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LITTAUER LIBRARY, SSP
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
Co-vvrv ~DOC 2,.»0
l^arbarlr ((Tollege ^.tbrarg
■^'J/TULC'CCCC/C^'O^^ otUL^uOU^ '
^
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ili
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PUBLIC DOCUMENTS
OF THS
State of Connecticut
Vol. Ill
1915
PRINTED AND BOUND !N COMPLIANCE WITH STATUTE
HARTFORD
1916
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Covi/w.'Dcrc *X. I O
C"** . LXA/,C<j.C sJ^aJUy f^^M
'UOJVU
NOTE.
Commencing with the documents for the year 1900, a
Document Number was assigned to each State depart-
mental report.
This number was determined by the chronological order
of the first printed independent issue of such report and
will in future be retained by it, thus showing the relative
chronological place it occupies in the printed reports of
the State.
A list of these reports, with the date of first printed
issue and the document number of each, appears on the
following page
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CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER OF FIRST PRINTED REPORTS
OF DEPARTMENTS.
Document
Nomber.
I.
2.
3.
4-
5.
6.
7.
a
Comptroller, . . .
School Fund (since 1909 in Treasurer's report), .
Governor's Message, .....
State Prison, . .
Bank Commissioners, ....
Adjutant-General, .....
Quartermaster-General, ....
Board of Education (first issued by Commissioner of Com
men Schools), .....
9. Vital Statistics (first issued by Secretary of State),
la Treasurer, ......
11. Connecticut School for Boys (Reform School), .
12. Railroad Commissioners (see Public Utilities Commission,
below), ....
13. State Librarian,
14. County Commissioners,
15. Connecticut School for Imbeciles, .
16. Manual and Roll (since 1907 in Register and Manual and
Pocket Manual only), ....
17. Insurance Commissioner, ....
18. State Board of Agriculture, ....
19. Fish and Game Commissioners,
20. Connecticut Hospital for the Insane,
21. Connecticut Industrial School for Girls,
22. Indebtedness, rate of tax, etc. (Quadrennial),
23. Bureau of Labor Statistics, ....
24. Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station,
25. State Board of Health, ....
36. Statement of Vote for State Officers,
27. Criminal Business of the Courts, .
28. State Board of Charities,
29. Connecticut (formerly Storrs) Agricultural College,
30. Shell-Fish Commissioners, ....
31. Estimate of State Expenditures,
S2. Dairy and Food Commissioner,
33- Factory Inspector, .....
34. Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station, .
35. Board of Education of the Blind, .
36. Highway Commissioner, .
37. Building and Loan Commissioner, .
fi. Commissioner on Domestic Animals,
39. Sewage Commission (discontinued 1902), .•
4a Attorney-General, .....
41. Examiner of Public Records (formerly Commissioner of
Public Records), .....
42. Dental Commission, .....
43. Israel Putnam Memorial Camp Ground Commissioners,
44. Connecticut Prison Association de Probation Law,
45. State Police Department,
^. Mediation and Arbitration, .
^. Geological and Natural History Survey,
48. Tax Commissioner, ...
49. Soldiers' Hospital Board (last report 1908)
50. Board of Control,
51. Norwich State Hospital for the Insane,
52. Quadrennial Statement of Property exempt
53. Tuberculosis Commission,
54. Connecticut Reformatory,
55. Colony for Epileptics, . .
56. Public Utih'ties Commission, .
57. Rivers, Harbors, and Bridges Commission,
^ Workmen's Compensation Commission,
59. Civil Service Commission, .
60. State Park Commission,
61. Public Library Committee (formerly with Bd. Edu.)
from Taxation,
1807
1809
1817
1828
1838
1838
1839
1839
1847
1852
1853
1854
1855
1862
1862
1864
1866
1866
1867
1867
1870
1874
1874
1878
1879
1880
1880
1882
1882
1882
1885
1887
1887
1880
1895
1897
1898
1898
1899
1900
1900
1901
1902
1904
1904
1901
1903
1903
1905
1906
1906
1910
1910
1910
1910
1911
1912
1914
1914
1914
1914
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14
/Googk
LIBRARY NOTE.
In order that each department report of the State oi Connecti-
cut for a series of years may be quickly located in the bound
volumes of Public Documents, the Comptroller has also given
each report a Binding Number by which its position in the bound
volumes is permanently established, thus enabling each report
to be found in the same position and volume from year to year.
That these several reports may be placed in the libraries of
our several exchanges as soon as convenient after publication,
be has provided that the State Librarian shall be supplied with
two hundred sets bound in volumes of convenient size, each
volume to be bound and labeled in harmony with the regular set
and sent out as soon as possible after printing of Ae reports
belonging therein. This arrangement began with the reports for
igo2.
'^fl^Tjfj^
^4^«3l^l^rl^^
State LibrarioH.
Connecticut State Library.
December 31, 1916.
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CONTENTS
VOL. I.
1. Report of Treasurer (including School Fund),
2. Report of Comptroller, . ...
3. Jleport of Bank Commissioners,
4. Report of Public Utilities Commission,
5. Report of Civil Service Commission,
Document
Number.
10
1
5
56
59
VOL. IL
Part i.
Report of Insurance Commissioner, . . .17
Part I. Fire and Marine Companies.
Part 2.
Report of Insurance Commissioner, . . .17
Part II. Life, Accident, Casualty, Fidelity, and
Surety Companies.
Part III. Fraternal Societies, . . .17
VOL. IIL
9. Report of Vital Statistics (first issued by Secretary
of State), ...... 9
10. Report of Connecticut Agricultural College, 29
11. Report of Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station, . 34
12. Report of Workmen's Compensation Commission, . 58
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State of (Tonnecticut
PUBLIC DOCUMENT No. 9
Bureau of Vital Statistics
OF THE
State of Connecticut
SIXTY-SEVENTH REGISTRATION REPORT
OF
Births, Marriages, Divorces and Deaths
FOR THE
YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 1914
PRINTED IN COMPLIANCE WITH STATUTE
HARTFORD:
PUBLISHED BY THE STAT3
1915
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publication
approved by
The Board of Control
The WiU^H H. Lm Company. PrinUn^
N€w Hamfi, Cofm.
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STATE BOARD OF HEALTH AND BUREAU OF
VITAL STATISTICS.
OmcE, Rooms 11, 13 and 15 Capitol, Habtfobd.
Edward K. Root, M. D., Hartford, President.
A. W. Philups, M. D., Derby.
Lswis Spbbbt, Esq., South Windsor.
Arthur J. Wolff, M. D., Hartford.
Louis J. Pons, M. D., Milford.
J. Frederick Jackson, Civ. Eng., Hamden.
Joseph H. Townsend, M. D., Secretary, and Superintendent
ef Registration of Vital Statistics.
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Opficb of the Bubeau of Vital Statistics,
Capitol, Habtfobd, Dec. 1, 1915.
To His Excellency, Marcus H. Holcomb, Oovemar of the State
of Connecticut:
Sm: — ^In compliance with the laws of the State, I have the
honor to present to you the sixtynseventh report, relating to the
births, marriages, divorces and deaths that were registered in
Connecticut in the year 1914.
Very respectfully,
JOSEPH H. TOWNSEND, M. D.,
Secretary of the State Board of Health,
and Superintendent of the Registration of Vital StatieUce.
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REGISTRATION REPORT, 1914.
The present registration report is the sixty-seventh annual com-
inlation of births, marriages and deaths registered in Connecticut
during the calendar year 1914. The first report was for the year
1848 and, with the exception of 1852, reports have appeared each
year since. Prior to the organization of the State Board of Health,
and the making of this Board the State Bureau of Vital Statistics,
they were published first from the office of the Secretary of State
and later by the State Librarian.
For non-census years statistical tables are based ux)on an
estimated population and the chief methods employed by sta-
tistical experts in estimating population are those known as the
geometrical and arithmetical methods. The geometrical method
asBumes a constant rate of increase between census years, or an
increase in proportion to the population, while the arithmetical
method assiunes a constant amoimt of increase between census
years. It is the latter method that is used in making the rates
found in this report. The total increase of population from one
census to the next is divided by the niunber of years between
censuses and the resulting average annual increase is added from
year to year to pve the estimated population.
BIRTHS.
The roistered births during the year numbered 31,910, which
is 1,788 in excess of those reported the previous year and repre-
sents a birth rate of 26.5 per 1,000 population. The registration
of hiiiha presents greater difficulties than that of either deaths or
marriages, and no city or state claims complete birth registration.
The census of 1910 showed that of the states, only the six New
England states, Pennsylvania and Michigan had an approximately
complete birth r^istration. The essential burial permit and
marriage license tends to completeness of death and marriage
records, but in the case of births there is no such ready check on
the aiforcement of the law. Physicians and midwives are
required to report all births coming imder their care, but unfortu-
nately there are instances where no professional attendant is
empl<^ed and a certificate of birth is not returned. Birth r^is-
tration is 'of the utmost importance in all questions relating to
heredity, property rights and identity.
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6 STATE BOARD OF HEALTH.
MARRIAGES.
There were 11,379 marriages during the year 1914. This was
1,158 less than in the previous year. October 1, 1913, a law went
into effect requiring all persons not residents of the state to give
five days' notice to the r^istrar b^ore receiving a lic^ise to marry.
This resulted in fewer marriages of persons from neighboring
states where there has been a similar law for some time.
This law as amended in 1915 as follows:
Chapter 237.
An Act amending an Act concerning Marriage Licenses.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in General
Assembly convened:
Section one of chapter 1S6 of the public acts of 1013 is hereby amended
to read as follows: No person shall be married until one of them shall
under oath inform the registrar of births, marriages, and deaths of the
town in which the marriage is to be celebrated, the name, age, color,
occupation, birthplace, residence, and condition, whether single, widowed,
or divorced, of each. If either of such persons is a resident of said town
such registrar shall issue his certificate that the parties therein named
have complied with the provisions of this act. If neither of such persons
is a resident of said town said registrar shall not issue such certificate
until the fifth day following unless the judge of probate for the district in
which the intended marriage is to be celebrated, or the person who is to
join said parties in marriage, after hearing such evidence as is presented,
renders a written decision that, in his opinion, public policy, or the physi-
cal condition of one of the parties requires the intended marriage to be
celebrated without delay. Upon receipt of such decision such registrar
shall file the same as a public document, and small immediately issue his
certificate that the parties therein named have complied with the pro-
visions Of this act. A certificate, when issued as aforesaid, shall be a
license for any person authorized to celebrate marriage to join in marriage,
within said town only, the parties therein named, but no such certificate
shall be issued if either of the parties is a minor until a parent or guardian
having control of such minor shall give to the registrar his written consent,
nor to parties either of whom is less than sixteen years of age unless one
of the selectmen, or a person having the authority of a selectman, of the
town or city in which the marriage ceremony is to be performed, shall
endorse on the license his written consent. In the case of a minor having
no parent or guardian who is a resident of the United States, the consent
of the first selectman of the town where such minor has last resided for
the period of six months shall be sufficient. Any registrar who shall issue
such certificate before the expiration of the period herein specified, or who
shall knowingly issue such certificate without such consent, shall be fined
not more than one hundred dollars, and every person who shall join any
persons in marriage without having received such certificate shall be fined
not more than one hundred dollars.
Approved, May 12, 1915.
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REGISTRATION RIDPORT. 7
DEATHS.
The deaths in the State numbered 18,211', equivalent to a death-
rate of 15.1 per thousand of population. This is 489 deaths more
than last year when the death rate was 15 p^ thousand popu-
lation. The death-rates given in this report are what is Imown
as crude death rates and are based upon the comparison of total
deaths with the aggregate population. Our death rate of 15 per
thousand as corrected by the U. S. Census Bureau for age and
sex distribution will be somewhat less. This means that death
rates vary with the character of the population and each element
has its relation to the rate of mortality and therefore for compar-
ison with other States or Countries the make-up of the population
must be considered. The death rate per thousand males is prac-
tically always higher than the death rate per thousand females.
Hence a State having a relatively larger female population than
anoth^ will normally show a lower death rate and a community
where the very young or old predominate will show a higher rate
than a community made up largely of young adults. Rates will
also vary with the color and nationality of the inhabitants, as
death rates are unfavorably affected by a large foreign-born popu-
lati<m, living in crowded tenements and under unsanitary con-
ditions.
The rates ^ven in this report as well as those in all the preceding
r^istration reports are based on the inclusion of all deaths, both
resident and non-resident occurring in each town. Deaths in the
asylums for the insane and in other state institutions are enume-
rated with those of the town where they are located and no plan
has yet been devised for charging non-residents back to the towns
from which they come. Tuberculosis death rates in our cities
have decreased since the establishment of our State sanatoria,
for the reason that many oi these cases go to the State institutions.
The growing pc^ularity of our city hospitals have also affected
local statistics. Many victims of typhoid fever who contract the
disease in the country are carried to our city hospitals and some
die there. This requires their deaths to be recorded in the
city where they die. Obviously there is an injustice which is
especially apparent in some instances.
The following table shows how non-resident deaths in Hospitals
has affected the t3rphoid death rates in some of the cities of the
State.
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STATE BOARD 07 H13ALTH.
Estimated
Populatioif
Deaths from Typhoid Fever
Death Rates
AU
Residents
Resident
Non-Resident
Total
Cases
Only
New Haven..
144,506
22
0
22
15.2
16.2
Bridgeport. .
Hartford
115,289
4
0
4
3.4
3.4
107,038
18
9
27
25.2
16.8
Waterbury . .
82,517
8
0
8
9.6
9.6
Meriden
33,501
1
2
3
8.9
2.9
Stamford —
33,099
3
2
6
15.1
9.0
Norwalk
26,033
7
0
7
26.8
26.8
Danbury
25,219
1
0
1
3.9
3.9
Middletown.
22,138
1
2
3
13.6
4.6
New London
20,558
2
4
6
29.0
9.7
Greenwich. . .
18,290
0
1
1
6.4
0.0
Derby
9,441
0
1
1
10.9
0.0
Putnam
7,252
0
1
1
13.7
0.0
There were 332 deaths from tuberculosis in tiie four State
sanatoria, the table below shows how the tuberculosis death rates
in the five largest cities of the State are influenced by these State
institutions.
Deaths from Tuberculosis
Death Rates per 100,000
At Home
State Sanatoria
Total
Home Cases
AllCaaes
New Haven. .
Bridgeport. . .
Hartford
Waterbury...
New Britain.
State
169
114
97
94
38
62
64
60
28
26
211
168
167
122
63
1,615
110.0
98.8
90.6
113.9
76.0
146.0
146.7
146.6
147.8
124.4
126.1
A considerable part of the work of the office consists of the
tabulation of the causes of death, and it is necessary for the sake
of uniformity and comparability of the resulting statistics that
it be done according to certain recognized standards. The method
employed is that Imown as the International Classification of the
causes of death, sometimes known as the Bertillon Systan. The
use of a classification or statistical list is a condensation of the
multitudinous terms employed by physicians upon certificates
of death to a uniform list of fairly precise titles. This classifica-
tion is now used by all registration States and many foreign
countries.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT.
The r^stration officials of the various towns very generally
take an interest in the work and strive to make the statistics as
perfect as possible. To them we would express our appreciation,
as well as to the physicians for their uniform courtesy in answer-
ing the many inquiries sent them for explanation or additional
information r^arding the causes of death.
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BBGI8TBATI0N BBPOBT.
A General Summabt of the BibthSi MARRiAaBs and Deaths
AS Keqistebed in 1914.
BiBTHS.
Sex.
Males....- 16,519
Females 15,391
Total 31,910
Parbntaok.
American 9,929
One or both Foreign 21,966
Not stated. 16
Total 31,910
Whole number of Births 31,910
Birth-rate per 1,000 26.6
Mabbiaqes.
Both parties American 6,290
Both parties Foreign 4,396
Husband American, wife Foreign 669
Husband Foreign, wife American 1,036
Total Marriages 11,379
Total number of persons married ' 22,768
Deaths.
Sex.
Males 9,664
Females 8,666
Not stated 1
Total 18,211
Nativitt.
American 12,662
Foreign 6,262
Not stated 297
Total 18,211
Whole number of Deaths •. 18.211
Death-rate per 1,000 16. 1
There was one birth to every. « 37. 6 persons.
There was one marriage to every 106. 6 *^
There was one person married to every 62. 7 *
There was one death to every 65.9 *
Towns in which the Deaibs Exceeded the Births.
The registration of the Vital Statistics of the State is always
conducted townwise. Although cities and boroughs are often
included within town limits, their population for death-rates,
larth-rates, etc., are counted as part of the population in which
they are respectively located.
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10
STATE BOAKD OT HEALTH.
In 33 towns the deaths exceed^fi the births. The total excess
of deaths over births in these towns, or the natural loss of popu*
lation, was 146. The loss in this way was 63 more than in the
previous year.
In 16 towns of less than l.QOO inhabitants the loss was 46
In 14 towns of between 1.000 and 2.000 inhabitants the loss was. 80
In 2 towns of between 2,000 and 3,000 inhabitants the lost. was. . 8
In 1 town of between 3,000 and 4,000 inhabitants the loss was. . . 12
Total 146
In 5 towns the births and deaths were equal, to wit: Brook-
lyn, Chaplin, Cornwall, East Granby, Middlebury.
In 130 towns the births exceeded the deaths.
The towns in which registration shows an excess of deaths
over births are the following, arranged by counties:
Habtford Countt.
Town. Population. Deaths. Births. Loss.
Granby 1,418 18 17 1
New Haven County.
Town. Population. Deaths. Births. Loss.
Bethany 486 13 8 5
CheBhire 1,908 31 26 5
Prospect 630 10 9 1
Southbury 1,231 23 18 5
4,166 77 61 16
New London County.
Towns. Population. Deaths. Births. Loss.
Franklin 619 10 9 1
Lisbon 878 15 13 2
Lyme 746 11 9 2
North Stonington 1,041 30 27 3
Old Lyme 1,181 22 20 2
4,366 88 78 10
Faibfield County.
Towns. Population. Deaths. Births. Loss.
Bethel 3,989 48 36 12
Brookfield 1,124 16 14 2
Easton 1,090 16 8 8
Monroe 986 22 13 9
New Fairfield 637 8 6 2
TrumbuU 1,666 26 19 6
Wilton 1,760 32 26 7
11,160 167 121 46
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BBQI8TBATI0N BSPOBT.
11
Windham County.
Towni.
Canterbury , . . .
Woodstock
PopuUtion.
865
1,746
2,610
DMths.
16
38
63
Births.
12
26
38
3
12
15
Litchfield County.
Towns. Populstion. Deaths.
Bethlehem 540 9
Bridgewater 580 9
Colebrook 503 15
Goshen 607 10
Morris 597 8
Woodbury 1,806 28
4,633 79
rths.
Lost.
8
1
7
2
8
7
8
2
4
4
12
16
47
32
Middlesex County.
Towns. PopnlAtion. Deaths.
Clinton 1,205 20
Ehirham 1,044 20
EastHaddam 2,396 41
Killingworth 663 7
Westbrook 979 14
6,287 102
Births.
Loss.
25
5
15
5
38
3
6
1
11
3
95
17
Tolland County.
Towns. Population. Deaths. Births.
Coventry 1,596 20 17
Mansfield 2,040 39 34
Union 278 4 3
3,914 63 54
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12
STATE BOASD OF HEAI/TH.
The following table gires * ■ummary of the Vital Statistics of the State from 1848, Um
date of the first Registration Report, up to the present time. Previous to the year 1000
still births are enumerated with the hving births— but in that year and following only the
uvinji births are counted in the total of births. In the year 1852 no Report of Vital
Statistics was published.
TABLE I.
Vital Statistics fbom 1848 to 1914.
Birth-
Death-
Excess of
:
I No. Mar-
3 riages^
: to each
Year.
Births.
rate
Mar-
Deaths.
rate
Births
• 1
per 1,000.
riagos.
per 1.000.
over
1
J
Deaths.
i Diyoree.
1848
6,850
20
2,816
4.379
12.4
2.471
1849
7,238
20
2,920
6,049
14
2.189
> . • • • ■
1850
7,578
20.4
2,884
6,170
14
2,408
• « • . «
1851
8,362
22
2.995
4.767
13
3,696
• • . . ■
1853
8.302
21.4
3,136
6.596
14.4
2,706
. ....
1854
8.439
21.3
3,202
6.646
14.2
2.793
. . • . •
1856
10,012
24
4,286
6.094
14.6
3,918
. ....
1850
11.139
26
4,089
6.324
14.9
4,816
. ....
1857
11,355
26
3.647
6,585
16
4,770
....
1858
11,299
25
3,737
6,618
16.6
4,681
. ....
1859
11.259
25
3.778
6,533
16
4,726
,
1860
11.873
26
4,036
7.602
16.3
4,271
3]
10 13*
1861
11,934
•25
3.757
7,735
16.5
4,199
21
r5 13.0
1862
10,803
23
3,701
8,541
18
2,262
21
»7 14
1863
9,885
21
3,467
8.442
18
1,443
2C
n 12
1864
9,734
20
4,107
9,109
19
625
42
i6 0.0
1865
10.202
20.8
4,460
7.950
16
2.252
4(
>4 11
1866
10,623
23
4,978
7.520
16
4,103
4C
» 10
1867
12.029
23.2
4.779
7.343
14.3
4,686
4!
» 10.4
1868
12,469
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22
STATE BOARD OF HEAI/TH.
TABLE 17.
EXHIBITING THE NUMBER OF BIRTHS BY SEXES IN THE COUNTIES FOR
EACH MONTH IN THE YEAR ENDING DECEMBER 3l8t, 1914.
COUNTIES.
Sbx
1
fo
a
i
^
s
1
i
<
1
}
1
1
1
1
Hartford
Males ...
Females. . .
Not stated.
321
315
362
312
363
363
332
343
360
364
373
289
336
319
377
321
366
340
844
327
336
290
312
321
4,160
8,804
...
....
New Haven. .
Males
Females. . .
Not stated.
636
439
407
674
400
399
716
446
464
676
464
388
714
443
387
662
449
388
664
446
427
698
431
446
696
446
434
671
401
369
626
426
399
633
431
386
8,054
6,310
4,898
....
...
New London.
Males
Females. . .
Not stated.
846
98
100
799
74
70
910
82
92
842
91
86
830
96
86
837
82
82
872
105
73
876
96
107
880
106
112
770
79
98
824
99
97
817
87
62
10,103
l,O04
1,064
....
....
.
. • . .
Fairfield
Males
Femides. . .
Nor stated.
198
301
288
144
316
231
174
326
299
176
320
247
181
303
266
164
282
297
178
327
319
203
308
278
218
290
299
177
316
316
196
342
283
149
300
266
2.168
3,72»
8,37»
...
.^.
■ .
. •
. . . .
. • .
* *
Windham
Males
Females. . .
Not stoted.
589
76
42
646 624
68 66
471 69
..^.1 ...
667
44
39
669
32
61
679
63
39
646
66
36
586
63
47
689
49
60
632
40
42
625
44
46
656
66
66
7,108
615
5«3
••••| '
....
• . . ■
....
litehfield....
Males
Females. . .
Not sUted.
118
87
67
106
79
77
114
68
86
83
61
69
93
73
80
92
72
72
91
68
60
100
79
72
99
64
66
82
66
71
89
67
53
112
«
73
71
1,178
857
833
• • • •
' * "i
....
Middlesex....
Males
Females. . .
Not stated.
144
46
42
166
71
42
163
66
62
130
31
36
163
60
43
144
29
41
128
41
40
161
69
67
130
47
34
137
41
44
120
50
38
144
44
28
1,090
497
Tolland
Males
Females. . .
NotsUted.
88
23
19
113
26
16
107
22
26
67
24
21
93
27
24
70
16
14
81
21
26
116
29
24
81
26
80
86
23
30
88
33
21
72
19
18
1,061
200
208
. • . .
42
42
47
46
61
30
47
63
66
53
64
37
558
Toialf
Males
Females. . .
Not stated.
1391
1270
1386
U94
1406
1439
1367
1228
1383
1301
1366
1222
1397
1300
1432
1361
1383
1366
1311
1207
1396
1226
1322
1198
16.81^
Grand Total
2661
267^
2846
2686
2684
2678
2697
2783
2748
26081
^22
2620
81,910
Digitized by
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HARTFORD COUNTY.
23
TABU T.
EXHIBITING THE NUMBER OF DEATHS BY SEXES IN THE COUNTIES FOR
EACH MONTH IN THE YEAR ENDING DECEMBER 3lBt, 1914.
COUNTIES.
Sbx.
1
£
1
a
1
5?
5
i
^
1
i
1
55
i
H
Males
Hartford Females. 1 .
!Not stated.
179
148
197
162
204
184
173
184
198
168
139
122
206
140
197
161
152
162
158
126
182
130
176
157
2,161
1,844
. .
New Haven. .
Males
Females. . .
Not stated.
327
288
253
359
262
239
388
277
271
357
251
242
366
244
201
261
205
182
346
238
210
358
239
208
314
267
218
284
201
180
312
199
201
333
231
226
4,005
2,902
2,631
*
.
Nev London.
Males
Females. • .
Not stated.
541
76
70
501
68
63
548
80
83
493
68
74
445
60
64
387
69
56
448^
64
49
447
75
62
485
88
63
381
56
51
400
51
52
457
68
60
5,533
822
747
. . .
Fairfidd
Males
Females. . .
Not stated.
145
194
209
131
185
182
163
256
199
142
214
173
124
189
155
125
138
113
1
113
183
137
137
219
186
151
193
144
107
168
162
103
158
141
128
169
144
1,569
2,266
1,945
*
•
. . . .
Wiadham
Males
Females. . .
Not stated.
403
29
35
367
31
33
455
39
35
387
31
36
344
33
23
252
33
25
320
34
34
405
25
35
337
29
30
330
31
25
299
35
23
313
39
30
4,212
389
364
'
*
liteUfetd....
Males
Females. . .
Not stated.
64
43
32
64
43
48
74
53
55
67
37
44
56
41
40
58
39
29
68
31
26
60
40
32
59
43
28
56
35
26
58
36
24
69
42
34
753
483
418
^
1
....
Uiddkaex....
Males
Females...
Not stated.
75
45
40
91
48
38
108
44
31
81
37
48
81
31
38
68
31
25
57
41
29
72
40
44
71
45
38
61
35
40
60
36
31
76
32
30
901
465
432
. • . •
• • • •
ToOaad
Make
Females. . .
Not stated.
85
20
11
86
13
11
76
12
22
85
18
20
69
12
12
66
16
11
70
8
10
84
13
20
83
12
14
75
15
14
67
7
16
62
21
15
897
166
176
31
24
84
38
24
26
18
33
26
29
22
36
341
Tolds
Males
Females...
Not sUted.
873
798
847
776
905
880
829
821
808
701
660
663
1
805
635
848
748
829
697
699
624
704
617
778
696
9,654
8,556
....
Grand Total
1671
1623
1845
1650
1509J1233
1440
1596
1526
1323
1321
1474
18,211
Digitized by VjOOQlC
24
STATE BOARD OV HBALTH.
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172 STATE BOABD OF HEALTH.
TABLE Xn.
OCCUPATIONS AND AGES OF DECEDENTS— 1914.
OCCUPATIONS.
§
o
MALES
Afrienlture, Forestry, and Animal
Husbandry:
Dairy Farmers
Farm Laborers (Working Out)
Farmers
Fishermen and Oystermen
Gardeners
Greenhouse Laborers
Lumbermen, Raftsmen, and Wood-
choppers
Extraction of BAinerals:
Quarry Operatives
Mannfactorinff and Mechanical Indus-
tries:
Hand
Apprentices to Building and
Trades
Bakers
Blacksmiths
Brick and Stone Masons
Buffers and Polishers (Metal)
Builders and Building Contractors
Cabinetmakers
Carpenters
Compositors, Linotypers, and Type-
setters
Dyers
Electricians and Electrical Engineers
Engineers (Stationary)
Firemen (Except Locomotive and Fire
Department)
Foremen and Overseers (Manufacturing)
Grinders (Metal)
Jewelers^ Watchmakers, Goldsmiths,
and Silversmiths
10
11
30
12
42
1
8
1
12
151
2
14
1
3
201
2
14
1
110
4
5
20
1
55
666
10
55
2
10
12
I
32
63
47
83
33
14
217
36
8
27
11
16
55
14
11
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OCCUPATIONS AND AGES OF DBCEDENT8.
TABLE XII— CoNTiNTJBi>— 1914.
173
OCCUPATIONS.
o
-•*
S
s
s
52
0
§
0
■«->
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0
2
d
0
2
i
8
1
<
1
MALES— CONTINUED
(Lftborert N. 0. 8.*) :
Clock and Watch Factories
1
2
151
1
2
8
Furniture, Piano, and Organ Factories. .
General and not SpecifiedLaborers
Paper and Pulp Mills
23
1
178
2
90
1
1
20
2
9
24
6
2
25
4
3
5
206
1
178
1
1
22
5
6
18
7
7
31
3
5
1
171
1
32
4
9
19
3
12
29
4
4
2
26
7
1030
5
Loom Fixer
?,
MAi^hinifltlf and Millwrights
29
30
35
1
6
17
1
11
18
4
1
8
177
Managers and Superintendents (Manu-
facturing)
12
Manufacturers and OfficitJs
5
.9
35
Mechanics
'*2
14
2
7
10
17
5
9
16
2
20
1
1
1
5
2
121
Molders, Founders and Casters (Brass).
Molders, Founders and Casters (Iron) . .
Painters, Glaziers, and Varnishers
24
4
6
1
52
137
Pattern and Model Makers
14
Plumbers, and Gas and Steam Fitters . .
Rollers and Roll Hands (Metal)
"i
5
1
1
49
9
Semi-ikffled OparatiTes (N. 0. 8J):
Automobile Factories.
3
Carpet BAills
Weavers
•
1
2
Other OccuDations
1
2
"2
1
5
'5
2
4
7
1
7
Ciffar And "Tobficco Fftctoi*ies - r
2
1
1
4
1
2
27
Clock and Watch Factories
8
Cotton Mills:
Spinners
1
Weavers
6
1
3
7
3
9
1
1
20
5
5
1
34
Other OccuDations
1
7
Furniture, Piano, and Organ Factories.
1
Hat Factories (Felt) ."
4
2
7
7
1
16
6
10
5
1
11
3
69
Iron Foundries
28
PaDer and PuId Mills
2
Powder, Cartridge, Fireworks, etc. (Fac-
tories)
1
7
1
Rubber Factories
2l 2
1
9
5
1
27
Not Otherwise Specified.
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174
STATE BOABD OF HEALTH.
TABLE XII— CoNTiNTnBD— 1914.
OCCUPATIONS.
s
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2
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S
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1
1
8
1
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MALES— CONTINUED.
Silk Mills:
Weavers
1
1
2
1
2
2
...
1
1
1
1
4
Other OccuDations
2
SDinners
2
1
2
1
7
Other Occupations
1
1
1
4
4
4
4
2
4
4
Shoemakers and Cobblers (Not in Fac-
tory)
4
7
6
3
4
7
3
1
2
1
29
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7
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6
"2
3
31
3
7
7
12
5
3
7
2
3
5
11
11
3
4
1
1
10
8
5
3
2
6
3
2
1
1
33
Stonecutters
1
48
Tailors
35
Tinsmiths
...
• •
1
IS
Toolmakers and Die Setters and Sinkers
1
6
5
4
4
31
Transportation:
Brakemen
19
Carriage and Hack Drivers
2
15
Ohauffeurs
9
Conductors (Steam Railroad)
2
'33
2
2
4
1
1
3
1
1
1
13
3
3
4
Conductors (Street Railroad)
4
14
1
22
1
3
6
2
4
6
2
23
3
1
6
"i
14
2
s
Draymen, Teamsters, and Expressmen .
Foremen and Overseers (Railroad
Transportation)
4
12
1
1
139
6
Hostlers and Stable Hands
2
6
"7
2
1
1
2
1
13
Laborers TSteam Railroad)
1
31
Laborers (Street Railroad)
1
1
5
Linemen
17
Locomotive Engineers
2
2
33
Mail Carriers •
. . .
5
Motormen
3
Switchmen and Flagmen (Steam Rail-
road)
1
19
11
4
5
1
8
1
4
6
Trade:
Clerks in Stores *
13
17
2
3
1
1
1
4
113
14.
Commercial Travelers
...
••
••
Insurance Agents and Officials
1
1
27
Newsboys. .7
2
> Not Otherwbe Stated.
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OCCUPATIONS AND AOBS OF DECEDENTS.
TABLE XII— CoNTiNXTED— 1914.
175
OCCUPATIONS.
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Real Estate Agents and Officials
1
21
12
2
34
13
2
5
33
1
1
36
10
3
29
9
3
18
3
10
RetaU Dealers
6
24
6
1
1
••
"
151
Salesmen (Stores)'
5
77
PabUe Serriee (Not Etoewhere Classi-
fied):
Firemen (Fire Department)
2
Guards, Watchmen, and Doorkeepers.. .
6
27
4
20
28
2
1
4
"'9
1
"4
"7
3
4
1
6
8
12
5
2
41
Laborers (Public Service) t
12
29
33
174
Officials and Inspectors (City and
CJounty)
12
Officials and Inspectors (State and
United States
1
Policemen
1
3
1
5
1
2
2
1
4
1
"4
2
4
1
3
14
5
3
1
3
3
2
2
2
5
5
9
4
12
1
1
7
5
4
16
Prof essional Service :
Civil Engineers and Surveyors
1
6
1
1
4
2
4
3
7
Clergymen
2
1
1
28
Dentists
7
Draftsmen
1
2
1
4
1
2
3
12
1
6
Lawyers, JudgeB. and Justices
3
1
4
2
1
18
Musicians and Teachers of Music .....
1
1
13
Physicians and Surgeons
25
Teachers (Schools) T
16
Domestic and Personal Service :
Barbers, Hairdressers, and Manicurists .
3
3
23
Bartenders
34
Janitors and Sextons
6
30
Laondry Operatives*
1
2 •
Restaurant, Cafe, and Lunch-room
Keepers
2
9
10
4
2
4
5
-6 •
5
Saloon Keepers
4
3
2
24
Servants *
4
5
1
2
1
29
Waiters
1
18
1 Not OtberwiBe Specified.
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176
STATE BOARD OF HEALTH.
TABLE XII— Continued— 1914.
OCCUPATIONS.
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MALES— CONTINUED.
Clerical Occupations:
Agents, Canvassers, and Collectors. . . .
1
1
2
"6
1
2
6
2
2
14
4
3
3
2
I
2
1
13
Bookkeepers, Cashiers, and accountants
Clerks (Except clerks in Stores)
2
3S
11
Messenger, Bundle, and Office Boys ....
1
1
FEMALES
Manofseturinff and Mechanical In-
dustries :
Dressmakers and Seamstresses (Not in
Factory)
1
1
9
6
5
2
4
1
6
1
1
3
10
3
31
Forewomen and Overseers (Manufac-
turing)
2
Laborers (N. 0. S,)
13
1
17
1
8
1
3
6
9
2
2
1
7
1
3
1
55
Milliners and Millinery Dealers
7
Semi-skilled Operatives (N. 0. S.)
Corset Factories
7
30
1
«
12
Cotton IffiUs:
. . .
Sninners
1
1
Weavers
1
' i
2
1
1
5
Paner Box Factories
1
Silk Mills:
Other Occupations
?,
2
Woolen and Worsted Bfilis:
Weavers
1
1
Trade:
Saleswomen (Stores)
7
15
4
7
1
. . .
. .
34
Digitized by
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OCCUPATIONS AND AGES OF DECEDENTS
TABLE XII.-— CoNTiNUBD— 1914.
177
OCCUPATIONS.
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Professional Service:
Musfcians and Teachers of Music
1
6
1
2
412
31
3
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3
2
6
3
Teachers (School)
11
2
5
2
40
Trained Nurses
6
Domestic and Personal Service:
Barbers, Hairdressers, and Manicurists.
Housekeepers and Stewardesses
Laundresses (Not in Laundry) .
24
280
34
4
10
536
2
30
606
2
6
63
695
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35
660
1
2
28
225
47
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5
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io
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1
2
2
9
1
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241
4
Waitresses :
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3
1
1
10
Stenographers and Typewriters
14
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8TATB BOARD OF HSAI/TH.
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BBOI8TSATION BBPOBT. 187
BIRTHS, 1914.
There were registered during the year 1914 in the State of
Connecticut 31,910 living births and 1,174 still-births. The
latter are not counted in the enumeration of births.
As compared with the year before, there were 1788 more
living births and 7 more still-births reported.
The number of males registered was 16,519, of females 15,391.
The proportion of boys to girls was 107.3 to 100 against 104.4
the previous year.
Hartford County has the largest birth-rate, viz: 29.5.
Tolland Coimty has the lowest birth-rate, 20.4.
Of Hartford County, 59.8 per c^nt. were of foreign bom
parents.
Of New Haven Coimty, 60.3 per cent, were of foreign bom
parents.
Of New London Coimty, 45.3 per cent, were of foreign bom
parents.
Of Fairfield Coimty, 58.1 per cent, were of foreign bom parents.
Of Windham Coimty, 37.2 per cent, were of foreign bom parents.
Of Litchfield Coimty, 51.2 per cent, were of foreign bom parents.
Of Middlesex Coimty, 57.2 per cent, were of foreign bom
parents.
Of Tolland County, 49.3 per cent, were of foreign bom parents.
Of the State 57.1 per cent, were registered as both parents
foreign bom, and 31.1 per cent, of native parents; there were
11.7 per cent, of one native and one foreign bom parent, while
of .09 per cent, the nationality of parents was not stated.
The proportion of births to the whole population of the State
(viz., 1,200 743) was 1 to 37.6 of the population, or 26.5 per
thousand.
The town having the highest birth-rate is in New Haven Coimty ,
namely Derby, 38.7 births per thousand of population.
The largest niunber of births in any one month occurred in
March 2,845; the smallest in December, 2,520.
The largest niunber of males were bom in August, 1,432; the
largest niunber of females were bom in March, 1,439.
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I-.-
188 8TATB BOABD OF HBALTH.
In the first quarter of the year the birth rate was 26.9.
In the second quarter of the year the birth rate was 26.1.
In the third quarter of the year the birth rate was 27.4.
In the fourth quarter of the year the birth rate was 25.8.
In Hartford County the town having the highest birth-rate
S^ was New Britain, 37.1. Hartland had the lowest, 11.4.
In New Haven County the town having the lowest birth-rate
was Cheshire, 13.0.
In New London Comity, New London had the highest birth-
rate, 30.1, and Preston the lowest, 10.4.
In Fairfield Comity the town having the highest birth-rate
was Bridgeport, 32.3. Easton had the lowest, 7.3.
In Windham County the town having the highest birth-rate
was Thompson, 31.1; the lowest in Canterbury, 13.8.
In Litchfield Coimty the highest birth-rate was in New Hart-
ford, 33.1; Cornwall was Jhe lowest, 6.3.
In Middlesex Coimty, Middletown took the lead, 26.8; and
Killingworth was the lowest, 9.0.
In Tolland County, Hebron, 30.8; Coventry, 10.6.
The registered number of still-births in the State was 1,174,
which is one to every 27.1 of living births.
There were 675, males, 419 females, and 44 sex not stated;
22 males, 13 females and 1 sex not stated were colored.
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BBQI8TRATION BEPOBT.
189
TABLE XV. — Showing American and Fobbion Parbntaqd or
BiBTBS BT COUNTIBS, 1914.
Parbnts.
Nativity
of
Parents
not
stated.
COUNTIES.
J
<
II
II
Total.
Hartford
2,366
2,892
855
2,147
499
614
345
211
4,822
6,099
978
4,139
439
866
607
275
497
686
184
512
129
137
67
38
366
425
140
304
109
71
42
34
3
1
1
6
2
2
8,054
New Haven
10,103
New London
FwWi*^^
2,158
7,108
Windham
1,178
liitchfield
1,690
Middlesex
1,061
To1li<^n'l
558
Total
9,929
18,225
2,250
1,491
15
31,910
TABLE XVI. — Showing Nativity of Parentage and Pbrcbnt-
AGB, 1914.
Years.
1]
••*
d
a>
o
II
1
1
1
1
^1
1914
1913
1912
1911
1910
1909
1908
1907
1906
1906
9,929
9,557
9,323
9,023
9,020
8,700
8,924
8,416
8,388
8,328
31.1
31.6
32.1
32.0
33.0
32.9
33.4
32.4
34.0
35.7
18,225
16,826
16,150
15,545
14,921
14,144
14,130
14,047
13,116
11,327
57.1
55.8
55.6
55.1
54.6
53.5
52.9
54.1
53.2
48.6
3,741
3,722
3,556
3,598
3,336
3,296
3,304
2,774
2,801
3,264
11.7
12.3
12.2
12.7
12.2
12.4
12.3
10.6
11.3
14.0
15
17
10
10
37
291
336
708
336
352
.04
.05
.03
.03
0.1
1.1
1.2
2.7
1.3
1.5
31,910
30,122
29,039
28,176
27,314
26,431
26,694
25,945
24,641
23,271
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190
STATE BOARD OF HEALTH.
TABLE XVII. — Illboitimatb Births bt Months and Sbx, 1914.
1
g
1
<
5f
1
t
<
1
1
S
1
S
i
1
White:
Males
26
11
14
14
16
12
21
14
2
3
16
14
10
10
17
11
12
11
16
9
11
14
15
11
11
9
184
Females
140
Sex not stated . .
2
Colored:
Males..
1
3
1
3
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
13
Females
17
Total
37
32
29
40
36
22
31
25
25
28
29
22
356
TABLE XVIII.— Twin Births bt Months and Sbx, 1914.
i
j
1
i
s
i
5
1
1
si
1
f
Jz;-
December.
Total
White:
Males
24
26
30
34
2
2
28
32
31
39
1
1
40
30
28
22
1
1
30
35
1
1
33
i
261 34
20
24
1
1
21 345
Females
24 261 30
31 353
Colored :
Males
6
Females
6
1
Total
60
68
60
72
70
1
62] 67
57
52
64
46
52 710
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REGISTRATION REPORT.
191
TABLE XIX.— Plubality Births, 1914. By Towns.
(Included in Tables I, II, III, IV.)
Habtfobd County.
Towns.
January.
1
t
<
i
i
1
«
1 .
1 ■**
QQ
1
1
1
0
1
Hartford /
Bristol /
i
Males ^ 2
Females 2
Males
1
7
3
1
6
8
1
1
1
4 3
81 3
1. .
1. .
1..
1..
8i 5
li 1
..1
..1 2
. .1. .
2
6
4
2
*4
38
43
2
Females 1. .
,'. ..
1
1
4
Cast Hartford /
Males 1..
2
3
Females !. .
1
"RakL 'Windsor i
Males . . '. .
Females L .
2..
1..
lu.
. . 1 . .
::j-2
*i
1
..!..
••!••
2
£:nfield /
Males L.
1
Farmington |
Females <. .
Males
Females 1. .
2
2
7
3
1
Glastonbury j
Males '..
2
. .,. .
..i..
2
Females.
"1
I^Ancliester i
Males !
2
••
2
!
1
. ,
4
Females
;
' *! *
New Britain |
Southington |
Males ! 2
Females I 2
Males 1..
1
3
1
3
2
2
6 1
.. 1
1'..
1. .
2;;
3; 2
r..
. . 1 . .
2
1
1
2
6
2
2
'4
28
26
1
Females
....
. .j. .
..i 1
Saffield f
West Hartford.. . . j
Males 1
Females ! 1
Males '..
i
1
1
1
3
Females
Males
2
3
Wethersfield j
1
Females
.
1
lA/in<]AOr 1
Males
. .1 1
. . , . .
1
Windsor Lrocks. . . j
Females
Males j. .
2
..ji
3
2
Females.
* '1* '
. . 1 . .
i
1
1
Tr%±Al
10
22
12
«2
1
3012
1
1312
1
20
16 410 183
i
_
f
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102
8TATB BOABD OF HEALTH.
TABLE XIX.— CoNTiNUBD. New Havsn County— 1914.
Towns.
Sex.
1
1
1
<
^
s
a
•-ft
<
1
1
1
O
I
a
1
H
I
New Haven (
Ansonia /
Males
Females
Males
2
4
8
8
3
1
6
5
5
5
4
2
*i
1
2
2
1
3
1
3
2
*i
1
2
2
8
4
1
1
2
2
*i
1
1
1
2
2
2
6
5
*i
1
1
1
i
1
2
4
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
4
4
2
2
2
4
2
5
7
*i
1
2
1
3
'4
1
2
2
4
4
48
51
7
Females
5
Beacon Falls f
Males
Females
••
'?.
Branf ord /
Males
1
3
2
4
"i
1
2
2
Females
10
Derby \
Males
6
Females
2
Hamden
Males
2
Meriden /
Females
Males
2
J
i
1
6
8
Naugatuck \
North Branf ord. . j
Females
Males
Females
Males
2
2
14
2
i
\
Females
1
Orange (
Males
4
Females
2
Seymour \
Males
Females
2
2
1
3
2
i
7
2
2
5
3
Wallingford \
Males
Females
2
5
Waterbury /
Males
Females
2
2
26
30
Total
20
34
26
22
12
16
28
23
12
20
20
18
251
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SBGISTRATION BEPOBT.
193
^
TABLE XIX.— <]oNTiNinBD. Nbw LoinK>N Goumtt— 1014.
Towns.
Sbx.
s
1
1
S
t
<
&
s
1
5
-<
J
a
»4
o
1
§
1
1
New London f
Montville
Males
Females
Males
1
3
2
2
1
1
3
1
i
1
2
1
1
i
1
1
2
5
9
1
Norwich . . » j
Females
Males
2
2
1
1
1
5
Prerton. - j
Sprague /
Females
Males
Females
Males
2
3
2
Females
?
Stonington f
Males
1
Females
1
Waterford \
Males
Females
2
Total
4
2
4
4
. ,
4
6
2
2
2
4
34
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194 STATB BOABD OF HEALTH.
TABLE XIX. — CoNTiNUBD. Faibfibld County— 1914.
Towns.
Sex.
1
t
<
5?
i
>»
5
i
<
1
1
1
1
6
1
1
1
H
Danbury /
Males
1
1
4
1
1
3
5
1
1
5
3
2
2
6
2
1
1
2
6
2
1
1
2
i
1
1
1
1
2
6
2
3
1
4
4
«
1
3
5
4
2
2
3
2
2
9
Females
7
Bridgeport f
Brookfield \
Males
Females
Males
1
1
4
39
35
1
Fairfield \
Females
Males
••
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
Greenwich t
Females
Males
Females
2
2
1
1
3
10
4
Huntington /
Males
2
New Canaan f
New Fairfield j
Newtown f
Norwalk |
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
2
3
*2
a
Females
2
i
3
3
Stamford /
Males
5
Females
2
2
9
Stratford /
Males
2
Trumbull f
Weston f
Westport 1
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
2
1
1
"2
'2
1
1
Total
12
8
6
20
12
18
14
4
12
14
16
12
148
TABLE XIX.— Continued. Windham County— 1914.
Towns.
Sex.
d
2
1
IS
1
^
S
i
1
i
!
1
1
a
0
g
•3
Plainfield f
Males
1
1
2
'2
'2
'2
2
2
2
1
Females
1
Putnam f
Sterling J
Males
Females
Males,
Females
2
2
2
4
?
Thompson
Males
?
Windham |
Females
Males
i
1
5
Females
5
Total
2
. .
2
2
6
, .
, ,
, .
2
4
2
2
22
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BEOI8TRATION BBPOBT.
195
TABLE XIX. — Continued. Litchfibld County — 1914.
Towns.
Ssx.
1
1
M
1
2
1
<
6
5
i
1
1
1
1
1
1
J
a
Litchfield......... /
Barkhamsted j
Males
Females
Males
Females
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
'*2
7,
New Milford |
Norfolk 1
Plymouth f
Torrington j
Watertown f
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
2
"2
"2
4
2
5
Females
Males
2
3
4
Females
2
2
2
Winchestflr j
Males
4
Females
. .^. .
2
Total
2
. .
2
4
, .
2
4
8
2
6'..
4
34
^
TABLE XIX. — Continued. Middlbbbx County — 1914.
Towns.
Sbx.
1
1
i
IS
a5
1
i
a
I
1
(5
1
1
1
1
Middletown f
Males
4
2
2
i
1
"2
'2
ft
Females
2
XT^dam J
Males
1
Cromwell j
Females
Males
Females
'2
1
"2
Sast Haddam. . . . /
Males
1
1
f
Females
^
Total
. .
6
_2
j4
_2
J
J
18
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196
STATE BOARD OF HEAI<TH.
)
TABLE XIX. CoNTiNUBD. Tolland Countt— 1914.
Towns.
Sbx.
1
ua
i
1
i
t
1
1
1
i
1
-3
Tolland f
Columbia /
Males
Females
Males
2
i
1
"i
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
4
Mansfield \
Somers. /
Females
Males
Females
Males
2
1
3
Stafford \
Females
Males.......
i
1
2
1
8
Vemon |
Wellington \
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
1
1
1
2
^
Total \
2
2
2
4
2
2
2
2
2
20
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BBQI8TBATION RSPOBT.
197
TABLE XX.— Plxibalitt Births, 1914. By Countibs.
(Included in Tables I, II, III, IV.)
Countibs.
Sbx.
1
1
2
i
&
s
0>
a
3
!
1
6
i
1^
III
Hartford
Males
Females
5
6
7
16
6
6
11
11
17
13
7
6
11
2
7
6
9
11
7
9
2
2
1
2 91
8| 92
New Haven
Total.....
Males
Females
10
10
10
22
17
17
12
10
16
22
8
14
30
7
6
12
7
9
13
13
16
12
11
12
20
7
6
16
12
8
4
7
13
10 183
7 116
11 136
New London...
Total
Males
Females
20
1
3
34
2
26
2
2
22
12
1
3
16
28
1
3
23
4
2
12
2
20
1
1
20
1
1
18 261
3 18
Ij 16
Fairfield
»
■{
Total
Males
Females
4
4
2
6
3
4
6
1
10
10
4
8
4
10
8
4
3
11
6
2
2
2
6
7
2
8
6
2
7
9
41 34
7 74
6| 74
Windham
Total
Males
Females
12
2
8
6
1
1
20
2
12
3
3
18
14
4
12
2
14
2
2
16
2
12 148
.. 10
2, 12
Litchfield
Total
Malee
Females
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
6
2
1
3
6
2
2
2
4
2
4
2
2; i2
..i 17
41 17
Middlesex
Total
Males
2
2
4
2
4
1
1
2
2
2
4
1
1
8
2
2
6
2
••
4| 34
.. 12
Females. ....
..' 6
Total u.
6
2
2
4
2
3
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
... 18
Tolland
. /
1
Males L.
1
1
2 13
Females j. .
..i 7
Total '--
2
2
2
4
2
2
2
2
2 20
Grand Total.
60
68
60
72
70
62
67
57
52
64
46
52; 710
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198
8TATB BOABD OF HSAI/IB.
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BBGIBTBATION BEPOBT.
199
The following table exhibits the rate of illegitimate births to
every 1,000 by counties:
Hartford County,
13.6 to 1,
OOO births.
New Haven
11.7
( a
New London
12.5 • '
Fairfield
6.7
Windham
18.6
Litchfield
7.1
Middlesex
10.3
Tolland
12.5 *
Total,
11.1
TABLE XXII.— Still-Births, 1914.
1
1
1
<
1
i
•->
>»
1
1
1
1
1
1
J
1
White.
Malea
67
28
5
2
1
68
44
3
3
1
66
40
2
2
"i
61
34
5
4
1
52
39
5
1
46
38
3
54
29
2
2
2
71
32
3
1
1
54
24
5
2
2
47
34
3
1
3
40
37
5
"i
50
40
3
4
1
675
Females
419
Sex not stated
COI^ORSD.
Males
44
Feinal<^ . r t r ^ -
13
Sex not stated
1
Grand Total
103
119
110
105
97
87
89
108
87
88
83
98
1174
Ssx.
SrriXBiBTHft— AoB or Foetus bt Months.
2
1
3
6
2
ZH
4
4K
6
5H
6
6M
7
7H
8
SH
9
9H
10
Not
stated.
Total.
Males
F^mi^l<M
1
1
1
10
8
3
5
1
34
19
1
4
6
47
34
5
9
82
62
2
14
10
86
55
8
18
16
1
325
189
18
3
1
7
5
2
45
17
1
697
432
Sex not stated
••
45
Total
t
8
3
21
6
54
10
86
18 146
24
149
35
532
4
14
63
1174
Digitized by
Google
200
STATB BOABD OF HBAI/TH.
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5 Ansonia
6 Bridgeport
7 Hartford
8 Plymouth
0 Southington
10 Hamden
11 New London
12 Windham
18 New Haven
14 Greenwich
15 Huntington
16 Torrington
17 Waterbury
18 Middletown
19 WaiUngford
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4
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BSOISTRATION BBPOBT.
201
TABLE XXIV. — BiRTH-RATB BT COUNTIBB FOR 10 YbaRS.
Ybabs.
COUNTIBS.
1914
1913
1912
1911
1910
1909
1908
1907
1906
1905
Hartford
29.5
27.8
27.2
26.1
24.9
24.3
25.4
24.7
24.1
23.6
New Haven
27.6
27.2
26.8
26.6
26.9
26.8
27.9
27.9
26.8
25.6
New London
22.7
21.5
21.2
20.5
20.7
22.0
22.6
22.5
23.4
22.6
Fairfield
26.2
25.3
25.2
24.6
24.0
26.0
26.5
26.8
25.2
22.5
Windham
24.0
23.0
21.7
23.4
22.8
23.0
22.6
20.7
20.0
21.0
Litchfield
23.1
20.9
20.6
21.3
21.8
23.1
22.0
22.0
20.6
21.1
Middlesex
22.4
22.1
22.2
22.9
22.2
23.0
23.2
21.6
21.0
21.1
ToUand
20.4
20.2
18.2
19.7
20.0
24.3
23.9
22.8
21.9
22.3
State of Connecticut. .
26.6
25.6
25.1
24.8
24.5
25.0
25.7
25.4
24.4
23.5
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202
8TA.TE BOABD OF HEALTH.
>
MARRIAGES.
There were 11,379 marriages registered in the year 1914, bdng
1,158 less than in 1913.
This' is one marriage to every 105.5 of the living population, or
a^marriage rate of 9.4 per 1,000, or 18.8 persons to 1,000.
TABLE XXV.— Mabmagbs.
Bbidbb.
1-4
2
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s
d
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2
©
2
g
2
s
2
g
2
g
2
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1
First Marriage . . .
12
1,807
6
7,633
267
1
793
379
16
143
229
14
31
93
7
2
1
2
22
5
2
2
1
10,323
Second "
Third "
• •
.. 1
999
44
Fourth "
2
Number not stated
6
4
11
1
Total, 1914
1913
12
4
5
5
8
7
4
4
6
2
1,813
1,142
1,822
1,669
1,646
1,316
1,334
1,616
1,294
1,089
216
7,807
8,666
8,321
7,349
6,817
6,340
6,718
6,677
6,333
6,697
7,968
164
1,192
1,868
1,441
1,279
1,221
1,160
1,067
1,132
1,061
977
1,693
426
11
386
566
462
384
365
316
316
290
267
261
268
339
16
2
134
206
126
114
107
91
93
100
77
110
66
173
30
29
80
43
36
36
28
34
23
24
36
9
81
1.^
5
16
4
2
2
3
3
6
1
3
3
21
6
1
2
2
*i
3
1
11,379
12,537
1912
1911
1910
1909
1908
1907
1906
1905
Grooms.
First Marriage . . .
Second "
4
10
2
8
6
16
9
11
1
12,230
10,748
10,103
9,258
8,565
9,763
9,072
8,075
10,092
1,195
Third "
77
Fourth "
2 2
7
Fifth "
1
1
1
Number not stated
2
4
7
Total, 1914
215
189
183
187
170
183
163
166
143
103
8,114
8,906
8,691
7,696
7,068
6,411
6,917
6,882
6,391
6,674
2,034
2,271
2,291
1,977
1,963
1,839
1,662
1,910
1,772
1,670
614
720
676
612
560
614
626
504
603
432
260' 107
286| l.^»
30
25
36
19
33
21
27
23
18
21
4
2
2
3
1
3
4
2
2
1
i
1
* "3
2
11,379
1913
12,537
1912
321
268
219
200
196
206
159
182
130
93
96
87
89
78
82
78
12,230
1911
10,748
10,103
1910
1909
9,258
1908
2
4
2
4
8,565
1907
9,763
1906
9,072
1906
8,075
Digitized by
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BBGIBTRATIOK BBPOBT. 203
Hie number of persons who were married in each Comity in
1914 was to every 1,000 of the population as follows:
Hartford County, 21.4 New EEaven County, 18.0
New London County, 19.5 Fairfield Coimty, 19.8
Windham County, 19.5 Litchfield County, 14.4
Middlesex County, 14.4 Tolland County, 14.7
It will be observed that Hartford Coimty shows the highest
marriage rate, and Middlesex and Litchfield Coimties the lowest.
The number x>f persons who were married in 1913 in each
County was to every ,1,000 of the population as follows:
Hartford County, 24.7; New EEaven. County, 19.5; New Lon-
don County, 20.6; Fairfield County, 22.2; Windham County^
29.3; Litchfield County, 16.8; Middlesex County, 13.0; Tolland
County, 14.4.
First Marriages and Re-marriages — ^The marriages of bachelors
and spinsters constituted 89.7 per cent, of the total; those of
widows and widowers, 10.2 per cent.; while in .007 per cent, the
condition was not stated.
Of the males married in the year 1.8 per cenf. were boys under
20 years old.
Of the females under 20 there were 16.0 per cent.
Table XXV exhibits more in detail the foregoing facts.
Digitized by
Google
204
STATE BOABD OF HIOALTH.
Mabbiagbb bt Months — 1914.
This Table shows the number of Marriages in each town in each
month-
Towns.
r
a
1.
1
<
i
•-5
•-3
<
J
0
i
1
a
S
1
Andover
Ansonia
21
18
3
10
13
30
1
12
'i
11
1
20
23
16
6
181
Ashf ord
2
Avon.
1
1
3
Barkhamsted
1
1
1
1
6
1
'2
3
Beacon Falls
2
2
1
3
*i
1
1
1
2
1
1
7
Berlin
4
2
?,\
Bethany ! , .
1
Bethel i . .
3
2
2
2
2
3
5
6
1
"i
25
Bethlehem
4
Bloonifield
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
10
Bolton
1
Bozrah
3
6
136
2
5
132
1
9
'3
1
59
"6
1
"2
84
1
8
3
4
130
1
2
133
1
4
161
1
19
2
2
11
Branford
Bridgeport •
Brideewater
2
111
1
13
4
119
4
131
6
134
ih
1
1
4
70
1
7
43
1390
6
Bristol
Brookfield , . . .
7
1
2
1
6
20
2
6
9
13
131
7
Brooklyn
Burlington
Oanaan
1
1
1
2
17
1
1
4
2
1
8
Canterbury
Canton
. . .
2
4
1
2
1
3
1
1
4
2
6
2
1
1
1
1
5
28
Chaplin
1
Chatham
1
1
1
1
"2
1
"3
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
4
3
4
1
1
17
Cheshire
2
1
4
2
2
1
-4
13
Chester
1
4
1
1
1
2
J
4
1
6
16
Clinton
1?
Colchester
1
1
1
1
13
Colebrook
1
4
Columbia
1
1
3
Cornwall
1
1
*i3
2
7
1
Coventry .'....
1
1
27
2
16
"2
8
2
8
1
1
16
2
15
1
1
19
*i5
4
2
2
23
2
11
8
1
4
6
Cromwell
1
6
4
10
1
6
3
"9
1
5
1
15
1
9
11
Danbury
Darien
Derby
Durham
10
1
10
159
21
110
4
Eastf ord
2
1
3
East Granby
2
"3
2
8
3
1
1
5
1
1
6
1
3
4
East Haddam
2
2
"i
3
14
3
3
2
2
4
'2
2
2
1
1
2
13
1
4
7
2
2
1
18
East Hartford
East Haven
East Lyme
7
2
72
16
15
Easton i.. .
...
4
Digitized by
Google
REGISTRATION REPORT.
Mabriaqbs by Months — Continued — 1914.
Towns.
i
<
45
1
i
<
1
i
t
6
1
a
1
H
East Windsor
Ellington
2
2
12
1
2
1
1
2
14
'4
5
1
3
10
5
1
3
1
12
1
6
3
*2i
1
. 3
2
4
1
11
5
2
7
1
•
25
"*6
8
2
2
10
1
1
2
1
20
3
2
3
2
1
26
"7
2
2
10
3
23
2
4
3
'2
10
1
1
4
21
15
Eu&M
194
Eflsex
20
Fairfield
37
Farmington
Franklin
38
?,
Glastonbury
Goehen
6
2
1
11
5
6
1
1
2
1
6
1
1
6
3
2
30
3
9
3
2
7
2
3
2
7
2
47
6
Granby
'i9
4
4
2
"2
1
7
4
Greenwich
25
18
2
2
"i
20
2
1
3
22
2
5
1
19
3
6
2
1
2
1
128
21
3
3
2
2
2
2
157
2
23
5
4
1
1
2
i69
9
2
6
2
1
4
2
66
I
2
1
6
1
4
224
Griswold
31
Groton
2
"i
2
4
2
"7
52
Guilford
19
Haddam
10
Hamden
1
1
30
Hampton
5
Hartford
108
107
68
117
96
200
83
1
102
1
1330
Hartland
5
Harwinton
2
Hebrcfttt
1
10
2
Huntington
Kent
6
6
1
4
1
5
1
6
2
4
1
6
1
'is
3
1
6
3
1
9
51
7
KilliT)gly
5
1
1
9
1
6
75
Killingworth
2
Lebanon
1
2
1
1
1
5
Ledyard
2
1
2
1
1
*'i
6
Lislion
1
2
2
Litchfield
Lyme
4
2
...
1
...
4
3
2
19
1
Madison
1
3
1
1
14
1
1
11
1
18
1
ii
3
1
8
*"i
18
2
25
1
1
23
2
8
Manchester
Mansfield
Marlboroush
16
1
9
18
10
1
169
11
1
Meriden. . . *,
Middlebury*
Middlefield
24
1
20
6
1
23
"i
12
"i
1
21
.1
1
21
3
2
45
1
'si
7
1
7
20
13
48
2
26
2
12
274
8
1
14
3
"3
3
Middletown
Milford
Monroe
12
2
1
3
12
2
8
2
9
3
1
2
21
12
2
1
16
6
1
3
1
10
56
6
22
8
i
1
18
40
2
6
3
2
1
"9
19
3
183
61
11
MontviUe
Morris
2
2
26
2
Naugatuck
New Britain
New Canaan
New Fairfield ... .
13
60
3
10
70
2
3
13
1
16
31
8
59
1
13
69
3
20
44
1
17
47
1
13
41
1
1
2
134
1
21
160
648
24
1
New Hartford
New Haven
Newington
6
124
2
97
2
21
'73
2
113
1
127
3
206
2
24
iso
2
115
1
155
38
2
142
1
22
2
117
26
22
1532
6
New London
26
16
14
10
22
. . .
23
362
Digitized by
Google
206
M
STATE BOABD OF HEALTH.
GBB BT Months— Continued — 1914.
Towns.
09
a
•-5
2
<
i
>>
^
1
<
B
0
0
November
December.
"3
NewMilford
Newtown
6
2
•2
* 4
1
3
1
7
4
4
1
6
1
1
2
1
1
1
"2
1
2
4
1
1
7
2
6i 3
2...
li...
41
la
NcJrfolk
g
North Branford
1
3
1
'2
1
16
24
2
1
5
*i3
2
"7
1
1
12
33
1
2
2
2
1
19
39
8
North Canaan
North Haven
2
2
1
2 2
7
North Stonington . . .
13
3
"'3
7
Norwalk
14
25
3
1
10
1
5
4
6
1
1
1
15
27
"i
4
1
4
1
1
2
1
30
36
1
19
29
19
29
20
61
27 13
30 13
... 2
?m
Norwich
353^
Old Lyme
10>
Old Say brook
4
4
1
?
5
"4
1
2
1
12
1
7
2
7
... 1
7 4
1...
5 3
3 2
3...
...: 1
It
Orange
"i
3
15
1
13
3
8
2
1
3
7Z
Oxford
7
Plainfield
9
1
5
"i
5
1
3
1
2
75-
Plainville
1»
Plymouth
45*
Pomfret
1
9
Portland
3
4...
1, 2
2...
15; 5
2...
2...
15-
Preston
4
Prospect
2:
Putnam
6
1
6
1
2
6
7
12
1
10
"2
1
2
8
1
1
1
12
'3
14
1
1
1
1
17
"i
1
llg
Redding
r
Ridgefield
1:?
Rocky Hill
1
1
5
Roxbury
1
1
1
...
7
Salem
1
2
2
'
1
Salisbury
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
... 2
14
SaybrooK
2
1
4
...
1
9>
Scotland
1
Seymour
3
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
"i
13
4
4
7
1
3
1
3
2
1
4
1
3 3
3. 3
41
Sharon
11
Sherman
1
4
1
'*3
3
Simsbury
4
1
2
7
3
4
2
1
2
1
5
12
2
1
5
2
3
7
37
1
9
2
7
"6
2
12
4
6: 3
4; 1
- . .i. . .
' 7 5
2...
3 2
2 1
35; 25
1 1
4: 4
5 7
6 1
2 1
3. 1
1 2
9' 8
1...
4S
Somers
11
Southbury
"2
1
2
4
41
1
5
'3
27
2
6
1
1
1
38
3
3
12
4
3
3
7
Southington
South Windsor
5
3
3
1
4
7
48
52
8
Sprague
1
2
28
3
12
3
6
1
6
1
21
2
4
40
1
5
17
1
3
23
20
Stafford
40
Stamford
372
Sterling
9
Stonington
8
1
2
2
1
io
1
1
6
'2
3
8
2
5
3
7
10
1
4
2
2
9
3
6
10
5
"2
5
14
2
84
Stratford
45
Suffield
3 2
5 1
1 6
1; 1
13 14
46
Thomaston
22
Thompson ville
Tolland
41
10
Torrington
12
16
15
?
147
Trumbull
9
Union
Digitized by
Google
REGISTRATION REPORT. 207
Mabbiagbs bt Months — Concluded — 1914.
Towns.
s
s
^
J^
■3 -a
V
O
1
o
Z
0
3
o
H
Vemon
Vc^untown
Wallingford
Wazren
Washington
Waterbury
Waterf orcl
Watcrtown
Westbrook .
West Hartford.
Weston
Westport
Wethersfield...
Wfllinston .
Wilton
Winchester
Windha.m
Windsor
Windsor Locks.
Wolcott
Woodbridge
Woodbury. . . .
Woodstock
6
2
10
10
1
60
1
1
1
6
10
4
4
58
1
2
67
4
1
1
1
4
12
6
5
14
1
15
1
1
78
5
5
3
3
1
7
2
2
4
8
13
3
7
35
"3
1
1
1
11
'i
58
1
2
1
4
10
I2I 61 4
l!....l...
4;
1'
... 2 li
46' 87 161
l!....l...|
5, 31...
2 i|...;
6; 2, 31
13! 11
4: 3.
6< 2
1...
ll 2
04
6
91
3
7
617
14
24
10
23
3
33
12
8
20
75
106
33
45
2
1
11
12
Total.
990 895 433 868 9001455 854 866 10861295111162611379
Mabriages bt Months — 1914.
This Table shows the number of Marriages in each County.
Hartford County
255
239
117
233
227
389
222
203
278
349 272143
2927
New Haven County.
293
244
118
259
259
456
250
244
300
349! 337189
3298
New Lrondon County
89
72
44
59
65
91
71
77
89
1311 74 63
925
B airfield County
219
241
102
197
221
314
200
222
259
286 276147
2684
Windham County...
42
30
11
46
36
61
32
38
56
55 46 25
478
Litchfield County...
58
30
15
39
50
70
36
44
44
58 47 34
525
Middlesex County...
21
21
16
18
29
52
28
21
39
41 41 14
341
Tolland County
13
18
10
17
13
22
15
17
21
26 18 11
201
State
990
895
433
868
900
1455
854
866
1086
12951111626
11379
Digitized by
Google
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B
03
O
91
flQ
H
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o
O
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X
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1161
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6061
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fei^
REGISTRATION REPORT.
209
TABLE XXVII. — Divorces Granted in the State of Connecticut
BY THE Superior Court during 1914.
CAUSES.
6
1
«
6
s
1
J
6
3
1
6
B
1
6
3
d
O
1
is
6
a
1
Sex of
Complainant.
-a
Male.
Female.
^
Adultery
20
22
5
42
2
2
i
8
2
4
2
i
3
1
62
2
34
' "3
185
1
12
247
2
63
1
•"2
9(V
Adultery and Desertion. . . .
?{
Bieamy
•^J
8
Cruelty
48
12
35
1
1
106
1
5
140
Cruelty and Desertion
1
Cruelty and Intemperance.
Desertion
5
93
'2i
1
1
123
1
20
1
45
1
16
2
19
1
1
2
12
9
1
176
13
423
Desertion and Intemperance
2
Intemperance
2
20
1
"i
5
2
8
1
1
1
71
Fraudulent Contract
2
Seven Years' Absence
1
1
1
Harboring for Purposes of
Prostitution
1
Corporal Imbecility
1
2
Total
171
216
67
209
33
29
22!ll
257
500
757
TABLE XXVIII.— Divorces fob Past 10 Years.
COUNTIES.
CO
1-4
c4
d
1-4
1908.
1907.
1906.
i-«
Hartford .
171
215
67
209
33
29
22
11
160
218
86
197
27
29
24
11
156
207
66
189
20
32
20
16
140
215
67
174
24
24
20
14
130
186
60
81
33
44
29
15
101
179
58
164
20
15
17
21
139| 109
152 206
36 45
149 131
30 29
101
195
51
151
14
73
New Haven
153
New London
55
Fairfield
123
Windham
28
Lttchfi^d
30
16
7
45
40i 32
Ailddlesex
16' 19 10
Tolland
15; 4 17
Total
757
752
706
678
568
575
559
5961 5751 491
?•
Digitized by
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210
STATE BOABD OF HEALTH.
)
TABLE XXIX. — Showing the Numbub of Divorcsd Pbrsons who
HAVB Rb-MaBBXBD IN 1914. Bt Ck>UNTIB8.
COUNTIBS.
Women.
Men.
Hartford
New Haven
New London
Fairfield
Windham
Litchfield
Middlesex
Tolland
84
88
40
99
24
18
10
6
70
86
34
121
24
18
6
4
During the year 1914 there were
757 divorces ^pranted, or 1,514
individuals divorced; and dur-
ing the year there were 732
divorced persons who were
married again.
Total
369
363
TABLE XXX. — Showing thb Numbbb of Widows and Widowbbs
WHO HAVB Rb-Mabbibd IN 1914. Bt Countibs.
CoUNTIBS.
Widows.
Widowers.
Hartford
New Haven
New London.. . .
Fairfield
Windham
Litchfield
Middlesex
Tolland
176
198
66
159
24
31
19
10
205
268
73
228
38
43
27
15
There were 214 more widowers
who were re-married than wid-
ows last year.
Among the divorced persona
there were 6 more wom^i
than men.
Total
683
897
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REGISTRATION REPORT. 211
DEATHS.
'C
The registered mortality in 1914 exclusive of still-births num- ^^
bered 18,211, which was 489 more thwi in the preceding year. ^
Upon an estimated population, 1,200,743, the death-rate was
16.1 per 1,000 living population.
The deaths of males on record numbered 9,654; of females,
8,556. Sex not stated, 1.
The greatest mortality was registered in March, amoimting
to 1845. The smallest mortality was registered in June,
amounting to 1,233.
The annual rates represented by the deaths in each quarter
were as follows:
First quarter, 17. 1 per 1,000 of living population 5,139
Second « 14.6 « ^ 4,392
Third « 16.1 « « 4,662
Fourth « 13.7 « *» ...... 4,118
18,211
The annual death-rate was 15.1.
DEATHS BY CLASSES. i
Th^ International Classification of the causes of death, formerly
faiown as the Bertillon system, is employed by the U. S. Govern-
m&bt and is now adopted in Connecticut, in common with the
other States and cities which make a S3rstematic r^istration of
vital statistics.
From the causes of death as registered under the different
classes the percentage of each was as follows:
Percentage to
Deaths, total Mortality.
From General Diseases 4,496 24. 13
Nervous Systen^ 1,979 10.86
Circulatory Svstem 2,624 13.31
* Respiratory System 2,413 13.26
Digestive System 1,982 10.87
Genito-Urinary System 1,624 8 . 36
The Puerperal State 169 0.92
Skin and CeUular Tissue 99 0.64
Diseases of the Bones and of the
Organs of Locomotion 30 0. 16
Malformations 171 0. 93
Diseases of Early Infancy 1,199 6.68
Old Ape 220 1 20
Affections produced by External
Causes 1,292 7.09
Hi-defined Diseases 114 0.62
Typhoid Fever was fatal in 109 instances during the year,
which was 22 less than in the year before.
Digitized by
Google
DEATHS FROM TYPHOID FEVER BY COUNTIES.
FOR '60 YEARS— 1855-1914.
«^
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1855
58
62
38
15
25
28
27
20
273
5.50
1856
47
62
31
16
29
36
20
15
256
4.62
1857
61
58
28
15
27
35
29
14
267
4.55
1858
68
68
25
35
25
34
16
24
285
4.89
1859
78
55
25
48
26
36
17
22
307
6.30
1860
59
91
24
28
35
40
20
17
314
6.60
1861
92
74
32
34
42
32
23
31
360
6.25
1862
99
83
45
46
24
36
24
24
381
5.10
1863
112
96
61
39
19
45
28
27
427
5.71
1864
97
117
52
43
18
54
29
32
442
5.44
1865
129
97
80
50
60
57
42
27
548
7-79
1866
77
79
49
37
36
20
15
19
332
4.95
1867
117
105
38
38
25
46
19
28
415
6.80
1868
81
104
32
33
31
30
30
25
366
5.54
1869
84
130
35
59
38
48
38
30
458
5.63
1870
87
124
31
54
37
44
35
25
427
5.49
1871
64
111
25
53
31
34
29
5
352
4.93
1872
134
134
37
67
39
39
32
24
506
6.76
1873
114
117
37
43
33
41
24
21
430
6.00
1874
69
109
48
31
32
32
28
21
370
4.68
1875
103
119
38
45
40
44
32
28
449
3.11
1876
76
79
42
42
25
32
12
20
328
3.68
1877
80
80
33
40
25
26
17
28
329
3.32
1878
39
55
30
28
27
27
25
15
346
2.70
1879
30
24
34
26
14
15
5
11
169
1.77
1880
40
47
32
31
34
21
19
18
242
2.51
1881
52
68
23
32
30
18
19
15
257
2.46
1882
64
76
35
35
37
28
24
25
325
3.10
1883
49
118
26
29
28
18
14
20
292
2.14
1884
61
93
29
30
25
11
16
16
281
2.47
1885
66
56
22
31
18
19
8
7
227
1.09
1886
50
70
19
30
29
21
13
12
244
2.15
1887
33
51
15
37
19
14
12
14
195
1.16
1888
75
95
16
31
28
21
15
11
292
2.21
1889
62
62
26
68
20
21
6
16
281
2.26
1690
64
103
24
42
17
21
31
10
312
2.28
1891
76
77
23
49
26
15
24
11
301
2.09
1892
93
85
35
45
14
10
18
9
309
2.03
1893
72
76
21
42
17
24
16
7
275
1.84
1894
•83
66.
23
21
18
18
13
8
250
1.82
1895
61
72
8
75
13
20
6
4
259
1.78
1896
45
61
21
32
18
17
10
3
207
1.37
1897
39
49
9
28
8
7
5
6
151
1.08
1898
68
69
15
21
6
9
6
5
189
1.33
1899
67
61
15
25
6
14
5
3
186
1.28
1900
90
83
18
42
17
16
8
4
278
1.69
1901
53
143
7
44
6
9
8
5
275
1.85
1902
35
81
15
52
4
6
6
8
207
1.43
1903
46
81
16
44
7
7
7
2
208
1.34
1904
31
60
7
34
11
8
6
6
163
1.02
1905
36
90
15
41
9
13
2
7
213
1.30
1906
46
105
11
29
9
12
9
2
223
1.33
1907
53
79
12
43
4
8
9
2
210
1.20
1908
44
72
11
35
9
13
5
5
194
1.21
1909
23
52
11
28
12
17
10
2
155
.94
1910
39
59
14
28
10
8
7
1
166
.94
1911
32
61
8
12
9
22
10
154
.87
1912
22
58
6
27
8
4
5
130
.76
1913
35
48
12
23
4
3
4
"2
131
.74
1914
34
38
10
19
3
4
y.
109
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REGI8TRATI0N REPORT. 213
Measles. — ^This disease caused 146 deaths, which was 44 more
than the year before.
They were fatal
In 4 towns in Hartford County with 14 deaths.
u
6
a
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«
41
u
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«
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« Fairfield
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73
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a
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a
«
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a
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«
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«
3
u
State, 27 146
ScarUi Fever was fatal in 81 instances dming the year, which
was 33 less than in the year before.
Li 9 towns in Hartford CJounty with 18 deaths.
«
6
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^ New Haven *
« 30
a
«
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« 3
a
«
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« 20
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state, 20 81
Whooping Cough was fatal in 146 instances, which was 48 more
than the year before.
In 9 towns in Hartford County with 25 deaths.
" 12 « « New Haven « « 42 «
" 3 " " New London « « 7 «
« 10 « " Fairfield « « 46 «
« 4 « "Litchfield « « 11 «
« 4 « « Middlesex « « 10 «
« 4 « " Tolland « « 5 "
State, 46 146
The mortality from Diphtheria and Croup was 231, being 10
more than the year before.
In 8 towns in Hartford County with 36 deaths.
" 11
«
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" 3
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state, 49 231
Digitized by
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214
8TATB BOABD Ot HBAI/TH.
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The mortality from La Grippe was 177, being 36 less than the
year before and occurred in coimties as follows:
In 14 towns in Hartford Coimty with 30 deaths.
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13
a
State, 67
177
MORTALITY FROM PROMINENT DISEASES.
10 Ybabs.
DISEASES.
i
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jS
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1
a
1
1
1^
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5§
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1905
67
51
237
213
81
229
1096
116
2080
1906
159
57
207
223
242
273
1047
106
2314
1907
78
67
522
210
141
238
1146
101
2503
1908
88
60
396
194
95
194
1091
83
2201
1909
140
117
193
155
135
205
1031
51
2027
1910
98
127
264
166
160
273
1085
50
2223
1911
100
103
299
154
178
245
831
49
1950
1912
119
88
174
130
125
193
978
51
1858
1913
i
102
114
113
131
98
221
936
43
1859
1914
• •
146
81
177
109
146
231
994
59
1943
Average
1.
108.
86.
258
168.
140.
230.
1023.
70.
2096.
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215
MORTALITY FROM SPECIAL DISEASES.
Tuberculosis numbered 1,616.
Cancer. — ^The total number of deaths registered as caused by
cancer in its various forms was 1,023.
Diabetes. — ^There were registered 228 deaths ascribed to dia-
betes, against 214 the year before.
Old Age. — ^It is recorded that 220 died a natural death — ^namely
old age.
Apoplexy was registered as the cause of death in 1,323 cases,
agiunst 1,216 of the year before.
Organic Diseases of the Heart. — 1,711 deaths, against 1,694 in
the year 1913.
Pneumonia^ including BroncJuhpneumonia. — Total 1,902, against
1,856 in the preceding year.
Bronchitis, Acute and Chronic.— ^17 against 283 in 1913.
Appendicitis. — 106 deaths; in 1913 there were 111.
Diseases of Kidneys, Acute and Chronic. — 1,360 against 1,177
in 1913.
There were 489 more deaths in the year 1914 than in the pre-
ceding year.
O
MORTALITY FROM PRINCIPAL LOCAL DISEASES.
10 YSABS.
DISEASES.
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1905
1067
171
55
155
1224
360
1495
43
69
990
5619
1906
947
164
76
168
1287
418
1586
22
58
957
5683
1907
1006
161
56
147
1452
384
1739
43
53
1021
6062
1908
923
115
94
137
1326
342
1370
33
32
1070
5442
1909
1049
134
63
117
1357
350
1537
35
41
1164
5847
1910
955
139
103
115
1544
354
1768
47
44
1170
6239
1911
1012
114
117
104
1502
359
1722
44
40
1278
6292
1912
1178
68
90
103
1599
329
1757
50
26
1201
6401
1913
1216
61
100
89
1694
283
1855
42
29
1177
6546
1914
1323
81
86
71
1711
317
1902
57
26
1350
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84.
120.
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349.
1673
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216
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CONTENTS OF REGISTRATION REPORT.
1914.
PAGB
Births of American and Foreign Mothers for Ten Years, 1905-1914,
TableXXVI 208
Births, Marriages and Deaths, Generid Summary 9
Births, Percentage of Foreign-born, by Counties 187
Births, Plurality of, by Months and Counties, Table XX 196
Births, Plurality of, by Towns ahd Counties, Table XIX 191
Birth-rates 187
Birth-rate, 1914. Diagram.
Birth-rate by Towns of over 5,000 inhabitants. Diagram.
Birth-fate by Counties for Ten Years, 1905-1914, Table XXIV. ... 200
Births by Seasons for Ten Years, 1905-1914, Table X : 100
Births by Sexes and by Months in each County, Table IV 22
Births showing American and Foreign Parentage by Counties, Table
XV 189
Births, showing Nativity of Parentage and Percentage for Ten Years,
1906-1914, Table XVI 189
Births in Towns by Nativity of Parents, Table IX 156
Births in Towns by Sexes, Birth-rate and Parentage, Table II 13
Births, Total, in each Town, Table II 13
Bri<}ee> Number of Marriages, by Ages for Ten Years, 1905-1914,
Table XXV 202
Colored Population — Births, Marriages, Deaths for Ten Years,
1905-1914, Table XIII 178
Deaths by Ages, for Ten Years, 1905-1914, Table X .' 160
Deaths, Causes of, arranged by Counties, Table Vtl 137
Deaths, Causes of, by Months, Age and Sex arranged by Classes,
Table XI : 162
Deaths, Causes of, by Towns and Counties, Table VI 24
Deaths by Classes, Percentage of 211
Deaths, Excess over Births in Towns 9
Deaths by Nativity for Ten years, 1905-1914, Table X 161
Death-rates 211
Death-rate by Towns of over 5,000 inhabitants. Diagram.
Death-rate from 20 Prominent Causes. Diagram.
Death-rate by Counties. Diagram.
Deaths by Sexes and by Months in each County, Table V 23
Deaths in Towns by Ages, Months and Sexes, Table VIII 152
Deaths in Towns by Nativity of Decedents, Table IX 156
Deaths in Towns by Sex, Nativity and Death-rate, Table II 13
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218 CONTBNTS.
PAOB
Deaths from Typhoid Fever Ibr a Series of Years, Table XIV 179
Diphtheria by Counties 213
Divorces, Causes of, by Counties, Table XXVII 209
Divorces for Ten Years, by Counties, Table XXVIII 209
Divorced Persons Re-married, by Counties, Table XXIX 210
Grooms, Number of Marriages, by Ages for Ten Years, 1905-1914,
Table XXV 202
Illegitimate 'Birth-rates by Counties 249
Illegitimate Births — White and Colored, by Months and Sex, Table
XVII 198
La Grippe, by Counties 214
Local Diseases, Mortality from, for Ten Years 214
Marriages, Number in each County, by Months 207
Marriages, Number in each Town, by Months 215
Marriages-rates 202-203
Marriages, in Towns, by Sex, Nativity and Residence of Husbands,
Table II 13
Measles, by Counties / 213
Mothers, Comparative Ages of American and Foreign-bom, Table
XXVI 208
Nationality of Parents by Counties, Table XXIII 200
Nationality of Parents for Ten Years, 1905-1914, Table XXIII. ... 251
Occupations of Decedents, by Age, Table XII 172
Preventable Diseases, Mortality from, for Ten Years 214
Recapitulation of Births, Marriages and Deaths, by Counties, Table
III , 21
Scarlet Fever, by Counties 213
Special Diseases, Mortality from 215
Still-births, Age of Foetus by Months '199
Still-births, by Sex and Months, Table XXII 199
Twins and Illegitimate Births, by Sex and Counties, for Ten Years,
1905-1914. Table XXI.; 198
Typhoid Fever, by Counties, for Sixty Years * 212
Twin Buiihs, by Months and Sex, Table XVIII 190
Vital Statistics, 1848-1914, Table 1 12
Whooping Cough, by Counties 213
Widows and Widowers Re-married, by Counties, Table XXX 210
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state ot Connecticut
PUBLIC DOCUMENT No. 29
BIENNIAL REPORT OF THE TRUSTEES
OF THE
CONNECTICUT
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
AT
STORRS, CONN.
For the two fiscal years ended September 30, 1916, and for the
two years in other matters ended November 30, 1916
PRINTED IN COMPLIANCE WITH STA TUTE
HARTFORD
Published by the State
1917
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Publication
Approved by
Thb Board of Control
The Bulletin Company, Norwich, Conn,
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The Connecticut Agricultural College
BOARD OF TRUSTEES
The Governor of Connecticut Ex-offlclo
MARCUS H. HOLCOAEB, Southington
Appointed by the Senate Term Expires
B. STEVENS HENRY, Rockville 1919
OHAIlIiEJS E. LYMAN. Middlefleld 1919
IVERSON C. FANTON, Westport 1919
CHARLES M. JARVIS, Berlin 19.17
JOSEPH W. AliSOP, Avon 1917
E. KENT HITBBARD. Middletown 1917
Elected by the Alumni
OLC?OTT F. KING, South Windsor 1919
HARRY G. MANCHESTER, Wlnsted 1917
Elected by the Board of Agriculture
CLIFFORD I. STODDAflRD, New Haven 1917
Officers of the Board
GOVERNOR MARCUS H. HOLCOMB President
HARRY G. MANCHESTER Vice-President
OLCOTT F. KING Secretary
RAYMOND I. LONG(LPY Treasurer
Executive Committee
J. W. AIJSOP, C. M. JARVIS, H. G. MANCHESTER. I. C. FANTON
'Gilbert Farm Committee
C. E. LYMiAiN, E. K. HUBBARD
Auditing Committee
Cr. I. STODl>ARD
Experiment Station Committee
J. W. AILSOP. C. M. JARVIS, E. S. HIESNRY
Extension Committee
O. F. KING, C. E. LYMAN, C. I. STODDARD
Adnninistration Committee
H. G. MANCHESTER, O. F. KING, E. K. HUBBARD
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LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
To His Excellency, "Marcus H. 'Holcomb, Governor of the State ot:
Connecticut:
I have the honor to submit herewith the report of the board or
trustees of the Connecticut A'gTicultural College for the two fiscal year»
ended September 30, 1916, and for the two years in other matters endeA
November 30, 1916.
Very respectfully,
OUCOTT P. KING.
Secretary of the Board of Trustees.
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Connecticut Agricultural College
HISTORICAL SKETCH
Storrs Agrricultural School was established by an Act of the General
Assembly in January* 1861. The State at this time accepted the gift
f)t a farm and ^,000 In money from Charles and Augustus Storrs. An
appropriation of |5,000 was made for the maintenance of the institution.
The object of the School, as stated in the Act establishing it» was "the
education of tho boys whose parents are citizens of this State in such
branches of scientific knowledge as shall tend to increase their profl-
dency in the business of agriculture.** The name was subsequently
tshanged to Storrs Agricultural College and later to the Connecticut
Agricultural College. The Board of Trustees admitted young women,
providing for them education in such branches of knowledge as tend
to increase proficiency in the art of housekeeping and homemaklng^.
As a college, the Institution fell heir to the federal income from
the Land-Orant Act of 186*2 and the Morrill Act of 1890 cuid became
responsible for half the Experimental Station work in the state, for
which annual provision had been made by the Hatch Act of 1887. In
July, 191«4, the college became the recipient of the federal appropriation
of $10,000 annuaJly for Extension work.
In the acceptance of Federal support, the state is under moral and
legal obligations to maintain the scope of education appropriate to
land -grant colleges.
SUPPORT OF THE COLLEGE
Prom the State the Trustees receive for the college iproper, $30,000;
tor the Storrs Experiment Station, 14.500, and for Extension work |7,&00
annually. FYom the National government it now has the following
fixed annual income: Under the Land-Grant Act, 16,750; under the
QfoniU and Nelson Acts. $50,000; under the Hatch and Adams Act8»
providing for a^cultural Experiment Stations, 115,000, and under the
Smith -Lever Act, $13,061 for Extension woric. The use of federal funds
Is limited to certain specified objects — none of the first two amounts
and only a small percentage of the last two amounts can be used for
construction and repair of buildings or for the purchase of land.
The State is required to co-operate by providing a suitable home
for the college. Accordingly, from time to time, special appropriations
have been made for the purchase of land for the erection of buildingrs.
F1x>m the federal funds are paid practically all the salaries of in-
Btruction and administration. The annual income regularly received
■rrom the State is devoted to the support and improvement of the college
plant as a whole.
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6 BIENXIAJL REI>ORT WlB-1916
SYSTEM OF CONTROL
The control of the institution is vested in a Board of Trustees
consisting of ten members, including the Governor, — six appointed by
the Senate for periods of four years each, two elected by the alumni
of the college for four years. each, and one elected annually by the
Board of Agriculture. The Governor is ex-offlcio president of the
Board. The Trustees elect their own officers with the exception of
their president. They also elect the college officers.
ACTIVITIES
EXPERIMENT STATION— The Experiment Station is a research
department of the college. It is supported, however, by separate and
distinct funds. The principal lines of investigation at the Storrs Station
are in Dairy 'Husbandry, Poultry Husbandry, Horticulture, Dairy and
Soil Bacteriology.
EXTENSION DEPARTMENT— The Extension Department aims to
extend to the farmer the results of scientific research and experiment.
The farmer cannot come to the college, but information can be taken
to him. The Federal Government and the several States have expended
large sums of money In developing scientific knowledge relating to
agriculture. The Extension Department is an agency which aims to give
instruction and demonstration in agriculture to persons not attending
the agricultural college, by lectures and field demonstrations and other-
wise in the various communities of the State.
COLiLEXxE — The college offers to resident students instruction in
courses of Agriculture designed to train young men to be farmers,
investigators, teachers and agricultural experts. Courses in Home
Economics are open to young women.
LAND, BUILOINGS AND EQUIPMiENT
COLLEGE LAND — ^The lands owned by the college comprise about
876 acres, of which 105 acres are tillable, 22 acres are orchard land,
273 acres are pasture land, 407 acres are wood land, and 63 acres are-
campus or reserved for buildings. The tillage and orchard land is ap-
portioned to the farm, horticultural department and Experiment Station,,
and is manipulated in such manner as to illustrate the principles and
processes of both general and specialized agriculture, including cro]>
rotation, vegetable production and fruit growing. The campus anti
wooded reservations furnish good facilities for scientific instruction in
landscape gardening, floriculture, road making and forestry.
BiUILDINGS — The college comprises thirty -three buildings — the
Main Building, Horticultural Hall and Greenhouses, Dairy Building,
Chemical Laboratory, Experiment Station Ofilce. Poultry (Building,
Farm Bams (3), two dormitories for young men. Grove Cottage, a dor-
mitory for young women. Dining Hall, Armory, eighteen dwelling houses^
and two apartment houses.
WIATER AND SEWAGE ST STEIMS— Water from a bored well 80a
feet in depth is supplied to all buildings. The sewage is purified on.
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THE CONNECTICUT AaRICULTURAL. COLLEGE} 7
aaAd filters, elgrht in niimber, each ZO feet by 30 feet in size and four
feet deep. The beds are used in rotation. The effluent is practically
odorless and non-putrescible.
INVENTORY OF LAND, BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT
Farm and Campus $39,665.
Main BuUding 44,200.
Horticulture Building and Greenhouses 60.000.
Dairy Building 80,000.
Chemical Laboratory 6,000.
Experiment Station Office 1,600.
Poultry Buildings 31,100.
Farm Buildings 96,950.
Farm Machinery Building l<5,0OO.
Armory and Auditorium 60,000.
Minor Buildings 4,260.
Water and Sewage Systems 40.650.
X^iuipment — Library 23,775.
Apparatus, machinery' furniture .... 106,500.
Live Stock 25,819.
Electric Light Installation 8,000.
Storrs Hall 68,500.
Koons Hair 73,000.
Grove Cottage 15,000.
Dining Hall 20,000.
Dwelling Houses 105,200.
Gilbert Farm 48,1^.
Gilbert Farm Endowment 60,000.
|92'3,122.
REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT .
FOR THE TWO YEARS ENDED NOVEMBER 1, 1916
BUILDINGS AND EMPROVBMBNTS— The Legislature of 1915 ap-
propriated 1107,500. for water and sewage system, buildings and equip-
ment, including new cottages, central heating plant and other improve-
znents. From the appropriation there has been expended for the
erection of four faculty cottages, $22,936.81; for furniture and extras
In connection with Armory building, $7,822.71; for sewage and water,
SS,2S1.18; house for chemical engine, tS0.30; reserved for survey and
purchase of right of way for railroad to BagleviUe, $2,500.; and reserved
tor Central Heating Plant, $70,949.
BOARD OP TRUSTJBE3S— The Senato in 1915 appointed Charles B.
Xjyxneui, E. Stevens Henry and Iverson C. Fanton as trustees for a period
of four years; the Board of Agriculture in 1915 and again in 1916
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8 BIENNIAI^ REPORT 1915-W16
elected Clifford I. Stoddard for a period of one year; the alumni in June^
1915, elected Olcott F. King for a period of four years.
RE3SIONATIONS — E3dwin O. Smith, I^rofessor of Bconomics and
Treasurer, October, 1916"; Harriet "L. Curtln, Manager of (Boarding- Club»
July, 1916; Albert F. Blakeslee, Professor of OBotany and Genetics, Octo-
ber, 1915; Rev. (L. G. Rogers, Chaplain, January, 1915; C. D. Jarvi8»
Director of extension Service, February, 1915; H. F. Keyes, iF^arm Effi-
ciency A^ent, August, 1S15; Daniel Chase, Director of Physical Educa-
tion, September, 11^16; Edna E. Jackson, Assistant in Bacteriology^
June, 1915; August F. Schultz, Instructor in Botany, September, 19^15;
Herbert K. Job, Liccturer in Ornithology, November, 1914; W. C. Ken-
nedy, Windham County Agent, October, 1916.
APPOINTMENTS— Daniel Chase, Professor of Physical BducaUontJ
September, 1915; Edmund W. Sinnott, Professor of Botany andGenetics,
September, I^IS; George S. Torrey. Instructor in Botany, September,
1915; Glenn H. Campbell. Instructor in Dairy Husbandry, September,
1915; Stella M. Findlay, Manager of Boarding Club, July, 1916; Corinne
R. Tapley, Instructor in Home EJconomics, September, 1916.
COIiLEGE AND EXTENSION— Theodore (H. Eaton, Professor of
Agricultural Education, September, 1916; Guy C. Smith, Professor of
Economics, September, 1916.
•EXTENSION SERVICE — H, J. Baker, Director of Extension Serv-
ice, February, 1915; I. G. Davis, Assistant State L«eader and Farm
-Management Demonstrator, September. 1915; B. A. (McDonald, Assistant
Farm Management Demonstrator, July, 191"6; F. C. Warner, County
Agent, New London Coimty. May, 1915; S. J. Wright, County Agent,
Fairfield County, March, 1915; A. W. Manchester. County Agent, Litch-
field County, March, 1^915; W. C. Kennedy, County Agent, Windham
County, March, 1915; W. A. Cook, County Agent, Hartford County, (May,
1915; F. E. Rogers, County Agent, New Haven County, July, 1915; John
H. Fay, Caunty Agent, Middlesex County, August, 1915; John B. GiCford,
County Agent, Tolland County, October, 1916; Benjamin W. Ellis,
County Agent, Windham County, October, 191'6.
PROMOTIONS — ^Benjamin G. Southwick. Instructor to Assistant
Professor of Agronomy; Raymond I. Longley, Chief Clerk to I^irchasins
Agent and Treasurer; Charles A. Wheeler, Professor of ^Mathematics to
Professor of Mathematics and College Engineer; Maud E. Hayes, Pro-
fessor of Home Economics in College to Professor of Home Economica,
College and Extension Service; Hfury L. Garrigus, Instructor in Ani-
mal Husbandry to Professor of Animal Husbandry.
TRANSFER— George W. Fraser from Florist to Superintendent of
Grounds; Christie J. Mason from Assistant Bacteriologist Experiment
Station to Instructor in Bacteriology College; William M. Eeten, Bac-
teriologist College and Station to Bacteriologist College.
GiLHEIRT FARM SCHOO«L— At a meeting of the Trustees held
June 25. 1916, action was taken providing for the establishment at
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THE CONNEX:?TICUT AGRICULTURALr OOLLBQE 9
Oilbert 'Farm, Georgetown, "of a school for the purpose of teaching or
instruction in farming practically and instruction in the science of
farming* as taught by the College, and especially the art of raising and
-caring for live stock.*' A special committee of the Board was appointed
to carry out the provision of the resolution. George Elaton, Jr., in-
structor at the Farm School at Doylestown, Pa., was elected Superin-
tendent of the Gilbert Farm School.
SUMIMI/R SCHOOL— The Summer session of the Normal Training
School conducted by the State Board of Education for the benefit of
teachers was held at Storrs in the summer of 1915. Three hundred
«nd ninety-six teachers and superintendents were in attendance. The
Dining Hall and dormitory acconmiodations were Inadequate however,
and it was found necessary to limit the attendance in 191^ to super-
'visors and to those who had no experience as teachers. The enrollment
in 1^16 was 183.
OCCUPATION OF FORMER STUDENTS— Inquiry has been made
recently of former students as to their pr^ent occupation. A summary
of the replies show that 4^ of the 780 resipondlng to the inquiry, or
<8%. are engaged in agricultural occupations. It should be stated that
during the first 25 years of the existence of the institution, many
students were enrolled in the preparatory department and received
instruction in academic studies only, with no instruction in agriculture,
this department being used as a high school by the students entering
therein. The preparatory department, however, was discontinued in
1908. A larger percentage of the students on leaving this institution
at the present time are engaged in agricultural occupations than is in-
dicated by the figures covering the replies of all students enrolled for
the entire period.
COLtLEGE — ^The thirty -fifth anniversary of the college was observed
with ap«>ropriate exercises on Monday evening, Juae 12, 1916. At the
commencement exercises on Tuesday, twenty -nine received degress and
twenty-eight diplomas, the largest number to graduate in the history
of the college. A department of Physical Education was created and a
director appointed in 1915. The Mechanic Arts Course has been
lengthened from two to four years.
The completion of the armory and its occupancy has resulted in a
marked change in the life of the student body and the community. The
building is used as an armory and as a gymnasium; provides facilities
for bowling, basket ball, dancing and social gatherings; serves as an
auditorium for lectures, theatricals, moving pictures during the college
year and for the meetings of the Normal Training School and Agricul-
tural Conferences in the summer.
EXPBRIMEfNT STATION— On account of the lack of Station funds,
the Trustees have found it necessary to discontinue the experimental
'Work In Soil Bacteriology. Professor Esten, employed Jointly by the
College and Station, has been transferred to the College staff only. At
the urgent request of the State Dairymen's Association, arrangements
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10 RIE!J<fNIAL. REPORT 191o^l916
have been made for the continuance of the experiments of Professor
Eeten in Soil Bacteriolosry and the use of Raw Rock Phosphate, the
expenses to he paid from the College funds.
HIGHWAY IMPROVEMENT— The l.egislature of 1915 made the
road from Storrs to Eagleville an auxiliary of the trunk line systenu
When completed, this road will form an easy access to the colleflre hy
automobile by way of the improved roads centering in Wlllimantic from
various parts of the State.
EXTENSION DEPARTMENT— The Extension Department has
made provision Jointly with the college for a leader in Agricultural
Education, in Co-operation and Marketing and in Home Economics*
The Legislature of 191& made an appropriation of 11,000. to each
county in the State for the aid of Agricultural Extension, contingent
upon a tax of $1,000. to be levied by the county conmiissioners and the
raising of $1,000. from other sources. Under this act, a Farm Bureau
has been organized in each of the eight counties of the State with a
total membership of 3,000. During the past year eight Extension
Schooled were held. In IS 14 ttie Advisory Board of Farmers' Institutes
appointed the Director of the Extension Department of the College,^
manager of the Farmers' Institutes. At the present time Farmers' In-
stitutes are financed by and held under the direction of the Extension
Department of the College.
NEEDS OF THE INSTITUTION FOR MAINTENANCE
MAINTENANCE OF THE STORRS EXPERIMENT STATION —
The State appropriates 14,500. and the Federal Government appropriates.
$15,000. annually to the Experiment Station. The Federal Grant was
intended to form a nucleus of a fund to be supplemented by equal, it
not larger, appropriations from the State. All disseminating agencies*
the College, the Extension Department, Institute Boards and Agricultural
Associations are dependent upon Experiment Stations for the Informa-
tion which they disseminate. Connecticut should do her share, and it
is not to the credit of the State that she draws so large an amount from
outside sources. The appropriation for the Storrs Experiment Station
should be increased to an amount equal to that contributed by the
Federal Government.
MAINTENANCE OF THE EXTENSION DEPARTMENT— The
urgent and insistent demand on the part of the farmer lor advice and
information, the requests for speakers at institutes, agricultural meet-
ings and granges, and the demand for other extension service, all of
which heretofore has taken the time of the members of the college
faculty and station staff, has made it necessaiy to engage a separate
corps of instructors for this line of work. An Extension Department
has been organized, therefore, and a director appointed; also a poultry*
man, dairyman, farm management expert, and a leader and assistant in
Boys' and Girls* Club work. An organization has been formed and %^
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THE CONNBCTICUT AGRIGULTUHALr CXDLLEGB H
leader appointed in each county of the State. Additional funds are^
needed to pay the salary of a leader and an assistant in Co-operation
and MarketinsT* Fruit Growinsr* AcrricuUural Education, Agronomy and
Home Economics. Additional funds are needed to supplement the
amounts raised by the County organizations.
MAINTKNANHUE OF THE COU^EXSEJ— The appropriation to the
college for maintenance is used to pay certain salaries of officers of ad-
ministration, of employees not engaged in instruction, for repairs to-
buildings and care of grounds, heating and lighting, insurance, freight
and cartage and for the support and improvement of the plant as a
whole. An increase in the cost of maintenance, on account of the-
advance of wages and the added cost of supplies and materials is es-
timated at 120,000. for the two years 1917-19.
The Trustees have instructed the President to engage, when funds,
are available, an assistant in Animal Husbandry, an assistant in
Mechanic Arts, a Director of Physical Education, and an assistant in
the office of the Treasurer. The amount of the increase in the salary
budget needed for the two years 1917-19 is estimated at $13,920. Addi-
tional funds are needed for Improvement of the grounds and for lepaira
and improvements to buildiags.
NEEDS OF THE COLLEGE FOR BUILDINGS AND IMPROVEMENTS
1. STUDENT INFIRMARY— The college buildings are located on
high groimds, with good natural drainage. The water supply is pure,
and the sewage system is modem and adequate. While the natural
sanitary conditions are excellent, yet when so many congregate, various
diseases may be brought by the students themselves. Complaint is made
that there is no one to care for students in time of sickness. The charge
of 15. per visit by Willimantic physicians is a severe tax on the resources
of many with limited means. Nervousness or timidity hae been the
cause of temporary withdrawal of a considerable number of the student
body in the case of the illness of a single fellow student. In February,
1916, the college was closed for four weeks on account of an epidemic
of scarlet fever, twelve students contracting the disease. A small in-
firmary, well equipped with hospital furnishings and medicine, should
be provided for the control of contagious diseases and for the care of
other cases of illness or injury. A tax should be laid upon the students
sufficient to secure the services of a resident nurse.
2. DINING HALL— The Legislature of 1911 granted the Trustees
an appropriation for the erection of a building to be used "temporarily'*
as a Dining Hall. A Mechanic Arts Building was erected. An appro-
priation is now needed for the erection of a Dining Hall in order that
the building now being used for the purpose may be released for in-
struction In Mechanic Arts.
At present, Instruction in wood working and iron work is given
in poorly lighted rooms in the basement of the "Main Building. In-
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12 DIENXIA<L BEPORT 19n-1916
^truction in draftinsr is given in the attic of the annex to Whitner
Hall; instruction in forging in a rented blacksmith shop, and instruc-
tion in designing farm buildings In the attic room of the Horticultural
Building. The erection of a Dining Hall will release the Mechanic
Arts Building and provide facilities for instruction which are so much
needed by this department.
3-4. COTTAGES — ^The addition of new members to teaching and
extension staffs and the marriage of the younger members of the
faculty, make it necessary to provide for additional cottages. No pro-
vision having been made by the State for the lease of (building sites on
the campus, It is necessary for the Trustees to erect a sufficient num3>er
of buildings for the members of the teaching, extension and experiment
station staffs. Cottages coeting about 15,000. each are leased at $300.
per year, which Is at the rate of 6% on the Investment. Additional
-cottages, costing about $2,000. each, are needed for the accommodation
■of employees of the institution.
5-7. FARM IMPROVEMENTS— The Ullable area of the farm could
be increased to the extent of about 100 acres by the drainage of the
Valentine meadow and swamp near the Dairy bam. These fields, easily
accessible, free from stone, (should be underdrained and made more
productive. A small sum should be available also for the remoi'al of
walls, for fencing and other improvements. An appropriation is needed
for the erection of an ice house.
8.. ORNAMHNTALr PLANTING— Charles N. Lowrfe was engaged
in 1910 to prepare a plan for the laying out of the campus with respect
to its future growth, taking into account the location and grouping of
buildings, laying out. of walks and drives, and for ornamental planting.
By means of a well studied plan, convenience and economy of circulation
should be secured. Furthermore, the effect upon students and others of
fine surroundinfiTS and landscape scenery is of great importance and
should have far reaching results where so much of the time is spent
in the open air as is in an Agricultral College. Funds should be avail-
able each year for the construction of walks and drives and for the
ornamental planting of the campus.
9. FRUIT STORAGE AND REFRIGERATION— A refrigerating
room and a packing room for fruit and vegetables are needed as an
addition to the equipment of the Horticultural Department. With the
crops now harvested there is much waste and loss of fruit due to im-
proper facilities for handling and packing. The cost of a fruit storage
building and vegetable cellar and refrigerating room is estimated at
$15,000.
10. DAIRY BARN— The herd, compoaed of representatives of the
dairy breeds of cattle, is kept for instivction and experimental purposes.
The product of the herd is sold in the form of milk, cream and batter
to the boarding club and faculty families. The amount of milk produced,
however, is not sufficient to supply the demand, making it neceesary
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■THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTUBALr COLLESGB la
to purchase a con8ideraJ>le amount of dairy products during: each month
of the college year. The Dairy barn should be enlarged, therefore, and
the size of the herd increased to at least double the number of milking
animals.
11. FORGING SHOP AND EQUIPMENT— A course In forging is
offered to the students of the School of Agriculture and to the students,
in the College of Mechanic Arts. At the present time the equipment of
ten forges with anvils and necessary tools is installed in a leased shop
near the campus. The equipment is meager, and the accommodations
are insufficient for the number of students registering for this work.
It is recommended that a building 62x34 feet, 12 feet high, conforming
in style of architecture with the Mechanic Arts Building, be erected
near it. The cost of such a structure is estimated at $7,000. and equip-
ment at $3,000.
12-15. POULTRY — The Poultry department is in need of a work-
ing plant in order that practical instruction may be gfven to studenta
in the brooding of chicks and the care of laying hens. Provision should
be made also for the proper housing of stock used in experimental
work.
16. FIRE PROTECTION— The value of college buildings anct
contents Is over $700,000. The average rate for insurance is .51 a
hundred, which is as low cm could be expected under present conditions.
The cost to the college for insurance is about $2,500. a year. With
adequate facilities for fire protection, there should be a material re-
duction in the cost of insurance and greater safety for both lives and
property.
17. AGRONOMY BUILDING— A building is needed for instrucUon
in Agronomy. One wing of the proposed building, The Farm Machinery
Laboratory, was erected in 191*6. Provision should now be made for the
erection of the main structure to provide crops laboratories, soils labor-
atories, class rooms, offices and storage rooms for supplies and equip-
ment.
18. RAILROAD TO EAGLEVILLB— The freight station for the
college is Eagleville on the Central Vermont Railroad. About 2,000 tons
of coal are hauled annually from Eagleville to the college, 1,000 tons of
miscellaneous freight, and for the past six years about 1,000 tons of
building material each year, at a cost of $1.25 a ton. The engineer of
the Central Vermont Railroad estimates the cost of building a line from
EagleviUe to Storrs at $65,000.
It has been suggested that a passenger and express car operated
by storage battery might be run over the proposed route, connecting
with trains on the Central Vermont Railroad or continuing on the main
line to Wlllimantic. It ia quite possible that the college can afford to
pay the railroad freight and switching charges sufficient in amount
to give the company a reasonable return against the investment and
operating expenses.
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14 BIBI^NIAL. REPORT W15-1916
19. APIARY — ^The collesre has purchased 20 colonies of Italian bees.
A. W. Yates, a specialist in bee culture, has been engaged to give a
-course of lectures to students. A building is needed in which equipment
necessary for demonstration and instruction in this subject can be ex-
hibited and stored.
20. DORMITORIES — Two dormitories have been erected designed
to accommodate 66 students each. The number of male students en-
rolled in the college and school of agriculture and in the winter short
•courses is in excess of normal accommodations, resulting in an over
^crowding of living quarters.
It will not be wise to attract or receive additional students, nor will
It be desirable to build additional dormitories until needed buildings
and equipment are provided for adequate instruction to students now
registered, and until the money for maintenance of the institution as
^ whole be increased to an amount sufficient for the upkeep of the
•college at its present size.
21. (HOME ECONOMICS— The State College of Agriculture Is co-
educational. It is recognized that it is quite as important to train
young women for home making as to educate young men for farming.
The young woman who is to take her place as the head of a home
should have a knowledge of human nutrition, of personal hygiene asd
home sanitation, of house decoration, and^'of cooking and sewing.
It inay be that our system of agricultural education for men will
fail of its purpose until an equal number of young women are trained
for home making and country living.
A (Home Economics Building is needed with class rooms and labor-
atories for instruction and to provide dormitory accommodations for
the young women.
22. 6CIEINCE HALiL — ^Agriculture rests upon science. Is is no
longer urged in any quarter that agricultural instruction should be
-empirical It is no longer held that an apprentice coarse Is sufficient
for the college student in agriculture. The courses of study recom-
mended by the Association of Agricultural Colleges provides that one-
third of the time in the schedule of the four-year course be devoted to
the sciences of Chemistry, Physiology, Botany, Zoology, Geology, Ento-
mology, and Bacteriology.
At present the department of Botany is quartered on the second
floor of the Horticultural (Building and the department of Physics in
the attic of the Horticultural Building, the department of Bacteriolosry
on the third floor of the Dairy Building and the departments of Zoologry^
Oeology and Entomology in the Main Building.. The laboratories in
each case are inadequate in size, and the room thus occupied is needed
for other purposes. The department of Chemistry occupies a separata
building. The chemical laboratories are very crowded, and several
courses have been omitted on account of the lack of proper facilities.
It cannot be too strongly urged that a group of subjects fundamental
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL, C?OLL.EGE 15
to a^culture and occupying from one-fo<urth to one-third of the total
time of the students during a four-year course of study should receive
recognition, and that adequate laboratories be provided both for study
and research. •
23. ADMINISTRATION BUIL1>ING--The present Administration
building was erected in 1890 when the enrollement was a/bout 100
students. The attendance has now doubled and the class rooms are too
smalL The construction is of wood, and the buildings and valuable con-
tents, including the library, are in danger of loss by fire. The present
building is now used for the following purposes: Offices of the President,
Chief Clerk and Registrar; Chapel Assembly Room for Students, Post .
Office. Ldbrary, class rooms for the departments of English and
Economics, English and Elocution, German, French and History, and
Mathematics; class rooms and laboratories for the departments of
Geology, Zoology and Entomology; Museum of Natural History,
Students' Infirmary, Printing Shop, Studio for the department of Music,
and a suite of guest rooms.
It is evident from the many uses which this building serves that it
cannot be dispensed with until another is erected Co take its place.
Moreover, the plan of the landscape architect calls for the erection of
a fireproof Administration Building. The Administration Building
should provide class room accommodations for the academic depsurt-
ments suitable for a student body of at least 400; offices for adminis-
tration, the Post Office, 'Business Office; offices for the director of the
Experiment Station and for the director of the Extension Service;
temporary accommodations for the Library and Chapet
NEED FOR SCHOLARSHIPS OR LOAfi FUNDS
There are no scholarships available for young men at Storrs. The
number of students receiving financial aid by means of paid employ-
ment in connection with the several departments of the college in the
year 1915-16 was 99 or about 50% of the young men enrolled.
The average amount earned by each student for the ten months of
the school year was $100.14 or about 1-8 of the estimated total charges.
Students are not able to earn all of their expenses, however, on account
of the limited time that can be spared from class hours and study peri-
ods and from the lack of opportunity to secure employment.
In the summer of 1916, thirty students made application for admis-
sion but did not enter. In most cases it wcu9 found on inquiry that the
failure to report after signifying thieir intention to do so was for
financial reasons. A large number of young men make inquiry each
year as to the opportunities of earning money to pay expenses while
attending college. On being advised that the opportunities are liinited,
these prospective students do not enter or make application for admis-
sion and are lost sight of.
There is need, then, for a loan fund or for scholarships, to be ad-
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16 BIENWIAIL REPORT 1915-1916
ministered for the purpose of aiding needy and wortliy young men wbo
are anxious for a college education.
« SUMMARY
The needs of the College, the Ehcperiment Station and the Bxtenslon
Department for maintenance for a period of two years are stated below^
The needs of the college for buildings and improvements are estimated
for a period of six years. There may be a difference of opinion as to
the relative importance of the several items in the budget, but in gen-
eral of first importance is the provision of ample funds for the main^
tenance of the institution at its present size; second, provision of suit-
able buildings and equipment for the adequate instruction of the
students now enrolled; and third, provision for the growth of the in-
stitution in number of students. It is believed that a plan for the future
growth of the college will tend to a more economical expenditure ot
funds appropriated for its support.
SUMMARY OF THE NEEDS OF THE COLLEGE FOR MAIN-
TENANCE FOR A PERIOD OF TWO YBARS
1. College $130,000
2. Experiment Station 40,000
3. E^xtension Department. 50,000
SUMMARY OF THE NEEDS OF THE OOLLEGE FOR BUILDINGS
AND IMPROVEMENTS, ESTIMATED FOR A
PERIOD OF SIX YBARS
Students—
1. Infirmary I 5.000.00
2. Dining Hall 40.000.00
1 45.000.00
Faculty and Employees —
3. Faculty cottages (6) 27,000.00
4. Cottages for employees (6) 12,000.00
89.006.00
Farm Department —
5. Drainage of Valentine meadow 6,400.00
6. Ice House 2,000.00
7. Improvement of land 3,000.00
^ 11,460.00
Grounds —
Ornamental Planting of campus, walks and
drives t,0O0.0O
Horticultural Department —
9. Storage House for fruit and vegetables 15,000.00
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1,850.0*0
1,200.00
THE CONNDCTICUT AGRICULTURAL CX)LLEX3B 17
Dairy —
10. Dairy Bam and Shed for bulls and young
stock X2,000;00
11. Forging Shop, Horseshoeing Shop and
Bqt^pment 10,000.00
Poultry Department —
12. Laying Contest —
1 Feed House, 28x40 1,200.00
2 Reserve Houses, 20x30 500.00
2 Contest Houses, 12x12 150.00
18. Land Iiliprovement— ^Poultry —
Grading around Poultry Building 500.00
Removing stone walls and drainage 700.00
14. Experimental Plant — Poultry —
9 16x16 Colony Houses 900.00
1 Long Laying House, 18x100 800.00
1 Brooder House, 18x120 ^ 1,900.00
Necessary yards and fences 750.00
15. College Poultry Plant —
7 12x12 Colony Houses 525.00
1 Variety Hous6 950.00
2 20x80 Colony Houses 500.00
Necessary yards and fences 850.00
. 2,825.00
16. Fire Protection 15,000.00
17. Agronomy building 60,000.00
18*. (Railroad to EagleviUe 65,000.00
19. Building and Equipment for Bee-keeping 5,000.00
20. Dormitory for Young Men 75,000.00
21. Home Economics Building 60,000.00
22. Science Hall 100,000.00
28. AdministraUon Building 125,000.00
3,750.00
1650,085.00
Attention is invited to the report of the Director of the Experiment
Station; to the report of the Director of the Extension Service; and to
the department reports of the college that appear on the following
pages.
Respectfully submitted,
OHARLES L. BEACH. President.
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18 BIENN'IAl, BEPOBT 1915-1916
REPORT OF THE EXTENSION SERVICE
H. J. Baker, Director
The extension work of the coUesre for the two years 1915^ and 1916
has continued and developed the work of the previous years and at
the same time has made rapid progress in developing other extension
activities.
DAIRY WORK — ^Extension work in dairying has been confined
mainly to dairy record work and organizing herd improvement asso-
ciations. In the dairy record work farmers are encouraged to keep
individual records of the milk production of their herds. Record blanks
are furnished by the Extension Service without expense to the farmers.
At the end of each month these are sent in to the college, where they
are totalled and returned to the farmer with recommendations on feed-
ing and management for the next month. Over 100 farmers are now
availing themselves of this opportunity. Herd improvement associa-
tions (sometimes known as cow-testing ajssociations) have increased
in numbers from on^to eight in the last two years. They now repre-
sent about 5,000 cows that are on record. A great deal of mlscellaneoua
work has been done, such as lectures, farm visits, training Juvenile
Judging teams, demonstration herds, and correspondence.
FARM MANAGEIMENT— This work consists of a study of a large
number of tarma in a given area and of a certain type to determine
whether or not the business is (being managed efficiently, and, if not.
to give assistance in remedying some of the defects. In the last two
years 700 farm business analyses have been made. The farmers have
been given the benefit of this study, as all records have been returned,
either in person or by letter. This work has resulted in many beneficial
changes in farm practice. A large number of farm visits have been
made. Probajbly the most important result is that it has stimulated an
interest in farm accounts, and over 100 farm account books have been
placed in the hands of farmers who are keeping accurate records on
their farm business.
POULTRY— The greater part of extension work in poultry has
been confined to the control of BaclUary White Diarrhea. During the
two years 156 flocks with 22,40S hens have been tested. It has been
found that about 9% of the birds tested are infected. These infected
birds have been eliminated from the flocks. ILectures, farm visits, ex-
tension schools, farmers' institutes, demonstrations, and correepond-
ence have also constituted a part of the work of the extension poul-
tryman.
BOYS' AND GIRLS' CLUBS — One of the most important pieces of
work of the extension Service is that which is being done with the
i>oys and girls in rural communities. Clubs are formed by a group
uf boys or girls who are interested in carrying on small projects in
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL. OOLLBaH 19
^^riculture and home economics. This work has stimulated a new in-
terest in agriculture and rural life. In the last two years about 6,000
boys and girls have Joined this activity. The College Extension Serv-
ice has given assistance in forming these clubs and has directed and
«uper\'ised the work.
COUNTY AGENT WORK— -In the last two years county agent work
lias extended rapidly. Two years ago only one county had employed
a county agricultural agent. At the present time eViery county in the
state has an agricultural agent The work of the agricultural agents
and the work of specialists in the Extension Service is carried on in
close co-operation, the County Farm Sureau acting as a clearing house
Xor agricultural extension service.
The legislature of 1915 passed a hill providing State and County
aid for this work. The Extension Service and the United States De-
partment of Agriculture also co-operate with the members of the Farm
Bureau in providing financial 8upq;)ort. Th^ growth of the county woiic
represents the biggest development of any one phase of the Extension
-Service and through the work of the County Agents a large number of
farmers have profited.
EXTESNSION SCHOOl^— During the winter of 191$ ESctension
'Schools of four days' duration were conducted. Eight schools in agri-
culture and six in home economics were held. In the schools of agri-
culture farmers have an opportunity to study carefully some of the
more important branches of agriculture that are being practiced in
^eir community. Courses in soils and crops, poultry, dairying, and
fruit have been offered, the course in soils and crops being r^uired,
;and two of the other three elective. In the home economics schools
women studied their home problems, such as proper diet, sanitation,
iiousehold management, food values, and other problems of the house-
wife. Through these extension schools we have been able to give .some
-of our most valuable service. Before the Extension School season
-was over in 1916, more requests had been received for extension schools
In the winter of 1917 than could be granted. Over 600 farmers and
■their wives attended regularly these four-day schools.
FARMERS' INSTITUTES— For the two years, 1915 and 1916,
Farmers' Institutes have been under the direction of the Extension
4Service of the college with the co-operation of an Institute Advisory
Board, consisting of the President of the College, the BPIrector of the
lE^xperiment Station, the Direclor of the Extension Service, and the
Secretaries of the State Agricultural Societies. The Extension Service
has financed all Farmers' Institutes during this period. In 1915, 32
institutes were held with an average attendance of 62. In 1916, 31 in-
stitutes have been held with an average attendance of 72. The in-
stitute day has served as a day of inspiration and recreation, as well
as a day of helpfulness in the solution of farm problems.
IFAIR EXHIBITS — An educational fair exhibit made up co-opera-
Jtively by the Extension Senice and Storrs Experiment Station has
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20 BiBNNIAi. REPORT 1915-1«1€
been sent to agricultural fairs. In 1916 this exhibit was sent to Nor-
wich, Berlin, and Danbury. In 1916 the exhibit has been sent to seven
fairs, namely, Norwich, Hartford, Berlin, Brooklyn, Rock vi He, Danbury,.
Stafford. Several thousand people are reached throusrh these exhibita
in a comparatively short time and at small expense. The attendants
are constantly busy answering requests for information. This service
should be extended so that exhibits can be made at a larger number of
fairs, and particularly at our smaller country fairs.
PUBLICATIONS— Publications of the Extension Sendee are divided
into three classes:
1. Bulletins and Circulars.
2. Announcements.
3. Press Bulletin Service.
Bulletins and circulars are not issued at any definite time, but only
when it aps)ears that sucl% publications will give helpful information
along some particular line of work. These publications are written by
members of the Extension Staff and by members of the College Faculty
and Experiment Station Staffs, and before publication are approved by
the head of the department from which they emanate.
^AIl bulletins and circulars published by the Extension Service are
sent free to any resident of Connecticut who desires them. In this
connection a mailing list is maintained, containing about 7,000 names.
In addition to bulletins and circulars on agricultural and home
economics topics, announcements of meetings and programs are sent onU
One of the most valuable 'publications of the Extension Service is
the Press Bulletin. This at first was issued monthly. Since last Feb-
ruary it has been issued weekly. The weekly bulletin has been used
extensively by the lea4ing^ newspapers of the State, some of them
printing the entire bulletin every week and many others using large
portions of it
The following is a list of publications of the E3xtension Service
Issued in the last two years:
Circular No. 4 — The Babcock Test for Milk and
Cream December, 1914
Circular No. 5 — List of Farmers* Institute
Lectures November, 19l4
Circular -.No. 6 — ^Educational Scoring Exhibi-
tions April, 1915
Circular No. 7 — ^E:itension Schools October, 1913
Circular No. 8 — -Farmers' Institutes October, 1915
Circular No. 9— Boys* and Girls' Clubs February, 1916
Preliminary Bulletin: Farm 'Bureaus and Coun-
ty Agricultural Agents February, 191^
Joint Circular No. 1^— Potatoes, a Cash Crop for
Connecticut 1916
Joint Circular No. 2— Bacillary White Diarrhea
of Toung Chicks December, 191S
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THE CONNE)CTICUT AGRdCULTURAL. COLLEGE 21
Joint Circular No. 8 — ^Alfalfa in Connecticut.... July, 1916
Bulletin No. l-~Coolinar Milk on the Farm July, 1916
Bulletin No. 2 — Poultry: Selection, Care and
'Manasrement July, 191*6
Circular No. 11— la Milk, Milk? July. 1916
NEEDS OP THE EXTENSION SERVICE— The need for extendinff
our extension work is imperative. Greater demand iff being made for
assistance than we are now able to give. At the present time the £3x-
tension Service maintains specialists in dairying, poultry, farm manage-
ment, and in bojrs' and girls' club work. In the inunediate future suf-
ficient funds should be provided to add. to our Extension Service spec-
ialists in soils and crops, fruit growing, home economics, co-operation
and marketing, and in secondary agricultural education. In the near
future we should have an assistant in dairy extension work, an as-
sistant in poultry extension work, an animal husbandry man, a spec-
ialist in market gardening, a man in apiculture, and a specialist in
forestry.
The extension work of the Agricultural College, through its spec-
ialists and county agents, is giving constructive assistandSe in building
up and developing the agricultural industry of the State and in im-
proving rural conditlbns. It is of vital interest, not only to farmers,
i>ut to every citizen of the State, that this industry should be developed,
that rural home problems should be considered, that educational and
social advantages should be extended and improved.
The rural people of the State are calling upon the Agricultural
College Extension Service to give them assistance in working out some
of their more important problems. In the lines of extension work that
are now being supported, this demand is being met. Other lines of work
should be immediately taken up by the College Extension Service in
order to give the assistance that is being demanded. This means a
considerable increase in the State appropriations for extension work in
agriculture and home economics, for the present appropriations will
not even be sufDcient to maintain and allow for growth of the lines of
work which have been carried on by the Extension Service in the last
two years.
THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
This department is supported at present largely by federal grants,
the State contributing less than one-quarter of its maintenance cost.
The federal authorities require that one -half of their grant shall
1>e used in research work on projects and plans submitted in advance
and approved by the Office of Experiment <Stations, and subject to their
Inspection from time to time. The following paragraphs name the sev-
eral departments of work and in the briefest outline state the nature
of it during the. last biennial period.
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22 BIENJSiIAX, REPORT 1915-1916
The work of the Agronomy Department is largely in field ex*
perimentation.
The project of crop rotations for dairy farme x» well advanced.
The first rotation period will be finished soon and promises results of
both scientific and^ practical value.
The tests of varieties of com and the study of this crop throughout
the State, a work in which the two agricultural stations of the State
are co-operating, led to the recognition of several superior strains for
both grain and silage. Some fifty varieties are now being tested for a
period of three years at each station, and in co-operation with the Bs*
tension Department, a few of these are being tested and compared toy
farmers in different places. The ultimate objects sought are improve*
ment of our best varieties and establishment of the home production
of the best seed for use in Connecticut.
Variety tests of oats, winter wheat and rye, mangolds, potatoes and
soy beans and tests of strains of alfalfa have been carried on for soma
time, and a few of the most promising strains have been distributed
for careful tests throughout the State.
Fertilizer studies on the potash requirement of potatoes, and on th*
availability of soil potash for field crops and studies on the use of home,
grown potatoes for seed are yielding very instructive results.
While with most field work some years of observation and experi*
ment are required in order to warrant very definite conclusions, certain
features of the work may be ready to pulblish shortly.
A Joint circular of information on potatoes, prepared by specialistci
of the college and of the two stations, and representing the teachinflr
and advice on the subject of these institutions has been issued.
The project of the Bacteriological Department has been a study of
soil bacteria in their relation to the supply of plant food to cropa.
Within the biennial period there have been published the results at
bacterial studies on Camembert cheese, tests of lactic starters and the
bacterial content of ice cream, and also a description of a bacterial
incubator devised by Prof. Esten.
The Dairy Department has continued observations on the cost or
producing milk and has begun feeding tests on ensilage for calves.
A careful study of the method of making Babcock tests and the effect
of certain details of manipulation on the result is nearly finished.
F^mdamental study has been undertaken to determine the value of
tests for the presence in the animal organism of the bacillus produdns^
abortion and for indications of its past activity; also, to discover the
channels of infection by which it invades previously unaffected stock.
A technical discussion of the plan of work is not in place here, but
already most valuable fax:ts have been pretty definitely established.
In this work Hon. J. B. AIsop, a member of the Board of Trustees, haa
rendered very valuaA}Ie assistance and has placed his herd of dairy cows
at our disposal for observation.
The Poultry Department has had the general management of two
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THE C0NNEX:TICUT AGRICtTLTURALCOLLEGE 23
International Eggr Layingr Contests and has gathered, discussed and
published the results in such shape as to make all the data quickly
available for the use of those interested in the management of poultry.
The experimental work has included study of certain phases of the
bacillary diarrhea problem, its transmission through the male, its
relation to fowl typhoid and the toxicity to animals of the specific
organism.
The black-head of turkeys has been studied, but without decisive
success as yet.
Experiments have proved the very high value of sour milk feeding
in -promoting growth and disease resistance of poultry.
Experiments to provide a simpler ration for poultry than the feeds
now in use, are in progress and in connection with them careful ob-
servations on the normal rate of growth of chicks of different breeds
from hatching to maturity are being made, as these are neceseary in
order to judge of the efficiency of any trial feed.
A breeding test has been undertaken to determine ■ the comparative
effect on egg production of inheritance of high production through the
male and through the female line.
The Depaftment*of Zoology has finished a study of the permissible
limits of the amount of carbonic acid and moisture in the atmosphere
about eggs during incubation and is now studying the temperature to
which eggs may be cooled during incubation and the length of time of
tills cooling together with other related questions. Further studies on
the poisoning by rose chafers of chicks — ^and possibly of fish — are taken
up as occasion offers. A study of the species of lice and mites affecting
poultry has been made and a bulletin published figuring and descrifbing
these pests and giving methods for destroying them.
I wish again to call attention to the fact that a very considerable
increase In the State appropriation has become absolutely necessary.
Continued growth is a necessity in any institution of this character
and already it has been necessary to curtail and restrict the Station's
work because of lack of support. Every department needs more than
can now be allotted to it.
The teaching and extension departments both need the results of
station work, for its findings form the basis of agricultural teaching.
There is not a town or village of the State where farming is carried
on that has not felt the influence and been decisively helped by the work
of the agricultural stations.
This work is fundamental to all the other agencies for conserving
agricultural resources and increasing food production.
Statements of the specific amount of money needed for the
station and the use td which it should be devoted have been given to
the Board of Trustees already.
Respectfully submitted,
E. H. JENKINS.
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24 BIENiNIAl. REPORT 1915-1918
HORTICULTURE
Class-room exercises have changed but slightly elnce the laJBt
report, but the bringing of classes from other departments to the Horti-
cultural Building has forced the use of some rooms for class purposes
not so intended, to the detriment of the special use for which they were
prepared, and much to the inconvenience of those ocoupying the build-
ing for its intended purpose.
During the summer of 1915 the grading at the Armory was com-
pleted and the required walks built, so that part of the grounds so un-
sightly for the previous two years, was placed in fair condition again.
• Early in 1915 a new field south of the experiment station land was
turned over to the department for vegetable growing, much of the land
previously used having been taken for other purposes. It proved satis-
factory as to the kind of soil, after removing the stone, but so run out
that two seasons' use with free fertilizing, has not yet brought it into
good condition for garden crops. Perhaps a year or two more with
heavy feeding of manure, if a supply can be obtained, will give us a
field adapted to the purpose. Its distance from the grounds is its most
objectionable feature.
Fair crops of fruit have been grown in the collegjB orchards the
past two seasons, even the present year when the peach crop of the
State was nearly a failure the college orchard had a good -crop on all
varieties. The department is still- laboring under great difficulty from,
having no suitable packing and storage house 'for either fruit or vegeta-
bles, resulting in much loss each season. Had the past autumn not
been almost continued fine weather, and of unusual lengrth, this loss
would have been very serious. The building now used for packing is
not even a protection from storms. Instruction in this ^branch of the
work of the department is very unsatisfactory with the numbers of
students in the classes in the horticultural sections. A building very
much as outlined in our previous report is much needed.
The sudden and serious illness of the head of. the department,
during the early part of the summer, prevented giving the usual per-
sonal attention to the work of the department, and the short supply of
leubor prevented carrying out nearly all improvements that were
planned.
Respectfully submitted,
m
A. G. GULM3Y.
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THE CONNEX?riCUT AGRICUUTURAl. OOLMJGE gg
DAIRY HUSBANDRY
The work of the Department of Dairy Husbandry is conducted
«Uon£: two main lines, viz., dairy production and dairy manufacturing:.
The report can be presented from the best standpoint under the follow-
ing headingrs:
1. Instructional work.
2. Investigational work.
8. Extension work.
4. Present condition and« future needs of the Department.
INSTRUCTION — The work in dairy manufacturers covers handling
und processinfiT milk and the manufacture of dairy products. Present
conditions demand broad and thorougli training along this line. The
laboratories have thus been equipped so far as possible with this in
▼lew. The use of ice cream machines, separators, and factory chums
are only a portion of this subject that must receive attention. Within
very recent years the pasteurizing, clarifying and homogenizing
machines have been added to the list of common dairy apparatus found
In factories and milk plants. A broad, yet fundamental, training along
this line 4s, therefore, the aim.
The production phase has to do with the feeding and breeding of
the dairy herd as well as the management, selection, and development
of the individuals represerfting various dairy breeds. The aim is to
correlate the problems of production and factory management with the
big problems of the dairy industry. The courses have been given as
provided for and described in the college catalog.
INVESTIGATION— The present staff, having been appointed within
the last three years, have not brought to completion any important
worlt. However, some bulletins are about ready, the most important
of which will have a bearing on milk standards for fat, solids -not-fat
and total solids. This is a very important and perplexing problem at
this time, the standards for states and cities varying widely and con-
flictingly in respect to these requirements. Much interest centers in the
cost of producing milk since Bulletin 73 was published aJbout four years
ago. Data for five years more, covering this field, where large produc-
tions have been secured, are ready for tabulation and study. Important
work on contagious abortion is under way and other lees important in-
vestigations are being carried on.
EXTENSION — ^The Department has an Extension man whose duties
do not require attention to college instruction or investigation. Not-
withstanding this fact, much demand is made upon the other members
of the staff for institutes, county league, field days, granges, agricultural
fairs, and association and various other meetings. This work has not
decreased, as the results of the emplojTnent of an extension dairyman
and the county agricultural agents. On the contrary these agents seem
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26 BIEJN^XIAL. REPORT WIS^WIS
to pave the way for more work that is doubtless of greater effective^
ness. The head of the department is in close touch with the project
work of the Extension Dairyman, for which considerable time is re-
quired.
PRESENT CONDITIONS AND FUTURE NEEDS OF THE
DEPARTMENT
THE CRBAM£:RY— A new paAteurizingr and milk cooling equipment
has been purchased and installed, which will insure a better product
for the dining hall until the herd can pro<2^uce a sufficient amount Thi»
equipment is also of great value for instruction. There have been
loaned by manufacturers for use in instruction an emfulsifier and dif-
ferent types of clarifiers. The field of dairy -manufacturmg is expand-
ing rapidly and to keep abreast of the times the department should be
able to buy new equipment each year.
The greatest need at present is for a milk testing laboratory. The
lower floor of the Dairy Building ie adequate at present for teachingr
in ice cream, cheese, and buttermaking, as well as for handling milk,
but with large laboratory sections in milk testing also at work here,,
much confusion results. A laboratory on the second floor would be beet
adapted for the purpose of milk testing.
THE DAIRY HERD— For the purpose of studying types of animals,,
as well as to demonstrate the possibility of improving dairy herds hr
breeding and selection, it Is desirable to work with a considerable num-
ber of animals. In the past the dairy herd has been represented by
four breeds. Last May the imported Shorthorns that were in the herd
of the Agricultural College Department at Gilbert Farms, were trans-
ferred to Storrs, and those showing greatest capacity for milk produc-
tion were turned over to the Department of Dairy Husbaxidry. This
makes five breeds with lyhich it is necessary to work and to bring about
improvement, so far as i)ossible. In any breeding establishment, the
necessity of working with considerable numbers is well known. There,
fore, though the present bams will be crowded to their utmost, it is
planned to carry through the winter the whole herd, consisting of lO
Ayrshire females and 1 bull, 8 Guernsey females and 1 bull, 21 Holstein
females and 2 bulls, 18 Jersey females and 1 bull, 6 Shorthorn females
and 1 bull, and 4 grade females. This makes a total of ^ females ana
6 bulls. Within the last few years some very good individuals have
been developed, and the average production of the herd is very credita-
ble. Among the Holsteins, especially, the higher records have come^
and two records of over 20,000 pounds have been made for the year.
The herd has averaged over 15,000 pounds of milk. Most of the
cows which have made good records one year, have practically dupli-
cated this record for the second year; in some cases giving more and
in others less, indicating their capacity to produce well over a consid-
erable period.
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tHE CONNBCTICUT AGRICULTURAL. COLLBaB 27
One of the greatest needs of the department at the present tim«^
is for an enlargement of the present bam and a provision for bulls^
It is necessary at all times while college is in session to buy a consid-
erable amount of milk from outside herds for the use of the dining halL
If the capacity of the bam for milking cows is practically doubled, a.
dependable supply could be had at all times for the college during the-
time that students are here. Enlarging the bam would also make pos^
Bible the canying out of breeding operations referred to above.
The need for a new bun bam was pointed out in the biennial
report for 1914-1915. All the bulls are practically mature at the present
time, and it is a very difficult and dangerous matter to house them in
the present quarters that ane not adequate for their exercise and healthy
and in which proper protection to attendants and others is not afCorded..
It is very desirable, therefore, to have an apipropriation which would
enable the college to build an addition to the Dairy Bam and also U^
Gonstmct a new BuU Bam. It would require |1»,000 for this purpotfe^
Respectfully- 8ua>mitted,
G. C. WHITE.
POULTRY HUSBANDRY
INSTRUCTION — The regular work in "poultry required of all fresh-
men and first year students in the school has been given as prescribed
in the catalog. An additional course has been offered to second year
students in the school of agriculture. Poultry instruction ha« been
^ven in the winter short courses.
Elective courses in this department were authorized by the faculty
two years ago. It is perhaps fair to measure the demand for such
courses by the number of men who elect them. On this basis it appears
that poultry is (perhaps gaining in popularity, since more students
elected this subject for the currept scholastic year than for either of
the two preceding sessions. The faculty's action in permitting this de-
partment to offer elective courses now seems amply Justified.
INVBSTIGATION—Certain phases of the white diarrhea investi-
gation have been continued, notably the inauguration of a state wide
campaign for the purpose of eiiadicating the disease by means of the
agglutination test. This test has now been applied to more than 30',000
hens in many sections of the State. Bulletin 85 affords a detailed ac-
count of the plan employed and results obtained.
New projects that have been undertaken have to do with black-
heads in turkeys, the normal growth rate of certain breeds of chickens
(Reds and Leghorns), and the inheritance of fecundity in Leghorns.
Bulletin 80 discussing milk feeding and its infiuence on the growth and
mortality of chicks, and Bulletin 8(1 on poultry hou^e construction, have
been issued since the publication of the last biennial report.
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28 BIENINIAJL. REPORT 191^1916
^EXTENSION — Bztension activities will no doubt be more fully dis.
cussed elsewhere. The writer only desires to (point out the fieict that
Mr. Jones who devotes his entire time to extension work finds it phy-
sically impossible to meet the demands that are made. In consequence,
all other members of the department have, from time to time, assisted
in this work by Judging at the smaller fairs, attending institutes,
grange meetings, Y. M. C. A. courses^ poultry schools, and conducting
demonstrations.
BOO LAjYING contest— There is much interest and enthusiasm
in the laying contest, not only among the poultry people of Cbnnecticut
but also among those of many other states and countries as well. Bur.
ing the past two years the contest has had a full entry of one hundred
pens. Not only this, 'but the department has each year been obliged
to refuse many entries on account of the limited number of houses. In
other words, the competition can easily be made larger if at any time
it seems wise to do this. Bulletins 82 and 87 comprise detailed reports
on the contests.
NEEa>S OF THE DHPARTMESNT — ^In previous reports, mention
has been niade of the fact that our entire poultry plant has been
developed on the colony or extensive (plan. No expenditures have been
made looking toward the exemplification of the community idea of
housing hens, and yet thousands and thousands of hens in Connecticut
are kept under the intensive system on account of only the limited
land area that can, in so many cases, be devoted to poultry. Further-
more, the department has for five years been dividing its time between
two rather widely separated plants, the older one of which is very
poorly located. Apparently, the only logical procedure is to get the
two together. The department has occupied its present quarters in
the poultry building for nearly three years, yet the grading In the
vicinity of this building is unfinished. Lastly, this department is try-
ing to teach poultry husbandry, but the college has no poultry with
which to work. We cannot feel at liberty freely to use privately
owned birds entered in the contest. Station • stock is available only
when there is a surplus or when an experiment is terminated. In view
of these facts the department urgently, but respectfully recommends,
the following expenditures:
1. Laying Contest —
1 Feed House, 28x40 % 1,200.00
2 Reserve Houses, 20x30 500.00
2 Contest Houses, 12x12 150.00
1 1,850.00
2. Land Improvement —
Grading around Poultry Building % 500.00
Removing stone walls and drainage r 700.09
l,«)O.Ot
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL, OOLL.BGE 29
3. Ebcperimental Plant —
9 16x16 Colony Houses..... | 900.00
1 Ijong Laying H)ouse» 18x100 800.00
1 ^Brooder House, 18x120 1.300.00
Necessary yards and fences 750.00
3.760.0a
4. College Poultry Plant —
7 12x12 Colony Houses I 9^6.00
1 Variety House, 18xlB0 960.00
a 20x80 Colony Houses 500.00
Necessary yards and fences 850.00
2,»25.00
$9,625.0a
Respectfully submitted.
WM. P. KIRHPATRICK.
AGRONOMY
To the President: —
As noted in the last Biennial Report the work of this Department
covers four distinct i>hases, which will be treated separately as follows:
SOUjS — ^Two creneral courses are «iven. <me in the collegre and one
in the schooL I>uring' the past two years, both the teachinfr stafC and
the equipment have been strengrthened. It is planned, therefore, to
oifer at least one elective course next year. The greatest needs are a
green-house and a small laboratory for advanced students.
F*IELI> CROPS— The same policy has been followed in respect to
courses offered. Instruction has been strengthened by a closer correla-
tion of class and laboratory work and by the expansion of the 'Experi-
ment Stations' efforts in this department. There Is now at hand suffl-
eient material to make possible the offering of an advanced course in
crops, which will be put In operation next year.
So far we have depended largely on the station plots for laboratory
material. This is very unsatisfactory except for small groups of ad-
vanced students. It is hoped, therefore, that some arrangement can be
made, whereby a few acres may be set aside for a Field Laboratory
where the needs of instruction will not conflict with either experimental
or conunercial interests.
AGRKXJLTURA'L ENGINEEIRINIGJ— As was predicted in the last
report, instruction in this department has been put on a satisfactory
basis by reason of the completion of a suitable building. Prior to that
event, there was no place where equipment could be assembled for
study, with the result that students completed the courses without hav-
ing come in contact with the material discussed. The new building
I
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^0 BIENNIAiL* RQEJPORT 1«15-1916
provides space for the display, study, and operation of practically all
the tools, machines and motors in use on eastern farms. Seglnninff
the current year, an advanced course is offered deaSin^ especially with
Farm Structures. <Wr, F. W. Duffee was appointed instructor in this
department in 1915.
FATOl MANAGKMIBNT— In addition to the two general courses
heretofore given, a new course is offered this year. In view of the
rapid development of survey and statistical methods as applied to IFarm
Management prohlems, it was thought best to devote a special course
to this work. The Farm Management studies of the Extension tDepart-
ment have furnished much local material of great value for such work.
•N<E£>DS OF THE DKPARTBKBNT— The expansion of both the Dairy
Husbandry and Agronomy Department have made the problem of space
a pressing one. The Dairy building, which houses not only these two
departments, but also those of Animal Husbandry and Bacteriology, is
now very badly overcrowded. There is no room at all for advanced
laboratories and storage spcu^e is entirely lacking. The next two years
will bring us face to face with an acute situation.
The erection of the proposed Agronomy Building would not only
provide room for the expansion of this department but would relieve the
pressure on the Dairy Department. One wing of the Agronomy (Build-
ing, the Farm Machinery laboratory, was built a year ago. The oppo-
site wing, of the same size, will provide for the Soils ILaboratories, and
the main portion will house the Crops Laboratories, Class Rooms, ofli-
<iea and the much needed storage and preparation rooms. A) small
•«rreen-house for instruction in soil fertility should be provided at the
rear of the building.
The need of storage space for grain, potatoes, roots and other class
material was emphasised in the last report. This need has become
«ven greater and would be supplied in the proposed building. In case
*of delay in the erection of the Agronomy Building, this need could be
provided for at Small cost, by the erection of a combination cellar and
.'granary to serve both the Farm and Agronomy Department.
Respectfully submitted,
W. L. SLATBt JR.
FARM AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
The past two years mark considerable progress in the improvement
•of the farm. About five acres of extremely rough land have been
<;leared and added to our tillage. Other fields have been greatly Im-
proved by the removal of old fences, some permanent fence has been
constructed and a small amount of drainage has been done. The roads
«,bout the farm have received considerable attention and the usual
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THE CONNEICTICUT AGRICULTURAL. COLLEGE 31
^smiount of brush b&s been cut in the ipastures. Labor conditions have
handicapped our work during the past season to some extent.
A good sheep bam has been built and graded around, a yard con*
«tructed for* beef cattle and sheep, and the site of the Farm Machinery
Building has been graded.
Progress has been made in all lines of live stoclc except swine.
Our present equipment does not allow for extensive sales, but the
demand for sheep, swine, beef cattle and draft horses seems to justify
our development of these branches.
NEEDS OF THE DEPARTMENT
A modem swine department of limited size is urgent, since our
equipment in this line is very inadequate.
A blacksmith shop where our shoeing and repairing work can be
done. For years a source of great inconvenience and expense has been
the fact that there is no blacksmith shop within four miles of the farm.
An ice house at a place where a better quality of ice can be har-
vested and stored in a more modern and economical wa3%
Sheds for the storage of machinery which is now crowded and not
properly housed.
Funds for the drainage of the Valentine meadow and the land im-
mediately back of the dairy bam would add materially to the tillage
land available.
Cottages for help, where they could live comfortably and econom-
ically.
Funds for fencing and clearing land.
Improved road to EaglevlUe.
In Animal Husbandry work, the demand for instruction and outside
work has increased so i*apidly that an assistant for work with swine
and sheep is very urgent. This would enable the department to place
the required courses earlier in the curriculum and make them moz>e ef-
fective, also to offer electives for which there is an increasing demand.
An important and rapidly developing department of our work is
response to the demand throughout the State for advice and information
on swine, sheep and beef, which has been stimulated by the dearth of
live stock and the greatly advanced prices of their products.
The temporary and permanent employment of students and gradu-
ates also requires a large amount of time, all of which tends to over-
xsrowd the force now available for office work. The full time of an as-
^istajit for this and the #ork of the farm has become a necessity.
EQUIPMENT— In horses we have secured at very conservative
prices a very well bred Percheron stallion, that has developed into one
■of the best types of the breed, and a mare that is very satisfactory.
A pair of well bred mares of good type and standard size would greatly
«trengthen our work in this line.
In sheep the improvement of the flock has continued by the addition
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32 BIENNIAL, REPORT 1)915-1916
of good sires. Our greatest handicap is the fact that our pastures are-
so far from the barn. This fact increases our risk in damage from dogs^
and the expense and trouble of handling the flock. The lack of land
in the vicinity of the bam for paddocks for special stock, that must of
necessity remain near the barn during at least a part of the season^
is a very serious drawback in our work.
Kstimates on draining of Valentine (Meadow, include two lines
of 15 -inch tile, through the section now occupied by the open ditch»
This ditch being soft is unsatisfactory for the outlet of the lateral
drains. The fields would also be very much more valuable if this
ditch could be closed. Thie estimate also calls for 8 -inch tile for the
two open ditches now running at right angles with the main ditch.
42000— 3-inch tile @ $18.15 delivered $762.00
1000— 4-lnch tile ^ $27.40 delivered 27.40
1200— 8-inch tile @ $80.90 delivered 97.08
2600— 15-inch tUe ^ $2^.00 delivered 658.00
Cartage 432.50
Digging, laying, and covering tile 1,000.00
Labor on main ditch TOO.OO
93,676.98)
Estimate for completion of drainage of swamp north of farm group
of buildings and of clearing adjacent fields of stone and stone walls.
17,000— 8-inch tile ® $18.15 at Eaglevllle $308.55
40 — Y branches 16.00
Cartage lOO.OO
Digging, laying, and covering tile 55(^.00
Labor on main ditch and new section 350.00
Clearing laud, labor, teams, and dynamite 1,460.00
$2,788.55
This estimate calls for new tile, alternating with the old on the
already drained section, and comt>lete drainage of the new section. It
would allow for the relaying of the main drain, but not for the lowerincr
of the outlet
Respectfully submitted,
H. L. GARRIGUS.
Nov. 1, 1916.
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTtJRAl. COLLEGE 33
ENTOMOLOGY AND ZOOLOGY
Tbe most Important addition to the department since the last
biennial report has been the introduction of an Apiary. This has been
increased to twenty-three colonies of Italian bees, and these have been
placed in hives representing the most common pn^ical types.
This equipment is chiefly for educational pun>08es for students,
though it is hoped that the apiary may be developed along lines that
may make it Instructive for demonstrating purposes during the various
conventions held at the college and for other visitors.
A bee -yard should be given a permanent place in the plan of the
college grounds in order that the land may be made suitable for such
work together with the planting of trees and hedges for windbreaks.
An ideal bee-yard is of necessity a product of several years in most
localities, hence some degree of permanency should be had as soon as
possible.
There is a need for a good-sized building in which the equipment
necessary for instruction in this subject can be exhibited and stored.
Bee-keeping should be taught by a specialist in this subject. With
the spread of American and European foul brood, diseases that have
killed hundreds of colonies of bees In this State during the past five
years, there is abundant need for a great amount of extension work in
this subject. Much educational work win be necessary among a major-
ity of those keeping bees before they will make bee-keeping a profitable
branch of agriculture.
So long as the laboratory work of this department is confined to
the present quarters it must of necessity be handicapped. The modem
methods of teaching students Zoology and Entomology demand the
presentation of living specimens for study rather than the mummified
forms which indicate little except the structure of the animals. We
need room for breeding cages and aquaria where the living animals can
be seen and studied. While much time is spent in outdoop study of
such forms as can be found in the fall and late spring, yet for most of
the college year indoor work is a necessity. There is a great need for
a Science Hall, in which proper room and facilities can be found for the
study of animal life.
A summer course of at least six weeks for each of our students,
wfiere they can study these subjects, would make our teaching more
elBcient and more practical.
Respectfully submitted,
G. H. LAMBON, JR.
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34 BIENNIALi REPORT 1915-1916
BOTANY AND GENETICS
Duringr the year of 1915-16 the Department of Botany and Qenetics
was in chargre of Prof. A. F. Blakeslee, who was succeeded by the writer
in (September, 1915. Mr. G. S. Torrey was at the same time appointed
Instructor in botany.
The courses griven by the department have chanired somewhat since
the last report. FoAwo years a half course in Genetics has been re-
quired of Juniors. Freshman botany has been shortened to a single
semester. A new course. Botany 3, is now offered as an elective to
senloxYsi and is designed to give training in ^botanical technique and
methods of investigation.
The Agricultural Botanic Garden, considerably enlarged the past
two years, is being altered somewhat at its lower end, where it is
crossed by the road to the power house. As heretofore, about haOf the
garden is given over to a display of important crop and ornamental
plants, over 800 species being exhibited; and the other half to the
growth of material for class work and to experiments in plant genetics.
The department is carrying on several lines of investigation dealing
with the morphology, physiology and genetics of plants* and has pul>-
lished a number of scientiflc contributions during the past year.
By far our most urgent need at present is for a small green-houae
where abundant material for class work and for investigation may be
grown at all seasons. Our present inability to obtain anything like an
adequate supply of living plants through more than half of the college
year is a very severe handicap. Green -house facilities would also make
it possible to offer courses in plant physiology for which the^ Is already
a demand but which are quite out of the question with our present
equipment.
Respectfully submitted,
EDMUND W, SINNOTT.
CHEMISTRY
During the past two years a few changes have been made in onr
courses. School Physics, formerly scheduled in this department, hma
been transferred to the mathematical department. As now scheduled
the work of this department includes instruction in chemistry to the
first year School of Agriculture and Home Economics; in the college,
to the freshmen, the Juniors, and the seniors. An outline of the worlt
in each course follows:
SCHOOL CHEMISTRY— The ain» of this course is to make the
subject matter thoroughly practical in character. Useful facts oon*
ceming animals, plants, water, and soil have naturally been placed iu
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 36
the foreground. Chemical formulas are Introduced only to a sUflrht
extent while the atomic and molecular theories are not presented at alL
This course, as scheduled, calls for two hours of laboratory work a
week, that owing to lack of room Is at present omitted.
Chemistry Is required of all college freshmen, the time allotted
4>elng six hours per week during the college year. In this course, as in
all courseiB In chemistry where it is practicable, the plan of study is
based upon the work done in the laboratory. During the first semester
several classes of reactions are studied from a quantitative view point
with the idea of fixing in the pupil's mind the fundamental principles
of the subject. The work of the second semester consists of a sys-
tematic study of the physical and chemical properties of the more com-
mon basic elements.
A second one-semester course in Agricultural Organic Chemistry
is now required of all Jimiors, consisting of three hours of lecture
and three hours of laboratory work. A systematic study is first made
of the composition, constitution, character, and relationship of the more
important organic compounds occurring in plants and animals. This is
followed by the study of the chemical reactions involved in the funda-
mental processes of living organisms, in the utlliz9,tion of food by ani-
mals, and in photosyntheels in plants.
An elective course In chemistry is now offered in the senior yecur
to students who may be primarily Interested in the subject or to those
who desire to take the work as a minor in connection with their agrri-
cultural courses. A study of methods in quantitative chemical analysis
is the basis of the work offered. A wide latitude of choice in the sub-
ject matter is allowed to well-qualified students during the second
semester.
Attention is again called to the physical needs of the department.
Much more laboratory room is needed in order that present courses may
be well taken care of and new ones added.
Respectfully submitted,
HOWARD D. NEWTON.
BACTERIOLCX>Y
The addition to the Dairy Building has furnished an office for the
department which permits of a more efficient method of handling the
literature and material for teaching. The new laboratory, finished two
years ago, provides for a well-equipped room for teaching practical
t>acteriology. More than twice as much work has been accomplished
as was possible in the former laboratory in the same time. The work
accomplished the past two years has been very satisfactory. Soil
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36 BIENNIAL RflS^PORT 1915-1916
bacteriology has attracted more interest and attention than either dairy
or hygienic ()acteriology.
The classes in advanced bacteriology have been large, and re»
markable interest haft been taken in the subjects taught. For two
years experimental field work with bacteria in crop production has fur*
nished very valuable data for teaching, and at the same time has af-
forded special interest and valuable material for illustration. Most
of this work has been accomplished independently of either the College
or Experiment Station. A certain amount of the work in pure bacteri-
ology, connected with these experiments, has been accomplished under
the direction of the Experiment Station. The results of these experi-
mental studies, on account of their revolutionary tendency, have at*
tracted considerable attention. In May of this year this department
was asked to conduct similar experiments on larger areas during a
series of years, to more definitely prove or disprove the facts recently
obtained. In May about an acre of land was prepared in the middle
of a three-acre field. The plots were arranged in one-twentieth and
one one-hundredth acre sections. Nine different crops were selected
for experiment. Although the season has been the poorest for crop
production, except for hay, for many years, the crops on these experi-
mental plots have done remarkably well. Those crops which have been
harvested show the same tendency in results as the first series of ex-
periments on smaller areas.
The needs of the department are text-books and journals for the
nucleus of a small library to be used in seminar work; more assistance
in the experiment field and a small equipment for carrying on the ex-
periment.
Respectfully submitted,
W. M. ESTBN.
MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, ENGINEERING
My college duties are two-fold. As a teacher, I give instruction
in mathematics and physics, and, as engineer for the cellege, I have
helped to plan and have superintended the construction of water and
sewer lines, stand pipe and filter beds, and central heating plant, and
have made surveys and estimates on various other engineering projects.
It is not far from the facts to say that during the last four years
these expenditures, under my supervision, have amounted to over five
times the total value of this institution at the time I first came to it
aa a student thirty years ago last September. Our college is w^iri^y
steady progress as seen from year to year and a remarkable growth aa
viewed over & long period of time.
The courses in mathematics and physics are still practically aa
outlined in my last report (pages 34, S5), and need not be described
again. Mathematics, a one-year course for college freshmen, is now-
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 37
<l'9t6) compulsory for all menabers of the class; surveying is shifted
from freshmen to Junior or senior year and is made elective. The
liours of instruction have varied from 12 to 28 per week and the facili-
ties for instruction have been improved only slightly. When a science
building is erected, there will be much better laboratory equipment
than we use at present.
As college engineer, I will report briefly upon:
1. Our central heating plant.
2, Our highway to Willlmantlc.
8. A proposed Central Vermont Railway branch to Storrs.
1. CEJNTRIAL HEATING PLANT— The Legislature of 1915 ap-
propriated $7-5,000. for a central heating plant. This plant is now
under construction with the expectation that it will be put into use
^luring Jcuiuary or Feibruary, 1917.
The boiler house, a brick building with concrete tnimmings. Is T2
feet long, 43 feet 8 inches wide, and 20 feet high to the bottom chord
of the trussed roof. It is built by the H. Wales Lines Oo., of Meriden,
«.t a cost of about $13,000. Ample light and ventilation will' be furnished
by metal sashed windows, which are ventilating.
Three horizontal return tubular boilers of 190 horse power capacity
^ach will be installed by the Bigelow Company, of New Haven. These
three will use one-half of the floor apace, leaving room for future ad-
^tlons. The boilers, with flue, will cost about $9,000. erected.
Underfeed stokers (Jones) will be installed under two boilers, and
^aji economizer (Green) will be Installed in the flue. The plant will
bum either bituminous coal, or wood. The completeness of our boiler
house equipment is expected to give easy and economic operation.
A radial brick chimney (Heinicke) 125 feet hlg<h and 5 feet in in-
ternal diameter is being built upon a concrete foundation 5 feet deep
and 17 feet In diameter at its bottom. This v chimney is rated (Kent)
a.t 6.32 horsepower and will take care of future as well as present needs.
Chimney and foundation cost about i$>3,000.
The larger part of the expenditure, about $40,000, is for steam
mains and return water lines. The system used is the wood-casing
aystem Installed by the American Distridt Steam Company, of North
TTonawanda, N. Y. The steam mains axe laid to average de^th of six
reet and are underdrained with one or two lines of four-inch agricul-
tursl tiling and a layer of crushed rock which extends half way up each
aide of the casing. The casing used on steam mains is four inches
In thickness. Since its internal diameter is two inches larger than the
external diameter of the steam pipe there is an air space of one inch
on all sides of the pipe. There are 4,6*6^ feet of steam mains, seven
indies and smaller in size, and 2,837 feet of return water lines of
aimdlar construction with two-inch casing, making a total of a mile and
tour- tenths. Ebcpansion is provided for by "variator" construction.
Saob hundred feet of pipe is anchored at its middle and the expansion
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38 BIENNIAL. RJEPORT 1915^W16
Of the pipe, amounting: to about one-inch for the 50 feet len^rths is
provided for at the ends, where. In the variator, the pipe is fastened
to the Interior of a corrugated copper dia^phragrm, and the variator
itself fastened to the outside of the diaphragm. This method, in ex-
perience, has proven good. The steam pipe is genuine wrought iron,
the wood casing is dried and creosoted, so that the installation is ex-
pected to endure and be efficient for several deciades, here, as already-
like installation has done elsewhere.
The central heating plant will use soft coal instead of the hard
coal heretofore used, and normally will save one- third of fuel cost. It
will require l^ss labor than isolated boilers, will furnish much better
service, will release space now used in each building as a boiler room,
and will lessen the fire risk. There has been no general contractor.
The college has let the work in eight parts and has supervised the
construction and inspected the work done by contract. This method
has given good results at low cost.
2. STATE AI'D HIGHWAY— During the fall of 1916 there has
been built 2,816 feet of highway from the terminus of the improved
road to the college grounds, thus completing the State aid road from
Willimantic to Storrs. The engineering department has given Une»
and grades for this road and for the branch built by the college upon
V its grounds along faculty row. The 2,81'5 feet were built at approxi-
mately one dollar a lineal foot. This very low cost for a 14 -foot wide
macadam road, 6 inches in thickness, has been possible only througb
the co-operation of the State Highway Commission and the Connecti-
cut Reformatory at Cheshire. The Highway Depaitment has directed
the work and the Reformatory furnished, at a moderate pHce, the
labor. The Town of Mansfield besides aiding financially has given the
use of its rock crusher.
3. CEINTRAL VERMONT RAIDWAY BRANCH TO STORRS— The
freight traffic from EagleviUe to Storrs during the last ten years has
averaged about 4,000 tons annually. Of this 4,000 tons about one-halT
has been building materials and one-half coal, feed, and miscellaneous
supplies. The cost of drayage has averaged $1.23 per short ton. iMsll
is brought twico daily from EagleviUe to Storrs; express matter and
passengers have been diverted from their natural channel to a loncrer
distance via Willimantic.
Assuming 5,000 tons of freight as a probable average of the nex^
ten years, and neglecting revenue or advantage from passenger, mall,
and express traffic, and figuring a saving of a dollar a ton by railway
as compared with teams, we get $5,000. as the amount available tor-
interest and for maintenance. (The Central Vermont Railway Com-
pajiy agrees to switch the cars to Storrs on a State owned line at 25
cents per ton in carload lots.) Figuring maintenance of the line a.!
$2,100. leaves $2,900. available as interest at 4% on $72,500., the amount
which could be expended on building a branch line.
The distance by the survey we have made is 14,000 feet, i. e., t^%^
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL. COLLEGE 39
miles, not includin«r sidinsr or spur track to the boiler room of our
Central Heatingr Plant. If we say three miles we shall include sidings,
spur and all. The maximum curvature of our survey is 10^, the maxi-
mum grade i%, and the average grade 2^%. The elevation, above sea
level, at Elagleville is 283 feet and at Storrs 597 feet. In going from
Storrs to Eagleville there will be no up grade.
Mr. P. W. Dennison, Assistant Engineer for the Central Vermont
Railway spent a week at Storrs in helping to select the location for
the right-of-way and his estimate of cost per mile was (in 'May, 1916)
as follows:
Grubbing — 150. per acre, say three acres to mile $ 150.
Orading— earth, say 15,000 cubic yards '§> 40c 6.000. •
rock, say 500 cubic yards @ $1.60 ^ ?50.
Masonry culverts 1,000.
Ballast, 10x1x5,280 equals 2,000 cubic yards @ 75c 1,500.
Ties, 2,640 @ Wc 1,585.
Rails — 80-pound relay — ^120 tons # |i25 3,000.
Spikes — 10 kegs @ $6. 200.
Joints— 84SO pairs & 75c 270.
I>elivery of materials 300.
Track laying 600.
Fencing, if all fenced 1,000.
Bridges 445.
SIngineering and legal expenses 850. •
$17,660. per mile.
Assuming Mr. Dennison's figures as a safe estimate per mile, three
xniles would give a total of $52^950. To this amount should be added
$1,1500. for trestle, $2,000. for platform and freight station, and $3,560.
tor incidentcUs, making a total of $60,000. A more precise estimate
can be made — probably by January 1, 1917 — when we have completed
our location survey and taken cross sections for computihgeut and fill.
Mt. Dennison was of the opinion that the branch line would be built for
^45,000. The Epileptic Colony for its branch line, nearly a mile in
length, expended about <$10,000 per mile. An estimate of $60,000. for
t>ranch road, freight station, trestle and incidentals, seems to me about
right.
If 50 young men from the Reformatory at Cheshire could be had
tor this work under the direction of an experienced supervisor, the
cost of building the road could be greatly reduced. Teams are easily
o1>tained here but labor is scarce, and expensive.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS — Of great assistance in the engineering
-work and class-room have been the services of Mr. Gaylord Elliott,
Mr. Walter Ackerman, '14, and Mr. Ersklne H. Geer, '15. Mr. J. P.
Knickerbocker, Engineer of the American District Steam Company,
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40 BIENXLIL REPORT 1915-W16
has installed the steam mains. Mr. Frank E. Sibley has constructed
the State aid road.
AT^LEyriCS — ^As cliairman of the Athletic Advisory (Board from
its inception and now of the Athletic Council, which continues the
work of the former organization, I think it fitting to mention our
erreatly increased facilities for athletic work, and the tnarked improve-
ment in our standing among colleges. The Hawley Armory gives facil-
ities for e\'ery student to exercise, and provision for athletic teams in
the way of shower baths and dressing room with lockers. Our quarter,
mile track has been re-surfaced with rock screenings and the oppor-
tunities for track-work increased. Our main interest in athletics has
centered about football, basketball, and baseball. The support of
athletics rests upon the student ibody. the faculty, and such alumni
and others as attend the games. Football (costs about ^00. a year,
basketball $2i00. and baseball $600. The past two years have been a
transition (period for us in athletics from the high and preparatory
school group to the college group. ^We are now playing college and
university teams, and, though victories for us are scarce, we liave as
a rule made a creditable showing in each game and have the respect
of our adversaries. It seems to me that the past two years have i^own
100% improvement in athletics. Looking back over a period of thirty
years as student and teacher in college, I believe the interest of
students in athletics has been a helpful Influence in college life, and
that our armory and gymnasium, is our most useful college building.
FACIPLTY C!L#UB— -A faculty clu;b was organized late in 1915 with
a^membership of 33 men. . A club-room has been furnished by them at
an expense of |t5D0., and this room, with the occasional gatherings of
the members, has made life at Storrs pleasanter than it formerly was.
Respectfully submitted,
CHAiRDES A. WHEELER.
MECHANIC ARTS
Two years ago the report from this department showed that the
coiirse had been raised to college grade and consisted of two years'
work. This year we have the pleasure of announcing that the college
grade course is continued and extended to cover four full years, gradu-
ates receiving a "B. S. Degree. The present freshmen class is as large
as can be acoommodated in the mechanical laboratories. The course Is
likely to prove popMlar, and more room and equipment will soon be
needed.
MECHANICAIj DRAWIN<3 — ^Tracy's Mechanical Drawing is used as
a text-book. The problems set forth in this book not only furnish work
for. the hands, but require considerable mental activity to solve. Tbe
course is concluded by perspective drawing, trachig and blueprinting:
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 41
CARPENTRY — ^A course for freshmen in the practical use of tools,
«8timatingr and buildingr construction.
rwOOD TURNING — ^The first subject to introduce power machinevfr.
Instruction grlven in care of the lathe, making: the various cuts, t>elts,
pulleys and power computation.
MSCRIPTIVE GEOMiETRY. MACHINE DRAWING, AND
MACHnCE ELEMENTS are advanced steps in mechanical drawing and
follow that subject.
PATTERN MAKING introduces the student to the foundation upon
which our grreat mercantile industries are erected. Machinery is fast
taking the place of hand -work and a corresponding number and variety
of patterns are needed in machine construction. The course is Intro-
-duced with a demonstration of casting in soft metal and concluded by
each student making one or more castings from his own patterns.
MACHINE JOINERY— Its aim is to demonstrate the construction
of articles made of wood where hand labor is practically abolished.
MACHINE SHOP— General care of shop and tools with instruction
4n the use of the various metal working machines.
GAS ENGINES — A study of the principles involved and the taking
-down and reas8emt>ling of one or more engines.
DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENTS— Timely subjects
inrhich are transforming our power problems.
AUTO MECHANICS— Probably at least one-third of the families
of the country will soon be auto owners, hence it is considered wise
^bat a course in this subject be offered mechanical students. The course
-will be both practical and theoreticaL Problems confronting both the
jrepair man and the owner will be considered.
FORGING — This course will fit any apt student to do all the minor
T«pair jobs on a farm. The present equipment consists of ten repaired
:forges located in a rented shop off the campus. There are from twenty
to thirty students in this course every year. A larger shop with modem
oqulpment is badly needed. Such a shop, with accommodations for
t^wenty-four students and an extra room for horse shoeing and farm
i-epair work, can be erected for $12,000. It Is earnestly hoped that the
-coming General Assembly will see fit to make an appropriatioa for this
purpose.
ENGINEERING SEMINAR- A review of current engineering
-events.
FIRE APARATUS — The superintendence of the fire apparatus is
under this department. The following equipment is now available in
oase of fire:
A new standpipe of 300,000 gallons capacity.
Pour two -hose hydrants.
550 feet dt 2^ inch hose.
1,000 feet of 1% Inch hose.
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42 BIENNIAL REPORT 1915-1916
One hose cart.
One 45 gallon chemical engine with 100 feet hose.
Eighty hand extinguishers.
Four dozen pails and four ladders.
Squads of men are detailed by the military department to handle
the various pieces of apparatus, a fire whistle has been installeMn the
main building and an occasional drill serves to keep the apparatus In
order.
Respectfully submitted,
JOHN N. FITTS.
LIBRARY AND GERMAN
The administration of the library has not deviated in any marke<l
degree from that of previous years. No great changes are possible fai
Its present environment. Several improvements, however, have been
made in equipment. Two stacks, each of a capacity of 1.000 volumes*
have been added. A magazine rack makes our 120 odd periodicals more
accessible and presentable. The lighting system has been improved*
and the books themselves, in many cases, recatalogued and ahranged.
Ten lectures are given to the freshmen on the use of the library to
encourage them, at the very beginning of their course, to make familiar
use of the books, to Introduce Ihem to the best known reference work**
both general and those in particular use at our own college, and to
advise them as to the selection of vocational books and periodicals.
By means of a questionnaire it has been ascertained that only a few*
of our Incoming men have had any instruction in these important tools
of a college man's life. So far the course would seem to be Justified by
its results.
We have added to the library from November 1, 1914, to October 31*
1916, 964 volumes. There are now 14,645 volumes recorded in our ac-
cession books.
The course in German (Modem Language Department) has again
been altered. Only one year is now required. As two years is little
enough time in which to gain a working knowledge of this language, the
instructor regrets strongly the curtailment.
Respectfully submitted,
EDWINA "WHITNEY.
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 4$
ENGLISH AND HISTORY
The courses in History have not been materially chan^red In recent
years. Until the progress of the college i^all Justify an extension of
this study, our course is as satisfactory, probably, as it can «be made.
It is to be hoped that we may be able to extend the scope of all subjecta
on the academic side of the institution; indeed, it will be necessary to
do so, if we are to keep pace with our sistw Colleges of Agriculture.
This last year the time given to English Literature has been reduced
by one-half. It seems a pity that this reduction should be necessar>',
even for the time being. I do not tMnk we can afford to sacrifice this:
subject. I hope later to see it restored to its place.
It has seemed wise to the Conunittee on Courses of Study to cut
one year from the time heretofore given to the modem languages. Both
Oerman and French must suffer in consequence. The former allowance
of time — ^two years — seemed too extravagant and the question has been
raised whether, in a year, sufficient progress can be made in either
language to Justify the time assigned to it.
Otherwise we have, in this department as in other departments,.
made steady progress and in spite of our limitations we are confident
that the present year will niark a further substantial advance both in
our standards and in our spirit.
Respectfully submitted,
H. iR MONTBITH.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION
With the opening of the college year 1915-16 courses in Education
are included among the elective offerings to Jimior and senior students
in the college divisions of Agriculture and Home Economics.
Education 1, the Philosophy of Education, a consideration of aima
and values, is not only planned to meet the needs of prospective
teachers, but also to.be both liberalizing and utilitarian in value to all
concerned in home or institutional betterment. In sequence follow
courses in Educational Psychology, and the Principles of Teaching, for
prospective teachers. Final courses differentiate into the Teaching of
Home Economics for women, and the Teaching of Agriculture for men.
Election has this year been open only to senior students. Fourteen
have elected Education 1, seven Education 2.
T. Si, EATON.
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44 BIENiNIAL. HE7PORT 1915-1916
STATISTICS OF ENROLLMENT TO OCTOBER 30, 1916
College
Course in Agriculture-^
Freshmen 34
Sophomores 27
Juniors 24
Seniors 27
Specials 12 •
Course in Mechanic Arts —
Freshmen 7
Sophomores 1
Specials 1
Course in Home Economics —
Freshmen 4
Sophomores 1
Specials 4
Men 133
Women 9
Total number of students 142
School
Course in Afirriculture —
First year , r* 44 ••
Second year 20
Special 5
Course in Home Economies' —
First year 7
Second year 4
Specials 1
Male 69
Female 12
Total number of students 81
Male 202
Female 21
Total enrolled in college and school 223
♦ 1 withdrawn. /♦ 2 withdrawn.
124
69
12
22S
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRIQULTaRAL COLLEGE 45
From other states or countries 4&
From Connecticut —
Tolland County 22
Fairfield County SO
New Haven County 35
Hartford County 34
Litchfield County le
Middlesex County 12
New London County 16
Windham County T
AGE OF STUDENTS
16 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
17 18 19 20 21 22 28 24 25 or over
Collefire—
Aerriculture — ^
Freshmen 0 2 8 14 8 1 1 0 0 0 0
Sophomores 0 0 1 3 10 8 2 2 1 0 0
Juniors 0 1 0 0 8 9 3 1 1 1 0
Seniors 0 0 0 1 4 3 6 7 3 1 2
Specials 0 0 0 1 1 1 4 0 0 3 1
Mechanic Arts 0 0 3 0 1 3 1 0 0 0 0
Home Economics 0 2 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
School —
First Tear 0 22 5 7 2 1 1 2 0 0 1
Second Year 0 4 4 3 3 0 2 0 0 2 2
Specials 0 0 0 1 0 3 0 1 0 0 0
Home Economics 7 3 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Median Age— College 19-20. School 17-18.
^
OCCUPATION OF FATHER
Deceased or
Agricultural Non-agricultural not ascertained
College —
.Agriculture-
Freshmen 11 -22 1
Sophomores 10 16 1
Juniors 7 14 3
Seniors 5 17 5
Specials 1 5 5
Mechanic ArU 1 7 0
Home Economics 1 5 2
36
86
17
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16 BIENXIAL BEPOGEIT 1«15-1$16
School-
First Year 17 15 9
Second Year 6 11 8
Specials 3 2 0
Home Economics ... 4 7 1
30 35 18
FARM EXPERIENCE RECORD OF MALE STUDENTS IN COLLEGE
AND SCHOOL
Bom on a farm Now live on a farm
Numter Percent. Numiber Percent.
•College of Agriculture —
Freshmen 8
Sophomores 7
Juniors 10
Seniors . . . . ^ 5 •
Specials 2
College of Mechanic Arts. ... 1
School of Agriculture —
First Year 24
Second Year 9
Specials 1
Total 67 83.6 82 4L6
LENGTH OF TIME ACTUALLY ENGAGED IN FARM WORK
One month Mos. Mos. Mob. Yhb. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. Yrs.
or less 3-2 6-3 9-6 1-% 2-1 8-2 5-3 more than 5
College-
Agriculture —
Freshmen ....8 3 4 0 2 8 2 5 7
Sophomores ..7 3802411 6
Juniors 2 4 3 0 1 4 1 0 9
Seniors 4 1 7 2 1 4 1 2 6
Specials 3 2 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
Mechanic Arts 5 1000C0<y 2
School-
First Year.... 4 1521 11 02 16
Second Year.. 1 4402200 7
Specials 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 0
28.5
15
44.1
2'5.9
12
44.4
41.7
11
45.8
18.5
6
22.8
18.2
2
18.2
11.1
1
11.1
57.1
23
54.8
45.
8
40.
20.
4
80.
Totals 34 19 29 4 9 27 7 18 52
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 47
Median Time— ^
All male students .. Less than a year; more than 9 months.
•Collegre —
Freshmen Less than a year; more than 9 months.
Sophomores Less than a year; more than 9 months.
Juniors Less than 2 years; more than 1 year.
Seniors Less than 9 months; more than 6 months.
Specials Less than 3 months; more than 2 months.
Jkf echanic Arts Less than 1 month.
School —
First Yeai' Less than 2 years; more than 1 year.
Second Year Less than 1 year; more than 9 months.
Specials Less than 6 months; more than 3 months.
T. H. EATON.
MILITARY
Owing to radical changres in the Military Department it will be
necessary to consider work of the last two years separately.
191*4-'15
ORGANIZATION — ^The cadets were organized into a battalion of
three companies, a fife and drum corps and a signal detachment: Men
•who had received one year's military instruction or were (physically
disqualified were allowed to .elect the signal detachment or fife and
^rum corps. Company A was composed of cadets who had had a
year's drill; Company B of the Freshmen and Company C of the first
year school men. Officers and non-commissioned officers of all com-
.panies were taken from the upper classes.
DRILLS — The three hours a week assigned to military instruction
"Were devoted to School of Soldier, School of the Squad, com-pany and
^tMittalion close order drill and ceremonies* also 'some instruction in
.^uard duty. The work in the fall was sati^ctory, though several of
the officers and non-commissioned officers showed up very .poorly.
Some competition method should be used in their selection.
In the winter the drills were conducted indoors. Until the armory
^was completed in the early spring, the drills were held in the chapel
tmd basement of Storrs Hall, where space was very limited. One
company had theoretical work in the way of lectures during each drill
period. The theoretical work was not satisfactory, for it was im-
'^ossible to inaugurate a progressive systematic course for companies
•composed of men of all classes. The drills were unsatisfactory for
two reasons, the limited space and the absence of the commandant,
■who was obliged to conduct the theoretical work.
"When the armory was completed the drills improved, but it was
:found that only two companies could drill satisfactorily, so the theoreti-
^
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48 BTENiNIALr REPORT l^i5-l«l«
cal course was continued. The commandant presented the battalion
with a Idving cup to be competed for annuaJIy. It stimulated con-
siderable interest in the driUingr.
As soon as the battalion could get out of doors in the springr, ex-
tended order work was taken up, followed by combat exercises and field
problems; also ceremonies were held periodically.
One week in the spring was assigned for purely military instruc-
tion. It was hoped that the battalion might go into camp, but it waa
invpossible to get tentage, so it remained at the college in cantonment^
having field training, target practice and guard duty. The work stim-
ulated a great deal of interest and was most beneficial.
TARGET PGEtACTICE— Gallery practice was held during the winter
on a range in the top of Main Building between four and six p. m., and
on Saturday mornings. Each cadet shot 40 shots. Rifle practice waa
he]d in the spring. All cadets shot the slow fire course at Special
Course A, and the twenty highest were allowed to complete the course.
Six of these qualified as marksmen.
Annual inspection was made May 21st. The following are the in-
spector's remarks:
I inspected 168 cadets, organized into field staff, drum corps, three
companies and the signal detachment. The following exercises were*
seen: Battalion review, very good; battalion Inspection, very good;
battalion drill, very good; company drill, very good; bayonet exercise^
very good. There should be instruction in bayonet fencing. The field
probleols consisted of an outpost problem and an attack exercise; both
of the $>roblems were satisfactorily carried out, and there has been a.
marked improvement in the work of the ibattalion in this line, lieu-
tenant Amory has In mind a number of very logical and judicious
changes In the curriculum of the military department, both theoretical
and practical, which are in accord with the most progressive and sen-
sible ideas to be found among the military instructors at the various
colleges. The action of the college authorities in granting the military
department a week for military instruction should be commended.
There has been at aH times rather a broadminded view taicen of the
work of the military dep^tment, and for this reason it is thousbt
that Lieutenant Amory's siJMill changes will meet with the same earnest
attention that his other suggestions have in the past.
After the inspection, the remaining drill periods were devoted to
the examining of candidates for cadet officers for the ensuing year.
Commissioned officers were selected from the Seniors, sergeants from
the Juniors, and corporals from the Sophomores.
191S.'16
ORGANIZATION— SAME AS 1915
DRUXS — ^The same program for conducting. driH during the fall
was followed, though much better results were obtained, due to the
fact the non-commissioned oflloers were better qualified and the exact
ground to be covered In each drill was prescribed by the commandants
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLBGB 49
Beginning December let and extending to April Ispt each organiza-
tion had two drills a week. This worked very satisfactorily, and as
only two organizations drilled each period the armory was not over
crowded.
The winter drills were interfered with 'by the closing of college
for a month on account of scarlet fever.
During the winter considerable stress was laid on bayonet exercise,
and Company A was given some instruction in bayonet comibat, but it
could not progress very far owing to lack of fencing equipment.
From A4>ril 1st, by consent of the student body, two drills were
held each week, one of one hour which was devoted to close order
drills and ceremonies, and one two-hour drill devoted to Aeld problems.
This arrangement was most 8atisfactor>\
The battalion went to Fort H. G. Wright for a week's encampment
in May. They were Joined by the Rhode Island State College battalion
and one company of Regular Coasrt Artillery. The camp proved a most
beneficial experience. The annual military inspection was held there.
The following are the remarks of the inspector:
"I inspected the cadet battalion of three companies, staff, band and
signal detachment, 158 men, at camp on Fishers Island, near (Fort
Wright, The following ceremonies and exercises were observed: Bat-
talion review and inspection, excellent; arms, equipment and clothini? ^
in saitiafactory condition; battalion and company close and extended
order, very good; bayonet exercise, very good; police, general condition
of camp satisfactory and in sanitary condition. An outpost exercise
was held which indicated a decided improvement in tactical instruction
of the battalion. Orders were given in a much more careful manner
and were carried out with better precision than formerly.
The plant at Storrs was visited for a short time, but as everybody
was absent, no call could be made on the president of the institution.
Generally speaking, the instruction, both theoretical and practical,
has improved and shows a marked change from the work of the last
three years. There is no doubt but that the camp for ten days, with
the increased opportunities for work of all kinds, has improved the
eeprlt and instriiction of the cadet battalion. It is recommended that
this <be continued as it is a most valuable adjunct to the military de- ^
partment in the way of offering Increased facilities for training
purposes."
THaEX>RETIOAL INSTRUCTION— One of the greatest improve-
ments was in this work. From December 1st to April 1st each class
had one hour military science a week in lieu of one hour's drill. This
permitted a systematic progressive course to be laid out. Moss' Manual
of Military Training was used as a text-book. The Sophomore class
bad military science throughout the year. The following is an outline
of the courses:
"S'EQ^^ORS — Drill regulations, company administration, minor
tactics, war games, fire control, combat exercises.
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50 BIENNIAL REPORT 191&-W16
JUNIORS— Military map readlngr and sketchingr, map problems,
field service regulations, firing regulations.
SOPHOMORES AND SECOND-YEAR SCHOOL— Drill regulations
to include school of the squad, manual of the bayonet., firing regulations,
field service regulations.
FRESHMEN AND FIRST-YEAR SCHOOL— Military policy of the
United States, military courtesy, manual of interior guard duty, care
of rifle, -field service regulations."
UNIFORMS — An olive drab uniform In lieu of the blue uniform
was adopted which improved the appearance of the corps.
TARGET PRACTICE— A new gallery range was constructed In the
armory which facilitated target practice. Each cddet shot $0 shots in
a ipre8crl9>ed course. A rifle club was organized which joined the
National Rifle Association and through it shot weekly matches with
various colleges. Considering it was our first year and the interruption
of college work in the middle of the year, our team made a very
creditable showing.
RAINGE PRACTICiEC — *'A- Company (composed of experienced men)
shot Special Court A in the fall. It was the intention to shoot the bal-
ance through the course in the spring but unfortunately, owing to the
lateness of the spring and the fact the range ^t out of order, this was
not practicable. All had a limited amount of shooting at camp however.
A new range of double the capacity is needed, and I am glad to state
that it has been authorized and construction started.
Application has*been made for the establishment of a unit of the
oflacer's training corps, which will be a benefit to students and will
greatly increase the efficiency of the military work.
RECOMMENDATION— One recommendaUon I would like to make
is that those subjects that are required of candidates for a commissioa
in the regular army be included at least as electives in the curriculum.
I feel there are a number of young men here who would like to enter
the army.
Respectfully submitted,
CHAS. B. AMORY, JR.,
Captain Cavalry.
ENGLISH AND PUBLIC SPEAKING
The course in the first year aims to develop good English usages
hy a practical application of the principles of coropositioti, without
which any man is at a loss.
The second year is taken up :by a course which seeks to familiarise
the student with the writers of his own country.
There is a new course in the School of Home (Economics which is
more cultural. The English literary periods with their representative
authors and works are studied thoroughly.
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL* COLLEGE 61
The Public Speaking offered for the School of Agriculture alms to
^id the asrricultural mail to express what he has learned, and in this
way be influential in his community.
As a first step to this end, his voice and body are trained to
natural freedom. The same work is given to the students in Home
£k^nomics.
In the college the Public Speaking course not only frees the body
and voice, but gives attention to the study of thinking. After this is
attained, the course continues in Public Speaking to apply the prln*
ciples learned. The preparation and delivery of original speeches is
required; the aim being to develop the student's power to think when
upon his feet as well as to make the vocabulary of delivery his own.
Outside of the regular class work, we have a? dramatic club. This
is a students* organization and is of great help to them. We aim to
produce* at least two plays a year.
Respectfully submitted,
ANNA M. WALLAlCB.
HOME ECONOMICS
The report of the Department of Home EXionomics for the two
years ending November 80, 1916, shows an increase in the student en-
rollment in spite of the higher standard required for entrance, which
ivas adopted in 1914. The College Course in Home Economics has been
varied slightly each year as circumstances seemed to demand, l^ut in
greneral requires the same number of hours In science and academic
subjects as is scheduled in the College Course in Agriculture, plus the
•courses in Home Economics subjects. IVhile the classes are still small
there seems to be a wider knowledge throughout the State of the op-
portunities offered here to young women, and with three or four more
sdudents entering the Freshman Class each year, it is hoped that when
the present Sophomores are graduated the enrollment of young women
•wiU form a much -larger percentage of the total student body than it
cloes at present.
With the increased opportunities for vocations in home economics,
■which have developed lately and are developing at present, due to the
Smith-Lever appropriations by the Federal Government and to the
general awakening of interest in home economics work, there seems to
be a definite need for the evolution of this department of the college
through a better equipment, a larger staff of instructors and greater
oo -operation of other departments in offering courses planned directly
for home economics students. The latter need has a very definite
relatloh to an increase in the teaching staff and laboratory facilities
needed in these departments as well as in that of Home Economics and
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52 BIENNIAL REPORT 1915-19W
to no unwillingness on the part pt their several directors to co-operate
with this department.
It has been realized for some time that the School of Home-
Economics has needed some reorganizing in order that its two-years'
course should more closely ajpproximate the first two years of a general
high school course and thus enable students so desiring to enter the
junior year of their local high school without conditions. This has-
been practically arranged for by the inclusion of arithmetic in the first
year and German in the second year of the course, and it is hoped that
day scholars graduating from the local grammar schools may take ad-
vantage of the accessibility of the coUege and enter the School of Home
T^conomics whether or not they plan to continue their education later^
by entering some high school.
The need of more adequate work in physical training which wa&
urged in the last report has been met by special classes planned for
young women students and given in the new gymnasium. The room in
Grove Cottage originally planned for a gymnasium and later *used a»
a girls' club room has been made over into a most efilcient cookingr
laboratory, and in October, 1916, classes began to use and enjoy lia
light, air and general conveniences. New modem desks with individual
electric stoves, two large porcelain sinks set at correct heights, a good-
sized pantry made iby the utilization of a former bed-room, the cutting:
of a door through which gives an exit at the back of Grove Cottage^
add very greatly to the facilities for teaching foods and cookery. The
former laboratory situated in the basement will be used for laundry
and housewifery classes.
The sewing rooms have been provided with students' lockers and
three much needed new sewing machines have been added to the
equipment.
At present, four classes are receiving instruction in Home Ekx>-
nomics. With an additional class in each of the next two years the
department will be taxed beyond its powers, in both teaching and class-
room capacity, and enlargement will ibe a very pressing need to be con-
sidered before the next biennial report
Respectfully submitted,
MAUD E. HAYES.
MUSIC
The work of the music department is mainly with the musical club9
of the college. The Glee Club has had an average membership of
twenty -five men, the orchestra an average membership of ejgd^ mexu
These clubs rehearse regularly each week. X>ast year the MjSbidoUn
Club united with the orchestra, beoauso there were so few mandoUxi
players.
During the past two years the musical clubs have given suoceasful
concerts at Storrs and in several towns of the State. The orchestra
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THE CONNECTICUT AORTCULTURAL COLLEGE 53
has been able to play satisfactorily for dancing after the concerts and
after basketball games in the armory.
Music for Alumni Day and High School Day was furnished by the
members of the clubs, as well as incidental music for plays given by
the Dramatic Club.
There is a course in sight singrlng for the students in the first year
School of Home £k;onomic8. In addition to teaching proper tone pro-
duction and sight singing, this course teaches elementary music theory
•and outlines briefly the history of music.
There is opportunity for any student to take piano or vocal lessons.
Daring the past two years a number of students have availed them-
Mlves of this opportunity, but. as before, great diflloulty has been
found in arranging practice hours on account of the few 4;>iano8 that^
are availa/ble.
The music in the Sunday morning church service is furnished by
a choir composed largely of students. Attendance is entirely voluntary
and the work of this choir is greatly appreciated.
The music director feels that such success as th6 clubs have at-
tained is due to the hearty support and co-operation of the students.
There is urgent need for the purchase of a new piano for the
•armory. This piano is needed not only for local entertainments and
dances, but for such musical recitals as are provided in the annual ¥
entertainment course. ^ «
Respectfully submitted, ^
MIRIAM ADAMS THOMPSON.
ECONOMICS
The work of the economics department has been extended this year
by additional courses and by reason of the fact that It is being carried
on in close connection with the work of the extension service In agri-
cultural economics. The following courses are being offered:
1. A course in elementary economics which opens iLp the broad field
and acquaints the student with the fundamental laws and principles
which underlie business activity.
2. A course in the economics of agriculture which is designed to
-apply the principles of elementary economics to the business of farm-
ing. Considerable attention is given to such matters as farm finance.
3. A ooiu*se in the geography of commerce. This counse is intended
to give a strong foundation of facts from the world of conmierce, show-
ing how and why world trade develops, its close relation to transporta-
tion systems and the machinery of finance.
4. A course in the mo.rketing of farm products. A study will be
made of the forces which determine the prices of farm products;
methods of selling; the position of middlemen as distrfbutors of ftirm
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54 BIENNIAL REPORT 1915-1916
products; the possibility of increasing profits through producer's buying
cmd selling organizations.
Valua'ble f^ts and experience are being brought to bear upon these
courses by means of the extension work which is being carried on alons
these same lines.
Respectfully submitted,
GUY C. SMITH.
GILBERT FARM
As my appointment dates from APi'il ^st, 1916, I cannot submit a
report at Gilbert Farm for the entire year.
The present plan is to make the growing of swine and 4)Oultry our
chief interests with some orchards of pears, peaches^ and apples, and a
small dairy.
With this end in view, we have fattened 150 hogs this summer,,
and have 9& shoats to feed during the coming winter. We have
raised 3,000 chickens, and have now 6^0 old hens, 1,250 pullets, and 400
cockerels. The poultry equipment has been increased by the addition
of 12 colony brooder houses, a 6,000 egg incuibator, and four hen-houses»
each 16x50 feet.
Our farm work has been mostly in preparation for next year's
pigs. The east farm is being plowed and will be planted to forage
crops for pastures. As the land is very rocky, the work dees not
progress very rapidly, but the soil is well worth reclaiming.
We are now in ^position to receive boys who wish instruction in
practical agriculture, and the school is open to Connecticut boys, 16
years of age or more, who are strong enough physically to do the work
necessary to make a living on a farm, and whose mental timber is
sound enough to bear the stress and strains of a common school edu-
cation. Also, it is essential that their moral standing be high, and tba,t
they have a true desire to learn farming and realize the difficulties
that must be overcome before attaining success.
At this school, most of the time will be given to actual farm work^
with one hour of lecture each day during the fall months, possibly
from October 1st till April loth. These lectures will cover briefly the
essentials of farm crops, dairying, poultry culture, and swine raising-
And the farm will give practical work in all these branches; practical
in that any endeavor that cannot be put upon a profitable basis will b«
discontinued.
Stuidents may enter whenever there is a vacancy. At present we
can provide for 16 boys. We furnish a bed, mattress, pillow and spread.
Sach boy must provide himself with sheets, blankets and pillow casee.
We recommend that washing be sent home by jmrcel-post as the achool
will not establish any laundry. Tuition and board are free, and anyone
wishing to enter should make application to the Gilbert Farm 6(^ool»
Georgetown, Conn.
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL, COLLEGE 55
In order ta properly provide for these boys, we have erected and
equipped a new dininer hall and kitchen, remodeled the old farm house
for a dormitory, installing a bath-room and hot water heat, and are
building a lecture room and an assembbly hall, which will be equipped
for recreation as well as for study.
Respectfully submitted,
GEORGE EATON, JR..
Director.
REPORT OF THE SOCIAL COMMITTEE
The usual series of college entertainments was presented during
the past year. The completion of the armory, with its large seating
capacity and excellent stage facilities, has greatly improved the con-
ditions under which these entertainments are given, and the size of the
audiences has considerably increased.
By arranging the entire program at the beginning of the season.
Instead of number by number, we were enabled last year to obtain our
entertainers at a minimum cost and to oflfer season tickets for the
whole course, thus making possible a considerable reduction in the
price of admission. Our program included the Ben Greet !E*layers, two
musical numbers, a lecture, and an evening with a cartoonist. The
same method is being followed this year, and a course has been offered
which is .being well supported by students, faculty and community.
"We have also succeeded in attracting a considerable number of people
from Willimantic and the surrounding towns.
The insitallation during the past summer of a movirig-tpicture pro-
jector in the Armory has provided us with a means of entertainment
of a lighter character, and we are now presenting every Saturday even-
ing an exhibit of high-grade moving pictures. These are so far proving
very popular.
Respectfully submitted,
EDMUND W. SINNOTT,
Chairman Social Committee.
FIRE PROTECTION
The following report pertains especially to a proposed system of
water pipes with an elevated tank and sprinklers which are intended
to provide fire protection. The essential recommendations for im-
proving the fire protection are:
1. A 800,^00 gallon steel tank located on a hill at the northerly part
of the college property (erected in 1914).
2. A system of underground pipes consisting of 12, 8 and «-inch
lines. The main line of 1*2 -inch pipe is 2,700 feet 'long. The pipe
would afford a flow of 1,750 gallons per minute or seven !flre streams
with a friction loss of 10 pounds per square inch; with ten Are streams
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56 BIENNIAL. REPORT 1915-1916
the loss would be IS pounds. Thus the 12 -inch ipip,e would appear, to
be large enough for present conditions. When the college buildings
draw this water supply through this pipe two less fire streams will be
ainailable at times of maximum flow. The hydrants should be placed
at favorable places with regard to present buildings and those that
are proposed.
3. Automatic sprinklers are suggested for six of the buildings.
The effectiveness of sprinklers is largely due to the fact that they are
always on duty, and after a fire starts they operate in the smoke and
heat where a human being could not survive. They thus protect both
property and lives, and these facts have been in mind when recom-
mending them for the following buildings: throughout the Main Build-
ing, Mechanic Arts Building and in the basement and attic of Storrs
HaH.
4. Whatever the extent of other fire appliances, it will be readily
seen that a central fire house is necessary. The location should be
near the center of the grounds, and for equipment I would suggest
1,000 feet of 2% -inch cotton rubber lined hose, six l^-inch under-
writer's nozzles, and minor equipment of axes, bars and ladder straps.
COST OF IMPROVEMDNTS
I submit the following estimate of cost of the improvements that
are reconmiended in the report:
1,300 feet of 12.inch pipe (fp % 1.94 |2,&2i2
2,200 feet of 6-inch ** 0.9S 2,1M
4.825 feet of 8-inch " 1.29 6,2»4
29 two-way hydrants ** 30.00 WO
6 six-inch valves ** 13.00 78
5 eight-inch and 1 twelve •• 20.00 147
12 indicator poste " 20.00 240
1 six-inch check valve 16
Fire liouse building, 40x50 2,000
1.000 feet of cotton rubber-lined hose " 0.50 600
Fire wagon and minor equipment 800
Six nozzles " 5.00 80
Chemical extinguishers with two- wheel rig 200
Automatic sprinklers
•Main Building 660^8.00 1.660
Storrs Hall 220 " 660
Chemical 140 " 420
Mechanic Arts 150 " 460
Agricultural 260 •* 780
Add 10% for expenses of supervision and engrineering
Total for fire protection 131.136
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRTCULTUKALi COLLEGE 67
INSURANCE
The college comprises AS buildin^rs that are insured for a total
amount of |46&,100. Besides these buildings there is furniture in res-
idences, a church, and private dwellings not included in the above
amount, so that the insurable value would exceed $600,(K>0.
The present appears to be an era of prosperity for agricultural
schools. (Last year there were ^00 students in attendance here. The
present size of the college is the result of 31 years' growth and the
next 20 is likely to see a similar increase. I believe that it is advisable
to install water pipes and a tank large enough to provide for develop-
ments that may be reasonably expected.
The present rates of insurance i:un from ^1.70 on the Greenhouse
contents building to .25 on cottages and av*erage about .&1 for all build-
ings and contents. These rates, in my judgment, are as low as could
be expected under present conditions, and doubtless they would be
quickly raised by the insurance companies if a large Iflre should occur.
The cost to the college is now about -$2,000. a year for insurance.
There is a little over double what the same amount of insurance would
cost under present rates at Amherst, Willianui, and Wesleyan colleges.
These colleges have a blanket clause which would permit them to in-
sure nearly all buildings at a flat rate of .8S 1-9, or in other words in-
stead of $2,000. a year the cost to the above colleges would be about
^00.
With adequate protection and other improvements as recommended
in this report I believe that the insurance could be obtained for less
than $900. a year.
Besides questions of the cost of improvements and the savings in
dollars and cents by lower rates of insurance there is another import-
ant factor that must be considered by the Trustees and others who
are directly responsible for the welfare of the college, namely, protec-
tion of the lives of students. In a sense parents who send their sons
and daughters here to college are placing them in the safe keeping
of a State institution. It is expected that the State will provide such
construction of buildings, occupancy. Are protection, and general order
<including management) as will insure the safety of both the lives
and property of students.
Respectfully submitted,
FRANK B. SANBORN.
Fire Protection Engineer.
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58 BI£aiXIAL, REPORT 1915-1916
OPINION OF THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL RELA-
TIVE TO THE USE OF THE INCOME OF THE
EDWIN GILBERT BEQUEST FOR THE PUR-
POSE OF ESTABLISHING A FARM SCHOOL
'•Hartford^ February 2, 1916. '
Olcott F. Kln-g:. Esq., Secretary.
Trustees Connecticut Agricultural College.
Dear Sir:—
The twelfth paragraph of the fourth codicil to the last will and
testament of the late Edwin Gilbert provides as follows:
1 revoke the devises and bequests made to my wife in the seventh
and eighth clauses or paragraphs of my codicil of December 3rd, 1904,
and in lieu thereof I do give devise and bequeath all the real estate in
said eighth clajise of said codicil of December 3rd, 1904, and all the
tools, machinery, agricultural implements and live Btock that may be
thereon at my decease to the Storrs Agricultural College of or at
Storrs, Connecticut, upon condition, however, that the same be taken
and maintained in connection with said college as a farm for the
purpose of teaching or instruction in farming practically, and I do
further give and bequeath to said college twelve hundred shares of the
capital stock of said company said stock not to be sold and the income
thereof devoted to the care of the real estate herein devised, and in-
struction in the science of faiTning as taught by said college, and es-
pecially the art of raising and caring for live stock.'
Tou ask my opinion upon the following four questions relating to
the use of the income under said testamentary provision:
*(1). Whether the income of the fund provided by said bequest may
be used for the purpose of establishing upon said farm a school tor
the purpose of teaching or instruction in farming practically, and in
the science of farming as taught in said college and especially the art
of raising and caring for live stock.
•(2). Whether the Income of said fund can be used in the con-
struction of a dormitorj'^ and other buildings which may be necessary
in the establishment of such school.
•(3). Whether the income from said fund can be used In paying-
ihe salary of proper superintendent of such school and instructors
therein.
'(4). Whether the income of such fund can be expended in the
payment of the expenses of a conmiittee of the trustees appointed to
see to the establishment of such school and the erection of such dor-
mitory and other buildings and for fees of experts for advice incident
to the establishment and conduct of such school.'
I und^stand that" the trusrtees of the Connecticut Agricultural Col-
lege have, some years since, accepted said bequest, taken possesslotk
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL, COLLEGE 59^
of the property mentioned, and have expended so much of the income
of the fund thereby created as has been necessary to the maintenance
and conduct of said farm, and for needed improvements thereon, but
have not heretofore attemlpted to provide regular and systematic in-
struction in the science of farming: at said farm.
The answer to each of the questions propounded by you dependa
upon the construction placed upon the testamentary provision above
quoted, which provision is in effect a gift to corporate uses, with a
direction as to its application thereby annexing to the -gift a condition
relating to the expenditure thereof. It is a cardinal rule of testa-
mentary construction that the Intent of the testator is to be ascertained
and carried into effect, if that intent can toe discovered, and to that
end such Interpretation, consistent with the terms of the will, should
be adopted as will best cajrry lo the general scheme had in view by
him. If such gift be expressed tn general provisions, such details,
within the scope of such general provisions, as are necessary to make
such |}rovisions effectual will be implied. This rule is particularly ap-
plicable to gifts for charitable and educational purposes.
Pierce. Exr., vs. Phelps. Exr., 75 Conn., 83 -'816.
Schouler on Wills, Sees. 4e6-476-593.
Wolfe vs. Hatheway. 81 Conn.. 181-184.
Dextei* vs. £3vans, 63 Conn., 53-62.
Dexter vs. Harvard, 176 Mass., 192.
Although the provisions of said paragraph of said codicil are ex-'
pressed in general terms, it is apparent therefrom that the desire and
Intent of the testator was, first, that the farm therein mentioned be
cared for and maintaihed, and that so much of the income of said
fund as is not required for said purpose be devoted to practical in-
struction in farming, especially the art of raising and caring for live
stock. The expenditure contemplated by your first question is so ob-
viously in accord, not only with the spirit and intent of said testa-
mentary provision, but with the letter and language thereof, that the
9)ropriety of the use of said income therefor appears to be self-evident,
I am informed that no accommodations for the housing of pupils
of said school are afforded by the buildings now upon said farm,
neither are such axicommodations ayailable in the vicinity. The pro-
vision of dormitory and other a-ccommodations necessary to the es-
taflt>Iishment and conduct of such school is therefore an essential ele-
ment in the providing of instruction as directed by the testator, and
in my opinion the expense of constructing and equipping such buildings
as are necessary to accommodate the pupils to be instructed may
properly be paid from the income of said fund. The employment of
suitable instructors^ Including a superintendent, is likewise necessary
to the giving of such instruction, and the reasonable expense thereof
may. in my opinion, be c>aid out of said income.
The necessary expenses incurred by members of the committee of
the trustees in supervising preparations for and the conduct of said
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(50 BIEN.XIAL REPORT 1915-1916
school are, in my judgment, also a legitimate expense incident to the
establishment and conduct thereof and properly payable as a part of
the cost of instruction directed by the will, and the same is true as to
the reasonable compensation of those whose advice and assistance are
found necessary by the trustees in properly planning and providing for
the course of instruction and necessary facilities for the giving of such
instruction.
In my opinion, therefore, an the questions propounded by you are
^properly to be answered in the affirmative.
Respectfully submitted,
(Signed) GEORQE] (B. HIN1M>AN,
Attomey-(3eneral."
FROM THE SECX>ND REPORT OF THE STATE
CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION
Although positions in the departments of the Agricultural College
and Experiment Station are listed by classes in rositer, it is under-
Btood that these departments are not at present subject to the pro-
visions of the Civil Service law governing appointments and dismissals.
INSURANCE ON BUILDINGS AND CONTENTS
AT STORRS
Value of Insurance on Value of Insurance on
Indentiflcation Building Building Contents Contents
1. 'Main Building $44,200 00 $3«.000 00 |42,600 00 994,000 00
:2. Chemical Laboratory 6,000 00 5,000 00 5,«00 00 5.700 00
"3. Ebcperiment Station
Office 1,500 00 1,200 00 1,060 00 1,S00 00
4. Whitney Hall 9,000 00 7,500 00 1,600 00 1,600 00
5. Grove Cottage 15,000 00 12,500 OO 2,750 00 2^200 00
6. etorrs Hall 68,«00 00 50,000 00 6,000 00 4,000 00
7. Koons Hall 73,000 00 5,000 00 8,900 00
8. Armory 60,000 00 25,000 00 6,000 00 5,000 00
9. Horticultural Build-
ing 33,500 00 22,500 00 8,000 00 6,500 00
10. Florist's Cottagre and
Greenhouses .... 26,500 00 20,000 00 2,375 00 1,900 00
11. Dining Hall 20,000 00 14,500 00 7.200 00 5,700 00
12. Dairy Building 30,000 00 21,000 00 16,000 00 14.000 00
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 61
13. Farm Machinery
•Butldinflr 15,000 00 5,000 00 2.500 00 2,000 00
U. Poultry [Building 25,000 00 21,000 00 2,900 00 2,500 00
l*. Cottage No. 1 8,600 00 3,500 00
16. CcttSLge No. 8 5,000 00 4,500 00
17. Cottage No. 4 4,500 00 4,000 00
18. Cottage No. 5 5.000 00 4.500 00
19. Cottage No. 6 4,600 00 4,000 00
20. Cottage No. 7 4,600 00 *,000 00
21. Cottage No. 8 4,600 00 4,000 00
22. Cottage No. 9 4,250 00 8,800 00
23. Cottage No. 10 4,250 00 3,800 00
M. Cottage No. 11 .'. 4,250 00 4,000 00
26. Cottage No. 12 4,250 00 4,000 00
26. Cottage No. 13 4,600 00 4,000 00
27. Cottage No. 14 4,500 00 4,000 00
28. Cottage No. 15 6,500 00 5,'500 00
29. Cottage No. 16 6,500 00 5,600 00
30. Cottage No. 17 4,500 00 4,000 00
31. GuUey House 2,400 00 2,200 00
32. Valentine House 7,500 00 7,000 00
33. ValenUne Cottage. . . 1,000 00 1,000 00
84. Manter (House 1,200 00 1,000 00
85. Ganigus House 4,000 00 ^<. 3,600 00
96. Farm House 1,600 00 1,600 00
S7. Jacobson House 2.400 00 2,200 00
38. IPoultryman's House. 1,000 00 800 00
39. Poultry Bam 900 00 800 00
40 ^Whitney Barn 850 00 600 00
41. Gulley Bam 600 00 600 00
42. Horse Bam 14,200 00 9,000 00 8,^0 00 6,000 00
43. Horse Bam Annex.. 2,700 00 1,600 00 1,<300 00 1,000 00
44. Farm Horse Barn... 2,000 00 1,600 00 2,600 00 2,000 00
45. Dairy Bam 14,600 00 8,000 00 14,000 00 7,000 00
46. BuU Bam 500 00 600 00
47. Beef Barn 6,000 00 4,000 00 4,500 00 3,600 00
48. HbrUculture Bora 1,000 00 1,000 00
49. Old Piggery 500 00 600 00 600 00 600 00
60. Old Head House 200 00
51. Mr. Blalce's Office
BuUdlng 600 00
62. Brooder House 200 00
68 Jaooboon Shed 200 00
64. Com Crib (Valen-
tine) . . . , 200 00
55. Old Poultry Houses.. 600 00
56. Competition Houses. 4,500 00
F7. Farm Corn Crib 130 00
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€2 BIENNIAL, REPORT 1915-1916
58. Farm Shed 200 00
59. Ice House 200 00 '
60. Garage ^50 00
€1. 2 Carpenter Sh(>ps... 900 00 660 00
^2. Plant House 100 00 25 00
«3. New Com House 150 00 320 00
^4. Blacksmith Shop 250 00
<»5. Artesian Well 8,000 00
06. Water and Sewage
System 40,650 00
67. Electric Light Instal-
lation 8,000 00
68. Campus and F^rm.. SO.SiS'o 00
1668,2^5 00 1358,800 00 |142.1J80 00 $107,000 00
CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
RECEIiPTS 1914-1915
Annual State Appropriation I 80,000 00
Annual Federal Appropriation 50,000 OO
Income from Federal Endowment 6»750 00
Hicka Prize 60 00
Rent 7.974 80
Interest 762 69
Fees 19.126 40
Misc. Receipts 6.741 90
^1120.416 79
SPECIAL APPROPRIATIONS
Sewage and Water I 5,056 34
Furniture 73 06
Cottages. 1913 8.740 60
Auditoriimi and Armory 12.626 36
Farm Machinery Building 16.318 87
86,814 22
Cash Balance September 30, 1914 —
State Fund I 2.443 47
Land Grant Fund 51 53
Morrtll Fund 34,962 66
37.447 SS
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULrTURALi COLLEGE 63
ACCOUNTS SHOWING EXCESS OF EXPENIMTURES ABOVE
RECEIPTS
Salaries —
Officers I 7,275 46
Instructors 41,681 86
Employees 1,868 70
% 50,826 02
De];>artments —
Farm I 3,611 51
Dairy 2,860 60
Creamery 8,956 47
Horticulture and Care of Grounds 5,057 19
Poultry 2,209 02
Forestry 747 75
Idisc. Departments (English and French) 175 00
Botany 1,193 79
MiUtary 824 84 .
Library 1,191 29
Domestic Science 248 80
Mechanic Arts 291 26
Competition Plant 17 88
Summer School 318 82
Agronomy 870 25
Bacteriology 695 90
Mathematics and Physics 466 84
Zoology 60S 88
Chemical 939 47
: 26,172 96
^ew Buildings and Equipment— r
New Cottages % 3,760 01
Sewage and Water 6,015 50
Auditorium and Armory 12,368 61
Farm Machinery Building 14,908 12
Cold Storage 185 00
Cottages, 1915 5,248 93
Permanent Improvements 782 64
Central Heating Plant 94 01
43,312 82
Hepairs and Maintenance —
Repairs to Buildings 1 10,622 44
Fuel and Light 10,681 56
Engineer and Firemen 1,262 00
Janitor Work and Supplies 2,432 76
Insurance 2,961' 77
Operation of Sewage Plant 48 54
27,999 06
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64 BICNiNIAL. REPORT 191&-1916
Supplies and Service for Students —
Pew Rent I 800 OO
Commencement 180 48
Medicine 200 72
Lectu^s 180 0<^
Hl<dc8 Prize 45 00
Administration Expense —
Telephone and TelegrapJh $ 233 30
Traveling Ebcpenses 973 72
Printing 657 0«
Postage 497 80
Office Stationery and Supplies 789 90
Advertising 636 6S
Entertainment of Guests 183 64
Oeneral ESxpense —
Freight and Express : % 93 12
Cartage and Transportation 591 91
Grove Cottage, Labor and Supplies '. . 591 6a
Cash Balances September 30, 1915--r
State Fund I 4,467 07
Land Grant Fund 74 42
Morrtll Fund »5,170 ZS
1,406 20
3,972 la
1,276 64
39,711 87
$liW,677 «7
CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
RECEIPTS 1915-1916
Annual State Appropriation 1 40,000 00
Annual Federal Appropriation 50,000 00
Annual Federal Endowment Income 6,750 00
Hicks Prize 60 00
Rent 8,492 15
Interest 989 81
Fees 21,799 28
Miscellaneous Receipts 892 86
Competition Department 908 26
Forestry Department 1,009 14
Connecticut Poultry Association Scholarship 26 00
1130.921 01
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 65
SPECIAL APPROPRIATIONS
Armory 1 15,80§ 30
Cottages. 191« Zl,00O 00
Sewaere and Water 8,000) 00
Central Heating Plant 8,896 38
43,700 68
Cash Balances September 30, 191^-^
State Fund I 4,467 07
Land Grant Fund 74 42
Morrill Fund 3,5.170 38
39,711 87
$214,333 66
ACCOUNTS SHOWING EXCESS OF EXPENDITURES ABOVE
RECEIPTS
Salaries —
Officers I 7.605 76
Instructors —
Agronomy $ 3,299 96
Bacteriology 1,583 29
Botany 3,445 75
Chemistry '. 3,291 55
Creamery 1,599 06
Dairy 2.120 <K>
Domestic Science 3,106 76
Animal HuiA>andry 1,600 00
Horticulture ,.. 7,088 18
Mechanic Arts 2,000 00
Poultry 2,W1 55
Zoology 2,783 26
Carpentry and Building 600 00
English and History 2.199 92
English and Economics 2.383 84
Mathematics and Physics 2,487 46
Public Speakihg 90<^, 00
Music 900 00
Physical EducaUon 1.916 59
Forestry 800 00
Veterinary Science 495 00
^ 47,8»« U
Office Employees 2,820 70
1 57,853 02
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66 BIENNIAL REPORT 1'91&-W16
Departments —
Agrronomy I 833 77
Bacteriology 708 00
Boarding 1,478 47
Botany 1.114 75
Chemiatry 1,241 63
Creamery 8,054 01
Dairy 2,48159
Dairy Stock bought from Gilbert
Farm 1.441.34
Domestic Science 362 55
Farm 3,039 91
Farm Stock bought from Gilbert Farm 825 00
Horticulture 6.316 73
Library 1,324 26
Mathematics and Physics 323 07
Mechanic Arts 324 20
MHitary 88168
Physical Education 746 2^5
Poultry 2.162 89
Zoology 689 80
Miscellaneous Departments (English,
History, Music and Economics) . . 219 50
Improvements- 2^'"* **
F&,rm Machinery Building % 219 54
Sheep Shed 2,629 06
Drainage of Meadow 29 80
Poultry Feed House 193 15
Moving Picture Outfit . .^ 982 99
Printing Press 320 72
Purchase of Land > lOO 00
Repairs and Maintenance —
Repairs to BuHdinga 1 13,591 85
Fuel and Lights 14,78^91
Engineer and Firemen 1,471 88
Janitor work and Supplies 2,054 33
Insurance 2,604 10
Operation of Sewage Plant 22 42
Supplies and Service to Students —
Pew Rent for Students $ 800 OO
Commencement 290 48
Lectures 140 00
Hicks Prize 60 00
Book Store 73 77
Doctors and Medicines 711 79
4.475 It
24.6M 4»
2,076 f »
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRtCULTURAL COLLEGE 67
Administration Expenses —
Telephone and Telesrraph % 322 44
Traveling Expenses 765 81
Printing and Advertising 1.524 58
Postage and Office Supplies 1,094 59
C:ntertainment of Guests 102 90
8.810 82
"General Expenses —
Freight and Express $ 78 39
Cartage and Transportation 498 40
Grove Cottage (Labor and Supplies) 630 77
H;jgh School Day 807 24
Summer School 34 97
New Buildings and Improvements —
Sewage and Water $ 1,383 01
Cottages, 1915 17,687 88
Central Heating Plant 8.895 8«
Raihroad Survey 108 21
House for Chemical Engine 80 80
Armory Equipment and Grading 6,000 00
Armory Building (1915) 1.822 71
Armory Building (1913) 8.654 08
4 — — —
•Cash Balances September 80. 1916 —
State Fund .- $ 2,078 00
Land Grant Fund 127 85
Morrin Fund 88.697 »5
i.549 77
89.581 57
40.898 70
1214.338 66
STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
RECEIPTS AND ^XPENPITUR^S FOR THE YEAR ENDING
OCTOBER 30, 1915
RECEIPTS.
Balance as per statement of Oct 14, 1914 $ 166' 43
deceived from Federal Funds 15.000 Oo
Received from State Appropriation 4,500 00
Sales, deposited Nov. 18, '14. and Mar. 17, May 4. Oct. 6 4,90K> 00
Interests Credits Nov. 18, '14, Mar. 16 and Sept.. '16 21^ 60
Received from other sales 312 69
$26,002 62
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68 BIENNIAL REPORT 1915-W16
EXPENDITURES.
Expenses as per monthly schedules I 24,265 24
Balance in Treasurer's hands as per statement of Oct., 1915.. 469 8S
Balance paid Treasurer Oct. 20, 1915 857 6o
^25,092 62
STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
RECEIPTS 1915-16
Annual Federal Appropriation 1 15,000 00
Annual State Appropriation 4,500 00 «
Interest 75 88
Department collections —
Agronomy I 921 6»
Dairy 3,867 20
Poultry 2,442 88
Miscellaneous .* ^ 216 28
7,447 88
Collections for year ending Sept. 30, 1915, remitted to Treas-
urer October, 1915 867 25
Bank Balance October, 1915 514 6^
827,895 70
EXPENDITURES
AdmlnistraUon % 2.162 tl
Agronomy 5,282 40
Bacteriology 2.782 74
Chemistry 1.906 30
Dairy 6.669 29
Poultry 8,lol CO
Zoology 1,068 42
Bank Balance Bept. 30, 1916 22 €9
827,885 70
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRECULTURAL. COLLEGE 6^
CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
EXTENSION SERVICE
RECEIPTS FOR THE YEA.R ENDING SEPTEMBER 30, 1915
Smith-Lever Fund 1 15,«98 60
State Fund 5,00a 00
Interest 81 65
I^r Exhibits 150 00
120,930 25
EXPENDITURES
Administration —
Salaries I 2,888 10
Labor 1«8 83
E3quipment and Supplies 959 08
Traveling 388 18
$ AMO 13
Publications $ 350 25
350 25
Coimty Agent*—
Salaries I 2,0«3 33
Labor 30 69
Equipment 109 80
Traveling , 565 22
2.769 04
Boys' and Giris* Club Work-
Salaries ^ 458 08.
Labor 142 69
Supplies 554 12
TraveUng Expenses 782 82
1.932 71
Poultry Demonstrations —
Salaries I 1.225 00
Labor 13 68
Supplies 26121
Traveling Expenses 468 00
1,967 89
l^airy Demonstrations —
Salaries * t 1M30 39
Labor 36 03
Supplies 275 66
Traveling Expenses 768 50
2.510 58
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70 BI'EN:s"IAL, report 1«15-1916
Farm Mana^einent Demonstrations-^
Salaries % 1,690 71
Labor .• «0 00
Equipment and Supplies • • •. 210 40
Trayelins Expenses 128 82
1,989 4$
8M 74
Farmers' Institutes 854 74
Miscellaneous .* I 324 69
324 6«
Bank Balance September 30, 1915 3,840 79
S20.930 2S
CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
EXTENSION SERVICE
IRECEIPT6 FOR THE YEAR ENDING SEPTEMBER 30, 1916
Smith-Lever Fund % 11.964 9t
State Fund 7.500 DO
Interest 9€ IS
Cash Balance 3,840 79
^23.401 OO
Administration- EXPENDITURES == =
Salaries and Labor % 4,08iS 55
Equipment and Supplies 748 90
TravennfiT Expenses 841 74
1 5.r79 1»
Publications 544 Oe
County Agents —
Salaries and Labor % 4.025 64
Supplies 39 52
TravelinfiT Expenses 442 91
4.508 or
Boys' and Girls' Clubs —
Salaries and Labor I 1,203 71
Supplies 586 45
Traveling Ilxpenses 1.211 82
3.0O1 49
Poultry Demonstrations —
Salaries and Labor I 1.525 10
Supplies 183 94
Traveling Expenses 796 81
2.4W SS
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULrTURAL, COLLEGE 71
%
Dairy Demonstrations —
Salaries and Labor $ 786 95
Supplies 394 80
Traveling; Expenses « 979 12
2,169 87
9,666 47
1,274 92
Farm Manacrement —
Salaries and La'bor $ 1,955 8ft
Supplies 14a 55
Traveling Expenses 658 60
Farmers' Institutes —
Salaries and Labor I 368 75
Supplies 2-13 53
Traveling Expenses 702 64
Home Economics —
Supplies % 23 2a
Traveling Expenses 37 26
liarketlng and Co-operation
Fair ExhibiU
Contingent Expenses *
Bank Balance September 30, 1916
GILBERT FARM
RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEiMENTS TOR YEAR ENDING
* SEPTEMBER 30, 1915
Bank Balance October 1. 1914 1 12,12« 42
Income on Endowment 7,200 00
Interest on Bank Deposits 270 28
$19,598 70
FARM RfCEIPTS
Dairy $ 3.609 90
Poultry i 2,220 94
Sales of Stock 495 35
Stamford Afilk Route Collections 1.111 66
Miscellaneous » . . 607 00
8.053 85
$27.65^ 66
— 60 54
75 00
493 78
169 89
123.020 14
371 86
$23,401 00
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12 BIENNIAL. HBPORT 1® 15-18 16
FARM DISBURSEMENTS
Labor and SuppUes % 7,429 14
Stock 3,341 9A
Permanent Improvement 10« ^
Farm lEquipment 592 4*
Repairs to Buildings 117 25
Miscellaneous llxpense 384 56
IU.971 58
Bank Balance September 30, 1915 $15,680 97
GILBERT FARM
RECEIPTS FOR 1915-16
Bank Balance October 1, 1915 ) 15,680 97
Inoome on Endowment 18,600 00
Interest 34* 14
(34,680 11
FARM RECEIPTS
Dairy $ 2.666 10
Poultry 1,691 73
Swine 1.418 88
Stock 2,6^9 64
Miscellaneous 436 32
8,781 57
$43,411 6S
DISBURSEMENTS
Labor $ 8.125 46
SuppUes 1.476 31
JSquipment 886 96
Stock (tiorses. oxen, bull — testingr and registry).... 1.533 6<5
Swine 1,180 70
Poultry 467 88
Transportation 186 73
Travelingr Expenses 389 81
F^ed f 5,040 11
Fertiliser 439 20
Telegraph and Telephone 07 00
Blacksmithing • 84 18
Fuel and Lights 143 70
Miscellaneous Ebcpense 535 95
New Buildings and Repairs 3,049 20
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THE CONNECTICUT AGRICULiTUBAI. COLLEGE 73
Advertising • 88 80
Rent 2W 00
Advance to George Eaton, Jr., Director 3,000 00
$26,835 48
Bcmk Balance, Sept 30, 1916 16,576 20
143,411 68
Hartford, Conn^ Nov. 6, 1916.
This is to certify that we have audited the accounts of E. O. Smith,
Treasurer of the Connecticut Agricultural College, for the fiscal year
ending September 30, 1915, and have found them correct The balances
September 80, 1916, are as folows:
State Fund on deposit with the Hartford Trust Co $ 4,467 07
Gilbert Farm Fund on deposit with Phoenix National Bank,
Hartford 15,761 26
BSxtension Fund on deposit with First National Bank, Stafford
Springs .* 8,840 79
Land Grant Fund on deposit with Windham National Bank. . 79 23
Kxperlment Station Fund on deposit with Windham National
Bank 1,581 18
Morrill Fund on deposit with First National Bank, Stafford
Springs 10,170 38
Morrill Fund Certificate of Deposit No. 2767 of Hartford
Trust Co a>5,000 00
160.899 91
WiLLL^M P. BAILBY, ==-=Trr=rz
JAMBS P. TOBIN.
Auditors of Public Accounts.
Hartford, Conn., Nov. 15, 1916.
This is to certify that we have audited the accounts of R. L Longley,
Treasurer of the Connecticut Agricultural College, for the fiscal year
ending September 30, 1916, and have found them correct. The balances
September 30, 1916, are as follows:
State Fund on deposit with the Hartford Trust Co | 2,073 00
Gilbert Farm Fund on deposit with Phoenix National Bank,
Hartford 16,576 20
Extension Fund on deposit with First National Bank, Stafford
Springs 371 86
Land Grant Fund on deposit with Windham National l^nk. . . 127 85
Experiment Station Fund on deposit with Windham National
Bank 22 69
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74 BIENNIAL. REPORT 1915^1916
Morrill Fund on deposit with First National Bank, Stafford
Springs 13,697 8&
Morrill Fund Certificate of Deposit 'No. 2837 of Hartford
Trust Co 25,000 00
$67,809 4&
WILJL.IAM1 P. BAILEY.
JAMBS P. TOBIN,
Auditors of Public Accounts.
OFFICERS AND EMPLOYEES OF THE COLLEGE
WHO RECEIVED MORE THAN $450
1914-15 1915-16
C. Ia Beach $4,500 00 $4,500 0*
H. J. Baker 3,000 00 3,000 00
A. G. QuUey 2,500 00 2,500 00
W. P. Kirkpatrick 2,500 00 2,5«0 ©♦
W. Lb Slate 2,500 00 2,500 00
C. A. Wheeler 2,200 00 2,50<^ 00
B. O. Smith 2,500 00 2.500 ©<►
W. ;M. Bsten 2,300 00 2,300 0^
G. H. Lamson . . . . > 2,200 00 2,300 00
H. R. Monteith 2,200 00 2,5oO 00
A. F. BSakeslee 2,200 00
H. L. Garrigus .' • 2,000 00 2,100 OO
J. N. Fitts , 2,000 00 2.000 00
E. W. Sinnott 2,000 00
I. G. Davis 2,000 00
H. F. Keyes '. 1.620 00
Daniel Chase 2,000 00
H. D. Newton 1.900 00 2,000 00
H. F. Judkins 1.700 00 2,000 00
A. J, Brundage 1,800 00 1.800 00
K. B. Musser 1,500 00 1,800 00
A. T. Stevens 1,600 00 1,700 00
S. P. HoUister 1,600 00 1.700 00
B. G. Southwick 1.600 00 1.700 OO
M. E. Hayes 1,500 00 1.000 00
D. B. Warner ^ 1,500 00 1.000 00
Q. A. Blake • ' 1,600 00 1,600 00
H. D. Edmond 1,500 00 1,500 00
R. E. Jones . 1,200 00 1.500 00
G. S. Torrey 1,500 00
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THE CONNECTICUT AaWCULTURAL COLLEGE 75
R. L Longley
J. L. fiuflrhes
B. M. Whitney
C. J. Mason
J. A. Manter
M. E. Spraerue . . . .
H. L. Ctirtln
L. E. Card
F. W. Duffee
O. W. Fraser
BI T. Coualey . —
M. E * Jones
M. A. Thompson .
A. M. Wallace —
G. H. Campbell . . . .
L. F. Rettsrer
Edna Jackson ....
A. F. Schulze .
F. W. GUI
E. H. Jenkins . —
A. E. Moss
G. S. Steuart
M. M. Voetsch ...
Ruth MiUer
M. K. Ackley
LdUian Dore
O. D. Grant
Pauline Hopson ..
IBthel Blake
I>. A. LonfiT
C. S; Enos
B. W. Rogers
M. C. Noyes
J. B. Thomas . . . . .
P. G. Corey
I>. S. Davis
J. M. Rogers
Margaret Hopson ,
liois Yutzler
Oertrude True ...
Cbristine Brigham
F. E. Goodwin
M. M. Clark
Bdith Knapp
i3£axgaret Costello .
Alex. Fraser
Henry Day
1,300 00
1,700 00
1,200 00>
1,800 00
1,20» 00
1.200 00
900 00
1,800 00
1,100 00
1.300 00
1,200 00
1,200 00
1.200 00
1,200 00
1,000 00
1,200 00
1.200 00
1,100 00
1.200 00
1,000 00
liOOO 00
900 00
1.000 00
900 00
900 00
900 00
900 00
900 00
900 00
900 00
800 00
800 00
800 00
800 00
80OO0
800 00
800 00
800 00
780 00
870 00
720 00
720 00
720 00
720 00
720 00
6«0 00
720 00
600 00
720 00
600 00
720 00
660 00
660 00
600 00
660 00
600 00
660 00
660 00
660 00
660 00
660 00
720 00
720 00
600 00
600 00
000 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
60O 00
600 00
600 00
600 00
60& 00
684 00
653 72
603 2»
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76 BIENiNIAIi RBPORfT WIB^WW
Will Day
Lruther Crane
Joa Brown
Thos. Brown
David Brown
Ohas. Suter
Kaspar Suter
Jas. Dlnenno
Alfred Warren w. ,
W. Blake
B. C. Walker
Dwiffht Hanks
F. Steinmeyer
E. C. Pisher
J. Bogllsch
M. Ward
M. Dumbrasch
Paul Downs . . i , 831 38
P. Fotnellis
Bmil Landen
R. Miller
J. O^schiwitz >
J. Pritdhard
J. Prue
KOCGO
J. F. Rostron 652 95
Robert Foster
E. H. Haskell 79a 10
600 00
521 75
579 50
540 00
494 27
670 63
845 52
S48 67
601^ 00
772 75
574 05
541 50
480 00
601 01
625 00
467/63
640 87
600 00
••••<•
829 a
873 16
600 00
799 39
e59 Od
500 W^
540 06
549 83
493 71
900 OO
607 39
472 00
635 41
540 00
720 OO
554 86
800 00
485 50
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&tate of Connecticut
PUBUC DOCUMENT, No. 34
BIENNIAL REPORT
CONTAINING THE TWENTY-SIXTH AND
TWENTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL REPORTS
OF THE
STORRS
Agricultural Experiment Station
STORKS, CONNEXI^TICUT
FOR THE YEARS 1913-1914, 1914-1915
Printed by Order of the Legislature
ROCKVILLC. CONN.
lOURNAL ^UBLISHINO CO.
lOie
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PUBLICATION
Approved by
THE BOARD OF CONTROL
THE JOURNAL PRINT
ROCKVILLE, CONN.
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CONTENTS
Trustees of the Connecticut Agricultural College IV
Sution Staff IV
Publications of the Station Available for Distribution V
Report of the Treasurer VI
Report of the Director VII
Poultry House Construction 31
Third Annual International Egg Laying Contest 59
Bacteriological Studies 103
An Electric Incubator for Bacteriological Work 139
Badllary White Diarrhea of Young Chicks. Its Eradication by
Elimination of Infected Stock 151
Some Lice and Mites of the Hen .^ 171
Fourth Annual International Egg Laying Contest 201
Bacillary White Diarrhea of Young Chicks 247
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THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES
OP THB
CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
J. W. Alsop
IVERSON C. FaNTON
E. Stevens Henry
E. Kent Hubbard, Jr
Charles M. Jarvis
Governor Marcus H. Holgomb
O. F. King
Clifford I. Stoddard
Charles E. Lyman
H. G. Manchester
C. L. Beach, B. Agr., B. S., Pres,, Conn, Agricidtural College
STATION STAFF
E. H. Jenkins, Ph. D. Director
AGRONOMY DEPARTMENT.
W. L. Slate, Jr., B. S. Agr. Agronomist
Benjamin G. Southwick, B. Sc. Assistant Agronomist
bacteriological department.
W. M. Esten, M. S. Bacteriologist
Christie J. Mason, B. Agr. Assistant Bacteriologist
CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT.
H. D. Edmond, B. S. Chemist
DAIRY DEPARTMENT.
G. C. White, B. S. A., A. M. Dairy Husbandman
H. F. JuDKiNS, B. S. Assistant Dairy Husbandman
ECONOMIC ZOOLOQY.
G. H. Lamson, M. S. Zoologist
POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
Wm. F. Kirkpatrick, B. Agr., B. E. Poultry Husbandman
Leslie E. Card, B. S. Assistant Poultry Husbandman
I-EO F. Rettcer, Ph, D. Bacteriologist, Investigations of
Animal Diseases
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Publications of Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station
AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION
The Camembert Type of Soft Cheese in the U. S.
The Facility of Digestion of Foods a Factor in Feed-
ing.
The Apple Leaf-Miner.
Directions for Making the Camembert Type of
Cheese.
Petroleum Emulsion for the San Jose Scale.
Proprietary and Home-Made Miscible Oils for the
Control of the San Jose Scale.
Camembert Cheese Problems in U. S.
Connecticut W^eather Review.
Butter Making on the Farm.
New England Trees in Winter.
Some Apple Insects of Connecticut.
Spraying Cucumbers and Melons.
Records of a Dairy Herd for Five Years.
Bacillary White Diarrhea of Young Chicks (Fourth
Report).
Cheeses of the Neufchatel Group.
Studies Relating to the Roquefort and Camembert
Type of Cheese.
No. 80. Chickens
Milk Feeding and Its Influence on Growth and
Mortality.
Comparative Study of the Value of Sweet and
Sour Milk.
Poultry House Construction.
Third Annual International Egg Laying Contest.
Bacteriological Studies.
An Electric Incubator for Bacteriological Work.
Bacillary White Diarrhea of Young Chicks.
Some Lice and Mites of the Hen.
Fourth Annual International Egg Laying Contest.
Bacillary White Diarrhea of Young Chicks.
No.
35.
No.
43.
Xo.
45.
No.
46.
No.
49.
No.
54.
No.
58.
No.
64.
No.
65.
No.
69.
No.
71.
No.
72.
No.
73.
No.
77.
Xo.
78.
No.
79.
No.
81.
No.
82.
No.
83.
Xo.
84.
No.
85.
Xo.
86.
Xo.
87.
No.
88.
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VI
REPORT OF THE TREASURER.
c
o
U
•5
3
6C
c.2:> C 3 3 e«
C/3 JHUP3CU0Q
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Report of the Director
To the Board of Trustees of the Connecticut A|[ricultural
College.
I herewith respectfully submit my report of the operations
of this Station for the two years ending June 30, 1915.
Within this time a carefully planned system of rotations
has been prepared by the Agronomy Department and is in
successful operation on the field which was set apart by the
College for the use of the Station. The objects are a compari-
son both of the production of feed for stock under different
rotations and also of the use of manure and fertilizers at differ-
ent periods in the rotation, also maintenance of fertility and
effect on factors controlling crop production.
With this is associated a test of varieties of grains and
roots, soy beans and potatoes. Tests of fertilizers on pota-
toes, and availability of soil potash in corn and hay production
have also been subjects of experiment.
In cooperation with the Station at New Haven an exten-
sive com survey of the state has been made and a joint test
of the seemingly best varieties of corn is in progress with the
expectation that later it may be possible to establish on a
business basis in this state the growing of seed com, from va-
rieties of proved superior value.
The study by the Poultry Department of bacillary white
diarrhea appears to be nearly concluded and its teachings are
now being tested and proved throughout the state by the
Station with the cooperation of the Extension Department.
In the course of this work over 20,000 fowls have been
tested for poultrymen throughout the State and directions
given for eliminating the disease, which have proved success-
ful where diligently followed.
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VIII STORKS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.
A carefully planned method of breeding poultry for egg
production has been put in operation and studies in simplify-
ing the rations for poultry are being made, which have thus
far yielded some valuable indications.
To 'knov^ the normal rate of growth of fowls will give
poultrymen a tangible method of determining whether their
flocks are gaining as they should and indirectly whether the
rations used are quite adequate. The rate of growth on ap-
proved rations of Rhode Island Reds and Leghorns from the
time of hatching to egg-laying has been studied and will be
given further attention.
The Dairy Department, in addition to some feeding ex-
periments, observations on the cost of milk production, a
study of the method of operating the Babcock test, and a study
of the milk records secured in official cow testing, is engaged
in cooperation with Dr. Rettger in studies on the occurrence
of contagious abortion and the value of certain means for con-
trolling this disease which is probably a source of greater
loss to dairymen than any other, with the possible exception of
tuberculosis.
The Bacteriological Department has continued its studies
of the bacteria of the soil and their effect on soil fertility.
The Department of Economic Zoology has completed
studies on the effect of different amounts of carbonic acid and
moisture (ventilation) in the hatching of eggs in incubators
and has also made a study of the life history of certain lice
and mites which invade poultry and of methods of destroying
these vermin.
The zoologist is now testing the effect of cooling eggs
during incubation at different intervals and for different pe-
riods, as is quite commonly advised without adequate proof
of its value. Studies on the life histories and control of three
species of cattle lice are being made.
The Chemical Department has been fully occupied in
analyzing the material harvested in the experiments of the
Agronomy Department as well as in cooperating in the ex-
perimental work of the zoologist.
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REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. IX
In the following pages are some of the results of the
Station work during the two years covered by this report.
A part of the wqrk is not yet prepared for publication.
Under the statute the station is allowed the equivalent in
printed pages of an edition of 7,000 copies not exceeding 400
pages ; that is 2,800,000 pages. The large demand particularly
for the poultry bulletins has made larger editions than usual
seem necessary. The average number of pages in each bulle-
tin has been 27 and the average edition 14,800 copies.
In the last report the needs of the station were very
briefly summarized. I wish again to call attention to these
needs which are more imperative than ever.
Its equipment is increasingly deficient and the money
available for its yearly expenses is totally inadequate. It has
therefore become absolutely necessary to discontinue a part
of the work for the next year for lack of funds. The woric,
particularly of the Agronomy, Dairy and Poultry Depart-
ments, which is steadily increasing in amount and in value
must be seriously checked until the station is more adequately
supported by the state.
The Station in my judgment needs at present ten thous-
and dollars yearly from the state instead of the present appro-
priation of four thousand five hundred dollars.
All of which is respectfully submitted.
E. H. JENKINS, Director.
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STORRS
Agricultural Experiment Station
STORKS, CONNECTICUT
BULLETIN 80, APRIL, 1915
CHICKENS
MILK FEEDING AND ITS INFLUENCE ON
GROWTH AND MORTALITY.
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE VALUE
OF SWEET AND SOUR MILK.
Leo F. Rettger Wm. F. Kirkpatrick
^effield Scientific Scliool Storrs Agricultural
Tale University. Experiment Station.
Leslie E. Card
Storrs Agricultural
Experiment Station.
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BOARD OF CONTROL
THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES
OF THE
CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
E. Stevens Henry
George A. Hopson
L. J. Storrs
Charles M. Jarvis
J. W. Alsop
Governor Marcus H. Holcomb
E. Kent Hubbard, Jr.
O. F. King
H. G. Manchester
Wilson H. Lee
C. L. Beach, B. Agr., B. S., Pres,, Conn, Agricultural College
STATION STAFF
E. H. Jenkins, Ph. D. Director
AGRONOMY DEPARTMENT.
W. L. Slate, Jr., B. S. Agr. Agronomist
Benjamin G. Southwick, B. So. Assistant Agronomist
BACTERIOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT.
W. M. EsTEN, M. S. Bacteriologist
Christie J. Mason, B. Agr. Assistant Bacteriologist
Edna E. Jackson Assistant
CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT.
H. D. Edmond, B. S. Chemist
DAIRY DEPARTMENT.
G. C. White, B. S. A., A. M. Dairy Husbandman
H. F. JuDKiNS, B. S. Assi^ant Dairy Husbandman
ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY.
G. H. Lamson, M. S. Zoologist
POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
Wm. F. Kirkpatrick, B. Agr., B. E. Poultry Husbandman
Leslie E. Card, B. S. Assistant Poultry Husbandman
Leo F. Rettger, Ph. D. Bacteriologist, Investigations of
Animal Diseases
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MILK FEEDING AND ITS INFLUENCE ON GROWTH
AND MORTALITY. A COMPARATIVE STUDY
OF THE VALUE OF SWEET AND
SOUR MILK/
Leo F. Rettger Wm. F. Kirkpatrick Leslie E. Caru
Experimental milk feeding was begun at the Storrs Station
in the summer of 1912. Its sole object at that time was to
determine what beneficial influence it might exert in the
prevention of epidemic bacillary white diarrhea. During the
first year that the milk feeding experiments were conducted
a marked reduction in mortality from white diarrhea was
brought about in the pens that were supplied with the milk.
During the following breeding season little or no beneficial
influence on the mortality from this disease could be observed,
and thus the results of the preceding year were to a large ex-
tent discounted. A most satisfactory explanation has since then
been obtained, however, for the differences in the results, as
will be seen later in this bulletin.
By far the most important data were those which related to
growth and mortality' from all causes. It was most conclusively
shown in all of the experiments that milk feeding stimulated
growth and caused a great reduction in deaths from general
causes. Not only were the chicks which received the milk much
larger than those that did not, but they appeared in every way
to be stronger and more vigorous. These results have been
fully substantiated in*all subsequent experiments.
The feeding of sour milk as a possible means of preventing
or even curing bacillary white diarrhea was undertaken on the
hypothesis that either the acid or the acid-producing bacteria
might exert a favorable influence, in accordance with the well
known views of Metchnikoff. It was assumed that if the milk
1. Full credit is due Thomas G. Hull and Roy E. Jones for the
valuable assistance they rendered In connection with this investigation.
2. See Bulletins 74 and 77 of the Storrs Agricultural Experiment
Station.
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4 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 80.
was taken soon enough by the chicks the specific organism, Bac-
terium pullorum, which is known to produce the disease, might
be greatly retarded in its development in the crop and gastro-
intestinal tract, and hence fail to seriously affect the chicks ; or,
that the large number of milk-souring bacteria might by a simple
process of displacement keep the number of white diarrhea bac-
teria relatively small, or entirely eliminate them.
While the first year's work indicated that the sour milk
feeding had a decidedly nutritional value or that it exerted a
stimulating influence on the digestive and metabolic processes,
aside from the lowering of mortality from white diarrhea and
from all causes, there was nothing to show whether or not the
acidity in itself or the acid-producing bacteria played an impor-
tant role. It was with the particular view of definitely deter-
mining this question that the work of the two following years
was planned.
During the season of 1913 seven different experiments were
carried to completion, the number of chicks, including the con-
trol lots, being 1,824. Four of these experiments involved the
use of naturally soured and of so-called "bulgaricus" milk. (For
a full description of the methods and results see Bulletin 77).
In the comparative study of the value of ordinary sour milk
and that which is soured by Bacillus bulgaricus 978 chicks were
employed, one-third of which were fed the natural product, a
second lot of 326 the bulgaricus milk, and the remaining third
no milk at all. Furthermore, in every experiment each of these
three lots was divided into two groups, the one of which was
artificially infected with pure bouillon cultures of B. pullorum,
and the other used as controls (uninfected). A record was
kept of all of the food, so that at the end of each experiment
the amount of total dry feed, milk, total solid matter, and amount
of acid consumed could be determined, the acidity of the milk
being determined from time to time by titration.
The results of the feeding of the two kinds of sour milk
were essentially the same. The slight differences that were ob-
served favored the naturally soured milk. Although the total
amount of ordinary sour milk consumed was greater than that
of the bulgaricus milk, the total amount of acid in the latter
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VALUE OF ACIDITY IN MILK. 5
was far iil excess of the acidity of the natural product. The
total mortality of the chicks was practically the same in both
instances, namely 45.3 per cent, for the chicks receiving the or-
dinary sour milk, and 47.3 per cent, for the lots that were fed
the bulgaricus milk. These are the combined results for in-
fected and uninfected chicks.
The chicks that were given the naturally soured milk, Exp.
D, F and G, gained 0.89 pound, or 14.2 per cent., more per ten
chicks than those receiving the bulgaricus product. Since the
former group consumed more food (both dry feed and milk),
but less acid, than the bulgaricus group, the greater gain in
weight must be attributed to the food as such. In fact, the
difference in gain corresponds quite closely to the difference in
the total amount of solid matter in the food, namely 12.9 per
cent., the sour milk chicks consuming 20.46 pounds and the Bul-
garicus milk lots 17.81 pounds*. Not only was there a larger
absolute gain in the weight of the sour milk chicks, but the gain
per pound of solid matter consumed was greater than in the
Bulgaricus milk lots. The naturally soured product was the
more appetizing, 115.6 pounds of it being used in experiments
D, F and G, as compared with 105.5 pounds of the milk that
was soured by B. bulgaricus.
If the value of sour milk feeding depends upon the acidity
of the milk, or on the activities of the milk-souring bacteria,
the bulgaricus milk should have given the more promising re-
sults.
As in the previous year, sour milk feeding as such, whether
ordinary sour milk or the bulgaricus product was employed,
had a most beneficial effect in so far as growth and mortality
from all causes were concerned. While it was clearly shown
that differences in the degrees of acidity were of little or no im-
portance, and that the substitution of a very active type of sour-
ing bacteria for one which is less energetic failed to influence
the results, more information was still necessary to furnish a
satisfactory explanation of the value of sour milk feeding. Con-
1. Note. — The figures given in paragraph 1 on page 303 of Bulle-
tin 77 should be corrected to agree with the above. The errors In
calculation were not detected soon enough to be corrected in the
bulletin.
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6 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 80.
sequently, a comparative study was made of the value of sweet
and of sour milk, with reference to growth and mortality from
bacillary white diarrhea, as well as from other causes.
Eight complete experiments were conducted, involving the
use of 2,250 chicks. The plan of these experiments was prac-
tically the same as that of the two preceding years. Each lot
of newly-hatched chicks was divided as uniformly as possible
into six different experimental groups, numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and
6. Nvunbers 1, 2 and 3 were artificially infected with bouillon
cultures of B. puUorum by means of a small pipette or medicine
dropper, while 4, 5 and 6 were allowed to remain uninfected.
Numbers 1 and 4 were fed ordinary well soured milk; 2 and
5 were given sweet milk, and 3 and 6 received no milk. Thus,
pens 4, 5 and 6 (uninfected) served as controls for pens 1, 2
and 3; and pens 3 and 6 were checks (without milk) for pens
1, 2, 4 and 5. In all but two of the experiments the sweet
milk was thickened with rennet tablets. The fresh milk was
supplied at least twice a day, usually early in the morning and
at noon.
The scheme of infection was somewhat varied. In the
first six experiments pens 1, 2 and 3 were given from three to
four drops of a 48-hour bouillon culture of B. pullorum when they
were 24 hours old. The cultural material was placed in the
beak in such a way that the chicks were compelled to swallow
it. This treatment was repeated on each of the four succeed-
ing days, at intervals of 24 hours. In the last two experiments
(G and H) the chicks were not infected until they were three
and four days old. Like the others, they were infected five
times, at 24-hour intervals.
All of the milk-fed chicks received the milk immediately
after they were removed from the incubators, approximately
24 hours after hatching. Therefore, in six of the experiments
the chicks were artificially infected at the same time that the
milk was supplied to them, as well as four days after. In the
remaining experiments the infection was postponed until thd
milk had been fed three and four days respectively. The pur-
pose of delaying the artificial infection with B. pullorum was
to give the chicks all the advantages that early milk feeding
might possess, especially in so far as increasing bodily vigor is
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INFLUENCE OF MILK FEEDING ON GROWTH. 7
concerned. This phase of the subject will be more fully dis-
cussed in another part of this bulletin.
The method of feeding the milk was the same as in pre-
ceding years. The milk was weighed out into galvanized shallow
pans, over which inch mesh wire was fastened to keep the
chicks from wading in the pans.
In the accompanying tables are recorded the numbers of
chicks in each pen at the beginning of each week, the weekly
weights of the chicks, the amount of dry feed and of milk
consvmied each week, the total gains of the chicks, the total
dry feed and milk taken, the gains in weight per ten chicks
for each pound of total solids (including the milk) consumed,
and the mortality. The solids in the milk were estimated at
10 per cent.
INFLUENCE OF MILK FEEDING ON GROWTH.
Little comment should be necessary to clarify the results
as given in the tables and the curves. It will be seen at a glance
that the feeding of sweet and of sour milk was followed in
every instance by a marked increase in the weights of the chicks
as compared with those which received no milk. This state-
ment applies to both the infected and uninfected groups. The
differences, in several cases, in the weights of the milk-fed
lots and those which were not supplied with milk amounted to
over 80 per cent., and in two instances (Table D, Pen 6, and
Table F, Pen 6) to more than 100 per cent. The differences
vary in a large measure in direct proportion to the amounts of
total solids consumed; nevertheless, it will be seen that, aside
from stimulating appetite for the dry feed, the milk served the
important function of bringing about a more complete utiliza-
tion of the food.
The following summary of gains per ten chicks gives the
actual figures. The combined results on the 2,250 chicks show
that those which received the sour milk gained 0.26 pound per
ten chicks for each pound of total solids consumed; the chicks
that were fed sweet milk made a corresponding gain of 0.25
pound, and those which were not given any milk 0.20 pound
In other words the milk- fed chicks gained respectivel*
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8 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 80.
30 per cent, and 25 per cent, more in weight per pound of
solid food than the chicks which received no milk, the sour
milk chicks enjoying the slight advantage of 5 per cent.
Average Total Gain in Weight per 10 Chicks.
Infected chicks: —
Fed sour milk 4.62 pounds
Fed sweet milk 4.17
Not fed milk 2.65 "
Uninfected chicks : —
Fed sour milk 5.07 pounds
Fed sweet milk 4.71 "
Not fed milk 3.12 "
All chicks combined : —
Fed sour milk 4.84 pounds
Fed sweet milk 4.44 "
Not fed milk 2.88 "
Gain per 10 chicks per lb. total solid food.
No. chicks in exps. Sour milk Sweet milk No milk
Infected 1125 0.25 lbs. 0.24 lbs. 0.19 lbs.
Uninfected 1125 0.27 lbs. 0.26 lbs. 0.22 lbs.
Average for infected and uninfected combined
2260 0.26 lbs. 0.25 lbs. 0.20 lbs.
INFLUENCE OF MILK FEEDING ON MORTALITY.
While the results pertaining to the gains in body weight
slightly favored the use of sour milk as compared with the sweet,
the mortality figures show an appreciable increase in the deaths
of sour milk chicks as compared with the sweet milk chicks.
Thus the total mortality of the former was 40 per cent, (in-
fected group) and 17 per cent, (uninfected chicks), and of
those receiving sweet milk 39 per cent, (infected) and 16 per
cent, (uninfected) ; in others words, there were 2.6 per cent,
more deaths in the infected, and 6 per cent, more in the unin-
fected sour milk group than in the corresponding lots that were
fed sweet milk. These differences lie quite within the limits of
possible error, however, and too much importance should not be
attached to them.
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INFLUENCE OF MILK FEEDING ON MORTALITY. 9
The most striking differences in mortality occurred between
the milk-fed chicks as a whole and those which were not sup-
plied with milk, the actual differences (in favor of milk) being
36.7 per cent, for the infected groups and 81.8 per cent, for the
uninfected. The following mortality table give the results in
some detail:
Total Mortality Table,
No. in Infected groups Uninfected groups
Exp. ea. pen Sour milk Sweet milk No milk Sour milk Sweet milk No milk.
A 31 11 4 4 10 4 6
B 38 17 22 31 9 10 2
G 38 20 22 24 4 3 5
D 59 2 4 10 3 6 3
E 49 30 30 40 3 10 26
F 60 49 48 60 26 23 60
G 60 16 9 24 6 2 10
H 60 6 6 8 6 3 14
Totals, 161 146 201 66 61 114
Per cent, 40 39 64 17 16 30
Total for the three infected groups 497
Total for the three uninfected groups 240
The results obtained in experiments A and B were not as
satisfactory nor as well-defined as in the other experiments. The
chicks were hatched in March, and had to be kept indoors for
the greater part of the time they were under observation, the
weather being very cold. Considerable leg-weakness developed
which was confined largely to the pens receiving milk; the sour
milk pens in experiment A were most seriously affected. This
was due, in all probability, to the fact that more milk was con-
sumed by these chicks than by the corresponding sweet milk lots,
and that the conditions were more favorable for weak legs than
when Experiment B was conducted. It was very evident that
the milk fed chicks were growing too fast under the conditions
of close confinement and in the absence of proper exercise.
It appears, therefore, that in the case of early hatched chicks
that are brooded wholly or for the most part indoors, it is
necessary to exercise caution in feeding milk or else the chicks
may be grown off their feet. When milk is supplied freely to
chicks it becomes all the more important that they have abundant
exercise.
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10 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 80.
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18 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 80.
MILK FEEDING.
Curves indicate weight in pounds per 10 chicks^ over a period of 6
weeks ; each curve based on a total of 375 chicks in eight different experi-
ments, viz ; A, B, C, D, E, F, G & H.
6
/
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Ibt.
Weeks 12 3 4 5 6
Infected chicks that were fed sour miUc.
Infected chicks that were fed sweet milk.
Infected chicks that were not fed milk.
The mortality in Experiment F was unusually high in all
of the pens, especially the uninfected lots. These figures alone
constitute a large part of the total mortality. They may be ex-
plained, however, by the fact that the chicks which were employed
in this experiment were of low vitality, which was shown in
various ways, aside from the high death rate. The relative mor-
tality of the milk fed chicks and those that were not supplied
with milk is, however, about the same as the average tor the
eight experiments.
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GROWTH CURVES^ INFECTED AND UNINFECTED CHICKS. 19
MILK FEEDING.
Curves indicate weight in pounds per 10 chicks over a period of 6
weeks; each curve based on a total of 375 chicks in eight (Afferent ex-
penments, viz ; A, B, C, D, E, F, G & H.
lbs.
/
/ y
/ /
/ /
/
//
/
//
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^Uninfected chicks that were fed sour milk.
Uninfected chicks that were fed sweet milk.
Uninfected chicks that were not fed milk.
In so far as body growth and mortality from all causes are
concerned, the results of the last year's experiments on milk
feeding were in thorough accord with those of the preceding
year. As to the influence of milk feeding on the mortality of
chicks which were artificially infected with Bacterium puUonmi
there is little agreement, however, between the results of these
two series of investigations. On the other hand, a comparison of
this season's data (1914) with those of 1912 does reveal a striking
similarity in the life-saving influence of milk. (See Bulletin 74).
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20 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 80
MILK FEEDING.
Curves indicate total gain in pounds over a period of 6 weeks; each
curve based on a total of 375 chicks in eight different experiments, viz;
A, B, C, D, E, F, G & H.
iCUU
150
y'
100
50
^->>'
.^'--
^
^
^
lbs.
Weeks
I a. Infected chicks that were fed sour milk.
^Infected chicks that were fed sweet milk.
.» Infected chicks that were not fed milk.
-Uninfected chicks that were fed sour milk.
Uninfected chicks that were fed sweet milk.
Uninfected chicks that were not fed milk.
In the work of 1912 the following plan of artificial infec-
tion was followed, with the exception of two of the experiments.
The chicks of each brood were divided into six different lots
when 24 to 36 hours old. Four of these uniform lots were in-
fected with bouillon cultures of B. pullorum at ages varying from
24 to 60 hours ; the remaining two were left for controls. Two
of the infected pens were supplied with sour milk from the be-
ginning of the experiments. In addition to receiving 6 to 8
drops of the culture which were introduced into the beaks by
means of a medicine dropper, the infected lots were further ex-
posed to the organism in question in that several drops of the
bouillon culture were poured into the drinking fountains daily
for seven or eight days. Thus, the chicks in these pens were
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GROWTH AND MORTALITY CURVES.
21
MILK FEEDING.
Curves indicate actual mortality over a period of 6 weeks; each curve
based on a total of 375 chicks in eight different experiments, viz; A, B,
C, D, E, F, G & H.
250
200
150
100
50
No.
Chiclifl
^
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.infected chicks that were fed sour milk.
■M Infected chicks that were fed sweet milk.
■■■Infected chicks that were not fed milk.
--Uninfected chicks that were fed sour milk.
— ^Uninfected chicks that were fed sweet milk.
— Uninfected chicks that were not fed milk.
constantly subject to re-infection for at least a week. In the
other two experiments the method employed was the same as has
just been described, but the chicks were divided into a smaller
number of groups.
In the investigation of 1913 the chicks were intentionally
infected but once, by means of the drop pipette, usually within
a short time after hatching. During the present year (1914)
the system of prolonging the period of active infection was
followed, but this differed from the method of 1912 in that the
chicks were daily given a definite number of drops (5-6) of a
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22 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 80.
Experiment A. Curves show weight per 10 chicks when 6 weeks old.
The experiment inyolyed 186 chicks.
i ^ t f t t r r 'f Ma
Pen 1. 81 Chicks artiikUllr infected
when 24 hours old, fed sour ndlk.
Pen S. 81 Chides artificially infected
when Si hours old, fed sweet milk.
Pen 8. 81 Chicks artificially infected
when 24 hours old, not fed millc
Pen i. 81 Uninfected chicks fed sour
milk.
Pen 6. 81 Uninfected chicks fed sweet
milk.
Pen 6. 81 Uninfected chicks not fed
milk.
Experiment B. Curves show weight per 10 chicks when 6 weeks old.
The experhnent involved 228 chicks.
Pen 1. 88 Chicks artificially infected
when 24 hours old, fed soar milk.
Pen 2. 88 Chicks artificially infected
when 24 hours old, fed sweet inilk.
Pen 8. 88 Chicks artificially infected
when 24 hours old, not fed milic
Pen 4. 88 Uninfected chicks fed sour
milk.
Pen 5. 88 Uninfected chicks fed sweet
milk.
Pen 6. 88 Uninfected chicks not fed
milk.
Experiment C. Curves show weight per 10 chicks when 6 weeks old.
The experiment involved 228 chicks.
Pen 1. 88 Chicks artificially infected
when 24 hours old, fed sour nulk.
Pen 2. 88 Chicks artificially infected
when 24 hours old, fed sweet milk.
Pen 8. 88 Chicks artificially infected
when 24 hours old, not fed milk.
Pen 4. 38 Uninfected chicks fed soar
milk.
Pen 5. 88 Uninfected chicks fed sweet
milk.
Pen 6. 88 Uninfected chicks not fed
milk.
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GROWTH CURVES, INFECTED AND UNINFECTED CHICKS. 23
Experiment D.
Curves show weight per 10 chicks when 6 weeks old.
The experiment involyed 354 chicks.
9
"T
20
T ( \ »bs.
Pen 1. 69 Chicks artificially infected
when 24 hours old, led sour milk.
Pen S. 69 Chicks artificially infected
when 24 hours old» fed sweet mijk.
Pen 8. 69 Chicks artificially infected
when 24 hours old, not fed milk.
Pen 4.
milk.
69 Uninfected chicks fed sour
Pen 6. 69 Uninfected chicks fed sweet
milk.
Pen 6. 69 Uninfected chicks not fed
milk.
Experiment E. Curves show weight per 10 chicks when 6 weeks old.
The experiment involved 294 chicks.
Pen 1.
when 24
Pen 2.
when 24
Pen 3.
when 24
Pen 4.
milk.
Pen 5.
milk.
Pen 6.
milk.
49 Chicks artificially infected
hours old, fed sour milk.
49 Chicks artificially infected
hours old, fed sweet milk.
49 Chicks artificTally infected
hours old, not fed milk.
49 Uninfected chicks fed sour
49 Uninfected chicks fed sweet
49 Uninfected chicks *^not fed
Experiment F. Curves show weight per 10 chicks when 6 weeks old.
The experiment involved 360 chicks.
Pen 1. 60 Chicks., artificially, infected
when 24 hours old, fed sour milk.
Pen 2. 60 Chicks artificially infected
when 24 hours old. ted sweet milk.
Pen 8. 60 Chicks artificially infected
when 24 hours old, not fed milk. (All
chicks died before end of exp.)
Pen 4. 60 Uninfected chicks fed sour
milk.
Pen 6. 60 Uninfected chicks fed sweet
milk.
Pen 6. 60 Uninfected chicks not fed
milk.
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24 STORKS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BULLETIN 80.
Experiment G. Curves show weight per 10 chicks when 6 weeks old.
The experiment involved 300 chicks.
■^— Ft
SO
y /U
Pen 1. 60 Chicks artificially infected
when 96 hours old, fed sour milk.
Pen 9. 50 Chicks artificially infected
when 96 hours old, fed sweet milk.
Pen 8. 60 Chicks artificially infected
when 96 hours old, not fed milk.
Pen 4. -60 Uninfected chicks fed sour
milk.
Pen 6. 50 Uninfected chicks fed sweet
milk.
Pen 6. 50 Uninfected chicks not fed
milk.
Experiment H. Curves show weight per 10 chicks when 6 weeks old.
The experiment involved 300 chicks.
Pen 1. 60 Chicks artificially infected
when 72 hours old, fed sour milk.
Pen 2. 60 Chicks artificially infected
when 78 hours old, fed sweet milk.
Pen S. 50 Chicks artificially infected
when 72 hours old, not fed milk.
Pen 4. 50 Uninfected chicks fed sour
milk.
Pen 6. 60 Uninfected chicks fed sweet
milk.
Pen 6. 60 Uninfected chicks not fed
milk.
All Experiments. Curves show weight of feed consumed per 10 chicks.
The experiments involved 2»260 chicks.
2f /is.
1.600 Chicks fed milk (sweet and soar).
750 Chicks not fed milk.
760 Chicks fed sour milk.
750 Chicks fed sweet milk.
750 Chicks not fed lAilk.
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GROWTH AND FEED CURVES.
25
All Experiments. Curves show weight per 10 chicks when 6 weeks old.
The experiments involved 2,250 chicks.
^ ^ ^ t f t r fi y ipit..
375 Infected chicks fed sour milk.
375 Infected chicks fed sweet milk.
375 Infected chicks not fed milk.
375 Uninfected chicks fed sour milk.
875 Uninfected chicks fed sweet milk.
375 Uninfected chicks not fed milk.
Combined curves. Infected and uninfected chicks.
750 Chicks fed sour milk.
750 Chicks fed sweet milk.
750 Chicks not fed milk.
All Experiments. Curves show weight of feed consumed per 10 chicks,
o f {o 15^ zp /u
375 Infected chicks fed sour milk.
375 Infected chicks fed «wcct milk.
375 Infected chicks not fed milk.
375 Uninfected chicks fed sour milk.
375 Uninfected chicks fed sweet milk.
375 Uninfected chicks not fed milk.
Combined curves. Milk versus no milk.
750 Infected chicks fed milk (sweet tnd
sour). «
875 Infected chicks not fed milk.
750 Uninfected chicks fed milk (sweet
and sour).
875 Uninfected chicks not fed milk.
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26 STORKS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 80.
bouillon culture of B. pullonun for five consecutive days, the
first treatment being given at ages ranging from one to four
days. The milk, both sweet and sour, was supplied immediately
after the chicks were removed from the incubators, about 24
hours after hatching. The chicks in the infected pens were,
therefore, subjected daily to new infection for at least five days
after the milk feeding was begun, and in one experiment for
as long a period as nine days.
There appears to be but one satisfactory explanation of the
favorable influence of milk feeding on the mortality of chicks
that were artificially infected with B. pullorum in the investiga-
tions of 1912 and 1914. The early and continued feeding of
milk, whether sweet or sour, stimulated growth and vigor to
such an extent as to materially increase the resistance of the
chicks to the organism in question. In other words, early milk
feeding and late prolonged infection are responsible for the
marked differences observed in the mortality of the chicks that
received the milk and those that were without it. According
to this interpretation, milk has the property, when fed early
enough, of increasing vitality and indirectly of strengthening
resistance to disease.
That this important function which milk possesses is not due
to acids that may be present, or to bacteria, especially those
of the acid-producing type, has been clearly demonstrated in
our experiments. Whether the milk was fed as sweet or natural-
ly soured, or acidified by means of Bacillus bulgaricus, the re-
sults were essentially the same. In each case a most favorable
influence was exerted 6n the growth of the chicks, and when
the milk was supplied soon enough the death-rate of the chicks
was kept decidedly below that of the pens which received no
milk. Hence, milk, whether it is sweet or sour, is an important
food for young chicks.
That acid-producing bacteria are in no way responsible for
the important results that were brought about by the milk feed-
ing was further shown as follows. It was observed that fowls
which were receiving the ordinary mixed grain arid mash har-
bored in their intestines large numbers of acid-producing bac-
teria very closely allied to the Bulgjaricus bacillus of MetchnikoflF.
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FUNCTION OF ACID PRODUCING BACTERIA. 27
This was true whether the fowls were given milk or not. Similar
results were obtained in white rats. Furthermore, when fowls
or rats were fed a diet that consisted essentially of bread and
green food (grass or vegetables), very few or no bacteria of
this type were found in the feces or droppings. When milk
or ordinary milk sugar was supplied, in addition to the bread
and green food, the acidophilus bacilli (resembling B. bulgaric-
us) were present in the intestine in enormous numbers.
It was also shown that if large numbers of B. bulgaricus
grown on the surface of ordinary nutrient agar were fed to rats
which were on a bread and vegetable diet alone the bacteria
did not appear in the feces, but were apparently destroyed some-
where in the digestive tract. On the other hand, the feeding
of sterile milk or of lactose to rats subsisting on a bread and
vegetable diet, and in which the acidophilus t3T)e of bacteria was
apparently absent, quickly brought about the development of
numerous organisms of this type. In other words, the displace-
ment of bacteria which ordinarily occur in the intestine, by the
ingestion of organisms of a diflferent character, takes place under
unusual circumstances only, if indeed at all, except in disease like
t)rphoid fever, dysentery, cholera, etc. Such a displacement may
readily be brought about, however, by the use of milk in almost
any form, or by the feeding of milk sugar, or lactose.
That either sweet or sour milk may be used successfully as
food for young chicks is of considerable importance. In the
warm summer months it is more practical to feed ordinary sour
milk. In fact, it is from a practical standpoint impossible to
feed sweet milk, as any milk that is supplied to the chicks will
even in the course of an hour or two undergo marked souring.
On the other hand, in the early spring it is difficult to obtain
milk at will that is sufficiently soured to be classed as sour milk.
Hence, it may be left to the individual owner whether sweet or
sour milk is to be used. The same kind of milk should be fed,
hov^rever, throughout a milk feeding period.
It should be stated that in all of our work on milk feeding
we have obtained no evidence that milk was in the least injuri-
ous, no matter how young the chicks, or how sour the milk.
Every precaution was always taken to prevent the feeding of
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28 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 80.
milk that was musty or mouldy. No milk should be fed that
is filthy or that has been held too long. The receptacles should
be cleaned and scalded frequently, in order that the best re-
sults may be obtained.
The addition of junket tablets to sweet milk is unnecessar>'
in practical milk feeding, as the liquid milk is apparently relished
to the same extent as milk that has been curdled with rennet.
CONCLUSIONS.
The feeding of milk to young chicks has a most favorable
influence on the growth and on the lessening of mortality of
the chicks. It tends to prevent mortality from all causes, and
if fed soon enough and for a sufficiently long period, greatly
reduces the death-rate caused by bacillary white diarrhea.
Sweet and sour milk are apparently of equal value in their
relation to growth and mortality. Furthermore, different de-
grees of souring do not alter the results of milk feeding.
The value of milk as a food for chicks does not depend
upon any acids that may be present, nor upon any particular
types of micro-organisms ; but upon one or more of the natural
constituents of the milk.
When milk is supplied freely to chicks, it becomes all the
more important that they have abundant exercise. This applies
more particularly to early hatched chicks that are brooded wholly
or for the most part indoors.
The feeding of sweet or sour milk to young chicks has in
no instance been found to be in any way injurious to the chicks
employed in our numerous experiments. If the milk is clean,
and not too old, none but the most favorable results should
accompany its use as a food for chicks. There is no preference
in the choice of sweet or of sour milk, except from the standpoint
of convenience. The use of the one or the other should be
determined by the circumstances. However, it seems very de-
sirable that the same kind of milk be supplied throughout the
milk feeding period. If the choice is that of sour milk, sour
milk should be fed to the end.
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STORRS
Agricultural Experiment Station
STORIES, CONNECTICUT
BULLETIN 81, JUNE, 1915
PoiLTRY House Construction
Rov E. Jones Leslie E. Card
Conn. Agr'l College Storrs Agricultural
Extension Service Experiment Station
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BOARD OF CONTROL
THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES
OF THE
CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
Governor Marcus H. Holcomb
E. Stevens Henry
George A. Hopson
L. J. Storrs
Charles M. Jarvis
J. W. Alsop
E. Kent Hubbard, Jr.
O. F. King
H. G. Manchester
Wilson H. Lee
C. L. Beach, B. Agr., B. S., Pres,, Conn, Agricultural College
STATION STAFF
E. H. Jenkins, Ph. D. Director
AGRONOMY DEPARTMENT.
W. L. Slate, Jr., B. S. Agr. Agronomist
Benjamin G. Southwick, B. So. Assistant Agronomist
BACTERIOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT.
W. M. EsTEN, M. S. Bacteriologist
Christie J. Mason, B. Agr. Assistant Bacteriologist
Edna E. Jackson ^ Assistant
CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT.
H. D. Edmond, B. S. Chemist
DAIRY DEPARTMENT.
G. C. White, B. S. A., A. M. Dairy Husbandman
H. F. Judkins, B. S. Assistant Dairy Husbandman
ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY.
G. H. Lamson, M. S. Zoologist
POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
Wm. F. Kirkpatrick, B. Agr., B. E. Poultry Husbandman
Leslie E. Card, B. S. Assistant Poultry Husbandman
Leo F. Rettger, Ph. D. Bacteriologist, Investigations of
Animal Diseases
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POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION.
Roy E. Jones. Leslie E. Card.
The purpose of this bulletin is to present in concise fomi
some of the essential points to be considered in poultry house con-
struction and to give the plans and specifications for some of the
houses that have given good results at this station. The plans
given are not the original work of any one person but are the re-
sult of a combination of the ideas of several members of this de-
partment with ideas gathered from various parts of the country.
It is not necessary for all poultrymen to have the same type
of house in order to obtain satisfactory results but there are sev-
eral well established principles which must be considered if good
results are to be secured.
Any successful poultry house should be built economically
and must furnish dry, comfortable quarters entirely free from
drafts. It must also be constructed to meet two extremes of tem-
perature which are plainly marked by an increase in the price of
eggs. The highest price of eggs comes during the first extremely
cold winter weather and without warmly constructed houses the
egg yield will fall and much of the year's profit will be lost before
the hens can be coaxed back to normal production. An exactly
opposite condition comes in the latter part of July and August.
During the hot, sultry nights the houses must be cool and well
ventilated or a decrease in egg yield will result which can never
be regained during the late summer and fall months.
Sunlight is the best known germ destroyer, therefore, all
windows or openings should be so located that the sun may reach
every part of the interior of the house as many hours as possible
during each day. A safe proportion of glass to use is 1 sq. ft. of
glass to each 12 sq. ft. of floor space.
Fowls give oflF a great deal of moisture from their lungs and
sufficient ventilation must be provided to take care of this mois-
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32 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 81.
ture at all times. Dampness and impure air are closely associated
and are nearly always due to improper ventilation. A curtain
made of very thin unbleached muslin will allow fresh air to pass
in and the moist, foul air to pass out, thus fufnishing plenty of
ventilation without drafts. These curtains are for use only dur-
ing cold weather and should always be open during the day ex
cept when it is necessary to close them for protection against
storm.
Windows may be placed either in the fropt or ends as best
suits the type of house but the curtain area should be as near the
center of the front as possible in order to prevent the wind blow-
ing in one end of the house, sweeping across the floor and out at
the other end. A safe rule to follow in estimating the curtain
area is to allow 1 sq. ft. of cloth to each 6 sq. ft. of floor space.
The house should be located in a sheltered place where there
is good water and air drainage in order that the floor and yards
may be dry. It should be within reasonable distance of the other
farm buildings so that the labor of caring for the hens may be
reduced to a minimum. If possible the house should face the
south in order to admit the greatest amount of sunlight. A south-
east is better than a southwest exposure for the hens seem to
prefer morning to afternoon sun.
The type of floor to be used is a point for careful considera-
tion. Decision will be based largely on the type of soil, the drain-
age, and whether the houses are to be permanent or portable.
The hens seem to prefer a dirt floor and it provides a natural
dust bath at all seasons of the year. The additional cost of clean-
ing is easily paid for by having the fertilizing material in less con-
centrated and more available form. It is best to put a layer of
sand five or six inches deep over the dirt as this will help to keep
the house dry and at the same time will prevent excessive dust.
For a permanent, moisture-proof and rat-proof floor, concrete
well insulated with a layer of tarred paper, is best. All concrete
floors should be covered with a layer of sand and a thick layer
of litter to make the birds more comfortable and to facilitate
cleaning. A board floor can be used to best advantage in a port-
able house that is likely to be moved at any season of the year.
The board floor strengthens the house, makes it warm and dry
and allows the birds to be shut in and moved with the house.
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POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 33
All interior fixtures should be movable to permit of easy and
thorough cleaning and should be up off the floor so as to leave
the floor space all clear for the hens.
Poultry houses are constructed of all kinds of lumber, from
the best matched lumber down to the roughest box boards. The
one essential is that tlie house be tight on three sides. A good
grade of roofing paper will accomplish this but the life of the
paper will depend largely upon the kind of boarding to which it
is fastened. Matched boards will prevent the paper being torn
off by the wind which often happens where rough boards are
used. The increased life of the paper will in the end pay for the
extra cost of better lumber.
The skids or runners under a portable house should be of
some weather resisting material and their lasting qualities may
be greatly increased by treating with wood preserv^ative.
All frame material should be as light as possible and still
give the necessary strength to the building.
THE CONTEST HOUSE.
The Contest House was designed for use in the International
Egg Laying Competition. It is a portable house 12'xl2', 6' high
at the eaves and 8' 4" at the peak. It is divided through the
middle in order to accommodate two pens. With the partition
removed it would afford sufficient capacity for 30 to 35 hens.
For ordinary use where it is not desired to trapnest, the back
may be cut down at least a foot and the roof made two-thirds
instead of even span thus reducing the air space and making the
house warmer. The house as shown, gives more head room for
the attendant and this is important when birds are being trap-
nested and many trips have to be made to the back part of each
pen.
Fig. 1 shows a front view of this house giving size and loca-
tion of doors and cloth curtains. The muslin curtains are hinged
at the top and swing in, being fastened up by means of hooks
made from thin strap iron. Fig. 2 is an end view of the house.
The windows slide toward the front. The roosts and dropping
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34 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 81.
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POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION.
35
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36 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 81.
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POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION.
37
The Contest House.
The Colony Brooder House.
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38 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 81.
boards are movable as are also the trapnests which are hung be-
neath the dropping boards. Details of the nest are shown on
page 52. The exit door for the hens slides up and down and is
held open by means of a piece of wire looped over a nail in the
door. The 2"x3" girder across the end of the house is, placed in
such a way as to support the dropping board at one end and the
window at the other. A floor plan of the house is shown in
Fig. 3. The feeding rack which suppUes both pens is made of
slats so that all filth may fall through to the floor. A large
enough opening is left above it to admit a drinking pan which
also supplies both pens. The feeding rack also supports a mash
hopper in each pen. Small removable boxes for grit, shell and
charcoal are fastened to the partition above the feeding rack and
within easy reach. The rear half of the partition between the
pens is boarded up solid while the front half is boarded for only
2 ft. from the floor, or to the level of the curtain sill in front, the
upper part being made of two-inch mesh wire netting. The
housq is being used with a dirt floor but is so constructed that a
board floor may be put in if it is found desirable.
Following is a bill of materials for this house :
Skids 2— 4"x6"x14'.
Studding— 12— 2"x3"xl2'.
Rafters— 5— 2"x3"xl4'.
Matched Boards — 700 bd. ft.
Roofing Paper — 1 rolls.
Windows — 2 sash, each containing 6— 10"xl2" lights.
Unbleached Muslin — 3 yds. — 36" wide.
Wire— 25'— 2" mesh, 36" wide.
Nails— 10 lbs. 8d; 5 lbs. lOd; 4 lbs. 20d.
Hinges — 4 loose pin butts for curtains.
4 T-hinges for doors.
Locks or Latches for Doors.
THE GILBERT FARM POULTRY HOUSE.
This house is designed to fit average farm conditions.
Being 16'x25' it will accommodate from 100 to 125 birds and
costs approximately $100 to build. This price does not include
the foundation which should be of concrete or stone.
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IMJULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION.
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POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION.
41
Fig. 6. Detail of curtain sill.
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42 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 81.
The sliding windows and dropping boards are supported on
girders as shown in Fig. 4. The roof is supported by tie beams,
thus giving an absolutely clear floor space. Because of the heavy
strain on the rafters the dropping boards are supported in the
center by a brace running back to the sill rather than being sup-
l)orted from the roof. The roosts are supported on a frame
which may be fastened up against the rafters for convenience
while cleaning.
The curtain frames are hinged at the top and are supported
when open by wooden catches on the tie beams. Fig. 6 shews the
detail of the curtain sill. This is designed to keep out wind and
rain and at the same time to work easily and without binding.
The •)4'' square strip nailed along the back of the sill prevents
rain from blowing in over the top of the sill and the combination
is very effective in shedding water during bad storms.
Very recently we have seen on several commercial plants a
type of curtain which slides up and down on the outside, being
balanced by a weight in some cases and in others supported by
a peg beneath the curtain. The chief points in favor of this type
are — the curtain is always perpendicular and does not get loaded
with dust ; the bottom of the curtain extends below the top of the
opening and absolutely prevents any rain getting in; with the
eaves projecting well out over the front the curtain may be left
open any desired distance to suit weather conditions.
Fig. 5 shows the front and rear views of the house with
dimensions. The hen exit is best located in the front to prevent
cold wind or draft but may be placed in the end or back if neces-
sary to suit any particular yarding condition.
The nests (see opposite page) are of a type that any
one can well afford to copy. The bottom is built as a
l)latform as long as the row of nests and as wide as the nests are
deep. The nests are built in sections and set on the platfonn.
When it is desired to clean out the nesting material, the nests are
simply pulled off the platform and all material falls to the floor
and can be removed. This is much easier than pulling the ma-
terial out of each individual nest. The nests may be fastened on
the end walls or supported beneath the drop boards. The chief
objection to putting them under the drop boards is that they are
necessarily so low and so far forward that a large amount of floor
space is i)ractically lost.
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POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION.
43
The Gilbert Farm Poultry House.
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44 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 81
The water dishes should be supported on a rack built against
the wall or on a movable platform set in any convenient place.
Detailed plan of a suitable dry mash hopper appears on page 53.
The house is well adapted to the colony system. Brooder
stoves may be placed in the house in the spring and the chicks
may be brooded and grown right in the house that they are to
occupy as mature birds. This plan does away with the necessity
of building brooder and colony growing houses and also prevents
any setback in the development of the birds due to moving in the
fall.
If desired this house can be extended to form a long house
with pens 16'x25'. This plan does away with one end wall for
each additional pen, but the writers feel that the advantages to be
gained by the colony system are more than enough to offset the
increased cost of housing.
Following is a bill of materials :
Sills— 2— 4"x4"xl2'.
" — 2— 4"x4"xl4'.
" — 2— 4"x4"xl6'.
Rafters— 17— 2"x4"xl2'.
Plates— 4— 2"x4"xl4'.
Studding— 12— 2"x3"xl6'.
Matched Boards — 1400 bd. ft.
Roofing Paper — 9 rolls.
Windows— 4 sash, each containing 6 — 10"xl4" lights.
Unbleached Muslin — 6 yds. — 42" wide.
Wire— 30'— 2" mesh, 48" wide.
Nails— 20 lbs. 8d ; 6 lbs. lOd ; 8 lbs. 20d.
Hinges — 8 loose pin butts for curtains.
4 T — hinges for doors.
Locks or Latches for Doors.
THE COLONY BROODER HOUSE.
The colony brooder house in use at this Station is of the shed
roof type 8'xl2' and has a capacity of about 300 chicks. It is
built on skids and is designed to be moved from place to place on
the range. One pair of horses can handle it easily on a short
haul. The house can be used with one coal stove brooder or two
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POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION.
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POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION.
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48 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 81.
lamp hovers and after the chicks have outgrown the brooding
equipment can be used to shelter the pullets until they are put in
the laying house in the fall. One great advantage with this type
of brooder house is that it can be conveniently located near the
other farm buildings while the chicks need frequent attention.
As the chicks get larger they may be moved to fresh ground at
any time by simply shutting them in and moving house and all.
A small temporary yard used for a day or two in each place w^ill
serve to accustom the chicks to the changed location.
Fig. 7 shows a front view of the house. The door in the
middle swings out. The two windows either side of the door
provide ample sunshine for the young chicks and may be removed
during the summer and fall. The cloth curtains which are
hinged at the top provide ventilation and may be hooked up
against the roof allowing free circulation of air without drafts.
The chick exits which are located one at each end in front are low
and rather wide to allow a large flock of hungry chickens to get out
or in without crowding. Fig. 10 shows the detail of the chick exit.
The ordinary sliding door running in a groove is a constant source
of trouble due to dirt getting in the groove or wet weather caus-
ing the wood to swell and make the door stick. By having the
door about six inches longer than the opening, beveling the bot-
tom and having it slide on a perfectly plain sill this difficulty will
be overcome and the door will never stick.
The skids are of 4"x6" chestnut cut oflf flush with the end of
the house for convenience in boarding up around the ends of the
house if such protection is desired. The floor is double boarded
with tarred paper between and is supported on 2"x4" pieces laid
flat in order to make the floor as low as possible.
Fig. 8 is an end view of the house showing swing of the cur-
tains and of the summer ventilator in the rear. The roosts, of
which there may be any number to accommodate the birds housed,
are supported on a girder which is 14 inches from the floor. The
roosts are placed low to encourage early roosting and to allow
free circulation of air over the birds during the hot summer
nights and still in a measure protect them from drafts. The
roosts are movable for ease in cleaning. It will be noted that
there are no perpendicular studs except those either side of the
door. This makes the floor much easier to clean.
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POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 49
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50 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 81.
Fig. 9 is a rear view of the house showing the size of the
summer ventilator which is hinged at the top and swings out.
The rafters run lengthwise of the house and the roof boards
run up and down, the object being to obtain more head room and
to cut down lumber expense. The entire house with the excep-
tion of the door and windows is covered with roofing paper.
When a coal stove brooder is used in this house the roosts
are removed and the stove set near the center of one end. The
stove pipe had best be run out the end of the house and then up
rather than up through the roof as in the latter case it is rather
difficult to prevent leaking around the pipe. -
If two lamp hovers are used in the house a board six inches
high running across the floor between them is all that is neces-
sary to keep the chicks evenly divided between the two hovers.
They will go back and forth over the board but at night will be
evenly divided whereas without this simple device they are apt
to crowd under one hover. The reason for this appears to be
the fact that the board prevents their seeing under both hovers at
the same time.
Following is a bill of materials :
Skids— 2— 4"x6"xl2'.
Sills— 7— 2"x4"x8'.
Rafters— 2— 2"x4"xl2'.
Girders— 9— 2"x3"xl2'.
Matched Boards — 700 bd. ft.
Roofing Paper — 3J4 rolls.
Windows — 2 sash, each containing 6 — 9"xl2'' lights.
Unbleached Muslin — 2 yds. — 32" wide.
Wire— 20 feet— 1" mesh, 30" wide.
Nails— 10 lbs. 8d; 3 lbs. lOd; 2 lbs. 20d.
Hinges — 4 loose pin butts for curtains.
2 T-hinges for door.
2 T-hinges for summer ventilator.
THE CONNECTICUT TRAP NEST.
The trap nest shown in Fig. 11 was developed in connection
with the International Egg Laying Contest and has been used suc-
cessfully in the Competition to date. The important parts of
this nest are the door and the trigger. The door is hung at the
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POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 51
top on No. 8 or 9 wire by means of strips of hoop iron tacked
along the edges of the door. These strips extend above the top
of the door and a hole is punched in the upper end throMgfr which
the wire runs. The door is made narrower at the bottom than
at the top to prevent its binding on the sides of the nest. The
door when completed and in place is practically proof against
trouble as there is nothing to get loose or wear out.
The dimensions of the trigger are shown in the diagram
(Fig. 11). The trigger is perhaps most easily made from a
J^"x2" strip. 'The 4J4" dimension and the 2}i" dimension may
be measured off on the two parallel edges which are two inches
apart. Then the 4J4" dimension may be drawn and the yi"
one perpendicular to it. This leaves only the 2^" line to be
drawn which is of course easily done. The point for making
the screw hole is determined as follows : draw a line parallel
to the 4J4" side and J4" from it. Then measure along
this line to a point 2^" from the point of the trigger. This
point will be the center of the screw hole. The screw hole should
be large enough to allow the trigger to work freely. It is well to
put one of the small tins sometimes used in laying tar paper be-
hind the trigger with the rounded side out. This will tend to
let the trigger act a little more freely. The screw holding the
trigger should be placed at a point about 6J4" from the bottom of
the nest and dyi" from the front.
The two cuts at the bottom of Fig 11 show all the other
dimensions of the nest. The backs are left open to facilitate
cleaning and the nests hung against the wall. If placed under
the dropping boards the tops may be left open also. If used for
a large flock the nests may be tiered up in rows in which case
only the top row would need to be covered as the bottom of one
row of nests would be the covers for the row below.
To set the nest when the door is closed insert the index
finger beneath the door and depress the forward end of the trig-
ger sufficiently to allow the door to open. Open the door until it
rests in the notch of the trigger when the rear end of the latter is
raised. When a hen enters the nest she lifts the door slightly
with her back, the trigger at once drops and the door swings shut.
A small block is placed under the trigger at such a height that
when the rear end of the trigger is resting upon it the front end
is held at a point just above the lower edge of the door when
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52 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 81.
Fig. 11. The Connecticut Trap Xest. Used in the International Egg
Laying Competition at Storrs, Conn.
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POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION.
53
■^
^^-><^xj:V- :;-<^^^^— ^^^.^VW^^:^^ ,„.,. ,.., ^ - - -|.
-l€
Fia 12. The Connecticut Dry Mash Hopper.
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54 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 81.
closed. This prevents the door from opening inward to admit
another hen until the occupant of the nest has been removed and
her egg recorded. A stop is necessary in front of each door to
prevent the door opening outward and thus allowing the hen to
escape. This may consist of a screw hook bent over, a small
block of wood or one of the small iron buttons commonly used
to fasten small cupboard doors. Whatever form of stop is used
should be fastened to the partition between the nests in such a
way that it will stop the door flush with the -front of the parti-
tion. The key to the successful operation of the nest lies in the
correct adjustment of the door and trigger.
Materials required for a set of three trap nests :
Boards— 2— %"x9"x7'.
1— %"x8i^"x3'.
1— %"x4"x3'4".
Furring— 3— %"x2"xl2'.
Wire — 40 inches No. 8 or 9.
Hoop Iron— 6 ft. %" wide.
Screws— 3—1. )4" long.
Nails Ys lb. 6d.
THE CONNECTICUT DRY MASH HOPPER.
There are a great many different kinds of dry mash hoppers
on the market, the object in most cases being to construct a con-
tainer which will hold mash enough to last a week or two and
keep a small amount before the birds at all times in such a way
that there will be no waste. Fig. 12 shows a hopper which has
given entire satisfaction. This hopper may be built in a parti-
tion so as to feed both ways, or may be cut in half and built
against the wall. It may also be constructed on a stand and
placed either in the center of the pen or out on the range. The
essential part of the hopper is the position of that part where the
mash feeds down. Too much space will cause waste and if the
space is too narrow the mash will not feed down properly. The
distance from the lighting board to the outside edge of the hopper
is important, as the hens have greater opportunity to waste if they
can stand close to the hopper and hook the mash out sideways.
This board should be placed at least four inches from the out-
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POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 55
side of the hopper. The hopper may be built any desired length
to accommodate the flock, the usual allowance being about 1 ft. for
each 12 or 15 hens. The hopper is made of inch boards with a
hinged cover for convenience in filling. A cover is also provided
for closing the feeding part of the hopper. Whether the hopper
is placed in the partition or on a movable stand it should be at
least 15 inches from the floor.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.
The authors wish to express their appreciation to Prof. Wm.
F. Kirkpatrick for his advice and counsel and for many valuable
suggestions in connection with this report.
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STORRS
Agricultural Experiment Station
STORIES, CONNECTICUT
BULLETIN 82, JULY, 1915
THIRD ANNUAL
INTERNATIONAL EGG LAYING
CONTEST
Wm. F. Kirkpatrick Leslie E. Card
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BOARD OF CONTROL
THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES
OF THE
CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
Governor Marcus H. Holcomb
J. W. Alsop
IVERSON C. F ANTON
E. Stevens Henry
E. Kent Hubbard, Jr.
Charles M. Jarvis
O. F. King
Wilson H. Lee
Charles E. Lyman
H. G. Manchester
C. L. Beach, B. Agr., B. S., Pres., Conn. Agricultural College
STATION STAFF
E. H. Jenkins, Ph. D. Director
AGRONOMY DEPARTMENT.
W. L. Slate, Jr., B. S. Agr. Agronomist
Benjamin G. Soutiiwick, B. So. Assistant Agronomist
BACTERIOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT.
W. M. Esten, M. S. Bacteriologist
Christie J. Mason, B. Agr. Assistant Bacteriologist
Edna E. Jackson Assistant
CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT.
H. D. Edmond, B: S. Chemist
DAIRY DEPARTMENT.
G. C. White, B. S. A., A. M. Dairy Husbandman
H. F. JuDKiNS, B. S. Assistant Dairy Husbandman
ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY.
G. H. Lamson, M. S. Zoologist
poultry department.
Wm. F. Kirkp-\trick, B. Agr., B. E. Poultry Husbandman
Leslie E. Card, B. S. Assistant Poultry Husbandman
Leo F. Rettger, Ph. D. Bacteriologist, Investigations of
Animal Diseases
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HISTORY OF LAYING COMPETITIONS.
So far as can be learned from a fairly careful examination
of the literature at hand, the Utility Poultry Club of England is
a pioneer in the matter of holding poultry laying contests. Up
until the year 1912, however, the Club's competitions were with
one exception of short duration (six, twelve, and sixteen weeks)
and were conducted during the winter only. "In 1906 the Utility
Poultry Club opened negotiations with the College (Harper
Adams Agricultural College, Newport, Salop) for the holding of
an extended competition, but owing to the expense involved in
providing the necessary plant and equipment it was found im-
possible to proceed with the trials. In 1911 the Utility Poultry
Club again approached the College and a scheme was drawn up
and submitted to the Board of Agriculture for the holding of an
elaborate trial consisting of one hundred pens, and covering an
area of about six acres of ground. In May, 1912, a grant of five
hundred pounds (nearly $2,500) was made by the Development
Commissioners towards the purchase of plant and equipment and
the erection of pens and houses was proceeded with upon a suit-
able field on the college farm."
Without being aware of the activities of the Utility Poultry
Club, Mr. A. A. Dunnicliff, Jr., claims to have first conceived the
idea of a twelve months' contest in August, 1901. It appears that
a newspaper controversy had arisen in the columns of the Syd-
ney Daily Telegraph regarding the particular merits of certain
heavy breeds as winter layers. This discussion continued until
finally Mr. A. E. Henry issued a challenge to the eflfect that he
would put a pen of his Silver Wyandottes to a test against the
hens of Mr. H. E. Kelly who had maintained that Buflf Orping-
tons were champion layers. Not only this, but these two men
proposed a substantial wager on the outcome of the test. In
consequence of this controversy and proposed test poultry breed-
ers and others became interested. The whole affair was develop-
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60 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 82.
ing into a sporting event. At this point Mr. Dunnicliff, a mem-
ber of the staff of the Daiiy Telegraph suggested that inasmuch
as the public had become interested, a test or trial conducted in a
reliable and impartial way would serve a more useful purpose if
open to all poultrymen. This suggestion met with approval as
evidenced by the fact that within a week after its announcement
in the columns of the Telegraph on August 17, 1901, forty breed-
ers had offered to enter fifty-seven pens.
The next step of course was to discover ways and means for
carrying on the contest. G. Valder, Principal of the Hawkesbury
Agricultural College at Richmond, New South Wales, was ap-
proached on the subject and at once announced his willingness to
be of service to poultry breeders and their work. Mr. Valder then
secured permission from the Honorable John Kidd, Minister of
Agriculture, to erect suitable pens for the purposes of the project.
Thus the first twelve months' laying contest was staged at the
Hawkesbury Agricultural College and was conducted under its
immediate supervision. This competition was started April 1,
1902 and continued until March 31, 1903. The Daily Telegraph
a,ssumed the responsibility of securing entries. The first breeder
to enter this contest was Jas. E. Pennell of Randrick and the hens
he believed in were Buff Wyandottes.
This same Mr. Pennell presided over the first meeting 6f
the Committee on Management at Sydney, September 25, 1901
for the purpose of drawing up rules and regulations to govern the
competition. This Committee consisted of the Principal of the
Agricultural College, its poultryman, D. S. Thompson, A. A.
Dunnicliff who first suggested the contest and five representatives
of the competitors elected by ballot from their own number.
The rules laid down by this committee have been largely adopted
for the government of many other laying contests, including all
the competitions in Australia and many of those in England,
South Africa, British Columbia, and America.
FIRST INTERNATIONAL LAYING CONTEST.
The history of the International Laying Contest at Storrs is
similar in many respects to that of the Australian competition.
The idea apparently originated in the office of the North Ameri-
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HISTORY OF LAYING CONTESTS. 61
can, a daily newspaper published in Philadelphia. Like the
Daily Telegraph, this paper sought suitable supervision and a
proper background if it was destined to win the confidence of the
poultry public. Thus it happened that the matter was brought to
the attention of those in charge of the poultry work at Storrs at
that time and through them to the President of the college who
presented the question to the Board of Trustees. With the
Board's approval plans were perfected by which the first inter-
national laying contest in America was inaugurated on November
1, 1911 and terminated on October 31 of the following year. This
contest (and the second also) was conducted jointly by the North
American and the college. Continuing the analogy between this
and the Australian competitions the North American like the
Daily Telegraph undertook to obtain the entries and partially
financed the project, while the college furnished the land and the
plant, had direct and immediate supervision of the contest dur-
ing its operation and was responsible for what records were se-
cured during the progress of the competition.
The contest as thus organized continued for a period of two
years, November 1, 1011 to October 31, 1913, after which time
re-organization on a somewhat different basis seemed desirable.
The college authorities felt that they could not indefinitely con-
tinue the policy of co-operation as outlined ; in consequence the
College and the Experiment Station undertook to conduct the
third contest (the one now being reported) without the aid of
out-of-state organizations*^ The fourth competition now in
progress is being conducted in the same way.
NATIONAL LAYLNG CONTEST.
The National Laying Contest conducted by the Missouri
State Experiment Station at Mountain Grove, was inaugurated
almost simultaneously with the International at Storrs. The
writers are informed that at or about the time funds were appro-
priated by the legislature for the establishment of said Station, a
laying contest was suggested as a suitable project. The sugges-
tion was accepted and the work undertaken. Like the competi-
* The Delaware Agricultural Experiment Station at Newark and the
North American are now conducting a contest jointly.
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62 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 82.
tions at Storrs the Missouri contest is now running in its fourth
year. Birds have been entered not only from the States, but
from Canada, England, British Columbia, New Zealand and Aus-
tralia.
OTHER AMERICAN CONTESTS.
Since the inception of laying competitions in this country at
these two widely separated places, namely, Storrs, Conn., and
Mountain Grove, Mo., many minor contests have been conducted
all over the country and many more are being planned. The
contest idea has infected endowed schools, county poultry asso-
ciations, and boys and girls poultry clubs. Contests are being
conducted by newspapers in various sections ; and a laying com-
petition is now being heralded as an attraction at one of the
world's greatest expositions. All of which seems to indicate
a tremendous interest in the enterprise. Pearl, of the Maine Ex-
periment Station, explains the phenomenon and its probable con-
tinuance on the ground that poultry breeders for the most part
believe that high fecundity, or the ability to lay a large nimiber of
eggs, is an inherited character in hens and on account of the
further belief that inherited characters are susceptible to improve-
ment by intelligent breeding.
DESCRIPTION OF PLANT.
The plant is located on quite high ground, a knoll so to
speak, that slopes to the south. From a north and south centre
line one half of the plant slopes slightly to the east and the
other half to the west. Thus the houses in the top row (See
diagram page 63) are on higher ground than those in the bottom
row and likewise the houses along the north and south drive
in the centre of the plant are higher than those at either end.
The drainage question, therefore, both air and water, seems to
be well cared for.
The arrangement of the plant is not perhaps particularly
adapted to commercial work as the houses are small, there is
relatively much fencing that necessarily means expense, and con-
siderable space is devoted to walks or driveways. On the other
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ARRANGEMENT OF HOUSES AND YARDS.
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64 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 82.
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DESCRIPTION OF HOUSES. 65
hand, when only the purposes of the competition are considered
there seems less to criticise. It is to be remembered that many
students in the college make more or less use of the plant for
instruction; furthermore, a large number of outside people con-
tinually come to visit the contest. Under the existing arrange-
ment any visitor or student can see any pen of birds as well as
the yard they use without the necessity of entering any house
or any yard. Thus the hens are not constantly disturbed by
the too near approach of strangers.
From the diagram and cut, (p. 63 and 64) it is obvious
that the houses are arranged in four rows, thirteen in each of
the first three and eleven in the last, a total of 50 houses, or
one hundred pens. There is a driveway 12 feet wide along
the front of the houses in the first and third rows and a 20
foot driveway for the second and fourth rows; there is also a
12 foot intersecting drive. Gates at the entrance of all drive-
ways make the plant entirely enclosed.
Each pen is provided with a separate yard 20x50 feet in
which shrubbery and apple trees have been set. The yards are
constructed of heavy fencing wire attached to hollow iron posts
driven in, excepting the corner posts which are set in cement.
Remembering that the fence includes the house, it will be seen
that the yard area allotted to each hen amounts to approximately
93 square feet.
HOUSES.
Each house is twelve feet square, 6 feet high at the eaves,
8 feet 4 inches at the peak, and is divided into two pens each
6x12 feet. Thus the floor space per bird amounts to a trifle
more than 7 square feet, not an excessive amount for hens
quartered in such small groups ; in larger units, half the allotment
would doubtless prove sufficient. Each house has two openings
in front, each 3x4 feet, provided with cloth curtains hinged at
the top and opening inward. There is a sliding window at
each end approximately 2x3 feet. With 144 square feet of floor
space, 24 square feet of open front, and 12 square feet of win-
dows, it is obvious that the houses have a square foot of open
front for each 6 square feet of floor space and half this amt)unt
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G6 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 82.
Colony house, containing two pens.
Interior view of a single pen.
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WORKING PLANS OF HOUSE.
67
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68 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 82.
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WORKING PLANS OF HOUSE.
69
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70 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 82.
of glass area, or a square foot for each 12 square feet of floor
space. In some of the so-called entirely open front fresh air
poultry houses just about the same relationship exists between
the open area and the floor space of the house.
Reference to working plans and cuts (pp. 67 to 69) make
further description of the house unnecessary. It should how-
ever be remarked that the three half-pint cups observed on the
partition just above the feeding rack have now been replaced by
a rectangular box with three compartments each four inches
square and five inches deep. These cups were used as rtr-
ceptacles for grit, shell, and charcoal, but they were too small
and were otherwise less satisfactory than the box.
Furthermore, *it will be seen that the house is lined with
paper around the roosting perch. It was probably believed in
the beginning that tarred paper used in this way would not only
serve to make the house tight but would also prevent infesta-
tions of mites; the latter, however, does not seem to work out
in practice. The writers believe thoroughly in the use of build -
ing or roofing paper in connection with poultry house construc-
tion, but that it should be used on the outside of the house ex-
clusively.
TRAP NESTS.
A trap nest is a device or an appliance that makes it possible
for the poultryman to know with marked accuracy the individual
performance of his hens, and enables him to segregate the drones
from the workers. For some sorts of investigational work, trap
nests are indispensable; they are also being employed on many
poultry farms that are endeavoring to increase the average egg
production of their flocks ; and they are useful to breeders who
are producing high class show stock in which it is desirable to
know pedigrees accurately.
A good trap nest must be certain in action. It must not only
keep in the hen that enters, but must also keep out all others. It
should also prove an inviting and comfortable rendezvous for the
hen, particular care being taken that the nest when closed and
occupied is not too hot in summer. On the opposite page will be
found plans of a trap nest that was developed at the college and
which has been used for several vears with considerable satis-
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THE CONNECTICUT TRAP NEST.
71
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Fig. 5. Plans of the Trap Nest.
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72 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 82.
faction. These nests have been used exclusively in the laying
competitions since their inauguration.
The two moving parts, namely, the door and the trigger are
the only important features since the rest of the nest is nothing
more than a suitable sized box. As will be noted from the
sketch, the doors are made Syi inches high, IV/j inches wide at
the top, and 11 inches wide at the bottom. Being narrower at
the bottom there is no tendency for the door to rub or bind
against the sides as it swings shut. The doors are bound at each
end by strips of light hoop iron, pieces cut from galvanized
iron stove pipe, or Some such similar waste material that can
usually be found about almost any poultry plant. These strips
should project above the top of the door far enough to permit
punching of holes through which passes a No. 8 or 9 wire that
runs through the entire section of nests. Once fixed, the door is
virtually trouble proof as there are no hinges to loosen nor any
screw eyes to lose.
The trigger is the only part of the nest that is at all diflfi-
cult to make. The screw hole in the trigger should be slightly
larger than the screw to secure perfectly free action. The
screw should engage the partition or left side of the nest at a
point 3^ inches from the inside of the front and 5J>4 inches from
the bottom or floor. All triggers, one of which is required for
each nest, should be made from planed stock 7/8 of an inch
thick and 2 inches wide.
The floor and sides are solid and should be well squared
to prevent the doors from binding. No backs or tops were
necessary as the nests were hung against the back of the house
and under the dropping board, but a little below to provide ventila-
tion (See illustration, p. 66.) Since the nests can be quickly de-
tached and entirely removed from the house and since the backs
of the nests are entirely open, the problem of cleaning is greatly
facilitated.
Two furring strips that pass along the front of the nests
constitute a perch or resting place for hens about to enter. A
four inch board fastened to the bottom at the front retains the
nesting material. A screw hook, modified by bending, serxes as
a door stop. As a matter of fact, a little block of wood nailed
to the partition would serve the purpose equally well if not
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RATIONS AND METHOD OF FEEDING. T3
better, as an operator may turn the hook and release a layer
by opening the door outward and then forget to return the hook
to its original position in which case the next hen will not be
trapped.
The use of the nest may be thus briefly described: slip the
index finger underneath and inside the door, slightly depress
the front end of the trigger, and push the door inward; it will
be held open by the notch in the trigger. As a hen enters, her
back lifts the door enough to disengage the trigger, the rear
end of which immediately drops to a little block below so situated
that the front end of the trigger points half an inch or so above
the lower edge of the door when shut. In much less time than
it takes to describe the operation the door has meanwhile closed,
depressing on its way the front end of the trigger which promptly
regains its position and securely fastens the door. If it is found
that small hens can enter without disturbing the door one remedy
would be to add more nesting material as this would in effect
lessen the distance from the floor to the lower edge of the door.
It may perhaps be fitting to add that installation is not the
major cost of trapnests. Their operation requires a great deal
of time as it is necessary for the attendant to visit the nests
from four to six times daily depending somewhat upon the weath-
er, the number of traps provided, and the yield of the hens.
Nests can be purchased that purport to do all the work of an
attendant but the writers are not familiar with any such so-
called automatic appliance that fills all the requirements of a
good trapnest.
RATIONS AND METHOD OF FEEDING.
With the exception of the experimental groups noted else-
where all pens were fed and handled in the same general way;
that is to say, the same feeding formulas were used for all breeds
and varieties. The management felt at liberty, however, to feed
larger or smaller amounts according to the individual needs of
the several pens. There has been a disposition in some quarters
to criticise this procedure on the ground that the food require-
ments of the several breeds were different. Nevertheless, it
seems to be a fact that commercial poultrymen follow exactly the
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74 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 82.
American Wyandottes, Record 1918 Eggs.
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Rhode Island Reds, Record 1885 Eggs.
American Leghorns, Record 2088 Eggs.
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VVYANDOTTES, REDS, LEGHORNS, AND 'SCRUBS.'
75
English Wyandottes, Record 2085 Eggs.
"Scrubs," Record 1287 Eggs.
English Leghorns, Record 2010 Eggs.
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76 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 82.
same plan. Breeders who keep Reds and Leghorns, for instance,
will usually be found feeding the two breeds out of the same
pail, but perhaps varying the amount.
For the first six months of the contest, a well known auto-
matic grain feeder* was employed. During the other half of
the year grain was fed by hand because it was believed that an
intelligent feeder could beat any automatic device for dispensing
grain. It is not to be understood that the writers unqualifiedly
condemn grain feeders. There are many workingmen, clergy-
men, lawyers, doctors, and men of other professions who keep
hens and who find it impossible to observe regular hours for feed-
ing; all such people will undoubtedly find the automatic feeder
serviceable. It must, however, be borne in mind, that these me-
chanical substitutes cannot exercise judgment. The services of
an intelligent man or woman are required to decide the question
of overfeeding and underfeeding, to determine the presence of
lice and mites, to guard against discomfortable and unsanitary
quarters, and to maintain the health of the hens. In view of the
reasons set forth and in view of the fact that trapnesting neces-
sarily requires frequent visits to each pen, use of the automatic
feeders was abandoned.
The major part of the grain ration was fed in the afternoon
from three to five o'clock, depending somewhat on the condition
of the weather, but chiefly on the season of the year. The birds
were fed earlier of course on dank days and in the winter when
the afternoons are short. During the winter particularly, more
grain was fed than the hens would consume that night, thus leav-
ing a little in the litter as an incentive for the birds to begin w^ork
as soon as they left the roosts in the morning. On ver\^ cold
days and in damp weather hens seem a little disposed to idle.
To overcome this, grain was not infrequently fed two or three
times during the forenoon, but in very small amounts, just
enough to keep the hens busy.
All pens were permitted free access to mash, grit, shell, and
charcoal. The dry mash was supplied in a six-quart circular
earthenware receptacle with straight sides. A wire grid inside
the receptacle lay loosely on top the mash and reduced waste to
a minimum. The grit and shell boxes are described on page 70.
* Norwich Automatic Feeder and Exerciser.
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RATIONS AND METHOD OF FEEDING. 77
Succulent food consisted principally of mangel beets during
the winter. About the first of May the hens were allowed the
run of the yards in which rye, clover, and grass were growing;
these supplied sufficient natural greens until toward midsummer
when some of the yards became more or less depleted. Mean-
while a small plot (a fifth of an acre) had been planted to rape
and Swiss chard; these were cut and fed four or five times a
week to supplement the natural greens in the yards. It was dif-
ficult to keep an exact record of the amount of green food con-
sumed by each pen, but the cost of the beets, rape, swiss chard,
and a few oats that were sprouted amounted to approximately
one dollar per pen or ten cents for each hen for the year.
It will be seen from table F that the average amount of food
consumed by the heavier breeds, Rocks, Reds, and Wyandottes,
was 41.67 pounds of mash and 46.67 pounds of grain, or a total
of 86.34 pounds per hen per year. Each Leghorn averaged to
consume during the year 31.6 pounds of mash and 45.2 pounds of
grain, or a total of 76.8 pounds of feed. Thus from the analyses
of the feeds it appears that each of the heavier hens required for
the year 13.56 pounds of protein, 46.25 pounds of carbohydrates,
3.49 pounds of fat ; or in other words the nutritive ratio of her
ration was 1:4.0. The Leghorn hen consumed 11.44 pounds of
protein, 41.71 pounds of carbohydrates, 3.44 pounds of fat, and
the nutritive ratio of her ration was 1 :4.2. These figures do not
take into account any coefficient of digestibility.
The following rations were used throughout the year :
SCRATCH GRAIN
DRY MASH
Cracked Corn
60 pounds
Course Wheat Bran 200 pou
Wheat
60 "
Corn Meal 100 '
Heavy White Oats
40 •'
Gluten Feed 100 '
Barley
20 "
Ground Oats 100 '
Kafir Com
10 "
Standard Middlings 75 *
Buckwheat
10 "
Fish Scrap 45 '
Beef Scrap 45 *
Low grade flour 25 *
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78 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 82.
EXPERIMENTAL PENS.
The experimental pens consisted chiefly of two groups of five
pens each. Pens 7 to 11 were composed of White Rocks and
pens 39 to 43 were White Leghorns. The two groups made a
duplicate experiment except for the matter of breeds.
From the outline below it will be noted that pens T and 39
were fed the regular contest ration throughout; all other pens
had their ration supplemented by milk; pens 9 and 41 received
no green food, pens 10 and 42 no meat, and pens 11 and 43
neither meat nor green food.
Pens 7 & 39
Pens 8 & 40
Pens 9 & 41
Pension 42
Pens 11 & 4:
Contest Grain
Cont. Grain
Cont. Grain
Cont. Grain
Cont. Grain
Contest Mash
Cont. Mash
Cont. Mash
Cont. Mash
Cont. Mash
Beef & iMsh
Beef & Fish
Beef & Fish
Green 1* ood
Green Food
Green Food
(Reg. Kation)
. Sour Milk
Sour Milk
Sour Milk
Sour Milk
Eggs > 1231
1350
1458
1289
1071
Laid f 1583
1628
1590
2083
1513
This single test seems to indicate that milk may be substi-
tuted for green food as in pens 9 and 41, or for meat as in pens
10 and 42, but not for both. It is interesting to note that all the
milk fed pens except those from which both meat and green food
were withheld outlaid their respective check pens that received
only the regular ration. It should be added that in summer when
the birds occupied the yards, pens 9 and 41, and 11 and 43 ob-
tained some natural green food along with the others, but they
got no beets during the winter nor rape and swiss chard in the
summer.
Pens 19 and 20, BuflF Wyandottes, were handled like pens 7
and 8 of the Rock group and 39 and 40 of the Leghorn groups:
that is to say, pen 19 received the regular contest ration and pen
20 the same ration supplemented by milk. The egg yield for the
two pens was 1519 and 1429 respectively, the milk fed pen being
outlaid by 90 eggs. As with the other groups, the number of
hens involved is of course too small to justify definite conclu-
sions, particularly from a single trial.
White Leghorn pen No. 65 is the last to be discussed under
this heading. Feed for this pen consisted of Heneta Grits,
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WEIGHT AND VALUE OF EGGS. 79
Henola Mash, and Succulenta Tablets. Inasmuch as this dif-
fered so widely from the regularly used ration, it seemed unfair
to include the record of this pen as a part of the basis for the
tables that appear elsewhere.
The birds in this pen had before them at all times Heneta
Grits and Henola Mash. Succulenta tablets, designed to replace
green food, were dissolved in the drinking water. Obviously,
this system of feeding supplied no incentive for exercise ; in con-
sequence, the birds simply walked over the top of the litter in ihe
pen and matted it down. As a result the cold winter weather
seemed to affect this pen adversely ; unlike all the other birds in
the contest, they were not obliged to keep scratching for grain
that was scattered in the litter.
On May 4th, all pens were given the run of the yards that
supplied, for a little while, an abundance of green food. Pen 65
immediately responded with an increased production, yielding
twenty-five eggs in the second week following access to the yards.
The other Leghorn pens which had received mangels and sprout-
ed oats, had averaged more than forty eggs per pen for each of
the six weeks preceding. The total lay for the year for this pen
was 553 eggs, or 38 per cent, of the average for all pens, 35^/2
per cent, of the average for Leghorns, and 26 J^ per cent, of the
eggs laid by the leading pens. While this information may be
suggestive, the reader should perhaps be reminded that as with
the other experimental pens this report is based on a single test
with only a small number of hens.
WEIGHT AND VALUE OF EGGS.
The summary in Table G indicates that the weight of eggs
from the different breeds varies considerably. Thus the Leghorn
eggs averaged to weigh just a shade over the standard lyi pounds
to the dozen; the Wyandotte eggs were below standard, weigh-
ing only 1.483 pounds per dozen ; the Plymouth Rock eggs weigh-
ed 1.588 pounds and those from the Reds 1.602 pounds per dozen.
The average for all breeds was 1.537 pounds.
The average price received for eggs during the twelve months
was 36 cents but the fact that more eggs were laid during the
season of low prices reduced the average actual value to 31.6
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80 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 82.
cents per dozen. Table A gives the average value per dozen eggs
for the different breeds. On this basis the Wyandotte eggs had
the highest average value which would tend to offset the disad-
vantage of their small size although large eggs will always bring
more on the open market than will small ones.
TABLE A.
VALUE OF EGGS PER DOZEN.
(Based on total number of eggs and total value.)
Plymouth Rocks $ .313 per dozen
Wyandottes 329 "
Rhode Island Reds 321 "
Leghorns 312 "
?vIiscellaneous 311 "
All Breeds $ .316 per dozen
TAB
LE B
VALUE OF EGGS BY
MONTHS.
Month.
Eggs.
Price per dozen.
Value Eggs.
November
2354
$0.50
$ 98.03
December
4188
.51
177.98
January
3792
.40
126.42
February
7859
.36
235.77
March
14594
.27
328.34
April
15443
.25
321.73
May
15789
.25
328.94
June
13866
.26
30041
July
13244
.30
331.10
August
12914
.34
365.80
September
8464
.40
282.14
Octoljer
4842
.48
193.68
Year 117349
(Figures do not include Pen 65.)
$3,090.34
BROODINESS.
Quite a number of birds are sure to be more or less broody
during the year and in an Egg Laying Contest it is desirable that
they be "broken up" as soon as possible. For this purpose a
broody coop is provided for each pen. It is Ij/2'xlj4'x3' and is
made entirely of slats. When a hen becomes broody she is shut
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HIGH AND LOW PRODUCING INDIVIDUALS.
81
White Wyandotte No. 152
Record 265 Eggs.
Buff Wyandotte No. 195
Record 246 Eggs.
White Leghorn No. 400
Record 255 Eggs.
White Leghorn
Record No Eggs.
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82 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 82.
up in this coop with no food but with plenty of water to drink.
Three days of such confinement is usually sufficient to cure her of
all desire to sit. In extremely hot weather when such close con-
finement would perhaps be dangerous the broody hens are simply
turned into unused yards.
Table C shows a comparison of the different breeds with re-
spect to broodiness. Only those birds which completed a full
year's record are included in the table. The highest percentage
of broody birds was found in the Rhode Island Reds and the
lowest in the Leghorns. It is interesting to note, however, that
when a Leghorn does go broody she loses more time than a bird
of any other breed. By time lost due to broodiness is meant the
number of days between the last egg laid before and the first egg
after a broody period. The average number of days lost by the
average bird of any of the four breeds is perhaps the best method
cf comparing them in respect to this character. Thus the aver-
age Red lost 39.9 days during the year due to broodiness while
the average Leghorn lost during the same time only 3.1 days.
The average for all breeds under observation was 20.9 days while
each broody hen lost 56 days. This average of 20.9 days is low
because of the large number of Leghorns included. The average
for the heavy breeds was in reality 34.3 days.
TABLE C.
BROODINESS.
z
u
PQ
No. birds.
No. broody.
Per cent of
total number.
Av. no.
times broody.
Av. days
lost eacn
broody period
Av. days
lost by each
broody hen.
1.
Hi
Plymouth Rocks
129
56
43%
2.9
19.3
56
24.3
Wyandottes
99
62
63%
3.3
18.8
62
38.9
R. I. Reds
143
98
69%
3.1
18.8
58
39.9
Leghorns
345
33
10%
1.5
21.6
32
3.1
Miscellaneous
100
58
58%
3.0
19.7
59
34.3
Total
816
307
38%
2.9
19.2
56
20 0
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RECORD FORMS USED IN CONTEST.
83
Make Full Notes of anything important
OBSERVED IN THIS PEN, ESPECIALLY RtELATINO
TO Physical Condition of the Biros
X - Eqo O - Released
X2 - Broken Eqo 8 - Sick
X3 - Abnormal Eqo O - Dead
B - Broody M - Moult Beoun
THIRD ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL EGG UYING CONTEST
STORRS AGR. EXP. STAT10N..-C0mi. AGR. COLLEGE, STORR^ COmt
NOVCMBCR 1,1013 - OCTOBER 31. 1014
Pen No. 68
VARiiTy White ]
[feKhoms
Owner Tom Barren. Catforth
Daily Eqo Record for yh
rcCK BCOINNINO SATUnOAY 3X0
M 27
1914.
MIBM.
Utmim
tmlt,
■Mtef
TiMiiV
Mw«f
Itmitm
"*» hrM
671
X
X
Y.
X
X
_X A
672
X
X
X
X
X
X
X 7
673 X 1
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
674
X,
X
X
X
X
X
6
675
j£
X
X
^
X
X
i
676
X
X
-X
X
X
X
6
677
X
X
X
X
X
s
678
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
7
679
X
X
X
X
X
X
L
680
^
X
X
X
X
X
JL.
•IT
X
/
B^ fM Tatal
f
/o
1
f
10
f .
f
6Z
VtHMtfiOi
/^cz
IMi>
UO
A/^
hZf
/.CC
f,oo
ttl,
REMARKS:
Fig. 6. Weekly Egg Record.
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84 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 82.
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RECORD FORMS USED IN CONTEST.
85
THIRD ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL EGG UYING CONTEST
STOKIS AGK. EXP. STATION—CONN. AGR. COaEG£. STORRS. CONN.
NOVEMBE»i. 1913 - OCTOBER 31. 1914
p«w NQ. aiL
VABigTY ,Rhode Island Heds
owNKR Colonial Farm. Temple.
U. H.
FtIO RECORD FOR WEEK BEOINNING SATURDAY Mfi
L7 2f 1914.
Ml tkm
Ml
Mt
CMMl
w
»
M. Im
H-.o
lA'O
10
.3;t
tf-.c
,^^
thO
,SC
./o
,si^
'
M 5 IX.o
IH'O
Sf i /./
^.3
1
^ \/o.^
77
^6
JO
,n
Pen No. 36
1
VARIETY Rhode Island Heds
. Owi«eB_
A.
,B. ,1
iruzid«
iffe. Danbury. Conn.
•« 1
M
M.
M
Chnm
Q.
tat
1 li.tai
tf,o
/i<^
10
^Jl
J*v6_
^^^
,J^/
frO
,/«
3i
Mri
/;e.i)
/x.«
Sf J
tf.2
JJL3\
A;i.«
-r/^
./<>
li.
Fig. 8. Weekly Feed Record.
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86 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 82.
WEIGHT AND VALUE OF BIRDS AT END OF CONTEST
Table D shows the average weight of individuals in the four
breeds mentioned above at the last weighing at the close of the
contest. The table includes all birds, reserves as well as those
regularly competing, whose weight was recorded on October 31,
1914. It will be noted that the Leghorns averaged to weigh only
3^ pounds whereas the Wyandottes and Reds averaged about
5J4 and the Rocks nearly 6 pounds. The value of the birds for
meat was estimated at 18 cents per pound live weight which gives
the heavy breeds an advantage over the Leghorns of from 35 to
44 cents.
Breed.
No. Birds.
Total Weight.
Av. Weight.
•Value
per Bird.
Plymouth Rocks
135
801.25
5.94'
$1.07
Wyandottes
105
572.65
5.45
.98
R. I. Reds
150
839.00
5.59
1.01
Leghorns
348
1224.45
3.51
.63
Miscellaneous
102
506.15
4.96
.89
All Breeds 840 3943.50 4.69 $ .84
♦Estimated at 18c per pound live weight.
MORTALITY.
The mortality during the year amounted to 76 individuals,
about 9% per cent, of the 820 birds entered in the contest or an
average of a little less than one death per pen. As one would
naturally expect the mortality in some pens was considerably
higher than in others. In fact there were thirty-two pens, a
total of 320 birds among which no deaths occurred, whereas on
the other hand several pens lost two and three birds each. The
highest mortality was the loss of six birds in one pen. The indi-
viduals comprising this pen were of noticeably low vitality. The
death rate in this particular group was twice as high as in any
other pen. From the postmortem examinations the several
deaths may be roughly classified as follows : 9 due to colds which
in some instances developed into roup: 9 to tumors in various
parts of the body; 13 to enlarged livers; 17 to diseases of the
reproductive organs such as inverted oviduct, deposition of yolk
in the abdominal cavity, broken eggs in the oviduct, etc.; and
28 to miscellaneous causes such as, accidents, bleeding to death
from the comb, internal hemorrhage, intestinal worms, and canni-
balism.
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DISCUSSION OF TABLES. 87
In general it may be remarked that the mortality among hens
in a laying contest cannot be expected to be as low as on the well
managed and privately owned poultry farm. This is of course
perfectly obvious when it is remembered that the birds in a com-
petition come from many different sections of the country. They
have in many cases traveled for long distances at a season of the
year when it is perfectly easy for birds to contract colds as well
as other diseases, even though they may have started the journey
in good health.
DISCUSSION OF TABLES.
Table E is self explanatory as it is simply a summary of the
egg production by months together with the yearly total for each
pen in the contest. In the bre?d summary in this table it is in-
teresting to note that the Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode
Island Reds and the miscellaneous group all reached their highest
production in the month of April while for the Leghorns, May
was the best month.
The pen average of 1450 or 145 eggs per bird is somewhat
lower than in preceding contests. This may perhaps be partly
explained by the increase from five birds in the previous compe-
titions to ten birds per pen. The ten hens were housed in the
same quarters with the same number of trapnests, same roosting
space, and so on, as the five had previously enjoyed. Further-
more the fact that ten birds were required for each pen may have
meant in some cases at any rate that not quite such good speci-
mens were selected for the pen. Another factor that may have
had some influence was the winter weather, particularly from the
middle of January, 1914, to the first of March. During this
period the Hartford Weather Bureau recorded the longest and
severest cold spell on record at that Station. From February 8th
to the 26th inclusive the Bureau reported an accumulated defi-
ciency of 237 degrees or an average of more than 12 degrees per
day.
The amount and cost of all feed (except green food which
is noted on page 77) consumed by each pen is shown in Table F.
The prices used for the different foods were: grain and mash
each $2.00 per hundred ; grit and shell each $0.75 per hundred ;
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88 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 82.
charcoal $2.00 per hundred and milk $0.35 per hundred. It will
be noted that the amount of mash consumed in proportion to the
amount of hard grain was much greater in the case of the three
heavy breeds than with the Leghorns. Thus the cost of feed to
produce a dozen eggs was, in the case of the Plymouth Rocks
16.1^ ; for the W3'andottes 14.3ff ; for the R. I. Reds 15.8^ and for
the Leghorns 12.4^. The figure for the Reds is perhaps a little
high owing to the fact that there were three very low producing
pens. The low record of one of these pens was due to a very
evident lack of vitality in the birds and of another to the birds
being two and three years old.
A summary of the various data worked out for each pen is
shown in Table G. The eggs laid by each pen were weighed each
day and the figure given is the weight of all eggs laid by the pen.
The weight of a broken egg was estimated at the average weight
of all other eggs laid by the particular pen on that day. The
wxight per dozen is given in pounds and hundredths, standard
weight being one and one-half pounds. The value of eggs from
each pen was computed from the monthly prices given in Table B.
The last column gives the return above cost of feed.
RULES AND REGULATIONS.
The follow^ing rules were designed to govern the compe-
tition. A copy of these rules, an entry blank, and other matter
No
19i:J
Connecticut Agricultural College.
Storrs, Conn.
Gentlemen :
I desire to enter one pen of for
The Third Annual International Egg Laying Contest
I enclose herewith ten dollars ($10.00) as first payment
and agree to pay the balance fifteen dollars ($15.0(0 on
or before November 1, 1913. I agree to the printed
rules governing this contest.
(Signed)
( Address)
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RULES AND REGULATIONS. 89
designated "Information and Suggestions" were forwarded in
a single booklet to all prospective contestants that they might
know in advance the exact conditions under which a pen could be
entered. '
RULES AND REGULATIONS.
1. This competition shall be known as The Third Annual
International Egg Laying Contest conducted by the Connecticut
Agricultural College, Storrs, Conn.
2. Records of the number of eggs produced, amount of
feed consumed, duration of moulting, broody periods, etc., will
be in charge of the officials of the Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion.
3. This competition will begin Nov. 1, 1913, and terminate
Oct. 31, 1914. Each entry shall consist of eleven pure bred
females, either hens or pullets, but no males will be included.
Ten birds shall constitute a competing pen, the extra female
being held as a substitute in the event of loss of a layer by death
or accident. Contestants will be privileged to maintain through-
out the year a full complement of ten birds.
4. All birds must be shipped prepaid. Birds should be
consigned so as to arrive on or after October 27th and before
November 1st. The right is reserved to return to the owner
fowls suffering from any contagious or infectious disease or
deemed otherwise unsuitable for the purposes of the competition.
A further right is reserved to refuse any and all entries. The
management also reserves the right to cut or clip the feathers of
one wing of any fowl that may be troublesome to yard.
5. An entry fee of twenty-five dollars ($26.00) is required
for each pen, ten dollars to accompany application and balance
to be paid on or before November 1, 1913. (Fee for current
competition, $20.00). Failure to make second payment will for-
feit the first payment. If any entry be deemed unsuitable and be
reconsigned to its owner, the entry fee will also be returned. All
eggs produced will be sold by the management and the funds used
for the purpose of conducting the competition.
6. After fowls have been received at the Connecticut Agri-
cultural College and placed in the competing pen, every reasonable
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90 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 82.
precaution will be taken looking toward protection and preven-
tion of loss of any and all birds, but neither the College nor the
Experiment Station will be held responsible for the death or loss
of any fowl. No pen may be withdrawn during the progress of
the contest.
7. All fowls entered in this competition must be of some
recognized breed or variety. Bantams and ornamental fowls
will be excluded. Only those birds will be eligible that can pro-
duce eggs of marketable size, as all awards will be based on the
production of marketable eggs. Eggs that weigh less than one
and a third ounces (.08 lb.) will be considered unmarketable.
8. At the end of the competition, fowls will be returned to
their respective owners at their expense together with a certified
record of the individual egg production and amount of feed con-
sumed by the pen.
INFORMATION AND SUGGESTIONS.
(a). Entries will be accepted from any point in this country
or any foreign country.
(b). The management will accept a competing pen owned
jointly by two or more breeders, provided however, that the fowls
be all the same breed or variety.
(c). Weekly egg bulletins and monthly feed bulletins will
be sent to each contestant. Weekly reports will be made to the
newspapers and monthly reports will be sent to the poultry press
and agricultural journals.
(d). The records pertaining to this competition will be
promptly posted so that all awards can be made without delay.
(e). Contestants will be expected to co-operate with the
Experiment Station by furnishing data regarding early care and
n^anagement of their competing pens, method of hatching, system
of brooding, and other information which will help to make an
Experiment Station bulletin on the contest of more value. Blanks
will be furnished for this purpose.
(/). The management will supply leg bands for all entries
and will send same to the owner in advance in order that his birds .
may be positively identified on and after their arrival at the col-
lege.
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RULES AND REGULATIONS. 91
(g). All eggs will be sold at the highest market price and
the proceeds thus obtained will be devoted to the operating ex-
penses of the competition. The financial records of the enter-
prise will be in the hands of the College's expert accountant and
his books will be open for inspection at any time by any pen
owner. At the end of the contest a financial statement will be
incorporated in the Experiment Station bulletin giving a com-
plete report of the competition.
(A). Entries will be limited to one hundred pens and will be
accepted in the order in which they are received. It is expected
that Experiment Station birds will occupy ten pens for the pur-
pose of adding to the competition interesting experimental feat-
ures.
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92 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 82.
TABLE E.
MONTHLY EGG PRODUCTION BY PENS.
Pen. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Total
1 6 36 13 50 180 212 224 160 169 177 94 70 1391
2 8 50 42 94 223 231 178 149 129 136 143 67 1450
3 4 21 25 59 170 227 210 183 145 171 113 60 1388
4 58 140 83 101 192 185 193 161 164 170 133 116 1696
6 ... 19 ... 107 197 223 223 192 188 171 158 97 1575
6 8 69 54 124 202 184 203 169 151 157 149 108 1578
7 ... 2 50 106 175 155 170 149 135 150 89 50 1231
8 ... 14 20 99 189 197 178 146 150 165 103 89 1350
9 ... 35 99 136 203 173 159 175 155 149 106 68 1458
10 3 29 50 104 172 165 178 151 144 137 96 60 1289
11 ... 2 11 83 111 143 138 186 161 148 88 ... 1071
12 ... 54 59 125 180 203 199 177 158 174 116 95 1540
13 24 31 ... 25 179 187 163 158 135 156 79 54 1191
14 117 213 161 159 219 201 208 166 192 181 141 127 2085
15 50 99 70 85 156 158 140 115 94 122 75 48 1212
16 96 127 109 138 216 224 182 202 173 189 166 79 1901
17 132 137 77 132 210 193 212 177 191 187 151 119 1918
18 3 65 123 126 178 206 159 152 93 135 92 47 1379
19 1 7 96 151 182 198 195 155 108 164 133 129 1519
20 16 33 45 112 188 189 192 139 160 135 128 92 1429
21 14 41 73 97 164 174 146 137 128 135 127 83 1319
22 ... 3 26 24 158 180 151 124 123 128 122 79 1118
23 23 31 51 62 162 214 213 168 145 168 113 80 1430
24 ... 16 22 80 147 191 155 142 112 142 85 72 1164
25 12 100 90 101 181 171 161 138 132 131 95 46 1358
26 ... 18 45 81 176 189 211 137 136 119 112 76 1300
27 ... 4 29 72 174 162 168 136 103 103 45 19 1015
28 ... 17 38 113 185 187 166 163 174 141 127 61 1372
29 13 94 123 150 192 169 158 143 141 129 111 56 1479
30 60 106 131 161 182 184 170 152 131 128 120 92 1617
31 7 42 35 72 155 167 160 165 157 136 107 73 1276
32 6 27 120 151 148 132 132 148 107 68 1039
33 75 70 64 136 186 193 205 186 138 157 117 40 1567
34 4 88 72 125 203 188 153 136 109 113 115 77 1383
35 59 76 58 112 201 181 177 122 142 123 123 93 1467
36 2 71 94 148 210 231 218 211 188 190 200 122 1885
37 25 94 99 110 192 161 154 126 132 125 132 128 1478
38 54 52 51 72 125 119 116 97 122 102 62 60 1032
39 38 79 28 118 170 207 224 216 189 160 97 57 1583
40 61 100 83 122 184 179 209 197 201 181 72 39 1628
41 33 99 55 109 198 232 219 212 191 159 52 31 1590
42 90 165 127 133 215 227 234 215 231 223 119 104 2083
43 28 49 45 79 178 211 218 208 204 169 82 42 1513
44 18 26 29 80 201 203 225 171 170 175 109 59 1466
45 8 43 37 115 190 211 237 225 216 195 96 73 1646
46 29 51 42 109 189 202 208 166 179 184 80 32 1471
47 49 38 14 111 189 208 233 164 194 167 69 17 1453
48 44 96 48 113 191 211 242 153 215 216 109 84 1722
49 32 26 2 101 174 177 199 161 160 125 57 42 1256
50 52 67 57 120 192 201 213 212 204 232 108 46 1704
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EGG PRODUCTION BY MONTHS.
93
Pen- Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Total
51
31
5
4
105
189
220
219
206
210
181
45
11
1426
52
61
2
6
69
168
199
216
188
190
176
51
9
1335
53
135
172
98
125
194
215
237
218
221
223
162
88
2088
54
48
163
97
121
173
180
221
184
191
159
119
47
1703
55
19
• . .
15
117
180
204
229
227
226
197
118
16
1548
56
72
21
1
69
170
186
231
238
222
201
142
59
1612
57
52
44
36
98
178
205
211
154
170
191
72
18
1429
58
56
46
31
125
180
179
204
188
161
181
83
9
1443
59
13
19
1
87
194
207
212
193
124
163
81
40
1334
60
10
40
8
49
190
204
203
170
117
121
38
1150
61
51
22
15
70
175
205
242
214
199
194
152
80
1619
62
63
10
38
52
150
182
225
201
163
111
28
9
1232
63
57
21
38
69
161
212
224
212
211
166
78
26
1475
64
77
24
38
110
191
214
240
236
234
207
87
27
1685
65
7
6
1
38
66
106
117
90
104
16
2
553
66
58
62
2
93
192
191
219
195
196
177
105
71
1561
67
26
. . .
7
77
171
194
230
210
228
187
83
22
1435
68
73
122
27
114
208
210
258
249
250
238
169
92
8010
69
22
75
34
141
200
196
231
227
207
187
125
56
1701
70
10
33
12
85
172
202
212
210
175
147
43
2
1303
71
19
15
90
163
188
237
235
227
191
131
51
1547
72
10
36
50
85
209
218
252
178
183
188
112
56
1577
73
4
23
77
181
202
211
141
178
165
108
58
1348
74
16
48
95
174
163
128
105
100
118
101
35
1083
75
6
21
28
63
173
160
147
106
110
109
87
55
1065
76
30
120
164
128
103
84
127
81
33
870
77
66
173
187
216
185
149
168
143
49
1335
78
14
51
149
197
221
183
173
170
92
37
1287
79
10
33
50
55
169
167
153
139
133
133
102
50
1194
80
2
40
76
106
208
155
146
94
125
92
61
48
1152
81
6
118
71
100
162
149
142
140
140
131
102
98
1359
82
7
98
48
96
171
153
151
160
153
137
140
64
1378
Total
M
to
4>^
00
to
00
M
•Ik.
n
to
M
o
<0
cn
00
M
CO
to
00
CO
00
CO
00
•Ik
M
00
o
H*
00
00
•Ik.
00
o
^ •Ik.
00
Rocks 111 502 506 1213 2373 2485 2416 2156 1984 2061 1467 934 18208
Pen average 9 30 39 93 183 191 186 166 153 159 113 72 1401
Wyandottes 452 756 831 1086 1833 1937 1798 1535 1407 1544 1248 883 15310
Pen average 45 76 83 109 183 194 180 154 141 154 125 88 1531
R. I. Reds 311 848 957 1560 2629 2644 2520 2186 2049 1987 1658 1083 20432
Pen average 21 56 64 104 175 176 168 146 137 132 111 72 1362
Leghorns 1445 1756 1140 3261 6079 6680 7414 6633 6459 5972 3074 1416 51328
Pen average 44 53 34 99 184 202 225 201 196 181 93 43 1555
Miscellaneous 35 326 358 730 1680 1697 1641 1356 1345 1350 1017 527 12071
Pen average 4 33 36 74 168 170 164 136 134 135 102 53 1450
Digitized by
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94 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION^ BULLETIN
82.
TABLE F.
COST
OF FEED CONSUMED.
No.
Mash
Grain
Shell lbs.
Milk
Charcoal
Total
PEN.
Eggs.
lbs.
lbs.
and Grit
lbs.
lbs.
Cost.
1
1391
387
490
33
2.5
$17.84
2
1450
468
523
40
4.5
20.21
3
1388
425
502
32
3.1
18.84
.4
1696
431
505
39
9.8
19.21
5
1575
498
481
41
5.3
19.99
6
1578
321
514
34
3.4
17.02
7
1231
374
500
38
6.8
17.92
8
1350
312
484
31
825.0
4.9
19.14
9
1458
400
498
47
899.8
5.0
21.55
10
1289
315
482
39
874.5
5.3
18.60
11
1071
360
446
38
831.6
8.2
18.67
12
1540
484
449
42
5.5
19.08
13
1191
404
434
31
2.1
17.03
Plymouth Rocks
18208
5179
6308
485
66.4
$245.10
Pen average
1401
398
485
37
5.1
18.85
14
2085
530
502
48
5.1
21.10
15
1212
360
475
28
3.2
16.97
16
1901
453
473
45
4.4
18.95
17
1918
443
444
42
4.4
18.14
18
137t
427
475
42
6.1
18.48
19
1519
437
451
38
3.0
18.11
20
1429
305
494
34
588.5
4.3
18.38
21
1319
406
443
33
4.3
17.31
22
1118
411
386
26
3.3
16.20
23
1430
497
404
44
4.6
18.44
Wyandottes
15310
4269
4547
380
42.7
182.08
Pen average
1531
427
455
38
4.3
18.21
24
1164
431
465
34
3.2
18.24
25
1358
423
449
35
3.1
17.76
26
1300
411
486
32
1.8
18.22
27
1015
319
444
30
1.5
15.52
28
1372
470
460
37
1.7
18.91
29
1479
518
521
35
1.1
21.06
30
1617
386
424
41
2.8
16.56
31
1276
459
483
36
3.6
19.18
32
1039
565
394
34
2.0
19.48
33
1567
433
465
44
3.1
18 35
34
1383
377
518
39
4.1
18.27
35
1467
453
444
36
1.9
18.25
36
1885
521
472
46
2.9
20J?6
37
1478
363
451
35
1.3
16.57
38
1032
242
431
30
1.5
13.72
R I. Reds
20432
6371
6907
544
35.6
^70.35
Pen average
1362
425
460
36
2.4
is.oe
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AMOUNT AND COST OF FEED BY PENS.
95
No.
Mash
Grain
Shell lbs. Milk
Charcoal Total
PEN.
Eggs.
lbs.
lbs.
and Grit lbs.
lbs.
Cost.
39
1583
306
454
39
3.2
15.56
40
1628
268
464
40 739.2
2.7
17.58
41
1590
265
457
45 838.2
4.4
17.81
42
2083
269
478
54 929.5
4.2
17.93
43
1513
249
444
51 768.9
4.2
16.35
44
1466
332
450
45
3.8
16.05
45
1646
328
462
52
4.9
16.P9
46
1471
309
429
35
3.4
15.09
47
1453
329
463
40
4.2
16.22
48
1722
308
445
34
2.6
15.37
49
1256
281
433
33
2.5
14.58
50
1704
290
451
38
3.9
15.18
51
1426
308
455
33
49
15.61
52
1335
288
444
35
4.2
14.99
53
2088
343
468
49
4.9
16.69
54
1703
320
462
42
3.9
16.03
55
1548
311
444
44
2.7
15.48
56
1612
377
481
35
3.0
17.48
57
1429
322
459
33
3.0
15.93
58
1443
342
476
31
1.1
16.61
59
1334
349
468
36
2.9
16.67
60
1150
275
454
37
3.4
14.93
61
1619
342
436
37
2.2
15.88
62
1232
338
440
46
2.4
15.95
63
1475
273
453
41
4.4
14.92
64
1685
327
430
49
4.1
15.59
66
1561
384
472
51
48
17.60
67
1435
319
428
34
1.9
16.23
68
2010
422
468
51
2.9
18.24
69
1701
283
463
46
3.4
15.33
70
1303
348
453
43
5.6
16.45
71
1547
333
429
45
4.6
15.67
72
1577
314
424
42
3.9
15.15
Leghorns
51328
10452
14937
1366
118.2
$530.43
Pen average
1555
316
452
41
3.6
16.07
73
1348
334
483
41
3.1
16.71
74
1083
343
479
23
1.3
16.64
75
1065
416
463
24
2.5
17.81
76
870
366
443
37
3.4
16.53
77
1335
336
438
32
2.7
15.77
78
1287
375
429
35
3.9
16.42
79
1194
298
391
27
2.4
14.03
80
1152
390
458
30
4.5
17.27
81
1359
325
425
32
3.7
15.21
82
1378
357
397
27
2.8
15.34
Miscellaneous
12071
3540
4406
308
30.3
$161.83
Pen average
1207
354
441
31
3.0
16.18
All breeds
117349
29811
37105
3083
293.2
$1,389.79
Pen average
1450
368
458
38
3.6
17.16
Digitized by
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96 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 82.
TABLE G.
SUMMARY BY PENS.
Return
Wt. eggs
Wt. per
Value of
Cost of
above cost
Pen.
Eggs.
in lbs.
dozen.
eggs.
feed.
of feed.
1
1391
169.44
1.46
$35.48
$17.84
$17.64
2
1450
190.72
1.58
37.96
20.21
17.75
3
1388
177.38
1.53
35.17
18.84
16.33
4
1696
211.15
1.49
47.84
19.21
28.63
5
1575
203.03
1.55
40.60
19.99
20.61
6
1578
195.61
1.49
42.56
17.02
25.54
7
1231
165.99
1.62
31.47
17.92
13.55
8
1350
184.30
1.64
34.87
19.14
15.73
9
1458
210.35
1.73
38.49
21.55
16.94
10
1289
175.00
1.63
33.51
18.60
14.91
11
1071
147.19
1.65
26.46
18.67
7.79
12
1540
215.50
1.68
40.83
19.08
21.75
13
1191
153.34
1.55
30.41
17.03
13.38
14
2086
253.58
1.46
60.82
21.10
39.72
15
1212
146.54
1.45
33.61
16.97
16.64
16
1901
234.12
1.48
53.23
18.95
34.28
17
1918
232.86
1.46
54.70
18.14
36.56
18
1379
178.67
1.55
36.74
18.48
18.26
19
1519
18a06
1.42
40.65
18.11
22.54
20
1429
176.64
1.48
37.88
18.38
19.50
21
1319
165.83
1.51
35.55
17.31
18.24
22
1118
140.26
1.51
28.81
16.20
12.61
23
1430
184.46
1.55
37.37
18.44
18.93
24
1164
156.68
1.62
29.94
18.24
11.70
25
1358
180.12
1.59
36.77
17.76
19.01
26
1300
166.54
1.54
33.50
18.22
15.28
27
1015
142.17
1.68
24.80
15.52
9.28
28
1372
175.51
1.54
35.44
18.91
16.53
29
1479
202.51
1.64
40 48
21.06
19.42
30
1617
207.80
1.54
45.55
16.56
28.99
31
1276
178.79
1.68
33.53
19.18
14.35
32
1039
140.29
1.62
26.58
19 48
7.10
33
1567
207.23
1.59
42.21
18.35
23.86
34
1383
187.63
1.63
37.52
18.27
19.25
35
1467
193.65
1.58
40 45
18.25
22.20
36
1885
265.93
1.69
50.94
20.26
30.68
37
1478
189.86
1.52
41.61
16.57
25.04
38
1032
132.19
1.54
28.54
13.72
14.82
39
1583
198.92
1.51
41.65
15.56
26.09
40
1628
202.94
1.50
43.82
17.58
26.24
41
1590
203.96
1.54
41 37
17.81
23.56
42
2083
267.14
1.54
58.31
17.93
40 38
43
1513
200.98
1.59
38.87
16.35
22.52
44
1466
178.64
1.46
37.56
16 05
21.51
45
1646
204.11
1.49
42.37
16.29
26.08
46
1471
183.30
1.50
38 08
15.09
22.99
47
1453
186.79
1.54
37.01
16.22
20 79
48
1722
204.92
1.43
46.44
15.37
31.07
49
1256
153.09
1.46
31.90
14 58
17.32
50
1704
206.39
1.45
45.17
15.18
29 99
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NUMBER, WEIGHT, AND VALUE OF EGGS.
or
Return
Wt. eggs
Wt.pcr
Value of
Cost of
above cost
Peru
E«g«.
in lbs.
dozen.
egga.
feed.
of feed.
51 •
1426
181.59
1.53
$34 95
$15.61
$19.34
52
1335
168.45
151
33.19
14.99
18.20
53
2088
249.25
1.43
59.21
16.69
42.52
54
1703
207.29
1.46
47.15
16.03
31.12
55
1548
191.79
1.49
38.59
15.48
23.11
56
1612
208.22
1.55
41.98
17.48
24.50
57
1429
184.09
1.55
36.97
15.93
21.04
58
1443
182.30
152
37.45
16.61
20.84
59
1334
171.52
1.54
33.28
16.67
16.61
60
1150
146.94
1.53
27.92
14.93
12.99
61
1619
197.63
1.47
42.30
15.88
26 42
62
1232
161.59
1.57
30 59
15.95
14.64
63
1475
184.46
1.50
37.52
14.92
22.60
64
1685
205.22
146
43.36
15.59
27.77
66
1561
201.22
1.55
41.28
17.60
23.68
67
1435
178.10
1.49
35.50
15.23
20.27
68
2010
256.27
1.53
54.65
18.24
36 41
63
1701
207.88
1.47
44.66
15.33
29.33
70
1303
163.53
1.50
31.87
16.45
15.42
71
1547
196.15
153
39.11
15.67
23.44
72
1577
195.11
1.49
40.40
15.15
25.25
73
1348
186.51
1.66
34.02
16.71
17.31
74
1083
136.67
1.51
28.00
16 64
11.36
75
1065
137.72
1.55
27.48
17.81
9.67
76
870
115.43
1.59
21.64
16.53
5.11
77
1335
175.92
158
33.47
15.77
17.70
78
1287
165.12
1.54
31.70
16.42
15.28
79
1194
151.48
1.52
31.11
14.03
17.08
80
1152
151.47
1.58
30.15
17 27
12.88
81
1359
173.88
1.54
37.90
15.31
22.59
82
1378
176.54
1.54
,37.52
15.34
22.18
Plymouth Rocks
18208
2409.00
1.588
$475.65
$245.10
$230.55
Pen average
1401
185.31
1588
36.59
18.85
17.74
Wyandottes
15310
1893.02
1.483
419.36
182.08
237 28
Pen average
1531
189.30
1.483
41.94
18.21
23.73
R. I. Reds
20432
2726.88
1.602
547.86
270.35
277.51
Pen average
1362
181.79
1.602
36.52
18.02
18.50
Leghorns
51328
6429.78
1.504
1,334.48
530.45
840.05
Pen average
1555
194.84
1.504
40.44
16.07
24.37
Miscellaneous
12071
1570 74
1.561
312.99
161.83
151.16
Pen average
1207
157.07
1561
31.30
16.18
15.12
Total
117349
15029.42
1.537 $3,090.34
$1,389.79
$1.700 55
Pen average
1450
185 55
1..5.17
.38.15
17.16
21.27
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d8 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 82.
LIST OF ENTRIES.
BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCKS.
Pen. Owner.
1 A. B. Hall, Wallingford, Conn.
2 Frank L. Tuttle, Southboro,
Mass.
3 Waveny Farm, New Canaan.
Conn.
4 Jules F. Francais, West Hamp-
ton. L. I., N. Y.
WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCKS.
Pen. Owner.
5 Albert T. Lenzen. North Attle-
boro, Mass.
6 Frederick H. Benton, Walling-
ford, Conn.
7 Storrs Agricultural Station. Ex-
perimental Pen.
8 Storrs Agricultural Station, Ex-
perimental Pen.
9 Storrs Agricultural Station. Ex-
perimental Pen.
10 Storrs Agricultural Station, Ex-
perimental Pen.
11 Storrs Agricultural Station, Ex-
perimental Pen.
BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCKS.
Pen. Owner.
12 A. A. Hall, Danbury, Conn.
13 W. C. Morgan, jr.. Mystic, Conn.
WHITE WYANDOTTES.
Pen. Owner.
14 Tom Barron, Catforth, near
Preston, England.
15 West Mt. Poultry Yards, Nau-
gatuck. Conn.
16 Merrythought Farm. Columbia,
Conn.
17 Neale Bros., Apponaug, R. I.
18 D. J Ryan & Son, Bridgeport.
Conn.
BUFF WYANDOTTES.
Pen. Owner.
19 Dr. N. W. Sanborn, Holden,
20 Dr. N. W. Sanborn. Holden,
Mass., Exp. Pen.
21 .Amer. Buff Wyandotte Club.
Amityville, N. Y.
22 Harrison L. Hamilton, Elling-
ton, Conn.
COLUMBIAN WYANDOTTES.
Pen. Owner.
23 National Col. Wyandotte Club.
Grafton, Mass.
SINGLE COMB RHODE ISLAND
REDS.
Pen.
Owner.
24 Robert Seaman, Jericho, N. Y.
25 J. S. Gillespie, Stamford. Conn.
26 Dr. J. C. Dingman, Spring Val-
ley, N. Y.
27 Burnham Poultry Farm, Welles-
ley, Mass.
28 Homer P. Deming, Robertsvillc,
Conn.
29 Geo. P. Dearborn, Lake Como,
Fla.
30 Dr. J. A. Fritchey, Harrisburg,
Pa.
.Tl Ernest Underbill, Morris Plains,
N.J.
32 W. H. Bumstead. Stafford
Springs. Conn.
33 Pinecrest Orchards, Groton,
Mass
34 Harry B. Cook, Orange, Conn.
35 Colonial Farm. Temple, N. H.
36 A. B. Brundage, Danbury, Conn.
ROSE COMB RHODE ISLAND
REDS.
Pen. Owner.
37 Glenview Poultry Farm, Rock-
ville. Conn.
38 C. S. Scoville. East Haven, Conn.
WHITE LEGHORNS.
Pen. Owner.
39 Storrs Agricultural Station, Ex-
perimental Pen.
40 Storrs Agricultural Station. Ex
perimental Pen.
41 Storrs Agricultural Station, Ex-
perimental Pen.
42 Storrs Agricultural Station, Ex-
perimental Pen.
43 Storrs Agricultural Station, Ex-
perimental Pen.
44 Braeside Poultry Farm, Strouds-
burg. Pa.
45 Glenview Poultry Farm, Rock-
ville. Conn.
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LIST OF ENTRIES
91)
WHITE LEGHORN.
(Continued.)
Pen. Owner.
46 Manor Poultry Farm, Manor-
ville, L. I., N. Y.
47 A. B. Hall, Wallingford, Conn.
48 Marwood Poultry Farm, Butler,
Pa.
49 Geo. M. Harris, Wethersfield,
Conn.
50 Bonnie Brook Poultry Farm,
Saratoga, N. Y.
51 N. W. Hendryx, New Haven,
Conn.
52 Jos. J. Linehan, Hingham, Mass.
53 Francis F. Lincoln, Mt. Carmel,
Conn.
54 Cecil Guernsey, East Cobleskill,
N. Y.
55 Thos. W. Moore, Central Village,
Conn.
56 Clias. N. St. John, Greene, N. Y.
57 Chas. W. Sherwood, Saybrook
Point, Conn.
58 L. E. Sands Poultry Farm, Haw-
ley, Pa.
59 Tomoka Poultry Farm, Elling-
ton, Conn.
60 Venture Poultry Farm, Middle-
town, N. Y.
61 Mrs. K. E. Woodruff, New Ha-
ven, Conn.
62 Windsweep Farm, Redding
Ridge, Conn.
63 C. H. Savage, Storrs, Conn
64 P. G. Piatt, Wallingford, Pa.
65 Heneta Bone Co., Newark, N. J.,
Exp. Pen.
66 Frederick M. Peasley, Cheshire,
Conn.
67 Chas. Heigl, Rocky River, Ohio.
68 Tom Barron, Catforth, near
Preston, England.
69 Branford Farm, Groton, Conn.
70 James Munn. Mew Bedford.
Mass.
71 Geo. A. Cosgrove. W. VVilling-
ton, Conn.
BUFF LEGHORNS.
Pen. Owner.
72 Wolverine Poultry Farm, Grand
Rapids, Mich.
BLUE ANDALUSIANS.
Pen. Owner.
73 E. D. Bird, Greenwich, Conn
BUFF ORPINGTONS.
Pen. Owner.
74 O. Wilson. Oak Hill, W. Va.
WHITE ORPINGTONS.
Pen. Owner.
75 P. A. Demgar, Browns Station.
N. Y.
WHITE LACED RED CORNISH.
Pen. Owner.
76 White Laced Red Cornish Club.
Sandwich, Mass.
SILVER CAMPINES.
Pen. Owner.
77 Wm. J. H. Lobel, Bloomfield.
N. J.
" HENS."
Pen. Owner.
78 H. W. Collingwood. Woodcliffe
Lake, N. J.
79 Daniel Hine, Eastford, Conn.
80 Daniel Hine, Eastford, Conn.
MISCELLANEOUS PURE
BREEDS.
Pen. Owner.
81 Profitable Poultry, Boston, Mass.
82 Profitable Poultry, Boston, Mass.
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STORRS
Agricultural Experiment Station
STORKS, CONNECTICUT
BULLETIN 83, SEPTEMBER, 1915
BACTERIOLOGICAL STUDIES
W. M. ESTEN
C. J. Mason
Bacterial Studies of Camembert Cheese.
Tests and Comparisons of Commercial Lactic Starters.
Tests of Various Brands of Litmus for Bacteriological Work.
The Bacterial Content of Ice Cream.
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BOARD OF CONTROL
THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES
OF THE
CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
J. W. Alsop
IVERSON C. FaNTON
E. Stevens Henry
E. Kent Hubbard, Jr.
Charles M. Jarvis
Governor Marcus H. Holcomb
O. F. King
Clifford I. Stoddard
Charles E. Lyman
H. G. Manchester
C. L. Beach, B. Agr., B. S., Prcs,, Conn, Agricultural College
STATION STAFF
E. H. Jenkins, Ph. D. Director
AGRONOMY DEPARTMENT.
W. L. Slate, Jr., B. S. Agr. Agronomist
Benjamin G. Southwick, B. So. Assistant Agronomist
BACTERIOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT.
W. M. Esten, M. S. Bacteriologist
Christie J. Mason, B. Agr. Assistant Bacteriologist
CHEMICAL department.
H. D. Edmond, B. S. Chemist
DAIRY DEPARTMENT.
G. C. White, B. S. A., A. M. Dairy Husbandman
H. F. JuDKiNS, B. S. Assistant Dairy Husbandman
ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY.
G. H. Lamson, M. S. Zoologist
POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
Wm. F. Kirkpatrick, B. Agr., B. E. Poultry Husbandman
Leslie E. Card, B. S. Assistant Poultry Husbandman
Leo F. Rettger, Ph. D. Bacteriologist^ Investigations of
Animal Diseases
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BACTERIAL STUDIES OF CAMEMBERT CHEESE.
By W. M. Esten and C. J. Mason.
The following is a summary of a very large number of bact-
eriological examinations of Camembert cheese from many dif-
ferent sources which came under our observation in connection
with the studies of cheese which were made at this station in
cooperation with the U. S. Department of Agriculture.
The method employed was as follows: Five grams of the
cheese were taken out with a sterile knife, ground in a mortar
with sterile quartz sand and the requisite dilution secured by
thorough mixing with a definite quantity of warm sterile water.
The counts were made from litmus lactose gelatin plate cultures
after incubating for six or seven days at 20° C.
The tesfs for yeasts were made by adding to lactose gelatin
one per cent, of tartaric acid which suppressed the bacterial
growth but allowed yeasts to develop.
The figures give numbers of bacteria in one gram of cheese,
the last three ciphers being in all cases omitted. Thus the figure
700 stands for 700,000. The exact number of yeasts, however,
is given without this omission.
BACTERIAL COUNTS FROM CAMEMBERT CHEESES OF DIFFERENT
ORIGIN.
The following bacterial counts have been made from Camem-
bert cheeses, some of which were made here, some elsewhere in
this country, marked "domestic," and some imported.
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104 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 83.
TABLE I.
NUMBERS OF BACTERIA PER GRAM IN CAMEMBERT CHEESE.
(Multiply figures given by 1,000).
Fully ripened.
Liquefying
Origin
I
Total Bacteria
Acid Bacteria
Bacteria
Made at
this
station
758,300
9,170
<i <(
it
"
858,000
10,170
«< <i
"
•*
971,300
965,000
5,900
U ((
**
'*
365,500
305,000
11.000
«« «
«
*'
657,500
563,300
1,670
•< «
"
•*
2,300,000
2,213,300
0
« «
«
u
45,417
10.800
29,000
Domestic
101,000
19,687
0
«<
36,937
28,812
1,000
Imported
10,968
3,375
0
"
6,250
2,857
0
it
23,500
12,670
1,670
**
27,792
21,375
41
u
254,000
241,000
300
«
442,100
Nearly ripened.
438,700
1,330
Made at
this
station
1,051,000
1,030,500
1,500
Imported
50,800
32,375
562
u
63,583
50,750
0
u
108,700
One-half ripened.
102,500
400
Made at
this
station
1,>L34,400
9,000
4i
1,125,000
One-third ripened.
1,124,600
83
Made at
this
stattion
591,670
552^000
7,100
Imported
80,670
73,670
500
BACTERIAL COUNTS IN CHEESE OF THE CAMEMBERT TYPE DURING
THE RIPENING PERIOD.
The cheeses referred to in Tables II, III, and IV were all
made at this station under the direction of Dr* Charles Thom.
The cheese referred to in Table II was made without a
starter and did not ripen normally, the center ripening first. In
all others a lactic acid starter was used and the ripening was nor-
mal.
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BACTERIAL STUDIES OF CAMEMBERT CHEESE.
105
Age,
days
0
1
2
3
4
5
7
8
10
12
14
16
18
21
23
21
23
25
28
30
32
35
38
40
42
45
Age,
days
1
3
5
7
10
12
14
17
19
21
24
26
28
TABLE IL
Unripened
Curd.
Total
Acid
Liquefying
bacteria
bacteria
bacteria
700
175
100
148,830
90,417
1,917
766,800
755,800
328
809,000
748,500
500
740,670
647,330
11,833
829,330
806,667
7,500
584,667
568,583
12,833
2,342,000
2,201,750
96,250
1,302,667
1,299,170
3,166
240,417
220,500
8,333
917,667
914,583
2,750
299,830
295,58:^
4,250
409,000
401,917
5,083
336,833
295,000
16,167
224,200
185,000
27,400
Ripened Curd,
232,500
118,830
667
456,667
448,000
2,330
312,330
290,830
3,500
589,330
418,000
4,750
571,000
549,583
3,417
372,800
361,300
8,600
233,830
222,583
5,000
582,400
398,800
8,300
257,500
234,330
4,000
403,667
323,667
6,000
100,750
79,330
2,830
TABLE IIL
Unripened
Curd,
Total
Acid
Liquefying
bacteria
bacteria
bacteria
703,300
700,800
125
1,977,600
1,976,200
0
1,142,670
1,142,500
167
1,117,300
1.068,500
2,167
816,000
752,670
667
413,600
412,400
2,000
550,500
549,500
0
672,000
672,000
0
522,670
520,166
1,833
438,000
436.000
400
118,000
111,670
0
203,330
197,000
0
310,000
243,500
1,000
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106 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BULLETIN 83.
Ripened Curd.
A«e.
Total
Acid
Llquefyins
days
bacteria
bacteria
bacteria
26
352,670
339,500
330
28
684,670
531,330
167
31
163,670
150,670
0
33
94,500
89,500
0
35
977,000
341,000
3,250
38
403,000
365,166
1,833
40
491,000
3,200
42
676,667
2,500
45
434,000
396,500
2,667
These two tables are given in full detail to show the number
of determinations made and the differences in bacterial content
observed from day to day. Probably the figures do not always
represent the average content of the whole cheese on each day as
the bacteria are not evenly distributed, but when several cheeses
are tested at regular periods the general trend of bacterial growth
can be ascertained.
The tables also indicate the very large amount of work done
in the examination of the other cheeses reported in what follows.
Nine other cheeses were examined by the same method, be-
ginning at one day and continuing until entirely ripened. The
necessity of economy of space has led me to average the figures
for six cheeses for each five day period. This will give a gen-
eral picture of the bacterial count for the whole ripening period.
TABLE IV,
NUMBERS OF BACTERIA AND YEASTS IN RIPENING CHEESE OF THE
CAMEMBERT TYPE.
Age,
days
1- 5
6-10
11-15
16-20
21-25
26-30
31-35
36-40
41-45
46-50
51-55
Total
bacteria
196,433
24,685
67,000
36,830
89,817
133.175
61,900
41,400
68,400
55,920
68,400
Cheese 7.
Acid
bacteria
189,867
24,100
66.850
36,545
89,717
133.175
61,775
40.515
68,375
55,570
67,830
liquefsring
bacteria
444
416
166
17
61
12
62
125
83
175
141
Yeasts*
4.800
11,810
22.420
10.680
8.590
515
194.760
4.430
2,220
1,320
2.450
♦Actual number,
the other columns.
Not to be multiplied by 1.000 like the figures in
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BACTERIAL STUDIES OF CAMEMBERT CHEESE.
lor
Cheese 8.
Age,
Total
Acid
Uquefying
days
bacteria
bacteria
bacteria
Yeasti
1- 5
779,980
746,900
0
1,460
ft-10
239,263
239,150
44
2,700
11-15
85,600
85,230
133
12,400
16-20
68,496
67,466
266
180
21-25
44,665
43,230
133
7,150
26-30
74,866
74,800
0
3,450
31-35
104,998
104,499
199
4,220
36-40
124,110
119,225
Cheese 9.
67
2,230
1- 5
4,580,330
4,580,330
0
7,030
6-10
1,647,250
1,646,750
0
5,280
11-15
349,600
348,200
400
10,730
lft-20
324,065
322,965
133
24,760
21-25
381,733
381,533
0
2,320
2ft-30
469,200
463,100
0
3,820
31-35
856,000
856,000
0
246,200
36-40
177,400
177,400
0
2,720
41-45
38,600
34,000
0
1,620
4ft-50
89,600
88,200
0
6,030
51-55
12,800
12,800
Cheese 10.
0
25,600
1- 5
3.592,000
3,592,000
0
3,060
ft-10
3,490.000
3,489,500
0
2,250
11-15
1,336,400
1,335,600
400
2,025
16-20
731,200
731,200
0
25.480
21-25
563,200
563,200
0
7,510
26-30
760,000
759,000
400
8,630
31-35
809,000
802,100
800
10,680
36-40
249,000
249,000
0
3,050
41-45
199,900
189,700
Cheese 11.
4,000
12,310
1- 5
2.141,500
2,141,033
0
13,160
ft-10
411,700
409,300
0
31.260
11-15
417.000
414,500
400
22,810
16-20
270,400
269,900
100
39.690
21-25
354,400
351,665
266
192,370
26-30
276.600
273,200
0
6,190
31-35
410,000
409,600
0
18,500
36^40
256,500
256,500
0
1,920
41-45
88,666
82,400
0
3,010
46-50
279.600
279,400
0
3,030
51-55
32.200
31.800
0
4.560
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108 STORES AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULMTTIN 83.
Cheese 12.
Age.
Total
Acid
LdQuefying
days
bacteria
bacteria
bacteria
Yeasti
1- 5
4,198,000
4,197,300
0
2,520
ft-10
553.666
552,866
267
13,380
11-15
360,500
360,100
0
9,730
lft-20
512,400
512,200
0
17,620
21-25
250,700
250,100
100
3,830
26-30
331,900
329,200
200
2,800
31-35
360,000
359,800
0
23,800
36-40
253,500
253,000
0
8,640
41-45
190,933
186,933
0
11,000
46-50
209,600
205,200
600
27,130
Numbers of Bacteria. The highest numbers of bacteria
were usually found about the third day, after which the numbers
decreased, and most rapidly between the seventh and eleventh
days. With fluctuations the numbers decreased gradually until
the cheeses were ripe.
Bacterial Types. In the majority of cases ninety-nine
per cent, or more of the bacteria in the interior of the cheese
were of the lactic acid type. The proportion of liquefying types
was small, especially where a starter was used, as was generally
done.
Bacterium lactis acidi of European cheese differs slightly
from the type found in American cheese and this suggested the
question whether this difference could cause the difference in
flavor often observed. Therefore cultures of this species were
taken from several foreign cheeses and carried through the iden-
tifying cultures in comparison with the common American form
of Bacterium lactis acidi. The chief differences were these :
The European form made somewhat larger colonies in
litmus lactose gelatin plates and grew on the surface while the
American form was always found below the surface. The Euro-
pean form grew more abundantly on agar slants and in bouillon.
Milk soured with cultures of the two forms developed no notice-
able difference in flavor or odor either when first curdled or when
kept for four weeks at the temperature used for ripening cheese.
Cheeses made with starters of these two types showed no real
difference in flavor.
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BACTERIAL STUDIES OF CAMEMBERT CHEESE. 109
Yeasts in Cheese. Practically every cheese tested showed
the presence of yeasts. They were most abundant on the sur-
face but were uniformly found in the curd. Rarely the numbers
reached several millions per gram, but in most cases there were
only a few thousands per gram, the highest numbers being
usually found between the fourteenth and twenty-first days. In
six cheeses tested during the ripening period the average number
was 19,200 per gram. The following figures show the numbers
found in the center and in the surface slime of a few cheeses of
diflferent brands:
TABLE V.
Yeasts per gram
Imported, center, ripe 2,500
9,400
" nearly ripe 12,300
Imported, surface slime 652.500
35,790,000
6,500,000
Made at Storrs, surface slime 852,500
" 1,062,000
412,500
" 3,576,000
Several different species were found, the most common be-
ing an acid producer which in litmus lactose gelatin resembled
Bacterium lactis aerogenes. Several cases of gassy cheese were
apparently due to yeasts. Some of the yeasts from cheese pro-
duced in milk an acid, others an alkaline reaction ; some peptoniz-
ed milk. Those tested were able to develop in the absence of
air but not as rapidly as in aerobic conditions. They were not
greatly restrained by amounts of salt as large as are present in
cheese. Although the yeasts are not numerous in comparison
with the bacteria they may, however, be a factor in the ripening
of cheese and production of flavor. Maze states that some
yeasts which ferment lactose cause a bitter flavor in cheese.
Bacillus Bulgaricus in Camembert Cheese. As this
bacillus is regarded by some as a possible factor in the ripening
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110 STORES AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 83.
of some kinds of cheese, special search was made for it in Ca-
membert. The method used was the following : Large tubes of
sterilized milk were inoculated with pieces of cheese and after a
thorough shaking were incubated at 37** C. After a few days
and again after a few weeks the acidity of the milk was deter-
mined by titration and calculated as lactic acid. Bacterium lactis
acidi rarely produces more than 1.1 per cent, of acid, 1.25 being
considered as the maximum. Higher acidity than this indicates
the probable presence of Bacillus bulgaricus.
By this method the following acidities were found from ten
different Camembert cheeses including imported and domestic
brands. 2.40, 2.30, 2.70, 3.14, 3.20, 2.35, 2.30, 1.67, 2.44, 3.15.
These figures indicate strongly the presence of Bacillus bulgaricus
and were confirmed by miscroscopic examinations. It is doubtful
if this organism has any decided influence on the ripening of Ca-
membert because it grows best at from 44° to 45° C. and only
very slowly at the lower temperatures, 10° to 15° C, at which
Camembert ripens. As Camembert ripens within five weeks it
is very doubtful if Bacillus bulgaricus could develop sufficiently
in that time to affect the flavor.
Anaerobic Bacteria. Search was made for these or-
ganisms by cultures in litmus lactose gelatin plates in a Novy jar
from which the oxygen was absorbed by pyrogallic acid and
potassium hydrate. Samples from four imported and one do-
mestic cheese, as well as the slime from two domestic cheeses,
were thus tested.
An average of all the tests from centers of cheeses showed
only one-ninth as many bacteria under anaerobic as under aerobic
conditions and in tests of the slime only one-fortieth as many.
No species were found in anaerobic cultures which were not
present in the aerobic.
Slime from Camembert Cheese. The following bacterial
counts were made from the slime of cheeses of different origin.
The slime was scraped from the surface with a sterile knife and
one gram treated by the method previously described.
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NOTE REGARDING ROQUEFORT CHEESE. Ill
Liquefying
Total Bacteria*
Acid Bacteria*
Bacteria*
[mported
57,567,900
33,647,300
38,359,700
24,128,000
31,100
••
28,050,000
5,600,000
1,750,000
ti
259,333,300
7,833,300
12,383,300
*•
27,041,700
4,958,000
2,208,000
Domestic
19,375,000
4,500,000
1,750,000
Storrs
19,375,000
8,250,000
1,000,000
'*
11,375,000
250,000
0
*•
7.375,000
1,250,000
125,000
**
12,166.600
333,300
0
Imported
99,833,000
6,500,000
5,416,700
*'
43,000,000
3.687,500
5,000,000
•*
12.166,700
1,583,000
916,000
♦Multiply figures by J,000.
This surface slime contained a great number of different
types of organisms. These different types, such as miscellaneous
non-acid forms, rapid and slow liquefiers, found in the outer part
of the cheese, were isolated and tested both as starters and for
inoculation on the surface of newly made cheeses.
The large number of species found on a single cheese, the
difference of flora found on cheeses of equal value, together with
the unsatisfactory results obtained when cheeses were inoculated
with these organisms leads to the conclusion that they contribute
but little to the production of flavor. None of them was found
constantly enough to indicate its essential connection with cheese
ripening.
NOTE REGARDING ROQUEFORT CHEESE.
The results of such tests of Roquefort cheese as we have
made have been very similar to those given above for Camem-
bert. Thus the lactic acid bacillus, Bact. lactis acidi, is always
found in nearly pure cultures and other species do not appear
uniformly enough to suggest any special importance in ripening
the cheese.
Yeasts were present in four out of the five important brands
examined.
Bacillus bulgaricus is probably almost always present in
Roquefort cheese. The tests of acidity, made in the way above
described, showed a range of from 1.64 to 4.95 per cent.
Bacillus bulgaricus was also found in other soft cheeses, as
Neufchatel and Gorgonzola.
Anaerobic cultures developed no species not found in the
aerobic cultures.
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112 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 83.
TESTS AND COMPARISONS OF COMMERCIAL LACTIC
STARTERS.
By Christie J. Mason.
During the last few years parallel tests have been made of
the various commercial lactic starters described in the following
paragraphs, all of which were obtained in unbroken packages
direct from their manufacturers.
DIRECTIONS for USE.
Instructions for using were received with all the cultures
excepting two which are noted below. These instructions are
quite similar. Skim milk is pasteurized at 180° to 200° F. for a
half hour, then cooled to 70° to 80° F., the starter added and well
mixed. At 70° to 80° F. this should curdle in from eight to
forty-eight hours, according to the proportion of starter used
and the nature of the starter, whether liquid or solid. The
curdled milk is transferred to another lot of pasteurized milk,
which when curdled is used for ripening milk or cream.
Two to four parts in one hundred parts of pasteurized milk
are used for following propagations of the starter. Ripened
starters not intended for immediate use should be kept cold. A
new lot is prepared every week or two, or as often as necessary.
METHOD OF TESTING CULTURES.
Cultures were ordered from the several firms at the same
time and when all the samples had come were tested at the same
time as follows:
Plate cultures of the starters on litmus lactose gelatin were
made at once, and later similar cultures were made from milk
curdled by these starters.
The species of bacteria were determined in most cases by
the appearance of the colonies produced. Some colonies were
picked out and studied further.
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TESTS OF COMMERCIAL LACTIC STARTERS.
113
Where yeasts were found, special cultures were made on
gelatin media to which one per cent, of tartaric acid was added.
This checks the development of bacteria but not of yeasts.
Flasks of sterilized milk also were inoculated, kept at 70° F.
and the time of curdling noted. In some cases determinations of
acid were made at intervals of twenty-four, forty-six, and ninety-
six hours.
As the cultures were put up in different forms equal quan-
tities could not be used for inoculating the flasks of milk. The
amounts of culture and of milk are given in the following tables ;
HANSEN'S DANISH LACTIC FERMENT.
Hansen's Danish Lactic Ferment, made at Copenhagen, Den-
mark, is a fine, white powder, claimed to contain a pure culture
of bacteria most effective in producing desirable flavor. There
are two sizes of packages, one for use with two quarts of milk,
and the other for use with ten. All tests were made with the
smaller size, which contains about eighteen grams of powder and
costs 75 cents.
These cultures were not marked as to the length of time
they should remain in active condition. For the curdling test
from one-half to two-thirds of a small sized package was used in
800 cubic centimeters of sterile milk. It is claimed that a small
package will curdle two quarts of pasteurized milk in from 18 to
24 hours at 75° F.
Per
cent.
acid
Plates
from
Plates from
culture
in
milk
at
cur
died
milk
.•2 1
'^
rt
c
1
x
•o
^ 1
o
•o
V
Date
i'!
2
V
^1
O M
' C/3
(A
1 2
2
•C.2
^C
1
"^1?
1 3
s
3 t*C.52
' y=
(/}
S -t-:
a»
t. ^
4^
1 O
o
O ttj ♦-
1 ^
u
to
+
3
cr
Othe
•3?
96 hi
Bact(
lac
1 3
cr
o
>
Feb. 13
+
Feb. 11
+
—
+
48 hours
July 16
+
+
- +
40 "
1.01
+
—
- +
Oct. 28
—
—
+ -
72 "
.17
.30
.95 +
—
+ -
Jan 13
+
—
- +
42* "
.21
.92
1.07 +
—
- +
Mar. 15
+
—
- +
29 "
.28
1.05
1.12 —
—
- +
May 15
+
—
25 "
.42
.96
1.07 —
—
July 11
+
—
24 "
.79
1.07
4-
—
— —
Oct. 18
+
—
46* "
.24
.92
1.12 +
—
- +
The sign + indicates presence; — indicates absence of the organism.
*Curdled during the night so exact time could not be noted.
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114 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 83.
ERICSSON'S BUTTER CULTURES.
Ericsson's Butter Cultures, liquid and powder, are made at
St. Paul, Minn. The liquid milk culture weighs about forty-five
grams and costs 50 cents, the powder weighs about twenty grams
and costs 75 cents. Both are guaranteed to contain only pure
cultures. They were not marked as to the length of time they
should remain in good condition. Using one bottle to one quart,
the liquid culture is claimed to curdle milk in from 8 to 10 hours
at 72** to 75** R, and the dry culture in from 16 to 18 hours. In
the following tests one-half of the culture was used in 400 cubic
centimeters of sterile milk.
LIQUID CULTURE.
Plates from culture
Per cent, acid
in milk at
Plates from
curdled milk
C9
[xj
i
.2
•o
^
j
o H
'O
V
Date
(A
.a
1
u
t 3
CO
u
3
2
l:
2
1
0)
a>
u
U
: o
O
o
w t1
VO
u
&
3
JZ
5
JZ
JZ
o
ICQ
>
Feb. 13
+
June 28
+
Feb. 11
+
Oct. 28
+
Jan. 13
+
Mar. 15
+
May 16-
+
July 11
+
Oct 18
+
+ -
48 hours
46* "
23 "
.79
.90
+
23 "
.78
.90
.91
4-
29 "
.57
1.00
1.09
+
16* "
.97
.94
.98
+
20* "
.90
1.01
23* "
.95
1.00
1.02
+
POWDERED CULTURE.
July 16
_[-___
90 hours
.40
+
__ — —
Oct. 28
+
42 "
.22
.58
+
— — —
Jan. 17
40* "
.33
.92
1.00
+
— — —
Mar. 15
_|_ — — —
40 "
.28
.96
1.08
-h
— — —
May 16
+
25 "
.52
1.01
1.07
+
— — —
July 11
30 "
.45
1.03
Oct. 18
+
35 "
.31
1.00
1.13
+
- - +
**Curdled during night so exact time could not be noted.
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TESTS OF COMMERCIAL LACTIC STARTERS.
115
LACTONE.
Lactone, a buttermilk tablet, is made by Parke, Davis & Co.
Each tablet weighs about .25 gram. They are put up in vials
of ten and twenty-five. The price of the twenty-five tablet vial
is 40c. They are guaranteed to contain pure cultures of Bact.
acidi lactici or the Milchsauer bacillus of Hueppe. In these
tests one to three tablets were used in 400 cubic centimeters of
sterile milk.
Plates
1 Per
cent.
acid
Plates from
from culture
1 in
milk
at
curdled milk
Date
Expiration of
guarantee
.2 „
^ t;
1 o
1-2
Milk at 70" F.
curdled at
3
o
§
96 hours
Bacterium
lactis acidi
Other bacteria
Oct. 28
July 21
+
_
80 hours
.16
.24
.73
+ -
Jan. 13
Dec. 8
+
—
120 "
.18
.23
.45
+ -
Mar. 15
Feb. 12
+
—
55
.24
.47
.74
+ -
July 11
April 2,
5 +
—
40 "
.15
.90
+ -
Oct. 18
June 27
+
—
46* "
.24
.93
1.12
+ -
FLAVORONE.
Flavorone is a dry, yellowish powder, put up in gelatin cap-
sules, each weighing 5.5 grams, four capsules in a box, costing
$1.65. It is put up by Parke, Davis & Co. They are guaran-
teed to contain pure cultures of Bact. acidi lactici of the Milch-
sauer bacillus of Hueppe and are marked "selected and tested
lactic acid germs." One-half capsule was used in 400 cubic
centimeters of sterile milk.
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116 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 83.
Plates
Per
cent.
acid Plates
from
from ci
ilture
in
milk
at
curdled
milk
.2
fc
;
1 c«
o
'-o
o
4->
•5
i fc
Date
•2 5
13S
1.2
en
t3
at 70
died ;
CA
3
u
•2.2
fiers
• bact(
^ («
i ?,
CJ
U
u 1
o
O
o
4^ tJ
si s
u a
a —
+
cr
+
c
^
1
s
•1«
to
li.
3 Si
July 14
Oct. 13
+
—
72 hours
Oct. 17
—
+
+
+
—
+ -
Dec. 22
+
—
—
Jan. 25
+
— —
Feb. 6
+
— —
June 28
+
+
48
'*
Feb. 11
Mar.l7
+
30
**
+
— —
July 16
July 6
+
+
—
.75
+
— —
Oct 28
Sept. 20
+ ?
—
—
—
.17
.25
.43
+
— —
Jan. 13
Sept. 21
96
«<
.20
.24
.60
+
+ -
May 16
Nov. 29
+
—
—
40
*'
.22
.78
.93
+
— —
July 11
June 16
+
—
—
24
it
.74
.92
Oct. 18
Aug. 6
+
—
—
.22
.29
.71
+
— —
O. DOUGLASS IMPROVED BOSTON BUTTER CULTURE.
O. Douglass Improved Boston Butter Culture is a bouillon
culture marked "guaranteed pure." The culture weighs about
twelve grams and costs 50 cents. With one exception the prep-
arations were not marked as to the length of time they should
remain in good condition. For the curdling test one-half of the
culture was used in 400 cubic centimeters of sterile milk.
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TESTS OF COMMERCIAL LACTIC STARTERS.
iir
Plates
from
i
Per
cent.
acid
Plates from
culture
-
m
milk
at
Curdled Milk
'•5
fe
o rt
.
j§
'u
Date
3 ^
en
.2
4-1 a>
CO
2
.5 «,
.2
c.^
^C
rt^O
S
3
s
C.S2
tC
I a» f .
(U
u
im
o
O
o
ju -g
o
1.4
•4^ U
3
o
:^ 3
JZ
•=
o
-^t"
JZ
o
1
4>
JZ
5
]
DOU
GLAS
BOSTON BUTTER CULTURE.
March 6
-f
—
April 20
4-
—
--
Oct. 26
+
—
+
Not curdled
Feb. 11
-f-
—
4-
5 days
J_
—
July 16
—
+
3 "
.57
+
— —
Oct. 28
H-
4-
—
Not curdled
.21
.28
.39
+?
— —
Jan. 13
-j-
—
u n
.25
.34
.43
+?
— —
Mar. 15
+
—
—
3 days
.35
.50
.65
+
— —
May 16
-f
—
—
7 days
.35
.44
.56
+
— —
July 11
4-
—
.—
2 '*
.41
.57
+
— —
Oct. 18
+
—
—
Not curdled
.29
.40
.52
+
— —
LOG
CABI
N LACTIC ACID CULTURE.
Oct. 18
—
—
4-
8 days
.17
.17
.24
+
- +
LOG CABIN LACTIC ACID CULTURE.
The Log Cabin Lactic Acid Culture is made by the Dairy
Products Testing Co. of Ithaca, N. Y. It is in tablet form with
no guarantee accompanying it. A vial containing about nine
tablets costs 25 cents.
It was claimed that three tablets would curdle one pint of
milk in from 24 to 36 hours at 75** F. and these were the pro-
portions used in this test.
The preceding tables show that Hansen's culture was often
slow in curdling milk. The Bacterium lactis acidi type of bac-
teria was always present. Other kinds of bacteria and yeasts
were often found. Ericsson's liquid culture was the strongest
acid producer of any of the cultures tested. A pure culture of
Bact. lactis acidi was practically always found. The dry culture
gave similar results except that the time required for curdling
milk was considerably longer. Lactone showed pure cultures of
Bact. lactis acidi but was usually slow in curdling nwlk. Flav-
orone was also slow in acid production and was frequently found
to be contaminated with liquefiers and other bacteria. Lactone
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118 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 83.
and Flavorone were apparently expected to remain in active con-
dition for nearly a year judging from the dates given after which
they should not be used. The O. Douglass Boston Butter Cul-
ture was always weak in acid production and in several cases
failed to curdle milk. At one time it was stated that this culture
contained Bacillus bulgaricus, but milk inoculated and kept at
high temperatures failed to show its presence. Bacteria other
than acid types were frequently found. The one sample of Log
Cabin Lactic Acid Culture tested required eight days to curdle
milk. It did not contain a pure culture of Bact. lactis acidi.
STRENGTHENING OF STARTERS.
In our work with lactic acid starters it was found that with
ordinary methods of handling they gradually become weakened
and thus inefficient. The purpose of the following experiments
was to determine whether the power and intensity of acid pro-
duction could be increased, and for practical purposes how many
transfers would be required. A lactic acid culture of the Bact.
lactis acidi type which had been kept at room temperature for
six months was used. When first isolated it was a strong acid
producing organism but had gradually lost its strength until it
required about three days to curdle milk. From this stock cul-
ture milk tubes were inoculated and placed at 37'' C, the tem-
perature at which their growth seems to be most rapid. At
twenty-four hours a second milk tube was inoculated from the
first and twenty-four hours later a third from the second, this
being continued from day to day. Another series was started in
which the transfers were made once in forty-eight hours. In
each series the same proportions of milk and inoculation material
were used.
It was found that the series transferred every twenty-four
hours gradually gained in strength until at the end of two weeks
^ilk was curdled in about five hours. When this point was
reached a third series was started, transferring twice a day but
this did not appreciably lessen the time required for curdling. A
tube of milk which had curdled in five hours was left standing
at room temperature for two days at which time a transfer was
made. This required practically twice the time to curdle. The
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STRENGTHENING OF LACTIC STARTERS.
119
series transferred once in forty-eight hours did not regain its
strength so quickly. At three weeks it required two days to
curdle milk, and at four weeks one day.
A comparison of these three experimenrs shows the inhibi-
tory effect of acid upon the bacteria. When transfers were made
once in forty-eight hours the bacteria were scmewhat weakened
by remaining so long in the acid and a portion of the next forty-
eight hours was required for them to regain their activity. Those
transferred once in twenty-four hours reached tneir maximum ac-
tivity before sufficient acid was developed to injure them, as was
indicated by the fact that transfers made twice a day did not ap-
preciably change the time for curdling milk.
Thirteen cultures of the Bacterium lactis acidi type from
various sources, such as milk, ripened cream, and cheese, were
isolated and inoculated into sterile milk. The next day trans-
fers were made from these using one cubic centimeter to thirty
cubic centemeters of sterile milk. This was done daily for
twenty-eight days, the one day old cultures always being used for
inoculation. All the tubes were kept at 37° C. and the time of
curdling noted. This often occurred during the night so the
exact time can not be given. The following table gives a sum-
mary of the results obtained.
Hours required for curdling
Culture 1st transfer 4th transfer 26th transfer
No. 1
48* hours
23* hours
18* hours
No. 2
24
48* "
18*
"
No. 3
96* "
24 "
24
ti
No. 4
96
23
18
t(
No. 5
96
24
23
u
No. 6
■ 168
26
22
<t
No. 7
48* "
23* "
19
No. 8
Not in 8 wks.
Not curdled
44
••
No. 9
96 hours
23 hours
IS*
"
No. 10
48* "
7* "
18*
"
No. 11
48 "
7* "
7
'*
No. 12
24 "
23* "
22
"
No. 13
24
18
18
'*
*Curdled during night so exact time could not be noted.
The following experiment is similar to the preceding except
that a temperature of 20** C. was used instead of 37° C. This
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120 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 83-
temperature was used as representing more nearly the tempera-
ture required in practical dairy work. It is well known that the
gas producing organisms frequently found in milk develop best
at a high temperature while at lower temperatures they are par-
tially held in check by the other lactic acid bacteria. Nine cul-
tures of the Bact. lactis acidi type, isolated from imported
Camembert cheeses and from different brands of commercial
sstarters, were used. For the transfers one-half cubic centimeter
was used to thirty cubic centimeters of sterile milk. Daily trans-
fers were made for about six weeks. The following table gives
a summary of the results obtained.
Hours required for curdling for
• Shortest
Culture
1st transfer
4th transfer
12th transfer
time
No. 1
768 hours
960 hours
600 hours
528 hours
No. 2
648 "
280 •*
210 "
40 "
No. 3
264 "
184 "
136* *'
64* •
No. 4
116* "
88* "
88* "
64* "
No. 5
48 "
15* '*
16 "
15* "
No 6
'40* "
24 "
19* "
19* "
No. 7
20 "
15* •*
15* *'
15* •
No. 8
16 *'
15* "
15* "
14* •
No. 9
16 *'
1.5* '*
15* *•
14* *
The results in these tables indicate that at 37° C. the majori-
ty of cultures reach their maximum activity ac the fourth trans-
fer; at 20** C. H somewhat longer time is required. The slower
the acid production the greater the number of transfers required
before the maximum activity is reached. Frequent transferring
increased the activity of the culture in every case. When a cul-
ture reaches its maximum activity some variation is still found
from day to day in the time required to curdle milk. Those not
sufficiently active by the fourth or fifth transfer would probably
not be of any value for practical purposes. It was found that
these bacteria adapted themselves after a time to the different
temperatures at which they were kept. Strong add producing
cultures which had been kept at 37** C. were not satisfactory
when used for ripening milk or cream at lower temperatures as
their development was too slow. With the proportions of starter
and sterile milk used the shortest time at whi':h milk could be ex-
pected to curdle was, at 37** C. six to seven hours, and at 20® C
thirteen to fourteen hours.
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METHODS CF MAINTAINING ACTIVITY OF LACTIC STARTERS. 121
METHODS OF MAINTAINING THE ACTIVITY OF BACT. LACTIS ACIDI
FOR LONG PERIODS OF TIME.
Many experiments have been made for the purpose of de-
termining the kinds of media best suited for the growth and
long keeping of Bact. lactis acidi. In all this work cultures of
Bact. lactis acidi from four sources were used ; namely, O. Doug-
lass Boston Butter Culture, Ericsson*s Butter Culture, Flavorone,
and one from an imported Camembert cheese. They had been
kept under the same conditions for some time and would curdle
milk in practically the same length of time. Kinds of culture
media similar to those used by some manufacturers of butter
starters were used in addition to other common kinds of culture
media. For all this work 20° C. or room temperature was used.
CULTURE MEDIA USED.
Standard bouillon, reaction -fl.5.
Dextrose bouillon, standard bouillon with 1 % dextrose.
Lactose bouillon, standard bouillon with 1 % lactose.
Saccharose bouillon, standard bouillon with 1 % saccharose.
Saccharose bouillon, standard bouillon with 1 % saccharose and
1 ^e CaC03.
Saccharose bouillon, standard bouillon with 3 % saccharose.
Saccharose bouillon, standard bouillon with 3 % saccharose and
3 7c CaC03.
Saccharose bouillon, standard bouillon with 5 % saccharose.
Saccharose bouillon, standard bouillon with 5 % saccharose and
5 % CaC03.
Saccharose bouillon, standard bouillon with 7 % saccharose.
Saccharose bouillon, standard bouillon with 7 % saccharose and
T% CaC03.
Saccharose bouillon, standard bouillon with 10 % saccharose.
Saccharose bouillon, standard bouillon with 10 % saccharose and
10 % CaC03.
Saccharose bouillon, standard bouillon with 1 % saccharose and
4.5 % salt.
Dextrose bouillon, reaction +.5, 3 % dextrose.
Glycerine bouillon, standard bouillon with 5 % glycerine.
Sterilized skim milk.
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122 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 83.
Sterilized skim milk + 5 % salt.
Sterilized skim milk + 2.2 % CaC03.
Sterilized skim milk + 2.2 % CaC03 with litmus.
Sterilized skim milk + 5 % lactose.
Sterilized skim milk + 5% lactose + 4% CaC03.
Sterilized skim milk + 10% lactose.
Sterilized skim milk + 10% lactose + 6% CaC03.
Sterilized skim milk + 2% saccharose.
Sterilized skim milk + ^% saccharose + 3% CaC03.
Peptonized milk recommended by Jensen for lactic acid bacteria.
See Lafar's Handbuch der Tech. Mykologie, Neunte
Lieferung, 1906, S. 89.
Agar slants were of standard agar. Large tubes were used.
Whey agar. This was made by curdling fresh milk with rennet
and to the whey thus obtained adding 1/3 % agar.
TxTilk sugar and flour in equal parts, dry. This was inoculated by
mixing with milk curdled with Bact. lactis acidi and
drying.
Milk sugar and flour in equal parts with sterile water added after
sterilizing.
Whey with 3 % wheat flour added before sterilizing.
Filter paper sterilized, moistened with saccharose bouillon cul-
tures and dried.
Com juice.
Tap water + 2 % molasses.
These media were inoculated with the four cultures of Bact.
lactis acidi and tested at intervals of one or two weeks. This
was done by transferring one cubic centimeter of the culture into
twenty cubic centimeters of sterile milk and noting the time of
curdling. With dry cultures about a gram of the material was
taken; with agar slants a needle transfer was made; and with
filter paper a strip about 1/3 in.x4 in. was used. In many
cases the samples curdled during the night so the exact time
could not be noted. In all the tests the milk tubes were kept
seven days to see if curdling would take place and when it did
not in two successive tests the culture was discarded. Most of
the cultures which were still active at 176 days were not tested
further. The following table gives the length of time Bact. lactis
acidi remained active in each culture medium used.
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METHODS OF MAINTAINING ACTIVITY OF LACTIC STARTERS.
15^3
Three weeks
Dex. bouillon
Lact.
Milk
Milk + 10% lact Milk + 5% lact.
Four weeks
Dex. bouillon +
3% dex., reaction
-h .5.
Five weeks
Peptonized milk
Filter paper
Corn juice
Eight weeks
Whey agar
Whey + 3% flour
Tap water -|- 2%
molasses
Milk + 2% sac.
Milk + 5% gly.
Twenty-two weeks
Agar
Sac. bouillon +
4:5% salt
Twelve weeks Fifteen weeks Eighteen weeks
Milk, sugar and 5% gly. bouillon Milk + 5% salt
flour, dry 7% sac. bouillon 5% sac. bouillon
10% sac. bouillon '
Twenty-eight weeks or longer
Standard bouillon
1% saccharose bouillon
3% saccharose bouillon
All percentages of sac. bouillon con-
taining CaCOS
Milk sugar, flour and water
All milk having CaC03 added
The real value of the diflferent cultures is better shown in
the following table which gives the age of cultures at the last test
when they curdled milk within forty-eight hours.
One week
Lactose bouillon
Milk -f 5% lactose
Eight weeks
Bouillon -|- 5% sac.
Bouillon 4- 7% sac.
Bouillon -f 10% sac.
Bouillon + 7% sac +
7% CaC03
Bouillon 10% sac. -f-
10% CaC03
Sac. bouillon -f- 4.5%
NaQ
Lactose, flour and water
Twenty weeks
Bouillon -f 3% sac.
I Two weeks
I Dextrose bouillon
Dextrose bouillon 3%
dex., -\- .5 reac.
Milk
I Milk -f 10% lactose
' Ten weeks
Standard agar
Bouillon + 3% sac. -f-
3% CaCOS
Four weeks
I Whey agar
. Whey -f 3% flour
Sac. bouillon -f 1%
CaC03
Twelve weeks
Standard bouillon
Bouillon -{■ 5% sac. +
5% CaC03
Twenty-two weeks. Twenty-four weeks
Saccharose bouillon
Milk -t- 10% lactose -f-
6% CaC03
Twenty-eight weeks
Thirty weeks
Milk + 2.2% CaC03
Milk + 2% sac. + 3% CaC03
Milk -f- 5% lactose -f- 4% CaC03
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124 .STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 83.
At seven days no noticeable difference could be observed in
the time milk, inoculated from the different kinds of media,
would curdle. Nineteen hours was the usual iength of time. At
sixteen days decided differences began to appear, while at twenty-
three days a few cultures had become inactive, and at twenty-
nine days several more had dropped out. Most of those still ac-
tive at this age continued so for a considerable length of time.
Some which remained alive for a long time always acted very
slowly, while some which died out quickly were very active while
they were alive. There was some variation with those in the
same culture media but no greater than that found in duplicate
cultures of the same organism. The kinds of culture media in
which they retained their activity longest were saccharose bouil-
lon, standard bouillon, and milk with calcium carbonate added.
Some cultures were found to be still active at twenty months.
SEALING TUBES WITH PARAFFIN.
Ten tests were made to determine the effect of sealing tubes
with paraffin. Milk with calcium carbonate added was the me-
dium used. After the tubes were inoculated ten were sealed with
paraffin and the ten corresponding tubes left unsealed. At 187
days milk tubes were inoculated from each of these cultures. The
following table shows the time required for curdling.
Hours to curdling.
No.
Sealed.
Not sealed,
1
20
39
2
24
88
3
20
39
4
39
144
5
20
39
6
88
88
7
39
48
8
24
24
9
39
39
LO
24
39
The average time required for curdling milk was 33.7 hours
for the sealed cultures and 58.7 hours for the cultures not sealed.
This indicates that sealing tubes with paraffin increases the length
of time cultures may be kept in active condition.
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METHODS OF MAINTAINING ACTIVITY OF LACTIC STARTERS. 125
SUMMARY.
The strongest and most uniform commercial butter culture
tested was Ericsson's milk culture.
Transferring milk cultures of Bact. lactis acidi daily will in
most cases increase the activity of the bacteria. Those not suffi-
ciently active after the fourth or fifth transfer are of doubtful
value.
Cultures intended for use as starters should be propagated
at as low a temperature as is used for ripening the milk or cream.
Results of the experiments made indicate that the kinds of
media best adapted for the long keeping of this class of lactic
organisms are milk with calcium carbonate added and standard
bouillon containing one per cent, of saccharose
Sealing tubes with paraffin assists in maintaining the activity
of cultures kept for long periods of time.
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126 STORES AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 83.
TESTS OF VARIOUS BRANDS OF LITMUS FOR BAC-
TERIOLOGICAL WORK.
By Christie J. Mason.
The following work was done to determine which brands of
litmus are best adapted for bacteriological purposes basing con-
clusions on the numbers of bacteria which developed in litmus-
lactose-gelatin plates prepared for testing milk or its products.
Duplicate plate cultures were made, the only difference being
in the brand of litmus used. Eight cubic centimeters of gelatin
was used for each plate and two cubic centimeters of litmus so-
lution. Litmus was used of such strength as would give the
color best adapted for the determination of acid producing bac-
teria. The percentages used were as follows:
Litmus cubes 15 per cent.
Azolitmin ^ per cent.
Litmus "C. P. Soluble" 3 per cent.
Litmus "C. P. Insoluble in alcohol. Lime and red-
dish colorifics free" 1>4 per cent.
The reaction was changed when necessary to bring it to -|-1.5.
Fuller's scale. The reaction of the gelatin used was -\-1.5.
In the first series of tests a solution of litmus cubes added
to gelatin just before plating was compared with a solution of
"litmus c. p., soluble" which had been sterilized with the gelatin.
In fifty-seven of the eighty sets of comparative plates the num-
bers of bacteria were larger where the solution of litmus cubes
was used. The average of all the tests showed that the plates
in which a solution of "litmus c. p., soluble" was used had only
71 per cent, of the number of bacteria found in the plates con-
taining a solution of litmus cubes.
In the second series the comparison was between the num-
bers of bacteria found when solutions of litmus cubes and
of "litmus c. p. Lime and reddish colorifics free. Insoluble in
alcohol" were used. These solutions were added to the gelatin
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TESTS GF BRANDS OF LITMUS FOR BACTERIOLOGICAL WORK. 127
just before the plates were poured. Sixty of the eighty-four
tests showed larger numbers of bacteria when the solution of lit-
mus cubes was used. The average of the tests showed 79 per
cent, as many bacteria in the "litmus c. p. Lime and reddish
colorifics free. Insoluble in alcohol" plates as in the plates
where a solution of litmus cubes was used.
In the third series three kinds of litmus were compared,
azolitmin, litmus cubes, and "litmus c. p. Lime and reddish
colorific^ free. Insoluble in alcohol." Sixty-two tests were
made. In twenty-seven litmus cubes showed the largest number
of bacteria and in twenty-two azolitmin showed the largest. The
average number of bacteria was largest where the solution of
litmus cubes was used. Reckoning the number of bacteria found
where the cubes were used as 100 per cent., where azolitmin was
used 99 per cent, and where "litmus c, p. Lime and reddish color-
ifics free" was used, only 75 per cent, were found.
The fourth series was to test the effect of sterilizing azolit-
min solution with the gelatin. Forty-five tests were made.
Twenty-two of these showed larger numbers when the litmus was
added at the time of plating. Eight per cent, more bacteria de-
veloped in the plates when the litmus and gelatin were sterilized
separately than when they were sterilized together.
The different lots of azolitmin purchased were not uniform.
Solutions of some did not require any change of acidity while
solutions of others were found to be very strongly acid, requiring
1% per cent, of normal NaOH to bring the reaction to -j-1.5.
SUMMARY.
Of the four brands of litmus tested, litmus cubes was found
to be the most satisfactory though the difference between azolit-
min and litmus cubes was slight. The other forms of purified
litmus seemed to inhibit the growth of bacteria to a noticeable
degree.
Somewhat larger numbers of bacteria develop in litmus-lac-
tose gelatin when the gelatin and litmus are sterilized separately
and mixed just before using than when they are sterilized to-
gether. With all kinds of litmus the color was better when this
method was used.
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128 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 83.
THE BACTERIA IN ICE CREAM.
The following experiments with ice cream were made to
determine the effect of storing frozen ice cream on the numbers
and kinds of bacteria contained. Different grades of cream were
used in the different experiments in order to determine the effect
of a low or a high initial content of bacteria. In most cases tests
were made of the cream before and after mixing with the dif-
ferent ingredients and again just after freezing. After this tests
were made twice a week for a month. In two experiments tests
were continued for over two months.
The ice cream was frozen in an ordinary freezer, then packed
in quart bricks, wrapped in paper and enclosed in pasteboard
boxes. These were packed in an ice salt mixture which was re-
newed as often as necessary to keep the cream in a solid condi-
tion. No record of the exact temperatures was kept. Samples
were taken with sterilized knives the outer layer of cream being
cut off before the sample was taken out. The cream was allowed
to melt at room temperatures and was then plated in the same
manner as milk samples. Plate cultures were made of litmus
lactose gelatin. They were incubated at 21'' C. for seven days
and counted. Four plates were made from each sample and the
results given are the averages of the four plates. By using lit-
mus lactose gelatin the numbers of acid bacteria and of liquefy-
ing bacteria could be determined. The results are given in fol-
lowing tables.
Except where indicated all bacteria counts should be multiplied
by one thousand.
No. 1 No. 2
Cream Untreated Cream Untreated
Liqui- Liqui-
Age Total Acid fiers Total Acid ficrs
bacteria bacteria bacteria bacteria
Cream
Before freezing . 114,750 76.000 575
After freezing . . 44.250 32,625 400 60,100 54.250 400
60,100
54.250
51.500
50,400
57.300
52,350
4 days 45,933 43.667 750 51.500 50,400 700
7 " 50,500 49,300 900 57,300 52,350 950
11 " 28,200 26.850 350
14 " 39,950 38,250 600 64,267 61,533 867
18 " 42,600 41,200 500 73,350 61,250 1,050
21 " 40,650 34,900 700 57,200 56,000 867
25 " 17.600 14,400 0 86,650 85,400 550
28 " 57,867 52.533 1,067 91,000 87,500 1.700
32 " 40,550 29,750 350
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THE BACTERIA IN ICE CREAM. 129
No. 3
Cream Untreated
Liqui-
Age Total Acid fiers
Cream 7.267 5,342 155
Before freezing . . 22,550 21,862 327
After freezing .. 7,012 6,705 627
4 days 6,393 6,206 518
7 " 8,325 8,025 1,000
11 " 5,756 5,481 481
14 " 5,925 5,750 800
18 •* 5,962 5,825 600
21 " 7,550 7,412 662
25 " 4,925 4,637 762
28 *' 5,237 5,175 475
32 " 6,700 6,512 850
No. 4
Cream Pasteurized*
Liqui-
Total
Acid
fiers
13,800
9,000
600
14,200
10,200
500
14,900
12,300
500
11,000
7,600
400
3,000
360
300
10,800
9,700
370
4,000
1,700
200
18,500
9,500
500
12,800
12,400
300
16,200
16,100
250
10,300
10,300
400
10,500
10,400
300
No. 5
Cream Untreated
Liqui-
Age Total Acid fiers
Cream 7,267 5,342 155
Before freezing
After freezing .. 7,028 6,830 442
4 days 7,537 7,200 612
7 " 5,987 5,662 462
11 " 5,043 4,912 412
14 " 4,687 4,462 512
18 " 5,575 5,437 612
21 " 5,150 5,012 700
25 " 6,400 6,137 637
28 " 5,725 5,550 562
32 " 4,537 4,250 462
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130 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 83.
Cream
Age Total
Cream 10,600
Before freezing . 39,700
After freezing .. 137,600
3 days 112,300
7 " 220,000
10 " 108,700
14 " 48,700
17 " 40,000
21 " 88,100
24 " '56,900
28 " 46,200
31 '* 61,900
35 ** 46,900
38 " 30,000
42 '* 36,700
45 " 23,700
49 ** 21,200
52 " 25,000
56 " 44.400
59 " 33,100
63 " 34,400
67 " 63,000
"io. 6
No. 7
Pasteurizedt*
Cream Untreated
Liqui-
Liqui-
Acid
fiers
Total
Acid
fiers
7,500
0
16,903
14,456
45
36,700
0
16,875
13,862
87
125,800
1,000
14,399
13,208
83
109,700
1,000
19,412
19,300
12
215,000
0
8,400
8,400
0
108,700
1,200
9,250
9,200
0
41,200
2,500
6,150
6,100
0
40,000
0
1,150
1,050
0
86,200
600
7,525
7,475
25
55,600
0
4,950
4,950
0
46,200
0
40,650
40,625
75
60,600
1,900
2,333
2,333
0
39,400
0
2.475
2.300
0
26,200
1,200
1.975
1.950
0
33,300
0
15,875
15,700
13,575
17,500
0
1,475
1.250
50
19,400
2,500
2,350
2,300
0
24,400
0
5,675
3,875
0
28,100
1,200
4,800
3,800
233
22,500
0
3,150
2,875
150
32,500
0
2,775
2,675
0
57,500
0
5,033
4,100
133
No 8
Cream Untreated
Liqui-
Age Total Acid fiers
Cream 61.167 22,800 858
Before freezing
After freezing .. 30,516 27.517 467
3 days 21.100 18,500 850
7 " 17,400 15,500 600
10 " 19.325 18,225 425
14 " 14,700 12,400 600
17 " 17,450 14,200 800
21 " 11,700 7,900 500
24 ** 18,500 16.900 850
28 " 9.050 6.950 300
31 " 27,300 21.600 1.000
No. 9
Cream Untreated
Liqui-
Total
Acid
fiers
65,700
52,200
2,700
48,900
31,400
2,550
19,000
13.975
1,225
17,500
8,300
1.100
14.333
10.400
933
9,200
4.000
1.800
15.267
13.000
933
7,867
4.467
700
9,867
7.533
667
7.950
4.400
550
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THE BACTERIA IN ICE CREAM. 131
No. 10 No. 11
Cream Untreated Cream Untreated
Age Total
Cream 400
Before freezing
After freezing . . 18,550
3 days 14,600
7 "
10 " 33,867
14 " 7,750
17 "
21 " 17,600
24 " 21,650
28 " 14,650
31 " 12,800
Liqui-
Liqui-
Acid
fiers
Total
Acid
fiers
50
150
400
50
150
7,900
1,000
20,350
14.200
650
11,267
667
19,600
14,000
1,200
30,600
1,267
....
5,150
250
18,800
12,450
600
20,450
19,100
800
15,000
550
18,400
16,667
400
19,300
400
19,750
17,700
95d
11,700
1,150
26,200
24,700
1,250
11,600
1,250
20,350
19,050
700
No. 12
Cream Untreated*
Age Total
Cream 8,300
After freezing . . 49,000
5 days 8,300
8 " 6,100
12 " 8,600
15 " 6,300
19 " . . 2,300
22 " 6,400
26 " 4,900
29 " 3,500
Liqui
Acid
fiers
4,800
1,500
35,000
4,000
4,500
1,300
3,100
2,900
2,000
1,200
1,900
1,300
500
800
3,500
1,300
1,600
800
1,100
1,200
♦Total number not to be multiplied by 1,000.
tSame lot of cream as No. 7
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132 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BULLETIN 83.
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THE BACTERIA IN ICE CREAM. 133
The curves in Chart I show the bacterial content of nine
samples throughout the period stored. No regularity appears in
the increase or decrease of numbers found. Some samples show
only slight variations throughout the entire period while others
show comparatively wide variations. In general the samples with
the greatest bacterial content showed the greatest variation in
numbers. These experiments indicate that we may reasonably
expect ice cream with a high bacterial content at the start to con-
tinue to show large numbers of bacteria throughout the period it is
stored, and ice cream with a low bacterial content to continue to
show only a few bacteria. This refers only to ice cream kept
well packed and frozen.
As would naturally be expected the cream was the chief
source of bacteria. In a few cases the freezer was apparently
responsible for an increase. One test was made of the gelatin
used in making the ice cream. This showed an average of
14,^00 bacteria per gram of which 4,400 were acid producers and
180 were liquefiers. Considering the comparatively small quan-
tities used the gelatin can not be responsible for the large numbers
usually found.
The percentages of acid bacteria and of liquefying bacteria
also remained fairly constant. No progressive increase or de-
crease appeared in any of the samples.
CONCLUSIONS.
When ice cream is kept frozen for periods of at least a month
there is no marked increase or decrease in the bacterial content
as shown by litmus lactose gelatin plate cultures. The percent-
ages of acid bacteria and of liquefying bacteria also remained
fairly constant.
The source of most of the bacteria is the cream used.
Mr. R. M. Washburn has said "The true age of an ice cream
is measured by the age, or rather, the condition of the ingredients
of which it is made, not by the length of time since it was last
frozen."
A few samples of ice cream purchased at retail stores were
tested. They came in the regular pint paraffined paper carriers,
and were packed in ice and salt before they had time to become
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134 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 83.
softened. They were kept packed and frozen two or three days
before tests were made. Samples for testing were taken from
the centers of the packages. The culture media and methods
were the same as those used in the preceding experiments. The
following table gives the results obtained.
Total
Acid
Liquefying
Source
bacteria
bacteria
bacteria
B. coli
Willimantic
19,300
15,000
605
T
u
21,500
13,650
495
T
10,850
7,000
171
■t-
"
1,740
1,070
329
**
4,040
1.099
796
Hartford
8,170
4.600
400
0
i<
25,000
4,700
5,300
4-
<i
11,700
5,400
1,600
+
"
6,162
1,125
2,500
Storrs
42,370
42,060
218
-t-
Average
15,083
9,570
1,241
These results are very similar to those found by different in-
vestigators of ice cream in various cities The following table
gives some of their published results.
No. samples A v. No. Bact.
Source examined per cc
Philadelphia
Boston
Washington
Chicago, 1909
Chicago, 1910
Des Moines
Ames
49
17,833
35
23,000
263
26.612
89
16,660
386
15,401
10
19,920
12
19,775
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SCORING OF MILK AND CREAM. 135
SCORING OF MILK AND CREAM.
AT THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE DAIRYMEN'S ASSOCIATION
JANUARY 14, 1914.
MILK.
Fifty-two samples of milk were entered in competition and
were tested by the bacteriological department of this Station.
The results are briefly summarized as follows :
Acidity. All samples having an acidity equivalent to 0.20
per cent, or less of lactic acid are scored 5. For every 0.01
above 0.20 per cent. 1 is deducted from the score. Thus 0.205
per cent, is scored 4.5. 0.22 per cent, is scored 3.
Of the 52 samples only 4 scored under 5. These four scored
4.5, 4.4 and 3.
The average acidity of all the sample was 0.184 per cent.
Numbers of Bacteria per Cubic Centimeter. All samples
in which the number of bacteria was 400 or less were scored 35,
the highest rating. Each additional 5000 bacteria reduce the
score by one point. All samples containing over 200,000 bac-
teria were scored zero.
Of the 52 samples tested 8 were marked 35. 8 others were
marked 34 or over, less than 1000 bacteria. 16 others were
marked 33 and over, less than 3000 bacteria. The lowest score
was 6, the samples containing 144,560 bacteria per c.c. the next
lowest was scored 20, with 52,120 bacteria. Omitting the lowest
scoring milk, the average number of bacteria was 5,996 per c. c.
and the smallest number of bacteria 180.
cream.
Of the 22 samples of cream tested only one had a higher
acidity than 0.20 per cent, and the average acidity was 0.154 per
cent.
The bacterial content was, of course, high. Only one scored
35 and five scored zero, their bacteria content ranging from
335,200 to 100.720,000 per c. c.
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STORRS
Agricultural Experiment Station
STORKS, CONNECTICUT
BULLETIN 84, SEPTEMBER, 1915
AN ELECTRIC INCUBATOR FOR
BACTERIOLOGICAL WORK.
BY W. M. ESTEN.
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BOARD OF CONTROL
THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES
OF THB
CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
J. W. Alsop
IVERSON C. FaNTON
E. Stevens Henry
E. Kent Hubbard, Jr
Charles M. Jarvis
Governor Marcus H. Holcomb
O. F. King
Clifford I. Stoddard
Charles E. Lyman
H. G. Manchester
C. L. Beach, B. Agr., B. S., Pres,, Conn, Agricultural College
STATION STAFF
E. H. Jenkins, Ph. D. Director
AGRONOMY DEPARTMENT.
W. L. Slate, Jr., B. S. Agr. Agronomist
Benjamin G. Southwick, B. Sc. Assistant Agronomist
BACTERIOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT.
W. M. EsTEN, M. S. Bacteriologist
Christie J. Mason, B. Agr. Assistant Bacteriologist
CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT.
H. D. Edmond, B. S. Chemist
DAIRY DEPARTMENT.
G. C. White, B. S. A., A. M. Dairy Husbandman
H. F. Judkins, B. S. Assistant Dairy Husbandman
ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY.
G. H. Lamson, M. S. Zoologist
POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
Wm. F. Kirkp.\trick, B. Agr., B. E. Poultry Husbandman
Leslie E. Card, B. S. Assistant Poultry Husbandman
Leo F. Rettger, Ph. D. Bacteriologist^ Investigations of
Animal Diseases
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AN ELECTRIC INCUBATOR FOR BACTERIOLOGICAL
WORK.
By VV. M. Esten.
Incubators made of copper and heated by gas have several
serious defects. Copper is expensive, with exception of silver
it is the best conductor of heat, and the water jacket often be-
comes leaky and a source of much annoyance.
Heating by gas involves rubber connections which rapidly
deteriorate and add to the fire risk. Only a small part of the
heat applied on the outside is utilized and the gas flame often
vitiates the air and makes an unpleasant odor.
Construction of wood, made fire proof by asbestos, is ideal
for lightness and insulation and the use of electricity for heat
inside the oven avoids all vitiation of the air and waste of heat
for the heat is applied directly where it is needed. The wood is
indestructible when kept dry and the incubator made as described
below should last indefinitely.
Following is a detailed description of incubators which I
have made and which have proved to be inexpensive, service-
able and durable.
MATERIAL.
Wood, building paper, hair felt, and asbestos were the ma-
terials chosen. Cork board might be substituted for hair felt,
the choice depending upon cost and efficiency. Asbestos serves
two purposes, insulation and fire proofing.
Hair felt such as is used by plumbers for wrapping steam
and hot water pipes comes in large sheets about one inch in
thickness, and is a very efficient non-conductor of heat. Cork
board comes in strips about two inches thick, fifteen inches wide
and thirty to thirty-five inches long, which can be cut and trim-
med to any size. Two thicknesses of hair felt would probably
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140 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION^ BULLETIN 84.
be about as efficient as two inches of cork board. The asbestos
may be obtained as a rather thin flexible cloth. One or more
thicknesses may be used as desired. The Keasby, Mattison Co.
sell a rigid asbestos board one-eighth or one-fourth inch in
thickness which makes a very desirable finish on the outside
It is smooth and needs no paint or finish of any kind. Applied
to the inside it makes an oven as fireproof as could be desired.
The best lumber to use is one-half inch white pine. White wood
may be used but hard pine is not advised because it is too solid
and conducts heat more readily.
CONSTRUCTION.
The incubator consists of two boxes one inside the other
with a space a little less than two inches between them. They
are held together at the corners by cleats running crosswise
of the lumber. Common box boards may be used if one is willing
to spend time in selecting for thickness and cutting to size, but
kiln dried matched boards are better. Four cleats, seven-eighths
by one and one-eight inches, one inch longer than the inside
length of the inside box, and four cleats two and three-fourths
inches longer than the width of the inside box are required.
The boards are cut as long as the inside box is deep. All
places of contact are glued and nailed. This makes it stiff
and rigid. Two long cleats are laid out and boards fastened
to them. The opposite side is constructed in the same way.
The end cleats are fastened to them and then the ends boarded
across. The back side is boarded and the front side is left open
for the door. Building paper is glued or tacked to both sides
of the boards. Asbestos is glued on next. Then hair felt is
fitted into the panels and glued in place. Over cleats and hair
felt is glued a piece of building paper and another piece of
asbestos if desired. A second set of cleats is nailed over the
first set and again the panels are filled with hair felt and cov-
ered with building paper and asbestos. The incubator is now
ready for the covering of wood which is the outside box. The
finish of the outside may be duck or burlap enameled, with cor-
ners of copper or galvanized iron, or it may be rigid asbestos
board one-eighth inch thick. The door is specially constructed
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AN ELECTRIC INCUBATOR FOR BACTERIOLOGICAL WORK. 141
UILDING PAI
Fig. 1. Section through side of Incubators somewhat expanded to
show spaces l)etween materials.
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142 STORES AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 84.
with beveled edges tangent to the radius from the hinges of the
door. The door should be six to eight inches narrower than
the width of the inside box.
A detailed cross section through the box is illustrated in
Fig. 1. Fig. 2 gives a cross section of the door and the bevels
for a door eighteen inches wide. The edges of the incubator
should be covered with some metal, as galvanized iron, two
inches wide and bent in the middle to a right angle. This
leaves an inch to a side and covers up the tacks used in fasten-
ing the covering material to the incubator. It also prevents
marring of the corner edges. The corners can be covered with
DOOR
LUBBER CASKET
Fig. 2. Section through door and side with same legend as Fig. 1.
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AN ELECTRIC INCUBATOR FOR BACTERIOLOGICAL WORK. 14;^
cast brass corners made for the purpose. Good strong brass
hinges are needed for the door and a brass refrigerator clamp
to fasten the door.
The number of shelves will depend upon the height of the
incubator. The frame of the shelves should be made of wood
with bright wire or copper bronze screen cloth stretched tightly
across. Some ventilation is needed but is costly if the air is
changed very frequently. The air going out carries with it heat
and the air coming in must be heated. A ventilating device that
will renew the air once in forty-eight hours is probably sufficient.
Two holes bored near the bottom, three-eighths inch in diameter,
on each side of the door frame and one hole at the top will
probably give sufficient exchange of air. These openings can be
closed with corks with a side shaved off to adjust the size of
the opening to the needed ventilation.
HEAT REGULATOR OR THERMOSTAT.
The thermostat is the familiar one consisting of two strips
of metal, (steel and copper or brass) riveted together and
fastened rigidly at one end. The co-efficients of expansion and
contraction of these two metals are so different that any change
of temperature bends the strip and moves the free end which
makes or breaks electric contact. A rise in temperature throws
the arm away from the contact. A fall in temperature throws the
arm against the contact. Fig. 3 illustrates the plan of the regu-
lator. This can be placed at any point in the incubator but
preferably at the back and top, away from any disturbance likely
to throw it out of adjustment. These regulators can be procured
for less than five dollars from F. H. J. Nev*^tcn, Wesleyan Uni-
versity, Middletown, Conn. They are about sixteen inches long
If a short one is needed it can be bent in the shape of a U
The electric current to use is the type used for ordinary in-
terior illumination having a voltage of about 110.
HEATER.
This is supplied by a resistance coil of wire.
These incubators are so thoroughly insulated that only a
small amount of heat is necessary to keep the temperature at
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144 STORES AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 84.
PUTI^UM PUTE
j£ ^ ^
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AN ELECTRIC INCUBATOR FOR BACTERIOLOGICAL WORK. 145
a constant point. For an incubator of three to three and one-
half cubic feet capacity fifty watts, or the heat equivalent to a
sixteen candle power lamp is sufficient. The best wire to use
is called nichrome. Its resistance is high and only a short length
is required. This wire is made by Drivver Harris Co. of New
Jersey. The sizes for best results are 30 to 32 B. & S. gauge.
The length of wire for a heating coil will determine its tem-
perature. The temperature of the wire should be below scorch-
ing temperature. This company furnishes tables by which all
data can be obtained, the amount of heat given, the current
used, the temperature of the wire, etc.
John J. Waldman, 136 Liberty Street, New York, furnishes
heaters ready for use. This saves the trouble of making a heat-
ing coil, which takes a good deal of time and must be thoroughly
constructed.
ATTACHMENT OF HEATERS.
The inside at the bottom is the best place for a heater if
only one is used. If two are needed place one on each side.
The heater may be placed on the bottom but things on the
lower shelf are likely to be overheated while the current is on.
COST.
The size largely determines the cost. The one made for the
Carnegie Institute was 30x18x14 inches inside measurement. An
electric oven of this size made of copper is listed in educational
supply catalogues at $227. The actual cost of this incubator
for the Carnegie Institute was as follows:
Labor at 30c an hour $42.45
Materials including all electric fixtures 28.40
Total $70.85
THE INCUBATOR IN ACTUAL USE.
A trial incubator from these plans was constructed by the
writer ten or twelve years ago for the State Health Laboratory
located at Middletown under the direction of Prof. H. W. Conn.
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146 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 84.
It IS in as good condition as when first installed, has never
caused any trouble, and uses very little electricity. A
second one was constructed three years ago for the Carnegie
Laboratory of Experimental Evolution at Cold Spring Har-
bor, L. I. Dr. A. F. Blakeslee, who used it reports that it
has given excellent satisfaction.
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STORRS
Agricultural Experiment Station
STORKS, COXNECTICUT
BULLETIN 85, DECEMBER, 1915
THE
CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
EXTENSION SERVICE
JOINT CIRCULAR OF INFORMATION No. 2
BACILLARY WHITE DIARRHEA OF
YOUNG CHICKS:
Its Eradication by the Elimination of Infected Breeding Stock
Leo I'. Kettger William F. Kirkpatrick
Sheftield Scientific School. Stnrrs Ajxricultural
Vale University. Kxperinicnt Station.
Roy E. Jones
Extension Service.
Tlie Storrs .Agricultural Experiment Station,
E. H. Jenkins. Director.
The Connecticut Agricultural College Extension Service.
H. J. Baker, Director.
and the
U. S. Department of Agriculture States Relations Service Cooperating.
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BOARD OF CONTROL
THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES
OF THE
CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
Governor Marcus H. Holcomb
J. W. Alsop I O; F. King
IVERSON C. FaNTON | CLIFFORD I. StODDARI)
E. Stevens Henry i
E. Kent Hubbard, Jr. | Charles E. Lyman
Charles M. Jarvis ; H. G. Manchester
C L. Beach, B. Agr., B. S., Pres., Conn. Agricultural College
STATION STAFF
E. H. Jenkins, Ph. D. Director
AGRONOMY DEPARTMENT.
W. L. Slate, Jr., B. S. Agr. Agronomist
Benjamin G. Southwick, B. Sc. Assistant Agronomist
BACTERIOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT.
W. M. Esten, M. S. Bacteriologist
Christie J. Mason, B. Agr. Assistant Bacteriologist
CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT.
H. D. Edmond, B. S. Chemist
DAIRY DEPARTMENT.
G. C. White, B. S. A., A. M. Dairy Husbandman
H. F. JuDKiNS, B. S. Assistant Dairy Husbandman
ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY.
G. H. Lamson, M. S, Zoologist
POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
Wm. F. Kirkpatrick, B. Agr.. B. E. Poultry Husbandman
Leslie E. Card, B. S. Assistant Poultry Husbandman
Leo F. Rettger, Ph. D. Bacteriologist, Investigations of
Animal Diseases
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BACILLARY WHITE DIARRHEA OF YOUNG CHICKS:
ITS ERADICATION BY THE ELIMINATION OF
INFECTED BREEDING STOCK.
(^ Fifth Report)
Leo F. Rettger \Vm. F. Kirkpatrick Roy E. Jones
Although bacillary white diarrhea of young chicks may be
classed as one of the newest recognized diseases of domestic ani-
mals it has rapidly assumed a position of prime importance among
poultry scourges. Its ravages have caused untold losses, and
its continued spread through all sections of this country has at
last called forth concerted efforts to combat it. These efforts
are based upon the knowledge that the disease is caused by a
specific organism, Bacterium piillorum, and that it is transmitted
directly from the mother hen to the chick, through the infected
Three widely-different methods of detecting infected layers,
or permanent bacillus carriers, have been given thorough trials.
The first of these depends upon the recognition of diseased ova-
ries at the time of killing and marketing. It has its limitations
in that infection in small and undeveloped ovaries is often diffi-
cult or impossible to detect ; and furthermore, few practical poul-
trymen are sufficiently trained to make the necessary observa-
tion. The second method involves the bacteriological examina-
tion of eggs from suspected layers. Since not all of the eggs
from an infected hen harbor the germ of the disease, and in fact
experience has shown that in many instances only a very small
proportion of the eggs is infected, this method of diagnosis is
untrustworthy and impractical. The last expedient is that of
making direct examinations of the blood for the presence of so-
called ^'agglutinins."
1. See Bulletins 60, 68, 74 and 77 of this Station ; also the Journal of
Medical Research (Gage), Vol. 24, 1911, p. 491; and Annual Reports of
the New York Veterinary College, Ithaca, 1910, p. Ill, and 1910-11, p. 60.
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152 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 85.
The agglutination method for the detection of bacillary white
diarrhea infection in the breeding stock was first applied by
Jones*, and is essentially the same as the Widal test for typhoid
fever. The same test, with but slight modifications, has been
employed in the diagnosis of various other diseases, as for ex-
ample glanders and contagious abortion. It naturally implies
the use of artificial cultures of the organism which is responsible
for the disease in question. A full description of this method as
it has been employed by us during the past two years may be
found in Bulletin 77, p. 273.
In order to satisfy ourselves as to the merits of this test
numerous examinations were made of fowls of various ages and
breeds. In most of these experiments the agglutination tests
were controlled by direct inspection of the ovaries. The method
was applied to 265 fowls, including three males. Of this number
195 were tested twice; once early in the summer, and again six to
eight weeks later when they were killed and dressed for
market. Each of these fowls was subjected to a thorough ex-
amination, not only for visible signs of ovarian infection, but also
for the presence of cysts or tumor-like growths in other parts of
the body. For a full presentation of the results the reader is
again referred to Bulletin 77. Of the one hundred and ninety-
five fowls which were tested twice, one gave a doubtful reaction
on both dates, three gave a doubtful and a positive reaction, and
forty-three were positive on both occasions. The sera of the re-
maining one hundred and forty-eight were negative in all dilu-
tions, and on direct examination of the ovaries no indication of
infection with Bacterium pullorum was found. With but rare
exceptions, the results of the duplicate agglutination tests were
in perfect agreement with each other and with the data acquired
through the examination of the ovaries.
The present campaign against bacillary white diarrhea was
inaugurated in June, 1914. Efforts to eradicate this disease are
based entirely upon the results of agglutination tests which are
conducted at Storrs during the summer months, and in the bac-
teriological laboratory of the Sheffield Scientific School during
1. Jones, F. S.. Journal of Medical Research, Vol. XXVII. No. 4.
1013, pp. 481-95.
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ERADICATION OF BACILLARY WHITE DIARRHEA. 153
the remainder of the year. Since the beginning of the cam-
paign about twenty thousand specimens of blood from as many
fowls have been tested. The entire system as it has been in
operation for the past sixteen months has proven itself prac-
tical.
The scope of the present campaign includes: (1) the test-
ing of the blood of suspected fowls, (2) the elimination of
reacting fowls from the breeding stock, (3) a thorough can-
vas of tested flocks during the next breeding season, with the
view of determining the practical results of the first year's work,
and (4) the re- testing of thirteen different flocks which gave
evidence in the first test of harboring bacillus carriers. In so
far as all of these phases of the investigation were covered, the
present report deals only with the work of the first year.
The successful execution of our plans was made possible
by the thorough co-operation of the Storrs Experiment Sta-
tion and of the Extension Department of the Connecticut Agri-
cultural College. What may appropriately be called the field
work was done in a large measure by, and under the super-
vision of, one of the writers of this paper (Jones), represent-
ing the Extension Department. The blood samples were drawn
by the field representative ; furthermore, it was within his realm
also to visit the different poultry farms that entered into this
campaign, and to keep records of tested flocks and of the chicks
that came from these flocks.
METHODS.
The following method has been found convenient in taking
the blood samples : The operator places the bird in his lap and
holds its legs between his knees while the wing is bent back in
an easy position for doing the work. A few feathers are re-
moved from the under side of the wing between the second and
third joint and a small vein cut allowing the blood to flow into
small sterile tubes. (See plate I). The cut is pressed for an
instant to check the flow of blood and the bird released. Sanitary
precautions have seemed unnecessary further than a thorough
cleaning of the knife after each operation to prevent the possibili-
ty of carrying infected blood from one bird to another. A per-
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154 STORKS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 85.
son of sufficient experience may draw from 300 to 500 blotj<l
samples a day, by the method employed in this work.
Records of the tested birds are kept by means of numbered
sealed leg bands among which there are no duplicates during the
entire season.
When sufficient blood is collected the tube is plugged with a
cork stopper. After the blood has clotted the clot is broken up
with a glass rod and the tube plugged again and placed in the
proper receptacle for shipment to the laboratory.
Special pails were procured for the transportation of the
blood samples to the laboratories. These pails were fitted
with a tall tin container which holds two other tins, one over
the other. The height and diameter of the inner cups are four
and a quarter inches. They fit loosely in the tall tin so that
they can be removed easily. The blood samples are packed
closely in the small containers, each cup holding about one hun-
dred tubes. As the tubes are only three inches long, there is
enough over-head room for cork stoppers with which each of
the tubes is plugged. A deep tin cover on the tall receptacle
prevents the labels on the blood tubes from being soaked off
by ice water that may enter the tins. The pail itself is provided
with a wooden cover which is fastened on with the aid of light
wire and small staples driven into the lid and the side of the
pail. During the warmer months broken ice is packed around
the large tin container. With this method of cooling, blood
samples may be sent long distances without undergoing decom-
position, even during the hot summer months. (See Plates I
and II).
The blood samples are tested as soon as possible after their
arrival at the laboratory. Three days are allowed for a com-
plete agglutination test; that is, the agglutination tubes are ex-
amined at the end of two days' incubation at 37' C, and again
after an additional incubation period of 24 hours at ordinary
room temperature. Only the ttibes which have cleared com-
pletely are pronounced positive; tubes in which the reaction is
obscured by cloudiness or precipitation of foreign matter, and
those which show incomplete clearing and precipitation, are re-
ported as doubtful, with the advice that the fowls bearing these
numbers be disposed of as positives, or re-tested.
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ERADICATION OF BACILLARY WHITE DIARRHEA. 165
Plate I. Illustrating part of the sampling outfit, and the methods of
leg-banding and bleeding the fowls.
Plate IT. Showing complete sampling outfit, with the exception of
the pail.
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156 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 85.
Formal reports are mailed to the owners as soon as the
tests are completed, with full instructions as to the future treat-
ment of the flocks affected; and it is fully understood that the
recommendations on the back of the certification sheets are to
be carried out. This is in fact a necessary condition on which
the Station and the Extension Department agree to conduct
the tests, as success depends in a very large measure on the
thorough co-operation of the owners with those who are actually
carrying on the work.
SYSTEMATIC SEARCH FOR INFECTED FOWLS.
The chief object in conducting the campaign was to make a
thorough survey of the conditions on Connecticut poultry farms,
in so far as the prevalence of bacillary white diarrhea is con-
cerned. Previous investigations by different methods had re-
vealed the fact that the disease is common in the state. Such
tests were very limited and unsystematic, however, and indeed
quite unsatisfactory. Furthermore, claims made by certain
poultry journals and breeders that white diarrhea is not of com-
mon occurrence seemed to us to call for some concerted effort to
determine the facts.
The total number of fowls tested from June 1914, to June,
1915, excluding the so-called "check-tests" or second tests, was
14,617, and the number of flocks 107. The results are given
in the following table:
Figures shozviug the number of flocks and fowls tested, by breeds.
the total number and percent bf infected fowls, as well as
the number tested and the number and percent
of infected hens and males.
HENS.
MALES.
BREEDS.
1
Number
of fowls.
Number
infected.
♦-T3
II
Number
tested.
II
^.5
o .
ll
II
Number
tested.
Number
infected.
Percent of
infection.
Leghorn . . .
35..
8,415..
368..
4.3
8,082..
364.
. 4,5
333.. 4.. 1.20
R. I. Red..
27..
2,573..
315..
12.2
2,377..
308.
.12.9
196.. 7.. 3.57
Plym. Rock.
13..
931..
128..
13 7
887..
126.
.14.2
44.. 2.. 4.54
Wyandottes.
24..
2,453..
587..
23.9
2,261..
578.
.25.5
192.. 9.. 4.70
Miscel
8..
245..
42..
17.1
224..
41.
.18.3
21.. 1..4.76
Total
..107.. 14,617.. 1,440.. 9.85 13.831. . 1.417. .10.24
786.. 23.. 2.9
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ERADICATION OF BACILLARY WHITE DIARRHEA.
157
The miscellaneous breeds comprise the following : Brahmas
120, Erminettes 78, Orpingtons 31, and Silver Campines 16. Of
the 78 Erminettes, 41 or 62.5 percent were reactors, and of the
Orpingtons one gave a positive reaction.
The following summary presents additional information as
to the precentages and frequency of infection:
Figures giving the number of flocks which contained no reactors,
and of those which reacted within stated limits
of percentage.
Percent infection ... 0. . .1-10. . .11-20. . .21-30. . .31-40. . .41-50. . .Over 50
Xumber of flocks . . .28 34 18 10 10 4 3
Fifteen, or 53.6 percent of the non-reacting flocks were
Leghorns, four Wyandottes, three Rhode Island Reds, two Ply-
mouth Rocks, one Silver Campine, and one Orpington. While
most of these flocks were quite small, five contained over one
hundred fowls, and one flock of White Leghorns 650. The
following tabulated data may be of some interest. They show
the proportion of non-reacting flocks of varying sizes to the
total number of lots tested within the groups.
«s
c
M O
o
Il
11
■^"2
^t
« JJ
Siz« of flocks.
5^
'c o
o o
1 111
s te
K
l\
0 ^
3 >
r-c
^'5
ou-a
500 and over
5
1
4
20.0
Between 100 and 500 . .
36
11.1
50 '* too . .
26
17
6
23.0
25 " 50 ..
7
41.2
Under 25
23
10
43.5
Total
107
28
26.2
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158 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 85.
The high percent of uninfected flocks in the smaller group>
is to be expected. Furthermore it is to be assumed that as
a rule when there is but very little infection the chances of pro-
nouncing a flock as positive increase with the size of the flock.
Hence, dividing a large flock into smaller groups may offer a
partial solution of the problem of complete elimination of re-
actors.
Relative numbers of infected and uninfected flocks.
[nfectecl 79 20 34 11 20 4
Uninfected 28 15 3 2 4 4
Percent of flocks infected ..73.8 57.1. .. .88.8. .. .84.6 83.3.... 50
Note. In a few instances two lots belonging to the same owner, and
which were tested at different times, are given as two lots, even though
thev were of the same breed.
RESULTS OF AGGLUTIN.VTION TESTS WITH MALES.
The low percent of reacting males is noteworthy. While
slightly over 10 percent of the hens tested throughout the cam-
paign were reactors, only 2.9 percent of the males responded
to the agglutination test. However, when we consider that
there is usually a direct relationship between a positive blood
reaction of hens and an infected condition of the ovaries, it i>
surprising that in males the rate of infection, as indicated by the
tests, should be as high as it is, unless there is a predilection
of the white diarrhea organism for some particular organ or
organs in the male.
Out of the 786 males that were tested by the agglutina-
tion method, 23 gave positive reactions. Of these, 23 reactors
11 were killed and thoroughly examined for visible evidence of
disease and for the presence of B. pullorum. With one or
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ERADICATION OF BACILLARY WHITE DIARRHEA. 159
iwo exceptions a second or duplicate test was made before the
birds were sacrificed, and in each instance the original data
were verified. Six of these males were cockerels, while the
other five were well-matured cocks.
In the testes of two of the males, a cockerel and a cock,
B. pullorum was found to be present in very large numbers,
and unassociated with any other cultivable bacteria. Aside
from the presence of this organism in the interior of the testes,
there were no other indications, external or internal, except per-
iiaps a slight discoloration of the surface of one of the testes
of one male, and a somewhat dwarfed appearance of one of
the testes of the other male. These findings are of particular
interest from the standpoint of the possible transmission of the
disease from a permanently infected male to laying hens. If
siidi infection in males is relatively common, much consideration
will have to be given to this phase of the problem of preven-
tion» in so far as bacillary white diarrhea is concerned.
In three of the males there was pronounced evidence of
])ericarditis, or an abnormality of the pericardial sac. In one
instance there was an accumulation of compact, yolk-like masses
surroimding the heart, having the appearance from the out-
side of a tumor fully as large as a man's fist. Among the in-
dividual masses of this deposit there was a clear amber-colored
fluid. B. pullorum was obtained from both of the deposits
and the liquid, the cultural tests showing that the infection
with this organism was pure and abundant. A similar condi-
tion was found in another male, with the exception that the
size of the tumor-like mass around the heart was only about
one-fourth as large as the preceding. B. pullorum was again
in evidence. A third adult male revealed the same kind of
abnormality, but in a much lesser degree. Pure cultures were
again obtained easily from the cheese-like deposits between the
heart and the pericardium. The testes of all three of these
males were found to be free from infection, however. Further-
more, this organism was not recovered from other parts of the
body. Slight evidence of a similar condition was obtained in
a fourth cock, but the single collection of dry cheese-like matter
was so small as to make satisfactory examination impossible.
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160 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 85.
Infection was, however, readily demonstrated in this case, both
in the pericardial deposit and in the testes.
Six of the eleven reacting males that were examined showed
no pathological conditions or other possible indication of white
diarrhea infection. Five of them were young cockerels, so that
the possibility of their carrying the agglutinins from the time
that they were chicks can not be passed over lightly.
A summary of the bacteriological findings in the eleven
males is given in the following:
Number of males revealing infection with B. pullorum.
Total In pericardial In testes In pericardial sac Number of
sac and testes males examined.
5 4 _2 __j__._y
The results of the agglutination tests on 14,617 fowls and
107 different flocks are significant. Approximately 74 percent
of the flocks contained individuals which reacted to the tests,
and of the total number of fowls that were tested about 10
percent were positive. The number of reacting hens constituted
10.24% of the total, while of the males 2.9% were reactors. Our
former data and assumption as to the prevalence of bacillary
white diarrhea throughout the state of Connecticut were indeed
very conservative. Investigations carried on in neighboring
states (particularly Massachusetts") promise results bear-
ing on this subject which are fully as significant as our own
Additional points of interest that have been brought out
in the present investigation are the relatively low per cent of
reacting fowls of the lighter breeds and the high rate of indi-
cated infection among the heavier breeds, the former being
but 4.3% and the other 12.2%, 13.7% and 23.9%, for the
Rhode Island Reds, Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes, in the
order given. If these data are substantiated in future work of
this sort, then it is to be inferred naturally that the lighter
breeds, especially the Leghorns, enjoy a higher degree of im-
munity than the others, because of their greater activities, and
consequently more wiry constitutions.
1. See Bulletin of Mass. Agricultural Experiment Station (Gage)
Xo. 163. August, 1915.
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ERADICATION OF BACILLARY WHITE DIARRHEA. 161
THE ELIMINATION OF INFECTED FOWLS FROM THE BREEDING STOCK.
The wide distribution of bacillary white diarrhea in the
United States, and especially in the eastern section, makes the
selection of fowls for breeding purposes a most difficult problem.
A thorough survey of the conditions with reference to this par-
ticular disease should be of inestimable value to breeders, since
it will enable them to choose intelligently eggs, young chicks and
fowls which are free from all taint. This is indeed the most
promising phase of such a campaign. Wherever it is possible,
only perfectly sound flocks, or in other words such flocks as have
shown by the agglutination test, or by other eflicient methods, to
harbor no bacillus carriers, should be employed for breeding pur-
poses. Available information as to the location of sound flocks
may be obtained readily from those who have been conducting
the survey.
To' the owner of large flocks of fowls which contain posi-
tive reactors, that is bacillus carriers, this sort of counsel may
appear unreasonable and somewhat extreme, and indeed it does
call for large sacrifices for the time being. It is, therefore, of
prime importance to determine whether flocks which contained
reactors, but from which the reacting fowls have been removed,
constitute a safe and sound breeding stock. For this purpose
two lines of follow-up work have been carried on, the one in-
volving the re-testing after an interval of at least five or six
months of flocks which at the first test revealed the presence
of carriers of B. pullorum, and the other an extended study of
the conditions of the poultry plants that are within the scope
of the investigation.
The field work has been under the direct supervision of one
of us (Jones) and consisted in the acquiring of data relative to
the success of owners during the hatching season following the
year in which the adult fowls were tested. Records were made
of the numbers of chicks hatched, and of the apparent vigor and
mortality of the young stock, and of various possible factors
which tend to strengthen vitality, such as cleanliness and proper
feed and care. Attempts were also made to obtain records of
the results obtained in previous years.
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162 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 85.
RE-TESTING OF FLOCKS FROM WHICH POSITIVE REACTORS HAD BEEN
ELIMINATED.
The second tests were made in precisely the same manner
as the first. Among the flocks that were re-tested the four main
breeds are represented. There wore, furthermore, large and
small flocks which in the regular test were found to be infected
to the extent of 1.4% to 44% of the entire flock. The number
of fowls tested, and the numbers and percent of positives in
both the first and second tests are given below. The table in-
cludes only flocks which in the first examination were found to
contain reactors, and hence carriers. As all of the males ( 20 »
that were re-tested were negative to the test, the results are not
included in the table.
Summary of results of first and second tests, giving the numbers
of fozuls tested and the numbers and percent of positive
reactors.
FIRST TESTS. SECOND TESTS.
»'^-''^- ^^- ^> II ^^- ^.> !>
= ij £ - j; .r S 4* = .t: t-~
3« 3!? o5C 3«,=£ t*
White Leghorns A 569 25 4.4 60 0 0
B 142.... 2.... 1.4 68 0 0
Rh<Kle Island Reds C 131.... 5.... 3.8. . . .112. . . .3. . . . 2.T
D 7.... 1....14.3 3 0 0
E 179.... 41.... 23.0.... 86.. ..2.... 2.3
F 370 26 7.0 164 1 0.6
G 81 26 32.1 7 0 0
PlMnouth Rocks H 68. . . . 15. . . .22.0. . . . 46. . . .6. . . .13.0
I 66. ...12.. ..18.2.... 31 4 12.9
J 93.... 27.... 29.0.... 54 5 92
While Wvandottcs K 118. . . .52. . . .44.0. . . . 35. . . .9. . . .25.7
L 100.... 29.... 29.0.... 47 2 4.23
M 202... 39.... 19.3.... 94 6 6.4
The above results clearly indicate that a single agglutination
test is as a rule not sufficient as a basis for the complete elimina-
tion of infected fowls from a flock that contains a relatively large
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ERADICATION OF BACILLARV WHITE DIARRHEA. 1»>3
number of reactors. \\'hile the percent of fowls which reacted
to the test is in every instance greatly reduced, and in fact in
four of the flocks brought down to 0, the results are far from
satisfactory to those who hoped that a means was at hand for
the complete stamping out of infection without the disposal of
the entire flock. The fault does not lie in the agglutination
method itself, as tests on large flocks have repeatedly shown ;
hence an explanation must be sought elsewhere. In all tests of
this sort a definite period must elapse after the moment of in-
fection of a person or animal before the blood acquires the
properties that make the test possible. For example, in the ag-
glutination reaction the infected individual can not immediately
produce the agglutinin which is so important in the reaction,
but needs days, and in some cases perhaps weeks and months to
do so. Again, immunity to disease is won only by degrees, the
so-called "immune bodies'* which are formed being produced
slowly.
It is to be expected, therefore, that not all infected fowls
are reactors, unless adult fowls are naturally immune to the dis-
ease, and do not acquire it through infected food, etc., or by
association with infected fowls. That the disease is transmitted
freely among adult fowls has been shown in a previous bulletin*.
Where an appreciable amount of infection exists in a flock there
is the possibility of frequent transmission, so that some infected
fowls will fail to respond to the agglutination test because not
sufficient time has elapsed since the animal became aflfected by
the bacterium in question.
The inability to rid all the flocks from the disease should
not be taken to mean that no good of any importance will follow
a single examination by the agglutination method. Extensive
field work conducted on numel-ous poultry farms during the past
breeding season has clearly brought out the value o'f the agglu-
tination test even on farms where a large percent of the tested
fowls were reactors, as will be seen in the following condensed
statements.
1. See Bulletin 77. June. 1914.
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164 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 85.
Figures showing the numbers of eggs incubated, chicks hatched
and the mortality of chicks coming from numerous
tested flocks.
BREEDS.
Leghorns 120,324.
Rhode Island Reds 28,576.
Plymouth Rocks 14,168.
Wyandottes 19,308.
Miscellaneous 1,410.
■:l
11
4
P
iZ 1
1 =^o
Chi
hat
«sl
Si 1
82,590 68 6.
15,312.... 53.5.
9,601.... 67.7.
9,374.... 48.5.
1,017.... 72.1.
ti C
6,532 7.9
1,771 11.5
1,226.... 12.7
1,076 14.6
44 4.3
Total
. 183.786 .... 117,894 . ; . . 64.1 10,949 9.2
XoTE. In this table 68 different flocks are represented.
The following results were obtained with 64 flocks, on 54
diflterent farms and in 33 different towns:
Results of this year's hatches as compared zvith those of previous
years.
(From statements of owners.)
Percent infection Poorer
0 1
1-9 2
10 and over 0
Total 3
Same
9
1
2
Better Much better
3
11
3
1
9
23
12
19
33
Note. The column denoting percent of infection at the time of the
original agglutination test separates the list into three groups for the
purpose of comparison of the groups. The value of the test to flocks
that contained many reactors is clearly shown.
The successes in the hatching and rearing of chicks during
the past season on farms where the agglutination test had been
employed, as shown in one of the tables, and the testimonials of
owners of tested flocks can leave no doubt as to the value of the
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ERADICATION OF BACILLARY WHITE DIARRHEA. 165
method employed in removing infected fowls from tainted flocks,
at least in so far as the results of the first breeding season are
concerned. However, since a single test does not constitute a
guarantee that flocks of fowls having reactors will be free from
infection thereafter, owners should be cautious in selecting their
breeding stock, and at least in so far as it is possible endeavor to
breed only from flocks which have been found to be free from all
taint of bacillary white diarrhea infection.
The chief value of the agglutination test lies in the fact
that it is the basis for the selection of flocks which are entirely
free from infection. Only those flocks in which no reactors are
found, should be employed as breeders, providing they meet all
of the other requirements. Hence, prospective purchasers of
new stock should insist on obtaining only such eggs and chicks as
are produced by perfectly sound flocks. They need not make
much of an eflfort to learn where they may procure untainted
stock of the desired breeds as a large number of such flocks have
already been located in this state, as the result of the present
campaign.
Owners of flocks of fowls which by the tests or in other
reliable ways are known to be free from infection should receive
every encouragement to sell from their stock. On the other
hand, those who are uncertain of the condition of their fowls,
or who have definite information that there are reactors among
their fowls, should be discouraged from selling to others except
for table use, at least until subsequent examinations show their
flocks to be free from the disease.
In order to facilitate the purchase of eggs and chicks from
untainted stock it has been proposed that lists be posted of flocks
which have been tested and found to be free from infection.
Such a provision would accomplish at least two purposes. First,
it would serve as an information bureau for prospective buyers ;
and second, it would be an incentive to many poultrymen to
possess sound flocks and have them openly rated as such. A plan
of this sort would undoubtedly meet with considerable opposi-
tion, and of course among those whose flocks at the time of
testing harbor bacillus carriers, as well as those who are ignorant
or indiflferent in so far as possible infection of their own stock is
concerned.
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166 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 85.
In carrying out such a plan it is to be understood that those
who are in charge of the campaign will not make public the
results of tests which indicate positive infection within a flock, and
that no undue advantage will be taken of any owner who is seek-
ing help by having his fowls tested. Furthermore, all possible as-
sistance will be given those who are endeavoring to possess noth-
ing but untainted stock and to have it rated as such.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION.
During the first year of the present campaign against ba-
cillary white diarrhea in this state 14,617 individual fowls and
107 flocks were tested by the macroscopic agglutination test. The
number of reacting (infected) fowls was 1.4 ^j, or 9.85% of the
total number. Of 13,831 hens 1,417. '-r 10.24% were positive,
and of the i86 males tested 23, or 'Z.d% reacted. The testes-
of two of the males harbored B. pullorum in large numbers.
In four of the reacting males pericarditis and infection of the
heart sac with the same organism was observed.
The re-testing of floc^cs which on the first examination by
this method contained h-^Hllus carriers, and from which the re-
actors had been removed, gave widely different results. In four
flocks out of a total of thirteen no reactors were found at the
time of the second test. In the other nine the percent of infec-
tion varied from 0.6 to 25.7%, the number in each instance being
:lecidedly less than in the first test. The breeding records ob-
tained from the owners were most encouraging, and with a few
exceptions showed a high degree of success as compared with
previous years.
The greatest value of the agglutination test is in its deter-
mination of infected and uninfected flocks. On the basis of
100% of negative tests in a flock the most successful campaign
may be waged against bacillary white diarrhea. Only such
flocks should be employed as future breeders, and all encourage-
ment should be given to the owners to find a ready market for
eggs for hatching and for day-old chicks. On the other hand.
where there is no certainty that ovarian infection does not exist
the fowls should not be used as breeders until they are known
to be free from all taint of the disease.
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ERADICATION OF BACILLARV WHITE DIARRHEA. IGT
Our acknowledgements are due to the following persons for
their. valuable assistance in carrying out the agglutination tests:
Thomas Ct. Hull. William S. Sturges, Francis C. Stewart and
Stewart A. Koser.
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STORRS
Agricultural Experiment Station
STORIES, CONNECTICUT
BULLETIN 86, MARCH, 1916
SOME LICE AND MITES OF THE HEN
G. H. Lamson, Jr. J. A. Manter
Storrs Agricultural Connecticut Agricultural
Experiment Station. Collie.
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BOARD OF CONTROL
THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES
OF THB
CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
J. W. Alsop
IVERSON C. FaNTON
E. Stbvens Henry
E. Kent Hubbard, Jr.
Charles M. Jarvis
Governor Marcus H. Holcomb
O. F. King
CuFFORD I. Stoddard
Charles E. Lyman
H. G. Manchester
C. L. Beach, B. Agr., B. S., Pres., Conn. Agricultural College
STATION STAFF
E. H. Jenkins, Ph. D. Director
AGRONOMY DEPARTMENT.
W. L. Slate, Jr., B. S. Agr. Agronomist
Benjamin G. Southwick, B. Sc. Assistant Agronomist
BACTERIOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT.
W. M. EsTEN, M. S. Bacteriologist
Christie J. Mason, B. Agr. Assistant Bacteriologist
CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT.
H. D. Edmond, B. S. Chemist
DAIRY DEPARTMENT.
G. C. White, B. S. A., A. M, Dairy Husbandman
H. F. JuDKiNS, B. S. Assistant Dairy Husbandman
ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY.
G. H. Lamson, M. S. Zoologist
POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
Wm. F. Kirkpatrick, B. Agr;, B. E. Poultry Husbandman
Leslie E. Card, B. S. Assistant Poultry Husbandman
Leo F. Rettger, Ph. D. Bacteriologist, Investigations af
Animal Diseases
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SOME UCE AND MITES OF THE HEN.
Birds in general are infested with numerous species of lice
and mites. The common hen does not differ from others of the
class in this respect for there are at least a dozen different species
of lice that make hens and chickens their hosts together with sev-
eral species of mites, the attacks of which are even worse than
those of the lice.
Owing to the great economic importance of the hen and her
products it is essential that each phase of her life having a bear-
ing upon her productiveness be given considerable study.
There is considerable literature on this subject in books,
Fig. 1 — Pens used in lice experiments.
bulletins, and in agricultural papers but much of it deals with the
description of the parasites and not with the little known life
histories of these forms while few publications deal with ex-
periments in the use of different control measures when com-
pared with one another under similar conditions. This has been
done with many of the fruit and some other insects but few com-
parisons of insecticides for lice or control measure for mites
have been made.
We have placed chickens in the laboratory where they could
be under very close observations over an extended time, and have
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172 STORES AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 86.
used a large number of hens and chickens out of doors for the
purpose of making comparative tests of different control meas-
ures to ascertain their value. (See Fig. 1.)
This work has been carried on at various intervals chiefly
during the summers of the past two years though studies were
made on the subject several years prior to this time.
The most discouraging thing for those who have had these
parasites to deal with is to find that the measures recommended
for their control lose their effectiveness very quickly after ap-
plication. Then they have given up the attempt at control feeling
sure that there was no real remedy for these pests.
It is the purpose of this bulletin to show the effectiveness and
ineffectiveness of certain control measures for lice and mites and
to emphasize the essential phases of their habits, a knowledge of
which is essential in order to apply properly suitable remedies.
BIRD LICE (Mallophaga).
The lice that are found on poultry belong to that group of
insects called Mallophaga and are generally known as bird lice
or biting lice. They are commonly found upon birds though a
few infest mammals. They do not occur indiscriminately but
usually each species is peculiar to a certain species of animal.
Sometimes the same species may ^ be found on other than its
normal host and when this occurs it is generally observed that
their hosts are nearly related forms or are brought into close
contact by their modes of life. On the other hand a given host
may support several species of lice. Certain lice even show a
preference for restricted regions of the bird's body.
These parasites have bodies much flattened although this
is not noticeable when looking on them from above but is very
conspicuous if one observes them from the side. The body is
well protected by a hard outer covering. The head is quite
large, varying in shape, and having about half way back on the
side two feelers (antennae) which differ greatly in the various
species, sometimes being different even in the male and female
of the same species. The antennae may consist of three, four,
or five segments. On the under side of the head and near the
middle is the mouth, which is fitted for biting the hairs, feathers,
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SOME LICE AND MITES OF THE HEN. 173
and scales of the skin. The principal structures of the mouth are
the jaws; (mandibles). Bird lice do not suck blood. Naturally
they eat the clotted blood that is found at the edge of a wound
or cut. The bird lice are thus separated from the true blood-
sucking lice that infest mammals. These true lice have beaks
fitted for sucking blood and belong to an entirely different group
of insects. The eyes of the bird lice are situated on the side of
the head posterior to the antennae, in some species not being very
conspicuous; in others large and prominent. The thorax ap-
parently consists of two segments. The legs are rather stout ; in
some cases fitted for clasping, in others for running. The legs
of all of the species that infest poultry have two claws and are
well fitted for moving rapidly about. The first pair of legs is
the shortest of the three pair. Lice never have wings. The
abdomen is the largest region of the body; in some genera long
and narrow, in others more robust. The end of the abdomen
sometimes diflfers in the two sexes.
LIFE HISTORY.
Bird lice undergo an incomplete or direct metamorphosis.
The eggs, commonly known as nits, are fastened securely to
hairs or feathers. (See Fig. 2). They are usually laid singly
or at least only a few together but when a bird is very badly in-
fested the eggs may form large clusters on the feathers; fresh
ones having been laid upon the empty shells of those already
hatched. The young emerge in a few days, resembling their
parents, being very small, light in color and with certain parts of
the body not fully developed. There are several moults, eacn
bringing the young nearer the size and Hkeness of the adult so
that the markings of the adult appear gradually with the growth
of the young. As soon as hatched they are active creatures fully
capable of taking care of themselves. Lice remain upon their
host throughout their entire lives and it is only by accident that
they are found elsewhere. They spread rapidly from one indi-
vidual to another, thus chickens easily become infested when
hatched or brooded by a lousy hen. Often infestation is brought
about by introducing hens which are infested, therefore, new
stock should be isolated and treated for parasites before i^lowing
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174 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 86.
it to run with other birds. It has been supposed that the English
sparrow is instrumental in spreading lice among poultry yards
and since this sparrow is often closely associated with poultry
it is possible that this belief is correct. Chickens from an in-
cubator should be perfectly
free and if brooded artificially
and kept away from other
stock should remain so for a
time. Lice require a certain
amount of warmth which they
secure from their host so that
they will leave a dead bird
soon after the flesh cools. In
this way they may become
separated from the fowls and
wander about seeking a new
host but if unsuccessful, in a
few days will die. Eggs do
not occur away from the host
except possibly where feath-
ers have moulted with nits at-
tached to them. Lice are not
produced by filth, sawdust or
any other means except by
eg^gs which have been laid by other lice so that one can be sure
that lice are not increasing and developing in any location except
on the body of the host.
There are aboui a dozen species of lice that infest the domestic
fowl, of which perhaps four or fiXQ are common while the others
are not as numerous.Thcse are included in four genera, namely :
Menopon, Lipeurus, Goniocotes and Goniodcs. The common
body lice belong to the genus Menopon, Those species that be-
long to Lipcurus are rather long and narrow although the head
louse is quite robust. Goniocotes and Goniodes are very robust
forms.
LARGE BODY LOUSE.
Menopon biseriatum Piaget.
The large body louse, (Fig 3), is one of the species most
commonly found upon poultry. We have found it to be more
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Fig. 2— Eggs of hen lice.
Natural size.
SOME LICE AND MITES OF THE HEN.
176
abundant than the small body louse. These two species resemble
each other, both in habits and form but the one under discussion
is much larger. It has two transverse rows of hairs on the
dorsal side of the first seven abdominal segments while the
smaller species has only one. The head is quite small in com-
parison with the remainder of the body, having highly pigmented
eyes. Adults vary from one-tenth to one-eighth of an inch in
length and are yellowish in color, oftentimes with dark centers
due to food in the body.
LIFE HISTORY AND HARITS.
The eggs (Fig. 4) are attached securely to the feathers near
the body of the host. Or.
young stock or slightly in-
fested fowls, the eggs are
more or less scattered with
•nly a few on a feather
while on badly infested
stock large masses of eggs,
hatched and unhatched,
may be found on the feath-
ers below the vent. The
first eggs laid on chickens
are fastened to the feathers
of the back of the head and
neck ; later the eggs are laid
near the vent. The egg is
whitish, and elliptical,
pointed somewhat like a tor-
pedo, fastened at one end
and having near the oppo-
site end a ring of spines.
The tgg is about one thirty-
fifth of an inch in length.
A few eggs on chickens were found to hatch in from five
10 seven days, the young reaching maturity and laying eggs in
somewhat less than seventeen days. This would indicate a life
cycle of about three weeks. No doubt varying temperatures and
other conditions tend to modify the lengths of these periods.
Fig. 3 — Large body louse (Menopon
biseriatufn) 19 times natural size.
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176 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 86.
This louse is found on certain regions of the hen oftenei
than on others. On infested chickens it is more abundant under
the wings where it finds warmth, but is also abundant around the
vent and may be found on the head while the rest of the body is
more sparsely infested. The most common area infested on
older birds is around the vent but specimens will be found scat-
tered about the body. It is very active, dodging about and escap-
ing capture with a marked degree of agility. This species, a>
well as the next, is a body louse for it is rarely found on f eather?
or any part of the bird except the flesh.
The large body louse increases rapidly. Three to four week
old chickens are often very badly infested while older stock may
harbor thousands of lice. Three thousand six hundred of thi>
species were counted from one chicken and this number probabl>
did not include one-half of those present. Most of them had
increased from perhaps a dozen lice in three months. From
another chicken one month old nine hundred and twenty five lice
were counted.
It is difficult to determine the amount of injury done to
poultry by lice. As pointed out elsewhere, the serious effect-
caused by mites are often
attributed to lice as the
latter are more easily
noticed. Poultrymen do
not agree in regard to
this subject as some be-
lieve lice responsible for
many diversified ail-
ments and an important
factor in the health,
weight, and egg produc- Fig. 4— Eggs of large body louse
tion of hens while others ^3 times natural size,
have the conviction that they are not of enough importance to
trouble with. While they cannot produce some of the inju^iou^
effects credited to them it is obvious that the irritation caused by
thousands of jaws biting the scales of the skin and the ceaseles:"
running about of a still greater number of feet, each foot anne<I
with two sharp claws, must be considerable. The flesh just
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SOME LICE AND MITES OF THE HEN.
17^
below the vent of badly infested fowls is often much reddened
l)y this constant irritation and may even show the presence
of clotted blood. Great numbers of lice are frequently found
upon sick hens and are believed by some to be the cause of
the unhealthy condition of their hosts, but this is not always true.
Birds weakened by sickness present a condition favorable to a
very rapid multiplication of lice ; on the other hand, those weak-
ened by lice are more liable to contract disease. As might be
supposed chickens are more seriously effected than the older
birds.
These body lice, in some way, travel from one bird to an-
other readily so that if one bird in a pen is lousy, the others are
sure to become infested but the infestation may not be evenly
distributed. This species even travels to other barnyard fowls
and seems able to carry on its life activities there. We have
found it upon turkeys.
SMALL BODVLCJUSl*..
Menu pan pallidum Nitzsch.
rhe small body louse ( Vig. Tj ) is reported by most authors
as the commonest louse infestinj^;
the hen in the United States. It is
smaller than the one just discussed
and is lighter in color. The lengtli
of the body is somewhat less than
one-sixteenth of an inch. Each
segment of the dorsal side of the
abdomen, except the posterior two.
has a single transverse row of hairs. .
Tlie general habits of this louse
are similar to those of M. biseria-
turn. It is an active body louse,
usually more abundant around the
vent, and passes through a life his-
tory comparable with the species
before mentioned. It has been re-
ported to infest horses which have
been stabled near poultry.
Fig. 5— Small body
louse (Menopon palli-
dum ) .'{f) times natural
size.
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118 STORKS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 86.
HEAD LOUSE.
Lipenriis heterographus Nitzsch.
Because of the habits of this species it seems natural and
justifiable to call it the head louse (Fig. G). It shows a prefer-
ence for that region of the fowl and only occasionally, is found on
other parts. Infestation is most prominent on the feathers of
the head but it often shows on the neck and sometimes a few lice
are found on the feathers of the wings. It has been stated often
that lice dig into the flesh and even eat the brains of chickens.
Undoubtedly this is the species that has caused this misconception.
Often it is found on a feather with its head close to the body of
the chicken but we have never seen the head imbedded in the
skin. The mouthparts are not fitted for this sort of work, so
that it does not seem probable that these lice ever actually bite
through the skin.
The head louse is much darker in color than either of the
body lice and is quite easily seen especially if the feathers arc
white although it might be mistaken for a bit of earth or other
foreign matter on the plumage. The body is edged with dark
bands and there are markings of the same shade across the
abdomen. The first segments of the antennae of the male are
very large and the third segments arc branched while the an-
tennae of the female are slim. This louse averages slightly less
than one-tenth of an inch in length.
LIFE HISTORY AM) HABITS.
This louse lives differently from the two previously described,
being found upon the feathers and not on the flesh. It is much
less active but can easily slip between the barbs of the feathers
and disappear from sight. Its feet are better fitted for this work
than for running on a plane surface. While usually found near
the body it is sometimes seen an inch or two from the base of the
feathers. It can live away from the fowl at normal tempera-
tures for a longer period than the body lice, probably because
it is accustomed to the cooler region of the feathers. The head
louse does not multiply as rapidly as these other lice. Hens
are often found with only a moderate infestation although they
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SOME LICE AND MITES OF THE HEN.
171)
may not have been treat-
ed for lice for a long
time, however, this louse
increases very rapidly
on chickens.
The eggs arc glued
to the feathers of the
head and neck, being at-
tached to the barbs,
often between the shaft
and after-shaft. Eggs
were observed to hatch
on chickens: some in
four days, others in five,
the average being five
days. These reached
maturity and in turn laid
eggs in ten days after
hatching. Thus the pe-
riod from egg to egg
would be about fifteen
davs.
Fig. 6 — Head louse {Lipeurus lictc-
rographus) 26 times natural size.
OTHER LESS IMPORTANT LICE.
Besides the three species of lice previously discussed there
are several others of more or less importance infesting hens.
These do not seem to be so widely distributed nor are they so
abundant when found. Lipeurus variabilis resembles the head
louse in a general way with its body smaller and somewhat nar-
rower but marked along the edges and middle of the abdomen in
much the same manner. This louse is usually found upon the
feathers of the wings. Goniocotcs abdominalis (Fig. 7) is a
very large species with its head broader than long and its ab-
domen very robust, and margined by a series of tongue-shaped
blackish markings. The length of the body is one-eighth of an
inch or slightly longer. Gouiocotes hologaster is small and rather
inconspicuous, being about one twenty-fifth of an inch in length.
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ISO STORKS AGRICLLTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 86.
Its body is rounded, light in color, and with small markings along
the edge. We have found it upon the feathers on the under side
of the hen. There are
a few other species of
lice that have been
collected on hens but
they are not common
enough to be of much
importance.
LICE CONTROL.
One finds in lit-
erature on lice control
many methods recom-
mended. The most
effective method trie<l
for body lice was the
application of a dilu-
tion of cither mercu-
rial ointment or blue
ointment. Mercurial
ointment contains
fifty per cent, of me-
tallic mercury. Blue ointment is a mixture consisting of sixty-
seven per cent, of mercurial ointment and of thirty-three per cent,
of vaseline and, therefore, contains thirty-three and one third per
cent, of mercury. Mercurial ointment costs one dollar and a
half per pound while blue ointment costs one dollar and a quar-
ter, so that the former is cheaper considering the amount of mer-
cury present.* The mercury is the most important ingredient
as it is most active in killing the lice, although vaseline and lard
have sotne merit.
In our experiments these ointments were tried in various
strengths and were applied in varying amounts to different
regions of the body. One hundred and four chickens were treat -
Fig. 7 — (Goniocotes abdominalis) 23 times
natural size.
♦These are representative prices for 101.'>-I0 and are probably much
higher than will occur in the future, mviniar to cnnditinns caused by the
European war.
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SOME LICE AND MITES OF THE HEN. 181
ed in the laboratory where they could be under close observa-
tion and many fowls of all ages were used out-of-doors. The
normal strength of blue ointment was found to be very effective
and even a dilution of this proved satisfactory but the effective-
ness decreases with the amount of mercury present. The cheap-
est method is to buy mercurial ointment and mix it with vaseline
at home using one part of the ointment to one or two parts of
vaseline. Place these ingredients on a pane of glass and work
them together with a case knife. Be sure that the mixing is
thoroughly done so that a smooth ointment is obtained. Place in
a receptacle and be sure to label. An ounce is sufficient to treat
about seventy-five hens.
Fig. 8 — The approximate amount of ointment used f<T
one hen.
On chickens the most vunerable point of attack proved to be
on the body under the wings while an application around the
vent or anus was also eflfective. Ointment placed on the head
was not as efficient. The best region for application on older
stock is just beneath the vent. The method of application is
to take an amount about the size of a pea on the finger ( Fig. 8)
and after parting the feathers rub it on the flesh just below the
vent. This will not cover a large area but it is not necessary to
do so. This method has been proved successful by repeated tests
and has many advantages over other methods. It is often ini-
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ISv* STr.KUS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 86.
possible to find a single louse on birds thus treated. The oint-
ment remains effective for a considerable time so that lice hatch-
ing from eggs laid before the treatment are also killed. In other
words, one application will keep the hen practically free from
these lice for several months. This method of control is simple,
cheap, and efficient. If one wanted to be doubly sure of re-
sults one could apply the ointment to two or more regions or
could repeat the application. Ordinarily these precautions are
not necessary.
In spite of the care taken to apply the ointment only on the
flesh some of the feathers also will be smeared. These will pre-
sent a soiled appearance due partly to the ointment and partly
to the dirt and dust that stick to the greasy feathers. Fowls that
must be kept clean for exhibition or show purposes can be treated
for lice by dusting, as explained on page 195.
Mercurial ointment sometimes causes a slight burning, shown
by a reddening of the skin which happens more commonly on
young chickens. It is thought by some that this is brought about
by the bird becoming wet after the treatment. We have never
had any serious nor permanent eflfects from this burning.
A large share of the time used in treating hens for lice is
spent in catching the birds. This may be reduced and much
trouble saved if the application is made at night after the hens
have gone to roost.
It does not seem possible that a small amount of mercurial
ointment applied to a restricted region of a bird's body will free
it from body lice but the results are certainly above expectation.
A hen thus treated was kept in a glass case where close observa-
tion was possible. Many dead lice dropped to the floor of the
case while only three live ones were seen to leave the bird. The
ointment evidently kills the lice on the bird and also those that
hatch soon after the application. Fowls show a great reduction
in infestation on the day after treatment and in a few days are
free. No doubt those eggs that happen to be covered with the
ointment are killed but, of course, not all are touched so we have
young hatching out for several days even after the adults have
disappeared. The common body lice roam about over the body
of the host. It is commonly believed by some that they must go
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SOME LICE AND MITES OF THE HEN. 183
regularly to the vent of the fowl for moisture. If this is so then
the best place for the application is around the vent, but experi-
ments with chickens show that the most effective point of attack
with them is under the wings on the body. Even treatment of the
head brings about a great reduction in the number of lice. Thus
it would seem that the lice move about promiscuously over the
l)ody of the fowl, frequenting some regions more often than
others. When they are unfortunate enough to travel to the region
treated they are killed or driven away by the ointment.
One of the oldest and most common methods advised for
treating lousy birds is that of dusting which is discussed on
page 195. In our experiments this method has proved unsatis-
factory. Its effect is only temporary, not all of the lice nor the
eggs are killed so that the process must be repeated once or
twice to be at all effective.
Dipping the fowls in an insecticide is another method some-
times recommended. We do not believe this method necessary
nor advisable.
When poultry is infested with the head louse a slightly dif-
ferent line of treatment is necessary.
Blue ointment, lard and vaseline, applied to the head, have
been found to be more or less effective. Lard used liberally is
perhaps the best remedy, taking into consideration cheapness,
safety, availability and effectiveness. It has been our experience
in most cases that a second application should be made in less
than two weeks after the first. Perhaps the reason why the head
louse responds more slowly to treatment is because it moves
about less.
One of the commonest mixtures prescribed for lice on the
heads of chickens is composed of sulphur and lard. This is a
dangerous mixture to use on poultry as pointed out elsewhere in
this bulletin.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MITES— A carina.
Mites belong to the same class as the spiders, the Arachnida.
They differ from the insects in several marked characteristics;
the most readily distinguished differences are in the body regions
and in the number of legs.
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184: STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 86.
Insects have three body regions, head, thorax and abdomen,
while the spiders have the head and thorax fused to form a
cephalothorax, also an abdomen. The insects have six legs while
the mites have eight.
The mites deposit eggs as do the insects, though some of
them have their young born alive, without depositing eggs, the
viviparous method of reproduction. Usually, however, the young
hatch from the eggs with six legs and are called larvae, later the\
pass to the eight legged stage and are called nymphs. During
this stage they moult several times and in due time become ma-
ture or adult mites.
Many of the species are very small but they make up in num-
bers what they lack in size.
Instead of biting off scales of the skin and working on the
feathers as do the lice, the mites suck the blood from the animal
or the juices from the plant upon which they are at work. Not
all of the mites are parasitic, many are to be found on the ground,
among the leaves.
Owing to the fact that the roost mites hide away during ihc
day in some part of the poultry house, they may exist a long time
and not be seen by the poultry keeper who ascribes all abnormal
conditions of the hens or chickens to the lice which are to be
found on the hens being so plainly seen and even felt when their
numbers become great.
The hen must be treated for the lice and the scaly leg mite
but the roosts and parts of the house must be treated for ilie
poultry or roost mite.
While lice are relatively short lived, mites are long lived.
lying dormant in their hiding places for several months without
food.
The Texas fever tick is somewhat related to the roost-mite
and it has not yet been determined how many poultry diseases
are transmitted by these minute forms of life, the mouthparts of
which arc not unlike hypodermic needles that are inserted into
one hen to draw a certain amount of blood and later applied to
another hen. There are so many examples of disease transmis-
sion by similar methods that it would not be strange if future
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SOME LICK AM) MITES UF THE HEN.
185
Study shows that the roost or poultry mite is as important a
disease carrier among pouhry as mosqnitocs. fleas and body lice
are among^ men.
TIJR POLM/rUV MITK OR R( )()ST Mm:.
Prnnanyssus ijaUimjc DeGeer.
Hens and chickens are infested with very small spider-like
])arasites that differ distinctly from the lice in their form. <le-
velopment and method of attack. There are many kinds of
mites, amonf^ the most common of which are the scaly le|2^ mites,
depluming mites, cheese mites and the roost mites, often called
by some the i)oultry mite or red mite. It is this last named
species that we desire to describe. (See Fig. 0.)
Instead of remaining
on the hens and chickens at
all times as do the lice,
these mites hide in the
cracks and crevices of the
poultry house during the
day. At night they crawl
along the roosts to the fowl
and after finding a suitable
place to feed they suck the
blood from the hen or
chicken and usually conceal
themselves again at the ap-
proach of light.
Fig. 9 — Poultr>' or roost mite {Dcr-
tiianyssus gallwae) 27 .times natural
size.
The most common place of hiding is between the boards
supporting the roosts and the sides of the poultry house. When
these boards are removed white frosted areas appear in which
one may find thousands of minute spiders struggling to get
away from the light and beside them are their eggs together with
the cast skins of numerous generations. (See Fig. 10.) Some-
times small numbers are found in knot holes and cracks in the
roosts.
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186 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. UULLETIN 86.
Fig. 10 — Swarms of mites found Ijchind
roost support. About natural size.
If poultry keepers are unfamiliar with the signs of these
niitcs they are not likely to see them unless they remove one of
these boards covering their hiding place, for mites are usually so
well concealed that their presence is seldom noticed until they
get to be very numerous.
DESCRIPTION.
Mites are .i) m. m. (l/^D of an inch) in length and vary in
color. When without food for a long time they are usually
light gray but immediately after feeding they are bright red, due
to the engorged blood. The color changes as time goes on so
that they may be almost black, then the body grows lighter until
it is gray. This process takes several days.
Eggs are laid from early spring until late fall. Usually each
female lays about four eggs in a period of two or three days,
repeating this at intervals for a considerable length of time.
These eggs hatch in from two to six days, the period of in-
cubation depending on the temperature and averaging four days.
The eggs when viewed under the microscope are seen to be
spherical in shape, white and glistening. They can be found
in the hiding places of the mites.
When first hatched the young have but six legs and are
colorless. The first moult or skin-casting process occurs in a
day or two and then ihc mite has eight legs. The young can
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SOME LICE AM) MITES OF THE HEN. 187
live a considerable length of time before feeding; a few of the
young have been kept through the entire winter without having
liad an opportunity to get food.
LIFE HABITS.
Mites of different color can be found together at the same
time, indicating that they do not feed every night but at irregular
intervals of time.
Adult mites were kept alive out of doors from November to
March in test tubes and during this period they had no oppor-
tunity to eat. Live specimens were found in a poultry house in
which no hens or chickens had been kept for five months, includ-
ing some of the winter months.
Mites are not active during the cold weather. In November
and March they are seen on warm days. Their numbers in-
crease slowly at first but faster as the temperature rises. In the
Fig. 11 — Eggs of poultry or roost mite.
57 times natiiriil size.
fall they gradually decrease. On warm days or nights during the
winter some may be active and feed, but as the weather turns
colder they hide away to become dormant.
Just how these parasites fiiid their way into newly con-
structed poultry houses will probably always remain mysterious
owing to their small size and iiuon.spicuoiis appearance which
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18S STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN
86.
allow a few of their number to pass unnoticed, and their pres-
ence is only known when they increase to a point that makes
bird life distinctly uncomfortable.
Cases have been reported where these mites have proved
annoying to man. It is not uncommon for them to attack sev-
eral farm animals, particularly horses.
They cause the death of some hens, particularly setting hens
that are placed in dark houses where the mites swarm over them
and feed on them a goodly proportion of the twenty-four hours.
That they kill or stunt chickens and causes hens to stop laying
is certain.
REMEDIES.
Like all serious conditions difficult to control there have been
a large number of different measures recommended to kill or repel
mites in the poultry house. The list is a long one, containing
kerosene, kerosene emulsion, carbolic acid, zenoleum, the use of
tar paper on the sides of the walls of the house, dipping or
soaking the roosts in tallow, many kinds of oils, oil cups, white
wash and other remedies, each of which has some good quality to
recommend it and may be somewhat effective.
The control of a parasite must of necessity be regulated to
meet its method of attack. Because the mites are usually hidden
cither in cracks or holes in the roosts or about the poulry house,
having to pass over the roosts to attack the hens, it is important
that the roosts do not offer hiding places for the mites. An ap-
plication to the roosts and particularly to the boards supporting
the roosts that will either repel or kill the mites as they crawl
over these points to reach the hen is the efficient method of
control.
We have found that such applications as kerosene evai>orate
so quickly that they lose their effectiveness in a few days and the
mites soon become as numerous as before. The control measure
must remain effective for a long period of time. Many control
measures are not strong enough to repel so tough an invader as
the roost mite proves himself to be for this reason the control
measure to be effective must contain a very active agent.
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SOME LICE AND MITES OF THE HEN. 189
In comparison with kerosene oil, zenoleum and carbolic acid
we have found that carboleniuni is a far more effective means of
ridding the hen house of the roost mites. Containing a coal tar
product and carbolic acid it acts as a wood stain and remains ef-
fective for a long period of time, being even more effective than
pure carbolic acid. While carboleniuni is recommended because
it has been tried and found most efficient it is quite likely that
other coal tar products have a similar degree of effectiveness.
These are sold under different trade names, one of which is
"Flykill." This is cheaper than carbolcnium costing $11.50 for
fifty gallons and is nearly as effective. Ordinarily the carbo-
lenium is sold for one dollar and a quarter a gallon or five dollars
for a five gallon lot. For flocks of hens where a comparatively
small quantity of liquid is used for mites we would recommend
using carbolenium but for those who need larger quantities we
would recommend one of the coal tar mixtures that can be bought
by the barrel at a lower rate.
Discretion is necessary in the use of any of the coal tar pro-
ducts as an excess amount either on the roosts or on the adjoin-
ing boards may result in eye trouble to the hens or chickens. To
avoid this it is best to make the application when changing the
stock from one house to another, giving time for the mixture to
dry into the wood for at least two days, or if treating the house
for chickens, allow a week or ten days for it to become thorough-
ly dry. If this cannot be done it is better to dilute the product
with kerosene or to apply sparingly with the brush, wiping off
the excess with an old rag and allowing the place to dry for a
day before returning the stock to the house. If roosts are allow-
ed to dry outside of the poultry house there is less danger of in-
jury to the fowl. If used regularly each year one application i<
usually sufficient. Should there be signs of the return of the
mites, however, another application should be made or if the
houses are badly infested two or more applications may be
necessary.
ROOSTS.
An obstacle to the control of mites in the poultry houses is
often found in the manner in which roosts are supported by
boards nailed directly to the sides of the house. This prevents
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190 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 86.
Fig. 12 — A suggested method of
reducing the breeding places of mites.
the liquid from reaching the most .common hiding place of the
mites and usually the surfaces are only partially covered with the
liquid. Owing to the fact
that the boards are so close
together that it is impos-
sible to do more than thor-
oughly soak the point
where these meet, much
surface is left uncovered
because of this chance
method of application. To
overcome this we suggest
blocking the roost support-
ing boards at least two
inches from the walls ef
the house to facilitate the
application of any control
mixtures with a brush and to reduce area of the hiding surface
for mites.
To explain this a diagram is shown, some modification of
which may be adapted to local conditions. (See Fig. 12.)
Particular care must be taken of nest boxes of laying and
setting herls. This is treated on page 194. In some cases brood-
ers become very badly infested with mites causing considerable
losses among: the chickens. When this occurs it is always best
to take the brooder apart, carefully painting all the wood- work
with one of the cold tar products such as carbolenium, Flykill or
cTude carbolic acid and after it is thoroughly dried for at least
1 wo weeks the brooder may be used again.
The average poultryman desires to use something that he
does not need to apply more than once or twice a year and feel
certain that it will be effective.
We do not feel that spraying the interior of the house is
necessary nor practical for the reason that the line of the at-
tack mites is over a necessarily restricted area hence an applica-
tion to the roosts and adjoining boards is simpler and in every
way as effective. But few poultry houses are tight enough to
make fumigating an efficient means of control. If used it must
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SOME LICE AND MITES OF THE HEN.
191
be repeated in order to kill those hatching from eggs at a later
date. ti,r,.
THE SCABIES OF SCALY LEG MITE.
Cnemidocoptes mutatis Robin.
On the legs of some birds there occurs a parasite that is
seldom seen, but the effects of which are very conspicuous./ (See
Fig, 13). Large irregular scales and gray masses on tb/^ teet of
hens bear abundant evidence of the presence of scaly leg mite
or scabies, a form closely related to the scabies on sheep. This
is a minute and much de-
graded spider-like animal,
so small that it cannot be
detected with the naked
eye, which burrows under
the skin where it lives and
breeds.
When the legs of the
hen infested with the mite
are examined bright red
blotches will be noticed on
the sides of the legs, due to
ihe attacks of this parasite.
More blood is drawn than
is eaten by the mite and the
remainder hardens and
forces the scales upward
and outward. Not only
does this make a bad appearance but it is a great annoyance to
the hens, causing them in some cases to stop laying. Lameness is
often a result of the work of this parasite.
Fig. 13 — The legs of a hen infested
with scaly leg mites.
DESCRIPTION.
The mite is very small, measuring about .5 m.m. (1/50 of
an inch) nearly round in shape and grayish white in color. (See
Fig. 14). In order to find the mites it is best to soak the legs of
the infested hen in soap and water for at least five minutes,
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192 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 86.
brushing away the dirt acciunulated there, softening the abnormal
masses of tissue and irregular scales. With a lens, mites may be
seen well embedded in the skin beneath some of the scales. When
placed under the microscope the body is seen to be nearly opaque,
its surface covered with shallow transverse lines.
The young have but six legs and
move about until they find suitable place
to feed, either on the hens on which
they were born or upon others to which
they may migrate. Undoubtedly the
chief places where normal hens may be-
come infested are the roost and nest
Fig. 14 — Scaly leg mite
(Cnemidocopies mutans) Many poultry raisers are not
44 times natural size. troubled with scaly legs on any of their
flock until they buy an infested bird and thus start the trouble.
When birds are badly infested with these minute tormentors
the effects are very readily recognized but when the mites
are less numerous the legs show little or no sign of being
abnormal, for this reason a close observation of the condition of
the legs of the hens is necessary in order to identify the trouble
in the early stages. To do this saves a great deal of work and
is much more satisfactory than to try to treat the birds after they
have been badly infested.
REMEDY.
There are many remedies for his mite as any oily prepara-
tion having some penetrating power will kill them.
To prepare the legs of the infested hen for treatment it is
best to soak them freely in warm soapy water using a brush to
loosen the scales. Then apply the active agent for control. This
may be any of the following: — sulphur ointment, kerosene and
lard, caraway oil, caraway oil 1 part and lard 4 parts or a mix-
ture of caraway oil and white vaseline. Some recommend dip-
ping the infested hen's legs in kerosene oil though this is not
without some danger of burning especially if the feathers are wet.
In our work we have found nothing better than caraway oil
mixed with lard, one part of the former to four parts of the
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SOME LICE AND MVl^S OF THE HEN. 193
latter. This remedy was first recommended by Haiduk.* At
the present time caraway oil is sold at drug stores at about thir-
ty-five cents an ounce; when this is diluted with either lard or
white vaseline, however, it is not an expensive remedy.
Badly infested legs are slow to show signs of improving
for while the mites are killed the scales may never gain a normal
condition.
Another remedy, sulphur ointment, can be bought at the
drug stores for about ten cents an ounce or one can buy the
powdered sulphur and mix this thoroughly with lard, using nine
parts of lard to one part of sulphur by weight.
Some poultry men kill a bird that is badly infested with this
parasite, feeling that this is by far the easiest way out of the
trouble. This, however, is not deemed necessary.
SANITATION.
In studying these external parasites of the hen the factors
of free range, housing and feeding were found to be much more
important than were at first judged possible; owing to the fact
that hens in a healthy condition when given proper houses and
food, together with the opportunity to exercise, are able to do well
even though they are infested with lice.
An experiment was made with three hundred white leghorn
chickens, one hundred and fifty of which were infested with lice
during the first week of their lives. Another one hundred and
fifty were kept nearly free from lice until they were six months
old. Both lots were weighed after they were a day old and were
kept in the same kind of houses with the similar kinds of food
and range. Each lot was weighed at the end of each month. At
the end of six months the average weight of those infested with
lice was the same as the average weight of those not thus infest-
ed. Only nineteen of the three hundred were lost during the
experiment and those deaths were mostly due to chills after the
young chicken has got through the cardboard wall around the
hover. The low mortality indicated a generally good condition
of the stock, and with proper food, a goodly amount of sunlight
and an opportunity to exercise, was enough to counteract the
injurious eflfects of the lice.
♦Haiduk, T. Die Fussrander des Geflugels. Inaug, Diss Giessen,
1909, pp. 1-58, Taf. I-VI.
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194 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 86.
Had the infested lot of one hundred and fifty chickens been
kept in close confinement as is necessary in many suburban poul-
try houses, had they been poorly nourished and been kept in dark
houses, the probable result would have been a great increase in
the number of lice and a stunted growth with a poorer egg yield
at maturity.
SETTING HENS.
In all probability it is the setting hen that suffers most from
lice and mites though sick hens have much the same trouble.
Inactivity on the part of the hens means a great increase in the
number of the lice at all times, and offers the best opportunity
for the attack of mites. Many setting hens are literally driven
from their nests by these pests and it is not a rare thing to find
that the hen has been killed by the mites.
Not only is the setting hen inactive but the nest made for
her is very commonly placed in dark recesses where she will be
less likely to be disturbed by other hens or by the keeper, hence
she is placed under conditions best suited for the mites to work,
not only during the night but much of the day. A close examina-
tion of the nests may reveal swarms of these mites well filled
with the blood of the hen that was covered or too far away
from the direct sunlight. In order to guard against this it is
well to prepare for such emergencies, painting the nest boxes
with carbolenium late in the winter or in early spring, giving
time for them to dry thoroughly biefore they are to be used, by
using clean nesting material, by placing the nests where some
sunlight will reach them and if covering is needed, wire will be
found preferable to boards.
In case the hen has been treated not long before setting with
mercurial ointment no further treatment may be necessary but
if large numbers of lice are found on the hen, use the ointment
sparingly so as to avoid any excess that would grease the eggs
as this might injure the developing embryo within by cutting
off the supply of oxygen coming through the pores of the shell.
If dusting is practised it will be found necessary to repeat
the application if the numbers are to be reduced hence further
disturbance with more danger of broken eggs will occur.
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SOME LICE AND MITES OF THE HEN. 195
DUSTING AND DUST BATHS.
The natural method for hens and chickens to rid themselves
of lice is to wallow in dust. When there is free range and an
opportunity for them to reach a sufficient amount of dry dust,
they instinctively find relief in dusting. A certain amount of
benefit is derived from a dust box placed in the hen house, giv-
ing the fowls the opportunity to take care of themselves some-
what. Too much is usually expected of this means of ridding
hens of lice, however, for close observatibijs have shown that
the use of dusting and dust baths have only a temporary effect
upon the numbers of these parasites to be found on the fowl.
In all probability the best dusting n^^thod is the use of the
Cornell (Lawry) powder. It is made in the following way:
"Two and one-half pounds of plaster of paris is spread in a
shallow pan or tray, one- fourth pint of crtide^ carbolic acid is
poured into a receptacle, and into this is poured three-fourths of
a pint of gasoline. The mixture of gasoline and acid is poured
over the plaster of paris and thoroughly mixed. It is then rubbed
through a wire screen on a piece of paper and allowed to stand
for from one and one-half to two hours or until thoroughly dry.
It must not be placed near a flame or any heat. The powder
should be kept in a closed can or jar where it will retain its
strength for a long time." * This should be applied while the
bird is held head downward so that the powder will work well
into the base of the feathers. It is recommended that this should
be repeated in two weeks.
In our experiments the use of this powder as well as
pyrethrum and other lice powders were all found unsatisfactory
for within a few days after they had been applied the numbers
of live lice on the fowl were not materially reduced. While one
can shake many dead lice from a hen that has been thoroughly
dusted at the time of application yet the dust is an active agent
for so short a time that it cannot be considered as a desirable con-
trol unless it is applied at very frequent intervals. It is thi<
difference between the temporary effect of dusting and the last-
ing effects of the mercurial ointment that we wish to emphasize.
*Circular Letter, Dept. of Poultry Husbandry Cornell University.
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196 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 86.
THE USE OF SULPHUR ON CHICKENS.
We cannot give too emphatic a warning against sulphur
which is a very commonly recommended remedy for the control
of the lice on chickens because its use usually leads to disastrous
results. A great many have used sulphur and lard, a seemingly
liarmless combination, on chickens that have been infested from
the lousy mother. Not knowing
in just what proportion to make
this mixture, the novice has add-
ed enough sulphur to make it yel-
{ low, feeling sure that it would be
^ effective. It is the effectiveness
f of this preparation that leads to
such bad results for the sulphur
soon begins to burn the tender
skin of the chicken, making
sores that seldom heal and it is
Fig. 15~A pseudoscorpion attack- ^f^^^ ^^e case that from one-
ing a poultry mitc 13 times natural
size. quarter to one-half the young
chickens thus treated die in from two to ten days after the appli-
cation is made.
It is much better to use the lard, sweet oil or blue ointment
hut never subject young chickens to the danger of burns from
I he use of such an active agent as sulphur. Burns and subse-
<|uent sores should be guarded against as much as possible for
more harm will arise from these than from the work of the lice.
NATURAL ENEMIES.
Both bird lice and mites seem especially free from the at-
tacks of natural enemies. A pseudoscorpion collected in a
poultry house showed a fondness for roost mites. (See Fig. 15).
These little animals are not common so that their effect on the
immbers of mites is probably negligible.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
We wish to express our appreciation to the members of the
I>oultry department of the Connecticut Agricultural Collie and
nixperiment Station for their suggestions and cooperation in
these studies.
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STORRS
Agricultural Experiment Station
STOIU^S, CONNECTICUT
BULLETIN 87, SEPTEMBER, 1916
FOURTH ANNUAL
INTERNATIONAL EGG LAYING
CONTEST
W.M. F. Kirk PATRICK Leslie E. Card
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BOARD OF CONTROL
THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES
OF THB
CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
Governor Marcus H. Holcomb
J. W. Alsop
IVERSON C. FaNTON
E. Stevens Henry
E. Kent Hubbard, Jr.
Charles M. Jarvis
O. F. King
Clifford I. Stoddard
Charles E. Lyman
H. G. Manchester
C. L. Beach, B. Agr., B. S., Pres,, Conn. Agricultural College
STATION STAFF
E. H. Jenkins, Ph. D. Director
AGRONOMY DEPARTMENT.
W. L. Slate, Jr., B. S. Agr. Agronomist
Benjamin G. Southwick, B. Sc. Assistant Agronomist
bacteriological department.
\\. M. Esten. M. S. Bacteriologist
Christie J. Mason, B. Agr. Assistant Bacteriologist
CHEMICAL department.
H. D. Edmond, B. S. Chemist
DAIRY DEPARTMENT.
G. C. White, B. S. A., A. M. Dairy Husbandman
H. F. JuDKiNS, B. S. Assistant Dairy Husbandman
ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY.
G. H. Lamson, xM. S. Zoologist
POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
W M. F. KiRKPATRicK, B. Agr., B. E. Poultry Husbandman
Leslie E. Card, B. S. Assistant Poultry Husbandman
T Eo F. Rettger, Ph. D. Bacteriologist, Investigations of
Animal Diseases
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FOURTH LAYING CONTESr
SUMMARY
There were 1 000 birds in the contest
They weighed two and a quarter tons.
They ate twenty tons of dry mash.
They ate over twenty-one tons of grain.
They ate about ten tons of mangel beets.
They required twelve tons of straw for litter.
They consumed one and a quarter tons of grit and shell.
They laid between nine and a half and ten tons of eggs.
They produced during the year eighteen tons of manure.
* The authors desire to make early and especial acknowledgement of
the services of M. E. Jones, superintendent of the contest, on whom has
rested much of the responsibility in collecting the data that are arranged
and discussed in the following pages.
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INTRODUCTION.
The history of the laying contest at Storrs, a complete
description of the plant on which it is conducted, and full details
of the houses and trapnests that are used appear in a report on
the third contest. This report also included the rules that gov-
erned the competition and from which rules there has been vir-
tually no deviation. The foregoing are not reprinted in this re-
port. If interested in the history of the contest, its houses, trap-
nests, or rules and regulations, the reader is respectfully re-
ferred to Bulletin No. £2 of this Station.
Public interest in laying competitions continues to grow.
Contests have been conducted by newspapers in various sections
of the country, by county poultry associations, boys' and girls'
poultry clubs, agricultural high schools, and international ex-
positions. During the coming year (1917), not less than seven
contests will be conducted at or by state institutions, including
the Agricultural Colleges of Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware,
Kentucky, New Jersey, and Washington, and the Poultry Experi-
ment Station of Missouri.
RATIONS AND METHOD OF FEEDING.
With the exception of the experimental groups discussed on
page 222, all pens were fed and handled in the same general
way; that is to say, the same formulas or rations were used for
all breeds and varieties. The feeder was, however, at liberty at
all times to use larger or smaller amounts according to the indi-
vidual needs of the several pens. This use of the same ration
for all varieties has been questioned by some on the ground that
the food requirements for the several breeds are different.
Nevertheless, it seems to be a fact that commercial poultrymen
follow exactly the same plan.
Breeders who keep Rocks and Reds, for instance, will usual-
ly be found feeding the two breeds out of the same pail but per-
haps varying either the total amount or the relative amount of
mash and grain. Some breeds, and even different flocks of the
same breed, consume dry mash with less avidity than others.
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202 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 87.
There are three chief reasons for employing only one ration
in a laying contest. In the first place, the competition being
described represents twenty varieties of eleven different breeds.
Obviously, it would be difficult to properly design as many ra-
tions, especially when it is remembered that contestants sendirc^
the same breed are in all probability using at home nearly as
many different rations as there are owners of that particular
breed. Furthermore, any attempt to employ a large number of
different rations would, it seems to the writers, be thoroughly im-
practicable. A second reason for not adopting a multiple ration
policy is the probability that owners of the losing breeds would
each feel that their breed had been done an injustice, that in
some way or other a more nearly perfect ration was used for the
Colony house, containing two pens.
breed that laid the greatest number of eggs. Lastly, a laying
competition is not a feeding test. To make feeding trials, one
ought to use birds of the same breeding, birds from ihe same
strain or family; pullets of the same age and that have enjoyed
equal opportunities during their growing period. Clearly, ouch
conditions cannot be hoped for in a laying congest.
When one does not weigh or measure the grain at each feed-
ing time it is more or less difficult to exactly describe the plan
that is being followed. In general, however, it may be said
that the major part of the grain ration was fed in the afternoon
from three to five o'clock, depending somewhat on the condition
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RATIONS AND METHOD OF FEEDING.
203
of the weather, but chiefly on the season of the year. The
birds were fed earlier of course on dark days and in winter
when the afternoons are short. During the winter particularly,
more grain was fed than the hens would consume that night, thus
leaving a little in the litter as an incentive for the birds to begin
work as soon as they left the roosts in the morning. On very
cold days and in damp weather hens seem a little disposed to
idle. To overcome this, grain was not infrequently fed two or
three times during the forenoon, but in very small amounts, just
enough to keep the hens busy.
Elsewhere in this bulletin are noted the average amounts
of grain and mash consumed, yet the hens were fed precisely
as if these data had not been collected. Both the ground and
Interior view of a single pen.
unground grains were weighed into pails or other receplacles
that remained in the houses out of reach of the hens. The
amount of the daily grain ration rested with the feeder entirely ;
there was no effort whatever to feed a specified amount within
a given time. At the close of each week a record was made of
the amount of any feeds that remained from the portions weighed
out at the beginning of the week. Considering the records of
both the third and fourth contests, eighteen hundred and twenty
birds involved, the average annual grain consumption amounted
to 44.4 pounds per hen, or practically two ounces per day. Since
the grain mixture weighs close to twenty ounces per quart,
this then is approximately the average measured amount re-
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204 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIJN, BULLETIN 8T.
quired daily for each pen of ten birds. These data do not mean
that hens should be fed rigidly by rule; it mus: be remembered
that their appetites may vary with the weather and their own
physical condition including laying, leafing, brooding, res ing.
molting, and possibly other factors.
All pens enjoyed free access to mash, grit, shell, and char-
coal, the last three of which were kept before the hens in home-
made wooden boxes with three compartments each four inches
square and five inches deep. The dry mash was supplied in a
six-quart circular earthenware receptacle with straight sides.
A wire grid inside the receptacle lay loosely on top the mash
and reduced waste to a minimum. At times it has seemed better
to only partially fill the dry mash con>,iners as the birds seemed
to relish it more the oftener a fresh supply appeared. Putting
in only a little mash at a time and repeating this several times
each week seemed also to thwart the purpose of some hens to
pick the mash over and select for themselves the more palatable
portions. Furthermore this procedure has enabled the feeder
to keep a little closer watch on the relative amounts of grain
and mash that were being consumed. This practice may be
neither feasible nor advisable on large commercial plants where
mash is frequently fed in hoppers that contain several hundred-
weight ; but in a laying contest, in view of an effort to get every
possible egg, one is perhaps justified in following up certain
de'.ails in spite of the time they lake and without reference to a
little added cost in the care of the flock.
Succulent food consisted principally of mangel beets during
the winter. About the first of May the hens were allowed the
run of the yards in which rye, clover, and grass were growing;
these supplied sufficient natural greens until toward midsiunmer
when some of the yards became more or less depleted. Mean-
while a small plot (a fifth of an acre) had been planted to rape
and Swiss chard; these were cut and fed four or five times a
week to supplement the natural greens in the yards. It was
difficult to keep an exact record of the amount of green food
consumed by each pen, but the cost of the beets, rape, swiss
chard, and a few oats that were sprouted amounted to approx-
imately one dollar per pen or ten cents for each hen for the year.
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ROCKS, KELS, AND LEGHORNS.
205
Experimental Leghorns, Record 1,974 Eggs.
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206 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 87.
From the total amount of beets fed to all pens it is estimated
that one ton is required to winter a hundred hens. As to the
chard and rape, it may be said that a fifth of an acre of good
land will produce more summer green food than a thousand hens
can consume.
From the foregoing it is clear that the birds were bounti-
fully supplied with green food in summer and with succulent
food in winter. Some investigators maintain that succulency
is not sufficient, that fowls fundamentally require the tonic
effect that is produced by green plants, and that the toning effect
is due perhaps primarily to the presence of chlorophyll*. The
majority of poultrymen are perhaps agreed that succulent food or
green food or both are indispensable in feeding or forcing fowls
for eggs ; that is to say, in employing a highly nitrogenous ra-
tion ; otherwise it is believed that impaired digestion, enlarged
livers and other disorders are likely to follow.
On the other hand there are those who consider green food
unnecessary and unessential. It has been stated in effect that
satisfactory egg yields can be secured, splendid health main-
tained, and mortality virtually avoided by the proper adminis-
tration of the right sort of antiseptics*. It is argued that healthy
hens should not be filled up on bulky green foods; it is in-
ferred that the occasional use of Epsom Salts in connection
with mangel beets, dried beet pulp, and other succulent foods,
results in high mortality. Thus the poultryman is warned to
eliminate green food from his menu for hens and is urged to
adopt instead some unnamed "intestinal cleanser"; a sort of
pan^cean elixir, so to speak, that will increase egg yields, lower
the death rate, and raise the margin of profit. Analysis of
this preparation by the Connecticut Experiment Station indicates
that it is essentially a mixture of sulphur, soda (carbonate),
and salts ; there is also included some sodium sulphate and some
iron sulphate. The "cleanser" consists then of two purgatives,
Epsom and Glaubers Salts and one astringent, sulphate of iron,
together with free sulphur. It must be frankly admitted that
the writers have enjoyed no opportunity to experimentally test
1. Maine Agr. Exp. Station Bui. 216, p. 159.
2. Delaware Agr. Extension Bui. 2, p. 8.
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WYANDOTTES AND LEGHORNS.
207
White Wyandottes, Record 1,961 Eggs.
White Wyandottes, Record 2,072 Eggs.
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208 STORKS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 8T.
the merits of this particular mixture; nevertheless, they do not
recommend its universal use ; it would seem almost analogous to
suggesting that the reader employ daily doses of Epsom Salts
or other laxatives as a substitute for the fruit and vegetable por-
tion of his diet.
The following rations were used throughout the year :
SCRATCH
GRAIN
DRY MASH
Cracked Com
60 pounds
Coarse Wheat Bran
200 pounds
Wheat
60 "
Corn Meal
100 "
Heavy White Oats
40 "
Gluten Feed
100 "
Barley
20 "
Ground Oats
100 "
Kafir Com
10 "
Strndard Middlings
75 "
Buckwheat
10 "
Fish Scrap
45 "
Beef Scrap
45 "
Low grade flour
25 "
Total
200
Total
690
Note: In the fifth contest the feed formulas have been greatly sim-
plified by using, for scratch grain, equal parts by weight of cracked com
and wheat, and for mash equal parts by weight of wheat bran, com meaU
ground oats, flour middlings, and meat. The meat has consisted of
equal portions of beef and fish scraps, though it is believed that cither
may be used to the exclusion of the other.
AUTOMATIC FEEDING DEVICES.
In a previous report (Bui. 82) the writers s'^a'ed their
belief in the serviceability of automatic grain feeders for cer-
tain classes of poultry keepers and also gave their reasons for
entertaining this belief. It was likewise stated that the use of
these automatic grain devices had been discontinued in so far as
the laying contest was concerned. Since the issuing of this
statement, and probably on account of it, there have appeared
in certain circulars and other advertising matter so-called offi-
cial figures which purport to prove that automatic feeders in-
creased egg production in our laying contest and that lower
yields followed their disuse. To those in possession of all the
facts the deduction is clearly unwarranted but it has, never-
theless, been made; hence it seems only fair to present this
matter more fully to the reading public. No attempt is made
to compare the results of the first two contests and subsequent
competitions. In the earlier years, there were only five birds
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AUTOMATIC FEEDING DEVICES.
209
in each pen; whereas in the later contests there were ten birds
in each of the same pens and as yet the writers have been unable
to precisely determine the exact effect on egg production that
doubling the number of pullets may have had. Obviously, an
unknown factor of this type, one which can be readily controlled
or avoided, should be excluded from one's comparisons or con-
clusions. It may be remarked, furthermore, that in some cases
at least it is very probable that not so good pullets are put into
any laying contest when ten birds are required as when only
five are sent. Some contestants have such moderate sized
flocks that they cannot select so well when ten birds are to be
chosen.
Visiting the laying contest.
In the first two competitions, fi\'c birds were required in
each pen and automatic grain hoppers were used throughout the
entire period; but in the third and fourth contests ten pullets
w«re required for each pen and automatic feeders were em-
ployed only a part of the time, namely, the first six months of
the third contest. During this period, eight hundred and
twenty hens averaged to lay 58.8 eggs each ; w^hereas, in the
first six months of the fourth contest without automatic feeders,
one thousand hens averaged to lay 62.8 eggs each. In both
years, the hens laid during the first six months, approximately
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210 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION^ BULLETIN 87.
forty-one per cent, of their annual average. On this basis, a
difference of four eggs per hen for six months means an annual
difference in favor of hand feeding of between nine and ten
eggs per hen or the not negligible matter of from nine to ten
thousand eggs in a flock of one thousand birds.
Although the figures just cited seem to afford the fairest
comparison from the data collected in connection with the lay-
ing contest, nevertheless, the preceding paragraphs are not in-
tended to constitute an argument either for or against the use
of automatic grain feeders. If offered as such, the contention
could not but be assailable on the ground that there may have
been an inherent difference between the two flocks which con-
sisted of different groups of hens selected in more than half the
cases by different breeders. Furthermore, the two trials were
conducted in different years, and while climatic conditions for
any one place remain quite constant on the average ; on the other
hand rather distinct differences are observed when only relatively
short periods are considered. The writers desire to point plainly
and particularly to the fact that "official figures" are sometimes
wrongfully used as in the case of the circulars and other ma-
terial already referred to.
LITTER.
The question of litter and the question of feed are more or
less closely allied as the latter is thrown into the litter, there to
be searched out by the hens. Deep litter (eight to ten inches)
has been advocated by many poultrymen who claim that it pro-
vides ample exercise. This theory seems to be sound and the
practice is undoubtedly good so long as ideal weather condi-
tions obtain. On the other hand, there are likely to be many damp
days in winter; these are likewise the short days with only a
little sunshine, and it is during these days that poultry houses
are not in general quite so well ventilated ; in short, it becomes a
problem to keep the litter dry and the deeper the litter the harder
the problem. It is perhaps not too much to say that total absence
of scratching material is preferable to deep litter that is damp.
The depth of the bedding for the birds in the contest has av-
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LITTER FOR THE HOUSES. 211
eraged from four to five inches, being more than this when first
put in and less at the time of renewal. Oat straw, which has
been used almost exclusively, costs in Storrs about $14.00 a ton
or a total of $168.00 for litter as approximately twelve tons were
required. Doubling the depth of litter would have greatly in-
creased this item of expense.
Salmon Fav«rolle.
For the first half of the year or from November to April both
included, about one and a quarter tons of straw were used each
month, and about three- fourths of a ton monthly for the last
half of the year. It was planned to clean out the old and put in
new straw once a month, but this rule was violated in favor of a
shorter period whenever the litter became damp and unmanage-
able. Not all of any month's allowance of litter was put into
the pens at one time. During the winter months when one and
one-quarter tons were being used* approximately three- fourths
of this amount or some eighteen or nineteen hundred pounds
was distributed at a given time, then after the lapse of from ten
days to two weeks depending on how quickly the straw was
1 Token up, the remaining six to seven hundred pounds of the
LJlowance was added. The use of litter was continued through
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212 STCRR3 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, EULLETIN 87.
the summer because it seemed desirable to feed the hens in the
houses since their range was too small to provide sufficient exer-
cise. Incidentally, the litter also meant less dust from the
earthen floors.
POULTRY MANURE.
Preservation and proper disposition of hen manure is a
feature of poultry keeping that seems lo be too often neglected,
especially in view of the amount that can be collected and con-
verted into a valuable fertilizer. Daily weighings of the night
droppings were made for a period of one week in March and a
week in September at both of which times the days and nights
are virtually equal. These weighings averaged approximately
100 pounds daily for the thousand hens involved, or 36.5 pounds
per hen per year. Philips'* experiments with more than three
hundred While Leghorns gave a yield of 21 pounds per pullet ;
his weighings, however, were made weekly instead of daily ; that
is to say, the droppings underwent an average drying period of
three and a half days before their weight was recorded. In the
contest the light and heavy breeds were nearly equal numerically
but the latter outweighed the other by about 2 pounds per bird
and they were also heavier eaters. Larger hens consuming
more feed would no doubt be expected to also yield more manure.
Hawkins*, in observations en Dorkin^^s that averaged to weigh
8 pounds each, showed that the manure produced during the
night time amounted to 2 ounces daily or a little over 45 pounds
per year. Wheeler* found the night droppings of twenty-four
Rock, Cochin, and Light Brahma capons and cockerels to av-
erage 43 pounds a year per fowl. According to Woods and
Bartlett*, the night droppings from 180 mature hens (presumably
Barred Rocks) averaged 30 pounds per year. Warren's' tables
indicating the amount of excrement that is voided by the various
3-Purdue Exp. Station Bui. 182, p. 840.
4-Year Book Agr., Victoria, 1905, pp. 427, 428.
5-Eighth Annual Report, N. Y. State Station.
6-Annual Report, Maine Exp. Station. 19C3, pp 199-204.
7-G. F. Warren, Farm Management, The MacM.ilan C;.. Xcw \ ork
p. 198.
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DISPOSITION OF POULTRY MANURE. 213
classes of farm live stock shows for fowls 4.3 tons* per 1»000
pounds of live weight, or 43 pounds a year for a 5 pound hen.
This is in quite close agreement with the data collected in the
contest. The average aggregate weight of the birds was ap-
proximately 4,500 pounds, and the manure produced 18.26 tons.
It is evident from the foregoing that the amount of hen
manure which can be collected varies with different breeds and
with different classes of the same breed; that is to say, capons,
cockerels, laying hens, and fattening birds may not be expected
to produce the same amount of manure per individual. On the
other hand the same data seem to indicate that in general one
may safely estimate a hen's night droppings at 30 to 40 pounds
per year, or an annual yield of 1J4 to 2 tons of fresh manure
from each 100 hens maintained.
In addition to variation in quahtity there is also a difference
in quality ; depending perhaps partly on breed, partly on the class
of fowls, and partly on conditions of management which in-
volves range, confinement, rations, and other factors. Wheeler*
has shown that the manure from fattening fowls was more val-
uable than that from laying hens due chiefly to the larger nitro-
gen content. He also found that a more nitrogenous ration
means a more nitrogenous manure. Thus two pens of pullets
were fed rations whose nutritive ratios were 1:4.2 and 1:5.7;
the value of the manure from the two pens was reckoned at
$8.35 and $6.73 per ton respectively. Brown* analysed fresh
samples from ducks, geese, turkeys, fattening birds, birds at liber-
ty and in confinement, and chickens one and three months old ; of
all these the fattening birds produced a manure that was richest
in nitrogen.
Since manures are not in general promptly applied to the
land their proper preservation becomes a problem of interest to
nearly every poultryman. Many writers have discussed this
question and they all seem to agree that the product should be
stored in a dovered shed and furthermore that it should be mixed
with certain other materials for the triple purpose of conserving
the nitrogen, converting the product into a more complete ferti-
lizer, and so improving its mechanical condition that it can be
8-E. and W. Brown. Jour. Bd. Agr. 13 (1907) No. 12.
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214 STORES AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 87.
Front view of manure shed.
applied with a manure spreader. The Maine Station summarizes
the situation as follows: "By itself, hen dung is a one-sided
nitrogenous fertilizer. As usually managed, one-half or more
of its nitrogen is lost, so that as ordinarily used it does not carry
so great an excess of nitrogen. Because of its excess of nitrogen
it will be much more economically used in connection with
manures carrying phosphoric acid and potash. As both acid
phosphate and kainit prevent the loss of nitrogen, it is possible
to use them in connection with sawdust or some other dry ma-
terial as an absorbent (good dry loam or peat will answer nicely)
so as to make a well balanced fertilizer. For example, a mix-
ture of 30 pounds of hen manure, 10 pounds of sawdust, 16
pounds of acid phosphate, and 8 pounds of kainit would carry
about 1.25 per cent nitrogen, 4.5 per cent phosphoric acid, and
2 per cent potash, which, used at the rate of 2 tons per acre,
would furnish 50 pounds nitrogen, 185 pounds phosphoric
acid, and 80 pounds potash."
The three absorbents suggested above, namely, peat, sawdust,
and dry loam, are said to be about equally effective as dryers and
since none of them add to the mixture an appreciable amount of
plant food the poultryman will obviously let cost and convenience
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PRESERVATION OF POULTRY MANURE.
216
Rear view of manure shed,
determine his choice. For storing this product some type of
cement structure is undoubtedly best as such a building re-
quires less repairing and replacing than a frame building subject
to rapid rotting when used for manur^al storage. The manure
shed in use at the contest plant was designed to care for the drop-
pings from two to three thousand hens. It is 10x16 feet and
built into a bank with the floor at the front virtually at ground
level to facilitate loading. In the rear the roof is two and a half
feet above grade. This arrangement makes it easy to dispose
of the daily collections through a trap door cut in the roof for
that purpose. The floor and foundation are cement and stone ;
the back and two ends are 18 inch walls of the same construction
for 3 feet 10 inches above the floor. The rest of the building is
of wood construction with the roof covered with roofing paper.
The building cost approximately ninety dollars.
The value of hen manure is an interesting topic and appar-
ently a quite variable quantity. Much depends on the market,
what home use can be made of the fertilizer, the method of hold-
ing, cost of cartage, and other factors. Storer* has put the value
9-F. H. Storer. Agriculture in Some of its Relations with Chemis-
try. Chas. Scribner's Sons, New York 1899.
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216 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 87.
at $6.00 a ton, but this estimate was based on the analysis of or-
dinary air dried manure and did not consider the use of preser-
vatives. According to Woods and Bartlett fresh hen manure
should be worth $11.00 a ton, and they have shown how it can
be held with little or no loss. Pearr concludes that the product
is worth $10.00 a ton when properly preserved with acid phos-
phate, kainit, and an absorbent, as described on page 214.
SHOW ROOM SCORES.
So far as the writers can learn, the managements of the
several laying competitions in this country have not before at-
Barred Rock No.
Record 1 Egg.
42
Barred Rock No. 59
Record 254 Eggs.
tempted to carefully examine the birds entered in the contests to
determine their precise status as show room specimens. It was
believed that this information would be of interest and value to
both the contestants and the poultry public. Accordingly, the
college employed a thoroughly capable and conscientious judge*
to pass upon the merits of the birds in this particular. Score
cards were used in preference to the customary comparison
method that obtains in the showroom. The score card seemed
lO-Maine Station Bui. 216, p. 143.
♦ W. H. Card.
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SHOW ROOM SCORES.
217
to be better because it enabled the college to forward to the con-
testants the standing of each individual hen in their pens, thus
pointing out the exact exhibition value of their birds and afford-
ing them a larger opportunity to make suitable use of the data
!hat were collected. In judging the pullets shortly after their
arrival at Storrs, the standard weight clause was disregarded;
any discrepancy, however, on this account was perhaps very
nearly, if not quite, offset by the fact that the birds could not of
course be properly groomed as they would be before entering
a show.
Rhode Island Red No.
Record 257 Eggs.
261
Rhode Island Red, No. 289
Show Room Score 90%.
The college was not able to perfect plans for the scoring
until after the contest actually started. In consequence, contest-
ants, at the time of consigning their birds, did not know that
they would be judged. Nevertheless, some very fair show birds
were included as will be seen from the following scores of the
best individuals in each class: Barred Rock 89J4j White Rock
94, White Wyandotte 93>4, Buff Wyandotte 92>4, Rhode Island
Red 90^, White Leghorn 94 J4. All the Rocks made an av-
erage score of 88^, the Wyandottes averaged 90>4, and the
Reds 85^. Seven and a half per cent, of the Rocks, six per cent,
of the Wyandottes, and ten per cent, of the Reds were disquali-
fied.
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218 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 87.
UNINDENTIFIED EGGS.
In the operation of trapnests some error is to be expected no
matter how well designed the nests may be, how perfectly they
work, or how frequently they are attended. Hens will from
time to time deposit an occasional egg on the floor, on the drop-
pings board, in the yard, and in the broody coops; not onl/
this, but one sometimes encounters a hen that seems determined
not to use the trapnest at all. There is also the human equa-
tion to be considered; it is always perfectly possible for an
operator to reguiarly trap a bird and then neglect, or wrongfully
White Wyandotte, No. 993
Record 254 Eggs.
White Leghorn, No. 584
Record 255 Eggs.
record, the egg. In the hope of lessening or eliminating errors
of this type independent duplicate sets of egg records have beci
kept ; one sheet hangs in the house and is used by the attendant
who releases the hen from the nest and marks the egg with her
number, the duplicate sheet remains in the office and is filled out
independently by another attendant who weighs the eggs. Check-
ing these two sheets weekly enables the management to reduce
error to a minimum. All unrecorded or "out" eggs have been
added to the pen total, though obviously they could not be
credited to any particular individual. As might perhaps be ex-
pected, there was among the different pens considerable varia-
tion in the number of unidentified eggs. The lowest actual ntun-
ber of unrecorded eggs occurred in a pen of Orpingtons that
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UNIDENTIFIED EGGS — MORTALITY. 219
laid only 8 out of the nests ; the highest was a pen of Wyandottes
that laid 140 "out" eggs. Relatively the pen of Orpingtons and
a pen of Dominiques tied for best record as in each case 1.4 per
cent, of their eggs were unidentified; on the other hand, a pen
of Leghorns laid 9 per cent, of their year's yield outside the
traps. The total number of "outs" for all pens amounted to
5,662, or 3.73 per cent, of all eggs collected, an average for the
year of 5-2/3 eggs per hen.
MORTALITY.
The mortality during the year amounted to 124 individuals,
or 12.4 per cent, of the 1,000 birds entered in the contest, an
average of one and a quarter deaths per pen. As might be ex-
pected, the mortality in some pens was considerable higher than
in others. There were, in fact, thirty-eight pens, a total of 380
birds among which no deaths occurred, whereas on the other
hand several pens lost three and four birds each- The highest
mortality was the loss of seven birds in one pen. From the
postmortem examinations it appears that more than half the
deaths were due to three general diseases, namely, disorders of
the reproductive organs, enlargement or other irregularities of
the liver, and an unnamed disease characterized chiefly by the
formation of pus in the windpipe. The remaining losses were
due to such miscellaneous causes as canker, colds, cropbound,
chicken-pox, cannibalism, internal hemorrhage, intestinal worms,
tumors, accidents, and bleeding from the comb.
The most interesting and most unusual postmortem of the
year was performed on White Wyandotte hen No. 194 that died
early in June. This hen had laid 23 eggs in January, 17 in
February, 16 in March, 14 in April, and 23 in May. Although
this hen was never credited with two eggs in any one day, an
examination of her carcass revealed a mechanism that would
seem to make possible the regular production of two eggs a day.
Instead of the customary single set of reproductive organs, this
hen had two ovaries and two complete oviducts, and both sets
were functioning. A fully formed egg with the shell on was
found in the lower part of the left oviduct and a newly detached
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220 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 87.
FOURTH ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL EGG UTING CONTEST
STORES IGR. EXf . STlTI01f.-.€(NIN. AGR. COUEGE. STORRS, CONK.
NOVEMBER t, 1914 - OCTOBER 31. I9IS
Pew No. 66
VAwieTY White Leshorna
Owner
Diotogreph if cult ry
iram
' Daily Ego Record for ^
eek Bec
IMHINO MONDAY JUDe 7, 1915
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REMARKSi
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Weekly Egg Record.
yolk was found in the upper part of the right oviduct, all of
which seemed to indicate the alternate use of this dual system.
In general it may be remarked that mortality among hens in
a laying contest may be expected to be higher than on the av-
erage well managed and privately owned poultry farm. This is
of course perfectly obvious when it is remembered that the
birds in a competition come from many diflferent sections of the
country. They have in many cases traveled for long distances
at a season of the year when it is perfectly easy for birds to
contract colds as well as other diseases, even though they may
have started the journey in good health.
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RECORD FORMS USED IN CONTEST.
221
FOURTH ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL EGG UYING CONTEST
STOUS AGt. EXf . STATIOH^.CONN. AGt. COLLEGE^ STORRS, CONN.
NOVIEMBERI,l»t4 - OCTOBER 31, 1915
Piw NO.
VARtETY Barred Kooks
OWNCB
Jf. Wm Linooln
Feed Record for Week Beginning Monday
April IS. 1915
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222 STORKS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 87.
EXPERIMENTAL PENS.
The experimental pens consisted of five groups of two pens
each. These groups consisted of Barred Rocks, White Wyan-
dottes, Rhode Island Reds, White Leghorns, and Light Brah-
mas, all of which were reared by the Experiment Station except
the Rocks which were loaned by Francis F. Lincoln and Merritt
M. Clark. One pen in each of these five groups was fed the
regular contest rations, the other pen in each group was fed pre-
cisely the same way except that the beef and fish scraps were
withheld and sour milk was used in their stead.
The following summary shows the performance of the sev-
eral pens :
Breed
Barred Rocks
White Wyandottes
Rhode Island Reds
Light Brahmas
White Leghorns
Pens
5 & 6
19 & 20
37 & 38
45 & 46
59 & 60
Regular Ration
1181
1578
1775
1104
1742
Milk Ration
1855
1788
1548
1194
1974
Totals 7380 8359
It should perhaps be stated that none of the birds in any
of the groups were picked by their pedigrees as no records of this
sort were available. All were selected solely on the basis of
external appearance. The twenty birds in each set were first
chosen from a larger group, then from these twenty the two best
individuals were taken and placed one in the pen to receive r^^-
lar rations and the other to receive milk. This procedure was
repeated ten times for each breed or until all the pens had been
chosen in this way-
On examining the summary it will be seen that the milk fed
Rocks outlaid the others by nearly 700 eggs, but not all this is
believed to be due to the milk; there was undoubtedly a differ-
ence in their inherent ability to lay. Likewise the regular ra-
tion Reds outlaid the other pen, but it is not thought that the
lower yield was due to the feeding of milk.
Comparing the five breeds, it is found that the fifty hens fed
milk outlaid the other fifty by 979 eggs, which, at the average
price of 31.77 cents a dozen were worth $25.92. They consumed
2,000 quarts of milk valued at $20.00, but the fifty hens on the
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EXPERIMENTAL PENS.
223
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224 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION^ BULLETIN 87.
regular rations consumed about 350 pounds of beef and fish
scrap that cost $9.00 aside from laying nearly a thousand eggs
less. Cn the other hand it must be conceded that milk is
more troublesome to feed.
As in the previous contest these trials seem to show that
sour skimmed milk may be substituted for the meat part of the
ration, and still keep the hens in good health and have them lay
as many or more eggs. If one has not a good market for skim-
med milk it is probably much more economical to feed it to hens
rather than sell it at a lov^ price and then pay $50.00 to $60.00
a ton for beef scraps.
WEIGHT AND VALUE OF EGGS.
Table A below is a summary of several other tables arrang-
ed and averaged by breeds. As might perhaps be expected, the
product of high producers sells for relatively more money. Thus
Rack for sorting eggs before weighing.
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WEIGHT AND VALUE OF EGGS.
225
the Wyandottes with an average of 165 per hen yielded eggs that
were worth 33-1/3 cents a dozen whereas the miscellaneous
breeds averaging 126 produced eggs worth less than 31 cents a
dozen. The high producing hen enjoys this advantage in market
value by reason of the fact that some of her product is sold in
the season of highest prices. The figures above do not take into
account any difference in size which factor undoubtedly affects
the value of eggs that are sold in a discriminating market. The
average weight of the eggs for all breeds was just the same as
in the previous competition, namely, 1.54 pounds or 24.6 ounces
per dozen; not only this, but the four principal breeds ranked
in the same order during both years, — the weights as reported
in Bull. No. 82 being 1.60, l.t59, 1.50, and 1.48 pounds per dozen
for the Reds, Rocks, Leghorns, and Wyandottes respectively.
TABLE A.
VALUE OF EGGS PER DOZEN.
(Based on total number of eggs and total value.)
i
V
^ tA
u
i .
1
^3
fe
Breed.
Number
Birds.
CO ,g
3w
>
1
Weight
Dozen,
0.
Plymouth Rocks
130
146 3
19,026
$ 503.90
1.56
31.78c
Wyandottes
120
164.9
19,794
651.85
1.47
33.33c
R. I. Reds
190
155.8
29,609
798 04
1.60
32.34c
White Leghorns
400
158.1
63,256
1.648.45
1.52
31.27c
Miscellaneous
160
125.8
20,123
517.33
1.56
30.85c
Total
1,000 151.8 151,808 $4,019.57 1.54 31.77c
Considering both Tables A and B, the apparent average price
received for eggs during the twelve months was a little over 36
cents, but the fact that more eggs were laid during the season of
depressed prices reduced the average actual value to 31.77 cents
per dozen which is slightly higher than the average price obtained
the previous year.
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226 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 87.
TABLE
B.
VALUE OF EGGS BY MONTHS.
Month
Eggs
Price per dozen
Value Eggs
November
4,070
$0.56
$ 189.93
December
6,618
.54
297.81
January
8,262
.44
302.92
February
10,389
.34
294.33
March
16,692
.24
333.84
April
16,927
.24
338.54
May
18,280
.24
365.60
June
17,536
.24
350.72
July
17,105
.27
384.86
August
15,482
.33
425.75
September
12,922
.38
409.20
October
7,525
.62
326.08
Year
151,808
$4,019.57
BROODINESS.
Quite a number of birds are sure to be more or less broody
during the year and in an egg laying contest it is desirable that
they be **broken up" as soon as possible. For this purpose a
broody coop is provided for each pen. It is 18"xl8"x36'' and is
made entirely of slats. When a hen becomes broody she is shut
up in this coop with no food but with plenty of water to drink.
Three days of such confinement is usually sufficient to cure her
of all desire to sit. In extremely hot weather when such close
confinement would perhaps be dangerous the broody hens are
simply turned into unused yards.
Table C affords a comparison of the different breeds with
respect to broodiness. Only those birds which completed a full
year's record are included in the table, except that any hen dying
during the last ten days of the contest was considered to have
completed a year's record. The highest percentage of broody
birds was found among the Wyandottes instead of the Reds as
in the previous year and the lowest in the Leghorns as heretofore.
It is well to note, however, that when a Leghorn does go broody
she loses just as much time as a hen of any other breed. By.
time lost on account of broodiness is meant the number of days
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BROODINESS — WEIGHT OF BIRDS.
227
that intervene between the laying of the last egg before becoming
broody and the first egg afterwards. Perhaps the fairest way to
use the data on this character would be to base comparisons on
the average number of days lost by the average hen of any breed
one wishes to consider. Thus each Pl)anouth Rock averaged
to lose 28.6 days during the year on account of being broody
while each Leghorn averaged to lose ^ess than 2 days. The
average for all breeds under observation was 19.9 days, or five
per cent, less lost time than in the year before. This average of
19.9 days is too low on account of the large number of Leghorns
included; the Rocks, Reds, and Wyandottes lost 33.6 days per
hen during the year.
TABLE C.
BROODINESS IN THE SEVERAL BREEDS.
Vm
O
i
1
t. of
umber
Numbe
roody
S
3
9
C I
5JJ
z
Z
ih
<h
3 —
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C
< Q PQ
5 =
9 a.
a.5 3
< O Q.
Plymouth Rocks
110
62
56.3
2.2
22.6
50.7
28.5
Wyandottes
92
64
69.6
2.5
19.3
49.2
34.2
R. I. Reds
170
112
65.9
2.8
20.3
57.5
37.9
White Leghorns
359
21
5.9
1.3
22.4
29.0
1.7
Miscellaneous
135
63
46.6
3.0
20.4
61.6
28.7
AU Breeds
866
322
37.2
2.7
20.6
53.5
19.9
WEIGHT AND VALUE OF BIRDS.
All the hens in the contest were weighed individually seven
times during the year within a few days, one way or the other,
of the dates indicated below. From Table D and the accompany-
ing curve it will be seen that all breeds gained in weight from
the time of their arrival until the third weighing on the first of
March. This gain was more marked in the heavy breeds which
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228 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION^ BULLETIN 87.
fact would seem to indicate that the Leghorns were more nearly
mature at the beginning of the contest. All breeds were heavie3t
in early March and, with the exception of the first weighing in
November, all breeds were lighter when weighed in May than at
any other time during the year. This period of light weight,
coming as it does around the first of May, is of course coincident
with the season of heaviest egg yield. During March, April
and May, the hens laid over 34 per cent, of their total eggs for
the year. In December, January and February, a period of
equal length, but during which time the birds were increasing in
weight, they laid less than half as many eggs, or not quite 17 per
cent, of the year's total.
7
Not. 1 Jan. 1 Mar. 1 Mar 1 July i Sept. 1 Oct. 31
The meat value of the birds at the close of the contest, on
the basis of 18 cents a pound live weight, was as follows:
Plymouth Rocks $1.09, Rhode Island Reds $1.04, Wyandottes
$0.91, and Leghorns $0.62 each. Thus for the purpose of
slaughtering the American varieties were worth from 50 to 75
per cent, more than the Mediterraneans when only the matter
of weight is considered. In most markets the heavier hen is
perhaps more in demand which means that the difference in the
market value of the two classes is probably greater than the
actual figures seem to indicate.
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EGG PRODUCTION BY BREEDS AND MONTHS.
229
TABLE D.
WEIGHT OF BIRDS.
(A
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tH
tH
iH
iH
CO
2
03
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CO
IS
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C/3
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Plymouth Rocks 130 5.29 5.85 6.41 5.84 5.93 5.95 6.06 5.90
Wyandottes 120 4.67 5.14 5.28 4.82 4.80 4.98 5.06 4.96
R. I. Reds 190 5.25 5.77 6.06 5.54 5.65 5.67 5.79 5.67
White Leghorns 400 3,56 3.74 3.83 3.45 3.63 3.70 3.46 3.62
MONTHLY EGG PRODUCTION BY BREEDS.
The monthly tgg production of each pen in the contest is
shown on a succeeding page. The data there displayed have been
arranged in Table E to show the average production of the dif-
ferent breeds in each of the twelve months. It will readily be
seen that the Wyandottes as a breed yielded relatively the most
eggs in December, January, February, September, and October;
the Reds averaged only one tgg per pen less than the Wyan-
dottes in February and exceeded all others during March ; while
the Leghorns proved the heaviest layers in November, April,
May, June, July, and August.
TABLE E.
MONTHLY EGG PRODUCTION.
Average per pen for the breeds indicated.
u
>
o
^
c
CO
1
CO
a
<
3
bfi
3
<
in
u
O
Plymouth Rocks
Wyandottes
R. I. Reds
White Leghorns
Miscellaneous
All Breeds
23 61 85 112 179 169 166 165 148 141 123 91 1,463
49 87 122 128 160 149 183 166 158 164 157 127 1,650
30 69 112 127 180 171 174 159 155 145 137 100 1,558
57 74 65 84 164 182 204 199 201 173 130 46 1,581
20 31 59 100 154 152 154 150 144 125 102 67 1,258
41 66 83 104 167 169 185 175 171 155 129 75 1,518
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230 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 87.
COST OF FEED AND RETURNS FOR EGGS.
The last two tables in this bulletin, namely I and J, show the
cost of feed, number of eggs, etc. for each pen. These data have
likewise been averaged by breeds and as such appear in Tables
F and G. By reference to the first of these it will be seen that
the Rocks and Reds were the heaviest eaters and the Leghorns
lightest with the Wyandottes about half way between the two.
Considering the two tables together it is found that it re-
quired 4.27 pounds of feed (mash and grain) to produce a pound
of eggs as compared with 4.46 pounds of feed for each pound
of eggs in the preceding contest. This means, of course, a little
more than six pounds of feed for one dozen eggs. Within cer-
tain limits it appears that the amount of feed required to pro-
duce a pound of eggs varies inversely as the number of eggs
produced ; which is to say, the 200-egg hen produces her output
more economically, in so far as the matter of feed is concerned,
than the 100-egg hen. The Rocks, Reds, and Wyandottes av-
eraged 146, 156, and 165 eggs per hen respectively; the feed
consumed in each case was 4.88, 4.54, and 4.08 pounds for each
pound of eggs. The Leghorns with an average production of
158 eggs required 3.90 pounds of feed per pound of eggs.
The figures above seem quite consistent, one year with
another; 4.45 pounds of feed for a pound of eggs in the third
contest when 820 hens averaged 144 eggs and 4.27 pounds of
feed for a pound of eggs in the fourth contest when 1,000 hens
averaged 152 eggs. On the other hand, some of the foreign
competitions have obtained eggs with from 10 to 20 per cent,
less feed. Rhodes and Willoughby" in reporting the first twelve
months competition carried out in conjunction with the Utility
Poultry Club state that 3.85 pounds of feed produced a pound
of eggs, assuming the A grade eggs to average 2J4 ounces and
the B grade eggs 1^ ounces. Brown" in reporting the second
twelve months contest at Harper Adams found the average food
consumption to be 3.70 pounds for each pound of eggs. Laurie"
in discussing the Roseworthy Competition for 1911-12 says the
11. Harper Adams Agr. College, Newport, Salop, Eng. Bui. No.
1/1914, p. 33.
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MARGIN ABOVE COST OF FEEDING.
231
cost of feeding in that contest was less than it had been for some
years. The hens (756 in number) averaged to lay 176 eggs
that averaged to weigh 2.09 ounces ; and it required 3.42 pounds
of feed to produce a pound of eggs.
It is perhaps of interest to point out from the data in these
tables the feed cost per dozen eggs ; feed including, in this case,
the minor intems of grit, shell, and charcoal. The feed charged
against the Leghorns amounted to 12.7 cents for each dozen
eggs produced, 12.9 cents a dozen for the Wyandottes, 15.3
cents for the Reds, and 16.2 cents for the Rocks. The average
for all breeds was 14 cents a dozen. The last column in
Table G is marked "Return above cost of feed." The reader
is cautioned not to confuse this phrase with the word "profit."
There are adequate reasons for being unable, in a laying con-
test, to accurately estimate the item of labor in the common or
ordinary acceptation of the term. Trapping all the hens,
weighing all the eggs, and keeping all the records in duplicate
means a lot of additional labor with which the commercial poul-
tryman would for the most part, dispense ; yet all these and more
have seemed essential to the proper conducting of the contest.
TABLE F.
COST OF FEED.
Average per pen for the breeds indicated.
. 0)
•«-•
.^
1^
6
•6
. 2
h
c
2i
en
li
o
pa
a J
OU
UhJ
OJ
H
Plymouth Rocks
490
437
8.0
1.2
21.0
$19.76
Wyandottes
391
437
6.3
1.1
20.9
17.80
R, I. Reds
496
443
7.4
0.8
19.5
19.89
White Leghorns
355
425
7.0
1.0
21.2
16.68
Miscellaneous
347
419
6.0
1.2
17.6
16.48
AU Breeds
402
430
7.0
1.05
20.2
$17.79
12. Harper Adams Agr. College, Bui. No. 1/1915, p. 74.
13. Dcpt. of Agr. Adelaide, So. Australia, Egg Laying Competitions,
1911-12, p. 20.
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232 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 87.
In view of the foregoing, the writers haVe merely endeavored
to point out the excess value of the eggs after paying for the feed
and have not intended the figures in the last column of Table G
to be construed as net profit.
TABLE G,
RETURN ABOVE COST OF FEED.
Average per pen for the breeds indicated.
1
to
bo
Mm
\bove
Feed.
j_,
o
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-^^
•s
(A
bo S
3 «
•2 ^
o
W '
^.S
^<3
>^
o S
^ o
Plymouth Rocks
1,463
189.87
1.56
$38.76
$19.76
$19.00
Wyandottes
1,650
202.53
1.47
45.99
17.80
26.19
R. I. Reds
1,558
207.36
1.60
42.00
19.89
22.12
White Leghorns
1,581
200.14
1.52
41.21
16.68
24-53
Miscellaneous
1.258
163.36
1.56
32.33
16.48
15,85
All Breeds
1,518
194.58
1.54 $40.19 $17.79
$22.40
DISCUSSION OF TABLES.
The last three tables in this bulletin are nearly, if not quite,
self explanatory. Table H is simply a summary of the tgg pro-
duction by months together with the yearly total for each pen in
the contest. The data in this table, arranged and averaged by
breeds, appear on another page and are marked Table E. From
the totals in this table it will be seen that May is the month of
most eggs. This was likewise true in the previous competition
but to a somewhat less marked degree. On page 210, it has
been shown that during the first six months of the contest the
hens laid virtually 41 per cent, of the year's total eggs. It may
be of interest in this connection to point out the exact date on
which actually half the eggs of the year are produced. In 1914
this date fell on May 21st and in 1915 it fell on May 22nd.
These dates are for the entire group of hens; if one should
segregate the heavy and light breeds it will be found that the
half way point it reached earlier by the former and later by the
latter.
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DISCUSSION OF TABLES. 233
Table I shows the amount and cost of all feed (except green
food which is noted elsewhere) consumed by each pen. The fol-
lowing prices were used as a basis for these estimates : Scratch
grain $2.24 per hundred, dry mash $1.93 per hundred, grit and
shell each $0.75 per hundred, and charcoal $2.00 per hundred.
Half of the Station's experimental pens had no meat in their
ration ; hence in these five pens, namely ; Nos. 6, 20, 38, 46, and
60, the mash was estimated at $1.85 per hundred instead of
$1.93 as above.
The number of eggs» their total weight, their weight per
dozen, their value, the cost of feed, and return over and above
cost of feed are shown in Table J for each of the several pens
in the contest. In Table G, these data have been summarized
and arranged by breeds. The weights of the eggs as they ap-
pear in this table are actual and not estimated, as the eggs from
each pen were weighed daily. For the sake of convenience all
weights have been given in pounds and hundredths, the usual
standard being one and one-half pounds or twenty- four ounces
per dozen. The value of eggs from each pen has been com-
puted from the monthly prices as given in Table B.
EGG PRODUCTION AND TEMPERATURE.
On the last page of this bulletin there are curves that show
the egg yield in per cent of the Leghorns and the Rocks, Reds,
and Wyandottes taken together. The comparison is between
the production of the light breed and the combined production of
the heavy breeds. Along with these tgg yields is shown the
mean weekly temperature throughout the year. The Leghorns
got a better start than the others, but began to drop off after five
or six weeks ; they seemed to be more susceptible to sudden down-
ward changes in temperature. The Leghorns likewise dropped
off more sharply in the last weeks of the contest ; on the other
hand, they laid relatively more eggs through the summer and
were subject to less fluctuation in their weekly yields as so few
of their number were temporarily and periodically out of the
race on account of being broody.
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234 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 87.
§
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MONTHLY EGG PRODUCTION BY PENS. 235
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236 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 87.
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STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 87.
TABLE I.
AMOUNTS
AND
COST OF
FEED CONSUMED.
Mash
Grain
Grit
Charcoal
Shell
Total
Pen
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
cost.
1
660
449
11.6
1.9
23.7
« 21.17
2
536
446
6.5
1.6
21.8
20 56
3
603
441
9.0
1.9
20.6
19.86
4
485
445
7.0
.9
17.3
19.63
6
460
430
7.0
1.2
17.0
18.71
6
410
430
120
1.2
26.9
21.60
7
619
439
12.0
1.0
23.4
20.14
8
430
435
7.5
.9
18.9
18.26
9
488
431
8.0
1.3
19.5
19.31
10
561
438
10.0
1.0
24.0
20.72
11
486
424
4.0
.9
19.6
19 08
12
488
434
4.0
1.1
19.8
19.34
13
454
436
55
1.2
20.2
18.74
14
493
438
6.5
.7
22.4
19.55
16
427
435
12.5
2.2
23.0
18.28
16
326
436
5.5
.6
18.6
16.23
17
410
427
6.0
1.3
24 3
17.72
18
403
437
5.5
1.1
23.4
17.81
19
451
440
7.0
1.2
19.8
18.78
20
307
438
6.0
1.0
21.8
18.83
21
370
418
5.0
.8
16.6
16.68
22
342
439
6.6
1.2
18.6
16.64
23
400
445
6.0
1.0
22.1
17 92
24
387
441
3.6
.7
19.2
17.63
25
381
446
5.0
1.3
21.4
17.67
26
481
451
7.0
.6
17.9
19.67
27
577
456
11.0
.8
23.0
2162
28
587
438
12.5
.6
24.6
21.41
29
547
448
8.5
1.3
21.4
20.86
30
525
449
9.0
.6
20.8
20.43
31
456
442
80
1.3
19.6
18.94
32
513
449
3.6
.7
16.3
20.22
33
457
441
5.0
.9
19.8
18.91
34
432
437
6.5
.6
20.8
18.36
35
494
436
8.0
1.0
19.8
19.63
36
507
442
8.0
.6
18.9
19 89
37
552
444
7.5
.8
18.2
20.82
38
397
440
8.5
.6
22.4
21.11
39
462
430
6.0
.5
19.2
18 75
40
438
445
4.5
.6
16.6
18.68
41
566
447
9.0
.6
20.5
21.16
42
499
449
9.0
1.7
19.8
19.94
43
486
437
5.5
.7
17.9
19.35
44
442
434
3.5
.6
13.4
18.39
46
444
432
4.0
7
15.0
18.40
46
341
432
5.5
1.1
16.3
19.61
47
195
398
4.5
.5
11.5
12.81
48
284
421
5.0
.8
19.2
16.12
49
449
430
12.0
1.5
26.0
18.79
50
337
430
8.0
1.5
23.7
16.40
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AMOUNTS AND COST OF FEED BY PENS.
239
Mash
Grain
Grit
Charcoal
Shell
Total
Pen
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
cost.
51
386
427
9.5
1.3
23.7
$ 17.29
52
379
431
9.5
.7
22.4
17.21
53
289
417
7.5
.9
20.5
15.15
54
267
409
2.5
.5
18.6
1448
55
313
413
8.0
.7
17.9
15.49
56
470
410
4.5
.7
18.6
18.64
57
290
415
2.5
.9
20.2
15.09
58
405
420
6.0
1.0
24.3
17.47
59
401
414
55
1.1
22.4
17.24
60
316
427
13.5
1.8
25.9
19.28
61
289
418
6.0
1.0
18.2
15.14
62
433
429
4.5
1.3
22.1
18.20
63
382
418
3.0
.6
22.1
16 93
64
412
437-
6.0
.9
23.4
17.98
65
381
428
10.5
1.4
20.5
17.20
66
381
444
10.5
1.1
24.3
17.58
67
353
434
6.0
.5
17.6
16.71
68
443
440
10 5
.8
25.6
18.70
69
374
414
5.5
.9
18.6
16.69
70
337
428
6.5
.8
18.9
16.30
71
360
422
6.5
.6
19.8
16.61
72
427
437
5.5
.8
24.0
18.27
73
388
426
8.0
1.3
221
17.29
74
316
421
7.0
.9
22.1
15.77
75
345
422
4.5
1.0
22.4
16.33
76
303
428
3.0
1.1
20.5
15.63
77
362
432
6.0
1.2
221
16.90
78
325
433
6.5
1.2
23.0
16.21
79
361
422
5.0
1.3
19.8
16.64
80
293
424
7.0
1.0
18.2
15.36
81
362
427
14.0
1.5
23.0
16.88
82
362
443
5.0
5
19.2
17.10
83
335
425
5.0
1.6
18 6
16.20
84
334
433
6.0
1.2
16.6
16.33
85
242
411
6.5
1.3
18.2
14.10
86
379
430
11.5
1.5
23.0
17.23
87
317
398
11.5
1.1
218
15.31
88
239
386
4.5
1.1
16.3
13.43
89
258
390
7.5
1.0
19.5
13.95
90
229
399
6.5
.9
18.6
13.57
91
435
437
14.0
2.0
24.0
18.52
92
402
438
9.0
1.5
21.1
17.83
93
350
421
7.0
1.8
22.4
16.45
94
371
426
4.0
1.4
13.4
16.86
•95
384
428
4.0
1.3
16.6
17.18
96
216
399
3.5
.8
9.0
13 23
97
428
433
7.0
1.4
18.6
18.18
98
455
434
6.0
1.6
18.2
18.71
99
365
415
4.5
1.0
20.2
16.54
100
435
438
5.0
1.0
21.1
18.43
Totals 40,213 43,043
697.5
105.0
2,024.4 n.779.20
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240 STORKS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 87.
TABLE J,
SUMMARY BY PENS.
Wt. Eggs. Wt. per Value of Cost of Return above
Pen Eggs in lbs. dozen eggs feed cost of feed
1
1.596
211.28
1.59
$ 46.58
% 21.17
1 26.41
2
1,461
186.47
1.53
41.21
20.55
20M
3
1,536
195.26
1.53
41.48
19.85
21.63
4
1,240
151.77
1.47
34.00
19.53
14.47
5
1,181
149.69
1.52
32.57
18.71
13 86
6
1,855
241.05
1.56
49.16
21.50
27.66
7
1.486
182.05
1.47
38.97
20.14
18.83
8
1,405
191.13
1.63
36.75
18.26
18.49
9
1,457
182 78
1.51
35.37
19.31
16.06
10
1,704
222.00
1.56
42.07
20.72
21.35
11
1,375
184.74
1.61
33.95
19.08
14.87
12
1,389
187.99
1.61
35.68
19.34
16.34
13
1,341
182.06
1.63
36.11
18.74
17.37
14
2,072
252.74
1.47
57.57
19.65
38.02
15
1,961
235.66
1.44
57.53
18.28
39.25
16
1,558
18127
1.40
42.84
16.28
26.61
17
1,846
223.14
1.45
53.23
17.72
35.51
18
1,648
203.60
1.49
45.84
17.81
28.03
19
1,678
199.31
1.52
43.08
18.78
24.30
20
1,788
219.98
1.48
48.64
18.83
29 81
21
1,200
150.19
1.50
32.40
16.68
15.72
22
1,566
190.40
1.46
44.65
16.64
28.01
23
1,651
200.18
1.45
46.45
17.92
28.53
24
1,378
175.47
1.53
36.13
17.53
18.60
25
1,548
198.40
1.54
43.49
17.57
25.92
26
1.333
181.38
1.63
36.30
19.57
16 73
27
2,039
264.19
1.56
58.84
21.62
37,22
28
1,746 -
234.91
1.62
45.70
21.41
24.29
29
1,919
249.96
1.56
51.03
20.85
30.18
30
1,500
210 79
1.69
39.28
20.43
18.85
31
1,616
204.53
1.52
43.36
18.94
24.42
32
1,336
182.23
1.64
35.65
20.22
15.43
33
1,664
210.88
1.52
45.48
18.91
26.57
34
1,486
196.63
1.59
41.45
18.35
2310
35
1,647
229.05
1.67
46.68
19.53
27.15
36
1,366
188.70
1.65
36.09
19.89
16.20
37
1,775
242.03
1.64
48.19
20.82
27.37
38
1,548
206 81
1.60
40.33
21.11
19.22
39
1.499
20L52
1.61
38 93
18.75
20.18
40
1.369
178.73
1.56
36.81
18.58
18.23
41
1,667
239.31
1.72
45.07
21.16
23.91
42
1.521
191.34
1.51
38.98
19.94
19.04
43
1.557
195.74
1.51
42.93
19 35
23 5S
44
1,021
131.02
1.54
26.94
18.39
8.55
45
1.104
146 43
1.59
28.51
18.40
10.11
46
1,194
163.14
1.64
30 58
19.61
10.97
47
1,057
120.53
1.37
32.65
12.81
1984
48
1.283
160.87
1.50
34.14
16.12
19 02
49
1.678
220.80
1.58
44.15
18.79
25.36
50
1.458
190.96
1.57
39.72
16.40
Digitized by V
23.32
SUMMARY BY PENS. 241
Wt. Eggs.
Wtper
Value of
Cost of I
leturn above
Pen
. in lbs.
dozen
eggs
feed
cost of feed
51
1,948'
237.71
1.47
% 52.77
1 17.29
1 35.48
62
1,806
234.65
1.56
46.85
17.21
29.64
53
. 1.462
187.21
1.54
38.90
15.16
23.75
54
1,193
152.63
1.54
30.65
14.48
16.17
55
1,279
152.69
1.43
35.09
15.49
19.60
56
1,335
174.73
1.57
34.33
18.64
16.69
57
1,324
164.77
1.49
34.09
15.09
19 00
58
1,571
198.30
1.51
4156
17.47
24.09
59
1,742
220.99
1.52
47.41
17.24
30.17
60
1,974
255.62
1.55
54.21
19.28
34.93
61
1.375
170 01
1.48
34.27
15.14
19.13
62
1,937
243.13
1.51
52.56
18.20
34.36
63
1,563
206.97
1.59
38.09
16.93
21.16
64
1,844
237.36
1.55
50.43
17.98
32.45
65
1,615 •
208.93
1.55
38.85
17.20
2165
66
1,962
244.07
1.50
52.21
17.58
34.63
67
1,416
181.65
1.54
34.91
16.71
18.20
68
2,001
255 57
1.53
53.18
18.70
34.48
69
1,629
206.93
1.53
41.18
16.69
24.49
70
1,657
203.90
1.48
41.20
16.30
24.90
71
1,412
171.94
1.46
35.91
16.61
19.30
72
1.766
234 98
1.60
46.44
18.27
2817
73
1.856
217.92
1.41
49 81
17.29
32.52
74
1.713
21555
1.51
45.97
15.77
30.20
75
1,538
203.02
1.59
38.75
16.33
22.42
76
1,584
203 58
1.54
40.59
15.63
24.96
77
1.768
219.98
1.49
45 62
16.90
28.72
78
1,759
215.43
1.47
44.49
16.21
28.28
79
1,358
176.02
1.56
3318
16.64
16.54
80
1,281
165.18
1.55
32.86
15.36
17 50
81
1,804
222.82
1.48
48.56
16.88
31.68
82
1,430
190.61
1.60
35.37
17.10
18.27
83
1,316
162 00
1.48
34.07
16.20
17.87
84
1,296
155.50
1.44
35 26
16.33
18.93
85
1,183
146.35
1.49
30.34
14.10
16.24
86
1,640
205.23
1.50
42.13
17.23
24.90
87
1,500
188.86
1.51
38.35
15.31
23 04
88
1,131
133.65
1.42
27 58
13.43
14.15
89
1,277
165.95
1.56
30.99
13.95
17.04
90
1.334
159 60
1.44
33.35
13.57
19.78
91
1,719
222.29
1.55
45 00
18.52
26.48
92
1,591
207.82
1.57
41.99
17.83
24.16
93
1,543
207.92
1.61
39.79
16.45
23.34
P*
l.O*'!
131.43
1.56
24.37
16.86
7 51
95
1,235
160.00
1.55
31.10
17.18
13.92
96
569
74.10
1.56
13.64
13.23
.41
97
1,240
153.52
1.49
34.12
18.18
15.94
98
1.371
193.97
1.70
33.39
18.71
14.68
99
1,355
189.12
1.68
34.04
16.54
17.50
LOO
1,382
184.28
1.60
36.23
18.43
17.80
Total 151,808 19,457.53 1.54 $4,019.67 $1,779.20 $2,240 37
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242 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 87.
LIST OF ENTRIES.
BARRED ROCKS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
1 Merritt M. Clark, Brookfield
Center, Conn.
2 Frank L. Turtle, Southboro,
Mass.
3 Francis F. Lincoln, Mt. Carmel,
Conn.
4 Jules F. Francais, W. Hamp-
ton Beach, L. I., N. Y.
5 Storrs Agricultural Station-
Experimental Pen.
6 Storrs Agricultural Station-
Experimental Pen.
7 O. A. Foster, Santa Cruz, Cal.
WHITE ROCKS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
8 Albert T. Lenzen, North Attle-
boro, Mass.
9 Bran ford Farms, Groton, Conn.
10 Branford Farms, Groton, Conn.
11 Branford Farms, Groton, Conn.
12 Branford Farms, Groton, Conn.
BUFF ROCKS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
13 A. A. Hall, Danbury, Conn.
WHITE WYANDOTTES.
Pen. Owner and Address.
14 Tom Barron, Catforth, near
Preston, England.
15 Edward Cam, Hoghton, near
Preston, England.
16 Merrythought Farm, Columbia.
Conn.
17 Neale Bros., Apponaug, R. I.
18 Mrs. J. D. Beck, Canaan, Conn.
19 Storrs Agricultural Station — •
Experimental Pen.
20 Storrs Acricultural Station —
Experimental Pen.
21 Mapledale Farm, Derby. Conn.
22 J. F. Byron, Willimantic, Conn.
BUFF WYANDOTTES.
Pen. Owner and Address.
23 Dr. N. W. Sanborn, Holden.
Mass.
SILVER WYANDOTTES.
Pen. Owner and Address.
24 Silver Wyandotte Star, Bing-
hamton, N. Y.
COLUMBIAN WYANDOTTES.
Pen. Owner and Address.
25 Merrythought Farm, Columbia,
Conn.
RHODE ISLAND REDS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
26 Dr. J. C. Dingman, Spring Val-
ky, N. Y.
27 Hillview Poultry Farm, St. Al-
bans, Vt.
28 Homer P. Deming, Winstcd,
Conn.
29 Charles O. Polhemus, New-
burgh. N. Y.
30 Harrison M. Bailey, Danbury,
Conn.
31 John Backus, North Benning-
ton, Vt
:J2 W. H. Bumstead, Stafford
Springs, Conn.
33 Pinecrest Orchards, Groton,
Mass.
34 Harry B. Cook, Orange, Conn.
35 Colonial Farm. Temple, N. H.
36 A. B. Brundagc, Danburv.
Conn.
37 Storrs Agricultural Station —
Experimental Pen.
38 Storrs Afirricultural Station-
Experimental Pen.
39 Rural New Yorker, New York
City.
40 S. G. McLean, South Glaston-
bury, Conn.
41 Sprinpdale Poultry Farm, Dur-
ham, Conn.
42 D. E. Warner. Bridgcton. H I
43 H. W. Sanborn. Attleboro,
Mass.
44 Albert R. Ford, Suffield. Conn.
LIGHT BRAHMAS.
Pen. Owner and Address
45 Storrs Agricultural Station-
Experimental Pen.
46 Storrs Agricultural Station-
Experimental Pen.
AMERICAN DOMINIQUES.
Pen. Owner and Address.
47 H. B. Hiller, Unionville. Conn.
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LIST OF ENTRIES.
243
WHITE LEGHORNS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
48 A. B. Hall, Wallingford, Conn.
49 George Bowles, Westport,
Conn.
50 ElUs W. Bentley, Windham, N.
Y.
51 N. W. Hendryx, New Haven,
Conn.
52 Braeside Poultry Farm,
Stroudsburg, Pa.
53 Francis F. Lincoln, Mt. Carmel,
Conn.
54 Cecil Guernsey, East Cobleskill,
N. Y.
55 Merritt M. Clark, Brookficld
Center, Conn.
56 Chas. N. St. John, Greene, N.
Y.
57 Elm Poultry Yards, Hartford,
Conn.
58 Jay H. Emisse, Irondequoit, N.
Y.
59 Storrs Agricultural Station —
Experimental Pen.
60 Storrs Agricultural Station —
Experimental Pen.
61 Mrs. RoHin S. Woodruff, New
Haven, Conn.
62 Windsweep Farm, Redding
Ridge, Conn.
63 James H. Lord, Methuen, Mass.
64 P. G. Piatt, Wallingford, Pa.
65 Dictograph Poultry Farm, W.
Nyack, N. Y.
66 F. M. Peasley, Cheshire, Conn.
67 Chas. Heigl, Rocky River, Ohio.
68 Tom Barron, Catforth, near
Preston, England.
69 Edward Cam, Hoghton, near
Preston, England.
70 George M. McMillan, Spring-
field, Mo.
71 Wm. H. Lyon, Levanna, N. Y.
72 Happich & Danks, North
Branch, N. Y.
73 A. P. Robinson, Calverton, N.
Y.
74 Manor Poultry Farm, Manor-
ville, L. I., N. Y.
75 Branford Farms, Groton. Conn.
76 Branford Farms, Groton, Conn.
77 Branford Farms, Groton, Conn.
78 Branford Farms, Groton, Conn.
79 John Hamilton, Cleveland,
Ohio.
80 Rural New Yorker, New York
City.
81 Albert S. Sonderegger, South
Coventry, Conn.
82 S. J. Rogers. Unadilla, N. Y.
83 Stoneleigh Poultry Farm, Sole-
bury, Pa.
84 Mrs. W. B. Whitlock, Ware-
house Point, Conn.
85 Toth Bros., Wallingford, Conn.
86 James V. Thomas. Ballston
Lake, N. Y.
87 Sunny Acres Poultry Farm,
Cheshire, Conn.
R. C. BROWN LEGHORNS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
88 The Gale Place, Hamden,
Conn.
BUFF LEGHORNS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
89 Lakeside Poultry Farm, Jeni-
son Park, Mich.
90 O. L. Magrey, Middlebury,
Conn.
BLACK LEGHORNS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
91 J. Collinson, Barnacre, Gars-
tanjg, England.
SILVER CAMPINES.
Pen. Owner and Address.
92 Uncova Campine Yards, South-
port, Conn.
93 Louis E. Prickett, Hazardville,
Conn.
LIGHT SUSSEX.
Pen. Owner and Address.
94 Dr. E. K. Conrad, Hackensack.
N. J.
SALMON FAVEROLLES,
Pen. Owner and Address.
95 Doughoregan M*r Farm, Elli-
cott City, Md.
WHITE ORPINGTONS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
96 Henry S. Pennock, Jupiter.
Fla.
97 Obed G. Knight, Bridgeton, R.
I.
98 B. P. Nase, Thomaston, Conn.
BUTTERCUPS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
99 Chantecler Poultry Plant, Uls-
ter, Pa.
"FAVORITE HENS"
Pen. Owner and Address.
100 Rural New Yorker, New York
City.
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STORRS
Agricultural Experiment Station
STORKS, CONNECTICUT
BULLETIN 88, OCTOBER, 1916
THE
CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
EXTENSION SERVICE
JOINT CIRCULAR OF INFORMATION No. 3
BACILLARY WHITE DIARRHEA OF
YOUNG CHICKS-VI.
Second Progress Report on the Elimination of Infected
Breeding Stock.
Leo F. Rettger William F. Kirkpatrick
Sheffield Scientific School, Storrs Agricultural
Yale University. Experiment Station.
Roy E. Jones
Extension Service.
The Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station,
E. H. Jenkins, Director,
The Connecticut Agricultural College Extension Service,
H. J. Baker, Director,
and the
U. S. Department of Agriculture States Relations Service Cooperating.
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BOARD OF CONTROL
THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES
OF THE
CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
Governor Marcus H. Holcx>mb
J. \\\ Alsop
IVERSON C. FaNTON
E. Stevens Henry
E. Kent Hubbard. Jr.
Charles M. Jarvis
O. F. King
Clifford I. Stoddard
Charles E. Lyman
H. G. Manchester
C. L. Beach, H. Agr., B. S., Prcs,. Conn. Agricultural College
STATION STAFF
E. H. Jenkins, Ph. D. Director
AGRONOMY DEPARTMENT.
\V. L. Slate, Jr., B. S. Agr. Agronomist
Benjamin G. Southwick, B. Sc. Assistant Agronomist
CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT.
H. D. Edmond, B. S. Chemist
DAIRY DEPARTMENT.
Ci. C. White, B. S. A., A. M. Dairy Husbandman
H. F. Judkins. B. S. Assistant Dairy Husbandman
ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY.
Ci. H. Lamson, M. S. Zoologist
POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
\Vm. F. Kirkpatrick, B. Agr., B. E. Poultry Husbandman
Leslie E. Card, B. S. Assistant Poultry Husbandman
Leo F. Rettger, Ph. D. Bacteriologist, Investigations of
Animal Diseases
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BACILLIARY WHITE DIARRHEA OF YOUNG
CHICKS— VI.
SECOND PROGRESS REPORT ON THE ELIMINA-
TION OF INFECTED BREEDING STOCK.
Leo F. Rettger Wm. F. Kirkpatriok Roy E. Jones
A systematic campaign against bacilliary white diarrhea
was inaugurated in Connecticut in June, 1914. During the
first year 14,617 fowls were tested by the agglutination
method; oi this number 807 were subjected to a second test,
as a part of our checking system, thus increasing the total
number of tests to 15,424. The methods and results of the
investigation are presented in .some detail in a joint bulletin'.
A brief summary of the more significant data will, however,
not be out of place here.
Approximately 74 per cent, of the 107 tested Bocks con-
tained individuals which reacted to the test, and of the total
number of fowls examined for the first time about 10 per
cent, were positive. Of the 786 males only 2.9 per cent,
reacted, whereas 10.24 per cent, of the 13,831 hens gave
definite indication of infection with Bacterium puUorum,
Infection of the hens was with few exceptions confined
to the ovary, while the testes of but two of the eleven males
which were autopsied were found to harbor the specific or-
ganism. In four of the males there was infection of the
pericardial sac (pericarditis) ; in the remaining five the site
of infection could not be determined.
Although a single set of agglutination tests on flocks
did not in every instance lead to complete eradication of ov-
arian infection, second or repeat tests on a number of the
1. Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 85, December,
1915, and Connecticut Agricultural Colkge Extension Service, Joint Cir-
cular of Information No. 2.
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248 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN SS.
flocks showed that the infection in the breeding stock had been
reduced, with very few exceptions, to almost insignificant pro-
portion. Furthermore, practical follow-up work during the
subsequent hatching season elicited most encouraging reports
from the owners of the diflFerent flocks.
During the second year (1915-16) of the campaign the
agglutination test was applied to 7,799 fowls. Of this num-
ber 6,358 were tested for the first time, while the remaining
1,441 were fowls which had been subjected to the test dur-
ing the previous year, but gave a negative reaction, though
the flocks to which they belonged contained positive re-
actors. The results of these 1,441 check tests are to be
compared with those of the original flocks at the time of the
first test (1914-15).
Blood examinations were made of only 157 males, as
compared with 786 during the first year. Of the 157 males
96 were tested for the first time, the other 61 being cocks
which in the preceding year were members of infected flocks
but which did not give a positive reaction themselves. As
all of the 157 males to which the agglutination method was
applied this year reacted negatively, further discussion of
them as a separate group is unnecessary in this bulletin.
Tabulated results of agglutination tests conducted in 1916-16
on hens. First tests only.
® c
r^ , ^ • JiS 3ic: c.2 2^i5
Drccu!>. P (u P<J C,o o<^ c f2
B *i S ji Sa C«> |«=
3 vS 3
O
2:ii 'y^ c 'zJ^ CL,.5 ^*c
Rhode Island Reds 1,772 211 23 11.9 20
White Leghorns 2,870 100 39 3.4 24
Wyandottes 888 92 20 10.3 15
Plymouth Rocks 518 61 7 11.7 14
Orpingtons 22 7 0 31.7 1
Faverolles 63 14 0 22.2 1
Miscellaneous 129 30 1 23.2 3
All breeds 6,262 515 90 8.2 78
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BACILLARV WHITE DIARRHEA OF YOUNG CHICKS. 249
The number of flocks tested was 78. The largest num-
ber of hens in any flock was 685. Only seven of the 78 flocks
contained over 200, and in 14 there were between 100 and 200
hens, while in 37 there were fewer than 50.
Several of the flocks belonged to owners for whom ag-
glutination tests had been made in the previous year, but
since none but mature fowls are subjected to these tests the
new flocks were, with very few exceptions, made up of hens
which in 1914-15 were too young to give conclusive evidence
as to ovarian infection and hence were not tested. They are
not to be regarded, therefore, as the oflFspring of tested and
selected stock.
The average per cent, of infection in 1915-16 was 8.2,
as compared with 10.24 per cent, for the previous year. As
before, ovarian infection was less prominent in the White
Leghorn than in the heavier breeds. Only 3.4 per cent, of
the 2,870 Leghorns examined were infected, according to the
test, while for the 3,178 Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes and
Rhode Island Reds combined the average was 11.45 per cent.,
and for the single lot of Orpingtons 31.7 per cent.
Out of the total number of 78 flocks 25 failed to react to
the agglutination test, and hence were regarded as being free
from ovarian infection. They were distributed among the
diflFerent breeds as follows:
Non-reacting flocks.
White Leghorns 10
Plymouth Rocks 7
Wyandottes 6
Rhode Island Reds 2
Some idea as to the extent of ovarian infection in the
individual flocks may be gained from the following brief sum-
mary:
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250 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 88.
Reacting flocks classified according to the relative numbers of
individual reactors in each flock.
Number of flocks containing less than 1.0 percent of reactors 2
from 1 to 5 " " " 10
5 " 10 " " " 13
10 " 15 " " " 7
15 " 20 " " ** 8
20 " 30 " " " 7
30 " 40 " " *' 4
more than 40 " •" " 2
Total.... 78
The Value of a Single Agglutination Test as a Means of
Eradicating Bacillary Diarrhea.
The chief value of this method lies in the determination
of ovarian infection or the absence of this carrier condition
in a given breeding stock. Flocks which by careful and in-
telligent examination fail to show evidence of harboring in-
dividual carriers should be regarded as the most valuable
for breeding purposes, everything else being equal. The
question as to the desirability of using non-reacting breed-
ers which belonged to flocks containing reactors, although the
reactors have been removed, is one which can not be so
readily answered, however.
That the elimination of reacting hens from breeding
stock has a far-reaching influence on the health and condi-
tion of the future chicks, at least for the first year or two,
has been already fully established. On the other hand, it
is equally certain that a single set of agglutination tests and
the elimination of reactors is not an absolute guarantee that
the flock as such has been entirely rid of ovarian infection.
The failure to remove the carrier condition completely it
times may be explained by the fact that certain individuals
in the flock have become infected by association or contact
with diseased fowls only recently, so that too short a time
has elapsed for the production of sufficient agglutinin to re-
act by the method in vogue. Single tests have, however, on
numerous occasions sufficed to stamp out completely the in-
fection from the breeding stock, as the results of the past two
years show.
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BACILLARY WHITE DIARRHEA OF YOUNG CHICKS.
251
Table giving the results of agglutination tests applied to cer-
tain flocks in 1914-15, and again a year later. (Males
included).
1914-15.
1915-16.
Breeds.
Flocks.
Number
in flock.
Number
positive.
Percent
positive.
Is
z.s
Number
positive.
0^^ a.
Leghorns,
A
535
25
4.7
87
0
0
B
142
2
1.4
68
0
0
C
74
0
0
57
0
0
D
31
0
0
28
0
0
Total,
782
27
3.5
240
0 .
0
R. I. Reds,
E
154
5
3.25
12(t
3
2.5
F
81
26
32.1
i
0
0
G
281
50
17.8
86
2
2.3
H
*.
1
1
14.3
3
0
0
I
370
26
7.0
164
1
0.6
J
80
17
21.25
69
2
2.9
K
370
26
7.0
50
1
2.0
Total,
U43
l.il
11.25
499
9
1.8
Barred Rocks,
L
66
12
18.2
31
4
12.9
M
93
27
29.0
54
5
9.2
N
113
23
20.4
72
3
4.16
Total.
272
62
22.8
157
12
7.6
Wyandottes,
O
100
29
29.0
47
2
4.25
P
292
39
19.3
94
6
6.3
Q
374
84
22.5
206
43
20.9
R
62
30
48.4
35
9
25.7
s
1.56
23
14.9
58
4
6.9
Total,
984
205
20.8^
440
64
14.5
Combined total. 3,381 445 13.16 1,336
85
6.37
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262 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 88.
The low per cent, of reactors to the second test among
the Leghorns and Rhode Island Reds as compared with the
number of positives among the Barred Rocks and Wyandottes
is of particular interest, and may be of some significance.
However, it will be seen in the table that the per cent, of
reactors in the last two breeds at the time of the first test
was without exception high, ranging from 14.9 to 48.4.
It must appear quite evident that the possibility of suc-
cess in eliminating infection from flocks becomes increas-
ingly less as the proportion of original reactors to non-
reactors is increased. In the first place, chances of error
in the labeling of tubes and in the laboratory technique be-
come greater as the number of positive tests is multiplied.
Human effort and accuracy at their best are not infallible.
Furthermore, the larger the number of infected fowls in a
flock the more probable is the transmission of the ovarian
infection to the normal fowls.
The results thus far have indeed been gratifying. The
most important outcome of the first two years of the cam-
paign has been, without any doubt, the necessary informa-
tion which the agglutination tests have furnished relative
to the purchase of sound stock, in so far as bacillary white
diarrhea is concerned. Many '"tested" and "non-reacting"
flocks of almost all breeds have been located in Connecticut,
so that buyers of eggs for hatching or of day-old chicks
should have no trouble in procuring stock which has a
thoroughly clean, known record. The most intelligent buyer
will purchase only such stock as has been found to be
absolutely free from taint. Even flocks from which reacting
individuals have been removed should not be selected for
breeding, at least until after subsequent tests have revealed
the absence of carriers. The most valuable flocks, every-
thing else being equal, are those which from the beginning
have been free from taint.
Wherever the per cent, of infection is relatively low, say
less than eight to ten per cent., the elimination of reactors
may and often will result in complete success for the owner:
and in instances where it would be a severe hardship for the
owner to re-stock his farm, especially when his fowls are of
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BACILLARY WHITE DIARRHEA OF YOUNG CHICKS. 253
particular value as layers or from the standpoint of the fan-
cier, this procedure (elimination of reactors) may for the time
at least be the only course to follow. It would be unwise,
however, for a prospective, purchaser to buy such stock so
long as he has ample opportunity to purchase where there
"is and has been'' no taint of ovarian infection with Bacterium
pullorum.
The campaign of the last two years is to be continued
with the same methods and personnel. A change has been
inaugurated in the system of charging, however. Beginning
with the present year the cost of the agglutination test to the
owner will be determined according to the following graduated
scale :
Flocks of 60 or less 10 cents per fowl
Flocks of 51 to 300 7 cents per fowl
Flocks of 301 to 1,000 5 cents per fowl
Flocks of over 1,000 4 cents per fowl
The marked reduction on all but small flocks in the cost
of the agglutination test is made possible by a recent sim-
plification oi the technique employed in the testing. In-
stead of making two transfers of the blood serum, as was
done formerly, 0.03 cubic centimeter of the serum in the
original blood tube is introduced directly into three cubic
centimeters of the test fluid in which the final observations
are made. A long series of tests with both methods has
shown that the results obtained with the shorter method
are as exact and consistent as with the old. The modified
method involves the use of 3.0 cc. of the tesrt fluid (suspen-
sion of B. pullorum in carbolized physiological salt solu-
tion), but since the test fluid may now be more readily
prepared than heretofore, when WStte's peptone was used
in the culture medium on which the organism is grown,
this should constitute very little of a drawback. On the
other hand, much time and labor are spared in the actual
testing technique and in the washing of test tubes.
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254 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN SH.
In conclusion the following brief summary of some of the
more important results which the first two years of the cam-
paign have yielded is appended:
N^umber of hens tested, 21,31T ; per cent, of infection 9.3.
Number of males tested, 1,037; per cent, of infection 2.1.
Range of infection, 0 to 56.3 per cent, of flock.
Number of chicks hatched, 166,460, or 56.7 per cent, of all
eggs set.
Mortality during first three weeks, 10.2 per cent.
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STORRS
Agricultural Experiment Station
STORKS, CONNECTICUT
BULLETIN 89, FEBRUARY, 1917
FIFTH ANNUAL
INTERNATIONAL EGG LAYING
CONTEST
WM. F. KlRKPATRlCK LESLIE E. CaRD
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THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES
OF THB
CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
GovKRNOR Maecus H. Holcomb
J. W. Alsop O. F- King
IVERSON C. FaNTON
E. Stevens Henry
E. Kent Hubbard, Jr.
Charles M. Jarvis
Clifford I. Stoddard
Charles E. Lyman
H. G. Manchester
C. L. Beach^ B. Agr., B. S., Pres., Conn, Agricultural College
STATION STAFF
E. H. Jenkins, Ph. D. Director
AGRONOMY DBPARTMBNT.
W. L. Slate, Jr., B. S. Agr. Agronomist
Benjamin G. Southwick, B. Sc. Assistant Agronomist
CHKMICAL DKPARTMKNT.
H. D. Edmond, B. S. Chemist
DAIRY DKPARTMKNT.
G. C. White, B. S. A., A. M. Dairy Husbandman
H. F. Judkins, B. S. Assistant Dairy Husbandman
ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY.
G. H. Lamson, M. S. Zoologist
POULTRY DEPARTMENT.
Wm. F. Kirkpatrick, B. Agr., B. E. Poultry Husbandman
Leslie E. Card, B. S. Assistant Poultry Husbandman
Leo F. Rettger, Ph. D. Bacteriologist, Investigations of
Animal Diseases
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INTRODUCTION.
In reporting the third laying contest at Storrs, the writers
took occasion to briefly discuss the history and origination of
such contests.* The British and Australian competitions have,
of course, been much longer established than those in America.
Especial reference was made to the contests conducted by the
Utility Poultry Club at the Harper Adams Agricultural Col-
lege in England and also the contests conducted at the
Hawkcsbury Agricultural College at Richmond, New South
Wales, because after these most American competitions have
been more or less largely patterned. Like the foreign con-
tests, those in this country have been criticised in some quar-
ters, sometimes superficially, sometimes severely.
Since their inception five years ago, laying contests have
been conducted by endowed schools, agricultural high schools,
poultry associations, boys and girls poultry clubs, newspapers,
expositions, and other organizations. The authors therefore,
deem it neither necessary nor desirable to take their own time
or that of their readers to defend a project now so well known.
On the other hand, it may not be amiss to discuss briefly the
growth of competitions in this country. For this purpose it
seems better in some ways to consider only those contests
that are conducted at or by the several state agricultural col-
leges or experiment stations. Five years ago there wer« two
such contests, one at Mountain Grove, Mo., and the other at
Storrs. In these two contests there were entered 1,140 birds
of thirty-five varieties and they represented thirty-one
states and the District of Columbia and included one pen
from England and six from the Canadian provinces.
At this time (February, 1917) there are seven such
contests located at Pullman, Wash., Mountain Grove,
Mo., Fayetteville, Ark., Lexington. Ky., Newark, Del.,
Vineland, N. J., and Storrs. In these seven there are 595 cn-
1. Storrs Agr. Exp. Station, Bui. 82, p. 59.
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258 STORKS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 89.
tries or a total of 4,161 birds of about forty varieties. They
represent thirty-five states in the Union and include fourteen
pens from England and twenty-four pens from the provinces of
Ontario and British Columbia. These figures, striking as they
may seem, do not fully indicate poultrymen's belief in the val-
ue of such competitions. What follows may or may not be
true of others, l)ut in so far as the contest at Storrs is con-
cerned the management was obliged, at the beginning of the
present contest, to refuse many applications for no other rea-
son than that the college could not provide accommodations
foi* additional pens. The writers believe that another year
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Contest house, containing two pens.
will see no less than ^vt thousand privately owned hens par-
ticipating in public competitions conducted by agricultural
colleges.
In studying the entry lists of the several contests under
discussion it has been interesting to note the breeds that pre-
dominate. The Rocks, Reds, Wyandottes, and Leghorns
constitute over eighty-eight per cent of all entries, there being
more than three times as many Leghorns as any other one
breed. If one chooses to make from these seven contests a
composite competition, it must be remembered that two of
them require ten birds for each entry, whereas two require but
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RATIONS AND METHOD OF FEEDING.
259
six, and three require only five. When both these factors,
namely, number of entries and number of birds are considered,
one readily arrives at the hen population of the average laying
contest. A combined entry list of the contests now in opera-
tion shows that in each one thousand hens one may expect to
find the following: 490 Leghorns, 149 Plymouth Rocks, IIT
Wyandottes, 130 Rhode Island Reds, with the remaining 84
made up of Anconas, Buckeyes, Buttercups, 'Campines, Dor-
kings, Faverolles, Ilamburgs, Houdans, Langshans, Minorcas,
Oregons, Orpingtons, Sussex, and one or two local and less
well known varieties.
Interior view of a single pen.
RATIONS AND MKTHOD OF Fl^lEDIXG.
All pens were fed and handled in the same general way:
that is to say, the same feeding formulas were used for all
breeds and varieties. The grounds for pursuing such a poli-
cy, the reasons for .enii)loying only one ration, the hours and
intervals for feeding scratch grain, effect of weather and sea-
son on feeder's j)rocedure, j)robability of error when one en-
deavors to feed absolutely by measure or by scales: — all these
factors have been more or less fully discussed in a ])revious
paper.' Furthermore it has been explained that the birds
enjoyed, at all times, free access to mash, grit, shell, and char-
2. Storrs Agr. Exp. Station. Bui. Xo. 87, p. 201.
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260 STORKS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 89.
White Leghorns, Record 2034 Eggs.
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RATIONS AND METHOD OF FEEDING. 261
coal ; that at all seasons of the year a bountiful supply of some
sort of succulent food has seemed essential ; that this station
does not yet feel warranted in recommending any medicinal
substitute for rape, chard, sprouted oats, mangel beets, or
other succulent foods of this character.
Since all the above phases of feeding have been discussed
in some detail, they are merely mentioned here for the sake
of again inviting attention to the fact that the feeding question
is not an impersonal, passive sort of thing, but a real live
problem that poultrymen everywhere, are trying constantly
to solve or simplify. Although the same method of feeding
obtained as in the earlier contests, rather radical changes were
made in the composition of both scratch grain and mash, the
chief object of such changes being simplification. For the
sake of comparison both sets of formulas are submitted below.
It will be noted that the earlier mash and grain mixtures were
made up of ho less than fourteen different feeds whereas the
simplified formulas necessitate the use of only eight. Not
only this, but the several ingredients in the earlier mixtures
were used in very varying amounts. Thus there were two
principal objections to their more general application; in the
first place, it was necessary to use scales to determine the
right proportions, and secondly, the user of these formulas
was obliged to stock up with fourteen different varieties of
feed. In view of these two rather valid criticisms, the man-
agement determined to try for one year, at least, a decidedly
simpler ration. Not only have fewer feeds been employed,
but with one exception all have been mixed equal parts by
weight ; this fact obviates, of course, the necessity for scales ;
it is a simple case of one bag of each sort and the mixture is
made. Ground oats were used in the mash rather than whole
oats in the scratch mixture because many hens do not seem to
relish this grain as well as corn and wheat.
A feeding formula, in and of itself, does not warrant a
forecast as to probable production, yet it's a fine factor to have
right, and one that the poultrymen can very largely control.
On the other hand, in judging feeds it appears that egg yield
is the common criterion. The complex formulas were used for
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262 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 8i).
White Wyandottes, Record 2265 Eggs.
P^S^,
Oregons, Record 2122 Eggs.
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RATIONS AND METHOD OF FEEDING.
2g:5
the first four contests. The corresponding average annual in-
dividual egg yields were J 54, 156, 144, and J 52, or a yearly
average of Ibiyi eggs per hen for the entire period. In the
tifth contest, on simpler rations, the hens averaged to lay li\2
eggs each. If effectiveness of a ration may be measured in
this way, it does not appear that the hens suffered frc^m the
simplifying process. Should one wish to reduce these formu^
las to still simpler terms, it is suggested that the amount of
either beef or fish scraps be doubled and the other excluded ;
if birds can be provided with all the scair milk they can con-
sume, the meat portions may be very materially reduced or
perhaps entirely eliminated.
Visiting the laying contest.
Lastly, there is, on the j)art of many feeders, objection to
the liberal use of wheat at prevailing jirices. D(nil)tless fair
substitutes can be used under certain circumstances: on the
other hand, the laying contest is a project that will probably
<:ontinue for a period of years. With this viewpoint in mind,
and remem])ering that the value of feeding trials varies in
direct proportion to their thoroughness and the time they run.
it has not seemed wise to change the rations on account of
rising values which were at first believed to be spasmodic and
only temporary.
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264 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 89.
The following feed formulas were used in the first four
laying competitions :
SCRATCH
GRAIN
DRY MASH
Cracked com
60 pounds
Coarse wheat bran 200
Wheat
60 "
Com meal 100
Heavy white oats
40
Gluten feed 100
Barley
20 "
Ground oats 100
Kafir corn
10 "
Standard middlings 75
Buckwheat
10 "
Beef scrap 30
Coarse beef scrap
10 "
Beef scrap 30
Low grade flour 25
The simpler formulas below were used in the fifth contest
and are being continued in the sixth contest that opened
November 1, 1916 :
SCRATCH GRAIN
DRY MASH
Wheat 100 pounds
Wheat bran
100 pounds
Cracked Com 100 "
Corn meal
100 "
Ground oats
100 "
Flour middlings
100
Fish scrap
50 "
Beef scrap
50 "
SHOW ROOM SCORES.
As in the next preceding contest, all birds were judged
from the show room point of view. Score cards were used
instead of the customary comparison method because they
enabled the College to give a definite rating to each pen;
furthermore, score cards seemed, in some cases at least, to be
more useful to the owners. The same judge* was employed
as in the previous year, and his work was all done during the
first week in November, or at the very beginning of the con-
test. A few pens were somewhat immature and none could
of course be properly groomed ; nevertheless, it is believed
that on the whole pullets are in better show condition at the
opening of the contest than they ever are again. To set forth
the exhibition value of some of the stock, the following list of
• W. H. Card.
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FEED FORMULAS — ^OW ROOM SCORES. 265
best individual scores is submitted: Oregons, Progressives,
and Rhinelanders are -not included because these breeds do
not appear in the Standard, and in consequence the judge felt
there was no suitable guide to follow.
Bir^d Rock 90 White Wyandotte ...93 J Buff Leghorn 9Si
White Rock 98 Buff Wyandotte 90} Black Leghorn .....9f
Buff Rock 9ti Columbian Wyandotte, 89| Red Sussex .91J
Columbian Rock ...9Sf Rhode Island Red.. 98 Ancona 98|
Silver Wyandotte ...89^ . White Leghorn 94^ White Orpington ...98J
The next table shows the number of birds in each of the
four principal breeds in the contest, the number disqualified in
each breed, the best pen score in each, and the average pen
score for the entire class. In considering the last column, the
average pen score, it should perhaps be explained that the
judge's work was all done on the 100-point basis. On the
other hand, he did in fact cut in quarter, half and three-quar-
ters of a point. Obviously, therefore, in totalling the scores
of several hundred hens, one can attain greater accuracy in
averages if resort is made to three, or even four decimal
places instead of the usual two. With this thought in mind,
the average pen scores have been given on the basis of 1000
for perfect.
No. Birds No. Disq. Breed Best Pen Average
i;0 3 Plymouth Rocks 91^ 881
no 1 Wyandottes diyi 900
210 13 Rhode Island Reds 89^ 872
3.50 8 White Leghorns 92^ 918
UNIDENTIFIED EGGS.
It is of course universally understood that there has not
yet been designed a trapnest which enables the operator to
identify the occasional egg deposited on the droppings board,
on the floor, in the mash hopper, in the yard, in broody coops,
on the curtains, and in other places that investigating hens
sometimes discover. That is to say, there are birds apparent-
ly obsessed with a perfect antipathy for traps, no matter hk3w
convenient, how well ordered, or how harmless they may
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266 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN HI).
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UNIDENTIFIED EGGS.
267
Make Full Notes of anything important
observed in this pen. especially relating
TO Physical Condition of the Birds.
X Eqq O - Released
X2 Broken Eoo . 8 » 8ick
X3 - Abnormal Eoo D - Dead
B - Broody M- Moult Begun
RFTH ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL EGG UYING CONTEST
STOMS ACR. EXf . STATION-CONN. AGR. COLLEGE. STORIS. CONN.
NOVEMBER 1,1916 - OCTOBER 29, 1916
PeH No. 64
VABitTv *hit« Lffghorns
Owner P. 0. Piatt
Daily Eoo Record for Week Beoinnino Monday June 19* 19l6
BAND NO.
Monday.
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Remarks
Weekly Egg Record.
seem. Furthermore, the nests are not automatic, but are
operated by attendants who are human; all of which means
simply this: the man sometimes shares with the hen respon-
sibility for unrecorded eggs. By means of duplicate ^%%
records, by weekly comparison of the independently kept dup-
licates, and not least of all, by coaxing or coercing the sus-
piciously prudent pullets, continuous effort is made to keep
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268 STORES AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 89.
this clearly necessary error at its minimum. All unrecorded
or "out" eggs are added to the pen total, though they cannot
be credited to any particular individual. The number of un-
identified eggs in the several pens varied considerably. A
pen of Barred Rocks laid 125 out eggs, or 7.66 per cent of
their yield for the year: whereas twb pens of Rhode Island
Reds laid 12 and 15 out eggs, or less than 1.1 per cent of their
respective total yields. All pens taken together laid 4,667
unrecorded eggs, or 2.88 unidentified eggs out of each 100 col-
lected. In the previous contest^ there were 5,662 out eggs, or
3.73 unidentified eggs out of each 100 gathered. In other
words, each hen averaged to lay during the year 4 2/3 eggs
outside the nests as compared with 5 2/3 such eggs produced
in the preceding competition.
LICE AND MITES.
The control of lice and mites is a problem that concerns,
or ought to concern, every owner of hens; not only those
whose premises have been before infested, whose
buildings have perhaps partly outlived their usefulness
and become more or less dilapidated, in short, whose condi-
tions are such that the problem is rendered unusually difficult,
but it is also a problem for those only lately interested in hens
and whose entire equipment of houses and apparatus is new or
nearly so. In other words the writers believe that the poultry-
man had best concede at once the universality of lice and mites
and govern himself accordingly. The damage a few lice can
do an active hen is probably little or none. The presence of
lice in large numbers may be a source of some annoyance to
the hen, but the exact or even probable reduction in number
of eggs produced has not been determined. Nevertheless, it
is generally believed that lice should be controlled or eradi-
cated and hence hens in the contest have been regularly
treated to guard against infestation.
In regard to the damage mites may do, very much less
uncertainty exists. Again, no evidence can be cited which
definitely and tangibly measures the losses that these blood-
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LICE AND MITES.
269
FffTH ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL EGG UTING CONTEST
STOtIS A€t. EXP. STATKMI-.»CfNllf . AOL COLLEGE STOKia^ CONN.
f»OVKMBgRI.I91g - OCTOBKR 29, WI6
.PcNjiSL.
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FuD Rccoiio Foii Wiuc BsQiNNiNa Monday Maroh 27, 19l6
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270 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 89.
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LICE AND MITES. 271
suckers occasion but the losses are believed to be none the less
positive and sure. If undisturbed, mites multiply rapidly and
live a long time. It is probably safe to say that they can cut
off egg yields from ten to fifty per cent in addition to danger-
ously reducing the vitality of the individual. The measures
taken to fight both lice and mites have been so nearly identi-
cal with those suggested by Lamson and Manter" that they are
quoted as follows:
LICE: "The most effective method tried for body lice
was the application of a dilution of either mercurial ointment
or blue ointment. Mercurial ointment contains fifty per cent
of metallic mercury. Blue ointment is a mixture consisting
of sixty-seven per cent of mercurial ointment and of thirty-
three per cent of vaseline and, therefore, contains thirty-three
and one-third per cent of mercury'* ♦ ♦ ♦ * * which
*is the most important ingredient as it is most active in killing
the lice, although vaseline and lard have some merit. In our
experiments these ointments were tried in various strengths
and were applied in varying amounts to different regions of
the body. * * * ♦ * ^he normal strength of blue oint-
ment was found to be very effective and even a dilution of this
proved satisfactory. ***** The cheapest method is to
buy mercurial ointment and mix it with vaseline at home
using one part of the ointment to one or two parts of vaseline.
Place these ingredients on a pane of glass and work them
together with a case knife. Be sure that the mixing is thor-
oughly done so that a smooth ointment is obtained. Place in
a receptacle and be sure to label. An ounce is sufficient to
treat about seventy-five hens. ***** The best region
for application on older stock is just beneath the vent. The
method of application is to take an amount about the size of a
pea on the finger and after parting the feathers rub it on the
flesh just below the vent. This will not cover a large area
but it is not necessary to do so. This method has been proved
successful by repeated tests and has many advantages over
other methods. It is often impossible to find a single louse
on birds thus treated. The ointment remains effective for a
3. Storrs AgTi. Exp. Station, Bui 86.
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272 STORKS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 89.
considerable time so that lice hatching from eggs laid before
the treatment are also killed. In other words, one applica-
tion will keep the hen practically free from these lice for sev-
eral months. This method of control is simple, cheap, and
efficient. If one wanted to be doubly sure of results one could
apply the ointment to two or more regions or could repeat the
application. Ordinarily these precautions are not necessary.
In spite of the care taken to apply the ointment only on
the flesh some of the feathers also will be smeared. These
will present a soiled appearance due partly to the ointment
Approximate amount of ointment used for one hen.
and partly to the dirt and dust that stick to the greasy feathers.
Fowls that must be kept clean for exhibition or show pur-
poses can be treated for lice by dusting. ***** it does
not seem possible that a small amount of mercurial ointment
applied to a restricted region of a bird's body will free it from
body lice but the results are certainly above expectation. A
hen thus treated was kept in a glass case where close observa-
tion was possible. Many dead lice dropped to the floor of
the case while only three live ones were seen to leavethe bird.
The ointment evidently kills the lice on the bird and also those
that hatch soon after the application. Fowls show a great
reduction in infestation on the day after treatment and in a
few days are free.*'
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LICE AND MITES.
273
MITES: "We have found that such applications as
kerosene evaporate so quickly that they lose their effective-
ness in a few days and the mites soon become as numerous as
before. The control measure must remain effective for a
long period of time. Many control measures are not strong
enough to repel so tough an invader as the roost mite proves
himself to be, for this reason the control measure to be effec-
tive must contain a very active agent.
In comparison with kerosene oil, zenoleum and carbolic
acid we have found that carbolineum is a far more effective
Barred Rock No. 43
Disqualified. Laid no eggs during
first six months.
White Rock No. 148
Record 274 Eggs.
means of ridding the hen house of the roost mites. Contain-
ing a coal tar product and carbolic acid it acts as a wood stain
and remains effective for a long period of time, being even
more effective than pure carbolic acid. While carbolineum is
recpmmended because it has been tried and found most effi-
cient it is quite likely that other coal tar products have a sim-
ilar degree of effectiveness.**
^'Discretion is necessary in the use of any of the coal tar
products as an excess amount either on the roosts or on the
idjoining boards may result in eye trouble to the hens or
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274 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 89.
chickens. To avoid this it is best to make the application
when changing the stock from one house to another, giving
time for the mixture to dry into the wood for at least two days,
or if treating the house for chickens, allow a week or ten days
for it to become thoroughly dry. If this cannot be done it is
better to dilute the product with kerosene or to apply sparing-
ly with the brush, wiping off the excess with an old rag and
allowing the place to dry for a day before returning the stock
to the house. If roosts are allowed to dry outside of the poul-
try house there is less danger of injury to the fowl. If used
Rhode Island Red No. 459
Disqualified. Laid no eggs during
first six months.
Rhode Island Red No.
Record 260 Eggs.
526
regularly each year one application is usually sufficient. Should
there be signs of the return of the mites, however, another ap-
plication should be made or if the houses are badly infested
two or more applications may be necessary."
AGGLUTINATION TEST,
For nearly three years the Experiment Station has
conducted in Connecticut a systematic campaign that has for
its object the complete eradication of bacillary white diarrhea
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AGGLUTINATION TEST.
275
in little chicks. In the first two years of this work, over 21,000
hens were tested. Very, briefly, the plan is to send a repre-
sentative of the Station to the poultry farm, there draw a
sample of blood from each hen, and then by the use of the
agglutination test discover whether or not the parent stock is
infected or free from the disease. The Station cannot, as a
rule, undertake this work outside the state, but the College
arranged to have this test made without charge on all birds
sent to the laying competition. The agglutination method of
determining ovarian infection involves the drawing of such a
White Wyandotte No. 196
Record 281 Eggs.
White Leghorn No. 728
Record 286 Eggs.
small amount of blood (from the wing vein) that the fowls
are not injured nor is the egg yield retarded or otherwise ad-
versely affected; nevertheless it is understood, of course, that
no birds are subjected to the test without the owner's express
consent. Almost without exception breeders availed them-
selves of this opportunity to have hens tested. Twenty-eight
birds reacted positively to the test and hence are reported as
being infected. These twenty-eight hens were in fourteen
pens and represented Rocks, Reds, Wyandottes, and Leg-
horns. In each of ten of these fourteen pens there was one
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276 STORES AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 89.
positively reacting hen, while in the other four pens there
were respectively, three, four, five, and six birds believed to
be infected. The egg yield of each of the four heavily in-
fected pens was far below the average of all; as noted on
another page the contest average was 162 eggs per bird, but
in the four pens in question egg production amounted to
less than 130 eggs for each individual. Mature hens seem to
suffer little or no mconvenience from infection in their ova-
ries; indeed, with only slight infection they not infrequently
iay a very respectable number of eggs. The disease is not,
therefore, to be so much dreaded for fear a hen can't lay ; the
danger lies in the fact that when mated, infected mothers
transmit the infection to their progeny, among which high
mortality may usually be expected to occur. As evidence of
the wide geographical distribution of bacillary white diarrhea,
it may be stated that these twenty-eight infected hens in the
contest originated in Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachu-
setts, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, Ohio, Missouri, and
Ontario.
MORTALITY.
The hens that died during the year numbered 104, or 10.4
per cent of the one thousand birds entered in the contest, an
average of slightly more than one death per pen. The losses
suffered in this way are, of course, greater than either the
College or the contestants desire; still they compare very
favorably with similar losses in the previous year in which the
mortality was 124 birds, or 12.4 per cent. As any reader
would naturally suspect, mortality was much higher in some
pens than in others. As a matter of fact, there were forty-
one pens, 410 birds, among which no deaths occurred, where-
as, there were two pens of Leghorns and one pen of Rooks
that sustained losses of fifty per cent each during the progress
of the contest. Pullets sent to a laying competition arc un-
questionably subjected to certain vicissitudes that their sis-
ters at home escape ; on the other hand a serious effort is made
to accord all pens similar treatment after their arrival at
Storrs. Such factors as houses, yards, feeds, attendants, and
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MORTALITY. 277
SO on are virtually identical for all, and yet there were fifty-
nine pens in which mortality ranged from ten to fifty per cent
and forty-one pens that went through the year without the
loss of a single bird. It is perhaps patent that some stocks
or strains possess more inherent "punch" than other families
of the same breed or variety.
From the postmortem examinations, it appears that one-
third of the deaths were due to disorders of the reproductive
organs, including eggbound, broken eggs in the oviduct,
eversion or prolapsus of the oviduct, rupture of the oviduct,
tumors, and the deposition of eggs or egg yolk in the body
cavity. As an example of complete reversal of function and
as an illustration of what a hen can sometimes endure before
succumbing, reference is made to a White Leghorn that died
on August 19th. During the first eight months of the contest
this hen's average weight was 4J4 pounds; at death 2^
pounds of egg yolk were removed from her abdominal cavity.
In other words, this mass of yolk material deposited inside
instead of outside the hen's body was equal to fifty-five per
cent of her normal weight. One fourth the total number of
deaths were due to hypertrophied or enlarged livers. In gen-
eral liver disorders are believed to be due to continuous hous-
ing, consequent lack of exercise, and the free use of rich
nitrogenous rations. Whatever the causes, they seem to
operate slowly and produce but slight symptoms; in conse-
quence, one can rarely diagnose a case early enough to render
treatment effective. In addition to these two chief causes of
death, colds, canker, cropbound, chicken-pox, cannibalism,
hemorrhage, intestinal worms, tumors, and accidents all took
their toll.
WEIGHT AND VALUE OF EGGS.
Table A below presents the weight of all eggs pVoduced
by each of the principal breeds represented in the contest, and
the average value per dozen. It will be noted that the Ply-
mouth Rocks lead in weight of eggs per dozen, while the
Wyandottes hold last place. As the last column shows a value
of 35.3 cents per dozen for Wyandotte eggs against 34.6 cents
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278 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 89.
for eggs from Plymouth Rocks, one may wonder whether
large eggs are, after all, worth no more on the market than
small ones. The explanation lies in the fact that the Wyan-
dottes produced a larger proportion of their eggs during the
months of high prices. Furthermore, the factor of size was
not considered in determining the values presented in the last
column (Table A). All eggs which weighed over one and
one-third ounces (.08 lb.) were considered marketable at
current prices. In a competitive market this would not be
true.
TABLE A,
VALUE OP EGOS PER DOZEN.
(Based on total number of eggs and total value.)
j
1
9
u
BREED
%
s
Is
0
II
^t
3^
5
III a
ssi
boi:
o^
o
Isa ^a
z,m
an
Ho
H
Pljmouth Rooks
170
160.4
27,273
\ 787.41
26.4 34.6c
Wyandottes
170
169.6
28,803
846.92
23.5 35.3c
R. I. Reds
210
158.7
33,327
961.63
24.4 34.6c
White Leghorns
350
165.4
57,890
1.653.93
23.8 34.3c
Miscellaneous
100
147.2
14,719
413.82
24.3 33.7c
AU Breeds
1.000
162.0
162.012
14.663.71
24.3 34.5c
TABLE 5.
VALUE OP BOGS BY MONtHe.
Month
E0gB
Price per
Dozen
Value
November
5.291
$0.60
$264.U
December
7,446
.49
304.02
January
9,395
.40
318.17
February
12,244
.33
336.70
March
17,844
.29
431.11
April
19,298
.25
401.96
May
19,986
.25
416.26
June
18,594
.28
4SS.86
July
16,952
.32
462.05
August
15,785
.38
499.80
September
12,233
.46
468.86
October
6,944
.59
841.89
Year
162.012
$4,668.71
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WEIGHT AND VALUE OF EGGS.
279
In Table B are indicated the total number of eggs pro-
duced each month, the average price received during the
month, and the corresponding total value of the eggs. The
scale of prices was quite consistently higher than the prices
received during the previous contest. The average value of
all eggs was 34.54 cents per dozen as compared with 31.77
cents for the previous year.
It is interesting to note that the month of August gave
the highest gross receipts for eggs. This has been true for
each of the contests held at Storrs. The combination of a
fairly high rate of production and a rapidly rising price re-
sults in a large income. It is believed by the writers that the
type of house used, being high and well ventilated, tends to
maintain a fairly comfortable temperature during the hot
August nights and, has therefore, been an important factor in
securing favorable egg yields at this season.
Rack for sorting eggs before weighing.
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280 STORKS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 89.
MARKETING THE PRODUCT.
Agreeable to the rules, no males are permitted in the con-
test pens. The eggs are, therefore, infertile and of course un-
suitable for hatching. The product is sold at market price
and the proceeds thus obtained are used to help defray the
operating expenses of the contest. Virtually the entire out-
put has been sold either to the college dining hall or to a but-
ter and tgg store in New Haven. The prices received have
been the average New York quotation on State, Pennsylvania,
and nearby western, hennery whites, fine to fancy, as such
quotations appear in The Producers Price-Current* on Wed-
nesday of each week. Thus, if eggs are quoted 47 @ 60, the
price received for contest eggs that week would be iSyi f. o.
b. the cars at the local express office. The subjoined table
shows the prices, by weeks, that obtained throughout the year.
If these prices are averaged the result is 38.23 cents which does
not agree with the real average of 34.54 cents, p. 279, because
no account is taken of the fact that many more eggs are mar-
keted at some seasons than at others.
PRICES RECEIVED FOR EGGS NOV. 1915— OCT. 1916
Nov. 6 57^ Feb. 5 41 May 6 24^4 Aug. 5 38
" 13 60^ " 12 SOyi " 13 25 ** 12 38
•' 20 605^ " 19 29^ *• 20 26 " 19 38
" 27 61J^ *' 26 29^ " 27 26 " 26 40
Dec. 4 50 Mar. 4 33J^ June 3 2654 Sept. 2 43J4
" 11 51 •' 11 30^ " 10 26H " 9 4654
•' 18 52 " 18 27^ •' 17 26J4 " 16 46^4
" 25 46J4 " 25 24 " 24 28^ ** 23 45^
Jan. 1 46^ Apr. 1 24J4 July 1 30 " 30 47
8 44 " 8 25«4 " 8..... 30 Oct. 7 52
" J5 40 " 15 2554 *' 15 30^ " 14 5654
* 22 39 " 22 24 " 22 31 ** 21 5754
" 29 35J/^ " 29 2454 " 29 3454 *' 28 59
4. Urner-Barry Company, New York City.
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MARKETING THE EGGS — BROODINESS.
281
BROODINESS.
In Table C is shown a comparison of the different breeds
with respect to the character of broodiness. The figures in-
chidc only those birds which completed a full year's record,
except that a hen dying during the last ten days of the con-
test was considered to have completed a year's record. The
Rhode Island Reds showed the highest percentage of broody
birds — nearly two-thirds of them going broody one or more
times. As might be expected, the Leghorns held the lowest
place with respect to the number of birds going broody. A
broody Leghorn did not tend to repeat the performance as
often as a broody hen of the heavier breeds, but for each time
TABLE C.
BROODINESS IN THE SEVERAL BREEDS.
BREED
a 1
i
n
6
t
o
er cent
roody.
V. No. of
mes broody.
V. No. of
ays lost each
roody period.
▼. No. of da
>8t by each
roody hen.
55
^
040
<>'n
<,^
^-- 1
IS
Plymoutli Rocks
151
67
44.4
2.8
21.2
59.9
?<?«
Wyandottea
161
87
57.6
2.5
19.4
47.6
27.4
R. I. Reds
183
120
65.6
2.8
21.3
60.2
39.5
White Leghoms
315
43
13.6
1.3
22.7
29.6
4.0
MiscellaneouB
93
36
38.7
1.0
22.2
55.5
21.5
A^l Breeds
893
353 39.3 2.5 21.0
52.8
20.9
that she went broody a Leghorn lost just as many days as a
hen of any other breed. By days lost due to broodiness is
meant the time elapsing between the last egg laid prior to, and
the first tgg following, a broody period. It is interesting to
note that the average Leghorn lost 4 days out of the year as
against nearly 40 days for the average Red and 27 days for
the average Rock or Wyandotte. The combined loss of all
breeds, during a total of 887 broody periods for the year,
amounted to 18,650 days or 51 "hen years." In this particular
contest a "hen year" means 162 eggs (the average production
of all breeds). We might say, then, that 51 hen years mean
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282 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 89.
,
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WEIGHT AND VALUE OF BIRDS.
283
<»88.5 dozens of eggs, which at the average price received
(34.54c) would be worth $237.81. It would thus appear that
broodiness is a rather expensive pastime in which the average
American hen is prone to indulge.
WEIGHT AND VALUE OF BIRDS.
It has been the practice of the management to weigh in-
dividually all the birds at the beginning of the contest and at
intervals of two months thereafter, a total of seven weighings.
Table D and the accompanying curves present the data ob-
tained from averaging the weights for all individuals in each
of the breeds mentioned. The breeds bear the same general
relation to each other that they did in previous contests. The
Rocks were the heaviest, and were followed in order by the
Reds, Wyandottes, and Leghorns. It is of interest to note
Plymouth Rocks
Wyandottes
R. I. Reds
WUte Leghorns
Mlscellaneons
TABLE D.
WEIGHT OP BIRDS.
170 6.28 6.17 6.84 6.04 6.02 6.96 6.97 6.97
170 4.66 6.04 6.80 6.26 6.19 6.20 6.20 6.12 '
210 6.14 6.79 6.08 6.84 6.83 6.72 6.68 6.7S
360 3.60 3.72 3.88 3.81 3.76 3.71 3.49 S.70
100 3.66 4.33 4.60 4.48 4.26 4.31 4.04 4.24
that all breeds gained steadily in weight from November 1st
until March 1st. Apparently the birds in none of these breeds
reach maximum weight until they are nearly a year old.
At the end of October, when the contest closed, the whole-
sale quotations on live poultry on the New York market were
18c per pound for heavy fowls and 16c for Leghorns. Using
these prices and the average weights for the different breeds
on October 29th it is found that the meat value of the birds
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284 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 89.
was as follows: Plymouth Rocks $1.07, Rhode Island Reds
$1.02, Wyandottes $0.94, and Leghorns $0.56. The owner of
Leghorns, however, has the consolation that it has not cost
as much per bird to feed his Leghorns as it has cost his neigh-
bor to feed Plymouth Rocks.
MONTHLY EGG PRODUCTICN.
The monthly egg production of each pen in the contest is
shown in Table H. A little study of this table will show that
two pens may lay the same total number of eggs for the year,
and yet each pen produce the bulk of their eggs at a different
season. A comparison of the different breeds with respect to
TABLE E.
MONTHLY EGO PRODUCTION.
Average per pen for the breeds indicated.
BREED
I O 0)
u
p.
&
s
I
9
m
8
o
Plymcmth Rocks 47 81 95 115 187 189 193 177 166 157 127 71 1.604
WyandoLLes
R. I. Reds
White Leghorns
Miscellaneous
All Breeds
44 98 119 137 175 195 196 182 154 158 137 101 1.696
40 90 118 149 186 196 185 162 147 180 113 72 1.587
72 59 73 106 175 196 215 207 195 178 123 66 1.654
37 48 72 115 167 182 196 185 159 148 107 57 1,472
58 75 94 122 178 193 200 186 170 158 122 69 1.620
their average production during each of the twelve months is
shown in Table E. Thus the Plymouth Rocks gave the high-
est average production in March, but took a lower position in
every other month. The Wyandottes as a breed exceeded all
others in average production during December, January, Sep-
tember, and October. The Reds enjoyed a similar distinction
in February, lost out by one egg in January and March, and
shared honors with the Leghorns in April. During Novem-
ber, May, June, July, and August the Leghorns outlaid all
their competitors. This agrees very closely with th** results
obtained in the previous year.
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EGG YIELD BY MONTHS AND BY BREEDS.
285
COST OF FEED AND RETURNS FOR EGGS.
The last two tables in this bulletin show the amount and
cost of feed consumed, the number of eggs produced with
their average weight and total value, and the returns above
feed cost, for each pen in the contest. This data has been
summarized and averaged by breeds and in this form appears
in Tables F and G. The Rocks were found to be the heaviest
eaters, with the Reds, Wyandottes, and Leghorns following in
the order named. The relative efficiency of a pound of feed
A pen of Leghorns arriving at the contest.
in producing eggs when fed to different breeds may be indi-
cated as follows: The amount of feed (mash and grain) con-
sumed for each pound of eggs laid was 4.61, 4.65, 4.38, and
4.14 pounds, respectively, for the Rocks, Reds, Wyandottes
and Leghorns. The average for all breeds was 4.48 pounds
of feed for each pound of eggs or 6.81 pounds for each dozen.
Just what proportion of this ioA was necessary for main-
tenance, and what part was used in manufacturing eggs, the
writers have not been able to determine.
The cost of feed (including grit, shell, and charcoal) for
each dozen eggs produced was 12.7 cents for the Leghorns
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286 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 89.
13.2 cents for the Wyandottes, L5.1 cents for the Reds, and
15.5 cents for the Rocks. The average for all breeds was 14.0
cents a dozen. These figures are practically indentical with
those for the previous year. The cost of feed per pen was
higher than before but was due to a greater consumption by
TABLE F.
COST OF PEED.
Arerage per pen for the breeds indicated.
BREED
00
1 ,
^ 1
Grain Lbs.
n
•4.*
•Charcoal Lbs.
s .
SI
4-»
m
O
o
1
Plymouth Rocks
540
478
6.4
0.9
20.0
120.72
Wyandottes
439
473
6.7
0.9
21.1
18.68
R. I. Reds
486
491
6.2
0.9
20.0
19.9S
White Leghorns
398
451
7.4
0.9
22.4
17.48
Miscellaneous
426
450
470
470
6.6
6.8
0.9
0.9
19.8
21.0
18.34
All Breeds
$18.84
TABLE G.
RETURN ABOVE COST OP FEED.
Average per pen for the breeds indicated.
00
'S
t^
Is
£
II
BREED
00
5 "
Weight
Dozen i
Ounces
1
Plymouth Rocks
Wyandottes
R. I. Reds
White Leghorns
Miscellaneous
All Breeds
1,604
1,696
1,587
1.654
1,472
220.35
207.95
209.96
206.57
188.85
26.4
23.5
24.4
23.8
24.3
$46.32
49.82
46.79
47.26
41.38
$20.72
18.68
19.93
17.48
18.34
$26.60
31.14
26.86
29.78
23 04
1,620 205.04 24.8 $46.64 $18.84 $2T80
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COST OF FEED AND RETURNS FOR EGGS.
2s:
the birds, for the actual cost per cwt. for the different feeds
was not essentially different. The costs of the different items
of feed per cwt. delivered at the contest were as follows : mash
$1.93, grain $2.11, grit and shell $0.75, and charcoal $2.00.
These costs were used in all the computations. The cost of
^reen food (not included in the tables) was approximately 10
cents per bird.
Tables G and J present a summary of most of the data
on the different pens and breeds in the contest. The last
column in each of these tables is marked "Return above cost
Two pens of English birds photographed on arrival.
of feed". The writers wish to again emphasize the fact that
feed cost is, by no means, the only cost to be considered when
calculating net profit. The figures in these last columns rep-
resent the amount available for paying for green food (noted
above), litter, man and horse labor, use of buildings and
equipment, interest on investment, depreciation, and miscel-
laneous expenses. After all these have been charged to the
hens and their account credited with the value of the manure
produced, the credit balance (if any) may correctly be called
net profit.
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288 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 89.
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MONTHLY EGG PRODUCTION BY PENS. 289
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290 STORES AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 89.
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MONTHLY EGG PRODUCTION 15V PENS.
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292 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 89.
TABLE
/.
AMOUNTS
! AND
COST OF FEED CONSUMED.
Mash
Grain
Grit
•Charcoal
SheU
Total
=>eii
lbs.
lbs.
IbB.
lbs.
lbs.
Cost
1
422
470
5.5
.9 .
22.4
$18.29
2
617
460
4.5
.8
17.9
19.87
3
527
471
5.0
1.0
17.9
20.30
4
513
473
7.5
1.0
21.8
20^2
5
625
478
4.5
.9
21.8
22.36
6
516
471
5.0
.9
20.5
20.11
7
585
472
7.5
.9
22.4
21.50
8
598
488
6.5
.9
20.5
22.06
9
592
478
4.0
1.2
22.4
21.68
10
678
436
7.5
.8
18.6
22.61
11
545
480
6.6
.9
19.8
20.87
12
514
489
6.0
.9
19.8
20.46
13
637
522
9.0
.9
18.6
28.68
14
389
486
9.0
.9
16.6
17.97
15
476
488
8.0
.9
21.1
19.78
16
476
485
5.0
.9
21.4
19.64
17
568
483
8.5
.9
16.6
21.86
18
374
481
6.0
.9
18.6
17.67
19
474
479
7.0
.9
20.8
19.48
20
453
486
8.5
.9
25.0
19.26
21
385
470
5.0
.9
26.0
17.60
22
484
479
8.0
1.0
22.1
18.74
28
424
478
6.5
1.0
17.9
18.47
24
440
484
10.0
.9
23.4
18.98
25
399
473
5.0
.9
23.4
17.92
26
444
478
9.0
.9
24.0
18.98
27
601
479
7.5
.9
26.0
21.98
28
591
467
7.6
.9
28.7
21.62
29
425
462
4.0
.9
17.8
18.18
30
494
473
4.6
.9
19.8
19.71
31
357
459
5.0
.9
17.3
16.76
32
343
464
4.5
.9
14.7
16.69
33
879
460
9.0
.9
22.4
17.28
34
446
467
6.5
.9
18.9
18.67
85
457
469
7.0
1.0
21.8
18.96
36
529
473
6.0
.9
21.8
20.41
37
472
475
6.0
.9
19.2
19.83
88
594
463
7.0
1.0
21.4
21.46
39
395
562
6.0
1.0
19.2
19.69
40
496
487
6.0
1.0
17.3
20.04
41
513
493
8.0
.9
20.6
20.68
42
376
482
6.0
.8
18.6
17.61
48
339
475
4.6
.9
16.6
16.78
44
866
487
5.5
1.0
16.6
17.62
45
537
492
5.6
.9
21.8
20.96
46
544
492
7.0
.9
17.9
21.09
47
532
498
7.0
.9
17.8
20.98
48
616
509
6.0
.9
20.6
22^4
49
580
488
5.6
1.0
28.7
11.78
50
669
503
6.0
.9
21.8
21.81
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AMOUNTS AND COST OF FEED BY PENS.
293
Mash
Grain
Grit
Cliarcoal
SheU
Total
Pen
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
Cost.
51
398
478
6.5
.9
19.2
117.98
52
387
492
4.5
.9
17.3
18.08
53
490
548
8.0
1.0
24.0
21.28
54
456
479
7.5
.9
20.6
19.14
55
532
467
6.5
.9
28.7
20.37
56
429
458
10.0
1.0
24.3
18.22
57
392
451
5.5
.9
21.4
17.31
58
302
451
4.5
1.0
21.1
16.56
59
459
457
8.5
1.0
19.8
18.74
60
457
446
6.5
.9
19.2
18.44
61
393
454
6.0
.9
21.1
17.88
62
460
451
8.5
.9
23.4
18.67
63
386
448
8.0
.9
24.0
17.16
64
494
455
9.5
1.0
24.3
19.41
65
371
455
4.0
1.0
20.8
16.97
66
332
455
8.0
1.0
22.7
16.26
67
298
449
5.5
1.0
19.8
16.48
68
427
460
10.5
.8
25.9
19.84
69
515
467
10.0
.9
26.2
20.09
70
333
467
7.0
1.0
21.1
16.61
71
478
456
8.0
1.0
28.2
19.14
72
305
457
5.0
.9
21.8
16.76
73
371
453
6.5
.9
22.7
16.96
74
380
472
6.5
.9
20.2
17.61
75
391
442
6.5
.9
22.4
17.12
76
298
445
8.0
.9
20.8
16.88
77
342
449
7.0
.9
18.9
16.28
78
256
455
4.5
.9
17.9
14.78
79
524
470
9.0
1.0
25.6
20.31
80
436
455
8.0
.9
23.0
18.26
81
382
452
6.0
.9
20.8
17.13
82
418
463
7.0
.9
22.7
18.08
83
462
428
11.0
.9
25.0
18.24
84
536
459
12.0
1.0
25.6
20.32
85
280
421
4.5
.9
16.0
14.46
86
364
431
6.5
.9
22.1
16.36
87
504
419
8.0
.9
23.4
18.83
88
462
424
7.5
.9
25.0
18.14
89
342
455
7.0
.9
23.7
16.45
90
364
460
9.5
.9
23.0
17.01
91
356
443
6.5
.9
18.2
16.43
92
331
444
5.5
.9
18.6
15.96
93
563
485
11.0
.9
25.3
21.39
94
523
481
5.0
.9
16.6
20.42
95
399
463
5.0
.9
18.9
17.67
96
336
461
9.0
.9
20.8
16.46
97
429
484
7.5
.9
19.9
18.72
98
475
484
7.0
.9
24.3
19.68
99
407
468
4.0
.9
16.6
17.90
100
437
484
5.5
.9
19.2
18.84
Totals 45,017 46,963
679.0
92.1 2,102.4 11,883.72
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294 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 89.
TABLE
/.
SUMMARY BY
PENS.
VVt. Eggs
Wt. per
Value of
Cost of
Return above
Pen
Kgjjs
In lbs.
dozen
in ounces
eggs
feed
cost of feed
1
1,635
196.10
28.0
1 47.51
1 18.29
1 29^2
2
1,335
166.38
28.9
34.88
19.87
15.01
3
1,432
180.40
25.7
40.62
20.80
20 J2
4
1,855
221.34
22.9
58.18
20.12
88.06
5
1,630
206.38
24.2
47.67
22.86
2SM
6
1,717
215.01
24.0
52.55
20.11
82.44
7
1.220
153.48
24.2
34.86
21.50
18.86
8
1,875
219.54
22.5
54.82
22.06
82.76
9
2,062
249.43
23^
60.62
21.63
88.99
10
1,619
211.59
25.0
44.85
22.51
22.84
11
1,343
174.73
25.0
37.51
20.87
16.64
12
1,778
238.11
25.8
61.62
20.45
81.17
13
1,934
264.90
26.3
55.05
23.53
31.62
14
1,352
175.81
25.0
38.34
17.97
20.87
15
1,799
227.97
24.4
53.47
19.73
38.74
16
1,345
191.48
27.6
37.37
19.64
17.73
17
1,342
184.25
26.4
37.49
21.35
16.14
18
1,480
180.03
23.4
43.85
17.57
26.28
19
1,425
187.88
25.2
40.13
19.48
20.65
20
2,265
281.21
23.8
68.61
19.26
49:85
21
1,905
230.05
28.2
57.81
17.60
40.21
22
1,610
208.99
24.9
44.46
18.74
26.72
23
1,498
178.42
22.9
41.52
18.47
23.05
24
1,802
231.54
24.6
54.21
18.98
35.23
26
1,763
212.13
23.2
52.26
17.92
8C84
26
1,860
223.13
23.0
53.82
18.93
84.89
27
2,198
254.14
22.1
67.83
21.98
45.86
28
1,992
247.34
23.8
58.82
21.52
37.80
29
1,473
181.03
23.6
42.32
18.13
24.19
30
1,815
222.33
23.5
52.00
19.71
32.29
31
1,356
166.58
23.5
38.49
16.76
21.78
32
1,127
138.75
23.6
31.79
16.59
15.20
33
1,750
205.47
22.5
53.92
17.28
86.64
34
1,484
186.09
24.1
45.08
18.67
26.41
35
1,611
224.28
26.8
47.16
18.95
28.21
36
1,670
222.45
25.6
47.83
20.41
27.42
37
1,558
198.76
24.5
46.14
19.33
26.81
38
1.718
229.79
25.6
48.04
21.46
26.68
39
1,668
207.41
23.8
49.11
19.69
29.42
40
1.396
203.48
28.2
39.11
20.04
19.07
41
1.760
243.67
26.9
49.79
20.53
29.26
42
1,487
182.00
23.6
40.43
17.61
22.82
43
1.167
154.03
25.4
35.06
16.73
18.88
44
1,332
183.75
26.4
38.41
17.52
20.89
45
1.863
155.25
26.6
55.60
20.96
34.64
46
1,699
210.46
23.8
50.28
21.09
29.19
47
1,462
190.02
25.0
41.27
20.98
20.29
48
1.527
207.79
26.1
42.85
22.84
20.01
49
1,687
207.97
25.2
44.86
21.73
28.n
50
1.816
236.30
26.0
55.33
21.81
88.62
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SUMMARY BY PENS. 295
Wt. Eggs
Wtpcr
Value of
Cost of
Return above
Pen
Eggs
in lbs.
dozen
in ounces
eggs
feed
cost of feed
51
1,488
198.15
25.6
1 42.03
1 17.98
1 24.05
52
1,247
164.67
25.4
34.40
18.03
16.37
53
1,935
243.68
24.2
56.80
21.28
35.52
54
1,558
201.27
24.8
46.46
19.14
27.32
55
1,778
241.02
26.0
50.67
20.37
30.30
56
1,854
224.98
23.3
56.19
18.22
37.97
57
1,707
206.99
23.3
52.27
17.31
34.96
5S
1,570
191.04
23.3
44.35
15.56
28.79
59
1,515
203.86
25.8
40.95
18.74.
22.21
60
1,611
199.41
23.8
45.74
18.44
27.30
61
1,750
208.43
22.9
49.66
17.38
32.28
62
1,696
210.56
28.8
48.32
18.67
29.65
63
2,034
287.42
22.4
59.28
17.16
42.07
64
1,809
239.64
25.4
50.86
19.41
31.45
65
1,462
188.17
24.1
39.77
16.97
22.80
66
1,909
235.79
28.7
56.26
16.26
40.00
67
1,299
156.86
23.2
36.13
15.43
20.70
68
1,848
209.59
21.8
55.29
19.34
35.95
69
2,021
246.15
23.2
61.83
20.09
41.74
70
1,562
201.31
24.7
46.83
16.51
30.32
71
1,842
234.47
24.4
54.80
19.14
35.66
72
1,501
181.20
28.2
42.44
15.75
26.69
73
1,753
207.01
22.6
51.10
16.96
34.14
74
1,573
188.67
28.0
43.96
17.51
26.45
75
1,720
218.24
24.4
49.04
17.12
31.92
76
1,448
177.15
23.4
39.16
15.38
23.78
77
1,623
192.02
22.7
45.37
16.28
29.09
78
1,345
163.45
28.8
38.12
14.73
23.39
79
1,834
239.55
25.1
52.10
20.31
31.79
80
1,715
217.78
24.4
48.24
18.26
29.98
81
1,509
188.60
24.0
41.24
17.13
24.11
82
1,725
222.99
24.8
50.72
18.08
32.64
83
1,604
207.53
24.8
43.43
18.24
25.19
84
1,609
205.04
24.5
44.84
20.32
24.52
85
1,102
137.10
28.9
29.13
14.45
14.68
86
1,681
215.49
24.6
46.74
16.36
30.38
87
1,681
215.03
24.6
47.65
18.83
28.82
88
1,827
230.87
24.4
52.45
18.14
34.31
89
1,765
214.73
23.4
52.26
16.45
35.81
90
1,386
182.83
25.4
37.46
17.01
20.45
91
1,390
173.99
24.0
38.96
16.43
22.53
92
1,086
135.28
23.9
28.56
15.96
12.60
93
1,756
234.70
25.7
50.28
21.39
28.89
94
924
127.99
26.6
25.32
20.42
4.90
95
1,580
211.47
25.7
45,87
17.67
28.20
96
1,633
211.78
24.9
45.30
16.46
28.84
97
1,371
180.18
25.2
38.09
18.72
19.37
98
2,122
259.26
23.5
64.55
19.63
44.92
99
1,208
156.24
24.8
32.10
17.90
14.20
100
1,649
197.61
23.0
44.79
18.84
25.95
Total 162,012 20.503.68 24.3 $4,663.71 $1,883.72 $2,779.99
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296 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 89.
LIST OF ENTRIES.
BARRED ROCKS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
1 A. B. Hall, Wallinglord, Conn
2 Mrs. Andrew Brooks, Auburn,
N. Y.
3 Frank L. Tuttle, Ashland,
Mass.
4 Jules F. Francais, W. Ham|)-
ton Beach, L. I.
5 Hampton Institute, Hampton,
Va.
6 Falrfields Farms, Short Falls,
N. H.
7 O. A. Foster, Santa Cruz, Cal.
8 Oregon Agr. College, Corval-
lis, Ore.
9 Rock Rose Farm, Katonah,
N. Y.
10 Mendelay Poultry Yards,
Springfield, Ohio.
WHITE ROCKS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
11 Branford Farm, Groton, Conn.
12 Branford Farm, Groton, Conn.
13 Albert T. Lenzen, North Attle-
boro, Mass.
14 Keweenaw Farm, Ashland,
15 Holllston Hill P. Farm, Hol-
liston, Mass.
BUFF ROCKS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
16 A. A. Hall. Danbury, Conn.
COLUMBIAN ROCKS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
17 Mrs. George R. Wilcox,
Canaan, Conn.
WHITE WYANDOTTES.
Pen. Owner and Address.
18 Lime Ridge Farm, Poughquag,
N. Y.
19 Nat'l W. Wy. Club. New Cum-
berland, Pa.
20 Obed G. Knight. Brldgeton.
R. I.
21 P. W. Backus. Chatham, On-
tario.
22 Beulah Farm, Stoney Creek,
Ontario.
23 Vine Hill Farm, Ipswich,
Mass.
24 Mrs. R. W. Stevens, Stillwater,
N. Y.
25 Everett E. Wheeler, Qulncy.
Mass.
26 J. B. Wetson, MarbledaJe,
Conn.
27 Tom Barron, Oatforth, near
Preston, England.
28 Abel Latham, Brierfield.
Lanes., England.
29 Neale Bros., Apponaug, R. I.
30 Merrythought Farm, Columbia.
Conn.
SILVER WYANDOTTES.
Pen. Owner and Address.
31 Mrs. Lena C. Bray, Mt. Ver-
non, Mo.
COLUMBIAN WYANDOTTES.
Pen. Owner and Address.
32 Merrythought Farm, Colum-
bia, Conn.
BUFF WYANDOTTES.
Pen. Owner and Address.
33 Dr. N. W. Sanborn, Holden,
Mass.
34 G. Arthur Cook, Easthampton,
Mass.
RHODE ISLAND REDS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
35 Colonial Farm. Temple. N. H.
36 A. B. Brundage, Danbury.
Conn.
37 Hillvlew Poultry Farm. St.
Albans, Vt. (R. C.)
38 Homer P. Deming, Winsted.
Conn.
39 Charles O. Polhemus. New-
burgh, N. Y.
40 S. G. McLean. South Glaston-
bury, Conn.
41 Sprlngdale Poultry Farm. I>ur-
ham. Conn.
42 Laurel Hill Farm, Bridget on.
R. L
43 H. W. Satfborn, Attleboro.
Mass.
44 Harry B. Cook, Orange. Conn.
45 A. W. Rumery, Danville, N. H.
(R. C.)
46 F. D. Clark, Berlin, Conn.
47 Allan's Hardtobeat Reds, New-
port, R. L
48 Charles Becker, TerryTille,
Conn.
49 Fatherland Farm. Byfleld.
Mass.
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NAMES OF CONTESTANTS.
297
50 Jacob E. Jansen, North Haven,
Conn.
51 H. W. Colllngwood, Woodcliffe
Lake, N. J.
52 W. H. Bumstead, Stafford
Springs, Conn.
53 Pinecrest Orchards, Groton,
Mass.
54 Hampton Institute, Hampton,
Va.
55 Jos. Brandenburg, Wayne,
Mich.
WHITE LEGHORNS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
56 A. B. Hall, Wallingford, Conn.
57 Braeside Poultry Farm,
Stroudsburg, Pa.
58 Jay H. Ernisse, Irondequoit,
N. Y.
59 Broad Brook Farm, Bedford
Hills, N. Y.
60 James H. Lord, Methuen,
Mass.
61 Mrs. Rollln S. Woodruff, New
Haven, Conn.
62 Windsweep Farm, Redding
Ridge, Conn.
63 Francis F. Lincoln, Mt. Car-
mel, Conn.
64 P. G. Piatt, Wallingford, Pa.
65 Dictograph Poultry Farm, W.
Nyack, N. Y.
66 F. M. Peasley, Cheshire, Conn.
67 Chas. Helgl, Rocky River,
Ohio.
68 Tom Barron, Catforth, near
Preston, England.
69 Will Barron, Bartle, near
Preston, England.
70 J. Collinson. Barnacre, Gars
tang, England.
71 Aibel Latham. Brierfleld
Lanes., England.
72 Bushkill Poultry Farm, Bush
kill. Pa.
73 A. P. Robinson, Calverton,
N. Y.
74 River Ledge Farm, Hadlyme,
Conn.
75 Frank R. Hancock, Jackson-
ville, Vt.
76 Margareta P. Farm, Rocky
River, Ohio.
77 Branford Farm, Groton, Conn.
78 Branford Farm, Groton, Conn.
79 W. E. Atkinson, Wallingford,
Conn.
80 Ellis W. Bentley, Windham,
N. Y.
81 N. W. Hendryx, New Haven,
Conn.
82 Bonnie Brook P. Farm, Sara-
toga, N. Y.
83 George Phillips, Seymour,
Conn.
84 Hampton Institute, Hampton,
Va.
85 Toth Bros., Wallingford,
Conn.
86 White Leghorn Club, Spring-
field, 111.
87 Harry WlMlama^, Bridgeport,
Conn.
88 Oakcrest Farms, Southamp-
ton, Pa.
89 Jas. F. Harrington, Hammon-
ton, N. J.
90 Summer Grove Farm, Gallipo-
lis, Ohio.
BUFF LEGHORNS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
91 Dr, L. E. Heasley, Holland,
Mich.
92 0. L. Magrey, Middlebury,
Conn.
BLACK LEGHORNS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
93 J. Collinson, Barnacre, Gars-
tang, Eng.
RED SUSSEX.
Pen. Owner and Address.
94 Dr. E. K. Conrad, Hackensack,
N. J.
MOTTLED ANCONAS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
95 Claude Clinton, Red Hook, N.
Y.
96 Elmwood Farm, Little Falls.
N. Y.
WHITE ORPINGTONS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
97 Obed G. Knight, Bridgeton.
R. I.
OREGONS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
98 Oregon Agr. College, Corval-
11a, Ore.
IMPERIAL PROGRESSIVES.
Pen. Owner and Address.
99 Wm. R. Wells, Ashaway, R. I.
BLACK RHINBLANDERS.
Pen. Owner and Address.
100 A. Schwarz, Burlingame, Cal.
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298 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,- BULLETIN 89.
RULES AND REGULATIONS.
With one exception, there has been no radical chang-
ing of the rules in any of the contests. During the first
two years, five birds constituted an entry; but in the last
four contests, ten pullets have been required. Minor
changes are made from time to time if it is believed they
make for the betterment of the competition ; not only this,
but the College reserves the right to alter or annul, at any
time, any rule, if by so doing the contest will be improved
and provided, of course, that such alteration or annulment
does not injure the interests of those then participating. Re-
duction of the entry fee, provision for disqualifying hens that
don't lay, limiting the number of pens that can be received from
any one breeder, permitting foreign contestants and others
from great distance to send more than one reserve bird, — these
and others can be cited as illustrations of what is referred to as
unessential changes in the rules. In view of the foregoing,
it seems safe to say that the rules outlined below will very
largely govern subsequent contests.
1 — This competition shall be known as the — Annual Inter-
national Egg Laying Contest conducted by the Connecticut
Agricultural College. It will begin November 1, , and
terminate October 30, .
2 — All records including number of eggs laid, weight of
eggs, amount of feed, duration of moult, frequency of broody
periods, etc. will be made by the Poultry Department of the
Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station.
3 — Each entry or each competing pen shall consist of ten
pure bred females of some well recognized breed or variety,
either hens or pullets, but no males will be included.
4 — Contestants will be privileged to maintain throughout
the year, without extra charge, a full complement of ten
birds ; that is to say, a bird lost by death or accident or other-
wise incapacitated may be replaced by the owner.
5 — Pullets that do not lay during the first six months of
the contest, or pullets that persist in laying very small eg^
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RULES AND REGULATIONS. 29'.)
or soft shelled eggs will be declared incompatible with the
purposes of the competition and accordingly disqualified..
6 — Foreign contestants and those west of the Mississippi
River or south of the Ohio may at their discretion send two
(2) extra or reserve birds along with their entry. All others
may send one (1) reserve bird.
7 — Extra or reserve birds will be given the same feed and
care as the regular competing pens and a trapnest record made
of their eggs. Thus if the reserve happens to be needed in
the regular competing pen, the owner will have her record for
the entire year.
8 — All awards will be based on the number of marketable
eggs produced. Eggs must weigh not less than one and one-
third ounces (.08 lb.) or they will be considered unmarket-
able.
9 — A first, second and third prize ribbon will be awarded
to the three leading pens each month. The best pen for the
year, of each variety, will be awarded a prize provided there
are three or more pens of the variety competing. Each hen
that lays 200 eggs or more will receive a "Special Merit" rib-
bon. Each hen that lays 250 eggs or more will receive a
''Superb Performance" ribbon. In case of pen ties, for either
monthly or annual awards, weight of eggs vShall decide.
10 — All entries must be shipped prepaid and should be
consigned so as to arrive at the College some time during the
last week in October. At the close of the competition, fowls
will be returned to their respective owners at their expense.
Pens that are not laying may be returned any time during the
last week of the contest.
11 — The College reserves the right to refuse any and all
entries; the right to reject and return to the owner fowls suf-
fering from any contagious or infectious disease or otherwise
unsuitable for the contest ; and the further right to cut or clip
feathers from the wing of any fowl that may be troublesome
to yard.
12 — In the event of any entry being deemed unsuitable
and being reconsigned to its owner, the entry fee, or such
part of same as has been paid, will also be returned. Not
more than two pens can be accepted from any one breeder,
and these must represent two varieties.
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300 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN 89.
13 — After fowls have been received at the College and
placed in the competing pen, every reasonable precaution will
be taken for their protection and the prevention of loss, but the
College will not be held responsible should death or losses
occur. No pen may be withdrawn during the progress of the
contest.
14 — All birds will be scored by a licensed poultry judge
at the beginning of the contest and the original score cards
for each pen will be forwarded to owners as soon as the data
can be transferred and tabulated for purposes of the experi-
ment station..
15 — Entries will be accepted from any point in this coun-
try or any foreign country. The College will accept a com-
peting pen owned jointly by two or more breeders, provided
however, that the fowls be all of the same breed or variety.
16 — All applications will be filed in the order of their re-
ceipt. Other things being equal, entries, agreeable to the pro-
visions of these rules will be accepted in the same order in
which they are received.
17 — An entry fee of twenty dollars ($20.00) is required
for each pen, five dollars to accompany application and balance
to be paid on or before October 1st following. Failure to
make second payment will automatically forfeit the first.
INFORMATION AND SUGGESTIONS.
A — The College will supply leg bands for all entries and
will send same to the owner in advance in order that his birds
may be positively identified on and after their arrival at the
College. After the birds have been placed in the competing
pen they will be re-marked with permanent sealed bands with
numbers that correspond to those put on by the owner.
B — Both weekly and monthly egg bulletins will be sent
regularly to each contestant and in case of club pens such
bulletins will be sent to each member of the club. Weekly
reports on the progress of the competition will be prepared
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RULES AND REGULATIONS. .*^01
for the newspapers as heretofore, and monthly reports will be
sent to the poultry press and agricultural journals.
C — All eggs will be sold at current market price and the
proceeds thus obtained will be devoted to the operating ex-
pense of the competition. The financial records of
the enterprise will be in the hands of the College treasurer
and his books will be open for inspection at any time by any
pen owner.
D — Contestants will be expected to -co-operate with the
Experiment Station by furnishing data regarding the early
care and management of their competing pens, method of
hatching, system of brooding, and other information which
will help to make an Experiment Station bulletin on the con-
test of more value. Blanks will be furnished for this purpose.
E — It is respectfully suggested that contestants do not
send pullets that are too mature as the College believes there
is more probability of such birds going into a molt, which in-
cident usually results in a lower egg yield. Perhaps the best
birds are those that would naturally begin laying a week or
two before the contest opens, but are prevented by being
moved or shipped or by some other untoward circumstances.
Thus such birds come into laying during the first week or two
of the contest.
F — It will be seen in Rule 7 that contestants are priv-
ileged to send an extra bird, but are not required to do so:
owners are, nevertheless, strongly urged to send a reserve
individual so that no time will be lost in case such a bird is
needed. Furthermore, there will be little or no additional
express charge for the inclusion of an extra bird and there is
a distinct and decided advantage in having the reserve bird
acclimated, accustomed to the attendants, trained to the trap-
nests, and generally adjusted to her new environment.
ACKNOWLBDaEMENT.
The authors desire to especially acknowledge the services of M.
E. Jones, superintendent of the contest, on whom has rested much of
the responsihility in collecting the data discussed in the foregoing
pages.
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FIFTH LAYING CONTEST
SUMMARY
There were 1000 birds in the contest.
They weighed nearly two and one-half tons.
They ate twenty-two and one-half tons of dry mash.
They ate twenty-three and one-half tons of grain.
They ate about ten tons of mangel beets.
They required twelve tons of straw for litter.
They ate nearly one and one-half tons of grit and shell.
They laid ten and a quarter tons of e^s.
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APPENDIX
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WEATHER REVIEW FOR 1914.
By W. M. Esten.
( )bservations have been taken for the past twenty-seven years.
General Observations.
The minimum temperature of -17° F. on February 14th
broke the lowest previous record of -14° on February 7th, 1910.
The high temperatures for the year were moderate, the highest
being 93° F. on September 23d. The rainfall was about ten
inches lower than normal. The deficiencies came in May,
June, July, August, and September, the months in which an
adequate rainfall is most needed.
Temperature for 1914.
The mean temperature for the year was 47.31°. This
was within .03° of the average for twenty-six years. The
January temperature was only 0.6° above normal for that
month. February was a cold month with a temperature of
4.1° below normal. The coldest day of the year was Feb-
ruary 5th. The coldest period this year was from the 9th
to the 26th, during which time there was no observation above
32° F., or freezing, during the warmest parts of these sev-
eral days. The coldest day was the 14th. The mean for
March was 1° below normal. The coldest period was in the
middle of the month. April was also just 1° below normal
mean for the month. The lowest temperature was 20° on
April 4th. The most remarkable temperature of the month
was 83° on the 19th. The last frost was on the 16th. May
was 3.2° higher than normal. The excessively high tempera-
tures of the month were from 26th to the 30th with daily
maximum temperatures of 89°, 91°, 87°, and 81° respectively.
In May the lowest temperature was on the 4th when there
were frosts in low places. June had a rnean temperature of
64.3°, or 0.2° below normal. The warmest days of the month
were from the 7th to the 14ih and from the 24th to the 27th.
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256 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.
The coldest day was the 6th with a temperature of 43**. July
was 2.4" below normal. The temperatures ran very evenly
during the month with no marked extremes. No temperatures
were below 61® and none were above 86**. August partly made
up for the lower temperatures in July, being 1.3® above nor-
mal. The warm periods were from the 7th to 11th and 19th
to 25th. The highest temperature, 89®, was on the 9th, the
lowest temperature, 48®, on the 26th. September was 1.4®
above normal. The warmest periods were the first three days
and from the 15th to the 25th. The highest temperature of
the year, 93®, was on the 23d. The coldest temperature of the
month and the first killing frost came on the 29th with a tem-
perature of 29®. October was remarkably warm with a mean
temperature of 55.8®, or 5.6® above the normal. The highest
temperature, 80®, was on the 4th; the coldest temperature, 22 *,
on the 28th. November was only .3® above normal. On the
23d the temperature was below freezing all day. December
was colder than normal by 3.5®. The cold periods were from
the 14th to 20th and 22d to 30th. The Christmas period was
very cold with a temperature of -7® on the 26th.
Rainfall for 1914.
The rainfall was nearly ten inches less than the average
mean of 44.69 inches. This was the smallest rainfall since
1894 when only 33.33 inches fell. This year it was 34.81
inches. January had 0.9 inch less than the average. February
had nearly a normal rainfall. March had 0.39 inch above nor-
mal. April was a rainy month with 0.8 inch more than the
average.. May, which has the same mean as April, had 1
inch less of rain. June continued the drought of April and
furnished only 1.63 inches of rain. The two previous months
had 2.25 inches less than normal. July had within 0.42 inch
of its mean rainfall. This prevented the serious drought condi-
tion which was well started in June. August again took on
dry measures and stinted the supply by 2.42 inches. The total
shortage of rainfall for May, June, July, and August, the most
important crop growing months, was 6.6 inches. This is equal
to 584 tons of water to the acre. September was the record
month for lack of rain with only 0.45 inch. October's rainfall
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WEATHER REVIEW. 257
was about 0.6 inch below normal. The two remaining months
had approximately 0.5 inch less than normal rainfall.
The Growing Season.
The growing season was a n rather long one, commencing
on April 10th and terminating on September 29th. The sea-
son commenced seventeen days earlier than the average and
terminated eleven days earlier than the average. The total
length was 166 days. This is six days longer than the average
of 160 days. The technical limits of the growing season are
the last killing frost in the spring and the first killing frost in
the fall. The real limits of the growing season are the time
the leaves appear in spring and the time in the fall when the
same temperature is reached. The leaves gradually appear
when the mean temperature is about 56°. This is not far
from May 15th. The same temperature in the fall appears
about October 1st and includes 138 days in which plants can
really grow. The time plants really have opportunity to grow
is from May 31st to September 20th, which begins and ends
with a mean temperature of 60®. This then reduces the limit
of the growing season to 112 days. One hundred and twenty
day corn would just about have time to develop. Our grow-
ing season is not very well adapted to crimson clover, long
season cow peas, soy bjeans, and com. The short season
or quick developing varieties of the above do very well. On
page 270 will be noted the yearly mean temperature curves.
From 1904 there has been a sharp increase in temperature up
to the maximum in 1913. These temperatures have given us
much larger growing seasons for this period. This year the
annual mean temperature dropped to a little above the average.
During this annual increase in temperature the rainfall has
diminished almost proportionately.
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258
STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.
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WEATHER REVIEW FOR 1916.
By W. M. Esten.
Observations have been taken for the past twenty-eight years.
General Observations.
The features of the year were no temperatures below zero,
an annual mean about 2^ above normal, rainfall about 4 inches
below the average. The March precipitation, 0.16 inch, was
the smallest ever recorded at this station for a single month.
Jime rainfall was very small.
Temperature for 1915.
The mean temperature for the year, 49.1**, was nearly 2**
above the mean for 27 years. January was 3.9® above the
average mean. Two days had a temperature of 65**, the 7th
and the 19th. These days were the middle of two warm
periods. The coldest day of the month was 0® on the 30th.
The coldest parts of the month were the first and last parts.
February was warmer by 5.5** than the normal. The warm
periods were the 6th and 7th, 14 and 15th, and 22d to 26th.
The warmest -day was the 24th, 67** ; the coldest day the 10th,
5**. The coldest periods were the 2d to 6th and 8th to 12th.
March was just 1** colder than normal. It was most remark-
able for uniformity of temperature. Seven days had a maxi-
mum of 42**. As there were no storms the temperature
changes were not marked by warm storm areas followed by
cold snaps. The minimum temperatures were not below 17**
nor above 32**. The maximum temperatures ranged from 33**
to 66**. April was 6.3** above normal. Only five days had
temperatures below freezing. The coldest days were the 2d
and 3d with a temperature of 27** for each. A very warm
period was from the 25th to 28th, with 87** on the 27th. May
was 1.5** below normal. The warmest day was 78** on the
9th. The coldest day, 35°, was on the 30th. June made up
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262 STORKS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.
for May's low temperature by being 2.2® above normal. The
warmest day, 89**, was on the 2d; the coldest day, 40**, on the
3d. The warmest and coldest days wer^ consecutive. A
warm period occupied the middle of the month. July was
only 0.7° above normal. The warmest period was during the
middle of the month. The warmest day of the year came
on the 19th. August was 1.1° below normal. The highest
temperature was 80° on the 10th and the lowest temperature,
46°, was on the 27th. September was much warmer than
usual by 4.1° This was very fortunate for the crops were
very backward up to the first of September. The first eigh-
teen days were very warm and ripened the backward crops,
especially corn. The temperatures ran from the 14th to the
]8th as follows: 88°, 87°, 89°, 86°. The lowest temperature
was 37° on the 23d. No frosts came in this locality. October
was warmer than normal by 2.4°. The warm period com-
menced on the 12th and lasted till the 22d with maximum
temperatures of 70° or over each day except the 16th when the
temperature was 62°. The warmest day was 74° on the
14th. The lowest temperatures were 30° on the 11th, 24th.
and 25th. November was also warmer than the average by
2.6°. The 1st and 2d had the highest temperatures of 66°.
During the rest of the month the temperature was quite uni-
form. Fifteen days had a minimum temperature below freez-
ing. The lowest temperatures were on the 18th and 23d, 24°.
December was colder than normal by only half a degree. The
first half of the month had low temperatures daily till the 18th.
At Christmas time the temperatures were high.
Rainfall for 1915.
The precipitation was marked by strikingly large amounts
in some, and deficient amounts in other months. The low-
est record of rainfall for any month during the period of ob-
servation was recorded this year. January commenced with
7.52 inches, or double the average amount. There were seven
rain or snow storms. The greatest rainfall was on the 18th
when 2.18 inches fell. One inch fell each day on the 7th and
25th. February had 4.41 inches or 0.8 inch more than normal.
There were six rain or snow storms. On the 26th 1.81 inches
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WEATHER REVIEW. 263
fell. March was the driest month in twenty-eight years.
There were only two slight rains, 0.1 inch on the 23d and 0.05
inch on the 30th The roads dried up early and teaming opera-
tions were carried on to the fullest extent. April was also
dry with only 1.18 inches of rainfall. There were only five
partially rainy days, the 3d, 6th, 11th, 23d, and 30th. May
continued the dry spell with 0.79 inch less than normal. There
was only one heavy rain, on the 21st, with 1.53 inches of pre-
cipitation. There were nine rainy days in all. June was
very dry having only 0.93 inch of rain. There were only
seven rainy days and none with more than 0.23 inch. July
seemed to be constrained to make up for lost time and com-
menced on the 1st by precipitating 3.14 inches of rain, nearly
a month's supply. There were thirteen rainy days and eleven
rainstorms and showers. The last day had a rainfall of 1.23
inches. The total for the month was 8.28 inches, only a trifle
less than twice the normal. August had a half more rain
than normal. On the 4th 2.97 inches fell. There were nine
days with rain or showers. September was 2.4 inches short
of normal. There were only five days with rain, very little
each day except on the 21st when 1.03 inches fell. October
was 1.08 inches short of normal. There were seven days
of rain with a total of 2.71 inches. On the 2d there was 1.06
inches of rain. November was 0.67 inch below normal.
There were six days of rain with a total of 2.93 inches. On
the 19th there was a heavy rain of 1.77 inches. December
had 1.44 inches less than the average for this month. There
were only four days with precipitation. On the 18th 1.57
inches of rain fell.
Growing Season.
The last frost was on April 22d, about eleven days earlier
than the average which is May 3d. The first frost in the fall
was October 11th, just one day later than the average. These
limits made a growing season of 172 days. This approaches
the longest growing season recorded which was 184 days in
1901.- The latest frost in the spring has been as early as
April 18th but never later than May 29th. The earliest
frost in the fall has never been before September 22d nor later
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264 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.
than October 31st. The average last frost in the spring is
May 3d and the earliest average frost in the fall October 10th.
Features of the Grand Summary.
The mean temperature is 47.47** ; the highest temperature
recorded, 99** on July 3, 1912; the lowest temperature -17** on
February 14, 1914; the highest annual mea 60.71**, in 1913; the
least monthly rainfall 0.15 inch in March, 1916. Four new
records have been made within the last three years. The an-
nual range of temperature is 116**. The greatest daily range,
49**, was within the last three years on two dates, April 6,
1912, and February 14, 1914.
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WEATHER REVIEW.
265
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268
STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.
TABLE VL
GROWING SEASON FOR PAST 28 YEARS.
Last Killing
Frost, Spring
First Killing
Frost, Fall
Length of
Season Longest and
in Days Shortest Period
.136
.154
.149
.158
.156
.172
.169
.140
.160
.154
1888 May 16 September 29.
1889 May 2 October 3.
1 890 April 29 September 25 .
1891 May 7 October 12.
1892 April 29 October 2.
1893 April 28 October 17.
1894 April 30 October 16.
1895 May 22 October 9.
1896 . May 2 October 9.
1897 April 27 September 28.
1898 May 10 October 17 160
1899 May 4 October 1 150
1900 May 11 October 17 159
1901 April 18 October 19 184
1902 May 29 October 10 134
1903 May 3 October 25 175
1904 April 24 September 22 151
1905 April 23 September 27 157
1906 May 10 October 8 151
1907 May 24 October 2 131
1908 April 22 October 13 174
1909 April 30 October 13 166
1910 April 17 October 13 179
1911 May 6 October 8 155
1912 April 21 October 15 177
1913 May 3 October 31 181
1914 April 16 September 29 166
1915 April 22 October 11 172
Average May 3 October 10 160
Longest
Shortest
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WEATHER REVIEW. 269
GRAND SUMMARY FOR 28 YEARS AT STORRS.
Temperature Date
Range of annual mean. . . . 5.91** Feb. 14, 1914
Mean 47.47** •
Highest 99** July 3, 1912
Lowest -17** Feb. 14, 1914
Highest annual mean 60.71** 1913
Lowest annual mean 44.8** 1914
Greatest range 116**
Greatest daily range 49* April 6,1912
Feb. 14, 1914
Range of annual mean 6.91*
Rainfall
Mean 44.17 in.
Greatest annual 66.61 " 1901
Least annual 33.33 " 1894
Greatest monthly 12.24 " July, 1897
Least monthly 16 " March, 1915
Greatest daily 4.26 " June 21, 1903
Growing Season
Longest duration of 184 days. .April 18 to Oct. 19, 1901
Shortest duration of 131 " . . May 24 to Oct. 2, 1907
Average date of last killing
frost in spring . . May 3
Average date of first killing
frost in autumn . .Oct. 10.
PREVAILING WIND.
January, February, March, April, May, August, October,
November, December, N. W. ; June, July, September, S. W. ; for
the year, N. W.
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270
STORRS AGRICULTUILVL EXPERIMENT STATION.
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GENERAL INDEX
Page
Agglutination test for bacillary white diarrhea, method of making... 153
in egg-laying contest. 276
Bacillus Bulgaricus in Roquefort cheese Ill
Bacterium lactis acidi 108
in Roquefort cheese Ill
Method of maintaining activity of 121
Bacterium pullorum 151
in male birds 158
Bird lice 172
life history of 173
Blue ointment for killing lice 180
Brooder house, the colony 44
Broodiness of hens 80, 226
Bulletins available for distribution V
Butter cultures, summary of work on 125
Camembert Cheese, anaerobic bacteria in 110
Bacillus Bulgaricus in 109
bacterial counts during ripening 104
bacterial types in 108
bacteriological studies of 103
of different origin, bacterial counts of 103
slime from Ill
yeasts in 109
Cream, scored for acidity of 135
numbers of bacteria in 135
Cnemidocoptes mutan^t, description 191
remedy 192
Dermanyssus gallinae, description of 186, 186
life habits 187
remedies 188
Director, report of VII
Douglass improved Boston butter culture 116
Dry mash, composition of 77, 208
hopper, The Connecticut 64
Dusting and dust baths for hens 195
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272 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.
Page
£gg-laying competitions, history of 59
the first international 60
number of 257
history of 60
Egg-laying contest, amount and cost of feed .... * 94, 238, 292
broodiness of hens in 80, 226, 281
cost of feed and returns for eggs 230. 285
description of plant 62
discussion of tabulated results 87, 232
experimental pens 78, 222
houses for 65
information and suggestions 90, 300
list of entries 98, 242, 296
marketing of product 280
mortality of hens in 86, 219. 276
National 61
rations and methods of feeding hens in ..73, 201, 259
report on 62, 199
rules and regulations of 88, 298
show room scores 216, 264
Station experimental pens in 78, 222'
summary of fourth 199
fifth 302
\ summary of results by pens and average, 96, 240, 294
table of monthly production of eggs 92, 234, 2S8
unidentified eggs 218, 265
weight and value of birds at end of 86. 227, 283
weight and value of eggs in 79. 224, 277
Eggs, value of by months 80. 226
weight and value of 79. 224
Egg production, monthly 80. 92, 229, 234, 284
as related to temperature 233
Ericsson's butter cultures, tests of 114
Feed for poultry, cost of 94. 230. 238
Feeding devices for poultry, automatic 208
I^avorone, tests of 115
Goniocates abdominalis 179
hologaster 179
Growing season for past 28 years Appendix 268
Hansen's Danish lactic ferment, tests of 113
Hens from insect pests, protection of 194
Hens in laying contest, weight and value of 86, 227
Houses for poultry 31, 65
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INDEX. 273
Page
Ice cream, bacterial counts in 128
conclusions regarding bacteria in 133
Incubator for bacteriological work, description of 140
International egg-laying competition 33
"Intestinal Cleanser" 206
Lactic add starters, tests and comparisons of 112
Lactone, tests of 115
Lice and Mites of the hen 171
Lice, control of 180, 268
Lipeurus heterographus, life history and habits 178
Lipeurus variabilis -. 179
Litmus for bacteriological work, tests of various brands of 126
Litter used in egg-laying contest 210
Log cabin lactic acid culture 117
Louse, large body 174
head 178
small body 177
Mallophaga 172
Manure, poultry 212
shed for poultry 215
Menopon biseriatum, life history and habits of 175
pallidum 177
Mercurial ointment for killing lice 180
Meteorological records 255
Summary for 28 years Appendix 269
Milk feeding, Influence on growth of chicks 7
Influence on mortality of chicks 8
of chicks, conclusions regarding 28
of laying hens, experiments on 222
Milk, scores for acidity in 135
scores for numbers of bacteria in 135
Mite, poultry or roost 185
Scabies or scaly leg mite 191
Mites, general characteristic of 183
methods of control of 273
Mortality of birds in egg-laying contest 86, 219
Poultry house at Gilbert Farm 38
construction 31
used in egg-laying contest 33
Poultry manure, amount and value of 212, 215
Poultry nests, construction of 42
Rations for hens in laying contests 73, 201
Roosts and nests, method of protection from mites 190
Roquefort cheese, notes on organisms in / . . Ill
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274 STORRS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.
Page
Sanitation, on insect pests, eflfect of 194
Scratch grain, composition of 77, 208
Show room scores of birds in egg-laying contest 216
Starters, methods of strengthening 118
tests and comparisons of lactic acid 112
Sulphur Oil chickens, the use of ., 196
Trap nest, The Connecticut 50
Trap nests . . 70
Treasurer, rieport of VII
Weather Review of 1914 Appendix 255
of 1915 Appendix 261
White Diarrhea, conclusions on method of elimination of 166
elimination from breeding stock 161
infection in male birds 158
method of making agglutination test 152
of chides, eradication of 151
results of state-wide tests for 156
Yeasts in Camembert cheese 109
in Roquefort cheese Ill
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state of eonttecticnt
PUBLIC DOCUMENT NO. 58
Second Annual Report
OPTHB
Board of Compensation Commissionors
FOR THB
Year Ended September 30, 1915
•TALCOTT H. RUSSELL, Third District, Chairman
tFREDERIC M. WILLIAMS, Fifth Disirict, Chairman
GEORGE B. CHANDLER, First District
JAMES J. DONOHUE, Second District
tGEORGE E. BEERS, Third District
EDWARD T. BUCKINGHAM, Fourth District
metifned March 16. 1916
fDesignated as Cbairman March 16. 1816
tAppointed March 16. 1916
HARTFORD
PUBLISHID BY THB StATI
1915
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Publication
Appaovbd by
Thb Board of Control
PRB8SOP
T. F. RADT ft CO.
ROCKVILLS. CONN.
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REPORT OF
COMPENSATION COMMISSIONERS.
To^is Excellency Marcus H. Holcomb, Governor of Connecticut.
Pursuant to Section 18 of Chapter 138 of the Public Acts of
1913 as amended, the Compensation Commissioners of this state
acting as a Board hereby submit a report of their doings including
such recommendations as they think proper for the improvement of
this act, or its administration.
In view of the various oflBces, commissions and boards making
statistical and other reports on subjects more or less allied to that
under our charge, we assume that in requiring from us an Annual
Report the legislature desired a discussion of tiie problems especial-
ly confided to us, rather than an analysis of social and industrial
conditions in the state. This will explain the apparently limited
contents of this communication, as compared with the somewhat
elaborate documents issued by similar bodies in other states. Cer-
tain of the functions which are here performed by the Conmiissioner
of Labor and Factory inspection, the State Board of Education,
and other departments are in manv states delegated to the Compen-
sation Conmiission or Industrial Accident Board. We gihall there-
fore confine ourselves to stating with due brevity what has been
done, how it has been done, and what we think ought to be done.
When our first Annual Beport was submitted, the OcHieral
Assembly being then in session, it was necessary to have the report
in the Governor's hands a reasonable time prior to the first of
January; thus the report did not for the greater part deal with any
conditions after November 1st, 1914.
mjUBIES EEPOETED
In our report for the year 1913-1914 we gave in tabular form
the number of injuries reported in each district from the time
the Act went into full effect on January 1st, 1914 until the end
of the first oflBcial year of the Board on November 1st, 1914. These
are here reproduced, and in a parallel column appear the correspond-
ing figures for the period from November 1st, 1914, to January 1st,
1916.
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CIOMPBNSATION COMMISSIONERS.
Jan. 1,1914 to Nov. 1,
1914
Nov. 1, 1914-^an. 1, 1916
Ist District
4,691
8,232
2nd "
2,250
3,845
3rd "
3,920
7,659
4th "
3,239
9,660
5th "
3,964
7,674
18,054 37,070
Caution should be observed in drawing inferences from the
increase above revealed. The period covered by the second column
was one of marked industrial activity, whereas that covered by the
first column corresponds roughly to a period of industrial depres-
sion. The figures relative to the number of accidents are also
somewhat misleading from the fact that during the earlier period of
the operation of the act many employers reported injuries of a
trifiing nature not incapacitating an employee for one day or more.
As they became familiar with the act and discovered that this prac-
tice created a false impression with respect to their particular
plants, conformity with the letter of the law has resulted. It should
be borne in mind that in slack times the more careless and lees
efficient workmen are first laid off, whereas in times of industrial
activity the conditions of the labor market require the employment
of every available man. Other things being equal, the skQlful and
steady employee is less apt to be injured than the intermittent
and unskillful employee.
VOLUNTARY AGBEBMBNTS
During the corresponding periods there have been submitted
for approval and approved in the several districts the number of
voluntary agreements set opposite their respective districts :
Jan. 11, 1914 to Nov. 1, 1914 Nov. 1, 1914 to Jan. 1, 1916
1st District 1,047 1,623
2nd '' 543 1,009
3rd '' 599 1,435
4th " 695 1,675
5th " 560 1,306
3,444* 7,048
From the above it will be seen that from the time the Act went
into effect on January 1st, 1914 up to January 1st, 1916, there were
10,492 cases settled by volimtary agreement. In most cases this
signifies that the terms of the Act were amicably complied with by
the parties without delay. Such settlements are usually effected
through an "adjuster'^ or "claim agent.^^ In the case of self-in-
surers this is some official of the company or responsible employee,
and in the case of insurance companies some young attorney or othsr
competent person who has worked into the post from a clerical
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8TATB OP OONNBOTICUT.
position. If the accident occurs in the plant of a self-insnrer it is
promptly made known through the first aid department, and when
the waiting period has elaps^ an agreement on the form provided
by the Commissioners is put before the employee for execution.
If the injured employee is working in the plant of an insured em-
ployer, the insurer is notified of ttie injury on the form provided
by the insurer, and if the injury is one promising to call for
weekly compensation the adjuster makes due investigation and, if
the claim is found valid, it is settled in like manner. In most
cases settlement is effected without delay or misunderstanding.
Sometimes the employee questions the accuracy of the computation
of average weekly earnings and asks to have it verified. In
other instances the employee delays untfl he can consult some
friend ; not infrequently such employee or friend consults the Com-
missioner before signing the agreement. As soon as the agreement
is executed, it is forwarded to the Conmiissioner for his approval,
as it does not become effective until so approved and duly filed with
the Clerk of the Superior Court for the county.
Shortly after the Act went into effect the Board of Commis-
sioners issued Bulletin No. 4, entitled "Manual of Procedure*' in
which, among other subjects treated, was an explanation of the
method of computing Averige Weekly Earnings. While this served
a good purpose at the time it was issued, experience revealed that a
briefer ana simpler explanation printed on the back of the form
prepared for such agreements would be more servicable. The most
frequent errors found in agreements which coftne to the oflSces of the
Commissioners for aprpoval occur in connection with this com-
putation of the average earnings, but on the whole, such errors
are more likely to favor the employee than the employer. Especial-
ly was this the case in the period of industrial depression when
factories were running on short time. When factories are running
over-time, errors are more liable to be against the employee ana
in favor of the employer or insurance company. We have been
unable to discern in these occasional mistakes evidence of a purpose
to defraud the employee. They arise rather from the indolence
or hurry of the adjuster, who sometimes finds it more convenient
to call up the employer on the telephone and ask him how much the
employee got a week then to go through the employer's books, make
a transcript from the payroll covering the preceding 26 weeks and
perform the required computations, under this inaccurate method
the employer or insurer is the loser where the employee has not
worked full time, because no deductions are made from his wage
for the time he was out. On the other hand, if the employee has
been working over-time, he may sometimes fail to receive credit
for the extra wages so received. If the Commissioner has reason
to believe that the payroll has not been properly consulted, he re-
quires from the book-keeper a sworn transcript of the payroll^ some-
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6 COMPENSATION C0HMIS8I0NEB8.
times ffoing behind the payroll by informal hearing, makes his own
computations and, after correcting the agreement accordingly, sends
it back to the parties for re-execution. In general, however, we
have found that adjusters desire to conform accurately and con-
scientiously to the rule of computation recited in the Act and as
construed by the Commissioners. Even illiterate employees, who
are unable to understand the other provisions of the agreement,
are very discerning in detecting any discrepancy in the average
wages, or any error as to the date of injury or the date when in-
capacity began or ended. Given a correct statement of the wages
and of the aforesaid dates, and it is impossible in the ordinary case
for injustice to be done to either party by such an agreement. The
forms are so drawn that the Commissioner and his assistants can
check them with certainty.
Mistakes are also occasionally made in cases calling for in-
demnity for a fixed number of weeks for the loss of phalanges of the
finger or other parts of the body. In such cases a diagram of the
injured part, duly certified to by the physician, is generally re-
quired, togetiier with explanatory notes by the physician concern-
ing the nature of the injury. If the line of bony amputation is
such that it is difficult to determine, for example, whether the com^
pensation should be for one phalanx oj two phalanges, an X-ray
picture is sometimes required and often a hearing or mformal con-
ference is set by the Commissioner on his own initiative.
In cases of small overpayment to an employee, the employer or
insurer frequently prefers to settle the case on the basis of the
agreement as it reads, rather than be subjected to the expense and
trouble of making a new agreement. Where the employer or in-
surer states in writing that it is cognizant of its rights under the
Act and is willing to waive them with respect thereto, such an agree-
me^t is approved; but in no case is an agreement approved where
the employee is underpaid. This does not signify a purpose on
the part of the Commissioners to discriminate in favor of the on-
ployee, but is in recognition of the obvious fact that employers and
insurers, being competent business men and well advised, may be
presumed to be able to protect their own interests, whereas an
employee through ignorance or timidity may not be thus fortified*
In other words, except in certain doubtful cases of law or fact^
which need not be here considered and with respect to which the
employee is advised by a competent attorney, no waiver of his rights
by an employee is accepted. The ruling of Judge Lucien F. Burpee
of the Superior Court in the claim of JTJDSON VS. THE AN-
DBEWS AND PECK COMPAinT, (Superior Court of Hartford
County), gives authority for such a compromise settlement by
stipulation where the issue is doubtful.
The time required. in checking, approving and copying an
agreement varies from a few minut^ to several hours. There are
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8TATB OP OONNBOTICUT. »
many of the claims appearing aboTe as having been settled by volun-
tary agreement which represent a condosion arrived at on the
advice of the Commissioner during the course of or at the close
of a long hearing. Many others are the result of numerous in-
formal conferences with one party or the other^ or with both parties
together.
HEARrHGS AND AWARDS
During the corresponding periods the number of formal hear-
ings resulting in findings and awards duly filed with the several
Clerks of the Superior Courts was as follows :
Jan. 1, 1914 to Nov. 1, 1914 Nov. 1, 1914 to Jan. 1, 1916
Ist District 39 184
2nd '' 16 72
3rd '' 32 116
4th '' 1 30
6th '' 18 76
106 427
The increase in the number of formal hearings with findings
and awards is a fair index of the increase in the volume of busi-
ness transacted in the several districts, but this does not refiect an
increased tendency on the part of employers or their insurers to
contest claims; it is rather the normal development tmder the act.
While the above figures show a total of 633 claims which have
been formally heard and determined up to January lst> 191 6, they
fail to reveal accurately the manner in which the administration oi
the act is carried on. It has been plointed out tmder the forego-
ing caption that an indefinite number of cases, representing several
times the number here recorded as hearings and awards, have
been settled by informal hearings, friendly conferences, or during
the course of a hearing formally set and partially or wholly com-
pleted. Of such hearing there is no record made. While it be-
comes the duly of the Commissioner to adjudicate in form for ap-
peal cases involving a point of law or some doubtful issue of &^
thereby contributing to the just interpretation and efficient admin-
istration of the Act throughout the state, it is far better in ordinary
cases to brin^ the parties to a substantud agreement and effect an
amicable settlement. We deem this feature to be among the m^
important of a Commissioner's activities.
A feature of a Commissioner's work which differs somewhat
from couri; procedure is the freedom with which advice is given to
the parties prior to a hearing. Especially in the case of employees
does it become necessary to give advice as to the proper witnesses
to be produced and the necessary procedure to be observed. Im-
proper discussion of the facts is, of course, not permitted. The
Commissioners have also exercised liberality in the matter of an-
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8 CJ0MPBN8ATI0N COMMISSIONERS.
Bwering letters asking for an interpretation of the Act. While Buch
answers almost invariably contain a reservation to the effect that
they are given for the accominodation of the party niaking the in-
quiry and are in no wise binding npon the Commissioner, or his
colleagues, in passing npon any particular case, such inquiries are
answered unless they pertain to some case already pending.
XTsually the injured employee appears without counsel. Sonae-
times a friend, relative or other adviser appears with him. Not in-
frequently the interpreter becomes his actual representative. In
most cases the employer is represented by an adjuster, who some-
times is an attorney. Self -insurers usually appear by some officer
of the company or responsible employee. Sometimes however a
case arises in which the Commissioner advises the parties to retain
counsel. For instance, in a death case, or a case involving indein-
nity for several years' time, in which the facts promise to be intri-
cate or close, and in which, as is frequently the case, some point
of law is involved, the interests of justice require that a competent
attorney have charge of the case. Where no attorney appears,
practice has revealed the necessity of th Commissioner asking tiie
questions necessary to bring out the facts and practically conduct-
ing the case for the parties.
ADVANCE PAYMENTS TO NEEDY EMPLOYEES.
Section 14 of Part B provides for the advancing of funds by tiie
employer or insurer to supply the immediate needs of the injured
employee or his dependents pending the formal settiement of the
claim. This provision is widely taken advantage of. Under the
caption '^he Law's Delays,'' appears the average time elapsing
from the date of injury to the approval of an agreement between
the parties ; but the reports of final settlements (as distinguished
from the formal approval of agreements) reveal that in the average
uncontested case funds reach the employee's hands much more
promptly.
These advance payments are usually made without the knowl-
edge or advice of the Commissioner. In the majority of cases we
prefer to believe that they are made from sympathy with the imme-
diate needs of the einployee and out of a desire to conform to the
sjjirit of the Act. Li many cases this method is adopted by ad-
justers as a matter of convenience. An adjuster having a consider-
able territory to cover and many cases before him for attention not
inf requentiy prefers to start the payments to the employee, and se-
cure the execution of the agreement and put it before the Commis-
sioner for approval later on. In still other cases the injured em-
ployee or his dependent, or some friend, appears before the Com-
missioner and states the circumstances in which the injured ^nploj-
ee or his family are situated. Sometimes this reveals a state of
destitution existing almost immediately after the injury. In such
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STATE OP OONNBCTICIt^. 9
cases the Commissioner will commiinicate with the insurance ad-
juster, or the employer, if it should he the case of a self -insurer,
and state the circumstances. If the insurer or employer admits the
validity of the claim, the Conmiissioner suggests an advance to sup-
ply the immediate needs of the situation. In no circumstance that
we can recall has such a suggestion been disregarded. We deem this
a wise and humane provision of the Act and desire to conmiend
employers and insurers for the spirit in which it has been generally
observed.
LUMP-SUM PAYMENTS.
A provision of the Act requiring frequent application is that
found in Section 28 providing for the commutation of payments
into a lump sum. Human nature is so constituted that it usually
prefers freedom of individual judgment. It is not easy to convince
a person that he is less competent to handle funds than some other
person, and it is especially diiBcult to show him that he is not
in any way competent to handle them. Yet the Commissioners are
frequently confronted by cases in which persons obviously imfit,
both morally and mentally, to handle any considerable sum of
money clamorously petition for a lump sum payment. Much in-
genuity is frequently exercised by such daimants in devising reasons
in support of their requests. They are in debt, they propose to
establish a store and go into business, they propose to go back to
the Old Country, they are going to have an operation performed, or
there is sickness in the f aniily.
It often happens that these requests are made in good faith,
and based on good grounds. The Commissioner must exercise
discrimination, and, if need be, conduct independent investigation
before passing upon any matter of this kind. For instance, if a
widow desires commutation for the purpose of clearing a home from
encumbrance, or for the purpose of purchasing a small place for
herself and children, it becomes the duty of the Commissioner to
ascertain by inquiry from some responsible person known to him in
the locality or by hearing evidence concerning the character and
business ability of the claimant, the nature of the property which
she wishes to purchase or clear from encumbrance, and the general
prospects of the claimant provided the conmiutation is allowed. In
other words, the duties of the Commissioner are in many respects
paternal. Experience has revealed that under the Connecticut Act,
in which no retinue of investigators and agents is provided, the
essential facts in any particular case can be arrived at without ex-
pense through the disinterested investigation of public-spirited pri-
vate parties. While requests of this nature are seldom made, they
are usually cheerfully and promptiy complied with.
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10 OOHPf^SATION COHMISSIONEBS.
LEGAL AND MEDICAL PEES.
A by no means nnimportant aspect of the Commireionert
duties is the approval of bills for medii^^ surgical and hospital ser-
vice, and occasionally for legal and other services. Li its intent to
reduce or limit expense under the Act, the legislature has confided
to the Commissioner this power.
In very few instances has it been necessary to exercise this
power in connection with legal fees. The fees allowed to attorneys
range from a negligible amoimt up to a sum rarely exceeding $100.
The legal profession has shown a praiseworthy readiness to conform
to the spirit of the Act. Among the earlier cases which arose was
one involving a complicated point of law, including the relative
scopes of the Connecticut Act and the Federal Employers* Liability
law. The amount involved in the settlement was some fifteen
hundred dollars and the attorney representing the widow was con-
nected wiih. a very prominent firm of state-wide reputation with
a large corporation clientage. The attorney attended two hearings,
made an exhaustive study of the law and filed two briefs, and his
total bill as rendered amounted to $72. The Commissioner having
jurisdiction, in approving the bill, took occasion to commend the
coimsel on the moderation of his charge and received a reply to the
effect that he believed his action had been in conformity with the
spirit of the act and the intention of the General Assembly. In
another instance an attorney of high standing had devoted three
days' time to the preparation of a case, attendance at a hearing, and
preparation and filing of a brief. The claimant was a widow and
the amount involved was some twenty-two himdred dollars. The
claimant was awarded compensation, no appeal bein^ taken, and the
attorney consulted the Commissioner before rendering his bill.
He was informed that the Commissioner would allow a fee of $75.
The attorney replied that he had decided to make a charge of $50.
On the otBer hand the fees of attorneys are occasionally referred to
the Commissioner and substantially reduced.
There has also, on the whole, been a like disposition on the part
of the medical profession to comply with the terms of the Act It
will be observed that up to January 1st, 1916 there have B^n 55,124
injuries reported, each of course involving a potential dispute over
medical bills. When this fact is taken into consideration the
number of contested medical bills has been surprisingly smalL Ob-
servation has revealed that contests of ihis nature are more frequent
in certain localities than in others, which would indicate that the
medical societies to which most physicians belong have had a large
influence in determining the policy. In one city the physicians, for
a considerable time after the Act went into effect, insisted upon the
observance of the schedule of fees generally prevailing in the com-
munity, irrespective of the means or standard of living of the person
treated. It was only after several cases had been contested and
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STATE OP OONNBOTICUT. 1*
formal decisions rendered by a Commissioner, that a disposition
to comply with the Act was here effected. Much of the controversy
between employers, or their insurers, and physicians has been due
to a failure of tiie physicians to understand the terms of the Act.
Prior to its passage they had been in the habit of treating personal
injury cases for insurance companies, or large employers, rendering
such proper bills as they deemed the employed, or insurer, able ana
willing to pay, and collecting them witiiout question. It has re-
quired some time to bring about an understanding of the difference
between the charges to be rendered under the Compensation Act
and those rendered in liability cases where there is no leegal limita-
tion on the medical fees to be collected.
There appeared in our last annual report a communication
from a joint conmiittee representing the Connecticut Medical Socie-
ty and the hospitals in Connecticut, making certain recommenda-
tions. ]Por some reason these recommendations were not followed
up by the physicians before the Legislature and no action was
taken thereon. The Commissioners have recognized a certain in-
justice in the Act as it iiow reads with respect to hospital fees.
The cost of maintaining a patient in a hospital ranges from $10 to
$15 a week, according to the facilities of the hospital and its econ-
omy of administration. The usual charge for a ward patient is $7
per week. These hospitals are semi-charitable institutions, being
supported by private philanthropy, with some state aid. The author-
ities in charge of these hospitals have complained, not without
reason, that it is contrary to public policy for such an institution
to be assessed at the rate of from $3 to $8 per week for each com-
pensation case treated. In practice a compromise has been loosely,
but rather generally, arrived at between insurers and hospitals
whereby patients have been placed in what are known as semi-pri-
vate wards, the charge therefor being ten or twelve dollars a week.
In such cases the physicians treating the injured employee are paid
for their services by the employer or his insurer, but where the
employee is placed in a public ward the physician on duty treats
him, and receives no pay therefor. We make no recommendations
in this connection, deeming it the duty of the parties affected to
present their case to the (General Assembly, if they so desire.
THE DISTRICT SYSTEM OF ADMINISTRATION.
The foregoing suggests another aspect of the practical opera-
tion of the Act, which we deem to be of general interest. That is
the district system of administration, which seems to be peculiar to
Connecticut. For some cause, the precise nature of which need not
be analyzed or speculated upon, the legislative mind in most states
has fixed upon some central autiiority to be located at the state cap-
itol as an instrumentality for giving effect to the terms of the A^
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12 COMPENSATION COMMISSIONERS.
Disputes are settled by a central authority, variously styled
'Industrial Commission/' "Industrial Board/' 'Industrial Acci-
dent Commission/' or the like, in the following states : Colorado,
Indiana, Montana, Vermont, Wisconsin, California, Oklahoma,
Nevada, Oregon, Texas, West Virginia, Ohio, Maine, and Washing-
ton. Because of the large area of many of tiiese states it is prolm-
ble that some administrative device has been adopted providing for
hearings at or near the place of injury or the residence of the
injured pariy.
In the foDowing states there is a central board with provision
for arbitration at such locality and under such circumstances as
conditions require : Illinois, Iowa, New York, Michigan, Pennsyl-
vania, Maryland and Massachusetts. The acts are administered
directly by the courts in Louisana, Minnesota, New Jersey, Bhode
Island and Wyoming. In Kansas there is original jurisdiction by
local committees or arbitrators, with court review. In Nebraska
cases are decided by arbitrators or by the district court of the coun-
ty. In Arizona there is "arbitration, with reference to attorney
general, or appeal to courts."
In our opinion the most unsatisfactory method of administra-
tion is by the courts. The nature of the Commissioner's duties as
herein described are incompatible with court methods and court
traditions. Either the reserve and dignity which has wisely
attached to strictly judicial tribunals must be relaxed in dealing
with these cases, or the parties to a compensation claim must be de-
prived of that informality and personal guidance which experience
has found to be necessary for the prompt and equitable satisfaction
of the terms of the act. The longest trial of court administration
of a compensation act in this country has been given in the state of
New Jersey. In the American Labor Legislation Beview, Volume
6, No. 1, at pages 38 to 79, appears a carefid and scholarly analysis
of the experience of New Jersey under this method of administra-
tion. "Contrary to the practice in the majority of compensation
states/' says this authority, "New Jersey created no machinery for
the administration of her workmen's compensation act." On the
basis of a three year trial the following conclusions are arrived at:
"In conclusion, it may be stated that the New Jersey
law of 1911 did not furnish adequate compensation to
injured workmen or to their dependents. Moreover, the
payment of compensation was neither prompt or certain.
An unnecessarily large proportion of money due the em-
ployee was still used up in litigation. The law provided
a tribunal which was so slow in procedure, and so expen-
sive, that in the majority of disputes the injured actually
had no recourse. Much of the hostility between employer
and employee, and much of the waste and injustice that
existed under the old liability system, remained in New
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STATE OF CONNECTICUT. 13
Jersey, because the machinery which gave rise to the evil
practices under the old system had been retained for ad-
ministering the new. Experience in other states has
shown that these evils can oe eliminated by an adequate
compensation scale, guarantee of reasonable and well-reg-
ulated insurance, and the creation of a supervising boa^
with summary power in the settlement of disputes.^'
On the other hand administration of the act by a central
authority located at the state capitol, while possessing a certain
bureaucratic efficiency and responding to a current tendency in
legislation, which may or may not be wise in other matters accord-
ing as it is applied, does not in our opinion fully meet the needs
of the situation. It represents a departure from the practice which
the exp^ence of English-speaking peoples have slowly worked out,
beginnini with the justice court, which differs little from a neigh-
borhood arbitration of disputes by some person familiar with ttie
situation, and extending in this country up through higher jurisdic-
tions, more and more remote from the people, until there is reached
the Supreme Courte of the various stetes and of the nation. The
notion of the central board reverses this order and, in a sense,
works from the tep downward. In recognition of this defect
there has been instituted the device of hearings by local arbitra-
tors, which has nowhere been better worked out than in our neigh-
boring stete of Massachusette. Here cases are first heard by some
member of the Industrial Accident Board sitting with two arbitra-
tors, at or near the place of injury, one arbitrator representing the
employer and the oilier the employee. As these arbitrators almost
always decide with the parties whom they represent, this amounte
to a hearing by a member of the Board delegated from Boston to
sit in the case. Appeal lies from this arbitration tribunal to the
Industrial Accident Board, and there is thus interjected an addi-
tional step on the way to final adjudication of the issue. This
plan, which may be considered as fairly representative of this
method of administration, may be characterized as a system which
emphasizes central authority, but provides for local administration
as a subordinate and incidental feature.
The Connecticut plan, on the other hand, may be characterized
as a system having district administration as its primary feature^
with the exercise of certein centralized functions as a subordinate
and incidental feature. While we must confess to have been our-
selves somewhat under the spell of the current tendency when
first appointed and inclined to fear that lack of coherence and unity
of policy might result from the plan inaugurated, experience hais
convinced us that no greater misfortune could befall the adminis-
tration of the Workmen^s Compensation Act in Connecticut than
the abolition of the district system of jurisdiction. There are
few classes of issues in which the personal and paternal touoh is
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14 C0HPBK8ATI0N OOKICISSIONEBS.
more desirable in arriying at practical justice than in indngtrial
disputes over personal injury. Any agency which will tend to
mitigate the impersonal relationship between employer and employ-
ee which has necessarily developed under the factory system and
corporate management is jto be welcomed. Out of tiie Industrial
Bevolution have developed modem organizations on a large scale
in which the employee becomes a number on a time card and the
employer is compelled by the exigencies of the situation to look at
him as a mere item in the mass. That misunderstanding and
occasional injustice should result is nothing more than could be
anticipated.
To what extent the Connecticut legislature may have had this
in miad in devising the present plan of administration, or to what
extent the plan may be due to the strong feeling of th^state in
favor of lo«d autonomy, it is xmnecessary to specidate. ^Possibly
the sole consideration in the legislative mind was the desire to place
the offices of the Commissioners at points convenient of access to
the people of the state. Even in a state so small as Connecticut,
it would be an obvious inconvenience for an employee residing in the
^reat industrial center of Bridgeport to have to confer with Hart-
ford on matters of compensation administration, whereas tmder the
present plan it is only necessary to call up the local Commissioner
or interview him personally at his office.
The district system of administration has proved its worth in
many other ways. Allusion has already been made to the manner
of investigation in the case of application for commutation into a
lump sum. It has obviated the necessity of employing a corpe of
inve^gators and sub-officials. It is especially valuable in granting
certificates of financial ability to employers desiring to carry their
own risk, which is hereinafter referred to. Personal character is
recognized by the great commercial agencies as a prime considera-
tion in extending credit. Each Commissioner has knowledge by
common repute, and in a great number of cases by personal acquain-
tance, of the character, business standing and social and business
ideals of the heads of the industrial institutions that spply for
certificates. He has means of keeping close watch upon their finan-
cial standing. He enjoys a personal acquaintance witii the respon-
sible adjusters of the various companies and with the representatives
of local trade unions, who sometimes represent the interests of
employees at hearings. Not infrequently he Imows personally the
circumstances and character of the injured employee himself. In
other words, he can take notice of many facts essential to the ad-
ministration of justice, incapable of being reproduced with fidelity
in a transcript of evidence.
In the exercise of his powet to limit the fees of physidaDs to
those prevailing in the community for persons of like standard of
living, in his judgment of the value of testimony of medical experts
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BTATB OF OONNBOTIOUT. 15
in aocordance with their recognized standing in their profession^
and in his occasional designation of experts to act as his adviser by
stipulation of the parties, the knowledge acquired by the Commis-
sioner through local residence and acquaintance is invaluable. It
is doubtful if any feafure of the Act contributes more to the ends
of justice than the Commissioner's personal knowledge of the indi-
viduals of the medical profession.
When Governor Baldwin, in whose administration the Act
was passed and by whom the original Board of Commissioners was
appointed, characterized the office of Compensation Commissioner
as a tribunal to which '*the immigrant widow with a diawl over her
head'* might repair for counsel and advice, he reduced to a figure of
speech the essential spirit of the Act. This was later translated
into the terms of a court-ruling by Justice Wheeler in the Hotel
Bond's Appeal when the Court defined the Compensation Com-
missioner as '^e adviser of all and the umpire between the dis-
putants."
No system, of course, is perfect and it is easy to point out man-
ifest disadvantages in the Connecticut system. These, however,
have proven to he defects of theory rather than practice. It might
be anticipated that differences of procedure and construction would
arise as between the several districts, resulting in confusion. Such
has not proven to be the case. In very few instances have there
been any fundamental differences of opinion aoiong'the Commis-
sioners on points of interpretation, and in no case has there been
a material difference of opinion as to procedure. Such differences
as have naturally arisen have in no wise affected the prompt and
equitable administration of the Act.
THE COMMISSIONEBS AS A BOARD.
In recognition of the necessity of imiformiiy of action and
the devising of certain administrative rules, and to enable the
Commissioners to exercise their combined judgment in making
recommendations to the (General Assembly, that hoij in Section 18
of Part B of its enactment constituted the Commissioners, when
acting togetiier, a central body styled 'The Board of Compensation
Commissioners."* Pursuant to legislative direction and by author-
ity of the Board of Control, we have prepared and distributed five
bulletins and fifty-nine different forms. The first, entitled 'bulle-
tin of Preliminary Information," was issued before the Act became
effective and was intended for the instruction of the public to the
end that the transition to the new practices tmder the Act might be
frictionless and easy. Bulletin No. 2 was addressed to the town
clerks of the state to whom is confided the custodianship of the
various forms; it is not of public interest. Bulletin No. 3, 'The
Certification of Financial Abili^ of Employers," is for the advice
of those desiring to avail themselves of the provisions of Section 80
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16 COMPENSATION COMMISSIONERS.
of Part B, under which employers of adequate resources may cany
their own risk. Bulletin No. 4, 'The Manual of Procedure,^ previ-
ously referred to, is, as its name implies, a book of rules telling em-
ployers and employees what to do under the Act and how to do it.
Bulletin No. 5, *The Workmen's Compensatifcn Act as Amended in
1916,*' is a compilation of the original act and its amendments,
with the original numbering of the sections preserved. This bulle-
tin announces the preparation of another which was to be explan-
atory of the changes effected by the various amendments, but expe-
rience shows ti^at such action would be an imjustifiable expenditure
of public funds, as employers and employees had no difficulty in
conforming to the changes without special instructions. The
amendments to the Act passed in the 1915 session of the General
Assembly required a redrafting of twenty-three forms and a prepa-
ration of eight additional forms.
It will thus be seen that the Commissioners in their collective
capacity exercise important functions, and in the course of the meet-
ings held for this purpose doubtful points of construction and speci-
fic cases are discussed as necessity jsuggests. So, too, of matters of
procedure. In other words, while the Act establishes five separate
and distinct jurisdictions, in practice there is general uniformity of
adjudication. It is our opinion that the Connecticut system pro-
vides most of the advantages of a centralized board and avoids its
defects. Whether the Connecticut system would work satisfac-
torily in states of 'sparse population and large territorial area is
something which is worthy of consideration, but need not be here
discussed.
DIRECT PAYMENT OF COMPENSATION BY EMPLOYEE
TO EMPLOYEE.
On page 6 of our report of 1913-14 we discussed what had been
done under the provisions of Section 30 of Part B providing means
whereby employers of adequate resources might carry their own
risk. During the year covered by that report 352 individuals^
partnerships, and public and private corporations availed them-
selves of this provision and were granted certificates. At present
there are 306 such employers. •
On page 16 of said report it was also stated that steps had been
taken by us to procure from the large employers of labor to whom
certificates of solvency had been granted certain information which
•we might tabulate and present in a subsequent report This plan
has been carried out and the results thereof are given below :
Jan. 1,1914 Nov. 1,1914 Total
to to
Nov. 1,1914 Nov. 1,1916
Amount disbursed for
Compensation $ 49,685.68 $101,812.10 $151. 497^68
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• 8TATB OP CX)NNBOTIOUT. 17
Amount disbursed for med-
ical^ surgical and hospi-
tal bills 36,86616 67,899.6r 104,765.TO
Estimated added cost of
clericaftervice necessary
to administer settlements 4,384.30 9,971.60 14,865.80
Amonnt expended foi; emer-
gency treatments which
yon deem fairly due to
provisions of compensa-
tion act 17,646.65 43,903.67 61,549.22
Amount expended in safety
devices which presum-
ably would not have been
expended but for the ex-
istence of the Act 16,056.14 16,642.65 31,698.79
Average number of employ-
ees on payroll 111,616 109,206
Number of employees in-
capacitated by injury for
more than one week and
less than the waiting
period 677 922 1,499
It will thus be seen that by self-insurers $161,497.68 has been
paid to employees as compensation since the act went into effect*
and $104,766.72 has been paid during the same period for medical, ^
surgical and hospital tees. In this dass of employers the ratio '
of medical, surgical and hospital fees to the weekly compensation
paid employees in the two years was 69.1%; for the year 1913-14
the ratio was 74.1% and for the year 1914-16 it was 66.6%.
The ratio of the cost of extra clerical force made necessary
for the administration of the act to the total fund administered
(medical fees and compensation) for the two years was 6.6% ; for
the year 1913-14 it was 6.06% and for the year 1914-16 it
was 6.8%. This reveals a relatively small cost of administration in
the case of self-insurers.
The apparent decline in the number of employees on the pay-
rolls is due to the adoption of substitute systems of compensation
under the provisions of Section 29 of Part B by certain firms, which
removes them from the jurisdiction of the compensation commis- ^
sioners, and also to the failure of certain other firms, which have
secured authority to carry their own risk from the insurance com-
missioner, to report. Some large employers who formerly carried
their own risk, and whose statistics were therefore included in the
first year's report, have since insured, which has of course caused a
further apparent falling off of the number of employees on the pay-
rolls of self -insurers.
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18 OOliPBNBATION 00HKI88I0NBH8.
AMOUNT DISBUBSED THBOUGH INSUBANCB COM-
PANIES.
The last Gteneral Assembly in its amendments to Chapter 138
of the Public Acts of 1913 indicated in its amendments ^ Section
20 a desire to obtain certain statistics and provided for certain re-
ports being submitted to us in duplicate, the duplicates to be filed
with the Factory Inspector. It is our opinion from reading this
language that the legislature desired to get as nearly as possible the
expense to the people of the state due to the Compensation Act.
The statistics which we are authorized to gather, however, by this
amendment were necessarily incomplete for the reason thai; we were
not directed by this language to inquire into the amount of com-
pensation paid a very large number of persons who receive slight
injuries which requires medical or surgical aid, and are cured within
the ten days waitmg period. Thus they receive no "compensation'*
in the strict sense of the word, although the aggregate of medical,
surgical and hospital expenses of this character is large. We there-
fore requested from each of the insurance companies authorized
by the Insurance Department to transact a compensation insurance
business in Connecticut a statement of the amount of money which
they had expended by reason of the Connecticut Compensation law.
All but two companies, who do a relatively small business in the
state, have answered. These figures were given gratuitously by the
insurance companies upon our request, there Being no statutory re-
quirement imposing upon them this duty, and we therefore deem
it improper to give the names of the individual companies. Some
of the insurance companies have made no distinction between pay-
ments due to compensation awards and payments due to medical,
surgical and hospital expenses of persons who are not entitled to re-
ceive any weekly compensation awards. Other companies have
kept these two items separate and from those figures we gather that
nearly one-third of the expense has been due to paymento of the
latter character.
These figures in the aggregate show disbursements by insur-
ance companies as follows :
Jan. 1,1914 Nov. 1,1914 Total
to to
Nov. 1,1914 Nov. 1,1915
Medical, sui|;ical and hos-
f pital services and com-
pensation payments . . .$396,684.30 $606,456.66 $l,002,189i^6
WELPABE WOEK.
It is significant that during the two years $61,649 J^2 has been
expended by self -insurers for emergency treatment, nurses and pri-
vate hospitals maintained in the employers' plants. This is 68.71^
of the amount expended for medical, suigical and hospital treatnuent
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BTATB OP OONNBOnqUT. 19
by physdans in general practice and in public hospitals by the same
class of employers. This extra expenditure for what is generally
described as welfare work is deemed by the employers as fairly due
to tiie provisions of the Act. Along with this should be considered
the sum of $47,654.93 disbursed for safety devices which, as report-
ed by the employers, ''presumably would not have been expended but
for ttie existence of the act.'* In other words the sum of $93,148.01
has been devoted to quasi-humanitarian ends by this class of em-
ployers which would not have been so devoted but for the act
No like figures are of course available for the great majority
of employers who are protected by insurjmce, but if the same ratio
holds good it is fair to assume that $363,776.81 has been so ex-
pended by such employers during the twenty-two months covered by
the above figures. To what extent this inference is justifiable it is
impossible to say, but in view of the fact that the merit system
of rating premiums is generally in force (whereby the premium
charged' is graduated to the condition of tiie individual plant), and
the rurther fact that insurance companies maintain a thorough
system of inspection, it is fair to assume that this estimate may not
be far out of the way.
Adding together the amount actually so expended by self -in-
surers and the estimated amount so expended by those protected by
insurance companies, it is justifiable to infer that the passage of the
Act has resulted in the application of approximately $450,000 to
the welfare and protection of employees, aside from medical service
and compensatioiL
As the human element is, in the last analysis, the most signi-
ficant element in industrial efficiency, and as tiie wealth of a state
must finally be measured by its volume of human assets, plus the
financial and material agencies necessary to give them effect, we
cannot reach any other conclusion than that tUs act has proved its
social and economic worth and amply vindicated the pre^ctions of
its advocates. In other words, as had been contended prior to its
passage, the benefits of a compensation act are by no means limited
to the immediate payments made to employees on account of their
injuries.
TOTAL COST OF THE ACT.
It is naturally a matter of public interest to ascertain as nearly
as possible what the Workmen's Compensation Act has cost the
employers and people of the state. Combining the figures appear-
ing under foregoing captions, the results are as follows:
Jan. 1,1914 Nov. 1,1914 Total
to to
Nov. 1,1914 Nov. 1,1916
Expenditure of self-insur-
ers $ 86,651.73 $169,711.67 $256,268,40
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20 COMPENSATION COMMISSIONERS.
Expenditure through insxir-
ance companies $396,684.30 $605,455.66 $1,002,139.96
To this should be added the approximate amount expended by
employers of all classes for welfare work and safety devices, this
operation producing a grand total of $1,715,328.18. This leaves
out of account the item of $14,355.80 for extra clerical force re-
quired by self-insurers and an indefinite sum not ascertainable rep-
resenting the difference between the amount actually disbursed by
insurance companies as shown above and the amount collected by
them in premiums from insurers.
To the above grand total should also be added the sum of
$70,000, this being the approximate cost to the state of administering
the act for the past two years. In this connection it may be ob-
served that the cost of administration under the Connecticut act is,,
we believe, appreciably less than that in any other state possessing
a system of anything like the same efficiency.
MALINGERING.
One of the evils which it was feared the passage of a workmen's
compensation act would bring about was malingering. While on
its face it would seem to be inconceivable that any rational man
would prefer to draw half -pay when he is able to work and receive
full pay, we have to face the fact that not a few men would prefer
to do no work at all at any price. When the opportunity is pre-
sented to such a person to draw palf-pay for idleness, he is, of
course, ingenious in devising excuses and simulating ills. While
the reporte from countries where such acts have been long in effect
note a growing tendency toward this vice, we have been unable
as yet to observe any appreciable effects in this state.
In the discussions before conmiittees of the General Assembly
and on the floor of the Houses, as well as occasionally in the press
and upon the public platform, the kind of malingering which was
most frequently foreshadowed was that arising from ^Iful injur-
ies. If any such case has occurred in Connecticut during the
twenty-four months covered by this report and its predecessor, it
has eluded the watchfulness of the Commissioners. A person
possessing the moral cowardice which leads him to shrink from
work would naturally exhibit the physical cowardice to lead him to
shrink from self-inflicted pain. The cases of self-injury for the
purpose of securing compensation are so rare as to be properly
classed with insanity and suicide. Such cases in our opmion
present problems of pathology rather than of law, economics or
sociology.
The kind of malingering which presents itself to us in prac-
tice is that which is manifested during the period of convalescence.
Observing physicians in hospitals recognize a iype of physically
strong man, used to manual labor, never having enjoyed a period of
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8TATB OF OONNBOTIOUT, 21
rest, who, when injured and in the process of recoveiy, for the first
time experiences the sense of freedom from responsibility and the
novelty of leaning npon others. In certain cases there is complete
relaxation of the will power and an induced state of self pity. In
such cases the obvious cure is compulsion under economic necessity,
by the termination of compensation.
A more frequent type is the neurotic, alcoholic or subnormal,
whose vitality and stamina from congenital or other causes were
of a low order prior to the injury. These types are especially
recognizable in certain races. In many cases these persons are
not consciously malingering. Their previous weakness, followed
by the physical effects of the injury and the resulting period of idle-
ness, induces a subjective state which amounts to mental disorder.
They imagine pains and are emphatic in asserting their existence
even to the professional discomfiture of the attending physician.
Cases repeatedly arise of alleged disability where the most skillful
surgeons are unable to detect any objective symptoms.
Such cases require careful discrimination on the part of the
Commissioner. It is a recognized fact that "painful scars" and
other real causes of disability n^ay exist and lie beyond the detection
of trained and conscientious observers. To distinguish between
such a case and a case of malingering is very diflBcult. It has been
observed that those races most susceptible to this disorder have, by
their previous associations and training, come to have an almost
superstitious regard for oflBcials. It often happens that, where they
have defied the adjusters of insurance companies and deceived the
physicians with whose ministrations they have become more or less
familiar, they entertain a wholesome fear of the Commissioner. A
somewhat heroic lecture by the tribunal, usually given in private,
will often send such cases back into the ranks of industry with
apparent confidence and good cheer. In such cases the functions
of the Commissioner resemble more closely those of a probation ofl5-
cer than a court.
WMle, as has been said, the evil of malingering has not up to
the present time become serious in this state, its evidences are
present and require constant vigilance. The serious aspect of this
vice is not shown in added expense which has accrued to insurers
and employers, although this is by no means negligible ; but rather
in its effects upon the character of the individuals indulging in it
and upon their weak-minded associates who are cognizant of their
practices. Any scheme of legislation or administration which tends
to pamper the physicial man at the expense of his moral fibre is
destructive of society. In the last analysis the effectiveness of any
law resides in those who administer it, and careful consideration is
being given to this class of cases.
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22 0OMi>ENSATI0N OOMMISSIONEBS.
THE LAW^S DELAYS.
One of the evils which it was the purpose of this Act to cor*
rect was the unavoidable delay in securing judgment through the
courts. It is not necessary to rehearse the fammar fact that trials
were tedious and expensive and hedged about by rules of procedure;
appeals were taken to the higher courts and, if in the end injured
employee secured a substantial sum in the way of damages^ it was
largely eaten up by costs and attorneys' fees. In the meantime
the employer had been compelled to spend an amount approximating
that now paid out imder the Workmen^s Compensation Act.
It will be a matter of public interest to know to what extent
these evils have been remedied. As has hereinbefore appeared,
there have been 10,492 ca^es settled by voluntary agreement and 583
cases determined by formal hearing and award. While the clerical
facilities at the disposal of the Commissioners do not justify an
averaging of all of those cases^ it has been possible to arrive with
subst^tial accuracy at the length of time ordinarily consumed in
the various processes involved in arriving at settlement. Cases set-
tled by volimtary agreement average to be approved by the
Commissioner and transmitted to l£e Clerk of the Superior Court
43 days after the injury is sustainefd. When, however, we deduct
the waiting period, together with the week allowable for the matur-
ity of the first payment, this delay is cut down to 26 days. This
average is, of course, rendered less favorable by certain cases which
for necessary and proper reasons, elsewhere referred to in this
report, are delayed.
The foregoing averages, however, fail to show the real &ctB as
to settlements. In our discussion of the topic **Advanoe Payments
to Needy Employees*' we refer to the manner in which payments are
made to an injured employee prior to the filing of tiie voluntary
agreement. Section 20 of the Act as amended provided for the
rendering of final reports by employers after all payments have
been made and the employee has returned to work. Among the
questions asked on form No. 33 is one requiring a statement as to
when the first payment was made. Computetion based upon a sufi^
cient number of typical cases thus reported to provide a fair average
show that payments are actually made by the employer, or his in-
surer, to the employee 30 days after the injury was sustained or
incapacity began. Deducting therefrom the waiting period and the
one week allowed thereafter for the maturity of tl^ first paymai^
we find that the actual delay in placing funds in the hands of the
injured employee is cut down to 12 days.
While this may not be ideal, it being the purpose of the l^is-
lature to provide a plan whereby compensation will be paid as
promptly and regularly as wages, we believe that under no compen-
sation act in any American state are payments made more prompily.
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8TATB OP CX>NNBOnOXTT- 23
This is, of course, due primarilj to the system of administration by
small districts placed under the jurisdiction of a single commission-
er. Constant efforts are being made by each Commissioner to re-
duce this average. We believe that as time goes on it will be so
reduced, because, as employers become more familiar with the Act
and its terms, they will report injuries to insurance companies more
promptiy. It is our belief that in the plants of large employers
carrjring their own risk, compensation is in most cases paid as
promptly after the termination of the waiting period as wages are
paid. It will be observed that, even unde^ the present practice,
payments reach the employee in one month's time after thev
cease to draw wages — ^in other words, as promptiy as wages reach
those employees who are paid by the month.
This naturally leads us to inquire concerning the extent to
which cases are appealed to the courts. It will be recalled that the
total number of claims settled, both by voluntary agreements and by
awards is 11,025, of which 533 were determined by formal hearing
and award. Of these cases 46, or 8.6%, have been appealed to the
Superior Court, of which 21 have been heard and decided, the re-
mainder being either pending or dropped. The length of time
elapsing between the date of appeal and the rendering of judgment
by the Superior Court has averaged about four months. Of the 12
cases appealed to the Supreme Court 6 have been decided, and 6 are
still pending. This shows that, of the cases heard and determined
by award, only 2.2% go to the Supreme Court.
Of course no appeal lies from a voluntary agreement, although
from the fact that the instrument is filed with tiie Superior Court
and an execution may be issued thereon, it is in the nature of a judi-
cial proceeding. If the number of claims actually settled is made
the basis of our computation, the percentage of claims reaching the
courts for adjudication becomes only four tenths of one per cent,
and that reaching the Supreme Court, one tenth of one per cent.
When, in connection with the foregoing figures revealing the
rapidity and lack of friction with which claims are settled, we take
into consideration the further fact that, in case of the 10,492 cases
settled by voluntary agreement the employee has been ordinarily
subjected to no expense whatever, and that, in nearly all of the 633
cases determined by hearing and award the expenses of the employee
have been limited to transportation to the place of hearing, plus a
small amount sometimes paid for witnesses or attorney's fee, we
must conclude that in this important respect the Act has justified
the most sanguine expectations of its advocates.
BEVOCATION OP INSUBBB'S LICENSE ON APPLICA-
TION OP COMMISSIONEBS.
The averages apj)^aring under the foregoing caption are
rendered less creditable 'to the commissioners and to the employers
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24 COMPENSATION G0MMI8SI0NEBS.
and insurance companies by the delinquency of certain individual
companies. We have observed that there is great difference between
insurance companies in respect to the manner in which they settle
their claims. While the number of cases in which there is resort
to technicalities or sharp practices is so small as to be here dis-
missed from consideration, the instances of dilatory and unbusi-
nesslike methods are quite considerable in number. Some compan-
ies endeavor to settle their claims by correspondence, asking the
employer to secure the execution of tiie papers and make the pay-
ments. Others employ no adjuster in the state, but delegate the
function of settling claims to their agents or solicitors, who in
many cases are unfamiliar with this aspect of the work and negligent
in giving it attention. Indeed, the Commissioner sometimes prac-
tically acts as adjuster for the insurance company, performing cleri-
cal duties which should be attended to by the company receiving the
premiums, in order that an injured employee may get his money
when he needs it. We deem this not only unfair to the employee,
but prejudicial to the interests of the great majority of insurers who
are making an honest and successful effort to comply promptly with
the act.
We therefore recommend that the General Assembly at its next
session enact legislation giving the Board of Compensation Commia-
sioners power to lodge complaint with the Insurance Commissioner
against any licensed insurer operating under the compensation act
and require a hearing before that official. In the event that it
be shown that such insurance company has failed to be reasonably
prompt in the settlement of cases, the insurance commissioner
should be given explicit authority to revoke or suspend the license
of such company. An insurance company which conducts a desul-
tory business in the state, occasionally picking up a risk here and
there, and adjusting it, or failing properly to adjust it, in the
manner above described, becomes in the nature of a nuisance. Its
methods are unjust to the employee, and, so far as we are able to
infer, probably unprofitable to itself.
Such insurers often fall back on the excuse that the employee
has failed to make a formal claim for compensation on the form pro-
vided by the commission. In so doing they are within their legal
rights, but any such insurer sooner or later finds itself in bad favor
with its patrons, who want their men paid when payment is due.
Early in our administration of the act we expressed to all insurers
and employers carrying their own risk the desire that, as soon as an
injury was reported calling for compensation, the employee be
promptly located and settled with. This request was generally com-
plied with. Only in doubtful claims which promise to reach a
hearing is it desirable or necessary that such notice be served. Those
companies that are most successful in securing business have been
also most prompt in settling claims — an inference which might
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8TATB OF OONNBOnOUT. 25
have been drawn on a priori grounds without the exercise of the
gift of prophesy.
CONCUEBENT PAYMENT TO BESIDENT AND NON-EES-
IDENT ALIENS.
The various amendments to the Act which we have from time
{o time recommended have usually been suggested by concrete in-
stances^ calling our attention to possible har<£hip and injustice un-
der the law in its existing condition. A type of such inequily is
found in the following case.
Recently a non-resident widow^ an Italian subject^ presented a
claim for compensation against the insurer of her husband's employ-
ers, her husband having sustained an injury which resulted in his
death. Under the law as it now stands it was necessary to rule
that this woman was not only the dependent^ but that she was
the sole dependent. As a non-resident alien she was entitled only
to one-quarter of the average wage of the husband. This woman
was of such defective mentdily that she has not been permitted to
land in this countiy. The deceased was a man of good character
and habits^ having in this countiy with him two married daughters
and an unfortunate boy about seventeen ^rs of age hopelessly
deficient both physically and mentally. No doubt existed but that
the insurance company would probably have been willing to have
paid for this unfortunate boy's use the sum of money equal to the
other quarter of the average wage of the deceased father^ but the
representative of the widow, taking the ground that he was entitled
to a iut«gn»en* according tv» law, blocked the pos5JbiU';y of agr>s-
nient. The net result is that eitheiv the town where the boy Uves,
or the husbands of his sisters, will have the burden cast upon them.
The following amendment to Section 10 of Part B is proposed to
avoid the future happening of such a hardship.
Provided that, if compensation be paid to a non-resi-
dent alien wife, husband, or child, or to non-resident alien
children, the amount of the reduction due to such alienage
shall be paid, in accordance with the rules of apportion-
ment herein provided, to such dependent or dependents,
other than dependents already entitled to compensation,
resident in the United States, or its dependencies or Can-
ada, if any there be, as would be entitled to compensation
were there no such husband, wife, child or children.
PROTECTION OP EMPLOYEES BY PBOCESS OP ATTACH-
MENT.
While the provisions of Section 30 of the Act, which in sub-
stance provide either that the employer shall satisfy the commis-
sioner having jurisdiction of his solvency, take out insurance with
some insurance company authorized to do business in this state by
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26 8TATB OP OONKBOnOUT.
the insurance department, or else lose the benefits of the act and be
subject to its burdens^ work well in the main, there are a large num-
ber of employers who sit still and do nothing, and we have no
knowledge of their business affairs until some employees of theirs
sustains an injury under such circumstances as to entitle him to re-
cover from such employer. We then find from time to time that
either the employer has so adjusted his afihirs as to make it impos-
sible to collect a judgment against him, or that he immediately
b^;^ to transfer his property to some one else for the purpose of
ayoiding payment of his just obligations.
From time immemorial it has been the custom in the New Eng-
land states, and particularly in Connecticut, to safeguard the col-
lectibility of a judgment by a process of mesne attachment at the
beginning of a suit. This process was properly made practically
inapplicable in compensation cases and ought not to be revived as
against those persons who have complied with tiie law and have
either demonstrated their solvency or taken out insurance with a
company of good standing ; but persons who ignore the law and plan
to defraud tiieir employees in case of injury ought not to be per-
mitted to carry out their plans. For that reason we suggest the
following amendment^authorizing the commissioners in the sever-
al districts to issue writs of attadmient against such persons, the
proper facts being brought to their attrition. The hundreds of
Superior Court commissioners and Justices of the Peace alrc^y
have that power in all other cases, and the history of tiie state has
shown that it is seldom abused by interested parties.
Section 1. Any person who has complied with the
provisions of Section 30 of Part B of Chapter 138 of the
Public Acts of 1913 as amended by Chapter 288 of the
Public Acts of 1915 by filing a bond or by insuring his full
liabilily may file in tiie o&e of the Compensation Com-
missioner for any district who may have jurisdiction. in
case of injury a certificate issuing out of the ofSce of the
Insurance Commissioner stating that such bond has been
filed, or a certificate from the insurer stating that such
insurance is in force, with the date of the expiration of
such bond or such insurance as the case may be, whidh
certificate shall thereupon become a part of the records
of the office of said compensation Commissioner.
Section 2. Whenever any person shall present in
writing to the Commissioner a claim for compensation,
either for injury sustained by himself arising out of and in
the course of his employment, or for injury resulting in
the death of some person of whom' he is an alleged depend-
ent, he may ask that a writ of attachment issue to secure
the pajrment of sUch claim or claims for compensation as
may arise out of the said injury.
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8TATB OF OONNBOnOUT. 27
Section 3. Unless it shall appear from the records
of the said Compensation Commissioner that there has
been a compliance with ^aid section 30 of Part B as
amended, which compliance is then eflfective, the said
Compensation Commissioner may issue a writ of attach-
ment in the manner and form of writs of attachment in
civil actions, and the said Commissioner is vested with
the same power and jurisdiction as are the authoi:Ltie8
authorized to issue writs of attachment in civil actions.
Section 4. Should any such writ be issued and
should it thereafter appear to the satisfaction of the Com-
pensation Commissioner issuing such writ that there has
been in point of fact a compliance with Section 30 of Part
B as amended, which compliance was then effective and
applicable to the injury in question, although not of
record in his ofSce, the said Compensation Commissioner
may thereupon vacate the said writ of attachment on the
payment by the employer of the expense actually incurred
under said writ of attachment.
Section 6. The several Compensation Commissioners
are vested with the power and jurisdiction of the various
courts to dissolve attachments made imder the authority
hereinbefore conferred and on the dissolution of an at-
tachment may require the substitution of a bond in the
same manner as may the several courts upon the dissolu-
tion of attachments in civil action.
FBIVOLOUS AND VEXATIOUS APPEALS.
One other change which we recommend is this. The present
statute provides in Section 27 that in case of an appeal to the
Superior Court no costs shall be taxed in favor of either party. A
recent case, where an appeal was taken to the Superior Court to the
next return date but one after the award, and the dependent widow
left without means of support for some two months, requiring the
services of an attorney to have the appeal struck from the docket,
indicates the possibility of abuse. We therefore suggest that the
law be so amended as to provide that, when an appeal from the
decision of a compensation Commissioner is taken to the Superior
Court and such appeal shall be, in the judgment, of such court,
frivolous or taken for purpose of vexation or delay, the Superior
Court shall be permitted to tax costs in its discretion.
DISCRIMINATION AGAINST DEFECTIVES.
One question not in terms referred to in the last Annual Re-
port, but discussed before the Judiciary Committee, is of import-
ance, and sooner or later will call for consideration by your Excel-
lency and by the legislature.There is a considerable number of per-
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28 COMPENSATION COMMISSIONERS.
sons who are able to work, desire to work and who are working and
supporting themselves and their families, but who have various
physical defects which make their employment impose a special
hazard on their employers. As an illustration may be mentioned
persons suflEering from total deafness who might not be able tQ avoid
danger like normal persons, those who have a tendency to epilepsy
and who are liable to be precipitated into a dangerous position by
reason of seizure, those who have chronic hernia liable to be aggra-
vated by their occupation, those who have varicose veins exposing
them to the risk of hemorrage by slight blows, and those suffering
from various forms of kidney disease where a slight cut or wound
will perhaps not heal at all, or if it does will take weeks or months
instead of days in healing. Various other defects of similar char-
acter exist, but it would te futile to try to give an inventory of them
all.
It is already noticed that many large manufacturers are care-
fully scrutinizing such cases, and when we receive from employees
notice of their refusal to accept the terms of the Compensation
law and particularly when we get from a nimiber of employees in a
particular factory notices that they have withdrawn their acceptance
of the terms of tiie compensation law, we are morally certain that,
while perhaps no threat or actual coercion has been used, it has
nevertheless been in a very real way brought to the attention of the
persons suffering from some such defect i^t continued employment
depends upon taking this action. A much fairer way of dealing
with these unfortunates would be to permit the employer to enter
into an agreement by virtue of which such person should stipulate
that, in the event of an injury occurring to hyn by reason of some
' named physical defect, he would make no claim for compensation,
and that this agreement should bind his dependents in case the in-
jury resulted in death. This would leave such employee entitled
to recover compensation for any injury not chargeable to the speci-
fic defect in question.
Such a provision, coupled with the further provision that such
agreement should not become effective until it has received the ap-
proval of the commissioner having jurisdiction, would, it seems to
us, safeguard the rights of all concerned.
The number of such people in any one establishment is small,
but in the aggregate there are many in the state, and as time goes
on physicial examinations are likely to be insisted upon and all this
class of people either practically forced to refuse to come under the
terms of the law or else denied an oppcyrtuniiy to labor.
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STATE OF CONNECTICUT. 29
CHAIRMAN BtrSSBLL.
We would deem this report incomplete if mention were not
made of Talcott H. Russell, who acted as chairman of our Board
during the earlier months of its existence. Mr. Russell's ill health,
which began pracHcally with the opening of the Board's term of
service, deprived us of much of the counsel and assistance which he
. was peculiarly qualified to render. A lawyer of ripe experience and
deep legal knowledge, he had been employed by the General Assem-
bly in its. 1911 session to draft a Workmen's Compensation Act,
and he later became chairman of the special commission raised by
the Assembly in the same session to investigate and report a draft
for an act to the 1913 sesi^on. It was upon this draft that the
present act was, to a large extent, founded. The present commis-
sioner for the Third District was employed by Mr. Russell from the
beginning of his term of office to assist him in the performance of
his duties, and in this way an administration of the office secured
similar in all respects to that prevailing in the other districts. Be-
cause of the continued illness of Mr. Russell, however, his sense of
public duty compelled him to ask to* be relieved from duties which
he was physically unable to perform. His resignation was there-
fore placed in your Excellency's hands on Mar. 16, 1915. Mr.
Russell's valuable services in aiding to place upon the statute books
of the state this piece of legislation, and in contributing to its earlier
administration, should receive formal recognition in a public docu-
ment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
We wish to acknowledge our indebtedness to the Board of Con-
trol for the policy of co-operation which it exercised in providing
out of the funds at its disposal for the printing and distributing of
the great number of bulletins and forms necessary for the educa-
tion of the public and the administration of the Act, prior to the
time when the legislative appropriation therefor made by the (Jen-
eral Assembly in its 19J.5 session became available. We are also
under obligation to those who have successively held the offices
of Attorney General and Comptroller during our term of office
for numerous courtesies and much wise counsel.
The counsel in matters of policy of Your Excellency and
your distinguished predecessor in office, which has been at all times
at our disposal and not infrequently sought, shotdd also be properly
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30 COMPENSATION 00MMI88I0NEB8.
acknowledged. The peroonal disinterestedness and judicial tem-
per which established and have maintained the admmistration of
this Act on a non-partisan and non-political basis reflect the best
traditions of the commonwealth^ and we would be singularly un-
mindful of our responsibilities and the circumstances of our ap-
pointment if we failed to accept with due gravity the trust confided
to us.
Bespectfully submitted^
Fbedebio M. Williams^ Chairman
Obobgb B. Chandlbb
James J. Donohub
Qbobob E. Beebs
Edward T. Buckingham.
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