k
I
m
8 CO 00 3
i
I
< c
e ST2 2*3 e
G CD Q G
1
I
J 3
3-
X
^
A II
G CD (D 1 0
5
5
f
i
1
V o
m
1 2 3 1 4
6
7
~8""
9 0
PALAEOTYPIC EQUIVALENTS OF VISIBLE SPEECH
LETTERS.
1
2
• >
1 4
5
(')
7
8
9
U
a
h
c
d
e
X
.7
h
i
k
kli
1 Jh
i rh
ph
a?
Y
'
H'
a
h
kiah
s
sh
wh
r
a
a
e
'
douD
/h
Ijti
Ih
f
(E
ah
E
)
)
c
d
e
f
fj
lich
th
di
fh
.1
H
v.
J
z
(
•>
k
t.j
t
P
a
ah
e
A
1
qh
iijh
nh
mh
<3:
ao
ae
\no\\ i
gh
J
r
bh
10
u
u
I
?.
u-
gwh
z
zh
w
no
y
^
^h
.?
. 1
h
i
k
I
IJ
1
V
A
«h
^h
y
-
4-
ho
dh
dh
vh
.UW
M
ii\\
1-
--
I
m
g
dj
d
b
u,\v
0
oh
re
• §^
I
m
q
nj
n
m
'h
^
oh
aeh
)j
*
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
IG
INTRODUCTION.
Key to Glossotype,
See p. 13. Isolated letters and words in glossotype should be inclosed in ( ).
(E) is never mute; all vowels and combinations having (") or C) over them, except
(a), are the short or long sounds of the vowels and combinations without these marks,
which should not be used for any other letters, thus : (a) is the long sound of (a) ; (^e)
the short sound of (ee) ; (G) is' to be used whenever it is thought that the proper form
(ou) might create confusion.
C. Cockney, D. Dutch, E. English, F. French, G. German, /. Italian, P. Provincial,
S. Scotch, sic. Swedish, W. Welsh.
Vowels.
Diphthongs.
COXSONANTS.
a gnat
i knit
aiy may
aiw C.
b bee
n-g iiigrain
a P.
IS.
ay S.C.
aw C.
ch chest
nk think
aa ask
ihy'ih P. G.ii
aay high
aaw how
d doe
n-k in-come
Jia ask
0 not
aey S.
aew C.
dh the
p pea
ae ware
oP.
ahy G. ai
ah-w G. au
f fee
r ray
U S. e
oa, oa /. d
ahy at/e
ahwP.
S ffo
'r air
ah father
oe, 6e G. 6
auy P.
auw P.
gh B. G.
r I.S. r
AhF.G.S. a
oh rose
cy S. tide
ew /. eu
H he
rh P.F r
ai tcat't
ohS.
eew /• iti
(written h)
s see
ai S. ai
ox F. on
iw mew
J J'^!/
sh she
ax F. an
00 pool
oy hoi/
ow P.
k coo
t tin
ao S.
6o S. book
or P.
ow P.
kh G.a ch
th thin
ao •S'. 7nan
ou, u could
oliy P.
ohw know
1 lo
V vale
ail all
on P.
oojI.FP.
'1 little
w wail, or
au want
u nut
uy high
uw hoio
Ih JF. 11
-w (after
e net
uP.
uiy F. «/
m me
vowels)
e^-
VLCjueSic.u
euy F. eui
euw D.
'm rhythm
wh why
ee meet
uh worth
1
n MO
J yet, or
ee S.I.F.
uhP.
In all these diphthongs
the first element has the
'n open
-y (after
ex F. in
ui, iii F. u
UN F. un
sound assigned in the
preceding column, which
IS run on quickly, with a
N F. n
(written n)
vowels)
z zeal
eu 7^. eu
glide, to a following (eel
ng thing zh vision
Foreign and Oriental sounds
gu F. eu
(') murmur
or (oo) written (y) or (w).
Diphthongs are also formed
1\ by affixing (') as
represented by Italics and
SV hen more than two vowels
(roh'd) almost (rohud) =
small capitals, by special
come together and the first
road, and by affixing (ui).
convention.
two form one of the pre-
which should then be
Accent the first syllable, un-
ceding combinations, read
written (ui), as D. (neuuis)
less 0 or (•) is written after
them as such, as (reeent-er
= huts, theoretical G.
some other syllable, as :
(=ree-ent-er)
= re-enter.
(frouind) =
= frewid.
august, augi
ist-, august .
17
CHAPTER I.
On Pronunciation and its Changes.
Thought may be conveyed from mind to mind by various
systems of symbols, eacb of which may be termed language.
A real, living, growing language, however, has always been
a collection of spoken sounds, and it is only in so far as they
indicate these sounds that other symbols can be dignified
with the name of language. But a spoken sound once
written ceases to grow. Even when an orthography is
chosen which varies with the sounds from day to day, each
written word is, as it were, but an instantaneous photograph
of a living thing, fixing a momentary phase, while the organ-
ism proceeds to grow and change till all resemblance to the
old form may in course of time be obliterated. The systems
of writing which have been generally adopted, far from
acknowledging this fact, force us, as it were, to recognize
mature or ancient men from the portraits of youths or
children, and ignore the ever-active irrepressible vitality of
language. We speak of the " dead" languages of Rome and
Athens, unconscious that our own English of a few years
back has become as dead to us, who can neither think in the
idiom nor speak with the sounds of our forefathers.
Spoken language is born of any two or more associated
human beings. It grows, matur.es, assimilates, changes, incor-
porates, excludes, developes, languishes, decays, dies utterly,
with the societies to which it owes its being. It is difficult
to seize its chameleon form at any moment. Each speaker
as thought inspires him, each listener as the thought reaches
him with the sound, creates some new turn of expression,
some fresh alliance of thought with sound, some useful modi-
fication of former custom, some instantaneous innovation
which either perishes at the instant of birth, or becomes part
of the common stock, a progenitor of future language. The
difierent sensations of each speaker, the different apprecia-
tions of each hearer, their intellectual growth, their environ-
ment, their aptitude for conveying or receiving impressions,
their very passions, originate, change, and create language.
18 PRONUNCIATION AND ITS CH^iNGES. Chap. I.
Without entering on the complex investigation of the
idiomatic alterations of language, a slight consideration will
shew that the audible forms in which these idioms are clothed
will also undergo great and important changes. The habit
of producing certain series of spoken sounds is acquired
generally by a laborious and painful process, beginning with
the first davra of intelligence, continued through long stages
of imperfect powers of appreciation and imitation, and be-
coming at last so fixed that the speaker in most cases either
does not hear or does not duly weigh any but great devia-
tions from his own customary mode of speech, and is rendered
incapable of any but a rude travesty of strange sounds into
the nearest of his own familiar utterances.
"We may apparently distinguish three laws according to
which the sounds of a language change.
First, the chronological law. Changes in spoken sounds
take place in time, not by insensible degrees, but ]per
saltiim, from generation to generation.
Second, the nidiridual law. A series of spoken sounds
acquired during childhood and youth remains fixed in
the individual during the rest of his life.
Third, the geographical law. A series of spoken sounds
adopted as the expression of thought by persons living
in one locality, when wholly or partly adopted by an-
other community, are also changed, not by insensible
degrees, but j;e>' saltum, in passing from individual to
individual.
At any one instant of time there are generally three gene-
rations living. Each middle generation has commenced at
a different time, and has modified the speech of its preceding
generation in a somewhat difierent manner, after which it
retains the modified form, while the subsequent generation
proceeds to change that form once more. Consequently
there will not be any approach to uniformity of speech
sounds in any one place at any one time, but there will be a
kind of mean, the general utterance of the more thoughtful
or more respected persons of mature age, round which the
other sounds seem to hover, and which, like the averages of
the mathematician, not agreeing precisely with any, may for
the purposes of science be assumed to represent all, and be
called the language of the district at the epoch assigned.
Concrete reality is always too complex for science to grasp,
and hence she has to content herself with certain abstractions,
and to leave practice to apply the necessary corrections in
individual cases. Thus, if we descended into every minute
Chap. I. PRONUNCIATION AND ITS CHANGES. 19
shade of spoken sound, the variety ■would be so interminable,
each individual presenting some fresh peculiarities, that all
definite character would be lost. In actual life this necessary-
abstraction is replaced by the second law which gives fixed-
ness of utterance to the individual, regardless of surrounding
change. Indeed, few persons of mature years, even in the
most civilized communities, think of the sounds they utter.
They speak to communicate thought, not to examine the
instrument which they employ for that purpose, and they
would be constantly checked, and irritated by thinking of
how they speak, rather than of what they speak.
It is this individual fixity of habit, and powerlessness of
adaptation that operates in producing the per saltnm geogra-
phical changes, in which must be included, not only the
changes made in foreign words, but also those resulting
from any society within a society, — schools, colleges, cliques,
coteries, professions, trades, emigrations, — in short any means
of isolating some companies of speakers from others. Slang
is only a form of dialect.
One marked residt of the third law is that a uniform
system of spoken sounds cannot extend over a very large
district. All the speakers must have frequent opportunities
of hearing the sounds from j^outh up, or they will be unable
to appreciate and imitate them. Education, which sends
teachers as missionaries into remote districts to convey the
required sounds more or less correctly, but, more safely and
certainl}'', rapid communication of individuals, such as rail-
roads now effect, does much to produce uniformity of speech.
How far, however, even in small, educated and locomotive
England we are yet removed from uniformity of speech, may
be leai'ned by a very slight attention to the sounds heard in
different districts, each of which has its own characteristic
burr or brogue, less marked perhaps than it was in Higden's
and Caxton's time, but still unmistakable.^
The results of emigration and immigration are curious and
important. By emigration is here specially meant the sepa-
ration of a considerable body of the inhabitants of a country
1 Treuisa in his translation of Hig- to relate how when " certayn mer-
den's Polychronicon, 1385, says "alle ehauwtes .... taryed atte forlond . . .
j'e laugages of \q norj^humbrfs & and axed for mete, and specyally . . .
specialich at jorke is so scharp slittinge axyd after eggys . . . the goode wyf
&frotyng«&vnschape; ))at wesou)'eren answerde that she coude speke no
men may ^pat langage \TineJie vnder- frenshe .... and thenne at last a
stonde." And Caxton (Prologue to nother sayd that he wolde haue eyren,
Eneydos) complains that "comjTi En- then the good wyf sayd that she rader-
glysshe that is spoken in one shjTe stod hym." See Chapter XI for ex-
varyeth from a nother," and goes on isting varieties of pro aunciation.
20 PHOXTJNCIATION AND ITS CHANGES. Chap. I.
from the main mass, without incorporating itself with another
nation. Thus the English in America have not mixed with
the natives, and the Norse in Iceland had no natives to mix
with. In this case there is a kind of arrest of development,
the language of the emigrants remains for a long time in the
stage at which it was when emigration took place, and alters
more slowly than the mother tongue, and in a diflerent
direction. 'Practically the speech of the American English
is archaic with respect to that of the British English, and
while the Icelandic scarcely differs from the old Norse, the
latter has, since the colonization of Iceland, split up on the
mainland into two distinct literary tongues, the Danish and
Swedish. Nay, even the Irish English exhibits in many
points the peculiarities of the pronunciation of the xvii th
century.
By immigration, on the other hand, is meant the introduc-
tion'of a comparatively small body into a large mass of
people, with whom they mix and associate. This may be
commercially (as when German emigrants settle in the
United States), or by conquest (as when the Norsemen settled
first in the north of France, and secondly in England, or
when the Goths ruled in Italy). In these cases the immigrant
language is more or less lost and absorbed, especially if it is
not so developed as the language among which it enters, and
into which it introduces comparatively little change. The
French element of our language, for example, is only indi-
rectly traceable to the Norman Conquest, for we find it very
slightly marked, even in the xiii th century. The Roman
occupation of England and the English domination in India
have produced very little efi'ect upon either the immigrant
or receiving language, principally from the want of associa-
tion. The languages have remained practically unmixed.
The Roman language in France and Spain de facto ousted
the Celtic of the inhabitants, and, after natural changes,
altered by the absorption of the Frankish and Moorish im-
migrations.
The alterations thus introduced into a language produce
but little efiect on the idioms (that is, the expression of the
relations of conceptions), but principally aifect the words
employed. Thus English has remained a Low German
dialect through all the introductions of French, Latin, and
Greek elements, and French, Spanish, and Italian remain
Latin notwithstanding the Frankish, Moorish, and Gothic
additions which they have received. But in all these
languages great changes have fallen upon the forms of the
Chap. I. PRONUNCIATION AND ITS CHANGES. 21
words used. We are apt to regard (b/sh'sp, bish'of, bis'po,
ves'kovo, 3VEEk, obbiis'po, epiis'kop, epis'kopus, epis'kopos)
as entirely different words, and to call (breck briik, kcez kiiz,
oblaidzh" obliidzb") etc., different pronunciations of the same
words. But the latter are really only less marked examples
of the same phenomenon as is exhibited in the former. If
the latter pairs of words are to be regarded as the same, the
former nine must also be classed as one. In the latter we
have chiefly chronological, in the former we have chiefly
geographical changes. In both cases we have examples of
the variation of one sound as it passes through various
mouths — roJifat vivu' 7;er ora virum.
Even without reference to written forms, the conception
of altered forms of one original sound (that is, of various
pronunciations of the same word), naturally arises in men's
minds, but when languages come to be written as well as
spoken, this is more strongly forced upon them — at least in
those cases which the writing notices. Writing, that won-
derful method of arresting sound which has made human
memory independent of life, and has thus perj)etuated know-
ledge, was necessarily at first confined to the learned alone,
the priest and the philosopher. These fixed, as nearly as
they could appreciate, or their method of symbolisation,
which was necessarily insufiicient, would allow, the sounds
of their own language as they heard them in their own day.
Their successors venerating the invention, or despairing of
introducing improvements, trod servilely in their steps and
mostly used the old symbols while the sounds changed
around them. Within the limits of the powers of the old
symbols some changes were made from time to time, but
very slowly. Then in quite recent days, the innovation of
diacritical signs arose as in French and German, whereby a
modern modification of an ancient usage was more or less
indicated. Occasionally, whole groups of letters formerly
correctly used to indicate certain sounds came to be con-
sidered as groups indicating new sounds, — not in all cases,
but in many perhaps, where the sounds had changed by re-
gular derivation. Before the invention of printing, writers,
become more numerous, had become also less controlled by
the example of their ancestors, and endeavoured as well as
they could, with numerous conventions, inconsistencies, im-
perfections, and shortcomings, rendered inevitable by the
inadequacy of their instrument, to express on paper the
sounds they heard. When we are fortunate enough to find
the real handywork of a thoughtful writer, as Orrmin, we see
22 PRONUNCIATION AND ITS CHANGES. CuAP. I.
how much might have been done to clear our mode of writing
from inconsistencies. But with the invention of printing,
came a belief in the necessity of a fixed orthography to
facilitate the work of the compositor and reader. The re-
gulation of spelling was taken from the intellectual and given
to a mechanical class. Uniformity at all hazards was the
aim. And uniformity has been gained to a great extent in
late years, but at a sacrifice which uniformity is far from
being worth — loss of a knowledge of how our ancestors spoke,
concealment of how we speak at present, innumerable diffi-
culties to both reader and Avriter, and hence great impedi-
ments to the acquisition of knowledge. The numerous
societies for printing old English books which are now at
work, and especially the Earl;/ EiKjUah Text Societ;/, have,
by conscientiously printing manuscripts literatim^ done much
to restore oui' knowledge of ancient sounds as well as ancient
sense. But the veil of our modern spelling lies over our
eyes, and it is not easy to gain the key to the mystery which
these texts are calculated to display.
" Nobgdy," says Archdeacon C. J. Hare,^ " who has a due
reverence for his ancestors or even for his own spiritual
being, which has been mainly trained and fashioned by his
native language, — nobody who rightly appreciates what a
momentous thing it is to keep the unity of a people entire
and imbroken, to preserve and foster all its national recol-
lections, what a glorious and inestimable blessing it is to
' speak the tongue that Shakspcre spake,' will ever wish to
trim that tongue according to any arbitrary theory." But
the English of to-day do not know * the tongue that Shak-
spcre spake.' They may be familiar with the words of his
plays according to their own fashion of speech, but they
know no more how Shakspere would have uttered them than
they know how to write a play in his idiom. The language
of Shakspere has departed from us, and has to be acquired
as a new tongue, without the aid of a living teacher. What
this means can only be justly appreciated by observing how
foreigners, after most laborious study of our own modern
language from books and grammars, proceed to write and
speak it. You will read and hear whole sentences in which
every phrase shall be in accordance with grammar, and yet
perhaps not a single sentence so composed as an Englishman
would have penned it, or so uttered as an Englishman would
have spoken it. A language can only be learned by ear.
But how did our glorious old writers speak? "What
' 0)1 Engliih Orthography, Philological Museum, Vol. 1. p. 645.
Chap. I. PRONUNCIATION AND ITS CHANGES. 23
sounds did Goldsmith, Pope, Dryden, Milton, Shakspero,
Spenser, Chaucer, Langland, call the English language?
Or if we cannot discover their own individual peculiarities,
what was the style of pronunciation prevalent at and about
their time among the readers of their works ? The inquiry
is beset with difficulties. It would be almost impossible to
determine the pronunciation of our contemporary laureate,
but surely with our heap of pronouncing dictionaries, it
would seem easy to determine that of his readers. Yet this
is far from being the case. It is difficult even for a person
to determine with accuracy what is his own pronunciation.
He can at best only give an approximation to that of others.
In the present day we may, however, recognize a received
pronunciation all over the country, not widely differing in
any particular locality, and admitting a certain degree of
variety. It may be especially considered as the educated
pronunciation of the metropolis, of the court, the pulpit, and
the bar.^ But in as much as all these localities and pro-
fessions are recruited from the provinces, there will be a
varied thread of provincial utterance running through the
whole. In former times this was necessarily more marked,
and the simultaneous varieties of pronunciation prevalent
and acknowledged much greater. In the xiii th, xi\ th,
and XV th centuries it is almost a straining of the meaning
of words to talk of a general English pronunciation.^ There
was then only a court dialect of the south, and the various
" upland," northern, eastern, and western modes of speech.
And hence we can only seek to discover the court dialect,
and then, having partly ascertained the value of the letters,
endeavour to ascertain the pronunciations meant to be iu-
dicated by such writers as Dan Michel and Orrmin.^
But how are we to arrive at a knowledge of the court
dialect ? Moliere ridicules the notion of having a master to
teach pronunciation, and certainly the analysis of speech
sounds, was at no time, and is not even at the present day,
notwithstanding the appearance of so many treatises in quite
recent times, down to that of Mr. Melville Bell, 18G7, a
favorite subject of investigation. It is voted tiresome or
unnecessary, and the greater number of even those who
1 The pronunciation of the stage is rum modum loquendi solum sum secu-
inclined to be archaic, except in the tus, qucm solum ab infancia didici,
modemest imitations of ever)- day life. et solotenus plcnius perfectiusque cog-
2 Thus in 1440 the author of the novi."
FromptoriuinParvulormn sa.y6,'-Comi- ^ The subject of a standard pro-
tatus Jvorthfolcie" or, according to nunciation is specially considered below,
another reading, " Orientalixim Anglo- Chap. VI, § 6.
'24 PRONUNCIATION AND ITS CHANGES. Chap I.
toiicli upon it incidtntally, in grummar.s and ortlioepical
treatises, are prol'oundly ignorant of tlie nature and mechan-
ism of speech, and tlic inter-relations of the sounds whicli
constitute hinguage.^ The consequence is that writers being
unaware of tlie mechanism by which the results are produced,
were constrained to use a variety of metaphorical expressions
which it is extremely difiicult to comprehend, and which
naturally have different meanings in the works of different
authors. Thus sounds are termed tliick, thin, fat, full,
empty, round, flat, hard, soft, rough, smooth, sharp, clear,
obscure, coarse, delicate, broad, fine, attenuated, mincing,
finical, affected, open, close, and so on, till the reader is in
despair. For example, in English, German, Italian, Spanish,
'hard c' is (k), but 'soft c' is (s) in English, (ts) in Ger-
man, (tsh) in Italian, (c), that is, nearly (th), in Spanish. The
Germans call (g) the 'soft' of (k), and (gh) the 'soft' of
(g). But the English call (g) 'hard g,' and (dzh) 'soft g,'
and 'soft g' is (x), or nearly (kh), in Spanish. Most writers
term (s, th) hard sounds, and (z, dh) soft, but Dyche- finds
(s, th) soft, and (z, dh) hard. One writer calls o obscure
when it sounds as (a) or (uu), no matter which, but 1/ final
obscure when (/), and sharp and clear when (oi).
Some writers, again, content themselves with using key
words. This is indeed the easiest method for the writer, and
conveys very fair notions to contemporary readers. It has
been adopted in the description of Palaeotype to avoid prolix
explanations. But the publication of Mr. Melville Bell's
Visible Speech has enabled me by referring to his symbols to
fix the sounds with accuracy, for Visible Speech contains an
exact account of the disposition of the organs for producing
the sounds, and hence by carefully studying that work at
any time— centuries hence — the exact sound could probably
be recovered. Not so with key words, for they involve the
1 The beautiful phonetic short-hand sounds, but with very small success,
invented by Mr. I. Pitman, under the even among those who were most
name of Fhoiiographij, and developed earnest in the use of phonetic tj-pes
by the assistance of many co-workers, as an educational appliance. The sub-
gave rise to a desire to print phoneti- ject was not sufficiently attractive. At
cally, in consequence of which a pho- present Mr. Melville Bell's recent
netic Enu'lisli alphabet was invented treatise on Visible Speech, renders a
by Mr. I. Pituian and myself, which, study of the whole subject compara-
with various subsequent modifications, tively easy. And he has supplemented
has been extensively used in England it by a system of shorthand writing
and America. From the first I en- which will be applicable with almost
deavoured (in my treatises on the equal facility to all languages in the
Alphahei of Nature, 184.5, and Essen- world, rendering his system extremely
tials of I'honetics, 1848,) to make this easy to write even at full.
alphabet a means of extending a know- » Quick to the English Tongue, 1710.
ledge of the inter-relations of speech
CuAP. I. PRONUNCIATION AND ITS CHANGES. 25
very riddle whicli we have to solve. Only those who, like
the present writer, have spent hours in endeavouring to dis-
cover what was meant by a simple reference to a key word
given three hundred years ago, can fully appreciate the ad-
vantage of an exact description like that furnished by Visible
Speech.^ There is some relief when many key-words are
given, or when contemporarj^ languages are cited. But
liere the imperfect appreciation of the citer is painfully con-
spicuous, and allowances have always to be made on that
account. Many writers, too, content themselves with re-
ferences to the Latin, Greek, or Hebrew sounds, apparently
forgetting that the older pronunciation of these languages is a
matter of dispute, and that the modern pronunciation varies
from country to country and century to century. Let any
one begin by studying Sir T. Smith, Hart, Bullokar, Gill,
and Butler, in order to determine the pronunciation of
Shakspere from these sources alone, — or even with the as-
sistance of Palsgrave, — and he will soon either find himself
in the same slough of despond in which I struggled, or will
get out of his difiiculties only by a freer use of hypothesis
and theory than I considered justifiable, when I endeavoured
to discover, not to invent, — to establish by evidence, not to
propound theoretically, — the English pronunciation of the
XVI th century.
The first ray of light came to me from a corner which had
hitherto been very dark. While searching for information,
some book or other led me to consult William Salesbury's
Welsh and English Dictionary, 1547. The introduction
contains a very short and incomplete introduction to English
pronunciation, written in quaint old Welsh. My imperfect
knowledge of the language was sufiicient for me to perceive
the value of this essay, which mainly consisted in the
transcription of about 150 tj^pical English words into Welsh
letters. Now the Welsh alphabet of the present day is re-
markably phonetic, having only one ambiguous letter, i/,
which is sometimes (a), or (a), and at others (i/). Did Salesbury
pronounce these letters as they are now pronoimced in North
' At the latter end of his treatise of the speech organs, — or if possible
Mr. Melville Bell has given in to the also from tlie living voice of some one
practice of key ^vords, and assigned thoroughly acquainted with the system
them to his svTnbols. Let the reader — and then determine Mr. Bell's o^vn
be caretul not to take the value of the pronunciation of the key word from
sjTnbol from his own pronunciation of the kno\\Ti value of the symbol. This
the key words, or fr-om any other per- pronunciation in many instances differs
son's. Let him first determine the from that which I am accastomed to
value of the symbol from the exact give it, especially in foreign words,
description and diagram of the position Both of xis may be wrong.
26 PRONUNCIATION AND ITS CHANGES. Chap. I.
"Wales? Most fortunately lie has answered the question
himself in a tract upon Welsh pronunciation written in
English, and referring to many other languages to assist the
English reader. The result was that with the exception of
y, the sounds had remained the same for the last 300 years.
Here then we have a solid foundation for future work, — the
pronunciation of a certain number of words in the xvi th
century determined with considerable certainty; and from this
we are able to proceed to a study of the other works named,
with more hope of a satisfactory result. These tracts of
Salcsbury are so rare, and one of them so little intelligible
to the mass of readers, that at the suggestion of the Philo-
logical Society, they will be transferred to the pages of this
essay, — the English treatise almost entire, the Welsh treatise
complete with a translation.^
The pronunciation of English during the xvi th century
was thus rendered tolerably clear, and the mode in which it
broke into that of the xvii th century became traceable.
But the XVII th century was, like the xv th, one of civil war,
that is of .extraordinary commingling of the popidation, and
consequently one of marked linguistic change. Between the
XIV th and xvith centuries our languao^e was almost born
anew.- In the xvii th century the idiomatic changes are by
no means so evident, but the pronimciation altered distinctly
in some remarkable points. These facts and the breaking
up of the XVII th into the xviii th century pronunciation,
which when established scarcely differed from the present,
are well brought to light by "Wallis, "Wilkins, Owen, Price,
Cooper, Miege, and Jones, followed by Buchanan, Franklin,
and Sheridan. It became therefore possible to assign with
considerable accuracy, the pronunciation of Spenser, Shak-
spere, Milton, Dryden, and Pope, or rather of their con-
temporaries.
This was much, but it was not enough. No treatise on
Early English pronunciation could be satisfactory which did
not include Chaucer. But here all authorities failed. Pals-
grave is the earliest author from whom we learn distinctly
how any English sound was pronounced, and then only
through the analogy of the French and Italian. Two princi-
ples, however, suggested themselves for trial. In tracing
the alteration of vowel sounds from the x^■I th through the
XVII th to the XVIII th century a certain definite line of
change came to light, which was more or less confirmed by
a comparison of the changes, as far as they can be traced, in
1 See Chapter VIII, §$ 1 and 2. » See Chapter IV § 1.
Chap. I. PRONUNCIATION AND ITS CHANGES. 27
otiier languages. Hence the presumption was that from the
XIV th to the XVI th centuries, if the sounds had altered at all,
they would have altered in the same direction. But a second
principle was necessary to make the first available. This
was found in the fact that since writing was confined to a
comparatively small number of persons, the majority of those
who heard and enjoyed poetry would be ignorant of the
spelling of the words. Hence the rhymes to be appreciated
at all must have been rhymes to the ear, and not the modern
monstrosity of rhymes to the eye. If we could have a manu-
script in Chaucer's own handwriting, we should therefore
expect to find all the rhymes perfect. Hence we might
conclude that when two words rhymed together in one of
Chaucer's couplets, they also rhymed together in his pro-
nunciation, and if they would not have rhymed together in
the XVI th century, one of them must have altered in the
definite line of change already discovered. In conformity
with these principles the whole of the rhj^mes in Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales as exhibited in the best available manu-
script, together with those in all his other poems as edited
by Mr. Morris, and those in Gower's Confessio Amantis,
have been carefully examined, and a system of pronuncia-
tion deduced for the xiv th century.^
Much uncertainty must necessarily prevail concerning the
pronunciation of English from 1400, the death of Chaucer, to
1530, the date of Palsgrave's French Grammar, as the
changes were numei'ous and rapid, both in language and
pronunciation. Similarly if we had lost the xvii th century
books on English pronunciation, it would have been impos-
sible to restore it, from a knowledge only of the pronuncia-
tions in the xvi th and xviii th centuries. But standing on
the secure ground of the xivth century we can, without
much doubt penetrate into still more remote regions, espe-
cially with the help of Orrmin's orthography, which lands
us into Anglosaxon.
Before proceeding to the detailed investigation, it may be
convenient to present the main results in a tabular form.
This has been attempted in the merest outline, on the two
following pages. An explanation of the construction of the
table is added on p. 30.
^ For a detailed account of this investigation, see Chapter IV.
28
PRONUKCIATION AND ITS CH.INGES.
CllAP. I.
*
.
Modem Spelling
Chaucer
Shaks]
Spenser
pere p
Milton ^
Dryden
ope
Goldsmith
XIV
XVI
XVII
XVIII
a short
a
a
ae
ae
a long
aa
aa
aeae
ee
at, ay
ai
ai, aai
seaei, ee
eei, ee
au, aw
au
au, aau
AA
AA
e short
e
e
e
e
«long
ee
ee, ii
ee, ii
ii
ea
ec, e
ee, e
ee, e
ii, e
ee
ee
ii
ii
ii
ei,ey
ai
ei, eei, ai
eei, ee
eei, ee, ii
eu, ew
eu, yy
)7. eu
iu, eu
iu
ffh
kh
kh, h'
H' -
- -
i, y short
t
t
t
t
i, y long
ii
ei, ai
91
ai
0 short
0, u
0, u
A, 0, 9
0, 9
0 long
00
00
00
00
oa
00
CO
00, AA
00, AA
oi, oy
ui
oi, ui
Ai, oi ; ui, ai
oi
00
00
uu, u
uu, a
uu, a
ou, ow
uu, ecu
ou, oou
au, oou
au, 00
« short
n; i,e
u ; t, e
u, a ; /, e
u, a ; 1, i
ulong
yy
yy
yy, iu
iu
Chap. I.
PllONUMCIATION AND ITS CHANGES.
29
Modern Spelling
Chaucer
Shaks
Spenser
acre p
Vlilton ^
Dryden
ope
Goldsmith
XIV
XVI
XVII
XVIII
hand
Hand
Hand
Hsend
Hsand
tale
taal-e
taal
taeael
teel
rain, way\
rain, wai
rain, waai
rsesein, wsesei
reen, weei
satv, awe
sau, au
sau, aau
SAA, AA
SAA, AA
«99
eg
eg
eg
eg
these, we
dheez, wee
dheez, wii
dheez, wii
dhiiz, wii
mean, head
meen, need
meen, ned
meen, ned
miin, ned
seen
seen
siin
siin
siin
obey, they.
obai*, dhai,
obei" dheei,
obeei-, dheei,
obee", dheei*
vein, receive
vain, resaiv
vain,reseeiv
veen,reseev
veen, risiiv
few, stew
feu, styy
feu, sLyy
feu, stiu
fiu, stiu
night
uiMit
mk\A, nVn't
nin't, nait
nait
bit
hit
brfc
btt
btt
bite
bw'-te
beit
bait
bait
holly, tvonder
0
Hol"j, wun'der
Hol-t, -wTin-der
Hol-«,w3n-der
Hol-t, wan-der
hope
Hoop
HOOp
Hoop
Hoop
soap, broad
soop, brood
soop, brood
soop, brAAd
soop, brAAd
joint, boil
dzhuint, biiil
dzhoint, buil
dzhoint, buil ;
dzhaint, bail
dzhoint, boil
fool, blood
fool, blood
fuul, blud
fuul, blad
fuul, blad
now, know
nuu, knoou
nou, knoou
nau, noou
nau, noou
pull, but, busy,
bury
pul, but, bj'z'j
ber-«
pul,but, hiz'i,
ber-e
pul, bat, biz-j,
ber-j
pul, bat, hiz'i,
ber-j
muse
myyz-e
myyz
mjyz, miuz
miuz
30 PRONITNCIATION AND ITS CHANGES. Chap. I.
Taking the principal modern combinations of vowels, and the
one consonant combination, (jli, for which tlic pronunciation
of successive centuries have mainly differed, I have arranged
them in the first column of the preceding table. It must be
borne in mind that these spellings are modern, and in many
cases replace at present other spellings which were current
in the xiv th to the xvi th centuries. In the four next
columns I give in palaeotype, as explained in the introduc-
tion, the pronunciations prevalent during the Xivth, xvith,
XVII th, and xviii th centuries. For this rough and general
view of the subject there is no perceptible diflerence between
the xviiith and xix th centuries. It must not be supposed
that the pronunciation here indicated prevailed throughout
the centuries to which they are attributed. The xiv th
century pronunciation refers only to the latter half of that
century. The xvi th century is represented rather in its
former half and middle than in the latter part when it was
verging to the xvii th century pronunciation. The xvii th
century pronunciation represents the fully established pro-
nunciation of the time in the middle and latter part of the
century. And the xvinth century pronunciations is that of
the latter part. Hence we may roughl}- term the pronuncia-
tions exhibited those of Chaucer, Spenser, Dryden, and Gold-
smith. Shakspere and Milton are transitional between
Spenser and Dryden, while Pope lies between Dryden and
Goldsmith. These names are therefore placed at the top of
the columns, and between the columns, as an assistance to
the reader. As single letters are more difficult to appreciate
than entire words, examples of each mode of "speech are
given. The same combination of letters was not always
pronounced in the same way in all positions, even in the
XIV th century ; hence it is sometimes necessary to give two
sounds and two examples, and in this case the more usual
(not the older) sound is put first. In the latter part of the
XVI th, in the xvii th and later centuries, anomalies of pro-
nunciation became more common, and nothing but detailed
lists of words, such as will be furnished hereafter, will serve
to explain them. The reader must therefore remember that
this table gives merely a general view to serve as a guide in
studying the subsequent details.
CHAPTER II.
Authorities for the Pronunciation of English during
THE Sixteenth, Seventeenth, and Eighteenth Cen-'
turies.
§ 1. Sixteenth Century.
1530, 22 Henry YIII. Palsgrave, John.
Lesclarcissement de la Langue Francoyse ; compose par
maistre Jehan Palsgraue Angloys natyf de Londres,
et gradue de Paris, London, 4to.
19 folios unmarked, 473 foHos numbered, the English in black
letter, the French in Roman characters. The book is -uT^itten in
EngHsh although the title is French. It was repriated by the
French Goveimnent, and edited by F. Genin, in 1852.
Palsgi-ave graduated at Cambridge as well as in Paris, and was
appointed French tutor to the princess Mary, sister of Henry VIII,
when a marriage was negociated between her and Louis XII of
France in 1514. He was made a royal chaplain, and on going to
Hve at Oxford in 1531, there took the degrees of M.A. and B.D.
He is supposed to have died in 1554. He must consequently have
spoken the educated southern and court dialect of the latter part
of the XV th, and the early part of the xvi th century.
This work contains a very elaborate accoimt of French pronuncia-
tion, frequently elucidated by reference to contemporary EngUsh
and Italian. The pronunciation of several English words is thus
incidentally established with more or less certainty.
To the French reprint is added a reprint of
An Introductorie for to lerne to rede, to pronounce and
to speke French trewly, compjded for the right high,
excellent and most vertuous lad}^ The Lady Mary of
Englande, doughter to our most gracious soverayn
Lorde Kyug Henry the Eight.
By Giles du Guez or du Wes, with no author's name, except as
shewn by an initial acrostic, and no date, but apparently about
1532. The rales for pronunciation are few and insufficient, ex-
tending over thi-ee quarto pages.
1545, 37 Henry VIII. Meigret, Loys.
Traite touchant le commvu vsage de I'escritvre francoise,
faict par Loys Meigret, Lyonnois : auquel est debattu
32 AUTHORITIES — SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Chap.II. §1.
dcs faultes, & abus en la vsage, & ancicnne puissance
ck\s let res. Auecqpriuilege de la court. Paris, 12mo,
in Italics, pp. 128 unnumbered.
This little book incidentally enters into a discussion of the pro-
nunciation of the French langua}j;e, and thus renders Palsgrave's
English analogues more certain. "Where Meigix-t differs from Pals-
grave, it is ditficidt to decide whether Palsgrave is in fault through
want of ai)])reciation and English habits, or Meigret from being
a Lyonncse instead of a Parisian. See another work by ileigret
described under its date 1550. This little work is also remarkable
as having in some way suggested Hart's English work on Ortho-
graphy, 1569, subsequently described. Hart says, translating his
phonetic spelling into modern English orthography: "You may
see by this little treatise I have been a traveller beyond the seas,
among vulgar tongues, of which that small knowledge I have, hath
been the cause of this mine entreprize. And therewithal the sight
of a treatise set forth in print at Paris, Anno 1545, by a worthy
man, well learned both in Greek and Latin, named Leiiis Meigret
of Lyon, touching the abuse of the writing of the French tongue,
whose reasons and arguments I do here before partly use, as he did
Quintilian's, whom it appeared he had well studied. And I have
seen divers French books put forth in print in that his manner of
Orthography, of some well liked of, and received, and of others left
and repugned. But what good & notable thing can take a speedy
root, amongst a multitude, except the princes & governors, (by
the grace which God may give them) do favour & somewhat
coimtenance it."
1547, 38 Henry YI & 1 Edward YI. Saleshunj, "W.
A Dictionary in Englyshe & "NVelshe London,
4to, black letter.
The complete title is given below. Chapter Till, § 2, which
contains a transcript of the preliminary Welsh essay on English pro-
nunciation, with a translation.
From Anthony a Wood's Athenae Oxonienses by Philip Bliss,
London, 1813, vol. i, p. 358, we learn that Salesbuiy was bom of
an ancient family in Denbighshire, studied at Oxford, and was
entered at Tha^■ies Inn, Holbom, London. In his latter days he
lived with Humph. Toy, a bookseller in St. Paul's Churchyard. He
translated the New Testament iuto "Welsh, and obtained a patent
for printing it, from Queen Elizabeth, 1567. He wi'ote also other
works, see under 1567.
As a "W^elshman, Salesbury was of course liable to mispronoimce
English, but he was so early removed to England, and had so long
an opportunity of studying the Southern English pronunciation to
which his treatises shew that he was fully alive, that any assertion
of his must carry great weight with it, however much opposed it
might be to theory. His pronunciation is evidently more modem
than Palsgrave's.
Chap. II. § 1. AUTHORITIES — SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 33
1550, 4 Edward YI ; 4 Henri II of France. Meigret, Leys.
Le trEtte de la GrammEre rran50Eze fEt par Louis
MeigrEt, LionoEs, Paris, 4to of a folio shape.
This veiy curious French Grammar, (which is not noticed hy M.
Genin in his introduction to Palsgrave, although it was so nearly
contemporary,) is entirely piinted phonetically, apparently to carry
out the suggestions of Meigret' s little book already described, better
than he had done in a former work, which he alludes to thus :
"I'ecrittui'e qe j'ey obsErue (combien q'Elle ne soEt pas du tout
selon qe reqeroEt la rigeur de la pronon9ia9ion) En la transla9ion du
MEuteur de Lu^ian," (fo. 10 J.) His alphabet consists of the letters
"a, E ouuEi-t, e clos, i Latia, o ouuErt, ou clos, u, y GrEC de
mEme puissance qe I'i, b be, p pe, f ef, ph phi, u conso., c ca
Latin, k ca GrEC ou kappa, q qu, g ga ou gamma, ch cha aspire,
d de, t te, th the aspire, f, 9, s, es, z zsd, 9h 9he, 1 e1, l el molle,
m Em, n En, n En molle, r Er, i ji consonante, x, cs, ks, gs, ix,"
(fo. 15J) where I have used e for an e with a tail like 9, l for an
1 with a short mark over it like 1, and n for an n with the second
stroke produced and terminating in a backward hook, which re-
sembles the letter c, and with a short mark over it like u. The
powers of these letters, taken in order, appear to have been, (a, e,
e, i, 0, u, y, i; b, p, f, f, v, k, k, k, g, k, d, t, t, s, z, sh, 1, Ij,
m, n, nj, r, zh, ks, gz).
La Grammaire Fran9aise et les Grammairiens au XVI® siecle, par
Ch.- L. Livet, Paris, 1859, gives an abstract of all Meigret's works
and of his controversies with G. des Autels, and J. Pelletier, from
which it appears that Meigret lived in Paris, and had been an
assiduous frequenter of the court of Fran9ois I, (p. 139). The dis-
pute principally affects Meigret's e, e, (pp. 127, 132, 140), 0, ou,
(p. 139), ai, (p. 130), ao, (p. 122), eu, (p. 130), and shews the transi-
tional state of French pronunciation at the time. M. Livet's book
also contains notices of Jacques Dubois (Jacobi Sylvii Isagoge, 1531),
J. Pelletier (Dialogve die I'orthografe et prononciacion fran9oese, 1555,
a year after Meigret had been forced by his publisher to use the
ordinary orthography), Pierre Kamus ou de la Ramee (Grammaire,
1 ed. 1562, 2 ed. 1572, last 1587,) Jean Gamier (Institutio gallica^
linguae, 1558), Jeaen Pillot (Gallicaj linguae institutio, 1581), Abel
Mathieii (De\'is de la langue fran9oyse, 1559), llobert Estienne
(Dictionnaire fran9.-lat., 1539, Traicte de la Gram. fran9. without
date), Henii Estienne (H. Stephani Hypomneses, 1582, Traicte de la
confoi-mite. Deux Dialogues, without date, 1578?, Precellence, 1579),
Claude de Saint-Lien (Claudii a Sancto Vinculo de pronunciatione
ling. gall. 1580), Theodore de Beze (De Francicse lingua; recta pro-
nunciatione tractatus, Theod. Beza auct. 1584). If to these we add
Palsgrave & du Guez, neither of whom are abstracted by M. Livet,
we can trace the change of French pronunciation from the earlier to
the later part, of the xvi th centuiy, till it subsided into a form
practically the same as the present, by a course remarkably similar
to that pursued by the contemporary Enghsh pronunciation.
3
34 AUTHORITIES — SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Chap. II. § 1.
I'JO'J, 3 Mary. Chekc, Sir John.
Joanuis Cheki Angli de pronunciatione Graecae potissi-
iniim linguae disputationes cum Stephano Vuintoniensi
Episcopo. Basle, 24mo.
In this work several illustrations of Greek sounds are drawn from
EngHsh words which are printed phonetically in Greek letters, to
givu a conception of the author's theoretical prouiuiciation of Greek.
Adolph Mekerch of Bniges, in H. Stephauus's collection De vera
pronioiciutione Graecae et Latinae Linguae, 1587, adopts in many
places the very expressions of Cheke, but changes his illustrative
words from English to Flemish, which he again prints phonetically
in Greek letters. In this way a comparison of English and Flemish
in the xvi th centiuy is instituted. Cheke bom at Cambridge in
1514, moved in the best literary society, was secretary of state
1552, and died 1557.
1567, 10 Elizabeth. Saleshury, "W.
A playne and familiar Introduction, teaching how to
pronounce the letters in the Brytishe tongue, now com-
monly called Welsh .... London. 4to, English in
black letter, Welsh in Roman.
All the portions of this rare book which are useful for the present
investigation are reprinted, with illustrative notes, below, Chap.
VIII, § 1. See 1547, supra p. 32.
1568, 11 Elizabeth. Smith, Sir Thomas.
De recta et emendata lingvae anglicae scriptione, dia-
logus, Thoma Smitho Equestris ordinis Anglo authore.
Lutetian. Ex officina Roberti Stephani Typographi Regij.
Paris, folio, 44 folios. Date of colophon, 13 Nov 1568.
A beautifully printed book in large Roman letters with tables of
illustrative words printed according to a phonetic alphabet, without
the ordinaiy spelling, Smith's object being to improve the ortho-
graphy not explain the pronunciation. The value of his 34 letters
in the order of his alphabetic table (fo. 41) is apparently as follows,
(a, aa, b, tsh, d, dh, e, ee, ii, f, v, g, dzh, h, i, ei, k, 1, m, n, o,
00, p, k, r, s, z, sh, t, th, u, uu, yy, ks.)
Smith uses c for (tsh), which has occasioned many misprints, ^
for (dh), a letter hke the Anglosaxon e with a diaeresis for (ii), an
mverted A or p for v, the Anglosaxon 5 for (dzh), a reflected z for
(sh), 6 for (th), V for (yy). The long vowels he has represented
by a diaeresis, and as he considers (ei) to be the long of («), he piints it i.
Since then (ee) is e, and (ii) is a character almost identical in appear-
ance, misprints occasionally occur. In all cases of phonetic writing
when diacritic accents are employed, misfortunes of this kind are fre-
quent. Hence the importance of mchcating length by redupHcation,
as in palaeotype, or by some constant ad(htional sign, as in Vis. Speech.
Sir Thomas Smith was bom at Saffron Walden, Essex 1515,
was feUow of Queen's College, Cambridge 1531, pubHc orator
Chap. II. § L AUTHORITIES — SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 35
1536, provost of Eton, master of requests to Edward VI, secretary
of state 1548, prhy councillor and assistant secretary of state 1571,
succeeded Buiieigli, and died 1577. Hence his pronunciation must
bo accepted as the most literaiy and comtly of a time somewhat
subsequent to Palsgrave's. He was not much acquainted with
French,' or probably with any other living language, and conse-
quently without the assistance of Salesbiuy great doubts would be
felt as to many of his pronunciations.
1569, 12 Elizabetli. Hart, John.
An Orthographie, conteyning the due order and reason,
howe to write or painte thimage of mannes voice, most
like to the life or nature. Composed by J. H. Chester,
Heralt. The contents whereof are next folowiug. Sat
citosi (sic) sat bene. Anno. 1569. London, 12mo.
The first part in black letter, the latter part in italics with now
letters for (sh, dzh, tsh, dh, th, '1,) and a dot under a short vowel
sign to lengthen it. Eeprinted in lithography by I. Pitman, 1850,
the fii'st part in the phonography or phonetic shorthand of that date,
the latter part in a longhand writing imitating the italic original.
The name John Hart is taken from the British Museum catalogue.
Dr. Gill calls him ' ' e fecialibus vnus, qui eoruw more ex gradu
oiScii nomcn sibi Chester assumpsit." He is cited as *' Master
Chester" by Bullokar. It seems probable that he was a Welshman,
as he writes (uuld) for (would), that is, he did not pronounce (wuu)
as distinct from (uu).
This is a most disappointing book. The writer knew several
languages, as French, German, Italian, Spanish, and there is little
or no doubt as to the general value of his symbols, but in the words
of Dr. Gill, " sennonem nostrum characteribus suis non sequi sed
ducere mcditabatur." He has in fact chosen a pronunciation then
coming in, heard by few, and distasteful to the old school. See
below, Chapter III, § 3, EI, AI, and Chapter VIII, § 3. One of
*the causes of the writing and publication of this work, was Hart's
acquaintance with Meigret's book of 1545, see above p. 31.
It appears that this book of Hart's was twenty years older than
its real date, which would bring it up to 1549, for he says (fo. bh):
"Theliuing doe knowe themselues no furthir boimde to this our
instant maner, than our predecessors were to the Saxon letters and
wiiting, which hath bene altered as the speach hath chaunged, much
1 This he informs us of in the be- been unintelligible most probably to
ginning of his treatise De recta et emeu- Aristophanes, as it certainly would be
data, lim/uce Greece pronunciatione to any modern Greek. "While he was
Epistoln, ' 1568, in which also several in Paris he met with a modern Greek,
passages occur which are useful in the who was furious at the notion of in-
determination of English pronunciation. troducing " tarn vastos sonos et absonas
The two treatises are bound in one diphthongas in Grtecam linguam," but
volume in the British Museum Library. the two disputants could not argue the
He introduced Erasmus's system of point, " quoniam ego Gallice parum ad-
Greek pronunciation, which is similar to modum, ille non ita multo plus, Latind
that now used at Eton, and would have nihil callebat," fo. 5b.
36 ATTTIIORITIES — SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Chap. II. § 1.
(liflFcring from that -wliicli was vsed with in these fine hundreth, I
maye say withiu these two hundreth yeares : which I considered
of about .XX. yeares pa.sscd, and thouglit it worth my labour, if I
coulde finde the meane of remcdie, of our present abuse. And so
framed a treatise therevpon, and woukl then it had bene published,
but I am the gladder it hath bene stayed vntill this time, wherein
80 well a learned gentilman, in the Greeke & Latine tongues, &
trauailed in certain \nilgares sir Thomas Smith knight, hath written
his minde, touching this matter, in hys booke of late set forth in Latin,
entituled, De recta Sf emendata lingucB Anglicce scriptione. Where-
of and of this my treatise the summe, efiFect, and ende is one.
"Which is, to Ysc as many letters in oui- writing, as we doe voyces
or breathes in our speaking, and no more ; and neuer to abuse one
for another, and to write as we speake : which we must ncedes doe
if we will euer haue our writing perfite."
1570, 13 Elizabeth. Levins, Peter.
Manipiilus Yocabulorura : a Rhyming Dictionary of the
English Language by Peter Levins. 4to.
This book has been reprinted by the Early English Text Society,
under the able editorship of Mr. Henry B. Wheatley. The words
are arranged according to their orthographies, so that very little assist-
ance is given towards determining the pronunciation. The place of
the accent, however, is generally marked, but as evident errors are
committed, no reliance can be placed on it. It is chiefly valuable
for shewing the received orthography of that period, and as such
will be frequently cited.
1573, 16 Elizabeth. Baret, John.
An Alvearie or Triple Dietionarie, in Englishe, Latin
and French : very profitable for all such as be desirous
of any of these three languages London, fo.
The introductory remarks upon each letter afford some slight*
assistance. John Baret, was fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge,
and graduated in 1554. His pronunciation belongs therefore to the
middle of the xvith century, and to the educated class, but his
county is not known.
1580, 23 Elizabeth. BiilMar, William.
BuUokars Booke at large for the Amendment of Ortho-
graphie for English speech : wherein, a most perfect
supplie is made, for the wantes and double sounde of
letters in the olde Orthographic, with Examples for the
same, with the easie conference and vse of both Ortho-
graphies, to saue expences in Bookes for a time, vntill
this amendment grow to a geuerall vse, for the easie,
epeedie, and perfect reading and writing of English,
(the speech not changed, as some vntruly and maliciously.
Chap. II. ^ I. AUTHOKITIES — SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 37
or at the least ignorantlie bio we abroade,) by tlie which
amendment the same Authoiir hath also framed a ruled
Grammar, to be imprinted heereafter, for the same
speech, to no small commoditie of the English Nation,
not only to come to easie, speedie, and perfect vse of
our owne language, but also to their easie, speedie, and
readie entrance into the secretes of other Lang^uaffes, and
and easie and speedie pathway to all Straungers, to vse
our Language, heeretofore very hard vnto them, to no
small profite and credite to this our Nation, and stay
there vnto in the weightiest causes. There is also im-
printed with this Orthographie a short Pamphlet for all
Learners, and a Primer agreeing to the same, and as
learners shall go forward therein, other necessarie Bookes
shall spedily be prouided with the same Orthographie.
Here vnto are also ioyned written Copies with the same
Orthographie. Giue God the praise, that teacheth
alwaies. When truth trieth, errour flieth. Scene and
allowed according to order. Imprinted at London by
Henrie Denham 1580. London 4to.
In black letter, the new characters being also in black letter,
with divers points, hooks, etc., placed above and below. His
object was to keep as closely as possible to the existing orthography,
and mark the pronimciation, and also certain grammatical forms.
The union of these two objects seizes greatly to compHcate his
orthogi'aphy, wliich perhaps no one birt the inventor could have
used. Ho reckons 37 letters, most of which have dupKcate forms
"for help in eqiu'oc'y." These 37 letters in order apparently re-
present the sounds (a, b, s, k, tsh, d, e, ii, f, dzh, g, h, i, 1, '1, m,
'm, n, 'n, o, uu, p, 'kw, r, s, sh, t, dh, th, yy, u, v, w, wh, ks, J, z)
Bullokar admits seven diphthongs (ai, an, cei, eu, oi, oou, uui)
Avith ui "seldom in use," and rather uncertain in bis text. The
reduplicated forms and the fineness of the diacritical strokes, render
his book troublesome to the reader, but the above interpretation,
founded on Salesbury's infoi-mation, furnishes a tolerably consistent
account of English pronunciation. There are some long vowels not
included in the scheme, namely (aa, ee, oo) which are generally
represented by accents, as a, e, i, y, 6, although se is commonly em-
ployed for (ee). In the case of long i and ou, he seems to have re-
tained the ancient sounds {ii, uu,) in place of the (ei, ou) given by
Salesbm-y and Smith, see Chapter III, § 3, I, but he unfortunately
generally neglects to wiite the accent on i.
The pronunciation of Bidlokar was certainly antiquated in some
particulars, agreeing better with Palsgrave's than with that of any
intermediate author, and preceding in a direction contraiy to Hart's.
Hence Gill looked upon him with favour, and says, ^^ Bulokerus \t
paucula mutavit, sic multa fideUter emendavit." Altogether the
33 AUTIIOKITIES — SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Chap. II. § 1.
book is very valuable for determining the pronimciation of the early
part of the XVI th century. See Chap. VIll, § 4.
1611, 9 James I. Cotgrave, Handle.
A Dictionaric of the French and English Tongues,
London imprinted by Adam Islip. Fo.
There is a short account of French pronunciation which inciden-
tally gives some assistance to^vards the determination of EngUsh
soimds. Although this book appeared in the xvnth centm-y, its
pronunciation belongs to the xvi th.
1611, 9 James I. Florio, John.
Queen Anna's New World of "\Yords, or Dictionarie
of the Italian and English tongues, collected, and newly
much augmented by J. F., Reader of the Italian vnto
the Soueraigne Maiestie of ANNA, crowned Queene of
England, Scotland and Ireland, &c., and one of the
Gentlemen of hir Royall Priuie Chamber. AYhereunto
are added certaine necessarie rules and short obserua-
tions for the Italian tongue. Fo.
The first edition appeared in 1598, and of course had no reference
to James's queen, Anne of Denmark. It also did not contain any
account of the pronunciation. This second edition, in treating of
the Italian pronunciation of e, o, discriminates their open and
close sounds, which arc marked throughout the book, and exempli-
fies them, together with some of the consonants by a reference to
English, which, allowing for Italian errors, is usefuL
1619 first ed., 1621, second ed., 17-19 James I, (7///, Alexander.
Logonomia Anglica. Qua gentis sermo facilius addiscitur
Conscripta ab Alexandro Gil, Paulina3 Scholae magistro
primario. Secundo edita, paulo correctior, sed ad vsum
communem accommodatior. Small 4to.
This second edition difi'ers from the first mainly in the characters
employed ; there are, however, a few verbal difterences in the text.
The pronunciation exhibited, with perhaps two exceptions, that of
long i and of au, was that of the middle of the xvith centmy,
although the book appears in the xvn th, for Dr. Gill evidently re-
sisted all modem mincing and effeminacy of speech, as the new
fashions appeared to him. He was bom in Lincolnshii-e, 1564, the
same year as Shakspere, became a student of Corpus Chiisti
College, Cambridge, and gi-aduated in 1583, and was made head
master of St. Paul's school in 1608. He died 1635. Milton is
said to have been one of his pupils. Dr. Gill had several fancies
besides old pronimciations, thinking it best to speak "ut docti inter-
dum" — anglic^, pedantically — rather than like the " indoctus,"
although if the latter followed his ears in phonetic spelling the doctor
says : " susque deque habeo."
Chap. II. § 2. AUTHORITIES — SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 39
Dr. Gill's alphabet of 40 letters -will be rendered in order by the
following palaeotypic symbols, — (a aa aa b tsh d dh e ec f v g dzh
H kh e ii ai k kw Imnqoooprsshtthyyuuuw wh ks j z).
Dr. Gill's book enters at great length on the subject of pronun-
ciation, without, however sufficiently describing the sounds, and is
peculiarly valuable in giving numerous passages from Spenser and
the Psalms written phonetically. See below Chapter VIII, § 5.
1633, 9 Charles I. Butler, Charles.
The English Grrammar, or the Institution of Letters
Syllables, and Words in the English tongue. Where-
Tinto is annexed an Index of Words Like and Unlike.
Oxford. 4to.
Printed phonetically with new characters for (ii, uii, dh, tsh, kh,
gh, ph, sh, wh) and a mark of prolongation. There is great dif-
ficulty in detennining the value of his vowel system. He was of
Magdalen, Oxford, an M.A. and a country clergyman. His pro-
nunciation belongs to the end of the xvi th century, as he clearly
fights against many of the new pronunciations which were starting
up, and the true xvn th century pronunciation seems not to have
developed itself till the civil war had fairly begun. Butler pub-
lished a work on the management and habits of bees, Tlie Feminine
Monarchy or History of the Bees, Oxford, 1634, both in the orcUnary
and in his phonetic character. These are the first English books
entirely printed phonetically, as only half of Hart's was so presented.
But Meigret's works were long anterior in French. See below
Chapter VIII, § 6.
§ 2. Seventeenth Century.
1640, 16 Charles I, Jonson, Ben.
The English Grammar. Made by Ben. Johnson. For
the benefit of all Strangers, out of his observation of
the English Language now spoken, and in use. Fo,
This was published two years after Jonson' s death, and the text
is known to have been altered from his MS. in some parts. Jonson's
pronunciation ought to have belonged to the xvi th century, as he
was bom 1574, only ten years after Shakspere, but he seems to
have inclined towards the xvn th centuiy use.
1646, 22 Charles I. Gataher, Thomas.
Be Biphthongis Bivocalibus, deqe Literarum qarundam
sono germano, natura genuina figura nova, idonea,
scriptura veteri veraqe. London, 24mo.
This is useful for a few diphthongs, but is not of much value
generally.
40
AUTHORITIES — SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. Chap. II. § 2.
1051, 13 Commonwealth. WUUh, Thomas, of Thistlewood,
Middlesex.
Vestibuhim Linguae Latinae. A Dictionarie for children
consistino^ of two parts : 1. Enfjlish words of one s^-lUible
alphabetically with the Latine Words annexed. 2. Words
of more syllables derived from the Latine words adjoined.
This first part con.sists of a vocabulary of more than 4000 mono-
syllables, professedly arranpced in order of rhyme, but with very
few exceptions arranged only according to the spelling. In some
oi these exceptions we find real rhymes with diffeiing spelling, but
on the other hand we have words classed together which do not
rhj-mc, so that there is by no means so much to be learned from it,
as was to be hoped. The following are the only rhymes which
are noticeable throughout the whole vocabulaiy. The initial syllable
in italics as -affe is that under which these words and others having
the same termination are arranged. It is to be understood that
only such words in each list are given in this extract as were in
some respect ciuious or irregular, and that all other monosyllables
having the prefixed termination are to be supplied by the reader.
-affe, laugh, chafe, safe, Eaphe
-aie, = -atj, treie, weigh, whay
-ai)i, reign
-air, heir, major
-ait; eight, height, sleight, straight
-arre, = -ar, far, tar, warre
-arfe, dwarfe, scarfe, wharfe
-arm, swarm, warm
•am, warn
-arp, warp
-art, heart, thwart
-ash, cjua-sh, wash
-aste, the waste meditullium
-atte, Wat, what
-atch, watch
draught, naught
fault, vault
-ea, keie, the, yea
-ead, bead, knead, le^^ plumbum
-earn, dream, phleagm, realm
-ear, blear, pear
-eas, ceas, greas, leas, peace
-eef, beef, brief, chief, grief, theef
-eeld, yeeld, field, shield
-Old, friend
-ere, here, there, where
-ew, dew, due, few, glue, Jew, lieu,
rue, sew suere, sue, shew, shrew,
view, yew
.»■ = -ie = -y, eie, buy, by, high, my,
nigh, vie, skie, why, wry
-He, guile, style
-iit, guilt
-imme = -im, hynme
-ime, climbe
•ine, signe
-irre, tirre, myrrhe, sir
-iv, giv, liv, sciv
-0 = -owe = -oe, bowe, blowe, crowe,
glowe, growe, knowe, lowe, mowe,
rowe, slowe, sowe, snowe, towe,
throwe
-oad, broad, goad, load
-oh, chough, cough, dough, though,
trough, rough, through
-owle = -oal = -ole, bowle crater,
jowlc, powle tondere, prowl, rowle
rotula, sole, soul, scrowle schedula,
toll, towle sonus, trowle advolvere
-on = -oiDie, John
-one = -oan, bone, groan, Joan
-0, = -oe, to, toe, doe agere, woe pro-
care
-com, loom, Eome, toomb
-oos, goose anser, loos, noos nodus
-oov, moov, move, proov, prove
-ord, cord, foord, horde, sword
-orce, hors equus
-ose, prose, rose, those, whose
-oath, oath, both, frothe, growth, loath,
mothe, slothe
-othe, bothe, cloathe
-ov, dov, glov, lov, shov
-ow, bough, bow, brow, cow, how, mow
foenile, mow sincere, now, plough,
prow, sow, thou, trow, vow
-Otis, a hous
-ouse, to house
-urn = -umme, some, summe, thumb
-urs, burs emporium, curs, nurs, purs,
to purs reponere
-urst, burst, cnrst, worst
-use, bruise.
Chap. II. J 2. AUTHORITIES SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 41
1653-1699, 1 Protectorate — 11 William and Mary. Wallis^
John.
Joannis Wallisii Grammatica Lingvuae Anglicanae
Cvi praefigitur De Loqvela ; sive de sonorum omni\Tn
loquelarivm formatione : Tractatvs Grammaticc-Physi-
cvs. Editio Sexta. Accessit Epistola ad Thomam
Beverley ; de Mvtis Svrdisqve informandis. Londini,
excvdebat Gvil. Bowyer, prostant apvd A. Millar,
1765. First edition 1653, second 1664, sixth 1699, the
Oxford reprint of this edition 1765. The latest edition
shews no variation in pronunciation from the second.
"Wallis was born at Ashford in Kent 1616, and died in 1703.
In 1649 lie was appointed Savilian Professor of Geometry at Oxford.
During the civil war he made himself useful to the parUamentary
party by decypheiing letters in secret characters. JSis chief fame
rests on his mathematical powers.
The introductory treatise on sound is of gi'cat importance, and
estabhshes with much certainty the meaning of every symbol used.
He did not attempt an alphabet, and consequently did not wiite
out complete passages according to the pronunciation, which is
gi-eatly to be regretted. This work is the chief authority for the
middle of the xvn th century.
1668, 9 Charles II. Will-ins, John.
An Essay towards a Real Character, And a Philosophical
Language. Folio.
"Wilkins was bom in j^^orthamptonshire 1614, and was therefore
older than WalHs, although his work was not pubhshed till much
later. His father was a goldsmith at Oxford. He gi^aduated at
Oxford 1631, and was made warden of Wadham CoUege, Oxford, in
1648, jusf before WaUis came to Oxford. The two must have been
well acquainted, and were among the original promoters of the
Royal Society. In 1668 he was made Bishop of llipon. He died
1672.
In this curious work, there is a very good Enghsh treatise on
phonetics. He used a complete phonetic alphabet, and wrote the
Lords prayer and Creed in his character, reproduced in palaeotype,
below Chapter IX, § 1.
The alphabetical scheme on p. 358 of his work when translated
into palaeotype will read thus —
(k g qh q kh gh ho
t d nh n th dh Ih 1 rh r sh zh s z jh i e a a
p b mh ni f V wh u o y)
The short sound of (o) is not recognized ia EngHsh. Long vowels
are imperfectly represented by accents. Confusing, as so many have
done, (j w) with (i u) he writes (i-i i-u u-u u-i) for (ji ju wu wi).
42 AUTHORITIES — SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. CuAP. II. § 2.
1668, 9 Charles II. Price, Owen.
Euj^lish Urthographic or The Art of right apetling, read-
iiig, proHOinirintj, and tcriting all sorts of Eiujliah Words.
Wh erein Such, as one can possibly mistake, are digested
in an Alpliabetical Order, under their several, short, yet
plain Rules. Also some Rules for the points, and pro-
nunciation, and the using of the great letters. Together
■WITH The difference between words of like sound. All
which are so suited to every Capacitie, that he, who
studies this Art, according to the Directions in the
Epistle, may be speedih', and exactly grounded in the
whole Language. Oxford 4to. The author's name is
given on the authority of the British Museum copy in
which it is pencilled.
As intei-prc'tfd by Wallis and ^llkins, tliis book is of great use
in discriiiiiuating the exact sounds of the different vowel digraphs
in the xvii th centuiy, fuiTushiug almost a pronouncing vocabulary
of the period. The author was probably a Welshman.
1669, 10 Charles II. Holder, William, D.D., F.R.S.
Elements of Speech, an Essay of Inquiry into the
natural production of Letters with an aj^pendix concern-
ing persons Deaf and Dumb. 8vo.
Reprinted by Isaac Pitman, 1865. I^ot a very important ti'eatise for
our purpose, but useful in helping to fix some of the vowel sounds.
1677, 18 Charles II. Poole, Josua.
The English Parnassus : Or a Help to English Poesie.
Containing a Collection of all the Rhj'thming Mono-
syllables, &c. 8vo.
Kot much confidence can be placed on the classifications of words,
though they are not so pxirely orthographical as AViUis's. Thus
base, bat/s, blaze, case, are made to rhyme ; calf, half, Ralph are
entered both under afe and alfe; Alice, else, ails, balls, wliich cer- •
tainly never rhymed, are placed together ; similarly ant, aunt, pant,
vaunt, leant ; words with ee and simple e are separated from words
with ea, so that the different uses of ea are not shown ; and so on.
The list seems to be rather one of allowable, than perfect rhymes,
and consequently is of little sen'ice.
1685, 1 James II. Cooper, C, A.M.
Grammatica Linguae Anglicanoo. Peregrinis eam ad-
discendi cupidis 2^crnecessaria, nee non Anglis prnecipue
scholis, plurimum profatura. Cum Pr<efatione & Iiidice, in
quibus, quid in hoc libello perficitur, videatur. London,
16mo.
The first 94 pages, out of the 200 which this book contains, are
devoted to a consideration of the sounds of speech, and pecuHaiities
Chap. II. § 2. AUTflORITIES — SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 43
of ortliograpliy and prommciation, -with long lists of words contain-
ing the several vowel sounds, "which render it of great use for the
deteiTuination of the pronunciation of the xvii th century. I am in-
dehted to Mr. J, Payne, of the Philological Society, for my aci^uaiat-
ance with this valuable work.
1688, 3 James II. Micge, Guy, gent.
The Great French Dictionary. In Two parts. The
first French and English ; the second English and
French ; according to the Ancient and Modern Ortho-
graphy. Fo. London.
There is much valuable infonnation prefixed to each English
letter and digraph, concerning the customary pronunciation, written
in French.
1700, 12 William and Mary. Lane, A.
A Key to the Art of Letters ; or, English a Learned
Language, Full of Art, Elegancy and Variety. Being
an Essay to enable both Foreiners, and the English
Youth of either Sex, to speak and write the English
Tongue well and learnedly, according to the exactest
Rules of Grammer .... London, 24mo, pp. xxiv, 112.
A meagre treatise on Grammar by way of question and answer,
in which 16 pages are devoted to spelling. The vowels are six,
y being admitted and w excluded, although it is said that "we
usually sound w like the vowel u, and for the most part we
write it instead of u, in the middle and end of words, as in
Vowel, Law, Boio, etc.," and " when y begins a syllable, we sound
it as in the word yea, and then it is a real Consonmit ; eveiy-
where else it is a vowel, and is sounded like i ; and is always
written at the end of words instead of i, as in my, thy, i&c." The
liquids are three, m being excluded "because a Mute before it can-
not, without force, be sounded with it in the same Syllable with
the Voicel after it." This should imply that n can be so sounded,
and hence that h, g were pronounced in knot, gnat. The change of
ti- before a vowel into (sh) is not recognized ; "we sound ti before
a Vowel, like si, as in the word Relation.'''' The following assertion
and its justification are curious: " E Servile is of gi'cat iise m the
English Tongaie ; for by its help we can borrow the most significant
and useful Words fi'om other Languages, to inrich our own ; and so
far disguise and transfoiTQ them into good English, that others can-
not lay claim to them as theirs ; as for Example, these Latin words,
Candela, Vinea, Linea, Brutum, Centrum, are made good English,
by the help of e Servile, thus ; a Candle, a Vine, a Line, a Brute,
a Centre. Q. THiat need is there to disguise words borrowed from
other Languages ? A. It is necessary to disguise Words bon-owcd
from other Languages, because no free People should have a Poreign
Face on their current Words, more than on their current coin, both
being Badges of Conquest or Slavery.'" The following is a curious
4-t AUTHORITIES — SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. Chai-. II. ^ 2.
conceit : " E Sttli/unctiie is written at the end of a -word after a
single Consonant, to make the single J^oicel before it long
E ^Subjunctive is really sounded with the single Vowel before the
Consonant, and so ma'ki-s the Suhjunrtire or latter Fowel of a Diph-
thong : otherwise it could not make the iSyllahlc long, as in the
words, Fire, more, pale, read, Fier, moer, pael^ Tliis leads us to
suppose that he said (fiior, mooor, peeol) ; the two former are com-
mon, the last is adduced by Cooper (p. 42).
This author is cited by the Expert Orthographist (p. 46). In
the title he is called, " M.A. late Master of the Free-School of Leo-
minster in Herefordshire, now Teacher of a private School at Mile-
end-green near istepneg.'" There is a certificate at the back of the
title from the Masters of Merchant-Taylors, Charterhouse, Christ's-
Hospital, and Westminster, in favour of the use of this book to " all
who desire to leam, pronounce, and write the English Tongue
exactly." It is, of course, dedicated to the young Duke of Glouces-
ter, and is of extremely Little use as regards pronunciation, but
belongs, like the following, to the x-vnth centuiy, whereas the
Expert Orthographist who cites it, belongs entii-ely to the xvin th
century.
1701, 13 William and Mary. Jones, John, M.D.
Practical Phonography : or, the New Art of Piglitly
Speling (sic) and. AVriting "Words by the Sound thereof.
And of Rightly Sounding and Reading Words b}' the
Sight thereof. Applied to The English Tongue. De-
sign'd more especially for the Vse and Ease of the Duke
of Glocester, (sic). But that we are lamentably disap-
pointed in our Joy and Hopes in him. Ey J. Jones,
M.D. You may read the Preface, where you have an
account of what the Book performs ; which ('tis hoped)
will not only answer Men' s Wishes, but exceed their
Imaginations ; that there could be such mighty Helps
contrived for Reading, Spelling, and Writing English,
rightly and neatly ; with so much Ease. London. 4to.
The above title is ti-anscribed from a copy I have in my posses-
sion. The Duke of " Glocester" refeiTed to, died 29th July, 1700,
aged 11. In the copy in the British Museum, dated 1704, of which
the whole text is identical with mine, the title nms thus —
"The New Art of Spelling. Design'd cliiefly for Persons of
Maturity, tcacliing them hoAV to spell and write Words by the
sound thereof, & to soimd & read words by the sight thereof,
rightly neatly and fixshionably. I. It wiU instruct any person
that can read & write to spell & wiite most languages that he
can speak & uses to read in a fcAV hours by a general rule con-
tained in two or thi'ce lines, & the use of a spelling alphabet,
which may be written on the 12th part of a sheet of paper to
cany about them. II. Short & easy directions whereby any
Chap. II. § 2. AUTHORITIES — SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
45
one may be taught to spell tolerably "well in a few days, & in
half a year's time may be perfected in the art of tnie spelling.
III. A child or any person who can read or write may by the
help of this book leam to spell & write perfectly in a small
time. IV. Rules for foreigners by which they may sweeten
tlieii' language, & directions how to invent a universal one.
Applied to the English Tongue by J. Jones, M.D."
^Notwithstanding the prolixity of the title it gives but a very
inadequate conception of the book, which is a sort of pronoimcing
dictionary arranged under the simple sounds and their various re-
presentations, in the form of a dialog-ue. Thus he asks "when is
the sound of a written aa, ah, ac, ad, ada, ac, ae, ag, agh, ah, aha,
ai, aia, aie, aig, aigh, al, alf, ana, ao, ap, ath, au, avc, aw, ay, ayo,
e, ea, ei, ena, exa, ey, ha, i, ia, ina, ioa, o, oa, ua, wa, wha?"
And to each of these questions he gives an answer, often containing
a long list of words, from which may be inferred, not always the
pronunciation generally received as best, but certainly the different
pronunciations which were more or less prevalent. This is in fact
the peculiar value of the book to those who seek to know how
people actually pronounced at the time when Dryden died (1700)
and Pope (b. 1688) was in his teens.
His single nile for spelling is as follows : — All Words which can
he sounded several ivays, must be toritten according to the hardest,
harshest, longest, and most unusual Sound. And the Spelling Alpha-
bet, spoken of on his second title, runs thus : —
The easier and
plensnnter
Sounds spoken
The harder
and harsher
Sounds written
A Spelling ALPHABET.
as in Clerk, Wagon
as in Cupid, Deputy
as in Haiton, Murther
as in Girl, Fagot, injure ..
as in he, Shire, IVomen ..
as in Clyster, Norwich
as ia Banhury
as in hik, sink
as in to. Bull
as in Bench, Issue
as in Thomas
as in Face, Nepheiv
as in Evan, even, Sir, Son
as in Ease, cause
a
a
b
d
e
ee
g, ge
m
ng
00
sh
t
V
u
z
Then upon the principle of the gi'ammarian
Visum est Grammaticse metricis lenire laborcm Trseceptis,
he proceeds "for Memory's sake'' to reduce the abpve to verse.
Afterwards come long explanations of the use of this alphabet in
teaching spelling, the last of which is, as he says, "more a Shift
than a i?M^e,".and is simply this :
"When you are (notwithstanding all that is directed) in Doubt
of spelling a Word rightly, the last Shift will be to change the
46 AUTHORITIES — EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. CiiAP. II. § 3.
JJ'ord or Expression, so as to preserve the Sense or Jfeanin^ ; as
suppose thut you Ciuinot, or ai-e iu Duuht of .spelling the Word
Affiction, wnte Kindnfss, Love, Favour, &c. instead thereof;" ....
This was the " shift" employed in speaking by the deafmute Dr.
Kitto, when he wished to use words that he knew Avell by sight
but had never heard duiing his youth before the accident which
made him stone deaf. — Sec Kitto's Lost Senses.
This book closes the xvri th century and trenches on the xvrn th,
because the Author was compelled by his plan to introduce all the
most altered forms of speech as well as the least unaltered.
^ 3. Eighteenth Century.
1704, 3 Anne. Anonymous.
The Expert Orthographist : Teaching To "Write True
Englisli Exactly, By Rule, and not by Rote. According
to the Doctrine of Sounds. And By such Plain Ortho-
graphical Tables, As Condescend to the Meanest Capa-
city. The Like not Extant before. For the Use of
such "Writing and Charity Schools which have not the
Benefit of the Latin Tongue. By a Schoolmaster, of
above Thirty Years Standing, in London. Persons of
Quality may be attended at their Habitations ; Boarding
Schools may be taught at convenient times. London :
Printed for, and Sold by the Author, at his House at
the Blue-Spikes in Spread-Eagle-Court in Grays-Imi'
Lane. Where it is also Carefully Taught.
This little book, 8vo, 112 pages, for a knowledge of which I
have been indebted to Mr. Payne of the Philological Society, is full
of tables, but does not enter with sufficient minuteness into the
"Doctrine of Sounds" (which is paraded in capital letters in the
title page) to render delicate points at all appreciable. The great
peculiarity of the work is, that though it bears date 1704 the same
year as that on Jones's second title page, it belongs exclusively to
the xvra th century, and differs as much from Jones, as Hart from
Smith in the xvith centmy. Thus Jones only allows eighteen
words containing ea to be pronounced with (ii), this author (whom
I shall call the Orthographist) gives a list of 255 such words, and
allows only four words in ea, to have the sound of (ee), viz. bear s.
and v., swear, tear v., wear. Again, Jones distinctly as.serts that ei is
"never" pronounced (ii), the Orthographist gives ten words in
which ei is so spoken. These shew totally cUiFerent systems of pro-
nunciation. Dr. Jones was a physician, and hence we may better
trust his pronunciation than that of a visiting schoolmaster living in
a court turning out of Grays-Inn-Lane, who, attending " persons of
quality" woidd naturally adopt the thinnest pronunciation for fear
of beijig thought vulgar. The curious thing, however, is, that
though Dr. Jones cndeavoxired to collect, and did actually collect
Chap. II. § 3. AUTHORITIES — EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 47
a great variety of even ridiculous pronunciations, for the puipose of
assisting pronouncers of all kinds to spoil, he seems to be entirely
unconscious of these sweej)ing innovations, which ai'o valuable as
the foreshadows of coming events.
1710, 9 Anne. Anonymous.
A Short & easy Way for the Palatines to learn Eng-
lish. Oder eine kurze Anleitung zur englischen
Sprache zum Nutz der armen Pfalzer, nebst angehiing-
ten Englischen und Teutschen ABC. London, 8vo.
pp. 64 and 18.
A little tract in which the pronunciation of several words is ap-
proximatively given in German letters. The Upper Palatinate was
wasted by Louvois, general of Louis XIY. in 1688, and 5000 of the
distressed people for whom this tract was intended emigrated to
England in 1709.
1710, 9 Anne. Dijche, Thomas.
Guide to the English Tongue, London 12mo.
The pronunciation of nearly 200 words is imperfectly indicated
hy re-spelling them. E. Coote's English Schoolmaster 1673, which
is bound up in the same volume in the British Museum, and is often
refeiTed to, contains no infonnation on pronunciation. The four-
teenth edition of Dyche's Guide, 1729, also in the British Museum,
contains a few alterations, and has been chiefly followed.
1713, 12 Anne. Anonymous.
A Grammar of the English Tongue. With the Arts of
Logick, Rhetorick, Poetry, &c. Sixth edition. 8vo.
There is no date throughout the book, but as it is dedicated to
the Queen, and as the example given for finding " the Moon's Age
at any time," refers to 1 Jan. 1713, it was probably published
about that time. The first part, consisting of 52 pages is devoted
to Spelling and Pronunciation. The latter agrees almost exactly
with that of the Expert Orthographist (1704), but in the notes and
especially from p. 43 to 52, there is a translation of many of WaUis's
obsei-vations on phonetics and on English pronunciation, generally
without acknowledgement, and evidently in happy ignorance of the
fact that they belonged to a diflerent stage of pronouncing English,
and in several cases directly contradicted the rules which the author
himself had previously given. It is a mere compilation, but cor-
roborates other accounts of the xvm th century pronunciation.
1766, 7 George III. BucJinnan, James.
Essay towards establishing a standard for an elegant
and uniform pronunciation of the English Language,
throughout the British Dominions, A Work entirely
new ; and whereby every one can be his own private
48 AUTHORITIES — EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. CuAP. II. { 3.
teacher. Designed for the Use of Schools, and of
Foreigners as well as Natives, especially such whose
Professions engage them to speak in Public. Extera
quid quajrat sua qui Vernacula nescit ? As practised
by the Most Learned & Polite Speakers. London, 8vo.
Tills almost amounts to a pronouncing dictionary-, and like it,
aspires rather to lead than follow general usage. The pronunciation
it exhibits does not materially dittcr from that now heard, except
in admitting many usages as " learned and polite," which woidd
probably be considered much the contrary by modem Orthoepists.
The xviii th century pronunciation is fully established in this work.
But allowances must be made for certain Scotticisms, which will be
more particularly pointed out in Chapter X, § 3.
1768, 9 George III. Franhlin, Benjamin.
A Scheme for a New Alphabet & reformed mode of
Spelling, with Remarks & Examples concerning the
same, and an Enquiry into its Uses, in a correspondence
between Miss Stephenson & Dr. Franklin written in the
Characters of the Alphabet.
From the Complete Works in Philosophy, PoUtics, & Morals of
the late Benjamin Franklin; now fii'st collected and aiTanged, with
memoirs of liis early life, written by himself, 3 vols, London 8vo.
Johnson, 1806. Vol. ii. p. 357.
The preceding works from the time of Wilkins, exactly 100 years
previously, have furnished us with no connected specimen of English
speech. They have generally contented themselves with giving
lists of words illustrating particular usages. By this means the
whole pronunciation of a word had to be collected from different
lists, and some parts of it remained doubtful. This is not the case
in Buchanan's book, because he gives the pronunciation of every
part of the Avord. But even then the isolated words do not seem to
convey the same idea as connected sentences. The paper of Dr.
Franklin thorcfore, is very acceptable, and will be printed at length
in Chapter X, § 2. Being the pronunciation of a man of 62, who
had passed his life among colonial EngHsh, it has necessarily rather
an old appearance, and, notwithstanding the actual date, must be
considered as belonging to the earlier part of the xvin th century.
1780, 21 George TIL Sheridan, Thomas.
A General Dictionary of the English Language, One
main Object of which, is, to establish a jjlain and per-
manent Standard of Pronunciation. To which is pre-
fixed a Rhetorical Grammar. London, 4to.
This is the first of the modem aiTny of pronouncing dictionaries,
and indicates a pronunciation which only differs in isolated instances
from that now in use. It is therefore unnecessary to pursue the
list further.
49
CHAPTER III.
On the Pronunciatiox of English in the Sixteenth
Century, and its Gradual Change during the Seven-
teenth AND Eighteenth Centuries.
§ 1. Introduction.
The authorities enumerated in the preceding chapter,
enable us to form a tolerably correct conception of the pro-
nunciation of English during the xyi th century, and to note
the jDrincipal changes which it underwent in the xvii th and
XVIII th centuries. It is the object of this chapter to shew
as precisely as possible — although of course far from as pre-
cisely as desirable — what the pronunciation indicated for
each period really was. The results which have been given
by anticipation at the end of Chapter I, are arranged alpha-
betically. But it will be far more convenient to adopt a
different order in the present chapter, and revert to the
alphabetical in a subsequent recapitulation. See Chapter VI.
The principal authorities described in the last chapter
will be better appreciated by arranging them chronologically
in connection with the names of the contemporar}^ sovereigns
and the chief contemporary writers. Any statement can
thus be immediately referred to its proper political and
literary epoch.
It must be remembered that the authorities for a period
are necessarily somewhat more recent in date than the period
itself, for the account which an elderly man gives of j^ro-
nunciation refers in general to that which he acquired as a
youth. It is in most instances safe to assume that a man's
system of pronunciation is fixed at twenty to twentj^-five
years of age. The first ten years of his life are spent in
acquiring sounds from his nurse, his mother, and his family.
In the next ten, he is jostled with his schoolmates or work-
mates, and he will probably adapt his mode of speech to his
environment. After the mental faculties have matured, the
acquired habits have become settled, and the en\dronment
fixed at twenty to twenty-five, little change ma}^ be expected,
except ujider rare and peculiar circumstances. It is probable,
therefore, that each of the authorities on the next page, re-
fers to a pronunciation prevalent twenty or thii-ty years
before the actual date.
OO rilONrNfTATION IN XVI-XVIIITH CEXTURIKS. CiiAi'. 111. J 1.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF AUTHORITIES.
U.VTB
or
Authority.
Writebs.
SOTEBEIONS.
WOBK
For th
' Xrith Centtiry.
1530
I'ulsgravc, London
Lord Surrey, 1 5 1 6-46 1 509 Hen. YIII
Tpidak's Bible, 1535
1545
Mcigret, Lyons
Sydney 1544-86
1547
Saksbiny, Wales
Spenser 1553-98
1547 Edw. VI.
1550
iltigrct, Lyons
1555
Chcke, Cambridge
1558 EKzaheth
15G7
Saksbuiy, Wales
Shakspere 1564-1616
1568
Smith, Essex
1569
Hart
1570
Levins
157;)
liaict
Ben Jonson 1574-1638
1580
iJullokar
Massinger 1584-1640
Afilton 1608-1674
1603 James I
1611
Cotgravc
Authorized Version
1611
Elorio. Italy
[1611
1621
Gill, Lincobislm-e
Butler 1612-80
1625 Charles I
1633
Butler
For the XVII th Century.
1640
1646
1651
1653
1668
1668
1669
1685
1688
1701
Jonson, Westminster
Gatakcr
Willis, Middlesex
Wallis, Kent
Wilkins, Oxford
Price
Holder
Cooper
Miegc, France
Jones, Wales
Dryden 1631-1700
Pope 1688-1744
1649 Conimou-
[wealth
1660 Charles II
1685 James II
1688 Wm. Ill
1702 Anne
1704
1710
1766
17(58
1780
For the XVIIIth Century.
Expert Orthographist
Dyche
Buchanan, Scotland
Franklin, U.S.
Sheridan, Ireland
S. Johnson 1709-84
Goldsmith 1728-74
1714 George I
1727 George II
1760 George III
Chai'. III. § 2. COMBINED SPEECH SOUNDS. ol
§ 2. Combined Speech Sounds.
It is a favourite, and occasionally convenient theory, to
suppose that there are three principal vowels (a, i, ii), as
that there are three principal colours, or rather pigments,
blue, red, and yellow, whence the rest are formed by mixture.
Neither theory must be taken literally, or be supposed to
represent a fact in nature. Both partake of the same degree
of partial truth and complete error, as the still older theory
of the four elements. But as earth, water, air, fire, still re-
present solids, liquids, gases and chemical action, so the (a,
i, u) represent the most open position of the mouth with
respect both to tongue and lips, and the two most closed
positions with respect to tongue and lij)s respectively through
which a vowel sound can be produced. A vowel sound is
properly a musical tone with a definite quality or timbre,^
and, to be distinctly heard and recognized, the position of the
vocal organs must be kept fixed for an appreciable duration
of time, the longest time being really a small fraction of a
second.^ But vocal sounds may be also heard through
changing positions. These are the "glides,"^ which are
naturally generated in passing from any position of the
organs of speech to any other, while the vocal ligaments of
the glottis continue to act. The best mechanical illustration
of this efi^ect is obtained by sliding the finger down a violin
string, while the bow is kept in action. This glide is the
essence of all combination of vocal elements ; the cement, as
it were, which binds them into masses. In diphthongs, as
(ai, au), the action is most clear, and Mr. Melville Bell has
introduced a series of glide signs for exclusive use in diph-
thongs. But the same action is audible in (pa, ka), the
glide commencing with the loosening of the contact, and
continuing until the full sound of (a) is produced. It is this
glide which alone gives sound and meaning to the (p, k).
In palaeot}^e the isolated letters all mark fixed positions,
whether initial or final, and their combination indicates the
glide occurring between them, in addition to their own value,
unless a comma (,) be interposed, which cuts out the glide,
and thus distinguishes the dissyllable (u,i) French oui, from
the monosyllable (ui) French oui, which again must be dis-
^ This is Sir Charles Wheatstone's deliberately three times, and rapidly,
theory, subsequently verified by Prof. four times in a second.
H. Ilelmholtz, Die Lehre von den ^ This phonetic term was introduced
Tonempfindungen,"2nded. 1865, p. 163. and explained by myself. Universal
^ The word eat, although contain- Writitig and Printing, 1856, p. 6, col.
ing a long vowel, can be pronounced 2,andjE'«^/wAJ'Ao«e<w*, 1854, p.8, §61.
52 COMniXED SPEECH SOUNDS. Chap. III. ^ 2.
■tinguished carefully from the monosyllable (wii), English tee,
whore the first element is a buzz and not a vowel. This
convention in notation will be strictly carried out and should
be carefullv observed by the reader. As a necessary conse-
quenco (aa, nn, ss) represent prolonged (a, n, s), but (a,a,
n,n, s,s) rrpcafcd (a, n, s). The prolongation of consonantal
sounds may appear strange, but if unoicncd is compared with
laik/ioini, or nii.ssi/r with niis.sciif, it will be readily perceived
that the (n, s) in the second of each pair is really prolonged,
thus (on,oond' onnoon", m/s'/l m^'ssent"), and that the ortho-
graphy (on,noon*, m*s,sent') would not quite meet the latter
case, as there is no cessation of sounds, no ending of the one
(n, s) and beginning of the following. Again, in comparing
open opening ; sfab/c stabling, schism schismatic (oop'un oop'n/q ;
stf6'bdl st('fb'l/q, s<z*mm s/zmaet'/k), the greater length of
sound of (n,l,m) in the first three words over that which it
has in the second three, will be apparent. Generally, how-
ever, it is sufficient to mark (oop'n, st-^rb'l, s/z'm), because
the effort to pronounce (n, 1, m) independently of any follow-
ing A'owel will necessarily lengthen the sound. But that
some attention to this difference is occasionally necessary, is
shown by such French words as stab/e, schisme, which French
orthoepists also mark (stabl, sliizm), although their sound is
not at all (stabll, shizmm), but either (stabl', shizm') with the
faintest vowel murmur following, thus making (1, m) initial
and consequently shortening the sound, or (stablh, shizmh)
with an entire remission of the vocal murmur. In palaeotj^e
the distinction will often be made thus : English (st^t^b'l,
s/z'm), French (stabl', shizm'), so that ('1, 'm, 'n) = (ll,mm,nn).
The glide which connects two vocal elements has a ten-
dency, to draw those elements into nearer relation than they
would have had if pronounced apart ; that is, as in the course
of speech it is necessary to pass rapidly from one position of
the vocal organs to the other without intermitting the voice,
the two positions naturally draw nearer to each other. It
has lonj; been observed that certain vowels afiect certain
consonants. Thus, in Polish, it is laid down as a rule in
language, that " hard consonants when brought by inflection
or derivation before high vowels are changed into softer or
weak consonants."^
The other Sclavonic languages have similar rules. In the
Gaelic lano:uao:e there is also a division of vowels into broad
a, o,u, and.sw«//e,i — "leathan agus cao/" — with the celebrated
rule which so singularly influences their orthography, " broad
' J. liieniacH. Tlieoretisch-praktische Grammatik der polnischen Sprache,
Chap. III. § 2. COMBINED SPEECH SOUNDS. 53
to broad and small to small, — leathan ri leatlian, an 'us caol
ri caol."^ Of course, this rule only indicates a change of the
intermediate consonant in actual speech. In German we
find ach, loch with one sound of eh (kh), ich, dcht, eucJi, lochcr,
tuchcr with another (/.'h), and auck, tuch with a third (k?ch),
thus (akh, lokh ; iAh, e/.ht, oi/rh, loeZh'er, tyy/^h'er ; auk?<;k,
tuuk^rh) ; so that the Germans find a natural character in this
change. But no such change occurs in Dutch, or in Swiss
patois, which do not possess (Zh). Again, a modern Greek
informs me that (kh) is always replaced by {kh) in his lan-
guage, whatever be the adjacent vowel. This seems also to
have been the case in old Sanscrit, where (/.h) has given way
to (sh), just as most Englishmen hear a Saxon say (/r'/sh-
mishn?'sht) for (ir i/th mi/th niA'ht) irr' ich mich nicht, (d^Msh)
for (durAh). The old Germans had also a feeling of attrac-
tion in the vowel sounds in succeeding syllables, as zahn
zdhne, fusz fiisze, hock bocke, mann manner, (tsaan tsEE'ne, fuus
fyyse, bok boekv, man mEn*er) which the moderns have lost,
and which is simply unintelligible in the modern English
tooth teeth, foot feet, man men, (tuuth tilth, iut fiit, macn men).
The initial consonant is in European languages mostly
altered to suit the following vowel. "We are familiar with
the change of sound of c in the first and second syllable of
cancel = (kaen'sel), and are accustomed to regard it as a me-
chanical rule of pronunciation, whereas it is the modern pro-
duct of an action of a vowel on the preceding consonant.
Sometimes the action takes place by an apparent desire to
avoid this attraction. Most persons are familiar with (/^aa-id,
(/aajd) for card, (juard, but few are aware that it was through
a precisely similar change that Latin cantus, camjjus fell
through (Aant, A-amp) into French chant, champ, both being
now (shaA). In Arabic, however, the vowel yields to the
consonant, and it is chiefl3^ by the " widening" of the follow-
ing vowel, properly due to extending the pharynx for the
1837, p. 8. The division of vowels and consonants referred to is, in palaeotype
deep vowels (a, aA, e, o, wh, y, u)
high vowels (e, eA, e, e, o, i, ..)
hard consonants ( b d g h kh k ^ ni n p r s t bh z )
softer (.. dz dz zh sh ts rz sh ts .. zh)
weak (bj dzj zh sj sj tsh Ij mj nj pj .. sj tsj bjh zj)
Such a combination as (/i) is impossible to a Pole, Avho is compelled to say
either [Iy) or (Iji).
^ This is thus explained in J. Forbes's same cla-ss, i.e. both broad or both
Double Grammar of English and Gae- small ; as cadfag, a girl, icorag, a
lie, 1843, p. 28: "In words of more squirrel. It would be false orthogra-
than one syllable, the last vowel of phy to write words thus : cat'lag,
each preceding syllable, and the Jirst feor-eag, cui'-lag, Iwr-eag, cir-adh,
of each succeeding one must be of the b«rreadh."
54 COMBINED SPEECH SOUNDS. Chap. III. ^ 2.
pronunciation of the consonant, that an Englishman distin-
y;uishos Arabic Is ^J> ^ li:, whatever sounds Arabic scholars
may finally agree that the latter symbols represent, from
(t d s z).' The rounding of the lips has often a similar effect
in English, as in ic/tr, iraii, ichat, irash, squall, = (wA.vi, WAn
won, whAt whjt, WAsh wosh, sk«A.\l).
A final consonant may peld to the vowel, or force the
vowel to consort with it. Both cases are common, the
French f(tit as derived from Ijdiim. factum shews both effects.^
In English, and also in French, (1, r, r, .i) have had very
disturbing effects on the preceding vowel. But the greatest
changes ensue when two vowels come together, first as pure
diphthongs, and afterwards degenerating into a single derived
vowel sound. It is precisely because (1, .i) are so vowel-like
ill sound that they react so strongly on the preceding vowel.
Glides and mutual actions do not occur only between two
vowels or vowel and consonant, but are. also frequent between
two consonants, and are especially marked where one is a
mute Tp t k), or sonant (b d g), and the other continuous. lu
German the sound (ts) initial is a true dijihthong, like (tsh)
initial in English. Many writers have considered (tsh, dzh)
initial to be simple sounds in English, while (tsh, dzh) final
as in waich, grudge, are generally recognized to be com-
pounds. This is exjjlained by a consideration of the nature
of a syllable.
■ "When a number of pure vowels come together with glides
between them, it may so happen that there is a gradual
change from a close to an open, an open to a close, or a
close to an open and thence to another close position, as
in (ia, ai, iai), or (ua, au, uau), or (iau, uai), etc. In all
these cases the ear recognizes one undivided group {avWa/3r})
or syllable. But if the transition be from open to close and
thence to open, as (aua, aia), the ear immediately recognizes
two groups or syllables, and the division between them is
felt to be the moment of the smallest opening of the vocal
organs, thus in (aua) the syllable does not divide before or
after (u), but during the pronunciation of the pure (u) as
held fixed without any precedent or subsequent glide from
or to the (a). There is in this case a decided interval between
tlie two glides. In attempting to make the separation of the
groups more evident, a speaker would either simply prolong
(u), thus (auua), or prolong it with, a cessation of force in
^ See (t th. d dh s z) ia the palaco- forms seem to have been (fakt, fa/tt,
tj-pic alphabet. fai/<rt, fait, feet). The form (fai/tt) pro-
* Oniitting the last syllable, the bably originated the old spelling /aicf.
Chap. III. § 2. COMBINED SPEECH SOUNDS. 55
the middle, which might be expressed by (au-ua), or would
absolutely pause and thus repeat the (u), as au,ua). In this
way orthographers, by separating the glides, arrive at the
conception of doubling the letter which indicates the smallest
opening. This, however, becomes more strongly marked
when the division of the two glides is a mere buzz, as (ava),
or sonant as (aba), or mute as (apa), for in these cases pro-
longation being either difficult or impossible, the ortho-
grapher, trying to ascertain the letters, says (av,va, ab,ba,
ap,pa), and by thus separating the glides, actually alters the
whole character of the word. In the English and other
Teutonic languages real cases of prolonged medial consonants,
or really separated glides, are rare, not occurring except in
compound words or connected words, compare soappot, hoot-
tree, bookcase, penknife, till late, till eight. Miss Smith, yes sir,
etc} Hence these nations readily adopted a system of
doubled consonants for those cases where the first glide was
unmistakeable ; that is, where the first vowel being short
and accented, it was difficult to leave out the glide and pro-
nounce it independently of the vowel ; for example (a,ba) is
more difficult than (ab,a).^ The doubling of consonants came
finally to be considered the mark of a short accented vowel,
and is so consistently applied by Rapp,-^ who, adopting the
usual German grammatical term, calls this efiect a " sharpen-
ing" {schdrfunrj) of the vowel. But Orrmin had used the
same means of indicating short vowels even in unaccented
sj'llables, in the first attempt at a regular English ortho-
graphy, and lays the greatest stress upon this mode of mark-
ing short vowels.*
To continue the theory of the syllable. The separation
can be made, as we have seen, by a buzz, whisper, sonant, or
mute, as well as by a vowel, and several of these being inter-
posed, the syllable divides on the least vocal or narrowest
aperture. Thus in icatching (wAtsh/q), the syllable divides
1 Many speakers say (pen-«f ) for vowel as could be used at the begin-
(pen-naif), waiters are apt to fall into ning of a word, — except in the case of
(jesM) for (jes-sj), and few care to manifest compoimds — to belong- to the
distinguish Miss Smith from Miss Myth syllable containing that vowel, thus
(missmjth-, m?s,m('th-). In such a rfwci>//«e ieytX^, he would divide d/,s«",-
common name no mistake is likely, but plm be.gKj). Such divisions are mere
would Miss Stent/ be distinguished matters of practice, and are beside the
from 3riss Terry, or Miss Stent from scientific investigation of the natural
Miss Tent, real names from the London division of words into groups of sounds.
Directory ? ^ ^- Sapp. Yersuch ciner Physiolo-
2 Mr. 'Melville BeU finds the division gie der Sprache, 1836-1841.
(a,ba) quite as easy as (ab,a), and hence * See the passage from the Orrmu-
always considers so much of the con- lum quoted in Chapter V, § 2.
sonantal group which precedes any
56 COMBINED SPEECH SOUNDS. CuAl'. III. ^ 2.
between the glide from (.\) to (t), and the glide, in this case
non- vocal, from (t) to (sh). The orthographer dividing the
syllables tlien says (\VAt,tsh/q), and hears tirst a (t) and then
his presumed simple sound (tsli) ; whence the orthography
tch, which never occurs initially. Between ch in chin, and
tch in icatchinfj, there is this difference, that in (tsh/n) there
is only the glide from (t) to (sh), but in (wAtsh/q) there is
also the glide from (a) to (t). The palaeotypic orthography
(wAtsh/q) implies all this, for to remove the last named glide
in the last word we must write (wA,tsh/q).
In (wAtsh) we have the same eflfect of the (t) with its
double glide, but as the second glide is entirely uuvocal, the
ear does not recognize a distinct group, and hence receives
(wAtsh) as a single group or monos341uble. Indeed so little
is a final whisper accounted, that it is generally introduced
in English after final mutes, to give them the double glide
and make them more audible ; thus W((t ! would be uttered
(WAt* !) not (WAti) as we shoidd be almost forced to write
if we wished to imply the absence of the (*). In the word
act (x'kt*) we have first a mute (k) with only a precedent
glide, so that the (t) would be inaudible without the (').
But to say (a^k'f) would be unpleasant and aSectedly pe-
dantic. This mode of overcoming a difficulty, which is so
common and natural in Teutonic nations, is unknown in the
Romanic or Semitic. The French say (akt'), or in poetry
(aktc>), and are inclined even to (ak't'). The Italians assi-
milate the (k) to the (t), and dividing the glides say (at,to).
The consequence is that consonants have more weight in
Romanic than in Teutonic tongues, and not only cannot so
many be pronounced in succession, but when two consonants
that cannot be pronounced as an initial combination follow a
vowel, they necessarily lengthen the syllable — not the vowel,
as grammarians erroneously assert.
The hisses are never felt to produce new groups, and hence
are added on with the greatest liberality before as well as
after close positions. Thus wrists, scrips, (r/sts, skr/ps),
and in Polish szczkac (shtshkatsj), to hiccough, in which we
have a frequent combination (shtsh) containing one stop (t),
preceding the stop (k) with the same ease to a Pole, as the
simple (sh) before (t) and (p) in stehen, sprec/icn, (shtee,en,
shprc/ih'fn) presents to a German or Englishman, who are
unaware of the difficulties which such combinations oficr
to Frenchmen and Italians, and to Arabs, whose easy sounds
are in turn a very shibboleth to Europeans.
The division of syllables to the eye is therefore a great
Chap. III. § 2. COMBINED SPEECH SOUNDS. 57
difficulty, unless some mark be placed over or under the
letter of division, or unless this mark, placed for conveni-
ence of printing before or after the letter of division, is to be
understood as merely pointing that letter out. Thus writing
the hyphen as usual for this purpose, (wA-tshz'q) or (wat-sh/q)
might be used, but the latter is objectionable as it divides
a very close glide. In palaeotype it is not necessary to
divide syllables, and when they are divided in speech, the
consonants are really doubled, as alread}^ mentioned, thus
(wAt,tsh2q). "When the accent mark is written in palaeotype
it is generally placed where it is convenient to the printer or
writer, but as it forms a break to the eye it should not be
interposed between close glides, so that either (wA'tsh/q) or
(wAtshv'q) is preferable to (wAt'sh/q).
Unaccented short vowels do not generally glide on to the
following consonant ; but this follows them legato (smoothly)
and not staccato (abruptly), to use musical terms. Thus in
event, society, (i,vent', so,s9i",e,t/) we have in English no glides
— although it is seldom necessary to indicate their absence
as above. On the other hand, the absence of marked accent
in French makes the glide distinct, as in evenemcitt, societe
(cven'maA, sosi,ete). Grammarians, as usual, do not recog-
nize these distinctions.
A short accented vowel is in English always followed by a
consonant on to which it glides, almost before it begins to be
heard ; whereas a long accented vowel can be distinctly
heard before the glide to the consonant. Consequently the
glide with us affects the short more than the long vowel.
One result of this is that English long and short accented
vowels do not form precise pairs. Thus peat pit, gate get,
father gather, sought sot, pool pull = (piit p/t, ^eei get, faadh-i
gasdh'j, sAAt sot, puul ped). The distinction is here made
clear to the eye. The vowel {po^) docs not occur as a short
vowel in closed syllables in recognised English, but hole whole
are not unfrequently distinguished as (hooI, hoI). The long
vowels {ee, 06) are also very frequently pronounced {ee\, oow.)
or iee''-^, 00' w) with a faintly indicated (i, u), following them
with the utmost rapidity just as the sound is expiring. It
is only before the letter r (j) that this effect is generally
avoided, and then the vowel sounds are changed, thus more,
Mar//, door, glory are properly (meeJ, ]Mee.i-r/, doo.i, gloorri),
although (moo'j, IsLee-'ri, doo'j, gloo-'ri) and even (Mee-ri,
gho'ri) are sometimes heard. This diversity of long and short
vowels, similar to that which probably prevailed in Greece
when the distinctions rj e,<oo were introduced, while no written
58 COMBINED SPEECH SOUNDS. CilAP. III. ^ 2.
difforenco was made between a i v lonj> and short, serves
to mark the diilerence between svlhibles witli Ion": and short
vowels very elearly. It* a tbreij^ner neglects the distinction we,
in the ignorance of our ears, often accuse him of lengthening
the vowel, thus we write his ^^//y (pit'i) as pcetee, confounding
it with (pii'tii), and we make a Scotchman speak of his meenis-
tcrr and his huok (mii'n/ste.r, buukj when he only says
(min'/ste.r, buk) in place of our (mm*/stJ, hiik). Most of the
old English writers thought that the vowel sounds in bite hit
formed a pair, and we shall find Sir T. Smith completely
puzzled with the English cc (ii) of which he knew no short
sound. In languages like the Italian, where the short and
long vowels exist in perfect pairs (ii i, ee e, ee e, aa a, oo o,
iinh. uh., uu u) the distinction of long and short vowel is not
much perceived, except before separated glides or doubled
consonants, as they are termed, and consequently no necessity
for indicating them orthographically has been felt. In
Italian also, final short accented vowels occur unprotected by
a following consonant, as cittd amo cid (tshit,ta' amo* tsho")
which however take a doubled consonant when followed by
an enclitic syllable as amovvi (amov,vi).
These different usages are important to be allowed for,
when we derive the pronunciation of any language through
the obsci'vations of one who is not a native, lie necessarily
hears the sounds incorrectly and imitates them at first, if not
always, with more or less reference to those with which he
is familiar. Those Englishmen who hear a Scot or German
say (man, raan), hear the words as either (moen) or (mon),
sounds which being unfamiliar to the Scot and German are
liable to sound in their ears as (mEn, mon).^ It is this dif-
ficulty in appreciating foreign sounds which renders the use
of any imiversal system of wi'iting so difficult. Yet indistinct
and imperfect as a foreigner's accounts must necessarily be,
it is almost entirely by their means that we are able 'to
arrive at a conception of the old sounds of our language. It
^ An amusing instance of the diffi- intended to mean (bakhshiish-), itself
culty of hearing foreign sounds is an error for (hakrhshiish-). Tliis letter
quoted in Max Mliller's Lectures on (krh) ^ is almost invariably con-
the Science of Language, 2nd series, foiuuled w'ith (k) by Englishmen.
1864, p. 169, fi-om Marsh's Lectures, Similarly, if an Englishman asks a
and taken by him from " Constantino- Saxon to repeat after him I had a hat
pie and its "Environs, by an American on mij head, instead of (oi iix'd o HcTet
long resident," Xew York, 1835, ii. 151. on moi Hcd) he will probably obtain (ai
The writer is certain that he spells at iiEtaiiEt on mai UEt), where the three
least one word correctly, for it had English unusual sounds (lucd Ha;t Hcd)
been so impressed on his mind ; this are reduced to the one common Ger-
word is bactshtasch ! letters which man (uEt) =/ia7<'.
ought to mean (ba;ktshta?sh), but were
Chap. III. § 3. A — XVI TH CENTURY. 50
is the foreigner who generally wants to have the sounds
explained, and we find the writers of pronouncing diction-
aries of English to be mainly Welsh, Scotch, Irish, American,
French, and German. Those early English writers who
gave an account of our pronunciation had not studied the
nature of spoken sounds sufficiently to refer them to an}^ fixed
positional scale, such as we now j)0ssess in Visible Speech.
Hence they illustrated them as they best could by reference
to other tongues ; frequently indeed by Latin and Hebrew,
which being very differently pronounced in different countries
gave but an indifferent clue. It is only by making allow-
ances for old habits, that we can hope to arrive at an ap-
proximate conception of the sounds they had in their mind.^
It is not therefore to be expected that we can assign the
older pronunciation of our language with anything like the
minute accuracy with which the modern pronunciation of
English can be indicated by means of Palaeotype and Visible
Speech. We can, however, approximate to the sounds so
nearly that one who thus pronounced them would appear to
utter familiar words in perhaps rather a singular manner, but
not so strangely by far as a foreigner's attempts at modern
English, or as the modern English would have sounded in
the ears of our ancestors.^
§ 3. The Vowels.
A — XVI TH Century.
1530. Palsgbave says: "The soundyng of a, whiche is most
generally vsed through out the frenche tonge, is suche as we vse
with vs, where the best englysshe is* spoken, whiche is lyke as the
ItaUans soimde a, or they with vs, that iDronounce the latme tonge
aryght."
The Italians at present always say (a), and never {a). The
French at present generally say (a) but sometimes (a). The
reference to Latin, as pronounced "aryght" ought to imply
the existence of another English pronunciation in common
use, which was not (a). This wrong pronunciation we have
no means of eliciting. Then again the English pronuncia-
tion referred to is a theoretical standard, " where the best
1 The key-words in Visible Speech, who saw them would liavc read (wan
p. 94, are pronounced differently bv Mr. totsh ov n«e-tshj), sounds which would
Melville Boll and myself, (p. 25, ii. 1.) have probably been unintelligible to
2 Y\Tiile writing this I saw the thcii- author (Shaksperc, T. «fe C. iii, 3,
words "One touch of nature," pla- 175), who would have certainly under-
carded on the streets of London, as stood (oon tutsh ov naa-tyjT), strange
the name of a drama. Most of those as this may now seem to our ears.
GO A — XVI TII CEXTUKY. Chap. III. j 3.
cnglysshe is spoken," implying that tliere was anotlier pro-
nunciation which Palsgrave did not approve of. The only clear
result we obtain is negative, — the long sound was certainly
not that now in use in England, " where the best englyssho
is spoken," that is not (ce, (<■, cvi). But could we trust Pals-
grave to have heard the ditlerencc between (od, a, a), or if he
had heard it, to have thought it worth noting ? In the next
century at k'ast AVallis heard the French a as (a), and Ave
know that even at the beginning of the present century the
French Emigres heard the English a in r/U as their a, and
gave that as the French sound in their Grammars. "Walker
gives (iikLvA*) as the pronunciation of eclat, though Smart
writes (ccklaa'), the Frenchmen Feline^ and Tarver giving
(ekla).
The sound {a) is more marked and was probably more
ancient than the finer sound (a), for which the tongue has to
be raised from a " low back" to a " mid back" position.' It
is very possible that the French may have used (r/) and have
subsequently refined it into (a). It is very probable that
the Anglosaxons used {a), as the present Germanic nations,
and the Scotch, have still a great tendency so to do. Perhaps
one of the sounds {a, r/h, a) was the faidty pronunciation of
the Latin a, to which Palsgrave objected. Either {a) or (a)
is still used in Scotch Latin. It is not likely that at so early
a period the verj^ thin (go), — a sound which Englishmen from
historical tradition connect with (a), but which foreigners
consulting their ears, refer to (e, e) — was recognized as the
use of those who spoke English best. It seems safest to con-
clude that Palsgrave, living in the latter part of the xv th
and early part of the xvi th century, recognized (aa) long
and (a) short as the best pronunciation of English a, and
that he would at any rate have accepted that pronunciation.
This view is confirmed by Gilles du Guez's account of French
pronunciation, probably printed in 1532, and reprinted at
the end of the French reprint of Palsgrave. He says : " Ye
' Walker's Pronouncing Bictionary, ciplcs of the French pronimciation,
and Smart's Walker Remodelled, are developed in a short treatise by J. C.
well kno-n-n. Adrien Feline, Diction- Tarver, French Master, Eton, London,
naire de la pronunciation de la (Longman) 1847, C. G. Jobert's Collo-
lan^e Franfaise, indiquee au moyen quial French, London, ("N^liittaker)
de caracteres phonetiques precede d'un 1854, and Theriat's Le Phonographe
memoire sur la reforme de 1' alphabet. ou la Prononciation Fran(jaise rendue
Paris, 1851. This and Tardy' $ Expla- facile a tons les etrangcrs, Paris, (chez
natory pronouncing dictionary of the les auteurs, rue de I'Ouest, 11,)' 1857,
French language in French and Eng- are the best guides to modem French
lish, wherein the exact sound and ar- pronunciation that I have seen,
ticulation of every syllable are dis- ^ These technical terms are explained
tinctly marked, according to the prin- in the introduction p. 13.
Chap. III. § 3. A — XVI TH CENTURY. 61
shal pronounce your a as wyde open mouthed as ye can,"
which ought to make French a = («) ; " your e, as ye do in
latyn, almost as brode as ye pronounce your a in englysshe."
This makes French e = (eJ, and proves that English a was
not (ae), because Gilles du Guez, as a Frenchman, would not
have distinguished (e, ae). Neither du Guez nor Palsgrave
separate the close from the open French e (e, e) which
Meigret has found necessary to distinguish by two signs.
Gilles du Guez was French master to Henry VIII. and his
daughter, afterwards Mary I.
1567. Salesbury says of the Welsh sound of a that " it
hath the true pronunciation of « in Latin," meaning of course
/lis pronunciation of that letter, and that it is never sounded
" so fully in the mouth as the Germaynes sound it in this
word nrrgcn." He also distinguishes it clearly from (a) with
a following (u) or (i). This distinction, hereafter considered,
leads me to suppose that his Welsh a was neither (a) nor
(oe), and consequently that it was then true (a). The con-
clusion is not very safe, because certainly, in the next century,
Wallis makes the AVelch a very " thin," that is closer than
(a), and probably (03), a sound said to be often heard in
Wales to this day.^
1547. Salesbury heard no difference between the English
and Welsh a, whether long or short. He says : —
" A in ErigHsh is of the same sound as « in Welsh, as is e^'idcnt
in these words of English ale, aal, cervisia, paxe, paal, sale, s«^."
It is not usual in Welsh orthography to distinguish the
long and short vowels, although Grammarians say that
the former have an acute accent mark. In his account
of English pronunciation, Salesbury does not always dis-
criminate the long vowel, though, as here, he occasionally
doubles the vowel sign to represent length, and doubles
the consonant sign to imply the brevity of the preceding
vowel. We must not suppose, however, that where he has
neglected to double either, the sound was necessarily
either long or short. 'No doubt sale was (aaal), if ale, pale
were (aal, paal). Again he writes narrw and spano for
narroice, sjxirroive, although no doubt the consonant was not
^ During a short residence in An- monly heard in Monmouthshire, just
glesea about ten years ago, I did not bordering on those Western English
recognize (to) as in general use in counties where (a>) prevails. A gentle-
Welsh, although I was familiar with man from Cardigan when asked to
the sound, both long and short, from name the first letter in the Welsh al-
having resided two years in Bath, phabet, naturally called it (xx), though
where (ijese) is the regular sound of a three other Welsh gentlemen present
long, as (Bteseth, kteswd). I have at the same time said (aa).
since been informed that it is com-
02
A — XVT TH CENTURY.
Chap. III. ^ 3.
really doubled in cither and the vowel was short in both.
Numerous examples of such carelessness occur in the short
list of words with which Salcsbury has favoured us.^
SALESBURY'S EXAMPLES OF A.
Old Si'ELLiNG.
MEANiyC.
"Welsh Letters.
Palaeotype.
ale
cervisia
aal
aal
pale
sale
paal
sal
paal
saal
babe
infans
baab
baab
face
facies
ffas
faas
gracyouse
able
coniis
gi-asiws
abl
graa'sijUS
aa-b'l
sable
sabl
saa"b'l
bake
galaimt
plage
have
lady
coquere pancm
pestis
accipcre
domina
baak
galawnt
plaag
haf
ladi
baak
gal -aunt
plaag
Haav
laa"di
papyr
papyr
paa'pTr
mase
stupor
maas
maaz
shappe
foraia
ssiapp
shaap
ape
simia
ap
aap
narrowe
angiistus
narrw
nar"u
sparrowe
laddre
pa.sscr
scala
sparw
lad-dr
spar'u
lad-er
bladd'
vesica
blad-der
blad-er
nagge
m annus
nag
nag
pappe
mamma vel
infantium cibus
papp
pap
quarter
hand
quarta pars
una manus
kwartcr
hando
kwar'ter
Hand
handes
duae v.plures
manus
hands
Handz
Thomas
tomas
tom'as
flaxe
linum
fflacs
flaks
axe
securis
ags
aks
man
man
man
that
ddat
dhat
kappc
pila
cap
kap
Agnus
angnus
aq'nus
^ A complete alphabetical list of all
these words will be foxmd in Chapter
VIII, § 2, at the close of the trans-
lation of his tract.
Chap. III. § 3. a — XVI TH CENTURY. 03
The preceding are all Salcsbiiry's words containing a, in
his English spelling, Welsh transcription, and my palaeo-
tj'pic translation of the last. The meaning is given in
Latin where he has given it in Welsh, but not otherwise.
The long a, so far as I can conjecture from other sources,
is placed first. Words with the combinations al, an, ask,
etc., which will be considered hereafter, are omitted.
This long list of words in which the long and the short
sound of a is represented by the same letter, occasionally
doubled for the long sound, is conclusive in shewing that
long a and short a were to Salesbury's ears, sounds differing
only in duration. And as there could be no reasonable doubt
that short a was then, as it still is generally in the provinces,
and is admitted to be by some of our orthoepists in a great
number of words,^ the true Italian (a), so we are led to con-
conclude that the long a was also the true Italian (aa), to
Salesbury.
1568. Sm T. Smith says : "A igitur Latinum Angli habcnt tam
breue quam lo»gum," and after giving some examples, adds : " et
alia sexcenta, vbi niiUius Ktcrarum sonus auditur in lingua nostrati
nisi a vocalis Romance longce breuisque."
This ought to be decisive, but unfortunately we shall find
that Smith considered the Latin i long to be the English i
long, that is (ei) according to Salesburj^, and hence he might
have considered the Latin a long to be {ce) as in England to
this day. Hence it is only by comparison with Salesbury
and others that we can interpret his examples thus : —
"A hreuis (man) homo, (far) longe, (nat) petaso aut galerus, (mar)
conaimpcre, (pas) supcrare, (bar) vectis, (bak) dorsum.
"^ loiuja (maan) juba equi, (faarwel) vale bene, (naat) odisse,
(maar) equa, (paas) passus, (baar) nudus, (baak) in fumo coquerc."
The words (man, baak) being given in Salesbury interpret
all the rest. Smith does not give the ordinary spelling, but
always adds the Latin signification.
1569. Haet, in describing the "due and auncient soundcs" of the
five vowels, says of A, " the first, with wyde opening the mouth,
as when a man yauneth," and ho identifies it with the German,
Italian, French, Spanish, and "Welsh a.
This identification has the misfortime of being too wide
and again leaving us in doubt as to {a, a, ae). But (aa, a)
seems the most probable. Still Gill's censure of Hart, which
we shall find justified for ai, would make us doubtful of a,
were not Hart confirmed by Palsgrave and Salesbury.
^ Those of which staff, hath, bash, demand, are types. Other orthoepists, how-
ever, prefer (ah) in these words.
64 A — XVI TII CENTURY. Chap. III. ^ 3.
1580. BrLLOKAB says, "that there be eight vowels of diftering
sounds in Inplisli spueeli : may appet-rc by tliese wordes following,
whert'in are tij,'ht notes in voice ditfeiing one from another as diners
notes in musickr."
The words arc given in his plionctic orthography and are
arranged in this order, " to laek, to leak, a leek, to lick, a
lock, to look, luck, Luke," wliich, for reasons wliich will
appear hereafter, I believe are meant for (tu lak, tu leek,
a liik, tu 1/k, a lok, tu luuk, luk, Lyyk). The long a, the
short c, and the long /, all of which Bullokar uses, are not
noted in tliis list. Bullokar's sign for (ii) is a modification
of (c), and hence there is no security that he should have
considered (aa) to be the long of (a), although he so notes
it. Perhaps his observation that a b clfk are the only "per-
fectly perfect" letters, that is, used according to their alpha-
betic names on all occasions, is meant to imj^ly that long a
is the sound of short a produced.
1621. Gill says, "In e ct o, duplicatis, sorius a proprio aliqnantu-
lum tlistat ; vt in grix laqucus,' et gbeexe viridis, sonus ■\tius est,
sed in voce priori con'optiis, in altera lonfms. Sic in BrcKi: hie dama,
ot BOOKE liber : necjue in liis vlla soni differentia est, propter illam
qua? in quantitate percipitur."
As then he has a proper feeling for vowel pairs, we may
feel sure that, when he says —
"A, est tenuis, aut lata: tenuis, aut brcvis est vt in (taloou)
TAXLOWE sebum, aut deducta, ut in (taal) tale fabulu aut com-
putus : lata, vt in (tAAl) talle procerus — "
the two first sounds really only differ in length, but the last
differs in quality. "NYe cannot, however, feel sure that the
two fii'st sounds were (a, aa) as written above. In fiict, the
sounds (so, neoe) must have begun to be prevalent at the time
Gill wrote, and it is only because he decidedly opposed in-
novations that I consider he really pronounced (a, aa) as was
probably customary in the daj'S of his youth. ^
1G;3;3. Butler (translating his phonetic spelling) says : "A is in
English, as in all other languages, the first vowel, and the first
letter of the Alphabet ; the which, like i and u, hath two soimds,
one when it is shoi-t, an other when long, as in man and mane, hat
and hate.^^
' In Lcnns, 1G70, vre hare "Grinne, Pet. "Why there's a wench: Come on,
pediea" on which Mr. "Wheatley cites and kisse mee Kate.
Cotprave, " Lags, a snare, ginn or Luc. "Well go thy waies olde Lad for
grinn." thou shalt hat.
^ Shakspcrc's rhj-me at the close of indicates the pronunciation (kaat,
Tamini) the Shrew, according to the iiaa-t).
folio 1623,—
Chap. III. § 3. A — XVII TH CENTURY. 65
I cannot find any confirmation of this even in later writers,
imtil the time of Cooper, 1685, who admits a double use of a
long, pairing can cast, ken cane, as will be presently con-
sidered. "What Butler's pair was, whether (oeae, a) or (aa, a?)
I cannot guess. But as his book was published about the
time when a began to change from (a) to (ae), he probably
did not adopt either of the true pairs (aa, a) or (aese, ae).
The eifect of the L, N, Nge, Sh upon a preceding A,
changing it to (au, ai) or (aa, ee) will be most conveniently
con-sidered under Au, Ai and the above consonants. Omit-
ting these from consideration, the best conclusion I have
been able to draw from a consideration of the preceding
authorities after repeated examination of all their passages
bearing even remotely on the subject, is that —
A long and A short during the xvi th century had in
general the sounds of (aa, a) ; but {aa, a) may have been
frequent at the beginning and (aah, ah) towards the
close of that period.
A — XVII TH Cextury.
1640. Ben^ Joxso^^ says: "^, with us, iu most words is pro-
nounced lesse, then the French a, as in, (trt. act. apple, ancient. But,
when it comes before I. in the end of a syllable, it obtaineth the full
French sound, and is utter' d with the mouth, and tlu-oat wide
open'd, the tongue bent backe from the teeth, as in al. smal. gal.
fal. tal, cal."
The description of French a would answer for either (a)
or (a). Although the sound had perhaps not broadened more
than to (r/) during Jonson's lifetime, it would not be safe to
assume any other sound than (a) for Ben Jonson's concep-
tion of the French sound, which must have been opener than
the English. The precise value of the latter, however, is not
fixed; but as Jonson was born in 1574, his pronunciation was
probably that of the close of the xvi th centur}^, and he there-
fore perhaps retained (aa, a).
1653-1699. "VYallis is the great authority for the fully
developed pronunciation of the xvii th centuiy. He recog-
nizes nine vowels, being, according to my interpretation,
three guttural (a, oe, a), three palatal (se, e, i), and three
labial (o, u, y), so that the sounds of {a, a) are both lost. The
sound (a) occurs only in the combinations al, aa, aa-, under
which it will be considered. Of the palatal vowels he saj^s :
" Yocales Palatinae in Palato fonnantur, aere scilicet inter palati
et linguae medium moderate compresso : Dum nempe concavum
66 A — XVII TH CENTURY. Chap. III. J 3.
palati, t'kvato linp:uac medio, minus redditur, quam in giitturalibus
prof'fivndis. Suiitque in triplici gradu, prout concavum magis
minusve contr.diiliir. Quae (luidtni divcisitas duolnis niodis fieri
potest ; vel fauces eontraheudo, maneute lingua in eodem situ ; vel
faueibus in codeni situ manentibus, linguae medium altius et ad
intenores palati partes elevando : utroWs enim modo fiat, vel etiam
si utrcxjue, pcnndc est.
" Miijoi-i apertura funnatur Anglonim a, hoe est d exile. Quale
auditur in vocibus, bat, vespertilio ; bate, discordia ; pal, palla Epia-
copalis; jxilc, pallidus; .S'rt?rt (Samuolis contractio) ; same, idem
lamb, aginis ; lame, tlaiulus ; dam, mater (brutonim); dame, doniina;
bar, vectis ; bare, nudus ; ban, exsecror ; bane, pemicies ; etc.
Diffcrt hie sonus a Gennanorum d pingui seu aperto ; eo quod
Augli linguae medium elevent, adeoque' aerem in Palato compri-
mant ; Gei-mani vero linguae medium deprimant, adeoque aerem
compnmant in gutture. Galli fere sonum ilium proferunt ubi e
praecedit literam m vel n, in eadcm syllaba ut entendement, etc.
Cambro-Biitanni, hoc sono solent suum a pronuneiare." Here the
paragraph ends in the editions of 1653, 1664, 1674, which are all
I liave been able to find that were published during Wallis's life
time ; but the Oxford reprint of 1765 adds the vrords : " Italique
suum." Again he says in another place "A plemmque pronuncia-
tur sono magis cxili quam apud alias plerasque gentes : eodem fere
modo quo Gallomm e sequente w in voce entendement, sed paulo
acutius et clarius ; seu ut a Italorum. Non autem ut Germanorum
d pingue ; quem sonum nos plerumquc exprimcre solemus per an
vel aw, si producatur; aut per 6 breve si corripiatur."
Now if we omit the reference to the Italian, and confine
ourselves to the description, it certainly ought to give (ae)
rather than (a). The tongue is, of course, more raised for (a)
than for {a) or (a). The two latter are low vowels, the for-
mer is a mid vowel, but all are hack vowels, that is, the
nearest approach of the tongue and palate is made with the
hack not the middle of the tongue, as Wallis strictly points
out. The three vowels made with the middle of the tongue,
disregarding the effect of widening, are (fc, e, i), or, taking
the widening into effect, the three normal (e, e, i) and the
three wide (a3, e, i). Of these (oo) has the greater opening,
"raajori apertura formatur." With this view agrees the
pairs of words he gives, which must have been either (aa, a)
or (aca), a)). That a change was taking place we have seen
by the citation from Butler, (p. 64) and it will appear by
Miege, (p. 71) that the sounds (a;a3, a?) were fully established
in 1688, before the death of Wallis, and this view agrees with
all the following accounts. At the present day the sounds (a,
aa) are almost unknown in the jironunciation of many per-
* The Oxford reprint erroneously inserts in.
Chap. III. § 3. a — XVII TH CENTLRY. 67
sons/ and except in a few classes of words they are unknown
among those who pride themselves on exact speaking. Hence
we need not feel surprised that the fashion of (a, aa) had en-
tirely gone out in Wallis's time, and had been supplanted
by (ae, scoe.) Nor is there any other period to Avhich the
change, which certainly occurred, can be distinctly traced.
It is a remarkable fact that in Somersetshire where the
sound of (ceae) is very common, replacing all sounds of (aa)
in use in the east of England, as (Ba)a)th, bfetes'ket, aeaisk,
kaesejd, H8ea3.id) = Bath^ basket, ask, card, hard, the sound of
(aa) or (o.i) degenerates into (aa) or (aa.i), as (laa, draa,
kaajd) = laic, draw, cord.^ But in Wallis's time the true
sound of (aa) and not {aa) is guaranteed by his vowel pairs,
" fall folly, call collar, cause cost, aw'd odd, saw'd sod."
The reference to the French entendement is of very little
assistance. We know how the present English stumble over
the French nasals. We may hear now (ontondmon, oqtoqd-
moq, aeqtaeqdmseq), and it is very difficult to determine what
is the oral basis of the orinasal vowel, so strangely is it modi-
fied by the nasal vibration. Most French writers refer the
sound to (a), thus (aA), but English people refer it to (o),
thus (oa), very few keeping it distinct from on (oa, oa ?) As
frequent allusions will be made to the four French nasals in
vin, an, on, un, which are palaeotypically represented by (oa,
aA, OA, oa), it may here be stated that Dr. E,app writes (ea,
aA, oa, (ba aA), M. Feline seems to mean (ea, aA, oa, 9a),
Mr. Melville Bell uses (asA, ohA, ohA, sa), M. Favarger, a
Swiss gentleman, who has carefully studied the relation of
French and English sounds, gives as the normal sounds (ea,
aA, OA, t>hA). The differences are here more apparent than
real, and probably all sets may be heard coexisting in France
at the present day.
The reference to Welsh indicates certainly a very thin
palatal (a) which must have closely approached to the (se),
if not exactly reached it, (p. 61 n.). The final reference to
the Italian may have arisen from Wallis's mispronouncing the
Italian long a, making it as thin as the English long a.
1 Walker, 1732-1807, says that "the m^r, &(:, and in the word father."—
second sound of a ... answers nearly to Principles, 77.
the Italian a in Toscaiio, Romana &c., ^ The fo't was first forced on my at-
or to the final a in the naturalized tentiun by being asked in Bath for a
Greek words papa and mamma ; and in piece of card as I imagined, when a
laa ; the word adopted in almost all piece of cord was really wanted. Other
languages to express the cry of sheep. old pronunciations in use at Bath, are
We seldom find the long sound of this (fail-) fair, (keez) keijs, (bcek-n) beacon,
letter in our Innciuaf/e, except in mono- but (ba5ick-n) bacon; whQe (aa) almost
syllables ending with r, as far, iar, reappears in (noou) know.
68 A — XVII TH CENTURY. Chap. III. ^ 3.
In Ireland, where we shall see that the English pronuncia-
tion consorts in many other respects also wath that of the
XVII th century, the name sound of the first letter of the
alphabet is (a-ic), as was spontaneously pointed out to me
by an Irish clergyman, the five vowels a e i o u being called
(aeae, ee, ai, oo, juu), instead of {ee, ii, ai, oo, juu). A Danish
lady informed me that the sound of (feoc) in lieu of (aa) was
fashionable in Copenhagen. That the transition is easy and
is not much perceived by the generality of speakers is evident
from the present scarcely noticed co-existence of both sounds.^
But the transition from the xvi th century (aa) to the xviii th
and XIX th century (ee, ee) is scarcely intelligible without
the intermediate (0D8b).
1668. WiLKXvs, after describing the vowel (aa) as formed with
the tongue in " a more concave posture and removed further from the
palate," says that "the Vowel a is framed by an emission of the
Breath, bet^vixt the tongue and the concave of the palate ; the upper
superficies of the tongue being rendered less concave, and at a less
distance from the palate," and he does not allow of any convexity
of the tongue till he reaches (cc).
Now it is only for some very unusual mixed vowels that
there is any approach to a concavity of the tongue, with
respect to the palate, so this may be regarded as a theoretical
error. Ilis description must be considered to leave the
question of (ae, a) in doubt. Although it -vs-ill be seen that
"Wilkins and AVallis occasionally disagree, I am inclined to
interpret AVilkins in this case by T^''allis, and to consider that
Wilkins's examples hatt hate, caJ-leij cale, fait fate, mat mate,
iml pale, Jtad-nor T-rade, implied the pairs (bfct baeaet, vael'i,
vaeael, faet faeaet, meet mcea^t, psel paeael, Ea?dnur trteocd).
1669. Holder ■m'iting at the same time says "We may imagine
the vowel a to be made by the freest and opcnest passage of the
throat through the mouth and so to have a kind of natural articula-
tion without art, only by opening the mouth ; « to be a httle strait-
ened by the boss of the tongue near the throat, and therefore if you
tiy to pass from a to a you will find you thnast the end of your
tongue something forward to raise the boss of the tongue towards the
palate to straiten the passage." " In a the mouth is more open,
in a. e. i. the straiteniugs of the concavity of the mouth betAveen
the tongue and palate are gradual, both foi-ward »Sc nearer the roof."
By actual trial, I find that this would serve just as well
to distinguish {a, ai), (aa, aa), or (aa, aea}). It is therefore
not decisive. The illustrative words for a are fall folly, for
a are fate fat.
^ The words dais, staff, demand, are even (ah, oh) are in occasional use by
pronounced with (aa, a, ah, aah, a;, others,
aea;), by different careful speakers, and
Chap. III. § 3. A — XVII TH CENTURY. 09
1685. Cooper seems to mark the beginning of a change
which was not complete till the next century, and does not
appear to be noticed by Miege or even Jones, for he gives
two sounds to a long, generally (aoae) as I conjecture, and
occasionally (ee). In this respect Cooper bears a resemblance
to Hart, who anticipated the general pronunciation of ai as
(ee) by a century. Cooper says :
"u4 formatiir a medio linguae ad coneavum palati paululum clevato.
In his can possum, 2>«'SS hy prstereo, a corriptur ; in cast yAcco,^ past
pro passed prajtcritus, producitur. Frcquentissimus auditiu* hie
sonus apud Anglos, qui semper hoe modo pronunciant a latinum ; ut
in amabam. Sic etiam apud Camhrohritannos ; quandoqwe apud
Gallos ; ut in animal, demande, raro autem aut nunquam apud
Germanos. Hunc sonum coiTcptum & productum semper scribimus
per a ; at huic characteri praeterea adlubentur sonus imus & alter :
prior, qui pro voeali ejus longa habetur ut in cane, dofinitur sect,
sequcnti; posterior ut in ^vas sect, septima sub o gutturalem."
He here implies that cane although considered the long
of can is not so. He also for the first time makes was =
(wAz), whereas Wilkins wrote saz = (uaez) meaning (waez).
These are both anticipations. He implies that though short
(se) was common, long (aeao) was uncommon, and identifies
the sound with that of the Welsh a, which he must have taken
as (aeae). He allows that it "sometimes" is in use in French,
in which language it is to be supposed he called a generally
(aa). The two examples animal, demande are insufficient to
give assistance. He says that it never occurs among the
Germans. The present German sound in great part of Ger-
many is {aa, a), and in Austria it becomes {aah, a) or perhaps
(a A, a). But throughout North Germany the sounds (aa, a)
are constantly heard from the more educated and refined
speakers, and though Schmeller distinguishes the Italian from
the common German a, neither Rapp nor Lepsius notice the
difierence.^ Yet in the xvii th century the general impression
seems to have been that the French and Germans said (a a).
Was this really the case ? I think not.^ I would rather trace'
1 Misprint for yfl!C20? by the researches of Se^-ffarth, Liscov,
2 -Sc/»;ie//f >•, Die Mundarten Bayerns, etc., that lonff o in Greek had the
Miinchen 1821, Nos. 62. 66. Bapi), sound of Italian a in amare, t\\a,t is,
Physiologie der Sprache, passim. Ltp- (aa). And thou he immediately said,
sins, Standard Alphabet, London and "the lonfj a shoxdd always be pro-
Berlin, 1863, especially p. 50, where noimced like the English rtto or «?<, as
the English sounds are taken into con- in cawl, maul, etc.," that is, (aa).
sideration. (Proceedings of the Royal Institution,
3 Mr. Blackie, the Professor of Greek vol. v. p. 149.) Here then we have a
in the University of Edinburgh, when recent example of a lecturer upon pro-
lecturing on the'pronimciation of Greek nunciation, confusing the two sounds(aa,
before the Eoyal Institution, 3rd May, aa). We must not expect our ancestors
1867, said that it had been established to have been much more particular.
70 A — XVII TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
it to the loss of the pure (im, a) in refined English, and its
separation into (a a) on the one hand, and (leic, fe) on the
other. To tliose accustomed to say (acfc, aa) the intermediates
(aa, aa) would hoth be referred to (aa) rather than (scsc).
The opinion that a long had become (xx) seems to derive
additional force from tlie fact, first mentioned by Cooper,
that a long had in many words become (ee). He says —
" E fomiatur a lingua magis clevata et expansa quam in a
propriiis ad extrcmitatom, undo concaATim palati minus rcdditur &
sonus magis acutiis ; ut in ken \'ideo. Sic apud Gennanos menschen
homines. xVpud Gallos raro at in exch, proteste, session, & lienjamin
obsoleto. Hunc sonum corrcptum Angli semper cxprimunt per e
brevcm ; & e brtvem nunquam alitor pronunciant nisi ante r, ubi
propter tromulam ipsius motionom, &, vocalis subtilitatom subita cor-
roptionc comitatam, vix aliter efferri potest quam ur ; ideo per in
pertain portinco, & pur in purpose proposituni ojusdom sunt valoris.
Vera hujusce soni productio scribitur jjor a, atq?<e a longum falso
denominatur ; ut it cane canna, wane deflecto ; & ante ge ut age
8eta.s ; in ca:'toris autom vocabulis, {jii fallor) omnibus ul)i e quicscens
ad finom syllaba? post o, adjicitur ; u gutturalis . . . inscritur post a ;
ut in name nomcn, quasi scribcretur na-um cbssyllabum." He pro-
ceeds to say that this sound is usually written ai or ay, sometimes
ey and rarely ea.
Here we have two curious facts, first the clear recognition
of an (ee) soimd of long a, and secondly the insertion of (o)
after (ee) in all but a certain class of words. Thus cane,
natncz=.{}iEiiM, nEEom). The peculiarity here is, that so far
from inserting fo) in modern times, the tendency is to palat-
ize the sound still more by inserting (i) thus (neeim).
Cooper returns to this point again, saying —
" Post a in omnibus, nisi in catie canna, wane deflecto, stranger
advcna, strange alionus, manger pra^sepo, mangy scabiosus, & ante
ge : ut age aetas ; insoritur u gutturaKs, qute nihil aliud est quam
continuatio nudi muimuiis postquam a formatur, nam propter exiH-
tatcm, ni accuratius attonditur ; ad proximam cousonantora, sine
intencnicnto u non-facil& transibit lingua. Differentia auribus, quae
sonos distinguere possvmt, manifesto apparcbit in exemplis sequonti
ordine dispositis.
a brevis. a longa. a cxilis.
Bar vectis Barge naA-icula Bare nudus
hhb offutio Ihst flatus hlazon di^-ulgo
cap pileum corking anxietas cape capa
cixr caiTus carp cai-po care cura
ca^ catus fas'^j actus cfls^? tboca
dash allido d^rt jaculum date dactylus
fiash fulguro flasket corbis genus flake flocculus
gash caesura gasp) oscito gate janua
Chap. III. § 3. A — XYII TH CENTURY. 71
a brevis a longa a exilis
gnxnd grandis grant concedo grange villa
land terra Idnch solvo lane viculus
wasA fan-ago mask larva mason lapidarins
pat aptus path semita pate ca^nit
tar pix fliiida tart scriblita tares lolia
Si quid amplius ad hanc veritatem confirmandam velles, accipe
cxempla sequentia; in quibus ai leniter pronimciata souum liabet
a pui-ae ; ut in cane, a vero post se admittit u guttiiralem ut,
Bain babieiim Hail grando Maid virgo
hane venenuiu hale traho 7nade factus
main magnus lay\ jacui pain dolor
mane jiiba lane viculus pane quadra
plain manifestus spaid castratus tail cauda
plane Isevigo spade ligo tale fabala."
Here I interpret a brevis = (cc), a longa = (asao), a exilis
= (ee), thus (baer, bseaerdzh, bEEr), and in the last list I read
(bEEn bEEsn, mEEn mEEan, plEEn plEEan) or (bEEn bEE'n),etc.
1688. MiEGE says : Dans la langue Anglaise cette voyelle A
s'appelle et se prononce ai. Lors qu'elle est jointe avec d'autres
Lettres, elle retient ce meme Son dans la plupai-t des Mots ; mais il
se prononce tantot long, tantot bref. L'a so prononce en ai long
generalement lorsqu'il est suivi immediatement d'une consonne, et
d'une e final. Exemple /are, tare, care, grace, faMe, qui se pronon-
cent ainsi, faire, taire, caire, graice, faihle D'ailleiirs, a se
pronounce en ai bref ou en e ouvert, lorsqu'il se trouve entre deux
Consonnes, au milieu des MonosyUabes ; comme hat, cap, mad. Mais
il approche du Son de notre «, a la fin des 'Soms, en al, ar, & ard
qui ont plus d'une syllabe. Exemple general, special, animal,
Grammar, altar, singular, particular ; mustard, custard, bastard,
vizard, & autres semblables. Excepte regard, qui se prononce re-
gaird ; aivard & reward ou il sonne comme en Fran9ais Dans
le mot de Jane Va se prononce on e masculin, Bghie.''''
To understand this we must remember that English hat,
cap, mad were never, and are not now, called (iiEt, kEp, mEd)
but that Frenchmen, and even Germans, do not distinguish
them from these sounds. Indeed the true sounds (ncct, kajp,
maed) only differ from the former by the widening of the
pharyngal aperture. My own pronunciation of (a;) has been
constantly misunderstood, and considered as (e) or (e). As
to the long sound (aeae) it is now so little known in the East
of England and on the continent, that it would be invariably
taken for (ee) or (ee). When then Miege distinguishes
Jane = Dgene (Dzheen) from grace — graice (grees, grEEs),
we may feel pretty sure that, since in modern English (grEEs)
is as difficult to English organs as (groea^s) would be to
72 A — XVII TH CENTURY. Chat. III. § 3.
French orf^ans, the words contuining a to which he assigns ai
long and short, were really ])ronounced with (awe, 8d).
As to those words in which he considered the a to be pro-
noimced as in French, avc know they had the sound (aa) and
not (aa) and we also know that at present most Frenchmen
pronounce our (aa) as (aa) or {aa), neglecting the labial
effect. The exception reyard, was probably (re//fc£crd"), with
the palatal {g) which is still so prevalent in this word, and
which may have caused the pure sound of (aeoe) to be pre-
served. Whether the sound of (aa) occurred in mustard,
c((sfard, etc., we cannot tell. At any rate, this notice is
not sufficient to establish the fact.
1701. Jones's book is so curiously arranged that it is diffi-
cult to determine the sound of a long from it except by in-
ference. It is certain that at this time ai was sounded (ee)
or (ec), probably the former. When Jones therefore gives
a list of words in which ai has the sound of a, but may be
soimded as ai, he certainly distinguishes the two sounds.
That is although in some words ai was by some people
sounded as a, this was not universal or considered best, even
in those words. They are Abigail, aid, bargain, captain,
certain, chair, complaisant, fair, glair, hair, laid, maid, pain,
pair, plaister, stairs, etc., (32 examples are given) of which
plaister is now generally pronounced (plaas'ti). Then he
adds this note :
" The capacity of being soimded ai distinguishes them fi'om such
as are written with an. a; because these cannot be sounded ai, as are,
chare, fare, glare, hare, lade, made, pane, jxire, stares, etc."
Again, the question, " when is the sound of ai written a ?"
is not asked, and the answer to the question, " when is the
sound of e written a ?" is only answered by the cases of un-
accented -ar as altar, beggar, emissary, bastard, etc. As then
Jones could not have said (ee) or (aa), I conclude that he said
(acoe), and this agrees with the fact that Jones only recog-
nizes two sounds of a as in an, as, at, and as in all, ball, so
that his sound of a long, when evidently not (aa), should be
the long sound of his a in at which was certainly (a;).
From all these considerations I conclude that
a short was («) very early in the xvii th century, and
that it has retained that sound to this day, except in the
provinces, and also that a long was generally (ajne) from
at least the middle of the xvii th centurv to its close,
although about the close it began to degenerate into (ee)
in many words. It is possible, however, that the sound
of (aa) may have remained unrecognized before r when
Chap. III. § 3. A — XVII TH CENTURY. 73
not followed by a vowel, and even in several of those
words, as hath, ask, grant, etc., because it may still be so
beard in tbe xix tb century.
Rhymes at tbe latter end of tbe xvi tb and during the
XVII tb centuries are not of much use in determining sound,
unless they are frequent usual normal rhymes. Thus from
Shakspere's rhymes in —
Vemis and Adonis v. 47, broken open, 134 voice juice, 419 yoimg
strong, 592 neck back, 773 niu'se worse; and in Lucrece v. 13
beauties duties, 62 fight white, 72 field killed, 78 tongue wi'ong,
113 hither weather, 303 ward regard heard, 408 blue knew, 554
dally folly, Sonnet 20 created defeated ; Lover^s Com])lamt 302
matter water ; Passmiate Pilgrim 308 talk halt,
nothing could be inferred. But when on looking through
tbe whole of bis poems (exclusive of bis plays) I find only
tbe following examples of long a rhyming to ai, Venus v. 271
mane again, 529 gait late, Lucrece v. 6, waist chaste, Sonnet
128 state gait, of which gait and u-aist are only modern forms
for gate waste,^ so that there is only one real example left
(mane again), we may safely conclude that Shakspere pro-
nounced the sounds clifferently, that is, as I believe (aa, ai).
When in tbe xvii tb century, a long and ai altered, as I
think, to (aeae, sei) and in the latter part of tbe century ai
became (eei) or (ee), we may well expect to find these rhymes
more abundant. In Milton's rhymed poems I find only —
Lycidas care ban, raise blaze praize, L' Allegro maid shade, fail
ale, cares ans, II penseroso cares airs, state gait, fail pale, Arcades
blaze, praise. Sonnets 8 spare ah bare, 15 praise amaze raise cHsplays,
19 state wait, 20 air spare, Naticitij, near the end, pale jail, Fair
Infant ah .care, Solemn Music made sway'd. Anno ^tatis xix (1627)
aid made. Psalm 2 made sway'd, 4 spare prayer, 80 declare prayer,
laid made, 83 said invade, strays blaze, 88 prayer are.
These cannot be considered numerous in such a large col-
lection of verses. But Milton's contemporary Waller has,
in some 130 pages of bis works which I have examined, 21
1 In Merry Wires, act i., sc. 3. 1. 41 dyl," and Palsgrave "«•««< a myddle;"
(Globe edn.) according to the old quarto the word is not in Levins in this sense,
of 1619, supposed to be the fii-st sketch, In the same 4to. of 1630, act 1, sc. 4,
we have the follomug orthogi-aphy of 1. 31 (Globe edn.) and act 3, sc. 3, 1. 68,
waist : "Fal. "Well mv honest lads, He we have first " I should remember him,
tell you what I am about. Fis. Two do's hee not hold ^-p his head (as it
yards and more. Fal. No gibes now were P) and stmt in his gate?" and
PistoU ; indeed I am two yards in the secondly " the firme fixture of thy foote,
yjiaste, but now I am about no waste : would give an excellent motion to thy
briefly, I am ahout thrift you rogues (/a^e in a semicircled tarthingalc." I do
you." In the quarto of 1630 the two not find the word in this sense in
words are ivast, waste. The Promp- Promptorium, Palsgrave, or Levins,
torium has ^^ waste of a mannys myd-
74 A — XVIIITH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
cases of a similar kind. Drydcn has 27 instances in his
Fable of Pahnnon and Arcite alone, which belonged to the
close of the x\ ii th century.
Now (aeac) and (ee) are not very unlike, and before (a) it
is difficult to distinguish them, as care, air (kooaei, eei),
especially if the (ee) be deepened into (ee) as is sometimes
done.' Hence we must not be surprised that poets to whom,
as Byron confesses
" sometimes
Monarcbs are less imperious than rhymes,"
should take the liberty of considering these sounds as
identical. If they had been (aeae, sccci) they would have
passed for rhymes, just as few of those who now insert
an (i) after (ce) as in (wmt, strecit) icait, straiglit, are even
aware of the fact, much less would feel that the rhyme
were injured, if others said {s,ieci, gnYt) or even (steet, greet)
for state, great. The German habit of rhyming (oe, e) and
(y, i) although justified by the pronunciation of the unlettered,
is yet admitted by the best poets. In this case the vowels
differ by the important distinction of labialisation, whereas
(ee, aeac) as they may have been sounded, differ only by the
effect of widening, which is constantly disregarded.
A XVIII TH CENTrRY,
1704. The Expert Orthographist talks of the " short
and long sound common to all the vowels in rat & rate."
This ought to mean that these words were (rcet, raeoBt), but
with a person so destitute of real phonetic feeling, (raet, reet)
miffht have been thoufjht to have a " common sound." His
expression also might not have meant that the long sound
and the short sound were the same. The following passage
is noteworthy.
" Take special notice that the Dipthong ai and the Yowel a are
very apt to he mistaken," i.e., confused one for the other, '* the
Londoners, affecting (as they think) a finer pronunciation, would
(juitc lose the sound of the proper diphthong ai, as too broad and
clownish for their fine smooth Tongues ; but the honest Conntiyman,
not to say our Universities will (by no means) part witli authentick
Custom, time out of mind, accordiiig to its natiu-al sound ; however,
to reconcile this diflference, you must be sure to keep close to the
^ The story that King James I., ye sail hae," and united the bishoprics,
wishing to bestow the bishopric of although it labours under the historical
either Bath or Wells on a west country difficulty of uniting the sees 500 years
divine, asked him which he would have, after their union, serves to shew the
and on being told Bath (BiCieth), re- near coincidence of the sounds,
plied '' Baith (beeth) say ye, then baith
Chap. III. § 3. a — XVIII TH CENTL'RY. 75
orthogi-aphy, which that you may the better do ; always remember
that the single a must end no Englisli word ; but if they will speak
fine, yet be sure that you write tnic, by adding y, not da but day.
Observe that tho' many times this Diphthong ai is pai-ted in proper
names, as Ja-ir, La-isk, Sejjltarva-rm &c. yet ^ is usually swallowed
up, in the sound of the forgoing a, especially when the word ends
in ah as Benai-ah, Serai-ah &c. the i is not sounded."
This feeble attempt to keep long a and ai apart seems to
be dictated by theoretical grounds. He had previousl}^ said
there were 15 sounds: "five short and five long sounds be-
longing to the vowels, besides five such proper diphthongs as
make five other distinct sounds, differing from the foregoing
ten sounds." And he assigns as his first reason for admitting
none other but ai, an, oi, oo, and ok to be jy/'oper diphthongs,
that "none but these five have such a plain distinct sound,
different from the five vowels." Hence it was important
for him to distinguish long a and ai, though in pronunciation,
the utmost difference which I can suppose him, with his
palatal tendencies, to have made, is to have called long a (ee)
and ai (eei). The first conclusion is strengthened by his
identifying his long a with the voM'el in there, icere, where,
which was certainly (ee).
1710. Dyche distinctly says ai, ay — a in care, and as
Cooper in 1685 had given the pairs sell sail, sent saint, tell
tail, tent taint, there ought to be no doubt that at this time
the change of the sound of long a from (aa) to (ee) was fully
established, notwithstanding that Jones only nine years be-
fore would not allow that long a was pronounced as ai. At
the same date as I)yche, the anonymous instructor of the
Palatines writes the words / make, I have, care in German
letters ei mdhlc, ei hdhf, kcihr which should mean (ai mEEk,
9i HEEf, IvEEr), but would have been written even if the real
sound had been (sese). Here have is made to have long a,
as it used to have ; it is now (nsev) and the pronunciation,
(Heev), indicated by the German letters is very doubtful,
1766. Buchanan always uses ai to represent the long
sound of a.
1768. Franklin simply gives men, lend, name, lane as
examples of the same sound, and this is nearly the modern
practise.
This change of (a) into (e) has also occurred in French.
Chevallet^ says : " Le changement de a en e est frequent dans
le langage du peuple de Paris : . . . . des le commencement
^ Origine et formation de la langue Franqaise. Paris, 1853-7, vol. i., part
3, p. 59r
76 A — XVIII TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
du xv" siecle GeofFroi Tory observe chez les dames de Paris
la tcndauce que je vions de signaler. ... * Les dames de
Paris au lieu de a pronouceut c bieu sou vent, quant elles
disent : ' Mon ))ienj est il la porte de Peris oil il se faict
peier' . . . telle maniere de parler vient d'accoustement de
jeimesse;' Geoffroi Tory, Champflcury, fo. xxxiii, Y\" The
same writer quotes (vol. i, part 2, p. 55) from various imitators
of popular pronunciation, ericre, tremontane, terrir, douainier,
errhes, ouete, plaine, clerinette, epaigneul, for arriere, tramon-
tane, tarir, douanier, arrhes, ouate, plane, clarinette, epagneul.
1780. Sheridan seems altogether to ignore the sound of
(aa) in English, allowing only (ajae) to the English a in far,
bar, psalm, balm. Being an Irishman who had devoted his
attention for years to English pronimciation, while his fre-
quent residences in Ireland kept his ear alive to the Irish
pronunciations of English then current in educated societj^
his remarks upon Irish pronunciation are of considerable
importance. They serve to shew generallj^ that the Irisb
peculiarities arose partly from the persistence of xvii tb cen-
tury pronunciations, and partly from an endeavour to correct
that pronunciation by the then current English usage, which,
learned rather by rule than custom, was carried to an excess.
There will be frequent occasion to notice this as we proceed.
With respect to a, long a is frequenth" (aca;) in Irish wbere
it is (ee) in English, and sometimes (oeoe) in Irish against
(ae) in English. He instances patro/i, matron, rather,
which in England were (pee'tran, mee'tran, ra;dh*i) and in
Ireland (pnet'ran, ma^t'ran, rffiaedhu). These were evidently
the older, xvii th century sounds, which have again become
current in England, where even the older (raa'dhj) is com-
mon. The pronunciation (rocdhu), may be heard from
Americans, among whom there is also a great tendency to-
wards the pronunciation of the earlier settlers, 1628. Thus
the true sound (nacrt) may be heard in America, which is
very rare in England.
As a general rule the words in -aim, which Sheridan pro-
nounced (-occcm), were according to him, called (-aaui) in
Ireland, as (bAAm, sAAm, kwAAm, kAAm, k.^\f) for balm,
psalm, qualm, cahn, calf, and this was a distinct xvii th cen-
tury sound. In the following words, which he cites, there
is sometimes an " overcorrection" of the kind above alluded
to : gape, gather, catch, quash, clamour, wrath, wroth, farewell,
squadron, were then pronounced in England (ga^a^p, gajdh'ar,
kffitsh, kwaesh, klsem'or, rAAth, rAth, faer'wel, skwAd'ran)
and in Ireland (geep, gedh'or, kEtsh, kwAsh, kla^ai'mar,
Chap. III. § 3. E, EE, EA — XVI TH CENTURY, 77
raeaetli, raeth, feer'wel, skwaose-dran). The received usage of
the XIX th century varies between the two, and may be taken
as (g^f'p, gocdh'J, kaetsh, kwAsh, klaem'i, raath, rAAth, feej--
wel", sk^cAd'ran.)
The recognized pronunciation in the xviii th century seems
then to have been, short a = (ae) in all cases, long a
generally = (ee), the exact quality (ee, ee, ee) being
doubtful, and in those cases in which (aa) is now fre-
quently heard, as in dart, fat Jier, etc., long a was = (acse),
as it always was in the xvii th century.
E, EE, EA — XVI TH Century.
1530. Paisgeate says: "^ ia the frenche tong hath thrc
dyverse sowudes, for somtyme they sownde hyni lykc as we do in
our tonge in these words, a beere, a leest a peere, a heene and suche
lyke .... The so"wndyiig of e, whiche is most generally kepte with
them, is suche as we gyve to e in oiu- tong in these wordes aboue
rehersed, that is to say, lyke as the Italianes sounde e, or they with
vs that pronounce the latine tonge aright : so that e in frenche hath
neuer suche a sownde as we vse to gyiie hym in these wordes, a bee
suche as maketh honny, a beere to lay a deed corps on, a peere a
make or felowe, and as we sounde dyuers of our pronownes endynge
in e, as voe, me, the, he, she, and suche lyke, for suche a kynde of
soundynge both in frenche and latine, is allmoste the lyght pronun-
ciation of i, as shall here after appere."
Here are laid down two sounds of English e long, as (ee)
in hear, beast, pear, bean, and as (ii) in bee, bier, peer ; we, me,
thee, he, she, but the spelling of the two sets of words is not
distinguished. We shall see that in the xiv th century all
these words were pronounced with (ee) and that they were
spelled indifferently with e or ee, sometimes with ie, and rarely,
if ever, with ea. In Palsgrave's text ea is very rare, but in
his vocabularies he uses it freely. The following words taken
from his vocabulary of substantives will illustrate his con-
fused use of e, ee, ea. To shew a further advanced state of
spelling I add Levins's orthography 1570 of the same words
preceded by two dots, after Palsgrave's explanations.
"Bee a flye .. bee, beche tree .. bech, beed of stone or wode .. bead,
beane come .. beane, befe meate .. becfe, beahyn fcv au guet .. beacon,
beame of an house .. beame, beare a he bcest .. beare, beere for deed
men .. beare, beest .. beast, beatyng .. beate, dede acte .. deede, deed
body., dead, deane of a chiu-cb, defnesne lacke of hciyng . . deafe,
demyng judgying .. deeme, derenesse chierte .. deare, derlyng a man
»^^i7wo?^ .. darling, eare of a man or beeste .. eare, ease rest ..ease,
easier a hye feest .. easter feast, feanyng faincte .. fain, feate of arms
78 E, EE, EA — XVI TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
.. fcatc, feiijng place .. feedc, felyng .. fcolc, fearynq .. fear, fesant
coke faisant .. tc'suut, feest .. ivw^^i, f ether ])lume .. tether, gere cloth-
ing .. geare, yeet a blake stone, heed pate or nob .. head, hepe of
money .. heape, heale of body .. heiJe, heele of the fote .. heele,
helthe ..\uw\\\\y, heupe a great (juantite .. heape, /<*^r of the heed
cheuevl .. heyry, he/re, a deed body .. her.se, heerrgng a fysshe .. her-
ring, hearyng the place whereby we here ovye .. heare, hert of any
beest cirw .. heai-tie, her the of a chyniney .. herth, ^m^e .. heate,
hevyn eiel .. heaven, ?Wo?<sy .. jelouse, kepyng obseniation .. keepe,
leche a surgion.. leche, leed a metall .. leadc, lees pasture, leafe of a
tree .. leafe, lefencsse chcrete .. liefer, leage two mile .. league, leaning
^o..leane, leke an herbe .. Iceke, lenenesse maigrete .. leane, lepe or
start «ar/^ .. leape, lemce lycence .. leave, leven for bredde .. leven,
leauer to lyfte with .. lever, meale of meate .. meale, meane of a
songe moyen .. meane, measure of two gallons .. measure, mede tlrinke,
mede rewarde .. meede, medowe felde .. medowe, mekenesse humilite ..
meeke, nede besoing .. ncede, nedyll to sowe with..needil, neare of
a beest roignon, nesyng with the nose esternuement .. sneeze, neates
ledder cordovayn, peace .. 11)03.0;, 2)ece or parte of a thyng..pece,
peache a fi-ute .. peache, pecocke a byrde, peake of a ladyes moumyng
heede .. peake, peele of belles, pele for an o\-yn .. pcale, peerle a stone
.. pearle, peseix\iX.Q poys .. pease, pescodde, queue lady .. queene, queane
garse .. queane, realnie roiaulme, rede to playe or pype with., rede,
reed heriyng.. redde, reed hreest a byrde .. brest, reednesse rovgevr,
retfy money .. reddy, rele for yame..reele, reherser ..xq\icv?,c, release
forgyvenesse, reame of paper .. reamc, rere banket ralias, rerewarde of
men arriere ^yarfl?^.. rerewarde, resowflWf«es«.. reasonable, reason..
reason, season tyme .. season, see water mer .. sea, secole charbon de
terre, sede of herbes .. secde, sege before a castell .. sege, «eA:(?«^s«g
maladie .. sicknesse, seeke, sekyng or serchyng .. seeke, seale a fysshe ..
seale, seame of sowyng .. seame, seme for to fiye with seyn de povrceau
[saindoux], semelynesse .. semely, see hreame a fysshe, sertche enquyre
.. searche, seate a place .. seate, teching leming.. teache, tedmisnesse..
tedious, teele a byrde plignon .. teale, tele a byrde plinget .. teale,
teme of a plough or oxen .. teame, teere of wepyng.. teare, tete,
pappc or dugge, a womans brest .. teate, tethe dens .. teethe, veele
flesshe .. veale, wede clothyng .. weede, weke for candels .. weak,
weykenesse flebesse .. wayk, wcke a senyght .. weeke, welthe .. welth,
wepyng pleur .. weepe, ivere to take fysshe, iverynesse or grefe ..
weaiie, wesant the pype .. weysand, wesyll a beest .. wesyll, wevyng
frame .. weave, whele of a carte .. wheele, ichete come .. wheate, yere
xii monethes .. yeare, yest or banne for ale, zele love or frenshyp..
zeelc, Zealande a countrey.
This long list will shew that in Palsgrave's time no definite
rule had been laid down forthe spelling of these words, and hence
the reader could not discriminate the sounds. It was not till
after the middle of the xvi th century tliat anything like a rule
appeared, and then ee was used for (ii), and ea for (ee). But
Levins sh.ews that the rule was by no means consistently
Chap. III. § 3. E, EE, EA — XVI TH CENTURY. 79
applied so early as 1570. And even at a later period ea was
often used for (e) the short vowel, and simple e often repre-
sented (ee) and sometimes perhaps, but not often, (ii). "We
often find hee, mce written like thee to give the full sound of
(ii) and prevent the pronunciation (ee), which was given to
the. The introduction of the difference ee, ea was therefore
a phonetic device, intended to assist the reader. Great diffi-
culty again arose as many words in ea came to be pronounced
(ii) without any change being made in the spelling, and we
find orthoepists obliged to give long lists of words with ea as
(ee), as (e) and as (ii). If it had only been recognized that
ea was a modern innovation, introduced with a phonetic
purpose,^ writers and printers might not have hesitated to
reijlace ea by e, ee in the two last cases. It is now perhaps
too late to write /ee.s!^, heed, reep, beem, etc., but there is no
reason but habit against this spelling, and abundance of
historical authority in its favour.
Palsgrave in saying that e was sounded as in Italian, takes
no notice either in French or Italian of the double sound
(e, e) into which (e) splits, although Meigret, 1550, finds it
necessar}' to use two distinct vowel signs for the two sounds.
In modern English we distinguish ait, air, = {eel, ee.i), but
in some parts in the north of England I find this distinction
unknown, and (ee) alone pronounced. Hence I suspect that
fhe older English sounds were (ee, e). The short sound (e)
has remained, apparently unchanged, from the earliest Eng-
lish times to the present day.
1547. Salesbury gives the two sounds (ee, ii) and also
notices the mute or unpronounced e. He scarcely ever iises
ee or ea. As examples of (ee, e) he gives in his Welsh pro-
nimciation a were, wreke, brkke, wreste = a weir, wreak,
break, wrest, and calls attention to the difference of meaning
in bere, pere, hele, mele according as they are pi'onounced
with (ii) = bier, peer, heel, meel (to meddle ?), or with (ee)
rz:bear, pear, heal, meal. Omitting mute e and ea, the fol-
lowing are all the words coEtaiuing e, of which he gives
the sounds ; the old spelling is in small capitals, and the
Welsh transcription iu italics : —
Beede bred (bred) panis, laddre lad-dr (lad'cr), eijermoee efer-
mwor (evermoor) in aetemum, thoxdre tlnvndr (thund'cr), woxdee
wndr (und-er == wiuid-er), chese tsis (tshiiz) caseus, ykzsy)^?, f rinds
1 This was so little suspected that ciato," and -when he says it was then
we find Wallis imao-iuing that ea was "nunc dieruni" pronounced (ee) he adds
properly pronounced as (eca) or (ee') "sono ipsius a penitus suppresso," as if
"per e" masculimim, adjuncto etiam si it ever had been sounded since the xirith
libet exilis d sono raptissimo pronun- centiu^, except in provincial dialects.
80 E, EE, EA — XVI TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
(fnlndz) amici, teees triys (triiv'z) arlores, suffre su-ffffre (suf-cr)
siiU'iT, GKiJ)i>-(; gelding (e;«l(l'i(i), Gylbekt Gilbert (GiMjert), gy>'oee
Uiutsir (dzliindzliiT) zinzibi-r, beggynge legging (bcgv'q), egge eg
(eg) ovum, Jesxj tsiesuw (Dzhcc'zyy), qcexe kwiti (kwiin) rcf^^ina,
RENT rent (rent), TiiEsntE trestncr (trez-yvr) thesaurus, velvet velfet
(vel'Vft) liolosericum, vertue vertuw (ver"tyy), the dde (the), to-
gether with the Latin ego egu (c'g"u), Dei deei (dee'i).
Of these the words chese, frendes, queue have the sound of
(ii). It sliould be observed that Bullokar also gives (friindz),
and so does Wallis, and so late as 1701 Jones admits this
sound, thus making the new spelling ie indicate (ii) in
" Algier, bier, canonier, friend, fusilier, grenadier, Tangier,"
and \\ViYVCion\7AT\g friend, fend, both formerly (freend, feend),
but then (friind, hind), and now (frend, fiind).
As respects ca Salesbury agrees with others in gi\dng sea
see (see) mare, yea ie (Jee), season seesgn (seez'in) tempestas
vel occasio, but he is peculiar in ease ies (jeez) otium, leaue
lief (Ijeev) licentia, since Hart gives easf/ (ee'zi), and Gill
writes lea re (leev). I can find no authority for the insertion
of i =■ (j), and am inclined suspect a misprint, because the
four words ease, leaue, sea, yea are given together and
transcribed ies, lief see, ie, so that the last ie may have
occasioned the two former, and he introduces them by
saying : " In certain words they place a sometimes, as we
should consider it, rather carelessly according to our custom,^
out of its oAvn power and rather mctamoi"phosed into the
vowel e," this should merely imply that er/ was written for
ee, meaning prolonged e (ce), and not that in two of the
words e was also altered into the Welsh i, meaning English p.
If then we read ees, kef for ies, lief, in Salesbury's Welch
transcription, we shall reconcile it with his observation and
with the usages of other orthoepists.
1568. Smith, agreeing generally with Salesbury, calling
the English e " e Lafina," pronounces j/ef, yes (jit, j/s), but
gives also the pronunciation (jet, jes), though by introducing
it with an " alii vocant," he clearlj' prefers the former.
1569. Hart says, describing this vowel: "The seconde
with somewhat more closing the mouth," than for a, "thrust-
ing softlye the inner part of the tongue to the inner and
vppcr great teeth, (or gummes for want of teeth) and is
marked e." He writes (dheez) for t//e.se, and (mii'terz,
Hier) for metres, here. In 1580, Bullokar Avrites both (neer)
and (niir) for here,^ and has also (siil'dum) for seldom.
' Henry IV., part 1, act i., sc. 2, 1. apparant that thou art heire apparant,"
66, Quarto 1613) : "were it not heere ought to have been pronounced (wer rfc
Chap. III. § 3. E, EE, EA — XVII TH CENTURY. 81'
1621. Gill says, "E, breuis est hac form& (e), rt in (net) rete :
ct longa sic, (ee), vt in (neet) keate. i. nitidus adicctiuuni : Sub-
stantiuum neate significat omne genus bouum."
The pronunciation in the xvi th century is therefore toler-
ably certain. All -words now spelled with ee had (ii),
a few final c as he, me, she, ice, had also (ii), almost every
word now written with ea, or words written with ea in the
latter part of the centurj^ had (ee) though some had (e).
All simple e long were (ee). Exceptions were here
(niir) occasionally, hear, year (niir, jiir) in Bullokar,
appear is marked (apiir-) in Butler 1633, who also dis-
tinguishes (teer) lacerare, (tiir) lacryma, and wishes
clear, weary, hear to be called (deer, wee-r/, Heer) instead
of (diir, wii'r/, niir) which he therefore implies to have
been the more usual pronunciation.
E, EE, EA.— xviiTH Century.
It would be waste of time to establish that through the
XVII th century and down to our own times short e has
remained (e) and ee has been (ii). The difficulty only tui*ns
upon the pronunciation of long e and of ea.
1653. Waxlis says: "e profertur sono aciito claroque ut Gal-
lorum e masculinum," except before r as will be hereafter con-
sidered; '■'■ ea effertur nimc dierum ut e longum : sono ipsius a
penitus suppresso, et sono literee e producto. I^empe illud solum
praestat a iit syUaba reputetur longa. Ita met obviam factus, meat
victus, set sisto, sedere faeio, seat sella, etc., non sono difFeiTint nisi
quod vocalis illic correpta, hie producta intelHgatur."
He however gives the exceptions near, dear, hear = (niir,
diir, Hiir). "VVilkins has (ii'vil) for evil,^ but he writes Jesus
as (Dzhee*s8s), where the first (s) is probably a mere over-
sight for (z).
1668. Pkice says : " E soundes Kke, ee, (ii, i) in be, even, evening,
England, English, he, here, me, she, we, ye," probably the complete
list at that time. He also says : " ea soundes e, d-r-a-w-n out long
as lead, weak." And then subjoins the following Kst : —
Appeal, appease. Bean, bear, beast, beat, beneath, breach, break,
not Heer apar-ent, dhat dhou art Hair in alluding to raisins, pronounced in
apar-ent), but for the sake of the joke the usual but unrecognized manner
■we may suppose Falstaff to have pro- (reeznz), a pronunciation given by Price
nounced in Hart's -n-ay, and called heir 1668 as the correct sound, and, as ^ve
(neer), a prominciation certainly well see by Hart, well known at the time,
known in Shakspere's time, although ' The ags. forms yfel, eofel, point
censured by Gill so late as 1621. Again, to the sounds (^Y'^el, ee'-vel), at a very
in the same play, act ii., sc. 4, 1. 264 : early period, and consequcutlv to a con-
" If reasons were as plenty as blacke- current (ii'vl, ee-vl) in old English,
berries," was (if reez-nz wer az plen-tt The contracted form ill shews that the
az blak-beriz), and the joke consisted (ii) sound had the preference.
6
82 E, EE, EA — XVII TH CENTURY. Chap. III. J 3.
to break. Coasc, cheat, clean, cleave, compleat, conceal, congeal.
Deal, decrease, defeat, displease, dream. Eager, can, ear, earn,
easie, Easter, endeavour, estreat, eat, eaves. Feature, forswear.
Glean. Heal, heap. Jealousie. Meal, mean. Reach, reveal. To
sheath, speak, spear, spread, squeak, seam, seamstress, streak,
sm-cease, swear. Teach, teazils, treatise. AVeavc, weaver. Zeal."
Of these the following are stiU either (ee, ee) or (e), hear, break,
earn, endeavour, forswear, Jealousie, spread, swear, wliile the rest have
become (ii). ''£a sounds short (e) in head, dead, ready. Bed-
stead, beard. Earl. Feather. Heaven. Measure. Pearl, pleasure.
Search, stead, sweat. Thread, threaten, treasurie, treasure. Wealth,
weary, weather," of wliioh only beard, weary have now changed.
John Kenible used to be laughed at for speaking of his
bird, meaning heard', we have here old authority for the
sound. ^ Price makes ea sound as a and there is consider-
able probability that he meant (a)) and neither (a) nor (aa),
in heard, heart, hearken, searge. Jones said both hard and Jierd
for heard (p. 86) ; serge, is borne out by the modern (klaaak,
saaj'dzhunt) for clerk, sergeant. The only words in which
Price admits ea to sound as ee (ii) are dear, appear ; hlear-eyed,
chear, clear, hear, near, read, year, which short list also em-
braces all Wallis's exceptions.
1685. Cooper has not named any instances in which c
long is (ii), but he enters fully into ea.
First ea = (e) in already, behead, bread, breadth, breakfast,
breath, cleanse, deadly, dearth, death, dread, earth, endeavour,
feather,head-y, health, heaven, heavy, leather, leaven, leaver\\.e\ev'\
leaveret [leveret], pageant, reachlcs [reckless], ready, realm,
spread, stealth, threaten, treachery, tread, icealth. Here en-
deavour has (e) instead of (ee) as in Price ; breakfast is
shortened as at present, and lever has now become (ii).
Second ea = {ee), of which more presently. This is a
long list beginning with appeal, appease, beacon, etc. Most
of the words now have (ii), except break, forswear, great,
sweat, wear. The words can = yean, enitor, ears = eaves,
subgrunda, learn lampas, lease formula locationis, deserve note.
Third ea = (ee), of which more presently. With the
single exception of scream clamo, all the words have the com-
bination ear, as bear, beard, earl, early, earn, earnest, learn,
rehearse, scarce cribrum, search, shear, j^otsheard, stcear, tear,
ivear.
^ Sheridan, 1780, giving a list of Irishmen, Avho, -wishing to imitate the
Irishisms, notes (biird) as the Irish and English (ii) pronunciation of e«, carried
(bErd) as the English pronunciation of it too far, as Sheridan points out in
heard. Most piobably (biird) was at some other cases, (p. 92).
that time one of the mistakes made by
Chap. III. § 3. E, EE, EA — XVII TH CENTURY. 83
Fourth, ca = a, which we have identified with (oo), (p. 71),
in hearties, hearten, hearth.
Fifth ea = (ii) in arrear, besmear, blear ~ey\l, dear, ear-wig,
fear, gear, hear, near, sear, shears, spear, tear lacryma, ueary,
whereas Price speaks weary with (e). Here arrear, ear-ivig,
fear, gear, sear, shears, spear, tear s., iveary, are in addition to
Price's list, which also contains words not here found. It is
clear that the (ii) sound was beginning to assert its claims
to the domain which it has since almost entirely conquered,
and from which the orthography ea was intended to drive it,
so powerless is the artificial barrier of spelling, to arrest the
natural flow of speech.
Cooper's vowel system is peculiar, and is clearly founded
upon a careful analysis of his own pronunciation. His list
of exact pairs of long and short vowel sounds is as follows :
12 345678
can ken will folly full up meet foot
cast cane weal fall foale — need fool.
Now there can be little doubt that the series of short
vowels in the upper line was meant for (se, e, i, a, ii, 9,
i, u), although (e, a), may have been used for (e, o). Hence
the long vowels should be (sese, ee, ii, aa, nu, — , ii, uu). The
second may of course have been (ee), and the third may
have been {ee) rather than {ii). The two sounds are closely
enough allied for even a careful analyzer to confuse. In
order to bring a Frenchman to the sound of (/) it is necessary
to exaggerate the sound into {e). Persons endeavouring to
prolong (/) are very apt to fall into {ee). Other orthoepists
seem to have confused Cooper's second long vowel with (aese)
when it was spelt a as in cane, and with (ee) in other cases.
It is to be remarked also that Cooper finds his second long
vowel expressed by ea almost only before r. This rather
points to (aeae, ee, ee) as his first three vowels, which others
reduced to two (seae, ee). There is no evidence, beyond
Cooper, for (//) occurring long, or (e) short, in English.^ The
inference is that Cooper had either a peculiar pronunciation,
or that vowel sounds appeared to him exact pairs, which do
not so appear to ns. He seems not to have been satisfied
with the pair (ii, /), which is even now commonly adopted,
and hence he tried to find (ii, i) in the English (need, meet),
although he owns that in this case " minima datur differentia
inter correptionem et productionem," and indeed the difier-
ence is rather due to the consonants than to the vowels, the
sonant (d) ha%dng a sound of its own in addition to the glide
from (ii). Again he strove to find a proper long vowel to
84 E, EE, EA — XVII TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
(0, and, observing a difference then between "weal and wear,
corresponding to the modern difference between ail and air
(eel, eea), he assumed that the finer sound was the real long
of (/), and thus paired (ee, i). Acting upon this conclusion
I shall transcribe Cooper's vowels accordingly. He seems,
precisely in the same way, to have heard the difference (uu, u)
and refusing to consider them as pairs, endeavoured to hear
(u) in foot as distinct from fool and iull, and then, not find-
ing the real long sound of his («), took {oo) in for/I as its
nearest representative. This would reduce his vowel scale to
the follo"wing, which I shall adopt in future citations.
12 3 4 5 6 7 8
keen kEn w«l hli iul op mit fut
kaesest IfVTen weel ixA fool — niid fuul
The distinction between the words in ea which Cooper pro-
nounces {ee), and those in ca which he pronounces (ee),
may have been a step in the direction of change from (ee) to
(ii) which may have been commencing at his time in the long
list of words to which he assigns {ee), although it was not
accomplished till much later.
Holder, 1669, does not make these distinctions, contenting
himself with, fate fat, seal sell, eel ill (focaet faet, seel sel, iil /I),
but admits that some vowel may lie between (ac) and (ee).
In comparing Cooper with his contemporaries we must then
consider his (ee, ee) as represented by their single (ee).
1688. Miege after laying down the rule that e long is {ee)y
the French ^ aigu, and e short is (e), the French e ouvert,
excepts the following which have the sound of (ii, i), be, he,
she, me, we, "qui s'ecrivaient autrefois avec deux e," yes, besom,
evil; eve, even, evening, here ; the termination -eoits; emplo?/-
ment, enquiry, " qui s'ecrivent indifferemment avec un e ou
avec un i," ten, linnen, penny, hence, then, thence, tchen, ichence,
which he transcribes in French letters " tinn lininn, peny,
hinnce, denn, dence, hoinn, hoinnce," so that he gives e and
not i in three of the words (by mistake?). This last list is
peculiar to this author.
Miege gives long i masculin, (ee), as the general pronuncia-
tion of ea, but says that the a counts for nothing in the fol-
lowing words, for which ea therefore =: (e), beard, bread,
breakfast, breath s., dealt, dearth, death, Earl, early, to earn,
earnest, earth, feather, head, health, heard, hearken, hearth,
heaven, heavy, leap, learn, leather, leaven, leaver, meadow,
pageant, peasant, pnlloio-bcar, potsheard, read "le Preterit et
Participe,"ref/f/'//, realm, to rehearee, scarce, search, stead, stealth,
threaten, treachery, tread, wealth, weather; of which beard.
Chap. III. § 3. E, EE, EA — XA1I TH CENTURY. 85
leap, lever, pillow-beer, have now (ii). It is observable that
he gives hearken to (e), and also that the vowel in breakfast
was shortened at so early a period.
Miege makes ea = (ii) in these words only, besmear, blear-
eyed, clear, dear, (jear, hear, near, shears, spear, in which we
miss some of Price's words, though the list is increased by
besmear, gear, shears, S2)ear,
" Bear un ours et jyear une poire, se prononce bair, pair."
There is a modern American pronunciation, probably (baeaej),
but generally heard by Englishmen as (baaj), which may
date from this time, for as Miege evidently means bear to
have a broader sound that he heard in other words, the real
sound mat/ have been (baeasr). See Cooper's third list as
noted above, (p. 82).
1701. Jones says that the sound of e (ee) is written ea
" in all words or syllables, that are, or may he sounded long,"
except a certain number of words where it is written e only,
and it is perhaps worth giving these lists as shewing many
words in e, e-e, now mostly pronounced with (ii), which had
all (ee) so lately as the end of the xvii th century, because
the fact is little known, and its announcement is generally
received with incredulity. Those marked (*) have still (ee)
or (e).
1) eke, *e're (ever), *e're (before), mere, rere, the, *there, these,
*were, *where ; glebe, Medes, mete, nepe, scene, scheme, sphere,
Swede, Thebe, Theme.
2) aflhere, antheme, austere, blaspheme, *cherab, cohere, com-
plete, concede, *credit, discrete, *felo, female, ^ferule, frequent,
Hebrew, impede, negi'o, *nephew, obscene, *pedant, pedee, poeme,
serous, sincere, supreme, systeme, *tenet, teri'ene, ^treble, *Tenew ;
— *crevice, crewel, menow, "Aether, *plevin, *whether.
3) "all Scripture names and proper names from other languages,
as Belus, Jehu, Jesus, &c."
4) '* all that begin with the sound of ce, de, e, per, pre, re, se.''''
"With these we must contrast the words in which e had the
sounds (ii, i) ;
1) the termination '-eous.
2) initial he- as become, bedew, before, &c.
3) the six words, he, he, me, she, we, ye.
4) the ten words, chesel [chisel], Crete, England, English, here,
ynere, metre, Peter, saltpetre, Tivede.
5) the six words, Evan, Eve, Eveling, even, evening, evil. To
which in another place he adds devil}
In the following list e is said to be sounded as a, which
1 Jones says that devil is " soiinded de'il, are cui-ious in connection with the
dill sometimes." This, and the Scotch derivation of ill from evil.
86 E, EE, EA, XVII TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
was most probabh^ sliort (a?) : Berks, clerk, eleven, Herbert,
merchant, mercy, Otcen, phrcntiek, verdict, i/cllow, etc.; of which
phrcntick has assorted itself in the orthography //-a;? ^/c; mercy,
yellow, and sometimes rrvW/c/ arc known as vidgarisras; eleven,
Herbert are now unknown, merchant is known as an archaism,
and Berks, clerk are very common. This list seems to shew
that Micge's service, bear, pear in which he makes e = ai
French, had the same sound, especially as (saaJ'v/s) is a
well-known vulgarism at the present day.
The only words in which Jones allows ea to be like a (x)
are heard, heart "to distinguish them from hard (not soft),
Hart (or Stay)," but he also gives heard the sound of (nerd).
Jones makes ea short = (e), in beard, bread, breadth, breast,
breath, cleanse, dead, dealt, dear, dearth, death, dread, earl,
earn, earth, head, heard, hearth, lead, leap, meant, meash, pearce,
pearl, reach, read, reath, realm, scarce, search, searye, sheard,
shread, slead, spread, stead, stealth, sweat, thread, threat, tread,
wealth, yearn ; — bedstead, bestead, heaven, heavy, teacher, leather,
leaven, measure, peasant, pheasant, jjleasant, steady, treasure,
weapon, iveasand, weather ; most of which have preserved their
sounds, though some have changed their spelling.
The only words in which Jones allows ea to have the
sound (ii) are chear, clear, dear, ear, year, hear, mear, near,
year; — aj/pear, beadle, beaio (biu) now (boo), instead, stead,
steam, team, yea, yeast.
Collecting together all the words spelled with ea and pro-
nounced with (ii) as given in the preceding lists, we find them
limited to the following — all others in ea having (ee) or (e).
appear
dear
mear^
steam
an-car
ear
near
team
beadle
earwig
read
a tear
besmear
fear
sear'
weary
blear-eyed
gear
shears
yea^
chear ^
hear
spear
year
clear
instead^
stead ^
yeast'
Those marked (^) are now spelled cheer, mere, sere; those
marked (-J had often the sound (e) at that time, and perhaps
more regularly ; {^) the word yea is not marked (.lii) except
by Jones.
This list must be borne in mind in judging of rhymes in
the XVII th century. In Croker's Johnson, ed. 1848, p. 57,
it is said respecting Rowe's couplet
As if misfortune made the throne her scat,
And none could be unhappy but the great,
which Dr. Johnson in his Plan of a Dictionary in 1747 had
Chap. III. § 3. E, EE, EA — XVII TH CENTURY. 87
adduced to shew that great had sometimes the sound (griit),
that Lord Chesterfield remarked it was " Undoubtedly a bad
rhyme, tho' found in a great poet," — an observation which
shewed first that Lord Chesterfield did not know the pro-
nunciation of English when Rowe was young, and secondly
that he was so little aware of the habits of great poets (at
least if he reckoned Shakspere and Dryden among them) that
he looked to their greatness as a guarantee for the perfection
of their rhymes. Now Rowe lived from 1673 to 1718. We
may therefore expect to gather his pronunciation from Cooper,
Miege, and Jones. The first gives {^eet, greet), the rules of
the others would imply (seet, greet). The rhyme was there-
fore perfect. While Pope's couplet, adduced by Johnson to
shew the other sound of great,
For Swift and him despis'd the farce of state
The sober follies of the wise and great,
would have been to Rowe a somewhat imperfect rhyme (sese,
ee), and one which I have but rarely found when examining
the rhymes of this period.
As the point has been so much disputed, the orthoepical
accounts have been given at great length, and it will be in-
teresting to add the result of an examination of Dryden's
rhymes in his Absalom and Achitophel, Annus Mirabilis,
Palamon and Arcite, Wife of Bath, Good Parson, Theodore
and Honoria, Religio Laici, Flower and Leaf, Cymon and
Iphigenia, with respect to the pronunciation of the long e
and ea. Rejecting those in which both spelling and sound
were, as far as is known, identical in the rhj^ming termina-
tions, the following are the results.
1) Eegiilar rhymes, (ee, ee) ; ease with these seize, sea ioith
survey prey weigh key lay way sway, wear despair, reveal frail,
leave with deceive receive, mean obscene, congeal hail, remain'd
glean' d, there hair, please these, theme dream, bear heir ;
2) Nearly regular rhymes, a long with its corresponding short
vowel (ee, e) ; feast with breast guest address'd rest, set ivith great
retreat, increase less, heat ivith sweat threat, beat threat, _ conceal
with tel dispel, appeal rebel v., zeal dwell, please ivith giievances
images, yet gi-eat, extreme stem, supreme them ;
3) Regular rhymes (ii, ii), cheer with clear year, years ears,
appear with year ear tear s. steer gear cheer clear, near with clear
ear, dear here, clear ear, career spear, fear with leer cheer near steer
tear s. car ;
4) Possibly regidar rhymes owing to variety of pronunciation,
(ii, ii) ; rear ivith fear appear, to bear ivith hear year tear s. hear
appear spear, hit also bear with heh hair fair were, and were with
career spear appear ; where xvith clear near, there with spear appear
88 E, EE, EA — XVIII TH CENTURY. Chap. III. { 3.
ilisappcar dear fear ; for \re still hear were, where, there pronounced
(\vii.i vnii dhili) as yulf^arisms ;
5) llarc iiTopriilar rhymes (ee, ii) now become reg^iilar as (ii, ii) ;
heap sweep, retreat feet, deal wheel, disease degrees (?), severe bier,
plead freed, repeat sweet, unclean seen ;
6) Faulty rhj-mes, (e, ii) petitioners years, pensioners fears, steed
with tied head, feet sweat, field beheld, kneel'd compell'd, unseen
men, reed head, — (e, i) contest resist, sense piince, but civil devil,
does not belong to this place, for the rhyme was perfect («, i) ; —
(ee, ffia)) wear care, tears r. spares.
These rhymes, notwithstanding an occasional laxity which
Dry den seems to have preferred as a rehef,^ serve to shew the
general correctness of the rules laid down by the orthoepists
on this point.
E, EE, EA — xviiiTH Century.
1704. The Expert Orthographist dashes at once into
the full sounds of the xviii th century. " Tho' ee be
reckoned among the Dipthongs," says he, " yet what diifer-
ence is there in the sound of meet to come together, and mete
to measure, in j^^oceed and intercede?" Hence making the
exceptions that there, ivere, where, " though they have e at
the end, yet it serveth only to lengthen the foregoing e into
a long," that is (ee), he gives the following 17 monosyllables
and 26 polysyllables as having the sound (ii), which may
be contrasted with Jones's lists, (p. 85 : Bede, Crete, ere
even now (cej), gkho, glede a kite, here, Mede, mere, mete,
Pede, rerc now rear, scene, scheme, sphere, these, Vere ; adhere,
ajjozeme, austere, blaspheme, cohere, complete, concede, concrete,
convene, extreme which Jones spelled extream, greve "or Lord,"
impede, intercede, interfere, intervene, Nicene, obscene, portgreve,
precede, recede, replete, revere, severe, sincere, supercede, supreme.
Jones gives only 18 words out of the 28, (p. 86), in which
he and preceding orthoepists allow ea to have the sound of (ii),
^ Besides the faulty rhymes named resemblance between the vowels ; thus
in the text the folloM-iiitr have been Drydcn could not have rhymed son
noted : (a'.x-, aa) prepare war, — (e, with seen paui cane, or beat with coat,
sere) possess, place, — (o, u) blood idth etc. Some even of the above may be re-
good wood, — {u, a) took, flock, — fcrred to peculiar or arcliaic pronuncia-
(m, 00) shook with broke spoke, poor tions, so that Dryden's rhjmies arc not,
with more swore ; — (a, a) strung wrong, properly speaking, the monsters of mo-
return scorn, turn born, — (a, oo) lost aern times, known as rhjTiics to the eye,
%cith boast coast ; god abode ; — (a, ou) as move love grove, has was gas, seat
won milh to\vn cro\vn, son with crown, great, pour flour, changed hanged^
— (uu, 9u) swoon McVA (bown'd sound. That keep the word of promise to our eye
"We also tAvice find (oon. Am) none And break it to our ear.
Absalom. Notwitlistsmding the di- Sec a further examination of Dryden's
versity there is always some point of rhymes in Chap. IX, § 3.
Chap. III. § 3. E, EE, EA — XVIll TH CENTURY. 89
59 others having short (e) and all the rest having long (ee)
for ea. The orthographist only admits 4 words in which ea
is sounded like a long, that is (ee) ; viz. hear s. and v., swear,
tearY., wear ; 3 words in which ea "is sounded like a short,"
that is (ee), viz, hearken, heart and its derivatives, hearth;
but gives 95 examples of ea sounded as (e) short including
heard ; and then no less than 255 in which " ea is sounded
ee or e long " that is (ii). This last list of ea = (ii), includes
the words break, deaf, deafen, great, indeavonr, — but endeavour
is in the list of ea = (e), — hassee, pear, shear, yea, yearn, "in
all of which, except shear which is often (shiij), and yearn
which is (jJn), the old long (ee) is still preserved ; and
though (briik, griit) may still be heard from a very few, I
have not been so fortunate as to hear (diif, indii'VJ, liisii',
piij, jii, jiim). We can imagine a Gill of the period ex-
claiming again : "Non nostras hie voces habes, sed Mopsarum
fictitias!" It is impossible to believe that this represented
the generally-received pronunciation of the time.
1710. Dyche, so far as I can understand his notation,
agrees with Jones, but between him and Buchanan 1766,
were fifty years, which seem to have had a great efiect on our
pronunciation, in settling long a to {ee) and long e and ea to
(ii). They were years in which there was a remarkable ten-
dency to thinness and meagreness of sound owing to a pre-
dilection for the higher lingual or palatal vowels. The
change from (ee) to (ii) was attempted to be carried much
further than actually succeeded. Thus chair^ steak, hreak,
great were (tshiii, stiik, briik, griit), ohlige was (obliidzh*)^
and (k, g) before (aa), where the sound of (aa) really re-
mained, were palatalised into {k, (j) as in (A'aajd, ^aaid). All
these sounds might have been heard from elderly speakers
some thirty years ago, and those which have remained to
the present day, are accounted old pronunciations. In the
XVII th century however, they were modernizms which did
not set through, and our present pronunciations (tsheer,
steek, breek, greet, oblaidzh") were older, although not all
of them the oldest forms. In the provinces (tshii.i) is still
frequent, and ((^bliidzh*) is nearly universal in Scotland.
1710. The anonymous instructor of the Palatines, writes
me, he, we, she, he in German letters mi, hi, wi, schi, hi as par-
ticular exceptions, and gives as examples of ea sounding
1 "Why is a stout man always happy? (tsheer, tshiir) the latter being one of
Because he a cheerful (chair Ml)." This the words which had then changed its
is a commdrum of that period, and could sound, notwithstanding the spelling
not have belonged to any other, for in chear, since altered to cheer.
the XVII th century, chair, chear were ^ go pronounced by Dyche.
90 E, EE, EA — X\^II TH CENTURY. CnAP. III. ^ 3.
sometimes almost (hisiceikn fast) as German / (ii), the words
/leaj), li(((f, cheap, cJian, char.
17GG-8. Buchanan and Franklin may be said to have
completely adopted the present usage respecting e long
and ea. The following are all the words in Franklin's
examples, with his transcriptions, translated into palaeotype,
and following all his inaccuracies :
liOiifjj e, serene siiiin, editions \\(\iii[\rsn?,, religion rilidshon, idea oidia;
— ea long, pleased pliiz'd, stream striim, clear khir, meaning miiniq,
easiest iiziiost, least liist, increasing inkriisiq, sjteaker spikor, readers
ridors, to read riid, dear diir ; — greater grcctor grcter ; — ea short,
heaven ncv'n, already ah-cadi ^di'cadi, / have read red, unlearned
onlam'd.
An Irish gentleman, born in 1755, told me he remembered
the change. It is to be observed that the change is not yet
made among the less educated class in Ireland, and was
probably universal in Ireland when this gentleman was a
youth. He came to England as a young man, and observed
the custom growing. He distinctly remembered a youth who
asked for (piiz) 2)eas, being told to say (peez) " like a man."
The thinner voice of woman has perhaps occasioned all thin-
ness of utterance to be called effeminate. Thus Meigret says :
" Jc vou' Less' a pKuscr qElle gra9' aora I'e clos En se' vocables
inES, tES, SES, si nou' I'y prono^^ons, come nou' fezons eh pere mere :
E come font je ne scy qels cffcminez mixons [if = (nj)] auEq vn
pi-Esqc clos rcsEn-eniEnt dc boii9hc : crcxans a mon auis qc la voes
viiille de I'home no soEt point tant hannonieuze, ny aggi'cabl' ao'
dames q'unc laghe, foEbl' e femenine. Or quant a moE ie ne
pom-suy pas icy ^ete dolLett' [l = Ij] e cflfcminee fa^on do parlor :
car je la Less' aoz amoui'euz poui-suyuant tant seulcmont ^ete
jencrall' e eomune faqon, qi sEnt son home, e qi Et rc9u' Entre Ie"
mieus appiiz."
Just in the same way Smith exclaims against the " mulier-
culic dclicatiores et nonnulli qui volunt isto modo videri loqui
urbaniiis" who use (ei) for (ai). And Dr. Gill works him-
self up into absolute rudeness, in the following noteworthy
passage. After observing that the eastern English are fond
of thinning their words, saying (fir, kiver, deans) for (feier,
kuver, dans), fire, cover, dance, he goes on to say :
" ia')(y6TT]Ta^ autem illam magnopere afFectant Trir/oaToXoL^
^ Printed tffxv6Triv by an error, but means "with a sweepin<!: train," as a
corrected in the errata. All palatalis- parody of the Homeric f\Kffflireir\os,
ation or diminution of the liujrual "if it be not rather Icicd, lecherous.'"
aperture in vowels produces this elfect The allusion is evidently to Trw-y^, and
ot meagreness, thinness of sound. the word might be translated " wrig-
^ This is an imusual word found in gling," as a mark of affectation.
Hes. Op. 371, which Liddell says
Chap. III. ^^ 3. E, EE, EA — XVIII TH CENTURY. 91
nostrsB Mopsoe ^ quae quidem ita omnia attcnuant, \-t a ct o, non
aliter perliorrcscere vidcantur (j[iiam Appius Claudius z. sic cnim
nostrae non emunt (Iaau) lawn-, et (kaambrik) camhric, sindonis
species ; sed (leen) et (keembrik) ; nee edimt (kaapn) capon caponem,
sed (keepn) et fere (kiipn) ; nee imquam (butsherz meet) butciters
MEAT camem a lanijs, sed (brtsherz miit). Et qiium sunt omnes
(dzb/ntl/mm) non (dzhentlwemen^) gentlewomen, i.e. matrona? no-
biles, nee maids ancillas vocant (maidz) sed (meedz). Quod autcm
dixi de a, rccanto ; nam si quando 6 grayistrepum audii'etur, locum
concedunt ipsi a, sic enim aliquoties ad me pippiunt * (ai pre Ja gii
jar skalcrz liiv ta plee) pro (oi prai Jou * giV Juur skolars leev tu
plai), / pray you give your scholars leave to play. Qu»so concede
tuis discipulis veniam hulendi."
We cannot but regret that Dr. Gill had not greatly ex-
tended his list. (Leen) does not seem to have survived, but
(k^^m"br/k) is now the recognized pronunciation, though I
have heard (kaani"br/k). So with (k(Yrp'n). This anticipa-
tion of the change from (aa) to (ee), which was not fully ac-
complished till nearly a century after Gill's time, is remark-
able. It must, however, be considered as a xvii th and not a
XVI th century sound. (B/tsher, meeds, plee) will bo con-
sidered hereafter. Here we are principally interested in the
anticipations (miit, liiv) for, (meet, leev), meat, leave, which
are not named as exceptions by any professedly xvii th cen-
tury writers, and (meet, leev) being then the rule, would
have sounded most probably as affected to Price, Cooper, and
Jones as they did to Gill.
Generally with regard to the change of (ee) into (ii) it is
observable that in Modern Greek (as has been probably the
custom for nearly 2000 years), 77 is pronounced (ii), while
there seems reason to suppose that it was originally (ee) or
perhaps {ee), although, at least in one word, it was confounded
with (ii) at an early period.^ Also in the passage from Latin
to the modern Romance language, (ee) fell not imfrequently
1 It would be difficult to find any present day, ignorant as wc are of the
authority for this piece of Latin. The effect that oui- pronunciation would
English is mojiseijs, sluts, which may hare produced on om- ancestors.
be related to mop, mope. ^ Probably an inaccuracy for (.lu).
2 The pronunciation is an exact e The oldquotatidn 6 8' r)\i94or £o7rep
palfetot\-pic reproduction of Gill's, and irpo^arov ^rj ^rj \iywv PaSiCei, does
the ordinary spelling in italics is my nf)t absolutely establish («) or _ even
addition throughout. (ee) as the sound. The latter is far
3 Both words require to be written more bleating, and Schnicller calls it
with ('1), or else to have (,) inserted that vowel which any lamb can teach
after (1), as (dzhmtl,?men, dzhentl,w«- us, "iibcr den ims jedes Lammchen
men,) to avoid a pronunciation in three belehrcn kann." The well-known pas-
syllables, sage in Plato, Crat. c. 15, oTov, ol fxev
* This pipping, chirping effect is apxati-raTui tfiepav r^v y]fi4pav eKaAovv,
precisely that now produced upon our only shews that some old people pro-
ears by the flunkey (Dzhiimz) of the nounced that particular word in that way.
92
E, EE, EA — XVIII TH CENTURY.
Chap. III. v
i3.
into (ii),^ and as the Latin tne, fe, se became the Italian m/,
ti, si, 80 the English pronouns he, she, mc, we, thee, as some of
the commonest words, wore the first which fell into (nii, shii,
mii, dhii), having remained as (aee, shoe, mee, dhee) to the
close of the xia' th century.
1710. Sheridan's usage agrees with the modem, but his
observations on educated Irish usage are important. He
says that ee^ ie were pronounced as (ii) both in England and in
Ireland, but that ea, ei, e when sounded ^\ith (iij in England
"almost universally" received the sound of (ee) in Ireland,
as (tee, see, pleez) tea, sea, please. But he adds that " gentle-
men of Ireland, after sometime of residence in London, are
apt to fall into the general rule, and pronoimce these words"
great, a pear, a hear, to hear, jorhear, swear, to tear, wear,
which were exceptionally pronounced with (ee) in England,
"as if spelled greet, heer, sweer," that is, as (griit, piir, biir,
swiir, tiir, wiir). Omitting these mistakes, which had nothing
to do with the true Irish habits of the time, we see that the
latter really belonged to the xvii th century. Again Sheridan
says : " the final mute e makes the preceding e in the same
syllable, when accented, have the somid of (ii) as in the words
supreme, sincere, replete. This rule is almost universally
broken through by the Irish, who pronounce such words as
if written suprame, sinsare, replate" that is with (ee) as in the
xvii th century. In Sheridan's list of miscellaneous words
with Irish pronunciations, we find several examples of forcing
a rule too far, as above stated (see also p. 76). The complete
list is as follows, to which I have annexed my own pro-
nunciation in the present century : —
Written.
cheerful
fearful
beard
leisure
search
tenure
tenable
Irish.
tsliiii-ful
fiii-ful
biird
lEzh"9r
seertsh
tEii'jor
tEU'sebl
English 1780.
tsliEr-ful
fEr'ful
bErd
lii'zbar
sErtsh
tii'njsr
tii'naebl
English, 1868.
tsMLi'fwl
fiiffwl
biijd
lezb-i
s.itsh
ten'iui
ten'Bb'l
1 Dicz, Gram, der rom. Sprachen,
2nd cd., vol. i., p. 139, gives as ex-
amples, Italian Comiglia (Cornelia,)
Messina (Messene), sarracino (sara-
cenus) — to which the initial di-, ri-
andseveral others maybe added. — Span,
consigo (secum), veniuo (veneuum) ;
port, siso (sensus sesus). — Prov. berbitz
(vervecem), ponzf (pidlicenus), razim
(racemus), sarraci. — French, brebis,
cire (cera), marquis (marchensis), merci
(mercedem), pris (prensixs), poussin,
raisin, tapis (tapctum), venin ; old
French, pais (pagcnse, now pays), seine
(sagena), seri (sei'cnus). He also re-
marks on the same tendency in the old
high German fira (feriae), pina (Ital.
pena), spisa (spesa), which have under-
gone another change in modern times,
becoming Feier, Peine, Speise.
Chap. III. § 3.
0, 00, OA -
— XVI TH CENTURY.
Written.
Irish.
English, 1780.
English, 1868.
"wherefore
•whiii-foor
•whEr'foor
wheej'fooi
therefore
dhiir-foor
dliEr'foor
dheej-fooj
breadth
brEth
brEdth
bredth
endeavour
endii-var
endEvar
endevr
mischievous
m/stsliii'vas
m/s-tshiv9s
m/s'tshivBS
reach
retsh
riitsh
liitsh
zealous
zii"bs
ze1-9s
zel-BS
zealot
zii-Ut
ZEl-at
zel'Bt
0, 00, OA -
— XVI TH CENTURY.
93
1530. Paisgrave says: "0 in the frenche tong hath two diuers
maners of soundynges, the souwdyng of o, whiche is most generall
■with them, is lyke as we souwde o in these words in our tonge a
boore, a soore, a coore, and suche lyke, that is to say, like as the
Italians sounde o, or they with vs that souwde the latin tong aright."
1567. Saxesbuht says : " 0 in "Welsh is sounded according to the
right sounding of it in Latin : eyther else as the sound of o is in
these Englyshe wordes : a Doe, a Roe, a Toe : and o never soundeth
in Welsh as it doth in these wordes of Englysh : to, do, two.'''' And
again, 1547, speaking of English, he says : "0 takes the sound of
[Welsh] 0 (o) in some words, and in others the sound of w (uu) ;
thus TO, to, (too), digitus pedis ; so, so, (soo), sic ; two, tw, (tuu)
duo ; to, tw (tu) ad ; scuole, &cwl, (skuul) schola .... But two oo
together are sounded like w in Welsh, as good gwd (guud) bonus;
POOEE pwr (puur) pauper."
1568. — Snt T. Smith simply says: "0 Latina," giving as ex-
amples the following words, which he only writes phonetically, but
are here given in ordinary speUing —
Short — smock, horse, hop, sop, not, rob, hot, pop.
Long — smoke, hoarse, hope, soap, note, robe, boat, pope.
Smith makes oo in hoot, look, mood, fool, pool, too the same as the
Latin u long, meaning (uu). See under U.
1569. TTakt says : "The fourth [vowel], by taking awaye of all
the tongue, cleane from the teeth or gummes, as is sayde for the a,
and turning the lippes rounde as a ring, and thrusting forth of a
sounding breath, which roundnesse to signifie the shape of the
letter, was made (of the fii'st inuentor) in like sort, thus o." And
his English examples are no, not, so.
1580. BxTLLOKAK says : "Ohath three soundes, and all of them
vowels; the one sound agreeing to his olde and continued name,
another sound, betweene the accustomed name of, o, and the old
name of, v, and the same sound long, for which they write oo,' (as I
do also, but giuing it a proper name, according to the sound thereof),
the thirde sounde is as, v, flat and short, that is to say, as this
sillable ou, short sounded : for which some of the better learned did
many times use, oo. &, v, according to their sounds, but most times
^ The two o's are united in one type as the o and e are in the tj-pe oe.
94 O, 00, OA — XVI TH CENTURY. Chap. III. J 3.
with supci-fluous letters." He illustrates the three sounds by the
words,
1) Sonne filius, rpon, bosome (first vowel), come, close.
2) Sonne sol, out, bosome (second vowel), come.
3) lohed, toke, boke, sone.
1611. Floiuo says, speaking of the Italian {tih, o) : "So likewise
to the close 0, I have thi-ougliout my book given this oualle forme
0. and to the open this round fonu 0. The first close or oualle is
euer pronounced as the English single Y. in those wordes, Bun, Dug,
Flud, Gud, End, Stud, Tun, &c., whereas the other round or open
is euer pronounced as our 0. in these words Bone, Dog, Flow, God,
Rod, Stone, Tone &c. as for example in these Italian wordes, lo
honoro il mio Di'o con (5gni diuotionc, where euer, 0. is close and
oualle. And in these, lui mi vuole torre la mia tdrre ; or else, liii
mi ha rosa la mia rosa ; where Torre with an open or round 0. is
a verbe and signifieth to take, and tdrre %vith a close or oualle 0.
is a noune substantiue, and signifieth a tower ; and Hdsa with an
oualle and close 0. is a participle of the verb Eddere, and signifieth
Gnawne or Xiblcd, and Eosa -with a round or open 0. is a noune
substantiue, and signifieth the floure that we call a Eose."
1621. Gill gives as key words for his long and short o, "coale, to
coll," and calls them w, o.
In endeavouring to discover what are the sounds intended,
it is necessary first to examine what sounds of o exist. They
are all round vowels, that is, the action of the lips with a
tolerably round opening is necessary. The tongue must also
not be much raised, or the sound falls into (u, ti) or at least
(uh) the Italian o diiuso. At the same time the tongue must
not be too much depressed, or the sounds become (a, o), the last
of which is the modern English o in odd, which Mr. M. Bell
considers to be a wide form of (a), and which is generally,
though inaccurately, confounded with (a), just as (/) is
usually confounded with (i). Hence we obtain two forms, by
raising the hack of the tongue to a mid position, and round-
ing the lips in a medium manner, namely (o, o), the latter
being the wide of the former. In present English (o) only
occurs as a long vowel, and in the south it usually has a
faint sound of (u) after it, thus (Hooum, Hoo'trm) home, but
this is uuhistorical, except where a to is written ; thus we
may distinguish )W, know as (noo, noou). The other sound
(oo) is often heard long in pro\'incial English as (Hoom) home.
Unaccustomed ears then confound it with (aa) or (oo). The
long sound (oo) is also sometimes heard from those London
speakers who wish to prolong the sound of o in dog, cross,
oft', office, without degenerating into (d.4.Ag, krAAs, AAf, AAf'/s),
or being even so broad as (doog, kroos, oof, oof-/s). It is also
the soimd now most esteemed in oar, glory, story, memorial.
Chap. III. § 3- O, 00, DA — XVI TH CENTURY. 95
once called, and still so called by elderly people, {oo'i, gloo'rri,
stoo'jr/, memoo'j-r/tJl), but now professedly called (ooj, glooJT?,
stoox'ri, memoo.iT/ul), the action of the glide from (oo) to
(i) having- resulted in widening the vowel.^ Mr. M. Bell
recognizes two other sounds (oh, oh) related to (o, o) by being
mixed instead of back vowels. The former he hears in the
French homme, where I hear (o), and the latter in the
American stone, where I hear (o). The sounds are unusual
to English ears, and it will be unnecessary to distinguish
(o, oh) or (o, oh) for any purpose in this treatise. Generally
(ston) is heard as (ston), which is the modern English form
in such phrases as to weigh twelve stone (tu wm twelv stan).
The sound (hoI) for (hooI) whole, is b}'' no means imcommon,
although most persons hear it as (nal), and it is imitated by
writing " the hull of a thing."
Now long 0 being {po) and short o in closed syllables being
(o), as note, not (noot, not), English writers have got so much
into the habit of considering these two sounds as a pair, that
when they speak of long and short o we naturally expect
these sounds and not [oo, o). This creates the difficulty.
The ear and judgment are confused. Sir T. Smith may
have pronounced his key words (smok smook, Hors Hoors,
Hop, Hoop), and yet have considered them as pairs, for he
actually has so considered the more distant sounds (beit, b/t).
As the Welsh at the present day, so far as I have observed,
say (oo, o) and do not use either (o) or (o), they probably so
pronounced in Salesbury's time. But Salesbury would in
that case have heard (oo, o) as (oo, o), so that his identifi-
cation of the English with the "Welsh o, although probably
correct, would not suffice to decide so delicate a point. Quite
recently I have heard Welsh gentlemen who seemed to me
to say (poob) and not (poob) declare that the vowel sounded
to them the same as that in my pronunciation of rotje (roob).
Hart's description, giving the lingual positions for a (a) and
the rounding of the lij^s should produce (o) exactly. And I
am inclined to think that the normal English sound up to
the end of the xvi th century was (oo, o), both long and
short. This would make sense of Hart's examples no, not, so
as (^noo, not, soo), and would make Smith's and Gill's long
and short o, perfect pairs, thus : Gill coll, coal, (kol, kool) ;
Smith smock, smoke, (smok, smook).
1 Of course this sound degenerates anxious to correct this, say (gloo/rt),
into (oo) or (aa),"so that (gl.v.\-ri') or \vithout any Ci), the effect of which
even (dlAAr*) may often be heard in was decidedly unpleasant.
London. I have heard clergymen, who,
96 O, 00, OA — XVI TH CENTURY. Chat. III. { 3.
My own impression, after considerable thought on the sub-
ject, thougli it would be difficult to enumerate all the reasons
which have led me to this conclusion, is, that (oo, o) must be
considered as the normal sound, intermediate to (a) and (u) ;
and that (o, u) are felt as approximations towards (u), and
(o, a) as approximations towards (a). To me the Italian
sounds 0 diiuso and o apcrto, close and open o, are respectively
{lib., o), the former coming from Latin u, the latter from Latin
0. The regular short German and French o I also consider to
be (o). To shew however the ease with which sounds so
near may be confused, I may mention that Mr. Melville Bell
in taking down sounds from mj' dictation, heard my (o, on)
as (oh, un)}
I shall assume as at least most likely that (oo, o) was the
original sound of long and short o previous to the xvi th
century, but that (oo) inclining often towards (u) had
become (uu) in many words in the xvith centur}-, other
words retaining the pure (oo).^ It was, I believe, to
separate these two effects that a diversity of spelling
was introduced. The o which became (uu) was written
00, and the o which remained unchanged became oa. The
change was precisely similar to the introduction of the two
spellings ec, ea at the same period, and the device was
the same, viz., the more guttural sounds of each, that is, the
sounds more nearly aijproaching to a, were represented by
adding on a as ca, oa, and the other sounds further from a,
were represented by simple duplication as ee, oo. When o
had changed to (u) the spelling u gradually prevailed, but
sometimes simple o and sometimes oo was employed. The
older spelling oh also occasionally remained. "NVe have seen
that the orthography ee, ea was not fixed in Palsgrave's time.
Similarly we find him writing in the passage first quoted
under this letter, (p. 93), hoove, soorc, coorc for boar, sore, core.
Reverting to Palsgrave''s vocabulary of noims, we find the fol-
lowing spellings, to which I add Levins's, as under EA (p. 77) :
^^ Bolce ..\)o6kQ, boh othe .. othe, hokeram, hockette for a well.,
bucket, hokyll .. buckle, locler for defence .. bockler, lone a request ..
^ See Visible Speech, Plate ■v'iii. con- and that given bv ^Ir. ]\r. Bell, must
taininfr the speech of Portia on Mercy, generally be attri\)utcd to further in-
written in Visible Speech letters from vestigation on my part,
my dictation, where (noht, droh'peth) ^ In the examination of Chaucer's
are ^rritten for what I intended to pro- pronunciation I sliall endeavour to
noimcc as (not, drop-cth.) This speech shew that in his time the sound of o
will be found as an example in Chap. had not split into two, although I think
VIII, ^ 8, Ex. 1. The differences be- that o was written not unfrei^uently for
tween the pronunciation there exhibited an original (u).
Chap. III. ^^ 3. O, 00, OA XVI TH CENTURY. 97
boone, hour age herbe, hoore beest .. bore, hoorde for buylding .. boord,
horde clotb 7ia2)pe .. borde, hoarder that gothe to borde .. border,
hosier uanten", hotte to ro-we in hateav .. bote, hoti/ that man of warrc
take .. booty, io^/ar.. butler, hotiras .. huttrcsse, hott ri/e ..huttevie,
hoote of lether .. boote, hoothe .. boothe, hullyon in a woman's girdle,
houke of clothes, cloke a gannent.. cloke, coke that selleth meate ..
cooke, cole, of fp'e .. cole, coupe [coop], core of fmte .. core, corse a
deed body .. corse, courser of horses .. course, cosyn kynsman ..
cousin, costes charge .. coste, cost of a countre .. coaste, cote a brrde ..
coote, cote for a ladde .. cote, cover .. cover, couple .. couple, course ..
course,^ doo a beest ..doe, rfoX-e?ywy .. duckling,^ dole .. (\.oo\g, dome
jugement .. doome, doiig hyll . . dungil, dore a gate .. door, doublet,
dove .. doove, doute .. doubte, fole .. foole, foole a colte .. fole, Joome
.. fome, foo .. foe, foroioe .. furrowe, fote .. foote, foulde for shepe ..
fould, foule .. foule, good., good, golde a metall .. golden, goulfe of
come, so moche as may lye bytwene two postes, otherwyse a baye ..
gulfe, gode for a carter .. gode, goore of a smock .. gore, gose a foule
.. goose, gosehernj .. gooseberrie, goost ., ghoste, gote a beest.. gote,
gottesmylk, grome .. groome, grote money .. grote, hode .. hoode, hoke ..
hooke, hole ..\io\e, holy ..holy, hofiy ..honje, honny combe, honny-
suckell .. honysuckle, hore .. whore, hope .. hope, hote house ., bote,
horse a beest .. horse, hoorsnesse of the throte .. horse, host of men ..
hoste, hose for ones legges .. hose, houpe [hoop], ionkette ..junkets,
iouse ..jvLce, lode., lode [load], lofe of bredde .. lofe, loke ..lookc,
lope [loop], loiue [loam], losyng perdition .. lose, love .. loved, mole
moxde a beest .. moule, moleyne an herbe, molet a fysshe .. mullet,
moone a planet .. moone, moneth .. month, mode in a verbe .. moode,
more a fen .. moore, mote a dytche .. mote, mote in the sonne .. mote,
moton [mutton], moultytude .. multitude, moulde a fonn .. mould,
moiimyng ..m.oxime, noone mydday .. noone, ncnne a relygious wo-
man .. nunne, norisshyng .. nourish, nose [in the body of his work
constantly written noose^ .. nose, ore of a bote .. ore,^ ote come .. otes,
othe sweiyng.. othe, oulde mayde .. ould, plome a frute .. ploume,
podyng .. pudding, poddell a slough .. puddel, poke or bagge .. poke,
pocke or blayne .. pocke, pole a staffe .. pole, pompe [pump], ponde ..
ponde, pore .. pore, poore [poor], profe .. proof e, prose, rho bucke a
beest .. roe buck, rohe .. robe, roche a fysshe .. rochet, rode a crosse ..
roode, ro/e .. roofe, roke ..rodke, ropie .. xo^e, rose., rose, rote of a
tree .. roote, sloo wonne .. sloe, stnoke .. smooke, sokelyng .. souke,
sole a fysshe .. sole, sole of a fote .. sole, sole of a shoo .. sole, somme
[sum], Sonne .. sonne,* sope to wasshe with., sope, soper .. supper, so7'e
a wound .. sore, sote of a chymney ,. sooty, sothenesse [soothncss],
sodayne [sudden] .. sodayne, soule [soul] .. soule, souldier .. soldiouiie,
souter sauetier, sorer aynte of a kynge .. soveraygne, spoke of a
wheel .. spoke, stohle .. stubbil, stone .. stone, store .. store, tode [toad]
.. tode, too of ones fote .. toe, toost of breed .. toste, tothe dent ..
1 The adjective coarse is also spelled ^ Levins uses oore for a metallic
course both by Palsgrave and Levins. ore.
- The verb to duck is spelled douJc ■* Both Palsgrave and Levins nse
both by Palsgrave and Levins. sonm for both son and sun.
98
O, 00, OA XVI TH CENTURY.
Chap. III. j 3.
toothe, voiit under the ground .. valte, wode [■vvoad] .. woodwasse,
wodwosse, tcood or tre that is fallen .. wood, icodde to bume .. wood,
woodnessc rage .. woode, ^volfe .. wolli.sh, woman .. woman, womhe,
ivondifs .. wonder, wo sorowe .. "Woe."
It is evident that long o and oo were not yet separated by
Palsgrave to whom also the device of on or oe final, (see doo,
Joo, >ro) had not yet occurred, and although oo was freely
used by Levins, oa was almost unknown to him.
A comparison of Bullokar's notation of the three classes of
words he cites, leads me to the conclusion that their sounds
were, in palaeotype —
1) son, ujDon, boz'um, koorn, kloos.
2) sun, ut, boz'um, kum.
3) luuked, tuuk, buuk, suun.
The pronunciation (son) is however peculiar. Smith gives
(sun). Where direct authority cannot be obtained it is ex-
tremely difiicult to distinguish which of these sounds should be
given to o in any words of the xvi th centur3^ Generally we
may conclude that the o, oa, — not the ou\ — which is now (oo)
or (oou) was then (oo), being the old sound but very slightly
altered ; what is now (uu) it is not so safe to conclude was then
(uu) unless in the course of the century we find the spelling
00 adopted. What is now (o) was pretty certainly (o) at that
time, being almost the old sound preserved. But it is not
quite so certain that what is now (a) was formerly (u), for
some of these may have been (o), or both sounds may have
prevailed, thus Bullokar and Smith differ respecting son, and
none, one w^ere (noon, oon). It is also very probable that
many o represented (u) even as early as Chaucer's time. The
following cases of o, oo, oa = (u) or (uu) are taken from the
authorities for this century.
above
cook
hood
ooze
some
two
wood
afford
cool
hoof
other
soon
whom
woof
among
coot
hoop
pool
soothe
whoop
wool
blood
cover
loof
poor
stood
whore
Worcester
board
do
look
prove
stool
wolf
word
bombast
done
loose
rook
sword
womb
work
book
food
loving
room
thorough woman
worm
boot
foot
mood
root
to
won
worship
brood
forth
mother
shoe
ton
wonder
worst
broom
good
mouth
shovel
too
wont
worth
come
goose
move
smother
took
woo
west
conjurer
government
To these Shakspere authorises the addition of Rome}
^ Julius Csesar act i. sc. 2, v. 156 : —
Now is it Rome indeed, and JRoome enough
When there is in it but one onely man.
Chap. III. § 3. o, 00, OA — XVII TH CENTURY. 99
The following are all the words containing o which Sales-
bury adduces, leaving ou, ow, oi, ol to be considered hereafter.
God God (God) ; cois-dicyon- condisywn (kondis'mn) ; etjeemoee
efermivor (evennoor);' thondre thwndr (thun-der), wojtdre wnder
(wiinxler);* hope hoop (Hoop); okanges oreintsys (or'eindzhis), fole
ffwl (fmd) ; HOLT holi (noo'li, hoM)/ honest onest (on-est); honotjue
onor (on-or) ; EXHrBixioN ecsibishvn (eksibis'i,un) ; pkohtbition pro-
ibisiwn (proo,ibis"i,tin); John tsion, sion (Dzhon); boke hiok (bunk) ;
to, to (too) meaning a toe ; so so (soo) ; two tio (tuu), to to (tu) the
preposition ; schole scwl (skuul) ; good, gwd (gnud) ; pooee pwr
(puiu') ; EOS ros (rooz) a rose, season seesyn (seez"«n);* top top (top) ;
Thomas tomas (Tom*as) ; throne trwn (truun) ; oxe ocs (oks).
Florio (p. 94,) evidently heard bone, dog as (boon, dog),
and, if (boon) had been said, he would have most probably
heard that sound as (hmi\m), just as at present Englishmen
confuse the Italian (^«^h, o), o chiuso long and o aperto short,
with their own {oo, o). Hence his remarks give a presump-
tion in favour of (oo, o).
O, 00, OA — XVII TH Century.
1653. "Waxlis says of the guttm-al vowels " (i o ^ aperta : Si
apertiu-a majori seu pleno rictu spiiitus exeat, formatnr Germanomm
a vel 6^ apertum. Neque Gennani solum sed et Galli, aUique non
pauci, eodem sono suum a plerumque proferunt. Angli sonum
ilium eorreptum per o breue ; productnm vero plerumqiie per au
vel mo, rarius per d exprimiuit. Nam in fall, folly ; hall, haul,
holly ; call, collar; lawes, losse ; cause, cost; auPd, odd; satvd, sod;
aliis(]ue similibus ; idem prorsus Yocalium sonus auditur in primis
syllabis, nisi quod illie producatur Ms conipiatur. Atque hinc est
quod Hebraei suum camets longum, et camets breve seu camets chatuph,
(hoc est, nostiiim d apertum et o breve,) eodem charactere scribunt.
Nam eoi-um 7^ et 7^ non ahter difFerunt quam nostrum call et coll.
T t;
" 6 rotundum. Majori labionim apertura fonnatur d rotxmdum ;
quo sono plciique proferunt Grfecorum w. Hoc sono Galli plerum-
que proferunt suum au. Angii ita fere semper proferunt 0 pro-
ductum vel etiam oa (ipso a nimirum nunc dierum quasi evanescente ;
do quo idem hie judicium ferendum est ac supra de ea^) : Ut, one,
1 The inserted w is perplexing, it words were meant. This shews that the
should give the sound (muor), and qualitj' of the long and short 0 was the
Price uses wo to indicate (uu). But same to him.
Smith pronounces (moor). * The origin of this y is not appa-
2 The initial (w) has heen supplied, rent. The real sound of the word
because its omission has been regarded seems to have been (seez-n).
as a Welsh habit, and Salesbury's mode ^ The Oxford reprint has o in each
of writing did not give him the means case, which is erroneous.
of rcprescntino- (wax). ^ We have seen that the a was never
3 Salesbury' does not distinguish pronounced in either case ; that it was
Ao%, holi/ either in sound or spelling, a mere orthographical device.
but his interpretation shews that both
1 00 O, 00, OA — XVII Til CENTURY. CuAr. III. § 3.
unus ; none, nullus ; tchole, totus ; hole foramen ; coal, carbo ; loaf,
cymba ; oat, avena ; those, illi ; chose, cligi ; etc. At ubi o breve est,
ut pluiiinxim per <5 apertuui (de (|Uo supra) rarius per 6 rotiindum
proiiunciatiir.
" Oo sonatiir ut Gemianorum u pinprue, sou Gallorum ou. Ut in
vocibus good bonus, stood stabam, root radix, foot pes, loose laxus,
loose laxo, amitto.
" Nonnunquam o & ou negligentius pronuuciantes eodcm. sono"
b u obscuro = (o), "effemnt, ut in come, venio ; sdmc, aliquis ; dutie,
actum ; company, consortium ; country, rus ; couple, par ; covet,
concupisco ; love, amo ; aliisquc aliquot ; qua) alio tamen sono rectius
profciTi debent."
These extracts seem to make long o a true labial (oo),^
short 0 a true gutturo-labial (a) — for which however the softer
(d) may have been really sounded, and occasionally (o), a
new sound, which will be considered under U, — and long or
short 00 the true (uu, u), which however may have been
(uu, ii). Hence long and short o had ceased to be a pair
(oo, o), and had become the different vowels [oo, o) or {oo, a).
This fully agrees with Wilkins, 1668, who gives the follow-
ing pairs, lea'sang (oo) without a mate,
^ short
\ long
hoi-tom
fol-/y
fot
mot
Pol rod
bought
faU
fought
Puule Eawd
( short
[ long
bote
foale
vote
mote
pole rode
' short
long
full
fut
pul
boote
foole
footo
moote
poole roode
but he also gives amongst as containing (aa).
1668. Price distinguishes three sounds of o, long as in no,
^\fo^'* more, most = {oo) according to "Wallis ; short as in lot,
not, for = (o) ; " obscure like short u (o) as in son, tongue,
London, above, *(qoprore, *hehoveth, brother, come, companie,
conie, conduit, dosen, dost, doth, love, mother, *movey plover,
p)omeJ, *prove, * remove, shovel, some, venom, *ichom,'" all of which
with the exception of those marked * retain the sound of (o).^
Price also says : " o after w, soundes like short u, (a) as
world, *sicord, *woman, icon, except, o, soundes, ee, in toomen,
and 0 long in wo, wore, woke," (swajd, wom'Bn) are uncom-
mon. Then follows a long list of final om, on sounded as
as (am, an), including some words in which the sound is
now ('n).
* The French distinguish two sounds of Cambridge, that he used to say :
of 0, the close an and the open o, which " If a man say I lie, I say (prav) it ;
to my ears sound as (o, o). if he (prov) it, then I lie ; if he
^ As regards prove, it is an ancient don't (prav) it, then he lies, and there's
university story of the late Prof. Vince, an end on't."
Chap. III. § 3. O, 00, OA — XVII TH C;ENTURY. 101
"0, soundes like (woo)^ oo in * Borne, do, shoe, cicckoe, *(jo,
*honl, mushrom, undo, ivho, *ivhore." (E,uum) we have seen
was heard in Shakspere's time, and may still occasionally be
heard ; (guu) is mentioned by AYallis in terms of disapproval ;
(Huurd) may be classed with (afuurd) afford; and mushroom
has changed its spelling.
Price makes oa the long o, {oo), and oo generally "like
tvoo" (uu), but "like 2<5" (o) in good, ivool, hood, wood, stood.
1685. Cooper pairs the vowels fall foil)/, and foal full.
By the latter pair he could not have meant {hiu\ iu\), or
{hiu\i\ iiihl). His (ful, iiil, f«hl, fol) whichever way he
pronounced it, contained the nearest vowel sound to (foolj
that he was acquainted with (p. 84). He says : —
" 0 formatm'a labiis paululum contractis, dum spiritus orhiculatus
emittur : ut in hope spes ; productum semper, (nisi in paucis quae
per 00 (uu) sonantur ; et ante I per ou (mu, ou) labiales : ut in hold
audax) hoc modo pronunciant Angli, quern aliquando scribunt per
oa ; ut coach currus ; coiTeptus raro aucUtui", nisi in paucis, qua? a
consonante labiali iiicipivmt ; ut post w in ivolf lupus, wonder mirum ;
& in syllaba loor ; plura non memini : in quibusdam u hoc modo
pronunciatur, ubi praecedens vocalis est labiahs ; ut pull, vello, fidl
plenus ; non quia debet, sed quoniam aUter facilius efferri nequit :
Et 00 in c/ood bonus, hood cueuUus, tvood lignum ; / stood steti ;
GaUi per o ut globe globus, proteste protestor ; in copi/ exemplar
corripitur. Germani per o, ut ostern pentecoste ; quern in principio
dictionum fere producant : in t^o/"^ verbum ; Gott Deus corriintur."
Whence it appears that Cooper did not distinguish {n)
from (o) or even (o). In fact he hardly knew the true short
(u) for after describing oo he says "inter sonum correptum
& productum minima datur differentia," and he pairs foot
short, fool long, where the difference of length is solely due
to the following consonant. As I have found it necessary to
suppose that Cooper paired {ee, i), see p. 83, so here I pre-
sume he paired {oo, u), sounds which have nearly the same
degree of diversity. This occasions a slight difficulty in his
diphthong ok, which wiU have to be afterwards considered.
Cooper gives the following list of words in o, oa which
have the sound of (uu), those marked * being unusual :
*aboard, *afford, Hehoves, *boar,^ *born carried, *force, *forces,
move, *sicord, *sworn, tomb, tivo, who, lohom, whore, lohosoever,
womh, *ivorn. The words Hoard, *forth, prove, stoup he says
are also written boord, foorth, proov, stoop. In the following
words he hears his short o ={a) ; blood-i-hj, good-hj-ness, flood,
^ Price's own notation, not palaeo- * This is boar, the animal, not boar
tjTie. As a "Welshman he evidently =^(oor as given afterwards by Jones,
called woo (uu), the same as oo.
102 O, 00, OA — XVITTH CENTmY. Chap. III. § 3,
hoo<ly brotherhood, si-sfcrhood, neighbourhood, falsehood, soot,
stood, irood, wool. Tlie exceptions danioHel, women (dieni'zel,
Wim'en) are noted. After giving examples of oa as (oo),
which are often written with o-e, he says, as cloak, clohe, he
admits the sound of (aa), as now usual, in abroad, broad, groat.
1G8C. MiEGE agrees in the main with the former, but he
hears long o as French o (oo), and the short o when it was
(a) as the French short o also, that is either (o) or (o) while
he says : " il y a bien des mots ou 1' o a un son mele de celui
de 1' a, et ou sans seriqmle on le peut sonner comme un a,"
that is, he confused (a, o) or (a, a). Interpreting his signs
by former explanations we find the following novelties. O is
short = (o) in compounds of most, as hithermost. Borne =
(boorn), born = (bAArn) ; for}n a bench = (foorm), form a
shape = (fvArm) ; holi/ = (noo'M), holy day = (iiAl'i dee).
Yolh, maggot, anchor, women = (jolk, maeg'et, sen'ker, w/m*en).
Home = (Ruum). On = ('n) in capon, mutton, lesson, reckon,
reason, season, a2)ron, citron, saffron, iron, fashion, cushion,
puncheon.
1701. Jones confirms the others. The following is his list
of long 0 sounded as (uu) afford, bomb, comb, Ford, ford, gam-
boya, gold, Monday, More, Rome, tomb, womb, in which most
are unusual, and gold, Monday are noteworthy. The oa as
(uu) are "aboard, boar a clown," now written boor, "board."
The words doe, does, doest, doeth, shoe, tcoe, he likewise hears
pronounced with (uu), although he also gives (daz) for does.
He admits the sound of (a) for o in "the beginning" of
colonel, colour, etc., comfort, company, etc., coney, conjure, etc.,
money, monkey, etc., mongcorn, monger, etc. ; blomary, bombast,
borrage, bosom, botargo, brocado, chocolate, cognisance, colander,
coral, coroner, cozen, Devon, dozen, forsooth, gormandize, gromel,
London, onion, poltroon, pomado, poniard, porcelane, potato,
recognisance, sojourn, Somerset, stomach, tobaco ; in final -come,
-dom, -some, -son ; in the last syllables of chibol, gambol,
symbol. Even the unusual cases will be recognized as still
occasionally heard, but they evidently bear the same relation
to the present pronunciation with (o), as (griit, briik, tshiia)
do to (grt'^t, hrcek, tsheea). Both resulted from overdriving
a new attenuative habit.
In the XVII th century then the change from (oo, o) into
{oo, a) or {oo, o) was complete ; a few more of the (oo) had
advanced into (uu), more indeed than those which maintained
their position, and those formerly heard as (u) or {u) had
become (a), a change to be considered under U.
Chap. III. § 3. o, 00, OX — XVIII TH CENTURY. 103
0, 00, OA — XVIII TH Century.
During the xviii th century the change in the use of these
letters as just described, was so slight that it will be quite
unnecessary to enter into many particulars. It will be suf-
ficient to note some examples, chiefly of exceptions to the
general rule that o long and oa = (oo), o short ~ (o) or (a),
and 00 long and short = (uu, u), or of exceptions to the pre-
ceding exceptions to this rule.
1704. The Expert Orthographist gives oo in flood, Wood
the sound of (a), and in door, floor, moor, poor the sound of
ipd). He also makes o = (uu) in " icoJf, wolves. Borne, comb,
tomb, divorce, force, forge, form to sit on, born endured, sup-
ported, forth abroad, j^ort and its compounds com, de, in, sup,
trans-port, sport, shorn and torn, engross. Ghost, most, post,
rost, and o between ui and r for the most part is soimded oo
(uu) as word, icork, icorld, tcorm, worry, xoorship, worse-st,
worsted, worst, and worth ; and in approve, behove, move, prove,
remove, reprove ; but like short u (a) in dove, glove, love, cover,
covet, groveling." He admits oa to be a niode of lengthening
0, but says "oa in abroad, broad, and groat, have a pecidiar
broad sound" without saying that it is the same as au (aa),
and "oa sounds ai in goal pronounced jail, (dzheel)."
1766. Buchanan writes London Lon'on, icon won, lot lot ;
dost dost, ivork work, worship wardship, tvoman W8m"m, women
Wi'm'm, wonder W8n*d?r, mouth mouth, money mon'i, son son ;
twopence top'ms, poltroon poltruun, forth foorth ; globe gloob,
robe roob, whole whoo/ ; who huu, do duu, tomb tuum, gold
guuld, Rome Ruum ; move muuv, one wa3n, once wtens, only
on"h', come kom ; soap S(?6»p, broad hvoodi, oats oois, ; loath
lAAth, groat, graeset.
1768. Franklin has of av, bosom boz'om, compared
kompeerd', other odh'or, government govarnment, London
Lan"dan ; only ocnif, spoke spcok, rvrote root, some sara, one
wan, once wans, to too, in which will be found some uses
difierent from Buchanan's.
1780. Sheridan notes the Irishisms : (duur) door, (fluur)
floor, (kuurs) both coarse and course, (strav) strove, (drav)
drove, (rod) rode, (stvood) strode, (shoon) shone, (fat) foot,
which he says were pronounced in England (door, ^oor,
kooTs, stroov, droov, rood, strAd, shAn, fut). Most of these
Irishisms are clearly, all of them are probably, as usual,
remnants of the xviith century.
1U4
Y, I, IE — XVI TH CEKTURY.
CuAP. III. § 3.
Y, I, IE — XVI TH Century.
When y, i were consonants, they were employed like the
modern ?/, j = (j, dzh), and were never interchanged in the
old writers, although the sound of (j) was not usually con-
sidered a consonant, as will be noted under y, w. When y, i
Avere vowels they were used indiscriminately, except perhaps
that / was always^ used as the personal pronoun, and was
not employed at the end of any other word. For the present
section they must be considered as identical.
Tamj: Shewing the Inteoduction of IE foe E, EE.
Price.
Miushew.
Levins.
Palsgrave.
Proniptoriiim,
1668.
1617.
1570.
1530.
1440.
believe
beleeve
beleeve
beleve
beleueness
besiege
besiege
bier
beere (biere)
beare
beere
beere
brief
bricfe (breefe)
breefe
brefe
cavalier
cashier
casheere
cliief
cheife (chiefe)
cheefe, chief
chefe, cliief
cheuetun
'field]
field (feeld)
feeld, field
felde
feelde
[fiend]
feend
fende
'fierce!
fierce
fierse
f)-ers
fersse
riend '
frend (friend)
frende
frende
freende
Tontier
frontier
'grieve]
greeue (grieve)
greeve
greue
gre\j/i
cerchief
kerchiefe
kercher
kerchefe
k-sTchefe
lief]
liefer
lefe
lefe
iege
liege
lege
lyche
niece
neece
neece
neyce
nece
peece (piece)
peece
pece
pece
)iercc
pearce (pierce)
perse
perce
poercyrt
pi-iost]
priestc
preestly
preest
preest
"shield]
sheeld
scheeld
siege
siege
sege
sege
cege
sierse
cearse
sieve
sine (sieue)
seefe
cvve
thief
theef
theefe
thefe
theef
view
view
vewe
yield
yeeld
yeeld
yelde
yeldon
IE was often used at the end of words where we now use
y. IE in the middle of Avords was employed in the xiv th
century indiscriminately with e or cc, but not very frequently.
In the XV th and x\i th centuries it had fallen out of use,
though we find it fully established with the modern sound
of (ii) in the xvii th century, in which is included also the
word friend as already noted (p. 80). The preceding table
containing all Price's list and a few other words in brackets,
' In MSS. y was not unfrequently used even for the personal pronoun in the
XV th century and earlier.
Chap. III. ^^ 3. Y, 1, IE — XTI TH CENTURY. 105
will shew tlie corresponding spellings in the Proraptorium
1440, Palsgrave 1530, and Levins 1570, and Minshew 1617;
the spellings in parenthesis in Miushew's column, are spellings
which he recognizes and gives in cross references, but the
other spellings are those under which he explains the words.
It will.be seen that Minshew's book shews the exact period of
the transition, when generally both spellings were sufficiently
kno'^Ti to require notice, but one was decidedly preferred by
the author, and that one was only occasionally ie. The French
niece, piece, jier, suge and occasionally chief may have in-
fluenced some words, but others, as believe, hier, friend, field,
lief, thief, yield, seem to have no reason, either in sound or
etymology, for this cm-ious change of custom in spelling.
For our present purpose, then, we may dismiss ie, consider-
ing it, in the middle of words, as a fanciful variation of ee
and having precisely the same value (ii) towards the close
of the XVI th centuiy, and, at the end of words as an archa-
ism for y, having the same sound (z) }
There seems to have been only one sound of short i andy
with rare exceptions, such as machine, only one sound of long
i, during the xvi th and subsequent centuries. At the pre-
sent day, English short i or {i) is the wide sound of the
Italian or European short i or (i). The fine sharp clear (i) is
ver}^ difficult for an Englishman to pronounce, and although
the Scotch can and do pronounce it,^ they not unfrequently
replace it with {e) or (e), not (e). In this respect they re-
semble the Italians who have so frequently replaced Latin i
by their e chiuso or {e). The Dutch may be said not to
kiiow (i), as they regularly replace it by (<?). The English
sound (i) lies between (i) and (e). The position of the tongue
is the same as for (i), but the whole of the pharynx and
back parts of the mouth are enlarged, making the sound
deeper and obscurer. According to Mr. M. Bell there
is the same distinction between (6^ and (e), the latter
being the wide form of the former, and he hears ie)
1 The word pierce seems to have re- ^ Mr. Melville Bell says in a private
tained the spelling perse, and the cor- letter, that the sound of the short " (i)
responding pronunciation to a later for i is very common, as in give = (gi),
time. We still write Fercy, and Peirce gied, gien, gie's [derivatives], whig,
is called (Pe.is) or (P.is) in America. mg, big [to builcl], build, -er, built
In Love's Labour Lost, Act iv. sc. 2, [ofte^^ b.?lt] king-dom, wick, gig,
1. 85, 1623, Comedies p. 132, we find gmgham, T\'idow, Britain, finish, whin,
" Master Person, j?«««j Person ? And etc." In such words the Englishman
if one should be perst. Which is the hears the long (ii). This is a point
one?" which indicates the pronuncia- which will have to be considered here-
tion (Mas-ter Pers-on, kwaa-si " Pers- after. See especially the examples of
-oon" ? And ii "oon" shuuld be Scotch pronunciation in Chap. XI. § 4.
"perst," whttsh iz dhe "oon"P).
lOG Y, 1, IE — WITH CENTURY. Chap. III. J 3.
in the French ct, and English day, (Hex, dm), and (e)
in the Scotch ill, English ailment (el eeil'nient) and English
air (eea), and also in my own pronunciation of the English
ell, whereas he supposes the true sounds of English me7i,
mail to be (mEn, main) and to differ precisely as (i, i).
My own pronunciation of inan he finds frequently the
same as his pronunciation of men, so that to him I pro-
nounce mc7i, man as (men, mEn). To me (e) is a much
deeper sound than [e, e) and is heard in the French meme,
German sprdche (mEEm', shprEE/A-^). This discussion will
serve to shew the nature of the difference (i, i), and the
case with which they may be confounded. Almost ever)'
Englishman pronounces French il as English ill {i\), and
almost every Frenchman pronounces English ill as French il
(il), French He, English eel being identically (iil). Now
the true long sound of (?) is not an acknowledged sound
in our language, although in frequent use among such
singers as refuse so say happ^c, steal, ee\, when they have
to lengthen happy, st?ll, iW They say (iia^p-zc'i, stiil, iil)
although some may prefer (st^'lll, iWl) which has a bad effect.
AVhere the long sound of {i) might be expected, we get the
long ?', to be presently noticed. Hence most of those who
examined sounds, as Wallis, naturally paired (ii), whose
short sound was absent, and [I) which was without a long
sound, and probably did not hear the difference,- though Sir
Thomas Smith could find no short sound for (ii) in the Eng-
lish language.^ What we have to conclude from this is,
that because ee long and i short are represented generally by
the same character, with or without a mark of prolongation,
by orthoepists, it by no means follows that they had the same
sound. My own belief is that short i was (j.) from the
^ This was remarked by Dr. Young, assertion that («) was an independent
Lectures on Natural Philosophy. 4to. vowel sound, and resolutely paired (ii,!").
vol. ii, p. 277 : " When lip is length- This is by no means the only point in
ened in singing it does not become phonetics coneeruiug which the ex-
leap." Observe the singing of "s/i'll pcrieuce of nearly a ijuartcr of a century
BO gently o'er me startling," which be- lias enlightened him. He would, how-
comes (stnl so dzheent'li'r ooar mii ever, particularly notice the stopped
stiil-tVq.) Drydcu's line, from his Veni vowels, which on p. 63 of that work,
Creator, " And make us temples viovthy he found himself imable to separate
thee," is well adapted to render the from their consonants, as in (p/t, pet,
difference of the vowels in (-dliidhii) pict, pot, pot, pwt), but which he has
Bcnsible. been in the habit of separating for
2 The present writer should be the many years,
last to throw stones at those who do ^ See p. 112. Cooper, as we have
not hear the difference between (i, i) seen (p. 83), forms an exception ; he
for in his Alphabet of I^aiure, 18i5, appears to pair {ee, i), and certainly
p. 65, the first work on phonetics which does not pair (ii, i).
he published, he objected to Knowles's
Chap. III. § 3. y, T, IE — XVI TH CENTURY. 107
earliest times to the present day. Against this supposition
must be placed the facts that, as already pointed out, short (i)
is not at all imfrequent in Scotland, and was apparently
recognized in English in 1701 by Jones, a AYelshman, and
1766 by Buchanan, a Scotchman, and also that in Ireland
final -y, which is in England (-i), is invariably (-i). The
Irish English generally representing a xvii th century Eng-
lish pronunciation, there is a possibility of (i) having been
somewhat common in England during the end of the xvii th
and beginning of the xviii th centuries, a period of English
pronunciation remarkable for a tendency to thinness of
sound. The true long vowel (ii) will come under consideration
again in the next Chapter under I, Y, when the importance
of the preceding discussion will more clearly appear.
As to long i in English at present, it is without doubt, a
diphthong, and has been generallj^ recognized as such from
early times. But orthoepists are not agreed as to the nature
of its first element, and this becomes an important con-
sideration. The Italians and French only approach the
sound of our long i very loosely, in the Italian words damo,
\aido, zainO) and the French pa^en, faience. These may be
more properly written (daai'no, laai'do, tsaai'no ; paiicA,
faiiaAs), so that in the Italian the first element, in the
French the second element is lengthened. In Germany the
sound written ei, ey, ai, ay is intended to be (ai), although
these diphthongs are very variously pronounced. Raj^p
gives the literary high varieties (ai, oi, ei, ei) and Schmellcr
notices the Bavarian dialectic varieties (a, ai, ai, e, eI, ei, ii).^
The difierent Scotch sounds of long i will be fully considered
in Chapter IV. § 2, under I. In England we have only one
recognized pronunciation of i long, but we have also two
recognized sounds which may be heard in Isaiah, or in the
usual English pronunciation of x^i^P X^^p"' ^^^ ^^® distinction
is, or used to be, strongly insisted on at Eton. The second
of these sounds, the English pronunciation of the Greek ai,
is (ai). What is the first ? Knowles,^ following Sheridan,
says it is (a), the only difierence between i long and oy con-
sisting in the brevity with which the first element is dwelt
upon in the first somid. This is an Irishism no doubt,
although he is closely followed by Haldeman,^ who makes
1 Sapp, Physiologic der Sprache, and the various properties of all its
vol. iv. pp. 85 et sqq. Schmeller, Mun- simple and compound sound-s, as com-
darten Bayerns,.p. 56. bined into sjUables and words. Lon-
2 James Knowles, Pronouncing and don, 1847, 8vo.
Explanatory Dictionary of the English » Analytic Orthography, ^ lOG, 400.
Language, ' founded on a correct de- and examples § 602, 610.
velopement of the nature, the number.
108 Y, I, IE — XVI TH CENTURY. Chap. III. J 3.
the first element (a), and identifies English long i with the
German ei, of which Selnneller makes the first element (a).
Mr. Melville Bell identities the first element of his pro-
nunciation of English long i with (a). The first element of
my pronunciation of the German at he considers to be (ah),
a sound that I can only with difficulty distinguish from (a),
as T am apt to labialise (a) in speaking. But in unaccented
syllables he makes the first element of his pronunciation of
long i to be (ah). This was the element he recognized in
my own pronunciation of this diphthong in all cases. Many
Londoners certainly use (ce) as the first element. Again,
"Wilkins and Franklin call the first element (a). And Smart
making the first clement tir without sounding the r must
mean (oo). The second element is of course the glide, and
the last element (or second as it is usually called) is the
vowel (i) or {i), very often the latter I believe in Engli.sh.
Mr. Bell only recognizes the glide, oc (see p. 15), that is, the
glide to the (j) position. According to the mode of writing
diphthongs which I adopt I must give (i) or (0 as the final
element, leaving the glide to be denoted by juxtaposition.
Hence we have the following
Analyses of English long I- —
Sheridan and Knowles (a!)
Haldcman («i)
AValker and Mchillc Bell (ai) accented
Melville Bell (ahi) unaccented.
Londoners (a?i)
Scotch {d, ei, id, ai, ai, ohi)
Vilkin? and Franklin (oi)
"WaUis and Smart (aoi)
Now this being the sound of the personal pronoun, is
heard every da}' and constantly ; but after competent oithoe-
pists have carefully examined it, they are unable to agree as
to its anah'sis. One reason is of coui'se a real difference of
pronunciation, but another appears to be that the first ele-
ment is pronounced with extreme bre^4ty, so that in British
speech it is not sufficiently heard as distinct from the follow-
ing glide. In endeavouring therefore to fix it, different
observers either begin far back in the scale of distinct vowels,
or catch the sound closer and closer to (ij. Thus it may be
that the whole series of sounds (o-ohrta-ahaeei) may be heard in
this diphthong, all gliding into each other with immense
rapidity. Again the first clement being so indistinct, others,
as "Wilkins and Franklin, or Wallis and Smart, take refuge in
one of the colourless sounds as (a, ao).
Ch.U>. III. § 3. Y, T, IE XVI TH CENTURY. 109
Now I hear tlie_ vowel (a) very clearly in (ai) as In tlie
Etonian pronunciation of %at/3 ; but I cannot hear it in the
Etonian pronunciation of x^^P^ ^oi' I t^o hoar an (e) there.
I therefore prefer to represent the English / long, the Etonian
pronunciation of Greek ei by (oi), and the English ai/e, yes,
the Etonian pronunciation of the Greek at by (ai). The pre-
ceding discussion wiU apply, as to the first element, to the
present pronunciation of om in noiv, how, cow.
We are now better prepared to understand what our
authorities say on the subject. The first one is sufiiciently
perplexing.
1530. Palsgrave says : "7 in the frenche tong hath .ii. dyuerse
maners of souwdynges, the souwdyug of i, whiclie is most generally
vsed in the ti-e^che tong, is like as the ItaHans soiinde /, and suche
with vs as sounde the latin tong aright, whiche is almost as we
sou?ide e in these words a hee a flie, a heere for a deed coi-ps, a peere
a felowe, a fee a rewarde, a Httle more soundynge towards i, as we
sound i with vs."
Now du Guez says : "Ye shal pronounce . . . your i, as
sharpe as can be," by which I understand, with the smallest
lingual and pharyngal aperture, or as clearly (i) as possible.
AYhen Palsgrave says : " almost as we souwde e," etc., the
almost is merely one of those safeguards which orthoepists
love to insert, and can scarcely avoid inserting, when they
give the equivalent for a foreign sound which they seem to
hear in their own tongue, but doubt the correctness of their
hearing. But what does he mean by " a little more sound-
ynge towards i, as we sound i with vs " ? A vowel cannot
sound a little more towards a diphthong, and yet long i was
certainly most generally recognized to be a diphthong in the
XVI th century, although it is probable that Palsgrave may
have had an older pronunciation, rather of the xv th than of
the XVI th century. Could he mean that the sound seemed
between (i) and {i) ? It would be difficult to insert one.
Could he mean that as he pronounced those English words
the sound had a tinge of (e) in it as it were (ii), and that the
French pronounced a clearer (i) ? The matter becomes still
more enigmatical as he goes on to say :
"If i be the first letter in a frenche worde or the laste, he shall
in those two places be sounded lyke as we do this letter y, in these
words with vs, hy and hy, a spye, a flye, awry, and suche other : in
whiche places in those frenche bokcs, as be difigcntly imprinted,
they vse to wiitte this letter y : but whether the frenche worde be
written with i or y, in these two places he shal be sounded, as I have
shewed here in tins i-ule, as in ymage, comierty, ydole, estoiirdy, in
whiche the y hath suche sounde, as we wolde give him in our tong."
110 Y, I, 11- — WITH CEXTURY. CuAP. III. § 3.
This sound, whatever it was, must be distinct from the
other sound of i. Now as Palsgrave noways describes the
sound, or liints at its beinf^ a diphthong, we can do nothing
but reter to ^Meigret 155U, who writes : " je vi, oi, aosi, j'ey
bati, je bati ou batis" with precisely the same sign as he
uses in " Louis McigrEt, LionoES." Perhaps Palsgrave
would rejoin : " true, but he was a Lyonnais ; I give the
Parisian pronunciation." In the mean time we are not
assisted towards I'alsgrave's own pronunciation of the English
"by and by, a spye, a flye, awry." ^ What follows is as
perplexing : —
"For as moche as v and i come often topjether in the fronche
tongc, whore as the v hath with tlicm his distinct soimdo, and the i
is sounded shortly & confuscly, whiche is the proprete of a diph-
thonge. I roken vi also among the diphthongcs in the fi'enchc
tong, wliiehc wlian they come together, shall haue siiohe a souwde in
frenche wordes, as we gyue hym in these wordes in our tong,
a siri/ne, I diri/ne, I tiri/ue, so that these wordes agryser, afj>ylll6n,
condvj/re, dediyre, aviourdhvi/, mesJtvi/, and all suche shall sounde
thep- r and i shortly together, as we do in our tong in the words I
have gyven exa/«ple of, and nat eche of thorn distinctly by himself,
as we of our tong be incHnod to sound thom, whiche wolde rather
say aviourdh'iy, dedvyt, saiifcondvyt, gyuynge both to v and i theyr
distinct sounde, than to sou??de them as the frenche men do in dede,
which say aiiourdliry, dedvyt, saufcondvyt, soundyng them both
shortly together, and so of all suche other."
It is a well-known modern English error to say (Iwii) for
(lyi) lui. Palsgrave, whose ears cannot have been very acute,
here seems to authorize a similar use. At the same time the
conversion of (y) into a consonant as (w), is directl}- opposed
to the previous direction to give (y) its "disthict sound," and
pronounce (i) "confusely." But can Palsgrave have also
meant that the second element in ui in the French words
cited was the same as in svyne, chvyne, ticyne ? The y in the
French words is not even hnal or initial. It could have had
no sound but (ii) even according to Palsgrave. Did Pals-
grave say (swiin, dwiin, twiin) or (sw?m, dw2m, tw«"n) ? It
is the only legitimate inference, and there is no slight proba-
bility of its being correct. We shall see that Palsgrave pro-
nounced ou as (uu), which was a xiv th century jDronunciation
continued archaically into the xvi th century, and although
^ It deserres however to be recorded James the First's time has : " 0 Lord
that Gill writes (en-emai), not (en-emf), our God arise, Scatter his enemies,"
and has at least once (oim-adzhes], al- giving (cn-enioiz), if the rh)Tne is to be
though on another occasion he writes preserved, though in modern practice
(mraadzh) so that the former may be wc sacrifice the rhyme and often sing
a misprint. The God save the king of (cn-im»z).
Chap. III. § 3. Y, I, IE — XVI TH CENTURY. 1 1 1
the recognized pronunciation at that time was (ou), yet the
example of Bullokar (pp. 94, 98,) shews that there were still
many who preferred the (uu) sound. In the same way
perhaps both Palsgrave and Bullokar preserved the {ii)
sound of long ?', usual in the xivth century, notwithstand-
ing the general adoption of (ei). The new (ai, ou) and the
old {u, uu) stand precisely on the same ground, and therefore
I am inclined to think that Palsgrave and Bullokar said (ii),
as distinct from (ii). Further reference to this curious re-
tention of an old sound will have to be made in the next
chapter under I.
1547. Salesbury does not leave us in much doubt, for he
writes (ei) for long i, thus :
I ei (ei), tvne vein (vein), wtne tvein (wein) ; dyches deitsys
(deitsh-/z) ; tht:nie ddein (dhein) ; sigxes seins (seinz) ; Latin dico
deicu (dei'ku), tibi teihei (tei'bei), Dei i)m(Dee"i), ojjiqtcei (kwei).
At the same time he reprobates this pronunciation of
Latin, and says :
"I in "Welsh hath the mere pronunciation of i in Latine, as
learned men in our time vse to souwde it, and not as they . . . with
theu' lotacisme coniipting the pronunciation make a diphthong of
it, saying veidei, teihei, for vidi, tibi.^^ "/in theu' language is
equivalent to the following two letters in ours ei, but they arc com-
pressed so as to be pronounced in one sound or a diphthong, as in
that word of theu's I, ei, (ei) ego." " Y often has the sound of
the diphthong ei as thtke;, ddein (dhein), tuus ; & its own soimd as
in the word THX^r^'E, thynn, (thm), gracihs."
That Salesbury's ei was different from his ai, and that he
meant to indicate a different sound in such English words
that have long i, from that in other words having ai in his
transcription, is I think e^-ident, because he never confounds
the two sounds, and because in modern Welsh the sound ei
sounds to me as (ai), and ai as (ai). I think, however, that
his letters ei justify me in considering, or rather leave me no
option but to consider that the English diphthong sounded
(ei) to Salesbury.
As to the short ?', he identifies it with Welsh y, considering
the latter the especial sound. He also says that Welsh u
"soundeth as the vulgar English people sound it in these
wordes of English, trust, hunj, busy, Huberden." I think
that he cannot point to any other sound but (?), supposing the
true Welsh to be (y), a sound which Mr. Melville Bell hears
in the unaccented syllables : the hous<?s, (dhy Hauz'j/z) as he
would write the sounds. The difference between {i, y) is
very slight indeed. In practice Salesbury is not very precise,
112 Y, I, IK — XVI TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
as may be seen by the following list of words in which short
i occurs, but his theory leads rae to adopt (i) as the true
sound of English short i in his time.^
Goi> BE WYTH YOU God hiwio (God bii*wi,o), geacyouse grasiws
(gnia"si,us), coxdicyox condisi/wn (kondis*/,un), twyncle twinkl
(twi(i"k'l), vtkyxcle wn'nkl (wricfk'!), kynoks kitigs (kiqz), GELcrNO
geldinf) (giJd-iq) ; Gylbekt, Gilbert (Gil'bcrt), gyngek isintsir
(d/.hiiidziiir), HEGGYifGE, begging (beg'iq); noLi, holy (hoo-H, Hol't);
EXHIBITION ecsibisiwn (eksibis-i,un) ; pnoniBiTiON, proibisiwn (proo,-
ibis-iun) ; lyly lili (lil'i), lady hdi (laa'di) ; taiptr jjapgr (paa'pj'r),
EYGHT richt (rikht) ; thystle, tkystl (th/s't'l) ; this ddgs (dh?s),
BUSY busi (b/zd) ; WYiraE tvgnn (wm) ; thtstne thynn (thm) ;
KNYZT Jcnicht (knikht).
1508. Sir T. Smith says: "I Latina, quae per se prolata, apud
nos tantura valet quantum Latinc, ego, aut oculus, aut etiam,'^
by which I understand that the three words /, eye, aye
had the same sound, precisely as we are told by Shakspere,
Romeo and Juliet, Act iii, Sc. 2, v. 45, (I quote from
Steevens' reprint of the quarto of 1609, which agrees in this
passage with the folio of 1623 ; the lines do not occur in the
quarto of 1597) :
Hath Romeo slainc himsclfe ? say thou but I
And that bare voavcU I shall poyson more
Then the death-darting eye of cockatrice,
I am not I, if there be such an I.
Here aye is spelled /, and thoroughly identified %vith it, as
" that bare vowell I," and with the suggested " eye of
cockatrice " in the next line. Although Smith identifies
these three words, he spells them diflferently, introducing { as
the sign for long i, and pairing it with short i. He thus
deprives the Latin language of the sound of (ii), for he pro-
nounced Latin e as (ee). Hence when he comes to the sound
of (ii) in EiigKsh, he exclaims in perplexity :
" Quid autem fiet ubi sonus invenitur quem neque Groeci, ncque
Latini habuerunt, proescrtim cum omncs coram literal in simiHbiis
eoi'um sonis fuerunt absumpta; ? Eccc autcm sonum Anglorum et
Scotonim alium divcrsumquc ab omnibus his,^ qui nee e (ee) nee
z (ci) rcddit aurihus, sod quoddam medium, et tamen simplex est,
litcraquc debet (Uci : est autem semper fere longa."
His examples are me, see, meet, deep, steep^ feel, feet, sheep,
queen, mean? seek, she, iveek, leek, beef neese, bee apes,
1 So far as I could hear, the "Welsh ^ That is, not one of the sounds
dim was pronounced by several "Welsh which he had already considered, and
gentlemen precisely as the English which were apparently (aa a, ee e, el i,
dim, that is (d/m), and they all objected oo o, liu u, yy).
to the pronunciation (dim). ' " Intelligere." Qu. mien, Yultus ?
Chap. III. § 3. y, I, IE — XVI TH CENTURY. 113
whence, tlirougli Salesbuiy and Palsgrave, we know that the
sound was (ii). Smith therefore recognized no short (i) in
English. The sound of his i short must therefore have been
different from (i), that is, as I believe {i), agreeing with
Salesbury.
Smith recognizes the two diphthongs (ei, ai) but finds
scarcely any difference between them, although he says that
"mulierculae" pronounce (ei) for (ai). This will be con-
sidered under (ai), p. 122. In no case in which the or-
thography uses long i does Smith write ei, so that but for
his rather veiled identification of / with eye, we should have
had no clue to the sound intended.
1569. Haet says : " Out of all doubt, no nation of the foresaids
but we and the Scottish, doe at any time sound i, in the aforesayde
sound of ei : wherefore that English Grreek reader which shall giue
the same sound to i which he doth to et, doth fiuther this eiTour
much amongst vs."
He also writes (reid bei) for ride hy. But he makes ee in
GreelxS the long sovmd of i in in, that is {li), and is thus not
so accurate as Smith, who distinguishes the sound as (ii).
1580 BuLLOKAR calls long i a vowel, and does seem to know
that it has a different sound from short i He says : " I,
hath two soundes, the one agreeing to his olde & continued
name, and is then a vowell, the other sounde agreeing to the
olde name of ^, and of my y' (dzh), and is then a consonant."
He gives as examples : " I ly in my sisterz kitchen with a
pillo'w besyd her peticot, and thy whyt pilion," where the
accent denotes length, and oho means (u). "What "the old
and continued name" is, he does not write. He has no other
distinction between long and short i but this accent, and
never even hints at the possibility of their having two sounds.
He uses the accent to indicate the long a, e, y, o only, and
has a new sign e' for (ii), on which he says, and it is the only
clue I can find :
"e hath two soundes, and vowels both, the one flat, agreeing to
his old and continued name : and the other sounde more sharpe and
hetwene the old sound of the old name oi :e: and the name of : « :
for such difference the best wiiters did use :ea: for res flat and long:
& ea, ee, ie, eo for :e: sharpe."
This "flat e,'' was undoubtedly (ee), and the "sharpe e"
was (ii). The "old name of e" is therefore (ee), and the
"sharp" sound of e, or (ii) is said to lie between (ee) and
the name of i, that is, its long sound, whatever that may be.
Now we have seen that Smith says that (ii) is " quoddam
medium," between (ee) and (ei), so that we need not expect
8
1 14 Y, T, IE — XVI TH CENTURY. Cii.vr. III. § 3.
more precision in Bullokar, and altliougli it is really non-
sense to say that (ii) lies between (ee) and (ei), since (ei) is
compounded of (ee) and (ii), yet as Smith actually said so,
Bullokar may have meant the same. But Bullokar con-
stantly neglects to write the acute accent, his sign of pro-
longation, over i. Thus he has cqntnjz, cgntriz in successive
lines. Again he always writes wryth = written with a long
y, and it would be difficult to believe that even a pedantic
theorist ever said (r/rcit'n). Gill writes (writ'n). If how-
ever we suppose that Bullokar, as well as Palsgrave, pro-
nounced long i as {ii) and short i as (i), all difficulty arising
from this source would disappear. And although the state-
ment that (ii) lies between (ee) and {ii) is not so correct as
that {ii) lies between (ee) and (ii), yet it is not at all ex-
travagant for a phonetist of that time. If, as w^ill appear in
the next chapter, (ii, uu) were probably the xivth century
pronunciations of long i and ou, then the retention of {ii) by
Bullokar and Palsgrave will be precisely parallel to their
undoubted retention of (uu), and would have precisely the
same archaic efiect in the midst of the general (ei, ou) as
(obliidzh", griit, briik) have at the present day amidst the
usual (oblaidzh*, greet, br^Jt-k). The whole subject will be
properly discussed in the next chapter, and in the mean
time the only legitimate inference from Bullokar's notation
and practice seems to be that he pronounced long i as {ii).
1621. Gill uses also a simple sign for long i, namely /.
He says :
" DifForentia sig:nificatioms (quoad ficii potest, & sonus permittit)
orthografiu, disceraitur. Sic J. ego. ei oculus, ei ita." — " Nee e,
soepius prfeponitur ?", dicimus enim hei (neei), adhortantes aut
laiidantes, & ei (ci) eye oculus, ei (cei) etiam, ita : vbi tamen
sonus Toealis, cxiguum distat ab illo qui auditur in ^Jn tuus, &
mjn meus." — "Commimis dialectus aliquando est ambigiius. Audies
enim "^ai aut '^ei (dhai, dhci) they, illi." — "/, est tenuis, aut
crassa : tenuis est brcuis, aut longa : breuis sic notatiir /, rt in sin
SESTfE pcccatum : longa sic i. vt in sin seexe visus, a, um : crassa
autem fere est diphtliongus ei ; sod qiiia sono cxilior paulb quam si
diifunderemur in e, retincbimus antiquum ilium et mascuHnum
sonum .... eumque signabimus hoc charactere j. \t in sjn signe
signum. Omnium difi'crentia est in tctn wtmte vinco, tc'in weene
opinor, ujn wyxe vinum."
The meaning of these passages is not very clear, and they
have occasioned me considerable difficulty, as I felt it important
to determine the precise signification of Gill's symbols. It
is clear that his j was little, if at all, diffi?rent from (ei), and
that this difference consisted mainly in dwelling more upon
Chap. III. § 3. Y, I, IE — XVI TH CENTURY. 115
the (e) sound in the diphthong which he writes (ei) than in
that which he writes j ; this is the only sense I can attach to
the expression that the sound of/ ''^Jere est diphthongus ei,
sed sono exilior quam si d^ffunderemur in <?/' as it were,
than if we were diffuse over the e. The distinction is then
precisel}^ similar to that which Sheridan and Knowles make
between modern /, o]/, where they suppose the first element
in each case to be (a), but to be instantly lost in /, and retained
long enough to be distinctly heard in oy, (p. 107). We seem
to have only to change (a) into (e) to obtain Gill's distinction
between /, eye. Gill frequently interchanges (ai, aai) and
does not seem to be very particular about the distinction
between (ei, eei), but he appears to have always attached
great importance to the first element in (ei) and (ai). He
says of diphthongs generally :
"Nee tamen in omnium diphthongorum elatione, utrique vocali
sonus integer ubique constabit. Etenim vocalis prajcedens saepe-
numero acutius sonars videtur, & clarius ; in ai et ei, ita aui'es
implore, ut A. subiungi aequius esset, quam ad latus adhajrere,"
alluding evidently to the Greek forms a, rj. The conclusion
would appear to be that Gill's j, ei, ai were more properly
('ei, e'i, a'i) where the apostrophe indicates for the moment
the extremely unaccented or unimportant character of the
element to which it is prefixed. For this we might write
(ei, eei, aai) if Gill did not occasionally distinguish between
(ei, ai) and (eei, aai). We must not forget however that
Gill blames Hart for writing ei in place of /, where Gill
prints / meaning, probably, j. In this case his j would
appear to be considerably difierent from his (ei).
Another hypothesis is possible. We shall see that at the
time of AVallis, 1653, (ei) was a common form of long i. It
is possible that this was one of the xviith century pro-
nunciations which Gill adopted, and hence his j, ei, ai may
mean (ai, ei, ai), and as this is the most convenient dis-
tinction which I can draw between the sounds, and also
agrees in making j but slightly different, and yet decidedly
difierent, from (ei), I shall adopt it in transcribing Gill.
But for the xvi th century generally, the positive assertion
of Salesbury that long i was (ei), and the identification of the
sounds of /, e7je, aye by Smith, leave me no choice but to
use (ei) for long i. Shakspere was born the same year as
Gill, yet as he did not live so long into the xvii th century,
he may have used the same pronunciation as Smith and
Salesbury. Certainly his /, eye, aye must have had the
same sound (p. 112). But perhaps long i was also often
116 Y, I, IE — XVriTII CENTURY. Chap. III. ^ 3.
called (ai) as it still is, and as it probably was in the xiv th
century.
If the hypothesis here adopted for the pronunciations of
long i by l*alsgravc and BuUokar; Salcsljury, Smith and
Hart ; and Gill, namely {ii, ei, oi) be correct, we have the
phenomenon of the coexistence of two extreme sounds (ii, ai)
with their link (ei), during the greater part of the xvith
century, bringing the pronunciation of the xiv th and xvii th
centuries almost together upon one point. A curious ex-
ample of the present coexistence of similar sounds in the
various Scotch dialects will be given in the next chapter.
The short sound of ?', I take to be (i) and not (i), notwith-
standing that Gill and subsequent writers consider (ii) to
have been its long sound. This conclusion rests principally
on the authority of Smith and Salesbury.
T, I, IE — XVII TH Century.
Price's list of words in ie = (ii) has already been given,
(p. 104,) and no further notice of this combination in the
XVII th century is required.
1640. Bex Jonsox, like BuUokar, entirely ignores the
dij)hthongal character of long i. His description answers
to (i) or (i), but certainly not to the diphthongs (ei, ai), one
of which he most probably uttered for his L He says :
"/, is of a nan'ower sound then e, and uttered with lesse open-
ing of the mouth; the tong:ue brought backe to the palate, and
striking the teeth next the chceke-tecth. It is a Letter of a double
power. As a Voicell in the former, or single Syllabes, it hath
sometimes the sharpe accent ; as in hmding. minding, pining,
whining, wiving, thriving, mine, thine. Or, all words of one Syllabe
qualified by e. But, the flat in more, as in these, bill, hitter, giddy.
little, incident, and the Hkc In Syllabes, and words compos'd
of the same Elements, it varieth the sound, now sharpe, now flat ;
as in give, give, alive, live, drive, driven, title, title. But these, use
of speaking, and acquaintance in reading, will teach, rather then
nde."
1653. "Waxlis says: "I vocalis quoties brevis est sonatur ple-
rumque (ut apud Gallos aHosquc) exih sono. Ut in hU morsus,
will volo, sttll semper, win lucre, pin acicula, sin peccatum, fill
impleo. At quoties longa est plerumque profertiir ut Grajcorum et.
Ut hite mordeo, wile .stratagema, stile stilus, tvine vinum, pine tabe
consumor, etc., eodcm fere modo quo Gallomm a? in vocibus main
manus, pain panis, etc. ncmpe sonum habet compositum ex Gallo-
rum e foeminino ct i vcl y."
This should be (ai), or (oei), or (.Toi), the difference being
slight, and all so like (ai) that we may take that as the sound,
Chap. III. § 3. y, I, IE — XVII TH CENTURY. 117
especially as Wiikins adopts this form. Wallis also admits
this sound in the iirst element of boil, toil, oil, howl globus,
Old, which he pronounces (bail, tail, ail, haul, aul). In
another place he says that long I is " idem omnino sonus cum
Grcecorum et."
1668. WiLKiNS gives distinctly " (ai) our English / in
hite," the first element being identified with u in " but, full,
futt, mxiii-on, pull, rudd-er," which is meant for (a), as it is
stated to be wholly guttural, and to be represented by ij in
Welsh.
1668. Price merely talks of long and short i.
1669. HoLDEE says: "Our vulgar i as in stile, seems to be
such a diphthong (or rather syllable or pai-t of a syllable) composed
of a, i or e, i (ai, ei), and not a simple original vowel."
1685. CooPEii says: " U in Cut et i (ai), dipthongum faciUime
constituunt, quam i longam vocamus ; ut wine, vinum, hoc modo
pronunciatur ante nd finales ; ut blind caecus, wind vcntus : at
pi7i^d pro pinned acicula subnexus; a verbo to pin; brevis est;
■pined marcidus ; a to pine marceo ; dipthongais est. Scribitui* per
ui in beguile fallo ; disguise dissimulo ; guide dux ; guidon Impera-
toris baeidus : per oi in in-join in-jungo, Joint junctura ; jointure
dos, broil torreo, ointment imguentum."
1688. MiEGE says : ** L' autre «i a im Son particulier, et qu'on ne
satu'ait mieujs vous representer par la plume que par ces deux
Voyelles ai ; comme dans les mots I, pride, crime. II est vi-ai que
ce Son pai'oit d' abord im peu nide et grossier ; mais les Anglois
lui donnent un certain Adoucissement, dont les Etrangers se rendent
bien tot capable. Get Addoucissement consiste, en paiiie, a ne
tahe qu'un Son d' ai, en sorte que ces deux YoyeUes ne sont pas
tout-a-fait distinctement prononcees." This expression seems to
point to that extreme brevity of the first element which still pro-
vails, and makes the analysis of this EngHsh soimd so difficult.
It must be also remembered that there is nothing approaching the
compactness of Enghsh diphthongs in French, where a looseness
prevails similai' to that in oiu- oy.
1701. Jones says in one place that the sound of short u
(a) is written o before i in boil, coil, coin, foil, moil, &c., and
in another place that the sound of i is written oi in those
words. It follows that he analyzed long / into (ai).
It appears therefore that the long / of the xvii th century
was the same as at present, and hence it must have been so
during the xwi\ th century, and indeed Franklin, _ 1768,
writes (ai), and Sheridan, 1780 analyzes long i into (aI) with
very short (a),' (p. 107,) and Walker into (oei) or (ai).
118 EI, AI — XVITH CENTURY. Cu.vr. III. § 3.
EI, AI — XVI TH Century.
1530. PAXSORA.VE says: " £■»' vniversally through out all the
frenche tong shalbe souwded like as he is -with vs in these wordes,
obey, a sley, a grey, that is to say, the e shall have his distinct
sounde, and the i to be sounded shortly and confusely, as conseil,
uermeil, and so of all suche other."
^'^ Ai in the frenche tong is sounded lyke as we sounde ay in
these wordes in our tong rayne, payne, fayne, disdayne, that is to
say, a, distinctly and the i shortly & confusely."
The forms ey, ay, are mere varieties of ei, ai, and need
not be separately considered. Palsgrave's words ought to
imply that the English and French ei, ai, were pronounced
(ei, ai) or else (eei, aai). This is very different from the
present pronunciation in English, where they are generally
fii, ee), or in French, where they are generally (ee, ee) ;
hence some confirmation is required.
Meigeet says: "Considerons si ai, se treuue tousiours raysoun-
ablcmcnt cscrit, de sorte que les deux voyelles soient on la pronon-
ciation com?«c nous les voyons en aymawt, aydawt, hair. II n 'y a
point de doubte qu'en mais, maistre, aise, vous ny trouuerez aucuncs
nouueUes de la diphthongue ay, mais tant sculement d'vng e qui
i'appelle e ouvcrt, com?«e ia i'ay diet. Parquoy telle maniere d'es-
criture est yicieuse en ceux la, et en tous autres semblablcs, es quelz
la prononciation est autre que d' ai : comme vous pourrez cognoistre
si vous les paragonez a aydaut, ayniant, es quelz elle est veritable-
ment prononcee. le treuue d'auantage que nous faisons hien
souuent vsurper a la diphthongue ai la puissance de ei, comme en
ces vocables sainct, main, maintenir : es quelz sans point de doubte
nous prouongons la diphthongue ei tout ainsi qu'en ceint, ceinture,
peindre, peinture, meine, cmmeine. De sorte que si tu te ioues de
vouloir prononcer ai en ceux la, tu seras trouue lourd, et de mau-
uaise grace, et auccq aussi bonne rayson q'est le menu peuple de
Paris quant il prononce * main, pain' par «?:'."
Again in his phonetic grammar, he says —
" En comEn9a?it donq a (jElles qi ont a en titc, nous En auons vn
En ai ou ay (car je ne fEs point de diffei'En^', Entre 1' i e y GrEc)
comme pay ant gajant [gayant ?] aya«t .... Or coniEnq' En notre
lange la diphthongc, Ei, par E ou^'E^■t, suc^eder a ^eIIc d' ai En
aocuns vocables : tEllement qe nou' u'oyons plus dire aymer, si
souu^ q' Eymer. Ao regard d' ame, e amez do«t no' lEttres de
comissfons sont pleines, 1' uzaje do 1' cloqEnqe FranqoEze b:s a ja de
si long tEMS cassez, qe ic no pEnsc pas q'il se puiss' aoiourclhuy
trouuer home qi Les aye vu jamEs En aothorite, poua' Etre commune-
niEnt pronon9ez d'lm bon courtizant."
These extracts establish a French diphthong (ei, Ei), it is
impossible to saj^ which ; and also a French diphthong (ai)
or (aai), entirely different from the former, but gliding into
Chap. III. ^ 3.
EI, AT
XVI TH CENTURY.
110
it, so that tlie pronimciatlon -was then beginning to change,
and that in several words as ?)ia/s, maidre the diphthong (ai)
had become the simple vowel (ee).^
1547. Salesbury in no place gives an English word which
he "spells with ei, ey, but as he explains the word vayxe
by the ^Velsh gu-i/fhen ne wac, i.e. vena vel rauus, it must be
held to include both the words rein and vain. He pronounces
them both vain = (vain), and hence makes no difference
between ei and ai. But he distinguishes both from long i,
as he had immediately before written vyne, vein (vein) vitis.
The following are all Salesburj^'s words containing ai with
their pronunciation ; he has no special observations on the
combination. Quayle has no pronunciation assigned ; nayle
nay] (na/1) unguis A'el clavus, xayles nayh (na/lz) ; rayxe
aryl (ra/1) cancellus, rayles rayls (ra/lz), vay^ne vain (vain)
^ The "work of M. Livet, described
on p. 33, enables us to confirm this
^'iew^ by the very objection ■which G.
des Autels opposed to it. "Aussi
triomphes-tu de dire," said he to
Meigret, according to p. 129 of M.
Livet's book, " que les diphthongues
gardent toujoui's en une syllabe le pro-
pre et entier son de deux voyelles con-
jointes ; et sont encore plus gaillards
tes exemples de pay ant et royal ... Je
te dy done qu'il n'y ha point de diph-
thongue en ces mots ayant, payant,
royal et loyal, mais seulement une con-
traction, qui encore ne se fait la oil tu
prends la diphthongue, mais en la
syllabe suivante, car en ayant, a est
ime syllabe et yant une autre par con-
traction de deux." On which M.
Livet remarks : " Ce passage montre
assez la pronunciation de ayant, payant,
qui s'est conserve dans le centre de la
France et en Anjou. En Picardie, on
dit gay oh pouj geole (dierese de yeole),
et le colosse d' osier qu'on promene
dans les rues de Douai sous le nom de
Gay an, a V epoque de la Ducasse, n'est
autre que le Geant, pris absolument.
Cf. Escalier. Remarques siir le patois,
1 vol. in-8o, 18-56. p. 22." And Pierre
Ramus (Livet p. 205) gives for ai the
examples, (in his orthography, using
E, e for his broad and mute e respec-
tively) ' paiant gaiant, aidant,' and for
ei, 'fEindi'e, pEindi-^, crEindre, pEin«,
fontEinc,' Tvhere the two last words
have no suspicion of a nasal vowel.
On payer in the xv th century, see
supra, p. 76. There is a fight between
Meigret and his opponents respecting
the mute e. Meigret only admits his
E, e = (e, e ?) long and short, and
identifies what G. des Autels, PcUetier,
Ramus, and others, according to Livet's
language, call the ' mute e,' with his
'short e' (e). Livet (p. 133) con-
cludes : " d'une part que les difterents
sons de Ve etaient alors ce qu'ils sont
maintenant, et d' autre part qu'on ne
s'entendait pas sui- la maniere de les
noter ou de les nommer." But my
German experience leads me to a dif-
ferent conclusion. In the words : eine
giite Gabe, the final e is pronounced in
the greater part of Germany very ob-
scurely and more like (k), as most
Englishmen pronounce their final a in
China, idea, and some their final -er in
gaiter (which word they then speak
like a common mid-German mispro-
nunciation of Goethe), than like (e).
Yet theoretically (e) is held to be the
sound uttered, and in some parts of the
Austrian dominions I have heard this
distinct short final (e), which of course
had an unpleasant effect on my un-
accustomed ears. Now it is quite pos-
sible that ileigret may have, as an
older and provincial man, retained the
clear (e), that his younger opponents
may have used the obscurer (u), which
in course of time sank to the present (a)
or entirely disappeared. This theory
at least accounts for the conflict of
opinion, the decided retention of the
final e in the phonetic writing of PcUe-
tier and Ramus as well as of Meigret.
and hence its continued use in the
poetry of the xvii th century which set
the rule for French versification.
1-20
ET, AT — XVI Til CENTTRY.
Chap. III. ^ 3.
vena vcl vauus. But it is to be observed that he pronounces
oRANGE-s or('i)i(.si/s (or"cin(l/li/z), and that he sa)'s that before
(je, sh, tch the sound of " a is thought to decline toward the
sound of the diphthong ai, and the wordes" domayo, heritage,
huic/nagc, a.s/ic, lasJir, icatc/i are " to be read in thys wyse,
donidigc, hcrifaige, hingiiaige,^ dis/ie, u-aitchc." We have very
little trace of this custom left. The unaccented svllables are
apt to be pronounced with (/) or perhaps [y), as (or'/ndzh/z)
dicm*/dzh, ner'/t/dzh, hi.'q'gw/dzh,) but ash, iratch have be-
come (ccsh, wAtsh), instead of (ecsh, weetsh) as might have
been expected. Salesbury therefore only recognizes the
diphthong (ai) and does not acknowledge a diphthong (ei)
as distinct from the representations of long /'. Yet long
/, ei, ai have in subsequent times traversed with different
velocities three distinct paths ending in (ai, ii, ec) respectively.
1568. SiE T. Sjoth says : "Inter Ai & Ei diphthongos minima
differentia est, pra^scrtim apiid nostratcs, apud nos tamen audiuntur
lii soni. (Fein) fingcre, (deinti) delicatus, (point) pingere, (feint)
langiiidus. Scd non lia?c tantum verba per ei pronuntiantur, sed
ca}tcra omnia per ai scripta muHerculae qua}dam deHcatiorcs, et non-
nidli qui volunt isto modo vidtri loqui vrbanius per ei (ei, eei) sonant,
' Compare Palsgrave : " Also all
wordes in the frencbe tong whiche ia
writtyng cnde in age shall in redyng
and spekyng soundt? an i between a and
g, as though that a were this diphthong
ai : as for lavguge, hereidge, sage, dam-
mage, boequdge, apprentissdge, they
soundc laiiguaige, heritaige, saige, dam-
maige, bocquaige, appreutissaige, and so
of all suche lyke escepte rage. And
note that many tjTnes I fynde suche
nownes whiche have the » in writting
betwene the a and g, but, whether he be
written or nat, in redyng or spekvng he
shalbe sounded, accordjTig as f have
here shewed by example." M. Ed. Le
Hericher (Histoire et Glossaire du
Nomiand, de 1' Anglais, et dc la langue
Fran^aise, d' apres la methode histo-
rique naturclle et etjTiiologique, 1862,
vol. i. p. 24) entirely misunderstands
this passage, when he says : " C'etait
une regie du fran(,ais, formulee d' ail-
leurs par Palsgrave dans ses Eclair-
cissemetis de la langue fran<;aise, que la
premiere lettie de 1' Alphabet se pro-
non(,ait A et Ai." That M. Le Heri-
cher means that Palsgrave asserted
French A to be (a) or (e), and that
generally, instead of generally (a), but
(ai) in a very limited class of words,
appears by his next remark : " Ce der-
nier son prevaut en anglais : il etait
aussi predominant en nomiand." The
very few examples which he cites for
such an exti-aordinan.- assertion as the
last, are far from establishing the fact.
They are an assertion by Thierry that
Granville was pronounced Grainville
by the Xormans : that in a MS. of the
XIV th century at Avranches fuire des-
clare rhjTne, whereas they may be only
an assonance as in modem Spanish :
that in the xv th century a Caen farce
has consecutive lines ending in lusage
griefve glaive, and that aige, usaige, etc.
were finally written and printed, so
that a sea song of 01. Basselin has a
set of rh}Tnes in -aige, the termination
pointed out by Palsgrave. " C'est
cette prononciation de 1' A qui fait une
dcs principales differences entre la
langue des troubadours et celle des
trouveres." This assertion must be
received with due caution. Mr. "W.
Babington has kindly made inquiries
for me of inhabitants of various depart-
ments in Normandy, and none were
acquainted with an existing pronuncia-
tion of a as ai in any part of the couutrj'.
Hence it must be very limited in ex-
tent, and probably comparable to the
cases mentioned above p. 76.
Chap. III. § 3. EI, AI — XVI TH CENTURY. 121
vt haec ipsa quoc nos per ei (ei) scribimus, alij sonant ct pronuwtiaut
per ai, tarn a8t,(i(j)opoi sumus in his duntaxat duabus (.lipbthongis
Angli."
" Est dipbthongns omnis sonus e duabus vocalibus conflatus ut :
AI, (pai) solvere, (dai) dies, (wai) via, (mai) possum, (bii) poncrc,
(sai) dicere, (esai) tentare, (tail) cauda, (tail) deficere, (faain) libens
ac Tolens, (pain) poena, (disdain) dedignor, (claim) vendico, (plai)
ludere, (arai) vestire seu ornare. In bis est utraque litcra brevis ^
apud ^-I'banius proniinciantes. Eustici utranque aut extremam^
saltern literam longam sonantes, pingucm quondam odiosum, et nimis
atlipatum sonum redduwt. (Paai) solvere, (daai) dies, (waai) via,
(maai) possum, (laai) ponere. Sicut qui valdc delicate voces has
pronimtiant, mulierculaj praesertim, explicant plane Homanam diph-
thongum ae. AE dipbtbong-us Latina. Pae solvere, dae dies, wae
via, mae possum, lae ponere" = (pee, dee, wee, mee, lee) I suppose,
since tbe Latin ae bad long been pronounced (ee), as we know,
among other reasons from the frequency with which it is written e
in works before this time. " Scoti ct Transtrentani quidam Angli
voces has per impropiiam diphthongum Gra^cam a profenint ut nee
^ nee e nisi obscurissime^ audiatur. A dipbtbong-us improprie Graeca
(paa,* daa, waa, maa, laa)."
Again, in bis De recta et emendata lingvoe Gr^ecce pronuntiatione
.... ad Yintoniensem Episcopum Epistola, Paris, 1568: " Dipb-
thongi quo modo sonar^tur dicere in prowptu est : Nam si duas
vocales recte prius extuleiis, & easdcm coniunxeris, dipbthongimi
babes, hoc est sonum quondam duplicem ex duobus commixtis inter
se factum. Yt si nesciam mulsum quid sit, & audiam ex aqua &
melle factum esse, potero fortassis commiscewdo tale quid efficere,
mel vt sentiatur & aqua ne dispareat. Aut si talcm colorem habu-
isse veteres, quale>» viiidem appellant, & hunc ex flauo luteove &
cemleo fuisse co?ifectum, potero credo commiscendo videre, cuius-
modi sit illud quod imitari cupiam, vt nee altei-um ab altero colorem
prorsus extiactum & obliteratum relinquam, & tamen vtrunque
pariter in tertio conspici ac relucere faciam. Sed, dipbtbongi quo
modo sonari debent, quivis etiam ex triuio puer qui literas didicerit
expHcabit. Heus tu die sodes, a & i qiiid faciunt ? dicet certe ai,
cti. Si p praeponas, facit pai, Trot, solue. sin m, mai, fial, Mams
mensis : sia tv, wai, oval, via ; ncque nunc pa i dicit, ncc ma
i, sed pai & mai, vt constituere diphtbongos non dissoluere videatur.
Idem diccndum puto & de ei, quod nos cxpiimimus cum binnii-e,
hoc est nexj dicimus : & foeminae qusedam delieatiores ciincta fere
quae per ay dicuntur per ei exprimimt : vt we]i, dey, pei, \i eadera
Eurosaxoncs populares mei iiisticiores, nimis pingui ct adipato
sono, way, day, pay : vt etiam tinnituwi illud i rcddat in fine. Scoti
& Borei quidem AngK per a, vix yi illud i audiatur, pa, da, wa, aut
^ In one case (feain) he has marked examples he shews that the sound was
the vowel as long ; perhaps a misprint. not heard at all. The present sound
2 Meaning the first element P is (aa'), see chapter XI.
3 An orthoepical safeguard. In his * Fay\s now called (paa) in Norfolk.
122 EI, Al — XVI Til CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
potius per ae profcrunt. Illud obscruandum nc nimis yidcamur
obese loqui propter exilissimie literal ])ro])e latissinias ex breuibua
nimium tinnientis sonum, cum ai & oi ilietionem finiant, breuiter &
concpte profereiidas esse : quod Grani Gi'ainniatici notanmt, nc
alioqui erassum ilium & atlipatum souum nisticoi-um nostratium
imitemur, qui ciim a gay, hoy, ore plcno Uteris diductis ia immen-
sum diouwt, nimis profectb invrbane loqui ab elegantionibus iu-
dieemur."
It would seem that Smitli's Cei) were precisely the same as
his long I, and that as a general rule, /, eye, aye were pro-
nounced alike. Yet the two soimds (ei, ai) were recognized
also as different, and (ei) was considered to be a dainty
effeminate pronunciation of (ai), which when urged to excess,
through (eei), merged into (ee), but of this mincing sound he
decidedly disapproved. This change makes it probable that
eye and therefore long / was rather pronounced (ei) than (ai),
because although (ei) could easily become (eei) and thence
(ee), the course from (ei) to (ee) does not seem so straight.
The sound of (ai) has not yet disappeared in our pi'ovinces.
I have frequently heard (dai, wai) or even (daai, waai) used
by rustics. Smith seems decidedly to disapprove of this
lengthening of the first vowel, which however is not un-
common in Gill.
1569. Hart in the very next year after Smith had repro-
bated the use of (ee) for (ai), published his treatise, in which
he invariably uses (ee), and docs not even give (ai) in his
enumeration of diphthongs. In his French Lord's Prayer
he transcribes faite as (feetaii), which agrees with Meigret's
(fEEtt'). It was Hart's English use of (ee) for (ai) that
especially excited the ire of Dr. Gill.
" Ille," says Dr. Gill speaking of Hart, *' proetcrquam quod
nonnullas literas ad vsum pemecessaiias omisit, scnnonem nostmm
characteribus suis non sequi, sed ducere meditabatxir. Midta
omitto. Xeque enim bene facta malign^ Detrectare, meum est :
tamen hsec paucula adnoto, ne me homini probo falsum crimcw
affinxisse putes. Emendato nostro characterc rtnimque leges, qxiia
do sono tantum certanien est.^ Sic igitiu' ille, foHo 66, b.
Pre \ / prai sed ■> / said iu \ / juu
uo 1 ( wai ei | i oi iuz- i i yyz
se f , J sai ov > pro I of uii > pro I wi
dbe l^ \ dhei aunsuer \ | answer uidh i / -with
bue ] [ buoi riiding / \ reeding knoon / ^ knooun
me / Vmai
Xon nostras bic voces babes, sed Mopsanim fictitias."
^ For the same reason, and also for * Gill has here mistaken Hart's gign
preater ease to the reader. Gill's sym- -which was meant for (j'yz), as will be
bols are here replaced by palaeotj-pe. shewn under U below.
Chap. III. § 3. El, AI — XYI TH CENTURY. 123
The ■VYitliermg character of this denimciation will be well
understood by referring to the passage quoted above, p. 91,
where he reproaches the " Mopseys" with saying (mecdz,
plee) for (maidz, plai), althovigh Gill himself writes (reseev,
deseev) in place of (reseiv, deseiv), receive, deceive, which is
a change in the same direction. After this expression of
opinion by Dr. Gill it is impossible to accept Hart's pro-
nunciation as that generally used in his time, though it is
evidence of an existing pronunciation, then only patronized
by a few, but becoming ultimately dominant.
1580. BrxLOKAE, says : " that there be scuen diphthongs of
seuerall notes in voice, and differing from the notes of cuciy of the
eight vowels aforesaide,^ may appeere by the wordes following —
a hay or net : in Latine, Plaga, Italian, Rete da pig^iar animali
saluatichi, French, Bourcettes a chasser.
hey : in Latine, fcenum, Italian, Fieno, Prench, Du foin.
a boy : in Latine, Puer, ItaKan, Gar%one, Preneh, Garson.
a hwy"^ that is fastened to an anker with a rope to weigh the anker :
in ItaHan, Amoinare.
a ha,u,^ in the eie : in Latine, Vnguis, French, Paille.
^\03 he,u smaller : in Latine, Concidere, ItaUan, Tagliare mtnuta-
mente, French, Hacher memi.
a low : in Latine, Arcus, ItaKan, Arco da saettiire, French, ^rc."
These diphthongs I read (ai, ei, oi, uui, an, eu, oou) of
which the two last will be elsewhere considered, and (uui)
is only a variety of (oi). Bullokar consistently uses (ei,
ai) for ei, ai, thus (dhei konseiv) would be quite distinct
from (dhai konsaiv) which the modern English ear hears
as (dhai konsaiv).^
1621. Gill distinguishes (ei, eei, ai, aai), but he is not
very certain in the use of (ai, aai). I find the following
words in Gill's phonetic transcriptions.
ei (ei) eye, (eiz) eyes, (eidher) either, (valleiz)^ valleys, — (reseev)
receive, (deseev, cieeseev) deceive. — (dheei) they, (dheeh)
their, (reeineth) reigneth.
1 See p. 64. derstood. Few Engli-sli observe tlie
2 The CO is in Bullokar a new letter peculiar Scotch (ei) for (oi). They_ at
made by the union of the two oo. most take it for a Scotch way of saving
3 The comma before ti and inverted (oi), but recognize the latter diph-
apostrophe before t are printed imder thoug.
the letters in Bullokar, to indicate, ^ it is not to be supposed that
first that u has the sound (u) or {u), (vaMeiz) was meant, and not (val'ciz),
and secondlv that ^t« is the preposition. but in transcribing, I have thought it
* Falmei'ra Square at Brighton is al- best to give Gill's own forms, however
ways called (PrelmoLrra), and thus careless and Irregular they may be at
confused with Palmyra, the original times. Corrections must be always
Portuguese (Palmei-re) not being un- theoretical.
124 EI, AI — XVII TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
ai (wai, waai) way, (mai, maai) may, (sai, saai) say, (praiz, praaiz)
praise, (alai) allay, (wait) wait, (slain) slain, (sudain) sodain
old lurm of sudden ; ( Jaai) clay, (klaai) clay, (retaain) retain.
1G23. Bltler says (using the coinmon orthography) :
" The right sound of ai, au, ei, eu, oi, on ; is the mixed sound of
the two vowels, whereof they are made : as (bait, vaut, nei, neu,
koi, kou) : no otherwise than it is in the Greek."
This might lead to (ai, a a, oi, eu, oi, ou), but it is im-
possible to say exactly how Butler pronounced Greek av, et.
Sir T. Smith's pronunciation of the Grreek diphthongs ac, et,
01, av, €v, rjv, ov, cov, vi seems to have been decidedly (ai, ei,
oi, au, eu, ecu, ou, oou, wi wei).
" But ai in imitation of the French, is sometime corruptly sounded
like e : as in mai/, nay, play, pray, say, stay, fray, slay : specially
in wox'ds originally French, as in j'^fl'/, ha Hi, travail : though plaid
have lost his uatmal orthography, and we write as we speak plead
(pleed)."
This implies that though some speakers insisted on pre-
serving (ai) in these words, (ee) was the most general pro-
nunciation,— which may seem a curious interpretation of
" sometimes corruptly," but allowance must be made for the
mode in which orthoepists speak of common pronunciations
which difi'er from their own, or from what they recommend,
— by no means always the same thing.
EI, AI — XVII TH Century.
1653. Wallis tells us that ei, ey, were (ei) or even simply
(ee) without the (i), but adds " NonnuUi tamen plenius
eflferunt, acsi per ai scripta essent." The dijahthong ai he
upholds still as a diphthong, ^^ Ai vel ay sonum exprimunt
compositum ex a Anglico (hoc est, exili) correpto, et y. Ut
in voce day dies, praise laus," which, if our interpretation
of Wallis's a be correct is (d?ci, pra>iz) very slightly different
from (da}a)i, praeoeiz) and readily passing into (deei, preeiz)
which is almost the sound of the present day. But the real
transition was into (ee, ee), as we shall learn from Cooper.
1668. WiLKiNS writes, (da^i) day, (d»ih') daily, (against)
against, (steints) saints, preserving the diphthong like Wallis,
but has (kAnseevd) conceived, dropj)ing the (i) entirely.
1668. Price in the same year apparently agrees with the
other two. He divides diphthongs, or, as he spells the word,
" dipthongs," into two classes, proper and improper :
" That is a proper dipthong wherein both vowels keep their
sound. There are twelve proper dipthongs, ay ey oy, ai ei, oi,
aw ew ow, au eu ou,''
Chap. III. § 3. EI, AI — XVII TH CENTURY. 125
which practically reduce to six, ai ei oi, au eu ou, and as we
know that in oi both vowels kejDt their sounds, we should
conclude that the vowels in the other two diphthongs did
so too.
"That is an improper dipthong that loseth the sound of one
Towcl. There are eight improper dipthongs, ea ee ie eo, ea oo ui,
ou obscine as in cousin.'"
Then, after giving a list of words in ai, conies the question,
" Doth a-i always keep its sound ? " the hyphen seeming to
imj)ly separation. The answer is
^' Ai soimdes like e in bargain, chaplain, against, chamberlain,
ctiriain, plaited, raisin, travail, icainscot."
This is therefore an exceptional list of words in which ai
= (ee), and hence implies that generally, and in all other
words ai = (sei), with the (se) of the period. Again he says :
"^y sounds like, ag, in they, obey, convey, conveyance, obeysance,
prey (or spoil), survey, surveyor, whey, but ey soundcs i (oi) in eye,
eyes," and " Ei soundes like ay in heir, feign, weight, neighbour,
deign, eight, forein, inveigh, to neigh, str eight, streighten, veins."
Now when it is remembered that these lists of words are
opposed to those in which ey, ei have the sounds of (ee, e, i)
it is evident that the general sound of ai was still (^i),
although it had become (ee) in a few words cited, and that
ey in the above lists was (aei).
" Ey soundcs like ee (i) in valley, Turkey, barley, monlcey, parsley,
talley, tansey." " Ey soimds e (e) in countrey, atturney, abbey, alley,
Anglesey, causey, chimney, cochiey, comfrey, Hackney, journey, a
Grey, key, kidney, lamprey, money, puUey."
It is doubtful for how long the short (e) in these words
kept its place, and whether the final unaccented (e) and (i) in
these two lists were ever kept very clearly separated. The
long hey = (kee) remained for sometime, and should be con-
sidered as belonging to the next list.
" Ei soundcs e long (ee) in receive, carreir, conceit, deceit, deceive,
enterfeir, either, heifer, leisure, neighbour, purveigh, receipt, seize."
Many of these words are now spelt differently. Usage
differs in leisure (lezh'J, lii-zh.i) and in either (ii-dh.i, oi'dha).
1685. Cooper begins to recognizes ai as (ee) though he is
not quite consistent with himself. After describing (e) he
says :
"Yera hujusce soni productio scribitur per a, atqwe a longum
falsb denominatur, ut in cane canna .... hie sonus, quando pure
sonatur," that 'is when it is not (ee9), " scribitm- per rt< vel ay;
ut pain dolor, day dies; quae hoc modo in omnibus for 3 dictionibus
plerumqi<e pronunciantur : per ey in convey deporto, obey obedio,
126 EI, AI — XVII Til CENTURY. Chap. III. } 3.
purvey rclius ncccs.sariis provideo, survey lustro, thej/ illi, trey trulla,
uhey sci-um lactis: qutui(locjj<e rarb autem per ea ; ut jpearl margaiita.
Corripitur in Producitur in
8(11 v(.u(lo sail navigo
sent missus 8ai7it sanctus
tell nuncio tail cauda
tent tcutorium taint inficio."
This makes ai (ee) except in a few words. But afterwards
he says :
"-4i lenius prolata sonatur ut a in cane ; fortius, plenum assumit
sonum dipthongi ai; ut brain ceiehvum, frail fi-agilis ; ay finalis
ut a, sic day dies ; ai ante r scribitur pro a in affairs res, air-y
aereus, dairy lactarium, debonair candidus, despair despero, fair
pulclier, fairy lamia, hair crinis, pair par, repair reparo, stairs
scala; c altera cum are; ut are sunt,^ dare audco ^/ in
bargain pactum, captain dux, certain certus, chaplain capellanus,
curtain velum, forrain extraneus, fountain fons, mountain mens,
villain furcifer, & prior ai in maintain sonatur ut a correptum
sive e breve." Again lie says : " Sonus a in I con possum ; I cast
jacio ; conjunctus cum i sonum literae ee exprimente ; constituit
dipthongum in bait esca ; caitiff homo improbus ; ay pro / vel yea
imo ; & eight quam vulgariter pronunciamus ait. Plures haud scio."
This must be (a?i) ; he seems to have thought of brain and frail
afterwiirds. Then he adds : " E in Icen, vel a in Catie i pra^positus
diphthongum {p) priori (a?i) subtiliorem constituit; ui praise laus: in
paucis scribimus ei vel ey finalem ; ut height altitudo ; tceight pondus,
& convey deporto, aliaque quae supra sub e ostcndimus ; quibus
exceptis caetera scribuntur cum ai vel ay ut hainous detcstabilis,
plei-unq?<e autem in colloquio familiari, negligenter loquentes pro-
nixnciant ai prout a simplicem (ee) in Cane.^'
Hence we may collect, that in the very few words bait,
caitiff, ay, eight, braiji, frail, Cooper still admitted the diph-
thong (ooi), and that he also endeavoured to establish a
diphthong (ei) or (eei), but that he was obliged to own that
the generality of words written ai or ei were then (ee)
or (ee).
1688. MiEGE, ^v^^ting nearly at the same time as Cooper,
heard long a as French {ai), supra p. 71, and of Ai he says
" cette diphthongue a le meme son en Anglois qu'cn ces Mots
Francois, faire, taire, &c. Exemple, fair, despair, hair, repair,
airy, dairy. J'en excepte, 1. Lcs Mots finissans en ain, ou Vai se
prononce a la Fran^oise, comme en ces Mots, villain, certain, &c.
2. Baisins, qu'il fa\xt prononcer Rezins.^^
Although his French ai seemed in the first place to
imply English (tea)), it can be hardly other than (ee) in the
1 TMs is peculiar, but still heard, in the form (eei).
Chap. III. § 3. EI, AI — XVII TH CENTURY. 127
present. Frencliraen do not generally distingaii.sli tliese two
related sounds, as they are unacquainted with English (acoe).
Similarly Englishmen hear French (ee) as their own (<?e).
The meaning of the first exception is not very clear, because
the French pronunciation of French final -ain is uncertain.
Nothing can be clearer than that Englishmen never pro-
nounced their final -abi as {-ex). Did the French say (-ein)?
Miege says that n final is pronounced, " d'une maniere plus
forte en Anglois qu'en Frau9ois," and this is his only allusion
to what is now the French nasal. "Was the English {yiVvu,
s.T"ti3n), or (vil'yn, SJ'tj/n), as at present? We cannot learn
from this passage, but it is probable that (v2l"en, ser'ten)
represent the sounds with sufiicient exactness. The e mascu-
line in r^zins, evidently implies (reez'inz) or (r^ez'inz). The
distinction here made between (ee) and (ee) or (ee), though
real enough in French, is probably due only to insufficient
observation or appreciation of the English soimds, and cannot
be insisted on.
"EI. Cette Diphtongue se prononce en Anglois eomme en
frangois. Example vein ime veine, tveight, im poids " (vein, wcit ;
veein, weeit) ? " Excepte 1. ces Mots ou elle soime comme un e
masculin, ou e. Savoir to conceive, deceive, perceive, receive, seize,
inveigh, leisure, & lours Derivatifs" (konseev, des^ev) &c. ? "2.
Ceux-ci, ou la Diphtongue prend le Son d'un e feminin. Savoir
forfeit, foreign, surfeit, heifer, either, neither,'''' (for'fot, for'an, sarfot,
Haf'ar, adh'ar, nsdlfar) ? "3. Ce Mot height, qui se prononce
halt," (nait). This should be (nAit) according to Miege's custom
of confusing (a) with French a, and according to other authorities
it should be (nseit). "We have still a double pronunciation (neet,
Hait).
1701. Jones seems not to have made iip his mind entirely
that ai was to be pronounced as (ee). Thus he says that the
sound of ai (whatever it may be) is written ei in 12 words,
hlein, conceit, deceit, distreiyi, heifer, heinous, heir, reins, their,
veil, vein, iveif', and eign in 5 words, darrcign, deign, feign,
reign, sovereign ("or soveraign"); and eigh in 12 words, con-
veigh, eight, freight, heigh ! height, inveigh, neigh, neighbour,
purveigh, straight, surveigh, iveigh, and their derivatives, as
eighteen, weight, etc., and cip "in receipt sounded resait," and
es " in demesn sounded demain," and eg in 12 monosyllables
breg, Grey, grey, hey I hey, prey, Sey, sey, they, trey, Wey
(a River), wheg, and their derivatives as breyitig, Weymouth,
etc. It is to be observed that he never asks when is the
sound of ai written e, that is (ee) ?
He next says the sound of e is written ai, " when it may
be sounded ai," which should imply that the sound of e was
128 El, AI — XVII TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
different from that of ai, "as in ahigaily ajfraid, again,
against, bargain, capstaiti, captain, certain, chamberlain, chap-
lain, complaii^ant^ curtain, debonair, hainous, mountain, mur-
rain, Prcstain, raisin, said, Suis {?), suddain, vervain, villain"
adding, " see a — ai." He also sa^'s the sound of e may be
written ay "when it may be sounded ay in the end of words
or before a vowel ; as decay, decaying, etc." These expres-
sions ought to imjjly that Jones distingiushed the sounds of
ai, c, but whether as (ei, ee) or (aei, ee) cannot be collected.
But the above conclusion is not certain, for he says that
the sound of e is written eig " in these six, darreign, deign,
feign, reign, Seignior (sounded senior), sorei^eign," five of
which darreign, deign, feign, reign, and sovereign are the five
in which the sound of ai is said to be spelled eign. This
would shew that these words were pronounced both ways, in
accordance with Jones's custom of giving both ways of
pronouncing. In reply to the question, when is the soimd of
e written eigh ? he says, " see ai — eigh ; where you have all
such," so that these words had also both pronunciations.
Jones says the soimd of e (e) is written ei in 80 words atheist,^
atheism^ conceit, conceive, counterfeit, deceit, deceive, deity}
disseise, disseisin, either, forfeit, heifer, heinous, heir, inveigle,
leisure, Marseilles, *neigh, *7ieighbour, neither, jjerceive, re-
ceive, receipt, seise, seisin, seive, surfeit, tei)'ce, their. Those
marked with * are in a previous list giving the sound of ai,
shewing again that the sounds of ai, e, if different, were at
least frequently confused. He also says that Leicester was
pronoimced Lester, and gives a list of 32 proper names as
Anglesey, Awbrey, etc., in which eg final had the sound of
e (e), and of 39 other words with eg final having the same
sound (e), some of which are words in which eigh was said to
have the sound of ai, and others are words to which Price
gave the sound of (i) ; they are abbey, alley, atturney, barley,
hrey, causey, chimney, cockney, coney, convey, cumfrey, grey,
hackney, hey-dey ! honey, journey, invey, key, kidney, lackey,
lamprey, medley, money, monkey, obey, jmrley, parsley, prey,
pulley, purvey, sey, survey, talley, tansey, they, trey, turkey,
valley, whey. In answer to the question when is the sound
of ee (ii) written ei ? He replies, sternly, " Xever." And
adds, " Note then that it is ie not ei, which often sounds ee ;
as in field, siege, etc." "We may therefore conclude that d,
ey were always (ee) and never (ii) ; although ai, being
generally (a)i) or (ei) was sometimes (ee).
1 These must be meant to include " This diphthong ei is parted in atheist,
erroneous pronunciations. Price says : atheism, deitie, polytheism.
Chap. III. § 3. EI, AI — XVIII TH CENTURY. 129
EI, AI — xviii TH Century.
Ei, ai seem to have remained at (ee) during most of the
XVIII th century ; at least ai was fixed in that sound and has
come down to us with the slight alteration into {ee), altliough,
in the south of England, {ee\) is more commonly heard.
1704. The Expert Orthographist says that " ai, ci, ay,
ey are much the same sound, in many words, as 'pail, pay,
eight, theyi" but gives a list of 11 words in which " the sound
of e is lengthened by ei," that is, in which ei is pronounced
(ii) contrary to the express "never" of Dr. Jones; they are
conceit s. and v., conceive, deceit, deceive, either, inveigle, re-
ceipt, receive, weild now wield. It is curious that while he
gites (ii) to conceit spelled thus, he admits (ee), or rather,
" the sound of ai," as the sound of ei in " con, de, re, ceipt
or ceive, heir, leisure, neither} rein, reign, their, vein, height,
inveigh, neighbour, iveight." He did not really distinguish ai
from a long (ee) as may be seen under A, p. 74.
1766. Buchanan writes (fajin) feign, (oobec) obey, (slee) sleigh,
(gree) grey, (leez"Jor) leisui'e, (nee "bar) neighbour, (mvee*) inveigh,
(parA^ee") purvey: — (persiiv) perceive, (diisiiv) deceive, (siiz) seize,
(mvii'g'l) inveigle ; (setar'm) attorney, (kon*tr«) countrey, (seb?)
alley, (kAA/sji) causey causeway, (tsen'sj) tanscy, (foj"f<t) forfeit.
Also (reen) rain, (pee) pay, (aegeenst*) against, (ree'sm) raisin,
(ween'skot) waiascot, (bseaer'gm) bargain, (tshcejEm'bnlm) chamber-
lain, (kar'tm) curtain, (trsevj'l) travail.
Except then in very few words the usages are those of the
present day.
1768. Feajstklin has: (steens) stains, (reens) rains, (fecr) fair,
(asarteen) ascertain, (ateen) attain, (ansarteen) uncertain.
Also (dber, dheer, dhaer), their, (dhee) they ; (oidhcr) either,
and (fATcnarz) foreigners.
1780. Sheridan in his remarks on the Irish pronunciation (diseet',
riseev) deceit, receive, which belongs to the xvnth ccnturj-, notes
that "the Irish in attempting to pronoiince like the English," and
to convert their ei, ey into (ii), often overstrained the rule, and said
(prii, kAmdi-) prey, convey ; this was simply an error of the same
kind as that noticed above, p. 92.
Hence in the xvith century we may assume ei, ai, to be
(ei eei, ai aai) ; in the xvii th (ci eei ee, sei ee) and in
the xvmth (ee ii oi, ee). But in the xviith century
both ei, ai were apt to be confused with one another
and with long e under the common sound of (ee). Also
1 Yet he writes (iidlrer). This re- soii,doyou say (niidh-er) or (naidh-er)?"
minds us of the question and answer " (IS^eedh-er), sir."
\vraisemblable if not vrai), " Dr. John-
9
130 OI — WITH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
even in the xvi th century a large section of people
pronounced (ai) as (ee), but tliis, though adopted by
Hart, was thought effeminate by Sir T. Smith and Dr.
Gill. It however allowed Shakspere to pun on reasons
and raisi7is and on hc7'e, heir (supra, p. 80 note).
01 — XVI TH Century.
1.530. Paisgeatf, says: "Oi in the frenchc tongc hath .ii. diucrse
souiidcs, for somctjTne it is souwck-d lyko as wc sounde oy in these
words, a bot/e, a J'roi/se, coye, and suche lykc, and somtyiiie they
sound the i of oy almost Hkc an a."
1.545. MEifiRET says: "En moins, royal, loyal, nous oyons eui-
dcmmcnt en la prolation la cHphthougue commenccr par o & finir
par i. Au contraire en moy, toy, soy, nous oyons la fin d^ la
diphthonp^ue, non seulemcnt en e, mais encore, en 6 ouuert, qui est
moien cntre a & e clos, & par consequence bien estran{?e de la pro-
nonciation de I'i, ou y gi-ec. Nous escrirons doncq' lo^, roi et
loyal, royal." And 1550, in his Grammar he says that " ao regard
de I'o ouuErt il nc fEt point de diphthonge preQedant I'a, pas qe
j'aye decouuErt ; ne parelxement au^q I'e clos : uie's ioint a 1'e
ouuert il Est fort frc(iuEnt En la pronon(^ia(jion FranqoEze, qoE qe la
plume n'En neyt jaraEsiEt conte, vzant qelqefoEs (come j'cy ja dit)
de la diplithonge, oy, es aocuns dEs vocables : come, moy, toy, soy,
loy, foy : pour moE, toE, soe, Ioe, foE, qclqcfoEs aosi pour fEr' Encor
pis, il' luy out ajoutd atqc s, ; come, cognoistre pour conoEtre. E
non contans de (jete lourdcric, qazi come tumbans de fienr' En cjhao'
mal, il' nous ont introduit oient pour oe', e' tierses pErsones plurieres
du preterit impErfEt : ecriuans estoyewt, disoient, venoyent, pour
etoE't, (bzoE't, vcnoE't."
It was this broad (e) which Palsgrave apparently con-
founded with (a), and indeed we are told that in Parisian pro-
nunciation it was already sometimes (a).^ Even now the oi is
' Meigret's analysis of the French mant le son o, prononcent seulement
"diphthong ai = (oe) is continued hy ai : ainsi les Nonnands ecrivcnt et pro-
Pelletier, who ■writes (Livct, p. 174) noncent fai, pour foi, et le peuple
* FrancjoEs, disoEt, connoEtra,' hut parisien dit parlet, ullet, venet pour
' point, vo)-Ek.' Ramus (ih. 206) parloit, alloit, venoit ; les imitateurs de
writes 'moE, Ioe' for nioi, loi. Beza de 1' italien prononcent de nieme
(ih. 522) is fidler and says : " cette Angles, Frances, Ecosses pour Anglois,
dipthongue fait entendre u la fois, mais Fran<;ois, Ecossois. — Une faute tres-
rapidenient, le son de I'o et de 1' j, grandc des Parisiens c'est de prononcer
quand elle est suivie de «, comnie loin, voirre (ou verre), foirre palea, trois,
besoin, tesinoin, mots que quclquesims comme roarre, foarre, troas ou meme
terminent, a tort, par un g. — Non suiWe tras." This last passage may be com-
de n, la diphthonguc oi prend une pro- pared with Gill's denunciation of the
nonciation voisine de cellc de la trip- Mopscys, p. 90. The two passages
thongue oni ou de la diphthongue ai shew how careful we should be not to
ou e nuvert ; il a le son oai dans loi, stigmatize a pronunciation as faulty,
moi, foi qu'on trouve souvcnt ecrit, a when it differs fi-om what we hold best,
tort, avec un y : quelques-uns, suppri- as the faults of one century become the
Chap. III. § 3. OI — XVI TH CENTURY. 131
acknowledged to be (oe) or (ue) by eminent Frencli orthoepists,
though it is generally admitted to be (ua, ua). After a con-
sonant the real effect of oi, at present, is generally to labialise
that consonant and subjoin (a, a), as roi, hi (rwa, bra), where
the ordinary Englishman is apt to hear (rwAA, Iwaa), and in
the cry vire h vol, he often falls into (viiv la taa). I have
elsewhere given my reasons for supposing that the original
diphthong from which the modern English (oi) descended,
was (ui).^ In the French language, the intention of insert-
ing 0 before a Latin e, as in roi, hi from rex, lex seems to
have been to indicate a thickening or labialisation of the pre-
ceding consonant, as oj^posed to the thinning or palatisation,
which would have been naturally occasioned by the following
palatal vowel. Its use was much the same as the inserted
11 after g in French and Spanish before i, to prevent the
palatisation of (g) into (zh) or (x), but whereas in the latter
case, as in the use of gli under similar circumstances in Italian,
the (g) was generally, not always, kept pure, in the former
case the labial effect became finally constant.
In Palsgrave's time the English oi must probably be as-
sumed as (oi) or (oe), the latter being a diphthong still found
in Welsh ocdd (oedh). The stress was, as usual, on the first
element, and the apparent stress on the second element in
modern French is due to the real absorj)tion of the first
element by the labialized consonant.
1547. Salesbury recognizes the diphthong oy solely by
transcribing ioynt into Uioynt, meaning (dzhoint).
1568. SiE T. Smith says : " 01 per o hreuem (o) & i (i). Diph-
thongxis Oi, vt Gallis frequentissima, ita nobis est rarissima : habemus
tamen & banc sonum (Coit) iacere discum, (boi) puer, (toi) hidi-
cnim, (toil, turmoil) laborare, (foil) bractea, (soil) solum, (koil)
verberare, (broil) assare in craticula, & (point) quae vox mucronewj,
et indice mo«strare, et ligulam nobis notat, & (koi) quibus incptum
et a familiaritate alienum significavimus. In his, propter breuitatem
received usages of another. Beza's Spanish tie were mutations of the Latin
reprobation of the Parisian oa for oai, o, p. 138, note. It is worth noticing
that is, oi, explains the last words of in reference to Meigret's oti, considered
Palsgrave, but his supposition that the as o clo^, that Beza proceeds to say :
Norman fay resulted, like the usual " cette diphthongue ou a un son propre
French «t in the words cited, from the qui tient de Yo et de Yu. II faut se
rejection of the prefixed o, does not garder de prononcer comme a Lyon ou
seem historically correct, as this ortho- pour o (comme nous pour nos), et
graphy, or feij, is very old in Norman comme dans le Dauphine et la Savoie
French. We shall have to consider o pour ou : tels cop pour coup, oi pour
this point in Chap.-V, § 1, No. 3, where oui etc."
the Norman f? and French o« = (ei, ue) ^ Transactions of the Philological
will be considered as mutations of the Society, 1867, Part I, On the Ziiph-
Latin e, precisely as the French eu and thonff OY, p. 59, bottom.
132 Ol XVI Til CENTURY. CuAP. III. § 3.
8oni, et quia brcuis o non miiltuw ab u differt, et propterca fuit ;i
Gra^cis dicta o fxiKpov. Potint ' fortassc a (luibusdnm iudicari hajc
melius posse per li deseiibL Videinus et veteies voltis & vostris per
0 scripsisse, c^ua^ posteriores per vultis & vestris scripsenint. Cert^
soni sa?pissim^ variartt. At ajquum est script uram sonos scqui vt
pioturam coipus, teste nturque scriptura; souum a?tatis, vt aula?a
furaias vestiam. w Diphthungus improprie Graca Apud nos in-
cognita est. Scoti tamen quaj nos per oi scribimus per w pronun-
ciant, \xs. vt i audiatur."
And in bis Greek pronunciation be says : " oi. Eeferimus nos
cum pucrum a hoy cbcimus, & cum ludicrum a toy, & delicatiorem
hominem vocant Borei nostrates 7iyse & coy, frequentatur ba^c diph-
thongus a Gallis plmimum, quonim lingua cum elegantianim
etudiosis apud nostros vsqueadco placeat, mii'or ab bis qui bunc
sonum tarn contewptim asperauntur non invrbanissimam iudicari.
Hi cum volunt me, te, taciturn, Jidem dieere moy, toy, coy, foy dicunt :
cumque Xomaani Scytbica Danorum goHs partem occupaiint GalHa?,
& quod in GrKcia Turei, iam in Gallia feceruwt, \\ liugiuim Galli-
cam vna discerc?«t, & penierse commutarent nunquam tamen poterawt
eflfugere !N^onnani, quin si nunc quisqua?/« eoram nisticior pro moy,
toy, coy, foy, quod non rarb euenit, my, ty, ky, fy, dicat, ini-
deatur a ca^teiis Gallis, & non vi'bane ac civilitcr, sed inscite ac
rustic e loqui cxistimetur."
"We have therefore evidence that Sir T. Smith heard little
if any difi'crence between (oi, ui), as he doubted which would
be the best orthography- In the next chapter further reasons
will be given for supposing (ui) to have been the older form.
1569. Hart's views of diphthongs are rather peculiar,
o\N^ng to his considering (j, w) as the pure vowels (i, u)
forming a diphthong Avith the following vowel, so that to
understand his account of oi it will be convenient to cite his
description of diphthongs at length. He says :
" Ifow will I shew you examples of the Dipbtbongs made of two
short vowels, and of others of one short and of another long. And
then of triphthongs. With short vowels, as thus, (ui ml rcid bei
ionder ueb, Hueer dhe nat uas uelneer taakn bei dhe iuq nomid)
which is written for [we wyll ride by yonder well where the "VYat
was wel neare taken by the yong hound] which doe come very
often in our speach. Of diphthongs whereof one vowell is short,
and the other long as (iuu ueer uaakiq in dbe fouurtb touur, hueer
az dhe buee did pouur uaater upon- dhe nucet ilouur) which I
write for [you were waking in the fowerth tower, when as the
boye did poure water v])pon the wheate flower] which also doe
come verie often. And for triiibthongs as (bi ueiz ov dlie Huciz
buei) for, [be wise of the hoyes bowy]. And (nark dhe kat duuth
mieu HueUz iuu milk dlxe ieu) for [hark the Cat doth mewe, whiles
> Evidently there is a niispuiictuation here, it should be " o fjuKphv, poterit."
Chap. III. § 3. OI — XVII TH CENTURY. 133
you milke the yowc]. And a Basin and (eaur), for, [cawcr], and
certaino others as will be seene hereafter. And for tlii-ce vowels
comming togither, and making two sillables as in example (dlie
^yy,er sceth syy,cr it is pyy,er) for [the vewer sayth sure it is
pure]" where, as will be explained hereafter. Hart writes (iu) for
(yy), " and as in these wordes (dhis bci,er iz Hei,er ov pou,er dhen
dhe dei,er bci niz fei,er). For [this bier is higher of power, than
the dier by his fire J."
He seems therefore to write (buee, Hueiz, buel) for bo>/,
hoy's, buoy, though the precise value of the two last words
is not very clear, and may be (wheiz hivei). Nautical men
constantly call buoy (buui), and (bui, boi) are not uncommon
Ijrovincial forms of boy. Compare the Bavarian dialectic
(bua) for (buu'be) buho, which leads to the notion that boy is
a form of booby, a word of very doubtful origin. Although
Hart thus confirms Smith's (ui) in one word, he difiers from
him in writing (vois'es).
1580. BuLLOKAR, as we have seen, distinguishes boy, buoy
as (boi, buui), and he gives no examples of oy as (ui, uui).
1621. Gill has the varieties (oi, ui, uui), as in the words : soil
(soil, suuil), boil (boil, buuil), sjjoil (spoil, spuuil), toil (toil,
tuuil),yo/«^ (dzhuuint), disappoint (disappuuint), buoy (buui),
rejoice (redzhois), voice (vois), o// (oil). In these the double
tendency is clear, and as the (ui) sounds must have been the
more ancient, they were no doubt in existence, though dis-
regarded, when older orthoepists wrote. Thus Salesbury's
(dzhoint) is really more modern than Gill's (dzhuuint).
1633. Butler says "01 in hoy we sound [as the French do]
(woe), for whereas they write hois, soit, droict they say (bwoes,
swoet, drwoet)."^
01 — XVII TH Century.
1653. W^Lis says : " In oi . . . vel oy . . . praeponitur aliquando
6 apertum (ut in Anglonim hoy puer, toys nugae ....), ahquando
0 obseurum, (nt in Anglorum hoil coqueo, tdil labor, dil oleum . . .),
quanquam non negem etiam horum nonnulla a quibusdam per o
apertum pronunciari."
That is he said (bAi, tAi, boil, toil, oil) but admitted the
pronunciation (bAil, tAil, Ail). It will be seen that Wallis is
the first writer who acknowledges the vowel (a) and the
1 The (w) in the two -words is merely that the sounds were (AMoo-ee-), the
a sound developed by Butler himself. syllables being lengthened out, yet I
Thus, when I was riearuig Alloa in the could not divest myself of the feeling,
steamer, the name of the place was that (AMoo'wee-) was really said, bo
called out in a slow measured tone by strongly was the sound of (w) developed
the boatman, and although I knew in the glide from oo to (ee).
134 01 — XVII TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
diphthon<> (oi). It is quite in confonuity with this that he
ehauges Gill's (buuil, tuuil) into (boil, toil), and his further
pronunciation (oil) should imply that (uuil) as well as (oil)
was prevalent in Gill's time.
1G68. "NViLKiNS writes (bA/) for hoy.
1668. PiucE says :
" Oi never cuds a word, but, oy, as hoy^ cloy^ " Oy sounds
broader than, oi, as moyst, joiner, Joint, boisterous, cloy, cloysters,
emhroyder, emroides [hemori'hoids], employ, exploit, Joyl, moyst,
noise, noysom, oyl, ointment, poise, quoif [coif], voidy
It is possible that Price's broader oy may be (Ai) and the
other (oi), which would give (dzhoint, boi'storos, eksploif,
noiz, oint'ment, poiz, koif, void,) of which some are confirmed
by subsequent writers.
1685. Cooper generally gives oi as (aI), " o in loss, lost,
i procpositus ... semper Greece, ut ttoXXoI," but he admits {id)
in boil, moil, point, jwison, only, to which he says " oy in
Gallico buoy supporto, quod nos scriberemus bnoi/" is equiva-
lent, it is therefore to be presumed that he said (bw/d). Tlie
most curious point is his remark that " boy puer dissyllabum
est, scilicet (b^^Ai)," which is not confirmed by others. He
likewise admits oi to be (oi) in in-join, joint, jointure, broil,
ointment, see supra, p. 117, and also, " ut / diphthongus," in
anoint, moil, toil, point.
1701. JoNT.s says that the sound of ooi was always written oi,
"in. the middle of words or before a consonant, as boil, coil, join,
&c.," which were therefore occasionally called (buuil, kuuil,
dzhuuin), as in times past, and that the sound of i (ai) is wiitten
oi, " when it may be soimded oi or ooi (oi, uui) in the beginning or
middle of words ; as in boil, broil, coil, foil, foist, froise, yroin, hoise,
join, loiti, moil, oilet, poise, poison, soil, spoil, tortois, which some
sound as with an ?"," i.e. as (boil, broil, koil, foil) etc. ; and that
(oi) is vtrittcn oy *' when it may be sounded oy in the end of words,
or before a vowel ; Chandois, decoy, &c. — loyal, royal, voyage ; some-
times abusively sounded as with an V," i.e. (Shajn'dois, dekoi*,
loi-ael, roi'fcl, voi'/dgh).^
1688. MiEGE says nothing of the pronunciation of the
English oi, but for the French oi he lays down rules some-
what different from those now followed, saying :
" The diphthong oi is pronounced oai (oe) as foi, loi, foire, toile.
Except in some Cases, wherein 'tis pronounced ai (e). And 1. In
such Tenses of Verbs as these ; viz. J'aimois, tu aimois, il aimoit,
J''aimerois, tu aimerois, il aimeroit. 2. In those Verbs whose In-
finitive ends in oUre ; as conoitre, paroitre. To which add the Verb
^ Compare tlie sailor's spelling wig is i, g = (oi, dzh), accordincj to the
for (weidzh), i.e. voyage, where ig, that alphabetic names of the letters.
Chap. III. {3- 01 — XVIII THCENTURY. UI 135
croire, and this tonse of the Yerb Eire, Je sois, tu sot's, il soit. 3. In
these National Xames, Anglois, Frangois, Ecossois, Irlandois, JIol-
landois, Milanois, Polonois ; with all their feniinines in oise, as
A}igloise, Frangoise, &c. 4. In these "Words, droit, (Adj.) endroit,
etroit, etroitement, foihle, froid, and the Derivations of the two last.
But before n, the i keeps its proper Sound ; as foin, loin, joindre,
point. Oignon is pronounced, and begins to be spelt ognon. Oie is
a Triphthong, and is pronounced ai in such Tenses of Yerbs as
these are, ih aiinoient, ils aimeroient, ils soient, ■\vhcre the n is left
unpronounced. But it is no Triphthong, where it ends a Word,
the last e making a distinct Syllable of it self, though almost mute.
As in these Words foie, joie, anchoie, where oi is pronounced oai ;
monoie, yvroie, where it is sounded a/."
01 — XVIII TH Century.
1704. The Expert Orthographist admits (oi, Ai) in choice,
exploit, froiae, noise, jwise, quoif, quoit, rejoice, voice, raid, but
says that " in the middle of mod other words oi sounds / long
(ai), as anoint, boil, broil, coin, loin, moil, toil, poison, p)oint." Of
these (bail, lain, paiz'n, paint) are still well-known vulgarisms.
1796. Buchanan admits (Ai, oi) only, to the exclusion of
(ui, ai).
1768. Franklin •writes (distrAaid) destroyed, but unfor-
tunately gives no other word in oi.
We may conclude then that in the xvi th century (oi, ui,
uui) all prevailed, (oi) being most in favour ; in the
xvii th century, most words had (oi, Ai) and a few words
(ui, ai) ; in the beginning of the xviii th century (oi,
Ai, ai) were acknowledged, but at the latter end of that
century only (oi, aI) were admitted by orthoepists.
TJI — xvi, XVII, xviii TH Centuries.
The combination td belongs to the xvii th and later cen-
turies, except perhaps in one or two words, in which French
spelling had an influence, as the following comparison of the
orthography of the Promptorium 1440, Palsgrave 1530,
Levins 1570, and Price 1668 will shew.
lYice. Levim. Palsgrave. Promptorinm.
I. build beald beldyng beeldynge
circuit circuite
conduit condit ( condyte
I conduyte
( conduycte
guild - f gyyWe
( gylde
guilt giltie gylte gylty
136
II.
Pn'ee.
buy
guide
guile
guise
III. bruise
fruit
juice
suit
11.
EU, AU, OU.
Chap. III. k 3
l.cvint.
Pahgrave.
Tromptorium.
bye
bye
byyu
gyde
jgyde
I guyde
gyde
gyle
gyle
gyle
gyse
j gyse
I guyse
gyse
( broose
( brosyng
brosvn
frute
frute
frute
juce
juse
iuce
iowce
sute
sute
Hence vre must consider the combination as an inorganic i or
u and it must follow the laws of those letters. In the above
table the first group had short ?'/ the second long i, and the
third the u or oo of the period.
EU, AU, OU.
The forms ew, aw, oiv are identical in signification with eu,
au on, and need not be separately considered.
The modern sounds of eu are (iu) or (ju, juu), and occa-
sionally {oo), of au (aa), and of ou (au) or (a), occasionally
(oou, uu). But the diphthongal sound (qu) runs through all
the varieties (ou, au, au, ahu, aeu, eu, au), and Franklin gives
(au), while even (ou) may be occasionally heard, and, owing
to the orthography, this analysis is very commonly accepted.
The Germans hear the diphthong always as their au = (au).
The pronunciation (eu), a diphthong acknowledged in the
Italian Europa = (euroo'pa), is heard in America for ou as
(deun teun) for do?cn toicn, and is said to be a common cock-
neyism, although the cockney sound is, as Mr. M. Bell says,
more probably (ecu) as (doeun toeun).^ Many words now
spelled AAitli u were written with cw in the xvi th century.
As these, and some others still spelled with ew, were pro-
^ Dr. Gill shimbles over bia'Id, giving
the three sounds (boild, b(ld, bjTld).
The more ancient sound must have
been (bceld) or (beild) whence (b/ld)
descends easily. Mr. Meh-ille Bell
says that built is often pronounced
(b<?lt) in Scotland, a variety of (bylt).
2 In Mrs. Barney "Williams's Yankee
song " Bobbing around," which was so
popular a few years ago, I seemed to
hear (craeae^und-) or (tjrEE.und-), the first
element being lengthened and some-
what na.salized. The Rev. Mr. D'Orsey
informed me that he found the use of
(eu) for (au) very common among
Londoners, even of education, whose
pronimciation he had to correct. In
Xorfolk ou is regularly pronounced
(eu, aeu).
Chap. III. § 3. eU — XVI TH CENTURY. 137
nounced with the long u of that time/ which requires special
consideration, it will be most convenient to postpone their
consideration till afterwards. The sounds attributed to au,
ou in the xvith century were also frequently attached to
simple a, o before / or //, and these will be considered under L.
EU — XVI TH Century.
1530. Palsgrave says : "^r in the frenche tong hath two dyuerse
soundynges, for sometyme they soxmd hym lyke as we do in our
tonge, in these wordes a dewe, a shi-ewe, a fewc," this is the sound
which will he considered here, "and somtyme hke as we do in
these wordes, trewe, glewe, rewe, a mewe,''^ which will he considered
under TJ. " The soundyng of ev, whiche is most general in the
frenche tong, is suche as I haue shewed hy example in these
wordes, a dewe, a shrewe, a fewe, that is to saye, lyke as the
Itahans sound ev, or they with vs, that pronounce the latine tonge
aiyght, as evrevx, irevx, liev, diev."
The reference to Italian completely establishes the sound,
which is as singular and curious in French as in English.
According to Meigret, however, the sound was (ey), for he says :
" Cst e clos fEt Encores vn' aotre diphthong' auEc u, come En eur,
peu, veu, eureus. FinableniEnt il fEt vne tiiphthowge se joxawt a
9Elle de ao ; come En veao, heao, moreao. Dont je m' eniErvElie de
^eus qui premiers ont termine ^ete triphthong' En u : vu qe la pro-
non^iagion ne ticnt rien de I'une memes de 1' ou clos qi a qelq'
affinite auEq I'u."^
^ "We find in Le^-ins 1570, detve is indistinct, at least as cited, but
debituni, cleive, gleice, reive, spewe, Eanius (ib. p. 189) says : " La sixiesme
blewe, treive, issew, reshew, reueneiv, voyelle cest ung son que nous escripvons
valeiv [but vertiie altbougb inserted par deux voyelles, e et r, conime en ces
under "E ante W,"] eiideiv, continew, mois peur, meur, seter," and be proposes
pursetc, sleuce, trewce, heicge, rewle, a simple sign for it. Beza (ib. 521) as
trewth [but vntnith altbougb under analysed by Livet says : " Dans cette
the beading ci^M]. Words still written dipbtbongue eu ou n'entend ni Ye ni
■witb eiv, and pronounced tben as long Vu, mais un son qui tient de I'un et de
M according to Sir T. Smith 1568, are I'autre : bcitf, neuf, peu paucum, seur
snexo, slexo, new, hrew, blew. sohor, veu votvm, et im grand nombre
2 See the long extract from Meigret d' autres que les Picards prononcent
concerning ao, aou, on p. 141-2 below. souvent m simple, disant Bin, ju pour
G. des Autels objects strongly to I>ieu,jeii. Les Francjais imitent quel-
Meigret's analysis (ey) of the French quefo'is les Picards, en ce qu' ils pro-
eu. Speaking ot'Meigret's assertion that noncent par u simple les mots seur
both sounds were heard in a diphthong, seclrcs et ses derive's .... meur matv-
he asks (Livot, p. 130) : " Je luy de- kus ... et en general tons les noms en
mande si la dipbtbongue frau9oise eu cure long [now -ure'] derives des verbes
en ces mots jeu et Jeu garde le son .... ; il en est de meme dans les parti-
entier de I'm P" " II ne faut done pas cipes passes passifs, masculins ou f^mi-
que les voyelles gardent aux diph- nins, termines en eu, eue [now -u, -ue']
thougues leur son propre et entier, comme beu, bem....; c'cst 3, tort qu'
mais bien qu'elles servent toutes deux, a Chartres et a Orleans on prononce,
soit en leiu- son propre on en un autre avec une dierese, eii, et, d' autre part,
voisin, a faute de lettres plus idoines c^n' on Mi rimuT, heur ^i dur, engraveure
(convenables)." PeUetier (ib. p. 138) et fgure^ heure et nature, faute qu'on
138 EU — XVI TH CENTURY. Cuap. III. § 3.
But Englishmen hoard this (^y) as (eu), as appears from
Hart, who iu his French Lord's Prayer, gives (sieuz, seuz)
for cienx, ceiix. As to the combination e<(H, wliich Meigret
says was (^ao), we have tlie word bcduty, written heicte,
beaiffye in the Promptorium, beantie in Palsgrave, and beictye
in Levins. ITart gives (beau"t/f/). Gill pronounces Tbeu'ti)
and Butler (beau't/) whicli may mean (ber/rrti), though
some doubt attaches to the last pronunciation.^
1547. Salesbury does not notice the combination eu, and
gives no English word in which it occurs.
1.5G8. SiuTU says : " Et Eu diphlhongum Graecam habent Angjli,
sed rarius, quae tamen apud Gallos est Irequens : (feu) pauci, (deu)
ros, (meu) vox catorum, (sheu) monstrare, (streu) spargere." And
in his Greek pronunciation he adds, " ev, vt eu, euye, euge. Angli
pauci few, (pev, ros. deiv, Bev. rjv sonamus apertius, vt illud Galli-
cum beati, quod nndti AngU beu : sonum etiam felium quidam 7new,
alii mean, quasi /X€V, firjv cxprimunt."
Observe that mew for hawks had the sound of long u.
1569. Hart, as shewn by the citation on p. 132, distin-
guishes mew (mieu), ewe (jeu), you (juu).
1580. BuLLoKAR recognized the diphthong (eu) distinctly
by writing the word licw thus : he,u, the comma, which he
wrote vmder the ii, meaning that it had the sound of (u).
In his list of synonymous signs he gives e,v e,u ew (where
the comma should be subscribed to the v, u) as identical, and
I find the word fiewed meaning (sheu'ed).
retrouve en Guyenne." These last (ib. p. 138) : " Ricn de plus vagiie, de
examples point to a remnant of an (ey) plus indetermine, que la prononciation
diphthon<^, which is a real natural diph- de, u, eu, o. ou au moycn age et encore
thong, and was distinctly pronounced au xv^ siecle. Nous ne pouvons mieux
to nic every morning at Norwich by a faire, au lieu de donner d' iunombrables
vender of lish monotoning under my exemples de cette confusion, que de
windows, (n^y bloo'tizs iii) — new renvoyer au Traitii de Versijication
bloaters here ! The real mutations of franqoise de M. Quicherat pp. 3.54-359.
the Latin o, besides its natural change Cf. Observations etc. de Menage, t. i,
into (uu), were however two, closely re- p. 291, 32-1, 481. Glossaire pieard par
lated, first (oe) falling into (ue), and I'abbe Corblet, p. 131. Sur la coufii-
secondly (eo) falling into (eu). The sion de eu et ou en particulier, Cf.
form (ue) appears in very early French, Quicherat, ouv. cit. p 364-365."
where it was probably soon discon- ' Kamus (Livet p. 20") makes the
tinned, since (ue) was also used as a combination eau a diphthong, the first
mutation of Latin e, but it remains the element being his mute e and the
regular Spanish mutation. The second second his simple vowel au. The dif-
form (eo, eu) gradually prevailed in ference of Meigret' s sound and his may
French, and became replaced by (oe) have been very slight (eao, voo), but
apparently just about the time that the latter prevailed. Beza (ib. p. 523)
Meigret wrote, so that he retained an analyses in the same way as Ramus,
old (m) or («y) pronunciation (it is not These analyses at least shew the ex-
quite clear which) and his more youth- istence of an old e sound at the com-
iul opponents ignored the old soimd mencement, and hence account for the
altogether. The subject requires much English translation of the combination
careltil investigation. Livet observes into the familiar diphthong (eu).
Chap. III. § 3. EU — XVII TH CENTURY. 139
1621. Gill, in his anxiety to give prominence to the first
element, lengthens it, thus : " E. sscpius praecedit u, vt, in
(eeu) EAWE ovicula, (feeu) fewe pauci, (seeu'er) se-\\ek
dajDifer."
1633. Butler distinctly recognizes (eu) in detv, ewe, few,
hew, shew, rew, sew, strew, shew, shrew, pewter, see under U.
It will be seen in the next chapter that Chaucer distin-
guished the two sounds of en by an etymological rule, the
sound (eu) being reserved for those which were not of French
origin. This distinction was lost during the xvth century,
so that in the xvi th no general rule can be given, but each
word must rest on its own independent authority. For lists
of such words see Chapter lY, § 2, under EU.
EU — XVII TH Century.
1653. "Waxlis, says: '■^ JEu, ew, eau sonantur per e clarum et w,
(eu). TJt in neuter neutralis, few pauci, beauty pulchiitudo. Q,ui-
dani tamen paulo aciitius effeiimt acsi scriberenter, niewter, fieio,
liewty, vel niwter, fiw, hiwty ; pnesertim in vocibus new novus, hiew
sciebam, snew ningebat. At prior pronunciatio rectior est."
That is AYallis had heard some persons say (nieu'ter, fieu,
bieu't/) although many, perhaps most, at that time said dis-
tinctly (niu'ter, fiu, biu't/) and he found this pronunciation
particularly prevalent in new, which in the next century
Franklin called (nuu) and which is still frequently so called.^
The sound (eu) was undoubtedly beginning to be -unfrequent.
The sound (iu) however cropped up chiefly in those words
previousl}' pronounced as long u.
1668. WiLKixs acknowledges (eu) in hew, and Price in
the same year allows (eu), that is, says ^^ ew keeps its sound"
in brewess, few, lewd, ewe, feud, neuter, 2^leHrisie, but gives
(iu), that is, says " ew hath now obtained the sound of iw" in
hleic, hreio, chew, creio, dreic, embreio, eschew, hew, gewgaws,
knew, seicer,^ slew, stew, steward, vinew,^ monsieur, adieu, lieu.
1685. Cooper hears only (m), the same sound as long n.
The diphthong is in America more frequently (m) than (iu),
and even (eu) remains there in some parts.
1701. Jones seems stiU to have a lingering feeling of the
difference between (eu) and (iu). He asks when may the
sound of eu be written eu ? and answers : " In the beginning
1 In 1849 the present -writer pub- newsvender, "we always call it (nuuz)."
lished a newspaper called the Phonetic ^ Probably in the sense of a waiter
iVews, printed phonetically, and there- at table,
fore bearing the title (Fohet-ik Xiuz). » Probably, venue.
" Why do you -nTite (niu2) P" asked a
140 EU — XVII TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
of all words, except rw, ever, Eicin,'* and "in all foreif^n words
from the Lutine, Greek ttc as adit'ii, ben/, cavallicur, ])('Uca1ion,
Deutc)'otto»>i/, fetonvt, yculs, (jramleur, lieu, Mritse, Monsieur,
neuter, pardieu, p/etiris//, purlieu, Reuben, rheubarb, rheum,
T/i('U(hts, Zeurin 8fc except view." And he allows the same
sound to be written ew " in all Enf^lish words as ere wet, dew,
pewter Sic." But he never asks, when may the sound of eu
be written u ? On the other hand he does ask when may
the sound of w be written eu or etc ? And he answers, the
first " when it may be sounded eu in foraign words, as neuter
&.C," referring to the list just given, and thus clearly dis-
tinguishing the two sounds (eu) and (iu) ; and the second
" when it may be sounded ew in English words, that are
purelj'^ such, as in askew, crewel, dewberries, eschew, ewer, geic-
(jaws, Hewct, jewel, nephew, pewet, sinew, rinew, and in bleu;
chew, clew, crew, Creic, drew, few, fleic, Grew, grew, Jew, knew,
mete, new, scretc, shew, skeic, slew, spew, steu; steers, strew, threw."
Jones says that the sound of o and on, evidently meaning
(oo, oovl), is written ew when it may be sounded ew as in chew,
eschew, sheic, shrew, shrewd, Shrewsbury/, pronounced " eho,
shrode, Shrosburt/ &c." (Shoo, Shrooz'bert) are the only
sounds here remaining. But that (shroo) must have been
known in Shakspere's time appears from the last couplet of
Taming of the Shrew, fo. 1623, the preceding 14 lines being
in rhyming couplets :
Horten. Xow goe thy wayes, thou hast tam'd a curst Shrow.
Luc. Tis a wonder, by your leaue, she wil be tam'd so.
Ewe has still a provincial pronunciation (joo, jaa).
Eau as is seen by the quotation from AVallis, follows the
fortune of eu. Wallis has (beu't/) admitting that some say
(bieu't?"). Miege has (biu't?). Jones says that beau is
" sounded beu in the beginning of all words," referring to
e-ea, which shews that he considers ea in eau to be the digraph
ea, that is, a mere representative of (ce), and satisfactorily
determines his pronunciation. Even the word " Beaw a
name" he writes beu. But he never allows the sound to be
long n, that is, (iu). On the other hand he also says the
sound of long o is written eau " in the sound of beau in the
beginning of all words," which should imply that {hoo'ti) was
heard as well as (beu'ti). He also says that Bourdeaux is
" sounded Boordo" (Buur'doo).
The conclusion seems to be that some speakers still said
(eu) and Jones recognized it as an admissible and theo-
' The following list woxild imply that Dr. Jones did not know much of
etymology.
Chap. III. § 3. EU — XVIIl TH. AU — XVI TH CENTURY. 141
retically the best sound, but that he frequently heard
and admitted without any word of blame, the newer
sound of (iu).
EU — XVIIl TH Century.
1704. The Expert Oethogeaphist says : "it must be a very
critical ear, that can distinguish the soimd of eu in eucharist from the
long u in unitij^ and the eu in rheiiharh from the long u in rumour,
without an apparent and too affected constraint, contrary to the
usual pronunciation observed by the generaUty, which (in this case)
would sound very pedantick."
Here, the confusion of thought and consequent nebulosity
of expression, which makes it diiheult for an ear to dis-
tinguish sounds without a constraint which would sound
pedantick, and which is contrary to the general pronunciation,
is a good example of the darkness in which we have to grope
for our results. It is to be presumed that the writer did not
distinguish eu as (eu) from u as (iu), and found the utterance
of those who still attempted to do so, affected and constrained.
But did he pronounce all his 32 words having ew final, with
(iu), including " sew or did sow with a needle, sewer a drain,
shew or did show" ? This is more than doubtful, and the
distinctions here made between present sow, show, past se^v,
shew, are entirely without corroboration.
1766. Buchanan generally makes eu, ew = long n or (iu),
but writes sewer (shoor), shew (shoo) sew (soo). His ewe,
monsieur, lieutenant are (iu, monsiur*, liuten'mt), chew (tshuu),
beauty (biu'ti), beau, beaux {boo, booz).
1768. Franklin writes (nuu) for new.
The usages of the xviii th century did not therefore sensi-
bly differ from those of the xixth. But to shew how (eu)
still lingers, it is enough to cite the pronunciation (shi^u),
clearly a variety of (sheu), heard from a highly educated
speaker, during the preparation of these pages.
AU — x^'i TH century.
1530, Paxsgeave says : "^t; iu the frenche tonge .shalbc soxmded
lyke as we soimded lyke as we soimde hym in these wordcs in our
tonge, a dawe, a mawe, an hawe. Except where a frenche worde
begynneth with this diphthong av, as in these wordes, avlcun,
dvltre, av, avss'i, avx, and auctevr, and all suche lyke : in whiche
they sounde the a, almost lyke an o, and as for in avner, a and v be
distinct syllables, as shal appere by his Aviittyng in the frewche
vocabular."
Now Meigret says : ** vn' aotr' eu ao, come aotant, aos, loyaos :
142 AU — XVI TII CENTURY. Chap. III. } 3.
jvnir laqi-llo rocritturo Fraii(;oEz' abuze dc la diplitliowgc a\i, qc la
j)n)noiic;ia(,iun lie tuiiuKt point. Car com' aotrol'oKs )(,■ vous ey tlit,
la (liplithowg' Kt de tElle nature q'tlle rc'(iuiert la prola^i'on En vne
uiKinu syllabf dn' dou' voynlk's (ji la v(nn\ny/A-t : come nou' le
fEzuns ctimmuucmKut : e ciusi obsErve rKciitture, En moindre,
pcindre : e' qels nou' pronon^ons 1e' diphthonges oi, E ei, m vne
mEiue syllabc. e poui-ta?jt sont abuzes tons ^eus qi se persuadet qe
deu' voyKllEs conioinctes EnsEmble, caozet xn tiers son, qi ne tient
ne de I'une, ne de I'aotre : come qant vous ecriuez mais, po\ir nuES,
il dizet qc a, e, i, conjoins EnsEmble, foijct la prola^ion de E,
ouvErt : suyuawt Icur rEp;lc donq ie direy qe ayant, aora En sa
pronon^'ia9iuu Eant ; payant, paye, pEant, pEe, je direy le se/wblable
de toutes aotres diphthonges qe vou' pronowgez com' eUcs sont
eciittes, q'Elles doEuet fEr' vn son tiers, aotre qe qeluy ds' deu'
voyeUes cowiointes EnsEmble : e qe conseqEmuiEnt vous eciiuez mal
moiws, cureus, eaje (on dit bien aosi aje, e Et la diphthonge ea,
bien rar' En FrangoEs) vu qe vou' pronongez Ie mE'mes voyElles qi
sont ccrittes, E q'Elles ne Ibijet point la vn tiers son. Voyez dowqes
q'Elle opiniatrete d'abus caoz' vn Erreur inuetere : tant Et diff I'^il' a
I'home la reconoEssange d'une faote pour vne par trop gi-and' eslim'
E prezompsion de sa suffizange cowioint' a vne meconoEssan9e de I'im-
bE^ilite, E imperfec9io?i de notr' EntEndeniEnt : Ao regard d'aou
par ou clos je ne I'ey point decouuErt, q'ao mot aout, qe vous
eciiuez Aoust, etant s, supEi-flue."
This long quotation will sei'\'e to shew that Meigret's
diphthongs must be accepted as such, with the exception
of ou, of which he says " aotrement ne I'oze je noter," and
which was the vowel (u) simply. Hence as Meigret only
hoard (au) in the one word aouf, now (uu), and heard (ao) in
all other words, either the English must have been (ao), or,
if it were (au). Palsgrave misheard the unfamiliar (ao) as the
familiar (au). The latter is d priori more probable and agrees
with all the other indications we possess.^
1 G. des Autels was very vehement p. 133). It is evident then that Mei-
against Mcigret for using the diph- gret used and was familiar with (ao).
thong (aoV "Je luy demande," says Livet (ib. p. 122) remarks: "il est
he according to p. 130 of Livet, "oil certain qu'en Anjou Ton prouonce de
est le son, non eutier, mais demy ou la c/taox, j'ai c/iaod, chevaox, en appuy-
encore moins, de 1'^ en la diphthongue ant sur Va et glissant legerement sur
de sa nouvellc forge ao ?" To the To qui ne s'entend guere plus qu'un e
first objection lie had raised Meigret muct;" but this must be a recent de-
had replied: "si vous n'avez le cerveau velopmeiit, the unstable (ao) becoming
bien trouble d'opionastrete, vous trou- in this case (ao), while in the classical
verez qu'en introduisant la diphthongue French it must have passed through an
ao, je ne fais qu'accorder I'ecriture a (ao) form. That the a was originally
la prouonciation," (ib. p. 122), and to pronounced there can of course be ety-
the above question he answered : " le mologically no doubt, and the change
plus opiniatre sourdaud du monde ne of (ao) to {oo) is precisely similar to
saurait nier qu'il n' oye (entende) en the change of (au) into (aa), which will
aosi (aussi) un a puis un o qui luy est be seen to have taken place in English,
conjoint en une meme syllabe," (ib. In Welsh we find Salesbury's aiv be-
Chap. III. § 3. aU — XVI TH CENTURY. 143
Palsgrave, speaking of French pronunciation, says :
"If m or n tblowe next after a, in a frenchc worde, all in one
syllabic, than a shall be soimdecl Ij-ke this diphthong av, and some-
thyng in the noose, as these wordes dmhre, chumbre, mancUr, amunt,
tant, quant, parld>it, regardant, shall in redyngc and spekynge be
sownded aumler, chaumbre, maunder, arnaunt, taunt, quaunt, jiarlaunt,
regardaunt, sonndyng the a like an, and somethynge in the noose."
Of this there is no trace in Meigret, but the observation is
important as explaining the English pronunciation of words
from the French, and the nasalisation of aim is remarkable
when compared with Jacob Grimm's observation that modern
English au, which = (aa), is pronounced " as a lengthened a,
something in the nose" (wie gedehntes a, ein wenig geniiselt).^
1547. Salesbury has no special article on au, but he says :
^'w English & lo Welsh do not differ in soimd, as wawe, waio
unda, Also w is mute at the end of words in English, as in
the following awe pronounced thus a (aa) terror." Also he
says that "sometimes a has the sound of the diphthong aw (au)
especially when it precedes I or II, as may be more clearly seen in
these words balde, baivld (bauld) calviis, ball, bawl (haul) pila,
WALL, wawl (waul) mums." And he writes "galatint, galawnt
(galaimt)."
■ The word (aa) for (aau) aioe is here singidar, especially as
it is adduced as an instance of the omitted (u). Smith pro-
nounces this word (au) and Gill (aau). Salesbury is also incon-
sistent with himself, for in his \Yelsh pronunciation he says :
" All thoughe the Gcnnaynes vse vv yet in some wordes soimde
they it (to my hearing) as the forther u were a vowel, and the
latter o (sic) consonant, where we Britons sounde both uu wholy
together as one vowell, wythout anye seuerall distinction, but
beynge alwayes eyther the forther or the latter parte of a dyph-
thonge in Englyshe on thys wyse : wtjth aw, and in Welshe as thus
wyth awen^
coming modem o. In Italian o aperto au ne differe pas sensiblement de la
has succeeded frequently to Latin au, voyelle o," to which he adds: "les
and so ou. The question of importance Kormands la prononccnt en faisant en-
here however is, when did the change tendredistiuctementa,o: disantff-o-<rt«<
take place ? The testimony of Pals- pour autant : pcut-etre est-ce la \Taie
grave to (au) and Meigret to (ao), and et ancienne prononciation comrae la
the objections of des Autels and Pelle- vraie orthographe de cctte dipthongue"
tier — who says to Meigret (ib. p. 138) — seem to shew that the change took
"il t' eut autant valu mettre un o place in the first half of the xvith
simple" — and the assertion of Ramus century; that is, that about this time
(ib. p. 186) that it is "le son que nous the simple vowel (oo) prevailed over
escripvous par deux voyeUes a et u, the diphthong (ao) or (au), although
comme en ces mots : aultres, aultel, ou the latter did not absolutely die out.
nous prononcons toutesfois une voyelle * Deutsche Grammatik, vol. 1, 3rd
indivisible," together ^-ith the dictum ed., 1840, p. 394.
of Beza (ib. p. 520) "la diphthongue
144 AU — XVI TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
It would seem impossible after the preceding remark to
suppose ihut fr were mute in aw. Indeed uyth ate seems to
be rather a Welsh phonetic transcription than the usual
orthography, in which, as in the other passage quoted above,
we should expect aicc.
I0G8. SsuTii simply gives "ATI seu av. (Dau) moncdula, (clau)
unguis auium, (rau) cnidus, (nauHt) nihil, (taunt) doctus, (laau)
lex, (man) stomaclius, (sau) sorra, (au) tcn-or, (launter) risus,
(fiiunt)' pugna^•it, (strau) stramcn." iJut in liis Greek pronuncia-
tion lie adds: " au. eu. 771;. Eandem rationem sequuntur, quam in
reUquis. Nam si fuisset apud veteres tanta soni commutatio, pro-
ffctb Grammaticonim diligentia now hoc tarn insignc discrimcn
prtetentum rthcj^uissct. Itac^uc sic avhdco loquimur, \t audio nos-
trates \-nguc/«, claw, & scabere claw." So that his au was cer-
tainly (au).
1569. H.VKT says : "The Dutch" that is the Gennans, " doe vse
also au, ei, & ie, rightly as I do hereafter."
Now the German sounds are, and probably were, (au, ai,
jee) or (ii), but Hart clearly did not refer to this last soimd.
"When then Hart writes (autours, auluaiz, aulso, tshaundzh,
bikaus, radikaul) for authors, ahcays, also, change, because,
radical, he meant (au) to be sounded as in German.
1580. BuLLOKAR distinctly writes ha,u, meaning (nau),
and uses (kaul, kau's/) for caul, causey = causeuay. His
notation aV am ah he explains as = (aul, aum, aun).^ ^This
agrees with the rest.
Up to this time therefore, when Shakspere was 16, the
pronunciation of au seems to have been indisputably (au)
the same as the modern German au. There can be little
doubt that Shakspere in his youthful days must have said
(au), but diiring his lifetime the general pronunciation seems
to have changed. Between Bidlokar's and Gill's books, 41
years elapsed, and although Gill had an old pronunciation,
yet he seems to have followed the times somewhat in this
combination. In determining the pronunciation of Shak-
spere, we must remember that he and Dr. Gill were born in
the same j'ear, 1564, and that Shakspere died, 1616, eight
years after Gill had been made master of St. Paul's school,
and five years before the publication of Gill's book. Hence
Gill's pronunciation is the best authority which we have for
Shakspere's, and certainly gives us the pronunciation of
Shakspere's time. It is therefore singularly vexatious that
we cannot make out a very clear account either of long /,
(p. 114,) or of this diphthong au, from Gill.
1 In the original (fouHt), which is clearly a misprint. Possibly (laau) for
(lau) was also a misprint.
Chap. III. § 3. AU — XVI TH CENTURY. 145
1621. Gill says: "A, est tenuis, ant lata; tenuis, aut brcvis est,
vt in (taloou) tallo^'e sebum ; aut deducta, ut in (taal) tale fabula
aut computus : lata, \t in tdl talle proceiiis. Hunc sonum Germani
exprimunt per aa. vt in 9naal comiiuium, haar coma : nos vnico
cbaractere, circumflexo a, eontenti erimus."
This ought to irapl}' that a in tall was a simple vowel and
not a diphthong,^ and that it was (aa, aah) or (aa). The
Germans perhaps really said (an) or at most {aah), but (aa)
was the sound which appears certain!}' to have been heard
by the English in the xvii th century. But Gill, who is so
particular in his phonetics, absolutely confuses the diph-
thong (au) with his a, in the following curious paragraph,
where I leave his sjTiibols untranslated.
" A prfeponitur e, ut in aerj aeeie aercus. o nunquam; sjcpius i,
et w, vt, in aid auxilium ; bait esca ; latin sindonis species ; & a paun
pignus : vbi aduerte au nihil differre ab d. Eodcm enim sono pro-
ferimus a bdl, ball pila ; et tti bdl, battle, yocifcrari : at ubi ver^
diplitliongus est, a, deducitui" in d, vt du awe imperium ; duffer
terebra."
Here he admits that au in his own phonetic writing is
sometimes the sound which he represents as a simple vowel,
his " broad a" and sometimes " truly a diphthong," but then
becomes dw or d + u. I feel therefore boimd to take his
au as := his a or (aa), and his du as = (aau). In this point
then Gill must have given in to the xvti th century pronun-
ciation. The pronunciation (aau) is not recognised by
others. In Gill's first edition, 1619, he uses au instead of d,
for (aa) and in the case of "the true diphthong" to make
the u apparent, he considers the ^t and not the a to be
lengthened. The meaning is evidently the same.
1633. Butler is still less explicit, for after saying that
"the right sound is a mixed sound of two vowels whereof
they (diphthongs) are made," and referring to the Greek,
he merely tells us that " au in Paul's and hie compounds,
Pauls-cross, Pauls-eyre-yard,^ the Londoners pronounce after
the French manner, as ow."
We are therefore driven to Ben Jonson's grammar 1640,
which was not published till two years after his death, and
which has probably been tampered with. Jonson was bom
in 1574, ten years after Gill and Shakspere, and his pro-
1 But that it does not necessarily do with his admitting it aftrrwards to be
so, appears from his calling long e, "fere diphthongiis «?<," and. as it will
which was " fere diphthongus ei" the he seen, he almost uses these very
"thick /," or " « cra'ssa." So that his words.
assertion that a in tall is "a lata" or ^ xhe Greek e here represents a
"broad a" would not be inconsistent crossed c, much resembling it in form.
10
14G AU — XVI TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
nunciatlon at best belongs to the very edge of the xvi th
century. He says,
when a " comes before I. in the end of a Syllabe, it obtaineth the
full French sound, and is utter'd \rith the mouth and throat wide
open'd, the tonirue bent backe from the teeth, as in al. smal. gal.
J'al. tal. cal. So in SyUabes, where a Consonant followeth the I. as
in salt. malt, balme. calmeJ^
Bullukar writes (baTm ka'l'm = baul'm kaul'm) for halm,
calm. Salesbury gives calme, call in bis Welsh pronuncia-
tion, as words in which " a is thought to decline toward the
sound of the diphthong au, and the wordes to be read in
thys wyse caul, caulme." Gill gives balm as (bAAm) accord-
ing to our present interpretation of his a = au. Ben Jon-
son's explanation of his a before / will really apply better
to (aa) than to (aa), because he omits all mention of labial
action, but I suspect that (aa) was fully developed in England
at the latter end of his life, and that he intended to indicate
its sound, but had not noticed its labial character. It is
worthy of remark however that Jonson's account of this
sound is almost translated from the description of Latin. A
in Terentianus Maurus whom he cites in a note :
A, prima locum littera sic ab ore sumit,
Immujiia, rictu patulo, tenere labra ;
Linguamqe^e necesse est ita pandulam rcduci,
Ut nisus in illam valeat subire vocis,
Nee partibus ullis aliquos fcrire dentes.
and this renders his description altogether suspicious, as if
it were the result of learning, not of observation.
The result is that in the earlier part and middle of the
xvi th century and at least to 15b0 the sound of au was
(au) or (aau) ; that at the close it may have passed
into {aa) ready to fall positively into (aa) in the next
century. The modern contest between (aa) and (aa)
in such words as gau7it, haunt, jaunt = (gaant, Haant,
dzhaant) or (gAAnt, HAAnt, dzhAAnt), while aunt has
remained (aant), — seems to point to a time of (aa) or
{aa) before (a a) was evolved. In giving the pronun-
ciation of Shakspere, however, having regard to the
archaic habits of the stage, I think it will be more cor-
rect to write the full diphthong (au), see Chapter VIII.
§ 8. The change of (a) by the action of (u) would
naturally be to the round form (o), for which in French,
the narrower form (o) has prevailed. But if the (a) fell
first into {a), the (u) would labialize it into (o), for
which the narrower form (a) is frequently substituted.
Chap. III. § 3. aU — XVII TH CENTURY. 147
The distinction between prlmar}', or narrow, and wide
forms, is seldom upheld in its purity, and the sound
varies frequently, unnoticed, from narrow to wide in
different individuals, who believe themselves to be
speaking alike.
AU — XVII TH Century.
1653. Waxlis says: '^ Aic vol aw, recte prommciatum, sonum
exhiberet compositum ex Angiomm a brevi et to, (aeu). Scd a
plerisque nunc dierum cffortux simpliciter ut GeiTnanonim d pingue
(aa) ; soao nempe literce a dilatato, et sono litterae to prorsus sup-
presso. Eodem nempe sono cffemnt all onines, awl subula ; cdU
voce, caul, cawl, omentum, vel etiam tiara muliebris."
This is just the conclusion that Dr. Gill had arrived at,
but he does not acknowledge the pair, fall folly, of Wallis =
(£^U fAli).
1668. "WiLKiNS entirely agrees with Wallis. Price only
says that " aw soundes broader then au as claich, haunt,'' the
meaning of which is not clear.
1685. Cooper, as usual, is rather peculiar. He says :
*'u4 in ca7i, cast, cum u coalcscens (seu) . . . nunquam occurrit in
nostra ling;ua. Lance hasta, lancet scalpnim chirurgicum, a lanceola ;
lanch navem solvere a Gr. lancer, Jaculari, Oanch in sudes acutas
praecipitem dare, hant a G. hanter fi-equento ; hanch a G. hanche
femur; Gant, maeer quasi want ab A.S. wana carens, gantlet cid-
rotheca ferrea, landress a lavando, nidlo modo scribi debent cmn u ;
contra enim suadent sonus et deiivatio ;' falsb itaq?<e seribuntur
launce &c. Qutedam vocabula a latinis praecipue derivata scribimus
per au pronimciamus prout au vel a (aa) audacious audax ; maunder
miu'mui-are ; a G. mandire maledicere 0 m loss, lost con-
junctus cum u semper scribimus per au (au), ut audible audibilis,
audience audientia ; aiidit-or-y auditorium, augvient augeo, augury
augmiiim, august augustus, auricular auricularis, austerity austeritas,
authentick authenticus, authority autboritas, cautiotcs cautus, fraudu-
lent dolosus, laudable laudabilis, laurel laurus, plausible plausibiHs,
negligent er loquentes pronunciant prout a (aa); in ca>teris vocibus
au &, aw semper prout a (aa) pronimciamus."
This fancy for pronouncing au as (au) or (on) in certain
words, seems peculiar to Cooper ; it may, however, have
represented one of the transitional stages (au, au, au, aa) or
(au, «u, a, aa, aa). We can readily conceive that the sound
had passed through all these stages ; the (aa) often heard at
^ As to sound, many even now say (m, n) wlien they represented what are
(lAAntsh iAAnsh, HAAnt, HAAntsh now the French nasals, was a regular
HAAnsh, g.vAut-let, lAAn-dres). As to indication of their origin, see supra p.
deriyation, the insertion of (u) before 143, and M, N below.
148 AU — XVII TH CENTURY. CiiAr. III. § 3.
present in haunt, gaunt, jaunt, favours the notion that {aa)
once existed. Cooper's " negligenter loquentes" refers of
course to the general pronunciation, wliieh was opposed to
his ideas of correctness. Whenever an orthoepist talks of a
"careless" pronunciation, he means that which is most pre-
valent, and which is therefore most valuable to the student
of changes, wliile his "careful" pronunciation is that of
Dr. Gill's " docti interdura," seldom or never heard when
speakers are thinking of the meaning, rather than the sound,
of what they say.
1686. MiEGE says: "La diphthongc au en Anglois se prononce
comme notre a en Francjois, Excmple, Cmtse, Author. II en faut
excepter Auncient, & ses Derivatifs, ou la Diphthongue se prononce
comme Va simple en Anglais. De meme en est il dcs mots finissans
en aunt, comme aunt, to daunt, qu'il faut prononcer aint, tou daint.
To laugh, se prononce laiff. Paul suit la Eegle, hormis quand on
parlc de 1' Eglisc Catlicdi-ale de 8. Paul a Londrcs. Alois on
1' appelle P6ls .... La Dipththonguc aio soune comme xm a long
en Franqois. Exemplc, Law, fiaw qu'il faut prononce la, fla.
Mais il se prononce bref, dans awry^
The difficulty experienced by the French in distinguishing
(ae) from (k), and (a) or {a) from (a) has been noticed on
pp. 71-2. The preceding indications lead me to suppose that
Miege meant to express the sounds, (kAAz, AA'thar, acn'shent
sesen'shent, acacnt, daeacnt, laeaef, PaaI Pooulz, Iaa Aaa). The
sound of ancient is doubtful. The use of (a^ce) in aunt, daunt
is rather a thin pronunciation at the present day, which
some ladies even still further thin to (aent, daent). The
sound (Pooulz) is not now heard, but as Chaucer writes
Poicles, and as Butler gives the pronunciation (Pooulz) " in
the French manner," we see that this pronunciation was
very old, and was probably confined to this single word.
1701. Jones simply identifies a, au, aw in all, Paul, aid.
But he gives the following list of
words in au, "which many sound as with an o. Auburn, auction,
audacious, audible, audience, audit, auditor, auf awf, augment,
augi'e, August, aumber, aumelet, aiuit, auspicious, austere, authen-
tick, author, Autumn, auxiliaiy, because, cautious, centaury, daunt,
Dauphin, debauch, fault, flaunt, fraud, herauld, Henaidt, jaimdicc,
laudable, maudlin, maugre, nauseous, Pauls, plausible, rcstauration,
sausage, ribauldry, vault."
He does not say whether the o is long {oo) or short (o). In
sausage we now use (a), and frequently in because (bikAz",
bikoz'), but auf aicf is now written oaf (oof). Dauphin is
frequently pronounced as French (DoofeA). The cases in
which Jones finds a I written for au will be considered under
Chap. III. § 3. AU — XVIII TH OU — XVI TH CENTURY. 141)
L ; and fhose in whicli an is written as a written before M.
N, E, will be considered under tbose letters.
In the XVII th century, then, an was almost universally
pronounced (aa), but there were a few exceptions, so
that on the whole the rules resembled those now in use,
AU — xvTiiTH Century.
1704. The Expert Orthographist take the sound of an
for granted, and must have pronounced (aa). The following
with the sound of (aa) are noteworthy, sausage, taunt, vaunt,
launcet, launch.
1766. Buchaxan has (aa) in daw, maw, awe, vault, daunt,
fault, taunt, but has (aeao) in aunt, laugh, where Sheridan
has (ae).
1768. Franklin has (Iaz) meaning probably (Iaaz) laics.
The usages with regard to au seem to have been nearly
the same in the xviii th century as in the xix th century, but
the orthoejsists of the xviiith ignore the sound (aa) alto-
gether, and consequently do not notice the sounds (aant,
laaf), which are now extremely prevalent, and probably were
frequently heard during the preceding century. Our pre-
sent orthoepists reject the sounds also.
OU — XVI TH Century.
1530. Paxsgeave says : " Ov in the frenche tong shalbe souncled
lyke as the ItaHans souudc this vowel v, or they with vs that
sounde the latme tong aright, that is to say, almost as we soiinde
hym in these wordcs, a cowe, a mowe, a sowe, as o'vltre, sovdayn,
ovhlier, and so ofsuche other."
The ou in French is called " ou clos" and sometimes " o
clos" by Meigret, which would lead to suppose it rather (</h)
than (u), see p, 131, note. There can be no doubt of the
ItaKan u, which was certainly (uu). But it seems from
other writers that this pronunciation of (kuu, muu, suu),
although still heard in the North of England, was going out.
Palsgrave's pronunciation is probably of the xvth century
in this point. We shall see that these words were so pro-
nounced in the xiv th century, and it will hence be most con-
venient to defer the consideration of the change of (uu) into
(ou) to the next chapter. We are not to suppose that ou
was universally pronounced as (uu), even by Palsgrave and
older writers. In many words, ow derived from ags. aw, was
called (oou) . Palsgrave says in another place :
" If m or n followe next after o in a frenche worde both in one
syllable, than shall the o be sounded almost lyke this diphthonge
150 OU — XVI TH CENTURY. CuAP. III. $ 3.
ov, and somotlnnif: in tho noosp : as these -vrordcs mon, ton, son,
renom, sliulbe sow lulcd 7novn, tovn, sovn, renovm and so of all suche
other, and in like wysc shall o he sownded though the next syUable
folo\vynge bcpynnc with an other m or n, as in these wordes home,
s6mme, bonne, tonerre, -Nvhiche they souwde koume, houne, soumme,
tounner, and so of suehe other."
Meigret knows nothing of this, but the effect on English
ears is important in the transference of French words to
English, where on, when, at present, nasal, became ohh,
meaning (uun), which afterwards, as we shall see, fell into
(oun). Thus Hart in giving the pronunciation of the
French Lord's prayer, writes (tun, num, volunte', kum'aH,
dun'e, pardun'aH, pardun'unz, unt), for, ton, nom, volonte,
comme, donnez, pardoune, pardonnons, ont.
1517. Salesbury gives no special article on ou, but he has
the following words, involving this combination, which may
be classified as follows,
(oo) bo'ot;, bo (boo) arcus ; ceowe h'o (kroo) cornix ; teowe tro
(troo) opinor.
(o) HONouKE onor (on'or) honos ; — probably a mistake for o?itor
(on'ur).
(uu) wowE, w (uu) petere ut procus ; — a "Welshism for (wuu) now
written woo.
(u) N.4JRE0WE, narriv (nar'u) ang:iistus ; spaeowe, sparw (spar*u)
passer ; gracyofse, grasiws (gi'aa"si,us) comis ; emperoitee, em-
perwr (em'pei-ur) impcrator ; double, dwbyl (dub'il), see also
under (ou).
(ou) LOW low (lou) mugire ; k'owe now (nou) nunc ; thou dAow
(dhou) ; DOTiBLE V (iowbyl uw (dou"b«l yy), see also imder (u).
It is evident that *' the (uuz) have it," but the (ouz) are
in force. Those words marked (oo) by Salesbury were pro-
bably (oou), as at present, but the (u) was possibly faint and
disregarded.
1555. Cheke says : " foule, houle, houle <povX ^ov\ 6v\ ful hul
hid latinuT?* u est. natn lume« nu^tij acute argute W/xev vovvtli
aKHre apyovre sic Graece transferuntur."
Since Mekerch in taking the passage transfers it thus
" monle concha, douhen pa«ni, yuyX, 8«/c mul duk u Lati-
nuw? est," and we know that in the old Dutch words ^ cited
on was (ou) or (ou), we sec at once that these scholars were
led away by their interpretation of the Greek ov as = (ou),
to imagine that the Latin u had the same sound, instead of,
conversely, from the known (uu) sound of Latin m conclud-
ing the (uu) sound of Greek ov. In Clieke's time then the
English " foide, boulc, houle" were (foul, boul, Houl).
' The modem forms are motiw, moud, molle, (mou, moud, mol'e), and doek (duuk).
Chap. III. f 3. OU XVI TH CENTURY. 151
1568. Sir T. Smith fully endorses Cbeke's inference that
the Latin long u was pronounced as he pronounced Greek
ov, that is, (ou) , sajdng :
*' OT diphthongus Grceca, (ou) et cav, (oou). Ex (o) breui & (u),
diphthongum habebant Latiui, qua; si non cadem, vicinissima CQi^ih
est ov Grajcte diphtbongo, & proxime accfdit ad sonum u Latino?.
Ita quae Latine per u longuni scribebant, Graeci cxprimeba?it per ov.
quae per u breuem, per v, quasi sonos vicinissimos. At ex (oo)
longa & (u) diphtbongus apud nos frequews est, apud Grajcos rara,
nisi apud lonas : apud Latiuos baud scio an fuit \-nquani in vsu.
(ou), (bou) flectere, (boul) spbsera, (koukl) poteram, (mou) meta
fceni, (sou) sus faemina.
(OV. (boon) arcus, (booul) siaiim aut scapbium, (kooukl) fiigidus,
(moou) metere, aut ii-ridere os distorqne?jdo, (soou) seminare,
aut Sucre."'
And again in bis Greek pronunciation, be adds : '' ov ab omnibus
recte sonatur, & u facit Latinum quando producitur, rt aduertit
Tercntianus : differt ojv gi'anditate vocis, \i etiam 7}v ab ev dis-
tinguimus.
ov. how, ^ov, flectere. a hay mow, fiov, foeni congeries, a gowne,
yovu, toga.
(OV. a bow, ^(ov, arcus. to moiv, ^(ov, metere, vcl os torquere. gow,
<y(ov, abeamus.
i;. V breue Latinu»>. a lull taruns. u longum vcl ov, a howl,
^ov\, globus, (ov, a hotvle /3(ovX, Siuum Ugneum, vas in quo
lac seruatur, vel vnde nixi bibitur.
Here Smith agrees with Salesbury in the close diphthong
(ou), but distinguishes an (oou) where Salesbury only heard
(oo) as in bowe, arcus. In the same way at the present day,
very few of those who say (boon) acknowledge the final (u),
because most of them insert it in no, go, etc., saying (noon,
goou) for {noo, goo), and hence consider that they pronounce
simple (oo) in both cases. Very few would say (oi noon noo
boon soo loou) for / knoio no hoio so low, or would distinguish
no beau as (noo boo) from know how (noon boou). Smith at
the same time absolutely disagrees with Talsgrave in mow,
soil), saying (mou, sou) where the latter says (muu, suu). It
is singular that this difference, to which we shall have to
allude again presently, turns upon precisely the error con-
1 At present it is usual to distinguish clothys or o>er sedys ' in Promptorium,
8010 seminare, sew suere, ^^-hicll would ' I sowe with a nedell in lalsgravc,
lead to saying (soou, sen). We find while Levins gives hoi\i sewe ^m\ sowe
for sow spiuiuare ' sowy« corne, or any for smre, and does not appear to give
ober sedys' in the Promptorium, 'I the English tor seminare iii &\\. Iro-
sowe corne, or any other seedes' in hably Levins' s sowe should have been
Palsgrave ; and for sew suere, ' sowe explained seminare.
152 OU — XVI TH CENTURY. Chap. III. } 3.
corning Greek ov. Altliough there were then living persons
who prunuuncod (uu) for on, 3'et Cheke and .Sniitli both refer
their sound (ou) to the Greek ov, and then infer the mon-
strous conclusion that the Latins pronounced their long ic in.
the same way.
loGU. II.VRT, in the passage already quoted, p. 132, writes
fofccrfJi, (fouurth) toicer {iowwx), jyourc {^onur ),JI 01 re r (flouur),
marking the second element of the diphthong as long.
There is no doubt that in prolonging a diphthong the second
element must be Icngtlicncd, because the first and the glide
must pass in the usual time in order to preserve tlie character
of the diphthong. As however the lengthening of the
second element is accidental, it is not usually marked in
palacotype. In the course of his work, however. Hart does
not mark the second element as long ; for example I find,
(nou, sound). Hart also leaves out the (u) occasionally as
(vo,elz, knoon, thoii't, knoledzh,) for vowels, hnovcn, thought,
"knowledge. Hart also writes (dub'l) for double, thus agreeing
with one of Salesbury's notations for this word.
1580. BuLLOKAR in writing of the sounds of 0 (supra
p. 93) says that the third sound is " as, r, flat and short, that
is to say, as this sillable ou, short sounded." Again, under
u he talks of one of the vowel sounds of u being " of flat
soimd, agreeing to the olde and continued sound of the diph-
thong : ou : but always of short sounde." This he distin-
guishes by writing a hook, like a comma below, which wiU
be here, for convenience, printed as a comma before. He
then identifies in his notation o,v o,u ,ow ,oow ,v ,u ,0 ,00,
where the two o's are united into one sign like Greek (o,
observing " that no diphthong is of so short sounde as any
short vowell, and that as well short vowels, as diphthongs
ending a sillable, are of meane time, that is, betweeue short
and long, theii' time before shewed notwithstanding." The
following are some of the words in the ordinary si)elling in
which he uses these notations S2(m, sound, doubt, other, fully,
some, such, rclthout, precious, youth, good, much, under, colour,
unnill'mg, comfort, double, vowels, come, but, nord, our. With
the exception of sound, doubt, without, vowels, our, which
have now (su) and youth which has (uu), all the above words
have now (o), and it will be shewn under U that we may infer
an elder (u) or {u) from a modern (0). There is therefore
no doubt that Bullokar pronounced ou as (u) at times; at
other times I think it must have been (uu), for he would not
have used the phrase '"' ou short sounded" unless there had
been an ^^ou long sounded." Thus it is probable that the word
Chap. III. v^ 3. OU — XVI TU CENTURY. 153
voivels was called by him (vuu'elz) rather than (vu'elz). TTe
have here then a direct confirmation of Palsgrave and con-
tradiction to Smith. Thus bow flectere = (bou) in Smith,
and (buu) in Bullokar, both giving bow arcus as (boon).
We are reminded here of the distinction between the Eng-
lish (ban) and the Scotch (buu). Again bowl sinum is (booul)
in Salesbury, Smith, Bullokar ; but bowl sphajra, is (boul) in
Smith and (buul) in Bullokar. The celebrated bowl'inq
greens at Nottingham are commonly called (bau'l/q) or
(boud/q griinz) to this day. Walker says on the word bowl
sphsera, which he calls (b6»cl) meaning (booul) :
"Many respectable speakers pronounce this word so as to rhyme
with howl (H^^d) the noise made by a dog. Dr. Johnson, Mr. Elphin-
stone and Mr. Peny declare for it ; but Mr. Sheridan, Mr. Scott,
Dr. Keiuick and Mr. Smith, pronounce it as the vessel to hold
liquor, rhyming- with hole (bool, booul). I remember ha^•ing been
corrected by Mr. Gamck for pronouncing it like howl\ and am
upon the whole of opinion, that pronouncing it as I have marked
it, (bool), is the preferable mode, though the least analogical."
Walker derived his knowledge entirely from observing
the spelling and custom of his time. Hence his argument is
perfectly groundless. Bowl, the cup, is connected with boll,
bole, and the sound of (oo) is to be expected, the additional
(u) arising merely from the following I, as will be shewn
under L. But bowl, the ball, was the French boule, correctly
written haul or bowl in older Eno^lish, not onlv as we see
from Bullokar, who calls this sound of on its " old and con-
tinued sound," but as will appear from the study of Chaucer's
orthography. The change of (uu) into (ou) in English,
which occurred partly perhaps in the xv th centuiy, but
which we see by Palsgrave and Bidlokar, was not fully com-
pleted in the xvith, and which the words tlirough, youth,
you, a ivound some say (a waund), could, would, should, flowk
(a flounder), soup, group, rouge, route, occasionally called
(rout) like rout, Cowper, only called (kou'per) by those who
do not know the family, Brougham, (Bruum) as spoken
by Lord Brougham, though the carriage is often called
(Broo'om), will convince us that the change is not yet com-
plete. The nature and laws of this change will best be
considered hereafter.^
1 Walker continues as follovrs, and ties of observing. " But as the vessel
it is -worth while, perhaps, in a note, howl has indisputably this sound it is
to draw attention to the extreme eon- rendering the language still more irrc-
fusion of ideas- concerning language gidar to give the ball boxcl a different
that possessed this respectable ortho- one." That is, because in early times
epist, because it is still widely prera- of our orthography, when the writer
lent, as I have had frequent opportuni- did not know exactly how to represent
154
or — WITH CENTURY.
Chap. III. ^ 3.
1621. Gill agrees with Smitli, and writes : (bound) bound,
(sound) sound, (^bloouu) blown, (^tlirooun) thrown, (bou)
bough, (boou) arcus, (boul) bowl a ball, (booul) bowl a cup.
the sound of (uu), but wandered be-
tween 0 and OH, ou\ wbich last hap-
pened to be also appropriated to sounds
whieh were distinctly (oou), — and be-
cause people follomnj^ the tendencies
of sound, nuite independently of spell-
in<T, altered the sound of (uu) in many
wordes to (ou, on), so as still to keep
up a distinction in speech between
words previously distinguished though
in a different way, — all these tendencies
are to be given up for the sake of a
casual similarity of spelling ; and it is
to be deemed less irregular, because the
spelling is alike, to change the sound
of one of the words, than to give a dif-
ferent sound to two words spelled alike,
or to change the spelling of one of
them. Of course, then, know now should
be pronounced alike, as also the latter
parts of shoe, hoe, changed hanged. The
irregularity was not in the sound but
in the clumsy orthography. Walker
proceeds thus, " The inconvenience of
this irregidarity is often perceived in the
word boiv," the irregularity was spelling
two words, i.e. two collections of sound
in the same way ; "Walker assumes it
to be, pronouncing one word, i.e. one
collection of letters, in two ways.
The confusion of writing and sound
could not be more complete. "To
have the same word" i.e. sound, "sig-
nify different things, is the fate of all
languages ; but pronouncing the same
■word" i.e. MTitten sjTiibol, "differently
to signify different things, is multiply-
ing difficulties without necessity" to
the reader, not the listener, and the
remedy is with the writer, not the
speaker, " for though it may be alleged
that a different pronunciation of the
same word " i.e. written sjnnbol, " to
signify a different thing, is in some
measure rcmedjing the poverty and
ambiguity of language" i.e. written
symbols, "it may be answered, that it
is in reality increasing the ambiguity"
of orthography, not of language, " by
setting the eye and ear at variance,
and obliging the reader to understand
the context before he can pronounce
the word." A good argument against
unphonetic spelling. But to conclude
that pnmunciation must follow the un-
phonetic spelling, is to determine that
every baby should learn to read before
it speaks. This would almost beat
those celebrated Irish infants of whom
a native preacher is said, by Sir Jonah
Barrington in his Memoirs, to have
declared, inveighing against the pre-
cocious wickedness of his times, that,
' little children who could neither walk
nor talk, ran about the streets blas-
pheming.' "Walker continues : " It
may be urged that the Greek and Latin
languages had these ambiguities in
words" written symbols, "which were
only distinguished by their quantity or
accent." That is, words differing in
the accent given to the syllables, or in
the length of vowel sounds were written
alike — a defect in orthography, but
certainly not in the language which
distinguished the sounds. " But it is
highly probable that the Greek lan-
guage had a written accent to distin-
guish such words as were pronounced
differently to signify different things,"
as the Greek accents were an invention
of later grammarians chiefly to assist
foreigners, it would have been more
satisfactory if "Walker had mentioned
the grounds of this ' high probability,'
" and this is equivalent to a different
spelling," of course, when the accent
points to a difference of sound, and is
not merely, as old Bullokar often used
it, and as we find in French a, d, ' for
the sake of equivocy,' just as we may
imagine "Walker would have looked on
the diverse spellings rile, write, right,
icright, or air, heir, eyre, ere, e'er,
"Walker continues, "and though the
Latin word lego signified either to read
or to send, according to the quantity
with which the first syllable was pro-
nounced," that is, the word (leg'oo)
meant / gather or read, and the word
(Iceg'oo) meant / send, and the two
words were in this particular inflection
■written alike, " it was certainly an im-
perfection in that language," read, or-
thography, " which ought not to be
imitated. Ideas and combinations of
ideas will always be more numerous
than words ; and therefore the same
■word wdl often stand for very different
ideas;" and "Walker has in this note
strangely illustrated the danger of such
results in bad ^vriters and loose thinkers,
Chap. III. § 3. OU — XVI TH CENTURY. 155
He has however some remnants of the (im, u) sounds, as
(kunrts) courts, (kuuld) could, where Smith has (koukl), and
admits (wound) as a Northern pronunciation of tvoitnd.
1653. BxJTLEE says (trauslatino; his spnbols,) : "o« in the substan-
tive temiination 02cr, as honour, labour, succour, and in the adjective
tennination ous, as glorious, gracious, prosperous is soimd as oo or ti
short" that is (u) or («<). "This being general, maybe suffered
as an Idiom : but in other syllables of some few words, whereof
there is no certain rule to be given, it is not so excusable : as when
we write bloud, Jloud, courage, scourge, flourish, nourish, gomig, youth,
woulf, double, trouble, &c., for blood, flood, coorage, scurge, floorish,
nunish, yung, yuth, wulf, dubble, trubblc, &c.," meaning (bl«d, fl«d,
k«r"adzh, skwrdzh, fl?<rw'sh, n«r-/sh, J«q, J?<th?, w^df, d«b"l, tr«bd),
" for the same wiiting hath another sound in loud, proud, cour,^ scour,
mound, mouth, coul, scoul, doubt, trout, and the same soimd hath an-
other wiiting in good, stood, bud, mud, burge^ purge, furrow, murrain,
bung, gulf, bubble, stubble, &c.," which had («<). "Neither is there
any more reason why in would, could, should, roum, tcouf,^ ivound, ou
should be ^UTitten for oo long ; than that for cool, pool, fool, tool,
school, stool, hoof, boom, moon, doom; we shoidd write coul, poul,
foul, toul, skoul, stoul, houf, bourn, moun, doum. The cause of this
cacography which causeth such difficulty is a causeless affectation
of the French dialect ; who for the sound of oo (which in their
language is fi'equent) do sometimes write o and oftentimes ou ; as
they write /, ai, oi, and somid (ii, e, woee),* or as they write en, an,
aw, and sound an, ami, ow for entend, command, costeau, saying
antand, coomaund, coteow. But that they speak otherwise than they
by confusing a spoTien and a written necked, pedantic, unphilosopliical, mi-
word, /«w<7?<a(7e and o)-i;/ioyrff/;% ; "but serably- informed, and tbcrcfore su-
altering the sound of a word, without premely certain, self-confident, and
altering the spelling, is forming an self-conceited orthographers who make
unwi-itten language." The orthoepist defaidt, when they will not alter the
the orthograpiier, the word-pedlar, is spelling after the sound has changed,
here shewn to the life. It is a horror and maintain that though their ndes
to him, a monstrosity, this formation must be right, it is only the exceptions
of an "unwritten language." As if which prove them, — forgetting that as
all languages were not formed un- some foreigner pithily said, "English
written, were not to the great majority orthographical rules arc all exceptions.' '
of present speakers, unwritten. As if ^ Meaning rower, written cowri/u in
all those who made languages, who the Promptorium, coivre in Palsgrave,
altered their sounds, who brought them and coure in Levins,
to their present speech-form, knew or * Query, borat/e, as written in the
cared about writing ; as if even the Promptorium, the hourage of Palsgrave
majority of those who speak, pause to and burrage of Levins, exhibiting the
consider in the rapiditj- of discourse, three common spellings for the same
how the printers of the day choose to soimd.
print, and the writing-masters choose ^ Room, woof "of woven, as warp
to order their pupils to write! Xo, it., because warped or wrajjped ro\mA. the
is not the language, or the speakers beam" adds Butler,
that are in fault in obeying and carry- * Butler belongs to the latter part of
ing out the organic laws of speech and the xvi th or to the xviith century, in
word formation. It is those word- his French, when the change of the
pedlars, those letter-drivers, those stiff- French at from (ai) to (e) was complete.
156 OU — XVII TH CEXTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
■vnitp, is no reason ■why vro should WTitc otherwise than we speak ;
cousiik-ring what an ease and certainty it would be both to readers
and writers, that every letter were content with its own sound, and
none did intrude u]M>n the ripht of another. The termination our
accented, is sounded in two sylla])les : as in devour, dejtour ; and in
all monosyllables, as our, hour, hour, flour, tour, sour, lour, scour,
pour Verb fundo : the Xoun is, for difference, wiitten in two
syllables pouer potestar, and so are all the substantives in the
plm-al number ; as flouers, toners, Shouers : and sometime in the
singular not only in verse : but in prose also."
OU — XVII TH Century.
1653. "Wallis says : " 0« et oio duplicem sonum obtinent ;
altenim clariorem, alterum obscuriorcm. In quibusdam vocabulis
effertur sono clarion per o apcrtum,' ct to. Ut in soul anima, sould
vendebam, venditum, siioiv nix, /enow scio, s6w sero, suo, owe debeo,
howl poculum, etc., quo etiam sono et 6 simplex nonnunquam
effertiu- nempe ante Id ut in c/old aiu'um, scold rixor, Iidld tenco,
cold frigidus, old scnex, antiquus, etc., et ante II in jyo7/ caput,
rdll volvo, idll vectigal, etc. Sed et haec omnia ah aliis efferuntur
simpliciter per d rotundum acsi scripta essent s6le, sold, sm &c. In
aliis vocabulis obscuriori sono efferuntur ; sono nempe composite ex
d vel il obsenris (a), et w (on). Ut in house domus, mduse mus,
Idwse pediculus, hdul globulus, dur nostcr, out ex, owl bubo, tdwn
oppidum, foul inimundus, fowl volucris, how flecto, hough ramus,
sow sus, etc. At would vellem, should deberem, could possem, course
cursus, court aula, curia, et pauca forsan alia, quamvis (ut proxime
prajcedentia) per du pronnnciari debeant, vulgo tamen negHgentius
effeni Solent per oo (uu)."
"Wallis seems to say that (soul, S(?uld, snou) as well a-s {s,oo\,
soold, Qnoo) were heard, and that (goiild, skciild, b6»uld, k6>uld,
ould) were used, although he did not approve of them. This
effect of L will be considered hereafter. The sound (iiaus,
maus) &c. is the same as the modern English, and must be
distinguished from the former. "NVallis's dictum concerning
XL'Ould, etc., is only borne out by Smith's very peculiar
(kould) could, supra p. 151. We have seen that Gill said
(kuurt) ; (kuurs) is still common in the Xorth. "Wallis
wishes that the two sounds were distinguished in writing,
1 This must mean "3 apertiim," I sxispect that this is a theoretical pro-
that is (a), {jiving the diphthong; (au); minciation, arisinfj from Wallis's con-
ahhough it is certainly very singular, sidering the vowel o short in the diph-
as the words given •were pronounced thong and his having no notation for
with (oou) in the xvi th century, and (o) The o apertum he usually marks u,
he makes some of them have (^oo). hut here he has employed 6, apparently
This (au) is the diphthong recognized to connect the sound with his 6 = {oo),
in a few words by Cooper, supra p. 147. so that he may really mean (ou).
Chap. III. § 3. OU — XVII TH CENTURY. 157
using- 6u 6w or 6u 6w or simply ow for (ou, od) and 6u 6w or
simply oil for (on). Yet how many would feel their eyes
offended by seeing know, nou, hoii, low, sou, sow, row, rou,
notwithstanding the infinitesimal nature of the change.
1668. WiLKixs speaks of (ou) only as the sound of oiv in
" owr, owle." It is curious that, though (scu) is the common
Norfolkism now, "Wilkins says that (») before (u) " will not
coalesce into a plain sound." Writers on phonetics are too
apt to measure the pronouncing powers of others by their
own, although the extreme difficulty with which unfamiliar
combinations of familiar elements become current to their
organs, and the mistakes they make in hearing and imitating
unfamiliar sounds and slight variations of familiar sounds,
should teach them to be less confident.
1668. Price makes several categories of on, oiv.
1) ow, OU sound " like o," that is, either (oo) or (o) in bestow,
know, a bow, flow, low, window, throw, grow, glow ; succour,
brought, endeavoui-, although, ai-mour, behaviom-, clamour, colour,
embassadom-, emperour, errour, gourd, harbour, mannour, nought,
odom-, ought, rigour, soUcitoiu-, soid, though, thought, wrought ; in
some of which we have now (9, aa).
2) Ow, OU keep their " full sound" (ou) in how, to bow, fi'oward,
allow, cow, coward, now, toward, devout, flout, fourth, our Saviour,
stout. Although (tauMd) may be occasionally heard, it is im-
frequcnt ; (frauMd) I do not remember to have heard ; (foUith) is
also strange, and (sa3aB*vi,ou.i) the strangest of all.
3) Ou sounds " Kke short w," that is (0), in cousin, double,
courage, adjourn, bloud, couple, courtcsey, discom-age, doubled,
encourage, floud, flourish, jouniey, jom-nal, nourish, ougly, scoui-ge,
touchstene, touchy, yoimg. All these pronunciations remain in use
although we no longer write hloiid, fioud, ougly.
4) Ow, ou sound "like w'oo," that is (uu) in aiTow, pillow,
barrow, borrow, fallow, follow, hallow, moiTow, shaddow, soitow,
swallow, widdow, 'willow, T\'innow, couch, course, discourse, court,
courtier.
5) " Ou soundes like hv in youth," meaning (jiuth) ? This
certainly ought to have formed part of the prececUng list.
1685. Cooper says " 0 in full, fole {u, 00) cum u (u) conjunctus
constituit diphthongaim in coulter \omi?; four quatuor, mould panitico,
mucesco, typus in quo res formatiu* ; monlter plumas exuere, poulterer
avicularius, poultry alites villatici, sJioulder humenis, soul anima ;
in CEeteris hunc sonum scribimus per 0 ante II flnalem, vel /, quando
praecedit aham consonantcm ; ut bold audax ; quidam hoc modo
pronunciant ow.^''
" U gutturalem (a), ante u Gennanicum 00 anglice cxprimentem
(u) semper Scribimus per ou ; ut out ex ; about circa ; on tamen
ahquando, proeter sonum priorem, sonatux ut 00 (uu) ; ut I could
possem ; ut u g-utturaUs (a), couple copulo ; ut a (aa) bought cmptus."
158 OU — XVII Tli CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
The first (lii)lithong must bo written theoretically (un), but
it was probably luoaiit to bo the same as (on), coinciding
with AVallis's diphthong, because Cooper does not distinguish
{it, o). The second diplithong was of course the modern (au).
The words in ou which Cooper pronounces with the first
dii)hthoug (ku) or (ou), as above mentioned, all contain oiil,
and to these he adds the I'ullowing with a simple o before /,
behold, hold, bolster, holt, eold, colt, dolt, droll, enroll, fold,
(johU hold, inholder hospes, joU, knoll, manifold, molten,
poll, roller, rolls, scold, sold, told, rpholster plumarius. He
also says : " Quidem scribunt troll vel trout Iceviter eo, ita
controll controul, redargue, joll jole caput," jowl is common
now, with the sound (dzhaul), " toll tole vectigal &c, mold
vel mowld humus, at mould typus," a distinction now lost, if
it were ever made by others beside Cooper, ''bowl bole
patera."
The sound of the second diphthong (au) is given by Cooper
to all other words in ou, as " boul globulus, gout podagra,
&c," some of which he allows to be written ow, as : ad-
vou'son, allow, avow, how torqueo, bowels, bower, brow, brown,
hrowze, caroicze, cow, coward, cower, crown, clown, dowry,
droicn, frown, gown, how, Jiowl, lower frontem capero, moiv
facnile, now, oiol, plow aro, rowel, rowin fcenum serotinum,
shower, sow s., towel, tower, trowel, row, rotcel. He adds,
" bounce crepo, bouser thesaurarius, clown colonus, drousie
somnolentus, lotid sonorous, louse pedicular, renoun gloria,
ro2ize excito, souse omasum, touzc plurimiim vello ; etc., scri-
buntur item cum ow. W quiescens adjungitur post o finale,
(prx'ter in do facio, go eo, no non, so sic, to ad) tit bowe
arcus, doive farina subacta" i.e. dough, " owe debeo, soive sero,
towe lini floccus, &c, & in cum assero, disown denego, bellows
follis, gallows patibulum, towardness indoles,"
Hence Cooper admits (ou) but not {oo\x) making the latter
purely {oo). He gives no list of words with ou pronounced
as (o) or {u, uu).
1686, Miege's lists are as follows: oil generally = ac?^,
meaning (ou), not (au), although Miege confuses French a
with English (aa).
1) o^^ = 0, meaning (3), in adjourn, bloud, floud, countiy, couple,
courage, coui-tcsoy, double, doublet, flomish' goumet, journey,
Journal, nomish, scourge, scoimdrel, touch, trouble, young, in which
(skon"drel) is new.
2) oti = " 0 un peu long," meaning (0) or (00), or sometimes one
and sometimes the other, or else (ou) Avhich he was unable to ex-
press in French letters : in coulter, moultcr, poultice, poultry, four,
Chap. III. § 3. OU — XVII TH CENTURY. 159
course, concoiu'se, discourse, soul, souldicr, shoulder, mould, trough,
dough, though, although.
3) OK, value not named, and hence prohahly French ou (u), see
Jones, just below, in substantives ending in our as Savioui-, factom-,
neighbour.
4) ou, value not named, probably French ou (u), in adjectives ending
in oics, as vicious, malicious, righteous, monstrous, treacherous.
5) ouffh = a long, that is (aa) in ought, nought, brought, bought,
sought, thought, Tvroixght = at, nat, brat, bat, &c., (AAt, n^vAt) &c.
except di-ought, doughty = draout, daouty (drout, dou•t^) ; borough,
thorough = hero, thoro (bor-o, thor'a) ; cough = caff (kxAi) ; rough,
tough, enough =r ro^, toff, enoff {voi, tof, enof-).
6) ow = ou French (uu) in would, could, should, you, your,
source, youth, — Portsmouth, Plimouth, Yarmouth, Weymouth,
Monmouth.
1701. Jones says "that ou and ow have two veiy different sounds ;
(1) that in sotd, bowl, old, told, &c., which is the true sound of o
and 00 join'd together in one syllable (ou, oou) ; (2) that in hough,
coio, noiv, &c., which is the tnie sound of u short, in hut, cut, &c.,
and 00 join'd together in one syllable (ou)."
But lie characteristically seldom distinguishes which lie
means when he talks of the sound of ou, ow. He also says
that oit is pronounced o, meaning either {oo) or (o), or even
(aa) in " Gloucester, sounded Gloster ; although, besought,
borough, hough} bought, brought, cough, dough, doughty^
drought, enough^ fought, hiccotigh, hough, lough, Lougher,
mought, nought, ought, plough,^ rough, slough,^ sought, though,
thought, through, tough J^ trough, ivhough, wrought; and "in
souldier, sounded sodier" the parent of the "sojer" of our
plays and jest books.
The sound of o is also written ow, Jones says : " "\\Tien it
may be sounded ow in the End of words, or before a vowel,
as oiu, owing; follow, following, &c., otherwise it is always
0, when it cannot be sounded ow (au ?), unless it be one of
those above, that are written ough"
Ou = (uu) is much more extended by Jones than by the
preceding authorities, first to the terminations -our, -ous
"when it may be sounded ou," which seems very questionable,
and then in the following words : couch, could, course, court,
courtship, courteous, crouch, fourth, gouge, gourd, mouch,
mourn, should, slouch, souse, touch, icould ; accoutre, amour,
^ Surely a mistake. 4, 8, etc., which from this insertion by
2 (Dau-ti) not (doo-ti) according to Jones would seem to imply a pronun-
Miege, and present use. elation (ploou). But Cooper, supra p.
3 Meaning (euoo-) 'i 158, spells ploiv, and yet pronounces
* The Authorized Version has plow, (plan).
Deut. 22, 10. 1 Sam. 14, 14. Job * Now (raf, sM slau, tafj.
IGO OU — XVllITH CENTURY. U Chap. III. { 3.
houtcfeu, Boiirdcaux, capouch, capoucJimc, conpce, courier,
Courtney y courtrey, courcec, enamour d, (lournKtiyJlse, Louvain,
Lourre, 7'efi(lezvous, rcncountre, Toulon. For ou — (a), see p. 183.
Ilonce in the xvit th century ou, or ow had two sounds,
the first (ou) or {oovi) corresponding to our present
theoretical [po) and secondly (ou) where it is still so
called. The sound of ou as (uu) was exceptional, and
seems to have been used in a few more words than at
present.
OTJ — XVIII TH Century.
1704. The Expert Orthographist seems to pronounce ou
as (ou) in touch, Souch, gouge, rouge, coulter, boulter, poultry,
moulter, shoulder, j^oultice, ivoimd, pour, bowl, coiccumber.
But to distinguish bow flecto as (bou) from boiv arcus as
(b(>ou), and says that "All polysyllables ending in obsciire o
have IV added for ornament's sake as arrow, bellows, &c."
17G6, Buchanan writes, (nAAt) nought, (mous) mouse,
(foul) foul, (bou) bow fectere, (koun't/) county, (koutsh)
couch, (vouwl) vowel, (sou) sow sus, (boul) bowl globus et
crater ; (dhoo) though, (koors) course, (kcort) court, (nco)
know, (bloo) blow, (bist(?o") bestow, (sool) soul, (nner'oo) nar-
row, (oo \oov^ a low ; (suup) soup, (wud) woidd, (kud) could,
(juu) you ; (J3q) young, (trobd) trouble, (kopd) couple,
(kar'^'dzh) courage, (kon'tr/) country, (norv'sh) nourish ;
(thAAt) thought, (bAAt) bought.
1768. Franklin writes (fAul, Aur, dAim, thAuz'and, pLvu'-
mocn ; k6>ors) ior foul, our, down, thousand, pyloughmnn^ course,
where if (au) is not a mistake, it is a singular form of the
diphthong, agreeing however with the analysis of Sheridan
and Knowles.
Among the Irish uses noted by Sheridan, 1780, we find
(kuurt) court, (suurs) source, and (kAuld, bAuld) cold, bold,
all of which clearly belong to the xvii th centur}'. Sheridan
pronounces (koort, soors, koold, boold). The Irish (druuth)
drought, English (drAut) according to Sheridan, is very
singular.
U — Round or Labia lised Towels.
TJ has been reserved to the last, as in order to understand
the relations of the various sounds which have been ex-
pressed by V in our own and other languages, especial attention
must be directed to the twofold manner in which the aper-
ture of the mouth is varied. Speech sounds are essentially
produced in the same manner as those in organ reed pipes.
Chap. III. § 3. U — ROUND OR LABIALISED VOWELS. 161
In the larynx two highly elastic vocal ligaments, stretched
to various degrees of tension at will, are put into vibration
by the rushing of wind from the lungs through the wind-
pipe. The sound thus produced is highly complicated,
consisting, as Helmholtz has shewn, ^ of a great number of
simple tones, producing on the whole a buzzing, droning,
imperfect effect, which would not be well heard. To make
it penetrate as a clear distinct sound, a resonance tube must
be added. This tube, according to its shape or length, will
reinforce a greater or less number of simple tones, which it
selects out of the confused number produced by the unarmed
elastic ligaments, thus generating, by the mere change of
its shape and size a marked change in the sound heard, even
when the original mode of vibration remains unaltered.
Now above the larynx is situated a highly variable fleshy
bag, the j^harynx, communicating with two external aper-
tures, the nose and the mouth, either or both of which can
be opened or closed at will. The back nostrils are the
entrance and the external nostrils the exit from the upper
passage, where the sound passes through various galleries
and encounters various membranes, which produce the well-
known nasal modifications. The lower passage or mouth is
principally modified by the tongue, which acts as a variable
plug, and the lips, which form a variable diaphragm. By
this means the volume of the mouth is divided into two bent
tubes of which the first may be termed the Ungual passage
as its front extremity is formed by the tongue, and the
second, the lahial passage. When the labial passage is large
and unconstrained by rounding or narrowing of the labial
orifice, the effects may be called simply lingual, and when
the tongue is brought so low as to remove the separation
between the lingual and labial passages, the effects might
be termed labial. Mr. Melville Bell has acutely preferred,
however, to consider as Ungual all positions in which the
labial aperture produces no sensible effect, and then to con-
sider the labial effect to be superadded to the lingual, by
more or less rounding the lips while the lingual position is
held. It was not generally noticed before the publication
of his Visible Speech, that the two labial vowels, as they have
been called, (uii, oo) really required a distinct position of the
tongue in order to produce them.^ This however may be
1 The only satisfactory account of edition 1863, 2nd ed. 1865. It has
musical and vocal tones which has yet been translated into French, but, un-
been published will be found in Helm- fortunately, not yet into English,
holtz's Lehre von den Tonempfiudun- * See however the subsequent re-
gen, Brunswick, 8vo, pp. 600 first ference to Holder, 1669, p. 178.
11
102 U — ROUND OR LABIALISED VOM ELS. Chap. III. { 3.
practically felt by producing ttesc sounds, and, while utter-
ing tlieni, seizing the upper and lower lips with the two
hands and rapidly separating them. Two new sounds will be
produced, of which the first (oeoe) is a Gaelic vowel, which is
the despair of most Englishmen, and the second is a sound
(a) often given to our short u in but, and considered by Mr.
M. Bell as its normal sound. On producing the effect, M'hich
after a little practice can be obtained without the use of the
fingers, it will be found that the back of the tongue is much
higher for (o) than it is for (a).^ Although both effects
are different, and also different from the soimd with which
I pronounce u in but, namely (o), few English ears would
readily distinguish (« a: o) in conversation. Hence we
have this relation between (u) and (a), that (u) is almost (a)
labialized or rounded.^
Again, for the common vowels (ii, ec) the lingual passage
is greatly reduced by means of the front of the tongue which
for (ii) is brought very near the palate, and very forward
but not quite so forward for (ee), the lips being wide open.
Now round the lips upon (ii, ee) and the effect is (i, ?), one
a sound often heard in Germany for u and in Sweden for
y, and the other heard for the so-called French e mute when
sounded and prolonged in singing, as heard in heur and the
first syllable of heureux.^
It is now necessary to attend to a third modification,
principally in the pharjTix. This consists in widening the
bag of the pharj-nx and all the lingual passage behind the
narrowest aperture, and also increasing the volume of the
labial passage. We are familiar with this in English in
the passage from (i) to ii), and from (e) to (e). Applied to
the roimded or labialised forms of these vowels, (i, a) it con-
1 In reading this discussion the dia- labialisation of [e) and assigns the latter
grams of the vowel posdtions in the In- value to the French eit, which I have
troduction, p. 14, should be frequently been in the habit of pronouncing as the
consulted. wide of (a). Thus hevreux according
2 The true sound of (a) has the back to Feline has the first syllable as in je
of the tongue lower and the front and the second as in jeu. These I
higher than for (a) ; the tongue is pronounce (zha, zhoe), but M. Favarger
altogether raised, but is nearly parallel considers they should be (zh^h, zhs).,
to the palate throughout. The labial Undoubtedly the sounds vary from indi-
or 'round' form of (a) is (oh), scarcely vidual to individual, and hence the
distinguishable from (o) by unpractised necessity of a diagrammatic vowel scale
ears. like Mr. Melville Bell's, which is inde-
3 Mr. M. Bell gives it as the French pendent of key words. The Swedish u
u in tine, but this is not my own pro- or (t) which is very peculiar is closely
nunciation, nor does it agree with my related to (i), being produced in the
own observations. M. Favarger con- same way, with rather a greater sepa-
siders the French e mxtet to be (ah) the ration between the tongue and the
labialisation of (e), rather than (?) the palate.
Chap. III. § 3. u — XVI TH CENTURY, 163
verts them into (y, ce), which are tho common forms, as I
hear them, of the French u in une and eu in Jeu. Hence (y)
is the ' wide' form of (i), and the ' roimd' or labialised fonu
of («■). If we apply the widening to (u, o) we produce (u, o),
and the Italian o chin so or (xh) appears to be the 'wide'
form of the Swedish (u) already described.
We can then understand that (u, u) may be readily con-
fused, for no modification is so subtle as that produced by
the backward widening. Again, by merely neglecting to
labialise, (u, h) are converted into {ce, v), both of which are
confused with (o) by Englishmen. The last, (v), is indeed
a very common sound in English, but it is onl}^ looked upon
as unaccented or indistinct (o), in motion, ocean, etc.
Again,, if when we are pronouncing (u) or (m) we suddenly
throw the front of the tongue up to the (i) position without
altering the form of the lips, we obtain (i) or (y). There
are some persons so used thu5 to throw up the front of the
tongue that they have great difficulty in pronouncing (u) at
all. To succeed they must exercise themselves in keeping
down the front of the tongue by a muscular eflfort.
Roughly, we may say that (a) is (u) deprived of its labial
character,, and that (y) is (u) with a palatal character,
or that (y) is an attempt to pronounce both (i) and (u)
at the same instant. The further step, then, to pro-
nouncing first (i) and then (u), producing (iu), is easy,
and since the (i) character predominates and gives the
key to the sound, it would be natural in the absence of
a proper sign for (y) to represent that sound by (iu).
XT — xvTTH Century.
1530. Palsgrave says: " 77, in tlie frenche tong, wheresoeuer he
is a vowel by hymselfe, shall be sownded hke as we sownde ew in
these wordes in our tong, reive an herbe, a mete for a liauke, a clew
of thi'cde, and such lyke restyng apon ' the pronounsyng of hym r
as for these wordes ^.?/2<s, mil, fus, user, humble, tiertu, they sound
plevics, nevul, fevus, evuser, hevumhh, uertevii, and so in all other
wordes, where v is a vowel by hymselfe alone ; so that in the
soundynge of this vowel, they differe both from the Latin tong and
from vs."
On referring to EU, p. 137, it will be seen that Palsgrave
divided the English eu into two categories, treicc^ glewe, rewe,
meive and cleiv having the sound of the French u, and dewe,
shreive, feive having the sound of the Italian cu. The latter
we have identified with (eu). There can be but little doubt
^ Misprint for vpon.
164 V — XVI TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
tliat the former was (y), because we know from Meigret that
it was not (o) or (u).
When Palsgrave here says that the sound of French u
was different from that of Latin or English w, he must mean
by the latter, English u short, because English u long was
certainly not the same as the real Latin u long, even at a
much earlier period than the xvith century. Hence cor-
roboration, and contemporary explanations, are necessary.
1547. Salcsbury says: "u vowel, answers to the power of the
two Welsh letters n, w and its usual power is uw, as shewn in the
following words tkui: truw veinis, vkutue vertuw probitas. And
Bometimes they give it its own proper sound and pronounce it Uke
the Latins or like our own w (u), as in the words bucke hwch (buk)
dama mas, ltjst host (lust) libido. But it is seldom this vowel
sound corresponds with the soimd we give the same letter, but it
does in some cases, as in bust hm, occupatus aut se immiscens."
Again in his pronunciation of "Welsh he says : " ?< written after
tMs manner m," that is, not as v which was at that time inter-
changeable with u in Enghsh and French but not in "Welsli, "is a
vowel and soundeth as the vulgar English tncst, bunj, bust/, Utiber-
den. But know well that it is neuer sounded in Welsh, as it is
done in any of these two Englyshc wordes (notwythstanding the
diuersitie of their sound) sure, lucTce. Also the sound of u in
Erench, or ii with two pricks over the hcade in Duch, or the
Scottish pronunciation of u alludeth somwhat nere vnto the soimd
of it in Welshe, thoughe yet none of them all, doeth so exactly (as
I thynk) exprcssc it, as the Hebraick Kubuts doeth. For the
Welsh u is none other thing, but a meane sounde betwyxte u and y
beyng Latin vowels."
The precise value of the "Welsh n is considered in a note
on the above passage, chapter YIII, § 1, where it is shewn
that it must be considered as the Welsh representative of (y),
and that (i) or {y) is practically the sound it receives. If
then Salesbury had to represent the sound (yy), he could not
have selected any more suggestive Welsh combination than
uiv. To have written uu would have been to give too much of
the (i) or {i) character, for when u was short he did not dis-
tinguish the sound from (i), as shewn by busy which he writes
him, meaning (b/z'i).^ If he had written ww he would have
conveyed a completely false notion, and iiv would have led to
the diphthong (iu) which he wished to distinguish from uw.
1 Gennans who distin^ish their ii and often so pronounced by the "Welsh
from (ii) very clearly when it is long, in familiar conversation. In the same
readily pronounce short ii as (i) es- way Stiele handles and Stiihle chairs,
?ecially when r follows, as (bh»r-d^) for are identified in the common Dresden
)hyr-ae, bhrr-d*') iciirde. The "Welsh pronunciation of German.
« long is heard by Englishmen as (ii)
Chap. III. § 3. U — XVI TH CENTURY. 1G5
Now my own "Welsh master at Beaumaris told me that
"Welsh Diiw and English due, dew were so distinct to a
"Welshman that he could tell an Englishman immediately
by his faidty pronunciation. The ditference may be (diu)
Welsh and (diu) English. It is very difficult to seize, and
some Welshmen themselves deny the difference.^
Adopticg then the hypothesis that Salesbury's mv meant
(yy), but his u short meant (e), so far as the English sounds
which he wished to imitate are concerned, — an hypothesis
which agrees with Palsgrave's remarks and will be confirmed
shorth' — we may represent all the English words containing
u, (or ew jjronounced as u, according to Palsgrave's intima-
tion,) which are transcribed by Salesbury, as follows.
CHinicHE tsurts tsiurts (tsh/rtsh) ecclesia ; duke duwh (dyyk)
dux, suFKEE swffffer (suf-er) sinere, gutte gwt (gut) viscera ; Jesu
tsiesuw (Dzhee'zyy) ; btjcke Iwck (buk) dama mas ; bitll hw (buu)
a rustic pronunciation, qfent; kwin (kwiin) regina ; qtjaktee kwarter
(kwar'ter) quarta pars ; irusE muwws (myyz) meditari ; trestjee
tresuwr (trez-yyi-) thcsaxTnis ; true truw (tryy) verus, this is one of
the words cited by Palsgi-ave, imder the form trewe, as containing
the sound of the French it (y) ; veetue vertutv (ver'tyy) probitas ;
LUST host (hist) Hbido; bust husi (b/z'i), much good do rr you mych
goditio (m/tsh god'itjo). This much contracted phrase is also given
by Cotgrave, 1611, who wiites it muskiditti, meaning perhaps
(mws"k?dit"«), and translates much good may doe unto you}
1555. Cheke says: "Cum duke tuke lute rebuke Svk tvk
XvT pe^vK dicimus, Grajcum v sonaremus." Of this Greek v
he says " simplex est, nihil admixtum, nihil adjimctum
habet," and it was therefore a pure vowel, with which he
identifies the English long u. Mekerch in adopting Cheke's
words changes his examples thus, "quum Gallice )7ni/e, id
est mula, Belgice duken, id est abscondere, ixvk Svk dicimus,
Grsecum v sonamus." Mekerch, therefore, intending to give
the same sound to Greek v as Cheke did, makes it (yy).
This was the sound which Cheke identified with English
long n and declared to be a simple sound, that is, not a
•diphthong.
1 Dr. Benjamin Davics could see no Is^ur, I spcate no treason,
difference in orcUnary conversation, but Father, 0 Godigoden,
admitted that one was attempted to be which is transliterated in the Globe
made in " stilted utterance," and then edition, act iii, sc. 5, v. 173,
it seemed to me to be like (diu). Nur. I speak no treason.
2 The same writer gives as the con- Cap. 0, God ye god-den,
traction for God give you good evening, an evident mistake, as Godi- is a con-
Godigodin, meaning perhaps (Godi- traction for God gVyou. The sentence
gudiin-). lu Romeo and Jidiet, Folio should be as much wrapped up into
1623, Tragedies p. 70 col. 1. we find one word, as the ordinary good bye.
166 U — XVI TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
1568. Sir Thom.ajs Smith is still more precise and circmn-
stantial. He says :
"Y vcl V Gnecum aut Gallicum, quod per se apud nos taxum
jirborem sif^iiticat. taxus u" meaning that yew = sound of Greek v ;
i.e. as lie iinniediately proceeds to shew, and as I shall assume in
transcribing his chai-actcrs, yew = (yy), though perhaps this par-
ticular word was (jyy). The following are his examples : " (snyy)
ningebat, {sljy) occitlit, (tryy) vei-um, (tyyn) tonus, (kyy) q. litera,
(ryy) mta, (niyy) cavea in (|ua tencwtur accipitrcs, (nj-y) novum ;
(tyyhy valetuciinarius, (dyj'k) dux, (myyl) mula, (flyyt) tibia
Gcrmanorum, (dyy) debitum, (lyyt) tcstudo, (brj-y) ceniisia facere,
(myylct) mulus, (blyy) csenileum, (akkyyz)'' accusare."
In this list we have true, rue, mew, which are the same as
Palsgrave's examples of ew sounded as French u ; and dake,
true, the same as Salesbury's examples of u sounded as
"Welsh uw. This would identify both sounds with (yy) if
we could be satisfied of Smith's pronunciation. Now he says
explicitly : —
' ' Quod genus pronunciationis nos a Gallis accepisse arguit, quod
rarius qixidem nos Angli in pronuntiando hac utimur litera. Scoti
autem ([ui Gallica lingua suam veterem quasi obliterarant, et qui
trans Trentam flu-s-ium habitant, viciuiorescpe sunt Scotis, frequen-
tissime, adeo vt quod nos per V Romanum sonamus (u), illi Hbenter
proferunt per v Grfficum aut Gallicum (yy) ; nam et hie sonus tarn
Gallis est peculiaris, ut omnia fere Komane scripta per u et v pro-
fenmt, vt pro Dominus (Domiuyys) et lesvs (Jcs'vys),^ intantum
vt quaj brevia sint natura, vt illud macrum v exprimant melius,
sua proniinciatione longa faciiint. Hunc sonum Anglosaxoncs, de
quibus postca mcntionem faciemus, per y cxprimebant, ut verus
Anglosaxonice tpy. Angli (nuur) meretrix, (kmik) coquus, (guud)
bonum, (bluud) sanguis, (miud) cucuUus, (fluud) fluvius, (buuk)
liber, (tuuk) cepit ; Scoti (nyyr, kyyk, gjyd, blyyd, nyyd, flyyd,
byyk, tyyk)." And again, " 0 rotundo ore et robustius quawi
priores effertur, m angustiore, csetera similis t&j o. Sed v (yy) com-
pressis propemodum labris, multo exilius tenuiusque resonat quam
1 " TuLY, Poorly. ' Tw^y-stomached.' been in consequence often misled to
' A well naaba, how de yeow fare ?' write (tsh) for (k), thus he here prints
' Wa' naaba, but tuhj.' ... Ticaly, vexed, accvz, which should mean (atshtshj7Z-)
ill-tempered, Salop. ... ticilij, restless, an almost impossible combination, but
wearisome, Somerset ; teivhj, small really means (akjTZ-), though I have
and weakly, Dorset. Tewly, qualmish, keptthe incorrectly doubled (k) in the
in delicate health, Essex, [Sir T. text.
Smith's county] and Camb. Tu-all, a * The initial consonant must have
whim, Suff." John Greaves Kail, Chap- been (dzh) or (zh). Probably it was
ters on the East Anglian Coast, 2 vols., mere carelessness on Smith's part to
8vo, 1866, vol. 2. EtjTuological and use (J), as when he wrote c for k. The
Comparative Glossary of the Dialect first vowel, too, is accidentally short, so
and Provincialisms of East Anglia. that (Dzhee-sjjs) or (Dyhee-zjTs), re-
- Smith uses c for (tsh), but he has presents the real sound he intended.
Chap. III. $ 3. U — XVI TH CENTURY. 167
0 aut u, (boot) scapha, (buut) ocrca, (byyt) Scotica pronunciatioiic,
ocrea^ And again in his Greek Pronunciation : " u Grsecum Scoti
& Borei Angli turn exprimuwt cum tauram sonant, & pro hd,
dicuwt cxiliter contractioribus labiis sono suppresso & quasi prait'o-
cato inter i & u bill (byl)."
It is scarcely possible to indicate the sound of (yy) more
clearly and precisely in common language.
Eespecting u short, Smith says :
"VLatinam, apertissimam habemus Angli, quamvis illam non
agnoscimus, jam longo tempore a Gallis magistris decepti: at pro-
nunciatio sonusque noster non potest non agnoscere. Brevis (but) sed,
(luk) fortuna, (buk) dama mas, (mud) limus, (ful) plenus, (pul)
deplumare, (tu) ad; longa (buut) ocrea, (hxuk) aspicere, (buuk)
liber, (muud) ira aut affietus, (fuul) stultus, (puul) piscina, (tun)
duo, etiam."
(Buk) being in Salesbury's list serves to identify the two
methods of symbolisation. " Of course no such fine distinc-
tions as (u, u) are to be expected, nor indeed are they gene-
rally necessary to be insisted on. An attentive examination
of the sounds of fool full in our present pronunciation will
however shew that they contain different vowels (fuul, f^^ll),
each of which can be pronoimced long or short (fuul ful, iml
M) and that these diflfer as (i, i) by the pharyngal action
already explained. As however short (u) rarely if ever
occurs in closed syllables, and {uu) long never occurs m ac-
cented syllables, except before r (j), it would be generaUy
intelligible to make no distinction between (u) and {u) except
in rare instances. One marked difi'erence between the
sounds (?, u) and (i, u) is that (/) may be easily sung to a deep
note, but (i) cannot ; and on the contrary {u) may be sung to
a very high note, but (u) cannot.
1569. Hart calls u long a diphthong, but in his explana-
tion he makes it arise from the attempt to pronounce (i) and
(u) simidtaneouslv, and he clearly points out that both the
lino-ual position of (i) and the labial position of (u) are held
on steadily during the sound of long /«, so that it the (i)
position be relaxed, the sound of (u) results, and it the (u)
position be relaxed the sound of (i) results. _ This, as we
have seen, amounts to a very accurate description ot the
simple sound (yy), which is therefore t^e sound which he
means by the inaccurate title and notation of the diphthong
iu." His words are :
''IS-ow to come to the u. I sayde the Trench, Spanish, & Brutes,
I maye adde the Scottish, doe abuse it with vs m sounde and tor
1 That is, Welsh.
168 U XVI TH CENTURY. CiiAr. III. J 3.
consonant, except the Brutes as is sayd : the French doe neuer
sound it right, but vsurpo ou, for it, the Spanyard doth often vse it
right as we doe, but often also abuse it with vs;' tlie French and
the Scottish in the sounde of a Diplithung : which keeping the
vowels in their due sounds, commeth of i & u, (or verie neare it) is
made and put togitlur vnder one breath, confounding the soundes of
i, & u, togitlu r: wliirh you may perceyue in shaping thereof, if you
take away the inner part of the tongue, from the upper teeth or
Gummes, then shall you sound the u right, or in sounding the
French and Scottish u, holding still your tongue to the vjjpcr teeth
or gums, & opening your lippes somewhat, you shall perceyue the
right sounde of ^." Thus Hart writes : (ui did not mutsh abiuz
dhem), meaning (wi did not mutsh abyyz dhem) as I shall here-
after transliterate his iu.
1573. Baret says, after speaking of tlie sound of v con-
sonant :
"And as for the sound of V consonant' whether it be to be
sounded more shai^ply as in spelling blue or more grosly like oo, as
we sound BooTce, it were long here to discusse. Some therefore think
that this shai-jje Scottish V is rather a diphthong than a vowell,
being compounded of our English e and u, as indeed we may partly
perceyue in pronouncing it, our tongue at the beginning lying flat
in our mouth, and at the ende rising up with the lips also there-
withal! somewhat more drawen togither."
This "would, certainly make a diphthong because there
would be a change of position, but what is the initial sound ?
The tongue does not certainly " lie flat in our mouth for e."
The nearest sounds answering to this description are ((e a, a
o) and it is impossible to suppose any of these to be the
initial of such a diphthong. The only interpretation I can
put on this somewhat confused description is, that Baret was
speaking of the position of the tongue before commencing to
utter any sound, and that when the sound was uttering, the
tongue rose and the lips rounded simultaneou.sly, and this
agrees with the other descriptions, making the sound (yy).
1580. BrxLOKAE says : "XT also hath three soundes: The one of
them a meere consonant, the other two soundes, are both vowels: the
one of these vowels hath a sharpe sound, agi-ecing to his olde and
continued name : the other is of flat sound, agreeing to the olde
and continued sound of the diphthong :ou: but alwaies of short
sounde." And further, translating his phonetic into ordinaiy .spel-
ling: " and for our three sounds used in, v, the French do at this
day use only two unto it : that is, the soxmd agreeing to his old
and continued name, and the sound of the consonant, v."
^ That is, sometimes say (u), and ' Evidently a misprint for vowel,
sometimes (j7), but this is not the I quote from the edition of 1580.
ca^e certainly in modern CustiUian.
Chap. III. § 3. U — XVI TH CENTURY. 1G9
From these two passages it is clear that the " okl and con-
tinued name" of long k in English was the sound of the
French u, that is (yy). The flat sound we shewed in treating
of ou (p. 152), was probably (u). Bullokar adds, where I
translate his phonetic examples into palaeotype :
" U. shai-po, agi-eeing to the sound of his olde and continued
name, is so sounded when it is a sillable by itself, or when it is the
last letter in a sillable, or when it commeth before one consonant,
& : e : ending next after the consonant, in one syllable thus : vuity,
vniuersally prociu'cth vse to be occupied, and leisure allm-eth the
vnruly to the lute : which I write, thus : (yyn«t/ yyneVersaulle."
prokyyrcth yys tun bii okkyyp//ed and leizyyr allyyreth the
un-ryyh' tuu dhe lyyt).
"Cflat is used alwaies after :a: e: or o : in diphthongs, or
next before a single consonant in one sillable, hauiag no : e : after
that consonant, or before a double consonant, or two consonants
next after it : though : e : foUowe that double consonant, or two
consonants all in one or diuerse siUables, thus : the vniust are
ATilucky, not Avorth a button or rush, \Titrusty, ypholding tnimpciy
at their fidl lust : which I write, thus : (dhe mi-dzhust aar un-luki,
not wurth a but'n or rush up-noouldiq trumper« at dheir ful lust).
The word fall is the same as one of Smith's" examples of u
short, and hence fixes the sound of Bvdlokar's u flat, which
he does not otherwise explain.
1611. CoTGRAVE says : " Y is sounded as if you whistle it
out, as in the word a lute." Now the French u (yy) has a
very whistling effect, both tongue and lip being disposed in
a favourable position for the purpose.
1621. Gill is again not so distinct as could be wished, he
merely says, preserving his notation, and his italics :
"V, est tenuis, aut crassa: tenuis v, est in Verho tu vz vse iitor ;
crassa hreuis est u. vt in pronomine us nos^ ; aut longa ii : vt in verho
tu iiz oosE scaturio, aut sensum exeo mori aquce vi expresscB.^''
Gill never alludes to any diphthong (in). He uniformly
uses a single sign, the Roman v, for the sound of long u,
employing the Italic i- for (v). He also uses a single cha-
racter for the diphthong long /, but then he admits that it
is only slightly different from the diphthong (ei). There
are very few indications of the sound he really meant to
express by his v. First we must assume that it was a simple
sound and " thinner" than (uu). This should mean that the
entrance to the lingual aperture was diminished by bringing
the tongue more into the (i) position. But this converts (u)
into (y), and hence leads us "to Gill's v = (yy), as the sound
1 Misprinted uos.
170 U — XVI TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
is always lonf^. Next in his alphabet he calls it v-^iXov,
wliich should imply that it luid the theoretical sound assigned
to the Greek u. This we have seen from Cheke and Smith
was (yy). But then the example in the alphabet is "sur sure
certus," and Salesbuiy says that AVclsh ii is unlike the sound
of Enf^lish tut re. This may mean that !si<re must have been
written siiwr in the nearest Welsh characters, because sur
would have sounded too like (s//r). Hart and Bullokar both
give (syyer). Lastly, in mentioning the words taken from
the French he says: "Kedvite nupera vox ed a rcduco^
mnnimentum pro tempore aut occcmone factum." This should
be the French reduit, with a wrong e added, and hence ought
to establish the value iyy) for Gill's v. This therefore is
the result to which all parts of the investigation tend, so
that we must assume it to be correct. On the other hand
there can be no doubt that the ii, u of Gill were (uu, u).
1633. Butler is unsatisfactory, when he says that :
" a, i, u differing from themselves in quantity differ also in
sound: having one sound Avhen they are long, and another when
they are short, as in 7nane and 7naii, shine and shin, time and tun
appcareth . . . 'Likewise oo and u long differ much in soimd : as in
fool and fule, rood and rude, moot and 7nufe, but when they are
short, they are all one ; for good and gud, Hood and blud, woolf and
widfh.QXQ the same sound."
From this we learn with certainty that short 7i was (u) or
{u), and that long u was not (uu), but we cannot tell whether
it was (yy) or (iu). As long / was (ai) at that time, and no
allusion is made by Butler to its being a diphthong, we are
unable to assume that long u was a simple sound. We
might indeed be led by the following passage to suspect that
Butler had begun to embrace the (iu) sound which must
certainly have widely prevailed, when his work was pub-
lished, although it is not distinctly acknowledged :
"/and u short have a manifest difference fi'om the same long;
as in ride rid, rude rud, dine din, dune dun, titie tin, tune tun ; for
as i short hath the soimd of ee short ; so has u short the sound of oo
short. ... E and i short with w have the very sound of u long :
as in hiw, Icneeiv, true appeareth. But because u is the more simple
and ready way ; and therefore is this sound rather to be expressed
by it:" but he prefers eew for etymological reasons ia '^ breew,
kneew, hJeew, greeic, treew, sneeic,''^ where hreew, treew, sneew are in
Smith's list of words haAing the sound (yy). Butler finally asks
"But why are some of these written AArith the diphthong ew?
whose sound is manifestly different, as in dew, ewe, few, hew, chew,
rew, sew, strew, shew, shrew, peu-ter.^'
1 Misprinted red two.
Chap. III. § 3. U — XVII TH CENTURY. 171
Now dew,feiv, shrew are in Palsgrave's list of (cii) sounds;
and the same, together with strew, are in Smith's (eu) list.
Hence it is clear that Butler distinguished (eu) from the
other sound of u long, and it is possible that his ii long may
have been (iu), but as Hart called (yy) a diphthong and
represented it by (iu), while his careful description deter-
mined it to be (yy), so Butler may have said (yy)=
At any rate it is clear that quite to the close of the xvi th
century, (yy) was the universal pronunciation of long
u in the best circles of English life, and that it remained
into the xvii th century we shall shortly have further
evidence. Provincially it is still common. In East
Anglia, in Devonshire, in Cumberland, as well as in
Scotland, (yy) and its related somids are quite at home.
The southerns are apt to look upon these dialectic forms
as mispronunciations, as mistakes on the part of rustics
or provincials. They are now seen to be remnants of
an older pronunciation which was once general, or of a
peculiar dialectic form of our language of at least equal
antiquity. The sound of short u was also always (u) or
(u). There is no hint or allusion of any kind to such a
sound as (a). The (u), still common in the provinces,
was then universal.
U — XVII TH Century.
1640. Ben Joj^son says: "Y is sounded with a narrower, and
meane compasse, and some depression of the middle of the tongue,
and is, like our letter i. a letter of double power."
By this he probably only means that it was both a vowel and
a consonant (v). In his notes he gives quotations concern-
Greek V, ov, the latter of which he identifies with (uu),
though the cry of the owl, which is rendered tti tu in
Plautus, Menechmi, act iv, sc. 2, v. 90.
Me. Egon' dedi ? Fe. Tu, tu istic, inquam. vin' affem noctuam,
Quse, Tu, Tu, usque dicat tibi? nam nos, jam nos defessi sumus.
From these notes Jonson may have possibly distinguished
long and short « as (yy, u).
1653. Wallis clearly recognizes (yy) as long n and dis-
tinguishes it carefully from the diphthong (iu). He says :
" Ibidem etiam," that is, in lab us, " sed Minoii adhuc apertma"
than (uu), " fonnatur u exile; Anglis simul et GaUis notissimum.
Hoc sono Angli suum u longum ubique profenint (nonnunquam
etiam eu et etv quae tamen rectius pronunciantm- retcnto etiam sono
e masculi') : TJt muse, musa ; ftme, modulatio ; lute, barbitum ;
1 That is, as (eu).
172 TJ — XVII TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
dure, duro ; mtde, mutus ; new, noviis ; hrew, miscco (rerevisiam
co(iuo) ; knew, novi ; view, aspitio ; lieu, vice, etc. Hunc sonum
extrauei fere assequcntur, si diplithong^m iu concntiir pronunciare ;
nempe ? exile littenc u vel w ])nepoucntes, (ut in Ilispaiionim
ciudad civitas,') non tameu idem est oiiininb sonus, quainvis ad
ilium proximo accedat ; est cnim iu sonus compositus, at Anglorum
et Galloiiim u sonus simplex. Carabro-Eritunni hunc fere sonum
utcun<[ue per iw, yw, uw describuut, ut in Uiw color ; Ihjw guber-
naculum navis ; Duw Dcus, aliis(|ue innumeris."
Wallis therefore distinctly recognized the identity of the
English and French sounds, and says that they are different
from the diphthong (iu) because they are simple and not
compound sounds, but approach nearly to that diphthong,
e\'idently because (yy) unites the lingual position of (i) with
the labial position of (u). He also notices the proximity of
the Welsh iw, yw, uw to the sound of (yy), and thus explains
how Salesbury came to hit upon uw as the best combination
of Welsh letters to convey an approximate idea of the sound
to his countrymen. Further on he saj'S :
"CT longum etf'ertiu' ut Gallonim u exile. Ut in Ude barbitum,
mute mutus, miise musa, cure cura, etc. Sono nempe quasi com-
posite ex i et ic,"
where he saves himself from the diphthong by a " quasi."
As regards short it he says :
" U vocaUs quando conipitur effertur sono obscuro. Ut in hut
sed, mt seco, hur lappa, lurst raptiis, curst maledictus, etc. Sonum
hunc Galli proferunt in ultima syllaba vocis serviteur. Diffcrt a
GaUonim e feminino, non ahtcr quam quod ore minus aperto
efferatui". Discrimcn hoc animad'sertent Angli dum pronunciant
voces Latinas Her, itur ; ter ter, turtur ; cerdo surdo; ternus Tur-
nus ; terris turris ; refertum, furtum, 8:^^
In his theoretical part he gives the following further
particulars of the French e fcemininum and the d obscurum.
" Eodem loco," that is, in summo gutture, " sed apertura faucium
mediocri," i.e. less than for (aa), "fomiatur Gallonim e fcemininum;
sono nempe obsciu-o. Kon aHter ipsius fonnatio differt a fonnatione
pra^cedentis d aperti (aa), quam quod magis contrahantur fauces,
minus autem quam in formatione Vocalis sequentis (o). Hunc
sonum AngH vix uspiam agnoscimt ; nisi cum vocalis e brevis im-
mediate pra3cedat Uteram r (atque hoc quidem non tam quia debeat
sic efferri, sed quia vix commode possit aUter ; licet enim, si citra
molestiam fieri possit, etiam illic sono vivido, hoc est, masculo,
effen-e ;) ut vertue viiius, liberty Ubertas «S:c.
* ' Ibidem etiam, sed Minori adhuc faucium apertura sonatur 6
vel ii obscui-um. Differt a Gallorum e fceminino non aUter quam
1 The English usually call this word s ^iuz haaz f-); the iu represents the pure
(thiudaad-), it is probahly (ciucaac* = (iu) diphthong.
Chap. III. § 3. U — XVII TH CENTURY. 173
quod ore minus apcrto, labia proprius accedant. Eundcm sonum
fere efFcnmt Galli in postrema syllaba vocum servitet<r, sacrijicateur,
etc. Angli plerunKjue expiimunt per u breuc, in turn, verto ; burn,
uro ; dull, signis, obtusus ; cut, seco, etc. Nonnunquam o et ou
negligentius prommtiantes codem sono effonint, ut in cdme, venio ;
sdme, aliquis ; ddne, actum ; conqmuy, consortium ; country, rus ;
couple, par ; c6vet, eoncupisco ; I6ve, amo, aliisque aliquot ; quae
alio tamcn sono rectius cfferri deberent. Cambro-Bntanni ubique
per y scribunt ; nisi quod banc literam in ultimis syllabis plerumque
lit i efferant."
Wallis therefore heard the French feminine c in the last
syllable of serritciir, sacrificaieur. In this he agrees with
Feline, who draws a distinction between the first and second
syllable of heureux, making the first the same as the sound
now considered.^ But Wallis makes the aperture of the
lingual passage grow smaller at the back for d, c feminine, H,
the fii'st being (aa) with the greatest depression, and he has
an action of the lips for ii. This ought to give (aa, a, u)
for the three sounds. But this cannot be right for 0,, because
"Wallis distinguished it from (u). Hence we must disregard
the lip action of the last, and write (aa, a:, ce). This how-
ever, is scarcely probable. There is another difiiculty. The
sound of e in tcrnus is not at present formed with a wider
opening of the mouth than the sound of it in Turniis. When
any distinction at all is made it is rather the reverse.^ The
^ See supra, p. 162, note 3. Tarver deux sons des premieres voyelles a et d,
gives the same vowel sound to le, feu, e et e, o et 6. Ce rapport est en effet si
Mao'pe, n(K?<d, 'peut, ail, aut(7<r, bonhf ?n\ bien marque, que, dans une foule de
Feline makes the vowel soimd in mots, comme jeune, pacheur, on fait
\e, £i{Tope, pmt, a?il, autrar, bonh??<r entendre le son de Ve som'd et non
the same ; but distinguishes it fi-om celui de Yen tcl qu'il est doime par les
that in feu, iicei(d. In M. Feline's J/e'. mots Jeune, 2}6eheuse." Now to my ears
moire sur la Reforme de V Alphabet pre- a a, e e, o 6 are (a a, e e, o o). In the
fixed to his Dictionnaire cJe la pronon- first two pairs the circumflexed vowel
ciation de la lanc/ue Franqaise, giving expresses a deeper sound, formed by
an account of the deliberations of a depressing the tongue; in the last pair
committee on French pronunciation, the uncircuniflcxcd vowel is the ^vide
formed at his request, he says : " La sound of the circumflexed. The re-
conclusion ftit que Xe muet proprement lations then beiug different do not lead
dit existe dans I'orthographe, mais non to the discovery of the relations be-
pas dans la langue ; que, dans tons les tween e, eu. These may be, that for
mots oil il est necessaii-e de le pro- eu the tongue is more depressed than
noncer, il exprime un son reel comme for e, which would suit for e, eu = {&,
tous les autres signes, et que ce son ce) ; or it may be that exi is the wide of
devrait eti-e appele sourd et non pas e, this would suit e, eu = (.?, ce), which
muet, cette derniere denomination n' agrees with my own pronunciation,
etant qu'un non-sens. Apres Ve on ^ Mr. M. Bell who says (.to, a) in
passa au son eu. On recounut qu'il ternus, Tunius respectively, makes the
existe bien dans la-langue fran(;aise, et opening for (a) -Nv-ider than for (oo). I
Ton remarqua qu'il presente avec Ve would rather write (t.rnas, Ta-nas) re-
que je viens d'appeler sourd le meme spectively, if any diii'erence at all haa
rapport qu'on avait trouve entre les to be recognized.
174 U — XVII TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
peculiarity of the sraallcr linf^ual aperture and the action of
the lips may however bring us to (?/h) as the last sound, and
induce us to consider the three sounds as (aa, o, uh). So far
as the English passage of short u from (u) or (u) to (a), the
present sound, is concerned (iih) forms a very appropriate
link, because Englislinien find it difficult to distinguish the
Italian sonunn (sz^hni'maj from (sum'a) on the one hand and
(soni'a) on the other. And we have seen (p. 94) that in 1611,
the Italian Florio actually identified English («) with Italian
(^h), just as 1685, Cooper identified (», o), p. 101. But this
sound hardly agrees with Wallis's identification of u with
the Welsh y. On this sound, see the footnote on Y, in
Chapter YIII, § 1, when it appears that the "Welsh soimd
represents the vowel {o) but that in common discourse it
passes into (a) on the one hand, and (/) on the other, and
may be always sounded (/). Wallis no doubt referred to the
sound (o).
Lastl}', if we reflect that {(e) is the de-labialized (u), and
that this would be a natural transition from (u) to (a), we
might revert to the original deduction from "NYallis's descrip-
tion, and make his ti = {oe).
On the whole I am inclined to think that the three sounds
he meant were (aa, a, a). Many English consider the
French e muet, or sourd, to be deeper than (a), but of the
same nature. The question however is impossible to decide,
and I think it safest to transliterate a, e feminine, u by (aa,
ao, a), which indicates the modern pronunciation of the
English vowels.
The great peculiarity, the marked singularity, of "NYallis's
account, is the recognition and introduction of a sound re-
sembling (a) into the English language in place of (u). Of
this sound no trace appears in any former writer that I have
consulted.^ But from this time forth it becomes the common
sound. "VYallis in this respect marks an era in English pro-
1 In the passage cited from Gill to indicate the sounds (j9, jdt skalarz,
supra p. 90, in which he inveighs t^), for which he had no symbols. This
acTiunst the thin utterance of affected is the closest allusion to the sound that
womcn,wefiud(be'tshcrz)for (butsherz). I have discovered. For though the
This is quite comparable to the Eastern accoimt given by Florio, 1611, p. 94,
English (kiver) for (kuver), which which identifies short (u) with (wh),
GilT had just mentioned, and appears might seem to indicate (a) as well as
to have no connection with the sound (k), yet as the Italians confuse (a)
(batsh-er) which is only heard from a rather with (a), which is nearly its
small number of people at the present wide form, than with {uh), and as (m,
dav. But when he says that these wh) would probably be indistinguishable
affected dames said (.la, jar skalerz, ta) to an Italian ear, the inference is rather
for (jou, juur skolars, tu), it is just that the sound really uttered before
possible that he might have intended Florio was (m) and not (a).
Chap. III. § 3. u — XVII TH CENTURY. 175
nimciation, tlie transition between the old and tlic new.
This is more striking, because as he is the first to give ii
short as (a), so is he practically the last to give u long as
(yy) except dialectically.
At the present day (yy) has vanished from polite society,
and is only heard as a provincialism, from Norfolk, Devon,
or Cumberland, or as a Scotticism. No pronouncing dic-
tionary admits the sound under any pretence. Indeed most
English people find it very difiicult to pronounce, either long
or short, and consequently play sad tricks with French. But
the case is difierent with (n, o). The two sounds coexist in
many words. Several careful speakers say (tu pot, botsh'er),
though the majority say (tu p?/t, b^/tsh'er). All talk of a
put (pst). Walker gives the following as the complete list
of words in which u short is still {u).
bull, pull, full, and words compounded with -ful; hulloclc, hilly,
hidlet, bulwark, fuller, fullingmiU, pulley, pullet, push, hush, bushel,
pulpit, puss, hullio)i, butcher, cushion, cuckoo, pudding, sugar, [he
makes sure = (shixu)], hussar, huzza, and to put, with Fulham,^ but
says that " some speakers, indeed, have attempted to give bulk and
punish this obtuse sound of xi, but luckily have not been followed.
The words •«'hich have aheady adopted it are sufficiently numerous ;
and we cannot be too careful to check the growth of so unmeaning
an irregularity."
Here the orthoepist unfortunately reverses the order of
things, and esteems "the old and continued" sound of {u) an
irregularity, and what is more, an "unmeaning irregularity,"
and is not aware that every change of {u) to (o) has been
a modern encroachment. But if the territories of {u) and
(o) can be so strictly defined in the south of England, in the
middle- and north the war is still raging, and though educa-
tion has imported large quantities of (o) from the south, even
magnates in the north often delight to use their old {u).^
1 Smurt adds, buUace,fullat/e,fiillert/, Hwlk) they are not common, but may
cushat, hurrah ! to the above list. It is be heard ; (p;m-»sh) was heard lately
curious that Walker (art. 177) speaks from an educated gentleman iu Cornwall.
oi fulsome as a "piure English word," - In the Midland counties the South-
and Smart (art. 117) calls it a word " of ern usage is almost reversed, (pat, fat)
classical derivation." Orthoepists are standing beside (kwt, k?<m).
not always good in etymology, but » A Yorkshire country gentleman
Walker appears to have the best of it who wrote his name Button, and whom
here, and if, as seems more than pro- all his friends called (nat-n), always
\ia\AQ, fulsome is a derivative oi full, spoke of himself as (H?<t-n), and on
(the Promptorium has ftdsunness of one occasion spelled his name so to me
mete, sacietas,) there would be a reason with phonetic letters. He would have
for retaining the soimd (f«l) in the first been about 90 years old now, were he
syllable. At any rate the usage of still alive. All the Yorkshire and Mid-
speakers with regard to (fwl-SEmJ and land peasantry use (m) as a matter of
(fal-SBm) varies greatly. As to (bi<lk, course.
176 U — XVII TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 3.
That there is nothing intrinsically pleasing in the sound
of ( o), may be seen at once by calling good, ntood (g8d stod),
to rhyme with blood, flood, (blod, Had). Those speakers,
to whom (w?^) presents a difficulty are apt to change it into
(wo) as (wad, wam'cn) for (w;^d, w//m*Bn), and the effect is
anything but pleasing. In general the long Saxon (oo),
which tii'st became (uu) and then fell into (u) or [u), has
resisted the further change into (a). This difference of
evolution is similar to that which has befallen i, ei, at,
which Shakspere pronounced sufficiently alike to introduce
a conceit upon them in one of his most tragic speeches,
already cited (p. 112), but which have become three quite
distinct sounds (ai, ii, ee\), (p. 120). Both changes have
occurred rather among the reading than the merely speaking
section of our population.
1668. WiLKixs and "Wallis were contemporaries ; although
the latter was the elder, and born in Kent, and the
former was born in Oxford, they lived as fellow collegians
for some time in Oxford, and they mixed in the same society.
Yet we have a striking difference in their pronunciation of
long w. AVe have seen how ^VaUis identified the French
and English n, how he considered the (yy) sound to be
familiar to all Englishmen, and especially distinguished it
from the diphthong (iu), and this he continued to do through
all the editions of his grammar. Wilkins at the same
moment can scarcely pronounce (yj') at all, denies that
Englishmen use it, and makes every long u into (iu).
"As for the u Gallicum or ^cTiutling «<" says he, p. 363, "though
it camiot be denied to be a distinct simple rowel ; yet it is of so
laborious and difficult pronimciation to all those Nations amongst
whom it is not used, (as to the Enghsh) especially in the distinction
of long and short, and framing of Dipthongs, that though I have
enumerated it with the rest, and shall make provision lor the ex-
pression of it, yet shall I make less use of it, than of the others ;
and for that reason, not proceed to any further cxpUcation of it."
And again, p. 382, "u," which is his character for (yy), "is I think
proper to the French and used by none else."
This is a strong contradiction to Wallis, whose treatise
Wilkins had read, and apparently studied.^ The only word
which contains long u that "Wilkins transliterates, is commu-
nion, and this he writes (kAmmiuumAn), using (iuu) and not
(yy) in the accented syllable.
^ He says, p. 357, " Dr. Wallis .... and subtlety to have considered the
amongst aU that I have seen published. Philosophy of Articulate sounds."
seems to me, with greatest Accurateness
Chap. III. § 3. U — XVII TH CENTURY. 177
Short M is thus exemplified by "^yilkins and distinguished
from (uu, u), meaning (uu, u) most probably:
(u) short full flit pul
(uu) loHff boote foole foote moote poole roode
(a) short but fulP futt^ mutt-ow pull' mdd-er
(aa) lonff amongst
The sound, which he represents by y with a peculiar
flourish added to its tail, and which I have translated into
ray (a), he describes as "a simple letter, apert, sonorous,
guttural ; being framed by a free emission of the breath
from the throat."^ Again, p. 364, he says "the vowel (a)
is wholly Guttural, being an emission of the breath from the
throat without any particular motion of the tongue or lips.
'Tis expressed by this character," a variety of y, "which is
already appropriated by the "Welsh for the picture of this
sound." As he here rejects both tongue and lips in the
formation of (a) he differs considerably' from AYallis in ex-
plaining its formation. In another place he says that the
Hebrew " Schevah" is rapidly pronounced " probably as our
short (a)." He gives (ai, au) as the analysis of " our
English i in bite," and of the sound in " oicv, oivle." And
finally he says: "y" meaning (a) "is scarce acknowledged
by any nation except the Welsh." The words in which he
employs this sign, omitting the combinations (ai, au) are :
kingdom, come, done, but, Jesus, son, under, Pontius, buried,
third, Judge, church, resurrection, which he writes (k/q'dam,
kam, dan, bat, Dzhesas, san, ander, PAns/as, bar/,ed, thard,
dzhadzh, tshartsh, resarreksioon), in which I give all his
errors. I assume this sound to be (a) both in Wallis and
Wilkins, but what particular shade of this sound they pro-
nounced, and whether they both used the same shade, it
would be rash to assert.
16G8. Price does not help us to the sound of short u
when he says :
"The u is twofold, 1. short, as in hut, must, hurst, 2. long as in
lute, rmise, refuse as if it were the compound of iw."
This iw may mean (iu), agreeing with Wilkins, but it
may also mean (yy) agreeing with Wallis. I am inclined to
treat it as (iu). The short u I have, on the combined
^ These words judging from futt, are viously written with one final consonant
all fancy words, (fal, fat, pal), intro- to indicate the sound (?/). If this
duced to contrast with the {tu\, tut, theory be correct, the word full in the
pwl), in a preceding line, and most first line, was a misprint for /?//.
probably the doubling of the final con- * This description is made up from
sonant was intended to indicate the the different headings of the table
sound (a), whereas fuf, pul were pre- p. 360.
12
178 U — XVllTU CENTIKY. Chap. III. § 3.
authority of "Wallis and "Wilkins, been in the habit of con-
sidering to be (o). The following notices agree with this :
"0 at'ttr w soundos like short u as world, xtvord, woma7}, won. . . .
0 bi'lore m or n m tlu' last syllable soundcs like short u as freedom,
rechon, bacon. ... Ou soundes like short u in cousin, double,
courage.^^
But tliere is one notice which, thus interpreted, has a
singular etiect : " Oo soundes like short h in good, icool, hood,
wood, stood." The general use of (gad, wal, nad, wad, stad)
is difficult to believe in, though it is well known provincially,
and is also mentioned by Jones, (p. 183).
1669. Though Holder's work was not published till this
year, Wilkins had seen it in manuseri2)t, and speaks higlily
of it.^ Yet in the letter u, both long and short, Holder
differs from AVilkins. Holder has very acutely anticipated
Mr. M. Bell's separation of the lingual and labial passages,
and the possibility of adding a labial passage to every lingual
one. He says :
In 0 the laiynx is depressed, or rather drawn back by contraction
of the aspera arteria. And the tongue likewise is drawn back and
curved ; and the throat more open to make a round passage : and
though the lips be not of necessity, yet the di-awing them a little
rounder, helps to accompHsh the pronunciation of it, which is not
enough to (lenominate it a labial voavcI, because it receives not
its articulation from the Hps. Oo seems to be made by a Ukc
posture of the tongue and throat with o but the larynx somewhat
more depressed. And if at the same time the lips be contracted,
and borne stiffly near together, then is made 8 ; ic with the tongue
in the posture of i but not so stiff, and the lip bomc near the upper
Hp by a strong tension of the muscles, and bearing upon it at either
comer of the mouth."
" fe is made by the throat and tongue and lip ; in 8 the tongue
being in the posture, which makes oo ; and in m in the same posture,
which makes /, and in this S and u are peculiar, that they are
fi-amed by a double motion of organs, that of the lip, added to that of
the tongue ; and yet either of them is a single letter, and not two,
because the motions are at the same time, and not successive, as arc
1 He says: "But besides such," have had to peruse from i\\G\r private
namely, " in later times .... Erasmus, papers the distinct Theories of some
both the Scali<,^Lrs, Lipsius, Salma.sius, other Learned and Ingenious persons,"
Vossius, Jacobus Mathias, Adolphus Dr. "William Holder and Mr. Lodowick
Mctkcrchus, Bcrnardus Malinchot, etc., are named in the margin, "who have
besides several of our countrymen, Sir with great judgment applyed their
Thomas Smith, Bullokar, Alexander thoughts to this enquiry ; in each of
Gill, and Doctor "Wallis," "(whose con- whose Papers, there are several sug-
siderations upon this subject are made gestions that are new, out of the com-
publick) I must not forget to acknow- mon rode, aud very considerable."
ledge the favour and good hap I have
CnAr. III. ^ 3. U — XVII TH CENTURY. 179
eu, pla &c. Yet for tMs reason they seem not to he absolutely so
simple vowels as the rest, because the voice passeth successively
from the tlu'oat to the lips in 8 and from the palate to the lips in u,
being there first moulded into the figures of oo and i, before it be
fully articulated by the lips. And yet either these two, 8 and u,
are to be admitted for single vowels, or else we must exclude the
lips from being the organs of any single vowel since that the mouth
being necessary to conduct the voice to the Kps, will, according to
the shape of its ca\ity, necessarily give the voice some particular
affection of sound in its passage, before it come to the lips ; which
will seem to make some such composition in any vowel wliich is
labial. I have been inclined to think, that there is no labial vowel,
but that the same affection from the lips may, somewhat in the nature
of a consonant, be added to every of the vowels, but most subtlely
and aptly to two of them, whose figures are in the extremes of
aperture and situation, one being the closest and forwardest, which
is «', and the other most open and backward ; there being reason to
allow a vowel of like sound in the throat with s, but distinct from
it as not being labial, which will be more familiar to our eye if it
be written oo ; as in cut coot, full fool, tut toot, in which the lip
does not concur ; and this is that other. Thus u will be only i
labial, and 8 will be oo labial, that is, by adding that motion of the
under-lip, '/ will become u, and oo will become 8." He proceeds to
use his i, ti, 8 in the formation of diphthongs and concludes thus :
" Concerning 8 and v,, this may be observed, that in subjoining
them to another vowel, 8 is apter to follow a and o, because of
their resemblance in the posture of the tong-ue, as hath been said ;
and for the like reason u is apter to follow a and e, as \iOLsl wawl ;
euge etc. But generally if the vowels follow, then it is 8 precedes
and not ?/."
No doubt tlie descriptions give very accurately oo = (oece),
8 = (uu), u = (i) or (y). And the short (ce) would then be
Holder's sound in fid/. Now it is impossible to believe that
fool was ever pronounced (frpopl), the sound being extremely
difficult to any one but a Highlander (in whose word /aogh it
occurs), until the trick of removing the labial action from
(uu) has been acquired. But if we remember that now full
is rather {fu\) than (ful) ; and that the widening of the back
of the throat, by which (u) differs from (u) is so much the
most essential part of the sound, that a very good imitation
of it can be produced with the mouth wide open, it is very
probable that Holder called fool full at least when theorizing
(find M). The pairs of examples he gives are cut coot, full
fool, tut toot, of which cut, tut would have been (kat, tat)
according to Wallis and Wilkins, who would have perhaps
preserved the old pronunciation (M) or (ful). Hid Holder
say or intend to say (k?^t kuut, ftd f/nd, tut tuid) ? In this
case he must have altogether ignored the vowel (o). Or did
180 U — XVII TII CENTURY. Chap. III. J 3.
he mean to say (kat koot, fol fool, tat toot) ? or did he mean
— what he lias written — (k^'t \ifpa>t, i\c\ fawl, toet tcea't) ?
sounds which ho may have imagined he said, but which other
people are scarcely likely to have really pronounced. The
distinction which Holder makes between the vowels in fool,
tico is peculiar to himself. Wilkins gives fool as an example
of the long (uu), and full as an example of both the short
(u) or {li} and of (e), supra p. 177, note 1. This throws a
doubt over the pronunciation of this particular word ./«//, and
renders Holder's explanations still more mysterious. Can
it be that Ilolder's pronunciation was very peculiar so that
he actually confused (?/, o) at a time when the transition
from old {u) to (o) was coming into vogue ? His ice) would
not be a bad middle between the extremes of {ii, o). His long
u in rule, which is usually now (uu), was manifestly (yy), if
his explanation of superadding the labial to the lingual effect
is to be trusted. His only notice of a diphthongal u is in the
word eiige, just cited, which must have been (eydzhe), if his
explanation is to be relied on, but this is very doubtful.
1685. Cooper pairs the vowels mfiill, folc, or as he some-
times writes foalc^ that is, in full he takes the vowel to be
short (o). He may however have used {u) or (wh). See
the discussion on p. 84, and the passage quoted on p. 101.
The observations in that passage serve to shew that u in
full had at that time much of the (o) element in it ; that
some persons may have pronounced it quite as (o) ; and
others as (u) the usual sound into which (o) degenerates,
or {li), which is the more common English sound ; the true
short (u) is so unusual to our organs, that when we hear it
we take it for the long (uu), and w^e can hardly pronounce
it except when long. The English (uu, v) as has been
already mentioned, are related precisely like the English
(ii, i). I shall, as ali'eady stated, p. 84, consider that Cooper
pairs {oo, u). But Cooper also distinguished (uu, u) in food
foot, see supra p. 101. He illustrates this sound by German
znfincli (misprint for zuflitcht as shewn by the meaning rc-
fugium) and French coupe poculum, now (tsuu'flukht, kup).
Cooper is very copious upon short 2i which he clearly
means to be (a) or one of those vowels, as (a, (e), which he
would scarcely distinguish from (a). The long u he makes
(iu) and seems to have great difficulty in understanding the
French u (yy). His words are :
" U fonnatur tantum in gutture, a laryngc spiritum vibrante,
* As fool used to be ■written fole, the more common spelling foale could
nothing but Cooper's having once used have shewn us what word he meant.
Chap. III. § 3.
V — XVII Til CENTUIIY.
181
nudum efficiente murmur, quod idem est cum gemitu hominis ajgiitu-
dine vel dolore excruciati ; quod(]^?<e infantes (priusquam loqui
valeant) piimum eduut : Et fundamentum est, a quo oinnes ccetera
vocales, varia modificatione constituuntui' ' .... Hunc sonum cor-
rcptum vix unquam aKter pi'onunciant Angli quam in 7iut nux ;
prout etiam in Kngiia latina, ni ubi consonans prajcedcns sit labialis,
ut prius dixi, et labiis dat formam qu& sonus plenior effertur, ut in
pull vello, inter bos minima- datur, datur tamen speciiica, diffe-
rentia ; ille etcnim sonus dilutior est, hie plenior, ille formatur a
larynge tantum in gutture, hie a labiis contractis ; dum ita(|ue o
labiis formatur in sono continuato, si recedant labia in oblongam
formam fonuatur u gutturalis;^ in quibusdam soribitur per o ut,
to come^ vcnii-e ; Galli hoc modo, vel saltern persimili,^ oKm sonarunt
^ The natural vowel, should be the
sound of the voice, that is of the vocal
ligaments or glottal reed, ■without any
resonance tube, p. 161. This it is of
course impossible to hear. But it must
resemble the reed sound of the clarionet
or hautboy, or the whistle of the flute
or flageolet, and contain in itself all
the tones which the variously formed
resonance tubes prefixed to it in speak-
ing, by means of the pharynx, nose,
tongue, mouth and lips, develop or
render audible. It is as the resonance
tubes clearly separate the tones, or allow
many nearly coincident to be heard to-
gether, that we obtain distinct or con-
fused, coloured or colourless, vowel
qualities of tone.
* This remark is important as shew-
ing the ease with which {u, a') were
confused by speakers at the time of the
transition of short u from (m) to (a).
" If the lips be mechanically opened
by the hands while we are pronouncing
(oo) we shall pronounce (aa), which is
the form that Mr. M. Bell adopts for
the long sound of w in up. Hence
Cooper is quite consistent when he
makes u in full the short (o), and ii
in nut the delabialised short (o) or (a).
This is the most accurate description
of the sound that I have met with in
any old book, and may be advantage-
ously compared with Holder's, given
above p. 178.
* Probably to is not intended as an
example, but only come. Both are
italicized in the original.
* As Mr. M. Bell hears (a) in
English tip and (a) in French que, and
(a, a) only difl"er as back and mixed
vowels of the same class. Cooper's ear
was not far out. To me however now,
the French e in que sounds [a), which
is a ' round' vowel. English eai-s,
however, readily confound (as, a, (e ;
0, ce, ah) with one another and with
(e), and (i). "Wliat was however the
old pronunciation of the present French
mute e'i Meigret, 1550, -writes the
same vowel in the first and last syllables
of "merite, benite, perir, mere, pere,"
which Feline writes (m«rit, bmit, perir,
meer, peer) with two difiierent vowels.
I understand Meigret to mean {e) in
both cases. But the lightly spoken
unaccented («) di'ifts very easily into
(b, 8, 9). From {e) therefore (») could
have easily descended. In fact (a) is
only the 'round' or labialized [e). ThijB
recalls an apparently inexplicable re-
mark by Palsgrave, 1530, who says:
" If e be the laste vowell in a frenche
worde beynge of many syllables, e}i;her
alone or with an s folowynge him, tlie
worde nat hav'j'ng his accent upon the
same e, then shall he in that place be
sounded almost like an o and very moche
in the noose, as these words homme,
femme, hontste, park, homines, feimnea,
honestes, avecques, shall have the\T histe
e sounded in maner lyke an o, as liomtno,
feinmo, honestOy parlo. hoinmos, femmot,
honestos, avecqiios ; so that, if the reder
lyft up his voyce upon the syllable that
commeth nexte before the same e, and
sodaynly depresse his voyce whan he
Cometh to the soundynge of hym, and
also sound hym very moche in the noose,
he shall sounde e be\-ng written in this
place accordyug as the Frenclimen do.
Which upon this warnnige if the lerner
wyll observe by the Irenche mens
spekjTige, he shall easily perceyue."
The' nasality may bo an erroneous
observation, "and the whole historj- may
be a clumsy expression of the sound of
(?), for which the rounding of the lips
suggested (o). See supra, p. 119, note,
col. 2.
182 V — XVII TII CENTURY. CiiAP. III. } 3.
fiTcmininum e, ut in providence. Gorniani syllabus ham^ kberg"^ in
pro]M-iirt noininilms. Nunquain in proprio sono apiul nos productum
audivi, ui in musica modulationc,' vel inter populos, praciipu^
pueros ciiiictuTiter pronunciautcs ; pro longa onim vocali assumit
dipthonp^uin eu (m) ; undo ctiam dunoniinatur ; ut mute niutus ;
prout in Neuter, "^evho^, idem fere cum Gallorum u de quo inter
dipthongos dicotur."
" J5'in will, weal (/, ee) cum u (u) eoalosocns nobis familiarissimus
est, quern vocaraus u Ion gum; ut funeral funus, huge inus ;* juice
8UCCUS, scribimus per ew ; ut chew mastico ; knew cognovi ; aliisq?/e
temponbus vorbonim proctcritis ; quando syllabam finalom claudit,
additur e, true vcrus ; rarb per eu, rheum rhcuma ; sic semper pro-
nunciamus eu latinum, & eu Grra)cum : et Galli plerumq?<^ illoi-um
u, quandoqwe autem subtiliiis quasi sonus esset simplex, sed hsec
difficilis »& Gallis propria."
The last words sliow that his confusion of (yy) Tvith (iu)
in French pronunciation was really fault of ear, and that he
was quite ignorant of (yy) as an English sound. Cooper is
very particular in shewing how all vowels fall into (a) in un-
accented syllables before r. These will be considered under R.
1G88. MiEGE of course hears the English long u as the
French, but as the diphthong (iu) does not occur in French,
this only shews the same defect of ear which makes him
identify short u in cut with French o (o), and short u in us
with French eic (oc). He says :
"La Prononciation commune de I'U Voyclle en Anglois est la
memo qu'en Francois. Mais, entre deux Consonnes dans une meme
Syllabe, elle se prononce ordinairemcnt en o ; Comme hut, cut, ruh,
up, humble, wider, run. Quequefois en ou ; Exemple chuse, puss,
bull, pull, full. En eu, comme tis, facultg, difficult, difficulty. Bury
& busy se prononcent beiy, bisy. Et dans les Mots qui finisscnt en
ure, I'm scmble revetir le Son d'un e feminin, sur tout quand on
parlc vite. Comme nature, picture, fracture, qui se prononcent
ftimilierement naiter, picter, frecter." And again: "U vowel, by
it self, is pronounced in French according to the Sound it has in the
"Word Abuse in English.
1701. JojfES says : "the Sound of ^ in bid, cut, &c. is the Soimd
1 Dr. Froenibling, in his Elements of Frocmbling (who speaks English ex-
the German Language, 2nd edit. 1865, cellently) hit upon this contrivance,
p. 2, says that the German a " is pro- Cooper having heard ham as (nam) in
nounced like a in father, if long ; and proper names only, must have been
like M in hut it' short." This is the mistaken ; German proper names do
only other instance I know in which not end in ham but in heim.
German short rt has been identified with ^ This must have been a mere
English (a) ; it is usually confused with .i\jiglicism.
English (a), which however would give ^ One of the best means of obsen'-
a very broad Austrian pronunciation, ing the prolonged effect of short vowel
and it was to avoid this on the one sounds,
hand, and (a;) on the other, that Dr. ^ Misprint for ingena or immensua ?
Chap. III. J 3. u — XVII TH CENTURY. 183
of the natural hiimane Yoice, and therefore the ea.sicst of all the
Sounds that are made by the humane Voice."
And yet this easy sound is a stumbling block to all Eu-
ropean nations, and is rarely heard except among Asiatics.
It may be doubtful indeed whether the Asiatics pronounce
the same variety of (a) as we do. Many Welslimen do not
admit it as a proper Welsh sound, though their language is
supposed to have an appropriate letter // to represent it. As,
however, y in Welsh also represents another sound, it cannot
be more properly considered the special representative of (a)
than the English u, so that there is really no European means
of representing the sound, although, owing to its supposed
relation to the French e mute, (s), so many writers have em-
ployed an inverted e, that this has been adopted as the best
understood form in palaeotype. The sound of long ?«, Jones
says, is compound, but he does not analyze it.
Jones gives many lists for the representation of the sound
of short u by various vowel forms, which need not be cited at
length as they agree generally with modern use. In the fol-
lowing words the italic letter might be, or occasionally was
sounded as (a) according to Jones.
Christmas, WilK«m, &c ; centamy, restffwration, &c ; fastm,
listm, &c ; aspen, burden, chicken, cozen, &c ; yeoman ; bez/1, civ^l,
dev?'l, &c ; basm, cabm, coiFm, &c ; Westmwster ^'soimded West-
muster;" boil, coil &c = (boil, koil) &c ; another, mother, pother
&c ; boul, bout, fout, lout, out, &c = (haul, baut, faut) &c ; dove,
love, move — this is peculiar, shove &c ; cowl, howl, &c == (koul,
Haul) &c, voyage, &c ; = (vai-edzh) ; vouch, &c ; word, work,
worth, &c ; yonder, yonker, &c ; colonel, colour, &c ; comfort, &c ;
coney, conjure, &c ; money, monkey, &c ; mongcom, monger, &c ;
cwlly, &c ; blomaiy, &c ; (see under 0, p. 102), come, some, &c ;
bucksom, fulsom, &c ; kingdom, &c ; chibol, gambol, symbol ;
son, does, reeo;9'nisance "sounded recunnisance ;" foot, forsooth,
good, hood, look, soot, stood, took, " when it may be sounded oo
rather than * ;" wood, woof, wool "which some sound as with
u viz, wud wull &c" — adjomm, atto2<rnment, atto?<mey, \Aot(d,
Bowrdeaux,^ cotmtrj, co?<rage, co?/rlass, cowrteous, co?<rtesan, com-tesy,
co?<sin, doe<ble, do?<blet, flo^^d, flo«<rish, ho?<sewife, jo?<mey, motaii,
nomish, scourge, sojourn, So?<thwark, to«<ch, tro?<ble, unco?<th, young,
your, youth, "and all the Names of Seaport Towns as Falmo?<th
PortsmoMth YarmoHth" &c ; athwart, thwart "sounded athurt,
thnrt," answer, twopence " sounded tuppence," myrrh, p.yraraide
&c; crtmerade "sounded cumrade,'" hicco?<gh "sounded hiccup,'"
frwmenty " sounded /«<>VHe^j/," constrwe "sounded constur," Catha-
rine " sounded- Catturn."
1 There is a place near Edinburgh Bourdeaux Bouse. Jones also writes
called (Bar-dt hous) from the old (Bmir-doo), supra p. 140.
184 V — XVIII TII CENTURY. Y, AV, WH Chap. III. ^ 1.
In almost every instance (o) is seen to be a substitute for
an older (u), or {a) as (ou) was of an older (uu).
XJ — XVIII TH Century.
1704. The Expert Orthographist gives us no informa-
tion on the nature of the soimds of ti long and u short.
1710. The Anonymous instructor of the Palatines says that
u at the beginning is like the German ./^^, meaning that long
w=(iu). lie also gives the pronunciation of the English
words church, much, in German letters as fschurtsch, mutsch
=:(tshurtsh, mutsh), so that he does not acknowledge (a) at
all. This may have been designedly, because (a) would have
been so difficult to the Palatines, and because (u) would be
intelligible to the English.
1766. The following are a few words from Buchanan :
(ful, push, shug'a-) sugar; (put; batshv'r, pos) butcher, puss ;
(tu pot) to 2)nt ; (ber'i, hiz'i) bury, bus?/ ; (triu, fiu'r/os, liut,
miuz) true, furious, lute, muse.
1768. Franklin has (satsh, ranz, matsh) such, runs, much;
(fiu'r/as, iu'sedzh, truu, ruulz, iuz'ed) furious, usage, true,
rules, used.
1780. Sheridan gives as peculiar Irish faults, (bal, bash,
pash, pal, pal-p/t, pad'm, kash*an, fat, pat) for (hu\, bwsh,
p^^sh, \)u\, pzd'p/t, pe<d*/q, kz^sh'an, iui, p?^t), all of which, as
well as (drav, strav) for (droov, stroov) are, as is now mani-
fest, remnants of the xviith century. The other cases of
Irish mispronunciations which he cites, and which have been
already noticed, (pp. 76, 92, 103, 129, 160), shew very
clearly that the so-called Irish mispronunciations are merely
fossil relics of the xvii th century, preserved in a com-
munity separated by the sea from the mother country, see
supra p. 20.
§ 4. The Consonants.
Y, W, WH.
According to the present usages of English speech, Y and
W are the consonants (j, w) when preceding a vowel, as in
ye Koo (ji wu), and those who can pronounce these words
diffiirently from (ii uu) can generally pronounce these conso-
nants. But there has been a great dispute among orthoepists
whether y, w should be considered as vowels or consonants.
Chap. III. § 4. y, W, WH — XVI TH TO XVIllTH CENTURY. 185
and yarlous terms have been invented to suit the case. As they
do not occur in French, Palsgrave of course does not notice
them. Salesbury', with his Welsh habits always regards
y, to as the vowels (i, u), and consequently writes (uud'er,
uu) for (wun'der, wuu). Smith has the same opinion, but
writes (i-is, i-it, u-ul, u-ud) for (jis, jit, wul, wud), although
these sounds cannot be distinguished from (iis, iit, uul, uudj
unless either a distinction in the vowels be made, wliich he
does not allow, as (its, iit, uul, mtd), or else the vowel be
repeated as (i,is i,it u,nl u,ucl). Hart carries the same
principle to the extent of writing (iild uuld) for (jiild, wuuld)
and even (ureit) for (wreit) meaning [vweit) making that
word therefore dissyllabic. Gill has distinct alphabetical
characters for (j, w), and says :
"Si quis sonorum sequus asstimator vsum earum apud nos per-
pendat, inveniet esse consonas,"
but seems to consider that the principal test (" lapis Lydius")
of the fact is that the indefinite article assumes the form a
and not an before //, w. He adds :
" W, aspiratum, consona est, quam scribunt per wh, et tamen
aspu-atio prajcedit. Illae ' namqwe voces quae per ivTi scribuntur ;
possunt atq2<e etiam ad exempla maiorum scribi debent per (hw)
aut (hu) ; ita cnim, nihil aliud inde colligi queat, quam quod ex
ipso toll, intelligimus ; vt (wiil) sive (uiil) weele nassa,^ (nwiil) sive
(nuiil) WHEELE rota. Tamen quia nostra experientia docet, (w) et
(wh) veras esse simplicesq?<i? consonas, in quarum clatione (u) sug-
grunnit tantum, non clara vocalis auditur ; ideo illud (w) ante
vocales aut diphthongos ius assignatum obtinebit ; at (wb) mala
tantum consuetudine^ valebit in (what) quid, (whedber) uter &
similibus."
We have here the first distinct recognition of a consonant
pecidiar to the English language, which is seldom acknow-
ledged even by recent orthoepists, most of whom consider
(wh) as = (hw) or (hu). The preceding writers had all
used (hu). It is to be observed that Gill had no (jh) ; this
must have been because, as he used (yy) in place of (juu)
initial, he said (nyym'ur) and not (jhuum-ur), for which
most recent orthoepists have (HJuu-ma.i), a combination as
objectionable as (Hwiil) for (whiil).
Gataker 1646, goes to the extreme of making y, iv always
consonants, considering ei, eiv to be (ej, ew). This, however,
^ Misprinted «7/f. meant one (wli). This "bad custom"
' Narrow neck«d basket for catch- is evaded by the palaeotypic use of
ing fish. (h) for the aspirate and (h) for the
» The fault in Gill was that he wrote diacritic.
two consonants (wh) when he only
186 Y, W, AMI WITH TO XVIIITH CENTURY. CuAP. III. ^ 4.
depends upon a diphthongal theory, to whieh writers have
been led by observing that (ai) is not merely (a, i), see
p. 51. Wallis inclines to Gataker's opinion, and says :
" I)iphthonp:i ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ou, &c, recta pronunciatae com-
ponuntur ex vooulibiis pra^positivis ct consonantibus y et w quae
tauien pro vocalibus subjunctivis -v-ulgo bal)cntur."
Ilis contemporary "NVilkins, alluding to the opinion of
Gataker and others says on his p. 370, that they
"do earnestly contend that there are no such things as dipthongs.
Thou- principal Argainionts" he goes on to say, "depend upon this
Supposition that (i) and (u), "wliich are ncccssaiy Ingredients to the
framing of all usual Dipthongs, are Consonants the same with (j)
and (w). Others would have them to be of a middle nature, be-
twixt Towels and Consonants ; according to which opinion I have
abeady described them : From whence the Ilcason is clear, why
these Vowels concur to the making of Dipthongs because being the
most contract of Towels, as is also the vowel (o) of which more
hereafter. They do therefore approach veiy near to the natiu'c of
Liter(B clattsa, or Consonants ; there being no Transition amongst
these, either from one another, or to the intermediate sounds, with-
out such a kind of motion amongst the Instruments of speech, by
reason of these different Apertions, as doth somewhat resemble that
kind of Collision required to the framing of Consonants."
Cooper recognizes (j, w) as consonants and also (jh, wh)
under the form, (hj, hw), at the same time that he defines a
diphthong as the " conglutinatio duarum vocalium in eadem
syllaba."
This theory of "conglutination," effected by the " glide,"
is that which I have adopted (p. 51), and, consequently, be-
lieving that the sounds were in all cases the same, I shall, in
transcribing the pronunciation of others, when they use (ia)
or (aj) consistently write (ja, ai), having precisely the same
intention, and representing the same sound, on different
theoretical principles. I consider the sounds of (j, w) to
have been the same throughout the period now considered.
"Whether there may not be or have been a sound (bh), lead-
ing to the confusion between (v) and (w), well marked in the
South East of England, I leave unsettled. In Chapter Y, § 4,
No. 1, 1 shall adduce reasons for believing that the Anglosaxon
tv was not (bh). Although (wroit) can be pronounced, yet
(vrait) or (bhrait) is much easier for the lips, and in Mr.
Melville Bell's Scotch specimen Chapter XI, § 4, the initial
(vr) will be found in (vraq) tcrong, which may however pos-
sibly have been (bhraq). As qu is now, and probably always
was, (k?t'), the labial modification of (k), produced by rounding
the lips at the same time that the (k) contact is made, and
Chap. III. $ 4. Y, W, WH — XVI TH TO XVIII TH CENTURY. 187
releasing both contacts simultaneously, so (wr) probably
always was (vw), the labial modification of (r), produced by
keeping the lips rounded during the whole time that (r) is
trilled. It is similar to the sound in French roi, which
Feline writes (rua), and which English now call (rwAA), the
true sound being (rica.), which produces a species of evanes-
cent (u), but whether before (r) as Hart wrote (ureit), or
after (r) as Feline writes, appears doubtful to the ear, simply
because it is during (r), p. 131, Similarly (yy) is (iiw) or {ii)
with a labial modification, and all the " round " vowels might
be written as ordinary vowels followed by the labial modi-
fication {w), p. 161. At the same time, in transcribing the
notation of others, I shall generally use (wr), although tbis
is probably as incorrect as (rw) would be, and is very difiicult
to pronounce. The notation (wr) is similar to the notations
(hw, hj) ; in all three cases succession (w + r, h -f w, h + j)
is written where simultaneity (w*r := no, h'*w = wh, h'*j
= jh,) is intended. See cw, ivl, wr in Anglosaxon, Chapter
V, § 4, No. 1.
The interchange of the vowel (i) with the consonant (j),
and the vowel (u) with one of the three consonants (w, bli,
v) is an interesting phenomenon in all languages. In Europe
(w) is thought to be peculiar to England ; Wales also claims
it, but the claim is doubtful, as its (w), if it exists, is con-
fused by its writers with (u). In Arabic however (w) is
quite at home, and also serves to mark the vowels (o, u). In
Sanscrit, if the native grammarians are correct, the (i)
between two other vowels fell into (j) and the (u) into (v),
and not (w) or (bh). In Germany (u) generates (bh) not
(w). Similarly in modern Greek (eu, av) generated (ebh,
abh) becoming (eph, aph) before mutes as (aphtos"), although
modern theory makes v a (v) or an (f) as (evris'koo, aftos'),
evpia-KW, auTo?, It seems probable that in precisely the same
way, the original transition of the Sanscrit (u) was into (bh),
and that the pronunciation (v), distinctly pointed out by the
native grammarians, is a comparatively modern alteration,
comparable with the change of (/.-, /.h, g, ffii, q) into (tsh,
tshn, dzh, dzhn, nj) and of (/.h) into (sh). The immediate
change of (u) into (v) is difiicult to conceive.
The letter (w), or (u) forming a diphthong with a follow-
ing (a), formerly kept the sound of (a) pure. Thus Bullokar
writes (waar, war'm, waar'n, war'en, war, waa'ter) for ware,
icarm, warn, warren, war, wafer. As late as Wilkins we have
(wsez) for was. Price says that a is never sounded (aa)
except before /, and hence he excludes the action of w.
188 M, N, KG XVI Til TO XVIIITH CENTUKY. CuAr. III. j 4.
Cooper does not mention the effect of w, and Jones 1701
only instances the word " irater, sounded wanter." But the
Export Orthographist, 17U4, says that a has its broad sound
(aa) "between w and r as war, ward-en, warm, warn-er,
warren, watch, water, wrath." It would appear then that this
effect of 10 on a following' a became prevalent at the begin-
ning of the XVIII th century. It is by no means general in the
provinces, where (wat'er, wajm, warm, war'm,) etc. still exist.
I have heard (waa'tJ, k?fa?l'/t/, "kwicn'tiii ,) from even educated
speakers. Of course the effect of the (w) on the subsequent
vowel arises from beginning to pronounce it before the lips are
sufficiently opened, so that the vowel becomes round, as (watc
= wo), for which however either (wa), or (wo) has obtained
in practise. Although in London and the South of England
(wh) is seldom pronounced, so that (wAt) is the usual sound
for both Wat and tohat, yet to write wot for xvhat is thought
to indicate a bad vulgar pronunciation. In the North of
England (wh) is very well marked, and in Scotland it is
often labialized to (k?rh), owing probably to the intimate
relation between (u) and (k).
M, N, NG.
These nasal sounds frequently disturb the pure sound of
the preceding vowel, giving it more or less of a nasal twang,
occasioned by allowing some of the breath to pass with more
or less force through the nasal passages. We know that in
modern French in, an, on, tin, represent four distinct ori-
nasal vowels, palaeo typically written {ex, a a, oa, oa) although
their exact relation to the oral vowels is not pretended to
be accurately determined.^ It is very difficult to determine
how soon this change occurred. Palsgrave, who, it must be
remembered, finds the French e feminine to be " sounded
almoste like an o and very moche in the noose,"- tells us that
" if m or n folowe nexte after « in a frenche worde, all in
one syllable, than a shall be sounded lyke this diphthong au
and somethj'iig in the noose," so that the nasality was not
"very moche" as in the other case where no other writer
recognizes any nasality at all, but only " somethyng." This
would lead to am, an = (a^um a^un). Palsgrave notes the
exception when " the syllable next folowynge of any suche
wordes begynne also with a lyke consonant," such asflanwie,
where the sound of a is not changed — and we are left to
'o^
1 See above, p. 67, for a discussion ' See p. 181, note, col. 2.
of these sounds.
Chap. III. § 4. M, N, SG — XVI Til TO XVIII TH CENTURY. 189
suppose that the ni and n have their normal sounds. As
regards French e before ni and n Palsgrave says it " shall
be sounded lyke an italian a and some thynge in the noose,"
with a similar exception. See the passages cited for a on
p. 143, near the top, and for o, on p. 149, near the bottom.
In the latter place, no distinction is made (except as regards
the final e) between bon, bonne, which must be (bun, bun*e)
putting [e) for Palsgrave e feminine, at a venture. He makes
no mention of in, un, but in his transcription he writes " im-
bevo, depainz, poant, insasiablo, inconsidere, uoazins, mayn,
evmblo, evnshemyn " for imbue, depainctz, po//)if, insaciable,
inconsidere, voisins, niaynt, humble, ung cheniin, in which there
is no apparent trace of nasality.
On examining Meigret there is not so much evidence of
nasality as in Palsgrave. From Meigret's notation, as may
be seen in the numerous citations already given, there is no
appearance of any nasal vowel. Indeed the following remark
would seem to exclude the idea of any such nasals as now
exist. He says :
"Je ne veu' pas aosi oublier qe la prolagi'on FrajigoE-ze n'u/e
pas fort souuEnt de deus mm, ne de deus nn, ensEmblc, conibiew qe
I'ecritture ne les eparNe pas : come, En homme, comme, sommEt,
commEnt, commandemEnt, honneur, donner, sonner, angienne. II
Et vrey qe Les mm se rEncontret aos AuErbes qi se tErminet En
mEnt qant a, ou e ouuErt pregedet : come prudEmmEnt, siiffizawj-
mEnt. Notez aosi qe n finall' ayant En suyte, vn vocable comEn-
gant par voyElle (si ge ne sont qclqes aspirez) double sa puissance :
come Eu allant, En etant, qe nou' pronongons come En nallant, eu
netant : tollement q'aotant sone I'un qe I'aotre ; e ny troiiuons
aocune diifErenge."
That is Meigret heard no difference between the final n in
" En " and the initial n in " nallant," he must therefore be
understood to have said (eu nalant) in lieu of the modern (a.v
nalaA). See also John Hart's transcription of French,
Chapter YIII, § 3, and supra p. 150. There seems to be no
intimation of the French nasal in Cotgrave, and Miegc only
says that English final m. and n are sounded " d'une maniere
plus forte en Anglais qu'en Fran^ais," which may mean
almost anything. In his French part, he says nothing about
an, on, but informs us that
'* em in the same Syllable is pronounced am, the e taking the
sound of a French a ; as cmbleme, ensemble. Except where the
word ends in em, or emme ; as item, dilemme. And yet femme is
pronounced /flSOTWz^. ... So is en sounded an. Except 1. after i or
y, in which case the e retains its proper Pronunciation, but that it
takes somewhat of the sound of an i; as in these Words bien, chien
190 M, N, NG XVI Til TO XVIII TH CENTURY. Cuap. III. ^ 4.
&c." with otlior excoptions, thus anfcnne has "e open" or ai, but
tienne lias " (^ masculine." " //?, making the first syllable of a
"NYoicl is pronounced in French as in English, except the «, "which
is but gently sounded ; as incnpab/c, iiulivisihle. The same is to be
understood of in at the end of a Word; as Jin, vin, vetu'n," very
unlike the modem (ca, ea, sba). "Before m and n in the same
Syllabic, it (m) takes the sound of the Dipthong eu ; as humble,
hmdi:''
The investigation of the time of commencement, and the
origin of the French and Portuguese nasality, would be ex-
tremely curious ; at present, however, we are only concerned
with the effect of the French sound upon English ears.
First then as regards ai)n, ain ; i>n, in ; ton, un, the English
seem to have heard in the xvi th century and previously (aim,
ain ; nn, m ; um, un), and to have pronounced accordingly.
Thus Hart in his French Lord's prayer writes (indui, point,
peen) for indui, point, pain, where Hart's (ee) represents the
contemporary English (ai).
Next as to am, an the English generally heard an inserted
(u), thus (aum, aun). This does not however appear in Hart,
who writes (an, kotidian, ofanses, tantasion, pyysanse, aman)
for en, quotidien, offenses, tentation, puissance. Amen. The
omission of the (u) may perhaps be due to his usual mincing
utterance. Palsgrave however distinctly notices it, and to
this must be due the orthographies aiini, aun, which are fre-
quent at this and an earlier date in English words taken
from the French. In Salesbury w^e have the example
GALAUNT, ynlawnt (gal'aunt), and he particularly says that
** A in the Bi'itish .... is never sou/^ded like the diphthong
au as the Frenchmen sounde it in commyng before m or n in
their tongue." Levins, 1570, spells daiince, g/aunce, launce,
pi-aunce, vaunt, but he is not fond of the orthography, which
seldom occurs. The pronunciation of such words is still marked
by many speakers, (p. 147,) and although some, especially
ladies, say (da)ns, glains, laens, praens, Vfcut), others lengthen
the vowel at least to (daeoons) etc., w^hile many say (dans,
glans, lans, prans, vant), and others lengthening this vowel
say (daans) etc., and the intermediate sounds (dahns, daahns,)
are not unfrequent ; but although some say (vAAnt), no one
perhaps will now be heard to say (dAAns, prAAns).
In the combination -nge, although we have the ic inserted
in Chaucer's time, a peculiar thinness seems to have been in-
troduced by the -ge, for Salesbury gives oranges, oreintsys
(or*aindzh/z), (p. 120,) and Butler says that before -nge, a is
' See also the passage quoted supra p. 126, and the observations upon it.
Chap. III. § 4. M, N, NG — XVI TH TO XVIII TH CENTURY. 191
pronounced as ai, (ai) or occasionally (ee), as in change, range,
danger, stranger, words which retain the evidence of this pro-
nunciation in the modern form (tshecindzh, r^^'indzh, dt't-in-
dzhM, str(Yindzh"j). The last word is said to exist in America
under the form (stra^i^ndzhu).
As to om, on, the English as we have seen, p. 150, heard (um,
un). In the older English, in which, as we see from Palsgrave
and Bullokar, on was pronounced (uu), we consequently find
oum, oun = (uum, uun) for these sounds, and tliese became
(oum, oun) in accented and (um, un) in unaccented syllables
in the xvi th century. Hence the final (un) of Salesbury in
CONDICYOM, concUsyivn (kondismn) ; exhibition, ecfiibiniwn
(eksibisi,un) ; prohibition, proibisium (proo,ibisi,un). To the
way in which Palsgrave heard o pronounced in French even
before ne, we may attribute Salesbury's (truun) for f/irone.
We have also in the xvi th century a distinct recognition of
the vocaL ('m, 'n) constituting a syllable. Bullokar has even
separate signs for them, an accented m, n.
The guttural nasal (q) seems to have been the regular pro-
nunciation of ng in English, but it was not recognized as a
simple sound by the older writers. There is a difficulty in
pronouncing the true dental (n) before (k, g) so that nk was
commonly written for' (qk) or (qhk) as Mr. Melville Bell,
among others, thinks the sound should be more correctly
written, and ng for either (q) or (qg), as in -singer, linger
(s/q*J, h'q'g.i). This was observed by the Latin Grammarians.
Nigidius, quoted by Aulus Gellius, lib. xix. cap. 14, says :
"Inter literam N et G est alia vis ; ut in nomine anguis et angaria
et ancorce et increpat et incurrit et ingenims. In omnibus enim his
non verumN, sed adulterinum ponitur. Nam IN" non esse, lingua
indicio est. Nam si ea litera asset; lingua palatum tangeret."
Nigidius appears to have considered this n to be g, or
perhaps only related to g. The Greeks wrote 77, 7/c, 7^^ for
(qg, qk, qkh) and we find gg in Gothic, but it is not easy to
separate (q) from (qg) and we may perhaps assume that
(qg) was the older form in all cases. This would at any
rate account for no special symbol having been assigned to
(q), in most languages. It exists in Sanscrit ^, but few
Sanscrit transliterators think it necessary to provide a sepa-
rate symbol for it. In recent English (q) occurs frequently
as a final, did it so occur in early English ? This is a
difficult question to answer, when we consider the practice
of modern Germany, because the present pronunciation of
German and Dutch being less altered than English, repre-
sents an earUer stage of English pronunciation. Now
102 M, N, XG — XVI TH TO XVIII TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 4.
accordinf* to Ttapp ng is (qg) when final, and (q) when
medial over tlie greater part, espeeially the North, of Ger-
many. Hence Sanger Geaang would be (szeq'er gezaqg").
Practically, however, as final (g) is very difficult for Germans
to pronounce, they use (qk) so that Gcsang Dank rhyme as
(gezaqk" daqk).' This is not the case in central Germany,
where (q) linal is common, and where therefore (gezaq*
daqk) do not rhjane. Even in England many speakers con-
fuse f/iiiig, think under (th/qk), but this seems to be an
exceptional word.
Gill appears to be the first writer who recognises (q) as a
separate element. He saj^s, leaving his notation unaltered :
**iV in illis [Uteris] est quas nihil mutare diximus : at si k, aut g,
sequatur paulum minucnda est nostra scntcntia : no(\iie cnim (si
accurate expendas) plan& ita profertur in thank et thiiik queiuad-
modum pronunciatur in ha^id manus, et noti none nullus. Sed
nc adco nasutuli vidcamur ut nihil vetustate ranoidum ferre possi-
mus : quia k, ibi clare aiulitur, nee congru,um esse rcor 'quicquam
vcritati propinquum immutare ; monuisse tantum volui, sed te in-
vito non raonmsse tamen. At si g siibseqiiatur \i; in thing res et
song cantieum ; quia sonus litcrge g ibi nidlus est, at semivocalis
plane alia quaj ab n non minus distat quam m ; literal ng. ima erit
ex illis compositis, quibus fas esse volui sonum simplicem indi-
carc, ut in sing canta, ct among inter, hue etiam refer ilia in quibus
g, ab M, ratione scquentis liquida? qiiodammodo distrahitur, a sjpangl
nitella, tu intangl implicare."
Hence he said (s/q, amoq', a spaq'g'l, tu mtaq'g'l) according
to the present usage of ng. It would appear therefore that
we are justified in adopting this usage from at least the
XVI th century, and, in the uncertainty which cannot be
dispelled, it will be safest to adopt it also from the earliest
times that English became distinct from Anglosaxon, although
the North German custom may have been that of Anglo-
Saxon itself, namely to call ng = (qg) when final, and (q)
when medial.
Gill names (q) as a bad pronunciation of the Hebrew y,
which is still heard, being replaced by (gn) when initial, as
Europeans generally find a difficulty in initial (q), although
it is not unfrequent in extra-European languages.^ Sales-
1 Thus Yoss in his Minnelied has " Sie trankte dich mit 'Rehcutrank ;
" Dcr Holdseligen Und freudig tonte dein Genang."
Sender Wank I have not noticed such rhymes in
Sing' ich frijhlichen Schiller and Goethe.
Minne.s(7«(7 ;
Dcnn die Reine, ^ The vulgar Parisian, howeyer, says
Die ich mtine, (qja pw) for il n'y a pas, and the Vicn-
"Winkt mir liehlichen Habe^fffnA:." nese porters will call a gentleman («i
And again in his address to Luther qaad'u) or (ai qaahd-n) for euer Gnadm,
Chap. III. f 4. l — XVI TH TO XVIII TH CENTURY. 193
bury speaks of tlie "Latine vocables agnus, magnua, ignis, at
what time tbey were thus barbarously sounded ongnus,
mangmis, iiignis," meaning (aq-nus, maq-nus, /q-n/s). This
nasalisation of (g) into (q) before the following nasal (n)
seems to have been common in the middle ages, and has
crept into the Latin orthography of the period. Gill in
English gives both (ben/g'n) and (ben/q-n) for benign,^
This (qn) is the regular pronunciation of gn in Modern
Swedish, the poet Tcgner being (Teqneer"),^
The (qg, qk) are heard in Italian and Spanish, but they
are unknown in French. The older orthography of French
had ng in many cases where the nasal (a) is now heard.
But Meigret does not recognise this, writing n simply in
such cases. The French confuse our (q) with their gn =
(nj) and some Englishmen seem to have fallen into the con-
verse error. The Spanish n,^ Portuguese nh, Italian and
French gn, are all (nj), or nearly (nj).
The great opening for the passage of the voice while L is
pronounced and the very slight nature of the vibration of
the sides of the tongue, tend to give it a strongly vocal
character, and not unfrequenth^ the L has been entirely lost
in a vowel sound, produced simpl}^ by not bringing the tip
of the tongue close enough to the palate to form a division
of the passage and throw the voice out on both sides. Both
French and English seem to have had a tendency to labialise
(1) into (br) after (a, o), that is they rounded the lips either
during the vowel or just as it glided into the consonant.
The Latin alter thus became (abrter) or (a?d?fter) felt as
(aobrtre), till the (1) became absorbed, that is, neglected for
convenience of utterance, thus (aotre), which is Meigret's
1 Strange as the final combination modem Spanish for (Ij). The tilda
(q'n) may seem, there is a well known over the »i was merely the usual ab-
London ^Tilgarism in which it is very bre\-iation for the second n. " En los
familiar (/q-'nz) for (an-jcnz) onions. tiempos mas antiguos de nucstra lengua
2 In S]6hoTg' s SwediscJie Sprachlehre, se explico con dos nn juntas csta pro-
p. 10, this is the rule laid down, but nunciacion, v algunos se han persuadido
mogna, tagne, stagne are said exception- k que la tilde sobre la n, como hoy se
ally to preserve the (g) and in I'dgn the usa, se introduxo para denotar la otra
sound is (Icein). The irregularity of n que se omitia, al modo que la tilde
Swedish orthography as compared with puesta sobre las vocales se uso fre-
pronimciation is considerable, shewing qiientcmente en lugar de h." Orto-
a great alteration -of pronunciation in graf'« de la Lengua Castellana, com-
the comparatively short period since puesta par la Heal Acadcmia Espahola.
the orthography was established. 7th ed. Madrid 16mo, 1792, p. 64.
2 In old Spanish nn, just as U is the
13
194 L — XVI TH TO XVIIITH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 4.
form, and finally (ootr'), tho modern form. In England
[ahc) becamo i'vlt as (aulj or {ntclw) and this degenerated
into (aaI), perhaps through (r/ul). Pinallj' -svhen a conso-
nant followed, it was more convenient to leave out the (1),
and the lazy or the nimble tongue, as usual, took the most
convenient or shortest road, and (1) disappeared. The Scotch
even lost it without a following consonant as (kAA aa) for
(kAAl, aaI). The passage was perhaps (talk, talt^jk, taule<?k,
tauk, ta/rk, tAAk). AYhether (tAAlk) was ever said, except by
Gill's *' docti interdum" is more than doubtful.
Similarly after (oo) we had (oolt^'d, ooult^'d, oould) or
(ooul). In this case the (1) was not generally absorbed, but
we have provincially (ood) for old.
Salesbury says that in the English calme, call, the a " is
thought to decline toward the sound of the diphthong au."
Again : " o in Welsh going before //, soundeth nothing
more boystous, that is to say, that it inclineth to the sound
of the diphthong ou (as it doth in English) no more than if
it had gone before any other letter." "L hath no nother
differo^ce in sou;^d in Welsh than in Englysh. And note
that it neyther causeth a nor o when they come before it, to
sound anye more fuller in the mouth, than they do else
where sounde, commyng before anye other letter." " Some-
times a has the sounde of the diphthong aw especially when
it precedes I or //, as may be more clearly seen in these
words : balde lawld (bauld) calvus, ball, bawl, (haul) pUa ;
w^iLL wawl (waul) murus." " 0 also before Id or // is pro-
nounced as though 10 were inserted between them, thus
coLDE, coicld (kould) frigidus, bolle howl (boul), tolle toicl
(toul) vectigal." " In some districts of England II is sounded
like ic, thus boicd (booud) for bold, bw (buu) for bull, caw
(kau) for call. But this pronunciation is merely a provin-
cialism, and not to be imitated unless you wish to mince like
these blunderers." But this did not arise from mincing, but
from broadening. The mincer, so far from dropping the
front of the tongue from the palate, raises the middle part
and produces (Ij) which degenerates into (i), as in Modern
French. The effect of / which Salesbury names is generally
recognized and exists to this day in the modified form of
(aa) for (au) and (oou) for (oou) or (ou). The sound (ou)
is however, heard in (ould) Ireland, either in its genuine
form (ou) or its modified form (ou) at the present day.
Buchanan in the xviii th century wrote (sauld, kauld, bauld,
skauld, tauld, nauld, sauld*j/r) for sold, cold, hold, scold, told,
hold, soldier. Sheridan did not imitate him, but scrupulously
Chap. III. H- L — XVI TH TO XVIII TH CENTURY. 195
used (ooV) and notes (bAuld, k.vuld) as Irishisms for (boold,
koold), in which again the Irish were only following the
fashion of the English in the xvii th century.
Salesbury recognized ('1) or prolonged (1) as forming a syl-
lable by itself in able, sable, T"s\TfNCLE, "wryncle, writing
ab/, sab/, tivinl-I, wrinkl = (aa'b'l, saa'b'l, tw/q'k'l, wr/q-k'l).
In this he is fully borne out by all subsequent writers. Hart
and Bullokar have special signs for ('1). Hart considers it
to be the same as the Welsh //, (Ihh) which is the reason
why he provides it with an especial character. He says
"Wee haue fiu-tlier the 1, aspu'ed lyke to the Spanishc and
Walsh ^ often vse of the 11, which maketh the .xij. dumbc or dull
sounde, but we vse it not that I know of, at the beginning of
any words as they do : but often at thend of words, as in this
sentence, the becUe is hable to fable. Where we wrest the e,
which is but closely or (as it were) halfe soimded : whorfore we
may with as smal cost and labour, as of the rest, vse a fit figure
for it: and neuer neede to vse the 11, or Ih, and for the reasons
abouesaid not to abuse the h."
Smith says :
"Qui nescit quid sit esse semiyoealem ex nostra lingua facile
poteiit discere, ipsa enim litera L quandam quasi vocalem in se
videtur contincre, ita ut juncta mutae sine vocali sonum faciat, ut (aabl)
habilis, (staabl) stabiKs, (faabl) fable, &c ; aUi abil stahil fahil, alii
ahul stahul fahul scribunt, sed ne quicquam pronuntiant ; nam con-
sideratius auscultanti nee e nee i nee u est, sed tinnitus quidam
,vocaHs natm^am habens, quce natmaliter his liquidis inest. In
omnibus his quidam e addunt in fine, vt able, stable, fable : sed
certo illud e non tam sonat hie quam fuscum illud et foemininum
Franconun e,'^ nam ne quicquam sonat."
^ Like Salesbury lie confuses the to di-a'^v the distinction. In the same
Spanish (Ij) ^vith the AVelsh (Ihh). way I have represented the final -e in
2 This IS a recognition of an ob- Chaucer by (e), as doubtful. Rapp con-
scurely sounded final French e, the pre- tinues : "Yet where the syllable nmwith
sent {»), in the xvi th century, agreeing double n results, (uEnm) netmen is dis-
with Palsgrave but disagreeing with tinctly pronounced." Eapp writes (nEn-
Meigret. In the same way most Ger- nm) o^-ing to his custom of doubling
mans call their e final in ei7ie gute Gabe the consonant after a stopped vowel,
a fine (e), and very many Englishman " To exhaust what I have to say about
would call it (a). Eapp, Physiologic the unaccented e, observe that the first
der Sprache, vol. iv. p. 16, says (trans- e is taken as the natural vowel in the
lating the passage for convenience) : termination eneti, (gefabn^) ge/allenen,
" Short (e) only occ\u-s unaccented, as or else elided. The natural vowel is
(be, ge, Ends), be,ge,ende, doubtful, half- distinct before M, E, S and T, (aatam,
mute, or, when heard, -svith a faint nasal faatar, guutas, bEEtat) athem, voter,
in en (gEEbm) geben. On account of gutes, betet, foreign names as (moos^s)
the uncertainty we generally prefer the of corirse excepted ; custom varies in
orthography (gEEben)." Eapp uses e (juupitDr, JuupitEr). The enclitics (or,
much as the palaeotypic (e), and repre- far, tsar; ar, dar) er, ver, zer ; er, der
sents (e, e) by e, e, but (ee, ee) bv a, L must be mentioned among the for;.
Generally I have used (e, ee) for" his e, The e is always mute before L, as in
a, but in this passage it was necessary all allied languages, as (mit'l, Eq'l)
196 -R — XVI TH TO XVinTH CENTURY. Chap. III. J 4.
Ill Bohemian the ('1) is fully recognized, and forms the
only vocal clement in some accented syllables, as wlki/
(bh'lkv) wolves, s/za (s'l'za) a tear. It seems probable that
it was the sound intended to bo represented by Sanscrit
rj ^ = ('1, "1) commonly called (Iri, Iriij, unless these were
originally cerebral, as ('l, "l). The modern French do not
possess the sound, but pronounce (tabF) or (tablh), some-
times merely (tab'), although their orthoepists write (tabl),
and contend that (1) here forms a syllable by itself. As we
have seen Hart indicates his own pronunciation of final -le
to have been (-Ih.)
R
In English at the present day r has at least two sounds,
the first, when preceding a vowel, is a scarcely perceptible
trill with the tip of the tongue (r) which in Scotland, and
with some English speakers, as always in Italy, becomes a
clear and strong trill (.r), but as this is only an accident of
speech, it will not be further noticed, (r) being used indifier-
ently for both. The second English r is always final or pre-
cedes a consonant. It is a vocal murmur, difiering very
slightlv from (a). I seem to hear it occasionally in two
forms, differing nearly as (ce, e) which I represent by (.^ a).
As however this distinction is, certainly, by no means always
made, I do not usually mark it. This second (i) may diph-
thongise with any preceding vowel. After (a, a, o) the efl'ecfr
is rather to lengthen the preceding A'owel, than to produce a
distinct diphthong. Thus farther, lord, scarcely difter from
father, laud ; that is, the diphthongs (ai, oi) are heard almost
as the long vowels (aa, aa). That a distinction is made by
many, by more perhaps than arc aware of it, is certain, but
it is also certain that in the mouths of by far the greater
number of speakers in the South of England the absorption
of the (j) is as complete as the absorption of the (1) in talk,
mittel, enffel, and this should be theo- " The terminations (Eq'ln, shmaii-h'ln,
retically the case even when terniina- gaab'ln) eiic/ebi, schmeicheln, gaheltiy
tions are added on, although it is then are difficult to pronounce vrith purit)'
certainly difficult to continue to make for foreigners and even for Germans,
the vowelless L form a syllable by it- Finally the natural vowel or mute e is
self, as (shmaiA-h'1-ai, Eq'l-lEndor, mit'l- generated in popular speech by ne^-
Inndish) schmeichelei, engeUamkr, mil- lecting ancient terminations as m
teUdtulisch " This theory is partly (nnkor, iizor, ruud'lshtat, iq'lshtat,
wrong, for the vocal ('1) being only a doktor, profEsar) and among the un-
lengthened (1) = (11) is naturallv short- educated even in (jeesus,jeena,goota)."
ened before a vowel, as (st^-e-b''!, sUe-- This passage is interesting as ser^1ng
bljq; fid-'l, ftd-la) ; so it should be in to shew the state of a language in
German (shmai^hlai), but in fact which the final e is in a transition state.
(shmaiAhelai) is said. Eapp continues : See supra p. 119, note, col. 2.
Chap. III. § 4. R — XVI TH TO XVIII TH CENTURY. 197
walk, psalm, where it has also left its mark on the preceding
vowel. When Dickens wrote Count Smorl Tork he meant
Small Talk, and no ordinary reader Would distinguish be-
tween them. But in (aj, oj) proper, there is a slight change
of lingual position generating a glide, and consequently Mr.
M. Bell represents the effect by a glide character especially
invented for the purpose, which he terms the " point glide "
and describes " as a semivocalized sound of (r)." The diph-
thongs (e.i, o.i) are very difficult to separate from each other
and from (oa). But the slight raising of the point of the
tongue will distinguish the diphthongs from the vowel
in the mouth of a careful speaker, that is, one who trains
his organs to do so. No doubt the great majority of
speakers do not make any difference, and I think that the
best representation of these sounds is the simple (j) or ('a),
which is in this respect wholl}^ comparable to the ('1) already
discussed. It seems to be an indistinct murmur, differing
from ('1) by not having any contact between the tongue and the
palate, but similar to it, in absorbing a variety of other vowels.
The following is a comparison of my notation of this mur-
mur (j) and its various diphthongs, with Mr. M. Bell's.
The (j) character will express Mr. Bell's glide, and {iiv) its
labialised form, as in Introduction, p. 15. The examples
have been taken from Visible Speech, pp. 113-116.
Bell Ellis, Examples.
word, ioiirney, furra^h. = {wid, dzhmi) &c.
paper, ctVcuitous, answer, martyr = (peep" j) &c.
fire, lyre, choir = (faLi, loLt, 'kwdh)
wiry, tierj = (wolvvi, foii-r*)
hour, -power = (auj, paiu)
o«<rselves = (aujselvz*)
dowery, Aoioery, shoivevj = (dau.iTe, flouJTi ) &c.
hard, clerk, heart, guard = (naaad, klaaok) &c.
barbarian = (ba.ibee,iT<'uii)
altffr, grammar, particular = (AAl-ta) &c.
starry, tarry (adjective) = (staa-r/, taa-p)
prefer, earnest, ft>Tn, myrrh, gMerdon= (prif.r)&c
ne«r, beer, here, we're, pier = (nii.i, biij) &c.
aerie, era, weary, peeress =^ (iiiT*?, iij-nj) &c.
care, aer, pair, Ayr, prayer (petition), there,
hear, ne'er, their, eyre, mare = (keei) &c.
mayor = (meci)
canary, iairy, therein, hearmg ={\.v.neeji-xi), &.c.
war, ward, swat-m, dwarf = (waai, wAAjd) &c.
poor, moor, tour, sure = (puu.i, muu.i, tuu.i) &c.
poorer, swrer, assewing, towrist === (puu.iTa) &c.
cure, pure, endwre, immure = (kiua, piuj) &c.
a.t
I
Br
.1
ai.!
oil
ai'r
OLir
auj
du.i
axw
9U.I
au'r, aur
oii.ir
ai
aa.1
ai
a.t
ahj
J
o'r, aav
aar
SOI
U, X
i.i
ii.T
i'r
iijr
ei
eei
ejw
eei
e'r
eeor
A. I
AAJ .
Ul
UU.I
w'r
uii.ir
JM.t
iu.x
JM r
ii].rr
iuj
iiu
iu'r
iuJT
OJ
OOJ, 001
o'r
oair, oo.Tr
01
OOJ, A.U
olu
.1
VI
J, iu.t
TUX
iu.1, Ji
198 11 — XVI TH TO XVIII TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 4.
Bell. Ellis. Examples.
iunj, purer, cndMring = (fiiUTt, piuJTi) &c.
lure, allure = (livu, uliua-)
lurid, allMnng = (liiurrul, ■cliuJTjq)
hoar, o'er, door, floor, hornc, torn, sore, corps,
]}our, to^mamcnt, iowarda ^ (hooi hooi) &c.
glory, sofl/ing, po?<;-ing = (glooiTf, glooj'n )&c.
extrrtordinaiy, G(?orgo, ordt-r, boru =(booxn) &c.
spectator, tailor, razor, orator = (spckt<?«'ti) &c.
azure, fissure, measure, seizwre = {eezh'i) &c.
nature, toixttire, stature = (nee*tiu.i neet'Ji) &c.
It will bo observed that Mr. Bell has not marked a long
vowel in many places where I have marked one. His
general habit is not to distinguish the length of the first
element in diphthongs. Simple r is used in ordinary spell-
ing, after long vowels, for the combination (ar), or ('r) as
Mr. Bell prefers writing. This combination is very pecuKar
in English ; compare dear, deary, mare, Mary, more, glory,
poor, poorer, with the French dire, dirai, mere, mairie, Maure,
aurai, tour, Touraine.
The Scotch do not use (j) at all, but only (r) or rather
(.r), saj^ing (word, serf, sarf, karv) icord, serf, surf, carve.
In Italy (.r) is constant, in France and a great part of
Germany (r) is pronounced in lieu of (r). Could it be to this
sound that Palsgrave alluded when he said :
'• ^ in the frenchc tonge slialbe sounded as he is in latyn without
any exception, so that, where as they of Parys do sounde somtyme
r lyke s, sayeng pazys for parys, pazhien for parisien, chaize for
chayre, mazy for m-ary, and suche lyke, in tliat thyng I wolde not
have them folowed, albeit that in all this worke I moost folowe the
Paiisyens."
Certainly z would be the nearest character by which, with-
out explanation, he could have given a conception of the true
r grasseye ou provengal, the French (r), which is not unlike
the Arabic (grh),^ and the Northumberland burr. The last
is often confused by southerns with (g), (Hagrh-iet) Harriet
sounding to them like (Hajg'iet). The Spanish r suave is (r),
with no more trill than in English, but the r fuerte is, ac-
cording to Mr. M. BeU, the usual (.r), but according to M.
Favarger, (.r), a sharp uvula rattle without any moisture.^
1 The French razzia (razia) is a cor- remo, rico, romo, rueda ; after /, n, s
■ ruprion of the Arabic iVJ: (-rhazaaf)- "^l^^'^J;^' «-^ malrotar, enriqticcer honra,
' V^ ^° ' Israel, desreglado ; in compounds, where
2 See Ortografia de la Icngua Cas- the second part begins with r; and
tellana compuesta por la real Academia where rr is ^^Titten as barra, earro. In
Espanola, 7th ed. Madrid, 1792, p. 70, other cases the soft r (r) is to be pro-
where the strong r (.r) is said to occur, nounccd.
at the beginning of words as razon,
Chap. III. § 4. R — XVI TH TO XVIII TH CENTURY. 199
No allusion to more than one sound of r is found in any of
the older writers except Ben Jonson, yet it can hardly bo sup-
posed that even if the northerners have retained (r), the com-
plicated (r, J, .ir) system could have grown up in a single
century in the South. For the old icr = (rw), see p. 187.
1547. Salesbury has the following words which are now
pronounced with (j), the old spelling being in small capitals
and the phonetic Welsh in italics.
PAPTR papi/r, QTJAJRTEE Icwarter, ste syr, teestire tresuwr, veettje
vertuw, CHUECHE isurts, laddee lad-dr, bladd' hlad-dr, empeeotjee
emperwr, eueemoee efermtcor, thoxdee thwndr, woxuee wndr, stjffee
swffffer, Gylbeet Gilbert, gtxgee tsintsir, honouee onor.
Here we find the unaccented syllable cr or ir represented
by the Welsh er, yr, ir, and finally simple r. This points out
to an indistinct murmur, where the writer tries first one
vowel sound and then another and finally gives them all up
in despair, and trusts to the simple consonant (r) as best re-
presenting the sound. Now in Bohemian (r) is recognized
as sufficient to form even an accented syllable, as srna a roe,
zrno kernel, trn thorn, dm turf, chrt greyhound. I do not
know whether the sound is here (j) or ('r), but as Ziak (Boh-
mische Sprachlehre) compares it with the German termination
-er, which Rapp (supra p. 194, note) declares to be (ar), it
will be safest to consider it as ('r) or ('.r), though even the
Germans are apt to fall into the convenient (j) final. The
examples from Salesbviry would therefore lead us to conclude
that ('r) was sufficiently common in English of the xvith
century, but would not allow us to assume either that the
syllables he writes er, yr, ir, r were (j), or that every final r
was (j) and middle r (jr).
1569. Hart says of / m n r that they are " rightly vsed
in sounde when they be single."
1580. BuLLOKAR, who has especial signs for ('1, 'm, 'n),
has none for ('r) or (j), writing (foormer, dheer, aar,
severawl, letterz, figyyrz,) for former, there, are, several,
letters, Jigtcrcs.
1621. Gill says : " aeri fere trissyllabum est ; earl mobilis ; apud
alios enim diphthongus valet, hie erl auclitur, illic erV
Here some tinge of ('r) or (.i) seems to come into play,
(a'ri, e'rl, eerl). Gill also writes (fai'er) ,fire, and complains
that they say (fir) in place of (foi'er) in the East of England.
But the Germans also write feuer (fayer, foyr, foir), and this
does not imply (i).
1653, Wallis and 1668, Wilkins have no allusion to (i).
200 K — XVI TH TO XVIII TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 4.
If it was then heard it was possibly considered to be an
erroneous utterance not worth naming.
1685. CoorKii says: "Verba Anglicanu & latina derivativa qua; in
orig;ine scribuntur cum er scribimus item er, pronunciamus autem
ur (or), uon (juiu sic profem debet, scd ([uia propter litenc r vibra-
tioncm ^ix aUter etterri potest ; ut adder coluber, inej'er pruifero,
slender tenuis."
Here the mention of the vibration excludes (i) and insists
on (or) or ('r). Cooper proceeds to give lists of such words
with final (ar) spelled -ar, -cr, -ir, -or, and even -arc, shewing
that he pronounced -ture as (-tar) in adventure, juncture,
lecture, nature, pasture, picture, rapture, scripture, etc., which
are vulgarisms at present under the form (-tJ), although in
figure, injure, measure the (j) is common (f'g'J, m'dzha,
mezh'i). Cooper also says : " r sonatur post o in apron
greniiale, citron citreum, environ circundo, gridiron craticula,
iron ferrum, sojfron crocus ; quasi scriberentur apurn, &c,"
almost as at present.
1688. ^Mjege also says of r, "en certains mots la voyelle qui la
suit se prononce devant, comme en here, sire, spire, hundred, apron,
citron, saffron, iron;"
but this can only point to (ar) or ('.i) after what Cooper has
said. Jones identifies the sounds of er, ur, referring from
the latter to the former, and making both co-extensive with
the modem (j), but he does not help us to determine the
double power of ;•.
1640. Bex Joxson says: "R is the Dogs letter, and liuiTeth in
the sound ; the tongue striking the inner palate, with a trembling
about the teeth. It is sounded firme in the beginning of the words,
and more liquid in the middle, and ends : as in rarer, viper, and so
in the Latine."
This seems to imply that a difference was made so early as
the end of the xvi th and beginning of the xvii th century.
The precise meaning of the vague terms ^/7« and more liquid
cannot of course be assigned. But probably firm meant
more consonantal and liquid more vocal, so that something
like the difterence between (r) and (j) is indicated. The
reference to the Latin is of no value, as it was only to its
English pronunciation.
Walker, 150 years later, refers to this passage and says :
" The rough r is formed by jarring the tip of the tongue against
the roof of the mouth near the fore teeth : the smooth r is a vibra-
tion of the lower part of the tongue, near the root, against the
inward region of the palate near the entrance of the thioat. This
latter r is that which marks the pronunciation of England, and the
former that of Ireland."
Chap. III. § 4. r — XVI TH TO XVllI TH CENTURY. 201
But lie does not proceed to point out where the rough and
smooth r were pronounced, and his description of the smooth
r better agrees with a gently pronounced (r) or (grh), the
uvula trill, than with (j). The theory of a vibration of the
back or lower part of the tongue is untenable ; that part of
the tongue is too firm to vibrate in the manner conceived.
And in England we do not perceptibly vibrate the uvula.
Smart, who has entered into the consideration of (i) more
than any preceding writer, calls (j) a " guttural vowel
sound." He says of (r) that " it is formed by a strong trill
of the tongue against the upper gum," to which it may be
objected, first, that the trill is gentle in English, and, secondly,
that the tongue vibrates freely, near, but not sinking the
upper gum. For (.i) he says, " there is no trill, but the
tongue being curled back during the progress of the vowel
preceding it, the sound becomes guttural, while a slight
vibration of the back part of the tongue is perceptible in the
sound." Now I do not find the tongue to be "curled back,"
although it passes from the preceding vowel to the (a) position,
and I find no vibration of the back of the tongue, though
vibration of the ^'elum may occasionally be felt, and some
persons may more or less vibrate the uvula.
On account of the resemblance of (j) to (o), a sound to
which all unaccented vowels approximate in the mouths of
of many southern speakers, and also because when (.i) is
followed by a vowel, it is usual to interpose (r) thus (neej'r/,
Hiij'r/q), hairy, hearing, illiterate speakers — those who either
do not know how to spell, or ignore the rules of spelling in
their speech — usually interpose an (r) between any back
vowel, as (a, a, a) and a subsequent vowel, thus (drAA"r/q,
Iaat o-dho-loend, wmdar a dh? ,8eus) for (drAA'/q, Iaa ov dhe
Isend, wm"do ov dhe hqus) draicing, law of the land, windoio of
the house. From this habit, a very singular conclusion has
been commonly drawn by a great many people, namely,
that such persons habitually say (drAAr, LvAr, wm'dar)
when not before a vowel, — a feat which they are mostly
incapable of performing. They will indeed rhyme window,
cinder, not because they say (wm'dar s/n*dar) as generally
assumed, with the trilled (r), but because they say (w/nda
smda) or (wm'dj sm'da), omitting to trill the r in both cases.
Another point on which Smart insists is the distinction
between serf, surf, which Mr. M. Bell writes (sooaf, saaf ), and
I write either (s.^f, saf) by preference, or (seaf, saaf), or else,
sinking the distinction, as is far the commonest practice, write
(saf ) for both words. A distinction of course can be made,
202 R — XVI TH TO XVIII TH CENTURY. Chap. III. § 4,
and without much difficulty, by those who think of it, and is
made bv those who have formed a habit of doinj; so ; but the
distinction is so rarely made as to amount almost to pedantry
when carefully carried out, like so many other distinctions
insisted on by orthoepists, but ignored by speakers whose
heart is in the thought they wish to convey, not in the
vehicle they are using. Smart, notwithstanding the pains
he has bestowed on this subject, finds that the words ^^y^r,
plaijor, slai/er, which are dissyllables = (pec*,J pk^*,i, B\ee',i),
rhyme perfectly with care, fair, hair, share, which arc mono-
s^-llables = (kee.i, feeJ, Hee.i, shce.i) with a different vowel.
The action of the ('1) in altering the preceding (a) into (au)
and thence into (aa) has already been noticed. It is always
the tendency of two sounds combined in rapid succession, to
generate some alterations in one or both, or to fuse themselves
into some new sound (p. 52). This is very marked with (j).
It is now not customary to pronounce {ee) or {oo) before (j).
Such words as {•meei, mooi) have a very peculiar effect, either
antiquated or illiterate, and are replaced by (mee.i, mooi)
mare, more. Mr. M. Bell considers that (uu) is in like
manner altered to {uu). This is certainly often the case, but
(puuj) for (p?/?a) has no singularity in it. We certainly do
not change (ii) into (//) and say (/a) for (ii.i) ear.^ It is pro-
bably this action of the (j) which has preserved the sound
of (a) so that art, part are not (aeat, pawt) but (aJt, pa.it) or
(aaJt, paaJt) or simply (aat, paat). Indeed, in ordinary
spelling, many writers now habitually use ar to indicate the
sound (aa), in the same way as they use or to represent (aa) ;
(p. 197). At the same time (a^r, aea3r) were certainly prevalent
in the xvii th century, and are fossilized in America.
How far all these effects are modern, or how far they were
heard even in Ben Jonson's time, I have been quite
unable to determine. But as (r) may still be said, and
is still used by Irishmen and Scotchmen (imphdng an
older form of English) and, carefully inserting (') or (a),
is even now used by many Englishmen without gi"\ang
offence to the ear (ii'r, iior), it is certainly safer to
assume that there was formerly only one sound of (r),
but that a murmur (') was generally inserted before it
when following a vowel. In my transcriptions, however,
I have been obliged to omit this theoretical (') for which
I have no proper authority.
1 But observe the Xorwich street cry, p. 138, note, col. 1.
Chap. III. § 4. p, B. T, D. C, K, Q. G. CH. J. 203
p,B. T,D. c,e:,q. O. CE. J.
The pronunciation of P,B does not seem to have varied in
any respect.
T,D have now a tendency, ignored by most orthoepists,
under particular circumstances to pass into (tsh, dzh) ; thus
nature, verdure are, perhaps most frequently, pronounced
(nee'tshi, vi'dzhj), the last word being in that case identified
with verger. This alteration takes place generally through
the action of a palatal sound, originally (yy), then (iu, ju) so
that the transition was (-tyyr, -tiur, -t.ju.i, -tjj, -tsh.i). I
have not found traces of the change however, but the pro-
nunciation {nee'ii) or its equivalent given b}'' Jones seems to
shew an effort to avoid it by omitting the palatal element (j).
In the XVIII th century Sheridan carried this still further and
allowed for such pronunciations as (tshuut'oj) for tutor. The
palatals (i, j) have always had a great effect upon preceding
consonants of the dental and guttural class, as they tend to
materially alter the position of the tongue, in order to facili-
tate the transition to a following vowel. The languages de-
rived from the Latin are full of instances. It is a fashion in
modem English to resist, or to believe that we resist, this ten-
dency in the especial case of -lure and -dure, but we have
given into it completely in -tion, where the t, hesitating in
classical times between c and t, underwent a change which
gave (-sioA) in French, whence in English, first (-s/un) and
then (-shon), — never, except in orthoepical fancies, (-shon), —
and in Italian produced (-tsi?r?fh-ne). A similar change is re-
cognized in -cious, -ciah And it is in vain to protest against
-ture, -dure becoming (-tshj, -dzhj), at a time when even
(-tJMJ, -dj?a), though far less pedantic than (-tiuj, -diua),
have a singularly orthoepistic effect.
C, Gr also underwent a similar change, not from the action
of an (i) sound, but paradoxically, as it might appear, through
the action of a following (a) sound. The letter k is not much
used as an initial in English and hence the observation refers
in spelling to c but in sound to (k). It would be interesting
to know when the English began to introduce an (i) sound
between (k, g) and an (a) sound. There is no trace of it in
orthoepists, but there are traces of it in a very early stage of
our language, in the Anglosaxon orthography, and there are
traces of final (k, g), especially after (1, n, r) having been also
palatalized to {Jx',g). The word church, now (tshJtsh), but
l^reviously (tsh/rtsh) if we may trust Salesbury's Welsh tran-
204 P,B. T,D. C,K,Q. G. CH. J. CiiAP. III. J 4.
scription tsho'fs, is an excellent example. The Anglosaxon
forms are rire, civic, o/ric, circc, cijncca, the (jrreek being
KvpiaKov, A\hich in the present Greek pronunciation, pre-
valent certainly in all its main points when the word was
transplanted into Anglosaxon, is called (kiriakon*), and the
word (kirik) or (kirk) probabl)' arose ^ from omitting one or
two of the intermediate vowels. Ormin's hirrhc = (kirk'e)
and the Scotch kir/c (kerk, ke.rk), shew the unpalatalized
form. That the initial consonant should have jdelded to the
following (i) was to be expected, and although in modern
high German we have kircJie (kir/.-h"e), the old high German
often shewed an initial ch =. (kh) or perhaps (Ah), a palatal,
although it possibly meant the upper German initial (kn).
The final k in this word is palatalised in modern German, for
it is (kh) and not (kh), and it is to be remarked that the
Germans a/icai/s use (kh) and not (kh) after (1 n r) shewing
the tendency of Germanic languages to this palatalisation.
The transitional form between (kirk) and (tshirtsh) was [kirk).
From (k) to (tsh) seems a great stride. Yet there is no doubt
that the passage was accomplished in Italian, where every
(tsh) results from a palatal {k), and every (sh) from a palatal
(sA:) precisely as in English. In modern Greek koI, properly
(ke), becomes (Ae, Ai, tshi) in various dialectic pronunciations.
In Sanscrit also there can be no doubt that the palatal series
'^ W ^ ?J "^ were originally (k Ah g fjn q) although they
are said to be now (tsh tshn dzh dzhn nj).^ This is not
the only change of the palatised (A"). The older French seem
to have generally palatalized the Latin c before a, as (A:amp)
from campus, whence afterwards (shamp, shaA), (p. 53). But
the change was often first into (s), whence (sh) became evolved
by a further action of an (i) sound, so oceanus, ocean, ocean
(oA'e'anus, oseaA, oo'shen).
In pronouncing (j) the middle of the tongue is arched up
against the palate ; while for (k) the back, and for (t) the
tip of the tongue only come in contact with the palate.
"When then (kj) or (tj) come together rapidly, the first
change is to produce (kj) and (tj). By (kj) is meant pre-
cisely the same as (A-). The latter is generally the more
convenient notation, but the former seems more suitable for
the present discussion. For (kj) there is an attempt to pro-
1 There is a possibility that cire is remain ; few Englishmen would detect
not of Greek origin, see Graff, iv, 481, the difference between (nj) and {q) that
Dieffenbaeh's Goth. "Wort, ii, 4-50. is (qj), and some mispronounce the
This however will not affect the de- French gyi as {q). The sound (nj) be-
rivatives of the Anglosaxon. longs to a series (tj tJH dj dJH nj), not
2 It is very possible that {q) may developed in Sanscrit.
Chap. III. § 4. p,b. t,d. c,k,q. g. ch. j. 205
nounce (k) and (j) simultaneously. Hence the back of the
tongue still remaining in contact with the palate, the middle
of the tongue is also raised, so that both back and middle
lie against the palate. This is rather a constrained position,
and consequent!}' the back of the tongue readily drops.
The result is the exact position for (tj) which, originating in
an attempt to sound (t) and (j) simultaneously, brought the
tip and middle of the tongue to the palate, and tliis being
almost an impossible position dropped the tip. The two
consonants (kj, tj) are therefore ready to interchange. The
passage from (tj) to (tsh) is very short and swift, so much so
that many writers, as Wallis, have considered (tsh) to be
really (tj).^ But the organs of different speakers have dif-
ferent tendencies, and in some (s) or (sh) are more readily
evolved than (tsh) from (tj). It must be remembered that
when the sound is thus spoken of as changing, it is not meant
that it changes in the mouth of a single man from perfect (k)
to perfect (tsh). Quite the contrary. It probably required
many generations to complete the change, and the transi-
tional forms were possibly in use by intermediate genera-
tions. From these must be excluded all intentional, that is,
artificial inorganic changes, such as those induced by modern
orthoepists. The (s, sh, tsh) were all imperfect attempts at
imitating (tj), a sound which is said to have remained stable
in the Hungarian language where it is written ttj, Avhile its
congener (dj) is written gy, Magyar being called (MaAyar).
The reason why (k) should have been palatalized to (kj)
after (l,n,r) is not so clear, but the example of the modern
high German milch, munch, durch (miU-h, mau/»-h, dur/.-h)
shews that the tendency is a reality not an hypothesis, and
enables i;s to understand milch as well as milk ags. mile,
meolc ; bench as well as hank, ags. banc ; drench ags. drencan
as well as drink ags. drincan, stark and starch ags. sfcarc,
mark and march a border, ags. mearc. Chaucer interchanges
werk, iverch, etc., to suit his rhyme. It would seem there-
fore that about this time there was a great tendency in the
two sounds to fall into one another. The close connection
also of the sounds of (k, tsh) naturally suggested the related
signs c, ch, a notation earlj^ adopted. And as (sk) became
^ "Wallis says: "Anglonim ch vel syan-zyer, at si prseposuerit t, d for-
tch sonat ^y ... Si voci Anglicanae yew mabit Anglorum changer, hoc est, tyan-
taxus sigillatim prajponantur rf, t, s, z dyer." There is no doubt of the
fiunt dyeiv, tyew, syew, zyeiv, hoc est, readiness vdih. which the first sounds
Anglorum Jew Jndieus, chew mastico, generate the second, but the two are
shew ostendo, et Gallorum jeu lusus. quite distinct, and a very little practice
Qui syllabis yan, yer praeposuerit s, z enables any one to distinguish them,
formabit GaUorum changer, hoc est,
206 r,H. T,D. CjK.Q. G. CII. J. CuAr. III. ^ 4.
(skj, stj, sh), the earliest sign for the new sound was sch.
This has been adopted in German where ch by itself has a
diflercut meaning. Sec also Chap. Y, § 4, No. 1.
But the phenomenon which suggested these remarks,
namely, the pahitalisation of (k) before an (a) sound, is dif-
ferent. Generally the consonant follows the tendency of the
vowel. A German is so imbued with the tendency of ch to
become (kh, kjh, k?rh) according to the preceding rowel,
so used to say (akh, ikjh, auk^rh), that his organs would find
(akjh, ikh) an impossibility. But diflferent speakers seem to
have been aflFected with the ver}^ opposite tendency; some
striving to render the consonant thinner, or more palatal, by
inserting an (i) efiect, between it and a following (a) sound ;
others avoiding the palatalisation of a consonant before an
(i) sound by the introduction of an (u) sound. The first
would convert (ka) into (kia), whence (k.ja, kja), the common
Italian sc/n'acciafo (skjattshaa'to) efiect ; the second change
(ki, ke) into (ktci, kice) or (kwi, kwe). These tendencies are
carried far beyond these limits in the Sclavonic palatalisation
and the French labialisation of consonants. They are not
widely developed in our own language, and, being inor-
ganic, may prevail only partially both in time and place.
In modern Italian both chi and ati (ki, cuui) occur, the
French qui though written with the mark of thickening or
labialisation, is palatalised into (kji) and similarly in all
words where qu precedes a (i, e) sound in French.
As respects the particular usage, (/.-a-it, Z-oind, s/ra-idet,
s/i"8i ; ^a.id, ^aid) for cart, kind, scarlet, sky ; guard, guide, it
is now antiquated in English. But in T\^alker's time it was
so much the custom that he found it "impossible" to pro-
nounce garrison and carriage with the pure (g, k), without
any inserted (i) sound. I have however not been able to
find an}^ allusion to this practice in the older writers. The
custom is now dying rapidly out. But we find the same
tendency in other languages. Thus in Modern Greek, I
have been told, that % is always (A-h) even before to, a, and
it seems that the Sanscrit ^ had the same sound.
"WTiat has been said of k applies directly to g, substituting
sonants for mutes, and as [k) produced (tsh), so did {g) pro-
duce (dzh). The Anglosaxon g has however usually re-
mained (g), and even in several cases, as edge, bridge in which
the change to (dzh) has been made, the (g) is found as a
dialectic form. The alteration of the Anglosaxon g has
generally taken other directions, which will be considered
under gh.
Chap. III. § 4. P,B. T,D. C,K,Q. G. CH. J, 207
CH and J, Gr are also (tsh, dzh) when corresponding to
the present French sounds (sh, zh). Palsgrave admits that
French ch is English (sh), but he makes the French and
English j identical. It is not easy to determine whether in
very old French ch, j were read (tsh, dzh) or (sh, zh). Uart
makes eight pairs of consonants (b p, v f, g k, dzh tsh, d t,
dh th, z s) and two breaths (sh h'). The letters here trans-
cribed (dzh, tsh), he identifies with Italian (gi, ci) and the last
with the " High Dutch" tsch, by which their sounds are deter-
mined. Then he says, translating his phonetic orthography,
" The French do use the / consonant in a sound which we use
not in our speech, whereof this (sh) servcth for the sister thereof,
with us, as ch doth with them, having no inward sound, and are
both fi-amed with keeping of the tongixe from the palate and bring-
ing the teeth together, or the one or other Hp to his counter teeth,
and thrusting the breath through them with the inward sound for
the French j consonant ; which if we had in use, should make us
the eighth pah. For want whereof the (sh) doth remain to us, a
breath without fellow, which the other seven pahs have. But for want
of that sound, we have four others which the French never use, to
wit of (dzh, tsh) and (dh, th) wliich are very hard for any natixral
French to pronounce : other than such as are brought up amongst
us somwhat in youth." And again in the theoretical part of his
work, after an elaborate description of (sh) he adds: "For the
felowe of which sh, the French do sounde their g, before e, and i,
and the i. consonant before a, o, and u, and sometimes before e,
and doe neuer sound pei-fitcly oxu" sounds beforesaid for (dzh) &
(tsh), in all their speach."
Hence the French j is fixed as the voiced form of (sh),
that is (zh), as Hart heard it in 1569. Yet Palsgrave,
whose ear was unfortunately by no means delicate, confused
(zh) with (dzh). The "Welsh have no (sh, zh, tsh, dzh), and
are forced to transcribe the two first by si and the two last
by tsi, while they sometimes use si for all four. Thus Sales-
bury transcribes Jesu, John, joykt by tsiesuio, tsion, tsioynt,
and makes a Jack ape into a (siak ab) in his dictionary.
He admits that the Welsh tsi is as like the English (tsh)
" as brass is to gold," and says of the English " ch, g and i"
(tsh, dzh), that there is " the same likeness between these
three English letters as exists between pewter and silver,
that at first sight they appear very like each other, but on
close examination they difier."
The letters ch when tran.scribing the Greek x ^'^^ called
(k), and in the word ache which the Promptorium also writes
ake, ch has generally the sound of (k). But Hart says :
^'We abuse the name of h, calling it ache, which sounde
208 P,B. T,D. C,K,Q. G. CH. J. Chap. III. § 4.
seructli ver}' well to cxpresso an headache or some bone ache,"
80 that as the name of the letter could only have been
(aatsh), the words imply that ache wa.s also so pronounced.
IJullokar also notes it as (aatsh), and thus, by the very same
collocation bone ache, is confirmed a fanc}' of John Kemble's,
in pronouncing the line (Tempest, act i., sc. 2, v. 370) :
Fill all thy bones ■with Aches, make thee rore.
It is true Kerable said (r^tsh'oz), and therefore erred in
the vowel, though right in the consonant ; and the feeling of
the 0. P. rioters in placarding, " Silence ! Mr. Kemble's
head aitshcs,'" was in so far correct, that it was absurd to
retain a single antique pronunciation in the midst of his
modern sounds.
The initial k according to all the authorities was still
heard in the xvi th century before n, as (knoou, knot,
knuk'l) and hence probably initial gn was (gn), as both are
used in present German knochen, gnade (knokh'^'n, gxiaa'^c),
but I have not met with an instance of gn. Jones makes
initial gn always (n), but says that initial kn " may be
sounded kn," which was therefore unusual at that time.
Wallis however fift}^ years before allowed (knou, knyy)
know, knejv, and Coof»er, strangely enough says : " Kn
sonatur ut hn ; knave nebulo .... quasi knave &c.," meaning
(nh), but perhaps really simple (n), the aspiration being a
theoretical difference to distinguish initial kn from simple n.
Labialised I or (Yiv) has already been shewn to have existed
in our language, (p. 193,) but it has died out. Ijabialised k or
(kto), the lips being opened simidtaneously with the release
of the k contact and not after it, is an ancient element of our
own and probably of many other languages. In Anglosaxon
it is written civ, in Latin qu, which is the form adopted in
English. It is needless to say that no orthoepist has dis-
tinguished (kw, kw'). Gu properly bears the same relation
to g as qu to k, but as the form of they remained unchanged,
little attention was paid to it. It does not exist as part of the
Saxon element of our language. Initially it is generally
used superfluously for g. Occasionally it has the sound (g?r)
as in language, itself a modern form, angimh, disfinguish, &c.
Usage, hoM'ever, varies, some saying (Ireq'gvrydzh, a)q*g?^/sh)
and others (locq"w//dzh, tcq'w/sh). The Italian quale, guanto
are apparently (k^ruaade, g?ruan*to). The final -gue for -g
as in tongue, jilague is quite a modernism. Ague, also spelled
aytce in the Promptorium, was probably (aa*gyy) or (aa'guu)
from aigu'e, and hence does not belong to this category.
As we have (kj gj, \.w gto), so also to our unacknowledged
Chap. III. § i. GH — XVI TH TO XVIII TH CENTURY. 209
(tj dj) correspond an equally unacknowledged (tw dw,)
which, written tiv (ho as in hctioccn, twain, tioang, tmd, ticclce,
tivirl ; dwindle, dwell, divarf, have been generally considered
as (tw, dw), but many of those who have thought on pho-
netics have been more perplexed to decide whether w was
here really a vowel (u) or a consonant (w), than in the cor-
responding words xoean, xoa'in, tcist, ivell, war. The difficulty
is resolved by observing that the opening of the lips is really
simultaneous with the release of the (t, d) contact.
The termination -age is represented as having the sound
(-aidzh) in Salesbury, in damage, heritage, language, all
French words, and this agrees with Palsgrave, supra, p. 120,
note. Smith, Bullokar, Gill, and Butler, however, do not re-
cognize this tendency in English, although Butler notes the
similar change of (a) to (ai) before -nge (-ndzh), and both
are confirmed by the modern sounds (-ydzh, -e^'ndzh), of
which the first is a degeneration of (-edzh, -cedzh).
GH
The Anglosaxon alphabet having no especial letter to repre-
sent the guttural (kh), the single letter h was used, as in old
High German the double letter hh was employed. As g often
interchanges with h in Anglosaxon, as lagu, lali, law, it is pos-
sible that there was a tendency in those times to pronounce
g final or medial as (gh), just as the Upper Germans now do,
and as the Dutch pronounce their g in all positions. At a
later period the Anglosaxon g seems to have become (^h) and
then (j), sounds even now confused by German phoneticians.
Hence 5, which was also written ?, and occasionally printed
s, became the regular sign for (j) till it was supplanted by y.
When, therefore, it was desirable to shew that g retained the
sound of h, that is, (kh), it was natural to write gh in its
place. In the Orrmulura we have all varieties ; fulluhht
pohhtesat, rnihhte are instances of h, doubled merely to shew
that the preceding vowel is short ; ma)), e))ich(er, a)], tici)]es8
illustrate the use of ?, doubtful whether (^h) or (j), while
re]hell-hoc, foll]henn shew the use of )h. As in Dutch the g
often sounds (kh) as well as (gh),i and as the Scotch adopted
the orthography ch, it seems probable that (gh) early ac-
1 Eecent opportunities of hearing (s?-hep) rather than (skrhep, skh^p).
Dutch pronunciation have convinced The Dutch themselves consider the
me that the Dutch ch, g are rather sound verj- soft. The Dutch final and
(krh, grh) than simple (kh, gh). But medial sch is pronounced as simple s,
the sounds are so lightly and gently thus vleesch (vlees), a modem example
pronounced that they rather resemble of an omitted guttural,
(rh, r) than (krh, grh), thus schip =
U
210 GH — X^T TH TO XVIII Til CENTURY. Chap. III. § 4.
quired the sound of (kh) only. But it is by no means
certain. The two sounds (kh, gh) are so easily confused by
those not familiar with them, and may so readily inter-
change owing to the nature of the adjoining con-sonant, and
80 few languages have provided for their discrimination, that
we cannot be certain of their not having both existed even
thougli only one is named. It is the same with (sh, zh), the
latter of whicli is scarcely ever noticed, so that it is not easy
to say when it first came into use. Even (s, z) are constantly
confused. They both exist in Italian, and have only one
sign s. But only o)ie of them (s) exists in Spanish and
"Welsh, having the same sign s. Hence it is impossible to
tell from the orthography gh whether it represented only
(kh), only (gh), or occasionally (kh) and (gh), nor would it
be certain if a Welsh writer, for example, who only knew
(kh) and was not acquainted with (gh), asserted that the
English ffh was (kh). Now Salesbury says : "Gh has the
same sound as our ch (kh), except that we sound ch deeper
in the throat and more harshly." The two expressions
" deeper " and " more harshly " might be applied in Sales-
bury's popular language in two ways. For example, (kh) is
deeper than (Ah) and harsher. And (kh) being called 'hard'
in contrast to (gh) ' soft,' (kh) might be esteemed harsher
than (gh) ; or the reverse, when (kh) is a familiar and (gh) a
strange sound. But certainly (kh) would be felt to be much
deeper and harsher than (^'h). There is another supposition,
namely, that f/h was merely (h'), the simple jerk of the
aspirated breath. In most cases (h, h') are confused, and
the aspirate is considered to be (h'). In my own opinion
(h*) is much less frequent than (h), but (h') is occasionally
said when only (h) is intended. Sir T. Smith writes h for
either sound, and this is the general custom of orthoepists.
He also represents gh by h only, saying :
** Scio tauht, niht, fiht & caetera ejusmodi scribi etiam g adjuncta,
vt taught, night, fight, sed sonum illius g quadrant, quibus ita Hbet
scriberc, aurcs profecto meae nunquam in illis voeibus sonitum tov
g poterant haurii'c."
This ought to imply that the sound was (h') and that
(tauH't, niH't, fin't) was at that time the pronunciation of
taught, night, fight. Hart at the same time writes lauJit, oht
=,(lauH't, oH't) for knight, ought. Bullokar has also {liht,
hoicht = (Im'tboouH't). But then Gill finds it necessary to
introduce a new sign, namely, h with its stem crossed like a
f, to represent the sound of gh in bought, and says :
"X. ch. Gracorum in initio nimquam vsurpamus, in medio, et
Chap. III. § 4. GH — XVI TH TO XVI H TH CENTURY. 211
fine scepe ; ct per gh, male cxprimimus : posthac sic (kli)' scribemus :
vt in (waiklit enukh) -weight enough satis ponderis."
Now those who do not possess a symbol for (kh) often
write k for it, as we have seen in Anglosaxon finals, and as
Rapp considers to have been the case in the Anglosaxon
initial hi, /ir, /no, which I rather suppose to have been (Ih,
rh, wh). The sound of (khw) is very harsh, and in Scotland
and North Wales it is modified into (k?rh), corresponding to
the English and South Welsh (wh). Those who wish to
acquire the sound of (akh) may be led to it by endeavouring
to say (an'), and at the same time slightly raising the back
of the tongue. Hence it is possible that Salesbury's c?i,
(which is not so "deep" and "harsh" as the Welsh c/i,)
Smith's, Hart's, Bullokar's /i, and Gill's %, may be all one
and the same sound, either (h*) or (kh). But it is certain
that when Grill wrote, the sound (kh) was disappearing in
the south of England, for Butler, who uses a g with a
crossed stem, to represent g/i, says that "the Northern
Dialect doth yet rightly sound " it, implying of course that
it had gone out in the South by 1633.
The safest conclusion seems to be that the sound in the
XVI til century was really (kh), but was generally pronounced
very lightly;'^ it might, however, have been (^h) after (i,e).
This is still the custom in Scotland.
By the middle of the xvii th century the rule had become
to omit the sound, after changing the preceding vowel, or to
change it into some other sibilant, generally (f), in one or
two cases provincially (th). Wallis, 1653, after noticing
that initial gh is simply (g), adds :
* ' alias vero nunc dierum prorsus omittitar ; syllabam tarn en pro-
ducendam innuit. A quibusdam tamcn (praesertim Septentrion-
alibus) per molliorem saltern aspirationem ?i efi'ertur, ut might
potestas, light lux, night nox, right rectus, sight visus, sigh singul-
tus, weigh pondcro, iveight pondus, though quamvis, thought cogi-
tatio, wrought operatus est, hrdught attulit, taught docuit, sought
qusesivit, fraught rcfertus, nought nihil, naught malus, &c. In
paucis vocabulis effertur plenimque per ff; ncmpe cough tussis,
1 Gill misprints -5, which he uses for hour vacatur nehour ; neigh abreuiated
(dh) and in his errata endeavouring to ne." This seems to shew that both
correct this mistake and also (inukh) (neekh) and (nee) were heard in the
for (enukh), he has accidentally re- first syllable of this word, and would
peated the error instead of making the imply that (neekh) was rather pedantic,
correction, as has been done here in Indeed if it were to be classed with the
the text. - other pronunciations which the pedant
2 The Pedant in Love's Labour Lost, recommends, as (doubt, debt, kalf, Half)
Act V. Sc. 1. 1623 comedies p. 136 it might be considered as obsolete,
complains of the pronunciation "neigh-
212 GH — XVI TH TO XVIIITH CENTURY. Chap. III. H-
tr6ugh alveolus, tough tcnax, rough aspcr, laugh ridco profcruntur,
cdff, trojf, tuff, ruff, luff. Jnough (singulars) sat multum, sonatur
inuff: at inough (plurale) sat multa, souatur enotoy
Wii.KiNS, 1GG8, after saying that gh might have been
(gh) adds: "this kind of sound is now by disuse lost among
us." Pkice, however, in the same year, says : " Gh sounds
now like // in A/niif//if>/, altJioiigJi," etc., adding in the margin
" but the Ancients did, as the Welch & Scots do still pro-
nounce gh thorow the throat," lie notes that gh sounds as
(f) in cough, laughter, enough, rough. Cooper, 1685, says :
" hodie apud nos desuevit pronunciatio ^//, retinetur tamcn
in scriptura," but he makes it (f _) in cough, laugh, rough,
tough, trough, and makes Wallis's distinction between enough
and enow. Miege, 1688, says also that gh is generally mute,
but is (f ) in laugh, draught, rough, tough, enough (not distin-
guishing enow,) but adds " sigh, un Soupir, ct le Verbe to
Sigh soupirer, ont un son particulier qui approche fort de
celui du th en Anglois." Jones, 1701, extends both the (f )
and the (th) list. According to him (f ) is heard regularly
in draught, draughts, laugh, cough, enough, hough, rough,
lough, trough; and he adds "some also sound daughter,
bought, nought, taught, &c., as with an f, saying daufter, boft,
&c." And he states, that gh, ght are th " in sicjh, sounded
sith ; in drought, height soimded drouth, heith," but in other
parts of his book he also admits the sounds (sai, drA At, Heet) .
In the XVIII th century we may notice that Fielding in his
Tom Jones, book vii, chap. 13, makes his landlady say oft,
thoft, for ought, thought, and Mrs. Honour write soft for
sought, book xv, chap. 10. These are meant to be West of
England vidgarisms, but they sufficiently shew the tendency.
It would be vain to consider the changes thus indicated,
without proceeding at once to the fountain head. In Anglo-
saxon itself g became h before t very frequently, and was
often omitted. Let us therefore consider the soimd as some-
times (kh, gh) and sometimes (A-h, ^h). Let these sounds be
kept as widely apart as possible. Then (gh) must be rounded,
that is, there must be a rounding of the lips while the gut-
tural is uttered, producing (kw\\, gwh), thus German auch,
auge are, as already mentioned, in reality {vLvikwh., augt^h'e),
The Scotch sough is (suuktch), and generally the (uu) sound
before (kh) has a tendency to produce (k^rh). This would
then have a natural tendency towards (wh, w). On the
other hand (kjh, gjh) are in themselves the closest allies of
(jh, j). Hence an effort to keep the two sounds of (gh, gjh)
well apart would result in producing (w, j), which, after
Chap. III. § 4. gH — XVI TH TO XVIH TH CENTURY. 213
vowels, woulcl diphthongise as (u, i), and after consonants
would form the syllables (u, /). Now tliis is preciscl}^ what
has hap2:)ened in the passage from Anglosaxon into English.
First the (u) change. From Jagu, lah comes law (laau,
Iaa) ; from dragan comes draiv (draau, drAA) ; from hoga comes
first hough (boouk^rh) and then how (boon) or (bouk/rh, bou,
bou). From halgian comes hallow (naku, iiakoou, Hacko)
from tcelg comes (taku, takoou, tteko). In Edinburgh, Mussel-
hurgh, etc., although gh is written, {o) is regularly sounded.
Next the (i) change. From u-wgn comes icain (wain,
wmn) ; from fceger comes fair (fair, feej), from regn comes
rain (rain, rmn). From hoilg come hulge (buldzh, boldzh),
bellotvs (bekuz, bekoouz), and hellg (bek/), shewing three
changes of g.
If instead of falling to (u), the (kwh.), remained at (wh),
this would after a vowel rapidly become (f). In Aberdeen-
shire (f) is the regular substitute for (wh) or rather the
Scotch qich, which looks like an attempt to write (kwh) under
the form of (kwh). Dwarf from dwcorh is an instructive
example. The old English forms dwerghe, durwe and the
dialectic durgan are found ; a dialectic Swedish dwerf, and
Dutch dwarf, dorf are said to exist (E. Mueller, Etym. Wort.
d. Eng. Spr., i. 327). The Dutch agter, hragt and English
after, craft, Anglosaxon (eftcr, crcpft, are examples of the
coiTespondence of (f ) and (gh) in different forms of the same
low German word. The chief English examples have been
already cited, and it has been shewn that the change pre-
vails dialectically much further than it has been admitted
into the received forms of speech. Some words have even in
English both forms, as hough (nof, Hok), trough (trof, troou),
slough of a snake (slef), slough a quagmire (slau), tough (taf,
toou), enough (enof*, enau"), the grammatical distinction made
by Wallis and Cooper that the first is singular, sat multwn
and the second plural sat multa, although conformable to
Scotch usage, does not seem to be historically justified.
The change of gh into (p) in hiccough (nzk-ap) is mentioned
by Jones 1701, and must be considered to be of the same
nature as the change to (f), as (wh, w, p) are even more
closely related than (wh, f ). The curious but not admitted
change to (th) seems to rest merely on the confusion of the
(f, th) hisses.^ When these are pronounced without any
vowel it is very difiicult to distinguish them at a little dis-
tance, as is well known to those who teach to spell by means
of the powers of the letters.
1 Sigh, which Jones and Miege give as (saith) is called (saif) in Devonshire.
214 s, c; z. SH. X — xvi to xvm century. Chap. III. § 4.
"When gh falls into (u) it naturally alters the preceding
vowel, with wliich it diphthongises, hence (a) becomes (au,
aau, aa). Similarly (o) should become (ou) and thence (au),
but in this case the tendency has been rather to (ou, oo, aa),
as in ought, hou(j)it, etc. When gh falls into (i) we have
alterations in the other direction, as (ai, eei, ee).
After the vowel (i), the (i) change of gh, which is the only
natural one that could be expected, would simply prolong the
(i), and hence, from /////, niht we might have (iiii, niit),
forms which really exist dialectically for high, night; and
from the termination -ig we might expect (-/), the com-
monest form in present use.
We shall see in the next chapter that such were probably
the original forms of transition. In Cumberland and AVest-
moreland ujh is regularly replaced by (ii), and the change to
(ai), which is constantly attributed to the omission of the
guttural, seems to have no real connection with it, but forms
part of the general change of long / from (//) through (ei) to
(ai), which will be minutely considered in Chap. lY, § 2,
under I. If we are to trust Gill, the sound of (ai) and the
guttural coexisted, as he always prints (naikht) and neither
(nikht), the pronunciation of Salesbury, nor (nait) as became
prevalent during the xvii th century.
With this gh proper must not be confounded gh written
for g, in comparatively recent times, at the beginning of
words. Jones tells us that the sound of g is written gh in
gherkin, gliess, gheus, ghittern, ghost, where gltesa is found in
Spenser for guess.
S, C ; Z. SH. X.
The use of c for (s) follows the same rules as at present,
throughout the period under consideration. The letter s seems
also to have been (s) or (z) under the same circumstances as
at present, but as the sound of (z) does not exist in Welsh,
Salesbury had no means of indicating it by Welsh letters,
and he therefore writes s in all cases, although he names the
2 sound. Smith, Hart, and Gill all use s, but none of them
are sufficiently careful. Still there can be no reasonable
doubt that s was pronounced (z) under the same circum-
stances as it is at present. The letter -s is now used for (sh),
where the change has been generated by a subsequent (i)
sound, and the same remark aj^plies to c, t, as in mission,
pressure, special, motion ; and s passes in certain cases into
(zh) under similar circumstances, as vision, excision, measure.
There is no trace of this in the xvi th century. Salesbury
Chap. III. § 4. S, C ; Z. SH. X — XVI TO XVIII CENTURY. 215
has GRACYOUSE, grasi?€s (graa'si,us), condicyon, condwjwn
(kondis'iwn), exhibition ecsibisiwn (eksibis'iun), prohihition
proibisiicn (proo,ibis*i,un), tresure tresuiv)' (tree'zyj-r).
Bullokar has (abrevias'ion, komposiz'iou, naa'sion, syyor,
syygar) for abbreviation, composition, nation, suer, suffar.
And Gill writes (ekspektas'ion, Habitaa'sion, naa'sion,
okaa'zion, pas'ion) for expectation, habitation, nation, occasion,
passion. In the xvii th century Wallis generates (sh) from
(sj), but WiLKiNS writes (resarreksion) for resurrection.
Price, 1668, only recognizes " hard s in passion ; soft s in
concision, and sh in cushion, fashion." Cooper, 1685, docs not
name the use of (sh) in such cases, but admits shure, shtigar,
which may have been, (shuur shag'er), " facilitatis causa,"
although he places such words immediately after his " vitanda
barbara dialectus." Miege, 1688, writes chiire, pennchoun in
French letters for sure, pension, states that in the termination
-ision, s sounds as French g or j (zh) and writes ujual, train-
gimt, iejeur, oj'er, kojer, crojer for usual, transient, leisure,
osier, hosier, crosier. Jones, 1701, says: "Tho' you have the
Sound of sh verv often in the Beo'innino' of the last Svllable
of Words, as in action, nation, &c. sounded, acshon, nashon,
&c. yet is sh never written there in Words of two or more
Syllables ; except in cushion, fashion, hogshead, lushious.
Marshal." He admits that s is commonly sounded sh (sh)
in assume, assure, assurance, censure, consume, desume, ensue,
ensure, fissure, issue, leisure, measure, pleasure, pressure, imrsue,
pursuer, pursuit, sue, suet, sugar, suit, sure, side, tissue,
treasure, and says that ocean is " sounded oshan." He does
not recognize (zh), but says that sh is written s "in azure,
%Q)WxAq^ ashure." The change was therefore fully estab-
lished at the end of the xvii th century.
Though the orthoepists of the xvii th century were slow
to recognize this change, and those of the xviii th and xix th
even admit it rather grudo^inorlY, while those of the xvi th
do not seem to be even aware of such a " slovenly habit,
yet we have at least two early traces of the degeneration of
suit into shoot, in Shakspere and in Howley, for a notice of
which I am indebted to Mr. Aldis Wright. In Love's
Labour Lost, Act i\. Sc. 1, written before 1598, the folio 1623,
Comedies, p. 130,^ there is apparently a play on suitor and
1 " Qu. Wlio gaue thee this Letter f Clo. From my Lord Berowne, a good
Clo. I told YOU, mv Lord. master of mine.
Qu. Towhomshould'stthougiueit? To a Lady of France, that he called
Clo. From my Lord to my Lady. Rosaline.
Qu. From which Lord, to which Qu. Thou hast mistaken his letter.
Lady p Come Lords away.
216 S, C ; Z. SH. X XVI to XVITI century, Chap. III. § 4.
shooter, f/rer and (fear. The two latter words were pronounced
alike l)y Smith. AVere the two former really pronounced alike
by Shakspere, as they were by Jones, 1701, and Buchanan,
1766, though Cooper, 1685, gives (s/ut) and Sheridan, 1780,
(sunt) lor suit .^ Gill, 1621, only allows (syyt), Bullokar,
1580, has (syygar). Ilart has (syyer).^ But some persons
must have said (sliuut), or such jokes would have been lost,
and, whatever was the case in Shakspere,^ we have this pun
in Rowley's Match in the Dark, 1633, Act ii. Sc. 1 :
Mo/t. Out upon liim, what a suiter have I got. I am sorry you
are so bad an Artlier, sir.
i:are. Why Bml, why Bud ?
Moll. Why to shoofe at Buts, v^-hen you shou'd use prick-shafts.
In the present day we have a joke of an Irish shopman
telling his customer to shoot himself, meaning suit himself.
Here sweete, put vp this, 'twill be
thine another day.
£xeunt.
Boy. "WTio is the shooter ? Who is
the shooter ?
Rosa. Shall I teach you to know.
Boy. I my continent of beautie.
Bosa. Why she that bcares the Bow.
Finely put off.
Boy. My Lady goes to kill homes. ***
Bosa. Well then, I am the shooter.
Boy. And who is your DeareP"
In Boyet's drst speech, Steevens, at
the sufrjrestion of Fanner, altered the
shooter of all the quartos and folios, to
suitor, which is the reading usually
adoi)ted. The preceding dialogue,
which has been given for the piu-pose
of comparison, seems at first sight to
point to suitor as Boyet's meaning,
which Rosaline perversely takes as
shooter. But the connection is not
evident. There is no allusion to suitor,
but much to shooter in what follows.
Boyet knew- both the suitor (whether we
take him as Biron or Armado), and the
shooter (the Princess, apparently, who
is represented as going to shoot a deer
at the opening of the scene), but
Rosaline's rejjly, and her remark that
it is a "put off," look as if she was
purposely misunderstanding him. In
the absence of a tenable hypothesis
for the introduction of the new word,
suitor, we may suppose that Boyet,
looking off after the shooting party
which has just left, sees an arrow sped,
and in(|uires of Rosaline who shot
it, whereupon she puts him off with
the tiiaism that it was she (one of the
Princess's company) who bore the bow.
1 John Ilart, in his first treatise, as
cited in Chap. VIII, ^ 3, note 1, classes
the three words " suer, shut, and bruer,"
as he spells them, together, and pro-
nounces (sv7-er, shyyt, brjT-er). The
first may be suer or server, the last is,
of course brewer ; is the second suit,
or shoot intended to be written shute
(Scotch, schute = shoot), as Hart in
that ti-eatise const.intly omits the
final e ? It is the only indication of
such a change in the xvith centur)',
and the word suer renders it very
doubtful. We can hardly suppose the
word to have been shut. Stratman
gives the old English forms for shut,
schutten, schitte, schettin, shette ; for
shoot, sceoten, schetin, sheten, scheete,
ssete, schete, scuteu, soten, shoten,
schoten. The original difference of the
words is difficult to determine ; Ett-
miiller does not give any ags. word
scyttan, to shut, as different from
sceotati, to shoot ; E. Miiller refers
shut to shoot from shooting the bolt
of the door.
2 Steevens quotes an equivoque of
suters and shooters, miscalled archers
by a servant, from " The Puritan,
1607," and Malone a similar play upon
archers and suitors in " Essays and
Characters of a Prison and Prisoners,
by G. M., 1618," and also Antony and
Cleopatra Act v. Sc. 2, where Pope reads
" a grief that shoots My very heart at
root," and Capell readis smites for the
folio, 1623, suites.
Chap. III. § 4.
s, c ; z.
SH. X XVI TO XVIII CENTURY. 217
The Irish pronunciation however only shews an Eno-lish
pronunciation of the xvii th century. In Enghmd at the
present day, sJioot for sidt M'ould be vulgar, but the joke
would be readily understood, though few persons use, or
have even heard, the pronunciation. Might not this have
been the case in Shakspere's time ? At any rate there is no
authority for supposing that such a pronunciation could have
been used seriously by Shakspere himself.^ But the sound
1 ^Ir. Aklis "Wright seems to sup-
pose that the compositors might have
had that pronimciation, and that it
therefore might have crept into the
text. In Lear, Act ii. Sc. 2, the word
three-suited of the fo. 1623, is spelled
three shewted in all the quartos but
one, where it is three smjted, an evident
misprint for three suyted. Now sheivted
woiild probably have been wi-itten for
(shyyted), and may indicate the tran-
sitional pronunciation ; on the other
hand it may be itself a mere misprint
for sewted, which woidd be a legiti-
mate orthography for suited. This
hypothesis is questioned by Mr. Aldis
"SVright, who says: "in books printed
in the time of Shakespeare and Bacon
variations occuf in diifcreut copies of
the same edition. I have never seen
two copies of the 1625 edition of
Bacon's Essays which were exactly
alike. A list of the variations is given
at the end of my edition. Now there
are six copies of the quarto of King
Lear printed in 1608, which we [Mr.
W. G. Clark and himself, editors of
the Cambridge Shakespeare] have in
our notes erroneously (as we confess in
the Preface) called Q2 , whereas we are
now convinced that this edition was
earlier than the one in the same year
which we have called Q . These
copies of Q2 (so called) differ from
each other in having some of them
been corrected while passing through
the press. The earliest of these which
we have met with is one of the two
copies in the Bodleian, and we call it
for distinction sake Q2 (Bodl. 1). This
has the reading three s)iyted : but all
the other copies of the same edition
read three sheivted. I suppose therefore
that while the edition was in com-se of
printing the eiTor was discovered, and
the correction commimicated vei'bally
to the compositor, who inserted it accord-
ing to his own notions of spelling. It is
not a question between the readings of
two different editions, but between an
imcorrected copy and a corrected copy
of the same edition. The later (]uartos
follow the corrected copy but their tes-
timony is of no value, because their
reading is merely a reprint." Ilurried
corrections, whether of print or manu-
script, freciuently introduce additional
errors, and hence there is no guarantee
in this curious history that the com-
positor who substituted sheivted for
snyted, did not himself put sheivted
when he meant to have inserted seivted.
More instances are certainly required
to decide the point. The Scotch
wrote schiite for shoot. Palsgrave
writes sute for suit. In Hcm-y V.,
Act iii. sc. 6, fol. 1623, p. 81, we find
" what a beard of the Generalls Cut,
and a horride Sute of the Campe, will
doe among foming Bottles and Ale-
washt Wits, is wonderfuU to be thought
on." In the Chronicle History of
Henry the Fifth, printed in the fourth
vol. of the Cambridge edition shoitt
stands for sute. If we take Bullokar's
old pronunciation, shout would be
(shunt). Mr. Aldis Wright observes
that this was " an instance of a play
apparently taken down at the time of
acting, and whether shout or suit be
the true reading, one of them could not
have been substituted for the other
unless the pronmiciation was some-
thing similar,"' and he thinks that
these instances lead to the conclusion
that the pronimciation (shuut^ "was
in existence at the beginning' of the
XVII th century. The jokes upon
shooter and suitor certainly establish
that a sufficiently similar pronunciation
of the words was in existence to make
the joke appreciable. The various
spellings, I fear, prove nothing, be-
cause, considering the frciiuency of the
word — suit occurs 163 times, suitable
once, suited!, suiting 1, suitor 38 times
in Mrs. Cowden Clarke's Concordance,
— the rare variations can only pass for
218 s, c; z. sii. X — XVI to xviii century. Chap. III. } 4.
may well have existed imrecognizcd, precisely as the sound
of (.sh) is supposed to be unknown in AVelsli, although ciiaio
is now generally called (koi'sho), and not (koi'sio). Simi-
larly in Dutch (sh) has been developed from (si-, (sj-) in
several words, but it is not orthoepistically acknowledged.
In the xviii th century there was a decided tendency towards
(sh). Thus sue, suet, sugar, suicide, suit, suitable., suitor,
sure, suture, all commence with (sh) in Buchanan, sue, suit,
suitable, suitor, have (s) in Sheridan, but the rest have (sh),
which Sheridan also uses in sudorific, sudorous, super-,
superable, superb, superior, siipernal, supine, supinity, supra-,
supremacy, supreme, sural, where Buchanan has (s).
The sound of (sh) was well known in the xvi th century.
Salesbury says :
" Sh wlien coming before a vowel is equivalent to this combina-
tion ssi, thus SHATPE ssiapp (shapp), shepe ssiip (shiip). Sh coming
after a vowel is pronounced iss, thus asshe am (ash, aisli ?), wasshe
waiss (wash, waish ?). And wherever it is met with, it hisses hke
a roused serpent, not unhke the Hebrew letter called schin. And
if you wdsh further information respecting this soimd, you shoidd
listen to the hissing voice of shellfish when they begin to boil."
"We learn from Hart, supra p. 207, that (zh) was un-
known in the xvith century. AVilkins, 1G68, says that (zh)
is " facil and common .... amongst the French, who express
it by J, as in the word Jean., &c., and is easily imitable by
us," implying that it was not in use in England. But
Miege, 1G88, being a Frenchman, heard it, as we have seen,
p. 215, in the words where we now use it. He is the oulj''
writer in the xvii th century who notices it, and, as he is a
foreigner, his testimony is susjiicious. Franklin, 17G8,
seems only to know it in French, as he has no special sign
for it, and even in French writes (zshtcme) for jamais.
Just as Hart writes (ozdzhuiu'dwi) for aujourdhui, for want
of an appropriate sign, although he had recognized the sound.
Sheridan, 1780, fully acknowledges it. It is always written
(s) or (z), and arises in English from palatisation as (z*j).
In French it seems to be a degeneration of (dzh) formed
from a palatalised (g*j); or else to have arisen from (j)^, pre-
niisprints. The absence of any notice ' The Dutch at the Cape of Good
of smh a practice in orthoepists of the Hope say (dzhfl'<^ Dzh^n) etc., for {saa,
XVI th century (if we except the very Jan),ja, Jan. This is an alteration of
doubtful passage from Ilart in the last precisely the same character, and is
note), together with the depreciating comparable with the Italian Giugno,
manner in which similar usages arc Giunone, Giuylio (Dzhuunjo, Dzhu-
mentioned in Cooper, shew that any n!<»h'ne, Dzhuu Ijo) from the Latin
such pronunciation was considered not Jioiium, Junonem, Julium.
worth mentioning.
Chap. III. § 4. F, V. TH — XVI TH TO XVIII TH CENTURY. 219
cisely in the same way as (sh) derives in some parts of
German V, and still more frequently to English, ears, from
(A-h) as (ish) for (ikh).
X was usually (ks). Salesbury gives flaxe ffiacs (flaks),
EXHTBiTioM ecsibislicii (eksibis'ijun), oxE ocs (oks), but, ap-
parently by a misprint, axe a^s (agz).
F, Y
i^and V seem to have retained their sounds throughout,
but in the earlier times v and ti were interchangeable, and
either could be used as a vowel or consonant. This was not
the case in Welsh, where tc was the vowel, and v the conso-
nant. The consonant has been generally replaced by / in
Welsh, J/' being used for (f). Salesbury notices as a dialectic
variety in " some countries of England" the use of (v) for
(f), but he does not particularize the districts. Gill attri-
butes it to East Anglia, " (v) pro (f), ut (vel'oou), pro
(fel-oou)."
TH
The double sound of th as (th, dh) is fixed by Salesbury
as the Welsh fh, del, and the two uses were distinguished
almost exactly as at present ; with seems however to have
been always (w/th), though (w/dh) is now more common.
Salesbury gives (th) to through, thystJe, thijnne, wyth, thauke,
thorowe, thyck ; and (dh) to this, thyne, the, that, thou. He
also notices that th sounds (t) in Thomas, threasure and throne,
which he writes tncn (truun) ; and (d) in Tharics Inn.
Smith, Hart, Bullokar, Gill, Butler, have aU different signs
for (th, dh) and use them according to our present custom
of speech. Jones makes th = (t) in antheme, or antJnjmn,
Anthony, apothecary, asthma, Author, authority, autJiorize,
Catharine, Cajitharides, Esther, Isthmus, Lithuania, posthu-
mus, priesthood, Thames, Thannet, thea, Thomas, Thomson,
Thomasin, Thuscany, thyme.
It is difficult to determine when these uses were settled.
The two Anglosaxon letters ]> 'S are usually taken to be
(th, dh) but their employment is almost exactly opposite to
modern use. In later Anglosaxon and Early English only
one, either 'S or, more usually, ]> was employed, and even
Orrmin makes no distinction. This might have^ been a
peculiarity in writing names. It seems safest to infer the
old use from the modern, which is found to hold for the
XVI th century.
220 H — XVI TII TO XVIIITH century. Chap. III. § 4.
TI
The question concerning // is simply when was it mute?
for its sound, or rather its action on the following vowel was
always the same as (ii) or (ii'). Palsgrave says h is mute in
honest, lio)tour, Juihundautici', hahitation. Gill docs not agree
in the last word, and the // has now disappeared, even in
writing, from the last but one. Salesbury says h is mute
in honest, habitation, liumtde, hahite, honedc, honoure, exhi-
bition, j)rohibitio?i. Modern orthoepists will not admit the
two last, though custom sanctions them, but halite and
habitation have recovered their //, and humble is still
doubtful. Gill adds the words hour, hi/ssop, which he
writes (oi'zop). Abho»nnablc was a common orthography in
the XVI th century, and the h seems to have been occasion-
ally pronounced or not pronounced, for the Pedant in Love's
Labour Lost (1G23, Comedies, p. 136) says : " neighbour
vocatur nebour ; neigh abreuiated ne ; this is abhominable,
which he would call abhominable."^ It is usual to print the
second abhominable without the h and the first with it, but
it seems more proper to reverse this, and write "this is
abominable, which he would call abhominable," for the
Pedant ought certainly to have known that there was no
h in the Latin, although in the Latin of that time h was
used, as we see from the Promptorium, 1450, " AbhominaJ)lc,
abhominabilis, abhominacyon abhominacio," and Levins 1570,
" atjhominate, abhominari," as if the words referred to ab-
homine instead of ab-omine.
In the XVII th century, Price 1668, says that h is mute in
ghost, rhctorick, catarrh, dunghill, hont, hour, John, impos-
thume, myrrh, Rheiie, rheum, rhode, Wadha)n. Miege, a bad
authority, because Frenchmen cannot rightly appreciate the
English aspirate, having no such element of their own, de-
clares that liotir, hourly are the only two words in which
h is mute, and especially instances honour as having an
aspirated //.
1701. Jones says h "may be sounded in halleluiah, harber-
ycon, habiliment, havei'-du-pois," &c., but seems to imply that
it is generally mute in these words, and saj's that -ham in
names of places in England is -nm as in Broxham, Buching-
Jiam. lie also makes h mute in coxcherd, Nehemiah, shepherd,
sicine-herd, and in Ueber, ITebraism, Hebrew, hecatomb, hectical,
Hector, hedge, Hellen, hemorrhoids^, herb, heriot, hermit, &c.,
" which h may be found by putting a Yowel before them."
^ The quarto 1631 also prints abhominable iu both places.
Chap. III. H- ^ — XVI TH TO XVIIl TH CENTURY. 221
He allows unaccented Jiis to lose tlic It, "as in fold his man,
sounded fold is man, &c." He says o is written ho " when
it may be sounded ho, as in homage, holder, homo, in the
beginning of all words, homnnalt, hod, hostage, hosfess,
hosfkr, hosfi/e, houlef, hour, so-ho, inhhoim, &c., often
sounded as with o only." Also he saj's oo is written
hoo, " when it may be sounded hoo after a vowel, as
hood, hoof, hooh, hoop, hoord, and in hood in the End of
Words as in likelihood, manhood, Priesfhood, &c." Finally
he says ii is written hu " when it may be sounded hu, espe-
cially after a Vowel, as in humble, humiliti/, humou)\ Ilum-
jiJtrey." This frequent reference to the vowel depends on
the following remark: "That h is hardly sounded before or
after consonants ; but more easilj' before and after Vowels,
therefore the best Waij to discover on h, is to sound the
Word that begins with it after a vowel; as a haf, &c." Un-
fortunately this rule would make a vast number of A's to be
heard in London, as (a H'oi, a H'ass), an eye, an ass.
At the present day great strictness in pronouncing h is
demanded as a test of education and position in society, and
consequently most of the words mentioned in Jones are now
aspirated. Smart, 1836, reduces the list of words with mute
h to heir, honest, honour, hosfler, (in which the h is now
commonly not written) hour, humble, and humour. It is
certainly at present very usual to say (nom'b'l, jhuu'ma), so
that the list is reduced to five words, which it would be
considered social suicide to aspirate. But in practice, even
of the most esteemed speakers, -ham in names of places has
no aspirate, exhaust, exhibit, exhibition, lose h, and his, him,
her, etc., after an accented consonant when perfectly un-
accented, drop their h. Tt is extremely common in London
to say (b ioo'icm) for at home. A vast majority of the less
educated and refined in London, and a still greater majority
in the Midland Counties, never use the //, pronouncing their
■words as if they never had had an h at all. The insertion of
the h, generally in the form of a very strong (h'), is also a
remarkable phenomenon, not so common, and still more
illiterate.
(H) is properly only a jerk of the voice, and as such forms
part of the Sanscrit post aspirates (kn gn) etc., and is fre-
quent as a post aspirate in the Irish brogue. It also occurs
before every o in Tuscan pronunciation, in which dialect (k)
is also changed into a strong (.h*) thus (.H'onfrHon'tHo) for
confronto. I have heard Livorno pronounced in the place
itself, almost like (livn'or-nn'o) so that a foreigner might
222 ir ■ — XVI TII TO XVIIITH century. Chap. III. § 4.
easily persuade himself that he heard (llghor'no)/ whence
an Englishman's Leghorn is but a step. As an initial letter
however (h) is not common. Thus Sanscrit has no initial
(n), the letter ^ being (gh). Precisely the same thing
occurs in Kussian, Avhere the (gh) has also to be used for a
foreign (h). The Gothic h may have been occasionally (h),
but seems to have been freqiiently (kh), in place of which
(h*) as a milder form, became gradually prevalent in the
GciTuanic languages. No German at present leaves out or
puts in an initial h contrary to the orthography ; but final h
after a vowel, which is dialcctically pronounced (kh) or
(k?fh) as (shuuk?rli) Scliuh shoe, has disappeared in the re-
ceived pronunciation. No Scotsmen omit the aspirate. The
old Greeks had an aspirate, the exact nature of which cannot
be accurately known, as every trace of it has disappeared
from the language, and its old relations were rather singular.
It is a matter of dispute how far the Latins pronounced their
h, but the Italians, Spaniards, and French have nothing
resembling the true sound of (h), although the French have
a trace of its former existence, asserted by Palsgrave but not
recognized by Meigret, in that hiatus which they call an
h aspir^. The French and Italian also have no (kh), which
has been retained in the form (Ah) by both the Sanscrit and
Greek. The so-called (kh) x,j, of the Spaniards seems to be
a Moorish importation, and is possibly an alteration of {h).
In Spanish America it is said to be replaced by (h). The
Spaniards used it to replace a foreign (sh), as in Ilexico; the
French transliterate it by ch = (sh), and the English have
made Xcrez (xeeTeec) into sherrt/. The (h*) is abundant in
Arabic.
In England the use of the (h) among the illiterate seems
to depend upon emphatic utterance. Many persons when
speaking quietly will never inti'oduce the (h), but when
rendered nervous or excited, or when desiring to speak par-
ticularly^ well, the}' aboimd in strong and imusuai aspirations.
It is also singular how difl&cult it is for those accustomed to
omit the h, to recover it, and how provokingly they sacrifice
themselves on the most undesired occasions by this social
shibboleth. In endeavouring to pronounce the fatal letter
they generally give themselves great trouble, and conse-
1 Eear-Adm. W. H. Smyth. The the name of Livorno. This would be
MetUtfrrancan, London, 1854, p. 331, pronounced (leghor-no), and is a singu-
mcntions that a map belonging to a lar testimony to the antiquity of this
Greek Pilot in 1550, now in Erit. Mus. custom of speech.
Add. MS. 10,134, coutuius \eyopyo as
Chap. III. § 5. PRONUNCIATION — XVI TO XV III TH CENTURY. 223
quently produce a harshness, quite unknown to those who
pronounce (h) naturallj'. xVn English author, S. Hirst,
writing an English Grammar in German,^ in which 50
quarto pages are devoted to a minute accoxmt of the pro-
nunciation of English, actually bestows 167 quarto lines of
German, measuring about 90 feet, upon attempting to shew
that formerly h was not pronounced in English, and that it
was altogether an orthoepistic fancy to pronounce it, saying
that almost all non-linguists would admit that li was gene-
rally mute, or at most scarcely audible, and that linguists
who denied this in theory gave into the practice. ^ The
division of the people is not exactly into linguists and
non-linguists, but it must be owned that yery large masses
of the people, even of those tolerably educated and dressed
in silk and broad cloth, agree with the French, Italians,
Spaniards, and Greeks, in not pronouncing the letter H.
§ 5. Realisation of the Pronunciation of English in the
XVI th, XVII th, and xviii th centuries.
The results of the two preceding sections are sufficiently
minute to give an indication of the pronunciation of English
during the xvi th century, but it is not easy from this mass
of details respecting individual words, to arrive at a con-
. ception of the actual sounds of sentences. Hart, Bullokar,
Gill and Butler have however given specimens of connected
speech, and in Chapter VIII, §§ 3-6, sufficiently extensive
extracts will be given from their works, and translated into
palaeotype, to enable a reader to form an accurate conception
of the sound of our language in the xvi th century. After
these, follows, § 7, a vocabulary of the principal words pro-
nounced by the authorities of this period, which will be very
useful in endeavouring to read any other work of that time,
because, even if the unknown word is not there found, some
analogue will almost certainly present itself, which will suf-
fice to determine the sound within the requisite liniits.^
Finally, applying all the results of previous investigations,
1 Kritisches Lehrgebandes der en- him. If, however, he had been aware
glischen Spiache von S. Hirst, Mitglied of the loose manner in which h is in-
der Universitiit zu Cambridge, 2nd ed., serted and omitted in Layamon, Genesis
Leipzig, 1847. and Exodus, Prisoner's Prayer, and
2 Hfs principal argument is the re- other writings of the xin th century,
tention of an, mine, thine, etc., before he would doubtless have considered his
words beginning -■(vith h, in the author- point established. In practice I under-
ized version 1611. The lists of words stood from a gentleman who conversed
with mute h given by Palsgrave, Sales- with him, he omitted the h altogether,
bury, etc., were of course unknown to ' See also the Index of "Words.
224 PRONUNCIATION — XVI TO XVIII TH CENTURY. CuAP. III. § 6.
I have in § 8, endeavoured to realise the pronunciation of
Shakspore, and have reduced my conception to palaeotypic
spelling, which will enable a reader of moderate perseverance
to reproduce it orally. The result is peculiar, and has been
generally well received by those to whom I have had an
opportunity of communicating it rirci voce. There can be
no reasonable doubt, after the preceding discussions, of its
very closely representing the pronunciation actually in use
by the actors who performed Shakspere's plays in his lifetime.
In Chapters IX and X, I have endeavoured to give a
similar realisation of the pronunciations which mark the
XVII th and win th centuries. The only connected phonetic
writing of the xvii th century which I have found, is Bishop
Wilkins's transcription of the Lord's Prayer and Creed, but
this very inadequate specimen is eked out by a vocabulary
collected from the principal authorities of the time. It is
with considerable hesitation, that in the midst of such di-
versities of sound attached to the same symbols, and such
numerous lists of rules and exceptions, relating to different
parts of words and not furnishing the complete representation
of entire words, that I have endeavoured to restore Dryden's
pronunciation, or rather the pronunciation of some contem-
porary reader. It is impossible to feel the same certainty
respecting his sounds as respecting Shakspere's, and the
attempt should be viewed with indulgence.
For the xviii th century, the complete vocabulary of
Buchanan has enabled me to give his pronunciation of a
passage of Shakspere, and Dr. Franklin's interesting letter
furnishes a contemporary piece of phonetic writing, uncor-
rected certainly, but sufficienth'- suggestive. A vocabulary
of the principal words in which Buchanan, Sheridan, and
other authorities, differ from the received pronunciations of
to-day, or anticipate them, will complete the account of this
century.
It has not formed any part of the plan of this work to
enter into detail upon the pronimciation now prevalent,
although incidental allusions to it perpetually occur. This
is a very difficult and very complex subject, which has been
taken up bj' many other writers, but requires entirely new
treatment, in reference not only to the results of the present
investigation, but to those abnormal, cacoepistic, rare, vulgar,
and dialectic forms, which the history of the past shews that
we ought to collect for the benefit of the future, and for the
thorough appreciation of the real state and possible develop-
ment of our language, which is principally im written. Mr.
Chap. III. ^ 6. DIRECTION OF CHANGE. 225
Melville Bell's Visible Speech, or ray own Palaeotj^e, now
give a means of writing all such forms with great accuracy,
and the rougher Glossotype (p. 13 and Chapter VI, § 3), will
enable those who do not wish to enter into minuter distinc-
tions of sound, to write our dialects miich more intelligibly
than the generality of systems hitherto pursued. Those
therefore who wish to assist in forming a written picture of
our language for the first time, should neglect no opportunity
of immediately noting diversities of pronunciation whenever
heard, after some of these comprehensive systems, of which
Palaeotype possesses the great advantage of requiring none
but ordinar}^ type. To shew the nature of the process re-
quired, I have in Chapter XI contrasted Mr. Melville Bell's
and my own pronunciation of the parable of the Prodigal
Son, and transliterated many specimens of Scotch dialectic
pronunciation which he has furnished, both into palaeotype
and glossotype, while the politeness of several correspondents
in the provinces, has enabled me to give a first instalment of
a greatl}^ needed comparative phonology of the English
dialects.
§ 6. The Direction of Change.
For determining older pronunciation than that of the
XVI th century, it is important to consider the direction in
which sounds have changed since that period, because we
can then by continuing the line backwards, arrive at some
conception of the sounds from which those in the xvi th
century were derived. It is for this reason that so much
space has been devoted to a consideration of the pronuncia-
of the XVII th and xviii th centuries.
TABLE or CHAI^GES 1^ THE YALITE OF THE LETTERS.
1. Short Vowels.
A short, in xvith century decidedly (a), became (ae) in the course
of the xvn th and has so remained except in a small class of
words, where the various soimds (aa, a, aah, ah, icx, ve) are
heard.
E short, has remained (e) throughout, but is locally (e) and
may have been (e) at any period.
I short, has remained («) throughout.
0 short, seems to have been generally (o) and often («) in the
XTith century. The (o) soimds became (o) or (a), it is impos-
sible to deteiToine which, in the xvn th centuiy, and have so
remained, the present soimds being generally (o) in closed and
Id
226
DIRECTIOX OF CHANGE.
Chap. III. } 6.
(o) in open syllabks. In a few words (o) remains, as cross,
gone. The (m) sounds, as in the case of short ii, became (o) in
the xvn th centuiy and have so remained.
U short, was eitlier (u) or («), probably the latter, in the xrrth
ceutuiy, but during the xvuth become decidedly (o), which
has remained to the present day, with the exception of a few
words which retain the old (m) soimd, but some of these are
occasionally pronounced (o), and more of them probably were
80 pronounced in the xviu th century.
2. The Long Votcels.
A long, was (aa) in the xvi th century, but inclined already to a
very fine and thin pronunciation, nearly (aah), quite different
from (««).' In the xvuth century this seems to have become
decidedly (aea), advancing at the close of that century or the
beginning of the xvrath to (ee), which in the xixth century,
if not earlier, became {ee) and even (m).
' In an unknown treatise on the
pronunciation of French, of which two
quarto leaves with the signatures B i,
B ii, bearing date 1528, (two years prior
to Palsgrave's book,) are preserved and
described in Kev. S. R. Maitland's
List of some of the Early Printed Books
in the Archiepiscopal Library at Lam-
beth, 1843, p. 291 (but which did not
fall under my notice till the preceding
pages were printed), wc read of the
French A and E, " A. ought to be pro-
nounced fro the botom of the stoniak
and all openly. E. a lytcU hyer in
the throte there properly where the
englysshe man soundeth his a." This
would imply that the French sound
was (aa), unless it was rounded into
(aa), as we know that it sounded to
Englishmen in the xvuth centurj'.
The English a was quite distinct from
this and sounded more like (ee) to
French ears, than {aa). The sound
could certainly not have been (ee), or
Palsgrave would not have found it like
the French a, and Salesbury like the
Welch a. If we suppose the English
a, e were (aa, ee) and the French were
{aa, ee) we shall be probably very near
the truth which underlay this and simi-
lar statements. Compare Gilles du
Guez, supra p. 61. Since the above
was written, Mr. PajTie has obligingly
brought under my notice : " The French
Garden : for English Ladyes and Gen-
tlewomen to walke in. Or, A Sommer
dayes labour. Being an instruction for
the attayniug vnto the knowledge of
the French tongue .... By Peter Eron-
(kll, Professor of the same Language,
London, 1605, Svo., the English in
black letter, the French in Roman
t}-pc, unpaged, signatures extending to
P 3, with two more leaves. The au-
thor has taken considerable pains, but
not always successfully, to indicate the
French sounds, and occasionally refers
to the English, in passages which will
be quoted as footnotes to this table. It
must be remembered that as in the two
cases just cited, the author was French.
" Our A is not sounded altogether, as
this english word aice as some haue
written, but as the first voice of this
word Augustine or After opening some-
what the mouth, as for example. Bap-
tiste, tacitement, srauoir : and not after
the rate of the englLsh word ale, for if
a Frenchman should write it according
to the English sound, hee would write
it in this wise esl and sound it as if
there were no s." This passage seems
to indicate clearly that French a was
rather (aa) than (aa). It also infers
that this {aa) was heard in the English
after, where we retain (aa, aah), but
that in ale and other words of that class
the Frenchman heard (ee). I may
mention in illustration that Padre
Secchi, the astronomer, when speaking
English at the meeting of the British
Association at Xorwich, 1868, said
(mEEd) for made, which to English ears
sounded very nearly as (ma'sed), and
very unlike (m«d). It must be borne
in mind that ErondeU's eal was quite
Chap. III. } 6. DIRECTION OF CHANGE. 227
E long was (ee) cluiing the xvi th and xvn th centuries, except in u
veiy few words, as he, she, me, etc., because in the xvi th centuiy
the spelling ee was introduced foi' those words in which the
sound has actually altered to (ii), but no such alteration of
spelling was aftei-wards admitted, and in the beginning of the
XTiii th century the sound of (ii) began to prevail, and became
gcnei'al by the close of that century, as it now remains.
I long was a diphthong in the xvith century, probably (ei) but
c'-M occasionally (ai). In the xvnth centmy, and perhaps during
the latte;: part of the xvi th, the sound of (oi) was introduced,
which has remained. Even at the present day, however, (ei,
ai, ai) and other varieties may still be heard.
0 long was apparently (oo) in the xvi th centiuy, a sound which is
still generally heard before r, in 7nore, glory, &c ; but in the
xvnth centuiy, (oo) was introduced, and still remains, though
frequently called (^oo'iv) or (oou), and dialectically (ou). Some
words containing o long were pronounced (uu) but in the xvi th
century these were mostly vrritten with oo, and hence o long is
sounded (uu) in only a veiy few words, as 7nove, prove.
U long docs not occur in any Saxon words, and in the xvith and
down to the middle of the xvnth ccntxiiy had the sound of
(yy) or some closely allied sound as (n, tm, &&) which may be
still heard dialectically both in the East and West of England.^
After the middle of the xvnth centuiy the long u became (iu)
after a consonant in the same syllable, and (juu) at the be-
ginning of a syllable, and this sound has remained ; in the
xvmth centuiy, as at present, after (r) it is pronounced (uu).
distinct from e'le our present ail (eel). singular of the first perfect tense of the
As in 1605 there must have been a Indicatiue moode, is soimded as it is
large class of speakei's ■who called long written, as j'aimay I loued, ,/e trouvay
a (aah) or (fese), which could have I sound, je parlay I spoke, &c. (ai ?).
soimded nothing but (ee) to a French- As for the rest, whercsoeuer you shall
man, we may suppose that this was the find ai, sound it as gaye [gay in p. 185]
sound with which Erotidell, with his gaping." He means of course (ee),
limited experience as a foreigner, was and he seems to agree with Hart partly
familiar. In : The French Littelton. in gay, and with the xvii th century
A most easie, perfect and absolvte way pronimciation generally in (7rt'j9rw^. The
to learne the French tongue, Set foorth only English writer who would make
by Clavdivs Holy bund, Gentil-homme ly^y = (gEE) is Cooper, supra p. 125.
Bombonnois, London, 1609, 3'2mo., Most probably the Frenchman heard
pp. 223, for a knowledge of which I an English (gaei) as his (gEE), and
am also indebted to Mr. Pajme, the found the first syllable of gaping ^^
author says, p. 184 : " Ai, and ay, have (gfca;), more like his gai than his ga.
three diuers soimds : for the first per- ' Erondell says of French u: " « Is
son singular of the future tense of the sounded without any help of the tongue
Indicatiue moode, and these three but iojming of the lips as if you would
verbes ay, and his compounds : je sgay, whistle, say u, which u, maketh a silla-
1 know, nay, I am borne, be fully ble by it selfe, as vnir, vniqmment as if
pronoimced as, e. masculine : say then it were \(Titten v-neer, proTiounce then
for ay, fay I have, y* diray I will say, nimique, ptuiir, stibvenir not after the
Je liray 1 will reaAe, fai»ie>-ay I will English pronounciatioM, not as if it were
loue, (fcc, as if it were written e, Je, Je wi-itten mueaique, puenir, sueveuir, but
dire, je lire, &e. But the first person rather as the u in this word, murtherer.
.^ Z II
228 DIRECTION OF ClIAKGE. Chap. III. § 6.
3. Comhinatiom with A final.
AA ■was not used in Enjilisli words in the xvitli or subsequent
centuries, except in Hebrew names, as Isaac.
EA, -which had been used occasionally without any strictness for
long e, was established towards the close of the xvi th century
as (ee), and remaiucd so throughout the xvn th centuiy, with
the exception of about 30 words. In the xvinth centuiy
however it rapidly altered its sound to (ii), only a few words
finally resisting the change, after ha^ing yielded to it for a
time. Several words with (e) short, were fi-om the middle of
the XVI th century, and still are spelled with ea.
I A had no particular value separate from (/a), and has followed the
fortunes of its components, one or the other letter being
fi'equently omitted.
OA was introduced at the close of the xvi th centuiy for the long
(oo) in closed syllables, after oo had been appropriated to (uu).
In the xvn th centuiy it became (oo), except in broad, groat,
where it was (aa). It has retained these sounds.
UA is not an English combination.
4. Combination with JE Ji7iah
AE was so to speak, not used, in the xvi th century ; even in Latin
words e was often employed. When ce was introduced into
English it was always pronounced as the long e of the period.
This (S is one of BuUokar's signs for (ce).
EE was introduced in the middle of the xvith century for the
sound of (ii), which it has since retained. In the earlier part
of the centuiy no distinction was made between ee and long e.
IE was a combination having the same meaning as long e until the
xvn th centuiy, when it was considered the same as ee.
not mating the u too long." It is very when Englishmen do profer, v, they say,
difficult to understand the meaning of you : and for, q, we suppose they say,
this passage. It is possible that as kiou : but v<e sound, v, without any
Erondcll may have met with those who helpe of the tongue, ioyning tlic lips as
said {xx), he might have heard (in), if you would whistle ; and after the
which of course must have been fre- manner that the Scots do soimd Gud."
quently used at this date, though it was Ilcre we have the first distinct recog-
not received, and as this sound did not nition of the English long u as (iu)
satisfy him he took refuge in (u) or (m) distinct from the Scotch and French
as confused by a folio-wing (r), and (yj-)- Hart, who in his first treatise
perhaps was thinking of some indi- (infra. Chap. VIII, § 3, note,) also
vidual pronunciation, which he had not identifies English long tt and i/ou,
satisfactorily appreciated, but conceived makes both the same as the French and
to be general. Ilolyband also (French Scotch, and in his second treatise, supra
Littclton, 1609, p. 152) seems to have p. 167, distinctly describes ()7) and not
recognized (iu) in English and not (3,7), (iu) for this sound. Wilkins, 1668, is
for he says : " Where you must take the next author who distinctly recog-
paine to pronounce our, v, other-wise nizes (iu), "Wallis, 1653, being the last
then in English : for we do thinke that who as distinctly insists on (yy).
Chap. III. ^ 6. DIRECTION OF CHANGE. 229
OE was not an Englisli combination ; when it was introduced as a,
it followed the sound of the long- e of the period.
UE was only used at the end of Avords in the xvn th centmy and
later, for the long u, which had in this situation been pre-
viously written eiv.
5. Comhmations with I or Y final.
AI was (ai, aai) in the xvi th centuiy and possibly (asi, JEaci) m the
xvn th ; but towards the close of that centuiy, and in the pro-
nunciation of a niiiioiity even as early as the middle of the
XVI th century, ai was called (ee).' Becoming thus identical
with long a, it shared its fortunes and fell into {ee, eei).
EI was (ai) or (ei, eei) in the xvith century, and seems to have
retained the sound of (eei) or (ee) till a late period in the
xvm th ^centuiy, when many, but by no means all the ei fell
into (ii). In either, neither, the old (ei) developed (oi) as well
as (ii), and both sounds are yet heard from the same speaker at
different times,
II was never used.
01 was (oi) and nearly (ui) in the xvith centuiy, in some words
(oi, uui) were heard indifferently. In the xvnth centuiy
though (aI) or (oi) was the rule, (oi) was fi-equently heard.
In the xvmth and xixth centuries only (oi) was recognized,
although some speakers still say (oi), now considered a vul-
garism.
UI was not a genuiae English combination, and was only a sub-
stitute for long u, or long and short i, and followed their laws.
6. Comh'iiatiotis ivith 0 final.
AO is only accidentally an English combination in extraordinari/,
where it is usually pronounced (aa).
EO when used at an earlier period seems to have been considered
identical with long e, and has been generally so treated. In
pigeon, dungeon, the combination eo is only apparent, for the e
belongs to the preceding ff.
10 is not found.
00 was used in the beginning of the xvi th century indifferently
with long 0, but was introduced towards the close of that
centiuy to indicate those long o which had come to be pro-
nounced (uu), and it has retained this value.
UO is not used.
1 Erondell says in the French nounccd as these cnglish words rfa;/, say,
Garden, 1605, speaking of French ai, may," which he therefore identifies
■which was then certainly (e) : " Also with long a. No English wi-iter of the
if s doe follow ai, it maketh the word period makes this confusion. But corn-
long, and the s vnsoiuided, as Maistre, pare Holyband's gay, gaping, supra,
patstre, where the ai or ay be pro- p. 227, note, col. 2.
230 DIRECnON OF CHANGE. Chap. III. § 6.
7, Combinations icith U or W final.
AU was (au, aau) in the xvi th century, and seems to have passed
by the absorption of (u) into («?), or simple hibial modification,
into {k\) in tlie xvrith contiuy, which sound it generally
retains altliough there is still a contest between (aa, aa) in
a few words.
KU had in the xvith ccntuiy two sounds (yy) and (eu) which
were not distinguished by any ortliogi-aphical expedient. In
the xvnth century the (yy) sounds became (iu, juu), and the
(eu) sounds either remained (eu), or became (oo). In the xym th
centuiy those which had become {oo) remained so, the rest feD
into (iu, Juu) where they have since remained.
ITT is not used.
< )U in the earlier part of the xvi th centuiy, and in the pronuncia-
tion of some Aviiters even down to the latter part of that
century, had the sound of (uu, u) ; by the middle of the
XVI th century it was generally pronounced (on), but occa-
sionally (uu). A class of words in oti, however, derived from
the Anglosaxon aic, ow, was by both set of speakers pro-
nounced (oou). In the xvir th ccntuiy the (oou) sounds be-
came (oou) as they have since remained, though theoretically
considered as simple (oo). The (ou, u) sounds at the same
time became (ou, o) and have since retained these fonns.
TTU is not used.
8, Consonants.
B invariably (b).
C invariably (k) before a, o, u and (s) before (e,i), except that
in the xvin th century, and perhaps earlier, c before a became
{k) ; and ci- before a vowel became (sh).
CH sometimes (k) in Greek works, generally (tsh) thi'oughout the
period.
D invariably (d) except that, in the xvrnth century, d in the
termination -dure, -dier became (dj) or (dzh).
P invariably (f).
G invariably (g) before a, o, u, and almost invariably (g) in
Saxon words before e, i; othem-ise invariably (tlzh) before
e, i. In the xvrnth century and perhaps earlier, g before a,
and gu before i long became {g).
GH in the beginning of the xvi th centuiy, full (kh) or (Jch) ;
towards the middle and close, very gently pronounced, almost
(h') ; and in the xvnth century and subsequently entirely
lost. In a few Avords of the xvi th century and more after-
wards, gh was sounded as (f). In one word, sigh, in the
xvnth and xvrnth centuries gh was called (th), and in one
word, hiccough, (p). "VSTien gh was omitted in speech after u',
the sound of that letter was changed from («') to (ai) ; the
sound of augh with silent gh was either (aa) or (aa) ; of oiigh
"sWth silent gh, (oou) or (aa), sometimes (au) and (uu).
Chap. III. •§ 6. DIRECTION OF CHANGE. 231
H in many -vrorcTs in the xvn th. century, -where it is now never
omitted, -was not sounded.
J or " I consonant" had invariably the sound of (dzh).
K was (k) before all vowels, perhaps inclined to the palatalised
(k) before the sound of (ii), and in the xvinth century fi-e-
quently became {k) before a (se, aa), and long / (oi).
L invariably (1) or ('1), In the xvi th centiiry it was beginning
to disappear after a, after becoming labialiscd to {hv) and tbus
ehangiag the sound of a from (a) into (au, aa), the latter pre-
vailing in the xvn th century ; (aa) is now commonly heard iu
the termination -aini.
M invariably (m) or ('m).
N invariably (n) or ('n).
KG invariably (q) or (qg), except in the combination -7iffe when it
became (-ndzh) and had a tendency to change preceding (a)
into (ai) which became subsequently (ee).
P invariably (p).
PH invariably (f ), except perhaps ia such combinations as Clapham,
in which the h was omitted in the xvn th century.
QU invariably (k«^), or labialised (k).
E, preceding a vowel, invariably (r), following but not preceding
a vowel, it was most probably (.i) as early as the xmith
century, and possibly in the xvn th.
EH was the same as simple r.
S initially, invariably (s), medially and finally either (s) or (z)
according to present usage. In the xvmth century s before
long tc, and si- before a vowel became (sh), and -isi- became
(-izh-) ; in the termination -siire, s became (sh) or (zh). None
of these changes seem to have been acknowledged before the
middle of the xvn th century.
T invariably (t), except that ti- in the tenninations -tion, -tious,
was ifii) in the xvith and xvnth centuries, and became (sh) in
the xvn th. In the termination -ture in the xvm th centuiy,
t fell into (tj) or (tsh).
TH either (th) or (dh) according to the present laws, except that
in the xvi th centuiy it was (t) in Thomas as now, and also in
throne, and (d) in Thavies Inn ; and generally (th) La tciih
instead of (dh) as now.
V or "U consonant" invariably (v).
W as a consonant, whether confused with an initial (u) or not,
invariably (w).
WH, whether confused with (hu) or (nw), was probably always (wh).
X invariably (ks), the present use as (gz) seems to have been
unknown previously.
Y as a consonant, whether confused with an initial (i) or not,
invariably (j).
Z invariably (z).
232
DIRECTION OF CHANGE.
Chap. III. ■} G.
On oxamininp^ this tiiblc of changes, it would appear that
the consonants have been subject to little or no alteration,
except under the action of an (i) or (u) sound. The action
of an (i) sound changes (t, d, s, z,) to (tj tsh, dj dzh, sh,
zh), but this action did not materially affect the English
pronunciation of the xvi th and earlier part of the xvii th
centuries. The (u) sound was generated through the labiali-
sation of (1) which gradually disappeared, labialising the pre-
ceding vowel.
The consonant gh, originally (kh), became gradually dis-
agreeable and harsh to the Southern English and passing
through (h') soon ceased to be appreciable, and was therefore
neglected, although it was probably theoretically maintained
long after it had practically disappeared. On examining
the oldest forms of words, however, this sound ajopears to
have passed through (i, u), and in its disappearance to have
acted by palatisation and labialisation on the preceding
vowel. The change of iyh to long i is the only one that
presents a difficulty, and this depends upon the same cause
which changed long / generally from (//) to (oi), p. 234.
For the vowels the following changes occur, taking the
sounds only, independent of the spellings.
Short Foicels.
Zo/iff Vowels
Di2)/i(/tO)iofi.
a, ce
aa,
aeoe, ee,
ee,
eei
ai, aei, ei, eei, ee, ee, eei
au, aa\ ax
ce,
u
ei, 31
ei, eei, ee, ii
eu, iu
eu, 00, oou
0, 0
00,
uu
ou, ou
00,
00 oou
oou, 00, oou
u, a
uu,
on, au
xa, 01, Ai, 01
>>.
lU
-.
The directions of change are here seen to be three, — towards
(i), towards (u), towards (a). But the two last are not
essentially different, as (u) may be considered as a labial-
iscd (a), p. 162.
The long vowels have altered more than the short vowels.
The voice being sustained there was more time for the vowel
sound to be considered, and hence the fancy of the speaker
may have come more into play. This has generally given
rise to a refining process, consisting in diminishing the lin-
gual or the labial aperture. The lingual aperture is materi-
Chap. III. § 6. DlRECnox OF CHANGE. 233
ally diminished in tlie passages (aa, sese, ee, ce) and (ee, ii).
It seems curious that the first was not continued as far as
the second. In the name James, however, Avhich became
(Dzheemz) in the xvii th century, and has passed to (Dzhiimz)
in flimkey English, and to (I>zh/m) as a common abbrevi-
ation, the series of changes is complete. Fashion and refine-
ment have nearly banished (aa), but have not yet confounded
in one (ii) all the words formerly distinguished by (aa, ee).
The change of (oo) to (uu) was a similar refinement, con-
sisting first in the elevation of the tongue, and corrcponding
narrowing of the labial passage, producing (uu), and secondly
in the narrowing of the pharj^nx. The change from (oo) to
(oo) consisted simply in narrowing the pharyngal cavity.
One of the most remarkable changes is that from (uu) a
simple vowel, into (ou) a diphthong. Both sounds held ov'-
their own side by side for some years. Palsgrave in 1530
and Bullokar in 1580 both upholding (uu), while Salesbury,
Smith, and Hart declared for (ou), which finally prevailed.
Although the change is certain, there is no trace of any
reason being given, and as the sound (uu) had been repre-
sented by the letters ou in those cases where it changed into
(ou), whereas when (uu) was a change of (oo), it did not
further change into (ou), and the orthography also did not
give ou, — the mere accident of the spelling naturally presents
itself as a cause. This hypothesis is strengthened by ob-
serving that ill the north of England, where reading was
perhaps less common than in the South, the sound of (uu) in
these words still remains unaltered. But such a supposition
can hardly be correct, because the change of (uu) into (ou)
is precisely analogous to the change of (ii) into (ei), a change
which must certainly have occurred in passing from the
Anglosaxon period to the xvi th century, although it has not
yet come distinctl}^ before us, and had no connection with
the orthography. In each case the change simjily consists in
commencing the vowel with a sound which is too open, (that
is, wdth the tongue not sufiiciently raised), and, as it were,
correcting that error in the course of utterance. This variety
of speech might easily be generated and become fashionable
in one part of the country and not in another, and as it
penetrated far beyond the classes whom orthography could
afiect at a time when books were rare, and readers rarer in
proportion to the speakers, the physiological hypothesis
seems more deserving of adoption than the orthographical.
On further examination it will be found that this hypothesis
has an analogue in a well known custom of the South of
234 DIRECTTON OF CIIAXGE. Chap. III. § 6.
England. In the North of England, in France, and Ger-
many, no diliic'ulty is felt in prolonging the pure sounds o^
^"V(<'f) and (oo), but in the South of England persons have in
^ general such a habit of raising the tongue slightly after the
sound of (er), and both raising the tongue and partly closing, , ^
the lips after the sound of (oo), that these sounds are con-^ " l^^„^
verted into the diphthongs ""^cc^-tooV), or (^^i^ oou) where
the {ee, oo) parts are long and strongly marked, "and tne ^, u)
terminals are very brief and lightly touched but still per-
ceptible, so that a complete dijjhthong results, which how-
ever is disowned by many orthoepists and is not intended by
the speaker. Now we have only to suppose a habit growing -jl^ -^
up of beginning the (ii, uu) sound ^^'ith a tongue somewhat
too depressed, and in the latter case with the lips also too open,
but passing instantly and rapidly from these initial sounds
to the true (^, uu), and (fii,- ouu; would result. From theio fittm *»
habit of accenting the first element of a diphthong, the
initial touch of {e, a) would come to have the accent, and ' ' •»
being verj' short and indistinct might readily var}" in dif- ^ , j >
ferent mouths into (a, a, o). "We should thus obtain the "*"
diphthongs (ei, on; ei, ou ; ai, au ; ^, au) in which also the
second element may oe, and at present'm the South of Eng-
land seems to be (/, u) rather than {ijji). Thus on length-
ening out the terminal sounds of nif//i, now, I seem to hear
in my own pronimciation (nam, nemcu).
The generation of (eei, oou) from {ee, oo) consists then in
subjoining brief (ij^i) to long (ee, oo) ; while the generation
of (en, ouu) from^Ti, uu) consists in prefixing brief (e, o) to
long (ii, uu). The elements in both cases are the same (eeif
eii; oon^ onvi) and the accessary sounds are in both cases
brief, but wEen terminal they are unaccented, when initial
accented, just like an appoggiatura in music.
We might therefore expect to hear {ei, om) developed
either from i^ uu) or from {ee, oo). Further reasons for
supposing the first to have actually occurred will be given in
Chap. IV, § 2, under I. For the second, it is not xmcom-
mon at present to hear (^i) for {ee), and (ou) for {oo), although f'^?.-*' '"■
these changes have not been generally recognized.
This change of {n) into (ei,^i, oi), and (uu) into (ou, au/-(*» U -^"^
9u) is etymologicaUy interesting because it is by no means
confined to our own countiy. The Gothic (ii) corresponded
to (ii) in Icelandic, Anglosaxon, Friesic, OTd Saxon, Low
German, and Upper German, and is still (ii} in Danish and r ^ ^^^
Swedish, but is now (ai) in English and Swabian, and (ai} in'^
Dutch, Uigh GermanTFrankish, East Frankish and Bavarian,
Chap. III. § 6. DIRECTION OF CHANGE. 235
according to Rapp (Phys. d. Spr. iv., 144) and tlio same
writer says that (uu) in Gothic was (uuj in Icehmdic, Anglo-
saxon, Friesic, Old Saxon, Low German, Upper German,
and is still ^uu) in Danish, but it has become (au) in English
and vSwabian, (au) in High German, Frankish, East Frankish
and Bavarian, (3v) in Dutch, and (uu) in Swedish. Except
the two last changes, the phenomena must be all referable to
-local habits of the kind namecQ The Dutch sound (<?y), written
ui, would appear toTae ah alteration of (^u), but whether there
is any historical as well as phonetical ground for supposing
such a form to have existed, I cannot say.^ It is impossible
not to be reminded in this historical change of (ii, uu) into
(ei, ou) of the (guNa) changes in Sanscrit, because they are
phonetically the same, although they arise in a different
manner.
"We have then briefly the following changes of the prin-
cipal vowel sounds, of which the change (ii) to (ei) was
anterior to the xvith century, unless, as seems to be the
only legitimate inference. Palsgrave's and Bullokar's state-
ments (pp. 109, 114) are held to imply that long i was still
pronounced as ii in some words by them : —
From (aa) through (sese) to (ee, ee, eei)
From (ee) to (ii)
From (ii) thi-ougli (ei) to (ei, ai, ai)
From (oo) to (uu), or to {oo, oou)
From (uu) thi-ough (ou) to (ou, ou)
Proceeding backwards, then, we must, if there was any change,
look for it in the same series. Thus (aa, aa) may have
preceded (aa). Perhaps (ee) may have preceded (ee). The
sounds {ee, oo) may have preceded (ii, uu), and it is possible
that (aa) may have preceded (oo), as the latter is only
the rounded form of the former.
The vowel (yy) can hardly have been an original vowel
sound. Its relations to (i, u) and (iu) are so close, that it
might have arisen from any one of the three, but it has
principally the appearance of being an alteration of (u)
caused by making the narrowest part of the lingual channel
with the middle instead of the back of the tongue. This
' In the actual Dutch pronunciation make on hearing the sound, not (sy) as
of fitds, muis, it is very difficult to Dr. Rapp remarks. The Dutch con-
distinguish the soimd from (au), and sidcr it to be the sound of the German
the difference seems mainly produced eii, which Dr. llapp also says is sounded
by altering the form of the lip into (»y) in the Xorth-East of Germ.iny,
that for (vy), yfhxch. is slightly flatter Berlin, Brandenburg, and on the Baltic
than for (uu), rather than bv bringing coast from Mecklenburg to Russia;
the tongue into the (i) position. Still the general sounds being (ay, oy, oi)
(ay) was the best analysis I was able to and even (oi) in Hamburg.
236 DIRECTION OF CHANGE. Chap. III. § 6.
d priori physioloo^ical conception is confirmed by finding that
dialectically, in »Scotlauu and in I)e\'onsliire, (yy) or some
form of it as (ii, n), occurs as a substitute for (uu), as the
Devonshire (myyr, myyn), or more properly (muuv, muun)
for (muuv, muun). In German we find that (yy) has also
been generated from (uu) by the retroactive effect of an (i)
or (c) sound in an added syllable. In French, the substitu-
tion of (\y) for the Latin (uu) can only be traced to a
national habit. The same seems to have occurred in Greek,
where v was at a very early period changed from (uu) into
(yy). There is no historical evidence that (yy) can be con-
sidered in any case as an alteration of (iu), although we have
in English the proof that (iu) may be an alteration of (yy),
and we know by the Welsh uw and Hart's iu, that the use
of iu as a representative of (yy), was natural. In fact the
second vowel u iu both iu, au naturally suggests a labialisation
of the preceding, which would give iu, au — {^\o, aw) = (i,
o), whence (y, a) readily derive. This seems to have been
the case with Ulphilas, who certainly uses au for (a) and
probably iu for (yy).^
In such languages as the English, French, and Greek,
where the natural sound of u had been replaced by (yy),
the only device left for marking the (uu) sound was to use
the 0 from which it was derived, as in the Swedish, or to
put an 0 before, after, or over the u to indicate more dis-
tinctly that the combination was to have the modified o
sound. This seems to be the origin of the use of ou in
older English, French, and Greek for the sound of (uu).
Similarly in old High German uo, in Italian uo, in Bohe-
mian u are employed to indicate relations between u and o?
1 Wcing'drtncr (Die Ausspraehe dcs sequent (w) by the lip action of (}-y),
Gothisclicn zur Zeit des Ultilas, Leipzig, which is nearly the same as that of (u),
1858, 8vo. pp. 68) .sums up all the on the following vowels, precisely as in
arguments bearing on the pronuncia- the case noticed on p. 133 note. The
tion of Gothic iu in favour of (ii). combination iu is the most difficult
The actual English change of (yy) into to appreciate in the Gothic and old
(iu), and the common German change high German orthographies,
of ()7) into (ii), seem sufficiently to ^ xhe Dutch use oc for (uu) or (u),
account for the various forms, wliich their long and short u being (yy, a),
the Gothic iu received, or rather to thatis.nearlyprecisely the sameasWal-
which it corresponded in various Ger- lis's English soimds. The older Dutch
manic dialects. The alteration of iu, writers seem to have used e as a simple
into »V before vowels, as in A-«t«,Z-««'i;/s, sign of prolongation in ae, oe, tie, so
may be explained as perhaps (knjT, that oe can only be regarded as o used
knywis) the full written form kniuvis for (uu) with a special mai'k of pro-
ha^■ing been contracted into knivis, as longation. In modern Dutch the sound
the single letter v seemed most neatly is frc(iuently short, as there is no other
to express first the labialisation of the means of representing (u, m). Siegen-
i, and secondly the generation of a sub- beek (Xederduitsche Spelling, Amster-
Chap. III. ^ 6. DIRECTION OF CHANGE. 237
In English, the change of (jj) has been into (iu), but in
German it changes into (ii), that is, in English the lips were
not rounded at the beginning of the sound but were rounded
at the end of the sound, producing first (iy) and afterwards
(iyu, iu), while in German the lips are frequently not
rounded at all.
For the long vowels, then, anterior to the xvi th century
we may possibly have (aa) for (aa) ; (ee) for (ee) ; (ee) for
(ii) ; (oo) for (uu), and (uu) for (yy) ; (oo) is not likely to
have been changed.
For the short vowels we find no change in {i, e), which we
therefore must suppose to have existed anteriorly in this
form. The change (a ) to (cc) could only give {a) for an
anterior sound. The changes (o, o) and (u, o) could lead to
no conclusions respecting any anterior sound. The first
change (o, o) consists merely in depressing the tongue, the
second change (u, a), as has been shewn, may consist only in
neglecting to close the lips sufficiently. These changes do
not give sufficient indication of direction. It would be safest
to conclude that (a) or (a) and (e, /, o, u) were the sounds of
the five vowels before the xvi th century,^ but the words biis>/f
bury (b/z'Z, ber*/) and the pronunciation (tr/st) for trust,
leads us to suppose that u in writing may often indicate a
short (y) which would be taken as [i).
We find then that there was probably an older pronimcia-
tion of the English vowels than that of the xvi th century,
dam, 1804, p. 139), denies that ie should ality, in Belgium. This left oe free for
be considered as long i, although it is (uu, u) without any danger of confu-
now prououhced (ii), because long t sion, and even the Belgians admit the
tised to be written ii, ij, and says that distinction oo, oe.
in the province of Zeeland ie is still ' Hart expressly says : " And to per-
heard as a distinctly mixed sound Bwade you the better, that their auneient
" duidelijk een geniengd geluid," pro- sounds are as I haue sayde," that is
bablv (iia). The same author (p. 82) (a, e, i, o, u), "I report me to all
accounts for the use of e as a mark of Musitians of what nations soeuer they
prolongation in ae, oe, m, on the ground be, for a, e, i, and o ; and for u, also,
that when words anciently mitten except the French, Scottish and Brutes
inate hope, mure, came to be pronounced as is sayd : for namely aU English
mat\ hop', mur', without the final e, Musitians (as I can vndcrstande) doe
the e was transposed in writing, thus sounde them, teaching vl, re, mi, fa,
maet.hoep, muer,])Teci&eh' as Lane T^TO- sol, la; And so do all speakers and
posed to write English,' supra, p. 44, readers often and much in our spcach,
1. 3. The orthographies oe, ue for as in this sentence : The pratlmg
(oo, }"v) had been replaced by oo, uu Hosteler hath dressed, cumed, and
for moVe than two centuries before he rubbed our horses well. Where none
wrote, and he proposed and prevailed of the iiue vowels is missounded, Imt
on the Dutch to use aa for ae, an kept in their proper and auneient
orthography jealously retained with ue, soundes : and so we maye yse them,
y for uu, ij, as marks of distinct nation- to our great ease and profite."
238 DIRECl'ION OF CHANGE. Cuap. III. § 6.
and that we may not unnaturally expect to find in it {aa, ee,
ii, 00, uu) for (aa, ii, ei, uu, ou) of tbo xvi th century.
As to the diphthongs they have followed two courses, ac-
" cording as the first or second element became the most con-
spicuous. In (ai) the (a) has been gradually made closer,
changing in the diphthong (a)i, ei), as in the simple sound
(fc, e), and then the first element being lengthened (eei), the
second gradually disappeared (ee), only to reappear as a faint
aftersound in the present century {eci). Hence, before the
XVI th century we can only expect the (ai) to have been the
same, or at most to have been preceded by (ai). On the
other hand (ei) may have had an antecedent (ai). It is a
remarkable circumstance that (ai) in French also gave place
to (ei) and then to (ee), p. 118. In Modern High German
we also find a dialectic substitution of (ee) for (ai), as (een)
for (ain) one, but it remains to be proved which is the older
form, the old high German ei answering to the Gothic ai =
(ee), and the modern high German ei often answering to an old
high German i = (ii), of which (ee) may be a first degradation.
In Latin (aaii) as in j)icia'i appears to have generated (ai, ee)
as in picfce (pik'tee). In Greek at, which could hardly have
been originally anything but (ai), is now (ee) and was so ap-
parently at the time of Ulphilas. In Sanscrit the (gUNa)
combination (ai) resulted in the present {ec) or (ee).
In (au) the (a) has been gradually made opener (a), and
the (u) has acted more and more to produce a labialisation
of this open (a), thus (a'w) till it disappeared altogether ;
leaving (aa) only. We cannot, therefore, well suppose {a\i)
to have preceded (au). The sound may have had an ante-
cedent (eu), but was most probably original. It is remark-
able that (au) in Welsh generated (oo), that is (a) was labial-
ised to (o = aw), without being previously broadened to (a),
in quite recent times, jwb, jja/rb = (poob, j^aub) being still
co-existent. In French (au) produced (oo). In German (au)
is often dialectically (oo). In Latin (au) became Italian
(oo), as jHiucus poco (poo'ko). In Sanscrit the (guNa) com-
bination (au) has become (oo) or (oo). In Greek the vowel
(u) fell into the consonants (bh, ph) and hence the vowel
was preserved. But Ulphilas used the combination (au) for
the Greek o fiLKpov.
The change (ei, oi) hardly indicates a direction. But as
(ou) had an antecedent (uu), so (ei) may have had an an-
tecedent (ii).
The change of (eu) to (iu) on the one hand and (oo) on the
other is recent. One or the other seems to have occm-red
Chap. III. § 6.
DIRECTION OF CHANGE.
239
according as the first element (e) or second (u) prevailed.
The number of words in which the sound of (eu) remained
is so small that it is difficult to form any conclusions on the
change.^
The change (ou, ou) would have been insufficient, if we
had not known that (uu) generally preceded (ou).
As far as the xvi th century is concerned (oou) is original,
but as (aa) may have preceded (oo) so (aau) may have pre-
ceded (oou).
There seems every reason to suppose that (ui) was the
original form of the diphthong which is now (oi), and that
the form (uui) which we find in the xvith century, and
which, altered to (oi), appeared in the xvii th century, and
crops up even now, is not an alteration of (oi), but is rather
a remnant of the older form. It does not appear possible to
suggest an antecedent for (ui).
Combining the above observations on the direction of
change, with the orthographical representation of sound, we
should be led to expect that previous to the xvi th century
the sounds attributable to the various letters in alphabetical
order might possibly be as follows : —
Possible Sounds
Possible Sounds
Modern Spelling.
BEFORE XVI TH
Modern Spelling.
BEFORE XVITH
Century.
Century.
rt short
a, a
i short
/
a long
aa, aa
i long
ei, ii
ai
ai, fli
ie
ee
au
au
0 short
0, a ; u
e shoi-t •
e, E
0 long
00, aa; uu
e long
ee
oa
00, aa
ea
ee
oi
oi, xxi
ee
ee
00
00 ; uu
ei
ei, ai
ou
oou, aau ; uu, u
eu
yy, eu
u short
u ; ^ y
u long
yy, uu
But at what time any such combinations were prevalent,
and how early the xvith century pronunciation had prevailed,
we must seek other evidence to shew. In the meanwhile, by
' The prommciation cited on p. 141,
(shcu) for sheu; must be some dialectic
remnant of (sheu), and sugjjests an
intermediate bet^veen (sheii) and (shoo).
Hart in his phonetic -nriting uses both
(shio) and (sheu) for shew. Mr. M.
Bell notices that there is a ' Cockney"
habit of " separating the labio-lingual
vowels (u, o) into their lingual & labial
components, & pronouncing the latter
successively instead of simultaneously,"
one result of which is sanng (au) for
ifio). Visible Speech, p. 117.
2 10 DIRECTION OF CHANGE. CuAP. III. $ 6.
comparinj^ this purely theoretical table, founded on no evidence
of any kind, ])ut purely deduced from a consideration of the
direction of change, and not limited to any particular period
of time preceding the xvi th century, with the table given
by anticipation on p. 28, as an expression of the general
general results of the following investigation respecting the
XIV th century, it will be seen that there is a remarkable
agreement between the two, so that all the results there
obtained may be pronounced theoretically probable, however
strange they would have appeared if the direction of change
had not been previous!}'' ascertained. At the same time the
great diiference between the sounds here considered as pos-
sible, and those which, based upon present habits, are usually
assumed, will serve to shew the value and importance of the
preceding investigation. The subject has hitherto been
considered from far too modern a point of sight, and with
far too limited a range of vision. The changes in the last
three centuries, of which we have contemporary evidence,
not having been generally known, and the changes in the
cognate Germanic dialects, although recorded by Rapp and
Grimm, not having been duly weighed, and the habit of
reading Spenser and Shakspere in our modern pronunciation
having become ingrained, we were prepared to regard the
sounds of our language as something fixed and settled in
point of time, at most admitting a dialectic difference which
we perhaps attributed solely to geographical causes. This
must now be given up, and we must proceed to investigate
pronunciation with a knowledge that it has changed, and
must change chronologically, that at any time there must
be, even at the same place, diversities of coexistent forms ;
and at different places, even when the lan'guage has been
derived, at no very great interval, from the same sources,
there must also be differences arising from want of commu-
nication, which will therefore be the more striking, the
earlier the period and therefore the more imperfect the
means of transit, and especially that any cause which will
occasion the intercommiuiication of districts usually isolated,
must have a great effect on pronunciation. Our endeavour
therefore will be to discover, not what earlier English pro-
nunciation was generally, but as definitely as possibly what
it was at different particular times and places. Of course
this can only be done by means of detennining the value
attributed to the alphabetic symbols by writers of known
time and place. This is the object of the investigations
contained in the two next chapters.
241
CHAPTER IV.
On the Pronunciation of English during the Four-
teenth Century as Deduced from an Examination of
THE Rhymes in Chaucer and Gower.
§ 1. Principles of the Investigation.
The War of the Roses raged from 1455 to 1486. The
Long Parliament met in 1640, and Charles II. returned in
1660. Hence the XV th and xviith centuries were memor-
able in English history for two long continued civil wars,
causing imprecedented communication between all parts of
the countrj", and withdrawing the minds of men from litera-
ture to fix them upon the events of the day. This "commyxs-
tion & mellynge," as Treuisa hath it, of men from the
various coimties of England necessarily produced an efiect
both on the structure and pronunciation of the language.
The whole style of English at the close of the xvii th cen-
tury is dissimilar from that at the close of the x^i th. A
different mind reigned in the people and required a different
instrument to express itself. And that this was not confined
to an alteration of words, idiom, and composition of sentences,
but extended itself also to pronunciation in a most distinctly
characterised manner, we have already seen. The xviith
century produced a number of writers who paid attention to
pronunciation, who sought either to investigate the relations
of spoken sounds, or to supplement the deficiencies of ortho-
graphy by lists of words and rules, by which the pronuncia-
tion could be tolerably ascertained. These lists and rules
became so full towards the close of the xvii th century, that
we have been able to trace the successive phases of alteration
which words underwent, and to see how the soimds of the
XVI th century gave place to those with which we are more
familiar. '
If then the- civil commotions of the x\ai th century pro-
duced such important changes in our language and pronun-
ciation, what must we expect from the still longer and ruder
16
242 EFFECTS OF CIVIL WARS ON SPEECH. Chap. IV. § 1.
disturLanoes of tlie xv th century, Avhcn the language was
in a more inchoate stage, when the French element was
fusing with the .Saxon into the familiar alloy of the xvi th
century, when no printing had as yet called forth an abund-
ance of readers,' so that the language altered organically
from mouth to moutli imtrammeled by literary fetters, and
men of the north, middle, and south, jostling with each, wore
down the angles of thfeir dialectic differences, and gradually
produced an English of England ? Practically we know
that the xvth century was a period of great change in the
whole character of our language ; the last remnants of our
inflexional S3^stem were abandoned, the sharp distinction
between the "gentilmans" French and the " vplondische-
mcns" English, disappeared, and a "common dialect" was
acknowledged by all writers.^ The distinction between the
English of Chaucer, writing down to the close of the xiv th
century, and that of Spenser, the next great poet on our roll,
who wrote after the country had well settled from its
troubles, and printing had formed a reading public, is so
sharp, that we seem to have fallen upon another language
rather tlian ujpon a form of speech difiering only by iive
generations.
As then the language altered so markedly, must we not
look for similar changes in the pronunciation ? The exam-
ple of the XVII th century irresistibly forces this conclusion
upon us, and we also feel that if there had only been a
succession of writers to chronicle them, we should have had
a continual list of changes, comparable to those furnished
while the xvii th passed its meridian and drew to its termi-
nation, only more complex, more striking, more characteristic.
Unfortunately we have no such writers, no such rules and
lists to refer to ; only a certainty of chaos and no guide.
In shewing the development of the spellings ee, ea (p. 77)
and 00, oa (p. 96) in the xvith century, to mark distinc-
tions in the sounds of long e and long o, fsimiliar to the
speaker, but ignored by the writer, and, without such a
guide, impossible to discriminate by an ignorant reader, as
one of the xixth century must naturally be in this respect,
we foreshadowed the confusion in the orthography of the
latter end of the xvth and commencement of the xvith
' Caxton set up liis press in 1471 ; loquor. ad nisticos tantum pertinere
the effect on the masses did not make vclim intelligas ; nam niitioribus in-
itself felt till the next century. inf^enijs & cultiiis enutritis, unus est
* Gill, after dislinj^uishing the uhiqne serrao & sono, & signiticatu,"
Northern, Eastern, and Western dia- and this he terms the " dialectus com-
lects, says "quod hie de dialectis munis."
Chap. IV. § 1. THE XV TH AND XIV TH CENTURIES. 243
century, a confusion which it is as yet impossible to dissipate.
We can, as in the estimate made at the end of the preceding
chapter, be tolerably sure that a given written vowel or
combination of vowels, was pronounced in one of two or three
ways, but there does not appear to be, at present, any means
of deciding which of those ways should be chosen in any
particular case. After we have arrived at a more definite
notion of the pronunciation of the xiv th century, the range
of diversity will be somewhat narrowed, and by comparing
the XIV th with the xvi th century pronunciation of any
word, noticing the direction of change, and, theoretically
estimating the time necessary to effect it — an estimate which
must be always hazardous — we may feel somewhat more
confident. As however it is advisable in a preliminary
investigation like the present, to reduce theory to the nar-
rowest possible limits, and to base results upon evidence, or
a wide induction, I have thought it necessary to exclude the
XV th century altogether from my researches, and to proceed
by one step from the settled period of the xvith to the
settled period of the xiv th century. In § 7 of this chapter,
however, I shall indicate a rough practical method which
may be adopted for reading works of the xvth century,
founded upon the comparison already indicated.
The manuscripts of the xiv th century poems, which the
name of Chaucer points out as the principal subject of in-
vestigation, though all belonging to the xvth century were
fortunately written in its early part, and the Harleian MS.
of the Canterbury Tales, No. 7334, which will be here
generally followed, was probably written before the Rose
troubles had commenced, so that although it labours under
the disadvantage of being a generation after time,^ yet it
was not subject to those more violent changes wriich render
the earlier printed editions of Caxton and others useless for
our present purpose. This manuscript has, in addition to
its careful execution, early date, and accessibility in the
British Museum, the advantage of having been twice re-
cently printed, by Mr. \yright,2 and by Mr. Morris.^ In
^ Mr. Morris in his Chaucer Ex- ' Mr. Morris's edition forms the
tracts, (see note 3, helow), p. xliv, calls second and third volumes of his com-
this a "MS., not later perhaps than the plete edition of Chaucer's poetical
year of Chaucer's death." works in six volumes, published by
2 Mr. Wright's edition has been re- Bell and Daldy, London, 1S66, at five
printed in double columns large octavo, shillings a volume, the only edition of
and is published by Richard Griffin Chaucer's works taken wholly from
and Co., London and Glasgow, for half- MS. authority where MSS. exist. In
a-crowu. It is the most convenient the Clarendon Press scries Mr. Morris
working edition. has reprinted the Prologue and two
244 CHAUCER AND GO^^•ER. CiiAP. IV. $ 1.
both editions the punctuation and capitals and the uses of
///, y, II, V, are modern, and the contractions are all extended.
In Mr. ]Siorris's edition, the Lansdowne MS. 8ol has been
collated throughout, but every word not in the Ilarleian is
printed in italics, and many final ^'s have been also added in
italics when considered to be grammatically necessary.^ The
long and tediously written Con/essio Avumtis of Gower, has
not been properly edited. Dr. lleinhold Pauli's text, like
Tyrwhitt's Chaucer, exhibits the text and orthography of no
particular manuscript or time. But three good MSS. in
the British Museum, and one at the Society of Antiquaries,
are readily accessible, and Pauli's edition serves as a guide
through the ponderous mass. The great regularity of
Gower's verse and rhymes, renders his works a convenient
supplement to Chaucer's, and I have found it necessary to
make a complete examination of his rhymes. The mode of
referring to Chaucer's and Gower's works will be explained
at the end of this section.
The principles of the investigation on which I am about
to enter, as to the sounds intended to be conveyed by the
orthography used by the scribe of the Harleian MS. 7334 in
particular, which may be assumed as the I'eceived Court pro-
nunciation towards the close of the xivth century, and
will be briefly termed the pronunciation of Chaucer, are the
following.
tales in a cheap form from this MS. ample, in the Secounde Konncs Tale,
This will be referred to as his Chaucer supposed to be told by a woman, not
Extracts. written by a man, ■we have —
1 In the numerous citations which I And though that I, unworthy sane
shall have to make I have generally of Eve,
followed "Wright's edition, but in all Be syuful, yet accepte my bileve.
important or ipubtful cases I have re- 1 1990.
ferred to Morris's. One reason for Yet pray I you that reden that I
using "Wright's edition, besides con- write. 12006.
venience, was that the lines are num- ^ ■ -^^ ^^^ Schipmannes Tale, sup-
bered consecutavely throughout except ^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^j^ .. ^ -^ speaking
the Coke's Tale of Gav^lyn, which is ^^ ^^.^^ ^^ ^^^_2 ' >■ °
numbered separately because it is rj.^^ ^^^j^. 1^0^,1,0^^ ^Igat moste pay,
omitted by IjTwhitt as certainly not ^^ ^^^-^ ^ ^j^^^^^ ^^"^ ^^^ ^^^
Chancers. Mr. Moms s edition has ,y f„r his ougline worschip richely ;
fresh .sets of numbers for every pro- j^^ ^^-^^^ ^^^^. ^^ daunce jolily ;
logue, tak, and part of tale thoughout. j^^^ j^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^, ^^^^ paraventure,
This IS theoretically the best lor it is q^ ^jj^^ ^,^^ „„^ ^^^^ ^ ^^^
certain that the poem is altogether But th^■nketh it is wasted and i-lost,
fragmentar)', and, as the manuscripts rj^^^^ ^^^^^ another payc for oure cost,
and editors do not all agree in the q^. ^^^^ ^^ j^ ^^^^ j^ perilous. 14422
order of the pieces, it is probable that " ^ '^
no order as yet adopted is that into These expressions are in both cases ir-
which Chaucer would have cast the reconcilable with the supposed speaker,
poems had he lived to give them the so that there must have been some
extension originally designed. For ex- jolting or oversight in the editing.
Chap. IV. ^^ 1. FIRST PRINCIPLE OF INVESTIGATION. 245
1.) Wlien few people can read, rhymes to he intelligible must
he perfect.
Owing probably to a change of sound wliicli has not been accom-
panied by a change of spelling, English poets of the xvinth and
XIX th centuries take the liberty of consideiing such words as love
move, pull cull, eternity I, pass loas, none stone, etc., to be rhymes,
and readers are accustomed to pass them over as "licenses,"
although they always produce a disagreable effect upon children
and unlettered adults. On the other hand words of which the
final parts are pronounced almost identically, at any rate with a
much nearer coincidence of sound than those cited above, are abso-
lutely tabooed as rhymes. A xix th centuiy poet would be much
sooner allowed to rhyme ivhelk, with talk, than liarm with psalm,
or fork with hawk, although an unlettered Southern makes no
difference in the sound, and a lettered Southern rather imagines
that he makes than reaUy makes any distinction (p. 196). It is
different with I^orthems, Irish, or Scotch. It would be, perhaps,
incorrect to pvish the theory too far, and say that in the veiy earliest
attempts at rhyme an untutored audience would be satisfied with
nothing less than that perfection which they could not possibly
appreciate. But even then the general tendency becomes a suffi-
cient guide. In finished and careful writers like Chaucer and
Gower, such imperfections are not a priori likely to occur, and, as
we shall see, are in fact unknown.
The various kinds of rhyme which are actually found are as
foUows. Let BAG, DEF represent two syllables, A, E being
any vowels, and B, C ; D, F any consonants. Then if B = D but
AC is not =^ EF, as in Bac, £ej, we have initial rhyme or allitera-
tion, which was used in the earliest form of English poetry, the
Vision of ^^illiam concerning Piers Plowman, 1362, being a com-
paratively modem instance. Next let A = E, but B-C not equal
D-F, as hAc, dAf, the result is middle rhyme or assonance, which
prevails in Spanish ballad poetry, where the same vowel occurs in
the final syllable of alternate lines thi'oughout the whole ballad,
and the consonants must vary.^ Thirdly let C = F but BA not =
DE, as haC deC we h&Ye fnal rhyme, the English "rhymes to the
1 This is the theory; in practice bow- dcrecho, fccho, med/o, alojamjcnto,
ever the difficulty of keeping the con- fecho, mensagcros, storgamemto, man-
sonants always distinct has occasioned cehos, ac;<erdo, arreo, Pedro, hcrcdero,
rhj-mes to ie occasionally mixed up contento, casami'mtos. In ' Despues
with assonances. If a diphthong is que ret6 k Zamora;' among others
introduced in place of a simple vowel, occur : Lara, hat/a, contrarws, causa.
the assonance refers only to the ac- In ' Considerando los condes,' among
cented vowel, e.ff. in Spanish at, mi are others : vale, paces, batles. In ' Mom
assonant with a, ia, ua, and ei, eu with vos queredes, padre ;' Taiada, precfada,
e, ie, ue. Thus in the Cid romance caiga. See also the Cid ballads ' Con
'En las cortes de Toledo,' the asso- el cuei-po que agoniza,' 'Fablando
nant words are : SeSto, sentimz«nto, estaba en el claustro,' ' Si atendeis_^que
mttevio, d«<do, dello, prop?<fsto, p?<esto, de los brazos,' ' De palacio sale el Cid,
sne\o, as/mto, den^wstos, reino, teneos, ' Desterrado estaba el Cid,' * Aquese
condeno, consejo, pktto, reto, escuderos, famoso Cid,' ' Non quisiera, yernos
246 SECOND PRINCirLE OF INVESTIGATION. Chap. IV. § 1.
eye," like love, move; (the words was, pass fonn no rhyme at all).
1 am not aware that BA = DE, but C not = F, as JJAc, BAf
that is double inilial rhyme, or B-C :^ D-F but A not = E, as BaC,
BeC, that is extreme rhyme, arc recog:ni2;c(l as rhymes under any
system. But AC = EF, and B not = D, as I A C, dA C or double
final rhyme, is the ideal of a perfect rhyme in modem Englisli and
most European languages, and is the noraial rhyme of Chaucer.
Nevertheless modem French writers, as well as Chaucer, admit the
identical rhyme BAC = DEF, that is BA C, BA C, which under the
name of rhyme riche is constantly used in French versihcation.
Either perfect rhyme bA C, dA C, or identical rhyme BA C, BA C,
and eA'en the assonance bAc, dAf, would ob^•iously serve to deter-
mine either one of A and E from a knowledge of the other. This
leads to the second piinciple —
2). When a word co7itaining a known vo^cel sound rhymea
irith a word containing an unlniown vowel sound, the sound of
the latter may generaUy he assumed to he the same as the former
hefore xv th century.
The difficulty consists in finding words whose vowel sounds are
known. These are supplied in Chaiicer from thi-ee sources, Latin,
French, and those kno^^Ti sotmds of the xvith centuiy which we
have a right to suppose, according to the results of the last chapter,
came down to that pcnod in an unaltered form.
As regards the Latin words we may assume a Eoman Catholic
pronuxiciation, which will give a, e, i, o as certainly (a, e, i, o)
long or short, and short u as (u). There may he a doubt whether
long u had its general sound (uu), or its occasional Latin and
general French sound (yy). I am rather disposed to think that
Chaucer, to whom French was familiar, used the French sound
(yy) for Latin long u. Even in 1580 we learn from Bullokar that
Latin as pronounced in England did not possess the sounds of (ch,
ii, uu, sh, dh, w, wh, j), so that long u was pronounced by him
in Latin as in English and French, namely as (yy).^ We are
mios,' 'Despues que cl Cid Canipcador,' cent Enjjlish they are avoided, or occur
' En Yaleneia estaba el Cid,' ' De Cas- only from ii^norancc or carelessness, as
tilla van marcliando,' &c. In 'Cuando in the Nursery Rh\Tne " Sit on a bam
el rejo y claro Apolo,' we find Idsfima And keep himself warm," and in the
quasildst'ma, assonancin<^ with : estaba old catch " Cinnamon and ginger, nut-
pasan. In the oldest Iloraance poems, megs and cloves. And that gave me this
assonances occur mixed with rhymes ; joUy red nose," or as Benedick (Much
the following are instances of diph- Ado, v. 2) " can tinde out no rime to
thongal assonances : Eiilalia (Diez : Ladie but babic, an innocent rime."
Altrom. Sprachdenkmale 1846, p. 21) In Goethe's song in Faust:
tost coist v. 19, Leodegar (Diez : Zwei "Es war einmal ein Konig
Altrom. Gedi<;hte, 1852, pp. 39-4G) fiet Der hatt' eincn groszen Floh,
rei stanza 9, mesfoit ralat 15, advuat Den liebt' er gar nicht wcnig,
estrai 16, mors toit 20, preier dcu 2o Als wie scin cignen Sohn,"
and 31, talier queu 27, deus eel 40. In the apparent assonance : Floh Sohn, may
English poems of the xiii th centurj-, have only been a reminiscence of his old
assonances are well marked, see Chap. Frankfurt pronunciation Soh for Sohn.
V, § 1, and especially "^o. 5, Havelok, ' Sec the example of Bullokar's pho-
and No. 6, Eiug Horn. In more re- netic writing Chap. VIII, § 4.
Chap. IV. § 1. SECOND PRINCIPLE OF INVESTIGATION. 247
therefore hardly justified in assuming a different pronunciation for
the Latin long u in Chaucer's time, as the English long u had most
probably the same sound. The case is different with respect to
long i which was (ei) or (ai) in the xyi th century both in English
and the English pronunciation of Latin, but was I believe (w) in
both duiing the xiv th centuiy.
The French of the xivth centmy would, on this hypothesis,
have the same set of vowels as the Latin. It would be useless
attempting to distinguish in the French pronunciation of that time
two sounds of e and two of o ; we cannot even be sure that they
existed at that early period, as we know from Meigret that they did
in the xvith century. The combination ou in French was in
Chaucer's time (uu, u) and eu was probably (eu) or (ey) and oc-
casionally (yy) as in the xvith centuiy; (oe) the modem sound of
French eu appears not to have been developed in Chaucer's time, or
Meigret would have been familiar with it. The French diphthongs
ai, au could not have differed from (ai, au) or (ai, ao), since we find
them in the latter form in Meigret. The syllables an, in, on, un
now pronounced as the nasal vowels (aA, ca, oa, q\), seem to have
been received in England as (aan, aun, en, oon uun, un), without
any nasality, and it is difficult, if not impossible, to discover any
trace of vowel nasaKty in the notices which exist of early French
pronunciation; Beza, 1584, the earliest I have found, seems to con-
fuse (a) with (q). This tolerable certainty with regard to the sounds
of French letters will be found extremely useful, expeciaUy when it
is remembered that Chaucer not only used French phrases, but in-
troduced a large number of French words into his poetry, and as
these were familiar to the gentiy in the pronunciation of the time,
he could not have ventured to give them a different fonn in poetry
intended especially for the delight of that gentiy. We have modem
examples of the same kind. Old French words we ruthlessly angli-
cize ; we talk of a feat (fiit) of anns, as if it were feet, but we
refuse the same sound to fete. We speak of recoup (rikuup") and
estate {esieet') but of coup d'etat (kudeta) not (kuup desteist"). We
do not scruple to say annoy (oenoi") but we try to say ennui (aAnyi),
and even if the trial results in (onwii"), it has not the true English
ring with it like (senoi*). The old words aid («^d) and camp
(ksemp) will not allow us to call an aide de camp an {ee(\. di
ksemp), although our (ee-di-kaA) is not the French (ecd ds kaA).
Environs, envelope are words in a transition state (envai'renz, cn*-
veloop) and (on-vii-on, on'vilop) being both heard. Chignon and
crinoline, constantly spoken of, remain French (shinjoA, krinolin)
or as nearly so as the speaker can contrive. *
For old English words we shall have to lay most stress on the
pronunciations of those now written with ai, ea, and pronounced in
the XVI th centuiy as (ai, ee). We might safely assume that these
sounds must have been the same in the older periods, but we shall
be generally able to establish the fact by the other two sources.
^ This subject will have to be specially noticed in the next section, under I, Y.
248 THIRD PRINCIPLE OF INVESTIGATION. Chap. IV. § 1.
In case of any marked peculiarity, the imperfection of manu-
scripts will make it necessan' not to clraw conclusions from isolated
examples, Lut to collect as many examples as possible, and to search
as carefully for exceptions as for corroborative instances. The
exceptions will then have to be separately examined, and carefully
investigated to see whether they are mere mistakes of the scribe,
which other known orthograpliies would explain, whether they are
simply solecisms not borne out by other instances and therefore
incomgible errors, or whether they really indicate a double pro-
nunciation.
Having thus obtained an insight into the system of orthography
used by the writer, having learned to estimate his various contri-
vances to represent sound, at their time worth, we may venture to
assume as a thii-d piinciple, —
3.) Orthographies shewn by rhymes to have certain values,
may he assumed to hare those values even where they are not
confirmed by rhymes.
This assumes that the intention of the writer was to represent
the sounds of the words, and that his variants arose, not from
simple ignorance, but from the fact that he had to make his ortho--
graphy, as he proceeded, after the usages which he had been taught
in youth, and he natui-ally hesitated as to which usage was most
appropriate at any time. Other variants of course occur fi-om care-
lessness, for which the scribe who writes many houi's a day is
scarcely to be blamed, — he that is without such carelessness among
us, let him thi'ow the first stone, I cannot.^ That the writers
anterior to printing had any intention of representing the histories
of words by means of the orthography, in place of the mere sounds,
it is impossible to bcKeve. !N^ot only do the variants we meet with
exclude this notion, but there was the all-sufficient reason that they
could not indicate what they did not know. Is'ew French words
would be written, of course, in the French way, but then this
accorded so closely with the English way, that the scribe would
hai'dly note the difference.^
1 In reading over the first draft of But natheles, pas over, this is no fors,
this chapter, I found I had -written I pray to God to save thi gentil corps,
consequence for confident, to such utter 13718.
destruction of the meaning of the sen- Where the p is -written although not
tence, that I had some difficult)' in re- pronounced, as in the French fashion,
covering the original word. Similar Yet we have now both corse and corpse,
examples will occur to every author, and it may have been mere accident
and his own difficulties in correcting that the copyist wrote corps for cora,
his o^^'n errors will lead hira to apprc- just as if, because corpse is the more
ciate the difficulty and danger of a usual word, we made it in ^^•riting
critical restoration of any corrupt text. rhj-nie \vith remorse. In the middle
2 So far as I can recall, there are of a line we find temps 12803. The
verv few decided examples of a French ase of gn in French words where we
spelling being retained which did not have reason to think only n was pro-
represent the English sound. The nounced in English may oe also con-
only example I have noted where the sidered as a case in point, as digne
rhyine pointed it out, is 519, atteigne 8323.
Chap. IY. § 1. NO REAL FAULTY RHYIMES IN CHAUCER. 249
These are the principles on which I shall endeavour to
determine Chaucer's pronunciation. The question naturally
arises, how far is the first and most important principle, to
which the two others are only subsidiary, justified by the
manuscripts ? A careful^ examination of all the rhymes, in
the 17368 lines which compose the Canterbury Tales as
exhibited in Wright's edition, has resulted in finding less
than fifty rhymes in which the spelling indicates a difference
of pronunciation. Of these a large nmnber consist in one of
the two words cited having a final e added or omitted, while
there are constant examples in other places of an ortho-
graphy which would render the rhyme perfect.
The piincipal instances are : — bom biforne 1225, trace alias 1953,
here messager 5142, eeke leek 6153, potestate estaat 7599, wolde
brynge, for her lyvyng 8101, of hew, at newc 8253, withoute youre
witynge, in this thing, in your wirching 8368, mightc, to sight
8556, solace alias 9149, atte laste, it cast 9827, est bcste 10773,
her witte, it 8303, rest, he keste 10663, hert smerte 10793, kepyng
rynge 10965, hoste wost 11007, ever dissevcre 12802, Galicne
Egipciene AiTabiene vsleen 15822, matore gramer 14946, tresor
Nabugodonosore 15629, gold olde 15645, may aye 17105, leye
pray way 8753.
These cases are often mere slips of the pen and can easily be
corrected. The considerations in §§4 & 5, will be sufficient to
explain them all, and they must be all reckoned as ciTors of wiiting,
not of rhyme. Poor Chaucer is very pathetic in reference to the
damage done to his verse by scribes. In Troylus and Cryseyde
5 "74 he says, addressing bis " Htel boke,"
And for ther is so gi-ete d}Tersitc
In Englissh, and in writynge of our tonge,
So preye I to God, that non myswrite the
Ne the mys-metere, for defaute of tonge !
And red wher so thow be, or elles sotige,
That thou be luiderstonde, God I beseche !
But yet to purpos of my rather speche.
And what he suffered from the carelessness of scribes is well ex-
hibited in his address to bis own scrivener, which by the bye lias
itself been much injiired in transcribing.! He is made to say: 6-307
Adam Scriyener, if ever it the befall
Boece or Troilus for to write new,
Under thy long locks maist thou have the scall,
But after my makiag thou write more trew !
So oft a day I mote thy werke renew,
It to correct and eke to rubbe and scrape ;
And all is thorow thy necligence and rape.
Would that we had a text corrected by Chaucer's hand !
1 Mr. Morris' had added several e's proved" to suit the xvi th century
required by the language. But the pronunciation. It is a wonder we do
lines are quoted fi-om Thvnne's edition not find aneio in the second line ; for
of 1532, and were evidently "im- in the second, long in the third, and
250 NO REAL FAULTY RHYMES IN CHAUCER. CilAT. IV. § 1.
The cases in which short or long i rliymc with short or long e,
may either belong to the class of accommodation rhymes, to be im-
meiliutely noticid, or are ex])lical}le on the principles laid down in
the next section under i. The following are the chief instances noted:
geven Ipen 917, list best 68 19, 75G7, list rest 9299, 10559,
ahrigge alcgge 9531, swerc h\VQ^=her. 11101, 1207G, pulpit iset
13806, shitte = shut lette 14660.
Theie remain only nine instances of other classes to be considered,
and some of these are patent clerical errors. Thus since hye is con-
stantly found for high, it follows that in : charged hem in hyghe,
some remedye 4629, the gh is a mere eiTor of the writer. In :
tyrant Eusenis, sci-pent venencus 15589, there is little doubt that
-neus is a clerical error for -moiis, which would give a perfect rhj'me
and be a conx>ct form, as Mr. Moms reads and as is found in
16063. The common yen for eyes, shows that the initial e, in :
tldn outer eyen, may Avell aspicn 12426, is a mere slip of the pen.
The rhymes : alle thastates, of delates, dcsolat 4548 are manifestly
clerical eiTors, and we have probably to read : thastat (= the
estate) debat, desolat. The lines
There saw he hartes with her homes hee
The gretest that ■were ever seen with eye, 11.503
given in "Wright and Tyrwhitt (who has hie eie) are not in Morris,
and coiTcspond to a gap in the Harleian MS. If genuine, the
rhyming words should clearly be the common pair hye ye or heighe
eyghe. In: more and lasse, marquisesse 8816, lasse is evidently a
clerical eiTor for lesse, which is the reading of the MS. Dd. 4. 24,
University Library, Cambridge.
The rhyme: i-eased, y-preised, 6511, is given as: y-eased
y-presed 2-234 by Morris, and: esed ypreiscd by T)-rwhitt, but the
Harl. 7334 reads : I eased, y pleased, and the Landsd. 851 esede
yplesede.' These are usual rhymes. Lastly : jelousye me 1809,
more in the fourth line are evident in- cessarily added in mote, werke, eke; and
sertions ; e final was omitted in btfaUe, thorow should be ihurgh. The lines
newe, scalle,. treu-e, reneive, and unne- may then have possibly sounded thus :
(Aadaam Skr/mcer-, if ecr it dhce befal-e
Bo,ees- or Troo'ilus to r(f/rte neu'e,
Un-der dhe lok-es maist dh\i uan dhe skal'e
But aft"er •xaii maak'j'q" dim vivivie treu'e!
So oft a dai ii moot dh» work reneu'e,
It to korekt- and cck to rub and skraa-pe, —
And al is thurkMli •dh« ncgl/dzhcns* and raa"pc !)
1 "Wright says in a footnote : " The y-pleased, for flattery and pleasing,
Harl. MS. reads y-pleased: but the named at first, are repeated as Jlattery
reading I have adopted seems to give and attendance, business, afterwards. The
the best sense." The context as well whole passage, inserting the bracketed
as the rh)Tne declares in favour of words, runs thus in the Karl. 7334 : —
Some fayden [J'at] oure hertc is moft I eafed
Whan [i'at] we ben y flaterid and y pleafsed
lie goy ful neigh j^e foth I wil not lye
A man fthal wj-nne vs beft wi]i flaterye
And with attendaunce and [wib] bufyneffe
Len we y limed boj^e more ana leffe.
Chap. TV. § 1. KO REAL FAULTY RHYMES IN CHAUCER.
251
is not even an approach to rhyme and is manifestly comipt. I
fiind. on examination that all the other MSS. in the Biitish Museum
readjolife, wliich is Tp-whitt's reading, and is no douht forrect.
The rhyme: mercy sey 13308, will be specially examined in the
next section, under I, when it will be shewn from other MSS.
that the proper reading is : mercy sy.
This examination is calculated to make us feel confident in the
correctness of our fii'st principle as applied to the Canterbury Tales.
On extending the examination over the whole of Chaucer's poems,
the following faulty rhymes are all that I have noted, which do not
admit of an immediate correction. Except in certain pieces, of
which the originals aie thereby proved to be of very doubtful
authority, and of comparatively recent date, the faulty rhymes will
be found exceedingly rare. The citations refer to the volume and
page of Mr. Morris's edition, and the references to the original MSS.
or editions, are all given.
Vols. II. & III.
1. The Cavtcrbury Tales, from the
Harl. MS. 7334, collated with Laus-
downe MS. 851. After the previous
examination this may he said to have
no faulty rh}'mes.
Vol. IV.
2. The Court of Love, pp. 1-50 : from
Trin. Coll. Cam. MS. E. iii. 20 : ^Tito
aright 1, diserive high 4, wonderly
signifie 4, degree je=ei/e 5, white de-
lite hight 6, hie crye whye 10, I espye
ye=e>/e 10, hie hesyly jQ=eye 11, fan-
tasye merily 15, yQ=eye pretily 15, white
delite sight 16, eschewe newe due 17,
ben engyue 19, je=ei/e wonderly hie 24,
se ye ^ei/e 27, shewe hewe 34, by nye =
)iear 34, modifie truly 35, avowe wowe
= woo howe 42, I flye sodeuly 45,
trewe dewe pm-sue 48.
3. The Farlement of Briddes, or the
Assembly of Foules, pp. 51-74, from
Bodleian MS. Fairfax 16, collated with
Harleian MS. 7333, and Bodleian MS.
Seld. B. 24. None.
4. The Bake of Cupide, God of Love,
or the Cuckoiv and the Nightingale,
pp. 75-86, from Bodleian MS. Fairfax
16, coHated with Harl. MS. 7333, and
Bodleian MS. Seld. B 24. None.
5. The Flower and the Leaf pp. 87-
107, from Speght's edition of Chaucer
1597 and 1602, no manascript copy
being known : h\e=high certaincly 87,
truly company 93, melody soothly 93,
company lady richely 98, sautry craftely
98, womanly daisie 99, company friendly
103, properly company 103, chivalry
worthy 104, victory mightily 104, com-
pany humbly \u.Q=hat>te 107.
6. Troylus and Cryseyde, p. 108,
from Harl. MS. 2280 collated with
Harl. MSS. 1239, 2392, 3943, and
Additional MS. 12044. Troye, joye,
fi'o the 108, contrarie debonaire staire
116.
Vol. V.
Troylus and Cryseyde continued, pp.
1-77. None.
7. Chaiiceres A. B. C. called La
Priere de Nostre Dame, pp. 78-85, from
the Bodl. MS. Fairfax 16, collated
with a MS. in the Hunterian Museum,
Glasgow, medycine rcsygne 81, this
rhyme is probably correct.
8. Chaucer's Dream, pp. 86-154,
fi-om Speght's edition of Chaucer 1597
and 1602, no manuscript copy being
known : eene = «ye« kene 87, was glasse
88, paire here (this word seems to have
been supplied by the editor) 88, hie =
hiyh sie = s('e 88, be companie 89-90,
come some 92, undertaketh scapcth 96,
grene yenc =«/<■« 96, place was 100,
named attained 104, ecn=eyc« queen
106, joyously harmony 107, gentilnessc
peace (?) 107, be companie 108, de-
stroid conclude 108, vcrtuous use
110, signe encline ("r) 113, rcsigne
nine (?) 120, found bond 126, re-
member tender 129, fiftcne, an even
132, Kgne compane 132, safety com-
pany 133-4, greene eenc =eyen 138, cry
company 138, softcly harmony 141,
nine greene (?) 142, vertuouse use 143,
company by 147.
9. The Boke of the Ditchesse, or the
Dithe of Blanche, pp. 155-195, from
the Bodl. MS. Fairfax. 16 : Pythagoras
ches 175.
252
NO REAL FAULTY RHYMES IN CHAUCER. CuAP. IV. § 1.
10. Of Queue Anchida ami Fahe
Arcijte. i)p. 196-208, Irom the liodl.
MS. P'airliix, 16. None.
1 1 . The Home of Fame, pp. 209-275,
from the Uodl. MS. l-'airlax, IG. None.
12. The Ltgende of Goode Women,
pp. 270-3G1, tVom the Bodl. "Sl^. Fair-
fax, 10. collated with Bodl. MS. Seld.
li. 21, MSS. Harl. 9832, Addit. 12524
(British Museum) and Gg. 4. 27, in the
Universitv Lihrary, Cambridj;:e, pri-
vately printed by H. Bra<lshuw, Cam-
bridge, 1864. Is one.
Vol. YI.
13. Tlie Rommint of the Base, pp.
1-234, ft-om the unique MS. in the
Hunterian Museum, Glasgow : be
nycetie 1, samet delit(?) 27, loreyes
oliveris 41, I maladie 57, hastily com-
pany 57, gcneraly vilauye 67, worthy
curtesie 68, more are 68, abrode for-
weriedc 78, annoy away (?) 82, escape
make 84, joye conveye (r) 89, curtesie
gladly 91, foly utterly 97, laste barsto
97, loly hastily 99, 100, werye seye 99,
redily maistrie 101, flaterie uttirly 103,
afterc debonairc 10-5, bothom salvacioim
106, angerly villanyc 107, espic sikirlye
116, folilye" jelousye 116-7, jelousie I
1 19, 1 26, 1 lechery 119, bothoms sesouns
122, high delp-etly 123, certeynly
jelousie 123, glotouns bothoms 131,
storme come 132, sikirly foly 136,
bittirly foly 138, I curtesie 139, lorde
rewarde 141, seignorie I 142, ever
fer (?) 146, engendrure plesjnig 147,
companye disrewlilye 149, seryise preise
=praise 151, worthy drurie 154, yice
wys 164, to bye hastily 171, sy =part
of the second syllable of fysie, foly 175,
covertly ipocrisie 186, company outeiiy
192, whye tregetrie = !■/•(> A-c/y 194, com-
panye I 209, mekely trechery 223,
sobrely, je voiis die 225.
14. Complaynte of a Loveres Lyfe, or
the Complaint of the Black Knight,
pp. 235-259, from the Bodl. MS. Fair-
fax, 16: white bryght nyght 235,
grevously petously malady 240, feljTigly
malady 242.
15. The Complaynt of Mars and
Venus, pp. 260-274, from the Bodl.
MS. Fairfax, 16, collated with MS.
Ff. 1, 6, in the University Library,
Cambridge, edition of II. Bradshaw,
1864. None.
16. A goodly Ballade of Cliaucer,
pp. 275-277, from Tlniine's edition of
1532 : supposeth rysetii 277.
17. ^ Vraisc of Women, pp. 278-
284, from Thynne's edition of 1532.
None.
18. The Compleynte of the Bethe of
Tite, pp. 285-286, from Bodl. MS.
Fairfax, 16, collated with Had. MS. 78.
None.
19. Ballade de Vilage Sauns Peyn-
ture, pp. 289-292, from Bodl. MS.
Fairfax, 16. None.
20. Ballade sent to King Richard,
pp. 292-293, from Bodl. MS. Fairfax,
16. None.
21. The Compleynte of Chaucer to
his Purse, p. 294, from Bodl. MS.
Fairfax, 16, collated with Harl. MS.
7333 and Bodl. Seld. B. 24. None.
22. Good Cojinseil of Chaucer, p. 295,
from Bodl. MS. Fairfax, 16, collated
with Cotton MS. Otho A. xviii., and
MS. Gg. 4, 27, in Univ. Lib. Cam.
And Add. MS. 10340, see Athenceum,
14 Sept. 1867, p. 333. None.
23. Prosperity, p. 296, from Bodl.
MS, Seld. B. 24. None.
24. A Ballade, pp. 296-7, from
Harl. MS. 7333. None.
25. L' Envoy de Chaucer a Scogan,
pp. 297-8, from Bodl. MS. Fairfax,
16. None.
26. L' Envoy de Chaucer a Bukton,
pp. 299-300, from Bodl. MS. Fairfax,
16. None.
27. JStas Prima, pp. 300-302, from
MS, Hh. 4. 12. 2, late MS. Moore 947,
in the Univ. Lib. Cam. None.
28. Leaulte vault Richesse, pp. 302-
303, from Bodl. MS. Seld. B. 24. None.
29. Proverbes of Cliaucer, p. 303,
fi-om Bodl. MS. Fairfax, 16. None.
30. Roundel, pp. 304-5, reprinted
from Percy's Eeliques of Ancient
English Poetry. None.
31. Tirclai, pp. 305-6, from MS.
E. iii. 20, Trin. Coll. Cam. : infortunate
fate whate 305, hate desperate estate
306, certayn pajTi 306.
32. Chance)'' s Prophecy, p. 307, from
Sir Harris Nicolas's edition of a MS.
belonging to Mr. Singer. None.
33. Chaucer's Words unto his own
Scrivener, p. 307, fi"om Th)Tme's
edition, 1532. See supra p. 250, note.
None.
34. Orisoune to the Holy Virgin,
pp. 308-312, from Bodl. MS. Seld. B.
24 : honour cme 310.
Chap. IY. § 1. NO REAL FAULTY RHYMES IN GOWER. 253
la examining GoAVcr's rhymes tlirough the medium of Pauli'e
edition, I have put aside his orthography as of no vahic, and have
reckoned as faulty rhj-raes only such as I could not immediately
correct by means of the results obtained from an examination of
Chaucer, and exhibited in the foUo-sving sections. The citations
refer to the volume and page of Pauli's edition.
Vol. i. sely privete 225, ev = formerly ware 231,
Vol. ii. named proclaimed 84, joy money 147, Troy monaie 188,
nine peine 261, enemy micheiy 3.55,
Vol. iii. accompteth amounteth 54, straught sought 374.
Nine faulty rhymes out of more than 33000 verses would not be
much. But in fact the editor Dr. Pauli, and not the author, is the
person really answerable for them, as the following examination
will shew.
The reading : sely privete i 225, is wrong on the face of it, for
sely makes no sense ; the word is celee or cele as in Harl. 3490, 3869,
7184, and Soc. Ant. MS. 134, meaning secret, a pui'cly French
word. The passage runs thus in Harl. 3869,
As who fai)j. I am so celee
Ther mai no mannes priuete
Ben heled half fo wel as myn.
The reading: er ware i 231, is : er war in. Harl. 7184, but : ar
war ia Harl. 3490 and 3869, the passage in the last being
Of such cnfamples as war ar
Him oghte be J^e :more war.
The rhyme : named proclaimed ii 84, is given : named, pro-
clamed, by the three Harl. MSS, and : naimd proclaimd, by the
Soc. Ant. MS. The first reading is evidently correct from the
French proclame, and even Pauli in another place writes : named
proclamed i 6.
For: joy money ii 147, Troy monaie ii 188, the Harl. MS. 3869,
reads : ioye monoie, Troie monoie. These rhymes will be further
considered in the next section under 01.
The rhyme : nine peine ii 261, is written : nyne peyne in Harl.
3869, but this is an evident slip for: nyne pyne, the reading of
Harl. 3490 and 7184.
For: enemy michery ii 355, both Harl. 3490 and Harl. 3869
read : enemie micherie.' The enemy is Venus, and the word re-
ceives the French feminine form, thus, according to Harl. 3869
For Venus which was enemie
Of ]7ilke loues micherie.
The words : accompteth amounteth iii 54, are so spelled in the
three Harl. MS., but as it is certain that the two French words
from which they have been taken, had the same sound, the rhyme
was really perfect. This then is an example in Gower of the
retention of a French spelling, which did not represent the English
sound, supra, p. 248, note 2. The orthography accompt is even yet
^ Harl. 7184 is illegible; the word they mean it is hard to say; probably
is like enme, that is, there are five we should restore missing letters thus :
strokes between the two e's, and what enemie.
254 ACCOMMODATION KHYMES. Chap. IV. § 1.
retained in onr -^^Titttn lan^age, though generally superseded by
account.
The words : shaught sought iii 374, were wrongly transcribed
by I'auli tnmi the Harl. 3100, Avliifli he professed to follow in this
passage, and which reads : strauht cauht.
This examination must be held to establish the correctness
of the first principle for all the writings of Chaucer and
Gower. The exceptions are clearly due to some error of the
editor or the scribe, or to certain varieties of pronunciation
which will meet with an explanation hereafter. In Chaucer's
time many words certain!}' existed in two or more forms
either entirely difierent, as tho for thof<e, my for saWy they
for though, vio for more, etc., or only differing in a vowel as
kess for kiss, lest for list lust, stree for straic, etc. We find
instances of this double use even in prose, and in places
where the use was optional,^ but it was evidently a most
convenient instrument in the rhymester's hand, and Chaucer,
who, notwithstanding the far greater facilities for rhj'me at
his time than at the present, seems to have been frequently
"hard up,"^to judge by those numerous little tags which
appear in his poetry and are absent from his prose, has ex-
tensively availed himself of them. The following are a few
examples of these Accommodation Hhymes, as I propose to term
them : —
rood upon a mere (= a mare"), and a mellerc 543, gan the child to
blesse, gan it kesse 8428, holde champartye, may sche gt/e 1951,
Then pray I the, to moiT\'e with a sperc That Arcita me thurgh
the herte here =z b(yre 2257, unto oon of tho, moche care and wo
2353, that on myn autcr brcn, that thou go hen = hence 2357,
stree-= straiv tluee 2935, Paternoster soster = sister 3485, compame^
J A cook thei liadde with hem for 851, Harl. 1758, MS. Eeg. 18. C. ii.;
the nones, and Sloane MSS. 1685, 1686, all a^ee
To boyle chiknes and the mary in reading : compame blame. Ilarl.
bones 381 . 7335 has come batrn; Uarl. 73^54 and MS.
Hence marryhones for marrow bones Eeg. 17 D. xv. have both com pame,
(possibly a reference to St. Mary lebon) -which Wright prints compame in one
is not areccnt vulgarism, but can boast word, and jlorris misprints compaine,
a hifh antiquity. and it should be observed that there is
„ _, ,,, , i„,-„^;^« a blotch on the parcliment in Harl.
2 Compare Chaucer sown admission, ^jg_ .33 ^_ ^^^ J ^^ ^^_^^.^^ ^^^^^ ^^
/ ; , . ,.. . , „„„„„„ first sight as if paiiie and not paine
Andeketomehitisagretepei^^ai^ce^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^ ^Jj^ ^
Syth ryme in Englissh hatA such ^ever used throughout the MS. for the
To foL-; worde by wordc the dot over an f, which is always repre-
iu luiuvic «uiuv uj sented, when written, as it would be in
cunosite ^^^.j^ ^ ^ ^ flourish like 1. The
Of Graunson^ floure of hem that ^^.^^^ ^^ ^^l jj^^j ^333 ^^^ ^^
maken in Fraunce. ^^^^1,,^ ^^^^ ^^ ,^f^ ^^^ tl^^ jj^^ ^^^^
3 This reading is doubtful. LaIlsdo^vn compame, altered the next line to
Chap. IV. § 1. THE ORTHOGRAPHY SHEWS THE SOUND. 2oO
= compagne blame 3709, beete sheete = shoote 3927, day lay = laic
4795, wirche = work cliircbe 9257, Eve prove = prove 9203, fcste
mesie = moste 10613, est almest = almost 15168, ah = also fals
4315, speche seche = seke 4939, beech, theech =^ tlie ich = prosper I
12856, sein=:^seen agayn 5177, time enveni/me 6055, nohleye,
preye, seye 8704, tlicrto, is do =^ idon 10313, glap-e of an cij, cloy
12734, seye aheye 13514, mystrist wist 13784, the mciy orgon, in
the chirche goon 16337.
These instances, which are only a few out of many, are
abundantly sufficient to shew that the scribe was not content
with continuing to write one form of a word, and allowing its
different sounds to be elicited from the rhyme (as we should
now write a tear, to tear) but that he altered the spelling
when he wished to shew a difference of sound. Hence
although we have detected him tripping at times, from mere
carelessness, we can feel confident that when varieties of
spelling as eyen yen, hye hihe, deyde dyde, etc. constantly
occur, they really indicate different sounds, such as for ex-
ample we shall learn to attribute to ey, y, ih, in other com-
binations, so that the words just cited should be read (ai'en,
ii"en, nii-e Hikh'e, daid'e diid*e), and we are thus led to a
corroboration of our third principle as well as of our first.
Having thus established the trustworthiness of my instru-
ment of investigation, not merely for the particular instance
of this Harleian manuscript 7334, but for all good MSS. of
the period, I shall proceed to aj^ply it to discover a complete
system of pronunciation, so as to allow us to declaim Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales as they miglit have been read during his
lifetime, although doubtless with a modern accent which
would have failed to satisfy the poet's ear. Still this pro-
nunciation would have probably been perfectly intelligible,
while our modern English method of reading must have
sounded as miere gibberish.^
rhyme, omitted the following which which has heen scored out, as it was
was then without a rhyme, and read : thus loft without a rhjTue, but is per-
Go from )ie w)Tidowe, Jacke fole fectly legible.
fhee fayde
I love bette o]ier and ell«?s I were to ' This opinion I entertain so strongly,
blame that I retain its expression in the text,
Welle more Jan }ie by Jhefu and his notwithstanding that I have been in-
dame formed, since it was written, that many
So lette me slepe a twenty devilweye. Early English scholars adopt systems
The words : and his dame, in the last of pronunciation agreeing in the main
line but one, are in another ink, and with our bar])arous method of reading
are apparently written over an oblitera- Latin and Greek. While this sheet
tion. The last line was originally pre- was passing through the press I re-
ceded by : ceived the following : " As to O.E. and
Go forth thy weye or elks I woUe A.S. Pronunciation, my scheme is i = i
caste a stone, of shine, e=ee oi feet, a=a oi father,
256
KEFEREXCES TO CHAUCER AND COWER. Chap. IV. § 1.
3Tode of Reference to Chaucer and Gower.
The lines of the Canterbury Tales will be cited by their numbers
in AVrif^ht's single volume edition (p. 243 note), the number refers
to the first line or word cited. The lines in any of Chaucer's other
poetical works will be cited by the volume and pap;e (not number of
line) in which they occur in Morris's edition, a tunied period being
placed after the number of the volume ; thus, 4*87 means vol. 4,
p. 87. As final words are usually cited, hardly any difficulty will
be thus cxpenenced in findinjj: the passage. The list of Chaucer's
poems on pp. 251-2, will show at once from the reference the par-
ticular poem in wliicli the passage occurs. The lines in Gower will
be cited by the volume and page in Pauli's edition,' the number
of the volume being in small roman letters and the number of the
pages following without an intervening comma, thus ii 84 is vol. 2,
p. 84. By this means the form of the reference distinguishes
the book cited, which will therefore not be named.
As Mr. Morris's edition of the Canterbury Tales is not numbered
throughout, and as Tp-whitt's order of the Tales is not entii-cly the
same as Wright's, the following comparison will be foimd useful.
The numbers refer to the volume and page in Morris and the line in
"Wright and Tyrwhitt. Occasionally some lines are inserted in one
of these editions and omitted in the others, hence it will not ahvays
be possible to refer from one to the other by the numbers with
certainty, but the difference is always very small, and if allowed for,
will create no confusion. In order to coiTespond as far as possible
with Tyn\'hitt's system, Mr. "Wright's first line of a piece is not
always numbered consecutively to the last line of the preceding
piece, and liis number 6440 is a misprint for 6439. The roman
titles of the pieces in the following table follow Mr. Morris's edition ;
the italic titles of the tales have been added by the author ia ac-
cordance with the text of the poems, for convenience of reference.
HaBMONT of the REFEREJfCES TO MoERIs's, WeIGHt's, A>T)
Tykwhitt's Enrrioifs of the CANTEEBtjEY Taxes.
Name of Piece.
1. The Prologue
2. The Knightes Tale. Palamon and Arcite
3. The Prologue of the Myller . - - -
4. The Milleres Tale. Nicholas, Absolon, and
the Carpenteres Wyf - - . - -
6. The Prologue of the Reeve . - - -
6. The Reeves Tale. The Miller of Tromp-
yngtoun ---------
7. The Cokes Prologue -
Morris.
1
27
96
98
120
122
135
Wright.
1
861
3111
3187
3853
3919
4323
Tyrwhitt.
1
861
3111
3187
3853
3919
4323
& = o of bone, ae = a oi fate, ii = ou of
hottse, &c," a scheme utterly irrecon-
cilable with the direct endence of the
last chapter. See also Benjamin Thorpe
on the pronunciation of Orrmin, (Ana-
lecta Anglo-Saxonica, 1846, 8vo, pre-
face, p. xi) quoted below Chap. V, § 2,
No. 1.
1 Confessio Amantis of John Gower,
edited and collated with the best manu-
scripts by Dr. Reinhold Pauli, London,
Bell and Daldy, 1857, 8vo, 3 vols.
Chap. IV. J 1. REFERENCES TO CHAUCER AND GOWER.
257
Name of Piece.
8. The Cokes Tale. The Preniys - - -
The Cokes Tale of GameljTi' - - - -
9. The Man- of Lawcs Prolog-ue - - - -
10. The Man of Lawes Tale. Constance - -
11. The Prologue of the Wyf of Bathe - -
12. The Wj-f of Bathes Tale. The Kniffht
and the Foul ^I'yf. ------
13. The Prologue of the Frere . . - .
14. The Freres Tale. The Sompnour and the
Devyl ----------
15. The Sompnoures Prologue - - - - -
16. The Sompnoures Tale. The Frere and
the HoHibond man ------
17. The Clerk of Oxenfordes Prologue - -
1 8. The Clerkes Tale. Grisildes. - - -
Pars Secunda -------
Ineipit tertia pars -
Ineipit quarta pars ------
Ineipit pars quinta ------
Pars sexta -.-
L'Envoye de Chaucer - - - - -
19. Prologue of the Marchaundes Tale - -
20. The ISiarchaundes Tale. January and May
21. The Squyeres Prologue - - - - -
22. The Squyeres Tale. Cambynshan. - -
Ineipit secunda pars . - - - -
23. The Frankeleynes Prologe ... -
24. The FrankelejTies Tale. Arveragus and
Borygen ----.....
2b. The Secounde Nonnes Tale. Cedlie.
26. The Prologe of the Chanounes Yeman -
27. The Chanounes Yemannes Tale. The
False Chanoun and the Prcst - - -
28. The Doctoures Prologe .....
29. Tale of the Doctor of Phisik. Virginius.
30. The Prologue of the Pardoner - - .
31. The Pardoneres Tale. The Thre Riot-
toures --...----.
32. The Schipmannes Prologue . . . -
33. The Schipmannes Tale. Ban Johan and
the Marehaunt -------
34. The Prioresses Prologe
35. The Prioresses Tale. The litel Glergeoun
and the Jewes. ....---
36. Prologe to Sire Thopas
37. The Tale of Sir Thopas
38. Prologe to Melibeus ------
39. The Tale of Melibeus, prose - - - -
40. The Prologe of the Menkes Tale - - -
41. The Menkes Tale. The harm of hem that
stood in heigh degre ------
42. The Prologe of the Nonne Prestes Tale.
43. The Nonne Prest his Tale. Chmmteclere.
44. The Prologue of the Maunciples Tale -
45. The Maimciples Tale. Phebus and the
While Crow
46. The Prologe of the Persones Tale - -
47. The Persones Tale, prose - . . - -
Morris.
136
138
170
173
206
232
245
246
258
259
278
280
284
292
297
302
307
315
317
318
354
355
365
1
2
29
46
60
75
75
85
90
106
107
121
122
130
131
138
139
198
201
227
229
249
252
261
263
Wright. I Tyrwhitt.
4363
4421
4519
5583
6439
6847
6881
7247
7291
7877
7933
8073
8325
8486
8661
8815
9053
9089
9121
10293
103 -.'3
10661
10985
11041
11929
12482
12940
13410
13416
13702
13878
14384
14412
14846
14864
15102
15123
15327
15375
15477
16253
16307
16933
17037
17295
4363
4421
4519
5583
6439
6847
6883
7247
7291
7877
7933
8073
8325
8486
8661
8815
9053
9089
9121
10293
10323
10661
10985
11041
15469
16022
16188
11929
11935
12221
12263
12903
12931
13365
13383
13621
13642
13847
13895
13997
14773
14827
16950
17054
17312
17
258 THE VOWELS — XIV TH CENTURY, Chap. IV. § 2.
§ 2.— The Vowoh.
Long and Short Vowels.
The orthographic custom of the Germanic languages is to
consider a final vowel in an accented syllable long, and a
vowel in a syllable closed by a consonant short. The physio-
logical cause for the duplication of a consonant between two
vowels to indicate the shortening of the first vowel has been
already explained, p. 55. But long vowels also occur in
syllables closed by a consonant, and here the writers have
generally been put to great straits. Orrmin by simply leav-
ing the consonant single after a long vowel, and. always
doubling it after a short one, escaped the difficulty. In the
oldest Germanic monument, Uphilas's Gospels, the Greek
custom of using different signs for long and short (e, o) was
usually followed, thus e ai, o au were generally, = {ee e, oo o)
Long i was represented by ei, following the Greek custom of
pronouncing ei at that and the present time. Long a, u,
were not distinguished from short, even if the real long
(aa, uu) existed in Gothic.^
In Anglosaxon an accent is occasionally placed over the
long vowel, but it is frequently omitted. In modern high
German and Dutch aa, ee, oo are often used for the long
vowels, but this system of reduplication does not extend to
long i and long u. When the i was not dotted, it would have
been difficult to distinguish ii from u, and the combination
uu might be read mi, wi, im, mi, ini, which seems sufficiently
to explain the non-use of redu2:)lication to express these pro-
longations. Still I find reduplication sufficiently distinct
even in these cases, provided that the i is properly dotted,
and hence I have employed it consistently in palaeotype.
In Chaucer, as represented by our MS., reduplication is
not unfrequentl}'^ resorted to in the case of aa, ee, oo, but as
the writer often neglects to mark the distinction (compare :
in such a caaa 657, arwes in a cas 2081), and sometimes
employs ee where we expect to find a short vowel (as tceel for
wel 2125), not much reliance can be placed upon this ortho-
graphy. The fact, however, that both short and long a, e, i, o
rhyme with each other, but that long u and short it never
rhyme, leads at once to the conclusion that the sounds of the
long and short a, e, i, o differed only in quantity, but the
sounds of long and short u differed also in quality. This
general conclusion, will be abundantly confirmed.
^ See an account of the values of the Gothic letters, Chapter V, § 4, No. 3.
CuAP. IV. J 2. A XIV Til CENTURY. 259
A — XIV TH Century.
That long and short a could not he very different from (aa, a)
we have already seen. It is not possible to distinguish after such
a lapse of time between (a, a) and it is safer probably to consider
(aa, a) as the real sounds. The effect of a preceding w does not
appear to have been felt ; that is, a in was, warm would not have
differed from a in has, harm.
Latln rhymes. ... as assoillyng saveth, a significavit 663, where
the old habit of reading the Latin termination -it as (-ith) may
have been alluded to ; ' the Psalm of Da\dd, cor meum erudavit 7515 ;
Yet spak this child, when sprejTide was the water,
And song, 0 alma ndemploris muter. 15051
My teeme is alway oon, and ever was,
JRadix maloruin est cupidilas. 13748
On which was first i-writen a crowned A,
And after that. Amor vincit omnia. 161
These examples lead at once to the conclusion that a was called
(aa), and that saveth, David, tvater, ivas were pronoiinced (saaveth,
Daa'vid, waa'ter, was). Hence also the words rhyming with was
will have (-as) or (-aas), e.g. hire statue clothed was, arwes in a
cas 2081, thcrto chosen was, such a caas 2111, he walketh forth a
pas, thcr hu- temple was 2219, this hors of bras, siege of Troye was
10619, of Macedon he was, alas, such a caas, thyn sis fortune is
tomed into an aas 16142, where sis, aas are six, ace. These words
give the key to many others, thus : in this caas, of solas 799, and
all words of that kind now usually spelled -ace, as : paas Thomas
827. We should also conclude that in : caught in his lace, this
trespace 1819, we ought to read laas, trespas, as in : a dagger
hangyng on a laas 394 &c.
Fkench rhymes. . . . hadde thei ben to blame, to be clept madame
377, hadde hosen of the same, no wight clcpe hir but madame 3953,
fy for shame, sayde thus Madame 16377, it happed him par cas,
ther the poysoun was. 14300
This last example confirms one of the Latin rhymes. In the
other examples observe that Madame is a word which has preserved
its French sound (or what is meant to be such) down to the present
day, and hence the rhymes with it are conclusive.
Short and long A rhymes.
A long sui-cote of pers uppon he hadde
And by his side he bar a rusty hladde. 619
Here, judging by the modem use, Hade is spelled lladde simply
to secuie the rhyme, that is the long vowel is, for the occasion,
treated as a short one. This of course could not he done if the
quality of the vowels changed with the length, as in the present
had, llade. In the following example —
Each after other clad in clothes hlahe
But such a cry and such a woo they male. 901
1 See Salesbury, infra. Chap. VIII, § 1, under T.
260 E, EE, EA, EO, OE, IE XIV TH CENTURY. CiiAP. IV. ^ 2.
we have exactly the converse, the vowel in llacke being lengthened
to rhyme with itiake. This is also the case in : 1 may no lenger
tarry y lady seintc Mary 7185, Avhere the coiTect reading would
probably be tarie, Marie. In ag«. both bleed and hleec had short
vowels.
The pronunciation of o in Chaucer, which scarcely admitted of
doubt before, is so clearly indicated by these three classes of ex-
amples, that it is Tinnecessaiy to accumulate passages of the last
kind, those cited in the first two cases are all that I have observed
of that description in the Canterbury Tales. We must, there-
fore, conclude that
A in the xivth. century was always either (aa, a) or (aa, a).
E, EE, EA, EO, OE, IE — xivth Century.
Final e presents peculiar difficulties, and will therefore be treated
separately in the fourth section of this chapter after the other
vowels and the consonants have been fully considered. At present
it may be assumed to be pronounced as the inflexional German final
e (p. 195, note) in all cases where it ends a line or seems to be re-
quired by the metre, and to be otherwise omitted in pronunciation,
leaving the precise discrimination of these cases to future investigation.
The combination ee is used so frequently in place of e long, that
it cannot be considered as a different letter. The combination ea
is rare, but occurs most frequently in ease, please, which are also
foTind without a. Eo, oe are occasionally used instead of e, when
an e usui-ps the place of o, but there docs not appear to have been
any variation of sound. le and e alternate in some words, especially
matiere rtiatere, Mere here, but ie does not appear to have had any
special signification distinct fi-om e. The modem pronunciation of
the e, and the separation of its long sound into (ee, ii) which was
confirmed in the xvi th century, does not appear to have commenced.
Latin Rhtstes. — The only Latin word ending in e which con-
cludes lines in Chaucer is benedicite, and this was almost always
pronounced in three syllables, but whether (ben'diste) or (ben'aite,
ben-ete), — compare Seint Beneyt 173, and the modem Bennet — I
am not able to say, I incline however to (ben-ete).' The following
are all the passages in which I have observed the occurrence of this
word, and as most of them illustrate the sound of e, ee, it may be
best to cite them all at length.
The god of love, a ! benedicite (5 syllables)
How mighty and how gret a lord is he. 1787
To fighte for a lady ; benedicite !
It were a lusty sigh te for to see. 2117
What ? Absolon, what ? Cristes swete tree !
"WTiy ryse ye so rathe ? benedicite. 3765
' Prof. Child (infr^, § 5, art. 96) has five syllables. The word has always
TOggests bencil'e as the contraction and five syllaoles in Gower.
suspects a lacixna in v. 1787, where it
Chap. IY. ^ 2. E, EE, EA, EO, OE, IE — XIV TH CENTURY. 261
Ey, hened{cite\ than had I foulc i-sped. 4218
TVHiat roune yc with liir maydcnes ? benedicte,
Sir olde Iccchom-, let thi japes be. 5823
And chyding wyvcs maken men to fle
Out of here oughne hous ; a., benedicite. 6861
And sayd, 0 deere housbond, beneduite,
Fareth everj- knight with his wyf as ye. 6669
I trowe thou hast som fi-ere or prest with the.
Who chippith ther ? sayd this widow, benedicite. 7165
Til atte last he sayde, God yow se !
This lord gan loke, and sayde, Benedicite. 7751
A wyf r a ! seinte Mary, benedicite,
How might a man have eny adversite
That hath a w)-f ? 9211
Unto oure oost, he seyde, Benedicite !
This thing is wonder merveylous to me. 12o56
I see wel that ye lerned men in lore
Can mochel good, by Goddes dignitee.
The Person him answerde: Benedicite ! 14389
0, seinte Mary, benedicite (3 syllables)
"WTiat eylith this love at me
To bynde me so sore ? 16195
So hidous was the noyse, a benediciee !
Certes he Jakke Straw, and his meyne,
Ne maden schoutes never half so schrille. 16879
These examples establish, the pronunciation of, in modem spelling,
he, see, tree, bee, flee, ye, thee, me, as (nee, see, tree, be, flee, jee,
dhee, mee), so far as the vowel is concerned. The other rhyming
words, adversity, dignity, meny, will be considered under I, Y. The
words thus established suffice to prove the pronunciation of many
others and shew that the personal pronouns, he, she, we, ye, which
were exceptionally pronounced with (ii) in the xvi th century, (p.
77), and the combination ee which was confined to (ii) at the latter
end of the same century (p. 79), had in Chaucer's time, exclusively
the sound of (ee).
It might seem proper to reckon among these Latin rhymes
Yet schal I saven hir, and the, and me,
Hastow nat herd how saved was Noe. 3533
But certejTily no worde writeth he
Of thilke wikked ensample of Canaee. 4497
But the preceding examples will also shew that Noe Canaee must
have had a final (,ee).
Feexch rhymes ... a sop in fyn clarre, than sittith he, 9717 away
fro me, as well as thin parde 5891, the lasse light ^arrfe.' the thar
not pleyne the 5917.
For cosvnage, and eek for bele cheer
That he hath had ful ofte time heer. 14820
LoxG AXD Short EnrsEEs . . . trapped in steel, dyapredM;^/ 2159,
here the long pronunciation of wel is not noted as it is in
Som wol been armed on here legges weel,
And have an ax, and eek, a mace oi steel. 2125
Thanked be fortune, and hire false wheel,
That noon estat assureth to ben iveel. 927
His eyen steep, and roUjing in his heed
That stemed as a fomeys of a leed. 201
E, EE, EA, EO, OE, IE — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 2.
Here Jiead, lead are now both short (nod, led). They may have
boon both lonpj occasionally, as bread, dead spoiled breed, deed 147.
In : Jorusalfwi, a straiingo str«'wi 4(55, both words may have been
pronounced with (eem). But in: I holdo my pees, al the prees 5096,
we have oithrr short and long rhyming, or olso a sliort lengthened
to rhyme with the long. In either case the sound of long e is
shewn to be (ee).
In the following examples we have words written in the xvith
century with ee and then pronounced (ii), rhyming with words then
written ea and pronounced (ee). Those afterwards written with ee
will be italicised for distinction : ful lone, no calf j-xetie 593, this
cost (coast) so clone, that thor nys no ston j-sene 11307, his speche,
gladly tcche 309, it necdoth nat the toche, I the byseche 3599,
wolde han caught a sleep, Johan the clerk up leap 4225, in this
dredo, at thy grete neede bOll , at hi?, feet, and of a man he cot 2049,
a child that is i-beto, went he over the strcte 3757, in word and
dede, repcntaunce and drede 1777, bodyes dede, of hemeys and of
wede 1007, glorious for to see, fletyng in the large see 1957, with
leyghen ste2)e, noon in chcpe 755.
In the next examples we find ee rhyming with words which the
Latin rhymes have established to be sounded with (ee) : so as it
semed me, of what degre 39, so ofte of his dcgi-c, hadde he be 55.
The following are examples of words written with ee or simple e,
which were afterwards written with ea. The ea words are
italicised: humble cheer, ye schal heer 2221, piled herd, .sore aferd
629, hem to tvreke, scholde speke 963, breeth, heelh 5, as of the deth,
upon an heth 608, agreved with here, to a bere 2059, pite to heere,
Dyane gan appeere 2347, quod sche, in the salte see 5527, in the
Greete see, hadde he be 59, or forge or bete, to counterfote, 13432.
These examples might be greatly multiplied. £a occurs in : for
ease, nought displease 5709, sche wolde vertu please, noon ydel ease
8092, his spiiit was at ease, nothing may me displease 9507.
The use of eo and oe is shewn by the spellings: theof 13498,
theves 13499 ; eorthe 8557, bocf 9295, pocpel 9241, pepul 2536,
reproof 10078, 10137, preef 5829, roprocve 17002, repreve 6759,
these latter words having generally simple e.
The following shew the pronunciation of ie as (ee) : with evel
preef, a great meschief 5829, al your ffreef, an odious meschief 7771,
a theef, mescheef 1327, me reprove, wo believe 6759, ere that it was
eve, made him bileve 4993, and ook a frore, disshc and 7nattere 6418,
in this mater e, quod the Frore 6421.
The following are some instances of words now spelled with ie
but apparently only written with e in Chaucer. See the table,
p. 104. I sawh no man him greve, OsoAvald the Reeve 3857, be
agreved, be releeved 4179, by youre leve, ye yow not greeve 7395,
a frond, as a fend 5825, loth or leef an ivy Icef 1839, longon unto
eelde, mowen be unweelde 3883, oon bar his schecld, iu his hondes
heeld 2895. "W^e also find chierte 5978 for cherete, and whiel 15482
for u-heel.
CuAP. IV. J 2. EI EY, AI AY, AU AW — XIV Til CENTURY. 2G3
These rhymes lead irresistibly to the conclusion that the
one general sound of e, ee, ea, eo, oe, ie in Chaucer was (ee)
long or (e) short, and they leave no room to conclude that e
was ever pronounced as (i) except in the prefix he which
we find written indifferently be bi. The double forms lesse
lasse, left laft, seem however to indicate that e short wa
occasionally pronounced as broadly as (a). In the xiii th
century this was certainly dialectic, and the various forms
may have remained in use during the xiv th. Perhaps the e
was generally broad, as (e) rather than (e). In the same way
we shall find / short to have been occasionally pronounced as
(e), and this might be rather held to indicate the broader
sound of (?), for /, or the finer sound of {e) for e. Such
delicate distinctions, difficult to appreciate in actual living
speech, are quite be^^ond our grasp at such a remote period,
and we must be content with one form (e) for the, possibl}^,
three forms {e, e, e). It is indeed very probable that all
three coexisted, and were not discriminated by the speakers
themselves. Practically this is the case at present.
EI EY, AI AY, AU AW — xtvth Century.
It is needless to shew that ai, ay were generally (ai) and au, aw
generally (au). They could not have had any other sound, as we
saw at the conclusion of the last chapter, p. 238. But whether any
distinction was made between ei and ai may be doubtful. In the
greater part of modern Grermany, ei, ai are both (ai), and they seem
to have both had the same sound ia Chaucer. Thus we have them
rhyming together in
That we with pitous hert unto vow playne
And let youre eeris my vols not disdeyne. 7973
But playne is written pleyne in
He was out cast to wo and into peyne.
0 glotony, wel ought us on the pleyne, 13926
Again: I wot it well certeyn, I dar weU sayn 8185, may be
compared with: myn harmes not bewreye, I may not seye 2231.
In 13335, 13511 ihay occurs for they. And generally the same
words constantly vary from ey to ay, and conversely, so that the
phonetic identity of ey, ay is the only legitimate inference. Thus :
for sche was feir, to maken hir his heir 3975, what so men jape or
pleye, holden the righte iveye 9263, companyes tweye, that co^\i:he
seye = say 2591,
Kepeth this child, al he it foul ox fair, ....
Crist whan him lust may sende me an hair
More agreable than this. 5184
Well -niste he by the drought, and by the reyn,
The yeeldjTig of his seed and of his yreyn. 597
204 KI EY, AI AY, AU AW — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 2.
And Venus faylith whcr ^rorcury is reijsed
ThiTi'or uo woimiian of elerkes is preisrd. 6287
Bi-n thay as socly men for to desceyve
And from a. soth euer wel thay ueyve = lhey waive. 10297
The assiimptiou that ai was pronounced as (ai) is confirmed by
the French rhyme : how lasteth hir vitaille, no wight but Crist
gauuz faite, it was a gi'et menailo 4919, and the Latin rhynie, as all
rhymes with Scripture names must be considered : the mount
of Si/nai/, lasting many a dai/, 7469.
It would appear that (ai) was sometimes lengthened and divided
into (aa,i) Ibnning a dissyllable. Thus sei/7it is a monosyllable
(saint) in
For by that lord that cleped is seynt Jame. 4262
But when prefixed to the same name it becomes a dissyllable
(saa,int) in
"Wel be we met, by God and seint Jame. 7025
Where, however, hy may have been omitted after and. On the same
piinciple I would explain
Hire grettest ooth nas but by seynt Ley. 120
That is (saa.int Luu'i), St. Louis, as Meigret writes his first name
Loi/8 in his Traite touchant le common vsage, etc., but Louis in his
phonetic French Grammar. Prof. Child would read othe, but this
form is not well established.
I had the printe of seynt Venus sel. 6186
That seynt Peter hadde, when that he wente. 699
So also/a«V in
To lede him forth into a /a?r mede. 7621
And maistnje in
Bachus had of hir mouth no maisfrye. 13472
In the four last cases there is no simple means of altering
the reading,' and on repeating the lines it will be readily perceived
that this pronunciation is not at all strained, and immediately solves
their metiical difficulties. In the Prisoner's Prayer, Chap. V, § 1,
No. 2, it will be seen that the French diphthongs in: ueine 17,
mayn 36, are given to two musical notes each, though" they are
frequently given to single notes, and other examples fi'om JsTorman
poems will be found near the end of Chap. T, § 1, Xo. 3.
As compared with Salesbuiy's obsei-vatiou that a in ashe is
"thought to decline toward the sound of the diphthong «/," it is
interesting to note aisshen 3880, aissches 12735. Four words now
written ai were either always or occasionally written with <?, ee and
hence pronounced (ee). They are sustain, hair, slay, strain, and I
have not observed more. Thus for sustain : to susleene, bright and
' And sayede twyes, Seynt Marye ! In : a goune cloth, by God, by seint
Thou arte noyouse for to caryc. 5*226 Johan. 7833
we should probably read : Seynte Marye. the word and has been probably omitted
Compare ' before the second by.
Tweh" pens ? quod sche, now lady
seinte MarjY. 7186
Chap. IV. § 2. EI EY, AI AY, AD AW — XIV Til CENTURY, 2Go
schene 1995, schc mylite noiilit hir sustene, sit adoim upon the
grene 11173, o blisful quccne, in my wyt susteene 14892,
Then nys tliei' noon comparisoun bitwene
Thy wo, and any woo may man sustene. 5265
For hair (ags. hfer) : a tufte of heres, a souvres eeres 557, heer
677, heres 1390, kempt his heere, a trewc love he beere 3691, myn
olde yecres, so monlyd as myn heeres 3867, Sampson left his heris,
kut hem with hir schcris 6303, under his lange heris, tuo asses
eeris 6535. On the other hand as we have seen that heir is spelled
heir and hair. But we have heire 12061, for hair shirt.
For slat/ (ags. slan, slean, sleahan) : or elles sle his make 2558,
the freisshe beaute sleeth me sodeynly 1120, for curs wol slee 663,
hir self to sle, as it thcnketh me 11709.
The sleer of himself yet saugh I there,
His herte-blood hath bathed al his here. 2007
For strain, in the sense of race (which is derived from ags. streon,
streonan, stiynan, and has nothing to do with the other word
strain), we have
For God it woot, that childer ofte been
Unlik her worthy ekkis hem bifore ;
Bonnte cometh al of God. nought of the streen
Of which thay been engendrid and i-bore. 8031
Strain, hair, slay, are clearly not proper instances of ai pronounced
as (ee), but rather examples of a subsequently inserted i. But
susteene would have naturally appeared as susteigne, as we have
atteigne 8323.
Connected with this is the converse use of (ai) for (ee) or (e),
thus: jieissh 147 iox fessh, have ye not seye 5065 for seen; and
wayke ben the oxen 889, this weylce woman 5352, to aiTcyse, at eyse
7683 for ease. That the word was then really pronounced (aiz-e)
and not (eez-e), appears not only from this rhyme, but from the
follo\\TJig lines in Gower, where Pauli incoiTCctly prints ese ; the
orthography is that of the Soc. Ant. MS. 134 :
"Wliyche hadde be feruant to Thaife
So ])at fche was )ie worfe at ayfe. iii 320
Anfwerej) and fayej? my name is Thayfe
That was fuw tyme wel at ayfe. iii 332
The use of feissh, ivai/k^ is not so easy to explain, but eyse, freissh
367, 1120, hurgeys 371, paleys 2201, 2697, 9585, 10374, heryieys
2498, harneys 3760 are rather direct representatives of ai, oi in
French, the latter being changed into ei in Xonnan French, so we
have in the rhvmes to the two last instances ^jff^/-fy.« 2497, Gerneys
3759 and f%s'9585 = dais. This is an argument in favour of the
Xorman pronunciation (ai) for ei,
TVe find say for saw 8543, 9810, 13642, 16600 and elsewhere,
and in the same way we now have a saw for a saying.
The sound of au is of course generally (au), as is confii-med by
1 It is remarkable that both words Compare fleyes Eel. Ant. i, 22, Jleiss,
have ei'm Modem German/<;«5<;A, weich. ib. 67, and veikr in Icelandic.
266 O, 00, OA XIV TII CENTURY. CuAr. IV. ^ 2.
the French rhyme : to make hir alliaunce, him happode par chaunce
14()2(), ])ut the name of St. Paul, especially when api)lie(l to the
eathctb-al church, was pronounced with (oou) as we have found for
this particular case in the xvith century (p. 145). Tlie orthop-aphy
by seint Paules belle 16266 is very unusual and probably eiToneous,
we have : siynte Ponies, chaunteiie for soules 511, in Petres wordcs
and in Fonlcs, cristen mennes soules 7401, with Powles wyndowes
corven on his schoos 3318, after the text of Crist, and Powel and
Jon 7220,
Of this matior, 0 Ponl, wcl canstow trete.
Mete unto wombc, and wombc unto mete,
Sehal God destroyen bothe, as I'owd saith. 13938
The most singular interchange, however, is that of (au) with (ee).
Gill complained of his Mopsa? saying (leen) for (laun) (p. 91), but
200 years before that time we find : for leeful is with force force to
schowve 3910, in muUok or in stree, so fare we 3871, of the stree,
of the realite 5121 and elsewhere. The two forms stratc, stre are
due of course to ags. straw, sfrea. But lee must be a fonn of lai/,
as ese of at/se. The form lai/ for law occurs, for the rhyme, in :
on a day, that sche wold reney hir lay 4795, and must be due to
the French loi, lei, while law must come from the ags. lah. The
interchange was therefore not phonetic, but etymologic.
Hence we conclude that EI, AI were always (ai), and AU
was always (au) in the xiv th century.
O, 00, OA — XIV TH Century.
0 long and oo must be considered as the same letter in Chaucer.
The regular sound was (oo), as shewn by the Latin rhyme,
For thoujjh a widewe baddc but oo schoo
So plcsaunt was his In pruicpio
Yet wolde he haue a ferthing or he ■wente, 2.53
whether the sound was (oo) or (oo) is of course open to the same
difficulty as in the xvith century, but the perfect agreement of long
and short vowels, turns the balance strongly in favom- of (oo),
which seems to have been the original Latin sound.
The sound of scko gives that of do by : may nought do, is not
worth a scho 6289, which gives to, therto, a hoo, by : oon hole to
sterte to, than is al i-do 6155, he addid yit therto, what schulde
yren doo 501,
An herowd on a skaffold made a hoo
Til al the noyse of the pepul was i-doo. 2535
After this we may feel tolerably certain of the sound of long o
and its identity with that of oo = (oo). The following examples
are however worth attention : of symony also, did he gi-ettest woo
6892, never the mo, tel me who 6273, for he saith us soth, that so
doth 6523, ever in oon, thought anoon 1773, as stille as stoon,
for ther ascapith noon, as we knowe everychon 7997, al ther sche
goth, I have no thrifty cloth 5819, a fan right large and brood.
Chap. IV. § 2. O, 00, OA — XIV Til CENTURY. 2G7
lay his jolly schood 3315, his eyghcn grey as goos, corvcn on
his schoos 3317, God amend it soone, ye wot what is to doone 7775,
whan he awook, he the lettrc took 5226,
Tel, quod the lord, and thoii schalt have anoon
A goime cloth, by God, by sciat Johan.^ 7833
And every statute couthe he pleyu by roote
He rood but lioomly in a meclled cootc. 329
Wei may uieu kuowe, but it be a fool.
That every partye dyryveth from his hool. 3007
As then oo seems to be always (oo) we must assume wood = mad,
often spelt tvod, toode, to have had (oo) and hence conclude the
same of blood, stood, good from the rhymes : upon a carte stood,
grym as we were wood 2043, jalous and eke wood, wel neyh al the
hlood 1331, that is so good, of blood 2565. The change of long o
into (uu), developed in the xvith centiuy, had therefore not yet
occiuTed.
But did short o always represent (o) ? Generally it did so, but
there must have been exceptions. It would be difficult to imagine
an interregnum of (o) between two reigns of (u). It '\\ill be shewn
soon that ou represented long (uu) and but rarely short (u) for
which certainly u was available, but nevertheless o seems to have
been often employed. Thus we have
Out her for ye ban kept your honeste.
Other elles for ye hau falle in frelete. 13492
So that in two consecutive lines ou, o are used in the same word ;
in the Knightes Tale Palamon seems to have had either (o) or (u)
to suit the rhyme, as : oon, Palamon 1015, doun, Palamon 1072,
prisoun, Palamon 1453, 1469, Palamon, opyuyoun 1481, while we
have the orthography: doun, Palamoun 1517. Again: he might
not lenger sojourns, homwai'd most he tome 6569, had I not done
a frendes torn to the 14230, for fere of beres or of holes blake =
lulls 16421, i-lyk to the stremcs of horned ItxelQ zi^hurned 13453,
hokeler 112, asondei-, thonder 493.
The fact is that short (u) is comparatively rarely represented by
u, perhaps among other reasons because short w was as we shall see,
frequently called (?) or (e), as in our modei-n words busy, bury, so
that except in certain very well known words there might be more
error induced by wi-iting « than by wi-iting o. Under these cir-
cumstances I have been compelled to adopt a theoiy, indicated at
the commencement of the last paragi'aph, and I consider short o to be
(u) in all those words where it replaces a former u, and was in the
XVI th centuiy pronounced (u) ; that is, as a practical rule where it
is now called^o). There will be exceptions to this practical rule,
thus word is now (waid) and BuUokar makes it (wuixl) but in
Chaucer it was (woord) as we see from
But al for nought, he herde nat o word,
An hole he fond right lovre upon the boord. 3439
There might seem to have been another sound of short o in a few
1 Johan, -wi-itten Jon, 7229, is regularly a monosyllable.
2G8 01, OY — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 2.
T;\-orils, compare the uses : hatlde wc on Tionde, my fourth hoiishonde
6033, to withstonde, thral and honde 7211, in londe, to telle it wol
I fonde 15295, as liked Cristes sonde, approehed unto lo7tde 5322.*
In comparing tliis o in place of a in land, tcithstand, hmband, with
oa in loatide in the Proclamation of llenrj- HI., and with the inter-
change of a and o in noilhern and southeni dialects, the use of nat
for not fretpiently hy Chaucer, and later hy Palsg:rave, it was easy
to imagine tlie pronunciation {a) or (ah) as an intermediate sound,
which the scribe ilid not know whether to represent by o or a.
Thus Englishmen now confuse Scotch (man) or (mfllin), and Irish
(sffhr) A^-ith their (mon, sor), and wiite them mon, sorr = man, sir.
But tliis conjecture will not explain such rhymes as the above. As
bonde, 807ide must have had (o) and hoiisbonde ought to have it, we
must read (o) in londe, stonde, and in stronde and elsewhere, compare :
straunge strondcs, sondry londes 13.
I have not noted any instance of the combination oa, but some
cases may have escaped me. The modem oa is replaced regularly
by 00 or o as: goot 690, hoot 9298, hrode 2919, loode 2920, ook
10473 for ffoat, boat, broad, load, oak.
The conclusion seems to be that long o or oo in Chaucer
was (oo), that short o was generally (o), but occasionally (u),
the latter cases being those in which there was a previous
Anglo-Saxon (u), and a xvith century (u), now become (a).
01, OY — XIV TH Century.
This is a rare diphthong and its sound cannot be satisfactorily
established by the rhyme. If the identification of Log 120 with
Logs, that is, Louis, be correct, then: ful symple and coy, by seint
Loy 119, should give (kuui) as the sound of cog. In my article on
the Diphthong OY (Trans, of Phil. Soc, 1867, Supp. part I.), I
have given reasons for supposing (ui) or (uui) to have been the
original sound of this diphthong, which we have seen was fre-
quently so pronounced in the xvi th century. Thus Hart gives the
sound (buee) for bog (p. 133), and if we interpret this as (bui) or
(buui), the above pronunciation of Log is confirmed by the rhyme.
That was wel twight, myn oughne lyard, boy,
I pray God save thy body and stint Loy. 7143
The word boist 13722 is merely the French boiste now hoite, box,
which historically would have the sound (buiste), and in our bmhel,
Fr. boisseau, wliich Chaucer writes huisshel 4310, we have preserved
the (u) of the original. The two spellings boist, huisshel seem to
shew two ways of writing the same sound, the wiiter, accustomed to
use either o or « for short (u) hesitating between them. This is still
more plainly shewn by the double orthography of the word destrog.
It doth no good, to my wit, but anoyeth
See ye nouht, lord, how mankind it destrogeth f 11187
> Sonde 5245 rhymes with grounde, indicating the pronunciation (sund'e).
Chap. 1Y. J 2. 01, OY — XIV TH CENTURY. 2G9
"Where anoyeth most probably bad tbc old sound (annui-clb), and
destroijeth is used to make tbc spclliug agree with its rbymiug word.
But where this motive did not act we find mj written, as
That hatli dcstniyed wel neyh al the blood. 1332
How ke dcstruyed tlie ryuer of Gyscn. 7G62
And in the prose tale of Mclibciis (Wright's ed., p. 159, col. 2,
1. 32, Monis's ed. 3-172, 1. 13) : by vengcaunce takynge be wikked
men destruyed.
The words: frait destroy i 137 are written in Harl. 3869 and
3490 fniit destruie, in Harl. 7184 fniit destroie, and in Soc. Ant.
MS. 134, frute destriue, the last being clearly a mistake for destruie.
It cannot be supposed that the combination ui was pronounced in
the same way in both words. The last is the more common
spelling oi^ fruit, viz. frute = (fryyt). The same ^ISS. in the same
order read in i 140 despuiled, despoiled, dcspuiled, despuiled.
From these readings, it would seem to folloAv that (ui) was the sound
meant, but that the writing oy was prefeiTcd, short o having as we
have seen (p. 267), very commonly the sound (u) or («), because
ui rather suggested the sound (yy). Probably oici was not employed,
because ou rather suggested the long sound (uu).i Thus acloyeth
anoyeth 4*68, encloied annoied ii 47, must refer to a French acloue,
encloue, and hence ought to have been written oui and to have
had the sound (ui), which they therefore lead us to infer in atinoy.
See also the sound of (ui) cropping up even in the xyi th centuiy
(pp. 131 sqq.). But this was probably not the only sound of words
generally written oy in the xiv th century. The French oi was as
we have seen (p. 130), pronounced (oe, ue) with the stress on the
second element, which was generally converted into English as (ue,
ui) with the stress on the first element, but Gower probably retained
the French pronunciation when he invented the rhymes : ioye
monoie ii 147, Troie monoie ii 188, (p. 263). On the other hand,
the Noi-man ei, pronounced originally perhaps (ei), but, on account
of its interchange with ai in the xivth centuiy, pronounced in the
same way (ai) at that time, see Chap. V, § 1, No. 3, regularly
replaced the French oi, so that many French oi appear as ey in
Chaucer. In: Gregois vols iii 188, the oe.' was probably the usual
(ui), just as in: chois vols ii 181, 206. But Harl. 3869 -mites:
gregeis curteis ii 238, and considering that the latter was the usual
form of this word, the reading is probably correct. If any depend-
ence can be placed on the readings of the Hunterian MS. of the
Ptomaunt of the Rose (p. 252), this must be the explanation of :
joynt queynt 6-62-3, annoy away 6'82, joye conveye 6-89, but the
passages are probably corrupt.* In the Canterbury Tales there
^ It might have suggested a division et ne sont pas, par consequent, une
of the diphthong into two syllables. triphthongue.'
Beza (Livet, p. 523) says of oui : '^ It must not be assumed that this
"Quand ces trois lettres sont placees is the origin of (ai) in a well known
devant II, Vi serf seulement a prevenir vulgarism, as (bail, paint, dzlioint) for
le lecteur qu'U faut mouillec II; par- boil, point, Joint, because this was a
tout ailleurs oui ferment deux syllabes, mere regular xvii th centiu7 trans-
270 I, Y — XIV TII CENTURY. Chap. IV. $ 2.
Bcems to be no instanro ■where (iii, ue) mi<:]it not be used, with
the stress on the first element, and the modern Enjj;lish (.ii, oi) is so
limited geographieally, and appears to be so modem, that it would
be merely tiiiekling to present habits to introduee it into Chaucer.
Wc must therefore conclude that the most general pro-
nunciation of 01 in the xiv th Century, was (ui).
I, Y — XIV TH Centcry.
It will probably prove the most difficult conclusion for the
reader to admit, that long i in Chaucer's time had not that diph-
thongal sound (oi) with which we are so familiar, and which we
have since the xvi th century at least, recklessly introduced into our
pronunciation of Latin and Greek, and into our method of reading
Anglo-Saxon and Gothic. The belief that long / was anciently (ai)
or (ai) is not simply shared by those only acquainted with modem
EngHsh, it is adopted by men eminent for their knowledge of the
older languages. To assert, then, that so recently as the xivth
century this sound (oi), now so universal, in different modifications,
was never associated with the letter i, is a thesis which will require
ample justification. As regards the present wiiter it may be men-
tioned that before he began his researches he simply wondered
whether it was possible to establish any conclusion whatever, that
he inclined to the supposition of (oi) or (ai),^ and that, even after
having established the general pronunciation (ii), misled as he now
believes by an isolated instance, he for a long time imagined that
he could point to a whole class of words in which long / had the
sound of (ai). A rhyme in Gower first induced him to reconsider
this conclusion, and he .then undertook the examination of the
rhymes in the whole poetical works of Chaucer, in addition to the
Carderhury Tales, and in Gower's Confesmo Amantis, with the sole
view of discovei-ing something which might help to decide the point,
and he examined or caused to be examined all the available manus-
cripts containing the passage in question,^ seventeen in number, to
see whether there were not sufficient orthogi'aphic variants to render
it doubtful. He also made inquiiies into various existing dialectic
formation of tte xvi th century (ljuil> the pronunciation of the account of the
puint, dzhuint), see p. 134. '1 he Dor- Prioresse, 117-162 in my Hnsentials
getshire (pwaint, hwail) etc. is probably of I'lwnetics, 1848, 1 find (ai) given in:
a descendant of (puj'mt, buiVl) etc. the smiling, by, wiped, eyen, I, and (ii) in :
stress falling on the second element, prioresse, hire, Eglentine, service, dc-
■which then became transformed from vine, swetcly etc., Paris, curtesie,
{ii) to (ei, ai, oi) as almost all other digne, tretis.
accented long (»V) in that dialect, c/tccm,
sheen for chime, shine being the only ^ Quoth the chanoun, and far wel,
exceptions noted by Mr. Barnes {^Poems graunt mercy,
of Hural Life, 184'8, p. 28. He went his way, and never the priest
him sey.
^ In a theoretical attempt to assign After this day. 13308.
Chap. IV. § 2. I, Y — XIV TH CENTURY. 271
pronunciations, of long i and the pronoun /in England and Scotland '
to see what corroboration there was for any theory on the subject.
These various researches have led to one conclusion, already antici-
pated as the only possible explanation of Palsgrave's and Bullokar's
othei-wise enig-matical treatment of the letter i (pp. 11 U. 114),
namely that
The vowel i in the xivth century was probably called («)
when long, and (i) when short.
The sounds of {ii, i) as distinguished from (ii, i), the tme Italian
vowels, have been ah-eady carefully considered (p. 106). The first
point wliich strikes an Englishman in endeavouring to teach the
common short sound (?) to a foreigner, is that the latter most
generally confuse it with {e, e), p. 83. The words in French
final -U, the representatives of the Latin -tas, and similar words,
Chaucer still distinctly pronounced (-te, -tee), etc., rhyming them
with he, me, tve, he, see, three, degree, as : be chastite 2237, charite
me 1723, we felicite 1267, he faculte 243, vanite tkre 3833, degre
destyne 1843, destcne be 1467, possibilite free 1293, subtilitees
bees 10295, citee iniquite 941, adversite pardc 1313, thcntre see
1985. In all these cases we now use (-*), and it is curious to trace
the change in the spelling. Promptorium 1440, chastyte, charyte,
faculte, vanite, desteyne destenye,* cyte, entre. Palsgrave 1530,
chastyte, charyte, vanyte, desteny, cytie, entre = entree, entrye =
auant portail, entry =^ infroi'te. Levins, 1570, chastitie^ facultic,
vanitie, destenie, citie, entrie, and he classes -ie, -ye, -y as identical
endings. We have here then an example of the change of (-e) into
{-i) while any hving Frenchmen will prove that the best way to
teach him to pronounce pity (p/t?) is to tell him to consider it as
written, in French letters, pete (pet^). Again in Scotland the short
i in closed syllables is almost invariably pronounced (c), our words
ill, pit, hid, hit becoming (el, pet, bed, bet), but are saved from any
confusion with ell, pet, hed, het because a Scotchman calls the latter
(e1, pEt, bEd, bEt). In Scotland moreover («V) is considered to occur.
But when Mr. Murray pronounced some words to me in which he
thought he said {ii), and which he writes iceade, heate, keate, I
seemed to hear rather {ee) than {ii). In examining Cooper's vowel
system, 1685 (p. 831, we were led to consider his pair ivill, iceal to
mean (w«'l, v^eeV) rather tha!i (w/1 w?Vl), that is. Cooper classed as
{ii) a sound which in the general opinion of other writers was {ee)
or (ee).
These facts serve to shew that {ii, i) are now often confused with
1 He is particularly indebted to the irigly answered a general invitation in
elaborate observations of Mr James the Athomum to give the author in-
A. H. Murray, F.E.I.S., of the Philo- formation on this point, by which
logical Societv, on the Scotch dialects traces of the older pronunciation, as
which were kiudly placed at his dis- he believes, have been unexpectedly
posal, and had their value enhanced by brought to light.
oral explanation and pronunciation of ' 'Ihis is tlic reading of one MS.,
the difficulties. One lady and several and is probably erroneous, as indeed
gentlemen fi-om different parts of Eng- desteyne for destene would appear to be.
land (p. 277, u. 1) have also most oblig-
272 I, V — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. J 2.
{ee, c, e), and licrioo v,v sliould l)o led to cxpoot, if tliorc be any
truth in the theory advanced that we sliuukl not untreijuently find
t, e confused by the scribe, and allowed to rhyme by the poet, both
■when lonu; and short. Cases of the short vowel are not uncommon,
for example: list l)est 081i», list rest 9299, abrif^ge alefrge 9531,
abregge tallegge 3001, pulpit i-set 13806, shitte lette HGGO, blesse
kesse 8428, schert, hert 9757, yett witt 4-117. Cases of the long
vowel also occur, as: swerc hire 11101, 12076, geven' lyven 917,
en(|uere lere 5049, there requere 6633, cnquere were 8646, afered
requercd 4*244,^ matcre desii'e 4*333, desii-e manere 6-85, lere desire
6-143, and in Gower, her sir i 161, here spire i 198, yere fire,
i 302. These rhymes are not only reconcilable with the theory
that (h, i) were the usual and proper sounds of t, but are exactly
what we should expect from the mistakes which occur at the
present day. If indeed long i had been pronounced (ei) and the
first element had been slightly lengthened, as (eei), we should get
a sound almost identical with a pronunciation of long a now much
in use in London.^ In this case the rhyme might also appear to be
explained. But this theoi-y would not account for writing a simple
e for long i ; we should rather expect to find ei/, and this never
occurs except in a few words, as ej/e, high, die, dry, sly, etc.
to be especially considered presently, in which there is every
reason to conclude that there was a double pronunciation.
Hence the specimens of long i rhyming to long e, and being fre-
quently replaced by long e, throw great difficulty in assuming any
diphthongal sound for long i, and tend greatly to confirm the
hypothesis that the sound was not pure (ii), but such a modification
of it, as would easily fall into (ee), namely {ii). Add to which
there is the negative evidence that long i does not rhyme to ey, ay
and that, except in the few cases of a double pronunciation, long i is
never written ey by an error of the scribe in any decent manuscript.
There are a number of words of French origin whieh have now
the accent on the penultim or antepenultim, but which were used
as if with an accent on the last or penultim respectively, in Chaucer's
verses. In the French language when these syllables, which are
now unaccented, had the vowel i, it was pronounced (i) or (ii), and
it would be difficult to suppose that Chaucer, Avho was familiar
with French, and, in the spirit of tli^ times as shcA\Ti by the con-
temporai-y practice of Gower, was introducing it into English, could
have changed the French sound and have pronounced the words
with (ai). Still more difficult would it be to suppose, that at a
time when the (ai) or (ei) or (oi) pronunciation of long i was
1 This is frotn the ags. form geofnti, when Mr. Matthew Arnold visited a
and is therefore not an instance of e school at Tenby, Pembrokeshire, where
written for t, but of e long rhyming an ancient Flemish colony seems to
■with X long have, materially afTccted the language
2 The French forms sufficiently ex- ^l^. pronunciation of the people, tKe
, . Jr . ... ^ « ^ children had srreat difficulty in distin-
plam the termmation -quere. .^^ j^.^^^^^ ^^^^.^^ ^^^ theii-/^A<
3 A correspondent informs me that (feit).
Chap. IY. § 2. I, Y — XIV TH CEXTT7RY. 273
common, as at the close of the xt th and beginning of the xvi th
century, it shoiild have been deliberately rejected from these words,
and replaced by (/) when the accent was tlu-o-\\Ti back pennanently.
But Ave know that such words had («') in the xvi th centmy, aJd
that this sound has continued to the present day. For my own
part I cannot force myself to suppose that i in tlie last syllable of
the following words ever had any other sound but (ii, i, «Y, i) :
Yenise, lycorise, coreytise, seiwyse, justise, merite, Evaungiles,
malice, sangwyn, famyn, Latyn, Jankyn, opposit, superlatif, motif,
Phisik, ypocritc, practike, riche, cherice, office, Cupide, visitc,
avarice, cowardyse,.Ovide, authentik, sybil, retorike, magike, cubit,
Y^irgile, famyne, rupie, apprentys, relyke, doctrine, profit, positife,
peril, musike, chronique, inquisitife, mechanique, elixir, olive, etc.,
etc. ; or that the i was ever diphthongal in the penultim of : possible,
digestible, fusible, etc., etc. Now if we admit that i in these
words was (/) or (u), or if we even allow it to have had the purer
French sounds (ii, i), — and there is absolutely no ground wliatever
for any other conjecture, and great reason for tliis, — we have gone
a long way to prove that long i in Chaucer was (//) or (ii), and was
not (ei, ai, oi). For in the first place these words rhyme as
having long vowels, and rhyme with words which are by no means
always French, and which in modern pronunciation have (oi), and
had generally received (ei) by the xvi th centuiy. That is, fx-om
undoubted cases of long {ii) or (ii),.we are led to infer that the
rhyming words had also long {ii) and not (ai, ei, ai). If at present
we saw machine rhyming with seeyi, we certainly should rather
conclude that the i in the first word was (ii), than that the ee in
the second word was (oi), and we should never dream of rhyming
mine, seen, even in these lax rhyming times. Perhaps even
Butler has not such a rhyme in his Hudibras.' Hence it is of gi'cat
importance to study and weigh the rhymes to the words just cited.
They are as follows : and to Yenise, were to devi/se 7927, at point
devys, cheweth gi'eyn and lycoris 3689, which I shall deri/se, augur
coveytise 3881, ther any profyt should arise, lowe of servyse 249,
for that thay ben u-yse, sittyng as as a justise 6609, so wel to write,
do me endite, thurgh hire merite 11958, i- write with evaungiles, in
the mene ivhiles 5085, to pitous and to nyce, of his crouned malice
10838, he was sangwyn, a sop of ivyn 335, sterve for famyn, licour
oiwyn 13866, wel tbonken hadde the wyn, he speke no word but
Latyn 639, oure apprentys Jankyn, schynyng as gold ^o fyn 5885,
a gate of marbul whit, another in' opposit 1895,Mn gre superlatif, an
humble wyf 9249, of me tak this motif, a court man al my //// 9365,
Doctour of Phisik, he was ther non him lyk 413, to hyte, ypocritc
10826, of youre practike, syns it may yow lihe 5769, solempne and
so riche, was there noon it liche 10375, cherice vice 4-148, nyce
vyce cherice 4-182, office vice 4-283, cupide tahide gyde 4-298-9, cryede
1 On p. 16 of the Grammar of 1713, sense of rhythm, accent, quantity or
supra p. 47. we find incline r\x\n\m^ for rhyme seems to vanish, p. '27o, note 3.
the nonce ydt\\ ma_qazi>ie and join, but ^ Compare the modern names TF/iitby
■when memorial lines are attempted, all and Whitsunday, both from ichHe.
18
274 I, Y — XIV TU CENTURY. Chap. IV. ^ 2.
glide CupiJe 4-349, Cupide syde 5'25, heside Cupide abide 6-238,
Cupidc Hide i IGO, Cupide guide i 328, Oiide Cupide iii3ol, %ysite
u-yte 4-227, visite delite myte 4-328, avarice vice 4-298, emprise
cowardyse 4324, slyde OWde 5-172, 0\-idc wide 5254, lyke
autintyke 5-188, Sybile yle 5-22, retorike lyke 5-235, magikc syke
5-248, lyte cubite 5-251, Virf^le while 5-254, famjTie ruyne 5-269,
apprentys wys 6-22, relyke lyke 6-82, doctrine discipline 6-146,
prutite myte 6-176, positife strife i 12, vile peiil 133, niusike heswike
i 58, croniquc like i 145, inquisitife life i 226, mechanique like iii 142,
Jire elixii- ii 86, blive olive ii 266.
K that were possible, and more penylle 8589, digestible, on the
Bible 439, in the Bible, it is an impossible 6269, on the Bible, so
rcdv and so penyble 7427, metal fusible, wold passcn cny bible
127*84.
The last cited rhymes to Bible were the first which gave me any
hope of being able to discover the pronunciation of Chaucer, ap-
proximately, by a study of his rhymes. The above Hst does not con-
tain by any means all the rhymes of this sort which I have noted
as important ; but it is obviously sufficient to establish that in the
words: devyse, de^'ys, arise, wyse, Mi-ite, endite, whiles, nyce, wyn,
fyn, whit, wyf, lyf, lyk, byte, \-ice, abide, gyde, ci-yede, glide, side,
beside, delyte, myte, wide, yle, while, stiife, vile, fire, &c, all of
which have now (oi), the i could not have been diphthongal in
Chaucer's time. And these words admitted, determine so many
others, that the proposition might almost be considered proved;
but it is one which many will find so difficult to believe that it
is worth while accumulating proofs.
Besides the French words already dealt with, in which the accent
has been thrown back and the sound (/) preserved, there are many
others which have either not become part of our modem language,
or have not been left without at least a secoudai-y accent on the i.
We may divide them into three categories, Avhich however do
not include all, such words as sacrifice, Scq. being omitted. The
first class comprehends those French words in which the i is fol-
lowed by a simple consonant, the second those in which i ends the
word, and the last those in which i is immediately followed by an
e final. 2s^ow we have at present in our language a series of French,
Italian, and other foreign words containing /, of comparatively
recent introduction, which we may therefore properly compare with
the words then recently introduced into English by Chaucer, Gower,
and others. The following list is taken from Walker, into which a
few words in [] have been introduced ; the f marks words which
have become obsolete since Walker's time, and the italics words in
wliich the French (ii) has become (?) ; in all other cases the sound
(ii) has been retained in modem English, notwithstanding our pre-
dilection for (oi) and our association of (oi) with long i.
Ambergris, verdegris, antique, becafico, bombasin, brasil, capivi,
capuchin, fcolbertine, chioppine or chopin, caprice, chagrin, chevaux-
de-fiise, [chignon, crinohjae,] critique, ffestucine, frize, gabardine,
Chap. TV. § 2. I, Y — XIV TH CENTURY. 275
habcrcline, sordine, fnigino, trephine, quarantine, routine, fascine,
fatigue, intrigue, glacis, invalid', macliiae, magazine, maiiue, pa-
lanijuin, pique, police, proiile, recitative, mandarine, ftabourine,
tambouriae, tontine, transmarine, idtramarine.
Now if it would sound hideous in oiw ears to talk of (Luoi-zaz
shain-jon fend ki-oi"noloin,) notwithstanding our acknowledging
(/loi"za a)nd Ka^r-olain), can we imagine Chaucer having called li/s
(lais),^ parvys (parvais), agrise (agroiz-), sophime (sof^im*), desir
(dezou"), avys devtjs (avois* devois"), assise (asoiz'), dccyne, (de-
vein*), &c. ? Such a supposition appears to be monstrous, unless we
also adopt the theory that French in England in that day Avas pro-
nounced with (ai, ai, ei) for (ii) as now used. Of this there seems
to be no shadow of proof, nor even a geiTu of probability.^ Since the
present habit of EngKshmen is to make long i into (ai) in all words
not of recent introduction, it would be necessaiy to establish that
the XoiTaans so pronounced and that that pronunciation of French
was general in England diu'ing the xiii th and xrv tli centuries, in
order to use this hypothesis in opposition to the usually accepted
theory that the French sound was (ii). "We shall find however
that any doubt of this kind affects the present argument very
slightly, because most of the words rhyming with those just cited,
are also found rhyming to words of the preceding class, in which
there can be no reasonable doubt of the old sound having been pre-
served by the thi-owing back of the accent. The following are some
of the rhymes which belong to this class : —
he bar utterly the prys, the flom'-de-lys 237, war and ivys, atte
parN-ys 311, might agrise, may devyse 7231, som sophime, hath time
7881, to wilde fuyr, it hath desii- 5955, to aryse, I you de\-yse 33,
make it ivys, more a^-ys 787, ne non novys, wily and wys
15425, so wise, in assise 315, madame Englentyne, service dcA-yne
121, lord and sii^e, knight of the shire 357,^ Arcyte quytc 1033,
1 For convenience tlie modern (ai) is into notice. "Walker quotes the follow-
writtcn for whatever diphthongal form ing lines from " the Grammar called
(ei, ai, oi) etc. the reader may choose Bickcrstaif's, recommended hy Steel,"
to adopt. which this quotation identifies with the
2 M. Le Hericher's opinion to the Auon)Tnous Grammar of 1713, supra
contrary Avill be considered in Chap. p. 47, in which they occur, p. 16.—
V, § 1, Xo. 3, at the end, together with Bickerstaff's recommendation is quoted
the value of the Old Norman French opposite the title page—
ff 8, ««, and some other matters relating " To sound like double e, V docs incline,
to modern Norman French pronnn- x.m Machine, ax.^ Slave, ^u^Magaz,ne
p.-jj^iQjj Walker adds: "It may likewise be
'3 The pronunciation (shaii) is very observed, that this word, when unac-
recent and by no means general. cented at the end of words, as iSo^^i;/-/-
Walker gives (shiir), and says that /.«;«./,»•., 7F^;/./-^;•., &c., is always pro-
this ''irregularity," as it appeared to nounced with i like .e. Smart says :
him, " is so iixed as to give the regular " Letter t or y under he accent, and
sound a pedantic stiifne'ss." Even his final m a syllable, or foUowed by a con-
recent editor Smart, 1836, gives (shiia). sonant and .mute is irregular in no
Webster has (shair)." This'is an excel- word purely English except the verbsjo
lent example of the change of sound, Uve and to gn-e, and the noun *;«r. -bu
and the difficulty with which a new there are several scmi- French and other
fashion of pronunciation forces its way foreign words m which the French
276 1, Y — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IY. ^ 2.
Arcitc endite 1381, Arcytc, a lite 1335, lite, quyto 3861, delyte
li/te 4"52, vync devyne 4o7, devyse gyse 4*64, suffice nijse devyse
vise agrise 4"73, desire ^r<? 4"76, enclyne pyne myne 4*180, arise
forbise^ cmpryse 4*209, affile while 4*221, irvfire 4*225, desire yyr«
enspirc 4'254, myne Proserpyne pyiie 4*319, ilc toile 5*321, rys
(= rice) tretys 6*32, ile u:hile i 95, Cecile while i 104.
The word lyte^ wkicli seems shewn to have been (Hit) or (l«Vt) by
some rhymes above, being the orip:in of oirr little, can hardly be
conceived as (loit).^ The following among otlier rh\Tnes to this
word, however, not only establish the sound as (liit, bVt), but settle
many other words as well,
Lite rhymes with delvtc 4*52, quvtc 4*55, kvte 4*63, white 4*76,
white delite 4*94, 6*237, v^-jte = knotc 4*141, 'delite endyte 4*163,
plite 4*202, write 4*202, 5**269, 6*256, M^Me^tcit 4*255, myte =
mite 4*259, white 4*289, 5*195, 5*282, Ai'cite wite =^mwjsA 5*200,
snni:c 5*232, cubite 5*251,
The word lude must be considered French, and most probably
had the sound (ind*e) which the English heard (md*e). The pre-
sent nasal pronunciation of French in is certainly not at all indi-
cated in any of the numerous words beginning with in, which we
have taken from the French, and without any intimation of this
nasality or any trace of it in English deri^■ation we have no right to
assume it. The vowel in India is short in the original language,
and in the Greek and Latin dcrivati%es. It is still so pronounced
in English, and although I have heard some persons read (oind),
for the sake of a modem rhyme, I doubt whether they Avoidd
venture to talk of (oin*tlia). It seems therefore just to conclude
that the Saxon words which rhymed with it, most or all of which
had acquired the sound (eind) in the xvith centuiy had also the
sound (i'nd). Thus Ave have kynde Inde 6405, and fynde kynde
mynde Inde bynde lynde 9057, 9063, 9069, 9075, 9081, 9087,
rhyming together in VJEnroye de Chaucer, at the end of the Clerkes
Tale. The last wordc hjnde = linden or lime tree, still has the
sound (md) and confinns the other conclusions. The use of mende
sound of t is retained ; as marine, police, vation of quality by shortening of
profile, &c. : .... The word oblige, quantity, as in p. 273. Shire, ags.
which formerly classed with marine, scire is said to have a long vowel by
&c., is now pronounced regularly." Bosworth, and a short vowel by Ett-
Live, gothic liban, ags. libban, Omnin niiillcr. But the vowel became de-
libbenn, had from the first a short eidedly long, and, as we have seen, it
vowel, wiih \vhich, however a long has preserved the (ii) sound. The
vowel alternated in Omnin in life]']', cognate word sheer, ags. scir with long
lifenu, and a long vowel seems general i, which has preserved its sound in all
in Chaucer, and hence we have simply Germanic dialects, will l»e especially
the usual continuation of the short noted in Chap. V, § 1, No. 5, at the
vowel. Give, gothic giban,- ags. gifoi, end, as a rhyme io fire,
ge'^fan, also had a short vowel, but iu
OiTmin, all parts except the imperative ^ " Set an example to," from ags.
j,iff, and preterit gaff, have long vowels. hken, e-xample.
From geofan, we have the frequent "^ Lile, however, the Danish lille for
form j^eve in Chaucer. In this case we little, is called (lail) in the North of
have then perhaps rather the preser- England.
Chap. IV. § 2. I, Y — XIV TH CENTURY. 277
for mi7ide to rhyme with ende in the carefully spelled Havl. MS.
386a of Gower, ii 23, ii 67, and hende for kijide also to rhyme with
ende iii 120, is scarcely reconcilable -with the present diphthongal
sound of i in mind.
Thi'ough the kindness of several gentlemen' I am enabled to say
that in South Shields, Kendal, Westmoreland, and Cumbei-laud
generally, and parts of Lancashire, the short vowel («') is still heard
in the "words hind, blind a., behind, hinder a., hindmost^ find, grind,
loind"^ V. = (bmd, blmd, binrnt-, umd-j, nm-most, fmd, gi-/nd,
wmd). See also the Scotch prommciation infra j). 289. "With
these analogies it would be considerably more difficult to imaguie
the diphthongal sound than the short voAvel in such words.
The French words of the next class are those which end in i or y,
and wliich are referred to in that paragxaph of Palsgrave which
occasioned so much difficulty in the last chapter (p. 109), and they
are also remarkable for the English words which rhyme -fl-ith them
in Chaucer, The French words are themselves not numerous. In
the Canterbury Tales, there seem to be only mercy, fy, enemy, fool-
hardy, cry, quirboily, to which perhaps yvory, vicory, although the
final y is difficult to account for.^ These words rhyme, first with
each other, next and very fi-equently with the teiToination 4y, and
these words and this tcnnination rhyme with the Dutch (?) court epy,
and with the Anglosaxon /, why, by, thereby, sty. The only words
among these which could have a plui-al, enemy, sty, do not occur in
the plm-al in rhymes in the Canterbmy Tales. It was with special
reference to this investigation that I enlarged the field of enquiiy,
extending it over the rest of Chaucer's poems and Gower. Some of
these poems, as we have seen, are not in a tnistworthy form, especially
the Court of Love (p. 251), Flower and Leaf (p. 251), Chaucer s
Dream (p. 251), and Romaimt of the Rose (p. 252), because they
admit of rhymes which belong to a later period. The best manus-
cripts are altogether free from such rhymes. The spelling in Pauli's
Gower must always be con-ected by the manuscripts. Allo^wance
must be made also for those words which had a twofold pronunci-
ation, as (ai) and (fi), not always marked with sufficient care in the
1 EeT. C. Y. Potts, of Ledbury, for great trouble to themselves enabled me
South Shields ; Mr. Brown, of St. to supply these illustrations. IMessrs,
Peter's College, Peterborough, for Ken- Potts, Brown, Hetherington, and Shelly
dal ; Mr. J. N. Hetherington, Clifton have been particularly liberal with the
Parsonage, "Workington, for Cumber- time they have bestowed on me. I
land ; Messrs. Jackson, Fielding, and shall terin these assistants generally
Axon, for Lancashire, — have supplied my dialectic correspondents,
me with information fi-om personal - Tlie substantive ivitid is generally
knowledge on this and other points ; (wmd), but in Cumberland it seems to
and Mr. Shelly, of Ph-mouth, for be always (wahiud, waind), so that
Devonshire; Messrs. Atkinson and wind s. ivind v. have precisely Ihe
Moore, for Yorkshii-e ; Mr. Hallara, opposite pronunciation to what they
for Derbyshire ; and a lady near generally receive in the south.
Nor^-ich, have also supplied milch in- » Diez says t)ia.t avori, ivori are
formation on dialectic pronunciation. Provencal forms, which it is singular
I beg to express my thanks to these to encounter in English. For vicory I
and other correspondents who have at know no authority.
278 T, Y — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 2.
spelling, to be carefully considered presently. AVith the exception
of such words no case has yet come before my notice in -which -i or
-y final rhjTnes with -ei/ or -ai/. In the following; list of rhymes
all cases of -li/ rhyminj; to -ly, wliich are very freipient and convey
no info nnat ion, are omitted ; and by no means all the rhymes,
except in the Canterbuiy Tales, of 7 with -li/, -bi/,fortht, etc., are
given.
Soburly courtcpy 291, pitously mercy 9.51, enemy I 1645, ryally
by 1689, fy mercy 1775, ryally enemy 1795, synfuUy fy 4499,
mercy solempnely 5110, pitously, mercy I 5479, by specially 5544,
therby I 6597, piively therby 6925, y^'ory fetisly 7323, sty I
7411, comunly why 7839, stedefastly mercy tenderly 8970, why
I "9315, luicurteisly cry 10237, ciy pitously 10727, therby I
12650, mercy scy 13308, therby ydclly 13860, subtily by 13980,
redily foi-thby 14082, pitously, thcr by 15011, quirboily yvory
15283, I fool-hardy 15401, trewely by 15411, sodcinly enemy
16889, lustily ^•icory 17315.
I mercy 4'65-6, truly unlusty I 4*76, by prively 4-77, by I cry'
4'78, cry ocy 4*79, ny cry I'^ 4*81, wrongfully I 4"125, redy I 4*148,
trewely I by 4*175, tyme, hi me, piyme 4*193, by hertely 4*205,
whi by bisily 4*272, I fynaly 4*336, pitously by hastily 4*337, I
ccrteiuly therby 4*341, y why 5*173, why comelely 5*180, trewely
lady 5*i90, hooly mercy 5*193, I why 5*239, I mercy 5*266, by,
domus Dedaly = D^dali 5*267, y by 5*269, by and by, cnrteysly
5*285, y by 5*341.
I openly i 44, why I i 47, forthy pleinly i 51, forthy therby i 53,
cry unhappily i 54, redily by i 93, sodenily by i 102, I, graunt
mercy i 103, forthy mercy i 106, I forthy i 107, worthy mercy
i 107, sky sodeinly i 109, why forthy i 114, openly cry i 115,
mercy why i 116, why piively i 148, communly why i 172,
why forthy i 173, comely awry i 174, redely forthy i 200,
kindely why i 205, sely privete i 225, time, by me i 227, 309,
370, i'i 41, 49, 114, 'iii 6, 369, I tmely i 227, bodely why
i 259, why forthy i 280, lady thereby i 292, cry buxomly
i 297, by lady i 298, cry therby i 314, forthy enemy i 330, I forthy
i 332, enemy why i 347, why forthy ii 20 I by ii 24, 41, sky
by ii 29, bodely therby ii 34, forthy therby ii 50, openly forthy
ii 51, truely sky ii 59, why I ii 69, besily enemy ii 75, I forthy ii
95, why ciy ii 122, bodely forthy ii 133, redely by ii 137, why
sky ii 158 forthy Eoly = -^o// ii 160, forthy by ii 161, forthy why
ii 163, sky why ii 167, Satiiy = Satyri properly ii 171, forthy
proprely ii 187, by I ii 219, why buxomly ii 228, by mercy
ii 278, esely mercy ii 295, why therby ii 301, mercy redy ii 314,
mercy therby ii 373, I worthy ii 379, sodeinly askry ii 386,
mercy rudely ii 396, tvhy almighty iii 61, mercy thereby iii 82,
forthy mightily iii 92, liigh sky iii 93, by and by sky iii 116,
Gemini redely iii 119, Gemini forthy iii 119, Gemini proprely iii
127, I by iii 168, I forthy iii 185, mercy redely iii 198, sodeinly
^ Erroneously spelled bye, crie. • Erroneously spelled nye, crie.
Chap. IY. § 2. I, Y — XIV TH CENTURY, 279
askry iii 217, why pitously iii 260, why Genesy iii 276, by and by,
prively iii 305, pitously 1 iii 315, enemy envy iii 320, cry by iii
321, lady prively iii 325, forthy by iii 348, redely why 'iii 368,
I mercy iii 372, sodcinly sky iii 375.
It is impossible to glance over the above list without feeling that
whatever was the pronunciation of this final -y in any one ^\•ord, it
must have been the same in all the words, and hence if tliere is a
certain clue to any one word, we have a clue to all the rest. Two
rhymes are very noteworthy: mercy sey 13308, and sely privete
i 225, but theu- very peculiarity and the absence of any coiTobora-
tive instance whatever, render them suspicious. Yet, as the fii-st
of these was the only clue which I could obtain for some time, I
was misled by it to suppose that this tennination -i/ had like se>/ the
sound (sai). This shews the danger of trusting to single instances.
Even hi the Harl. 7334, which is followed by Wright and ^Monis,
we find: an hihe, sihe 11161, which should be: liih, sih, probably
(H^kh, s/kh). But an examination of seventeen MS. which con-
tain V. 13308, shews the following variants.
In the British Museum,^ Kawl.MS.Poet 149 mercy sey
Harl 7333 mercy sey ^^^ ^^ ^^'J^ '^^
Harl 7334 mercy sey Arch. Seld. B 14 mercy sy
Lansdo^rae_8ol mercie sihe ^ ^ CoU. MS. 198
SloaneieSo mercye say p 3 2 ^ercy sey
Eeg. 17 13 XV mercy sy •'
Reg. 18 C ii mercy sey At Cambriclge.^
A, n f ^2 Gg. 4. 27 (No. 1) sey
AtOxford.-^ ^ Ii 3. 26 se
Laud 600 mercy sie Mm. 2. 5. seye
Laud 739 mercy sey Trin. Coll. R. 3. 3. mercy sigh.
It is clear that the passage has much exercised the scribes who
have occasionally ventured to add an e to mercy, which is (piite
illegitimate, and the majority have inclined to the more usual fonn
in Chaucer, seij. The usual foi-m, however, in Gower is sih, written
sigh by Pauli. The above 17 instances may be divided into an
(ai) class and an {ii) class, thus —
(ai) sey sey say sey sey sey say sey sey seye . .10
(ii) sihe sy sie syhe sy se sigh 7
The word clearly belongs to those doubly sounded and doubly
spelled words to be presently examined, and we must conclude that
those scribes who used the (ai) class of forms were misled by habit,
and should have used an {ii) class, and, since the guttural could not
have been pronounced in French, the scribes ought to have omitted
it in the English word. It wiU be seen that when eye, high are
pronounced with {ii) the guttural is fi-equcntly omitted. This leads
us to prefer sy, given by two MS, of which sie, se are mere accidental
varieties. The preterite (sii) as : I see him do it yesterday, is not
yet obsolete among the uneducated, while (sai) is unknown.
1 Examined by myself. ^ Examined by Messrs. H. Bradshaw
2 Examined by Mr. G. Parker. and Aldis Wright.
280 I, V — XIV TII CENTllUY. Chap. IV. § 2.
The second instance : sely privete i 225, altlioufih nnparalleled
among these rhymes, would nut be unprecedented, for we saw at
the beginning of this invistigation that hjug i and long e occasion-
ally interchange, but we already know that the proper reading is :
cele privete, (p. 258).
llejectiug these istdated instances, we arc struck by the rhyme :
tyme, bi me, piyme 4" 193 in Chaucer, and the eight times repeated
rhyme: time, by me, in Gower. The rhyme : sophime, time 7881,
has ab'eady (p. 275) led us to consider (t/rme) a probable pro-
nunciation, and hence these repeated rhymes lead to calling by (b/*)-
More than this, hy is often spelled be, be thy trouthc b-221 ,
alle be hemselve 5*246, be God 5 "256, and indeed be, by occiir in
the same line: be strcngthe and by his might. 5 •348, from the
Legende of Good Women, follo'wing the Bodleian MS. Fairfax 16, a
good manuscript. These variants strongly coniii-m the hypothesLs
that by = (b//).
It is certainly fair to conclude that the pui'ely French words in
these rhymes had the sound (ii) or («'), the latter probably in
Enghmd, and the former in France. We were diiven to this sup-
position on compaiing Palsgi-ave with Mcigx-et in the xvi th centmy
(p. 110). "We might therefore assume that: mercy, enemy, fy, cry,
quirboily, fool-hardy, en\'y, had the sound (ii) or (n), and these
would be fully sufficient to determine all the rest. But as this
assumption in fact involves the whole question, it 'nill be better not
to lay gi-eat stress upon it.
The ciy ocy attributed by the cuckow to the nightingale 4*79 —
For thou liast mony afeyned queint cry,
I have herd the seyc, ' ocy, ocy ; '
But who myghte wete vrhat that shulde be ?
leaves us in the same ignorance as the cuckow, and can be of no
assistance if we go to the real ciy of the bird ; but if we take it as a
French spelling of an imitation of that ciy,' then we have simply
two French sounds cry, ocy rhyming.
There are several instances of Latin final -i, one in Chaucer:
Dedaly 5-267, and several in Gower: Eoly ii 160, Satiiy ii 171,
Gemini iii 119, twice, and iii 127, and it is difficult to suppose that
Latin was at that time so mispronounced as to have i called (oi).
The lloman Catholic tradition must have saved this heresy, which
seems to have only crept in with the xvi th centmy, and was even
then repi'obated by many, as by Salesbiuy. At least these rhymes
must be considered to add to the probability of the (ii) or {ii)
pronunciation.
"With regard to the tennination -ly which plays so great a part in
all these rhymes, it is to this day generally pronounced (1/) in con-
versation, although declaimers will sometimes permit themselves to
' " FiER, FiER, OCY, OCY : Sons ung chcsne sur Icquel avoit ung ros-
ononiatopes rcpresentant le chant du siguol qui chantoit ti'es mclodieuse-
rossignol (repetcs plus bas dans ime meut ct cryoit ainsy que tout endesve
chanson)." Koquefort, sub. ^«r, where et Jier, fier, ocy, ocy," from Roman de
he cites : " il y avoit au-dessus de lay Ferce-Forest,
Chap. IV, ^^ 2. I, Y — XIV TH CENTURY. 281
say (bi), and wo find Gill in his transonpt of the Psalms con-
stantly using this sound, apparently to add tlignity. He also says
(madzli-estoi), and, at least in one place (mei-soi), but the latter is
probably a mispiint, for he generally writes (mer-sj;). Modem poets,
working upon an old foundation, pennit themselves to consider -y,
under a secondary accent, as either (-oi) ©r (-ii). Tliis belongs to
the licentiousness of modem rhyming, superinduced by an un-
phonctic orthography. I cannot consider tlris early usage of Gill
to indicate in any way the old pronunciation. It was undoubtedly
wrong in words which had formerly -ie, -e, and was probably fanci-
ful in other cases. Dr. Gill had a notion that the (oi) added to the
beauty and strength of the EngHsh language,^ and hence liis employ-
ment of it is suspicious unless well corroborated. As to the practice
of modem times, it is sufficient to cite Walker and Smai-t, who, not
recognizing the difference between (i, i) identify this tennination
with (-li), but that is properly an Irishism. As, then, there seems
no reason to suppose that this termination -hj ever had, in natural
speech, the sound of (-lai) but only (-lii, -\ii, -H, -1/), the conclusion
in favour of the (ii, ii) pronunciation of the other words seems
inevitable. But those who have made up theii' minds to the (oi)
pronunciation of long /, and especially of the pronoun /, -will object
that we have in Gill an actual example of the (ai) sound, and that
we hear occasionally, under peculiar circumstances perhaps, and by
no means unifonnly in the same speaker, but still we do hear (-loi)
now and then, and that it is possible that {-\i) may be a "cor-
ruption" of (-loi), rather than (-loi) a mistaken intensification of
(-1?). It is therefo're necessary to try some other words, which
are free from Gill's imputed (oi). Enemy is not such a word, for
he writes (en-emoiz), supra p. 110, note. But lady 5*190, i 292,
298, iii 325; almighty iii 61, worthy i 107, seem unexceptional.
The words do not occm- in Gill, but ladij does occur in Salesbuiy,
who transcribes it in Welsh letters /f/<// = (laa'di). In modem
ballad poetry we have constantly to read (leedii'),^ but the pro-
nunciations (lee-doi, bigdoi') are utterly unknown. As this word
detennines -hj -hij, by its rhymes, and these are sufficient to de-
ter-mine all the rest, the difficulty may be considered as solved.
But there are still imporlant considerations which lead the same
way, and which must therefore still be adduced. It is difficult to
suppose that a cry and the verb to crye, had their y differently
pronounced. This y would probably retain its sound in the in-
flected foi-m cryede, often a dissyllable as cry'de. Xow we find :
cryede gHde Cupide 4-349 in Troilus and Cryseydc from a good
manuscript, and Cupide is one of those words in which wc ha\e
already recognized the persistence of the {ii) sound. Again : ciiede
Cupide Cipiide 5-9 occur in the same poem, Gower has: ciide
hide i 149, cride wide iii 213. AU this points to the pronunciation
(crn-de) and hence (crw) for the substantive. But there is one
1 " Eetinebimus antiquiun ilium et Hazeldcan, in wMch the first stanza is
masculum sonum." Logommia, p. 7. said to be ancient: " Wliy M-eep ye by
2 As in Sir W. Scott's Jock of the tide, ladie ?"
282 I, Y — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. { 2.
word which scorns at first sij^ht to nm counter to this conclusion :
rcncye 47y6, 12196, 12.376, 16047 etc, always meaning to renounce,
abjure, in niudcin French renter, so that ey seems to answer to
French i. But llocjuefort (Gloss, de la lang. rom. ii, 463) gives
the ol<l forms renoier, reneier, and Kelham (I)ict. of the Xomian or
old French language 1779) has reneyee renegado, reneign refuse.
So that the t is a modem French development, which does not
affect the present investigation.
Perhaps the strongest evidence of all is furnished by the very
word enemies, which was lately rejected on account of Gill's (en"o-
maiz). Of course there is no doubt whatever of the sound of i in
the words is, his. These words never could have been (ois, nois)
at any time. No champion of (ai) could ever entertain such a
notion as this. Now in Gower we have : pris is ii 341, wis is iii
226, wliich may be taken to settle the pronunciation of 2)ris, wis
i.e. price, wise, in the xivth centuiy, and strongly coiToborate the
method by which we have already arrived at this result. Bearing
this in mind, the rhymes : enemies pris ii 67, iii 199, enemies is
ii 342, enemis liis iii 214, enemies wis ui 216, leave no doubt that
Gower said (en"em?'z) or (eu'cm/s), and that he therefore must have
said (en*em?) as the natural pronunciation of his time, or have
occasionally lengthened the final vowel into (ii, ii). But if so, all
the rest follows from the rhymes: enemy I 1645, lyally enemy
1795, sodeinly enemy 16889, forthy enemy i 330, enemy why i 347,
besily enemy ii 75, enemy envy- iii 320.
It seems impossible to fonn a stronger chain of evidence in favour
of an unknown pronunciation, but the strength is rendered more
evident by the circumstance that there is no instance of -i rhyming
with -ey, except such as are explicable by the fact that the word
had several sounds and several modes of writing, often used in
other places, and that the scribe accidentally employed a wrong
orthogi'aphy, as in the instance : mercy sey 13308, ah'cady con-
sidered. Everything is therefore so far reconcilable with the
hyiiothcsis i = {ii, i), and many circumstances are iiTCConcilable
with the hypothesis ?'r= (oi, /). Hence I feel compelled to admit
that even the personal pronoun /was called (//) by Chaucer. This
personal pronoun had three foims, / most commonly, ic, ich, rarely.
That in these latter forms the i was (/) short, seems proved bv such
contractions as theek 3862, thcech 12857, 14362, = thee ik, thee
ich. The diphthong could hardly have been so lost. Again the
change ic, ich, would be unusual, though possible, if / were (ai).
But / seems formed from ic, ich, just as a is from an. The original
pronunciation of the indefinite article was of course (a), and it is
now frequently (o, n), but the emphatic pronunciation {ee) is of
modem gi-owth, and seoms precisely comparable to the emphatic
use of (oi) for (/) in /.
Further corroboration of the above conclusion will be afforded by
considering the teiTuination -ie, -ye. In two instances Chaucer uses
the French words j-^^/- eompaigttye, at the end of a Kne, not as
Anglicised, but as a real French phrase. There may be some doubt
Chat. IY. ^ 2. I, Y — XIV TH CENTURY. 283
as to the sound of gn, -whether (nj, nj) or simply (n), as will bo
hereafter considered, but as it is also -written as a simple n, it will
be sufficient to consider it here as (n). The two last letters must
have had the French sound, wliich cannot well be conceived as
anything but (iiv), or the English modification {ire), a change so
slight that the EngKshnian would have thought he was exactly
coiTect. Hence : par compaignye, t'autasye 3837, par compauye,
molodye 4165, must be considered as establishing the EngUsh pro-
nunciation (fantas/re, melod^'re) of these Anglo-French words. The
following rhymes strongly confirm this conclusion :
hostelrie companye 23, multiplie Marie 15100, Emelye melodye
873, Emelye, gan to crie 2343, signified, sche ci-yed' 2345, philo-
sophie,- wolde he ciye 647, envye^ crie 909, tyn-annye espye 1113,
chp'ahye cui-tesie 45, I made him frie, jalousie 6069, ragerie, as a
pye 6037, maladye manje = mania 1375.
I schal not Ii/e, companye 765, curtesye li/e 7251, -vilonye, nat a
^i/e 4189, Emelye, gan sche hi/e = hie, hasten 2275, harlotries,
tollen th)-ies 563, boille and frie, bake a pt/e 385, melodic, my body
ffl/e 12062, CTuiesie, for to cfi/e 7950, maladye, moist or dri/e 421.
The fii'st Hst consist entirely of Anglo-French words, the second
gives rhymes of such with other words. jS'ow thi-oughout Harl.
7334 this termination -t/e never rhymes^ -with any other tennination,
such as -y, -e, which has now received the same sound (-/). But
duiing the xvth centuiy the final e was thro-wn off", and then these
words fell into (mel'od*, fanlasi) etc, and became rhymes to -/y.
These rhymes therefore not only shew a later date, but indicate an
identity in the pronunciation of i in the two sets of words. As
then we have no conception of there having been an (ai) sound in
the -ye endings, (except in such words as signify, where of coui^e
it is due to the accent), we have a coiToboration of our former
conclusion that long i was («', ii). Whenever we see in any
manuscript of Chaucer or Grower such rhymes as -y, -ye, or as -e,
-ye, we may be sure either that there has been some accidental
orthogi-aphical error of the scribe, or that some words of a more
recent period have been substituted. The error is often very
obvious and easy to remedy, thus : higli testifie 4-1, majestie dignyte
kne 4-3, see ryaltie 4-5, lilertie degree 4-10, crueltie pyte 4-12,
should have : bye, majeste, ryalte, liberte, cruelte. But degi'ee
yQz=eye 4-5, I dye high 4-8, hie crye whye 4-10, I espye ye = eye
4-10, lue besyly jQ = eye 4-11, fantasye meiily 4-15, ye = eye pretily
4-15, se ye = eye 4*27 etc., are certainly erroneous, and could not
have been written by a xiv th centuiy -writer. They serve there-
fore to discredit the MS. (R. iii. 20, Tiinity College, Cambridge,)
of the Court of Love.
1 Probably signifiede, cryede are the ^ The mistakes hyghe remcdye 4629,
proper forms. eyen aspien 12426, hee eye llo03,
' Both French forms envi, envie jeloust/e me 1809, have ah-eady been
occur, old and recent, and both envy, noticed (p. 250) ; the proper readings
envie are found in old English. are hye, yen, hye ye, jolite.
284 I, Y — XIV TII CRNTURY. Chap. IV. ^ 2.
Three other corroborative circumstances may be mentioned.
First, if lonp: i had been (oi) in the xivth century and earlier,
En<i:lish would have presented the extraorilinary spectacle of a
lanpuape without a long (ii, ii), one of the primitive vowel fomas.
Sir Thomas Smith had indeed reduced Latin to such a condition,
but this was a purely artiiicial formation, due to a mistaken theory,
and we may safely say could never occvu' in practice. Secondly,
if long ?' had been (oi), we should have to account for its common
imaccented form (j). There is a dispute among orthoepists as to
whether (oi) or («") should be pronounced in certain unaccented
syllables, such as (stvil/ztfe'shun) or (sixilaizee'shxin), or (didzhest",
doidzhest"), (in'fm/t, m-foinoit). These disputes at least serve to shew
that there is no difficulty whatever in using (oi) in an unaccented
sellable, and hence make the employment of (i) inexplicable, except
on the theory that it was the original nonnal sound. The change
of (oi) into (i) is of coui-se possible, but it is generally thi'ough
(ei, ee, ii). We have this very transition in deceive, which was
(desaiv) in the xrvth and even xvith centuries, became (deseiv)
and passed into (deseev) in the xvnth, and fell into (disiiv) in the
xvni th century. But the transition took a long time. This was
probably the coiu'se by which the old Greek ei reached the modem
Greek (ii). We have no trace of such a change in the words con-
sidered. The tliiixl ciixumstance is, that the scribes of the xrvth
and early pait of the xv th centuries seem to have had no hesitation
in writing i and ei or 1/ and et/ according as they wished to indicate
a difference of pronunciation. This is especially the case with the
words die, dry, eye, high, lie, sih, tie, pine, which must therefore be
considered individually.
Die = (dai'e, dii-e). This common old English word is not
Anglosaxon. The old !Xorse is deyja, ek dey, do (dei'ja, ek dei,
doo), and degenn in Ormin, deijen in Lajamon, deyin' in the
Promptorium, point out (dai'c) or (dei"e) as the older pronunciation.
The same sound is indicated by : seye deye 4944, 7207, waye deye
5010, 5238, 11649, disobeye deye '8239, deyth seith 7623, seyde
deyde 2847, preyde deyde 8424, sayde abrayde deyde 8935, and
generally. In : brayde prayde dyde 16022, we have therefore a
clerical error for deyde. 13ut we have a different spelling and a
different set of rhymes in: Marie dye 5261, Emelye dye 1569,
1589, 1595, dye, folye 1799, jc = eye' dye 7913, Lombardyc bye
allie dye 15886, die Galaxye 4-53. Hence in: deye A-ilonye 11715,
deye bigamye 5667, deye sloggai'dye 1 1943, deye is a clerical error for
dye. "Whether this double pronunciation was of a much older date
or not, it is difficult to say. The point to note here is, that there
was a double method of spelling, and that, except fi-om mere
carelessness of the scribej each method answered to its own rhymes,
which we had previously recognised as (ai, ii). At present (doi) is
the common fonn, but (dii) is more usual in South Shields, Kendal,
Westmoreland, and Lancashire.
1 MS. Univ. Lib. Cam. Dd. 4. 24, reads eye deye, which is also legitimate.
Chap. IY. § 2. I, Y — XIV TH CENTURY. 285
Buy = (hii'e, iDai'e), The first seems the older form as an
alteration of big'gen,*the second is not so frequent: to bycn 14467,
bye housbondiie 5869, preye bcye 12564.
Bri/ = {dvii-e, drai'e). Here (it) seems to ha-\e been the
original fonn corresponding to ags. (yy), and (ai) the derived. Ags.
dryge diigc di-egc diy, Orrm. drisge. Hence : nialadyc diyc 422,
drye remedye 4-56, diye dye drie eric giiye 5*208, where the fii-st
drj/e means to suffer, still found in Scotch as dree (diii). On the
other hand : weye dj-eye 8773, diye seye preye 4-64, Avhere dri/e is
evideutly an eri'or for dreye, awcie di'cy(e) i 220, but : diie deie
iii 93 might be : diye dye, or : dixye deyc, probably the former. The
fonn dreye seems proved, but it is not so common, and what is most
important for the present pui-pose, it was a derived, not an original
form, wliich the scribe was not content to leave under the old
spelling drye. The legitimate inference is, therefore, that if in
other words (ai) had been pronounced, ey would have been written.
At present (cli'oi, di'ai) are the common sounds, but (di-ii) is known
in South Shields,
Eye = (ai'e, ii'e). The older sound seems to have been (aiHi'e,
eiih'e). The more usual orthogi-aphy is eyglie, eyyhen, or eyhen
when the word does not occur final. I have not noted it in a
rhyme in Chaucer, but we have : eie seie i 72, eye awey(e) i 127,
and Pauli constantly writes eie when the MSS. have yhe. The
guttural (X-h) seems to have been often entii'ely lost, passing
probably through (jh), and then becoming absorbed in the
preceding (i) ; or more properly the diphthong (ei) grew out
of (ejh). The value (n'-e) results from : melodie yhe 9, companye
daycsye = daisy == day^s eye 333, (for dayse hie 4*77, read daysye
hye,) crye yhe 1097, ye = eye plye 9044, yen wiyen 17193. For:
specifie eye i 3, highe eye i 106, sigh eye i 116, as Pauli writes,
read : specifye ye, hye ye, syhe yhe. Although (ai) is veiy
general, yet (ii) is almost the only fonn known in Newcastle,
Cumberland, and Lancashii-e, and is even used in Devon.
Biyh = (sai, mi). The older form is here (nei, nai) the (i)
being generated fi-om (jh), the representative of (kh). The usual
forms when the rhyme does not require the others, are heiJi, heigh,
frequently with an added e. Possibly, as in eye, the guttural was
early lost in developing the diphthong, compare Onmin's heh,
hejhe. In rhymes this older foiTii is not common, and is often
doubtful, thus': heye eyghe 3243, heyghe cyghe 10587, might
have been : hye ye. More certain seems : heyghe piggesneyghe
3268, on heigh seigh = saw 1067, which may liave been :
on hih sib, compare" 11162. This fonn often occurs in Gower,
where Pauli writes: high sigh i 2, i 24, i 137. On the other
hand the fonn {nii) is veiy common : hye ciye 10725, hye
prye 7319, hihe eye, read yhe 11347, eyen read yen, prien 9985;
prve hye compaignie 4-222,' hye g)-e compaignye 4-296, hye navye
5-215, hye jurye 5-253, hye skye 5-258, high read hye, poesie ii 36.
(Hii) is used in. Cumberland and Scotland.
286 I, Y — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 2.
Sly = (slai, sLV). The fii'st is the old fonii, in Orrmin sleh, and
(sl»Y) is more recent. Tlie rlipne slye, lye mentiri, ye oculus 5*37-8
is ambiguous ; but if: high testitie sly 4-1 should be hye, tcstifie,
slye, tliis is a rhyme in point. Sleigh occurs 3201, 4339 v. 944.
(Slii) is still found in Cumberland and South Shields,
Tie={ta.ve, tiie). The first is the old fomi, from ags. tegan, the
second seems to have come from a second form ags. tygan ; seyd teyd
10305, gives the first distinctly, the foiTU : tyjed, A/lit. Poems by
Morris A. 464, suggests the second sound, for wliich I have noted
no rhymes. (Tii) is found in Kendal, Cumberland, and Lancashire.
Pine, pain = (pii'ne, pai"ne), are really two separate words, but
they arc used so much in the same sense that they might be easily
supposed to be difi'erent forms of the same word. The first is
Anglosaxon, the second French, but both apparently come from
Latin poena. They have come down to the present clay also with,
difi'erent pronunciations (poin, p^'^Ti), and difierent meanings. The
following passages will shew how the words ai-e confused by Chaucer
as the exigencies of the rhyme require.
And whan a beste is deed, he ne hath no peytie.
But man after his deth moot wepc and pleyne.
Though in this workl he have care and woo :
AVithouten doute it may stoude so.
The answer of this I lete to divinis.
But wel I woot, that in this workl gret pyne is. 1321
In wliich ther be som merthe or doctrine.
Gladly, quod I, by Goddes swete iJi/ne. 15343
That telleth us the peyue of Jhesu Crist. 15352
And sythen that I knewe of loves peyne
And wot how sore it can a man destrejTie. 1817
Ful gulteles, by Goddes swete pyne.
For as an hors, I couthe bothc bite and whjTie. 5967
who wolde suppose
The wo that in my herte was and pyne ?
And whan I saugh he nolde never fjTie
To reden on this cursed book. 6369
In Armorik, that clcpid is Bretaigne
Ther was a knvght, that loved and dide his peyne
To serven a laiy 11041
We thus sec that in the xiv th century there was a tendency to
two forais in certain words, and that in general the oiiginal form
has (ai) and the secondaiy form (n). In one case, however, at
least, dry, the («V) foi-m appears to be the older. In every case,
however, except fi-om mere carelessness of the scribe, the two
sounds were carefully distinguished as ei, i or ey, y. There can
therefore be very little doubt that when only one form i or y, was
employed, there was only one pronunciation, (»/), because the
scribe, Avho was hampered by no liistorical associations, must have
many a time and oft written ey if he had ever heard the sound (ai).
In ail of these cases the (n ) sound has been dialcctically presei'ved,
Tliis completes the argument in favour of the proposition with
which I started, viz., that the sound of i in Chaucer's time was
{it, i) and not (ai, i). But the result admits of illustration by
Chap. IV. § 2. I, Y — XIV TH CENTURY. 287
dialectic pccnlianties in addition to those just adduced. Isolated
and small societies necessarily presei-ve idiomatic expressions, pecu-
liar words and peculiar pronunciations. Of course the so-called
Anglosaxon which estahlished itself in England was not unifonn.
The languages with which our dialects hegan, so to speak, were
remarkably different in many respects. It is not merely the pro-
nunciation of a few words which now distinguishes the men of the
Xorth, Xorth-west, Xorth-east, West, East, Midland, South-west,
and South-east, from each other and from those who speak literary
EngHsh. The whole intonation, many of the words, the idioms,
the grammatical constructions, are different. The effects of isolation
are shewn strongly among the scanty population that speaks wliat
we call Scotch, and consider it as a single langixagc. Mr. Murray
has been able to distinguish eight Scotch dialects so shai-ply as to
translate the book of Ruth into each of them. In some of these
dialects the differences of pronunciation are as great as those which
separate "English utterances in distant centuries.' Nevertheless
we feel that all these dialects have one common ongin Avith the
literary English, and that an examination of their peculiarities,
as respects this vowel /, will be of some assistance in conceiving
the fonner existence of a pronunciation so extremely different
from our own. It was with this view that I re(j^uested the
cooperation of those personally acquainted with these modes of
speech — which eveiy one must regret to see at present so imper-
fectly written, that the spelling conveys but little Imowledge
to a reader who is ignorant of the dialect, and whom the writing
ought piincipaUy to aim at instnicting.
Mr. James A. H. Murray's native dialect was that of Tc%-iotdale,
and this possesses a very remarkable peculiarity. The following Avords
wliich are pronounced with (ii) in all other Scotch dialects, are in this
dialect, which extends over Eoxbui'ghshu'C, Selkirkshire, and part
of Dumfries, pronounced with (ei) : eye, be, bee, die, dree endure, fee
mad, a fly, to fly, free, gi' ye give you, glee squint, gree agree, he,
key, He falsehood, me, knee, pea, plea, pree try, see, stee steep,
spree, tea, ti' ye to you, tree, thigh, thi-ee, wi' ye icith yoti, agee
aslant. That is where other Scots say : (ii, bii, cUi, drii, f ii) etc,
the Borderers say (ei, bei, dei, ch-ei, fci) etc. This one pecu-
liarity is veiy striking. Some of these words as : eye, fly, lie, thigh,
are pronounced with (ai) iu the South, but what Englishman would
say (hoi) for hee, (frai) for free and so on ? Conjoined with this
cimous correspondence of (ei) with the (ii) of other dialects is
another of precisely the same character. The sentence : You and
me will go over the dyle and full a pea, is a perfect shibboleth
in this dialect. Alone, in all Scotland, it says : (J:to on mei ol giiq
oui- dh/ deik on p:iu u pei).^ On the other hand, the Edinburgher
1 See 3Ir. IMua-ay's paper on the ^ Mr. M. Bell Avrites (myi pyi) for
Lowland Scotch Dialect, read before (mei pei). The latter were the sounds
the PhHological Society on the 4th as I appreciated them when Mr. Murray
and 18th Dec., 1868. pronounced them.
288 I, Y — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 2.
would say: (Juu on mii-ol gJBq Eur dhMlEik on pun v pii). Observe
tliL' (jau i)Hu) for (juu l)uu) convspoudiiip: witli (moi pci) for (mii
pii). "We liavo heri', tluii, two sets of woids in a living dialect
corresponding; in precisely the same way as the xvi th century
(ei on) witli the xiv th ccntmy {ii uu)/ and similarly in the
^Netherlands, we shall tind (oi, ii) coexisting in adjacent pro%-inces,
as pronunciations of the written if. The phenomenon, then, of the
change of (n uu) to (ei ou) ought not to present any veiy serious
difficulties. Nor ought we to feel any gi-eat suqirise at Palsgrave
and liuUokar ha^-ing retained (ii uu), Avhile their- fellow countrymen
generally said (ei ou).
The sound (ii) for long i is by no means extinct, and the double
use of (ii) and one of the (oi) sounds is, as we have seen, familiar
in the very words which haye been noted above, ilr. Murray,
notAvithstanding his residence in England, and his critical know-
ledge of our language, confesses that he is " continually discoveiing
words which he has all his life pronounced with (ii) which EngKsh-
men pronounce (oi)." "In ftict," says he, "long (ii) is the sound
we instinctively associate with the letter i imless we have been
taught to pronounce it as in English." The following is taken
fi'om some remarks which Mr. Miuray obligingly communicated in
writing.
Fli/ s. and y. general Scotch (flii), but Teviotdale (flci). Cleve-
land (flii) a fly, but (fl/g) to fly, compare lie.
Lie (mentiri), general Scotch, Westmoreland, and Cumberland
(lii), Teviotdale and Dumfriesshu'c (lei).
Lie (procumbcrc), Westm. Cumb. Lane, and Cleveland (1/g, leg) ;
this does not seem to cross the border where the word is (lai, la',
lohi), although the plder Scotch always Avrotc lig, lyg.
By preposition of the agent, (bi). Teviotdale (Hei waz sin hi
sf verelz) =: he was seen by several.
By of place is always (bai, bohi).
lliigh Scotch, Westm. Cumb. and Cleveland (thii), Tev. and
Dumf. (thei).
Friar = (friir), thus a part of Jedburgh is called the Freirs.^
Briar = (briir), Cleveland (biiii') and (brii), i7iquire (enkwiir"),
choir (kwiir) and (kw^^) (?), squire (skwiir).
Site, old people pronounce (sit, zit).
Neighhour = (nib"er), with a short vowel, not (nii-ber) as Eng-
lishmen hear.
Like = (lek, leik), the latter more common, but (lekd/z) is used
for likely; in Cleveland also, like = Hah'k), but likely = (lekie,
b'k-l/).=' ■
^ The difference between (au ou) is to attempt to discriminate between (ou
very sliffht, the latter having simply ou) in an ancient iomi of speech, when
labialised the first element of the former, it woidd be difficult to do so in living
■which effect readily produced by the pronunciation.
action of the subsequent (u). " The - A well of very fine water at Work-
difference between (ou ou) is merely ington, Cumberland, is always called
that the first c^'ment of the latter is the (frii-.i).
widened, and it would be presumptuous ^ Au old Scotch jeweller, who had
Chap. IV. $ 2. I, Y — XIV TH CENTURY. 289
Ollige, ohIiged={oh\\\diz\-, obhVst-)^ and similarly in numerous
French words, as invite, polite, and words of classical orijj:in as idol
(iidi) type (tip), baptize, chastize, civilized (sivaliizt), advert'ise-ynent.
Eye, general Scotch (ii), Te^dotdale (ei), plural in both (in) with
short (i). Cumb., Westm., Lane, and North Yorkshii-c (ii, iin)
with long (ii). Bamsley, South Yorkshire (ii, iiz).
Sigh Tev. (ne^h, Hei, Hai), other Scotch (nekh, nikh, nii), as
(as Hi-lahnt az dhe nii rood) = as highland as the high road.* The
guttural form is common but is passing away, and (iiii) is used
instead in Centre, West, and North of Scotland, as also in Cumb.,
and "Westm., (nai, nohi) are the common recent forms in Teviotdale.
Die, general Scotch, Cumb., Westm., Lane, (dii). Teviotdale,
Eskdale, Annandale (dei).
Dree (drii) endure, and so in Cleveland ; but dry (drai drai dra'
drohi), and so with huy.
Sly follows the analogy of high, but the guttural form seems only
to occur in sleight (sleArht) like height (ne^-ht). The usual Scotch,
Cumb., Westm., and Lane, is (slii), Tev. (slei), or more commonly
(slai, slohi).
Hie is not known to Mr. Murray in living speech, in reading
ballads it is called (nai Hohi) in Tev. In Westm. dialects it is
sometimes wi'ittcn hii.^
-Ight, words of this class, as right, might, light, sight, which
in Scotland are (leklit, leX-ht) are in Cumb., Westm., Lane, and
Yorkshii'e, (liit, niit. Hit, siit) etc.* In cases where -ight does not
represent ags. -iht, the pronunciation is different, so Jight ags. feoht,
Tev. (foei/cht). Lane, (feit) not (fiit)."
Sigh {sekh).
China, the ware or the country (tshin'a, tshin'e), as in (Whaht
est "Gts Bt Jens uut v tshiu'/ •en en"B tshin"?? Tei) = What is-it
that -is at once out of China and in -of China? Tea. Walker
lived from youth in London, always men in the Dales sounded such ■words
said (lek) for like, in all senses. He as sii/k, nii/ht, light, &c., with a gentle
was constantly using the word, and guttural breathing," which, he adds in
never seemed to hear that other persons a footnote, " seemed partly to come
pronounced it differently. from the palate," and was therefore
1 Observe the form of the past tense. (/ih). See : A Memorial by the Trus-
I quite lately heard (obliidzh-, obliitsht-) tees of Cowgill (Koo-gd) Chapel, with a
from a noble lord at a public meeting. Preface and Appendix, on the Climate,
^ Perthshire simile in describing one Histoi-y, and Dialects of Dent, by
who is ultra Celtic. Observe here Adam Sedgwick, LL.D., senior fellow
the different use of (as, az). of Trinity College, and professor of
^ A gentleman in Derby informed Geology m the University of Cam-
me that in Xorth Derbyshire the bridge.' Cambridge, 1868, 8vo. pri-
peasantry say (mak nii) for make haste. vately printed, p. 103 — a book of affec-
Compare": I se where come a messengere tionate and interesting reminiscences of
in hie = in haste 4-10. ags. higian v. manners and speech, extending over
hig-S *. Orrmin hih s. Promptorium nearly 1 20 years, through Prof. Sedg-
hyyn' p. 229. wick's father, the honoured clergyman
* Prof. Sedgwick,^ a native of the of Dent, who was 50 years older than
dale of Dent, Yorkshire, writing at up- his son.
wards of eighty years of age, says : " I ^ Several correspondents have con-
remember the day when all the old firmed this rule, and the exception.
19
290 I, Y — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. $ 2.
gives (tshfc•n^■) for china ^rare or orange, but (Tshai-nae) for the
countn', and has a lonjj; note on it.
Bind, find, hind, blind, grind = (bend, f^d, nrat, blmd, gr«id),
tffind V. and s. = (wand), but kind, mind, wynd = (kaind, maind,
waind), and little is often (lait'l) especially as a proper name.
Why ! as an exclamation, not why? the interrogative, is (wt!) in
Scotch, and (wiia !) in Cumb., "NVestm., Lane, and Cleveland.
(Wiio! sez ai) = Why! says I, is a common formula in the
Northern coiinties.
Can this existence of the (ii) sound, and its general association
with i in Scotland, be considered a modem development ? Has it
not rather the appearance of an ancient fonn ? The latter view
seems confinned by seeing that numerous words are pronounced
with one of the (ai) forms as (ei, ei, xi, ai, rti, ohi, ai), and that
these various forms are differently distributed in different localities,
whereas the (ii) fonn when it occiirs is almost general. Mr. Murray
gives the two following lists of words which have (ei, ei) in Teviot-
dale, but (ai) in Western Scotch, the first element of these diph-
thongs being more distinctly heard than in English (ai, on).
Tev. (ei), west Scotch (ai) : bike u-asp's nest, dyke, fike to irk,
like, pike jn'd; sike wet holloic, spike, strike, tike ; bite, clyte clot,
dite doit, flite scold, gite crazy, kite a helly, mite, knite (kneit) rap
the knuckles, quite, white (k«<?heit), spite, suite blow the nose, wite
blame, write (w'reit),^ yite (jeit) yellow hammer, gype (geip) im-
pudent fellow, (nei-pelt) awhcard clown, pipe, ripe, sipe oo%e, snipe,
tripe, wipe ; — bice, Brice, Christ, dice, grice, lice, mice, nice, price,
rice, spice, sklice slice, trice, wise (weis), twice, thrice, fife Fife,
five, life, knife (kncif ), rife, strife ;— pint (peint), ninth (neint).
Tev. (ri), West Scotch (ai) : bide, bride, guide, hide, pride, ride,
side, slide, tidy, wide ; — jibe, kibe, siba (sei-ba) onion Lat. cepa ;
— guize, prize,' rise, stays (stm) ; — kithe shew, lithe, writh ; — dive,
drive, hive, alive, lives, knives, deprive, schive slice, strives, thrives,
n^ves ; — tings (triqz) tongs, whings (wheiqz) shoe-strings ; — ^brine,
cryne dry in, fine, line, mine, nine, pine, sine since, swine, shine,
tine lose, twine, wine, vine ; — crime, dime, glime glimpse, lime,
prime, rime, stime indistinct form, time ; — bile, file befoul, guile,
kile hay-cock, mile, pile, sile strain milk, tile, vile, wile, stile,
smile; — hire cowshed, chair (tsheir), fire, hire, mire, sire sewer, swire
tire, wire ; — wild, mild ;— mind, hind, kind, rind, sind rt7ise.
In the second list the consonant is a Kquid, nasal, or voiced
letter, which distinguishes it from the first. Generally in Scotland
when English long i or y is final in monosyllables, as cry, dye, or a
long i occurs in underived ■s^'ords, as dial, trial, the sound is (ai),
and in Teviotdale (ai, ohi). Derivatives follow their root sounds.
The two sounds, that is the (ei, ei, ai, oi) series, and the (aji, ai,
ai, ohi) series, attributed to the Scotch long i, are strongly insisted
on by Scotchmen, and in 1848 when I was printing much English
in a phonetic form, the Scotch always exclaimed against the use of
1 In Aberdeen (vriit) or (bhriit).
Chap. IY. § 2.
I, Y — XIV TH CENTURY.
291
one sign for the two forms. The late Professor W. Groffory of
Edmbm-gh, cUnded the sounds into (oi) and (ai)/ in which case
they answer to the two sounds heard in Tsahih in England Mr
Melville BeU in a private letter says that: "in different districts
you ^ear (« , a , ahi), but the representative sound is (a^i) This is
heard regularly when the sound is final, before a vowel or before
Imai ;•, and generaUy when it occui-s before (z) or (v) This (soi)
18 the ' genteel' foi-m of l. I hear it from aU my educated Scotch
pupils ; though they come from widely separated districts tliey give
(aei)tor'I etc., with absolute uniformity.'' The other sound (ei)
IS the regular one for i in other syUablcs, and in a few words for
a, as aye, pay, clay, Tay, May, way, plague, etc. In Teviotdale.
ai/e, may, are caUed (^i, mri) to distinguish them from (ei, mei) =
ee, me. ^ '
My dialecric con-espondcnts (p. 277 note), and itr. MuiTay have
tunushed me with the foUowing words in which (ii) or iiif re-
mams in the provinces. Abbre^-iarions— C. Cumberiand, D. Devon,
Db. Derbyshire, K. Kendal, L. Lancashii-e, N. Norfolk, S. Sliields,
generaUy South Shields, sometimes North Shields, and occasionaUy
Newcastle, Sc. general Scotch, W. Westmoreland, Y. Yorkshire,
Yc. Cleveland, Yorkshire The list is of course very incomplete,
both m words and localities. The numerous French and classical
words pronounced in Scotland with (ii), p. 289, are omitted.
■WOHDS SPELLED WITH I, USUALLY SOU^^)ED (oi), BUT PitOVlIfCIALLY
Peonouxced (ii).
fly V. CKSScWY liar S
fly *. CKLSScYYc lie «. CKLSScW
alike D
briar CYc
bright CKLSW
by preposition of
agent Sc
child D
die CKLSScW
dry S
dykeN
eye CDLSScWY
eyesight Y
iriar CSc
fright S
hie Db
high C
hind s. C
IdeD
I'U C
kindly D
kite Y
light CDWSY
lightning S
mice DN
might s. D
mind D
my passim
night CDKLSY
sight crws
sly CLSScW
stile C
thigh CSScWYc
thy LW
tie V. CKL
why! CLScWYc
Wright SY
write S
nighest (niist) D
right CSAVY
_ It would be difficult to suppose that in all these cases, widely
differing fi-om ordinary use, and extending over several counties,
the (ii) should have been a recent transformation of (si). The
probabilities are all the other way.
The personal pronoun / is one of the greatest difficulties. In the
Aryan languages its changes have been great. The original word
seems to have been (a) to which a strengthening termination (gham)
* See my Essentials of Phonetics, p.
172, note, where (ai) is used when not
followed by a consonant and before the
inflectional (d, z), and also before (v, z),
but otherwise (ai) is more common.
^ Mr. Murray accounts for this ab-
normal imiformity, by saying that (a^i)
is not a Scotch sound, but the Scotch
conception of the proper pronunciation
of the English long i. In England
(aei) is rather cockneyfied.
* It is impossible to trust the rniac-
customed ear to distinguish these
sounds, though they have
letters i, «, in Icelandic.
separate
292 I, Y — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 2.
was affixed, producing (agham) as in Sanscrit.' The vowol (a) was
retained, and the f()llo\ring guttural altered to a sibilant in Zend,
Lithuanian, and old Sclavonic. In Greek, Latin, and Gothic, the
guttural was retained, but the rowel palatalized, into (e) in Greek
eya)v (eghoon-), and Latin ego (eg"oo, eg-o) which retained por-
tions of the following syllable, and into (i) in Gothic (ik), which
dropped the following letters. This low German form (ik) was the
normal Saxon form, probably {tk), and the orthography tec in
Orrmin, guarantees the shortness of the voweL In Icelandic we
find ec, ek, eg, where the vowel seems to have become long, and (j)
was prefixed in speaking. The Modem Danish isjeg (jei, jai). In
Chaucer as we have seen (p. 282), the fonu ic still occurs, and is
sometimes palatalized to ich («'tsh), but the usual form in Chaucer
and Gower is /. ^ By Shakspere the words /, eye, aye were identi-
fied in sound (p. 112). The frequent phrase quoth-a, may some-
times mean, quoth /, but is often interpreted quoth he, and the well-
known passage in Henry V, act ii, sc. 3, describing the death of
Falstaff, is full of a for he. Now as he was certainly generally
pronounced (nii), as it was frequently written hee, at that time, the
provincial, or vulgar, or dialectic coiTespondence of (a) with (hu),
would be precisely similar to a dialectic use of (a) for {ii), sup-
posing the last to have been Chaucer's personal pronoun. At the
same time the acknowledged form (nii) for he, would lead us to
expect some acknowledged forms (ii) or {ii) for /, exi.sting in
dialects.
Now both of the fomis (a) and (ii) exist in the provinces for /,
though the traces of (ii) are very few and very slight, but few as
they are, it would be difficult to account for them except by the
action of an old tradition, and as in some cases the prouTinciation is
only known among very old people and is fast going out, it may
have been much more common as lately as one or two hundred
years ago.
^^Eed=l had: If eed done soa, it wad sartainly hev been
better."' "/, aye, eigh. Yes. I is sometimes pronounced like E,
particularly when the pronoun follows the verb, as 'do E,' for I
do." * ** I is often sounded like E, in «w," ® probably (*') as a con-
tracted form of (m).
' F. C. August Pick, "Worterbuch ^ ^gj;_ jp-^ Carr, Craven Glossary,
der Indogermanischen Grundsprache in vol. i. p. 127, 2nd ed.
ihrem Bestande vor der Volkertrcn- * Ibid., p. 241. The author cites as
nung, 1868, p. 4. C. F. Koch, His- an illustration, what looks like a coup-
torische Grammatik der Englischen let, from Cant. Tales, 12530, by which
Sprache, vol. 3, p. 3. it seems as \i me, /rhymed. Of course
2 The omission of the guttural is this was not the case. The author has
quite similar to the (ai, i, mi, di, si, taken together two lines belonging to
aa, do, no) for euch, ich, mich, dich, different couplets, and the whole rhjines
sich, auch, doch, noch, in the neigh- arejo/ite me, I thriftily.
bourhood of the Danube, Bavaria. * Ibid. The author has unfortunately
Schmeller, Grammatik art. 427. So in not followed any strict orthography, and
old high German, and old English we has not attempted to explain that which
find ine for ih ne, ic ne, Graff, 1, 118, he has used.
Rel. Ant. 1, 235.
Chap. IV. § 2. I, Y — XIV TH CENTURY. 293
In Lancashire (i) is used when unemphatic, as (man i tel dhe ?)
must I tell you.^
In Blackburn "the old fashioned way" of pronouncing /," is
(«) yery short."'
" I have frequently heard old people pronounce I like our ovm
ee (ii), especially in the interrogative foim, did ee do it? will ee
go ? must ee do it ? etc. This is very common, in fact about twenty
years ago it was the invariable pronunciation. In the phrase : (aiz
gaa-an Hjam, at iz ill) = I am ffomg hone, that am I, ee (ii) is
as decidedly emphatic as / ordrnaiily is. The contraction Fll for
/ shall, is fi'equently given ee'll. Ee is also used occasionally
but very seldom in every tense and form. This pronunciation is
only used by old people here, but in central Cumberland it is more
general. The same people use the form (aa) and sometimes (a),
but never in questions or in the dii'ect future."^
Scarcely less convincing as respects the vowel in English ich are
the contractions chain, chas, chil (tsham, tshas, tshA) for ich am,
ich was, ich will, mentioned by Gill {Logonomia p. 17) as a Southern
pronunciation, in Rev. W. Barnes's edition of the Glossary of the
Dialect of Forth and Bargy, and in the Glossary to his Poems in
the Dorset dialect, 1858, p. 150. See also J. Jennings^ Dialects of
the West of England.*
The dialectic pronunciations Ise, ^ch are preserved in Shakspere,
King Lear, act iv, sc. 6, 1. 240, Globe ed., Tragedies p. 304, col. 2,
folio 1623, which reads :
Edg. Chilis not let go Zir,
Without vurther 'easion.
Stew. Let go Slaue, or thou dy'flr.
Bdg. Good Gentleman goe your gate, and let poore volke paiTe : and 'chud*
ha'bin zwaggerd out of my life, 'twould not ha'bin zo long as 'tis, by a
vortnight. Nay, come not neere th'old man : keepe out che vor'ye,' or ice ^
try whither your Costard, or my Ballow be the harder ; chill ^ be plaine with you.
Stew. Out Dunghill.
Edg. Chill * picke your teeth Zir : come, no matter vor your foynes.
About thirty years ago utcliy (otsh-/ ?) was in use for / in the
Eastern border of Devonshire and in Dorset, and examples of cham^
choiild=:^l am, I would, occur in the" Exmoor Scolding," which
dates from the beginning of the last century.*
The prevailing dialectic forms of the pronoun are however (a, a, A,
oh) occasionally (a, 'b), and (ai, «i, ohi, Ai, oi). _ In Derbyshire^ I
generally heard (a), but in the northern parts it is said to be (Ai).
Mr. Murray writes: "/in the liTorthern dialects of England is
1 Letter from Mr. John J. L. Jack- * I will,
son, teacher of languages, Manchester. * I would.
2 Letter from Mr. T. Fielding, Man- '' Printed cheuore ye in the 4to, 1608.
Chester. ^^Australes — (Tshi voor ji), pro (oi
^ Letter from Mr. J. N. Hethering- war-ant jou) certum do," Gill, Logo-
ion, Clifton Parsonage, Workington, nomia, p. 17.
Cumberland. ■ 8ice = Ise = I; printed »fe = I'll, in
* For these references to Glossaries the 4to. 1608.
I am indebted to Mr. W. Aldis Wright, » Letter from Mr. John Shelly,
Trin. Coll. Cambridge. Plymouth.
294 I, Y XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 2.
usually a simple vowel of the (a, a, oh) series. In some dialects it
is, when acci-uted, a dii)htliong composed of the same first element
and (i,'). In Scotch (oh, aa), even when emphatic ("oh wohd'ue
gohq) = I would not go. In Ayrshire it would probably be (aai,
aa'j) in such a case, so also in Cumb. and Westm. In Lancashire
it is (aa) even when emphatic, in Barnsley, Yorkshire, {aa). ^Vhen
uncmphatic it is in all the dialects an obscure (a, a, u), it is hard
to say what." Uncmphatic syllables have always a tendency to
fall into this colourless (o, v.) sound. Even in Gcnnany, where
there is no tendency to pronounce ich (iXh) with an (ai), rapid
speaking will generate (o), as (nab'odi, las'omi, taa'todo, deqk'oma)
= habe ich dich, lasse ich mich, thate ich dii-, denke ich mil-, in
Bavaria.'
The confusion of (/) with (e) penetrated, as we have seen, into
orthography, p. 272. But during the xvth centuiy there also arose
a tendency to tliin (cc) into (ii), whereby so many (ee) of the
xrv th century became (ii) by the xvi th. This tendency was pre-
cisely the same as that which converted so many of the remaining
(ee) into (ii) at the beginning of the xvmth centmy, p. 88. iXow
if we suppose these two tendencies to act together, which is no
exti-avagant hypothesis, since they certainly co-existed, the result
would be that {ii) would be begun as (ee) and ended as (ii), that is
that {ii) would become first (eei) and then (ei). Duiing the same
time we know also that (oo) was in many instances refined to (uu).
"We might therefore suppose that there was the converse tendency
to take (uu) as {uu), and then as {oo), which is by no means un-
common, and then that the joint action of these two tendencies pro-
duced first (oou), then (on) or (ou) as it would have been certainly
accepted. This supposition as to the mode of generating (ei, ou)
from {ii, uu), has the advantage of being based upon known facts.
But the considerations adduced on p. 233, are quite sufficient to
account for the change. At the present moment the {ee, oo) of the
South of England are actually changing into (ri, ou), and these
sounds have been developed by the less educated, and therefore
more advanced speakers, the moi'e educated and therefore less ad-
vanced having only reached {eei, oovl)"^ although many of them are
not conscious of saying anything by {ee, oo).
1 Sehmeller, Mund. Bay. art. 284. thongs. This is illustrated .... in the
* "The English alphabetic accented a, regular pronunciation of the vowels in
in the mouth of a well-educated Lon- axd, ail, aim, ache, &c. (ei), ode, oak,
doner .... is not quite simple, but finishes globe, &c. (ou). The same tendency
more slenderly than it begins, tapering leads to the ' Cockney' peculiarity of
so to speak, towards the sound (i) .... separating the labio - lingual vowels
o in a Londoner's mouth is not always (u, o) into their lingual and labial corn-
quite simple, but is apt to contract ponents, and pronouncing the latter
towards the end, finishing almost as oo successively instead of simultaneously,
in too." B. n. Smart, 'W'alker Re- Thus we liear {ceu, vu, yu) for (u), and
modelled, 1836, Principles, arts. 1 and {o'w, o'tv, ah'w) for (o)." Visible
7. Mr. M. Bell, among "English Speech, p. 117. As Mr. Bell marks
Characteristics" reckons : "The ten- the second element by the glide sign
dency of long vowels to become diph- he does not distinguish the length of
Chap. IV. { 2.
I, Y
XIV TH CENTURY.
295
As has been already remarked, p. 234, the change from (ii, uu)
to sounds of the (ai, au) order has not been confined to Eiighmd,
but took place in the literary language of the other Gemuniic
countries, nearly at the same time, that is, during the xv tli and
XVI th centuries ; and in these countries as well as in England
traces of the original pronunciation remain in the provinces.
Siegenbeek, whose work on Dutch Spelling originated the ortho-
graphy now in use, tells us that old Dutch manuscripts employed
if it, for their long ^, which, partly for distinctness and partly for
ornament, became ij, and hence that the inhabitants of Eriesland,
Zeeland, Guelders, Overyssel, and Groningcn, who still pronounce
(ii), evidently preserve the ancient sound ; but that the inhabitants
of the province of Holland had at an early period changed the
sound into one very like (ei) ^ and that after the Spanish disturb-
ances, that is, about the end of the xvith century, this province
having become the seat of leamiag and civilisation, its pronunciation
necessaiily became prevalent, and is now the literary pronunciation
of the country.^ Hence we have an indubitably ancient (ii), pre-
served in those provinces of the Netherlands whose dialect most
resembles ancient English, and passing into an (oi) in other pro-
vinces which by a political accident was able to set the fashion of
pronunciation.
the first element, so that -with him {ee,
oo) have akeady in appearance become
(ci, on), but this does not represent his
actual pronunciation, which is rather
{ee'], 00 w).
1 The Dutch ty, ei differ slightly,
if at aU. Sir Hendi-ik Gehle, D.D.,
minister of the Dutch Reformed Church
in Austin Friars, London, -who kindly
pointed out to me the passage in Sie-
genbeek (Sii-ghenbeek) refen-ed to in
the text, and cenfirmed what is there
said of the provincial (ii), said that he
felt more of the e in pronoimcing ei
than y, reminding me much of Gill's
remark (supra p. 114), of being diffuse
over the e. At first he seemed to call
both (ei), but afterwards he recognized
my (ai, ei) as the two sounds, and, as-
suming the English as (ai), he said he
considered the Dutch a neater sound.
The distinction (ai, ei) is precisely that
which I had to make in Gill, and, con-
sidering the close connection between
Dutch and English, the coincidence is
remarkable.
• " Doch deze enkele i kon geene
plaats hebben in lettergrepen, op eenen
medeklinker stuitende, als mijn, zijn,
bliif en soortgelijke ; maar moest hier
noodzakelijk verdubbeld worden. — Men
schreef dus oudtijds, met eene dubbele
i, bliif, wiin, schriif, von welke schrijf-
wijze, in oude handschriften, nog vela
sporen voorhanden zijn. Doch, om de
gelijkheid der dubbele i met de m,
waaruit ligtelijk verwarring kon ont-
staan, en misschien ook sieraadshalve,
begon men de tweede t reeds vroeg
met een' langen staart tc schrijven, 't
welk man, bij hare platsing v66r eine
vokaal aan hot begin der woorden, ins-
gelijks in zwang bragt. Wij kunnen
niet voorbij, hier te doen opmerken,
dat zij, die, in de woorden blijven,
schrijven, mijn, zijn, bij de uitspraak
den klank der enkele en dubbele t doen
hooren, als de Yriezcn, Zccuwen, Gel-
derschen, Overijselschen en Groningers,
blijkens hct voorgestelde, de cchte en
oorspronkelijke uitspraak dezer woor-
den behouden hebben. Doch op de
tong der Hollanders is deze echte
klank reeds vroeg verloren gcraakt, en
voor eenen anderen, eenigzins zwe-
mende naar den klank ei, vcrwisseld
geworden. Nadat nu Holland, wer-
waards, na de Spaansche berooringen,
de voornarac zetel der bcschaafdheid en
wetenschappen werd overgibragt, door
middel van dit uitstekend voorregt,
zijne uitspraak meer en mecr als de
algemeene en beerschende heeft doen
gelden, is ook die verbastering in de
meest beschaafde uitspraak en daarop
gebouwde schrijfwijze ingevoerd, en
296 I, Y — XIV III CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 2
"We have precisely the same phenomena in the less closely related
Iligli German dialects. An old and middle hi}i;h German i (ii)
became a modem High German ei (ai). All these latter ei are how-
ever not derived from i (ii), but some come from a middle and old
High German ei (ei), answering to the Gothic ai (ee).' Moreover
we have the same phenomenon of a persistence of the sound of (ii)
in the provinces, notwithstanding the real change of orthography
from i to ei, whereas in Dutch the change is only apparent, from
ii to //', and hence resembles the English retention of i through a
change of sound. Schmeller says: " e« sounds, conformably with
its origin, like a long (ii) by the lake of Constanz, i.e. on the Upper
Rhine, and by the tributaries to the Weser from the Ehon-chain of
hills ;* (miin, diin, siin, — bii, drii, lis, Fliis, Liim, Liib, bhiis, Tsiit
— bis'e,, blii'be,, grif-e,, iide,, lii'dej, shnii'de,, slmi-be,, trii"bej,
= mein, dein, sein, — bei, drei, Eis, Fleiss, Leim, Leib, weiss, Zeit, —
beissen, bleiben, greifen, eilen, leiden, schneiden, schreiben, treiben.
Also on the Lauter (siin) for se)/n, on the Ilz (iij for ein, as in
(iijSpan-e,) = einspannen ; on the east of the Lech, (drii)-fach,
(drii)-fiiesz, (sliliif)stain."'
Dr. Rapp in the passage previously cited (supra p. 235) has
endeavoured to give the relations of all the long vowels throughout
the Germanic languages, and it seems worth while to reproduce his
table here, although it is only a sketch, and requii'es much filling
in to make it at all complete. The first line gives what Dr. Rapp
imagines to have been the seven primary vowels in this system of
languages. The lines 2 to 6, refer to the older, the lines 7 and 8
to the intermediate, and the following lines to modem forms. The
pronunciations assigned may be occasionally disputed, but they are
near enough for the present purposes, and without attempting to
make any change, I have translated the phonetic symbols as well as
I could understand them. The uniformity with which the Ger-
manic, as distinguished fi'om the Scandina^-ian, branches have in
recent times adopted the (ai, au) forms in place of (ii, uu) is very
striking. Many persons may feel that it is an argument in favour of
the pronunciation of t long as (ii) in Anglosaxon, and therefore in
Early English, that the Scandina\'ians certainly called their long i
(ii), as their descendants in Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark
continue to do. But that contemiinous districts may diifer precisely
upon this point we have ab-eady seen in the case of Scotland (p. 287)
and Holland (p. 294), and another instance may be cited from the
daarin reeds zoo vast geworteld, dat het Sprache, iii, 267. Grimm, Deutsche
thans volstrekt onmogelijk is, dezelve Gram., 3rd ed. i, 285, 317.
nit te roeijen." Verhandeling over de ^ Jicpp, Phys. d. Spr. iv, 11. Orimm,
Nederduitsche Spelling ter bevordering ib. 95, 106, "l75, 182, 225. _ Grimm
van eenparighcid in dezelve, door assumes Gothic ei, di = (ei, ai) appa-
Matthya Siegenbeek, hoogleerar in de rently ; in Chap. V, § 4, No. 3, the
Nederduitsche Letterkunde te Leyden : sounds (ii, ee) are preferred,
uitgegeven in naam en op last van het ' In the same district, au sounds as
Staats-Be\vind der Bataafschc Repub- (uu) conformably with its origin,
liek. Amsterdam (1804, 8vo., pp. * Mundarten Bayern'a Art. 244.
380), p. 65. See also Rapp, Phys. der
Chap. IV. § 2.
I, Y XIV TH CENTURY.
297
Norman peninsula containing Cherbourg. At Montebourg, only
fifteen miles SSE of Cherbourg, the pronunciation of * as (ai) is
very common, whereas at Beaumont Hague, on the same peninsula
and only twenty-five miles NW of Montebourg, this pronunciation
is unknown.^ Such examples shew the necessity of examining
existing phases of pronunciation before attemptiag to decide upon
extinct usages.
Eelatioxs of the Seven Long Vowels in the Germanic
Languages accoeding to De. M. Eapp.
Long Vowels.
1. Primary - -
2. Gothic - -
3. Icelandic - -
4. Anglosaxon -
5. Friesian - -
6. Old Saxon
7. Middle Saxon
8. Middle German
9. EngKsh - -
10. Danish - -
11. 'Swedish - -
12. Dutch - - -
13. High German
14. Suabian - -
15. Prankish - -
16. East Frankish
17. Bavarian - -
Examples. - -
English. - -
I
n
m
IV
V
VI
aa
ee
ee
u
AA
00
ee
ee
iu
ii
AA
00
AA
ei
iu
ii
OU
00
ee
AA
eo
ii
ia.
00
ee
ee
ia
ii
AA
00
aa
ee
iu
ii
AA
00
1
AA
ee
ee
ii
00
00 j
aa
ei
ie
ii
ou
uo
ii
00
ii
ai
ii
uu
AA
ee
>y
ii
ceoe
00
00
ee
JUU
ii
ffioe
uu
aa
ee
ii
ai
00
uu
aa
ai
ii
ai
au
uu
AA
oi
i3
ai
au
ua
00
ee
ii
ai
aa
uu
au
aa
ai
ai
aa
au
AA
09
ia
ai
aa
ua
Jahr
hreit
Dieh
weit
Laub
gut
year
broad
thief
wide
leaf
good
vn
uu
uu
uu
uu
uu
uu
uu
uu
ou
uu
w
au
au
au
au
au
Haus
house
Although the subject is far from exhausted, as we are thus
led into an examination of the cognate dialects, sufficient has
been adduced to shew the antecedent probability of the
theory that in the xiv th century long / was pronounced as
(«), and as all the facts which we have been able to discover,
agree with and are explicable by this theory, whereas the
usual hypothesis that long i was one of the (oi) diphthongs
during all periods of our language, is not reconcilable with
many of the facts adduced, and is opposed to the general
tendency of the cognate dialects on the continent, it seems to
be the only legitimate inference that in Chaucer's time long i
was {ii) and short (?) was (e).
1 This curious fact is given on the Montebourg. See the note on M. Le
authority of Dr. Le Taillis, mayor of Hericher and Norman i, at the close of
Beaumont Hague, but a native of Chap. V. § 1, No. 3.
298 U XIV TII CENTURY. Chap. IY. § 2.
U — xiVTH Century.
After the lengthened proof which has been given that long ti in
the XVI th century had the French sound (yy), it follows almost as
a mutter of course, that those words in Chaucer which have long
u, and wliich are as a general rule all taken from the French or
Latin, had also the sound of (yy),' and this will be further con-
firmed when we find that (uu) the only other sound it was likely
to represent had a difi'crcnt symboHsation, on. We may, how-
ever, notice the pure French rhyme —
Another day he yri\ par adventure
ReclajTne the, and bring the to lure. 17003
compare bt/ aventure 25, the EngHsh phrase. With this French
sound there was also a tendency to dwell on the syllable ure with
more accentual stress, so (naa'tyyr") 11, and
Venus, if it be youre wil
Yow in this gardyn thus to transfgure
Biforn me sonvful wrecched creature. 1106
Short w was properly («<) or (u) as in the x\-i th century, and as
in the Anglosaxon times. This we see from the Latin rhymes —
Sayde Plato. Ye, sire, and is it thus ?
This is ignotum per ignotius. 13384
In which I plejTie upon Virginius.
And if he wile sern it is nought tfius. 13582
At the same time we find u short occasionally used as a substitute,
apparently, for e and i short, where we cannot imagine that a dif-
ference of pronunciation was intended, as for example in the verbal
tennination -ed, hathud 3, enspirud 6, esiid 29, while in the same
passage occur perced 2, engendred 4, seated 39. In connection with
the common forms list, lest should litst 102 be taken as difi'erent, or
as another way of wiiting the same sound ? Suster 1835, 8465,
seems to have some claim to be called (sus'ter) on account of the
form soster 3486 rhyming with Pater-noster, and the Anglosaxon
form suster as well as sweoster, swyster, but it mmj have been like-
wise generally called (s«s*tcr).
In fitJml 298 = fiddle, fadiir 100 = father, gnU 10142 = guilt,
^ Mr. Murray informs me that u still when ue is final, and where ew is pro-
retains its French sound in Scotch in nounced (iu) in English, whether de-
words taken from the French, as : tune, rived from French or Anglosaxon
lute, cure, sure, Bruce, reduce, conduce, sources, it is sounded («u) or rather
consume, assume, bruise, judge, endure, {yv) with the accent on the first element,
rude, mute, secxire, use, abuse, suit, as in : blue, due, duty, sue, ensue, hue,
mule, fule, just, [is the Cockney (dzhjst) few, dew, rue, crew, blew, flew, grew,
a corruption of (dzhyst) f it looks very threw, brew, drew, new, new, clew,
like it,] justice, humour (ymar), ulzie Jew, rule (ri'ul, ryul), sew, skew,
(yl«, ylj«) oil, and similarly h, nz are beauty, feu, feud^ feudal, queue (kyu),
representatives of (Ij, nj), changed in lewd, ruia (rj-u-m), Euen (Yu-an) not
some districts into (li, nt) in : assuilzie (Ju"en). But the meio of the cat, and
acquit, tuilzie a quarrel, fuilzie contents wew of the kitten are in Teviotdale
of the parish dust tart, the toon'' s fuilzie, called (maeu, waeu).
gaberluinzie wallet, cuinzie coin. But
Chap. IV. § 2. V — XIV TH CENTURY. 299
furst 1920 == first, compare ferst 530, Imld 16699 = held, hidden
15802 = hclden, hulles 7921 = hills, put 14982 = pit, and many
other cases there seems to be no doubt that u miist be read as i or e.
Compare Canturhury 16, with : from Cantiirhery, the more mery 803,
and this again with the three rhymes —
Aud thus I lete him sitte in the pirie
And January and May rom\Tige mirye, 10091
thow poete Marcian,
That ■writest us that ilke weddjTig merye
Of Mr Philologie and he Mercurie. 9606
Him thought that how the wenged god Mercurie
Byforn him stood, and bad him to be mitrye. 1 387
Here we have all three spellings mirye, merye, murye of the same
word, the fii'st rhyming distinctly with i short or long, {i) or (it),
and the two last rhyming -with u long which we must consider as
(yy). IS'ow in the Schipmanncs Tale there is occasion to mention
the town of Bruges, and we find it spelled Bruges 14466, but
Brigges 14472, 14669, 14712, which must have been intended for
the same sound. Recollecting that the sound of (y) short is in
Sweden, Denmark, and most of Germany scarcely distinguished
from (?) short, into which it very often entii'ely falls, it occurred
to me that the explanation of this use of u short as i might be a
similar vagueness or indistinctness of pronunciation, and that the
scribe, writing from dictation, either actual or internal, (for it will
be found that the copyist usually pronoimces the words to himself
as he writes, with a mental efi^ort which reproduces the sound to
his consciousness although it is externally inaudible, and although
the organs of speech are not even put into the corresponding posi-
tions), feeling doubtful, ocaasionally wrote u, but generally i or e.
This theoiy supposes that the (y) was a known EngKsh sound, and
that the ii represented the Angiosaxon y. In the words lusy, hiry
where the old u spelling has clung to the words notwithstanding the
{i, e) sounds, we have y in Angiosaxon hjsig, hyrigean. Trust is
marked by Salesbuiy as having the sound (^), and so it has ia
Scotch, where (p?t) or (pet) is also said occasionally for put. This
again calls to mind the East Anglian (k/ver)^ for (kuver), now
(kava) = cover, mentioned in Gill, and also his denunciation of the
Mopsey transfoiTuation of (butsh'erz meet) into (b/tsh'erz miit).
There would seem therefore to be some physiological connection
between u short-, and i short, which must be sought for in the eleva-
tion of the tongue, both being high wide vowels, although (m) is back
and (i) front, {ti) round and {i) primary.
This theory that, when short u stood for short i or e, it was in
fact meant for the short sound of the French u (y), of which the
long sound was at that time represented also by u, will receive ad-
ditional corroboration in the next chapter.
^ The East Anglian Promptorium spellings fydyll fiddle, fadyr father,
■writes cuverynge, and, in connection gylte guilt, furst first, hyllys hills, pyt
with the words we have been previously pit, putt put, lysty lusty lusty, cystyr
considering, it is interesting to note the sister, Mercurye Mercuiy, myry merry.
300
U — XIV TH CENTURY.
Chap. IV. § 2.
In Trcuisa's Higdcn, taking the chapter 59, De Incolartim Linguis
and comparing the text in ilr. ilorris's Specimens of Early English,
p. 338, taken ti\)m the Brit. Mus. M.S. Tiberius, D. vu.,
Harleian MS. 1900, and Caxton's edition (Brit. Mus. C
find the following spellings :
Tiberius D. vii,
bu>
furste
bur)7etonge
pujjthc
lumede
with the
21. d) I
Harleian, 1900.
be>
first
bir]>etonge
lemed
■wondur
undurstonde]?
Caxton.
ben
first
langage
syn, sjrth
lemed
wonder
vnderstawde
wonder
vnderstondejj
This comparison at any rate shews that diflferent scribes had a
difierent feeling as to the vowel that should be employed, and
proves the practical identity of this short ti with short i or e. If
any one "will resolutely say,' (byth, fyrst, byi-th'etuq, syth*e,
lyr'nede, wnn'dyr, un'dyrstondeth), and then compare his pronun-
ciation with provincial utterances of the same words, "which are the
best living representatives of the ancient, he will be better able to
appreciate the trouble of the scribe in selecting the proper letter, on
the theory here advanced. It must be borne in mind that the
scribe was quite familiar with long (yy) and had a letter for it, u,
and that he had no other letter for short (y) but the same u,
although he had three signs for short (m), viz. u, o, ou. In such a
case he most probably felt it to be a greater liberty to use i, or e,
than u in many words, although, to avoid the ambiguity of sound
(y, u) in the letter u, he often employed ^, e.
Although it is of coTirse possible that there was a dialectic "West of
England pronunciation («) which replaced (y) or (i),* it is at least
extremely doubtful, and certainly cannot apply to the indifi'erent
use by the same -writer of u and e in similar situations in the same
sentence as already pointed out (p. 298).
^ "Without considerable practice an
Englishman may find the distinct enun-
ciation of these words very troublesome,
especially when he feels bound to keep
himself clear of (u, i, e). The true
short (y) in a closed syllable is an
especial stumbling block to English-
men. Prof. Max Miiller, gets so often
called (Mal-j) and (MmI-j), that it is a
pity English people do not know that
these sounds would be unintelligible in
Germany, where their own (M«lu)
would be readily understood. Even
Wilkins, who lived at a time when we
know from "Wallis that (yy) was a
common soimd in England, and who
must have constantly heard the soimd
from "Wallis himself, says that this
vowel is of "laborious and difficult
pronunciation especially in the
distinction of long and short." See
supra p. 1 76.
2 Mr. Barnes, in his Poems of Rural
Life in the Dorset Dialect, 1848, p. 31,
says : " C in tcitll, will, is rather un-
settled, being mostly sounded in the
Vale of Blackmore as u in bull (m) ;
but in some parts will is wul, u in lull
(9), and sometimes wiill with the ii of
German miiller (y). . . . In the Vale
of Blackmoor will is at different times
wuol, ivull and wiill (w?d, wal, wyl)
even in the same mouth." In the in-
troductorj' letter to Xathan Hogg's
Letters in the Devonshire Dialect, by
Mr. Henry Baird, of Exeter, 1847,
12mo, pp. 51, I find the following or-
thographies kindly interpreted for me
Chap. IV. § 2. EU, E\V — XIV TH CENTURY. 301
The conclusion is tliat U in the xiv th century was gene-
rally (yy, n), but short U was occasionally employed for (i, e),
which were generally sounds into which a more ancient, ori-
ginally Anglosaxon (y), had fallen, although through errors
of the scribe U was employed in many words for I, E simply.
EU, E W — XIV TH Century.
In the XVI th century there were two pronunciations of this com-
biaation, as there were also in the French language, (yy, eu). The
following lists may be collected from Chap. III., under the headings
eu (p. 137) and u (p. 163), where the italicised words in ew are
now spelled with ue.
Ml = (yy) ; blew, brew, glewe, knew, mew (of hawks), new, rewe
(a plant), slew, snew, trewe
jEm = (eu); dewe (moisture), ewe, fewe, to hew, mew (of cats),
sewer (a waiter), shew, shrewe, strew
Hhymes in ew are necessarily few in number. I have noted
rather more than thirty in the Canterbury Tales. For the purposes
of comparison an alphabetical Hst of all the words in these rhymes,
including one Latin word, and a few words whose spellings seemed
of importance, though they do not occur in rhyming syllables, has
been annexed. Against each word its pronunciation in the xvith
century has been written, when it could be ascertained, on the au-
thority of Bull. (BuUokar), But. (Butler), G. (Gill), P. (Palsgrave),
Sa. (Salesbury), 8m. (Smith). The immediate ags. (Anglosaxon),
or fr. (French, often old French), origin follows, together with the
orthogTaphy, when it could be found, in the Pr. (Promptorium), the
first being the reading in Mr. Albert Way's text, and the sub-
sequent ones those which he adds from other MS. Next follow the
rhymes in which the word occurs, with its orthogi'aphy in the place
and the reference number. By this means a complete comparative
view of all the words is furnished, which will enable us to draw a
satisfactory conclusion.
by Mr. J. Shelly, of Plymouth, in may not be the case, for (tal, spal) may
which M is apparently used for (a, o, u, be representatives of (tA, sp^l). The
y, yy, 9, 93) ; vur (vaa) for, vury (vojtj) Devonshire (y) is here seen to be un-
very, gtide (g5sd) good, du (dj'y, dy) do, certain and to admit (a) as well. The
purmoting (pojmoot-m) promoting, dude same is the case in Norfolk. Mr. M.
(d<?d) did, yuve (jjyv) you've, uv (av) Bell hears French u as (»). In Nathan
of, kuse (k?<9s) course, UiU (tol) tell, Hogg's New iSeries of poems, including
spull (spal) spell, bewtivul (bm-tivwl) 'Macksy Lane' a ghost story in the
beautiful, uhe (als) else, abid (eb'l, Devonshire Dialect, dedicated by per-
eb-8l) able, tmy (on?) only, thur (dha) mission to H.I.R. Prince Louis Lucien
thee, wulling (wal-m) willing, hikes Bonaparte, London, 1864, 12mo, pp. 52,
(bsjks) books, adu (adyy) adieu. Here Mr. Baird uses an italic u for the (yy,
we have dude (d?d) precisely as in the 93) sound, reserving roman u for the
xnith century, in Robert of Gloucester others, and similarly uses a for (a), and
etc, but tull, spull (tal, spal) seem to the whole orthography is much im-
indicate an ancient (twl, spwl) ; yet this proved.
302 EU, EW — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 2.
A careful examination of this li.'^t would shew that if attention is
confined only to the words fur wliieh we have xvith century autho-
rity, the old classes would remain undistiu-bed, because no (y) word
rhymes -with an (eu) word or conversely, lint if we remark that
hue rhpnes with true, knew, and also rue, and that rue, which rhymes
with hue, also rhymes with true and with shrew, we are led to con-
clude that true and shrew would have rhymed in the xrvth, as they
do in the xixth centuiy. 15 ut this breaks up the old classification
altogether. On examining the etymological relations, it will be seen
that the old classification is at variance with them, but taking them
as a basis we can divide the words into two classes, French and
Anglosaxon, — including in the latter, words certainly GeiTaanic,
though not accurately traced, — as follows :
French — hlue, due, eschew, ghee, mew, remew, stew, sue.
Anglosaxon — drunkelew, few, hew to hack, hew servant, hue, knew,
new, rew row, rue, slieic, shrew, threw, true.
The following table then shews that words of the first class
rhyme together, but no word of the first class rhymes with any
word of the second class. The fii'st class corresponds to a French u,
the second to an Anglosaxon iw, eow. Taking into consideration the
Latin rhyme : de coitu, eschieu 9685, as well as the derivation of
these words, there can be little doubt that in Chaucer's time the
first class had (y) and the second (eu). This distinction, then so
carefully kept, was not understood in the xvith century in which
several of the (eu) words, as knew, new, true, had fallen into the (y)
class. At present all the (y) class, and most of the (eu) class have
formed an (iu) class,' except when, thi'ough the influence of a pre-
ceding (r), the modem English organs natui-ally change (iu) into
(uu), but some of the (eu) class have become {oo) as shew, now
more frequently wiitten show. In such a word as Thesem 862,
there is no diphthong, and we have to read (Thee*se,us).
In the XIV th century then it will be safest to call EU,
EW, (yy), in words of French origin, and. (eu) in all
other words.
AXPHABETICAL LiST OF E"W RhTIEES, ETC.
beauty (beu-ti) G., fr. beaute, Pr. bewte, due (dyy) Sm. G., fr. du, Pr. duly
beawtye decor, bewte 2387 debite, due eschiewe 9325, eschewe
blue (blj7) Sm. a<^s. bleoh, bleow, dewe 3045
blco, blio, Pr. bloo lividus ; blewe escheiv, fr. eschiver, escbever, escbuir,
mewe (for hawks) 10957 esquiver, Pr. achwyn vito; eschieu
coitu, Lt. de coitu, eschieu 9685. As coitu 9685, eschiewe due 9325,
the practical identity of the spelling eschewe dewe 3045, escbiewed
ie with e has already been estab- sewed =/o//o«-fd 16823
lishcd, no weight can be laid on few (feu) P. Sm. G., ags. feawa ; Pr.
the variant ieu as distinct from eu. fewe paucus ; fewe schewe 7431,
drunkelew, Pr. drunkelew (see Mr. 12546, 13758, fewe schrewe 14234
Albert "Way's note there) ebriosm, glue (glyy) P., fr. glu birdlime, gluyer
dronkelewe schrewe 7627, 9407, stick together, Pr. glwy/» visco,
13910 i-glewed remewed 10495
1 For the Scotch sounds, see p. 298, note 1, at the end.
Chap. IV. J 2.
OU, OW XIV TH CENTURY.
303
hew (neu) Bull., ags. hcawan, heawian,
Pr. hewyw seco, hakke and hcwe,
lay hem on a rc^Q = roiv, 2867
hew = hind, domestic servant, ags.
hiwa ; hevre untrewe 9659.
hue, ags. hiw, hiw, heow ; hiewe trewe
13836, hewe trewe 10901, 17207,
hewe newe 1039, 109-53, 11327,
hewerewe = Aa«>e compassion 12656
knew (knyy) But., ags. cneow perf. from
cnmvan ; knewe newe 14995,
knewc Tevre = repent, 3081
mete, for hawks, (my)-) P. Sm, fi'. mue
p/nce for putting poultry to fatten ;
P. mue for haukes meve ; Pr. mv
of hawkys, falconarixim, mwe or
cowle, mv, saginarium ; mewe
(for poulti-y) stewe 351, mewe
(for hawks) "blewe 10957
new ifijy) Sm. G., ags. neowe, niwe,
m-we ; Pr. nwe, nev, novus ; newe
hewe, 1039, 10953, 11327, newe
ti'ewe 14344, 16535, newe untrewe
737, 12970, 15514, newe knewe
14995, newe threw (error for
threive) 14983
remeiv, fr. remuer ; Pr. remown or re-
mevyw, amoveo ; remewed i-glewed
10495.
row, ags. rawa, Pr. rowe series; lay
hem on a rewe = >ow, hakke and
hewe 2867
rue, pain, repentance, repent ; ags.
hreowe, hreowan ; Pr. ruwyw poe-
niteo compatior ; rewe = pain
schrewe 6087, rewe = have com-
passion trewe 1865, rewe = repent
trewe 3529, rewe = have compas-
sion hewe = Awe 12656, Tevfe=re-
pent knewe 3081
rule, fr. riule monastic rule, Pr. rewle
of tech)Tige, regula, norma ; reule
173, reuled 1674
ruth, see rue, quasi hreowj^e Pr. ruthe
compassio ; reuthe = compassion
5074, xent\ie= compassion treuthe
14608, roiithe = compassion,
trowthe slouthe = s^<A 4949
shew (sheu) Sm. G. Bull, ags. scawian
sceawian ; Pr. schewe or schew-
ynge monstracio ; schewe schrewe
5865, 12844, schewe fewe 7431,
12546, 13758
shreiv (shreu) P., etj-mology unkno-«Ti,
see Wedgewood 3, 176. Pr.
schrewe pravus, schrewj'd pra-
vatus, schrewyd hertyd pravicors,
schrewdenesse pravitas, schrewe
rewe =pain 6087 ; schrewe shewe
5865, 12844, schrewe dronkelewe
7627, 9407, 13910, schrewe fewe
14234
stew, fr. estuve, Pr. stuwyw mete, stuyn,
stiipho ; stuwyn men?? or bathyw,
stuyn in a stw, halneo ; stwe fysche
pond, stewe, vivarium; stwe bathe,
stupha ; stewe— fs/i p)ond mewe
(for poultry) 351, styves = iro^Ac/s
lyves 6914
sue, fr. sufr, sivire, sivre, sewir ; Pr.
svyw or '^^X[?,\^n persequor, suwynge
sequela, svinge succcssus ; sewed
eschiewed 16823
surety (syyr) Sa. Bull., fr. seur; seurte
1606, sewerte 6485
threw ags. J^reow ; threw (error for
12970, threive) newe 14983
true (tryy) P. Sa. Bull. G, ags. treowe,
trywe ; Pr. trwe verus, truwe
mann verax, trewe hewe = hue
10901, 17207, trewe hiewe =/(!<e
13836, trewe rewe 1865, 3529,
ti-ewe newe 14344, 16535.
truth, ags. treow^, Pr. trowthe Veritas,
treuth reuth 14608, trowthe routhe
s\ovLt'\ie= sloth 4949
untrue, see true, imti-ewe hewe = s6!r-
vant 9659, untrewe newe 737,
15514
value, fr. value ; valieu 14582
OF, 0"W — XIV TH Century.
As we have already had occasion to remark (p. 236), when the
letter u, which is the natural representative of the (uii) sound in
all languages that have adopted the Eoman alphabet, has come to
lose its proper sound, as in French, Dutch, Swedish, English, but
that sound remains in the language, it becomes necessary to adopt
some other notation for (uu). The (uu) sound in these cases has
been generally a transformed (oo). Hence it lay ready at hand to
use 0 simply for this sound, as we have seen was occasionally done
in Chaucer (p. 267), and is still done in move, etc., and as the Swedes
have been content to do. The Dutch employ oe for (uu), as they
304 OU, OW — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 2.
iise 00 and o for (oo), but, as appears from the history of this ortho-
grajjhy (p. 236, note 3), oe was in fiict long o used as (uu), precisely
as in the last case. The French used o?<, in the earliest existing
documents,' though the ^Normans used xt, for both (yy) and (uu) ap-
parently, as may be seen in the French original of Henry Ill.'rds
English proclamation, Chap. V, § 3, No. I. On an examination of
the documents of the xiii th century it will be found that the use of
u for /, e, representing the y, that is (y), of the Anglosaxon, greatly
increased towards the end of the period, so that confusions between
the values of u as (uu, yy) became annoying. Writers then appear
to ha^•e introduced the spelling oe< towards the close of that period,
in conjunction with w, to represent (uu), but, the convenience being
manifest, o?< became general by the early part of the xiv th century.
These facts will be established in the next chapter, and are here only
stated by way of anticipation. There was one disadvantage in the
use of OU, namely that it had also to be employed for (oou), but this
occasions very slight inconvenience. In the present place we have
only to estabHsh that ou really represented (uu) generally, and con-
sequently (u) occasionally, in Chaucer.
As the use of u for short (u, w) was ali'eady well fixed, and its use
for ?, e was rapidly going out, oxi, was of course not so frequently
employed for short (u) as for long (uu). Examples however occur,
thus : ous 5729 stands for us, outerly 6245 for utterly, and the
orthographies Arrioiis 6344 for Arrius, Caukasous 6722 for Caucasus,
leave no doubt of the use of ou as short (u). Cui-iously enough the
sound of (uu) fell into (ou) about the xvith centuiy (p. 150), and ou
served then to represent tliat sound without change of spelling. But
after tliis it became important to distinguish the (uu) and (oo) sounds
of long 0, and the orthogi-aphy oo, adopted for the fonuer (p. 96),
has remained in use to the present day. In the imacccnted syllables
-our, representing -(iiur), the orthography was left imchanged as
well as the pronunciation. In the xvn th century these syllables fell
into (-or), and either the o or u in -our was felt to be supci-fluous.
In quite recent times factions have been fonued, one rcquiiing -or to
be used universally, others maintaining that -oxer should be preserved
to distinguish the words that come from the French, which now ex-
hibits -eur, con'csponding to a later development of that language.
In Chaucer's time however -our was used, simply because the pro-
nunciation was (-uur), as -oxoi was used for the present common
termination -on, compare coiTupcioun 13950, confessioun 1735,
regioun 2083, visioun 7259, Icoun 6377, etc., wliicli were pro-
nounced (un) or (uun) even in the xvith century (p. 99). "We
have retained -ous unaltered, and this was also (-ms) in the xvi th
century (p. 150).
1 Liez, Gram. d. Eom. Spr. 1, 429, vowel, as navebovs = navibus, observ-
2nd ed , where he quotes Beuary lliJm. iiijj that Moramsen (Untcrit. Dialecte,
Lautlchrc, 82, to shew that the Old 217) and Kitschl (De niilliario Popil-
Eonians oeoasionally used on as a mere lano, p. 34) are of a different opinion,
orthographical sign for u, and remarks and consider that in really old inscrip-
that it was even employed for a short tions ou = ov, and not u.
Chap. IV. § 2. OV, OW — XIV TH CENTURY. 305
As Palsgrave (p. 149), and Bullokar (p. 152), in the xvith century-
recognized this (uu) sound of ou, it will only be necessaiy to intro-
duce a few examples.
Rhtmes with L.vtik Names: — Theseus, desirous 1675, curious,
Darius 6079, Venus, contrarious 6279, Apius, leccherous 13680,
Claudius, corrageous 15821, vicious, Swethoneus = Suetonius 15949,
Antiochius, venemous 16061.
Rhymes with French "Woeds : —
What will ye dine ? I will go there aloute.
Now, dame, quod he, /eo vous dy saunz doute, 7419
Full many mayde bright in hour
They moiu'ne for him, par amour. 15153
Compare —
And but thou do my norice honoure
And to my chamberer withinne my boure, 5882
I^ATTiRAL SoTJJO). — The cry of the cuchoo was certainly intended
to be (kuk'kuu"), and this determines ow in
This crowe song, Cuckow, cuckow, cnckow !
What brid, quod Phebus, what song syngistow now ? 17175
Perfectly Saxon words as hour, now, ahoufe, having thus the
sound of (uu) established, we may feel sure of it in other cases, as :
hous Caukasous 6721, thus vicious 7629, dowte aboute 489, tour
honour 2029, Arthour honour 6440, dortour hour 7437, powre
laboure 185, flour odour 2939, hour schour 3519, emperour
honour flour 5507, in an hour (error for Jtottre), to honoure 14954,
houres schoures 3195, 10431, and hence schowres 1 = (shuur-es) ;
yow how 7982, youthe nouthe 463, to give the child to souke, all
in the crouke 4155, colours (error for coloures) floures 10824, licour
flour* 3, adoun broun 394, licorous mous 3345, pitous mous 143,
houndcs stojundes 5867, stounde founde 5441, vertuous hous 251,
for to touche, in his couche 5669, untrouthe routhe 5107. Whence
also we conclude that: cowde 110, flowtynge 91, drowpud 107,
embrowdid 88, so woweth hire 3372, thay blew and pow2)ed, thay
schryked and thay howped 16885, facound 13465, and numerous
other words in ou, have also (uu) or (u).
As examples of those cases in which ou, ow, had the sound (oou)
maintained in the xixth century as (oou) practically, but (oo) theo-
retically, we may take : anoon the soules, with fleischhok or with
oules = aivls, ags. sawl, awul 7311, Bowe, unknowe 125, lowe
knowe 2301, I trowe, undurgrowe 155.
In the provinces two sounds of ou, ow are also common. One of
these is (uu) in almost all districts, but the others varies as (aa, aa,
au, iau, ou, iou), and even (au, ou), and there is great difficulty in
obtaining a satisfactory account of what the sounds really are, and
consequently in" classifying them. The following lists referring to
the dialect of South Shields,' will serve as a specimen. Por the
1 Obligingly communicated by the Kev. C. Y. Potts, of Ledbury.
20
306 OU, OW — XIV TII CEKTVRY. Chap. IV. § 2.
present purpose the most important point to dwell on is the per-
sistence of the (uu) sound.
<no = (uu) in : down, town, crown, tower, now, trowscrs, how,
flower, power, drowned, cow, sow, bow «. & v. Jledere, bow
areas = (bau).
OU = (uu) in : plough, round, sound, mound, hound, doubt, thou,
about, count, out, house, sour, flour; — found, bound, ground,
these three words are also pronounced with (o), but this is for
the dialect even, very vulgar ; — our, which is vulgarly (wor).
OU = (au) in : brought, sought, fought, bought, thought, ought «.
& v., nought, soiil, four, loup s. & v. = leap, coup = exchange.
OW = (aa) in: blow, snow, low adj., row «., crow, slow, below,
know, callow, arrow, barrow ; — owe, own, another and less
vulgar pronunciation of these words would be (au, aun), and
in these words generally (au) not (oo) would be the alternative
pronunciation.
0 = (au) in : old, cold, also (aad, kaad) ; — sold, told, also (seld,
teld) ; — old, bold, fold ;— stroll, toll, roll ; — over (au-er).
(au) is heard in : daughter, neither, either, loose, sew, chew, mew,
row V. & «., low = flame, bow arcus.
Mr. Murray has been kind enough to furnish the following in-
teresting account of the Scotch usages :
" In all the Scottish dialects the Anglosaxon long u, and French
OU, retain their old sound (uu, u) before a consonant as : hour
(buur) lower, clour a swelling caused hy a blow, dour, stubborn,
flower (fluur), hour (uur), power (puur), tour (ets Juur tuur to
pW) its your turn to play, tower, sour, stour ^ loose dtist, shower,
scour, devour (di--\-uur), our (uur), your, pour (puur), cower
(kuur), spout (spuut), shout, lout (luut) A.S. lutian, to stoop, rouse,
bouse (ruuz, buuz).
" In the following the vowel is shortened in quantity but un-
changed in quality : brown (brun), crown, doim (dun), drown
(drun), gown, loun, town (tun), bowl Fr. boule (bul), foul, fowl
(ful), swim (sum), sum (sum), howl, yowl, scowl, owl, howlet Fr.
houlette (Hul-9t), mouldy, course, court (kui's, kurt), source, douce,
croose (krus) sprighthy, house, mouse, louse, mouth (muth), drouth
drought, south, Soutra,'' souter, snout, out, about, (ut, abut*), doubt,
clout, bout (t! dreqk-iQ but) a dnnki'tig bout, stout, scout, pouch,
vouch, crouch, often (kruutsh), couch, bxilk (buk), duck verb —
1 The first stanza of Burns's address -well illustrates these (uu) sounds. The
" to a Mountain Daisy, on turning one pronunciation is that heard by Mr.
down with the plough', in April, 1786," Murray from a townsman of the poet.
"Wee, modest, crimson-tipped flower, ("^'ii, mod-ast, kremzn-tepit fluur,
Thou's met me in an evil hour ; Dhuu -z mEt ma en en iivl uur;
For I maun crush amang the stoure For aai man krash amaq- dha stuux
Thy slender stem ; Dhai slEnd-ar stEm ;
To spare thee now is past my pow'r, Ta s^eer dhi nuu ez past ma puur.
Thou bonnie gem, Dhuu bon-« dzhsm.)
' The hilly ridge which separates the Lothians from the south country.
Chap, IV. § 2. OU, OW — XIV TH CENTURY. 307
the noun is (dyk, dcek), — drouk to dre^ich, jouk to elude, louk, pouk
to pick, pilfer, ploock to pluck, suck, touc o'drum, stouk a shock of
corn.
"The combination -ound is, like -ind, in a transition state; the
past participles : bound, found, gi'ound, wound, ai'e usually (ban,
fand, gran, wan), and ground s. (grand), but I consider this to be
recent, for I have heai'd (u) in some of these from old people, and
we always hear it in : "VVhere are ye (bim) or (bund) for, to beat
the (bunds), boondit, boondarie, boim'tree : and the sound is
always used in round (rund), sound, to found, founded, fotmdation,
stound a fit or *■ spelV as (u stund 9 dha tceth-^k) = a fit of the
toothache. Hound is occasionally (nand), usually (nund).
" Anglosaxon ti final is also (uu) in most of the Scottish dialects,
but in that of the Southern counties, the same law which has de-
veloped long i into (ei), here develops (uu) into (au). The follow-
ing words therefore pronounced in the other dialects with (uu) are
pronounced in Teviotdale and Dumfriesshire with (au) : cow, sow,
how, you, now, bow to bend, through, doo dove,^ loe to love, brow,
fu' full, tipsy, gout, an after taste (guu), Tev. (gau), as (it hses ib
kwiii' gau abut" it) = it h(is a queer flavour about it, pu' pull, (supra
p. 287,) mou' mouth.
" The Borderers thus pronouncing (eu) where the other Scots say
(uu), — where the others say (au) they advance a step and say (on),
so that the following words are in the Lothians pronounced (au), in
Teviotdale (ou), in English (oo) or (oou) : bow arcus, grow, dow
to avail, howe a hollow, knowe a knoll, bowe a boll,^ lowe^ a fiame,
powe a poll, rowe roll, roiv, stow, tow, trow, thowe to thaw, drow
a Scotch mist, a drizzle, bowl, soul, four, glower to stare, ower over.
" The two pronunciations may be shewn thus :
Central Scotch : (faui' baulz fuu e njuu molk ie dha kuu)
Teviotdale : (four boulz fan a n/u melk three * dhe kau)
English: four bowls full of new milk from the cow."
The conclusion seems therefore to be that OU, OW in
the XIV th century should be read as (uu, w) except in
those cases where aiv, or simple o was used in Anglo-
saxon.
^ A school inspector wisliing to get ' Compare —
the sound of (uu) out of a Hawick girl, (Dharz let'l wat en dha pou
and unaware of this peculiarity of pro- Dhat le/Ats dha kan'l at dha lou)
nunciation, asked her what she called a = There's little wit in the poll or head,
pigeon, (A dani) replied she, and posed That lights the candle at the low or
him as much as the child posed the flame;
teacher, who, wanting to obtain fi-om and the pun on the names of Messrs.
him the word take, asked him : " What Lowe and Bright at the Edinburgh
woiild you do, if I gave you a piece of Eeform Demonstration : " The Lowe
cake?" and received the very natiiral that'll never bum Bright" (Dhe lou
reply : " Eat it." dhat'l nevar barn breAht).
^ Compare Sir T. Smith's jScou, ^a)i)A., * So like\vise in the ^ar7?s?ey dialect
supra p. 151. throo is used iov from.
308 B, C, CH, D, F. G, GN — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 3.
§ 3. The Consonants.
Very little is to be learned from the rhymes respecting the
consonants. With our knowledge of the x^'I th century con-
sonants, however, there can be but little doubt as to the
values of any one of them.
B, C, CH, D, F.
B when silent as in doubt, debt, was not written thus : dowte 489,
dette 282. It was otherwise (b) of course,
C was (s) or (k), according to the same rules as at present, but
ci- remained (si-) and had not become (sh). In the termination
-tion, we find c, s, t interchanging, shewing the identity of sound,
but it always formed two syllables. Compare
Lo, heer hath kjTid his dominacwMw,
And appctit flemeth discre^iown. 17114
0 wautrust, ful of fals suspeccibim
Where was thy wit and thy discrecioMW. 17214
And eke he was of such discressjowM. 16795
CH was generally (tsh), see J, K.
D was (d) of course.
F seems to have been always (f), so that of must be called (of)
not (ov). Judging from other writing, as Robert of Gloucester and
Trevisa, u or v would have been used had (v) been pronounced.
Mr. Murray says that o/is still pronounced (of) in the North, when
the consonant is retained before a vowel, as (dha nid of b hist) the
head of a beast.
G, GN.
G followed the same rule as at present, and was (g) in all Saxon
words, but in French words (g) before a, o, u, and (dzh) before
(e, i). See J.
GN occasionally represented simple w, as in the couplet
Sche may unto a knave child atteigne
By liklihed, sith sche nys not bareigne. 8323
where gn represents an old French gn, in baraigne, which was pro-
bably (nj) as now, so that (atain* barain*) would be the natural
English representatives. Accordingly the MS. Univ. Cam. Dd. 4.
24, here writes atteijne, bareyne ; a spelling found also in Harl.
7334, in
Thou maist to thy desir somtynie atteyne
But I that am exiled, and bareyne
Of alle grace, 1245
while gn and n rhyme in
And of his oughne vertu unconstrei^«ed
Sche hath ful otte tj-me hire seek y-feyned. 13476
where we should have expected gn in the second line as much as
in the first. Companye 24, was also commonly written for : com-
paignye 3837.
Chap. IV. § 3. G, GN — XIV TH CENTURY. 309
How were diffne, henigne 519, pronounced? As Anglo-French
(d»n'e, ben«n"e)?' Or after the custom of Latin pronunciation
(maq-nus, iq*nis) in the middle ages — testified by the medieval
Latin orthography, and still existing in Salesbury's time, — as
(diq'ne, beniq'ne) ? The question affects also such words as dignite,
signifie, sign. Here the modem use condign dignity, benign henig-
nity, sign signify (k^ndoiu d^g•n^t^, binain* bia/g*n«t/, saiu s^g•n^-
fai) would seem to lead to an anterior (dwu d?'g'm'te, beuMn- be-
n^g•n^te, s«Vn s/gn«fM*e). But the old example of i^seined for signed
in Henry Ill.'rds English proclamation, throws a doubt over this.
As however the special word sign, had assumed a thoroughly Saxon
form, segnian to sign or bless, segnung a signing with the cross or
blessing, the (ai) sound would be developed naturally by the
passage of the guttural g into (j).
Can we consider the forms: deynous 3939, 6*114, deyne 3961,
5-204, deyneth 5"288 as conclusive. The French digne, daigner,
shew a double form in these words, and hence leave us still
ia doubt. The word: dyne 4*200, 4'201, = r/mi?, was in French
disgner, dispner, and is considered by Roquefort to be derived from
the commencement of the gi'ace dignare, doniine, but the etymology
is so doubtful^ that no weight can be attached to this. The termina-
tion -igne is not found rhyming either with -ey7ie or -yne, and this
would a priori lead us to conclude that the soujid was different
from either, that is, neither (-aia*e) nor (-Mn*e). But we find : digne
benigne resigne 4*125, 4*225, sygne benygne 5*183, digne signe
5*330, so that the old and proved (sain) and the occasional (dain)
would seem to imply also (benain*, resain*). On the other hand
Gill writes (ben/g*n) or (ben^q*n) for benign, and this ought to im-
ply that he did not know the pronunciation (benoiii*), which may
nevertheless have existed, and been ignored. Jones, however, 1701,
gives only (bin/g*3n), though he admits (sain, rezain*), and Sales-
bury and Smith give (sein). Gill (sain), Buchanan and Sheridan in
the xvrnth century give (binain* biinAin*). Similar difliculties
have existed in the pronunciations of impugn, impregn.
If the sound (ain) had prevailed in Chaucer's time, we should
have expected (ain), not (ein) ia the xvith century. Bullokar
seems to wiite (snn), and the (sein) of the xvi th and (sain) of the
XIX th century are in hannony with this, which would imply (s^'n)
m Chaucer also. In this doubt the safest plan seems to be to adopt
(wn) for Chaucer's pronunciation, admitting the secondary form
(ain) when eyn is written. This will be consistent with the present
and intermediate pronunciation, with the general use of i in Chaucer,
^ Diez (Gr. de R.S. i, 439 note, 2nd cunque n sequitur i in media diccione,
ed) says that digne occurs in old French in diversis sillabis g debet interponi,
with silent s, as brigans dignes rhymed nt certaignement, benignement ; sed g
■with J?-!^«M^iwfs citing Ducange sub voce non debet sonari."
briga. And the MS. 188 of Mag. Coll. ^ j^mo^g the etymons given are
Oxford, cited by M. Genin (Introduc- duirvetv, decoenare, decima (hora),
tion to the French reprint of Palsgrave, sdigiunare, dejeuner = disjejunare. See
p. 29) says, rule 92 : item, quando- Donkin's Diez, sub desinare.
310
GH, Y, Z — XIV TH CENTURY.
Chap. IV. § 3.
and with his use of -gne in other "words, and as regards the word
sign would imply that ho took it from the French with the other
words, or designedly adopted a French in preference to the an-
tiquated pronunciation (sain). The question is one of extreme dif-
ficulty and the conclusion is doubtful.
GH, Y, Z
The modem editors usually represent 5 or rather j ^ hy ^A when
medial and final, and by ^ or y when initial. In Mr. Morris's
Chaucer Extracts he purposed to shew where the manuscript ex-
hibited J for liis printed gh, y, by italicising these letters. He has
not carried out his plan with sufficient accui-acy to make an examin-
ation of the MS. unnecessaiy.^ Assuming, however, that where he
has used the italics, j was employed in the MS., we obtain the fol-
lowing results for the Prologue, Knightes Tale, and I^onne Prestes
Tale, in which I have here used a common 2 in place of 5 or j.
The numbers annexed to the words indicate the observed number
of occurrences of this orthography.
azens
1
sauz
zelwe
1
zolden
brouzt
1
thouztc
zemen
3
zollyng
deyzen
1
unzolden
zerd
6
zolo
douzter 3
upzaf
zerde
1
zolow
drauzt
1
weyzede
zeros
1
zolw
eyzen
9
wizt
zet
8
zolwe
3
fizlyng
1
ynowz
zette
1
zomanly 1
forzete
1
yze
zeve
5
zonder
1
forzeve
2
zaf
zeven
3
zong
3
heyz
1
zalwe
zevest
1
zonge
6
heizer
1
zate
zeveth
1
zore
2
knizt
2
zeddynges 1
zif
3
zou
2
nozt
8
zeeldyng
1
ziftes
2
zoung
1
nouzt
9
zeer
14
zit
18
zouthe
5
perfizt
4
zeldehalle 1
zive
3
zou
1
rizt
1
zelleden
1
ziven
1
caught
But the orthography is not consistent, for gh is often employed in
the MS. Thus, accepting Mr. Morris's edition as correct, except in
the words you, etc., we find in the Prologue only
brought 1 caughte 1 foughte 1 herbergh 2
bythought 1 draught 1 foughten 1 heye 1
1 drought 2 heih 1 heygh 1
types to use s instead of j in both cases.
This is the plan I have pursued in the
following lists, and it is one followed
by older printers and embalmed in the
Scotch Menzies, Dalzel, Mackenzie,
which are often called (ileq-tz, DjeI,
D«'EL, Maken-Ji) in Scotland, see p.
298, n.
2 Thus in v. 34 and 38 he prints
'yow' in place of 'yow' that is 'jow.'
^ This character in the MSS. is
generally indistinguishable from z, so
that when an editor prints some words
with J and others with z he is making
an arbitrary distinction like that of
separating m, v. In Mr. Morris's edition
of Sir Gawaine for the Early English
Text Society, j is printed for both 3
and z. It would have been more con-
sistent with the employment of Roman
Chap. IY. § 3.
GH, Y, Z -
- XIV TH CENTURY.
31
high 1
highte 1
inough 1
knight 2
might 4
mighte 1
neigh 2
neighe 1
night 1
nightertale 1
nightyngale 1
nought 1
oughte
raught
right
seigh
sleight
streight
1
1
4
1
1
1
taughte
though
thought
wight
WTight
wroughte
1
2
2
1
1
1
mighten 1
It may he doubtful whether y is ever used initially, in the modem
sense. I have not observed any instance in the MS., but I have not
examined it thoroughly with this view. The use of y was quite
established however before the time of piinting.
The reader is requested to refer to the remarks on gh in Chap. III.
(op. 209-214). As gh still retained its guttural sounds in the xvith
cmtury,^ we cannot but beKeve that it had these sounds in the
XV th, whatever may have been the Anglosaxon original sounds.
The divarications of (kh) into (kjh, kwh) pointed out in the remarks
referred to, so that it sank to (j, i) on the one hand, and (wh, u)
or the other, are well shewn. Thus, to the first class belong theigh
= (dhai/'h) for though.
For theigh thou night and day take of hem heede. 10926
wlich becomes simply they (dhai) in
That Chaucer, they he can but lewedly
On metres and on rhyming craftely. 4467
and similarly seigh 9605, seij 13307 for saw.
^ rhe sound is hardly lost yet in the
provnces, thus Prof. Sedg-nick in the
■wori cited above, p. 289, note 4, saj^s :
" Tb3 suppression of the guttural sounds
is, I think, the greatest of all the mo-
dem changes in the spoken language of
the northern counties. Every syllable
which has a vowel or diphthong fol-
lowed by gh was once the symbol of a
guttural sound: and I remember the
lay when aU the old men in the Dales
iounded such words as sigh, night,
•ight, (siZ.h, niA-ht, siZ:ht), &c., with a
jentle guttural breathing, and many
•ther words, such as troxigh, rough,
ough (trookh, ruuk«<;h, tuuke<;h), had
teir utterance, each in a grand sono-
Dus guttural. The former of these
guttural sounds seemed partly to come
torn the palate ; the latter from the
oest. Both were aspirated and articu-
lite ; and differed entirely from the
ratural and simple vocal sounds of the
gittural vowels d, o (aa, aa). All the
od people who remember the con-
fcsted elections of Westmoreland, must
hive [p. 104] heard in the Dales of
tlat county the deep guttural thunder
ii which the name — Harry Brougham
(3ri<kii!h-Bm) — was reverberated among
the mountaias. But we no longer
hear the first syllable of Brougham
sounded from the caverns of the chest,
— thereby at once reminding us of
our grand northern ancestry, and of
an ancient fortress of which Brough
(Br2<kM;h) was the written symbol.
The sound first fell down to Bruffham
(Brwf-nm, Braf-em), but was too vigor-
ous for the nerves of modern ears ; and
then fell lower still into the mono-
syllabic broom (Bruum, p. 153) — an
implement of servile use. We may
polish and soften our language by this
smoothing process ; yet in so doing we
we are forgetting the tongue of our
fathers ; and, like degenerate children,
we are cutting ourselves off from true
s}Tnpathy -n-ith our great northern pro-
genitors, and depriving our spoken
language of a goodly part of its variety
of form and grandeur of expression." —
p. 103-4. palaeotype introduced. Mr.
Murray notes that the Southern (a) is
always [u) in Cumberland and West-
moreland, and that {rid, t«f, Brwf,) are
the present pronunciations of rough,
tough, Brough, in those counties, and
(BrMjtm) for Brougham in Cumberland.
312 GH, Y, Z — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 3.
To the second class bclonp: lawglie 476, lowh 3117 = laugh, saugh
5'2G8, 0720, satch 52G5 = saw.' Compare also herhergh 767, hcr-
bcrwh 4117, herbenv 4143. Sometimes the transition is complete
as in
For, as I trowe, I have yow told ynowe
To reyse a fecnd, al loke he never so roice. 12788
where y-nowe, rowe (inuu*, ruu) stand for enough, rough, in which
the modem sound of (f), as alrtiady suggested in p. 213, has arisen
from (wh). So frequent was this change in the word enough, that
it is sometimes neglected in writing as
For had we him, than were we syker y-nough,
But unto God of heven I make avow. 12792
only a couplet beyond the last example quoted, where we must read
(inuu'j aruu*). Similarly ynough, now 12946, where ynow should
bo read as in yoti, y-now 11019. Plough which rhjTnes with inougi
889, 3159, had generally the pronunciation (pluukh), and this re-
duced to (pluu), (shewn in the spelling ploiv, which I have notice!
elsewhere, but not in Harl. 7334, an orthography found also in tie
authorized version of the Bible in the xvn th centuiy,)^ generat«d
the modem (pbu).' The following rhymes may also be noted :
When that he saugh that al the peple lough.
No more of this, for it is right y-nough. 14376
He also hath to do more than y-nough
To kepe him & his capil out of the slough. 16995
Compare
Now is my cart out of the sloo parde. 7147
In which ther ran a swymhul in a swough
As it were a stornie schuld berst every bough. 1981
He siketh ■\vith ful many a sory swough
And goth, and getcth him a kneedjTig trough. 3619
The regular pronunciation of all these ough words seems to have
been (uuk?fh), whence (uuwh, uu), which aftei-wards changed to
(uf, ou), and finally to (af, ou). That gh was occasionally written
without being pronounced, we see by the rhymes : at his retenue,
Sir Hughe 6937, melodic yhe 9, etc. "We shall see that this is the
case also in Shakspcre, whenever it was convenient for the rhyme.
The form augh may have had similar varieties of sound, as the
spellings already cited indicate. In both cases we cannot do better
than follow the spelling of the moment, except the rhyme requires
* There is a similar resolution of Prov. 21, 4, Luke 17, 7; plowman
medial g in Icelandic. Thus livga to Isa. 28, 24, Amos 9, 13 ; plowmen Isa,
tell a falsehood, is theoretically (Ijuu-- 61, 5, Jer. 14, 4 ; plowshares Isa. 2, 4,
githa), and practically (Ijuu-wa). See Joel 3, 10. Supra p. 159, note 4.
Chap. V. § 4, No. 2. ^ Mr. Murray observes : " ynough
2 The passages are: plough Vs. S7, and//MOtr(onikM;h-)and (onm")orrathei
12; plow Deut. 22, 10, i Sam. 14, 14, (anyktt-h-, on)-u-) are both used in Scotcl:
Job 4, 8, Prov. 20, 4, Isa. 28, 24, with a difference of application. Plougl
Hos. 10, 11, Amos 6, 12, i Cor. 9, 10 ; VLuAploio are synonymous for the noui
plowed Judg. 14, 18, Ps. 129, 3, Jer. (pl;/k?<'h, plyu), the former the mon
26, 18, Hos. 10, 13, Micah 3, 12; common: for the verb the latter alom
plowers Ps. 129, 3; ploweth i Cor. 9, is used as (b plyud lild, b plyu'ii
10 ; plowing i Kings 19, 19, Job 1, 14, matsh.)"
Chap. IV. § 3. GH, Y, Z — XIV TH CENTURY. 313
one of two forms to be altered, and then the first should generally
be accomodated to the second, as there is a probability of its having
been written down without consideration of what was to follow,
and of its having been then left uncorrected, as being of slight im-
portance. Thus aiigh, auwh, auh, aw =^ (aukM'h, auwh, aun', au),
where (aukli) may be used for (aukii'h).
"When the letter t follows fresh difficulty arises. How should
drought, foicghten, doiighter, notihf, be pronounced? There seems
nothing but theoiy to guide us. At present we say (draut, drAAt,
fAA't'n, dAA'ti, nAAt), but these are all quite recent developments,
We find fought = (faun't) in Smith, daughter = (daukh-ter) in Gill,
nought := (noun't, naun't) in Smith, and (nooukht) in Gill. There
is no XVI th centuiy authority for drought. Taking into considera-
tion the double use of ou (uu, oou), it seems probable that when the
original vowel was u in ags. as drugo^, the sound should be (uu) as
(diTiukht, di'uuk<<^ht) of which the modem (di'out) would be a legi-
timate descendant ; and that when the original vowel was o as ags.
dohtor, the sound was (oou) or perhaps simply (ou), the (u) having
been developed by a (ktvh) sound of gh. This would give (dniukht,
fooukh't'n, dooukh'ter, nooukht) or (di'ukwht, fouk/i^h't'n, doukwh'ter,
noukzi'ht). It Avill probably be as near the truth as we are able to
get to write (di-ukht, foukh-ten, doukh'ter, noukht). The spelling
nouht, however, indicates a very light sound of the guttural, as
(noun't), which rapidly disappeared in (not, nat).'
What the initial sound of 5 or j might have been, it is more
difficult to say. Probably the sound of the ags. letter became
(kh) or (gh.) at an early period. Now in modem Germany (^h) is
often considered to be the hiss of (j), that is (jh), and the diiference
is certainly very slight. The ease with which initial {kh.) will pass
into (j) may be well studied in modem German pronunciation.
During the xvth century when initial j was replaced by g, the
transition was certainly complete. In the next chapter (§ 2) reasons
will be given for thinking that this transition may have been pre-
valent in the time of La^amon and Orrmin, the proceeding (kh., gh.)
stage being relegated to the Old Anglosaxon period. It will there-
fore be safest to pronounce the initial j as (j) where it corresponds
to the modem g.
We shall have an opportunity of seeing g in every stage of tran-
sition, fi-om (g) thi-ough {g, gh, j) to (i) on the one hand, and
through {givh) to (w) on the other, and even absolutely disappear-
ing through a scarcely pronounced (gh, g^^-'h), in the living Ice-
landic tongue, the veiy interesting phonetic phenomena of which
wiU be considered in Chap. V. § 4, No. 2.
^ Mr. Murray says that in Teviotdale In the other dialect they are (fokht,
drouff/it is (druth) daughter, foughten, bokht, sokht, w'rokht), Aberdeen
sought, bought, brought, thought, nought, (vrokht) with simple (0) and (kh). So
wrought are (doukwhtar, fouktt'ht-n, also with loch, hough, cough, trough,
boukztiht, -w'roukMht), &c., or perhaps &c. Tev. (louk«<-h, looukwh). Central
(dooukt(;ht8r, foouki<;ht), he prefers the Scotch (lokh, lookh),
former, though the 0 is absolutely long.
314 H. J — XIV TH CENTURY. Chat. IV. § 3.
H
H, by its substitution for gh, is shewn to have been pronounced
when final distinctly as (n'). In what cases, when initial, it became
(h) or vanished, it is now impossible to say. It appears by many
old MSS. that there was often great confusion as to the use of initial
h in many words, indicating local and partial peculiarities of pro-
nunciation, similar to those now found. But the MS. under con-
sideration seems to be quite consistent in the use of initial h,'^ and
there is therefore nothing to shew that it was not pronounced in
honour, honest, hour, as well as other words. However, in this
doubt, I have thought it safest in my trfinscriptions, to follow the
modem use. In the words he, his, him, hire, hem, before which,
especially when enclitic, the final e is, as we shall see, generally
elided as freely as before a vowel, it is extremely probable that the
h was silent under the same circumstances. It is known to be con-
stantly so in modem English, and some orthoepists even admit that
it should be silent.^ The apostrophe in catch 'em indicates the ab-
sent h, not an omitted th. When hath, have, hadde, were similarly
placed they also probably lost the h, as they also admitted the elision
of the vowel. The modem contractions I've, weh-e, they'd, and the
old nadde = ne hadde 3751, point to the same conclusion. Hence
when those words beginning with h stand in such a position that a
final e might be elided before them, I omit the h in my transcriptions,
but indicate the omission by a hyphen in the usual way, thus : (wel
kuud -e sj't on hops) 94.
J when representing the French consonant /, is now called (dzh)
and was so in the xvi th century. Was the old French sound (dzh)
or (zh) ? Diez (Gr. d. R. S. i. 400, 402) shews good reason to sup-
pose that the Proven9al pronunciation of ch, j, was (tsh, dzh), as for
example Petrarch's ciant for Provencal chard, and Dante's giausen
for Vr.j'aiczen. Again (ib. p. 448, 451) Diez shews reason for. sup-
posing (tsh) to be an old French sound of ch, although in Palsgrave's
time it had sunk to (sh), and obsei'ves that in middle Greek, the
French Jean, Geoffroi, are rendered T^dv, T^ecfipe, which are the pre-
sent combinations for(tshan, tshefree"). Considering that the Greek
had no means of representing (dzh),' this would stand for an original
(dzh) rather than for (zh), which would have been best rendered by
1 Sost and ost, hostelrie and ostelrie, "World, the italics are mine) : °iu8 iz
both occur. feis undurwen't un inv.vl'untury ablw'-
2 Thus in : Phonotypy by Modifica- j°un imd e' fuwnd imsdf ridjTv'st tw
tion, a means by •which unusual types iz prim'itiv cumplekyun and in'di-
can be dispensed with on a plan pro- djens ; that is : Thus his face under-
posed by 2\ W. Hill (the father of Sir went an involuntary ablution and he
Kowland Hill, and a well kno\vn or- found himself reduced to his primitive
thoepist and educationalist) printed in complexion and indigence.
1848 for private circulation only, the ' In the most recent Greek vr^ is
last sentence runs thus (it is a quota- used initially for (dzh), as vT^afxl
tion from Goldsmith's Citizen of the (dzhami-) a mosque.
Chap. 17. § 3. K. L, M, N, NG — XIV TH CENTURY. 315
^ or ^i. The middle Greeks according to Diez also wrote t^ for ch,
as'PtT^a/3So?= (ritshard'os) for Richard. These transcriptions ai'e
precisely similar to Salesbury's tsiurts, tsiff, tsiesmv, tsion, for churche,
chefe, Jesu, John, and should e\'idently be interpreted in the same
■way. Even in Palsgrave's time he makes French j =: EngKsh /,
which we know (p. 207) was then (dzh), but this certainly only
implies a rooted mispronunciation, because we know that although
(zh) had not then been developed in English, it existed in French
(p. 207). But it implies the traditional pronunciation in English,
because Palsgi'ave was decidedly archaic in his tendencies, as we
have seen in his retention of (//) for long i (p. 110), and (uu) for ou,
ow (p. 149), out of the xvth into the xvith centuiy. This mispro-
nunciation therefore is in itself a strong proof of the old pronun-
ciation of j as (dzh). If to this we add that in the present pronun-
ciation of the Noi-man peasantiy (tsh, dzh) are occasionally used for
(sh, zh),^ it will be difficult to suppose that ch, j, in Chaucer had
any other meaning than (tsh, dzh).
K
K in Anglosaxon constantly generated tsh in English, as already
explained (p. 205). The orthography of our MS. and the alterations
of words to suit the rhyme, shew that although in many cases the
custom was fiiToly established, in others there was a fluctuation of
use similar to that in the present day between Ireeks, breeches, Scotch
hrigg, kirk, English bridge, church. The termination -li^ or -lie has
become generally -Ig = (-1*0 in Chaucer, but traces of the original
form remain as -lik, lich ; thus we have : sikurly 137, 154, against :
sikirlik 3889, and: smoterlich, dich 3961 i= (smoo'terlitsh, ditsh),
= dirty, ditch. Against: the holy bhsful martir for to seeke 17,
we have : withoute more speche, not longe for to seche 785, I
schuld yow seeche, in softe speche 6993, and we may compare our
modem words seek, beseech. Against the common form werk, as in :
that was a clerk, al this werk, 11417, we have the altered forms :
wirche, 2761, 7559, 9535, werche 4986, and so on. Such changes,
which have been shewn to be common to other languages, confirm
the value of ch as (tsh) even in Saxon words. The pronunciation of
ich as (itsh), in the phrase : so theech 12857, for example, = so the
ich (soo thee-tsh) is singularly corroborated by Gill's observation
that in the East of England " pro (s) substituunt (z), ut (z?q) pro
(siq) cano ; et (*tsh) pro (ai) ego : (tsham) pro (oi am) sum : (tsh»l)
pro (ai wil) volo : (tshj voor si) pro (ai war 'ant jou) ceilum do," see
supra, p. 293.
L, M, -N, Na
L, M, ^N" must have been (1, m, n) as in all languages. The ter-
mination -le from the French is occasionally vnitten -ul, -il, -yl. It
1 " Comme en anglais, D se fait TCH ; Tchien, chien, Tchidhourg,
sentir devant G et J, comme dans G'er^^e, Cherbourg." Le Herieher, Glossaire
brebis [Dgerce], .... CH se pro- Normand, vol. i. pp. 30 and 32.
nounce souvent comme en anglais
316 P, PH, QU. R — XIV TH CENTURY. CuAP. IV. § 3.
■vpill be best to call it ('1) as in modem English. Before a following
vowel it probably became (1) as : simple and coy 119 = (snnpl-and
cui) just as in modem English we have double, doubling not double-
ing, i.e. (dob''l dob'h'q) not (dob"'l?q). As there is a difficulty in
establishing a nasal value, of n in Old French/ there can be no
thought of its occurrence in Chaucer.
NG was either ((j) or (qg) or occasionally one and occasionally
the other as in modem English. Modem use can be our only guide.
P, PH, QU
There is no reason for supposing p, ph, qu to have been anything
but (p, f, kit;), but of coui'se it is impossible to determine whether
q^i was not (kw, ku) instead of (kt^;). In Chap. V, § 4, K'o. 1 & 3,
the fact of the Runic and Gothic alphabets having a single sign for
this sound, has led me to suppose that it was really simple (ke^;),
and not double (kw, ku), even at that early epoch. The use of two
letters cvo in Anglosaxon would not decide anything, as (kw, ku)
would be a sufficient approximation for all purposes of writing.
R
R presents the same difficulties as in the xvi th century, yet we
cannot allow it to have 'any value but (r). It must however have
affected the preceding vowel, ^ as we could othei-wise scarcely account
for the use of or, er, ir in the same words, as worche 9231, loerk
481, wirching 8371. In one case at least we find ar where the
modem fonn is er, as : thurgh the cite large, with cloth of gold and
not with sarge 2569, but both serge, sarge are old French forms. It
is also observable that many words in which the sound was (ar) in
the XVI th centuiy appear as (er), thus, yerde, smerte, herte 149,
toerre, ferre 47 ; serve, sterve 1145, prive and pert 6696, piyvy and
apert 10845, deere, steere 4867, 5252, stere, here 2151. Against
wors 9183, we have: wers, ers 3731 ; I moot reherse, al be they
better or werse 3173, it needcth nat to reherse, who can do werse
' The chief reasons assigned by that i, u, were pronounced as nasals
Diez (Gram, der rem. Sprach., 2 ed. even in the xvi th century. Rapp reads
vol. 1, p. 437), for considering the use nasal ?(=(q). See Chap. V, § 4, note 1.
of the French nasals to be old are the - Mr. Mun-ay says : " R aftects pre-
identity of the assonances on and eti ; ceding vowel in Scotch even while re-
and the constant confusion of the forms maining (r). A simple vowel, short
androit endroit. But the modem before other consonants is long before
femme rhymes with dame, and yet there final r : heat hear, bat bar, not nor,
is no trace of nasality here. Diez also stout stoor, (iiit Hiir, bat b««r, not
names the ancient rh}Tnes of Salomon noor, stut stuur). And a before a con-
fercithtm, zabulon convivium; but these sonant followed by e mute is in the
may have been due rather to a peculiar South of Scotland ea [ie) but before r
(-om) pronunciation of the Latin, the it remains {ee) so mam and mane are
m and n being allowed to rhyme, as in distinguished (men, m/m) hut fair, fare
many English popular songs. At any are both (ffer, ieev) not (frfr, f/er) the r
rate these forms are not incompatible preventing the closing of the sound."
with non-nasality, which was the rule Compare Cooper's observations, supra
in Provenqal, and "Walloon, and there p. 70, where his (aaa) is the coimter-
are absolutely no grounds for supposing part of (/«).
Chap. IV. § 3. S, SCH T, TH, p Y, W, \VH, X Y, Z, ^ 317
10913. Since the XTnth century there has been a great tendency
to pronounce er as (ar) or (a.i), as in cleric, Derhj, sergeant, and
formerly servant, but the contraiy tendency to use (er) for (ar) does
not seem to have been at all developed except at this earlier time.^
The confusion of (ur, er) as in wors, wers, is very like the modem
confusion of (oj, e.i) with ('j). By a change of re into er the
rhyme : ers, kers 3753 is obtained. The terminations -re, -er
alternate, as: mordre 16538, morder 16539, at the commencement
of two consecutive lines. It would seem then that we shoidd
always sound {-er), as (mur-der). The metathesis of r is frequent.
§ 5, art. 98, d.
S, SCH
S = (s) also represented (z) in plural terminations, but never
had the sound of (sh), which was always represented by
sen a combination derived from the Saxon sc, in the same way
as ch from Saxon c, to shew the effect of palatisation. In later
times the c was omitted.
T, TH, p
T seems to have been generally (t), but it became (s) m the ter-
mination -tion, see examples under C.
TH, which is used promiscuously with ^ in the MS., had pro-
bably the same sounds as at present, and distributed in the same
manner. Occasionally we meet with d in places where we should
have expected th = (dh), as in fadur 100 = father, hider 674,
thider, slider 1265, where the rhyme shews that the sound was
really (d) and not (dh), but the (d) seems to guarantee the pronun-
ciation of th as (dh) when written in these words.
Y, W, WH, X
These letters as consonants seem to have had precisely the same
sounds as at present, but ^o was also used occasionally as a vowel, as
herbenv 4143. In arwes 104, halwes 14, which had arwe, halwe in
the singular, there seems no reason for not giving w its usual sound.
"WE was probably pronoimced (rw) as in ags. and down to the
XVI th century (p. 186).
The Y consonant is always represented by j which is the same
fonn as the letter used for z. The meanings of this letter must be
disentangled by a consideration of modem usage, see supra under
GH (p. 310).
The consonants seem to call for no further remark, and the rules
laid down in this and the preceeding section are sufficiently general
to permit the reader to read any line in this edition of Chaucer with
tolerable certainty, except as regards the use of the E jSnal, which
has now to be considered.
^ For the xvii th century see p. 86. (ar) or (aa') in : clergy, person, mercy,
The Rev. C. Y. Potts remarks that in eternal, universal, learning, the last word
South Shields er is usually pronounced being also called (leer-n/q).
318
E FINAL XIV TH CENTURY.
Chap. IV. § 4.
§ 4. On the Projiunciation of E Final in the xiv th Century}
That e final ■n'as at least ocrasionally pronounced, and that its
soimd did not differ, except in accent, from that of me, the = (mce,
dliee) is conclusively proved by the followinp; rhymes. It must be
remembered that to me, to the, when the accent is thrown on to the
preposition, become (too'me, too'dhe), with brief and indistinct (e),
that is nearly (too-mt?, too'dhi;), or as in modem Hip;h German
(p. 321, n. 1). Hence the following rhymes shew that Rome, cxjna-
mome, sothe must have been (Iloo'mc, sinamoo'me, soo'dhe), although
there may have been, as frequently at present, a little liberty taken
with double rhymes, and (soo'dhe) may have been used for (socthe),
and similarly (juu'dhe) for (juu'the), (swii'dhe) for (swith*e)* in
the following couplets :
That streyt Tvas comen from the court of Rome.
Ful lowdc he sang, Come hider, love, to me. 673
My fayre bryd, my swete cynamome,
Awake, lemman mjii, and spcketh to me. 3699
So farcn we, if I schal say the sothe.
Now, quod oure ost, pt let me talke to the. 12590
Quod the Frankele}Ti. considering thin youthe
So felingly thou spekest, sire, I alone the. 10987
Elles go bye som, and that as swithe.
Now good sire, go forth thy way and hy the. 13222
Al csiiy now, for the love of Marte,
Quod I'andarus, for every thynge hath tyme ;
So long abid til that the nyght departe.
For also siker as thow list here bi me.
And God toforne I wol be thare atpryme.^ 4" 193
Bot fader, if it fo betide
That I aproche at eny fide
The place wher my ladi is
And Jeanne j^at hire like yvryff
To fpeke a goodly word vntome,
For al \e gold )iat is in Rome
Ne cowjie. I. after that bewToJ?,
Bot all mjTi Anger ouergo]).* i 282
Here hy the stands for hye the, but the final e of hye is not pro-
nounced, as also it is not pronounced in aJouc the, so that we read
(aluu' dhe, nii dhe). This omission will be considered afterwards.
The middle e in Dertemouthe holds the position of a final e in :
For ought I woot he was of Dertemouthe 391, where it is necessary
for the metre, and it is observable that the e is here pronounced to
this day by the peasantry in the neighboiuhood of Daiiemouth and
Dartemoor.*
1 This section was written before I
had had an opportunity of seeing Prof.
F. J. Child's admirable Observations
on the Language of Chaucer and Gower.
I have thought it best to leave my in-
vestigation almost in its original state,
and to give a complete account of these
observations in the following section.
' Just as f, V rhjTne in thevys, gref
is 7755.
3 The rhyme time, by me, occurs
eight times in Gower, i 227, 309, 370,
ii4I, 49, 114, iii 6, 369.
* Printed from the Harl. MS. 3869.
* Private letter from Mr. Shelly,
of Plymouth.
Chap. IV. § 4. E FINAL — XIV TH CEISTURY. 319
In the Man of Lawes Tale, there is a king called AJla, whose
name on one occasion is reduced to Alle, which must have been
pronounced (Al-e), so that calle and lifalle which rhyme with it
must have also been (kal'e, bifal'e) in —
Mauricius atte ftintstone men him calle.
This constabil doth come forth a messager,
And -ffTot to his k}Tig that cleped was Alle,
How that this blisful tydjug is bifalle. 5143
Scarcely less convincing than the above instances is the case of
the plurals in -es, where they do not at present fonn a distinct
syllable.^ !N^ot only are these frequently spelled -is,'^ as is the case
still in Scotch,^ but they also often rhyme with the verb is. Thus,
taking fii'st those spelled with es : —
For sondry scolis maken subtil clerJces ;
"Womman of many a scole half a clerk is. 9301
How schuld I thanne, that live in such pleasaunce
As alle weddid men doon with their tcyves,
Come to blisse ther Crist eterne on l^ve is? 9525
Him wolde he snybbe scharply for the vones,
A bettre preest I trowe ther nowher non is. 526
Crist, which that is to every harm triacle,
By certeyn menes ofte, as knowen clerkes,
Doth thing for certeyn ende, that feel derk is. 4900
Thy wyf eek and thy wenche sinfully
Dronke of the same vessel sondry wynes ;
And heriest false goddes cursedly ;
Therefore to the schapen ful gret pyne es. 15713
Withinne the cloyster of thi blisful sydes
Took mannes schap the eternal love and pees,
That of the trine compas lord and guyde is. 11971
And nyl himselve doo no gentil dedes
Ne folw his gentil aunceter, that deed is. 6737
In the following the plural is written -is, but it rhymes with is
in precisely. the same way.
Of catapus, or of gaytre heriis
Of erbe yve that groweth in our yerd, ther mercy is.^ 16451
Ther schuln ye se expresse, that no drcd is,
That he is gentil that doth gentil dedis. 6751
Ye loke as though the woode were ful of thevys,
Sit doun anoon, and tel me what your gref is. 7755
After the oprayoun of certepi chrkis.
Witnesse on him, that eny parfit clerk is. 16721
And for that faith is deth withouten iverkis,
So for to werken give me witt and space,
That I be quit fro thennes that most derk is, 11992
Which gift of God had he for all his ivyvis ?
No man hath such, that in the worid on lyve is. 6621
^ In the difficult combinations wrists, -s in familiar versification, and in prose,
priests, we hear generally in the pro- even in the xiv th and xv th century,
vinces, (r/st-?z, priist-zz). as shewn in Mr. Murray's paper, supra
2 Sometimes ?<sisused, with the same p. 287, note 1.
pronunciation as -is or -es, (p. 298). * These lines are evidently corrupt
' This Scotch final -is, generally as they stand. Morris reads 3-233, Of
formed a distinct syllable in serious erbe yve growiiige in our yerd, ther
poetry, but was practically reduced to mery is.
320 E FINAL — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 4,
So made he cck a temple of fals ffodis,
How niif;:ht lie do a thing that more forbod is? 10169
But me wiis taught, nought longc tjTue ffoon is,
That splines Crist went never but omjs
To wcddpg. 6691
Alius ! and can ye ben agast of swevenys ?
Nought, God wot, but vanito in sweven is. 16107
Since in placis, place is 7349, the final -is must of necessity be
pronounced, it is not reckoned among these examples, which are all
that I have noted in the Canterbury Tales. To these, however,
should be added, as equally convincing, —
Take youre disport : I nyl lieve no talis;
I know yow for a trewe wif, dame Alis. 6901
From hous to hous, to here sondry talis,
That JankjTi clerk, and my gossib dame Alis. 6129
It would be impossible to read many lines in Chaucer without
finding that the miml)er of syllables in a line would be constantly
in default, if the final e's were not reckoned. At the same time
the number of syllables in a line would often be in excess, if every
e final were reckoned. Again, the slightest examination shews us
words which are at present identical, diff'ering in difi'erent places
by having and not having a fijnal e. That this insertion or omission
of the e final is not due simply to carelessness or option of the
scribe,^ is apparent from the presence or absence of the e being
generally essential to the metre, or the rhyme, and a notion seems
to have possessed some persons, that lines could be made to scan by
omitting or inserting these e's at pleasure. The examination of the
prose tales, where these final e's are also found, ought to disabuse
us of this absurd notion. We must admit that these final e's formed
a pfui: of the language of the time, and that there must have been
some reasons for their insertion and omission. These we have, if
possible, to discover, and the first step is to examine two modem
languages, Geiman and French, in which final e's also occur, and
which are the living representatives of the Saxon and Norman
elements of which Chaucer's poems were composed.
Final e in Gennan, which is always pronounced where written,
arises in several ways :
1) it is a natural final of many words as Jiuhe, Weise, Reise,
Miitze, Rahe, Kiise, Knabe, Heerde, Herherge, weise, leise, sachte,
^ This refers to the Harleian, No. sundrc (for sondry), 19 sesone dale,
7334 ; other manuscripts arc much 20 laie, 22 devoute, 23 nighte, 24 twente
less strict, and the confusion in the (for twenty), 2.5 sondrie folke be (for
tise of the final e seems to indicate a by), 26 pilgrimes, 27 towarde, 29 esede,
date of WTiting about the middle of 31 eucrychone, 32 anone, 34 ]>are
XV th century or later, or else a scribe jowe, 37' resnone, 38 condicionne, 40
of Northern origin. In the first 42 whiche whate 41 eke wbatte araie, 42
lines of the prologue in the Lansdowne knighte, where the Harleian shews no
MS. No. 851, with which "Wright e, and : 8 half, 9 smal, 1 1 her, 30 sonn,
and Morris collated the Harleian 7334 31 had, 32 felawschep, where the Har-
to form their texts, we find : 1 y*y]'C, Ician has the final e. It is ob\-ious
2 ha]ie, 3 suche lycoure, 4 whiche that no conclusions respecting e final
floure, 5 eke brejie, 6 ha.\e hethe, 7 could be deduced from such an ortho-
ha]?e ramme, 12 one, 13 straungere, 14 graphy.
Chap. IV. § 4. E FINAL — XIV TH CENTURY. 321
lange = (ruu-^,' bhai'z?, rai'z^, myts'e, xaa'he, kEE'ze, kii«fl-be,
Heer'de, neer'tb, nevber'^he, bhai-zt;, lai'ze, szakht'e, l«q'e), and so
forth, mostly representing some other vowel in old high Gorman.
2) it is inflexional, frequently expressing —
a) plurals as der Wind die Winde, der Ziig die- Zilge, der Herzog
die Herzoge, &c. = (der bhind dii bhind"6, der tsuuget'h die tsyy_^h"#,
der Herts'og dii nerts'oghe).
h) dative cases singular, as dem Winde, dem Zuge, dem Herzoge =
(deem bhind"^, deem tsuug7<;h'«, deem Herts'oghe).
c) the plural of the indefinite adjective, as gute Goiter, alle Ilen-
schen, la7ige Reisen = (guut"^ goet-er, dl-e mensh'm, \aq;e raiz-m).
d) the feminine singular of the indefinite adjective, as gute Mutter,
arme Frau, keine Frucht = (guut"(9 mut"er, aim.-e frau, kain*e
fruk?<;ht).
e) the nominative singiilar of the definite adjective in all genders,
and accusative feminine and neuter, as der gute Mann die gute Frau,
das gute Weib, ich ehre die gute Frau und das gute Weib = (der
gaut'e taan, dii guut"(? frau, d«s guut'e bhaib, i^-h ee'r.?), &c.
/) the imperative singular of verbs, as liebe Gott, ehre den Konig
= (liib"e got, ee're deen koeoe"ni^h).
g) the first person singular of the indicative mood present tense
of verbs, as ich liebe ihn, ich fange an = (i^-h liib"^ iin, ikh. faq^'e an).
h) the first and third person singular of the present and past
tenses of the subjunctive mood of verbs, as er sagt, sie Icomme; sie
sagten er kcime = (er zaaght, szii kom'i?, szii zaaght'^n, er kEEm'e).
i) the iii'st and thii'd person singular of the past tense of weaJt
verbs, as ich liebte und er liebte dieselbe Freundin ^= (iil-h liibt'e und
eer liibt"^ dii"zelb*e frojnd'in).*
j) it is frequently added on to numbers in familiar counting, as
eine, zweie, dreie, mere, fiinfe, &,c. = {am-e, tsbhai"^, di^ai'^?, iu're,
fynf-e).
"With all these reasons for adding on e, and the very similar syl-
lable en, (which on the Rhine is constantly called e), the language
is necessarily full to overflowing with this termination, which
is consequently very often di'opped or sluiTcd over with great
rapidity in conversation. But that poets with perfect sensations
of rhythm, and immense power of expression, accept this final e and
even multiply it in a single line, may be collected from this one
example in Goethe's most finished drama, Tasso, Act I., Sc. 1.
Ich bring' ihm seinen Sohn .... (I^h briq iim zain-cn zoon ....
Und theUe seine vaterliche Freude unt tail'e zain-e fee'terU^h'e hoyi-e.) *
^ The final German e, en, in these ^ Jq these transcriptions the German
transcriptions have been generally re- eu has been represented by (oy), the
presented by [e, en) as they are theo- sound preferred by Dr. Rapp, but (oi,
retically held to represent these sounds, oi) are frequent in the North, and (a-i)
but the reader should consult p. 119, in the South of Germany. Some theo-
note 1, col. 2, and p. '195, note 2, where reticians prefer (^y), and others (ay),
these cases are fully discussed.
3 There are as many final e's in Chaucer's —
Him thoughte that his herte wolde breke 956
(Hm thoukifh'te dhat h/s neer'te wol-de bree'ke),
where the repeated e gives a melancholy softness to the line.
21
322 E FINAL XIV TH CENTURY. CuAP. IV. H-
At the same time the first line gives an example of the elision of
an e — ich brinpp ilnn — before a followinp; vowel. This is not a rule,
or a necessity, it is merely a matter of feeling. In such a verse as
Wie brennt meine alte "Wunde. — {Heine's Die Grenadiere)
(Bhii brent luain-e a\t-e bhunde)
the elision mein^ ^'ould have been impossible, on account of the
concord, althougli it would have avoided a trisyllabic measure and
improved the metre. But throughout the first act of Tasso I have
only noticed one instance in which Goethe has not avoided the
necessity of an open vowel which ho could not elide, namely
Fiir holde Friiclit* e«ner wabren Liebe
(FjT Holde fryAht-e ainer bhaarvn liib-e).
where the natural pause at the caesura assist the reader. Thus when
ich^ er, ihn, es follows a verbal -e, the e is always elided, as : gar oft
beneid' ich, irr' ich mich nicht, bcsscr war's = ware es, ich geb'
ihm oft = (gar oft benaid* iA:h, i.r ikh. jnikh. niA;ht, bes*er bhEErz,
i/ih gccb iim oft), and so on. The feeling is strongly shewn in
Erwaeh' ! Erwache ! Lass uns nicht empfinden,
Dass du das Gegenwart'ge ganz verkennst.
(Erbhakb-, erbhakh-g ! Las uns ni/;ht empfind'CTi
Dffs duu das gee(/h-cnbhert'^he g«nts Icrkenst'),
Where there are two other elisions one marked in : Gegenwart/ge, the
other unmarked in : verkennest, both similar to what might occur in
Old EngHsh as semde for semede = seemed, shiffst for singest.
But Goethe does not hesitate to add on his e to an open vowel,
as : ich thue was ich kann = (iZ'h triu'e bhrts ikh. kan).
The e of the dative case is frequently omitted, as after the itali-
cized words in —
Und lass micb der Gelcgenheit, dem Gliick —
Mir ist an diesem Augenblick genug —
Acb ! sie versagt nair eben jetzt ! Im Gliick —
Doch war an Wisscnschaft, an recbtcm Sinn —
(Und las miA-h der gelec^h-enHait, deem glyk —
Miir ist an dii-zem au'gtthenblik gcnuugwlr —
Akh ! szii ferzaaght* miir eeb-en Jcist ! Im glyk —
Dokb bhaar an bhis'enshaft, an reArht-em zin — )
The imperative e is frequently omitted even when no vowel
follows, as
Und liebt er nicht — verzeiK dass ich es sage !
(Und liibt er niA-ht — fertsai* das iArh es 9zaagh"«.)
The final e is omitted in many other cases where the feeling of
the poet requires it, even before a consonant, or at the end of a line
where the elision is not absolutely necessary to the metre, as
Fest blcibt dcin Sinn, und richtig dein Geschmack,
Dein Urtheil ^Varf, stets ist dein Antheil gross
Am Grossen. —
Uns fiir den Schatz crkcnnte, den er lang"
Vergebens in der weiten Welt gesucht —
heiligt er
Den Pfad, den leis' ihr schbner Fuss betrat —
Ich sah ihn heu€ von fern ; er hielt ein Buch —
Und bist du zu gelind', so will ich treiben —
Chap. IV. § 4. E FllSAL — XIV TH CENTURY. 323
Die Menge macht den Kiinstler irr' und scheu —
Von ft-eniden Heerden TFies' und Busch erfiillt —
(Fest blaipt dain zin, und ri^-lit*i/;h dain geslinirtk,
Dain lu-tail gvaad, shtcets ist dain an'tail groos
Am groos'en —
Uns fjT deen sliffts erkentv, deen er kq
Fergeeb'enz in der bhait'en bhelt gczuukwht—
Haili^ht eer
Deen pfaad, deen laiz iir shceocn'er fuus betraat' —
Ikh. zaa iin Hoji; fou fern : er niilt ain buukwh
Und bist duu tsu gelind", zoo bhil ikh traib'en —
Dii meq'e makbt den kynstlcr i.r unt shoy —
Fon freniden neerd'en bbiiz und busb eriylt' — )
All these examples are taken from the first act of Tasso. In
lyrical poems we find similar omissions, not merely for the sake of
rhvthm or force, but also for the sake of rhyme. Thus in the
Maylied.
Zwischen "Waizen und Korn, (Tsbhish-en bhaits'ew unt korn,
Zwischen Hecken und I)o7-n Tsbbisb-en Hekvn imd dorn,
ZAvischen Eiiumeu und Gra^ Tsbbishvn boyni en und gT««s,
Wo geht 's Liebchen ? Bhoo geet -s liibV^hen F
Sag mir das ! Szflffgh mir das !
An dera Felsen beim Fluss^ An deem fcls'tn baim flus,
Wo sie reicbte den Kuss, Bhoo zii raiA-bt-e deen kus,
Jenen ersten im Gras, Jeenen erstyn im graas,
Seh' icb etwas ! Szee iAli et-bbffs- !
1st sie das ? Ist szii das ?)
Here Gras (graas) for Grase (graaz-e), and Fluss (flus) for Flusse
(flus'e) are necessaiy for the rhyme. The most common omission
is that of the dative e, but even the essential final e is occasionally
left out, thus in the lines An Luna, we have Bahe (ruu*e) abbre-
viated to Ruh'' (run) for the rhyme.
Und in woUustvoUei- RuK (Unt in bhol'lustfol-er ruu
SdJi der JVellverschlag'ne Ritter Szee der bhelt-lersbl««gh-ne rit'er
Dureb das glaserne Gegitter Dur/,:b das glEEz-erne gegit-er
Seines Madcbens Nachten zu. Szaines mEEd-A-bens UE/tbt-e tsuu.)
Less common and, no doubt intentionally, very harsh, is Seliiller's
DonncrspracK (don"er,shprflflkh-) to I'hyme with nach (n«akh), in
his Kindes-morderin, st. 9.
On the other hand in Goethe's Glnch der Entfernung (Glyk der
Entferu'uq) we have an e apparently added in Gliicke for Gluck, —
really an archaism from the middle high German Gelucke, — also for
the rhyme and metre.
Trink\ o Jiingling ! beil'ges Gliicke (Triqk, oo jyq'liq ! nail'yhes gljk-e,
Taglang aus der Liebsten Blicke. Taagh'laq aus der liib'stm blik-e.)
All poets do not avoid the open final e with the same scrupulous-
ness as Goethe, thus Wilhelm Miiller in his Alexander Ypsilanti has
An des Mittags Ilorizonte bing sein Auge ?/nverwandt.
(An des mit'taakbs HOO"ritson'te niq szain a.\i^wh'e un'ferbbant")
Such examples are however rare. On the other hand the omis-
sion of final e for rhyme or metre is very frecjucnt. Thus for rhyme
in Eiickert's Der Betrogene Teufel (der betroogh-isne toyfel), JEiV
324 E FINAL — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 4.
(ail) is used for File (ailv) to rhyme with Theil (tail). In Heine'.s
Die Grenadiere, already quoted for non-elision, we have Grenadier^
twice to rhyme with Quartier, mir (kbhurtiii-, miir), and htt
(bit) to rhyme with mit (mit), and for metre
Und gurC mir um den Degen. (Und gyrt mir uum den d^-gh-m.)
These examples, which could easily be greatly multiplied, will
serve to shew how a living language deals with its final e's, and
Germans know that this treatment of e final is not a mere license
taken by the port to help him out of difficulties, but is on the con-
trarv a source of great power of expression, gi^'ing force and cha-
racter to many passages by omission, and softness and delicacy to
the others by the fi'equcnt use of the final e. Hence we are led to
look upon the use and disuse of this letter, (the feeling for which
has been entirely lost by Englishmen,) as a great resource for the
poet, and a gi'cat beauty in the language. To those whom long
custom has made famiHar with the German language and the music
of its poetiy, the idea of constantly clipping ofl" these final e's m the
English fashion would be distasteful and barbarous to the last de-
gree, and their frequency conveys no feeling of trailiness or weak-
ness, as it does to the mere English reader.
Proceeding to French we meet with a new phenomenon, an
existing system of versification founded upon an obsolete system of
pronunciation (p. 119, note). In looking at French songs when
set to music, we see that aU final f's are pronounced, except betore
a following vowel or a mute A, and that the -ent of the plural of
verbs is also pronounced as e, (except in the combination -atent
where it is absolutely mute), although it is not eUded before a fol-
lowin"- vowel. But in common French discourse this final e and
manv medial c's may be said to be entirely eUded.^ The consequence
is that there is a gi-eat scliism between the language of poetiy and
that of common life. When singing, the French not merely pro-
nounce these e's, but dweU upon them, and give them long and ac-
cented notes in the music. This recognition is absolutely necessaiy
to the measure of the verse, which, depending solely upon the num-
ber of the svUables in a line, and having no relation to the position
of accent, is entii-ely broken up and destroyed when these syUables
are omitted. And yet when they declaim, the French omit these
final «'s without mercy, producing, to English ears, a hideous rough
shapeless unmusical result, which nothing but a consciousness ot the
existence of the omitted syllables can mass into rhythm.''
1 In M. Jobert's Colloquial French poetry (in tragedies especially, and
(London, ^liittaker, 1854), IM. and principally in those which are con-
Mile Theriafs Phonographe and Tour- sidered as standards of classic punty,)
Tier's Model Book (4th ed. 1851, Lon- is seldom pleasant to English ears;
don, Nutt), will be found excellent but in the complaint which is gene-
rules for she^ving when this . is or is rally made of the want of harmony of
nx>t to be pronounced. the French veije, there is not sufficient
» The late M. Tarver, of Eton, in his allowance made. One is too apt to
Choix en Prose et en Vers (London, forget that the Ear, accustomed to the
1833) says • " The reading of French rhyme and peculiar intonations ot one s
Chap. IY. § 4.
E FINAL — XIV TH CENTURY.
325
M. Feline, who endeavoured to introduce a phonetic system of
printing French as an assistance in teaching ignorant adults to read,
has, at the end of his Exercise de lecture Phonetique, Avenhires de
Jiobmson Crusoe (Paris, Didot, 1854), given an Exemple de Decla-
mation, consisting of a fragment of Lafontaine's Fable (xi, 7), Ze
paysan du Danube, which he has printed phonetically. We are thus
presented with a Frenchman's views of how French poetry should
be read, and as this is important in relation to the use of the final e,
I think it worth wliile to give the greater portion of it in ordinary
spelling and in a palaeotypic transcription of M. Feline's characters.
The lines are supposed to be spoken by a German peasant to the
Roman Senate. They are introduced by the following remarks :
" Get exemple nous montre que, meme dans la declamation, il est
des e muets qui ne se prononcent pas, quoique leur presence soit
necessaii'e a la mesure syllabique des vers. Cette suppression a lieu,
soit parce que les deux consonnes separees par 1' e muet s'unissent
facilement en raison de leur douceur, soit parce que le sens est inter-
' rompu. II importe aussi de faire observer que, presque toutes les
fois que Ve muet est supprime, la syllabe qui le precede en acquiert
plus d'intensite ou de longueur.' A la fin des rimes feminines,
quand il est precede d'une voyelle, cette voyelle devient plus longue.*
On remarquera, en outre, que, lorsqus le sens unit la fin d'un vers
au commencement du suivant, la liaison doit avoir lieu."
language, is not easily pleased by-
foreign sounds ; — that want of habit of
hearing French read renders it a bad
judge in point of haimony ; that the
full and rapid comprehension of the
meaning of the author greatly influ-
ences our finding the words harmonious
or harsh ; and how few there are who
can boast of so iamiliar an acquaint-
ance with a foreign language!" The
following brief re'stcme of the laws of
French versification given by M. Tarver
(ib.) may be useful. " Measuie and
Rhyme constitute French verse. Mea-
sure is determiued by the number of
syllables contained in the verse. The
longest French verses have twelve syl-
lables, commonly called feet. When, in
the body of a verse, a word ends with
an e mtiet, that is, an e not accented,
and is followed by a word beginning
with a vowel, the e muet is blended
with that vowel, so as to form one
sound, and consequently one foot only,
instead of two. When the e niiiet is
followed by an s, there is no elision.
The termination enl, of the third per-
son of verbs, which, in prose, is gene-
rally blended with the following syl-
lable, if it begin with a vowel, must in
verse, be sounded as a distinct syllable
or foot, but, in the third person plural
of the imperfect and conditional of
verbs, such as parlaient, parleraieni,
the ent of aient does not form one dis-
tinct syllable, because there is but one
sound uttered, par-laient, par-le-raient.
Some diphthongs form two syllables,
and some one, at the option of the
author. The cesure is a rest which
comes after the sixth foot or syllable in
heroic verse, and after the fourth syl-
lable in verses of ten syllables. — There
are no blank verses in French ; they
always rhjTiie. There are two sorts of
rhymes, the masculine which ends with
a consonant or combination of letters
forming one fuU sound, such as, lan-
guissaw^, vanite, &c., \h.e. feminine with
an e muet. In heroic verses, the rhymes
must be regularly and alternately, two
masculine and two feminine. If a
stanza end with a masculine rhyme,
the following must begin with a femi-
nine, and vice versa." '■'■Enjambement,
the running on of the sense from the
end of one verse to the beginning of
the following. It is a fault and to be
avoided," but is often designedly com-
mitted by Victor Hugo and recent poets.
1 This Mr. Feline has not marked
particularly, I shall therefore place two
dots (..) in place of the suppressed "e
muet," in order to guide the reader.
2 This he has marked, and hence I
32G E FINAL — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 4.
Le paysax du Daxcbe. — Fragment.
Craigncz, Romains, craignez que le ciel quclquc jour
Ne transporte chcz vous Ics plcurs ct la misere ;
Et mcttant en nos main.s, par un juste retour,
Les armes dont se sert sa vengeance severe,
II ne vous fasse en sa colore
Nos esclaves a votre tour.
Et pourquoi .sommes nous les votres ? Qu'on me die
En (luoi vous valez micux que cent pcuplcs divers.
Quel droit vous a rendus maitres de I'univers ?
Pourquoi venir troubler une innocente vie ?
Nous cultivions en paix d'heureux champs ; et nos mains
Etaient propres aux arts, ainsi qu'au labourage.
Qu'avez vous appris aux Gennaias ?
lis ont I'adresse et le courage ;
S'ils avaient eu I'avidite
Comme vous, ct la violence,
Peut-etre en votre place ils auraicnt la puissance,
Et sauraient en user sans inhumanite.
Celle que vos preteurs ont sur nous exercee
N'entre qu'a peine en la pensee.
La majeste de vos autels
Elle meme en est offensee ;
Car sachez que les immorteis
Ont les regards sur nous. Graces a vos exemples
lis n'ont devant les yeux que des objets d'horreur,
De mepris d'eux et de leurs temples,
D' avarice qui va jusques a la foreur,
Rien ne suffit aux gens qui nous vicnneut de Rome,
La terre et le travail de I'homme
Font pour les assouvir des efforts superflus.
Retirez-les : on ne veut plus
Cultiver pour eux les compagnes.
Nous quittons les cites, nous fuyons aux montagnes,
Nous laissons nos cbercs compagnes ;
Nous ne conversons plus qu'avcc des ours affreux,
Decourages de mettre au joiir des malhcureux,
Et de peupler pour Rome un pays qu'ellc opprime,
mark the prolongation by reduplication long vowels in French, and that I have
as usual. It is to be observed that M. strictly followed his system of notation,
Feline seldom admits the existence of except in his employment of the hyphen,
CuAP. IT. § 4. E FINAL — XIV TH CENTURY. 327
L2> pgjizaA dy Dany b. — F r a g m a a.
Crenje, RomeA, crenje k^ h si el kelko> zliur
!N9 traAsport^ she vu le pbrz e la mizer.. ;
JE metaAt aA no meA, par 8a zliyst^ r^tur
Lez arms doA s9 ser sa vaAzhaAss sever.. ,
II ns vn fas aA sa koler..
Noz esklav..z a votrs tiir.
^purkua som.. nu le votr.. ? K-oa mo dii..
Aa kua Ml vale mice ks saA p^pb diver.
Kel drua vuz a raAdy metrs ds l-yniver ?
Purkua vsnir trubler yn inosaAts vii.. ?
Nu kyltivioAz aA pe d-3roe shaA ; e no meAz
Ete proprsz oz ar, eAsi k-o laburazh...
K- ave vuz apriz o ZhermeA ?
Ilz OA 1- adres e h kurazb.. ;
S- ilz avet y 1- avidite
Kom.. ru, e la violaAs..,
Pst etr- aA votr? plas ilz ore la pyisaAS.. ,
^ soret aAn- yze saAz inymanite.
Sel.. k3 vo -pvetdT oa syr nuz egzersee..
'N- aAtrs k- a pen- a a la paAsee..
La mazbeste da voz otel
EL. mem- aAn- et ofaAsee.. ;
Kar sasbe ks lez immortelz
Oa le r^gar syr mi. Gras^z a voz egzaApL. ,
In n- OA dsvaA lez Joe k? dez obzbe d-orrsr,
Dd mepri d- oez e d.9 l^r taApL. ,
D- avaris.. ki va zbysk^z a la fyi'^r.
RieA 119 syfit o zbaA ki nu ^den.. da Hom.. :
La ter e h travalj ds 1- om..
FoA pur lez assuvir dez efor syperfly.
Retire le : oa ns voe ply
Kyltive pur oe le kaApanj.. .
Nu kitoA le site, nu fyijOAz o moAtanj.. ;
Nu lesoA no sber.. koApanj.. ;
Nu ns koAversoA ply k- avek dez urz afroe,
Dekurazbe d? metr- o zbur de mabroe,
^ ds psple pur Eom 8a pe,i k- el oprim.. .
wWch he places before a pronounced and which I employ in the usual pa-
final "e muet," or a consonant that laeotypic manner,
■which nms on to the following vowel,
328 E FINAL — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 4.
Not"vrithstaiiflinp: that this passage docs not offer numerous
examples of the (lisarranfjement produced hy modem speech in
French verse, yet it is evident that had French verse arisen in the
present day, or had it followed the usages of pronunciation, it could
not have taken such a funn. Thus the distinction between the
masculine and fendnine rhymes, which is so important in the con-
struction of French verse, has entirely disappeared, severe, colere,
becoming (sever, koler), do not differ from divers, unhers (diver,
yniver), though a French poet who attempted to make the first
rhyme with the second would be laughed from Parnassus. The
rhyme mains, Germains, has disappeared in (mcAZ, zhermcA), owing
to a "Kaison" preserving the « in one case, wliile it was lost in
another. The open vowels, which are so strictly forbidden, crop
up, as in
Comme vous, et la violence.
(kom ^Ti e la viola.i.s.)
This line also wants two syllables, whicTi the singer would have
added as —
(konia \Tiz e la violaAsa).
Observe also how the lines
Ell« meme en est offensee —
D'avaric* qui va jusques a la furcur —
suffer from the want of the italicized syllables.
The composition of French verse is as purely regulated by rule in
France as that of ancient Latin and Greek verse is at modem English
schools ; it is thoroughly artificial. The French have got to feel a
sort of rhythm in it as Etonians feel a rhythm in their own hexa-
meters ; but that the former at all resembled the rhythm known
to the old French poets, can as little be imagined, as that the latter
resembled the rhythm that guided Virgil. Even the popular rhymes
of Beranger connot always imitate the speech of the people, witness
the italicized e's in the following fii'st stanza of Paillasse ' —
J'suis ne Paillasse, et nion papa.
Pour m' lancer sur la place,
D'un coup d' pied queuqu' part m' attrapa,
Et m' dit : Saut«, Paillasse !
T'as r jarret dispos,
Quoiqu' t' ay' 1' ventre gros
Et la fac' rubiconde.
W saut' point-z a demi
Paillass' mon ami :
Sau/e pour tout le monde !
From the French we learn then this lesson, that it is possible to
have a versification which requii'es the pronunciation of e final,
although it has disappeared from the language. Hence Chaucer
may have used an e final in poetry, wliich was unknown in common
speech. But the French e final, which has now disappeared, was
pronounced in general conversation as late as the xvi th century, as
* (Euvres completes de P. J. de Paris, 1835, 2 vols. 32mo., vol. i. p.
Beranger, edition revue par I'auteur. 232, ^Titten in 1816.
Chap. IV. J 4. E FINAL — XIV TH CENTURY. 329
we know both from Palsgrave, and from Meigret, and hence it must
have been so pronounced in Chaucer's time, and must have formed
part of the rhythm of the French verses with which he was well
acquainted.
This examination of Gennan and French versification has led us
to two veiy different results. In Gennan the final e is a living part
of the language and metre, affecting the music of speech, a real
element in prose and verse, in the loftiest and the homeliest discourse.
In French the final e, although the representative of other original
vowels, the note of feminine and of many parts of verbs, and of con-
stant occui-rence in writing, has died out as utterly in French as it
has in English speech, but forms an element of the commonest as
well as loftiest versification of the present day, any attempt to build
verses upon the theoiy of its disappearance, as in English, being
scouted as low and vulgar. What was the case with Chaucer ?
The foundation of om* language is Saxon. The construction of
our sentences, the expressions of the relations of ideas by the order
of words, has undergone little or no change from a period when
French words were still unused. The only effect of the introduction
of French words was to enlarge our vocabulary, not to alter our
grammar. Hence it would seem more Kkely that while the Ger-
manic e final was still in use in our language, it was employed by
English poets much in the same way that it is now used by German
poets. That is, we have every reason to suppose that it was gene-
rally, as we have proved that it was occasionally pronounced,
whether it was a substitute for some other original vowel or was
merely inflexional, but that in both cases it was omitted, i when not
destnictive to the sense, before another vowel, or whenever its
omission gave dignity, force or precision.^
In French versification the nile for the elision of final e before a
subsequent vowel or h mute was absolute. We should therefore
expect to find this rule absolute in Chaucer at least for French
words. But it may have been only partially adopted. In this case
however we have no occasion to go to a French model. In Chap. V,
§§ 1 and 2, we shall see that this was the rule of English versifica-
tion, even in the xrrr th century.
It is quite possible that, as the inflexional condition of our lan-
^ In German and French poetry the altogether even in reading Latin verse,
omission of the vowel is complete and Except in a few instances, as V, t\ &c.,
absolute. It is not in any way slurred the French do not mark the elision of
over or rapidly pronoimced in connec- a final e before a following vowel, and
tion with the "following vowel, as is in old English the vowel was written
the case in Italian and Spanish poetry, even when elided,
and even in Italian singing. The * Occasionally, but less frequently,
Germans, like the Greeks, do not even the final e may have been also omitted
write the elided vowel. The Latins for the sake of the rhjTae or the metre,
wrote the elided vowel as the Italians but in such cases the poet must have
do, and may therefore have touched it felt that the sacrifice would have been
briefly, as in the English custom of greater to turn his verse so as to render
reading Latin verse, whereas it is the the elision unnecessary.
Gennan custom to omit such vowels
330 E FINAL ^ XIV Tli CENTURY. CllAP. IV. § 4.
piiajre imdfrwent a ru]ii(l dci^riulation in tlic xv Ih century, and was
certuiuly niutli iutliior iu the xiv th to what it was in the xiu th,
(several of the intiexional e's having perliaps disappeared even in
Chaucer's time), and as most of the manuscripts belong to a period
of at least a generation after Chaucer's death, this disuse of the final
e may have considerably advanced before the best copies of his "writ-
ings, which wc possess, had come into existence. It may therefore
well be tliat the scribe has fre([uently introduced or omitted final e's
with rather an indistinct and uncertain feeling as to where they
ought or ought not to be pronounced.'
We know indeed that even in the xvr th century, when the final
e's had altogether disappeared from speech, they were considered an
indispensable ornament in "s^Titing, and were added on without any
knowledge on the writer's part whether their addition was or was
not historically justifiable.^
Before judging from the inner part of a line in Chaucer, whether
the final e's that are written should be pronounced or mute, it is
necessary to obtain some feeling as to the style and character of his
verse. "We have no occasion to consider the shorter lines of Sir
Thopaz, nor the grouping of the lines into stanzas. The question is
only, of how many syllables did one of Chaucer's longer lines consist,
and where did tlie stress fall ?
The last question requires the position of the accent ^ in Chaucer's
words to be considered- Or rather the two questions must be con-
sidered together, for there is no means of determining the position
of the accent but by the metre. "We may assume that the rhyming
syllables had sufficient stress to make the rhyme fully audible, but
we must be aware of concluding that therefore they had the chief
stress. This rule would be generally tine in German verse, — where
however it is sometimes transgressed,^ — but it is not at all time of
French verse. Many writers assert that French words have a fixed
accent. In the xvi th century Palsgi-ave marks the position of the
French accent and lays dovm rules for it. So does the very high
phonetic authority, Ilapp, in the xix th century. Nevertheless one
of the great peculiarities of French, as distinguished from Italian on
the one hand, (representing its Latin element,) and German on the
other, (representing its Frankish element,) is the absence of deter-
minate stress upon any syllable in a word. French speakers do fre-
quently put a stress, but that stress varies with the feeling of the
moment, and without affecting the intelligibility of a word. I have
1 See supra, p. 320, note. ever, the present investigations make
2 See the latter part of Salesbury's it requisite to reconsider. In these
observations on e in his Welsh pronun- pages I have strictly confined myself to
ciation, infra, Chap. YIII. \ 1. the smallest amount of discussion which
* The following remarks on the very my object allowed,
difficult subject of accent and metre, * Compare etwas in the Maylied,
make no pretension to completeness. supra p. 323, a word which generally
The two volumes of Mr. Guest's His- has the stress on the et, as in other com-
tory of English Rhythms, 1838, shew pounds of et, but there has nearly an
the extent of the subject, which, how- even stress on both syllables.
Chap. IY. § 4. E FINAL — XIV TH CENTURY. 331
heard the last word in Us champs Elysees pronounced with a distinct
stress on the first syllable on one occasion, on the second on another,
and on the thii-d on another. A Gennan speaker is apt to accent
the final syllable in French words, an English speaker the first. It
is the evenness with which a Prenchmen pronounces the syllables
that gives so much peculiarity to his pronunciation of English, and
reflects his national habit of speech, a habit also shared, as I am
informed, by the Turks. A simple example of the effect of this
evenness is that most Englishmen feel the French Alexandi'ine to
consist of four measures, of three syllables each, accented more or
less distinctly on the last syllable, whereas the English and German
Alexandrine founded upon it consists of six measures of two syllables
each, more or less distinctly accented on the last. That the French
allowed very evanescent syllables, as for example the final e, to fall
on the even places, may be seen from the italicised syllables in
Corneille's lines {L^ imitation de lesvs- Christ) :
Les tenebres iamais n'approclient qui me suit ;
Et partout siu- mes pas il trouue vn iour sans nuit,
Qui porte iusque au coeui- la luraiere de vie. — 1, 1, 1
Ne lui sfauroit offiir d'agreab&s victimes — 1, 1, 3
Et la vertu sans eux est de telle raleur,
Qu'il vaut mieux bicn sentir la douleur de tes fautes,
Que s9auoir definir ce qu'est cette douleur. ^ 1,1,3
"We also find the same word differently placed in a verse with
respect to the odd and even places, which should therefore be dif-
ferently accented according to any accentual theory. For example
(Comeille, Imitation) :
Et tu verras qu'enfin tout n'est que vanite. 1, 1, 3
Vanite d'entasser richesses sui' richesses. 1, 1, 4
Le desir de sfauoir est naturel aux hommes. 1, 2, 1
Borne tous tes desirs a ce quU te faut faire. 1, 2, 2
Les S<;auans d' ordinaire a,ya\ent qu'on les regarde. 1, 2, 2
Qui puissent d'vn S^auant fahe vn honime de bien. 1, 2, 2
And so on, shewing that in the year 1651, when this was published,
there was no proper detenninate stress on any French words. From
this to the xivth century is a great leap, but the very fact that
Chaucer employs his French words in the same way, leads us to
infer that he was accustomed to the same practice in his French
originals, thus :
Trouthe and honour, freedom and curtesie. 46
And evere honoured for his worthinesse. 60
Sche was so charitable and so pitous. 143
They fill en gruf and criden pitousli/. 951
Tathenes, for to dwellen in prisoun. 1025
Oure prisoun for it may non othir be. 1087
Fairest of faire, o lady min Venus. 2223
And ye be Fc««<s, the goddess of love. 2251
^ If the text be correct we find precisely similar cases in Chaucer —
Ful wel sche sang the service devyne. 122
That often hadde been atte parvj's. 312
As seyde himself more than a curat. 219
332 E FINAL — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. } 4.
*It is needless to heap up examples as the fact is well known. It
is dwelled upon by Mr. Skeat,' but althoufjh he names the etjuable
French pronunciation, he seems to think tlie final stress in English
words to be due to the French and the change of accent to be en-
tirely English. It is more probable that the words were always
pronounced Avith an equable stress, which allowed of their appearing
in either position, and this was altogether French.
There is at least one English termination which could be placed
either in an odd or even place, namely -ynge, thus in
Sytigynge he was or Jlowtynge al the day. 91
-ynge occurs both in an even and odd place. This tennination, as a
true participial form, is difficult to derive from Anglosaxon, where
the termination was -ende, -inde. In the Homaunt of the Rose we
have -ande in an even place —
Po)iitis and sleeves be welle sittande
Eight and streght on the hande. 6'69
They shal hir telle hou they thee fande
Curteis and wys, and welle doande 6"83
And in the Canterbury Tales,
Touclumd the cherl, they sayd that subtilte 7872
But it occurs in an odd place apparently in —
The God of Lone delp-erly
Come lepande to me hastily. 6-59
and in the Canterbuiy Tales,
Ther is M many an eyghe and many an eere
Aioayiand on a lord, and he not where. 7635
His meyne, which that herd of this affray.
Com lepand in, and chased out the frere. 7738
and by the analogy of all Germanic inflexional syllables it ought to
be unaccented.^
As a verbal noun the -ynge came directly from Anglosaxon, and
it occiirs in an even place so early as Genesis and Exodus.
pride and giscinge of louerd-hed, v. 882
Chaucer therefore apparently took the liberty of placing French
words, foreign names, and English words with heavy tenninations,
as -ynge, -nesse, and some others,^ in any part of his line which
' In the additions to Tyrwliitt's pre- The change of form of the present par-
liminar}' Essay, Mr. Morris's edition of ticiple is carefully noted in Koch, His-
Chaucer, vol. 1, 172-196. Bell and torische Grammatik der Englischen
Daldy, London, 1866. See the list of Sprache, vol. 1, p. 342, to which I am
words given by Prof. Child in his indebted for the references to the
Essay, reproduced in the next section, Romaunt of the Rose, the text of which
art. 99. Prof. Child cites as "Ex- however, is unfortunately very doubt-
amples of the French accent," which ful (p. 252). The form -ende is very
he e\'idently regards as lying on the common in Gower, and is generally
last syllable — accented. See Prof. Child's observa-
ther was discord', rancour', ne hevy- tions in the next section, art. 64.
nes'se. 8308 ^ Prof. Child loc. cit. art. 99, also
glori and honour', regn'e, tresor' and notices felaw'e 2550, &c., fel'aw 650,
rent(e) 15697 melle're mylle're 544, 3167; mel'er
2 Mr. Skeat accents it (ib. p. 185). 3923, &c., yeman' 6962, ye'man 101.
Chap. IV. § 4. E FINAL — XIV TH CENTURY. 333
suited his convenience, most 'probably pronouncing them -with tn
even stress on each syllable, -svhich in process of time became trans-
formed into a double method of accentuating. For English words
generally the usual Germanic rule of the stress on the radical syl-
lable apparently prevailed.
Chaucer's verse seems to consist generally of Jive measures, with
or without a final unaccented syllable, foi-ming a ''feminine rhyme,"
added at the pleasure of the poet. There is no trace of the strict
alternation of couplets with masculine and feminine rhymes which
distinguishes French verse of the classical period. Each measure
properly consisted of two syllables, with more or less stress on the
last, but each syllable might also have nearly the same stress. In
the first measui-e the chief stress was often on the fij-st syllable, as
Bright tvas the day and bliew the firmament 10093
Mr. Skeat has pointed out (ib. 174) that the first measure might
consist of a shiffle syllable, which then ought to have a certara
stress, or at least be followed by a decidedly unaccented syllable, as
May with all thyn floures and thy greene, 1512
Ther by aventitre this Palamoun. 1518
Noiv it schjTieth, now it re)'neth faste. 1537
His example
I make pleynly my confessioim,
That I am the Wful Palamoun. 1737
can scarcely be correct, as such a reading would be quite destruc-
tive of the sense, for thai, am, must be without stress, and /must
have the stress. The line is therefore coiTupt. Tyi-whitt reads
thilke for the, another mode of correction would be
That I am he, the woful Palamoun,
That hath thy prisoim broke wikkedly.
Probably Mr. Skeat is right in admitting a monosyllabic first
measure, but it should not be accepted in any particular case,
unless the single syllable it contains has a decided stress.^
In the modem verse of five measures, there must be a principal
stress on the last syllable
of the second and fourth measures
or of the first and fourth measures
or of the third and some other measure.
1 The first line of the Canterbury The Harleian 7333 has [swoote
Tales seems to belong to this category. Whanne ]i^ Aperyll w* his shoures
The Harleian 7334 reads [swoote "«vhere tvhanne is an Anglosaxon form.
Whan that aprille with his schowres Caxton's first edition reads [sote.
where the italicised e has no authority, ^^'^^^ that Apprill with his shouris
compare Averil 6128, but is also foimd And Pnison's edition 1493, has [sote
in the Corpus MS. Oxlbrd. The ^Mian that Aprille with his shoures
Hengwit MS. reads— [soote Marking the monosyllabic first measure
Whan that Auervll wi<A ms shoures it^it ^A a r„4.
• by italics, 1 would read [swote
The Harleian 1758 reads— ;^;^^^„ ^1^^^ April Avith his schoui-es
WTian that Aprill. w* his schoures swote c- • ,
The Lansdowne 851 has [soote Similarly
Wlian ))at April wj^ie his schoures Al bysmoterud with his haburgeon. 77
334 E FINAL XIV TH CENTURY. ChaP. IV. § 4.
'jbcro is also generally a stress upon the last syllabic of the fifth
measure, but il' any one of the three conditions above stated are
satisfied, the verse, so far as stress is concerned, is complete, no
matter what other syllables have a pi-eater or less stress or length. ^
It is a mistake to suppose that there are commonly or regularly,
five stresses, one to each measure."
This rule of stress is necessarily not so strictly carried out in
Chaucer, who was provided with a number of words having even
syllabic stress. But on examination it will be found to hold toler-
ably well. There are however many lines in which so many syl-
lables come together, with little or no stress, that unless they are
read somewhat syllabically rather than by measures, or stress, we
fail to feel their rhj-thm. Thus
That cf ery of you schal go wher him lest. 1 850
may be accented on the italicised syllables, (first and fourth mea-
siu'cs), in which case of you schal go would be passed over lightly, or
else the whole line may be read with an even stress like a French
verse, and this seems the more probably correct method.
Any measure may occasionally consist of thi'ee syllables, but in
this case the two first are always very light. In
"Wyd "was his par«c7j, and houses fer asondur. 493
Bilom me sorwful wrecched creature. 1 108
the third italicised measure has three syllables. In such cases it
will be gene]-ally found that the first syllable is merely an in-
flexional or derivative e, en, er.
It is not usual in modem verse to have two trissyllabic measiu'cs
in the same line, or if they do so occur they must be widely sepa-
rated. It is also not customary in modem verse, but it is not un-
frequent in Chaucer, to give three syllables to the fifth measure, as
Than with an angry woman doun in a Jwm. 6361
As wel over hir houshond as over his love. 6621
1 The length of syllables has much lines of Lord Byron's Corsair, marking
to do with the force and character of the even measures by italics and the
a verse, but does not form part of its relative amount of stress by 0, 1, 2,
rhythmical laws. we have —
* Take for example the first six
10 120002 12
O'er the glad ivaiers, of the dark blue sea
1 1 02000202
Our thoughts as boundless, and our souls as free,
200 10 2 0102
Far as the breeze can bear, the billovcs foam,
010 2 0 002 0 2
Survey our enfpire, and behold our home !
20 0 1 21000 2
These are our realms, no limits to their sway —
12 0 2 0 112 0 2
Our flag the sceptre all who meet obey.
The distribution of stress is seen to and others might think that it would
be very varied, but the action of the be sufficient to mark stress and no
rules given in the text is well marked. stress. The last line most nearly ap-
Different readers would probably differ proaches to having five principal
as to the ratios 1 and 2, in some lines, stresses.
Chap. IV. § 4. E FINAL — XIV TH CENTURY, 335
If gentiles were plaunted na^?«-f%, 6716 %
For vilejTi sj-nful deedes maketh a cherl. 6740
That will nought be governed after her wyves.^ 6844
Besides the stress, the caesura plays an important part in modem
verse. This consists in tenninating a word, at the end of the
second measure or in the middle of the third, or else more rarely at
the end of the third or middle of the fourth measure. Words
fonning a logical whole must in this case be considered as parts
of tl^ same word. Thus Chaucer's
That slep^M al the night — with open yhe. 10
(where the even measures are italicised) has the cfesura (marked by
a dash) after night, the end of the third measure, not at al, or the,
because al the night has the effect of a single word.
If we now read Chaucer's lines with the pronunciation obtained
in our previous investigations, we shall find it very difficult to say
in general where the final e, when written, may not be sounded.^
But the piinciple of economy woidd lead us to avoid the use of
trissyllabic measures where they are not agreeable, or where they
would be too frequent.
Final e arises in Chaucer ^ from nearly the same sources as in
German :
1) as a substitute fi'om some original final vowel — essential E
2) as a mark of plural, oblique case, or definite adjective — inflec-
tional, oblique, definite E
3) as a mark of adverbs — adverbial E
4) as a mark of the infinitive mood and gerund, past tense of
weak verbs, and imperative mood — verbal E
5) as a representative of the French final e — French E.
1 The trissyllabic meastires in 6621 precisely the same rhythm in a line in
are avoided by reading o'er for over, Goethe's Tasso, act 1 :
as in modern times, and in 6740 by ein neii Hesperien
reading makHh. Uus dustcnd bildew, erkennst du sie
nicht alle
2 "It is difficult to point out in- FurholdeFruchte einer wahren Liebe?
stances where the -e final is not sounded (ain noy Hespee-rim
but it appears to be silent in dore 2424, 'D'ns dust-md bild-m, erkenst- du zii
feste 885, regne 879, and bede 1328." niA-ht al-e
Skeat, ibid. p. 183. The reference ^yr Hold-e fry,l-ht-e ain-er bhaa-ren
numbers have been adapted. Now on lii'be ?)
examiniuo- these lines ^^ ^'Jct when the caesura occurs in this
r^, ° ., , 1 J J, ^ place a trissyllabic third measure has a
The rynges on the tempul ^ore that '^i,^,^^^ effect. In [879
, . , • n T_- "^'fj How wonnen was the regne o/Femenve.
only gives a tnssylabic fitth measure, ^here is siraplv an elision of. final
comparable to the above instances ^^^^g ^ foUowing vowel. Hence these
where it is formed without a final e. four instances selected by Mr. Skeat
And of the feste that tvas at hire wed- from the whole of the Knightes Tale,
djTige. 88-5 come to nothing.
Ther as a beste may al his lust fulSlle.
1320 ' Prof. Child's minute examination
have trisyllabic third measures, which of the final E's in Chaucer, is given in
have never a bad effect, indeed we have the next section.
336 E FINAL — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 4.
»Tlie use of the final e seems to have been more regular in poetry
than prose, to judge by the prose tales in this manuseript, but this
may be erroneous ; the reason may only be that the scribe, to whom
many of the uses of e final had become obsolete, had no guide, when
Avriting prose, to con-ect his more modem sjielling, or, as is more
likely still, at once used the orthography corresponding to his more
recent pronunciation.
The question now arises, was final e ever added on by the poet for
the sake of metre or rhyme, as Goethe apparently added on*^ in
Gliicke as shewn above (p. 323) ? It is possible, but not probable,
as it would have been instantly detected as a weakness, unless it
could be justified as an archaism, like Goethe's, or a colloquialism,
as when zweie, dreie, is said in German. i But the scribe certainly
not unfrequently added on an e when it was not requii-ed, shevring
that the value and meaning of the final e was disappearing in his
time. Mr. Skeat calls this " orthoepic " and considers that it has
"solely to do with the length of the preceding vowel " (Ibid. p.
189). I am more inclined to consider it "ignorant," and as point-
ing out a later date for tlie writing of the MS. See the obsenations
on the Lansdowne MS. 851, supra p. 320, note. It would be im-
possible to suppose that the writer of that MS. added on an em:
wyj^e, ha)7e, suche, wliiche, — examples which occur in the fii'st four
lines, — to shew the lengthening of a vowel wliich was not lengthened.
The following examination of words with final E in the first 100
lines of the Canterbury Talcs will give a clearer notion of their
origin and use. To each word is added the number of the line, with
an accent after it when the word is final. From the metre alone it
is of coui'se generally impossible to deteiTuine whether the final E
at the end of a line is to be pronounced. Therefore we may, for
the moment, reject all such from consideration. "When an apos-
trophe is substituted for a final E, it shews that the e is A^Titten,
but not pronounced, and is followed by a vowel or enclitic beginning
with h. A double apostrophe shews that the e was written, but
should apparently be omitted for the sake of the metre. "WTien the
word is in italics, it is essential to the metre in the middle of a
verse. Prof. Cliild's remarks in the next section should be con-
sulted by means of the list of Forms of Words in Chaucer and Gower
referred to in Prof. Chihfs memoirs there appended.
1. Siqycrfluom final H, that is, a final E not required by grammar
or by Anglosaxon usage. AjJriUe 1, vertu' 4, nyn' 24, wey' 34,
aU' 38, fiftene 61', hethen' 66, mek' 69. Here Aprille 1, is really
not essential to the metre, if we allow of a monosyllabic first mea-
sure. Ny7ie 24, and fiftene 61', may have assumed the e as numerals,
io, art. 39. Tf'^ei/e 34, is written wegje in Orrmin, so that the e
was no more an addition of Chaucer's than the e of Gliicke was an
addition of Goethe's. The word occurs frequently without the e,
Sec Prof. Child on the cases where infra § 5, art. 13, 14, 16, 17, 30; and
final e is found in Chaucer in words my footnote on art. 13.
where it does not exist in Anglosaxon,
Chap. IV. § 4. E FIXAL XIV TH CENTURY. 337
and should be so written here. Mehe 69, frequently requires to
have a final e pronounced, but On-niin wiites meoc, mec without
a final e.
2. French final E, veyn' 3, melodie 9', natm-' 11, straiinge 13,
pilgrimage 21', 78', corage 22', hosteliie 23', companye 24', aventur'
25, space 35', 87', chyvalrye 45', curtesie 46', siege 56, viage 77',
statur' 83, chivachie 85', grace 88', servysable 99', table 100'.
3. Essential final E, that is, already existing in Anglosaxon or
used as a substitute for some other vowel or syllable in Anglosaxon ;
the Anglosaxon form is given immediately after the word : swoote
swete r, swete swete 5, sonne sonna 7', ende ende 15', her" hira 32,
tym' tima 35, tale talu 36, inne innan 41', trouth' treow^e 46, werre
werre 47', ferre feorra 48', mayde maeden 69', son' sunu 79, hop"
hopa 88, mede, medu 89', goun" (old friesic gone) 93, nightingale
nihtegale 98'. In here = their 32, the e seems to have been scarcely
ever pronounced. Though hope 88 may have been merely (noop),
the e may have been sounded (noop"e) producing a trissyllabic second
measure
In hope to stonden in his lady grace. 88
In gotine there is no Anglosaxon authority, the e was not required
and perhaps not pronounced.
4. Verbal final E, that is a final E which arises from the inflec-
tions of the verb: they wende 16', to seeke 17', wer" thei 26,
wolden ryde 27', hadd' I 31', made 33, to aryse 33', I yow de^-yse
34', I pace 36', to telle 38, wol I begynne 42', he lovede 45, it was
wonne 51', he hadd" the bord bygonne 52', hadd' he be 56, he
sayde 70', he u-ente 78, I gesse 82', syngyng', flowtyng' 91, wel
cowd' he sitt', ride 94', cowde mak', endite 95', justn', daunc',
write 96', he lovede 97. JFere 26, hadde 56, were frequently, or
generally monosyllabic ; portray 96 should be portraye, but the e
would be elided ; Icvede 45, 97 had the first e elided lov'de (luvde),
and similarly frequently.
5. Oblique final E, that is, e added to form a case or plural of
substantives : to the roote 2', in every holt' 6, in felaschip' 26, 32,
atte beste 29', to reste 30', of ech' 39, in hethenesse 49', for his
worthinesse 50', in presse 81', of lengthe 83', of strengthe 84', by
nightertale 97'.
6. Adjectival final E, that is, an e added to form the plural or
feminine of adjectives, or to make adjectives definite : the yonge
Sonne 7', his halfe cours 8, smale fowles d, feme halwes kouthe' 14,
whan that they wer" seeke 18, thei alle 26', wcren weyde 28', our"
34, ful ofte tyme 52, alle naciouns 53, the grete see 59 ; this ilke 64,
lokkes cniU' 81, evene lengthe 83, fresshe floures white and recde 90',
sleeves wyde 93'. Ofte 52 seems here used as an adjective, for manye.
In oure 34 the e does not seem to have been ever pronounced.
7. Adverbial final E, used to fonn the adverb : oft' 55, evere-
mor' 67, late 77.
8. Contracted article, atte beste = at the beste, 29', 56.
22
338 E FINAL — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 4.
It is thus seen that if we omit the consideration of final e at the
end of a line, and allow final e to be elided before a subsequent
vowel, \\Q have only 23 cases in the first 100 lines in which the
final e was essential to the metre. These are distributed as follows :
1. Sxi^erflxmis final E {Jio\3\i'd\A) ----- 1
2. French final E 2
3. Essential final E 3
4. Verbal final E 6
5. Oblique final E 0
6. Adjectival final E 10
7. Adverbial final E 1
•^ —23
Shewing that the yerbal and adjectival final E's were the most
important. ^Tien the final E was so seldom required to -satisfy
the ear of a scribe who had ceased to use it in speech, we must not
be surprised if he often treated it as an ornament to be added or
omitted at pleasure. This seems to have been the case with all the
later manuscripts. / r. ^-l ^ i •
Now turning from verse, let us examine the use ot the final e m
prose, as in the Tale of MeKbcus. Here we do not find by any
means so many e's, or such regularity in their use. I refer to the
words by the number of the paragraph containing them, and give
two or three words together to facilitate reference, italicising the
word under consideration,
mighty and riche 1 has the French e.
upon a da}/ 1 for daye.
liim to play 1, for to jjlai/e.
dores were fast i-shitte 1, pi. part.
olde foos 1, plural adj.
here feet, here, &c. 1, as usual.
nose 1, ags. nasu. -i.- j j -t.
rendyng 2 for rendynge, the final e is here constantly omitted, ajid it
is not always inserted in verse.
gan wepe and crie 2, infinitive e, this is generally correctly inseiied,
but the gerund e is often omitted.
as she dorste 2, verbal e. , rv •
of his wepyny to stynte 2, the gerund e is correct, the obhque e is
omitted, so again, of here tvejjyny to stinte 3 : but, what man
schulde of his wepynge stynte 4. The oblique e of the dative
we found most frequently omitted in Gennan, and it is clear
that after a preposition which shewed the connection sufficiently,
the inflection could be readily dispensed with.
Remedy of Love 3 for remedye. We have already noticed in the
poetry many cases in which y final had been written for ye in
French words. It is very possible that in these words the use
of the final e rapidly dropped from speech, and that then the
words had final long (n). See p. 283. Love, ags. lufu, has
always retained its e, although the o may have been short (u)
in the xiv th century ; it is long in Omnin.
Chap. IV. § 4. E FINAL — XIV TH CENTURY. 339
of hir childe 3, oblique e, but childe is constantly found with e even
when not oblique,
liir^^^^ 3, this seems a superfluous e, ags. fyll plenitudo.
diligence amyahle 3, have the French termination,
hii' houshonde 3, ags. husbonda, is rcgiilar.
in this icise 3, ags. wise.
youre self 3, usual form, but e not pronounced,
forsothe 3, adv. e, or else /or sothe, oblique e.
to a toys man 3, ags. wis, distinct from the former wise. The
oblique e is here omitted,
such sorwe 3. OiTmin has serrghe, but there is no ^ in ags. sorg,
sorh, which should only form sorw, from sorioh = (sork«?h),
compare sorwful 4.
ye ne oughte nought 3, past tense,
youre silf destroy e 3, infinitive e.
The wise man 3, definite adjective, compare the indefinite a wys
man above,
his owne persone 3, oicne feminine e, and persone French e.
ansioerde anoon and sayde 4, past tenses.
And whan thou hast for-gon ihj frend, do diligence to gete another
frende, and this is more wisedom than to wepe for thy frend,
which thou hast lorn, for therein is no hoote 4. The spelling of
frend is veiy careless, the first time it is right, the two following
times it is reversed, frende frend for frend frende. To gete, to
wepe are gerunds. Wisedom is an error for wisdom. Boote, old
norse hyti.
out of youre hert . . . glad in herte 4, ags, heorte, hence the first
spelling is incorrect. Orrmin has heorrte, herrte ; hert would be
a stag. It is singular that heart, hart are now distingidshed by
an e, but the e is put in the wrong part of the word. In German
her% is a contracted form, and herze is occasionally used in poetry,
o.h.g. herza, goth. hairto (Her'too).
It is not necessary to continue this examination. Sufficient has
been adduced to shew that the system of final e is the same in prose
as in verse, so that it has not been invented by the poet or his scribe
to patch up a line where necessary. If an editor of Chaucer would
carefully examine all the final e's, restoring all those gi-ammatically
necessaiy, and ruthlessly omitting, or at least typographically in-
dicating, all those which neither grammar nor derivation allow,
when they were not necessary for the metre or rhyme, and then
submit the others to a careful consideration, he would do the study
of EngKsh great service. The elaborate researches of Prof. Child,
described in the next section, have smoothed the way for such an
edition, and in Chapter VII I have endeavoured to carry out this
suggestion for the Prologue to the Canterbury Tales, in a method
there explained, and in an orthography which the present examina-
tion has suggested. The careful examination of every verse thus
rendered necessary has resulted in convincing me that Chaucer and
Goethe used the final e in precisely the same way, with the solitary
exception of the consistent elision of e before a vowel and silent A.
340 E FINAL — XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 4.
This conclusion is in harmony with the historical position of
Chaucer. He was not the first or the only writer of smooth verses
in English. Orrmiu's are as regular as any written at the present
day, and he treated his final e in precisely the same manner as
Chaucer, making the same elisions. We shall find the same prin-
ciple marked in the other versifiers of the xin th century. Gower,
Chaucer's contemporary, carries out the use of the final e even to a
greater extent than Chaucer. As Gower wrote also in French, this
greater regularity may he attributed to French influence, but we
must remember that the French final e at that time must have been
regularly and distinctly pronounced in common conversation as well
as in verse, or it would not have formed a part of Meigret's phonetic
prose in the middle of the xvi th century.
Although Chaucer, by the mere force of his genius, became the
apparent founder of our English poetry, — few ever thinking of the
equally smooth but insufferably tedious Gower, — he was in fact the
last, not the first of a period. The wave of civil war passed over
the country after his death, and when poetry again rose under
Spenser, the language was altered in idiom and in soimd, and
Chaucer could only be 'translated,'' not imitated, A new versi-
fication suited to the new form of language rose to majesty in
Spenser, Shakspere, !Milton. Hence we must not look upon
Chaucer as an innovator, and the justification of his final e must
not be sought for in an imitation of the French, but m the custom
of all the versifiers which preceded and accompanied him.
Acting upon this feeling I have examined what would be the
result of tliis theory upon the pronunciation of Chaucer's lines, and
the mode in which I have printed the Prologue to the Canterbury
Tales in Chap. VII, having given great facilities for performing
the calculation, I have drawn up the following table. It must be
remembered that the text in Chap. YII does not precisely accord
with any manuscript, a few simple alterations having been made where
the metre seemed to require it, but the general results will not be
at all affected by these changes. The enumeration is by no mefuis
easy to make, as different opinions may be entertained of the cate-
gories under which elisions or retentions should be classed, and it
is not possible to check it without taking far more trouble than the
results deserve. In the present case the enumeration has been made
twice, at considerable intervals, and the text was corrected between
the two enumerations. The results differed, but not in any way to
affect the conclusions to be drawn from them. The second series of
niimbers are here given because they refer to the text as it stands, but
I would by no means guarantee their absolute coiTcctness, although
they were obtained with care.
» Dryden'B and Pope's 'translations' Bottome, blesse thee; thou are trans-
of Chaucer, remind one irresistibly of lated." — Mid. X. Dream, act 3, sc. 1,
Quince's exclamation: "Blesse thee speech 41.
Chap. IV. $ 4. E FINAL — XTV TH CENTURY. 341
Filial E was pronounced — Times.
Before a vowel, doubtful : th'olde Esculapius 429 - - 1
Before a consonant ----..-. 238
At the end of a line, that is, it is consonant with strictly
preserving the grammatical inflection, and the essen-
tial final E, with the rhyme, and with the cases last
numbered, to suppose that it was pronounced in this
position ----.-.. 420
Final ES was pronounced —
In the middle of a line ------ 87
At the end of a line -------37
Final E was elided —
Before a following vowel, always, with only one doubt-
ful exception, v. 429 - - - - - -315
Before he 92, his 22, him 13, hir' 6, her* 4, hem 1, hadde
7, have 1, hoio 1, with one doubtful exception before
he : that on his schyne a monnal hadde he 388, and
none for the other words, except hadde, how, have,
« which have not been noted, total - - - - 147
Final ES was treated as simple S —
In the middle of a line - - - - - -18
Final E was regularly elided — -
In hadd' (with 12 exceptions: v. 253, 286, 310, 373,
379, 386, 447, 464, 554, 677, 700, 760, as num-
bered in Chap. VII, where the numbers sometimes
differ by 2 from Wright's) - - - - - 18
In /«>' = her, without exception - - - - 25
her^ = their, without exception - - - - 12
wer^ = were, one exception noted : woo was his cook,
but if his sauce were 351 ----- 14
our'' == our, without exception - - - - 19
your'= your, without exception - - . - 5
Final E was arbitraiily elided —
as ia modem German poetry, for the sake adding force to
the expression, for the metre or for the rhyme, either
at the end of a line or before a consonant^-—
when the mark of the oUique case - - - 37
-vi^hQ-a. t\ie -mav^ oi verbal inflexion - - - 17
when essential, or representing a final vowel in an
anterior stage of the language - - - 1 3
Final E was arbitrarily added —
for the sake of rhyme or metre, in no case noted.
These enumerations enable us to lay down the following rules for
the pronunciation of final E, which would have to be veiified by a
wider field of research, and as they agree essentially with the
results of Prof. Child's more elaborate examination, — see the next
section, arts. 74 to 92, — they probably represent the practice of
the couit dialect in the xiv th century as nearly as we can hope to
attain. There is reason to suppose that the e final had been long
much neglected in the Northern dialect.
342 PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. Chap. IV. § 5,
Final unaccented e, when essential or inflectional was re-
gularly pronounced, except in the following cases :
1. It was regularly elided before a following vowel.
2. It was regularly elided before a following lie, his, him,
h{r\ her', hem, and occasionally before Juidde, have,
how, to which Prof. Child adds hath and her =: here.
'J. In the following words, e though generally written was
never sounded, hir' = her, hir' = their, our' — our,
your' = your.
4. Final e was frequently not sounded in hadd, wer', tim,
mor'
5. Occasionally, but rarely in comparison to the other
cases of elision, essential or inflectional final e was
elided to render the expression terser, or to assist the
metre or rhyme, precisely as in modern German
poetry, but not so frequently as in German. The
oblique e and essential e were most frequently dropped,
as is also the case in German ; the e of verbal inflec-
tion was seldom omitted.
By the elision of final e is meant its absolute suppression
as in German, Greek, and French, not its rapid or slurred
utterance as in Italian and Spanish. But there may be
many cases of the fifth exception in which the elision may be
saved by introducing a trissyllabic measure, without material
harshness, and it must remain an undecided question whether
Chaucer would or would not have elided the vowel in such
cases. Judging from the practice in German, the elision
seems most probable. For the efiect of the action of these
rules in declaiming Chaucer and Gower, reference must be
made to the examples in Chap. VII.
§ 5. Professor F. J. Child's Observations on the Language
of Chaucer and Gower.
In the Memoirs of the American Academv, New Series,
Vol. viii, pp. 445-502, 3 June 1862, and Yol. ix. pp. 265-
314, 9 January 1866 (subsequently revised so that it may
be considered as dating from Nov. 1867), Professor Francis
James Child, of Harvard College, Cambridge, Massachusetts,
U.S., has given the results of an elaborate and searching
examination into the language of Chaucer's Canterbury
Tales as exhibited in Wright's edition of the Harl. MS.
7334, and Gower's Confessio Amantis as edited, from no one
manuscript in particular, and with an arbitrary system of
Chap. IY. § 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCBE AND GOWER.
343
spelling justified by no single manuscript, by Dr. Reinhold
Pauli.^ As a large portion of these investigations tend to-
wards the discovery of the number of syllables in words, by
determining when the final e was or was not pronounced, or
should or should not be written, the present work would be
incomplete without a full account of them, more especially
as the memoirs themselves are not readily accessible.^
Nouns.
Art. 1. Nouns which in Anglosaxon end in a vowel terminate in
Chaucer and Gower uniformly in e.^
2.** First declension of Anglosaxon noims. Neuters. (I. 1. Rask.)'
Ex. Ckaitcer — eere, yhe, ye. Gower — ere, eye, eie.
1 Supra p. 256, note 1.
* In the Memoir on Gower, for
§§ 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28,
as printed, read 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,
28, 29, 30 respectively, as pointed out
in the corrections to that paper. The
corrected numbers only are used here.
The memoirs have 'been slightly
abridged, chiefly by omission, and
amalgamated. The long lists of words
appended without references to certain
articles, are given at length in a com-
mon index at the end, for convenience
of casual consultation. 'VThen they do
not appear in this index references are
generally appended, but the whole of
the references are not always given,
and those to Pauli's Gower are fi'e-
quently omitted altogether. The words
of the author have generally been re-
tained. This re-arrangement is made
with the kind permission of Prof. Child.
3 In Prof. Child's papers e means
an e pronounced, e an e elided, e and e
written and not elided but not forming
a syllable in the editions used, [e] an e
added by himself, (e) an e which occurs
in Wright's edition, but which he con-
siders should be omitted. The grave
accent (") marks the accented syllable.
* The asterisk appended to the num-
ber of an article shews that the full
references and explanations of the ex-
emplificative words are in given the
final table oi Forms of Words in Chaucer
and Gower.
5 The following extract from B. Thorpe's Translation of E. Eask's Grammar of
the Anglo-Saxon^Tongue, Copenhagen, 1830, p. 28, will explain these references.
" 49. The following tables will serve as a sjTiopsis of all the regular declensions :
Thb Simple OaDEH, or 1st Declension.
1. Neut. 2. Masc. 3. Fern.
Sing. Nom.
.
-e
-a
-e
Ace.
a
-e
-an
-an
Abl. & Dat.
,
-an
-an
-an
Gen.
!C.
-an
-an
-an
Plural Nom. and Ac
-an
Abl. and D.
,
.
-um
G.
.
.
-ena
The Cojcplex
Order.
2nd.
Declension.
A
3d. Declension
A
1. Neut,
2. Masc.
3. Fern.
1. Neut. 2
. Masc. 3
1. Fern.
Sing. Nom. „
„(e)
)»
„(e)
-u
-u
Ace.
,, (e)
(e)
» (e)
-u
-e
Abl. & Dat. . -e
-e
-6
-e
-a
-e
Gen. -es
-es
-e
-es
-a
-e
Plural N. & A.
-as
-a
-a
-a
-a
Abl. & D. -um
-um
-um
-um
-um
-um
Gen. -a
-a
-a
-a (ena)
-a (ena)
-ena."
344 PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. Chap. IV. § 5.
3* Masculines. (I. 2.)
Ex. Chaiucr — ape, assc, balkc, bane, wone, wrifjht'. Gouer — ape, asse, here,
here, bi-lecve, bowe, clii\c, crede, crouke, be-leve, bonde-mau, bowe, crede, cuppe,
cuppe, drnpe, dwalo, fane, feere, foode, drope, dwale, fere, flete, fode, fole,
galle, j^^aine, bare, liarre, hawe, hiwe, galle, gcre, grame, hare, berre, hewe,
housboude bousebonde, hope, hunte, hope wan-hope, huse- (house-)bonde,
hyne, knave, knotte, kyte, lappe, leere, knapc knave, lappc, like, lippe, make,
lippe, make, mawe, roooue, mouthe, mone, name, necke, onde, oxe, pese,
name, nekke, oxe, poke, pope, pride, pope, pricke, pride, see, shrewe, snake,
prikke, ^ce^•e, schrewe, spearwe, stake, sparke, spore, stake, steede, stere, sterre,
steede, steere, sterre, stikke, tene, tyme, stikke, swere, tene, thombe, time, wane,
wele, welle, wete, wille, wrecche. — wele, welle, wille, wone, \vTecche. —
blosme, gere, schoppe, stele, webbe, cope, hunte, like, wan[e], wrenne.
4.* Feminines. (I. 3.)
Ex. Chaucer — almesse, arwe, belle, wise — birch', tapstere. Gower — almesse,
berj'e, cappe, cheeke, chirche, cloote, arwe, belle, blase, cheke, chirche, crowe,
cote, crowe, deepe, dowfe, erthe, flye, crumme, deepe, erthe, harpe, herte,
glose, harpe, heepe, heire, herte, hose, hitte, kerse, lilie, lunge, masse, mite,
howve, larke, lilie, mare, masse, mytc, molde, nettle, nightingale, nonne, oule,
nightyngale, oule, panne, pipe, pirie, panne, pipe, resshe risshe reisshe, se
pisse-mjTe, pose, rake, rose, scheete, see, shete, side, sive, sonne, swalwe,
schere, schire, schyne, side, snare, sonne, throte, tonne, tunge, wacche, weke,
swalwe, targe, throte, tonge, tonne, wicche - craft, wenche, wise. — lappe-
trappe, wake, wenche, wicche-craft, winke, more, sale.
5.^ In the following the final e has been absorbed by y or tc. In the
following the final e seems to have been transposed from after I (as is
often the case after r). Gower^ — The following may or may not be
con'ectly written. The combination of a liquid with e is unstable,
the vowel easily slipping from one side to the other of the consonant.
Ex. Chaticer — play, lady, sty : her- fithul, ladel, wesil, whistel. — nevew. —
berw herberwh herbergh, widow widw: Gower — throstel, nedder, adder.
6.* Exceptions to art. 3, 4.
Ex. Chaucer — pith, beech, kers, stot. Gower — laverock, to(e), roo.
7.* Second declension of Anglosaxon nouns. Masculines. (II. 2.)
Ex. Cliaucer — awe, bale, cheese, mayd, mete, see. Gower — bale, breche,
ende, hate, hegge, herde, byre, ire, brimme, chcle, chese, ende, hate, herde,
leche, lye, mede, mjTC, pilwe - beer, ire, leche, love -drunke, mede, mele,
reye, skathe, tete, whete — come, mere- mete, shipe, slitte, stede, tete, tie, whete.
8.* Exceptions to art. 7. Termination -schipe. The length of the
words compounded with this termination may perhaps account for
the final e being soon dropped. Termination -ere in Saxon nouns
signifying for the most pait an agent. It is quite as likely as not
that in 544, 3167,^ the final e of ynellere was pronounced. Gower —
Such representatives as occur of the Saxon no\in in -ere, denoting
an agent, seem to want the final vowel. Nouns of this kind were
by no means as common in the old language as in the modem. I
have noticed but three fair cases in Grower. There are other in-
' Paragraphs introduced by the word ^ The simple numbers refer to the
Gower followed by ( — ), are taken fi'om lines in "Wright's edition, as through-
the memoir on Gower, the other being out this chapter, supra p. 256.
from the memoir on Chaucer, but
occasionally paragraphs are headed
Chaucer — for greater distinctness.
Chap. IV. § 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. 345
stances witliout the final e, but in these cases the succeeding word
hegins with a vowel, and it is supposable that the e may have been
elided. It is doubtful whether these words should be called excep-
tions to art. 7 ; for, in the first place, the metre does not settle the
question of their form, inasmuch as clappere, for instance, would
suit the verse (which hath no clapper for to chime, ii 13 '), as well
as clapper ; and secondly, for few, if for any of them, can we show
a form in -ere in the Saxon dictionary.
Ex. Chaucer — felawschipe, friend- founder, soth(e)-saier, speter in, fisher
scliipe, lordscliipe, worschip : carter, in, furtherer of, maker of, techer of,
hopper, lovere, mellere miller, outry- keper imarraied.
dere, sleper, wonger. Gower — clapper,
9.* Third declension of Anglosaxon nouns. Neuters. (III. 1.)
Ex. Chaucer — ale, ancle, mele, spere, riche worlde-riche, skille skill, spere,
werre, wjiie — stree. Goicer — ale, werre, wile, wite — kne, stre, tre — be-
chinne, inne, -riche heven-riche kinges- yete, winge.
10.* Masculines. (III. 2.)
Ex. Chaucer — lake. Gower — sone sone, wode.
11.* Feminines. (III. 3.)
Ex. Chaucer — breede, care, elde, dore, highte, mayne. (roM>er— answere,
fare, gappe, hele, hete, lawe, nave, brede, care, dore, elde, fare, heighte,
nose, sake, sawe, schame, schonde, hele, hete, lawe, leese, lode, love, nase,
schadwe schawe, scole, sowe, spade, nutte-tre, sake, sawe, schame, shawe,
tale, tale jii, trouthe trouthe, ware — scole, spade, tale, trouthe.
12.* Exceptions. It wiU be noted that the nouns sone and love
have the fijial e regularly in Gower, contraiy to the apparent rule
in Chaucer. The same is true of the important word time, art. 3.
Ex. Chaucer — sone sone, woode woode ; answar, love love.
13. Many nouns which in Anglosaxon end in a consonant have in
Chaucer and Gower the termination e, derived from an oblique case
the old inflection. A few familiar parallel formations in other
modem languages may be mentioned. Lat. radix, Ital. radice;
animal, animale ; cupido, cupidine ; imago, immagine ; nix, neve ;
latro, ladrone ; honor, onore ; Ubertas, Hbertate ; voluptas, volut-
tate. So in colloquial Eomaic, as compared with Greek : — Greek,
Tuifiird'i, Eomaic, Xa/jurdSa ; ')(J]V, 'Xrfva; vv^, vvktu.
Two forms not unfrequently occur ; one with, and the other with-
out the vowel. By the dropping of this vowel in later English, the
primitive fonn is restord. Though this secondary, transitional fonn
in e is found in Layamon and the Onnulum (quite frequently with
Feminines of the second Saxon declension), yet it is by no means so
common as in Chaucer.
As it is possible that some may think the forms in e of the Mas-
culine and Neuter nouns to be oblique cases of a nominative, which
(if it occured) would be found to end in a consonant, the gramma-
tical relations of these words are always indicated, but this (pro-
bably superfluous) trouble has not been taken with the Feminines.*
1 This mode of citation refers to * On examining Prof. Child's lists in
Pauli's edition of Gower, vol. ii, p. 13. §§ 14, 16, 17, 30, I have obtained the
346
PROF. CHILD ON CllAUCER AKD COWER. Chap. IV. § 5.
11.* ^rasculinos and neuters of the second and third declensions
(II. 1, 2, 111. 1, 2). Gower — Mo.'st, if not all, of the followin*?, and
many other noiin.s of the same declensions, arc found in tlie primi-
tive form without the vowel. In many instances the terminal e
mip;ht he explained as the Saxon dative inflection, hut it Avill he
found on inspection that ahout lialf of the uouus in the list occur in
the nominative or accusative case.
Ex. Chaucer — bcdde, berne, bissc-
mare. bladdc, borwc, botme, brede,
brembre, bronde, carte, cbilde, come,
croppe, cultre, dale, donge, dr)Tike,
feere, feme, foldc, foote, fjre fyr, gate,
golde, grave, grounde, grove, -hede
bretherhede chapmanhode childhede
falshcde manbede maydenbedc ■wom-
manbede, heede, heme, bevene, hewe,
hole, -holme, house, kynne, leeke,
liche, londe, loode, loone, lyste, lyve,
morne morwe, mynde, othe, schippe,
sithe, sleepc, smoke, sore, sothe, spelle,
stallc, style, ST^-yne, temple, tothe,
toAvne, wawe, wcdde, werke, weye,
whclpe, whippe, wife, wronge, yere —
arme, bore, cole, derke, dome, fisshe,
keepe, mele, schepe, sighhe, swoune,
teere, walle, wjTie ^vyn. Gower —
bedde, bedc, berde, berne, bore, bore,
borwe, bote, botme, browe, carte.
childe, clerke, cole, cope, dale, dawe,
dele, dethe, dome, driiike, fee, fere, fire,
flesshe, flete, folde, folke, fote, gate,
golde, grave, grounde, -hede -hode
falsbede godhcde hastihede kingbede
knigbthodc knightlihede ladybede lik-
lyhede maidenbcde manbede susterhede
wif(c)h()de womanhede, hewe, home —
the adverb should be spelt horn, a»8.
ham, and not home ; at horn is also the
correct form, ags. at ham — horse, house,
kinge, kinne, leefe, liche, limme, life
live, lode, londe, lope, middle, minde,
monthe, mordre, morwe, mote, mouthe,
mule, rede, rore, scorne, scte, shape,
shippe, shotte, shrifte, sithc, slepe,
smoke, sore, sothe, stronde, temple,
thcwe, tbinge, towne, wawe, wedde,
weie, weigbte, whippe, wisdome, wive,
worde, worthe, •\^Tonge, yere — she, fo
— hie, kepe, lette, leve, swoune, were.
15.* The folio-wing merely drop a final n (compare Lat. and Ital.
acumen, acume ; certamen, certame ; vimen, vime).
Ex. Chaucer & Gower — eve, game, mayde.
16.* Fcminincs of the second declension. (II. 3.) These nouns
have in Anglosaxon all the oblique cases of the singular in e.
Ex. Chaucer — beere, bene, boone, halle hallS, heede, belle hell^, helpe
boote, briggc, bryde, burthe, bjTine, belpJ;, hcste best, hjTC hujTe, keye,
dede, doune, di-ede, fille, gifte, gleede, kynde man-kyude, lengthe, leve, lisse,
following results for Chaucer — 1 have
not examined the instances in Gower
because of the great uncertainty of
Pauli's text. If we reject those nouns
which are only found in oblique cases,
those whose final e is elided before a
vowel, those which occur at the end of
a line where the final e of the rhyming
word may have been omitted for the
rhyme, those in which -re may have
been \VTitten for -er, those in which e
may have been a connecting vowel in
compounds as in lichcwake 2960, and
those in which the authority of Orrmin
shews that a final e had long been as-
sumed, the long list of masculines
reduces to the following : childe 5339,
14980, foote 11489, hewe 1366, lyste
1864 (which should apparently be
lystes as in 1861), mom'c 14710, sothe
12590 (probably an adverb) swyne
16972, wawe 4888, wife 6648. In the
feminincs we should also omit the ac-
cusative which had an e in Anglosaxon.
They reduce to : brvde 9764, gifte
9167, lengthe, 17302, merthe 768
(plural 't), schipnc 2002 (probably an
error for schipen), spanne 155 (the ac-
cusative of dimension F), tyle 7687
(probably accusative), youthe 2381 and
frequently. The adjectives reduce in
the same way to : bare 8755 (feminine ?),
blewe 566, eche 1184 {ech would only
give a monosyllabic first measure),
longe 1575, lowde 10582 (feminine ?),
mcrye 208 (Bosworth gives an ags.
formmirige), shorte 6206 (not in Harl.
7334), tame 2188, wete 2340.
Chap. IV. § 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND COWER.
347
loode-sterre, lore, lydne, lyvere, meede,
melle mylle, merke, merthc, myle,
neede, -nesse besynesse boldeuesse
brightnesse clennesse cursednesse drun-
kennesse fairnesse falsnesse goodnesse
hardynesse hethenesse hevjTiesse boli-
nesse homljTiesse lewednesse newefan-
gilnesse schamfastnesse seeknesse siker-
nesse stedfastnesse warmnesse wikked-
nesse ■witnesse wortbiuesse wreccbed-
nesse ydelnesse, bes}Ties clennesse
goodnes lewednes lustynes 'worthines
woodnes, ore, plyte, pyne, querne, rewe,
roode, schipne, sleeve, sloutbe, sonde,
sorwe, soule soule, spanne, specbe,
specbe, stounde, streete, strengbte,
synne, throwe, tj'de, tyle, upriste,
wede, werte, wbile, wolle, ■wombe,
wounde, yerde, youtbe — asp, booke,
drougbtbe, IjTide, rewtbe, scberte,
sleighte, stevene, xvilw, Trreche. Goiver
bonde, bone, bote, brigge, chcste, dede,
drede, cgge, fillc felle iuUe, tilthe, for-
gifte, glede, glove, ballc, balt'e halve,
bede, hele, belle, bclpo help, beste,
biude, bire, keie, kinde, kiste, kitbe,
lengthe, levc, lindc, lore, marcbc, mode,
mertbe ruirthe, mile, nede, -nesse be-
sinesse buxomnesse baliuesse idelnesse
rigbtwisnesse sik(e)nesse sikeruesse we-
rinesse wildernesse witnesse, ore, quene
quene, reste, rewe rowe, rinde, rode,
roode, salve, score, sbelle, sighte sinne,
sieve, sloutbe, sonde, sorwe, soule,
spanne, specbe, stempne, stounde,
strete, strengtbe, tbefte, throwe, tiltbe,
tide, warde, wede, wene, while, wombe,
wounde, wi-atbe, wreche, wulle woUe,
yerde, yifte yefte, youtbe, — arist, fiste,
tlight, ight, ladder, lefte, liver, nedel,
routhe, sherte, slaugbt, sleighte, stelthe,
welthe, Avierd, wente.
— banke, bene, berthe birthe, blisse,
17.* Exceptions to art. 16, Goiver — Hand, might, night, ivight,
are exceptional in Anglosaxon, having the accusative singular like
the nominative : so world, more commonly : hole (constantly mis-
spelt boke) i 2, 5 : ii 58 : iii 65, 133, etc.; hurgh, ii 232; iii
292 ; fiirgh, ii 245, all feminines, are also irregular in Baxon, and
have the accusative singular like the nominative. Chaucer — Nouns
derived from Saxon feminine nouns in -ung, -ing, or fonned in imi-
tation of such, terminate in Layamon mostly in -inge, rarely in -ing.
In the Ormulum the termination is almost invariably -inng, but one
or two have the nominative, and three or four an accusative in -innge.
The more usual ending in Cliaucer is certainly -yng. The teraiina-
tion -ynge occurs frequently at the end of a verse, and in most cases
rhymed with an infinitive. Goiver — Nouns derived from Saxon
feminines in -ung, -ing, or formed in imitatiou of such, generally
have in Gower the termination -inge, less frequently -ing : in the
latter case the accent is sometimes thrown back.
Ex. Chaucer — aldir, ax, bench, bliss werkynge all rhymed with infinitives
blisse, box, chest, curs, fann, fist fest,
fitt, flight, floor, hand bond, beeth,
hen, mark, might, milk, night, ok ook,
queen, sight, rest, soken, tow, wight,
world, nouns in -j-ng axj-ng begynnjTig
clothing comyng connyng dwellyng
fightyng hang)Tig harpyng huntyng
loking longyng makyng offryng ren-
nyng smyljTig teching wandryng wep-
yng wonyng wi-itjiig wjTinyng, lernynge
turneynge, vanysschynge walkynge, ca-
rolynge connynge dawenynge enven-
ymynge felynge ly\'ynge morwenynge
oflfrynge rejoisjTige semynge taryinge
S)Tige brynge stjTige sprynge [and with
the exception of felynge 16779 all ob-
lique]. Goioer—axeX bench bride flight
flor(e) hen bond les might milk night
plite sped(e) tow wight world, nouns
in -inge axinge bakbitinge carollnge
childinge cominge compleigninge
grucchinge knoulechinge lesinge lik-
inge lokinge mishandlinge spekinge
tidinge wel^villinge wepinge writinge,
beginning knouleching teching, hunt-
ing liking wening writing(«) ; excus-
ing of, bimting as, sheding of are ap-
parently cases of elision — steven.
18.* The following nouns, of etymons more or less uncertain, but
mostly of undoubted Gothic origin, are found in Chaucer and Gower
terminating in e.
348
PROF, CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. Chap. IV. § 6.
Ex. CJiaurer — brinke, cake, chaffare,
cloke, clowde, cope, dagpere, deynte,
dopge, drake, felawe firlaw felawg
felaw^, gable, jade, knarre, know-lcche,
kjTi-rede, marlc, roteroote, sculle, slj-nge,
snowte, stalke, tare, wy-ndowe wyn-
d6w[e ?]. Oower — babe, bothe, brinke,
buUe bolle, cake, chaflarc, clowde,
creple, dcinte, feliwe feliw ftlaw
ftlowtf, fiinke, gesse gnesse, mone,
packe, rote, sculle, snowte, tacle, were,
wicke, window.
19.* The unaccented final c of nouns of French origin is sounded
in Chaucer as it is in French verse. Exceptions, however, arc fre-
quent. Gower — Exceptions are by no means so common as in
(Wright's text of) the Canterbury Tales ; a few exceptions, after
the sounds r and s, are cited under arts. 84, 91/. So in adjectives.
Chancer — It is scarcely necessary to mention that an internal e in
French words is also pronounced, as, comaundement 2871, jug-
gement 780, etc.
Ex. Chaucer— Axc\i& ArcitS, aunte,
best, bille, cause, centre, chambre
chambr^, couche, cynamome, dame
madarae ma-dame, doute, Dyane
Dyane, eese, egle, entente entent,
experience experiens, face faas, feste
fest, force force fors, fortune, grace
gracS gras 15242!, hauncbe, herbe,
heritage, homicide, hoste oste host ost,
joye, juge jugge, male, manere maner,
medecine, nece, persone person, pejTe,
phisik, place placS, plante, pompe,
regne regne, remembraunce, requeste
request, Rome Rom^, sauce, sege, ser-
vise, signe, spouse, tente, trumpe. Adj.
chaste, excellente, nice, pore, riche,
solempne. Gower — abbesse. adventure,
avarice, baptisme, beste, horde, bounde
bonde, bowele, chere, Constance, de-
faiilte, deserte, egle, entente,' envie,
feste, fortune, grace, haste, homicide,
houre, joie, justice, madame, magique,
manere, mappemounde, marriage, ma-
tere, medicine, merveille, message,
mewe, mule, multitude, nature, navie,
offrende, oile, pacience, passage, per-
sone, pestilence, phisique, place, pompe,
Rome, spume, vice, virgine, ymage.
Adj. chaste, double, hughe, invisible,
nice = foolish, riche, solempne.
20. The accented final e of Freneh nouns (in modem English, y)
is of course preserved in Chaucer.
Ex. Chaucer — adversite, bounte, on e is due to the editors, and is not in
cherts, clarr^, contre, liberte, pcrre, the MS.]
plente, prj-vyte, renome. [This accent
21. The Genitive case, Singular, ends in -es.
Ex. Chaucer — schires 15, cherles
7788, lordes 47, Cristes 480, pigges
702, reeves 601, modres metes kjTiges
5433-5. Gower — loves iii 85, mannes
iii 86, goddes iii 88, worldes iii 90,
nightes iii 96, daies iii 111, bullea iii
119, kinges iii 146, wives iii 73.
The following have, at least sometimes, no termination
Ex. Dec. I. Chaucer — holy chirche
good 3981, holy chirche blood 3982,
holy chirches feith 11445; his lady
grace 88, oure lady veyl 697, his ladys
grace 9392; the sonne upriste 1053,
the Sonne stremes 16240, Ta\n herte
blood 10221, a widow soae 14913.
Gower — the chirche kei i 10, mone
light iii 109 (perhaps compounds), the
mones cercle iii 109; my lady side i
160, this lady name ii 157, my lady
chere ii 213, my lady kith[e] iii 5,
my lady good iii 30, ladies lovers i 228,
• > best i 84, •• selve i 228, .' doughter ii
227, I- mercy ii 118. So, Chaucer — fader
9239, 9012, 15670, 8772, 4036, 9389,
12757, 15423, but fadres 6883, 8738,
8685, 8747, 13626, 783?, 10175?,
14883? brothir 3086, 13360?, brothers
11478, modres 15004, philosophre
12790, heven 6763, 10281, 12470,
16282, 13017. Gower— horsB i 40,
119, heven ii 187, belle ii 97, soule
i 39; fader i 209, faders i 157,
brother i 199, brothers i 214, mother
i 289, moders ii 354, doughter i 208,
doughters i 150.
Chap. IV. § 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. 349
So, many proper nouns in s, as in Anglosaxon and Modem English
CArt?<fer— Epicimis 338, Peneus 20C6, phenius i 166, Bachus ii 358, Phebus
Venus 10586, Melibeus 15382, Phebus iii 250, etc.
17170, Marquys 8870. Goiter— Poly-
22. Plural of nouns. Kominative. The Nominative Plural is
formed for the most part in -es ; occasionally in -us or -is, a dialectic
variety. Gower s only is frequently added, especially to nouns
terminating in a liquid or in -t ; sometimes when -es is added
(rightly or -wrongly), only -s is pronounced.
Ex. Chaucer — ladies 900, bodyes pens 7158, lazars 245, sellers 248,
1007, knees 1105, 1877, degree's 17298; acbatours 510, pilours 1009, lovers
fowles 9, domes 325, chiknes 382, 1533 — scboos 359, dys 1240; bisschops
bones 702, fjTigres 129; croppes 7, 4673, keverchefs 455, caytifs 926;
robes 319, knobbes 635, wyfes 234, reliks 13764, lordjTigs lordpiges 7250,
knyfes 368, kaytyves 1719, lewes 1498 ; 15725, yeddynges 237, prechings 6139;
lokkes 76, songes 95, brauncbes 1069 ; servantes 101, coutractes 6890, vcsti-
bootes 203, argumentes 4632, orna- nientz 2950, marcbauntz 4568, 4591,
mentes 8134, boundes 146, swerdes arguments 4648, maunderaentz 6866,
2028 ; stremos gveves dropes leeves instrumentz 9587 ; greyboimdes 190,
1497-8, brawnes scbuldres armes stiwardes 581, husbonds 2825. Gower
2137-8. Gower — weies, tirannics, — aungels, cardinals, nations; courts,
thewes, soules, hilles, fonnes, pbilo- points i 149, poiutes i 151, elements,
sophres, fires, lores, sterres, droppes, jugements, arguments, tiraunts, Sara-
herbes, leves, lives, wives, turves, zins, complexions, masons ; saints,
bokes, clerkes, beinges, thinges, notes, estat(e)s, craftes, climats, herts hertes
irostes, bestes, flodes, cloudes, hevedes i 325, lovers, flati'oiu-s, fetbers ; words
= heads, monthes, mouthes. Chaucer i 176, wordes 1 151, Grekes ii 171,
— pilgrjTns 2850, naciouns 53, bar- Grekes ii 165, knes knees, tres trees.
gajTis 284, sesouns 349, sessions 357,
23. The foUoTving have -en, -n, derived from the Saxon plural in
-an of the 1st Declension : assehen 1304, assen5867, aissches 12735,
been 10518, bees 7275, eyen yen 152, fleen 16949, hosen 458,-
oxen 5867, schoon 15143, schoos 459, ton 16348, toos 16817.
24. The folio-wing have -n, -en, by imitation, being of various
declensions in Saxon. Goiver — The foUo-wing, -which have the
termination -u in Saxon, have superadded the -en of the 1st Declen-
sion to a -weakened foim of the Saxon phu'al.
Ex. Chaucer — bretheren 13831, 16317. Gower — brethren, bretheren,
14192; doughteren 11741, dougbtres brethern, bretherae, cbikb-en, [dought-
16315, sistren 1021, sustres 16353, eren sistren, do not occur] doughteres,
children 1195, 14908, childer 8031, doughter ii 172 ? susters.
14912, foon 16192, foos 15815, kyn
25. The folio-wing have no termination in the plural, according to
the rule of the Saxon neuters of the 2nd Declension : deer, folk,
hors, neet, scheep, s-win, thing, yer. (The -word good added in
Chaucer is corrected in Gotver). So night 7467, yvynter 10357, and
probably freend 3052, 3053.
26. The plurals foiTiied by change of vo-wel are the same in
Chaucer and Go-wer as in English : feet, gees, men, teeth.
27. The following plurals of Ercnch Avords are remarkable : caas
325, paas 1892, degre 1892, secre 6923 (?), orgon 16337, vessel
15634, but vessealx vesseals 15680, 15687, richesses and riches.
350 PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. Chap. IV. } 6.
28. Tho Genitive riural in Chaucer and Gower is much the same
as iu Euglisli, saving, of course, the use of es instead of s.
Ex. Chanter — lordes liestes 8405, 10134. Gower — the Grekes lawe, alle
lordes doughtres 13488, foxes tailes mennes speche, mennes goodes 11332,
15519, bcstes dtnncs 15749, seintes out of all other briddes sight 1 100,
lyves 6272, moiincs wlttes 4622, vrvm- princes hevcdes, of the goddes pur-
mcns counsciles 16742, his eyghen sight veiaunce.
Adjectives.
29.* Adjectives -which end in e in Saxon end in e in Chaucer and
Gower. Several other adjectives might probably be inserted in this
list, but as they are found in the Canterbury Tales only in the
" definite form " (see art. 32), they have not been noticed.
Ex. Chaucer — blithe blithe, clene blithe, a-cale, clenc, dere, derne, drie,
clene, dere, dtrnc, drye, elcnge, frcmde, fre, grcne, kinde unkinde, mete unmete,
grene, heende, kene, kynde, lene, newe, milde unmilde, neisshe, newe, softe,
proude prowd, ripe, scheene, softe, steme, stille, swete, thicke, thinne,
stille, steme, swete swote, thenne, trewe untrewe, un-wylde, yare — all-
thikke, trewe, un-weclde, white — (all-) (al-)oiie, one.
oone, nanve, worth! worthy. Goiver —
30.* The folio-wing adjectives and adjective pronouns, though end-
ing in a consonant in Saxon, have sometimes, or al-ways, the ter-
mination e in Chaucer and Go-wer, resembling the nouns in art. 13
(compare Lat. atrox, Ital. atroce ; fallax, fallace, etc.). Gower —
But most or all of the folio-wing are found also in the older form,
-without the -e. It -will be observed that the adjectives in list (a),
are all fi-om monosyllabic Saxon stems, or from contracted dissylla-
bles. A fe-w polysyllahic adjectives are also found in Go-wer -with
the tennination e. Chaucer — So, as if by dropping the final con-
sonant (compare Lat. mortalis, Ital. mortale, etc.): haire 14151,
lyte lite 2629, moche 1810.
Ex. Chancer — alle, hare, blewe, eche, bleche, blinde, brode, faire, false, gladde,
evene, faire, fawe, foule, fresshe, grete, grete, leve, lewde, likeliche, longe,lowe,
highe, longe, lowde, lowe, merye, olde, olde, one [the common forms are on, o;
rowe, shorte, suche, swifte, tame, wete, the misspelling owe continually occurs
whiche, wise, v.Tlde wUde wild, ylle. In Pauli's text], righte, sharpe, stronge,
y-nowc — forme fader, apparently from suche, tame un-tame, thllke, whiche,
ags. frumfader — ware 16094 should be -wUde, wise; so, moste i 92. — (i) wom-
wary and chare (chariot) 16996 char, manishe, hodeliche, diverse, comune,
not to be confounded with chare = devoute, secounde ; so, as if by dropping
chair 16099. Gower — {a) alle, bare, the final consonant, golde, lite, moche.
31.* The folio-wing adjectives of uncertain deiivation are found
terminating in e : badde, deynte, dronkelewe, mcke, racle, -wikke.
32. The Definite Form of monosyllahic Adjectives, including Par-
ticiples and Adjective Pronouns {i.e. the.Adjcctive -when preceded
by the Definite Article, by any other Demonstrative, or by a Pos-
sessive Pronoun) ends in Chaucer and Go-wer in ii.
Ex. Chaucer — the yonge sonne 7, wise man i 5, this foule greate coise 1
his halfe cours 8, this ilke monk 175, 100, mv faire maidc 1 154, her drelnte
atte (at the) fulle 653, thou felle Mars lord(e)'ii 105, thy fulle mind 11 126,
1561, here hoote love 2321, that selve min hole herte li 277, that stronge
moment 2586, thy borne man 9664, place 11 376, his owne lif(e) 19; so, in
thin false querel 15932. G^oifer— the the derke 1 190, in the depe 1 194.
Chap. IV. § 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. 351
33. So, for the most part, the Definite Porm of monosyllahic
superlatives.
34. Among Definite Forms of the Adjective are to be reckoned
adjectives occuiTing in forms of address (as in Anglosaxon, leofa
fader, etc ).
Ex. Chaucer — ye false harlot 4266, however, that some of these forms he-
indef. fals 1132, goode lemman 4245, long imder art. 30. Gower — false
indef. good 514, but, 0 good Constance cherl!, ha, gode suster ! thou foule
5237, leeve brother 1186, 0 stronge beste, leve sir, 0 wise Diogene, thou
god 2375, indef. strong 752, 0 yonge proude clerk(e), 0 hihe fader, 0 blinde.
Hughe 15095, indef. 79. It is possible,
35. The Definite Form of Adjectives of more than one syllable
has not (generally) the final e. There are however more exceptions
to this rule in Gower than in Chaucer. {a) Comparatives and
Superlatives. (J) Post Participles in -cd, -t, -en. [c) Adjectives
in -ed, -en, -ful, -isch, -ly, -y, etc. {d) Various adjectives of Latin
derivation and terminations.
36. The following exceptions to arts. 32, 33, 35, occur, but many
of the readings are suspicious.
Ex. («) To art. 32. Chaucer-ihe 14239, at the, atte, last 11059, 10759,
gret 2387, 2525, 14402, his high 2539?, 14259, for the best 1849, 9392, 11198,
9534?, 14328?, the drerat 4489 ?, the the worst 1616. Gower— iha best.—
right 8149, his fals 13001, this good (t) To art. 35. Chaucer— [c) the wo-
14503 ?, this proud 3167 ? (the proude fullere cheer 1342. the sorwfuUeste man
4311, 16245), this fiers 4720. Goiver 9972, the semlieste man, 17051. Gowir
his fals. her wrong, her glad, the bright, — (c) this tirannishe knight iii 256, her
the ninth, the seventh, his high lignage, wommanische drede ii 66, thy bodeliche
the high prowesse, his high sutfrance, kinde i 271, the hevenliche might i
his sligh compas; but the highe god, 138. {d) the covetouse flatery, this
his highe worthinesse, his slie caste. — lecherous[e] pride iii 259, the parfite
(6) To art. 33. Chaucer — the first medicine, the secoimde.
37. The distinction of the French masculine and feminine adjec-
tive is preserv^ed in one case, — seint, in Chaucer, seint Jon 5439,
seinte Mary 7186, and ras^j perhaps be noticed in Gower in one or
two cases, — sovereine i 277, iii 360, gentile iii 352.
38. {a) The Comparative Degree of the Adjective is generally
formed in Chaucer and Gower, as in modem English, in -er (S. -re).
— (J) A few Comparatives of "irregular" Adjectives retain the
Saxon e : worse werse, lasse lesse, more bettre. These fonns in
-re are all suspicious. Those of three syllables (if correctly spelt)
are contracted in reading, so that the metre does not detennine
their validity, and er and re are easily interchanged. — (c) The vowel
change of the "ancient" comparison is found in the following:
lenger 332, elder 15746, eldest 15898, strenger 14240, strengest
15561. — (c?) Some analytic fonns of comparison are found: mo
slakke 14824, the moste stedefast 9425, the moste deintevous 9588,
the moste free 11926, the moste lusty 17039, the moste grettest.
39. The Plural of Monosyllabic Adjectives ends in e. The same
is the case with some of the Pronouns. So, also, bothe, fele, fewe,
and many of the Cardinal numbers. Those from 4 to 12, inclusive,
took an -e in Saxon when used absolutely except perhaps eahta,
nigon, endlufon.
352
PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND COWER. Chap, IV. § 6.
Ex. (a) C7i<J«/<-er— blakc 659, bhudc
4973,i(»lilc 1304,dwl(> 7090, duve l'A'14,
dulle4622, poode 31o6, bore 7764, bote
9682, reede 90, sadde 17190, sbarpe 475,
scleudre 9476, secke sikc 18, slakke
14824, snialc 9, stronge 2137, wuykc
889, wrotbi' 11 HI, wyde 28, youge 2i3 ;
80, swonie brethren 69S7, pilte chcynes
16860. Mast of the sirifjulars occur
witbout -c, as, bhik 913. blvud 10214,
cold 1577, deed 1201, decf'448, good
183, boor 3876, boot 7018, reed 1912,
sad 17207, sbarp 2005, sclcnder 16319,
sik 16323, sinal 158, strong 637, weyk
14892, wrotb 7743, wyd 493, yong 7*9.
Cojrer— sbarpe notes sot'te bigbe lowe
iii 90, blinde, colde, gladde, grete, barde,
i-nowe, loude, olde, save, shorte, smale,
40. The Plui-al of Adjectives
syllable has no -e.
Ex. (a) Chaucer- — corscd stories 4500,
countrefcted letters 5229, weddid men
8498, cered poketts 12736, sieves pur-
filed 193, broken slccpes 1922, colours
longyng 10353, tbey tbankyn galpjTig
10668. Goner — imrei bodes i '63,
lered men iii 283, no otber cases ob-
served, {b) Chaucer — skalled browcs
629, lewed wordes 10023, Avikked
werkes 5414, wreccbed wommen 952,
WTCCcbede 923 ?, sacred tecres 1923,
golden clotbis 5927, cristen men 4800,
open werrcs 2004, tbinges spedful 5147,
woful vvreccbes 1719, synt'ul deedes
6740, careful sikes 1 1176,'blisful sydes
11971, seely clerkes 4098, migbty
■werkes 4898. litel cbildren 4493, bitter
Bofte, sothe, swifte. (i) Chaucer —
botbe 1841, fele 8793, fewe 641, otbere
otbre 3232, but otber 7369,.sucbe 8216,
wbicbe 1015, tbe two last being occa-
sionally used for the singular also.
Gouer — botbe, fele, fewe, some, som
men i 21,suche, wbicbe. (c) Chaucer
— twayne 8526, foure 2141, fyfe 462,
sixe 14585, sevcnc 7587, but seven
16352, twelve, 4139, but twclf 7839,
tbrettene 7841, fiftene 61, eyghteteene
3223. Gower — tweine tweie, two iii
195, thre, foure, five, eigbte, nine,
twelve, twelve (tvvelf 'r) ii 68, tbrittene,
fourtene, fiftene, sLxtene, eigbtetene ;
seven, ten, elleven, are uudecUned ;
twenty, thritty.
and Participles of more than one
teercs 2227, wiser men 9443, other
men 12672, otber 8312 absolutely.
Gower — no dedlv werres iii 222, thes(e)
diedfull i 56, tbes(e) wofull ii 323, wo-
full teres iii 260, doleftill clothes iii
291, otber i 106, etc., these other i 20,
al otber i 64, Ave find another care =
another's care i 167 ; other is some-
times undefined in ags. (<•) Chaucer —
certevTi yeres 2969, mortal batailles 61,
cruel bnddes 15586, gentil men 6693,
subtil clerkes 9301, parfyt blisses 9512,
jelous strokes 2636, eldres vertuous
6736, pitous tceres 12329, sightes mer-
vclous 11518. Gouer — bastif rodes ii
56, certein sterres iii 128, gentil bondes
ii 281.
41. Even monosyllabic participles standing in the predicate are
unvaried in the plnral. The same is sometimes the case with mono-
syllabic adjectives. Gower — Adjectives and Participles standing in
the predicate sometimes take e in the plural, sometimes are unvaried.
Ex. Chaucer — {a) were hurt 2710, saufc botbe two i 19S, hem that wer«
been born 4706, ben went 9575, were
kept 10003, been maad 2091, ben knj-t
11542, ben stert 11689, be brent 13.S35,
sworn were 13392, were slajii 15525. —
(b) quyk (tbey were) 1017", were glad
5804 were favn 2709, which tbey weren
40, were wroth 8313, (were) lik 16354,
but: blake were 559, were seeke 18,
wayke ben 889, weren W7dc.28, ben
deve 12214, dede were 11493!" Gouer
— (a) that be greate i 6, ben to smale
i 6, ben un-ware i 17, wittes be so
blinde i 49, to him were alle tbinges
couthe i 138, wbichf are derkc i 63,
they were glade i 79, weren dede i 76,
the gates were shette i 348, we be
him leve i 273, briddes been made ii
80, that him thougbte alle women loth^
i 118, have l)e full ofte sithes wrothe i
52, tbey shull of reson ben answerde i
51 ; we have even : whan that thesS
berbes ben holsomc iii 161, in tbinges
that been naturclc iii 133, of hem that
weren so discrete iii 167. — (Zi) hem that
ben so derk i 78, we ben set i 317,
tbey be shet ii 10, so ben my wittes
overlad ii 21, all men be left i 119, hem
that thanne weren good i 11, which
only weren sauf by ship i 38, the thre
were eth to reule i 60, tbey were cleped
ii 165, they ben laid ii 245, they ben
corrupt ii 153.
Chap. IY. j 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. 353
42. Exceptions to arts. 39, 40, 41.
Ex. Chaucer— art. 39« breut bones feld^ 2926, tbev be i-mctte 5535, been
12687,— 39c enleven 17300,— 40a ler- sette 5538, were made 5702? been
nede men 677? lerned men 14389, maad 2091. Gottrr— 40c of golds and
eyen fast yschette 4980 ? Qu. feste preciouse stones ii 47, bis bedes most
scbette ? — 40c dyverse freres 7537, dy- devoute i 64, diverse occurs i 56, 252,
verse folk dyversely tbey seyde 3855, 256, ii 154, 325, iii 26, but is found
divers frei'es 7532, tbay ben so dyvers also in the singular, see art. 30 Ex. b.
7588.— art. 41 been mette 1638? "were
43. The following adjectives (of French origin) exhibit the
French plural in s: places deUtables 11211, necessaries as ben
plesynges 5131, wayes espirituels, goodes espiritueles, but thinges
espii-ituel, travailes covenables. Even Palsgrave says (1530) pro-
nownes primytyves, verbes actyves parsonalles. Gower — til they
become so vilains i 28.
44. Of the Genitive Plural of Adjectives there remains a trace in
the word all : here aller cappe 588, your alther cost 801, oure
althui- cok 825, alther best 712, alther fii'st 10863; alther werst
i 53 : ii 224 : iii 9 : allthennest i 147, 224, altherbest i 106 : ii 20 :
althertrewest i 176.
PEONOimS.
(See also arts. 30, 32a, 35c, 39i, 44.)
45. Personal Pronouns and their Possessives. Chaucer — Yk,
3865, ich 10037, 3862, 12857, 14362; my, myn ; sing, and pi.:
abs. form myn, myne. Thy, thyn sing, and pi., abs. form thyn,
thyne. Hir, hire ^= her, abs. fonn heres. Our, oure, abs. oures.
Your, youre, abs. youre, youres. Her, hii', here = their, abs.
heris 7508 ; hem = them. The Saxon genitives min, y\n, iare,
eower, are declined (like adjectives) for possessive pronouns, but
not the genitives of the third person. Of the above forms, some
of those in e must be regarded as adjectives declined. Gower — I ;
min, my, abs. min, mine ; me dat. & ace. Thou ; thin, thy, the dat.
& ace. He, his gen. masc. & neut., her gen. fem., abs. hers, ii 287,
her[e]s ii 358 ; him dat. mas., here her dat. fem., him ace. masc.
i 6 etc., hire, here, her ace. fem. commonly her. We, oure, our, us
dat. ace. Ye, youre, your, abs. youres, you dat. ace. Her = their,
abs. her[e]s, hem dat. ace. ^= them. They, their but seldom occurs
and wherever it is found we should doubtless read her; i 111, i 245,
ii 48, iii 219, i 55, 59, 76, 115 ; them is not found.
46. In Saxon sylf, self, same, was declined like an adjective both
definitely and indefinitely, and agreed with the pronoun to which it
was attached ; as, ic sylf, or ic sylfa, I myself ; be me sylfum, hy
myself. The forms ic mc-sylf, J^u ]7e-self, I myself, etc., also occur.
The following are the combinations of the personal pi-onouns with
self in Chaucer — myself, myselve, myselven ; thyselven, himself,
himselve, himselven ; hii'self, hirselve, hirselven ; youreself, youre-
selve, youreselven ; hemself z= theinselves, hemselven. Gower — my-
self, myselfe ; my self e, myselve, myselven ; thyself, thyselven ;
himself, himself e, himself e, himselve, himselven ; herself, herselve,
23
354 PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AKD GOWER. Chap. IV. ^ 5.
hcrselven ; usself = ourselves ; hemself, themselves ; my ladies selve
i 228, should doubtless be my ladie, the s beinp; cauf!:ht from selve :
sell'e, preceded by the aiticle,* means tli^ same, as in Saxon ; the
selte prest i 48.
47. Demonstratives and others. — Chaucer — that = the, as in : that
con, that other 1351, 1353, 7603, 9350, 9351, 12151, 12152,
14222, &c., tho = those; oon of tho that 2353; they (their and
them do not occur), thi 1755 should probably be they, thes = these,
tliis = these, these(?) 9150, etc, thise(?) 9110 ; whos genitive 5062,
5438, 7350, cverich, on oon, non noon, pi. noon, abs. noon. Goiver —
t\iQ.t = the, the, that dem. sing., tho = those, this, these should
be thes, these = these, thilke = that, so = siich. Eelative that,
which, whiche, whos, whom ; that = that ichich, "what = that
which, the wliich, which that, etc. = simple which, etc ; who that,
what that, etc. = qtiisquis, quicumque ; what = whatsoever. Inter-
rogative, who, which, what, as in English ; whether = which of two.
Indefinite, somwho r= aliquis (once only) i 15.
Yeebs.
48. Present Indicative. The First Person Singular of the Present
Indicative terminates in -e.
Exceptions. Chaucer — I bequethe 14208. Gower — bast ben cr this I r««/'-
2770 [P], trow 3665, 10527, trowe the leva iii 47, also i 117, though I <rW
17312, answer 4892, schrcw 7024, fel that I were ded(e) ; (probably incor-
2234 ? feie 9332, 9338, hope 9548 red^, rect) i 299.
49. The Second Person of the Present Indicative ends in -st as in
modem EngHsh. But sometimes in -s, in Chaucer not in Gower.
The Second and Third Persons occasionally, but very rarely, end in
Anglosaxon in is.
50. The Third Person ends generally in -eth, -th, occasionally (in
Chaucer not in Gower) in -es (is).
51. But Saxon verbs which have t or d for the last consonant of
the root, and one or two which have s, form the Third Person
Singular in t as in Saxon. Exceptions sometimes occur, a dissyl-
labic form being used, as also in Anglosaxon, as sitteth, but this
hardly occurs in Gower.
Ex. CVfflttfer —sitt sit syt 3641, 3817, heetitb, putteth. Gower — writ, smit
etc., set 7564, writ 6291, smyt 7998, let, betit, 8het= shoots, 6pret = spreads,
light 5526, put 13788, bight 1974, byt beholt, put, set, holt, get, byt, fret, sit,
(bids) 187, 9251, 10605, b}-t (abides) hit, abit, fint, bint, blent; in a few
13103, ritryt 10483, 12536, 17011, slyt cases we find d instead of t, stond ii
12610, chvt 12849, let 8465, stantstont 84, send iii 221, held iii 328; arist,
3677, 7615, etc., fynt fint 4069, 4128, lost lest = loses, wext ; le let it never
etc., grynt 597 1, sent 9027, blent 13319, out of his honde, but get him more and
8chcnt,'hut 10825. holt halt 9224, ris halt it fast[e] ii 128, he taketh, he
ryst arist3688, 4685, 5284,kyt(r) 4806. kepeth,\i<i halt,\ie bint n 284. Excep-
Exccptions: sittith 1601, byddetli 3641, tions; lasteth overcasteth i 317, but
rideth 14734, stondith 14060, kissith we should probably read ari«< in: the
9822, ryseth 1495, 13662, bihctith, mede arwe/A of the service iii 342.
52. The Plural of the Present Indicative ends in Chaucer in eth
Chap. IV. § 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GO\A^R. 3^
(ith, th) ; more commonly in -en, n (yn) ; sometimes in c ; in
Goicer, rarely in -eth, generally in -en, sometimes in -e.
53. Imperfect Indicative. Simple (or " Regular ") Verbs, a.
The Imperfect of Simple Yerbs is often formed by adding -ede, -de,
or -te to the root, -svith occasional change of vowel, — as in Saxon.
h. The Imperfect Indicative, in Chaucer often (perhaps more gene-
rally), in Goiver sometimes, drops the e of the above-mentioned ter-
minations, c. The Second Person Singular of the Imperfect Indi-
cative of simple verbs is formed in -est, Hke the Saxon and English.
But thou axid occurs 7064.
Ex. to (e) . The rhyme in several cases asterted converted (part.) 4857, ameevyd
■will shew conclusively that the final e agreeved (part.) 1 1 748, redressed op-
was actually dropped, .and not simply pressed (part.) 11748, aspyed allyed
left off bv the copyists : brought nought (part.) 16014, ayled i-sayled (part.)
llo8j, went yhent (participle) 12462, 16586.
54. Imperfect of Strong, Complex or "Irregular" Verbs, {a)
Chaucer. — A few verbs have, besides the Strong Imperfect, a later
form of the other conjugations, e.g. : sleep 98, 5165, 9731, slepte
4192, slept 11033; weep 2823, 2880, 8421, wepte 148; creep
4224, 4258, crepte 4191. The following cases are suspicious, and
some, if not all of them, bad readings: bifelle befille fiUe 9771,
10390, 10007, 10883, cbonke 7643, eete 15703, come (to) 1729
should be: com unto, badde (foure) 4911 (should be: bad the foui-e).
See has various fonns, saw 11503, saugh 193, seigh 852, seyh 957,
say 8543 ; sihe 11162 (if correct) is an instance of an e arising from
the softening away of a guttural. Eyngede (the tromp and clarioun)
occurs 2602 ; rong 14077. The conjugation of the Anglosaxon
hringan is uncertain, but it would be strange if a verb weak in
Saxon had become strong in English. Gower — Several Strong or
Complex Verbs have in Gower the Imperfect Tense in e, contrary
both to ancient and present rule ; but how as ever it telle so ii 67,
but: befell i 214, etc., he toke manifold(e) ii 231, he bonde both
her amies ii 318, I came fi'o ii 98, this ilke tale come iii 350.
{h) Chaucer — The 2nd Person Singular of the Imperfect Indica-
tive of Strong Verbs (which in Anglosaxon terminates in e) has
commonly in Chaucer no teiTuination or is the same as the 1st and
3rd, thus : thou bihight 2474, saugh 5268, swor 8372, bar 8944,
11976, spak 12422, 14168, (bonk 15712, flough 16717, thou were
16146, 16718, were nere 4786, 13635, 15866, 15888, 15892, 17177,
gave 15937, songe 17226, the e is doubtful in were, gave, songe, and
especially in the two last ; but, knewest 4787, lughtest 8372 ?,
bygonnest 12370. Gower — The Second Person Singular of the
Imperfect Indicative of Strong Verbs (which in Saxon ends in e) in
the few cases which occur, either has e, or is the same as the 1st
Person, as : thou sighe, were, were, knewe, come.
55. The Plural of the Imperfect Indicative (both of Simple and
Complex Verbs) ends («) in -en, or {h) in -e, or (c) has no termination.
Ex. to (c). Chaucer — schuld 2543, sayd 7872, remued 11517, herd 14251,
4898, 14233, cried 2564, besought, used 14910, sawgh saugh seigh 4638,
rhjTnes with nougJit, 4116, had 5786, 7121, 9565, 9678, 13034, began,rhymeB
356 PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. Chap. IV. § 6.
with man, 6767, bygon 7142, schon stood i 80, stood i 232, shuld iii 144,
9000, wan 11713, eat 14079, com ran iii 300, wold iii 355, had i 101,
16473, fond 16476, ran, rhymes with wist ii 163, fall ii 380.
man, 16867. Goicer — let i 80, under-
56. Subjunctive. The Singular of the Subjunctive, both Present
and Imperfect, uniformly ends in e through all the Persons as in
Saxon. The Plural of the Subjunctive is in -en, -e.
57. Imperative. In Anglosaxon the 2nd person singular of the
Imperative consists of the root of the verb, and terminates therefore,
in what is called the characteristic consonant : except that verbs
whose infinitive is in -ian (1st Conj., 1st class) have the Imperative
sing, in a (as hifian, lufa), while those which have a double charac-
teristic drop one of the consonants and replace it with e (as siitan,
site). The plural of the Imperative is the same as that of the In-
dicative, and ends in ath [iath), when the pronoun or subject goes
before oris omitted, or in e, when the pronoun which is the subject
follows. In Chaucer the Imperative exhibits considerable irregu-
larity. The a of the Saxon Imperative singular of the 1st conj. be-
comes e, which e is sometimes shortened or suppressed. The full
plural form (in -eth) is of very frequent occurrence ; but sometimes
the -th appears to be dropped, and very frequently the whole ter-
mination. In this case the plural is not to be distinguished from
the singular form, and both are found together. Gower — In those
forms of the singular of the Imperative which end in a vowel, the
vowel is not well preserved in Gower. In Pauli's text an e is
generally appended to the forms which in Saxon end in a consonant ;
erroneously, as the slightest inspection will shew,
58. Second Person Singular of Imperative,
Ex. Chaucer — (a) Simple conjuga- the words marked (?) is altogether
tion : aske axe 3557, herkne harke suspicious, and probably should be
9186 berk 7500, grope 7723, knokke dropped. (c) In the following cases
3432, thanke 16172, have 2421 P base the tinal e is difficult to be accounted
2227, loke 7169 lok^ 3549, schew^ for, unless an abridged plural form is
7675, mak 3720, telle 7026 telle 3433 confounded with the smgular : holde
tel 7345, bygynne 13049, fette 3492, thy pees 9606, (TjTwhitt has hold
lef 1616 lev^ 7671 ?, fynd thou 2246, thou), werke by counseil and thou
■peed 3562, stynt 3146, keep 6488, shalt nat rewe 3530, ... I praye the ...
red reed 17276, send 2327, plight 6591, as sende love 2319, ne with'no wood
thenk 10039, thou bek 17278, recche man walke by the way 7669. Gower
12626?, yelde 13604, wreke 15391? —(a) Forms which in Saxon end in a
(J) Complex conjugation : spek 3803, vowel : medle, loke, telle, but lokS
her 7669, brek 15413, com 6015, et i 83, tel i 49, etc., telle i 47, herken
15936, gif 2262, hold 2670, bihold i 53, etc., shoidd very likely be herkne,
16501, awak 4260, awake 4286?, tak herke, shewe. (*) Forms which in
2228 tak^ 9172? thou take 15937, far Saxon end in a consonant: list, let,
well 14675, let lat 923 let^ 3713?, yif yef, shrif shrive, drynk, kepg, redg,
do 2407, go 3431, wepg 2480? fy-nd lev^, speke, take, far^, come, abide,
2246, drynk 7635, help 2088, smyt beholde. (c) behold(e) and denii
17217, rys ISIS.'?, wyt 10051, abvd (demeth ?) my querele iii 196, for tfjYe
5751, ches 1616 chesg 1597 ?, be 6488, (witeth ?) well that never man ii 242.
rydl 15413 ? The superfluous e in all
59. Plural (a) generallr in -eth, (i) occasionally loses its final
consonant; awake 3700, "hithe 7191, tritte 10642, holde 7779
Chap. IV. § 6. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. 357
(rhymes with: he tolde), loke 11304, make 14837 (c) often
the termination is entirely di'opped, (d) sometimes the abridged
plural (if vre should not rather say the singular) seems to be used
indiiferently for the full and regular plural : in other words, the
singular and plural fonns are entirely confounded: tel sparith 5768,
telleth let 6871, goth ley 2560, awake speketh 3700, stoupeth
helpeth put loke 13255-7, 7/oure gentilnesse ... laf thou faUe 922-3,
ryde brek 15413, cast armith 12312-3, voydith let schet 13064-5.
60. Infinitive. The Infinitive in Chaucer and Gower ends in -en
(Anglosaxon -an) often shortened to -e. In a few cases in Chaucer
the termination -e is di-opped. A few contracted infinitives in
Chaucer are sometimes protracted (?): to seene 1037, to sayne 10628,
to doone 10648. The prefi:x y- (S. ge-) is found in at least one
case before the infinitive : y-knowe 11199. "We find in Gower the
infinitive without to after several verbs which now require that
sign, thus : thenke assaie, wende have said, assay desireth, they
one begunne, gonnen say, is free defende, oughte put, were lever
have had. "We also find the Infinitive with to or for to in the same
connections, and to and /or to indifferently used.
61. Participles. The Perfect Participle of Complex (" Irregu-
lar ") Verbs terminates in -en. The -n is often dropped, especially
in Gower as piinted by Pauli. The contracted Participle seems in
a few instances to be protracted (?), as : sene seene (S. segen) 134,
594, 926; slayne (S, slegen) 14115 ; sene i 42, 82 : be-seiue i 54.
62. Participles. The Perfect Participle of the simple Conjii-
gation requires no notice. Se)id, which has Imperfect sende 41S4,
has Participle send 10458. Some Yerbs which are of the Complex
Conjugation in Saxon have become simple in Chaucer, according to
the well known law. Hence we have wist for tciten 10574, 12210.
Dawet 5935, amendit 7757, &c., are trivial dialectic varieties. The
abbreviated forms annonciate, consecrate (like the above, common
in Scotch) occur 15501, 3, kidde 9817, should probably be kid.
63. Participles. The prefix y-, i-, (S. ge-) frequently occurs in
Chaucer, but not fi'equently in Gower, before the past participle.
64.* Participles. The Present Participle terminates for the most
part in -yng (Anglosaxon -ende). In some cases, however, it is
rhymed vrith the Infinitive Mood, and we must either suppose the
participle to end in ynge, or else the Infinitive to have lost its
termination. The older forms awaytand 7634, Icpand 7739, touch-
and 7872 occur, all in the Sompnoures Tales. Gower — The Present
Participle terminates, with few exceptions, in -ende (S. -ende).
Many words of French origin adopt this termination. In innu-
merable cases the elided e is not piinted in Pauli's Gower, Much
less frequently the accent is thi'own back : comend after i 1,
touchende of i 52, etc. Only two suspicious cases have been ob-
served where the participle ends in -end, where no elision could
take place. A very few cases occur of the later form of the par-
ticiple in -inge, -ing, sailinge i 59, wisshinge and wfepinge i 45,
meving i 213, brenninge ii 29, sitting iii 253.
358 PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. CuAP. IV. § 6.
65. Anomalous verbs.'
Can = know, be able ; ps. can canst ; ppl. conncn conno konne
conne can ; imps, coutlie cowtbe cowde coutbe ; impl. coiithcn ;
inf. conne ; pp. couth coud.
Dae = dare ; ps. dar dar(c) darst ; ppl. dare dar dor ; imps.
dorste dursest (?) ; tjnpl. dorstc durste
Mat = may ; ps. may, 2 might may mow mayst maist ; ppl.
mowe mow may mowen ; prs. (?) mowe mow ; imps, mighte
might mihtc ; impl. mighten might ; inf. mow.
Mot = must {debeo), may ; jjs. mot moot, 2 must most ; ppl. .
moten mote mot ; prs. mote ; imps, muste moste most (=
English tnust as at present) ; impl. musten mosten moste. In
the sense of may: prs. mote mot; ims. most (= might); inf.
mote.
OvTE == debeo ; ps. oweth = debet ; im2)s. oughte = debet, ought,
aughte aught ; impl. oughten oughte.
ScHAL == shall ; ps. schal shalt ; ppl. schuUen schuln schul schal
sul (dialetic) ; itnps. scholde schulde.
Thar = need ; ps. he thar, 2 tharst ; ppl. thar ye.
Wot = wot, scio ; ps. wot woot, 2 wost ; p2)l. witen weten wite
wote wot woot woten ; imps, wiste ; prs. wite ; imperative wite
(witeth ?) ; inf. witen wite ; pp. wist ; pres. part, witynge.
66. The Verbs wil, stert :
WiL ; ps. 1 wil wol wole? wille, 2 wilt wolt wil wol, 3 wole
wol wille woll wolle ; ppl. woln wol ■«"il wolle woll wol will ;
imps, wolde wolde, 1, 2, 3, wold; prs. wile wolle ; pp. wolde !
Stert ; ps. stert start, (these might be Imperfect Tense but less
probably) ; imps, stcrte ; impl. starte ; pp. stert ; pres. part.
stertjug ; inf. asterte; — pp. ystert (astert?) 1594; imps, asterte
asterte^.
67. Some impersonal verbs : him deyned 15620, him falles (z=
opus est) 4025, him gained 536, him lakked 10330, hem liketh,
me lyst list lest lust, me listc ; me mcttc (== me dreamed) 16380,
but he mette 16569, us moste (nobis opus est) 12874, us needeth ;
him oughte (oportet), me rewith (pamitet), him semeth, him smerte,
the thar {opus est tibi) 5911, 5918, it thinkith me 16264, him
thenketh 3615, thursted him 15525. Goicer — him hungrcth, me
longeth, him nedeth, me quemcth {placet), him reccheth, me
thinketh.
68. Negative Verbs : Air, nam nys nas ncre ; Have, nath nadde
nad ; "Will, nylle nyl nolde ; Wot, nat not noot nyste nysten.
1 Contractions : ps. present indica- feet subjunctive ; pp. past participle,
tive singular, ppl. the same plural ; These are not Prof. Child's abbrc-
imps. and impl. imperfect indicative viations. Chaucer and Gower are not
singular and plural ; inf. infinitive ; distinguished, and references are omit-
prt. present subjunctive ; ims. irapcr- ted.
Chap. IV. § 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER.
359
Adveebs.
69.* Anglosaxon Adverbs have commonly in the positive degree
the tennination -e, and this termination is preserved in Chaucer
and Gower.
Ex. Chaucer — brighte, clene, deepe,
evele, evene, faire, taste, foule, harde,
hye, inne, late, lighte, longe, loude,
nede, oute, rathe, softe, sore, stille,
swithe, unn-ethe, uppe, wide, yerne,
ylike, yoore. So : blyve, lowe, pore.
So in Layamon : cla-ne, xifele, efhe,
feire, faste, fule, harde, hehje (haeh),
inne (in), late, longe, lude, nede, rajie,
softe, sare, stille, swi)'e, unej^e, uppe
(up), wide, jeorne, iliche, ^eare. And
in the Orrmulum, fej^e, depe, fasste,
fajjre, fule, han-de, hejhe, ille, inne,
lannge, late, nede, rajje, sare, swi]>e,
uppe (upp), jeorne. Gower — clene,
depe, dimme, un-ethe, faire, faste, harde,
highe, note, inne, ther-inne, with-iune,
late, -liche a-liche besi-liche comun-
liche due-liohe eren-liche open-liche
parfit-liche prive-liehe un-proper-liche
sodein-liche solempne-liche verri-liche,
longe, loude, oute, ^^xsl^ pariter, smale,
softe, sone, sore, stille, swithe, uppe,
Tside, highe. So, alofte, blive, lowe,
sniarte, sti-aite, vrele. Halting halving
occui-s ii 65, iii 206, 353, 356.
70. Comparatives and Superlatives of the Ancient (" Irregular")
Form. Compar. Bet better ; superl. best, the bet, the better. Fer
ferre. Lenger, the lenger. More. Xer, neer, neere. Is'est, iii 121.
Lasse, the lasse ; super, lest. Compar. Wers, worse, the werse,
the "werre. Note — bettre, ferre, lenger, more, neere, were originally
adj. foiTiis. The following superlative forms are also noticeable on
account of the e in moste, etc. : 0 firste meving 4715, the moste
stedefast 9425, deintevous 9588, free 11926, grettest, lusty 17039,
the gentileste bom 7948, but : the fairest hiewed 16355.
7 1 . The following Adverbs have an internal e (i) which is not
found in Anglosaxon : boldely, fortheward, needely, oonely, softely,
trewely, wortliily ; redely ii 198. So semely, rudely, quytely.
72.* The following Particles, of various tenninations in Saxon,
have -e more or less frequently in Chaucer and Gower. Those in
Italics have also a form in -s, see art. 73,
Ex. From Saxon forms in -an. ble), her beer heere, ther there, wher
Chaucer — aboven above above, abow- where, nouthe, ofte ofte-tyme oft-sithe
ten aboute aboute, asondre asonder
asondur, atwynne, beside, bifom beforne
byfore, behj-nde byhynd^, bynethe,
bytwene, by weste, henne, mththin
siththe sith seth, withouten withoute,
by-yonde. Layamon, abuten, abute,
biforen, bifore, bihinden, bihinde, &c.
Orrmulum, abutenn, biforenn, bihinn-
denn, &:c. Gower — a-boven a-bove
abov^, a-boiiie, a-twinne, be-hinde, be-
twene betwenS betwen, -forn -fore
a-forn a-fore to-fore tofore before, —
-nethe be-nethe imder-nethe, -side
a-side le-siden be-side, sithen sithe,
withouten withoute, without i 8 ? — {b).
Chaucer — betwix bet'^vixe, bothe, eek
ek eeke eke, evere nevere, ever never
(generally contracted to a monosylla-
73.* The following Particles, of various terminations in Anglo-
saxon, have in Chaucer and Gower the tennination -es, -s.
ofte sithes, selde, soone eft-soone, thanne
thenne than thanne, whanne whan,
</i«r(we, therefore therfor wherefore, tille,
ynowe ; weUe 1663 should probably be
dwelle as in Tp'whitt, but welle, wele,
occur in Layamon, and wel is rh)-med
with I fel (which possibly should be I
fele) 2233. Gower — al-gate, a-longe,
a-midde, a-monge among among(S),
bothe, efte, eke eke, ferre fore, her
here, ther there there, wher where
where, vede, ofte ofte-time often-time,
selde selden, sone, thanne thenne than
then ?, whanne whan, thenne = inde
whenne = i^M^^e whenne, therefore, to-
warde toward toward, wele, while
while whil.
360 PROF. CHILD OX CHAUCER AND GOWER. Chap. IV. § 5.
Ex. Chaucer — apcvn apens ageins are, his thonkcs, here thonkcs, 1628,
a<rt'nst ajreinst, iil-rates nl<ijat<' algati? 2109, 2116, his wilUs 5854. Goxver —
alj,nit •', anioufTcs among, amyddes, iu aboutes, algates, amiddes, amongcs, he-
the middfs of 16534, bysides, elles, sides, eiles, nedes, ones, thries, twies,
hennt's hens thcniies Mhennes, nccdes, un-ethcs, up-rightt-s, -wardes to-wardcs
ones, synnes syns sins syn sin, thries, after-wards afterward, whiles wliil^s,
togidcres, to wardes, twyes, unnethes, for-thc-uoncs, now-on-daies, now-a-
whiles whik whil, now-on-dayes, daies, his thankes.
13324, other genitives used as adverbs
Elision of Final Vowels.
74. Even if Chaucer folio-wed invariable rules with regard to
the pronouncing or suppressing of the final e, it cannot be ex-
pected that they should bo entirely made out by examining one
single text of the Canterbury Tales, which, though relatively a
good one, is manifestly fuU of errors. A comparison of several of
the better manuscripts would enable us to speak with much more
accuracy and confidence. Tyrwhitt's arbitraiy text may very
frequently be used to clear up, both in this and in other par-
ticulars, the much superior manuscript published by AYright. Still
the question whether an e was pronounced woiild often be one
of much delicacy (as the previous question whether it actually
exi.sted is sometimes one of great difficulty), and not to be deter-
mined by counting syllables on the fingers, Xo supposition is
indeed more absurd than that Chaucer, a master poet for any time,
could write awkward, halting, or even unharmonious verses. It is
to be held, therefore, that Avhen a verse is bad, and cannot be made
good anyway as it stands, then we have not the verse that Chaucer
wrote. But with regard to the particular point upon which we are
now engaged, it would often be indifferent, or nearly so, whether a
final e is absolutely di-oppcd, or lightly glided over. Then again,
as not a few gramatical forms were most certainly written both
with and without this termination, the fuller fonn would often slip
in where the other would be preferable or necessary, much depend-
ing on the care, the intelligence, or the good ear of the scribe.
Very often the concurrence of an initial vowel, justifying elision,
with a doubtful final e, renders it possible to read a verse in two
ways or more ; and lastly, hundreds of verses are so mutilated or
corrupted that no safe opinion can be based upon them. Such
verses as these ought plaialy not to be used either to support or
impugn a conclusion ; neither ought the general rules which seem
to be authorized by the majority of instances be too rigorously
ap])licd to the emendation of verses that cannot be made, as they
stand, to come under these rules.
Goicer — Unaccented e final may be elided (slurred) [but see above
p. 342].
I. before a vowel following :
II. before a few words beginning with h :
1. before the pronoun he {his, him, her, heni) :
2, before hath (has) and hant ; before have, except perhaps the
Infinitive Mood ; sometimes before hadde {had).
Chap. IV. § 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. 361
3. before the adverbs now and here (her).
4. before two or three words of French origin, in which h is
silent.
"^Tien one of these words beginning with h ends the verse, no
elision takes place before it.
The e final of a monosyllabic generally docs not siiflfer elision.
Elision seems frequently to be prevented by the csesui'al pause.
75. Unaccented e final is commonly elided before a vowel 69, 81,
421, 498, 900, 7294, 7321, 9162, 9700, 12036, 13432, 13701,
14875, 15000 [and innumerable other instances].
76. Unaccented e final is elided before a few words beginning
with h :
a. Before the pronoun he {Ms, him, hire, Mr, hem). Gower — But
not when these pronouns stand at the end of a verse : wenende that
it were he i 243, and in this wise spedde he ii 74, hadde he ii 150,
saide his ii 383, tolde he iii 139.
h. Before hath {has), and sometimes apparently before have, hadde
{had), though with regard to these last two words the number of
cases is not enough for certainty. Gower — Before hath (has?) and
hast : before have, except perhaps the Infinitive Mood ; sometimes
before hadde (had). Not often before have in the Infinitive. More
frequently not before hadde. Hadde often stands at the end of the
verse and then there is no elision.
c. Before how and her {heer). [Exceptions, both in Chaucer and
Gower are queried, and the readings are doubtful.]
Ex. to (a). Chaucer— IdQ, 184, 696, have i 73, if I for love have i 224,
949, 1364, 1370, 1483, 3954, 7462, etc. Thou might the more have i 178,
10418 and innumerable other cases. he thoughte have iii 162, his lore have
Ex. to {b). For hath, has the Ex. are iii 302. No elision at the end of the
innumerable, as: fortune hath 1088, verse: wolde have ii 358, herte have
1492, 15833, fnl sone hath 2448, eclde ii 50, shulde have iii 139, i 127, mede
hath 2449, neede has 4024, nature hath have iii 88, yifte have i 170, i 323,
2760, 3009, 13424, peple hath 8869, mighto have iii 24, wolde have ii 211,
youthe has 9612, etc., but: and now ymage have ii 124.
so longe hath the tappe i-ronne 3891 ? For had, hadde. Chaucer — pope had
Gower — exceptions: som(e) cause hath 6002, chirch[e] had 7318, sonne had
whereof it groweth i 264, a sone hath 11328, routhe had 11573, w[h]itnesse
which as his lif(e) ii 324, men sain that hadde 12017, sorwe had 1361 ?, frere
nede hath no lawe iii 277, of love hath had 7315 P hert[e] had 11819 ?, science
within her warde ii 354, (but in the had 12660 bad reading, worlde had
next verse: Phebus to love hath so 16151 bad reading. But: at many a
constreigned), which kinde hath and noble ariv'e hadde he be 60, as Noe
reson can i 366. hadde 3560, namly on bedde hadden
For have. Chaucer — so long^ havS 5989, though he no more hadde 9859.
11144, herte have 11352, sorw^ havS In Littowe hadde 54 ? atte siege hadde
12637 gaude have I 13804, pejTie have 56 ? Hadde he is sometimes contracted,
15527, couthe have 9308. Exceptions : and spelled as pronounced, had he,
scholde have 691, Arcite have 2260, hadde, as : a garland had he set 668,
drinke have 4918, frere have 7716, 319, 351, in termes hadde caas 325, 54,
poeple have 8118, mighte have 8560, 578; /(e A««^r/e is generally pronounced
I schulde ban 15t)62, your tale have he hadd^ ( = he had ?) as : fuloftetyme
be 16285, schredde han 8254 doubtful. he hadde the bord bygonne 52, for he
Gower — though I siknesse have, and hadde power 218, 85, 642. Gower —
longe have had i 6, but I his grace for he his love had i 77, thus he which
362
PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. Chap. IV. § 5.
love had i 121, and of the senile had i
128, whiTof the sone had i 28<3, the i^od
an eye had ii 149, this Adiia<^n« had ii
308. Exceptions : was hote, hadde i
56, the sceptre hadde i 179, wher(c)
they the (jueue hadden do i 201, that
Rome haddi' ii 196, a werre had ii
200, so as the quene had ii '271, a sonc
had ii 302, nctnire had iii 165, which
love hadde iii 364. Had final : a werre
had i 125, joic had i 107, time hadde
i 219, a sone hadde i 313, to sone
hadde ii 4, no love hadde ii 48, her
herte hadde ii65, his willii hadde ii 196.
Ex. to (c). For fiou: Chaiicir — by
his elennesse how 508, than wol I clepe
how 3577, hut of my tale how 4510,
jugge how may this be 5234, thou wilt
algate wite how 7096, nought wold I
telle how 11628, unto this philosophre
how 11865, me niette how 16384, mett«
a thing 16598; wistc how 1491 inde-
cisive. Exceptions : I spak to him and
sayde how that he 6149, TjTwhitt, said
him how; in m\"n office how that I
may wynne 7003, Tyrwhitt, how I may
moste winne. In the following the
infinitive should have an n : to telle
how 2823, dar I not telle how 14531,
and ye schal understonde how 15760.
Gower — the elision is very frequent, in
the exceptions : if no man write how
it stood i 4, and thoughtii how(e) it
was not good i 269, and all the cause
how it went ii 122, we should probably
read how that, a phrase of frequent oc-
currence in similar positions.
For /*er=herc. Chaucer — that sterve
here 1296, plight me thy trouth(f) her
6591, bothe heer 8043, anoon for lava.
allye heer take I the 12225. Excep-
tions: in erthc,heere 9521, lordiugs
cnsample herby 15725, here ensample
may be pronounced eusampul as in
5594. Gower — her not final : we shall
befalle here i 3, and for to bear* herof
i 70, lo, sone her(e) might thou ii 50,
I not wliat f\dle herafter shall ii 278,
of dfdely peine lure iii 37, my sone,
herafter iii 145 ; it is to be observed
that falle[n], beare[n], may be read as
monosyllables ; the other three cases
cannot be explained away, if the read-
ings are correct. Her = here final :
penaunce here ii 43, saide here ii 45,
alivii here ii 171, telle here ii 175,
erthe ii 269, i 37, iii 94, 38, iii 106,
etc.
For a few French words. Gower—
(a) the vein[e] honour i 11, for thilke
honour i 261, cause honest ii 9, of
armes thilke honour ii 64, that love
honest ii 78, of treble honour iii 165,
of pees richesse honour iii 273, may
never be to loves lawc honeste iii 352,
but: which techeth thilke honeste iii
141, but upon allii honeste iii 272,
where the elision is prevented by the
ictus. {b) to feigne humilite i 66,
and with low(e) herte humblesse sue
i 118. (r) thilke horrible siune i
77, 76, that thilke horrible sinfull dede
i 365. {d) dame Heleine ii 230,
quene Heleine ii 384, had wonne He-
leine ii 387, compare; after his moder
quene Eleine i 276.
We find also in Gower : an saide Ha
ii 320, and whan he wok(e) he saide,
Ha, wif(e) iii 310. But saide should
perhaps be printed said, as : and said
Ha, now thou art atake ii 338, or Ha
should perhaps be Ah. We find :
receive til he saide ho ii 201, I well
the tellt* and thanne ho iii 274.
77. Except in the cases mentioned above, there appears to be no
rule that final e should be elided before h, as : 14, 146, 150, 535,
884, 1015, 1051, 1677, 1820, 2088, 2465, 2711, 3953, 4266,
4407, 5934, 6035, 6548, etc.
78. It is very probable that some liberty was allowed with
regard to elision of e before h. A few cases are added where the
practice (so far as it can be determined by a very few examples)
seems to have varied, and a few other instances, which, if the
reading is correct, are exceptions to art. 77 : 6034, 6062, 6035,
6085, 6169, 5599, 2273, 14512, 2369, 2791, 999, 4523, 8139,
11151, 12039, 17200.
79. An accented final e (including e coming from French i, even
when the accent has been cast back) is of course not elided.
80. The e of monosyllables is commonly not eUded, except in the
Chap, IV. § 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER.
363
case of the article the and, in Chancer, not in Gower, the negative
particle ne.
81. The e of the is mnch more frequently elided than not, and
before e almost invariably. The th is frequently united to the fol-
lowing word, as also with the verb the = thrive in the forms : theek,
theech, 38G2, 12857, 14362. The e of ne is perhaps less fi'equently
united.
Ex. for the Chaucer — but to the effect
1191, this is ^/(effect 1489, ^/ienchaunte-
luents 1946, 19o8, 2279, 4570, etc.,
that is bitwixe thest 6829, theatat,
thavTCLj 718, th« absence 1241, thau
was i/iassembe 4823, 3078, etc., in
■which ^/ioffice 2865, thjmage 14916, the
herneys 2898, of children to thonoiw
9323." Exceptions : the olde clerkes
1165, when al the orient 1496, up to
the ancle 1663, on the auter bright
2427, only the intellect 2805, of which
the eldest 10344 ? the elf-queen 6442,
the ende is this, that he 6652. Gower —
no exceptions to the elision of the noted.
For ne Chaucer — he ne hath no
pej-ne 1321, alias I ne have 2229, ne
abyde 3125, ne at Eome 4710, prive
ne apert 6718, I ne held me 8694,
I ne have as now 11289. Excep-
tions : ne oynement '633, ne of the
knobbes 635, no herd nc hadde he
691, fp- ne ejT 1248, young ne old
3112, ne in noon other 9963, in al the
world ne hadde be 15540, if that the
wynd ne hadde be 16555.
82. The ccesural pause frequently prevents the elision of final e.
Ex. Chaucer —
a. that on his schyne — a mormal hadde he. 388
this was thjTi othe — and niyn eek certajn. 1141
withouten doute — it may stonde so. 1324
and lete him stille — in his prisoun dwelle. 1337
but how sche dide — ^I ne dar not telle. 2286
for thilke pejTie — and that hoote fiiyr(e). 2385
Some hadde salve — and some hadde charmes. 2714
and tyl he hadde — al that night i-seyn. 4377
than that it rote — al the remenaunt. 4405
ire is a sinne — oon the grete of sevene. 7587
to stonde in grace — of his lady deere. 13276
if that a prince — use hasardrie. 14014
no longer thanne — after Deth thay sought[e]. 14187
b. the trespas of hem bothe — and herS cause. 1766
I prey to God hir save — and susteene. 4580
for though that I be foule — old and pore. 6645
com forth my swete spouse — out of doute. 10018
in thende of which an imee — and no more. 13194
this Persoun him answerde — al at oones. 17324
Gower —
he wepte — and with woful teres,
with strengthe — of his owne might
supplant of love — in our Avaies
in the cronique — as I finde.
kisse her eftsone — if I sholde.
with all min herte — I woll serve,
though he ne wolde — it allowe
and in worshippe— of her name,
and with spellinge — and her charmes
Jason bar(e) croune — on his hed(e)
her love is sone — after (aft'r) ago
with shame — and the nimphes fledde
which kinde— in her lawe hath set(te)
83. Other vowels are occasionally elided
as in
i 143
i 236
i 241
ii 82
ii 96
ii 110
146
171
263
267
300
337
268 etc,
modem verse.
[The examples cited 225, 294, 423, 929, 1111, 1830, 7285, 9212,
3G4 PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCEB AND COWER. Chap. IV. § 6.
9284, 9394, 11669, 13734, 14874, 15112 are almost all simple
cases of trisyllabic measures, and similarly in Gowcr, see ai-t. 92. J
Silent Fix.vx E.
84. E final seems especially liable to become silent -^hen it fol-
lows r. The sound r is peculiariy unstable, and most languages,
in their successive stages or in their dialects, afford instances of its
being transposed, now standing before, now following a vowel, as
Saxon gaers, graes ; Ital. capre, Roman dial, crape ; Engl, iron,
apron, spectre, etc. In Wright's text of the Canterbury Tales we
often find the terminations re and er indifferently used, as asondre
5577, asonder (ur) 7256, 493. Of course we have no means of
determining to what degree, if at all, the pronunciation er had
begun to prevail even while the spelling re was retained. The
Comparative Degree of Adjectives is commonly spelled with er in
Chaucer (see art. 38), instead of the Saxon re, though both forms
occur; as bettre 526, 650, better 10416, lenger 332, lengere 823.
Nouns which anciently ended in -ere, generally or always end in
-er, as hopper 4034, miller 3923, sleper 16377, etc. (see art. 8 J.
"We find many French words spelled both with re and er, as lettre
5228, 5229, 5241, letter 10415, cloystre oystre 181, 182, cloyster
oyster 7681, 7682; chambre 1073, chambur 13145, tendre 150,
9631, tender 9617, etc. We also find the final e of some French
words absolutely dropped ; thus maner occurs most commonly with-
out the final e, except at the end of averse, 71, 2546 ; 10501, 11737 ;
ryA^er (F. riviere) is rhymed 6466 with bachelor (F. bacheler), and
15148 with deer; cheer (F. chere) once 1342 with prisoner (F. pri-
sonnier), though commonly pronounced cheere. In these cases ryver
must have been pronounced like our revere (lyve-er) and cheer
che-er, instead of ryver-e, cheer-e, the r being in fact transposed.
Gower — The only cases which are supported by instances enough to
make silent final e of consequence are the words have, here (their),
were, more, and the termination -fore (to-fore, be-fore). We have also
the double fonns cbmun, comune ; divers, diverse ; here the longer
form seems to be a license for the sake of rhyme. The Comparative
of Adjectives is always written in Pauli's text with -cr instead of
the Saxon -re. French words are written indifferently with both
terminations. SKght reliance, however, is to be placed upon the
editor's spelling.
85. The only rule with regard to c being silent after r which
can safely be made general, is perhaps that
e final is silent in the pronouns hire, here (= her), very often
spelled hir, here (= their), oure, youre. Gower — The e final of
here (= their) is silent, that is, not forming a full syllable ; whether
the letter was absolutely mute, or slurred, or, in the words ending
in -re, pronounced before the r, I do not pretend to say. The dative
and accusative of the feminine personal pronoun often preserve the
Saxon e, sec the forms hire, here, art. 45.
Chap. IV. § 6. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AXD GOWER.
365
86. JH final is in Chaucer frequently, in Gower sometimes, silent
in were.
1966, 6893, 1238, etc., subjunctive
9483, 10529, may be read: it were
good that such thing ■were y-knowe,
or : and 't were good that such thing
were knowe. Gower- — -[17 instances of
were, and 60 of were are cited, and the
last are only a few out of many.]
Ex. Chaucer — wer«, indie. 2nd pers.
sing. 15866, 15888, 17177; plural of
indie, 18, 26, 59, 81, 2169, 2185, etc.,
etc. ; subjunctive, 584, 877, 1213,
1216, 14229, 14570, etc., written wer
10782, 16280 (ner=ne wer). Excep-
tions : were, indie. 2nd. pers, sing.
4877, 16718, pi. of indie. 326, 1705,
87. There can be no doubt, however, that e final was generally
pronounced after r. It is commonly in the body of a verse, and for
metre's sake, that the occasion is presented for dispensing with this
sound ; rarely is it dropped for the sake of rhyme, though very often
e is added on that account to words which ordinarily tenninate in a
consonant, — or more properly speaking, of two existing forms, a
rarer one in -e is often employed when the rhyme demands the
final vowel, as yer by yere 4552, rhyming with heere. The final e
of cleere (ags. deore) and of cheere (Fr. chere) was most distinctly
pronounced. We should therefore be justified in inferring that the
final e was pronounced in the following words rhymed with deere
and cheere, even if this fact could not be independently proved, as
can be done in the case of most of the instances cited.
Ex. Chaucer — deere 1236, 2455,
3361, etc., the only exception noticed
being 7334 ; with this rh)Tne : heere
(adv.) 1821, 3502, 3774, prayere 2261,
12184, yere 8278, in feere 4815, 12308,
steere 4868, 5253, frere 6881, 13283,
manere 7207, 8455, to leere 7098,
13277, chere 8017, 12232, 12310, ma-
tiere 8198, 8467, were (subj.) 8758, to
heere 8963, cleere 12182, 15066, beere
15091, (to) appeere 13060. cheere
749, 5422, 8411, 8554 (cheer 9889 in
a suspicious line) ; with this rh-STne :
heere 7884, 8245, in feere 4815, 8989,
frere 6847, 7739, manere 140, 10821,
leere (verb) 10418, deere 14739, 14836,
matere 729, 15409, to heere 915,2900,
cleere 8655, 9719, here 6169, to re-
peire 14737, all of which also occur in
the former list. Similarly, feere
2346, 2688, 2932, 7286, 16877, with
88. Less to be relied on are the
sper'e 15289, ags. spere, and there-
fore: here ursus 1642, were pi. 2950,
to here 4877, to dere Icedere 10554.
teere (art. 87) and therefore : were
pi. 4954, 11493, 15662, there 4956,
were 2nd pers. 16146, schere 15542,
yere 15545, enquere 9417. schere
ags. sceare ; and therefore (?) : were
pi. 15544, yere 15545, teere 15547.
ger'e P ags. geara, 367 ; and there-
which rhyme : eere 6603, tere 11206,
15664, gere 5220, there 5222. Again,
beere 15036, and above, with which
rhyme: were pi. 2901, 15662, tere
15664, there 15037. Again, eere
6218 and above (^ags. eare), with which
rhjTiie: were pi. 8604, 12823, were
subj. 17131, there 7656, where 7634,
10629. Gower — the examples cited in
arts. 84, 85, 86, are the only cases of e
silent after er, except a few isolated
ones, as : ther halp(e) him nouther
spere ne shelde i 125, for if thou herS
my tale wel(e) ii 340, he yav(e) hem
answere (answre ?) by and by iii 305.
It has been observed already that such
representatives as occur of the Saxon
noun in -ere, denoting an agent, want
the iinal vowel, but none of the few
cases that occur are worth much, see
art. 8.
following :
fore: were subj. 353, were pi. 1017,
there 5222, 8250. enquere, old fr.
enquen-e, 9406 ? and therefore : en-
quere 3166, there 3165. requer'e,
old fr. requerre, 6634 ? and therefore :
there 6633. Fynester'e, Fr. Finisterre,
410 ? and therefore: were pi. 409.
mere {equa) 543, mellere ? 544.
forbere 3168 myllere ? 3167.
3G6 TROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. Chap, IV. § 6.
80.* On the other hand, vro find many rases in wliieh e final
must have "been silent, or -wliere it is actually dropped after er.
Chaunteclcr is most mis.spelt with -c, in the !Nonnc Prestes Tale.
That it oupht to have no final e appears from the French derivation
( ChantecJcr), and from tlie rhymes ber {tuli) and power (new fr.
j)oueir) 16822, 1G830, also misspelt here, powere.
Ex. ber^/(Tre 1424, ber^ ursut 2060, baner, beer^, ber^, chambr^, deer^, fer^>
bere /fro 8760, wer^ iw^iVj 8762, swer^ frerc (often frerc), manor, swer^, swer.
jurarc 11101, 12076, all rh)-nied with See art. 72 for the double forms : here
the pronoun her^ hirS. So : answer^, her, there ther, where whcr, evere ever.
90.* With regard to final e after ?>, ar, or, nr, it does not appear
to be more frequently silent in such cases than after other letters,
except in sire and more. Goiver — E fijial is sometimes silent in
-fore and more. We find two forms sire and. sire = sir, correspond-
ing to French sire, sieiu", Italian scr, sere.
Ex. Chaucer — sire sire, irS ire, bare, dore, therefor^ therefor therfore, foure,
faire, spare, chare Fr. chaire, declare rP pure, vestur^. Goiver forS to-forS
declare, haire, pejTe, mor^ mor more, and -fore to-fore be-fore a-fore, more
pore pore, bifor^ byfore, sore sore, dor^ oftener more.
91.* A considerable number of cases will now be given of e silent
after other letters than r without any attempt to explain the fact.
Many words of French origin are spelt in Chaucer sometimes with
a final ce, sometimes with s. Goicer — The only important instances
of silent e final are the word have and some forms in -ce (se). Note-
worthy instances of e fijial silent after other consonants than those
already mentioned are very few. 13y noteworthy instances is meant
cases in which a final e, that by general laws should be sounded, is
required by the metre to be silent. Some of the apparent exceptions
can be explained away. A few cannot.
Ex. Chaticer — e silent after l,m,n: fond^, wood^, lowd^, bnxyd' — by-
alle, hallg, talg, tell^, heUS, felle, welie, quethe, mirthe, rewth^, trouth*^,
felS, mele, wel^, soule, mylle, myle, youthe. e silent after s (c) : nose,
pylg — damS, madame, namS, clayme, prose [the reference 466 is erroneous]
dem^, com^, -welcom^, some, tyme — clennesse besjTies goodnes lewednes
pan', regnS, clenS, begynne, nonej sone, worthines, goddess^, blis' blys', wisS,
gounS. e silent after u; y : daw^, chees^, suppose, thcsS this?, prayse,
Bchrew', trewg, bow^, crow', )-nowe, pres' Fr. presse, nobles'— grac^, forcS
trowg, widow', morwe, joye, weye. but force in the same line 3910, prince,
e silent after p, b, v. help^, felaw- malice, placg, Constaunc^ Constaimce.
schipg, worschip, hop^, pope, hav^, experience experiens, plesaunce
save, av^, recep-^, lev^, giv^, gev^, lyr^, plcisauns, norice noris, pacience paciens,
stryve, love, grov^. e silent after k, sentence sentens, force fors, solas solaas
g, ch : sake, seeke, bisekS, spek^ — solac^ solace, allaas laas lace trespace,
mariagS, viag^, visage, age, tong^, trace trays harnays, face faas, preface,
brings, segS — speche, wrechS, chirche. [In a large number of cases the 2 here
e silent after t, d, th, besides the cited may have been an e introducing
final e of the imperfect indie, of simple a trissillabic measure of no injury to
verbs, which is as often silent as pro- the metre, see art. 92.] Gouer—e is
nounced [unless the -ed, for -ede be generally silent in havg except at the
read -'de, and the point is doubtful] : end of a line, but : ne have whan I
hate, bete, getg, mete, swete, herte, Epak(e) i 296, ye have thilke vice ii 56,
schertS, might', sight'— forbedg, dede, have non(e) i 295, be so they have i
heed', IcdS, redS, steeds, ende, f\-ndg, 316, have routhe i 47, and (infinitive)
kj-ndS, lyndg, holdS, housS-bbndS, i 94, 170, ill 222, 702. The infini-
Chap. IV. § 5. PKOF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. 367
tives and the plural forms of the indica- to us through the Fr. bourse ; it has
tive and subjuuctive may have origin- dropped the e, like Swcd. and Dan.
ally heen written haven ; so written, b'ors, and Germ, bors, which is foimd as
the word might perhaps have been con- well as borse. helpe help 8 cases to
tracted at pleasure into a monosyllable. helpe 9 cases ; 2 queue and 27 quene,
e is in a few words of Latin origin 2 sight and 6 sighte, 3 food and 5 or 6
silent, or absent where it might be ex- fode, 1 time ii 167 but elsewhere al-
pected after c, s : grace, rhymes with ways time, 1 nede i 155 but elsewhere
encres, old Fr. a-crois ii 392, grace i 9, always nede : 3 spede and about 3
etc., Boniface, Morice, Moris = Maurice, spede, 2 I rede and elsewhere rede, etc.
force, rhymes with hors ii 392, fallas [These cases all require examination
Fr. feUace rhymes with was, iii 158 : by manuscripts, and the remaining
avarice ii 290 avarice ii 127, purse doubtful cases are therefore not cited
purs, this word derived from Middle here.]
Latin bursa, probably does not come
92. For convenience sake the final e in the above citations has
been treated as silent. It is, however, a question which may be
called at least a difficult one to solve, whether the e in many cases
was absolutely dropped, or only slightly pronounced. In very
many lines the verse would be equally agreeable, whichever of the
two should be done ; in some, the verse might be fuller to a good
ear, if the e were slightly sounded ; in some this sound would dis-
turb the metre.
A considerable number of these exceptions might disappear on a
comparison of manuscripts, but veiy many would doubtless remain.
The vowel appears to be most frequently silent after the Kquids,
after w and v, t, d, and s. Some of the most noticeable words are
the pronouns Jiire, here, oure, youre; the verb were; then sire, more,
alle^ tymo, sone (filius), trowe, have, give, love, sight\ icoode, Hiss' .
Possibly, all that is to be said of tliis matter is, that the final e
might be dropped freely, as in modem German verse, as :
das Erst' wjir' so, das Zweite so.
der begehrt jede liebe Blum' fiir sich,
und diinkelt ihm es war' kein' Ehr',
und Gunst die nicht zu pfliicken war'. —
hat er so aller Treu', so aller Lieb' vergessen.
&c., &c. — (Goethe's Faust.)
Of course we are not authorized, in the present state of oiu- know-
ledge, to drop the superfluous e and indicate the omission by an
apostrophe.
CONTEACXIOXS.
93. The e in final er is very frequently elided, especially under
the cii'cumstances in which e fmal would suffer elision. [Most
of the instances cited seem more properly to belong to the class of
trissyllabic measm-es. The words and a reference to the Hue in
Chaucer are here added, when the words begin with a capital
they occur in the lists given in both papers, when they are in
small capitals .they occiu' in the Gower papers only, and no re-
ferences are given.] adder, After 162, 343, 527, anger 12847,
answer 1325, begger 252, better, chaitrre, coper 13236, delyver
84, Ever Never 50, 345, 1824, 9963, 1262, 8020, 8027, 9605,
368 TROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. Chap. IV. § 6.
9618, 10077, 10078, Fader 5613, fetlicr 2146, fyngcr7472, hixdek
v., LEXGER, LETTER, LEVER, manor 9755, MONSTER, nt'cldcr 9660,
ncyther 9413, 9962, otter 16914, other, over 11967, persever 5730,
silver 82, 631?, sober 7484, somer 396, so^vter 3902, suster, texder,
TiiuxDER, togicler 826, water 402, 3815, 13244, Whether 1103,
15415, 9407, 15341, wonder 12531.
94. The vowel is elided under similar circumstances in the syl-
lable-e«. Chancer', mooten 232, wercn 1282, comen 803, riden
827, prisoim' 1231, faren 1263, wcpen 1593, biinjijen 5384, risen
10697, y-comen 14908. Gotcer : shulden i 76, wolden i 79, treteu
i 250, geten i 339, vcngen i 345, stonden i 364, woman ii 46,
wepon ii 306, rehercen iii 19.
95. The tliii'd person singular of the Present Indicative ends
commonly in -eth, not seldom in -th. "WTien the form -eth is used,
the e is often elided. Chaucer: answeretli 1622, thenketh cometh
1645, cometh 8033, 14196, niakth 5318, 7415, spekth 5646, clap-
pith 7166, lyveth 7944, takith 8178, loveth 8246, 8247, spedith
9801, bereth 10949, to-brcketh 12835, abidcth 14396. Gower :
speketh i 64, maketh i 68, 156, wepeth crieth i 120, kepeth i 126,
leseth i 305, eteth drinketh iii 39, taketh cometh iii 280, ariseth
iii 342.
96. Miscellaneoiis contractions. [Most of these are cases of tris-
syllabic measures.] Chaucer : purchasyng 322, schirreve 361 (?),
parisshe 451, 496, parisch[e] 493, benedicite (bencite) 2117, 5823,
5862, 7038, 7166, 7752, 9211, 12556, we may therefore infer a
lacuna in 1787, certeynly 2761, candel 5916, so candlestick (canstick)
in Shakespeare, 1 Henry IV. 3, 1, speech 36 (Guest I, 54: canstick in
the quartos), litel 7256, vanyssh 10642, widow 14920, (similar forms
though not contracted are sorwe 1456, vrilw 2924, morw 9622,)
woldjst 15431, wicked 16909, tliis is an unusual contraction, but
by no means unparalleled, compare naked, Crashaw, ed. TumbuU,
p. 123. Gower— hiUe i 136,^^ quaiTcl ii 223, de^-il iii 203, dis-
tempred i 281, heved iii 117, 376, augst iii 121, 370, Sortes (So-
crates) iii 366. Benedicite is not contracted i 48.
97. Cases like the follo-^-ing, in which contiguous words are
blended, are not common in Chaucer, but there is no reason to
suspect the coiTcctness of the lines : at his (at's) 295, and a ('n a)
56, I ne (I n') 766, endure it (endur't) 1093, whethir it (wher't)
9841. Contractions of the various kinds noticed in arts. 93-97 are
on the whole not so frequent in Chaucer as in Shakespeare and
Milton : see very numerous examples in Guest's English Rhythms
B. I. C. III. — Gower. Contiguous words are not often blended, but
some cases occur : fall it (fall't) ii 380, it is (it's) iii 348, I have
(I've) ii 61, that is (that's) iii 247.
^ The real dmsion of the measures, name is bore, but Harl. MS. 3490,
indicated by italicising the even mea- 3869, 7184, and Soc. Antiq. MS. 134,
Bures, in tliis line, seems to be : i-fet- all read his for this, giving a regular
er'd in his prisoun/o;- erer' more. elision.
2 Pauli reads : yet in the bible this
Chap. IY. § 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER.
369
97rt.^ Accent. Many words of French oripn have two accents;
sometimes on the final syllable, or the penult ; sometimes thrown
further back as in English. So also with nouns of Saxon origin in
-ynge, -yng (see art. 17) and felawe felaw (see art. 18). Gower —
Many words of French origin have a variable accent : the same is
occasionally true of native words. The eliding of final e often
causes the accent to be tkrown back, [or i-ather conversely?].
Proper names of Latin origin have generally the French, or foreign,
accent : Cesar iii 366, Medea ii 212, Gower iii 373, Eneas Anchises
ii 4, Aprille ii 327. [The list of words is here given in alphabetical
order with single references, a capital initial (when the word is not
a proper name, and in that case an italic capital initial) points out
that the word is in both lists, small letters in Chaucer and small
capitals in Gower oidy.]
Achilles ii 62 Achilles ii 58
ANSWERE i 96 ANSWERE iii 305
Apollo ii 366 Apollo ii 367
Aprille, Averil 1, 'April 4426
Arcita (?) [6128 ^\.icita 2258
Arcite 1114
AYEIN i 81
bataille 990
benigne 520
coLot)R i 225
COMllNE i 20
Cresus 16245
DAUNGER i 331
discord 8308
discret 8286
EcHATES ii 260
ENVIOUS i 171
FELAW i 170
FORitST ii 68
Fortune 917
Grisildes 8108
honest 14972
honoiir 15697
Jason ii 251
Laboiir 14874
lady i 332
Leo iii 121
LOVERS i 64
'Arcite 1154
AYEIN iii 61
batail 2099
benigne 8287
COLOUR i 133
COMIN i 7
Ciisus 1918
DAtlNGER i 331
discret 520
EcHATES ii 262
ENVIOUS i 172
FELAW i 171
FOREST i 119
Fortune .927
Grisildes 8086
honest 246
Jason ii 250
Labour 8093
LADY i 332
Leo iii 120
LOVERS i 175
MANIJRE i 96
MATEILE i 343
mellere 544
nature 11
iVoe 3534
PASSAGE i 223
Plato 19376
povert 4519
POviiRTE 1 357
powiiR i 345
prayer 2269
prisoun 1177
puKPos i 134
rancour 8308
regne 15697
Resoun 37
REvijRS i 239
servise 2489
squyer 79
SUPPLANT i 239
tresor 15697
Fenus 1906
Vertiie 4
victorie 2241
VISAGE i 237
WORTHY i 107
yeman 6962
mXner i 4
MATER i 146
meller 3923
natuie 1080
iVoe 3539
PASSAGE i 237
Plato 13381
pdvert 6749
povERTe i 355
POWER i 341
preyer 2423
prisoun 1087
pfjRPos i 238
Eesoun 1768
Ri?VERS i 167
servise 122
squyer 1500
SUPPLANT i 239
Fenus 1920
Vertu 1438
victorie 874
visAGe i 227
WORTHY i 226
yeman 101
Gower — At this point it is proper to say that in all likelihood
some troublesome forms in Gower are to be explained as simple
licences. Such, very probably, are the causes of the singular of the
Imperfect of Complex Verbs which have an e (art. 54). So when the
vertu ii 38, 187, is stretched to vertuc i 7, 18 : when the preposi-
tion for is made to rhyme with lore ii 59, the pronoun 7nin with
mine ii 130, the noun men{e) (Fr. moyen) with lene ii 351, (if thou
well) lethought with nourjld iii 357, (I) sigli with eye iii 370, oxes
(elsewhere oxen) with/oxes ii 63, perhaps all that it is necessary to
been put wrongly among the miscella-
neous notes, and it is therefore re-
stored here to its proper place.
24
^ This is numbered 99 in Chaucer,
and 97« in Gower, where the art.
numbered 99 in Chaucer is said to have
370
PUOF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND COWER. Chap. IY. § 5.
say is that ft eluinsy poet has taken an extraordinary liberty.*
Such shorteninjr of words as pusillamite for pusillauimite ii 12, 25,
iii 210, Climestre for Clytemnestre, Mcthamor for Metamorphoses,
is ratlier to be attiibuted to ifnioranoe ;^ so A<j;*nieinon, Nanplus
for Xauplius, &c. The vowels arc not infrecjuently^ ti'eely treated
in the rhymes: e.g., minde ende ii 23, 67 ; ende kende (i.e. kinde)
iii 120, nine peine ii 201, seen cyen iii 18 ; say see iii 31, wit yet;
fell hill, men kin ii 158, iii 211, 280, kenne senne (i.e. sinne) ii 309,
spedde hadde ii 191, deth geth (i.e. goth i 345, Sax. gai^), ii 303 ;
i 220, 247 ; piche suche iii 312, &c.
MlSCELLA>'E0US NoTES.*
98. Lettebs. (a) Ch for the Saxon c (k) before or after e, i, occurs
in several cases where the modem English has retained the primi-
tive sound. (b) Saxon g is changed to tv both in Chaucer and
Gower instead of y, ?', as in modem English, and to y where we
have retained g. {c) Th is dropped after t or changed to t in con-
1 [Sometimes, not always, we may
say that an editor has been careless.
The fullo^nng is the reading of these
passages after Harl. MS. 3869.
Tho was Jie vertu sett a boue. i 7
In Avhom j^at alle v«-tu duellej^. i 18
That jiing which I trauaille fore
0 in good time were he bore, ii 59
For certes if fche were mj-n
1 hadde hit leuere j^an a m}Ti
Of gold, ii 130
For fo wcl can \er noman slyke
Be hym no be non o]'er mene
To whom Daung^r wol zive or lene
Of >at Trefor he ha> to kepe. ii 351
Mi fone if you be wel bej'oght
This tonche)) ]'ee forjet it noght. iii 357
And taken hiede of J-at I fyhe
Wheriune anon myn hertes yhe
I caste, iii 370
Wherinne anon in ftede of Oxcs
He let go zoken grete foxes, ii 63]
2 [Yet Gower had certainly read
Ovid in the original, and shews by his
headings and his Vox Clamantis, that
he coiild write Latin. Some of the
en'ors are cei-tainly due to the scribe ;
others may have been Anglicisms com-
parable to our Ovid, Horace, Virgil,
TuUy, Pliny.]
3 [The interchange of t, e, short is
common in Chaucer, and must be ac-
cepted as (t, e), supra pp. 250, 272.
The following are these passages ac-
cording to Harl. MS. 3869.
Ne mihte I Icte out of my mende
Bot if I jioghte \'pon J^at hende. ii 23
The whos knyhthode is jit in mende
And fchal be to Je worldes ende. ii 67
Ne to non o\er ))ing \g\ fyhen
Bot hire which to fore here yhen
Was wedded J^ilke fame day. iii 18
Sche fih no schip fche fih no barge
As ferforji as fche mihte kenne
Ha lord fche feide which a senne
As al ]ie world fchal after hiere
Vpon j'is woful wowman hiere [ii 309
This worjii knyht haji don and wroght.
Bot as we rede J-at he fpede
The which hir lordcs befant hedde
And ]'eiTpon gate non enereff. ii 191
That it be ferm wi]i led and pich
Anon was made a cofre such, iii 312
Fine peine, should be nyne pyne, see p.
253. For say sey there is a deletion
in Harl. 3869, but Harl. 7184 reads—
Lo J7US mi fader as J seie
Of lust )'e which miny he hath feie. iii 31
The rhyme de]> ge]i occurs in all the
passages in Harl. 3869.1
* Of these Prof. Child says : Chaitcer
— The purpose of this paper being to
do something towards ascertaining the
forms of words used by Chaucer (in-
cluding inflections), the notes upon that
subject are intended to be complete, to
the extent of the information to be de-
rived fi-om the one text employed. Not
so with the Miscellaneous Notes, sub-
joined to the others. Goicer — It may
be observed that the subject of the
article [memoir] is really concluded at
art. 97rt. The miscellaneous notes
which follow contain a few things
noticed in passing which may on some
occasion be useful ; but they are purely
incidental, and do not profess to be
complete. [lu this re-arrangement of
Chap. IV. § 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER.
371
tractcd fonns, and in Gower ags. d is retained, Tvhere we have
changed to the aspirate dh, spelt th. (d) The letters r and s were
unstable in the older English, and subject to fi-equent metathesis.
In the transition to modem English these letters have changed their
position more than once in some words. Gower — [e) Jf is reinforced
by h or p, n changed to m before p, n not yet reinforced by c? as ia
English and s reiaibrced by t.
Ex. (flt) Chaticer and Gower — seche
= seek 786, 7537, 7539, i 290, ii 190,
193; recche=reck 1400, 5911, rcccheth
i 168, ii 284, wirche^work 2761, wor-
clieni 166, ii 142, tlienche= think 3253,
schenche = skink i 263, vliche, liclie =
like 7797, 10376, lieh, liche i 118. 136,
258, 265, besi-liche ii 3, even-liche ii
179, etc., now-lv; ich=ik. I, 10037,
and in: theech "12857, 14362. So
rubriclie = rubric, Fr. nibrique 5928.
Chmicer— On the other hand, k is often
preserved Trhere ive have ch, as, biseke
=beseech 7251, etc. Gower — Saxon c
{k) not changed to < as in modern Eng-
lish : make=niate i 45, 112, 367. ec
changed to tt when changed to ch in
modern English, fette, ags. feccan =
fetch ii 233, 237. "We find: chever =
shiver iii 9. (i) Chmiter and Goiver —
da'wes^day, 11492, i 136, fa-we, ags.
feah=f?Dgan, fain, 5802, i-slawe= slain
14271, 16500, morwe, ags. morgen, E.
morn i 186, 205, wo we, ags. wag, E.
wall, wawes, ags. wgegas, E. waves,
4888, i 141, 223, 312; gerarchie =
hierarchy iii 145 is old Fr. gieraucie,
Ital. gerarcliia. wiltow= wilt thou,
woltow 1546, 6422, hastow = hast thou
3534, 3538, 11893. wostow 3544, slepis-
tow 4167, herdistow 4168, artow 4728,
hydestow 5890, schaltow 6998, atte
beste = at the beste 29, atte siege 56,
atte fuUe 653, atte laste 2828, ate laste
i 16. ii. 345, 377, atte boord 10393, ate
bord iii 299, atte halle 10394, etc., etc.
G'o;m-— fader i 49, 60, 61, iii 260, 332,
father ii 1 74 is undoubtedly wrong ;
moder i 104 etc., weder i 112 etc.,
wether iii 295 is wrong, hider i 70,
thider i 186, whider ii 21, gader ii 293,
togider i 324. On the other hand we
have: rother, ags. ro^er = rudder.
(d) Chaucer — berstles, ags. bristl, E.
bristle, 558 ; brid, ags. b^idd, E. bird,
17104; brast breste, ags. berstan, E.
burst, 2612, 2613; brent brenne, ags.
bjTnan brinnan, E. burn, 948, 17161;
carte, ags. cr:et, E. cart, 2043 ; crispe
(crips, House of Fame iii 296, MoiTis
5-251), ags. cirps crisps, E. crisp, 2167 ;
crulle, E. cxirl, 81 ; kers, ags. cerse
cresse, E. cress, 3754 ; thii-led, ags.
thn-lod thyrel, E. thrilled, 2712, (nose-)
thui'les, E. (nos-)trils, 559 ; thridde,
ags. thridda, E. third, 14251, threttene
7841, thritty 14437; throp, ags. thorp,
E. -thorp, -throp, 8075, 8084 ; thurgh,
ags. thurh, E. through, 1098 ; axe, ags.
ascian acsian, 1349, 12354, axyngl828,
aske 3557; crispe, ags. cirps (see above);
lipsede, E. lisped, 266 ; clapsud, E.
clasped, 275. Goiver — brid birdi 112,
113 etc., bird i 206 ; hunderd hundred
ii92, 249, 381 ; third thirdi 55, thritty
thirt)j iii 214, brenne burti i 334, brent
i 109; kerse cress \ 229, 334; Adrians
Ariadne ii 307, etc. ; axe ask^ i 334, ii
222, etc. (e) thombe, ags. jjuma, i
175, stempne, ags. stemn i 312— wim-
pel, ags. winpel, i 326, 327. — kinled =
kindled iii 96, compare krn-d-red and
kind, genus, which is apparently from
Saxon cynn, not cynd. [The following
is from E. Matzner, Englische Gram-
matik, Berlin, 1860-1865, i 178: an
unmeaning d is added on to a final n ;
7*w;(^ = servant, ags. hina, old E. hyne;
fond, old norse f^na, fatue se gerere,
old E. fon, still in Spenser, and fond ;
lend, ags. laeuan, old E. and Scotch
lenen; round with obsolete roun in
Skelton, Spenser, and Shakspere, ags.
runian, G. zuraunen ; sound, ags. s. son,
old Fr. son, sun, v. soner, suner, old
E. s. soun, V. souneu; astound and
astonish, old Fr. astoner mixed with
ags. stimian, E. stun, etc.] lost, for loss,
ags. los, i 147, 238, ii 186, 277, but :
loss i 270.
Prof. Child's memoirs, some of the
completeness of the fii-st part has been
necessarily sacrificed. Although the
Miscellaneous Notes do not in general
bear upon the subject of the present
treatise, they present so much that is
interesting to the Societies for which
it has been written, that it has been
thought advisable to give them nearly
in full.]
372 PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AKD GOWER. CuAT. IV. § 6.
99. Sco 97flr.
100*. Syxt-vx ior MKAsiTfKs, Kixps, ETC. (rt) NouDS denoting a
substimce measured, weighed, or numbered, are not followed by a
noun with of, as in modem English ; but are in apposition with the
noun denoting the measure, as in ags. sometimes, and in German
regularly, (h) Nouns denoting sort or kind are in like manner not
followed by a noun with of, but by a noun in apposition, as also in
German. ic) Things numbered are put in the singular after
numerals as in German and ags. {d) Sometimes numerals preceded
by the article a arc treated like nouns, the thing numbered being
put in the plural number, but still without a preceding of, compare,
a few pears, a great many men, a dozen books.
Ex (a) a pevre dys (G. ein. paar thousand score i 176, a thousand del(e)
"Wiirfel) 4384, 14038, a pcsTC plates i 29.5. The ags. use of \^^nter for year
2123 • a barrel ale, G. eine Tonne Bier, is to be noticed, and also the of sup-
15379, a hotel hay, G. ein Bund Heu, plying the place of the ags. gen. in old
16946 ; a busshelwhet 7328, 4310,half of nine hundred mnter. ^ight and
a quarter otes 754.5; the beste galoun winter (ags. niht, AVinter) have coni-
w\Ti 16956, a morsel bred 15920. nionly the plural like the singular in
\h) a raaner deye, G. cine Art Milch- ags. (instead of nihta, -svintTa), but this
frau, 16332, a nianer sergeant 8395, so is not a peculiarity of mflection ; it is a
3681 11742, 11745, no maner wight consequence of a principle of syntax.
71, 2546, a maner kinde i 88, 123, what Year (ags. gear) might have the plural
maner name i 206, such a manner vrise like the singular, at any rate ; still the
i 342 what manner thing u 142, what cases cited are fair instances of the rule,
mestir men 1712, no kyn monay 14749. Fortnight (fourtenight 931) has become
(f) sj-n thiike day that she was a compound noun, and so has twelve-
Beven night old 16359, this fourtenight month (a twelve moneth 653), but these
931 thritts- winter he was old 14437, forms properly come under (c) and
15545, 7233, a child of twelf month {d). {d) a seven bushels 14186, a
old 14895, foure ver 8487, 8612, 13445, twenty bookes 296 (T)t. the nghtread-
twentywinterageii226,ofeigh(te)tene ing), a twenty thousand trcres /2/7,
winter a"-e i 102, withinne seven winter T^T.,hi^ maisti-es clepeth wonwien agtet
age i 267, ii 266, of nine hundred winter route, and up they risen, a ten other a
ofdfe) ii 265, of thre yer(e) age U 22, twelve 10697, a thousand times i 330, a
of twelv(e) yer(e) age ii 68. So after a fewe veres ui 246, seven yeres u 9 ;
numerals preceded by a; of an hundred according to the same pruiciple: a
winter age ii 343, of a ten ver(e) age ii ccrtein trankes 1474o, a certein yeres
17, a thousand winter (tofore, after) i 15663, a certejTi o/ conclusions 3193, a
267, ii 266, a thousand yer(e) ii 9, a certeyn gold 14815.
ten mile i 209, a thousand sithe i 160, a
101. GEXiriYE Case, (a) Some genitives are employed as adverbs,
(h) The genitive sign is not annexed to a compound phrase as in
English, (c) The genitive of names of persons and titles of books
is sometimes used as a nominative in Chaucer, and in Gowcr the
genitive case of classical proper names is frequently so used ; Gowcr
also declines classical proper names, a custom still in use with some
oldfashioncd Germans.
Ex ia) his thonkes 1628, 2109, here daughter of CecUe i 104, 235. (c)
thonkes 2116, his willes 5854, needes Ccrccs 1949, Judicum 15532 Encydos
1171 7887, etc. (J) the wyves love 16845, Sibeles ii 26.^, Sibele u 166,
of B!ithe=wife of Bath's love 9046, Cereres and Ceres ii 168, Circes ui 49
mv modres Ceres soule = my mother etc., Echates ii 260, Spercheidos u 261,
Ceres's soul 10139, Goddes sone of the temple Apollims u 366, that he
hevene = God of heaven's son; in Vestes wolde upon knighthode Achillem sue
temple the goddesse ii 157, the kinges iii 212 Achilles nom. same page, Del-
Chap. IY. § 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GO^VER. 373
boram hath Abel take iii 277, Dehor- Jucleam ii 191, Ephcsim iii 335, Thel-
anom, same page ; till they Peutapolim niachuin ii 54, Thelmachus iii 60 ;
have take, and: for Pentapolim iii. 341, Methamor for Metamorphoses 155.
102. Dative Case, (a) After to be, with: wel 2111; wo 1015,
14421, 10892, 353, bygoon 11628, 5338, schapen 1394, loth 1839,
Icf 14175, loth 488, 11903, lever 295, 16955. IN'B. him hadde
lever 3541, 8320, have Ilever 11672, 15379. (b) After verbs of
motion as in Saxon : goth him 3434, 4060, 13622, 14748; went hir
4213, 9653, 13038; rydeth him 1693, stalked him 8401, hy the
13223 ?, styi-t hir 3822 ? (c) After other verbs : dreden hem 12252,
falleth him 5524, stele hem = from them 4008, us thoughte 786.
103. Persoxal PEOjTomrs. Me for I, once, 1810 ; his, gen. of it,
6726, 7838, it am I, as in ags. and German, 1462, 1738, 3764,
5529, 14625 ; he in the sense of one, indefinite, in the Persones
Tale ; he, she, redundant with proper names 6225, 9594, 16880,
5360, 9608, 9912, 10564, 6080, 9242, 9247, 16627, etc. Both (as
in German) follows and does not precede, the genitive of the per-
sonal pronoun, as : here bothe lawes 4641, etc.
104. Relative and Ixterkogative Proxohn's. (a) That is fre-
quently used in conjunction with the pronoun he so that both ex-
press only the relative pronoun : that-he 44, that-his 2712, 14915,
that-him 3430, without the personal pronoun 12164, oon-his 4691.
Compare Mrs. Gamp's "a lady which her name is Harris," "she
being in liquor, which I thought I smelt her. " {b) Which fre-
quently has the signification of tvhat, what sort of, like ivelch in
German : which a mii-acle 2677, which they weren 40, 2950, 3611,
5621, 6875, 10896, 11754, 16065. {c) Which that, the whiche that
is used for which in the prose tales, {d) What is used for tvhy,
like Latin qtiid, German ivas : 184, 1382. (e) Wliat is used in an
indefinite sense (like GeiTaan etivas, was) Avite ye what ? = wissen
Sie was? 10305, 17014; so apparently, at first, in the colloquial
" I'll tell you what (Ich will Ihnen was sagen)" ; but the emphasis
put on the tvhat shews that it is not now regarded as indefinite,
[compare German, Das sag' ich Ihnen]. (/) Whoso is frequently
used in the sense of if any one, 743, 4615, 9890, 13903. {g)
Gower — As icho saith =: one might say, so to speak, i 268, ii 131.
105. IjSDEFryiTE PiioxotrffS. {a) Peculiar uses of one lo%l, 11046,
8088, 11499 ; iii 189, i 201, ii 70, ii 159, 259, iii 327 ; we also
find : in all this world ne mighte be a gladder woman then was
sche iii 51. one = only iii 231, all min one i* 45, all him one
i 148, iii 285, 178. {b) Peculiar use of ought, like the Gennan
etwa = perhaps : can he ought telle a mery tale or tweye ? 12525.
106. Prefixes. The prefixes for- (German ver-, Lat. per-, con-)
and to- (GeiTQ. zer-, Lat. dis-) have not lost their force in Chaucer
and Gower.
Ex. Chaucer — forpyned 1455, fordo ti'ode, forslowith, forsluggitth, forlesith,
1562, 14538, fordrunken 3122, 4148, forletin, all in the Persones Tale.
forthinketh 9780, fordriiye 10723, for- Gower —{oTstormei i 160, forblowe i
fered 10840, forbrosed 16100, for- 160, fordoth i 266, forgnawe i 326,
kutteth 17272, forkerveth 17272, for- forwept ii 15, forwaked ii 15, forshape
374
TROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. Chap. IV. § 6.
topnllcd i 61, todravc ii 330, toswolle
ii .30, tothrowi'tli iii 268, toduf iii 296,
tobickc; iii 334, tobrt'ken ii 74, torol(ej
iii 296, etc.— bedecked i 81, bebled i
183, beflaiu iii 183, bcsbiueth iii 242,
beieiiud iii 126, besuewed iii 51, be-
knowe iii 10.
ii 100, forcast ii 167, fortrodo ii 330,
furtlieiiketli ii 276, Ibrslcjutbeii ii 190,
forsmite iii 308, forib-ive iii 330, for-
juged iii 192, forliiin ii 234, forworth
iii 10, forswcy iii 224. Chaucer— to-
hewcn 2611, toschrcde 2611, tobroken
2693. toskatrid 75.') 1, totore 12563, to-
breketh 1 2835, totere 13889. Goiver—
107. Neoatite Sentexces. Chaucer and Gowcr follow the
ABglosaxon practice with rcpirtl to negatives, which was (like the
Greek) not, as in modem English, to negative the copula only, but
to give a negative character to as many words as were susceptible
of being thus affected. Two negatives are perhaps more common
than one, and verses can often be restored to good metre by re-
stoiing a ne which had been dropped : ne — nought 74, nys no
1124, nas no — nolde 552, never — no — ne — no 71, nas no — ne no
7874, no — ne nil no 8522, neyther — ne noon — ne noon — ^never —
nolde 9964, etc. But = only, takes a negative as in Saxon and
vulgar modem English : I nam but deed 1124, nys but Persones Tales.
108. Yaiuous Pajiticles.
all although ii 160.
alonge oh along of because of ii 22
96, 121, 310.
as with the fundamental meaning of
considering, tvit/i res/>ect to, so far as
concerns, is employed by Chaucer and
Gower in various shades of distinctness
and strength, decreasing to insigni-
ficance. A similar loose use of as is
now reviving :
as in so litel space 87, as now (Ger.
als dann?) 887, 7899, 12872; so,
6623, 7557, 8370, 8282, 244, 7947,
9671, 605.5, 3297, 3385, 6947, 7107,
6979.
as in supplicating phrases is often
absolutely redundant, 2304, 2319, 3172,
377-5, 5773, 6642, 7253, 7883, 8761,
11201, 11371, 13581 ; and also in 7196.
In like manner so is redimdant in one
instance 10772.
as is used as a relative in this one
case; there may be more, but otliers
have not been noted : his himdred as I
spak of now 1860.
as intensive = Latin quam ; as blive
= immediately, not veiy different from
our as quick, ii 266, 313; als swithe
iii 306, als faste i 55, also faste ii 132,
156; also blive iii 49. o/s=as: for
als moche i 51, als fer as i 89, 132, als
well as ii 203, 379, iii 19.
as-that inasmuch as, seeing that,
quippe ; as he that i 245, ii 325, as ye
that ii 322, as she whiche ii 336.
at-after after : mete iii 41, 63. Still
used in the north of England. I do
not find the combination in Saxon, but
as aet-foran occurs, tet-after probably
existed.
hij about; tel I by this men, by
■wommen 17120.
by of time as Germ, bet ; by olde
daies i 67, by olde tide ii 132, by the
brode sunne iii 255, by the morwe 242,
by thritty mile ii 195, by times seven
i 138, by that = because that i 226.
[Compare (modern) betimes, by day-
light, by the morrow.]
erst than before, 1568, 14077, erst
without than 8212 ; er than 12827.
ever among still, continually, i 149,
195, ii 1-5, iii 303, 328; ever in on{e)
iii 28, 29.
Jirst then before 1157.
forth with with, i 194, 209, 216, ii
67, 154.
how that however that, although ;
how that ignoraimce be moder of alle
harm, certis negligence is the norice
Fersones Tale.
in aunter if if haply i 19; = /es<, i
344, ii 147.
into imtil, my dcth i 117, nowii 278,
iii 188.
in with within 9818, 10216, 9268.
long on, ags. gelang, along of, because
of, 12850, 12858. See alonge on.
noon no = not: ornon 11090, 14492,
12544, i 230, 342, iii 322, etc.
nought forthy nevertheless, iii 365.
of representing the ags. gen., forj-ete
of i 157, ncdeth of i 272, he thonketh
God (dat.) of his mir.acle i 210, iii 273,
lefte of ii 207, they drad him (dat.) of
veugeauuce iii 321, pray of iii 350, of
Chap. IY. § 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER.
375
■whom I mene iii 301, 302, touchend[e]
of i 19. In the following the reason of
the of is not qnite so clear : call[e] of =
by the name of? ii 331, of love to spede
ii 33, i 331, love spede i 334, 336, of
that shall spede iii 241, of which to
done ii 175, iii 353. I that lawc obeie
of which that kinges hen put under
ill7.
of by, Fr. par; of that i 1, of knight-
hode ii 157, of drinke iii 4, etc., etc.
of that because, why {pane qtie), i 56,
157, 161, etc.
other or, 9157, 10697, 13730, 13731.
other xvhile — otherwhile &WoTf—&\-
AoTe ii 104.
outher — either either— or 1595, 1596;
OHther — outher — o?-, 13077, 13078.
that with imperative = Fr. que, en-
treaty; that ye not discover 9816, ne
that thy tale mak^" us for to slepe
7890(?) ; that foule him falle ii 318,
that it were do iii 182.
ther, the relatively, where, when :
172, 224, 249. 7042, 8696, 10812,
ther(e) my lady is ii 372, tho this man
iii 324, 336, etc. ; ther as ii 107, there-
upon ii 136. [Compare Icelandic );ar.]
till to, unto 12234, 1480, 7348, iii
98, 209, 370.
to unto, representing ags. and Lat.
dat. ; to nature obey i 291, i 288,
thilke man obeie i 247, serve to love
ii 50, thonke unto i 210, I thouke God
ii 94, renounced to heaven iii 46, to the
houndes-like i 261.
untowntii 1146, 5211.
untoward toward : iii 127.
up upon, 6727, up a couche ii 132,
up amend ement ii 373.
uppon ou; uppon he hadde 619; =
after the manner of; and she upon
chQdehod him tolde i 21 9.
pea — nai/, yes — no. The distinction
between the two forms of the affirma-
tive and negative particles insisted on
by Sir T. More, is uot observed by
Gower : that is to say, it is not his
custom to use yea and nay exclusively
in answer to affirmative questions, and
yes and no in answer to negative ques-
tions: hast thou ben? ya ii 20, hast
thou nought ? ye i 60, i 201, 206, 308,
ii 275, 349, iii 24, 274, 281.
109. Certain Pectdxiab Phrases.
at min {thin, her) above. This singular
phrase seems to signify, greater than I
am (she is) at present, in : as though I
were at min above iii 9, as though she
were at her above ii 212 ; in : and how
they were at her above ii 378, perhaps,
they bore themselves as if superior to
what they really were ; in : thou might
not come at thin above of that thou
woldest not acheve ii 32, the meaning
is, thou canst not make thyself master
of what thou wouldst achieve.
can thank scire gratias, savoir gre:
1810, 3066, i 393, i 17.
do cause make, 2398, 2623, 16427,
ii 29, iii 94, = cause to be. Germ, lassen,
15638, 10075. Let do, 10360, 13588,
ii63, 208, i 191.
gan as an auxiliary to form an im-
perfect tense : she gan falle ii 381, 385,
etc.
gesse think, as in New England ; in
Persones Tale, ii 11, 59, 3()8,''iii 180.
go walk. Germ, gehen ; ride or go
2254, 9964, 7 175, go walkid(?y-walkid)
7360 ; go ne speke iii 3, 5, etc.
hadde lever had rather, faimerais
mieux, ich hiitte lieber, i 295, ii 211.
levest wolde be i 96, ii 46, i 96 ; I
wolde rather ii 94. / had rather seems
to be an imitation of I had lever; when
the phrase came into use is not known
to me.
life being, person, iii 264, 253 ;
lives creatiu-e = li\ing creature, 2397,
8779, ii 14.
many on{e) many a one i 56, ii 313.
moon masculine as in ags. : the mone
of silver has his part ii 84, iii 109 ;
but: ne yet the mone that she carie
ii 112 ; go tak(e) the mone ther it sit
i 86.
much great, moche 496, more 2826,
moste 897 ; more feith iii 326, morS
delit iii 335, moste joy iii 8, care iii
254.
nale alehouse 6931.
past participles used adverbially,
Germ, er kommt geritten ; ride amaied
i 110, goth astraied ii 132, iii 175,
goth astray, same page ; stonden mis-
beleved ii 152. He cam ride i 53, ii
45, 170, where ride looks moi'e like the
infinitive than like the participle ; cam
ridend, pres. part, ii 180, 47 ; and lefte
hem both[e] ligge so ii 150, is another
extraordinary case of the use of an in-
finitive.
schal owes, is bound to, 12590,
11062? More distinctly ija the sense
of owes, if the reading is con-ect, and
there is no ellipsis, in Court of Love,
37G
PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. Chap. IV. § 5.
131 (Morris 45) : for by the feith I
shall to God.
sight in a peculiar American (?) use :
a Wituder sight of (lowers i 121.
slgde po by : let slyde 7958, iii 61.
sworn sworn the contrary : althoujjh
we haddc it sworn 1089-1090, G2'22,
8279-81, 12609 (:-) though al the world
had the contrary swore 10639, 1668.
the def. art. with abstract noun :
thexperiens 5706, 10112 (?), cxperi-
eus, without the article, 5583. A fre-
quent Gallicism in Gower : the man
I'homme ii 186, the men les homines
i 9, the mankinde Je genre htimain
iii 1, thexpericns, the speche, the
blisse, the trouthe, the word^ the derth,
110. Pecxtllve Okdek of Words,
repenting folk of here folies, Tale of
Melibeus; digne fi-uyt of patiences,
but : ■workes worthy of confessioun,
both in Persones Tale, lemed men in
lore 14389, wrap in me 14151, that I
of woot 5441, that I of have sayd 7827,
upon he hadde 619, with kempe[d]
heres on his browcs stowte 2136, on to
see 3247, ground(e) litarge on 12703,
al that a man bilongeth unto 9333, to
quvte with the knightes tale 3121, hele
with your even 10246, 10955, 13079,
and many cases in Gower. Of his visage
and seeth the make = and seeth the
make of his visage i 367, so iii 52, ii
111. Ellipsis («) of the relative pronoun, (h) of the personal
pronoun -when subject, (<?) of he, and other verbs, after shall, {d)
of have, {e) of it, (/) of to before the infinitive, (ff) of tcith, but
note that the instmment, etc., are expressed in ags. vrith the abl.
either with or without the preposition mid = with, and that Gower
may have used the okl construction, (h) of other prepositions.
Ex. (a) there was non auditor [that] [be] i 15, 222, ii 39, iii 88, 190, 351 ;
I wot never whider I shall [go] ii 21,
that they with him to Tharse sholde
[go] iii 327, which wept« as she to
water sholde [tiirn] iii 260, and what
she sholde [become, come to] she was
alrad iii 321, [compare German, du
snll.st dahin ; tcohin muss ich .?] {d)
he wold hir [have] bent anoon 3347.
(e) ner [were it not for] gingling of
the bellis 162S0, nere myn extorcions,
I might not IjTen 7021. (/) now
is tjTne [to] wake al night 3672, he was
worthy [to] have his lif 6627. {g)
thing which he said [with] his owne
mouth ii 310, iii 155, fightend, [with]
his owiici hondes slain i 90, made cloth
[with] her owne hand ii 83, 190, 204,
\ 346, 351, iii 305, where he [with] his
the famine, the gold ii 1 35, the heven,
the belle, the God iii 177, 187, etc.
these curiously used somewhat like
the Latin iste, but in a fainter sense :
G142-3, 12587, 10961, 10962, 12995;
art. 104, used somewhat like Latin
Uh; the.se olde wise i 300, 62, 63 ; iii
161, iii 246.
time, these expressions are somewhat
remarkable ; within a monthc day ii
27, within two monthcs day ii 100,
sometime a (ags. on) yere iii 349.
tvear on, upon, wear 6141, 660.
who was who, 4299.
world, worldly lot, worldly happiness,
6055, i 116, 126, 323, ii 249, 304, 313,
iii 152, 170.
298, etc., as thou might of to-fore rede
= rede of tofore iii 342, of gold that
I the mantel tok(e) =1 toke the mantel
of gold ii 368, but al this wo is cause
of man = man is cause of al this wo
i 34, to reule with thy conscience = to
rcule thy conscience with i 50, to rocke
with her child a slepe=to rock her
child asleep with i 196, o dampned
man to belle = 0 man ! damned to hell
i 189, on dales now = now--a-days ii 59,
in peril's white than forsake =than, in
white pearls, forsake ii 335, the kinges
doughter Lamedon^the daughter of
the king Lamedon ii 375.
cowde on him -wynne 596, and in a
purs of silk [that] heng on his schert
9757, a pyn [that] stant in his ere
10630, he sent after a clerk [that] was
in the toun 13555; unto the park
[that] was faste by ii 45, etc., so : men
beseche [what] his will is ii 25. (b)
as thoughtc . . . and [we] graunted 786,
this thing was graunted, and [we] oure
others swore . . . and prayden 813, ye,
false harlot, bast [thou] ? 4266, ve,
schal [he]? 10138; it thought her
fairc- and [she] saide here ii 45, slain I
have this maide Thais* and [she] is
begrave iii 325, he was rebuked of hem
and [they] saiden ii 150, etc. (r)
that is, or shal [be] whil that the world
wol dure 1362 ; it is said and ever shal
Chap. IV. § 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. 377
ovraii body lay ii 198, iii 208. (/() owne had ii 236, for in the plit(c) [in]
I not what thing it may ainounte [to 'r] which I the finde iii 354, perhaps mere
ii 191, 194, etc., he no childe [of?] his carelessness.
In an appendix Prof. Cliilcl refers to the following among other
lines as illustrating his observations, the numbers under 112 refer
to the articles, the others to the Knes:— 129, 85 19 69. 230, 60 69
56a. 456, 89. 610, 53« 60. 673-4, 19 12. 822, 55 17. 956, 53^
4 60. 1221-3, 16 19 4 60 50. 1299, 91a 9lc 95. 1612, 89 91c
60. 1616, 58b 36h. 1805, 85 19. 2306, 19. 2521, 53b. 2807, 60
4 5Sa. 2960, 14 4 61. 3699-3700, 30 29 32 19 58d. 4049-50,
385 52c. 4052, 35a. 4300, 2. 4649, 59. 5590, 91fl! 86 85. 5859,
56 3 61, 5947, 91c 90 3 91e. 7017, 48 60. 7026, 34 58 3.
7593-4, 7 30 16 11 565 60 14. 9475, 30 32 20 19. 11843,
35a 33. 12221, 53a 35c 15 29. 12621 585 22. 12991, 85 90
71. 14861, 10 86 565. 15037, 69 19 725. 16421-2. 22 40 73
22 60. ^N'early every line will be found to furnish examples.
The wonderful industry, the acuteness and accuracy, of
Prof. Child could not have had justice done to them, without
inserting the above full account of his memoirs. It is to be
hoped that he will eventually himself put these papers, en-
riched with the results of an examination of those MS. which
the Chaucer Society is now publishing, into a more accessible
form, as they ought to be studied by all students of Chaucer
and of the English language of the xiv th century.
It now remains to add the references to the words in arts. 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 29, 30, 31, 64, 69,
72, 73, 89, 90, 91. These are arranged below alphabetically, ac-
cording to the modern orthography of the word cited, if it is stiU in
use in the xix th century. This is placed first, with a capital if
foimd in both the Chaucer and Goioer Memoirs, in small letters if
in Chaucer only, in small capitals if in Gower only. The word is
preceded by *" if it occurs ia the list of exceptions, by ** if it is also
only found in an oblique case in the Chaucer, and then few or no re-
ferences are given ; by f if it is an adjective or participle, by ]: if an
indeclinable, by § if of uncertain origin. If the word is not now in
use the roman word is omitted, and the article begins with the
number usually foUo-\ving the first word. This number refers to
the art. in both the Chaucer and Gower Memoirs in which (or in
the notes to which) the word is to be found, and on referring to
that number in the above account, the catcgoiy under which Prof.
Child places the word is readily seen. Next comes the spelling as
found in "Wright's Chaucer, or, if the word is not there found, in
Pauli's GoAver, printed hi Italics, with this exception, that when a
final e is there written but for any reason not pronounced, it is
replaced by an apostrophe. This deviation fi-om Prof. Child's system
of notation, which has been followed in the preceding account
of his system, has been adopted here, because by this means all
written e's will have to be pronounced, and the index -wdU be made
conformable to the illustration in Chap. VII. After the spelUng
378 PROF. CHILD ON CHAL'CER AND GOWER. Chap. IV. § 6.
of the !S[SS., the ■word in roman letters give the Saxon orifrfnal, and
an acute accent (') after any shews that it is a fonu in Lajamon,
but a ( ° ) that it occurs in ( )rrmin. Then follow the references to
the lines in "Wiight's Cliaucer, or to the volume and page of I'auli's
Gower, a tinal accent (') showing tliat the Avord cited is tinal in the
line quoted. Several of the references in tlie memoirs are omitted,
especially to the imperfect Gower text, and for obli(iue cases. Many
of the Chaucer references have been verified, and all been compared
with the oiiginal memoirs. Additions in brackets are generally
by the present writer, and the other observations are either in
the precise Avords used by Pnjf. Child, or their equivalents. Many
words in other articles, besides tliose enumerated above, have been
inserted, for the pui-posc of assisting the reader to turn to the
proper article, and for these the above inibimation is not given, and
no references are added.
Thus the articles *' abbess, About, against, al gates, ''^ are to be
read as follows : —
"abbess," modem fonn, found in the Gouser memoir only (in-
dicated by the small capitals), "19" mentioned in art. 19, " ahbesse^^
form inPauH's Gower at "ui 337," vol. iii, p. 337, "French"
derived from the French.
X Indeclinable ; " About," modem spelling, the word being found
in both memoirs (indicated by the capital), "72" in the 72nd art.,
^' ahoicten," the spelling in AVnght's Chaucer, " abutan" Anglo-
saxon fonn, " 3645" line in Wright's Chaucer in which the spelling
abowten occurs; ^^ ahoide" another spelling with e pronounced oc-
curring in TS'right's Chaucer, " 892' " line 892 last Avord indicated
by the accent ('), "2191 3554 4146," and also in these lines
but not as the last word, " ahoicf " the same spelling as before
but AA^th the e not pronounced "2187" occmiing in line 2187,
"art. 73" the word is also referredto in art. 73, under the form
''aboutes," in wliich it occurs in Pauli's Gower, "iii 162'" vol. iii,
page 162 last word ( ' ) in a line.
J Indeclinable, "against," modem fonn, the word occurs in the
Chaucer memoir only (imlicated by the absence of capital), "73"
at art 73, " agerjn^'' the fonn in Wright's Chaucer; " ongean, agean
togeancs" Anglosaxon forms, " ajajin' ajeines' ajenest' " forms in
Lajamon (indicated by the acute accent), " onnsa^n" onnjoeness" "
foi-ms in Orrmin (indicated by the °), &c.
\ Indeclinable. " 72, 73" referred to in art. 72 and art. 73, not
existing in the xixth centmy, indicated by haA'ing no word in
Homan letters preceding these figures; ^^ Algates,^'' occiiiing in
both memoirs, indicated by the initial capital, the spelling in
Wright's Chaucer, " 7096, 7393, 13024" at these lines, '' algaf ''
assumes the form algat Avith e elided, "573, 7619" in these lines,
"algat (?)" the form algat Avhich is doubtful, "14422" in this
line, and ^^ algate^^ occurs, "125" in Pauli's GoAver vol i, p. 25,
"[always]" this is the meaning of the AVord, Avhich is always added
when the word is obsolete.
Chap. IV. § 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AISD GOWER.
379
FOEMS OF WOEDS IX CnAUCEE AND GoWEE EeFEEEED TO IN
Peofessoe Child's Memoies.
See the Explanation of the Arrangement, pp. 377-8.
ABBESS 19 ai5ps«e iii 337 French
JAboiit 72 ahou-ten abutan 3645, ahoute
892' 2191 3.3.54 4146 ahouC 2187,
art. 73 aboutes lii 162'
iJAbove 72 aboven on-, a-,bufan 53 2771
7297, above 1802' 1905' 5789' abov'
2029 3213
t29 a-cale a-cele iii 296' [a cold]
[Accent] art. 97«
♦adder 5 nedder adder naecbe iii 118
ii 72 260
[Adjectives] art. 29 to 44.
ADVENTUKE 19 adventure ii 236, art.
108 in aunter «/ [if haply] French
[Adverbs] art. 69 to 73.
^against 73 ageyn ongean agean to-
geanes a^x-ui' ajeines' ajenest' onn-
38en° ouujtcness" 66 4812, agens
ageins loll 8046 8787 IQ^Il, agaynes
10199, agenst ageinst 8196 13597
*age 91 ag' 13445
ijalas 91 allaas new French las 2391
alder 17 aldir alor air 2923
Ale 9 ale ealu ealo 343 669 13736 3130'
13730' i 294'
J73 Algatea 7096 7393 13024 i 102,
algat' blZ 7619, algat{j!) 14422, art.
72 algate i 25 [always]
|alike 69 ylike yliche gelice 7797 7812
8630
*t.^l 30 alle call all al' alP alle° 1247
1686 2704 4586 9623 13589 14015
14472 &c al 7057 12613 12599 14091
14246 14376, art. 91 alV 210, 348 779
937 946 979 4541 &c alther aller
[of all] art. 44
+ALL 108 [although]
Alms 4 almesse felmajsse allmess" 4588'
Jaloft 69 72 alofte ii 103' i 234'
tAlone _29 alloone 9200 9435 14256'
14707' is from the ags. definite form
ana = solus, ii 293
Jalong 72 alonge ii 22', art. 108
am 103 it am I
JAmidst 73 amyddcs -middan -middes
amidde'amidden'2011 10723 16215
in the middes (of) 16534, art. 72
amidde ii 58' 119'
JAmong 73 amonges gemang imong'
amaug' amang" 9902 14639, among
6534, art. 72 amenge ii 22' 310'
t64 -and old form of the present par-
participle aivaytand 7634, lepand
7739, toxchand 7872
ankle 9 ancle ancle 1662
[Anomalous Verbs] art. 65
Answer 12 answar audswaru answare'
anndsware" 6492, art. 89 answer'
9744, art. 11 ansivere i 96' 97 146'
Ape 3 ape apa 3933 7046' 13241' 15396'
appear 87 appeere
19 ArcHe 1579 1582 &c. Arcif 1147
1357 2317
AniADXE 98 Adriane
*16 ariste arist i 320' where the e final
is omitted in Pauli [arising]
arm 14 arme earm 158 probably an
eiTor, 2918 should be amies
An-ow 4 arwe arewe arewe' arwe' 1 1 424
ashes 23 assan asschen assen aissches
ask 98 axe
as 188 [considering]
**asp 16 asp a-sp 2923 ?
Ass 3 asse assa asse° 16798'
;J:asunder 72 asondre on-, a-, sundran
5577, asonder 7256' asondur 493'
AT ABOYE 109
, at— after 108 [after]
Jatween 72 atwynne ontweonan 3589'
13098'
aught 105 ought
AUGUST 96 aiigst
aunt 19 aunte 5401 French
AVARICE 19 avarice ii 127 French
*ave 91 av' 14919 [extremely doubtfid]
tawaiting 64 aivaytand 7634
awe 7 atve ege eje' ajhe' 656' 16045'
axe 17 «^ ."ex eax sex' axe" 2546
*AXLE 17 axel eaxl i 320 (?)
§BABE 18 babe old Swedish babe, Ger-
man bube ? i 344
t§Bad 31 badde 9467 3157' 9482'
15908' ii 47
Bale 7 bale bealu balu' bale' 13409'
balk 3 balke balca bolca 3918'
*BAND 16 bonde bend also m. i 102'
bane 3 bane bana bona bone' bane' 1099
1683' 16446'
*BANK 16 banke banc i 164
*banner 89 haner French baniere 980
BAPTISM 19 baptisme i 276 French
*tBare 30 90 bare bner bare' bar' 8755
8771' 11884' 12660' ii 286
**Barn 14 berne bern bifirne' berme"
13812' i 162'
Be V. Ill [elided]
Be—, 106
• Exceptional. •* Exceptional oblique. + Adjective, t Indeclinable. 1 Uncertain Origin,
380
PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GO^VER. Chap. IV. $ 6.
•Bean 16 bene bean 9296 3770' 4.'314'
9i;59' ii 275'
Bi'ar 3 here bora 2141, 1042' ii 339, art.
89 berl 2060' [rh. Aor^hi-r, pro-
bably the e was pronouuced in liere]
art. 88
•bear 89 ber' (verb) 1424 9918 12264
all inf ; 2762 imperative, 8760 pres.,
to here art. 88
•nEAUi) 14 berde beard iii 319
Beast 19 best 7424 9413 10578 0016'
beste i 280 French
•beat 91 bef 383 [wronp: reference ?]
•*Bed 14 bed bedd bed' bed' bcdde i 24
10r[allex. in C/(rt?<('«r oblique]
*nEDE 14 hede bed i 208' [pravcr]
•beech 6 beech boce beocc 12856' 2925 ?
bees 23 beon been bees
+Before 72 90 biforn beforan 1108 1150'
1164' 1388 btjfore 379' 3238', beforne
14405 bifor' 3602 14995 i 59 117
•bejrin 91 begynn' 17347
JBchiud 72 behynde behindan 3239
7723' byhynde 1052
Belief 3 bileeve gelcafa ihefe' b-cfe^ 3456
11445' 11991' 12355' belcvex 356
Bell 4 belle belle belle^ 171' 14077'
14407' 16266' ii 13'
Bench 17 bench bene benche' bennche'
5829 ii 274, see baxk
Jbeneath 72 byncthe beni))an 4039
benedicite 96, see p. 260
•bequeathe 91 byqmth' 2770
berry 4 berye berige bcrie 207'
•beseech 91 bisek' 7251, art. 98
Jbeside 72 beside be sidan 10688'
^Besides 73 byskks be sidan 13344,
besides ii 359
better 38 bettre betere bettre" 526 650,
bet adv. form in ags. 4534 4731
10914
^between 72 bytwene betwynan 2861'
3107' beticen i 6, 9, 20 betiven i 12
Jbefrwixt 72 betu-ix betweox 1707
3096, befwixe 1212 2172 9348 14247
Jbeyond 72 byyoiid' ? geondan geonda
gcond 15130
BIBLE 90
**bier 16 87 beere bar bfere" 15091
beer' 6179 [the cases in 16 are
oblique], art. 87
bill 19 bille 13585 13591' French
•binn 16 by»»e binn 595'
birch 4 4(Vc/<[e] birche hire 2923?
birch' asp.
bird 98 brtd
♦Birth 10 burthe heotS 4612, berthe
birthe ii 76 155
••14 bissemare bismer bisemare bise-
mu're [abuse, filthine.ss] 3963'
•blade 14 bladde bhud 620'
liLAZE 4 blase bliese ii 244'
t30 bleche blac ii 21 som on for she
is pale and bleche
tiiLixi) 30 blinde blind i 8
bliss 17 91 blis blys 1680' rh. this, bliss'
4453 rh. is 4842 &c blissc 1451 &c
oblique only
t Blithe 29 blithe blijie bli-Se'^ 1880'
14210' blith' 848 blith 10652
blossom 3 blosme blostma blosma
blosstme' 3324 (blosni' upon)
•tblue 30 bletve bleoh 566
5:69 Bli/ve bQife' blive' bilife" 2699'
5973'' 7102', i 314' ii. 238' [quickly]
•Boar 14 bore bar 2072 iii 268'
•boat 14 bote bat i 2
t BODILY 30 bodeliche iii 14
noNDMAX 3 bondeman bonda iii 320
BoxEFACE 91 Bonefac' i 258 261, but
rh. grace i 258
••book 16 books hoc boc'° 6373 ob-
lique, book 0251
•Boon 10 boone ben bene" 2271' 2671'
9492' 12162' kc [in all the cases
cited rh. soone'] i 185' iii 223
•Boot 16 boote hot bote'^ 426' 6054'
[both rh. roote] i 228' 235'
} BOOTH 18 bothe Ger. bude, Dut.
boede, iii 281'
borde 19 ofr bourde, i 304' French
••14 Bonce hm^ borh' [loan] 10910'
JBoth 72 bothe batwa ba«e' bo'Se'
ba>e° 5895 6823 ii 229, art. 39 and
103
••Bottom 14 botme botni 13249
BorxDE 19 bounde boiide mid. Lat.
bunda, old fr. bonde, iii 102' French
Bow 3 botve boga 17044 108' 9888'
17061', art. 91 bote' 2897 [the
elision is not certain]
BOWEL 19 bowele ofr. boele iii 205'
French
box 17 box box 5165
•bramble 14 brembi-e brember 15157
••brand 14 bronde brond brond' 15313'
••bread 14 brede bread bred' 7422
BKEECH 7 breche brice i 351'
Breede 11 bncdo 2918 1972' 13156'
15646' iii 66' [breadth]
•Bride 16 bryde brvd brude' brid°
9764, art. 17 brid' i 102 art. 91
firK//rf9694 brid' i 102
•Bridge 16 briyge brj'cg brugge' 3920'
ii 201
Jbrightly 69 bright e beorhte 3352
• Exceptional. •• Exceptional oblique. + Adjective, t Indeclinable. ? Uncertain Origin.
Chap. IV. § 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER.
381
HRIM 7 brimme brymme ii 293
♦bring 91 bring' 10049
§Brink 18 briiike Icelandic bringr =
colliciUus) 11472 9275' 11170'
bristle 98 berstle
fBROAi) 30 brode brad ii 107
Brother 21 brother, br ether en ags.
brothru brothere' brethren' bro-
theres' brethre", art. 23
♦♦brotherhood 14 bretherhede 513
♦brow 14 broice brcaw i 9o'
§BULL 18 bidle bolle Icel. boli baiili, Ger.
bulle, ags. bulluca iii 118 ii 72' (?)
burned 98 brent brenne
burst 98 brast breste
♦busjTiess 91 besyiies 13140
By 108 [about, of time]
J72 bijweste bewestan 390' [westwards]
^Cake 18 cake^ Danish kage, Swedish
kaka 4309' 13737'
Can, and its parts, art. 65, art. 109,
can thank [scire gratias]
Candle 96 candel
cap 4 cappe cappe 588' 687' 3145'
Care 11 care cearu care'^ 1491' 4934'
14611' 15170' i 339
♦Cart 14 carte crtet carte' karrte°
7123, cart 16522 7121 7136 16533,
art. 98
♦carter 8 carter 7122 7124 7141
cases 27 caas
cause 19 catisc 4142 5705 7056 French
centre 19 centre 10336 French
certainly 96 certeynhi
§ 18 Cliaffare 14696' 14751'
chamber 19 chambre 1073, art. 89,
chambr' 9696 French
chanticleer89c/ifl«Htef^ere French chan-
tecler 16336, mostly misspelt as above
in the Nonnes Prcsts Tale ; that it
ought to have no final e appears from
the French derivation, and from the
rhjTnes ber (tuH) and power (Xor-
man French poueir) 16822 16830,
also misspelt bere powere.
**chapmanhood 14 chapmanhede
30 chare 16096' should be char -
chariot, not to be confounded with
art. 90 chare 16099 = chair
tChaste 19 chaste 2306 French
Cheek 4 cheeke cece ceace 6374' 15524'
cheek' 15529 bad verse
Cheer 19 chere i 55 French, art. 87
Cheese 7 cJieese cyse cese 7329, art.
91, chees' 3628 suspicious verse
♦Chest 16 kistc cist iii 316', art. 17,
chest cest cist 6084 14149 rh. rest,
6982 rh. lest
♦16 cheste ceast ? i 294 [strife, con-
tumely]
♦Child "14 cMlde cild child' childe'
child" 5339 14980 15217' 8459,
child 15221 15228 -15241 8488
15768 i 190 ii 16, children childre
childer ags. cildru cilde cild childere'
children' childi-es' chilldre", art. 23
♦♦childhood 14 childehede 14912'
CHILL 7 chele celc cyle ii 369'
CHix 9 chinne cinne i 275'
Church 4 chirche cvricc chirche' kirrke°
7391 7775 13744 13793 &c, art. 91
chirch' 3984, art. 21
cinnamon 19 cynamome 3699 French
♦claim 91 clai/ni 9176
♦clapper 8 clapper ii 13
clasped 98 clapsud
fClean 29 dene cliEne clajne' clene°
506 12087 14288, art. 91 den'
12228
JCleanly 69 dene claene clainlic 12553
♦cleanness 91 clenness' 508
clearly 87 cleere
cleft 3 clifte cl)-fa 7727'
♦clerk 14 derke cleric clerc iii 288
§cloak 18 doke. Middle Latin cloca,
Flemish klocke, 2001'
4 cloote elate 12505 [burdock]
§Cloud 18 clowde 16268'
♦Coal 14 colezoS. col' 13088'? 13124'
come 7 cjTue cume' come'" (noun)
12271 ? [coming, advent]
♦come 91 com (verb) 689 14184
commandment 19 comaundement 2871
2981 12991 French
fcoMMOx 30 connate iii 152 159 comun
i 216 284 French
[Comparison of Adjectives] art. 38
♦Constance 91 Constatmcc' 4698 4858
4866 4986 Constaiince 4684 4851
5320 5527, art. 19 Constance i 185
186
[Contractions] art. 93 to 97
♦Cope 14 cope cop iii 102', art. 4
cappa ii 101 ? § art. 18 15435'
**coru 14 come corn corn'" 14404'
cot cote 4 cote cota cote 2459'
couch 19 coitche 7351 French
♦coutler colter 14 cultre culter 3761
3783 3810
Creed 3 crede creda 12975'
♦cress 6 kers cerse 3754', art. 4 kerse
i 299 344', art. 98
^CRIPPLE 18 creple Icel. krj-ppill, Dut.
krepel, Ger. kriippel, iii 147
crisp 98 crisjje
crock 3 crouhe crocca 4156'
•Exceptional. ** Exceptional oblique, t Adjective, t Indeclinable. ? Uncertain Origin.
rilOF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. Chap. IV. § 6.
**crop 14 croppe cropp 1534
Crow 4 croue crawi' 17175 170C2'
17294' 261)4'. art. 91 crow 17172
ruvMH 4 cnaiiine cninic iii 35
Cup 3 cuppe cuppa cuppe' 134 10930'
curl 98 crtiile
curse 17 cu):s curs 663 658 4347
$ Jaf,'!i:er 1 8 dagycrc (a thing to dag or
picrio with ags. ending -nrc ':) 14070
n)ad line] 113', dagger 14245
1 5 Dainty 18 31 deynte, ("Welsh dant
= tooth ; dantaidd = toothsome,
Wedgewood) 4559 5790 9917 16122,
dn/ntdh 16321 ii 255
**Dale 14 dale dcel dul' dale" 16248'
dame madam 19 dame madame 15382
16444 16G86 madam 11635 11830
16456, art. 91 dani 4571 4604 5162
madmn 7786 7792 French
Dare, and its parts, art. 65
«*dark 14 derke dearc adj 4336'
[Dative Case] art. 102
DAUGHTEK 21 dotighter, pi. ags. dohtru
dohtere' dohtren' dohtres' doughteren
doughtres, art. 23
*daw 91 daw' 10069
*DAY 14 daive dteg i 113', art. 98
*i)EAL 14 dile da'l iii 110
fDear 29 dcre deorc deore' dure' deore"
dere^ 13593' 14921', art. 87, art. 89
deer' 7334 15538? [see peer]
*DEATH 14 dethe deatS i 202
♦declare 90 declare 7061' 14939'
declar' 14893 extremely douhtfiil
•Deed 16 dede dted dcde' da'd' 4853'
5311 etc., etc., i 272
*deem 91 dem' 3194
Deep 4 deepe d^-pe deope 4875'
tDccply 69 deepe deope 129' i 98
deer 25 deer deor pi,
iiEFAVLT 19 defanUe ii 206 French
[Dctinite Adjectives] art. 32 to 36
(Icgrecs 26 degre
88 dere derian [injure]
t29 Berne derne derne' daerne" 3200
3278 i 107' [secret]
DESERT 19 deserte ii 391 French
IJEVIL 96
tiiEvouT 30 deroute i 64 French
Diana 19 Dyane 2074 2348 etc. Dyan'
2293 French
♦did 91 ded' 14926
:Jdimly 69 dimme dimme ii 293'
tcivEus 30 diverse ii 85 77 125 iii 12
295, divers i 356' iii 3' 384' French
do 109 [cause]
^^dog 18 dot/ge, Icelandic doggr, Dutch
dogghe 6951 9888
•♦Doom 14 dom' dom dom" 11240,
dome iii 211'
Door 11 90 dorcAxmi dvr dure'^ 1989
3435 3499 13065 13145 14624 etc.
dor' 552 2424 3471 3482 3634 [all
these are doubtful, they might be
dore introducing trisyllabic measiu-es]
ti)oiHi,E 19 double i 181 iii 187 French
doulit 19 doute 9959 French
dove 4 dowfe dufe 10013 13812
•*do\ni 16 doinie dun dun" 15207'
§drake 18 drake 3576'
•Dread 16 drede dried dred' drede'
16648 9031' etc. i 139
♦Drink 14 dry nice drinc drinca driuc'
drinke' drinnc" drinnke' 1617 3411
4918 7481 etc., art. 7 love drunke
iii 12 16
t§ 31 Dronkelewe 7625' 9407' [drun-
ken] so costlewe [costly], Pcrsonea
Tale, iJe Superbia, 3rd par. near the
end. iii 5'
Drop 3 (A •<)/;« dropa drope' 12450 (131
bad line) ii 266, 286'
tDrv 29 drye diTffc dry (Wjje" 16334
422' 15703' i'234
♦drought 16 dronghthe dnigatJ 10432
♦*dung 14 donge dung 16504, doug
532'
Bivale 3 dwala 4159' [nightshade]
[E Final Silent] art. 84 to 92
♦feach 30 eche aslc aelc' aeche' illc"
1184 [doubtful, there may be only
a defective first measure, p. 333.]
Eagle 19 egle 2180 10437 French
Ear 2 ere eare sere' 6218 6603' 8603',
art. 87
Earth 4 erthe eorthe eorthe'" erthe'"
1248 8079 8557 10707 erth i 25
ii 197 [doubtful]
ease 19 eese 971 French
♦edge 16 egqe ecg ii 251
t72 efte eft i 171 [after, asrain]
JEke 72 eek ek eac ec' eke' 6031 5(512
5688 8818 eeke eke 4480 5136 6231
7075 7765 11692 15786 (all rh. with
seeke) ; 6373 7445 15522 (all rh. with
cheike), 16873 (rh. with breke)
Eld 11 elde vldo vld ;elde' a-ld' elde°
6789 6797 "3883' iii 365
t29 elenge elleude = peregrinus, and
therefore miser, as in other lan-
guages, see DiefF. Goth. "W. 1, 37,
d being changed into g, as in the
modern English form of the pre-
sent participle? 14633 6781' [rh.
challenge and hence pronounced
(elen-d^he), and consequently not
• Exceptional. •• Exceptional oblique, t Adjective, t Indeclinable. \ Uncertain Origin.
Chap. IV. § 5. PKOF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER.
383
analogous to the change of the par-
ticiple from -i»(ie to -ynge, as sug-
gested bv Prof. Child]
[Elision of Final Vowels] art. 74 to 83
[Ellipsis] art. HI
|Else 73 elles elles BcUes' elles° 1230
9410 11209 i I ii 203
End 7 ende eude ende" 1867 4901 7037
\o' etc. ii 61 186, art. 91 emV 197
64 -etidc, usual termination of the pre-
sent participle, even of French verbs,
in Gowcr, accordemle i 213', comende
i 88 133' 220', touchende i 243,
wepende i 74, criende i 137, kne-
letide i 155, praiende i 345, sueiide
i 278 213', spekcnde ii 6', thenkende
ii 369, thonkende ii 297, ridende i
191 ii 46, amblende ii 45, winkende
ii 189, boilende ii 201, sivounende i
188, sailende i 200, bledende iii 60,
unsittende iii 143, continuende ii 18'
etc., all with the accent on -end.
The accent is occasionally thrown
back, cometid i 1, touehend' i 52, be-
longendi 12, ivailend i 144, walkend
i 185, wepend i 236, knektuV ii 96,
slombretid ii 103 etc.
:{:tenough 30 72 ynowe genoh inoh'°
inowe' 12788', art. 91 ynoio 4675
ENVY 19 envie i 223 Fi-ench
*-er 8 -er -ere -ere, [sec carter hopper e
lover' mellere outrydere slcper wonger ;
generally -er']
erst than 108 [before]
Eve 15 eve ajfen, aefen' heve' efenn°
832 4993' i 70' ii 332' ; at 5914'
•feven 30 evene efen efiie' efenn^ 83
8316
Jevenly 69 evene efne 1062
iever never 72 evere nevere sefre sefer
ajfi-e' aifer'jefre" 50 676 1231 1347
1408, ever never 70 U35 1354 2397
2414, generally conti'acted to a
monosyllable, art. 108 ever among
[still]
Jevilly 69 evele yfele 1129, ylV 3715
■fexcellent 19 excellente 10459 French
*experience 19 91 experience 7099', ex-
periens 5583 10112 (6050 rh. defens
which in Old French is spelt both
with and without a final e) French
Eye 2 yhe ye eage e^he" 10' 3018'
4700' 8109' etc. eyen yen, ags. eagan,
art. 23
*face 19 91 face Norman French face,
9710 rh. trespace 1580 16252, /arts
rh. /j«rt«=has 13117'?
fain 98 /awe
*tFair 30 90 faire ffpger ficir' foeire'
fajjcr" 2388 2665 4021 12043 [all
these are fem.] 234 2596 [these two
are plural], 884 1687 [these two are
definite], 12060 [probably an adv.],
ii 253 [a faire knight, probably in-
flectional], fair 165 575 3233 7835'
9147' 9431' 14432'
+Fairly 69 faire fiegere 94 12060'
bl f alias Fr. fallace, iii 158 rh. tvas,
fallas inne ii 85 [deceit, cunning]
tFALSE 30 false fals ii 329
*«Falsehood 14 falsehede 13101 i 216
fan 17 fann fann 3315 16974 (?)
JFAR 72 ferre feor ii 19
Fare 11 fare faru fare' fore' 1811'
4989' ii 173' 271'
JFast 69 faste fasste 4192 6552 11169
13033 13351 i 55
Father 2\ fader, art. 98
*t30 fawe, feah ( =faegen as in feahlic)
5802' [tain]
*Fear 14 89 fer' fser 11172 [oblique],
feere 2346 2638 2932 7286 [oblique,
aW for f cere] i 57' 90', art. 87
Feast 19 feste 908 6660 8067 8072
8145 8886 i 182, fest 6658 French
*!■££ 14 fee feoh iii 293 [cattle] mo-
nosyllable eonti-acted
*feel 91 fel' 9332 pres., 9338 pres.
feere see fere
39 fele tela 8793 [many]
*feU 91 felV 2112 subj.
§Fellow 18 Icelandic felagi felmve
2550 16512 397' 655' 1527' 4248'
4366' 6967' \WA%' filaw 650 1194
2626 2657 4257 7605 7624 7668
16489 16514 16516 16527 16531,
feUid' 652, fklaw 892
*fellowship 8 91 felaivschip' 476 430
3 Fere feere fera gefera ivere' 4748'
4815' 6506' 8989' [in all these
cases the word means companionship
rather than companion ; it is the
German gefiihrte^ properly der niit-
fahrende, compare English wayfarer]
[Feminine of Adjectives] art. 37
**fern 14 feme fearn 10569'
FETCH 98 fette
few 39/M'e feawe feawa 641 7432'
*fiddle 5 fthul fithele 298
*Fill 16 file fyll 1530' 7282' i 254
FILTH 16 filthe fvVS i 174
«find 91 fynd' 15408
Finisterre 88 Fynestere
*Fire 14 fyr fys: far' fir^ 2921 2935
2948 [fyre fuyre seem to be oblique
forms only]
■ Exceptional. *• Exceptional oblique. + Adjective. X Indeclinable. } Uncertain Origin.
384
PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND COWER. CuAP. IV. § 6.
•*fi.sh lifi.sshe? fisc fisc' iisce' 180
[obli(|iio, with omitted «: is likened
to a lissh' that's watiiles]
Fist 17 JM ft St f'yst G'.iH 1273 rh.
bresf, (i216 rh. list, 14217 rh. i>est,
17329 rh. lest, art. IGJiste i 175 obi.
fit n /(( fitt 4182 5624 rh. wit
fleas 23 ik-.m J/ccn
FLEET 3 Jkle tlota i 314, art. li Jlete
ticot i 197
*i-LESii 14 Jlesshe fla'sc ii 342
Flight M flight flyht fluht' flilit' flihhf
990 rh. k)wjht,'n 327 rh. vi(/ht, art.
IG flighie ii 378' printed flight
Floor 17 foor flor flor" 3471, /or(e) ii
326 x\\'. sxvor{e) iii 337, art. 91 flor'
iii 337, probably belongs to art. 17
and shoidd have no final e.
fly 4/ye fleoge flyge 4350 14582' 10178'
FOAL 3 foh fola iii 314
*Foe 14 /o tfidi fa ii 116, pi. foon
foos ags. fa, Bosw., art. 23
*Fold U foMe falud fald 514' i 16'
*Folk 14 fol/:e folc ii 165, art. 25
♦fond 91 fond' 9284
Food 3 91 foode foda fode° 7463', rh.
good ii 362' iii 26' 30' fade five or
six times in Gower
♦Foot 14 foofe fot fot" 11489 iii 149',
pl./('c< ags. fet, art. 26
Jfou 72 fore for ii 59 to rhyme ■with
bore, ii 239 to rhyme with forlore,
iii 308 rh. more
forbear 8Sforbere
♦forbid 91 forbed' 9635
Force 19 force 3910, art. 91 fore'
3910 [for leefnl is with force fore'
to schowve], art. 91 fors 7771 9171
9709 10214 10304 13548 13718'
17000 (rh. cors) French, ii 292 rh.
hors
For-, 106
j-voKE 72 -forn -fore, aforn onforan
iii 32', afore i 364, tofore toforan i
204 tofor' i 59, befor i 138, art. 90
-for' i 59 117 138 etc. -fore i 32 204
FOKTH WITH 108 [with]
Fortune \% fortune 15487 15727 15943
16209 i 22 (4 cases) French
+foullY 69>«/e fule? fuUic 16964
♦tfoul 30 fouU fill ful' fule" 6645
6664'
♦founder s. 8 founder ii 161
tfoiir m foxire 2111 3883 13388
fFUEE 29 fre frco fri i 107'
\fremde 29 fremede 10743
♦tfresh 30 fresshe ftersc frcche' fi-ccli'
fi-essh^ 2388 9656 2733 10G98
♦friar 89 frer' 208 7315, frere 7252
7254 7258 7264 etc., art. 87
friend 'Ih freend pi.
•iriendship 8 friendship' freondscipe
430
^funke 18 Ger. funke iii 18' [spark]
^gable 18 gable Gothic gibla, German
giebel, Danish gavl 3571'
Gall 3 (lalle gealla galle" 6522' 1198C'
12725' 15833' i 303' ii 177
Game 15 game gamen gamen' gome'
game' 3405 14701', ace. 856', in
14244' i 94', gam 2288 3741
gan 109 [auxiliary]
gap II gappe geapu (Bosw) 16^1 1647'
♦Gate 14 gate geat -^xt' jate" 14144'
GATHER 98 gader
Gear 3 gere gearwa geara 367 ? 354 ?
ger 2182' Part. 88
[Genitive Case] art. 101, [Genitive of
Nouns] art. 21 and 28
get 91 get' 9819
♦Gift 16 gifte gift ^eft' 9187 5685'
12203', yifte i -21 Q,' , for-yifte iii 372'
♦give 91 giv qev 223 7455 7456 7457
9401 9403 14319
foLAi) 30 gladde glfcd i 211
*16 Ghcde gled 1999' 15870' i 280
[red hot coal]
gloss 4 glose glose 7374' 7502'
♦glove 16 glove glof i 351'
go 109 [walk], art. Ill [elided]
♦goddess 91 goddess' 930
♦godhead 14 godhede i 364
♦♦Gold 14 golde gold gold' 12138,
nom. ii 356'
fcoLDEN 30 golde golden ii 356'
♦goodness 91 goodnes 7395
goose pi. geese 26 gees ges
*go\vn 91 goun 93
Grace 19 91 grace 16219 3071' 14132'
i 9, art. 91 grac' 1175, 6842, gras
15242' ! rh. Thopas French
Grame 3 grama grame' 13331' [grief]
♦*Grave 14 grave gra;f 2780' li 114'
♦fGreat 30 grcte great grfct° 4754
9100 9848 10783 15885 i 125 ii 345,
grct 341 439 749 1189 1247 1401
2485 4814 5100 etc. great i 70
tGrecn 29 grene grcne grene' 2937 3876
♦♦Ground 14 grounde grand gnind'°
grunde' 5573' i 111
♦grove 14 91 grov' gra^t 1690, grove
[oblique only]
guess 109 gesse [think]
§GUESS 18 gesse guesse Dutcb gissen,
Swed. gissa, iii 211' i 105'
had liefer 109 hadde lever
• Exceptional. •• Exceptional oblique, f Adjective, t Indeclinable. \ Uncertain Origin.
Chap. IV. § 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER.
385
thairy 30 90 haire hfcren 14151
*HALF 16 halfe halve healf i 8' 17'
on other half i 77
*69 halfing hcaLfimga iii 206 [halfwise]
*nall 16 halle hcall halle' 10394 ii
205' art. 91 halV 9962 10400
*Haud 17 honde hande hand bond
hand'^ bond' 13788 [this is ace. and
all the other instances cited are
oblique, so that this is not properly
an exceptional word, hand hond are
the common forms] hand fand 4113
' hond fond 5026 hoiid bond 10065
JHard 69 harde hearde i 220
Hare 3 hare hara 191' 686' 1812'
15167' ii 93'
Harp 4 harpe hearpe harpe' 6039
3 Harre heorra 552' [hinge] herre i 36'
HASTE 19 haste i 252 French
*14 hastihede ii 245
Hate 7 hate hete hix^te' hete" 6331'
13826' 16074', art. 91 hat' 13640
haunch 19 haunche 3279 French
*have 91 hav' 888 909 921 1257 2774
9210 9277 9308 10371 10594 10853
11359 11456 11530 14140 14142
and almost always ; generally hav'
in Gower, except, of course, at the
end of a line
haw 3 hawe haga 6240' 14270'
he 103 \one indefinite and mark of
gender], art. Ill elided
*head 14 heed heafud hnefd' hsefde'
haefedd" 10404 heved 12294 \Jmde
seems to be only oblique]
hear 87 heere
Heart 4 herte hcorte heorte' heorrte'
herrte° 955 956 1146 2651 6354
etc. (40 cases), art. 91 hert 10526
8062 16301 9113 (7 cases), art. 21
Heat 11 hete bteto bate' hsete" 12448'
12506' 13336' 13453'
heath 17 hceth hae'5 6'
**heaven 14 hevene beofon heovene'
heoffne° heffne", of 7588', in 9513',
art. 21
hedge 7 hegge hege 16704
*Heed 16 W/e byd 305' 8511' 10926'
12363' 13178', art. 91 heed 7483
12987, i 82'
♦heel 16 hele hel bela i 17' ii 210'
t29 heende gehende ? bende' 3199
3401 3487 [courteous]
Height 11 highte healrSo 2921', rh.
bright (brighte?) 4432, rh. right
17298 [this is an error, it rhymes
vrith to my sight, which may have
been an error for sighte]
4 heire hscre here' 12061' [liair-cloth]
II Hele hiElo hele' baale' 1273' 3104'
13531' [health]
*Hell 16 91 helV heU belle'" 660 ? ii
119', art. 21
*Help 16 91 helpe help bellpe" 9202
i 236, art. 91 help' 10773 help 11983
i 30
Hen 17 hen henn 178
;[:bence 73 hemies hens beonan bconane
beonene' henne' binnes' 10972 14102,
art. 72 henne beonan 3887'
herb 19 herbe 11344 French
*herbcrg 5 herberiv herberivh herbergh
hereberge herberwe' berrberrjhe"
405 767 4117 4143 11347
Herd 7 herde birde birde^" 605 12120,
art. 16 hierd i 340 should be hierde
JHere 72 her heer her ber"^ bere'°
6583 6591 6595 6624 lAUH' heere
1821' 3774' 77311', art. 87
heritage 19 heritage 10046 11867
French
**14 heme ern 11433' [eagle]
*Heste 16 btes beste' ba)se° 3588 by-
heste 4457' i 85 hest 11376 8004'?
[behest command]
9 hevenriche heofourice i 265' [king-
dom of heaven]
3 Hewe biwa 9659' [servant]
*14 hie big ? ii 9' [haste]
HIERARCHY 98 gerarchie
*t high 30 hiqhe heah bffib' hffih^e'
heb" he3;he-' 7474 8011 8082 12436'
14055 higK 11047 11085 high
14202 14867
+higb 69 hye heahe 2077 3243' higJie
ii 35'
HILT 4 hilte i 328'
bind 3 hgne hina 605' 13247' [servant]
*HiND 16 hinde bind ii 45' [deer]
hip 4 heepe heope biope 15158' [berry]
*nire \Q In/re hiiyre hyre bure' 6590'
7555' 16938' iii'352
his 103 [of it]
HITHER 98 hider
hive 7 hyvehjiQ (inc. gen.) 16878 7275'
hiwe see hewe
*hold91 hohV 9364
**bole 14 hole bol bol', in 13209
** -holm, 14 -holme -holm, of 4284
*HOME 14 home ham ii 7
Homicide 19 homicide 14978 French
** -hood 14 -hede -hod -bode' -ede'
-bad"
Hope 3, 91 hope hopa hope" 12798
2437 10S02 12606' i 227, art. 91
hop' 88 9548
' Exceptional. •• Exceptional oblique, t Adjective.
J Indeclinable. \ Uncertain Origin.
25
386
PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. Cuap. IV. ^ 6.
•hopper 8 hopper hoppere 4034 4037
•house 14 horse hors iii 259, art. 21,
pi. a^. hors h«irs' horses', art. 25
Jhoti.y 69 hole ii 28' 301'
hose 4 hose hose hose' 3931', hoten ags.
hosan, art. 23
h03t 19 haste oste 753 6868 16936.
host est 829 3116 12591 12G25,
11007 12580 rh. wost, 16988 rh;
gost, French
HouK 19 hotire ii 9' French
••House 14 house hus hus'^ 5934 i 294
how that 108 [however that]
4 howve hufe 3909' [hat cap]
•Hue 14 hewe hiw neowe' hew' 1366
tuuGE 19 hughe French ahuge i 236
hunter 3 hunte hunta hunte' hunnte"
2020 [a line not in the Harleian
7334] hunt 2014 bad line, 2630
hunV as
Husband 3 hombofide housebonde hus-
bonda husbonde' hosebonde' 6034'
6062' 14578' 5612' 5959' hoiisbond
6085 8597 (6107 ?) housebond 16850,
art. 91 hous'bond' 8574
I 45 i/k ich etc., art. 98
*16 ighte x\xi ii 378' printed ight,
[possession]
•fill 30 i/llc ^-fel ufele' uvel' ills" 4182
IMAGE \^ ym'age i 34 ii 178 French
[Imperative] arts. 57-59
[Imperfect Indicative] arts. 53-55
[Impersonal Verbs] art. 67
+In 69 bme inne 41' 10891 12809
ther-inne i 224, with-innei 30
[Infinitive] art. 60
-ing 17 -yng -ynge -ung -ing, ing'
rarely -inge' generally, -inng° almost
invariably. The more usual ending
in Chaucer is certainly -jTig. The
termination -pge occurs frequently
at the end of a verse and in most
cases rh)Tned with an infinitive
vaiiysshynge [ace] 2362 rh. plur.
pres. ind., envenyniynge [ace. after
thurgh] 9934, felytige 16779, re-
joisy/ige 17178, [the other cases cited
are oblique]. In Gower the termi-
nation is generally -inge, less fre-
quently-tw//; in the latter case the
accent is sometimes thrown back,
aziiige i 171, bukbitiuge i 213', caro-
ling e ii 53', childinge iii 211, com inge
ii 29' 53', compleigniiige i 327', gruc-
ehiiige i 234, kitoulechiiige i 123' ii
25' iii 34', lesinge i 65' 213', likinge i
68' 173', lokinge i 65', mishandli»ge
ii 189, spekinge iii 252, tidinge i 327,
ii 243' 385, wehviUinge i 355', wep-
inge ii 122, uritinge i 4 iii 104 ; be-
ginning rh. spring iii 104, knoulech-
ing i 3:', teching i 95, all accented
on the last syllable ; hunting i 53,
liking iii 319, wening i 107 108,
writing i 5 accented on the first ;
excusing of i 107, hunting as i 53,
sheding o/ i 316 364 accented on the
last, arc apparently cases of elision,
t -ing, 64 -yng -ynge, -ende, for the
nujst part -yng ; in some cases how-
ever it is rhymed with the infinitive
mood, and we must either suppose
the participle to end in -ynge, or else
the infinitive to have lost its termi-
nation. [Probably -ynge is the old
and -yug the abridged form] wonyug
390, lyggyng 1013, romyng 1073,
dwellyng 1421, rayhyng [several
MS. read naylung] 2505, wynsyng
3263, sensing 3341, abydyng 3595,
walkyng 3955, knowyng 4223, yma-
ginvng (rh. thing) 84 74; romynge
10092, fastpge 13778,sittyng' 802?,
lyvjmg' 903' 'r, lotynge 12114":', thun-
derynge (rh. to sprj-nge) 2176', gliter-
yng(e?) rh. bryng(e) inf. 2892, styr-
yng(e) rh. to spryng(e?) 3673, wep-
ynge rh. br\-nge inf. 8790, swelljTige
(rh. brynge inf.) 12207, lernynge
rh. sj-nge inf.) 14927. See -and.
INX 9 inne inne inn iii 314'
inquire 88 enquere
Intent 19 entente. 1489 7138 14986
7212' 8610' 8737 11934' etc. entent
3173 4567 13234 5350' 15123' i 101
French
into 108 [until]
tiNvisiBLE 19 invisible ii 247 French
in with 108 [\vithin]
Ire 7 90 ire >Tre (inc. gen.) irre' 1661
1764 7593 14072 17210 17220 ir'
7575? rh. squire? 7671
{jade Ujade 16298'
Joy 19 joye 1873 1875 12507, art. 91
joi/' 9929 French
judije 19 jiKje jugge 12317 12391
13540 13573 French
judgment 19 juggement 780 820 etc.
French
jfSTiCE 19 justice iii 201 French
tkeen 29 kene cene kene'" 2878' 9633'
15745'
*kecp 14 keepe 8934 kefp 400' 10272'
kep' 6207; at 505' should certainly
be keep
*Key 16 keye ca;g 9918' 13147' ii 188
• Exceptional. •• Exceptional oblique. + Adjective. X Indeclinable. \ Uncertain Origin.
Chap, IV. § 5. TROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER,
387
**kiii 14 ki/nne cyan cun' kinn" 4036'
ii 267'
*Kind mankind 16 kynde manki/nde
cynde cunde' kinde' 1309 3521 6298
etc. (16 cases), art. 91 kynd' o263
llOSO, i 265
tKind 29 kijnde cynde 649' 8728'
15008' icnkinde ii l4o'
KINDLED 98 kinled
§kindred 18 kynrede 1288' 11047'
kine 23 ki/n cy
*KiNG 14 kviye cyning i 117
9 kingesriche cyningrice ii 268' [king-
dom of the king]
*14 kinghede iii 144'
kite 3 kijte cita cyta 1 181 10938 10939
*KiTH 16 kithe cy5 iii 71 [country,
pntria^
§18 knarre 551'
Knave 3 knave cnafa cnapa cnave'
cnape° 3434 3469 5135 5142 8320
8323 etc. iii 321' ii 16
KNEE 9 kne eneo cneow i 24 may be
regarded as contracted
♦knighthood 14 hvghlhode i 246
*14 knightlihede iii 212
knot 3 icnotle cnotta 10715 10721
^knowledge 18 knowleche 14441. Can
the termination -leche be the same
as -le^je in the Ormulum= there, to
-ness ?
♦Lace 91 laas old French las 2391, rh.
allaas, rightly written ; lace 1819 rh.
tretpace both "wrongly (?) ■written
[see solace]
♦ladder 16 ladder bladder iii 330
♦ladle 5 ladel\lxA\G 2022 16983
♦lady 5 lady blaefdige Isefdi' lafFdij"
1145 1351 14885, art. 21
♦ladyhood 14 ladyhede ii 40'
lake 10 lake lacu lag-u lake' lasc' 5851'
16698'
♦♦Land 14 londe land lond lond' land"
4942' i 220
Lap 3 lappe 688' 8461' 10949' 11940'
LAPWING 4 loppewinke hleapwince,
-winge, ii 329
Lark 4 larke lawerce laferce laferc
1493 2212, ♦art. 6 laverock ii 264'
+Lately 69 Inte late 77 i 211'
Law 1 1 laue lagu lag laje' lawe' lajbe"
311 4177 4178 7471
♦lead 91 led' 9308
♦♦leaf 1 4 leefe leaf i 1 7
tlean 29 /ewe'la>nc 9727' 16299'
♦leap 14 lope hleap i 310'
fleaping 64 lepand 7739
LEAS 1 1 leese laesu ; 1 7 [pasture]
♦LeaTe 16 leve leaf lefe"' 4005 6490
13653 etc., art. 91 lev' 5694 971a
9330 14263
Leech 7 leche Irece Icce laiche' 3902'
7474' 7538' 11981' 14331'
♦leek 14 leeke leac 12723,' leek 3877
3 leere lira 15268' [skin]
87 leere [teach]
♦16 ^e//e lyft i 276' [air]
♦Length 16 lengthe leng^ 17302
less 38 lasse lesse laesse lasse'° 14280
17268 14895' 15357'
♦14 lette ags..P ii 88' 249' [hindrance]
[Letters] art. 98
tLEWD 30 lewde laewed iii 2
♦lewdness 91 leivednes 10537 12415
*Liche 14 lie lic'^ lich^' 2960 [dead
body] iii 311'
lie 7 lye lyge 3017' 3391' 5609' 12527'
13055'
tLiEF 14 30 leve leof i 343 ii 324, art.
109 hadde lever
♦Life 14 lyve lif lif'° 9111' i 199 309'
lif\\l\\ art. 109 [being, creature]
Jlightly 69 Ughte lihte 6724
3 like lica [corporis forma, cf. swin-
lica, Ettmiiller, not in Bosworth]
lice" i 143' iii 70' [shape]
tLike 30 lik". liche -lie i 25' 261' 268'
ii 124' 379, art. 98
*LIKELIH00D 14 Ukh/hede ii 147'
Lily 4 lilie lilie 2180 12019 12015'
11955' iii 249
♦limb 14 limme lim ii 10
♦♦Linden 16 lynde lind, on 9087', art.
91 lynd' 2924, linde ii 46'
Lip 3 lippe lippa 133
lisped 98 lipsede
♦16 Lisse liss 1 1550' [forgiveness], art.
17 /esiii 379' (?) [comfort]
♦list 14 lyste list 1864
fLittle SO b,te lite lytel 2629' 3861'
7182' litel 1527 3860 14635, art. 96
♦live 91 lyv' 9157 14258
♦Liver 16 lyvere lifer livere' 7421'
♦Load 14 loode bleed 2920'
*load-(stone) 16 loode-sterre lad ladu
lade" 2061
♦♦loan 14 loone laen Ifcn'
11 lode, liv{e)lode=-\ii'e's journey, ladu
ii 293'
♦fLong 30 lonr/e lang long long' lang°
1575 5399 5591 6206 11393 14141
long 619 1189 2561
Ex ceptional. ** Exceptional oblique. + Adjective, t Indeclinable. } Uncertain Origin.
388
TROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. Chap. IV. § 6.
tLonp: 69 longe lanpc 1545 14847
16.596', art. 108 long on [along of,
bccau.se of]
•lordsohip 8 Ionise flip' hlafordscipe
1627, rh. felawschipf
••Lore 16 /ore lar lare" 4762' ii 81
loss 98 lost
•tloud 30 lowde lilud 10582 [mflcc-
tional]
jLoudly 69 hude hlude 716', louthe
(from another Saxon form, hleo'5)
1702G', art. 91 lowd' 15024
Love 12 love lufu lufe lufe' love' lufe°
260 674 6096 6336 14569 (5 ca.ses),
art. 91 lov' 1137 1756 1807 2226
2262 2308 2316, etc., etc, (17 cases).
In Gower e is regularly pronounced
♦lover 8 lover' 1381 'i
*tLow 30 lotce lah loli' laih' laje'
3696' 6783' i 84' ii 294'
JLowly 69 lowe lage? loh' 1407'
17297
LUNG 4 lunge lunge iii 100
J-LY 69 -liche, aliche i 268, besiliche
ii 3, eomunliche ii 226, diieUche iii
245, evenliche ii 179", openliehe ii
328, parfitliche ii 185, priveliche ii
336, privelich iii 252, unproperliche
ii 129, sodeinliehe ii 336, solempne-
liche iii 329, verriliche i 72
••16 hjdne heden lyden [speech] 10749
•Madame 91 madam' 7786 7792 [see
dame], art. 19 Madame iii 300
MAGIC 19 magique iii 128 French
Maid 15 mayde miegden mseden
maiden' maide' majj^dcnn,° uom.
8253 12055 14878, ace. 6468 i 154,
mayden 3202 2307 6469 i 154
•Maidenhood 14 maydenhede majj-
denhad" 4450' 5651' 8713' 8742'
12054' ii 55' 230'
3 Mahe maca macche" make' 5667,
2558' 6120' 12162' 15203' [mate,
spouse] ii 204' [form]
male 19 male 12494 French
•malice 91 malic 8950 9098
♦Manhood manhede 1287' i 82' 144'
Manner 19 wrtMcre 10501' 11737' maner
10452 11742 11745, art. 89 maner
71 2546 3681 8395 16332, etc.
French
many 1 1 mayne meigne menigeo men-
geo ma;ne° 1260 7627' 10310' 14459'
many one 109
MAPi-A MUNDi 19 mappemounde iii 102'
French
Mare 4 mare mere myre 17010' 4053'
693' mere 643'
••Mark 16 merhe mearc markc'
merrke" 1192' marche i 245, art. 17
mark marc [money] 12954
§marl 18 marie, German mergcl, Latin
marga, French marne, 3460
•ilarriage 91 mariag 9550 9560 9663,
art. 19, i 101' French
MARVEL 19 merveille i 327 ii 236
French
Mass 4 masse majsse masse' messe"
7331 9768 146C2 15047
mate 98 make which see
MATTER 19 >M(7/(vc i 43' 146' 343 365
ii 207 383 iii 157 French
MAURICE 91 Moric' Moris i 206 211
213 191
Maw 3 matce niaga 4906' 15234' 14411'
may 65 [all its parts]
me 103 me for I
Mead 7 medc meadu 89' 6443' 10105'
11459' [the last three instances are
oblique]
meal 9 mele melu mele [flour] 4040
3937' 4243', art. 90 md' 4051?
4068?
•meal 14 mele msel mael' mele' [repast]
4886, mel meel 7356' 16319'
§MEAN 18 mane Old Fris. mene, ohg.
meina i 97' iii 285' 333'
[Measures, Kinds, etc., Syntax for]
art. 100
Meat 7 mete mete mett mete"" 127
15910 10932', art. 91 w/.' 136 345
9795 10384
Medicine 19 medecine 10254 French
•Meed 16 7neede med mede'' 772' 3380'
t§ Meek 31 meke 3202 6016' 14663'
Gothic muks, North Friesic meek
fMEET 29 mete ma;te ii 166', unmete
i 163
7 mele mele iii 21' [cup]
men 26 men pi.
mermaid 7 meremayd mere mere'
16756?
•fmerry 30 merye mirig murie' muri'
208' 8491'
MESSAGE 19 message i 288 French
MEW 19 meice Fr. mue, i 326' French
•middle 14 middle middel iii 120
•Might 17 91 mif/ht, miht meaht
mihte' nnhht" mihhte" 1789 2237
and almost always, might' 10447 ?
fMiLD 29 milde milde mild, i 195, tin-
milde i 84'
•Mile 16 myle mil mile'° 12816 14687
14127', art. 91 mil' 14102
Milk 17 milk mile meolc mile' millc'
360 rh. silk
• Exceptional. •• Exceptional oblique, t Adjective. X Indeclinable. \ Uncertain Origin.
Chap. IV. § 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER.
389
♦mill 16 melle mylen 3921', tnillen
4309, art. 91 mylV 4019
♦miller 8 mellere 547 ? 4044 ? 544 rli.
mere, 3167 rh. forbere ; miller 3923
3993 3998 4008 4094
*Mmd 14 mynde niynd minde" 13347
4947 i 6' "ii 55'
mire 7 myre myrc 510' 6554' 16937'
Mirth 16 merthe mehr'S murthe' 768
[pi.?], 5981' [rh. of birthe which
should probably be of birth], art. 91
mirlK 9613
[Miscellaneous Notes] arts. 98 to 111
Mite 4 myte mite 1560' 7543' 12439'
12561' '
*MONTH 14 monthe mona'S mon'S ii 27
iii 117 119 124 125
Moon 3 wioo/wmona mone'° 3515 4296,
art. 109 mas. 9759 11599, mone
i 65', art. 21
*ti:niore 90 mor mare mare° 98 827
976 1124 2742 7453 7679 9372
9489 13219 14791 14842, frequently
in Gower, mor 7485 10648, 16255,
more 306 785 1577 2826 4049 4050
9107 14563; 804 3222 3519 6023
6313 9110 13352 14560 15774
16790 16813 16915 17072, more fre-
quent than mor in Gower, mor more
occur in successive lines ii 44, art. 38
MORE 4 more more i 98' [mulberry ?]
*Moming 14 morne morgen morn
morgen' mor^e' morwe' 360 3236,
motwen 10099 inorwe 832 14710
1494, i 186 205
*morrow 91 morw' 824 [see morning]
art. 98
tMOST 30 moste i 92 112
60 mot = must [all its parts]
*MOTE 14 mote mot i 179
MOTHER 98 moder ; art. 21 modres =
mother's
MOULD 4 molde molde i 217'
MOLTTH 14 moHt/ie mu'5 i 149' 295'
[mouth of an animal]
mouthe 3 mouthe mutha Bertemouthe
391' [mouth of a river]
fMuch 30 moche micel mucel 1810
9114 9117 9298 16256 mocliil{-el)
17269 17270, art. 109 [great]
*MULE 14, mide mul, 19 mule Fr.
mule i 210
MULTITUDE 19 multitude ii 201 French
*MURDER 14 mordre mor^er i 270
myself 46 myself ill Zb, nnjselve 9334
11674, mrjselven 805 14590
109 nale [alehouse]
Name 3 name nama name' nome' name°
1439 1588 12030 12384 etc. nam'
was 15128 perhaps we should read
nam' is, art. 91 nam' 14864 15128
fnarrow 29 narive nearu 627 7385
NATURE 19 nature ii 17 French
nave 11 nave nafu 7848' [of a wheel]
NAVY 19 navie i 197 French
neat 25 neet pi.
:}:neath 72 -nethe, bencthe benij^an i
35, undernethe undernij^an i 258
Neck 3 nekke hnecca 238 1220 3916
5859 etc., nekbon 6488 ? nekkebon
16548
Need 16 neede nead neod' neode' ned°
306' [rh. heede which should be heed,
all the other instances are oblique]
♦needle 16 nedel naidl iii 20 perhaps
should be nedle
JNeeds 72, 73 needes neade neades
neode' nede° 1171 7887 10179 13127
16720, i 108, art. 69 nede 9208
9825' 13208, ned' 14520, art. 72
nide i 147
t29 neisshe hnesc nesc ii 284'
[Negative Sentences] art. 107- [Nega-
tive Verbs] art. 68
*nephew 5 nevew 15890, * is from the
French neveu not from ags. nefa,
whence comes the old English and
modern colloquial form neve, nevie.'
* -ness (termination) 16 -nesse, -ness
-nes -nis -nesse'"" (uniformly) besy-
nesse 14636 ii 11, besynes 13140,
boldenesse obi., brightnesse 12089',
buxomnesse i 87, clennes^ 508 ? cur-
sednesseohl., drunkennesse b\S)&,fair-
nesse obi., falsnesse 12904', goodnes
7395, goodnesse obi., halinesse ii 374',
hardynesse 1927, hethenesse 6hl.,hevy-
nesse 5565' 8308, holinesse obi., hom-
lynesse obi., idelnesse ii 41, lewednes
12415, lustynes 1941' ? newefangiU
nesse 10923', rightwisnesse i 7,
schamfastnesse 842', seeknesse obi.,
sikenesse i 105', sikernesse obi. i
105', stedfastnesse obi., warmenesse
obi., werinesse iii 195, wikkednesse
5043', ivildernesse iii 193, witnesse
obi., witnesse ii 223, worthines 2594,
worthinesse obi., wrecchednesse obi.,
woodnes 2013 13911 should be wood-
nesse, ydelnes ydelnesse 1942 11930'
nettle 4 nettle netle i 173
fNew 29 neive niwe niwe' 430 888'
tNice 19 nice 12421 12770 12575' ii
22 [foolish] French
» Exceptional. ** Exceptional oblique, t Adjective. X Indeclinable. 5 Uncertain Origin.
390
TllOV. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. Chap. IV. § 5.
niece 19 nece 14611 14536 14744
French
•Nifjht 17 niffhte niht niht' niliht"
16704 [12746' is obliciuc, and pro-
bably tlie rliynies should be uiylW
hight might ; night is the common
form], art. 25 night pi.
Nifjhtingalc 4 nighti/ngale nihtegale
98' 3377' 15245' 17068' i 54'
•91 nobles PVench noblesse 15504
Jnone 108 [not]
JNONES 73 for the nones ii 72'
Nose 11 nose nasu nosu 152 559 7846,
art. 91 nos 123 [omit/w/] 705 2169
nought forthy 108 [nevertheless]
[Nouns] arts. 1 to 28
:{:Now a days 73 now on dages 13324
Jnow then 72 nouthe nuj^a nu];e' 464'
NUN 4 nonne iii 281'
♦nurse 91 norice 5881, tioris 8494
NUT 11 nutte-tre hnutu hnut ii 30,
nutteshale ii 20'
oak 17 okook ac 2292
•oAii 16 ore ar iii 322'
•oath 14 othe aiS a«' 1141, oth 3291 ?
ooth 120 should probably be othe [?,
supra p. 264]
Jof 108 sign of gen., of = by ; of that
= because
19 offrende i 73' French
JOfte 72 ofte oft (Gothic ufta, Danish
ofte) ofte' offte" 1269 9541 ; ofte-
tyme 52 358, ofte-tymes 1314 ; oft-
sithe 1879 ; ofte sithes 487 ags.
oftsi'S ofFte-si)7e° often-time ii 287 ?
OIL 19 oile iii 168 French
*t01d 30 olde eald aid aid' aide' olde'
ald° 4470 9830 11465, old 12129
14128 14155 14160, art. 38 elder
eldest
J Once 73 ones ane ene' acnes' a;ness°
7259 15767 i 106
3 onde onda i 75', ii 260' [hatred]
foNE 29 one iii 231 from ags. definite
form ana = solus; iii 213!'' art. 30 ii
255 everych-otie ii 45, art 105
[Order of Words, Peculiar] art. 110
♦16 ore ar are' ore' are" 3724' [honour,
favour]
organs 27 orgon pi.
Jother 108 [or], otherwhile [at one
time and at another]
JOut 69 OHteutcvit 11407'
•outrider 8 outrydere utridere ridere'
166?
owe 60 [all its parts]
Owl 4 oule ule 6663'
Ox 3 oxe oxa oxe° 8083 13769 16490
16513, art. 23 oxtn
^PACK 18 packe Dan. pakke, Swed.
packa, Ger. pack, ii 312' 393'
pair 19 90 peyre 4384 2123 French
Pan 4/>n»(wepanne 13243 13138' 7196',
art. 91 pan rh. man 1167 15438
tin the two last cases = brain-pan,
lead]
[Participles] arts. 61 to 64, [Parti-
ciples, pixst, used adverbially] art. 109
[Particles, Various] art. 108
PASSAGE 19 passage i 223 French
Patience 19 91 pacience 1085', i 302
paciens 16312
PEASE 3 pese pisa ii 275'
peer 89 peere 4023 10989 rh. here
which should probably be her^ 16336
rh. chaiinteclere which should have
no -e, 15540 rh. deere, but probably
in all cases it should be written peer
as in 12907
Person 19 persona 15428, person 10339
French
PE.STILENCE 19 pestilence ii 346 French
philosopher's 21 philosophre
[Phrases, Peculiar I art. 109
Physic 19 phisik 413 2762 phisique i
265 French
pillowbeer 7 pilweheer pyle 696
Pipe 4 pipe pipe 567
4 pirie pirige 10091' 10099' [peartree]
pismire 4 pisnemyre -mire 7407'
*pith 6 pith pitiia 6057'
Place 19 place 7262 9963, art. 91 plae'
15024 French
plant 19 planle 11344 French
*play 5 play plega plajse' 1127' 8906'
9404' 14528'
♦pleasaunce 91 plesaunee French plais-
ance 8840', pleisauns 8794
**plisrht 16 pli/te pliht pliht' plihte'
plihht" 12880', art. 17 plit' This
word is always a monosyllable in
Gowcr, but is continually spelt with
a final e, as are also (wrongly) the
words rhymed with it, e.g. appetite,
spirite, parfite ; i 129' 259'
[Plural of Adjectives] arts. 39 to 44,
[Plural of Nouns] arts. 22 to 28
poke 3 poke poca 3778 4276'
Pomp 19 ponipe 8804 French
•tpoor 19 90 por' 4536 4540 16308
pore 232 480 490 539 704 13594
14128 10307 French
[Jpoorly 69 pore 8919!'']
Pope 3 pope papa pape' 8678 263' 645',
art. 91 pop' 6002
' Exceptional. •• Exceptional oblique. + Adjective, t Indeclinable. ? Uncertain Origin.
Chap. IV. ^ 5
PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER.
391
4 pose gepose (Bosw. after Somner)
41.50' 16994' [cold in the head]
*praise 91 prays' 9420
•preface 91 prefas French preface
12199
[Prefixes] art. 106
[Present Indicative] arts. 48 to 52
*press 91 j»/es French presse 10503
Prick 3 prikke pricca 4539'
Pride 3 pride prvta pryt pnide' prute'
897' 9867' 14314' 15674' etc.
*prince 91 princ 4642
[Pronouns] arts 45 to 47, [Indefinite]
art. 105, [Personal] art. 103, [Rela-
tive and Interrogative] art. 104
prose 91 pros' 466 [wrong reference
prose 15342 15345']
tproud 29 proude pryte prut 7809,
prowd 3863 3167 ?
PURCHASE 91 purchas ii 331 351 (old
French pourchas), is not to be con-
founded with the verb
tpui-e 90 pure 1281 12016
PUKSE 91 piirs' iii 155, purs ii 298,
this word derived from the Middle
Latin bursa probably does not come
to us through the French bourse ; it
has dropped the e, like Swed and
Dan. bors, and Germ, hors, (which is
found as well as horse)
*91 pyV 6944 [pillage]
*16 pyne pin pine'" 6369' [wo, grief,
pain]
* Queen 17, 91 queen generally, queene
cwen quen' queue' cwen" 15834 973'
4581' 6630' 11358' 14892' 15834 etc.
[all the other instances cited are
oblique and queen is the common
form], art. .16 quene i 46 [27 cases
in Gower] quen ii 212, iii 388
**quern 16 querne cweorn 15560
t§ 31 racle 17210 17271 17221 [rash]
rake 4 roke race 289'
j69 rathe hra>e 3766 14510 [quickly]
♦receive 91 receyv 9576
*14 Rede raid i 45', art. 91 red' 14205
[advice]
reck 98 recche
reeve 3 reeve refa reve' 589 617 3901
4323
reign 19 regne 4813, art. 91 regn' 1626
French
remembrance 19 remembraunce 9855
French
request 19 requeste 8061', request 7980'
French
*rest 17 [generally rest] reste rest
resste° 9729 [ace] 11548 [ace] rh.
leste imperf , 8722'?, art. 16 reste i
75' and generally in Gower
tRich 19 riche 866 1913 4814 French
riches 27 richesses riches pi
tniGHT 30 riyhtc riht iii 129
♦rind 16 rinde rind i 152
fripe 29 rijje ripe 17015
*EOAD 16 rodexa^i 110 (?)
*ROAR 14 rore rar iii 74'
*ROE 6 roo raha ra ii 95
Rome 19 Rome 673' 4576 5388 10545
etc., i 282' ii 195 196, Rom 5386
French
♦rood 16 roode rod rode'^ 6078 i 198
§Root 18 role roote Icelandic rot, Gothic
vaurts, ags. wrot 13389, 2', 329' 425'
rose 4 rose rose 1040 13448
♦trough 30 rowe hreow hreoh rseh'
ns^e' ruhh'' 12789'
♦*Row 16 revce raw 2868' i 50
rubric 9 8 ruhriche
RUDDER 98 rother
RUSH 4 resshe risshe reisshe resce risce
i 160' ii 97' 284'
♦Ruth 16 rewthe routhe (as if from)
hreowS rou^e' Icelandic hryg'S 916
8438 etc., art. 91 reu-th' 10752
rye 7 reye ryge (Bosw.) 7328'
tsaint37 seinteiem. [supra p. 264,note]
Sake 11 sake sacu sake'° 10039 6945'
7299' 7314' 8131', art. 91 sak' 539 ?
1319? 1802
SALE 4 sale selle ? old German sala, ii
29
♦salve 16 salve sealf i 8'
JsAME 69 same same =pariter, ii 240' (?)
sauce 19 sauce 129 353 French
♦save 91 sav' 7289 7449 7857 13717
14133
Saw 11 saive sagu saje' 1165' 1528'
6241' 12619'
scathe 7 skathe scae'Sj^ (inc. gen. Bosw.)
448' 9048'
t29 seheene scene scene' shene" 115'
1511' [bright]
♦16 schipne scypen 2002 [shed, stable]
11 schonde scandu scondu shande"
15316' [harm]
School 11 scole scolu 7768 9443 14909
14915
♦score 16 score scor i 176
♦scorn 14 scorne sceam Icelandic
skarn, old German scern, iii 226
Sea 4, 7 see see (inc. gen.) sae'^ always
monosyllable 278 700 4914 4963'
etc., art. 3 i 35
fsECOND 30 secoiinde i 159 but the
form seconde is found in old French
* Exceptional. »* Exceptional oblique, t Adjective, t Indeclinable. \ Uncertain Origin.
392
PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. Chap. IV. § 5.
sflcrots 27 stcre pi.
•seek 1)1 s(ek' 14109, art. 98 nehe
JSeldom 72 sildr sold selde' 1012.5
8303', scldtwhaune ii 93, ulden ii 96
self 46 self $ five selven
•aentxmce 91 sentence 308' 14974',
lentem 17352
service 19 serviie 122 French
•.SET 14 sete siot set ii 155'
Shadow 1 1 schadwe shawe sceadu 4430
4365' 6968' schadw' he 4430 ii 45
shall 60 [all its parts], =owe art. 108
Shame 11 schame scamu shame° 12433
13335 1557' 3052'
•shape 14 shape sceap iii 28
+8HARP 30 sharpe scearp ii 82
she 111 omitted
8hear[s] 4 schere sceare 15542'
•sheep 14 schepe scaep shep° 506'
should certainly be scheep, cf. 6014
13766 where the same rhj-me occurs
608 16137, art. 25 sclieep pi.
Sheet 4 scheele scyte scete 12807'
•shell 16 shelle shale seel ii 20'
shin 4 schyne seine 388 ?
•-ship 8 -schip -schipe -scipe [generally
-schip'l, the length of the words
compounded with this terminatiou
may perhaps account for the final e
being soon dropped, ftlatvship' 476,
friendship' frcundscipe 430, lord-
schipe hlafordscipe 1627, worschip
weorthscipe 12560. 7 -shipe dron-
fc'eshippe iii 17 worshipe ii 65 kindf-
ahipfdaship occur in a couplet i 170
but doubtless should have a final e
••Ship 14 schippesci^ scip' schip' 5032
iii 295
shire 4 schire scire 358' 586'
•Shirt 16 scherte schurte (as if from)
Eceort scjTt 15608; 1568 and 9859
(rh. herte) ; schert 6768 {t\x. povert)
16606 (rh. hert doubtfid), art. 91
schert' 748 2548 6768
SHIVER 98 chever
•shoe 14 sho scoh sceo i 15 iii 236 is
a contraction, art. 23 schoon schoos
shop 3 schoppe sceoppa ? 4376 4374' [it
is very uncertain whether this is the
same as the ags sceoppa, treasury]
•fshort 30 schorte scort sceort' shorrt"
6206, schort' 748 2548, schort 93
•shot 14 shotte scot i 234
Shrew 3 schrewe screawa 17083, art. 91
threw 7024
•shrift 14 shrifte scrift i 66
•16 sibrede sibrajden [relationship] iii
284' merely drops final «, like art.
15, so apparently met-rede iii 68
Side 4 side side side' 1277 2736 9808
9821, etc.
J-sii)E 72 -side, aside onsidan ? ii 8.5',
besiden besidan ii 379, beside iii 82
siege 19 sege 939, art. 91 seg' 15865
French
SIEVE 4 sive sife i 294 (?)
•*sigh 14 siffhhe sic? 10811'
•Sight 17, 91 siffhte sih."S siht' sihhj^e^
2118 2335 3949 10280, art. 91
sight [a common fonn] 3395 7653
etc., art. 16 ii 243', art. 108 [mul-
titude]
sign 19 signe 10024 10087 French
[Silent Final E] arts. 84 to 92
• Sin 16 si/nne synn sunne' (ace) sinne""
.5010 6773 etc.
JSince 73 synnes syns sins siiS)ian siSjia
6551 8047 9341 9396 14284 14822,
syn sin 10181 12226, art. 72 siihthen
6826 15597, silhthe 4478, sith 8225
8721, seth 5234
•Sir 90 sir French sire, 9542 12527
13030 13035 16274 16428 16516
etc., sir 7056, sire 16253, 357 (rh.
sehire) both forms occur in Gower
•sisterhood 14 susterhede iii 278'
sisters 24 sistren sustres
♦14 Sithe si'5 si«' sij-e" 9183 5153'
5575' i 160 [time turn]
skill 9 skille scile i 1 6 skill found only
■when rh. will probably should have
the f, art. 91 skill i 42 49, 8 cases
rhyming to will, elsewhere skille (1 1
cases) xville, i 277 etc., so that we
should probably read skille wille in
the other instances
skink 89 schenche
§ Skull 18 skulls Old German sciulla
ags. scell ? 3933' 4305'
Jslain 98 islaaw
•-SLAUGHT 16 -slaught man-sleaht i
364' should be -slaughte
• •Sleep 14 sleepe slaep slap" 1046
16498 i 81'
•sleeper 8 sleper slaepere 16377'
••Sleeve 16 slefXZloi' ii 213'
•Sleight 16 sleight sliS Icelandic slaeg'S
1950 [the cases cited for skighte are
all oblique] i 238 ace. ii 198 nom.
^sling 18 slynge, as if from ags. sling,
15240'
slit 7 ditte sHte 1 1 5'
«* Sloth 16 slouthe slewlS 4950' i 372
+69 smale smale ii 279'
JsMARTLY 69 smarte iii 113'
•Smoke 14 smoke smec smec° 5860' i
211'
• Exceptional. •• Exceptional oblique. + Adjective, t Indeclinable. } Uncertain Origin.
Chap. IV. § 5. PKOF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER.
393
SNAKE 3 snake snaca iii 118'
snare 4 snare sneare (Bosw.) [the word
is not in Bosworth's large dictionary,
but is given in his small one on the
authority of Leo's Sprachproben
1838] 1492' 4991' 17009'
§ Snout 18 snoicte Danish suude, Swed.
snyte, 14816', snoivt 16391
fSoft 29 softe softe soft softe' soffte"
6994
+Softly 69 softe softe 2783
17 soken soon socen 3985 [right of
search, privilege]
♦solace 91 solas solaas solac' Norman
French solas, is rh. mth caas 800,
16689allas 9149(French cas, alas, las
from lassus was in the older French
variable according to the sex of the
person uttering the exclamation, as
lasse ! fait ele : halas ! fait-il. Pals-
grave has both forms also. The distinc-
tion is not preserved in Chaucer, but
the diversity in the spelling of the
word may possibly be owing to the
the existence of these two forms).
11114 rh. was, 3654 rh. Nicholas;
solaeevh. place, Norman French place,
4144 15193
fSolemn 19 solempne 209 French
*Some 91 sow' 9345
Son 10, 12, 91 sane sunn sune' sone'
sune^ 1965 11000 15669 son' 6733
7655 8524 8552 12.345 15016 15889
16597 17250 ete, etc [none of these
are convincing, the most so are 8524
& 16597.] In Gower e is regularly
pronounced, son' i 317 ?
*16 Sonde sande sonde' 4809' 4943'
6246' 5469' etc. etc. i 212; etc. [mes-
sage]
iJSoon 72 soone sona sone° 15769, eft-
soone 16082' eftsones 6390, art. 91
son' 6733 7655 and almost always,
art. 69 ii 250
♦ Sooth 14 sothe so'S so 5' so'Se' so])°
12590 rh. io the, but perhaps adverb,
6183' sothe i 31
♦soothsayer 8 soth{e)sa{er \\i 164
♦sore 14 90 sore sar sar' sor' 2745',
i 310'
♦tjsore 14 69 sor' t2697 ^3462, Xsore
230 1396 6810 12657 12799
* Sorrow 16 sorwe sorh sorhje' serrjhe"
953 1221 etc.
♦Soul 16 soule sawel saiile' sawle' 2788
8435, etc (13 cases) [of the 5 speci-
fied, 3 are oblique] i 203 256, art. 91
soul' 658 14355
sovei-eign 37 sovereine fem.
sow 11 soive sugu 2021 bad line
Spade 11 spade spadu spad 555'
♦Span 16 spanne spann 155 [ace. of
dimension ?] i 79'
spare 90 spare 739
SPARK 3 sparke spearca i 258
sparrow 3 spearwe speanva 628' 7386'
♦speak 91 spek' 9742 9747
Spear 9 spire spere spere' sper' 15289
1641' 4879' sper' 2712 ?
♦Speech 16 speche spajc spaeche'° 1373
2800 etc. [two instances cited are
oblique], art. 91 spech' 16978
♦speed 17 sped' sped i 88, spede i 90',
art. 91 sped' spede about equally
often ags. sped
♦♦spell 14 spelle spell spel' spell"
15301'
spouse 19 spouse 12072 12125 French
SPUME 1 9 spume ii 265 French
SPUR 3 spore spura i 321 [Chaucer
spores 4751
Stake 3 stak'e staca 8580' 669'
f stalk 18 stalke Icelandic stilkr, Swed-
ish stjelk, 3917'
* ♦stall 14 sialic steall stair 8483'
Star 3 sterre steorra steorre' sterre'
sterme" 2061'
start 61 [all its parts]
STEAD 7 stede stede styde i 60 f.
♦stealth 16 stellhe [as if from an
ags.] stel'S ii 349
Steed 3 steede steda stede' 2159 2729
10484 15162, etc., art. 91 steed'
10438?
3 Steere steora ster° 4868' 5253' [helm
rudder]
3 stele stela stele stel 3783' 6531'
[handle, stale is given in the dic-
tionaries]
♦16 stempne stemn stefn i 312 [voice]
see stevene, art. 98
f Stem 29 sterne stcrne sterne' stime"
8341
♦16 Sterene stefh stefne' stefFne" 4381
[?pl.] 1526' [oblique?] steven 10464
16777 (all doubtfolrh. heven) [voice]
see stcmjme
Stick 3 stikka sticca 13193 13199
tStill 29 stille stille stille'^stiir 10810'
11782' 16929'
+ Still 69 stille stille 7782
♦stot 6 stot stotte 7125 7212 617'
♦16 Stnunde stund stunde' stunnd" 1214'
[short space of time] i 90'
Jstraitly 69 straiteLnt. stricteii 354'
iii 47'
* Exceptional. *• Exceptional oblique. + Adjective, i Indeclinable. } Uncertain Origin.
394
PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. Chap. IV. § 6.
•strand 14 */ro»</« strand i 185
Straw "J xtree strea 2920 29:jo'. ee pro-
nounc'i'd as «, straw straw 11007
•Street IG .stnete stnet strx-t' straetc"
14904 15025 [both after thurgh,
which may be ace., the other cases
cited arc after i^i]
*Stren<;tli IQstretiglhe strenfr'5 stronfr'Su
strcnV^)'e'strennc]^e'' 1950 2403 15550
•strive 91 stryv 7568
tStronjr 30 stronge Strang iii 4 [in-
flexional], art. 38 stringer atrengest
•sty 5 xty stige 7411'
••style 14 stgle stifrel 10420'
[Sulijnnctive] art. 56
•fSuth 30 sHche sw}'lc swilc' sulche'
swillc" 8613 13800 15628, i 319,
sivich 3 2824
Sun 4 Sonne sunne sunne' sonne' sunne"
30 1511 2524 10484 etc., art. 21 gen.
•suppose 91 siippos 8223
Swallow 4 swahvc swalewe 3258
•swear 89 sicer sicer 456 8045 8238
swer' 11101 12076 inf.
tSweet 29 srvete swote swete swet" 2429
5967 6041 15344, art. 91 swet' 2782
3 swere sweora ii 30' [neck]
•fswift 30 swifte swilt swiift'' 2870
•swine 14 sivgne swin swin'" 16972,
swgn 13971', art. 25, swin pi.
J69 Stvithe smfe 13222 [quickly]
♦•Swoon 14 swoune swun? 13668 i
204
fsworn 109
jxACKLE 18 tacle Ger. takel, Dan. tak-
kel, Swed. tackel, i 312
Tale 11 tale talu tale'^ 36 3128 4466
6545 7253 (29 cases), art. 91 taV yit
13875 e elided before y ?
•fTame 30 tame tarn 2188 tintame i
287'
tapster 4 foj?5/«re tajppestre 241', tapster
3336
§tare 18 tare 1572'
targe 4 targe targe targa 473' 977'
•tear 14 teere tear 15547' 16148' ?
Teat 7 tete tite tit 3704'
Teen 3 tene teona tconc' tone" 3108'
♦tell 91 tell' 38 inf. 10043 inf. [both
before yoiv']
••Temple 14 temple tempel ii 157
tent 19 iente 16055 French
^Thanks 73 his thonkcs, here thonkes
his )7ances, hira ))ances 1628 2109
2116 ii 211
60 </(ar=need [all its parts]
tthat 47 that=i\i(i : art. 104, art. Ill
omitted, Xthat art. 108 with impera-
tive = French que
tthe 98 -te, atte =at the ; art. 109 with
abstract noun
98 thee = to prosper
•xirEiT 16 the/te ])eof5 ii 159'
^Then 72 ihnnne Jionnc J^cnne }*anne
>on l^an {'anne'" J'anjn)'^ 1655 13987
15404 16702 16988 i 11 49 62 69
etc., thenne 13121' iii 36 rh. brcnne,
than 640 3052 i G 7 224, thanti' 12
638 2936 2937 2938 7722 t/ien?
i 17
^thence 73 thennes J^anon Jianone \on-
nen' j^anene' 4930 5463 10640, 10641
art. 72 tlienne 6723' ii 185
iJlTliore 72 ther ]»t \Qxe Jiara ^vcv"
y:ere'" 313 323 328 4215 9863 9872
10341 there 4956' 5222' 7650' 15037'
(less common) i 56' 60' 112' etc. ;
art. 108 [where]
^Therefore 72 therfore ]ierforen' )'er-
fore' Jiaerfore" 3506' 8035' 8188'
9023; thtrfor 7374 10571 10647;
art. 90 therfor' therfor 777 7374
10571 10647
•these 91 thes' this 9110 9127 9150
9297 10041 etc., art. 47, art. 109
singular use
•tiiew 14 thetce Jieaw iii 5'
fthcy 111 omitted
fThick 29 thikke )>icce ]^icke' 551
t30 thilke ]>y\c i 2 [the like]
tThin 29 thenne )ynne 4064' 9556'
thinnc i 102'
•Thing 14 thinge J^ing ii 207 251, no-
t hinge ii 337, art. 25 thing pi.
think 98 thcnche
fthird 98 thridds
^THITHER 98 thider
108 tho [when]
-thorp 98 throp
ftluise 47 tho
thou 111 omitted
-thou 98 -tow -ow, wiltow, hastow
wostow etc.
JThrice 73 thries jiriga Jmwa ))rie'
l^rien' Jries' Yri-^ia?.^'' 63 564 14953
fthrilled 98 thirled
Throat 4 throte >rote 2460' 3218'
*TniiosTLE 5 throstel jrostle i 54
Jtbrough 98 thurgh
•Throw 16 throwe Jrag Jragu )>rowe'
j'rffi7;he'' 5373' 7397' etc.
TiHMii 3 thomhe Mima i 175, art. 98
•Tide 16 tyde tid tid' 5554' [the other
instances cited are oblique] i 326'
TIE 7 tie tige ii 246'
•tile 16 tyle tigel 7687
+till 72 title tille til tilF 10811', til
10838, art. 108
Exceptional. •• Exceptional oblique. + Adjective, J Indeclinable. J Uncertain Origin.
Chap. IV. § 5. PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER.
395
♦tilth 16 tilthe tillS ii 168
Time 3, 91 ti/me tima time'° 44 722
864 4056 4448 etc. (24 cases), art.
91 tim 9678 10327 10790 12976
etc. (14 cases") rh. byme i 227 309
370 etc. In'Gower e is regularly
pronounced except only in ii 167
[Time, expressions for] art. 1 09
+to 108 [unto], sign of dat.
106 To- iohewen, toschrede etc.
•Toe 6 to' ta ii 143', art. 23 ton foos
Jtogether 73 togidcres togiiedere toga-
dere' togaderes' togeddre" 14117
Tongue 4 tonge tunge tunge'° 3894
5319 7232 13813, art. 91 tong'
10349 tunge i 295
♦tooth 14 tothe to^S io\Y 6184', art.
26 teeth pi.
ftouching 64 touchand 7872
♦Tow 17 toiv tow 5671, ii 315
^Towards 73 toivardes toweardes to-
wardes' toward' towarrd^ 11883
14121, toward 13534 14220 art. 72
toivdrdn 13, toward \ 122
♦Town 14 i'oew tun tun" 7936 11713'
\_toivne appears to be only oblique]
i 205 ii 293
♦Trace 91 trace Norman French trace
trasse, 1953 rh. alias; trays 2141
rh. harnaya Norman French harnas,
harnois
trap 4 trappe treppe trapp° 11653'
11939*
TREE 9 tre treow treo tre i 137
*ti-ow 91 trow- 526 1803 3665 9092
9111 10850 etc.
fTrue 29 trewe treowe treowe' trowwe"
533 961, art. 91 trexv' 10043, wi-
trewe ii 224
trump 19 trumpe 2176 French
Truth 11 trouthe treowSo treou-Se'
troww>e 3502 6595 6633 6986 etc,
(16 cases), art. 91 troulh' 10959
11071 11905, trouth 10262, in all
4 cases
Tun 4 tonne tunne tunne' 1996 5759
3892' 8091' i 321
JTwice 73 twves twiwa twigges twie'
twien' twi't^vi33es°4346 5478 14958
jUneasily 69 unease unEe-Se unna3]ie°
unnethe 11659 13318 15037, art. 73
unnethes 5976 11048
Junto 108 [until]
tUnAvieldy 29 unweelde unwylde = im-
potens 16187 3884 is pi. unwylde, i
312' iii 147'
JUp 69 uppe uppe Up 10929' i 15', art.
108, [upon]
^UPRIGHTLY 73 uprihtes i 35'
♦*16 iipriste Vi-^M-yst a;rist° 1053 [aris-
ing]
USE 91 us ii 132 should be us rh.
Yertus(e) i 15 56, jus(c) ii 266, re-
fus(e) iii 298
vane 3 fane fana 8872'
[Verbs] arts. 48 to 68
vessels 27 vessel vcssealx vcsseals pi.
♦vesture 90 vest?ir' 10373
VICE 19 vice i 157 French
VIRGIN 19 virgine ii 186 French
♦visage 91 visage'' 630
♦voyage 91 viage' 794
wake 4 wake wsecce wecche° 2960 2962
[liche-walce waking of the body, mo-
dern watch]
♦♦Wall 14 walle weall wal' 1970',
1911' rh. candle which should be
coral, old French coral [both may
have an oblique e], waW 1990, wal
1921 1977 1936', art. 98 ivowe
w^ANE 3 loane wana iii 304 loan a de-
fect ? rh. Adriane ii 307
3 ivanhope ii 115 117 [despair]
War 9 tverre werre weorrc' werre' 5972
47' 1449' werr' 1289 ? _
♦"WARD 16 warde weard iii 55'
-WARDS 73 -wardes, to-wardes i 5 122
159 etc., after-wards^ 356, afterward
iii 37 39
ware 11 ware waru (Bosw.) 4560'
14467'
fware 30 ware 16094' should be war
♦*wart 16 wert' weart 557
WATCH 4 wacche wa^cce ii 96 [see
tvake"]
♦Wave 14 wawe woeg 4888 ii 105',
art. 98
♦Way 14 weye weg weie' wai' we37;e°
793' 4805' ; contracted, art. 91 wey'
34, way 7US 14176' i 29
we 111 omitted
Weal 3 wele wela wele' 1274' 3103'
13530', art. 91 weP 4542 8350 8847
♦■WEALTH 16 welthe [as if from an ags.]
wel-S i 39'
♦wear 89 wer' 8762 inf., art. 109
wear on
♦weasel 5 tcesil wsesle 3234
3 ivebbe webba 364 a webb' a dyer
[weaver]
♦14 Wedde wedd 1220' i 249 [pledge]
♦♦Weed [dress] 16 wede wsed wede'
W£ede° 1008' 8739' i 221'
WEEK 4 weke wice wuce iii 116'
♦weight 14 weighte wiht ii 276'
• Exceptional. •• Exceptional oblique. + Adjective, t Indeclinable. \ Uncertain Origin,
39G
PROF. CHILD ON CHAUCER AND GOWER. Chap. IV. ^ 6,
♦wEiun 16 tcierd wjTd i 340 should
be trierde
«wol«;omc 91 welcom' 764 856 7382
7393
"Well 3 tcelle wella wyWc well wclle'
6597 7924 1535' 11689', art. 91 well'
8091
JwELL 69, 72 wele wela wel iii 149'
[art. 72 urlle 1663' is dwelle in the
Landsdowne, Cambridge, Petworth
Corpus and EUesmerc MSS.]
"Wench 4 u-eiiche wenelc wennchell°
3971 4165 4192 6944 etc.
*16 we>ie wen wena ii 88' [doubt con-
jecture expectation weaning]
♦16 wenie ags. ? 161' [way manner]
*I4 were as if from ags. wer iii 253'
[defence]
§u-ere 18, i 107' 318' [worry]
wet 3 ivete wteta wajte waite" 13115'
•fwet 30 wele wa^t wet' 2340
fwhat 10i=zv/>i/
"Wheat 7 whcte hwaste 5725 4312'
13863' 14278'
*whclp 14 ivhelpe hwclp whellp° 2.59'
JWhen 72 wlianne hwonne hwonne
hwanne whanncn' whone' etc. wlianne"
whann^ 11718 14695 i 212 [seldom
in Gower], whan 1 5 762 782 803
824 915 3054 3055 [frequent in
Gower
Jwhence 73 whennes hwanan hwana
whannen' whone' 12175 13750, whens
8464, art. 72 whenne i 198 when
ii 46 iii 308
J"Where 72 wher hwar hwan: whajr'
whiere' 323 344 9873 10341 etc.
where 4556 7634' 9462 (less common
both in Chaucer and Gower)
^wherefore 72 tolierfore 13631'
^WHETHER 98 xveder
*tWhich 30 whiche hwylc while'
woche' whillc'' 15896, ^vhich 4 2677
etc. i 135 ii 177 395, art. 104
*"While 16 while hwil while' whil'
4226 8899 10904 etc. [all the cases
cited are oblique, but as etc. is put
after them there may be others
direct] i 282 ii 54 79
+"Whilc Whilst 72, 73 whiles \& hwile
whiF 6352 13007 13854 15047
i 26 ivhih 13065, whWs ii 345, whil
1362 6350 i 12
•"Whip 14 whippe hweop 5757' 9545'
i 283'
♦whistle 5 w/H.s/e? hwistle 4153
fwhite 29 ivhite hwite hwit white'
whit' 4775, the common form is
ivhit 17065 238 3238 2180'
JwiiiTUER 98 whider
twhu 109
f whoso 104
t§Wicked 31 wiklce 1582' 5448', ap-
parentlv allied with ags. wiece =
witch, 1 295 306
f^wicke 18 pride is the worste of alle
wicke i 154, 170
JWidely 69 wide wide 4556 8589 iii
208
•widow 6 91 widow widw widuwe wi-
dewe' widewe" widdwe'' 6609 6626
7166 7201 14913 14920 16307, «'«-
doive widewe 14997 255, art. 21 gen.
•Wife 14 wife wif wif'° wive' 6648
wive ii 217'
•m'Ifeuood 14 wifhede iii 51
"Wight 17 wiqht wiht wuht, wihf whit'
wihht" 1427 2108 2487 ete. ii 149
• jWild 30 un/lde wilde wild wilde'"
4170 5858 5955 7742 15166 15402,
wild 10126 (?) i 236 290
WILE 9 wile wile ii 227
Will 3 wille willa wille grille" 2671
7986 8202 10315 etc. .another form,
tviU will iwill' will" 3875 3878 3885
8052' wiir 11016?
will 6 1 [all its parts]
•willow 16 wilow wilig 2924 doubtful
+wills 73 his willes 5854
j Window 18 wt/ndou-e, Icelandic vin-
dauga, Danish vindue, Swedish vin-
doga, 3358' 3676' 3G95',wt/>idow{e?)
3708 3725 3730 3738. witidow ii 347
•wine 14 w>/ne win win'" 10016' [as
it here means vine or bunch of grapes,
perhaps it is an error for vine French
vignc] ivi/n 637 14212 639' [and
generally
winter 25 tvynter pi,
•wLSDOM 14 ivisdome wisdom iii 217
Wise 4 ivise wise wise'" 9927 17309
5312 5692 etc., art. 91 wis 2189
•fWise 30 ivise wis wis'" wise'" 11183,
i 156 [fern. ?], «-ys 67 787 853
Witchcraft 4 tvicche craft wicce wicche"
6885 iii 44
^Without 72 withou/en wi^utan 463
640 810 823 1851 1856, tvithoute
785 788 950 8208', ivithout i 8 ?
•Womanhood 14 wommanhede 8951'
i 333'
fwoMANisn 30 womanisshe i 58 72
iii 304 338 [all inflectional ?]
••Womb [stomach, belly] 16 wombe
wamb womb wombe' wambe" 7470
15923 15970
• Ezceptioaal. •• Exceptional oblique. + Adjective. J Indeclinable. \ Uncertain Origin^
Chap. IV. § 6.
CHAUCER S PRONUNCIATION.
397
*tPonger 8 wangere 15320' rh. desfrer,
French, deslrier [pillow, head rest]
Wont 3 u'0)ie wuua wune' 337' ?
14915'? art. 91 tvon' [misprinted
none] 1066 ?
Wood 12, 10 woode wudu wude' wode'
wude"" 110 15181, ii 264 art. 91
wood' 2932 7755 10727? 15742
ivood 1620
•Wool 16 wolle mill wulle" 13863
14325' [both ace. and thei'cfore hav-
ing e in ags.] wulle ivolle i 17 ii 83
98' 129
♦word 14 tvorde word iii 256
**work 14 icerke weorc ware weorrc
werrc° 5797 13439 11191', art. 38
tvirche
* World 17 worlde weorold weorld
weorldo' weorclld^ 16151 [ace. and e
only preserved by caisura : that all
the worlde had in his denieigne ; the
other case cited 10376 ? is oblique ;
world is the usual form ; so in
Gower, but worlde in i 245 iii 286 ?],
art. 109
9 worlde riehe weoruldrice i 118' [king-
dom of the world]
fworse 38 icorse iverse wyrse wurse
wurs' werrse'' 8551 9667 17252
10914"' werse 1226 ? tvors tuers 8503
3731'
♦worship 8 tvorschip wcorthscipe 12560
*woRTH 14 ivorthe weorS i 25
♦worthiness 16 91 worthines 2594
fworthy 29 worthi worth/ as if from
weorjiig, really weorj^e wyr]je 285 461
wot 60 [all its parts]
** Wound 16 wounde wund wuude'
1012' i 90' 289'
*WRATH 16 ivruthe wraj'S i 280
*Wreak 16 wreche wra;c wrsecu
wreche' wi-a^chc" 5099 i 179 351'
art. 91 wrecli 16089 [vengeance]
witEXN 3 wrenne \ixeima. iii 349
Wretch 3 ivrecche wrecca wrsecche'
wrecche^ 933 7645' 12396' 13014'
Wright 3 wright{e) wyrhta wurhte'
616?
** Wrong 14 wronge wrang wrong
11096 ii 324'
9 ivijte wite wite° 12881' [blame, suf-
fering, punishment]
*Yard 16 yerde gerd geard jerd'
jerrde° 1052 [the other cases cited
are oblique, and this may be the
accusative of dimension]
Jyare 29 yare gearu ii 237
Jyea-nay 108
♦Year 14 yere year jer'" 4552', yer'
to yere i 53', yer bi; yere 8278'
14909', yer yeer 1035 1445 1731'
8487' etc., art. 25 yer pi.
J69 yerne georne 13813' [willingly]
Jyes-no 108
:J;yore 69 ?/oore geare geara ."^895' 13484
♦Youth 16 yovthe geogo'S jujej^e'
2381 4583 7996 14139, art. 91
youtK 9612.
§ 6. Chaucer'' & Proniinciation and Omiography.
Althougli much doubt must necessarily attach to the
system of investigation here followed, and although in some
few cases it has been necessary to help out research by
theory, it has enabled us to arrive at a very definite and
detailed result, which may be put to the test of practice. I
have made the experiment of reading several hundred lines
of Chaucer's prologue to large audiences, according to the
system of pronunciation to which I have been here led, and
it has been to me a considerable confirmation of my results,
that these audiences generally, and those among them in
particular whose previous studies had made them best quali-
fied to judge, have expressed themselves satisfied with the
oral effect, as giving a new power of appreciating the lan-
guage and versification of the old master. It will be difiicult
to convey the proper impression by mere symbols, which the
* Exceptional. •• Exceptional oblique. + Adjective. X Indeclinable. \ Uncertaia Origin.
398 Chaucer's pronunciation. chap. IV. § 6,
reader will have to study, and which he will perhaps mis-
render, or at least occasionally stumble over, so that he will
not so readily appreciate the system of pronunciation here
advocated, as would be desirable for proper judgment. But
to enable the reader who dares to face such an essay as the
present, and breast the difficulty of a new notation, to un-
derstand in connection the isolated results here obtained, I
shall in Chap. YII. give the whole of the familiar prologue
to the Canterbury Tales in palaeotype as an example, inter-
leaving it with a text in which I shall follow the Harleian
MS. 733-1 as closely as possible, in a systematised ortho-
graphy. Before explaining this method, which might pos-
sibly be adopted with advantage in popular editions of
Chaucer, and other authors of the xtv th century, I shall
give a short account of the results obtained in the preceding
sections.
PROBABLE SoinsrDS OF THE Iettees iif Haeleiax ^fS. 7334,
AXD HEXCE GENERA T.LY IN THE XIV th CeXTCET.
A long, (aa) or Italian a in p^dre, English a in father, psrt-Im, iar ;
possibly {aa) as in French dge, and German mahnen, aal, when
broadly pronounced.
A short, (a) ItaUan a in Anno, or as some pronoimce a m cask, p<?st,
quite distinct from a in cfft, m«n.
AA the same as A long, (aa).
AI, (ai) as in Isa/ah, aye, Etonian pronunciation of the Greek Kai,
the German ai, Italian ahi .' French p^ien.
AU, (au), the sound of (aa) followed by the sound of (uu), German
au in hrtHS, distinct from English ou in howse.
A"W, (au) the same as AU.
AY, (ai) the same as AI.
B, (b), as now, never mute.
C, (k) before a, o, u; (s) before e, i; ci is (si), never (sh) as in mo-
dem English.
CH, (tsh), as in suc^, ma^c^, Italian ri, Spanish cli, German deu^scA.
D, (d) as now, never (dzh).
E long, (ee) EngHsh cha/r, dare, there ; very nearly the same as
French e in meme, and Italian e aperto (ee), not the same as
English in wle, frtte {ee, ee\) ; but this last sound may be used
by those who have a difficulty with the others. Never (ii), as
in modeiTi English stipre-me.
E short, (e) as now in met, p^'U.
E final, when pronounced, (e), same as E short, but generally
eUded before vowels and he, his, him, hire, here, etc., and not
sounded in otire, yotire, hire, here, seldom soimded in hadde and
sometimes mute in other words.
Chap. IV. § 6. CHAUCER's PRONU^XIATION. 399
EA, (ee) same as E long, very rarely used.
EE, (ee) same as E long.
EI, (ai) same as AI.
EO, (ee) same as E long, rarely used.
EU, has two sounds, (yy) or French u long, in words derived from
th French where the modern French orthography is ic ; and (eu)
or Italian -E'Mropa, the sound of (ee) followed hy the sound of
(uu), in all other words. Eu is never to be sounded as (iu) as
in modern neio.
E"W, (eu) the same as EU.
EY, (ai) the same as AI.
F, (f ) as at present ; never (v) as now in of.
G, (g) before a, o, u and in Anglosaxon words before e,i', in French
words before e, i it is (dzh) as the present ^em, gentle.
GH, (kh), as the Scotch loch, Irish \o\\gh, German loch ; after an.
(u) sound {kwh.) ; when the sound was (h'), (wh), or omitted,
it was otherwise written. It was never sounded as (f ).
H, (h), as in Aome ; it may have been mute in some accented
words, as host, honour, and in the unaccented he, his, him, hire,
here, hem, have, etc. When a vowel is elided before these words,
the h should be disregarded, otherwise it is most convenient to
follow the present usage. "Wlien following a vowel in the same
syllable, as in notiht, it was a gentle (kh), or (h').
I long, {it) the drawled sound of i in still, heard in singing, and
quite distinct from (ii) or ea iu steal, but the latter sound (ii)
may be substituted for it, by those who find the former («V) too
difficult. It may have been occasionally almost {ee) and then
rhymed to (ee). It was never pronounced (ai), or as the modern
pronoun I, or as ei ey, ai ay (ai), with which it is never found
to rhvnie.
I short, {i), that is, as t in the English f/nny {iiii'i), and not as (i),
that is, i in the French ^;i? (fini).
I consonant, (dzh) usually printed J.
IE, (ee) same as E long. Rare.
J, (dzh), frequently printed for I ; MSS. seldom distinguish i,j.
K, (k) as now.
L, (1) as now.
LE, ('1) as now in temp/e. It is frequently run on as (1) to the
following vowel.
M, (m) as now.
N, (n) as now.
NG, (q) or (qg) according to the same rules as now, or (ndzh) as
in stra^ige.
0 long, (oo) that is English ore, cross when lengthened, not {oo) as
in English home as usually pronounced, but as it may be heard
in the provinces ; Welsh and Spanish o long ; Italian o apcrto ;
French chose when lengthened, no trace of tapering into a final
u. Those who cannot readily say (oo) may use (oo), the usual
0 iu home.
400 Chaucer's pronunciation. Chap. IV. § 6.
0 short, had two sounds (o, u) ; generally (o) the short sound of
the last letter, not heard in usual En;,'Iish, the French homme,
Gemian holtz, Italian o aperto. Different from (o) in English
hot, which however may be used for it when the speaker cannot
reach the other sound, just as (oo) in home may be used for(oo),
but (poop pop) do not fonn a pair, as is the case with (poop pop).
Occasionally o short was sounded as short u, apparently in those
cases in which it was thus sounded in the xvi th century pro-
vided it corresponded to Anglosaxon u ; generally it was (m)
in words which now have (o) as wonder.
OA, (oo) if used, but no instance is known.
OE, (ec) same as long E, very rare.
01, (ui) as some persons call buoi/, almost Kkc ooi in woomg ; not
(oi) as in English joy, but at most (oi) as in a provincial pro-
nunciation of hoi/.
00, (oo) the same as long 0.
OU, has three sounds, (uu, u, oou) ; generally (uu) as in boot, but
occasionally («) as in p?<ll ; in words derived from Anglosaxon
aw, ow it is (oou) nearly as in the modem 'know, which may be
used for it. Sec OUGH.
OTJGH, (uukh, uuketh) when derived from Anglosaxon words
having ?< before a guttural, as in ynough, plough, drought, other-
wise (oouk2^'h, oukzfh) or (okifh) as in though, foughten, oughte.
0"W, (uu, u, oou) same as OU, but used more frequently than OU
for (oou), especially when final.
OY, (oi) the same as 01.
P, (p) as now.
PH, (f ) as now.
Q,U, (k^t'•) as now.
E, (r) only trilled, as in present red herring ; never as in modem
ear, hearing, serf, surf.
EE, (er) same as Eil, sometimes run on as (r) to the following
vowel.
EH, (r) as now.
S, (s,z). Probably the (s) and (z) sounds were used much as at
present, but was appears to have had (s). SI was (si) and
never (sh) as at present.
SCH, (sh), present sh.
T, (t) as at present, -tmm was (si,uun).
TH, in two syllables (th, dh) distributed as at present.
U long, (yy) the tme French long u, which it represented.
U short, had three sounds {u, i, e) ; the general sound was (?<) as in
pwU, but (^) or (e) was heard occasionally, and possibly had
been original (y) or short French u.
U consonant, (v), usually printed v.
XJI, UY, a very rare combination, sometimes written for oi, oy, and
then pronounced (ui) most probably; sometimes, perhaps,
written for French «?", when it may either have been (ui) or
(yy), most probable the latter.
Chap. IV. § 6. CHAUCER's ORTHOGRAPHY. 401
Y, (v) as now, sclclom distinguished from U in MSS, botli forms
tt, V being used, but v being generally chosen for the initial,
whether vowel or consonant.
"W, (tv), as now, and also occasionally the simple vowel (u), as
in sor;t'ful.
WH, (wh) as now.
"WE, {rw) as in French rot, or else (wr, w'r).
X, (ks) as now.
T, long, replaced I long, and had the same sound.
Y, short, (i) the same as I short.
Y, consonant (j) as now.
Z, (z) as now.
This gives a complete system of pronunciation, "with only
a few doubtful points, chiefly as to the pronunciation of O
short as (u).
On this view of the signification of the orthography of the
Harleian MS. 7334, we may proceed to systematize the same
thus, —
Systematization of the Orthography of Harl. MS., 7334.
A when followed by a single consonant, which is in turn followed
by a vowel or an apostrophe, will be long, otheinvise short.
A A will represent long A in other cases.
AI will be disused.
AW will be used as the diphthong (au) to the exclusion of AU.
AY will be used to the exclusion of ai, ei, ei/, for those diphthongs
(ai) which had an « in the Anglosaxon or French original.
E when followed by a single consonant, which is in turn followed
by a vowel or an apostrophe, will bo long, otherwise short.
EA will be disused.
EE will represent long E in other cases.
EI will be disused.
EO will be disused.
ETJ will represent the diphthong etc when of French origin = (yy).
EW will represent the diphthong ew when not of French origin,
and = (eii).
EY will be used to the exclusion of ai, at/, ei for those diphthongs
(ai) which had not an a in the Anglosaxon or French original.
I will represent short (i) when not final, and will be used for the
pronoun I. See Y vowel.
IE will be disused.
0 when followed by a single consonant, which is in turn followed
by a vowel or an apostrophe, will be long, otherwise short, and
the two sounds of short o will not be distinguished.
OA will be disused.
OE will be disused.
01 will be disused.
00 will represent long 0 in other cases.
26
402 Chaucer's orthograi'hy. Chap. IV. § 6
OU will represent the long sound (uu), never the short sound (u)
or the (liphtlionjr (oou).
OW will iiprcsiut the dijjhthong (oou) exclusively.
OY will represent the diphthong now written oi, oy.
U long and U sliort, though having different sounds will not he
distinguished, tlie tirst occurring only in Trench, and the latter
only in Anglosaxon words, hut the use of TJ as I and E will he
discontinued.
W vowel will only be used in diphthongs, in other cases it will be
replaced by Utl long as herberou for herherw, or U short.
Y vowel will he used in diphthongs, and for long i or (u),
— except the pronoun /, which will continue to be written /, —
for either long or short final * or y, and for the prefi-X y- or i-
of the past pai'ticiple.
The consonants, including W, WH, Y, will be used as at present,
the two values of C and G not being distinguished, and J, V being
exclusively used for I and U consonant. When C, G have to be (s,
dzh) before a, o, u in French words, an e is inserted which is not
pronounced, as hahenjeoun 76. GH medial or final, Y initial will
replace 5 uniformly instead of partially, and TH will replace \.
The two sounds of TH will • not be distinguished. H will be
written unifomily in those words where it generally appears initially.
The doubling of consonants to indicate short vowels will follow
the usual orthography.
E final or medial will be treated in such a way as to shew its
nature. ^Tien it should be sounded according to the laws of
gi-ammar or from liistorical derivation, but is elided for the sake of
the metre, whether before a vowel or consonant, it will be replaced
by an apostrophe, precisely as in modern Geraian, and all elisions
will be treated in the same way. Hence c\ y' final must be read as
(s, dzh). When it is superfluous, having no claim to be written,
but required for the metre, it will be replaced by 6. In other cases
it will be simply written as e, so that every written e will have to
be pronounced, except when it is used after c, g and before another
vowel, merely to indicate that these letters are to be pronounced as
(s, dzh). When the authority of Orrmin can be given for a final e,
it will not be considered supei-fluous.
When the fijst measure of a verse is deficient in a syllable, it
will be preceded by three dots, thus (...) to mark the deficiency.
With the exception of the (...), e and ('), which are intro-
duced for the convenience of the modern reader, the ortho-
graphy would be perfectly well understood by the person
who wrote this Harleian MS. and appears to be the ideal
which he aimed at. This orthographical system will be used
in the subsequent transcript of the prologue. It requires
occasionally some etymological knowledge in which I may
be deficient, but such trips I hope will be readily forgiven
and corrected.
Chap. IV. § 6. CHAUCEr's ORTHOGRAPHY. 403
"When a language has to be studied from its sources by
sebolars, its monuments should be presented in the form in
which they exist. Hence the value of the exact reprints of
several MSS, of Chaucer which have now been undertaken
by the Chaucer Society, and which will inaugurate an en-
tirely new system of studjdng ancient forms of language.
"VYe shall no longer echo opinions, perhaps hastily formed,
by scholars in past days, who, deserving of all praise for
what thcv did in their time, had not the advantasres which
their own labours have given to the present generation.
Each scholar will be enabled to study the sources themselves,
to compare the diif'erent forms they assume, and to conjecture
the probable reality which they partly conceal. But how
shall that result be expressed ? Speaking for the English
language only, it is evidently impossible to print the writings
prior to Caxton, in modern orthography, without presenting
a translation — to which, except linguistically, there is of
course no objection — instead of the apparently best form of
the original. Not to mention the organic difference of an
inflectional system which would be thus concealed, and the
destruction of poetical rhythm by the excision of final E, we
have the simple fact that many words found in those authors
have no similar modern form,^ and hence that if we adopted
a modern orthography, we must either replace them, or leave
them as an old patch on a new garment.
For general purposes of teaching, the great diversity of
orthography which medieval scribes indulged in, is undesir-
able, as tending to confuse the mind, and in no respect re-
paying the young student for the trouble it costs. Hence
some uniform systematic orthography is desirable, and that
which has just been explained, seems to combine every
necessary requisite for the xiv th and xv th century. For
writings which date from after the disappearance of our
inflectional system, and the silencing of final E, or say, from
after the close of the xv th century, the modern orthography,
which is now systematically employed in reprints of Shak-
spere and the Authorized Yersion, is the only one which
1 The vocabulary on pp. 379-397 liclie s., like s., lode, lydne, make s.,
furnishes the following examples : — mele, mot, nale, neisshe, nobles s. s.,
a-cale, algates, -and (in participles) offrende, onde, pirie, pose, pyle, pyne,
ariste, horde, borwe, s., breede, bpveste, racle, rathe, rede, scheene «., schipne,
chare, cheste, come s., dere, derne, schoude, sibrede, sithe, smale, steere,
dwale, elenge, -ende (in participles), stele, stempne, stevene, stounde, swere
fallas, fawe, tele, fere, fremde, funke, s., swithe, thar v., thee v., thilke, tho,
grame, hailing, harre, heire, heme, upriste, wanhope, webbe, wedde, wene
heste, hevem-iche, hewe, hie s., hiwe, s., wente s., were s., wicke, wyte $.,
howve, yk ich, ighte, kingesriche, wonger, worlderiche, yemc.
knarre, leere s. and v., lefte s., lette,
404
CHAUCER S OUTHOORAPHY,
Chap. IV. ^ 6.
ha.s a claim to be used except in designedly diplomatic
editions. Before the use of oti was introduced for (uu) at
the end of the xiii th or beginning of the xiv th century, the
complete Anglosaxou system alone has any right to be em-
ployed. Hence for school and general editions of English
works, the following systems of orthography are suggested :
1) Anglosaxon period to the close of tlie xiii th centuiy, —
the received Anglosaxon spelling.
2) From the beginning of the xiv th to the close of the
XV th century, — the sj'stem explained on p. 401,
Avhich may be briefly termed Chaucer's orthography.
3) From the commencement of the xvi th century — the
orthography now in use.
But in the last period, and even in the most recent times,
circumstances may arise where a diplomatic representation
of MSS. may be desirable.^ Such cases are however not con-
templated in any of the above suggestions, although in the
citations made in this work, diplomatic correctness has
almost always been attempted.
1 As for example, when the peculiar
ortho^aphy of the writer is of more
importance than his matter. Thus the
following reproductions of letters actu-
ally written on business within the last
three years, one by a private soldier in
a ver}' clear and legible hand, and the
other by the keeper of a servant's regis-
try office in a rapid scrawl, arc valuable
as shewing how difficult our present
orthography and punctuation are to
acquire. Several names have been re-
duced to initials, but otherwise the ori-
ginaLs have been carefully imitated.
1. To Capt. S. Esq>-
Dear Sir I wish to Informe you of a
place No 17 Kosemary Lane ware a
Drunkin woman name of Buttler Lives
her husband aD to Leive her for Idal
a
ways Sergent Atkinson was Letter
Kighter for her to her Husband to
return back again and other Smoal
Favours as promised to send her 6 or
8 mitilia men he will send to Lodge
with her their is her own famley and
her Daughters famley all Crouded in
2 smoal rooms A\'ith a Yarity of Other
Companey and filth a' Servay is
\ery much needed
Yours Respectfiilcy
and yurs mens Freind
May 22/1866
2. "Warckington.
if i had nown Last tuesday i Could
have Sent Mrs S. a good Waitresf She
as been 5 years 6 llonths at Mrs D.s
of Cockemth but Mr S. of C. Hall as
been here About her and i think he
Will have Engadged her if thay Could
Agree for Wages I have nown her for
12 years and She as been Reckomend
by Me for thatt Lenth of time I Shall
See her in Person at Cockermouth to
Morrer Monday and if not Engaged I
Shall Get her to Meet Mrs. S. She is
a Good needle Woman She only Gave
[looks like Gone, this writer does not
always distinguish o a, and writtes u,
V, n, r, and sometimes s in the same
way] her place up Last tuesdy I have
My Boock
on 2 Good Coocks and 2 very nice Girls
for House Maids i Will Dow My best
to Get one but i Must have A Little
time if M. A. C. is Engeged She as no
Farcnts here they Are Gone away [?,
written upon another word which ia
illegible] She Lived 2 years With Mrs.
J. S. in our own town her Age is 27
She is tall and a fine Loockg Girl as a
Good Heiid and fine Eye Whath i Call
a nobel Loocking Woman She is very
Steady and Con have a Good Caracter
[looks like Icnccten at first, capital C
is always like /,] from Mrs D Ob B
Peason i hope i Shall Get her to
Morrar [looks like dlonvax^ 5 years
6 Months at Mrs d.
Chap. IV. § 7. PRONUNCIATION OF THE XV TH CENTURY. 405
§ 7. Change of Pronunciation during the Fifteenth Century.
Comparing the results just obtained for the close of the
XIV th century, with those found in Chap. Ill, § 6, p. 225, for
the XVI th century, we are able to estimate the action of the
XV th century upon English pronunciation, and to give some
rough and practical indications for reading works of that
transition period.
The pronunciation of the combinations employed may be
considered as having been practically the same at the close
of the XIV th and during the first third or first half of the
XV th century, except in the points here enumerated.
Final E in the xvi th centory was retained in wi-iting, but had
absohitcly ceased to have any sound, and had come to be regarded
mainly as an orthoepical symbol for indicating the length of the
next preceding vowel, unless it was itself preceded by a double
consonant. How soon this final e was lost it is impossible to say,
but great UTegularities already occiu- in the Thornton MS. of
Lincoln, about the middle of the xvth century.^ Hence it will be
safest to omit it altogether in reading works of that and later periods.
Gross and frequent hregidarities in the use of e final in any manu-
script seem to point to the copyist's bavLiig lived about or after the
middle of the xv th century.
Short U, from being frequently used for (y) and pronoimced (?)
or (e), became estabhsbed for the latter sounds in a very few words,
as busy, hury. In other cases therefore it had best be read as (u).
Long E spKt into two sounds, retaining its sound of (ee) in many
words, but becoming (ii) in others, in which the single e was gene-
rally replaced by ee in the latter part of the xvi th centuiy. There is
no means at present of discoveiing which of the words now spelled
with ee, were at any given epoch duiing the xvth ccntuiy pro-
nounced with (ee) and which with (ii). The probabiHty is that the
two sounds coexisted in the mouths of different speakers for many
years, just as we have seen that both sounds were for several years
given to the combination ea at the beginning of the xthi th cen'tiuy.
Hence if in reading works printed by Caxton we unifonnly pro-
noimced long e and ee as (ee) we should have probably a very
antiquated pronunciation, similar in effect to the use of (griit, briik)
for great, hrealc at the present day, and if we imifoi-mly pronounced
(ii) where the spelling ee was employed in the xvith century,
(avoiding the iotacism of the present day), we should have been
thought to have a strange affected effeminate way of speaking. It
will be most convenient however to use the xiv th century style up
1 See Eev. George G. Perry's edition apply the same rhythmical principles
of the Morte Arthure (Early English as in Chaucer. But see the irregula-
Text Society's publications, 1865), pre- rities of the Lansdowne MS. 851 in
face p. viii. As however this is an respect to final e as pointed out in
alliterative poem, it is impossible to § 4, p. 320, note.
406 EARLIER PART OF THE XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 8.
to tho issue of Caxton's first work, and the xnth century style
aftonvards. Tliis is of course an lU'bitrary, but still a convenient
distinction, and some such rule is necessaiy or we should not be
able to read xv th century books at all.
Long I, wliich interchanged -svitli ey in a few words in the xrvth
centuiy, as dry, die, high, eye, became unifomily (ci) or (ai) in the
XTi th. It will be convenient after the death of Chaucer's contem-
porary Gower and his follower Lydgate, that is after the middle of
the XV th centuiy, to adopt tlie (ai) unifonnly. This is no doubt an
anticipation, but there seems to be no means of controlling it. We
haA-e indeed seen the probability of long i having been occasionally
(ii) or(n) to the midcUe of the xvi th centuiy. (Supra pp. 110, 114.)
Long 0 like long e split into two sounds, (oo, uu), the latter of
which had the spelling oo assigned to it. It will be best to follow
the same law with respect to it as with respect to e, and use (oo)
only up till Caxton's time, and then (oo, uu) as in the xvi th century.
EE, 00 must follow the same laws as long e and long o, for
which they were only substitutes.
01 probably gradually changed from (m) to (oi), but, as we have
seen, the old (ui) asserted itself in many words even in the xvi th
century. It will be most convenient to use (oi) after Lydgate or
the middle of the xv th centuiy.
EO followed the fate of long e.
EU, EW still formed two series in the xvi th century, but, as we
have seen, with different diA-isions from those used in the xrvth
century. The safest way is to adopt the xrvth century pronun-
ciation till the close of the xv th century. !Most probably we should
only run the risk of being slightly archaic in a few words.
OH, OW, where sounded (oou, ou) retained its sound ; but as
even Palsgrave 1530, and Bullokar 1580, acknowledge the (uu)
sound in other words, it will be quite legitimate to do so till the
beginning of the xvi th century.
GH may have changed slightly ; the (kf/jh) and (wh) sounds of
GH were probably entirely lost in (f ), but (kh) was retained.
We are thus enabled to read xv tli century writings, not
with great confidence certainh^ as to catching the pre-
vailing pronunciation of any period, but with a tolerable
certainty of pronouncing intelligibly, although occasionally
in an antiquated and occasionally in an afi'ectedly modern
manner.
§ 8. Pronvnciation during the Earlier Part of the xiv th
Century.
The difficulty that besets us in attempting to determine
pronunciation from orthography is the difficulty of deter-
mining the age of the MS. The tendency of writers at all
times, and even in the present day, with some important
exceptions, to disregard the orthography of the original
Chap. IV. § 8. EARLIER PART OF THE XIV TH CENTURY.
407
which they are cop^ang, and adopt that to which they are
themselves accustomed, is so strong and so difficult to check,
that even if we supposed the older copyists to have set to
work with an intention of giving a faithful transcript of
their originals, we could not hope to obtain one.^ The older
copyists indeed never seem to have entertained the least
notion that they had to give a faithful transcript, or at least
confined their notion of fidelity to a rendering of words and
not of orthographies. We may, however, lay down this
principle, for MSS. before the invention of printing : —
The Scribe always intended to make his Orthographu indicate
HIS ovr& pronunciation.
There was no notion of any historical or etymological spell-
ing, but certain definite senses were attributed to certain
combinations of letters and by means of them the scribe
endeavoured, with more or less success, to express himself.
Now throughout the xiv th century it appears to me, on
examining the best reprints, and especially those furnished
by Mr. Morris in his specimens^ that the alphabetical system
of all the scribes was essentially that which has been de-
scribed and systematised in § 6 of this Chapter. It will be
seen at once that this was not a definite and complete system,
but admitted of many ambiguities, and many varieties of
spelling several important sounds. Thus, confining ourselves
to the vowels, we may expect to find —
the sound
written as
the sound written
as
the sound
written as
(a)
a
(aa) a aa oa
(ai)
ai ei ay ey
(e)
e
(ee) e ee ea eo
oe ie
(ui)
oi td
(i)
A y ti
(ii) i y
(au)
au aw
(0)
0
(ou) 0 00 oa
(ou)
oil, ow
(u)
U 0
(uu) ou OW 0
(oou)
ou 010
(y)
u
(yy) u eu ew
(eu)
etc ew
The special mark of this system of spelling, that which
distinguishes it from the orthography of the xvi th century
on the one hand, and the orthography of the xiii th on the
^ Having lately had occasion to have
a portion of the Canterbury Tales
printed by a printer who was unac-
customed to facsimile work, I have
had painful experience of the obstinacy
of compositors and the blindness of
printers' readers in serving up and
passing over modern rechauffes of
ancient spellings. We cannot suppose
that the old copyists behaved better.
"We know that the older printed books
are full of the grossest disfigurements
of their originals, and yet there is
a better chance of correctness in a
printed book, which must be diligently
revised and can be easily altered, than
in a JIS. which is read and corrected
with difficultj'.
2 Specimens of Early English se-
lected from the chief English authors,
A.D. \'2oQ — A.D. 1400, with Gram-
matical Introduction, Notes, and Glos-
sar}', by R. Morris, Esq., Oxford, Cla-
rendon Press Series, 1867.
408 EARLIER PART OF THE XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. ^^ 8.
other, is the expression of the sound of (uu) by ou, ow with
scarcely any exception. We have not lost that method of
spelling in a few instances even at the present day.^ And
occasional instances of oi< for (mi) probably occurred, before
the general use was established. Throughout this period
also, and down to the present time simple o is occasionally
used for (uu) as well as for (u).- But it is the general and
regular use of ox or ow for (uu) that characterises this system
of spelling. The words J)Oii, now, how, oure may be taken as
convenient marks of this orthography as distinguished from
the more ancient spelling to be presently considered, so that
where we find these words thus written we may expect to
find the rest of the system of orthography just explained, a
system which may be, and probably often is, much more
recent than the date of the work to which it is adapted. In
Mr. Morris's specimens, this test will include under this
system, the whole of his book, from the Romance of King
Alexander downwards, although this Romance itself, Robert
of Gloucester, and the Metrical Psalter belong to the xiii th
century, in which a diiferent system prevailed, and the
Proverbs of Hendyng, Robert of Brunne, William de Shore-
ham, the Cursor Mundi, Sunday Sermons in Verse, Dan
Michel and Richard Rolle de Hampole, belong quite to the
beginning of the xiv th century. The MS. of Ha v dock the
Dane, as we shall find hereafter (Chap. Y. § 1, No. 5.) be-
longs to the transition period, containing both pu and pan.
It is not to be supposed that these ancient authors pronoimccd in
the same way as Chaucer, or that writers hke Eichard Rollc de
Hampole near Doncaster, and Dan Michel of Xorthgate vn Kent,
had the same method of speech or pronunciation. Far fi-om it. All
that is meant is that they used a similar system of orthography, and
that by intci-preting their letters according to this system we can
recover, very closely if not exactly, the pronunciation their tran-
sciibcrs meant to be adopted.
Dan Michel's orthogi'aphy^ is very peculiar, markiag a strong
provinci<il pronxmciation. The consonant combination ss evidently
1 The following list of ■words in italics are Anglosaxon. The use of ou
which ou = (uu) is taken from Walker : for {u) is a recent formation in : would,
Bouge, croup, group, aggroup, amour, could, should ; cowde had a long vowel,
paramour, bouse, bousy, boutefcu, ca- ^ "SValker gives the following list
pouch, cartouch, fourbe, gout (taste), for (uu) : prove, move, behove, and
ragout, rendezvous, rouge, soup, sous, their compounds, lose, do, ado, Home,
surtout, through, throughly, toupee or poltron, ponton, sponton, who, whom,
toupet, you, your, youth, tour, contour, womb, tomb. And the following for
touniay, touniamcnt, pour, and route (m) : woman, bosom, worsted, wolf,
(a road), accoutre, billet-doux, agouti, Wolsey, "Worcester, "Wolverhampton.
uncouth, u-ou)id (a hurt), and routine * At the beginning of this MS.
(a beaten road). Those words in (Arundel 57) we read : |iis boo is dan
Chap. IV. § 8. EARLIER PART OF THE XIV TH CENTURY. 409
represents sh, and has been constnicted on the same principles as
the AVelsh dd, ff, II for (dh, f, Ihh) as distinct from d, f, I =:(d, v, 1).
In precisely the same way the Spaniards wi'ote U, nn (the latter
being- contracted in the usual way to li, but the uncontracted form
occuri-ing also ^) for (Ij, nj), and so many writers have proposed hh,
it, dd, .9S, ss, for the Arabic {h, t, d, s, z). Probably Lan Michael
finding no sound of ch in sch, objected to use it. But ss is really
ambiguous ; thus in yllissed =i blessed, ss can only mean double s.
We find the same orthography ss at an earlier peiiod (see Chap. V,
§ 1, No. 3) so that Dan Michel did not invent it. Other writers
have employed the same notation.'^ His use of a, e, i, ai are clear.
The rhyme : hread dyad, seems to point to (eaa) or (ea) with the
stress on the last syllable as the value of ea. Since u is clearly used
as (u) in pus, and as the substitute for lo after h, in Imo, and ou is
employed in oiis = us, ou, u must have had their usual sounds (uu,
u), so that short o probably always represented (o) and not (u),
although it is constantly employed for an ags. u. "When ti was
long, which only happens in a few French words, it of course had
the sound (yy), but this was apparently unknoAvn to the dialect,
an important remark when we recollect that Wallis was a native
of Kent, and at the same time the last writer who insisted on the
pronunciation of long ti as (yy) in received English, (pp. 171-6).
The constant use of w as a consonant (v) often renders words difficult
to recognize. The use of by for he, and final y in the infinitive of
verbs would be quite inconsistent with an (oi) pronunciation of i,
and hence is corroboratiTe of the conclusion befoi'e arrived at (p. 297.)
The examples on p. 412, render this clear. They are taken from
the preface and the end of the book, just before the final sermon,
Ayenhite of Inwyt, p. 262.^ The Lord's Prayer and Creed may
be compared with other earlier versions in Chap. V. § 1, No. 3,
and Wilkins's version in Chap. IX, § 1.
Michelis of Xorthgate. ywrite an englis 1) CH for K, the Southern forms
of his ojene hand. We have therctore being named first, as chele for Itele =
the author's actual orthography, a most cold. 2) V for F, now disused in the
important fact. South East. 3) Z for S, found alone
1 See supra p. 193, note 3. in the Ayenhite of all writings of the
2 Thus in Thomas de Erseldoune's xiv th century. 4) Vowel before R in
prophecy of king Edward II, in the place of vowel after R, as berne for
same MS. fo. 8b, we find ssal ssel for brenne burn. 5) PS for SP as haps
shall. for hasp. 6) G for Y, as begge for
3 Dan Michel's Ayenbite of Inwyt, bge, segge for saye. (7) B for V as
or Remorse of Conscience, in the Kent- libhe, habbe, hvbbe for live, have, heve =
ish Dialect, 1340 a.d. Printed from heave. B. Voioels. 1) 0 for A, as bon
the Autograph MS. in the British for ban. 2) E for A, as aien for agan
Museum, with an introduction on the = against. 3) AW for AI=ags. ag,
peculiarities of the Southern Dialect as f awe ior fain. 4) U for I, as ftist,
and a Glossarial Index, by Richard hid, sun for Jist, hill, sin. 5) EO for
Morris, Esq., London, 1866, 8vo., pp. E, as breoste for breste. 6) An inserted
c, 359. Early English Text Society. y before e and a, as byeam byam for
The following orthographical points of beam, and dyad for dead. 7) An in-
difi"erence between the Southern and serted u before o, the only words of this
Northern dialects, are noticed by Mr. kind in the Ayenbite being buon, guode,
Morris in the " grammatical introduc- guo, gtios, zuolj, for bone, good, go, goose,
tion" to this work. A. Consonants. and Dorset zm/^, a plough.
410
EARLIER PART OF THE XIV TH CENTURY. Chap. IV. § 8.
Uioliard Hollo de Hampole, an Aufrustino monk noar Doncastor,
who died 1349, left many writinj^s in the ^Sorthem diulcft, pre-
penting a strong contrast to the Kentish, just considered. The ma-
nuscript is however not so carefully spelled, and there are many
final E's written, which were clearly not pronounced, so that we
must either assume a much later date for the actual -wniting, or
suppose that on account of the general omission of the inflectional -e
in Xortheni speech, the hahit of wiiting had hecome lax there at an
earlier period, precisely as it became lax in the South during the
XV th century as the final -e became discontinued. In the pre-
sent case, probably, both causes were in action. The Priche of
Conscieyice^ is in verse, with very perfect rhymes,'' and there can be
no difficulty in reading it. The verse, however, is so "hummocky"
that no conclusions could be drawn from it respecting the number
of syllables in a word.
A short extract will suffice to shew the action of our rules for
pronunciation. Many liberties have been taken with the pronun-
ciation of the final E's, to reduce them to order, but the orthography
of the text is !Mr. Moms' s. The e before s in the plural of nouns
and the third person singular of nouns, has been considered mute
whenever the rhythm would allow, in deference to the opinion of
Mr. MuiTay, who has made the iXorthem dialects his peculiar study.^
^ The Pricke of Conscience Stimulus
Conscientiae), a Northumbrian Poem,
by Eichard llolle de Hampole, copied
and edited from MSS. in the library of
the British Museum with an introduc-
tion, notes, and glossarial index, by
Eichard Morris, published for the Phi-
lological Society, 1863. This edition
chiefly follows Cotton. IMS. Galba, E.
ix. Six out of the other MSS. are
adaptations of the poem to a more
southern dialect. This MS. is sup-
posed not to be later than the begin-
ning of the :xv th centurj-, and is there-
fore much more recent than EoUe de
Hampole himself, and hence no reliance
whatever can be placed on the final <r.
2 In V. 1273 we find forfone ior for-
tune (which occurs in v. 1286), so
that probably bttke v. 2300, which may
have represented the northern pronim-
ciation (byyk) should be altered to boke
to rhjTue with loke in the follo\ving
line. I have not noted other faulty
rhymes.
3 The -es has been preserved in v.
480. The final -e in fonmfather v.
483 has also been retained for the
rhythm, although Mr. Mmray prefers
form, referring to formkind, fonnbirth,
formdaijs. Mr. Murray thinks that ai,
ay had in Scotland the sound of (ee) at
the beginning of the xvi th century, at
least a century before it was recognized
in the South, although we learn from
Hart that it was well known in 1569
(supra p. 122) or rather in lool, the
date of his first draft (infra Chap. VIII,
§ 3, first note). Mr. Murray's opinion
is based upon the sudden appearance of
the orthography ay about 1500 in Ga-
wain Douglas, who uses it where an
intermediate (ai) between the old (aa)
and modem {ee) is hardly conceivable,
and his often interchanging a and ay
in the same word, as bray, bra. Again
t]tare, thair, thayr are regularly con-
foimded, and bath, bathe, bnyth, baith
all occur. "We have the rhymes : Ida
lay, say Ortigia, Casscndray away, gaif
haif=gave have, rais face, say ischay
= esche. Possibly this was a period of
transitional sound from {aa) or (aa) to
(aah) or (;t>ne), and Douglas, if the xpcl-
litiy is really his, which of course is
doubtful, strove to mark it by the same
de^-ice which was known to him pos-
sibly by the pronunciation of Greek
(the Erasmian system not having been
yet introduced), namely the addition of
t, or else from the growing habit of
calling French ai (ee). There seems
to be no doubt that in the instances
named, and in : twa tway, ma may mo
—plt(res, ■vsTaith^-ttToth, maid = made,
Chap. IV. § 8. EARLIER PART OF THE XIV TH CENTURY. 411
It cannot be supposed that tMs mode of reading the wiiting of
Dan Michel, and Richard Rollc, precisely renders the pronunciation
of the dialect which they followed. We know how sKghtly dialects
axe at present represented, and how very insufficient our pronun-
ciation woidd he if derived from the usual oi-thograplucal and ortho-
epical rules. It is not likely that writers five hundi'ed years ago
should have been more accurate. They had however the advantage
of an alphabet in which the value of each combination was settled
with remarkable exactness, and hence they were able by their ortho-
graphy to make a near approach to the sound of speech around them.
But theii" alphabet only having an accurate representation of the
simple and compound sounds: (a, aa, ai, au, b, d, [dh], dzh, e, ee, ei,
eu, f, g, H, i, ii, J, k, kh, 1, '1, m, n, o, oi, oo, oou, p, q, r, viv, s, sh,
t, th, tsh, u, uu, V, w, wh, yy), although far superior to that now in
use, which only professes to represent in a very lame, confused, and
uncertain manner, the simple and compound soiinds : (aa, aa, a?, b,
d, [dh], dzh, e, 9, ee, ai, ou, f, g, h, i, ii, ii, iu, j, k, 1, m, n, o, oi,
00, p, q, r, .1, s, sh, t, th, tsh, u, uu, v, w, wh, z, [zh]), — the same
in number but differing in value, — must have been as inadequate to
represent our provincial sounds of that time, as our present ortho-
gi'aphy is to write our present provincial dialects, as may be con-
cluded fi'om an inspection of the key to Glossotype, p. 16. The
writer probably refined the dialect and selected his sounds, giving
an approximation which would have been understood by a native.
It is also possible that he may have pressed some combinations and
letters to do a double duty. Writers were ah-eady familiar with
double uses. Thus i, w were vowels or consonants ; o ^={o, u),
u = (yy, u), ou = oiv (uu, oou), eu = (yy, eu), and long ancl
short vowels were written with the same sign. But if in their
dialectic writing they took such liberties, we have no satisfactory
means, if indeed we have any means of detecting them. Such an
approximation however as results from the preceding examination
of Chaucer and Gower must certainly be far nearer the truth than
any hap-hazard reading, founded upon modem analogies without
historical investigation, and as such is worth the study and ac-
ceptance of the scholar. We may indeed feel some confidence that
Hampole and Dan Michel would have at least understood the above
conjectiu'ed pronunciation. But the usual modem English sounds
would have probably sounded as strange to their ears, as an or-
dinary Frenchman's declamation of Shakspere to ours, or our own
Southern pronunciation of Bums to an Ayrshire peasant.
aith =oath, ai could not have been (ai). dialects, both Scotch and English, and
"We cannot hut feel rejoiced to know an antiquarian research into their form
that the long neglected Scotch dialects, and histoiy, joins an extensive ac-
which are in fact those of Northern quaintance with those languages, both
England, are undergoing a thorough European and Oriental, wliich have
examination by one so well qualified in chiefly engaged the attention of philolo-
every respect as Mr. Murray, who to gists, and a long theoretical and practi-
his local knowledge of the Border cal familiarity with phonetics.
412
ILLUSTRATIONS FROM THE EARLIER Chap. IV. § 8.
Extracts fbom Dax Micnix.
Ayenhite of Inicyt.
PlLEFACE,
Holy archanle Michael.
Saynt gabriel. and Kaphael.
Ye breiigc mc to '\po castel.
ber alio zaxilon vare)' wel.
lihonl ihesu almijti kynj:;.
)'ot raadest, and lokest allc
Mo j'ct am )>i makyng :
to Jiine blisse me J^ou brynp:.
Blind, and dyaf. and alsuo domb.
Of zenenty yer al uol rond.
Ne ssolle by di-aje to \(i
grond :
Yor peny, nor mark, nc iior
pond.
L'Entot,
Kou ich "svillc ]>oi yc ywyte hou
hit is y-vrent :
\ct \\s hoc is y- write mid engliss
of kent.
pis boo is y-mad nor IcTvede
men,
Yor uader, and nor moder, and
nor o)7er ken,
ham nor to bei-je uram alle man-
yere zcn,
jjet ine hare inwyttte ne bleuo
no uoul "wcn.
Huo ase god is his name yzed,
]7et \\?, hoc made god him yeue
]7et bread,
of angles of heuene and j^erto
his red,
and ondenionge his zanlc huanne
jjet he is dyad.
Amen.
Ymende. J)ct J'is hoc is uol-
ueld ine j^e ene of ]7e holy
apostles Symon an ludas, of
ane broj^er of \e cloystre of
sanynt austin of CantcrlDcri, Ine
J^e yeare o^oiu'e Ihordes beringe.
1340.
Ajen'bu''tc of /n'wtt
p. 1.
Hoodt ark'aq-glc M/rkaa*eel',
Saint Gaii-brereel", and Eaa'faa*-
cel-,
Jee breq'e mee to dhoo kastel*
Dheer al'e zaul'en faaTeth wel.
Lord Dzhee'syy- almiZ-ht'/ k?V],
Dhet maadst, and loo'kest al"e
th?"q.
Mee dhet am dhiV maa*k/q",
To dh/V'nc bb's-e mee dhuu br/q*
Bl/nd, and cliaf, and al'svro domb,
Of zeventu" jeer al vol rond,
^Ne shol'e bu draagh'e to dhe
grond,
Yor pen*?', vor mark, nee vor
pond.
p. 262.
Xuu itsh -wil-c dhet Je i^iVe,
nuu mt h i-Avent,
dlict dh/s book is i-rwiii'Q m?'d
Eq-l/sh of Kent.
Dh/s book h e'-maad vor leu'ede
men,
Yor vaa'der, and vor mod'er, and
vor odh'er ken,
nam vor to bergh-e vram al'e
manjce're zen,
Dhet in*e naar iw^H'e ne
blee've noo fuul -wen.
* Whoo aa'se God?' «'s h/s naam
i-zed",
dlict dhi's book maad"c. God
nmi jee"ve dhet breaad
of aq-gelz of Heeven, and dher-
too" His reed,
and on'dervoq* nis zaul'e whan
dhet Hee «'s draad.
Aa'men.
/mcnd'e. dhet dhis book is
volveld- in"e dhe eev of dhe
Hoo"b' apos't'lz S?"rmoon' and
Dzhyydas, of aa"ne broo'dher of
dhe kluis'ter of saint Au'stin of
Kan'terber'j, in*e cDie jeaa^re of
uur Lhord'es beer"«'q*e. 1340.
Chap. IV. § 8. PART OF THE XIV TH CENTURY.
Extracts feom Dajj Michel.^
413
Pater noster
Yader oure J^ct art ine he-
uenes, y-lialjcd by Y\ name,
cominde ]?i riclie. y-worj^e j^i
■ndl, ase ine heuene : and ine
erj'e. bread oure ecbedayes : yef
ous to day. and uorlet ous oure
yeldinges : ase and we uorletej)
cure yelderes. and ne ous led
najt : iu-to uondinge. ac vri
ous uram queade. zuo by hit.
Pat'er nos'te r
Vaa-dcr uur'e, dhet art in-c
Hcevenes, /-nal-g^died hii iWvii
naam'e. Koo-mmd*e dhwrjrtshe.
/-■wordh-e db/ "n'/l, as m*e Heev-
ene, andin'e ertb-e. Breaaduur'e
ee'tsbedaies jef us to dai. And
Torleet* us uui"e JekV/q'cs, as*e
and wee vorleet'etb uur'e jeld*-
eres. And nee us lecd nakbt iu-
too* Tond"«q"e. Ak \xii us vram
ktt'eaad'e. Zwoo \)ii mi.
Ave Ma7-ia
Hayl Marie, of jjonke uol.
Ibord by mid j^e. y-blisscd
\ovl ine wymmen. and y-blis-
sed ye ouet of Jjine wombe.
zuo by bit.
Aa'vee Mar^'ra
Hail Harare, of thoqk'e vol.
Lbord hii niul dbee. /bl/s'ed
dbuu in'e w/m-en, and e"bl?s"ed
dbe 00 -vet of dhun'e wom'be.
Zwoo hii Hit.
Credo
Icb leue ine god, uader al-
migti. makere of bcuene, and
of Qx\e. And ine iesu cr/st,
his zone on-lepi oure lbord.
J7et y-kend is, of \e holy gost.
y-bore of ILaiie Mayde. y-
pyned onder pouns pilate. y-
nayled a rode. dyad, and be-
bered. yede doun to belle.
J^ane j^ridde day a-ros ui-am
J7e dyade. Steag to beuenes.
zit a]7e ri^t half of god J^e
uader al-niijti. Joannes to com-
ene be is, to deme J^e quike,
and ]>e dyade. Icb y-leue ine
Jjc holy gost. holy cbercbe
generalliche. Mewnesse of bal-
jen. Lesnesse of zewnes. of
ulesse arizinge. and lyf eui'e-
lestinde. zuo by hyt.
K r e e* d 0 0
/tsb lee-ve m God, vaa*der al-
mjkbt'M, maa-ker'e of Heevene
and of ertb'e. And «n"e Dzbee*-
syy Ki'^'st, h/s zoo"ne oondeep**
uur"e Lbord, dbet /kend' is, of db,e
Hoo'LV Goost, ^boo•re of Mar/ra
Maid-e, ^p^Vn•ed ond'er Puuns
Piilaa'te mail'ed aa roo'de, draad,
and beber'ed, jee'de duun to
Hebe, dban-e tbi'Kbe dai aroos*
\Tani dbe draad-e, steaagh to
Heevenes, zit adb-e r«'kbt Half
of God dbe vaaxler alni/kbt*iV.
Dban"es to koom'ene He h, to
deeni'e dbe kwi'ke, and dbe
djaad"e. /tsb «'lee"ve m*e dbe
Hoob/i Goost, Hoobn tsbertsh'e
dzben"erall/rtsbe, meen'nes'e of
Habgben, lees-nes"e of zen'es, of
vlesb'e artrz2'q*e, and l«Vf ever-
lest'm*de. Zwoo bw mi.
For tlie translation of pages 412 and 414, see p. 416.
414 ILLUSTRATIONS FROM THE EARLIER Chap. IV. § 8.
Extracts feom Richard Rolle de Hampole.
The Priclce of Conscience, v. 464-509.
And [when man] was bom til J»is wcrldys light,
He ne had nouther strenthe ne myght,
Nouther to ga ne yhit to stand, 466
Ne to crepe with fotc ne with hand.
pan has a man les myght j^an a beste
When he es bom, and es sene leste ;
For a best, wlien it is bom, may ga 470
Alstite aftii", and ryn to and f'ra ;
Bot a man has na myght )'ar-to,
"VSlien he es bom, swa to do ;
For Jiau may he noght stande ne crepe, 474
13ut ligge and sprawel, and cry and wepe.
For minethes es a child bom fully,
pat it ne bygynncs to goule and cry ;
And by J^at cry men knaw J^an 478
Whether it be man or weman.
For Avhen it es bom it cryes swa :
If it be man it says " a. a,"
pat )je fii'st letter es of jje nam, 482
Of our foi-me-fader Adam.
And if ])C child a woman be,
^lien it es bom it says " e. e,"
E es \q fii'st letter and j^e hede 486
Of ]7e name of Eve j^at bygan our dede.
parfor a clerk made on J^is manere
pis vers of metre j^at is wreten here : 489
Dieentes E. vel A. quot-quot nascuntur ah Eva.
" AUe J^as," he says, " ]>at comes of Eve,
pat es al men J^at here byhoves leve,
Whan fai cr bom, what-swa J^ai be,
pai say outlier a. a. or e. e." 494
pus es here ]7e bygynnyng
Of our lyfe sorow and gretyng,
Til whilk our wrechcdnes stin-es us,
And jjarfor Innocent says J^us : 498
Onines nascimur eiulantes,
ut nature nostre miseriam
exprimamus.
He says, " al er we bom gretand, 502
And makand a sorrowful sembland.
For to shew Jjc grete -nTeehedncs
Of our kynd ]7at in us es." 505
pus Avhen Jjc tyme come of cure birthe,
Al made sorow and na mirthe ;
Kaked we come liider, and bare.
And pure, swa sal we hethen fare. 509
Chap. IV. § 8. PART OF THE XTVTH CENTURY. 415
Conjectured Peoitonciation of Eichaiid Rolle de Hampole.
Dlie Piwk of Kon-sions- v. 464-509
And [wlien man] was born til dliz's werld"/s likht,
Hoc nee Had nudlfer strentli ne miZrht,
Nudli-er to gaa, ne jh/t to stand, 466
Nee to kreep with foot ne with nand.
Dhan nas a man les m^'/cht dhan a beest
"When Hee es bom, and es seen leest ;
For a beest, when it; es born, mai gaa 470
Als"t«^ aft'/r, and rm too and fraa ;
Eot a man Has naa m»7cht dhartoo ;
"When Hee es born, swaa to doo ;
For dhan mai ne nokht stand ne kreep, 474
Bot lig and spraul, and kr» and weep.
For uneedhz* es a tshi'hl born fuM/r
Dhat it nee b«gmz- to giiul and tvii ;
And hii dhat krw' men knaau dlian 478
Whedh"er it be man or woo'man*,
For when it es born it ki'«res swaa ;
If it bee man it saiz " aa ! aa ! "
Dhat dhe f/rst let'er is of dhe naam 482
Of mir form-e-faa"der Aa'daam*.
And a dhe tshild a woo'man' bee,
When it es bom it saiz " ee ! ee ! "
Ee es dhe fa'st letter and dhe need 486
Of dhe naam of Eev dhat bigan uur deed.
Dharfoor* a klerk maad on dhis maneer*
Dhis yers of meeler dhat is rz^ee'ten neer : 489
Diisen-tees E. vel Aa. ttvot-'kwot naskun-tur ab
" Al dhaas," Hee saiz, "dhat koomz of Eev, [Ee'vaa*
Dhat es al men, dhat Her b^Hoovz- leev,
When dhai cr bom, what-swaa* dhai bee,
Dhai sai udh"er aa ! aa ! or ee ! ee ! " 494
Dhus es Her dhe bzrgm'/q*
Of uur hVf sor'u and gTee"t»q*,
Til wh/lk \ixir rj^;etsh"ednes st/rz us,
And dhar"foor /n-osent saiz dims : 498
Om'nees nas'imur eedzhyylan*tees
ut naa'tyyree nos'tree m^'ser-iam
ekspr^maa•mns.
Hee saiz : " al er wee bom gi-eet'and* 502
And maak'and" a sor"ufnl sembland',
For to sheu dlie greet ri^ctsh'ednes
Of uur kmd dhat m us es." 505
Dhus when dhe twin koom of uiu- b/rth,
Al maad sor"u and naa m/rth ;
Naak'ed wee koom H/d*er and baar,
And pyyr, swaa sal wee nedh-en faar. 509
41G
TRANSLATIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS. CuAP. IV. § 8.
Translation of Dan Michel.
Treface.
Holy Archangel ^lichael,
Saint Gabriel and Raphael,
May ye hrinj: me tit the castle
where all .souls tare well.
Lord Jesus, ahinghty king,
That madest, and keepest all things,
Me, that am thy making,
To thy bliss bring thou me.
Blind and deaf and also dumb,
Of seventy year all full round,
Not shall' be dragged to the ground.
For penny, for maik, nor for pound.
L' Envoy.
Now I will that ye wit how it has
gone (happened),
that this book has-been written with
English of Kent.
This book has-been made for un-
learned men,
for fathers, and for mothers, and for
other kin,
them for to save from all maner (of)
sin,
that in their conscience may remain no
evil thought.
" (Mii) AVlio, (khAA) like (Eel) God ?"
i.e. Michael, Ls his name called,
that this book made. God give him
the bread
of angels of heaven, and thereto his
advice (help),
and receive his soul when that it is
dead.
Amen.
Note, that this book is fulfilled in
the eve of the holv apostles Simon and
Judas, (27 Oct.), bv a brother of the
Cloister of St. Austin of Canterbury,
in the year of our lord's bearing (birth),
1340. ■
Translation of Richard Hollb
DE Uami'ole.
And [when man] was bom to this
world's light,
He had not neither strength nor power,
Neither to go nor yet to stand, 466
Nor t(j creep with foot nor hand.
Then has a man less power than a
beast,
"When he is bom and is seen least ;
For a beast, when it is born, may walk
Inime<liately after, and run to and fro ;
But a man has no power thereto, 472
^VTien he is born, so to do ;
For then he may not stand nor creep
but [must] lie and sprawl and crj' and
weep. 475
For hardly is a child bom fully.
That it begins not to howl and cry ;
And by that cry men know then 478
Whether it be man or woman.
For when if is bom it cries so ;
If it be man it says Ah ! Ah !
That is the first letter of the name
Of our first-father Adam.
And if the child a woman be,
■^Ticn it is born it says, Eh! Eh!
E is the first letter and the head
Of the name of Eve that
death.
Therefore a clerk made on this manner
This verse of metre that is written
here :
Saying E. or A. as many as
of Eve
482
486
began our
489
are born
he
says,
"that come of
to
" All those.
Eve,
That is, all men that it behoves
live here,
"WTien they are born, whatsoever they
be.
They say either Ah ! Ah ! or Eh ! Eh !'J
Thus is here the beginning 495
Of our life's sorrow and weeping,
To which our wretchedness stirs us.
And therefore Innocent says thus : 498
We are all born howling,
that the misery of our nature
ue may express. 501
He says : " All we are bora weeping,
And making a sorro-\vful semblance.
For to shew the great wretchedness
Of our nature that is in us." 505
Thus when the time came of our birth.
All made sorrow and no mirth ;
Naked we came hither and bare, 508
And poor, so shall we fare (go) hence.
STEPHEN AUSTIN, PRINTEtt, HEETFORD.
Wo. 7
ON
EARLY ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION.
WITH ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO
SHAKSPERE AND CHAUCER,
COXTAINING AN INVESTIGATION OP THE CORRESPONDENCE OF
WRITING WITH SPEECH IN ENGLAND, FROM THE ANGLOSAXON
PERIOD TO THE PRESENT DAY, PRECEDED BY A SYSTEMATIC
NOTATION OF ALL SPOKEN SOUNDS BY MEANS OF THE ORDINARY
PRINTING TYPES.
INCLUDING
A EE-AERANGEMEITT OF PEOF. F. J. CHILD'S MEMOIES ON THE LANGUAGE OF
CHAUCEK AND GOWEK, AND REPEINTS OF THE RARE TRACTS BY SALESBTJRY
ON ENGLISH, 1547, AND WELSH, 1567, AND BY BARCLEY ON FRENCH, 1521.
BY
ALEXAl^DER J. ELLIS, F.R.S.,
FELLOW OP THB CAMBRIDGE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETT, MEMBEE OF THE LONDON SIATHEMATICAt
SOCIETT, MEMBER OP THE COUNCIL OP THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY, FOEMEELr
SCHOLAB OP TEINITT COLLEGE, CAMBEIDGE, B.A. 1837.
PART IL
(X\ THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE XIII TH AND PREVIOUS CENTURIES,
OF ANGLOSAXON, ICELiLNDIC, OLD NORSE AND GOXHIC, WITH
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF THE VALUE OF LETTERS AND
EXPRESSIONS OF SOUND IN ENGLISH WRITING.
LONDON:
PLBLISHED FOR THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY, BY
ASHER & CO., LONDON & BERLIN,
AND FOR THE EARLY ENGLISH TEXT SOCIETY, AND THE CHAUCER SOCIETY, BY
TRtJBNER & CO., 60, PATERNOSTER ROW.
1869.
ADDITIONAL CORRIGENDA IN PART I.
p. 13, 1. 7 from bottom, omit But for convenience, a very brief key is given on
p. 16.
Cancel p. 16, which is replaced by pp. 614-5.
p. 105, n. 2, 1. 6, /or Wit rend (b<>lt).
p. 107, 1. 4 from bottom of text, /or (a) read (aI).
p. Ill, 1. 6,/(w (ai, ou) read (ai, au).
p. 118, 1. 6 from bottom, /o>- tEMS read tzms.
p. 119, 1. 15, for aryl read rayl.
p. 141, 1. 8 from bottom, omit as we sounded lyke.
p. 153, 1. 9 and 3 from bottom of text, omit and which, and that the change,
p. 254, n. 1, 1. 6, omit (possibly a reference to St. Mary le bon) ; n. 3, add at the
end of this note : See note on v. 672, Chap. VII. ^ 1.
p. 265, 1. 24—26, omit But susteeiie . . . 8323.
p. 309, n. 1, 1. 3, for z read g.
p. 333, 1. 26—29, read " TjTwhitt, and the MSS. of the Six-Text Edition of
Chaucer, read thilke for the." Omit another mode . . . wikkedly.
p. 333, n. 1, 1. 8, for flengwit read Hengwrt.
p. 336, n., supply K
p. 347, art. 17, 1. 10, for -innge read -innge.
p. 355, art. 53, for Ex. to (c), read Ex. to («).
p. 371, Ex, col. 1, 1. 28, before mltow imert (c).
p. 388, after Manhood inse)-t 14.
p. 407, table col. 2, 1. 4, for "(ou) o oo oa" read "(oo) o oo oa," Note that
" (ou) OH ow" in col. 3, I. 4 is correct.
CORRIGENDA IN PART II.
p. 473, n. col. 2, 1. I, for p. 446 read t^. 447.
p. 477, n. 2, 1. 3, omit more.
p. 506, n. 2, last word, for (rid-le) read (ruu-le). See p. 573, under lU.
p. 562, translation, verse 13, 1. 4, /or yon, refl<f yonder.
STEPHEN AVSTIN, Pai>-TEn, HEETFORD.
NOTICE.
On account of the unexpected length of the present inves-
tigations, the Societies for which they are published have
found it most convenient to divide them into four parts,
instead of two as previously contemplated. The present
second part concludes most of the researches themselves.
The third part, containing Chapters VII. and VIII,, is in
the press, and will be ready by January, 1870. Chapter
VII. will contain an introduction to the specimen of Chaucer ;
a critical text of the Prologue to the Canterbury Tales, with
especial reference to final e, metrical peculiarities, and intro-
duction of French words, together with the conjectured
pronunciation ; a passage from Gower, printed for the first
time, according to three MSS. with the conjectured pronun-
ciation ; and a specimen of Wyclifie. Chapter VIII. will
contain Salesbury's and Barcley's works ; specimens of
phonetic writing in the xvi th century, by Hart, Bullokar,
Gill, and Butler ; a Pronouncing Vocabulary of the period ;
an account of French and Latin pronunciation in the xvi th
century ; an examination of Spenser's and Shakspere's
rhymes, and Shakspere's puns ; and an attempt to restore
Shakspere's pronunciation. The fourth part, will treat of
English pronunciation during the xvii th and xviii th cen-
turies, and of dialectic usages, and will contain full indices
to every part of the work, but the time of its appearance
cannot yet be announced.
A. J. E.
Kensington,
1 Aug., 1869.
CONTEXTS OF TART II.
CHAPTER V. On the Pkonvnciation of English diking the Thih-
TEENTH AND PREVIOUS CeNTI UIES, AND OF THE TeITONIC AND SCANDI-
NAVIAN SoLIlCES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
§ 1. RhjTTied Poems of the xiii th Centun- and earlier, pp. 417-485.
No. 1. The Cuckoo Song (w-ith the Music), circ^ A.D. 1240,
pp. 419-428..
No. 2. The Prisoner's Prayer (with the Music), eirea A.D.
1270, pp. 428-439.
No. 3. MLscellauies of the xiii th Century, from the Reliquia*
Antiqiiir, Early English Poems and Political Sonjrs,
with an Examination of the Norman French EI, AI,
pp. 439-466.
No. 4. The Story of Genesis and Exodus, circa A.D. 1290, pp.
466-470.
No. 5, Havelok the Dane, circa A.D. 1290, pp. 470-479.
No. 6. King Horn, circa A.D. 1290, pp. 480 483.
No. 7. Moral Ode, Pater Noster and Orison, xii th Century,
pp. 484-485.
§ 2. Unrhymed Poems of the xiii th Century and Earlier, pp. 486-497.
No. 1. Orrmin's Ornnulum, end of the xuth Century, pp.
486 495.
No. 3. Layamon's Brut, beginning of xiiith Century, pp.
496 497.
§ 3. Prose Writings of the xiii th Century and Earlier, pp. 498-508.
No. 1. Only English Proclamation of Henry III., 18 Oct.
1258, pp. 498-505.
No. 2. The Ancren Eiwle, xiii th Centur}', pp. 506 507.
No. 3. Old English Homilies, xii th Century, pp. 507-508.
^ 4. Teutonic and Scandina^-ian Som-ces of the English Language, pp.
508-564.
No. 1. Anglosaxon, pp. 510 537.
No. 2. Icelandic, pp. 537-553, and Old Norse, pp. 554-560.
No. 3. Gothic, pp. 560-564.
CHAPTER VI. On the Correspondence of Orthography with Pronun-
ciation FROM THE Anglosaxon Times to the Present Day.
§ 1. The Value of the Letters, pp. 565-588.
^ 2. The Expression of the Sounds, pp. 589-606.
\ 3. Historical Phonetic Spelling, pp. 606-618.
^N 4. Et}Tnological Spelling, pp. 618-621.
§ 5. Standard or T)T)ographical Spelling, pp. 621-623.
§ 6. Standard Pronunciation, pp. 624-632.
For the intended contents of the tchole work, see Fart I.
417
CHAPTER Y.
On the Pronuxciation of English during the Thirteenth
AND Previous Centuries, and of the Teutonic and
Scandinavian Sources of the English Language.
§ 1. Rhymed Poems of the Thirteenth Century and Earlier.
It remains for us to apply the method employed for as-
certaining the pronunciation of English during the xiv th
century, to the discovery, if possible, of that of the xiii th
century, and for this purpose it is necessary to examine the
rhymed poems of this date in manuscripts which seem to
belong with certainty to that period. Poems composed in
the XIII th century, but transcribed in the xiv th, and there-
fore presenting the peculiar orthography of the latter period,
are of little use for our purpose. This will accovmt for the
rejection of many rhymed poems which belong to this period.
The following cases ha"ve been selected with some care.
The Cuckoo Song and Prisoner's Prayer, which stand
first, have their antiquity well established, and possess the
great advantage of a contemporary musical setting, which is
of considerable assistance in determining the pronunciation
or elision of the final e. As the old notation of music re-
quires especial studj^ to read, faithful translations into the
modern notation, preserving exactly the number and pitch
of the notes, have been printed. This is precisely similar to
reducing the manuscript letters to the form of Poman types,
extending the contractions and pointing. In the first piece
the time of each note is accurately determined in the original,
and is strictly observed in the transcript. In the second,
which is in plain chant, this is not the case, and hence such
time has been assigned as was suggested by a careful ex-
amination of the notes in connection with the words.
In approaching these earlier poems we stand already upon
very secure ground. The values of a, ai, au, e, ei, eu, i, ie,
0, oi, oil, as (aa a, ai, au, ee e, ei ai, eu, ii i, ee, oo o,
ui, oou ou) have every appearance of being the most ancient
possible, and the only doubtful points turn on such fine
27
418 RHYMED POEMS — XlllTH CENTURY. Chap. V.
(listinctious as (a rr, e e, i /), which it would be impossible to
determine from the rhymes alone with certainty, since the
necessarily stronj^ly provincial character of all early poems,
will certainly admit of rhymes apparently lax, which only
represent peculiar pronunciations. In fact there was no
longer a common or a recognized superior dialect, for the
English language had long ceased to be that of the nobility.
From the Anglo-Saxon Charters of the Conqueror down
to the memorable proclamation issued by Henry III. (see
below, p. 498), and for a century afterwards, the English
language was ignored by the authorities, and was only used
by or for " lewd men."^ But there was a certain amount of
education among the priests, who were the chief writers, and
who saved the language from falling into the helplessness of
peasant dialogue.
The chief points of difficulty are the use of ou for (uu, u),
the use of u for (yy, y) and even (i, e), and of eu for (yy).
The meaning of ea, eo, oa, practically imused in the xiv th
century, has also to be determined. The result of the pre-
sent investigation may be conveniently anticipated. It will
be found that ou was not used at all for (uu, u) till near the
close of the xiii th century, when the growing use of u for
(yy) or (i, e), rendered the meaning of u uncertain. But in
the pure xiii th century writings u only is employed for (uu),
and becomes a test orthography (p. 408). The combination eu
or ew, does not seem to have been used except as (eu). The
combinations ea, eo, so frequently rhyme with e, and inter-
change with it orthographically, that their meaning was
probably intentionally (ea, eo), with the stress on the first
element, and the second element obscure,^ so that the result,
scarcely differed from (ee') or even (ee). The combination.
oa was either (aa) or {aa). The consonants seem to have
been the same as in the xiv th century, although j may pos-
sibly have retained more of the (^h) than the (j) character.
^ Man 0": to luuen 'Sat rimes ren, -which case, according to some writers,
tSe WifTed wel tSe logede imn, the first element falls into (j, w), which
hu man may him wel loken however, others deny. In (iu, ui) the
•Sog he ne lie lercd on no bokcn, stress is properly on the first element,
Luuen god and feruen him ay. as also in most provincial diphthongs
Getu'sis and Exodus, 1-5. beginning with (i), as (stiaan, mim)
J?is boo is y-mad uor kuede nun. = stone, mane. But in Italian chiaro,
Ayenbite of Inwt/t, suTpra. T^. ■112. ghiaccio (iiaa-ro, ^iat'tshio) the (i) is
^ The general rule for the stress upon touched quite lightly, and is almost
the elements of diphthongs is that it evanescent, so that (kjaa-ro, gjat'-
falls upon the first, but this rule is tsho) would generally be thought
occa.sionally nolated. Thus in many enough. A method is therefore re-
combinations with initial (i, u) the quired for indicating the stress, when
stress falls on the second element, in difficulty might arise, or when it is
§ 1, No. 1. CUCKOO SONG XIII TH CENTURY. 419
1. The Cuckoo Song (with the Music), circX a.d. 1240.
Tlie Harlcian MS. 978, in tlie British Museum, was a monk's
album or commonplace book. It is a small vellum MS. entirely of
the xin til centmy, but evidently written by many hands at dif-
ferent times. The contents are very miscellaneous. It begins with
several musical pieces, some with and some without words, Latin,
French, and English ; it proceeds to give an account of musical
notation and tones, then suddenly commences a calendar, of which
only the fii'st two months are complete, though the others are
blocked in. Then comes a letter to Alexander the Great on the
preservation of health, Avicenna on the same, account of the
seasons, melancholy, etc., all in Latin. On fo. 24, the language
changes to French, and we have recipes for oxymel, hypocrase, etc.
On fo. 32, the hand changes, but the recipes are contiuued. The
language reverts to Latin on fo. 325, and the hand changes again
on fo. 335, col. 2, line 2. "Without pursuing the catalogue further,
we may notice a change of hand again on fo. 37 and fo. 38, where
a beautifully wiitten French Esop commences. AYe have agaiu a
different hand on fo. 665, and so on. In the later part of the
volume is a Latin poem of (twice) 968 lines on the Battle of Lewes,
14th May, 1264, (piinted by Mr. T. Wright in his Political Songs,
pp. 72-121), in which the cause of the Barons against Hemy III.,
is so warmly taken,' that it must have been composed, and pro-
bably also transcribed, before they were utterly routed and ruined
abnormal, and for this purpose the ' Compare the opening lines —
acute accent may be used, as (A-iaa-ro, Calamus velociter
^iat'tshio), and similarly (ea, eo) in scribe sic scribentis,
some theoretical pronunciations of Lingua laudabiliter
anglo-saxon, and this accent may be te benedicentis,
used in all cases if desired. In Ice- Dei patris dextera,
landic I have heard the triphthong doniine vii-tutum,
(ioou) with the imusual stress on the Qui das tuis prospera
first, and (ie) when apparently (ie) was quando vis ad nutum ;
written, and in such cases the mark is In te jam confidere
indispensable. In Icelandic, I have discant universi,
also found it necessary to symbolize a Quos volebant perdere
very faint pronunciation of a letter, qui nunc sunt dispersi.
rather indicated than pronounced, Quorum caput capitur,
rather felt by the speaker than heard membra captivantur ;
by the listener, by prefixing l a cut [ , Gens elata labitur,
to such a letter, as the symbol of evanes- fideles h^tantur.
cence, so that we might write (e^a) for Jam respirat Anglia,
(ea) that is (ea), or (^-Liaa-ro, .9[iat"- sperans libertatem ;
tshLio) if preferred. If it is wished to Cui Dei gratia
shew that a whole word or phrase is so det prosperitatem !
spoken, then it should be enclosed be- Comparati canibus
tween [1; thus, clergymen will fre- Angli vUuerunt,
quently faintly indicate words preced- Sed nunc victis hostibus
ing an accented syllable, as (['n itl caput extulerunt.
■\.ee\i\a. \y'\ pahs) =and it came to pass, "Wright prints each pair of lines in one,
These symbols must be considered as as in the original MS., but the rhymes
appended to the list of palaeotj'pic signs, point out this present division, which
supra p. 12. doubles the number of lines in the
420
CUCKOO SONG
XIII TH CENTURY.
Chap. "V.
at Evesham, 4th Aug. 1205. This is therefore important in fixing;
the diitv of till' MS., but Sir Frederick Madden assipis to the first
portion of the !MS. u date twenty or thirty years earlier, and believes
that the writer, that is, transcriber, — by no means, necessarily,
author — was a monk of the Monastery at Reading, founded by
Henry I, 1125.'
poem. It was be seen from these lines
what smoothness of versification the
monks in the xiiith century were ac-
customed to, with only some slight
accentual liberties, and what perfect
rhymes they formed in Latin. We
shall find the same smoothness in a
very similar metre in Orrmin, and
hence must expect that the English
versification of the present period will
also run ^vithout stumbling, unless the
writer is very uncultivated.
> The following notes are written in
pencil at the beginning of the volume.
" The whole is of the thirteenth cen-
tury, except some writing on ff. 16b-
17. F.M."— "In all probability the
earlier portion of this volume was
written in the Abbey of Reading, about
the year 1240. Compare the Ubits in
the Calendar with those in the Calen-
dar of the Cartulary of Reading, in
MS. Cott. Vesp. E.V. F.M. April
1862." Mr. William Chappell has
kindly favoured me with the inspection
of a letter from Sir F. Madden, in
which he gives the grounds for this
opinion, and as the date of the MS. is
or considerable importance to our in-
vestigation I add an abstract of the
same, which Sir F. M. has politely re-
vised. 1. It is certain that the first
part of the MS. (say the first 30 folios)
13 considerably older than the second,
which contains the poem on the battle
of Lewes composed 1264. 2. In this
first part is a portion of a calendar,
containing the obits of Abbots Roger
19 Jan. [1164]; Au-scherius 27 Jan.
[1135]; Reginald 3 Feb. [1158];
Joseph 8 Feb. [circa 1180]; and Sy-
mon 13 Feb. [1226]. In Brotine
Willis 8 History of the Mitred Parlia-
mentary Abbies, etc., 1718, vol 1, p.
159, all these Abbots are named, as
Abbots of Reading. 3. The complete
calendar, left unfinished in Ilarl. 978,
is found [with the exception of Dec]
in the Cartulary of Reading, Cotton
MS. Vesp. E.V. fo. ll*tofo. 16*. The
latest obit recorded in the old writing
of the months after Feb., is that of Abbot
Adam de Latehury, 6 April 1238, all
later obits arc in a clearly marked later
hand. The part of the Cartulary coeval
with the Calendar was written about
1240, for fo. 22A contains a charter
dated 24 Henry III., 1239-40, and at
fo. 33i is a marginal note written sub-
sequentlv to the text, and dated 29 Hen.
III., 1244-5. In Jan. and Feb. the
obits are the same as in Harl. 978,
[with this difference that in the Harl.
MS. Abbot Roger's obit is given under
19 Jan., and in the Cotton MS. under
20 Jan.] From these facts Sir F.
M. "considers it proved by internal
evidence. First, that the Calendar in
both MS." and conse(]uently the pre-
ceding parts, "was wntten in 1240 or
very little later. Secondly, that the
Calendars . . . were undoubtedly written
at Reading, bv a monk of that house.
Lastly," he adds, "there is a remarkable
entr)-"in the Calendar of Harl. 978 (but
omitted in that of Vesp. E.V.) on St. Wul-
Stan's day, 19th Jan., as follows : — Ora,
Wulstaue, pro nostra fratre Johanne de
de Fornsite. I am strongly tempted
to regiird this John de Fornsett, (who,
from his name must have been a native
of Norfolk), as the Scribe of the ]\JS.,
for I cannot otherwise account for the
odd introduction of his name in the
Calendar." The entry referred to is
literally as follows, the italics indi-
cating extended contiactions : — " xiiu
k«l«i6?a4 Wlstani c\)iscop\ obiit Rog«;r?M
abbfj*. Ora Wlstane pro nostro iratre
Johanne de fonifete." The omission
of the u after If, as in Wuhtnn is not
uncommon, but it is noteworthy in
this place, because in the Eng-
lish Song, which will be presently
given at length, wdi for wiule occurs,
and this k priori connects the two
writers together, but of course the per-
son who wrote that entry, which is in
exactly the same handwriting as the
rest, could not have been John of
Fornsett. Hence I should consider
this entry as making it highly probable
that this monk was not the scribe,
and the singular insertion may be due
to his having been an intimate friend
§ 1, No. 1.
CUCKOO SONG — XIII TH CENTURY.
421
This MS. contains on fo. 10b. the music and words of the Cuckoo
Song, which, Mr. AV. Chappell says, "is not only one of the first
English songs with or A^ithout music, hut the first example of
countei-part in six parts, as well as of fugue, catch, and canon ; and
at least a century, if not two humb'ed years, earlier than any com-
position of the kind produced out of England." ^ This song which
of the scribe. The MS. was evidently
one for private use, and this note of a
friend's death is anythiiigbut surprisinj^.
" You arc probably riglit as to John de
Fornsete not being the scribe," re-
marks Sir F. M., "still the introduc-
tion of his name is very singular, and
I do not recollect any other instance
of a, friend hcing thus commemorated."
The above historical external evidence
of the real date of this MS., is rendered
the more important because Hawkins
2, 93, and Burncy 2, 405 in their His-
tories of Music, attribute it to the
XV th centuiT, " misled," says Sir F.
M., " by an ignorant note of Dr. Gif-
ford on the fly-leaf of the volume," and
by the nature of the musical composi-
tion, which they supposed could not
have been Avritten before the time of
John of Dunstable in the xv th century,
an opinion refuted by Mr. W. Chap-
pell, who quotes Walter Odlington,
1228-1240 (Scriptorum de Musica
Medii iE\'i novam seriem a Gerbertina
alteram coUegit nuncque primum cdidit
£. de Cottssimaker, Paris, 1863, 4t().,
p. 245) to this effect : " Habet quidini
Discantus species plures. Et si quod
unus cantat omnes per ordinem reci-
tent, vocatur Rondellus, id est, rotahilis
vel circumductus." "We also know
that the English spelling of Cuckoo in
the XV th century was Cuekow, not
Cuccu, which could only have been
used in the xiii th.
' W. Chappell, F.S.A. Popular
Music of the olden time, a collection
of Ancient Songs, Ballads, and Dance
Tunes, illustrative of the National
Music of England, etc. The whole of
the airs harmonized bv G. A. Macfar-
ren. (Printed 1855-9) p. 23. Mr.
Chappell has given a fticsimile of this
song as the title page to his work, and
says, in the explanation of that plate :
" The composition is in what was called
' perfect time,' and therefore every long
note must be treated as dotted, unless
it is immediately followed by a short
note (here of diamond shape) to fill
the time of the dot. The music is
on six lines, and if the lowest line
were taken away, the remaining Avould
be the five now employed in part
music, -where the C clef is used on
the third line for a counter-tenor
voice. . . . The Round has been re-
cently sung in public, and gave so much
satislaction, even to modern hearers,
that a repetition was demanded."
He adds in another place, p. 23 : —
" The chief merit of this song is the
airy and pastoral correspondence be-
tween the words and music, and I
believe its superiority to be owing to
its having been a national song and
tune, selected according to the custom
of the time as a basis for harmony,
and that it is not entirely a scholastic
composition. The fact of its having a
natural drone bass woiUd tend rather
to confu'm this view than otherwise.
The bagpipe, the true parent of the
organ, was then in use as a rustic in-
strument throughout Europe. The
rote, too, which was in soinewhat better
estimation, had a drone, like the modern
hurdy-gurdy, fi'om the turning of its
wheel. When the canon is sung the
key-note may be sustained throwjhout,
and it will be in accordance with the
rules of modem hannony. But the
foot or burden, as it stands in the
ancient copy, will produce a very in-
different effect on a modern ear, —
we ought perhaps to except the lover
of Scotch reels — from its constantly
making fifths and octaves with the
voices, although such progressions were
not forbidden by the laws of music in
that age. No subject would be more
natural for a pastoral song than the
approach of summer, and, curiously
enough, the late Mr. Bunting noted
down an Irish song from tradition,
the title of which he translated * Sum-
mer is coming,' and the tune begins
in the same way. That is the air to
which Moor(! adapted the words, ' Rich
and rare were the gems she wore.' "
This resemblance is perfectly fortuitous,
and does not extend beyond the first
three notes, the fourth note of the Irish
422
CUCKOO SONG — XIII TH CENTURY.
Chap. V.
is BO prcflt a musical curiosity, is also a valualjle contribution to our
knowlodj^o of cariy English pronunciation. In order to make the
song more readily legible, it will be here intcri»reted into the
onlinary musical notation,' the English words in Roman type, and
below them the Latin hymn, by which it perhaps obtained its in-
troduction into the monk's commonplace book,* in Italics, (which
when used for entire passages will indicate red ink,) and a literal
translation of the notes into modem music. On the opposite page
will be given the metrical arrangement, conjectured pronunciation,
and literal translations.' See pp. 426, 427.
air runs into a totally difFerent chord.
The fact that the song was in six parts,
has occasioned some persons to sup-
pose that it was alluded to in the last
stanza of the ' Turnament of totenhrtm,'
Harl. MS. 5396, fo. 310, the hand-
writing of which is referred to a.d.
1456. As the stanza is not printed
quite correctly in Percy's Reliquts, 2nd
ed., ii, 15, it may be added here as
transcribed from the original MS. It
is scarcely right to suppose, however,
that the "Cuckoo Song was the only
six part song known.
At \at feft Jiay were f?>aiyd wttA a
ryche a ray
Euery .V. and v had a cokenay
And fo >ay fat in jolyte al >e lang day
And at \e laft )'ay went to bed wttA
fill gret deray
mckyl myrth ivas J'em amang
In eufry comer of )'e hous
"Was melody delycyous
For to here precyus
of vj menys fang.
Dr. Rimbault'has published a modem
version of this song in his Ancient
Yocal Music of England, Novello, Xo.
13, in which he says: "the editor
has followed an ancient transcript in
the Pepysian Library, which omits the
two bass parts forming the burden,
in the Museum copy, and has added an
Accompaniment upon a drone bass.
The effect produced is considerably im-
proved." Dr. Rimbault has politely
informed me in a private letter to Jlr.
G. A. Macfarren, that he obtained his
copy of this transcript fi'om the late
Prof. Walmislcy of Cambridge, in 1838.
Mr. Aldis "Wrig'ht kindly made a search
for the original in the Pepysian Library,
but was unable to find a trace of it.
' Hawkins and Burney (supra, p. 420,
note 1, near the end',) have given
translations with aU the parts written
at length, but have not arranged the
words properly. In the present inter-
pretation the arrangement of the ori-
ginal is followed, and for one deriation
from the former translations I am in-
debted to Mr. "William Chappell.
2 Mr. G. A. Macfarren, the com-
poser, in reply to my question whether
he considered the English or Latin
words to have been the original, says :
" I am strongly of opinion that the
music was composed to the English
words, and the Latin Hymn afterwards
adapted to it, because it was a common
firactice to adapt sacred words to secu-
ar tunes (as for instance, Thomas,
archbishop of York in the xith cen-
tury and Richard Yichys of Ossory in
the XIV th wrote many such), but it
would have been regarded as a dese-
cration to appropriate a church theme
to a secular subject. "Witness also the
many masses set to music, throughout
which the French song of Vhomme
Anne is employed as a canto fermo,
and Josquin de Pre's Mass on this Song
in praise of Chess, in proof of this same
church practice." To this we may add
that there are no Latin words to the
Fes or Burden, which is an essential
part of the harmony.
3 This arrangement is reprinted from
the work cited below, p. 498. As re-
spects the language, all the words are
ags. except cuccu, stert, uert.
The first cuccu as we shall see is
onomatopoetic (imsonic, or mimetic),
the second stert, and its diminutive
startle, is fully at home in the German,
old sturzan, new stiirzen, and Scandi-
navian, Danish styrte, Swedish storta,
and may be a development of stir, or
may be related to the same root as ags.
steortan to erect, steort a tail, steart a
spine, see Dief. Goth. "W. 2, 304, 315,
333, "Wedgewood, Etym. Diet. 3, 314.
As to the third uert, Dr. Stratmann
suggests fert, which would be the
§ 1, No. 1. CUCKOO SONG — XIII TH CENTURY. 423
The musical notes, with, their precise yalue in time, and the Latin
hymn, determine the number of syllables. As we find however the
Latin accent occasionally violated (non parcms, vite dondt ef secum
corondt), we cannot be surprised at a similar violation of the Eng-
lish, in TFel singes ]iu. Taking the notes as intei'pretcd on p. 426,
it would seem easy to rearrange the words so as to avoid this false
accentuation, but the ligatures of the original, corresponding to the
slurs in the translation, forbid this rearrangement, which, with
other liberties, Hawkins and Bumey have not hesitated to adopt.
Hence we find that this termination -es, might be, and probably
was, fully pronounced. On the other hand, the termination -e^p,
although fiilly pronounced in growe\, hlowe\, was elided, either
after a vowel or consonant, when convenient for the metre as in
spring^ ; or for the music, as in lhou\. In the latter case the metre
would require the syllable -e\ to be fully pronounced, compare
Awe blete)) after lomb
Loue]) after calue cu,
but the musician ventured not only to dock a syllable, but to put the
whole heavy truncated word lhou\ to a short note. This may teach
us that our older and ruder poets did not hesitate to lay words on a
Procrustean bed. In med, bulluc, ags. medu, bulluca, the poet took
the same liberty, and elided the final -e, for the rhyme in the first
case, for the metre in the second. This precisely agrees with what
we determined to be the occasional practice of the xivth century
(p. 342, No. 5), and shews that the omission was absolute, not a mere
slurring over or lightly touching of the sound. We must consider
that the words were felt to be as really truncated as Etch' for Huhe
appears to be in modern German speech, for we have the essential
-e preserved in wde, awe, bucke, the dative -e in calue, the adverbial
-e in Ikude, mtirie, all of which have a distinct musical note assigned.
In the last word, however, both vowels in -ie are given to one note,
as many a time would be given to three notes only in modem ballads.
The piincipal fact, however, that we learn from this song, as to
the pronunciation of the letters in the xrn th century, is that long
(uu) which was represented generally by ou and occasionally by o,
but never by u, in the xrv th century, was now invariably repre-
sented by ti. This is deduced from the word cuccu, which is mani-
festly an imitation of the cry of the bird,^ as in French coucou, old
French eoucoul, Italian cuculo, German kukuh, kuckuk, Dutch koekoeh
(kuu'kuuk), Latin cuculus, coccyx, Greek kokkv^, Sanscrit kokila?
ags. feortan, pedere, but tbis change such an mterval in connection with the
of / into V, although frequent in old cry, being in v. 6, where in sing cuccu
MSS, is not confinned by any other he first descends and then ascends a
usage in the present poem, and the use of minor third, the notes being f df.
a Norman word vert in a hunting phrase * " Cuckoo in English is clearly a mere
seems natural. The use of the word as imitation of the cry of that bird, even
a verb, however, requires confirmation. more so then the corresponding terms
1 The musical interval of the cry is in Greek, Sanskrit, and Latin. In
a descending minor third, which the these languages the imitative element
composer has not imitated, the only has received the support of a derivative
instance in which he has introduced suffix ; we have koki^ in Sanskrit, and
424 CUCKOO SONG — XIII TH CENTURY. Chap. V.
The sound must have been (kuk'kuu*) or (k?<k*kuu") or simply
(k?<k'u), as at present. The ortliop:raphy may be eompared with the
cuclcow of Chaucer 17174 (supra p. 305), where the short (u) remains
the same, but the long (uu) is represented by ow. Agreeing with
this we have Ihude, nu, cu, }>« wliich were hicde loude, now, cow,
thou in Chaucer. And thus the cliaracteiistic difference between
the orthographies of the xinth and xrvth centuries (p. 408,) is
established by reference to a bird's cry, which cannot have changed.
But u in the xiu th century lUd not always represent the sounds
(uu, u), as we sec by the word murie, which however is not enough
in itself, or even when compared with the ags. mirige, to establish
the second sound of u as (i) or (e), or originally (y) as previously
suggested (p. 299). In Hali Meidetihad^ we constantly find u for i
or y. Thus in the first page, hW^eluker ags. bU^eUce, blithely,
lustni ags. lystnan, listen, hrudlac, ags. biydlac, maniage gift, clup-
pinge ags. clyppan, clip embrace, hwuch ags. hwilc, which, \u7icke^
ags. ])incan, seem ; euch each, in which last word the sound (eutsh)
is almost unthinkable. The town of Hertford is so spelled in the
French version of the English proclamation of Henry III, but
appears as Hurtford, in the contemporary English version, 1258.
The conclusion seems to be rather that the u, which was properly
and generally employed as (uu, u), was coming into use to replace
the ags. y (y), which it succeeded in doing by the cud of the xni th
century, thereby necessitating the recun-ence to oit for (uu), Was
this double use of t(, then, due to the Xorman influence ? In the
French version of the Proclamation already cited,- we have Cunte,
tuz, nus, pur, sicum, mrz, stmt, etc., in w^hich u was most probably
(uu, u), while in Due, saluz, greignure, esluz, {urgent, desuz, etc.,
the sound could hardly have been other than (yy, y). The
Norman u derived from Latin u may have been frequently (yy), and
that derived from Latin o, may have been generally (uu). The
point is not yet satisfactorily established,^ and the English and Nor-
kokkyx in Greek, cuculm in Latin, as other names for the cuckoo, old Sla-
(Pott, Etjrmologische Forschungen, i. vonic gz'egz'olka, Lithuanian ge'guz'e,
84 ; Zeitschril't, ill. 43). Cuckoo is, in Lettish dfeggufe and Lithuanian ku-
fact, a modem word, which has taken koti, to scream like a cuckoo, old Xorse
the place of the Anglosaxon gvac [^«A"], gaukr (ga'CCikr) etc., and gives other
the German Gauch (gaukjt^h), and, examples of names of birds from their
heing purely onomatopoetic, it is of cry. Cumberland (gauk), Scotch (gauk).
course not liable to the changes of ^ Hali Mcidenhad, from MS. Cott.
Grimm's Law. As the word cuckoo Titus D. xviii.fol. 112c ; an alliterative
predicates nothing but the sound of a homily of the thirteenth century, edited
particular bird, it could never be applied by Oswald Cockade, M.A., once of St,
for expressing any general quality in John's College, Cambridge; published
which other animals might share ; and for the Early English Text Society,
the only derivatives to which it might 1866. 8vo. pp. 50.
give rise are words expressive of a me- * Both versions are given below,
taphorical likness with the bird. The pp. 500—505, accurately printed from
same applies to cock, the Sanskrit kuk- the originals in the Public Record
kura." Max Miiller, Lectures on the Office.
Science of Language, 1861, p. 347. ^ Mr, Payne is of opinion that the
Pott, in the passage referred to, gives Norman m, ui, were always (uu). Com-
§1, No. 1. CUCKOO SO-NG — XIII TH CENTURY. 425
man orthographies derive so differently, that in the xm th century
they can scarcely be held to influence each other. Hence the in-
troduction of ou for (uu) into English may be a native development,
as akeady stated, and not due to French customs. The frequent
appearance of u, where i would be expected, in Western English,
as in dude, lute for dide, lite, ^^^'Y ^^ most indicate a wider geo-
graphical extension of that sound (y) which is now nearly con-
fined in the west to Devonshii'e. In our inability however to
determine the last, especially in Eastern and Southern English,
where we find the orthographies «, «', e interchanging, we have
no choice but to pronounce as V, e {i, e). See the remarks on the
same use of u in the xivth centuiy, supra pp. 298-300. Numer-
ous examples will occur in the following pages of this section.
We gather then from the Cuckoo Song: 1) that ou, ow were
used for (oou) only, as in Ihouji, growe]>, ags. hlowan, gi'owan, and
never for (uu, u) which were uniformly represented by u, but u
itself was probably ambiguous, and also represented an actual or
older (yy, y), which was interchangeable with i, e ; 2) that e final
was regularly pronounced, but might be suppressed even not before
a vowel, when required for the metre or rhyme ; 3) that -ep might
be pronounced or suppressed ; 4) that -es might be so distinctly
pronounced as to be sung to an accented note.
As regards the remaining letters and combinations no information
is given, but on the other hand there is no reason to suppose them
different from the sounds afready obtained for the xiv th centuiy.
The words are practically the same. The consonants no doubt had
not altered. The vowels a, e, o had already received their most
ancient powers (a, e, o). The only doubt affects i, which in the
XIV th century we concluded to be {ii, i). There can be little doubt
that the Latin value of these letters was (ii, i), but it does not
follow that when the Saxons changed their runic for the Eoman
alphabet, they actually said (ii, i). If they had said {ii, i) it would
have been near enough. In subsequent examples we shall frequently
find i, e short confused, which would still lead us to suppose that i
short was {i) rather than (i). But fr-om this time forth the evidence
is not strong enough for long i being {ii). It certainly could not
have been (ai), if we were right in concluding that it was {ii) in
the xivth centuiy (p. 297). In this doubtful state of the case, I
shall adopt (ii, i) as the long and short sound of i, in all my indi-
cations of the pronunciation of the xttt th century and earlier, and
content myself with recording here once for all that I consider the
short i to have been certainly (»), and that the time when long i
passed from {ii) into (ii), if there ever was such a time in England,
is unknown. Upon these gi'ounds I have drawn up the pronun-
ciation exhibited on (p. 427).
pare: bure mesaventure, bure couver- m had almost certainly the sound of (j^y),
ture from King Hora, infi-a. p. 480, and and it is possible that this later ortho-
the spelling huis mtiis, p. 449. When graphy may be a guide to the oldest
the spelling ou was established for (uu), pronimciation.
42G
CUCKOO SONG XIII TH CENTURY.
Chap. V.
[Pastoralf."]
THE CUCKOO SONG.
From the JTarleian MS. 978, /o. 10 *.
ft
O-X
It:
221
-G—G-
Z=t
Z5I
JSZ22:
[TKJfOR.]
32:
J2_(2.
v-mer if i - cu-men in. Lhud-e fing cuc-cu. Grow-e)? fed andblow-e}?
Fer-fpi - ce christ - J - co • la. que dig-na • ci - o. ce - li - eus a - grt - eo-
-h 1
a
—G> G—
''/•
-«-
r-&-ri
-G-r
r^
-w-
Q '
-^^-r
a
^>^-^
— — 1 —
!
—
g=- ^ O
-^t-
med andfpring)? {^e w - de nu. Sing cue • cu
la pro ui-hf vt - ct - o. ft - h - o
Aw - e ble-te)> af - ter
non par • cenf ex - po - fu-
-jK^ \ \ f 1 r. ,,--G-f-
4 )^^ ^- ^-^ -G-^^ -^. "^-. -G-^ 1 L_ .
lomb. Ihoujj af - ter cal - ue cu.
it. mor - tii ex - t • ci - o ■
Bull-uc ftert - ej>. buck - e uert - e{>
Qui cap • ti - uos fe - mi - ui - vo$
i
9
32:
2ZE. ..
■G-^
22_!
ZCL
SIu - rie fing cue - cu
a fup • ph-et - 0 —
Cuc-cu cuc-cu "Wei fin-gef |ju cue-cu ne fwik
Vi - te do - not et fe-cumcor-o - fMt in ce-
t
X
]pa nauer nu.
It fo - h - 0
m
-G-f
Hanc rotam cantare poffimt quatuor focij. A paucio-
ribuf autem qwam a tnbus uel faltem duobus noM debet
dici. preter eof qui dicunt pedem. Canitwr autem fie. Tacen-
tibwicetcnf uniwinchoatcumhijf qwttenent pedem. Etcumuenent
ad pnmam notam post crueem ! inchoat ahuf. & fic de cetens
finp«H uero repaufent ad paufacionef fenptaa 4
now ahbi : fpaoio uniuf lonpe note —
m
ptf
s
'■ng cuc-cu nu. Sirg cuc-cu.
m:^
±&
hoc repetit unns quocienf opus est '•
facverif patifactonem In fine.
hoe dicrt alias, pavfans (n medio & non (n
ing cuc-cu. Sing cuc-cu nu fCue. Sed (mmediate repeteas pnnciptum.
§ 1, No. 1.
CUCKOO SONG — XIII TH CENTURY.
427
THE CIJCK
From the Harleian
Early English Original.
Svmcr if icumen in.
Lhude fing cuccu.
Growe]? fed
and blowe]; med
and fpri'ngj; j^e wde nu. 5
Sing cuccu
Awe blete]' after lomb.
lhouJ» after calue cu.
Bulluc fterte]7.
bucke uertej? 10
Mune fing cuccu.
Cuccu cuccu
"Wei fingef Jju cuccu
ne fwik J'u nauer nu.
Pes.
Sing cuccu.
Sing cuccu nu
15
Sing cuccu. Sing cuccu nu.
0 0 S 0 N" G.
MS. 978, fo. lOi.
Conjectured Pronunciation.
Suu'mer is ikuu'men in.
Lhuu'de siq, kuk'kuu* !
Groou'cth. seed,
And bloou-eth meed,
And spriqth dhe uud-e nuu.
Siq, kuk-kuu' !
Au*e bleet'eth af-ter lomb,
Lhoouth af'ter kal-ve kuu.
Bul'uuk stert'eth,
Buk-e Tert'eth,
Mer-ie siq, kuk-kuu !
Kuk-kuu" ! kuk'kuu* !
"Wei siq-es dhuu, kuk-kuu* !
Nee swiik dhuu naver nuu.
Pees.
Siq, kuk-kuu-, nuu ! Siq, kuk*-
kuu- !
Siq, kuk-kuu- ! Siq, kuk-kuu*,
nuu
Verbal Translation of the Early English. — Summer has come in, Loudly sing,
cuckoo ! Grows seed, And blossoms mead, And springs the wood now. Sing,
cuckoo ! Ewe bleats after lamb, Lows after (its) calf (the) cow. Bullock leaps,
Buck verts (seeks the green), Merrily sing, cuckoo ! Cuckoo, cuckoo ! Well
singest thou, cuckoo, Cease thou not never now. Burden. Sing, cuckoo, now !
sing, cuckoo ! Sing, cuckoo ! sing, cuckoo, now !
Latin Hymn to the same notes. — Perfpice Xp'icola. — que dignacio. — celicus —
agncola — pro uitif vicio. — fiho — non parccnf exposuit — mortis exicio — Qui
captiuos— femiuiuos— a supplicio — vite donat — et secum coronat — in cell folio.
Verbal Translation of the Latin Hymn. — Behold, Christ-Worshipper [Christi-
cola) What condescension ! From heaven The husbandman For the fault of the
vine, His son Not sparing has exposed To the destruction of death. Who the
captives Half-alive From punishment Gives to life, And crowns with him In
heaven's throne.
428 prisoner's PRAYER — XIII TH CEKTURY. Chap. V.
Three peculiarities will hero be noticed (au"e, lomb, naver),
correspondinj; to awe, lomb, naver, in the M8S. Since, then, the
scribe is supposed by Sii- F. Madden to have been a Norfolk man,
I endeavoured to •write the song in the present Norfolk pronun-
ciation, and haWng submitted the following to competent re%-ision
I believe that it is sufficiently con-ect to shew that il" the old pro-
nunciation, already given (p. 427), has any claim to consideration,
there is no ground to suppose that the song was written in an
East Anglian dialect. The East Mitlland form singes, which may
have been a scribal error for singest, is the only East Anglian
point of grammar, and nauer of sound.
Norfolk Pronunciation of the Cuckoo Song.
(Som-j iz kam m. Bwl'ak sta.rt"eth,
LEuddi siq, k?<kuu" ! Bak waat-eth,
Gnuiu'eth seed, Mer'/l/ siq, k?/kuu' !
And blaau-eth meed, K«kuu-, k?<kuu- !
And spr/qth dhe ud nEu. "WeI s/q"est dhEu, kwlniu* !
S/q, ki/kiiu- ! Not sees dhEu naevjc ueu).
JoovL bleet-eth aft -J lam,
Laauth aft"J kaLf kEu,
2. The Peisoxee's Peayer (with the Music), circa a.d. 1270.
In the Record Room of the Town Clerk's Office in the Guildhall
of the City of London, is preserved an old quarto vellum manuscript
known as the Liber de Antiquis Legibus, of which a re-arranged
transcription was made by Mr. Stapleton for the Camden Society,^
and a translation has been more recently published by Mr. Riley .^
Neither of these works mention a poem in Nomian French and
English, with musical notes, which is inserted at the end of the
volume, although Mr. Stapleton gives passages which occur imme-
diately before and after it, and upon one of the pages of the song.
Both transcriber and translator seem to have considered the song as^
worthless, or as iiTelevant to the other matters in the book. No
doubt it did not foiTa part of the work. It seems to have been in-
serted as a useful piece of parchment, and the old numbeiing of the
foHos does not go so far. But it is entii-ely in a xiii th centmy
hand, exactly similar to that of the Cuckoo Song, and the musical
notes, although not WTittcn in strict time, are of precisely similar
forms. It would seem to be a piece of parchment and -writing older
than many parts of the book itself, and probably coeval with the
Cuckoo Song.^ The music is adapted to the French words, which
* De Antiquis Legibus Liber. ' Henry Tliomas Riley, Chronicles
Cronica ^laiorum et Vicecomitum of the Mayors and Sheriffs of London
Londoniarum et quedam, que contin- a.d. 1178 to a.d. 1274. London. Triib-
gebant temporibus illis ab anno ner. 4to. 1863.
MCLxxviii ad annum MCCLXXiv^; cum ^ The following notes will enable
appendice. Nunc primum typis man- the reader to insert this song correctly
data curante Thoma iStapleton. 1846. in Stapleton's transcript. The numbers
§1, No. 2. PRISONERS PRAYER XIII TH CENTURY.
429
are careMlv placed under their notes, but the English translation,
written under the French, is not kept strictly under the correspond-
ing notes and often nins to a considerable length beyond the French.
Both begin together at the beginnings of stanzas. There are several
mistakes in the English, and one word deleted in the French and
not restored. This and the absence of musical notes to the few last
words, shews that the manuscript was not properly revised- It is
therefore necessary to add a coiTected text (pp. 435, 437), which is
that followed in the subsequent remarks.'
The notes, which are now first published (pp. 432-3), presented
considerable difficulty, from their being written in plain chant, and
therefore without any division of time, the length of the notes being
left to the feeling of the singer, as in modem recitative. In the
following edition I have duly translated the pitch of each note, and
expanded the ligatures into slurred notes, placing the French words
in brackets are those of the folios
numbered in an ancient hand, the
other numbering is modern and in
pencil. I hare to thank the courtesy
of Mr. Town Clerk for allowing me to
inspect the book and make such ex-
tracts as were necessary.
Fo. [157], a. Fuit vir quidam, Stap.
238. This ends on fo. [158], «, last
paragraph. This folio contains, Iste
vero. A. natus fuit anno domini mo.
ducentesimo primo, Stap. 239. The
Mem., 1586, Stap. 253, ke la Reyne
Isabel etc. L'an E. xx. is ia a totally
different hand.
Fo. [159], «, the six Latin lines, Stap.
253, In hoc folio continentur etc.
Fo. 159, b, is blank, but both 159, a
and b are ruled for double columns
and for writing.
Fo. 160, a, is, blank and not ruled, ap-
parently an old piece of parchment,
used and put in.
Fo. 160, b, and 161, a, the words and
music of the Prisoner's Prayer.
Fo. 161, 6, the last words of the same
Prayer, viz. " et jor et doint ioye
certeyne," and "we moten Ey and
o habben the eche bliffe," without
either musical notes or staff. This
page also contains the notice : Cum
de edifices, Stap. 253.
Fo. 162, a, the five lines, Una Nero
die, Stap. 253.
Fo. 162, b. A hymn consisting of ten
lines and a half of musical staff,
with Latin words : In translatione
beati thome, the whole crossed out
with one cross.
Fo. 163, a and b. The notice of Thed-
mar, Stap. 239, Fo. 163 5, is the last
written page, there are however
three other blank folios, and one
with scribbling upon it, which ends
the book.
The handwriting of the Prisoner's
Prayer corresponds with that in the
best and oldest writing in the book,
and cannot be later than 1250.
1 The English text of the Prisoner's
Prayer appears to have been first pub-
lished in the Eeliqufe Antiquaj i, 274,
from a transcription by .J. 0. Halliwell,
which reads, incorrectly, v. 1, nun
for m i « , V. 16 1 i c t h for 1 i c 1 1 i, v.
26 p r s u n for p >• « s u n , v. 38 us for
bus and v. 39, misse for mil se,
and arranges v. 13, 14 thus
For othre habbet misnome
Ben in this prisun i-broct.
The present copy is re-printed, from
the work cited below, p. 498, n. 1, with
an improved stanza III, and the cor-
rection V. 41 wu fit go for wn fit.
go, the result of renewed inspection.
The corrected text has also been re-cor-
rected, especially in the verse last cited,
where Dr. Stratmann's conjecture that
go w u fit go stands for go h u so
it go has been adopted, wu=whu,
being a not unfrequent form of h u in
the XIII th century, (infra p. 440,)
and the contraction sit for so it
being partially justified by Orrmin's
jho't for jho itt = she it, and
h e' t for he i 1 1. Most of the other
corrections are evident enough. The
only difficult word i p e 1 1 is illus-
trated below, p. 448. See also : \a.t
wer for sin in helle ipilt ; of paradis
hi wer ute pilt; fort godes sons in rode
430
PRISONERS PRAYER — XllI TH CENTURY.
Chap. V
under the notes as indicated in the orip:inal.' But I have taken the
liberty of reducing the time to a modern system, and have added
bars acc()rdiii;:;ly.'* As tre(|Uently liappens in transhitions, tlie Eng-
lish words do not in all cases exactly correspond to the notes wTittcn
for the French. This has occasicmed much difficulty in adjusting
the corrected text of the English words to the notes, and such
changes in the music as have appeared necessary are indicated by
smaller notes. When two sets of notes appear in one bar, the
direction of tlieir tails shews in the usual way to what version they
refer. It is evident that no stress can be laid on any passages in
which such alterations have appeared necessary, as regards the
pronunciation of the syllables.^ Enough passages remain in which
final -e Avas undoubted! 3' pronounced, to establish here as well as in
the Cuckoo Song, the general rule for pronouncing it. At the same
•was pilt, Furnivall's Earlv English
Poems, p. 13, v. 8 and 3o ; p. 14, v.
66, from Harl. MS. 913. The French
text has been printed by M. Jiilcs Del-
pit, in his Collection Generale des Docu-
ments Fran(,ais qui se trouvent en
Angleterre, Paris, 1847, 4to. vol. 1,
p. 28, No. LXVII. This transcript is
faulty having d'avgmte for d a n g u s s e
V. 2, dur for duz v. 6, en sail for
enset v. 12, E sires Deus ke for
Sire deus ky v. 15, I eel for
iccl' V. 23, «i(w/eM for morten28,
fort for f o r s v. 30, ijtiee for g u i e
V. 34. The u and v are also modern-
ized, the stanzas not dirided as in the
original, some contractions expanded
■without notice and others not, the
omission of et v. 39 not perceived and
v. 5 made to end with tres puis instead
of Jhesu, in defiance of the metrical
point, the metre and music. In citing
the Jiel. Ant. for the English version,
M. Delpit prints HaUeivell, Shraps,
Pikerivg for Halliwell, Scraps, Fic-
kering. He says of this poem (ib. p.
cxcii) : " Le No lxvii est le plus
ancien document en vers public dans
ce volume. Je I'ai trouve sur les
feuillets de garde d'un manuscrit du
xiii^ siecle, connu dans les archives de
la mairie de Londres sous le nom de
Liber de antiquis legibus ; mais sa com-
position pent remonter a xme epoque
beaucoup plus ancienne que celle de sa
transcription .... il m'a paru important
par son anciennete, et de nature a four-
nir quelques remarques utiles sur les
r&gles qui presidcrent a la formation
de la langue que nous parlons."
^ In three instances only have I
deriated from the original. The se-
cond syllable of pleynte in v. 1, and of
prisun in v. 4, and the word Christ in
V. 7, have each in the MS. two identi-
cal repeated notes WTitten close together.
In each case I have reduced these to
a single note, as I have been unable to
obtain any explanation of this doubling.
* The key is the ecclesiastical mode
of which the scale ran from G, thus G-
A B c d e f g, without any sharps or
flats. Each stanza is treated as a sepa-
rate composition, and the second half
of each stanza repeats the music of the
first half, almost precisely. This has
enabled me to supply the missing notes
of the fifth stanza, answering to the
French words : *'et jor et doint ioye
certejTie," with almost perfect cer-
taintv'. I am indebted to Mr. "Wm.
Chappell for much information respect-
ing the meaning of the old musical no-
tation, and for an acquaintance with
the important works of E. de Cousse-
maker : (Scriptorum de Musica Medii
^vi novam sericm, 1864, 4to., and
L'Art Harmonique aux xn et xm^s
siecles, I860, 4to.) without which I
could not have translated the music at
all. But for the barring of the Pri-
soner's Prayer, I alone am respon-
sible, and I have been guided entirely
by the s\-mmetry of the miLsical pas-
sages and the rhythm of the words,
not at all by any possible indications of
length in the notes themselves, as was
the case in the Cuckoo Song, in which
the time is accurately indicated.
' Thus we cannot be quite sure that
the singer pronounced shame v. 4 in
two syllables, although there seems to
be no doubt that he said name v. 5 in
two syllables. Similarly some, misname,
v. 11, 13, may have omitted the final
-e for the music.
^ 1, No. 2. prisoner's prayer — XIII TH CENTURY. 431
time other passajyes occur in which it seems to have been un-
doubtedly omitted, uot only before a vowel, but elsewhere, and
these are all indicated by an apostrophe in the coi-rected text.^
The rhymes are generally quite regular, but there are a few
anomalies which prepare us to look out for assonances intermixed
with perfect rhymes in poems of the xm th centuiy and earlier.
Thus: man am 7, 9 ; hem men 21, 22 ; live bilive stige 27, 28,
29 ; mildse blisse 39, 44 ; are all assonances (p. 245, note). But
they are assonances which many ears mistake for rhymes, because
the differences of the consonants are not obstrusive. The French
version has also the assonance : deus mortels, 15, 16 ; and perhaps :
euajn heim, 37, 38.
As regards the orthogi'aphy in the uncorrected text, the use of d
for ^ is common enough in other MSS. not to need explanation ;
the he for ch is an occasional carelessness, compare ihc 4, with ich
1, 2, 3, found also in the Proclamation of Hemy III. ; and the
occasional insertion of A is frequent in Layamon, and may indicate
a doubtful pronunciation, compare vs 20, with Jiuh 40, 41. More
noticeable is the invariable use of th for \ at so early a peiiod, and
gh or occasionally yh (forghef 21, yhef 23) for 5 ; the use of ct for
5< (noct 12, ibroct 14) is not otherwise uncommon. The orthography
yh seems to point to a (^h) or (jh) as preceding the use of (j), where
5 occm-ed in ags., as already suggested (p. 313). Wos 24 for whos,
and, if Dr. Stratmann is correct, wu 42 for whu and that for 7w, may
be assimilated to the cases of inserted A, as shewing a lack of appre-
ciation of the aspii'ate. The use of c for s in such words as hlisce
31, 44, is not uncommon, compare Gen. and Ex. 3518. Mai 28,
for the older fonn ?h«5, and maiden 35, indicate that the diphthong
had been completely formed fr'om «5 (ag, agh, a^j/h, ajh, ai) ; and
ey 43, compared with Orrmin's ajj, shews that a writer did not
feel any dilFerence between the diphthongs (ei, ai), which Sir
Thomas Smith found it so hard to distinguish thi-ee centuries later
(p. 121) and which were constantly confused in the xivth century
(p. 263). These are the only words in the English text bearing on
these diphthongs. But in the French we have, souerein, mayn,
euayn, heim 35, 36, 37, 38, rhyming together, and we have plest,
forfet 24, 25, indicating an unpronounced s before t, and a degene-
ration of ai in certain words into (e) even at this early period.
The Prisoner's Prayer never uses ou for (uu), but employs u as
in kuthe 1, nu 2, thu 8, prisun 9, ut 10, huten 34. The sume 11,
and misname 13, are either errors for su7ne, misnume, or some, mis-
nome, probably the latter, as same, some are the ags. forms. There
is no instance of u being employed for i, e or ags. y. The French
text, to which the notes were primarily adapted, raises the question
of the pronunciation of Noiman. See p. 438.
1 Final -e, elided before a vowel, a consonant, ])in' 5, bop' 27, bar' 35,
ku])' 1, sor' 3, -bar hal' 17, wel' 31, son' 36, liv' 42; internal e omitted,
but' 34 (this is a coujectiu'al emenda- much'le 4, bcv'ne 18, 35 ; and if Dr.
tion), babb' 37, bring' 40 ; before an Stratmann's correction is adopted we
H, oJ7r' habbe]? 13, rajj' be 32 ; before have sit for so it, v. 42.
432
TRISONERS PRAYER XIII TH CENTURY.
Chap. V.
THE PRISONEH'S PRAYER.
From the Liber de Anttqtiis Legibus,fo. 160 b.
Note. The French «a in the Original MS.; the Enjrlish accordin(? to the Corrected Text. The
slurred and joiiie<l notes represent the oritriiial litratures. The time and bars are modem, the
ori?inal being in -plain chant. The last five bars arc not in the MS., but have been supplied
from the parallel passage commencing with the bar marked *.
[Adaffio, affettuoso.']
[Texoe.]
^
•Tt
J f Eyns ne soy ke pleyn - te fu o - re pleyn dan - gus
■ \ Ar ne kujj' ich sor - 26 non. Nu ich mot ma - nei
- se tres
nen min
i^^
^q^
^H
IZJV
itz*:
-• — •-
■^•^-•-
^r=^
/^
su trop ai mal et con-trey-re Sanz de - cer - te en pri-sun sui. car may-dez tres-
mon. Kar - ful wel sor' ich si-che. Giltles ich tho-liemuch-lescha-me Help God for thin
— ' " — I — I — ' ^
pu-is Ihe-su. duz deus etde-bon-ney-re.jy T Ihe-sucristveirsdeuueirshom.preng-e
swe-te na - me, King of hev-en - e ri-che. ' ( Je-su Crist,*so)jGod,*so|>man, Lnoverd,
vus de mei pi - te. Je-tez raei de la pri-sun v ie sui a-tort ge-te. lo e
rew \>\x up -on me ! Of pri-sim J^ar-in ich am Bring me ut andmak-ie fre! Ich and
1 ^ ,___^ _,_#_ «. ,r -i— ,•- -,-— ■ A—t --^^ -.-T- --iJ- r»^ -^ -- --^ -
t* F=^ --^ -^-^ f-^- T-y- ^— -^ T-r- -•— ^- f^ -•- ■
mi au-tre com-paign-un deus en-set la ue-ri - te. tut purau-tremes-pri-sunsu-mes
mi - ne fe-ren so-me (Godwotjichnelij-eno^t,) Foro}jr'habbet3benmis-no.me[And]in
[Jfaestoso.]
a hun-te li
this pri - sun
-ue-re. Tjj ( Sire deus ky as mor-tels es de par - dun
i - brojt.^^^" ( Al-mi^ - ti {jat wel li3t - li Of bal' is hal'
±=f5[
-/-'/-
bM^
-•»*r-
ue - i - ne. su - cu - rez de - K-ue-rez nus de ces - te pel
and bo - te. Hev'-neking! Of tjis won-ing Ut us brin - gen mo
§ 1, No. 2. prisoner's prayer XIII TH CENTURY.
433
^t
'Jt^^
30l
H
q^:
itt
ne Par-don - ez. et as - soy - lez. i - eel' gen - til si - re.
te, For - :^ef hem ]>e wik - ke men God ^if it is Jji wil - le.
M:
r*i'«*— js,
-1^-
ifzt:
4^:
-* •»
fc^
:*£
:^=±
-• — •-
-I-
Si te plest par ki for - fet
For whos gilt We beo^; i - pilt
[AUegrefto.]
nous suf-frun telmar - ti - re.
In y\s pri-sun il - le.
^^—»^
T
ife
e:
x=p
^^
-0 — •-
i\
- ( Fous est ke se a - fi - e en cest-e mort-en u - ie. ke tant nus con-tra-
(Ne hop' non to his live! Heme ma^ he bi - li-ve He - ^e Jsej he
ZjfL
-9-9~g
±jt±!L
li - 6 Et V nad fors boy - di - e. Ore est hoem en le - es - se et ore est
sti - ^e defj fel-lej? him to grunde. Nu haj? man wel' and blis - se, Ea]?' he schal
-f^ - ^^1
r^ — ^l
— — h
1 1
1 1 J ji
r— 1 — pi
— ^ — -■
iAs-^**^
1 1
-•-T-J
1 J
— ^ — m—
-* ^*
J 1
m^ r*
-« •— 1
— !
— 1 — 1 —
— #
-M. — 0_.
en tris - tes-ce ore le ga - rist ore bles-ee for - tu-ne ke le gui-e.
|jar - of mis-se World-es we-le, mid i - wis-se Ne las-te)? but' on stunde.
[ConForza.'\ . ,
*
i
. ( Vir - gine. et mere au so - ue - rein, ke nus ie - ta de la ma - yn Al mau-fe
■ I Maj-den jjat bar' l^e hev'-ne king, Bi-sech }jin son', Jjat swe-te Jsing, j^at he habb'
ESt
•—a— I 1 — w- -• — F- -
l=:t:
ki par e - ua\Ti nus ont tres-tuz en sun heim a grant do-lur (et) pein-e.
of us re w - sing And bring' us ut of Jsis wo - ning For his mu-chel-enuld-se
m
T
t=^
:r^:
Ee - que-rez i - eel sei - gnur ke il par sa grant dul-cur nus get de ces-te
He bring' us ut of {^is -wo, And us ta - che werchen swo In ^is liv* go hu
321
-•— ^
•— #-
do - lur. V nus su-mus nuyt et Jor et doint ioy - e cer - tey - ne.
s'it go, jjat we mo-ten a^ and o, Hab-ben J^e ech-e blis - se.
28
434
PRISONER S PRAYER XIII TH CENTURY.
Chap. V.
From tho Liber de Antiquis Legihus, Guildhall, London, fol. 1603.
Norman French Original.
I.
E^Tif ne foy ke pleynte fu
ore pleyn dangulle trellli
trop ai mal et contreyre 3
Sanz docerte en pnfun fui.
car maydcz trcfpuif ih^u.
duz deuf et dcboneyre. 6
II.
Vaefxi criil veirf deu ixcirf horn.
prenge vuf de mei pite.
Jetez mei de la prisun
V le fui atort gate. 10
lo c mi autre cowpaignun
dcus enfet la uente.
tut pur autre mefpnfun
fumes a hunte liuere. 14
III.
Sire deuf
ky af mortels
ef de pardun uciae. 17
fucurez
deliuerez
nuf de cefte peine. 20
Early English Translation.
I.
At ne kuthe ich forghe non.
nu ich mot manew mi?» mow.
karful wclfore ich fyche.
Geltles ihc sbolye muchelc fchame
help god for thm Avete name
kpjg of heuene nche.
11.
Jefu cnft fod god fod man
louerd thu rew vponme
of pnfun thar ich m am
bri«g me vt and makye fre.
Jch and mine feren fume
goi wot ich ne lyghe noct
for otlire habbet mif nome ben
V)i thy f prefun ibroct.
III.
Al micti
that wel lictli
of bale if hale and bote,
heuene king
of this woniwg
vt vs briHge mote.
Verbal Translation of the Norman French. — I. Once (I) knew not 'whut
affliction was, Now, full of anguish, tormented {tres sue), Too much (I) have (of)
ill and misfortune. "Without guilt in prison am (I), "Wherefore help me right
soon {tris puis) Jesus, Sweet God and gracious. II. Jesus Christ, true God, true
man. Take you pity on me. Cast me from the prison, "Where I am wrongfully
thrown. I and my other companion, God knows of it {en sail) the truth, All for
other mistake (in mistake for others), Are delivered to shame. — III. Sire God,
Who to {auz) mortals Art of pardon soxirce [veitie), Help, Deliver Us from this
pain.
§ 1, No. 2. prisoner's PRAYER XIII TH CENTURY. 435
Corrected Text. Conjectured Pronunciation.
I. I.
Ar ne ku]j' ich sor^e non, Aar ne kuuthi itsh sor-ghe noon,
IN'u ich mot manen min mon. Nuu itsh moot maa-nen miin
moon.
Karful wel sor' ich siche. 3 Kaar-ful* welsooritsh siitsh'e.
Giltles, ich j7olie much'le schame. Gilt'les, itsh thoo'lie mutsh-le
shaa*me.
Help, God, for J^in' swete name, Help, God, for dhiin swee-te
naa'me,
King of hevene riche. 6 Kiq of iiee'vene riitsh'e.
II. II.
Jesu Crist, soJ> God, so]? man, Dzhee'su Krist, sooth God, sooth
man,
Lhoverd, rew J^u. upon me ! Lhoverd, reu dhu upon* mee !
Of prisun l^arin ich am. Of priisuun* dhaarin* itsh am.
Bring me ut and raakie fre ! 1 0 Briq me uut and maa-kie free !
Ich and mine feren some, Itsh and mii-ne fee-ren soo -me,
(God "wot, ich ne lige nogt,) (God wot, itsh ne lii-^he
nokht,)
For oj^r' habbej» ben misnome For oo'dhr- -ab'eth been mis-
noo -me
[And] in ]?is prisun ibrogt. 14 [And] in dhis priisuun* ibrokht*.
III. III.
Almigti, AlmiX-h'tii",
pat wel ligtli Dhat wel li^-ht'lii*
Of bal' is hal' and bote, 17 Of baal is naal and boo-te,
Hev'ne king ! Heevne king !
Of J^is woning Of dhis woo'niq-
TJt us bringen mote. 20 Hut us briq-en moo'te.
Verbal Translation of the Early English {corrected text). — I. Erst not knew I
sorrow none, Now I must moan (ags. mcenan) my moan. Ful of care right
sorely I sigh. Guiltless, I suflFer much shame. Help, God, for thy sweet name,
King of heaven's kingdom. — II. Jesus Christ, true God, true man, Lord, rue
thou (have mercy) upon me ! Of (the) prison wherein I am, Bring me out and
make (me) free ! I and my companions (plm-al here, singular in the French)
together (God knows, I not lie nought), Have been for others mistaken, i.e.
wrongfully taken, [And] in (to) this prison brought. — III. Almighty, That well
easily Of harm is healing and remedy, Heaven's king, Of this affliction May (he)
briDg us out.
436
PRISONER .S PRAYER — XIII Til CENTURY. Chap. V.
Korman French.
Partloncz.
ct allbylcz.
iccl' gcntil fire. 23
SI te plcfl:
par ki forfet
nuf fuflfru?^ tol martire. 26
IV.
Fouf eft ke fe afie
en cefte morten uie.
ke tant nuf coutralie.
Et V nad fors boydic. 30
Ore eft hoem en leeffe
et ore eft en tnftefce
ore le ganft ore blefce
fortune ke le guie. 34
V.
Virgme. et mere au fouerein.
ke nuf leta de la mayn
al maufe ki par euayn
nuf ont treftuz en fun heim
a grant dolur [et] peine. 39
Kequerez icel feign?<r
ke il par fa grant dulcur
nuf get de cefte dolur.
V nuf fumus nuyt et Jor
et doint loye certeyne. 44
Early English.
Foryhef hem
the wykke men
god yhef it if thi wilie
for wof gelt
we bed ipelt
m thof pr?fun hille.
IV.
l^e hope non to hif li'uo
her ne mai he biliue
heghe thegh he stighe
ded him felled to grunde.
Nu had man wele and blifce
rathe he fhal thar of mifle.
worldes wele midywiffe
ne lasted buten on ftunde.
V.
Maiden that bare the heucn king
bifech thin fone that fwete thmg
that he habbe of hus rewfing
and bring hus of this woniwg
for his Muchele milfe.
He brmg hus vt of this wo
and huf tache werchen fwo
m thof liue go wu lit go.
that we moten ey and o
habben the eche blifce.
Verbal Translation of the Korman French, continued. — Pardon And absolve
Him, gentle sire, If (it) thee please, By whose crime "We suffer such martyrdom.
— rV. Mad is (he) that has confidence In this death in life {mort en vie,) Which
afflicts {coutralie = contrarie, Roquefort) us so much. And where (there) is nothing
but deceit {et ou M'rt=il n'y a, kors = qne, Joy(/i« = boisdie— voisdie, from
versutia). Now is man in joy, And now (he) is in sorrow, Now him heals
{gue'rit), now wounds, Fortune who guides {guide) him. — V. Virgin and mother
to the sovereign "Who cast us with his {la, lit. the as in modern French) hand To
the devils {aux nialfaits), who through Eve {Evain) Have us right all {ires tous)
on their hook (heim, haim, AajM= Latin hamus, modern hamegon) In great grief
and (supply et, wanted for the construction, metre, and music, the word originally
written has been erased,) pain. Beseech that Lord, That he by his great sweet-
ness {douceur) May cast us from this grief, "Where we are night and day, And
give {donne) sure joy.
§ 1, No. 2. PRISOXER S PRAYER — XIII TH CENTURY.
437
Corrected Text,
Forjef hem.
J7e wikke men,
God, gif it is fi wille, 23
For whos gilt
"We beoj? ipilt
In jjis prisun ille. 26
IV.
Ne hop' non to his live !
Her ne maj he bUive.
Hege Jjeg he stige,
De]7 felle]» him to grunde. 30
Nu haj? man wel' and blisse,
Ea]?' he schal ]?arof misse.
"Worldes -n^ele, mid iwisse,
"Eq laste]? but' on stunde. 34
Conjectured Pronunciation.
Forjeef' Hem
Dhe wik*e men,
God, jif it is dhii wil'e.
For whoos gilt
"We beeuth ipilt*
In dhis prii-suun U-e.
IV.
"Ne Hoop noon too His lii-ve !
Heer nee mai nee bilii've.
Hekh-e dheekh ne stii'^j'he,
Deeth fel-eth nim to grund'e.
Nuu Hath man weal and blis-e
Eaath ee shal dhaar-of mis"e.
World'es weel-e, mid iwis'e,
Ne last'eth buut oon stund'e
Majden, jjat bar' j^e hev'ne king,
Eisech fin son', ])at swete J'ing,
pat he habb' of us rewsing,
And bring' us of this woning.
For his muchele mildse. 39
He bring' us ut of this wo,
And us tache werchen swo,
In jjis liv' go hu s' it go,
pat we moten, ag and o,
Habben ])e eche blisse. 44
Maid-en dhat baar dhe neevne
kiq
Biseetsh* dhiin soon dhat sweet-e
thiq,
Dhat He nab of us reusiq*,
And briq us of dhis woo'niq*
For His mutsh-el'e mil-se.
Hee briq us uut of dhis woo
And us taatsh-e wertsh-en swoo,
In dhis liiv goo huu s- it goo,
Dhat we moo-ten, ai and oo,
Hab-en dhe eetsh-e biis-e.
Verbal Translation of the Early English {corrected text), continued. — Forgive
them The -wicked men, God, if it is thy will. For whose guilt "We (have) been
thrust In (to) this vile prison. — IV. Let none have trust in his life! Here
may he not remain. High though he rise, Death fells him to (the) groimd.
Now hath one weal and bliss, Suddenly he shaU miss thereof. (The) world's weal,
with certainty, Lasteth not but one hour. — V. Maiden, that bare the heaven's
king, Beseech thy son, that sweet thing. That he have of us pity, And bring us
out of this affliction, For his great mercy. May he bring us out of this woe,
And so to act teach us, In this life go how so it go, That we may, aye and ever
Have the eternal bliss.
438 NORMAN TRONUNCIATION. Chap. V.
An examination of the pronunciation of old French, especially of
the Norman dialect, is also almost forced upon our attention by
the close connection of the two languages dunng the formation of
English proper. The researches now being instituted by Mr. J.
Payne into the persistence of Nonnan fonns' have given the
pronunciation of Norman a still greater interest. The investigation
is frauglit with difficulty, as will appear at once from the present
attempt to resuscitate early English sounds. It must be conducted
separately, first by an examination of all the documents tending to
throw a light upon early Erench pronunciation ; secondly, by a careful
study of the living dialectic pronunciation in the North of France ;
thirdly, by a review of Norman French poetry, cither in original ma-
nuscripts of known dates or in trustworthy editions of the same,
such as M. Michel's edition of Benoit.'' To assume that old Norman
was pronounced as modem Norman,* or modem French, or modem
English, would be against all historical precedent, and the most
probable hypothesis is that it differed from all of these in many
respects, but that we may find indications of the existence of all of
the latter forms in particular cases. Such an investigation is
entirely beside the present, although both have been occasionally
brought in contact, through Palsgrave in the xvi th century, and
such translations from the Norman as the Prisoner's Prayer, and
the rhymes of English and French in Chaucer and the Political
Songs. It would be difficult for any but a Frenchman to conduct,
1 " The Norman element in the speech, says : " On ne pent, a mon
English, spoken and written, of the aWs, ^eneraliser ancune assertion sur
XIII th and xiv th centuries, and in the les points de detail, attendu que rex-
provincial dialects," is the more ex- pression et meme I'accent se localisent
tended title which Mr. PajTie has eitremement .... Ce qui est vrai ici,
adopted for his papers read before the pent ne pas I'etre la. . . . Chez nous
Philological Society in 1868 and 1869. (dans le diocese de Eouen) on trouve
2 Chronique des Dues de Normandic deux dialectes completement differents
par Benoit, trouvfere anglo-normand du d' accent : le brayon, parle dans la
XII 6 siecle, publiee pour la premiere portion oricntale du departement (ou
fois d'apres un manuscrit du Musee diocese) sui-tout dans I'arrondissement
Britannique par Francisque Michel, de Keufchatel, et une portion de celui
1836-1844. 3 vols. 4to. Published by de Dieppe. L' accent est picard, par
order of the French government. The consequent bref, et avec le systeme de
MS. followed is Harl. 1717, and the sjTicopes propres au picard: »' veuV'
printed text was compared with the tent bien, mnis i' n' peuv'tent pas,
original by Sir F. Madden. There is ils veulent bien, mais ils ne peuvent
a copy in the Reading Room of the pas. Du reste pas de mots originaux.
British Museum. Le cauchois, parl^ dans tout le plateau
' It would be as wrong to suppose occidental allonge extremement la der-
that there is a Norman dialect, as that niere ou I'avant dernieresyllabe du mot,
there is a Scottish dialect. Both of prononcel'atrcsouvert: le dialccte cau-
them admit of separation ipto several chois est riche en mots originaux, mais
distinct forms, requiring different forms ces mots sont fort localises." The "bas
of writing to be intelligible. M. rabb6 Normand " speaks, again, a different
Delalonde, professor of history at the set of dialects. Hence, although we
faculty of theology at Rouen, who has may find remnants of old pronimciation
most kindly replied in writing to in all these dialects, it would be hazard-
several questions which I took the ous to infer the old pronunciation from
liberty oi putting to him on Norman any one of them.
§ 1, No. 3. MISCELLANIES XIII TH CENTURY. 439
and we may probably have to wait for a consiclorablo time, before a
properly qualified investigator devotes himself to the task. May
this last anticipation prove incorrect ! ^
3. Miscellanies of the xiii th Century from RELiauiiE Antiqu^e, Early
English Poems, and Political Songs, with an Examination of the
Norman French EI, AI.
Under this heading some brief notices will be given of short
rhymed pieces belonging to the xiii th or the earliest part of the
XIV th century, contained in the Reliqui(e Antiquce, ^ Early Eng-
lish Poems,^ and Political Songs}
The most considerable poem in the Reliquice Antiquce is the
Bestiary, i, 208 ; * it is only partly in rhyme,® and the rhymes are
not unfrequently broken by non-rhyming couplets, or fall into mere
assonances, so that no reliance is to be placed upon them for deter-
mining the pronunciation. Thus we cannot be sure that s, which
is used throughout the poem for sh, was pronounced (s), from the
rhyme : fis is, p. 220, v. 499, 529, for between them we have :
biswiken bigiipen, v. 515. Other parts are alliterative and there-
fore of no assistance, but they burst out occasionally in rhyme for a
few lines. This poem uses u consistently for (uu), and ou, ow for
(oou, ou) as in : out p. 223, v. 645 = aught, nout p. 209, v. 18 =
nought, occasionally written nogt, p. 212, v. 187, sowles p. 211,
V. 118, soule p. 213, v. 206, knowe^ p. 211, v. 121, kuov p. 212,
v. 165. There seems to be no use of u for i or e throughout the
poem, thus we have : mirie p. 221, v. 570, pit p. 226, v. 761 ; this
consorts properly with the consistent use of u for (uu). Similarly
^ Diez, Grammatik der romanischen British Museum by F. J. Furnivall,
Sprachen, 2nd ed. 1856, vol. 1, pp. 1862, for the Philological Society.
404-454, investigates the meaning of * The Political Songs of England
the old French letters, but leaves much from the reign of John to that of
to be desired. The commencement of Edward II, edited and translated by
an investigation into the values of Thomas "Wright, Esq. London, 1839.
Norman ee", «/, together with a few 4to. pp. xviii, 408. Camden Society.
other casual remarks on old and modern * The text of this was especially read
Norman pronimciation, will be found by the MS. Arundel 292, fo. 4. for the
below, p. 453. See also the extracts Rel. Ant. It has been reprinted with
from Dr. Rapp, below, p. 509, n. 1. extensive notes, and a few conjectural
, Ti ,. . ... CI r emendations, in : Altenglische Sprach-
2 Reliquioe Antiquae. Scraps from ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^j^^^^^ Woi terbuchc, unter
Ancient Manuscripts ilhistratmg chiefly ^it^i^kung von Karl Goldbeck heraus-
Early English Litei-ature and the gegeben von Eduard Matzner. Berlin,
Enghsh Languge. Edited by Thomas fg^^^ Large 8vo. vol. i, p. 57.
Wright and James Orchard Halliwe 1, « The follo^ving parts are in rhyme,
?Zt- ^r- F\^V '"^ ^^\ ^l^^' the pages refer to the Rel. Ant. the
1843 The text has generally been ^^^J^^^ ^f ^^^ ^-^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ '^^^^
carefully transcribed and printed but QoMbeck and Matzner : p. 209, v. 40-
Bome mistakes occur as pointed out ^. glO, v. 54-87 in couplets, v. 89-
p. 429, note 1, p. 441, note 1, and ^^g alternate rhyme, p. 215, v. 307 to
p. 445, note 2. p 217, v. 384, with a few short inter-
^ Early English Poems and Lives of ruptions, p. 218, v. 424 to p. 219, v.
Saints (with those of the Wicked Birds 455, p. 220, v. 499 to p. 221, v. 554,
Pilate and Judas). Copied and edited p. 222, v. 588, to p. 224, v. 694, p. 225,
from manuscripts in the Library of the v. 733 to p. 227 v. 802 and last.
440 MISCELLANIES — XllI 111 CENTURY. Chap. V.
we rarely find o for cither (uu) or (u), thus : sunne = sub, p. 209,
V. 19, lunne p. 210, v. 69, come p. 209, v. 35, but: cume^ p. 210
V. 67, sunur p. 214, v. 2.36, hule p. 214, v. 253, but : hole p. 217
V. 394, p. 226 V. 769, and the rhyme : cul ful p. 225 v. 741 =
cowl full,' may be considered as establishing the value of long u as
(uu) in opposition to the modem opinion that it is (ou) or (ou).
The spelling is generally good and consistent,- but it presents
certain peculiarities. Thus s is always employed both for « and sh,
and the rhyme, as already pomted out, ought to determine that (s)
was the only sound. Also g is used tkroughout, generally as pure
5 ^vith the guttural effect after vowels, as in : sigte p. 211, v. 107,
rigten p. 211, v. 117, di-igtin p. 211, v. 119, ^urg p. 211, v. 119,
inog p. 211, V. 142. Sometimes the resolution into (j) or (i) seems
indicated by a prefixed i, as: leige^ p. 216, v. 359, maig p. 210,
V. 80, p. 220, V. 516, p. 221, v. 548, but the ^ is then most generally
omitted as in : mai p. 211, v. 129, mainles = without power, main
force? p. 211, v. 128, dai p. 210, v. 63, but dei p. 215, v. 305,
meiden p. 209, v. 37, shewing that ai, ei were confused. Initially
the g was simply (j) to judge by: ging = young, p. 213, v. 214,
gu = you p. 244, v. 700, ge = she p. 214, v. 243, but it may have
been (^h). After i it disappears altogether as: sti p. 213, v. 198.
The aspii-ate h is treated very in-egularly, being sometimes start-
lingly inserted, as hac for ac p. 226, v. 792, and frequently omitted.
After w it generally disappetirs, as : wit, wel = white, wheel,
p. 225, V. 737. The form wu for whu =h.u =^ how (supra p. 429,
note 1,) is frequent, as p. 209, v. 36 and v. 55, but : hu p. 210,
V. 56, in the next line. The pronunciation of ch seems intended
for (tsh), and such apparent rhymes as : riche ilike = rich alike
p. 222, V. 604, must be considered as assonances, unless we suppose
-like to be an orthograpliical error for -liche. The use of % is
general, but we have bicumeth p. 210, v. 91, unless it be a mis-
piint. After s, t, d this ^ becomes t, as in Ormin, the instances
arc collected by Miitzner at v. 22.
The diphthongs ai, ei appear to be (ai) by the cases already cited.
Forbroiden p. 211, v. 124, seems to stand ior fori rog den and should
imply therefore oi = (oi), but it is uncertain, and similar ot diph-
thongs are unknown, so that we cannot infer generally oi = (oi).
In : newe p. 225, v. 724, spewed p. 211, v. 139, ^ewes p. 212, v.
183, reufuHke p 223, v. 652, we can hardly take eu for anything
but (eu). In : tauncde p. 226, v. 767, middle high German zounen
to shew, (au) seems to be implied.
* Wor 80 he wune^ ^is panter, diversis pastus venatibus. The ags.
he fade's him al mid o5er der, cufle {^E/f. gl. 20), cugle {ib.), cuhle,
of 'So ^e he wile he nime'S 'Se cul cowl is remarkable for the early in-
and fet him wcl til he is ful. terchange of (f, gh) •which has not
="WTiereso he dwelleth, this panther, descended. If cul is to be thus inter-
he feedeth him all with other deer preted, it has lost a final e. But is not
(beasts), of those that he wil, hetaketh rather cul the French •word meaning
the cowl (skin f) and feedeth him wel rump, the prime piece ?
til he is full. This is Matzner's inter- ^ xhe handwTiting of the MS. is
pretation of cul. The Latin has only : particularly beautiful, large, and careful.
§ 1, No. 3. MISCELLANIES XIII TH CENTURY. 441
On the whole this poem, though presenting some peculiarities, fully
confinns the conclusions derived from the two preceding old poems.
In none of the others does the orthography seem so trustworthy.
The Famixt Prater, Paternoster, etc., vol. i, p. 22, mixes as-
sonances with its rhymes freely, as : lif siche, bundcn wndes ; king-
dom don ; wndis bunde. Of these : lif siche = sickness, is useful in
establishing the value of the long i as (ii) or («). The u is consis-
tently used as (uu), and ou in troue as (oou), once erroneous spelled
true, but au is also iised in smiJc, which, if coiTect, is an early and quite
unusual transforaiation of suk. The rhyme to this word : bysuak
seems to imply some error in the MS,, which is here correctly tran-
scribed. Another unusual fomi is : leyse for lese, and fleyes for
Jlesh, compare supra p. 265, and infra p. 473, n. 4. Although Marie
occurs fully in : Heil, Marie, ful of gi'ace ! = (Hail Marii'e ful of
graa'se !) it is abbreviated to Mari, in
Modcr of milcc,^ and maidin Mari, (^loo'der of mils, and maidin Marii",
Help us at ure heuding, for ])i merci. Help us at uur eud'iq for dliii niersii*.)
1^0 doubt this was a very ancient occasional abbreviation of a
name so common on the lips of all worshippers : thus in Germany
(Maarii') is fully as common as (Maiii'e) in adtlressing persons of
that name. See p. 446, Ex. 3. The aspii'ate comes in curiously in :
hart = art, hus = us, as well as house, bending = ending, herde];e
= earthe, hure = oui-. The guttural is evidently expressed by ch
in : l^ich,^ halmichtende, licht, richt, which is very unusual.
The Creed and Paternoster, vol. i, p. 57, are not in the pure
xm th century orthography. We have indeed : ure, wij^uten, but :
Pounce (written Punce = Pontius, in the last example), ous, foule.
This shews a period of transition, which will be especially noticed
inHavelok, infra p. 471, occasioned by the growing use of u as (yy)
or (ii, i, e), compare in the Creed : y-buriid, and in the Paternoster :
als we forgivet uch oj^ir man. Other peculiarities here are : sshipper
= schipper, ags. scyppan, create ; and : fleiss = fleisch,flesh ; sieich
= steg, ascended. The rhymes in the Paternoster are correct,
except : don man.
Another Creed, Paternoster, Ave, etc., are given in vol. i, p.
234, in which the u long is perfectly preserved for (uu), and :
biriedd, iche, are used. Pontius appears as Ponce, which compared
with the first Punce, shews the use of o for short (u). The Pater-
noster is chiefly in assonances, and we cannot feel sure that : deadd
so^fastheedd, in the next prayer, is a rhyme or an assonance, that
is, whether the first word is (deed) or (deeth), or (deead). The last
little moral has some assonances :
If man him bitJocte (If man -im bitliokh'te,
Inderlike and ofte In-erliik and oft'e,
Wu arde is te fore Huu Hard is te foo're
Fro bedde te flore, Fro bed-e te floo-re,
* This is the MS. reading, the compare \eagh in a sermon of the
printed text has milte, ags. mildse, see xiii th century, from MS. Trin. Coll.
supra p. 429, note 1. Cam. B. 14, 52, in Rel. Ant. i, 129,
2 Imperative of ^eon to prosper, 1. 2 and 14.
442
MISCELLANIES XIII TH CENTURY.
Chap. V
"Wu rcuful is tc flitte IIuu reuful is te flite
Fro flore tc pitte, Fro floore te pite,
Fro pitte to pine Fro pite tc piine,
■Sat neure sal tine Dhat never shal fiine,
I wene non sinne li wee-ne noon sine
Sulde his herte winnen. Shuuld -is uert win-en.)
But we mip;lit suppose that (bithofte) was already occasionally
pronounced, as in the West of England (supra p. 212). The French
fine, finir, end, establishes the pronunciation of pine. Fore for fare
is a North-countryism, and te for the usual to, seems to indicate an
indistinct utterance, perhaps (tc). 1 have ventured to pronounce :
sal, sulde, with (sh), but I do not feel quite certain, for reasons
named above, p. 440.
Immediately preceding this moral is the following in which : I
ne, occurs in Mr. "Wright's text, but : ine, in one word, occurs in
the MS, just as in the old high German quoted by Graff, (supra
p. 292, n. 2), and clearly shewing the (in'e) or (ii"ne) pronunciation.
Waune I 'Senke 'Singes ^re, ("WTian i thcqke thiq-es three,
Ne mai hi neure blitJe ben ; Ne mai i never bliidh-e bee ;
^e ton is dat I sal awci, Dhet-oon is dhat i shal awai',
^e totSer is ine wot ^vilk del Dhet-oodhr is ine wot whilk dai,
^e "Sridde is mi moste kare, Dhe thride, is mi moste kaa-re,
Ine wot wider I sal faren. In-e wot whidh-er i shal faare.)
In this pronunciation I have taken some necessary liberties with
the text, as the omission of an Infinitive n for the rhyme, rectifi-
cation of the aspirate, w for wh, d for ^, etc.
The three first Paternosters, Aves, and Credos, are here given for
comparison with those of Dan Michel, supra p. 413. They have
been read with the original MSS.,' and are printed accordingly,
with the exception of capitals, punctuation, undotted i, and long f.
Titles, where wanting, are added for convenience. The pronun-
ciation is adapted to a slightly amended test, as the manuscripts
are often very faulty, but the different pro%-incial characters are
not disturbed. The whole writing and versification is very rude
and uncouth.
MS. Cotton Cleop. B. vi. fo. 201 v°.
Eel. Ant. 1, 22.
Pater noster.
ZJre fadir )iat hart in heucne,
halged be Y\ name with gil'tis seuene
samin cume J»i kingdom,
\\ willc in her))e; als in heuene be don,
vre bred ]ia.t lastes ai
gyue it bus }'is hilkc dai,
and vre misdedis J^u forgyuc hus,
als we forgjTie J^aim J^at misdon hus,
and leod us' in tol na fandinge,
hot frels us fra alle iuele )'ing.
Amen.
^ The printed text of the Reliquict
Antiqum was first read by me with the
MSS., and the proofs of these pages
Conjectured Pronunciation.
Paa'ter nos'ter.
TTuTe faa-dcr dhat art in Hevene,
Hal'ghed bee dhi naame with gift"is
seveue,
Saa-min kuume dhi kiq*doom .
Dhi wil in erth, als in hevne be don.
UuTe breed, dhat last-es ai,
Giiv it us, dhis ilk-e dai,
And uure misdecdis dhuu forgiive ub
Als wee forgiive dhaira dhat miis-doon-
And leed us in til naa fan-diq-e, [us.
But freels us fra al iivle thiqe.
Aa-men.
were again compared with the originals
by Mr. Brock.
§ 1, No. 3.
MISCELLANIES
XIII TH CENTURY.
443
Ave
Jeil Marie, fill of grace,
be lauird )iicli fc in hcuirilk place,
olisccd be bu mang alls wimmcm,
and blisced. be J^c blosme of Jji wambe.
Amen.
Credo
Hi true in God, fader hal-micbt-
tendejjiat niakedj heuen and herdej^e,
and in Ihesnc Krist, is ane lepi sone,
hure lauerd, bat was bigotin of J^e
hali gast, and born of pe maindcn
Marie, pinid under Punce Pilate,
festened to )'e rode, ded and duluun,
licht in til helle, pe ]>ride dai up
ras fra dede to Hue, stegh in til
heuenne, sitis on is fadir richt
hand, fadir al-waldaad, he J7en
sal cume to deme pe quike an
pe dede. Hy troue hy ))eli
gast, and hely kirke, pe samninge
of halghes, forgifnes of sinnes, vp-
risigen of fleyes, and lil'e wij^-hutin
hend. Amem.
A a- T e
Hail, Marii-e, ful of graa'se, [plaa-se
Dhc laa-vird thi/;h dhe in evrilk
Blised be dhuu maq al'e wiro-cn-
And blis'cd be dhe blosm- of dhi
vramb. Aa-men-.
K r e 6' d o
li troou'e in God, faa'der al-mi/cht*-
end'e, dhat maa-kede Hevenandcrtlrc, and
in Dzhee'sus Krist, His aa-nclecp'i soo'ne,
uuTe laverd, dhat was bigot-on of dhe
Haadi Gaast, and born of dhe Mai-den
Marii'e, pii-ned un'der Puns-e Pilaat'e,
fest'ened to dhe roo"de, ded and dulven,
li^ht in til nel'e, dhe thrid-e dai up-
raas* fra deed-e to lii'vc, stee^h in til
Hevene, sit'es on His faa-der riA-ht
Hand, faa'der al'wald-and-, nee dhen
slial kuu'me to decme dhe k^t'ik'e and
dhe dced"e. li trou'e [in] dhe Haa-li
Gaast, and haadi Kirk-e, dhe sam-niq-e
of nal-ghes, forgif-nes of sin-es, up*-
rii'si^hen of flaish, and lii've withuu"ten
end-e Aa-men.
Sari. MS. 3724, fo. 44. Sel. Ant. 1, 57. Camden's Hemaines, p. 24. Zi/ttelion's
History, 4, 130.
Pater noster in Akglico Paa-ternos'ter
Vre fader in heuene riche,
]ji name be haliid euer Uiche
})U bringe vs to J^i michil bUsce,
])i wille to wirche ]7U vs wisse,
Als hit is in heuene i-do
Euer in eor]ic ben hit al so,
pat holi bred )'at lesteji ay
bu send hit ous ))is ilke day,
Forgiuc ous alle J^at we haui]i don,
Als we forgiuet uch opir man
Ne lete vs falle in no fondinge,
Ak scUde vs fi-o pe foule j'inge.
Amen.
Credo
I bileue in God fadir almichty,
sshipper of heuene and of eorjje, and
in Ihesus Crist, his onlepi sone,
vre louerd, |)at is iuange ^urch pe
holy gost, bore of Marie Mayden,
)>olede pine vnder Pounce Pilat,
picht on rode tre, ded and yburiid,
licht in to helle, pe ]iridde day fram
deth aros, steich in to heuene, sit on
his fadir richt honde, God almichti,
]>enne is cominde to deme pe quikke
and pe dede. I bileue in j^e holy
gost, al holy chirche, mone of
alle halwen, forgiuenis of sinne,
fleisa vprising, lyf wijjuten ende.
Amen.
UuTe faa-der in hevne riitsh'e,
Dhi naam e be nal-jed ever iliitsh-e
Dhuu briq us too dhe mitsh-el blis-e,
Dhi wil'e to wirtsh-e dhuu us wis-e,
Als nit is in hevn- idoo-
Ever in erth"e ben it al'soo",
Dhat Hoodi bred dhat lesteth ai
Dhuu send nit us dhis ilk'e dai,
Forgiiv \is al dhat wee navth doon,
Als wee forgiveth eech ooth-er man,
Nee leet us fal in noo fon-diq-e,
Ak shild us froo dhe fuude thiq-e.
Aa-men*.
Kre e- do
li bileev in God, faa-der al'miA;ht-i,
ship-er of Hevene and of erth-e, and
in Dzhee-sus Krist, nis oon-leepi soo-ne,
uu-re loverd, dhat is ifaq-e thurkh the
Hoo"li Goost, boo-ren of Mariie mai'den.
thoo'lede pii-ne un-der Pun-se Pilaat-,
piA-ht on the roo-de tree, deed and iber-ied,
liA;ht into nel-e, dhe thrid-e dai from
deeth aroos-, staiAh into nevene, sit on
His faa-dir ri/At Hond-e, God al-miA:ht-i,
dhen-e is kuura-end-e to deem-e dhe kwik-e
and dhe deed-e. li bileev-e in dhe Hoo-lt
Goost, al Hoo-li tshirtsh-e, moon-e of
al-e Hal-wen, forgiv-nes of sin-e, flaish
uprii-siq-, liif withuu-ten end-e.
Aa-men-.
444
MISCELLANIES
XIII TH CENTURY.
Chap. V.
Arund. MS. 292, fol. 3. Rel.Ant. 1, 234.
Pateu nosteu.
Fader ure Satt art in lieuone blisse
Sin hofji" name itt wur^e blisctJJ,
Cuinen itt iiiotc iSi kiiij^ doin,
■fiin hali wil it be al don
In heuone and in crSo all so,
So itt sail bin (ill wel ic tro ;
Jif us alle one "5is dai
Vrc bred of ichc dai
And forfjiuc us ure sinne
Als we don ure wiSerwinnes ;
Lect us noct iu fondinge falle,
Ooc fro iuel 'Su sild us alle.
Amen.
AuE Maria
Marie ful off grace, weel de be,
Godd of beuene be wi5 Se,
Oure alle Avimmcn blisccdd tu be.
So be '5e bern datt is boren of '5e.
Credo rx Deum
I leue in Godd al-micten fader,
■Satt beuene and erSe made to gar ;
And in Ihcsu Crist bis leue sun,
Vre onelic louerd, ik him mune,
•Satt of de holigost bikenncdd was,
Of Marie 'Se maiden boren he was,
Pinedd under Ponce Pilate,
On rode nailedd for mannes sake ;
t$ar 'Solcde he deadd widuten wold.
And biriedd was in de roche cold,
Dun til belle licten he gan,
"Se "Sridde dai off deadd atkam,
To beuene he stcg in ure manliche,
'Sar sitte^ he in hijs faderes riche,
0 domes dai sal he cumen agen,
To demen dede and lines men :
1 leue on '5e hali gast,
al holi chirche stedefast
Men off alle holi kinne,
And forgiucnesse of mannes sinne,
Vprisinge of alle men,
And eche lif I leue. Amen.
Camden's Remautes p. 24.
Paa'ter noster.
Faa-der uutc dhat art in iievne blis'e
Dliiiii iiekh'c naam it wurdhe blis-ed,
Kuu lueu it moote dhii kin'doom*
Dhiin naali wil it bee al doon
In Hcvcn and in erth al soo.
So it shal been ful wel ik troo,
Gif us ale on ' dhis dai
Uu"re bred of iitsh'c day
And forgiv us uutc sin^e
Als wee doon uure wiidh-erwin'es ;
Leet us nokht in fonuliq-e fal-e,
Ook fro ii'vl dhuu shild us al-e.
Aamen".
Aa- ve
Marii-e ftd of graa-se, wel de^ be,
God of Hcvne bee with dhee,
Ovr- al'c wim*cn blist tu' bee.
So bee dhe bern dat-s- born of dhe.
K r e e- d 0
li leev in God al-miAhten Faa-der,
Dliat Hcvn-and crthe maad togaa^der;
And in Dzhee'sus Krist, His lee-ve suune,
Uur ooneliik loverd, ik nim muune,
Dhat of dhe Hooli Goost biken-ed was,
Of Marii'e dhe mai-den boom hc was,
Pii-ned un-der Puns-e Pilaate,
On roo"de nail-cd for manges saa"ke.
Dhar dhoold -e death withuu-ten woold,
And ber-ied was in dhe rotsh-e koold,
Dunn til Hcl'e li/iht-en He gaan,
Dhe thrid-e dai of death atkaam".
To Hevn -e stee^h in uur man lii-tshe,
Dhar sit-eth -e in -is faadres rii'tshe,
0 doo'mes dai shal -e kuu-men agen-
To decmen deed and lii-ves men.
li leeve on dhe Haa-li Gaast,
Al-Hoo-Ii tshirtsh-e stce-defast,
Men of ale hoo-li kin-e,
And forgivnes- of man*es sin'e,
Up-riis-iq- of ale men,
And ee-tshe liif ii leev. Aa-men*.
The short Proteebiax Yeeses, toI. ii, p. 14, are taken from the
margin of the Cott. MS. Cleop. C. vi, fo. 21, where they are in a
different hand from the text and are probably mnch later, though,
as Mr. "Wright observes, " in a hand of the thirteenth century."
They contain some peculiarities as : J^eise midoutia losing, for : J^ese
^ This line is probably corrupt. The
hiatus (al'e on), is iinlikely, but to
read : (Gif us aloo"ne . . . dhis dai),
would be deficient unless we inserted
(nuu) or some such word, after (aloo'ne),
meaning : give us alone [now] this
day. The rhyme is, however, so rough,
that criticism is out of the question.
2 (De) for (dhe) after (wel); (tu)
for (dhu) after (blist) which must be
taken as a monosyllable, this change
of (dhu) into (tu) shewing that the
preceding letter was voiceless, that is
(t) not (d), as ))U would have otherwise
been (du), compare the first case, and
also (dat) for (dhat) after (bern).
§ 1, No. 3. MISCELLANIES XIII TH CENTURY. 445
wijjuten lesing = these without lying. This form ])etse is not named
by Stratmann, and is perhaps an individuality. The o?< in : niidoutin
stroutende, belong to the transition period, shewn distinctly by :
" that tu, and ioti,'' both of which = ^u, in two following lines.
The foiTQ ielu, printed Jelu, for ^elu = yellow, is peculiar, as
shewing the complete passage of 5 into i.
In vol. i, p. 89, there is a Htmn^ to the Yiegin", and another on
p. 102,^ preceded by a curious parabolal poem, beginning: " Somer
is comen and winter^ gon," not entirely legible, all taken from
MS. Egei-ton 613, lb. 1 and 2. The fii'st and last are in the same
hand, the second in a different hand, but they all belong to the
transition period ; thus on p. 89 we have : thou, our, flour, ous
(twice), foule ; but also : hut ^= out, thu (3 times) ; also : put =
pit, shewing the (y) or (i, e) sound of u. The last has : foules =
fowls, witoute = without, ous == us, but generally keeps the zc
pure. And the second prayer p. 102, while it has : thu (16 times),
flur, withuten, oreisun, tunge, has also : out, foul ; and : sunue
(3 times) = sin. It is curious to note also : ic chabbe, and ich
chabbe, for ich habbe, implying probably the running on of the
words thus : (i,tshab"e). The orthography : flehs, for : flesh, is
perhaps to be compared with : ihc, for ': ich, in the preceding line.
The other poems in the Reliqum AntiqutB, belonging either to
the transition or later periods, do not call for any further remark.
The first seven pieces in the Early English Poems taken from
Harl. MS. 913, are all assigned to a date prior to 1300, but like
the fifteen pieces which follow from Harl. MS. 2277 and ascribed
to 1305-10, they belong to the transition period with respect to
ou and u.
In the SARivnm pp. 1-7, the transition period is marked by : ous 1
(the figures refer to the stanzas), nou 2a, mou]? 4, aboute 4, J;ou 5,
wijjoute 7, etc. ; against : ure 1, us 3, schuldres 5, luse =: louse 5,
wi)ioute prute = ^^^-oj/f? 6 (the adjective always end in t; prude 10,
pride 12, is the substantive in which u = i,) acuntis 24, lude =
loudly 31, jiir 41, etc. The u for i is common, as munde kunde =
mind kind 26, ihuddid 11. The palatalised guttural usually sinks
into i, as : scij; 3, mei 8, dai 18, ei hei = eye high 22, etc. ; but j
sometimes remains, as: heij 53, 56, nejbor 9; J^eij = though 21 .
We find also : fleisse meisse = flesh mass 6 (see infra p. 473, n. 4),
hir hirist = herr, hearest 33, file = vile 3, diit =^ dirt 7, diitte =
dirt 10, ihc 13, mov = mow 14, nov = noio 31, vcr]7ing = farthing
24, wl = xcill 31, angles = angels 33, woni = to dwell 51, and
these infinitives in «', usually accented, occur as will be presently
seen, in other parts of the same MS. There is an assonance : sprede
wrekke 30, and : virst best 57 may probably be : Jurist = thirst
best, a rhyme of i, e, but the rhymes in general are not remarkable.
The final e seems simply disregarded in rhyme and metre, but the
metre is so hummocky that it is difficult to make anything of it.
^ Both are printed in Goldbeck and ^ The is here inserted in the printed
Matzner's Altenglische Sprachproben, text of the Mel. Ant. is not in the MS.
p. 53.
446 MISCELLANIES — XIII TH CENTURY. Chap. V.
Take for example the last stan;;a, p. 7, which may perhaps be read
as marked :
AUi' ]-:it beji icommin here (Al dhat bceth ikunrcn Heer
fort to liiru J'is ssirimin For to nil re dliis sarniuun-,
loke \>ut )c iiab no were Look'c dhat je u-ab no weer-e.
for seue )er }e habbi)> to pardoun. For sev jcer je Habth parduun :)
The wliolc MS. seems marked by provincialisms, Avhich it is ex-
tremely difficult to understand. The first stanza of the xv. Signa.
ANTK JiDRUM, p. 7, is in the same style, and was probably due to
the same author :
pc grace of ih^^u fulle of mi}te (Dhc jjraas of Dzheesu ful of mikht
)'roj pricr of ure swcte leuedi Thrukh prii-er of uur sweet levdii-
mote aniang vs nuj-e alijte Moot amaq us nuudb alikht
And euer vs jem and saui. And ever us jeem and saavii-)
Such attempts, however, to give pronunciation, must be viewed
with indulgence, they are necessarily very hazardous. In this
piece : ysaie profecie 9, must have the vowels in ai divided, y-sa-i-e.
The final e in mercie 25 is idle, added on to rhyme with crie in the
same stanza, where it was probably not pronounced, as we have :
of ilifsu crist merci to cri 80, and
Je. xii. dai )ie ftire. clemens sul cri
al in one heij steuene
mcrei ihesu tij mari
as J)ou ert god and king, of heuene, 177
which gives us another example of Mari, see supra, p. 441, and
similarly: to cri, merci 137. Remarkable forms: dotus angus =
doubtful a?}ffnish ]13, probably = (duutus- aqgus') with a Norman
u = (u), fisscs =Jishes 121, euch uerisse watir = each fresh water
125, skeis = skies 133, where I suspect an accidental transposition
of ei for ie, as the fonn is othei-AA'ise incomprehensible, fcntis =
fiends 161, fure = four 169, 177, wolny nulni = wullen-hi ne-
wullen-hi, = will they nHll they 173, maugrei = mangre 173, pro-
bably a Norman fonn.
The Fall and Passiox, p. 12, has the rhyme: fnite dute =
fruit doubt 23 (line) which is decidedly favourable to the English
pronunciation of Norman u at that time as (uu) see p. 424, note 3.
llemarkable foi-ms : maistre = mastery 21, maistri = mystery 50,
sso =: she 52, jo = she 79, flees, z= flesh 49, as he is mauhcd siwed
97, hou hi lord ssold siu ]>e 105. The folloAving infinitives in -i
occur : suff'ri = to suffer 66, honuii = to honour 72, biri := to bury
74, 76 ; and : sauid isinid 43, being accented on the last syllable
imply the same form. The same accent occurs in the rhyme :
ipinsed sufired 89, siwed sufl&id 97. The rhyme : alowe two 79,
seems to be an error.
TiTE Ten Commandments, p. 15, has also: honuri wor)>i = to
honour, to ivorship 17, and the assonance : iwisse limmcs 5. The
Feagmenx on the Seven Sdts, p. 17, has also : clansi = cleanse im-
perative st. 5, hi^rnd = horrid, st. 10, ncmeni = /o name st. 10,
woni = to dwell v. 9, prute shrute = proud shroud v. 10, fleis =
flesh V. 12, ]7er is mani man bi pcijte (= bepeacJted, deceived'^), so \q
§ 1, No. 3. MISCELLANIES XIII TH CENTURY. 447
fend him haiii]7 iteijte {=tmt(/hf?) 22, sustcni = to sustain 58.
Christ ox the Cuoss p. 20, has : bewonde wnde = tvounded ivound
V. 3, fote blode 11, anguis 14, grediud deiend 25, Strang hond 26.
The Rhyme beginning Fragment p. 21, is only remarkable for
making in me answer to innCj hut as the trick of beginning a line
■with the last word of the preceding line is not carried out con-
sistently, this assonance may have no special meaning. The whole
examination does not lead to much. The orthogTaphy is so singular
and so irregular, we might almost say so ignorant, and the dialect
so peculiar, that it is of veiy little assistance. No general result
could be deduced. The rhymes are not certain enough to be of
much value, and are generally the veriest doggrel conceivable,
while the metre is nowhere. In the parts from Haii. MS. 2277,
we may notice the false rhymes : poynte queynte p. 66, v. 5,
(unless mAeeH poynte is to be Normanizcd into peynte), britaigne fawe
p. 68, v. 85, against : britaigne fayne p. 69, v. 133, and the asso-
nance : makede glade p. 108, v. 35. The form sede for seide is
found in : rede sede p. 66, v. 28 ; p. 68, v. 99, sede mede p. 72,
V. 56, dede sede p. 74, v. 48. See infra, p. 484. But seide also
occurs, p. 72, v. 58, v. 60, etc., being the regular form.
In an extract from Cott. MS. Vesp. D. IX., (which being of the
XYth centuiy, does not properly belong to this place), Why I
can't be a nun, p. 138, we find : wept few accept ihesu trew ob-
ser\'aunce new variaunce p. 139, v. 40, but ihesu may not have been
intended to rhyme with/e«6' treio new, because we find a line ending
with tliis name thi'own in without a rhyme on the next page 140,
V. 88, kyn necessite wyn me omnipotent Ihesu present ys thys, etc.
In p. 140, V. 100, we find:
To the for comfort I make my sute
To have that ioy that lastythe ay.
For her loue that bare that frute
Swete ihesu miserere mei.
giving the rhyme : ay mei, the last word being Latin : This may
be compared with : Siiiay day, m Chaucer, supra p. 264, and Dr.
GiUs (eei)p. 114.
In the Political Songs Mr. "Wright has collected a number of short
poems in Latin, Norman French, and English, referring to the xm th
or beginning of the xiv th centuiy. Unfortunately most of the
English songs, as : the Song against the Eing of Almaigne p. 69,
Song of the Husbandman p. 149, Song against the Pride of the
Ladies p. 153, Satyre on the Consistory Courts p. 155, Song of the
Flemish Insun'ection p. 187, Execution of Sir Simon Eraser p. 212,
Song against the Retinues of Great People p. 237, Elegy on the
Death of Edward I. p. 246, are from Harl. MS. 2253, which has
adopted the full xivth centiny orthography, so that they are of
little use here. The pi-incipal points are the assonances : lonke
songe wlonke thonke p. 156, and longe londe p. 193. There are
numerous instances of u = (i, e), as: hude pnide p. 150, stume
hurne p. 150, wunne sunne p. 153, prude shrude hude p. 153,
prude drede p. 190. The apparent rhyme : ded sayde p. 246,
448 MISCELLANIES — XIII TH CEKTURY. Chap. V.
is prn])aLly no i-hyme at all, hut the nature of the stanza is broken
and tlie first and third lines do not rhyme, which is precisely what
we find in the next stanza but one, p. 247, Avhere otherwise:
sunne Edward, would form a rhyme! Still, as we have just seen,
tlu' I'orm sede also occurs, and may hei'e be meant (p. 447). Ded
p-et redde p. 248 must be regarded throughout as an assonance.
In : chivalrie deye heyge crie p. 249, the second and third words
should have been written : dye hye, as often in Chaucer.
Of all the Political Songs the only two which exhibit almost pre-
cisely the orthography of the xiii th centuiy, are those from the
Harl. MS. 913, viz. The Song of the Times, p. 195, and the Song op
!Nego, p. 210. The last raises no new points, and may be passed
over. The first exhibits ss for sch in : ssold p. 197, also written
schold in the same page, ssal pp. 201, 203, 204, ssul pp. 202, 205,
precisely as in the Ayenhite, supra p. 409. There are some little
slips as: feloni = felonie p. 197, line 13, amy lie, ami mei both
on p. 200, where mei is an eiTor for me. The first will not rhyme
unless we read : li\ which is unusual, but the final e's are lax in
this song. The use of hoi = boy, in : tel me, boi, what hast
ido ? p. 199, 1. 5 is noteworthy. The curious word i-pilt, in the
Prisoner's Prayer, v. 25, (supra p. 429, note 1), is well illustrated
by the passages
And so men diddc that sell asse, AVlicn hit is so, ich vouchsave,
That trcpasid no)t, no did notgilte, Ic forgive the this gilte. p. 199.
"With liam hothe iwreiid was, le am iwreiid, Sire, to the,
And in the ditement was ipilt. p. 198. For that ilk gilt ;
Godis grame most hi have Sire, ichul sker me,
That in the curte the so pilt ! I ne jef ham dint no pilt. p. 200.
The Auchinleck ^ MS. in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, has
not thoroughly adopted the xrv th century orthography,^ and as it
belongs to the veiy beginning of the xivth century^ has a claim to
1 "In the year 1504, the barony or such forms in Sir Tristrem, the 37th
manour of Auchinleck (pronounced piece.
^_^eV/) in Ayrshire, which belonged to * An "Account of the Auchinleck
a family of the same name with the MS. Advocates' Library (^Y. 4, 1,) and
lands, having fallen to the crown by a catalogue of its contents," forms the
forfeiture, James the Fourth, King of fourth appendix to the introduction to
Scotland, granted it to Thomas Bos- Sir Walter Scott's edition of Sir Tris-
well." — Boswell's Life of Johnson, irem, to which a facsimile of the first
anno 1776. "The pronunciation of two stanzas of that poem are prefixed
Affleck for Auchuikck, was formerly It is a quarto of 334 leaves, containing
common, but is fast disappearing, and 44 pieces of poetry, on parchment, " in
is now confined, I should say, to the a distinct and beautiful hand, which
lower classes of the parish and neigh- the most able antiquaries are inclined
bourhood." Private letter from Mr. to refer to the earlier part of the xiv th
Halkctt, Librarian of the Advocates' centurj'. The pages are divided into
Librar}-, Edinburgh, 18 Jan. 1869. two columns, unless where the verses,
2 Nu, hu, occur occasionally, but being Alexandrine, occupy the whole
rarely. Nu occurs once in the piece breadth of the quarto. In two or three
immediately cited, nu and hu several instances there occurs a variation in
times in the second piece, which, though the handwriting ; but as the poems re-
last in the MS., is said to be in an gularly follow each other, there is no
older hand. I have not noticed any reason to believe that such alterations
j 1, No. 3.
MISCELLANIES XIII TH CENTURY.
449
be considered here. There are two extracts from it, On the King's
Breaking lus Confirmation of Magna Charta, p. 253 (MS. No. 21),
and the Evil Times of Edward II. p. 323 (MS. No. 44). The
second only offers the curious orthography : muis huis, p. 326,
for : mous hous, and the assonance : hundred wonder p. 344.
But the first is very singular. The second, third, fourth, fifth,
and sixth stanzas, containing the sayings of the "iiij. wise men "
have a peculiar arrangement of rhymes, differing from the rest of
the poem, wliicli may be symbolised thus, like letters shewing
rhymes : a a b c c b ddd e ee. The last five stanzas stand thus :
a a b c c b. None of these lines present any difiiculty or novelty.
The following is the first stanza, which Wright prints in divided
lines, but which in the MS. itself runs across the page, although the
pages of the MS. are usually divided into two columns, indicating,
apparently, that the transcriber considered the final rhymes only as
pointing out the divisions.
Len puet fere ei defere ceo fait il trop souewt
It nis noujier wel ne faire yei-foie ewgelowd is shent
Noftre pnnce de engletere jtar le cowfail de sa geret
At weftmiwfter after ]>e feire madew a gret prt!rleme»t
La chartre fet de c}Te ieo le;;teink et blew le crey
It was holde to neih ]7e fire and is moltew al awey
Ore ne say mes que dire tout i va atrz'polay,
hu?;di-ed. eliapitle. court an shire al hit go]) a deuel wey^
des plusages de latere ore efcotez vn sarmouw
Of iiij. wise men ])at Iper were whi engelowde is brouht adoun ^
indicate an earlier or later date than
may be reasonably ascribed to the rest
of the work ; although the satire
against Simonie, No. 44, seems rather
in an older hand than the others, and
may be an exception to the general
rule. The MS. was presented to the
Faculty of Advocates, in 1744, by
Alexander Bdswell, of Auchinleck, a
Lord of Session, by the title of Lord
Auchinleck, and father of the late
James Boswell, Esq., the biographer of
Dr. Johnson. Of its former history
nothing is known. Many circum-
stances lead us to conclude that the
MS. has been written in an Anglo-
Norman Convent. That it has been
compiled in England there can be but
little doubt. Every poem which has a
particular local reference, concerns
South Britain alone .... On the other
hand, not a word is to be found in the
collection relating particularly to Scot-
tish affairs."
1 Compare "And lete me slepe, a
twenty devel way !';— Cant. Tales 3713.
^ The passage as we learn by Mr.
Wright's note on p. 385, was trans-
ferred to his pages from : " an in-
teresting little volume of early poetry.
edited and printed privately by David
Laing, Esq., and W. B. D. Turnbull,
Esq., under the title of ' Owain Miles,
and other Inedited Fragments of An-
cient English Poetry. 8vo. Edinburgh,
1837.' " The present copy follows a
careful transcript obligingly made for
me by Mr. Halkett, the Librarian of the
Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, who
says : " In Owain Miles the editors
have divided each line into two ; in my
transcript you have them as they were
originally written. There are no points
except a dot after the word huwdred,
and another after the word chapitle ; I
am not sure whether they have been
put there by design or by accident."
On examining the orthography of the
two pieces in this MS. given by
Wright, and of Sir Tristrem as edited
by Scott, we find it very irregular with
respect to final e, in which it agrees
with the MS. of Hampole (p. 410).
Similarly, in the poems of the "deeff,
sick, blynd," monk John Audelay of
Haughmond, four miles from Shrews-
bury, written 1426, necessarily from
dictation and of course unrevised by
the author (edited from MS. Bodl. 546,
for the Percy Society, by J. 0. Halli-
29
450
MISCELL-^NIES XIII TH CENTURY.
Chap. V.
TTo-w If \rc adopted Mr. "Wright's arrangement in half lines
we should be led to suppose that the rhymes were intended
to be arranged thus : ab ah ah ah cd cd cd cd ef ef,
and thus make : deferc faire Engleterc feire, rhyme together. But
the first and third words probably ended in (-ee*re) and our pre-
vious investigations lead us to consider that the second and fourth
ended in (ai're).^ We have not hitherto found a single instance in
any good xiy th century MS. of e rhyming with ay or ey} The few
well, 1844), the final e has appa-
rently no phonetic meaning at all. The
whole character of the spelling of Sir
Tristrem (AIS. No. 37) is northern.
In the present short extract we have
both E)igelo)id and Eugelonde in the
nominative ; in the second line faire
should be fair (p. 383), and then of
course feire must be feir' if it is in-
tended to rhyme, maden a gret parle-
ment, seems an error for, made a grete
parktnent ; Wright reads made a gret.
1 A Somersetshire farming man once
asked me if I had seen the (ship) on
the (fair), which sounded remarkably
like a ship on fire, but merely meant
the sheep in the fair from which I was
walking. This is therefore an existent
(fair) pronunciation of the Korman
(feire.)
^ This rhyming of ey with e, must
be distinguished from the double forms
ey, e, in certain words which occurs in
a few instances, see supra p. 265, and
compare the double forms ei/, i, pp.
284-286. The apparent rhjTne : ded,
sayde, p. 448, we have seen may not
have been meant for a rhyme at all.
Since the text was in tj^pe my atten-
tion has been directed to some apparent
rh}Tnes of ag, e in the poems of Aude-
lay referred to in the last note but one.
It will be advisable to consider these
rhymes in this place. "We must re-
member that the poet was both blind
atid deaf, and had an illiterate scribe.
These three points are well proved by
the notice (p. vi., Halliwell's edition,
to the pages of which all references
will be made) : " iste liber fuit compo-
situs per Johannem Awdelay, capella-
num, qui fuit secns et surdtts, in sua
visitacione, ad honorem Domini nostri
Jhesu Christi, ct ad exemplUm aliorum,
in monasterio de Hagmon, anno Domini
millesimo cccc.™o vicessimo vi.to cujus
anime propicictur Deus." The seem for
cecus, or as we now write eoecus, shews
the trustworthiiiess of the scribe. The
English part is full of the grossest or-
thographical eccentricities and incon-
sistencies, and was probably written by
an ignorant brother, whose labours the
author was unable to rense either by
eye or ear. Under these circumstances
we should rather be surprised at the
regularity of the rhj-mes than at the
occasional utter forgetfulness of rhyme,
as : law withdrawe dais p. 22, (but
perhaps dawes should be read, see supri
p. 371, Ex, b.), leudmen corexeon
relegyon p. 24, Christ charyte p. 26,
to therfro more p. 40, worlde Lorde re-
warde p. 40, reprevj-d dispilid p. 60 (both
accented on the penultira), Lorde worlde
p. 60, Judas cos = kiss p. 60, Lord
soffyrd p. 61, thorst last p. 64, opus
masse p. 73, on-morwe unaome p. 75,
dimes masse p. 76, d)'nt stont p. 78,
masse worse p. 79, prayere honoure
p. 79. It is evident from these ex-
amples that we must not press Audelay's
doggrel rhymes too closely, and cer-
tainly not draw any inference from a
few isolated examples. There can be
no doubt, however, that he did not dis-
tinguish short » and short e, and there
seems little doubt that he confused long
t and long e also. Every page offers
examples of the first, and the rhyme in
-e, -i, -y, -ye is the commonest he has.
The words, die, high, eye, were to
him dye, hye, ye the last was even
written -e, (p. x), and the two former
constantly rhj-me -e. Mr. Halliwell
says (p. xi) that in Shropshire " » is
still turned into e, which may be re-
garded one of Audelav's dialectical
peculiarities, especially m the prefixes
to the verbs." Another peculiarity, of
the scribe at any rate, is to consider oi
and t as identical, at least in some
words. "We have already cited dispilid
= despoiled, p. 60, and we have dystry
p. 20 but dystroy p. 33, /o;//-e=fire, p.
48, rhjTiiing to were. Another singular
rhj-me, if any weight is to be attached
to it is: hyng drj-nke p. 61, see supra
p. 192. The word cros has various
rhymes : was, losse p. 61, choys p. 8,
§ 1, No 3.
MISCELLANIES XIII TH CENTURY.
451
earlier cases which appear to exist in Havelok, etc., will hereafter he
shewn to have probably arisen from errors (p. 473), Could we then
were it evidently stands for croyse
which is used p. 64 to rhjTne with
voyse. This preliminary examination
will enable us to appreciate the exam-
ples of ay which apparently rhyme
with e. In the first place, although
-e, is the commonest rhjnne sound
throughout the poems, and -ay is also
frequent, the instances in which -ay
rhymes with -e are very rare. The
following are all that I have noted
throughout the extracts edited by Mr.
Halliwell. In the poem on Henry VI,
p. viii, there are 16 lines which should
rhjTne in ay, but in one case the word
is cuntre, the rh}Tnes being : veray day
play away fray day way day aray day
ctintre Fryday may betray pray Awd-
lay. The rhymester was evidently
hard up, or he would not have used
day five times, and if his ay had really
rhymed to his common e, he wotild
certainly have introduced it many times.
The single instance might be a case of
carelessness, which the blind and deaf
man failed to discover and correct.
But country is one of those words which
had a double orthography : cuntre
cuntrey, corresponding to two forms
in the Norman, which generated two
pronunciations in [-i -e) in xvii th
centiiT)' (supra p. 125), and hence pro-
bably had two sounds (-ee, -ai) in the
xrvth century at least. To this list
belong: country, valley, journey, livery,
most probably. Hence the error may
be merely scribal, cuntre for cuntrey.
Cumpane. which at first sight seems to
rhyme with say, p. 16, is apparently a
simple mistake, and the line containing
it, which is unnecessary to the sense,
should be expunged. It occurs among
a set of 78 stanzas of 13 lines each,
having the complicated rhyme system
ababbcbcdeeed. In this par-
ticular piece the rhyming words are :
spiryt say epocryte pay day cmnpane
clene say lene mynde by truly cumpany
unkynde. That is, this one stanza has
14 lines; and the line which is subver-
sive of the whole rhyme system, is this
very one which ends in compane.
Degre be may p. 44 is also a mere
error, it occurs in a stanza of the
last kind, coiTCsponding to the e e e
portion, and on the same page, in the
next preceding stanza, in the same por-
tion, we find : jeve know laue, which no
one would hesitate to consider a false
rhyme. To the same category I relegate
the example in the same place of the
next stanza : sayne eyne sene p. 45,
where sene — seen is the infinitive mood
oi see, y-sejTie bene p. 68 =i-seen been,
are past partici pies, and the spelling
of the first word is erroneous, but we
have a similar form in Chaucer, supra
p. 265. Bred betrayed p. 70, I class
with : wajt algat p. 47, as mere helpless
rh}'mes ; if the one could prove that
ay = (ee), the other would prove
ay = (aa), for the rhyme : face alas p.
60, would establish longa = (aa). In
cownsele asayle batayle p. viii, the first
word should have its usual form coun-
seyl. In erne = modern aim p. 12, 37
and often, the e is correct, the modem
spelling is wrong, the origin being Fr.
esmer = sestimare. The above are ab-
solutely all the cases observed, and the
impression produced on myself by the
examination of these rhymes, is, that
Audelay pronounced ay, e, diiferently,
and that the conclusions deduced from
other sources apply to these cases also,
viz : ay = (ai), e = (e). Nevertheless
there are at least two MSS. and there
may be more, which certainly confuse
ey, ay with e, both in spelling and
sound. The most striking of these in
the Lincoln's Inn MS. 150, from which
"Weber has printed the greater part of
King Alisaunder (in vol. 1 of Metrical
Romances of the xiii th, xiv th and
XV th centuries, published from Ancient
Manuscripts, with an introduction,
notes, and a glossary, by Henry Weber,
Esq., Edinburgh, 1810, 3 vols., Svo.), and
which must be carefully distinguished
from the Bodl. MS. Laud, I. 74, from
which he has taken v. 4772 — 5989 of
the same romance. This poem is
supposed to have been written before
1300, and both the MSS. are attri-
buted by Weber to the xivth century,
but Mr. Fumivall and Mr. Skeat
date the Lincoln's Inn MS. about
1450. The Bodleian MS. has nothing
strange, except : noye daye 5412,
ryth nyth 4812 (but : nighth righth
5076) which reminds one of Havelock's
peculiar th, infra p. 477. and there are
a few i, e rhymes, as : clere fire 5342,
and some e, a, as : art cert 5802, but
not frequent, and some assonances, as :
blith wyf 5138. But on the whole it
452
MISCELLANIES XUl Til CENTURY.
Chap. V.
from this popiilar song conclude that all this is a mistake, and suppose
that ChauciT, and Gower, and other writers, although Irecjuently
hard up for rh)nues, never employed such an extremely convenient
jingle which lay ready to hand ? The conclusion would be hazard-
ous in the extreme, and is certainly unnecessary, for the apparent
is tolerably regular, and admitting the
correctness of: cuntrey 4898, 6008,
charrey 5096, currcyo 5118, tornay
play journay noblay 5212, presents no
other remarkable orthography. But
the Lincohi's Inn MS. is very peculiar,
and if we liad to deduce pronunciation
from its rhymes, we should be badly
off indeed. Omitting the false rhymes,
63, 305, lolo, 1708, 3173, etc., the
a.ssonances, the cases in which the first
syllable of a dissyllable rhjiues with a
monosyllable as: bridel ride 953, walles
al 1876, foughte doughte 2761, ccrtis
heort 6544, etc., the rhymes of a with
e, 0 and even i, as: wist cast 716,
fynde thousand 2403, often spelled
thomynde, sixc waxe 6038 ; of e with
t, a, 0 ; and confining ourselves to the
combinations ei, at, ot, ui or ey, ay, oy,
uy, we find ei written for e in : lej-nthe
strc)-nth 788, 7351, nobleys 1373,
eynde 1573, 1912, cleir 2885, steil
3211, speide neide 3441, yeilded 3791,
heynde 4206, yeir 6963. which are
conclusive as to confusion in the scribe's
mind between these sounds. But we
also find ai rhyming with a, e, i, oi;
ei with ai, e, i, uy; oj with ai, i; ui
with e, i, oi. These rhymes are so
curious that many of them may be
cited. AI, A ; saide made 525, 7339,
barbicans mayne 1591, arairaylis talis
1780, Taran, mayn 3247. AI, E:
camelis vitailes 854, bonere=<feio««flf!V
laire 6732, saide lede 6942, saide
maied = mede? 7327. AI, I: Akaye
Arabye 3399, play dye = deye 3442,
bywryghen savn 4116, raincth schyn-
eth 6450, high contray 7143. AI, 01 :
y-said anoyed 273, 876, 1287, 1599,
and often, play boy 1730, {boy is ab-
solutely written batf 4376), taile spoile
2133, faile Tysoile 2148, palfray boy
3207, pays = peace noise 3373. EI,
AI : chevynteyn mayn 3199, rej-ne
mayne 7378. EI, E .• thede feide 95,
deys = rffl?A- nobles 1039, ese Aeys=dais
1153, keneeyghnen 1317, yeildeshcldis
2067, seye=«w« pudre 2179, cortcys
T^s=pe(ice 2951, yeld field 2959, steil
wel 3419, \cv^=keep deop 3429 (but:
kepe deop 3477), seide felawrede 6838,
mesteir confieiler 7480, EI, I : nygh
fleygh 119, kynde hejTide 425, yilde
feilde 2956, is doys = is dais 3966,
eighte knyght 3884, 6042, contrey
sygh 6440, wite disseyte 7704. EI,
TJY : rcyn dihnyxi=abide 2991. 01, AI
see AI, 01. 01, I : annoyed distryed
129, syghe joye 6060, nigh anoye 6116,
anoye dye 6568. UI, E: kuyn=Ame
slen 760. quarter wildfiijT 1902, pruyde
wede 2093, there afujTC 7549. Ill, I :
Tyre wildefujTC 303 i. The conclu.sion
seems to be that the writer occasionally
pronounced a, ai, e, ei, i, oi, ui in the
same way =(ee). This must certainly
indicate some great peculiarity of pro-
nun' iat ion, and it is sufficient to note
its inconsistency with the results al-
ready obtained. No more can be said
than that some xv century scribes in
some part of the counti'y, did perhaps
so pronounce. But I cannot think
that these rhymes justify our supposing
an invariable pronunciation of ai, ei, oi,
ui in this manner by any speaker.
There is another MS. Advocates' Li-
brary Jac. V. 7, 27, supposed to have
been written in the xv tli century, from
which Weber has printed his Sir
Amadas (Ibid. vol. 3), which exhibits
great peculiarities, of which we need
only notice: reyr = ?•««/• 7, lcyt = let 10,
geyt=ffet 24, deytte= debt 37, feyr =
fere 118, groyt = ff>-eat 156, seyt = sei
218, deyi reyd = deed rede 236, speyke
mcyte = speak meet 284, etc., shewing a
complete fusion of ct, e. The other pieces
printed by Weber, and all the other
old .spelling which I have examined
are free from such fusion. The above
peculiarities are also absent in the
second copy of Sir Amadas printed in :
Ghost-thanks or the Grateful Unburied,
a mythic talc in its oldest European
form, Sir Amadace, a middle North
English metiical Romance of the
XIII th century, reprinted from two
texts with an introduction by George
Stephens, Chcapinghaven (i.e. Copen-
hagen), 1860, which Mr. Payne has
brought under my notice. With this
explanation, thererore, I allow the text
to stand unaltered, convinced that al-
though a few words may have had both
(ai, ee), and a few provincials may
§ 1, No. 3. NORMAN FRENCH EI, AI. 453
anomaly is easily explained. The writer began in Norman French,
meaning to mix up English with it, just as Norman French,
English and Latin are intermixed in a haphazard manner in the
Song of the Times, p. 251. In this way he wrote the two first
lines, taking the arrangement in the MS., (which did not rhyme in
the middle) ; but reverting to Norman French in his third line he
threw off a middle rhyme to his first, and then for the sake of
symmetry he made his fourth line have a middle rhyme to his
second, thus producing, if we count the middle rhymes, the some-
what singular arrangement : ah ch ah ch. Naturally enough
in adding the next four lines he adopted the more obvious ar-
rangement : ah ah ah ah, for the words : eyre fire dire shire,
all rhyme ; ^ and the words : crey awey Tripolay wey,'^ also
rhymed to English ears at least, as (-ai). A question, however,
arises whether the Norman French : crey, Tripolay, ended in (ai)
as well as the English : awey, wey. Of the latter we can at
present feel little doubt, of the former there may be considerable
cause for hesitation. In modem French ei, ai, are in most words
called (ee), and the stanza we have been considering has been relied
upon to establish that ai, ei in English had the sound of (ee), on the
presumption that : defere, faire, Engleterre, feire, were all intended
to rhyme in (ee're).^ If we take the arrangement of the lines in
the MS. itself, there is no room at all for this assumption, because
in fact we have only ten rude Alexandrines, rhyming thus : a a a a
hhhh (? c, at their ends, and occasionally, but not essentially,
rhyming their middles. As, however, the other view is strongly
insisted on, it is advisable, without further reference to an isolated
song which can really establish nothing, to enter upon an examina-
tion of the probable value of ei, ai, in old Norman, a question so
extensive and so beset with difficulties that it is impossible to
discuss it fully.*
The conclusions to which I have been led by an examination of
all the rhymes in Wace's Eoman de Rou,^ and several other Norman
have used (ee) for ei (ei, ai) in some (sjrre, d/i-re). The rhyme was there-
words at a very early period precisely fore (-ii're) or (-?'rre) in all, or the first
as Hart did in the xvi th century (p. in the French and the second in the
122), the gi-eat majority of educated English.
men, and all speakers of the Court 2 ^^^ "Wright prints way, Mr. Hal-
dialect said (ei) or (ai) where ei, ai tett transcribes tvey.
were written, down to the middle or 3 Rapp has adopted the pronuncia-
endofthe XYith century and behev- ^^^ ^^^. ^j. ^^ j^ ^^^ YveiK^h, see
mg that the hjTJothesis of an original -^^^ 509 ^ote 1.
(ee) sound, followed by an (ai) pronun- , a j.r. ■ ^ .nc
elation in the xvi th century as dis- * ^ee the previous remarks, p. 438.
tinctly laid down by Sir T. Smith (p. s Le Roman de Rou et des Dues de
121), which again became (ee) in the Normandie, par Robert "Wace, poete
XVII th, is untenable. normand du xii** siecle, publie pour la
1 Fi!>« has a dative e ; sAiVe ags. scire premiere fois, d'apres les manuscrits
an essential e. The word shire is still de France et Angleterre, avec des notes
pronounced (shiir) by many, supra, p. pour ser viral' intelligence dutexte, par
275, note 3. Cyre, dire, were French Frederic Pluquet, Rouen 1827, 8vo,
{saie, diire) anglicized, perhaps to 2 vols., 16547 verses.
454 NORMAN FRENCH EI, AI. Chap. V.
poems, are that ei, ai, \rhen written were always meant to indicate
the tliphthongs (ci, ai) or the clissylUvblcs (e,i) and (a,i), but that
they were occasionally employed, perhaps by a scribal error, for
simple e (e). It also appears tolerably certain that in a small series
of words both (ai) and (e) were pronounced at a very early period,
and that in other cases, by the same sort of habit which at the
present day leads an Englishman to terminate his {ee, oo) in (i,u),
thus (m, oou), and which led him in the last century to palatalise
k, g into (kj, gj) before (oD, oi), — habits which, it is important to
observe, exist in full force at the present day in Icelandic, the living
representative of the language spoken by the Norsemen before they
acquii'cd Nonnandy, and therefore probably indicating the tendency
of the pronunciation these would adopt — the Normans introduced
an imhistorical, but really pronounced (i) after e, a, in many words ;
so that this introduced i was not an idle orthogi-aphical ornament, but
implied an actual alteration of sound. Whether the sounds (ei, ai)
were kept as distinct as they now are in modem French conseil,
travail, it would be difficult to determine, but they were certainly
confused in writing, and it is probable that to English ears, which
seem to have long confused the sounds, they sounded the same as
the ordinaiy English (ai).^ The existence of the sounds (ei, ai) in
V'ieil, ail and such words, seems indeed to imply a prior (ei, ai) pro-
nunciation, because, as we have every reason to suppose that the
palatisation of the I in (Ij ) and even (jh) or its entii-e absoi-ption in
(i), as (vjei, ai), is comparatively modem, and we know that I had
the contrary tendency to labialisation after the same vowels e, a in.
French, compare eux, aux, it seems probable that this palatisation
was generated by a preceding (i) and did not conversely generate
the (i). Supposing these conclusions were con-ect, an Englishman,
at least, would rhyme : crey awey Tiipolay wey, as we have
supposed, in (-ai). The following is a brief statement of some of
the grounds on which these conclusions rest.
Both ai and ei occasionally represent di^-idcd vowels and not diph-
thongs, in which case the French editors generally write ai, ei, but
it is more convenient to use the ordinary signs ai, ei with Dr.
1 Modem Englishmen readily hear ei\ ai are written ei, <s and pro-
all combinations which approach in nounced {eei, aat) with a distinct
sound to their (oi), as (oi). Compare and lengthened priinary, and an
p. 123, note 4. Observe the common extremely abbreviated secondary ele-
error (kuu-dail) for (ku dcei) coup d'mil. ment. Compare the effect of the similar
See also the various Scotch sounds, p. sound {ee\) of southern English long a
290, which Englishmen usually find at Tenby, p. 272, note 3. Also observe
the greatest difficulty in distinguishing. the actual change of long a into (ei) or
When I was recently endeavouring to (rei), as (rsBin-t daji) for raitiy day,
make a literary English friend appro- among the children of the uneducated
ciate the difference (ei, ai), I entirely classes in London, pointed out to me
failed, and he heard both sounds as by school-teachers to whom it occa-
(oi). The Dutchi ei, ij =(ei, ai) as I sioned difficulty, see p. 294 and note 2.
heard them (p. 295, note 1), are both The change of (ee) into (ei) and thence
heard as (oi) by Englishmen, and as (ai) is therefore not merely a priori
(ai) by Germans. The modern Ice- likely from Norse habits, but actually
landic diphthongs con'csponding to corroborated by existing English uses.
§ 1, No. 3.
NORMAN FRENCH EI, AI.
455
Delius.' These divisions occur even in words "wMch in modem
times have received the sound of (ee) or (ee), as well as in such
words as: poiz fu ocis en traison 51,^ et en France mainte enva'ie
135, guerpi out toz li plein pais 529, where the separation still
remains in : trahison, envahir, pays, and the pronunciation has
altered in the last word only.
Aider in the Norman war-cry is always a'ie ;
Franceiz crient : Monjoe. e Normanz : Dex^ a'ie. 4665
The complete : aider, occasionally occurs, and this divided form
seems etymologically more ancient than the diphthongal : aider,
which is however more common.* It is worthy of remark that the
diphthongal pronunciation (ai-der) remained well into the xvith
century, as it is classed with : aymant, hair, as having both vowels
pronounced by Meigret (supra p. 118), and Ramus, 1562, classes:
paiant gaiant aidant (Livet, p. 205). The older pronunciation of
this one word, therefore does not admit of doubt.
Par false e par feinte ha'ine
Fu faite ceste desaisine. 15670
This word : haine, is now pronounced (een). Feline writes (en),
but: hair is (a,iir) not (eer, air), haissable (a,isabl'). The verb is
now very variable: je hais, tu hais, il hait; nous haissons, vous
haissez, ils haissent. The old French : hadir, cited by Diez, seems
to imply the greater antiquity of the divided vowels.
' Maistre Wace's St. Nicholas. Ein
altfranzosisches Gedicht des zwolftea
Jahrhunderts aiis Oxforder Hand-
schriften, herausgegeben von Dr. Nico-
laus Delias, Bonn, 1850, 8vo. pp. 95.
*' Eben so unentbehrlich erscheinen
die Trennungspunkte liber zwei Voka-
len, die sonst, zur Beeintracbtigung des
Verses, fiii* einen Diphthong gelesen
wiirden, z. B. eii, oi, u. s. w. Die
Methode franzosischer Editoren im
ersteren Falle eu, blescewe u. s. w. zu
schreiben, ist schwerlich zu rechtfer-
tigen, da ein so betontes e wohl kaum
von dem folgenden Vokal verschluckt
worden ware, wie das in der neuern
Sprache doch geschehen ist ; eu, blessure
u. s. w." Preface, p. xi. Dr. Delius's
reason may admit of dispute. The
proper method is, of course, to follow
the manuscript, and leave the rest to
the reader, but in the present case I
shall use di, e'i, as the object is to point
out such cases to the eye.
2 The simple figure refers to the
verse in the Roman de Eou. The let-
ters B, E, refer to Benoit (supra p. 438,
note 2,) and Eustache (Roman d'Eus-
tache le Moine, edited by F. Michel,
Lond. 1834, 8vo).
3 On this extraordinary form Dex
for Dem, Dr. Rapp remarks (Phys. d.
Spr. ii, 86) that the black letter v, x of
the middle ages only differed by a small
tail affixed to the latter, and this he
supposes induced the scribes to abbre-
viate the frequent termination ?<s, ux,
that is, vs, vx, as they should have been
written, into x, which meant v with a
subscribed x, and also led them to wi'ite
X for V. Modern editors, he complains,
have overlooked this, and hence written
this pseudo x for v, in characters where
the resemblance of form has altogether
disappeared. So that now we find
generally at one time als, els, Jils, at
another ax, ex, fix, and even where
there was no s, at one time diu, at
another diex, or dieu, which are, Dr.
Rapp thinks, entirely due to errors of
writing or reading. Hence we must
always determine in the printed copies
whether x stands for s, u, or us. To
this abbreviation Dr. Rapp also attri-
butes the German proverb, to make
one an x for a u, " einem ein X fiir
ein U machen," that is, substitute the
false for the true, which he thinks is a
proof that the custom was objected to
even in the middle ages.
* It. aita, Pr. ahia, 0. Fr. aide aie,
Fr. aide, Eng. aid, It. aitare, Pr. aidar,
Fr. aider. Donkin's Diez's Rom.
Die. sub ajuto.
456 NORMAN FRENCH EI, AI. Chap. V.
Mult Tcissiez ....
Iloraes a terre jambeter,
E chcvals resncs trainer, 6737-44
The modem Prench is (trcenc). The divided vowels again appear
to be more ancient.'
Ausi cum glaive ist de ffa'i/)ie
U cum lion prent sa rabinc. B. vol. i. p. 16.
Here again the modem French is (geen), but the divided vowels are
more ancient.^ For e'L
Enime sa fillc fu reine
A lie fu Engleterre encline. 6548
The modem French is (reen), but the ff extruded from regina shews
the divided vowels to be the more ancient, and they were more
common in this word in old Norman. Even the form : roine is
found in Wace's Brut.
Grant partie sor la marine
Malgre sa feme la rdbie v. 43.
Compare also
Tu meisme, dist Rou, as fet ton jugement. 2029
The following examples are curious :
Sire, dist un Visconte, jo vos dirai ja veir,
Cele vile n' est pas legiere a asseir
Par I'ewe e par 11 pont povez sovent veir
Chevaliers e serjanz cha dedenz recheveir. 4196
Turna sei pur li cors veir :
Gis tei, dist il, ne te moveir. 5462
En la boisiere volt veir,
Ne sai s' il out de rien espeir. 5688
Here we see a di\idcd : veir, rhyming with an undivided : -eir.
Now the hypothesis that ir was in such a case pronounced as eir,
seems contrary to all possibiKty or probability. But this might
be simulated by the prefixing of an e, thus making the ordinary :
veir into : veeir, so that in this case we should not so much have
a divided e'i, as an omitted e. This notion is partly sustained by
comparing
A plusors des Baronz a monstre son cimseil ;
Si Ten tindrent trestuit a bon et afe'il. 3314
Ki li donouent tel cunseil
Ne li unt pas estefieil. 8483
where the same word feil, L. fidelis, rhyming with the same word
cunseil is at one time spelt feil and at another feeil, which I have
interpreted by a diaeresis. This may however have been only a
scribal accident. Still this insertion of e is similar to the familiar
use of u or eii as the metre seems to require. This explanation
hardly applies to
Normendie prendront e tendront soubs lor peiz
E se voudixnt la France partiront entr' eiz, 3633
* It. traino, Sp. tragin, Pr. trabi, Fr. ^ jt. guaina, Fr. gaine, 0. Fr. gaine,
E. train (0. Fr. train), from trahere ; Rou. waine, "W. gwain a sbeath ; from
vb. It. trainare. Pr. trabinar, Fr. trainer. vagina. Milanese has guadinna, Vene-
The suffix ino is not added to verbs, so tian guazina. Donkin's Diez.
the Ital. and Sp. forms may have been
borrowed from the Pr. Fr. trahim traim.
Donkin's Diez.
§ 1, No. 3. NORMAN FRENCH EI, AT. 457
and it seems more natural to suppose that (e,i) and (ei) were found
sufficient rhymes, when a trouvere was hard pressed. But what-
ever explanation is adopted, we must remember that whereas veir
is generally a monosyllable, it is made a dissyllable in these places
for the exigencies of the met e, which could hardly have been done
unless it contained within itself the elements of resolvability, by
containing two vowel sounds usually diphthongizing. This reminds
us of the division of ueine, mayn into ue'ine, mayn for the exigencies
of the music only, and even against the metre, in the Prisoner's
Prayer, p. 432, line 7, and p. 433, line 6, of the music, which cer-
tainly could not have been attempted if both vowels had not been
sounded. See also the apparent division of the diphthong in
Chaucer, supra p. 264, and Havelok, infra p. 476. The double
orthography : esmaier, esmaai, the last of which rhymes with ai, in :
Guert, dist Heraut, ne t' esmaier,
Dex nos pot bien, s'il volt, aidier. 13015
Guert, dist il, nos anemiz creissent ;
Chevaliers vienent et espeissent,
Mult part en vient, grant poor ai ;
Unkes maiz tant ne m' esmaai, 13027
is scarcely comprehensible on the supposition that a was not clearly
pronounced.
These quotations seem to establish the existence of ei, ai as diph-
thongs, and as divided vowels with the pronunciations (ei, ai) and
(e,i, a,i) and the confusion of ei, ai when ai was an undoubted diph-
thong as in aider, compare sentreeident ■= s'entr'aident, in the Nor-
man version of the Proclamation of Henry III, p. 502, 1. 2.
The question then becomes whether this pronunciation was uni-
versal,or whether ei, ai were not occasionally pronounced (ee) as
at present.
Now in the first place we must not lose sight of the fact that
several words were spelled indifferently with e or ai.
Odes n'en volt pur li rien/ere,
Orguil respundi e cuntrere. 6612
Cil n'en osa plus nient/ere
Dez ke li Dus le rova tere. 7057
Ki a sun cuer vunt a cuntraire
Maiz n'en pot il a eel ievtis faire. 8433
E de la gi-ant destrucion
Ke paen a Dol orent/e< :
S'il en France venir les lait. 6946
Se il nel fet, a nul jur mais
N'ara trieves de li ne pais. 8453
Mez par li bons clers ki I'escristrent. 37
Ne mez tant com Ten vait disant. 59
Sul Deus est sacbanz e mestre
D'Occean fist eissir e naistre B. vol. i. p. 5
Compare: estre maistre ib. p. 10. If we examine old French,
as distinct from Norman, we shall find the interchange of ai, e con-
stant. It is almost impossible to open Roquefort's Dictionnaire at
hazard without finding examples. But at tliis early period, xn th
or xrn th century, I have not yet seen the confusion in many words.
In the Eoman de Rou, the only final words in -ere for -aire which
458 NORMAJS FRENCH EI, AI. Chap. V.
I have noticed arc : fere, tcre, confrere, and these, so far as I have
obsened, do not rhyme "with words that are not also spelled -svith
at. Sucli words would, therefore, be probably words of double
sounds, and if we met a rhyme like : faire cuntrere, we should
naturally suppose that the scribe had mistaken in spelling; one of
the words. Thus, in the lines just cited, for : fet lait, read fait
lait. This is precisely similar to the double fonns in Chaucer :
dye deye, ye eye, etc. (supra p. 284-6.) That the change had taken
place in a large number of words in the xiv th century we see by
such English words as : ese, pecs, clcr = aise, paix, clair, in
Chaucer, but the double form : ese eyse, shew that the tradition
at least, of the old diphthongal form was not lost in England (p. 265).
In this examination it would be necessary for certainty to revert to
original manuscripts of a known date, for at a late period scribes
must necessarily have confused spelliiigs which had come to be
identical in signification.
The !Xonnans, if they carried with them Norse traditions, as in-
terpreted by modem Icelandic,' into the French pronunciation,
must have had a tendency to palatisation ; they must have been
fond, that is, of prefixing or subjoining i to any other vowel, either
always or occasionally. This is fully borne out in the Roman de
Kou. Thus, for preceding ^■: triegc 1362, trieves 1320, Icgiere
1323, aidier 13016, chierte 1571, cunquiere 4677, similarly matiere,
baniere, chief; mangie, eslaissie, E. p. 4, the practice being common.
For a succeeding i we have the frequent termination -aige co-exist-
ing with -age, as langage usaige 5217, messaige passaige 10790,
rivaiges damaiges^ 127, and: tuit = ^ow^, toiis 1074, trestuit =
tres tons 1076, where the change is made to rhyme with : s'enfuit,
muit, deduit, but all the forms : tuit, tut, tot, are found. Now to
this Norman tendency I attribute the addition of an i to a pure e,
asindei=("/e 3770, creimon 14966, compare cremuz 15049, and such
common forms as: sei mei tei dei mescrei lei porkei 2021-8, meiz
3636, which are all alterations of a Latin e ia the dii'ection of pala-
talisation, whereas the French forms : soi moi toi etc. = (sue mue
tue) etc. are in the opposite direction of labialisation.' Compare
also: vezins 186, with: veizin 2292, which seem to show how
Latin i passed tlii'ough Norman e before it became Norman ei, as a
palatalisation of the e. From insufiicient research I have not met
with -tei for -te, answeiing to the Latin -tas, but Mr. Payne says he
has found in Lymage del Monde, Harl. MS. 4333, dated 1246, all
the forms : pouretei humilitei ueritei, vanitei, vanite, and similar
^ See an account of Icelandic, infra il faut noter que I'accent Valeriguais
§ 4, No. 2. See also supra p. 454. diffore sensiblemcnt de I'accent cau-
2 In addition to the obser^'ations at chais ; a St. Valery on ferme les
the close of the note on p. 120, M. lettrcs : a devient e, et e denent i.
V abbe Delalonde, (p. 438, n. 3), sap : Je n'ai jamais entcndu dire rivdige."
"La pronunciation >-iya?>7(>, etc., n'existe * See supra p. 131, note, col. 1; p.
pas dans la Scine-Inferieure, sauf a 138, note, col. 1; and p. 187. A lady
St. Valerv-en-Caux, oil Ton pourrait informs me that (sue, mue, tue,) etc.,
trouver qiiclque chose d' analogue : on were the received pronunciations, when
dirait plutOt a St. Valery rivege : mais she was in French Canada.
§ 1, No. 3. NORMAN FKENCH EI, AI. 459
varieties in the past participle. I am inclined to class these forms
with, the others as Norman palatalisations, but of less frequent
occurrence than those with which we are so familiar, and coiiiined
to particular writers and localities.
This discussion is necessarily left in a very incomplete form, and
it is evident that lengthy researches would be necessary to amve at
a satisfactory conclusion. Nevertheless, it seems to me, that a high
degree of probability has been attained for the theoiy that when the
scribe wrote ei, ai he meant (ei, ai), or (eei, aai).^ The true English
diphthongs were derived fi'om the Saxon, eg, ag, aeg, and passed
thi'ough (ejh, ajh, a?jh) most probably, to become finally fused into
(ai). They do not in any respect depend upon the Norman, and
hence, from the rhyming of : awey wey, both from ags. weg, and
hence both necessarily (wai), with the Nonnan: crei Tripolay, in
the passage which has led to this discussion, (supra p. 449), we
should conclude that the Anglo-Normans said (-ai) rather than allow
the unproved theory that the Anglo-Normans of the xm th century
called : crei Tripolay (kree Tripolee), to establish by a single ex-
ample the English pronunciation of: awey wey, as (awee* wee), in
contradiction to the evidence that the diphthongal (awai* wai) were
recognised by Dr. Gill as late as 1621, and still exist dialectically.
Such a conclusion would be similar to the theory which, starting
from modern use, makes old English long i = (ai), fijids the same
sound in Anglosaxon, and even imagines that the old Norman was
pronounced so in England, so that the rhymes : eyre fire dii-e shire
of oui- song (p. 449) should be : (sair fair dair shair), an hypothesis
which our examination of long i in the xiv th century (pp. 270-297)
must render extremely improbable.^
^ Mr. Joseph Pa)'ne, as a conse- ing the northern habit of (ee) to have
quence of his researches on Norman co-existed fi-om, at least, the beginning
orthography, etc. (supra p. 438, note of the xvi th century in Scotland, supra
1), dissents from the conclusions in the p. 410, note 3, and perhaps at a still
text respecting the Norman value of earlier period in some districts of Eng-
ei, ai, which he believes to have always land, probably north-midland, supra p.
had the sound (ee), and he considers 452, note, col. 2, although even there it
that the French rhjTues cited supra p. is unlikely that the forms (ei, ai) had
264 would tend to prove that Chaucer invariably the soimd of (ee). See also
also pronounced his ei, ai as (ee). So infra p. 473, note 1. I much regret
far as I understood, he considers that that owing to Mr. Payne's researches
ei, ai had the same sound (ee) from not being yet (April, 1869) in type,
the earliest times in England, but I am unable to examine the proofs
that ei, ei had the soimd (ai) in the which he has adduced, but no one can
English of the xvi th century, as hereafter properly appreciate the evi-
well as that of (ee) which Hart accepts dence on which a decision has to be
as the only sound, supra p. 122. The taken, without thoroughly examining
reader is referred to pp. 118-124, what he has so carefully and con-
p. 238, pp. 263-266, to the rhyme ay, scientiously adduced.
mei = English at/e, Latin mei, p. 447, * Nevertheless as M. Le Hericher
and to the use of aj^, e^j, in Orrmia, has advanced an opinion that the pro-
infra p. 489, as well as to the preceding nunciation ai (ai) for long i was by no
investigation, for the reasons which lead means unknown to the old Noiinan
me to the conclusion that ei, ai were (ei, language, and has stated that it is even
ai), or simply (ai) from the earliest times known in the modem Norman dialect,
to the end of the xvi th centiuy, allow- it is necessary to consider what he has
460
NORMAN FRENCH EI, A I.
Chap. V.
Our knowlodpc of Enf,'lish pronunciation in the xm th and xiv th
centuries, is now so much more certain than any knowledge which
advanced. TIic foUowinj^ arc the words
of his iis,scrti()n, llistoirc et Glossaire
du Normand de 1' Anj^lais, etc., i. 27,
" On retrouve en Normandie 1' I
ouvert des Anj^lais, c'est-i-dirc Ai.
Dans la Haj^ue on dit : " II est en
prai'son;" c'cst-a-dire prison, " il. est
johii," c'est-a-dire joli. Ce son d'ail-
Jcurs n'etait pas etranger an vieux
normand, comme le prouve ce vers de
Wace :
Eve est isle, Zomee (thorn) est es-
paine (epine)
Soit rain, soit arbre, soit raine.
Lcs paysans de Moliere, c'est-a-dire de
rile-de-France, prononcent quelquefois
ainsi ; voyez dans I'acte II de Dom
Juan: 'Chagraine, Chopaine.' Mais
les exemples sont assez norabreux en
vieux normand ; outre celui de Wace
nous pouvous en citer un de Beneois :
Noise, meslee n'ataine,
Gardez que chascun en devine.
Nous pouvons encore en citer un mo-
derne, tire d'une chanson patoise, sur
le nom propre Edeline :
Vous y v'lu done, monsieur Edlaine.
{Condoleance hagnaise, par Edeline.)
Le paysan bas-normand rentre dans
la prononciation anglaise de I'Y final,
Sar exemple To sanctify, lorsqu'il
it "Tu betifaies," tu dis ou fais
des betiscs; et il prononce Envaie,
envie, comme I'Anglais prononce Vie,
apocope du mot normand. Du reste,
c'est aussi la prononciation de Picardie,
oil le mot " Arnould dai'ne" est devenu
celebre. Le normand a traduit en ei
ri du latin, que le fran(,'ais a traduit
en oi: Beit (digitus), Freid (frigidus),
Feil (pilus), Neir (niger), Peis (pisus),
Sei (sitis). C'est ainsi que la forme
primitive Franceis, Angleis, Bands re-
presente Franci, Angli, Bant." We
have seen the uncritical manner in
which this author cites Palsgrave,
supra p. 120, note, r'.aking him assert
that in the French of his time A was
pronounced as the modem French a, ai,
whereas Palsgrave gives a as the gene-
ral sound, and a'i not ai, that is (ai)
not (ee), as a sound of a in a very
limited class of words. I therefore
considered it necessary to check the
assertions in the above quotation as
well as I could. My friend Mr. "W.
Babington, being resident at Ha^Te
when this passage came under my con-
sideration, obligingly made iuciuiries
for me of the vicars of Notre Dame at
Havre, Jlessrs. Ilerval and Lc Due,
and of Norman gentlemen from the
different departments of Seine In-
fericure, Calvados, Ome and Eure, but
could find no trace of this pronuncia-
tion of long t as at (ai). M. 1' abbe
Delalonde (suprii, p. 438 n. 3) whom I
also consulted on this point, writes to
me : " / change en a'i est tout a fait
etranger a notre contree." But re-
specting "Arnould daine," he says:
" Le celebre proverbe est totalement
inconnn chcz nous ; il signifie bien :
Arnould dine, .... quant a la ma-
niere de prononcer le mot diner, je le
representerais plutot ainsi : diinner, et
cette prononciation est fort repandue
parmi les paysans." This probably
means (dEEne). As, however, none of
these inquiries had extended to the
precise district pointed out by M. Le
Hericher as that in which a'i was said
for long i, viz. la Ilague, the penin-
sula containing Cherbourg, I wrote to
M. Totain, the cure of Beaumont, the
nearest town to Cape de la Hague, and
he has favoured me with the followinf,
reply : "Etranger au pays de la Hague
que je n'babite que depuis quelques
annees, je nesuis pas autant au courant
que bcaucoup d'autres de la prononcia-
tion des habitans. J'ai cependant in-
terroge quelques personnes de la localite
que j'habite, et elles m'ont affirme que,
dans le canton de Beaumont, nuUe
part on ne dit : pra'ison pour prison, ni
jolaH pour joli ; ni : tu betifaies pour
betifies. On dit : il est parti en pri-
son ; il est joli — tu dis ou tu fais des
betises. On ne dit pas non plus enva'ie
pour envie." In a subsequent com-
munication, M. Totain says : " Mon
Maire, M. Le Taillis, Docteur m^decin,
originaire de Montebourg," a small
town fifteen miles S.S.E. of Cherbourg
on the same peninsula, " m'a affirme
que la prononciation : il est jolai, il
est en praison. tu betifais, qui n'est
pas usite dans la Hague, Test tres
g^neralement parmi les habitants de
Montebourg et des environs." (supri
p. 297, note.) After this examination
we may feel certain that the pronun-
ciation of long t as (ai) adduced by M.
§ 1. No. 3.
NORMAN FRENCH EI, AI.
461
we possess of the old Norman pronunciation, that, as it is in general
derived from independent sources, we are rather justified in revers-
ing the process of investigation and using rhymes of English and
Le Hericher is a remarkably circum-
scribed local pronunciation of no his-
torical value, although it has the pho-
netic importance of shewing that the
change of (ii) to (ai) is not confined
to England, Germany, and Holland,
but has an analogue, confined indeed
to a very small district, but still ex-
istent in iS'orniandy. We proceed then
at once to what bears more directly on
our present investigation, an examina-
tion of the evidence on which he attri-
butes this pronunciation to the old
Norman of the xii th century. M. Le
Hericher does not give the reference
to Wace and it was not -without con-
siderable difficulty that I discovered
the passage he apparently meant to
cite in Roman de Kou, vol. ii, p. 105,
V. 106o9. Wace is explaining the
meaning of the English word Zonee as
he writes it, that is, Thorney, Thorn
island, on which Westminster Abbey
was built, and says — not what M. Le
Hericher has written, but —
Ee est isle, zon est espine,
Seit rainz, seit arbre, seit racine.
All trace of an ai = (ai) sound here dis-
appears. The next passage cited fi-om
Beneois (Benoit ?) again without any
reference, I have been unable to verify,
but supposing that it is correctly cited
— a very hazardous supposition, after
the above misquotation — the metre re-
quires the separation of the syllables
a-ia-i-ne. and the rhyme becomes re-
gular. Roquefort gives the verb under
the forms : atainer, ataigner, atayner,
athir, atiner = nuire, referring to the
low Breton atai/'ia, and the substantive
in the forms : atahin, ataine, atainement,
atayne, atenes, athaine, athine, atie,
atine, attaine, attine = haine. The word
was evidently pronounced in a variety
of ways, and it is not an example which
establishes anything. From M. Le
Hericher's assertion with which he in-
troduces this instance, that there are
"numerous" examples of the rhyming
of ai with i in old Xorman, it would
seem that he had. confused the diph-
thong (ai) with the divided vowels (a,
i), and that when, as is quite right,
proper, and consistent, (a,i) rhymes
with (i), he concluded that (ai) rhymes
with (i), which is perfectly different.
Certainly no one who can confuse the
two cases, is competent to make use of
rhj-mes to determine pronunciation.
We may therefore dismiss M. Le Heri-
cher's assertion that the pronunciation
di (ai) for long i was not unknown to
the old Normand, as perfectly destitute
of foundation, neither of his examples
bearing in the least upon it, and both
discrediting his method of research.
My own examination of all the rhymes
in Wace's Roman de Rou has not pro-
duced a single instance of this mon-
strosity. In the modern example from
La Hague, as the author writes Edlaine
and not Edlaine, this does not seem to
be a case in point, but appears to refer
to some other dialectic tendency similar
to that cited by M. Delalonde of dtinner
for diner. I have not been able to see
or hear of a copy of the poem Condo-
leance Haguaise cited by Si. Le Heri-
cher . Respecting the two words cited
from Bon Juan, we must remember that
Moliere lived in the xviith century,
hence his ai, not di, should mean
(ee). There are many cuiious spellings
in Le Festin de Pierre, Act 2, sc. 1, as ai
for oi and conversely, ar for er, i for
u, but perhaps no cases of ai for i except
those cited : " Iglia que tu me cha-
graines V esprit, franchemcnt." " Je
m'en vais boire cliopaine pour me re-
bouter taut soit peu de la fatigue que
j'aie cue." The esprit, fatigue shew
that there was no general change. M.
Totain says in reference to words in
-ine, as " poitrine, chagrine, vermine,
chopine, etc., nos paysans les pronon-
cent generalement comme s'il y avait :
ene ou aine. Ainsi ils disent; Yiens
here ime chopene ou une chopaine,
c'est-a-dire ; Viens boire ime chopine."
This confirms the above view of Edlaine.
After this examination it would be un-
safe to build upon M. Le Hericher's ac-
count of Norman pronunciation, which
begins with an assertion very far from
being borne out by his subsequent re-
marks, even supposing them correct :
" Quand la prouonciation normande
n'existera plus, on pourra la retrouver
presque tout entiere, dans la prouoncia-
tion anglaise." — Credat Judceus !
462 NORMAN AND ENGLISH RHYMES. Chap. V.
Nonnan to elicit the English pronunciation of Norman. Of course
it is necessary to be sure that apparent rhymes are meant to be
such, and to exclude assonances when consonants are to be deter-
mined, and not to deduce anything from single instances, which
may be only scribal errors. For example the passage last cited
(p. 449) could not be used to deduce the pronunciation of any of the
Norman words, except : tere, samioun, which certainly rhyme with :
were, adoun, in the last stanza, and which must therefore have been
called (tee're, sannuun*), an important conclusion as respects the
last word, as it excludes the idea of the English having heard any
approach to the modem French nasality in the last word. It is
evident that in the former part of the stanza the Norman words
may rhyme with Norman and the English with English throughout,
as shewn by the italics for the Norman in : defere sovent, faire
shent, JEngletere gent, faire parlement ; eyre crey, fire awey, dire
Trijwlay, shire wey, and hence no information would result. The
construction of ballads is so loose that we have really no right to
assume anything else, if we take the middle rhymes into account.
The following lines are curious (Pol. Songs, p. 49, from Harl.
MS. 978, undoubtedly of the xiiith century, supra p. 420, n. 1).
Competenter per Robert, robbur^ designatur :
Et per Richard riclie hard congrue notatur ;
Giltbert non sine re gilur appellatur ;
Gefrei, si rem tangimus, mjofrai commutatur.
The consonants must here not be pressed too hard, and we cannot
be certain that Robert was pronounced Roher as at present. The
Gilehert, gilur = Gilbert giuler, shew the identity of Norman and
English i long, guaranteed as (iV, ii) by the present and perhaps
ancient short vowel in the first syllable of Gilbert ; and Gefrei, jo
frai = je ferai, is useful in assigning the pronunciation of Geofifrey
as (Dzhef'rai"). But (Dzhef'ree*) must have also been in use, see
p. 498. There is scarcely anything else which is useful in the
Pol. Songs, but the following may be noted, the French words
being italicised as before : pas was p. 189, De be p. 191, Boloyne
tnoyne assoygne loyne Coloyne Sesoyne p. 191, Dee contree p. 216,
eglise wise p. 251, and the Latin: custodi vaoAj p. 251.
There are three poems from Univ. Camb. MS. Gg. 4, 27, in which
many French rhymes occur.'^ This MS., from which also the Chaucer
Society are printing the Canterbury Tales, is supposed to belong to
the first half of the xv th century, but evidently cannot belong to a
Southern locality on account of its treatment of the final e.'^ Although
^ In the spcllin": robbur, gihir the « ' See an interesting account of this
stands for e as usual ; the English MS. and its numerous peculiarities,
reader should not think of such a sound prefixed to the Chaucer Society's re-
as (a) or (a). print. It may be compared with
Audelay (supra p. 450, note 2), in the
2 These were printed 11 July 1864 interchange of o with a, e, u, the use of
for private circulation by Rev. H. o«y for awy, the frequent use of e for i,
Bradshaw, of King's College, Cam- the neglect of final e, and in many
bridge, to whose kindness I am in- other points, so that its authority on
debted for the copies from which I questions of Southern pronunciation is
quote. very slight.
§ 1, No. 3. NORMAN AND ENGLISH RHYMES. 463
these rhymes do not properly belong to the period of this chapter,
this seems the most appropriate place for their consideration. The
first stanzas of the poems are as follows :
I. De Amico ad Amicam.
1. A celuy qui pluys o}Tne en Mouude
Of alle tho that I haue founde
Carissima
Salu; od trcye amour
With grace ioye and alle honour
Dulcissima
2. Sachej bicn pleysant et beele
That I am ry;t in good heele
Laus cristo
Et moim amour done vous ay
And also thynowene nyjt and day
In cisto
II. Responcio
1 . A soun treschere et special
Fer and ner and oueral
In mundo
Que soy ou saltj et gre
With mouth word and herte fre
locundo
2. leo vous sanj debat
That }e wolde of myn stat
Audire
Sertefyes a vous ieo say
I wil In tyme whan I may
Venyre
III. [The Songs of the Birds]
1 . In may whan euery herte is lyjt
And flourys fiosschely sprede and sprynge
And Phebus with hise bemys bryjte
Was in the bole so cler schjTiynge
That sesyn in a morwenjiige
Myn sor for syghte to don socour
With inne a wode was myn walkynge
Pui- moy ouhter hors de dolour
2. And in an erber sote and grene
That benchede was with clourj's newe
A doun I sat me to bemene
For verray seyk ful pale of hewe
And say be syde aturtil trewe
For leue gan syngyn of hire fere
In frensch ho so the roundele knewe
Amour me fait souent pensere.
The following arrangement of these rhymes will shew their
hearing. The French words are in Italics, the references to the
number of the poem, as above, and the line, explanations in
brackets :
A. debat senhat [s'en bat] iii 22, debat E. le [Id, broad] me i 52, le the ii 28 —
stat ii 7 — special oueral ii I— alias pete [pite] me ii 40, verife the i. 23,
was ii 31 — toward ffard [garde] i 70 chariie be i 67, volunteW^e [thee] i 37,
AI. ay [ai] day i io, serraij [serai] ii ^L^—gre [gre] fi-e [free] ii 4, tre-
day ii 13, say [sais] may ii 10 same [tres aime] be i 55, tresame^e
4G4
NORMAN AND ENGLISH RHYMES.
Chap. V.
stedefastly [another faulty northern
or XV th century rliynic] ii 52 —
fere [=f)T = fire for this rhyme,
Bee p. 272] aymyer iii 38, quoer
ScoDur] fyr [evidently taken as (keer,
eer), see last case] i 40, entyre de-
patter [compare the last case but
one] iii 118 — dij) [dis] pris i 31 —
try.\t [tristc] nyjt [night, see re-
marks oelow] i 19.
0. a ccstys ay maiaide de vous ore [or?]
more ii 43, note rote i 46, sort mort
iii 62.
OU. verteuous ioyous [joyeux] iii 86,
amour flour ii 22, amour honour i 4,
socour dolour [douleur] iii 6.
Nas.\ls. — penaunce languissaunce iii
70 — dolent schent ii 19, eutendement
entent i 58, greuousement schent ii
37 — seyn [sain] sertej-n i 49 —
— tnounde [monde] founde i 1.
[thee] i 13, done [donnc] the i 61,
en presonr [eniprisonne] sle [slay, as
often in Chaucer] i 34 — fere [com-
panion] j»<-»»«e [pcnscr] iii lA,manere
were ii 34, chere pcre [peer] i 43,
et pur ct'o Jeo vous creserlj] daungcr
i 28.— /«ff/[loval] ffl [feel] i 16, betlc
[belle] hecle [health] i 7.
EI. wcye soye [sois] iii 46, espeye
[6pee, should be espie, the e was a
Bubsequent insertion] deye [should
be dye as often in Chaucer, p. 284]
i 22
EU. rcwe adetre iii 94, crew deceu iii 54
I. fye [vie] curtcysye ii 49. pry [prie]
curteysy [should be curteysye as in
the last case] i 64, ermony [should
be harmonye] oublye iii 30, maladye
sikyrlye [should be sikyrly, but
then the rhyme is faulty in a
northern or late xv th century man-
ner] ii 16, ieo vous pry [for jtw-ye]
So far as these rhymes estahlish anything they go to confirm our
former conclusions in every respect, and to sliew an absence of
nasality in the English pronunciation of French in the xv th century,
as we shall find again in the xvi th. Chap. YIII, § 3. The rhyme :
tryst nyjt, is very remai'kable. It cannot be supposed cither that
J was in such a position as ny]t ever pronounced as s, although we
find dy) = dis i 31 in the French; nor on the other hand can we
suppose that s was omitted in tryst and j in P.y)t, producing the
rh}Tne: (triit, niit,) because 5 is still pronounced in this French
word. Hence we are compelled to assume an assonance (trist,
ni/iht), which a clumsy poet found quite near enough to satisfy his
ear. Mr. Ltimby however entertains a cUfterent opinion. In his
edition of King Horn, infra p. 480, n. 1, from this same Cambridge
MS. Gg. 4, 27, 2, he observes on the forms, mifte = mijte 10,
dofter = dojter 249, rhyming with j^ojte, and rift = rijt in
line 663 of Flori) in the same MS., which line also contains no jt,
with J and not f : " This interchange," he says, " occurs so often in
early MSS. that it is a conclusive proof of a similarity in sound be-
tween the letters," and adds that " in several copies of Piers Plow-
man soure occurs for )oure," ' and refers to Eel. Ant. i, 48, for a poem
where this substitution occurs throughout. This poem, The Five Joys
of the Vii-gin, is from Tiin. Coll. MS. Ii 14, 39,^ which Mr. T. Wright
1 Mr^Skeat knows only of one copy,
MS. Cotton Yesp. B. xvi, where there
are several, but not many, examples,
and the spelling is altogether singular.
2 Some account of this MS. is given
in Mr. Albert Way's Preface to the
Promptorium Pavvulorum, p. Ixxii,
under the heading "Femina." This
MS., I am informed by Mr. Aldis
Wright, the librarian of Trinity Col-
lege, disappeared from that library
between 1863 and 1859, and as no one
had taken it out on bond in that inter-
val, it must have been appropriated.
There are notices of it in Ilickes, The-
saurus i, 144, 154, and its disappearance
is a serious loss to Early English phi-
lology. The poem of the Five Joys
is reprinted in (Jolbcck and Miitz-
ncr's Sprachproben p. 51, but these
editors have taken the liberty of replac-
ing -ft by -ht throughout.
§ 1, No. 3. NORMAN AND ENGLISH RHYMES. 465
assigns to the first lialf of the xni th century, a conclusion at
variance Avith the orthography thou which is invariable and occurs
frequently, and wid-oute. The only other test word is ure, which
has the xiii th ccntuiy form, so that the close of the xiii th century
is the time indicated, as for Havelok. The words containing f for j
in this poem are : brift mift, lifte rifte, mifte, drift rift, mifte
brifte, brift. This same poem contains some other curious ortho-
graphies as : sue [such], seal, sculde, scene. It omits the guttural
altogether in : broutest [broughtest], slo [slew]. It apparently
confuses v with \ in
The tliridde dai he ros to live ;
Levedi, ofte were thou blive [blijie ?] '
Ac never so thou were tho.
Levedi, for then ilke sive [si be ?]
That tou were of thi sone blive [blij^e ?]
Al mi sunnes thou do me fro !
In the last stanza we have : bene newe, printed, meaning ap-
parently : bene newe, which would be an assonance, and is the
reading adopted by Miitzner.
Levedi, tuet thou me mi bene
For the joie that ever is newe.
Thou let me never be ftu-lorn.
These peculiarities render this text not particularly useful for our
purpose, and inasmuch as j was used for both s and 5, some inac-
curate scribes may have considered that f , which was also certainly
(z) at times, might be used for 5. The only passage I have yet met
in which ] standing for 5 has apparently the sound (s), is this very
suspicious couplet of a poem full of bad spelling (i 19, supra p. 463) :
Jeo suy pour toy dolant et tryst
Ther me peynyst bothe day and nyjt
Amore,
and it would be unwise to found a theory upon a single instance of
such small authority. In the first passage of King Horn, the
parallel MSS. in Mr. Lumby's preface, p. vi, give myhte,
m i c t e ; and m i j t e occurs two line above in his own text.
These rhymes of Norman and English are rather to be treated as
jokes than as serious attempts to determine the Norman pronun-
ciation. They may be classed with Hood's description of an Eng-
lishman's difficulties in France :
Chaises stand for chairs, For wine I reel'd about
They christen letters Billies, To show my meaning fully,
They call their mothers mares, And made a pair of horns
And all their A&\xg\iiers Jillies ; To ask for " beef and bully. \
Strange it was to hear. Then their cash was strange,
I'll tell you what's a good 'un. It bored me every minute.
They call their leather queer, How here's a hog to change,
And half their shoes are wooden. How many soics are in it !
Comic Annual, 1831, p. 82'
^ Blive means quicMy, which will line biliue stighe (Prisoner's Prayer
not make sense here. The rhyme here 27), because (f, th) and therefore (v,
then sinks into an assonance, which dh) are more readily confounded than
even more resembles a rhyme than : (v, ^h) ; we may suppose bli^e to have
30
4G6 GENKSIS AND EXODUS — XIII TH CENTURY. Chap. V
ifooro's Fudge Family in Paris, shcvrs : joy Roi, St. Denis penny,
Bwcar is Vcri/^s, ihio-di papillote, fond Fronde, cracker Jiacre, Natties
pdth, ajiches wish, Musses use, mon Prince sense, jolie Dolly,
icrevisses bliss, coach poche. In Byron wc find : true is petits puits
(Juan, 15, 68) eprouveuse muse (ib. 9, 84), Vauhan hang slang (ib.
5, 11), d V Allemande understand hand (ib. 15, 66), French Per-
venche 14, 75. These modem instances should teach us not to ride
our old examples too hard, and certainly not to draw conclusions
trom a few cases.
4. The Story of Genesis and Exodus, ciucX a.d. 1290.
Mr. Richard Morris attributes the composition of the rhymed
account of Genesis and Exodus contained in a MS. in Corpus Christi
College, Cambridge, to about a.d. 1250, but the actual writing of
the MS. to nearly as late as 1300,' so that it was "the work of a
scribe to whom the language was more or less archaic." The
dialect he considers, together with that of the Bestiary (supra,
p. 439), and the Orrmulum (infra, p. 486) to be East Midland.
This poem being well known to all the members of the Early
English Text Society, I have examined the rhymes to obtain indi-
cations of the pronunciation, and shall refer to them by the number
of the lines in which they occur.
Assonances are not uncommon, but the principal are those in
which an, corresponds to am, as: '6an nam 481, nam canahan 725,
abram leman 781, abram iurdan 805, abram man 909, bigan abram
921, abraham ^an 1189, nam laban 1653. Occasionally in im,
caym kin 543, olim sin 3307; on orn, on-on horn 2199; un um,
cumen munen 1621. Probably : gate quake 1054 is an error of the
scribe for: gate quate. Joseph swep 2085, hond wrong 2063,
sokoth pharaofh 3209, are single cases, but oc occurs more fre-
quently : fot oc 2497, oc mod 3923, mo^ hoc 3603. Altogether
false rhymes are rare, and are probably scribal errors : agen under-
gon 1159, drog nuge 1327, get bigat 2277, ^or ger 2417, specande
lockcnde 2821, moysen man 3109, eliazar or 4091. In: numen
comen 343, broken luken 361, 3779, this is almost certainly the
case, and in : swem greim 391, which would otherwise be an
example of e, ei rhyming, the second word should be grem or c/rim.
The rhyme i, e, is normal, as in Chaucer, (supra p. 272) : li^er
ne'Ser 369, effraym hem 2151, wHten eten 2289, abidcn deden
2483, mide dede 2963, and probably implies that i = (u, t). Oc-
been called, (bliidh-e), at present both ' The story of Genesis and Exodus,
(blaidh, bloith) are heard. Maitzner an Early English Song, about 1250,
reads blithe, sithe, sapng : " "Wir now first edited [for the Early English
schreiben hier blithe fiir blive, und Text Society] from a unique MS. in
sithe fiir sive ; da sonst die Stelle un- the library of Corpus Christi College,
erklarbar bleibt. Dadurch tritt in live Cambridge, by Eichard Morris, Lou-
die Assonanz an die Stelle des Reims. don, 8vo. pp. il. 224 ; a.d. 1866.
Dass blive = bili/e, beliiie, quickly, nicht
gcduldet werden kaiin, ist selbstver-
standlich."
§ 1, No. 4. GENESIS AND EXODUS XIII TH CENTURY. 467
casionally an e final seems omitted, or added by mistake, as : song
amonge 699, child niilde 985, compare: childe mild 1305. In
many instances -e, and -en rhyme, where the editor has apparently
changed -e into en, though in some cases it would seem more
correct to change -en into -e.
As regai'ds m, it had certainly generally the pronunciation (uu),
and those rare cases in which it is replaced by om, may be attributed
to the more modem habits of the scribe, as the use of on for (uu)
seems to have commenced about the close of the xiiith century.
Thus we find : run = speech, circumcicioun 991, town dun ^
down 2739, but: tun dun 713, teremuth = PAaraoA's daughter's
name, out 2615. But the Hebrew: man hu? nu 3329, alluding
to Ex. xvi, 15 (m«n huu?), what is this?, the question asked
when the manna was first seen, as clearly points to the use of u for
(uu) as the cuccu of the Cuckoo Song. The use of u for (yy, y),
probably called {ii, i, e) is rare, but we find ww^w<fert= barren, 964.
That the unaccented syllables were occasionally pronounced in a
slovenly manner, we collect from the rhyme : euenehe none 331,
Diphthongal combinations are altogether rare.
Ea occurs, but rhymes with e, and may be always a scribal error :
forbead dead 311, opened dead 387, red dead 401, bead dead 1059,
ear ^ear = (?^ar ? 1089, forked dead 1329, dead red 2513. Pro-
bably pronounced (ee') or (ee, e) in all cases.
Oa rhymes always with a, and may have been («fl) : moal =
speech natural 81, woa = woe eua = Eve 237, gomorra ^oa = ^a
839, oba woa = woe 879, salmona ^oa 3893, fasga doa = ^a 4129.
Ai, ei rhyme together, and must have both been (ai) : ay day 87,
wei dai 1429, grei awei 1723, dai awei 2305, day wey 2721, dai
mai 2747. In: awei deal 861, the last word is a mere scribal error
for dai.
The guttul-al g is occasionally omitted, as : ru esau 1539, where
ru = rough. Sometimes it is merely changed into w, probably in-
dicating (wh) or (gM'h) : noght sowt 2869. "We also find initial
gh, in ghe = she, 237, 337, 339, but ge = she 1024 possibly a
remnant of (^h), though (j) seems to have been the sound intended.
This examination confirms our previous conclusions as to the pro-
nunciation of the -yTTT th century.
The following is an attempt to convey a notion of how the poem
may have been read. The text is according to the MS., the pro-
nunciation introduces some conjectural emendations, without which
it would have been impossible to read the text.^
^ In one or two points I differ from there about as in : ^or buten noe long
Mr. Morris, particularly in the last line fwing he dreg 566, .yii. raone'S ^or-
hut four, where he takes buten kunte= buten he ben 3625, htmte becomes the
" without search, or hunting, without infinite mood, and the construction is
delay," but by restoring ic in the pre- ic sal hunte 'So?-- buten, I shall hunt
ceding line, wanted for the metre and there about, I shall endeavour to ac-
the sense, and taking 'Sor buten to mean complish it.
4G8
GENESIS AND EXODUS XIII TH CENTURY.
Chap. V.
Genesis and Uxodus, 2G9-318,
"VVilUom ^e made ilc ^iflg of
nog:t,
QMuat-fo-cucre on houone or her
if wrogt.
Ligber he fridde a dere frud,
And he ■vmr'Se in hini-feluen
prud,
An wi^ ^at pride him wex a ny^,
^at iwel welded al his fi^ ;
^0 ne migte he non louerd
^hauen,
^at him fuldc ^hingc grauen :
Min fligt, he seidt, ic wile up-
taken
Min fete nor^ on heuene maken,
And ^or ic wile litten and fen
Al ^e ^hinges ^e in werde ben,
Twen heuone hil and helle dik,
And ben min louerd geuelic.
^0 wur^ he drake ^at ear was
knigt,
^0 wnr^ he mire ^at ear was ligt,
And eumlc on ^at helden wid
him,
^0 warden mire, and fwart, and
dim,
And fellen ut of heuones ligt,
In to ^is middil walknes nigt ;
Conjectured Pronunciation.
Wiis"doom dhe maad ilk thiq of
nokht,
KM'hat-s-eer* on nevn- or Hear
is rM-'okht.
Likhtbeer" He arid an deer*e
sruud.
And ne wurth in nimsel'vcn
pnind,
^Vnd with dliat piiid -im weks
a niidh
Dhat ii'vel wcldeth al -is siidh,
Dhoo nee mikht -ee noon lovcrd
thaa'ven
Dhat Him suld [al*e] thiq"e
thraa'ven :
Miin flikht, ne said, ic ml up
taa"ken.
Mi in see-te north on nevne
maa-ken,
And dhoor ic wiil'e sit*n- and
seen.
Al dhe thiq*es dhee -n werld'e
been,
Tween nevne nil and nel'e diik.
And been miin loverd gee'veliik,
Dhoo wurdh -e di-aak'e dhat eer
was knikht,
Dhoo wurdh -e mirk dhat eer
was likht,
And everilk oon dhat held'en
with Him
Dhoo wurdh 'en mirk and swart
and dim,
And fel'en uut of Hevnes likht,
Intoo* dhis mid'il walknes nikht;
Tramlation.
Wisdom then made each thing of
nought,
Whatsoever in heaven or here is
wrought.
Light-bear [Lucifer] he [God] clothed
in precious clothing,
And he became in himself proud,
And with that pride in-him waxed an
envy
That ill ruleth all his path.
Then not might he no lord endure.
That for-him should [all] things control.
My flight, he said, I will up-take,
My seat north in heaven make,
And there I will sit and see,
All the things that in the world be,
Between heaven's hil and hell's ditch,
And be to-my lord even-like.
Then became he dragon that ere was
knight,
Then became he mirky that ere was
ligbt, ,
And every one that held with him
Then became mirky, and black, and dim,
And fell out of heaven's light,
In to this middle welkin's night,
§ 1, No. 4. GENESIS AND EXODUS — XIII TH CENTURY.
469
Genesis and Exodus.
And get ne ku^e he nogt bKnne
for to don an o^er finne.
Eften lie sag in paradif
Adam and eue in mike pr^f,
Newelike he was of er'^e wrogt,
And to ^at mine blifle brogt ;
^owgte ^is q«<ead, hu ma it ben,
Adam ben king and eue q?<uen
Of alle ^e ^inge in werlde ben.
Hu mai it hauen, hu mai it fen,
Of fif, of fugel, of wrim, of der.
Of alle ^hinge ^e wnxien her,
Euerilc ^hing haued he geue
name,
Me to forge, fca^e, and fame ;
for adawi ful ^us, and his wif.
In blifle ^us leden lefteful lif ;
for alle ^o, ^e of hem fule cumen,
fulen ermor in blifle wunen,
And we ^e ben fro heuene
driuen,
fulen ^ufle one in forwe Kuen ;
Get ic wene I can a red,
^at hem fal bringen iwel fped ;
Conjectured Pronunciation.
And jct ne kuudh'e nee nokht
blln*e
for to doon an oodh'er sin*e.
Eest'en He saagh in paa*radiis
Aa-dam and Eev ia mik*e piiis,
Neu-liik' -e was of erth*e r?^okht,
And too dhat mir-ie bKse brokht,
Thoukht'c dhis kz^^eed, huu mai
it been,
Aa'dam been kiq and Ee*ve
kz^^een.
Of al-e thiq"e dhee -n werld'e
been,
Huu mai ic naan, huu mai ic
seen.
Of fis, of fuugh-el, of wirm, of
deer,
Of al'e thiqe dhee wuuu'en neer,
Eer'ilk- thiq navd -e geeve
naa-me,
Mee to sorgh'e, scaadh and
saa'me.
For Aa'dam sal dhus, and nis
wiif
In blis'e leed'en lesleful hif ;
For alle dhee -f nem sul'e kuu'-
men
Sul'en eermoor* in blis*e wuu*-
nen.
And wee dhe been froo sevne
drii'ven,
Sul'en dhus oon in sorgh'e lii'ven,
Jet ik ween i kan a reed
Dhat Hem sal briq-en iiyel speed.
Translation.
And yet not could lie not cease
For to do another sin.
Eastwards he saw in paradise,
Adam and Eve in much honour,
Newly he was of earth wrought,
And to that merry bliss brought.
Thought this evil-one, how may it be,
Adam be king and Eve queen
Of all things that in world be.
How may I have, how may I see !
Of fish, of fowl, of worm, of beast,
Of all things that dwell here,
To-every thing has he given name.
For my sorrow, scathe and shame.
For Adam shall thus and his wife
In bliss lead lasting-full life.
For all who of them shall come
Shall evermore in bliss dwell,
And we that be from heaven driven,
Shall thus only in sorrow live.
Yet I ween I know a plan
That them shall bring evil speed.
470
HAVELOK
XIII TH CENTURY.
Chap. V.
Genesis and Exodus.
for gef he don ^ud god for-bcad,
^at fal hem bringen to 'So dead,
And fal get ^is ilke dai,
^or butcn huntc if ic mai ;
Ic wene ^at ic, and eue bile wif,
fulen adam bilirtcn of hife 1/f.
Ic wene ^at ic and eue
fulen alle is bliife dreue.
Conjectured Pronunciation.
For jcf ne doon dliat God for*-
becd
Dhat sal nem bric^'en too dho
dcedh,
And [ic] sal Jet dhis ilk-c dai
Dhoor buut'en mint'e jif ik mai"
Ik -vvcen-e dhat ik and Eev -is
wiif
Sul'en Aa-dam biliiften of ms
liif,
Ic ween'e [to sooth] dhat ik and
Ee-ve
Sul'en [Aa'dam] al -is bhs'c
dree've.
Translation.
For if they do that-which God forbade,
That shall bring them to the death.
And [I] shall yet this same day
There about hunt, if I may.
I ween that I, and Eve his wife,
Shall Adam betrick of his life,
I ween [in sooth] that I and Eve
Shall [for-AdamJ all his bliss trouble.
6. Havelok the Dane, cikca a.d. 1290.
Sir Frederick Madden in his edition of this poem ^ considers its
author to have been a Lincolnshire man, and the time of composition
between a.d. 1270 and 1290. As the romance was popular, there
may have been many copies, and the manuscript followed by Sir F.
Madden may not have been original. In its orthography, apart
from its dialectic peculiarities, (which are numerous but do not here
come into consideration, as the object is merely to determine the
value of the letters,) it shews a transition from the customs of the
xm th to those of the xiv th century, much more marked than in
Genesis and Exodus. Thus ou is fi-equently used for (uu), \ou
being the common form, though ]>u is by no means unfrequent,
indeed both forms occur in the same line : Grim, ]>ou west \u art
mi thral 527, and we have \w 1316, and )>o 388, where, probably,
a final u has been accidentally omitted by the scribe. The following
1 The Ancient English Romance of
Havelok the Dane, accompanied by the
French Text, with an Introduction and
Glossary bv Frederick Madden, Esq.,
F.A.S., F.'R.S.L., subkeeper of the
manuscripts in the British Museum,
printed for the Roxburgh Club, 1828,
4to. This edition being very scarce, a
new one compared afresh with the MS.
has been prepared for the Early English
Text Society under the title : The Lay
of Havelock the Dane : composed in
the reign of Edward I., about a.d.
1280, formeriy edited by Sir F. Mad-
den for the Roxburghe Club, and now
re-edited from the unique MS. Laud
Misc. 108, in the Bodleian Library,
Cxford, bv Rev. Walter W. Skeat,
M.A., London, 1869. It will there-
fore be assumed to be accessible to all
members of that Society, and will be
cited by the number of the verses, as
usual. The citations originally made
from Sir F. Madden's edition have
been verified by Mr. Skeat's. I am much
indebted to Mr . Skeat for many hints, and
for kindly allowing me to make use of
his proof sheets before publication, so
as to enable me to insert this notice in
its proper place.
§ 1, No. 5.
HAVELOK — XIII TH CENTURY.
471
rhymes serve to shew the identity of the two spellings : yow now
160, pn'soun lajarun 330, mouth suth 433, yw = you nou 453,
nov = now you 484, bouwdew Avuden = wounden 546, unbouwden
fuwdcn 602, hw — how he was mike, hw he was strong 960,
doun tun := town 1630, wounde grunde 1978, bowr tour 2072,
dune croune 2656. Of course ou, ow also occur as (oou) coiTes-
ponding to ags. aw, oh, and the guttural is generally lost in (w)
after o, thus : ynowe slowe 2682. In : croud god 2338, we should
probably read crod, as the proper foim of the past participle.' The
frequent occurrence of ou, however, would lead one to suppose
that the actual MS. must belong to the very end of the xm th,
if not to the beginning of the xiy th century.*
Assonances are frequent, and the more marked that there is
often no relation between the consonants which follow the iden-
tical vowels. Thus: rym fin 21, yeme quene 182, harde crakede
567, bejje rede 694, knaue plawe 949, starede»^ ladder 1037,
* Ags. creodan (cread, crudon, cro-
den) Ettmiiller, Lex. Anglos, p. 400,
Nail (supra p. 166, note 1) under
Crowd-Barrow, quotes : " She sent my
mother word by Kate, that she should
come hither when God sent time,
though she should be crod in a barrow.
Letter of Margery Pa.iton, a.d. 1477."
* Mr. Skeat informs me that : " No
other MS. of Havelok has ever been
heard of, or known to exist : though of
course there may have been several. If
this is not the original, it is at any rate
a very early copy. I do not think Sir F.
Madden, or any other judge of writing,
would admit it to be later than about
1280, the probable date of the compo-
sition. The evident age of the MS. is
one evidence of its early composition."
The MS. containing Havelok begins
with lives of Saints, and Havelok was
overlooked for years, because it does not
begin till fo. 204. It ends on fo. 2196,
and is immediately followed by K)Tig
Horn in the same column. This has
all the appearance of a copy, not an
original MS., and as we have two other
copies of King Horn (p. 480, n. 1), we
may some day find another of Havelok.
Even a much later one (as in the case of
Lajamon) would be of great service.
It is of course impossible to date a MS.
by the writing only, within 30 years,
the working life-time of a single scribe.
The orthography would lead me to
place the actual manuscript after the
copying of Genesis and Exodus, and
within the variable period, say 1280 to
1310. Probably after the last date
OM was imiversally employed for (uu).
If the reader will turn to : Seinte
Marherete, the Meiden ant Martyr, in
old English, first edited from the skin
books in 1862 by Oswald Cockayne,
M.A., and now reissued for the Early
English Text Society, 1866, and compare
the three versions there given, the first
from the MS. Eeg. 17, A. xxvii., ap-
parently written in 1230, in which no
case of ou = (uu) occurs ; the second
from MS. Harl. 2277, attributed to
1330, in which ok is always used for
(uu) ; and the third from the lost Cam.
MS. (supra p. 4G4, n. 1 ) as printed by
Hickes, in which, if the text is to be
trusted, there is just a trace of m = (uu)
— ])u 22, prisun 26, etc., dragim 44,
ut 28, 56, jjoru 47 — amidst a great
preponderance ot ou, the value of this
sign of age in a MS. will become more
apparent ; compare also supra, pp. 408,
423, 439, 445, 467, and p. 481, 1. 11.
3 " Probably miswritten for stradden
contended." Skeat, Glossary, Sir F.
Madden, and Garnett are of the same
opinion. It is with great diffidence
that I presume to doubt this correction.
Stradden would introduce a Norse word,
whereas the noun strout is used imme-
diately 1039, and verb stroute in 1779,
from ags. strudan, strutian, and it does
not seem likely that both words should
coexist in the same dialect, or, if they
did, should be used in immediate proxi-
mity. Nor, I must confess, does con-
tended seem to make very good sense.
The passage relates to the game of
" putting the stone," the point being to
see who should throw an enormous
stone furthest, for he whose stone was
HAVELOK — XIU Til CENTURY.
Chap. V.
ahop(?)hok 1101, odrat bad 1153, drawe haue 1297, fct ck 1303,
ioyo tronc 1315, maked yschaped 161G, richc chinrhe 1763, 2940,
fold Bwerd 1824, 2634,' seruedc wercwi-d 1914, wend gent 2138,
shauwo knawe 2206, graucn namcn 2528, thank rang 2560,* boj'e'
rede 2585, bojjcn cboAven 2659, shawe knawu 2784.
Apai-t from tlicsc assonances there are no bad rhymes which do
not admit of explanation. Thus: hey fri 1071, might possibly
be : liy fri, see p. 285, but as the form hi/ does not occur in Havc-
lock, we should probably read: hey sley, compare 1083.* The
even an inch before the others was to
be held a champion :
Hwo so mithe putten Jjore
Bifom anoj^cr, an inch or more,
Wore ye [ = he 1'] yung, [or j wore he
hold,
He was for a ke»ipe told. 1033
What would then be more natural than
for the champions and the lads to stand
and look intently, store, prior to the
throw, and then make a great conten-
tion, strout, about the best cast. This
is what the text says as it stands :
Al-so )'e[i] stoden, an[d] ofte stareden
J>e chaunpiouns, and ck the laddew,
And he madon mikel strout
Abouten J^e alj^erbeste but. 1037
It would, however, be rather curious to
say that the champions and lads stood
and conteuded and made a great con-
tention about the best throw. If we
must alter the passage, straden, strode
about (Ettm. 716), would make decent
sense, but not so good as stareden. It
was doubtless the apparent harshness of
the assonance : stareden ladden, which
led to this conjecture. In the same
way Mr. Morris, anxious to avoid the
assonance : harde crakede 567, proposed
to change
And caste \e knaue adoun so harde,
]>at hise croune he )jer crakede
into
And caste \e knaue so harde adoun,
bat he crakede ]?er hise croune.
(Skeat, p. 91). "WTiere the rhyme re-
quires adoune as in King Horn 1487
(Lumby's edn.)
Fike;/hildes cnnie
\er ifiilde adune . . .
which is quoted in Mr. Skeat's glos-
sary (from MS Ilarl. 2253,) as : crowne
adoune, shewing the more ancient form
of the other version of King Horn.
But the only alteration really required
is : })er he crakede, for : he ))er crakede,
in order to preserve the e in croune. As
to the assonance itself, it is harsh to our
ears only. We must remember the
constant habit of the metathesis of r,
so that : harde crakede, may have been
called : harde carkede, which would
have been almost a rhyme, as : star' den
ladden, also is. On the principle of not
making unnecessary changes, I prefer
accepting the reading of the MS. in
each case as it stands, and therefore re-
tain both : harde crakede, and stareden
ladden, as assonances.
1 And jie )^redde so sore he slow,
bat he made up-on the feld
His left arm fleye, with the swerd.
On which Mr. Skeat remarks : " Cf.
1. 1825. We should otherwise be
tempted to read sheld; especially as
the shield is more appropriate to the
h'ft arm." This was Sir F. Madden's
original suggestion. But with may
denote the instrument: he slow )>e
Jiredde so sore with the swerd, \a.t he
made, etc. Compare the constructions,
supra p. 376, art. 110. Compare also
the parallel passage :
For his sword he hof up heye,
And )'e hand he dide of fleye,
That he smot him with so sore. 2750
I feel doubtful whether the other inter-
pretation : that he made his left arm
together with the sword, fall on the
field, could be justified by parallel
passages.
^ This may be a rhyme, see supra
p. 192.
' As we find : rede bej'c 694, bej^e
rede 1680, we should of course read:
be]>e rede in this place. This is only
one of the numerous instances of the
interchange of e, a, o, to be noticed
presently. Thus we have: bajie 1336,
2543, and boj^en 173, 697, 958.
* According to the text Godrich hears
the knights talk of Havelok :
Hw he was strowg man and hey,
Hw he was strowg and ek fri, 1071,
and then he thought that King Athel-
§ 1, Xo. 5.
HAVELOK
XIII TH CENTURY.
473
rhyme : ylie se 1984, is a mere misprint in Sir F. ^Maddon's edition,
corrected by Mr. Skeat to : Jilie se, where the h is an idle insertion,
compare \e = thigh 1950, and : ^hinge = ^inge, Gen. and Ex. 300.
The passages which present the greatest difficulty are the follow-
ing : eir tother 410, misdede leyde 994, deled wosseyled 1736.
The last is explained by : wesseyle?^ todeyle 2098, which ought
to shew that the writer had two ways of pronouncing: delen,
deylen, (deel'en, dail-en). Compare :
So ]iat \e blod ran of his fleys,
pat teiidre was, and swi))e neys.
And woiindede hiw rith rn J>e flesh
J^at tendre was, and swij^e nesh.
As the dialact of Havelok shews a Scandinavian character in
many words, the form deylen may have arisen from that source,
Icelandic at deila, (dm*la) to divide, and it would be in fact more
difficult to acccoimt for the forms Jleys neys} If we do not accept
216
2742
wald had made him swear to give his
daughter to the " hexte " = highest,
tallest, man alive, and then asks
Hwere mithe i finden ani so hey
So hauelok is, or so sley ? 1083
It is evident that the two couplets
ought to correspond. Sley, of course,
means skilful, Havelocks skill: hw he
warp ]je ston Ouer \e laddes euerilkon
1061, having made him the common
talk. Fri yields no good sense.
' For jfle>/s see supra pp. 26-5, 441,
445. The form is, in fact, not unusual.
For nei/s there seems to be no authority,
and cognate languages do not exhibit
the diphthong (ei), as they do in the
case of high Gerjnan Jleisch, theil, weich
(flaish, tail, bhaiArh), compare Dutch,
■vleesch, deel, ii-eek (vices, deel, bheek).
These undoubted correspondences of (e,
ai) in high and low German, and the
occasional use of ei in Icelandic as deila,
veikr (defil'a, v<?fikr), but its rejection in
other cases, as^esk (flesk), may at least
serve to render intelligible some doubt-
ful usages in such a provincial region
and early time as that which gives us
the rhyme of Havelok. Not only
does provincial, but even metropolitan
usage at the present day, furnish
examples which may give as much
trouble to a future investigator. Com-
pare the example Chap. XI. § 3, where
it will be seen that Mr. Melville BeU
writes : (dfiz, weisted, fein, geiv, kam,
sei), where I have. {Aeez, ws^'sted, fi?m,
gee\, keem, see) = days, wasted, fain,
gave, came, say, though we are both
supposed to speak the same dialect.
See also p. 450 n. 2, and p. 459, n. 1,
and the forms sede saide, p. 446. . . .
After the preceding observations had
gone to press, I received a remarkable
confirmation of the views there ex-
pressed concerning the possibility of
diiferent pronunciations coexisting in
limited districts, from an account of the
present pronunciation of English in
the Peak of Derbyshire, orally com-
municated to me by a native of the dis-
trict, Mr. Thomas Hallam, of Man-
chester. A somewhat detailed account
of these remarkable pronunciations will
be given below, Chap. XI. § 4, but it is
as well to notice here, that on the west
of the mountain ridge of the peak we
find (mee, dee, Bwee-, pee) and on the
east (mii, dii, Bwii, pii) for may, day,
away, pay, and again on the west we
have (shiip, ship, ma) and on the east
(sheip, sleip, mei) for sheep, sleep, me.
This characteristic diphthong (ei),
found also in the west of the ridge in
(dzheist, dzheint, beil, peint, eint"-
m^nt) for joist, joint, boil, point, oint-
ment, is, as pronounced to me by Mr.
Hallam, a sound which one Southerner
will hear as {ee) and another as (ai).
Corn-pare poynte =peynte, p. 447, 1. 14.
We can guess how a peasant of the
Peak, with his partial inoculation into
the mysteries of modern orthography
is likely to vn-ite, but to put ourselves
into the po.sition of the most careful of
ancient scribes, we have only to en-
deavour to appreciate such sounds and
attempt to commit them to paper, after
a careful study of phonetics. The ex-
treme difficulty of appreciation, the
readiness with which we mentally as-
474 HAVELOK — XIII TH CENTURY. Chap. V,
the form deyle, then one of three thinjjs must be the case : 1) The
rhyme may be faulty, but it would be perhaps the only faulty
rhyme. Or, 2) the ey, e may be a true rhyme, but then, indepen-
dently of preWous investigations, the persistent avoidance of such
rhymes is remarkable, and there would have been no reason to lug
in, for example, withuten faile 179, 2909, as a rhyme to cornwayle,
with scarcely a shadow of excuse from the sense. Or 3) the pas-
sagos containing dehd, to d^yle, may be corrupt. For this there is
some ground. The passages are :
But hwan he haueden ]<e kiwing deled.
And fele sijjes haueden wosseyled. 1736
Hweber he sitten nou, and wesseylen.
Or of ani shotshipe to-deyle. 2098
The first line contains at least one corrupt unintelligible word
ki icing, and not only is the metre of the last line unusually defective,
but the construction to-deyle of for participate in, seems forced and
unsatisfactory. It would, however, be too hazardous, in the ab-
sence of parallel passages, to propose any emendation.
The second passage
Neuere more he him misdede,
Ne hond on him with yuele leyde. 994
cannot be so explained, as dede never appears as deide, and it would
not be right to conclude that there was an assonance formed by
calling leyde (leid'e) rather than (laid'e), in face of the older Laga-
mon forms : lacide, la^idcn, leide, laiden, Icaide. There was no
period of EngUsh pronunciation in which misdede leyde would have
rhymed, so far as our researches extend. The passage must there-
fore be connipt. In the first place the sense is bad : " never more
he hurt him by deed, and never laid hand on him with evil intent,"
merely repeats in the second line what is said in the first. We
sociate the unusual with the usual old case that e, ey, had the same mean-
sound, the hesitation which we feel in ing ? At most, they would be different
selecting one orthography in place of appreciations of the same sound, and
another, and the variety of pronuncia- might possibly indicate the co-existence
tions prevalent within a limited dis- of different sounds within the same
trict, none of which can claim the pre- district. And such coexistence is not
eminence — true picture of English confined to English dialects. The
habits of speech in the xni th century vulgar (een, keen,) coexists with the
— will make us more readily understand polite (ain, kain) =«««, Jcein, in Berlin,
the varieties of orthography adopted Saxony, and many parts of Germany,
by ancient scribes, and rather admire In the Dyak (Dai-ak) languages of
than depreciate the partial uniformity Sarawak (Saraa-wak), {ee, ai) constantly
to which they attained. For myself I interchange even in adjacent house-
should feel no surprise to find one writer clusters, sometimes even in the same
representing the "Derbyshire" soimd house-cluster, so that (basee*) or (basai*)
of sheep, in "ordinary spelUng" as would be equally intelligible ior great,
sheep, another as shape, and a third as Generally in these languages (ii, ee, ai)
shipe. Shoidd we then be surprised if interchange on the one hand, and {oo,
we found an old monk proceeding from uu, an) on the other, as I have just
a similar district at one time writing been informed (April, 1869) by an
shep, and at another sheyp ? and should English resident of long standing in
we conclude in the modern case that Sarawak. See also neither, supri p.
ee, a, i, had the same sound, or in the 129, n. 1.
§ 1, No. 5. HAVELOK — XIII TH CENTURY. 475
want the sense, "he never more -wronged him by word, or deed."
This is supplied by reading misseyde for misdede, and of the correct-
ness of this reading we can have no doubt after considering the
parallel passages.
Ne found he non that him misseyde,
N[e] with iuele on[ne] hand leyde. 49
Koberd hire ledde, \a.t was red,
pat hau[ed]e )'arned for hire J^e ded
Or ani hauede hire misseyd,
Or hand with iuele onne leyd. 1686
Me wore leuere i wore lame,
Jiawne men dide him ani shame.
Or tok, or onne handes leyde,
Vn-ornelfke [vn-omelike ?], or same seyde. 1938
The first instance
Hauelok, J^at was )>e eir
Swanborow, his sister, Helfled, the tother. 410
is also corrupt on the face of it,^ for the second line of the couplet
is outrageously prolonged. The word eyr occurs not unfreqiiently
at the end of a line, as 110, 288, 605, 1095 and always rhymes
with/aj'r. This suggests the reading
Hauelok, that was the eir,
Swanborow, Helfled her sister fair, '
which at least preserves metre and rhyme, and is immediately sug-
gested by the parallel passage :
Of his bodi ne haude he eyr
Bute a mayden swi])e fayr. 110
The rhyme i, e, as : bidde stede 2548 is frequent. Shewed
knawed 2057, must be considered in connection with : shewe
lowe 1698, and lowe awe 1291, where lowe, ags. hlaw, means
a hill, preserved in the Scotch law; as well as with the not
unfrequent interchange of e, o, as : sore wore r= were 236, wore
= were more 1700, were sore 414, (where Mr. Skeat reads wore),
more there = there 921, cle[rjk yerk = York 1177, and also of
0, a: lowge gauge 795, 2586, sawe wowe = wall 1962, 2142,
1 " Corrupt? Lines 410, 411 do not at first proposed : Swanborow, Helfled
rime well together." Skeat. his sisters fair, in order to preserve as
* "We may even imagine how the much of the original as possible, but
extraordinarj' error in the MS. arose. the examples : hise children }"unge 368,
Suppose, as usual, that the scribe was we aren bo]ie J^ine 619, kniues longe
writing from dictation. The reader 1769, hundesteyte 1841, wundes swi^e
gives out: "Swanborow, Helfled her grete 1898, monekes blake 2520, shew
sister fair," the scribe writes " Swan- that : his sisters faire, would have been
borow, his sister; " altering her to his required and this would have militated
as a matter of course, because only a against the rhj-me. Unless, indeed, the
masculine noun had preceded; the reader author could have dispensed with this
sees the error and exclaims, " Thou hast final e if the necessity of rh}Tne lay on
forgotten Helfied thet other;" the him, as he does dispense apparently
scribe immediately claps down the words with an e, which is at once plural and
"Helfled the tother," and is quite dative, in :
satisfied he has correctly followed the Hwan he hauede mawrede and oth
reader in the monstrosity: "Swan- Taken of lef and of loth. 2312
borow his sister, Helfled the tother !" where however perhaps: othe, lefe,
Se non e vero, e ben trovato, I had lothe, should be read.
476 HAVELOK — XIII TH CENTURY. Chap. V.
tharc = thorc =■. there moro 2486, open drcpcn = hU 1782.
We have then to admit tluit the pronunciation of the writer
varied in the same word at different times, and that he allowed
liimsell" to interchange e, a, o. The same interchange of {ee, oo) is
observable in the modern Scotch and English : aik oak, aits oats,
aith oath, caip cope, claith cloth, craik croak, daigh dough, dail dole,
gaist ghost, gait goat, grain groan, graip grope, hail whole, haim
home, kaim comb, laid load, laird lord, laith loath, main moan, mair
more, nialst most, raid road, raip rope, saip soap, sair sore, spaik
spoke of a wheel, taid toad. In Aberdeen we even find (stiin,
biin) for sto7ie, hone. But it will be seen on examining other
Scotch ai = (ee) forms, that they often derive from an ags. a, e.
Herein then we seem to have an indication of the key to this
dialectic peculiarity. The original (aa) was at one time broadened
into (oo), and at another squeezed into (ee), and the habits of the
speaker became so uncertain that all three fomis in (ee, aa, oo)
were in sufficiently common use to allow a rhymester to employ
whichever was most convenient, till at last (oo, ee) interchanged
without the intervention of an original (aa).
"We find the regular interchange of ai, ei, as : at hayse = at ease
preyse 59, deye preye 168, seyl nayl 711, ay domesday 747.
There seems to be even a probability of sei^tt having been occasion-
ally dissyllabic, as supra p. 264. Thus, comparing ion 177 :
In al denemark is wimmaw [non] = (In al Denmark- is wum-an noon,
So fayr so sche, bi seint iohan. 1719 Soo fair so shee, bi saa'int Dzhon.
But gaf hem leue sone anon But gaa* -em lee-ve soon anoon*.
And bitauhte hem seint Iohan. 2956 And bitaut' -em saaint Dzhon).
We have also occasionally the {i) value of u. In two instances
this value is apparently given to m in words which were un-
doubtedly generally pronounced with (w), as :
So J'at \c\ nouth ne blinne
Til \a.i to sette bigan J^e sunne. 2670
per was swilk drcping of \g folk
pat on J-e feld was neuere a polk
pat it ne stod of blod so ful,
pat Jre strcm ran iHtil \q hul. 2684
In the first case read so \at \ei [stunte'] noxdh ne hlunne, the
ags. fonns, stunte, bltmne, making metre, rhyme, and construction,
perfect. In the second, hul, which was supposed by Sir F.
Madden to mean hill, is perhaps a pro^TUcial pronunciation of
the ags. and old norse hoi, Swedish hoi, Danish hul, a hollow for
the valley, as the battle was fought at Tetford, near Homcastle.
But the line is possibly corrupt, and there is no obvious means of
correction fi'om the want of parallel passages.^
' As it stands the passage must be inclines to hul hollow, on account of
translated: "There was such slaying the Scotch use of /lowe (hoou, nau), a
of the people, That on the field there direct descendant of a prenous (hmI),
was never a puddle, That it stood not as opposed to knoll, for a small valley
so full of blood, That the stream ran or depression. Part of a village in
into the hollow (?)." Mr. Murray, who Teviotdale is called Huolc-o-the-Bum
suggested the insertion of stunte above, (hm'1, hmloI, Hual, Hual).
§ 1, No. 5. HAVELOK XIII TH CENTURY. 477
The other rhymes do not require particular notice. The value
of the letters is clearly that established for the xin th ccntuiy, by
previous research, with, in the case of oti, an anticipation of the
usages of the xiv th. The meti'e is rugged and the spelling irregular,
so that the use of the final -e cannot accurately be determined.
But there is no reason to suppose it different from what had been
found for others.
The orthogi-aphy of the guttural in connection with t is very
remarkable, as: knict 239, knicth 77, knith 1068, kniht 2706,
brouth 336, biihte rithe 2610, bitawte authe 1409, etc., implying
a peculiarity of pronunciation, which, in the absence of parallel
usage, and determining rhymes, cannot be appreciated with certainty.
We must not forget, however, that sigh, drottght, height, were
sometimes called (saith, drAAth, Haith) in the xvii th century (p.
212), and that Keighley in the West Riding of Yorkshire, and
therefore likely to be somewhat inclined to the same pronunciation
as the writer of Havelok, is now called (Kiith'b'), and the pi'o-
nunciation (nekth) for height, has been noted near Ledbury in
Herefordshire, which greatly resembles -cth in knicth. At first
sight -th looks like a metathesis of ht, just as we find ihc 1377
for ich, and this in connection with the actual occasional oc-
currence of -ht or even -ct, -cth, would lead directly to the
usual (-kht) pronunciation. But an examination of the ortho-
graphy in the poem shews a systematic avoidance of the guttural
except in relation to t. In all other cases it is expressed only
by y i, w u, as : eie, fleye, heie, leye = mentire, seyen, sleie ;
awe = possess, dawes = days, drawen drou, fawen =fain, flow,
galwe, mowe, slou, J^ou = though. Even with t the sign of the
guttiu'al is frequently omitted, as : ante laute 743, but : awcte 207,
lauthe 1673. It seems then very possible that these -ct, -cth, -th, -t,
only mean t, with a merely orthographical indication of the gut-
tural. This pronunciation of final -cht is not unknown in German.^
The otiose h after initial t, and even elsewhere (supra p. 473, 1. 8),
found occasionally in various manuscripts, but never systematically
carried out, is not to be compared with this use of h in connection
with final t, where in most other MSS. the guttural is inserted as
h, g, y We must also recollect that in MSS., as we have had
occasion to see also in the Prisoner's Prayer and elsewhere, the
letter h is used very loosely, even when initial. In Havelok it is
unnecessarily prefixed in: holde 30, hete 146, het 653, but:
et 656, heuere 17, her 229, hof 1976, hclde 128, etc., etc., and
we find it omitted in: aueden 163, osed 971, etc., but with no
1 " Ch lautet gar nicht vor t Ober- ^ ^ijg French the, German Thee has
Rhein und Donau Gebiet, Land und (t) or if it is more dental (.t) on the
Stadt, (-it, -at) Endsylbe -icht, (-let, continent more than with us, this ap-
-l3t) Endsylbe -licht, (nit n^^t) nicht, plies to every < and not merely to those
ostlech. Rab, Land, (fait-n) Feuchtcn, written th. In one dialect of the Peak
Fichte, (Furt) Furcht, (knet) Knecht, of Derbyshire ( .t) is heard only, but
(Hat) Liecht, (N«t) Nacht, (rEat) recht, always, before r and -er.
(shlEat fedeln) schlecht fechteln, (br^t)
gebracht." Schmeller, Mundarten
Bayerns, art. 432.
478
HAVELOK — XIII TH CENTURY.
Chat. V.
sort of uniformity. IToiice the temptation to use it as an idle
letter, or an orlhographical expedient.
That long i was (ii) or («) appears among other passages from
Als she shuldo hise clothes handel
On forto don, and blawe )'er' fir [ = Jire)
She saw thtrinne a lith (= light) ful shijr (= sheer). 686
Al so brith, al so shir, .
So it were a blase of fir. 1253
The word sheer, Gothic skeirs (skiirs) bright, clear, old Saxon
skiri, middle high Gennun and new low German schir, new high
German schier (shiir), old high German scieri (skii'ri ?), ags. sc'ir
old norse sk'ir (skiir), Orrmin shir, is a word which from the earliest
times and in almost aU dialects, and specially in EngHsh, has re-
tained the sound of (-iir), and hence is an excellent rhyme to deter-
mine the old sound of Jir.
The reader will find many points of orthography and pronuncia-
tion touched on with great care in Mr. Skeat's edition §§ 27 and 28,
and a full consideration of the treatment of final e in § 29.*
It is with great diffidence that I annex an example of this difficult
provincial poem. The text is given exactly, in the pronunciation I
have ventured on a few alterations, intended to be corrections.
Eavelok 2312-2345.
Hwan he hauede manrede and
oth
Taken of lef and of loth,
Ybhe duhbede him to knith,
With a swerd ful swij^e brith,
And ]7e folk of al \c lond
Bitauhtc him al in his bond,
]?e cunnriche euml del.
And made him king heyHke and
wel.
Hwan he was king, jjer mouthe
mew se
J?e moste ioie J^at mouhte be :
Conjectured Pronunciation.
"Whan ne navde manreed" and
oodh"e,
Taak-en of leev and [ook] of
loodh-e
TJb'e dub'cd nim to kniit,
With a swerd ful swidh'e briit.
And dhe folk of al dhe lond
Bitaut* -im al in [too-] nis bond
Dhe kin"emtsh'e evril deel.
And maad -im kiq nai'Liik and
weel.
Whan Hce was kiq, dher mout*e
men see
Dhe most"e dzhoi'e dhat mout*e
bee :
Translation.
"WTien he had homapje and oaths
Taken of dear and [eke] of loath (ones),
Ubbe dubbed him (to) knight,
"With a sword ful very bright.
And the folk of all the land
^ Mr. Skeat reads ]ie.
2 Mr. Skeat having requested me to
read and comment on some of these
points, I endeavoured to do so, in great
haste, at a time when accidental circum-
stances disabled me from given them
proper attention. In those cases where
the present statements differ from those
hasty expressions of mine which Mr.
Skeat, anxious not to smother opinions
Committed to-him al in[to] his hand
The kingdom every part,
And made him king, highlike and wel.
When he was king, there might one see
The most joy that might be ;
opposed to his own, has politely printed,
they must be considered as corrections,
resulting from careful re-examination.
I regret not having been able to examine
all the cases of final e, to determine
the circumstances of its elision and
suppression, but I believe that it was
not otherwise treated than in the Cuckoo
Song and Trisoner's Prayer.
§ 1, No. 5.
HAVELOK XIITTH CENTURY.
479
Buttinge -svith sharpe spares,
Skinning with taleuaces, J^at
mew bcres,
Wrastling with laddes, puttiwg
of ston,
Harping and piping, fal god won,
Leyk of mine, of hasard ok,
Romanz reding on ]ie bok ;
per mouthe men here j^e gestes
singe,
pe glcymen on ]>e tahour dinge ;
j?er mouhte men se ]ie boles
beyte,
And ])e bores, with hundes teyte ;
j7o monthe men se eueril gleu,
per mouthe mew se hw grim
greu;
Was neuere yete ioie more
In al Jiis werd, jian ]>o was jjore.
per was so mike yeft of cloj?es,
pat ]>ou i swore you grete othes,
I ne wore nouth ];er-offe croud :
pat may i ful wel swere, bi god!
pere was swij^e gode metes,
And of wyn, ]7at men fer fetes,
Rith al so mik and grete plente,
So it were water of J^e se.
pe feste foui-ti dawes sat,
So riche was neuere non so fat.
But-iq- [dher was] with sharp'o
specr'es,
Skirm-iq* with tal'vases, dhat
men beer"es,
Ri^-ast'liq* with ladz, put'iq* of
stoon,
Harp-iq- and piip'iq-, ful good
woon,
Laik of Miin, of Has'ard ook,
Room'ans* reed'iq' on dhe book ;
Dher mout'e men nee "re dhe
dzhest"es siq*e,
Dhe glai'men on dhe taa'bur
diq"e ;
Dher mout*e men see ]>e bol'es
bai'te
And the boo*res, with Hund'es
tait"e ;
Dhoo mout-e men see evril gleu,
Dher mout'e men see huu Grim
greu;
"Was never jet'e dzhoi'e moor*e
In al dhis world, dhan dhoo was
dhoor'e.
Dher was so mik"e jeft of
kloodh'es
Dhat dhou i swoor'e ju greet
oodh-es,
In'e woor'e nout dherof*e krod :
Dhat mai i ful wel sweer'e, bi God !
Dher was swidh'e good"e meet'es,
And of wiin, that men fer fet'es,
Riit al soo mik and gi'et plen'tee*
Soo it wer waa'ter of dhe see.
Dhe fest'e foour'ti dau'es sat,
So litsh-e was never noon so
dhat.
T)-anslation.
Butting [there was] with sharp spears,
Fencing with shields that one bears,
Wrestling with lads, putting of (the)
stone.
Harping and piping, full good quantity,
Game of Mine, of Hasard eek,
Romance reading on the book.
There might one hear the jests sung.
The gleemen on the tabour drum,
There might one see the bulls baited,
And the boars, with merry [staunch P]
hounds,
Then might one see every glee,
There might one see how Grim grew;
"Was never yet joy more
In all this world than then was there.
There was so great gift of clothes
That though I swore you great oaths
I- (not) were not thereof oppressed :
That may I full well swear, by God.
There were very good meats,
And of wine, that one far fetches,
Eight also much and great plenty,
As-if it were water of the sea.
The feast fourty days lasted.
So rich was never none as that.
480 KING UOUN — XIII TH CENTURY. Chap, V.
6. Kino Horn, circX a.d. 1290.
The story of King Horn exists in three several manuscripts which
present such great varieties both of orthography and hmguage, that
the text must be considered uncertain. The oldest ' was apparently
written about the latter half of the xmth century, and is that
which will be followed here. In some cases f occurs for j or z
which represents 5. On tliis orthography see supra (p. 464). The
dialect is Midland, and the whole poem, bears a great affinity to
Havelok.
There is the usual rhyming of i, e or u, e when u stands for i :
adrenche ofj'inche 105, Westemesse blisse 157, ire = ear were
309, wille telle 365, pclle fulle =^ pall Jill 401, briuiie = armour
dcnie = din 591, dunte wcnte 609, fcrde hurede 751, custe = kissed
reste 1189, etc.
There are a few ca.ses of e, a, in which the a should be replaced
by e, as : biweste laste 5, wamc bcme 689.
As in Havelok, there are cases of e, 0, in which one or the other
letter must be dialectically altered, if the readings are correct :
more jerc 95, swerde orde 623, sende yi'londe 1001, posse Wester-
nesse 1011. We have a, 0 in: felawe knowe 1089.
A few cases of u, 0, may shew a dialectic pronunciation of u as
(0), or 0 as (m) : stunde londe 167, ]?ojte jjujte 277, buje iswoje
427, jonge isprunge 547, hunde fonde 831.
In some cases u = (uu) seems to rhyme with u = (yy). In
bur mesaucnlur 325, 649, bure couerture 695, one might fancy
that the French word was mispronounced with (uu). The word
lure 270, might therefore be to lure, which makes good sense, and
have been used as a term of falconry, but woidd then, probably in
a Saxon's mouth, have been called (luur-e), but it must apparently
have been to lower or watch for,'^ which would be properly (luur'e),
since the Harl. MS. 2253, fo. 85, reads loure. iStuard '275, 393,
is probably a clerical error for stiuard compare ags. sttward, which
I Cambridge Univ. Lib. Gg. 4, 27, 2. ihc ich y /
This is contrasted with the Bodleian jou you ou you
MS. Laud 108 fo. 219*, and Harl. MS. laste sr/., lesten pL, yleste sff., last
2253, in the preface to : King Horn, fairer fcyrcr fe}Torer fairer
■withFragmentsofFloriz andBlaunche- rein reyn reyne rains.
fleur, and of the Assumption of our Lady, miste micte mihte m igh t
from a MS. (Gg. 4, 27, 2) in the Cam- birine upon-reyne by-rjTie rain upon
bridge University Library; also from brijt brict bryht bright
MSS. in the British Museum. The flur flour flour flower
Assumption of our Lady (Add. MSS. colur colur colour colour.
10036) and Fragments of the Flo)Tes
and Blanchcflur iCotton Vitellius D. '^ "lure(n), 0. i)«^cA leuren, loren,
iii), edited with notes and glossarj- by Fr. leurrer, lure, Chauc. C. t. 5997 ;
J. Rawson Lumby, M.A. London, lured {part.) vis. P. P. 3351. — (luren)
1866. 8vo. pp. XX, 142. E. E. T. S. lourin, L. Germ, luren {speculari}) lour
The extracts from the three MSS. taken {lower) scowl, prompt, part. 316 ; loure
in the above order present the follow- Gow. coiif. am. 1, 47 ; Rich. 3470 ; vis
ing among other varieties, P. P. 2735 ; Triam. 1032 ; louring
he he heo they {part.) Chauc. C. t. 6848." Strat-
beon ben ben be mann, 373.
§ 1, No. 6. KING HORN — XIII TH CENTURY. 481
occurs 227, and is the reading of the Harl. MS. 2253 elsewhere.
In : ture pure = tower -peer 1091, we must suppose jojwe = (puur'e),
to pore or look intently The origin of the word is very obscure.
The reading of the Harl. MS. 2253 is totally different, and intro-
duces lake for pure.
The form ou occasionally, hut very rarely occurs, by no means so
frequently as in Havelok, is: galun glotoun 1123, haipurs gigours
1471. This applies only to this particular MS. of King Horn. Pro-
bably the on is fully as frequent in the Laud. MS. 108, as it is in
that MS. copy of Havelok, both these poems being in the same hand-
writing. The greater rarity of ou in this Cam. MS. of King Horn
is evidence of its greater antiquity, and forms a presumption in
favour of earlier copies of Havelok having also existed. It is cer-
tainly desirable for the investigation of the orthography and develop-
ment of the English language in the xm th century, and especially
with a view to illustrate Havelok, to have the Laud MS. copy of
King Horn accm-ately printed and compared with the Cam. MS.
The scribes of the two MS. possibly belonged not only to dif-
ferent times but to different districts, and yet were so nearly con-
temporary, that the comparison would probably clear up many
poiats of difficulty. In the Harl. MS. 2253, "which has been
piinted, but very badly, by Ritson in the second volume of his
Metrical Eomances," (Lumby, p. vi.) the ou is paramount.
Sometimes a word is changed for the sake of the rhyme, as ;
birine =: he-rain bischine 11, yj^e = ethe = easily dij>e == dethe =
death 57, ires = ears tires = tears 959. The two latter are how-
ever perhaps rather to be considered as dialectic peculiarities.
Notwithstanding all these resources the shortness of the lines
seems to have driven the rhymester to great shifts, unless the scribe
has much belied him, for we have such decidedly false rhymes as : he
deie 331, fofte brijte 389, bij^ojte mijte 411, ^onge biinge 279, ringe
jonge 565, 1187, (queiy, read yinge, the form found in the Harleian
MS. 2253,) sede read seide leide 691, heirs read heiris pris 897,
his (?) palais 1255, yrlonde fondede read fonde 1513, quene beon
1519. To these we must add: bure foure 1161, unless we admit
for (fuu're) (foou're) as supra p. 446, 1. 21. It is however pro-
bable that all these cases are mistakes. The great diversity of the
MSS., forbids us to lay great store by any particular readings.
The marked peculiarity of the poem, and one which makes it
worth while to notice it especially, is the prevalence of assonances,
single, or double, that is, assonances in which the consonants after
the identical accented vowel are different, but those, if there are
any, following the identical unaccented vowel are the same or
different, as in Spanish ; and assonances which beiug half rhyme
and half assonance, may be called conassonances, the accented sylla-
bles rhyming, and the unaccented being assonant, which also occur
in Spanish though they are not legitimate. Compare the as-
sonances of dissyllables and monosyllables in King Alisaunder,
supra p. 452, note, col. 1, 1. 13. These assonances, which are so
31
482
KING HORN — XIII TH CENTURY.
Chap. V.
clearly developed in King Horn, remove any difficulty about ad-
mitting tluin in Havelok, where they arc not so frequent. The
following is a list of both kinds.
Assonances : sones gomes 21, beste werstc 27, gripe smite 51,
admirad bald 89, makede =: mak'de uerade 165, swij^e bliue 471,
whit ilik 501, proue woje 545, take rape 553, trewe leue 561,
man cam 787, woje gloue 793, nadde harde 863, rynge llymen-
hilde 873, 1287, compaynye hije 879, shorte dorste 927, blijje
bliue 967, iknowe oje 983, haue felaje 995, blowe J^roje 1009, loje
rowe 1079, wunder tunge 1247, grauel castel 1465, yswoje louje
read loje 1479.
Conassonances : modcr gode 145, gumes icumc 161, doster read
dojter )70jte 249, scholde woldest 395, lijte knijtcs 519, feste
gestes 521, igolde woldest 643, dojter ofte 697, ride bridel 771,
ariued fine 807, fijte knijtes 811, horde wordes 827, hundes funde
881, knijtes wijte 885, dojter lofte 903, while bigiled 957, knijtes
fijte 1213, houe proued 1267, draje fclajcs 1289, hundred wunder
1329.
The rhyme : time hi me 533, is interesting from its association
with the same rhymes in Chaucer and Gower (p. 280).
The ■word pleing 32, seems to be a contraction oi pleying, and this
renders the rhyme : king pleying 32, perfect.
The following may serve as a specimen of the language of this
poem, according to this more ancient version. The pronunciation
indicates occasionally conjectural emendations, piincipally for the
sake of the metre.
King Rom 223-234, 241-276.
]7e kyng com in to halle
Among his knijtes alle :
For]? he clupcde ajjclbrus,
pat was fhiward of his bus.
Stiwarde, tak nu here
Mi fundlyng for to lere
Of Jjine mefter«,
Of wudc and of riuere,
And tech him to barpe
Wi]? his naylcs fcharpe,
Biuorc me to kerue
And of )>e cupe feme.
Ailbrus gan lere
Horn and his yfere :
Horn in herte lajte
Al J?at nc him tajte.
In ]pc curt and ute
And elles al abute,
Luuede men bom child.
And mcft him louede Kymenhild,
Conjectured Pronunciation.
Dhe Kiq kaam in to nal'e,
Amoq* His knikht"es al'e :
Forth HO klep-cd Aa'tbelbnius,
Dhat was Stii'ward of nis huus.
Stii'ward" taak nuu neer*e
Mi fund'liq, for to leer^e
Of dbiin'e mesteer*e,
Of wuud and of riveer*e,
And teetsh Him to narp'e
With His nail"es sharp'e,
Bifoor'e mee to kerve,
And of dhe kup"e serve.
Aa'thelbruus gan lce*re
Horn and nis ifee're :
Horn in nert'e lakbt'e
Al dhat Hee Him takbt'e.
In dhe kuuit and uut*e
And el'es al abuut'e
Luvde men Horn Tshild.
Meest luvd- im Riim'enbild
§ 1, No. 6.
KING HORN XIII TH CENTURY.
483
_pc kynges ojcne dofter,
He was mefl; in j^ojte,
Heo louede so horn child
pat nej heo gan wexe wild :
For heo ne mijte at horde
Wi)' him fpeke ne worde,
Ne nojt in ]>c halle
Amowg J^e knijtcs alle,
Ne nowhar in non o]>ere ftede i
Of folk heo hadde di'ede :
Bi dale ne hi nijte
Wij? him fpeke ne mijte.
Hire foreje ne hii-e pine
Ne mijte neure fine.
In heorte heo hadde wo.
Afid fus hii-e hij^o^te )?o.
Heo lende hii-e fonde
AJjelbnis to honde
pat he come hire to,
Afid alfo fcholde horn do
Al in to hure,
For heo gan to lure.
And ]>e fonde feide
pat fik lai Jjat maide
And bad him come fwi]7e,
For heo nas no]7ing bH^e.
pe fluard was in heite wo,
For he nufle what to do.
Dhe kiq*es oogh'ne dokht'cr.
Hii" was -e meest ia thokht'e.
Heo luvde soo Horn Tshild
Dhat Heo gan weks'e wild.
For Heo ne mikht at boord'e
With Him speek'e noo word'e
Nee nokht in dhe Hal'e
Amoq' dhe knikht-es al*e,
Nee in noon oodh"re steed'e.
Of folk Heo Had'e dreed'e.
Bi dai-e flee bi nikht'e
"With Him speek Heo ne mikhte.
Hir sor'ghe nee nir piin'e
Ne mikht'e nevre fiin'e.
In Hert neo had"e woo.
Dhus nir bithokht-e dhoo.
Heo fende Hire sond'e
Aa'thelbruus to Hond'e,
Dhat he kuum nir too,
And al'so shold Horn doo
Al in too Hir buu're,
For Heo gan to luu're.
And dhe sond"e said'e
Hhat sik lai dhat maid'e
And bad him kuum'e swiidh'e,
For Heo n-as noo'thiq bliidh-e.
Dhe Stii'ward was dher woo,
For He nust'e what to doo.
Translation,
The king came in to liall
Among his knights all.
Forth he called Athelbrus
That was steward of his house.
" Steward take now here
My foundling, for to teach
Of thy craft,
Of wood and of river,
And teach him to harp
"With his sharp nails,
Before me to carve,
And serve of the cup."
Athelbrus began to teach
Horn and his companions.
Horn received in his heart
All that he taught him.
In the court and out
And else all about
Loved one Horn Child.
Most loved him'Rimenhild,
The king's own daughter.
To-her was he most in thought.
She loved so Horn Child
That she began to grow wild.
For she might not at table
With him speak no word,
Nor nought in the hall
Among all the knights,
Nor in no other place.
Of people she had dread.
By day nor by night
With him she might not speak.
Her sorrow nor her pain
Might not ever cease.
In heart she had woe.
Thus bethought her then.
She would-send hir messenger
To the hand of Athelbrus,
That he should come-to her,
And thus should bring Horn
All into her bower.
For she began to lower (lure ?)
And the messenger said,
That sick lay the maid
And bad him come quickly (?)
For she was in no wise blithe.
To-the steward was woe,
For he knew-not what to do.
484 MORAL ODE, ETC. XII TH CENTURY. Chap. V.
7. Moral Odb, Pater Noster, Okisox, kjd of xiith Centuht.
The compositions of the xin th century have all a decidedly local
character, but the phonetic meaning of the letters, which is all we
have to deal tcith, seems as fimdy established as in the xiv th.
The poems mentioned above belong perhaps to the xii th century.
The copies to which we shall refer have been published for the
Early English Text Society.' It will not be necessary to examine
them in much detail. They present much the same character as
Havclok, with the e, i and e, o and o, a rhymes. The orthography
is very unsteady, and it is difficult to feel certain in any place that
we are not dealing with a scribal error rather than a peculiarity of
pronunciation. It will be sufficient to deal with a few peculiarities.
The Moeal Ode, or Poema MoiLiLE : Rowen so wen =: rue sow
19, written : ruwen seowcn, in the Egerton MS., are ags. hreowan,
sawan, and can only rhyme by the dialectic interchange of e, o, as :
shewe lowc, in Havelok (supra p. 476). Seide misdedc 129, seiden
reden 223, require a peculiar dialectic pronunciation of seide as sede,
and that this existed we learn not only from the orthography : of
sede, rede 155, in this MS. but from the parallel rhymes: sede
misdede 131, sede rede 225 in the Egerton MS. See supra, p. 447.
Hulde felde 343, hulle fulle 347 and durlingcs 385, are examples
of the use of u for i, or e, common in this MS.
The Pater Noster offers many examples of ti for i: wule 14,
of-]7unche^ 16, ufele 17, ]7enne wunne = win 19, inne sunne =
sin 23, 139, 224, wulle ifuUe 55, sunne unwune 282. The rhyme :
bone clene 167, shews how o was written for e even when e was
pronounced. Wrei^ segge^ 179, shews the derivation of the (ai)
sound from (e_^h), and : mei dei 169, shews the identity of ei, at.
The Orison, or On God Ureison of TJre Lefdi, contains a few
peculiarities which suggest scribal errors : Marie lefde 1, lefdi liuie
11, lefdi beien 17, could not have rhymed. The first would be
satisfied by the more . ancient form lejdie, ags. hlaefdie, which is
justified by la/die in Layamon, 15647, or else by the contracted
form Ilari, which we have already had reason to suspect, p. 441.
The difficulty of: lefdie beie 17, as it would then be written, is
the same as that of: beie offrie 2, and: lefdie liuie 11 offers a
singular form for hue, and a transmuted accent. See several other
instances of like forms, supra p. 446. See also the infinitives in
the Assumpcioun in Lumby's King Horn, p. 44, and in Dan Michel's
Ayenbite. Kwene reine = queeti rain, 57, should evidently be :
kwene rene, the old ags. form ren, which existed as well as regen,
here coming into use.
1 Old English Homilies and Homi- with introduction, translation and notes
letic Treatises (Sawles Warde, and J'e by Richard Morris, 1867-8. The Mo-
"Wohunge of Ure Lauerd : Urcisuns of ral Ode is No. 17, p. 158, and a dupli-
Ure Louerd and of Ure Lefdi, etc.) of cate of the first 270 lines from the
the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, Egerton MS. is given in an Appendix,
edited from MSS. in the British Mu- p. 288. The Pater Noster is ou p. 65,
seum, Lambeth and Bodleian Libraries, and the Orison on p. 191.
§ 1, No. 7.
MORAL ODE, ETC. XII TH CENTURY.
485
The following brief extract from the Paternoster will convey-
some notion of the language.
Paternoster, 75-98.
Adueniat regnum tuum.
Cume \\ riche we segge^ hit.
Hercni^ alle to \h writ,
his riche is al Jiis middeleard.
Eor^e and hcofene and uwilcherd
oier alle is his muchele mihte.
lauerd he is icleped mid rihte,
Lauerd he is of alle scafte.
In eor^e. in heuene is his mahte
aUe Jie scafte fe he bi-gon.
\et is \Qi sod^e hit wes for mon
alle Jjiwge he makede set agan.
Er he efre makede mon.
he makede mon i lihtwisnesse.
Onlete on his onlichnesse.
Alle dor and fu^el ifliht f'
lete he makede adumiht.
)»ene Mo;^ he lufede and wellii-
j7ohte.
and for-Jji his neb upward he
wrohte.
\et wes al mid muchele skile :l
^if he hit understondon wile.
Neb upwardes he him wrohte.
he walde \ei he of him ]7oht[e].
Al swa jje lauerd \ei him wrohte.
Conjectured Pronunciation.
Adveen'iat reg'num tuuum.
Kuum'e dhi riitsh-e ! "We sai-eth
Hit.
Herk-nith al*e too dliis rj^it.
His riitsh is al dhis mid*el erd,
Erth and nevn- and ii'wilk nerd.
Over al is nis mutsh'le mikht'e
Laverd ue is iklep'ed mid rikht'e
Laverd ue is of ake skaft'e.
In erth, in heven is His makht'e :
Al*e dhe skaft'e dhee He bigon*,
Dhet is dhet soodh, nit wes for
mon.
Al-e thiq He maaked [? ?]
Eer He evre maak'de mon.
He maak'de mon i rikht'wisnes'e,
On'leet on nis on"Ktshnes-e.
Al-e door and fuugh'el iflikht*
Eeet -e maak'ed aduun-rikht :
Dheen-e Mon He luvd- and wel
bithokht'e,
And fordhii- His neb up-ward" he
Dhet was al mid mutsh-le skiQe,
Jif Je nit un"derstond"on wiil'e.
Nebup'ward'es nee nim r?<?okht'e.
He wald'e dhet nee of Him
thokht'e,
Alswaa dhe Laverd dhet nim
r«^okht"e.
Mr. Morris's Translation.
Adveniat regnum tuum.
Thy kingdom come, we do say it,
Hearken all unto this writ !
His kingdom is this middle earth,
Earth and heaven, and each abode ;
Over all is his great might.
Lord he is called with right ;
Lord he is of all creatures.
In earth and heaven is his might.
All the creatures that he formed,
That is truth, it was for man,
All tilings he made to appear
Before he ever made man.
He made man in righteousness,
In the form of his own likeness.
All deer (animals) and fowl of flight
He made to stoop adownright (down-
wards).
Man he loved and cared for weU,
And therefore his face upward he
wrought.
That was all for a good skill (reason),
If that understand ye wUl.
Face upwards he him wrought.
He would that man of him thought.
That he should love him with thought
(in his mind)
As the Lord that him wrought.
486 ORRMIN XII TH CENTURY, Chap. V.
§ 2. Uiirhymed Poet)is of the Tldrtcenth Century and Earlier.
The rhymed poems having resulted in a satisfactory deter-
mination of the values of the letters, it is necessary to apply
the result to the examination of documents in which no
rhyme is employed. The first of these that has been selected
is 80 careful in its orthography that it is in many respects
more fitted for our purpose than the laxly written poems
already considered. The second has chiefly antiquity to
recommend it, and its principal phonetic value lies in the
great diversity of representations which it supplies for the
same word.
1. OrRMIN's ORRMrLXJM, EKD OF XII TH CEXTURT.
Orrmin's Orrmulum^ is written in a strict orthography, with
some inevitable slips here and there perhaps, which escaped the
author's evidently careful and repeated revision,^ and as the object
of this orthography was phonetic, the poem may be fairly considered
as being the first example of the application of the purely phonetic
principle in the orthography of EngHsh.
Orrmin's scheme was to double the following consonant when a
vowel was short. The origia of the feeling which led to this no-
tation has been already explained (p, 55). This plan has the ob-
vious disadvantage of not indicating the length of a vowel when no
^ The Onnulum. Now first edited italic, "we have in these sixteen lines,
from the original manuscript in the hrojierr (twice), trowu')'e, takenw,
Bodleian (Jun. MS. 1.) with Notes and rej/jell, foUj/zenn, swasumw (t^ice),
a Glossary by Robert Meadows "Wliite, biwwille, wenwd, lit/le, hafe)»>J. As we
D.D. Oxford, 1852, 2 vols. 8vo. "If nave also at length brojierr (twice),
we consider alone the character of the WaUt', afft', flaoshess, crisstenndom,
handwriting, the ink, and the material ])urrh (three times), fulluhht, godess,
used by the scribe, we find reasons for Jjatt, witt, hafenn, etc., and as in the
placing the date of the MS. early in cases of superposition the writing was
the thirteenth century," pref. Ixxii. crowded, I conceive these to have
Mr. Gamett considers it to have been been corrections, similar to the little ac-
written in Peterborough. Dr. ^Tiite cent marks by which words were sepa-
writes "The Ormulum" with a pre- rated that had been too closely written,
fixed the and single r in the above If then in some cases we find a single
title, but in the introduction wc read — consonant where we should have ex-
f iss boc iss nemmnedd Orrmulum pected a double consonant, we may
forrjji ];att Omn itt wrohhte lairly attribute it to a slip which has
where Orrm is a contraction for Orr- escaped correction. Occasionally, where
min as we see by the example given two consonants follow the vowel, the
below.p. 491 dedication 324. first consonant seems not to have been
2 In the facsimile of the sixteen doubled, either through the author's
opening lines prefixed to White's edi- inadvertence or from his not ha's'ing
tion, we see that the second consonant thoroughly settled the system of writ-
in a reduplication was sometimes ing, so that we find kinde and ^nndenn,
written over the other, and sometimes which must have both had a short t,
not. The same was the case occasion- and may be compared to the double
ally with h in ^h, etc. Thus, repre- forms amang, amanng, which must
senting the superior consonant by an have signified the same sound.
§2, No. 1. ORRMIN XII TH CENTURY. 487
consonant followed. Thus in the opening lines ]>e, i, o, to, swa were
all probably short, and ba = both, was long. The writing, how-
ever, shews no diiFerence. There was also this inconvenience that
as the short vowels are more frequent than the long, the writing
was overladen with doubled letters. The expedient of doubling the
vowel to indicate length, also very common and natui-al, overcomes
both difficulties, as may be seen by the example of pronunciation in
palaeotype below p. 490. Thorpe in the Preface to his Aimlecta
Anglo- Saxonica, 1846, p. xi, attributes to Omnin the precise cor-
respondence of long and short vowels which exist at the present
day,^ so that according to him Orrmin's a, e, i, o, u represented (ee
ae, ii e, ai ?', oo o, uu a), an hypothesis which our preceding inves-
tigations render untenable, if any weight is to be attributed to
our determination of the values of a, e, i, o in Chaucer, and u in the
Cuckoo Song, we can hardly conceive the paiiing of the vowels to
have been otherwise then (aa a, ee e, ii i, oo o, uu u), except that
very possibly {aa a, ee e, ii i ) may have replaced the first three
pairs, and as to the last pair, there might, from pre^-ious examples,
be a suspicion that the long and short u may have been at least
occasionally (yy, y) ; but no examples of the use of u for i, e seem to
occur, so that u should probably be always read as (uu, u). The
form ou for (uu) never occurs.
There are veiy few di\-ided vowels, but we meet with (b and eo.
The CB in numerous instances replaces an ags, ea as m: daed dead
dead, draem dream sound, rsem kreani cry, taem team offspring, flaerd
fieard mockery, stsep steap steep. It often alternates with e and
sometimes even with co, thus we have : draedenn dredenn, 2 pr.
drsedesst, 3 pr. drede]?];, 2 pi. drsedenn, 3 p. dredde, imp. di'ed ;
drsefedd, di'eofedd, di'efedd. These confusions seem to indicate that
(B, eo, e had the same sound. Even if ce retained its true ags. sound,
which was probably (aeae, ae), this would readily be confounded with
(ee, e), and this again with (ee, e). It seems preferable then to give <z
the same sound as e, viz. (ee, e), or else to regard (Z as (e), and e as (e).
As respects eo, Mr. White observes that : "a remarkable instance
of the preference of e for eo wOl be found by the omission, nearly
1 He says : " The author seems to nounced God, not Gode), etc. Thus
have been a critic in his mother-tongue ; hus is to be pronounced /ioos, whereas
and to [through ?] his idea of doubling ))uss, with a double s, is our thus."
the consonant after a short vowel {as Tyrwhitt, in his Essay on the Language
in German), we are enabled to form and Versification of Chaucer, Part III.
some tolerably accurate notions as to § iv. note 52, declares himself unable
the pronunciation of our forefathers. to comprehend the meaning of those
Thus he writes min with a single n doubled consonants, and in quoting the
only because the t is long or diphthonal, commencement of the Dedication, "ven-
as in OUT mine. So also in kinde (pro- tures (first begging Ormin's pardon for
nounced as our kind,) dom, boc, had, disregarding his injunction) to leave
lif (pronounced as our life), etc. On out the superfluous letters." To have
the other hand, wherever the consonant been consistent, then, he should have
is doubled, the vowel preceding is written : beging, lev, leters, instead of
short and sharp, as in 7;ett (pronounced the " superfluously lettered" begging,
as our yet, not yate, as it would be if leave, letters !
written with a single t) Godd (pro-
488 ORRMIN XII TH CENTURY. ChAP. V.
uniform, of o in the latter part of the MS., in the inserted leaves,
and in the dedication and preface, as in tlie forms ledc, ]jede,
werelld, etc., the o having been written in the above words and
in others in the iirst part of the MS., afterwards erased, and
then re-written. In these last named instances the o has been
retained in printing in order to preserve the orthography. Perhaps
the 0 was rejected as not essential for pronunciation; Cf. our word
peopled Of course such deletions and restitutions of o could not
have taken place unless eo formed one syllable, as White observes,
quoting v. 8571 :
J»a shulenn beon off heore kinn.
Possibly the writing may have been On-min's, the deletion his
brother's, who was requested to examine the manuscript, ded. v. 65 :
Annd te bitaeche ice off ])iss boc
heh wikenn' alls itt seme]))>
all to ))urrhsekenii illc an ferrs
annd to Jiurrhlokenn offte,
certainly rather for the purpose of detecting trips in doctrine,
Jjatt upponn all \\s boc ne be
nan word yan Cristess lare,
nan word tatt swijjc wel ne be
to trowwenn annd to folljbenn ;
but we can easily imagine "broj^err Wallterr" having extended his
observations to the spelling, and Orrmin having on further reflection,
restored liis own orthogi-aphy. In this case Ornnin attached a
value to eo different from (ee). However it be, we find as a matter
of fact that in "White's glossary almost every word spelled with eo
has a sccondaiy form spelled with simple e. This would rather
indicate (ec|_o), with a strongly marked (ee) and an evanescent (o),
comparable to the {poyu., ooi'w) in our modem pronunciation of know
=^ (noon).
The forms ai, ei, au, ou do not occur, but the syllables i55, esj,
a55, aww, eww, most probably indicated the presence of diphthongs.
The letter 5 had of course a different sound fi'om g. The regular
(gh) sound seems to have been written 5/;, wliile (kh) was h or hh.
Thus from ai^henn to own, we have ah owtis, and ahhte goods, cattle.
We have also hcrv^hcnn to save, herrhless salvation. Obsei've that
in these cases 5A comes before a vowel, as in h.all-$he, rer^hell,
foll^henn, etc., and h, hh, before a consonant or at the end of a word,
and this nile appears to have been consistently canied out. The
simple 5 then probably functioned as (j), as in : sarrken, gate, je,
jclden, ^ellpenn, seome georme jeme jeiTne, jcr, jife, 5iff, jilt,
50CC, 50I, jung, jure. The initial gh is peculiar to the word 5A0 =
she and the contraction 5^0^= j/io itt. In the later text of Laja-
mon we have j^eo for she; see also ^A<?, ge, supra p. 467. It would
be difficult to pronounce jAo otherwise than (^ho, jho), and it
would seem to be a peculiar derivative from heo, the (jh) being
generated in the same way that it is in a not unusual modem pro-
' White translates, office, duty, attendants, and Stratmann sub voce
charge. See Lajamon's wikenares= wiken.
§ 2, No. 1.
ORRMIN — XII TH CENTURY.
489
minciation of the words, hie, Hume, Hughes = (jliiiu, Jhuum,
Jhuuz). From these (jho, jhe) forms the subsequent (shoo,
shee, shii) easily follow. What then was the effect of j when
final ? We know that many orthoepists, as Wallis, consider
that the final element in the diphthongs (ai, an) is (j, w) and not
(i, u), p. 186. We see also from the example oi Awwstin, Ded. v. 10,
which we know from Latin sources must have been (Austiin*), that
Orrmin belonged to this class. It follows therefore that eww must
must have been (eu) in C7iewwe and that fltjj, 655 must have been
(ai, ei), or (aai, cei), as it is unlikely that Orrmin would have made
the difference, the duplication of j serving only to shew the strict
diphthongation of the elements.
The legitimacy of this interpretation -will be more readily
admitted after an inspection of the following lists of all simple
words which I have observed in Orrmin containing ajj and ejj.
ajj aije
daj,-^ day, gen. and pi.
dajhess, dajjess ; ags.
dseg
fa^jerr/flsjV, ags. fsegT
faj jre fairly, ags. fa^gere
frajjnen to ask, ags. freg-
nan, Lancashire frayne.
majj (1) may, ags. ma3g ;
(2) maid icel. mey.
majjdenn maiden, ags,
msegden
majjstre mayister
ma^3j>e tribe, ags. mceg^
naj3 nay
najjlenn to nail, ags.
najglian
wajj woe
waj^n wain, ags. wajgn
wajjne}))! carrieth, ags.
wegan
bejjen gen. o/ba both
bejjsanns bezants
bejjsc bitter, icel. beiskr
bej^tenn to beat, ags.
beatan
clsenlejjc chastity
ezze fear, ags. eg
ejjlenn to ail, ags. eglan
ejjjjerr either, ags. aigj^er
ejjwhffir everywhere, ags.
seghwaer
flejjl Jlail, old Fr. flaial,
Lat. flagellum
gejjnen to gain, icel. at
gegna
gejjniike conveniently,
icel. gegnilega
idellejjc idleness
lejj;est le33e» le^^^de
lejj layest laycth laid
le^jkenn to play, icel. at
leika
lejjtenn to inquire, icel.
at leita
metlejjc humility
re^jn rain, ags. ren, regn
rej^nenn to rain
rejjsenn to raise, icel. at
reisa to travel
se^sst se27;> sejjde
sayest saith said from
seggeun
twejgen twain
\ezz ihey
j^e^jm them
J^e^jre </iej>
wejse way, age. weg
lay, from leggenn to lay.
In almost all these cases we see ajj answering to ags. ag ceg eg,
and ej J to ags. eg and once e<a!, or Icel. ei, and twice e = (je). The
most remarkable exception is \e-^-^ni from ags. \am, as it accounts
for the form '\peim, \aim, (p. 442, Pater, v. 8), and perhaps for ^eis,
forms sometimes found in old English. It does not seem possible to
establish the transition of ag into ai (agh, ayh, aj, ai) more clearly.
The combinations e'j or igj occur in -lij,, as innwarrdli-^,
witerrlii, and in ftci^iess and similar words, where the difference of
the single j and double jj has to be noted. Properly the sound
should be that of the very common GeiTuan termination -ig, as
inwendig, wahrhaftig, which is theoretically (-i^h) and practically
(-iX-h), as (in-bhend:i^h, bhaar*Haft:i^A), or (in-bhend:iM, bhaar*-
Haft:iyL'h). It would therefore be hazardous to read «j, i-g-g, other-
wise than as (li^h, i^h) final or (ii^h, i^h) before vowels. The
objection that these sounds, when final should have been wiitten-e'A,
-ihh, must be met by the habit of the ags. final -ig. The same
reason may have led Orrmin to use gj in the middle of a word in
490 ORRMIN XII TH CENTURY. Chap. V.
place of ij,h, which woukl have been the rejrular reduplication of 5A,
compare ssh in Englissh, dedication 109. The value of mv in j^uw
is doubtful, but it does not seem likely to have differed from (uu),
Tlie / bi'tween two vowels, and fre([uently elsewhere, was most
probably (r), a letter which Ormiin avoids, but _^ was of course (f).
This would accord with the modem "Welsh usage.
As to the final c, the rule of pronunciation pven, by the strict
observation of the number of syllables in each line, is precisely that
at wliich we arrived for Chaucer, down to the occasional elision of
an inflectional final e, even when not preceding a vowel, in which
case Orrmin simply left it out.^ The elisions, however, are not so
frequent as in Chaucer. Thus, in the first 1000 lines of the Homilies
in White's text, final e is elided five times before himm, three times
before he, twice before hinun and hiss, once before hu and once before
Herodess v. 277, which is very peculiar. The elisions before a
vowel are more common. Open e perhaps does not occiir, so that
the practice of the end of the xivth century is justified by an
English practice at the beginning of the xrn th, which cannot have
been influenced by Norman habits. Coalescent words also occur as
\alde, nanvn = ]>o aide, ne amm, het = he itt, noff = ne ofi", nafe,
naffde = ne hafe, ne haffde, etc. A final d or t changes the follow-
ing ]> to t, a practice which we have met with before (p. 444, n. 2),
and which was still preserved in Chaucer's : wiltow = wilt thou,
etc. (p. 371), but here earned much further. "We may therefore
feel considerable confidence in pronouncing Omnulum as follows :
Ornmihim, Dedication, Conjectured Prominciation.
Aiind whase wilenn shall J^iss And whaa'see wiiden shal this
boc book
efft o)7crr sij^e writenn, 96 eft oo'dlier sii-dhe rmi'ten,
himm bidde ice Jjatt het write mm bid ik dhat nee-t rt^ii'te
rihht ri^ht
swa summ J^iss boc himm toech- swaa sum dliis book him tEEtsh ■
e», eth,
all J'wen't u't affterr J^att itt iss al thwert uut aft'er dhat it is
uppo Jjiss fiiTste bisne, 100 upoo* dliis first'c biis'ne,
yn]i\ all swillc rime alls her iss with al swilk riim als heer is
sett, set .
Verbal Tramlation.
And whoso shall desire this book All throughout after (the way) that it is
Again another time to write, 96 On this lirst example, _ 100
Him beg I that he it write rightly "With all such number as is here set
Just as this book him teacheth, (forth,)
1 White cites the examples: fra att inne 12739 ; whaeroflF' 13694,
mann' to manne 11219 ; to king' 8449, whaeroffc 13704; off wite^hunng 14416,
to kinge 8370; to gmnd' 11773, to off witejhunnge 14617, where I have
grunde 12547 ; 0 faderr hallf 2269, introduced an apostrophe to mark the
0 faderr hallfe 2028 ; i Godess hus' elision. This omission of « in writing
625, inn huse 2112; off slap' 1903, sometimes takes place before a vowel,
off slrepe 3143; Jiattlajredd' folic 15876, where it was not necessaij according
]>att lierede folic 7440 ; att inn' 12926, to Orminn's system of writing.
§ 2, No, 1.
OllRMIN XII TH CENTURY.
491
wiyp all se fele wordess ;
annd tatt he loke wcl l^att he
an bocstuif "wi'i'te twijjcss 104
ejjwhaer ])seT itt uppo ]>iss hoc
iss writcnn o Jiatt wise ;
loke he well J^att he't write swa,
107
forr he ne majj nohht elless
onn Ennglissh writenn rihht te
word,
fatt wite he wel to soJjo.
Annd giff mann wile witenn whi
ice hafe don J^iss dede, 112
whi ice till Ennglissh hafe wennd
goddspclless hall jhe lare ;
ice hafe itt don forr]?i ]jatt all
crisstene follkess berrhless 116
iss lang uppo J^att an, j^att tejg
goddspelless halljhe lare
■wi}]> fulle mahhte folljhe rihht,
jjurrh j^ohht, j^urrh word, jjurrh
dede.
*
*
*
Ice ]7att tiss EnngKssh hafe sett
EnngHsshe menn to lare, 322
ic wass, J73er ]>sst I crisstnedd
wass,
Orrmin hi name nemmnedd.
annd ice Orrmin full innwanxUij,
wi)"]? muJ7 annd ec wiyp
herrte, 326
her bidde ]>.& Crisstene menn
jjatt herenn ojjerr redcnn
J>iss hoc, hemm bidde ice her j^att
forr me J^iss bede biddenn : 330
with al see fce'le word'es ;
and tat ne look'c wcl dhat nee
aan book'staf rw^ii'te twi^h'es
ei'wliEEr dliEEr it upoo* dliis book
is rwit'en oo dliat wii^se ;
look nee wel dliat nee-t r«^ii*te
swaa
foiT nee ne mai nokht el"es
on Eq'lish rwii'ten riXht te
word,
dhat wiit He wel to sooth*e
And jif man wiil'e wit -en whii
ik Haave doon dhis deed'e,
whii ik til Eq'lish naave wennd
god'spel'es nal^h'c laa're ;
ik Haav it doon fordhii* dhat al
cristee'ne folk'es berkhdes
is laq upoo* dhat aan, dhat tei
god"spel'es nal^h'e laa*re
with fube makht'e fol^^rh-e ri^-ht,
thur^-h thokht, thur^h woord,
thurX'h dee'de,
* « * *
Ik dhat tis Eq-lish Haave set
Eq"Ksh-e men to laa're,
ik was, dhEEr dhEEr i krist'ned
was,
Ormiin* bi naam*e nemm'ned.
And ik Ormiin* ful in'wardliyh
with muuth and eek with
hert'e,
Heer bid'e dhaa kristee'ne men
dhat Hee'ren oo'dher ree'den
dhis book, nem bid ik neer dhat
tei
for mee dhis bee'de bid'en :
Verbal
"With all so many words,
And that lie look well, that he
One letter ■WTite twice, 104
Everywhere where it upon this book
Is written on that wise ;
Look he well that he it write so,
For he may not else 108
In English write rightly the word.
That know he well to sooth.
And if one mil know why
I have done this deed, 112
Why I into English have turned
Gospel's holy lore ;
I have done it because that all
Christian people's salvation 116
Translation.
Is along of that one (thing), that they
Gospel's holy lore
With full power follow rightly.
By thought, by word, by deed. * * *
I that this English have set (forth) 321
Englishmen to teach,
I was there where I christened was,
Orrmin by name named ;
And I Orrmin full inwardly,
With mouth and eke with heart 326
Here pray the Christian men
That hear or read
This book, them pray I here that they
For me this prayer pray : 330
492
ORRMIN — XII Til CENTURY.
Chap. V.
)»att brojjcrr Jjatt tiss Ennglissh dhat 'broo-dher dhat tis Eq-lish
writt Twit
alb-a?rcs.st wra't annd "wrohhtc, alrEETestnraat annd rtcokhVc,
J'att brojJciT, forr hiss swimic to dhat broo'dher, for ms swiqk to
lajn, lEEn
8o]j blisso mote findenn. 334 sooth blis'e moo'te find'en.
Verbal Translation.
That brother that this English writing That brother for his labour to reward,
First of all (men) wrote and wrought, True bliss may (he) find.
As considerable doubt attaches to the length of the vowel in old
EngKsh, and as Orrmin's orthography is meant to resolve that
doubt, it seems worth while to collect together all the instances
where he seems to mark vowels as long. In the following lists,
which have been collected from White's glossary, all the simple
(uncomponnded) words in which a long vowel before a consonant
appeared to be indicated with tolerable certainty have been col-
lected. To all cases in which a vowel is followed by more than
one consonant, and the first of those consonants is not doubled,
doubt attaches, because Orrmin's usage fluctuates in some of them,
and he seems to have thought that two consonants would act oc-
casionally as well as a doubled consonant. Such words are there-
fore excluded, as are also all monosyllables ending in a vowel, and
therefore of undetermined quantity. The use of the short sign (")
sometimes seems to indicate a short vowel, where only one con-
sonant follows, and hence a few of the following words may be
doubtful, but on the whole it would seem that a long vowel was
intended in each of the following cases.
List of OnKMEf's "Woeds coyrArtrcfG Long Yowels.'
Long A (aa)
dale
ladebb
ra]?e
wra)»
adle
drake
laf
rabenn
sake
>afe
afell
drajhenn
laferrd
jrajhe
ajhe
an
faderr
fakenn
lah
lakenn
CQTTIO
bdUlt;
samenn
Zona ^ (ee)
anis
farenn
lare
sare
ffidi^
ar
frame
late
shame
a'fre
are
gal
laj^he
shape)']'
aer
arenn
gan
makenn
ska]'esst
a,'rd
ateU
gate
male
slan
aere
a>ell
jate
man
Bna)7
sest
a]) ess
^atenn
manaj)
Stan
a)>
ajjumm
jchatenn
manij
strac
bsere
awihht
grap
mare
sware
basrenn
ba))e
had
nakedd
swat
boetenn
brad
liafenn
name
takenn
br;cd
bra))
hal
nan
tale
d;cd
kafe
hali^
naness
wac
da;f
kare
ham
naje
wakenn
dah
charij
hat
ran touched
war
dael-enn
clake
hatenn
rap
wat knew
daew
clajj
lac
ras
waterr
dc'c>
cnape
lade
raj»
wrat
drtcfedd
1 This
list and the foll(
>wing have been
checked by Mr
Brock.
§ 2, No. 1.
ORRMIN
XII TH CENTURY.
493
dnera
faerenn
faewe
flsesh
?aep
gsetenn
haefedd
haele
lisep
haer
Iisese
haete
hsejjenii
haewenn
whaer
laec
laeche
laefe
laepenn
laerenn
laetenn
maelenn
maeless
maene
msere
maej?
nsefre
raed
raedij
raefenn
raem
raew
8aem
shaedenn
shaewenn
shrsedenn
slaen
slaep
spaeche
steep
straem
Btraete
taechenn
taelenn
taem-enn
waede
•waedle
"waelinng
•waepenn
■waete
Jaer-e
J>aew
)iraepenn
Long E (ee)
aegede
bede
bene
berenn
betenn
breme
kecbell
kelcnn
kene
cbepinng
chesenn
kepcnu
clene
clepenn
cnedesst
cnclcnn
cwemenn
cweii
dede
deme-nn
depe
dejenn
drefedd
drejhenn
ec
eche
efenn
ekenn
ele
etenn
ejhe
fedenn
fele
fere
flete»
fiejlienn
frend
jemenn
jer
jetenn
gredi^
grene
gresess
gretenn
hefenn
beh
ber
here
herenn
hete
hew
hewenn
hej^he
ledenn
lefe
lefenn
lem
lenenn
letenn
le^he
lejhenn
made
'mekenn
mele
menenn
inene|i]7
mete
metcdd
whil
nie^he
idell
ned
ifell
nedl
irenn
neh
lie
new
licb
peuinng
lif
prest
like
redenn
likenn
rejhell
lim
sec
limess
sed
lin
sefenn
litell
sekenn
lij^e
sel
mikell
ser
min
shene
miue))]?
shop
nimenn
shetenn
ni])
slep
nijhen
smec
pine-nn
smere
ridinngcss
smebe
sped
rime
risenn
spedenn
shine]) ]?
spekenn
shir
stekenn
shridenn
ster
shrifenn
stren
side
swere
sikenn
swet
sikerr
tekenn
sijje
tene
sije
tredenn
skiledd
wedenn
skir
wel
smikerr
wen-enn
smitenn
wepenn
stidij
were
stih
werenn
stirenn
wrekenn
stijhenn
wrejenn
swin
Jjede
swijie
J^es
tid
)»e})enii
time
wic
wide
Long I (ee)
abidenn
wif
bisne
win
bli>e
wis
kijjenn
wise
enif
wite
drifemi
witenn
fif
witerr
filenn
wijjerr
fir
writenn
^ifenn
J^iderr
giferr
Jtise
hiderr
hire
Long 0 (oo)
Ms
blod
blome
hoc
bode
bodi^
bone
bojhcss
bote
bo)»e
brojjerr
clofenn
come
croc
dom
don
flod
flor
flowedd
fode
fon
fot
frofre
god
jol
gom
hof
bole])J»
hope
hojhefull
in oh
lofenn
lokenn
lome
loghe
mod
moderr
mone
mone])
mot-e
notesst
oferr
ofhe
o)>err
ploh
rhof
rode
ros
rosenn
rote
rotenn
scone
shop
slo]>
snoterr
sone
so]?
stoke-ss
toe
tor
wod
woh
wokenn
404
ORUMIN — XII TH CENTURY.
Chap. V.
wop
bu7;henn
^ure
mu7;benn
J'utenn
wojhc
dudcss
hunij
numcn
tun
)'olean
clutcss
crune
cunienn
bus
huscU
hutcnn
rum
rune
shrud
uferr
ure
usell
Long U (uu)
brukcnn
cu)»
Ihude
sumerr
ut-e-nn
bufenn
dun
lufe-nn
sune
u)'e
bule
dure
lukenn
Bur
wTide
bun
fule
lutcnn
sutcll
wuke
bure
fus
mu]?
SUj)
■VTunenn
butenn
As considerable interest attaches to tlic determination of such
adjectives and substantives as had a final e in early English, and as
Orrmin's versification establishes with certainty the pronunciation
of such letters, except vrhcn they arc elidably situate, I have
collected from ^Tiite's glossary all such words, adding the meaning.
A few substantives are only found in oblique cases, and these are
marked f because the e may be only inflexional. In the case of
the adjectives it is not always certain, from a simple inspection
of the glossary, whether the e is a mere mark of the plural or
of the definite inflection. When I have detected either of these
to be the case I have omitted the adjective from the list, but I have
not thought it necessary to verify every case. Such a table of
German nouns and adjectives would seem ridiculous to a German,
because he cannot dissociate the e from the words. We have be-
come so used to its absence that every kind of artificial means is
necessary to restore the association.
List of Okejun's Adjectives and SuBSTAmnvEs E^^Dr^rG in E.
adle disease
£cbrcre clear
aegedet Itucury
sere ear
SDte food
ahhte goods
ane alone (?adv.)
ange son-ow
anndsaet* odious
anndsware answer
are grace
arrke ark
asse ass
axe axe
ajhe awe
bare bier
bede prayer
belle bell
bene prayer
bennchef bench
berrmet barm
bermef barn
bettre better
bilenge belonging to
birde lineage
bisne example
bite morsel
blisse bliss
blij^e blithe
blome blome
blostme blossom
bode command
bone boon
bote remedy
bojie booth
bra)))>e anger
breme furious
bridale bridal
bridgume bride-
grootn
buiaxe axe
bule bull
bure t bower
care care
chele cold
chepinngbo])e mar-
ket-booth
chesstre city
clakef accusation
clene clean
cribbe crib
cude cud
cullfre dove
cweme agreeable
daedbote repentance
dale part
daerne secret
dafifte humble
dale valley
dede deed
demef judge
deope, depe deep
deore, dere dear
dri7;7;e dry
druhhyef drought
dure door
dwillde error
eche eternal
egge t edge
eblite eight
elde t age
ele oil
ende end country
eor)>e, ct]<c earth
errl'e animal
ermde errand
e^he eye
ejhesallfe eye-salve
e3hesihh)'e eyesight
e^ je t fear
faewe few
fallse false
fasste fast a.
fele, fele, fele many
feor)>e fourth
fere fere power
fifte ffth
fiftende t fifteenth
fode food
forrme ^rst
frame profit
fremmde strange
frofre t comfort
frummj^e beginning
fiilre foul-er
galle gall
gate way
genge gang
gillte t tribute
grene green
gre^T^fe herald
grimme grim
hacle health
haesef command
haetef heat
helle hell
hcUfe handle
hellpe help
§ 2, No. 1.
ORRMIN — XII TH CENTURY.
495
heoffne heaven
heore their (pron.)
heorrte heart
here host
hete, h^te hate
hirrde puardian
hire her
hirne corner
hope hape
irre ire
karrte cart
kerampe champion
kene keen
kide ^-/ff
kinde kind s.
kineriche kingdmn
kirrke church
kirrkedure church-
door
lade gitidiyig s.
Isechef /isccA
laefe belief
lare ^re
late, late f appear-
ance
lattre /a^^er
lawe mound
lajhe t ^««<'
lefe feai'e
leode people
leome, leme gleam
lejhe W(7^es
lifisshe living
like /orw
liref loss
lijie /j</«e gentle
lo^he t ^>"e
lufe /ofe
macche, make,
mate, wife
msenef company
male t tribute
mare more
majjstre master
ma33))e ^rj'ie Am
mede f meed
mele wra?
merrke t mark
messe mass
mete meat
m^j\i& female cousin
milde mild
milef mile
millce mercy
mindet mind
minnstre f minster
missdedef misdeed
mone moon
uame name
naj'e f (^race
ncddre adder
nedlef needle
-nesse -ness
nesshe soft
orrmete measureless
orrtrowwe distrust-
ful
on-troww J) e distrust
oxe ox
pappe t breast
pine pain
profete prophet
resste repose
riche kingdoms rich
rimef metre
rodef rood
rote ?"oo<
rume wide
rune counsel
saete f Sf^a^
sahhte concurring
sake dispute
sallfe s«/t;e
sallme f psalm
same f sawe
sawle somJ
scone beauteous
seoUj^e sellj^e hap-
piness
serr^he sorrow
sexe six
sexte «ea;#A
sextene sixteen
shfe)'e t sheath
shaffte creature
shame shame
shande disgrace
shene sheen a.
shrifFte shrift
sihhjje sight
sijef victory
smere ointment
sme))e smooth
sofFte so^ife
spaeche speech
stede *f fo(^ j9/a<re
steifne ro/ce
steorrne «<ar
stirne «<erw a.
stoke t s^ocA
sti'sete t street
strandef strand
strennc]ie strength
sune so»
simue SM?J
sware f answer s.
grievous a.
swepe w/ij^
swijie (7rea<
tiile tale number
temmple temple
tende tenth
tene <«», injury s.
time <e'wje
tunge tongue
turrtle turtle
twinne ttvin
feode people
Jjegjre their
Jiraghe-f throw,ti)ne
jjridde third
))riane ^/jree
Jrittene thirteen
Jrittennde thir-
teenth
JTowwinngef throe
jjurrfe needful
]7usennde thousand
imnclene unclean
imncweme unac-
ceptable
imnfsele deceitful
unnfsewe not a few
imnhaelef unsound^
ness
iinnome plain
unnride vast
mmsmejie uneven
luinwine enemy
unn-WToeste weak
uppbrixle object of
reproach
ure our
■wsede clothing
vrtcdle poor
wsete t drink s.
■waldef power
wambe belly
■wasstme fruit
^ajhe wall
wecche watching s.
"wehhte f weight
■?rere were man
werre worse
wersse worse
wesste waste desert
s. and a.
wejje icay
"whaete ivheat
wicke mean weak
wicked
■widdwe widow
■wilde ivild
wille will
WIS, wise wise a.
wise wise s.
wite prophet
wite t punishment
witejhunnge pro-
phecy
wi)>];errstrennG]'e f
opposing power
wlite t faee
wraeche vengeance
wra)))ie t wrath s.
wrecche ivretched
wrihhte (1) maker;
(2) blame
wude ivood s.
wiike week
wullet wool
wunde f wound
wurr)ie t worship
wurr)>shipe worship
gate gate door
jerrde t yard rod
jife gift
^ure your
It will be found on examination that though many of the ahoye
-e are justified by the existence of some final vowel or syllable in
Anglosaxon or Icelandic, not a few have been clearly subsequently
developed. See supra, p. 345, note 2, and the Table, pp. 379-397.
496
LAYAMON XIII TH CENTURY.
Chap. V.
2. Lajamon'8 Buut, BEonrNrNO op xiiith Century.
Although Lajamons Unit* is written in verse, yet the rhythm
and orthograpliy are so irregular that it is scarcely easier to con-
jecture the pronunciation than if it were mere prose. In fact with
Ormiin we take leave of all certainty arising from metre or strict
orthography. But the extraordinary diversity of spelling is of
itself some assistance.
Weighing the results already ohtained we cannot he very far
wrong in supposing a, e, i, o, u to be (aa a, ee e, ii i, oo o, uu u),
with the doubtful {i) or (y) for ?< occasionally as in lut, lutel, Inhere
(1/t, 1/t'el, 1/dh'ere) few, little, wicked.'^ Again (b may be called
(ee, e), and as eo interchanges with e it may be (ee) or (cclo).
£a is rare and interchanges with a, so that it may be (ea) or even
(ea) with a more distinct (a). Among the consonants j, h, follow
the same rule as in Omnin, ch is of course (tsh), but (sh) does
not seem to have been developed, as sc is constantly used.
On account of the extreme western locality of the author's resi-
dence (3| miles south-east of Bewdlcy, in Worcestershire) there
may have been many dialectic peculiarities which would tend to
give the letters slightly different values from those thus assigned,
but it seems probable that such a pronunciation as the following
would have been intelligible.'
La-^amorCs Brut.
Madden's edition, vol. i. p. 124, v. 2922.
Sixti winter hefde Leir :!
Jjis lond al to wclden.
\e king hefde J^reo dohtren :!
bi his diihliche quen.
ncfde he nenne sune t'
]?er fore he war^ sari,
his manscipe to halden :'
buten Jja j^reo dohtren.
Conjectured Projiunciation.
Siks'ti win'ter Heevde Lair
dhis lond al to-weld'en.
Dhe kiq Heevde tlireo dokht'ren
bii His dri/ih-litshe kween.
Neevd He nen'c suun'e,
dheerfoor* He wardh sar'i,
His man'skiipe to hald'cn,
buut'en dha thi-eo dokht'ren.
1 Lajamons Brut, or Chronicle of
Britain ; a poetical semi-saxon para-
phrase of the Brut of "Wace, now first
published from the Cottonian manu-
scripts in the British Museum, accom-
panied by a literal translation, notes,
and a grammatical glossarj'. By Sir
Frederic Madden, K.H., keeper of the
MSS. in the British Museum. Pub-
lished by the Society of Antiquaries of
London, 1847, 3 vols, royal 8vo. The
Cottonian MSS. are Calig. A. ix, the
older version, which is attributed to the
beginning of the xiiith century at
latest, and Otho. C. liii, which is of a
much later date.
2 The forms litul, li'Sere also occur.
It is quite possible that in such words
both modes of speech (lutel, lit-el) oc-
curred in these Western dialects, see
p. 298, p. 300 note 2, and p. 424.
3 The many interesting points which
would arise from a careful study of the
dialectic peculiarities indicated by the
orthography are of course passed over
here, as the object is only to ascertain
the phonetic meaning of the letters,
which is an entirely preliminary inves-
tigation without which the other could
not properly succeed, but which is quite
independent of any other research.
§ 2, Xo. 2.
LATAMON
XII TH CENTURY.
497
]>& aelclcstc clohtcr hailite Gor-
noille.
]7a o^er Regan.
j>a. j^ridde Cordoille.
Hco wes ]>a gungeste suster f'
a wlitcn abe iiaii-est ;
heo wes hire fader al swa leof t*
swa his ajcne lif.
j'a seldede J^e king t'
& wakede an a^elan.
& he hine bi-J^ohte :f
wet he don mahte.
of his kineriohe t'
sefter his deie.
He seide to hiw?suluen :'
)'at ]>at vuel Aves :
Ic wile miae riche to-don :!
& allew minen dohtren.
& geuen hem mine kine-Jjeode t
& twemen mine beai-nen.
Ac serst ic wille fondien :/
whulchere heo mi beste freond.
and heo seal habbe ]>at beste del :'
of mine drihlichen Ion.
Jjus ]7e king J^ohte r^
and jter setter he worhte.
Dha Eld-este dokh'ter HaiAhte
Gomuil'e,
dha oo'dher Eeeg'au
dha thrid'e KorduU-e
Heo wes dha juq-este sus'ter,
a le^>ii-ten al're yair"est.
Heo wes niir'e faa'der al swa
leof
swaa His aagh'ene liif.
Dhaa EhVede dhe kiq
and waa'kede an aaxlhelan
and Hce niiu'e bithokht'e
whet He doon makht'e
of his kin'eriitshe
Eft'er His dai"e.
He said'e to him sel'ven,
dhat" dhat iivel wes :
Ik wil'e miin*e riitsh'e to-doon
and alien miin*en dokht'ren,
and jeeven Hem miin*e kin*e-
theo'de
and tweem-en miin-e beam'en,
ak EErst ik wil'e fond* Jen
wliilk'ere beo mi best*e freond,
and Heo skal nab'e dhat best'e
deel
Of miin'e diiX-h'litsheu loon, [deel
Dhus dhe kiq thokht'e
and dheeraft'er He workht'e.
Sir F. Madden' s translation of the above, omitting the parts relating to the
more modern text.
Sixty winters had Leir
this land ' all ' to govern.
The king had three daughters
by his noble queen ;
he had no son, —
therefore he was sorry, —
his honor to hold,
except the three daughters.
The eldest daughter hight Gomoille,
the second Regau,
the third Cordoille.
She was the youngest * sister,'
of beauty fairest of all ;
she was to her father as dear
as his own life ! -
Then the king grew old,
and weakened in strength,
and he bethought him
what he might do
with his kingdom,
after his day.
He said to himself
that that was evil :
" I will di^"ide my realm
to ' all ' my daughters,
' and give them my kingdom,
and sliare among my children ; '
but first I will prove
which is my best friend,
and she shall have the best part
of my lordly land."
Thus the king thought,
and thereafter he wrought.
32
498 HENRY III. — XIII TH CENTURY. Chap. V.
§ 3. Prose Writings of the xiii th Century and Eai'lier.
Here we have only tlic spelling to trust to, and to see
whether the determination of the values of the letters by
means of the poets is borne out by the systematic ortho-
graphy of the prose writers. Very brief notices are all that
need to be given.
1. Only English Proclamation op Henry III, 18 Oct. 1258.
This proclamation, issued by the barons in the king's name, has
been fully considered in a separate work,^ in which the pronuncia-
tion was assigned in accordance with the results at which I had
then arrived,^ but subsequent research has induced me slightly to
alter my opinion on certain points. Considering that .the document
is formal, it seems probably that ea, eo had their full (ea, eo) sounds.
It is even possible that eow may have been (eou) rather than (eu),
but the constant practice of writing ew in treive leads me to believe
that the initial co of this combination has to be read (e) simply.
The occuiTencc of simple ew, however, casts some doubt upon tlus
conclusion as respects the actual pronunciation vpf the scribe. There
is probably little doubt that the more general pronunciation of ea,
eo, at that time was (ee), and of eow (cu). The combination oa is
rare. We have seen it rhyme with (aa) in Genesis and Exodus
(p. 467), and the writer may have said (aa, aa, aah), the last as an
intermediate sound. As a compromise I use [aa, a). The inter-
change oi <B, em. rcedesmen redesmen, seems to imply that ce had
become simple (ee, e). In accordance with former usage (ai) is
employed for ei_ but we must not fail to observe the correspondence
of the French Fiz Geffrey, p. 504, with the English Geffrees sune
p. 505, shewing that the pronunciation (Dzhef"ree-) was then
current (supra p. 462). The name AlditheP in the English, p. 504,
and Audithel' in the French, p. 505, seems to be a contraction for
the name Aldidelege in Staffordshire (Domesday Book, printed edition,
fo. 250b, col. 2, photozincographcd edition, Staffordshire, p. x. col. 2,)
—ald-ide-lege, or ags. eald y^a lega, that is, old-water-land, com-
pare Caedmon's ea-stream-y'^a. Ide, still called (lid) supra p. 291,
is in Devonshire (Domesday Book, fo. 101 J, col. 2,) as also Ideford;
Idehill is in Kent, Iden in Sussex. Hence the probable alteration
of the name was (ald-ii'dha-lee'^ha, ald-ii"cllic-lai, auld-i-lai,
aud-e-lai, AAddee, AAd"l«), compare Audelay, p. 449, n. 2, and the
modem Audley. The other vowels and the consonants present no
difficulty. The length of the vowels, where it differs in my scheme
^ The only English Proclamation of * The error of supposing long « to
Henry III, 18 October 1258, and its have been occasionally (aij, see supri
treatment by former editors and trans- p. 279, was not detected till after the
lators, considered and illustrated ; to book had been printed off, and is re-
■which are added editions of the Cuckoo ferred to in the errata. The use of
Song and The Prisoner's Prayer, Lj-rics Henr' .... send igretingefor
of the XIII th century, London, J 868, s e n d e )), is well illustrated by Prof,
8vo. pp. 135, by the author of this F. J. Child, supra p. 354, art. 51.
treatise.
§ 3, No. 1. HENRY III. XIII TH CENTURY. 499
from that assigned to Anglosaxon, -will generally be found justified
by the spelling of Orrmin, or by more recent usage. The quantity
of the Anglosaxon short vowels seems to have frequently suffered
in passing through the Norman period of repression, when the
language ceased to be cultivated by men of letters.
' The complete proclamation, with the French original, is here
reproduced from the stereotype plates of the work cited in note 1 ,
in order that the first correct j)resentation of this venerable and
interesting document may be preserved for the use of the Early
EngKsh Text Society. To insure accuracy, the proofs had been
compared thi-ee times with the originals in the Public Eecord Office.
A few veiy slight inaccuracies in the stereotype plates have been
removed in this edition, after a fourth comparison. The bracketed
numbers refer to the numbers of the lines in the original MSS.
The following is an abstract of the history of this important pro-
clamation, the only public English document known to have been
issued Tinder our Nonnan kings. On account of the quarrels be-
tween Heniy III. and his barons, the latter were summoned to
Westminster 7 April, 1258, when Hemy submitted himself to a
Council of Twenty-four, twelve chosen by himself, and twelve by
the Barons, or, as they called themselves, the Commons. This
Council appointed a Committee of Four to choose a Cabinet of
Fifteen. To this Council and Cabinet were due the provisions of
Oxford, 11 June 1258, which ordered a Parliament consisting of the
Fifteen, and Twelve Magnates to meet three times a year, and for
the first time on 6 October 1258. At this Parliament the follow-
ing Proclamation was agreed to, and issued in Latin, French, and
English. The Latin version has not yet been found. There are
two copies of the French, and one of the English in existence.
The French version which follows contains the names of thirteen
out of the Cabinet of Fifteen, and three from among the first ap-
pointed Twelve Parliamentary Magnates. The object of the Pro-
clamation, was to make each man in the country take the oath
already taken by the King and the Commons at Oxford, pledging
him to obey the Council of Twenty-four, to assist it to the utmost
of his power, and to oppose its enemies.
The English proclamation seems to have been published from the
original by Somner 1659, Hearne 1720, Henshall 1798, the Record
Commission (in its edition of Eymer's Foedera 1816,) the Master of
the Rolls (in Sir H. James' photozincographed National Manuscripts
1865), and, in part, by Astle 1803 (in facsimile), but in all cases
incorrectly, and the errors made by these editors have increased
in the hands of TyiTel 1700, Lyttelton 1767, Henry 1781-93,
Latham 1841, and Koch 1863, who followed Somner ; and Craik
1851, who followed Rymer. Pauli 1853, and Regel 1856 (who is
followed by Marsh 1862,) conjecturally, and on the whole satis-
factorily, amended Rymer by means of the French version, which
has been published by Rymer and Pauli only, but the latter merely
transcribed the former, leaving a grievous blunder uncon-ected.
Some of the errors of these various editions are given on page 504.
300 HENRY III. — XIII TH CENTURY. Chap V.
OLD FRENCH VERSION.
Patent Roll, 42 ncnry III. m. 1, n. 1.
[1] Henri par la grace deu Rey de Englet're Sire de
Irlande. Due dc Normandie de Aqui'en et Cimte de Angou. a
tuz fes feaus Clers et Lays saluz. Sachez ke nuf uolons et
otnons ke ce ke noftre conseil [2] v la greignure partie de
BUS ki est esluz par nuf et par le co'mun de noftre Reaume a
fet V fera al honur de deu et noftre fel et pur le p'fit de noftre
Reaume ficum il ordenera r' feit ferm et eftable [3] en tuttef
cliosef a tuz iurz. Et comandons et eniolnons a tuz noz
feaus et leaus en la fei kd nus dement kil fennement teignent
<?Murgent a tenir et a maintenir les eftabliftcinenz [4] ke funt
fet V funt a fere par lauant dit Cunseil v la
Modern English Translation of Old English Version.
[1] Henry, by the grace of God, king of England,
Lord of Ireland, Duke of Normandy, of Aquitaine, and
Earl of Anjou, sends greetings to all his lieges, clerical and
lay, in Huntingdonshire. [2] That know ye well all, that
we will and grant that that which our councillors, all or
the greater part of them, that have been chosen by us,
and by the people of the country of our kingdom, have
done, and shall [3] do, to the glory of God, and in fur-
therance of our allegiance, for the benefit of the country,
by the provision of the aforesaid councillors, be stedfast and
lasting in all things ever without end. And we call upon
[4] all our lieges in the allegiance that they owe us, that
they stedfastly hold and swear to hold and to defend the
acts that have been passed, or shall be passed by the
aforesaid councillors, [5] or by the
§ 3, No. 1. HENRY III. — XIII TH CENTURY. 501
OLD ENGLISH VERSION.
Patent Roll, 43 Eenry III. m. 15., n. 40
[1] % Henr' j'ui'j godef fultume king on Englencloande.
Lhoauerd on Yiioand'. Duk on Norm' on Aquitam' and
eorl on An'iow Send igretins^e to aUe hife holde ilserde
and ileawede on Huntendon'fchir' [2] j^a^t -witen je
wel aUe j^aet tee wiUen and Tnnew ]?a2t. J'a^t vre rasdel-
men alle oj'er J?o moare dael of lieom J^sot beoj? icho-
fen j^ui-j uf and Jurj ])get loandef folk on vre
kunenclie. habbe]) idon and fcliulle?^ [3] don in j^e
worj^nefTe of gode and on vre treowj^e. for J^e freme
of j^e loande. j^urj j'e befi^te of J^an to forenifeide
redefmen \' beo ftedefaeft and ileflmde in alle j'inge
abuten oende. And we hoaten [4] alle vre treowe in
]?e treowj^e \ydt beo vf ojen. j^aet beo lledefaelllicbe
healden and fwerien to bealden and to werien ^o
ifetneflTef ^set beon imakede and beon to makien j^urj
J^an to foren ifeide raedefmen [5] oj^er j'nrj ])e
Conjectured Pronunciation of Old English Version.
[1] Hen'rii thurkh God'es ful'tume kiq on Eq'lenelon'de,
Ibaverd on lir'lande, Dyyk on Normandii, on Akitain'e and
eorl on Andzbuu", send igreet'iqe to al"e nis'e Hold'e ileer"de
and ilee'wede on Him*tendoonesbii-re. [2] Dbet wii'ten je
"wel al'e, dbet we wil'en and un'en dbet, dbet uu"re ree'des-
men al'e odb'er dbe maa're deel of Heom, dbet beotb itsboo'-
sen tburkb us, and tburkb dbet land'es folk on uuTe
kin'eriitsbe, Hab'etb idoon* and sbul-en [3] doon, in dbe
wortb'nese of God'e and on uuTe treutb'e, for dbe free'me
of dbe kmd'e, tburkb dbe besi/.-b"te of tban to foo'renisaide
ree'desmen, beo stee'defest and iles'tinde in al*e tbiq*e
abuut'en en'de. And we Haa'ten [4] al'e uu're treu'e in
dbe treutb'e dbet neo us oogb-en, dbet neo stee*defestliitsbe
Heald'en and swee'rien to Heald'en and to weer'ien dbo
iset'neses dbet beon imaa'kede and beon to maak'ien tburkb
dban to fooTen isaid'e ree'desmen, [5] odb'er tburkb dbe
502 HENRY III. XIII TH CENTURY. Chap. V.
Ohl French Version. — (Continued.)
greignure partie de eus. en la maniere kil est dit defuz.
et kil fentrecident a ce fere par mcifmes tel s'ment
cunt' tutte gcnz [5] dreit fefant et p'nant. et ke nul
ne preigne de t're ne de moeble par quel ceftc pm*ueance
puifTe eftre dcfturbee v empiree en nulo manere. et fe
nul V nus VK'gnent encunt' ceftc chose [6] nuf uolons
et comandons ko tuz nof feaus et leans le teignent a enemi
mortel. et pur ce ke nus volons ke ceste chose feit ferme et
eftable :^ nof enueons nof lettres ou'tcs feelees do n'rc [7] seel
en chefcun Cunte a demorer la entrefor. Tesmoin Meimeifmes
a Londres le Difutime lur de Octobre Ian de noftre regne
Q'raunte fecund. Et cefte chose fu fete deuant Boneface
Arce[8]eueske de Cantrebur'. Gaut' de Cantelou. Eueske de
Wyreceftr'. Simo« de Montfort. Cunte de Leyceftr'. Richard
de Clare Cunte de Glouceftr et de Hertford. Rog'
Modern English Translation of Old English Version. — (Con.)
greater part of them, as it has been before said. And that
each help the other so to do by that same oath, against all
men, doing and receiving justice. And let no man take
any land or [6] chattel, whereby this provision may be
let or impaired in any wise. And if any person or persons
oppose this provision, we will and enjoin that all our liegea
hold them as mortal enemies. And because [7] we will
that this should be stedfast and lasting, we send you this
letter patent signed with our seal, to hold among you in
the treasury. Witnesses ourselves at London, the eigh-
teenth day of the month [8] of October, in the two and
fortieth year of our reign. And this was done in the
presence of our sworn councillors, Boneface, archbishop of
Canterbury ; "Walter of Cantelow, bishop of Worcester ;
[9] Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester ; Richard of Clare,
earl of Gloucester and Hertford; Roger
5 3, No. 1. HENRY III. XIII TH CENTURY. 503
Old English Version. — (Continued.)
moare dsel of lieom alfwo alfe hit if biforen ifeid. And
jjoet selic o])er helpe ]?oct for to done bi J'an ilehe
oj^e a^enef alle men. Rijt for to done and to foangen.
And noan ne nime of loande ne of [6] ejte. wherj^urj
])if befi^te miije beon ilet o])er iwerfed on onie
wife. And pf oni oj^er onie cumen her onjenefr'
we willen and hoaten j^aet alle vre treowe heom healden
deadliche ifoan. And for ])aet [7] we willen ])eet ])if beo
ftedefaeft and leftmde :! we fenden jew J'lf writ open
ifeined wij? vre feel, to halden a mangef jew inehord.
WitnefTe vf feliien set Lunden'. j^ane Ejtetenl'e day.
on jje Mon)?e [8] of Octobr' In J>e Twoandfowertijije
jeare of vre cruninge. And ]>if wef idon setforen
vre ifworene redefmen. Bonefac' Archebifchop on Kant'-
bur'. Walt' of Cantelow. Bifchop on Wirecheftr'. [9]
Sim' of Muntfort. Eorl on Leircheflr'. Ric' of
Clar' eorl on Glowchestr' and on Hurtford.' Hog'
Conjectured Pronunciation of Old English Version. — (Con.)
•maa'TQ deel of Heom al'swo als'e nit iz bifooTen isaid'. And
dhet eetsh oodh'er Help'e dhet for to doon-e bii dhaan il'tshe
ooth'e ajee'nes al'e men, ri^ht for to doon'e and to faq*en.
And norm ne nii'me of land'e ne of [6] e/iht-e, wheerthurkh*
dhis besi^ht-e muugh'e beon ilet* odh'er iwers'ed on on'ie
wiise. And jif on'i odh'er on'ie kuum'en neer onjee'nes,
we wil'en and nawien dhet al"e uu're treu'e Heom Heald'en
dead'litshe if««n* And for dhet [7] we wil*en dhet dhis beo
stee'defest and lest'inde, we send'en jeu dhis vivit oop'en
isain'ed with uu're seel, to nald'en amaq'es jeu in*e Hoord.
Wit'nese us selven et Lun'deene, dhaan'e e/i;ht"etenthe dai,
on dhe moonth'e [8] of Oktoo'ber in dhe twoo and foour'ti/chthe
jear'e of uu're kruun'iqe. And dhis wes idoon* etfooTen
uu'reiswoo'reneree*desmen,Bon*efaase,Ar*tshebish"oponKan*-
terber'i; "Wait'er of Kan'teloou, bish'op on Wii'retshester; [9]
Sii'moon of Munt'fort, eorl on Lair'tshester ; E,ii"tshard of
KlaaTe, eorl on Gloou'tshester and on Hert'ford j Eodzh'er
/>04 HENRY III. XIII Til CENTURY. ChAP. V.
Ohl French Version. — (Continued.)
le Bigod Cunte de [9] Norf ct Marcfchal de Englet're
ITurafrey dc Bohun Cunte de Hereford. Piere de Scaueye.
Gudiirao de forz. Cunte dc Aubcmarle. lolian de Plesseiz
Cunte de ^yarre^vyk'. Rog' dc Quency [10] Cunte de
"Wynceftr*. lolian le Fiz Geffrey. Piere de Muntfort.
Richard de Grey Rog' de Mortemer lames de Audithel.
et Hug' le Despens'.
3Iodern English Translation of Old English Version. — (Con.)
Bigod, earl of Norfolk and Marshal of England : Peter of
Savoy; William de Fort, earl of Albemarle; [10] John de
Plessis, earl of Warwick ; John Fitz Geoffrey ; Peter de
Montfort; Richard de Grey; Roger de Mortimer; James
Audley, and in the presence of other kinsmen.
[11] And in exactly the same words it has been sent
into every other shire throughout the kingdom of England
and also in till Ireland.
P rincipal errors of former editions. Only such blunders are here
given as make nonsense of the oiiginal. The numbers refer to the
lines of the MS., the spaced letters to the original, and the italics
to the errors.
Send igretinge 1, Tyrrel, Henry, Latham : send I greting.
holde ila^rdel, Hcnshall : hoi theilaerde.
freme 3, Somner: freine ; Henshall //•e»«c.
ilche oje 5, Tyrrel, Henry, Lyttelton : ilche other.
Ri g t 5, Sonmer : {inalle yinge \cet) ogt ; Tyn-el : (m all thinge
that) ogt ; Hcmy, Lyttelton : in alle thet heo ogt ; Craik :
[in alle thaet heo~\ oght.
noan nc nimc of 5, Somner, Tyrrel, Henry, Henshall,
Ilymer, Craik : 7ioan ne mitie of; Latham : tioan ne of mine.
ejte. "wher]'ur5 6, Somner : egteivhcer yurg ; Tj-rrel, Henry :
egeteicher thurg ; Latham : egetewhere, thurg ; Henshall :
egte-ivh(er, thurg ; Rymer : egteohcero jiurg ; Craik : eghteo-
hcero, thurg.
deadlichc ifoan6, Somner, Tyrrel, Hcmy, Latham, Rymer,
Craik : deadlicheistan; ; Henshall : deadliche. If than.
In consequence of these errors the translations given by Somner,
§ 3, ]!lo. 1. HENRY III. XIII TH CENTURY. 505
Old Enrjlish Version. — (Continued.)
Bigod eorl on Northfolk' and Marefcal on Engleneloand.'
Perref of Sauueye. TVill' of Fort eorl on Aubem'.
[10] loh' of PlefTeiz. eorl on Warewik loh'
Geffreef fune. Perref of Muntfort. Ric' of Grey. Bog'
of Mortemer. lamef of Aldithel' and setforen o]?re
moje.
[11] % And al on ]>o ilche worden if ifend in to aBunhee
oj^re shcire ouer al j^sere kunericlie on Engleneloande.
and ek in tel Irelonde.
Conjectured Pronunciation of Old English Version. — (Con.)
Bii'god, eorl on North'folke and Maa'reskal on Eq*lenelrtnd"e.
Per'es of Savai'e ; Wil'iielm of Fort, eorl on Au'bemarle ;
[10] Dzkoon of Ples'aiz, eorl on Waa*rewiike; Dzhoon
Dzhefrees suiin'e ; Per'es of Munt'fort ; Rii'tshard of Grai ;
Rodzk'er of Mor'temer; Dzhaam'ez of Al'dithel, and etfoo'ren
oodli're moogli'e
[11] And al on dho il'tslie word'en is isend* in to evritske
oodh're sliii're oo'ver al dJiee're kin'eriitslie on Eq'lenekmde,
and eek in til Iird«nde.
Henry, Latham, and Craik of the passage : And J-aet aehc ojjer
helpe .... deadliche ifoan, 5, 6, are ludicrously wrong.
Somner's Latin version is : " Et quod unusquisque, vigore ejus-
dem juramenti, contra omnes homines, in omnibus tum faciendis,
turn recipiendis, ut id ita fiat et obsei-vetur, alter alteri siat auxilio.
Et (quod) nuUus sive de terra (vel, gente) mea, sive quacunque alia,
per consilium hujusmodi (hujus scil. consilii obeundi causa) impe-
diatur, sive damnum patiatur, uUo modo. Et si quis, sive vir sive
fffimiaa, huic (cdicto) contravenerit, volumus et mandamus ut omnes
fideles nostri eos habeant infensissimos."
Craik's English version is : " And that each other help that for
to do, by them (to) each other against all men (iu all that they)
ought for to do and to promote. And none, nor of my land nor
elsewhere, through this business may be let (hindered) or damaged
in anywise. And if any man or any woman come them against,
we wiU and enjoin that all our Keges them hold deadly foes."
The most remarkable error in the copy of the Erench version
printed in Rymer is : nos Giueons, for nos enueons 6, which
has the false appearance of an appropriation of a Saxon word by
the Normans, with a French inflexion, — a philological curiosity !
506
ANCREN RIWLE XIII TH CENTURY
Chap. V.
2. Ancren RrwxE, xiiith Century.
The Anceex Rnvu: and the H.vli Meidenhad may he considered
together. '
In the Anceen RnvxE it ■will he seen that the simple vowels
a, e, i, 0, u must he taken as usual to mean (aa a, ee e, ii i, oo o,
uu u), with a much larger allo\\ance of u = (y) or (i, e) than is
found, except in the west of England. Thus we have ffuH, cluppen,
fustes, fur, lupes, hit, nule, for guilt, clip (emhrace), fists, fire, lips,
little, n'ill. Besides this there is a very extensive assortment of
diphthongs and even triphthongs, which should be apparently pro-
nounced thus : ai, au, ea, ei, eo, eu, oa, ot, ou, ui = (ai, au, eea ea,
ai, eco eo, eu, ooa, uui, oou ou, ui). The oa, oi, ui as in hloawen
hloamen hiine are too rare to form a good judgment on.
The combination iw which only occurs in the foreign word riwl
is most probably intended to give the sound (yy), for it is scarcely
possible to imagine that (yy) could not have been pronounced, and
that therefore iw = (iu).^ On account of the action of the (r) the
sound (riul) is difiicult to enunciate purely, and (rrrl, ryyl, rnl)
are all easier, and they are consequently still in iise provincially.
The following brief example from p. 70 of the Ancren Riwle,'
will shew the effect of these assumptions, and "will render an ex-
ample from Hali Meidenhad needless :
Original Text.
Muche fol he were, J^e
mulite, to his owene bihoue,
hwe^er se he wolde, giinden
greet oj^er hwete, jif he
greet and lefde
Hwete is hoH
Seint Anselme
grint greet ^e
pe two cheoken
two grinstones.
grunde j^et
Jjene hwete.
speche, ase
sei^. Heo
chefle^.
beo^ ]7e
pe tunge is J^e cleppc. Loke^,
leoue sustren, \et ouwer
cheoken ne grinden
neuer
' The Ancren Eitvle ; a treatise on
the Rules and Duties of Monastic Life,
edited and translated from a Semi-
Saxon MS. of the thirteenth century
by James Morton, B.D., near of Hol-
beach, prebendary of Lincoln ; printed
for the Camden Society, 1853, London,
4to. Mali Meidenhad, from MS. Cott.
Titus D. xviii, fol. 112 c, an allitera-
tive homily of the thirteenth century,
edited by Oswald Cockayne, M.A.,
London, 1866, 8vo. pp. ^iii, 60;
E. E. T. S.
2 As the combination iw does not
occur in other words, and as rxule,
Conjectured Pronunciation.
Mutsh'e fool nee weer-e, dhe
mukht'e, to nis oou'ene binoo've,
whedh'er see He wold"e, grind'en
greeot oo-dher wheet'e, jif ne
gTund'e dhet greeot and leevde
dhecn-e wheet-e. ^VTieet'e is Hool'i
speetsh-e, as'e Saint Ansehn'e
saith. Heeo grint greeot dhe
tshecf'leth. Dhe twoo tsheek'en
beoth dhe twoo grin"stoon*es.*
Dhe tuq'e is the klcp'e. Look'-
eth, leo"ve sustren, dhet oou'er
tsheok'en ne grind'en never
reule are found in very old Nor-
man, the point must be considered
doubtful. In the xiv th century the
sound was almost certainly (ryyle).
Mr. Paj-ne is inclined to think that the
old Norman sound was (ri6*le).
3 The proof was read by ^fr. Brock
by the original MS., Cott. Nero A. xiv.
* The "colloquial" pronunciation
(jTrm-stan), mentioned by Smart, is
thus shewn to be verj' ancient, and
becomes a proof that grind was for-
merly (grmd) not (graind), supra p.
276, and p. 290, 1. 3.
§ 3, No. 2 & 3.
HOMILIES XII TH CENTURY.
507
bute sonic uode :! ne our
earcn no liercnen ncuer bute
soule bealc : and nout one
our earen, auli ower eie
Jjurlcs tunc^ ajein idel
speche :! ])et to ou ne cume
no tale, ne ti^inge oi]>c woiide.
Verbal
Much fool he were, that might, to
his own behoof, whether so he would,
grind chaff (grits) or wheat, if he
ground the chaff and left the wheat.
Wheat is holy speech, as Saint Anselm
saith. She grinds chaff that chaffs
(chatters). The two cheeks are the
The tongue is the
two grindstones.
buut'e sooul'e vood'e ; ne oour
ea-ron no ncrk'nen never buut*e
sooul'e Heal'e ; and nout oon'e
oour eea'ren, aukh oou'er ai"e
thirl-es tuun'eth ajaiu* ii'del
speetsb'e ; dhet to oou ne kuum'e
ne taal'e netiidh'iqe of dhe worlde.
Translation.
clapper. Look, dear sisters, that your
cheeks do not grind never but soul's
food; nor your ears do not barken
never but to soul's health ; and not only
your ears, but your eye's windows
fence against idle speech ; (so) that to
you (may) not come neither tale nor
tiding of the world.
3. Old English Homilies, xiith Century.
The yenerable bomilies lately disinterred by Mr. Morris ^ cannot
be read in any other way than the Ancren Riwle. The values of
all the letters and combinations seem to be completely known, and
no further change can be expected. A very brief example will
therefore suffice. In the following, the original text is exactly
reproduced except in ^^^mtd for mi^, ^^^wolde for walde, ^^^ga/^ for
gad, ^*^do^ for de'^, ^^''hulke for huke. The leinten for lenten at the
beginning, may, as so many other evidently are, be a dialectic
pronunciation, and is comparable with Jleish for Jlesh (supra p.
473, n. 1), but Stratmann quotes the same form fi-om Wright,
Yocab. 90, Rob. Glouc. 187, 8. The experiment of writing (y)
for u, when it may be (i, e), and (ei) for ei, as being older forms,
has here been made.
Original Text, p. 25.
Dominica Prima in Quadrigesima.
[I]n leinten time uwilc mon
ga^ to scrifte ; \ev beo^
summe \e mare herm is ]7e
ga^ al swa ic nujie eow tellen
wulle. He sei^ mid'"j7amu^e
\et nis naut in his heorte. ic
wulle gan to sciifte for scome
alswa do^ o^er men. jif ic
forlete )>e preost me wolde'^'
eskien on ester dei hwa me
serine er he me jefe husul
and ec for moime weordes
^inge. he ne ga^'^' naut to
scrifte al swa do^ o^er men.
gaath to
Conjectured Pronunciation.
First Sunday in Lent.
In lein-ten tii'me ywilk mon
skrift'e. Dher beoth
sum-e, dhe maaTe Herm is dhe
gaath, alswaa' ik nuu'dhe jou tel'en
wyl'e. He saith mid dha muu'dhe,
dhet nis naut in nis neorte : "Ik
wyl'e gaan to skrif"te for skoo'me
alswaa- dooth oo'dher men ; jif ik
forlee'te, dhe preost me wol"de
es-kien on eest'er dai whaa me
skrii've, eer nee me jee've hus"u1,
and eek for mon'e weor'des
thiq-e." Hee no gaath naut to
skrifte alswaa* dooth oo'dher men.
In the same work with the Moral Ode, supra p. 484, note 1.
608
SOURCES OF ENGLISH.
Chap. V. § 4.
Ah al gwa he do^'*' swa J^o
swiva, ]>e biswikc^ hinc
scolie on cnde and hv6 al swa
is an C'ppcl ihcowc^. he bi^
wi^uten ftiro and frakel
^^'i¥iIlne. Awiih jjtt he efre
WTiUe j>ristclcchcn o^er bi-
J'cnchcn mid liis fule hoortc
]>c hco wullc undcrfon swa
he J Jjing and swa hali swa is
cr/'stcs licome i« his sunfullc
hulkc.*" and wene^ ]>et hit
wulle him helpcn t Nciso^-
liche nawiht ah )?enne J^e
preost hit de^ in his muj-c.
I'cnne cumc^ drihtcncs engel
and binime^ Jia halincsse mid
him toward heoucne riche.
fet J'cr bilcf^ in his mu^c,
ah jif cni mon hit muste isean.
he mahte iseon ane beminde
glcde ]>et hine al for-bema^
^xmxt to cole.
Akh alswaa* nc dooth, swaa dhe
swiik'a dhce bi.swii"keth niin-e
seol'fe on cnd'e, and biith alswaa*
is an ep'el iheo-weth; nee biith
withiurten fai're, and frak'el
within*e. Awakh', dhet ne evre
■\ryl"e thris"teletsh*en odh*er bi-
then'tshcn mid nis fuu"le neor'te,
dhee neo wyl'e un'derfoon swaa
nei thiq and swaa naadi, swaa is
Krist'es liicoome in nis syn"fule
bulk-c, and ween'eth dhet nit
wyl"e Him Hclpcn ! Nei, sooth'-
liithshe naawikht ! akh dhen'e dhe
preost nit dceth in nis muu'the,
dhen'e kuu"meth drikhtenes eq*el,
and binii-meth dha Haa"lines*e mid
Him toward" Heo'vene rii'tshe.
Dhet dher bilei'th' in nis muu'the,
akh jif cn'i mon nit mus'te isee*an,
He makh'te isee'on aa'ne bcm'ind'e
gleed'e, dhet nii-ne al forbem'cth
thnruut" to koole.
Mr. Morris's Translation, p. 24.
In Lenten time each man goes to
confession ; there arc some to whom
there is g^reater harm in going (than
in abstaining), as I will now tell you.
He saith Avith the mouth what is not
in his heart. " I will go to shrift for
shame, as other men do ; if I neglect
the priest wiU ask me on Easter day
who shrove me, before he administer to
me the sacrament, and also for the sake
of man's esteem." He does not go to
shrift as other [good] men do, but acts
like the cheat who at last deeeiveth
himself, and is as a rosy apple— fair
without and rotten within. Alas that
he will ever dare or think with his foul
heart to receive so high and so holy a
thing as is Christ's flesh into his siiAil
body, and thinketh that it will help
him. Nay tndy not ! but when the
priest putteth it in his mouth, then
cometh the Lord's angel and taketh
the holiness with him toward heaven-
kingdom. As for what remaineth there
in his mouth, if any man were able to
perceive it, he might see a burning
gleed that consumes him all to coals.
§ 4. Teutonic and Scandinavian Sources of the Eiiglish Language.
The pronunciation of English has now been traced up to
the earliest period in which it is known in a literary form as
distinct from Anglosaxon. To complete the edifice, some
account must be attempted of the pronunciation of Anglo-
saxon, the direct mother, and Old Norse, an important
modifier of our tongue. These again point to Gothic as the
oldest low German dialect that is known. It would be
highly desirable to add an account of Old Norman, but no
Chap. V. § 4.
SOURCES OF ENGLISH.
509
sufficient researches have been made into that lansuasre to
warrant any detailed statement of the pronunciation of that
language. It must be therefore entirely passed over.^
1 See the observations on p. 438, and
the remarks on Norman ai, ei, p. 453.
Dr. Rapp, while o^vning that the de-
cyphering of the phonetic meaning of
Northern and Old French documents
was one of the most difficult parts of
his task, has yet ventured to assign
such definite values to the symbols as
to give detailed specimens, which he
has not attempted for Anglosaxon and
Old Norse. Although I am far from
agreeing vnth. his results, which appear
to be founded upon insufficient exami-
nation of the sources of information,
the reader will probably be pleased to
have a brief account of his opinions,
Phys. d. Spr. ii, 82-117. The follow-
ing seems to be :his alphabet : A aa a,
AI ee, AU au, B b, C k s sh, CH sh,
D d, E ee e a 3, EI ei, EU oe ey, G
2)m Chevalier, qui ooit la Messe et
Notre - Dame estoit pour lui au
tournoiemenf.
Extrait d'un MS. de Sorbonne No. 331 (2) .
Dons Jhesus, com cil bel guerroie,
Et come noblement toumoie,
Qui volentiers au monstier toume,
Oil Ten le saint servise atoume 4
Et celebre le saint mistere
Du doux Fils de la Vierge Mere.
Pour ce \Tieil un conte retraire,
Si com le truis en exemplaire. 8
Tin Chevalier courtois et sages,
Hardis et de grant vasselages,
Nus mieudres en Chevalerie,
Moult amoit la Vierge Marie. 12
Pour son barnage demener
Et son franc cors d'armes pener,
Aloit a son tournoiement,
Gamis de son contenement. 16
Au Dieu plesir ainsi avint,
Que quant le jour du toumoi vint,
II se hastoit de chevauchier :
Bien vousist etre en champ premier 20
D'une eglise qui pres estoit
Oi les sains que Ton sonoit
Pour la sainte Messe chanter.
Le Chevalier sans arrester 24
S'en est ale droit a 1' eglise
Pour escouter le Dieu servise,
L'en chantoit tanfost hautement
Une Messe devotement 28
De la sainte Vierge Marie,
Puis a on autre comencie,
g zh, H n, I ii, i, J zh, K k, L
1, M m, N n, [AN aq, EN eq, IN
iq, ON oq, UN yq, AIN EIN eq,
OIN oiq, UIN uiq,] 0 oo o o, (E oe,
01 oi, OU u 3U, P p, Q k, E r,
S s, T t, [-NT -u, -q], U y oe, UI
tii, V V, X u s us ks, T i, Z s ts.
The follomng is a small portion
of his example taken from Etienne
Barbazan, Fabliaux et Contes des
Poetes frantjois des xi, xii, xiii, xiv
et XV siecles, 1808, 8vo. 4 vols., vol. 1,
p. 82, the original text, which Rapp
omits, is here added by way of com-
parison. As I have not been quite
able to appreciate his system of accen-
tuation, I omit it altogether. I have
also forborne to correct any apparent
errors, such as making meisme v. So, of
two, instead of three syllables.
Dy shevalieer, ki o,oit la mese e
notra dama estoit puur lui au
turnoiameq.
Duus Zhesys, kom shil bel geroia
E koma noblameq turnoia
Ki voleqtiers au monstier tuma,
Uu 1- eq h seq servis- aturna
E shelebra b seq mistera
Dy duus Fils de la Vierzhe Mera,
Puur she vcelj yq koqta retreera.
Si kom h truis en eseqpleera.—
Tq shevalier kurtois e sazhas,
Hardiis e de graq vasolazhas,
Nj'ys mieudres eq shevalariia.
Mult amoit la Vierzha Mariia
Puur soq barnazha demeneer
E soq fraqk koors d- armas peneer
Aloit a soq turnoiameq
Garnis de soq koqtenameq
Au Dice plesiir eqsi aviq.
Ke kaq h zhuur dy turnoi viq,
II se Hastoit de shevaushieer;
Bieq vusit estr- eq shaq premieer.
D- jTi- eglisa ki prest estoit,
0,ii los seqs ke 1- oq sonoit,
Puur la seqta mesa shaqteer.
Ls shevalieer saqs aresteer
S- en est alee di'oit a 1- eglisa
Puur eskuteer h Dice servisa ;
L- eq shaqtoit taqtost nautameq
Yna mesa devotameq
De la seqta Vierzha Mariia :
Puis a on antra komeqshiia,
510
ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION.
Chap. V.
1. Anglos AXON.
The value of the letters in Anglosaxon proper could not have
materially differed from that which the whole of the preceding in-
vestigations has led us to assume for the letters used in the earlier
part of the xm th and close of the xn th century. The most re-
markable difference was the vowel y, manifestly (yy, y), which
however had become interchangeable with /, and therefore equiva-
lent to (ii, i) or {it, i) before the inflectional system of the Anglo-
Saxon literature had disappeared. The vowel a we may also
assume to have had its deeper sound, now again familiar in England
{vex, a?). It is very probable that a was sounded fully as broad as
(aa, a), but e was probably not so broad as (ee e) because it would
have been othemdse confused with (seae, »). That short i was {i),
from the Saxon times to the present day, there can be very little
doubt, although, from having no direct authority for this conclusion,
I have generally written it (i) before the xiv th century. But we
Le Chevalier bien I'escouta,
De bon cuer la Dame pria. 32
Et quant la Messe fut finee,
La tierce fu recomenciee
Tantost en ee meisme lieu.
Sire, pour la sainte char de Dieu, 36
Ce li a dit son Escuier,
L'heure passe de tournoier,
Et vous que demourez ici ?
Venez vous en, je vous en pri, 40
Volez vous devenir hcrmite,
Ou papelart, ou j-pocrite ?
Alons-en a nostre mestier.
Amis, ce dist li Chevalier, 44
Cil toumoie moult noblement,
Qui le ser\-ise Dieu entent,
Quant les Messes seront trestoutes
Dittes, s'en irons a nos routes : 48
Se Dieu plest, ains n'en partirai,
Et puis au Dieu plesir irai
Tournoier viguereusement ;
De ce ne tint parlement. 62
Devers I'autel sa chiere toume.
En saintes oroisons sejoume
Tant que toutes chantees furent,
Puis monterent, com fere durent, 56
Et chevauchierent vers le leu
Ou fere devoient leur geu.
Ls shevalieCT bieq 1- eskuta,
De boq kcer la dama pria.
H kaq la mesa fyt fine^
La tiersho fy rekomeqshifea
Tantost eq sh^ meesma lice.
Siir, pur la seqta shar de Dioeoe,
Sha li a dit son escui^er,
L- cera pasa de tumoi««T,
JE vus kee demuiees ishii ?
Venees vus eq, zha vus eq prii,
Vol«es vus d«veuiir nermita,
TJ papalaut u ipokrita ?
Aloqs eq a nostra m(?stier.
Amiis, shs dist li sh«vali«r,
Shil turnoia mult noblameq
Ki h servisa Dice eqteq ;
Kaq las mesas s^oq trcstutas
Ditas, s- en iroqs a nos rutas ;
Se Dioeoe plest, eqs n- eq partiree,
£ puis a Dice plesir iree
Turnoieer \-igoeroesameq ;
De shs ne tiq parlameq.
Devers 1- autel sa shiera tum»,
Eq seqtas oroisoqs sezhurna
Taq ke tutas shaqteeas fyra,
Puis moqtera, kom fera dyra,
£ shevaushiera vers h loeoe
Uu fera d^voia leer zhcece.
3. monstier, monasiere
8. truis, trouve
11. mieudres, meilleur
13. bamage, courage,
noblesse
14. pener, ioumtenter
16. con tenement, etat
22. sains, cloches.
Glossaire.
26. le Dieu servise, le service de Dieu
30. puis, on en a wie autre comtnencee
39. que, pourquoi d^meurez-voit$ ici ?
force, valeur, 42. papelart, faux devot
43. alons-en, allons nous-en
48.
s en irons, « nous, et nous nous en
irons
65. tant que, jusqu'd ce que.
§ 4, No. 1. ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION. 511
find (i) or even {e), so rooted in the ISTorth of Europe at the present
day, among not merely the English, but the Scotch, Dutch, Danes,
and Swedes, and above all, the Icelanders, who acknowledge it
orthograpliically, that it presents the appearance of an original sound,
rather than of a modern development. The o was almost certainly
(oo o) ; the distinction (oo o) is qtute of modem gi'owth, nor have we
been led to suppose that there was any equivalent distinction from
the XVI th centmy upwards. The u was perhaps [tm u) rather than
(uu u) or (uu m), the modem use.
The digraphs ea, eo could scarcely have been (ja, jo) as Rask
supposes, being misled apparently by modem Scandinavian usage.
The confusions of ea with ce on the one hand, and a on the other,
even in Anglosaxon, and its further confusion with e in more recent
times, as the xinth century, exclude the sound of (j) with certainty.^
And similarly for (eo). But it is possible that they were occa-
sionally pronoxmced with the second element more conspicuous than
the first, so that though we may generally write (ea, eo), as true
diphthongs, in the ordinary manner, it may be occasionally neces-
sary to indicate the preponderance of the second element by
writing (ea, eo) or perhaps more truly (eaa, eoo) which might fall
into (aa, oo, uu). On examining the long list of Anglosaxon words
commencing with ea eo, the following are all that I have noticed
which could give rise to the notion of the pronunciation (ja Jo),
which Eask seems to have adopted tlirough his own Scandinavian
habits : ealo ale, vulgar (jel, j^l) : Eoforwic, in Domesday Eurvic,
York, with the secondary form Eferwic ; eond yond, the proper form
being geond, eow you; eoiou ewe, dialectic (joo). Remembering
how recently the sounds (w, j) have been prefixed to the English
one, Scotch afie (wan, jen), we can find no difficulty with these
words. The Icelandic Jarl, which many persons rely upon for
proving that ags. eorl must have been (jorl), was perhaps a deriva-
tive of ar the hearth, and was anciently applied to an upper domes-
tic, whereas the ags. word was probably connected with the old
Saxon erl, constantly used for male, man, and in the pliu'al erlos,
and compound erlseepi for men, peoj^le, collectively (Schmeller's
Heliand, Gloss, p. 29). Hence the effect of palatisation can alone
be relied on iu support of this (j) theory.
Now the palatisation of a preceding c (k) into (Jc) would be produced
by the simple action of the palatal (e) and would not require that
that (e) should be squeezed into (i, j). Indeed, we have observed
a tendency to palatisation in French and English before (a) sounds,
which in French produced (kj, tsh, sh) (p. 53), but in English after
flourishing for a little time as (ki, kj, kij) and still dragging out an
obscure existence in a fast disappearing generation, or on the boards
of second-rate theatres, (p. 206), is rapidly going out of use and
favour.^ In modem French, too, both (kj) and (gj) are used with-
^ The isolated identification of ea ^ It is strongly marked in the dia-
with (je) in certain words, by Sales- lects of the Peak of Derbyshire,
bury, we have seen reason to suppose
was a misprint, p. 80.
512 ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION. Chap. V.
out any tendency to becoming (sh, zh) as in q^mie, gtieux (kjoe,
gjoe). Icelandic is a conspicuous example of the same, as k, g
are there always palatiscd into (kj, gj) before (aa?, ee, eei, i,
i, j) without haA^ing the least tendency to become (tsh, dzh). The
(k) itself is naturally an unstable letter ; either the tongue has a
tendency to rise, producing (kj), or the lips a tendency to round,
producing (kw), and from these physiological actions can be traced
a vast variety of changes in time and place. The same remarks
apply also to (g) and to (kh, gh). A proper understanding of the
relations, palatal (k, kj, tj, tsh, sli), and (kh, kjh, jh, j, i), labial
(k, K, kw;, w, b, p) and (kh, Kh, kti'h, wh, f ) will serve to solve
numerous riddles in comparative philology. Not only does, how-
ever, a palatal vowel by direct action, or occasionally a guttural
vowel by contrary action, tend to palatalize a consonant, but also
the presence of the liquids (1, m, n, r) produces the same effect in
the Germanic languages, as we have alix-ady had occasion to observe
(p. 205). It is curious to note how certain words, however, resist
palatalization, while their fellows readily succumb to the influence,
as in drink drench. The resistance to palatization is not purely
Scotch. We find icerchen in the Peiso>tee's Pratee, v. 41, and
werch often in Chaucer, but we constantly find werk. In the
AxcEEX ErwLE, while h had yielded to (tsh) by itself, sc had not
become (sh), as in Italy and Geraiany, and as generally in England
at that time, and the modem shot scot, ags. sceat, shews both the
palatized and unpalatalized fomi of the same word still current.
Again although cealc is now chalk (Zrealk, tshAAk), and ceap is cheap
(/;eap, tshecp, tshiip), ceald, cealf are cold, caip (^-eald, k«rtld, koold,
koould, koold ; A-ealf, kacrlf, kaaulf, kauf, kaaf ), and if cicen has be-
come chicken (tsh?'k"en), altering the first and retaining the second
(k), ciceneha?: become hitchen^kit^h.' C:n)'hj a precisely contrary action.
Again, the single word wicca seems to have given rise to both witch
and wicked, (loiclce in Oirminn) and similarly ags. icic gives wick as
an independent word, also heard in Wickham and in tenninations as
bailiwick, sherifwick, as well as Berwick, Almcick, wliile in other
cases it gives (wrtsh) as in Ipswich"^ or (i'dzh) as in Norwich. Hence
the pure (k) is no more the sign of a north countiy pronunciation than
the (tsh) of the south ; nor is it at all necessary to suppose that ea, eo
were (ja, jo) to account for the change of a preceding (k) into (tsh).
As to the consonants generally there is veiy little to observe,
except that probably (kj, gj) were well in use in the early Anglo-
saxon times, that g also probably became (^h) that is, (gjh) in many
cases, in the same way as it now does in Iceland, and in Modem
Saxony,^ so that the preparation for the (j) or simple (i) soimd was
early made. On the other hand, after (o, u) sounds and in other
* In Cumberland (koof). ^ Modern Saxon is high German,
2 So called generally by persons old Saxon and Anf,'losaxon low German,
living away from East Anglia. In There was no connection between the
Norwich I heard it called (/ps'j'dzh) two, and no connection is intended to
which follows the analogy of Norwich be implied by this illustration. They
and Greenwich. are two independent phenomena.
§ 4, No. 1. ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION. 513
places g may have had an early tendency to (g2<'h) as we also find
in Icelandic, and thus prepared the subsequent changes (p. 212
and p. 311.)
The letter h seems to have naturally played a triple part, the
three functions being frequently confused, and by no means gene-
rally imderstood at the present day. At the beginning of words h
was either (h) or (h'), probably sometimes one and sometimes the
other as in modem English, and in almost all languages where h is
pronounced at all. At the end of words, the (h') was replaced by
the (kh) which is an easier terminal sound, and more adapted to
check a vowel sound. The initial combinations hi, Iir, Jm, hiv, are
ordinarily assumed to be (khl, khr, khn, khw) and at a remote
period, before Anglosaxon was properly constituted, they may have
been (kjld, kjkr, kjhn, htch). But it seems more probable that in
the more cultivated period they were reduced to (Ih, rh, nh, wh), the
last (wh) remaining to the present day, although sadly neglected in
the South of England, and the first (Ih) existing in the xnr th century,
though the second and third (rh, nh) rapidly disappeared. This
view is strongly confinned by the existent Icelandic pronunciation
of hf, hi, hn, hr, hv as (jh, Ih, nh, rh, wh). The device of pre-
fixing h to fonn the symbols for these sounds, is so natural, that
many persons still insist that the proper way of writing when is hwen,
and when 1 was printing phonetically I found this position of the
letters practically sufficient. An accurate analysis, however, would
shew that (n'wen) was materially cUffcrent fi'om (when), and that
therefore in all accui'ate phonetic writing the sounds should be
distinguished.
The letter p ^ I presume was (w), certainly not (v), and probably
not (bh). It is supposed by some to be merely a variety of the
medieval form of v, but I consider it to be rather the old rune called
wen = hope, in Cotton MS. Otho B. 10, as quoted in Hickes's
Anglosaxon ■ Grammar (Thesaums i. 135). The sound of v con-
sonant in ancient Latin, is a matter of dispute ; it was probably
(w) or (bh), and more probably the latter than the former, because
we can hardlj' imagine (w) generating (v) except tlirough (bh), but
the passage from (bh) to (v) is so easy and slight, that the two
parts of Gennany which are distinguished by the two different
sounds at this day, profess to pronounce theii- w in the same way.
(Bh) is a kind of bat sound, readily falling into (w) or (v), but the
real (w) has a very moderate domain in Europe.^ The (bh) is
thoroughly established in high Germany and in Spain, where the
old joke of
" felices populi quibus vivere est bibere "
' Mr. Skeat notices only seven or at about 1300." — Havelock, Preface
eight instances of the use of p in § 26.
Havelock, adding :-" This evidence is ^ An accurate conception of the
interesting as shewing that this letter three sounds (w, bh, v) is necessary for
was then fast going out of use, and I the proper understanding of many
think we may safely date the final dis- linguistic relations. For (w) the lips
disappearance of this letter from MSS. are rounded nearly as for (u) and the
33
514
ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION.
Chap. V.
points at once to tho antiquity of the sound in that countiy in which
it is still used for both h and i\ and to the probable pronunciation of v
in Latin as (bh) at that time. The example of Kavvea<: being heard
as car' n' eas = cave ne eas, would be solved by the identity (kabhne*
aas) in both lanpruapes at that time. At the time wlien the Anglo-
saxons, being Christianized, adopted the Christian lloman alphabet,
the Roman t' consonant was certainly (v), a sound which the Anglo-
Saxons did not then distinguish from (f ), as we have reason to
suppose that the letter /', like the letter «, served the purposes of
both luss and buzz. The consequence was that the Anglosaxons
had no sign for their tc consonant, which was distinct from v, and
they therefore retained their runic p. For these reasons I think
that p was (w) not (v), and that the German habit of transliterat-
ing p by f is improper.
The combinations cw, wl, wr, were probably the labial modifica-
tions (kiv, hv, Tio). The first has been already explained. The
other two still occur in French hi, roi = (bra, xwa), confused with
(lua, rua) on the one hand and (Iwa, rwa) on the other, supra
p. 187. The action is however tnily simultaneous. The ags.
wlaco (liva.Q.-'ko) seems to have generated (luuk) in lukewarm, and
back of the tongue is raised, but the
outer edges of the lips are brought
more together than for (u), and the
sound of (w) when continued is there-
fore a buzz, a mixtxire of voice and
whisper, and not a pure vowel sound.
When the buzz is strong the tremor of
the lips is very perceptible, and a little
more force produces the labial trill
(brh). If the voice is removed we
have (wh), and the back of the tongue
being raised as before mentioned, the
slightest effort suffices to raise it higher
and produce (kith). This gives the
relation between the guttiu-als and
labials which plays such an important
part in comparative philology. On
the other hand, for (bh) the tongue is
not raised, the sound is a pure labial,
less like (u), but easily deduced from
(w) by lowering the tongue and slightly
flattening the lips. It is, to those used
to it, an extremely easy and pleasant
consonant, produced with the least pos-
sible effort. By dropping the voice it
produces (ph), which is not now used
m Europe, but was probably a value of
<p. For (w,bh) there must be no contact
with the teeth. Directly the lower
lip touches the upper teeth, an impe-
diment is raised to the passage of the
air through the mouth, and the breath,
escaping out on both sides, produces a
rushing, rubbing, rustling sound, dis-
tinctive of the "divided" consonants,
and known as (v), which, on dropping
the voice, becomes (f). But all degrees
of contact between the lower lip and
the teeth are possible, producing varie-
ties of (f, v), from sounds which can
scarcely be distinguished from (ph, bh),
up to extremely harsh hisses and
buzzes. Generally, then, [w) is a con-
sonant framed from (u) by closing the
lips too closely to allow of a pure re-
sonance for the vowel sound ; (bh) is a
(b) with the lips just slightly opened, or
a (v) without touching the teeth, that
is, a pure labial ; (v) is a denti-labial.
The (w) is further distinguished from
(bh, v) by having the tongue raised.
It is possible, of course to raise the
tongue when sounding (v) ; the result is
(vh), a very peculiar and disagreeable
sound. But if the tongue is raised
when sounding (bh) no ear would dis-
tinguish the result from (w). The
following words should be carefully
pronomiced to shew these differences :
Pr. out, Old; Eng. we, German wie,
Fr. vie = {\i,\ lii wii bhii \Vl), Dutch
letters u, v, w = (^y, vee, bhee) ; usual
Scotch quhen, English tchen, Aber-
deenshire fen — (kjthEn, when, fEn) ;
usual German schreibcn, faulty German
schreiwen = (shrai-bfu, shrai-bh^n) ;
German pferd now (pfert), once pro-
bably (pphert) and in some Bavarian
dialects (paert).
§ 4, No. 1. AXGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION. 515
wUte {Xioivic) has become (loo'te), lote, coiintenanco in G. and E.
1162, 2328. On the other hand, as wrong exists as (vraq) in
Aberdeenshire, so wlcenco (Itcseqk'o) generated the Scotch tvlorik
(vloqk) the oxigin of our flunkei/. In ags. wlips (lM??ps) the hibial
modification has been simply di'opped in Chaucer's liijsen 266, Sir
T. Smith's (1/ps) and our lisp. Ags. v^lcetian to nauseate, loath,
seems to be lost, but {Iwai) and (laadh) = ags. la^, loath, are
closely related in sound. Wl, ivr, could scarcely be pronounced
initially as (wl-, wr-), but would requii'e tHe insertion of ('), thus
(w'l-, "w'r-), as seems to be the case in some Scotch dialects at the
present day (p. 290.) The mode of writing would then be similar
to that adopted for hi, hr = (Ih, rh). The reason why cw was
used in preference to ivc, is probably to be sought in the Latin qit,
and the probability that (kw-) being sounded with tolerable ease
may have been confused with the correct sound (^lo), for which
there was a single character both in the Runic and Gothic alphabets.
The letter (g) of the Roman alphabet was also not quite the same
as the ags. g in all cases. In later stages of the language, as in the
xmth century, two forms (g, 5) are found in use, the latter of
which, under the form j became confused with % in writiag, and
subsequently in piintiug (p. 310). But the Roman <7 represented
some of the sounds of ags. g and hence the Anglosaxons found no
more difficulty in using it than is now felt by the modem high
Gennans. The two sounds (th, dh) however, had no Latin equiva-
lent. Though the old Latins had introduced th, ch, for the Greek
sounds 6, )(, the probability is that these letters were never properly
pronounced, and that at the period in question they were merely (t, k)
as at present in Italy, and therefore quite unsuited for Anglosaxon.
Hence the necessity for ]> ^, the former a iime, the latter a motlified
d, whereas the use of y for (y) would imply that the Latias still
made some distinction between ^ and g.
^Tiat were the precise meanings of ]> ^, or rather how the mean-
ings (th, dh) were distributed over them, it does not seem possible
to elicit from the confused state of existing manuscripts. It is
generally accepted that ]> is (th) and ^ is (dh),' yet ]^ is generally
employed in initials, and ^ elsewhere, quite disregardful of modem
usage, which we know has remained unaltered for 300 years, and
therefore might be supposed to represent the old practice. We find,
however, in modem Icelandic, a systematic adherence to the rule
^ Mr. Oswald Cockayne seems to haps: wi^, which some still call (wtth),
consider '5 = (th), and ]< = (dh), for in but then we also find : "Sough. These
the preface to his ecUtion of Hali inconsistencies in a modern writer who
Meidenhad (supra p. 0O6, n. 1), which was evidently desirous of indicating the
is otherwise in ordinary orthography, two sounds (th, dh) by appropriate
he generally, but not quite consistently, letters may serve to explain the nu-
employs ]? "S in these senses. Thus I merous inconsistencies of ancient and
find : ]>e, J>is, - ]70se, ]>at, j^ey, ]>em, perhaps less careful scribes, who were
))eir, but : jiirteenj^, i'ai]>, and in one certainly not less intending to carry
place : aujior, though in three other out theoretical conceptions of ortho-
cases : au'Sor, is writen ; with this last graphy. See infi-a, No. 2, under "5 ]>
speUing agrees : long's, dea'S, and, per- in the Icelandic Alphabet.
516
ANGLOSAXON PROXUNCIATION.
Chap. V.
of initial \> and medial and final ^ in writinf;, and a uniform cor-
ri'spuniliug ])ionun(iatii»n of (th) fur J" and (dh) for ^. Hence we
should not be justified in pronouncing pure Anglosaxon in any
other way, and we must suppose the change to have occurred' in
the transition period from pure Anglosaxon to Early English.
In the above remarks \vv have endeavoured to assign the probable
values of the Anglosaxon letters from the conclusions to wliich we
were gradually lid for the xiii th centuiy, but these values difi'er
materially from those assigned by our native Anglosaxon scholars.
We have seen (p. 255, note 1) that one of them, an excellent
scholar, who has paid much attention to the subject, decidedly calls
long i (oi), long e (ii), long a (oo), long u (ou). The well known
scholar, Benjamin Thorpe, evidently made long i (ai), and short u
(a), although he makes long e and u in Orrmin (ee, uu), see p. 487,
note. Now it is certainly desirable to have some direct e^■idence a.s
to the sounds of these long vowels, and this seems to be furnished
by a valuable and interesting MS. at Oxford, to which attention
was drawn by Hickes,'^ who gave some extracts from it, which will
be here reproduced. In order to correct the errors in Hickes's
transcription, Mr. G. Waring, of Oxford, obligingly collated the
text with the MS., and has subsequently compared the proofs of
the extracts with the original. I am also indebted to him for the
account of the MS. given below.*
1 Usage is not yet quite fixed in some
few cases. Mcath and Lowth are com-
monly called (Miith, Lauth) by the
unimtiated, and (Miidh, Laudh) comes
on them as a surprise. With the pre-
position was always (w/th) in the
XVI th century, and with the sub-
stantive is still so called. Sometimes
an arbitrary distinction is made. Dr.
E. G. Latham calls himself (L«th-Em),
but informs me that his family says
(Le<?dhBm). This is an instance of a
variation of the medial th^ which, so
far as I can recall, is always (dh) in
ordinary words. The change of final
(dh) to (th) is natural enough, through
the frequent use of (-dhth) as in breathe
= (briidhth) at the end of a sentence,
or when prolonged without a following
vowel. The initial change has only
afi"tctcd the common words : that, the,
thee, their, them, then, thence, there
and its compoimds, these, they, thine,
this, those, thou, though, thus, thy.
These have all (th) so far as they exist
in Icelandic. But it must be remem-
bered that we have a western dialect
which uses (dh) initially in all cases.
It would be interesting to know if
there are any dialects which use (th)
initially in all. Enclitically and after
words ending with d, t we know that
so late as Orrmin, and even later, ]> be-
came t, and not d, even in \ai, ^fv^, etc.,
and even after d, which is rather in
favour of a (th) than a (dh) sound. But
see a different use, p. 444, note 2.
- Linguarum Vett. Septentriona-
lium Thesaurus grammatico-criticus et
archajologicus. Auctore Georgia Hicke-
sio, S.T.P. Oxford, 1705, folio, 3 vols;
preface p. xi.
^ The MS. is thus described by
Hickes : " Dum in Bibliotheca Bod-
leyana Codd. Saxonicos pcrscrutarer,
inveni pervetustum librum MS. cujus
nota, NE. D. 2. 19. in quo quidem
libro nonnullae lectiones e veteris tes-
tamenti LXXII. interpretum versione
Graeca, cum Latina translatione ex ad-
verso in altera columna scriptu, Saxo-
nicis Uteris describuntur." Mr. War-
ing says that the present signature of
the MS. is Auct. F. 4. 32. It is a
small quarto volume containing several
tmconnected pieces of great age and
value. On the first page is a figure of
Christ with an entry stating it to have
been drawn by the hand of St. Dimstan.
Fo. 1-8, " In honomatis sumi tonantis
ars Euticis Gramatici," with several
interlinear glosses, partly Latin and
partly Old British.— Fo. 10-18. Anglo-
saxon homily on the Invention of the
§ 4, No. 1.
ANGLOSAXOISJ PRONUNCIATION.
517
The peculiarity of this manuscript is that it gives certain Greek
texts in Anglosaxon characters, which are seen immediately not to
reproduce the original letters, but to he intended to represent the
soimds in reading. There is no indication of the age of the MS. in
any part of the book, but Mr. Waring thinks that these transcrip-
tions were probably "written in the latter half of the xth century.*
Now we shall see that Greek was at that time probably pronounced
almost, if not quite, as at present. Hence, by comparing the letters
by which the Anglosaxon scribe translated the Greek sounds, we
have direct evidence of the values he assigned to the Anglosaxon
letters themselves. To make this comparison the more complete, I
append the extracts given in Hickos, which are quite sufficient for
the purpose, as collated by Mr. Waring, and contrast them with
the modern Greek pronunciation, as obligingly furnished to me by
Prof. Valetta,^ adding the ancient text for comparison.' As the
Cross, superscribed Ixiii, as if forming
part of a collection. The handwriting
is ancient, the language pure and
strictly grammatical. Judging from
these characteristics and certain pecu-
liarities of dialect, Mr. Waring assigns
it to the latter half of the x th century.
The legend is that of the poem of
Elene.— Fo. 19. See below at fo. 24.—
Fo. 20-22. A Limar and Paschal Ca-
lendar.— Fo. 23. Pauca de Mensuris,
containing several Old British glosses.
— Fo. 19"andfo. 24-36. Extracts from
the Septuagint vnth corresponding
texts from the Itala, in two parts : fo.
24-28, the Septuagint text in Greek
characters, full of flagrant blunders,
and critically worthless; fo. 19, and
half of fo. 28 to 36, the Septuagint
text in Anglosaxon characters, of a
decidedly better quality than the other.
— Fo. 37 to end, Ovidii Nasonis Artis
Amatoria;, Lib. prim., accompanied
with many interlinear glosses in Latin
and Old British. — The pieces com-
mencing on folios 1, 20, 23, 37, are
noticed in Lhuyd, Archseol. p 226, and
Zeuss, Celtica I, p. xxxviii, and II, p.
1076 S. The whole codex is described
in p. 63 of : Antique Literature Sep-
tentrionalis Liber Alter sen Httmphredi
Wanleii Librorum Vctt. Septentrioii-
alium, qui in Anglia' Bibliothecis ex-
tant, nee non niultorum Vett. Codd.
Septenti'ionalium alibi extantium Cata-
logus Historico-Critictis, cum totius
Thesauri Linguarum Septentrionalium
sex Indicibu?, Oxford, 1703, folio,
forming the second volume of Hickes.
The Scribe apparently did not know
Greek. The letters are run much into
each other, with verj' imperfect at~
tempts at arrangement into words.
1 The following are his reasons :
There could be little doubt of the date,
if a period could be assigned when
priests of the Anglosaxon church might
have been brought into connection ■with
those of Constantinople, and this is
easily done. Otho I, emperor of Ger-
many, 936 - 973, married Eadgith,
daughter of King Athelstan I of
England. 930, and his son and suc-
cessor Otho II, raamed Theophania,
daughter of the Greek Emperor Nice-
phorus, in 972, after the latter em-
peror's assassination. At the court of
Otho, then, where constant connection
was kept up with the Anglosaxons and
the Greeks, there was a means opened
out for the priests of the former to
receive some tincture of Hellenic
letters. We shall therefore hardly be
wrong in referring such transcriptions
to the latter part of the xth century.
Want of opportunity is against an
earlier date, and the confusion and niin
occasioned by the Danish invasion in
the early part of the xi th century, the
close connection of Canute with Rome,
and the subsequent Norman influence
through Edward the Confessor, render
a later date almost impossible. To this
we may add the agreement of the Saxon
homily in the same book with the
language of the x th century.
2 Author of a learned work in mo-
dern Greek on the Life and Poems of
Homer. 'Ofxiipov fiio^ koI -iroiiifiara,
■Kpaynarela laropiKr) koI KpniK^, imh
'Iwdwov N. BaAerra, London, 1867.
2 There will be found many dif-
518 ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION. Chap. V.
modi'i-n Greek does not distinj^uish long and short vowels, and does
not seem to appreciate any sueh diti'ereiue, but prouounees the same
vowel in the same word sometimes long and sometimes short, ac-
cording to the feeling of the moment, I felt that it would he mis-
leading to indicate long and short vowels in the following, and I
have therefore, for convenience marked them all as short. The
same indistinctness exists in the Italian, Spanish,' and French
languages, and probably exists naturally wherever the vowels are
iu perfect ])airs. On a vciy accui'ate examination of the vowel
pairs in English it will he seen that in many words they diflfer
ratlier in (juality than in quantity, and that there is, as Professor
Haldeman urges, a medial length of vowel,- which is sometimes
heard as short and sometimes as long. The Scotch consider most of
their vowels as short, though they strike an English ear at first as
long, being probably medial, and Feline marks almost all French
vowels as short, though other Avriters mark them frecjuently as long.
When I have placed the accent mark after the vowel instead of
after the consonant, there seemed to be certainly an option in pro-
nouncing long or short, and the shortest vowels, are, as in Italian,
always perfectly clear and never degenerate into obscurities like the
English. The letters /S, (}), seem to be naturally pronounced by
Prof. Valetta as (bh, ph), but when he became particularly em-
phatic he made them (v, f ). I have, therefore, used (v, f ) in my
transcription as more convenient,^ and for the same reason have
transcribed av, €v as (av, ev) or (af, ef ).
ferenccs between the two editions, but with the Sanskrit form, inferring a
it was thought best to lollow the usual digamma in many cases where the
text of the Septuagint. latter began with (v), or (sv), and the
• My attention was first di-awn to Greek had either no initial consonant
the doubtlnl medial quantity of the f5 fl^ ''J' fV}^^^^- Remembering
Italian vowels by H.I.H. Prince Louis t^^* ^^he Sanskrit grammarians affirm
Lucieu Bonaparte, and Sefior Cubi y the Sanskrit sound to be a true (v)
Soler made me notice the absence of made witli action of the teeth, and
truly 'stopped,' or shut, short vowels ^'""^ ^5 '^P^^'*^ ^'^ K^^^ ^ifto"cally
in Castilian, which he said was a par- ^^^^ \_''^'\ F, certainly (f), passed
ticular mark of that leading Spanish i^™"^^^") ''?'J became lost, as m
dialect, so that he suggested the use of -^('"■'; »\^ ^P^'J'^^^ ^J"^ modern lujo m
long vowel signs in alTSpanish words. ^^'^'^ ^he h is not pronounced (rxo),
" "^ '■ and knoAving first how easily (v, f) are
2 Analytic Orthography, p. 80. Prof. confused, next how unlikely the Greeks
Haldeman makes short vowels last ^-ho had <r^ = (sph) would be to allow
about a quarter of a second, medial (gy) or (sf), the ease with which there-
about three-eighths or one-half, and fore an initial (s) in this combination
long vowels about five-eighths or three- -v^^ould be rqcctcd, and at the same
quarters, so that the comparative time tlie very probable transit of (s)
lengths are about as 2, 3 and 5, or into (f), we are led to the sound of (f)
1> 2, 3. as that most likely to fulfil the plione-
' The sounds (bh, ph) are most pro- tic conditions imposed on the digamma
bably ver}' ancient. Prof. Goldstiicker by comparative philologj'. The sound
in his learned paper on the Greek Di- (w) would not be easily lost except
§anima, read before the Philological before (o, u), and the sound (bh) was
ociety, 20th Nov. 1868, attempted to already probably existent, and became
point out the Greek words in which it fixed as one (if not the only) sound of
had existed by means of a comparison )3^to.
5 4, No. 1.
ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION.
519
Extracts from the Bobl. MS. Auct. F. 4, 32.
Anglosaxon Transcription.
MS. fo. 30, b.
26. Phyisomcn anthropon cat
icona ce cath omyosin imeteran
ce archeto ton icthyon tis talasas
ce ton petinon tu uranii ce ton
ctinon ce passes tis gis ce panton
ton herpeton ton herponton epi
tis gis ce egeneto utos
27. ce eplijrisen o theos ton
anthropon eat icona then epyisen
auton aren ce thily epyoeisen
antos.
28. ce eulogisen autus legon
auxanesthe ce plithynesthe ce
plirosate tin gin ce catacyrieu-
sate autis ce archete ton icthyon
tis thalassis ce ton petinon tu
uranu ce ton panton ctinon tis
gis ce panton ton erpeton ton
ei"ponton epi tis gis
29. ce ipen o theos idu edoca
ymin panta chorton spomonri
spiron sperma 6 estin epano pas-
sis tis gis ce pan xylon o echi
en eauto carpon spermatos spori-
mu ymin estae is brosin.
30. ce passin tys thiriys tis
gis ce pasin tys petinys tu uranu
ce panti ei'peto erponti epi tis
gis 6 echi en eauto pnoin zois ce
panta chorton chloron is brosin
ce egeneto utos.
Greek Text.
26. iroi-{jcroofjLiv &v6pcoTrov ko.t' t'lKSva
TifieTepau Koi KaO' bixoicaaiv Ka\ apxf-
rcacrav twv lx9v<^f "rrjs 6a\a,(T(rris, Kol
TOIV TTfTClVUV TOV OVpaVOV, Kol TOIV
KTr)vaiv, Koi iraffrts t^s y^^, koX TrdvTwv
rwv kprciTtiiv tuv epndvTui' iirl ttjs yris.
27. Kol iTTo'iTiffev 6 Qebs rhu avBpco-
nov /car' e'lKSva @eou eTroiriffep aurSv
ipffev Kal drjAv fTroir,(reu avTovs.
28. Ka\ €v\6yri(rev aiiTovs 6 Qfhs,
Xiywv, av^duecrOe, Koi trKriQvveffde, xal
■ir\r)p(iffaTe ttjv yrjv, Kol KaraKvpievcraTe
avrrjs' Kal apx^re twv Ix^voov r^y
6aKaa'at)s, koI roiiv TnTuvwv rov ovpa-
Modern Greek Pronunciation.
Genesis oh. i.
2G. Piji'somen an'thropon kat
iko'na imcter*an kc kath omi*-
osin, ke arkhet'osan ton ikhthi*-
on tis thala'sis, ke ton petinon*
tu uranu", ke ton ktinon", ke
pa'sis tis jis, ke pan'don ton
erpeton" ton erpon'don epi" tis jis.
27. ke epi'isen o theos" ton
an"thropon. kat iko"na the,u"
epi"isen afton", ar'sen ke thi"li
epi'isen aftus"
28. ke evlo"jisen aftus" o
theos", legh'on, afksa"nesthe, ke
pKthi"nesthe, ke pliro"sate tin
jin, ke katakirief"sate aftis", ke
ar"khete ton ikhthi'on tis thala"-
sis, ke ton petinon* tu uranu*,
ke pan"don ton ktinon", ke pa"si8
tis jis, ke pan"don ton erpeton"
ton erpon"don epi* tis jis.
29. ke i"pen o theos", idhu*
dhe"dhoka imin" pan"da khor"ton
spo*rimon spi*ron sper*ma, o es*-
tin epa'no pa"sis tis jis, ke pan
ksi"lon, 0 e"khi en eafto" karpon*
sper"matos spori"mu, imin* es"te
is vro"sin"
30. ke pa"si tis thiri'is tis jis,
ke pa"si tis petinis" tu uranu",
ke pandi" erpeto" er"pondi epi*
tis jis, 0 ekh"i en eafto • psikhin"
zo,is", ke pan"da khor"ton khlo-
ron* is vro"sin, ke eJen"eto u"tos.
Genesis, Ch. i.
VOX), KoX irdvTccv rwv KTTjvSiy, Kot iracrrjs
T^s yris, Kal Travrcov tuv kpireTuiv riiv
ipirivTCiiv ettI ttjs y7)S.
29. Kal ilizev 6 &ehs, ISov SeScoKa
vjilv irdvra X'^P'''"^ crnSpifiou (nrilpov
airipfxa, '6 4(Ttii/ i-Kai/o} TracTjs ttjs yrjs-
Kal "nav ^v\ov, h tx^' ^'' ^o-^'^V KapirSv
ffirep/xaros (nropifj.ov, tifjuu effTai ets
Ppixriv.
30. Kal iruffi toI's Orjpiois ttjs 7tjs
Kal iraai toTs TrereivoTs rod ovpavov,
Kal Travrl €pir€T(p epTrofTi irrl tt/S 7tjs,
t) ex€4 fv eavTif xpvxvi^ C'^'Ss, Kal Trdvra
X^pTov xAoipb^ sis fipucTiu, Kal iytvero
OVTWS.
o20
ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION.
Chap. V.
Anglosaron Transcription.
31. CO ydcn o thcos ta punta
osa f'pliyist'n co idii cala lian cc
efj;i'nfto licspera ce egeneto prolii
hiracra ecti .
MS. fo. 34, b.
1 . 0 thous cpirascn ton habra-
cham cc ipcn pros auton habra-
cham habracham co ipen idu ego.
2. ce ipen labeto yion su ton
agapcton on ogaposas ton isac ce
poreuthc'ti is ton gon ton ypselen
ce proscncncon auton eci is olo-
carposin is ena oros on sy ipo
3. anastas de babracbam to
probi
MS. fo. 34 a.
1. on tropon opipotbic elafos
epi tas pogas ton ydaton utos
epipothi e psuycbe mu pros se o
theus
2. cdipsiscn e psyche mu pros
ton tbeon ton zonta potc ixo cae
optbesome tu prosopu tu tbeu
3. egenetbe my ta dacrya mu
artos emeras cae nyctos.
MS. fo. 32, b.
1. Ce opilorapsonte epta gyne-
ces enos antbropu Icguse ton
arton emon fagometba ce ta
Modern Greek Pronunciation.
31. ke i'dhen o tbeos- ta pan*-
da, os'a opi'ise, ke idhu" kala*
li*an* ke ojon-eto ospor'a, ke
ejcn'eto pro,i-, imer^a ek"ti.
Genesis ch. ixii.
1 . o tboos* epi-rasen ton Avra,-
am", ke i'pen afto', Avra,am*,
Avra,am', ke i"pen idbu* cgho*
2. Ke i"pe, lave ton i,on* su
ton agbapiton*, on igba'pisas ton
Isa,ak", ke poref'tbiti is tin jin
tin ipsilin*, ke anen'eqke afton*
eki* is olokar'posin ef en ton
ore'oon on an si i"po.
3. anastas" dhe Avra,am' to
proji" ....
Psalm xlii.
1. on trop'on cpipotbi* i el*-
afos epi" tas pigbas* ton idba'ton
u'tos opipotlii" i psikbi" mu pros
se, 0 tbeos •
2. edbip'sisenipsikhi'mupros
ton tbeon* ton zon-da ; po'te
iks"o ke oftbi'some to proso'po
tu tbe,u" ?
3. ojeni'tbi ta dbakTia^mu
emi" ar'tos imer'as ke niktos*
Isaiah ch. iv.
1. ke epilip'sonde epta* jine*-
kes antbro'pu enos", legb'use :
ton ai'*ton imon* fagbom'ctba, ke
Greek Text.
31. Koi (tSev 6 Qehs rh, iravra. '6<ra
hrolri(T€' Kol IBov Ka\a Alav' koI iyevero
€criT(pa, Koi iyevfTO irput rifiepa e/CT7j.
Genesis Ch. xxii.
1. 6 &ehi fTTelpaffev rhv 'A^paafj.,
Kot flnev ainqi- 'Afipaafx, 'A/3poa/u-
Kol elTrev, ISuv eyd.
2. Kol elire, A.a;8e rhu vlov ffov rhv
ayairr^Thv, hv rjydnriaas, rhv 'IffaaK, /col
■iropev6riTt (Is rrjv yrjv ttji/ v\ln]Xr]y, Kal
avivdyKi avrhv iKfl us bXoKap-rrwaiv
i(p' ev Twv opiwv Siv av crot eXirw.
3. avaaras Se 'Afipaafj. rh irput ....
Psalm xlii.
1. '6v TpSnov (Trnro6t7 r) t\a<pos iirX
Tas irrjyas twv uhartav, ovtws, iirnroOfi
J] ^vxv fJ-ov TTphs ere, 6 @e6s-
2. iSii^riffev rj ^vxh l^ou irphs rhv
@(hv rhv ^ivra- iron 7}|co koX 6<p07](Tojj.at
T^ TrpOffdOTTW TOV Qfov ;
3- iy(vi)dT} TO. SdKpva jxav ifxol ipros
rjfxfpas Kal wktos.
Isaiah Chap. ir.
1 . KaJ iTrt\rt\povTai eirTo. yvvouK^s
hvBpdnrov kvhs, Xiyovcrar tov 6.prov
Tlfiuv (pay6fi.i6a, Kal to ifidria tj/jloiv
§ 4, No. 1.
ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION.
521
Anglosaxon Transcription.
imatia cmon pcribalomctha plen
to onoma sii ce elite ef emas
afele ton onidismon emon
2. te de emera ecinie empi-
lampsi 0 theus en boile meta
doxes epi tes gcs tii ypsose ce
doxase to catalipthen tu israhel.
3. ce este to ypoliptlicn en
sion ce to catalipthen en hiru-
salem agiy clethesonte pantes y
engraphentes is zoen en hinisa-
lem.
4. oti ecplyni kiiios ton rupon
ton yion ce thygateren sion ce
to aema eccathari ec messo auton
en pneumati criseos ce en pneu-
mati causeos,
5. ce exi ce este apas topos
tu orus sion ce panta ta peri
cyclo antes sciasi nefele emeras
cae OS capnu ce fotos pyros
ceomenu nyctos pase te doxe
scepasthesete.
6. ce este is scian apo cau-
matos en scepe ce en apociyfo
apo scelerotetos ce yetu.
Isaiah ch. v.
1. Aso de to agapameno asma
to agapeto to ampeloni mu Am-
pclos egeneto to ecapemeno en
cerati en topo pioni
Greek
K^KA-ftaOct) i(p' TJixas, atpeXe rhv oveiSLcr-
fjibv rnj-oov.
2. TT? Se 7]fJ.epa. iKiivri iiriKafv^in 6
rod v\pcc(Tai Kol So^daat rh KaTa\ii<()dei>
rod 'ItrpaVjX.
3. Kcd (crrai, rh vTro\fi(p6ev iu 'Siaiv,
Kol rh KaraKei(pdfv iv 'l€povffa\7]fj,,
dyioi KXr\6'i](Tovrai ndvres ol ypacpivres
eis C'^^l'^ ^^ 'lepovcraKrjfi.
4. 8ti e/cirAufei Kvpios rhf pvirovrSiv
vluiu Kai rwv dvyarepwv ^lwv, /col rh
aT/xa kKKaQapi.it e/c jxiaov avrcov, ev
TtviVfj-ari Kpiaeus /col irpevfj-ari Kavixews.
Modern Greek Pronunciation.
ta ima'tia imon* perivalu'mctha:
pliii to o'noma to son keklis'tho
ef imas*, af'ele ton onidhismon*
imon\
2. ti dlie imer'a eki'ni epi-
lam-psi 0 theos' en vuli* meta*
dhok'sis epi' tis jis, tu ipso'se ke
dlioksaa'se to katalifthen* tu
Isra,il*.
3. ke es"te to ipoliftlien' en
Sion- ke to katalifthen- en leru-
salim-, a"ji,i klithi'sonde pan-des
i ghi'afen'des is zoin- en lem-
salcm.
4. o*ti ekplini* ki^rios ton
ri"pon ton ion* ke ton thigha-
ter'on Sion*, ke to e*ma ekkath-
ari,i* ek nies*u afton*, en pnev*-
mati kri'seos ke pnevmati kaf*-
seos.
5. ke ik*si*, ke es'te pas to'pos
tu or*us Sion*, ke pan*da ta peri-
kik"lo aftes* skia*si nefeM imer*-
as, ke OS kapnu* ke fotos* pii'os*
keomen*u niktos*, ke pa*si ti
dliok'si skepastlii*sete.
6. ke es*te is skian* apo* kav*-
matos, ke en skep*i, ke en
apokri*fo apo* sklirot*itos ke ietu*.
Isaiah ch. v.
1. a*so did to igliapimen*o
as*nia tu aghapitu* mu to ambe-
lo*ni mu. Ambelon* cjeni*tlii to
igapimen*o eq ge'rati en do*po
pi*oni.
Text.
5. Koi ?5^e(, Kol icrrai ttSs r6iros rov
opovs '2,icov, Kal Trdvra ra TrfpiKUK\Cj)
avrfjs (TKidcrei ve(pi\T] r]fj.€pas, Kal ws
Kaizvov Kai (pccrhs irvphs Kaio/x4vov vvk-
rhs, Koi irdar] rij S6^t] (TKeiracOrtaerai.
6. Kal iffrai els ctkiolv anh Kavfxaros,
Kal eV (TKeTrrj, Kal ev a.iroKpv<p(a airh
<TK\7]p6r7iros Kal iierov.
Isaiah Chap. v.
1. affco Si] r^ rtyairrifj.ii'qi ^(T/ia rov
ayaTTTirov fxov rw afxiriKuvL /xcv. 'Afi-
■KeXdiv iyiV7]6r] r<^ iiyam^fiivcp, iv
Kipari, iv r6ir(f inovi.
AKGLOSAXON T RON UNCI ATION.
Chap. V.
Anglosaxon Transcription.
2. ce frapriion pcriothcca cac
ccharacosu co ophyteusa om])C'lon
sorec ce ocodomesa pyrgon en
mcso autu ce prolenion oryxa
en auto ce emina tu pyesc stafy-
len cpyesen dc acantas
MS. fo. 33, b.
1. Y dipsontcs poreuesthc cf
ydor ce osy men u cecethe
argyra°n badisantcs agorascte ce
picte aneu argyriu cce timis ynon
ce stear
2. inati timasthe argyrio ke
ton misthon ymon .u. chi plis-
monin acusate mu cac fagesthe
ta agatha ce tiyfisi en agathys
i psychi ymon
3. prosechetc tys osin ymon
ce epacolutliLsate tes odys mu
acussate mu cae ziste en agathys
i psychi ymon cae chathisorae
ymin diathicin eonion ta osia
dauid ta pista.
4. idu martyi'ion auton dedoca
ethnesin archonta ce prostas-
sonta ethnesin.
5. ethni a uc idisan se cpicalc-
sonte se ca; y las .y. uc cpistanto
se epi se catafeuxonte enecen tu
theu tu agiu israhel oti edoxasen
se.
Greek
2. kolI ippayfj-hv irepifdyjKa, Ka\ e'xapa-
Kdiffa, Kal icpvTivaa CLfXTZiKov SojpTj/c,
Koi CfKoS6ixT]aa irvpyov eV fxiffcfi aiirov,
Kal TTpoKriviov icpv^a iv avTcf, Kal (jxuva
Tov TToiTJtroi (Tra<pv\)]v, Kal eir6iri<Tfv
aKai/Bas,
Isaiah Chap. Iv.
1, 01 StipuvTes, TTopeveade e<^' vSaip,
Kal offoi fj.T] ex*"""* apyvpiov, ^aSlaavTts
ayopdcraTe, Kal (pdyere dyeu apyvpiov
Kal Tijxris oJvoy Kal crreap.
2. iVari TtfjLaaOe apyvpiov, Kal rhy
lx6xSop vfxwv ovK (Is ■nK-f](Tixov7}v ;
aKovaare fxav, Kal (pdyecrOi ayaOa, kuI
ii'jpv(pr](rii iv ayaQots i) ^vxh vjJi'^v.
Modern Greek Pronunciation.
2. ke fraghmon" pcrieth'ika
ke ckhara'kosa ke cfi-tei'sa am*-
belon Sorik* ke okodho'misa pir*-
ghon en mes"o aftu" ke proli'uion
oTiksa en afto', ke emina tu
piji'se stafilin-, ke epi-isen akan"-
thas.
Isaiah ch. Iv.
1. i dhipson-des, porevesthe
ef i'dhor, ke o'si mi ekh'cte ar-
ji'iion, vadhi'sandes aghora"sate,
ke fa'jcte an'cv arjiii'u ke timis*
i"non ke stcar.
2. inati" timas'the arjiii'u, ke
ton mokh-thon imon* uk is plis-
monin"? aku'satc" mu, ke fa'-
jcsthe aghatha', ke endrifi'si en
aghathis- i psikhi* imon*.
3. prosc'klicte tis osin* imon*,
ke epukoluthi'sate tes odhis'mu :
isaku'sate* mu ke zi*sete en
aghathis* i psiklii* imon*, ke
dhiatlii'some imin* dhiatlu'kin
e,o*nion, ta o*sia Dhavidh* ta
pista*
4. idhu* marti'rion on eth*nc-
sin e*dhoka afton* ar-khonda ke
prostas*onda cth*nesin.
5. eth*ni a uuk i*dhasi* se
epikale* sonde* se, ke la,i* i uk
epis*tande* se epi* se katafef*-
ksonde cn*ekcn Kiri-u tu tho,u*
su tu aji'u lsra,il*, oti edhok*-
sase* se.
Text.
3. irpofffxf'^ ToTy wcrlv ii/xup, Ka\
eTraKo\ovd7}(TaTe rals 65o7s fJ-ov els-
UKOvaare fJ-ov, Kal J.VjcreTai iv ayado7s
7] ypvxy) vficvv, Kal Siadrjcrofjiai vfuv
Sia6r)Kriv alwyiov, ra otrta AavlS ri
■jnara.
4. ISov naprvpiov iv (Qveciv eSuKa
ainhv, &pxovTa Kal irpoffrdcraovTa
edvfo'iv.
5. edvT) a OVK olSaai <r€, iiriKaXiffov-
rai at, Kal \aol ot ovk iniffravTai ere
iirl (re Kara<pev^ovTat, eveKfv Kvpiov
tov Qiov aov tov ayiov 'IcpoTjA., oti
iSd^affe ere.
§ -i, No. 1.
ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION.
523
From these extracts we may deduce the following table of the
correspondence of the Greek and Anglosaxon letters. A third
column shews the values now attributed to the Greek letters in
Athens, including some combinations which do not occur in the
extracts.
1
§J
^ a
o o
(C
^
o
g.2
§1
£.3
-as
5|
11
n O
a!
o
o S
"sis
c 3
o
u
o
<^
So:
^e
i^
-^^
a
a
a
VV
iv
pp
r
r
9
a
a
e
th
th
<r
s ss
s
ai
e ae
e
I
i
i
T
t
t
av
au av
av af
K
c
k
tC
tsh
0
b
V
\
1
1
u
y
i
7
S c
gh J
M
m
m
ut
y^
i
77
qg g
flTT
mp
mb b
<p
ph f
f
7'
J
V
n
n
<pd
pth
fth
7/c
nc
qf?
VT
nt
nd d
X
ch
kh
7X
qkh
yrC
dzb
xe
cth
khth
S
d
dh
1
X
ks
^
ps
ps
e
e
e
0
0
0
Ul
0
0
€t
i
i
ot
y
i
V
0
0
fV
eu ev
ev ef
ou
u
u
OIV
ov of
c
z
z
•K
p pll
P
(')
h
-
V
i e
i
P
r
r
CO
h
-
V
e
i
P
r
r
As Prof. Valetta pronounced, a was (aa, a) or {aa, a), but there
was never any rounding or labialisation producing (ah, a). From
this, however, it does not follow that the ags. a which transcribes
a may not have had a labialised form, for, just as the French a
was called (a) in England, when it was only {a), p. 226, note, col.
2, so the Anglosaxons would have transcribed a by a, even if the
first said (a) and the last (a). But we may safely conclude that
ags. long a was not (oo) or even (oo).
The uniform transcription of e, and almost uniform transcription
of ai, by e, precludes the idea that ags. e was ever anytliing but
(ee, e). When at was not represented by e, which is very rarely,
it is represented by ae, which must be regarded rather as a Latin
than an ags. form, having then the invariable sound of (ee),
although the ags. se itself is found in ccb Is. 55, 1. 5. Thus koX
is generally written ce but occasionally cae Ps. 42, 2 ; and este
earat, Is. 4, 3. 5 is evidently more correct than estae, Gen. 1, 29;
so that aema al/xa Is. 4, 4, should be ema.
The transcription of to o by o, shews that ags. must have been
(oo, o) or {oo, o). Prof. Valetta pronounced Greek, and indeed
English, with a clear (oo, o), and did not seem to be aware of (oo).
But just as Englishmen nowadays report the Greek co to be (oo).
so the Anglosaxons would of coxirse have used their o, whether it
meant (oo) or [oo).
The uniform transcription of t by i shews that ags. i was certainly
534 ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION. Chap. V.
(ii, i) or (it t). There are six letters and combinations in modem
Greek which, in I'rof. Valetta's pronunciation, have the sound of
(ii, i), viz. : t] c v €i ol vi. Of these the ags. transcription gives »
for I and ei uuifonnly, with the single error ie in Ps. 42, 1 epipothie
iirnroda,. For t) we find most generally i, but in about 50 in-
stances (?, not, however, uniformly, thus against passes 'jrdar]<; Gen.
1, 26, we find/)rtm«, ib. v. 29 ; against ten gen rrjv 'yrjv Gen. 22, 2,
we may put Us gis, Gen. 1, 30 ; against emeras T)fi,ipa<; Vs. 42, 3,
we have himera Gen. 1, 31 ; against psyche '^v-)(r] Ps. 42, 2, we
have psycJii, Is. 55, 2 ; against epyesen eiroirjaev Is. 5, 2, we have
epyisen Gen. 1, 27, against exi rj^ei Is. 4, 5, we have ixo ij^co
Ps. 42, 2, and so on. Hence we cannot conclude that r] was
sounded as (e), or e as (i), but must consider that there was some
confusion in the mind of the scribe, perhaps arising from the Latin
transcriptions of tj, w4th which he was necessarily more familiar.
The forms eeinie eKeivj] Is. 4, 2, and agapameno rp/ain^fxevw Is. 5, 1
arc mere mistakes. The Greek v ol are uniformly rendered by y
and VL by yi, mere clerical errors excepted, as epyoeisen eTToirjaev
Gen. 1, 27 when five words before it was epyisen ; and ecpluni rupon
eKifkvvet pvTTov Is. 4, 4, between which words stands kirios
KvpLO<i (having / and not y for v,) as if to shew the error, while
psuVche '^v-)(fi Ps. 42, 1, indicates an intention to correct such
errors. Now we have reason to suppose that the earlier sounds of
V VI OL were (y, yi, ui), and that the degradation of y, yi into (i),
was similar to the common iipper German use of (i) for (y), wbile
(i) for (ui) is comparable to the Yrfinoh. frangais (fraASE) ior frangois
(fraAsuE). At present Prof. Yaletta will not admit any other sound
but (i) for any one of the three combinations, v vl ol, but Franz
asserts in his Modem Greek Grammar,' that v vl ol resemble French
w,^ which at least shews a probability that the Anglosaxon scribe
also recognized (y) rather than (i) in the combinations v vl ol, and
hence that the ags. y was, as is generally suspected, (y).
The Greek ov is the least disputed of the Greek sounds ; it re-
mained for writers of the xvi th century to start the theory that
both Greek ov and Latin ti were (ou), supra pp. 150-1. We find
it uniformly represented by u, with the exception of the manifest
error hoile ^ovXjj Is. 4, 2.
As to the transcriptions au, eu for av, ev, it is not easy to say
whether they are to be taken as Latin (au, eu), or whether u is
* Grammatica Linguae Graecse Ee- minanti imprimis hae tres 77 j v sese
centioris, Eomae in CoUegio Urbano, offerunt, de quibus si quis ex usu vul-
1837, 8vo. pp. V, 137, and tables. The gari jiidicaverit, facile adduci potest, ut
Sreface is signed Joannes Franzius, and nullum in sono earum discrimen de-
ated Roma, Idibus Martiis, 1837. prehendi arbitretur. Quanquam illud
Franz was, I believe, a Bavarian priest quidcm negari non potest, quum tj
who was sometimes at the court of magis ex imo pronuntietur, v ad sonum
Otho. Gallici u propius accedere . . . . 01 vi
2 "Vocalium pronuntiationem exa- u (gall.)Trorox, utbj (pyos, yos)." Ib.p.2.
§ 4, No. 1. ANGLOSAXOX PRONUXCIATION. 525
"u consonaBt," that is v, in whicli case (av, ev) would agree with
the modem soxinds except before tt, t, k.
These transcriptions establish, therefore, by direct evidence, that :
ags. a was one of the sounds (a, a, ah, a), and not (o, o).
ags. e was (e).
ags. i was one of the sounds (i, i), and not a diphthong like (ai)
ags. 0 was one of the sounds (o, o)
ags. u was one of the sounds (u, u), and not (ou)
ags. y was probably (y) but may have been (i) or (?)
The transcription has several foreign letters and combinarions as,
ae, z, fh, X, ph, ch, the meaning of which is generally evident. The
only difficulty is ph when used for tt 'mphyisoinen TTOLrjacoiiev, Gen.
1, 26, ephyisen iTroLrjaev, v. 27, where it is explained by the con-
current fonn epyisen in the same verse. In all other words p only
is used. The concurrent form / when ph represents 0 as in nefele
fotos veipeXr] <^&)to9, Is. 4, 5, shews its value in this case. Before
th, there seems to have been the same difficulty of pronouncing ^A,
as at the present day, where so many say, as most used to write
dipthong (d/p-thoq), for we find opthesome oc^Oi^aofxat Ps. 42, 2,
ypolipthen inro\ei<^dev Is. 4, 3, where the modem Greek says
(ipolifthen"). Similarly cth is used for "^O in idhyon l')(dvaiv Gen.
1, 28. It is rather remarkable that ]? was not used for 0.
The consistent use of c to transcribe Greek k, to the exclusion of
Jc, shews that the ags. always pronounced c as either (k) or {k), the
distinction, of course, being unrecognized. As b, g, d are used for
/3, 7, S, no countenance is given to the modem uses (bh, gh, dh),
where (bh) becomes (v), and (gh) is rather (grh) or the lighter (r),
but before (i, e) falls into (^h, ^rh) or (j), the last being the re-
cognized sound. The character ^ stood in readiness for S, but as
th had been used for 0, dh would have been the only appropriate
sign for S, and this was not a known symbol. Perhaps the use of
\, ^, had begun to be unsettled, and this may have prevented their
employment for 6, h- The ags. g was itself most probably often
(gh) and hence no better sign coidd be devised, even if the (gh)
sound of 7 was recognized. The modem change of tt, t, k, into
(b, d, g), after fx, v, 7, is not acknowledged. But the change of
7 into (q) before k in the middle of a word is acknowledged as
prosenencon avkverjKe Gen. 22, 2.
The Greek aspirate is generally omitted, but an h is occasionally
inserted where there is none iu the original, especial to avoid an
hiatus as prohi Trpoit, Gen. 1, 31, israhel 'laparjX, Is. 55, 5, and
this is occasionally strengthened in ch as hahrachain 'A/3ad/J,.
The principal gain, then, of this transliteration is the establish-
ment of the Anglosaxon simple vowel system within certain limits ;
nothing is gained for the double vowels ea, eo. On the whole, the
results are confirmatory of those amved at by the totally different
process of gradual ascension from the English of the xrv th, xin th,
and xn th centuries.
526 ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION. Chap. V.
"We have assumed as well knovm that the pronunciation of Greek
in the xth ci'Titury at IJyzantiuiii was practifally the same as that
now in use at Alliens.' The ]»rools of this are to be sought in the
hieroplyi)hical transcription of the names and titles of the Greek
and Konian Pharaohs, as collected in Lepsius's Kiinigshuch, in
the Septuajrint and the New Testament ti'anscription of Hebrew
words, and in the New Testament transcription of Latin names, in the
Syriac vowel points, in the transcription of Latin names Ijy Polybius
and other Greek writers, in the numerous eiTors of the old Christian
and other inscriptions, and, amonp; other sources, in the writing of
Latin words in Greek letters in the vi th and vii th centuries, by
certain Greeks at llavenna, who had to attest certain Latin documents
which still exist, and have been published by Marini.'- As a com-
panion to the above transcription of Greek into Anglosaxon characters,
a few of these attempts by Greeks to write Latin in Greek characters
will be interesting, and, if we bear in mind that they were writing an
unknown language from dictation and would be therefore likely to
commit as many eiTors of audition and pronunciation as a decidedly
provincial Frenchman, ignorant of English, who attempted to write
English from dictation in his own characters, we shall see that the
key to his meaning is to be found in the modem pronunciation of
Greek. The Latin interpretation here annexed has been deduced
from corresponding Latin attestations in the same documents. The
Latin letters m, n, d, indicate some peculiar forms of v, v, 8, and h
is sometimes Latin h, and sometimes a peculiar form of 7}. The
transcript of Marini is not always trustworthy, and in a few
1 ""VMiv Greek alters not in fourteen vincial speakers among the highest of
centuries, and English must needs alter the realm, the general importance of
in four, is queer," wrote a friend in secondarj' cities, and other causes,
reply to an observation of mine on the readily suggest themselves to account
pronunciation of Greek at the time of for the numeroas changes whi'.'h have
tJltilas. Of course there must have prevailed. If we examined the Greek
been reasons for the preservation of dialects at present for variety of pro-
any pronunciation for so long a time. nunciation, we should probably obtain
Greece was a very small country, but a large amount of information, impor-
it had numerous dialects, and by ne- tant in its bearings even upon ancient
electing these we reduce the country Greek usages. The modern system of
almost to one city, Byzantium, the scat education however, which aims at uni-
of the Greek empire, and of Greek formity of pronunciation and a recur-
learnin"- and literature, till (|uite recent rence to ancient idiom, only the ancient
times. The pronunciation wc have to GreekGrammar being taught in schools,
deal with is therefore that of an undis- may soon efface these records of the
turbed court and literary dialect, in past. In the disturbed state of Greece,
■which we should naturally expect the from the death of Alexander b.c. 323
utmost uniformity to prevail, while as to the establishment of the Greek
it gave the character to all Greek lite- empire, a.d. 395, took place most pro-
rature, it became the norm for all bably those changes which separate the
"correct" speakers. England offers modem from the ancient system,
the utmost contrast to this state of
things, and the violent succussions of "^ I papiri diplomatici raccolti ed
two civil wars, the forcing of a peasant illustrati dall' abate Gactano Marini,
into a court dialect, the adoption of a primo custodc della Bibl. Vatic, c pre-
whole vocabulary from a foreign tongue, fetto degli archivi sccreti della Santa
the parliamentary introduction of pro- Sede. lu lloma 1805, fol.
§ 4, No. 1.
ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION.
527
instances it has been corrected by his facsimiles, bnt the passages
ought to be carefully rc-cditcd from the original documents. The
numbers and pages refer to Maiini's book, and the numbers in
( ) to the lines of the document. The Latin contractions have not
been extended, and Marini is not always clear as to their meaning.
No. 75, p. 116. Eome, in the Yatican.
Attestation to a will a.d. 575, by which certain property was
left to the Church at Ravenna. The numbers are those of the lines.
Corrected by facsimile, plate Y.
(21). nerpos vh. KoXfKTapicos ouet
Ti)cxTa.fjiy)VTWv poyaros a Mavvavrj . . .
(25) .... rr)TTaTU.'pr] (ptMus Kcc/xSa
NopSepTj Tji|/ou TrpTjcrei'TTj €t crovaKpivivrr]
(26) .... ej rrjcTTa/xevTU} priKiKrov
Trip Kov Kovs€TOvir epri^e aavra 7)K\i(na
(27) . . . . Ko VavevvoLTr] rrjyTjs aova-
(24) Pctrhs vh Collectarius huic tcsta-
mentum rogatiis a Mannane (25) vd
testarore filio qd. Nanderit ipso pra;-
sente et subscribente (26) adque ei tes-
tamcnto relictum per quod constituit
heredem santam ecclesiam (27) catho-
licam Ravennatem testis subscripsi.
Kpi^lT).
No. 90, p. 139. In Bologna, Museo dell' Instituto.
Deed of Gift to the Church at Eavenna, vi th or vn th century
Corrected by facsimile, plate XII.
(38) Mapmos xP^fft^KcnaKaKTis oveiK
(38) Marinus Chrysokatalactis huic
chartiilae usufructuariiB (39) donationis
sstarum sex unciarum piincipalium in
iutegro. super (40) nomiuatse totius
substantia; niubila et immubila; seseque
(41) moventibus sicut superius legitur
facta in sstam (42) sanctam Eavennatae
Ecclesise a Johanne vc. Expatario qd,
(43) Georgio Magistro Militum et nunc
Primicirius Numeri felicum (44) qd.
Theodosiakus ssto douatore qui mi
presents (45) signuni sanctse Cnicis
fecit et coram nobis ei relicta est (46)
rogatus ab eodem testis subscripsi et de
conservandis (47) omnibus (?) omnibus
quiE superius superscripta (?) le-
guntur ad (48) sancta evangelia cor-
poraliter mei presentia [prsebuit sacra-
menta et banc donationem] (49) ab hoc
pi-enominataj sanctae Eavennatae Ec-
clesise traditam [vidi].
No. 92, p. 142. Eome, in the Yatican.
Deed of Gift, vith or vnth centmy. Corrected by facsimile,
plate XIII ; line 19 is scarcely legible, and the whole is veiy obscure.
X<ipTov\e ovcrovcpupTv . . . (39) iiariojins
ssrapovfi Cfl ovUKeapovfJL TrpiKnrapico
iniUTp . . . (40) yiofxiuare tuitlovs aovs-
TUTie fjLOvH€\e er in/xuKAe s ... (41)
fia}fxti}iTt>wus criyKovfi (rovirepiovs Xeyi-
Top (paHTa .... (42) sa/cra Vauevvare
EKAtarie a Icxia/Uie uk EisiraTap . . . (43)
reopyi Maeitrrpo MiAiT . . /x er nonov
nplfJ-lKlplOVS J."\ OV/J. . . . (44) KOVIJ. 0 . . .
.... K . . . . Sct)vaTovpe Kot fit wpeae
. . . (45) nov saKTi KpoKts (piKer . . t
Kcopa )>o!is 61 piXiKTa . . . (46) tos all
eoSffj. TesTts soi/s/cpnf" er 5e KOfj-ffip . , .
(47) 1HU0VS ciijj.i(Movs Ke sovn^piovs
svKKpiTa Xeyovn . . . (48) saKra evua-
yeWia, KopiroppaXiTep fxfei npesivri . . .
(49) . . . u ovK irep)tontnwTi saKTs
Pamnnare eK\isie rpa . .
(17) <pn Sfcpaiios lAAouspios Konfianens
(18) ev Ki^LTUTe 'NeaTroXtravae oik \_Kap-^
(20) TOvXe a (he Trpeaevrt dona ....
(21) dt aoTTpa icrKpirrTa o)x>na €>ifj.o0i\ia
(22) TTpedia kvi ctovht reppnopio Ayov
(23)[Bu(]o ov^i ovfii (Tfov iHTpo KifiiTare
(24) [(re]ou (popi Ki^iTare lovpts fiei a /xe
(25) (paKTe en cranKTa eKKXecna Pa^eii
(26) )iaTe ad ofx.»ta aoirpaiffKpnvra pe
(27) Xeyi Konaeixn €t aovcrKpi^t. €t Tfses
(28) Kvi aovffKpi^epevT poyafii.
(17) En Stephanos illustrius conma-
nens (18) in civitate Neapolitanae huic
(20) cartulae a die prresentis donationis
(21) de supra inscripta omnia inmobUia
(22) praedia quae sunt territorio Agu-
(23)bino ubi ubi seu intro civitate
(24) seu foris civitate, jui'is mei a me
(25) facte en sancta ecclesia Eaven
(26) nate ad omnia suprainscripta re-
(27)legi consensi et subscripsi et testes
(28) qui subscriberent rogavi.
528
ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION.
Chap. V.
No. 110, p. 1G9. Berpamo, in the possession of the Marchesa
Antonia Solzi Suardi.
Deed of (iift. Supposed to be of the vi th century. No facsimile.
(9) . . , . oTT. ovi ovarocpptiKTvaptai (9) . . . sp. buic usufructuariaj do-
dovar^iovts KaprovKai nationis cartulae ssti hortus in intcgro
(11) fd 7r«T€« qui est iu pcrgulis cxornatus cum usu
adKotat iv^pfcro i6 eyptffo vey vov . .
(12) . . . puTf a TrAttTta ve\ o/j-vi/jlovs ail
(oiifn irtprevt . . . (\'S) ... criKod (ttt.
Xtynop <paKra a an. yavOi'doro pev . . .
(14) . . . fjLO di<piv(Topi aavTf fKKKffftai
pavtvvare ... (15) . . . iv air. pavivva-
Tffj. fKKXea K fi . . . (IG) ... 6 a^tapi\f/id
ed Kopav V ... IS at ptXiKra ear . . .
(17) ... ova a air. yavBi^iao t fares
ai<aKpi\f/i fO avK ... (18) ... \afjL
troana aovntp aavra fvayyeXia anr^io
... (19) ... piipare fKK\eaiai a fie/xoparo
yav^Loao aovK . . . (20) . . . vpavdofi
Tpadera/j. vuli.
No. 114, p. 172.
Deed of Sale, ti th centuiy.
(92) \^\ianos nh. Apyenrapios ets
eiarptiip-enris tiiyevrai iHyepoti (93)
(pohdft KonKwp'/ia.Kos puyaros a 6op-
fii\to)mi o<p. jxarpe (91) er ajS noaKoi
<pi\teis dofiiifKa o(p. €t devrepto u/i. aa
... (95) ... iiidirwpfiios eiTtats Trpeamre-
fiovs Tsaris aoaKp ... (96) i^i €t aa.
wpfTto avpi ao\edoi Kiurov deKet eiets
ev irp ... (97) ciiTia Tpaderos utdi.
No. 122, p. 187. Rome, in. the Vatican
Deed of Sale, a.d, 591. No facsimile.
cortis (11) ct putei adque in-jresso et
ejfi'csso nee non et (12) pariete vel om-
nibus ad eundem pertineutibus. (13)
sicut sp. leg-itur facta a sp. Gaudioso
reverentis(14)simo defensore sancta)
ecclesioD llavennata; dona(15)tori in sp.
Eavcnnatem eccles. qui me (16) pre-
scnte subscripsit et coram nobis ei re-
licta est (17) rogatus a sp. Gaudioso
testis subscripsi et banc (18) cartu-
1am positam .super sancta evangelia
actionariis (19) prefate Ecclesiaj a
memorato Gaudioso sub (20) jusjuran-
dum traditam vidi.
Rome, in the Yatican.
No facsimile.
(92) Julianus rh. Argentarius his
instrumentis viginti jugcrum (93) fundi
Coneordiacus rogatus a Thulgilone hf.
matre (94) ct ab ejusque filiis Domnica
hf. et Deuterio vb. sstis (95) vendi-
toribus ipsis pr;csentibus testis subscri-
(96)psi et ss. pretium auri solidos cen-
tum decern eis in pra;s(97)entia traditos
vidi.
(78) naKei</)iKos BA . ets fsopfienrts
(Tel en imptypo oviiKetapovfi (povnSt
re/ifKeiant (79) aiKor aovireptces
\eytTop poyaros a aa. PovsiKeiaiia h<p.
ueiidfTpiKat etoii(T(SO)(ca€ lovyaXh
KeiTttwe Brf avTovpe ed eairomaneu
(pfditovaaovpe Koe (81) /xe irpeaenTe
atyiia (pftKatpovfj. ed eeis peXiKTO ea
resTis aovaKpi\\iL {S2) er aovrrpaeaKpiirro
irpeKfioi avpi aoAi'/os iieieitTi KUvrovp
eeis e;j iTpe{^^'.i)ainTia loianne UK.
KoiiirapaTupe aTnojj.tpaTos er TpadiTos
ueidi.
The Latin A is here uniformly represented by a. Rut E, though
generally e, is often t], and very rarely t, indicating not so much
a wavering pronunciation of e, rj, i, as an uncertain appreciation
of the sound of the Latin e, confirmed by modern Italian usage. I
is regularly i, but not unfrequently et ; in Kuyevrai viginti (No.
114, line 92), if the transcription is to be trusted, i, e, at all occur
for «', and e is also found occasionally, compare neiemi (No. 122,
(78) Pacificus vh. his instrumentis
sex in intcgro unciarum fundi Gene-
ciani (79) sicut superius Icgitur rogatus
a ssta. Rusticiana lif. venditrice ejus-
(80)que jugalc Tzitane vd. autore et
spontaneo fidejussure qui (81) me
priicscntc signa leccrunt et eis relictum
est testis subscripsi (82) et suprascrip-
tum precium auri solidos viginti qua-
tuor eis in prtr(83)sentia lohanne vc.
comparatore adnumeratos et traditos
vidi.
§ 4, Xo. 1. ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION. 529
line 82) ; tliis again must be attributed to mishearing of the Latin.
0 is o, to, and. rarely ov, for similar reasons. TJ is iTgularly ov,
occasionallj- o, v in the words, koc, kvl, for qui, and rarely at. I
have already recorded my opinion that the original sound of Greek
ot -was (ui), and Latin oe (ue), see Trans. Phil. Soo. 1867, supp. p. 65.
Probably adKocac^atque (No. 110, line 11) is Marini's misprint for
adKovai. AE is generally e, occasionally at. AF is represented
by av in avpt = auri, No. 122, line 82, but it is still possible that
the Greek said (abh'ri), as I heard a guide at Pompeii call centauro
(tshentabh-ro), and compare PavevvaTri = Rave^inatem. The Greek et,
ot are -written occasionally for et, oi; compare et9, eet9 = eis, ovglk oik
= huic. Among the consonants ^ is used for Latin v =(bh) ?, and b,
but Latin h is also represented by m a special form of y ; 7 is used
for g which, however, occasionally falls into t ; S is rather avoided,
or receives a special form d for Latin d; ^ only occurs in one of the
attempts yav^tocro to spell Gaudioso, and in ukt^io, dovaT^iove<;
for (ictio douationes, which seem to indicate its present use in t^, vt^
= (tsh, dzh), but observe the pure t in irpeaivria = prmsentia] 0 is
only used as a mispronunciation ot t; k universally represents c,
indicating that the Latin letter had preserved its sound down to
this period in Italy, as indeed the ags. use of c is sufficient to prove ;
\= I; fM = m, but the m is often quite di'opped when final, indi-
cating the transition to the modem Italian -0, -a, from -urn, -am, the
accusative fomis ; v = n, but n and m are much confused ; ^ == x,
•TT = p, p = r, a = s, T = f, 'p = f, X ^^^^ ^^^ occur, yjr = ps as in
ijyjrov = ipso, crovaKpfy^i = subscripsi, but enrcri^ = tpsis, is also
found. The use of aavra = saucta, seems to indicate a transition
to the modern Italian satita, although (ra/cra, crariKTa also occur,
and the combinations 77, 7/c are not found.
The extremely recent date of the present pronunciation of Greek
in England is not generally appreciated. In 1554 the present
modem Greek pronunciation was regularly taught.' Sir Thomas
' See : Institutiones Lingvse Grsecse ; grec, je I'ay entendu. Et comment ?
N. Clenardo Authore cum Scholijs as tu demeuve en Grece ?" The Greek
P. Antcsignani llapistagnesis, Lugduni, is thus restored in the edition of the
1554, in which the only pronunciation ffiuvres de Eabelais par Esmangart et
taught is that now usual at Athens. 'Eloi Johanneau (Paris, 1S23, 9 vols.
Compare also the passage in Babelais 8vo.) vol. 3, p. 296. Aicr-Kora roivvv
— La vie de Garagantua et de Panta- TravdyaQ^, Sia t1 (tv jjlol ovk a.pToSoTe7s ;
gruel. Book ii, chap. ix. (first edn. dpas yap Ai/idU avaXiaKdixivov tjue
1535), "Dont dist le compaignon : Mkiov, koI Iv rw /U6Ta|u ^e ovk 6A€e?s
" Despota tiujTi panagathe diati sy mi ovSa/xUs- ^-qrih de Trap' i/jLov & ov xp'h-
ouk artodotis ? horas gar limo analis- KaX '6/j.ws <pi\o\6yoi -rrdvTes b^oXoyovcn
comenon eme athlion, ke en to metaxy t((t€ \6yovs re koX priixara TreptTra
me ouk eleis oudamos, zetis de par virdpxeiv oTrSre irpayfia avrh irciai
emou ha ou chre. Ke homos philologi 5r]\6p ea-Tiv. "Evda yap dvayKo2oi
pantes homologousi tote logons te ke fiSrov \6yoi elalv, 'iua irpdy/xara, wv
remata peritta hj'parchin, opote pragma -Kept d/xpiafi-nTovfiev, fxi] ■)rpoa(p6pa}s eiri-
afto pasi delon esti. Entha gar anan- (paivriTai. Observe the retention of e
kei monon logi isin, hina pragmata for ij ; dialectically a-iSepov depiov, etc.,
(hon peri amphisbetoumen), me pros- are still found for aiSijpov Orjpiov, etc.,
phoros epiphente." Quoy ? dist Car- in Modern Greek,
palim lacquays de Pantagruel, c'est 34
530
AXGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION.
Chap. V.
Smith's theories were quite heretical in 1568, see supra, p. 35,
note 1, and he called a, e, rj, i, o, tu, v, ai, et, av, ev, ov, vi (aa a,
e, ce, ei /, o, oo, yy, ai, ci, au, eu, on, wci), entirely ignoiing the
long sound of (ii) both in Latin and Greek. In the xvii th century
a, L, V, et, av, ev, ov, became (aea? a^, oi i, iu, oi, aa, iu, ou), in
the XVIII th a, rj, became (ec, ii), and thus in one letter, 17, the
Ibnncr pionuneiation was restored. The extraordinary mispronun-
ciation of Latin and Greek now prevalent in England, results from
the application of our own changeable pronunciation to the fixed
pronunciation of dead languages, and from the historical ignorance
which assumes that a language may have only one pronunciation
through the generations for which it lasts. 'We may never be able
to recover the pronunciation, or appreciate the quantitative rhythm
of the Athenian tragedians or of the Homeric rhapsodists, but we
can read as Plutarch and as Lucian, and we should be satisfied with
that privilege, remembeiing that if we pronounced these later
authors otherwise than as the modem Greeks, we should certainly
pronounce wi'ongly. It would indeed be just as absurd to read
Lucian with the pronunciation of Aristophanes, as to read Tenny-
son with the pronunciation of Chaucer.^
' The following is Kopayj 's eloquent
apology for the modern Greek pronun-
ciation in the prefoee to his edition of
Isocrates, Paris, 1807. No one who
is acquainted with ancient Greek will
have any difficulty in reading it, and
the Englisli pronunciation of Greek is
80 mixed up with the history of oiu-
own pronunciation, that it is not out
of place to give it here at length : —
2a(,'oj'Tai iroWoTaTai iTriypa(pal ira-
Xatal. rwv o-woioov r/ KaKr) ypa^irj airo-
Selxf^t, OTi Tuv arjjxfpivuiv 'EK\t)vwv
T7)S 'EWTjnKTJs y\d'(X(TT)s 7) ivpo<popa. elvai
7) aiiTT) kuL 7] -rrpotpopa, ^jtis ^tov ih
XP^o'"' Kara rovs KaiffapiKOVs, KoL taws
avwrepa /far' avTovs tovs nroAe/iaiKouy
Xpuyous, iiyow Kar' iKeifrif b\r]u ttji/
TTfpioSov T&ii xP"''°"f *'^ ''"''*' ^■"■o'""'
efTjo-a;/ Kade^ris 6 UoXv^tos, 6 'A\iKapv ■
acTcevs Aiovva-ios, 6 SiKeAicirrjs Aio-
Swpos, 6 ^rpa^oiv, Kal &u (Kdon/j-ev
KaToirtpo) /ue'xpi "^^^ SevTtpas airh
XpiCTTov iKarovTaeTTipiSoi, Aiwv 6
XpvffSffTOfios, 6 UAovTapxo^, o 'Ap^ta-
vh<!, 6 Tlavaavias, d AovKiavhs, 6 ToAtj-
vhi, 2e'|Toy <5 'EyuireipiKbr, Koi &\\oi
TToAAoJ a.^i6\oyoi avyypacpus. "'Ear
^vai $dp^opos r) a-nfj.epivv Vfxwv irpo-
<popa, elv' (Kuvoi «%' ^M^f^^ ol aXrioi
rris ^ap^apwaeus," ifx-rropov/xev va
airoKpivwfj.ev irphs roiis Kar-nyopovs, Ka\
Pa Tous TrapcLKaKiffoifXiv va inio(p(ptiiaiv
fie fiaKpodv/xiav va, irpocpepuifjieu Kal
fiij.f7s, ws fTTpSfpepav fKUPOi. STTjpi^erat
/j.a\iffTa T] KaTTiyopia (Is top 'laiTaKiar-
fj'ht', ijyovv rr^v i^avdyKtis avjx^aivov-
aav Tov avTov fixov tov 'IwTa avxvrjv
4navd\r]ypiv, bTr6rav Ka\ al hi<pQoyyoi
EI Ka\ OI Trpo(pfpwvTai ws aur6. 'Afji.<pt-
/3oAio 5ec eivai on r) (rvx^h tojv avruv
aroix^^^v eiroi'dA7)J/(s ilvai (ftvaiKa,
ar^Srjs' aAA' o^.' Sia tovto TrpeVei Tts
■jravrore va rrjv diro<pevyr) fih trfpupylav
SfKriSaiixova, urav fidXiffTa Sfv ^vai
(TVfJL<pceva TO eTTavaKafx^av6ixiva aroi-
Xf'a ; Ilapa^eiyfiaTOs X^-P*-" *'^ '''^''
ffTixop Tovrov TOV 'Ofx-ijpov ('I\ta5. E.
Ofoi Tpiiioi 'Ittttol, iiriffTafnevoi
TreSioio,
€vpiffKerat €|aKis t] 5i(pdoyyos Ol. M'
u\ov rovTO Sh' fiKiirw Sia irolav alrlav
•jrpocpfpofj.evos Kara rijv wpotpopav tuv
rpaiK&v,
It TpiiXi 'linri, iincrrapievi neSito
fj6e\ev fladai eis rrjv aKo^jy arfifcnepos
napa Trpo<pep6fJi(Vos, us rhv irpo<pepov(Ti
TToAAoi airh tovs dAAo-yeceTs HvpCDwaiovs.
b'Co'i TpwioX 'liriroi iiriffTafxevoi TnSioio
Se'lroy 6 'E/xiretpiKhs dvofjLd^fi Kadapa
TOLS Si(pd6yyovs TavTas (TToixiia, fiyovv
TO.S (rToxa^6Ta( ios airKa ypdfifiaTa els
tV Trpo(popdv. [In a footnote the
autlior says that Sextus lived a.d. 190,
and cites a long passage from his Uphs
rpa/xfiaTiK. Ke(f). e, § 117, creA. 241,
he'^nuinfr : 'Eire! ovv 6 tov AI Kal EI
^ 4, No. 1.
ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION.
531
After thus cstablishinc,- the value of these transcriptions of the
Septuagint into Angiosaxou characters for indicating the precise
signification of the Anglosaxon vowels in the x th century, it may
seem superfluous to cite jSTonnan traditions in the xn th and xm th,
were there not always a certain amount of satisfaction in cumula-
tive evidence. In Wace's Roman de Ron, which unfortunately
exists only in later transcripts, and whose author probably always
pronounced the despised Saxon most vilely, and certainly spelled it
abominably, we find the following indications. Describing the
conduct of the Saxons the night before the battle of Hastings, he
says :
Miilt les veissiez demener E laticome e drinclieheil.
Treper e saillir e chanter Brine Hindreivart e Drintome
Bufler e crier iceheil Drinc Helf e. drinc Tome. v. 12471-6
which may perhaps be rendered: "You might see them much
sporting, gamboling, leaping, singing, joking,^ and crying Wees
hml, and Lcet hit ctiman, and Drinc heel, Brine Hindiveard, and
Drinc to me, Drinc healf and Drinh to me.'' In this TTees heel and
Drinc heel are well known, and we must not be surprised at finding
Nonnan ei for ags. <e, a strange sound, when OiTmin shews he^tenn
for ags. heatan (supra p. 489). Drinh to me, remains in oiu* language.
(pdSyyos anXovs icrri Koi /xovosLSris,
fCTTaL Kol ravra ffroix^^'i, i^cd jjrooeed-
ing very distinctly to shew that by this
expression he excluded the conception
of diphthongs] Kai av tovto Sey
aTroSeixi^ on e.'s robs xpovovs toD
2e|Toi; r] irpocpopa SfV ^to (pdapix€i/rj,
iicavov eivai va. Seii^t), on efs Toys xpwot;?
Tov Sev inrwiTTeveTO /cat'eiT, on ol
6\iya9 eKarovTaerriplSas irpoyeviarepoi
ilxo-v TTpo(popav Siafpopov. Mtjt' i^fvpw,
/u.7]T6 va f/.a.dio fx€ jueAei, Trcos inporpfpey
6 l<TOKpa.TT)s, u TI\a.rc>!V, 6 ArjuoaO^vrjs,
Ka\ offoi aWot fiKfxaaav ets avrrjv ttjs
yXiixrarjs ryjv a.Kp.r]v koI, oTav inrepa-
cTTTifco TTjf afi/xepipriy irpocpopav, Sev
St'iaxvpiCoiJ.ai on irpocptpofxiv atrapaX-
XaKTOis w? iKeivoi, eTreiSij iriQavov elvai
va. iavvi^T) koX eh t))v 'EWrjviKTjv, o,ti
ffv/x^aivei eh oAa rccv avOpunrwv to.
epya nal ■Koirifjiara. Tovto fiovov aSia-
TaKTCilS TTKTTtVO} OTJ OLV 7] TTpO<pOpa T7\S
yX(i(7(rr}s r/AAoicoOrj, va ti]v avoKara-
crTrjaji eh rrjv apxaia.v auTTjs (pvcriv Sev
elvaL KaXos napa fxovoi ol biro^oi T7]v
e\d\ovv Kal ttjv eypaipov 6is fj.7]rpiKiiv
aiiToiv yXwcraav. "Eojs va avafiicLawcTLV
eKelvot, Kal eh rifia': avyx^pvh'-^fov
elvai va Trpo(pepQjfj.ev, cos rijv iirp6(pepev
6 fidpSapos Se'lros, 6 ay paiJ.fj.aTos TlKov-
rapxos, 6 afxadeaTaTos TaXrivbs, Kal ol
aWoyeve7s 'EW-qvicrTal (piKoaotpuirepov
rideKav Trpd^ei, av eTre/xTrov Kal ttjv irpo-
(popav TOV 'Epafffiov ottov evepcnov iroK-
'Kas aWas npoX-qtpeis, Twpa fidXiara
eh Triv avayevvrjcTLV ttjs 'EAAciSos,
OTTOTav fj.e Ti]v o/j.o(pot)vlav ttjs irporpopas,
Kal tt;;/ aSiaKOTTov irapddeaiv ttjs
TraXaias fji.e rrji' vtav yXHoffcrav toiv
'EXX-fjVicv, Kal avTol anh Tas aKdjXt)
SeiXds rjfxwv iTapaT7}pi]ffeis, Kal 7]ue7s
airh Tas ffotpas avTwv crrnjeiiiaets T]QeXa-
ixev fj.eydXws w<peXri6ri eh t7)V Kara-
vSrjcnv Tuv apxaiwv ttoii^tuv Kal avy-
ypa<peoiv.
1 I adopt the reading of the Duchesne
MS. cited by Pluquet, since the read-
ing in his text '^ Bublie crient e weisseV
is unintelligible. Bujleris, from '■^huffe,
buffet, huffie: coup de poing, soufflet,
tape ; hiiffa, en Ital. huffettone ; en
Basq. bufefa ; en Languedocien bufa,"
(Roquefort) ; whence English buffet^
compare Italian buffo, whence our buf-
foon. Compare also the Norfolk buffte,
to handle clumsily, to speak thickly
and inarticulately (Nail), to abuse, to
rate soundly (as I am informed by Mr,
Waring) ; also German Biiffel, buffalo,
buff, lout (compare Ochs for a fool) and
biiffeln to drudge (Hilpert). TVTiether
hffer is a Norman word adopted into
English, or an English word Norman-
ized — compare the modern French
boxer, to box — it is impossible to deter-
mine in the absence of parallel passages.
It seems here to imply rough joking.
532 ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION. Chap. V.
Perhaps Lat hit cuman, is a good wish, may you have what you
want, and the dnnkiiig hindwmrd and healf, may refer to some
eu>toms such as still ])revail auKJiig those who, making an art of
toping, such as standing back to back and giving each to di-ink from
the other's cup, or both drinking from the same bowl, etc. The
passage is, however, not of much service phonetically, and the
aUiglosaxon words are doubtful. The following are better :
Olicrosse so vent crioent, E Godrmite altretant
E Godtmite reclamoent : Com eu frenceiz Dex tot poissant.
Wi>ro«,se est tn engluiz v. 13119-24.
Ke saintc CroLx est en franceiz,
Hence Olicrosne = UuJig Cross, which looks like an error for Rod,
and Godemite is God Almihtig. The former would incline to a
veiy broad pronunciation of a as (aa), and perhaps arose from the
subsequent southera holy. The latter might imply that long i was
(ii), and certainly that they did not pronounce almighty as at pre-
sent ; but as the vowel was certainly short in miht, we do not gain
much, except to learn that this form coexisted with Omnin's
AUtnahhti-^. The form Godelamit occxu's in the sLngailar poem
called La Pais aux JEnglois, attributed to a.d. 1263, Avhich ridicules
English French in an orthography difficult to comprehend.^
Normanz escrient : Dex aie ; Con est I'ensegne que jou di
La gent englesche : Ut s'escrie. t. 13193 Quant Engles saient /lors a cri.
The two last lines are an addition to the text of Pluquet, taken
from MS. 6987, Bib. Roy. de Paris (E. Taylor's translation, p. 191),
and imply that ut = ags. ut, and therefore fixes the traditional pro-
nunciation as (uut), which is of some value. The Man of v. 109,
and Zoonee of v. 10659 (supra, p. 461, note col. 1) are useless.
Marie de France belonged to quite the beginning of the xni th
century, and we have the advantage of an indubitably early manu-
script of much of her poetrj-.- In her lai de Laustic (Roquefort 1,
315, Harl. MS. 978, fo. 142), which Roquefort explains as in-
tended for a Breton word, meaning a nightingale, she says :
Lauftic ad nun ceo meft auif Ceo eft reifun en frrtuceif
Sil apelent en lur paif E nihtegalc en dreit engleif. v. 3.
1 See Journal de 1' Institute His- consistent way in which dialectic or
torique, rremieve Anne, 1834, p. 363, foreign pronunciation is still repre-
for which reference I am indebted to sented orthographically, e.g. Burus's
the kindness of M. Francisque Michel. Scotch. No doubt can be felt as to
In this poem roi is uniformly spelled the presumed rln-ming word /aire (p.
rat, and foire rhymes to Ingletiere, 449), after seeing Ormiin's ortho-
guere, eouqutrre, which seems to mili- grophy faj^jerr, p. 489.
tate against the view I have taken on ^ The Harl. 978 described supra, p.
p. 453, and at least shews that (feer e) 419. The Fables of Esop there named
was a presumed Anglo->ornian pro- are by Marie de France, and many of
nunciation at the time, but whether it her laj-s occur in the latter part of the
was the only or general value, or same MS. See : Poesies de Marie de
whether this may not be due to the France, poete Anglo-normand du xiiie
author's pronunciation, or to the Poite- siecle, pnr B. de Moqiufort, Paris, 1819,
vin dialect to which the editor attri- 2 vols. 8vo. I am indebted to Mr.
butes the piece, it is diflScult for any PajTie for having drawn my attention
one to determine, who knows the in- to the transcription of English in her
§ 4, No. 1. ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION. 533
In the lai de Chevrefoil (Roq., 1, 388, Harl. MS. 978, fo. 148i),
"we find :
En fuhtwalcs .y. il fu nez v, 16. Gotelef lapelent en engleif
En cornwaille uait tut dreit. v. 27. Cheurefoil leuume«tcu francei*. v. 115
In the lai de Milun (Roq. 1, 328) we find Snhtwales v. 9,
Irlande 15, ^Norweie 16, Guhtlande 16, Suhthamptune 318, Nor-
thumbre 453. In the lai d^ Ywenec (Roq. 1, 274), we have Incolne
= Lincoln v. 26, and Yllande = Ireland, v. 27. In the Fables
(Roq. 2, 141, Harl. MS. 978, fo. 53i), we have:
Si ad ure ke li uileinf Lung cum 11 witecocs aueit.
Euft tel bck mut U plereit v. 18-20
where Roquefort cites the variants : huitecox, widecos, witecoc,
which all seem to mean wliitecock, an unknown bird, but as Norman
ui was probably not so truly (ui) as (lii), or according to Mr. Payne
(uu), p. 424, n. 3, and certainly often replaced (iiu), p. 458, 1. 27,
these may mean (uit'ekok, uut'ekok), that is (wuud'ekok), ags.
wuducocc (Ettm. 86), English woodcock, with an omitted (w)
before (uu), p. 420, note, col. 2. These words give (aa a, ee e,
ii i, 00 0, uu) as Marie de France's appreciation of the sounds of
the Anglosaxon, or xrith century English «, e, i, o, u.
In order to see at a glance the difi'erent opinions that prevail
respecting the values of the Anglo-saxon letters, a table has been
annexed on p. 534, giving also the views of Rask, Grimm, and
Rapp.^ Neither Rask nor Rapp give any illustrations, though Rapp
writes a few isolated words.* But as we have ventured to give a
theoretical representation of the values of the letters, symbolizing
of course different pronunciations according as they are used in
different combinations to express the very distinct dialects which
prevailed at the time, it is necessary to shew the effect of this
theoiy, by attempting the phonetic representation of a short passage.
The parable of the Prodigal Son,^ has been selected for this pui-pose,
and will be hereafter pi'esented in Icelandic (No. 2), Gothic (No. 3),
and "Wace's poems. It is true that her ii, 140-149, iv, 245, Vergleichcnde
transliterations of English rather repre- Grammatik, vol. 3 (l8o9), pp. 125-129.
sent the pronunciation of the xiiith ' This being conti'ary to his usual
century,thanof Anglosaxon, and should, custom he explains by saying: "Da
properly speaking, have been adduced dieser Dialekt noch zu gar keinem
on p. 462, but as I was not aware of festen Eesidtate iiber die Kritik der
them tUl after that sheet was printed Buchstaben gelangt ist, sind wir weit
off, I am glad to have this oppor- entfernt, mit dahin einschlagenden
tunity of inserting them. Sprachproben uns zu befassen."
1 E. Rask, Grammar of the Anglo- ^ j)^ halgan Godspel on Englisc.
Saxon Tongue, translated fi-om the The Anglo-Saxon version of the holy
Danish by B. Thorpe, Copenhagen, Gospels, edited from the original manu-
1830, pp. 6-15. /. Grimm, D. G. I', scripts by Benjamin Thorpe, F.S.A.,
325-378, for vowels, and !«, 243-269 London, 1842, 8vo. pp. 240. "The
or consonants, but the imUcations are basis of the present text is the Cod.
often so indistinct, that much doubt is Bibl. Pub. Cant. Ii. 2, 11, collated
to be attached to the following inter- with Cod. C. C. C. C. S. 4. 140. In
pretations. Grimm proceeds from an doubtful cases Cod. Bodl. 441. and Cod.
etjTuological, rather than a phonetic Cott. Otho, C. 1, have also been con-
conception, /f. jlf. i2a^/>, Phys. d. Spr. suited." — Preface.
i;34
ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION.
Chap. V.
till- Wyrliffitc version (Chap. YIL, § 3), for the sake of comparison.
Tlic translation at thC foot of the page is intended to point out the
graininatical consti-uction, and the etynioluj^dcal relations of each
word to the Engli.sh, and would be therefore scarcely intelligible if
the passage were not so well known.
Letters
Bask
Grimm
Rapp
Ellis
Letters
Rask
Grimm
Rapp
Ellis
k
aa
aa
aa
aa
ii
ii
11
ii
a
a
a
a
a a
i
i
i
t
aea)
was
a?aj
ajsc
ie
jee
ie ie
ie?
ffi
86
SB
88
86
iu
JUU
iu?
aw
au
au
1
1
1
1
b
b
b
m
m
m
m
c
k
k
k
k k
n
n
n
n
eg
gg
g
ng
q qg
cw
kbh
kw
6
00
00
00
00
d
d
d
d
d
0
0
0 0
0
0
•s
dh
ds
tb
db
P
P
P
P
e
ee
ee
ee
ee
r
r
r
e
e
e e
e e
e
s
s
sj
8
ea
laa ja
ea ek
ea, ea
ea C(i
sc
sk sk
sk
sks^
eo
300 JO
eo eo
eo eo
eo eo
t
t
t
t
f
f V
f
f
f V
>
tb
ths
tb
tb
g
g ff J
g
g J
g ff
vi
uu
uu
nu
uu
gb .^h
u
u
u
n
UM?
h
H' kh
H
kb
HH'kh
w
bb
bb
W
hi
khl
lb
wl
\w
hn
Vbn
nb
vrr
TW
hr
kbr
rb
y
yv
J}'
n
J7 ii
hw
kbw
wh
y
Y
y
y
y •
Anglosaxon, Lucas 15, 11-32.
1 1 So^Hce sum man haefde
twegen suna.
12 Dacwa;'6segingra[77iorj!>f,
ykka] to his feeder, Fa^der, syle
me minne djel minre a^htc \e
nie to gcbyie^. Da dalde he
hym hys aehte.
13 Da, sefter feawa dagum,
eallc his J^ing gegadcrodc se
gingra sunu, and ferde wi'a^clicc
on feorlen rice, and forspilde
]jar his achta, lybbende on his
gtelsan.
Conjectured Pronunciation.
11 Soodh'liiAre s?<m mon
Haevde twcc^h*en sem'a.
12 Th«« kef;a?dh se ^h/q-ra
to h/s facd'er, Faed'er, syl*e me
miin-e doeajl miin^re a^kht'e thee
me too"gebyr"edh. Th.aa daiajld'e
ne Hmi nis a?a?A;ht*e.
13 Thaa, aeft'er fea'wa d«glr-
um, eal'e h«s ih.i<\ gegad'erode
sc ^h/(i"ra sjm'u, and fer"de
r?<a)/;'lii/;e on feor'len aiiX'c,
and forsp/1-de thaflrr h/s aeaikht'a,
lyb-cnde on h/s gaael'san.
Verbatim Tratislation, Luke 15, 11-32.
1 1 Sootbly some man bad twain sons.
12 Then quoth the younger to his
father. Father, sell (give) me mine
dtal (part) of-mine owning that me to
bclongeth. Then dealcd be him bis
owning.
13 Then, after few days, all bis
things gathered the younger son, and
fared banished-like (abroad) on far
kingdom, and for-sj^illed (lost) there
his ownings, living on bis luxury.
§ 4, No. 1.
ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION.
535
14 Da he liig haefde eallc
amyrrede, fa -vrcar^ niTcel him-
ger on j^aui rice ; and lie wear^
waedla.
15 Da ferde he and folgode
anuni burh-sittendum men fxs
rices : Jja sende he hine to his
tune, J^aet he heolde hys swyn.
16 Da ge-wilnode he his
wambe gefyllan of fam. bean-
coddiim fe ^a swyn ifeton : and
him man ne sealde.
17 Da be})ohte he hine, and
cwse^, Eala hu fela yr^linga
on mines fseder huse hlaf ge-
nohne habba^, and ic her on
hungre forweor^e !
18 Ic arise, and ic fare to
minum faeder, and ic secge him,
19 Eala feeder, ic syngode on
heofenas, and beforan fe, nu ic
neom wp-^e Jiaet ic beo J^in
sunn nemned : do me swa aenne
of j^inum yr^lingum.
20 And he aras jia, and com
to his faeder. And J7a gyt, )7a
he "svces feor his faeder, he hyne
geseah, and wear^ mid mild-
heortnesse astyi-ed, and agen
hine am, and hine beclypte, and
cyste hine.
14 Th«« He liiffh nacvde
eal'e amyr'cde thaa wcardh
m/^-el H«<q-er on th«m rii/t'e; «nd
He wcardh waed'la.
15 Thaa fer'de He «nd fol'-
ghode a«n'um b«<rkit'h-se't'end«m
men thaes rii^'es: thaa sendee
He Hm-e to n/s tuu*ne, thaet He
HeokVe h^'s swiin.
16 Thaa gew/l"node He h«s
"Wffm'be gefyl'an of th«m bean--
kod'um thee tha swiiii aCcEt'on :
and mm. man ne sealxle.
17 Th«« bethokht'e He H?h.-e,
find kwscth, Ea'la, huu fel"a
yrdli"lu|a on mii'nes faed'er
Huu'se lh«af genookh'ne H«b*-
ath, «nd ik neer on H«<q"re
forweor"dhe !
18 7k arii'se, and /k far'e
to mii'n^m faed'er, and ik sep'e
Hi'm,
19 Ea"la faed'er, tk syn*gode
on Heo'venas, and befor-an
thee, nuu ik neom wyrdh'e thaet
ik beo thiin suwu nem"ned :
doo me swaa aen'e of thii'num
yrth'h'qum.
20 And He araas* thaa, and
koom to Hjs faed'er. And thaa
ffhit thaa ne "waes feor his
faed'er. He hm'e geseakh" and
"sveardh m/d m2ld-heort"nese as-
t/r'ed, and agen* nm'e am,
and Hm'e beklyp-te, and kys'te
Hm'e.
Verbatim Translation.
14 Then (when) he them had all
dissipated, then worth (became) muckle
hunger on that kingdom ; and he worth
(became) destitute.
15 Then fared he and followed one
borough-sitting man of-that kingdom :
then sent he him to his town (inclo-
sure), that he might hold his swine.
16 Then desii-ed he his womb (belly)
to-tiU of (with) the bean-cods that the
swine ate; and to-him man not sold
(gave).
17 Then bethought he him, and
quoth, Oh ' how many earthlings (farm-
ers) on mine father's house, loaf (bread)
enough have, and I here on hunger
forth-worth (perish).
18 I arise and I fare to mine father,
and I say to him,
19 Oh I father, I sinned on heavens,
and before thee, now I not-am worthy
that I be thine son named : do to-me
as to-one of thine earthlings (farmers).
20 And he arose then, and came to
his father. And then yet, then (while)
he was far-from his father, he him saw,
and worth (became) with mildhearti-
ness a-stiiTed, and again him ran, and
him be-clipped (embraced), and kissed
him.
536
ANGLOSAXON PRONUNCIATION.
Chap. V.
21 Da cwfle¥ his sumi, Ffcder,
ic syn^ixlt! on lu-ofin, and bc-
forau fe, nu ic ne com wyr^e
)»a?t ic ]»in siinu bco gcnemned.
22 Da cwfc^ se facder to his
]7oo\nim, Bnnijii^ ra^e ]7one
SL'lcstan {Tfjn'ivhin, and sf-ryda^
hino ; and sylla^ him hiing on
his hand, and gescy to his fotum ;
23 And hringa^ an fa?tt
styiic, and oMta^ ; and uton
etan, and gewistfuUian :
24 forj'am ]7cs niin simu "wffs
dead, and he gecdciicode ; he
forwear^, and he ys geniet.
Da ongunnon hig gewistlaecan.
25 So^lice his yldra sunu
wa?s on aecere ; and he com :
and ]>a he J^am huse gencala-hte,
he gehp'de ]jone s"weg and ]>ist
wered.
26 Da clypode he acnne jjeow,
and acsode hme hwaet ]>sct waere^
27 Da cwoe^ he, pin broker
com, and ]im fa?der olsloh an
tk'tt cealf ; forj^am he hine
halno onfcng.
28 Da gebcalh he hine, and
nolde ingan : ]>a eode his feeder
lit, and ongan hine biddan.
Verbatim
21 Then quoth his son, Father, I
siuncd on heaven, and before thee, now
I not am worthy that I thine sou be
named.
22 Then quoth the father to his
thanes (servants) . Bring rathe (quickly)
the best garment, and shroud (^clothe)
him, and sell (give) him a- ring on his
baud, and shoes to his feet,
23 and bring one fat steer, and
slaughter ; and let us eat and feast,
24 for-that (because) this mine son
was dead, and he again-quickened ; he
forth-worth (perished), and he is met.
Then began they to-feast.
21 Than kjfjfth nj's sjmni,
Fa'd'ir /k syn*gode on neo'vcn,
and bct'oi"au tliee, nun /k ne
eom Avyrdh-e dhaet tk thiin s?«i'u
bco gcncnrnod.
22 Thflrt kif'fcth se fa}d'er to
Hi's theo'wwm, Bnq'adh rrtrtdh'e
thon"e scedcstan gegyi'tdan,
and skryyd-adh Hm'c, and syl'-
adh n/m rh/q on nis Hfliid, and
gcsAyy to His foo"t?<m :
23 and br/q-adh aan fa?t
styyriA', and of'slcadh* ; and
uirton et'an, and gew/st'fwl'ian:
24 fortham* thes miin s;m'ii
wa^s dead, and he ge,edkuir-
kode ; He forweardh", and ne »'3
gemect'. Thaa on*g?m'on niyh
gew?'st"laBoe'/:an.
25 Soodhiii^-e hj's ykVra
s?m'u wses on oek"ere ; and
Hc koom ; and thaa He tham
Huu'se gcnca"la^£ekhte, He go-
Hyrd'e thon-e swee^h and tha>t
M-ci-ed.
26 Thaa klyp'ode ne sen'e
theou, and aks'ode Hm"e ■wha3t
tha^t woea3Te.
27 Thaa kzraedh ne, Thiin
brooxlher koom, and thiin
faed'er of-slookh' aan ffet kealf:
fortham* He nm-e naahne on'foq".
28 Thaa gebeaUh" He Hm'e
and nold*e m'gaan- : thaa eo-de
h/s fa}d'er uut, and on*gan'
Hm"e b/d'an.
Translation.
25 Soothly his elder son was on
acre ; and he came, and then (while)
he to-the house neared, he heard the
music and the company,
26 Then clepcd (called) he one
thane (servant) and asked him what
that were.
27 Then quoth he, Thine brother
came, and thine fother slaughtered one
fat calf; for-that he him whole fanged
(received).
28 Then was-wrathful-at he him
and not-would go-in : then went his
father out, and began him to-bid.
§ 4, Xo. 2.
ICELANDIC AND OLD NORSE.
537
29 Da cvrae^ he, his ftcder
anclswaricnde, Efne, swa fela
geara ic fe J^cowode, and ic
nsefre j^in bebod ne forgymde,
and ne seaklest Jiu me najfre an
ticcen, ]>xt ic mid minum freon-
dum gewistfiillode :
30 ac py^^an J^es ];in sunn
com, Jie hys spede mid myltiy-
stnim amyrde, J^u ofsloge him
fett cealf.
31 Da cwfe^ he,
eart symle mid me,
mine ^ing synd J^ine
rede gewistiullii
sian : for]7am J^es Jiin broj^er waes
dead, and he geedcucode ; he
forwear^, and he ys gcmet.
Sunu, ]>n
and ealle
>e geby-
and geblis-
29 Thaa k»'fcth He, uk
fa)d"er andswrtviende, Eevnc
swa fel"a ^jrhea-ra ik the theo*-
wode ; and zk naevre tliiin
bebod" ne for</hyym'de, and ne
seal-dest thiiu mee naevre aan
tik'en, thaet «k m/d miin'wm
freon"d«m gew/st"f«l'ode :
30 «k siidli"an thes thiin
sim'u koom, thee His spee'de
m/d mil-tristr?<m amyrd'e thuu
of'sloor^h'e Han ivet kedlf.
31 Thaa ktviEiMi ne, Swn'u,
thnu eart simde m/d mee, and
eal"e miine th?'q s/nd thii-ne :
thee gebyr'ede gew/st-f?d'ian
«nd gebb's'ian forthrtm* thes thiin
broo'dhcr wses dead and ge,ed-
kuu'kode ; He forweardh*, and
He is gemeet'.
Verbatim
29 Then quoth he, his father an-
swering, Lo ! so many years I thee
thaned (served), and I never thine
bidding not neglected, and not soldest
(gavest) thou me never one kid, that
I with my friends feasted :
30 Eke (but) sithens (since) this
thine son came, that his speed (pro-
Translation.
thou
perty) with mistresses lost,
slaughterest for-him fat calf.
31 Then quoth he, Son, thou art
ever with me, and all mine things are
thine ; to-thee belonged to-feast and
to-bliss ; for-that this thine brother was
dead, and he again-quickened ; he
forth- worth (perished), and he is met.
2. Icelandic and Old Norse.
In the IX th century, Iceland was discovered and colonised by
the Scandinavians. The writing at first used was runic, but
Roman Christianity and Roman letters, which seem to have always
gone hand in hand, were introduced in the xith century, and MSS.
of the xnth and xmth centuries still exist. The sea usually
unites ; but large tracts of dangerous wintry sea, and a climate
which for months in the year closes the harboui-s, separate. The
Icelandic colonizers were so separated from their native country
that their tongue was practically unaffected by the caiises which
di\dded it on the continent into two, mutually unintelligible, literaiy
languages, the Danish and Swedish, and the numerous unwiitten
^Norwegian dialects.^ In Iceland, therefore, we have the strange
^ " On the older Rimic stones alto-
gether the same tongue is found in all
three kingdoms, and in the oldest laws
of each people very nearly the same.
This tongue occurs first rmder the
denomination Donsk tunga (Da-nsk
tuuq-ga) because Denmark was in the
oldest times the mightiest kingdom. . . .
But the Old Norse began also first to
decay in Denmark, and therefore took
the name Nomina (Nor-raarna), be-
cause it was probably spoken best and
most purely in Norway .... Before
the Union of Calmar [between Den-
mark, Sweden, and Norway, 1397], it
was materially changed both in Sweden
538 ICEL.\NDIC AND OhD NORSE. Chap. Y.
spc'c-tacle of a livinp; nicdioval tonp:ut', with all its terminations, in-
tlc'ftions, and vowel ihanges, whetlu'r of mutation ( Umlaut) or
progicssion {Lautverschiehuny), practically unchanged, and in daily-
use. The language of the oldest MSS. scarcely differs from that
of the most modem printed books as much as that of Chaucer
from that of Shakspere. Practically the study of Icelandic is
the study of the language spoken by those fierce invaders of our
Eastern coasts, whose tongue has so powei^fully and pemianently
aflected all our Eastern and Korthera dialects. It is, therefore, of
extreme interest to all students of dialectic or early English.' But
its orthographic laws are so different from those witli which we are
familiar, and many of its soiinds are so singular, — living remnants
of habits which seem to have been widely diffused in the xth
centuiy, but which have become lost, and generally misunderstood
in modem times — that a careful examination and explanation of
their nature is necessaiy. As no treatise has as yet appeared which
conveys satisfactory infonnation, I have availed myself of the kind-
ness of Mr. Eirikr Magnusson,^ who, to a perfect knowledge of his
native tongue joins a long and familiar acquaintance with the
language and pronunciation of England, and who has taken the
greatest pains to enable me to render the following account as
complete and trustworthy as possible.^ Whether the actual pro-
nunciation of Icelandic is or is not the same as that in use in the
X th centuiy, it is not easy to determine. The antecedent probability
and Norway ; then arose the name graphy adopted in ancient manuscripts
isknska (iislenska) which the tongue are given in an appendix. A gram-
has kept to the present day." — Rask, mar is to follow, and in the meantime,
Gram. art. 518. "From the Xorth Dasent's Rask's Grammar may be used,
the same tongue was spread over the The following arc Icelandic Diction-
Ferro, Orkney, Shetland, and Western aries of repute, which have superseded
Isles, and from Iceland to the coast of Biorn Haldorson's Lexicon Islandico-
Greenland : but the old Greenland has Dunicum, edited by Rask, Copenhagen,
been now for a long time lost, and since 1814, 2 vols., 4to. Sveinbjbm Egils-
the Scottish Isles were joined to Scot- son, Lexicon Poeticum antiquae Lingua;
land, the Old Xorse language has given Scptentrionalis, Copenhagen, 1 8-10, 8vo.
way to the New English. On the pp. 932. Erik Jonsson, Oldnordisk
Fcrro Isles a dialect is still spoken, Ordbog, Copenhagen, 1863, 8vo. Fritz-
which comes very near to the Icelandic, ner, Ordbog over det gamle norske
but is of little interest since it has no Sprog, Christiania, 1867.
literattu-e except some popular songs." o-r'j-. c j.-^. -jj-^; rxi.
-Ibid. Art. 520. These son-s were . 1 ^J'V^ *^' 'T!t^ ^S^/S^
published with a DanL.h translation by i'^^l^°^« ^J'''^"^ ?^ t'^^^.^ble for the
Lj-ngbve, Randers, 1822 (Dasent's ^"f^^^ f^ Foreign Bible Societ)-
note).- See also Iv^rAasen's Diction- author of Legends of Iceland, and
an- of the Dialects of Norway. translator of various sagas.
1 Prof. Th. Mobius's Analecta Nor- » t^Ij.. Henry Sweet, of the Philolo-
roena, and Altnordisches Glossar, re- gical Society, having acquired the pro-
cently published, -n-ill be found useful nunciation of Icelandic from another
for .students who are acquainted with teacher, Mr. Iljaltalin, I requested him
German. The glossary extends to to inform me where his impressions dif-
several other selections iiaracd in the fered from mine. The observations
preface. A unifoma modern orthogra- which he has been kind enough to
phy is adopted in all the extracts, but furnish, are added in the shape of foot-
carefully printed specimens of the ortho- notes, signed H. S.
§ 4, No. 2. ICELANDIC PRONUNCIATION. 539
is that there are differences, and -with respect to y this probability
amounts almost to a certainty. But Rask, llapp, and Grimm ^
differ most materially in their views, and as they cannot all be
right, it is very likely they are all wrong. None of them seem to
have pursued a satisfactoiy eoui'se for arriving at the truth, which
would require a long study of the phonetic relations of existing
dialects in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Iceland, the careful
examination of ancient manuscripts, of rhymes and assonances, and
of the internal phonetic relations of the hmguage itself. Mr. Heniy
Sweet having carried out this progxamme to a gi-eat extent, has
obligingly furnished me with his own views on the subject, which
I have appended to a tabular account of the opinions of Eask,
E,app, and Grimm, at the close of this section. It is ffrst necessary
to ascertain existing usage.
Icelandic now possesses eight simple vowels, a, e, i, i, o, 6, n, u
= (a, e, /, i, o, oe, 9, u) either short or long, the shortening being
generally indicated by two following consonants, or a doubled con-
sonant. The letters y y are at present identical with z, /. It has
also six diphthongs ; namely, three i diphthongs, (B au, ei or ey,
the two last being at present identical = (aa?, oeoej, eei) ; two u
diphthongs, a, 6 — (aau, oou), the great peculiarity of all these
diphthongs beiag the importance of the first element, and the
brevity of the second, which in the case of ei, 6 amounts to that
faint indication of an (i, u) heard in the English day, know (dee'j,
noohv), in Icelandic letter's del, no; and one acknowledged diph-
thong with (i) prefixed, e or e as it is now written, and which
might with equal propriety be written je, for in fact there are
numerous other diphthongs of the same class, now ^vaitten with a
prefixed/, but fonncrly written with a prefix:ed i.
The consonants h, d, h, j, I, m, n, p, r, s, f, v = (b, d, h, j, 1, m,
n, p, r, s, t, v) almost invariably ; / varies between (f, v) and some-
times (b, m) ; Jc, g are properly (k, g) but are often palatalised to
{k, g), and g takes all guttural phases of (gh, ^h, jh ; g<i"h, ^c\).),
down to (j, w), and complete disappearance ; c used to be employed
in the combination ch only, and q in the combination qv, but as
neither c or q belong to the lang-uage, they have been both super-
seded by Z; ; x is occasionally used for Ics, or gs ; and s is employed
for the sound of s before which a dental has been omitted, but not
very consistently. The old letters ]>, ^ are retained as (th, dh),
although d is often employed for ^ in older printed books. The
combinations /;/, hi, hi, hr, hv are called (jh, Ih, nh, rh, wh). The
double letters U, nn are mostly (dl, dn) when medial, and (tlh, tnh)
or (dtlh, dtnh) when final. In the doubled tt, the first t indicates
an assimilated guttural, which however is generally more or less
heard. The following is a particular alphabetical account of the
behaviour of each letter and principal combination.
1 A Grammar of the Icelandic or fort, Jaeger, 1843. The Swedish title
Old Xorse Tongue, translated from is : Auvisning till Islandskan eller
the Swedish of Eraamus Rask by G. Nordiska Fomspniket, af Erasmus
"W.Dasent, London, Pickering; Frank- Chi-istian Eask. FrSn Danskan of\'er-
540 ICELANDIC PROXUNCIATION. Chap. V.
Icelandic Alphabet.
A, distinctly (aa, a), not so low as (aa, a), and never rounded to
(rth), Init occasionally as liif:;h as (aali, ah), thou<,di this may be an
individual peculiarity, and was cei-tainly unintentional.' Most of
the words cited by Grimm as liaving short (a) are now pronounced
with lonj,' (aa). Ex. hann (uan) he, alt (alht) all, haf^di
(navdlw"), landi^ (lanu/dh) the land; tbafi (draavi) hufiks, matar
(maa'tar) meat = food, taka (taa'ka) take, ma%ur (maa'dlisr) marf^
sai;¥i (saahL<>:h"dli/y said. In unaccented syllables, where open or
closed, the short a is general.
K, a clear diphthong (aau), -with the first element predominant,
and the final short, and thus distinguished from the Gei-man au
(au). JTot (ao, ao) as suggested by Eapp. Never (aa), but con-
founded occasionally "with o in MSS, with which compare the
Welch confusion of aw, o (au, oo). AVhen a is final and emphatic
there seems to be an inclination to sound after it a whispered u
(*u), or the labio-gutturals (wh, gwV), just sUghtly touched, as d
(aau|_wh) river, fa (faau^wh). Befoi-e a doubled letter the first
element is somewhat shortened, and before doubled t, the guttural
is decidedly touched, as dtti {axiykivhi-ii) had, but the whole com-
bination is spoken with extreme breWty.
.M, the diphthong (aai), taken by Rapp as (ae), from his inability
to appreciate (/) ; distinct therefore from German ei, ai (ai). There
is an unacknowledged tendency to develop a palato-guttural sound,
as (j, jh, ^h, Zh), after «, -when final, or before a vowel, as : se
(aa2'L.Th) aye ever, aca (aarja) to cry for pain. And before two con-
sonants or a doubled consonant, the first element is shoi'tened, as :
aetla (a/t-la) to think asttir (a/t't^r) oughtest.
AU sounds to me as the diphthong (oooe?), scarcely difi'ei'ing from
the French ceil on the one hand and the Dutch ui on the other.
Rask refers the Icelandic sound to the Gennan eu, as Dr. Gehle did
the Dutch (supra p. 235, n. 1, and p. 295, n. 1), and Eapp, as I
understand him, says that Rask pronounced the diphthong an as
(oes), which pronunciation seems to furnish the key to the ortho-
gi-aphy, for a changes its sound by Umlaut to e tlu'ough a following
i, and to o (oe) through a following u (3), as : fa^ii-, fo^ur (faa"dh/r,
fcece'dhsr). This organic law of change was probably the cause
why au was written for 6 in old MSS. quasi, a as altered by the
influence of u, and the same spelling was also used for ou (oeoed)
most naturally. iN'ow since (9) is often confounded Avith (y), and
(y), when brief, is easily confounded with (/), we see how au might
satt och omarbetad af Forfattaren, bles, and in accented intermediate to (ah)
1818. Physiologic der Sprache von and (a). — U.S. Is this sound (a h) ?
Dr. E. M. Rapp, vol. 2 (1839), pp. "^ Compare the Norfolk mawther, a
128-139, vol. 4 (1841) p. 246. Ver- girl, and the observation in Nail's
gleichende Grammatik, vol. 3, (18;)9), Glossarj-. This Icelandic word was
pp. 39-41. Deutsche Grammatik von formerly mannr, modern Danish mand.
Jacob Grimm, vol. 1, 3rd ed., 1840, ■^ For the use of [ to signitv' a scarcely
pp. 421-49.5, 2nd cd. 1822, pp. 280-330. audible utterance of the following ele-
' Decidedly (ah) in unaccented sylla- ment, see supra, p. 419, note, col. 1.
§ 4, Xo. 2. ICELANDIC PRONUNCIATION. 541
come to be (oeces, oeoey, oca??), and, in the present absence of (y)
from the language, would naturally rest in (oeoe^). The German
eu is very variously pronounced (supra p. 321, note 2). Rask must
have alluded to the somewhat rare (sy) sound, which he heard as
(oey). If the view here taken be correct, the sound (oes) was pro-
bably the oldest form of this diphthong, and the antiquity of the
(s) sound of ic, is also rendered probable.' Ex. hlaup (Ihceoe^p)
course, lauf (loece/v) leaf, skaut (skoeoe^t) lap, kaupa (koecerpa) buy.
B is always (b).
C is " used by old writers indiscriminately with k, especially at
the end of monosyllables. It is now used only in ck for kk, but
many write kk and thus shut c entirely out of the language, a
custom wliich is ali'eady (1818) old, though not general." — Hask.
D is always intended to be (d) according to the present orthogra-
phy, but in older piinted matter it also stood for ^. It is found only
at the beginning of words and syllables, and after /, n, m, and d. It is
occasionally written when not pronounced, as: syndga (sm*ga) to sin.
D is precisely the English (dh), but never occurs initially in
Icelandic, where it is found in place of (d), after vowels and r, /, g,
and "in old writers it is sometimes found after I, m." — ^ask.
There are some districts in Western Iceland where it cannot be
pronounced, and is replaced by (d). It has disappeared in Swedish,
but is heard though not written, in Danish. The present use of
)?, ^ in Icelandic accords generally with their written use in Anglo-
saxon, and consequently there is a presumption that the English
use of an initial (dh) is modem, see supra p. 515.^
^ This conjecture ■will be incorrect if, however, may be a remnant of the fonn
as seems probable, Mr. Sweet's views thocht, possibly a form of thought, for
are to be adopted, infra, p. 559. which initial (th) would be regular.
2 Since p. 515 was sent to press, Mr. As regards Anglosaxon, the real usages
Henry Sweet has read his investigation of MSS., disregarding the mauipula-
of the meaning of }» 'S before the Phi- tion of editors, are very uncertain, ac-
lological Society (4 June, 1869). He cording to Mr. Sweet. The Xorthum-
considers that the soimd was originally brian writings use ^ everywhere, except
uniformly vocal =(dh), in the earliest in the contraction )>*. Eapp (Yerglei-
stages of the Teutonic languages, and chende Grammatik, iii, 128) complains
that the non-vocal (th) is a later and that a great mistake has been made
progressive development. He believes respecting Anglosaxon ]? -5, especially
that the earliest Icelandic of the xiii th in England. The Anglosaxons, he
century had the same pronunciation of says, probably wrote first mth runic,
]) 'S as the modem, except in the words then with Latin letters, and there beino-
which have exceptionally an initial no Latin letter for (th), the sound was
vocal foi'm in English, thus, ancient represented in three ways ; occasion-
'^at, ^essi '5m = modern ]>aS, ]>essi, ]>u. ally, even in the oldest monuments, by
But the testimony of Icelandic MSS. th, [compare supra p. 525, 1. 22] ;
he finds to be very uncertain. In mo- afterwards by the runic Ji, and thu-dly
dern Icelandic, 'S is often evanescent by the Icelandic '5. Englishmen could
(Lflh), according to Mr. Sweet, and in the not but feel that ]), '5 were convenient
Norwegian dialects it disappears entirely representatives for their own two sounds
leaving an hiatus. See Rapp's opinion, (th, dh), although a cursory inspection
infra p. 555, n., col. 2. It should be men- of the MSS. would shew the discord-
tioned that one of our words having an ance ; so that some inverted the order
i nitial (dh), thoicgh, is pronoimced with and made ]i, '5 = (dh, th), [supra p. 515,
initial (th) in Scotland, (thoo), which note 1]. Neither the Anglosaxon nor
542 ICELANDIC PRONUNXIATION. Ciivr. V.
E is pri)])C'vly (ec, c) long: and short. ^ The sound did not appear
to nu- to hv St) low as (ek, k), and cii-tainly was not so liigli as (ee, e).
Gnmm (ib. pp. 427-432) endeavours to divide the sound into
two, (e) ooiTespondinj; to (Jnthic a, and (e), which lie Avrites e, eor-
res])onding to (.iothic i. There is no traee of this in the spoken
hinj:uai;;e. E.\. cnnfremur (en'free'mar) and further ; sem (seem)
tcho ; hen-ar (ner^rar) lords, vcrk (verk) work, etc. Initially it is
occasionally pronounced like d, as : eg (jeeyh) /.
YJ, E", the torni c was proposed by llask, and has been generally
adopted, the older writers employ e or omit the accent altogether,
leaving it to be supplied by the reader — either form is considered
equivalent to j'e, and should therefore be (.ice, je), but in fact, as
in many cases where j is written, the result is often a diphthong
with the stress on the first element, as : tre (triee) tree, mer (mi'cer)
to me ; but : fenu (fjee*na, fi6e*no) fees, pro2oerti/, rettur (rjet"t?r)^
right, fell {iseiMh) fell, etc.
EI, EY. These two signs are now identical in signification.
Hask says that the two sounds are still distinct in Xorway, where
eij = (oei), and in the FeiTO dialect, where it is commonly (oi). At
present, however, both are {eei) or (ee'j), not sensibly diffeiing from
southern English d(7//, and having its first element distinctly {ee)
and hence materially difiering from e. It is occasionally shortened
by shortening the first element, and then may be written {e[i) to
shew the brevity of the second element, so that the eff'ect is almost
(e). Ex. seil {^eeil) toicing line, heill (nf|_/dtlh) whole, j^eiiTa (thf[_/r--
ra) of them, eytt {e\ii) toasted.
F, properly ( f ), with a very mild hiss, scarcely more than a
single tooth being touched by the lower lip, so that it approaches
(ph). It has this sound only at the beginning of syllables, or before
8. or when doubled. At the end of a word or between vowels it
falls into an equally mild (v). Before I, n, at the end of syllables
it falls into (b), but if d or t follow the ??, then fnd, fnt become
(mud, mnt), most generally, though some say (mnd, fnt). Ex.
fotur (foou't^r) foot, ofsi (ovsj) arrogance ; haf (naav) sea, arfr
(ai-vvr) inheritance; tafia (tab-la) tahle, nafn (nab-nh) name; nefna
(neb-na) to name, nefnt (nemnt) supine of 7iefna \ jafnt (jaft), from
the pulpit (jamnt) eqicalhj}
G is the most changeable of all the letters, and it is difiicult to
lay down niles which should apply to eveiy case. At the begin-
ning of syllables it is (g) before a, d, a, 6, u, u, 6, au, and {g) before
(B, e, ei, i, i, y, y, ey and also before j. The first group con-esponds
Early Eiifliiili use ^ or '5 in place of and '5 eliminated. He even assumes ini-
an organic (d). The Eng-lishmun now tial //( =(th) in Chaucer, see the intro-
pronounces the demonstrative i)ronomi- duction to Chap. VII. ^ 1, near the end.
nal family with initial (dh),' which ' I took the c for (e) instead of (e).
no one has yet asserted for Anglosaxon — U.S.
(was noch niemand im Axgehitchsinchen ^ The sound before tt is a pure
behdupM hat). lie considers that Eng- aspirate without consonant quality,
lish (dh) has arisen partly from (th) rett (riEii't) — H.S.
and partly from (d), and that in Anglo- ^ J(if»t or jamt with voiceless m
saxon Y, d, must be everywhere restored, (jamht) . — H. S.
§ i, No. 2. ICELANDIC PRONUNCIATION. 543
to non-palatal towcIs, and the second to palatal vowels, but this
division is not exact, for e, u 0 (e, o, oe) have precisely the same
elevation of the tongue as ei {eei), and (e (aai) is a back vowel,
before which the use of the palatal {(/) is exactly similar to that in
older English regard, sky (ri^aard", sX-ai), supra p. 206. The palatal
k, g are expressed by kj, gj before the first group, and should always
be so expressed. G after a, o, becomes (gh), and after d, u, it falls
into (wh., wh, w) or almost entirely disappears. But after an (i)
sound, it becomes {gh, kh) or even completely (jh, j), and occasion-
ally disappears as (i). These changes are extremely interesting be-
cause they shew the stages through which the ags. 5 passed in older
English before it entirely subsided into the present (j i, w u) or
totally disappeared. We have, therefore, an actual living example
of the intermediate sounds, ah-eady suggested by theory, establish-
ing the correctness of the previous hypothesis, supra, p. 512. Ex. :
(g), gafa (gaau'va) gift, gas (gaaus) goose, gaukur (goeoer/;9r) cuckow,
glo^ (glooudh) live coal, go^ur (goou clhsr), gora (^cecETa) to
make.
{g), gaes (gaais) geese, gaeta (^aarta) to keep, geit (geeit) goat, gjof
(gicecey) gift, gjam (^iadtnh) prone, pyngja (piiq-^ia) purse,
gefa (^ee*va) give.
(gh) og (oogh) and, dogaim (doeoegh'^m) to dags, sag^i (saahLgh'-
dh/) dagiaunamemi (daa|_gh"loeoernamcn-) dag labourers.
{gich, wh, w), Ijuga (Ijuu'Lgicha, LRiu*j_wha, Ijuu'wa, Ijuu-a) to tell
a falsehood, all varieties of barely pronounced {gioh.) being per-
missible, and the last two foiTiis being most common. This
disappearance of {gtvh) strongly calls to mind the absence of
(gh) in the Welch system of mutation of initial consonants,
thus (b, f, m ; d, dh, n) should have in Welch a coiTespond-
ing (g, gh, q), but instead of (gh) an hiatus is substituted as :
eu gafi-, dy afr, fy ngafr {eg gaav'r, da: aav'r, va:-qaav'r), their,
thy, my goat, where we ought clearly to have (da: ghaav'r).
(^h, jh) mig {xa.iig\i) me, eigum {eeigh.-9va) possessions, sig {sitgh)
himself, eg (jee^h) /, g-naeg^ (gnaa?'L^hd), enough.
(X'h) fj arise gt (fiardaa/[_Z;ht)/«r lying.
(j) feginn (fee'jm) /«m, segja (seei'ia) to say, dragi^ (draa"j«dh),
draiv, put, bogi (boo'j?.') loio for shooting, agi (aavi) chastisement,
bagindi (baau"j/ndi) trouHes.
In addition to these we must reckon the cases where a scarcely
perceptible {gh, jh, gwh, wh) is developed from {i, uu) as : a), bu
(a«i_jh, buuLwh) ever, farm. The Swedish reading of gn as (qn) is
unknown except when d, t follow as lygndi (l//qn-d») became calm,
rigndi, rignt (rj?'qn*di, r?Vqnt) was rained on. "WTien s follows the
n is lost, as gagns (gagks).
H before vowels is (h', h) and is never di'opped. Before conso-
nants it is used simply to make them voiceless. Thus we have the
remarkable set of digraphs, HJ, HL, HN, HE, HY, existing as
distinct (jh, lb, nh, rh, wh), as was conjectured for Anglosaxon,
544 ICELANDIC PUONIXCIATION. CnAr. V.
p. 513, HJ = (jh) is precisely the same as the initial element in
my promiuciation of hue (jhiu), and is not [kh., gh), but of course
only slightly cliffuiint. IIL = (Ih) is the true whispered (1), with
the breath passing out at each side of the tongue, and hence dif-
ferent from the unilateral Welch II (Ihh), so that Welch : lladd
(Ihliaadli) to kill, and Icelandic : hla^ (lliaadh) a street, a mound,
are jJCTfectly distinct in sound. Tliis (Ih) sound is also frequently
developed from // tiiial, intended for ill, but called (dtlh) as all
(audtlh) eel, and even before t, as : alt (alht) all. It would
therefore naturally replace our English final ('1) in fiddle, if /
occurred final after a consonant, just as the modem I'rench stable
(stablh), p. 52.^ This is really the case withH!X = (nh), which not
only occurs initially, as hnffur (nhii'v^r) hiife," but in tm as : einn
(e/dtnh) one, and : vatn (vatnh) water. In HIl = (rh) the Icelandic
possesses pci-fect whispered r, which on the analogy of (Ih, nh)
is the sound of the favomite nominative teimination -r in old
Norse, as : bleikr, deigr (ble^'/^Th, (\.eeig\\\) pale, wet, but the modem
custom is to use -ur (-i?r) in its place, and this pronunciation has
probably arisen from the sound (rh) having been dropped, and (r)
simply I'ctained, as (bb^/kr) with a distinct trilled (r) not foi-ming
a syllable, and different from (bke/k'r), into which it probably sank,
before the transition into (bWrk^r) took place, as the Icelander
naturally conceives all inclistinct sounds to be (?) which is his
" natural vowel." The close resemblance of (rh) to (s) however,
and the coiTespondence of the Icelandic -r with the Gothic -s,
renders the old sound (rh) extremely probable, and possibly the
old Latin confusion of teraiinal s, r as arhos arbor, honos honor,
may rest upon a similar antecedent whispered pronunciation of r.
The use of HV = (wh) is the most singular, because (w) is not a
recognized element in the language, and it will be best considered
under Y.
1 is distinctly («, i) both long and short, the very sounds which
we were led to attribute to i in the xiv th centuiy (p. 297). It is
interesting also to see that foreigners, unable to appreciate the tnie
{ii i), confuse it with {ee, e),^ which is a coiToboration of the re-
^ The sound of hi is more correctly * Rask says that the " sound espe-
(Ijh). — H. S. See infra, p. 546, n. I. ciallywhcn it is long seems to approach
to that of the deep e («)." Eapp says
2 Compare Cooper, p. 32, "N For- "folglich i = e'gilt," i.e. consequently
matiir ah cxtremitate linjrufc superio- i = (<')• Grimm says: "Wahrend der
rum dentium radici apposita (si spiri- unterschicd zwischen i imd i in solchcn
tus utrin(iue per labia efflatur forniatur zwcisilbigen formcn beinahe unmerk-
l) huic correspondet Jiti, quam scrihunt lich sein, z. b. qviSa poema last lauten
Angli per kn, knoiv hnou\ cognosco." musz wic qviSa metus, obschon kurzes
— p. 37, "A« quam scribimus kn." i im munde des Islanders sich dem
— p. 38, "zA, wh, s/i, th, hn in Alpha- elaut nahcrt," i.e. he considers that the
beto non numerantur." — p. 39, " A-« dissyllables qvi'Sa poem. qvicSa /<>«»■
ponitur pro /(«." — p. 67. " Kn sona- ought to be nearly indistinguishable,
tur ut hti; knave nebulo, /rwfarf mala " although in the mouth of an Icelander
cisso, A:w«- genu, /i wee/ ingenieulor, A->/(/e short i approaches to the sound of e."
cultcr, kniyht cques, knit nocto, knock (Gr. I'', 486). Mr. Sweet says than
tvmdo, know nosco, knuckle articulus ; in unaccented syllables i is rather (e)
quasi hnave, etc." than (t).
§ 4, No. 2. ICELANDIC PRONUNCIATION. 545
mark, p. 271, and even in some terminations, e often stands in
MSS. ibr i, as in : liaskalegr, misseri, lande, for liaskaligr, missiri,
landi (Haaus'kaLVgsT, m/s"sm-?", land'//) dangerous, quarter year, to a
land. At the present day, however, the (/V) is very distinct, as is
never confused with (ii), thus : vinum minum (v/rni^m mii-mni) do
not rhyme, and chikben in repeating the alphabet never confuse «' with
I, that is {ii) with (ii). Icelandic is the only language I have met
with which distinctly recogiiizes this long {ii), though we have seen
that it is occasionally generated in English (p. 106). The short i
is the true usual English [i), and is perfectly distinct from (i). In
older books i before a vowel was used, where j is now employed.
r on the other hand is (ii, i), generally long, but short in un-
accented syllables. It is not, however, found short in closed ac-
cented syllables as in Scotch and French.^ Rask considers t, u as
diphthongs, as it were ij uv = {ii, 9u), but there is no foundation for
this in actual speech, and the conception seems due to the mode of
■writing.
J was used as the ancient capital of /, at the beginning of words,
but as it was there pronounced as (j) before vowels, it has in recent
times been used in the middle of words before vowels, even though
the sound was not always the pure consonant (j), but much more
frequently an (i) diphthongising with the following vowel. It
changes a preceding k, g from (k, g) into {k, g), but the sound of (i)
is still heard as much as in the Italian : chiaro, ghiaja (Haa*ro,
^iai'ia) clear, gravel. It does not seem to change a preceding I, n
fi.-om (1, n) into (Ij, nj), as Ija (liaau) new cut grass, Ijo^ (lidoudh)
poem, liufur (liiiu'v^r) gentle, Ijae (liaa?') to lend; nialgur (niaauk-
gsr) hedgehog . In some cases the sound of (.t) would be difficult
as: fjarins (fiaau'rinzs) of the fee, fjarlaegt (fiaar'laa«j_X-ht) far-lying,
bjdst (biooust) husked, brjosti (briooust*/) breast, hljop (Ihiooup)
leaped. Hence j must be merely looked upon as a dipthongizing (i),
not (?"). In all these cases, however, a simple (j) would be con-
sidered correct, thus (Ijaau, Ijooudh, Ijuuvsr, Ijaa?, njaaukg^r,
fjaau'rins, fjaardaa/[_/tht, bjooust, brjoous't/, Ihjooup).
K is (k) before a, d, o, 6, «, u, 6, aic and {k) before ce, e, ei, i, i,
Vt Vi ^Vi y> thus kii'kja (Z;n"^-ia) church, contains the true inter-
mediate sound between the Scotch kirk (kerk) and Chaucer's chirche
(tshiii:sh"e), supra pp. 203-6.' K does not assume the forms (kh,
A"h, kii-'h), and hence differs materially from G.
L is usually and always intentionally (1), but the sound of (Ih)
is sometimes produced by a following t, as alt (alht) all. In the
case of II, the first I is pronounced as (d), and if the second is final,
it becomes (/A), and thus generates a (t) in passing from (d), so
that the combination becomes (-dtlh), and the first (d) is frequently
scarcely audible, as (-Ldtlh), the whole combination being rapidly
1 Short (i) in ]iing (thiqg). I think "^ I thought k before e, i, etc., was
Mr. Hjaltalin said that the pronuncia- really (kj) not (kj = A'), but this was
tion (thqg) -with open (i) sometimes probably incorrect. — H. S.
occurs. — H. S.
35
546 ICELANDIC PRONUNCIATION. Cuap. V.
pronouiicctl,' and rl is treated in the same "way, thus : kail karl
(kai dtlh) calling, churl. Between two vowels, II is distinctly (dl)
as kalhi (kad-la) to call. See N. For hi see H.
M is always intentionally (m), but may be voiceless (mh) before t.
N is always intentionally (n), but after t, k final, (nh) is generated
as : vatn (vatnh) water, regn (regLknh) rain, vagn (vagLknh) wain,
and «» rn are both (-Ldtnli) final, see L. Thus klenn (klicLdtnh)
small, finn (fiiLdtnh) Jine, jam (jaauLdtnh) iron. " Eut should
nn belong to the following syllable, or if it be a simple vowel that
goes before, the sound is (n), as a-nni (aun'n?) to the river, dat. sing,
with art., oy-nni {eiwni) to the island ;''^ so also : kanna (kan"na) to
survey, hann (nan) he, brenna (bren*na) to hum, etc. Old writers
often used II, nn, in all cases before d, t without regard to the
radical foiin, though the custom was never general. This n7id has
been long since entirely laid aside, as also II, d where the root has
a simple /, //"." — Rask.^ In NG the n becomes (q), and the g has
its full soxmd of (g), thus J'ing (thiiqg)* council, assembly, and the
preceding vowel is always one of the accented series a, i, 6, u, y.
Konra^ Gislason, however, maintains that the vowel should always
be unaccented in old Norse ; but his opinion does not find much
favour. KK is also pronounced (qk) as : J^anki (thaauqk'i) mind,
thought, hanki (naauqk"*) handle of a basket, ear of a jar.
0 is the pure (oo,) long and short, supra pp. 94-96, quite dis-
tinct from the English (.va, o),^ and is identified by Eask with the
Swedish a, Eussian and Finnish o, but as he also makes it the same
as English o (o), some doubt attaches to the other indications.
0' is the pure English diphthong (oovl) as heard in know. The
final u here generates a (w) when another vowel foUows, as soa^i
(soo'wadhi) xvasted. When a doubled tt follows, where there is an
assimilated guttural, the first element is shortened, and the guttural
is faintly heard, as dottir (douLg«<'ht't/r) daughter. When 6 is final,
the (u) is heard quite as distinctly as in EngKsh, thus sko (skoou)
shoes, is a perfect rhyme to know.
0, (S,,^ is (once, oe) long and short, and is kept quite distinct from
{99, 9), as in dcig-um (doecegh'sm) to days. The fonn ce is only used
by theoretical writers.
P is always (p), except in the combination pt which is called (ft)
as lopt (loft) air, but modem writers, and among them the learned
Jon porkelsson, are beginning to employ yi^ by preference.
^ Zl, nn = ('(llh, 'dub) between bles beinf^ etjinological, not phonetic.
Towels generally, as well as final, falla, in Icelandic, -nn is said to belong en-
allra, c»»i« = (a'dlhrab), etc. Z is tirely to the second syllabic, but a dis-
generally rather (Ij)'. One Icelander tinct (n,n) is really pronounced.
(Mr. G. Vigf'usson) said he could not " Before t, n is voiceless as beint
sound the English /. Thus/a/fe is more (heeinht). — H.S.
correctly (fa'dljhah). — H.S. * See p. 545, note 1.
2 In both these cases ->mt stands for ^ I took the 0 for (o) not (o). — H.S.
-inni and is the dat. fern, of the suffixed * In old Icelandic there Avas a long
definite article, so that it has no ety- oe distinct from a;, but it seems to have
mological connection with the preced- been absorbed by m at an early period,
ing d, ey, and the division of the syUa- — H.S.
§ 4, No. 2. ICELANDIC PRONUNCIATION. 547
QV is found in old MSS. but even there intcrchanp^pa with kv.
At present q has no value difl'crent from (k), and consequently {k)
is now generally -«Titten.
R is a strongly trilled (.r) as in Scotland, and when doubled, as
in fjam (fia.r-.r/) remote, the number of vibrations of the tip of the
tongue is very great. Final -ur {-ox) is however more lightly pro-
nounced. In the following transcription I shall simply use (r).
but the reader must be careful never to say (.i). The combinations
rl, rn are considered under L, IS^. The final -r after consonants,
was probably (rh) see hr under H, but it is now generally replaced
by -tir {-sr)}
S is always intentionally (s), and never (z), but (z) is sometimes
generated, although it is not recognized. Thus (s) final after I, n,
and perhaps in other cases, generates an intermediate (z). For ex-
ample, if we compare : eins, sins (eeinzs, siinzs), with English
stains, scenes (steeinzs, siinzs), we shall see that the difi'erence
of the terminations, here written alike, arises from the (s) in Ice-
landic being intentional and predominant, but the (z) generated
and therefore lightly touched, while in English the (z) is inten-
tional and predominant, and though the (s) is often prolonged,
and in the church singing of charity cliildxen, not unfrequcntly
painfully hissed, it is yet merely generated by a careless relaxation
of the voice, and its very existence is unknown to many speakers.
We might therefore write the Icelandic (-n[_zs) and the English
(-nzLs), but (-ns, -nz) is sufficient for most purposes. I found also
that there was an unacknowledged tendency to pronounce s final
after long vowels, in the same way ; thus : las, has, meis, vis, hrfs,
ros, hiis, mus sounded to me (laauzs, baauzs, meeizs, viizs, rhiizs,
roouzs, nuuzs, muuzs) halter, stable, manger, ivise, vegetable, rose,
house, mouse, the two last words sounding quite different from the
Scotch (hus, mus). Even in the name of Iceland itself, I'sland, I found
the s varying from (z) to (s) at different times, as (iisdand, iizdand).
Between two vowels s may similarly have a tendency to become (z),
but I have not had time to examine the numerous words of this
class orally, and it would be necessary to examine natives who had
not learned the sound of (z) from other languages. We may
always pronounce (s) without offence, but (z) would be frequently
veiy offensive. Initially before j, s seems to assume the forai (sj)
or (shj), the latter was the sound I heard in sjukur (shjuu'ksr)
sick. Icelanders have a difficulty in acquiring the sound of English
(sh), except in such a word as sugar, which they probably call
(shjuug'sr).^
T is the usual (t), but in tt, where the first t stands for an assimi-
lated guttural, while both letters are pronounced (t,t), the guttural
still generally asserts itself, see M, K, 0'.
_p is (th), and that invariably, although it stands in places where
1 In rt, the r is voiceless, as hart pronounce (sh, tsh). They sound our
(narht). — H.S. cinach as ifii^rhs). They also find our
"^ Most Icelanders seem unable to (z) very diJBticult. — H.S.
548 ICELANDIC PRONUNCIATION. Chap. V.
(dh) is now pronounfcd in Encflisli. Rask, liowovcr, excepts " pro-
uouns and partick's which in daily sjxicli are attracted like en-
clitics to the foregoing word, as a a^fi-j^inni' in thy days, hatir J>u
haiit thou ? wliere it lias the sound of ^. The word j^u is often thus
contracted with verbs, in wliich case u loses its accent, and j? is
changed into ^6, d, or t, as the foregoing letter may require ; as
haf-^u (iiavdh.^) Imper. of hafa to have, kom-du (kom'd<?) Imper.
of koma, ri's-tu (riis't^) of risa to rise." These are e([uivalent to
Chaucer's saystow wiltow (sais'tu, •w«'lt*u"), sayest thou, icilt thou,
(supra p. 371, art. 98, c, Ex.) the vulgar Gennan haschte (nash-t?)
= hast du, hast thou, etc. They are generated, unintentional sounds.*
U seems to be pure {sa, 9) long and short, and the existence of
the forms a, 6 (aau, oou) would seem to indicate the absence of any
letter for (u) even in ancient times, and au for (oece) and (oeoes) ap-
pears to imply that this value of u was ancient, see AU.' This
sound of (?) is often confused with (y), on the one hand, and (ce) on
the other. Thus to Mr. M. Bell the French u sounds (9), and to
me (y). In our o^^ti provinces (y, d) seem to be heard indifferently,
thus I heard both (tyy) and {Us) for two in Norwich. See also the
Devonshire sounds in (p. 301 note). In Scotland (y) and (9) are
both used, though only (y) is generally recognized. I hear (a) for
the French e muet, but others hear (a, ^h). In some parts of Ger-
many (od) and in others (9) are used for o. Hence we must not be
surprised at llask's finding Icelandic u "almost like deep* Swedish o
in hoy roZ-," probably (.?), or "Gennan m," which he may have heard as
{9), wishing to keep it tlistinct from (i) into which his own Danish
y had fallen. He adds that "the word gu^ God is pronounced
nearly as g-vo^ or gAu^," but to me it sounds (g\-59dh) or (gttvsdh)
where the inserted r, or a labialized g arising perhaps fi'om an
intense effort to avoid any palatisation of the g into (gj). The
distinction between the sounds of u, 6 (a, oe) is, if I rightly ap-
preciate it, precisely the same as that between J, i (i, i), or \e, e)
that is, the position of the tongue and lips is the same for both
elements in each pair, but the whole of the back part of the mouth
etc., is wider for the second element in each pair than for the first.
IT is (uu, u), long in accented, short in open unaccented syllables.^
Rask says that it has two sounds, apparently (uu, u), but his expla-
nation is quite unintelligible, owing to his confusing vowels so un-
like, as (a, 9, 0, u). No such distinction was admitted by Mr.
Magnusson. It seems impossible to an Icelander to pronounce
final u without some labio- guttural intonation after it, such as (wh,
ge^'h), thus: bu (buu) or rather (buuLwh) /«;•;«.
' The change of ]? to "5 is rare in olo,s:y, thus art. 1.5, he speaks of "a or
this case. high e in the Swedish word enf/el,
^ See note on ^, supra, p. 541, n. 2. French e in apres, English e in fellow
' See, however, a different opinion or at in hair," and " the lower sound
advanced by Mr. Sweet, infra, p. 559. of e in the Swedish lefva, veto, French
e."
' Rask calls {e) deep, and (e) high, ^ Short (u) in ^dngr, not (?) as if
which is contrary to the usual terniin- spelled u. — H.S.
§ 4, No. 2. ICELANDIC PRONUNCIATION. 549
•
y is (v) with so slight a contact of the lower lips with the upper
teeth as to vary in effect at different times as (bh, v), but I did not
feel justified in noting it as (bh) without haxing an opportunity of
hearing the sound from numerous speakers.^ That it was not
originally (v) is clear to me fi'om the combination HV, which
is called (wh) in the southern, and (kwh) in the northern districts
of Iceland, corresponding to the English and Scotch sounds of
ivh, and the South and l!^oi'th Wales pronunciation of cluv. These
point to an original (w) and to the transitional sound (bh) before
falling into (v). For the unvoiced (v) could only be (f), the
Aberdeen expression of wh ; and the unvoiced (bh) would be
(ph), neither of which sounds seem to be used, although / noAV
falls into v. It is very possible that in earlier times / had the
true sounds of (f, \), and that v, then not distinguished in writing
from u, was (w), whence hv would be (wh). At the present day, v,
kv = (v, wh) is an anomaly, which could hardly have been original.
X is traditionally used for ks, gs, without any known reason,
except custom, and shortens the preceding vowel like a doubled
consonant.
Y has precisely the same value as i (?) and is only employed to
point out certain gi-ammatical or etymological relations. But in
some valleys it is yet called (y), and this was possibly its original
sound. The present sound is supposed to have taken its rise in the
xn th century, and to have become prevalent in the xiv th.
T' is now the same as i (ii). " The name of the letter, however,
is pronounced altogether as it is in Swedish and Danish," says
Eask, that is, as (yy) or more commonly ypsilon.
Z has always the sound of (s), its use is merely etymological
or literary, shewing that some letter has been lost before s, and as
it is not consistently employed, it would be better disused altogether.
The alphabet is read thiis, in Icelandic orthography ; a a be ce
de e^ e e eflf ge ha i i jo^ ka ell emm enn o 6 pe qu err ess te u u
vaff ex ypsilon ypsilon zeta l^om se = (aa aau bjee SJee djee
eedh ee Jee ef ^Jee naau ii ii Joodh kaau edtlh em en oo oou pjee
kuu er es tjee $9 uu vaf eks «ps/lon iip"s»lon see'ta thodtnla aa«).
Both ae and ce are written occasionally, but they are not distin-
guished in sound, and are both named (aa?').
The stress is on the first syllable of all words long or short,
simple or compound, but in the case of compounds each component
has an accent as if it were simple, and the chief stress Kes on the
first. A single final consonant, or a single consonant between two
vowels, leaves the preceding vowel long, as : vel (veel) well^ man-
saugur (maan'soeoei'J^r) loresong, ve^ (vecdh) pledge, J^at (thaat)
that, til (tnl) to. A doubled consonant, or two consonants (of
which final r is not one) shortens and " stops" the preceding vowel,
and diminishes the length of the first element of diphthongs.
Doubled consonants are fully pronounced, as in Italian, supra p. 55.
1 I thought at first that v -was (bh), Mr. Hjaltalin that it was a dental
and I was only induced to consider it sound. — H. S.
as a (v) by the distinct statement of
050 ICELANDIC PRONUNCIATION. CuAP. V.
Rask assorts that all vowels aiul diphthongs arc nasalized -when
standing immediately before rn and «, but if such nasalisation
exists, it must be very slight, and I did not detect it. But see
inlra p. 558, 1. 25.
Wluii three consonants come together one is usually omitted, as
hiilft (naaulht) half, volgt (volht) lukewarm, margt (maart) much.
Similarly islenzskt (iis'lenst) Icelandic, danskt (danst) Danish ;
gagns (gagks) of Mse, hrafns (rhafs) a crow's, vatns (vas) water's.
Similarly r is little heard before st and nd, as verstur (vcst'sr) worst,
fyrstur {ii^'Ur) first. For ?•/, rn, see L,K; forftid, fnt, see F, for
gild, gnt, see (i.
These observations will give the reader a tolerably complete
notion of Icelandic pronunciation, and enable him, with a little
attention, to read intelligibly. There is no sound really difficult in
the language, but the combinations are unusual, and will require
care. It is therefore necessary to have an example, for which, as
already mentioned (p. 534,) the parable of the Prodigal Son has
been selected. The text is taken from that revised by Mr. Magnus-
son,* and the pronunciation was written down from his dictation,
and afterwards carefully compared with his reading. The transla-
tion is constructed on the same principles as before (p. 534). The
reader is recommended to read the words of one verse over with
care and repeat them till he can form the sounds with ease and
rapidity from memory before proceeding to a second verse. If he
proceeds through the whole parable in this Avay, and commits the
text to memory, he will he able to read any Icelandic book in-
telligibly to an Icelander.
Lukasar Gu^spjall 15, 11-32. Luuk'asar Gv^sdh'spiatlh, 15,
11-32.
11. Ennfremur sag^i hann : 11. En-free-msr saaLgh'dhi
ma^ur nokkur atti tvo sonu, nan : maaxlh^r nok'ksr au|_k2fht"-
ii tvoo soo'n?,
12. Sa yngri J'eirra sag'Si vi^ 12. Saauiiq"gn'th<'[ji"ra saa^ghl
fo^ur sinn : fa^ir ! lat mig fa dh/ vi'dh fa^cedh'sr sm : faaxlha" !
]?ann hluta Ijarins, scm mer laaut m.iig\i faau than Ih^s'ta
ber; og hann skipti milli ]7cin'a f^'aau'rinzs, seem mi'eer beer ;
fenu. oogh nan sii'f'ti m^'d'b' the|_?r"ra
fi'ee-n?.
Verbatim Translation.
Luke's Gospel, 15, 11-32. father his: father! let me fang that
11. Still-further said he : man cer- lot of-the-fee which to-me are-borne;
tain had two sons Jind lie divided between them fee-the.
12. The younger of-them said to 13. Some days since, took the
' Hi's Nya Testament! Drottins vors The New Testament of- Lord ours Jesus
J&sQ Krists, &samt me'S Davi'Ss Sal- Christ, together with Davids Psalms,
miim. Endursko'&"u5 6tgifa. Oxford : Ilevised Edition. Oxford ; printed in
prenta'5 i PrentsniiJSju Ilaskolans i Print-smithy of- High -school -the in
Oxford, k Kostna^ bins Brezka og Oxford, at cost of- the British and
Erlenda Bifliufelags. 18G3. Literally : Foreign Bible-fellowship.
§ 4, No. 2.
ICELANDIC PRONUNCIATION.
551
13. Nokknini dogum si'^ar tok
sa yngri alt fe sitt og fcr^a^ist
1 fjarlaegt land ; J'ar soa^i hann
fe sinu i ohofsomum lifua^i.
14. Nu er hann liaf^i eytt
ollum eigum sinum, kom |»ar
miki^ hailani i landi^, tok
harm yi a^ li^a nau^,
15. For hann ]>a og re^st til
eins borgara i ]>\i landi, sem
sendi hann ut a bu sitt, a^ gaeta
j>aY svma siniia ;
16. Yar^ hann J'a fcginn, a^
se^ja sig af di-afi ]>\i, er svinin
atu ; og einginn var^ til a^
gefa honum nokku^.
17. Nu er harm ranka^i \rS
ser, sag^i hann : hversu marga
daglaunamenn heldur fa^ir
minn, sem hafa gnoeg^ matar en
eg ferst i hungri ;
18. Eg vil taka mig upp og
fara til fo^ur mins, og segja \i%
harm : Fa^ir ! eg hefi syndga^
moti himninum og fyrir ^er,
19. Og er ekki leingur ver^ur
a^ heita sonur ];inn. Far ]>\i
med mig eins og einn af dag-
laimamoimum ]7miim.
13. Nok'kivm doooogh"i?m sii*-
dhar toouk saau iiq"gr» alht fjce
sit oogh fer-dhadh2st ii fiaar--
laa?j_X-ht land ; thaar soo'wadhj;
Han free sii'na ii oowuoouv-
Boeoem^m l«b-nadhe.
14. Nuu er nan Havdhj e\_it
cet'lsm eei'iffham. siin'^m, koom
thaar mn"^-«dh Had'laam ii land--
«lh, toouk Han thaau aadh lii'dha
noeoeidh.
15. Foour Han thaau oogh
rieedhst t«l eeinzs bor-gara ii
thvii land'/, seem send'/ Han uut
aau buu|_g«<;h sit, aadh ^aa«t'a
thar sviin'a sm^na.
16. Yardh nan thaau fee'jm,
aadh scedh-ja s//^h aav dl'aav•^
thvii, er sviin*m aau'ts, oogh
^|_^q "gm vardli tiil aadh ^ee'va
Hoo'nsm nok'ksdh.
17. ISTuu er Han rauq'kadhi
vwdh sieer, saah|_gh"dh« nan :
:wrher'S9 marg-a daa|_ghdoeoerna-
men* Held-^r faa'dh^'r mm, seem
Haava g-naa«L^hdh maa'tar en
Jee^h ferst ii Huuq'gr*
18. Jec^h yil taa'ka raiiffh sp,
oogh faa*ra tiil fcecedhvr miinzs,
oogh seei'ja vKlh Han : Faadh'/r!
jee^h Heevz sm'gadh moou't*
Hem'nms'm oogh iii'xiv thieer,
19. Oogh er ek'ki \ee\_iq'^9T
verdh*3r aadh ueevta soo-nsr thm.
Faar thuu meedh mw|_gh eemz&
oogh eeitnh av daaLghdoeoerna-
mcen"n;?m thiin'i?m.
Verbatim Translation.
younger all fee his and fared in far-
lying land ; there wasted he fee his in
un-measure-some living.
14. Now as he had wasted all own-
ings his, came there much hard-ear-
ing (famine) in land-the, took he then
to suffer need.
15. Fared he then and betook-hira
to one citizen in that land, who sent
him out to bigging (farm) his, to keep
there swine his :
16. Was he then fain to fill himself
of husks those, which swine-the ate ;
and no-one worth to (became to, was
at hand) to give him anything.
17- Now, as he came to himself, said
he : how many day-loans-men holds
father mine, who have enough meat
and I perish in hunger ;
18. I will take me up and fare til
father mine, and say to him : Father !
I have sinned against heaven-the and
before thee,
19. And am not longer worthy to
hight son thine. Fare thou ■«^th me
like as one of day-loans-men thine.
552
ICELANDIC PRONUNCIATION'.
Chap. V,
20. Bjost hann )?a til fer^ur
til to¥ur sins ; en or lianu var
enn nu langt i burtu, sa I'a^ir
hans liaiin og komli i brjusti um
haiin, liljop og fell um hals
liomim og kysti liauu,
21. En somirinn sag^i vi^
hann : Fa^ir niinn, eg hefi synd-
ga^ moti himninum og fyrir
Jjer, og or nu ckki tramar ver^ur
a^ heita sonur )'inn.
22. pa sag^i fa^iiinn vi^
)'j6na si'na : fa^ri^ lii'nga^ hina
beztu skikkju og fa;ri^ hann i ;
dragi^ lu'i'ng a hond hans og
sko a fa)tiu' honum ;
23. Komi^ nic^ alikalf og
slatri^, svo ver getum matazt
og vcii^ gla^ii- ;
24. pvi ]7essi sonur minn, sem
var dau^ur, er lifua^ur aptur,
og hann, sem tyndur var er
fundinn ; toku menn nu a^
gle^jast.
25. En svo bar vi^, a^ eldri
bro^ir hans var a akii, og er
hann kom og nalga^ist husi^,
heyi'^i hann samsaung og dans ;
26. Kalla^i hann j>a, a einn
af ]7J6nustumunnunum, og fretti
hann, hva^ um vseri ;
Verbafim
20. Busked (arose) he then to faring
to father his ; but as he was even now
long on way (away), saw father his him
and moved in breast for him, leaped
and fell over neck to-him and kissed
him.
21. But son-the said to him : Father
mine, I have sinned against heaven-
the and before thee, and am now not
further worthy to hight son thine.
22. Then said father-the to thanes
his : Fare hither the best robe and
fare him in ; drag ring on hand his
and shoes on feet to-him.
20. ]{i(/oust nan thaau tiil
fcrdh'ar tiil I'ocoodhvr siinzs ; en
cr nan vaar en nuu laauqt ii
bi^rtv, saau fiiadh'j'r nans nan
oogli /icnd'/ ii bn'ooust"t am nan,
Ihiooup oogh fictlh sm naaulzs
Hoo'nsm oogh kif^'ii nan.
21. En 80o'n<>iin saahLgh dhi
vj/dh nan : Faadh'/r mm, Jee^h
Heevi sm-gadh moon-ti mm'ni-
nsm oogh fZ/'r/r thi'eer, oogh er
nuu ck'Z-i fraa'mar vcrdlivr aadh
ueei-ta soo'nsr thm.
22. Thaau saahLgh-dhifaadh--
mn yiidh tliioo'na sii'na ; iaai'-
n'dh niiq'gadh Htrna best'9
ski'k.-k9 oogh faa?r-Klli nan ii ;
di-aau"j/dli rhiiqgaau noendnanzs
oogh skooii aau faa^'tvr Hoo'nsm.
23. Kooni'Klh meedh aa'li-
kaaulv, oogh slaau"tr«lh, svoo
vieer ^eetvm maa'tast oogh
veeTidh glaa-dh?r ;
24. Thvii thcs"si soo'nsr mm
seem vaar doeocidh'sr, er lib"-
nadh^r aft'^r, oogh nan seem
tiinxbr vaar, er ft^nd'm ; toouk*^
men nuu adh glcedh"jast.
25. En svoo baar v«Vdh, aadh
erdi'i brooudh'/r nanzs vaar aau
aa"kr?, oogh cr nan koom oogh
naaul'gadli/st nuusw'dh, neeir'-
dh« nan saam*soeoe?q oogh dans ;
26. Kaddadh/ nan thaau aau
mt^nh av thi(50U"ni?st<?ma3n"-
nsnsm, oogh friet"t« nan, whaadh
dm. vaarn' ;
Translation.
23. Come with fatted -calf and
slaughter, so we get to-eat and be glad ;
24. For this son mine who was dead,
is enlivened again, and he, who fined
(lost) was, is found. Took men now
to gladden-themselves,
2.5. But so bore to, that elder brother
his was on acre, and as he came and
neared house-the, heard he music and
dance ;
26. Called he then on one of thanes-
mcn-the, and asked him, what about
were;
§ 4, No. 2.
ICELANDIC PRONUNCIATION.
558
27. Hann sag^i : bro^ir ];mii
er kominn, og fa^ir ]>mn hefir
slatra^ alikalfi, af J»vi hann
heimti son sinn heilan heim.
28. Reiddist hann ]>a og vildi
ekki fara inn. Fa^ii" hans for
j>\i ut og bau^ honuni inn a^
koma.
29. En hann svara^i og sag^i
vi^ fo^ur sinn : i svo morg ar
hefi eg nu J^jona^ j^er og aldix'i
breytt ut af bo^nni }>inum, fo
he&v ]>u. alch'ei gefi^ mer ki^h'ng,
svo a^ eg goeti glatt mig me^
vinum minum ;
30. En jjessi soniir ]7inn, sem
soa^ hefir eigum ]7inum me^
skajkjum, er nii kominn, og
hans vegna slatrar j'u alikalfii.
31. En hann sag^i -^n.^ hann:
sonur niinn, ]7U ert alt af nie^
mer, og allar mmar eignr heyra
Jjer til ;
32. Nu aettir ]>u. a^ vera
giaour og 1 go^u skapi, far
bro^ir )7inn, sem daii^nr var,
er lifna^ur aptur, og hann, sem
tyndur var, er fundinn.
27. Han saahLgh'dlu' :
brooudh'/r thm er koom'm, oogh
faadh"/r thm neev/r slaautTadh
aadekaaul'v?', av thvii nan
:H.eeim.'ti soon sm ueerlim neeim.
28. ReaVd/st nan thaan, oogh
v/l*dj ekki faa'ra in. Faadhv'r
Hanzs foonr thvii uut, oogh
boeoe^'dh Hoo'nsm m aadh koom"a.
29. En Han svaa-radh* oogh
saah|_gh-dhj vmlh fceoedh'^r sm :
ii svoo moerg aaur neeve jee_^h
mill thiooumadh thi'eer oogh
aVdreei hreit nut av boodli'sm
thiin'^m, thoon Heev«'r thuu
al'dieei gee-\idh. mieer* k?'dh-l/q
svoo adh jeeffhtjaai'ti glat mw^h
meedh v/m'sm miinvm ;
30. En thes'se soomar thm,
seem soo'wadh Heev?T eeigh'sm.
thiimsm meedh skaarh&m., er
nuu koom'/n, oogh Hanzs vegma
slaau'trar thuu aadikaaul"ve.
31. En Han saahLghxlh?' v/Vdh
Han : soom^r m^'n, thuu ert alht
av meedh mi'eer, oogh adtdar
miin'ar eeu/h.'i>r neerra thieer tiil ;
32. jN'uu aiL/i-ht'ta- thuu aadh
veer'a glaadhvr oogh ii gooudh-3
skaa•p^, thaar brooudh'/r thm,
seem doeoe/dh'^r vaar, er 1/b"-
nadhsr aft'^r, oogh nan, seem
tiind'sr vaar, er fsnd'm.
Verbatim Translation.
27. He said : Brother thine is come,
and father thine has slaughtered fatted-
calf, for that he fetched son his whole
home.
28. Grew-TSToth he then and would
not fare in. Father his fared then out
and bade him in to come.
29. But he answered and said to
father his : In so many years have I
now thaned (served) thee and never
deviated out of biddangs thine, though
hast thou never given me kid, so that
I might gladden myself vdth Mends
mine.
30. But this son thine, who wasted
has ownings thine with harlots, is
now come, and his ways (for his sake)
slaughtered thou fatted-calf.
31. But he said to him : Son mine,
thou art all of (always) with me, and
all my o^iVTiings belong thee to :
32. Now oughtest thou to be glad
and in good shape, there (because)
brother thine who dead was, is en-
livened again, and he, who tined was,
is found.
554
OLD NORSE PRONLNCIATION.
Chap. V.
Pronunciation of Old Norse.
Rask consiflors that the modem pronunciation is practically the
same as the ancient, except in a few instances, hence in the follow-
ing table the modem fonns as already explained, are given in Rask's
column, and his supposed ancient values are bracketed. Hupp gives
an opinion upon nearly every letter in the alphabet, and although he
did not consider that he had arrived at a result sufficiently detinite
to give an example, he has transcribed a large number of words into
his alphabet, a selection of which is subjoined. Grimm's pronun-
ciation is not easy to be determined, and the sounds which I have
g^ven must be therefore considered to be in great part conjectural.
The vowels are taken from the third, and the consonants from the
second edition of liis Grammar.
On these conjectures generally T make no observation, except
to remark that I feel doubtful as to the value which Rask meant to
ascribe to the old ?<. He says: " «, without accent, may perhaps
have had the sound of the short English u in nut, hut, the Danish
0 in lios, the Swedish o in sporde, mennislcor liirorik, etc." These
sounds are certainly not identical, and I have been accustomed to
consider them as (o, o, w) respectively. Grimm assumes the Eng-
lish M to be a sound between Gei-man o and o, whatever that may
mean.^ Neither he nor Rask, therefore, had mastered the English
(o, a) sounds. I have represented Rask's ancient u by (o, u") doubt-
fully, but believe that the latter is more probable.
Letters.
Modem «fc
[Rask].
Grimm.
Rapp.
Letters.
Modern &
[Rask.]
Grimm.
Rapp.
a
aa, a
a
a
k
k, k
k,kj
k,kj
&
aau
aa
AA
1
l,lh
1
1
SB
aai
ee
ee
m
m
m
m
au
oDceiTceul
au
au
n
n
n
n
b
d
b
d, dh
b
d, dh
b
d, th
ng
0
qg
00, 0
0, 0
q. qg
0
«
dh
dh
dh
6
oou
00
00
e
ee, e
e e
e
o
coco, oe
OR, 0
9
e, 6
jee, je
ee, see
ee, e
ce
(not used)
ojoe
oeoe
ei
eei
ei
ai
P
P,f
P.f
P
7
eei [oei]
f,v,b
ey
7
qv
r
k
r, rh
r
r
^ {
h
g» 9, gb
H
h
g. gj
kh
s
t
>
s
t
th
s
t
th
SJ, 8
t
th
hj
jh
khj
u
99, 9 [O, m]
u
ce, u
hi
Ih
khl
<x
uu
uu
uu
hn
nh
khn
V
V
bh
bh
hr
rh
klir
X
ks
k£
hv
wh
khbh
y
?■?'»■ w
y
y
i
u, t
i
i
y
11 [lI"]
}7
yy
i
ii
ii
ii
z
s
s
J
J
i
J
^ Gr. P, 391, "vor einfachen eon-
sonanten hat u einen laut zwischen
nhd. 0 und o ; das nnl. u neigt sich
mehr zu ii."
} 4, No. 2.
OLD NORSE PRONUNCIATION.
555
Old Norse words as pronounced by Rapp : a (aa) in, water, so (oe)
always, atta (AAt"ta) eight, auk (ouk) also, auga (oug'a) eye, bleikr
(bleik-r) pale, bleydi (bloydh'i) fear, bles (blees) bleiv, blod (blood)
hlood, boki-(boeoekT) hooks, bok (book) look, bruda (bruudli'a) of brides,
byd (byydli) invite, byggia (byg"Ja) huild, dagr degi dcigum (dagT,
dcg'i, dsg'um) day, to a day, to days, dottii' (doot"tir) daughter, dypi
(dyyp'i) depth, ey (ay) island, eyk (oik) oalc, fcl (fjel) fell, fliuga
(fliu'ga)^?/, feitr (foeoet"r) feet, M {ivii) free, fullr (foel"r) /«//, fylH
(fyl"i) fullness, gaes {gees) geese, gas (gAAs) <700.se, gora gjort (g^r'a,
gjoort) to do, did, balmr (khAAlniT) halm, blaup (khbup) leap, liniosa
(klinioo'sa) sneeze, hreinn (kkrain-n) pure, hvitr (khbhiitT) white,
kaupa (kaup'a) to buy, kne {knee) knee, kranki" (krAAqk'r) sick,
liiiga (liuga) to tell a falsehood, opt (opt) often, skapt (skapt) handle
lingr (uur["g'r) youth, vcrd (bherd) price, vis (bhiis) tvise}
The following observations on the Old J^orse pronunciation, based
upon a phonetic examination of the structure of the language, its
connection with the Teutonic branches and the usages of Old MSS.,
are ch-awn up from notes kindly furnished me by Mr. Henry Sweet,
of the Pliilological Society (supra p. 539, 1. 9).
^ The following is a translation of
Dr. Rapp's latest views on the subject
(Vergl. Gramm. iii. 40). "Of the
seven long vowels, the two strongest
(ii) and (uu) have remained intact.
The (aa) subsequently, as everywhere
else, degenerated in the direction of (0) .
The mutates of (aa, uu) must here be
(ee, yy). There must be an (ou) cor-
responding to the old German diph-
thong ei, but it is here written au, since
the mutate, if written ey, could only
mean (oy) ; the Norwegian dialects re-
tain (ou). Long {00) afterwards be-
came diphthongal, and its mutate coin-
cides with (B (ee). The third long
vowel wavers between gothic (iu), be-
coming, when softened {gesclnviicht)
(io), and confluent (yj-). Isolated re-
mains of [ee) subsequently passed into
{see) as in Sclavonic ; but the e which
arises from reduplication need not ne-
cessarily be long. As regards the mu-
tation of the short vowels, the change
of (a) into (e), and of (0, u), into (y) is
clear, but the mutation of (a) into (0)
through the action of a following (u)
or (0) is more obscure. We can theo-
retically assume an earliest period in
which (a) remained pure, but it does
not agree with the period of existing
monuments. Hence we allow (a) to
pass into (0) but entirely reject the
usual assumption of the generation of
of an — impossible — (00) from (0). The
division {Brechung) of short [e] into
(ia) and by mutation (io), must also be
observed. As regards the consonants
we assume h and s, here as elsewhere,
to have been (kh, sj), though we write
(s). The z was an abbreviation, gene-
rally for (ts), occasionally for (st), and
by mistake for other combinations ; the
first alone must be retained. The ]> is
initial as in Gothic, but medially and
finally it is softened to 'S ; as this also
happens in most cases to the modern
Danish d, both classes must be dis-
tinguished from out of the corruption
of writing. This is the weakest point
in northern philology. The old runic
alphabet has only the aspirate )i (th)
and this is used medially even in the
oldest manuscripts. The modern Ice-
landic and Danish "S (dh) is on the
contrary not an aspirate but a spirant,
which is more naturally developed from
(d) than from (th). But since Scandi-
navian orthography is here irremedia-
bly confused, nothing remains but to
restore the old essential organic J? in
all places where it is required by Gothic,
Anglosaxon, and Friesic, and in other,
partially doubtful cases, to leave d, so
that the modern '5 is altogether elimi-
nated. The tt, which arose from an
older (kht), must certainly be sharpen-
ed, [that is, make the preceding vowel
short], since reduplication can mean
nothing but confluence ; the prolonga-
tion of the vowel in this case is a mo-
dern corruption, which even Grimm
has overlooked, and similarly before ng,
nk, and I followed by a consonant, etc."
556 OLD NORSE rROXUNCIATTON. Chap. V.
"Wlicn Trclanders first employed the Latin alphabet they had no
■mitten literature at all, and conscijuently no traditional ortho-
pniphy to transliterate, that is, no theoretical guide to mislead
them. They had therefore, no means of Avriting except by ear,
using the Latin letters in their accepted values, and moclifying
them for new sounds. Under such circumstances, it is scarcely
possible that they should have —
1 ) expressed one so\md in two "ways, as in the modem identities
i y, i y, ei ey.
2) made a represent (au) to the exclusion of au,
3) have used au to express a sound (oe/) for which they had a
form to hand, namely 6i, unless indeed they had read in
Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik (I', 474), that old Norse au
corresponds to Gothic au, and had foreseen that the sound
(au) would have been preserved in the German of the xrx th
centuiy.
A comparison of the old cognates shews that the difference be-
tween a a, e e, etc., was originally purely quantitative. In modern
Icelandic, as in Modern Genuan, all short vowels before single
consonants have become long, but in old German the length or
shortness of a vowel was quite independent of the following con-
sonant, as is proved by the metrical laws. In the same way the
non-accentuation of fa^ir, father, in Icelandic originally meant
that the vowel was short, and the accentuation of mu^ir, mother,
that the vowel was long, as in Latin pater, mater .^ If this view
be well founded, the vowels in each pair, as a, a, e, e, etc., must have
had the same quaUty, but ditferent quantities, a, e, etc., being
always short, and a, e, etc., always long; and diphthongs must
have had the sounds of their elements connected by the glide. The
following sounds appear then to be the only possible.
a (a, a)
e (e, e, e)
au (au, au)
ei (ei, ei, Ei)
ey (cy, ei, e^)
ce (ai, ai)
or (ee, ee, ee)
ce (oi, oi, oe, oe, oe)
or lentfthened o
»■ (i, i)
0 (O, 0, A, O)
« (u, u)
y (y. I' *) .
o some modification of (o)
The two principal criteria for selecting the correct vowel are —
1) The palatisation of k, g, and 2) the action of vowel-mutation
or Umlaut, (um'laut).
' As Icelandic still possesses really long "by position" before two conso-
doubled consonants, the device of nants, the lenofth of the vowel being
doubling the consonant to indicate the confounded with the length of the
brevity of a preceding vowel was not syllable ; but the Latins no doubt dis-
likely to occur to the writer. That the tinguish est, is, from est, eats, as (est,
length of a vowel depends in any way eest), and the old school joke: Mea
upon the number of following conso- mater est mala sits, could not have been
nants is a delusion, to be classed with the ambiguous to a Latin, who would have
notion that all vowels under the stress probably distinguished the two mean-
must be long, and deducible probably ings as (me'a maa-ter est mal'a suns ;
from the false statement in Latin pro- me-aa maa'ter, eest maa-la suus.) —
sodies, that a short vowel might become A. J J].
§ 4, No. 2. OLD NORSE PRONUNCIATION. 557
1) The palatisation of k, g, from (k, g) into (kj, gj) naturally
takes place before front vowels (p. 13), wliile tliese consonants
remain unchanged before back vowels (p. 13). Existing habits aa
to palatisation would hence deteiinine
e, i i, y y, <e*, ei, ey to he front vowels, and
a d, 0 6, u* V, o* au* to be back vowels,
whereas those marked * transgress this rule, es={aat) commencing
with a back vowel, and u, 6, au = (3, oe, oeoe«) with a front vowel. ^
2) Vowel mutation is the result of the partial assimilation of two
vowels, not in juxtaposition, but in consecutive syllables, whereby
the fii'st or accented vowel becomes modified in the direction of the
second. This may be expressed by such a fomiula as (a . . i = e),
meaning that (a) in the first syllable acted on by (i) in the second
is converted into {e). The original sounds of these mutated vowels
or mutates, have been so changed in Icelandic, that it is necessary
to examine the other Teutonic languages where they are better
preserved.
(a . .i = E, e), gi'ving (e) ; old Ger. kari (nar-i), modem G. heer (HEEr) army.
[i . . a=e, e), gHTDg {() ; Gothic mman (nim"an) modern G. nehmcn (ne«-men) to
take ; the (i, e) forms are confused in modern German.
(0 .. i=»h, 9, i), giving (sh) ; old Ger. sconi (skoo'ni), mod. G. schlm (shoecen)
beautiful,
(u .. a—o, a), giving (0) ; Gothic stulan (stul'an), mod. G. ge-stohlen (ge-shtoo--
len), stolen,
(u .. i=i), giving (i)) ; old G. sundia (sundva), mod. G. sUnde (zj-nd-e) sin.
In Icelandic we find, her, nema, stolinn, synd (neer, nee*ma,
stool- m, smd) all with mutates. The equation of the last word
with modern pronunciation is (u . . i = ^) which is not a mutation
at all. The old sound must have been (i) or (y), as these are
the only possible inteimediates. The vowel mutation also proves
that the modem sound of a is inorganic.
{aa .. i=EE), old Ger. tvuri (bhaa-ri), Icel. vcsri.
{00 .. i = 9h.), Gothic ? forjan (foor-jan), 1cq\. fcera, o\Afmra.
The genuineness of the sound (ce) is made doubtful by the non-
palatalisation of 1c, and this doubt is confimicd by the equation
(a..u=o), as in. dof/nm ior dafjum. As both vowels are back, the
result cannot be fiont. ^^d the back sound of ii is shewn 1) by
the preservation of that sound in long m, 2) the nonpalatisation of
k before it, 3) the vowel mutation. The a. . « = o, is merely a
reversal of (u . . a=o) in stolinn, ge-stohlen, and both are quite paral-
lel with (a .. i=e, i..a=e).
The above conclusions result from the structure of the language,
1 The remarks on p. 206 shew that (3, ce), as we see from the fact that
this criterion cannot be relied on so although both soimds are used in dif-
far as «t is concerned, and, indeed, the ferent parts of Germany for 6, which
palatal action of is on k, g, while a, d, is also frequently called (ee) or {ee),
produced no such action, may have yet the k, g, of k'onig, Goethe, are never
arisen from the anticipatory action of the palatalised. This criterion can there-
second element (i). Nor is there any fore only furnish an a priori proba-
organic necessity for the palatalisation bility. — A. J. E.
of k, g, before such obscure vowels, as
558
OLD NORSE PRONUNCIATION.
Chap. V.
tlic following: is almost positive c^^dcncc of the nsafjes of the xnth
ccutiuy. puroddr, the grummarian, circa 1160, remarks on the
necessity of an A, B, C, and after stating that the English have
made an alphahet for themselves by adopting or modifying the
Latin letters, he proposes to perform the same service for his
countrymen — oss Vslendingum, saying :
"To the five original Latin vowels a, e, i, o, u, I have added
four : 0 [now 6], e [now e, ai], (f> [now ce, ce], y [now y]. Of these
^ has tlie cune of a and the ring of o, because it is blended of their
two soimds, being pronounced with a less open mouth than a, but
a more open mouth than o ; f has the curve of a and the whole
figui-e of e, for it is composed of these two, being pronounced with
a less open mouth than a, and with a more open mouth than e ; <f>
is composed of e and o, being pronounced with less open mouth than
e, and with more open mouth than o ; and ?/ is composed of t and u,
being pronounced with less open mouth than i and with more open
mouth than w."
He proceeds to give examples, shewing that e and e short cor-
respond to modem e, e long to modem e, e long to modern (B, o to
modem o, n to modem 6, and (j) to ce now ee. And then he remarks
that each of these vowels begets another by being sounded in the
nose, which he marks by a point above the letter. This probably
corresponds to the palaeotypic (J, not to (a). It is now quite lost.
Hence Rask's imaginary nasality, supra p. 550, 1. 3.
poroddi- further states that each of these 18 vowels can be long
or short, and proposes to mark the long vowels with an accent. His
examples shew that he places this accent in those places where an
accent (indicating a diphthong in the case of a, 6), noAV exists in
Icelandic. Then he concludes by enumerating the diphthongs,
describing accurately the natirre of diphthongs in general. Among
those diphthongs appear au, ei, ey, but not d, 6.
The older MSS. follow porodclr with some variations. Thus the
diacritic is often written as a fuU letter, as ao for o. ae for e whence
modem <e, and the diacritic is not unfrequently entii-ely omitted, so
that e, 0, are confounded with e, o.
The following examples shew poroddr's spelling compared with
that now used, and the probable corresponding pronunciation.
Abbreviations — p. poroddi-'s spelling, M. modem speUing, OP. old
pronunciation, MP. modem pronunciation.
V-
M.
O.P.
M.P.
V-
M.
p.^M.
O.P.
M.P.
V-
M.
a
a
a, a
a aa
far
far
P
0
0
oe occe
t'l
ol
k
a
aa, aa
au aau
sar
sar
^
0
00
0 00
v^n
von
e
e
e
e, ee
>el
>cl
u
u
o
3 33
runar
runar
9
e
Ef,)
e, ee
vfnia
venja
6
<i
uu(.)
u uu
riinar
rQnar
e
e
ee
JE
mer
mer
y
y
I
t u
flvtr
flytr
f
as
£E
ai aai
ver
va;r
y
y
II
1 u
fl5'tr
flytr
1
1
1
t It
vil
vil
au
au
au
oei ccoei
i
i
u
1 11
vil
vil
61
ei
fl
€\ ee\
0
0
0
0 00
g">
p:o«
cy
ey
ey
ei en
6
6
00
OVL oou
g'')'
g6«
§ 4, No. 2. OLD NORSE PRONLNCIATION. 559
The sound of the yarious e's is evident from the remark that e is
pronounced more openly than e, and more like a. The higher
sound was given to the i as meV, German mir. The other e was an
«, v'eniay old Genuan wanian. In o?, the anglosaxon ealii explains
the vowel mutation. In von the o is a mutate of a, produced by
the preceding v, and the pronunciation has been preserved un-
changed. The ey is a mutate of au, Ae?/r«;= Gothic hausjan, thus
(au . . i=Ei) the (i) soon di'awing up the (f-) to {e).
Modern Changes. — The change of (ee) to (ai) is merely the con-
verse of the Latin « to e}
The a [aa) was first rounded (oo) and then broken up into (aau),
as is shewn by the occasional MS. spelling q for a.
The change from back (o) to front (ce) is paralleled by the English
and most modern Danish pronunciation of (a)) for (a).
The au changes arc veiy complicated. First, the a was rounded
by the ti into (o), as appears by the MSS. shewing ou, aou, on for
au. Next the resulting first element, being now identical with q
(o) was, with it, changed from back to front, into o (oe). Lastly
the second element « (u) was changed by the action of the new
front element (ce) into some front element as (i) which finally
became (i). Thus we have the stages (au . . ou . . ecu . . oeui . . oei),
where (oeu, oeui), represents Rask's conjectiuiil fbims.
poroddr counts U, nn, among the doubled consonants. He allows
a double final consonant, which of course must have been a length-
ened or 'held' consonant (supra p. 52), as in /«a?m=(Hann), not
(nan). He writes ]> every^vhcre, to the exclusion of ^, but whether
this establishes a uniformity of pronunciation is very questionable.
The following few lines will give a notion of this conjectured
ancient pronunciation, which is placed under the present ortho-
graphy, a verbatim translation being also interlined.
Haustlong. (Haustlo^qg.) Autumn-long {night).
WSr of-ser, er iotna otti let ofsottan
(Edh'r o\-seev, er iot*na oot-te \eet ovsoot'ta^n)
Again thou-seest how of-the-giants the-terror let-sought
Hellisbror a hyrjar haug Gi;j6tuna bauge ;
(HeMesbror aa^ np^'iar naug Grioo'tuu^na bau"ge;)
Of-the-cave-the-dwelkr in oj-fire the-hill oJ-Griotun with-ring
'Ok at isamleiki Jar^ar sunr, en dundi
{06k at ii'sarnleike lardh-ar su^nr e^n du^n-de)
Drove to thc-iron-play Earth's sun, and resounded
Mo^r svall Meila bro^ur manavegr und hanum.
(Moo'dhr swall MaMa^ broo'dhur maa^n-a^wegr u^nd na^n-u^m.)
Mage swelled Meili's of-the-brother moon-way under him.
^ This converse action is rare, but supra p. 294, bottom, and note 2, and
we have a living English example, p. 454, note 1.
560
GOTHIC PRONUNCIATION.
CuAP. V.
Kn.ittii oil en TJllar cnilildg fpir map^
(Knaat-tii^ oil e^n uMar e^n-d^laag fyrvr niaa-gi?)
Could ail and Ullr's under-lyiny before the-kimman
Grunil vas grapi linmdm ginniingave brinna ;
(Gru,nd was giap'e rliUjiid'ejii gi,n-nuu,qga-w5e bii,n-na, ;)
Tlte-ground was with-siorm shaken ihe-wide-dwtllings burn ;
pa-cs hofreginn hafiir hogrei^ar fram drogu
(Dhaa-cs novi'Cgifjin iiavivr noog'iridhar frajin dioo'guj
When the-iemple-ffod the-goats of-the-eUgant-chariol forwards drew
Se^r gekk Svolnis ckkja simdr at Hrungnis fundi.
(ScdhT gcfkk Swad'nes ekkia su,ndi- at Khuxi^qg-nes fu,n-d(?.)
2i\arli/ went Svblnir's wife asunder to Urungnir's meeting {fnd).^
3. Gothic.
In order properly to crown the edifice of the low German and
Scandinavian dialects, it is necessary to consider the pronunciation
of TJlfilas as collected from his Gothic translation of the Testament,
etc. Grimm, Eapp, Gabelentz and Loebe, and Weingaertner,*
are the principal authorities. From a study of these works and
the gi'ounds on which they rely, I have arrived at certain conclu-
sions of my own, which must be understood as referring to the pro-
nunciation of Gothic at the time of TJlfilas, considered as a com-
paratively modem stage of the language. There are good etymolo-
gical grounds for believing that many Gotliic words containing ai,
ail, iu had at some previous time, a different sound from that which
I have assigned, as for instance (ai, au, lu), supra, p. 236, note 1.
But details are here pui-poscly omitted. The folloAving table con-
tains the opinions of the writers cited, as nearly as I could apprc-
^ The title means Atitiimn-long,
long being the fem. of the adj. longr ;
n6tt=: night, seems to be unclerstood ;
compare the similar old German phrase
"den sumerlangen tac," the summer-
long day. None of the editors trans-
late the word, and they seem not to
understand it. The subject of the
poem is a fight between the god J?6rr
and the giant Hriingir. The poet
describes the fight as depicted on a
shield. The meaning of the passage,
■which is very obscure in the above
verbatim translation following the in-
verted order of the poet, seems to be
as follows: Again thou seest [on the
shield] how the terror of the giants
[meaning porr], let sought [let peri-
phrastic =ri'.s!Y<'rf] the cave-dweller in
the Griotun-hill with a ring of fire,
[porr's chariot was accompanied with
thunder and lightning] ; Earth's sun
'that is, porr] drove to the iron-play
fight], anger inspired Meili's brother
"another name for porr], and the moon-
way [ = earth] resounded under him.
AU the wide dwellings [ =the air] could
burn [burned], and the ground lying
beneath was shaken with the storm
before the kinsman of Ullr [porr again]:
Svolnis wife [vkkja literally widow =
earth] nearly went to pieces, when the
goats drew forward the temple-god of
the elegant chariot to meet Hrlingnir.
- /. Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik,
I-, 33-74 ; P, 39-71 ; M. Eapp, Phys.
d. Spr., i 371-401 ; Br.H.C. von Gale-
lent: und Dr. J. Loebe, Grammatik der
Gothischen Sprache, 1846, pp-22-52.
Wilhelm Weingaertner, Die Aussprache
des Gothischen zur Zeit TJlfilas, Leip-
zig, 18o8, pp. G8. This last work con-
tains complete references to all the
former essays and books on this subject.
§ 4, No. 3.
GOTHIC PRONUNCIATION.
561
ciate their meaning, a (?) indicate the chief points of doubt. The
transcription used is that employed in Gabelentz and Locbe's well-
known edition but the letters are arranged in the order of the
Roman Alphabet, reckoning ]> as th. Leo Meyer's work (Die
Gothische Sprache, ihre Lautgestaltung u.s.-w.) came to hand too
late to be consulted in the constioiction of this table.
The Gothic Alphabet of Ulfilas.
Abbreviations. — G Grimm, G L Von Gabelentz and Loebe, E Ellis, L letters,
R Eapp, W Weingaertner.
L
G
R
GL
W
E
L
G
R
G L
W
E
a
a
a
a
a
a
k
J
J
9^
J
J
ai
e, ee
e, ee
e, ee
e, ee
k
k
k
k
k
(ai)
e?
1
1
1
1
1
1
{ki)
ai
m
m
m
m
m
m
au
0,00
0, 00
0, 00
A, AA
n
n
n
n
n
n
(a^)
oP
0
00
00
00
00
(^u)
au
P
P
p
P
p
P
b
b
b
b,bb?
b
b
q
kbh
kbh
kbh
ktc;
d
d
d
d
db
d,db?
r
r
r
'r
r, r
r
e
ee
ee
ee
ee
ee
s
s
sj
s
s
s
ei
ei
ii
ei
ii
ii
t
t
t
t
t
t
f
f
bb
f
f
>.
th
th
dh
th
th
g
g
g
g^g'a.
g
g
u
u
0, uu
u, uu
u
u, uu
gg
q?
qg
q.qg»
q. qg
q-qg
V
bh
bh
bh,
bh, V
w
gk
qk
qk
qk
qk
w
khbh
khbh
ph,HV?
kwh
h
kh
kb
H, kh
h'
H',kh
X
k
k
k
k
i,'i
i
e
i
i
i
y
i, ii
i, ii
iu
iu
iu
iu
II
yy
z
ds
sj
z
z
z
In order to compare this dialect with the related Anglosaxon and
Icelandic, I annex the conjectured pronunciation of the same para-
ble that was selected for examples in those languages. This is also
the same example or Gothic as Dr. Rapp has given. The verbatim
translation is, as before, intended merely to shew the grammatical
signification of each word.
Gothic, Lucas 15, 11-32.
11. manne sums aihta tvans
sununs.
12. jah qa]7 sa juhiza 'ize du
attin. atta. gif mis. sei undrin-
nai mik. dail aiginis. jah dis-
dailida im sves sein.
Conjectured Pronunciation.
11. Man'nee sums ekht'a
twans sun"uns.
12. Jakh kii-ath sa jukh'iza
iz-^e du at'tin : At"ta, gif mis,
sii und'riu'nee mik deel eeg"inis.
Jakh disdeerida im swees siin.
Verbatim Translation
11. Of-men certain owned two sons
12. Eke quoth the younger of- them
to dad : Dad, give to-me, which unto-
runs me, deal (part) of-ownings. Eke
asunder-dealed to-them property his.
36
502
GOTHIC PRONUNCIATION.
Chap. V
13. jail afar ni manapfans
dagans lu-alita saniana allata sa
julii/a sunus jah atiai]> in land
fain-.i visando jah jainar distali-
ida J'ata svts scluata libauds
usstiuriba.
14. \)i]>e Jjan fravas allamma.
vaij> huhrus abrs and cavi jainu-
ta. jah is dugann alaj^arba vair-
))an
15. jah gaggands gahaftida
sik sumamma baurgjane jainis
gaujis. jah ins;andida ina haij^jos
seinaizos haklan sveina.
16. jah gaimida sad itan
haume. Jjoei matidednn sveina.
jah manna iuuna ni gaf.
17. qimands J'an in sis qa}?.
wan lilu asnjc attins meiuis
ufarassau haband hlaibe. i]? ik
huhrau traqistna.
18. usstandands gagga du
attin meinamma jah qij'a du
imma. atta. fravaurhta mis in
himin jah in andvaii'J'ja j^einam-
ma.
19. ju ]>anasei)>s ni im Yair]7s
ei haitaidau sunus Jjeins. gatavei
mik SYC ainana asnje Jjeinaize.
13. Jakh af-ar ni man-agans
dagaus brakht'a samana aMata
sa jukh'iza sun'us, jakh afleeth"
in bind firm wis-andoo, Jakh
jccu"ar distakh"ida that "a swees
siin"ata lib'ands usstyyfiba.
14. liithc'C" than frawas* al"-
him'ma, warth ii'uukhTus ab''rs
and ga-wi jeen'ata. Jakh is
dugan- al"atharb-a wcrth'an.
15. Jakh gaq-gands gan'aft'-
ida sik sum*am*ma birgvanee
jccn'is gAA'jis. Jakh insand'ida
in"a H'ceth'joos siin'eezoos H'ald'-
an SAviin-a
16. Jakh gcm'ida sad it 'an
HAT'nee, thoo'ii mat'ide^d'un
swiin"a. Jakh man"na im"ma ni
gaf.
17. kzHm'ands than in sis,
kj<;ath : K^chan fil'u as'nj^e at'-
tins miin-is vif'aras'SAA nab 'and
khleeb'^e, ith ik H'uukhTA.v
frakw^ist'na.
18. TJs-stand'ands gaq-ga du
at'tin miin'am'ma, jakh kw^ith^a
du im"ma : At"ta, frawAxkh'ta
mis in n'im'in, jakh in and'-
•svcrthva tliiin'am'ma,
19. JU than'asiiths ni im
werths ii H'eet"eedAA sun*us
thiins ; gata'wii mik swee een'-
ana as'UJee tliiin'eezee.
Verbatim Translation.
13. Eke after not many days
brought together all the younger son,
and off-led (departed) in land far being,
eke yon asunder-tugged (dissipated)
the possession his, living out-steeringly.
14. By-that then from-was of-all,
worth (became) hunger strong against
region yon, eke he began quite-needy
to- worth (to-become).
15. Eke ganging joined himself to-
certain of-burghers of-yon region ; eke
in-sent him of-heath his to-hold swine.
16. Eke yearned full to-eat of-homs
(husks), which meated (ate as meat or
food) swine ; eke man to-him not gave.
17. Coming then in himself, quoth:
How many hirelings of-dad mine in-
overmuch (abundantly) have of-loaves,
but I by-hunger perish.
18. Out-standing I-go to dad mine,
eke say to him, Dad, I-from-wrought
(I-sinued) for-me in (against) heaven
eke in face thine.
19. Now the-since (longer) not am
worthy that I-may-hight son thine ;
y-do (make) me as one of-hirelings
thine.
§ 4, No. 3.
GOTHIC PRONUNCIATION.
563
20. jah usstandands qani at
attin seinamma. naiilij^auuli j^an
fairra visandan gasaw ma atta is
jah infcinoda jah J^rajijands di'aus
ana hals is j ah kukida inima.
21. jah qa)? imma sa siinus.
atta. fravaurlita in liimin jah in
andvaii'Jjja J^einanima. ju J^ana-
seips ni im vairj^s ei haitaidau
siinus j^eins.
22. qa)) ]7an sa atta du skalkam.
seinaim. sprauto bi'iggi|» vastja
)>o frumiston jah gavasjij? ina
jah gihij) figgragulj? in handn is
jah gaskoh ana fotuns is.
23. jah briggandans stinr
)>ana alidan ufsncij?!]?. jah mat-
jandans visam vaihx.
24. unte sa snnus meins dauj^s
vas jah gaqiunoda jah fralnsans
vas jah bigitans var^. jah dugun-
nun visan,
25. vasuj^jian sunns "is sa
aljjiza ana aki-a jah qimands at-
iddja new razn jah gahausida
saggvins jah laikans.
26. jah athaitands sumana
magive frahuh. wa vesi j^ata.
20. Jakh us"stand'ands kt^am
at at'tin siin"ani"nia. NAkh'-
than-ukh than fer'ra wis'andan
gasak?<?h* in-a at"ta is, jakh
infiin'ooda Jakh thragvands drAAs
an'a n'als is jakh kuk"ida im'ma.
21. Jakh kz^;ath im-ma sa
sun-us : At'ta, frawArkht'a in
Him"in Jakh in and-werth"ja
tliiin'am'ma, ju than^asiiths ni
im werths Li H'eet-eedAA sun-us
thiins.
22. K2<)ath than sa at"ta du
skalk"am siin'eem : SprAAt'oo
hriq-gith wast'Ja thoo frum'-
istoon Jakh gawas'jith in-a Jakh
gib'ith fiq'gragulth in H'and"u is,
Jakh gaskookh' an'a.foot"uns is.
23. Jakh briq-gandans styyr
than-a al'idan ufsniith ith, jakh
mat'Jandans wis'am weel'a.
24. JJu'tee, sa sun'us miins
dAAths was Jakh gak^tfyyn•ooda,
jakh fralus-ans was jakh bigit'-
ans warth. Jakh dugun'nun
wis "an.
25. Was-uth'than sun-us is sa
al'thiza an"a ak-ra, jakh kmm*-
ands atdddja nekwh. raz-n, jakh
gan'AAS'ida saq-gwins jakh
leek'ans.
26. Jakh at'H'eet'ands sum--
ana mag-iwee frakhukh, ki^ha
wees'i that'a.
Verbatim Translation.
20. Eke out-standing came to dad
his ; still then far being saw him dad
of-him, eke pitied, eke running fell on
neck of-him, eke kissed him.
21. Eke quoth to-him the son, Dad,
I-from-wrought (I-sinned) in (against)
heaven eke in face thine. Now the-
since (longer) not am worthy that
I-may-hight son thine.
22. Quoth then the dad to servants
his, Quickly bring vest the from-est
(first, best), eke in- vest him, eke give
finger-gold in hand of-him, eke shoes
on feet of-him,
23. And bringing steer the fatted
up-cut, eke meating (eating food) let-
us-be well.
24. Unto-that (because) the son
mine dead was, eke y- quickened, eke
lost was, eke be-gotten worth (became).
Eke they-began to-be (to feast).
25. Was-then son of-him the elder
on acre, eke coming to-went (ap-
proached) near house, eke heard song
eke games.
2G. Eke to-calling certain of-boys,
asked, what were that.
564
GOTHIC PRONUNCIATION.
Chap. V. § 4, No. 3.
27. jjaruh is (ia]» du imma.
J>:itci bro]7ar J^eins (jam. jah
ufsnai]? atta J>eins stiur )>ana
alidan. unte hailana ina aiicl-
uam.
28. j^anuh modags var]? jah ni
vilda inngaggan. 'i]> atta is us-
gaggands ut bad ina.
29. J>aruh is andliafjands qa]>
du attin. sai. sva lilu jere skulk-
inoda ])us jah ni wanhun an-
abusn J^eina ufariddja. jah mis
ni aiv atgaft gaitein ei mi)? tri-
jondam meinaim bivcsjau.
30. 'i]> Jjan sa snnus J^eins.
saei fret J^eia svcs mip kalkjom.
qam. ufsnaist imma stiur l^ana
alidan.
31. J^aruh qa]) du imma. bam-
ilo. J?u sinteino mi]? mis vast jah
'is. jah all Jjata mein )?eui ist.
32. vaila visan jah faginon
skuld vas. unte bro]?ar jjeins
daujjs vas jah gaqiunoda. jah
fralusans jah bigitans varj?.
27. Thar-ukh is k?rath du
im'ma : Thatii brooth'ar thiins
kw^am, jakh uf'sneeth* at'ta
thiins st)TTthan*a alidan,un't«e
ii'eelana in-a andnam*.
28. Than-ukh mood'ags warth,
jakh ni WTl'da in'gaq-gan. Ith
at'ta is us-gaq"gands ut bad in-a.
29. Thar-ukh is andn'af-jands
kwath du at'tin : See, swa fil'U
jeevee skalk-inood-a thus, jakh
ni kwhau'u'un an-abus-n thiiu'a
uf-ar,id'dja. Jakh mis ni eew
at-gaft. geet'iin ii mith fii*-
joond"am miin-eem biwees'JAA.
30. Ith than sa sunus thiins,
sa,ii' treet thiin svrccs mith
kalk"Joom, kicam, uf-sneest* im*-
ma styyx than'a al-idan.
31. Thar'ukh k?^?ath du im--
ma : Bamiloo ! thu sint'iinoo
mith mis Tvast jakh is ; jakh al
that'a niiin thiin ist.
32. "Weel-a wis'an jakh fag--
inoon skuld was vm'tee brooth'ar
thiins d-VAths was Jakh ga-
ki^Tyn-ooda, Jakh fralus'anz
jakh bigit'ans warth.
Verbatim Translation.
27. Then he quoth to him, that
brother thine came, eke up-cut dad
thine steer the fatted, unto -that (be-
cause) -whole him received.
28. Then moody worth (became),
eke not would in-f^o. But dad of-him
out-goin» out bad him.
29. Then he to-heaving (answering)
quoth to dad, Lo, so many years served
to-thee, eke not whenever command
thine over-went (transgressed), eke to-
me not ever at-gave goat, that with
friends mine might-feast.
30. But then (when) the son thine,
who devoured thine possession with
harlots, came, thou-up-cuttest for him
steer the fatted.
31. Then quoth to him. Little-son,
thou always with me wast, eke art, eke
all the mine thine is.
32. "Well to-be eke to rejoice due
was, unto-that (because) brother thine
dead was, eke y-quiekened ; eke lost,
eke be-gotten worth (became).
Chap. VI. § 1. VALUE OF LETTERS. 565
CHAPTER VI.
On the Correspondence of Orthography with Pro-
nunciation FROM the AnGLOSAXON TiMES TO THE
Present day.
§ 1. The Value of the Letters.
The several conclusions arrived at respecting the sounds
of the letters in English orthography are necessarily very
irregularly scattered through the preceding pages. The
nature of the investigation which obliged us to commence
with the XVI th century, then descend through the xvii th
to the xviii th, and immediately jump to the xiv th, and then
after a glance at the xv th, commence the consideration of
the xiii th century, has not produced an order which is con-
venient or satisfactory to the reader. In the present section
then the results will be arranged in a tabular form, in alpha-
betical order. A reference to the pages in which the several
statements are established, is occasionally given, but as it
was found impracticable to introduce it concisely into the
text in all cases, the indices at the end of the book must be
consulted. The outline index annexed will enable the reader
to refer immediately to the principal combinations.
The constniction. of the Table is as follows. All the single letters
or combinations of letters which have been used as parts of words
in English orthography, from the Anglosaxon period to the present
day, such as a, aa, m, ae, a-e (meaning a followed by some consonant
and then by e final), af, -age (meaning age final) ah, ai, al, all, an,
-ange, ao, aou, ar, as, -aste, aih, au, augh, aim, aw, aww, ay, ago, h,
etc., are placed in alphabetical order at the head of separate para-
graphs, as in a dictionary, and then the history of the difi'erent
sounds that each has represented is sketched in accordance with
previous results, using
ags., for the Anglosaxon period,
13., for the xnith century and earUer.
14., 15., 16., 17., 18., 19., for the xivth, xvth, xvith, xvnth,
xnn th, and xrs th centuries respectively.
The passages inserted in brackets at the end of some articles,
signed P., are due to MJr. Payne, see infra, pp. 579-80.
566
VALUE OF LETTERS. INDEX.
Chap. VI. § 1.
OcTLiNE Index to the PiaxcrPAL Combinations.
Anglomxon period: p. 510.
Thirteenth Ceutury and Earlier: pp. 423, 431, 439, 4G7, 471, 476, 480, 484,
487, 496, 498, 506.
A
14.
259,
16.
59,
17.
65,
18.
74.
AI, AY
14.
263,
16.
118,
17.
124,
18.
129.
VU, AW
14.
263,
16.
136, 141,
17.
147,
18.
149.
B
14.
308,
16.
17. 18.
C
203.
14.
308,
16.
17. 18.
CH
203.
214
14.
308,
16.
17. 18.
D
203
14.
308,
16.
17. 18.
E
203
14.
260, 318,
16.
77,
17.
81,
18.
88.
EA
14.
260,
16.
77,
17.
81,
18.
88.
EE
14.
260,
16.
77,
17.
81,
18.
88.
EI, EY
14. 263,
16. 118,
17. 124,
18. 129.
EO
14. 260.
EU, EW
14. 301,
16. 136, 137,
17. 139,
18. 141.
F
14. 308,
16. 17. 18. 219.
G
14. 308,
16. 17. 18. 203.
GH
14. 310,
16. 17. 18. 209.
GN
14. 308.
H
14. 314,
16. 17. 18. 220.
I, Y
14. 270,
16. 104,
17. 116,
18. 117.
IE
14. 260,
16. 104,
17. 116,
18. 117.
J
14. 314,
16. 17. 18. 203.
K
14. 315,
16. 17. 18. 203.
L
14. 315,
16. 17. 18. 193.
M
14. 315,
16. 17. 18. 188.
N
14. 315,
16. 17. 18. 188.
NG
14. 315,
16. 17. 18. 188.
0
14. 266,
16. 93,
17. 99,
18. 103.
OA
14. 266,
16. 93,
17. 99,
18. 103.
OE
14. 260.
01, OY
14. 268,
16. 130,
17. 133,
18. 135.
00
14. 266,
16. 93,
17. 99,
18. 103.
OU, OW
14. 303,
16. 136, 149,
17. 156,
18. 160.
P
14. 316,
16. 17. 18. 203
PH
14. 316.
Q
14. 316,
16. 17. 18. 203
R
14. 316,
16. 17. 18. 196.
S
14. 317,
16. 17. 18. 214.
SH
14. 317,
16. 17. 18. 214.
T
14. 317,
16. 17. 18. 203.
TH
14. 317,
16. 17. 18. 219.
U
14. 298,
16. 160, 163.
17. 171,
18. 184.
UI, UY
14. 269,
16. 17. 18. 135.
V
14. 317,
16. 17. 18. 219.
AV.
14. 317,
16. 17. 18. 184.
WH
14. 317,
16. 17. 18. 184.
X
14. 317,
16. 17. 18. 214.
Y vowel, see I
Y consonant.
14. 310, 317,
16. 17. 18. 184.
Z
14. 310, 317,
16. 17. 18. 214.
Chap. VI. § 1.
VALUE OF LETTERS.
-AGE.
567
Chronological Accottnt of the Values of Letters.
A ags. was both a short and a long
sound {a, aa), but the long sound was
sometimes written a. Short a in an
open unaccented syllable was probably
(a). After ags., a in an open accented
syllable was considered as long, and in a
closed syllable generally short. In 13.
14. 15. 16. a seems to have been (a, aa),
although in the earlier part of this time
it may have been {a, aa). Probably
towards the end of 16. it passed into
(ah, aah), a sound frequent in 19. In
17. it became (w, sex), and at the latter
end of 1 7. and beginning of 1 8., it seems
to have fallen into [vc, ee). These
changes seem to have occurred towards
the close of 1.5. or even earlier in Scot-
land, p. 410, n. 3, and perhaps in the
Northern and West Midland Counties,
p. 450, n. 2. See references under
ey. Perhaps during the latter part
of 18. there came into use a distinc-
tion, thoroughly established in 19.,
that long a should be (ee) unless fol-
lowed by r, and that then it
should be (ee) ; compare naming, Mary
(neem-iq, iSleervi). In 19. long a is
frequently pronounced {eei) in place of
{ee), as (neeim) for (netm), pp. 234, 272,
n. 3 ; 294, n. 2. Short a has re-
mained (le) from 17. to 19. These
general usages have been crossed by
the action of a following /, n, r, s, th,
see af, an, ar, as, aih, and the other
combinations which follow. An initial
(w) acted in the latter part of 17. and
subsequently, in many, but by no means
all words, to convert (a;) into (a) or
(o), as in was, ivhat, etc. In 19. a has
been variously degraded as in : h«tiug,
father, water, many, hat, want, riband
= (neei'i(\, faadh-j, WAAt'Jt, men-j, nait,
WAut, rib'Bn).
A A was in 14. occasionally used for
(aa) in closed syllables. Otherwise it
was only employed in biblical names,
as Aaron, Isaac, and then it followed
the soimd of long or short a. It was
occasionally for German aa, and then
from 17. it was (aa).
M ags. (ije, seae), p. 510, in 13. sank
to (e, ee) or (e, ee), pp. 487, 496,
498. It was rarely used in 13., and
not at all afterwards, except in words
borrowed from the Latin or Greek, and
then it was (ee) till 18., towards the
close of which it became (ii) in such
cases. But scholars still occasionally
say (e) as in : Psestum = (Pest-^m)
rather than (Piis-tt'm), which is also
heard. [In 13. « = (ee) in Norman
and English.— P.]
AE was never an English combina-
tion, but, resulting from biblical names
or Latin adaptations, it seems to have
been treated as a+e, or a3. In 19. we
have afrie, Miebafl, aerial, Israel =
(eejT* iij'ri;, Mai-kijl, e,er'M eei-riBl
iiiTit'l, /z-reel Jz-rel /z-rcl). [In 13.
«e = 86 = (ee) in Norman and English.
A — E, that is a followed by some
consonant and a final e, which, when
pronounced, had the effect of putting a
into an open syllable, and therefore
making it long, so that when the final e
ceased to be pronounced, it was presumed
to have the same effect of lengthen-
ing the preceding vowel. Hence a — e
was assumed to be long a, with the
soimd of the time, from 16. to 19. Per-
haps this feeling came in towards the
close of 15. The rule is not con-
sistently carried out in 19,; compare:
hate, are, landscape, furnace, have =
{neet, aa.t, laind'skjp, f.x'nj/s, najv).
Even in 16. the vowel was not long in
unaccented syllables.
AF, this combination presents no-
thing peculiar till 18. or 19. and then
only in certain words : graff, staff, dis-
taft', quaff, aft, after, abaft, haft, shaft,
raft, craft, draft, graft, waft, and laugh,
calf, half, which must be considered to
have the same combination. Here
usage differs. The common southern
pronunciation is (aaf), and even (aaf)
may be heard ; the fine educated nor-
thern pronunciation is (a;f). Ladies in
the South aud many educated gentle-
men say (ahf) or at most (aahf). But
(af) is also heard. Those who use the
finer sounds, ridicule the others as
vulgar, and T\Tite them Inrf, etc., de-
claring that an r is introduced, but
this arises ft-om their own omission of
(r) and preservation of (aa), in : barm,
starve, etc. See ar, or, and the cita-
tion under o, p. 575, col. 1.
AG in late ags. and 12. or 13. was
probably equivalent to (ai).
A37;, Orrmin's form of (ai), p. 488.
-AGE. In 16. the ge = (dzh) seems to
have influenced the preceding a by in-
troducing an (i) sound, as (aidzh), p.
120 ; and in 17. to 19. this a has fol-
lowed the fortunes of ai, Avhich see.
568
VALUE OF LETTERS. AH — AR.
CuAP. VI. § 1.
All, as an exclamation, has probably
always rcpiTscntcd (aa), althi)nj;h the
eorrespontlinfT exclamation was not
always represented by ah. In dahlia
it is now pronounced {ee).
AI in 14. =(ai, aai), which sounds
apparently remained to the end of 16.,
though the pronunciation (ce) was in
use by a large number of speakers. In
17. after a passage through (ahi, a-i),
the sound rapidly sank to (ee), but
whether the sound (eei) was not occa-
sionally heard cannot bo ascertained
with certainty. In 19., {ee, eei) are
both usual forms. Various degrada-
tions are heard in 19., as : demam, satl,
Samt John,Srtid,iplffid. Britff«n (dimiin*,
seel, Sm'dzhcn, sed, pla;d, Br/t''n), and
dais, which was a monosyllable in
Chaucer, 372 = (dais), but has be-
come dissyllabic = (de<>-is). For 13. see
pp. 431, 440, 467, 473, 506; 14. 459,
462 ; 15. 447. See especially p. 459,
n. 1, and the pa.ssages there referred to,
and also Chap. VII. § 1. The use of
(ai) for (ee) seems fixed in Scotland at
the beginning of 16., p. 410, n. 3. [In
13. and 14. ai = ai/ = {ee) in Norman
and English ; in 16. often, if not gene-
rally =:(ai) in English, infra p. 582.
AL, ALL in 16. and hence probably
for some time pre^-iously the I had be-
gun seriou.sly to influence the preceding
vowel, by being pronounced ('1) with a
very appreciable length of murmur or
being labialised into {\w) ; the result
in either case, accepted as (ul), pro-
duced the diphthong (aul), which was
firmly established in 16. See I, p. 193.
This was occasionally followed by the
total disappearance of the I, as in : talk,
calm = (tank, kaum). Then this al
was considered as tantamount to an,
and followed its changes, becoming
(aa) in 17- and in most words so re-
maining to 19. ; but in some w'ords, as
(pa^m, calm), although occasionally
called (pAAm, kAAM) in 17., and in
Irish-English, p. 76, the combination
seems to have generally resisted the
change to (aa), and rather to have
passed from (aau, aa') to simple (aa), as
we still hear (paam, kaam), refined by
some to (paahm kaahm, pa;icm kirsem,
prem ka'ni) ; while others, inorgani-
cally and purely orthographically, at-
tempt to say (pa;lm, kffilm). See au,
aim.
AN. In 16. French words now
ha^-ing the nasal vowel (a.v) were
heard as having (aun), p. 143, and
hence the writing aun nuuh prevailed
then ; and as we also find this ortho-
graphy in 14., probably the same effect
was produced on English ears by that
French sound. In 16. atm was occa-
sionally replaced by an, as cornmaund,
command, but probably the sound (aun)
remained. In 17. the sound became
(aau), and during 18. and even into 19.
this sound remains, although there is,
and perhaps always was, a tendency to
fall, on the one hand into (aan), on the
other into (an), with their various re-
finements ; see af. Thus romance
romantic have now generally (fen), but
(aau) is occasionally heard, and forty
years ago I was familiar with (romAAns',
romaans'). In command, demand, etc.,
the contest is among (an aan, an aaa,
sen aesen, ahn aahn). In daunt, gaunt,
haunt, gauntlet, jaunt, taunt, vaunt, all
the last named sounds may be heard,
and also (aau), but never (au). It
would be convenient to use (aan) for
{an) in all words where it corresponds
to the modem French (aA). See an.
-ANGE. In 16. the sound (i) was in-
serted as (aindzh),p. 120, and the com-
bination was treated in 17. as if ^v^itten
-ainge, the a becoming (ee) and then
{ee) or {eei) in 19. In unaccented
syllables it drops into (-fiidzh, or
-mdzh) properly (-yndzh), as oranges
= (or'yud/hyz).
AO. This is never recognized as a
true English combination, though it
occurs in gaol now (dzhcel), and by
accidental attraction in extraordinary,
now (ekstrAAjdnier?), and foreign
words, as : Pharaoh, aorta, Chaos, now
(Fee.rro, e,M-i\i, Kc^-os). The old pro-
nunciation oi gaol is doubtftil. Extra-
ordinary was probably always treated as
a compound, compare " afford no extra-
ordinary gaze," Henry IV. part 1, act
3, sc. 2, V. 78.
AOU. This French mode of writing
(au) is only met with in caoutchouc,
generally called (kautsh-ak), but occa-
sionally (kuut'tsliMk) in 19.
AR. The vocal character of r as
('r) seems to have acted upon the pre-
ceding vowels in all cases after 16.
I'robably ar, when not followed by a
vowel, remained (ar) or (aa), though
unacknowledged, during 17. 18. 19.,
with the variation (aaj), which is in 19.
Chap. VI. § 1.
VALUE OF LETTERS. AS — CCH.
569
frequently reduced to simple (aa). But
a?- was Irequeiitly called (;cr) or {x.i) in
17. and 18., and the sound is stiU heard
in American Eii<rlish. In the present
usage of the South of England the
(j) is practically di'oppcd, pp. 196, 245.
See 0, or, r.
AS. In a few words of 19. the s
seems to react on the a, as : pass, class,
mast, fast, in which a receives all the
variety of sound noticed in af, an, as
{pa3s pietts, pas pass, p^s pn-as, pahs
paahs). In other words, as : passage
classify, {classics sometimes follows
the rule oi class), gas, (mustiff is doubt-
ful), no such action takes place. It is not
noticed by older writers, and is there-
fore probably modern, but it may be
merely a remnant of the 16. and earlier
(as).
-ASTE, in 16. and earlier (ast), but
in 19. we have : haste, paste, taste,
waste (now distinguished from tcaist,
which was not the case in 16., see p.
73, note l) = (H«'fst, pf(st, teest, w«'st).
Here the action of s is precisely con-
trary to that in as. No clue to this
change has been discovered, but we may
conjecture an intermediate (nsetest,
pajasst) during 17. Could there have
been an inserted /, as indicated by the
spelling tvaist in one sense of 16. waste,
analogous to that in -ange, ash, lash,
pp. 120, 264 ?
ATH. In : path, bath, lath, wi-ath,
th seems to have acted as /, *■ (see af,
(is) in preserving the (a) sound, or its
modern variants (« ae ah), short and
long, in 19.
AU. See aww. At a very early
period in 13. and 14. ati, aw were
(au), which sound remained to 16.
Either at the close of 16. or beginning
of 17. it seems to have passed through
(fiu, aau, aa") into (aa), in which form
it was firmly established in 17. and has
remained with little or no change, but
is occasionally (aa). See aim, an. In
19. we have isolated degradations,
compare : gawging, aimt. 'haul, h«2<teur,
Jerv««lx, laiPcA, meersch«?<m, Mene-
la«/s = (gt'edzh-i'q, aant, haaI, Hoot.i.i-,
Dzhaai'v/s, Lwel, mii-fshem, Meni-
lee'Qs), where the foreign words have
received an English pronunciation. [In
13. and 14. au generally (au), but be-
fore n, especially in 14. = (aaa) in Nor-
man and English, infi-a p. 583. — P.]
AUGH. This must be considered
as a double combination au+gh, the
first part i'ollows au, the second gh,
hence in 14. laugh = (laukh, laukwh,
lauwh), in 16.= (laukh, laun'), in 17.
(la}aef) or (lief), perhaps also (laaf) as
in 19. See af. The gh becoming
occasionally mute, angh was treated
altogether like aic, as in : taught,
caught = (tAAt, kAAt).
AUN. See an.
A"W. This was precisely equivalent
to au. In 14. it was used in the
middle as well as at the end of a word.
In 16. and afterwards it was seldom
used except when final, though we still
write : awl, awning, brawl, crawl,
prawn, sprawl, etc.
AWSV. Orrmin's form of (au), p*
488.
AY. Precisely equivalent to ai. In
14. used in the middle as well as end of
words ; in 16. and afterwards generally
final. See references under ai, ei.
AYO. In the word mayor = (mee.i)
in 19., ago may be considered as a single
combination, but it is properly «y+o ;
Mayo is generally called (Mefo).
B. Ags. to 19. = (&), but in 19. not
unfrequently written when not pro-
nounced as in deit, douit, laniS, 5del.
Hum, suitile ; in deit, douit it was not
pronounced and genei-ally not wi-itten
in 16., p. 211, n. 2. It was mute in 17.
in all the cases in which it remains so
in 19.
BB. Like other doubled letters, had
the sound of the single letter (b), being
only used to indicate a preceding ac-
cented short vowel.
C. In ags. always (k) or {Jc), but at
a later period of ags. the {k) seems to
have become (tsh), p. 511. See eh.
In 13. it is apparently not used before
(e, i), except in the combination -sce=
-sse, and then it was (s) ; but in 14.
when French words Avere freely intro-
duced it was (s) before e, i and (k)
otherwise, and so it has remained ; but
see ce-, ci.
CC. In ags. the same as e, but indi-
cating that the preceding vowel was
short and generally accented ; in later
times either (k) or (ks) as in : account,
accident = (aekaunt", sek'stdcnt) in 19.
CCH in 14. used for tch = {t+iik),
and pronounced (tsh), shortening the
preceding vowel.
570
VALUE OF LETTERS. CE — EA.
Chap. VL § 1.
CE. Till 18. this sccm.s to have been
Bimply c + e. At the end of 17. it
changed to (sh) in in ocean. See ci,
si, ti.
Cn. Not used in ags., but in 13.
found in the si^rnitication of (tsh), the
sound into wliich (k) had fallen, and as
such it has remained. In words trom
the Greek as arrAitect it is (k) in 19.,
and probably was so in 14. ; in words
from the modern French as cAaise it is
(sh) in 19., but for French words intro-
duced before 18. as cham, the sound
(fash) seems to have prevailed. In a
few final syllables as : Greenwich,
Woolwich, Norwich, it has become
(dzh) in 19., but in others it remains
(tsh), as Ipswich, locally (Jps-/dzh), p.
512, n. 2. In fuc/(sia = (fiu-shia) it is
mute. See si-. In 13. it was rarely
used as(7/i = (kh), p. 441. In modern
Scotch it has the three sounds (Ah, kh,
k«h) determined generally by the pre-
ceding vowel.
CI-. Till 18. this appears to have
been simply «+?, but then it fell into
(sh), as spec/al, specious, ofBr)al =
(spesh'ul, spii-shcs, Dfesh'ul). See si-, ti-.
CK. This means kk or {k) fi-om 14.
to 19., but in 14. kk is frequently used.
CW in ags., p. -514, probably = (ke<)
that is nearly (kw) ; replaced by qu
after ags.
CZ. This is a modern combination
used chiefly in Sclavonic words, as
Czech, Bohemian (tshekh), but English
(t^hek) : Czar is called (zaaa) in 19.,
but its Russian initial is (ts).
D ags. to 19. = (d). "When, how-
ever, the past participle ed dropped its
e, the d changed to (t) after mutes or
hisses, as : capped, sacked, quaffed,
kissed, at least in 17. and probably
even in 13. as hlisc(dd={[Ai&\), p. 444,
note 2. In 19. d is palatised into (dj,
d.i), and ultimately (dzh), in many cases,
acknowledged or repudiated, as : soldier
= (sool-dzha), verdure = (vj*diuj,vi"djur,
vj-djur, vadzhu), the last having the
same sound as verger. It is generally
mute in : riban</, We(fnesday.
DD. "VThencver used =(d),' except
in compounds.
DG = (dzh) from 14. to 19., before
a palatal vowel, as f, t as : ju^f^/e, \iix\dg-
ing and sometimes this sound is re-
tained, even when an e has been ortho-
graphically omitted, as ju^^ment.
D In ags. 'S was either (th) or (dh)
perhaps used indifferently in the MSS.
which we have. p. olo. In some more
recent ags. and in 13. '5 was used aa
the only sign for both (th, dh), in
others \ was the only sign. After 13.
•S seems to have been discontinued, and
only \ used in 14. and part of 15.
Even in 13. th was occasionally used
for either '5 or \. Judging by modem
Icelandic habits '5 was (dh) when
medial or final in ags. See also p. 541,
n. 2, p. 555, n. 1.
E=ags. (e, ee), and this sound it
seems to have retained to the middle of
15. Then some of the words with e
long had the sound of (ii), but e short
has remained (e) to 19. The use of
long e as (ee, ii) fluctuated much during
16. and 17., but in 18. the sound (ii)
established itself and has remained.
See «a, ee, . In 19. it has a few anoma-
lies, compare : be, cl«rk,pntty. Id;, resin,
hideous, opm = (bii, klaa.ik, prit», let,
roz'in, Hfd-jas, oop-'n). Finale seems
to have been pronounced, at least in
the Southern parts of England, till the
beginning of the 15. with certain ex-
ceptions, pp. 318, 364. During 15.
most final e's lost their sounds, and in
16. e final was considered to indicate
that the preceding vowel had its long
sound. The final e seems to have be-
come silent even in 14. or 13. in the
northern parts of the country, p. 410.
Usages differ in existing MSS.
EA. In ags. this seems to have
been a true diphthong (ea) with the
stress generally on the first but occa-
sionally on the second syllable, indi-
cated by (ea, ei), p. 511. Although
found in 13. pp. 467, 498, we may con-
sider that with ags, it passed out of use.
It is occasionally found in 14. as (ee).
It was not till the middle of 16. that it
was extensively used to mark those
long e's which retained the sound of
(ee) in contradistinction to those which
had f;illen into (li), the latter being
written ee. This distinction was how-
ever not consistently carried out even
at first, some words having the (ii)
sound being spelled with ea, and all
sounds having the (ee) sound not being
spelled with ea. In 1 7. still more of
the words with ea became sounded as
(ii) without any change of spelling,
and by the middle of 18. the use of ea
generally as (ii), and rarely as (ee, ee)
as in : bear, great, was established and
Chap. YI. § 1. VALUE OF LETTERS. EAU — EU.
571
has remained to 19. Many words in
ea which had long (ee) in 14. were
pronounced with short (e) at an early
period, as : h««d, \eaA s. In the earlier
part of IS. the sound of (ii) was applied
to words such as great, hreak, which are
now generally pronounced •with (ee).
The 19. varieties are seen in : hral,
grsrtt, \ieai% guinea, hfnd, react, axea,
= (niil, greet, naajt, ghvi, Hed, riaekt",
eei'ri,!!). [In 13. and 14. ea=ae = ai =
(ee) in Norman and English, infra, p.
582.— P.]
EAU. This form was not employed
in 14., hut CIV was used in place of it ;
even Levins, 1570, has beivtye. In the
earlier part of 17. eaii was (eu), in the
later 'part and since, (iu). As usual,
19. furnishes varieties, as in : Beaw-
champ, bea!<, beawfin, beffMty = (Biitsh'-
tim, boo, bi'f'm, biu-tt). [In 14. eau
= eal, iau in Noi-man of \i.=^eu, ew,
= (uu) in Norman and English, infi-a
p. 586.— P.]
EE. Invariably represented (ee) in
14. and was generally used in closed
syllables. At beginning of 16. it was
sometimes (ii) and sometimes (ee).
During the latter half of 16. it was
fixed as (ii), the (ee) sound being gene-
rally written ea (which see). So it
has remained. In 19. breeches is
(br«tsh-yz).
E'E. A 17. and later contraction
for eve in e'er ne'er and pronounced
(ee) up to 19.
E-E. The affixed mute e rendered
the preceding e long, and hence in 16.
the sound was generally (ee), hut in
some cases (ii). The spelling was then
discontinued, ea, ee taking its place,
thus Salesbury's chepe, chese became
cheap, cheese. At the beginning of 18.
the sound of (ii) prevailed and has con-
tinued ; but 19. shews : these, there,
allege = (dliiiz, dhee.r, aledzh').
EG in later ags. and in 12. (ei, ai).
Ejj. Ormiin's form for (ei), p. 489.
EH, the exclamation (ee, ee).
EI. In 13. seems to have been (ei,
ai). In 14. when used, which was rarely,
ey being the common form, it was (ai)
sometimes (aa,i) pp. 264, 476. See the
references given under ai. In 16. it
varied as (ei, ai), and in 17. became
(ai) or more usually (eei, ee). During
the latter part of 18. it changed to (ii),
where it generally remains, with va-
rieties of (oi, cc) as in : conc^tt, vetl,
forfeit, heifer, de/pnosophist = (konsiit',
veel, foafit, iiefM, daipnos-of/st). In the
words either, neither, ei was generally
(ee) in 18. ; in 19. usage fluctuates be-
tween (ii, ai), some still use (ee),
p. 129, n. 1. [Precisely the same as
ai, ay, inira p. 582. — P.]
EO. In ags. this seems to have been
generally (eo) but occasionally (e6).
Iu 13. eo interchanged with e and the
sound was (ee), p. 487. The combina-
tion then went out of use, although
both eo and oe are found in 14. in the
sense of (ee). In 17. therefore it be-
came (ii) in people, and even in yeoman,
though this has uow {oo). As eo is
rare and has come from many sources
it is very variously pronounced in 19.,
as : people, Georgies, yeoman, galleon,
Theobald, leopard, dungeon, Macleod,
iend, theologian, theology = (pii^p'l,
Dzho.i'dzhiks, joo'muu, gtehmn*, Tib'-
uld, lep-jd, drjn-dzhim, mrekloud-, find,
thiijoloo-dzhinn, thiol'odzhi). [In 13.
and 14. eo, oe=(ee) generally, but often
= (uu) in Norman, and sometimes in
English, infi-a p. 586.— P.]
EOU, EOW, perhaps (eou) or (eu),
p. 498. [In 13. and 14. eoiv in Eng-
lish =(uu), infrii p. 586. — P.]
EE. in ags. was probably always (er,
eer) or (e.r, ee.r) with a strongly trilled
(r). It is still so in Scotland and Ire-
land. There is no notice of its having
varied in sound till 18., when (.i) was
recognized as a second sound of r and
then er was taken to be (ei). In
19. Mr. M. Bell takes it to be (ajr). I
conceive it to be properly ('.^), but to
be generally ('i), see p. 196. Although
there is no notice of this sound in
older writers, yet there is reason to be-
lieve that something approaching to it
was known in 16. and that it was weU
marked in the latter part of 17. In
17. the practice of reading er as ar in :
clerk, Derby, sen-ant, ser\'icc, Hertford,
still more or less heard in 19. came into
use. Confusions of er, ar, are common
in 13.
EU. The oldest sound of eu seems to
have been (eu). In 14. it was generally
(eu), but in words of French origin
(}T)' P- '^*^2. The division became
confused in 15., and in 16., though both
sounds were heard, the line of distinc-
tion seems arbitrary, see lists, p. 301.
In the com-se of 17. most ew became
572
VALUE OF LETTERS. EW GN. Chap. VI. § 1.
(in) thoufrh some ri'niainod (cu). In
18. this ilistimtinu was swept away
and all bccanu' and have remained (iu),
except after r when they are generally
(uu) as R<'Mbcn, rew, rhetixa. In mo-
dern French words in eur as : am&teur,
^xM\(\eur, hnwieiir, usage varies, (iur,
eea, un.i, 'jI being all heard occasion-
ally, the last being meant for the
French (ar). [In 13. and 14. cu, tie,
en\ w, each= (uu) in Norman and
English, infra p. 586.— P.]
EW was identical with {ex), but was
more often used, especially iu 13., and
afterwards became the common final
form, see eu. Some of the words in
en- passed into {oo, oou), at least as
early as 17., but shew, sew are in 19.
usually spelled show, sow, and chew,
esclietv, shrew, shreivd have (iu) or (uu).
In Shrewsbury, present usage varies
between (uu) and (oo). Shrow was
used in Shakspere's time. [See eu. — P.]
EWE only occurs in the word (ewe),
in 19. (jiuu) and (joo), which is found
written awe iu 13, p. 428. In the
middle of a word ewe occurs as ew + e,
and the e may be or may not be silent,
as in : s^?«'(i, brewed, jewel = (sood,
bruud, dzhiu-el). The word sewer, a
drain, was (shoo.i) in 18., but in the
Tiiiddle of 19. the pronunciation (siu.T)
prevails. Sewer a waiter is (siu*'a), one
who sews is (soo"'j).
EWW. Orrmin's form of (eu), p. 488.
EY. The same as ei, see p. 459, n. 1,
and the passages there cited. See also
Chap. Vll. § 1, near the beginning. It
was common in 14. as (ai), in 16. as (ei,
ai), in 17. as (eei, ee), in 18. and 19.
generally {ce) sometimes (n'), as in key,
they, tui'key, eying = (kii, dhee, trki,
oi-Kj). [See ei. — P.]
EYE seems to occur only in e;/e =
(ai), which was (aiyh-e, ai/ih-e, ire) in
14., (ei, ai) in 16., and generally (ai)
in 17. to 19. [In 14. ei/e = {ee-e), in
Norman and English, infra p. 582. — P.]
F. In ags. (f) and between vowels
often (v). In 13. to 19. generally (f),
in the middle of 17. o/ became (ov) but
it was not generally recognized till 18.
The use of (v) for (f ) was common in
the dialects of 14., p. 409.
FF. Formerly in MS. of 13. and
later ff was written for F. Through-
out, in the middle of a word ff was = (f ).
G. In ags. (g, gh ; p, yh, jh, j).
In 13. a distinction was made between
ff j,,g being pure (y, g), and 7, guttural
or palatal. When French words were
introduced more I'reely in 14. 1/ became
(dzh),and was then (dzh) or perhaps (zh)
in French. The sound (zh) is compara-
tively modern in France, though it was
certainly known in 16., p. 207, and it
is used in Modern English words taken
from the French as : rou<?ing (ruuzh-t'q).
GG. Identical with ff, but always
(g), never (dzh), as in rugged = (rogea).
GH. Even in 13. occasionally used
for j; when sounded (gh, kh), the
souncls (yli, j) being occasionally written
(yh, y) p. 431. In 14. the sound was
(gh, //]\, kh, Ah), and after labial vowels
(gw'h, wh). In 16. it was generally
called (kh) but said to be lightly pro-
nounced, and some call it (h'), others
(wh), and iu a few words this (wh) had
passed into (f). In other words it
gradually became mute, in which case
the preceding vowel had generally
been prenously altered. In 17. sigh
droxtght, height, were sometimes called
(saith, drAAth, naith, and the town of
Keighlcy is (Kiith'l/) in 19. An un-
historical h has been inserted in : ghost,
ghastly, in which gh = {<^). The (kh)
sound is retained in : lough, (lakh),
though it has generally become (k) as
(lok), and as: shough, hough = (shok,
Hok) but sometimes (naf) in groom's
language. The change of gh into (f)
prevailed more extensively in 17. than
in 19., and is still heard more in the
provinces. Varieties in 19. : Callay/ian,
hiccouy/;, BcUiuf/Aam, bough, ghost,
\a.\\gh, Keiy/Jey — (Kopl'anu'n, uik'kap,
Eel'mdzhmu, nak, goost, laat), besides
being mute. Augh, otigh, must be
taken as au+gh, ou + gh.
GL. Generally </+/, but in the Italian
word seraglio, either (1j) or (1) ft-om
17. at least,
GN. Initial, up to 16. (gn), but i^
17. and afterwards, the g was dropped-
Medial, in 14. it seems to have been
simple (n), p. 309, and this sound has
generally remained to 19., although ^«
is incorrectly considered to lengthen
the preceding vowel, merely because an
e has been omitted, as in : sign, benign,
impregn, impugn, in 14. (sn'n'e, be-
ni'rne, imprce-ne, /mpyy-ne), and hence
in 16. (sain, benain-, impreen-, I'mpyj-n*),
and in 19. (sain, binain-, impriin-, im-
Chap. VI. § 1.
VALUE or LETTERS.
Z J— J-
573
piun-). In such combination as : dig-
nity, signify, impregnate, repugnant, it
was probably always (gn). Gill, 1621,
acknowledges (qn) as (beniq-n), and
some MSS. of 15. spell beningne. [In
13. and 14. gn medial = (n) in Nor-
man and English. — P.]
5 ? Used extensively in 13. and 14.
for the sounds of (gh, ^h, kh, Ah, j).
The figure of y in the sense (j) seems
derived from 3. The form 5 being
identical with the written form of z,
then in use, z was also used for 3 even
in print, see wz, r. After printing came
into use j was soon discontinued, and
gh, y became the usual forms. Some-
times confused in writing with s, p. 464.
jh used for (gh) in Ori-niin, p. 488.
H. In ags. initially, before a vowel
(h) or (h'). Before I, r, «, iv it may
have been originally (kh), but hi, hr,
hn, hto seem to have become (Ih, rh,
nh, wh) in ags. times, p. 512, as they
are in Icelandic, p. 544, and in 13.
only (Ih, wh) remained, which were
frequently interchanged with (1, w).
(Wh) remains in 19., but is uncertain
in the South. In ags, h final = (kh,
hh). In 13. the soimd of h seems to
have been very uncertain, and in 14. it
was lost in those words before which a
vowel was elided. In 16. it was pro-
nounced or not, difTereutly from the
present custom. In 19. it is much
more pronounced than formerly, but in
the provinces and among the unedu-
cated, it is almost always lost.
I vowel, for * consonant see ./. In
ags. (i, ii) or [i, it). This sound seems
to have been prevalent in 14., and the
short value {i) lasts in 19. Duiing 15.
many of the words having long (ii) re-
ceived short (?) owing to throwing back
the accent, but those long {u) which
retained the accent became (ei), and
retained that sound in 16., changing to
(oi) in 17., where they remain. Only
a few modem French words have (ii),
as invalid (invBliid') also called (mvael--
id), in another sense.
lA. [In 13. and 14. ia, ya, (in one
syllable) =ai, ««/ = (ee) in Norman and
English, p. 582.— P.}
IE, medial. Occurs occasionally in
14. as simple (ee). In 16. it was not
much used, though it seems then to
have been (ii) even in friend, and in 17.
it was firmly established in a few words,
vrithout any historical or etymological
reason, as (ii), and has so generally re-
mained. In final syllables it was much
used in 14. as (-tre) and in 16. as re-
presenting the 14. final -ie, -e, and
sometimes -y. This termination was
generally called (-») but sometimes (ei,
ai). In 17. it was gradually replaced
by y. In a few words as die, lie, etc.,
it remains with the sound (oi). [In
13. and 14. ie (in one syllable) =««=:
(ee) in Norman and English, infra p.
582.— P.]
I-E is properly identical with long
i, which see ; but owing to a prejudice
against ending words in v, and to the
necessity of putting an e after g final
to indicate the soimd of (dzh), it some-
times represented short i {i), as in 19.
give, live, br/dge. In modern words
from the French it is (ii), as: antique,
oblique, routine, machine, pique.
lEU is a purely French combination,
and in 16. interchanged with etc being
probably pronounced (eu) ; in 17. it
was (iu), and so it has generally re-
mained, thus lieu is (liu) or (luu), but
LVwtenant is usually called (leften'Bnt,
or (luuten-But), and Beaul/c?< is (Biudi).
[leti, ieio in English, hj'pothetically =
eue, ewe Norman of 13., would, if
found = (uu), infra p. 586. — P.]
IE"W. In the word vieio written both
vewe and view in 16., it is a final form
of ieu. [See ieu. — P.]
10. [In 13 and 14. io (in one sylla-
ble) = oi = (uu) generally, in Norman
and English, infra p. 587.— P.]
IR not before a vowel, was pro-
bably not distinctly separated from
er even in 14. as we have both Jlrst
and ferst. In 16. and later it seems
to have been the same as er, and in
19. it is either ('i) or {'u), as in: sir,
dirt, fir.
IU. [In 13. «M (in one syllable) =
w = (uu) in Norman and English,
infra p. 586. On p. 506, n. 2, for
(ritfle) read (ruu-le). — P.]
J or «■ consonant of the 16. and 17.
centuries in which the distinction i, j
was not observed in writing. In 14.
introduced for French words, and with
the French sound (dzh) which it re-
tains, though in France j has become
(zh). In the Hebrew hallelujah it was
and is read (j), but not so in other
Hebrew wordi. (Maaatsh-baeqks) for
574
VALUE OF LETl'ERS.
K — NG.
Chap. VI. § 1.
Marjoribanks, is an obviously recent
corruption.
K from its earliest introduction in
till' latest -d^^. to the presi-nt day has
retained the same sound (k), with per-
haps oe<asional unacknowledged pala-
tisation into {k).
KK, often used in 14. where ck
was afterwards employed, as (k) after
a preceding^ short accented vowel in a
closed syllable.
KN inilia/, in 14. to 16. and per-
haps fur some time in 17. was = (kn),
but in 18. and 19. the (k) was dropped.
It is, however, still pronounced in Low-
land Scotch. In 17. Cooper con-
sidered A-«=(nh), p. 544, n. 2.
L from ags. to 19. = (1). The 19.
colonel = (kj-ni!l) is remarkable. Lis
occasionally not pronounced, but in
disappearing leaves an etfect on the
preceding vowel as in : talk, half, alms,
now (tAAk, Haaf, aamz), where /seems
to have been lost generally in 16. See al.
LD. The I was omitted in 17. in
could, ivoidd, slioidd, having been erro-
neously introduced into tlie tirst, though
heard in 16, In GuiWford, the d is
xisually silent.
LE final, after a consonant, li-om
16. to 19. = ('1), as: fiddle, beadle =
(f«d-'l, bii-d'l).
LF. In alf, the I was omitted in
16. and a became (an), which was (aa)
in 17. and has in 19. returned to (aa).
See al.
LH. Occasionally used in 13., pro-
bably for (Ih), a remnant of ags. hi, see
h, but as it interchanges with I, this
pronunciation is doubtful.
LL. Much used as a final, and after
a short accented vowel in a closed syl-
lable, as (1). In compounds sometimes
l + l, as in soulless. In Welsh words
initially, the Englishman says (1) in
Z/oyd (Loid), Welsh (Ihhuid), but in
i/ango//en he generally uses (thl) as
(Thlaju-gath-len), Welsh (Lhhan--
golhh'en).
LM, aim final, omitted the Hn 16.
changing (a) into (au) which became
(aa) in 17. and in 19. has become (aa)
with its variants, as in balm, see al.
LN final presenting some difficulty
in speech, one or the other letter was
often dropped : I was omitted in Lin-
coln, and probably in Colne in 17., n
was omitted in kiln in 17., changes
which remain.
LZ. Old form of 17; = (b). Da/ziel
in Scotland (Di'eI) in England (Dtel--
zel). See p. 310, note 1.
M, from ags. to 19. =(m). In 16.
probably, and later, when following
any consonant but I, r, m was ('m) as in
chasm = (ka;z-'m) although the ('m)
was not allowed to constitute a syllable
in verse. Some in 19 call -Im, -rm
(-I'm, -r'm) and this was recognized
by BuUokar in 16.
MB final, probably omitted 6 in 16.
and certainly in 17. to 19. as limb.
MM medial only, after an accented
short vowel = (m), from 14. at least.
MN final = (m) probably always in
cohimn; and initial — (n) probably
always in mnemonics.
MP. Omp, which was a French
combination, now called (oa), was in
accented syllables in 14. = (nun), in 16.
(oun) and 17. 19. =(aun) as in Compter;
unaccented it was (kon) as Comptroller.
In 19. Campbell is often (kaem-el).
Otherwise (mp) is fully sounded as :
camp, limp, thump.
N. From ags. to 19. = (n). Proba-
bly before / it fell into m, as in Banff.
See also nc, nk, ng.
NC. Chiefly in compounds as in-come,
or in the tennination -nee, and then =
(nk, ns) ; but some in 19. and probably
early, changed n into (q) before c=(k).
ND. Generally (nd), but the d is
sometimes mute, as in riband, Yiand-
kerchief, and in the latter case the n
becomes (q) notwithstanding the com-
posite nature of the word = (naeq-ker-
tsher) in 17. and (usq-kitshif) in 19.
NG. The difficulty of pronouncing
pure (n) before the gutturals (g, k),
caused n in such cases to pass into (q)
in the earliest times. It is difficult to
determine before 19. whether ng was
simply (q), or (qg) when final or medial.
In 16. and later the 19. customs ob-
tained, namely ng is (q) when final,
and preserves that sound generally
when the word is lengthened by in-
flection, and in a few cases «5' = (qg).
Thus : I \ong, thou lo»^est, loH^er s.
a long way, have all (q), but longer a.,
low^est a., stronger, strow^est have (qg),
Compare linger, ^nger, singer. When
ng occurs before th, it is usually called
(qk) as length, strength (leqkth,
Chap. YI. § 1. VALUE OF LETTERS. NH — 0-E.
575
streqkth) or (qqh), but many persons
say (lenth, strenth) which Walker
notices as an Irishism. In French
words «y=(ndzh) from 16., some in
19. say (nzh) but it is anjainst analogy,
as chaiiffc, si>/(jie, (tshwnzh, s/nzh) for
(tsh^endzh, snidzh). Thourrh chaw^ing
is used, si«(7(iug is employed to keep
the word distinct from s««^ing. iVy
initial = (q), is only found in foreign
words.
NH. A Portuguese combination for
(nj), used in 19. in ipecacuaw/ia as (n).
NK. In one syllable = (qk), or as
some believe (qhk) fi"om ags. to present
day, see «^.
NN. After short accented vowels
= (n) from ags.
NZ. In^^a few names, the old form
of Saxon «3, with the sound (q) as
Me«zies = (Miq"«z), or with the sound
(nj) as in Tienzil — (Denvil), see fc, and
p. 310, note 1.
0. From ags. to 16. apparently (o,
oo), but during 15. many long o fell
into (uu) and for some the orthography
was changed in 16. to oo, while for
others the o was retained, as in do, who,
move (dun, whuu, muuv), and in IT. go
was occasionally pronounced (guu).
The short o also frequently represented
(m) both in 14. and 16. In 17. the
long sound of o in those words in which
it had not fallen into (uu) became (oo)
and the short either generally (a, o) or
even (a) in case of those words where
0 was (u) in 16. In 19. the long sound
is {oo) or as some pronounce (oou) and
even (ou), while the short sound is (o).
Before r = (a), the long sound remains
(oo), as ore—{ooi) although some say
(oojt, oo'j) and even (oo','j) dissyllabic-
ally, the same as ower. The short o
before r = (i) is supposed to remain (o),
as fork (foak), but it frequently becomes
(aa) and the (i) is then often dropped,
so that Lord laud theoretically (lo.id,
lAAd) are confused as (lAAd). See pp.
196, 245. In comic verse or, aw, are
allowed to rhyme as in Hood's Epi-
curean Eemimscences of a Sentimen-
talist.
"We went to -, it certainly was the
sea-side,
For the next, the most blessed of
morns,
1 remember how fondly I gazed at my
bride,
Sitting down to a plateful oi prawns.
0 never may mem'ry lose sight of that
year,
But still hallow the time as it ought,
That season the "grass" was remark-
ably dear,
And the peas at a guinea a quart.
— Comic Annual, 1831, p. 171.
See the remarks under (a), infra § 2.
The properly shoi-t o is in 19. some-
times prolonged before s, f as cross off
= (kros of, kroos Dof) or (kroos oofV
and occasionally quite (krAAS AAf).
Possibly in 17., whole, stone were (hoI,
ston) as these pronunciations exist in
America, which is tinged with 17., and
are still heard occasionally here, being
common in Norfolk ; from (ston) ap-
parently, or else from (st?m), comes the
familiar (ston) as a weight. The 19.
varieties : are go, do, women, bettor, on,
son, woman, compter, choii', reason =
{goo, duu, Wi'm'en, betM, on, son,
wum-en, koun-t.i, kwoii, riiz-n).
OA. This is found in 13. when it
seems to have been (««) or (rt«h), or
simply (aa), pp. 467, 498, 506. It was
hardly used afterwards, till in the latter
part of 16., when it was introduced as
a new sign for (oo), the form {oo) being
appropriated to (uu). In 17. the sound
changed to {po) at which it has re-
mained, with a tendency in 19. towards
(oou, ou). In the three words : broad,
abroad, grofft, it was = (AA) in 17., and
still so remains, though gro«t is often
called (grot), and in groats, a farina-
ceous food for children, it is (grets).
It was occasionally o+a as in oasis,
coart, coagulate. [Infra p. 586. — P.]
03. Used in 19. in some Latin
words as foetus, foetid = (fii'tos, fet"/d).
OE was uncertainly used as a final
in 16., with the sounds of (oo) gene-
rally, and (uu) occasionally. Levins
1570 has: doe, foe, roe, toe, sloe, goe,
forgoe, moe, hoe, loe (oui* lo !) with
(oo), and: shooe, fordoe, vndoe (but
doo), with (uu), but considers these
and : bio, twoo, no, so, tho, to, vnto,
as words " in o desinentia." In 17. oe
was generally {oo), but was (uu) in
shoe. In 19. we find doe, shof, felloe,
does = (doo, shuu, feP», doz), and oe =
o+e in: coeval, poet (ko,ii-vt;l, poo-et).
[See oe, p. 586.— P.]
0-E. From 16., marks o long, but
in some words, when v is the interjjosed
consonant, as : move, prove, the o was
sounded (uu) from 16. to 19.; love,
576
VALUE OF LETTERS. OEU OU.
Chap. VI. § 1.
formerly (luuv), passing through
(luv), became lav). In ii few words
as : hove, rove {oo) remains. Otlur-
•wise the sound was that of the long
0 of the time. The anomalv o>ie
(won) is recent ; the time of its intro-
duction is unknown, but it was not
before 18. Jones 1701 gives (wien,
wains, wfcnst) as curiosities, but does
not name (won); Buchanan 1766 has
(witn, wa'ns) also, as the correct sounds,
but Franklin, 1768, has (won, wons).
The Scotch (jin, Jen) for ane, seem to
have bei'u introduced about the same
time. The old soiuids were, English
(con), Scotch (aan). The 19. varieties
are : horse, cove, move, ToUrtnache,
forehead, love, Bolingbroke, one =
(Hors, koov, muuv, Ta;l"m8esh, forced,
lav, BKl-«qbr«/k, won).
OEU. A French combination, na-
turalized as (uu) in manoe?<vre, in 19?
[A combination not known in France
until 15., represented in 13. and 14. by
M, eu, (0, oe=(uu). — P.]
OH has perhaps always represented
the exclamation (oo), although the ex-
clamation was not always represented
by it.
01 is not found often enough in 13.
to determine its soimd, it was appa-
rently (ui) in 14. in French words,
but occasionally (ue ?), and sometimes
(oi P) ; in 16. (uui, ui) and also (oi),
in 17. the (ui) class became (oi) and
this remains as an unrecognized vul-
garism in bo?l, pomt, etc. ; in other
words it was (ai) or (oi) or (oi), and
occasionally {oi) is heard, often (aai).
Dialecticaliy oi was occasionally pro-
nounced {ii', ee) in 14., p. 4.50, note 2.
The 19. varieties are : chamo/s, connois-
seur, avomlupoise = (sh®m-(', shiem-wA,
konesjj', ajvjdiupoiz-). Choi'r was also
writen quire in 17., and since then pro-
nounced (kwoir), but chorister was
(kw/rw'ster). Memoir is called (mem--
WDj) in imitation of the French. And
sometimes oi = o+i. [In 13. and 14.
oi, oy = io = (uu) generally, in Norman
and English, but very often also = (ee),
infra p. 587.— P.]
OL, OLL. In 16. the ^ being
Bounded strongly as ('1) or (Iw) de-
veloped a (u), so that ol became (ooul)
in roll, toll, etc., p. 193. In 17. this
remained or became (oul), and as such
pa.ssed to Ireland. Even in 18., (oul)
as well as (ooul) was heard. In 19.
(ooul) is considered inelegant, but is
common, and (oul) unbearable, and
(ool) is the only recognized sound.
00. In 13. and 14. = (oo), rare in
13., frequent in 14. During 15. this
sound split into (oo) and (uu) and in
the latter part of 16., oo was appro-
priated to (uu), where it has since re-
mained, with a few exceptions. In
some words the (uu) became (u) and
some of these naturally fell into (o) in
17., as: flood, blood; others, however,
resisted this tendency, but became («)
as : good, wood, stood. These changes
remain in 19. Before k it is the cus-
tom in Scotland to use (u) and in the
North of England to preserve (uu) , as :
book (buk, bunk), while in the South
the sound is fully («) as (be<k). In
some words oo=^o-^o, as zoology, zoo-
phj-te, Laocoon= (zool-odzhi', zoo-ofoit,
Leok-oon).
OR. There is no reason to suppose
that this was different from (oor, or) in
accented syllables; finals were gene-
rally written our up to 17. and even
later, some still remaining, originally
to indicate the sound (uur, ur) p. 304.
In 17. these final unaccented or, our
became (or) or probably (a.i, j), and
are (.i) in 19. In accented syllables, in
17. it was sometimes (oor) and some-
times (ax) or (.4.Ar), (foomi) a bench,
(fAArm) a shape, and this distinction
remained through 18. It has nearly
disappeared in 19. The present theo-
retical souud of or not Mlowed by a
vowel is (oa), which passes into (aaj)
and (aa) simply, see the citation in o,
p. 575. Before a vowel o>- = (or).
OU was introduced at the close
of 13. and beginning of 14. for (uu)
and so remained to 16., being occa-
sionally used for (u), and occasionally
for (oou), which was generally
written ow. Some writers pronounced
it (uu) till past the middle of 16.,
but about that time the general pro-
nimciation had become (ou), some
words only remaining (uu) or (u).
Most of the latter became (a) in 17.,
but some (uu, u) remain to 19. The
ags. words in aw, ow, which came to be
written ou, ow, were till 17. called
(oou). In 17., {oo) without an after-
sound of (u), was and still is the recog-
nized pronunciation, but as the after-
sound exists still as (oo[U, oo'w), it pro-
bably existed in 17., and its repudiation
by orthoepists then arose very possibly
from the same cause that it stiU arises,
Chap. VI. § 1.
VALUE OF LETTERS. OUGH — RR.
577
namely, the tendency to give this after-
sound (i u) even in words where there
is no historical authority for its use,
see ow. Before yA the sound was ap-
parently (ou) or (oou) in 14. In 17.
this changed to (aa), ff/i being di'opped,
and has so remained. The 19. varieties
are : owght, somI, sowp, hoi<gh, dowble,
■woidd, nown = (AAt, sool, suup, Hok,
dab"'!, vfud, naun), and it is sometimes
o+u. [In 13. and 11. om=(uu) in
Norman and English. — P.]
OUGH, properly = ou + gh, and its
noted varieties arise from the combina-
tion of the varieties of these two s}Tn-
bols, which they do not exhaust. In
19. they are: fkongh., tough, hiccough,
'plough, through, lough, hough, ought —
(dhoo, taf, Hik-kap, pbu, thruu, bkh,
Hok, AAt). These are only eight ;
as there are at least seven varieties of
ou and of gh, ough might have had 49
sounds. It is not the combination of
the most varied pronunciation, as is
generally supposed, for simple o has at
least 10, and «o 11 uses, see o, eo.
OW in 14. was generally used for
(oou), but sometimes was written for
ou and pronounced (uu, u). In 16.
those words which had (oou) retained
the sound. In 17. they changed (oou)
into {oo) which remains. There is a
strong tendency to say (oou) in 19., and
as this tendency is as strong for no as for
Icnoiv, orthoepists disapprove of it in
both cases, p. 234. Those words in which
ow was called (uu) in 14., were pro-
nounced with (ou) in 16., and (au) in
17., which remains as how, now. The
19. varieties are : know, Cowpei, know-
ledge, bell')ti;s, notv = (noo, Kuu'pj,
nal'^dzh, bel as, nau). Cowper is some-
times called (Kaup-.i). [In 13. and 14.
ow generally = (uu) in Norman and
English, and sometimes (oou) in Eng-
Ush.— P.]
OY can only be regarded as another
form of oi from 14. to 19. It is now
generally final. [In 13. and 14 oy =
(uu) generally, but often = (ee) in Nor-
man and English, infra p. 587. — P.]
P. From ags. to 19.=fp). In cujw-
board it is in 19. assimilated to the
following b, or rather lost= (kabud).
PH was introduced at the earliest
periods for Greek -<^, and probably
always = (f). In nephew the ph was
a mistake, and it is called (neviu) in
19. In Cla/j/^am, etc., ph=p+h and
the h is dropped (Klajp-tjm). Seephth.
PHTH, properly ph+th, is only used
in Greek combinations. From the dif-
ficulty of saying (fth), the following
changes arise : phthisis, phthisiciil, apo-
phthegm, di»/i?/*ong = (tai'S('s, tizikvl,
sep'othem, d('p-thoq). The last at any
rate was in use in 17. "We find even
in ags. (pth, kth) used for <pd, x^ in
transliterating Greek, p. 523. fciome
say (difthoq) in 19.
PN initial loses p, as in ^weumatica
=:(niumaet'?ks).
PP after short accented vowels = (p).
PPH after short accented vowels
-(f)-
QU from 14. to 19. had the sound
(kiv) or (kw) In a few words from
the French it is (k). These were for-
merly spelled without qu, compare 14.
licour, 19. liquor = (likuur-, hk-j).
QUH. An old Scotch orthography,
probably representing (k!fh),the Scotch
substitute for English (wh).
K. From ags. to 19. before a vowel
= (r), and perhaps once (.r). In Scot-
land always (r) or (.r) wherever occur-
ring. There is no mention of any such
sound as (.i, .<) till 19., but there is
reason to think (.i) may have existed in
16. and still more that it existed in 17.
For its use in 19. see table on p. 197.
There are many varieties of defective
utterance. The Northumberland bun-
is (r) or (grh) and sometimes (gh, g)
simply, the French r grasseye ou pro-
venial is (/•), and the Dutch g ch have
often the same sound, thus schip = (s>Yp) .
RE final, seems to have been occa-
sionally (er) in 14., but when the e was
inflectional (re) remained. In 16. and
later it was always (er, ur) or (i) in
French words.
RH initial in Greek words and in
Rhine, Rhone = (r).
RR Generally after a short vowe
= (r), and possibly always so before 17*
In 19. it is generally (r) after a short
vowel, except there is acknowledged
inflection, and then it is (ar), but after
a long vowel it is always (jr). Thus:
mavry, merry, spirit, horrid, hurry =
(mEcr-/, mer-'', sp/r/t, Horwd, iiar-j).
But occur, occurrence, occurring, infer-
ring =(okj-, okar-ens, oka r/q, in?r,
?nfjr/q). After a long vowel rr is
seldom written, the single r being then
pronounced as (ir), compare: ear/ing,
hea' ing = (iij-r«q, niii r/q) . But we
have: tar, tan-y = covered with tar,
37
578
VALUE OF LETTERS. RRTI — J7. Chap. VI. § 1.
•tar, Starr)' rr full of stars, = (taaj,taajTi
■taaj, stuujTi'), and in Ireliuid arr
always = (aajr) or (scicr) as in barrel in
Enj^liuid (b;iril), in Ireland (b;uuTcl)
or (b;i';r-rc!), which seems to imply a
■imilar English pronunciation in 17.
RRII, in words from the Greek
only, in 19. used precisely as r, rr, as in
catarrh, diarr/iffa= (ktjtaaa-, doiurii-E).
6, One sense of this letter from ags.
to 19. has always been (s). AVhcther
in ags. it was ever (z) is difficult to
determine. Judging from the Ice-
landic, as the representative of medieval
languages, s was always intentionally
(s) in ags ; but the sound of (z) was oc-
casionally generated. Kapp takes it to
have been always (sj). This is not
necessary. There is no (z) in Spanish,
nor in the Dyak languages, and pro-
bably many others. In 14. there
seems no doubt that s was occasionally
(z). There are some traces of its being
changed into (sh) by a following pa-
latal vowel at the end of 1 6. and be-
^ning of 17. (p. 215), and later on
in 17. Micge, a Frenchman, notes :
snrc, leisure, usual, as being (shyyr,
lee-zhar, yyzhya;l). Sec set- si. These
sounds remain. In 19. we have : «ee,
a«, sugar, lej4ure = (sii, aez, shugu,
lezhj). In some MS. of 13., st is
nsed for 7t = (/-ht), probably a mistake
arising from the confusion of 3, }, z,
see p. 464. [In 13. and 14. « = (s) in
Norman and English. — P.]
SC. The initial sc before palatals
was (s) in 16., and probably always.
iSceptic was often spelled skeptic. In 19.
we have : vi.sfount, scene, diwern, sceptic
= (voikount, siin, dizm-, skepttk).
SCH. in Greek words, seems to have
been considered as sk (sk). The words:
«c/asm, .sf/(edule, have always presented
difficulties. They are now generally
(stz-'m, shed-iul). In 13. and 14., and
even later, sch was used for the mo-
dern sh, which see. In 13. it is some-
times she. The celebrated German
name of liothschild, properly (Root'-
%h\\A) =red-shield. is generally mispro-
nounced in English as (roths-tshaild),
quasi Wroth' s child ! yi\\eTe the familiar
word child has evidently misled the
reader to separate the combination sch.
SCI-. Treated as .«■- = (s/) till 17.,
and then often (sh), as in 19., conscjous
= (kansht!s).
SH. Orrmin uses this compendious
form of sch, but it did not come into
general use till end of 15, or beginning
of 16. It represented the effect of pala-
tizing (sk), and hence converting it
into (sh). The sound (sh) has re-
mained. Sh is occasionally s -|- A, and
the h is occasionally dropped, as 19.,
compare misAap, diiV/onest, dis/ionour,
Ma.v/iam = (m!SHicp', d/son-est, dizonu,
Mics-um) ; but many persons ignore
the composition, and call : HorvAam,
Windies/zam (Hojsh'tjm, AVi'n'd'lshBm).
The pronunciation (thresh'Hoold) for
thresAold, ags. )iresc-wald, Chaucer
threisshfold, 3482, Promptorium
threschwolde, is a modem etymological
error for (thresh oold).
SI-. Treated as (si) till 17, and
then often (sh), and sometimes (zh), aa
19., mansion, decision = (mien'sbBn,
disi'zh-cn). After a short accented
vowel it is more usually (zh), and (sh)
is then kept rather for ci-, or ssi.
SS was occasionally used for (sh) in
13. and 14. (pp. 409, 448).
SSI-. See St.
T from ags. to 19. = (t); but see ti-.
TCII intended as double eh, and
used after a short accented vowel ; the
spelling is modem, the 14. form is ech.
In both cases the sound was probably
(tsh) simply.
TH, even in ags. used as a trans-
literation of e, p. 523, and sometimes
used for )<, '5, in 13., having both the
sounds (th, dh), wliich were probably
distinguished as at present in 16., with
some doubtful cases, as wi/A (with,
widh). Sometimes = t-\-h, sometimes
t + th, or th + h, being obviously con-
tractions. In a few words th = (t, d) in
16. In 19. we find : thjme, burden
(generally written bur^^en), ^Aigh, My,
po^/iousc, eigh^A, Sou^Aampton = (taim,
bjd-n, thai, dhoi, pot-H9us, Mth,
Southiiajm-tun). In Havelock th is
found for jt, as hiith, but the sound is
unknown ; it may have even been really
(th), compare si(/h, Keighley, under Gh,
or else simply (t), p. 477.
TI. In the termination -tion, pro-
bably (si) from 14. to 17., and then
generally (sh), following si-, ci-, sei-.
It may. however, have been exception-
ally (sh) even at the beginning of 17.
TTH, the Greek tB, probably al-
ways (th) in Ma'///ew.
p ags. (th) or (dh). It is impossible
to distinguish between )> 'S in ags. and
Early EIlgli^h. In 13. and 14. used
for both (th, dh). In ags. it is seifest
Chap. VI. § 1.
VALUE OF LETTERS,
U — UY.
579
to use (th) initial, and (dh) medial and
final, p. 515 and p. 541, n. 2.
U vowel, for u consonant, see v. In
ags. (uu, u). In 13. the long u was
(uu), but may have been occasionally
pronounced (yy) likewise, while short
«, though generally (u), was occasion-
ally either (y), or (i, e). This usage of
Bhort 11 is too general to be considered
as dialectic. In 14. long tt was always
(yy), the (uu) sound being represented
by on, ow, which see. Short u was
more uniformly (u), though this sound
was occasionally written ou, as the use
of short H for (i, e) had not died out.
In 19. this use of short u is only re-
tained in: b?<rial, b«ry ; bwsy, b«siness.
In 16. long u was (yy), and short u (u)
almost uniformly. In the beginning of
17., and perhaps earlier (p. 227, n. 1),
long u was called (j-y) by some, and
(iu) by others, the latter sound pre-
vailed, and has remained to 19., except
after r, as in tr?/th, rwle, and after an
s palatalized into (sh, zh), as : «ure,
leisure, when it becomes (uu), or is
lost in 19. as : (truuth, ruul, shuuj,
lezhu). There is, however, great di-
versity of practice, and an (i) is more
or less distinctly introduced before the
(u), as (iu, iu), or fused with it in {jy,
uu). Again, in the middle of 17. short
M became generally (a), which was a
new sound in oiu: language, not men-
tioned by any writer before Wallis,
1653, and the extent to which it was
used is very undefined ; but it prevailed
generally, and only a few (u) remain in,
19. which are now properly (m), as:
p2<t, fMll = (pMt, f;d). This uncertainty
is well illa■^tl■ated by the dialects of the
peak of Derbyshire, chap. XI.. § 4. In
16. short u was occasionally called {i),
but this was reckoned an affected pro-
nmiciation. The use of u for w in
persKade, etc., is modern, imitated from
its use in qu. In 16. or 17. arose the
practice of using ffu to represent a hard
ff (g) before an e, as iu guess, a French
practice, borrowed also from qu ; and to
this, and the wish to indicate a long
vowel by final e, must be attributed
plagtie, vuf/ue, fatigue, rogue, etc.
With usual inconsistency a long vowel
is not always indicated by a final -gue,
as epilogue, sgnngogue, or tongue.
These spellings "are not found before
16., and they greatly vary in 16. [In
13. and 14. u accented and long = (uu)
in Norman and English ; to unaccented
and short = (b, e, i), and u with the
secondary accent = (9, e, i), infra, p.
683.— P.]
UE used in later spelling as a final
u, owing to a rule made by no one
knows whom, no one knows why, and
no one knows when, that no English
word can end in u. [In 13. and 14.
ue = eu = w = (uu) in Norman and
English, p. 586.— P.]
U— E from 16. indicated long u, and
was so pronounced, see u.
UI. This is not properly an Eng-
lish form, but it is found rarely in 14.
in place of oi, with, probably, the
sound (ui). In some words it may
have been (yy), as in them it often in-
terchanges with simple u, p. 135 and
170. See also p. 424, note 3. Some-
times it replaced t, see p. 452, note,
col. 2, 1. 8. To this custom is perhaps
due its present existence in huiXA, which.
Gill 1621 calls (byyld, boild, biild, bild),
and which is spelled beeld, bild in
Promptorium. After g the u was only
the French method of hardening g to
(g) and the combination gui must be
considered as g hard + i, as : guilt,
guide, guile. In more recent 17.
French words, ui was treated as long
u, and this treatment remains with the
sound (uu) after r as usual, and some-
times after s, as suit, 17. (suut), 18.
(shuut), 19. (siut). Occasionally ui =
w + i, or = «« + i. Hence we get the
19. varieties : mosqz«to, frwjt, bwild,
gw/ding, suit, langwed, q?<nk, frwetion,
angMish = (moskii-to, fruut, b«ld, gaid--
iq, siut, lajq-gifid, kiicrk, fru/sh'Tin,
ee-g\\i,is\\.) It is continually used in
Scotch for (yy) or (o) as : puir, guid.
[In 13. and 14. ui = Hij = iu = {\i\i) in
Norman and English, infra p. 5S6.-P.]
UO. [In 13. and 14. mo = om = (uu),
when u is not a consonant, in Norman
and English. — P.]
UOY is confined to the word buoy,
called by Hart 1569, (buee) = (bwee),
in 17. (boi), frequently (bwoi) and by
sailors (buui) in 19.
UR, from the time that u short re-
presented (o),Mr = (8r, ax, 'r, j), see p.
200, er and r.
UW, an unusual and hence doubtfiil
combination, probably (yy). [In 13.
and 14. uw = (uu) in Norman and
English, infra p. 586.— P.]
UY, a modern spelling, found in:
b?«?/, plagMy = (boi, pkfgj). The sound
of buy, spelled: bye, beye, 14. was
(bu-e, bai-e), p. 285. [In 13. and 14.
580
VALUE OF LETTERS.
V— Z,
Chap. VI. § 1.
My = Ml = iM = (uu) in Norman and
En<rlish. infra, p. 586. — 1'.]
V consonimt, for v vowel see u. This
seems to have been invariably (v).
W vowel, is only used as part of a
diphthonp, see aw, ew, ou>. Several
writers, however, consider to to be
always a vowel. In 13. occasionally
used as lonj: « = (uu). especially where
(uu) diak'ctically replaces (wuu, wn) ;
in 14. occasionally used as ou also =
(uu) ; probably double v was dialectic-
ally used as the simple v vowel, that is
M, with Its local sound (uu) or (yy^.
[In 13. and 14. iv = eui = u = {uu) in
Norman and English, infra p. 586.
W consonant, corresponds to ags. p,
which was (w) p. 513. This sound
has remain to 19. ; and is often con-
sidered to be a vowel, but it is not so,
compare moo, wood, M-'oman = (wuu,
wud, wumBn),in which those who con-
sider w as a vowel have to write (uu,
ud, um-Bu), as is and probably was
frequently said in various parts. Mute
in 19. in: gun«<ale, boatsj^ain, answer,
Chist^ick, sttord, two, twopence ; the
last word was (tsp-ins) in 17. In ags.
p. 514, and down to 16. at least wr-
mitial was probably a labial r or (rw)
as write, (ureit) in Hart, (wrait) in
Gill, but simple (rait) in 19. Ags. tvl-,
p. 514, was probably a labial I or (1»«),
which changed to (1) or (fl), compare
ags. wlacnco, Scotch wlonk, modern
flunkey ; Is Iwkewarm a transposition
of ags. M'liEC ? Orrmin has wlite.
WH, in ags. hw, was perhaps very
early = (kwh), but is not likely to have
been (khw). In Scotland it is assumed
as (kii'h,) see quh. Probably in later
ags. times it was (wh) and it has since
60 remained, though there was a ten-
dency even in 13. to call it (w) when
initial, and that tendency is strong in
the South in 19. In 16. who was called
(whuu), which in 17. had become (huu)
where it remains, (whoo, whuu) being
heard from elderly provincials. The
final wh in 14. fonned the transition
from (kwh) to (f), and in Aberdeen
(fat) is still said for (k»/hat) quhat,
what, the same transformation occur-
ring initially.
WL. See w.
WR. See tv.
X was in early writings used for
Greek x iu XptarSs, whence the con-
tractions Xp' = Xp. Xmas, etc., for
Christ, Christmas, etc. ; and waa then
= (k). Its general' early use was for
Latin x, and it seems to have been
always (ks) and never (gz). In 19. it
is sometimes (gz), and being treated as
k-\-s, or ff+z, the latter letter may be
palatalized to sh, zh. In French words
it follows the French pronunciation
(s, z), and as an initial in Greek words
as pronounced in English it was (s) in
17. and is (z) in 19., as Xantippe,
Xenophon, Xerxes, now = (Zsentip-i,
Zen-BfBn, Zerk-ziiz). Hence the 19.
varieties : except, beaiu:, vex, axiom,
example = (eksept*, booz, veks, ak'shiBm,
egzaam p'l). [In 13. and 14. x = (s)
in Norman, and often perhaps in Eng-
lish.—P.].
Y vowel, was in earlier ags. (y, yy),
but in later ags. times it was confused
with (i, ii). In 13. to 16. it was used
indiscriminately with i, as of precisely
the same meaning. In 17. and subse-
quently the use of y was more limited
to the end of words, where it arose
from the termination -ij, the y being
in 14. the substitute for j, in this sense,
and the i omitted. Throughout, the
Latin practice of transliterating Greek
i; by y was followed. The pronuncia-
tion of y vowel was the same as i vowel
throughout, see i. In 19. compare
marry, myrrh, flying = (ma)r"j, nu,
flai-tq.)
Y consonant. This was a substitute
for ags. ^, and its use probably arose
from the sound of 3 as (j). It has
been used for (j) from 14. at least. It
was also used in contractions for j;, as
ye yt = j,c Jia;t.
YA. [In 13. and 14. ya (in one
syllable) = ay = aj = (ee), in English
and Norman, infra p. 582. — P.J
YE. [In 13. and 14. ye (in one
syllable) =ey in medial, and sometimes
probably in final syllables = (ee), in
JS'orman and English.infra p. 582. — P.]
YH. This is ibund in 13. in place of
3 when it had the sound of (j), p. 431.
Z is not an ags. letter. In 14. it
was freely used for (3) even in plurals,
see Alliterative Poems, edited by E.
Morris, and also for 7;, and had there-
fore both sounds. The use of s for 3
remained into Roman type, see 3 and s.
In 16. its use was confined to {z), and
it was abandoned in plurals. In 19 it
is palatalized and a few Italian s's are
found, hence : me.'zotint, zeal, a3ure =
(metsotmt, ziil, ee-zhj). [In 13. and
14. z, zs = [s), in Nor. ana Eng., and
sometimes perhaps (ts) in Norman.-P.]
Chap. VI. § 1. MR. PAYNE's RESEARCHES. 581
Having learned that Mr. Payne in the course of his I^orman in-
vestigations (supra p. 438, n. 1) had arrived at several results
which were inconsistent with the preceding investigations, I re-
quested him to give me that brief statement of his opinions wliich
has been added in brackets to several of the above articles, and also
to furnish an abstract of the grounds on which he relied. This he
has been so kind as to do, and it seemed to me so important that
the reader should be in possession of his arguments, that I have
here appended them in extenso. In his Memoir, above referred to,
the several points here shortly touched upon will be fully illustrated
by citations and references. It would be impossible fully and
satisfactorily to criticise his investigations without studying those
additions. At present I can only add brief notes, pointing out the
radical difference between our views, which, as respects arj, ey and
long u, win be further illustrated at the beginning of Chap. YII.
§ 1, and state my opinion that, as far as English is concerned, suf-
ficient weight has not been given by Mr. Payne to the dialectic
peculiarities of the scribes of MSS. Thus it appears to me that
the Alliterative Poems in the West Midland dialect of the xiv th
centuiy, afford no proper evidence for Chaucer's pronunciation in
the South, and the late xvth centuiy MSS. of Alisaunder used by
"Weber (supra p. 451, note, col. 2) is no authority at all for the
pronunciation of the xmth century to which the original poem
belonged. The assumption that so many forms were used to express
the same sound, so that the vowels (uu, ee) must on this theory
have been predominant in the English and Norman of the xm th
and xrv th centuries, seems also incompatible with the known ten-
dency of all illiterate speech to diversity of pronunciation. Thus
stone was ags. (staan), and is in ordinary Scotch (stem), but in
Aberdeen (stiin), in Cumberland and Westmoreland is dubiously
(stjaan, stii'aan, stu't^n), in the xvith century probably (stoon) as
it now is frequently in the provinces, in the xvnth century and
Btill theoretically (stoon), but probably often in xvnth century, as
it still is in Norfolk and the United States (ston), whence the com-
mon form (stan) for the weight, and perhaps the most usual em-
phatic southern pronunciation is (stooun). Such diversities in olden
times must have produced diversities of spelling. See also supra
p. 473, note, col. 2, for [ee, oi). I take this opportunity of pointing
out the necessary deficiencies of my own investigations upon
English pronunciation during the xin th century, which ought to
have been based upon an extensive examination of existent English
dialects, and a thorough comparison of the various MSS. of the
same works written by scribes in different parts of the countiy,
as checked by the knowledge thiis gained of their local peculiarities.
Had I waited until this was possible my book would probably never
have been written, and the circumstances under which this part of
it was unavoidably composed did not even leave time to undertake
so thorough an examination as I could have wished of all existing
documents and sources of information. The reader is therefore
requested to consider Chap. Y. rather as the commencement than
582
MR. PAYNE ON AE, EA, AI, lA, EI, IE. Chap. VI. § 1.
the completion of a research, which the labours of such competent
investigators as Mr. ^lurray for the Scotch dialects, Mr. Sweet for
the Northern languages, and Mr. Payne for the Norman element,
will contribute to advance, but which may require many years of
patient study both of existent and extinct dialectic usages, not only
in England, but low Germany and Normandy, to biing to a
thoroughly satisfactory conclusion.
The remainder of the text of this § is written by Mr. Payne ; the
footnotes are by myself, but have been signed for greater distinctness.
Brief Abstract of some of Mr. Patxe's Researches on the Value op
THE Letters in Norman and English, during the Thirteenth and
Fourteenth Centuries.
AE, EA, AI, lA (in one syllable), EI, IE (in one syllable), with the
variants AY, YA, EY, YE = (ee).
Assuming the Norman long or tonic
e to have been = (ee), and finding it in
Norman poems of 13. frequently rhj-m-
ing with ei, ai, as : feel conseil, defens
mains, cstre maistre, nestre maistre,
fere plaire, retraire manere, brait set,
plein forcn, reis Engles, reis pes =paix,
consail vessel, reis \cQs — lois, jammes
curtcis, feiz tm-nez past participle, re-
fait De', etc., etc., and finding also :
faire fere, maistre mestre, aveir aver,
conrai conrei conre, trait treit tret,
etc., etc., continually interchangeable
■with each other, we can scarcely help
concluding that Norman ai, C8=(ee).^
We infer then that pais of the Saxon
Chronicle and Layamon, pays of Robert
of Gloucester, payse of Dan Michel,
were (pees), and this inference is con-
firmed by finding the ai, ay, translated
into e, ee in pes of Owl and Nightingale,
pees of Piers Plowman and Cbaucer,^
whether these be considered as literal
adaptations of the Norman form (see
above), or phonetic representations of
the English ai. On the one h}'pothesis
the Norman ai seems to be established
a.s (ee), and the Nonnan/a27e, /a;', crei,
which are found rhyming respectively
with English taile, dai, awey, must
have been (feel'e, fee, cree) ; and if so
1 See cause for doubting' the generality
of this conclusion, suprk pp. 454-459.— A.J. E.
* This point is considered in Chap. VII.
} 1, near the beginning. — A.J.E.
* For evidence that day, %cay were not so
pronounced, see the table p. 489.— A.J.E.
* This is also Rapp's hypothesis, but to
roe the origin and progress of the orthogra-
phy appears to have been entirely different.
Supr^ p. 425, and infril p. 588, n. 4.— A.J.E.
* West ^lidland, and hence of no autho-
rity here. See suprJi p. 451, n. c. 1.— A.J.E.
it is difficult to see how the English
words could have been other than
(teel-e, dee, wwee).' On the other
hypothesis ee represents, at the will of
the writer, English ai, and, therefore,
the Norman and English phonetic
systems being by hypothesis the same,*
English ay, ey, would, correspondingly,
represent Norman e, ee. And this we
find to have been the case. The Nor-
man word jornee or jtirnee, became in
Genesis and Exodus iurue, which in
the Alliterative Poems is jownay,^
and in Mandevile journei,^ probably
pronounced (dzhi!mee-). The English
ay is here obviously employed to re-
present the Norman ee. The word
contrey in Alisaunder," contraye in Dan
Michel, 8 similarly represents Norman
ciinlre or contree. and in regard to both
words it is diflicult to see how the fact
that the English ay, fy = (ee), could
have been more clearly expressed.'
The ay, ey, being no part of the Nor-
man word, would appear to have been
chosen as suitable phonetic cquivalenta
to the Norman ee. These words con-
trey, coil tray, jornay, rhyme in their
turn ■with Norman fey, fay, and thus
shew that the Norman ai, ei, were also
= (ee). The general argument is con-
6 There is no contemporary MS. authority
for Mandevile. — A.J.E.
"> A discredited MS. for this purpose,
supra p. 451, note, col. 2.— A.J.E.
8 Dan Michel's use of ay is considered in
Chap. VII. } 1, near the beginning. There
is no reason to suppose that such an inde-
pendent orthographer was guilty of such a
solecism as to use ay and e indiiferently. —
A.J.E.
9 There is a great accumulation of evidence
on the other side, already given in this
work.— A.J.E.
Chap. VI. § 1.
MR. PAYNE ON AU AND U.
583
firmed by the rhymes : maide misrede,
maide grede, in Owl and Nightingale,
and : maide muchelhede in Ploris and
Blancheliur (E.E.T.S. ed. p. 62), i
which form a parallel to : retraire fere,
maistre nestre, etc. in Norman. We
conclude then that ai, ai/, ei, ey,
whether Norman or English was in
13. and 14. = (ee).'^ This sound may
have persisted generally, therefore,
to 15. also, but in 16. Mr. Ellis's
authorities and arguments (supra pp.
118-124) seem to prove that it was for
the most part superseded by (ai), though
the old pronunciation was probably still
extensively used.-* But the sound (ee)
had other graphic representations. On
the hypothesis, which there seems much
reason for adopting, that both in Nor-
man and Early English the transposi-
tion of the vowels of the digraph,
made no difference in the sound, ae, ea,
ai, ia (in one syllable), ei, ie (in one
syllable), with their variants ay, ya,
etc. would all = (ee). There is, how-
ever, no adequate space here to illus-
trate this position.
AF = (au) AND (kaa) or (aas).
As an in Latin was most probably
pronoimced (au), there seems every
reason to believe that the initial and
medial au was the same in Norman.
This is confirmed by a remai'k of Beza's
(supra p. 143, note), who especially
distinguishes the Norman pronunciation
of ait from the ordinary French, telling
us that in Normandy in 16., autant was
pronounced nearly — perinde pene acsi
scriptum esset — a-o-tant.^ This pro-
nunciation is also, I believe, still heard
in some parts of Normandy. The old
spellings Awivslin for Austin (supra
p. 489) faute faute, maugre maugre,
haute haute, hawnteyne, corruption of
haultain ?, pawtenere pautoniere, etc.
seem to confirm this notion. In the
case, however, of the termination —
-aunce, found not earlier than 14., and
U Long, Tonic = (uu). U
If the medieval Latin long u was
(uu), which is generally acknowledged, ^
it is difficult to see how the Norman
long M, which often rhymed with it,
1 These are considered in Chap. VII, 5 1,
near the beginning. — A.J.E.
8 The evidence here, necessarily imper-
fectly, adduced, does not incline me to
change the opinions heretofore expressed,
of which corroboration is afforded by an
examination of the usages in seven MSS. of
Chaucer's Prologue and Knightes Tale, in
Chap. VII. i 1. See also p. 459, n. 1.— A.J.E.
s This hypothesis seems to me incon-
sistent with the general custom of the change
of pronunciation. The change of (ai) into
(ee) is common, p. 238, and could not but
have proceeded with different velocities in
different countries and parts of the same
country. — A.J.E.
* Beza, as quoted by Diez, also says p. 41,
" majores nostri — sic efferebant ut a et i,
raptim tamen et uno vocis tractu prolatam,
quomodo efferimus intcrjectionem mcitantis
hai, hni, non dissyllabam, ut in participle
hai (exosus), ged ut monosyllabam, sicut
then taking the place of a previons
-ance, there is much reason to doubt
whether the rule applies. ^ The u is
evidently not organic It seems to be
merely intended to lengthen out the
sound of the a, and thus emphasise
more strongly the accented syllable. It
is most unlikely that a sound which
had been established for ages as (aa),
should suddenly change to one so
different as (au).^ This view is con-
firmed by the fact that in Anglo-Nor-
man texts — it is found in no other —
ance very frequently rhj-mes with ounce.
The same remarks apply, mutatis mu-
tandis, to such words as graunt granter,
haunt hanter, commaund commander,
etc., which were most probably pro-
nounced (graaant, naaont, komaaand-),^
if indeed the u was really sounded at all.
Short, Atonic — {v, 9, e, i).
as : la sus equinoctius, juggium con-
jugium, etc., could have been anything
else. If, however, it is objected that
these Latin terminations are not long,
Picardi interiores hodie quoque hanc vocem
aimer pronuntiant." The histories of ay,
aw are parallel. — A.J.E.
* See the quotations from Palsgrave and
Salesbury, supr^ pp. 143 and 190, for the
reality of (au). — A.J.E.
6 There is no change of the vowel, merely
the insertion of a new vowel, which did not
produce a labialisation of the first element
for more than 2U0 yeai-s. — .\.J.E.
T This almost agrees with Bullokar's
views. — A.J.E.
8 It is no more lilcely that different
countries should have pronounced the Latin
u alike in the middle ages, than at present.
The French may then, as now, have called
it (yy), supra p. 246, 1. 27. It was (yy) in
England in IG. See infra p. 586, n. 5, for
remarks on the provincial character of the
Alliterative Poems and Sir Gawayne. —
A.J.E,
584
MR. PAYNE ON U.
Chap. VI. { 1.
the answer is, that they arc lon^ as
bcinf^ under the accent, so that -?«,
•urn, would be (-uus, -uum).' Applying
this test to Kn;;lish wc should tnat the
us in Enf,'lish t/nts (C. T. v. 13384) and
the -Mt in ignotius, which rhyuies with
it, ;i5 both lonjr, and = (uus). If then
the Nonnan m wa.s = (uu), as most of
the authorities allow, though some of
them speak of exceptions which they
do not cite,* adventure, quoted on p.
298, would have been (adventuufe)
and lutf, with which it rhymes, (luure),
and nature (u«tuur-e). (See nature
written nature in Alliterative Poems,
p. 59, and salue rhyming to remtce iu
Sir Gaicaijne, p. 47). There appears
indeed no proof whatever that the
French (yy) was known in 13. and
14., but there are many proofs that u
was consistently (uu).' But as it is
generally allowed that the English
or Anglosaxon long u of those times,
with which the Norman is continually
found rhyming, was (uu), proofs are
scarcely necessary.* The greater diffi-
culty lies in proving that the short u,
or unaccented u, was not (u, «), but a
diflfercnt sound, approaching, if not
identical with the obscure sound heard
in the atonic a vn. a man, e in the man,
0 in to-ddy, and represented generally
in palaeotj-pe by (e) or (a, e, e, i).
It IS highly probable that this sound
scarcely, if at all, differed from the
atonic e of the French le in le livre, and
that, in time, it generated the proper
French eu. The development of this
doctrine is essentially connected with a
true conception of French, or, as far as
we are concerned, the Norman system
of accentuation. The Norman dialect,
— and the remark applies equally to
* That the accent lengthens the vowel on
■which it falls, is a phonetic theory which
has been long since abandoned. See suprJL
p. 556, n. 1.— A.J.E.
* But see supni p. 424, and especially the
latter part of note 3.— A.J.E.
' That English u in 14. was (uu) and not
(yy) seems inconsistent with the double or-
thography w, oil. See supri pp. 298, 303, and
infri Chap. VII. } 1, near the beginning.
See also p. 583. n. 8.— A.J.E.
* It seems to result from my investigations
in Chap. V. that u ceased to represent (uu)
in English during the period 1280 to 1310,
when ou was gradually introduced as the
representative of that sound. See especially
p. 471, n. 2. — 1 don't know to what other
writers Mr. Payne alludes. — A.J.E.
* Direct proof would be necessary to es-
tablish this remarkable difference between
the actual Norman patois, — seems to
have been characterised by an extremely
strong and emphatic delivery of the
accented syllable. The general prin-
ciple of the accentuation consisted in
singling out for the tonic accent the
syllable which was accented in the
Latin original, so that, for instance,
Norman raisun from rati6u-em Wiis ac-
cented raistin, honor or honur from
honor-em honiir, etc., with a very
forcible impact of the voice upon the
last syllable.* The effect of this pre-
dominant influence of the accented syl-
lable would necessarily be, the trans-
formation of the atonic syllables.* "We
see evidence of this result in the not
unfrequent appearance of henor, enor,
and annor in the place of honor honiir.
An instance, however, perhaps bearing
more directly on our present purpose,
is afforded by the derivatives of the old
French or Norman coer or cuer (coeur).
There is little doubt that this was
originally pronounced (kuur).' When,
however, by the addition of -age, there
resulted cordge, curdge, and courdge, aU
13. forms, both the quantity and qua-
lity of the original (uu) was aflected,
and almost of necessity the atonic
cor, cur, cour, would become (kur), and
the entire word (kcraadzh-c). In the
process of development cordge next
receives the syllable -os or -tis, and
becomes coragds, coragiis curagos, or
curagiis, all of which are admissible
Norman forms. The lately long vowel
a is now changed both in quantity and
quality, and has become (e, i, o) or
(a, u), it is not easy to say which, and
the result may be probably considered
as (kareguus').* Similarly it might be
shewn that curt cour = (kuurt), becomes
the old Nonnan system of accentuation, and
that evidently adopted by Chaucer, which
agrees with classical French, suprk p. 331.
A.J.E.
6 Admitting that this obscuration of un-
accented vowels often occurs, and has been
especially active in many languages, I must
deny it to be a necessity of pronunciation,
any more than the prolongation of a vowel
by the accent, witness the clear unaccented
but extremely short a, and the decidedly
short but accented o in the Italian amd
(anw). See infr^ p. 585, n. 4. — .A..J.E.
' Not having sufficiently studied Norman
orthography and pronunciation I am un-
able to speak on this point. — A.J.E.
8 It seems to me extremely doubtful that
such a sound as (o) was known to the Nor-
mans, when regard is had to its very late
introduction into England, suprk p. 172.
Chap. YI. § 1.
MR. PAYNE ON U.
585
curteis (kcrtees*), and this again cur-
teisie (kartesii-u), or perhaps, at least
occasionally, (kgrtesee-).! The last
word became, as is well kno\vn, in
English curtesie, cortaysie, courtaysie,
all of them, by the above theory, being
pronounced (kortesii-u) or (kiirtesee'ti),
or very nearly, acceutu mutato, as the
modern courtesy, that is (kar-test).-
The spelling could not on this theory
have afl'ected the pronunciatiou,^ which
was determined by the power of the
tonic accent obscuring and transform-
ing the independent value of the atonic
syllables. It may further he observed,
that the u in the former cur, being so
close to the predominant accent, be-
came positively eclipsed by it, and
would therefore be exceedingly short
and obscure, as (b) in English, while
the u in the second cur, receiving a
secondary accent, would probably have
a clear and definite sound, equal to
(kar). It is this sound which the
English derivatives would receive when
no longer under the influence of the
Norman accentuation, but subjected to
the entirely different system of the
English. Hence the Xorman : jurnee,
tiiibler, coliir, cumfort, suverain, doz-
aine, covert, custume, dobler, curtine,
hurter, cumpainee, turnoiement, sujur-
ner, sucur, etc., when they became re-
spectively : j6urney, trouble, cdlour, com-
fort, sovereign, dozen, covert, custom,
double, curtain, hurt, company, tourna-
ment, sojourn, succour, etc. would
naturally be pronounced very nearly as
they now are, or very recently were.*
In the present sound then of these
I do not feel satisfied that the above ac-
count of the successive formations of cceur,
courage, courageux, is historically correct.
— A.J.E.
1 If this termination were ever (-oe), it
was only through the West Midland con-
fusion of i, e, and rejection of final e, cer-
tainly not from reading le as ei, and calling
that (ee). It was dialectic, not literary.—
A.J.E.
* The absolute ignorance of the sound (a)
shown by all the authorities of 16., makes
me inclined to reject at once the hypothesis
that courtesy could have been called (kar--
tesi) in 14. With regard to the second syl-
lable of the word, more is said in Chap.
VII. \ 1, near the beginning. — A.J.E.
* Although after the invention of print-
ing, spelling may have affected pronuncia-
tion, in 12. 13. and 14. we have no reason
to assume anything but the converse,
words, we see the Norman influence
still persisting.* Exceptions may no
doubt be taken to this general assertion,
but the main principle can hardly be
affected by them. It may be further
remarked, that the continual inter-
change in early English, of u, e,_ e, in
such instances as : werk wirk, chirche
cherche churche, kirtel kertel kurtle,
crth urthe, sunne sinne, sturn stern,
cherl churl, segge sigge sugge=s«y, in
bdthiid, etc., compared with bathed,
etc., in telhts for telles, le'dus and ledys
for ledes, and in such plurals as femdlus,
sydus, coupus, (see Anturs of Arther
passim,) tends to shew that the short u
had the same sound both in Norman
and English.6 It is impossible to con-
ceive that the unaccented us, which
merely stands in these instances for -es,
was pronounced (us). It must have
had the same obscure sound as the u in
curteis. When, however, this obsciu-e
unemphatic sound is required to take
the accent, then it assumes the clear
utterance of the u in curtesie. Hence
the u in churche, urthe, sunne, siigge,
was not unfrequently found inter-
changing with e and i short. The
sound then of short u seems, in
words of more than one syllable, to
depend on the principal accent, and
when atonic to be (a), and this was
also the sound in monosyllables na-
turally short, as church, churl, etc. The
merits of the general theory, which I
have here attempted to expound, can,
however, hardly be faii-ly judged of by
this brief and imperfect representation
of it.
namely, that pronunciation affected spell-
ing.— A.J.E.
♦ But they were not so pronounced in 16.,
as we know by direct evidence, and they
are not now so pronounced by tbe illiterate
in our provinces. It was only the other
day that I heard a porter at Clapham
Junction shouting out many times in suc-
cession (Klap-am Dzh!/q-shi<n). with pure
[u) and not (a), and without any obsciira-
tion of the unaccented vowels. — A.J.E.
5 The history of the introduction of (a)
being now on record, and the battle be-
tween (a, u) being still undecided, I do not
see how this conclusion can be admitted.
—A.J.E.
6 See supra p. 299, and 300, n. 2, also p.
425, p. 507 and numerous instances in Chap.
V. 5 1, No. 3. But there seems no reason
for supposing this u to have been anything
but (y, e, i)-— A.J.E.
586
MR.
PAYNE ON OE, 01, UE, UI. Chap. VI. § 1.
OE, EO (in one Syllable), 01, 10
(in one Syllable), and tub
lEU, IW, lEW, W, UW, each =
The illustrations and arguments by
which the above proposition is sup-
ported, are g'iveii at some lon<rth in my
paper. A brief summary, which under-
states the proof, is all that can be given
here. Assuming that Norman long or
tonic « = (uu), it was ascertained ' that
Norman mi', and inferred - that the in-
verted ill, had the same sound as u
alone, that is, that h?<!Y = (nuut), fruit
= (fruut),^ rt'ule = (ruul-e). These con-
clusions depend on the light shed by
Norman and English on each other.*
Thus in English texts frute rhymes
with dedute, i.e. Norman deduit, and
again frut with dedwt, whence ui
=zu = w = (uu). Again Norman
suir, siur to follow, becomes shv in
Layaraon, suwe in Ancren Eiwle,
swe in the Alliterative Poems, and
sewe in Chaucer, shewing ew, ui, iu,
iw, uw = {\iu), and therefore sewe of
Chaucer = (suu-e).* The argument thus
gained, applied to triw-e (Robert of
Gloucester), treive (Chaucer), truwe
(Occleve), and trene (Audley), gives
theoretic (truu-e;, which is shewn to
be correct by trive in Alliterative Poems,
p. 27, where due also rhymes with it,
supported by Promptorium Parvulorum
irwe.^ Thus, in addition to the digraph
above given, ue and eu also appear to
= (uu). If then the ags. treoice, which
appears as treowe and treouive in Laya-
mon's earliest text, and as trewe in the
later, had a sound different from trewe,
• The proof must be sought in the paper
referred to, and having not seen it, I can
only express my own doubts of its con-ect-
ness founded upon my own small amount
of observation, see p. 458.— A.J. E
* Apparently from the theory that an
inversion of the order of the letters in a
digraph does not affect its value, which is
to me extremely doubtful. — A.J.E.
• In ntiit, fruit, the i, still pronounced,
is as much a representative of tlie lost gut-
tural, as the y in day, may. — A.J.E.
♦ Which I doubt.— A.J.E.
* An examination of the age and locality
of MSS. is necessary before judging of the
value of their orthography in determining
Bounds. The Alliterative Poems, Sir
Gawayne, and Anturs of Arther are West
Midland, in which part of the country a
very peculiar pronunciation still prevails,
80 different from the South Eastern, that
the ancient orthography of that district re-
quires especial study. It is very probable
tnat (uu) was unkiiown in those districts as
a sound of «, w, but that it was always
replaced by (yy, y) or some cognate sound.
(in one Syllable), UE, EU, UI, IU
VAiiiANTs EOU, EOW, EOUW, EW,
(uu).
iriwe, or trwe, it could only have been
for a short time, and it may probably
be assumed to have been the same.'
The supposition, then, that cw had one
sound in words of Norman origin, and
another in those of native growth (p.
302) is unnecessary, and indeed incon-
sistent with the fact that, though it
may be true that Chaucer does not
rhyme together words in eiv of different
origin, other writers do. As a case in
point we find in Alliterative Poems, p.
13, trwe English, blwe probably Nor-
man, grewe preterit, remwe Norman,
and again knewe English, (which is
also found written k/iive) swe Norman
due Norman, Jnce English, wiirwe Eng-
lish and remwe Norman, all rhjTning
together. 8. We note also in this text
Chaucer's newe always spelled nw or
mve. We should, therefore, perhaps
read such rhymes as those found
in LjTical Poetry, p. 37, viz : reowe,
newe, heowe, kneowe ; as (ruu-e, nuu-e,
Huu-e, knuu'e). Many confirmatory
instances might be cited from various
texts, but the above may suffice tojshew
the great probability tliat Norman and
English ue eu, ui iu, eou, etc. were in
13. and 14. = (uu), and hence that the
modern pronunciations of : rue, true,
sue, suit, rule, pursuit, bruit, fruit, and
the vulgar sound of : nuisance (nuu),
duty (duu), new (nuu), beautiful (buu),
arc but echoes of that of 13. and 14.'
On Layamon pee p. 496, and on the Ancren
Riwle, see p. 506. The orthography of these
works offers so many points of difliculty
that it cannot be safely appealed to for any
proofs. The whole of our Western provin-
cial pronunciation has first to be studied. —
A.J.E.
6 In the last note it was conjectured that
the w of the Alliterative Poems may have
been (yy). As regards the Promptorium
the author only knew the East Anglian pro-
nunciation (supril p. 23, note 2), and to this
day the East Anglians use (yy) for (uu).
The above inference is therefore in the
highest degree hazardous. — A.J.E.
"> On treoice see p. 498, 1. 14. No Anglo,
saxon scholar would be likely to admit eo
to have had the same value as u. See p.
511.— A.J.E.
8 Probably all these rhymed as (yy), as
thev still would in Devonshire. See supr4
n. 5.— A.J.E.
9 This conclusion is directly opposed to
all I have been able to learn on the subject.
—A.J.E.
Chap. VI. § 1.
MR. PAYNE ON OI, 10, OE, EO.
587
01, 10 (in one stxlable), OE, EO = (uu) or (ee).
It is remarkable that two sounds so
remotely allied as (uu) and (ee) should
frequently, both in Norman and Eng-
lish, be used one for the other. No-
thing, however, is more probable than
that oi in early French generally,
must have represented the sound (uu).
Nothing at the same time is cleaver
than that in the Norman texts the
oi of Central France is very gene-
rally to be read (ee). Thus the forms
moi, toi, etc., which in proper Nor-
man would be mei, lei, etc., are by
no means excluded fi-om Norman texts,
but are constantly found rhyming with
the Norman ei or ee. Thus iei rhymes
with moi, moi yviihfoi, voir with vee);
roi with lei, etc., and are therefore to
be pronounced (mee, veer, lee), etc.
The concurrence, however, of such
forms as : gcnoil genou, genoul, genue ;
acoiller, acuiller, where ui = (uu) ; agoille
aguille ; angoisse, anguisse, angusse ;
noit, nuit ; poi, pou pen ; fusoyn (rhym-
ing with corbiloun in De Biblesworth,
Wright p. 158), seems to shew that oi,
m' = (uu). This conjecture may be
further confirmed by assuming oi = oe,
and observing that oile oil of 12. be-
comes oele and uille in 13., and huile
in 15., while bticf, boef are boiif=
(buuf) in De Biblesworth. This word
he rhymes with ouf oeuf, of which the
variants were oef, uef. Again boe,
moe, roe of 13., become later boue, motie,
roue. But eo also = (uu), as is seen in
the numerous words of the form em-
pereor, etc., which became emperour,
etc. The most difficult case is that of
to=o«=(uu). It is proved, however,
by the formation of such words as
mansion, which became by the loss of
the n and fusion of io into u, niaisun.
Saisun may be explained in the same
way, as may also magun mason, from
low Latin macio. The word in its
Normanised form machim occurs in
Layamon, and is erroneously translated
machine by Sir F. Madden. These
views respecting Norman oi io, oe eo =
(uu), are singularly confirmed by Eng-
lish examples of adopted Norman words.
Mr. Ellis's inferences (p. 269) I should
generally endorse, except that, as before
1 In this further investigation respect
would have to be paid to the principle of
palatalization produced by an inserted i,
familiar to those who have studied phonetic
laws, and well illustrated by Prof. H aide-
stated, I should pronounce boiste, for
which buiste is also found (buust'c) not
(bnist'e), and perhaps Loi, cog, and boy
(Luu, kuu, buu). jVerour mirror of
Chaucer, is directly taken from Norman
mireor. It occurs as mgroure in Po-
litical Songs, Wright, p. 213. Norman
poeste also appears constantly in English
as pouste. The case of io = (uu) is not
considered by Mr. Ellis. It is, how-
ever, rendered more than probable by
our word warrior written werroure by
Capgrave, and referable to Norman
gicerreur, which by nn&lot^y =guer r our.
Analysing the on = (uu) into oi= io, we
obtain the modern English warrior.
Similarly we may trace carrion to Nor-
man caroine. So the word riot, con-
jecturally referred by the editor of
Ancren Eiwle to route, may be really a
variant of that word. It must be
remembered, however, that the English
riot came directly from Norman riote,
and the variation, if variation it be,
must have belonged to the original
soirrce. Diez, Menage, Scheler and
Burguy virtually give up the ety-
mology altogether. It is only probable
then, but not proved, that Norman
caroine and English carrion, might
have been (karuune), and that riot
might have been sometimes (ruut).
The subject requires further investi-
gation. ^ The fluctuations of Norman
orthography suggested the enquiry that
has been sketched, but the results lead
us on still further, and render it pro-
bable that eo, oe, etc., when found in
pure English words, had also the
sound (uu). Heo .she, therefore, with
the variants hic and hue, was probably
(huu), as it still is in Lancashire.
Heore their, too, and huere, interpret
each other, and so do, duere and deor,
beoth and bueth, beon and buen, preost
and pruest, glew and gleo. We infer,
then, that in Layamon' s beorn warrior,
cheose, leode, leaf, leose the eo = {\m).
The subsequent forms burn (Piers Plow-
man), choose, luve, loose, etc., and the
contemporary form lued for Icod, (Pol.
Songs, p. 155), render this hypothesis
very strong, while such forms as goed
good, compared with gaud (Layamon,)
man, in his article on Glotto.sis Analytic
Orthography, pp. 67-71. So far as I can
understand them, I entirely dissent from
the views expressed in the text.— A.J. E.
588
EXPRESSION OF SOUNDS.
Chap. VI. } 2.
toen town, proeve Norman preove Eng-
lish, doel imd rf(o/ sorrow, slicw that oe as
well as to = (nil). The groat difficulty in
assigning tlu- phonetic values of oi, eo,
oe arises from the undoubted fact that
they were represented both by (uu) and
by (cc).' Thus we find that nearly
all the Norman and English words
cited above appear to have both sounds.
Thus heo appears as he, heore huere as
here, dcor duere as dere, beoth bucth as
bcth, bton biten as bin, preost pruest as
prest, c/icose as chese, lease as Use, etc.,^
also proeve preove as preve? caroine as
eareyne carayne, pitple, pueple, people
as peple, etc. This divarication in
the case of Norman words, was more
apparent than real, since the usual
Norman sound of oi was (ee). Yet
the numerous examples of oi also =
(uu), as for instance in the normal
termination of the third pei'son sin-
gular of the imperfect tense of the
first conj ugation, which w as -otit = (uut),
Avhile in the other conjugations it was
-eit = (-eet), render the determination of
the law of divergence very difKcult.
This law, however, must apparently
have equally dictated the interchange
of the sounds as well in English as in
Norman, and this fact is only one proof
more of the remai-kable correspondence
(in spite of all orthographic variations)
between the phonetic systems of the
two languages, and illustrates the ge-
neral position that the Norman and
English pronunciations respectively
help to determine each other.*
§ 2. Tlie Expression of the Sounds.
The list in the last section suggests its counterpart, how
have the sounds of the English language been expressed by
letters at different times ? Up till the invention of printing
at least, the object of writers seems to have been to represent
their pronunciation, and the possibility of using the same
symbols with altered values does not appear to have occurred
to them, although each sound was not uniformly represented
by the same sign, and some signs had more than one value."
It is also not at all improbable that very provincial writers
may have been accustomed to attach values to the letters
corresponding to their local pronunciations, and have then
used them consistently according to their lights. From
these causes arose the occasional picturesqueness of scribal
orthography, which was unchecked by any acknowledged
• My own indicated explanation of the
phenomena to which Mr. Payne refers are
to be found on p. 209, and 131, note, col. 1,
p. 138, note col. 1. The question seems to
be one affecting the treatment of Latin e, o,
in the Romance languages. — A.J-E.
9 These anomalies, occtirring in MSS. not
expressly named, seem readily explicable
by the known interchanges of eo, e, p. 488,
and of M, e, supri p. 585, n. 6.— A.J.E.
* Oe, eo are so rare in Chaucer, see p. 262,
1. 33, that I have not been able to judge of
their origin or intentional use as distinct
from (ee). But we must not forget the two
modem forms reprove, reprieve. — A.J.E.
♦ The Norman was an old Norse phonetic
system modifying the langue d'oil, so that
the latter had the main share in the result.
The English was a pure Anglosaxon system,
slightly modified by an old Norse element.
There seems to be no connection between
the two systems of sound. The orthogra-
phies were both derived from the Latin,
but the Norman spelling came direct from
Koman sources, and the Anglosaxon was
only a priestly transcription of the pre-
existent runic. The whole application of
the orthographies was therefore diverse.
The Norman accidentally came into collision
with the English, but the developments
seem to have proceeded independently, and
the share of Norman in 13. English was
scarcely more than that of P^nglish in 13.
Norman. Ultimately the whole character
of our language, both in idiom and sound, be-
came English, and Norman words were ruth-
lessly anglicised. Hence, I am not inclined
to admit Mr. Payne's conclusion. — A.J.E.
5 See the table on p. 407, where in col.
2, " (ou) o 00 oa" is a misprint for " (oo)
o 00 oa."
Chap. VI. § 2. EXPRESSION OF SOUNDS. 589
authority. At the present day we have nothing to guide
us but the usage of printing offices, on which (and not
on the manuscripts of authors) our orthographical hxws and
the pages of our dictionaries are founded. The most in-
geniously contradictory reasons are given for preferring one
spelling to another. Sometimes a man with a name, as
Johnson in England and Webster in America, proclaims his
own views and is considerably followed, but Johnson's favourite
-ick as in musick has disappeared, and no Englishman likes
to see the American orthography.^ During the last fifty
years a habit of eye has been generated, and spelling has
been dissociated in our minds from the expression of sound.
But even in the xvth century this was not the case in
England, although the disappearance of final e from pro-
nunciation introduced more and more confusion as the
century advanced, and the original value of the e was less un-
derstood. When printing commenced, there was a necessity
for printers to introduce some degree of uniformity, and, as I
have had personal experience of the difiiculties thus created,^
I can well understand the slowness with which even toler-
able uniformity was attained. It took fully two, if not
three, centuries to reach the present system. During this
time several experiments were made, among which I do not
reckon schemes for an entire renovation of our orthography,
as proposed by Smith, Hart, Bullokar, Gill, and Butler, in
the first century and a half after Caxton set up his press.
The last great change was made in the xvi th century, when
the orthographies ee ea, oo oa, were settled (pp. 77, 96),
how, and by whom, I have not yet discovered. The intro-
duction of ie, in place of ee, was not of the same nature, and
did not take root till the xvii th century (p. 104). In the
course of that century many little changes were tried, but
the gradual loss of the feeling for the meaning of ea, and its
perversion in the early part of the xviii th century (p. 88),
undid most of the good effected in the xvi th century. No
^ Since the publication of the Die- suivies d'une histoire de la reforme or-
tionary of the French Academy, it has thographique depuis le XV" siecle
become the sole rule in France, or jusqu' a. nos jours, 2nd ed. Paris, 1868,
rather each of its six editions of 1694, 8vo. pp. 485.
1718, 1740, 1762, 1795, 1835, has be-
come the rule till certain points were "^ In 1848-9 I conducted a phonetic
reconsidered and changed in subsequent printing office with a view of trying
editions. " Le Dictionnaire de I'Aca- the experiment of a phonetic ortho-
demie est done la scule loi," says the graphy, and I had to drill compositors
most competent authority in France, of all kinds of pronunciation to a uni-
M. Ambroise Firmin Didot, in his ex- form system of spelling, in order that
tremely intei'esting Observations sur all my books, and all parts of my
rOrthographe ou Ortografie fran(,'aise, books, should be consistent.
590
EXPRESSION OF SOUNDS.
Chap. VI. § 2.
great change was effected by Johnson over Dyche and
Buchanan, but he became a name, and a refuge for the
printer's reader. AVe have not yet settled how to write
between two and three thousand of the words in our lan-
guage,^ although it must be confessed that we do not find
' E. Jones, The common sense of
English (Jrtlio<^raphy, a guide to the
Spelling of douhttul and ditticult words,
for the use of printers, authors, ex-
aminers, teachers, and students gene-
rally, 18C7. It may be observed that
he -^nis, printfrs first. He lays down
as "the principles of English ortho-
graphy," first, " the law of abbrevia-
tion or contraction," illustrated by
music, bhsl, things, inferior, baking,
entrance, wilful, fetter, for musick,
blessed, thyngcs, inferiour, bakeing, en-
terance (?), uillfuU, feetter (?), second
" preference for, or aversion to, certain
letters illustrated by the disuse of y in
middle, and use of it at the end of
•words." The statement that "the
desire to produce an agreeable succes-
sion of sounds, or euphony, is also an
important principle in the spelling of
words," is unintelligible in an ortho-
graphy which does not regulate the
sound. lie classifies the doubtful
■words thus : 1 . honor, honour (30
■words) ; 2. movable, moveable (Johnson
inconsistent) ; 3. civilise, civilize ; 4.
traveler, traveling, traveled, traveller,
travelling, travelled ; 6. enrol, enroll ;
6. pressed, dressed, prest, drest; 7.
mediaeval, medieval ; 8. monies, mo-
neys; 9. hinderance, hindrance; 10.
alcali, alkali ; 11. Frederic, Frederick ;
12. connection, connexion ; a license,
to license, advice, advi.se ; 14. centre,
center ; 15. bark, barque ; 16. tong in
ivith centurv, tongue; 17. controul,
control. And he then proceeds to give
rules for spelling in these doubtful
cases. His arguments do not merely
affect the words he cites, but large
numbers of others which he does not
presume to alter, because they are not
considered doubtful. This is the most
recent attempt at giving "principles"
to regulate our orthography. The
reader will find a Ueport on this work
by Mr. Ilussell Martincau, in the
Transactions of the Philological Society
for 1867, Part II., pp. 315-325. M.
Didot, in the work cited on p. 589, n.
2, in anticipation of a revision of
French orthography in a contemplated
new edition of the dictionary of the
Academy, says ; '• L' usage si frequent
que j'ai dii faire, ct que j'ai vu faire
sous mes yeux, dans ma longue carriere
typographique, du Dictionnaire de 1'
Academic, m'a permis d' apprecier
quels sont Ics points qui peuvent offrir
le plus de difticultes. J'ai cru de mon
devoir de les signaler. L' Academic
rendrait done un grand service, aussi
bien au public lettre qu' a la multitude
et aux otrangers, en continuant en 1868
I'ceuvre si hardiment commencee par
elle en 1740, et qu'elle a poursuivie
en 1762 et en 1835. II suffirait,
d'apres le raeme systeme et dans les
proportions que 1' Academic jugera con-
venables : 1° De regulariser I'ortho-
graphe et)Tnologique de la lettre x, cA;
et de substituer aux Q, th, et (p, ph, nos
lettrcs fran(,ai.<es dans les mots les plus
usuels; d'oter 1' h a quelques mots oil
il est reste pour figurer 1' esprit rude (*);
2" De supprimer, conformement a ses
precedents, quelques lettres doubles qui
ne se prononcent pas ; 3" De simpli-
fier I'orthographe des noms composes,
en les re'unissant le plus possible en un
seul mot ; 4" De regulariser la desi-
nence orthographique des mots ter-
mines en ant et ent ; 5° Do distinguer,
par une legere modification (la cedille
placee sous le t), des mots termines en
tie et tion, qui se prononcent tantot
avec le son du t et tantot avec le son
de Ys ; 6" De remplacer, dans certains
mots, I'.v par 1' i ; 7° De donner une
application speciale aux deux formes
g ct g an cas ou Ic j, dont le son est
celui du g doux, ne serait pas preferable ;
8" De substituer 1'* a Vx, comme
marque du pluriel a certains mots,
comme elle I'a fait pour lois, au lieu de
loix {lex, la loi, leges, les lois). Parmi
CCS principales modifications generale-
ment reclamees, 1' Academic adoptera
celles qu'elle jugera le plus importantes
et le plus opportunes. Quant a celles
qu'elle croira devoir ajourner, il suffi-
rait, ainsi qu'elle I'a fait quelquefois
dans la sixieme edition, et conforme-
ment a I'avis de ses Caluers de 1694,
d'ouvrir la voie a leur adoption future
Chap. VI. § 2.
EXPRESSION OF SOUNDS.
591
much inconvenience from the uncertainty, and most writers
select the spelling which their hand takes from habit with-
out consideration, and do not call the compositor to order
if he alters it in print. And compositors, with their
authorized superiors, the printers' readers, have habits of
their own as to spelling and punctuation, regarding their
author's MS. as an orthographical exercise which it is their
business to correct ; so that, except in extremely rare cases
where the author is opinionated and insists on the com-
positor "following copy," ^ no printed book represents the
orthography and punctuation of the man of education
who writes, but only of the man of routine who prints.^
au moyen de la formule : Quelqiies-uns
eerivent . . . : ou en se servant de
cette autre locution : On poiirrait
ecrire .... Par cette simple in-
dication, chacun ne se croirait pas irre-
vocablement enchaine, et pourrait ten-
ter quelques modifications dans I'ecri-
ture et dans r impression des livres," p.
23. This is the latest French view of
the question.
1 And then the compositor can
easily take his revenge, and disgust his
author, by copying all the careless
blunders which haste and the habit of
leaving such matters to the printer
have engendered in our writers. The
literal exhibition of the greater part of
" the copy for press," and still more of
the correspondence, of even esteemed
men of letters, would show that our
present orthography, including the use
of capitals and punctuation, is by no
means so settled as printed books, and
the stress laid iipon " correct " spelling
in Civil Service Examinations, would
lead us to suppose.
2 Some months after this paragraph
was written, I received a letter from
Prof. F. J. Child, of Harvard, in
which he says : " I wish you may make
the Philological Society take some
tenable ground as to orthography in
their dictionary. Nothing can be
more absurd than the veneration felt
and paid to the actual spelling of Eng-
lish, as if it had been shaped by the
national mind, and were not really im-
posed upon us by the foremen of some
printing offices. In America all books
printed in New York exhibit Webster's
spelling, and most books printed at
Cambridge (a great place for printers),
Worcester's. Although we cannot
trace the English spelling-book, so far
as I know, I am fully convinced that
it is lai'gely of printing office origin."
As this sheet was passing through
the press my attention was directed to
the following letter from the Mr. Jones,
mentioned p. 590, n. 1, in the Athe-
nmiim, 10 July 1869, in which he
seems to be endeavouring to give effect
to his views by means of an association.
The "Fonetic Nuz " Spelling alluded
to, is that employed by the present
writer in the Fhonetic News in 1849:
'■^Spelling Reform. — Perhaps you will
allow me a short space to lay before
your readers a brief statement of the
objects of the Spelling Keform Asso-
ciation. The very mention of ' Spelling
Reform' suggests to most people some-
thing like the 'Fonetic Nuz' system,
which has been the subject of so much
ridicule. Permit me then to say, with-
out expressing any opinion upon the
phonetic method, that the Spelling
Reform Association does not propose to
introduce that mode of Spelling the
English language, but that our recom-
mendations are based upon the follow-
ing assumptions, which most persons
Avill readily admit : — 1. No one would
desire to stereot}'pe and hand down to
posterity oirr orthography in its pre-
sent state ; but there is a vague
notion that at some time and by some
means the thing will be rectified. 2.
England is about the only country in
Europe in which the orthography has
not been, in some way or other, ad-
justed ; and orthography Ls one of the
very few subjects in England which
have not been adapted to modern re-
quirements. 3. The anomalies of the
orthography cause serious obstruction
to the education of the people, most
of the time in Government schools
592
EXPRESSION OF SOUNDS.
Chap. VI. § 2.
Still there is a latent spark of that fire which warmed the
original writers of our own manuscripts, and there is a
notion that certain corahinations have an inherent tendency to
represent certain sounds, and conversely that certain sounds
are naturally represented hy certain combinations. The last
section will have shown with what allowances the first state-
ment must be received in the xix th century ; the following
table will show how varied are the combinations which have
been and are employed to represent the sounds.
In drawing up the list of sounds represented, it was
necessary to include all the sounds which, so far as the
preceding investigation shews, previously existed in our
language, and those which recent and minute examination
establishes to exist at present, including those newly in-
troduced French words which are spoken in a semi-French
pronunciation. The following list is an extract from the
completer list of spoken sounds in the introduction, and for
convenience is arranged in the same order. The same
abbreviations are used as in the last section.
bein{T occupied in teaching reading and
spelling — with arithmetic — with miser-
able results, as to the proportion of
children turned out of these schools
having the ability to read with intelli-
gence and to spell correctly. 4. The
various examinations conducted by the
Government, the Universities, and other
examining bodies, give a fictitious value,
and virtually give the sanction of their
approval, to a system which has no
claim whatever to be regarded as ' the
best method of spelling words,' a sys-
tem which has been described by high
authority as ' an accidental custom, a
mass of anomalies, the growth of ig-
norance and chance, equally repugnant
to good taste and to common sense.'
6. A simplification of the orthography
would do more to give the people the
ability to read with intelligence and to
spell correctly than any amount of
Government giants or any legislation
whatever. 6. No individual or society
under present circumstances would
have sufficient influence to introduce an
improved sy.stem of orthography ; if
done at all, it must be by the co-opera-
tion of literary men. teachers, examin-
ers, printers, and the public generally.
7. It is possible, by observing analogy
and following precedent, without in-
troducing any new letters or applying
any new principle, to simplify the or-
thography so as to reduce the diflScul-
ties to a minimun, and to replace con-
fusion and caprice by order and symme-
try. The Spelling Reform Association
invite the co-operation of all literary
men and friends of education in this
desirable object. E. Jones, Hon. Sec."
The opinions entertained by the pre-
sent writer on the subject thus broached
by Prof. Child, and Mr. Jones, will
be developed in the subsequent sections
of this chapter, and the same remarks
apply mutatis mutandis to M. Didot's
French proposals. It will there ap-
pear that I do not see how any " tenable
ground" can be taken by the Philo-
logical Society " as to the orthography
of their dictionary," beyond the accident
of present custom in London. Much
might be said on Mr. Jones's seven
points, which ho believes "most per-
sons will readily admit." "Why our
present orthography should be con-
sidered so much less worthy to be
handed down to posterity than one
modified on Mr. Jones's "principles,"
and how any such modifica.ions would
render its use beneficial in schools to
the extent anticipated, I am at a loss
to cnceive. To Mr. Jones's seventh
proposition, if I understand it aright,
my own orthographic studies lead me
to give an unqualified denial.
Chap. VI. § 2.
EXPRESSION OF SOUNDS. (A— JS).
593
Chronological Accodnt of the Expression of Sottnds in English
Writing.
(A a), was always represented by a
from 13. to 19., the sound went out
in 17., and now only exists in rather
a rare pronunciation of: ask, stwtf,
commrtnd, p^'ss, and similar words,
and is considered to exist in : star,
card, by those who believe the vowel
short ; it is common in the provinces
in place (ae).
{A a), was probably the ags. sound
written a, possibly the sound meant
by oa in 13. ; it is now lost in Eng-
lish, but is heard in Scotch.
(:A a), according to "Wallis, etc., the
sound into which short o fell in 17.
when " fall folly, call collar, lawes
losse, cause cost, aw'd odd, saw'd
sod," were considered as perfect
pairs. In 19. this short o is (p).
The distinction is delicate, but may
be rendered appreciable by drawling
odd into (ood) which will be found to
be different from meed (A.xd), or by
shortening the vowel in the latter
word, producing (Ad) which is dif-
ferent from odd (ad). In 19. a after
a (w) sound, as tvkai, tvatch, squash,
(whAt, WAtch, skwAsh), is the sole
representative of this sound, and
even here most speakers use (o).
(Aa aa) was represented by a always
in 13., and by a in open, and fre-
quently by aa in closed syllables in
14. In 16. it was still written a
without any indication that the syl-
lable was long, except by an occa-
sional mute final e. The soimd was
lost in 17., except perhaps before r,
so that «;-, er in iar, clf/k, may have
represented (aar), though they were
acknowledged, and perhaps most fre-
quently pronounced, as (a^r) only.
In 19. the indication of length and
quality is variously made according
to the origin of the word in : father,
are (but not in b«re, iave, etc.),
serfff/lio, ah, alms, M«/mfsbury, ec\af,
aunt, h'rTqice, clfrk, heart, gnavd, but
its principal indication is a before
r= (.1) professedly, but intended to be
omitted by those persons who write
larf to indicate (laaf). In London
ar, when not followed by a vowel,
may be regarded as the regular sign
for (aa), and is so used by many
writers. The ah ! of the exclama-
tion is, however, nearly as certain,
and does not involve the r difficulty.
{Aa aa), this appears to have been the
long a of ags. It has since disap-
peared from acknowledged sounds.
It is, no doubt, heard in the pro-
vinces, and it is by some recognized
as the common London sound meant
for (aa), which see.
(:Aa aa), unknown previously to 17.,
and then represented by aa, aw,
augh, ough ; these sounds and nota-
tions still prevail. It replaced the
sound of (an), and hence was repre-
sented by a before /, as now ; or by
al, with a mute I. It was identified
with the German a, and is often
called " German « " in pronouncing
dictionaries ; it was also identified
with French a, and Miege could
not hear the difference. See Eron-
dell's remarks supra p. 22G, n., col. 2.
In 1 7. Off represented it in broad. The
following may be considered as its
representatives in 19. : fall, aara,
Magdalen College (MAAd'len), maul-
stick, wa^k, batoan, hawl, Ma;«d«,
naughty, Yaughan, auln, aicfal,
awe, broad, so/der (spelled sriM-der
in iSam Slick), ought. The com-
bination or is theoretically (oi),
practically (aa.i), or (.4 a) ; so that
Dickens, in Pickwich, writes Smorl
Tork as a name to indicate small
talk. See supra, p. 575, under o.
Hence, extraordinary, Gforgic,
George, fork, horss, may be reckoned
as other examples, even by those
who do not include the r in the
combination.
(Aah aah). This delicate sound pro-
bably formed the transition from
(aa) to (iEOB) in 17-, and it is occa-
sionally heard from "refined"
speakers, as a variety of (aa), which
they consider too "broad," while
(seae) used by others is too " minc-
ing." It is a mere variety of (aa),
and is represented in the same way.
(^ ae) was probably the short ags. se,
but in ags. it rapidly became con-
fused with (e, e), and was then
lost. It reappears in 17. as a sub-
stitute for (aj, and was represented
by ft and the same varieties as that
sound. So it has remained, but by
omitting letters, and reducing many
(aa), and even other sounds, to this
favourite short vowel, it is seen va-
riously represented in 19., as: sat,
38
594
EXPRESSION OF SOUNDS. (-EoD— D). Chap. VI. § 2.
Jeaac, M^fkay, drachm, have, always
(iiuuv) ilown to 10., h(i(/mo {hxivJo),
Tai/Z/inou (Tii'inMin), pki'd, sw/nion,
harangf/*, Clap/((jni, coiisiJered as
(Kla-pscm), but really (Khrpiim),
Tollnuache (Ta'l-nuesh), piqwant.
In 17. one, once wore (wajn, w;cns).
It is in 19. also used by very delicate
speakers, especially educated ladies
ill Yorkshire, in such words as :
bflsket, staff, p«th, pass, ««nt, in
which (ah, a) and {vex, aah, aa) are
also heard. This vowel is now cha-
racteristic of English, and is the
despair of foreigners.
(iEiC icx). The long (a;ae) replaced
(aa) in 17 , and was represented in
all the ways in which (aa) had been
previously pronounced. No change
was acknowledged. The sound ra-
pidly died out into the (ee) of 18.,
but it is now preserved in the "West
of England, where (Bicicth, kfcaead)
are pronounced for Bfth, COTd. It
is the name of the letter A in Ire-
land. Twenty years ago it was, and
probably still is, a fashionable long
sound of A in Copenhagen. It is
sometimes heard in 19., especially
from ladies, as a thinner utterance
of (aa) than (aah) would be.
(^u a'u). See (eu).
(Ah ah). This thin sound is seldom
heard in 19., except in the pronun-
ciation of delicate speakers, in such
words as : basket, strtff, path, pass,
au-at, and, as Mr. M. Bell believes,
for the unaccented a in amount,
canary, idea, and rapidly pronounced
and. It is also the first element in
the diphthongs : high, how, as pro-
nounced by some (nahi, nahu) in
place of (Hoi, }iou). It may have
been the transition sound between (a)
of 16., and (je) of 17. It has the
same representatives as (aa, a), gene-
rally a, sometimes au.
(Ahi ahi). See (ai, ai).
(Ahu ahu). See (au, au).
(Ai ai), if this diphthong occurred at
all in ags. it was represented by aj,
and seems to be the aj,z of Orrmin.
In 13. it was wTitten ei, ey, ai, ay, and
this representation continued, per-
haps, through 16. After 16. the
sound seems to have disappeared,
but probably remained in a few
words, and in 19. it is generally
heard in the affirmative ay, or aye,
and from many clergymen in Isaz'ah.
In the provinces it is a common
pronunciation of long «. Mr. M.
Bell considers that sound, however,
and the German pronunciation of
~ ei, ai, to be (ai), and (ai) to be the
general sound of English long t ; in
that case (ai) would then have the
expressions given below for (ai).
(Aa a.v), this French sound has only
recently been introduced into Eng-
lish, but is firmly established in aide-
de-camp {ee di kaA), the last word
being called (kAAq, k.iq, kiemp) by
different orthoepists, but (kAq, koq)
would not be endured, and (kon) is
more often said. In environs (aA*-
viroA, envaiiTonz), an ewvclope
(aA'vilijp, en'velop), custom varies.
For enuui the pronunciation (aAwii-),
or (onwii), is common, (oqwii*) is
passe, the old form was annoy, =
(anui-). Perhaps it would be more
correctly written (aa) as pronounced
by Englishmen, the labialisation
being disclaimed by Frenchmen.
(Au au), in Orrmin aww, in 14. to 16.
ati, aw. This sound was lost in 17.
and has not been recovered, though
somedeclaimers .still say (aul) for (aaI)
all. Heard in the provinces. It is
the German sound of au. Mr. M.
Bell, however, considering this last
to be (au), and believes (au) to be the
usual sound here assumed to be (au),
in which case it would really exist
in the language, and be expressed as
(au) is stated to be below.
(B b), always expressed by b, or bb.
The mute final e, and assimilated
letters, have produced the 19. va-
rieties : be, ebb, ebbed, habe, Cock-
burn (Koo'hm), Ho/Aorn, cujoioard
(this was also in 17.), hau/ioy {hoo--
boi). In 17. Jones finds dej^uty,
cujsid, etc., pronounced with (b).
(Bh bh). It is doubtful whether this
sound was ever knowTi in England,
but Dr. Kapp considers it was ags.
w. It is possible that the southern
(London and Kent) tendency to con-
vert (v) into (w) may arise from
some original mispronunciation of v
as (bh). The sound is not only not
acknowledged, but is rarely under-
stood by Englishmen. Even in parts
of North Gennany (bh) has been re-
placed by (v). See the description
of the sound, p. 513, note 2.
(D d), always expressed by d, dd. The
mute final e, and assimilated letters,
together with foreign words, have
produced the 19. varieties : bdeWmxa,
CiiAP. VI. § 2.
EXPRESSION OF SOUNDS. (Dh— E).
595
^ep, &dd, Bn^f^Aist, tr?ide, Wynd-
hdita, \o\ed, yiowld, bur^Acn, usually
bur(;?en. In 17. they had : sou^cJier,
wouM, etc., biu'</(en, mur^Aer, etc.
(Dh dh), this sound must have existed
in ags., but it is not possible to say
whether \i, or '5, was meant for it.
In Icelandic \ is (th), and S (dh),
but they must have been confused in
ags. at an early period. See supra
p. 515, p. 541, n. 2, p. 555, n. 1,
col. 2. Even Orrmin does not dis-
tinguish them. When th was intro-
duced it was used indiscriminately
for (th, dh). The 19. sign is still
th, though there seems to be a feeling
that e final will ensure the sound
(dh), as bi-eaCA, brea<7«e (breth,
briidh). Some literary men write
dth to indicate the sound.
(Dj dj), an unacknowledged English
sound, common in speech in 19., and
represented by d before m, as : ver-
flfure = (vi-dj?a), when the speaker
wishes to avoid (v.i-dzhj). It is pa-
latalised (d), a transition sound be-
tween (d) and (dzh), and is distinct
from (dj). Vulgar speakers do not
change wo^dd you ? into (wwdzhM),
but into (wwdj-tj). Some even say
(•wwd-.dzhjar).
(Dw dw). See (dw).
(Dtf Aw) is perhaps the true sound
heard in : durnW., dwax^, generally ac-
cepted as (dw), with doubts as to
whether it is not (du). It seems to
be an unacknowledged lip modifica-
tion of (d), so that (d) and (w) are
heard simultaneously, rather than
consecutively, the lips being rounded
as for (w), while the tongue is raised
for (d), and the separation of the lips
and of the tongue from the palate
taking place at the same time to
admit the passage of the vowel.
How long this sound has existed as
distinct from (dw, du) cannot be
said.
(Dzh dzh), does not seem to have oc-
curred before 13., and arose first
from palatisation of final (g) in ags.,
which, after short accented vowels
in closed syllables, passed through
the form (c/), rather than (^'h), and
hence generated (dzh) in place of (j),
as : edge, hedge, ledge, fledge, com-
pare ags. ecg, hege haeg, lecgan,
flycge ; and, secondly, from the
French i consonant, and g before e, i,
which there is good reason to sup-
pose was pronoimced at one time as
(dzh), and which is said to be (dz)
in present Proven<jal, by a writer
who confuses the Spanish ch, which
is (tsh), with (ts), (Mireio, Mireille,
poeme proven<;al de Frederic Mistral,
avec la traduction litterale en re-
gard, 8vo., 1868, p. vii). Hence it
is expressed by i consonant, g, gg,
dg. Subsequently only /, g, dg
(the latter before e generally) were
used, but not consistently. In 19.
we have : Greenwich, solrfier, which
was also heard in 17., with omitted
/, as (soo'dzher, SAdzh'er), ju<f^-
ment, ridge, Vifedneshwxy (Wedzh*-
beri), .^em, college, Bellin^Aam
(Bel indzhBm),/ust.
(E e), this, or (e) was the ags. short
e, and has prevailed in one form or
the other to this day. I am myself
in the habit of saying (e), but this ap-
pears too delicate to Mr. Melville
Bell, who prefers (e), which is
the Scotch sound, and is in Scot-
land by many English people con-
fused with (se), see p. 271. It was
occasionally expressed by u from 13.
to 16. Being an exceedingly com-
mon sound, it easily absorbed related
sounds, and hence even in 17. had
numerous forms of expression, the
only normal form both' then and
now being e, but ea was very common
in 17. as in 18. and 19., and ai in
17. in unaccented syllables as cap-
tarn, now (ksep'tyn), nearly (kajp'ten)
or (ka)p-tm). Before r it seems to
have been the refuge of other sounds,
which however may be more pro-
perly (b). The following are 19,
varieties : many, Pontefract (Pam--
fret\ P«stum, Michad, Thasmes,
Srte'd, Abergawnny [(^bvigen?) writ-
ten Ahurgany in the Shakspere folio
1623, Hen. viii. i, 1, speech 49, where
it must be in four syllables for the
metre ; this is not the Welsh pro-
nunciation, but is common in Eng-
land,] s«ys, let, hend, Aebi, Wednes-
day, allege, forehead, heifer, Leicester,
leopard, cheqwe, rendezvous, rAetoric,
frjVnd, consceence, foetid, connfltsseur,
b«<ry, g?/ess, panegyric, [this pro-
nunciation is going out, as also that
in sp/rit, s^nip, sterrup], gunwale,
Thomas's (I'om-esez). If the sound
is admitted in the syllable (ea) for
(a) then we might add : sabre, virtue,
Br/dlington, sapphere, bettor, Ur-
qw/iart, anszcer. Most of these ex-
pressions are highly exceptional, and
596
EXPRESSION OF SOUNDS. (£—33). CuAV. VI. ^ 2.
arise partly from assimilations and
omissions, and partly from inser-
tions. Still the spelling has re-
mained and has to be separately
memori/cd by those who would use
it, as no rule can be assigned.
{E e). It is impossible to say whether
this sound occurred in ags. or old
English as distinct from (e). "Whe-
ther the final unaccented e of 13. and
14. had the sound of {e) or (e), or
whether it was not rather (xi), is also
impossible to detennine. In 19. the
sound only occurs as short and un-
accented, in some words, as aerial,
aorta (<?cr-ir3l, eorta), for which some
would read (ahoitah). It is the
French d.
(:E e). This is a variety of (e) and in
the pronunciation of some persons
uniformly replaces it, and has been
therefore always expressed as (e) was,
wherever it occurred. See (e).
(3 ^)- This sound does not appear in
English till the middle of 17. It
is not named by Butler, 1631. It
is distinctly recognised by Wallis,
1653, and Wilkins, 1668, and all
subsequent writers. It replaced (u)
and was expressed as (u) had been by
• M, o and occasionally ou, and these
have remained its principal forms
to 19., but numerous degradations
have occurred especially in unac-
cented syllables, where, however,
stricter analysis seems to shew that
the sound is now rather {v). Thus
we have the 19. varieties : riband,
mecrschaj<m, escutcheon, humble,
motion, conscwMS, son, docs, \o\e, tor-
toise, Lincoln, flo'jd, doi^ble, tongue,
bellows, ti^-oppcnce (in 17 ), — and if
we consider that (.t) is properly (aj)
we have this vowel in : amat^wr,
cupboard, avoj'rdupoise, col(/nel,
liqueur, liq!<or. Mr. M. Bell uses
(a) for (e).
(a" 9). This French sound should of
course be used in those French words
containing it, which are used in
English, but it is always replaced
by the familiar (a, .1).
(^ b). This faintly-characterised vowel
is recognized by Mr. Melville Bell
as the real sound in unaccented syl-
lables, where 19. orthocpists usually
assume (a, a) to exist, before v, I, r,
and s, as : motion ocean, principal,
Tartar, facetious. It is therefore
expresvsed by any combination de-
noting uuaccented (9, se).
(Ec ce.) In earlier English down to
18. we cannot distinguish {ee, ee).
In ags. it seems to have been re-
presented only by e or e. In 13. it
was also represented by ee, and oc-
casionally by ea, eo, at least, these
forms all interchange with e. In 14.
eo was almost quite dropped (though
both eo, oe are occasionally found),
and ea was very sparingly used, but
ee was common, especially in closed
syllables. In 16. the practice was
introduced of representing (ee) by
e, ea only, to the exclusion of ee.
During 17. ai, ay, ei, ey were used
as well as e, ea, but the two latter
forms were less and less used as (ee),
till they became exceptional expres-
sions in 18. and 19. In the middle
of 18. the usual forms were a (with
any addition which shewed prolon-
gation, as a final mute e), ai, ay,
occasionally ea, and ei, ey, but the
two last forms were rapidly going
out, and at the end of 18. and be-
ginning of 19. few remained. In
19., if not earlier, (ee) was separated
from [ee), and the sound of (ee) was
only used before r (i), but it was ex-
pressed by sill the same forms as {ee).
This limitation of the sound of (ee)
reduces the number of its (brms in
19. where we find : ^aron, mare,
aerie, air, Ayr, mai/or, pear, ere, e'er,
their, eyre, heir. See {ee).
{Ee ee). This sound was not consciously
separated from (ee) till the end of
18. or till 19. Even now many
persons do not perceive the difference
{ee, ec), or if they do hear the sounds
they analyse them as (eei, ee). In
some parts of England (ec) alone is
said, in the South many people can-
not pronounce (ee) before any letter
but (j), and cannot prolong {ee)
without dropping into (i), thus (m).
Some assert that {ee) is never pro-
nounced, but only (m), with which
they would write the words : mate,
cha.n\\>agnc, dfl'/zlia, pam, campa?'^n,
stxaiylit, trail, ha//penny, often
(naa-pen/) in the North, grfol, Oars-
halton (kws'iiAAt'n), gauge, plagwc,
play, grtat, e/i ! yeit, rdyn, vfeigh,
they, tyot.
(aa 33). Never a recognized sound,
but one from which (jj) is with
difficulty distinguished. It is there-
fore heard in place of (aj, ej), or
rather (jj, .i.i), by the representatives
of which it is always expressed.
Chap. VI. § 2. EXPRESSION OF SOUNDS. (Eci— F).
597
(Eei eei.) In 16. Gill acknowledges
(eei) and frequently writes it in the
word ihey (dheci). It probably ex-
isted in 17., as it is partially ac-
knowledged by Cooper. If so it was
written e?, ey, ai., ay. Most probably
its use increased in 18., but there is
no proper note of it.
{Ee\ eei.) This sound is not acknow-
ledged before 19., and then the ex-
tent of it is disputed. Some make it
coextensive with the spelling ai, ay,
others make it replace the sound of
{ee) under whatever form it is ex-
pressed. Some persons in the South
of England seem incapable of sus-
taining (ee) or (ee) without rapidly
falling into (j, i). See (ee).
(a;h oh.) This replaces (a) under what-
ever form it may be expressed, in the
pronunciation of many persons. It
is the form acknowledged by Mr. M.
Bell.
(Ei ei.) In 16. this is acknowledged
by Salesbury, and Hart as the sound
of i long and of ei, ey. Smith ac-
knowledges it in a few words, con-
taining ei, ey, where he doubtfully
distinguishes it from (ai), but he
marks i long as a separate vowel,
which he identifies with the English
words for "ego, oculus, etiam," I,
eye, aye. Gill sometimes writes (ei),
sometimes (eei), in the same words,
and considers long i to be very nearly
the same. "Wallis does not acknow-
ledge the soimd, and it seems to have
expired in 17. It is, however, re-
viving, although unacknowledged, as
a substitute for (eei) and that for
(ee), as (rein) rain.
(.Ei ei.) A variant of (ei), which
cannot be properly distinguished
from it in accounts of pronunciation,
but seems to be the true sound of
the modern Scotch long i in many
words, see p. 290.
(gi ai), or perhaps (a?) is acknowledged
by "Wallis and Wilkins in 17., and
was perhaps intended by Gill as the
sound of long i, and has since re-
mained that sound, though individu-
ally and provincially replaced by (ai,
ahi, ei, ei), etc., see p. 108. It is
expressed by any combination of
sounds which indicate that i or y is
to be long. Hence in 19. we have :
nat've, ais[e, de/pnosophist (and as
many pronounce either, netther)
height, the older sounds (neet, neeit)
axe occasionally heard, (nekht) is
still heard in Scotland, (nekth) has
been noted in tlie neighbourhood of
Ledbury, Herefordshire, (uaitth,
haith) are mistaken pronunciations —
eying, eye, rAnioceros, RAme, rhyxa-
ing, r/iyme, hind — this mode of ex-
pressing long t is found as early as
16., — indict. He, live, sign, sigh,
sighed, Viscount, isle, begwiling, be-
guile, huy, %, d^e, scythe.
(Ea ca) is not an English sound, and
no attempt to pronounce it occurs
before 18. In 19. coup de main,
which Feline writes (ku-d mcA), is
written (kuu-dim;Bq) by "Worcester,
(kuu dimjeq) by Webster, (kuu-d?-
maaq) by Knowles, (kuu'damaeq:) by
Smart, (kuudimeen) by Mavor. It
is generally called (kuu-dj mcA),
though some affect the complete
French pronunciation.
(g[A aA), this is also not an English
sound and is so rare in French that
it is seldom borrowed in English,
except in the name of the game
vingl et un, usually called (vcAtaA-)
in England, often corrupted to (va3n-
tiuu", Vffiudzhon-), just as rouge et
noir becomes Russian war, from the
older pronunciation, still occasionally
heard, of (Ruu-shen WAAr).
(Eu eu) Common in 13. and 14. as the
sound of eu eiv, from ags. eaw, etc.
Less frequent in 16., expiring in 17.,
and lost in 18. In 19. it is frequent
as a London pronunciation of (au),
thus (deun teun) for down town, and
either in this form or (eu, acu) com-
mon in Yankee speech, and in the
East Anglican dialect. It is acknow-
ledged in Italian and Spanish ^'wropa,
and in modern Provencal, both eu,
and iiu (eu, ie'u) are distinguished,
the last word being the French /e.
(:Eu, Eu). See (eu).
(g^u au). Not known before 17. In
17. and since, acknowledged as the
sound heard in now \ioiv, though some
pronounce (au, ou, on, au, ahu) and
even (aeu, eu). Expressed generally
by ou, ow, with or without mute
letters. In 19 we find : c«!o«<tchouc,
Macleod, hour, compter, noun, doubi,
renounce, hough, cow, diWowed.
(F f). From ags. to present day re-
presented by /, ph, with their dupli-
cations ff, pph. From 16., at least,
occasionally expressed by gh. In 19.
we find : /oe, fi/e, stijf, stu/;d,/iigle-
man — a mere corruption — oyi(en,
\a.\xgh, ha^/l sa.p2)h\ic, lietrtenant.
598
EXPRESSION OF SOUNDS. (G— I).
Chap. VI. ^ 2.
(G {^). From afii. to prrsrnt day cx-
prcs.sod by y. In 14. also by gg and
in 15. also by gge final. ^Viost is
found in 16. In 19. we have blarA:-
guAnX, go, egg, hcggvil, ghost, guess,
fl&gue.
{G g) or (gj), palatalized (g). Probably
in af^s. g before a palatal vowel, subse-
quently (dzh). After that change {g)
cannot be clearly traced before 18.,
but it is still found in 19., represented
by g, gu, before a (aa, aa) or long i
(ai), as : /garden, ^ward, regard, guide.
In 18., it seems to have been also
used before short a (ae) .
(Gh gh). In ags. perhaps more cer-
tainly in 13., expressed by j, after
a, 0, u long and followed by a vowel
aa oien. Possibly the sound after
0, u was labialized to (g(t'h). Whether
these sounds were entirely lost in 14.,
being replaced by (kh, kuh), it is
difficult to say ; probably not. As
long as they lasted they were ex-
pressed by 3, gh. It must have been
lost in 16.
{Gh gh). In ags. perhaps, more cer-
tainly in 13., expressed by j, after
e, i long or short, and occa.<ionally
after r, /, in which case it fell into
(»■). In ags. perhaps the initial
sound of 3 before palatals, which in
13. was replaced by (j). In 13.
written j, j,/), yh. After 13. gene-
rally replaced by (Ah, j), and written
Z, gh, y.
(Grh grh). Only known as a local
peculiarity, the Northumbrian burr,
and then expressed by r, rr as in
Harriet (Hagrh-ieit). See (r).
[Gvj g«<). 'J"he labial modification of
g, confused with (gw), from which
it differs almost as simultaneity from
succession, (gw) resulting from at-
tempting to pronounce (g) and (w)
at the same time. How long it has
been known in English cannot be
determined, but it is probably a very
early combination in the Romance
languages. In 19. it is expressed by
gu in : y?<aiaeum, ^«/ano, ^!/ava
(giraiakam, g^/•aa•no, g?raa'va).
(Gi/'h gi<h). Probably an ags. sound
of 3 after labials, and occasionally
r, I, in which case it became (u, o).
In 14. probably expressed by gh
after o, u. Perhaps /akh, laugh,
lauivh, indicated (lagh, laug«h,
lauwh) passing to (lauf). But the
sounds may have been (lakh, laukith,
lawh).
(II »). The true aspirate consisting
of a jerked emission of the following
vowel without the previous inter-
vention of the whisper, was, proba-
bly, the genuine old form of aspira-
tion, as shewn in the Sanscrit post-
a.spirates. It was frequently inter-
changed with (h', kh, gh), the last
(gh) being the value of the San-scrit
\ usually considered as h. Eepre-
sented whenever it occurred from
ags. to 19., by h. See (h').
(H' h'). The jerked utterance accom-
panied by a whispered breath pre-
cceding the vowel. The jerk is of
importance; ('a-aa). is different from
(H-'a-aa=H'aa). Constantly occur-
ring, and represented by h, but in
16. occasionally by gh. In 19.,
either (h) or (h') according to a
speaker's habits of utterance, and fre-
quently according to the momentary
impulse of the speaker, is expressed
by the following varieties : CaUay^an
— and by gh in many other Irish
names — ^ole, Colquho\m, «.-^ole.
Uneducated speakers, especially when
nervous, and anxious not to leave
out an h, or when emphatic, intro-
duce a marked (h') in places where
it is not acknowledged in writing or
in educated speech. On the other
hand both (h, h',) are frequently
omitted, by a much more educated
class than those who insert (h'), and
in the provinces and among persons
below the middle-class in London,
the use and non-use of (h, h') varies
from indi\'idual to individual, and
has no apparent connection with the
writing. Hence its pronunciation
has become in recent times a sort of
social shibboleth. The very uncer-
tain and confused use of A in old
MSS., especially of 13., serve to
make it probable that there was
always much uncertainty in the pro-
nunciation of h in our provinces.
The Scotch never omit or insert
it, except in huz (naz), the emphatic
form of us. The Germans are equally
strict. But the sound (h) or (ii') is
unknown in French, Italian, Spanish,
modern Greek, and the Sclavonic
languages.
(I i). Whether this sound existed in
closed accented syllables before 16.,
is doubtful, probably not. After 16.
there is reason to suppose that if it
did exist, its use must have been
Chap. YI. § 2. EXPRESSION OF SOUNDS, (-f— Tu).
599
very limited. In Scotland it both
did and docs exist. In all cases it
was represented by t, y. Ks, a short
sound in open syllables it was pro-
bably quite common, and was in ags.
to 14. represented by i. In 16. this
short open (i) was f as in : bdeevc
(biliiv). At present the distinction
between (i, *) in such cases is rather
doiibtful, and both are apt to be
merged into (b). But where the
distinction is made, short (i) is
always expressed by e ; see («).
(J i). This seems to have been the
common sound represented by short
i in close accented syllables in
ags., and by short /, //, and occasion-
ally M in this situation from 13.
to 19., and with tolerable certainty
from 14. to 19. In 16., as a final,
it was frequently written ie. Or-
thoepists, however, constantly con-
fuse (i, i) both in closed and open
syllables, so that any real separation
of (i, e), is hazardous. In 19., (t)
in closed syllables is expressed in a
great vaiiety of ways, owing to
various degradations, but generally
as i, y with some letters which have
become mute, and when in final
open syllables, generally by y or
some variety of the same. The fol-
lowing forms may be noticed. In
closed syllables : landscape, Samt
John (Surdzh^n) as a family name,
Jerv««dx (Jaaa-vf's), prftty, guineas,
beaufin., breeches, forff«t, Theobald
(T/b"Bld) the recognized name of an
editor of Shakspere and a street
in London, housew/fe (iiaz'/f) a
threadholder, ex/*ib'«t (egzib'it)
some say (ecsH'ib'/t) with a very
marked (h'), vhyihm, pj't, mar-
riages, marr/ffge, pit/ed, to h've,
sie^e, feVepence, women, groats
(gr?'ts), Jervo/s, Mis</-ess (M/s-2s),
b?<sy, lettwce, b«(ld, bi<smess, Tyr-
ivhiit (Ta"2t), Chiswjck (Tshiz-/k),
physic, Wy»(o«dham (Wmd'Tjm).
In open syllables, many of the above
forms and : Eothsr/^/, mone,y, Ann«e,
Beauiieu {Bhvli), felloe (fel-«),
chamow leather (slucm-e), plag«<y.
(li ii). In ags. either (ii) or (/«),
which see, was always expressed by
i long, and so on to 14. and part of
15. After 15. (ii) was only rarely
expressed by i long, but more and
more frequently by e, ee, and in 16.
frequently by e ee and rarely by ea,
ie. The expression by ea, ie increased
slightly in 17. In 18. e, ee, ea, ie,
were the rule, and ci, ey the excep-
tions. In 19. the two latter also
became the rule. The Latin se, ce
were also added to the list, and vari-
ous degradations swelled the expres-
sions of (ii) in 19. to the following
extraordinary variety : minutia, de-
mam, Gatus College, be, each, fleaed,
leave, Bea?<champ (Beetshcm),
league, feet, e'en, complete, sleeve,
impre^, Le^A, conce^■t, concetve,
seiynioTj, 'Leigh, receipt, Be^voir,
people, demesne, key, Wcmyss
(Wiimz), keyed, diarr/«j?a, invalid,
gr«ef, magazme, gr/eve, s/yniour,
fasil, debr/«, intr/g«e, fojtus, (\/<ay,
qttaytd, mosq«/to, turq«o/se (takiiz')
according to Walker, Smart, and
"Worcester, more commonly (tyr-
kwAAZ')
{Ii ii). In 14., and most probably
earlier, the sound of long i and y.
During 15. this sound nearly ex-
pired and was only retained by a
few individuals in 16., being re-
placed by (ei, i) according as the
syllable in which it occurred retained
or lost the accent. It is heard in
Scotch in 19., where a short {i) is
accidentally lengthened as : gi'e, wi'.
In English it is an unacknowledged
sound often heard from singers who
lengthen a short (/), as (stn'l) for
(stel) still, as distinct from (stiil)
steal, see pp. 106, 271.
(In iu iuu). These sounds cannot well
be separated, 'i'hey probably never
occiUTcd initially. When Smith
wrote iw/ker in 16. he meant (juq--
ker). The sound was not recog-
nized till 17., when it was generally
expressed by long n, or eu, ew. The
same combinations used initially, as
in use, wiiite, e«'e, probably expressed
(jiuu, jiu, jiuu). In my phonetic
spelling I have seldom thought it
necessary to distinguish (iu, iuu)
and have frequently omitted to pre-
fix the (j). From these sounds
should be distinguished (juu, ju)
which are also confounded with
them, but are usually written you.
With these the sounds (.jhiu, jhiuu)
often confounded with them, had
best be considered. The following
are the 19. varieties of expressing
these sounds :
(iu) mon«ment, docf^ment, incwbate,
mant««<maker.
(iuu) heauty, £eod, feudal, deicce,
GOO
EXPRESSION OF SOUNDS. (J— Lh). Chap. VI. § 2.
lyr^on, xiftr, adieu, vieiv, \ieued,
f/(/gleman, amwsing, fuchsia (fiuu-
shia^. cue, amuse, (\iu-ne, impwyn,
hu/ii, suit, puiMu; (piuunt}, \ute-
Ktring (liuirstrKj,) titjrue.
fjiu) Miiitc, Eugtne (Jiud/.hiin")
(jiuu) tui/A, etvc, i/<w, i/«le.
(ju) in IG. young = (ju(i) like present
German junt/.
(juu) t/ou, f/oidh.
(jhiii) /utmanc.
(jhiuu) /(/<man, hue, Stigh, Hughes.
(J j). The palatal con.sonant into
which ags. initial (c/h) degenerated,
generally confounded with an initial
unaccented (i), whence it is occa-
sionally derived, and often confused
■with the palatal modification (j)
from which it differs as (w) from
(«'). Apparently in use from 13. to
19., expressed in 1.3. and often in
14. by 1, J, whence the modern forms
y, z, p. 310, and p. 298, note. The
varieties in 19., are : hidtous, on/on,
hallchyah, yard, Dencil.
(Jh j1i). Orrmin's jh in -^heo she.
The whispered (,ih) differs from (j),
as {k\i) from {{/Wj, but is by Germans
confounded with (Ah), although often
prononnccd by them quite distinctly
m j(t (jhrtrt) for (jrt«). It has pro-
bably often been pronounced in
English, but it is not recognized,
and even in the words cited under
(iu) it is not now generally acknow-
ledged, (jhiuu) being taken asfH'juu,
H'iuu) sounds which arc not easy to
utter. It has no special representa-
tive, but is implied by any combina-
tion apparently expressing (h'+iu).
(K k). The sound has been in use
from ags. to 19. In ags. expressed
by c invariably. In 13. generally
by c, occasionally by k. In 14. by k
and occasionally by kk, ck, but fre-
quently in words from the Latin and
French by c, cc. In 16. by c, cc, k.
ck, and occasionally ch. In 17. gh,
qu were added to the list. All these
remain, except kk, which was dis-
used before 16. In 19. we have :
can, arcount, Bacf/ianal, sr/zool, ache,
baeX-, har/ivd, acq\\a\\\i, houy/?, A-ale,
"hake, wa//;, $uack, qua^, a-aUxque,
\irquhaxi, viirount, ha<<-Ael (Hcek*'I)
also written hackle, heckle, except.
(£" k). This is the palatalized form
of (k), see g, and its existence was
acknowledged, and expressed in 18.
by c, k before a (aa, ai, se) and / (ai)
aa in: cart, candle, s^. This is
regarded as antiquated in 19. but is
still heard.
(Kb kh). In ags. expressed by h, hh ;
in 13. by 7, gh, and very rarely by ch,
p. 441, from 14. to 16.' by gh. After
16. lost in English, though common
in Scotch, where it is usually ^v^itten
ch. At no time were the palatal
and labial modifications (kjh, kwh)
distinguished in writing from (kh),
but there seems reason to suppose
that a preceding vowel when palatal
determined {k\i = kjh), when gut-
tural (kh) and when labial (kwh).
See also {git'h).
Kh kh). See (kh).
Kw kw). This sound has always
been confused with (kw), but there
is reason to suppose that (kw) has
been the real sound from the earliest
times, pp. 512, 514, 561. In ags.
(kw) was expressed by cw, in 13. qu
seems to have been introduced and
to have remained to 19.
(Ku^ knh). Sec (kh).
(L 1). From ags. to 19. I and from
14. to 19. // is frequent. In 19.
mute letters have occasioned the fol-
lowing varieties: seraglio, mahhtick,
lace, Gui/f/ford, ale, ill, trayelled,
kibi, isle, bristly, \ictuallcr (vi't'lj).
('L '1). In 16. certainly, this sound
was expressed by final -le fonning a
syllable, and it was recognized by
Bullokar after a and before another
consonant, as halm (na'lm) where
others read (ul). In 19. several
phonetic writers incline to {ul), but
the majority consider (1) only, to
be the sound. Mr. M. Bell considers
it to be (11) that is lengthened (1).
It is always represented by -le or -I.
It generally falls into (/) when a
vowel follows as double doubling
(ddb'l dab-l/q), but some persons re-
tain the (') and say dmible-ing (dab*-
'bq).
(Lh Ih). Not now a recognized Eng-
lish sound, but it occasionally arises
when instead of prolonging an {I)
with the full murmur, the action of
the vocal ligaments ceases, while the
tongue remains in position, and the
unvocalized breath escapes on both
sides as (fAAllh). It is also recog-
nized by Mr. M. Bell in felt (fElht)
or perhaps (fEllht), as he would
write. In Modern French it is very
common for (1') as (tablh) table, and
hence it has been recently imported
into the English pronunciation of
Chap. VI. § 2. EXPRESSION OF SOUNDS. (Lhh— (E).
601
French words. It was probably the
sound written hi in ags. and Ih in
13., as it is now i-eprcsentcd by hi in
Icelandic.
(Lhh lhh). Few Englishmen can pro-
nounce this Welsh sound properly,
but as AVelsh names of places are
current in English, as Zfangollen
(Lhhangolhh-en) it should be recog-
nized, and not treated as (thl) or
(tl), as in (Thlangothlen). For a
description of the soimd see Chap.
VIII, § 1, under II.
(Lj, Ij). An unrecognized English
element, often generated in the pas-
sage from (1) to (j) or (i) before
another vowel. Thus million, bul-
lion are rather (md-lJBn, bwrljcn)
than pure (m/l'Jun, b;<l'JBn) because
there is no break, thus (l,j), but the
(1) is continued on to the (j) pro-
ducing (lj =l*j). Some Englishmen
pronounce seraglio, lieu, lute, as
(seraa'ljio, Ijiuu, Ijiuut) others say
(seraa'lio, luu, luut).
(M m). From ags. to 19. m, and
from 14. often mm. In 19. we have
the varieties, chiefly assimilations
and degradations : dracAw, phle^>H,
psa/»«, Cho/;«o;;fi?eley (Tshamdi), a.ni,
\&mb, tame, ha»»«er, shammed,
hymn, Campbell (Ka^m-el), Bawff
(Bsemf), Po«^t'fract (Pom-fret).
('M 'm). Certainly fi-om 16. when it
was recognized by Bullokar. Not
distinguished fi-om (m) in writing,
and not recognized as a syllabic in
poetry, as : schiswi, rhythw (s«z"'m,
rjth''m).
(ilh mh). Kecognized by Mr. Mel-
ville Eell in 19. before^, t, as la»;p,
ewpt (lajmhp, Euiht) or (la;mmhp,
Emmht).
(N n). From ags. to 19. n and from
14. nn. Silent letters and assimila-
tions, etc., have produced the 19.
varieties : studdiriffsail (stan-s'l),
opewing, ywaw, John, know, Coln-
brook (Koonbr?«k), Calne (Kaan),
wwemonies, compter, can, rihatid,
cane, ipecacuaw/^a, raanner, plawwed,
gwiwale (gan el), reasowing, ^«eu-
matics, puiswe (piuu*n«).
('N 'n). Certainly since 16., repre-
sented by -en, . -on, as in : open,
reason. "When a vowel follows the
(') is lost, though some say (lait-'ui'q)
and others (bifni'q) lightening, light-
ning.
(Nh nh). Recognized in 19. by Mr.
M. Bell in tent, which he writes
(tEuht) or (tEunht).
(Nj nj). An unrecognized English
sound pi-oduced by continuing the
sound of (n) on to a following (j, i^
as onion, more properly (on-njcn)
than (8n",JBn). Some call neio
(njiuu), others (nun). Common
French and Italian gn.
(0 o). This seems to have been the
original ags. and English short o up
to 16., and to have been lost, except
in the provmces, after the middle of
17. when it was replaced by (a, o).
It is the French hommage (omazh)
as distinguished from 19. homage
(Hom-ydzh). It is Italian short o
aperto. It is also heard in Spain,
Wales, and a great part of Germany,
though it is liable to fall into (o)
on one side and (o) on the other.
In old English invariably o.
{0 o). This short sound in closed sylla-
bles is not recognised in 19., but it
is heard the provinces and in America
for short and sometimes long o ; thus,
tvhole stone (uol, ston), and then is
scarcely distinguishable from («) or
(a), and is confounded by some with
(a). In open syllables it is not un-
common, as in : oblige, memory, win-
dow (oblaidzh", memor«, wni'do),
where it is often confused with (a, v),
and even, when final, with (a). It,
probably, came into use with (oo) in
17., but was not distinguished from
it. Generally expressed by o, oiv, as
above, and in 19. we call Pharaoh
(Feerro).
(q o). In 17. short o passed from(o)
to (a) or (o). The distinction be-
tween these sounds being of the
same degree of delicacy as that be-
tween (i, i) and (e, se) renders it
difficidt to determine which sound
was said. In 19. (a) prevails, though
(a) is occasionally heard, and may
be heard when the expression is a,
au, or (a) influenced by (u) in any
way. See (a). The general ex-
pression of (a) is 0 ; but in 19. we
have the varieties : rfsin, honour, on,
groat, forehead, coi/nisant, John,
hough, Tpedagogue, knoefledge. In
or not followed by a vowel, the theo-
retical sound is (aa), the actual sound
scarcely distinguishable from, if not
identical with (aa', aa). See supra
p. 575, under o.
(ffi 03) is not a recognized English
sound, but is heard in the provinces
G02
EXPRESSION OF SOUNDS. (ED— Q)-
Chap VI. § 2.
and in Scotland, and written o, oo.
Conf'ustd in En;;li.sli with (o).
(;j) .n). Rccofjni/id in 19. by Mr. M.
Bill as the vowel in : prefr?-, f«nicst,
firm, laijrrli, jji/mlon, whore he
writes (doj) for the italicized letters.
I do not distinguish these sounds
from (./), and in general find them
confused with (a). See these sounds.
((Eo! air). Occurs in the provinces,
and probably in Scotch. It is the
German long oe, as in Goethe
(Goeoe-t^-).
(Oi oi). With this must be taken (aI,
oi, oi ; Ai', 0?, oi). It is very difficult
to determine the limits of these
sounds in time or place. Probably
in 16. when oi, oy were not (ui),
they were (oi). In 19. (a?, oj) pre-
vail, (oi, ui) are provincial. The
expression is always oi, oy, with
or without some additional mute
letters. In 19. we have: bourgfojs
(bjdzhD(S-) nojsy, noise, po/^nant,
coiyne, hoy, en']oyed, Boyle, quoit ;
some say (ktt'D/t), hitoy ; some say
(bito?"), buuf), buoyed.
(Oo 00 ). From ags. to 16. this was
the recognized long sound of o, and
expressed by o, oo. It is still heard
in the provinces. It was apparently
lost in the received dialect in 17.,
but revived in 19. before (j), as in :
oar, ore, o'er, moor, mo?mi, po?/r, foi/r,
sword. Sometimes heard before/, s,
th, as : ofl', cross, brt/th (oof, croos,
brootb), where it is apt to degenerate
into (aa, oo), or sink into (a).
(Oo oo). From 17. the recognized
sound of 0 long, and generally re-
presented by 0, o-e, oa, and occasion-
ally by oe, on, ow. In 19. we have
the varieties : hff?<teur, h«Mtboy
(Hoo-boe"), heau, yeoman, sht-w, now
irequently written sliow, seiveA, fre-
quently written soued, post, oats,
provincially (wots), Sormif, boats-
wain (boo'scn), Coc^-burn (Koob.m),
do*-, bon*-, ogYio, oh, scutonr (skru-
tooj-), according to Sheridan, "Walker,
etc., now generally (skrutwoj*), yo/k,
brooch, apropos, Grosvfuor, depo^,
%ou\, Togue, YouyhaU. (Joo'haaI),
thouff/i, knoM', to!*Y/rds, owe, Knoulcs,
quoth (kooth) ; some say {kwooih).
See (oou).
(qd oo). The drawl of short (o) is
only heard in drawling utterance, as
(odq) for (od) odd, as distinct from
awed. Preachers often say (Good),
but seldom or ever (GAAd) for God.
In America some say either (doog,
looq), or (doog, looq) for doy, lotiy,
etc., which the phonetic writers there
recognize as (OAAg, lAAq), and the
two sounds are difficult to separate.
(Oa oa). This present French nasal is
in older English repre.sented by
(uun), as retained in our modem
balloon. In recently imported French
words the (oa) is intended to be re-
tained, together with its French
expression, as bonbons, bon mot, on dit
(boAboAZ, bo A mo, oa dii). But
the usual substitutes are (on, oq), and
occasionally (oon, an).
(Oou oou). From 13. to 16. the pro-
nunciation of those ou, oiv, which
represented an ags. dw, ow. Lost
in 17.
(O'yu oou). From 17. to 19. the usual
pronunciation of those ou, oiv which
represent an ags. dw, 6w. This pro-
nunciation has been, however, gene-
rally ignored, or, if recognized,
reprobated by orthoepists. Some
speakers distinguish no, know, as
(noo, noou), orthoepists generally
conftise them as (nooj, compare the
list of words imder {oo) ; others
again confuse them as (noou). Mr.
M. Bell states that every long o is
(ou), meaning the same as I mean
by (oou). Some Englishmen say
that it is not possible to lengthen (o)
without adding (u), and pronounce
nearly (ou, ouu).
(Ou ou). In 16. the general sound of
ou, replacing the previous (uu) which
however was heard contempora-
neously through the greater part of
16. In 17. the sound was recognized
as (ou), and the sound (ou) was lost.
(6'u ou). The modern provincial sub-
stitute for (ou), not recognized.
(qu ou). In 18. orthoepists recog-
nized ow as having the sound (ou)
or (au). It was probably an erro-
neous analysis, which even yet oc-
casionally prevails, o^ving to the
usual orthography ou, ow. Provin-
cially however (ou, au) may occur.
(P p) was from ags. to 19. represented
by J), and from 14. to 19. by pp
also. In 19. we have the varieties,
hiccoMgh (aik-kop), j^ay, Ape, Cl&ph-
am, ^Lixpper, fla/;y;<ti.
(Q q) was from ags. to 19. written n
or ng, sometimes nz for nj. In 19.
we have the varieties : finger, hand-
kerchief, singer, vdngeH, Brnainyham,
tongue, Mewcies (Meq-iz), p. 310.
Chap. YI. § 2. EXPRESSION OF SOUNDS. (Qh— S).
603
(Qh qli), is recognized by Mr. M. Bell
in 19. as the sound of ti before k, in
think (thf'qhk) or th/qqhk)
(R r) was from ags. to 19. represented
by ?• before a vowel ; and probably
from ags to 16. represented also by
r even when not before a vowel.
Perhaps lost in the latter position in
17. Preserved pure in Scotland.
In 19. we have the varieties : >ight,
rhetoric. «;/-ite, hurry, cata;v7ial.
('R 'r) How soon this sound came
into English, cannot be precisely
determined. There is reason to think
it may have been used in 16. and 17.,
and that it generated (j). At pre-
sent in : fearing, pairing, debarring,
ignoring, poorer, tiery, bofrerv', there
is a doubt whether the sound heard
is best expressed by ('r) or (.rr). Mr.
M. Bell gives the first, I have gene-
rally preferred the second, see p.
197.
{S r). This peculiar guttural r so
common in France and even in Ger-
many, but unknown in Italy, seems
to be only a softer form of the Nor-
thumbrian burr. It is not recog-
nized in writing as distinct from r.
(■g; i). Probably recognized in 17. as
well as in 18. and 19. as the peciiliar
English untrillcd r, not heard before
a vowel, and represented by final r
together with mute letters in 19., as :
spare, corps, burr, mortgage. It
has always a tendency to change
preceding (ee, oo, uu) into (ee, oo,
lilt), while short a, o become (aa, oo),
or theoretically (a, o) ; and short («,
e) according to Mr. M. BeU fall
into (ao), which see. Short (o) is
supposed to remain, as cur (koi), for
which I prefer (kj, k'l, kj.i) and
generally write (kj) as quite suffi-
cient, in place of (a) provincially
(ahj, 91, «h.i) are heard. The phy-
siological distinction between (a) and
(j) is very difficult to formiilate.
There is uo doubt that in many cases
where writers put er, ur, to imitate
provincial utterances, there neither
exists nor ever existed any sound
of (r) or of (i), but the sounds
are purely (a, a). Thus bellows in
Norfolk is not (bel'erz) but rather
(hEbaz). There .also exists a great
tendency among all uneducated
speakers to introduce an (r) after
any (9, a, a, a) sound when a vowel
follows, as (drAAT«q, sAA'r/q) draiv-
inff, sawing, in Norfolk, and this
probably assisted in the delusion
that they said (drAAa mi, saaj w«d)
and not (drAA mii, saa wwd). In
London : father farther, laud lord,
stalk stork, draws drawers, are re-
duced to (faadh-B, l.AAd, stAAk,
drAAz), even in the mouths of edu-
cated speakers. I have usually
written (j) final in deference to
opinion, but I feel sure that if I had
been noting down an unwritten dia-
lectic form, I should frequently write
(b, 9, a). Careful speakers say
(faa'dh'B, lAA'd, stAA'k, di'AA'z) for
farther, lord, stork, drawers, when
they are thinking particularly of
what they are sajang, but (far-dher,
lord, stork, drAA'erz) is decidedly
un-English, and has a Scotch or
Irish twang with it. See p. 196.
(jf u), I use this (.<) to represent the
sound expressed by Mr. M. Bell as
(aoi), see (ao). Thus, myrrh, differ
= (m.<, dif.<'). But I do not find
(a, .() generally distinguished, and
consequently wi-ite (m.i, difj-) more
frequently than (m.<, difr). The
physiological distinction between
(ao) and (./) is very difficult to for-
mulate. See (j), and p. 196.
(.R .r). This strongly trilled (r) is
only known as an individual or local
peculiarity. In Scotland the triUed
(r) not before vowels, as Jirm (ferm)
often gives rise to a sensation of (.r),
as (fe.rm) , and many Scots and Irish
use (.r) as tvork, arm = (wo.rk,
86. rm). It is not recognized ortho-
graphically.
(Rh rh) is not now a recognized
English sound, but is occasionally
imported from the modern French
final -re, as sabre (sabrh) for (sabrg),
into the modern English pronuncia-
tion of anglicised French. Probably
ags. hr, as it is Icelandic hr. The
Welsh rh is rather ('rn) than (rh),
as generally supposed.
(S s). From ags. to 19. commonly re-
presented by s. Rapp imagines the
ags. sound to have been (sj). In 14. •
(s) was represented s, ss, and by c
before e, i in words taken fi'om the
French, and occasionally by sc before
e, i. In 19. we have the varieties : cell,
&ce, Gloucester, ^salm, Circwcester
(S«s"zstj), "Worcester (W«stu), see,
scene, coalesce, sc/asm, Ma-s/zam, hiss,
hissed, listen, episrte, etc., since 17.,
mispress (mi's-tz), sM^ord, hxitzs\&
(brjs-ka), bellott's, mezzotint.
604
EXPRESSION OF SOUNDS. (Sh— Ui). Chap. VI. § 2.
(Sh sh) . This was not an ags. sound,
but it was already developed in 13.,
and it was generally written .sr/i, hut
Bonietinies xh, n.s, in 13. and 11.
Orrniiii writes sh, ss/i, and this was
used at the end (tf 15., and generally
afterwards. At the latter end of 17.
(sh) was expressed by « before (iu),
so that -sin beeanie (shuu). Traces
of this found in the early part of 17.
Towards end of 17. also expressed by
ci; si-, set; ssi-, (i-. In 19. wc
have the varieties : chaise, and fie-
quently in French words, fuchsia,
special, j9*/(aw ! sugar, schedule, con-
scious, s^all, wis/ifd, Ass/icton
(^sh'tcn), compreMi'on, motion.
(T t). From ags. to 19. the regular
expression is t. In 19., however,
we have the varieties : debt, yacht,
indict, suckf</, souff ht, phthisical, re-
ceijoC, ^oe, </jyme, hatter, tivo, mezzo-
tint.
(Th th) was in use from ags. to 19.
In ags. it was %vTitten either \ or t5,
or both indifferently. In 13. and
14. it was sometimes 'S, but gene-
rally ]>, and occasionally th, which
last expression has remained to 19.
In 17. in s\(jh it was written gh, and
probably in other words. In 19. we
have the varieties : Keiy/iley (Kiith--
li),eigh^/i (fftth), a.\>ophthe^m (sep-o-
them), SouAampton (SouthHt^m--
tBn), thin, \i\ithe (bloith), or (blaidh)
'iilatthew.
(Tj tj). An unrecognized English
sound, generated by the action of a
following (iu), when the speaker
avoids the stiflPness of (t,j), and
wishes also to avoid (tsh), as : vir-
tne, lectoe (v.rtju, lek-tjwj), com-
monly (v.itshu, lek-tsh.i). See (dj).
(Tsh tsh) was generated, at least, as
early as 13. from ags. {k), and
written ch, and in 14. also cch. The
form ch has remained, but since 16.
at least cch has become tch, very
common as a final in 19., in which
some importations and assimilations
have produced the varieties : vernij-
celli, <;7(ain, arc/icd, cAi'oppine, Mar-
jorihaviks (Ma.itsh'bseqks), va.atch,
vaatched.
{^w ttv). An unrecognized English
sound, usually confounded with (tw),
but it is (t«w) the action of (t) and
(w) taking place simultaneously, and
not successively, in twine, twavn, etc.
Written tw.
(U u). It is probable that («) was
used in IG. at Icist, and perhaps
earlier, but it is not easy to dis-
tinguish (u, u) as short sounds be-
I'ore 19., and even then few persons
acknowledge that pool, pi/ll, have
vowels of different quality, as well as
length (puul, pi/l), and that the true
short sound (u) is heard in French
poitle (pul). Mr. M. Bell considers
that the Scotch and English pronun-
ciation of book differ as (buk, biik).
To my ears the Scotch have preserved
also the original length of the vowel,
and say (buuk), or at least give it a
medial length. Hence, taking (u,
u) together, we may say that the
sound has existed and been expressed
by u from ags. to 19. In 14. it was
also expressed by ou, ow, and the ex-
pression ou was continued in a few
words in 16., and is not yet quite
lost as cotUd (kud). In 16. (u, «)
was occasionally expressed by oo,
still common in icoocl, book (wj<d,
b«k). In 14. and thence to 16., o
was often used for (u, m), and is still
foimd in a few words. During 17.
most of the words having (u, u) lost
the sound, and were pronounced
generally with (a). There is .still a
light between {u, o), and in some of
the Midland Counties the usage is
just reversed from that now accepted,
thus (birt, k«t, rwb) = but, cut, rub,
and (fat, pat, fal, bal) = foot, put,
full, bull. And generally (wad,
wam'cn) are not uncommon for (w8^
w«m'i3n) = iroorf, woman. The key
to this mystery seems to be a pro-
vincial (a) which becomes labialised
after labial consonants. In the pro-
nunciation of the Peak of Derbyshire,
I have found it very difficult to
choose between (a, o, «h, u) for such
words. See below Chap. XI., § 4.
In 19. we have the varieties: wo-
man, Bolingbrokc, wood, worsted.
Worcester, caoutchoj/c, coi</d, bttll.
iUu). See (u).
(:D v). This unrecognized English
sound seems to occur as a variant of
(y) in Cumberland, Lancashire, and
East Anglia, and is written as long u.
(TJi ui), Apparently one of the oldest
forms of the diphthong oi, oy, pro-
bably the usual sound in 14., when
it was also written ui, mj. Still
used in many words in 16. and even
1 7. In the provinces it may be still
heard in boij (bui), and it is the
sailor's pronunciation of iwoy.
Chap. VI. ^ 2.
EXPRESSION OF SOUNDS. (Uu— Z).
605
(Uu uu). In n^s. written u, in 13. n,
of which this is a characteristic
orthoi:;raphy. Between 1280 and
1310 both u and ou were used. In
14. ou, ow were generally written,
but 0 alone was also employed, and
has remained in many words. In
16. ow was quite discontinued, and
ou sparingly used, but oo was intro-
duced as the usual form, and has
remained to the present day. How
soon the (in) of 17. became (uu)
after r is not ascertained, but it is
now the rule (except in the pro-
vinces), that long u after r = (uu).
Hence in 19. we have the varieties :
galleon. Rc?<ben, 'Rvicdeugh (Bakluu-),
hrew, hveweii, rheum, r/mbarb, do,
8ho<;, move, mancewvre, too, wooed,
so«p, houss (buuz), throut/h, Urouff-
ham. rendezvoj<« (rondevuu-), surtoi<^
(s.ituu), billctdo?<.c (b^b'duu'), Cow-
per.trwc, ruling, ri<le,hrHismg,hruisc,
Hulme (Iliuini), two, who (nuu).
(:XJu vv). A provincial variety of
(yy), expressed only as long tc.
(V v). In ags. possibly and Orrmin
(v) was expressed by /between two
vowels, otherwise it would seem not
to be an ags. sound. In 13. (v) was
expressed by u consonant and v con-
sonant, and so through to 17. when
V consonant was exclusively applied,
and H consonant and v vowel discon-
tinued ; but it was seldom repre-
sented by any but a v form after-
wards. In 19. we have : of, Be^roir
(Bii'vi), halve, nej)kew, Gro^yenor
(Groovnj), veal, have, rendezvous.
("W w). Apparently a peculiar ags.
sound, and hence expressed by a pe-
culiar letter p when the Eoman
alphabet of the time was adopted, p.
513. For this in 13. ?<> was adopted,
and has remained to 19. The sound
was sometimes expressed by u, but
persuade was often written perswade.
In 19. we have : ch^ir (k'X'aij), the
labial modification assumed as (w),
see (kii'), parsi/ade, wax. In the
word one the initial (w), which is
not written at all, dates probably
from the latter part of 17.
(pf ra). Defective trill of the lips
substituted for a trill of the tongue,
not recognized except as a defect,
and then written w, but " Lord
Dundreary" distinguishes (fraend)
from (fwond), which last he indig-
nantly declared he did not say for
friend.
("Wh wh) was probably expressed in
ags. by hw, and was the ivh of 13.
to 19. It is still distinctly pro-
nounced by most northern and careful
southern speakers, but is rapidly
disappearing in London.
(Y y). This was probably the sound
of ags. y, and possibly of short u in
13. It is very doubtful whether
this short sound has been used at
all since 13. It seems to have been
replaced by («, e). It probably
occurs, either in this or the cognate
forms (u, i) in the provinces, and is
recognized in Scotland.
(Fy). According to Mr. M. Bell this
is the indistinct sound only used in
unaccented syllables in English, and
written e in : houses, goodness
(Hauz'yz, gwd-nys), etc., where or-
thoepists are doubtful whether it is
(j) or (e). He also identities it with
the "Welsh u, y having a similar
sound. Not generally recognized,
and not provided with any distinct
form.
(Yi yi). The French ui was confused
with (wu) in 16. It is kept in
some recent words as suite, though
persons ignorant of French say
(swiit) .
(Yy yy) was probably written long y
in ags. This sound seems to have
disappeared in 13., or at any rate its
traces are uncertain. In 14. it re-
vived with the introduced French
words, and was written u, eu. It
remained into 17. written ««, eu, ew,
when it was still recognized byWal-
lis, although his contemporary "VVil-
kins seems to have been unable to
pronounce it, and it was subsequently
replaced by (in). It is, however,
still common in East Anglia, in
Devonshire, in Lancashire, and pro-
bably other parts of England, and
in Scotland, where it appears as a
substitute for (uu), as was already
the case in 16. The provincial
sounds vary as (ii, uu, 93, yy).
(Z z). Not recognized as distinct
from (s) in ags. but probably existing
always, as in 14. it was not unfre-
queutly written z. It has, however,
been generally confused with s, ex-
cept in a few words from the Greek.
The sound seems to have remained
with few exceptions in the same
positions from 14. to 19. In 19.
we have: sacrificing, sacrifiee, which
some pronounce as a substantive with
606 HISTORICAL PHONETIC SPELLING. Chap. VI. { 3.
(s) and as a verb with {?.), czar, very apparent in (ka^p', bret', baek^.
\Vinrf»or (Win-zj),Sa/i«bury(SAAl7.- This was probably always used in
bore"), as, di.vcem, case, disAonour, Enj^lish, and its absence, which ren-
bu«iness, sciAAors, Ke«tfick (kezdc), derstheconsonantdifficulttobehcard,
he bello(/vs, beaux, zeal, sice, whL:- was probably the occasion of the
cing, whizzed. suppression of such final consonants
(Zh zh). Hart 1569 reco^ized this in French.
sound in French but not in Entrlish. (') If a sonant (b, d, g) end a word.
Its earliest recognition in English is many speakers force out a faint mur-
by Mioge 1688, who being a French- muring sound after removing the
man distinguished it from (sh) with contact, as (eb', acd', ba^g') ebb, add,
which it was long confused. It is bat/t/, similar to the French indiea-
derived generally from (zi) and hence tiou of their e muet in such a place.
is generally spelled s, z except in In some speakers this amounts to
some recent words, where the Modern adding («), and then it is recognized
French sound is employed. In 19. in satirical orthography by writing a
we have : roui/ing, rovige, jcu de as ebba, adda, bar/ga.
mots, which Worcester writes (zhuu"- (o). The cluck indicated by tut.
dmioo-) in place of Feline's (zha> d- (r). The cluck indicated by cVck.
mo), pleasure, division, abscissjon, (•) The primary accent which has
amre. never been indicated in English
(*) "When a mute (p, t, k) ends a orthography.
word, and a pause follows, as the (:) The secondary accent, which has
contact is loosened, a slight breath never been indicated in English or-
escapes, not marked in writing, but thography.
§ 3. Historical Phonetic Spelling.
The great multiplicity of forms for the same sound, joined
to the existing -variety of sounds for the same form/ shewn
in the preceding sections, has urged many persons to attempt
correcting botli by one stroke, as a matter of literature and
science, and still more with a view to education and uni-
formity of pronunciation, and with a hope of making our
language more easy to acquire by foreigners. The device
has generally consisted either in the introduction of new
letters, or in giving constant values to known combinations,
80 that the same sound should be always represented by the
same letters and conversely. In the xiith or xiii th century
we had Orrmin, in the xvi th Smith, Hart, Bullokar ; in the
XVII th Gill, Butler, AVilkins ; in the xviii th, Franklin and
many others after him in the same and in the xix th century
both in England and America. The most persistent attempt
is the phonotypy which grew out of Mr. Isaac Pitman's pho-
nography or phonetic shorthand, and which in various forms
1 The strange fantastical variety of purpose (like an honest man & a souldier)
our orthography, when viewed solely and now is he tum'd orthography, his
from the phonetic point of view, could words are a very fantasticall banquet,
not fail to attract Shakspere's atten- iust so many strange dishes." iluch
tion. Hence he makes Benedick speak Ado, ii. 3, speech 5, fo. 1623, p. 107,
thus of the love-sick Claudio : " He col. 2.
was wont to speake plaine, & to the
Chap. VI. § 3. HISTORICAL PHONETIC SPELLING. 607
has been regularly used in printed periodicals from 1843 to
the present day.^ Such schemes are different from those
■which aim at a universal alphabet for the purposes of science
or missionary enterprize, such as the alphabets of Max Midler,
Lepsius, Merkel, Melville Bell, and the palaeotype used in
this volume. And neither have the slightest connection with
the scheme of a universal language, or with any view of
altering our language in any way, although they have been
often confounded with such impossibilities.
After reviewing the two preceding sections the question
naturally arises : is if possib/e from the general, firmly estab-
lished English uses, to construct a system of orthography xchich
should represent our pronunciation at the jjresent day ? If such
a spelling were possible it would clearly be so suggestive
that it would be legible to the mere English reader almost
without instruction. It seems possible, and at least worth
the trial, for numerous instances occur in which it is ad-
visable to attempt indicating sounds to purely English
readers by combinations of the letters with which they are
familiar. It is also only by exhibiting such a tentative or-
thography that the possibility of altering our spelling so as
to more or less indicate our pronunciation, but without alter-
ing our alphabet, could be properly considered. The follow-
ing scheme is based upon the two preceding tables, and will
be termed glossotype, as suggested on p. 13, from its main
use in compiling provincial glossaries.
In the phonetic alphabet used by Mr. I. Pitman and myself,
only 34 simple sounds, 4 vowel diphthongs, and 2 consonant diph-
thongs, were represented, giving a total of 40 letters in the follow-
ing order : (ii, ee, aa, aa, oo, uu ; i, e, se, o, a, u; ai, oi,
8U, iu; jwh; pbtd tsh dzh kg, f v th dh s z sh zh, r
1 m n q). The numerous texts which have been printed in this
alphabet have shown that it suffices for printing our pronunciation
with sufficient accuracy to satisfy such ears as have not been
sharpened by a phonetic education. We may, therefore, commence
our investigations by determining the best representatives of these
soimds.
From the xvi th century ee, oo represent (ii, uu) with certainty,
from the xvuth at, au represent {ee, aa) with almost, but not
1 The -writer of this treatise was If an alphahet differinf^ entirely from
much connected with this last scheme the Roman is to be used, and none
from 1843 to 1849, and in 1848-9 pub- other can be expected to find favour
lished two editions, of the Testament, for all languages, the principles upon
many books, and a weekly newspaper, which Mr. Melville Bell's various
the Phonetic Neivi, in the alphabet alphabets of Visible Speech, for print-
settled by Mr. I. Pitman and himself ing, long and short hand writing, are
in 1846, which differs in many respects formed, seem to be the best hitherto
from that now used by Mr. I. Pitman. proposed.
608 HISTORICAL PHONETIC SPELLING. Chap. VI. § 3.
quite, the same certainty. But there is no usual way of repre-
senting (oo). The conihinations oe, oa arc so unt'requent that they
would occasion hesitation in unusual positions, as : fioep, hoap,
for hope. Symbols for (aa) have disappeared since the xvii th
century. The two exclamations oh ! ah ! present the only com-
binations to which no other value seems to have been assigned; but
the combinations oA, ah, are scarcely used in other words. We
have then ee, ai, ah, au, oh, oo, as the only certain represen-
tatives of the six long vowels (ii, ee, aa, aa, oo, uu).
The short vowels (t, e) have been uniformly represented by i, e
from the earliest times, and it would be impossible to obviate the
ambiguity of their also representing (oi, ii) in accented syllables,
without pursuing Orrmin's plan and doubling the following con-
sonant, when it is one of possible initial combination ; thus, vihrait
would suggest (vai'br^et), rather than {\ih-Yeci), which would
require vibbrait for certainty, and this notation may be adopted
at the pleasure of the writer. From the xvn th century a, o, u
have been in like manner the constant representatives of (ae, o, a),
although they would also require duplication of the following
consonant to preserve them from the ambiguity of {ee, oo, hi), as :
fammin, notting, fusst = famine, knotting, fussy, compared with :
famous, noting, fusee ^faimtis, nohting, fiivzee, or fgoozee. The last
short vowel sound (m) occasions gi-eat difficulty. In fact it is not
recognised generally as distinct from (uu), except in such rare
pairs, as fool full, pool pull. As oo, u have already been appro-
priated, and as ou, employed for this sound in would, could, should,
would inevitably suggest the sound (au) in other situations, we are
driven to some modification of oo, u. The fomi xih is not English,
and has been frequently used conventionally for (oo), so that it is
excluded. The exclamation jjooh ! although dictionaiy makers
seem only to recognize the orthogi-aphy pugh, is yet sufficiently
familiar in the other spelling to all readers," and suggests the form
ooh for the sound of (m). It is certainly long, but it is known,
and could only mislead so far as to cause the reader to substitute
(uu) for iti). The six short vowels are, therefore, i, e, a, o, u, ooh.
Of the only recognised forms for diphthongs : og, otv, ew = (oi,
8u, iu), as in bog, now, new, the first is unobjectionable, but the
other two do not begin with the elements represented by o, e, (o, e).
The common diphthong (oi) has no representative distinct from
t, g, which are already appropriated. For writing provincial
dialects a careful separation of the various diphthongal forais is
important. Hence a systematic mode of representing diphthongs is
indispensable, and it must be founded upon the historical use of
g, w, as the second element, which involves the rejection of such
final forms as ag, aw, for the sounds already symbolised by ai, au.
By simply prefixing any of the vowels ee, ai, ah, au, oh, oo,
i, e, a, 0, u, ooh, to g, w, we obtain most suggestive forms
' As in Prof. Max MUllcr's pooh- Lectures on the Science of Language,
pooh theory of the origin of words, i, 344.
Chap. YI. § 3. HISTORICAL PHONETIC SPELLING. 609
of diphthongs, containing those vowels run on to a final ee, oo,
typitied by the i/, iv. Thus : aiy {eci) is the usual English may, —
ahy (aai), aye, or German ai, — auy (aai), a broad sound of ioy, —
ohy (ooi), a provincial sound of boy, — ooy (luii), the Italian \ui, and
common sailors' \)icoy, — ey (ei), the Scotch hitc, — ay (iiei), a Cockney
long i, — oy (oi) the usual hoy, — uy (ai) the usual huy, Guy ; — eeio
(iiu) an exaggerated Italian in, — aiw {eew), an exaggerated Italian
eu, — ahw (au), the German an, — aiiw, a broad provincial how, —
ohw (oou) the common English kno2^ ; — iw (m) the American and,
perhaps, the common English neto, for which both Wallis and
Price (p. 139) used the sign iw, — ew (eu) the true Italian eu, — aw
(aeu) the Norfolk poz^nd, — ow (ou) a provincial ow, — uw (au) the
common English now. The use of y, w being only a systematisation
of an old extinct method of writing diphthongs may be fairly re-
garded as historical, and gives great power to this system of writing.
The sounds of (j, w, h) must be represented by y, w, h, having
no other historic equivalents. But as y, iv have been already used
for diphthongs, and h is a modifying symbol in ah, oh, ooh, in which
sense it must also be employed amongst the consonant combinations,
whenever y, w, h occur in such situations as would occasion
ambiguity, the recognized expedient of inserting a hyphen, as ai-y,
oh-ic, o-h, must be resorted to. The sound of (wh) must be re-
presented by the historical symbol wh, instead of the anglosaxon
hw, which is now uncouth.
The consonants and consonantal diphthongs must he p I, t d,
ch j,^ k y, f V, th dJi, s z, ah zh, r I m n ng, for although dh,
%h are unhistorical, they have long been generally recognised as
orthoepical symbols. To these it seems best to add the historical
nk for the unhistorical 7igk (qk) ; but ngg must be used for (qg)
to prevent ambiguity, as in singer; jingger. Hyphens must be
employed in t-h, d-h, s-h, z-h, n-g, n-k, when each letter represents
a separate element. All truly doubled consonants must also be
hyphened, as hoohk-kais, bookcase, distinct from boohkking, booking,
and im-o/ind, unowned, from toi-nohn, unknown.
The practical writing alphabet of the English language will
therefore consist of 42 symbols, which may be fairly called " his-
torical," namely : ee, ai, ah, au, oh, oo ; i, e, a, o, u, ooh; ny,
oy, iiiv, iw ; y, w wh, h ; p h, t d, ch j, k g ; f v, th dh,
8 z, sh zh, r I, m n ng nk. But the use of this alphabet would
soon point out deficiencies, for example air, ohr, are no adequate
representatives of the words : air, oar. The indistinct munnur
which forms the conclusion of these words as generally pronounced
may be written ('), as the historical representative of an omitted
found, and the full theoretical sound may be indicated by 'r. This
1 As these letters are really con- for iJtth. dhdh, shsh, zhzh (although in
tractions for tsh dzh, when they are older English ssh is often used for
douhled to shew that the preceding shsh), because tth represents a really
vowel is short, it is natural to double different sound, thus iValtlihu would
only the first element, and wiite /e//, a)', be (Mrctthiu) not (Maeth-iu,) and
meaning tlsh, ddzh. But it is not at7<A = ((.rtth), eighth,
allowable to write ilh, ddh, ssh, zzh
GIO HISTORICAL PHONETIC SPELLING. Chap. VI. § 3.
full sound is always heard if another vowel follows, as hee'ring,
pohWing, pod'rer, fttl/'ri, I uw^ ring = \\Ciivin^, pouring, poorer, fiery,
lowering. Such sounds as her, cur, as distinct from herring, occur-
rence, require a means of representing the fully trilled r after a
vowel, as common in Scotland and Ireland, and the examples chosen
suggests the expetlient commonly employed of writing rr, so that
herd or he^rd is English, and herrd is Scotch ' heard.' The vowels
in " air, oar, her" however, as distinct from those in "hale, hole,
herring," have not yet been represented, and several other signs
will be found indispensable in writing those dialectic sounds which
are here of prime importance.
Now, on examining the long and short vowels, ee i, ai e, ah a,
au 0, oh ti, 00 ooh = (ii i, ee e, aa ae, aa o, oo a, uu u), it is readily
seen that they are more distinct in quality, than in quantity. In
fact Englishmen find the true short; sounds of the long vowels, and
the true long sounds of the short vowels difficult to distinguish from
the long and short sounds respectively. This suggests the employ-
ment of the quantitative signs (") and {"), when prominence is to be
given to the quantity, the unmarked sign being regarded as doubt-
ful, just as in Latin, Italian, Spanish, Welsh, and generally. Thus
£en is Scotch, een Yorkshire for the plural of * eye' ; wait or waiyt
is English, tcait Scotch, st6hn is Norfolk and American "stone,"
h6ok is Scotch, bbohk southern English, hbolc northern English,
"book," Bath is the local, Bdhth the usual pronunciation of
" Bath," and the true sound of " air" is perhaps e'r, for which aCr
is practically sufficient, and the true sound of oar is very nearly,
but not quite o'r. Another way of representing the quantity is the
thoroughly English method introduced by Orrmin, to which we
have already found it convenient to have occasional recourse,
namely, to allow a single following consonant to indicate the length,
and two following consonants the brevity, of the preceding vowel,
open vowels remaining ambiguous. Thus the preceding examples
may be written in order : een7i een, wait tvaitt, stohnn, hookh,
loohlck, hook, Bath, Bahth, the short sounds of the two last becoming
Bathth, Bahthth. Other methods of representing quantity in con-
nection with accent will be given presently.
Any one who tried to write down provincial or foreign sounds
would still find considerable deficiencies. The following sixteen
additional vowel signs are, however, all that it seems expedient
to admit, the principle of ambiguous quantity applying as before.
For ordinaiy purposes, use : —
eh={E), for the broader sound of e verging into a, heard in Scotland,
and generally in the north of England in place of (e), French
hete, Italian open e. This may also be taken as the sound of
ai in air, which may be written ehr.
oa={p), for true sound of oa in oaV = oar, known provincially
even when not followed by r, a broad sound of oh verging to
au, Italian open o.
ui={j), for Scotch ni, French u, German ii, being ee or rather »
pronounced with rounded lips.
Chap. VI. § 3. HISTORICAL PHOMETIC SPELLING. 611
eu={9), for close French en, ■which has two sounds, close as in
j'etine, and open as in jeune = {9, ce), not ordinarily distinguished
by Englishmen ; the first is at', the second e or eh, pronounced
with rounded Kps.
n=(a), to represent French nasality when it occurs, as in enfant,
vin, bon, un, which might be written a:sfaN, on, bo's, un.
kh, ^A = (kh, gh), for the Scotch and German guttural ch, but (Jch)
may, when desired, be distinguished as yh, and {kwh, gtch)
may be written kwh, gwh.
/A=(lhh) for the common Welch U.
rr=(.r) for the strongly trilled Scotch r not preceding a vowel, as
herrd.
rA=(grh) or (r) for the French, German, and Northumbrian so
called r grasseye, guttural r or biu-r.
For still more accurate dialectic writing, use :
ae= (ah) for the fine southern ah verging to a.
aa={aa) for a deeper sound of ah. .
ao = (rth) for the broad Scotch ah verging to au.
uh={'s), for that deeper sound of « wliich it is necessary to distinguish
in the provincial diphthongs uhy, uhw (ai, au), if not elsewhere.
wa = (a)), for a still deeper sound of u, occasionally heard.
wo=(?<h) for the ooh verging to oh, or the oh verging to oo, heard in
many provincial dialects, the true Italian close o.
ih, ue=(i, v) for the sound of ui verging to ee or oo respectively, as
heard dialectically in English, German, and French, ih being
a frequent form of the German u, and ue being the Swedish u.
oe={(B), for the true German 6, and open sound of French eu, de-
scribed under eti above.
e or 9 = (so), for the sound of m in " cur," or e in herd, which may be
written ker, herd, (or hr hrd, if the type e is deficient,) when'
it is considered necessary to distinguish them from Jcur, herd.
a or w = (b), for that frequent obscure unaccented a found in canary,
re«l, tenant, which may be written kcitiehri, reeul, tenniint, (or
if the type a is deficient, Icvnehri, reevl, tenuant), when it is
thought necessary to distinguish it from a or u.
tor _« = (?/) for the obscure sound of e goodness, which would be
written goohdniss, (or, if the type i is deficient, goohdmss,)
when it was thought necessaiy to distinguish it from e.
By thus adding from 4 to 12 vowels to the original 12, only 8 un-
usual, or obscure vowt4s, out of the 36 recognized in Palaeotype,
viz., back («), mid (y, ah, oh, oh, oh) andi front (^h, seh), are left with-
out signs, and these probably do not occur in any provincial English
dialectic pronunciation, but might, in case of necessity, be repre-
sented by d ; il, eh, uoh, oah, aoh ; euh, oeh, respectively, the first
two on account of their partial resemblance to the German d, «,
and the others on account of their being liable to be confused with
the sounds already represented by e, uo, oa, ao, eu, oe, respectively.
The sixteen additional vowel signs are therefore u, aa, ae, ao, e, eh,
eu, i, ih, oa, oe, ua, tie, uh, ui, uo, and although they are chiefly
612 HISTORICAL PHONETIC SPELLING. Chap. VI. § 3.
unhistorical, they arc so suggestive that they could be readily
fixed on the nu-nioiy. Compare aesk d.e7it = a.?k aunt, in southern
English, ask anl in tine Yorkshire; tl e/ English, el ehl Scotch =
ill ell; tnHon Scotch = man, unku geiid sheun Scotch = unco guid
shoon; n6a dr>a''nl gZa Norfolk = no don't go ; Goete bdekke German
= Goethe bocke, muen Devonshire =moon, len Cockney = learn,
piiir hf)hdi Scotch = puir body.
The system of diphthongs may now be completed by using the
16 additional vowels as prefixed to y, w; and also by using all
the 28 vowels as prefixes to (') and to ui. The (') diphthongs
are not uncommon provincially, the ui diphthongs are rare, but are
found in Germany and the Netherlands. The easy method thus
furnished for representing complicated diphthongal sounds, which
are so frequently met with in provincial utterances, is one of the
greatest recommendations for glossotype as a means of writing
English dialects.
Any mode of marking the position of the accent is unhistorical,
but it is so important in unknown words, as all written in Glosso-
type must be considered, that the Spanish custom of marking its
position, when not furnished by some simple rule, is Avell worthy
of imitation.^ This rule for English has been laid down thus by
Mr. Melville Bell : The accent is to be read on the first syllable,
unless otherwise expressed.*
The accent mark on an ambigTious vowel or diphthong will be
the acute on the first portion of the symbol, as reedeem, obtain. The
accent mark on a short vowel will be the grave, and on a long
vowel the circumflex, thus combining the notes of quantity and
accent, as : deemdhnd, deemdlmd. When the accent falls on more
than one syllabic, it should always be written, as : /mywG'?'= high-
way, dondhhzdibdlire = unabsehbare, Gennan. The evenness of
French accent had also best be noted in this way for English
readers, as on/on = enfant, or otherwise an exception to the rule
must be made for Fiench words only, which would then have to be
specially named. The small number of accented letters supplied to
English founts renders it advisable to have a substitute for these
accent marks, and the turned period used in palaeotype will be
found most convenient. A device familiar to writers of pronounc-
ing dictionaries wiU enable us to indicate the long vowel by placing
' Thislanf^ape seems to be the only so by writers I cannot say. When I
one, except Greek, in •wliicli Mic nccos- ])riiitcd phonetically I carried out a
sity of marking the jiosition ot the ac- similar system, but th(! value of it was
cent has been acknowledged. In Per- not sufficiently appreciated, for few or
tuguesc. Italian, English, and Russian, no persons used accents in writing, and
the position of the accent is a constant Mr. Isaac Pitman, and almost all other
source of difficul;y to i'oreigners. The phonetic printers, have utter'y ignored
Spanish Academy in its anxie'y to accents, at least for all na:ive words,
avoid many accent marks, ard its desire l\lr. Melville Bell has however con-
to prevent ambiguity, lnys down five sis ently carried out his one simple
rather lengthy rules for placing the ac- rule, which is here recommended to
cent mark, which are generally adcpted Glossotypists.
by Spanith printers, whether Ihey arc ' Visible Speech for the Million, p. 6.
Chap. VI. § 3. HISTORICAL PHONETIC SPELLING. 613
the turned period immediately after it, as reesee-d, and the short
vowel by placing it after the following consonant, as empivik.
This principle may be applied to monosyllables, thus readily dis-
ting-uishing : Yorkshire boo-Jc, Scotch look-, English boohk', with-
out having to double the following consonant. The principle may
also be applied to shew the length of the first element of diphthongs,
so that the true English " may know," may be written mdiy ndhio,
or mai'y noWw, while bhiyd, ndaw or laiyd noaw would indicate
(beid nou), which are the Teviotdale pronunciation of "bide, knoll."
Great care has been bestowed upon this system of writing from
a belief that it is not a philosophical toy or a plaything, but may
prove extensively useful to writers of pronouncing vocabularies, to
provincial glossarists, to travellers forming word lists, to writers of
Scotch novels, and authors of provincial poems and tales, all of
whom at present introduce more or less unsystematic, ambiguous,
or unintelligible orthogi^aphies.^ It will be employed, therefore,
for the representation of dialectic English and Scotch in Chap. XI.
§ 4. Except for the closest scientific purposes, for which palaeo-
type, or some system as extensive, is requisite, Glossotype as here
presented, wiU be found sufficient.^
The practical use of this system of writing^ has suggested some
improvements in the tabular arrangement, and the preliminary table
on p. 16, must therefore be considered as cancelled and replaced by
those on pp. 614-5. In the first of these, the simplest form of
Glossotype, which may be fairly termed historical phonetic spelling,
is presented, containing only two of the additional vowels, eii, tii,
without which no dialects could be even approximatively written,
In the second, these two and the other fourteen are briefly ex-
plained, some vowel progressions are introduced which may assist
the reader in forming a conception of the sounds, and the exact
value of the 28 glossotype vowels, the diphthongs and consonants
is fixed by a comparison with palaeotype.
1 In Mr. Peacock's Glossaries (Tran- to prefix a key conspicuously, but has left
sactions of the Philological Society, it hidden in a footnote to an appended
1867, Supplement Part II.) a partially essay, as if it were of no consequence,
systematic method of writing is adopted, instead of being of prime importance,
explained in the annexed Essay on One consequence of this to myself was,
Some Leading Characteristics of the that I did not discover the key till I
Dialects, etc., p. 11 note; but on en- had with great difficulty, and much
deavouring to transliterate the speci- uncertainty, made one for myself by
mens of the North and South Lonsdale examining the whole glossary. To
dialects there given (pp. 31, 32) into form a system of writing requires pe-
glossotjije, I found several combina- culiar studies. The present glossotype
tions and signs employed which had is the result of much thought and ex-
not been previously explained, and perience extending over a great length
which I had simply to guess at. Yet of time, combined with long practice
Mr. Peacock's writing is a gem com- in phonetic writing,
pared to most which I have met with, ^ Oriental signs can easily be bor-
for they generally leave me in a state rowed from palaeotype, or supplied by
of utter bewilderment. Few writers other conventions,
even condescend to give a key at all, ^ The information from my dialectic
and in Mr. Peacock's Glossaries, the correspondents (p. 277 note 1) was
editor has not considered it necessary chiefly collected by means of Glo3sotj'pe.
C14
HISTORICAL PHONETIC SPELLING.
Chap. VI. § 3.
KEY TO GLOSSOTYPE.
Especially intended for writing dialectic English according to literary English
analogies. Isolated letters and words in Glossotj-pe should be in Italics. No letter
or combination is ever mute ; thus, final e is always pronounced as in German. Never
use ay, aw, etc., for at, au. etc., even when final. C. Cockney, D. Dutch, £. English,
F. French, G. German, /. Italian, P. Provincial, S. Scotch, /F. "Welsh.
Vowels.
Diphthongs.
a ffnai
ah father
ai wait
au all
e Tiet
ee meet
eu F. eu
i knit
0 not
oh. rose
00 wooed
ooh wood
u nut
uiF.
u
(') an indistinct murmur.
{^) nasalized utterance.
N F. nasal n is written n
Obscure vowels are double
dotted in her reeal goohd-
riis, for which turned letters
may be used if types run
short, as: harreeul goohdnis
All vowel signs are ambigu-
ous, short or long, and may
have their quantity distin-
guished when desired, by a
single or double following
consonant, by the signs of
quantity (" "), or (^ ^), or
a turned period (•) placed
immediately after a long
vowel and after the conso-
nants following a short
vowel, as, Yorkshire book
book book or boo'k, S. bookk
book book or book-, £.
boohkk huohk boohk or
boohk; E. nohxo — know,
Teviotdale noaw —VnaW.
^Vhen accents are not marked
by (') for ambiguous vowels,
or (" ^ •) for long and short
vowels as above, the accent
must be placed in reading
on the first syllable of a
word.
ay 5. P. C.
ahy G. ai
aiy may
ey S. bite
euy F. ceil
aw P. C.
ahw G. au
aiw C.
ew /. eu
euw D.
iw mew
ow P.
ohw know
uw hotv
oy hoy
ohyP.
oojI.FP.
uy hiyh
uiy F. ui
In all these diphthongs
the first element has the
sound assigned in the
preceding column, which
is run on quickly, with a
glide, to a follo\\Tiig ee
or 00 written y or w.
Numerous other diph-
thongs can be formed on
the same model.
Diphthongs may also be
formed by aftixing (') as
ro/iV almost rohad rohud
= road, and by affixing
ui, as B. heuuis = huis,
but it is generally suffi-
cient to treat this ui as
y, thus : heuys.
In the rare cases when any
of the above combinations
do not form single vowels
or diphthongs, introduce
a hj-phen, as ah-yont =
ayont S. Observe that
the 10 and y of the conso-
nants wh, yh, never be-
long the preceding vowel.
Consonants.
b lee
ch chest
d doe
dh the
f >
s go
ghD.G.g
h. he
j j«y
k coo
kw queen
kwh S. quh
kh G. ach
1 lo
Ih W. II
ly /. gi
m me
n no
ng thing
ngg finger
nk think
ny /. gn
p pea
r ray
'r air
TT I.S. r
rh P.F. r
8 see
«h she
t ti7i
th thin
V vale
w wail
wh why
7 y^t
yh S. nicht
z zeal
zh vision
Foreign and Oriental sounds
must be represented by
small capitals, «fec.,by special
convention.
Really doubled consonants
should be separated by a hy-
phen, as«M-;;o/i«=unknown.
When any of the above com-
binations do not form single
letters introduce a hyphen,
as mad-hiiws, Bog-hed, Mak-
hevth, in-grdin, in-kum,
mis-hdp, pot-huws, etc.
Chap. VI. { 3.
HISTORICAL PHONETIC SPELLING.
615
EXPLAJS^ATION" OF THE ADDITIONAL AND FoEEIGN VoWELS.
o obscure a in real, cristal.
aa deeper sound of ah, in G. and F.
ae between a and ah, fine southern E. a
in staff, ask, path, pass, command,
no between ah and aii, broad S. a in man.
e the obscure sound of e in herd, when it
eh
can be distinguished from e or u.
between e and a, broad northern E. and
S. e, I. open e, F. e.
eu produced by pronouncing ai with
roimdcd lips, F. close eu in j'eune.
'i obscure i or e in goodness,
ih resembling ui verging towards ee, P. G. ii
oa as heard in oar, between o and oh,
P. E. broad o, I. open o.
oe produced by pronouncing e or eh with
rounded lips, F. open eu injeune, G. o.
ua very deep sound of western -E. u.
ue resembling ui, verging towards oo,
Swedish zi.
uh deeper and broader sound of w, general
in P. E. and S.
produced by pronouncing ee or i with
rounded lips, S. ui, D. F. u, G. ii.
between oA and oo, a broader ooh,
I. close 0 in somma, Edinburgh coal.
ui
uo
Vowel Progressions, arranged to shew approximatively how the (italic) sixteen
additional and foreign vowels lie between the (roman) twelve usual English sounds.
1. palatal to guttural: ee i ai e eA a ae ah
2. guttural to labial : ah aa ao au o oa oh mo ooh oo.
3. labial to palatal : I) oo tie ui ih ee ; 2) oh oe eu ai
4. deep to high, obscure : ua uh \i a Is i.
Glossotxpe Compared with Palaeottpe.
"WTien more than one palaeotj'pic symbol is placed after a single vowel, the first
represents the sound that would be naturally given to it by an English reader, and the
two may be distinguished, when required, as previously explained. Glossotype in Italics,
Palaeot)'pe in (). The arrangement is partially systematic.
Vowels.
Diphthongs.
Consonants.
Historical. | Additio7ial.
Y series.
W series.
Pairs. Single.
ee (ii i)
l {y) aiy {eei ei)
aiw {eeM ew.)
ph{i^h)
h (h h')
ai {ee e)
eh (e ee) ehy (si)
ehw (eu)
t d (t d)
rA (grh r)
ae (ah aah). a^y (aM)
aew (ahw)
kg{^E)
r (r)
ah (aa a)
aa {aa a) i ahy (ai aai)
ahv (au aau)
h gy (i^j gj)
V(ir)
au (aa a)
ao {ah. aah) aay {ai aai)
aaw (au)
liw gw {\i.io
rr (.r)
oh {oo o)
oa (00 o)
ohy {oo\ oi)
ohw (oou ou)
^iv) Ih (Ihh)
00 (uu u)
ue (uu ij)
coy (uui ui)
wh w (wh. w) I (1)
«" (.vy y)
uiy (yi)
uiw (yu)
/nfv)
'? ('!)
i {i ii)
ih (n i)
iw (iu ju)
^A <?/i (th dh)
^y (ij)
e (e ee)
eu {dd 9)
ey (ei)
ew (eu)
5 Z (s z)
m (m)
oe (oeoe ce)
euy {ai oei)
euw {9Vi oeu)
s/t zA (sh zli)
'm Cm)
a (ae seoe)
a (t3)
ay (aei)
aw (seu)
chj (tsh dzh) w (n)
0 (O 00 )
e (aoao 80)
oy (oi)
ow (ou)
yh y (jh /ch j) 'w ('n)
u (o 90)
uh (a: aa:)
wy (oi)
MJO (ou)
Z^^A <7/i (kh gh) ny (nj)
ua (a))
uhy (a:i)
m/«2<7 (au)
kwh givh (k«<;li ?2^ (q)
ooh (w %m)
uo {uh. mih^
gi^^h) «/c (qk)
Murmur ' (') French Nasals — «n es on «<n (aA ca oa 9a).
The eight omitted palaeotypic vowels may, when required, be indicated by writing —
6 ; ii, eh, uoh, oah, aoh ; euh oeh
for OS ; Y,
ah,
oh
oh, oh ;
sh,
a;h
G16
niSTOmCAL PHONETIC SrELLING.
Chap. VI. § 3.
The historical spcllins from which Glossotypc has been evolved,
is, of course, not pruposud tor immediate adoption in literature,
althouph there is no historical or etymological reason against its
use. In order to shew the effect of adopting such an orthography
in place of that now current, I have annexed the glossotypic
spelling of some lists of words already given in the previous
section on the pages referred to in each case, in which the reader
will find tlie solution of their orthogi'aphical riddles. As these lists
contain the piincipal anomalies of spelling in owe language, the
absurdity of propagating them will appear strongly in reading over
thiir sounds, without having the orthography immediately present
to the eye. The historical letters only are used, hence the un-
accented vowels, and some shades of sound are not discriminated
with perfect accuracy, and the intention has been rather to en-
deavour to give the letters which an average speller, acquainted
with the ordinary orthography, would select when intending to
write his own pronunciation glossotypically, than to aim at or-
thoepical accuracy, as the appearance which would be presented
if such a style of spelling were adopted, could not otherwise be
imitated. For this reason duplicated consonants, are freely ad-
mitted, when they would be likely to suggest themselves to the
wiiter, but are not used systematically, and only the ambiguous
accent ( ) is employed. The order of the sounds is that given in
the last paragraph of p. 609.
ee, p. 599. miniwshiee, deemeen,
Keez Kolledj, bee, cech, fleed, Icev,
Beechum, leeg, feet, een, kompleet,
sleev, impreen, Lee, konsect, konseev,
8cen)'uri, Lee, reeseet, Beevur, peep'l,
moov, manoover, too, wood, soop, booz,
throo, Broom, rondevoo, surtoo, billi-
doo, Kooper, rooling, troo, rool, brooz-
ing, biooz, Hoom, too, hoc.
i, p. 599. lanskip, Sinjun, Jabrvis,
dcemcen, kee, Weemz, keed, duyareea, pritti, ginniz, biffin, britcbiz, forfit
invalocd, grecf, niaggazeen, greev, Tibbuld, huzzif, egzibit, rith'm, pit.
Bccnyur, fiwzee, debrc'c, intreeg, feetus,
kee, kecd, muskeetob, tuikeez.
at, p. 596. mait, sbampain, dailia,
pain, kampain, strait, trai, liaipcni hah-
peni, jail, Kaisbaufn, gaij, plaig, plai,
grait, ai ! vail, rain, wai, dhai, ait.
o/i, p. 593. fabdhur, abr, scrablyob,
ah, abmz, Mabmzbcn, aiklab, abut,
bahrk, klabrk, babrt, gabrd.
au, p. 59.3. faul, aum, Maudlen
Kolledj, maulstik, wauk, baumun, baul,
Maud, nauti, Vaun, aun, auful, au,
brand, sauder, aut, ekstraudineri,
Jaurjik, Jaurj, faurk, baurs.
oh, p. 602. bobtur, bobboy, bob.
marrijiz, marrij, pittid, too liv, siv,
fippens, wimmin, grits, Jabrvis, Missis,
bizzi, lettis, bild, biznis, Timt, Cbizzik,
fizzik, Wiudum, llothsi, munni, Anni,
Biwli, felli, shammi, plaigi.
e, p. 595. menni, Pomfret, Pestum,
Muykel, Temz, sed, Abbergeni, sez, let,
bed, det, Wenzdi, aledj, forred, beffer,
Lester, lepperd, ebek, rondevoo, ret-
turik, frend, konsbens, fettid, konesur,
bcrri, ges, pannijerrik, gunnel, Tom-
masez, saiber, verchoo, Berlingtun,
saffer, better, Urkert, abuser — or saibur,
vurcboo, Burlingtun, safifur, bettur,
Urkurt, abnsur.
, - , , , , , , - • ' «> P- 593. sat, Uyzak, Makki, dram,
vohman sbob, sobd pobst obts wuts, hav, banyob, Tammun, plad, sammun,
bohm bobs n, kohburn, dob, bobn, harang, Klappam, Talmasb, pikant.
oblvob, ob, skrootohr skrootwiur, yohk „, p. 60L rozzin, onnur, on, grot,
brobcb, aprobpoh, Grobvnur, deepoh forred, konnisant konnis'nt, Jon, bok,
deppoh sobl, rohg, Yob-baul, dbob, peddagog, noUedj.
noh,tobrd7,oh, ^oblz, kobth,kwobth. „, p. 596. ribbun, meersbum, es-
00, p. 605. galoon, Rooben, Bukl6o, klitcbun.umb'l.mobsbun, konsbus, sun,
broo, brood, room, roobabrb, doo, shoo, duz, luv, tortus, Linkun, flud, dub'l,
Chap, YI. § 3. HISTORICAL PHONETIC SPELLING.
617
tung, bellus, tuppcns, amatur, kubburd,
avvurdiwpoyz, kuiiiol, likur, likkia-.
ooli, p. 604. woolimiiKin, BooliUing-
broohk, woohd, woohstid, Woohstur,
kuwchoohk, koolid, boohl.
tiij, p. 597. nuyv, iiyl, duypnossoh-
fist, huyt, uyiiig, uy, ruynoscros, Eiiyn,
ruyming, riiyni, biiyiid, iiiduyt, duy,
luyv, suyn, suy, suyd, vuykuwnt,,
uyl, beegiiyling, becguyl, buy, tluy,
duy, suydh.
oij, p. 602. buvjoys, noyzi, noyz,
poynant, koyn, boy, enjoyd, Boyl, koyt
kwoyt, boy bwoy booy, boyd booyd.
uw, p. 597. kuwchouk, Makluwd,
uwr, kuwnter, nuwn, duwt, reemiwns,
buw, kuw, aliiwd.
iw, p. 599. monniAvment, inkiwbait,
mancbiwmaikar, biwti, fiwd, fiwdal,
diws, Liwsun, uiw, ahdiw, viw, viwd,
fiwg'lrauu, amiwzing, fiwsbia, kiw,
amiwz, kiw, inipiwn, biwl, siwt, piwui,
liwstnng, fiwg, iwnuyt, Ivvjeen, iw, iw,
iw, iwl, iw iwth, or yoo yootb, biw-
main, biwmaii. biw, Hiw, Hiwz.
y, p. 600. bidyus, unyun, balilooyah,
yabrd, Dciiyil.
w, p. 605. kwuyr, purswaid, waur,
wun.
wh, p. 605. wben.
h, p. 598. Kala-ban, bobl, Kob-
hoon, bobl.
p, p. 602. bikkup, pai, aip, Klap-
para, flapper, flapt.
b, p. 594. bee, eb, ebd, baib, Kob-
bura, Hobburn, kubburd, bobboy.
t, p. 604. det, yot, induyt, sukt,
saut, tizzikal, reeseet, tob, tuym, batter,
too, metsobtint.
d, p. 594. dellium, deep, ad, Eoobd-
dist, traid, Windura, luvd, woobd,
burd'n.
ch, p. 604. Yairmicbelli, cbain,
abrcbt, cbopeen, Mabrcbbanks, matcb,
matcbt.
j, p. 595. Grinnidj, sobljur, judjmcnt,-
ridj, Wedjberi, jem, kolledj, Belliujam,
just.
k, p. 600. kan, akdwnt, Bakkanal,
Some readers will natui'ally object to such orthography that it is
entirely fictitious and not in any respect historical. It is not meant
to imply that the above spelling was ever used at any time, but
only that almost every combination of which each word is composed
has been in use for such a long time, generally more than two centuries,
that its emplo'yment in the sense proposed is really liistorically justi-
fied. But how should we spell ? What other grounds of spelling
are there but the phonetic ? There are the purely historical, the
etymological, the typographical. The purely historical, however.
skool, aik, bak, liakt, akwfiiut, bok,
kail, baik, wauk, kwak, kee, anteek,
Urkurt, vuykuwnt, bak'l, cksept.
g, p. 598. blaggahrd, gob, eg, begd,
gohst, ges, plaig.
/, p. 597. fob, fuyf, stif. stuft, fiwg'l-
man, of'n, lalif, bahf, saffcr, leftenant.
f, p. 605. ov, Bcevur, babv, nevviw,
Grobviiur, veel, bav, rondevoo.
th, p. 604. Keethli, aittb, apobthem,
Suwtb-banitun, tbin, bluytb, bluydb,
Matbiw.
dh, p. 595. dbee, breedh.
s, p. 603, sol, ais, Gloster Glauster,
sabm, Sissister, Woobstur, see, seen,
kobales, siz'm, Massam, biss, liist,
lis'n epis'l, missis, sobrd, briska, bcUus,
metsobtint.
s, p. 605. sakrifuyzing, sakrifuyz,
zabr, Winzui', Saulzberi, az, dizern,
eez, dizonnur, bizuis, sizzerz, Kezzik,
bee bellobz, bobz, zeel, suyz, wbizzing,
wbizd.
sh, p. 604. shaiz, fiwsbia, spesbal,
sbau, shoobgger, sbeddiwl, konsbus, sbal,
wisbt, Ashtun, kompresbun, mobshun.
zh, p. 606. roozbing, roozb, zboo-
dimob, plezbur, divizbun, absizbun,
aizbur.
r, p. 603. (r), ruyt, retturik, ruyt,
hurri, katarral, ('r,jr) fee'ring, pai'ring
debabring, ignob'ring, poo'rer, fuy'ri,
buw'ri, (a) spai'r,kaur kob'r,bur, maur-
gaij, (.<) mur, deefur, or mer deefer.
I, p. 600. serablyob, maulstik, lais,
Gilfurd, ail, il, travveld, kil, uyl, brisli,
vitler.
m, p. 601. dram, flem, sabm, Cbumli,
am, lam, taim, hammer, sbamd, bim,
kammel, Bamf, Pomfi-et, siz'm, rith'm.
«, p. 601. stuns' 1, obpning, nau, Jon,
nob, Kohnbroohk, Kahn, neemonniks,
kuwntiir, kan, ribbun,kain,ippikakkiw-
^nna, mannur, Ipand, gunnel, reezning
niwmattiks, pi^vui, obp'n, reez'n.
ng, p. 602. fingger, singer, wingd,
B rmiugam, tung, Mingiz — bank, ban-
kercbif, link, di-uuk, anksbus.
G18 ET'i'MOLOGICAL SPELLING. Chap. VI. § 4.
such as was adopted by the Arifjlosaxons, and by the best writers in
the xnith and xivth centuries, was also purely phonetic, reflect-
ing; the ])ronunciation of the writer to the best of his ability.
We might adopt that systematised scheme of the xivth century
explained above (p. 401), and illustrated in the next chapter,
but we ^liould find it extremely difhtult to make any one but an
Early English student see the value of it, and perhaps even he
might demur to fixing the time at so recent a period, the latest
during wliich the principle of phonetic spelling actually influenced
the writer. But I know no other period which would in any
respect answer the purpose. AVith regard to the words introduced
since then, we should have to consider how they would have been
probably ])ronounced at that time, and write them accordingly.
The rehabilitation of our orthography on that ground would there-
fore be a work of extreme difficvdty, and would find a coirespond-
ingly small number of adherents. Even those who employed it
would have to re-memorize every word in the language, a discipline
to which none would submit who could escape it. The attempt
to introduce such a system could therefore only result in confusion
worse confounded. We may adopt it for our xiv th century school-
books, but we must not ask writers to use it in their everyday
scribbling.
Dismissing, therefore, any purely historical system, we have
only to consider the etymological, and the typograpliical, which
will occupy the two next sections, while the phonetic gi'ound will
be considered in the last section.
§ 4. Etymological Spelling.
The two tables in §§ 1, 2 may serve to dissipate the phantom
which haunts many brains under the name of etymological ortho-
graphy. It seems that the gi'oss departure from the original
phonetic conception which pervades our alphabetic system, and
which degrades alphabetical to hieroglyphical writing, has led
persons to suppose that the phonetically useless and inconsistently
applied letters, which they have constantly to employ, are intended
to convey to the reader the history and origin of a word, whence it
came, how it changed, what was its original meaning, and how
that has been modiiied. It is true that the recent etymological
labours of Wedgewood and E. Miiller, might be sufficient to prove
that such infoi-mation could not be conveyed by any means, because
it is in many cases unknown now, and was less known to those
who have modelled our orthography, and also that when it is
known, or tolerably certain, there is no generally understood
abbreviated system for conveying the information, wliich often
requires a considerable amount of words to explain, nor does i
appear possible to conceive that any such system could be invented,
much less brought into use. These matters do not strike those
who are possessed with the etymological conception, for they are
Chap. VI. § 4. ETYMOLOGICAL SrELLTNG. 619
generally very ill informed respecting the real history of our
language, and think rather of the recent tenns borrowed from the
Latin and Greek, which present no difficulty whatever, and could
scarcely be made to present much difficulty by any freak of ortho-
graphy,^ tlian of the old terms of Germanic, or Norman French
origin, or those, not rare words, in constant use, of which the origin
is unknown. Many of the troublesome additional letters, which
were perhaps inserted from a supposed knowledge of the origin of a
word, are mistakes, few of them are of any assistance, and none of
them are consistently employed.
To take a simple example : those who know that oah coiTe-
sponds to ags. dc, may be inclined to think that the h was put in to
show it was Gennanic, and not Latinic or Hellenic, whereas we
know that the introduction of k was a mere habit of the xiiith and
xrv th centuries ; or that the inserted a was meant to allude to the
old a, while the prefixed o shewed the modem change ; whereas,
we know that the xiv th century wrote simply ok, ook, that in the
XV th, and the gi-eater part of the xvi th centuiy, oke was em-
ployed (this is the orthography of Palsgrave and Levins), and that
the a was introduced towards the latter end of the xvi th century
as a mere phonetic contrivance to distinguish (oo) from (uu), and
without any etymological reason whatever. It so happens that we
still write stroke, nothwithstanding the ags. stracan. There was a
long fight between sope, soap, and it is not to be supposed that
a was cai'ried by Latin sapo. It is but very lately that cloak
triumphed over clolce ; but there can be no etymological reason,
because no one is certain of the etymology, and the middle Latin
clocca, generally adduced, would not favour the a.
Take another simple instance, which, like the former, applies
to numerous cases : In the word name, the final e is supposed to
allude to a former final vowel, and to indicate the lengthening of
the preceding vowel. The ags. had a final a, but the preceding
vowel was short. The a had become long in Orrmin's time, and he
wi'ote name because he said (naa*me), and not (nam°a), which he
would have written namma, and similarly he changed all the other
vowels to accord with his own pronunciation. The meaning of the
added e was lost in xv th ccntuiy, and in the xvi th it was fre-
quently, but of course inconsistently, used to indicate vowel length,
and in this case the length of (aa) as (naam). It was not from
a wish to preserve the a etymologically that it was not changed to
naim in the xvii th century, but it was because at became settled as
(ee) before name ceased to be (na^aem), so that there was a difi'erence
in sound felt nearly up to the time when our orthography crystal-
lized in the xvnr th centuiy. Should not we suppose satrie to give
us similar information. It would be wrong if it did, for though
Orrmin has an- adjective same, there is no ags. adjective sama, but
only an ags. adverb same.
1 Italian : ipoteca, ipotesi, ipofisi, more difficulty than our bishop, and not
ipofora, filosofo, fisonomia, geroglifico, so much as our church.
epitaffio, epitalamio, etc., present no
G20 ETYMOLOGICAL SPELLING. CuAr. VI. § 4.
The reason ustially g^vcn for wishing to retain the u in spelling
honour, facour, rrroiir is the French orthography -eur, on the plea
tliut this Drtliography discriminates those words which were taken
from the Freneli from those Avhere taken direct from the Latin. It is
certainly not obvious that tliis discrimination is worth any trouble,
or that any one could determine to which class eveiy word ending
in -or or -our really belongs. Nevertheless this etymological reason
has bei-n frecjuently advanced, and was especially insisted on by the
late Arclideacon C. J. Hare.^ Our investigations, however, shew
that the reason given is altogether fanciful and destitute of any
foundation of historical truth. These words were spelled -our, in
the XIV th century, because they were pronounced {_-uur), for the
same reason that ]>u nu became thou now. Moreover honour could
not have been derived from honneur, because that French form did
not exist when the English honour was adopted. The French used
honor, honur, honour. The mutation of Latin o into French eu did
not take place till a later period.^ If indeed the French had used
eu, which they would have pronounced (eu) or (cy), there is no
doubt that Chaucer who used the sound (eu) and wrote it eu or etc,
would have also written honeur. We see then that honur has more
claim than either ho}ior or honour if we go to the old French ;
though honour asserts its right as old English, and just as honos was
old Latin. But such squabbles are trifling. The historical spelling
of § 3, would decide in favour of onur or onnur, which no ortho-
grapher has proposed, although evciy orthoepist woiild be scan-
dalized at the pronunciation of the '' etymological" A.
" Trouth and honour, fredom and curtesie,"
writes the Harl. MS. 7334, v. 46. "What do we gain, either
phonetically or etymologically by writing.
Truth and honor, fi-eedom and courtesy.
Etymologically, trouth agrees better with ags. ireow]>e, fredom with
ags. freodom, curtesie with old French curtesie (Roquefort).^ The
spellings true, truth, are certainly etymologically inferior to the
discarded trewe, trouth, which represented the proper sounds of the
time, and we ought, on the same principle now, to wiite troo,
trooth. The termination -y, used for the threefold termination, -e,
-ie, -y, the last being a contraction for -iy = /j, is a gross violation
of all supposed principles of etymological spelling. It is evident
that those who shaped our spelling had little or no knowledge
of etymology, had no acquaintance with the customs of our ancient
orthography, which many even yet regard as a chaos without law,
or custom, and, except in very rare and very ob\'ious instances,
paid no attention whatever to historical affiliation, or ancient
etymology.
' On Enfflish Orthography, Cam- einfache »," Gram, der Rom. Spr. 2nd
bridge Philological Museum, vol. 1. ed. 1856. vol. i. p. 426.
^ Diez, after citing feu jew, keure, ^ The xiv th century orthography
plmre, etc., adds " in alien diesen of this word is especially considered in
Fallen kennt die altc Sprachc auch das Chap. YII. § 1, near the beginning.
Chap. YI. J 5. STANDARD SPELLING. 621
The first thing which we have to do in studying a new language
for comparative philology, is to determine its sounds, and only
in so far as the orthography enables us to determine the sounds,
is it of any etymological value. Any deviation from phonetic
representation is an impediment in the way of etymology. And
the only true etymological spelling wliich can be conceived is one
that is strictly phonetic. The investigation which we have just
concluded, by enabling us to restore from the changing orthography
the changing sounds, that is, the changing words of our language,
puts us in a far better position than ever to determine the ety-
mological relations. We still want a similar investigation for
French, at least, and for all our dialects, as well as that principal
southern form which alone offered sufficient facilities for examina-
tion. All the labour and trouble of such an examination would
have been saved if the writers had had a sufficient alphabet from
the first, and had known how to use it. But, unfortunately, the
true conditions of alphabetic writing have only just been deter-
mined, and the number of those who can use coiTectly even such an
approximation as is furnished b}- the forty-two historical phonetic
symbols of the last section is very small. No one has ever dreamed
of writing provincial dialects etymologically. It was felt that
by so doing the whole means of representing them was lost ; for,
until they were written their etymology could not be detennined.
It was forgotten that our own particular cultivated English lan-
guage, is but the most fortunate among many dialects, that,
therefore, its etymology, also, could not be determined till it was
fixed by phonetic writing, and that, consequently, for etymo-
logical purposes we should endeavour to represent it on paper
as accurately as the generality can appreciate it. Other reasons
there are in abundance. But on the ground of philology alone, we
can truly s.ay, there is no etymology without phonetics.
§ 5. On Standard, or Typographical Spelling.
It is possible to write a language without any relation to
phonetics. The greater part of the Chinese vocabulary is said to
be of this nature. One system of writing is prevalent throughout
a vast empire, is understood by each province, and is provided by
each with a different set of corresponding vocables. At Pekin they
cannot understand the speech of Canton, but the writing is
mutually intelligible. It is like the cyphers of arithmetic, or the
eig-ns of algebra, and the diagrams of geometry, which are read in
different tongues, but Avith the same apprehension of thcii- meaning
throughout Europe. This ideal has great fascination for many.
Conceive a grand symboleum, known every whei-e, and yet read by
each in his own tongtie. Such a conception has bee n nc arly carried
out in England, Germany, France, and Italy, and probaldy in other
countries. A fixed system of spelling has been, either by aca-
622 STANDARD SPELLING. Chap. VI. § 6.
domical authority, or tlirouph the action of printers, accepted in
each country. No two men in England and Germany, at any rate,
pronounce in the same manner every word which they would write
alike. In Germany completely diverse systems of utterance are
pursued among the educated in different districts. The high
German, as distinguished from all and every of these systems, is
known as "die Schriftsprache, d. h. als diejemge Sprache in der
man Deutch schreibt." ' It is a literary, not a spoken language, and
in 8axony, in Prussia, on the Rhine, on the Danube, by the
Vistula, jmd the Eider, or in Switzerland, the language changes to
the ear.* The peasantry of Saxony are taught to write High
German ; their spoken Upper German dialect tries a foreigner sorely.
In the same way we have a literaiy language in England, a
written language, having only a remote connection with the spoken
tongue, and shaped by printers as an instrument intended to satisfy
the eye. Indeed the great objection to any innovation is its "odd
appearance." And persons naturally conceive that to change the
spelling i.s to alter the language. We have succeeded in getting
this orthography to be recognised, and there are probably many
who look upon it as an institution as unalterable and natural as the
musical scale (which, by-the-bye, differs materially in different
countries, and is thoroughly artificial in its origin), and regard any
unwitting deviation from it as unfitting a person for the commonest
occupation,^ and excluding him altogether from the ranks of the
educated, and yet the only "good (!) spellers" in the country are
compositors and printers' readers. A reference to the tables in the
two first sections of this chapter should dissipate all idea of fi:xed-
ness, every notion of a sacred character in our orthography. It is
barely a hundi'cd years old, to give it the longest life. Two
hundred, three hundred, five hundred years ago our spelling was
entirely different. The same letters were used, but differently
collocated, for what only standard orthographers could look upon
as the same word. Notwithstanding this, a standard orthography
is not oidy a possibility, but an actuality,* and as long as it is
accompanied by its indispensable adjunct — a pronouncing dic-
tionary— it will cease to be detrimental to the philologer, who can
resort to the phonetic representation for what he requires. But it
should remain fixed to be of value. However much the language
may hereafter vary, this crystallized form should remain. No
change of any kind, or from any cause should be pennitted.
' " The larifpiacre of writing, i.e., dialectic pronunciations are mutually
that language m which we write Ger- unintelligihle.
man," as distinguished from speaking ^ ''Correctness in Spelling," that is,
German. K. F. Becker, Schulgram- habitual use of typographical custom,
matik der deutschen Sprache, 3rd ed. is essential to those wlio intend to pass
1835, \ 23. any Civil Service examination.
^ This is still more striking, I am * The slight variations and uncer-
informed by natives, in the Arabic tainties pointed out on p. 590, note,
language. The written symbols and may be entirely disregarded for pre-
the literary language are the same sent purposes,
from Morocco to Persia, the native
Chap. VI. § 5.
STANDARD SPELLING.
623
Otherwise to the enormous practical evils of an orthography which
has no connection with sound, which helps no one to read and no
one to spell, will be added the last straw of uncertainty.
For my own part I do not see the value of a standard ortho-
graphy, but I do see the value of an orthography which reflects
the pronunciation of the writer. Our present standard orthography
is simply typographical ; but in that word lies a world of meaning.
It is a tyrant in possession. It has an army of compositors who
live by it, an army of pedagogues who teach by it, an army of
officials who swear by it and denounce any deviation as treason, an
army, yea a vast host, who having painfully learned it as children,
cling to it as adults, in dread of having to go through the awful
process once more, and care not for sacrificing their children to that
Moloch, thi'ough whose fires themselves had to pass, and which
ignorance makes the countersign of respectability. Accepting this
fact, I have arranged all my vocabularies according to this typo-
graphical spelling, simply because it will be familiar to all who
read this book, and they will, therefore, by its means most readily
discover what they require.^ But I cannot do so without record-
ing my own conviction, the result of more than a quarter of a
centiuy's study, that our present standard typographical spelling is a
monstrous misshapen changeling, a standing disgrace to our literature.
^ For the same reason in any dic-
tionary, whether of ancient or modern
English, which is published before a
general revision of our orthography is
effected (the Greek Kalends ?), I re-
commend an arrangement of the words
according to the orthography in most
general use at the time of publication,
because the intention of such an ar-
rangement is to find out a word Avith
facility, and the most generally used
orthography is necessarily the one best
known. Xo individual systems such
as Webster's, or that proposed by Mr.
E. Jones (p. 590, note), or peculiari-
ties, such as Mitford's Hand, Milton's
rime, Johnson's musick, which are not
found in one book or newspaper in ten
thousand, should be adopted. Where
there is a concurrent use, do as Min-
shew did (supra, p. 104), give all spell-
ings, the explanations under the one
thought to be most usual (to the ex-
clusion of all caprice, individual pre-
ference, and pet theories of correctness)
and cross references under the others.
To search a dictionary of any extent is
penance enough. The searcher can't
afford to have his labour increased.
Would not a beginner in Anglosaxon
be driven mad by the arrangement in
Ettmiiller's Dictionary, to which no
index even is appended ? I have often
regretted the precious time it has cost
me. In Dr. Stratman's excellent Dic-
tionary of the Old English Language
" the words are entered in alphabetical
order, imder theu' oldest form, for ex-
ample uwen owew under u'^en, efen, even
under cefen ; ivel, evel under uvel, etc."
The consequence is the waste of hours.
Such a dictionary should have the chief
article, as in Coleridge's Glossary, un-
der the most usual existent form, as
best known, and cross references imder
all the old forms, as being unknown.
Individual Glossaries must of course
follow the exact orthography of the
books which they index, but even here
cross references may refer to the chief
article under the iisual orthography.
Great advantage would accrue in com-
paring all forms of words in all books
by some such arrangement as this.
Where the field is so vast and the
midtiplicity of detail so immeasurable,
those patriotic individuals who give us
the result of their labours should do
their best to render them quickly ac-
cessible. The increased bulk of any
glossary or dictionary is utterly unim-
portant, as compared with the saving
of time to its consulter.
624 STANDARD PRONUNCIATION. Cuap. VI. } 6.
§ 6. On Standard Pronunciation.
For at least, a century, since Buclianan published his " Essay
towards cstaldishingj a standard for an clfgant and uniform pro-
nunciation of the English language throughout the British dominions,
as practisc-d by the most learned and polite speakers," in 1766, and
probably for many years previously, there prevailed, and ap-
parently there still prevails, a belief that it is possible to erect a
standard of pronunciation which should be acknowledged and
followed throughout the countries where English is spoken as a
native tongue, and that in fact that standard already exists, and is
the norm unconsciously followed by persons who, by rank or educa-
tion, have most right to establish the custom of speech.
One after another, for the last centuiy, we have had labourers in
the field. Buchanan, 1766, was a Scotchman, and his dialect clung
to him; Sheridan, 1780, was an Irishman, and Johnson, from
the first, ridiculed the idea of an Irishman teaching Englishmen
to speak.' Sheridan was an actor, so was Walker, 1791, but the
latter had the advantage of being an Englishman, and his dic-
tionaiy is still in some repute, though those who study it will see his
vain struggles to reconcile analogy with custom, his constant
references to the habits of a class of society to which he evidently
did not belong, his treatment of pronunciation as if determined by
orthography (precisely in the same way as grammarians consider
grammar to mould language, whereas both orthography and gram-
1 " BoswELL : It may be of use, Sir, Lord Chesterfield told me that the
to have a Dictionary to ascertain the word great should be pronounced to
pronunciation. Johnso.v : Why, Sir, rhyme to state ; and Sir William Yonge
my Dictionary shews you the accent sent me word that it shoidd be pro-
of words, if you can but remember nounced so as to rhyme to ^cat, and
them. BoswELL : But, Sir, we want that none but Irishmen would pro-
marks to ascertain the pronunciation nounce it grait. Now here were two
of the vowels. Sheridan, I believe, men of the highest rank, the one the
ha.s finished such a work. Johnson : best speaker in the House of Lords,
Why, Sir, consider how much easier it the other the best speaker in tlic House
is to learn a language by the car, than of Comnnais, differing entirely." Bos-
by any marks. Sheridan's Dictionary well's Life of Johnsun, anno. 1772,
may do very well ; but you cannot set. 63. Dr. Johnson, liowever, had
always carry it about with you : and, his own fancies : " I perceived that he
when you want the word, you have not pronounced the word//««rrf, as if spelled
the Dictionnry. It is like ihe man who with a double e, heerd, instead of
has a sword that will not diaw. It is sounding it herd, as is most usually
an admirnhle swoid to be sure : but done. He said, his reason was, that if
while your enemy is cutting your throat it were pronounced herd, there would
you are unable to u~e it Besides, Sir, be a single exception from the English
what entitles Slieridan to fix the pro- pronunciation of the syllable ear, and
nuncialion of Knglish ? He has, in he thought it better not to have that
the first place, the disadvantage of exception." Ibid, anno 1777, a;t. 68.
being an Irishman : and if he says he Dr. Johnson had forgotten heart,
will fix it afur the example of the best hearken, wear, bear, to tear, swear,
company, why they diHer among them- earl, penrl, which all orthoepists of his
selves. I remember an insfar.ce : when time pronounce dificrently from ear.
I published the plan for my Dictionary, On great, seat, see supra, p. 87.
Chap. VI. § 6. STANDARD PRONUNCIATION. 625
mar are casts, one of speech sounds, and the other of speech
combinations); in short, in almost every part of his "principles,"
and his "remarks" upon particular words throughout his dic-
tionary, they will s^ the most evident marks of insufficient
knowledge, and of that kind of pedantic self-sufficiency which is
the true gro'wi^h of half-enlightened ignorance, and may be termed
" usherism." Walker has done good and hard work; he has laid
down niles, and hence given definite assertions to be considered,
and he has undoubtedly materially influenced thousands of people,
who, more ignorant than himself, looked upon him as an authority.
But his book has passed away, and his pronunciations are no longer
accepted. Jones, 1798; Perry, 1805; Enfield, 1807; Fulton, 1821 ;
Jameson, 1827; KJaowles, 1835, need not be more than named.
The last was a corrector and follower of Sheridan. Smart's Walker
Remodelled, 1836, and Worcester's Critical and Pronouncing Dic-
tionary, 1847, are those now most in vogue. Smart was a teacher
of elocution in London, who enjoyed a considerable reputation ;
Worcester is an American. In both of these we have a distinct
recognition of the vowels in unaccented syllables, but by no means
a distinct representation of the same ; and in Smart we have great
consideration bestowed upon the final vocal r (a), and its dipth-
thongal action on the preceding vowel.
The vocabulary of our language is so much more copious than
the vocabulary of any individual, and the vocabulary of any writer
is so much more copious than the vocabulary of the same man as a
speaker — unless he be a public orator, a clergyman, a lecturer, a
barrister, an actor, — and the orthography of our language conveys
so little information upon the intended pronunciation of any word,
that there will be many thousand words that even the most accom-
plished and varied speakers and hearers have never uttered or heard ;
and other thousands which they have only on the rarest occasions
uttered and heard, of the sound of which they must therefore be
more or less in doubt, unless they feel that confidence in themselves
which will allow them to assert that their own pronunciation is
correct, because it is their own.' By far the greater number of
' I do not remember ever meeting wGrds which I never heard pronounced,
with a person of general education, or From this result some peculiarities
even literary habits, who could read off not unworthy of notice. Many of the
without hesitation, the whole of such a words of my old vocabulary continue to
list of words as : bourgeois, demy, ac- be pronounced in the provincial dialect
tinism, velleity, batman, beaufin, bre- in which they were learned, such as tay
vier, rowlock, fusil, flugleman, vase, for tea, even though I know the right
tassel, buoy, oboe, archimandi'ite, etc., pronunciation, and generally recollect
and give them in each case the same the error after it has been committed,
pronimciation as is assigned in any I know not that I should regret this,
given pronouncing dictionary now in as it seems to give to my language a
use. Dr. Kitto, who lost his hearing living character, which it would neces-
at twelve years of age, but retained his sarily want, if all framed upon unheard
power of speech, says : (The Lost models. Many such words do not,
Senses, 1845, Series 1, Deafness, p. 23) however, occur, as I have exchanged
" I have often calculated that above many provincialisms for book words,
two-thirds of my vocabulary consist of which I am not in the same way liable
40
626
STANDARD PRONUNCIATION.
Chap. VI. § 6.
spcakors, however, do not feel this confidence, and, afraid that the
Bounds thry arc apcustomed to use in their own limited circles
would be ridiculed in the higher walks to which they aspire, are
glad to take the "authority" of a pronouncing dictionary as a guide.
Quts autem custodiet ipsos custodes? What guide do the guides follow?
Now our previous investigation shews that at any given time
there has always existed a great diversity of pronunciation, and
that pronunciation has altered with different velocities and in dif-
ferent directions in different places, that what was considered
"polite" at one time, was scouted at another, that there never has
been so near an approach to a unifonn pronunciation as that which
now prevails, and that that uniformity itself is not likely to be so
great as might have been anticipated.
Uniformity of pronunciation, necessarily depends upon the
proximity of speakers. We have seen that the great changes in
English were produced by the two civil wars, which mixed up
the elements of our population. In more recent times a certain
degree of uniformity is sustained, by 1) that communication be-
tween town and country which disseminates the habits of the
metropolis throughout the provinces ; 2) that system of university
education which rubs together the different cUalects of England
in a classical mortar, and sends out the product as the utterance of
young men of rank and fortune, and still more effectively, as that
of young clergymen throughout the length and breadth of our land,
and 3) that plan of teaching teachers which instils into them the
pronunciation of the most usual words and enables them to impress
it upon their pupils in the primary schools thi-oughout the country.
But that nothing approaching to real uniformity prevails is easily
seen, and some striking illustrations will be furnished in Chap. XI.
ANTien we listen to a discom-se we are by natural habit carried
away with the succession of ideas, and we have great difficulty in
withdrawing our attention from this, and fixing it merely upon the
sounds which are uttered. Any one, however, who wishes to study
to mispronounce. But even my book
words, though said to be generally pro-
nounced with much precision, are liable
to erroneous utterance through my dis-
position to give all such words as they
are written, and it is well kno^-n that
the letters of which many of our words
are composed, do not adequately re-
present the sounds with which they
are pronounced. This error of pro-
nouncing words as they are written is
the converse of that so common
among uneducated people, of writing
words down according to their sounds.
Many of such faults have, however,
been corrected in the course of years,
and it may not now be easy to detect
me in many errors of this kind : but
this arises not more firom such cor-
rections, than fi-om the curious instinct
which has, in the course of time, been
developed, of avoiding the use of those
words about the pronunciation of which
I feel myself uncertain, or which I know
myself liable to mispronounce. This
is particularly the case with proper
names and foreign words ; although,
even in such, I am more in dread of
erroneous quantity than of wrong vo-
calization." The above test words,
which are not all to be found even in
"Worcester's dictionary, written in glos-
sotj-pe according to my pronunciation,
would be : burjoys, deemuy, ^ktiniz'm,
veleeiti, bauman, biffin, breeveer, rul-
luk, fiwzee, fiwg'lman, vauz, tos'l, boy,
ohboy, {ihrkimandruyt.
Chap. VI. § 6. STANDARD PRONUNCIATION. 627
pronunciation must be able to do this. It is entii'ely insufficient
and misguiding to ask a person to pronounce you a given word.
The most you can do is to propound him a sentence, and listen to
Mm with closed eyes as he repeats it over and over again. Then
you will probably detect differences of utterance at each delivery,
differences which it requires years of care and attention to discrimi-
nate and symbolize satisfactorily. Even then, too, each delivery
may be false, that is, not such as the speaker would utter naturally,
when he was thinking of the meaning and not of the sound of the
words. Listen to a preacher, shutting out your sense to his mean-
ing, and observe the alternations of loud, distinct, slow, and scarcely
audible, obscure, rapid utterances. Listen to the same man en-
gaged in ordinary conversation, and observe the increase of the
rapid, obscure utterances, and the difference occasioned in the
tolerably distinct syllables by the difference of emphasis and de-
livery. Then think how difficult it is to determine the real pro-
nunciation of that one man. How much more difficult must it be
to determine and then bear in mind the pronunciation of thousands
of other people, whom you only hear occasionally and observe less
frequently, because you vsdsh to know what, not how, they speak.
And yet this has to be done by any one who wishes to discover
what is the real actual existing usage of English speech. It is
needless to say that it is not done. Certain associations of child-
hood determine the direction of pronunciation, certain other habits
and associations of youth and early maturity, serve to modify the
original, and, if the speaker inclines to consider speech, he may
artificially " coiTCct," and at any rate, materially change his habits
of pronunciation in after life, but this is an exception. He soon
ceases to hear words, he drinks in ideas, and only glaring differences
which impede this imbibition, strike him. and are, more or less
falsely, noted. He is in the habit of using an orthography which
not only does not remind him of the sounds of words, but gives him
the power of deducing great varieties of pronunciation for unknown
words. What chance then have we of a uniform pronunciation ?
"What is the course actually pursued by those who seek to deter-
mine a standard of pronunciation ? Dr. Johnson laid dovra as " the
best general rule, to consider those as the most elegant speakers
who deviate least from the written words." ^ This was entirely
theoretical, and was penned in ignorance of the historical variations
of the orthoepical significance of the " written words." "Walker
asks whether the custom of speech to be followed is the " usage of
the multitude of speakers, whether good or bad," epithets which
beg the question, "the usage of the studious in schools and colleges,
with those of the learned professions, or that of those who, from
their elevated birth or station, give laws to the refinements and
elegancies of a -court ?" and replies that it is '' neither of these . . .,
taken singly, but a sort of compound ratio of all three," which
expression, knowing what compound ratio means, I do not profess
to understand. He goes on to say, " Neither a finical pronun-
1 Preface to Dictionary.
628 STANDARD PRONUNCIATION. Chap. VI. § 6.
ciation of the Court," — (is then Court pronunciation necessarily
finical?) — "nor a pedantic Gra?cisra of the schools," — (does this
eixst?) — "will be denominated respectable usage till a certain
number," (what proportion ?) " of the general mass of common
speakers," i.e. those wlio are neither courtly nor educated? "have
acknowledged them ; nor will a multitude of common .speakers
authorize," (to whom?) "any pronunciation which is reprobated
by the learned and polite. As those sounds, therefore," he concludes,
"which are the most generally received among the learned and
polite ; as well as the bulk of speakers are the most legitimate," —
i.e. according to law, but what or whose law ? — " we may conclude
that a majority of two of these states ought always to concur,
in order to constitute what is called " by Mr. John Walker,
" good usage." But how does Mr. John Walker, of Colney
Hatch, determine the usages of each of the three classes he
has named, but certainly not defined ? Smart seems to take
refuge in "the mouth of a well-educated Londoner," presumably
his own, and he talks of "vulgar speakers," "an appearance of
pedantry," "quite rustic," "speakers of the old school," "metro-
politan usage among educated people," "a vulgar mouth," "an
affected speaker," "the best speakers," " distinct utterance," "ob-
scure or colloquial utterance," "iiiTegularity," "■vulgarism,"
"current pronunciation," "actual pronunciation," "broad utter-
ance," "affectation," "the most solemn speaking," "vague and
fluctuating," "elegant speaker," etc., etc., words and epithets im-
plying theories or foregone conclusions, but not greatly advancing
our knowledge. We may then repeat the question, what is the
course actually pursued by these orthocpical oracles ? It appears
that they have observed somewhat, thought out, practised and
taught more, till they have confirmed a usage in themselves, and
have then announced that usage to be the custom of the " best
speakers," allowing occasional latitude. Worcester endeavours to
judge between past orthoepists, and among them allots the palm to
Smart, but frequently gives several different pronunciations and
says that "the reader will feel perfectly authorized" by Mr. Wor-
cester? "to adopt such a fonn as he may choose." "The com-
piler" he adds, "has not intended in any case, to give his own
sanction" to which, however, he seems to attribute considerable
weight, " to a fonn which is not supported by usage," (which he
has not heard generally used?) " authority," (which some previous
orthoepist has not recommended?) "or analogy," (as derived from
orthogi'aphy ?) He most sensibly concludes that "it would be un-
reasonable for him to make a conformity to his own taste, or to the
result of his own limited observation, a law to those who may differ
from him, and yet agree with perhaps the more common usage."
It has not unfrequently happened that the present writer has
been appealed to respecting the pronunciation of a word. He
generally repKes that he is accustomed to pronounce it in such
or such a way, and has often to add that he has heard others
pronounce it differently, but that he has no means of deciding
Chap. VI. § 6. STANDARD PRONUNCIATION. 629
whict pronunciation ought to be adopted, or even of saying whicli
is the more customary. This, indeed, seems to be the present state
of the case. A large number of words are pronounced with
differences veiy perceptible to those who care to observe, even
among educated London speakers, meaning those who have gone
through the usual course of instruction in our superior schools for
boys and girls. These differences largely increase, if educated
provincial speakers, especially Scottish, Irish, and Welsh, be taken
into consideration. If our American brethi'en are included, the
diversities still further increase, though our younger colonies
generally, being of more recent formation, so. that few of them can
count even a small number of persons whose fathers and grand-
fathers were bom and lived in them, do not materially swell the
number. But if we extend our circle to those who have only
received primary education, and still more to those who have re-
ceived no education at all, who, not being able to read and write,
or having no knowledge of theories of language, have developed
language organically, we find the diversities extremely great. The
respect which the inferior pays to his superior in rank and wealth
makes him generally anxious and willing to adopt the pronunciation
of the superiorly educated, if he can but manage to leam it.
How can he ? Ileal communication between class and class is all but
impossible. In London, where there is local proximity, the "upper
ten," the court and nobles, "the middle class," the professional,
the studious, "the commercial class," the retail tradesman, the
" young men and young ladies" employed behind the counter, the
servants, porters, di'aymen, artizans, mechanics, skilled and un-
skilled labourers, market men and women, costeiTaongers, " the
dangerous classes," — all these are as widely separated as if they
lived in different countries. But almost all read, almost all have
their favourite periodical, and all such periodicals adopt, within
narrow limits, the same orthogi^aphy. If that orthography only
shewed some kind of pronunciation — it is really of very little im-
portance which variety of those current among the educated be
selected, or even if different systems were chosen in different news-
papers— there would then be some means of comparing pronuncia-
tions, something less fleeting and more "questionable" than the
utterance itself, something to which the reader would in the act of
reading teach himself to confoiTQ. The educated author who has
fancies of his own respecting pronunciation, could insist on his
printer " following copy" and giving his opinion in his own spelling.
But the printers generally, printers of journals in particular, would
each soon adopt some special form, some vocabulary constnicted for
their office (supra, p. 591, n. 2), and in a few years the jolting of
these forms together would yield to some compromise which would
produce the nearest approach to an orthoepical standard we could
hope to attain. "Would, however, our pronunciation remaia fixed ?
All experience is against its doing so, and consequently spelling
considered as the mirror of speech, would probably have to be ad-
justed from generation to generation.
630 STANDARD PRONUNCIATION. Chap. VI. § 6.
Is such a standard pronunciation desirable ? The linguist and
philolofri.st may perhaps si^rh over tliis unnatural and inorganic
ortliopa'dic treutuient of language. For one, the present writer
could not suppress a feeling of regret. But the well-being of our
race point.s in another direction. Recognizing the extreme import-
ance of facilitating intercourse between man and man, we should
feel no doubt, and allow no sentimental regrets to interfere with
the establishment of something approaching to a general system of
pronouncing, by means of a general system of indicating our pro-
nunciation in writing, as far as our own widespread language
extends. "Without in the least presuming to say that other and
much better systems cannot be devised, the writer may point to the
historical phonetic spelling, developed in § 3, as a means at hand
for writing the English language without any new types, with as
close an adherence to the old orthography, as much ease to old
readers, and as much coirrectness in imitating the sounds used by
the writer at any time, as we could hope to be generally possible.
And as to primary confusion, what would it matter, if not greater
than the scarcely observed confusion of speech ? Thus if one writes,
in this spelliag :
Ahj deemdhnd leev too plahnt mahj stahf maur fiirmli on dhupahth.
Wotsiz naiym, surf Ahy reeuli dohwnt nohw, mum, mahy
menvminz mizzurubul : —
and another writes —
Ey dimdnd leev tooh plant mi staf molUr fermli on dhe path. What
is hiz naim, ser ? Ey reeali dohnt noh, mam, mi memmori iz
mizzeraVl.
both would be intelligible, and a difference of sound not previously
noticed would be forced on the attention, and probably changed ;
provided only that those who say ahy plahnt, &c., will not write ey
plant, etc., because it is "finer," or "neater," or " shorter," or
"nearer to the old orthography," or for any other irrelevant reason,
which is the great danger to be apprehended — as I know by
experience.
At present there is no standard of pronunciation. There
are many ways of pronouncing English correctly, that is
according to the usage of large numbers of persons of either
sex in diflferent parts of the country, who have received a
superior education. All attempts to found a standard of
pronunciation on our approximate standard of orthography
are futile. The only chance of attaining to a standard of
pronunciation is by the introduction of phonetic spelling,
which will therefore fulfil the conditions required by etymo-
logical spelling, standard spelling, and standard pronuncia-
tion. Our present orthography approximately fulfils only
the second of these conditions, and grossly violates the other
two.
Chap. VI. § 6. STANDARD PRONUNCIATION. 631
And thus the present writer has been brought round, by a
totally different route, to the advocacy of a principle to which
he devoted many years of his life and a considerable portion
of his means. It is his own conviction, founded not only
upon philological grounds, but upon philanthropical, educa-
tional, social, and political considerations, that a phonetic
system of spelling should be adopted for our noble language.
To its introduction he finds but one real objection — the exist-
ence of another orthography. Hitherto all phonetic attempts
have made shipwreck on this rock. But the enterprising
spirit of the phonetic navigators is worthy of their arctic
predecessors, and their aim being not merely to solve a
problem in natural science, but to increase the power and
happiness of the vast race which speaks the English language,
is one which is not likely to die out. Even now a phonetic
periodical appears regularly in London, conducted by Mr.
Isaac Pitman, whose widely extended system of phonetic short-
hand, has done so much to popularize the phonetic idea.
Even now Mr. Melville Bell has brought out the most philo-
sophical phonetic aljihabet yet invented, and has reduced it
to a system of writing far simpler and easier than that in
common use. Even now the present writer is engaged in
producing a new edition of his Plea for Phonetic Spelling, for
the second and larger home of our language, the United
States of America.^ It is true that the difficulties in the
_ 1 It was in preparing this new edi- missionaries, travellers, ethnologists,
tion for Mr. Benn Pitman, brother of and philologists ; (7), obscures the real
Mr. Isaac Pitman, and now of Cincin- history of our language ; (8), conceals
nati, Ohio, U.S., that I was fortunate the present state of our language;
enough to discover Salesbury's book (9), hinders the extension and uni-
(14 Feb., 1859), and thus commenced versal employment of English. Pho-
the special series of investigations netic Spelling: (1), renders reading
which have developed into the present very easy ; (2), forms the best intro-
work. The printing of this third duction to -romanic reading ; (3), is
edition, after the text was complete, as easy as correct speaking; (4), in
was interrupted by the American Civil conjunction with phonetic reading
"War, and the preparation of these facilitates romanic spelling ; (5), ren-
pages has hitherto prevented me from ders learning to read even romanically
tinishing the Appendices. It may not a pleasant tesk ; (6), by economising
be out of place to annex here the head- time, increases the efficiency of primary
ings from this forthcoming work, pre- schools ; (7), affords an excellent logical
mising that ordinary spelling is therein training to the child's mind ; (8), im-
for convenience termed Eomanic. Ro- proves pronunciation and enunciation ;
manic Spelling : (1), renders reading (9), will greatly assist the missionary
difficult, and writing still more diffi- traveller and ethnologist; (10), would
cult ; (2), necessitates the memorizing exhibit the real history of our lan-
of every form in the language; (3), guage ; (11), would exhibit the real
makes learning to read and write a state of our language; (12), would
hateful task ; (4), is one great cause of induce uniformity of pronunciation ;
our prevailing ignorance; (5), mis-trains (13), would favour the extension and
a child's mind ; (6), is a hindrance to universal employment of our language ;
G32
JiTAXDARD PRONUXCIATIOX.
Chap. VI. § 6.
way are enormous, the dead weight of passive resistance to
be moved is ovenvhclming, the ignorance of the active re-
sisters stupendous, and the hands of the promoters weak ; but
the cause is good, the direction is historical, the means
obvious, the end attainable by degrees, the material results
of even small attempts useful, and one of the most practical
men that ever spoke or printed our language, Benjamin
Franklin, has left on record his own conviction that " some-
time or other it must be done, or our writing will become
the same with the Chinese as to the diflScidty of learning
and using it."^
(14), would effect a considerable saving
of printing [this does not apply to
flossotii'pe, or any system in which
ia^raphs are employed] ; (15), would
bring phonetic shorthand into general
use ; (16), would be of material use in
facilitating etymological investigations.
The objections considered are arranged
in five classes; (1). Impossibilities and
Errors: It is impossible to introduce
new letters and a new alphabet, or to
frame a true phonetic alphabet, the
analysis of all so-called phonetic alpha-
bets being faulty and insufficient, and
the new letters hitherto proposed con-
structed upon an erroneous basis. (2).
LiDgiiistic Losses : The change from
romanic to phonetic spelling would
tend to obscure et}"mology, would con-
fuse words having the same sound but
different romanic orthography in differ-
ent senses, would occasion orthography
to differ from person to person, place
to place, and time to time, would ob-
scure histoij and geography, and
unsettle title deeds by altering the
appearance of names, and would in-
troduce vulgarisms of pronimciation.
(3). Material Losses: The change
would occasion a great loss of literary
property, and great expense in pro-
viding new types. (4) . Inconveniences :
The change would be bad as change,
would be too great, and would amount
to an alteration of the language. (5).
Difficulties : Phonetic books have a
strange appearance, we should have to
learn two systems of spelling instead of
one, the fewness of the phonetic books
renders the acquisition of phonetic
spelling worthless, the change is not
needed, and is useless, because only
partially adopted, and another system
of spelling exists. The author endea-
vours to shew the incorrectness of all
these objections, except the last.
1 The whole of Franklin's remarks
will be found in a transliteration of
his own phonetic orthography, infra
Chap. X., § 2.
SiippUmtut
TO
giKlitciit ^ooi'dc's Jnfi[oi!it((tiott aiul
ciicfai[g.
EXTRA SERIES, XO.X, 1870.
25
387
NOTE OX THE DISCOVEEY IN THE BEITISH MUSEUM
OF A BOOK WITHOUT AUTHOR'S NAME OE INITIAL,
BUT UNDOUBTEDLY THE WOEK OF
ANDREW BOOEDE.
By Charles Faulke-Watling.
This very interesting little volume from the press of Eobert
Wyer was entered in tlie Catalogue imder the general heading
" Book," there being nothing to show until now by whose hand it
was written. The writer of this note, wliQe searching for something
else, was so struck with the title " The Boke for to lerne a Man to
be wyse in building of his house ", that he sent for it, thinking that
it might supply material for an interesting article commenting on Dr
Eichardson's recent lectures on the same subject, after a lapse of more
than three centuries. This expectation was amply justified, and the
subject having been mentioned to Mr Ponsonby Lyons, that gentleman
suggested the name of Andrew Boorde as a writer on sanitary matters
in the 16th century, whose works might supply additional material
for the purpose in view. But when Boorde's works were obtained,
it was found that the interest was by no means confined to the sub-
ject matter, but that the first eight of the forty chapters contained in
his Dietary were as nearly as possible identical with the eight chapters
of which the volume now to be described consists.
The book is quite perfect, and in as good condition as when it
first came from the press. It is a small quarto of sixteen leaves (A.
B. C. D. ill fours)-. Tliere are twenty-five lines to each page, and
every chapter has a Avoodcut initial letter, which is not the case with
any of the editions previously known, except that belonging to
ybt> FIRST EDITION OF THE FIRST 8 CHAPTERS OF A. BOORDe's DIETARY.
^Ir Ilcnry II, Gibbs, which has ornamental initials throughout. The
attention of Mr Fuinivall was called, to the book, and he at once
pronounced in favour of its being the work of Boorde, It may bo
that it was his first attempt at authorship, and that after he had ac-
quired some degree of reputation, and was engaged in writing the
more comprehensive work which he published under the title "A
compendyous regyment or a Dyetary of helth," he prefixed the little
treatise now under consideration to the later work instead of repub-
lisliing it in a separate form. No edition of the Dietary is knoAvn
which does not contain, these eight chapters, but, as will be seen here-
after, the title is not so applicable to them as it is to the succeeding
thirty-two chapters, which relate exclusively to questions of regimen
and diet, and there appeared at first sight to be some reason for sup-
posing that the break in the continuity of the subject was recog-
nized by several of the printers, who have concluded the eighth
chapter Avith lines gradually decreasing in length. This is the case
in all the editions, except Powell's and that in the possession of Mr
Gibbs, in both of which Chapter VIII. ends evenly ; the irregularity,
however, occurs in one or more places in every edition of the Dietary,
so that in all probability it should be attributed rather to accident
than to design.
The Title-page, Table of Contents, and Colophon of the newly-
discovered work are here given in full, and the notes appended will
show that they have been carefully collated with those of five
editions of the Dietary ; attention is also directed to a circumstance of
some interest at the end of the third chapter. The other differences
between the work described and any one of the editions of the Dietary
are not greater than those between that one and each of the others.
There is no dedication to the Duke of K'orfolk, but that is also the
case with the undated edition of the Dietary (A.), as well as with Col-
weU's edition of 1562 (B.), both in the British Museum. ISTo allu.sion
whatever is made in the dedication printed in the 1542 edition (E.)
to any portion of the book having been in existence previous to that
date, and this is, of course, an argument against the supposition that
the first eight chapters were piiblished in a separate form before the
appearance of the Dietary, and would tend rather to show that they
FIRST EDITION OF THE FIRST 8 CHAPTERS OF A. BOORDe's DIETARY. 389
were really published as an extract from a book previously known.
"VViiich of tlie two hypotheses is the true explanation is the question
now submitted for consideration, and the folloAving extracts are given
to aid in the solution of the difficulty. The title-page is as follows :
The boke for to
Lerne a man to be wyse in
buyldyng of his howse for
the helth of body & to hol-
de quyetnes for the helth
of his soule, and body.
II The boke for a good
husbande to lerne.
H We
enge to
:May-
be good
sters of
& trewe
Astro-
both for
nomye,
And do-
VVoodcut of an
the bo-
dy, and
ctoures
Astronomer.
also for
in Phe-
the sou-
sycke co-
le. ^
fyrmeth
this say-
A 1
The woodcut is not the same as that in the copy belonging to
Mr Henry Hucks Gibbs, from which jMr Furnivall printed his edition
of the Dietary for the Society, nor is it the same as that printed in
the rmdated copy in the British Museum, and in the 1562 edition,
which has also been recently acquired by the trustees of the K"ational
Library. The double-dated Edition, and tliat of 157G, have no
woodcut on their title-pages. It is noteworthy that the woodcut of
the 1542 edition represents St John loUliout the eagle. Eobert Wyer
used as his device a cut of the Saint writing the Eevelations, and
attended in most cases by an eagle. Herbert makes a special note
25*
390 FinST EDITION OF THE FIRST 8 CnAPTEIlS OF A. BOORDE's DIETARY.
of tlio rarity of "Wycr's use of the device in wliicli the attciulant
eagle is omitted.
Anotlicr peculiarity to be observed is, that in the tract now
described the title-page itself is signed, A. 1.
The next point for description is the table of contents. This has
been carefully collated with those of the five editions of the Dietary,
and all the various readings are supplied in the foot-notes, chapter
by chapter, the heading being numbered 1, and the eight chapters
2 to 9.
lUThe table of this Boke.
- The fyrste chapter doth shewe where a / man shulde buylde or set
liis howse,/ or place, for the helthe of his body./
^ II The seconde chapter doth shewe a man,/ howe he shulde buylde
his howse, that the / prospect be good for y^ coseruacion of
helth./
' A. t The Table of the Chapters / foloweth ; B. The Table / t The Table
of the chapters / foloweth ; C. {cf* Here foloweth the Table / of the
Chapiters ; D. ^ The Table ; E. ^ Here foloweth the Table / of tlie Chapytres.
^ D. first ; A. B. Chapter (throughout) ; C. Chapyter ; E. Cliapytre ;
B. doeth ; D. shew ; C. E. shuld ; D. should ; in A. B. D. " cytuate " for
"buylde "; C. E. cytuat ; A. B. C. D. E. "set his mansyon place or howse,"
instead of "howse or place "; except that D. has " mansion," E. "mancyou,"
and B. C. D. have " house " ; C. j\
^ B. omits ^ (throughout) ; D. secod ; C. chapiter ; E. Chapytre ; C.
flothe ; D. shew ; D. how ; C. shuld ; D. should ; B. D. build ; B. C. D. house ;
A. B. C. D. E. here insert " and " ; A. B. prospecte ; C 'pspect ; A. B. D. the ;
A. B. C. E. couscruaciou ; D. conscruation ; A. B. C. D. health.
FIRST EDITION OF THE FIRST 8 CHAPTERS OF A. BOORDE'S DIETARY. 391
* H The thyrde chapter cloth shewe a man to / buylde his ho-wse in a
pure and fresh / ayre for to length his lyfe./
^H The fourth chapt' doth shew vnder what / maner a man shuld buylde
his howse in ex/chewyng thynges y* shuld shorten his lyfe.
^H The .V. chapter doth shewe howe a man / shulde ordre his
howse, consernynge the im-/plementes, to cofort the spyrites
of man./
'' H The .VI, chapter doth shewe a man howe / he shulde ordre his
howse and howsholde, to / lyue in quyetnes.
^H The VII. chapter doth shewe how the hed / of the howse, or
howseholder shulde exercy/se hymself, for the heltli of liis soule
& body
^H The .VIII. chapter doth shewe how a man / shuld ordre hym
self in. slepynge & watche,/ and in his apparell werynge.
H Explicit tabula.*
■• C. has ix^ for ^. D. third ; C. Chapyter ; E. Chapitre ; B. doeth ; C.
dothe ; D. shew ; A. ma ; B. D. build ; A. B. C. D. house ; C. i ; C. inserts
"a" before "fresshe"; A. B. C. E. fresshe ; A. B. C. D. E. lengthen ; B. D. life,
* A. IIIJ ; B. E. nil ; A. B. D. Chapter ; C. Chapiter ; E. Chapytre ;
B. doeth ; C. dothe ; D. shew ; A. B. C. shulde ; D. should ; D. build ; B.
hys ; B. C. D. house ; here A. B. C. D. E. all insert the words "or mansyon"
(D. spells mansion) ; A. B. D. omit " in " ; C. E. eschewynge ; D. eschewing ;
D. thinges ; A. B. D. E. that ; A, B. C. shulde ; D. should ; A. B. D. " the "
for " his ".
« D. fift ; C. Chapiter ; E. Chapytre ; B. doeth ; D. shew ; C. E. shuld ;
D. shold ; B. C. D. order ; B. hys ; B. C. D. house ; A. B. concernynge ; C. E.
concernyng ; D. concerning ; A. B. Implementes ; A. B. C. D. E. comforte ;
A. B. C. E. spyi-ytes ; D. spirites.
' C. has Y^ for ^. D. sixte ; C. Chapiter ; E. Chapytre ; D. shew ; C. a
ma ; B. shoulde ; D. should ; B. C. D. order ; B. C. D. house ; B. has " hous-
hold " as a catchword, but at the top of the next page the word is spelt
" housholde " ; D. quietnesse.
* A. VIJ ; D. seueth ; C. chapiter ; E. Chapytre ; D. E. shew ; C. E,
howe ; C. y* ; A. hed of house ; B. hed of the house ; C. hed of a house ;
D. head of the house ; E. hed of a howse ; A. B. C. D. E. insert " a " after
" or " ; A. B. D. housholder ; C. householde ; A. B. shuld ; D. should ;
C. excercyse ; D. exercise ; A. E. C. hym selfe ; B. D. himselfe ; A. B. C.
health ; C. E. the soule ; A. B. and bodye ; D. E. and body.
® A. VIIJ ; D. eyght; C. chapiter ; E. Chapytre ; E. shew; C. howe ; C.
ma ; A. C. E. shulde ; B. shoulde ; D. should ; B. C. D. E. order ; A. hj^mselfe ;
B. E. hym selfe ; C. him selfe ; D. himselfe ; D. sleeping ; A. B. C. D. E. and ;
C. E. watchynge ; B. apparel ; A. B. C. E. wearynge ; D. wearing.
* Wyer's undated edition, A. Colwel's of 1562, B. Powell's double-dated
edition, 1547-67, C. H. Jackson's of 1576, D. (the table not in black letter).
Mr Furnivall's reprint of the 1542 edition, E.
392 FIRST EDITION OF THE FIRST 8 CHAPTERS OF A. BOORDE'S DIETARY.
The words " explicit tabula " at tlie end of the eiglith chapter are,
of course, peculiar to the treatise which is brought to a conclusion at
that point. In all the enlarged editions published under the title
" Dietary of Health," the table of contents proceeds, without any
break whatever, to give the headings of the remaining thirty-two
chapters. The various readings of the concluding words in the
different editions A\'ill be found at page 231 of Mr FuTnivall's
reprint.
The next point to be observed is, that in the Dietary there occurs,
at the end of the third chapter, a reference to the 27th chapter, but
in the book under examination there is no such reference for obvious
reasons, but the information referred to appears as a separate paragraph
on the sayne page. The extracts are given here, for the sake of com-
parison, in parallel columns, partly with a view to directing attention
to the differences between them, and partly because the circumstance
appears, at first sight, to afford some additional ground for believing
that the larger work was first published, and the smaller one brought
out afterwards in a separate form.
Parnrirapli at the foot of Chajyter Opening sentences of Chapter
III. in the hook described. XXVII. {Mr FurnivulVs
rejn'int.)
H For whan the plaages of "\^Tian the Plages of the
the Pestylence or the swetynge Pestylence, or the swetjTige sycke-
S3'ckenes is in a trowne or countre, nes is in a towne or coiitree, with
at ^lountpylour, and in all other vs at ]\Iountpylour, and all other
hyghe regyons and countres, that hygh Eegyons and countrees y* I
I liaue ben in, the people doth haue dwelt in, the people doth fie
fiye from the contagyous and in- from the contagious and infectious
fectyous ayer, preseruatiues with ayre preseruatj'ues. with other
other councell of Physycke, not- counceyll of Physycke, notwith-
withstandynge. In lower and standyng. In lower and other
other Ijaase countres, liowses the baase countres, howses the which
whiche be infectyd in towne or be infectyd in towne or cytie, be
cytie, be closed vp, both dores & closyd vp both doores & wyn-
wyndowes, and the iuhabytoiu's doAves : & the inhabytours shall
shal not come abrode, nother to not come a brode, nother to
cliurche nor market, for infect- churche : nor to market, nor to
ynge other, Avath that syckcnes. any howse or copany, for infect-
yng other, the whiche be clene
without infection.
FIRST EDITION OF THE FIRST 8 CHAPTERS OF A. BOORDE's DIETARY. 393
It will be seen tliat in tlie tract tlie author docs not use tlie
words " with iis " when speaking of Montpelier. Can it be that he
■wrote the treatise on house-building elsewhere? and, if so, are we
to suppose that it was written before or after 1542, the date of
his dedication of the Dietary to the Duke of Norfollc, which ]\Ir
rurnivall believes to be the date at which the first edition was pub-
lished? And, speaking of this dedication, does the text afford
sufficient ground for believing that it was actually written in Mont-
pelier ? It is dated from there, but it would be hard to prove that
it was not written in London. The author in the body of the
dedicatory letter calls attention to a book " the which I dyd make
in Moimtpyller," and which he says " is a pryntynge besyde Saynt
Dunston's churche." The dedication, as prefixed to the 1542 edition,
and the version in Powell's edition of 1547, are prmted by Mr
Furnivall in parallel columns (page 225 et seq.), and we see at once
that Powell kept both the original place, Montpelier, and the original
day and month, 5th of May, but altered the year, 1542, to the date
of his own edition, 1547, to make it look like a new book.
1542 Edition. Powell's Edition.
From Mountpyllier. The .v. From Mountpyller. The fyft
day of May. The yere of our lorde daye of Maye. The yere of our
lesu Chryste M.v.C.xlij. Lord lesu Chryste M.ccccc xlvii.
It is at least possible that the principal object of Boorde, as well
as Powell, was to show, not that the dedication was written in Mont-
pelier, but that the author had studied in the medical school of that
city, which he himself describes as " the hed vniversitie in al Europe
for the practes of physycke & surgery or chyrming."
There is nothing more in the book here described that requires
any special consideration untd the eighth and last chapter is brought
to a conclusion, with a caution against travelling in boisterous
weather. " ^ Explicit " is printed at the foot of the chapter, and
thereafter are inserted the following verses, which do not occur
anywhere in the various editions of the Dietary. The last verse is
followed by the word " Finis ", and beneath that is the Colophon as
printed below
391 FIliST EDITION OK TUE FIRST 8 CHAPTERS OF A. BOORDE S DIETARY.
U Of fulyslio riiysycyous.
"Wlio that useth the arte of medycync
Takj-nge his knowlege in the feelde
He is a foole full of ruyne
So to take herbes for his sheelde
•wenynge theyr vertue for to weelde
•w'hiche is not possyLle for to knowe
All theyr vertues, both hye and lowe,
^ Of dolorous departynge.
H Xeuer man yet Avas so puyssant
Of gooddes or of parentage
Eut that mortall death dyd hyin daunt
By processe at some strayght passage
yea, were he ncuer of suche an age
For he spareth neyther yonge nor olde
Fa}Te nor fowlc, fyerse nor also bolde.
U Of the true descripcion.
H The Avysc man -wliiche is prudent
Doth moche good where euer he go
Gyuynge examples excellent
Unto them the whiche are in wo
Teachynge them in all vertues so
That they may not in to synne fall
If that they hertely on God call.
H Of Phylosophye.
H At this tyme doctryne is decayed
And nought set by in no place
For euery man is well appayed
To get good with great solace
Not carynge howe nor in what place
Putt}Tige the fajTe and dygnesophyo
Under feete Avith Phylosophye.
n Fmis. H
FIRST EDITION OF THE FIRST 8 CnAPTERS OF A. UOORDE'S DIETARY. 395
Impryntetl by inc Eobert
"VVyer,^ dwcllynge at tlie signe of :^:.
John Euangelyst, in s. ]\Iartyns
parysslie in the felde besyde the
Duke of Suffolkes ])la-
ce, at Charyng(3
Crosse.
H Cum priueh'gio, Ad
impremendum
sohim.
It now remains to say a few words about the reLative ages of the
tract described and of the first edition of the Dietary, regarding the
question from a purely typographical point of view. All the evi-
dence appears to be in favour of the tract having been printed at an
earlier period than the "Dietary." It is well known that the
printers of the day allowed the quality of the paper they used to
deteriorate as time Avent on. I^ow there is a marked difference in
the texture and finish of the paper oil which the tract is printed and
that of the paper which is used for the Dietary, and the superiority
belongs entirely to the former. The type used in the tract is, in the
opinion of experts, of an earlier character than that used in the
Dietary, many of the letters (1, v, &c.) bearing a closer resemblance to
the forms used in manuscript, while a careful comparison of those of
the woodcut initial letters, which are common to both books, seems to
show that if the same blocks were used in both cases they were less
worn and in better condition when the tract was printed than when
they were used for the Dietary ; but, of course, it is quite possible that
' Wyer's undated edition says nothing about " the Duke of Suifolk's
place," but reads " Dwellynge at the / signe of seynt John E/uangelyst, in
S Mar/tyns Parysshe, besy/de Charynge / Crosse /
^ Cum priuilegio Ad impremen-
dum solum.
For the colophons of the other editions noticed by Mr Furnivall, see page
304 of his reprint. In H. Jackson's edition of 157(3 an imprint is given at the
foot of the title-page, but the colophon merely consists of the word Finis over
tlie woodcut reproduced by Mr Furnivall from Mr Gibbs's copy, that is, Wyer's
ordinary device, St; John attended by the eagle : it will thus be seen that Mr
Gibbs's copy affords examples of two out of the three devices used by that
printer, one of them being very rare.
39G FIRST Euirtox of the fiust 8 cuafters of a. cooude's dietary.
tlie initials in tlie two books were printed from different blocks, cut
to the same pattern ; and if that were the case the argument, based
upon the superior clearness of the impressions in the tract, falls to
the ground. However, taking all the facts of the case together, the
writer, as far as he can venture to form an opinion on such a subject,
is inclined to believe that " The boke for to lerne a man to be vrysc
in the buyldyng of his howse " was printed, if not actually written,
at an earlier period than the earliest known edition of the " Com-
pendyous Eegyment or Dyetary of Helth,'' with which it was incor-
porated ; and the supposition that the Dietary, in its complete form,
was first published, and then tliat the first eight chapters were ex-
tracted and published separately under another title, he believes to
be untenable and against the weight of the evidence.
clay and taylou, pbinterp, bung ay.
PR
Early English Text
1119
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