xss-
jb ;
LATIN GRAMMAR.
LONDON : PRINTED BY
SPOTTIS\VOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
AND PARLIAMENT STREET
THE PUBLIC SCHOOL
LATIN GRAMMAR
FOR THE USE OF
SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, AND PRIVATE STUDENTS.
BY
BENJAMIN HALL KENNEDY, D.D.
REGIUS PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE,
AND CANON OF ELY.
Nihil ex grammatica nocuerit nisi quod super-vacuum e:~t ; neque enim
chstant hae disciplinae per illas euntibus, sed circa illas haerentibus.
QUINTIL. Inst. Orat. lib. i. cap. iv
LONDON :
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
1879.
PREFACE
TO
THE FIFTH EDITION.
i. BY AN AGREEMENT between the Proprietors and Mr. John
Peile, Fellow and Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge, it is
arranged that the ' Public School Latin Grammar/ with the books
akin to it, shall hereafter be revised by Mr. Peile as joint and,
in due time, sole Editor. Mr. Peile's merits as a classical and
Sanskrit scholar, and as an able teacher, are widely known.
Those who have the advantage of nearer acquaintance with
him will be assured that the maintenance and improvement of
these books, as means of public instruction, could not be
placed in safer keeping.
2. The First Edition of this Grammar, published in
January 1871, was introduced by the following Preface :
1 The " Public School Latin Grammar " is simply a develop-
ment of the Primer, in conformity with the design of those,
who, after accepting the latter book, entrusted to the same
Editor the preparation of the former. The difference between
the elementary compendium and the higher work is such as
might be justly expected. Whilst the general principles and
many of the paradigms are in both the same, in the Grammar
the subject-matter is arranged more systematically, the body
of examples very much increased, the illustration wider, and a
large amount of information is added, which in the Primer does
not appear at all.
342455
vi Preface.
i Yet a Grammar of this size does not profess to be an exhaus-
tive treatise on its subject. Competent and careful students,
who combine its use with the reading of authors and the prac-
tice of composition, so as to master its contents, ought indeed
to become Latin scholars of considerable width and power;
but they will still find much to learn in the field of Latin,
which must be gathered from special monographies by eminent
scholars, some of whom are occasionally cited in the following
pages.
'At the present time, when the science of Comparative
Philology has made such advance, that good living scholars
know far more of the history and organism of the Latin lan-
guage than was known to Quintilian and the old grammarians,
the publication of a Higher Latin Grammar, without reference
to the facts and principles of that science, would be a retro-
gressive and senseless act. It must, however, be remembered
that the chief end and aim of a Classical Latin Grammar is,
to impress upon the minds of students the forms and construc-
tions found in classical authors. Its office, therefore, is to use
Comparative Philology as a guide and auxiliary in teaching
Latin, not to teach Comparative Philology itself through the
medium of Latin. This principle has been kept in view by the
Editor throughout his work. The just mean is always hard to
observe j but he may venture to say that he has not strayed
from it wilfully. In the Appendix, indeed, and in a few other
places, he has thought it not inexpedient to cite some of the
most important affinities between Latin and other Aryan
languages and dialects ; but only with a view to point the path
of future study, not to furnish the student with a sufficient
knowledge of the several subjects there noticed/
3. The following passages are taken from the Preface to
the Second Edition, published in 1874 :
* Competent and candid critics are aware that a book of
this size, in spite of its title, is not meant for school use in the
same sense as the Primer and other lesson- books of a similar
kind. As a school-book (for there is no limit to its use by any
students who are capable of good private reading) masters can
use it in two ways : (i) by enforcing general or occasional
reference to its principles and rules in reading Latin authors ;
Preface. vii
(2) by requiring definite portions to be prepared for periodical
examinations conducted on paper as well as orally.
1 The present opportunity has been used to enlarge and
improve several departments of the Grammar, especially those
of Soundlore and Derivation. To discuss the physiology of
articulate sound has never entered into my plan. Were I
competent to undertake this, which is not the case, I should
hardly deem it suited to a book applying specially to Latin,
but rather appropriate to a more general work treating of the
Prolegomena to. Grammar.
t On the other hand, I have striven to bring out somewhat
more prominently than before the leading facts of Comparative
Philology, soxfar as they concern three kindred languages
Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit. The Sanskrit words in this Edition
are generally cited in their modern form. The term Primitive
Root is, however, used; in what sense, and by what right, ap-
pears in a Supplementary Note at the close of the Appendix.
' As I am now, by the kindness of those whom I was
bound to consult, authorised to attach my name to this Pre-
face, I think it right to notice the chief objections made to the
books on Latin Grammar with which I have been occupied.
' When the Primer was published, seven years ago, it was
right that it should be criticised, and certain that it would be
impugned ; nor could we expect that all criticism would be
equally candid and intelligent, or that every assailant would
choose his weapons from the armories of truth and reason
only.
' The chief objection urged against the Primer was this :
that it was too abstract and difficult for the use of children
beginning Latin. There would have been some weight in this
argument, if the purpose of the book had been rightly de-
scribed. But it was really designed as a class-book, not for
Elementary Schools and First Forms, but for all Forms in
Public Schools below the grade of those boys who could pass
with advantage to the use of a fuller Grammar. Other com-
panion books were in preparation for the instruction of children
at home or under private care ; and these have since been
published.
' It was, secondly, stated as a charge against the Primer, and
subsequently against this Grammar (in which the teaching of
the Primer is contained), that they " bristle with new, hard, and .
viii Preface.
uninviting terms." This charge, urged as it has been with much
persistence, and little concern for truth, must now be met by
some remarks on the terminology of Grammar, together with a
statement of my own feelings and practice in regard to it.
4. c Every science must have its own terminology. Grammar
is a science; and in Latin Grammar, as one of its departments,
there exist, I believe, more than three hundred technical terms.
Most of these are either actually Greek words, as Syntax^
Prosody, &c., or translated from Greek into Latin, as the names
of the Cases and Parts of Speech. Others are purely Latin, as
Gerund, Supine, Active, Passive Voice. Of these various terms,
whatever the original unfitness of some, the larger number have
struck their roots in literature so deeply and widely that any
attempt to extirpate them would be quixotic. Many, indeed,
are in themselves unmeaning or inadequate (as Gerund, Supine,
Deponent, Accusative, Genitive, Ablative); but the learner by
gradual experience is enabled to use them practically, which is
after all the end we wish to reach, though the road to it might
at several points have been improved. A few terms, which
are not only vicious, but really confusing, and at the same time
unessential, I have exchanged for better substitutes. Among
those so rejected are Neuter Verb, Neutropassiva, Neutralia
Passiva, Substantive Verb. Again, we find a considerable
number of cumbersome Greek terms (Heteroclita, Heterogenea,
Aptota, Diptota, Triptota, Tetraptota, with many of the names
given to what are called Figures of Speech), which are of little
use to learners. These may either be omitted, or, at least,
dismissed to some unconspicuous corner.
'This statement affords ample proof that no disposition
existed to place in the student's hands a Grammar, " bristling
with hard and uninviting terms/' though it is not unnatural
to ask what those " inviting" terms are which, like the
"crustula" of the "blandi doctores " in Horace's time, have
magic power enough to attract young learners, " elementa
velint ut discere prima."
6 But there is one important truth which many would-be
critics either ignore or forget. Grammar is not only a science,
but a science capable of constant improvement; and improve-
ment in science usually brings with it some change in termino-
logy, or some addition to it. Now, in every division of
Grammar, Soundlore, Wordlore, Syntax, and Prosody, vast
Preface. ix
strides have been made in this century through the fruitful
labours of scholars, chiefly German, some English ; whom I
would gladly recount here, were I not afraid of omitting some
name or names from so large a list. Accordingly it will be
found by those who study the works to which I allude, that the
terminology in each division has been more or less modified,
more or less enriched.
5. ( As respects my own contributions to Latin Grammar, in
the treatment of Soundlore and Wordlore I claim little origi-
nality. If I have compiled judiciously and correctly from the
works of great comparative philologers, so as to explain and
illustrate usefully the received facts of Latin word-formation, I
shall be amply satisfied with such credit. Again, in the Prosody
of this Grammar I have no share beyond the Table of Metres
and one of the Notes on Metre, containing little more than
tabular enumeration. The rest I owe to the kindness of my
friend Mr. Munro, whose recognised eminence as a scholar
needs no praise from me to enhance it.
' But the Analysis of Sentences (Simple and Compound)
which constitutes the Syntax of this book, has been, to a great
extent, the fruit of personal study, personal thought, personal
labour. Sketched out in the Syntax of my " Elementary Latin
Grammar," it is filled in, though far from reaching the fullness
of perfection, in the present Grammar.
6 1 speak from long personal experience when I say that any
capable mind, which has fully mastered the principles of those
pages (348-500, especially 348-359 and 434-500), will be able,
in reading any part. of Horace, Cicero, Livy, or Tacitus, to move
through their longest periods with a firm intellectual step,
realising, and, if need be, stating the raison cT&re of every
constructed word, especially (for this is the most crucial test)
the raison d'etre of mood and tense in every Subjunctive Verb.
The same mind, so prepared, and applying itself to write Latin,
will be free from the risk of using any wrong construction. Not
that the mastery of a grammatical Syntax alone will give the
student stylistic power and skill in composition. These belong
to the vis divinior, to inspiration drawn by a gifted nature from
the study of the best Latin authors themselves. To such study,
combined with practice, no scholar will hesitate to assign by far
the largest share in the formation of a good style whether of
prose or of poetry. But, in the course of reading, the student
x Preface.
cannot afford to neglect any valuable help ; and of all appli-
ances none is so valuable, none so indispensable, as a sound,
well-arranged, and lucid Grammar.
6. ' The study of any language with its grammar contains
more or less, according to the character of the language chosen,
the study of every language and its grammar, the study of language
in general and its grammar. The Greek and Latin languages
(illustrated by their sister, the Sanskrit) are best adapted for
this purpose, because their forms and constructions, themselves
grand, are fixed in two grand literatures. One who studies
these languages and their grammars cannot help studying to a
great extent, coordinately with them, his or her own native
language and its grammar. And the best mode and course of
study will be that which is so conducted as to make such co-
ordination as effectual and as widely instructive as possible.
The principal reason why translation into Greek and Latin
Verse as well as Prose deserves to be retained in the practice
of classical instruction I hold to be this, that it is a valu-
able exercise in the acquirement not only of those two dead
languages, but of the learner's native living language at the
same time.
7. ' A book like the " Public School^ Latin Grammar " does
not pretend to exhaust the subjects of which it treats subjects
on which many large volumes may be, and have been, written
but it carries the student very far on his road, and points and
smooths the path of future acquirement.
8. ' I return to speak of my Latin Syntax, by which alone, so
far as I know, my works on Grammar have obtained the favour
and confidence of eminent scholars engaged in public instruction.
' The treatment of Latin Syntax has in the present century
passed through a revolution scarcely less considerable than the
treatment of Etymology.
* The means by which this revolution has been wrought are :
(i) the application to the whole doctrine of Syntax of the cor-
relative logical terms Subject- Predicate and Subject- Object,
with the principles they imply ; (2) the distinction between the
Simple and Compound Sentence, and between the several
kinds of each, with the consecution of tenses in them ; (3)
the distinction between Oratio Recta and Oratio Obliqua, with
the various affections which clauses subordinate to Oratio
Obliqua receive.
Preface. xi
'We owe to the perspicacity and learned labours of
various writers, chiefly German, the reforms made in Latin
Syntax. I cannot assign to each his due share. The Grote-
fends. Kriiger, Zumpt, O. Schulz, Ram shorn, Kiihner, Madvig,
Key, have each their special merits. Of these I place Raphael
Kiihner in the first rank ; and I am much indebted to Grieben's
" Lateinische Satzverbindungen." In our own country the
scholastic study of this part of Grammar was usefully promoted
by the Exercise-books of T. Kerchever Arnold.
6 These reforms brought into the teaching of Latin Syntax,
besides the terms already named, a certain number more, per-
haps from forty to fifty, including the names given to the seve-
ral varieties of the Simple and Compound Sentence, with their
subdivisions ; including also the terms Protasis and Apodosis
in sentences which, like the Conditional, take these parts.
9. ' As regards the new terms which my own improvements
have suggested, three alone have frequent and important prac-
tical use ; the value of which I insist on as very great. These
are, (i) Prolative (Infinitive) ; (2) Copulative Verbs, introduced
first in my " Elementary Grammar"; (3) Suboblique (clause
or verb), a convenient abridgment of the necessary phrase
" Subordinate to Oratio Obliqua."
' Further, it appeared that the doctrine of copulative predi-
cation in Grammar required, for its clear statement, the use of
some terminology from which the term predicate itself should
be excluded ; and this was at length found in the term used by
Mr. C. P. Mason, (predicative) Complement.
' I say then, generally, that a new term proposed in Grammar
is not to be condemned because it is new; but, if at all, for
one of three reasons : that it is superfluous ; or that it is in-
adequate > or because a better term is suggested. As respects
myself, I repeat that I have not the least disposition to use
hard terms ; and I say that those which I have introduced are
unjustly so described. But I cannot adopt the poor pedantry
which refuses to facilitate and abridge discourse by the use of
suitable terms ; to write, for instance (after due explanation)
" Collective Subject" rather than "Nominative Singular of a
Substantive which implies a multitude of persons or things " :
and " Composite Subject " rather than " two or more singular
Nominatives agreeing with one plural Verb."
xii Preface.
10. 'My "Elementary Latin Grammar," first published in
1843, obtained, after twenty years, approval so wide, that its circu-
lation approached 8,000 copies annually : and, during those years,
not a single complaint affecting its terminology was heard either
from the public press or from the eminent teachers who used it
in their schools. Such attacks broke out when it was adopted
as the groundwork of a new school grammar; and their
justice may be tested both by this fact, and by comparing
the imaginary difficulty imputed to a few new terms in the
Primer, with the many and great obstacles existing in its chief
predecessor, Lilly's Grammar.'
11. In the Preface to the Third and Fourth Editions certain
portions of Syntax were discussed. Those discussions, being
of signal importance to the right appreciation of Latin Com-
pound Construction, will here be repeated generally: but with
partial suppression of some topics and enlargement of others.
I. The Doctrine of Predication.
12. This Doctrine is treated ( 100-106) in agreement with
the principles now received in air Continental Latin Grammars,
and in most Grammars of the English language, but with some
slight variations in the mode of treatment. Logic and
Grammar are akin to one another ; but their spheres are
different. Logic is the Grammar of reasoning : it develops
6 the laws of thought/ Grammar is the Logic of language : it
displays the rules and idioms of discourse. The Correlation
and the Terms Subject- Predicate are necessary to both sciences.
But the scope of these terms is not the same in both.
If we take a Simple Sentence, such as ' beneficium male
collocatum nocet (noxium est) hominum societati/ we see that
the Logical Subject of this proposition is ' beneficium male
collocatum/ but the Grammatical Subject of the sentence is
' beneficium,' of which 'male collocatum' is an adjunct.
Again, the Logical Predicate is 'noxium/ the Grammatical
Predicate ' nocet ' or ' noxium est/ of which ' hominum socie-
tati ' is an adjunct. Hence appears the propriety and necessity
(if confusion is a thing proper and necessary to be avoided) of
distinguishing the terms Subject and Predicate in Grammar
by the epithet 'Grammatical.' As for the terms Subject-
Preface. xiii
Predicate themselves, they have now so firm a footing in the
science of Grammar that they cannot be excluded from it, if
their exclusion were desirable. See * Predicate ' in Index I.
The Subject is 'id quod Praedicato subjectum est' : the
Predicate is ' id quod de Subjecto praedicatum est.' The com-
bination of the two (as Kiihner says : f Ausfuhrliche Grammatik
der Lat. Spr.,' Part iii. i) is rightly called the Predicative
Relation, because the Predicate (or Verbal notion) is the kernel
of speech, to which the Substantival notion stands in subjection,
and is therefore called Subject ; often indeed expressed by the
endings of the Verb (am-o, ama-s, &c.).
When I was preparing my ( Elementary Latin Grammar '
forty years ago, being in some dread of interference with Logic,
I took for my type of simple predication, 'homo est mortalis.'
But, when the Primer was compiled in 1866, the four Oxford
scholars engaged in that work unanimously held that (in
Grammar) Subject and Finite Verb are the true norm (homo
moritur), and that Incomplete Predication (of the form
homo est mortalis) should be taken afterwards as the large
exception. This settled the question then, in accordance (as
before noticed) with the practice of all continental writers : and
a verdict thus authoritatively and generally pronounced is
surely entitled to acceptance.
II. Complement (of Predication).
13. This suitable and useful term was first suggested by
Mr. C. P. Mason in his ' English Grammar,' to designate that
which completes the sense of a Simple Sentence when the verb is
one * of incomplete Predication ' (called ' Copulative ' in this
Grammar, p. 351).
In sentences such as ' homo moritur (est mortalis),' we
have seen above that the Grammatical Predicate is (not
4 mortalis,' but) ' moritur ' or ' est mortalis.' Donaldson's
expedient, of using the terms ' primary, secondary, tertiary '
predicate, I cannot approve. It confounds confusion, invades
the domain of Logic gratuitously, and carries into the rules of
Grammar the use of a word (predicate), which, however
necessary to the preamble of Syntax, as the correlative of
Subject, may be replaced afterwards by the term Finite Verb
(or Verb of the Sentence) with great advantage. All confusion
is happily avoided by the term f Complement,' which is wide
xiv Preface.
enough to include every word or phrase capable of completing
the construction of a Copulative Verb, whether finite or
infinitive. See the Examples on p. 352.
III. Relations in the Simple Sentence.
14. Mr. Mason, in his ' English Grammar/ following Becker's
' Organism der Sprache/ treats of the Relations of Words in
the Simple Sentence. The ' Public School Latin Grammar '
does the same. One of our critics regards these Relations as
' spurious children of Logic and Grammar/ But he has failed
to interpret the procedure rightly. It is as purely grammatical
as any procedure can be, which admits (what no grammarian
can now exclude) the correlations Subject- Predicate and
Subject-Object.
Two of Mr. Mason's c Relations/ the Predicative (I.) and
the Objective (III.)? are tn e same, in title and extent, as those
of this Grammar. His ' Attributive ' Relation contains the
Qualitative (II. ), but is more extensive: his * Adverbial'
Relation contains the Circumstantive (V.), but is more
extensive.
Mr. Mason was dealing with English, a language of rare
inflexions, using Prepositions in their stead. I deal with
Latin, a largely inflected language. But even in English the
Genitive should not be merged in the Attributive Relation, and
the Dative Case in the Adverbial (Circumstantive): much less
in Latin. For, true as it is that numerous instances of the
Genitive are attributive in character, and that many Datives
might be replaced by Preposition with case (i.e. adverbially) ;
still there remain very many examples of each case which
cannot be so represented, and this fact, combined with that
signal distinction between forms of construction, which merits
distinct treatment in Grammar, leads to the conclusion that
the Dative and Genitive Cases ought to rank as separate
Relations. The Dative is therefore classed here under the
6 Receptive ' (IV.), and the Genitive under the * Proprietive '
Relation (VI.).
Relation VI L, that of ' the Prolative Infinitive/ appeared
for the first time in the ' Public School Latin Primer.' It com-
prises all the instances in which the Infinitive extends (profert)
the construction of words capable of being followed in de-
pendence by a Copulative Infinitive with Nominative Com-
Preface. xv
plement. See 180. In the 'Elementary Latin Grammar 7
the Infinitive with some of these Verbs (soleo, possum, &c.)
was called Objective ; with others (videor, dicor, &c.) Predi-
cative (i.e. complemental). But these shifts never satisfied : for
if, in * soleo errare,' the Infinitive is Object of ' soleo,' it is an
unique Object : and if, in ( videor errare,' the Infinitive is predi-
catively complemental (which in some sense it is), its character
as a ' Complement' is widely distinct from that of an Adjective
or Substantive (which qualify the Subject), and from every other
instance in p. 352. And how, on the same principle, can we
analyse without the most unpleasant confusion such sentences
as these?
Marcus putatur velle fieri philosophus. Sapientis est velle
fieri doctiorem.
At length a conviction was reached, that this usage of
Grammar (common to all Aryan languages at least) deserves
separate classification as a specialty of the Infinitive Verb-noun.
Madvig's mode of treating this construction is not essentially
different in principle. Under one head ( 180) this Grammar
gives what he sets forth in three places ( 389, 393, 400). He
treats in one and the same chapter of the Infinitive in Oratio
Recta and Oratio Obliqua. Deeming it right and important to
keep Simple and Compound Construction apart, we consider in
Chapter III. the Infinitive of Oratio Recta, in Chapter IV.
that of Oratio Obliqua. But when Madvig speaks of the
Infinitive as joined to these (extensible) Verbs 'urn den
Begriff zu erganzen und die Handlung zu ergeben ' (to complete
the idea and supply the action), this is exactly what is meant by
the Prolative Relation of the Infinitive : and it is very much
the same as the use of the Infinitive, in German and English,
with those Verbs which some grammarians have very inade-
quately called ' auxiliary' (ich will, soil, kann, muss, &c.
kommen : I will shall can must, &c. come) . The con-
struction belongs also to French, a Romance (latinistic)
language. For though French inflects (with Latin) / will
come, I would come, by 'je viendrai, je viendrais,' it falls in
with Latin, German, English, in saying je peux je veux je
de'sire j'ose, &c. venir. It is unquestionably true that after
many of these Verbs the Infinitive may be called an Object by
anybody who wishes to do so, as in 'vincere scis, tu sais
vaincre,' * cupis abire, tu de'sires partir,' &c. The use of the
xvi Preface.
Verb-noun as an Object is recognised in 179. But the
reasons in favour of accepting a distinct Relation wherever the
test of ( esse/ &c. with Nominative will apply are decidedly
preponderant. If an example be adduced like this in Horace,
C. i. 2:
hie magnos potius triumphos
hie ames did pater atque princeps,
and if it be asked whether, as triumphos is Object of ames,
did does not also stand in the same construction, the reply is
that Latin writers, especially poets, often construct one Verb
with dependence of two kinds : so Verg. Aen. iii. 234 :
sociis tune arma capessant
edico et dira bellum cum gente gerendum.
1 Ames/ in the lines of Horace, first takes an Accus. Object
triumphos, and then a Prolative Infin. did, with its comple-
ments. The example belongs to that kind of construction
which grammarians have called Zeugma. See 61.
Our last Relation, the Annexive (VIII.), is in kind dif-
ferent from the other seven. It is really no more than a com-
pendious method, by which a word B is noted as assignable to
the same Relation with a preceding word A. It is a con-
venient substitute for those cumbersome and yet incomplete
rules which in the old School Grammars were meant to account
for the cases, moods, &c. of words linked to others by various
conjunctions. See Supplementary Note II. p. 579.
15. There are two great facts in Grammar which the
student of language should always bear in mind :
(1) Few Definitions are free from examples which occa-
sionally stray beyond the precincts there laid down, to enter
those of another Definition. For instance : a Substantive may
sometimes become an Adjective (rex, regina, raptor, victor,
victrix, &c.) : an Adjective or Participle often becomes a
Substantive (sapiens, utile, utilia, adulescens, sponsus, dictum,
&c.) : a Verb contains a Noun among its forms : a Noun
sometimes takes the functions of a Verb : an Adverb becomes
a Preposition, a Preposition an Adverb : Declensions encroach
upon one another ; and so on.
(2) A Norm or Rule may be liable to numerous exceptions:
Preface. xvii
and yet, even if the excepted instances could be shewn to equal
or even exceed in number the instances which obey the rule,
the Norm ought to remain paramount, and not to be extended
in order to recognise such instances as normal. See 101.
Thus, referring to (i), all Annexed Words belong to some
one or more of the other Relations also. Every Complement,
belonging, as such, to I. will fall under some other Relation
also. Of those which occur in the examples, p. 354, the first
six fall under II., the seventh and eighth under VI., the tenth
under IV., the ninth and eleventh under V. Most examples
of Relation VI. and some of IV. V. are akin to II., being
attributive in sense, but excluded from II. because they appear
as caseforms, and not in attributive concord.
1 6. The foregoing observations shew that, in the mode of
treating these Relations, there is no spurious intrusion of
Logic into Grammar. The Dative is not merged in the
category of Circumstance, nor the Genitive in that of Attri-
bution (Qualitative). Each case has its own sphere : the Nomi-
native (as Subject-case) and the First Concord are in I., the
Accusative as Case of nearer Object is in III., the Dative as
remoter Object-case in IV., the Ablative (with the Accusative
depending on Prepositions) in V., the Genitive in VI. The
Concords 2, 3, 4, come under II.; the peculiar use of the
Infinitive under VII., the linking by Conjunctions under VIII.
Afterwards, the Vocative and all Interjectional usages lying
out of the Sentence are separately treated, and then the theory
of the Relative. Grammar is followed, Grammar kept in view,
throughout.
Experience proves that such a synopsis of the Simple
Sentence does materially help many students to read with more
profitable appreciation the rules that follow, and, reviewed
again at the close, will map the subject in their minds more
lucidly and more enduringly.
IV. Ellipse of the Finite Forms of 'Sum.'
17. This topic is considered in the note on p. 428 : see also
99, Munro on Lucr. ii. i, with the authorities there cited.
The ellipse occasionally creates misinterpretation, participles
finitely used being sometimes mistaken for mere participles
(Hor. C. i. 37. 25; ii. 9. 15), and again mere participles
having been regarded as finite : thus in Verg. B. ii. 40 :
xviii Preface.
praeterea duo nee tuta mihi valle reperti
capreoli, sparsis etiam nunc pellibus albo,
bina die siccant ovis ubera; quos tibi servo.
Wagner and Ribbeck have a semicolon after ' albo/ thus
apparently making 'reperti' finite: but the tenour of the
passage indicates that ' capreoli siccant 7 is the principal predi-
cation, and ' reperti ' a mere participle.
The ellipse of ' esse ' in oblique construction, when the par-
ticiples perfect, future, or gerundive occur as accusatives in
dependence, is familiar to every reader of Latin authors in
prose and poetry. But the Prolative construction, by which
the Nominatives of these Participles are used as Infinitives
without ' esse/ is not by any means so generally and so well
understood by young scholars. They are therefore advised to
study with care the note on 180 in this Grammar, and to
collect other examples of this construction (the Participles in
the Nominative as Infinitives without ' esse '), which are not
duly recognised in Madvig's Grammar. It may perhaps be
more clearly exhibited by setting side by side the Accusative
(Oblique) and the Nominative (Prolative) constructions in a
few examples.
a. T. Manlium locutum ferunt,
T. Manlius locutus fertur, Liv.
b. Ferunt Promethea coactum . . .
Fertur Prometheus coactus . . . Hor.
c. Delectum habendum putant,
Delectus habendus putatur.
d. Omnes secuturos verisimile est,
Omnes secuturi videntur.
e. Graeciam collisam narrant,
Graecia collisa narratur, Hor.
f. Memorant quendam solitum . . .
Memoratur quidam solitus, . . . Hor.
g. Credimus Athon velificatum,
Creditur Athos velificatus, luv.
h. Ferunt genetricem adfatam lovem,
Fertur genetrix adfata lovem, Verg. ix. 82.
In every one of these examples ' esse ' is to be mentally
supplied its construction being Oblique ( 194) in each
former Prolative ( 180) in each latter line.
Preface. xix
V. 1 8. Some nice points of Syntax have been either over-
looked or inadequately treated. Such are the Substantival
constructions with ut and quod, in place of an Infinitive
Clause. See 195-6. Still more unfortunate has been the
treatment of constructions ranked in this Grammar under the
title Petitio Obliqua, 197. A disposition is shewn by some
writers to make these mere varieties of the Adverbial (Final)
Clause with ut, ne, although their prominence and importance
in Narratio Obliqua ( 230) prove their just rank as one of the
three varieties of dependent Substantival Clauses, which con-
stitute Oratio Obliqua. The Statement (Accusative and In-
finitive) and the Question assert themselves, as it were, and
cannot be ignored : but the Dependent Petition has to wage
a sort of rivalry with other constructions of ut, ne, in order to
obtain its just place in Grammar, as representing an Oblique
1 permission, command, or request. 7 The examples which
Madvig cites in 403-4, shewing the juxtaposition in Narratio
Obliqua of indirect statements, commands, and questions,
might have shewn him the true order in which the three ought
to be treated.
' Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in earn
part em ituros atque Vsifuturos Helvetia s, ubi eos Caesar con-
stituisset atque esse voluisset : sin bello persequi perseveraret,
reminisceretur et veteris incommodi populi Romani et .pristinae
virtutis Helvetiorum . . . quare ne committeret ut is locus, ubi
constitissent, ex calamitate populi Romani . . . nomen caperet. ;
Caes. B. G. i. 13.
* Cum vellet, congrederetur ; intellecturum quid invicti
Germani .... virtute possent.' Caes. B. G. i. 38.
' Duces pronuntiare iusserunt : " ne quis ab loco discederet ;
illorum esse praedam atque illis reservari quaecumque Romani
reliquissent : proinde omnia in victoria posita existimarent? '
Caes. B. G. v. 34.
6 Cicero respondit : " non esse consuetudinem populi Romani
accipere ab hoste armato condicionem : si ab armis discedere
velint, se adiutore utantur legatosque ad Caesarem mittant ;
sperare, pro eius iustitia quae petierint impetraturos." ' Caes.
B. G. v. 42.
' Nuntia Romanis : " caelestes ita velle ut mea Roma caput
orbis terrarum sit : proinde rem militarem colant; sciantque
a 2
xx Preface.
et ita posteris tradant, nullas opes humanas armis Romanis
resistere posse."' Liv. i. 16.
'Exprobrant multitudini : " saginare plebem populares suos,
ut iugulentur. hoccine patiendum fuisse, si ad nutum dictatoris
non respondent vir consularis ? fingerent mentitum ante, atque
ideo non habuisse quod turn responderet : cui servo umquam
mendacii poenam vincula fuisse ? " ' Liv. vi. 1 7.
' Blaesus multa dicendi arte, " non per seditionem et turbas
desideria militum ad Caesarem/mw/tf," ait ; " neque veteres ab
imperatoribus priscis neque ipsos ab divo Augusto tarn nova
petivisse\ et pariim in tempore incipientes principis curas
onerari : si tamen tenderent in pace temptare quae ne civilium
quidem bellorum victores expostulaverint, cur contra morem
obsequii, contra fas disciplinae vim meditenturl decemerent
legates seque coram mandata darent" ' Tac. Ann. i. 19.
' Eo in metu arguere Germanicum omnes, quod non ad supe-
riorem exercitum fcrgeret, ubi obsequia et contra rebellis auxi-
lium: "Satis superque missione et pecunia et mollibus consultis
pcccatum ; vel si vilis ipsi salus, cur filium parvulum, cur gravi-
dam coniugem inter furentes et omnis human! iuris violatores
haberett illos saltern avo et reipublicae redder et."' Tac. Ann.
i. 40. See do. do. ii. 15.
' post paulo scribit sibi milia quinque
esse domi chlamydum ; partem vel tolleret omnes. 7
Hor. Epist. i. 6. 43.
Compare Verg. Aen. iv. 683 :
date volnera lymphis Abluam, <S:c.
Aen. vi. 884 :
manibus date lilia plenis Purpureos spargam Mores, c.
The true construction, 'date abluam,' grant me to wash
away, ' date spargam/ grant me to scatter, &c, has in each place
been recognised fully by no commentator except Ladewig.
If commentators who have fallen into error respecting them
had been familiar with the principles of ' Petitio Obliqua,' they
would have seen that the Subjunctives depend as Objects on
* date/ like * colamus ' in the following lines of an Inscription
to Silvanus found at Aime in France :
tu me meosque reduces Roman sistito
Itala rura te colamus praeside. Coll. Orell. 1613.
Preface. xxi
Had t sinite ' been written instead of ' date ' (and there is no
real difference) the mistake would not have been made.
VI. 19. Chapter VI. of Part I., Division ii. ( 61-99), on
the Uses of Words, though subjoined to Wordlore, may be read
by those who have already studied Latin Syntax to some extent
in a shorter Grammar with suitable practice. It unavoidably
contains many topics (as, Ellipsis and Zeugma, Prepositions,
Correlation, Mood), which belong in principle to the construc-
tion of Sentences, and which many grammarians, as Madvig,
intermingle with the rules of Syntax, thereby, we think, sadly
breaking the continuity, and obscuring the doctrine of these
latter, as intended to develop the construction of Sentences,
Simple and Compound.
To those who study this Grammar we strongly recommend
the adoption of the following order, in studying the laavs of
Words constructed in Sentences; i.e. Syntax.
(1) Wordlore, Division ii., Chapter VI., Sections i.-viii.
( 61-89).
(2) Wordlore, Division ii., Chapter II., Section x. (Numerals,
32-34).
(3) Syntax, Chapters I., II., III., IV., Section i. ( 100-189).
(4) Uses of the Verb (Wordlore, 90-99).
(5) Syntax continued ( 190-250).
The whole Chapter on the Uses of Words may be reperused
with advantage at the close of such a course.
VII. 20. The systematic order in which the Doctrine of
Sentences is drawn out is the chief characteristic feature of this
^Grammar.
Chapter I. of Part II. ( 100) sets forth :
(1) The distinction of Sentences as Simple or Compound.
(2) The three forms of the Simple Sentence :
Statement (enuntiatio) : Will-speech (petitio) : Question
; (mterrogatio).
(3) The forms which these three severally take when, being
subordinated in compound construction, they become Substan-
tival Clauses :
Oblique Statement : Oblique Will- speech : Oblique Question.
Chapter II. ( 101-106) contains :
The Analysis of the Simple Sentence, and the eight Rela-
xxii Preface.
tions comprised in it : adding to these the Interjectional use
of the Vocative and other Cases similarly interposed.
Chapter III. ( 107-188) contains :
Rules and Examples of construction in the Simple Sentence
(Agreement : Cases : Infinitive with Gerunds and Supines).
Chapter IV. ( 189-240) treats of:
The Compound Sentence, in five Sections.
Section I. takes up the topic begun in Chapter I., and shews :
(1) Subordinate Clauses, of three kinds ;
Substantival ( 100) : Adverbial : Adjectival :
(2) Adverbial Clauses, of seven kinds :
(3) Adjectival Clauses, being in some kinds substitutes for
Adverbial (see 204).
Section II. states the laws of Mood in subordination to
Oratio Obliqua, actual and virtual, with examples.
Section III. contains :
Rules and Examples of the construction of the three
varieties of Substantival Clauses :
(1) Oblique or Indirect Statement (enuntiatio obliqua).
(2) Oblique or Indirect Will-speech (petitio obliqua).
(3) Oblique or Indirect Question (interrogatio obliqua).
Section IV. contains :
Rules and Examples of Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses
treated in connexion with one another.
Section V. forms a Supplement, treating of:
(1) Consecution of Tenses :
(2) Narratio Obliqua :
(3) Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses :
(4) Participial Construction.
VIII. 21. The scheme of Latin construction thus shewn
forms an edifice of its doctrine, from which no stone can be
taken away or displaced without damage to the whole fabric. 1
1 Let me here state my meaning more distinctly.
i. I consider it desirable that the Uses of Words and the Rules of
Construction should be kept generally distinct : but I deem it essential
that the Uses of the Verb and the Doctrine of Moods should be learnt
before the Laws of Compound Construction. This opinion is illustrated ia
Appendix II. to the ' Public School Latin Primer ' (years 1878 c.).
Preface. xxiii
Nor can a single fact or principle laid down in it be denied
by any one who is able to recognise facts in language, and to
deduce principles from them correctly.
(1) The Simple Sentence has three Varieties :
i. Vales: 2. Vale: 3. Valesne?
Can this be denied ?
(2) Each Variety can be subjoined (with some formal
change) to a principal Predication ; such junction being a
1 Compound Sentence/ the subordinate or dependent member
in which we term ' the Clause.'
1. Audio (constat) te valere.
2. Opto (optandum est) ut valeas.
3. Quaero (quaeritur) (die) valeasne.
Can this be denied ?
(3) Each of these Clauses is related as Object or Subject to
the Verb on which it depends.
1. I hear (it is evident) What? That you are well.
2. I wish (my wish must be) What ? That you be well.
3. I ask (it is asked) (say) W r hat ? Whether you are well.
Can this be denied? (See it even in Madvig, 2o8b, 398a.)
2. It is essential that Syntax should take for its starting-point the
three forms of a simple sentence and their transformation into clauses
when they become subordinate.
3. It is essential that the study of Simple and that of Compound
Sentences should be treated in distinct parts of the Grammar, and that the
rules for the Simple Infinitive, with Gerunds and Supines, should be in-
cluded under the Simple Sentence, leaving the Infinitive Clause (though
it may be cursorily mentioned) to take its proper place at the head of
Compound Construction.
4. It is essential that the Doctrine of Compound Construction should
take for its starting-point the threefold distinction of Substantival,
Adverbial, and Adjectival Clauses, shewing the intimate relation of the
two latter classes.
5. It is essential that the Substantival Ut-clause and the Substan-
tival Quod-clause should be shewn in their true place as succursal to. the
Infinitive Clause, with due notice of the relation which they severally
imply to Consecutive and Causal Construction.
6. It is highly important that (while the term Conjunctive is given
to the Mood generally) the term Subjunctive should be confined to its
subordinate use.
7. The distinction of Compound and Complex Sentences, which some
English grammarians use, is superfluous in Latin. That of Coordinate
and Subordinate Clauses ( 100) answers the purpose adequately.
xxiv Preface.
(4) Therefore each of these Clauses has the property of a
Substantive, and is justly termed < Substantival/
Can this be denied ?
(5) Of other Subordinate Clauses, those which answer the
adverbial questions how, for what purpose, why, when, on
what condition, &c. are justly termed Adverbial Clauses (Con-
secutive, Final, &c.). See 189 B.
There can be no just reason to deny this.
[All Relative Clauses formed by qui or a particle expli-
cable by a case of qui, as quo, unde, cur, &c., may be called
Adjectival, having the attributive nature of Adjectives. But in
this Grammar ( 189 C, 204, &c.) the term is applied only to
those Relative Clauses which determine Mood to be Subjunc-
tive : such as: Quis est tarn impius qui parentem feriat? =
ut feriat ? Missi sunt qui specularentur = ut specularentur :
Miseret me tui qui tantum desipias = quum . . . desipias : and
the like. The larger power of the term Adjectival, as belonging
to any Relative Clause, should not be forgotten, though its use
is needed here alone to complete the analogy.]
This classification of Clauses, as Substantival, Adverbial,
and Adjectival, is recognised by the soundest German gram-
marians, Kriiger, Kiihner, Feldbausch, Grieben, and many
others. Its omission is among the chief faults of Madvig's
Syntax.
(6) Returning to Substantival Clauses (2), we observe that
each of the Clauses is indirect, i.e. dependent on a Verb, which
is itself direct, i.e. independent. This indirect speech is called
by general consent of grammarians * Oratio Obliqua,' and that
on which it depends is called ' Oratio Recta ; (direct speech).
Thus it appears, that all three forms of the Substantival Clause
constitute Oratio Obliqua. This is allowed, though haltingly
and inadequately, by Madvig, 403, Obs. i. The chief
reason why oblique statement (te valere) has been ' specially
called ' Oratio Obliqua is this : that ordinary discourse in prose
consists mainly of. statements. Another reason is, that the
indirect expression of the Imperative (bidding-speech or will-
speech) is not so manifestly distinguishable from other forms as
the Infinitive Clause (te valere), about which there can be no
mistake. See what is said above of Petitio Obliqua. The
student is strongly advised to keep this larger sense of the
term Oratio Obliqua always in mind, and to fortify it by careful
Preface. xxv
study of Oblique Narration, as used by Livy, Sallust, and
Tacitus. He may also consult with advantage the Syntaxis
Vergiliana in our edition of Virgil, pp. 664, &c.
(7) The limits of Oratio Obliqua being thus established as
coincident with Substantival Clauses, we pass to the Mood of
Verbs in subsequent Clauses depending on them, which we
therefore call 'Suboblique,' that is, 'Subordinate to Oratio
Obliqua.' The rules on this subject are given in 190-193,
because the constructions resulting from them occur in many
of the examples cited in the sections following.
The Conjunctive is, by its nature, the Thought-mood or mood
of conception. Hence, when a finite verb in secondary depen-
dence forms part of the same conception as the Oratio Obliqua
in primary dependence, it is put in the Subjunctive (dependent
Conjunctive). See Example in 190 I. So also :
Apud Hypanim fluvium Aristoteles ait bestiolas quasdam
nasci, quae unum diem vivant, Cic. T. D. i. 39. Perspicuum
est, non esse utilia, quae sint turpia, Cic. Off. iii.
With the other examples on p. 437 of this Grammar, and
those in ' Public School Latin Primer,' p. 167. This doctrine
is laid down in all Latin grammars.
IX. 22. So also Rule 193, which states that a subjunc-
tive is used in dependence on another Verb in the Conjunc-
tive Mood, is in the nature of a corollary to Rule 190, and is
not disputed. Rule 191 relates to implied or virtual Oratio
Obliqua. The doctrine on this subject I have somewhere
seen described as a mystery, too abstruse for anybody to
understand or study. Now the differential calculus, or loga-
rithms, or even decimal fractions, remain a mystery to those
who have not taken the trouble to learn them. But Grammars
are written for those who are willing to learn, and who
wish to know well what they profess to know at all. It seems,
therefore, that a few words here may not be wasted in the
endeavour to clear up a subject which, after all, has nothing
in it mysterious. For this purpose, it is best to begin with
the simplest obvious examples. Compare, then, the two fol-
lowing places in Cicero's Treatise * De Officiis ' :
(1) Cyrenaici . . . virtutem censuerunt esse lau-
dandam, quod efficiens esset volupfatis, iii. 33.
(2) Laudat Africanum Panaetius, quod fuerit abstinens,
ii. 22.
xxvi Preface.
We say that ' virtutem esse laudandam ' (actually) is Oratio
Obliqua, on which ( quod esset ' depends, and is therefore
Subjunctive, being suboblique.' We say that ' laudat ' (virtually)
contains Oratio Obliqua, and that 4 quod fuerit,' depending on
it, is ' virtually suboblique.'
Such is our proposition. Let us consider it.
First, as to ' quod esset' in sentence (i).
' Virtutem esse laudandam ' is Oratio Obliqua in its principal
form of Accus. with Infin, (Infinitive Clause), and a Finite
Verb really depending on such a form will be Subjunctive
because the reason given for virtue being praiseworthy as well
as the fact itself is referred to the mind of the Cyrenaics, and
for this purpose the Thought-mood (Conjunctive) is employed.
Such is the rationale of a Subjunctive ' actually subordinate to
Oratio Obliqua,' or (for brevity's sake) 'suboblique.'
Secondly, as to ' quod fuerit/ in Sentence (2),
Do we utter ' a mystery ' when we say, that a person who
is said to praise another, is said to think and to express some-
thing ; that ' laudat ' necessarily contains the meaning ' putat
esse laudandum ' with the meaning ' ait esse laudandum ' ?
Enough that it contains the latter. Laudat then contains
' virtual (i.e. implied) Oratio Obliqua ' : and the Finite Verb
depending on it (quod fuerit), being really subordinate to a
virtual Oratio Obliqua, or (for brevity's sake) ' virtually
suboblique/ is referred to the mind of Panaetius by becoming
Subjunctive. He gives the reason why he praises.
Such is one of the simplest instances of ' virtual Oratio
Obliqua/
X. 23. Here it will be right to deal with a plausible objec-
tion, which may lead some not unintelligent minds to question
the merit of the terminology used. Why, they may perhaps
say, is a term which itself needs explanation, and which suggests
a merely formal cause, interposed between the learner's
understanding and the true logical reason of the Thought-
mood, viz. that it refers the proposition to the mind of the
Subject?
The answer to this objection has already been suggested in
another part of this Preface. Every science is taught and
learnt through the medium of terms. It is the teacher's busi-
ness to see that his pupils do learndo know the meaning
Preface. xxvii
and force of such terms. It is a learner's business to acquire
their meaning and force, either from his teacher (if he has one)
or from his books (if he studies privately). If he uses terms, of
which he has not learnt the true meaning, he walks in the dark,
and the results can only be ignorance and error. A good
teacher will be always on his guard against this danger. If he
asks a question, and is answered by a correct term, which he is
sure the learner understands, he may say i quite right/ and pass
on. If he doubts this, he should cross-examine. For instance,
As to passage (i) :
Q. Why is ' esset ' Subjunctive ?
A. It is suboblique.
Q. How so ?
A. It is subordinate to the Oratio Obliqua 'virtutem esse
laudandam.'
Q. And this Oratio Obliqua itself?
A. It is subordinate to the principal sentence 'Cyrenaici
censuerunt.'
Q. To what then is the Clause ' quod efficiens esset volup-
tatis' referred?
A. To the mind of the Subject 'Cyrenaici/
As to passage (2) :
Q. Why is 'fuerit' Subjunctive?
A. It is virtually suboblique.
Q. How so ?
A. It is subordinate to an Oratio Obliqua implied in ' laudat.'
Q. How would you express this Oratio Obliqua ?
A. Ait esse laudandum (or some equivalent).
Q. To what then is the Clause * quod fuerit abstinens '
referred ?
A. To the mind of the Subject Panaetius.
If the question were in class, and the catechumen failed to
answer, the teacher would probably explain publicly, and re-
examine privately, till he was sure the matter was understood.
If our imaginary disputant, returning to the charge, says :
May not this cross-examination be cut short ? is not all con-
tained in the last question and answer ? No, we reply : for we
are not teaching Logic only, but also Latin : Latin construction,
xxviii Preface.
Latin procedure, with its rationale. The attempt to teach the
rationale without the forms which lead to it would be a double
failure : grammar would manifestly be sacrificed, and Logic (we
believe) would gain nothing by the sacrifice.
XI. 24. Some persons imagine they have solved all ' the
mystery' of such constructions as (2) by saying that ' The Sub-
junctive is used in Causal and Relative Sentences to denote an
alleged reason or act.' These words we quote from one such
writer. J
1 Causal and Relative Sentences ' certainly do (for obvious
reasons) supply the most numerous instances of l virtually
1 It may be instructive to cite this writer's ' ipsissima verba, ' as an in-
stance of error growing out of the attempt to defend error. He says :
' The Subjunctive is also used in Causal and Relative Sentences to de-
note an alleged reason or act, as ' ' Laudat Panaetius Africanum, quod
fuerit abstinens," " Panaetius praises Africanus, because he says that he was
self- restraining." Fuit for fuerit would mean "because he actually was
self-restraining," without implying that Panaetius said so. So " iniuria
quae tibi facta est," "the injury which has been done you" ; but " iniuria
quae tibi facta sit," "the injury which you say has been done you." Cic.
in Caec. 58.'
(1) The translation here marked in italic type I would rather leave to
the judgment of scholars than characterise it myself. The correct version
is l alleging that he was ' or (better still) * on the ground that he vuasS
(2) ' Fuit ' for ' fuerit ' would not have been joined by Cicero to such
a context as ' laudat quod,' that is to say, where the principal verb is one
which by its own nature (as laudo, queror, accuso, &c.) contains Oratio
Obliqua, and is used in any person but the first. If the verb has no such
nature, as in the well-known passage * Themistocles noctu ambulabat,
quod somnum capere non posset,' T. D. iv. 19, Cicero could have written
'poterat,' if he had wished to refer the clause to his own statement.
(3) Any good scholar, on reading this writer's next citation (from Cic.
in Caec. 58) would perceive at once that it is fallacious ; that the context,
when supplied, must account for the use of ' quae sit facta.' And such is
the case. Cicero writes : ' Hie tu, si laesum te a Verre esse dices, patiar
et concedam : si iniuriam tibi factam quereris, defendam et negabo.
Deinde de iniuria, quae tibi facta sit, neminem nostrum graviorem vin-
dicem esse oportet quam te ipsum, cui facta dicitur.' Then, a few sen-
tences later : ' Quid si ne iniuriae quidem, quae tibi ab illo facta sit, causa
reman et ? '
It would be quite enough to say that for ' si iniuriam tibi factam quereris '
Cicero might have used the not less frequent ' quereris quod iniuria tibi
facta sit,' and that * de iniuria quae tibi facta sit ' is a mere abridgement of
Preface. xxix
suboblique ' construction : and I suppose this writer has been
misled by Madvig, who, in his very faulty treatment of Mood,
mentions such examples only. But the principle is general,
and applies also to Temporal, Conditional, and Concessive
Clauses : as witness the following examples :
Darius ejus pontis, dum ipse abesset, custodes reliquit, Nep.
Milt. 3. At memoria minuitur. Credo, nisi earn exerceas, aut
si sis natura tardior, Cic. C. M. 7. Utilitas efflorescit ex
amicitia, etiamsi tu earn minus secutus sis, Cic. LaeL 27.
This last example is gnomic in its nature. See xv.
Moreover, it is not true that the Subjunctive, by its own
independent right, ' denotes an alleged reason or act/ If this
were so, then the compound sentence * Laudat Africanum
Panaetius, nam fuerit abstinens J would be good Latin, and
might express ' Panaetius praises Africanus, for he was self-
denying ' : quod absurdum est, as geometricians say.
The truth (overlooked by the writer in question) is that this
power belongs to the Mood in subordination only, when it is
truly Subjunctive ; and it belongs to it only in its relation to the
previous predication, which is never to be left out of question.
If such predication is itself subordinate, that is, conveys the
thought of another subject going before it, as in (i), then the
Subjunctive also shares that thought. If the Subjunctive, as in
(2), depends on a principal Indicative (and is not Consecutive,
or otherwise controlled), its presence denotes that in that
principal predication the idea of Oratio Obliqua is implied. In
other words, it is not the dependent mood alone which is then
to be considered, but the principal predication together with its
dependence. In the sentence cited in the note, ' posset ' con-
veys to ' ambulabat ' the accessary notion of a reason given for
the act by Themistocles : ' poterat ' would confine ' ambulabat '
to the statement of Cicero.
XII. 25. I proceed to support my explanation of this
doctrine by citing a large number of examples, which will be
more instructive if divided into three classes :
' de iniuria, de qua quereris quod tibi facta sit. ' But also ' de iniuria, quae
tibi facta sit ' is really subordinate to the Oratio Obliqua ' neminem . . .
vindicem esse ' : and, when * facta sit ' is afterwards used, Cicero merely
cites his own phrase, the import of which is known from the previous con-
text. See Example 57, below.
xxx Preface.
First : Examples in which the text does not exhibit formal
' oratio obliqua ' ; but a slight addition or a slight change of
form at once exhibits it without any difference of sense.
Secondly : Examples where ' oratio obliqua ' is implied in
the meaning of the principal construction as one of expressed
feeling : praise, blame, complaint, accusation, reproach, boasting,
giving thanks, promising, indignation, anger, menace, regret, &c.
Thirdly : Examples in which no such connexion exists be-
tween the principal Sentence and the Clause as to exhibit a
manifest ' Oratio Obliqua ' ; but we say, on the ground of
analogy, that an accessory meaning is conveyed to the principal
construction from the fact of its relation to the Clause.
CLASS I.
T. Ne iustitiam quidem recte quis dixerit per se optabilem,
sed quia iucunditatis vel plurimum offer at. Cic. d. Fin.
i. 1 6. (Dixerit only wants the dropped esse to make
this an example of actual oratio obliqua.)
2. Te felicem dicis amasque
Quod nusquam tibi sit potandura Hor. S. ii. 7, 31.
(Esse te felicem. )
3. Recte est igitur surgetque ? n e g a b i t r
Quod latus aut renes morbo temptentur acuto. Hor. S.
ii. 3, 162. (Negabit recte esse. )
4. Hanc reperiebat causam, quod apud Germanos ea
consuetude esset ut &c. Caes. B. G. i. 50. (Causam
esse.)
5. Cum contemplor anhno, reperio quattuor causas, cur
senectus misera videatur : unam, quod avocet a rebus
gerendis ; alter am, quod corpus faciat infirmius ;
tertiam, quod privet omnibus fere voluptatibus ; quar-
tam, quod haud procul absit a morte. Cic. C. M. 5.
(Esse being supplied with ' causas/ * unam ' &c., oratio
obliqua exists throughout.)
6. Ille laborem
Excusare Philippo et mercennaria vincla
Quod non mane domum venisstt, denique quod non
Providisset eum, Hor. Ep. i. 7, 66. (Excusare =<
in causa esse.)
Preface. xxxi
7. Bene maiores nostri accubitionem epularem amicorum,
quia vitae coniunctionem haberet, convivium nomi-
narunt. Cic. C. M. 13. (Nominarunt==wv? dixerunt.)
8. Caesar sua senatusque in Ariovistum beneficia comme-
moravit, quod rex appellatus esset a senatu, quod
amicus, &c. Caes. B. G. i. 43. (Commemoravit=
multa esse dixit.}
9. Huic me, quaecumque fuisset,
Addixi. Verg. Aen. iii. 652. (Addixi me=^/m me ad-
haesurum.)
10. Videor mihi gratum fecisse Siculis, quod eorum iniurias
meo labore, inimicitiis, periculo sim persecutes. Cic.
Verr. ii. 6. (Videor mihi=puf0 me.)
n. Commodissimum visum est C. Valerium Procillum
. . . quod in eo peccandi Germanis causa non esset , ad
eum mittere. Cses. B. G. i. 47. (Visum zste^putavit
esse.)
12. Mirabile videtur quod non rideat haruspex cum haru-
spicem viderit ; hoc rnirabilius quod vos inter vos
risum tenere possitis. Cic. N. D. i. 26. (Mirabile M\-
detur=mirandum esse put ant 1)
13. Thucydides libros suos turn scripsisse dicitur, cum a
republica remotus atque in exilium pulsus esset. Cic. d.
Or. ii. 15. (Th. scripsisse &\c\t\]it=Thiicydidem scrip-
sisse dicunt.)
14. Quidquid peperisset decreverunt toll ere. Ter. And.
ii. i , 6. (Tollere = ut toller ent. )
15. Helvetii constituerunt ea quae ad proficiscendum per-
tinerent comparare. Caes. B. G. i. 3. (Comparare=
ut compararent.}
CLASS IL
1 6. Nemo e x t u 1 i t eum v e r b i s, qui ita dixisset, ut qui adessent
intellegerent quid diceret. Cic. d. Or. i. 14. (Extulit
v&foislaudandum esse dixit^)
17. Athenienses Lacedaemoniorum victorias suae culpae
tribuebant, quod Alcibiadem e civitate expulissent.
Nep. Ale. 6.
1 8. Caesar temeritatem cupiditatemque militum reprehendit,
quod s\bi ipsi iudicavissent quo procedendum aut quid
agendum videretur. Caes. B. G. vii. 52.
xxxii Preface.
19. Nee vero quisquam potest hire reprehendere, guod msue
non transierim. Cic. Att. viii. 12, 3.
20. Haedui questum veniebant, quod Harudes, qui nuper in
Galliam transportati essent, fines eorum popular entur.
Caes. B. G. i. 37.
21. Saepe illi deplorare solebant, turn quod voluptatibus
carerent . . . turn quod spernerentur ab eis, a quibus
essent coli soliti. Cic.
22. Hospitem inclamavit, ^z/0tf sese absente mihi fidem habere
noluisset. Plaut. Asm. 583.
23. Graviter Haeduos a ecu sat quod . . . non sublevetur ;
. . . quod sit destitutus, queritur. Caes. B. G. i. 16.
24. Theophrastus moriens accusasse naturam dicitur, quod
hominibus tam exiguam vitam dedisset. Cic. T. D. iii.
28.
25. Vercingetorix proditionis insimulatus est quod castra
propius Romanes movisset, quod cum omni equitatu
discessisset, quod sine imperio tantas copias reliquisset,
quod eius discessu Romani tanta opportunitate et cele-
ritate venissent. Caes. B. G. vii. 20.
26. Caesar centuriones incusavit, quod aut quam in partem
aut quo consilio ducerentur, sibi quaerendum aut cogi-
tandum putarent. Caes. B. G. i. 40.
27. Themistocles graviter castigavit Lacedaemonios, quod
non virtute sed imbecillitate sociorum potentiam quae-
rerent. lust. ii. 15.
28. Cato obiecit ut probrum M. Nobiliori, quod is in pro-
vinciam poetas duccisset. Cic. T. D. i. 2.
29. Litterae ipsae videntur quasi exprobrare quod in ea
vita maneam, in qua nihil in sit, nisi propagatio miserrimi
temporis. Cic. Fam. vi. 15.
30. Non tam exitu bellorum, quod vincatis, quam principiis,
quodixm sine causa suscipiatis, gloriamini. Liv. xlv.
22.
31. Caesari decima legio per tribunos militum gratias egit,
quod de se optimum indicium ferisset. Caes. B. G. i. 41.
32. Themistocles domino navis quis sit aperit, multa polli-
cens si se conservasset. Nep. Them. 8.
33. Xerxes ei praemium proposuit, qui invenisset novam
voluptatem. Cic. T. D. v. 7.
Preface. xxxiii
34. Beroen digressa reliqui
Aegram, indignantem, tali quod sola careret
Munere, nee meritos Anchisae inferret honores. Verg.
A en. v. 65 o.
35. Augebatiras, quod soli ludaei non cessissent. Tac. H.
v. 10.
36. Atqui voltus erat multa et praeclara m in ant is,
Si vacuum tepido cepisset villula tecto. Hor. S. ii. 3, 9.
37. Aeneas . . . minatur
Exitium, si quisquam adeat. Verg. Aen. xii. 760. See
viii. 649.
38. An paenitet vos, quod salvum atque incolumem exer-
citum traduxerim% Caes. B. G. ii. 32.
CLASS III.
39. Nee fluminibus aggesta terra semper laudabilis, quando
senescant sata quaedam aqua. Plin. N. H. xvii. 4.
(Laudabilis =ea quae laudari debeat.)
40. Eo id laudabilius erat, ^w^animum eius tanta acer-
bitas patria nihil a pietate avertisset. Liv. vii. 5. (Eo
laudabilius erat=? magis laudandum esse plebs putavit.}
41. Lycurgus populo creandi quos vellet magistratus potestatem
permisit lust, iii. 3. (Permisit=dforz" iussit.}
42. Conon a colloquio Artaxerxis prohibitus est, quod e&m
more Persarum adorare nollet. lust. vi. 2. (Conon
prohibitus z$t=edictum est ut Conon prohiberetur.}
43. Unus ex eis domum abiit, quod fallaci reditu in castra
iureiurando se exsolvisset. Liv. xxii. 61. ( Abiit abire
licitum esse putavit. )
44. Augebat Tyriis animos Didonis exemplum, quae Car-
thagine condita tertiam partem orbis quaesisset. lust,
xi. 10. (Augebat . . . exemplum animari se dicebanf
Didonis exemplo.}
45. Si quis erat dignus describi ^//^malus aut fur . . . foret
. . . notabant. Hor. S. i. 4, 3. (Describi =^&/ descri-
beretur. )
46. Mercatique solum, facti de nomine Byrsam,
Taurino quantum pos sent circumdare tergo. Verg. Aen.
^367. (i.e. mercati sunt, pacti tantumfore quantum y
b
xxxiv Preface.
&c. < Poterant' might have been written, if the
mere fact, not the thought of the purchasers were
to be expressed.)
47. Pascentes illae tantum pro dire volando
Quantum zcizpossent oculi servare sequentum. Verg.
A en. vi. 199. (Prodire=/ra#r<?.5v? volebant. Again
6 poterant ' might have been used of the mere fact. )
48. Perdiccas rex Macedoniae moriens filio monstravit locum
quo condi vellet. Just. vii. 2. (Monstravit implies the
addition eum esse dtcens.)
49. Sapiens non d u b i t a t, si ita melius sit, m i g r a r e de vita.
Cic. Fin. i. 19. (Non dubitat rmgraxQ-=migrandum
sibi esse decernit.}
50. Tribunes omnes patricios creavit populus contentus eo,
quod ratio plebeiorum habita esset. Liv. iv. 6. (Conten-
tu<s eo= satis esse put ans.}
5c. Consulem cura anceps agitare : nolle deserere socios,
nolle minuere exercitum, quod aut moram sibi ad
dimicandum aut in dimicando periculum afferre posset.
Liv. xxxiv. 12. (Oratio obliqua is evidently latent
here: most simply we may say ' deserere '='se deserere/
' minuere '=' se minuere.')
52. Ille nescio qui, qui in scholis nominari solet, mille et
octoginta stadia quod abesset vide bat. Cic. Ac. Pr. ii.
25. (i.e. videre dicebatur a nominantibus.)
53. Quoniam Miltiades ipse pro se dicere non posset, verba
pro eo fecit frater eius Tisagoras. Nep. Milt. 7.
(Fecit=faaenda a se putavit ; but the example is a daring
one.)
5 4. Re nuntiata ad suos, quae imperarentur facer.e dixerunt.
Caes. B. G. ii. 32. (This sentence is remarkably con-
densed. At full it is : 'the envoys of the Aduatuci, after
reporting the matter to their constituents, came back and
said they would do what was ordered them. 3 ' Facere ' is,
in fact, oratio obliqua, * suos ' being understood as sub-
ject.)
55. Brutus terram osculo con tig it, scilicet quod ea coni-
munis mater omnium' mortalium*ttv?/. Liv. i.*56. (Con-
\igk=.contingcndam esse putavit. )
Preface. xxxv
56. Alter
S u b 1 e g i t quodcumque iaceret inutile, quodque
Posset cenantes offendere. Hor. S. ii. 8, n. (Sublegit
contains the notion, that the slave l sublegendum esse
57. Ex his, qui arma ferre possent ad milia xcii. Caes. B. G.
i. 29. (In the previous sentence we read : 'in tabulis
nominatim ratio confecta erat, qui numerus domo
exisset eorum, qui arma ferre possent? This reference
to a construction preceding in the text, illustrates
our general subject here a Latin author's habit of
adapting mood to a construction existing in his mind,
but only implied in his text. See note at page xxix.
58. Numa Camenis eum lucum sacravit, quod earum ibi
concilia cum coniuge sua Egeria essent. Liv. i. 21.
(Sacra v\t= sacrum esse voluit.)
59. Non equidem extimui Danaum quod factor et Areas,
Quodque 2i stirpe./tfm geminis coniunctus Atridis. Verg.
Aen. viii. 130. (Non extimui =non extimescendum
esse putavz.)
60. Foetus omnes libros, quos frater suus reliquissef, mini
donavit. Cic. Att. ii. i. (\3QKZN\t-=-donare sedixit. His
words would be: dono tibi libros, quos frater meus re-
liquit. )
XIII. 26. Looking at Example 60, we observe that the re-
ference to the mind of the subject Foetus is indicated not only
by the subjunctive ' reliquisset,' but also by the subjective or re-
flexive pronoun 'suus.' Cicero might have written, 'quos
frater eius reliquerat/ if he had been satisfied with making the
statement his ov/n, as in the sentence ' Themistocles ambula-
bat/ &c., he might have written ' poterat ' for < posset/ if he
had not wished to refer the act to the mind of Themistocles.
See also Examples 47, 48, 56. As to suus see 231 B. and
Ex. 31, 32, 43, 51, 54. We venture to cite in illustration of it
a modern version of the two famous epigrams respecting
George I., who, on coming to the English throne, sent cavalry
to Oxford, and gave a library to Cambridge.
Diver sis Diver sa, i.
Dum populi spectat mores, et mente gemellas
Mox academias invigilante notat,
b2
xxxvi Preface.
Cur equitum mittit tibi rex, Oxonia, turmam?
Quod tu, docta licet, sis male fida sibi.
Idem, Granta, libros mittit tibi, praemia iusta,
Quod tu fida sibi sts, male docta tamen.
Diver sis Diver sa, 2.
Cur equitum mittit tibi rex, Oxonia, turmam ?
Quod vis regicolis pro ratione valet.
Cur mittat tibi, Granta, libros hinc collige, quod vis
Unica poplicolis in ratione sita est. 1
In the first epigram the reasons are subjectively stated,
being referred to the mind of the king. In the second they
are stated as the writer's own observations.
XIV. 27. Looking at Example 59, we observe that the vir-
tually suboblique clause is rarely found after a principal Verb
in the First Person. Thus Cic. Rose. Am. 47, quod viris forti-
bus, quorum opera eximia in rebus gerendis exstitit, honos
habitus est, laudo. On this account it seldom occurs after
Verbs of joy, because they usually appear in that Person :
gaudeo (gratulor) quod salvum te recepisti. But, if the writer
speaks of a feeling entertained by himself in a past time, the
Subjunctive may follow, as 'quod fores' in 59. It must also be
remembered that the Exceptions (noticed 193, and further
exemplified on p. 437) of Indicative Clauses apparently, but
not really, depending on Oratio Obliqua, are very numerous,
especially in Caesar. Thus too the Clause with ' quod ' depend-
ing on Verbs of feeling may be Indicative, if the fact in the
Clause is more strongly emphasised than the expression of
feeling which it arouses : as in Liv. iv. 3, quod spiratis, quod
1 The English originals are :
JACOBITE EPIGRAM.
The king, observing with judicious eyes
The state of both his universities,
To Oxford sent a troop of horse : for why ?
That learned body wanted loyalty.
To Cambridge books he sent, as well discerning
How much that loyal body wanted learning.
HANOVERIAN REPLY.
The king to Oxford sent a troop of horse ;
For Tories own no argument but force.
On the other hand to Cambridge books he sent,
For Whigs allow no force but argument.
Preface. xxxvii
vocem mittitis, quod formas hominum habetis, indignantur.
So Cic. Verr. i. 47. Utrum reprehend! s, %& liberttts patro-
num iuvabat eum, qui turn in miseriis erat, an quod alterius
patroni mortui voluntatem conservabat, a quo summum benefi-
cium acceperat?
To the examples in XII. may be added those which appear on
pp. 437 II., 459 (f ot )> where ' suboblique ' should be 'virtually
suboblique ; ; also the examples in the ' Public School Latin
Primer/ p. 168.
The construction of Subjunctives in dependence on formal
Oratio Obliqua and on other Subjunctives is not controverted,
.and need not therefore be here specially exemplified. It
appears indeed in almost every page of great Latin prose
writers, and is noted by italics in the examples of Compound
Construction ( 194, &c.) in this Grammar.
XV. 28. Madvig, whose great merit is the nice observation
of particular idioms, notices ( 370), that the Second Person of
the Conjunctive is used (like 'man 7 in German, 'on' in
French) to express an undefined subject (some one, any one).
Thus often in principal construction : Quern neque gloria nee
pericula excitant, nequiquam hortere, Sail. Cat. 58. Canes
venaticos diceres, Cic. Verr. iv. 13. It appears also in Clauses
dependent on some general statement, which we call Gnomic.
Cum animum ab istis imaginibus ad veritatem traduxeris, nihil
relinquitur, Cic. T. D. v. 5. Bonus segnior fit, ubineglegas,
Sail. lug. 31. Cum aetas extrema advenit, turn illud quod
praeteriit effluxit ; tantum remanet, quod virtute et recte factis
consecutus sis, Cic. d. Or. iii. 52. Mens, quoque et animus, nisi
tamquam lumini oleum instilles, extinguuntur senectute, Cic.
C. M. ii. Virtu tern necessario gloria, etiamsi tu id non agas,
consequitur, Cic. T. D. i. 38. Gerundive and other Imper-
sonal Verbs have a gnomic character, and are sometimes used
with Subjunctive clauses dependent on them. Suae cuique
utilitati, quod sine alterius iniuria fiat, serviendum est.
Cic. Tibi ipsi dicendumerit aliquid quod non sentias aut fa c i-
e n d u m quod non probes, Cic. Fam. iv. 9. Est enim s a p i e n-
tis, quidquid homini accidere possit, id praemeditari ferendum
modice esse, si evenerit. Maioris omnino est consilii pro-
videre, nequid tale accidat ; animi non minoris fortiter
ferre, si evenerit, Cic. Phil. xi. 3. Dicere fortasse quae sentias,
non licet ; tacere plane licet, Cic. Fam. iv. 9.
xxxviii Preface.
XVI. 29. In quitting the topic of Virtual Oratio Obliqua,
on which I have dwelt longer than I expected, I have to say
that this is one of the few terms for which I am responsible.
I should have been equally content to call it ' contained ' or
' implied,' or ' informal' Oratio Obliqua : all which mean one
and the same thing.
The point at issue is this :
Are they right, who like Madvig ( 357, 368-9, 404) put
forward first the usage
(a) Principal Sentence (Indie.) -f Clause (Subjunct.)
and follow this up with
(ft) Princ. Sent. (Indie.) + O. Obliqua + Clause (Subjunct)
thus making (ft) a corollary or special case of (a) ?
Or are they right, who give the converse order, and make
(a) a corollary or special case of (/3) ?
Having had this question in view for half a century or
more, I have never for a moment doubted that the just gram-
matical order is that which appears in this book ( 190-191),
from (ft) to (a), not from (a) to (/3) ; that this is the order in
which teachers and students ought to pursue the doctrine of
Oblique Construction in Latin ; taking the Infinitive Clause
(Accus. and Infin.) as its first most representative mbst nor-
mal form ( 100, 190, 194).
XVII. 30. Yet, although Madvig has failed to treat the
doctrine in this order, I shall now cite incidental passages from
his book, which indicate an inadequately developed conscious-
ness of that order being the true one.
(1) When treating of the Accusative ( 322) Madvig says :
'In the indefinite infinitive expression, when the connexion
between the subject and predicate is not of itself asserted, the
subject and the predicative noun stand in the accusative, e.g.
hominem currere, that a man runs ; esse dominum, to be lord'
This just view, properly followed up, ought to have led him to
place the Accus. and Infin. in the front of Compound Construc-
tion. But he lost sight of its true importance in his Second
Part.
(2) In his Chapter on the Conjunctive, where most of his
paragraphs are useful, as isolated remarks, but uninstructive,
in so far as they are out of place and unsystematic he says
(348, Obs. 3): 'The same holds' to our mind the connexion
Preface. xxxix
he suggests has no real existence 'of other conditional
propositions, which do not contain a condition applying to
the leading proposition, but complete an idea contained in it,
which has the force of an infinitive or otherwise dependent pro-
position, so that the conditional clause belongs to the " oratio
obliqua" e.g. Metellus Centuripinis, nisi statuas Veneris restituis-
sent, graviter minatur (Cic. Verr. ii. 67 minatur se iis malum
daturum nisi Minatur is stated absolutely without any condi-
tion), lugurtha iram senatus timebat, ni paruisset legatis (Sail.
fug. 25 ne senatus irasceretur). Nulla maior occurrebat res
quam si optimarum artium vias traderem meis civibus (Cic.
de Div. ii. i, e.g. Nullam rem putabam maiorem esse.)'
Need I say that in this passage occurring before he has
introduced those rules and examples on the Subjunctive
clause before referred to Madvig does, in point of fact, though
but partially, teach the very doctrine which is drawn out in this
Grammar, and which in this part of the Preface I have been
maintaining and exemplifying, the doctrine of Virtual Oratio
Obliqua, exhibited in his three cited examples ? He has, un-
happily, failed to recognise its wide scope and great im-
portance, and so to give it due prominence afterwards.
The late Professor Key, a learned and ingenious scholar,
in his Latin Grammar (1201-1204) states first the doctrine of
Oratio Obliqua (too narrowly, because he has not based it on
the triple form of simple sentences and dependent Substantival
clauses) and then adds (1205): * Without a formal use of the
" Oratio Obliqua," a verb in a dependent clause may be in the
Subjunctive Mood, when it expresses the thoughts or words or
alleged reasons of another/ He then cites the example, Cic. T. D.
v. 36 (given by us, p. 459) Aristides, &c. and the two following :
Fabio dicta dies est, quod legatus in Gallos fugnasset,
Liv. vi. i. Aedem lovi vovit, si eo die hostes/z^/m^/, Liv.
xxxi. 21 : (in which obviously : Fabio dicta dies ts\.=Fabius
accusatus est, and vovit contains se dedicaturum).
Thus, by saying ' without a formal use of the Obliqua
Oratio/ Key recognises an informal (or virtual) use of it, as
I do ; and postpones this rightly to the formal use. I could
cite German grammarians, were it worth while, whose treat-
ment implies the same principles : for instance, Middendorf
and Griiter, Frei, Billroth, Ellendt, &c. But the term (Virtual
O. O.) was, I repeat, introduced by me thirty-six years ago.
x 1 Preface.
It rests upon its own fitness : I can but deprecate, if it exist
anywhere, the spirit complained of by Horace, when he says :
Indignor quicquam reprehendi, non quia crasse
Compositum illepideve putetur, sed quia nuper.
Ep. ii. i, 76.
XVIII. 31. The question, whether the (independent)
Thought-mood should be called Subjunctive or Conjunctive,
stands as follows:
The Greek grammarians of Alexandria used the term
lyK\iaiq vTToroKTiKri, modus subjunctivus. Why? Because in
Greek there are two forms of the Thought-mood, one of which
they called EVKTLK^ Optative, the other {/Trorcu-rt^, Subjunctive.
Neither of these terms corresponds exactly to the uses of the
respective forms. The term Optative expresses only one use of
the first: that of praying or wishing, e'Xflot, may it come: but it
has also a dependent use, on t\6oi, that it was come, and by
the convenient accession of the modal particle ai> it gains an in-
dependent or enuntiative power e\6oi av, like the Latin ' veni-
ret,' // would come. The second form I \9y was called (/Trora/c-
TWYI because it never did acquire enuntiative power; the modal
av was not extended to it, but only the conjunction av, if,
the conjunctional relative OQ av &c., whosoever, &c., in dependent
construction. It has, however, an independent power as suc-
cursal to the imperative, in hortative sense ist pers. plur.,
eXdwpev, let us come ; and as interrogative, in dubitative sense,
T'I 0o>, what can I say? In spite of these two exceptional uses,
it is manifest that the term i/Trora/v-rt/o/, subjunctive, is, for the
Greek mood, fully defensible, because its principal and (so to
say) normal use is dependence. German grammarians, however,
call it Conjunctive ; wisely we think, for the maintenance of
analogy
But for calling the Latin Thought-mood, generally, Sub-
junctive, there seems to be, from a right point of view, no reason-
able defence. Key, indeed, has taken a point of view, which,
if it were right, would supply one. His words are (Gr.
427-8):
'The Subjunctive Mood, as its name implies, is used in
secondary sentences subjoined to the main verb. In some
sentences it is not uncommon to omit the main verb, and then
the Subjunctive Mood seems to signify power, permission, duty,
Preface. xll
wish, purpose, result, allegation, hypothesis ; whereas in fact
these notions belong to the verb which is not expressed. Thus
the phrase " quid faciam " is translated by what should I do or
what am I to do ? but the full phrase is " quid vis faciam ? "
what do you wish me to do ? (!) ;
This theory Key, perhaps, borrowed from Hermann, who
applies it (De emendanda ratione Grammaticae Graecae) to
explain the two exceptional uses before noticed of the Greek
Subjunctive: supposing tw/ie^ = aye 'Ictfier, and TL (f)w=cri]fj.r]ror
or OVK olc)a TL (j)ti. This farfetched caprice of an ellipsis is bad
enough as used by Hermann: but when applied to all the
independent usages of the Latin Thought-mood it has not, I
think, been accepted by any grammarian but Key himself. I
therefore consider the adoption of the term Subjunctive, as a
name for that mood generally, to be an unwise and unjustifiable
violation of propriety in the choice of terms. Such no doubt
is the opinion of that multitude of grammatical writers who
take the term Conjunctive in its stead, though, unhappily,
they neglect to assign a distinct name to that dependent
use, which is really Subjunctive. To this neglect is due, in
great measure, their vague and unsatisfactory method of
treating Compound Construction in Latin; a method pro-
pagated, through Madvig, to some English scholars.
See Uses of the Verb, 90-99 of this Grammar, Ap-
pendix ii. to the ' Public School Latin Primer/ and the Preface
to my Second Edition of Virgil.
XIX. 32. The small number of terms for which this
Grammar is specially responsible will be seen in its Index. Care
has been taken to make them etymologically appropriate, and
useful for their several purposes. On such points I have
always invited expression of opinion by correspondence. It
has been justly urged, that the term Factitive (adopted from
German writers for that class of verbs which join a complement
to their object, 106, 131) is bad in etymology. I have there-
fore now written Factive : but I feel inclined to prefer the term
* Appositive Verbs': i.e. such as append to their object a
complement resembling an apposition: populus Numam regem
creavit : puto tefelicem (philosophum). The point merits further
consideration.
xlii Preface.
XX. 33. Among the numerous books which in the
course of my grammatical labours have been consulted with
profit, I desire specially to mention the various writings of Mr.
Thring, of Uppingham. His ' Elements of Grammar taught in
English ' is an admirable companion book to the 'Public School
Primer ' for early instruction in Latin. 1
B. H. KENNEDY.
CAMBRIDGE : Oct. 5, 1879.
CONTENTS.
[Numerals following represent the marginal numeration. Numerals without
represent the pages. The matter printed in Italics belongs to the
Footnotes.]
1-5, p. I INTRODUCTION.
i. Divisions of Grammar ; the Latin Language ; Families of
Language ; the Semitic Family ; the Aryan Family and its branches.
2. The Italic Branch ; its Dialects ; Latin ; Languages derived from
Latin ; English ; its formation ; Influence of Greek on Latin. 3.
Sketch of Latin Literature ; Table of Classical Authors. 4. Abbre-
viations in this Grammar.
6-99, P- S- ... PART I. ETYMOLOGY.
6, p. 5. Divisions of Etymology ; Primitive Sounds and Roots.
7-12, p. 5. . DIVISION i. PHONOLOGY OR SOUNDLORE.
5. i. Alphabet ; Capital and Small Letters ; Vowels ; Consonants.
6. Divisions of the Consonants ; ii. Quantity, short, long, doubtful ;
iii. Syllabation. 7. iv. Accentuation ; Middle Tone. 8. v. Punctua-
tion ; vi. Relations of the Letters ; Scheme of Vowels ; Scheme of
Consonants. 9. vii. Memoranda from the History of the Alphabet ;
the Letters c, g, k, q, h, f, v, z, y, x ; the Aspirate sounds ch, th, ph,
rh ; the three Letters of the Emperor Claudius, viii. the Semiconso-
nants i-j and v-u. 10. i-consonans and i-vocalis ; v-consonans and
v-vocalis. ix. Sound and quality of the Vowels ; three primitive Vowels
a, i, u. ii. a the standard Vowel ; introduction of e, o ; compara-
tive strength of Vowels ; lengthening of Vowels ; Final short and
long Vowels, x. phonetic Decay in old Italian Language ; Classical
Latin -a reaction. 12. xi. Vowel-change ; strengthening or weaken-
ing, xii. Formation and Decay of Diphthongs; Guna and Vridclhi ;
full list of Diphthongs ; ui, yi. Ai (ae) and its changes. 13. Oi (oe)
and its changes ; ei and its changes ; au, eu, ou. 14-17. xiii. Vowel-
strengthening in Root-syllables, Suffixes and Endings. 18. xiv.
Vowel-strengthening in Disyllabic Perfects ; xv. Compensation. 19.
xvi. Nasalization ; xvii. Vowel-weakening ; Euphony ; Selection ; e
as final. 20. xviii. The Vowel a and its weakenings, A) in Root-
and Stem-syllables ; B) in Suffixes ; C) in Cases 'and Personal End-
ings. 21. xix. Weakening into o as influenced by Selection. 21-24.
xliv Contents.
xx. Weakening into u as influenced by Selection. 22. Dialectic use
of o and u in final syllables. Formidulosus, &c. 23. Gerundive forms
oirdus, &c. 24-28. xxi. Change into e as influenced by Selection.
29-31. xxii. Selection of I. 30. Vincular \. Note. 32. Recapitulation.
32-35. xxiii. Vowel-change by Assimilation and Dissimilation of
Vowels to each other. 35-39. xxiv. Vowel-weakening in the second
Member of Compounds ; 35. Loose and Fast Compounds ; Some Com-
pounds unweakened. 36. In others, a weakened into u ; a into e ; 37.
a into i ; 38. e into i ; 39. e into u ; a e into I ; o e into \ ; o e into u ;
a u into o ; a u into u ; a u into o e. 40. xxv. Reduplication. 41-44.
xxvi. Changes of concurrent Consonants. 41. Complete Assimilation
of Consonants ; Regressive. 42. Progressive. Partial Assimilation of
Consonants. Formation of Comparatives and Superlatives. 43. Dis-
similation of Consonants. 44. xxvii. Loss of Initial letters. 45. xxviii.
Loss of Final Letters. 47-50. xxix. Loss of Inner Consonants by
Concurrence with other Consonants. 50-52. xxx. Loss of Inner Vowels
before Consonants. 52-55. xxxi. Hiatus, Elision, Contraction and
Coalition of Vowels. 54. xxxii. Loss of Inner Vowels with Consonants.
55-56. xxxiii. The Shortening of Vowels in Latin. 56-58. xxxiv. Ex-
clusion of Consonants followed by Contraction of Vowels. Peculiar
Contractions in Verbs. 59-68. xxxv. Relations of the Consonants in
Latin and kindred Languages. 58-60. The Guttural Surds c (k) q.
59. Labialism and Dentalism. 60. Sound of 'ce, ci. 61. The Guttural
Sonant g. 61-62. The Aspirates h, f. 63. The Labial Mutes p, b ;
the Dentals t, d. 64-66. The Nasals n, m ; the Liquids 1, r, and the
Sibilant s. 66. The Soft Labial Spirant v. 67. Sound of V-consonans ;
I-consonans. 68. The Double Consonant x. ^Words which have lost
an initial letter.
I 3~99 P' 69. . DIVISION ii. MORPHOLOGY or WORDLORE.
13, p. 69 SUBDIVISIONS.
14-16, p. 69. CHAPTER I. WORDS AND THEIR FLEXION.
69. i. Stem-flexion : Word ; Stem ; Root ; Suffix. 70. Prefix ;
Character ; Flexion ; Definition of Stem ; of Root. 70-73. ii. Classi-
fication of Words. 70. I. Nouns ; Noun Substantive. 71. Noun
Adjective ; Attribution ; Pronoun ; Apposition ; Names, Abstract and
Concrete. Common Names. Collective Nouns. Adjectives for Sub-
stantives. Numerals. 72. Declension ; Accidents of Nouns ; II. Verb
Finite and Infinite; Conjugation, Accidents of Verb ; III. Particles;
Adverb ; Preposition. 73. Conjunction ; Interjection ; Parts of Speech ;
Absence of Articles.
17-34, p. 73- ... CHAPTER //.NOUNS.
17-21, p. 73 SECTION i.
73. i. Number in Nouns. 73-79. ii. Gender of Nouns. 74. Distinct
Generic Names ; Mobilia. 75. Verbals of double Gender ; Patrony-
mics. 75-77. Words Common of two Genders. 75. Appellatives. 76.
Names of Animals. 77. Epicoena. 77-79. Gender shown by meaning.
80. iii. The Cases ; Declension ; Case in ancient and modern lan-
guage. Order of the Cases. 81. iv. The Five Declensions. 82-84. v -
Formation of the Cases. 85. vi. Endings of the Five Declensions.
Contents. xlv
22, p. 86. . SECTION ii. i. FIRST DECLENSION ; A-NOUNS.
86. Nouns contained in First Decl. ii. Table, iii. Cases in First
Decl. 87-89. iv. Greek Nouns in First Decl.
23, p. 89. SECTION in. i. SECOND DECLENSION ; O-NOUNS.
89. Nouns contained in Second Decl. ii. Table. 90. iii. Cases,
91. iv. Clipt Nouns in er. 92. v. Greek Nouns in Second Decl. vi.
Gender. 93. vii. Table of Adjectives in Decl. II. and I.
24, p. 94. . SECTION iv. i. THIRD DECLENSION, CONSONANT AND
I-NOUNS.
94. The two Divisions ; their occasional confusion ; its cause ; ii.
Nominative Endings in the Consonant Declension. 95. Vowel of True
Stem. 95-103. iii. Syllabus of Cons. Stems, with Genders, 95-96.
A. Mute Guttural Stems. 96-99. B. Mute Dental Stems. 99. C.
Mute Labial Stems. 99-101. D. Nasal Stems. 101-103. E. Liquid and
Sibilant Stems. 103. F. u- and v-stems. G. Greek e- o- and y-stems.
104. iv. I-stems: Imparisyllaba and Parisyllaba. v. Grouping of I-nouns
with Gender. 104-106. A] Parisyllable I-nouns in Xs (er). 104-106.
Nature of i. B} Parisyllable I-nouns Fern, in es (is). 106-107. C)
Neuter I-nouns in 8, al, ar. 107-108. D] Clipt I-nouns Imparisyllable.
108-109. vi. Notes on the Cases. 109. Gen. PI. varying with form
of Noun. Summary of Gender in Third Decl. 110-112. vii. Table of
Third Decl. 112-115. vn i- Greek Nouns in Third Decl. 114-115.
Greek Table. 115-119. ix. Adjectives in Third Decl. 115. Con-
sonant Adjectives; Table. 116-119. Adjectives not purely Consonantal.
Four Groups. 118-119. Table of these Adjectives.
25, p. 119. . SECTION v. i. FOURTH DECLENSION ; U-NOUNS.
119. ii. Table. 120. iii. Confusion of U- and O-nouns. 121. iii.
Cases in Fourth Decl. 121. iv. Gender in Fourth Decl.
26, p. 121. SECTION vi. i. FIFTH DECLENSION. E-NOUNS, FEM.
ii. Table. 122. iii. Cases in Fifth Decl. iv. Gender of dies.
27-28, p. 123. . . SECTION vn. IRREGULAR NOUNS.
123. i. Irregularity ; Abundance ; Defect. 123-125. ii. Abundance
in Substantives; of Declension ; of Case-forms. 125-130. iii. Defect in
Substantives. 125. A. Defect of Number. I) Substantives Singular
only. 126-128. II) Plural only. 128-129. Ill) Substantives which
change their meaning in Plural. 129-130. B. Defect of Case.
Substantives Defective in Case. 131. iv. Irregularity in Adjectives ;
Abundance ; Defect.
29-30, p. 131. . . SECTION vni. COMPARISON.
131-132. i. Comparison of Adjectives; 132. Degrees of Comparison ;
ii. Examples ; iii. Notes on Comparison. 133. iv. Irregular Compa-
rison. 133-135. v. Defective Comparison. 135. vi. Comparison of
Adverbs. 136. vii. Irregular Comparison in Adverbs.
xlvi Contents.
31, p. 136. .... SECTION ix. PRONOUNS.
136. i. Pronouns Substantive or Adjective ; their Persons. 136-
137. ii. Classification of Pronouns : A. Substantival : i. Personal ; 2.
Reflexive ; B. 3. Possessive ; C. 4. Demonstrative ; 5. Definitive ;
6. Relative ; a. Interrogative ; b. Indefinite ; c. Compound Pro-
nouns ; 7. Pronominalia ; 138-142. iii. Tables of Declension. 142-
143. Observations on certain Pronouns. 143-145. Ancient Case forms
of Pronouns. 144-146. iv. Correlation of Pronouns.
32-34, p. 147. . . . SECTION x. NUMERALS.
147. i. Numeralia ; ii. Symbols of Number : Note on these ; iii. The
Four Chief Numeral Series Cardinal, Ordinal, Distributive Numerals,
Quotientive Adverbs. 148-149. iv. Minor Numeral Series. 150-151. v.
Declension of Numerals. 150-153. Numeral Table ; Numeral Roots.
153-155. vi. Use of the Numerals. 156-157. Compound Numeration.
I 57~ I 5 8 - viii. Expression of Fractions ; the As and its parts ; Calcu-
lation of Inheritance.
35-53. P- i5- - ' - CHAPTER ///.THE VERB.
35-4 ' P- X 5 8 - SECTION i. i. THE VERB FINITE AND INFINITE.
ii. The Voices. 159. iii. Deponent Verbs, iv. Verbs Transitive
and Intransitive ; Impersonal and Reflexive uses of the Verb. 160.
v. Verbs Quasi-Passive and Semi-Deponent ; Passive Participles from
Active Verbs. 160-161. The Moods Indicative, Conjunctive, Im-
perative. 161-164. vii- The Tenses. 161-163. Tense-forms Inflected
or Combinate. 163. Table of Tense-forms. Conjunctive Tenses.
164. Combinate or Periphrastic Forms ; Tenses Primary and Historic,
viii. Number and Person. 164-166. ix. The Verb Infinite ; Infinitive ;
Gerunds ; Gerundive ; Supines ; Participles.
41-50, p. 166. . . . SECTION ii. THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS.
166. i. The three Stems in Verbs ; Parts derived from them seve-
rally. 167. ii. The Verb of Being 'sum' (esse) ; Forms of sum t esse.
160. Its Table. 169-182. iii. The Four Conjugations of Regular
Verbs ; Weak and Strong Conjugations ; the Stems in each. 169.
Quantity of the Vowel Char acters . 170-171. Mode of Conjugating Verbs
Active, Passive, and Deponent. 171. Verbs in io of Conj. 3. 172-
182. Tables of the Four Conjugations Active, Passive, and Depo-
nent. 180. Of lo-Verbs in Conj. 3. 180-182. iv. Combinate or Peri-
phrastic Conjugation. 181-183. Correspondence of the Latin Verb.
183-189. v. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. 184. Possum. 184-185.
Fero. 186. Fio. 187. Volo, nolo, malo. 188. Eo, queo, nequeo.
189. Edo. 189-191. Conjugation of Defective Verbs. 189. Praeteri-
tiva, coepi, odi, memini. Capio, &c. 190. Novi, aio. 191,
Inquam, ovare, quaeso. 192-194. Impersonal Verbs. 192. Im-
personal Verbs Active. 193. Impersonal Verbs Passive. 194. Imper-
sonals Gerundive.
Contents. xlvii
5*1 P- X 94- SECTION iv. THE FORMS OF THE THREE STEMS IN VERBS.
194-196. i. The Present Stem and its Affections. 196. Inceptive
or Inchoative Verbs in sco. 196-199. ii. The Perfect Stem and its
varieties of formation. 199-202. iii. The Supine Stem and its va-
rieties of formation.
52, p. 202. . . . SECTION v. COMPOSITION OF VERBS.
202-203. i. Prepositions compounded with Verbs, separable and
inseparable ; their Euphonic Mutations ; Examples. 202. Sus, subs.
203. The form obs. 204. Scheme of Vowel-changes in the three
Stems of Compound Verbs. 205. ii. Verbs compounded with Ad-
verbs ; with Nominal or Verbal Elements.
53, p. 205. SECTION vi. SYLLABUS OF STEM-FORMATION IN VERBS.
205. A] The First Conjugation ; Imitative Verbs ; Frequentative
Verbs ; Deminutive Verbs ; B] Second Conjugation ; C) Fourth Con-
jugation. 206. Desiderative Verbs ; D) Third Conjugation. 206-208.
Stem-table of A- verbs; Compounds ; Deponent A-verbs. 209-214. Stem 1
table of E-verbs, Compounds. 214-216. Stem-table of I-verbs, Com*
founds. 216-227. Stem-table of Consonant and U-verbs, Compounds.
216-217. Cons. Verbs with reduplicated Perfect-stem. 217-218. With
strengthened Perf. stem. 219-221. With agglutinated Perf. Stem in
ui, vi. 221-224. With agglutinated s in Perf. stem. 221-223. Gut-
tural Stems. 223. Dental Stems. 224. Labial, Nasal, and Liquid
Stems. 224-225. U-verbs. 225-227. Deponent Verbs in Third Con-
jugation. 226-227. Inchoative Verbs. 227. Homonymous Verb-forms.
54-58, p. 228. . CHAPTER IV. PARTICLES.
228. Four Classes of Particles; their intimate connexion.
55, p. 228 SECTION i. ADVERBS.
228-232. Interrogative Adverbs referring to Place, Time, Number,
Manner, Degree, Cause, Quality, &c. Table of Adverbs corresponding
to these severally.
56, p. 232. . . . SECTION ii. PREPOSITIONS.
232. Relations expressed by Prepositions. i) Prepositions which
take Accusative Case. 233. 2) Prepositions which take Ablative
Case. 3) Prepositions which take either case.
57 P- 2 33- SECTION in. CONJUNCTIONS.
233. Conjunctions, Coordinative or Subordinative ; Conjunctions
with both uses. A. List of Coordinative Conjunctions. 234. B. List
of Subordinative Conjunctions.
58, p. 234 SECTION iv. INTERJECTIONS.
234. Interjections expressing various Emotions. 235. Interjectional
Nouns ; Verbs ; Adverbs ; Phrases. Cases found with Interjections.
xlviii Contents.
59. P- 235-253- CHAPTER V. DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF
WORDS.
p. 235 . . . SECTION i. DERIVATION OF NOUNS.
236. i. Staminal Suffix, ii. Root or Rudiment, iii. Suffixes.
237. iv. Rudimental Words. 237-248. v. Syllabus of Suffixes ; Ex-
amples. 247. Formation ofDeminutives ; Examples, vi. Patronymics.
249. vii. Names of ^Countries. 249-251. viii. Nominative Endings of
derived Words according to their meanings ; Examples. 252. Ad-
jectives derived from Particles ; Examples. 252-253. Adjectives
derived from Proper Names : Personal ; Gentile ; Roman Names.
p. 254. . SECTION ii. DERIVATION OF VERBS.
254. Verbs derived from Verbs ; Verbs derived from Nouns.
p. 255-259. SECTION in. DERIVATION OF PARTICLES.
255. i. Primitive Particles, ii. Particles derived from Nouns ; from
Pronouns ; from other Particles. Particles compounded with other
Particles. 256-257. iii. Denominative Adverbs in the form of Cases.
257-258. Denominative Adverbs with Adverbial Endings. 258. v.
Derivation of Pronominal Particles. 259. vi. Other Particles. Note
on some of them.
60, p. 259-266. SECTION iv. COMPOSITION OF WORDS.
260. i. Parts of a Compound, Fundamental and Determinative ;
Parathetic and Synthetic Composition, ii. Varieties of Composition,
Constructive, Attributive, Adverbial, and Possessive. 260-263. Syn-
thetically compounded Substantives, Adjectives and Verbs. 263. De-
composita. 263-266. Verbs compounded with Prepositions ; their
various senses, &c.
61-99, p. 267. . CHAPTER VI. USES OF WORDS.
6l, p. 267. SECTION I. i. FlGURATE CONSTRUCTION.
267-269. ii. Ellipsis ; Zeugma ; Pleonasm ; Examples ; Attraction ;
Synesis. 269-270. iii. Other Variations. 270. iv. Metaphor;
Metonymy.
62, p. 270. . SECTION II. USES OF THE SUBSTANTIVE.
270. i. Singular Appellatives used collectively for Plurals. 271. ii.
Plural words used with Singular collective sense in prose and poetry,
iii. ^ Plural used to express a 'genus,' when individuals are implied,
iv. "Plural of Proper Names expressing typical characters, v. Ab-
stract Substantives used in Plural. 272. vi. Abstract Substantives for
Concrete. 272-273. vii. Idioms of Substantives. 274-275. viii. El-
lipse of Substantives.
6 3 P- 2 75- SECTION III. USES OF THE ADJECTIVE.
275-278. i. Adjectives used as Substantives. 278. ii. Adjectives used
adverbially in Predicative Construction, iii. Partitive Attributes.
Contents. xlix
iv. Multiplication of Attributes. 279. v. Possessive Attributes, vi.
Idioms of the Superlative. 280. vii. Intensive Phrases. 281. viii.
Adjectives used in Passive and Active Sense.
64-69, p. 28l. . SECTION IV. USES OF PRONOUNS.
281. i. Personal and Possessive Pronouns. 282-285. ii. Demonstra-
tive Pronouns h i c, i 1 1 e, i s t e, is, idem. 285-287. iii. The Reflexive
Pronouns se, suus. 287-289. iv. The Definitive Pronoun ipse.
289-291. v. The Indefinite Pronouns quis, qui, aliquis,.aliqui,
quispiam, quisquam, quidam, quivis; the Pronoun
quisque. 291. vi. The Universal Relatives quisquis, quicum-
que, &c. 292. vii. Pronominalia ; alter, uter, &c. ; alius, &c.
70-72, p. 293. . SECTION V. USES OF PREPOSITIONS.
293-299. Examples of Prepositions taking an Accusative Case.
299-304. Examples of Prepositions taking an Ablative Case. 304-
306. Examples of Prepositions taking Accusative and Ablative. 306.
Prepositions used as Adverbs. 307. Notes on Prepositions.
73-7 6 ' P- 307- SECTION vi. CORRELATIVE CONSTRUCTION.
307-310. i. Pronominal Correlation, ii. 310-312. Correlations of
Manner with ut, &c. 312-313. iii. Correlations of Likeness and Un-
likeness with atque, ac., &c. 314-315. iv. Correlations of Degree
with quam. 314. Quam with Positive and Superlative Adjectives,
&c. Quam after Adverbs. 315. Idioms of Comparative.
77-82, p. 316. . . SECTION vii. COORDINATION.
316-320. i. Coordination by Conjunctions. 316. Annexive Conjunc-
tions. 317. Distributive Association ; Ordinative Particles. 318.
Disjunctive Particles ; Adversative. 320. Causal ; Illative. 320-322.
ii. Coordination by the Relative and its Particles. 321-322. Idioms
of quod.
83-85, p. 323. . SECTION viii. NEGATIVE WORDS.
323-324. i. Ne and its Compounds. 324. ii. Doubled Negatives.
325-326. iii. Ne . . . quidem, nedum, nonmodo, &c.
86-89, p. 326. . SECTION ix. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS.
I. Questions Single or Disjunctive. 326-327. i. Single Interrogation
without Particle ; ii. with,; Particle ; uses of an, nescio an, &c. 328-
329. iii. Disjunctive Interrogation with utrum, &c. 329. II. An-
swers, i. Affirmative Answers. 330. ii. Negative Answers.
9-99 P 330- SECTION x. USES OF THE VERB.
331. i. The Indicative Mood and its Tenses ; Use of Mood ; Rela-
tions of Tenses. 332-333. Uses of the Present. 333. Uses of the
Perfect. 334. Uses of the Imperfect and Pluperfect. Tenses in
Roman Letter-writing. 335. Uses of the Simple Future and Future
Perfect ; of the Future Periphrastic Conjugation. 336. Idioms of the
Contents.
Indicative Past Tenses in Predications of duty, necessity, &c. 337. ii.
The Imperative Mood and its Tenses. 338. iii. The Conjunctive
Mood and its Tenses. 338-341. iv. Uses of the Pure Conjunctive ;
Potential. 339. Dubitative, Concessive, Optative, Hortative uses. 340.
Permissive and exhorting use of 2nd Pers. Conjunctive ; Prohibitive
use. 341. v. Examples of Pure Conjunctive. 342-343. vi. The Sub-
junctive ; Subordinate Subjunctive Clauses. 343-344. vii. Particles
and Pronouns which introduce Clauses. 344-346. viii. Consecution
of Tenses with Examples. 346-347. ix. Ellipses of the Verb.
100-250, p. 348. . . PART II. SYNTAX.
100, p. 348. CHAPTER /. THE DOCTRINE OF SENTENCES.
348. Sentences Affirmative or Negative ; Simple or Compound. In
a Compound Sentence, Principal Sentence and Clauses ; Coordinate
and Subordinate Clauses. Three Forms of a Simple Sentence
Enuntiation, Petition, Interrogation. 349. Oratio Recta and Obliqua.
Substantival Clauses ; their Three Kinds Enuntiatio Obliqua, Pe-
titio Obliqua, Interrogatio Obliqua.
101-106, p. 349. CHAPTER II. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
349. i. Members of a Simple Sentence, Grammatical Subject and
Grammatical Predicate. 350. What the Subject may be. What the
Predicate. Examples of Predication with Subject and Verb. Omis-
sion of Pronoun Subject, ii. Incomplete Predication ; Verbs which
do not predicate completely. Sum, esse (complete only when
implying absolute existence), usually requires a Complement, 351.
Examples. Incomplete Verbs called Copulative. List of Copulative
and Factive Verbs. 350-351. Incomplete Predication and its Terms.
352. What the Complement may be. Examples of Copulative Predica-
tion. Phrase, Enthesis, Clause. 353. iii. Relations in the Simple
Sentence. Note on these. I. Predicative Relation ; Subject and Pre-
dicate. II. Qualitative Relation Attribute, Apposite. Adjuncts of
Substantives. 354. Four Varieties of Qualitative Relation Epithetic,
Enthetic, Adverbial, Complemental. III. Objective Relation ; Ob-
ject, Accusative governed by Transitive Verbs ; Verbs with two
Objects, Person and Thing; Verbs with two Accusatives, one
Oblique Complement of the other. IV. Receptive Relation ; Dative of
Recipient. 355. Predicative Dative or Dative of Purpose. Tra-
jective Words. V. Circumstantive Relation ; Adverbs ; Ablative
Case, &c. 356. VI. Proprietive Relation ; Genitive Case. VII. Pro-
lative Relation ; Predication extended by Infinitive. VIII. Annexive
Relation ; Conjunctions. 357. iv. Ecthesisby Interjections and Vocative
Case. v. Notice of the Relative Pronoun. 358. vi. Conversion of
Active Sentences into Passive form.
107-188, p. 359. CHAPTER ///.CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE SIMPLE
SENTENCE.
107. I. AGREEMENT. II. CASE-CONSTRUCTION. III. VERB-CONSTRUC-
TION.
108-114, p. 359. . . . SECTION i. AGREEMENT.
359. Agreement what. i. The Four Concords : I. Verb with Subject ;
Examples. II. Adjective with Substantive; III. Substantive with
Contents. H
Substantive. 360. Examples of II. III. 361. IV. Relative with Ante-
cedent ; Examples, ii. Ellipsis of Subject. 361-362. iii. Attraction
of Verb. 362. iv. Synesis in first and second Concords ; of Gender ;
of Number; Collective Nouns. 363. v. Composite Subject. 364-
367. vi. Idioms of Attribution and Apposition. 364. Adjective
agreeing with Verb-Noun. 365. Adjectival Pronoun substantively
used as Subject. Adverbial Attribution and Apposition. Neuter
Adjectives Substantival. 366. Number and Gender of Apposites.
Peculiar forms of Apposition. 367. Attribute with more than one
Noun. Noun with more than one Attribute or Apposite. 367. vii.
Synesis and Ellipsis in Relative Construction. 368. Attraction in
Relative Construction, viii. Construction of Qualis ; Quantus ; Quot.
369. Abnormal Constructions. 369-370. Examples of the? Rules of
Agreement.
115-176, p. 370. . . SECTION ii. CASE-CONSTRUCTION.
115-117, p. 370. . . A. THE NOMINATIVE CASE.
370. i. The Nominative as Subject : ii. As Complement. 371. iii.
With Interjections.
118-119, p. 371. . . . B. THE VOCATIVE CASE.
371. i. Vocative without or with Interjection : ii. The Nominative
for the Vocative.
120-132, p. 372. . . . C. THE ACCUSATIVE CASE.
372. i. The Accusative the Case of the Contained or Attained Nearer
Object : Agent and Object : Obj ective Propositions, ii. Accusative of
the Nearer or Attained Object of Transitive Verbs. Examples. 373-
374. iii. Contained Object (Cognate Accusative) : its various instances.
374. Part Affected (Respect), iv. Medial Object in Poetry. 375. v.
Accusatives of Time, Space, Measure, vi. Accus. of Place Whither.
376. vii. Transitive Verbs used Intransitively. 376-378. Intransitive
Verbs used Transitively. 376. Verbs expressing State. 377. Com-
pounds of Intransitive Verbs become Transitive ; Test of Active Trans-
itive Verb its power of becoming. Passive, viii. Personal and Im-
personal Passives. 378. Preposition of Compound Verb repeated
with Accusative. Compounds with two Accusatives. 278. ix. Idio-
matic uses. Verbals with Accusative. Unconstructed Accusative.
379. x. Exclamatory Accusative with or without Interjection. 379-
380. xi. Accusatives of two Objects with Verbs of asking, teaching,
&c. 380-381. xii. Oblique double Accusative. 381-383. Examples
of Accusative.
132-142, p. 382. . . . D. THE DATIVE CASE.
382-383. i. Three chief uses of Dative I. As Remoter Object. II. As
Recipient or Acquisitive. III. As expressing Purpose. 384-386. ii.
Dative of Remoter Object. Words which govern it. 386-388. Verbs
which vary Construction with Meaning. 388-389. Adjectives with
Dative Object. 389-390. iii. Recipient or Acquisitive Dative (Corn-
modi et Incommodi). 390-391. iv. Predicative Dative. 391-394.
Examples of Dative.
lii Contents.
143-161, p. 392. . . . E. THE ABLATIVE CASE.
392. i. Uses of Ablative I. Instrumental ; II. Locative ; III.
Ablative Proper. 393. ii. Instrumental Ablative. 393-394. Ablative
of Cause. 395. Of Instrument : of Personal Agent. 395. Of Price.
396-398. Of Matter. 398-402. iii. Locative Ablative. 398. Abla-
tive of Respect : of Measure. 399. Of Manner : of Condition: of
Quality. 400-401. Of Time. 401-402. Of Place Where. 402. Of
Direction. 403-405. iv. Ablative Proper. 403. Ablative of Place
Whence : of Separation. 403-404. Of Origin. 404-405. Of the
Thing Compared. 405-406. v. Ablative Absolute. 406-411. Examples
of Ablative.
162-176, p. 407 . . . F. THE GENITIVE CASE.
407-408. i. Main Function of Genitive, ii. Its twofold Use : Sub-
jective and Objective. 408. Both these dependent on one Noun.
409. iii. A] Subjective Genitive ; Possessive ; Descriptive ; Partitive.
Phrases for Genitive. 410. Attributive Nature of Subjective Genitive.
411-413. Genetivus Auctoris et Possessoris. 413-415. Genetivus
Descriptionis. 414. Genitive of the Fact charged. 415. Genetivus
Qualitatis. 416-417. Genitive of Value and Price. 416. Construc-
tions with interest, refert. 417-418. Genetivus Rei Distributae, or
Partitive. 418-420. Genetivus Rei Demensae or of Quantity. 420.
Genitive of Plenty and Want. 421-423. iv. B) Objective Genitive
dependent, 421. on Substantives ; 421-422. on Adjectives ; 422-423.
on Verbs. 423. Genitive of Cause. 423-427. Examples of Genitive.
177-188, p. 424. . . SECTION III. VERB-CONSTRUCTION.
424-425. i. The Infinitive. 426. ii. The Infinitive Present and Past
as Subject. 427. iii. As Object. 427-428. iv. Prolative Infinitive :
extends Construction of Verbs. Construction of Copulative Infini-
tives. 428. Use of co ep it &c. with Impersonal Infinitives. Prolative
Infinitive extending Adjectives. 428-429. Cases of the Infinitive,
Gerunds, and Supines. 428. v. Gerundial Construction : the Gerunds.
429. Their Case-construction ; Gerundial Attraction ; their Depend-
ence, vi. Impers. Gerundive Construction, vii. Personal Gerundive
Construction. 430-431. viii. Notes on Gerundial Construction. 431.
The two Supines Accusative Supine ; Ablative Supine. 432. Note
on the Annexive Relation. 431-434. Examples of Infinitive, Gerunds,
and Supines.
189-240, p. 434. . CHAPTER /F. COMPOUND CONSTRUCTION.
189, p. 434. . . SECTION I. SUBORDINATION OF CLAUSES.
434. Clauses of three Kinds Substantival, Adverbial, Adjectival
or Relative.
190-193, p. 435. . . SCTION II. SUBOBLIQUE CONSTRUCTION.
435. i. Oratio Obliqua. ii. In a Clause dependent on it (i.e. Sub-
oblique), the Verb is Subjunctive, iii. Virtual Oratio Obliqua. In a
Clause dependent o it (i.e. virtually Suboblique), the Verb is Sub-
junctive. 486. iv. A Verb dependent on Conjunctive is generally Sub.
junctive. v. Exceptions to the Law of Mood in dependence. 437-
Examples of Suboblique Construction.
Contents. \{{i
194-203, p. 437. . SECTION in. SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES.
437. I) Enuntiatio Obliqua : has three Forms Infinitive Clause ;
Ut-clause ; Quod-clause. 437-440. i. Infinitive Clause. 440-441. ii.
Ut-clause. 441-442. Quod-clause. 442. II. Petitio Obliqua: Verbs
which introduce it. 443. Quominus; Quin; Construction with
Predications of Fear and Caution. 444-447. III. Interrogatio Obli-
qua. 44 8 -449- Dependent Constructions with various Verbs. 444-451.
Examples of Substantival Clauses.
304-227, p. 452. . . . SECTION iv. ADVERBIAL AND ADJECTIVAL
CLAUSES.
452. Why taken in connexion, i. Relative Clauses, why called
Adjectival ; Particles equivalent to Pronouns ; Mood in Relative
Clauses, ii. Consecutive Clauses: why so called ; with ut, ut non,
&c., after Demonstratives or without them. 452-453. Adverbial Con-
secutive Clauses. 453. Use of Perfect Subjunctive in Historic Con-
secution ; Idioms of Adverbial Consecution :Tantumabesseut...
454-457. Adjectival Consecutive Clauses ; when they occur ; after what
Predications, &c. 456. Use of quin for qui non. 457. Limitative use
of qui ; Occasional Definiteness of Relative with Indicative. 454-456.
Examples of Consecutive Clauses. 457. iii. Final Clauses : what
they express ; Adverbial Final Clauses with ut, ne, &c. 458.
Demonstratives used with them ; Adjectival Final Clauses. 457-458.
Examples of Final Clauses. 458-461. iv. Causal Clauses ; Adverbial
Causal Clauses: of admitted Cause, quoniam, &c. with Indicative
usually. 459. Of alleged Cause, quod, qui a, with Indicative, if
not Suboblique ; Of conceived Cause, cum, with Subjunctive. 459-
460. v. Idioms of Causal construction; non quod, &c. ; non quin.
461. Adjectival Causal Clauses. 459-461. Examples of Causal
Clauses. 461-467. vi. Temporal Clauses ; four Groups of Temporal
Conjunctions. 462-463. When Subjunctive is required in Temporal
Clauses. 463. Iterative Subjunctive. 461-464. Examples of Temporal
Clauses. 465-467. Uses of the Conjunction cum, when. 465-466.
Examples of cum with Indicative and with Subjunctive. 467-479,
vi. Conditional Sentences. 467. Conditional Conjunctions ; Normal
Forms of the Conditional Sentence. 468-469. Class Alpha,
Sumptio Dati ; Examples. Class Beta, Sumptio Dandi. Class
Gamma, Sumptio Ficti. 469-470. Various Forms of Gamma. 467-
468. Examples of the three Classes, Distinctions. 470-472. Conjunc-
tive Protasis with Indicative Apodosis : Four Idioms with Examples.
472. Indicative Protasis with Conjunctive Apodosis. 473. Abnormal
Relation of Tenses ; Protasis without si. 473-474. Si in various
senses. 474. Si combined with Pronouns and Particles. 474-475.
Idiomatic uses of Si. 475. Sive, seu. 475-477. Negative con-
dition; Nisi, ni, si non. 477-478. Examples. 477-478. Conditional
Sentences in Oratio Obliqua; Examples. 479. Modo, dum, dum.
mo do, Conditional; Examples. 479. vii. Concessive Sentences;
Concessive Conjunctions of several Classes. 480-482. Mood in Con-
cessive Clauses. 480-482. Idioms of Concessive Conjunctions. 481-
482. Examples of Concessive Sentences. 482-483. viii. Comparative
Sentences ; Conjunctions that introduce these. 483. Comparative
Idioms. 482-483. Examples of Comparative Sentences.
liv Contents.
229-240, p. 483. . . . SECTION v. SUPPLEMENT TO COMPOUND CON-
STRUCTION.
I. 483-486. Consecution of Tenses. 483. Consecution of Present
Past. 484. Of Historic Present ; of Future with Future ; three
varieties. 485. Of Future after Primary and Historic Tenses ; of
Subordinated Conditional Sentences. 486. Of might have, ought,
must have ; Consecution when Infinitive, &c. , intervene.
II. 487-489. Narratio Obliqua, how used by Historians ; Examples.
487-488. Idioms. 488-489. Examples of the Conversion cf Oratio
Recta into Oratio Obliqua.
III. 489-495. i. The Reflexive Pronouns se, suus, in Clauses. 489.
Ipse supplies them ; se, suus are Subjective ; is, ille, &c. Objective.
Pronominal reference to be interpreted by 'the Reason of the Thing.'
490. Se, suu s connected with the use of Subjunctive : with the mind of
the Subject, ii. Their use in various Clauses. 490-492. In Substan-
tival Clauses : Ordinary Instances. 491. Reference when a Clause
has a new Subject capable of being referred to Subjectively; Vari-
ation of Reference in Clauses of Prayer, Exhortation, &c. 492.
Se, suus, when referred to a Case governed by a Passive Verb. 492-
494. Pronominal Reference in Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses : in
Final ; Consecutive ; Causal ; Conditional ; Relative Clauses. 494. iii.
When Oratio Obliqua intervenes, iv. When in Clauses more than one
Subject is referred to. 494-495. Ipse assisting the use of Reflexive
Pronouns in two ways. 495. Its Appositive use ; Inter ipsos; Inter se.
IV. 495-501. Participial Construction. 495-496. Nature of Parti-
ciple ; want of Participles ; how supplied. 496. Uses of Participles ;
Participle as an abbreviated Clause ; Attributive or Absolute. 497.
Construction of Abl. Absolute ; Participial Construction abbreviates,
i) Relative Clauses ; 2) Adverbial Clauses ; Consecutive ; Transla-
tion of English ' without ' and Verb. 498. Final, t>y Fut. Participle ;
Causal; Temporal; Conditional. 499. Concessive; with nisi, etsi,
&c. ; Comparative with quasi, tamquam, &c. 499-501. Notes on
Participial Construction.
241-250, p. 501. . . CHAPTER V. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS AND
STRUCTURE AND CONNEXION OF SENTENCES.
501-502. Order of Words ; Parts of Sentence. 503-504. Notes on
the Order of Words. 504-505. Connexion of Sentences. 505-510.
The PERIOD in Latin, Simple or Complex. 506-510. Its Style and
Rhythm. 508. Subject and Object in Periods. 510. Narrative Style ;
Qualities of Style. 510-511. Distinctions of Prose Style. Styles of
Various Authors.
251-269, p. 511. . . PART III. LA TIN PROSODY.
511. Prosody ; Quantity and Rhythm. 512-513. Quantity of
Syllables; Position. 512. Syllables long by nature or position.
513-516. Quantity of Inner Syllables. 516-520. Quantity of Final
Syllables. 520-521. Quantity of Words in Composition. 521-522.
Elision. 523-524. Exceptions to the Law of Elision ; Hiatus. 524-525.
Metre ; Verse ; Foot ; Arsis and Thesis ; Principal Feet. 525-527.
Verses : Dactylic Hexameter. List of Feet. 527-531. Caesura:
Synaphea. 527-528. Technical Terms. 531-532. The Elegiac
Distich ; its Rhythm. 533-546. Lyric Metres. 533. Catullus,
Horace. 533-534. Iambics of Horace and Catullus ; Scazon ; Epodes
of Horace. 534-535. Minor Horatian Metres ; Three Lyric Types ;
Contents. ^ \ v
Asclepiad Metres: 536-537. Glyconics of Catullus ; Sapphic Stanza in
Horace and Catullus. 537-538. The Hendecasyllable of Catullus.
The Alcaic Stanza in Horace. 538. The Galliambus of Catullus.
539-541. Table of Metres : I. Single Verses ; Dactylic Rhythms ;
Trochaic Rhythms ; Iambic Rhythms. 539-540. Ionic Rhythms. 541-
543. Mixed Rhythms; Logaoedic. 543. Asynartete. Anapaestic
Rhythm : Saturnian Verse. II. Strophic Metres ; Dicola Disticha.
544. Dicola Tetrasticha. 545. Tricola Tetrasticha. 546. Metres of
the Comic Poets.
p. 547. APPENDIX.
547-5S 1 A* Latin Orthography. 551-553. B. Latin Pronunciation.
554-555. C. Affinities in the Aryan Family. 555. Grimm's Law.
556-563. D. Ancient Dialects of Italy. 556-559. (A) The Umbrian
Dialect. 559-561. (B) The Oscan Dialect. 561-563. (C) Specimens
of Ancient Latin. 563-564. E. Poetic Forms and Idioms. 565. F.
Supplement to Figurate Construction ( 61). 566-572. G. Money ;
Weight ; Measure. 572-575. Computation of Time ; Roman Calen-
dar. 575-576. Siglarium Romanum (Abbreviations). 577-582. Sup-
plementary Notes : I. On Sanskrit Roots. II. On Relations in the
Simple Sentence.
p. 583 INDICES.
I. INDEX OF SUBJECTS 583
II. LATIN INDEX 591
THE
PUBLIC SCHOOL LATIN GRAMMAR.
INTRODUCTION.
I
GRAMMAR has two chief divisions : Divi-
sions of
(1) ETYMOLOGY (ervfjLo\oyia, true wordformation), ^ram.
the doctrine of Letters and Words.
(2) SYNTAX (avvragis, construction), the doctrine of
Sentences and Discourse.
PROSODY (7rpo<rS/a), which treats of Quantity, Rhythm, and
Metre, is not a necessary part of Grammar, but is usually appended
to it.
The Latin Language, so called from the Latini, or The
people of Latium, in Italy, who used it, was the pre- Lan?
valent scion of the Italic branch of the great Indo- su&ge -
European or Aryan family.
i. Various languages were formed by various races of mankind
in 'their several habitations. When migrating bodies sought new
seats, they carried with them their native language, which, amidst
the changes wrought by time, always retained traces, more or less
strong, of kinship to other branches of the primitive stock. Such
kindred languages constitute a Family. Among the families of
human speech, two have been most operative in the work of civili-
sation the Semitic and the Indo-European or Aryan.
The Semitic family (to which we owe the origin of alphabetic
writing) occupied south-western Asia; comprising the Aramaic
(Syriac and Chaldee), Hebrew, Phoenician, and Arabic branches.
The Aryan race was seated in central Asia ; whence, by a long
series of migrations, it sent forth language to most parts of Europe,
and to various regions of the Asiatic continent. The European
branches of this family are : (i) the Keltic; (2) the Teutonic or
German ; (3) the Sclavonic ; (4; the Lithuanian ; (5) the Italic
(Latin) ; (6) the Hellenic (Greek). The Asiatic branches are : (i)
the Indie or Sanskrit, in India ; (2) the Iranian (of which the
Zand is the chief scion) or speech of Persia, Bactria and adjoining
districts.
B
2 Introduction. 3-4.
2. The Italic branch, like the Hellenic, was from early times
divided into various dialects. The principal of these were the Um-
brian in the 'lorth-eas* of It?ly, the Sabellian and the Oscan in the
central districts,, and the Latin in Latium. Umbrian, Sabellian,
Oscan, and others were destined to fade away, leaving a few scat-
tered monuments of their former existence. Latin survived to be
the parent of learning and language in Western Europe. Rome,
founded on the Tiber by Latins, according to tradition, B.C. 754,
became, on the fall of Alba, the head of the Latin race and name
(nomen Latinum) ; and the clannish pride of the Romans led them
to call their language, and afterwards their literature, Latin rather
than Roman.
3. By Roman conquest and dominion the Latin speech was ex-
tended, with dialectic varieties, to all Italy and to other neighbour-
ing countries. From this source are derived the following modern
languages : Italian, French (in both its divisions, Oc and <9z7),
Spanish, Portuguese, Wallachian, and the Romansch of the Swiss
Grisons. They bear the common title of Romanic or Romance
languages. All are more or less alloyed with the Teutonic dialects
which barbarian conquest carried into Western and Southern
Europe in the fifth and following centuries.
English. English is the single instance of a Teutonic language largely
alloyed, without being disorganised, by the speech of Romanic con-
querors. When the Romans quitted Britain in the fifth century,
the island, after a brief interval, was overrun by Teutonic hordes
(Saxons, Angles, and Jutes), who formed no fusion with the Keltic
natives, but either extirpated them gradually, or drove them (as
Walsche, Welsh, or foreigners) into mountainous and barren dis-
tricts. The rest of the country south of the Tweed came to be
called England (Angle-land), and its speech (Anglo-Saxon) was the
parent of the later English. The conversion of the Saxons to the
Christian faith brought into England some knowledge of Latin, and
incorporated many Latin words with the English tongue. By the
Norman conquest, A.D. 1066, a dominant race came in, who, though
comparatively few in number, filled most places of rank, power,
and influence. Hence their speech Norman- French, a Romanic
dialect became that of courtly society and of law; Latin, its
mother-tongue, became the vehicle of religious service and learned
intercourse \ whilst English continued to be spoken by the great
bulk of the population. In the fusion of these varieties, by which
modern English was gradually formed, the usage of the yeomanry
and peasantry prevailed over that of the nobles, the law, and the
church. English is structurally a Teutonic language, and the
number of Teutonic words holds to those of Latin origin a propor-
tion of about two to one. This shews that, without a knowledge of
Latin, it is impossible to gain a thorough knowledge of English.
It must also be remembered that the Teutonic element in English
has itself a distant kinship to Latin.
Influ- The influence of Greek civilisation upon Latin was immense.
ence of Besides their original affinity the Greek race came into influential
contact with the Latin at two distinct eras. The first of these was
Introduction.
when the Greek colonies in Sicily and Italy became active in com-
merce and literature. This activity may be dated as beginning
about 550 B.C. The Aeolic city of Cumae in Campania appears to
have been the chief medium of communication between Rome and
the Greek colonies, and to the influence then exercised may perhaps
be ascribed those facts of language which led grammarians to
derive Latin from the Aeolic Greek Dialect. Hence too the Romans
probably drew the peculiarities which characterise the Latin Alpha-
bet, as the letter Q and the V consonant, which the Aeolic Greeks
had kept in the Dorian alphabet at Cumae.
Again, when literary activity began at Rome in the third
century B.C., Grecian literature supplied most of the forms and
much of the matter. Rome had no models to furnish. Inscriptions,
laws, crude annals, with fragments of ritual songs and coarse
farces, are all it has to shew within its first five centuries. The
credit of authorship is ascribed first to Livius Andronicus, who
wrote dramas for the stage B.C. 240. He was succeeded by a
crowd of authors, among whom may be mentioned Naevius, En-
nius, the father of epic poetry at Rome, and Lucilius, whose subject
and reputed invention, satire, is the most original product in Latin
literature. But of these writers mere fragments remain. The
comedies of Plautus (Plaut.) 1 and Terentius (Ter.), founded on
those of the later Attic stage, with the remnant De Re Rustica of
the elder Cato, are the only literary works extant in Latin before 85
B.C., the date of Cicero's earliest writings. From this time to A.D.
14 extends what is usually called the Golden Age of Latin. Its most
eminent authors are :
Sketch
Prose.
Cicero C. (or Cic.)
Caesar Caes.
Cornelius Nepos... N. (or Nep.)
Sallustius Sail.
Livius L. (or Liv.)
Varro Varr.
Vitruvius Vitr.
Poetry.
Lucretius Lucr.
Catullus Cat.
Vergilius V. (or Verg.)
Horatius H. (or Hor.)
Tibullus Tib.
Propertius Prop.
Ovidius Ov.
The so-called Silver Age, to A.D.
Prose.
Seneca Sen.
Quintilianus Qu.
Pliniusthe elder... PL N. H.
Plinius the younger Plin.
Valerius Maximus V. Max.
Velleius Paterculus Veil.
Tacitus Tac.
Suetonius Suet.
Florus? Fl.
Q. Curtius? Curt.
117, contains among others :
Poetry.
Manilius Man.
Phaedrus Phaed.
Seneca Sen. Tr.
Lucanus Lucan.
Persius Pers.
Silius Italicus S. It.
Valerius Flaccus V. Fl.
Statius St.
luvenalis luv.
Martialis Mart.
1 The letters following the names shew the abbreviations used for them in this Grammar.
B 2
4 Introduction. 5.
The next period, extending to the fall of the Western Empire,
A.D. 476, has been termed the Brazen Age. The writers who come
nearest to the classic style during this period, are :
Poetry.
Ausonius Aus.
Claudianus Claud.
Prose.
A. Gellius Cell.
lustinus lust.
Appuleius App.
Eutropius Eutr.
Macrobius Macr.
In the Iron Age, which succeeded, Boethius may be named as
the most successful imitator of classic purity. 1
1 Other abbreviations used in this Grammar :
Pr. Primitive (Sound or Root).
Sk. Sanskrit.
Gr. Greek.
E. L. Early Latin (before 186 B.C.).
R. L. Republican Latin (from 186 to 30
B.C.)
I. L. Latin of Imperial Age (from 30 B.C.
to 170 A.D.).
C. L. Classical Latin.
L. L. Later Latin.
U. Umbrian.
O. Oscan.
S. SabelHan.
F. Faliscan.
V. Volscian.
M. Lucr. Munro on Lucretius.
C. Corssen (Aussprache).
Curt. G. Curtius (Gr. Etymologic).
Three dots (...) following a word imply that other derived or kindred words are to be
included.
In Sanskrit words :
c? represents the palatal sound ck (as in 'church '): ric' is sounded 'rich.' G. Cur-
tius represents it by k'.
s f represents the slightly aspirated sibilant, which often corresponds to Greek ic and
Latin c, q. Sk. das! an, Gr. 5e'/ca, L. decem. Sk. disf, Gr. Set*-, L. doc-eo, &c,
G. Curtius represents it by c.
ri is a Sanskrit vowel, which may be written ar. See p. 578.
j is the Sanskrit letter = English j (Curtius ')
y English y-consonant (Curtius j).
Ex. yuj, to yoke (Curt. jug 1 ).
PART /.
LATIN ETYMOLOGY.
ETYMOLOGY comprises : Etymo-
logy
I. PHONOLOGY or SOUNDLORE, the doctrine of l >
Sounds.
II. MORPHOLOGY or WORDLORE, the doctrine of
Words. 1
By a Primitive Sound or Root is meant one which careful in-
duction assigns to that ancient, though no longer extant, Aryan
language from which the Sanskrit is derived. Such induction is
obtained by comparison of the Sanskrit with all other kindred
languages, especially with Zand, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Lithu-
anian. See Supplementary Notes following Appendix.
DIVISION I.
PHONOLOGY OR SOUNDLORE.
i. Soundlore treats of the sounds and relations of Sound.
Letters and Syllables.
1. The Latin Alphabet now in use contains the Latin
same Letters as the English, omitting W. bet? 1 *"
The Letters have two forms :
1) The Capital, Uncial, or ancient form.
2) The Small, or later form, which came into common
use in the eighth or ninth century: after which the
Capitals were chiefly used for inscriptions, and as initial
letters of sentences and proper names.
1) ABCDEFGHI(J) KLMNOPQRST
2) abcdefghi(j)klmnopqrst
(U) V X Y Z.
(v) u x y z.
2. Six of the Letters are VOCALES, Vowels (self-sound-
ing), a, e, i, o, u, y : the rest are CONSONANTS^ Con-
sonants, which are sounded only with a vowel.
' The terms Phonology and Morphology are taken from Schleicher's Vergleichende
Grammatik der Indogermaniscfifn Sprockets
6 Latin Soundlore. 8-9.
3. Consonants are divided into Mutes, Nasals, Liquids,.
Spirants, and Double Consonants. 1
The Nasals are n, m ; Liquids, r, 1 ; Spirants, f, h, j r
s, v ; Double Consonants, x, z : the rest are Mutes.
Note i. y and z are only used in words borrowed from the
Greek.
Note 2. i+j and u+v are two pairs ; each pair constituting one
ancient letter in double form. See 12. viii.
Syiia- 4. A SYLLABLE (<rv\\a^YJ) consists of one or more
Diph- letters pronounced in a single breath ; i-lex.
thongs.
5. A DIPHTHONG (SfyOoyyos) is the combined sound
of two vowels meeting in the same syllable ; au-lae.
There are in Latin three usual diphthongs, ae (or se),
oe (or oe), au ; and three seldom used, ei, eu, ui.
8
guan- ii. QUANTITY is the time of uttering a Syllable.
tity.
I. Every Syllable is considered Short (J) or Long (-) in
Quantity, according as its vowel is short or long ; that is, accord-
ing as it is uttered with a single or double time (mora) :
(Short by nature . . a 6 in . . amor.
Long by nature . . e u in . . esu.
Short by position before
A Vowel may be \ another vowel . . \ in . . . pios.
| Long by position before
two consonants or a
double consonant . e 6 in . . pern5x.
Diphthongs are long .... au, ae in . caudae.
2. A Vowel is called Short or Long by Nature, when the reason
of its quantity is other than position.
3. A Syllable is ^called Doubtful (-) when its Vowel may be
short or long : Sidonius.
4. A Vowel, naturally short, may be made long in poetry, if it
stands ^before cr, gr, tr, dr, pr, br, fr, cl, pi, or fl : tenebrae,
quadruplex. Such a Vowel is called Doubtful by position. Jn
prose the syllable is pronounced short, tenebrae.
Syiiaba- lit SvLLABATiON is subject to the following;
tion - rules:
i. Every syllable must contain a vowel.
2 A word may begin with any vowel but y.
3. A word may end with any vowel, and with any of the con-
sonants, l, m, n, r, s, t, x. A few words end in b, c, d.
1 Checks are another term for Mutes; Trills for Liquids; Fricatives (as gene-
rated by the friction of the breath) for Spirants (See Max Miiller's Lectures on Language).
Mutes have also been called Momentaneous or Explosive Consonants, as distin-
guished from Nasals, Liquids, and Spirants, which are Continuous.
I0t Accentuation. 7
4. Priscian's rule is that inner syllables end with a vowel, if a
single consonant follows : cla-ma-tur ; or if two or more conso-
nants follow, which can begin a word : lu-di-crus, e-sca, ma-gnus,
scri-ptus, scri-psi, a-stra. Custom extends this rule to such in-
stances as so-mnus, A-bdera, rhy-thmus, etc. But, if the conso-
nants cannot begin a word, they are divided between the syllables :
gal-lus, punc-tum, of-fen-do, am-plis-simus, ex-per-tus.
5. In compound words a syllable ends with the end of one part :
ab-igo, res-publica.
6. The last syllable is called Ultima, the last but one Penul-
tima or Penult, the last but two Antepenultimaor Antepenult.
An inner syllable is called open if it ends with a vowel, close if it
ends with a consonant. A word of one syllable is called Mono-
syllable; a word of two syllables, Disyllabic, etc.
IO
vi, ACCENTUATION has the following laws: 1 Accent
uation.
1. The tone of a syllable is called ACCENT. There are two
strong accents, the Acute (') or sharp quick stress, and the Cir-
cumflex ( A ) or deep lengthened stress. Syllables without either
are sometimes called Baryton (Grave in tone), sometimes Atonic.
2. Monosyllables, with vowel short by nature, have the Acute
Accent : 6s, vir, dux; those with Vowel long by nature have the
Circumflex : 6s, mo s, lex.
3. Words of several syllables are not accented on the Ultima,
but on one of the two preceding syllables. Only, when a word loses
a final vowel, if the Penult had an accent, that accent remains on
the same syllable : illinc for illimce, audin for audisne.
4. Disyllables have the Acute on the Penult, when either both
syllables are short by nature, as bdna, or the first is long by posi-
tion, or the last long by nature or position, as inter, mores, amant.
5. Disyllables have the Circumflex on the Penult, when the
Penult is long by nature, and the last short by nature and not
lengthened by position : mater, musa.
6. Words of more than two syllables have the Acute on the
Antepenult, when the Penult is short, as homines, amplissimos.
But the accent remains on the Penult in unweakened compounds
of facio, as benefacis, and in contracted genitives : ingeni.
7. Words of more than two syllables have their Accent on the
Penult when long ; namely, the Acute when the Penult is long by
position only, clamantur; or when the last syllable also is long,
amarant; the Circumflex, when the Penult is long by nature, and
the last short by nature, and not lengthened by position : clamare.
8. ENCLITICS, que, ne, ve, etc. bring forward the accent of
the word to which they are subjoined : homines, homines que;
prdna, prondque. Prepositions are PROCLITIC, that is, with-
out an accent of their own before their cases . circa monia;
but, moenia circa.
Note. The Accents are not marked on words, but understood. 2
1 Latin Accentuation Is a subject too large, intricate and unsettled to be fully discussed
in a book like the present. Students who wish to pursue it more minutely are referred
to the works of Ritschl and Corssen, and to the Latin Grammars of Kruger and Kiihner.
Only a few general rules are given here.
2 Corssen allows a second accent, which he calls a Middle Tone (i.e. semiacute), to
8
Latin Soundlore.
11-12.
Punctu-
ation.
Schemes
of the
Letters.
v. PUNCTA, the Signs of Punctuation, or Stops.
These are the same in Latin as in English : Comma (,) ; Semi-
colon (;) ; Colon (:) ; Full Stop (.) ; Note of Interrogation (?) ;
Note of Admiration (!). The mark ( ) is placed over e or i when
it does not coalesce with a preceding vowel : aer, Tei'us. But
none of these were used anciently except the Full Stop (punctum).
vi. The Relations of the Letters may be thus
shewn :
I. VOWELS.
Standard vowel
a
Sharp medial e o Flat medial
Sharp semiconsonant i |- u Flat semiconsonant
Medial (see vii. n).
II. CONSONANTS.
MUTES
NASALS
LIQUIDS
SPIRANTS
(Momentan-
Note. Tenuesand Mediae
eous)
(Continuous)
are by some called severally
i
.
S
Surds and Sonants.
f ^
J3
Guttural mutes are also called
i i
X
k-sounds, Dental mutes t-
sounds, Labial mutes p-
.33
Si
1
sounds.
"I?*
1
>
H o
*$ o
3
|
I
i
i W
en
GUTTURAL, or Throat- \
C
i
sounds . . . >
s
h
X
DENTAL, or Teeth- \
sounds . . . i"
t
d
n
;.
s
j
z
LABIAL, or Lip-sounds
p
b
m
v
N is guttural when it precedes e, c, or q.
sounded as in English, are labiodental. 1
The Spirants f, v, if
certain words of more than three syllables, when there is an interval between the ac-
cented syllables. Such words are
1) Plurisy liable Compounds, in which the Middle Tone will fall generally on the first
syllable, as in versipellis, misericordia, undeviginti, effrenatus, sublevare, etc. ; sometimes
on the second, as in superbiloquentia, repandirostrum :
2) Plurisyllables, in which, by Derivation or Flexion, the accent of the primitive
word has been shifted to a suffix. Such a Middle Tone will generally be on the first
syllable ; as in Idngitudo, pdpulabundus, servitutem. This theory implies, in rare
instances, the possibility of two Middle Tones, as in cdnfidentiloquius. See Corssen,
ii. 824.
1 Sanskrit has two more classes of Consonants : (a) Palatal, a modification of the
Gutturals ; (b) Cerebral or Lingual, a modification of the Dentals. Thus, in Sanskrit J
is Palatal.
12. Semiconsonants. g
vii. Memoranda from the History of the Al- History
, i , of Ai-
pna bet. phabet.
1. The Romans modified the form of the third Greek letter from
r to C, and gave it the sound K, instead of G. The sound and
letter G were afterwards introduced about 250 B.C. C. was kept as
the abbreviation of Gaius ; Cn. of Gnaeus.
2. The use of C as sharp made K superfluous, and the Romans
almost ceased to use it ; but it was kept in a few abbreviations : K.
for Kaeso; Kal. for Calendae and Calumnia : also Kar. for
Kartago.
3. The other Phoenician guttural surd Koph or Koppa (which the
Dorian Alphabet of Cumae possessed) was kept by the Romans as
Q, and ultimately confined to words in which parasitic u or v
follows the guttural.
4. The Rough Breathing was raised to the rank of a letter, ob-
taining the form and position of the Greek Eta, H.
5. The letter f was purely Italian, its ancient sound being not
exactly that (which it now has) of Phi (ph), nor that (which its
form suggests) of the Greek Digamma (w). In the Etruscan Al-
phabet it has the form 8 ; but the Romans gave it that of the Di-
gamma, (F) F.
6. Vau (V nearly = English w) was adopted by the Romans as
a semi-vowel, and took the position held by Upsilon next to T.
7. There is some evidence that the ancient Romans used z (zeta),
but afterwards supplied it by s or ss : so that y, z were added at
the end of the Alphabet in Cicero's age to represent the Greek v, ,
and are only used in latinized Greek words : lyra = \vpa 9 zona
= (,(i)VTf].
8. The history of x is obscure. It appears in a few early in-
scriptions : but, though in power equal to Greek (cs), it took the
place and form of Chi : when and why, are doubtful points. See
Corssen (Ausspr. I. 6).
9. The long vowels Eta and Omega were omitted as unnecessary.
10. The Aspirate sounds x? fy 0? as foreign to Italian utterance,
were left out ; but the study of Greek in Cicero's age led to the use
of eli, th, pb, which represent those letters in latinized Greek words :
parochus, thesaurus, philosophus ; also of rli : rhetor.
1 1. The Emperor Claudius invented and introduced three letters :
(i) J to represent u-consonant; (2) p (antisigma) to represent
vp (ps) ; (3) h to represent a vowel having a middle tone between 1
and u, as in libet lubet, gradibus gradubus, maximus
maxumus. They did not remain in use; but the first and last
appear in inscriptions.
viii. The Semiconsonants i (j) and u (v).
i. The consonantal character of i (j) is shewn by the two facts, J (J).
that, when it begins Latin words before a vowel it makes position
in verse after words ending with a consonant, and that it makes no
hiatus after words ending with a vowel or with m. Thus in
Sub loue iam ius est
sub, iam are long by position, and -e, -am are not elided before I.
io Latin Soundlore.
12.
1) I is a vowel (i-vocalis) when it ends a syllable ; ni-ti ; or when
it stands in a syllable before a consonant, in-it, sic-cis; or when
it is a syllable ; ab-i-to.
I is a consonant (i-consonans) when it begins a syllable before a
vowel ; i e-i u-n o ; its sound being that of English y-consonant
( = German j), a faint protraction of w the vowel-sound i.
2) In Greek words, however, 161 e, Iambus, and in a few
Latin words, i-ens, leram, i-vocalis remains open before a
vowel.
3) The sign J was introduced in a late age, to represent i-con-
sonans, and most editors do not use it. Its English and French
sibilant sounds (John, Jean) are not classical, but crept in before
the Middle Ages.
4) I-consonans is omitted before i by the compounds of lacio,
ab-icio con-icio pro-icio re-icio, etc. ; though the long quan-
tity of the first syllable is kept ; i being =j i. See Munro on Lucr.
i. 34, ii. 951. In Lucr. Verg. 8ce, reice. But re-icere, Plaut.
5) Poets sometimes harden i-vocalis into i-consonans : ab-ie-te,
ar-ie-te, p ar-ie-te, for ab-i-ete, etc. Sound ab-yete, ar-yete,
etc., trisyll. So Horace has consil-ium ( = consll-yum), Virgil
has fluv-iorum ( = fluv-yorum), trisyll. M. Lucr. ii. 991.
V (U). 2. The sign V was employed by the Romans as vowel and con-
sonant. In a latter age u became the vowel sign, v the consonant
sign. Ifuva ( = oowa) be sounded, it appears that u-consonans
( = w) is only a faint protraction of the labial vowel u ; whence the
modern name Double-u.
1) V-consonans is vocalized in cautum for cavitum, fautum
for favitum, lautum for lav i turn, and in auceps for aviceps,
nauta for navita, naufragus for navifragus.
2) Poets sometimes vocalize u-consonans before a vowel: sil-u-
ae : sometimes they harden u-vocalis into u-consonans : gen-ua
for ge-nu-a, ten-ui-a for te-nu-ia. M. Lucr. iv. 1157.
3) Parasitic u follows q, ng, and s : sequor; lingua; suavis.
This usage is derived from ancient groups kv, grv, sv : but as the
sign u so used neither forms a syllable nor creates position, it must
be regarded, not as a proper letter, but as a kind of link between
the guttural (or sibilant) and labial sounds. 1
ix. SOUND and QUALITY of the Vowels.
Sound I. Vowels have not one short and one long sound only ; but
^aiit various shades of these, in close or open syllables,
of a ' (Thus the sound of u varies in the following words : credulus,
Vowels, btisy,fiill, use, June, and in the French words, commtin, commune!)
2. The old sounds of the Latin vowels probably differed little
from those of the vowels in modern Italian. Proceeding from the
thinnest and sharpest sound i, to the thickest and flattest u, the
following words may represent their general distinction : the first
four being pronounced as in French, the fifth as in Italian, Zuloo.
Qumlne, demesne, papa, promote, Zulu.
3. The three primitive vowels are a, i, u. Sanskrit has e and o
only as diphthongs arising from ai, au.
1 In many modern editions of Latin authors, V alone is used as the Capital form of con-
sonant and vowel, and u alone as the Cursive form of both. In this grammar v is
retained as a cursive.
I2< Phonetic Decay. 1 1
1) The standard vowel is a, issuing from the throat through the
opened mouth : 1 is the thin sharp palatal, sounded between the
tongue and the lower palate ; u is the thick flat labial, sounded by
a low interior whistle through the protruded lips. Each has its long
and short sound, with shades of these.
2) The want of intervening sounds to represent the strengthen-
ing of i and ii, and the primary weakenings of a, called into use
two subsidiary vowels ; e medial between a and i, and 6 medial
between a and ii. Both these are narrower gutturals than a ; e
sounding along the upper palate and tending to the sharpness of
i ; and o sounding from the lower throat with a fullness which its
form marks, but tending to the labialism and flatness of u. 1
3) The strongest short vowel is a, into which none other passes.
4) The weakest is X : for which reason it often stands as a vin-
cular vowel before suffixes : reg-^-to, flag-z'-to, leg-z'-bus : but
sometimes e or u takes its place; soci-/-tas, teg-#-mentum.
5) That 6 is stronger than e may be seen by comparing pondus
with pendere, toga with tegere, volo with, velim, velle.
6) Though u has various shades of strengh, as in put o, sumus,
augur, augiirium, declining almost to the weakness of i, as in
optumus (optimus, vii. n), yet on the average it is not seen to
be weaker than e. Such examples as pignus, pigneris, pignoris
etc., might seem to shew ii stronger than e, 6 : but it must be re-
membered that this ii corresponds not to Greek v, but to Greek o :
that iis is really a weak syllable, and u, like i, gives a facility to the
rejection of s in old Latin poetry, which e does not afford.
7) When a vowel from being short becomes long, it is doubled
in time and strength ; 11 = I, ee = e, etc.
8) As final short vowels, a and e predominate ; i, 6 are rarely
final ; ii never, except by the rejection of s in old Latin poetry.
As final long vowels, i and 5 pred ominate : e and a are less
frequent ; and u least frequent of all.
x. Phonetic Decay in old Italian language. PH ? -
(See Corssen, I. 347.) netic
Decay
1. Phonetic Decay tends to lighten diphthongs, to shorten and
weaken vowels, to silence or throw out light vowels, to cast off or
assimilate consonants.
2. This tendency is especially shewn in Umbrian and its cognate
dialects ; also in the old Latin, of which our knowledge is derived
chiefly from inscriptions, partly from the testimonies of gramma-
rians, and from the most ancient manuscripts.
3. Classical Latin (see 5) may be regarded as in some measure
'a reaction, by which, during a long literary period, the process of
Phonetic Decay in Latin was arrested. After the age of Sueto-
nius, about A.D. 120, decay recommenced and continued for nearly
1000 years, till the modern Romanic languages gradually emerged
from the darkness of those centuries.
Vowels are here spoken of as sounded with consonants : ad, da. All vowels issue
from one primary vowel, a faint sigh in the depths of the throat. Its first scarce distin-
guishable strengthenings may be compared thus : max-z-mos, max--mos, max-/-mos,
max-<?-mos, max-a-mos.
12 Latin Sound lore. 12.
Vowel- Xi. VOWELCHANGE.
1. Vowels are liable to change in the Flexion, Derivation, and
Composition of words.
2. Syllables may be either strengthened or weakened by
Vowelchange.
3. The general tendency of Italian dialects was to weaken vowel
sounds. But sometimes a syllable is strengthened by assuming a
stronger for a weaker vowel. Thus the tonic syllable in toga is
stronger than in t ego.
Diph- xii. Formation and Decay of Diphthongs.
thongs.
1. Diphthongs and long Vowels in Sanskrit arise from the intro-
duction of a vowel to strengthen a short sound. Thus a by
strengthening i produces e ; a by strengthening ii produces o ; and
this process is called Guna (distinction). If a strengthens (ai, an),
the process is called Vriddhi (augmentation).
2. In Latin (as in Greek) e and 6 are themselves capable of
strengthening i and u. Thus the full list of diphthongs proper is
ai ei oi
an eu on
3. Ui is an improper diphthong, only found in the words cui,
huic, hui, phui.
4. Yi in Greek words for vt is very rare : as Ilithyia (ElXeidvIa).
5. The six diphthongs proper existed in ancient Latin, as shewn
by inscriptions : but before the classic age all except au had de-
cayed into other long sounds, namely :
ai into ae, rarely passing into e (ei) I
oi oe, often u (ei) I
ei e or I
eu u
ou u
Note. Corssen observes (I. 674), that the history of ai, oi, ei, has
peculiar interest, because, as these diphthongs often sprang from
the addition of a suffix which begins with a vowel to a stem which
ends with a vowel, they illustrate the laws of flexion as well as the
progress of phonetic decay. 1
6. The diphthong ai prevailed in old Latin: aidilis, Romai,
filial, &c. ; and is found even in the imperial age. But about B.C.
200 ae came into use, and gradually became the classical form.
For this, as a rustic variety, in the age of Lucilius, is found e : edus,
pretor, Cecil ius, &c.; which became more prevalent in later
Latin, and in modern language has superseded ae : secular,
premium.
i) Examples occur of eis for Dat. and Abl. Plur. Ending ais,
which in classical Latin became Is : tabuleis publiceis = tabulis
publicis.
1 This history is gained from the careful comparison of Latin Inscriptions extending
for about 400 }'ears from B.C. 260 to A.D. 150. In the present chapter and in 20 such
results alone are generally mentioned as suffice to explain the varieties of form which
appear in classical authors.
12. Formation and Decay of Diphthongs. 13
a) Old poets, as Lucretius, often use the Gen. in a-i, dividing it
into two syllables, materia-I. Virgil rarely : aula-I, Aen. iii.
354.
b) The vowels are divided in Ga-I-us, Ga-I, and in the Greek
words Agla-I-a, La-i-iis. In others, as Achaia, Aiax, Graius,
Maia, and in aio, maior, i is i-cons. (Acha-ya, a-yo, ma-
yor,...).
7. The diphthong oi (oe) is of much rarer use than ai (ae).
Oi is found as late as the first century B.C. in stem-syllables. But
it passed into oe early, as ai into ae, by strengthening I. Also,
by weakening o, it passed into (ui, ue = ) u. Thus we find moi-
nera, moenera, munera; loidos, loedus, ludus; Troirrj,
poena, punire; coirare, coerare, curare (also courare) ;
oitier, oetier, uti. M. Lucr. ii. 829.
1) In the Imperial age oe began to be corrupted into (ee) e :
pomerium, federatus. This, as in ae, grew more and more
usual, and prevails in modern language : penal, federal, &c.
2) In Case-endings, oi from old times was liable to pass into ei
andi: puer-oi, puer-ei, puer-i; puer-ois, puer-eis, puer-is.
a) In proln, prolnde, the vowels coalesce : in Tro-i-iis they
remain separate (Hiatus). In Troia i is i-cons. (Tro-ya).
8. Ei is either a diphthong, as in a few old words, dei va, deicere,
leiber; in the old Italian Dative ending ei, virtutei ; in Dat.
Abl. PL endings eis for ois ; and in Nom. PL ending ei for oi of
Decl. 2 : or it is a middle sound between e and i, as when the form
eis represents a compromise between the Ace. Plur. endings Is, es,
of I-nouns : urbis, urbes, urbeis.
i) Ei is found as diphthong or middle sound in inscriptions of all
ages ; e sometimes taking its place, but i prevailing over both.
a) In the words dein, deinde, deinceps, e-i may coalesce in
poetry, or, as some think, e is elided.
b) In names "in -eius, i is i-cons. ; Pompeius = Pompe-yus.
c) Greek et appears in Latin generally as i: Tydides for
TvScffirjs ; but often as e before a vowel ; Alexandria or Alex-
andria, Dareus or Darius, Thalea or Thalia.
d) In some Greek words e is open before i (Hiatus) : Terns,
Plei'as, Nereides.
9. Aii was retained in all ages of Latin. But it often passed
(by the process ou, oo) into 5 : codex, plo strum, Clodius,
Plotius, &c., and (in Italian) oro, toro, tesoro, &c. ; sometimes (by
the process ou, uu) into u : cludo. M. Lucr. ii. 829.
10. EU in Latin words is very rare. Heu, eheu, alas, are
imitative words. In neu, seu, ceu, u is a vocalised v (neve, seve,
ceve). On neuter, neutiquam, see Prosody.
a) In Greek words eu remains : Euripides, Eurus.
Note. Greek au and eu before a vowel are written with vowel
or consonant : Agaue or Agave ; Euander or Evander.
n. Ou occurs on old Inscrr. : doucere, iousit, Louceria\ but had
decayed into u before the classical age.
(On the pronunciation of Diphthongs, see Appendix B.}
Latin Soundlore.
12.
xiii. VOWELSTRENGTHENING in Root-syllabi es,
Suffixes, and Endings.
A) Root-syllables (see Supplemental Notes after Appendix).
a) Primitive or Italian u, strengthened by a (6, e) in the
manner of Guna, or by a, (a, e) in the manner of Vriddhi,
subsides from a diphthongal sound into u or a ; the series
of possible change being ii, au, ou, eu, u (o).
jug, to yoke
kru, hear .
kru, be raw
lu, wash .
(pu-s, nur-
ture, thrive)
pu, cleanse
pu, stink .
ru, bray
rudh, be red
ruk, give
light
sku, AzVfe .
su, sew
(ii) iu(n)g-ere ... iug-u-m, iug-are .... (eu) evy-
(u) iug-i-s, iug-er-a, iu-mentu-m.
(u) clu-ere. (au) lau-s, laud-are .... (u, 6), lu-
s-cin-ia, glo-r-ia
(u) ru-di-s. (au) rau-du-s, rau-du-s-culu-m. (u)
cru-du-s ... cru-d-eli-s ... cru-s-tu-m, cru-s-ta.
(u) lu-ere ... lu-tu-m .... (au) lav-ere with v-
cons. ... lautus. (ou) \ov-ftr, di-luv-iu-m ...
with v-cons. for v-voc. (u, 6), 16-tu-s ...
pol-lu-tu-s ... lu-s-tru-m, lu-s-tr-are
(u) plu-it. (ou) pluv-ia ... for E. L. plov-ia ...
(u, 5), plu-vi . . . plo-r-are ....
(ii) pu-er ... pu-ella ... pu-s-illu-s ... disci-pu-lu-s,
pu-m-ilu-s, pu-tu-s. (au) Trcue for Trd-vg.
(u) pu-su-s, pu-s-io, pu-pu-s, pu-pa, pu-p-
ula, pu-p-illu-s, pu-m-ilio, pu-ber, pu-bes.
(ii) pu-tu-s, pu-t-are ... am-pu-t-are. (au) pa-eni-
t-et for pav-ine-t-et. (ou) po-ena for pov-
ina. (u) pu-ru-s . . . pu-n-ire
(u) pu-ter pu-tris (au) pa-e-d-or impav-i-d-or.
(u) pu-s pu-r- ... pu-t-ere ....
(ii) ru-d-ere ... ru-d-en-s. (au) rav-u-s ... rau-
cu-s .... (u) ru-m-or.
(u) rub-er, rub-ere ... ru-tilu-s ... epvQ-pog. (eu)
ipev6-w. (u, o) rub-ig-o or rob-ig-o, ruf-
u-s ....
(ii) luc-er-na, XVK-. (ou) E. L. Louc-ina. (eu)
XtvKog. (u) lux luc- ... luc-ere ... Luc-ina,
di-luc-ulu-m ....
(u) scu-tu-la ... cu-ti-s. (au) cav-ere, cau-tu-s ...
cau-s-sa or cau-sa. (ou) E. L. coit-r-arc
or coi-r-are for cov-%-r-are. (eu) KEv-Ow.
(u) cu-ra, cu-r-are ... E. L. co-r-are, cu-
s-t-o-s, scu-tu-m, ob-scu-ru-s. See C. I. 356.
(u) su-ere. (diphthongal in Sk. Goth, and Lith.).
(u)su-t-or, su-bula.
12.
Vowelstrengthcning.
tu, swell
(u) tu-m-ere, tu-m-idu-s, tu-mu-lu-s. (au in Sk.),
tae-d-et for tav-i-d-et. So ta-e-ter. O.
tau-ta. (ou) O. tou-to. (u, 6) to-tu-s, tu-
ber. U. tu-ta, to-ta. These old Italian
words mean ' a community '/ a people?
(ii) dux due- ... educ-are .... (ou) E. L. douc-
> ere. (u) duc-ere ....
(ii) flu-ere ... con-flu-g-es. (ou) fluv-idu-s, fluv-
iu-s (from flou-v-). (u) flu-men, flu-t-are.
(ii) nu-ere. (eu) veva). (u) nu-tu-s, nu-t-are ...
mi-men.
Add the prim, root dyu, shine ( = div), whence (6 for ii) io-cu-s.
{ou), O. Diouv-ei, whence the weakened words, E. L. Diov-is,
U. Juv-e, I6v-is, iuv-at, .... (u) lu-p-piter, lu-n-o, iu-c-undu-s....
b) Primitive or Italian i, strengthened by a (6, e), or by a
(o, e), subsides from a diphthongal sound into I or S ; the
series being X, ai, oi, ei, I (e).
diic- ; lead .
nu-, nod
dik ; shew,
div, shine
T, that
k^, lie down
stt, smear .
spic( =
spy
:spak),
trf, three .
fid, to trust
lib, to choose
(X) dtc-are ... dic-io, con-dic-io, die-is, caussi-
dic-u-s ... iu-dex, iu-dic- ... di-dtc-i, dtg-
i-tu-s, dig-nu-s ... pro-dlg-iu-m ; ... tK-r/ ....
(ei) fie IK- E. L. deic-ere. (i) dlc-ere, dlx-i ...
(i) re-div-ivu-s, di-u, inter-di-u-s, nu-di-u-s, dT-es,
di-ur-nu-s, ho-dl-er-nu-s, di-es-piter, nun-di-
na-e. (e = ai) Sk. dev-a-s, a god. (ei) 0?oc,
E. L. deivos, deiv-a. (i) div-us, di-us (weak-
ened form de-us), Dl-a-na, I-anus for Di-
amis. In bl-du-um, trl-du-um, &c., du is a
weakened form of div.
(i) i-t-er, ad-i-tu-s, &c., in-I-t-iu-m. ... (5 = at)
Sk. e-mi. (oi) ol-jji-o-g. (ei) d-p-t, E. L. ei-re.
(i) I-re, I-bo, I-vi. ...
(X) ?-s, i-b-i, I-dem.... (ei) E. L. ei-eis. (i) i-dem.
(i) quT-es, quT-e-sc-ere, qul-e-tus .... (ei) ce7/m<,
E. L. cei-vi-s. (i) cl-vi-s.
(i) li-n-ere (-ire), li-tu-s, H-tu-ra. (ei) E. L. lei-
t-er-a. (i) li-mu-s ... ll-m-ax, ll-n-ea, ll-t-
er-a or li-tt-er-a. (G. schleim, Engl. slime?)
(X) -sptc-ere -spec-ere ... (ei) E. L. peic-u-s. (i)
plc-u-s, su-spic-io ? (G. specht. Engl. wood-
pecker ; pi'e.}
(X) tri-bu-s, tn-dens ... ter, tre-centi. (ei) rpelg.
(i) trl-s, trl-ni, trl-du-um.
00 fld-es, fid-eli-s, per-fid-u-s .... (oi) E. L.
foid-u-s, foedus, foed-er-a-tu-s, TreVot^a. (ei)
7r/0w, E. *L.feidus. (i) fld-ere, fld-us ....
(X) Hb-et. (oi) E. L. loeb-er. (ei) E. L. leib-*r.
(i) llb-er ....
16
Latin Soundlore.
12.
c] Primitive or Italian a, sometimes represented by e, i, 6, or
fi, is strengthened into a, which sometimes sinks to e or 5.
(i) a (e, i, 6, u). (2) a. (3) e. (4) o.
ak, sharpen
ag, drive .
bha \throw
bha-s flight
bhrag, break
kar, want .
gan, beget .
gna, know
kal. hide .
lab, j/# .
ma, measure
pak, fasten
rag,
sna, float,
bathe
(l) a ic- ac-u-s, ac-u-ere. (2) ac-er. (4) af
(i) ay-ag-ere...ag-i-li-s.... (2) amb-ag-es, ac-tu-s.
(3) eg-i, ffrparryydc .... (4) paedagog-u-s.
(i) fe-n-es-tra, fa-t-eri, fa-t-uu-s, infi-ti-a-s, fax
fac-, fac-ere ... f ac-ie-s, fa-ber, 0d-oc, <j)a-rai.
(i) fa-s, fa-s-ti, fa-ri, fa-bula, fa-ma, fa-c-
und-us ... fa-tu-m, fa-nu-m. (3) fe-t-i-ali-s r
fe-s-ia-e = fe-r-ia-e, fe-s-tu-s, ^?ftt, <f>tfpi.
(i) fra(n)g-ere ... frag-ili-s, frag-or, nau-frag-us,
.... (2) refrag-ari, suf-frag-iu-m ...fr ac-tu-s.
(3) freg-i, fprjy- .... (4) ippuya.
(i) car-ere. (2) car-us.
(i) gen-us ... gen-ui, ycv- yov- gen-er, pro-gen-
ie-s, gen-iu-s, in-gen-iu-m, indi-gen-a, gen-i-
tor, yvvi]. (2) gna-tu-s, na-tu-s ... na-t-io,
natura, gna-vu-s, i-gna-vu-s .... (3) yr//crtoc.
(i) no-t-a, no-t-are, co-gni-t-us .... (2) gna-ru-s,
i-gna-ru-s, na-r-r-are. (4) no-tu-s, i-gno-tu-s,
igno-r-are ... no-r-ma ... no-bili-s ... no-
men, a-gno-men, i-gno-min-ia ... cyvwi:a.
(i) cle-p-ere (cll-p-eu-s), eel-la, oc-cul-ere, cu-cul-
lu-s, -cil-iu-m, c-la-m, K\OTT^. (2) cal-ig-o.
(3) eel-are. (4) K\u\l/.
(i) lab-are, lab-e-facere. (2) lab-i ... lab-es.
(i) ma-nu-s, jucrpelv, me-tru-m, me-d-imnu-s, me-
t-ere, mo-diu-s, mo-d-u-s, mo-d-er-ari. mod-
es-tu-s .... (2) ma-ne, im-ma-ni-s, ma-tu-
ru-s, Ma-tu-ta. (3) me-ta, me-t-Iri ... me-n-
sa, me-n-sura, me-n-si-s, se-me-s-tri-b ....
(4) mo-s mor-, mor-osu-s.
(i) pac-i-sc-^ pa(n)g-ere, pe-pig-i, Trdy-. (2) pax
pac-, pac-are, re-pag-ulu-m, pag-u-s, pag-ina,
com-pag-es, pro-pag-o. (3) -pegi, 7rr/y-.
(i) reg-ere, reg-io, -rigere, rog-u-s. (2) Sk. raj an.
(3) rex reg- ... reg-ula (From regere
perhaps rig-ere, rig-i-du-s ... .)
(i) sa-tu-s, sa-t-io (se-rere) .... (2) Sa-t-ur-nu-s.
(3) se-vi, se-men ....
(i) na-t-are. (2) na-re ... na-r-i-s, na-s-u-s, nSs-
turt-iu-m (nasum torquens), (3)
i2. VowelstrengtJicning in Root-syllables, etc.
sta, stand
17
star, strew,
(i) sta-tor, sta-ti-m (but E. L. sta-ti-m), sta-ti-o,
sta-tu-s, sta-tu-ere, sta-tu-a, sta-bulu-m, sta-
bili-s : ste-t-i, super-sti-t- .... (2) sta-turu-s,
sta-tura, sta-men, and in Conjug. sta-re,
sta-bam .... (3)
(i) ster-(n)ere ("-op-), (2) stra-vi, stra-tu-s^stra-
men ... stla-ta, stla-t-ariu-s, (4)
Pr. har, seize
kar, create
d] The following are strengthened from (i) a (e or i) to (3) e (I).
(i) (h)er-us, (h)er-a, (h)er-c-i-sc-ere, hir-und-o, hir-
ud-o, E. L. hir (x P~) 0) (h)er-es, (h)er-ed-
(i) Cer-es, cre-are, cre-sc-ere ..., (3) cre-vi, in-cre-
mentu-m ....
(i) sed-ere ... as-sid-uu-s, (3) sed-es, sed-i, sed-
ulu-s, sld-ere... .
(i) ser-ere ... ser-ie-s, ser-a, ser-tu-m, (3) ser-ia,
ser-u-s, ser-iu-s.
(0 cer-(/*)ere ... cer-tu-s, ... sere-are, (3) cre-vi,
dis-cre-tu-s ..., ex-cre-mentu-m, crl-bru-m,
crl-men, dis-crl-men .... xpirw.
(i) oreyw, TE y-oc, teg-ere, teg-es, (3) teg-ula, tex-i.
(i) val-lu-m, ver-eri, vel-le, val-ere, val-idu-s, (3)
vel-u-m, vel-are ... : ver-us, ver-ax ....
From another root val, implying motion, come
(i) vol-are, (3)vel-ox, vel-es, vel-it-ari.
e) The following are strengthened from (i) Pr. a (6) to (4) o.
skar, sever
stag, cover
var ) cover
val 'choose
Pr. sar, be whole
svan, sound
(i) sal-us sal-u-t-, sal-u-ber, sal- vu-s..., (4) sol-ari,
sol-a-c-iu-m.
(i) son-u-s, son-are ... (4) per-son-a.
svap, sleep (i) sop-or ... som-nu-s, (4) sop-ire.
svar, sun (i) ser-enu-s, a\-ac, ffe\-rjvri, Setp-ioc, (4) sol
(Sk. sur-a-s).
vak, call . (i) voc-are, (4) vox voc-, voc-ali-s (con-vlc-iu-m ?).
/) C. cites also many examples of i (e) rising to I and of u
rising to u in Latin without diphthongal accretion. Such are
(a) liqu-ere ... liqu-or, (/i3) llqu-i, llqu-or.
(o) sec-are ... (ft) sic-a, sic-ar-iu-s.
(a) stil-u-s, stim-ulu-s ... (j(3) instig-are.
(a) i/y-po-c, (/3) u-v-ere, u-m-or ... . x
1 The examples in pp. 14-17 are selected from a large number in Corssen's great work,
I. 348-550. The instances cited are the most important of those in which the short as
well as the long vowel occurs in words of classical use. Forms from old Italian dialects
and from other languages are here given only so far as they illustrate diphthongal
strengthening. Other roots of great interest will be found in Corssen's pages : as
Par, pur, fill*, whence plere, plus, plenus, populus, plebs.
Mar, glitter : whence mare, marmor, Mars, Mamers.
yia.r,fade : whence marcere, mors, mori.
Bhu, be bom : whence fu-, fore, fe-, fetus, femina, fecundus, fenus.
C
jg Latin Soundlorc. 12.
B) Vowelstrengthening in Suffixes, Case-endings, and Personal-
endings, will appear in the Sections which treat of Declension, Con-
jugation, and Derivation :
hon-6s honor-is, Cer-es, puly-is, nub-es, lig-6n-is, matri-mon-
ium, matr-6n-a ; mens-ar-um, de-6r-um ; am-as, am-a-
mus, am-a-ris, fu-e-runt, fu-I.
Disyi- xiv. Vowelstrengthening in Perfects.
Per- C i) Most Verbs with vowel character a, i, o, and some with e,
fects - formed the Perf. in vi, and lengthened the character :
na-vi, ne-vi, no-vi, ll-vi.
2) Of u- verbs, C. says that their Present-stem anciently received
the strengthenings ou, u, before it was weakened into ii ; and that
the Perf. passed through the forms -uvi, ui before it was weakened
into ui. Thus plouo, pluo became pluo : and pluvi, plui be-
came plui. The only exceptions are batuo, -gruo, metuo, ruo,
which seem never to have lengthened u before a vowel : and fuo,
which in the Perf. became foul (poet, f o vi), fui, and ultimately fui.
3) As to the formations
caveo cavi
faveo favi
paveo pavi
foveo fovi
moveo movi
voveo vovi
C. thinks that (to avoid the concurrence -vui) ii was thrown out,
and the root- vowel then strengthened : cavui, cav-i, cavi.
4) As to the following three
sedeo sedi ; video vldi (E.L. veidi) ; venio veni
he assumes the existence of old forms sed-ere, vtd-ere, ven-ere,
which in the Perfect were strengthened as the following Consonant
Verbs :
fac- feci
iac- ieci
ll(;z)qu- llqui
\\(n)c- vlci
ag- egi
fr()g- fregi
leg- legi (lexi)
ed- edi
fod- fodi
cap- cepi
ru(^)p- rupi
scab- scabi
em- emi
fu(;z)d- fudi
He brings reasons against the common assumption that in such
Perfects the long vowel compensates for a lost reduplication. And,
in fact, the practice of Vowelstrengthening in Italian Soundlore is
so well established, that no such assumption is necessary to explain
the quantity. Yet fefici (Q.fefdd] is known as an older form than
feci, while pegi from pango and tudi from tundo appear as
secondary forms for pepigi and tutudi. We may also compare
Greek forms, as ayrjyov or r/yayov with egi, icwdfj with edi,
oloa with vldi or veidei, and be led to doubt whether, in some
instances at least, a loss of reduplication may not have caused the
root-vowel to be strengthened in Latin.
Com- xv. COMPENSATION.
tk>n? a ~ Compensation is usually said to happen when a naturally short
vowel is lengthened in order to maintain the quantity of a syllable
after the loss of a consonant: vid-sum, vlsum. But such com-
pensation is not always made: seget-s, seges.
i2. Nasalisation. Vowelweakening. 19
xvi. Strengthening of the Present Stem in
Verbs by Insertion of a Nasal.
Some Verb-stems have the short vowel of their Present-stem
strengthened by NASA LISA TION ; that is, by adding n to the Stem-
trowel before a Guttural or Dental, m before a Labial character :
frag- frango
iug- iungo
Kg- ling-
liqu- linquo
mig- mingo
nigu- ninguo
pag- pango
pfg- pmgo
pug- pungo
strig- stringo
tag- tango
vie- vinco
fid- findo
fud- fundo
scid- scindo
tud- tundo
pis- pinso
cub- cumbo
lab- lambo
rup- rumpo
As the Nasal for the most part disappears in Derivation, it was
evidently not so strongly sounded as in modern utterance.
Guttural n is called by grammarians nadulterinum.
(On the strengthening of the Present-Stem by Suffixes, see 52.)
xvii. Vowelweakening. vowel
1. Pr. roots are formed with each of the Pr. vowels, a, i, ii : ening -
but those with a are by far the most numerous.
2. The standard vowel a is weakened into i and ii in all Aryan
languages : but in those which have e and 6 the weakening of a
into i passes through e, and the weakening of a into ii passes
through 6 :
Pr. sama E.L. semo-1 C.L. simu-1
3. Italian dialects shew such weakening largely ; in Root- syllables,
in Suffixes, and in Endings of Case and Person.
4. The general object of all such changes is Euphony (fi/^wi^/a),
the more easy and convenient utterance of the sounds of speech.
5. In pursuit of this object certain principles are applied ; among
them Assimilation and Dissimilation, hereafter noticed ; also
Selection, which occurs when a certain vowel is chosen as the
most suitable before a particular consonant. Thus, v has a prefer-
ence for o ; 1 and the labials chiefly for u ; r for e ; n and t for i.
Grouped consonants often prefer e :
luvis becomes lovis
volt vult
epopa upupa
pepiri peperi
Menerva becomes Minerva
aletem alitem
voile velle
faciundus faciendus
Note. E is the easiest and smoothest Latin vowel, being neither
so sharp and thin as i, nor so flat and thick as 6 and ii. Hence
it prevails as a final vowel, and in several instances is so used
when final consonants are cast off : venere for venerunt ; utare
forutaris; dictatore for dictatore-d or dictatori-d. Also for
i final in Neuter Nouns : mare for mari-.
But when Masculine or Feminine Nouns drop final n, the
stronger vowel o becomes final in Nom. Sing. : homo (homon-,
homin-), virgo (virgon-, virgin-).
c2
2O Latin Soundlore. I2 ,
Weak- xviii. The Vowel a and its Weakenings.
of a. A) In Root and Stem syllables.
1) Corssen (II. 6) cites about 270 Latin words which have
kept Pr. a in the syllable of the root or stem :
acus, aqua, traho, daps, labor, pateo, madeo, maneo, ango,
pando, amo, sal, valeo, palleo, malus, careo, carmen, hasta,
aveo, gravis.
2) He cites about 215 words which have weakened Pr. a to e
in the syllable of the root or stem :
decem, neco, equos, sequor, tego, tepeo, febris, peto, edo,
senex, fremo, mel, queror, tero, vespa, severus.
And others which have passed from a through e to i :
digitus, ignis, quinque, pinguis.
3) He cites about 190 words which have weakened Pr. a into
o in the syllable of the root or stem :
voco, mox, loquor, rogo, opus, 6b, nota, fodio, tono, vomo,
mola, orior, voro, post, novem.
And others which have passed from a through o to u :
nummus, unguis, fungus, multus, culmen, vulnus.
a) Pr. a is weakened to e and 6 in some roots :
nex, neco, noceo ; tego, toga,
bene, bonus ; mens, moneo ; pendo, pondus.
fero, fors, fortis ; verto, vorto ; volo, velle, volt (vult).
preces..., procus, posco; cello, collis, columen.
H) Pr. a, kept in Latin, also becomes e in
fatisco, fessus ; gradior, gressus.
c] Pr. a, kept in Latin, also becomes 6 in
apiscor, opus ; scabo, scobs ; pars, portio ; faveo, foveo.
d) Pr. long a becomes 5 in some words and many suffixes :
donum, vox, mos :
-tor, -6s, -dp, -mdn, -on, and Imperative -to.
B) In Suffixes.
It may be stated as a general rule that Latin suffixes with the
vowels e, X, 6, ii, are weakened from Pr. suffixes with a.
Exceptions are very few :
tX- in such words as menti- parti- poti-.
nt- in such words as igni- pani-.
vi- in words likeovi- avK
tu- (su-) in Supines and Nouns, as statu-, dictu-, casu-.
All which are in Pr. form.
C) In Cases and Personal Endings.
Cases (except the Locative Singular) and Personal Endings, with
vowels e, i, o, u, are for the most part weakened from Pr. forms
with a. See 20, 39, and Schleicher, Vergleich. Gramm. der
Indogerm. Spr., 205.
1 12 Vowehveakening with Selection. 21
xix. Weakening into o as influenced by Se- Seiec-
lection.
1. v following has determined Pr. & to become 6 in
novem, novus, lovis, ovis.
2. V preceding has probably done this in voco : while in voloj
volvo, volnus (vulnus) andvomo, the consonants which,
follow may also have had influence.
E. L. has voco for vaco, voto for veto, vorto, voltur. M.
Lucr. i. 20.
3. Pr. sva is changed to so in
soror (for svasar, ' sister'), sopor, socer, sonus, sol,
sodalis;
and has passed to sii in su-sur-rus. See p. 17. C. II. 64.
4. I* shews a preference for o before it in many words :
dolus, solum, solium, tollo, &c.
but especially in E. L. suffixes :
poc-dl-om, tab-ol-a, Pseitd-dfais, po-pol-iis.
which afterwards changed 6 into u.
5. Inner r often prefers 6 to u : fore, for em from fu-o; so
ancora from Gr. ayfcupa (but generally Greek v was kept
before r: pur-pur-a):
especially in the Suffix of Neut. Substantives with Nom.
S. iis or iir : corp-us corp-6r-, eb-ur eb-6r-.
Some keep iir-: fulg-ur-, gutt-ur-, murm-ur-, sulf-
ur- ; and the Masc. words aug-ur-, turt-ur-, vult-ur-.
(But most Neuters in us are inflected by er-. See p. 25.)
' 6. The Comparative Suffix was anciently os 5r-, then or or-,
for all genders : finally, and in C. L., it became
M.F. meli-6r meli-or-, N. meli-us meli-or-. Note
p. 42.
xx. Weakening into u as influenced by Se- Seiec-
lection. ,
i. C. says : ' In Latin root- syllables, suffixes, and flexional end-
ings, ii has arisen generally from 6.'
a) before s and m final :
deus (faos), genus (ylvoc), bellum (bellom), filium (filiom).
&) before inner l, or a labial :
popttlus, upupa, columen, Hecuba.
c) before grouped consonants, the first of which is a Liquid,
Nasal or Sibilant :
pulsus, palumbes, fungus, rursum, luscus.
t 230 B.C. the 6 of case-endings generally p
kept in some instances :
a) hoc, tot, quod, quot, always. So com- con-.
2. About 230 B.C. the 6 of case-endings generally passed into ii :
but 6 was kept in some instances :
22 Latin Soundlore.
12.
/3) after u, v, as late as the Augustan age :
equos, equom, servos, servom, aevom. So quom.
The Emperor Claudius seems to have promoted the use of the
combinations uu, vu, which in Republican times were generally
avoided. See C. II. 97-101.
3. Rustic dialects kept o frequently : hence it returned into user
in L. L., and reappears in modern Italian : popolo, secoloJ*
4. Selection of u appears
A} before Labials and l :
i) in place of o :
humanus
utrubi
consul
umerus
bublle
adulescens
nummus
bubulcus
epistula
volumus
bubus
exsul
quaesumus
rubigo
titulus
sumus
upilio
singuli
Bovile is another form for bubile.
2) in place of Gr. a, e :
humus (yvL\ia.i) scopulus (<rfco7re\oe)
pessulus (Trao-o-aXoe) Siculus (Si*eXoc)
3) in place of a, e :
& : occiipo, aucupor, contubernium ; e : quincuplex.
4) as middle sound, approaching to * :
clupeus or clipeus : lacrtima or lacrima. See xxi.
Note I. When X or e came before the suffix 616- 61-, 6 was not
changed into u :
(1) fili-olu-s, basi-olu-m, Cori-ol-i, vi-ol-entus.
(2) alve-61u-s, lacte-61u-s, laure-ola, Pute-61-i. 2
Note 2. When v came before 61, 6 was kept as late as the Au-
gustan age, after which it often became u :
parv-olu-s, parv-iilu-s : serv-olu-s, serv-ulu-s.
But friv-olu-s was never changed.
1 As to the dialectic use of O and U in final syllables, C. says :
1) Lat. and F. received O as the pure Gr. o.
O. and S. as O inclining to U.
U. as a middle tone, or U inclining to O.
2) Lat. changed O to U about 300 . . . 200 B.C.
F. still earlier.
O. about 300 B.C., but before in not till 130 B.C.
S. before 200 B.C.
V. never.
New U. returned from U to O between 300 and 130 B.C.
a MSS. shew formid-ul-osus and formid-ol-osus, sanguin-ul-entus and sanguin-ol-entus,
vin-ul-entus and vin-ol-entus ; the forms with ul- having the advantage. Somn-ul-entus is
decidedly better than somn-ol-entus.
12. Vo^Lvelweakening with Selection. 23
B) Before grouped consonants, of which the first is a Liquid,
Nasal, or Sibilant :
i. In place of o.
1) pullus, cucullus, and the Deminutives ampulla, homullus,
Catullus, Marullus, &c.
But before 11, e is more frequent than u. See xxi. D. 6.
fulcio ... , hiulcus, pulcher ..., sulcus .,., Vulcanus ;
fulgeo ..., mulgeo..., vulgus ....
culpa . . . , bulbus.
adultus ..., cultus ..., multa ..., pul(t)s, ultra ... vultur,
vultus, vult : vulsi.
culm en, fulmen, ulmus ; ulna.
Fulvius, pulvis, vulva, ulva.
Here too ol after v held its ground long :
Volcanus, volgus, voltur, voltus, volt, volsus.
2) amurca, furca, urceus, murmur, furnus, eburnus, purpura,
Surrentum, ursus, rursus.
3) umbo, nummus, aerumna, alumnus, autumnus, columna,
Clitumnus, Vertumnus.
4) uncia, uncus, hunc, Aurunci ; fungus, unguis ....
The Demin. suffix -unculo- : ranunculus, virguncula.
5) Promunturium ; nuntio (noventio). Corss. I. 51 ; nundinae.
The Personal Ending -unt was anciently onti- ont, as
ecfociont for effugiunt on the Columna Rostrata, con-
sentiont, dederont, &c., on old inscriptions. The classical
form of 3d Pers. PL Perfect -runt for -ront first appears
in the Senatusconsult. de Bacc. B.C. 186, consoluerunt j
the weakened form in -re somewhat earlier, fee ere.
When u or v came before -ont, o was kept to a later
time. Thus in the MSS. of Plautus appear ruont, per-
pluont, vivont; and in Lucretius loquontur, disso-
luont, vivont.
The inner suffix -unt- (OVT-) appears in a few words : sc
euntem ... , chironomunta (Juv.) ; Acherunta (Plaut.
Lucr.).
The suffix -un-do- (for -on-do-) appears in
har-undo, hir-undo, sec-undus, ori-undus, rot-undus, fa-c-
undus, fe-c-undus, vere-c-undus, furi-b-undus, trenrf-b-
undus, vaga-b-undus ;
and in Gerundive Participles. 1
1 Of the Gerundive forms -ondu-s, -undu-s, -end-us, C. (I. 1 80) shews that
(1) No existing E. L. Inscrr. contain -ond-us ; but, as it was the tendency of L. L. to
resume the o of E. L., and in L. L. appear such forms as secondus, verecondus, while
Italian also has secondo, rotondo, it may justly be assumed that -on-do- was the first
weakening of Pr. -an-d-ya.
(2) The forms -undus -endus appear side by side in E. L. and R. L. to the Christian
era. So in Plaut. Ter. Lucr. ; in the Senatuscons. de Bacc., the Lex lulia.
(3) The form -endus prevails in prose : but Sallust likes -undus. Cicero, Caesar, Livy,
use it often, chiefly in io-verbs of the 3rd as well as 4th Conj. : moriundum, partiundus,
&c. It prevails especially in legal and statistic phrases : rerum repetundarum, iure
dicundo, belli gerundi, agris dividundis.
24 Latin Soundlore. i 2 .
Rarer forms are frundes for frondes, frunte for fronte,
dupundius for dupondius.
Later language resumed o :
It. fronde, fronte, pondo, mondo.
6) The Demin. forms arbuscula, corpusculum, rumus-
culus.
aplustre, indu-stria (endo) :
also arbustum, onustus, robustus, venustus;
which C. would derive from weakened forms arbus, onus,
robus, venus.
2. The words in which u appears to represent e are few : as
mulsum (jue'\<) ; sepultus from sepel-ire ; urgeo (tjoyeo) ....
Note. Long u for Pr. a or its substitute 6 appears in various
suffixes : -turo-, -tura, -suro-, -sura, -uno-, -una, -ueo-, -uca,
-ueeo-, -ucio- :
i-turus, prae-tura, pas-surus, men-sura, Nept-unus, fort-una,
cad-ucus, fest-uca, pann-uceus, Vin-ucius.
compared with
prae-tor (anc.), patr-onus, fer-ax, fer-6x, mer-acus, clo-aca,
gallin-aceus.
Seiec- xxi. Change into e as influenced by Selec-
tionofs ' tion.
It has been shewn that
A) e has affinity with r.
B} e is a convenient vowel for the close of words and for final
syllables.
Also it must be noted that
C] e has affinity with the combinations st, &s, 11.
D] e is a convenient letter for the syllable of Reduplication.
These causes determine a great number of instances in which e
appears for other vowels in suffixes and endings.
A) e chosen with r.
i) In Decl. i and 2, before the suffix ro- ra-, e takes the place
of Pr. a or of o, sometimes of u : Examples are
Words which retain vowel and suffix throughout :
numeru-s, umeru-s, uteru-s ; camera, littera, tessera ;
and the Fern. Adjectives,
lacera, libera, misera, tenera, altera.
Words which drop the vowel of the suffix in Nom. and Voc.
Sing. Masc. :
gener, puer, socer (CKV/OOC), vesper,
lacer, liber, miser, tener, alter.
12. Vowelweakening with Selection. 25
Words which drop the vowel of the suffix in Nom. and Voc.
Sing. Masc., and drop e in all their other forms :
ager, aper, faber, magister ;
Afer, ruber, niger, uter.
In some of these (as magister and uter) e represents
Pr. &, while in others it is perhaps a transposed repre-
sentant of the dropt 6.
In some words with suffix ro- ra- Greek a was kept before r :
cantharus, cithara.
2) Similarly, in Decl. 3, e comes before r in many forms :
Words in er er-, which keep e throughout :
career, cadaver, piper, papaver, tuber :
celer, degener, pauper, uber.
Words in ter, cer, ber ; which keep e ( = Pr. a) only in Nom.
and Voc. Sing. Masc., dropping it in the other cases ;
frater, mater, pater, venter, imber ;
acer, alacer, saluber, puter, Silvester.
Numerous words of Decl. 3, which take Nom. S. us ( = 6s),
have in the Oblique Cases the suffix er- :
fun-er-is, gen-er-is, op-er-is, Ven-er-is ; vet-er-is.
but some keep 6-r- :
corp-or-is, frig-or-is ; pect-6r-is,
a few use e r- and 6 r- :
pign-us, pign-er-is and pign-or-is : fenus, fen-er-is and fen-or-is ;
temperi for tempori : whence tempero, temperies.
Vomer orvomis, Gen. vom-er-is, points to an original form
in es, which sometimes weakens the consonant and be-
comes er, sometimes weakens the vowel and becomes is :
see xxii. 2. and compare the forms
Ceres Cerer-, cinis ciner-, pulvTs pulver-.
3) Verbs having er in their root do not weaken e into i m
compounds :
affero, congero, desero, puerpera.
for the same reason
peperi not (pepiri) ; repperi not (reppiri).
similarly the compounds of iuro become de-iero, pe-iero,
weakening u into e.
When the Perfect receives suffixes which begin with r, I is
changed into e or e :
(E . L. dedi-sont dede-ronf} dederuntordedere.
(E. L. dedi-so\ dede-ro.
2 6 Latin Soundlore. 12.
B) E has a tendency to take the place of other vowels in final
syllables before weak consonants, n, m, s, t.
1) In Decl. 3, the Norn. S. -en (for Pr. -an) becomes -in- in
the Oblique Cases :
pecten, agmen, crimen, oscen, tubicen.
Gen. pectin-is, agmm-is, crimm-is, oscin-is, tubicin-is.
2) a. Septem (Sk.safitan, Gr. 7rra) ; novem (Sk. navan, Gr.
tVyca), dec em (Sk. das' an, Gr. ^KQ).
(3. In Decl. 3 -em is the Accus. S. Ending of Cons. Nouns :
reg-em, virgin-em, passer-em,
it prevails in I-nouns against -im :
civ-em, font-em, serpent-em,
but -im is retained by some :
bur-im, sit-im, tuss-im, vim.
while others use both forms. See 24, 5.
febr-im febr-em, messim messem.
Tim is kept by the numerous Adverbs having that form :
as ad fatim, partim. But saltern or saltim.
M as a final letter faded in L.L. as it had faded in U., and passed
out of use in modern Italian, leaving e final generally : sette, nove>
&c. ; but undeci, dodeci, ... from undecim, duodecim, ...
3) On such forms as nub-es, sed-es, see 2O, 24.
Some I-nouns have two forms of Nom. S., -Is and es :
fel-is fel-es, vall-Is vall-es, verr-is verres;
but s, like m, disappeared in L.L. and Italian, leaving e final :
nube, valley &c.
4) In old Italian dialects, except O., also in E. L., final t in
Verbal forms was weak and sometimes disappeared. Before
it the Perfect character I was sometimes changed into e :
at a later time to the middle sound ei : finally in classical
times settling into T. Thus are found the various forms :
(dede, dedit, dedet, dedeit\ dedit.
In L. L. and in Italian, this t, like m and s, disappeared
again, leaving final e ; disse,fece.
C] E has a tendency to become itself a final letter in the place of
other* vowels.
1) In the Voc. S. of O-nouns it supersedes 6 :
doming, lupe, Romule.
2) In the Neut. S. Nom. Accus. of I-nouns it supersedes * :
mare, rete ; triste, necesse.
3) When final consonants are cast off :
quinque(Sk.panc'a, Gr. irivre).
i2. Voweliveakening with Selection. 27
ille, iste, ipse (illus, istus, ipsus).
Abl. S. of Decl. 3 : quaestore (quaestorid or quaestored).
-re for runt in Perf. dedere (dederunt).
re for -rls in 2nd Pers. S. Pass. : loquare for loquaris.
-ve for vis in neve, sive.
mage for magi s; pote for potfs.
In L. L. instances occur even of a Gen. S. in e for is.
By this gradual rejection of final consonants the classical system
of case-inflexion was broken down and the uniform declension in-
troduced which prevails in modern Italian.
D] E has a tendency to take the place of other vowels before
grouped and double consonants.
1) E appears before z ( = cs, gs) in the final syllable of Nouns
of Decl. 3 which are inflected with the suffixes ic- i&- ( =
ico- *o-, as explained by Corssen) :
codex, cortex, imbrex, remex ; simplex, supplex.
Gen. codfcis, corticis, remlgis ; simplfcis, supplfcis.
2) E appears before ps, bs in the final syllable of Nouns of
Decl. 3, which are inflected with the suffixes ip- (up-) ib- :
such are
municeps, auceps, caelebs, particeps.
Gen. municipis, aucupis, caelibis, particfpis.
Compounds of caput, with Nom. -ceps for -cipit-s, have Gen,
-cipltis ;
praeceps, Gen. praecTpitjs.
3) When a Noun with that suffix ti- (which appears in
hos-ti-s, tes-ti-s) would have the accent on an ante-
penult syllable (ala-ti-, equo-ti-), the vowel of the penult is
weakened usually into i (aliti-, equiti-), sometimes into e
(abieti- segeti-). The i of the suffix being dropt, the forms
then become (alit- equit- seget- abiet-) : and when the Nom.
S. is formed by the addition of -s, they become (alit-s
equit-s seget-s abiet- s) : but, e being preferred to i in a
final suffix, (alit-s equit-s) become (alet-s equet-s). After
which, by the rule of euphony, the dental falls out before s,
and the Nominatives then become
ales, eques ; Gen. alit-is, equtt-is;
seges, Gen. seget-is; teges, Gen. teget-is.
but abies, aries, paries, Gen. abietis, arietis, pa-
rietis, on account of i preceding.
Note. In this class, the vowels e, i generally represent Pr. or
Latin a (see above), but in a few X is the root- vowel :
comes, comit- (root if, to go).
28 Latin Soundlore. I2 .
In pedes pedit-, probably also in seges, teges, the vowel is adopted
by analogy, forming a suffix i-t- or e-t-. See Footnote, p. 30.
4) The same principle applies to a few words derived from
sed- sid-, tosit(Pr. sad) :
(obsed-s) obses obsld-; (praesed-s) praeses, praesid-;
(desed-s) deses desid- ; (resed-s) reses resid-.
5) E before nt appears in the suffix mento- :
ar-mentu-m, la-mentu-m, monu-mentu-m.
and for Greek a in
talentum, Agrigentum, Tarentum.
6) E is frequent before 11 :
cello, pello, vello, velle,
and the Demin. forms : puella:
but in these i is also used : sigillum.
In other groups with 1 the vowel u prevails, see xix. : but
e is not excluded : celsus, excelsus.
7) Equester, pedester, for (equet-ter, pedet-ter).
8) (fat-) fessus ; (grad-) gressus.
9) The Neuter suffix (os) us weakens its vowel into e before
another suffix beginning with t :
fun-us fun-es-tus ; scel-us, scel-es-tus,
temp-us temp-es-tas ; intemp-es-tus.
The existence of an old Neuter Noun modus is shown by
mod-es-tus ; mod-er-ari :
so the Masc. Noun honos forms
hon-es-tus, hon-es-tas :
but o becomes u in
ang-us-tus, aug-us-tus, on-us-tus, rob-us-tus, ven-ua-tus.
maius, mai-es-tas, is like temp-us, temp-es-tas.
C. forms pot(i)os, pot-es-tas : others
poten(t)s (potent- tas) pot-es-tas :
he cites Praern-este as Superl. from a supposed (prae-
no-), meaning * the town on the highest prominence?
10) The comparative forms mag-is-ter, min-is-ter, sin-is-
ter, in L. L. appear with es for is ; whence Italian maestro.
In some other words also, as antes tes, L. L. writes est-
for ist-.
Modern Italian is not uniform in the choice between e and i.
We find
fermo, selva, segno, trenti ; but
principe, sinistra, vittoria, carissimo.
E) On the use of e for a, o, ii in the reduplicated syllable of Per-
fects see xxv.
i2. Vowelweakening with Selection. 29
xxii. The Selection of i.
A) The thinnest and sharpest vowel i has a strong affinity with
dental consonants ; chiefly with n and s, but also with t and d.
B) Hence it is largely used as a vincular vowel, linking stem
with suffix and suffix with suffix.
C) The existence of a middle sound between i and ii caused the
orthography of many words to fluctuate.
A) I. Affinity of i with n.
I represents Greek a before n in
balmeum, bucina, fascmo, machlna, patina, trutma.
v It represents Greek t before n in
adamantinus, coccmus, coc emeus, crystallmus.
It stands before the suffix no- in numerous Latin words : *
fiscma, fuscma, pagfna, sarcma, pampmus, sucinum, fagmus,
fagineus, geminus, myrrhinus.
In mino- (Pr. mana) and tino- (Pr. tana) :
terminus, femina ; fruimino, amaminor.
crastmus, diutinus, pristinus.
In the suffix In- (Pr. an L. en, en) before vowels :
pect-in-is, sangu-Tn-is, osc-in-is.
In the suffix in- (Pr. an L. on, on) before vowels :
hom-in-is, marg-m-is, ord-m-is, virg-in-is, Apoll-m-is.
In the suffix mXn- (Pr. man L. men) before vowels :
flu-min-is, no-mm-is, nu-mm-is.
A striking instance of the affinity of X with n appears in the
fact that it was inserted in the Greek word pm, which so
became mina. Similar insertions occur in Daph-i-ne^
luc-i-nus or lych-I-nus (M. Lucr. p. 211), gum-i-
nasium probably in Catullus.
So the affinity of ii with m is shewn in the occasional
forms drac-u-ma for fymxp/, Alc-u-mena, Tec-u-messa,
&c., and with i in Aesc-u-lapius, Herc-ii-les.
Minerva, anciently Menerva.
Though e prevails before grouped consonants, yet there are
many instances of it being sharpened into i before n with
another consonant :
intus, inter, indu- ... quinque ... tingo ... vindico ...
so when n follows another consonant :
ignis, pignus, signum, tignum.
2. Affinity of i with s is shewn
In the forms cinis (ciner), cucumis (cucumer), pulvis
(pul-ver), vomis (vomer), pubis (puber) : also aci-
pensis (acipenser). See C. II. 278.
1 In fact the suffix no- takes, in true Latin words, no short vowel but i before it. Such
words as balanus, cottana, platanus, raphanus, Rhodanus are not native of Italy.
30 Latin Sound lore. I2 .
In the Gen. ending -is (Pr. as).
In the occasional use of i-sc- for e-sc- in Inceptive Verbs :
lucisco for luces co.
3. Affinity of i with t is shewn
In the adoption of i before many Verb and Noun suffixes
beginning with t :
ag-i-to, ag-t-te, ag-i-tis, gen-i-tus, gem-t-tus, domi-tum, meri-
tum, veti-turus, doli-turus, fru-i-turus, gen-i-tor (but gene-
trix), habi-tare, strepi-tare : laeti-tia, plani-ties, verl-tas,
alti-tudo, pem-tus, largi-ter, sempi-ternus.
4. Affinity of i with d is shewn
In the adoption of i before the suffix do- :
candi-dus, torp-i-dus, flu-i-dus, viv-i-dus.
herbi-dus, gravi-dus, morbi-dus, geli-dus.
Note. When an E-verb forms a Substantive with suffix d-on-
d-in-, the vowel before that suffix is e :
albe-do, dulce-do, grave-do :
but lib!- do, by assimilation.
B) Use of i as a linking Vowel. 1
i. The large use of i before suffixes beginning with n, t, d, and
its own aptitude for this purpose, led to its adoption before many
other suffixes as a link-vowel in the place of others : as before co-,
c-un-do-, eulo-, cro- ; b-un-do-, bulo-, bill-, men, men-to-, monia.
(Verbalia) ali-ca, velli-co, medl-cus, rubi-cundus, cubi-culum,
ridi-culus, veh-T-culum, pudi-bundus, fur-i-bundus, pati-bulum,
cred-i-bilis, terri-bilis, flexi-bilis, spec-!-men, al-i-mentum, quer-
T-monia.
(Denominativa) auli-cus, belli-cus, annt-culus, ludi-cer, curri-
culus, am-cula, aegrT-monia, caen-monia.
But Verbal a is kept :
ira-cundus, caena-culum, vaga-bundus, ama-bilis, grava-men,
sacra-mentum.
Sometimes e : vere-cunduSj fle-bilis.
1 Corssen is right in principle, when he considers this i to be a weakening of the final
vowel of Stems with vowel-character ; as in auli-cus from aula; belli-cus from bello- ;
ridi-culus from ride- ; am-cula from anu-. But he seems to go back too far when (II. 314
and elsewhere) he speaks, for instance, of the T in regimen as weakened 'from the
original final a of the 3rd Conjugation.' He might surely have applied here and in other
Derivatives of Consonant Nouns as well as Verbs the principle which he admits, for ex-
ample, in ped-es, ped-it- from the root ped- (Pr. pad, Gr. rro5-), and in the use of the
suffix i-co- (II. 211. 205) ; namely, that the usage of vowel-stems, which adopt! so gene-
rally as a light link-vowel, has thus created a uniform stiffix (einheitliches Suffix) applied,
by linguistic analogy (Sprachbewusstsein), to Consonant stems also. This is, in fact, all
that is meant when the use of vowels (!, u, e) is cited in this Grammar as ' vincular : '
and in this sense the term will be still kept as convenient.
The same convenience recommends the term ' Clipt Stem ' to express a vowel-stem
without its vowel character. But ' mord ' is in fact the root of mord-ere. Hence, to
say that momord-i, morsum, come from a theoretic verb mord-ere, as C. does, and to
say that they are formed from the Root of the extant Verb, are but two ways of saying
one and the same thing ; and the latter is the shorter way.
12.
Vowelweakening with Selection.
2. A similar adoption of i is frequent in Compound Words at
the close of the prior element.
(i) terrf-gena, silvi-cola, auri-fex, signf-fer, fatT-dicus ; corni-ger,
arcT-tenens, lucti-ficus ; mum-ceps, sorti-legus ; parri-cida,
luc-I-fer, rur-i-cola ; (2) horri-sonus, terri-ficus ; miseri-cors ;
(3) undi-que, indl-dem, sici-ne ... hidf-ne ... .
Ante, bene, male vary :
anti-cipo, anti-stes; but ante-cedo, ante-venio ...
beni-gnus, beni-volus ; but also bene-volus ...
mali-gnus, mali-ficus ; but also male-ficus ....
E-verbs compounded with die ere, fa cere keep e or weaken it
tog :
valedicere, arefactus, tepefactus.
3. The Suffixes lo-, ro-, cro-, bro-, bulo-, tro-, tilo-, &c., often
change their vowel into i before the Nom. ending s ; thus causing
Adjectives in us, a, um to pass into the I -declension.
gracil-us, gracil-t-s ; hilar-u-s, hilar-i-s.
steril-u-s, steril-i-s ; indecor-u-s, indecor-if-s.
seques-ter -tra -trum ; seques-ter -tris -tre.
On this preference of i the Adjectival forms in li-s, ri-s, cri-s,
bri-s, bili-s, tri-s are founded.
By the passing also of 6- ii-s into i- i-s arises a double form of
numerous Adjectives :
imberb-u-s, imberb-i-s ; unanim-u-s, unanim-T-s
decliv-u-s, decliv-i-s ; efifren-u-s, effren-I-s.
In bicorm-s, u of the stern passes into i. See 28.
4. Before the Ending -bus of Dat. Abl. PL we have
i for o^in quT-bus, hl-bus (Plaut.), and other old forms.
\ in I-nouns, as navi-bus (nave-bos on the Duellian Column).
i vincular in Cons. Nouns, as reg-i-bus, virgin-1-bus.
i for u generally in U-nouns, ascanti-bus, corni-bus; except
those in -cu-s, and artus, partus, tribus; which keep u.
C) The last-cited examples point to that middle sound between
i and u, which the Emperor Claudius wished to mark by a distinct
sign. See p. 9. This exists almost exclusively before labials, affect-
ing chiefly such words as the following :
(1) imo- or umo- :
lacrima
aestimo
legitimus
maximus
mommentum
(2) Xp- or iip-, ib- or ub- :
mancipium mancupium
libet lubet
(3) if- or iif-
aurifex auriifex
mamfestus manufestus
lacruma
aestumo
legitumus
maxiimus
monumentum
victfma
existimo
maritimus
decimus
testimonium
victuma
existumo
maritumus
decumus
testumonium.
recipero
ritibus
pontifex
sacrifico
recupero
ritubus.
pontufex
sacrufico
32 Latin Soundlore.
Also capital! s or caputalis and a few more words.
Inscriptions shew that the forms with u prevailed in E. L. and
R. L., those with i in and after the Augustan age, for which the
Monument of Ancyra, as edited by Mommsen, is the best authority.
Recapitulation. The principles thus laid down respecting the ad-
aptation of certain vowels to certain consonants in Latin are sup-
ported by the usage of other Italian dialects so far as known. See
Corssen, II. 60-225.
These principles affect short vowels much more than long; suffix
vowels more than root vowels ; grave much more than accented
vowels.
The general results are :
A, the strongest vowel, into which none other is changed, is not
itself appropriate to any particular consonant, though its natural
kinship is to gutturals first, and least to labials.
O is appropriate (i) to v, (2) to l, r.
u is appropriate to l and the Labials.
E is appropriate to r.
X is appropriate to the Dentals n, t, d, s.
Again :
and u are appropriate to grouped consonants.
is convenient for final syllables and the end of words.
E is a convenient letter for the syllable of Reduplication in Verbs.
Z is adapted, by its lightness, to link stems with suffixes, and
suffixes with each other. IT, e, sometimes take its place.
All these appropriations arise from euphonic assimilation, in-
tended to make utterance less troublesome.
Again :
The extensive weakening of Pr. a through o to u and*through e
to i, is characteristic of Italian language. In L. L. a reaction
occurred, by which o and e recovered much of their lost ground,
and in modern Italian o very often appears where u stood anciently :
often e where Latin had i :
molto, mosca, polvere, sepolcro, fondere, romp ere, sono (sum),
&c., bevere (bib ere), disse (dixit), senza (sine), verde
(viridis).
Assimi- xxiii. Vowelchange by Assimilation and Dis-
Lndjois- similation of Vowels to each other.
t!on. a By Assimilation a letter is changed so as to become the same
as another, or so as to become more suitable to it.
When a letter is changed so as to become unlike another, this
change is called Dissimilation.
Every such change has euphony for its object.
Assimilation may affect adjoining or disjoined letters.
It may be Regressive, when the following letter operates to change
the preceding : or Progressive, when the former letter operates to
change one which follows.
,
i2. Assimilation and Dissimilation of Vowels. 33
I. Assimilation of Vowels. Assimi-
lation of
A) Assimilation of adjoining Vowels. Vowels.
(An adjoining vowel is never assimilated so as to be the same
as its neighbour ; but only so as to be suitable to it.)
a. Regressive.
i) In the conjugation of the Verb-roots I, go, qu!, can, and
their compounds, X before a, o, u is changed into e :
earn ... eo, eunt ; queam ... queo, queunt.
Z before e in their Participles is used rarely : as Nom. S. iens,
quiens, but in the Oblique Cases usually ie becomes eii :
euntis ... queuntis ...
So iendum ... usually passes into eundum ... .
As ie is an admissible combination, it is probable that the order
of change was i-ont- i-ond-, then e-unt-, e-und-, which remained
in this old verb after ent- end- had come in generally.
Ambio, one of the compounds of eo, is conjugated like audio.
2) The Pronoun-root I (Is), and its strengthened compound
idem, in the same manner change X to e before a, o, u:
hence we get
ea, earn, eum, eo, eos ;
eadem, eandem, eundem, eodem, eosdem, easdem.
3) Deus, dea (for div-us, a, from Pr. div), is an assimilation
of the same nature. In Nom. P. di (dei) are used; in
D. Abl. dis (deis) ; but not dii, diis.
But Diana is classical : Dean a L. L.
4) Teate, Teanum, for Tiati- Tiano- O.
nausea (ravaia) ; cochlea (/coxXt'ag).
but X remains in pius ... via (veha).
b. Progressive.
1) By the influence of e or of \ preceding it, o is prevented
from passing into u in the suffix 6lo- ; see p. 22.
2) Substantives in -ia, Decl. i., pass into -ies, Decl. 5 :
avarit-ia avarit-ies ; mater-ia mater-ies. 1
3) In Numeral Adverbs, from Pr. i-yans, comes -iens (-ies) :
quot-iens (quot-ies) ; dec-iens (dec-ies).
4) In Verbs the Mood-suffix ia becomes ie :
(es-ia-m) = siem = sim ;
(ama-S'ia-m = ama-ie-m = ama-im) amem.
1 The Fifth Declension is a mere offshoot of the First. The ending a, Decl. i., was
originally long, as aquila in old Latin poetry. Hence came ie by assimilation from Ia,
and, with addition of Nom. S. Ending S, ies : luxuria, luxurie-s.
D
34 Latin Soundlore. 12.
B) Assimilation of disjoined Vowels.
(Regressive and complete always in Classical Latin.)
l) u is often assimilated to a subsequent i :
Aemilius
consilium
-cflium
simnis
manlbiae
(aemulus)
(consulo)
(-culere)
(simul)
(manubiae)
Esquiliae
exilium
facllis
Qufris
(aesculus)
(exulo)
(facul)
(Cures)
2) O is assimilated to a subsequent i in
inquilinus (incolo) | upilio (OIOTTO\OC)
3) E is assimilated to a subsequent * in
Duilius (Duel-1-ius, Bellius), Brundisium (Brundesium) ,
mini (mehi), tibi (tebi), sibi (sebi) ;
nihil (nehil), nftnius (ne-mi-u-s), unmeasured. See C. II. 366'
familia (O./amel, whence famul, famulus). 1
TT is assimilated to o in
so boles, when written for sii boles.
is assimilated to e in
bene (bono-)
E is assimilated to u in
tugurium (tegere).
And long e to 6 in
socors (secors).
Dissimi- II. Dissimilation of Vowels.
Vowels^ i) It has been shewn that in E. L. and R. L. u, v were avoided
before u, whence such forms as vivont, avos, servom, &c.,
antiquom, suom, &c., continued in use to the Augustan age. TTv
was not so much avoided. We find indeed floviom, conflovont in
E. L., but also in R. L., Cluvius, luventius.
2) The concurrence ii was avoided in E. L. and R. L. by writing
i-ei ; as fili-ei ' sons ; ' peti-ei, &c., ieis and eeis ; also adi-e^e in
Senatuscons. de Bacc., but in I. L. this repugnance faded; and we
find iis consiliis, &c. on the Monument of Ancyra.
In C. L. ii is avoided by writing e for i in
anxi-etas, ebri-etas, pi-etas, sati-etas, soci-etas, vari-etas, abi-etis
...,ari-etis ..., pari-etis ... vari-egare, li-en, Ani-en, ali-enus,
lani-ena,
and in many Proper Namesj
Cati-enus, Labi-enus.
1 Few words have been more debated, as to their derivation and consequent orthography,
thansusplcio(suspitio)andconvlcium(convltium). Each'form has good documen-
tary evidence in its favour, and perhaps the strongest argument for t is that, while ci often
appears in I. L. and L. L. for ti, converse examples are hardly to be found. Yet Corssen
is strongly in favour of s u s p I c i o, as an assimilation of a strengthened form suspecio, and
of c o n v I c i u m, as an assimilated form from convocium. Fleckeisen on the other side
assumes suspltiofrom suspicitio, and convltiumfrom convocitium. Subiudice
Iis est. There are strong arguments against each view ; but for the present Corssen's
seems the less objectionable.
f 12. Vowelweakening in Compound Words. 35
It is avoided in the compounds of iacio by casting out one i,
and allowing to the other the power of ji. See pp. 10, 38.
Peior is perhaps by dissimilation for pid-ior (compare /%
* injure ')
In the Pronouns is, Idem, the forms n, lis were avoided by writ-
ing ei, eis : but li, h's were tolerated in Imperial times.
3) o-o was tolerated in I. L.
But co-opia becomes copia ; and
coptato is in the Lex lulia for co-opt ato. M. Lucr. v. 342.
xxiv. Vowelweakening in the Second Member vowei.
of Compound Words. e jt en -
Com-
Composition of words forms either loose or fast Compounds. pounds.
If the two members are so joined that, although the first is pro-
clitically connected with the second, nevertheless they can be se-
parated, the compound is loose. Thus Mdrs-pater is a loose
compound ; but becoming Mdspiter, it is fast; because the parts
are inseparable. In old language compounds are often found in a
state of separation : M. Lucr. i. 452.
ob vos sacro (Festus) obsecro vos
sub vos placo supplico vos
facit are (Lucr.) arefacit
per mihi gratum est pergratum est mihi
per mihi placet mihi perplacet
Such compounds as satisfacere, circumdare, c., may be
considered loose ; while proficere, tradere, &c. are fast.
The fast Compounds hitherto cited, Maspiter, proficere, tra-
dere, weaken the root- vowel of the .second member. But this
weakening, though of frequent occurrence, is not universal in fast
Compounds. Thus attraho, though a fast Compound, is not
weakened.
We have now to see what compound words do weaken the second
member of the composition.
i. a) Numerous words keep their root-vowel a unweakened in
the second member of their compounds ; such are most
Verbs of Conj. i. :
agitare, amare, gravare, vagari;
many of Conj. 2. :
ardere, iacere, manere, pallere, patere, pavere,
valere ;
many Nouns :
animus, avus, faber, palma, par.
Some words, as will be seen, weaken a part of their compounds,
but not all: from mandare, commendo, but demando.
Likewise some compounds are not weakened in earlier Latin
which are weakened later : M. Lucr. ii. 951, 1135.
aspargere, dispargere (Lucr.) ;
afterwards aspergere, dispergere.
D 2
36 Latin Soundlore. 12,
&) A is weakened (through o) into u in the second member of
some compounds :
. before 1 :
calcare . . con-culco : in- pro-culco.
salsus . . insulsus.
saltare . . ex-sulto : de- in-sulto.
saltum . . de-sultum : as- dis- ex- in- prae- pro- sub-sultum..
Note. Satire anciently was weakened by u, dissuluit (Lucr.);
but later it took i by assimilation : de-silio.
/3. Before Labials :
cap- . . . occupare : nunciipare : aucup- : mancup-.
taberna . contubernium.
lavere . . diluvies, al- col- il-luv-ies, -ium.
y. After qu, by assimilation :
quatere. . concutio, de- dis- in- per- suc-cutio -cussi ...
quare . . cur (for quor).
c. Before ss :
as, assis . decussis : nonussis : centussis.
Note. O (from Pr. a) is weakened into u in
consul, exsul, praesul, insula, consulo.
Long a is weakened into u in the suffix -ugro (-aro) :
aerugo, albugo, ferrugo, lanugo.
c] A. is weakened into e in the second member of many com-
pounds :
tarn . . autem, item.
-dam . . idem, itidem ... quidem, tandem ....
apisci . . indepisci.
canere . . oscen, cornicen, fidtcen ... accentus ....
bacillus. . imbecillus ...
gradi . . aggredior ... con- de- di- e- in- prae- pro- trans-
re-gredior : aggressus
lacere . . illecebrae, illectus, paelex.
pacisci . . depecisci (or depac-) : but compacisci.
pad . . . perpetior, perpessus.
fatigare. . defetigo (or defat-).
fatisci . . defetisci, defessus.
dare . . . addere, de- e- pro- red- tra-dere ....
(Sk. dha) . abdere, con- abscon- in- sub- ere- ven-dere.
parare . . (impero ...; pauper ..., propero, aequipero, vitu-
pero ...?) but appa.ro, com- prae- re- se-paro.
pario . . comperio, reperio: (aperio, operio ?) puerpera,
vipera ....
ager . . . peregre (i), peregrinus ; but peragrare.
arma . . inermis.
arcere . . coerceo, exerceo ....
ars . . . iners, sellers, quinquertium.
agere . . remex.
annus . . biennis, biennium, tri- dec-ennis -ennium .....
aptus . . ineptus ; adeptus.
i2. Vowelweakening in Compound Words. 37
as, assis . tressis, bessis, bicessis ....
barba . . imberbis.
candere . accendo, incendo ... succendo ....
cantus . . accentus, concentus.
capere . . particeps, princeps ... auceps, manceps ....
captus . . acceptus, con- de- ex- in- prae- re- sus-ceptus....
caput . . anceps, biceps, triceps, centiceps, praeceps ....
carpere . . discerpere, con- de- ex-cerpere.
castus . . incestus.
damnare . condemnare ; indemnatus, indemnis.
facere . . artifex, opifex, carnifex.
factus . . affectus ... con- de- ef- in- prae- re- suf-fectus :
but labefactus . . . with many more,
fallere . . refello.
fassus . . confessus, dif- pro-fessus.
farcire . . confercio, confertus, infercio, refercio, refertus.
iacere . . obex (for ob-iex).
iactus . . adiectus, con- de- dis- in- ob- re- sub-iectus
lactare . . delecto, oblecto.
mandare . commendo, but demando.
pandere . dispendo, dispessus (but expando).
parcere. . comperco, compesco, dispesco (but com-parsit).
pars . . . expers, impertio, dispertio, bi- tri-pertitus (-par-
titus).
partus . . compertus, repertus (apertus, opertus).
passus . . perpessus.
patrare . . impetro, perpetro.
raptus . . abreptus, cor- di- sur-reptus. ,
sacrare . . consecro, ob- ex- re-secro (consacro, Mon. Anc.).
scandere . ascendo, conscendo, de- ex-scendo.
spargere . aspergo, con- di- in- re-spergo. See p. 35.
stare . . antistes, superstes (-stit-).
tractare . contrecto, de- ob-trecto ; but retracto (con-
tracto, Lucr.).
Note. O (Pr. a) is weakened into e in
potis . . hospes, sospes (pit-) ... but compos, impos.
Long a is weakened into e in
halare . . anhelo (redhalo, Lucr. vi. 523).
.d) A, is weakened (through e) to i in the second member of
many compounds :
agere . . adigo, ab- ex- red- sub-igo (but circumago, perago,
satago), nav-ig-o. Part. P. -actus.
apisci . . adipiscor, indipiscor.
amicus . . immicus
cadere . . accido, con- de- ex- in- oc- re-cido ... deciduus,
occiduus, ... stilicidium.
- canere . . accmo,concino, prae- pro- re- suc-cino,vaticinium,
luscinia
caput . . occiput, sinciput, ancipit- praecipit-
capere . . accipio, con- de- ex- in- per- prae- re- sus-cipio,
... praecipuus, principium ... .
datus . . additus ... de- prae- pro- red- tra-ditus.
38
Latin S 02m d lore.
12.
Pr. dha . . abditus, con- e- sub- ere- ven-ditus.
facere . . afficio, con- de- ef- in- of- prae- pro- re- suf-f fcio ;
cpp. with -ficus -ficium, beneficus ... beneficium
...,but benefacio, calefacio, and all similar cpp.
facilis . . difficilis.
fades . . superficies,
facetus . . inficetus.
fateri . . confiteor, dif- pro-fiteor, infitiae, infitior.
habere . . adhibeo, co- ex- in- per- pro- red-Mbeo; but
post-habeo.
iacere . . adfcio, ab- con- e- pro- re- in- ob- sub-icio. On
forms in MSS. with e, and on dissice, see M.
Lucr. ii. 951.
Iacere . . allicio, e- il- pel-licio.
latere . . delitesco.
manus . . commmus, emmus.
nam . . . enim, etenim.
pater . . luppiter, Diespfter, Maspiter.
placere . . displiceo : but perplaceo.
rapere . . abripio, arripio, cor- de- di- e- prae- pro- sur-ripio.
ratus . . irritus.
salire . . adsilio, de- ex- in- pro- re- sub-sllio.
sapere . . desipio, insipiens ; resipisco.
stare . . institor, iustitium, solstitium.
statuere . constituo, de- in- prae- pro- re- sub-stituo.
(stan-) . . destmo, obstmo, praestmo, obstmatus.
frangere . effringo, in- con- per- re-fringo. Part. P. -fractus..
^angere . compingo, impingo. Part. P. -pactus.
tangere . . attingo, con- per-tingo. Part. P. -tactus.
fascinare . praefiscme (i).
as, assis . semis, semisses.
Note, o (Pr. a) is weakened to i in
potis. . . hosplta, sospita, hospltium ... .
Long a is weakened into I in the suffix -Ig-o (-agro) :
fuligo, robigo, uligo, &c.
2. a) E is kept in the second member of many compounds :
edo, fremo, gemo, meto, peto, seco, sequor, tremo, tego,.
veho, venio, gen-, ped- ;
and those with er,
fero, gero, sero, tero.
b] E is weakened into i in the second member of several com-
pounds :
egere . . indigeo, indigus.
emere . . adimo, extmo, per- red-imo, (but coemo).
legere . . colligo, de- di- e- se-ligo. But intellego, neglego,
sublego. Also perlego, prae- re-lego from legere,
to read.
medius . . dimidius.
premere . comprimo, de- im- op- re- sup-primo.
regere . . arrigo, cor- de- e-rigo.
sedere . . assideo, con- de- dis- in- ob- prae- re- sub-sideo ' y
asslduus, praesidium, subsidium.
12. Vowelweakening in Compound Words. 39
tenere . . abstmeo, attmeo, con- de- dis- ob- re- per-tmeo ;
contmuus, pertinax, protinus, protmam.
dedi . . . addldi, &c.
steti . . . adstiti, &c.
In close syllables compounds resume e :
ademptus, collectus, compressus, directus, consessus,
retentus.
Long e is weakened into I in
lenire . . delmio (also delenio).
tela . . . subtllis.
f) E is changed to ii in
temnere . contumelia (contumax ?)
3. O is kept in the second member of compounds generally:
convoco, abrodo. But
locus . . ilico.
gnotus . . agnitus, cognitus.
4. IT is kept in the second member of compounds : ac- inciibo,
eluceo ; except that u is weakened into e in
iurare . . de-iero, pe-iero.
5. The diphthong ae is often kept, as exaest'uo, obaeratus |
but melts into I in
aequus . . inlquus.
aestumare . existimo.
caedere . . abscido, accldo, con- de- in- oc- prae- sue- re-cldo,
homicldium, parriclda ....
laedere . . allldo, col- il-lldo.
quaerere . acquire, anqulro, con- dis- in- per- re-qulro, inqui-
sitio ....
6. The diphthong oe (ol) sinks to X in
coenum 1 . inquinare, coinqumare.
In E. L. it sank to u in ludere, iiti, munus, munio, punio,
. etc., and their compounds. See xii.
7. The diphthong au is generally kept : inauro, adaugao: but
it sinks to 5 in
faux . . . suffocare ;
plaudere . explodo, supplodo (but applaudo) ;
to u in
causa . . accuso, mcuso, recuso ;
fraus . . (frustra, frustrare) defrudare : see M. Lucr. vi. 187.
claudere . conclude, dis- ex- in- oc- prae- re-cludo ;
and to oe in
audire . . oboedire.
Note. The other Italian dialects exhibit the same general laws
of Vowelchange as the Latin.
1 O b s c e n u s (o b s c o e n u s) is usually derived from coenum. This, however, Is by
no means certain.
4O Latin Soundlore. 12.
xxv. REDUPLICATION.
Reduplication in language is a practice as old as language itself.
The infant from instinct or imitation forms words by repeating
the syllables : pa-pa, ma-ma, ta-ta ; often unconsciously weakening
the first : pu-pa, me-ma, ti-ta : and the mother or nurse amuses
or lulls the infant by similar repetitions : ding-dong, by-bye, c.
Various emotions express themselves in the same manner : aha J
oho ! &c. See Pott (Die Doppelung].
Thus arose the habit of modifying words
A) By doubling a root merely:
B) By prefixing to it its first consonant and vowel.
After which it came to pass, that the reduplicative syllable
might be either strengthened or weakened, and the root
itself weakened (rarely strengthened) after reduplication, in
consequence of accentual change.
A] Reduplication by doubling the Root merely :
a) bar-bar-us (bulbul Pers.), cu-cu-lus, la-la-re, Mar-mar, cin-
cin-nus, tin-tin-nare, ul-ul-are, cur-cul-io, gur-gul-io, fur-
fur, mur-mur, tur-tur. So quisquis, utut, ubiubi, &c.
fr) The Root is weakened in
car-cer, mar-mor.
B) Reduplication by prefixing the first two letters of the Root.
(This is specially important in Greek and Latin on account of
its use in forming the Perfect Tense of Verbs.)
a) Without vowelchange :
cu-cul-lu-s, (po-pol-u-s}, su-sur-ru-s, and the following Per-
fects ; cu-curr-i, di-dic-i, mo-mord-i, pe-pend-i, po-posc-i,
pu-pug-i (pu--go), scl-cid-i (sci--do), spo-pond-i (spon-
deo), te-tend-i, to-tond-i, tu-tud-i.
&) Redupl. weakened, Root unchanged ; in occasional forms
ce-curr-i, me-mord-i, pe-posc-i, pe-pug-i, spe-pond-i.
c) Redupl. unchanged ; Root strengthened.
pa-pa- ver, tu-tud-i (rare).
d) Redupl. strengthened ; Root weakened.
Ma-mers, Ma-mer-cus, Ma-mur-iu-s, pa-pil-io, po-pul-us
(poplar), pu-bl-icu-s.
e) Redupl. unchanged ; Root weakened,
po-pul-us (people).
f) Redupl. and Root weakened.
ci-cind-ela (candela), cT-con-ia ; ti-tu-lu-s ; bi-be-re (po Pr.
pa, drink^ gi-gn-ere (Pr. gdn, gen, engender}, si-ste-re
(sta-), se-re-re (for se-se-re, Root so).
The reduplicative syllable is weakened in many Perfects by
changing its vowel to e (see xxi.) :
12. Assimilation of Consonants. 41
de-d-i (da-), ste-t-i (sta-) : fe-fell-i (fallo), pe-per-i (pario),
pe-perc-i (parco) : te-tul-i (tol-l-o, Pr. tal) : ce-cid-i
(cado), ce-cin-i (cano), pe-pig-i (pa-;z-go), te-tig-i (ta-;z-
go) : ce-cld-i (caedo).
Obs. A consonant is lost in si-ste-re (for sti-ste-re), sci-cid-i,
usually scid-i (for sci-scfd-i), spo-pond-i or spe-pond-i (for spo-
spond-i or spe-spond-i), po-pul-are (for spo-spul-are from spolium).
A vowel is lost in de-d-i (for de-de-i) : gi-gn-o (for gi-gen-o).
A vowel and consonant are lost in ste-t-i (for ste-ste-i).
xxvi. Changes of Concurrent Consonants. Assimi-
lation of
(The sign x is used to express ~ e becomes.') Conson-
I. Complete Assimilation of Consonants.
A) Regressive Assimilation :
(q)
x cq
(adquiro) acquire
(bm)
X
mm
(submoveo) summoveo
77
? ?>
(quidque) quicque
77
5?
77
(sub-mus) summus
()
x 11
(adludo) alludo
(m)
J7
77
(flagma) flamma
11
? ??
(sed-^-la) sella
(nm;
77
57
(inmotus) immotus
(nl)
} ?>
(conloco) colloco
(br)
X
rr
(subripio) surripio
7?
7 ??
(coron-w-la) corolla
(")
77
7?
(inrideo) irrideo
77
> J?
(un-w-lus) ullus
(1)
) 75
(perlicio) pellicio
(as)
X
ss
(fod-sa) fossa
77
? 75
(ager-/^-lus) agellus
77
57
77
(adsurgo) assurgo
(tn)
< nn
(pet-na) penna
7?
55
77
(cedsi) cessi
(dn)
57 77
(adnuo) annuo
(ts)
77
77
(concutsi) concussi
(merced-narius) mercennarius.
The following Assimilations also occur in the Composition of
Particles with Verbs :
(be) x cc (obcurro) occurro (bp) x pp (obpono) oppono
(dc) (adcedo) accedo (dp) (adpeto) appeto
(br) x && (obgero) oggero (bf ) x ff (obfero) offero
(dgr) (adgravo) aggravo ( cf ) (ecfugio) efTugio
(dt) x tt (adtendo) attendo (df ) (adficio) afficio
(sf ) (disfiteor) diffiteor
a) (nd) x nn occurs in Plautus :
dispennite for dispendite ; distennite for distendite.
So in Oscan ; <?^.ra#;ztf;;z = operand am.
j8) mn, though stable in C. L. ? often yields to assimilation in
modern language :
L. column a, It. colonna, Fr. colonne.
7) That final m of a proclitic word assimilated itself in utter-
ance to a following n, is testified by Cic. Or. 45 and Quint.
viii. 3. 45. Thus etiam nunc was sounded etian-nunc. 1
, * The sharpening of an inner syllable by doubling a consonant (relligio, relliquiae,
millia, querella, bracchium, luppiter, littera) must not be confounded with
Assimilation. See Appendix A. : also C. I. 227. II. 466.
42 Latin Soundlore. 12,
B) Progressive Assimilation :
(ferse) ferre ; (farsis) farris ; (rvpffig) turris.
So C. forms (miser-timus x miser-simus) miserrimus.
(is) x 11 ; (vol-se) velle ; (mel-tis x mel-sis) mellis, &c. (facil-timus
x facil-simus) facillimus (C.).
(st) x ss : (duris-timus) durissimus : where duris is contracted
from durius (C.). 1
(This assimilation occurs in some Supines, according to C.'s
view: fissum, fossum, passum, &c. See xxxi.)
Adapta- II. Partial Assimilation of Consonants (Adaptation),
i. The Sonant gr becomes c, and the Sonant b becomes p, before
s or t : ( re g_ s i) x rexi ( = rec-si) (scrib-si) x scripsi
(reg-tum) x rectum (scrib-tum) x scriptum
a) But ab, sub, ob, may remain in composition :
absens, subter, obtineo (but also apsens, optineo)
And bs final may be kept in Nouns :
caelebs, plebs, trabs, urbs (but also pleps, urps, &c.).
Obs. X = cs = any Guttural with s : any Guttural except c being
supposed to become c before s, and so to form x :
(dlc-si) x dixi (sug-si x suc-si) x suxi
(fac-s) x fax (leg-s x lec-s) x lex
(coqu-si x coc-si) x coxi (ungu-si x unc-si) x unxi
The following Verbs deserve special attention :
trah-ere Perf. (trah-si trac-si) traxi (from a lost Pr. tragh ?)
veh-ere (veh-si vec-si) vexi : Sk. vah (a lost Pr. vagh ?).
1 The formation of Latin Comparatives and Superlatives may be briefly stated here.
I. Comparatives.
1) (Sk. ydns, yas) Lat. (-ios)x -ior -ius is added to the Clipt Stem :
(dur-i5s) dur-ior, dur-ius ; (ingent-ios) i n g e n t - i o r, ingent-ius.
(mag-iSs, mag-ior, &c.), ma-ior, ma-ius : mag is for mag-ius.
(root min- ; min-ior, &c.), min-or, minus,
(root pie- = Sk./rz : ple-ior, ple-ius, plo-ius, pious), plus, plur-.
2) (Sk. tara) Lat. tero- is added to Roots and Stems :
al-ter, u-ter, dex-ter, sinis-ter, in-ter : pari-ter, ali-ter, &c.
3) Both Suffixes are used in
mag-is-ter, min-is-ter : dex-ter-ior, in-ter-ior, c.
II. Superlatives.
i) (Sk. to) to-, inquar-tu-s, quin-tu-s, quo-tu-s,- &c.
a) (Sk. ma) mo-, in sum-mu-s, i-mu-s, pri-mus, mini-mu-s, pluri-mu-s; (ex-
ter-mu-s)xextre-mu-s;(pos-ter-mu-s)xpostre-mu-s;(super-mu-s)
xsupre-mu-s.
3) (Sk. tama) timo- in ci-timu-s, ul-timu-s, op-iimu-s, in-timu-s, ex.
timu-s, pos-tumu-s, dex-timu-s, sinis-timu-s.
passes into simo- in (pe-d-timo-) pessi-mu-s, (mag-timo-) maxim-us,
proximu-s.
passes into (simo-) limo- in facillimu-s, &c.
(simo-) rimo- in miserrimu-s, &c.
In most Adjectives timo- is added to the contracted comparative is (i-5s) and as-
similated :
(dur-is-timo-)xdurissimu-s. So tristissimus, felicissimus, &c
i2. Dissimilation of Consonants. 43
viv-ere Perf. (vigv-si vic-si) vixi : Sk. jiv (Pr. gvigv-}.
flu-ere (flugv-si, flue-si) fluxi (from a lost formjffug-vere).
stru-ere (stru-ic-si) struxi (probably from aformstru-u-ere).
Add the nasalized ninguere with its Noun nix, s-now (Pr.
snighy Sk. snih, ' to stick 7 ). Nix (ningv-s) drops v in Nom. Sing,
and ngr in the other cases, forming Gen. niv-is, &c.
2. Liquids and Nasals * take Sonants before them in preference
to Surds :
(po-pl-icus) x pu-bl-icus (ili-cn-us) x ili-gn-us
(qua-tr-a) x qua-dr-a (cy-cn-us) x cy-gn-us
(ne-cl-ego) x ne-gl-ego (se-cm-entum) x se-gm-entum
Through some feeling of euphony (nec-otium) becomes neg-
otium.
3. w becomes m before the Labials p, b, m ; but remains be-
fore f, v :
impleo, imbuo, immitto ; but infero, inveho.
4. A Labial Mute becomes m before n :
(sop-nus) x somnus ; (Sab-nium) x Samnium.
5. IK often becomes n within words before a Guttural or Dental ;
and, if kept, is sounded as n :
clan-culum prin-ceps eun-dem
clan-destinus quen-dam ean-dem.
So quon-iam for quom-iam.
But in some instances m must be kept : quemque, quemquam,
unumquemque, namque, numquis.
In others m is better than n : quamquam, tamquam, cumque,
umquam, numquam.
6. When Dental Mutes meet, the former often becomes^ :
(edit, ed-t) x est (claud-trum) x claustrum
(rod-trum) x rostrum (plod-trum) x plostrum.
In Supines and Superlatives sometimes both become s :
(fod-tum) fossum ; (pat-turn) passum ; (duris-timus) durissimus.
III. Dissimilation of Consonants. Dissimi-
lation of
The recurring sound of the same Consonant in succeeding ^nts. son ~
syllables is sometimes avoided by changing it in one place.
a) caeluleus, caelulus are changed into caeruleus, cae-
rulus.
b) Paliliais sometimes written Parilia : Remuria x Lemuria.
1 The assimilation of Sonant to Nasal explains the sound of g"n in French -g~ne final,
; cygne. Its sound in French and Italian before interior vowels=n-y : thus, agneau,
gnello (=an-yo, an-yello).
ascyg
ag
44
Latin Sonndlore.
Trans-
posi-
tion.
Eu- m
?honic
nser-
c) The suffixes all- eli- ill- uli- are chosen for Adjectives de-
rived from Nouns, if the root contains r : and the suffix -ari is
chosen if the root contains 1 :
austr-ali-s
cardin-ali-s
liber-ali-s
reg-ali-s
crud-eli-s
puer-ili-s
cur-uli-s
Obs. But in the suffix -ario, r is not changed :
ordin-ariu-s, temer-ariu-s.
Note i. Consonants are sometimes transposed within a word for
the sake of euphony :
pristis for (pistfis)
extremus (extermus)
Note 2. When m is followed by i
to strengthen the syllable :
hiem-p-s, em-p-tor, sum-p-si, sum-p-tum. 1
The change temptare for ten tare, though supported by inscrip-
tions and good MSS., is censured by Corssen as an etymological
blunder : the formation of the Verb being Pr. tan, L. ten, whence
ten-d-ere, ten-tu-s, ten-t-are.
s seems to be euphonically inserted in mon-s-trum, mon-s-tro,
&c. (from mon-eo).
(On the euphonic insertion of a Vowel in m-i-na, drac-u-ma,
&c., see xxii. On the insertion of e in ag-e-r, nig-e-r, &c., see
xxi.)
al-ari-s
capill-ari-s
coll-ari-s
sol-ari-s
stell-ari-s
tutel-ari-s
vulg-ari-s
colurnus for (corulnus)
8 or t, p is euphonically inseried
* *
*
The Loss of Letters will next be considered.
'LOSS xxvii. Loss of Initial Letters ('A6aips<ris\
of Initial
Letters.
lost by
shewn in
C
lamentum...
c-lamare
laus ; luscinia ...
c-luere
vapor ...
K-airvoq.
g
nasci, natus ...
g-nasci g-natus : Sk. jan Gr.
/ev-
noscere, notus ...
g-noscere, i-gnotus : Sk.jnd
Gr.
yro- 2
narrare
(g-narigare) from g-narus
lac
Gr. y a- \ctK-r-
1 The euphonic insertion of b between m and 1 or r, and that of d between n and r,
occur in Greek (as /jieV-jS-Awxa, yani-j3-pos, af-5-po's), but not in classical Latin, except in
hi-b-ernus for (hiem-rinus, Gr. x et ^ e P tl/0 0- But they came in later, and exist in
numerous modern words: as number, humble, remember, cinder, tender, &c.
3 Cicero, though a Greek scholar, was unacquainted with the forms gnasci, gnoscere^
and knew so little of etymology, that he treats the ginignotus, ignavus, ignarus as
a mere euphonic substitute. See Or. 47. He would naturally do the same in agnatus,
cognatus, prognatus, agnomen, cognomen, &c.
12.
Loss of Initial and Final Letters.
45
st
lost by
vivere
lanx ; latus
viginti
luppiter: lanus
rosa (radix, rigo)
lupus
lis, locus
torus
fallere
tegere
taurus
cutis, cavus, caelum, casa,
cavere, causa, cauda, &c.
shewn in
Sk. j-tv (Pr. gviv). See p. 43.
Gr. TT-Xcu-, 7r-Xarvc.
for dvi-ginti. In d-vis, d-vellum,
d-vonus, d-v becomes b; bis,
bellum, bonus. See Cic. 0^.45.
But duellum in Latin poetry :
Eng. duel. M. Lucr. ii. 662.
See p. 1 5.
Gr. /-p6So*/, Aeol. fipoftov.
Sk. v-arka-s, Gr. \VKOS.
for st-lis (G. streit, Eng. strife) ;
st-lo-cus (Sk. stha-la).
Gr. cr-rop-, Sk. s-tar, ' to strew!
Gr. o-caXXeii>, Sk. s-phal.
Sk. s-thag, Gr. oreyeti'.
Sk. s-tMras, ' strong ' : Eng. steer.
Sk. s-ku, to hide.
for other instances, see Corssen I.: also pp. 14-17.
a) Tuli, fidi, scfdi, cast off the syllable of reduplication.
/3) Sum, sum us, sim...cast off the initial vowel e.
y) When the Verb-form est follows a word ending with a vowel
or m or with s after a vowel, it often loses e, and attaches itself
enclitically to the preceding word. This occurs chiefly in the Comic
poets, but also in later writers both of prose and poetry, and on
Inscriptions: itast, ibist, quomst, quidemst, temulentast,
nactust for nactus est, culest for qualis est (Plaut.).
The Second Person, es, is subject to the same change, but not
after m: homos for homo es, meritus for meritus es.
xxviii. Loss of Final Letters
A) Final e is dropt :
a) By enclitic ne :
men for mene, tun for tune, dixtin for dixtine : quln
(qui-ne), sin (sl-ne).
Sometimes the word before ne loses s :
am for aisne, viden for videsne, satin for satisne :
b) In ceu, neu, seu (ce-ve, ne-ve, se-ve or sive).
c) In the Imperatives
die, due, fac, fer (dice, &c.)
So, in poetry, + conger for congere ; inger for ingere.
d) NeuterfSubstantives in ale (all-), are (ar-l) drop g (l) and
shorteii a :
toral for torale; calcar for calcare.
But they resume a in the increasing Cases : toralis, calcaris.
Loss of
Final
Letters,
46 Latin Sound lore. I2 -
e) Many other I-nouns clip i in Nom. Sing., some without
taking s: (par-i-) x par ; others before they take the s:
(stirpi-) x stirp-s, (arci-) x arx.
f) Facul for facile.
g) Acforatque; necforneque: mage for magi s.
h] The Pronoun hie, with the Adverbs hie, illic, istic, hinc,
illinc, &c., have dropt e. Thus illinc is for illimce.
Note. Ab (a:ro), sub (VTTO) have lost a final vowel.
E) Final Consonants are sometimes lost :
a) Substantives with final on drop n in the Nom. Sing.,
resuming it in the Oblique Cases :
ratio, virgo; Gen. ration-is, virgin-is.
V) A final Consonant has been dropt in Ace. and Nom. S. by
the following Neuter Substantives :
cor (cord-) Gen. cordis (Gr. icap&'a)
far (fars-) farr-is (for fars-is)
fel (felt-) fellis (Gr. x*oc)
lac (lact-) lactis (Gr. ya-Xa/jr-)
mel (melt-) - mellis (for meltis, Gr. /xe
os (ost-) ossis (for ostis, Gr. oareov)
c) The Latin Ablative S. cast off final d :
(praeda-d) x praeda : (Gnaivo-d) x Griaeo
(dictatore-d) x dictatore : (mari-d) x mari
(senatu-d) x senatu
Also Adverbs in e and some Prepositions :
(facilume-d) x facillime ; (exstra-d) x extra.
d) On -re for -runt and for -rXs in Verbs, see xxi.
vene-re for vene-runt ; uta-re for uta-ris.
e) Particles often drop final letters in composition :
amb- am- for ambi ; co- for com- ; di- for dis- ; pro-
for prod- ; re- for red- ; se- for sed- ; tra- for trans.
So hau for haud or haut : hau-scio for haud scio (Plaut).
Pos- (pos-t) drops s in pomoerium, pomeridianus.
The Prepositions a for ab, e for ex, are long by Compensation.
C) Consonant and Vowel, or Vowel and Consonant, are dropt.
dein, exin, proin for deinde, exinde, proinde, Cic. Or. 45.
nihil for nihilum : n on for (noenum ne-unum) ; sat for satis.
O-nouns with Nom. er have dropt os (us) :
magister for magister-os.
famul (O.famef) for famulus, Lucr. iii. 1048.
Note. The three consonants oftenest final are m, s, t. All these
fell off frequently in E. L. (Roscio for Roscius and for Ros-
cium), again in L. L., and ultimately in modern Italian. See p. 26.
i2- Loss of Inner Consonants. 47
Final m, with its vowel, was so weak that poets took no note of
it metrically before a word beginning with a Vowel. Thus in
Virgil's verse
monstra/ft ^orrendz/;;z informs ingens cui lumen ademptum
the letters printed in italics do not count in the metre, and the
verse runs thus :
monstr orrend inform ingens cui lumen ademptum.
Final s, on the other hand, after a short vowel, was neglected by
poets as late as Lucretius before words beginning with a consonant,
as testified by Cicero in the following passage : < Ita enim loqueban-
tur : Qui est omnibu' princeps, non, omnibus princeps : et, Vita ilia
dignu' locoque, non, dignus, Or. 48. He also testifies that this
weakness of s had existed in common parlance even when the
vowel before it was long : i Sine vocalibus saepe brevitatis causa
contrahebant, ut ita dicerent, multi' modis ; vas' argenteis ; palmi'
et crinibus ; tecti' fractis/ Or. 45.
Final t also was often dropt in ancient Verb-forms : dede for
dedit. See p. 26, and C. I. 188.
xxix. Loss of Inner Consonants by concurrence LOSS of
with other Consonants. 1 CoTso-
nants.
When this loss occurs for euphonic reasons, if a syllable pre-
viously long by position alone is left short by the removal of one
consonant, compensation is often made by lengthening the vowel :
(pic-nus) x plnus : but not always ; (lac-nius) x lanius.
The sign of length (-) will here shew the compensated syllables.
A) Exclusion of Guttural Mutes.
i. A Guttural Mute is excluded in Verbal formations when it
occurs between a Liquid and one of the letters s, t, in,
(fare-si) xfarsi x fulsi
(differc-tum) x differtum (fulc-tum) x fultum
(sparg-si) x sparsi (indulg-si) x indulsi
(torqu-tum) x tortum (indulg-tum) x indultum
(torqu-mentum) x tormentum (fulg-men) x fulmen
2. Occasional instances of Gutturals excluded :
c between n and a Dental Mute :
quintus (quinc-tus) quindecim (quinc-decim)
But quinctus may be kept, as tinctus, sanctus.
c before m : lama (lac-) ; temo (rex-) ; lumen (luc-).
c n : aranea (dpa^-vrj) ; lana (lac-) ; planus_ (TT\CLK-)
rana (rac-) ; vanus (vac-) ; deni (dec-) ; luna (luc-) ;
qulni (quinc-), in which n before c is also cast out.
1 Many combinations are troublesome to utter: guttural with labial mute, or labial
mute with guttural ; surd with its sonant, or sonant with its surd, and so on. When the
addition of a suffix in derivation produces such combinations, they are usually avoided
by excluding the first consonant : scalprum for scalp-brum, ful-crum for fulc-crum, &c.
48 Latin Soundlore. 12.
c before s : ursus (Sk. arksfas, Gr. a/>/cro<;).
g j : aio (ag-io) ; maior (mag-ior) ; Maius (Mag-ius) ;
puleium (puleg-ium).
g 1 : moles (/-toy-) but molestus ; plla, pillar, pier (pig- ?
comp. pepigi).
e m : contaminare (tag-) ; examen (ag-) ; flamen (flag-) ;
rlma (rig-, riwgi); iumentum (iug-, iu;/gere); sumen
(sug-).
g v : mavis, mavult (mag-e-) ; levis (leg-vis) ; brevis (breg-
vis).
x d : sedecim (sex-decim).
x n : seni (sex-ni).
x v : seviri or sexviri.
(tex-).'
The same principle applies in ala (ax-); mala (max-) ; palus, pala,.
(pax-) ; talus (tax-). See Cic. Or. 45.
B] Exclusion of Dental Mutes,
i. Dental Mutes often fall out before s.
i) In the Flexion of Nouns.
Dental Mute Stems, including Pres. Participles in n(t)s,
are by far the most numerous class in the 3rd Declension :
and as all but a few take the Nom. S. ending s, they drop
the dental t or d before the sibilant :
(virtut-s) x virtu-s; (comft-s) x come-s
(custod-s) x custo-s ; (vad-s) x vas
(part-i part-s) x pars ; (dent-i- dent-s) x dens.
The rule of quantity here is, that long stems remain long,
short remain short, in the Nom. S. : excepting
(ped-s) pes with its compounds, (vad-s,) vas,
abies, aries, paries for (abiet-s, &c.)
with a few Greek words which drop n as well as t ;
elephas (elephant-s) ; Simois (Simoent-s)
See 24. Syllabus.
1 Since x=cs or gs, the changes from x to s in Sestius (Sextius), sescenti (sexcentiX
mistus (mixtus), are really instances of the loss of a guttural mute before s ; of c in the
first two examples, of g in the third (/nty-). Again
discere (dic-sc-ere), miscere (mig-sc-erej
are similar omissions before sc.
This seems to justify the assumption that when x falls out before 1, the c departs first,
then the s :
tex-la, tes-la, tela
and so in the other instances.
That s would fall out before 1 is shewn in qualus (quas-), plla, mortar (pins-), and in
Fr. Bale (Basle). Corssen however (I. 64) confines himself to saying of these instances
that x falls out before 1, m, and that c does not fall out before 1. The alternative above
stated he does not notice.
i2. Loss of Inner Consonants. 49
2) In the Flexion of Verbs.
a) A certain number of Verbs throw out d, a few t, before the
Perfect Suffix s-i :
ardere (ard-si) arsi ludere (lud-si) lusi
ridere (rid-si) risi radere (rad-si) rasi
sentlre (sent-si) sensi flectere (fleet-si) flexi
Assimilation occurs in
cedere (ced-si) cessi and its compounds,
de cut ere (decut-si) d ecus si, with other compouA Is of quatio.
Compensation occurs in none but
dividere (divid-si) divlsi- ; mittere (mitt-si) misi.
U) In the Supine formation also the Dental is often lost. When-
ever t or d is brought before the suffix turn, that suffix
is changed to sum. But whether stem or suffix parts
with its dental first, is a disputed point. Corssen's order is
t-tum (or d-tum), -s-tum, -sum.
However this be, t-tum (or d-tum) usually becomes -sum,
losing the Dental :
(vert-tum) versum ; (cud-turn) cusum ;
(sent-tum) sensum ; (rad-tum) rasum.
But -ssum by Assimilation in a few Verbs :
sed-ere sessum ced-ere cessum fod-ere fossum
fat-eri fassum fi(;z)d-ere fissum pat-i passum
met-ere messum sci(;z)d-ere scissum grad-i gressum
Also mitt- ere, missum, which drops t between two Dentals.
Compensation occurs in a few Verbs with their Compounds,
vid-ere vlsum ed-ere esum 6d-ere osum
cad-ere casum fu(^)d-ere fusum (also gavlsum from
divid-ere divisum tu(^)d-ere tusum gaudere = ga-vid-ere)
Obs. i. Observe also that -turn of the Supine becomes -sum after
these combinations, 11, rr, re, rgr :
fall-ere falsum ; curr-ere cursum ;
parc-ere parsum ; sparg-ere sparsum.
Obs. 2. The euphonic rule for Dentals before the suffix -turn in
Supines applies equally to Dentals before Noun-suffixes beginning
with t in Derivation :
(tond-tor) tonsor ; (vert-tura) versura ; (offend-tio) offensio ;
(cad-tus) casus.
2. Occasional Exclusion of Dental Mutes.
d before c : (hod-ce) x hoc ; (quod-circa) x quocirca.
grn : a-gnoscere, a-gnatus, &c.
m : cae-mentum (caed-) ; ra-mentum (rad-).
_ _ n : fi-nis (fid-).
v : sua-vis (suad-).
E
5<D Latin Soundlore. 12.
C) Exclusion of n.
n before c : When the Suffix -cin is added to Nasal stems :
latro-cinium, sermo-cinari.
gn : i-gnoscere, i-gnavus, &c. co-gnoscere, &c.
s : -es for -ens in Numeral Adverbs ; quoties, de-
cies, milies, c., for quotiens, &c. after the
Augustan age : before which time -ens was used,
(semen-stris) x semestris; mostellaria from
monstrum ; (formonsus, formossus) x formosus ;
(sanguin-suga) x sanguisuga ; l (quam si, quan-si)
x quasi.
Note, iff before s was very weak in E. L. and R. L. Inscrr. give
the forms co-sol, ce-sor, castre-sis, &c. ; even as, es for the endings
ans, ens : infas, doles. So Ital. mese (mensis) ; Fr. peser (pensare).
nt before n : This omission is seen in Numerals when -cent is
written for -centni : viceni.
s : -cesimus -gesimus for -cent-simus,-gent-simus r
vice-simus, trige-simus, &c.
nd - i : scala (scand-la).
Note. The exclusion of p seems doubtful. Corssen cites a-men-
tum, a-mes, as derived from ap-. (Ribbeck has ammentum.)
D) Exclusion of p :
p before b fune-bris (funer-) ; mulie-bris (mulier). In fe-bris
(ferv-) PV fall out.
j (per-iuro) x pe-iero.
s pro-sa for prorsa ; pe-stis for per(d)-stis.
t sempi-ternus (semper-).
E) Exclusion of s :
s before d iu-dex (ius-dicere) ; (is-dem) x Idem.
l corpu-lentus (corpus) ; viru-lentus (virus) ; qua-lus
(quas-).
m 6-men (os-) ; re-mus (res-, Iper-) ; du-mus (dus-) ;
Ca-mena (cas-) ; multi-modis.
n ce-na (ces-) ; ahe-neus (ahes-) ; pone (pos-ne) :
audin, vin, potin, satin, &c. for audisne, &c.
lessor xxx. Loss of Inner Vowels before Consonants
Inner
Vowels.
a : pal-ma (rraXd/xr?, pal-u-ma) ; cup-ressus (wrrapHTaoc;, cup-
e-rissus) ; nomenc-lator (c-a-lare, c-u-lare).
: p-te for pote : meopte :
suffix tnno- for (-tonno -terlno) : doct-rina, pist-rinum.
u: i) (man-u-ceps) x man-ceps ; (quat-u-or) x quat-er ; (man-u-
suesco) x mansuesco.
1 Probably an I-noun sangui-s (shewn in exsanguis) was a byform of sanguis
(sanguen) sanguin-. So anguis, snake, probably had a byform anguis anguin-
shewn in the Demin. a n g u i 1 1 a.
;j 12. Loss of Inner Vowels before Consonants. 51
2) The suffix -culo-, culeo- may exclude u :
orac-lum poet, for oraculum ; vinc-lum for vinculum ;
nuc-leus for nuculeus : so fig-linus for fic-u-linus.
The suffix pulo- loses u in some words :
discip-lina, temp-lum, extemp-lo ;
so amp-lus, dup-lus, &c.
3) All Deminutive words ending in -llus -Ha -Hum have ex-
cluded u before the second l : and then formed the as-
similation u :
whether Primary Deminutives :
agellus (ager-u-lus), olla (aul-u-la)'; villum (vin-u-lum) ;
ullus (un-u-lus) ; Stella (ster-u-la) ; hilla (hir-u-la) ;
or Secondary :
porcellus (porcul-u-lus) ; cistella (cistul-u-la) ;
quantillus (quantul-u-lus) ; tantillus (tantul-u-lus).
4) The Verbal suffixes -bam, -bas, -bo, -bis, c., have lost
u : being for fu-am, fu-as, fu-o, fu-is, &c.
' : i) The Suffixes bero- beri- cero- ceri- tero- teri often ex-
clude e in flexion and derivation :
creb-ro, celeb-ris, mac-rum, ac-riter, dext-ra, put-re.
Hence Nouns with suffixes bro- cro- tro- form Deminu-
tives regularly in e-llo- :
flab-rum, flabellum ; dolab-ra, Dolabella ; luc-rum
lucellum ; plaust-rum, plostellum ; cast-rum castel-
lum : (for flaber-u-lum, Dolaber-u-la, &c.).
2) e is often excluded when d, f, gr, p, come before er :
Evand-rus, vaf-re, nig-resco, Ap-rilis ? inf-ra.
Hence the regular formation of such Deminutives as
flagellum from flag-rum (flager-u-lum)
capella - cap-ra (caper-u-la).
3) In salictum for salic-etum, carectum for cario
etum, e has been shortened and excluded.
.4) The Suffix greno- excludes e in many words :
benig-nus, mali-g-nus, privig-nus : so g-nascoR
5) E-verbs compounded with face re sometimes exclude e :
cal-facere, ol-facere.
Note. Ferris, 2nd Pers. Pres. Pass, of fero, ferre Infin. (for
fer-se), velle (for vol-se) from volo, and es-se (for ed-se), from
edo, if formed as classical Verbs in general, would be (fer-e-ris,
fer-e-re, vol-e-re, ed-e-re). It cannot be said, however, that they
have lost e, but that, like esse, posse (from sum), they never
took it.
E 2
52 Latin Soundlore. 12,
i: i) The words nau-ta, nau-fragus, c., au-ceps, au-
spex, &c., also cau-tum, fau-tum, &c. have excluded i
But navt-ta, navi-fragus are used in poetry : and cav-
I-tum, fav-I-tum, &c., are found in old Latin.
2) Fero forms fers, fertur, &c. not (fer-i-s, fer-i-tur, &c.).
3) Edo forms es for ed-i-s, est for ed-i-t, estur for
ed-I-tur.
4) Volo forms volt, vult (vol-it), voltis, vultis (vol-i-tis)
The formation of vis is supposed to be
(volis, vol-s, vil-s) vis.
5) The vowel i is lost by
purgare (pur-ig-are), iurgari (iur-ig-ari) ;
audere (av-id-ere) ; gaudere (gav-id-ere) :
also in the suffix mno- mna for (meno-) mino- xnina :
alum-nus, Vertum-nus, colum-na, &c.
6) Corssen derives
iuxta from (iug-ista, in nearest junction}.
exta (ex-ista, the most outward entrails}.
praesto (prae-isto, in most forwardness}.
7) (ced-i-te) x cette ; (opi-ficina) x officina
(bidiv-um, tridiv-um, &c.) x biduum, triduum, &c. :
(posi-v-i) x posui :
(semi-caput, sim-ciput) x sinciput :
(mater-itera, second mother} x matertera :
(nasi-torqu-t-iu-m) x nasturtium : see M. Lucr. ii. 401.
(nep-i-tis weakened from nep-otis) x neptis.
8) Puer-tia is poetic for puerftia : misertus for mis-
erltus : -postus in compounds for -positus.
Rarer poetic omissions of i are
lam-na, cal-dus, sol-dus, strig-libus, &c. for lamma, &c.
Balneum is more usual than balineum; audacter
than audaciter: valide and valde are used, but
with some difference of meaning.
xxxi. Elision, Contraction and Coalition of
Vowels.
Hiatus. Hiatus (the open concurrence of Vowels) is avoided within
words in three ways.
Elision. i) First : Hiatus is avoided by Elision (SwaXot^//), the cutting
off of the former vowel :
(ne-ullus) x nullus (ante-ea) x antea
(ne-unquam) x nunquam (quinque-unc-s) x quincunx
(ne-usquam) x nusquam (semi-uncia) x semuncia
In semianimis the i of semi becomes a consonant.
12. Elision, Contraction, etc. of Vowels. 53
a) Elision includes the cutting off of m with its vowel within
a word as well as at the end of a word in metre,
(venum-eo) x veneo ; (animum adverto) x animadverto ; (septem-
unc-s) x septunx. So sept-ennis, dec-ennis, dec-ussis, &c.
&) The Preposition com (cum) in composition elides m only
before a vowel, leaving the vowel open :
co-emo co-eo co-haereo
But com-edo.
Circum does this before i : as circu-it, circu-itus ;
but keeps m before other vowels :
circumago circumerro
2) Secondly : Hiatus is avoided by Contraction (2vratpe<rtc, Contrac-
Kpdcric) : by which two concurring vowels unite into one long tion>
-vowel, rarely into a diphthong.
a) If the concurring vowels are the same, the same vowel
lengthened results from their contraction :
(co-opis) x copis (tibi-i-cen) x tiblcen
(pro-oles) x proles de-eram x deram
(dii) x dl de-ero x dero
filii x fill (Gen. S.) de-esse x desse
^) If the vowels differ, the former usually absorbs the latter.
co-alescere x colescere (semi-as) x semis
(pro-emo) x promo, (de-igo) x dego fili-e x fill
victu-i x victu si-em x sim
(indu-itiae) x indutiae (ama-im, ame-im) x amem
In some instances, the latter absorbs the former :
(ama-o) x amo diei x dn as well as die
(fu-io) x flo (glacie-alis) x glacialis.
) Remarkable contraction of a with parasitic u appears in
cur for (quor) quare ; and culest (Plaut.) for qualis est. 1
(On Contraction after exclusion of Spirants, see xxxiv.)
3) Thirdly : Hiatus is avoided in poetry by Coalition ; which Coali-
grammarians called 2vj'ii?<rtc? ' settling together/ or Sui/e^wv^o-tc, tloru
' uttering together ; ' when, without written contraction, vowels were
scanned and uttered as forming one syllable : dein, prom, aurea,
omnia, Peleo, pituita, antehac. See Prosody.
Note. Deero, deeram, deesse, are sometimes ranked here.
1 Still more remarkable are the instances (cited by C. ) where 1, before a vowel, re-
presents an old I contracted from Ui (like flo ; compare fieri). These are : (i) c liens
(clulens) ; (2) industrius (endostru-Tus) ; and (3) the word noticed by Festus, in c lens,
'propinqua partui ' (incu-iens ; compare /cueii/, eyKvos) ; whence Fr. enceinte. This shews
the usually received derivation of the latter word, incincta, incinta (given inDucange's
Olossarium in voce) to be quite erroneous.
54 Latin Soundlore. 12.
Lossof xxxii. Loss of Inner Vowels with Consonants..
Vowels
1. (homi-ni-clda) x homiclda ; (lapi-di-cidma) x lapi-cidina
ants. (sti-pi-pendium) x stipendium ; (pau-ci-per) x pauper
(tru-ci-cldare) x trucldare ; (tri-num-nundinum) x trinundinum
(no-men-cupo) x nuncupo ; (prae-vo-co) x praeco
(ae-vi-tas) x aetas ; (manu-hi-biae) x manibiae.
(vene-ni-ficium) x veneficium ; patro-no-cinium x patrocinium.
2. (consue-ti-tudo) x consuetude ; (mansue-ti-tudo) x mansuetudo;
(hebe-ti-tudo) x hebetude ; (calamit-at-osus) x calamitosus.
3. (bicipit-s, bicip-e-s) x biceps ; (praecipit-s praecipe-s) x prae-
ceps, c. ; (locu-lo-ples) x locuples.
4. (unus-decem) x undecim ; (quinque-decem) x quindecim.
5. The second syllable of semi, half, and the first syllable of
dec em, ten, are often lost in the formation of numeral words:
se-squi- for semisque, selibra for semilibra : viginti for dvi-de-centi,
triginta for tria-de-centa, c. : bi-c-essis for bi-dec-essis, c.
6. (per-ri-gere) x pergere ; (sus-ri-gere) x surgere ;
sur-pui poet, for sur-ri-pui.
7. possum = potis (pote) sum; potes = potis (pote) es, &c.
malo, c. for (mage-volo, c.).
vendere for venumdare 1 : narrare (narare) for (g-nar-ig-are).
(re-ce-cidi) x recctdi or recfdi ; (re-pe-peri) x repperi ;
(re-pe-puli) x reppuli ; (re-te-tuli) x rettuli.
Compounds of reduplicated Verbs drop the syllable of reduplica-
tion :
dif-f idi, in-cidi, ob-tigi, pro-tendi.
Except those of disco, posco, and some of curro :
dedidici, expoposci, praecucurri.
8. The syllable si is cast out by Syncope from Perfect-stem
forms of Verbs, chiefly in Comic poetry, but also in that of the best
age i 1
a) Perf. Act. 2nd Pers. Sing, and Plur.
dixti for (dic-si-sti) ; duxti for (duc-si-sti)
mis ti for (mi-si-sti) ; scripsti for (scrip-si-sti)
accestis for (acces-si-stis).
&) Pluperfect Conj. :
exstinxemfor (exting-si-sem)
vixet for (vic-si-set)
erepsemus for (erep-si-semus).
1 A large number of examples of this omission, chiefly from the old Scenic poets, but
many Augustan, are given by Corssen, ii. 553. .. .
i2. Shortening of Vowels. 55
c) Infin. Perf. :
surrexe for (surreg-si-se) ; traxe for (trac-si-se)
divisse for (divi-si-se) ; iusse for (ius-si-se).
d} Besides the Verbs which classically form a Perfect-stem with
the character s, some other Verbs did this in old Latin : cap-ere,
fac-ere, rap-ere, tan-gere, aud-ere. As the old formation of
the Perf. Conj. and Fut. Perf. with character s was si-sim, si-so,
such Verbs, by dropping si, formed these tenses in sim, so :
faxim for (fac-si-sim) ; faxo for (fac-si-so)
clepsit for (clep-si-sit) ; ausint for (au-si-sint).
e) A-verbs in old Latin formed these two Tenses sometimes by
casting out a syllable and then doubling s :
negassim for (nega-vi-sim) : rogassit for (roga-vi-sit)
servasso for (serva-vi-so) : locassintfor (loca-vi-sint).
A few such forms are found from E- verbs and I -verbs :
prohibessit = prohibuerit ; ambissint = anibiverint.
Note. This Future in asso, mistaken, it would seem, for a Present,
gave birth to Infinitives an assere, used by Plautus :
impetrassere, oppugnassere, reconciliassere.
Sometimes even to Passive forms :
turbassitur, Cic. ; compare faxitur, Liv.
xxxiii, The Shortening of Vowels in Latin. shorten-
ing of
i. Between the First Punic War (B.C. 260) and the Augustan age
(B.C. 30) the Quantity of Vowels underwent a generally shortening
process, especially in final syllables. This is shewn by comparing
The extant specimens of old Saturnian Verse.
The fragmentary remains of the old Dactylic and Iambic poets
(Ennius, &c.).
The Comedies of Plautus and Terence.
The poetic remains of Lucilius and Cicero.
The poetry of Lucretius and Catullus.
The Augustan poetry (Virgil, Horace, Ovid, &c.).
2. The Comedies of Plautus (B.C. 180) are a most important stage
in this enquiry : because, though they contain a large number of
long syllables afterwards shortened, they also exhibit numerous
examples of the shortening process always going on : and among
these some which are repudiated by the taste of Augustan poets.
Such Plautine shortenings mark the direction in which the cur-
rent of popular parlance was setting, whilst in Augustan literature
these corruptive tendencies are suppressed for a while by the study
of Greek models and a fine sense of what was really good in
Roman antiquity.
Latin Soundlore.
12.
3. Examples of Final Syllables with Quantity varying in Early
Latin, in Plautus, and in the Augustan age.
Exclu-
sion of
Conso-
nants
with
Contrac-
tion.
E. L.
Plaut.
Aug.
i. a Nom. Fern
a
a a
a
2. a Neut. PI
a
a a
a
3. e Abl. Decl. 3. ...
e
e e
e
e
(e) e
i
5. at)
\*v
a 9
a
ethrd Pers. S
e
e e
e
it]
I
I i
i
\
I i
5
7. ris 2nd Pers. S. Conj.
I
I
I
8. bus Dat. Abl. PI
u
u ii
u
U,
u u
ii
a
a
a
ii. ar in Verbs
a
a a
a
o
5
6
13. or in Verbs . . ...
5 6
6
a
a
a
Yet Augustan poetry, especially the Hexameter, supplies many
instances in which the antiquarian long quantity of a word was
adopted to suit metrical convenience: gr avia (Verg.) arat (Hor.)
videt (Verg.) veil t (Hor.) tondebat (Verg.) ignis (Hor.) pec-
tor ibus (Verg.) negabamus (Ov.) t rah or (Tibull.), &c.
4. The words which Plautus shortens by the license of common
parlance are mostly Iambic words, which he thus slurs into
pyrrhichs, we might almost say into monosyllables. Such are
loci, meri, dolt, bono, domo, viro, dorm, fores, pedes, heri,
probe, ama, roga, puta, cave, mane, tace, vale, abi, adi,
bibl, dedi, steti, dan, loquT.
Augustan poetry preserves the traces of this popular usage
(which generally it rejected) in such words as bene, mod o, nisi,
quasi, mihi, tibi, sib!, ibi, ubi, puta, cave, vale, &c. : and to
its influence we may perhaps refer such abnormal quantities as
palus, polypus in those writings of Horace which he himself
calls ' sermoni propiora.' x
xxxiv. Exclusion of Consonants followed by
Contraction of Vowels.
s : dextans for (de-s-extans) =| of the as :"nl for ni-s-i.
i-consonans : blgae for bi-i-ugae ; quadrigae for quadri-i-iigae :
cuncti for co-i-uncti : aes for (Pr. ay as).
li : cors for co-h-ors ; vemens for ve-h-emens; prendo for
pre-h-endo; praeda for (prae-h-eda) ; nemo for (ne-h-emo for
ne-homo) ; nilum for ne-hilum; nil for_ni-h-il; mi for
mi-h-i; Imus for (T-h-imus for in-f-imus) ; debeo for de-h-ibeo ;
p r a e b e o for prae-h-ibeo.
1 On this subject, besides Corssen, the student should especially consult Ritschl's
Plautus and Opuscula ; C. W. Miiller's Plautinische Prosodie ; and Munro's Lucretius :
also the Prosody in this Grammar by the last-named scholar.
12. Exclusion of Consonants with Contraction. 57
q : dodrans (for dequadrans), f of the as, is formed by the
following process, according to Corssen (dequa x dequo x do quo
xdocu- x doc- x do-). 1
v : There are two modes of suppressing v with contraction : and
in some words each mode would lead to the same result.
1. The short vowel after v may be excluded, v vocalised (be-
coming u), and then contracted with the preceding vowel.
2. v may be excluded and contraction ensue.
1. First Mode.
This is shewn where the diphthong au results :
auceps (av-i-ceps); auspex (av-i-spex)
nauta for nav-i-ta; naufragus for nav-i-fragus
cautumfor cav-i-tum; fautum for fav-i-tum
audeo (av-I-deo); gaudeo (gav-i-deo)
and may be inferred (as shewn by 16 turn, lu turn for lautum) in
most instances where 6, u result (for ov = ou or for uv = uu) :
f 6 turn (fov-i-tum) ; f 6 men turn (fov-i-mentum)
mo turn (mov-i-tum) ; momentum (mov-i-mentum)
i u t u m j[iuv-I-tum) ; i u m e n t u m (iuv-i-mentum)
upilio, opilio (6v--pilio) ; prudens for prov-i-dens
curia (co-vfria); de curia (decu-vlria)
lupiter (Iov-t-piter) ; bobus or bubus (bov-i-bus)
bruma (brev-i-ma, breuma)
nunc (nov-um-ce) ; nuper (nov-i-per)
iunior (iuv-e-nior) ; udus (uv-i-dus).
In nundinae (nov-endinae, noundinae), nuntio (nov-entio, noun-
tio), and contio (co-ventio, countio), the vocalization of v seems
to take place before the exclusion of the vowel.
2. Second Mode.
a) (dls, Ter. once) for di-v-es; dltior for dl-v-itior;
dltissimus for dl-v-itissimus : oblltus (obli-v-itus) :
hornus (ho-v-ernus) :
praes (prae-v-T-des, prae-i-des, praeds) :
Cloelius (Clo-v-i-lius, Cloilius) :
malo, malle, &c. for ma-v-olo, ma-v-elle, &c.
nolo, nolle, &c., (ne-v-olo, ne-v-olle, &c.) :
sis for si vis; sultis, for si vultis, elides iv.
b) Many Adverbs are formed by the contraction of a Pronoun
or Particle with the Participle vorsus, vorsum :
horsum (ho-vorsum) ; prors-us -um (provors-us
-um) ; hence prosa for prorsa (pro-vorsa) ; alior-
sum (alio-vorsum); rurs-us -um (revors-us -um) ;
s u r s u m (sus-vorsum) ; intrors-us-umfor (intro-vors-
us -um) : rusum, susum, introsum. M. Lucr. iii. 45.
1 Bes, or bessis, bes-ses (dvi-esses), two thirds of the as, is another curious ab-
breviation ; representing bis trientes, twice one third.
58 Latin Soimdlore. 12.
Contrac- c ) This form of Contraction prevails especially in the Perfect-
ion in stem Tenses of Pure Verbs.
Perf.
Stem.
or. When the Perfect-stem ends in av, ev, ov, the v may be ex-
cluded before is or er (but not before ere), contraction ensuing :
amasti for amav-isti; implessem for implev-is-
sem ; nosse for nov-isse.
amaram for amav-eram; implero for implev-ero;
norunt for nov-erunt.
And in Lucr. at for avit : inritat, i. 70.
These contractions are not used in the forms of lavi, cavi, favi,
pavi, fovi, vovi : but in those of movi and iuvi they sometimes
occur in poetry :
adiuris for adiuveris ; mostis for movistis ; admo-
runt for admoverunt; summosses for submo-
v i s s e s.
/3. When the Perfect-stem ends in iv, the v is often excluded,
and contraction usually follows before is :
audi-eram for audiveram; audf-ero for audiv-ero, audis-
sem for audivissem.
So, in eo and its compounds :
leram, lero ; issem, isse, &c.
Sir is is used for slveris from sftiere, sivi.
The contraction of -iit into -it occurs ; obit for obi it.
Anciently the Perfect ending it was itself long, being often ex-
hibited as eit in E. L. 1 See M. Lucr. iii. 1042.
1 Peculiar contractions are seen in the formation of the Tenses of Verbs.
A) Forms of (esum) sum, compounded with other Verbs :
Indie. Mood. Fut. i. (eso) ero : Imperf. (esa-m) eram.
Conj. Mood. (Mood-vowel ia=ie). Pres. (es-ia-m, es-ie-m) siem, sim. Imperf.
(esa-ia-m, esa-ie-m, es-ai-m, es-e-m) essem. Infin. es-se.
Forms of fuo (shewn in fore=fure, fuisse, &c.), compounded with other Verbs.
Indie. Mood. Imperf. (fuam). Perf. fu-i, whence fu-ero, fu-eram, &c.
B) Tenses of a m o (ama-o) :
Ind. M. Fut. i. (ama-fuo) amabo. Imp. (ama-fuam) amabam. Perf. (ama-fui)
amavi. Fut. 2. (amav-eso) amavero. Plup. (amav-esam) amaveram.
Conj. M. Pres. (ama-ia-m, am-ai-m) am em. Imp. (ama-esem) a mar em. Perf.
(amav-esim) a m a v e r i m. Plup. (amav-esem) amavissem.
Infin. (ama-se) am are : (amav-ese) amavisse.
C) Passive Present-stem forms are derived generally from the Active by adding se
(self), and making euphonic change :
Pres. Ind. (amo-se) amor; (amas-se) amar-is ; (amat-se) amat-ur, &c.
D) Inf. Pass, (amase-se) amari-er, amari; (regese-se) regi-er, regi.
The Conj. Pres. endings am, as, at, &c. of the Third Conjugation (regam, regas, &c.)
represent the Primitive Conjunctive in a ; and Fut. forms in es, et, &c. (reges, reget,
&c.)are contracted from a-ia-s, &c., as in (esa-ia-s) eses. See C. II. 729.
12. Relations of Consonants, etc. 59
xxxv. Relations of the Consonants in Latin
and kindred Languages.
I. The Guttural Surds c, q.
1) c corresponds to Sk. j', k, <f\ to Gr. K or ?r :
L. Sk. Gr.
centum s'ata
decem das'an
canis s'van KVWV (KVV-)
iecur yakart rj-rrap
voco vac* FCTTW.
2) Qu sometimes corresponds to Sk. s f v^ Gr. ?r (K) r :
L. Sk. Gr.
equos as' vets /Woe
IM;O (for t
More frequently qu corresponds to Sk. c', k, Gr. TT, r
L. Sk. Gr.
quattuor datvaras rcrrapfi; (for
TTfVvpec (O. petord)
linquo rzV XITT-
sequor J^' ITT- for O-ETT
que ># KCU re
quis to Tt'c (U.flis).
Some think that ^ should always be assumed as the primitive
of qu ; but Corssen maintains that c (k) could develop u after it in
Italian language as a transition-step to the labial p : and he thinks
that even in Indie kv is developed from k.
3) The Labialism by which TT and p represent Pr. , prevailed in
Umbrian and Oscan. U. ^/^^//r^z/5-^quadrupedibus ; O.
///^z/ = quidquid. Hence (from O. petora, four) come the names
Petreius, Petronius: and (from O./d?;;/-/-w = quinque) Pon-
tius (=Quinctius), Pompeius, Pompeii, Pomponius, Pom-
pilius. 1
4) Jn two instances c, qv seem to correspond to Sk. p, Gr. TT :
L. Sk. Gr.
coquo pac' TreV-ro;
quinque pane' a irei'Tt, irlpTTE.
Here some think the primitive roots were kak or kvak; kanka
or kvankva. Fick, however, supposes coquo to be for (poquo),
quinque for (pinque), by assimilation.
5) In proof that qu could be developed from c, Corssen cites
huiusque for huiusce ; inquilinus from incolo ; inquinare
from coenum ; quom = cum; querquetum for quercetum ; Qui-
rites from Cures; sterquilinium from stercus.
1 Perhaps other instances of Labialism (p for k) in Latin are dialectic (Sabine) : as
lupus (Sk. var-kas\ Gr. Av'/co?) ; popina for coquina ; palumbes = columba : Epona
(forEquona) ; spolium (Gr. <TKvAoi') : and one or two more doubtful, as pavo(Gr. raws).
Of Dentalism in Latin (t for k) the traces are few and dubious : as talpa (for s-talpa,
s-calpa) ; stercus(Gr. <ncwp) ; studeo, studium(Gr. o-rrevSw, o-TrovSiJ).
60 Latin Soundlore.
12.
6) Q is found in E. L. for qu, chiefly before u, as pequnia,
qum, qur, quius : rarely before other letters : as neqidem, qe.
7) To avoid quu, before the Aug. age cu was often used :
ecus, cocus, anticus, execuntur, secundus.
So locutus, secutus.
Ne-cubi, si-cubi, ali-cubi, &c. ? take the place of ne-quubi, &c.
8) Qu becomes in Greek /cou, uv, K, sometimes KO :
TopKOvaTog, KoutjOtJ'oe, TapKvvtoQ, Tpay/cvXXof, KOLVTOQ.
9) Qu was uttered as in English : c as k. 1 Their sounds appear
in ( come quicker?
The assibilation or soft sound of ci, ce did not prevail in Latin
before the 7th century of our era.
1 I. The following facts shew that the assibilated sound of ce, ci, was not used in C. L.
1. Greek represented c by k before e, 17, i : as
KevTupta, nuccprc?, K7ji/<ros, <>JKIT, Kwcepwv.
2. Latin represented Greek K by c before e, i, y : as
Cecrops, cerasus, Cilix, Cimon, cithara, Cybele.
3. Gothic represents c by k before these vowels : as
kerker, keller, kirsche.
4. Quintilian cites chenturiones as away of spelling centuriones.
An Inscription A. D. 326 gives
schenicos for scenicos, and also scenicorum.
Another, A.D. 408, has pache for pace.
5. Qu could not represent an assibilated c ; therefore such forms on Inscrr. in L. L. as
{on the one hand)
huiusque for huiusce ; requiesquet for requiescit
and (on the other)
sic is for siquis ; cintus for quintus
shew that up to their date ce, ci kept the hard guttural sound.
6. In the imitative verbs crocio, glocio, c must have had the hard sound.
7. Finally, no grammarian has told us that c was uttered in one way before e, i, in
another before the remaining vowels. This silence goes to prove that no such difference
existed in C. L.
In the Umbrian and Volscian dialects there had existed a soft 5, as U. fafia, V.
fasia, for facial.
And in the late Imperial times such tendency dawns in a few words on Inscrr. :
provinsia for provincia ; Luziae for Luciae ; Felissiosa for Feliciosa.
But it was not until the yth century A.D. that popular utterance so far relaxed its
energy as to adapt generally the guttural consonant to the palatal vowel, and propagate
that sibilant sound of ce, ci which, for instance, transmutes the classical Kikero into
It. G. Fr. Eng.
Chichero Shishero Sisero.
II. The assibilation of inner ti before: a vowel began earlier. It had existed in dialects :
that etiam was p
mat etiam was pronounced eziam. in me next century we meet witn a/erio lor actio,
Constanzo for Constantio : soon after with iustiria, milizia, preparing the way for modern
Italian, which writes Firenze (Florentia), Piacenza (Placentia), palazzo (palatium).
I2 . Relations of Consonants, etc. 6l
II. The Guttural Sonant G.
1) G usually corresponds to Sk. j or gr, Gr. 7 : G.
L. Sk. Gr.
gen- jati yer- yov-
ag-o #/ dy-
teg-o sthag orc'y-w
Sometimes to Sk. /, Gr. K :
viginti vins'ati FeiKovi.
Sometimes to Sk. kh, h, Gr. x> y '
unguis nakhas ow\-
li(n)go lih Xa'xw
ego aham cyu>
2) Parasitic u follows gr in anguis, sanguis, unguis, lingua,
linquo, stinguo, tinguo, unguo, urgueo. In pinguis (?ra-
X^c) u is a suffix.
In all these, except urgueo, the guttural n adulterinum
strengthens gr, giving it a nasal twang : as in the Verbs cited p. 19.
3) G was guttural in C. L. ; as in Eng. go, gave, give, get, beget,
begin. Its palatal assibilations before e, i, whether hard, as in
Eng. gentle, giant, rage, It. gentil, Ginevra, gioia, ragione, or soft,
as in Fr. gentil, geant, gtte, rage, began towards the 5th century
with the use, as in Italian, of gi ( = Eng. j) before another vowel :
Giove, Giulia, giallo.
II L The Aspirates : h, f.
It belongs not Only to Indie language but also to Greek to
aspirate the medial mutes gr, d, b, as well as the tenues k, t, p.
Thus arise the medial aspirates gh, dh, bh ; to which the partially
corresponding sounds in Greek are x> #> </>> severally. Latin has
neither class of aspirates : the letters which it uses for the purpose
of correspondence are principally h, f, and the medial b.
i. H, when sounded at all, was sounded as the Greek Rough H.
Breathing, but corresponds to it only in words borrowed from the
Greek : Hebe, Homerus, hora, &c.
a) In some words h corresponds to Sk. h, Gr. % ' as
L.
Sk.
Gr.
hiemps
himam
X^ct
heri
hyas
X^'e
veho (via)
vah
o X ew
ans-er (for
h-ans-er)
hansa
x ?, goose
Oxcu'0--) 1
1 The Teutonic names of this bird, goose, gander, gos (Anglo- Sax.), gans (Germ.), com-
pared with the Greek x^"> seem to shew that ghans is the Prim. form. There can be no
doubt that Greek x indicates a Prim, gk in all these words : and this is also shewn in
the Latin Perf. of veho : vexi for vegh-si.
62 Latin Soundlore. 5 12.
b] H represents dialectic fin some words, as haedus, hario*
lus, hircus, hordeum, horreum, hostis, also in mihi.
So in Spanish, ^?y^? = filius ; 7/rt/rtr = fabulari.
c) H has no position in Latin metre ; and a tendency to get
rid of this aspirate, as a troublesome sound, is manifest
in the history of Latin. Hence the fluctuation in the
orthography of many words in MSS. and Inscrr. : harena,
arena; harundo, arundo; haruspex, aruspex ;
have,ave; haedus (aedus) ; hariolus (ariolus) ; Ha-
dria (Adrici)\ heres (eres); herus, hera, and erus,
era; hedera (edera) ; holus (olus) ; Hammon (Ammon) ;
Hister(Ister). But the forms humerus, humor, &c. for
umerus (O>/AOS), umor (from uvere), are not good.
c) The loss of h, was propagated in L. L. Hence in modern
Italian it is not sounded, and has generally disappeared as
an initial letter.
F. 2. The Italian Labiodental Aspirate f is described by Quintilian
as a very strong rough sound : 'Ilia quae est sexta nostrarum paene
non humana voce vel omnino non voce potius inter discrimina den-
tium efflanda est,' xii. 10. This description does not seem to imply
that the ancient pronunciation of f was materially different from
our own : but it does imply what is probable on other grounds,
that (f> was different from our f, not, like this, labio-dental, but a
pure labial aspirated.
F is seldom the inner letter of a root. As an initial it
corresponds to Sk. bh, Gr. <, chiefly : Sk. dh, Gr. 9, some-
times; Sk.g/i, Gr. x, rarely.
L. Sk. Gr.
i) fero bhar >a>
fui (fe-, &c.) bhti
flag- (fulg-) bhrdj
frigo bhrajj
fugio bhuj
frater bhrdtar
See bha, p. 16. To Pr. bh, C. also refers the f in many words :
fovere, favilla; favere ...; famulus ... (O. faama^
'house'); fervere ... furere ... ; fidere .. ; fiber;
forare; furvus; fundus ... ; frequens: compare also
fagus (</>?yoc); folium ($V\\QV)\ frango
frigus (f
2} foris dvdr Ovpa
fumus dhumas QVOQ
rufus (rudti) epvdpog
firmus dhar (Oa\- Oe\-) 1
From this last root C. deduces a large number of words : fere,
ferme, frenum, forum, furca, fulcio, &c.
1 Lat. -fendo, Gr. 0eu'u> are referred to Sk. han. Probably on this account Prof.
Monier Williams, in his Lexicon, refers han to a Prim. dhan t though so many of its forms
indicate an original ghan.
12. Relations of Consonants, etc. 63
The Preposition af which appears in Latin Inscrr. is by Cors-
sen distinguished from ab,and derived from Sk. adhi.
L. Sk. Gr.
3) fel (comp. bilis) (hart, ' greenish yellow ') ^0X77
fu()do (ghuf) xefo>
To Pr. gli C. refers fulvus (helvus), host is (fostis), hario-
lus ('inspector of the hira or entrail'), haedus (faedus),
hordeum (fordeum), fames, far, frio, furfur.
IV. The Labial Mutes p, b. Labials
P, B.
These were sounded anciently as in modern language.
P corresponds generally to Pr. p, Gr. TT. But see I.
B corresponds often to Pr. b, Gr. ; but, as already shewn
(I. and III.), it has several other special relations.
Thus it is developed not only from dv (as in bis, bellum, bo-
nus, see p. 45), but also from gv :
L. Sk. ,Gr.
bos, bov- gaus povs
faba (bhas, ' eat ') <ay-
(for fag-va)
As an inner Consonant b represents Sk. bh regularly, dh rarely.
L. Sk. Gr.
nubes nabhas veffros
uber udhar ovOap
So b = $ (bh) in ambo (a/i<o>), ambi- (afi<i), glaber
6s), nubo (vvfjL<pr}), scribo (ypa0a>), sorbeo (po<ea>), umbilicus
(o/uf^aXos-) : in the suffixes -bus (-</H)> -bam, -bo, -bro, -bra, -bulo,
-bill, -bi (tibi, sibi, ubi, &c.), -bis (nobis, vobis).
Again b = (dh) in ruber (Ipvd-), plebs (77X^09), and in abies,
arbor, urbs, verbena, verbum, barba, &c.
V. The Dental Mutes t, d, retain their ancient sounds, corre- Dentals
spending to Sk. /, d (or dh), Gr. r, 8 (or 6).
a) The sonant mute stands regularly for the aspirate in medius
(Sk. madhyas, Gr. ^a-o-os for /xeS-yos), vidua (Sk. vidhavd), -dere
(Sk. dhd, Gr. Be-). In latere (\adelv), pati (Tra6tlv), t seems to re-
present Pr. dh ; but this is very exceptional.
b) Final d in C. L. is only used in a few particles (apud, ad,
haud, sed), and pronouns (id, illud, aliud, quod, quid, quid-
quid, &c.). Some of these are occasionally found in MSS. and
Inscrr. with t for d, as aput, haut, set, aliut. This shews that
final d had a hard sound. On final t, see p. 26.
c) The assibilation of inner di, as of ti, before a vowel, began
in the Imperial age, and is represented in Italian by zz, as mezzo
for medio.
64 Latin Soundlore. I2 ,
Nasals VI. The Nasals n, m, correspond in sound to Pr. n and m f
N, M. Gr. v and p..
a) W has in Latin a twofold use :
1) As a Dental ; initial, final, and before a vowel :
2) As a Guttural (adulterinum) ; before g, c, qu. It is weak
and slightly uttered before s and ts, especially when these
are final. See p. 50.
Z>) In Latin the Labial Nasal m often takes the place which
belongs to v in Greek as a final suffixed Consonant :
(jjLovffav) x musam ; (currjv) x aberam.
(^ovtnS-wv) x musarum ; (Sopwv) x domorum.
In the First Pers. Plur. of Act. Verbs s corresponds to v \
(eloper) x vidimus.
In the Third Pers. Plur. nt :
(a?rf/<rai/) x aberant.
Liquids VII. The Liquids and the Sibilant.
L,R.
1) Though r (littera canina, the growling letter) is one of
the roughest sounds, and i one of the softest, they are intimately
related to each other, 1 is a lisped r : compare bar bar us with
balbus, and KopaZ with *6Xa (Aristoph.)
Accordingly the interchange of these letters is frequent in Indie,
Greek and Latin. Some roots have 1 in all three : lagh, Ugh,
lu ; many have r in all : bhar, mar, sarp, star, hard, &c.
2) The derivation in L. and Gr. of l from Pr. r is exemplified in
L. Sk. Gr.
linquo ric* \ 7r .
luceo rue* \ VKm
cluo s*ru K-AJui
volo var /3ouX-
ulna aratni
sal sara <5\e
levis raghus
See the derivatives of svar, p. 1 7.
Lat. r from Sk. /is shewn in rump o from lup (old form rup\
3) Comparing Latin and Greek, we find, on the one hand,
lacer (paws), lilium (\tipwv): so luscinia (Fr. rossignol) :
on the other,
grando (\a\aa), hirundo (x^Xt^wr), arx (aX^-), vermis
(eX/ug), strigilis (orXeyy/c) :
with a great number of words in which the letters correspond,
especially those with l : as
leo (XcW), levis (Xt7oe), oleum (e'Xcuoj/), silva (vX^y), &c.
but also some with r : as
aranea (aV"X V7 ?)> rivus (pooe), taurus (rai/pos), &c.
i2. Relations of Consonants, etc. 65
4) In Latin words the order Mute- Vowel- Li quid often appears
where the corresponding Greek forms have Mute-Liquid-Vowel :
bardus ((Bpadvs), caro (/c/aeas-), cerno (KpiVa>), dulcis (yXv/cvs-), pulmo
(7rAev/ia>z/), sorbeo (pocea>), torqueo (rpe'7ra>). So tri and ter,
trinus and ternus, porro for (protro), &c.
5) Frequent interchange is found between the Liquids and the
Dental d :
d and 1 :
lacrima (SaKpv, tear), lingua (E.L. dingua^ 'tongue'), levir (Sk.
devar, Gr. Scuyp), olere (oSoo&z, odor), Ulixes ('oSucra-evs), adeps
Meditor (jueXeraoo) is not so certain.
d and r :
meridies for (medi-dies) ; and ar- for ad in old compounds:
arbiter (ad-bitere), arcesso for (ad-ci-esso).
6) As to the sound of l, we learn from Priscian the opinion of
the elder Pliny : < ! triplicem, ut Plinio videtur, sonum habet :
exilem, quando geminatur secundo loco posita, ut ille, Metellus;
plenum quando finit nomina vel syllabas, et quando aliquam habet
ante se eadem syllaba consonantem, ut sol, silva, rlavus, clarus;
medium in aliis, ut lee turn, lee tus/ I. 7. 38.
7) The lightness of inner 1 caused it to be often sharpened by
doubling :
loquella, querella, &c.
8) On its affinity to u, see xx. In French this goes so far that
u often takes the place of l, forming diphthongs au, eau, eu, ou :
(ad illu) x au ; (ad illos) x aux ; (alter) x autre.
(cheval-s) x chevaux (chevel-s) x cheveiix.
(bel) x beau ; (castellum) x chateau ; (fol, mol. sol) xfo2t, mou, soil.
a) No relation is more important in Latin Wordlore than that R and
which arose between the letters r and s, changing the sibilant s -
between vowels into the canine liquid. Varro mentions it : ( In
multis verbis in quibus antiqui dicebant s postea dictum r, ut in
carmine Saliarium sunt haec : ... foedesum, plusima, meliosem,
asenam/ vii. 26. In the Carmen Arvale the Lares are called
Lases. Cicero says (Fam. ix. 21) that L. Papirius Crassus was the
first to call himself Papirius (B.C. 336) : before which all his clan
were called Papisii. So the Auselli became Aurelii, the Fusii
Furii, the Numisii Numerii, the Pinasii Pinarii, the Spusii
Spurii, the Volesi Valerii, the Vetusii Veturii. Thus we have
Halesus, Falisci, and Falerii ; Etrusci, Tusci, and Etruria.
Hence in roots these changes appear :
(asa) x ara; (asena, fasena) x harena; (fesiae) xferiae ; (nases)
x nares, comp. nasus ; (geso) x gero ; (hausio) x haurio ; (seso)
x sero; (uso) x uro ; (hesi) x heri, comp. \Qig y hesternus.
So spes andspero; quaero and quaeso ; vis, vires; glis,
gliris ; flos, floris, &c. ; nefarius from nefas, &c.
F
66 Latin Soundlore. . I2 .
Hence almost all the Noun-flexions in r-, as er- or- dr- fir- from
Nominatives in es, is, iis, 5s (or), us, belong to stems which are
really not r-stems, but s-stems : the old forms, many of which are
found in old Inscrr., being, for instance (aesis, foedesis, pignosis
or pignesis, arbosem, floses, plusima, maioses), &c.
The Case-endings -arum -oruzn were (-asum, -osmri).
The Verb-forms -eraxn -ero were (-esam -eso\ -ris -re -ri were
(-sis -se -si). In the Passive endings -or -ur, &c., r represents
the pronoun se.
Dir-imo is for dis-emo, dir-ibeo for dis-hibeo.
) The r for s between vowels very often corresponds to the loss of
Greek a between vowels :
(ausosa) x aurora (av-we, Sk. ushas); (ausis) x auris (ov
(visus) x virus (f/-oc, SL-mto); (nusus) x nurus (rvoc, Sk. snushd
(sosor) x soror (a-ap, Sk. s'vasar, ' sister'); (genesis) x generis
(yeVe-oe) ; (musis) x mu-ris (^uv-oc) ; (deasum) x dearum (flca-wy) ;
(esam) x eram (e-TJjv), &c.
c) H is for s before a consonant in Minerva(Sk. manas^ 'mind ') ;
verna (Sk. vas, ' dwell') ; veternus from vetus, diurnus, hodi-
ernus from dies :
And as final in the ending or for os : color, honor, labor, &c.,
for colos, honos, labos, &c.
S. ad) The Greeks, who avoided sibilation as much as possible, sub-
stituted generally the rough breathing for primitive s at the begin-
ning of words. Not so the Italians. Hence Latin initial s before
a vowel corresponds often to Sk. s, Gr. aspirate :
salix (fXtV-rj), sex (e), sedes (e^oc), semi- (??/"-), serpo fa), si-
mul (/*> o/zov), sollus (o\oe), silva (v/Vr;), se (e), suus (cfos), suavis
' (f/c^c), sub (v^-o), super (v:rep), sudor (^pwc), sus (vg), &c.
Sometimes initial s corresponds to Greek ' spiritus lenis : J
si (a)> sero (eip w )> serum (opdc).
bb) Sc, sp, st initial generally correspond in Greek and Latin,
unless s is dropt, as in t ego (oreyw). See p. 45.
cc) S initial was probably sounded more sharply than as an inner
letter : hence caussa as well as causa appears in MSS. and
Inscrr., and other occasional doublings of s are found.
dd) S falls out in Cerealis for (Ceresalis) ; in ver (e'-ap for
FfVap) ; in vi-m, v-i ; in the cases of spe-s for (spe-r-es = spe-s-es),
in those of dies, diei for (die-s-i), &c., and in other forms.
Jhe VIII. The soft Labial Spirant V.
Spirant
a) v-consonans has the same relation to f that b has to p : it
corresponds to Pr. v, Gr. digamma, like which it was sounded :
and this sound was probably that of Eng. w. 1 Corssen thinks its
1 That Latin v-consonans had the sound of English w always, is probable for the
following reasons :
i) By a slight change in the position of the speech organs the vowel i passes into
y-cons. By a precisely parallel change the vowel u becomes, not Eng. v, but Eng. w.
i2. Relations of Consonants, etc. 67
initial sound was that of Eng. v, its inner sound that^of Eng. w.
L. Sk. Gr.
vomo vain fe/ic'w
VOlvO VCil F\V(M)
voco vac' Fe7T(jj
video vid (' know ') p t3-
vestis vasts
novus navas
ovis avis 6Fig
So vis (Fie), viola (Piov), vinum (Folvog), bos bov- (fiofg fiovg),
navis (yafe, yavg), ver (f*/p), vespera (Fevirepa, effTrlpa), Vesta
(FeffTta, lorm), radix (Fpia, p/a, /3p/a), &c.
) As the Greeks lost the use of /, they represented initial v
sometimes by ov, sometimes by /3,
Varro (Ovappcov or Bdppav).
On the vocalization of v see p. 10 ; on its omission, see pp. 57, 58.
IX. l-consonans (J). The
On the sound and uses of i-consonans (j), see viii. i, and xii. 6. j pirant
It corresponds to Sk. y, sometimes to Gr. f, as iugum (Sk. yuj,
Gr. vy6v).
a) A form of i taller than the adjoining letters (I), appears in
late Republican and Augustan Inscrr. to express
1) long I-voc. : *
DlVO, El, STIPENDlS.
2) i-cons. ; both between vowels and initially :
MAlOR, CVlVS, ElVS ; IVS, IVLIA.
A more corrupt form il is also found :
cvilvs, coilvci.
d) That which is merely a general fact, has been wrongly set
down as a rule of sound : namely, that a vowel before i-cons. is
long. Corssen has shewn that in all words which can be traced
(for ieiunus is obscure) where a vowel is long before i-cons., it is
so by its own nature :
a-io, Ga-ius, Ma-ius, pe-ior, pe-iero, &c.
2) Greek ou (as in OueAe'a for Velia in Dion. Hal.) expresses Gr. digamma and Lat. v;
and this sound cannot be interpreted as Eng. v, but as w. The occasional substitution of
ft, by Plutarch chiefly, proves nothing to the contrary : but only means that, ov being a
clumsy representation of f and v, /3 was taken as the nearest labial instead.
3) A. Gellius cites a grammarian, who says that Deus Vaticanus presided over infancy,
and that the two first letters of his name (Va) are that sound which the infant first utters.
The sound then is Eng. wa not va, which the infant, having no teeth, cannot utter.
Corssen's opinion is that Latin initial v may have had that middle sound between w
and v, which German w has in some localities ; the upper teeth being brought near to
the lower lip, but not pressed upon it. This view we cannot accept.
1 It was shewn (p. 33) that ei was long used to express I with a leaning to e. Lucilius
tried to mark long vowels by writing them twice, as Maarcus for Marcus. This appears
on some Inscrr. but did not last long. It was followed in Cicero's time by the Apex or
mark over a long vowel, like (') or ('), which frequently appears on a, e, o, u ; not on i.
2
68 Latin Soundlore. I2
Inbi-iugus, quadri-iugus, tri-iuges, &c., i, being naturally
short, remains so.
c) Progressive assimilation has changed i-cons. to 1 in cello,
fallo, pello for (cel-yo, fal-yo, pel-yo), as a\Xoc in Greek for
(a'A-yoc), (T(j)a\\(i) for (<7rt>a/\-ya>).
d) On luppiter, luno, I anus, &c. for D-iupiter, &c., see
p. 1 5. This passage from dj to j shews distinctly how the assibi-
lation arose by which i-cons., afterv\ r ards taking the sign J, became
a compound palatal sibilant in English and (with gi for Eng. j) in
Italian ; while in French it becomes purely palatal. So, from Latin
diurnus we get
Eng. It. Fr.
journey giorno journte
X. The Double Consonant x.
X ( = cs) corresponds to Gr. . See vii. 8.
Republican as well as L. L. Inscrr. shew zs :
deixserit) duxserit, vixsit.
In L. L. z passed into ss or s, and appears as ss in Italian ; so
disse for dixit. 1
A more ample list is here added of Latin words which have lost initial letters.
i. C. : vapor, vapidus, vappa (Jruaf) ; vermis ; verrere
ludere (krftf)', libum ; raudus (c-rudus, ' raw ') ; nidor (icvl<T<ra).
G. : lac (yaAaKT-) ; nasci . . . ; narrare . . . ; noscere . . ; Naevius ; niti ; vivere.
P. : lanx ; latus ; later ; laetus ; livere ; linter.
D. : ruere ; runa ; racemus ; bellum . . . bis . . . bonus viginti . . . ; iuvare . . .
luppiter, luno, lanus . . . ; iuvenis ; iam ; iacere.
S. : cavus, caula, cavea, caulis, causa, cauda, casa, castrum, cassis, cutis ; cernere . . .
cortex ; culter ; carpere ; cilium ; caedere ; clavis, claud
parcere ; pannus ; picus ; pituita ; penuria ; pellere ; puls
pulex ; palea ; pandere ; populare ; fallere ; fides ; fungus
tundere ; tonare ; taurus ; tueri ; tergere ; torpere ; turdus
cus ; talpa ;. turgere ; trux, trucidare ; macula ; mordere
mittere ; ninguere ; nex ; nare, nares, nasus ; nurus, nutrix
lamentum, laus, luscinia ;
cena ; gradi ; -gruere
palpare ; palpebra ; parra
torus ; temetum ; tegere
turba, turbo, turma ; trun-
memor . . . ; minis . . .
limus, linere, linea, littera,
limax, lubricus ; rivus, Roma, Reate.
St. : lis, latus, locus.
V. : laqueus ; lacer, lacerare ; lupus.
2. Observe, on xxix., that derivatives sometimes lose radical consonants belonging to
the words from which they are derived : currus, curulis ; mamma, mamilla ; offa ofella ;
quattuor, quater ; villa, vllicus ; in-loco, ilico ; stilla, stilicidium ; mille, mllia (but millia
on the Ancyra monument). See M. Lucr. i. 313, and, on religio, i. 63.
13-14- Flexion of Words. 69
DIVISION II.
MORPHOLOGY.
MORPHOLOGY or WORDLORE treats of Words. Y ord -
Lore.
It is subdivided as follows :
CHAP. I. Words : their Parts, Kinds, and Flexion in general.
II. Nouns : their Parts, Kinds, and Declension.
III. Verbs : their Parts, Kinds, and Conjugation.
IV. Particles : their Kinds.
V. Derivation and Composition of Words.
VI. Supplement on the Uses of Words.
CHAPTER I.
WORDS AND THEIR FLEXION,
i. Stem-flexion.
1. WORDS are called in Grammar the PARTS OF SPEECH.
Words are either Simple, as flagrare, flam ma, or Compound, as
con-flagrare, flamm-i-fer.
Every Word has Meaning and Form. Form helps to determine
Meaning.
2. Every Word has STEM and ROOT.
Word, Stem and Root may be (but seldom are) the same : as tu,
thou\ aqua, water.
Word and Stem may be (but usually are not) the same, while Root
differs : flamrna,y^z^^: Root, flag-, blaze.
Root and Stem are often the same : ag-ere, to act. Such words
are called Radical or Primitive : all others are Derivatives.
A Compound Word has only one Stem, but as many Roots as it
lias composing parts. Thus the Stem of conflagrare is con-
flagra-, the two Roots, cum and flag-.
3. Every true element in a word following the Root, is called a
SUFFIX: thus in flam ma (for flag-ma) -ma is a Suffix; in flag-
rare -r, -a, -re are Suffixes.
Suffixes may need a connecting Link or Vincular, which is not
elemental : reg-i-bus, quer-i-monia. The final Suffix, which
converts a Stem into a Word, is called an Ending, as -re in flag-
r-a-re. But the Suffix -ma in flam -ma is not called an Ending,
because flam ma is itself a Word. When it forms flamma-s, s is
.an Ending, and, specially, a Case-ending.
7O Latin Wordlore. ^
4. A syllable placed before a Word to modify its meaning, no?
being a root- word, is called a PREFIX. Thus inte-tend-i, cin-
cinnus, -te and cin- are Prefixes. But Particles in composition,,
as de- se- re-, are not called Prefixes, being themselves roots.
5. The last letter of a Root, as gr in flag-, is the Root-character.
The last letter of a Stem, as a in flagra- and fl a mm a, is the Stem-
character : and this (being of chief importance in Grammar) is called
the CHARACTER of the Word.
6. FLEXION, or Stem-flexion, is the method of inflecting a Stem,,
that is, of making such changes in its form as may indicate changes
in its meaning and use. This is usually done by suffixing a
Flexional Ending to the Stem : flagra -re, flam ma -rum. Such
suffixed Endings sometimes need a Vincular, asXinreg-i-bus;
sometimes they cause a mutilation of the Stem, as flamm-is for
flamma-is (which is for flamma-bus). Sometimes change in a
letter of the Stem itself is an inflexion : as flamma from flamma.
Sometimes both Letter-change and Ending are used; ag-, eg-i.
Sometimes Prefix, Letter-change, and Ending : can-, ce-cin-i.
7. How then is a Stem defined ?
A Stem is that part of a Word which is virtually contained in
every change of form, though the character is often liable to be
hidden through the operation of the laws which determine Letter-
change. So the character of flamma is hidden in the form flam-
m-is; the character of virgin- is hidden in the form virgo : the
character of dirig- in the form direxi.
8. And how is a Root defined ?
A Root is the primitive element in any word ; that part which the
word has in common with all other kindred words. Thus, in agito,
the Stem is agita-, but the Root is agr-, which it has in common with
ag-o, ag-men and many other kindred words. The Root-cha-
racter and Root-vowel are more liable to be hidden through Letter-
change than even the Stem-character. Thus the Root ag;- is con-
tained in the words actio, examen, redigo, but obscured in each
word by some mutation.
cuSes & Classification of Words.
Words. Words are of three kinds :
I. Nouns. II. The Verb. III. Particles.
Nouns. I. A NOUN (Nomen) is the name of something per-
ceived or conceived.
Nouns are of three kinds: Substantives; Adjectives;
Pronouns.
i. A Noun SUBSTANTIVE (Nomen Substantivum) is
a name simply denoting something perceived or con-
ceived : psittacus, the parrot '; nix, snow ; virtus,
valour y virtue-, Caesar, Caesar.
15. Classification of Words. 7 1
2. A Noun ADJECTIVE (Nomen Adjectivum) is a
name indicating a quality perceived or conceived as in-
herent in something denoted by a Substantive. Accom-
panying the Substantive, it is said to be an Attribute,
or in Attribution to it : psittacus loquax, the talka-
tive parrot \ nix alt a, the deep snow ; vera virtus,
true valour ; Caesar inclutus, the renowned Caesar.
In such examples it is also called an Epithet.
3. A PRONOUN (Pronomen) is a relational Substantive
or Adjective which abbreviates discourse by avoiding the
repetition of Names. Thus a speaker avoids his own
name by using the Pronoun ego, /. He addresses an-
other as tu, thou or you. A person once mentioned he
afterwards names as is or ille, he. He speaks of his
own horse as meus equus, my horse ; of his companion's
dog as canis tuus,y0ur dog.
1) One Substantive may qualify another, and is then said to be
an Apposite, or in Apposition, to it: psittacus avis loquax,
the parrot, a talkative bird, where avis, bird, is an Apposite, or in
Apposition, to psittacus, the parrot \
2) Names given to the qualities of things are called Abstract
(Abstracta) : candor, whiteness, virtus, valour. In contradis-
tinction to these, Names of things to which such qualities belong
are called Concrete (Concreta) : nix, snow ; vir, a man.
3) Concrete Names Individual or Proper (Nomina Propria),
are such as can only be applied to single persons, places, or objects :
Caesar, Roma, Bucephalus, Cerberus.
4) Names are called Appellative (Appellativa) when they be-
long in common to a number of individuals which thus constitute a
class : vir, a man, urbs, a city, ager, afield, canis, a dog, arbor,
a tree.
5) Names expressing in the Singular Number a plurality of things,
are called Collective Nouns or Nouns of Multitude: turba,
crowd, populus,#e0foe, gens, clan, exercitus, army.
6) A quality, without a substantive name, may sometimes suffice
to describe an object That is, Adjectives may stand as Substan-
tives. In Natural History, the Adjective words Mineral, Vegetable,
Annual, Mammal, express sufficiently the things meant. So in
Latin: sapiens, a wise man (vir) ; calida, warm water (aqua) ;
natal is, a birthday (dies) ; utile, the useful, convey their meaning
without Substantives.
7) NUMERALS (Numeralia) are a class of Adjectives expressing
Number: unus, one; duo, two, &c., centum, a hundred, mille, a
thousand, &c. These, like other Adjectives, can appear as Sub-
stantives : mili a mult a, many thousands. The ancients marked
them as Pronouns.
72 Latin Word lore. 15.
8) A Substantive, or any word put for a Substantive, is called a
Noun-term.
9) Nouns have a Flexion called DECLENSION ; and four Acci-
dents (Accidentia) : Number, Gender, Person, and Case. A
Noun inflected through all its Cases is said to be Declined.
The II. The VERB (Verbum) is the Word which makes
Verb< Predication, that is, which declares or states something
about a Subject, and so forms a Sentence : ago, I do ;
dicimus, we say: consul triumpavit, the consul tri-
umphed.
1. The Verb has two parts :
1) The Verb Finite (Verbum Finitum), which is personal;
2) The Verb Infinite (Verbum Infinitum), consisting of Verbal
Nouns : principally the Infinitive (Infinitivum), which
is a kind of Substantive; and Participles (Participia),
which are a kind of Adjectives.
2. The Verb has a Flexion called CONJUGA TION. It has five
Accidents : Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. A
Verb inflected through certain forms is said to be Conjugated.
Parti- III. PARTICLES (Particulae) are the uninflected help-
words of discourse ; antl are of four kinds : Adverb,
Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection.
1. An ADVERB (Adverbium) is a particle which helps
to determine the force of a Verb or Adjective, sometimes
of a Substantive, sometimes of another Adverb : Quam
turpiter interfectus est Socrates, tarn bonus civis et
v e r e philosophus ; how sham efu lly was Socrates put to
death, so good a citizen and truly a philosopher.
1) Adverbs which ask and answer the questions, ' when, where,
whence, whither/ &c., are Pronominal Adverbs :
quando ? ubi ? quo ? nunc hie illuc
2) Adverbs which ask and answer the question 'how often,' are
Numeral Adverbs :
quotiens? semel bis ter quater quinquiens
2. A PREPOSITION (Praepositio) is a particle which,
used with a Noun-case, helps to define its relation to
some other Noun : Ego sto ad fores, tu in conclavi,
/ stand a t the door, you in the apartment.
1) Many Prepositions can be used as Adverbs : such are,
ante, before ; circum, around ; intra, within.
2) The Cases used with Prepositions are the Accusative and the
Ablative.
i6
1 6- 1 8. Nouns. Number. Gender. 73
3. A CONJUNCTION (Coniunctio) is a particle which
helps to shew the connection of words, clauses, and sen-
tences : Oves et aves, sheep and birds ; edimus ut
vivamus, we eat that we may live.
4. An INTERJECTION (Interiectio) is an exclamatory
particle used to express feeling or call attention :
O, O / heu, eheu, alas! en, ecce, lo /
The Parts of Speech, recounted, appear to be
1. Substantive 5. Adverb Speech.
2. Adjective 6. Preposition
3. Pronoun 7. Conjunction
4- Verb 8. Interjection
which are inflected. which are uninflected.
Note. Latin has no Articles : and, when a Latin Substantive is
to be rendered in English, the context and collocation alone shew
what English Article, if any, must be supplied. Thus : lux may
mean < a light/ or < the light/ or < light ' in general, according to the
place in which it stands.
CHAPTER II.
NOUNS.
SECTION I.
i. NUMBER in Nouns. Nu JJ.
The Substantive is declined by Number and Case ; the ber *
Adjective by Number, Gender, and Case, agreeing in
these with the Substantive which it qualifies.
The Numbers (Numeri) are two: 1. Singular (Singu-
laris): mensa, table \ 2. Plural (Pluralis): mensae,
tables.
Sanskrit, Greek, and Sclavonic have a Dual Number ; of which
in Latin the only traces are the words duo, two, am bo, both.
18
ii. GENDER of Nouns. Gender.
The Genders (Genera) are two : I. Masculine (Mas-
culinum) ; 2. Feminine '(Femininum). A Substantive
which is neither Masc. nor Fern, is said to be Neuter
(Neutrum), i.e. Neither of the two.
A Substantive which may be Masc. or Fern, is called
Common (Commune) of both Genders.
74
Latin Wordlore.
18,
Distinct
Generic
names.
(The lively imagination of the East ascribed sex to inanimate
objects, the sun, moon, stars, trees, &c. Hence the distinctions of
Gender in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin : which are found not only
in the Romanic languages, but also in German and other Teutonic
dialects, English alone excepted.)
A. The Gender of words which imply sex is expressed in Latin
in four ways.
I . First : Distinct words are used, as in English, for many of the
most familiar relations :
homo
mas
man
male
maritus \
vir
pater
frater
vitricus
gener
husband
father
brother
stepfather
son-in-law
patruus
uncle 1
avunculus
uncle { on s
senex
verna
taurus
old man
house slave
bull
aries
vervex
catus
ram \
wether >
he-cat
verres \
maialis )
haedus
boar
kid
mulier
woman
femina
female
uxor }
femina >
wife
mater
mother
soror
sister
noverca
stepmother
nurus
daughter-in-law
amita
aunt
matertera
aunt
anus
old woman
ancilla
maid-servant
vacca
cow
ovis
ewe
fel-es(is)
she- cat
scrofa
sow
capella
Homo (human being), though never used with a feminine epithet,
may comprehend woman as well as man.
Mulier is the Roman law-term for woman, especially for a mar-
ried woman, distinct from virgo.
F emin.a.,femate (// fyvovaa, genetrix), is applied to all animals.
Maritus and uxor are the law-terms for husband and wife.
Vir is constantly used for maritus, as Mann in German.
Senex (with its comparative senior) is the only word corre-
sponding to Fem. anus. It occurs rarely as a Fern. Adjective.
Sub- II. Secondly : Many words, called Substantiva Mobilia, have
Mobiiia a M ascu n ne and a Feminine form, as in English, lion, lioness, &a
Such are
i) avus, 2.
nepos, 3.
puer, 2.
socer, 2.
grandsire
grandson
boy
father-in-law
avia, i.
neptis, 3.
puella, I.
socrus, 4.
grandmother
granddaughter
girl
mother-in-law
So, poeta poet, poetria; cliens client, clienta; rex king 9
regina; caupo vintner, cop a; fidicen, lute-singer, fidlclna;
i8.
Gender.
75
tibicen flute-player, tiblcina; leo lion, lea, leaena ; gallus
cock) gallma ; Cres Cretan, Cressa; Threx Thracian, Thre-
issa; Libys Libyan, Libyssa; Cilix Cilician, Cilissa;
Phoenix, Phoenician, Phoenissa; Laco Laconian, Lacaena;
Tros Trojan, Troas : and others.
2) Many Masculines of the Second Declension in -us -er have
Feminines of the First Declension in -a -ra :
a, de-us a
domin-us a
cerv-us a
urs-us a
div-us a
er-us a
equ-us a
vitul-us a
fili-us a
serv-us a
iuvenc-us a
y. arbit-erra
nat-us a
libert-us a
lup-us a
magist-er ra
marit-us a
patron-us a
mul-us a
minist-er ra
spons-us a
(3. agn-us a
porc-us a
cap-er ra
privign-us a
asin-us a
simi-us a
colub-er ra
3) Verbals of the Third Declension in -tor -sor often have
Feminines in -trix, as vie- tor, vic-trix. So
adiu-tor -trix moni-tor -trix expul-sor expul-trix
crea-tor -trix fau-tor -trix ton-sor ton-strix, &c.
Patronymic Ending
Fern.
4) Patronymica, or Names formed from those of parents or
ancestors, have the following Endings :
Ending of
Parent Name
-us, 2. and some of Decl. 3. .
-eus (five) ....
-ius, 2. and some of Decl. 3. .
-as, i. and some of Decl. 3. .
Masc.
-ides
-Ides
-iades
-ades
-is
-g&
-ias
Examples :
Tantal-ides
son
Tantal-is
daughter
Thest-iades
son
Thest-ias
daughter
^/"Tantalus.
Thes-ides Thes-eis
son daughter
0/"Thestius.
Anchis-iades, son ^/Anchis-es.
Aene-ades, son ^/"Aeneas.
of Theseus.
Other Female Patronymic Endings are -Ine, one :
Neptunine, daughter of Neptunus, Acrisione, daughter of
Acrisius.
III. Thirdly: Substantiva Communia, Words Common of Sub-
both Genders, are of two classes. Com- iva
i. Appellatives used of both sexes. Such in English are the mmua *
words parent, child, infant, cousin, companion, guide, guardian,
hostage, witness, &c.
These include names of animals, found Masc. or Fern., without
change of form : gender being shown either by the epithets applied
to them, or by their apposition to other words : bos, s us, &c.
76 Latin Wordlore. 18.
2. Words having no relation of sex, but varying their gender
according to sense or usage : dies, day, callis, path.
i. Appellativa Communia.
i) Appellatives of Common Gender should not be grouped in-
discriminately : community of gender being in some the rule, in
others an exception. When the sexes are included in the Plurals,
the gender is Masculine by the rule which gives priority to that
sex: 'sacerdotescasti/ chaste priests, in Virgil, including both
sexes.
Coniunx, wife, is usual ; coniunx, husband, poetic.
The following words are freely used of either sex :
auctor
author
municeps
burgess
civis
citizen
nemo
nobody
comes
companion
parens
parent
custos
guardian
sacerdos
priest (priestess)
dux
exul
guide, leader
banished one
satelles
vates
body-guard
seer
The following are usually Masculine, but occasionally Feminine :
adulescens young person hostis enemy
antistes president infans infant
hospes host (hostess) iuvenis yoimg person
Yet the Feminine forms ant is tit a, ho spit a, are also found.
The following, usually Masculine, rarely take Feminine epithets, 1
affinis akin
artifex artist
augur augiir
contubernalis tent-mate
heres heir
incola inhabitant
index informer
iudex
interpres
miles
patruelis
testis
vindex
judge
interpreter
soldier
cousin
witness
avenger
The following, usually Masculine, are found in apposition to
females, but not with Feminine epithets :
accola dweller-near obses hostage
advena new-comer opifex worker
aurlga charioteer praeses president
auspex omen-taker transfuga deserter
homo human being
Add to these successor, rector, sponsor.
2) Nomina Animantium.
d} animans, Masc., a rational being ; Fern, or Neuter, an
animal.
quadrupes (properly Adjective) is usually Fern., but in
several places Masc., rarely Neuter.
ales, bird (properly Adjective), is generally Fern., yet
often Masc.
X 8. Gender. 77
U) The following are of both genders, preferring that subjoined :
anguis
anser
bos
camelus
canis
damma
snake (m.)
goose (m.)
ox or cow (m.)
camel
dog
deer
grus^
perdix
serpens
sus
tigris
crane (f.)
partridge
serpent (f.)
swine (f.)
tiger or tigress (f.)
c] accipiter, hawk, Masc., is once Fern, in Lucretius.
bubo, owl, Masc., is once Fern, in Virgil.
elephantus, Masc., is once Fern, in Plautus.
lynx, Fern., is once Masc. in Horace.
talpa, mole, Fern., is once Masc. in Virgil.
2. For Common Nouns of the second kind see the Declensions,
IV. Fourthly : Names of Animals only found in one gender, which Epicoe-
necessarily comprises both sexes, are called Epicoena (eiriKoiva, na *
common to both}.
Among Masculine Epicoena are :
crabro hornet pavo peacock
cycnus, olor swan piscis fish
glis dormouse stelio lizard
mugil, mullus mullet vermis worm
mus mouse vespertilio bat
papilio butterfly vultur vufaire
with all not before specified in -us, -ex, -er: corvus, rook,
milvus, kite, turdus, thrush, culex, gnat, passer, sparrow.
The reading ' fecundae leporis/ Hor. S. ii. 4. 44 cannot be relied
on. Lepus, hare, is therefore a Masculine Epicene.
Among Feminine :
avis bird apis bee
anas duck vulpes (is) fox
with all not before specified in -a, -ix, -do : aquila, eagle,
comix, raven, coturnix, quail, hirundo, swallow, &c.
If the sex must be expressed, this is done by using the words
femina, mas (mascula): 'femina piscis/ Ovid.: 'vulpis
mascula/ Plin. So in English, he-goat, she-goat, cock-sparrow,
hen-sparrow, &c.
B. The Gender of Latin substantives which do not imply sex is Gender
often shewn by the meaning or the form of the word. shewn
by
i. The general correspondence of Gender with Meaning is as fol- Mean-
lows : iwg-
(i) Masculine (2) Feminine (3) Neuter
Males Females Indeclinable words.
Months (mensis m.) Plants (planta f.)
Winds (ventus m.) Countries (terra f.)
Mountains (mons m.) Islands (insula f.)
Rivers (fluvius m.) Cities (urbs f.)
People (populus m.)
78 Latin Wordlore. ^
Examples
Masc. : lulius, Aprilis, Notus, Haemus, Liris, Achivi.
Fern. : Andromache, laurus, Germania, Cyprus, Athenae.
Neut. : fas, instar, alpha, vivere.
Exceptions to the Rules of Gender as shewn by Meaning:
A) Mountains :
Fern. :
Decl. i. Aetna ; Hybla ; Ida ; Oeta ; Calpe ; Cyllene ;
Pholoe ; Pyrene; Rhodope.
Decl. 3. Alpis (usually Plur.) ; Carambis.
Neut. :
Decl. 2. Pelion ; and Plurals implying mountain ranges
(iuga) : Gargara; Ismara jMaenala ;Taygeta ;and
others.
Decl. 3. Soracte.
&) Rivers :
Fern. :
Decl. i. Allia ; Albula; Druentia ; Duria (the Dora} ; Ma-
trona ; Lethe.
Decl. 3. Styx.
A A) Plants :
Masc. :
Decl. 2. acanthus ; amaracus ; asparagus ; boletus ; ca-
lamus ; carduus ; hyacinthus ; intubus ; iuncus ; mus-
cus ; narcissus ; oleaster.
Neut. :
Decl. 2. Nouns in um : apium;ligustrum;lilium;thymum.
Decl. 3. acef ; cicer ; papaver ; piper ; robur ; siler ;
siser ; suber ; tus.
Common :
Decl. 2. balanus ; cytisus ; lotus; rubus; spinus.
Decl. 3. larix ; rumex.
BH) Countries :
Masc. :
Decl. 2. Pontus.
Neut. :
Decl. 2. Nouns in um :
Illyricum ; Latium ; Noricum ; Samnium.
CC) Cities :
Masc. :
Decl. 2. All .Plurals in i :
Corioli ; Delphi ; Gabii; Puteoli ; Veii ; Argi (for Argos).
Also,Canopus; Orchomenus; Stymphalus.
; 1 8. Gender. 79
Decl. 3. Nouns in as ant- : Acragas; Taras ; es, et :
Tunes; several in o on- : Frusino ; Hippo; Narbo
(Martius);Sulmo;Vesontio; some in dn- : Brauron;
us unt- : Hydrus;Pessinus.
But of this last class most are Fern.: Amathus ; Opus;
Myus; Rhamnus, &c. Selinus is common.
Martial has ' Narbo pulcherrima/ of another Narbo.
Croto (also Croton, and Crotona f.), Marathon are
common.
Neut. :
Decl. 2. Nouns in um, on, a (PI.) :
Tarentum ; Tusculum ; Ilion ; Arbela ; Leuctra ; Susa.
Decl. 3. Most in e, ur, os :
Caere ; Bibracte ; Reate ; Tergeste ; Tibur ; Argos.
Also Praeneste, which Virgil and Juvenal have Fern, in
Abl. by Synesis. Anxur is Masc. in Mart, with reference
to the hill, ' candidus Anxur;' Neut. in Hor. with re-
ference to the town; 'impositum saxis late can-
dentibus Anxur. 7
Amphipolis, Trapezus are Neut. in Pliny with re-
ference to ' oppidum.'
Some have double form and gender : Sagunt-usf.-um, n.
Note i. Names of precious stones are, some Fern, in reference
to gemma, others Masc. in reference to lapis.
Fern. :
amethystus; sapphirus : iaspis; onyx; sardonyx (usually).
Masc. :
beryllus : adamas.
Common :
chrysolithus ; smaragdus, emerald.
Note 2. Synesis (agreement with meaning, not with form) some-
times gives to a Noun an attribute of a different Gender :
'Eunuchus acta est' (i.e. fabula Eunuchus), Ter. ( Cen-
tauro magna' (i.e. nave Centauro), Verg. /Alta cre-
mata est Ilion/ Ov. Met. xiv. 466.
So, Female names in um of Decl. 2 are Fern.: <Mea Glycerium/
Ter. ( Mea Silenium,' Plaut.
Note 3. Some Fern, and Neut. words imply men without changing
their gender :
o p e r a e, workmen ; e x c u b i a e, night sentinels ; v i g i 1 i a e,
watchmen-, auxilia, auxiliaries-, so mancipium n.
means a slave, considered as a piece of goods.
Similarly, prostibulum, seortum are Neuter words contemp-
tuously applied to profligate women.
2. Correspondence of Gender with Form appears in the De-
clensions.
8o Latin Wordlore. ^
x 9 iii. CASE in Nouns.
Case.
i. The Cases (Casus) in each Number are six:
Nominativus, Vocativus, Accusativus, Genetivus, Dati-
vus, Ablativus. (On the Locative Case see below, and
20.)
Answers the question Example :
1) NOMINATIVE . Who or What? Quisdedit? . . iVir,
Who gave? . . I A man.
2) VOCATIVE (Case of one addressed) | ^ vir >
3) ACCUSATIVE . Whom or what ? Ouem video ? . , Virum,
Whom do I see ? I A man.
4) GENITIVE . Whose or where- Cuius donum ? ^ Viri,
of? Whose gift? . \ A man's.
5) DATIVE . . . To or for whom Cui datum ? . * Viro,
or what ? To whom given f I To a man.
6) ABLATIVE . . "By, with, &c., A quo datum ? } A viro,
whom or what ? By whom given? \ By a man.
2. Case (Gr. TrTaxrtg) is the form given to a Noun or Pronoun to
shew the relation in which it stands to some other word. Gram-
marians represented that form which a Noun takes when it is the
Subject of a sentence, by an upright line, and likened the other
forms to lines falling away from the perpendicular. These they
called Casts (cado) : and their series, the declension, or sloping
down, of the word. Afterwards, the Nominative was called Casus
Rectus, the Upright Case, and the others (except the Vocative)
Casus Obliqui, Oblique Cases-, whereas the Stem is more pro-
perly the upright line, and the several Cases, including the Nomi-
native and Vocative, are deflections from it. So, from the Stem
nuc- (walnut-tree] the Cases are : Nom. V. nuc-s ( = nux), Ace.
nuc-exn, G. nuc-is, D. nuc-i, Ab. nuc-e. N
3. The Relations which Cases fail to express are supplied by
Prepositions ; and in the languages of modern Europe the use of
Prepositions prevails, and Declension is comparatively rare. Thus
the Romanic languages have only one Case-form in each Number
for Nouns ; English, two ; but the Possessive in English is of very
limited use. Sanskrit has the six Latin Cases and two more, the
Instrumental and the Locative. Greek has only five ; but it pre-
serves traces of the Instrumental and the Locative. Latin retains
many fragments of the Locative Case. 1
1 The order in which the cases were ranked by ancient Grammarians, imitated, as it
has been, by modern writers, is vicious and misleading. The Vocative has been separated
from the Nominative, with which it is almost identical, and has thus assumed an im-
portance which ought not to be given to it. The Accusative, so often concurring with
both, has been separated from both. The Dative and Ablative, so often identical in
form, have been thrown apart. The only motive for this misarrangement was the desire
to place the Genitive next to the Nominative, because its variations indicate those of
Declension. But this is better done by giving the Stem and Character, which appear in
the Genitive Plural of Nouns: thus homo, homin-, shewn in homiN-um.
20. The Five Declensions. 8 1
iv. The Five Declensions. Th ^
Five
There are Five Declensions of Latin Nouns, which ^ecie
shew the Character of their Stems by the letter before
-rum or -um in the Genitive Plural.
1. A-stems have Character . A . . mensA-rum.
II. O-stems . . dominO-rum.
III. Consonant-) ~ . ..-
\ a Consonant ] virgiN-um.
I-stems I . . ovl-um.
IV. U-stems IT . . gradU-um.
V. E- stems E . . diE-rum.
a) The Declensions fall into two groups : namely
(I) The A- E- and O-declensions (i. 5. 2.)
(II) The Consonant and Semiconsonant (I, U) declensions (3. 4.)
(I) The primary vowel a is appropriate to Fem. words (Decl. i) ;
weakened to e, it forms another more limited Fem. Decl. (5) ;
weakened to o (which in a later age partly became u), it forms a
Masc. Decl. (2) in o-s (u-s), including also Neuters in o-m (u-m).
(II) In Consonant Nouns the stem and suffix are often linked by
the vowel i: duc-X-bus. Sometimes this happens in the Nom.
Sing. : can-i-s, iuven-i-s, which thus appear like I-nouns. On the
other hand, I-nouns often drop that light vowel in the Nom. Sing,
and so wear the appearance of Consonant Nouns : stirp-s, par-s.
These causes made it so hard for grammarians to draw the line of
distinction accurately between these two classes that they included
them in one Decl. (3).
U-nouns (4), which contract some cases, escape this confusion,
but are liable to another ; for the affinity of u and o has caused
some of their case-forms to be often mixed up with those of the
O-Decl. (2).
Obs. Pronouns are peculiar and irregularly declined Nouns,
which are with most convenience treated separately.
U) i. In Neuter Nouns, the Nominative, Vocative, and Accusa-
tive are the same in each Number severally ; and in the Plural
they end in a. The A- and E-declensions have no Neuters : the
U -declension has very few.
2. The Vocative in words no* Greek is the same as the Nomina-
tive, except in the Singular of Nouns in -us of Decl. 2, which have
Vocative-ending e: domin-e, fili (for fili-e).
3. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike.
1 The Consonant before -um is the Character in Consonant-nouns. This may be any
Mute (except k, q), Nasal, or Liquid ; or the Sibilant represented by r.
G
82 Latin Wordlore. 20!
Forma- v. Formation of the Cases.
The Cases are generally formed by suffixing an Ending to the
Cabes. Stem;. a vincular i is sometimes required in Consonant-nouns;
while in many instances Letter-change occurs in the formation.
See Biicheler (Lat. Declension}.
NOMINATIVE SINGULAR : Primitive ending s.
Decl. i. A-nouns, except Greek Masc. names, do not take s :
jnensa: but Gr. Borea-s, alipte-s.
Decl. 2. O-nouns, not Neuter, take s: dominu-s for domi-
no-s.
But some stems in -ero- drop o, rejecting s :
puer for puero-s, tener for tenero-s.
And nouns, in which -ro follows a mute or f, drop o, reject s, and
insert e before r :
magist-e-r for magistr-o-s, nig-e-r for nigr-6-s.
Decl. 3. Mute Consonant-nouns take s :
iudex for iudic-s; pes forped-s; princep-s.
Liquid and Nasal nouns do not take s : consul, passer, virgo
(virgin-). Hiem-p-s alone takes s, inserting p.
In numerous words with Nom. in s, inflected in r-, or-, 6r-,ur, s
belongs to the stem and is not a Case-ending ; its place in flexion
being taken by r : flos floris for (flosis), aes aeris for (aesis).
I-nouns take s if the vowel is not dropt :
avi-s, nube-s 1 for (nubi-s), gravi-s :
also when the vowel is dropt (which happens in many stems) if the
Consonant before the Character is a Mute :
audax for (audaci-s), serpen-s for (serpenti-s).
If the stem ends in ri- after a Mute, i is dropped, and e inserted
before r: imb-e-r for (imbri-s), ac-e-r for acri-s: but the forms
in ris are also used by Adjectives.
Decl. 4. U- nouns take s : gradu-s.
Decl. 5. E-noans take s: die-s.
ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR : Primitive Ending m, Greek v or a.
All Declensions take the Ending m for Masc. and Fern. Nouns,
o passing into u, and i generally into e : Cons.-stems insert e :
1. mensa-m 3. virgin-e-m 4. gradu-m
2. dominu-m for domi- tussi-m 5. die-m
no-m nube-m
orbe-m
1 Corssen, referring to the Noun pub-es -is, with its byform puber -eris, also to
such Nouns as Cer-es -eris, pulv-is -eris, &c., contends that I-nouns in -es, like
nubes, sedes, were originally S-stems.
I 20. Formation of the Cases. 83
Obs. In all Neuter Nouns, the Nominative and Accusative have
the same form. See iv. b. This, in O-nouns, is o-m un> ^
bellum for bell-om.
In Cons-, I-, and U-nouns it is the Noun-stem :
3. sis er, m armor, sinapi; 4. cornu;
often with vowel-change : genus for (genes), frigus for (frigos)
melius for (melios), mare for (mari-) : or dropping I : animal for
(animali-), calcar for (calcari-).
GENITIVE SINGULAR : Primitive Ending generally as.
As the Greek, so the old Latin language weakened as into 6s ;
which was further weakened into is This ending is taken by
Consonant-, I-, and U-nouns :
3. virgin-is, tuss-is for tussi- 4. gradus for gradu-is.
That A-nouns anciently had it, argued from familia-s in
paterfamilias, &c., and similar forms found in E. L. That it
was used in E -nouns is shewn by the form Diespiter,and rabies
(Gen.) in Lucr. iv. 1079. But the endings (a-i) ae, (o-i) i, and e-i
were afterwards taken by A-, O-, and E-nouns severally.
A-i remained long in use, and abounds in Lucretius, as vita-i,
and is used in a few words by Virgil, (o-i) is not found in use ; it
passed into i at an early time, and is also found as (ei) in R. L. till
near the Augustan age. Lucilius proposed to reject Gen. S. (ei) and
write Nom. PI. (ei) ; but his distinction was not observed.
In E-nouns e-i remains. Hence
i. mens-ae. 2. domin-i. 5. die-i.
DATIVE SINGULAR : Primitive ending ai.
This Ending is only taken by A-, O-, and E-nouns :
i. mensae (anc. mensai) for (mensa-ai) ; 2. domino (anciently
dominoi) for (domino-oi) ; 5. diei for (die-ei).
In the rest the Locative i has superseded the Dative Ending :
3. virgin-i tuss-i for (tussi-i) 4. gradu-i
LOCATIVE : Primitive Ending i.
The Locative Singular remains in Latin in such forms as
militiae, belli, domi, humi, vesperi, ruri, Tiburi, luci;
the Adverbial forms ubi, ibi, &c.
and in the names of towns, &c., of the A- and O-declensions :
Romae for Roma-i, Tarent-i, Milet-i, &c.
The Loc. Plur. is confounded with Dat. and Abl. in is or bus.
The Sing. Loc. in Cons.-nouns often passes into the Abl. e ; Car-
thagine for CarthaginI, Lacedaemone for Lacedaemoni.
Vespere also is used for vesper!.
ABLATIVE SINGULAR : Primitive ending t.
In Oscan and old Latin this ending became d :
i. sententia-d 2. poplico-d 3. conventioni-d mari-d 4. senatu-d
84 Latin Wordlore. 2 <x
This d (often noticeable in Plautus) was dropped after B.C. 186, and
the Ablative became the Stem of the word, lengthened in the
Vowel-Declensions (though I is often weakened into e : urb-e), and
in the Consonant-Declension ending in e : contion-e.
NOMINATIVE PLURAL : Primitive ending as.
This became -es in the Consonant-, U-, and E-declensions :
3. virgin -es 4. gradus for (gradu-es)
orb-es for (orbi-es) 5. di-es for (die-es)
Instances of es in the O-Decl. occur in E. L.
But in the A- and O-declensions, by dropping a and contracting
vowels, as in the Gen. Sing., the endings ae, i, were obtained :
i. mensae for (mensa-es). 2. do mini for (domino-es).
The form (ei) for I occurs in Latin as late as the age of Caesar.
ACCUSATIVE PLURAL : Primitive ending s, added to the Accu-
sative Singular in Masc. and Fem. Nouns.
The change of zn into n before s makes the Latin forms ans,
ons, (e)ns, Ins, uns, ens. Hence, by excluding the weak nasal,
with compensation, are obtained as, 6s, es, Is, us, es :
1. mens-as 3. virgin-es 4. gradus
2. domin-os orb-Is 5. dies
This shews why the Accus. Plural of I-nouns is correctly written
-Is, though the analogy of the Nom. has led to the use of es (eis).
The Primitive ending of Accus. Nom. and Voc. Plural in Neuter
Nouns was a, which was weakened into a in Greek and Latin :
2. bell-a. 3. nomin-a, reti-a. 4. cornu-a.
GENITIVE PLURAL : Primitive endings am, sam.
The former of these became -um in Consonant-, I-, and U-nouns :
3. virgin-um orbi-um 4. gradu>um
The latter, as -sum, was adopted in A- O- and E-nouns :
1. m ens a- rum for (mensa-sum) 5. die -rum for (die-sum)
2. domino-rum for (domino-sum)
DATIVE AND ABLATIVE PLURAL : Primitive ending bhyas.
This, corrupted into bus (for b-ios), became the ending of these
Cases in Consonant- I- U- and E-nouns :
3. virgin-i-bus orbi-bus 4. arcu-bus 5. die-bus
and occasionally in the A-nouns :
6. dea-bus, filia-bus, &c.
But in most A-nouns, it became (ais)is : I. men sis.
In O-nouns, (oes, ois)ls, usually (eis) before Augustus, after
whose time is prevailed ; 2. dominis ; belli s.
We find ii contracted : pecunis (Cic.), provincis (Inscr.).
Endings of the Declensions.
p
fc
CO
o
o
&
o
o
8
o
,S 'I i 'S 'S . 'S
^
, H i!
>3
*
5
I So
.0 il
(A
IV
>C3
IH 10 10 I
1^
*< r
O S
x en
S
<L> g
.Sizi
OH
O
11
O CtJ
N t/T
HH' bJO
86
Latin Word lore.
First
Declen-
sion,
SECTION II.
i. First Declension: A-Nouns.
The First Declension contains Latin and latinized
words with the Nominative Singular in a. These are
Feminine: Musa, muse, mensa, table \ excepting Male
Names and Appellatives: Messalla, Belga, Belgian,
s crib a, secretary, p o e t a, poet ; also Had ri a, Adriatic-
gulf', which are Masculine.
It also contains Greek Appellatives and Names,
Proper and Patronymic, in es, as, Masculine : aliptes,
a trainer, Aeneas, At rides; in e, a, a, Feminine:
crambe, Agave, Nemea, Iphigenia.
[In Tables of Declension and Conjugation byforms of equal
authority are placed beside others : an am ; byforms compara-
tively rare are added between brackets : en (am).]
ii. Table.
SINGULAR.
i. table, f.
2. secretary, m. 3. goddess, f. 4,
, son of Atreus, m.
Nom. mens-a
scrib-a
de-a
Atrld-es (a)
Voc. mens-a
scrib-a
de-a
Atrid-e a (a)
Ace. mens-am
scrib-am
de-am
Atrid-en
Gen. mens-ae
scrib-ae
de-ae
Atrid-ae
Dat. mens-ae
scrib-ae
de-ae
Atrid-ae
Abl, mens-a
scrib-a
de-a
Atrid-e a
/-:=... _ ,
PLURAL.
Nom. mens-ae
scrib-ae
de-ae
Atrid-ae
Voc. mens-ae
scrib-ae
de-ae
Atrid-ae
Ace. mens-as
scrib-as
de-as
Atrid-as
Gen. mens-Arum
scrib-Arum
de-Arum
Atrid-um
Dat. mens-is
scrib-is
dc-abus
Atrid-is
Abl. mens-is
scrib-is
de-alms
Atrid-is
Fern. Adjectives in
a, as bona, tenera, nigra",
are declined as
mensa.
iii. Cases in the First Declension.
a] The old Gen. S. in as remains in the phrases paterfamilias,
materfamilias, filiusfamilias, found in good writers from.
Terence to Suetonius : and in the Plur. patres (matres, filii)
familias. Familiae is also used with pater, &c., by Livy always :
and familiarum is written with patres, &C. 1
b} The old Gen. S. in ai appears in Inscrr. It is used as a di-
syllabic ai by Ennius, Plaut. Lucr. Verg. (aulal, aural, aquai, pictal)..
1 Alcximena-s(Gen.) is cited from Plautus. The Gen. form in a-CS, found chiefly in.
late Inscrr. of I. I., or later R. L., may be an imitation of Gr. n?.
22.
The First Declension.
c] The Gen. Plur. is formed in -um rather than -arum (which
can however be used), by the following :
1) Patronymic Names in -des,
Aenea-des, Aenea-dum.
2) Many Names of Tribes, People, c.,
Lapith-ae, Lapith-um.
3) Compounds of col- gen- (in poetry),
caelicol-a, caelicol-um ; terrigen-a, terrigen-um.
4) Amphor-um from amphor-a, drachm-um from drach-
m-a, when used with Numerals :
terna milia amphorum, 3,000 amphors; milledrach-
mum, 1,000 drachms.
d] The form in abus of Dat. Abl. PI. might serve to distinguish
the Fern, from the Masc. not only in dea, but in many other Sub-
stantiva Mobilia. For this purpose it is ascribed by grammarians
to numerous words :
filia, nata, liberta, conserva, domina, era, mima, nympha,
asina, equa, mula, anima :
and in some of these, especially fili a, nata, liberta, it often occurs
in Inscrr. and legal forms. But, generally, there is little authority
for the use of this Case-ending by classical authors, in any words
but deabus, duabus, ambabus.
e] The Locative Case in ae (for a-i) is formed in the Sing, by
militia, and Names of Towns :
militiae, at the wars 3 Romae, at Rome.
in is by Plural Names of towns :
Athenis, at Athens.
iv. Grreek JNouns in rirst Declension. Greek
Nouns
SINGULAR. in
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen. | Dat.
Abl. DecL x
M. alipt-es ....
e a
en (am)
ae
ae
e(a)
Pers-es a ...
e a
en am
ae
ae
e a
Aeet-es a ...
e a
en (am)
ae
ae
e(a)
Aene-as ....
a
an am
ae
ae
a
Marsy-as (a) . .
a a
am an
ae
ae
a
F. music-a (e) . . .
ft (6)
am (en)
ae (es)
ae
a(e)
cramb-e ....
e
en
es
ae
e
Helen-e (a) ...
e a
en am
es ae
ae
e a
Agav-e ....
e
en
es
ae
e
Neme-a ....
a
an (am)
ae
ae
a
Iphigenl-a . . .
a
an am
ae i ae
a
Electr-a ....
a
an am
ae
ae
a
The Plural of Appellatives follows that of mensa.
a) Many Greek Nouns of this Decl. were latinized early, and
seem to have soon exchanged the Greek endings rye, c, TJ, d, first
88 Latin Wordlore.
for a, then, as shortening came into vogue, for a, following the prac-
tice of the Aeolic dialect :
Masc. pirata (7ra/oar?/c) Fern, aura (ai/pa)
poeta (Trotijrfo) epistula (eTrioToX?;)
Such words are :
Masc., like s crib a :
athleta, bibliopola, citharista, nauta, &c.
Fern., like mensa :
ancora, apotheca, aula, bibliotheca, comoedia, tragoedia,
scaena, &c.
b) Words introduced later have much variety, fluctuating between
the Greek and Latin form ; and poetic usage in these often differs
from that of prose. 1 Thus we find :
A) Masc. Greek Nouns :
1) Patronymics, like Atrid-es a :
Aeneades, Pelides, Tydides, &c. (a being rare).
2) Appellatives, like aliptes :
anagnostes, geometres, Olympionices, sophistes.
3) Gentile Names, like Pers-es a :
Scyth-es a, Sauromat-es, Sarmat-a ;
with many in Ites Ita, otes ota :
Abderlt-es a, Epirot-es a.
These sometimes pass to Decl. 3. with Accus. S. em, en.
4) Like Aeet-esa :
Anchis-es a, Lycamb-es a, Orest-es a, Thyest-es, a.
5) Like Aeneas :
Anaxagoras, Diagoras, Lysias, Boreas, &c.
6) Like Marsy-as a :
Cinyr-as a, Dam-as a, Damoet-as a, larb-as a, Leo-
nid-as a, Mid-as a.
S) Fern. Greek Nouns :
1) Like music-a e :
dialectic-a e, grammatic-a e, physic-a e, rhetoric-a e.
2) Ltke crambe :
aloe, epitome, hyperbole, &c.
3) Like Helen-ea :
Alcumen-a, Erigon-a, Hecat-a, Led-a, Nymph-a,
Semel-a; which also take e : Circ-e, Cybel-e, Dirc-e,
Europ-e, Eurydic-e, Penelop-e; which also take a.
1 Cicero, as a rule, prefers Latin forms to Greel^, and sometimes introduces the latter
with acknowledgment of their origin ('quae hyperbole dicitur'), or with an apology, as
Epp. adAtt. vii. 3 : ' Reprehendendus sum quod homo Romanus Piraeea scripsi, non
Piraeeum ; sic enim omnes nostri locuti sunt '
23- The Second Declension. 89
Also local names, Aetn-a, Cret-a, Id-a, Ithac-a, Liby-a,
may take e for a in poetry.
4) Like Agave :
Calliope, Danae, Euterpe, Hebe, Lethe, Melpomene, Oenone,
Persephone, Procne, &c.
5) Like Nemea :
Malea, Midea.
6) Like Iphigenia :
Medea; and the local Names Aegina, Lerna, Ossa.
7) Like Electra:
Cassandra.
Note. Many Nouns in es, which in Greek belong to the First
Decl., having the form of Patronymics without really being such,
pass over to the Third Decl. in Latin, forming Gen. -is :
Alcibiades, Euclides, Euripides, Miltiades, Simonides.
Yet these and many other names, Greek and barbarian, which
take Gen. is, fluctuate between the First and Third Declension in
the ending of the Accus. S. (en, em). Such are :
Achilles, Aristoteles, Archimedes, Artaxerxes, Cleanthes,
Datames, Diogenes, Diomedes, Euphrates, Mithridates,
Phrahates, Polynices, Polycrates, Socrates, Tiridates, Xer-
xes, &c.
SECTION III.
i. Second Declension: 0-Nouns. Second
Declen-
The Second Declension contains
1) Latin and latinised Nouns in ils (for 6s) chiefly
Masculine : d o m i n u s, lord ;
2) Clipt Masculine Nouns in gr (for er-6s, r-6s ; see
p. 82): puer, boy, magister, master] to which add vir
(for vir-os), man ;
3) Neuter Nouns in urn: bellum, war.
4) Greek Nouns in 6s, Masc. and Fern. ; in 6s, Masc. ,"
in on, Neuter ; used chiefly by the poets.
ii. Table:
SINGULAR.
lord, m.
boy, m.
master, m.
war, n.
Nom.
domin-us
puer
magister
bell-um
Voc.
domin-e
puer
magister
bell-urn
Ace.
domin-um
puer-um
magistr-um
bell-um
Gen.
domin-i
puer-i
magistr-i
bell-i
Dat.
domin-o
puer-o
magistr-o
bell-o
Abl.
domin-o
puer-o
magistr-o
bell-o
Latin Wordlore.
23.
PLURAL.
Irregu-
lar
Decl.
Nom.
domin-i
puer-i
magistr-i
bell-a
Voc.
domin-i
puer-i
magistr-i
bell-a
Ace.
domin-os
puer-os
magistr-os
bell-a
Gen.
domin-Orum
puer-Orum
magistr-Orum
bell-Orum
Dat.
domin-is
puer-is
magistr-is
bell-is
Abl.
domin-is
puer-is
magistr-is
bell-is
SINGULAR.
son, m.
bitshel, m.
God, m.
command, n.
Nom.
fili-us
medimn-us
de-us
imperi-um
Voc.
fil-i
medimn-e
de-us
imperi-um
Ace.
fili-um
medimn-uin
de-uxn
imperi-um
Gen.
fil-i (ii)
medimn-i
de-i
imper-i (ii)
Dat.
fili-o
medimn-o
de-o
imperi-o
Abl.
fili-o
medimn-o
de-o
imperi-o
PLURAL.
Nom.
fili-i
medimn-i
di (de-i) *
imperi-a
Voc.
fili-i
medimn-i
di (de-i)
imperi-a
Ace.
fili-os
medimn-os
de-os
imperi-a
Gen.
fili-Orum
medimn-um
de-Orum, de-um
imperi-Orum
Dat.
fili-is
medimn-is
dis (de-is)
imperi-is
Abl.
fili-is
medimn-is
dis (de-is) l
imperi-is
Vir, a man ; Ace. S. vfrum, &c. ; Gen. PL virorum or virum.
And its Compounds, semivir, decemvir, triumvir, &c.
SINGULAR (no Plural).
sea, n.
N.V.Ac, pelag-us
Gen. pelag-i
D. Abl. pelag-o
venom, n. common-people, n. (m.)
vlr-us vulg-us
vlr-i (rare) vulg-i
vlr-o vulg-o
Pelag-e, seas, occurs in Lucr. ; vulgus has an Accus. vulg-um, m,
Pelagus (TTfAayoc, PI. TrfXay-ca, 77) is a Greek Neuter Noun.
iii. Cases in the Second Declension.
1) The endings os, om were used even to the Augustan age, after
v, u, qu, as shewn by Inscrr. and MSS. Thus were written av-os,
av-om, div-om, mortu-os, mortu-om, aequ-om, &c.
2) The Vocative in e is a weakening of 6 (Pr. a), and resembles
English forms in ie, y (Willie, Johnny, &c.).
Male names in ius contract this case into l: Claud i, Mercuri,
Demetri, Vergil i. Pom pel (from Pompeius) is further con-
tracted by Horace into Pomp ei. SoVulteljfromVulteius. Filius,
sou, is the only Appellative which forms this contraction. Others
are regular : fluvie, O river-, and Adjectives : Cynthie, O Cyn-
thian (Apollo). But me us (for mius), Voc. mi for mie.
Dii, diis are sometimes written, but pronounced as di, dis.
23. The Second Declension. cjX
3) The Gen. Sing, of Substantives with Nom. ius, ium, was
contracted into i (by prose-writers as well as poets) till the Au-
gustan age, and is so written by Virgil and Horace. Propertius
and Ovid are the first who wrote it, which then became the usual
form ; but the poets Manilius, Persius, and Martial prefer i.
4) Humus, ground, bellum, war, vesper, evening, and Sin
gular Names of towns, form the Locative Case in i :
humi, on the ground Ephesi, at Ephesus
belli, at the wars Mileti, at Miletus
vesperi (vespere), at evening Tarenti, at Tarentum
Plural names of towns form the Locative in is : Gabiis, at Gabii \
Veiis, at Veii.
5) The Genitive Plural Ending um is preferred to orum :
a) by words signifying coins, sums, weights, and measures :
Gen. PL from Nom. Sing.
nummum . . . nummus, a coin
denarium . . . denarius, ten-as-piece
sestertium . . . sestertius, sesterce
talentum .... talentum, a talent (a sum and weight)
stadium .... stadium, fiirlong
modium .... modius, /<:/
medimnum . . . medimnus (also um, n.), bushel
b) by many names of people: Argivum, Danaum, Pelas-
gum, &c. from Argivus, &c.
c) as a licence, chiefly in poetry, by a great number of words,
such as deus and its compounds, divus, vir and its com-
pounds, faber, engineer, socius, ally, liber i, children,
&c. : also by numeral and compound Adjectives : ( denum
talentum'; 'magnanimum Rutulum'; 'omnige-
numque deum monstra.' Verg.
iv. Clipt Nouns in er.
i) The Clipt-nouns from Stems in ero-, like puer, are
gener, son-in-law vesper, evening
soczr, father-in-law Liber, Bacchus
adulter, paramour (lascivious, Adj.)
and Adjectives,
asper, rough (rarely aspr-) miser, wretched
lacer, torn prosper, prosperous
liber, free (whence liberi, children of tener, tender
freemen)
with the many compounds of fero, gero ; frugiter,^*#&/, cor-
niger, horned. Add satur, satura, saturum, /////, satiated.
Iber (Hiber), Celtiber, Spaniard, form their cases in er-o- :
Iberum, Celtiberum, c.
92 Latin Wordlore. 23.
2) Clipt-nouns from Stems in ro- after a mute or f, like ma-
gister :
ager, field cancer, crab faber, architect
aper, wild boar caper, he-goat liber, book
arbiter, umpire coluber, snake minister, attendant
auster, south-wind culter, knife
With Proper Names, as Ister or Hister, the Danube, Alex-
ander, Euander, Teucer, &c. ; and these Adjectives :
aeger, sick macer, lean sacer, sacred
Afer, African niger, black scaber, rough
ater, jet-black pige r > slow sinister, on left hand
Calaber, Calabrian impiger, active taeter, foul
creber, frequent integer, entire vafer, cunning
glaber, smooth pulcher, beautiful noster, our
ludicer, sportive niber, red vester, your
) Mulciber, Vulcan, and dexter, on the right hand, are de-
clined with and without e in the other forms :
Mulciber-i or Mulcibri (also Mulciberis, Mulcibris 3.) ;
dexter, dextera or dextra, dexterum or dextrum.
/3) Some Substantives use the form in us as well as that in er :
Euander or Euandrus (whence Voc. Euandre) in Virgil;
Maeander or Maeandrus: puerus (anc.).
Greek v. Greek Nouns in the Second Declension.
Nouns
in SINGULAR.
Deci. 2. Nom< Del-6s, f. Ath-6s, m. Androge-6s (iis), m. Peli-Sn, n.
Voc. Del-e Ath-6s Androge-os Peli-6n
Ace. Del-6n um Ath-5n (o) Androge-o on (ona) Peli-on
Gen. Del-l Ath-6 Androge-6 (i) Peli-i
D.Abl. Del-o Ath-6 (one) Androge-o Peli-o
o) The Greek Nom. and Accus. forms of Personal and Local
Names, with a few Appellatives, in 6s, on, Masc. Fern., and on,
Neut, are frequently used in Latin poetry, but rare in prose :
Meleagros ; scorpios ; Cnidos ; Troilon ; Samon ; Ilion, &c.
Virgil has Athon (as from Athos) : Chaos n. 3., Abl. Cha5 :
and Panthu, Voc. of Panthus.
On Nouns in eus see 24.
/3) The Greek Genitive Plural in on ( W j/) is found in Latin.
Sallust has ( colonia Theraeon/ ^Philaenon arae/ for The-
raeorum, Philaenorum. So Georgicon for Georgicorum,
from Georgica, the Ge orgies.
Gender vi. Gender in the Second Declension.
Deci. 2. Besides the Nouns of which the meaning determines the Gender,
as stated in is. ii., only four genuine Latin words in this Deci.
are Fem. They are :
23-
Adjectives in Decl. II. and I.
93
alvus, paunch humus, ground
colus, distaff "(See Decl. 4.) vannus, winnowing-fan
The following Greek words are Fern. :
arctus, the bear-constellation dialectus, dialect
atomus, atom, C. Fin. i. 6. pharus, lighthouse, Stat. S. v. 101.
carbasus, linen curtain or sail
and many others are cited by grammarians, but without good
classical authority for their use.
Barbitos, lute, is common.
vii. Table of Adjectives in Decl. II. and I. Tabieof
Adjec-
Adjectives of three Endings, in -us -a -um, -er -era -erum, tivesin
and -er -ra -rum, follow the Second and First Declensions. com? 6
and
MASC.
FEM.
NEUT.
First
Declen
sions.
like
like m e n s a
like bellum
dominus . bonus
bona
bonum
good
puer . . . tener
tenera
tenerum
tender
magister . niger
nigra
nigrum
black
SINGULAR.
i) N.
bon-us
bon-a
bon-um
V.
bon-e
bon-a
bon-um
Ace.
bon-um
bon-am
bon-um
G.
bon-i
bon-ae
bon-i
D.
bon-o
bon-ae
bon-o
Abl.
bon-o
bon-a
bon-o
PLURAL.
N.
bon-i
bon-ae
bon-a
V.
bon-i
bon-ae
bon-a
Ace.
bon-os
bon-as
bon-a
G.
bon-orum
bon-arum
bon-orum
D.
bon-is
bon-is
bon-is
Abl.
bon-is
bon-is
bon-is
SINGULAR.
M.
F.
N.
2) N. tener
tener-a
tener-um
V. tener
tener-a
tener-um
Ace. tener-um
tener-am
tener-um
G. tener-i
tener-ae
tener-i
D. tener-o
tener-ae
tener-o
Abl. tener-o
tener-a
tener-o
94
Latin Wordlore.
24.
PLURAL.
M.
F.
N.
N.
tener-i
tener-ae
tener-a
V.
tener-i
tener-ae
tener-a
Ace.
tener-os
tener-as
tener-a
G.
tener-orum
tener-arum
tener-orum
D.
tener-is
tener-is
tener-is
Abl.
tener-is
tener-is
tener-is
SINGULAR.
N.
niger
nigr-a
nigr-um
V.
niger
nigr-a
nigr-um
Ace.
nigr-um
nigr-am
nigr-um
G.
nigr-i
nigr-ae
nigr-i
D.
nigr-o
nigr-ae
nigr-o
Abl.
nigr-o
nigr-a
nigr-o
PLURAL.
N.
nigr-i
nigr-ae
nigr-a
V.
nigr-i
nigr-ae
nigr-a
Ace.
nigr-os
nigr-as
nigr-a
G.
nigr-orum
nigr-arum
nigr-orum
D.
nigr-is
nigr-is
nigr-is
Abl.
nigr-is
nigr-is
nigr-is
24
The
Third
Declen-
sion.
SECTION IV.
i. Third Declension: CONSONANT- and I-Nouns.
The Third Declension has two chief Divisions :
I. Nouns with Character a Consonant, either
Mute, Nasal, Liquid, or Sibilant.
II. Nouns with Character I-vocalis.
A few Consonant-nouns, as canis, iuvenis, vates, seem as if
they were I-nouns ; many I-nouns, as parens, cohors, seem
as if they were Consonant-nouns ; and many appear to fluctuate
between the two divisions, as ci vitas, servitus. The cause of
this uncertainty lies in the unstable nature of i-vocalis ; which,
being sometimes staminal, sometimes vincular, easily changed into
e, easily lost, does not always furnish a sure criterion of the class
to which the Noun belongs, by its presence or absence.
I. CONSONANT STEMS.
ii. Nominative Endings in the Cons. Declen-
sion.
i) In this Declension the Nominative-endings are numerous ;
the chief being s, n, i, r (Sibilant, Nasal, and Liquids), of which s,
including r (cs), is the prevalent ending.
2 4 .
The Third Declension.
95
2) Nominatives which end in o have dropt n.
Those in c, t, a, e, are Neuter words without final suffix.
3) The vowel of the true Stem is often shewn both in the Noun-
stem and the Nominative : dux due-, fax fac-, &c. Sometimes
the Noun-stem, and not the Nominative, shews the root-vowel:
iudex iudic- (true form die-), comes com it- (true form it-),
Sometimes the Nominative, and not the Noun-stem, shews it;
auspex auspic- (true form spec-) ; obses obsid- (true form sed-).
Sometimes neither of the two: remex remig- (true form is ag-, of
which the a is weakened into i in the open syllable, to e in the
close). So auceps aucup-, princeps princip- (true form in each
cap-), no men nomin- (Primitive ndmari).
iii. Syllabus. syllabus
of Cons.
In the following Syllabus the chief stems are given, with Stems>
Nom. endings, and distinctions of Gender (M. F. N. C.). Greek
stems which include no true Latin words, are kept separate : but
where the same stem comprises words in both languages, Greek
are added to Latin words, and marked with an asterisk. This
stands before the Gender when all of that Gender are Greek words.
A. Mute Guttural Stems.
To form the Nom. S., the stem adds s, with which the guttural
melts into x, i being generally changed into e.
i) Latin Guttural Stems, with a few Greek marked *.
Stem. Nom. S.
ac-
ac-
ec-
ec-
Ic-
-ax
-ax
-ex (-ec)
-ex
F. fax, torch : *M. Corax.
F. paxjfaace: fornax, furnace ; M. Aiax; Climax,
snail.
*M. Thrax, Thracian Phaeax, Phaeacian, thorax,
breastplate.
F. nex, death (prec-),/rtfy^r,has no Nom. G. Sing.
Adj. faenisex, hay cutter.
(Variant C. ; senex, old person, inflected sen- for
senec-. Demin. senec-io.)
M. vervex, wether. N. halec, fish-pickle (also F.
halex).
M. apex, peak ; caudex or codex, trunk, writing-
book, &c. ; clmex, biig culex, gnat ; extispex,
entr ail-mew er ; frutex, shrub ; latex, liquid-, mu-
xex., purple-shell, purple-, podex; pollex, thumb ;
pontifex,^<?;//^~; pulex,J^^; pumex, /#*#&?; ra-
mex, bloodvessel ; saurex or sorex, shrew-mouse ;
vertex or vortex, summit, eddy.
F. carex, sedge ; Ilex, scarlet oak : paelex, concu-
bine ; vltex (a shrub).
C. cortex, bark ; forfex, shears ; illex, decoyer ;
imbrex, tile -, riimex, sorrel ; sriex, basalt ; with
words applicable to either sex ; artifex, auspex,
carnifex, index, iudex, opifex, vindex. See p. 76.
9 6
Latin Wordlore.
24.
Stem.
Ic-
Nom. S.
-ix
10
-Ix
OC-
iic-
-ox
-ux
1g-
6g-
Og-
ug-
-ex
-ex
-ix
-ex
-ox
-unx
-ux
M. calix, cup ; fornix, arch ; *Cilix, Cilidan.
F. appendix ; coxendix, hip ; filix, fern ; fulix,
gull ; natrix, water-snake ; ^vz, pitch ; salix, wil-
low ; struix, heap ; (vfc-is), change (no Nom. S.) ;
*hy strix, porcupine.
C. larix, larch ; varix, swoln vein.
F. cervix, ?/^y^ ; cicatrix, scar ; cornix, raven \
coturnix, quail \ lodix, blanket ; meretrix ; nu-
trix, nurse ; radix, root ; vibix, weal ; and many
more.
*M. Phoenix, Phoenician (also a name) ; phoenix
(a fabulous bird).
F. vox, voice.
F. crux, cross ; nux, walnut-tree. M. tradux, /^y/^r
(of vine) : C. dux, leader, guide.
F. lux, light. M. Pollux.
M. grex, herd; Lelex (one of the Leleges).
M. rex, king ; F. lex, law.
Adj. exlex (Ace. exlegem), outlawed.
F. strix, screech-owl '; M. Ambiorix, Dumnorix,
Biturix, &c. (Keltic names).
M. remex, rower.
M. Allobrox, Allobrogian (Keltic tribe).
C. coniunx or coiux, wife ; husband, p. 76.
F. (i\^-\ fruit ^produce : no Nom. S.
2) Greek Guttural Stems.
6c-
yc-
yc-
ych-
nc-
yg-
ng-
-ox
-yx
-yx
-yx
-nx
-yx
-nx
M. Cappadox, Cappadocian.
M. calyx, bud, husk ; Eryx.
M. bombyx, silkworm ; Ceyx.
F. onyx ; sardonyx ; (both precious stones).
F. lynx (M. in Hor.).
M. lapyx (a wind) ; Phryx, Phrygian.
F. Styx (river in hell).
F. phalanx ; syrinx ; Sphinx.
B. Mute Dental Stems.
The Stem adds s in Nom. S., before which the Dental is ex-
cluded : aetas for (aetat-s), n ox for (noct-s).
Sometimes n is excluded with t: elephas for (elephant-s).
Short i may become e : miles for (milit-s).
i) Latin, with Greek words.*
Stem. Nom. S.
at-
at-
-as
-as
F. anas, duck (Cic. N. D. ii. 48, anatum ova : var. r.
anitum).
F. aetas, time, age ; aestas, summer ; calamitas,
calamity ; civitas, citizenship, body of citizens,
city ; cupiditas, desire ; pietas, piety ; tempestas,
24-
Stem. Norn. S.
6t-
6t-
ft-
It-
et-
it-
6t-
ot-
ut-
ut-
ct-
nt- rt-
-es
-6s
-6s
-Is
-es
-lit
-OS
-OS
-us
-us
-C -X
-ns -rs
ad- | -as
6d- -es
ed-
aed-
id-
-aes
-es
The Third Declension.
season, weather ; storm ; voluptas, pleasure ; with
many other Derivatives. See p. 108.
M. Maecenas.
M. aries, ram ; paries, house-wall. F. abies^r/m?,,
M. (indiges), native (no Nom. S.).
F. seges, corn-crop ; teges, mat.
C. interpres, interpreter.
M. ames, pole ; caespes, turf-, codes, one-eyed
person ; caeles, celestial ; eques, horseman, on
horseback ; pedes, foot-soldier, on foot ; fomes,
y^^/ ; gurges, whirlpool ; limes, boundary ;
Tp&sx&s^ne-tendril \ poples, ^^; stipes, trunk ;
termes, ^^^ (cut off) ; trames, cross-path ; veles,
skirmisher.
F. merges, j//^^
C. antistes ; comes ; hospes ; miles ; satelles. See
p. 76.
Adj. ales, winged (Abl. S. I, e), used as Subst.
bird, (Gen. PI. in poetry alituum for alitum);
dives, rich ; praepes, fast-flying ; sospes, safe ;
superstes, surviving. Also Caeres, <?/" Caere.
M. Dis, P//^?.
F. quies, rest ; inquies, restlessness (only Nom. S.) ;
requies, repose (also declined as an E-noun, Ace.
requiem, Abl. requie). Adj. inquies, restless.
*M. lebes, chaldron ; magnes, magnet ; Cres,
Cretan-, also Names of men which have a second
form in es, is : Chremes, Dare's, Thales.
Adj. locuples, wealthy.
N. caput, head; with its compounds occiput, sin-
ciput. See p. 109. 5.
Adj. Compounds of caput in -ceps for -cipes
(-cipit-s), cipit- : biceps, triceps, praeceps, c.
M. nepos, grandson ; *Eros ; ^Aegoceros ; *rhi-
noceros.
F. dos, dowry. C. sacerdos, .priest ox priestess.
Adj. compos, possessing ; impos, without power.
F. iuventus, youth ; senectus, old age ; salus, weal,
safety '; servitus, slavery \ virtus, virtue, valour.
Servitus admits Gen. PL servitutium.
Adj. intercus, under the skin.
N. lac, milk. See p. 107. M. Astyanax.
M. Arruns ; Acheruns, Plaut. ; Ufens ; Mars,
Mavors.
M. vas, personal surety.
M. pes,y00/. F. Its compound (compes), fetter, is
Fern, (with reference to catena). C. quadrupes
(also N.). Adj. bipes, tripes, alipes.
F. merces, hire, pay. C. heres, heir.
Adj. exheres, disinherited.
M. praes, bondsman (in money).
C. obses, hostage-, praeses, president.
Adj. deses, lazy ; reses, reposing.
9 8
Latin VVordlore.
24.
Stem. Nom. S.
id-
-1S
od-
-6s
ud-
-us
ud-
-us
aud-
-aus
rd-
-r
M. lapis, stone. F. cassis, "helmet; cuspis, point \
promulsis, antepast. Adj. tricuspfe.
(On Greek words in is, id-, see below.)
C. custos, guardian.
F. pecus, head of cattle, beast.
F. incus, anvil ; palus, marsh, pool (Livy has Gen.
PI. paludium).
F. fraus, deceit ; laus, praise.
N. cor, heart. Adj. compounds concors, discors,
excors, misericors, socors, vecors, are I-nouns.
Note. C. vat-es, seer, has the form of an I-
noun ; but its root is vat-, Gen. PL vat-um.
2) Greek Dental Stems.
at-
It-
eth-
ant-
ent-
ont-
unt-
nth-
ad-
Id-
-a
-is
-es
-as
-is
-on)
-6 >
-ns
-as
-is
N. aenigma, riddle ; emblema, mosaic ; epigramma,
epigram ; poema, poem ; toreuma, embossed-work,
&c. Such words are irregularly declined in
the Plural : having G. PL -t-orum or -t-um, D.
Abl. -t-is (sometimes -t-ibus), as G. PL emble-
mat-orum, D. PL emblemat-is. Martial has the
Greek Gen PL epigrammaton.
F. Charts, a Grace.
M. Parnes, (a mountain).
M. adamas, adamant-, elephas, elephant. The
Names Atlas, Calchas, Pallas (son of Mezentiusin
the Aeneid), &c. have Voc. a ; Atla, Calcha,
Palla. Corybas, Corybantes (PL), (the priests of
Cybele). Ace. S. -antem or -antd. Ace. PL -an-
tes or -antds.
M. Simols, (river of, Troy in the Iliad).
M. chamaeleon ; Anacreon, Charon, Creon, Phae-
thon, Xenophon. Attempts were made (Plaut.
Ter. Cic.) to latinize this form by writing o for
on ; Xenopho, Creo, Antipho, Ctesipho, De-
mipho. Terence inflects the three last in 6ni-.
Names of towns : F. Opus, Trapezus, &c. M.
Pessinus. C, Selinus. Sometimes latinized
into 2. n. -untum, -ontuzn : Hydruntum (Hy-
drus), Liv., Sipontum (Sipus), Cic.
F. Tiryns.
F. lampas, torch (PL Nom. lampades, Ov.) ; Pallas,
Dryas, Maenas, Naias, &c. Ace. S. d (em),
Dat. t in poetry. D. Abl. PI. -dst, -asm in
poetry, as Troasin, Ov.
M. Areas, Arcadian. PL Nom. Arcades, Verg.
Ace. Arcadas, Cic.
This form comprises numerous words. Some are
Appellatives ; F. aegis, amystis, aspis, pyramis,
tyrannis, &c. The rest are Names :
1) Local : (a) towns : F. Aulis, Chalcis, &c. ; (b)
countries : F. Doris, Locris, Persis, &c. (really
Adjectives) ; (c) rivers : M. Phasis, Thybris, &c.
2) Personal : (a) F. Patronymic : Briseis, Chry-
24.
Stem. Nom. S.
The Third Declension.
99
od-
-US
seis, Colchis, Mincus, Nereis, Titanis. () F.
Amaryllis, Bacchis, Chrysis, Lycoris, Phyllis,
Semiramis, Thais, Thetis. Classes (a\ (b) take
Ace. So -idem or -ida generally : but some also
take -in, im : Alcestin, Ism, Trim, (c) M. Adonis,
Alexis, Anubis,Busiris,Daphnis, Osiris, Phalaris,
Paris, Thyrsis, Zeuxis. Ace. S. Im m or idem
idd.
The Voc. S. of all these stems is in 1 : Colchi,
Phylli, Alex!, Osiri.
Many fluctuate between the Cons, and I-declen-
sion : tigris, tigri- or tigrid- ; Thybris Thybri-
or Thybrid-.
M. tripus (rpiirovg), tripod ; Melampus ; Oedipus.
The last name is variously declined : (i) as an
O-noun, Voc. Ace. Oedipe, Oedipum. (2) as an
A-noun, Oedipod-es, Ace. -en, Abl. -e. (3) as
here ; Oedip-us, Ace. Gen. -odem or odd, -6dis c
F. chlamys, mantle ; pelamys, tunny-fish.
M. lapys, PL lapydes (an Illyrian race).
C. Mute Labial Stems.
The Stem takes s in Nom. S.
i) Latin Labial Stems (Greek marked *).
F. (daps), banquet (no Nom. S.). M. *Laelaps
(name of a dog in Ovid).
C. adeps (also adips),y#/; and the compounds
from capio ; forceps, tongs ; municeps ; parti-
ceps ; princeps. See p. 76.
F. (stips), a small coin, dole.
M. auceps, fowler ; manceps (both from capio).
F. (ops), help (no Nom. S.).
*M. Pelops ; *Aethiops, Ethiopian.
Adj. inops, resource less, Abl. S. inopi.
2) Greek Stems.
<>p- -ops M. hydrops, dropsy ; Cyclops : (Ace. S. em, a, PL
**).
M. gryps, griffin.
Stem. Nom. S.
ap-
-aps
Ip-
-eps
tp-
-ips
up-
-eps
op-
-ops
yp-
ab-
yb-
-yps
-abs-aps
-ybs
M. Arabs (Araps).
M. Chalybs.
D. Nasal Stems.
There is only one m-stem, hiem-p-s; which takes s in Nom. S.,
inserting euphonic p, according to the best authorities, w takes
s in one Latin word only, sangui-s for sanguin-s : it remains
the Nom. Ending in all Neuter, and many Masc. words : in all
Fern, and some Masc. words n is dropt, and the Nom. Ending
becomes o ; but in Neuter and some Masc. Nouns *n- becomes en.
100
Latin Word lore.
24.
i) Latin Nasal Stems.
Stem.
em-
m-
fti-
fci-
Nom. S.
-m-p-s
-en
on-
F. hiemps, winter.
M. flamen, priest (of some deity) ; pecten, comb,
and the compounds of canere, fidicen, lutist \
tibicen, flute-player; liticen, clarion-player ;
tubicen, trumpeter ; oscen, ominous (bird).
N. gluten, glue, and numerous Verbal Substan-
tives : agmen, carmen, culmen, nomen, nurnen,
regimen, semen, stamen, tegmen, volumen, &c.
M. sanguis, blood-, (pollis) mill^ist, powder. Other
forms are sanguen, pollen : and probably I-
stems, sangui- polli-, existed anciently.
M. homo, human being (homon- hemon- are old
forms) : turbo, whirlwind, top ; Apollo.
C. nemo*, nobody.
F. Many in -do, -go : grando, hail ; harundo,
reed; hirundo, swallow, hirudo, leech, testudo,
tortoise ; indago, net; origo, origin ; robigo,7//-
dew ; virgo, virgin ; Carthago, &c. : and nume-
rous abstracts : cupido, libido, fortitude, mag-
nitude, vicissitude, &c.
Caro, flesh ; earn- (for carin- or caron-), be-
coming an I -noun, Gen. PL carnium.
M. cardo, hinge ; ordo, order ; Cupido, the deity
Cupid\ C. margo, margin.
M. Concretes in o on- : agaso, groom ; baro,
simpleton ; bibo, toper; bufo, toad; carbo, coal;
crabro, hornet ; epulo, banquetter ; latro, robber ;
leo, lion ; ligo, spade ; mucro, point (of dagger) ;
upilio or opilio, shepherd ; papilio, butterfly ;
praedo, pirate ; pugio, poniard; sermo, discourse;
stelio, lizard ; tiro, recruit ; vespertilio, bat ; also
unio, pearl ; ternio, tre, senio, sice, &c., in dice-
play : Names; Capito, Cicero, Naso, Pollio,
&c., but F. luno.
F. Abstracts in io ion : (a) from Adjectives : com-
munio, perduellio, treason, rebellio ; (b) from
Pres. Stem, of Verbs : legio, regio, &c. ; (c) from
Supine Stem, a very large class : actio, dictio,
lectio, positio, &c. Some take concrete mean-
ing : natio, a nation ; oratio, a speech, &c.
Note. C. Can-is, dog, iuven-is, young person?
are really Nasal Stems (Pr. kvan, yuvan] : but
take i in Nom. S. Their Gen. PI. is in -urn.
2) Greek Nasal Stems,
Stem. Nom. S.
an-
en-
-an
M. Acarnan, Acarnanian; Pan; Paean (name of
Apollo : hymn to Apollo) ; Titan.
M. ren-es, PL kidneys, reins, loins (Gen. PL um,
or ium) ; splen, spleen, milt (for which lien is r.
Latin form) : attagen (a bird). The river Anio
is inflected Anien- from a byform Anien.
F. Siren.
24.
The Third Declension:.
101
Stem. Nom.
s.
en-
-en
In-
-In
-Is
on-
-on
n-
-on
M. Hymen ; Philopoemen.
M. delphln, dolphin (also delphin-us, 2.)
F. Eleusis, Salamls.
M. Solon, Telamon, Triton, &c. Cithaeron, Heli-
con. Names of men were generally latinised by
taking Nom. S. o : Hiero, Milo, Plato, Zeno,
&c. . But Alcon, Cimon, &c. keep n.
F. Babylon ; Calydon ; Marathon, &c.
M. Arion; Amphion ; lason; Ixion ; Memnon,
&c.
F. Amazon ; Gorgon ; s'mddn,jine linen.
Rarely latinised with Nom. S. in o : M. Macedo,
Macedonian.
Note. Greek Nasal 'Nouns have Ace. S. a or
em (Pan always Pana) ; PL as generally.
E. Liquid and Sibilant Stems.
1* and r proper do not take s in Nom. S. : as consul, aequor.
Sibilant Stems are numerous, many of them retaining their s in
Nom. S. and changing it to r in the inflected cases: Venus,
Veneris ; flos, floris, &c. Others change s to r in the Nom. S.
also : lar, laris ; melior, melioris. Vowel-change often occurs
in Nom. S. : ebur for ebor.
i) Latin Stems (Greek*).
Stem.
al-
il-
61-
iil-
ell-
.ar-
arr-
cr-
Nom. S.
-al
-il
-61
-ul
-el
-ar
-ar
-er
M. sal, salt (rarely N.) ; Hannibal, Hiempsal, &c.
M. pugil, boxer\ vigil, watchman ; mugll (also
mugili-s), mullet.
Adj. vigil, wakeful, Abl. S. f.
M. sol, the sun.
M. consul; praesul, president ; C. exul, banished
one.
N. fel, gall] mel, honey , &c.
M. Caesar ; lar, household-god (anc. PL Lases).
N. par,^zzr; baccar (a plant) ; iubar, sun-beam ;
instar, likeness (only Nom. Ace. S.) : * nectar,
nectar. (Adj. par, with compounds, is an I-stem.)
N. far,yfo;/r.
M. acipens-er oracipensis, stiirgeo<>,\ agger, mound;
anser, goose ; asser, pole ; career, prison (PL
starting place) later, brick ; passer, sparrow ;
with the Plurals Celeres, the knightly body-
guards ; proceres, nobles \ see p. 127.
F. mulier, woman. C. tuber (a fruit tree).
N. acer, maple ; cadaver, carcase ; clcer, chickpea ; .
papaver, poppy ; piper, pepper ; siler, withy ;
siser, skirret ; suber, cork ; tuber, a hump, a
truffle ; uber, a teat; also Tter or (itmer),/0#r-
ney, Gen. itineris ; PL iugera, acres ; (verber),
stripe, Abl. S. verbere, with full PL
IO2
Stem.;
Latin Wordlore.
24.
er-
6r-
or-
6r-
ur-
ur-
as-
aer-
er-
er-
er-
-er
-or
-or
(anc.
-6r)
-ur
-ur
-as
-ses
-es
-is
-us
The M. form vesper-e, i, seems to be of this Decl.,
but its other cases (vesper, &c.) are of the 2nd.
Plautus uses vesperi (and luci, temperi, mani)
with Prep. : ' de vesperi suo,' &c. And Corssen
does not consider them to be Locative but true
AbL Cases. Virgil has vespere Abl. : ' vespere
ab atro/ Aen. v. 19.
Adj. degener, degenerate ; pauper, poor.
N. ver, spring.
N. aequor, level surf ace, sea ; marmor, marble, sea ;
ador, spelt (whence F. adorea, i.e. donatio, a
dole of spelt given to victorious soldiers : hence
4 victory] 'glory '), has only Nom. Ace. S.
M. Archaic words, as Marcipor (Marci puer), slave
of Marcus : Lucipor, slave of Lucius, c.
M. olor, swan : with a large number of Verbal
Substantives, some formed from root or Pres.
stem : amor, love ; ardor, heat ; calor, 'warmth ;
dolor, grief, pain, &c. ; others, very numerous,
from Supine stem : cultor, tiller, worshipper ;
domitor, tamer ; victor, coriqtieror, c.
F. soror, sister ; uxor, wife.
Adj. Acc.S. primorem, PI. primores, chief per sons.
ebur, ivory ; femur, thigh ; iecur, liver (also
iecinor- iocinor- iociner-) ; robur, hardwood, oak
(old form probably robus, whence robustus).
M. furfur, bran ; (lemur) goblin (chiefly Plur.) ;
vultur, vulture ; turtur, ^turtle-dove ; *Ligur or
Ligus, Ligurian ; C. augur.
N. guttur, throat ; fulgur, lightning murmur; sul-
fur, sulphur. Adj. cicur, tame.
M. fur, thief.
N. vas, vessel (PL vasa, vasorum, vasis) ; fas,
(divine) right ; nefas, wrong, impiety : (both
words have only Nom. Ace. S. ; but V. uses
fandi, nefandi, as their Gen.).
N. aes, copper, brass, bronze.
F. Ceres (goddess of corn).
Adj. pubes (puberis), of ripe age: impubes (im-
puberis), imder age. See p. 115.
M. cucumis, cucumber (also cucumi-) ; vomis (vo-
mer), ploughshare : acip^ensis.
C. cinis, ash, cinder ; pulvis, dust.
F. Venus.
N. foedus, treaty ; funus, funeral ; genus, race,
kind ; glomus, ball (of thread, &c.) ; holus (olus),
green stuff-, latus, side ; Ts\mms,gift, 'office (Nom.
Ace. PI. munera or munia) : onus, burden ; pon-
dus, weight ; raudus (rudus), bit (of brass, &c.) ;
scelus, crime, wickedness ; sidus, constellation ;
vellus,faece ; (viscus, rarely Sing.), bowel \ ulcus,
sore ; vulnus, wound. Secus, sex (only Nom.
Ace. S.). This us is for anc. os.
24.
Stem.
or-
The Third Declension.
103
Sr-
6r-
or-
fir-
tr-
Nom. S.
-US
-os -or
-6s -or
(anc. or)
-ter
M. lepus, hare.
N. corpus, body ; decus, grace, dedecus, disgrace ;
facinus, deed, crime ; fenus, usury, interest (also
er-) ; frigus, cold ; lltus, shore ; nemus, forest,
grove ; pectus, breast ; pignus, pledge (also
er-) ; stercus, dung ; tempus, time; temple (of
head) ; tergus (also tergum 2.), back. This us
was anc. os.
F. arbos or arbor, tree.
M. colos, usually color, colour, complexion ; honos
or honor, honour, office ; labos or labor, toil ; lepos
or lepor, wit, good humour. So odor, scent}
pavor, alarm ; rumor, report (rarely odos, &c.).
See p. 102.
M. flos, flower ; mos, custom ; ros, dew.
N. 6s, mouth, face.
On comparatives melior, melius (anc. melios),
see pp. 21, 42.
F. tellus, land, earth.
N. crus, leg\ ius, right \ ius, gravy, broth ; pus,
yw/ matter rus, country ; tus, frankincense.
M. pater, father ; frater, brother ; accipiter, hawk.
F. mater, mother.
2) Greek R-Stems.
er-
er-
6r-
-er
-or
M. aer, atmosphere (Ace. S. aera or aerem) :
aether, ^^y (Ace. S. aethera).
M. crater, mixing-bowl. (Ace. S. <#, PI. as.)
M. rhetor, Castor, Hector, Nestor, &c. (Ace. S. a
or em, PL as). This or is latinized from Gr.
wp-
F. IT- and v-Stems.
u-
6v-
-us
C. grus, crane ; sus, swine (Dat. Abl. PI. subus or
suibus).
M. luppiter lov-, lupiter.
C. bos bov-, ox or cow (Gen. PL bourn ; Dat.
Abl. bobus or bubus).
G. Greek B- O- and Y-S terns.
e-
-6s
N. epos, epic poem ; melos, lyric (Gen. S. -eos 9
Nom. Ace. PL rpele, contracted from melea). So
cete, whales pelage, seas ; Tempe, (a vale in
Thessaly). Chaos belongs here : but Virgil
has Abl. Chao, 2.
M. heros hero-, hero (Ace. S. heroa, Nom. PL
heroes, Ace. heroas).
F. echo (Gen. echus for echo-os ; the other cases
in o ; so lo, Ino. Dido, Sappho, also form on-).
M. Cotys Coty-; Phorcys Phorcy- ; Tiph^s
Tiphy- ; F. Erinys Eriny-, Ace. S. -a. PL -as.
(A few Adjective and other I-stems are included in the foregoing
tables, on account of their connexion with other words.)
-os
-o
y-
1O4 Latin Wordlore. 24 .
i v . I -stems.
Nouns of the Third Declension are either (i) Imparisyllaba
(unequal in the number of their syllables), having more syllables
in the Gen. Sing, than in the Nom. : or (2) Parisyllaba, having
the same number of syllables in those Cases.
Of Imparisyllabic Substantives, the greater number are Con-
sonant Nouns : but many are Clipt I-nouns : especially those
which have a Labial, Nasal, or Liquid before s in the Nom. Sing,
as urbs, bidens, cohors, pars. Of Parisyllabic Substantives,
all are I-nouns but a very few, already cited : canis, iuvenis,
senex, vates : pater, mater, frater, accipiter, &c.
Adjectives of both kinds in this Decl. are I-nouns except a few, 1
v. Grouping of I-nouns.
T-nouns come under four chief Heads :
A) Parisyllabic I-nouns, with Nom. Sing. X-s (a few r for
-ri-) : Fern. Masc. or Common.
B) Parisyllabic I-nouns in e-s (i-s) perhaps from original
sibilant-stems : chiefly Fern.
C) Neuter I-nouns of Adjectival nature, Parisyll. in e, Im-
parisyll. in al, ar.
Z>) Clipt I-nouns Imparisyllabic : Fern. Masc. or Common.
A) I-nouns under the first Head are grouped according as they
form the Accus. Sing, in im or em, and the Abl. Sing, in i or e.
I. Ace. S. im : Abl. i.
i) F. *cannabifs, hemp (Abl. e" in Persius) ; tussis, cough ;
sitis, thirst (S. only) ; buris, ploughtail (only Ace. S.) j
ravis, hoarseness (only Ace. S.) ; * tigris, tiger (also as a
Consonant Noun, tigrid-).
Names of Towns: Hispalis, Seville ; Neapolis,
Naples-, Amphipolis; Memphis.
Vis, force (an S-stem), Ace. S. vim, Abl.vi, casting out s
(Gen. Dat. wanting) ; PI. vires, &c., changing s into r.
* Greek I-nouns: poesis, poetry ; mathesis, science ;
Charybdis: Voc. S. z, Ace. in or im ; poeei, poes-in
(im).
The Greek Gen. in eos is rare : poeseos : and Gen. PL
eon: metamorphoseon.
1 Many Latin I-nouns correspond to Pr. I-nouns: anguis, ignis, ovis. ars, dos,
gens, m ens, and others. In some i represents Pr. a: axis, foris,imbris, nube*
panis, pellis, penis, unguis. In others i is a Latin suffix to a Pr. root: can-i-s
iuven-i-s, lov-i-s, vat-i'-s; mitis, turpis, brevis, gravis, l?vis, pinguis,
suavis, tenuis. In mensis(Gr. fx^v), Si is suffixal. In a few, as arx, daps, there
is a Pr. root with Nom. suffix S. In some of these forms i, not belonging to the original
Nom., has been developed in the other Cases ; but in most of the Imparisyllabic I-nouns
it has been dropt in Nom. Very many Latin I-nouns, especially the great bulk, of
Adjectives, have been formed in accordance with prevalent analogies.
24. The Third Declension. 105
Observe the adverbial phrases ad amussim, examus-
sim, by rule, accurately; ad fatim, affatim, abun-
dantly ; from disused nouns amussis, fatis. Hence it
is probable that adverbs in tim, sim, parti m, sen sim,
&c., are similarly cases of lost I-nouns.
2) M. : cucumis, cucumber (also inflected as a Cons.-noun
cucumer-, like Ceres, pulvis, cinis).
Names of Rivers: Alb is, the Elbe; Tiber is, Tiber; Liris,
Phasis, &c.
2. Ace. S. im or em. Abl. I or e.
This group is wholly Feminine :
F. puppis,/00/; febris, fever ; turris, tower : im (em) ; e, I.
securis, hatchet ; im (em) ; I
messis, harvest ; em (im) ; e
sementrs, seed-time; em (im) ;
I, e
3. Acc. S. em ; Abl. e or I.
restis, rope ; im (em) ; e
clavis, key ; em (im) ; I e
navis, ship ; im, em ; I, g
pelvis, pan ; im, em ; e I
M. axis, axle; e (i) ignis, fire; I, e
fustis, cudgel; e, i unguis, claw; e (i)
F. bilis, bile ; classis,y7^/; avis, bird; e (i)
strigilis, scraper ; I (e)
Supellectilis (res), furniture, properly an Adj., is dipt
in Nom. S. into supellex. In Abl. S. it has I or e.
C. amnis, river ; e (i) civis, citizen ; 1 (e)
finis, end ; e (\) anguis, snake ; e (i)
Finis, originally Fern., is so used only in the Sing., and rarely.
a) M. imber imbri- m. shower, Abl. I, e.
The Month-names September, October, November,
December ; Abl. i : are used adjectively.
b) Many Adjectives have Substantival use :
M. aedilis, edile, e (i) ; aequalis, contemporary, I ; annalis, I
(chiefly Plur. annals) ; aqualis, water-can, I ; natalis, birth-
day, i (e) ; rivalis, rival, e (i) ; familiaris, intimate friend,
I (e); molaris, grinder, \ (chiefly Plur.).
F. bipennis, double axe, e I ; novalis, fallowed field, e I ; trire-
mis, trireme, I e ; volucris, bird, e.
C. amnis, kinsperson, e I ; iuvenis, young person, e ; contu-
bernalis, tentmate, e I ; patruelis, cousin on father's side,
e, I ; sodalis, companion, 1 e ; canalis, canal, channel, i.
c) Any such Adjectives, if they become Proper Names, have
Abl. Sing, in e: luvenale, Latiare, Maluginense,
Martiale.
io6 Latin Word lore.
24.
d) In this group must be ranked the Masc. and Fern, forms
of Adjectives in is, is, e, and in er, is, e : as tristis, Is,
e; acer, acris, acre. But the Neuter forms triste',
acre, belong to Head C). All have Abl. S. i, very rarely e.
4. Ace. em : Abl. e.
M. orbis, circle, world] fastis, bundle ; piscis,yf^ ; caulis,
stalk ; collis, hill ; follis, bellows : vermis, worm ; clunis,
hind-leg; crinis, hair; panis, loaf; torris, brand; ensis,
sword ; mensis, month ; postis, door-post ; vectis, lever ;
uter, leathern bottle ; venter, belly ; with the Plural words
casses, nets ; antes, front vine-rows ; manes.
F. scobis (or scobs), saw-dust ; rudis,y2>z7; sudis (no Nom.
S.), stake ; trudis, pike ; ninguis, snow (Lucr.) ; con-
vallis, hollow vale; pellis, hide; Alpis, Alp ; apis, bee;
auris, ear ; irauris, earring ; naris, nostril ; cutis, cuticle ;
neptis, granddaughter; pestis, plague ; rails, raft; vestis,
garment ; vitis, vine ; ovis, ewe : with the Plur. words
fores, door ; grates, thanks ; nates ; fides, lutestrings (has
Abl. S. fide).
C. corbis, basket ; chilis, path ; funis, rope, cable ; torquis
(es), collar ; hostis, enemy ; pedis, crawler ; scrobis (or
scrobs), ditch ; testis, witness ; linter or lunter, boat ; also
sentis, thorn ; vepris, bramble}-
>B) Nom. S. es, Ace. em, Abl. e.
All Latin words of this form are F. except M. verres, boar-pig.
F. aedes, temple (PI. house) ; caedes, lopping, bloodshed;
cautes, rock ; clades, defeat ; compages, structure ; fames,
hunger (Abl. e); feles, cat; indoles, native disposition;
labes, fall, mischief; lues, pest ; meles, badger ; moles,
pile; nubes, cloud; palumbes, pigeon; plebes, the com-
mons (also plebs : see Decl. 5) ; proles, offspring (Gen.
PL um) ; pubes, young population ; rupes, crag ; saepes,
hedge ; sedes, seat ; soboles or suboles, offspring ; sordes,
dirt (PL meanness] ; strages, slaughter ; strues, heap ;
tabes, taint, consumption (no PL) ; valles, vale ; vulpes,
fox; and the Plural words \a.ctes,*small entrails ; ambages,
evasive lang^lage or conduct (has Abl. S. e, Gen. PL um).
Several of these have a byform in is : aedis, caedis, felis,
melis, vallis, vulpis, and some more.
The older words are supposed to be S-stems converted into
I-stems by exclusion of staminal s (as puber-is pubes).
C) Neuter Nouns : Nom. S. e (for i-) ; al (for ali-) ; &r (for
ari-). Abl. I. Neut. PL ia.
1 Isolated variations of Case occur in some. See M. Lucr. i. 978. mi. Varro says
that ovi as well as o ve was used in his time. Nepti is found in Tac.
24. The Third Declension. 107
1) N. mare, sea ; rete, net; aplustre, _/%?-; conclave, apartment;
insigne, ensign ; praesepe, stall, crib ; anclle, small shield;
bubile, ox-stall; caprlle, goat-ho^lse; cublle, bedchamber,
couch ; equile, stable ; hastlle, spear ; mantlle, napkin ;
monlle, necklace; ovlle, sheepfold; focale, neckwrapper;
no vale, fallow ; penetrale, inner shrine; cochleare, spoon ;
altaria (PL), high altar; talaria (PL), ankle-rings. Also
. caepe, onion (takes Plur. from byform caepa, f. i).
Lac, milk, is for lac-te, like rete.
Retis c. is a rare form for rete; praesepis, f. for praesepe.
Some local names ending in te take Abl. e usually: Bibracte,
Reate, Soracte.
Abl. mare for mar! is in Lucr. Ov. Abl. rete is frequent.
2) N. animal ; cervical, bolster ; minutal, minced meat ; toral,
sofa-cover; tribunal; vectigal, toll, revenue. See Bac ca-
nal, bidental, capital, Lupercal, Minerval, puteal
in Dictionary.
3) N. calcar, spur ; exemplar, pattern ; lacunar, laquear,
ceiling; lupanar ; pulvlnar, cushioned seat ; torcular, wine-
press.
Observe par, pari-, pair.
Note. Almost all words in C) except mare, rete, are evidently
Neuter Adjectives, derived from Substantives. Those in 2) 3) have
dropt e : toral for torale, exemplar for exemplare. This
makes it probable that mare, rete are likewise adjectival.
D) Clipt I-nouns : Gen. PL i-um.
The vagueness of the distinction between Clipt I-nouns and
Cons.-nouns has been noticed already, see p. 94. One test of an I-
noun, i before urn in Gen. Plur., may fail, if an I -noun loses i (as
in apum, volucrum), if a Cons. -noun takes i (as in civitatium,
paludium), or if no Gen. Plur. is found, as in many words, chiefly
monosyllabic in Nom. Another test, Is ( = es, eis) in Ace. PL m.
f. or ia n., may not occur in MSS. or Inscrr. The safest course,
therefore, is to rank Imparisyllaba with Cons.-nouns (as pax, lux,
sol, &c.), where no test of an I -noun is ascertained : unless some
strong analogy points to an exception.
Guttural before i :
F. faex faeci-, lees ; (faux) fauci-, jaw ; calx calci-, heel ;
falx falci-, pruning-hook, scythe ; lanx lanci-, dish ; arx
arci-, citadel ; merx merci-, merchandise. Add nix nivl-,
snow.
M. Deunx deunci-, quincunx quincunci-, &c., (parts
of as).
Labial before i :
F. stirps stirpi- (also stirpes and stirpis), rarely M., trunk ;
trabs (or trab-es) trabi-, f. beam ; urbs (or urps) urbt-, f. city.
Nasal before i :
F. caro carni- (for carfni-), yfofifc. See Cons.-Nouns.
io8 Latin Wordlore. 24.
R (for s) or s before i :
M. glis gliri-, dormouse ; mus muri-, mouse ; and, by probable
analogy, mas man-, male ; as assi-,
F. vis viri-, force : see p. 104.
N. os ossi-, bone (but Nom. PL ossa for oss-ia).
Dental before i :
These are the most numerous : many being Adjectival.
a) M. Gentile words in as ati-, is iti- (dipt from ati-s, Itis) :
Aquinas, man of Aquinum; Arpinas, man of Arpinum ;
Ouiris, (man of Cures) Roman ; Samnis, Samnite, &c. ;
(optimas, primas, summas, used in Plur.) ; Penat-es (Plur.),
household gods.
Adj. nostras, of our country ; vestras, of your country ;
cuias, of what country.
b} F. lis lit!-, strife.
c) Nouns in ans anti-, ens enti-, mostly participial.
M. amans, lover ; dextans, dodrans, quadrans, sextans, triens
(parts of as) ; cliens, client ; dens, toothy and compounds,
(but F. bidens, sheep) ; oriens (sol), east ; occidens (sol),
west\ rudens,.oz/i; torrens,. torrent.
F. gens, clan, nation ; lens, lentil ; mens, mind, intellect.
C. animans ; infans ; parens ; serpens. See p. 76.
All words in d) c) not being monosyllabic in Nom. S., can drop i
in Gen. PL ; as optimatum for optimatium, infantum for in-
fantium, parentum for parentium.
d) Nouns in ons onti- :
M. tons, fountain] mons, mountain ; pons, bridge.
F. froT&y forehead; (spons),free choice (only Abl. sponte).
e) Nouns in Is HX-, rs rti-, cs (x) ctX- : Fern.
F. puls, pulse-, ars, art; pars, part] cohors, cors, cohort,
court; fors (S.), chance; mors, death; sors, lot; nox,
night.
f] Nouns in ns ndi- : Fern.
F. frons, leaf; glans, acorn; iuglans, walnut.
Notes yi. Notes on the Cases.
on the
Cases.
i. Instances occur of a Gen. PL in ium from Cons. Nouns in
as at-, us ut-, us ud- : more rarely from those in x, ps : civita-
tium (always in Livy, sometimes in Cicero), aetatium, simultat-
ium, &c., servitutium, virtut-ium, palud-ium, fornac-ium,
forcip-ium. Alituum for alit-um in Virgil is a bold license
for the sake of metre. 1
1 Old poets often dropt, metrically, the s of Gen. S. : as
Quid dubitas quin omni' sit haec rationi ' potestas ? Lucr. ii. 53.
On the dropping of final m in Ace. S. anciently, see pp. 28, 46.
24. TJie Third Declension. 109
No Gen. Plur. is found of the following words : bes (bessis),
cor, cos, fel, fors, glos, lac, lux, mel, nex, os (or-), pax, pi x,
praes, pus, ros, rus, sal, sol, tus, vas (vadis), ver, (vix). Canis,
iuvenis, strues, vates, have Gen. PL um: also panis, in the
opinion of some grammarians : apis, volucris have Gen. PI. um,
sometimes ium. Sedum occurs from sedes; mensum (rarely
mensuum) from men sis j 1 but also ium.
Some Plural words in alia, ilia, aria, especially names of
festivals, follow Decl. 2. in their Gen. Plur. : as Compitali-orum;
vectigali-orum, Suet; ancili-orum, Hor. ; lacunari-orum,
Vitr.
Vas vas- forms its Plural as Decl. 2. vasa, vasorum, vasis.
2. The Accus. Plur. in is ( = es, eis) is proper to I-nouns, as
civls, parentls, and is found side by side with es, eis till the
Aug. age, after which es prevailed. So tris or tres.
A Nom. PL in Is or eis occurs sometimes in the MSS. of Plautus
and Lucretius; aedis, aurls, fami-liarls, c. ; and in old Inscrr.
A Gen. S. in us and es is archaic only, as (patms, Apolones}.
3. The Dat. Sing, had an old form in e, retained in some classical
phrases : ( triumviri auro argento aere flando feriundo.' See Cic
Fam. vii. 13. 'lure Romae dicundo/ L. xlii. 28. Virgil has ore
for ori, G. i. 430. Another old form is ei. So urbei, uxorei, c.
On the tomb of Scipio Barbatus is ' forma virtutei parisuma.'
4. On the Locative case in I, see 2O. Instances are luci, ruri,
temperi, Carthagini, Tiburi (also Tibure, Abl.), PL Gadibus.
$. Forms of dipt I-nouns with Abl. S. I are found ; sorti fre-
quently (Nom. sortis, Plaut.) ; parti, Plaut. Ter. : some even of
Cons.-nouns, capiti (Catull. Tib.), occipiti (Pers.) ; and others. 2
* It is notable that of Nouns which have Gen. S. of the form ^ w (duels) the great
majority take um in Gen. PI. : facum, ducum, crucian, nucuni, precum, gregum, pedum,
apum, opum, canum, senum, patrum, Larum, bourn, gruum, suum, struum. But of
those which have Gen. S. of the form - ^, the great majority take ium in the Gen. PI. :
falcium, litium, artium, &c. : exceptions are vocum, legum, regum, and a few others. So
Gen. S. \j vy or \j \^ ^ gives Gen. PL in um : suppltcum, principum, vigTlum.
(Compes) compedium is an exception. But a trisyllabic or plurisyllabic Gen. S. with
Ions: penult, gives in most Adjectives Gen. PL in ium : ferae -ium, felic-ium, &c. :
and in Substantives often leads to the fluctuation noticed above, (i a). Comparatives are
an exception, because io-r-ium would be a bad combination. The same is true of io-n-ium.
Hence mel-io-rum, act-io-num, &c.
3 Gender is shewn in the lists. The general results are (not including those settled by
meaning) :
F. Mute Latin Cons, stems, and dipt I-stems with mute before i.
N-stems in do ; go ; io (abstr.) ; with caro. Also merges ; hiemps ; tellus ; arbor.
Parisyll. I-nouns in Ts, es ; pp. 105, 106. See Exceptions below and in lists.
M. Most in ex, ic- ; es it- ; ns ; all in unx ; Concreta in o : Nouns in 1 ; er er- ; Is er- ;
is Tri- ; ter tri- ; or or- ; os or- ; ur : Greek Appellatives, except those in as, Ts, ys
(F.): a, os, e (N.). Also calix, fornix, grex, paries, pes, lapis, sangufs, turbo,
cardo, ordo, pecten, furfur, turtur, vultur, lepus, mus, as : with the parisyll. I-nouns
marked M. in pp. 105, 106.
N. Nouns in en in- ; e ; ar ; al all- ; or or- ; ur or- ; iir ur- ; us er- ; us or- ; us ur-. Also
halec, caput, lac, cor, mel, fel, ver, her, cadaver, uber, verber, papaver, acer r
cicer, piper, &c. (see p. 101), aes, far, os (oris), os (ossis), vas (vasis).
C. These will be found in the lists : and many on p. 76.
no
Latin Word lore.
24.
vii Table:
I. CONSONANT-NOUNS,
i. MASCULINE AND FEMININE.
j) MUTE GUTTURAL STEMS.
SINGULAR.
judge, c.
root y f. voice, f.
king, m.
N.V.
iudex
radix vox
rex
i
Ace.
iudic-
radic- voc-
reg-
em
Gen..
iudic-
radic- ' voc-
reg-
is
Dat.
iudic-
radic- voc-
reg-
I
Abl.
iudic-
radic- voc-
reg-
e
PLURAL.
N.V.A.
iudic-
radic- voc-
reg-
es
Gen.
iudiC-
radiC- voC-
reG-
11 m
D.Abl.
iudic-
radic- voc-
reg-
ibus
2) MUTE DENTAL STEMS.
SINGULAR.
summer, f.
companion, c. -virtue, f.
foot, m.
N.V.
aestas
comes virtus
pes
Ace.
aestat-
comtt- virtut-
ped-
em
Gen.
aestat-
comit- virtut-
ped-
is
Dat.
aestat-
comit- virtut-
ped-
j
Abl.
aestat-
comit- virtut-
ped-
e
PLURAL.
N.V.A.
aestat-
comit- virtut-
ped-
es
Gen.
aestaT-
comiT- virtuT-
peD-
11 m
D.Abl.
aestat-
comit- virtut-
ped-
ibus
3) LABIAL-MUTE, NASAL, AND U- STEMS.
SINGULAR.
chief, c.
beam, f. lion, m. virgin, f.
crane, c.
N.V.
princepb
trabs leo virgo
grus
Ace.
princlp-
trab- leon- virgin-
gru-
em
Gen.
princip-
trab- leon- virgin-
gru-
is
Dat.
princip-
trab- leon- virgin-
gru-
I
Abl.
princip-
trab- leon- virgin-
gru- e
PLURAL.
N.V.A.
princip-
trab- leon- virgin-
gru-
es
Gen.
princiP-
traB- leoN- virgiN-
grU-
um
D.Abl.
princip-
trab- leon- virgin-
gru-
ibus
1 For Worn. S. Endings, see 20 and p. 94.
24.
The Third Declension.
in
4) LIQUID AND SIBILANT STEMS.
SINGULAR.
love, m.
deiv t m.
woman, f.
cinder, c. father, m.
N.V.
amor
ros
mulier
cinis
pater
Ace.
amor-
ror-
mulier-
ciner-
patr-
em
Gen.
amor-
ror-
mulier-
ciner-
patr-
is
Dat.
amor-
ror-
mulier-
ciner-
patr-
I
Abl.
amor-
ror-
mulier-
ciner-
patr-
e
PLURAL.
N.V.A.
amor-
ror-
mulier-
ciner-
patr-
es
Gen.
amoR-
roR-
mulieR-
cineR-
patR-
um
D.Abl.
amor-
ror-
mulier-
ciner-
patr-
ibus
2
. NEUTER.
SINGULAR.
head
name
right
work
body
N.V.A
caput
nomen
ius
opus
corpus
Gen.
capit-
nomin-
iur-
oper-
corpor-
is
Dat.
capit-
nomin-
iur-
oper-
corpor-
I
Abl.
capit-
nomin-
iur-
oper-
corpor-
e
PLURAL.
N.V.A
capit-
nomin-
iur-
oper-
corpor-
a
Gen.
capiT-
nomiN- iuR-
opeR-
corpoR-
um
D.Abl.
capit-
nomin-
lur-
oper-
corpor-
ibiis
II.
I-NOUNS.
i. MASCULINE AND FEMININE.
SINGULAR.
cough, f.
ship, f.
harvest, f.
jftre, m.
skower, m.
N.V.
tuss-is
nav-is
mess-is
ign-is
imb-eF
Ace.
tuss-im
nav-im em mess-em (im) ign-em imbr-em
Gen.
tuss-is
nav-is
mess-is
ign-is
imbr-is
Dat.
tuss-i
nav-i
mess-i
ign-i
imbr-i
Abl.
tuss-i
nav-i e
mess-e
ign-l e imbr-I (e)
PLURAL.
N.V.
tuss-es
nav-es
mess-es
ign-es
imbr-es
Ace.
tuss-es Is
nav-es Is
mess-es Is
ign-es
Is imbr-es Is
Gen.
tuss-Ium
nav-Ium
mess-Ium
ign-lum imbr-Ium
D.AbLtuss-ibus
nav-itous
mess-ibus
ign-ibus imbr-ibus
112
Latin Wordlore.
24.
SINGULAR.
ewe. f.
clond, f.
tooth, m.
city, f.
mouse, m.
N. V.
ovis
nubes
dens
urbs
mus
Ace.
ov-
nub-
dent-
urb-
mur-
em
Gen.
ov-
nub-
dent-
urb-
mur-
is
Dat.
ov-
nub-
dent-
urb-
mur-
I
Abl.
ov-
nub-
dent-
urb- *
mur*-
e
N. V. ov- nub-
Ace, ov- nub-
Gen, ov- nub-
D. Abl. ov- nub-
PLURAL.
dent- urb-
dent- urb-
dent- urb-
dent- urb-
mur-
mur-
mur-
mur-
es
es Is
lum
ibiis
The ending of the Accusative Plural of I-nouns fluctuates in
MSS. between Is and es, the form is prevailing.
2. NEUTER.
SINGULAR.
net
sofa-cover
spur
bone
N. V. A.
ret-e
toral
calcar
OS
Gen.
ret-is
toral-is
calcar-is
oss-is
Dat.
ret-I
toral-i
calcar-t
oss-i
Abl.
ret-i (e)
toral-i
calcar-i
oss-e
N. V. A. ret-ia
Gen. ret-lum
D. Abl. ret-ibus
PLURAL.
toral-ia
toral-lum
toral-ibus
calcar-ia
calcar-Xum
calcar-ibus
oss-a
oss-Ium
oss-ibus
Greek
Nouns.
viii. Greek Nouns in Decl. 3.
Nominative Sing.
The tendency to latinise Greek names is shewn by dropping
the v in such words as Plato, Macedo, Antipho, and in
Apollo Apollin- (Gr. 'ATroXXw*'-), draco dracon- (Gr. SpaKovr-) :
but Nepos retains n in Cimon, Conon, Dion, Timoleon, &c. :
and it is usually kept in local names: Babylon, Lacedaemon.
Gr. top becomes or: Hector, rhetor ; Gr. eig becomes is : Simols
Simoent- ; Sardis (Plur.). Other endings are kept.
Vocative Sing.
The Nominatives is, ys, as, ens, es give
Vocatives i, y, a, eu, e (es)
Par!, DaphnT, ThybrT, Phylli ; Coty, Tiphy ; Atla, Palla ;
Peleu, Theseu ; Chreme 1 (es), Pericle (es), Hercules.
24. The Third Declension. i 1 3
Accusative Singular (Greek a, v).
Prose writers, rarely poets, latinise this Case by using the Latin
ending m : lampadem, tyrannidem, Phrygem, Paridem,
Osirim. But the Greek a is used in some words by both : aethera
(always), a era (rarely -em). Cicero writes Pana, hebdomada:
and in poetry names of persons and places in a abound: Aga-
memnona, Hectora, Pallada, Phyllida, Babylona, Sala-
mina, &c. ; likewise appellatives: heroa, Cyclopa, lampada,
tyrannida, aegida, &c.
Names in is fluctuate between the formations im m and idem
idd. Patronymics: Briseis, Nais, Nereis, Aeneis, &c., and
many Female names, Amaryllis, Phyllis, &c. have ida : but
exceptions occur; Alcestin, Mart.; Isin, Ov. ; Irim, Verg., &c.
On Nouns in is im (m) see p. 104.
Names in es eti- (or es, i-) also fluctuate. From Dares Daren,
Dareta (Verg.), Daretem : Chremes, Chremem (en) and
Chremetem (a) ; Thales, Thalen and Thaletem (a).
Similarly Gen. Sing, etis and is.
Many names in es have Ace. S. em (en) : Socratem (en) ;
Xerxem (en) : others em only : Aristotelem, Cic.
Names in cles have em or ea, rarely en : Pericles, Periclem
or Periclea : rarely Periclen.
Of Names in eus see the Decl. below.
See also the Syllabus of Cons. Nouns.
Genitive Singular.
Poets often use Gr. -os for *s : Pallados, Thetidos, Peleos.
A Gen. in i is taken by many Names in eus, es.
See Table of Declension.
Dative Singular.
The short t is sometimes found in poetry : Daphnidi, Palladi.
Nominative Plural.
Poets sometimes use the Greek es : Arcades, Phryges^
Naiades, Erinyes (Verg.).
The Neuter Plural words Tempe, cete, mele, pelage (e for
ea) are occasionally found.
Accusative Plural.
Prose writers sometimes have as: Arcadas, Cyclopas, Cic. ;
Senonas, &c., Caes. ; Macedonas, Liv. Poets often: as he-
roas, lampadas, lyncas, Naiadas, Nereidas, Erinyas.
Genitive Plural.
Catullus has Chalybon for Chalybum; Curtius Malieon
for Maliensium; Martial epigrammaton for epigramma-
tum : but Cic. has poematorum, transferring the word to Decl. 2.
Dat.Abl. Plural.
The Greek ending si (sin) is very rarely used by poets : Troasin P
Dryasin, Charisin, Lemniasin, Ov.
Nouns in ma are declined in the Plural after Decl. 2 : Cic. uses
poematis, aenigmatls, emblematls, &c.
I
114 Latin Wordlore.
Greek ix. Greek Table. (Greek Endings italic.)
Table,
I) Consonant Stems. See Syllabus.
Sing. Norn. V. ; Ace. em (a) ; Gen. is (os) ; D. I (X); Abl. e.
Plur. Nom. V. es ; Ace. as (es) ; Gen. um; D. Abl.^ibus (.tfrare).
Examples :
M. Phryx Phrjfg-, lebes lebet-, gigas gigant-, aer aer-, heros
hero-. So Atlas Atlant-, but with Voc. S. a. See p. 98.
F. chlamys chlamyd-, lampas lampad-.
C. lynx lync-.
On Neuters in ma mat-, as poema, see p. 98.
On Neuter E-stems and Fern. O- and Y-stems, see p. 103.
II) I-stems. See p. 104.
Sing. Nom. is ; Voc. i ; Ace. im in ; Gen. is (eos) ; D. Abl. I.
Plur. Nom. V. es ; Ace. Is es ; Gen. ium (eon) ; D. Abl. itous.
Examples :
F. basis, poesis, Charybdis, Nemesis, Lachesis, Syrtis.
M. Anubis, Albis, Athesis.
Ac in aces, m. scimitar, is declined as nubes : but Names in
es are subject to flexional variations.
III) Heteroclite or Fluctuating Declension.
i) Third Decl. mixed with First and Second.
a) Nom. S. es ; Voc. e\ Ace. em (en} ; Gen. is, i ; D. i ; Abl. e.
Examples :
M. Aristoteles ; Archimedes; Demosthenes ; Euripides; Thucy-
dides ; Xerxes.
Hercules has Voc. es and Abl. e (Hor.).
ft) Nom. S. cles ; Voc. cles cle ; Ace. clem (clen\ cled \ Gen.
clis, cli ; Dat. cli ; Abl. cle.
Examples :
M. Callicles, Damocles, Pericles, Sophocles, Themistocles.
c) Nom. S. eus ; Voc. eu ; Ace. eum, ea ; Gen. ei, ei, I (eos) ; D.
eo, eb, ei ; Abl. eo, eb.
Examples :
M. Nereus ; Orpheus ; Peleus ; Perseus ; Theseus ; Tydeus.
Ace., ea, eh occur in poetry : Idomenea, Orphea (Verg.).
The Greek Gen, eos is confined to poets after the Aug. age.
With this Decl. of Perseus compare Perses, p. 87. Livy
uses the former for the last Macedonian king : Cicero the
latter.
ct) The two Masculine names Achilles, Ulixes, have a
peculiar flexion :
Nom. S. es ; Voc. e ; Ace. em,^, ea\ Gen. is, eos, el, I; D. et,
I; Abl. e e,I.
Adjectives in the Third Declension. 115
2) Consonant Declension mixed with I -declension :
a) Nom. S. es ; Voc. e ; Ace. em (en), etem, eta ; Gen. is,
etis ; D. i, etl ; Abl. e, etc.
Examples : M. Chremes, Dares, Laches, Thales.
) Nom. S. is ; Voc. i\ Ace. im, tn\ idem, ida\ Gen. idis
(tdos}\ D. idi; Abl. idS.
Plur. Nom. V. es, ides ; Ace. es, Is, idas ; Gen. ium, idum; D.
Abl. ibus, idibus (si rare).
Examples : tigris ; Paris, &c. See p. 98.
Fern, names, especially Patronymics, follow chiefly the Cons.-
forms : but with much variance. See Neue (Formenlehre, I. 300,
&c.).
x. Adjectives in the Third Declension.
J
i. The Declension of Adjectives is distinguished from that of
Substantives only by having Case-endings which represent different
Genders. Therefore Consonant Adjectives which have no distinct
.generic Case-forms are merely declined like corresponding Sub-
stantives. They are a very small class, of which the principal are
Adjec-
tives in
(caeles) caelit-
dives divit-
sospes sospit-
heavenly
rich
safe
superstes superstit- surviving
deses desid-
reses resid-
compos compot-
impos impot-
slothful
reposing
possessing
unpossessing
particeps particip- sharing
princeps princip- chief
caelebs caelib- m. unmarried
pauper pauper- poor
Cons.
An I -noun impubis (is, e) is more frequently used.
Sospes is once Neuter in luv.: 'Nee umquam depositum tibi
sospes erit/ xiii. 177.
Dis (Ter.) contracted from dives, becomes an I-noun, Abl. diti;
Newt. PI. ditia ; Gen. PI. ditium.
Table :
SINGULAR.
N. V. dives
Ace. divit-
Gen. divit-
Dat divit-
Abl. divit-
pauper
pauper-
pauper-
pauper-
pauper-
em
is
I
e
N. A. V. divit-
Gen. divit-
D. Abl. divit-
PLURAL.
pauper-
pauper-
pauper-
es
ibus
I 2
Latin Word lore.
24.
u r
l-npun . 2. Adjectives and Participles, not purely Consonantal, may be
<ives. C ~ classed in four groups, shewn in the following Table :
SINGULAR.
Norn. Voc.
Ace.
!
Gen. | Da
t. Abl.
M. F. N.
I. I. is e
M. F. N.
em e
is I
I
2. er P-IS r-e
r-em r-e
r-is r-
I r-I
II. s(xns ...)
em s(x ns ...)
is 1
!(*)
III. OP us
em iis
is I
g
IV. r,l,s...
em
is I
I
PLURAL.
Norn. Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat. Abl.
M. F. N.
I. es la
' M. F. N.
es is ia
ium
ibus
II. es ia
es Is ia
ium
ibus
III. es a
es Is a
urn
ibus
IV. es
esis
um
ibus
The Ending of Accusative Plural fluctuates between is (for
eis) and es, as in Substantival l-stems. Even Compara-
tives have both forms, though with Abl. S. e : Neut. PI. a.
I) The first group contains
1) A large number of Adjectives declined as I-nouns with Norn.
is m. f., e n. : dulcis, sweet; pinguis, fat; mitis, mild;
tristis, sad; grandis, great; viridis, green; turpis, base ;
segnis, lazy ; sublimis, lofty ; agilis, active ; nobilis, noble ;
aequalis, equal ; fidelis, faithful ; servilis, slavish ; vul-
garis, common ; levis, light ; levis, smooth, &c.
Instances of Ablative in e are very rare in this class : ' nobile
viro,' Cic. ; ' caeleste, bimestre, perenne,' Ov.
2) A small number in er, -ris, -re : as acer, acris, acre, keen.
Celer, celeris, celere, swift, is the only Adjective of this kind
. 24. Adjectives in the Third Declension. 117
which retains e before r through all the Cases. Its Gen. PL ends
in ium when it is merely adjectival, but in um when it signifies the
ancient body-guard at Rome, called Celeres.
The Adjectives which, besides acer (acris), cast out e before r
in the Cases, are
cele-ber -bris -lore famous eques-ter -tris -tre on horse
salu-ber -bris -bre healthy pedes-ter -tris -tre on foot
ala-cer -cris -ere brisk palus-ter -tris -tre marshy
volu-cer -cris -ere swift, winged pu-ter -tris -tre putrid
campes-ter -tris -tre of the plain terres-ter -tris -tre of land,
silves-ter -tris -tre woody of earth.
The forms in -bris, -cris, -tris, may be Masc. ; but -ber, -cer,
-ter are usual in prose. These latter forms were also of Common
Gender anciently.
September, October, November, December, are like celeber, but
have no Neuter Cases.
The Masc. and Fern, forms of this group are like ignis, imber
(Abl. i) ; the Neuter like rete.
II) This group comprises many Adjectives :
1) Adjectives in ax aci- ; ox 5ci- ; ix lei- :
audax, bold, terzx, fruitful, c. ; ferox, haughty, velox, swift, &c. ;
felix, happy, permx,jieet : including words in ix, Fern, in Sing,
but taking also Neuter endings in Plur. : victrix, PI. vic-
trices, victricia. So ultrix, corruptrix.
Adjectives under i) rarely take Abl. S. .
Like these are declined :
a) Compounds of caput : anceps, double \ ; biceps, two-headed-,
praeceps, headlong, &c. (for -cipes) -cipiti-.
ty Compounds of cor: concors, agreeing-, discors, dis-
agreeing; misericors, merciful ; socors or secors,
stupid-, vecors, insane : -cordi-.
>-c) par par!-, equal; hebes hebeti-, dull (no Gen. PL);
teres tereti- (no Gen. PL), smooth-rounded; praepes
^z.z^z\.\-, fast-flying; trux truci-, cruel.
But the compounds of par, dispar, unlike, impar, unequal,,
take Abl. S. e or l, Gen. PL um.
2) Adjectives and Participles used adjectively in ns nti- rs r- :
ingens, huge ; prudens, sage ; praesens, present; absens, absent;
recens, fresh; sapiens, wise; praestans, excellent; insons, in-
nocent ; iners, inactive ; expers, void, &c. In these the Abl.
in e, though less frequent than I, is often found.
a) So those in as ati- : nostras, vestras. ciiias, &c. See
p. 1 08.
Ii8 Latin Wordlore. 24.
b) Numerals in plex plici- : simplex, duplex, multiplex,
&c.
c) Derivatives of dens: tridens trident i-, three-pronged \
these have no Neut. PI.
d) Locuples locupleti-, wealthy ; Abl. S. e (i) ; Gen. PL um or
turn.
Note. Present Participles, when they keep their Verbal force,
take e in Abl. S. : for instance, when used absolutely : regnante
Romulo, imperante Augusto : if used as mere Adjectives they
usually take Abl. S. I.
But rare instances occur of Participles with Abl. I used verbally,,
and of Participles with Abl. e used adjectively.
Obs. The Gen. PI. in nti-um, rti-um, ati-um, eti-um is liable
to an occasional loss of i : recentum, sapientum, locupletum,
amantum, nostratum, &c.
III) This group contains Comparative Adjectives in or or- m.f.
us or- n. : melior, praestantior, sapientior, &c.
Abl. S. e as a rule, rarely I.
Vetus veter-, ancient, has the same endings : Abl. e (rarely I) - y
Neut. PL a, Gen. PL um.
IV) Group IV. has no Neut. Plur. Abl. S. I, Gen. PL um.
a) Compounds of pes : alipes, Abl. S. alipedi. As a Neuter
Subst. quadrupes has PL quadrupedia.
b) Compounds of color : concolor concolor-, of the same
colour ; discolor discolor-, tf/" different colour. Neut.
PL ia (rare).
c) ales alit-, winged (Ovid has alite).
degener degener-, degenerate uber vi^f-^ fruitful
inops inop-, destitute vigil vigil-, wakeful
memor memor-, mindful
immemor, unmindful
d} redux reduc-, returned I AUI q -
supplex supplic-, suppliant > ' 1? e<
Obs. The Neuter Comparative plus plur- has Abl. S. plure,,
Neut. N. V. A. plura, Gen. PL plurium.
Its compound complures has complura or compluria.
Table of Adjectives not purely consonantal :
SINGULAR.
M. F. N. M. F. N.
N.V. trist-is trist-e felix
Ace. trist-em trist-e felic-em felix
Gen. trist-is felic-is
Dat. trist-i
Abl. trist-i
felic-l
felic-l
M. F.
ingens
ingent-em ingens.
ingent-is
ingent-l
ingent-l (e)
25-
The Fourth Declension.
119
N.V. trist-es trist-ia
Ace. trist-es is trist-ia
Gen. trist-iuna
D.Abl. trist-ibus
PLURAL.
felic-es felic-ia
felic-es is felic-ia
felic-ium
felic-ibus
ingent-es ingent-ia
ingent-es Is ingent-ia
ingent-ium
ingent-ibus
SINGULAR.
M.
acer
N.V. celer celer-is celer-e
Other cases of Sing., and the Plural, as tristis.
F.
acr-is
acr-e
SINGULAR.
M. F. N.
N.V. meli-6r meli-iis
Ace. melior-em meli-iis
Gen. melior-is
Dat. melior-i
Abl. melior-e (i)
SINGULAR.
M. F. N.
N.V. inops
Ace. inop-em inops
Gen. inop-is
D. Abl. inop-l
PLURAL.
M. F. N.
melior-es melior-a
melior-es (is) melior-a
melior-um
melior-ibus
melior-ibus
PLURAL.
M. F.
inop-es
inop-es Is
inop-um
inop-ibus
SECTION V.
I The Fourth Declension: U-Nouns.
U-Nouns add s to the Stem in the Nominative Sing, of Masc.
(Fern.) words, gradu-s ; but not in that of Neuter words, which
are three only : cornu, horn ; genu, knee ; veru, spit. The endings
of the other Cases, uncontracted, appear in the declension of grus,
p. no ; but the forms, contracted as in the following Table, are
used by all U-nouns except grus, sus.
Fourth
Declen-
ii. Table.
SINGULAR.
step, m.
N.V. grad-iis
Ace. grad-um
Gen. grad-us
Dat. grad-ui u
Abl. grad-u
tribe, f.
trib-iis
trib-um
trib-us
trib-ui u
trib-u
PLURAL.
N.V. A. grad-us
Gen. grad-TTum
D.Abl. grad-*bus
trib-us
trib-imm
trib-ubus
%nee, n.
gen-u
gen-u
gen-us
gen-u
gen-u
gen-ua
gen-Vum
gen-Xbus
I2O Latin Wordlore. 25.
iii. Confusion of 0- and U-nouns.
a) On account of the near relation of the flat vowels o, u, the
U-declension is invaded by many forms of the O-declension, 2.
Thus senati, tumult i, occur in Sallust ; and in poets from the
earliest time down to Lucretius many such forms are found : ad-
venti, aesti, fructi, geli, gemiti, ornati, piscati, quaesti
(frequent), sumpti, victi, &c.
b] Ficus, f. fig-tree, an O-noun of Decl. 2., fluctuates in
Gen. S. I or us, Abl. S. o or u.
Nom. PL I or us, Ace. PL os or us.
Laurus, f. bay-tree, cupressus, cypress-tree, are similarly declined :
also pinus, pine, but with Abl. S. in u only : and cornus, cornel,
but with Gen. S. in i only.
Myrtus, f. myrtle, an O-noun, has Nom. PL I or us ; Ace. PL
os or us.
Quercus, f. oak, is a U-noun, but Gen. PL quercorum, Cic.
Coins, 2. f. distaff, Gen. S. I or us, D. o, Abl. o or u. Nom. PL
us, Ace. us or os.
So domus, f. house, fluctuates between Decl. 4 and Decl. 2.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
N. V. domus domus
Ace. domum domos (us)
Gen. domus domuum, domorum
Dat. dom-ui, o domibus
Abl. dom-o u domibus
Domi (or domui), at home, is the Locative. It can be used with,
an Attribute : domi meae, at my house ; domi Caesaris, at Caesar's
house. Also domui alienae, at another's house.
Pecu, 4. n. is a disused Nom. ( = pecus, pecoris), cases of which
are found : Dat. S. pecui. Abl. pecu. PL Nom. Ace. pecua (Dat.
Abl. pecubus ?).
Gelus, 4. m. frost, is a disused Nom., Gen. S. geli. Abl. gelu.
Gelum, 2. n. is also extant.
Tonitrus, 4. m. Abl. S. tonitru. Nom. Ace. PL tonitrus (also
tonitrua from abyform tonitruum2. n.). Dat. Abl. tonitribus.
(Ossua, ossuum, from a disused ossu, 4. n. = os bone, are only found
in old Inscrr.) Sub diu for sub divo, Lucr. v. 211.
iv. Cases in the Fourth Declension.
i) The Gen. Sing, of Neuter Nouns is now shewn to be like
that of others, in us, though old grammarians held it to be in u.
26. The Fifth Declension. 121
2) The Dat. ui is generally contracted into u : usu for usui :
'parce metu ;' ' victu invigilant/ Verg. It is much used with esse,
habere, &c., ' usui esse/ to be useful ; ' derisui habere/ c.
3) In the Dat. Abl. PL ubus is generally weakened into ibus.
The only Nouns which exclude ibus, are acus, arc us, and
tribus : iibus is however usual in artus (PL), limbs ; lacus; partus,
birth \ portus, harbour ; specus, cave] veru : and found in genu,
tonitrus, Quinquatrus. Other nouns have ibus alone.
v. Gender in the Fourth Declension.
The Feminine Nouns of the U-declension (besides those deter-
mined by meaning as females or plants) are : acus, needle, point ;
domus, house; manus, hand\ porticus, porch ; tribus, tribe \ Idus
(PL), the Ides (of the month) ; Quinquatrus (PL), a byform of
Quinquatria, the feast of Minerva.
Specus, m. is rarely f. (PL specua is found in E. L.).
Obs. Most Nouns of this Decl. are Derivatives ; either from
Substantives: consul-atus, magistr-atus, sen-atus, &c., signi-
fying office : or from the Supine Stem of Verbs, with abstract mean-
ing : actus, auditus, eventus, visus, &c. To these latter often
correspond forms rather less abstract in -io 3. f., actio, auditio,
visio, &c. ; and others concrete in um 2. n. : (actum), eventum,
visum, &c.
SECTION VI.
i. The Fifth Declension: E-Nouns.
26
E-nouns add s to the Stem in the Nominative : in the other Fifth
cases closely corresponding with dea in the First Declension. Declen-
sion.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Decl. i. dea dea-m dea-i
Decl. 5. die-s die-m die-i
deae dea-rum dea-bus
die-s die-rum die-bus
ii. Table.
SINGULAR.
day, c. thing, f. faith, f.
N. V. di-es r-es fid-es
Ace. di-em r-em fid-em
Gen. di-ei r-ei . fid-el
Dat. di-ei r-ei fid-ei
Abl. di-e r-e fid-e
PLURAL.
N. Ac. V. di-es r-es none
Gen. di-erum r-eruxn
Dat. Abl. di-ebus r-ebus
122 Latin Wordlore. 26,
iii. Cases in the Fifth Declension.
i) Dies and res are the only nouns fully declined. Acies,
edge^army, fades, face, effigies, image, glacies, ice (Verg.), series,
species, form, spes, hope, have the first three Plural Cases. 1 All
others are Singular only : being in sense either abstract or col-
lective. Many are byforms of A-nouns :
materia, i., materies, 5., mother-stuff, matter
mollitia, i., mollities, 5., softness, effeminacy.
So amaritia, es ; avaritia, es ; barbaria, es ; duritia, es ; luxuria,
es ; segnitia, es, c.
Other words are caesaries, (clipf) hair ; caries, rot (in wood) ;
congeries, mass ; esuries, hunger ; macies, wasting disease ; pau-
peries, poverty ; pernicies (or permities), bane, ruin ; progenies,
offspring-, rabies, fury, madness; sanies, corrupt matter, gore ;
scabies, the scab, mange, or rot ; superficies, surface ; temperies,
climate, temper, moderation ; intemperies, immoderation (PL in-
temperiae of the ist. Decl.).
2) A few Nouns of Decl. 3. confuse some cases with Decl. 5.
Thus fames, hunger, has Abl. fame; tabes, Abl. tabe, in
Lucr. Requies, rest, has Ace. requiem and requietem, Gen.
requietis, Dat. requieti, Abl. requie. Plebes or plebs has
Gen. plebis, plebei, plebi, Dat. plebi or plebei.
3) An example of the old Gen. Sing, in es survives in Lucr. iv,
1083 : ( Quodcumque est rabies unde illaec germina surgunt.'
4) The e of Gen. Dat. ei is long after 1 : diei, progeniei ;
Jut short, classically, after a Consonant : fid-ei, rei (spei ?). But
in old Latin it was long in these also : * plenu' fidei/ Enn., Lucr. ;
rei (or reii). Plautus and Terence make ei in rei, spei coalesce
by synizesis.
5) Ei was also contracted into e, anciently into I, diei, die, dH ;
plebei, plebi. ' Constantis iuvenem fide ;' ' commissa fide/ Hor.
' Munera laetitiamque dii/ Verg. A. Gellius cites from old Latin
authors such instances as acii, fami, luxurii, pernicii, progenii, c.
6) the phrases 'die crastini/ 'die proximi,' 'die septimi/ are
examples of the Locative Case in this Decl. So cotidie, postridie. 2
iv. Gender in the Fifth Declension.
All E-nouns are Fern, except dies, which, when it means a day,
is usually, and in the Plur. always, Masc. So its compound meri-
dies, noon, is Masc. classically. But, if it means time, dies is
Fern. : ' Longa dies illi quid profuit ? ' luv. x.
1 Some other forms appear anciently or in post-classical writings, as speres for spesi
facierum ; specierum, speciebus.
* No Adjectives belong to the 4th and 5th Declensions.
27. Irregular Nouns. 123
SECTION VII.
i. Irregular Nouns. Irreeju-
lar
1) Irregularity (dvwpaXia) is said to exist in a word if it de-
parts in any respect from the normal constitution of its class.
2) A Substantive is normally constituted when it has two Num-
bers, with six Cases in each, all of the same gender, following one
pattern of Declension. A Substantive is said to be irregular, so far
as it departs from this constitution.
3) Irregularity may consist in Abundance (more forms than
usual) or Defect (fewer forms than usual).
A word may be Abundant in one respect and Defective in an-
other. Thus, vulgus, 2, is Abundant in having two Genders and
two forms of Accusative : Defective in having no Plural.
ii. Abundance in Substantives. Abun-
dance-
Abundance is shewn in
i) Substantives which, with the same Clipt-stem and meaning,
are formed after more than one Declension. See 25. 6.
a) With difference of Gender :
Decl. i. f. and 2. n.
alimoni-a um, nurture ; cingul-a um (us, m.), belt ; essed-a
um, chaise ; margarit-a um, pearl ; mend-a um, fault\
mulctr-a um, milking-pail.
Note ostrea, oyster, f. ; PL ostrea, oysters, n.
Decl. i. f. and 2. m.
vesper-a, vesper, evening ; acin-a, us, berry.
Decl. i. f. and 3. m.
cratera, crater, mixing-bawl.
Decl. i. f., 2. n., and 3. n.
gausap-a, um, e, frieze cloth or coat.
Decl. i. f. and 3. n.
caepa, caepe, onion (PI. from caepa).
Decl. 2. n. and 5. f.
diluvi-um, es, deluge.
Decl. 2. n. and 3. f.
consorti-um, o, companionship ; contagi-um, o, contagion.
Decl. 2. n., 3. n., and 3. f.
praesepium, praesepe, praesepis, crib y stall (PI. 3. n.).
Decl. 2. n., 3. n., and 3. m.
tapetum, tapete, tapes, carpet.
124 Latin Wordlore. 27.
Decl. 2. n. and 3. n.
tergum, tergus (or-), back (rarely 2 m.)
Decl. 2. n. and 4. m.
angiport-um,us, lane', conat-um, us, endeavour ; event-um,us,
issue ; event (p. 121, Obs.}-, incest-urn, us, incest ; suggest-
um,us,//^#. Fretum, frith, has an ancient form fretus, 4.
0&y. The old root pen-, interior (whence penes, penitus, penetrare,
penetrale, penates), has a Substantive exhibited in several forms, all
classical : penu-s, 4. f., penu-s, 2. m., penu-m, 2. n., and penus
penor-, 3. n., provision, store of food \ as, 'magna penus/ Lucil. ;
6 penus annuus,' Plaut. ; ' penum erile/ Afran. ; ' frumenta penus-
que/ Hor.
b) With the same Gender :
Decl. i. and 3. f.
cassida, cassis, helmet ; fulica, Mix, coot; iuvent-a, us,youth ;
senect-a, us, old age.
Decl. 2. and 3. m.
delphinus, delphin ; elephantus, elephas ; Mulciber (beri, bri,
and beris,bris) ; Oedipus (i and odis) ; scorpius, scorpio.
Decl. 3. and 5. f.
colluvio, colluvies, conflux ; paupertas, pauperies, poverty.
Decl. 2. and 3. n.
iugerum (iuger), acre; nihilum, nihil, nothing. Necessus,
necessum, necesse, necessity. See Corssen, ii. 238.
Decl. i. and 5. (see 26).
On Greek names of two Declensions, see 24. ix.
Obs. Names of trees have Nom. us, f., their fruits um, n. usually,
cerasus cherry-tree cerasum cherry
prunus plum-tree prunum plum
So malus, apple-tree, malum, apple ; pirus, pear-tree, pirum, pear :
but amygdala, almond-tree, amygdalum, almond.
2) Substantives, chiefly of Decl. 2, which vary their Gender, and
with it their Case-forms, in the Plural.
a) locus, place, m. . . . loci, m loca, n.
(loci often means topics, places in books, but not exclusively)
iocus,/*?/, m. ... ioci, m ioca, n.
sibilus, hiss, m. . . . sibili, m sibila, n.
carbasus, canvas, f. . . (carbasi) .... carbasa, n.
Tartarus, hell, m Tartara, n.
Like Tartarus are formed many names of mountains, referred in
Sing, to mons, m., in PI. to iuga, n. :
Ismar-us, PI. -a ; Maenal-us, PI. -a ; Tayget-us, PL -a.
27. Irregular Nouns. 125
b] rastrum, harrow, n. . . rastri, m. . . rastra, n.
frenum, bit, n. ... freni, m. . . frena, n.
caelum, heaven, n. . . caeli, m. (Lucr.)
porrum, leek, n. . . . porri, m.
6-) In Decl. 3 :
siser, skirret, n. . . . siseres, m.
Many examples of words in one Decl. which borrow cases from
another are given in 21 . . . 26 : plebes, fames, requies, domus,
fraus, &c. See especially 25.
Note. The compounds respublica, commonwealth, iusiurandum,
oath, decline both elements : rempublicam, reipublicae, republica,
&c. ; iurisiurandi, iureiurando,
iii. Defect in Substantives. r> e fec-
tiva Nu-
Defect is of Number or Case. mero -
A. DEFECTIVA NUMERO are :
I) Nouns which have no Plural Number (Singular only). Singular
only.
i. Words which seem, by their nature, to need no Plural, are
Nomina Propria, Abstracta, Collectiva, and Materialia.
Yet Proper Names may take a Plural, when several of one name
are mentioned, duodecim Caesares, the twelve Caesars ; Cn. et L.
Scipiones, the Scipios Gnaeiis and Luciiis ; also if, as types of a
class, they become Appellatives : ' Non omnes possumus esse
Cicerones/ we cannot all be Ciceros. ' Sint Maecenates, non
derunt, Flacce, Marones/ Mart.
Abstracta take a Plural, when various instances of their occur-
rence are implied : odia, hatreds, amicitiae, friendships, invidiae,
envies, impietates, &c.
So Collectiva may take a Plural, if several instances are implied :
popuLi, peoples, senatus, senates, mundi, worlds, &c.
Materialia may take a Plural, when more than one kind is im-
plied : vina, wines. Also when objects made of the material are
meant : cerae, waxen tablets or waxen busts ; sera, bronzes ; mar-
mora, works in marble. Other metals, as aurum, gold, argentum,
silver, are not used in the Plural, because objects of show were not
usually made in them. Argentum, Sing., is used for the collective
silver plate of an owner.
As we sayyfofc, meat, lamb, cheese, c., so the Romans expressed
objects of ordinary consumption in the Singular : ' Villa mea
abundat porco, haedo, agno, gallina, caseo, melle,' C. Faba,
Sing., is used for beans, rosa for roses, glans for acorns, &C. 1
Similarly, miles for milites, eques for equites : gemma,
jewelled clips, tegula, tiles.
On the other hand, poets use in the Plural many words which
might appear to confine their meaning to the Singular : mella,
tura, farra, hordea, nives, grandines, rores, soles, rura, corda, colla,
pectora, ora, silentia, crepuscula, ligna, c. So they pluralize local
1 The wordfea in English is a modern corruption of the true form 'peas? L. pis-urn,
Fr. pois. In Shakespere we find ' a peas or a bean.' The plural \spease <yc peasen.
126
Latin Wordlore.
127.
names : Esquiliae, the Esquiline hill \ Capitolia, the Capitol,
Palatia, the Palatine, &c.
2. Generally, in Latin, the Plural has a large and liberal use.
Yet the following words may be mentioned as Singular only, no
good authority or analogy sanctioning a Plural form :
acetum
vinegar
lac
milk
ador
spelt
letum
death
aether
sky
limus
mud
argentum
stiver
meridies
noon
aurum
gold
merum i
fames
hunger
nectar >
wine
ferrum
iron
oleum
oil
garum
pickle
plumbum
lead
humus
ground
pontus
sea
pus
salus
sanguis
supellex
venia
ver
vesper
virus
vulgus
matter
safety
blood
furniture
pardon
spring
evening
venom
populace
It is unsafe to say of Abstracts, like pietas, infantia, pueritia, ex-
perientia, sapientia, that they are Singular only ; because, if any
such words are not found Plural in classical authors, so many Plurals
are found resembling them that the possibility of their Plural use
cannot be confidently denied.
Abstracts of the Fifth Declension are not, however, used in the
Plural, but their corresponding forms of the First Declension.
Plural II) Nouns never, or rarely found Singular (Plural only). These
only. are numerous j n Latin.
1) Names of People or Tribes, individuals of which are seldom
mentioned : Aborigines; and the three original tribes of Rome,
Ramnes, Tities, Luceres. But most of such names may occur
as Singular : Arpinas, Samnis, Callus, Saxo ; thus Hor. ' infi-
delis Allobrox ;' * Marsus et Appulus ;' * Dacus et Aethiops.'
2) Mountain, Island, &c. groups : Alpes (Alpis rare) : Acrocer-
aunia (iuga) : Aegates, Baleares, Cyclades (insulae). So the
street Carinae (the Keels) at Rome; Tempe, (vale in Thessaly).
3) Many names of Cities and Towns are Plural, as consisting of
parts: I. Athenae, Baiae, Cumae, Mycenae, Syracusae,
Thebae; 1 2. Argi, Delphi, Gabii, Philippi, Pompeii, Veii :
Ecbatana, Leuctra, Susa; 3. Cures, Gades, Sardis; or from
the name of the people, asLeontini: 2 or from a Plural Appellative,
as Aquae Sextiae, Fundi, Ostia, Centumcellae.
4) Names of recurring Calendar days : Calendae or Kalen-
dae; Nonae; Idus, 4. And of Holidays, Festivals, Games, tc. :
as Latinae, Sementivae (feriae), Quinquatrus; nundinae
(feriae), market day \ Circenses (ludi) ; Feralia, Floralia, Libe-
ralia, Megalesia, Dionysia, Nemea, Olympia, Pythia, Sa-
turnalia (festa). To this class belong nuptiae (epulae), wedding ;
repotia (festa), feast after a wedding ; sponsalia (sacra or
1 Cicero writes Cyrenae, Mytilenae for the Greek forms in e.
2 Most of the considerable towns in and around France take their names from the old
Gallic tribes of which they were the capitals: Paris (Lutetia Parisiorum) ; Amiens
(Ambiani) ; Limoges (Lemovices) ; Bourges (Bituriges) ; Orleans (Aureliani) ; Tours
( Turones) ; Rouen (Rotomagi) ; Soissons (Suessiones) ; Langres
(Senones) ; Nantes (NannetesJ ; Treves (Augusta Treverorum), &c.
Langres (Lingones) ; Sens
27. Irregular Nouns. 127
festa), betrothal ; iusta (sacra), funeral rites; parent alia (festa),
funeral banquet ; infer iae (epulae), offering to the dead.
5) Neuter Greek names for treatises or poems : ethica, ethics ;
metaphysica, metaphysics ; Georgica, the Georgics, c. (scripta).
6) Masculine Collective Names of persons seldom or never so
named individually : Decl. 2. gemini, twins ; liberi, the children of a
free Roman; one being unus (una) e liberisor liberorum : inferi,
dwellers below ; superi, gods above ; posteri, posterity ; Decl. 3.
maiores, ancestors ; minores, descendants; caelites, heavenly deities ;
lemures, goblins ; penates, household-gods ; optimates, primores,
proceres, chiefs, nobles (the last six rarely S. : < Agnosco procerem/
luv.) ; manes, ^ ghost m ghosts.
7) Parts of the human body, subsisting plurally, and seldom or
never separately mentioned : cani (capilli), grey hairs ; cervices 3.
neck (also cervix) ; lactes 3. small guts ; exta 2. (outermost) en-
trails ; intestina 2. viscera 3. entrails (viscus used) : ilia 3. groin,
bowels ; praecordia 2. midriff, heart ; pantices 3. paunch. The
words genae, cheeks ; tempora 3. temples ; fauces 3. jaws ; renes 3.
kidneys, imply that the Sing, may be used, if necessary. Hence
gena (Suet.), tempus (Verg.) : Abl. fauce often in poetry (Hor.
Ov. &c.) : ren is not found in classical Latin ; but can be used
technically.
Artus 4. the limbs ; Sing, once in Lucan.
8) Many other words, which may be generally distinguished
thus :
a) Plural Nouns implying individuals, which are not cited in the
Singular except in rare instances marked (s.) :
Decl. i. antae, pilasters ; clitellae, packsaddle\ dirae, curses,
furies (s.); gerrae, (wattled twigs) nonsense; habenae, reins
(s. in Hor.) ; plagae, nets ; scalae, stairs ; thermae, warm
baths; valvae, folding doors .
Decl. 2. fori, hatches (of a ship) ; acta, transactions; arma, arms ;
bellaria, dessert ; crepundia, (rattling) toys ; cibaria, food ;
munia, duties ; pascua, pastures ; sata, cornfields ; scruta,
second-hand wares ; tesqua, wilds.
Decl. 3. antes, m. front vine rows; casses, m. nets (s.) ; com-
pedes, f. fetters (s.) ; fides, f. lute-strings (s.) ; obices, c.
bars (s.) ; sentes, c. thorns (s.) ; vepres, c. brambles (s.) ;
magalia, mapalia, n. huts, village.
V) Plural Nouns implying parts not similar and separable.
Decl. i. balneae, bath-house (balnea, baths); bigae, chariot and
pair; cunae, cradle; divitiae, riches; epulae, banquet; ex-
sequiae, burial; exuviae, spoils (stript from the dead);
induviae, clothes ; lapicidinae, slonequarry ; manubiae
1 The word Manes belongs to Italian, probably to Etruscan, religion. Departed spirits
were dteified under the title ofdi manes or manes; and the word is sometimes used, as
a true Plural, of all such spirits ; sometimes as a Singular-Plural, of the spirit or ghost of an
individual. Thus, ' Quae vis deorum est manium,' Hor. ; ' Sunt aliquid manes,' Prop. '.
' Callimachi manes,' Prop. ; 'Verginiae manes,' Liv.
128 Latin Wordlore.
or manibiae, prize money (in war) : phalerae, trappings \
parietinae, ruins ; quadrigae, chariot and four (s.) ; quis-
quiliae, rubbish ; reliquiae, remnant,} salinae, saltwork ;
scopae, besom, broom. .
Decl. 2. cancelli, railing (in court) ; clathri, grating ; codicilli,
ledger \ adversaria, notebook compita, cross-road or roads
(s.) : cunabula, cradle ; donaria, treasury ; multicia, yf;^
raiment*, serta, wreath, garland.
shoals \ moenia, town-walls.
c) Plural Nouns implying repetition or continuation.
Decl. i. angustiae, straits (s.) ; argutiae, subtleties, acuteness ;
blanditiae, flattery (s.) ; decimae, ///#$ ; deliciae (s.), *&-
light, darling ; excubiae, nightwatch ; facetiae, pleasantry
(s.) ; feriae, holidays ; ineptiae, follies (s.) ; inimicitiae,
enmity (s.) ; insidiae, ambush, treachery ; minae, threats ;
nugae, /rz)fcr ; praestigiae, jugglery ; primitiae, yfr^/-
fruits ; tricae, tricks ; tenebrae, darkness ; vindiciae, claim.
Decl. 2. fasti, annals; flabra, blasts (also flamina); lamenta,
lamentations ; oblivia, forgetfulness.
Decl. 3. grates, f. thanks ; verbera, stripes (s.) ; tormina,
Varia-
111; INOUI
is wiiiuii vary
LllClI IllCd.ll
mg in me jriuicu.
tion of
Mean-
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
ing in
Plural.
aedes
temple
aedes
house
aqua
water
aquae
mineral springs
auxilium
help
auxilia
auxiliary forces
bonum
good (abstr.)
bona
goods, property
career
prison
carceres
starting-place (s)
castrum )
castellum >
fort
castra
camp
cera
wax
cerae
waxen tablets or busts
comitium
A ssembly-placc
comitia
the Assembly at Rome
copia
plenty
copiae
forces, resources
facultas
faculty
facultates
means
finis
an end
fines
boundaries
fortuna
fortune
fortunae
gifts of fortune
gratia
favour
gratiae
thanks (s)
hortus
garden
horti
pleasure-grounds
impedimentum
litter a
hindrance
a letter
impedimenta
litterae
baggage
epistle, literature
loculus
, box
loculi
money-case
ludus
play
ludi
public games
lustrum
five years
lustra
lairs, dens
natalis
birth-day
natales
origin
opera
exertion
operae
workpeople (s)
opis (Gen.)
help
opes
power, wealth [faction
pars
a portion
partes
part in a play ; side or
2 ;. Irregular Nouns. 129
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
rostrum
beak
rostra
the Roman pulpit
sal
salt
sales
wit (s)
tabula
board
tabulae
writing tablets
torus
couch
tori
muscles
balneum, 2.
bath
balneae, i.
bath-house
epulum. 2.
sacred feast
epulae, i.
banquet
B. DEFECTIVA CASIBUS. Defec-
In many Nouns the exigencies of language have called into use sibus.
a portion only of the ordinary Case-forms. 1
A) The following Nouns have the full Plural ; but in the Singu-
lar they have only
a)
Four Cases :
N.V. vis, Ace.
vim,
Abl.
vi
; force, 3.
f.
PL vir-es ium, &c.
Nom.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
(dap-)
(frug-)
em
em
is
is
i
i
e
e
banquet,
fruit, 3.
3-f.
| PL es um, &c.
Three Cases :
(op-)
(prec-)
em
em
is
i
e
e
help, 3. f.
prayer, 3.
f.
}FL
es
um, &c.
(sord-)
em
is
e
dirt, 3. f.
PL
es,
ium, &C,
(vie-)
em
is
e
change, 3.
f.
PL
es
- &c.
visc-us
eris
ere
entrail, 3.
n.
PL
a
um, &c.
c) Two Cases :
(verber-) is e stripe, 3. n. PI. a um, &c.
d) One Case : being Ablatives of Decl. 3 :
ambage, f. | casse, m. | fauce, f. | obice, c. | compede, f. | iugere, n.
J5} Many Nouns with full Singular have only N. V. Ace. Plural.
Such are farra, mella, murmura, rura, tura, &c., 3. n. ; metus, situs,
&c., 4. m. ; acies, effigies, facies, species, spes, 5. f.
Astus, cunning, 4. m., has Nom. Abl. Sing, and Nom. Ace.
Plur.
C) The following Nouns, without Plural, have in the Singular
a) Four Cases:
Nom. V. Ace. Gen. Dat. Abl.
(dicio on-) . em is i e power, 3. f.
lu-es . . em e wasting disease, 3. f.
man-e . . e e (!) morning, 3. n.
1 Words having one Case only in either number were called by the old grammarians
MONOPTOTA ; those with two, DIPTOTA ; those with three, TRIPTOTA ; those with
four, TETRAPTOTA : (from TTTWO-I?, case, and the several numerals).
K
130 Latin Wordlore.
U) Three Cases : T
Norn. V. Ace. Gen. Dat. Abl.
fors ... fort-e chance, 3. f.
fas ... fas right (by divine law), 3. n.
nefas . . nefas wrong (by divine law), 3.11.
c) Two Cases :
Nom.
instar . . instar likeness, 3. n.
nihil, nil . nihil, nil nothing, 3. n.
opus . . opus need, 3. n.
impetis impete farce, 3. m.
venum veno sale, 2. n.
d) Nouns using only one Case are numerous :
Nom. glos, 3. f. sister-in-law ; inquies, 5. f. restlessness.
Ace. secus, 3. n. sex, with epithet virile or muliebre,
pessum, to the bad (for ped-sum), 4. m. in connexion with
Verbs (pessum dare, pessum ire, &c.).
Gen. die is (causa), 3. for form's sake : non nauci, 2. not
worth a nutshell, worthless.
Dat. despicatui, frustratui, ludificatui habere, to de-
spise, baffle, ridicule; indutui gerere, to wear-, ob-
tentui esse, to be a show, &c., 4.
Abl. sponte (mea, sua, &c.), 3. f. by choice, spontaneously.
accitu, admonitu, iussu, iniussu, coactu, concessu, ductu,
hortatu, mandatu, permissu, rogatu, &c. 4.
noctu, by night; diu, lucu, by daylight, 4.
in promptu esse, in procinctu stare, to be in readi-
ness, 4.
natu maior, elder; natu minor, younger, 4.
pondo, 2. by weight, understands librarum, and is used
with any Numeral : corona ducentum pondo, a crown
of IQQ pounds' weight.
D) The following Nouns, without Singular, have in Plural
a) Two Cases :
N. Ace. suppetiae, -as, succour ; grates, thanks (gratibus, Tac.).
Gen. repetundarum, Abl. repetundis, i. f. extortion (under-
stand rerum, rebus).
Ace. foras, out of doors, Abl. foris, abroad, i. f.
b) One Case :
Ace. ad incitas redigere, to drive to extremities, i. f.
infitias ire, to deny, I. f.
Abl. (gratiis) gratis, freely ; ingratiis, against will, I. f.
E) Indeclinable, with one form for any Case, are
Names of letters ; alpha, beta, &c.
Various words from other languages : Adam.
Infinitives : am a re, vivere.
1 Necesse 3. n. (Nom. Ace.), necessity, Gen. necessis (Lucr.) ; Plautus has necessum,
necessus. See p. 1^4, and M. Lucr. ii. 710, vi. 815.
28-29. Comparison. 131
iv. Irregularity in Adjectives.
I) Some Adjectives have two forms, one like bonus, the other AV*
like tristis or ingens : tiva
acclivis (us) steep imbecillus is weak d^S*
biiugis (us) two-yoked imberbis (us) beardless
effrenus (is) unbridled inermus is unarmed
unanimus is of one mind opulentus (opulens) wealthy
hilaris (us) cheerful violentus (violens) violent
So exanim-us, is ; semianim-us, is ; sublim-is, us ; and others.
The Adverb luculenter implies an old form luculens.
II) a. Some are Defective in Number : Defec ,
p2LUci,/e?v, is rarely Sing. (Hor. ad Pis. 203).
plerique, most, is found Sing, with Collective words :
< pleraque nobilitas 7 (for plerique nobiles), Sail.
b. Some are Defective in Case and Number :
a) Two Cases :
Nom. S. pern ox, Abl. pernocte, all night.
b) One Case;
Nom. S. damnas, condemned, for damnat(u)s, with esto : but
used also idiomatically as Nom. PL with sunto ;
exspes, hopeless ; pot is, pote, able, possible.
c. Of some the Nominatives are not found, but other Cases only:
(sons), guilty ; sontes ; the guilty : but insons, innocent, has full
Cases.
Macte, Voc. S., macti, Voc. PL, are used with esto, este, be
blessed, be lucky, &c. : ' Macte (macti) virtute esto (este),' good luck
to y OIL for your valoiir, Liv. See M. Lucr. v. 1339.
d. The dat. S. frugi (for good) is used as an indeclinable Adjec-
tive of all Cases : frugi servus, a good honest slave. Opposed to
this is the indeclinable Adjective nequam, good for nothing-, pro-
bably for ne quam frugem (habet), no good. See pp. 129, 133.
These idioms are drawn from the colloquial language of Italian
farmers in early times.
SECTION VIII.
29
i. Comparison of Adjectives. Compa-
rison of
The same quality may be perceived in several ob- tives! c "
jects. If three be taken, the quality may be perceived
in the second more than in the first, and in the third
most of all. These relations are expressed by the
flexion called COMPARISON in Adjectives and Adverbs.
K2
132
Latin Wordlore.
29*
The Degrees of Comparison are therefore three :
I. The POSITIVE Degree shews quality absolutely
perceived: vir procerus, a tall man ; or
equally in two: vir tarn procerus quam
Lucius, a man as tall as Lucius.
II. The COMPARATIVE Degree shews quality per-
ceived more in one of two than in the other :
vir procerior quam Lucius, a man taller
than Lucius.
III. The SUPERLATIVE Degree shews quality per-
ceived most in one of several : vir omnium
procerissimus, the tallest man of all.
The formation of the Comparative and Superlative is explained
in p. 42, Note.
Com-
i .
parison p
of Ad-
Compar.
Superl.
Actives, dur-us hard
dur-lor harder
dur-issimus hardest
trist-is sad
trist-ior sadder
trist-issimus saddest
fel-ix happy
felic-ior happier
felic-issimus happiest
lib-er free
lib-er-ior more free
lib-er-rimus most free
nig-er black
nig-r-ior blacker
nig-er-rimus blackest
salub-er healthy
salub-r-ior healthier
salub-er-rimus healthiest
simil-is like
simil-ior more like
simil-limus most like
Like simiiis are formed facilis; gracilis; humilis; dim-
cilis ; dissimilis. But utilis and others have Sup. -issimus.
Maturus, early, has Sup. maturrimus or matur issimus.
iii. Notes on Comparison,
a) The Comparative may imply a degree too high (excess) :
durior (i.e. durior aequo), too harsh.
b) The Superlative may express not only the highest, but a very
high degree (Elative sense) : ' vir doctissimus/ a very learned man
(i.e. in the highest grade of learning).
c) The Superlative form before the Augustan age was generally
-iimus, after which -imus prevailed : maxumus, maximus ; optu-
mus, optimus. See p. 31, C.
d) Participles Present and Past often have Comparative Flexion
like other Adjectives :
amans amantior amantissimus
paratus paratior paratissimus
29-
Comparison.
*33
optimus
pessimus
minimus
plurimus
best
worst
least
most
iv. Irregular Comparison.
1) Forms from various Roots.
bonus good melior better
malus bad peior worse
parvus small minor less
multus 'much (plus, n.) more
The Comparative of multus has no M. F. form in the Sing., but
full Plural : plur-es a, plur-ium, plur-ibus.
Lucr. has parvissima, i. 615. See M.
2) Variant Stem-forms.
mag-nus, great maior, greater ; maximus, greatest
frugi, honest ; frugalior, frugalissimus.
nequam, worthless ; nequior, nequissimus.
dives ) . T divitior divitissimus
(dis) I ditior ditissimus
Adjectives compounded with -dicus -ficus -volus (from dico,
facio, volo) form their comparison in -entior -entissimus, as if
from Participles in -ens.
maledicus slanderous maledicentior
magnificus splendid magnificentior
benevolus benevolent benevolentior
maledicentissimus
magnificentissimus
benevolentissimus
Similarly ;
egenus,
providus,
needy,
foreseeing.
egentior,
providentior,
egentissimus
providentissimus.
v. Defective Comparison.
i) Comparison without Positive Form :
a) The Comparison of Position springs from Prepositions, and
is not fully represented by Positive Adjectives :
Preposition. Positive Adj. Comparative.
Superlative.
e, ex out of
(exter) exterior
extremus
intra within
(inter) interior
intimus
supra above
(super) superior
supremus, summus
infra below
(infer) inferior
infimus, imus
(prae) before
prior
primus
post after
(poster) posterior
postremus (postumus)
cis on near side
(citer) citerior
citimus
ultra beyond
(ulter) ulterior
ultimus
prope near
propior
proximtis
de down from
(deter) deterior
deterrimus worst
ad} Of the Positive forms, (inter, citer, ulter, deter) are not
used.
Super(us), infer(us) are used in Neut. Sing, with mare
(mare superum, mare inferum) ; and in Plur.
134 Latin Wordlore. 29.
Exter(us) is rare in Sing., but not infrequent in Plur.
Poster(us) is used (but not in Nom. Sing. Masc.) : pos-
tera aetas ; postero die: and Plur. posteri. See
p. 127.
Prior, primus are from a lost form pri-s. Some derive
them from Trpo : (pro-ior) = prior ; (pro-imus) = primus.
bb) Of the Comparatives, deterior means worse (than some-
thing good, i.e. fallen off) peior worse (than something
bad).
cc) Of the Superlatives, summus has the sense 'highest','
or supremus, poet. On the other hand, supremus is used
for < last? and summus, poet. : 'venit summa dies,' Verg.
Postremus, hindmost (last) : postumus, coming after, last born,
born after the father's death.
Four Superlatives can express the notion < last : ' ultimus (yon-
dermost, farthest), extremus (outermost) ; which are most
usual: also postremus and supremus.
To these Comparisons may be added :
dexter, on the right, dexterior, dexterrimus or dextimus.
sinister, on the left, sinisterior, (sinistimus).
b) - ocior swifter, ocissimus swiftest.
Tpo\.\K preferable, potissimus.
In the Greek w/cuc (ocis), swift, and the Defective Adj. potis,
pote, are shewn the original Positives of these forms.
2) Comparison without Comparative Form.
The Adjectives bellus, consultus, di versus, falsus, in-
clitus, invictus, invitus, meritus, novus, par, persuasus,
sacer, are found with Superl., but without Comparative.
Vetus, Sup. veterrimus (veterior, Plaut. ; but vetustior is
usual).
3) Comparison without Superlative Form.
a) senex old senior
iuvenis young iunior (for iuvenior)
Senior has a kind of Pos. force : ' one who has become old'
Elder is expressed by natu maior, or maior: eldest by
natu maximus, or maximus. So younger is natu
minor, or minor; youngest, natu minimus, or mini-
mus.
b) Adjectives in btlis have Comparative without Superl. :
except a few : amabilis, mobilis, nobilis : amabilissimus,
&c.
c) Also the following :
adolescens, aequalis, agrestis, alacer, arcanus, astutus, ater,
caecus, capitalis, civilis, crispus, declivis, diuturnus, deses,
exilis, longinquus, opimus, popularis, proclivis, pronus,
propinquus, regalis, rusticus, salutaris, satur, segnis, serus,
supinus, surdus, taciturnus, teres, vicinus, &c.
Note, (satior) satius, better, Jitter, is a Comparative from the Ad-
verbial word satis, enough.
30-
Comparison.
135
4) Absence of Comparative Flexion.
A great number of Adjectives have no Comparative Flexion :
some being incapable of it by their meaning (Incomparabilia) :
merus, vernus ; some unsuited to it by their form : memor, tre-
mulus ; while for others no reason can be assigned but usage. 1
Among Adjectives excluded from Comparison by their form are
most of those in eus, ius, uus : idoneus, anxius, arduus ; (but
not those in quus : antiquus, antiquior, antiquissimus).
Rare instances occur of Comparative Flexion by such Adjectives :
assiduissimus, Cic. ; strenuissimus, Tac. And luvenal has ' Egre-
gius cenat meliusque miserrimus horum/ xi. 12.
Any Adjectives, not Incomparabilia, can be modified Compara-
tively by the addition of the Adverb mag is : ' Quid mag is est
durum saxo, quid mollius unda/ Ov. ; and Superlatively by the
Adverbs maxime, summe, also admodum, perquam, valde,
and others.
vi. Comparison of Adverbs.
30
Com-
parison
of Ad-
i) ADVERBS in e, 6, e, ter, derived from Adjectives, verbs"
often follow their Comparison, with Comparative End-
ing fts, Superlative e (6, urn) :
Adj.
Adv.
dignus
digne
worthily
dignius-
dignissime
Exam-
vafer
vafre
cunningly
vafrius
vaferrime
ples.
tutus
tuto
safely
tutius
tutissime (6)
facilis
facile
easily
facilius
facillime
fortis
fortiter
bravely
fortius
fortissime
constans
constanter
firmly
constantius
constantissime
audax
audacter
boldly
audacius
audacissime
But
meritus
uber
merito deservedly meritissimo (e)
(ubertim) abundantly uberius uberrime
1 Adjectiva Incomparabilia are too numerous to be set down at full, and are indeed best
learnt by reading and practice. Among them may be mentioned : (i) those which express
colour, matter, time, place, nationality, descent : a 1 b u s (but v i r id i s has Compar.
flexion), aureus, aestivus, campester, Romanus, paternus, &c. (2) De-
minutives, paryulus, vetulus, &c. (3) Compounds of e, per, sub, ve: egeli-
dus, per facilis, subobscurus, vesanus, &c. (many compounds of p r a e are
comparable, as praeclarior). (4) Compounds of a n i m u s, arma, color, genus,
gradus, inguen, lex, modus, sonus, somnus (but the compounds of ars,
cor, m e n s are comparable : inertior, misericordior, dementior). (5) Com-
pounds of fero, gero: sign if er, belliger, &c. (6) Most adjectives in -icus,
-Tmus, -Tnus, -In us, -or us, -Ivus, -bundus, -aris, -alis, -ilis; exceptions are,
divinus, familiaris, hospitalis, liberalis, civilis, and a few more.
(7) Also the following with many more : almus, canus, caducus, calvus, claudus, compos,
impos, cicur, dispar, impar, ferus, fessus, gnarus, gnavus, ieiunus, lacer, lassus,
mancus, mediocris, merus, minis, mutilus, mutus, nefastus, rudis, sospes, trepidus,
trux, vagus, vivus, volucer, volgaris, &c.
Comic poets invent jocular forms of Comparison : exclusissimus, ipsissimus, oculissi-
mus, patruissimus, ridiculissimus.
136
Latin Wordlore.
Adj. '
Adv.
Compar.
bonus
bene
well
melius
better
malus
male
ill
peius
worse
magnus
magnope
\&greatly
magis
more
parvus {
paulum
parum
"StL
J minus
less
multus
multum
much
plus
more
ocius
quickt.
pnus
2) Irregular Comparison is in most forms represented adver-
bially :
Superl.
optima best
pessime worst
maxime most
( minime very little
t minimum least
plurimum very much
" ocissime very quickly
\ primum first
1 primo at first
potissimum preferably
deterrime very badly
intime
postremo
proxime
saepissime
diutissime
penitissime
nupernme
Magis means 'more in degree-,' plus, < more in quantity. 1
6 Lucio magis carus sum : ' ' Lucius me plus diligit.'
potius rather
deterius worse
intus
within
interius
post
after
posterius
prope
nearly
propius
Also :
saepe
often
saepius
diu
long
diutius
penitus
deeply
penitius
satis
enough
satius
secus
otherwise setius
temperi '
betimes
temperius
nuper
lately
3*
Pro-
nouns.
SECTION IX.
i. Pronouns (Pronomina).
1. A Pronoun, being a substitute for a Noun, may be
(i) Substantive: (2) Adjective: (3) Capable of being, both.
2. A Pronoun may be
(a) ist Person : (b) 2nd Person : (c) 3rd Person : (d) Of all
Persons.
ii, Classification of Pronouns.
A. The Pronouns purely Substantival are:
1. The PERSONAL Pronouns ego, /, nos, we, of the
First Person ; and tu, thou, vos, jj/<?, of the Second.
2. The REFLEXIVE Pronoun, se, himself ] herself, or
themselves, which has no Nominative, and is always re-
ferred to a Subject of the Third Person, Singular or
Plural.
31. Pronouns. 137
B. The Pronouns Proper purely Adjectival are:
The POSSESSIVE Pronouns, which correspond to the
Personal and Relative Pronouns :
meus, my y mine corresponding to ... ego
noster, our nos
tuus, thy, thine tu
vester, your vos
suus, his, her, or their own se
cuius, whose qui
with the Gentilia, nostras, of our country, vestras, of your
country ; cuias, of what country ?
Suus, like se, is referred to a Subject of the Third
Person.
C. The remaining Pronouns are Adjectival, but often
used as Relational Substantives. These are :
1. The DEMONSTRATIVE Pronouns (of the Third
Person) :
is, ea, id, that^ (or he, she, it)
hie, haec, hoc, this (near me)
iste, ista, istud, ttiat (near you)
ille, ilia, illud, that, yon (aloof from us).
2. The DEFINITIVE Pronouns (of all Persons) :
ipse, ipsa, ipsum, self
Idem, eadem, idem, same.
3. The RELATIVE Pronoun (of all Persons) :
qui, quae, quod, who or which.
Akin to this are :
a. The INTERROGATIVE Pronouns :
quis, quid ? qui, quae, quod ? who or what ?
uter ? whether of two ?
b. The INDEFINITE Pronouns :
quis, qua (quae), quid ; qui, quae, quod, any.
uter, either of two.
c. The various COMPOUNDS of quis, qui, uter.
4. PRONOMINALIA, or Adjectives of a Pronominal
nature: as alius, alter, &c., talis, tantus, &c, qualis,
quantus, &c., aliquantus, &c. See v.
138 Latin Wordlore. 3
Tables iii. Tables of Declension of Pronouns.
of De-
clension. Af PERSONAL (OF EITHER GENDER).
FIRST PERSON.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Nom. ego, / nos, we
Ace. me, me nos, us
Gen. mei, of me nostri, or nostrum, of^ts
Dat. mihi, to or for me nobis, to or for us
Abl. me, from or with me nob\s,from or with us
SECOND PERSON.
N. V. tu, thou vos, ye
Ace. te, thee vos, you
Gen. tui, of thee vestri, or vestrum, of you
Dat. tibi, to or for thee vobis, to or for you
Abl. te/from or with thee vobis, from or with you
REFLEXIVE.
SINGULAR AND PLURAL.
Nom. (none).
Ace. se, or sese, himself, herself, itself, or themselves,
Gen. sui, of himself, &c.
Dat. sibi, to himself, &c.
Abl. se, or sese, &.c.,from himself, &c.
B. POSSESSIVE.
i) declined in Gender, Number, and Case, like bonus :
meus, mea, meum, my, mine
tuus, tua. tuum, thy, thine
, ,
, thy, thin
suus, sua, suum, his, &c., their, own\
cuius, cuia, cuium, whose.
meus has Vocative Masc. ml. 1
2) declined in Gender, Number, and Case, like niger :
noster, nostra, nostrum, our ; | vester, vestra, vestrum, your.
The Demonstratives have no Possessives corresponding to them ;
but their Genitives supply the want : eius vacca, his (her) cow.
3) Gentilia (of 3rd Decl.) :
nostr-as -ati- ; vestr-as -ati- ; cui-as -ati- ?
The affix met (self) may be appended to all the cases of ego,
tu (except the Plural Genitives and the form tu itself), also to se,
sibi : egomet, nosmet, temet, vobismet, semet, sibimet :
often with a case of ipse added : nobismetipsis, semetipsum.
Tu takes affix te, -tute ; also tut erne t. The affix met is
appended to the cases of suus, after which a case of ipse often
follows: ' Intra suamet ipsum moenia compulere/ they drove
him within his own walls, L. vi. 36. Also meamet : Sail, Plaut.
The affix pte is appended to the Ablatives Sing, of the Pos-
sessives: 'Meopte ingenio/ Plaut 'Suapte manu/ with his
own hand, Cic. See M. Lucr. vL 755. _
1 The only Pronouns capable of haviijg a Vocative are tu, vos ; and meus, noster.
Pronouns.
139
C.
i. DEMONSTRATIVE
a. UNEMPHATIC.
Is, that, or he, she, it.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
M.
F.
N.
M.
F.
N.
N. is
ea
id
ei (ii)
eae
ea
Ac. eum
earn
id
eos
eas
ea
G.
eius
eorum
earum
eorum
D.
ei
eis (iis)
Ab. eo
ea
eo
eis (iis)
b. EMPHATIC.
Hie,
this (near me), or he, she,
it.
SINGULAR
PLURAL.
N. hie
haec
hoc
hi
hae
haec
Ac. hunc
hanc
hoc
hos
has
haec
G.
huius
horum
harum
horum
D.
huic
his
Ab. hoc
hac
hoc
his
Iste, that (near y ou\ or he, she, it.
SINGULAR.
N. iste ista istud
Ac. istum istam istud
G. istlus
D. isti
Ab. isto ista isto
PLURAL.
isti istae ista
istos istas ista
istorum istarum istorum
istis
istis
I lie, that (yonder), or he, she, it.
SINGULAR.
N. iUe ilia illud
Ac. ilium illam illud
G. illlus
D. illi
Ab. illo ilia illo
PLURAL.
illi illae ilia
illos illas ilia
illorum illarum illorum
illis
illis
2. DEFINITIVE.
i) Idem, same.
SINGULAR.
Nom. Idem eadem idem
Ace. eundem eandem idem
Gen. eiusdem
Dat. eidem
Abl. eodem eadem eodem
PLURAL.
iidem eaedem eadem
eosdem easdem eadem
eorundem earundem eorundem
isdem or eisdem
isdem or eisdem
140
Latin Wordlore.
31-
2) Ipse, self.
SINGULAR.
Nom. ipse ipsa ipsum ipsi
Ace. ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsos
Gen. ipslus ipsorum
Dat. ipsi
Abl. ipso ipsa ipso
Plautus has the forms eumpse, eampse, eapse, &c.
in reality r , for re ipsa.
a) The affix -c (for ce) is added to iste and ille, making a
pronominal declension as follows :
PLURAL.
ipsae ipsa
ipsas * ipsa
ipsarum ipsorum
ipsis
ipsis
Also reapse,
N.
Ace.
Abl.
IStlC
istunc
istoc
istaec
istanc
istac
SINGULAR.
istoc or istuc
istoc or istuc
istoc
illic
illunc
illoc
illaec
illanc
iliac
illoc or illuc
illoc or illuc
illoc
PLURAL.
N. Ace.
istaec
illaec
Ce sometimes appears at full : istiusce, illosce, &c.
So from hie, hunce, huiusce, hosce, &c. : and hicine? hocine? &c.
b) The Interjection ecce, lo ! coalesces in comic poetry with
cases of is, ille, iste : ecca, eccum, eccam, &c. ; eccilla, eccillum,
&c. ; eccistam, &c. En, lo J also coalesces with ille into the
Accusative forms, ellum, ellam, ellos, ellas.
3. RELATIVE.
Qui, who or 'which.
SINGULAR.
Nom. qui quae quod
Ace. quern quam quod
Gen. cuius
Dat. cui
Abl. quo qua quo
a) INTERROGATIVE.
Quis ? qui ? who or which ?
SINGULAR.
Nom.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
quis
qui
quern
quern
quo
quae
quam
quam
cuius
cui
qua
quid )
quodf
quid >
quod'
quo
PLURAL.
qui quae quae
quos quas quae
quorum quarum quorum
quibus or quls
quibus or qtiis
b) INDEFINITE.
Quis, qui, anyone.
SINGULAR,
(qua) quid >
quae (qua) quod >
quis
qui
quern
quern
quo
quam
quam
cuius
cui
qua
quid i
quod I
quo
In the Plural like the Relative.
Indefinite PL Nom. Qui, quae, qua or quae.
The forms Quis, quid, are Substantival ; Qui, quod v Adjectival.
3 i. Pronouns.
a} Add to these Uter? whether of the two?
SINGULAR.
Nom. uter utra utrum
Ace. utrum utram utrum
Gen. utrms
Dat. utri
Ab. utro utra utro
PLURAL.
utri utrae utra
utros utras utra
utrorum utrarum utrorum
utris
utris
Uter is also Indefinite : either of two.
Neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither of the two, is declined as uter.
c) COMPOUND PRONOUNS.
1. a) quisnam, quidnam : quinam, quaenam, quodnam, who T
what f
b) uternam, utranam, utrumnam, whether of the two?
2. ecquis, ecqua, ecquid : ecqui, ecquae, ecquod, anyone ?
So numquis, siquis, ne quis. &c.
3. a) aliquis, aliqua, aliquid : aliqui, aliqua, aliquod, some one.
b) alteruter, one or other; Gen. alterutrius or alterius utrius, &c.
4. quispiam, quaepiam, quippiam (quodpiam), anyone (positively).
5. quisquam, quicquam, anyone at all (with non, haud, vix, &c.).
6. quidam, quaedam, quiddam (quoddam), a certain one.
7. a) quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whosoever, what-
soever. 1
b) utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, whichever of two.
8. quisquis, whosoever, quidquid, whatsoever ; Ace. (quemquem),
quidquid;(G. cuicuimodi); Abl. (quoquo, quaqua, quo-
quo), &c. ; PL D. Abl. (quibusquibus). Some of these
forms are rare.
9. a] quivis, quaevis, quidvis (quodvis), any y oil will.
b) utervis, utravis, utrumvis, whether of the two you will.
10. d) quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet (quodlibet), any you please.
b) uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, whether of the two you please.
11. a) quisque, quaeque, quicque (quodque), each.
b) unusquisque, unaquaeque, unumquicque (-quodque), each
one : Ace. unumquemque, unamquamque, &c. Gen.
uniuscuiusque, &c.
c) uterque, utraque, utrumque, both, each of two.
Obs. These Compounds are declined as the Simple forms, the un-
declined affix or prefix accompanying each Case : Gen. cuiusnam,
alicuius, cuiuscumque, utriusvis, c. &c.
1 Poets often disjoin the affix cumque from the Relative : Quae te cumque domat
Venus, Hor.
142
Latin Wordlore.
31-
4. PRONOMINALIA.
Alius, another.
SINGULAR.
Norn, alius alia aliud
Ace. alium aliam aliud
Gen. alms
Dat. alii_
Ab. alio alia alio
PLURAL.
alii aliae alia
alios alias alia
aliorum aliarum aliorum
aliis
all is
Nom. alter
Ace. alterum alteram
Gen. alterius
Dat. alteri_
Ab. altero altera
Alter, one of two (the one, the other).
altera alterum j alteri alterae altera
alterum alteros alteras altera
alterorum alterarum alterorum
alteris
alteris
altero
Solus, alone.
solum
soli
solae
sola
solum
soli
solae
sola
solum
solos
solas
sola
solorum
solarum
solorum
solis
solo
solis
Nom. solus sola
Voc. sole sola
Ace. solum solam
Gen. solius
Dat. soli
Ab. solo sola
Totus, whole, is declined like solus : also, unus, one, ullus, any at
all, nullus, none. See Numeralia.
Nihll, nothing (N. Ace.) is undeclined.
Nemo, nobody, Ace. neminem ; G. nulllus ; D. nemini ; Abl.
nullo. Plural, nulli, &c.
The Plural word plerlque, most ; from an E. L. Adj. plerus.
Nom. plerique pleraeque pleraque
Ace. plerosque plerasque pleraque
D. Abl. plerisque
The Gen. in use is plurim-orum, arum, orum.
The phrase plerique omnes = paene omnes, almost all.
Also the following words, with their compounds :
qualis, of what kind"* talis, such (like tristis).
q u a n t u s, how great ? tantusw great (like bonus).
quot, how many) tot, so many (undeclined).
iv. Observations on certain Pronouns.
i. The Interrogative forms quis? qui? (Indefinite quis, qui)
differ in this respect : quis is substantival, asking usually the nature,
name, &c. ; qui adjectival, asking quality. Quis is also Fern, in
the comic poets, and grammarians refer the Fern, quae to the form
qui. Quid always has a substantival, quod an adjectival use :
quod vinum ? but quid vini ? what wine?
Pronouns.
143
2. Quis, qui, Indefinite, is rarely found except as Enclitic after
a particle, as ecquis, siquis, numquis, c.; or with a second
case of its own : ' siquis quern fraudavit.' It enters into com-
position with the prefix all- one or other (aliquis), the indefinite
affixes -piam -quam (quispiam, quisquam), and the distributive
-que (quisque) ; qui takes the definitive -dam (qui-dam).
3. The Interrogative quis, qui becomes Universal (-soever] by
self-duplication (quis quis), and by taking the affix -cumque or
-cunque (quicumque, quicunque). It is also modified by the
appended Verb-forms, vis, you will, libet, it pleases (quivis, qui-
libet). It becomes Emphatic by adding the precative affix -nam
(quisnam ? quinam ?). Some of these affixes are likewise taken by
the Interrogative Pronominals qualis, quantus, quot, and the Inter-
rogative Adverbs ubi, quo, quando, quotiens, &c. See v.
4. Uter (for cuter = Korepoe), whether of two, with its compounds,
forms a dual series parallel to quis, &c. But the Relative qui is
used in correlation to it. It takes many of the same affixes as qui. 1
1 The following note treats chiefly of the cognate and ancient Case-forms of the Latin
Pronouns.
I. The Personal Pronouns and the Reflexive.
1. Nominative Singular.
The Prim, roots of the two Personal Pronouns and the Reflexive are severally ma, tu
(or tva), sva.
How the root via connects itself with the Nom. Sing. Sk. aham, Gr. eyw, L. ego, is
a doubtful question.
Pr. tu (Sk. tvam) becomes Gr. TU (<ru), L. tu.
2. Accusative Singular.
Sk. mam or md, Gr. /ae (ejue), L. me.
Sk. tvam or tva, Gr. (TC for rfe) ere, L. te.
Gr. e (for crfe), L. se, point to a Pr. svam. But Sanskrit has only an undeclined
form svayam, which may be joined to cases of Personal Pronouns.
3. Dative Singular.
Sk. ma-hyam (for Pr. ma-bhyaut) becomes L. mihi (U. mehe, E. L. nrihe, mihei).
Sk. tu-bhyam becomes L. tibi (U. tefe, E. L. tibe, tibei).
Hence sib! (E. L. sibe, sibci) points to a Pr. but not extant (sva-bhyani).
4. Ablative Singular.
Sk. and Pr. ma-t, tva-t and by analogy (Pr. sva-t) become in E. L. me-d, te-d, se~d\
afterwards me, te, se.
These forms in -d were also used for the Accus. Sing, in E. L.
5. Nominative and Accusative Plural.
Unaccented Accus. forms in Sk. nas (for mast) and vas (for tvas), appear to be the
originals of the Latin cases nos, vos. See Schleicher, 266. In the Carmen
Arvale euos appears for Ace. nos.
6. Dative and Ablative Plural,
Schleicher explains the suffix foiS (-bei-s) in nobis, vobls, as the Plural of bi (bei),
attached to the stems nos- vos- (see above), which become no- vo-. Festus cites
a form (nis).
7. Genitive Singular and Plural.
The Sk. Gen. S. is (i) mama, (2) ta~ja. But Pr. forms mas, tvas, (svas) are trace*
able in very ancient L. forms mis, tis.
The forms classically used for these cases are nothing more than the Neuter Geni-
tives of the Possessive Pronouns : mei, tui, sui ; nostri, vestri ; nostrum (for
nostrorum), vestrum (for vestrorum). Thus ' vive memor mei (nostri) ' is lit. live
mindful cfiuk&t c's mine (purs) ; i.e. of me (its).
144 Latin Wordlore. 31.
v. Correlation of Pronominal Words.
A) Certain Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives and Adverbs, are
correlated to one another in several classes : namely
II. The Possessive Pronouns.
These are derived from the Personal Roots.
Tuus, suus correspond severally to Gr. TCOS (for rfeos or ref o's), eos (for <rf eos or cref 09).
E. L. forms are tovos, sovos. The scenic poets use the cases as monosyllables.
Noster, vester are formed with the Comparative Suffix ter (like dexter, sinister), as are
Gr. i7/xe-Tep-os, v/me-rep-o?.
III. The Demonstrative, Relative, &c. Pronouns.
The Flexion of these Pronouns has many features in common.
1 . (i) Nominative Singular Masc.
a. The stem I-, as an I-noun, takes the ending S, forming the Nom. Is. It corresponds.
to Sk. sa, Gr. 6. In E. L. we find (ets). It has an O-stem (to-) for most cases.
Its comp. Idem has E. L. forms (pisdem, isdem, eident).
Is-te, another compound (stem isto-), has in Plautus the form is-tus.
I-pse, also a compound (for is-pse), is found as i-ps-us.
Ille is for oll-us (stem olio- or illo-), from an Italian root.
The stem ho- or hi- takes in most cases the affix -ce (c), becoming in Nom. S. Masc.
hie (for hi-ce or his-ce). An E. L. form is (hec).
b. Qui qui-s Interrog. and Indef. (stem qui- or quo-) corresponds to Sk. Interrog.
ka, ka-s ; Gr. TI'S, O. pis.
Qui, as the Relative, is peculiar to Latin. E. L. forms are (que, quei). Quei con-
tinued in use to the time of Caesar. Qiieique is an old form of quisque. Quir-
quir is cited by Varro for quisquis.
c. Alius has an old I-form alts, altd.
Uter (for cuter) corresponds to Pr. katara> Gr. Korepos : quot, tot, to Sk. kati, tati.
(2) Nom. S. Fern.
Ea is by assimilation for ia from stem (io-) : the same change from i to e is made
in most cases of is, idem.
An old form (sapsa) for ea ipsa is cited from Pacuvius.
Ista, ipsa, ilia are regularly formed from the O-stems, but quae (O. pai, E. L. qnai), haec
(E. L. hai-ce) are irregular flexions in which the forms ha qua are strengthened by the
vowel i. The analogy of these is followed by istaec, illaec (for ista-ce, illa-ce). Qua is
kept usually in the Indef. Pronoun and its compounds : siqua, numqua, ecqua, aliqua.
(3) Nom. Accus. S. Neuter.
The following Pronouns weaken the Prim. Neuter suffix t into d : id ; idem (for id-dem) ;
qui-d ; quo-d ; and illud, istud, aliud (anc. alid) : in these three O is also weakened into
U. Hoc is for (ho-d-ce). The rest take um ; ipsum, utrum, alterum, &c.
2. Accusative Singular.
E. L. forms of is (em, im from the I-stem ; sum, sain from the Pr. sa) are cited from
the old poets for eum, earn, severally.
Also eumpse, eampse occur for eum ipsum, earn ipsam.
Hunc is for (hom-ce, hone) ; hanc for (liam-ce). Quern belongs to the I-stem qui :
quam and quod to the O-stem quo-.
3. Genitive Singular.
The flexion of this case in all these Pronouns is a variation of Sk. asya. They
strengthen the stem with i and then take US for the Case-ending. Thus are obtained
(ii-ns) by dissimilation eius (in E. L. ei-tus, elus).
(tlloi-us, illei-us) illlus or illms. So ipsius, istius, unius, nullius, totius ; utrlus ;
alms ; alterius ; sollus : (alterius, solius occur rarely).
(Jwi-us) huius ; (guoi-us) cuius.
In the scenic poets quoius is used as one syllable, suppressing u : hence the forms quoi-
modi for (quoismodi), and cuicuimodi for (cuiscuismodi).
3 i. Pronouns. 145
(i) Interrogative; (2) Demonstrative; (3) Definitive; (4) Inde-
finite ; (5) Relative.
Examples :
(i) quis? qui?w/^, whatt (2) is, he, that, &c. (3) ipse, self\
idem, the same ; alius, another ; (4) quis, qui, any ; quis-
piam, anyone ; aliquis, some or other ; quisquam, any at
all (used only with non, haud, si, num, &c.); quidam, a
certain one\ (5) qui, who.
(i) uter? whether of two? (2) is; (3) alter, one of two, the
other ; (4) alteruter, one or the other ; (5) qui.
(i) qualis ? of what kind? (2) talis, such ; (3) ; (4) ;
(5) qualis, as.
(i) quantus ? how great? (2) tantus, so great ; (3) tantusdem ;
(4) aliquantus, of some size ; (5) quantus, as (great).
4. Dative Singular.
The Locative ending i appears to have been generally used instead of the Dative
ending ei in all these Pronouns ; but the ending ei occurs in old forms.
The forms in use are : i) e-i (also anc. eiei eei) ; illi (for illo-i), &c., huic (for hoi-ce) :
2) cui (for quo-i, or quo-ei, which is found in E. L.).
The O-noun forms of the Gen. and Dat. Sing, of some Pronominals occur rarely : as
nulli consili, Ter. ; aliae pecudis, Cic. ; loquitur alterae, Ter. ; toto orbi, Prop. : also
Gen. illi, illae, isti, ipsi, &c. in Plaut. and Lucr.
5. Ablative Singular.
This case follows the O-stem. But qui is used adverbially (how) \ also when the Pre-
position cum follows it : quicum for quocum : quique for quoque in Lucr.
6. Nominative Plural.
a) From is, E. L. forms before Plautus are (eeis, ieis, els) : afterwards in R. L. ie\, ei :
in the scenic poets el (i). In I. L. ii (pronounced i) was allowed.
From idem the forms eisdem > Isdem, fidem are found as Nominatives Plural before
Caesar. Once in Plautus eidem. lidem was admitted in I. L.
From hie the forms (heis, heisce, hisce) appear in E. L. ; hei in R. L. to the Aug. age :
then hi ; which, like the irregular Fern, form hae (for hat), rejects c (ce) to avoid con-
fusion. But the forms (haec, illaec, istaec) are found in E. L. as Fern. Nominative Plural.
The Neut. PL haec is strengthened with i, being, as well as the Fern. S^ for (ha-i-ce).
b) An old PL ques from quis is found in Senatus-consultum de Bacchanal ibus, &c.,
Pacuvius, and Cato : but quei in R. L. is PL of quis and qui ; also qui, which became
general : and Fern, quae (for q^^a^). The Neut. quae, like haec, is a strengthened form :
qua remains often in the Indef., and always in aliqua.
Grammarians tell us that in plebeian speech the initial vowel was often cast off in such
forms as istae, istuc, &c., which were sounded stae, stuc, &c.
7. Accusative Plural.
These forms are regular from O- and A-stems Except the Neuter forms haec, quae.
See 6.
8. Genitive Plural.
This Case is formed in all as from O-nouns. Horumce, harumce appear in the scenic
poets as horunc, harunc ; once in Plaut. quoium seems to be Gen. PL from qui ; and also
in two ancient laws.
Dative Ablative Plural.
a) From ' is ' the forms are various. Thus, from I-stem, I bus, Plaut. i ibus, Lucr. ; and
Fern, eabus, Cat. From O-stem, (E. L. eieis, eeis) ; ieis in R. L. to Aug. ; els or Is in the
scenic poets and Lucr. ; once in Plaut eis. Under Aug. we find Is for iis (ieis) pro-
nounced as one syllable.
So, from idem, eisdem or Tsdem, once in Juv. eisdem : iisdem (disyll.) is found.
From hie, hlbus is cited once from Plaut. : usually his (E. L. heisce).
From ille (E. L. oloes, m. olaes, f.) illis (plleis, illeis). Old forms in ibus are cited.
b) From qui, quis, the only forms are qutbus (from I-stem) and quis (from O-stem) in
all Genders.
L
146 Latin Wordlore. 31.
(i) quot? how many? (2) tot, so many ; (3) totidem, just
so many ; (4) aliquot, some ; (5) quot, as (many).
Derived from this are :
quotus, one of how many! (Demonstr. totus, Lucr. v. 652.)
quotusquisque = how few ? Demonstr. pauci,y^w.
quotiens, how often ! Demonstr. totiens, so often ; IndeE ali-
quotiens, several times : Rel. quotiens, as (often}.
(i) ubi, where! (2) ibi, there ; hie, here, &c. ; (3) ibidem, in
the very place \ alias, elsewhere ; (4) ubi, in any place ;
alicubi, in some place ; (5) ubi, where.
(i) unde, whence ? (2) inde, thence ; hinc, hence, &c. ; (3)
indidem,yr<?w the same side ; aliunde; (4) unde, yh?; fl;zy
quarter ; alicunde, ^/r^w jw# quarter ; (5) unde, whence.
(i) quo, whither! (2) eo, thither ; hue, hither, &c. ; (3)
eodem, /0 /$ .y#;;z //<2^ ; alio, /0 another place ; (4) quo,
anywhither ; aliquo, somewhither ; (5) quo, whither.
So qua^ z>z Te/^tf/ direction ! ea, / //to */. ; hac, z>z /^/J ?., &c.
(i) quam, ^^w? (2) tarn, ita, so ; (3) itidem, in the same way\
aliter, otherwise ; (4) aliquam ; (5) quam, as.
With other series, as quando, when ? turn, then^ &c.
^) The Universal Pronouns (6) also are severally correlated to
the above, and to other forms which imply (7) Choice ; (8) Distribu-
tion ; (9) Exclusion ; (10) Inclusion.
Examples :
(6) quisquis, quicumque, whosoever, whatsoever-, (7) quivis,
quilibet, any you will ; (8) quisque, each ; (9) nemo,
nobody ; nullus ; (10) omnes, all.
(6) utercumque, whichever of two ; (7) utervis, uterlibet, which
of two you will (8) uterque, each of two ; (9) neuter,
neither i) (10) ambo, both.
(6) qualisqualis, qualiscumque, of whatever kind.
(6) quantusquantus, quantuscumque, how great soever', (7)
quantusvis, quantuslibet, as great as you will.
(6) quotquot, quotcumque, as many as, however many (7)
quotlibet (rare) ; (8) unusquisque, singuli, each one ; (9)
nulli, none ; (10) universi, the entire number.
(6) ubiubi, ubicumque, wheresoever \ (7) ubivis, ubilibet,
where you will ; (8) ubique, everywhere ; (9) nusquam,
nowhere.
(6) undeunde, undecumque, whencesoever ; (7) undevis, un-
delibet, whence you will ; (8) undique, from every side
(utrimque, from both sides].
(6) quoquo, quocumque, withersoever ; (7) quovis, quolibet,
whither you will. (So quaqua, quacumque ; quavis, qua-
libet : usquequaque, &c.)
(6) quamquam, quamcumque, howsoever-, (7) quamvis, quam-
libet, how you will] (8) ; (9) neutiquam, in no way ;
(10) omnino, in every way.
(6) quandocumque, whensoever; (7) quandolibet; (8) quando-
que; (9) numquam, never-, (10) semper always.
.| 32 _ 33> Numerals. 147
SECTION X.
i. Numeralia.
3 2
NUMERALS (Numeralia) are Nouns and Adverbs used Nume-
:in the expression of Number.
ii. Latin symbols of Number: 1
Sym-
I V X L C IDorD CIOorM bols
i 5 10 50 100 500 1000
By these symbols the Romans exhibited any required Number.
A smaller symbol before a larger is subtracted : IV = 5 I*
A smaller after a larger is added : VI = 5 + i.
Equal symbols are added together : II = I + i ; XX = 10 + 10.
But a smaller symbol before M multiplies M : IIM = 2000.
Usually such a number was expressed by words, not by symbols :
duo milia or bis mille.
The symbol ID is multiplied by ten as often as D is subjoined.
Thus,
133 = 10 x 500= 5,000
I3DD = IOX 5,ooo = 50,000.
As often as the symbol C is prefixed to I, equalling the number
>of suffixed D, the total is doubled. Thus,
CID = twice 500= 1,000
CCIDO= twice 5,000= 10,000
CCCIDDD = twice 50,000= 100,000 &c.
iii. The four chief Numeral Series: Nu ^ e .
I. CARDINAL Numerals (Cardinalia), which are Series -
Adjectives answering the question Quot,
how many?
II. ORDINAL Numerals (Ordinalia), which are Ad-
jectives answering the question Quotus,
which in order of number ?
1 The Numeral symbols were not originally letters, except, perhaps, M, the initial of
mille. The sign of unity was a perpendicular line, afterwards I. The sign of 10 was
cruciform, and became X, of which the half (5) passed into V. These three signs are
found in Etruscan inscriptions. Then, to represent 50, 100, and 1000, the Romans took
three Greek letters, which they did not use in their alphabet, Chi, Theta, and Phi. An
old figure of Chi, in the shape of a right angle, became L, 50. was corrupted into C,
the initial of centum, 100. <&, which stood for 1000, was broken into the form ClO ; and
half of this, 13, was taken for 500, sometimes closing up into the form D. (See Momm-
sen, Unteritalische Dialekten, pp. 19, 33, and Ritschl, Rhein. Museum, 1869, p. 12, &c.)
Ritschl also considers M to be modified from the symbol CIO- It is generally admitted
that the words decem (Sk. das' an, Gr. Se'/ca) and digitus (SducruAos) are cognate : and
Curtius adds to these d extera (Sk. dakskina, Gr. fiesta), referring to the verb 5e'xo/u,ai,
to receive ; but Pott, more speciously, to the verb of shewing or teaching, doceo (Sk.
did, Gr. Sei*f-). This points to the fact that numeration began with counting the fingers,
and indicates the origin of the decimal system. It is therefore not unlikely that the unit
sign I represented the outstretched forefinger, and X the hands or forefingers crossed.
L 2
148 Latin Wordlore. 33.
III. DISTRIBUTIVE Numerals (Distributiva), which
are Adjectives answering the question Quo-
teni, how many each or each time ?
IV. Numeral ADVERBS (Quotientiva), answering
the question Quotiens, how often ?
iv. Numeral Series of minor extent:
1. MULTIPLICATIVA, compounded with a root of number and the
suffix plio. They answer the question quotuplex, how many fold f
and only nine are classically known : though many more might be
formed by analogy :
simplex simple triplex quincuplex decemplex
duplex double quadruplex septemplex centuplex
Also sescuplex or sesquiplex.
2. PROPORTION ALT A, formed from a root of number and the
suffix pnl-o=plo- (more), answer the question quotuplus, how many
more f The words in this series classically used are :
simplus triplus quincuplus octuplus
duplus quadruplus septuplus
Also sescuplus, as miich and half as much more, from sesqui (for
sinsemisque, ij).
Sesquialter has the same meaning as sescuplus.
3. From the Ordinals come
Adjectives in anus, which often imply a soldier of the legion
designated by the Numeral: primanus . . . decumanus
. . vicesimanus, unaetvicesimanus, &C. 1 a soldier of the
ist, io//z, 2oth, 2 ist, &*c. legion.
But note also : tertiana, quartana febris, a tertian, quartan
ague or fever : decumanus ager, tithepaying land ; decu-
manus, a tithe farmer-, decumanus fluctus, the tenth (i.e.
largest) 'wave : hence decumana porta in a Roman camp,
the largest gate (at the back, remote from the enemy).
Adjectives in arius, implying class or rank : primarius, secun-
darius, &c.
Obs. Miliarius lapis, a milestone ; because the Roman 'mile'
measured f mille passus/ 1000 paces = 5000 feet.
4. From the Distributives come
Adjectives in arius, which mean ' containing or consisting of
so many each : ' binarius, ternarius, &c. Numerus binarius,
the number 2. Versus senarius, septenarius, octonarius, a
verse of 6, 7, 8 feet : nummus quinarius, denarius, a coin
of 5, 10 asses. In Plautus, lex quina vicenaria is used
to express the law which made debts irrecoverable if con-
tracted by youths under 25 years of age.
Singularis, from singuli, means unparalleled, remarkable.
5. Substantives and Adjectives compounded with the Numeral
roots exist in great number :
1 It is remarkable that una ofunaetvicensima (legio) and analogous Fern, forms
remain in these Adjectives.
~33- Numeral Series. 3-49
blmus, two years old-, trlmus, three . . . quadrimus, four . . . ;
from him- winter, with bi- tri- &c.
bimenstris, trimenstris, semenstris, ' of 2, 3, 6 months (also
written bimestris, &c.), from mensis and bi- tri- &c.
biennis, triennis, quadriennis, quinquennis . . . decennis, ' of
2, 3, 4, 5 ... 10 years} from annus with bi- tri- &c. $
but quinquennalis, ' happening once in 5 years. 9
biennium, triennium, quinquennium . . , decennium . . . 2. rx
' a term 0/2, 3, 4, 5 . . . 10 years. 1
biduum, triduum, quatriduum . . . 'a term of 2, 3, 4 ...
dfcz>tf (for bidium, &c.), from dies with bi- tri- &c.
binoctium, trinoctium, &c. are rare.
bivium, triviuin, quadrivium, ' a place where 2, 3, 4 roads
(viae) meet. 9
Compounds of as, assis are tressis (of 3 asses), quinquessis,
octussis, nonussis, decussis, centussis, &c.
The official terms duumvir, triumvir, &c., one of a commission
of two, three, &c., are used in both numbers : but may
also be written in Plur., duoviri, tresviri, &c.
To these may be added a very large list of Adjectives simi-
larly compounded :
biceps, triceps . . . biformis, triformis . . . bilinguis, trilinguis . . .
bicolor, tricolor . . . bifidus, trifidus . . . bipes, tripes . . .
bicorpor, tricorpor . . . biiugis, triiugis . . . biremis, triremis . . .
bidens, tridens . . . bilibris, trilibris . . . bisulcus, trisulcus . . .
The word ' balance ' is derived from bilanx (double-dish).
6. The Verbs fari, partiri with the Quotientiva form two series
of Adverbs implying partition :
bifariam, trifariam, quadrifariam, &c. \
bipartite, tripartite, quadripartite, &c. I
Obs. The words unio (whence Engl. onion), binio, ternio, qua-
ternio, senio, are post-classical. But senio is used for the sice-
throw (called also Venus) in dice-play.
7. The Ordinals form two series" of Numeral Adverbs implying
sequence :
primum . . . tertium quartum . . .
primo . . . tertio quarto . . .
Primum may mean ( in the first place} or 'for the first time. 9
When it means 'in the first place/ it is usually followed by
deinde, in the second place ; then by other adverbs, turn, deinceps,
leading up to postremo, lastly, or denique, in fine.
When it means * 'for the first time} its sequence is : iterum, for the
second time, tertium, quartum . . . postremum.
Some of these words are used with titles of office to express the
second, third, &c. time of a man's holding it : * L. Corn. Scipio
consul iterum . . . tertium consul/ &c.
Primo usually means ' at the beginning,' at the first, and may be
followed by dein, next, post, postea, &c. But primo is sometimes
ased like primum, in the first place, followed by dein, tertio, quarto,
&c.
Latin Wordlore.
33-
v. Declension of the Numerals. 1
M.
F.
N.
i) Sing.
Nom.
un-us
a
um one.
Plural
Voc.
un-e
a
um
as
Ace.
un-um
am
um
bonus.
Gen.
un-lus
Dat.
un-i
Abl.
un-o
a
Like unus : ullus (for unulus), any ; nullus (for ne unulus), none.
The Ordinalia and Distributiva are declined as bonus.
NUMERAL
ARABIC
ROMAN SYMBOLS
CARDINALIA
i
I
unus, a, um
a
II
duo, ae, o
3
III
tres, tria
4
IV
quattuor
i
V
VI
quinque
sex
7
VII
septem
8
VIII
octo
9
vim *r ix
novem
10
X
decem
ii
XI
undecim
12
XII
duodecim
13
XIII
tredecim ; decem et tres ; tres et decem
14
XIV
quattuordecim ; decem ct quattuor
15
XV
quindecim
16
XVI
sedecim ; sexdecim ; decem et sex
17
18
19
XVII
XVIII
XVIIIIorXIX
decem et septem ; s. et d. ; septemdecim
duodeviginti (decem et octo)
undeviginti (decem et novem)
20
XX
viginti
21
22
XXI
XXII
unus et viginti ; viginti unus
duo et viginti ; viginti duo
28
29
XXVIII
XXIX
duodetriginta (octo et viginti)
undetrigmta (novem et viginti)
30
XXX
triginta
40
XL
quadraginta
50
L
quinquaginta
60
LX
sexaginta
70
LXX
septuaginta
80
LXXX
octoginta
90
xc
nonaginta
98
IIC
nonaginta octo ; octo et nonaginta
99
1C
nonaginta novem ; undecentum
100
c
centum
IOI
CI
centum et unus ; centum unus
136
CXXXVI
centum et triginta sex ; c. tr. s.
200
cc
ducenti, ae, a
300
ccc
trecenti . . .
400
cccc
quadringenti . . .
500
I3 or D
quingenti . . .
600
IDC or DC
sescenti . . .
700
800
lOCC or DCC
lOCCCorDCCC
septingenti . . .
octingenti . . .
900
lOCCCC or DCCCC
nongenti . . .
1,000
2,000
CIO or M
CIoCIO or MM
mille
duo milia (bis mille)
5,000
lOO I quinque milia
T0,000
CClOO ! decem milia
50,000
1003 quinquaginta milia
100,000
CCCIOOD centum milia ; centena milia
1,000,000
CCCCIOO3D
deciens centum milia ; deciens
1 See note on page 152.
i33-
Declension of Numerals.
2) Plur. Nom.
Ace.
Gen.
D. Abl.
M.
duo
duos (duo)
duorum
duobus
F.
duae
duas
duarum
duabus
N.
duo two.
duo
duorum
duobus
3) Plur. N. tres, tria ; Ace. tris (tres), tria ; G. trium ; D. Abl.
tribus.
4) Plur. Nom. Ace. milia; G. milium ; D. Abl. milibus.
Duo for duos is classical. Duum is a form of Gen. much used
with weights, measures, numbers ; as duum nummum ; duum am-
phorum ; duum milium.
TABLE.
ORDINALIA
DlSTRIBUTIVA.
QUOTIENTIVA
-us, -a, -um
-i, -ae, -a
(-iens or -ies)
primus
singuli
semel.
secundus (or alter)
bini
bis.
tertius
terni or trini
ter.
quartus
quaterni
quater.
quintus
quini
quinquiens or quinquies.
sextus
seni
sexiens.
septimus
septeni
septiens.
octavus
octoni
octiens.
nonus
noveni
noviens.
decimus
deni
deciens.
undecimus
undeni
undeciens.
duodecimus
duodeni
duodeciens.
tertius decimus (decimus et tertius)
terni deni
terdeciens or tredeciens.
quartus decimus (decimus et quartus)
quintus decimus
sextus decimus
quaterni deni
quini deni
seni deni
quattuordeciens or quater d.
quindeciens or quinquiens d.
sedeciens or sexiens deciens.
septimus decimus
septeni deni
septiensdeciens.
duodeyicensimus (octavus decimus)
duodeviceni
duodeviciens or octiens d.
undevicensimus (nonus decimus)
undeviceni
undeviciens or noviens d.
vicensimus (vigensimus) or vicesimus
unus et vicensimus (primus et vie, ; vie. pr.)
alter et vicensimus (v. a. ; duo et vie.)
viceni
viceni singuli
viceni bini
viciens.
semel et viciens or v. s.
bis et viciens or v. b.
undetricensimus (nonus et vicensimus)
undetriceni
noviens et viciens.
tricensimus (trigensimus) or tricesimus
triceni
triciens.
quadragensimus
quadrageni
quadragiens.
quinquagensimus
quinquageni
quinquagiens.
sexagensimus
sexageni
sexagiens.
septuagansimus
septuageni
septuagiens.
octogensimus
octogeni
octogiens.
nonagensimus
nonageni
nonagiens.
nonagensimus octavus -
undecentensimus
nonageni octoni
undecenteni
nonagiens octiens.
undecentiens?
centensimus or centesimus
centeni
centiens.
centensimus primus
centeni singuli
centiens semel.
centensimus trincensimus sextus
centeni triceni seni
centiens triciens sexiens.
duocentensimus
duceni
ducentiens.
trecentensimus
treceni
trecentiens.
quadringentensimus
quadringeni
quadringentiens.
quingentensimus
quingeni
quingentiens.
sexcentensimus ; sesc.
seceni
sescentiens.
septingentensimus
octingentensimus
septingeni
octingeni
septingentiens.
octingentiens.
nongentensimus
nongeni
nongentiens.
millensimus ^rmillesimus
singula milia
miliens.
bis millensimus
bina milia
bis_ miliens.
quinquiens millensimus
deciens millensimus
quina milia
dena milia
quinquiens miliens.
deciens miliens.
quinquagiens millensimus
centiens millensimus
quinquagena milia
centena milia
quinquagiens miliens.
centiens miliens.
quingentiens millensimus
jniliens millensimus
quingena milia
decies centena milia
quingentiens miliens.
deciens centiens miliens.
152
Latin Wordlore. 33-
Ambo, both, is declined as duo : but without contraction.
Mi lie, thousand, is undeclined.
1 The whole Numeral system contains only 14 roots : those of the ten first Cardinal
Numbers(unus . . . decem) ; mille; semel; and those of primus, secundus. All
other Numerals come from these.
Formation of Numerals.
A) Cardinalia.
Unity is expressed in Latin by two forms: (i) u-'nu-s; (2) sim-, which appears in
singuli, simplex, semel.
- i) Unus(E.L. oinus) seems to be the Demonstr. Pronoun i gunized (becoming ai,
oi=u) and taking the suffix no-, so as to imply 'consisting of that,' 'that
and no other=one. The Sk. word for one is ekas, the same pronoun compounded
with the interrogative Pron. ka, ' who or what,' meaning ' that whatsoever.' In
Zand the form is aiva or aeva, corresponding to Gr. olos, oifos, ' alone.'
2) Sim- represents Sk. sa-ma, which is the Superl. of the Demonstr. Pron. sa, thus
expressing ' that especially.' Singulus(for sim-culus), a deminutive expressing
' that particular* ( that small unit,' is used as Plural ; very rarely Singular. It
would seem as if singulus and unus had changed places in usage : for although
singulus is well suited to the Cardinal series, it belongs to the Distributive,
which, having in every other instance the suffix no- (bini, terni, &c.), might claim
u n u s as its proper head. This however only occurs when Pluralia-tantum are
numbered: as una (bina, trina, &c.) castra; unae (binae, trinae, &c.) lit-
terae, aedes, &c.
From sim- comes sem-e-1; also sim-u-1, sim-ili-s: sama is contained also in Gr.
els (eV-s), fu'a, tV, in which the Masc. sam-s, becoming san-s and so kvs, passes into et?,
and the Fern, sam-ya becomes sm-ya, m-ya, and so JLUCU
For the names of the Cardinalia from 2 to 10 see Table.
The Cardinalia from n to 17 are additive Compounds of the first nine with decem, 10 :
un-decim, duo-decim, &c.
The principal forms for 18, 19 are Subtractive : duodeviginti (2 off 20); undevi-
ginti(i off 20) ; and these forms reappear in 28, 29 ; 38, 39, &c. to 99, undecentum:
98 only being excepted.
The Cardinalia, which are multiples of 10, are multiplicative Compounds of the Nume-
rals 2 ... 10 with decent! or degenta (10): 20 (d-videcenti 2X 10=) viginti ; 30
(triadecenta 3X io)=triginta ; 40 (quatora'decenta 4X 10=) qujadraginta, &c. ; but in
70, septuaginta, a byform septuo isusedfor septem ; and in 90, nonaginta, nona-
seems to be contracted from no vena. It must be observed that all these forms in a are
probably Neuters Plur. which classically retain the ancient long a. Centum alone is
Neut. Sing, and stands for (decen- decentiun 10 x 10), dropping the first three syllables, as
in English the word ivig has dropt the two first syllables of periwig. The Sk./form is
data (=-kata), Gr. enajov, perhaps for (8ea- SeKarov).
The Multiples of centum from 200 to 900 are Compounds of the first nine Numerals
with the form - c e n t i, among which quadr-z-gentiis strangely formed on the analogy
of quingenti, &c. ; oc t ing enti goes back to the Pr. form (aktau) ; andnongenti is
for (novingenti).
The form expressing 1000 is different in the several branches of the Aryan family : Ind.
sahasra : Gr. ^lAtot ; L. mille ; Goth, thusund, &c.
The root of mille is questionable. Some refer it to Sk. mil, Gr. 6-^iA-, to associate,
assemble.
) Ordinalia :
Primus (Sk. prathamas, Gr. Trpwros) is Superl. of prae, pro (Sk. pra t Gr. irpo.
Compare irptv).
Secundus is Present Participle of sequor (Sk. sac, Gr. CTT-).
The next four assume the Superl. suffix (to) to-, euphonized in tert-i-u-s(for ter-tu-s,
TptVos), by inserting i. Octa-v-us (oySofos) seems to be the Adj. of Sk. ashtau : and
the retention of av (rather than ov) is a remarkable instance of dissimilation. Nonus is a
contraction of novenus, a Distributive form in this instance appearing among the Ordi-
nals, as unus (see above) among the Cardinal numerals.
Use of the Numerals. 153
vi. Use of the Numerals. TT 34 r
Use of
.. _ , . , . the Nu-
A) Cardinaha. merais.
a) Since the Singular itself implies unity, unus without other
Numerals always has emphasis : 'Amicitiae vis est in eo ut unus
quasi animus fiat ex pluribus,' the essence of friendship is that one
soul as it were is formed of several, C. Lael. 25. But, f Matronae
annum, ut parentem, Brutum luxerunt/ the matrons mourned
Brutus for one year, as a father, L. ii. 7.
b) Unus may take a Superlative force, or emphasise Superla-
tives : ' Demosthenes unus eminet inter omnes oratores/ Demos-
thenes stands unrivalled among orators, C. Or. 29. ' P. Nigidius,
unus omnium doctissimus,' Publius Nigidius, the most learned of
men, C. Fam. iv. 13. It is likewise used emphatically with some
Pronouns and Pronominals : ' Hoc non quivis unus ex populo
poterat agnoscere/ it was not any individual from among the
people that could recognise this, C. Br. 93. 'Nemo unus erat vir
quo magis innisa res Roman a staret/ there was no one man on
whom the Roman commonwealth more leaned for its snpport, L. ix.
1 6. On the Plural use of unus see p. 155. The Voc. Sing, une is
used by Catullus, xxxvii. 17.
c) Mille is used (i) as an undeclined Substantive; rarely with
Sing. Verb: 'Amplius mille hominum cecidit/ more than one
In the Ordinals of 20, 30 .... to 90 the Superl. ending -simu-s -sumu-s is taken, form-
ing -ent-simus (or ent-sumus), -en-simus (or -en-sumus), before the Aug. age, after-
wards -esimus: as vicensimus (or vicensumus), vicesimus, &c.
This form is adopted, by mere analogy, in cent-ensimus and its Compounds,
ducent ensimus, &c., and in mill-ensimus.
C) Numeral Adverbs.
Semel: see A): bis for (d-vis) ; ter by transp. for tri: quater (for quat-v-or).
All others are formed with the final suffix -iens : qu inqu iens, &c. In the multiples
of 10, -iens takes the place of -inta : viciens, triciens, quadragiens, &c. In
100 and its multiples it follows nt : centiens, ducentiens . . . From mille,
mi liens.
After the 'Aug. age n usually fell out, and the forms became quinquies. . . .
mi lies. So to ties, quoties: in R. L. tot iens, quotiens.
D) Distributiva.
Singuli : see A) : bi-ni (for d-vi-ni), ter-ni or trl-ni:quater-ni:qui-ni (for
quinc-ni), s e - n i ; septe-ni, octo-ni, nove-ni, d e - n i (for dece-ni), &c.
Afterwards the suffix -eni is taken by all Distributiva below 1,000.
The form mi 11 eni is not used, but instead of it milia is multiplied by the previous
Distributives: singula milia, bina milia, &c. See Numeral Table.
Ningulus, an E.L. word (for ne-singulus),=nullus.
The following table shews the resemblance of the Numerals in seven Indo-European
languages : Latin, Sanskrit, Greek, Lithuanian, Welsh (Cymraeg), Gothic, and German.
Lat. Sk. Gr. Lith. W. Goth. Germ,
unus ekas ets vena un aina eins
duo dvi 6vo dva dau twai zwei
tri- tri rpi- tri tri thrija drei
quattuor c'atvaras reVfape? keturi pedwar fidvor vier
quinque pane 'an Trei/re (TreyC-wre) penki pump fimf fiinf
sex shash e szeszi chwech saihs sechs
septem saptan en-rot septyni saith sibun sieben
octo ashtau OKTW asztuni wyth ahtau acht
novem navan ei/i/efa devyni naw niun neun
decem das'an 5e'/ca deszinti deg taihun 2ehn
centum s'ata CKO-TO* szimta cant hund hundert
154 Latin Wordlore. 34 .
thousand men fell, Nep. Dat. 8 : frequently with Plural verb :
'Mille passuum erant inter urbem castraque/ there was an
interval of a mile between the city and the camp, L. xxi. 61. So
mille nummum. (2) As undeclined Adjective constantly: 'Mille
rates, 7 a thousand ships, Ov. Met. xii. 7.
The Plural milia (or millia) is only a Substantive, followed
usually by a Genitive: 'Quattuor milia hominum et quingenti
Capitolium occupavere, four thoiisand five hundred men seized the
Capitol, L. iii. 15. If smaller Numerals intervene between milia
and the Substantive, the latter may agree with the smaller : ' Tria
milia et septingenti pedites ierunt/ there marched 3,700
infantry, L. xxxv. 40.
' Mille as Abl. is peculiarly used in the following place :
'Cum octo milibus peditum, mille equitum/ L. xxi. 61.
d) The Numerals sescenti and mille are idiomatically used
by Latin authors to express indefinitely large numbers : ' Ses-
centas uno tempore epistolas accepi/ / received 600 letters at once,
C. Att. vii. 2. 'Aiaxmilies oppetere mortem quam ilia perpeti
maluisset/ Ajax would rather have died 1,000 times than have en-
dured that treatment, C. Off. i. 31. ( Mille pro uno Kaesones
exstitisse plebs querebatur/ the plebeians were grumbling that for
one Kaeso there were now 1,000, L. iii. 14.
Poets use centum for this purpose. 'Non, mihi si linguae
centum sint oraque centum/ not if I had a hundred tongues and
a hundred mouths, Verg. G. ii. 44. ' Caecuba servata centum cla-
vibus/ the Caecuban wine guarded by a hundred keys, Hor. C. ii.
14. 26.
Tres stands for a few in Plautus. 'Te tribus verbis volo. Vel
trecentis/ I want three words with you. Three hundred if you will,
Trin. iv. 2.
JB) Ordinalia.
a) Alter may be used for second : * Alter ab undecimo turn me
iam ceperat annus/ my twelfth year (lit. next from the eleventh] had
then commenced, Verg. B. viii. 39. * Unus et alter/ one or two.
Secundus expresses no more than the numerical order : alter
implies that the second is in kind the same as the first. So, ' De-
nique haec (Pelopidas) fuit alt era persona Thebis, sed tamen
secundaita, ut proxima esset Epaminondae/ in short, Pelopidas
was the second personage in Thebes, but holding the second rank so
as to be very near Epaminondas, Nep. Pel. 4. See Hor. C. i. 12. 18.
b) Ordinals are used in computing time : 'Anno post urbem
conditam septingentensimo quinquagensimo quarto natus
est Christus/ Christ was born 754 years after the foundation of
Rome. 'Ab illo tempore annum iam tertium et quinquagen-
simum regnat/yr0;# that time he has now been reigning 53 years,
C.p L. Man. 3. Hora quota est ? what o'clock is it ? Hora prima,
secunda, tertia, &c., 7, 8, 9. <2rv. o'clock. Hora nona, at 3 o'clock.
c} The Ordinals are used with quisque : ' tertio quoque anno/
every third year, &c. But ' alternis diebus/ every other day.
C) Distributiva.
a) These apply the Number they express to each of several
persons or things or times : 'Data ex praeda militibus aeris
34- Use of the Niimerals. 155
octogeni bini sagaque et tunicae/ the soldiers received from the
spoil eighty -two asses each, with cloak and tunic, L. x. 30 (i.e. mili-
tibus singulis). ' Germani singulis uxoribus content! sunt/ the
Germans are satisfied with one wife each, Tac. G. 18 (i.e. Germani
singuli). ' Ursae pariimt plurimum quinos/ bears bring forth at
most five cubs at a birth, PL N. H. (i.e. ursae singulae).
b) When the Distributive singuli is expressed in Latin with one
Noun, the Cardinal can be used with the other : * Singulis censo-
rious denarii trecenti ad statuam praetoris imperati sunt/ each
censor had 300 denars imposed on him for the statue of the praetor,
C. Verr. ii. 55. But the Distributive is much more usual in this
position: 'Verberibus mulcant sexageni singulos/ they punish
with stripes, 60 soldiers each centurion, Tac. Ann. i. 32. ' Antonius
quingenos denarios singulis militibus dat/ Antonius gave each
soldier 500 denars, C. Fam. x. 31.
Singuii incedunt, they advance one by one. Singulis diebus
eadem fiunt, the same happens every day.
Quotannis may be used for singulis annis, every year-,
cotidie for singulis diebus ; and viritim, man by man, for any
Masc. case of singuli.
Plautus has ' singulum vestigium/ Cist. iv. 2.
c] The Distributives are often multiplied by the Adverbs : * Bis
bin a quot sunt?' how many are twice two? Cic. ' Decrevere
pontifices ut virgines ter novenae per urbem euntes carmen
canerent/ the pontiffs decreed that three choirs of maidens, nine in
each, should sing in procession through the city, L. xxvii. 37.
d} Uni (not singuli), trini (not terni), and the Distributives
bini, quaterni, quini, &c., are used with Substantives of Singular
sense and Plural form : 'Una castra iam facta ex binis videban-
tur/ one camp seemed now to have been formed out of two, Caes.
B. C. i. 24 : ' trinis castris/ Caes. B. G. vii. 66. So, 'unae nuptiae/
unae litterae, &c. ; but, ' tres liberi/ three- children. On this principle
the following expressions are legitimate: 'uni Ubii/ the Ubii
alone, Caes. : 'unos sex dies/ six days only, Plaut. ' Lacedae-
monii iam septingentos annos unis moribus vivunt/ the Lacedae-
monians have now been living 700 years with one set of habits, C.p.
Place. 26.
e) Bini is used to express a pair : ' Pamphilus binos habebat
scyphos sigillatos/ Pamphilus had a pair of embossed cups, C. Verr.
iv. 14. 'Bina manu crispans hastilia/ brandishing a couple of
spears, Verg. A en. i. 317.
f) Poets sometimes use the Distributives in a multiplicative
sense : ' Septeno gurgite/ with sevenfold torrent, Lucan. viii. 444.
Frequently for the Cardinals : ' centenas manus/ a hundred hands,
Verg.
But when Virgil writes Per duodena regit mundum sol aureus
astra, the golden sun through 12 signs guides the world, the Dis-
tributive is correct, because each year is implied, G. i. 231.
g) The Gen. PI. of Cardinals and Distributives is usually con-
tracted into um : ' quingentum iugerum ; ' ' senum septentimve
annorum.'
156 Latin Wordlore. 34.
c^n. vii. Compound Numeration.
pound
Nume- a) In the Table of Numerals the most approved forms are set
rals ' down ; those less usual but not inadmissible are bracketed.
a In Compound Numbers above 20, either the smaller number
et precedes the larger, or the larger without et pre-
cedes the smaller: * Romulus septem et triginta regnavit
annos/ Romuhis reigned 37 years, C. Rep. ii. 10. ' Macedo Alex-
ander tertio et tricensimo anno mortem obiit/ Alexander of
Macedonia died in his thirty -third year, C. Ph. v. 17. * Septuaginta
et tres amissi/ 73 were lost, L. xxxv. I. ' Plinius sCripsit sub
Nerone naturae historiarum libros triginta septem/ Plinius in
the reign of Nero wrote 37 books of natural history, Plin. Ep. iii. 5.
* Dentes triceni bini viris attribuuntur/ thirty -two teeth are as-
signed to a man, PL N. H. vii. 16. But 'et' occurs after the larger
Numeral : * viginti et duos annos/ C. Cat. M. 9. Also the smaller
occurs before the larger without et : 'Quattuor quadraginta
illi debentur minae/ 44 minas are due to him f Plaut. Most. iii. I.
'Septimo quinquagensimo die rem confeci/ I finished the affair
in 57 days, C. Fam. xv. 4. Unus, when it occurs with viginti, &c.,
generally stan<^ first, and the Noun last : unus et viginti ho-
mines ; unum et triginta millia. But exceptions occur: ' Vi-
ginti unus tribuni/ L. xxii. 49. ' Viginti unam muscas/ 21
flies, P1.N. H. xxx. 10. ' Diebus viginti uno/ PI. N. H. xxix. 6.
c] In Compound Numbers above 100, the larger with or without
et generally precedes the smaller: 'Leontinus Gorgias cen-
tumet septem complevit annos/ Gorgias of Leontini completed
107 years, C. Cat. M. 5. ( Annum magnum esse voluerunt omnibus
planetis in eundem recurrentibus locum, quod fit post duodecim
milia nongentos quinquaginta quattuor annos/ they would
have a great year to be when all the planets come back into the same
place, which happens after 12,954 years, Cic. 'Sescentensimum
et quadragensimum annum urbs Roma agebat, cum primum
Cimbrorum audita sunt arma/ Rome was in its 640/7^ year when
the arms of the Cimbri were first heard, Tac. G. 37. ' Olympiade
centensima quartadecima Ly sippus fuit/ Lysippus lived in the
ntfk Olympiad, PL N. H. xxxiv. 8. ' Aristidis arbitrio quadrin-
gena et sexagena talenta quotannis Delum sunt collata/
under the control of Aristides 460 talents were annually contributed
to the treasury at Delos, Nep. Ar. 3.
d] The multiples of 1,000 are expressed by the Cardinals (or
Distributives) multiplying milia : duo, tria, &c., ; decem, vi-
ginti, &c. ; centum, ducenta, &c. milia ; (or bina, terna, c.),
milia.
Poets and some prose writers of the silver age use bis, ter, &c.
with mille : 'bis mille equos/ Hor. ; 'quinquiens mille quad-
ringenta stadia/ PL N. H. And so with smaller Numerals : ' Hie
(Caesar) deciens senos tercentum et quinque diebus addidit/
Caesar added 60 days to 305, Ov. F. iii. 163.
e] The multiples of 100,000 are expressed by the Numeral Ad-
verbs joined to centum milia or centena milia, as stated in the
following passage: 'Non erat apud antiques numerus ultra centum,
34- Numeral Expression of Fractions. 157
milia; itaque et hodie multiplicantur haec, ut deciens centena
milia aut saepius dicantur/ the ancients had no number beyond
100,000 ; wherefore to the present day these figures are multiplied,
so as to use the form ' ten times a hundred thousand, and the like
in progression, PI. N. H. xxxiii. 10.
Thus we find : ' viciens centum milia passuum/ 2,000,000 = miles,
Caes. : f bis ettriciens centum milia passuum/ 3,200,000 miles, Suet,
'quinquiens miliens centum milia/ 500,000,000, PL; < octagiens
quihquiens centena sexaginta octo milia/ 8,568,000 PI. In cipher
the thousands were written with a line above them, and the hundred
thousands with side lines also. Thus 999,999 in writing is : noviens
centena nonaginta novem milia nongenti nonaginta novem; in
cipher: | ix | xcix loccccxcix.
aa. Unus is often used in Compound Numbers for the Ordinal
primus: ' Plato uno et octogensimo anno scribens mortuus est/
Plato died while writing in his Sist year, C. Cat. M. So unetvicen-
simus, unaetvicensima or unetvicensima. Duoetvicensimus is rare.
viii. Numeral Expression of Fractions.
The Romans expressed fractions in the following ways : J
1) If the numerator is i, it is not expressed : as dimidia pars = |,
tertia pars = \, &c.
2) If the numerator is greater than i, and less than the denomi-
nator by more than i, it is expressed as in English, suppressing
' partes : ' duae quintae = f ; tres septimae = f , &c.
3) If the numerator is less than the denominator by I only, the
latter may be suppressed, f partes ' being expressed : duae partes
= | ; tres partes = f ; quinque partes = f , c.
4) A fraction may be expressed by the multiplication of two
fractions : dimidia tertia = f x | = f ; quarta septima = J x i = - 1 -,
&c.
5) A fraction may be expressed by the addition of two fractions :
as pars dimidia et tertia = | + f = f ; pars quarta et septima = f + f
= 28'
6) The Roman unit of weight, length, or measure was called as.
The ' as' (unit) of weight, called libra, pound
of length pes, foot
of area iugerum, acre
was in each case divided into 12 parts, called unciae. 2
Hence fractions of 12 were named, according to the number of
unciae they contained, as follows :-
Frac-
tions.
1 Dimidio maior means ' half as much larger,' altero tanto maior, as large again, i.e.
twice as large. The following passage from PL N. H. vi. (cited by F. Schultz) may be
a useful exercise in fractional computation, while it shews the great ignorance of geography
which existed in Pliny's time :
' Apparet Europam paulo minus dimidia Asiae parte maiorem esse quam Asiam ; ean-
dem altero tanto et sexta parte Africae ampliorem quam Africam. Quod si misceantur
omnes summae, liquido patebit Europam totius terrae tertiam esse partem et octavam
paulo amplius, Asiam vero quartam et quartamdecimam, Africam autem quiritam et in-
super sexagensimam. *
2 Hence inch as. well as ounce is derived from uncia.
158 Latin Wordlore. 35-36.
uncia = i unc. ~ of the unit
sextans =2 |
quadrans =3 \
tnens =4
septunx = 7 unc . of the unit,
bes = 8 - |
dodrans = 9 f
dextans = 10 |
deunx =11 \\
quincunx =5
semissis =6 f
By this notation inheritance was calculated : ' heres ex asse,'
universal heir : ( heres ex semisse/ heir to half the estate ; ( heres
ex dimidia et quadrante,' heir to three-fourths, &c.
The Uncia was also subdivided, viz. :
scripulum = 2\ unc. = ^ of unit
=1
.sextula =1 _ =L semuncia
sicilicus = f unc. = of unit.
Sescuncia or Sescunx (uncia semisque) = i| uncia = ^ of unit
Sesquialtera ratio = i| : i = 3 : 2.
CHAPTER III.
THE VERB.
SECTION I.
Verb 5 i- The Verb Finite and Infinite. See page 72.
Finite
^ te ln - I. The Verb Finite is so called, because its forms
are limited by Mood and Person, as well as Tense.
II. The forms of the Verb Infinite are not limited
by Mood and Person.
Note. Any Finite form is called a PERSONAL VERB, because it
agrees with a Nominative in the ist, 2nd, or 3rd Person.
36
Voices. ii. The Voices of the Verb.
There are in Verbs two classes of form, which gram-
marians have called VOICES (Voces, Genera) :
1) The Active Voice (Vox Activa), from agere, to do.
2) The Passive Voice (Vox Passiva), from pati,
to suffer.
i) The Active Voice indicates that a Subject is or
does something :
sum, 7 am amo, / love
valeo, / am well moneo, I advise
-g 36. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. 159
2) The Passive Voice indicates generally tbat a Sub-
ject suffers something (has something done to it) :
amor, I am loved moneor, / am advised
iii. Deponent Verbs.
Many Verbs, though Passive in most of their forms,
have an Active meaning :
venor, / hunt vereor, I fear
These are called by grammarians, DEPONENT VERBS
(Deponent ia). 1
iv. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. Transi-
tive and
1) In order that it may be fully conjugated (like amo and sitive 11 "
moneo), in both Voices, a Verb must be Transitive. Verbs.
Intransitive Verbs are fully conjugated in one Voice only.
2) A Verb is called TRANSITIVE when its action passes on (tran-
sit) to an Object in the Accusative (Objective) Case : moneo
Lucium, / advise Lucius \ Lucius me audit, Lucius hears me.
A Deponent Verb may be Transitive, though conjugated in the
Passive Voice only : venamur lepores, we hunt hares ; lepores nos
verentur, hares fear us.
3) An INTRANSITIVE Verb, Active or Deponent, requires no
Object : surgo, / rise ; proficiscor, I go.
Those.which express state or condition are called Static Verbs :
aegroto, I am sick ; sto, I stand \ irascor, I am angry.
An Accusative Object, called Cognate or Contained, may be
joined to an Intransitive Verb, if it expresses the function contained
in the Verb itself : ludere ludum insolentem, to play a haughty
game ; aegrotare mirum morbum, to be sick of a strange disease.
See Syntax (Accusative).
The construction called IMPERSONAL allows Intransitive Verbs
to be used in the Third Persons Singular and in the Infinitive of
the Passive Voice : surgltur (a nobis or ab illis being understood),
we (they) rise (literally, there is rising by us or by them). See 50.
4) The Subject of a Transitive Verb may become its Object :
(ego) verto me, / turn myself ' (tu) vertis te, you turn yourself;
(is) vertit se, he tiirns himself. This Pronoun Object is sometimes
omitted, as in English, and the Verb is thus used intransitively :
iam verterat fortune fortune had now turned, Liv.
On the other hand, the Passive, like the Greek Middle Voice, has
often a reflexive use : vertor, / turn myself \ lavor, / wash myself.
Probably this was the primary sense of the Passive.
Some Deponents originate thus : glorior, / boast (myself") ;
vescor, I feed (myself}. Others grow out of Passive Verbs : gravor,
1 'grudge ', am loth (lit. am grieved).
1 The term ' Deponent ' is bad, though inveterate in Latin grammar. Medial (Media)
would be a better name for these Verbs.
160 Latin Wordlore.
137-
v. Quasi-Passive and Semi-Deponent Verbs.
1) A few Verbs, of Active form, are used in Passive sense, and
are called QUASI-PASSIVE Verbs :
exsulo, i. I am banished.
vapulo, i. I am beaten
fio, / become or am made. Passive of facio, / make.
pereo, / am lost or destroyed perdo, / lose or destroy.
veneo, I am on sale vendo, / sell.
liceo, 2. / am put to auction (but liceor, / bid at an auction).
The Participles perditus and perdendus, venditus and
vendendus, are in use. Verbero, I beat, has a Passive verberor,
but vapulo often took its place in popular speech.
2) Some Verbs, otherwise Active, take a Passive form with Active
meaning in their Perfect Participle and the Tenses derived from it :
audeo, 2. I dare ausus sum, I dared
gaudeo, 2. / rejoice gavisus sum, / rejoiced
soleo, 2. / am wont solitus sum, / was wont
fido, 3. / trust fisus sum, / trusted
fio, / become factus sum, / became
These are called SEMI-DEPONENT Verbs.
3) Some Verbs have an Active Perfect, with a Passive Perfect
Participle, active in sense :
ceno, cenavi, I supped cenatus, having supped
iuro, iuravi, / swore iuratus, having sworn
prandeo, prandi, / dined pransus, having dined
nubo, nupsi, / was wedded nupta, wedded
Other Passive Participles from Active Verbs are :
adultus, grown up, from adolesco, adolevi
cretus, sprung cresco, crevi
suetus, accustomed suesco, suevi (with compounds)
obsoletus, out of date obsolesco, obsolevi
placitus, pleasing placeo, placui.
potus, having drunk, from an old stem po-
perosus, hating, from perodi ; exosus, hating or hated utterly
pertaesus, tired, from pertaedet.
Also coalitus (coalesco), deflagratus, exoletus, initus, inveteratus,.
propensus. See M. Lucr. ii. 383 ; iii. 772.
Mook vi. The Moods of the Verb.
MOODS (Modi) express the manner of action in a
Finite Verb.
There are three Moods of the Verb Finite :
i) The INDICATIVE Mood declares a fact or condition
as real or absolute :
gaudeo quod (si) abest, I am glad that (if) he is absent.
38. The Tenses of the Verb. 161
2) The CONJUNCTIVE Mood states a fact or condi-
tion as conceived or contingent :
gaudeam si absit, I shall be glad if he be absent ;
velim absit, / would wish he were absent :
vellem abesset, I could wish he had been absent.
This Mood, in principal construction, we call the PURE Conjunc-
tive, gaudeam, velim, vellem. When it depends on another
Verb, it is called SUBJUNCTIVE, absit, abesset.
The English version of the Conjunctive generally requires the
use of an auxiliary Verb, may, might, would, should, shall, &c.
The Subjunctive is often rendered by the English Indicative :
nescio quid velis, I know not what you wish; tam stulti sunt ut
nihil intellegant, they are so foolish that they understand
nothing-, also by the English Subjunctive : dubito num in tell e-
gat, I doitbtif he understand-, but often it must be expressed by
an auxiliary verb may, might : edimus ut vivamus, we eat that
we may live.
The right rendering of this Mood is not learnt from tables, but
by exemplification, reading,' and practice.
3) The IMPERATIVE Mood is for command and en-
treaty : hue curre, run hither ; memento venias, you
must remember to come. See p. 163.
3 8
vii. The Tenses of the Verb. Tense*
TENSES (Tempora) are forms which indicate the time
of action or state in Verbs.
1. Tense -forms are either INFLECTED or COMBINATE.
An Inflected Tense-form is a distinct word obtained by modi-
fying the Stem of the Verb : ama-bo, ama-v-eram.
A Combinate Tense-form is obtained by connecting a Par-
ticiple of the Verb with a Tense-form of an auxiliary Verb. The
only auxiliary Verb ordinarily used for this purpose in classical
Latin is the Verb of Being, sum, esse, to be, which, combined
with the Participles in us, supplies various Tenses, especially the
Perfect Tenses in the Passive Voice : amatus sum, fui, &c.
2. The English language has very few inflected Tenses ; as
Pres. love, lovest, loves ;
Past loved, lovedst :
but its Verb is enlarged by combining with Infinitive and Parti-
cipial forms nine auxiliary Verbs and several Prepositions : namely,
a. be (am, was, &c.) have (had) must
do (did) let shall (should)
can (could) may (might) will (would)
/3. to ; about to ; by ; in.
M
162 Latin Wordlore.
38.
Hence English is richer in its power of expressing Time than
Latin ; and most Latin forms admit various English equivalents. As
grammatical tables cannot supply all the English equivalents for
each Verb-form, a thorough knowledge of the Latin Verb is gained
only by the practical work of reading and intertranslating.
3. Time is Present, Past, or Future.
Action or .state may be simply present, past, or future.
For each simple time Latin has an inflected Indicative Tense-
form in the Active Voice ; and, in the Passive, inflected forms for
the Present and Future, and a combinate form for the Simple Past.
Thus, in the Indicative Mood,
SIMPLE PRESENT. SIMPLE PAST. SIMPLE FUTURE.
ACTIVE.
amo, / love amavi, loved amabo, shall love
PASSIVE.
amor, / am loved amatus sum, was loved amabor, shall be loved
4. But it is often necessary to describe action and state with
more complex relations of time; and this the English language,
by its numerous auxiliary verbs, can do more ftilly than Latin.
Such relations are (in the Indicative Mood) :
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
I. Present in
C Present am loving* am being-loved*
J Past was loving was being-loved
(Future shall-be loving* shall-be (being) loved*
II. Past in
/ Present have loved* have-been loved*
j Past had loved had-been lovedf
( Future shall-have loved shall-have-been lovedf
III. Future in
/ Present am about-to-lovef am about-to-be-lovedj
J Past was about-to-lovef was about-to-be-lovedj
(Future shall-be about-to-lovef shall-be about-to-be-lovedj
Latin has inflected Tense-forms for three only of these relations
in the Active ; and for one only in the Passive :
Indie. Act. amabam, / was loving
amaveram, I had loved
amavero, I shall have loved
Pass, amabar, / was being loved
To express the English marked *, the Simple Tense-forms are
used : amo, amor ; amabo, amabor ; amavi, amatus sum (fui).
To express that marked f, Combinate forms are needed : amatus
eram (fueram) ; amatus ero (fuero) ; amaturus sum, fui, ero (fuero).
The Tenses of the Verb.
163
For the English marked J, and other temporal relations still more
complex, the help of particles is required in Latin :
the woman is about to be killed
in eo est mulier ut trucidetur :
the woman was about to be killed
in eo erat mulier ut trucidaretur.
If this be thrown into oblique statement (/ think, I thought that,
&c.), the Passive Infin. iri with Supine maybe used; or futurum
(fore) ut with Subjunctive :
puto (putavi) mulierem trucidatum iri
puto futurum ut mulier trucidetur
putavi fore ut mulier trucidaretur.
5. Action is either Incomplete (Infecta) or Complete (Perfecta).
The names of the Finite Tenses are :
1) Of Incomplete Action :
Present ; Future Simple ; Imperfect.
2) Of Complete Action :
Perfect ; Future Perfect ; Pluperfect.
The subjoined Table shews their form in the three Moods of
each Voice. (See Scheme.)
1
ACTIVE
PASSIVE
Indie.
Con junc. *
Imper.
Indie.
Conjunc.
Imper.
i) Present
amo
amem
ama
amor
amer
am are
Fut. S. .
amabo
amato
amabor
amator
Imperfect
amabam
amarem
amabar
amarer
2) Perfect
amavi
amavenm
amatus
amatus
sum
sim
Fut. P. .
amavero
amatus
ero
Pluperf.
amaveram
amavissem
amatus
amatus
eram
essem
The Imperative /0-forms are generally regarded as strengthen-
ing varieties, implying must. Some (as Madvig, Ferd. Schultz,
&c.) treat them in this sense as = Future forms. We do the same,
but merely for the sake of convenience.
1 Gossrau (Latein. Sprachl* 146) rightly says that the Conjunctive Tenses are not
temporal in the same sense as those of the Indicative ; the Pluperfect being the only one
which never loses its proper expression of time. But his mode of escape from this
difficulty is so far from commendable, that to discuss it would be lost time. The distinction
used in this grammar, of Pure Conjunctive in a principal sentence, and Subjunctive in a
dependent clause, seems to be the simplest and easiest as far as it goes. But the difficulty
still remains of having to call the Conjunctive (or Subjunctive) forms Dy the names of the
Indicative Tenses, from which some of them diverge in use so widely. The only way of
M 2
164 Latin Wordlore. 39-40..
Obs. The defects of this Tense-system are in part supplied by
the Combinate or Periphrastic Conjugation of sum with the Parti-
ciples in -rus, -dus (see 47) :
amaturus sum ero eram fui, &c. sim essem fuerim, &c.
amandus sum ero eram fui, &c. sim essem fuerim, &c.
6. Tenses are Primary or Historic.
The Primary Tenses are tfie Present and the Futures : the
Historic are the Imperfect, Pluperfect, and Simple Past (/ loved).
When Present-Past (/ have loved), the Perfect is Primary.
It is a great advantage of Greek, as compared with Latin, that it
has inflected forms for both these relations :
Simple Past (Aorist) . . c^/Xiyo-a, / loved
Present Past (Perfect) . Tre^iXrjKa, I have loved
39
Number viiL Number and Person in the Verb.
and
The Tenses of the Finite Verb have two NUMBERS,
Singular and Plural ; with three PERSONS in each
Number, distinguished by Pronominal endings.
The First Person expresses one or more speaking ;
The Second spoken to ;
The Third spoken of:
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
ego am-o, / love nos ama-mus, we love
tu ama-s, thou 1 lovest vos ama-tis, ye 1 love
is ama-t, he loves ii ama-nt, they love
The oin amo represents a Primitive form d-mi. Hence the cha-
racters of the three Persons are severally m, s, t. Pronoun Nomi-
natives, being understood in the Personal endings, are commonly
omitted : am-o, / love ; ama-s, you love ; ama-t, he loves , &c.
In the Imperative Mood there is no First Person ; and in its
Present Tense the Second Person only is used.
40
The ix. The Verb Infinite contains:
Verb
1. Infinitive, Gerunds, and Supines ; which are Sub-
stantival ;
2. Participles, which are Adjectival.
avoiding it seems to be, to use for the Conjunctive forms, when cited in Syntax, a
numeral notation easy to be remembered :
amem ; moneam ; regam ; audiam : d or S t
amaverim ; monuerim ; rexerim ; audierim : C 2 or S 2
amarem ; monerem ; regerem ; audirem : C 3 or S 3
amavissem ; monuissem ; rexissem ; audissem : C* or S 4 .
1 English usage has adopted you for the Second Person of both Numbers instead of
tliou and ye, which are now used only in prayer or by poets.
40.
The Verb Infinite.
i6 5
i. A) The INFINITIVE (Infinitivum) describes action
or state in a general manner, without personal relation.
It has Tense-forms :
1) For Incomplete Action (Present and Imperfect) :
Act. ama-re, to love, be loving, have been loving
Pass, ama-ri, to be loved.
2) For Complete Action (Perfect and Pluperfect) :
Act. amav-isse, to have loved
Pass, amat-us, a, um, esse, to have been loved.
3) For Future in Present Action :
Act. amat-urus, a, um, esse, to be about to love
Pass, amat-um iri, to be about to be loved (where amatum,
being Supine, is invariable).
4) For Future in Past Action :
Act. amat-urus, a, urn, fuisse, to have been about to love.
B) The GERUNDS (Gerundia) are cases of a Verbal
Substantive with suffix -ndo-, Decl. 2. n.
The GERUNDIVE (Gerundivum) is a Participle or
Verbal Adjective with the same suffix :
GERUNDIVE.
Nom. S. ama-ndus, a, uxn (meet)
to be loved
declined as bonus.
GERUNDS.
Ace. ama-ndum, loving
Gen. ama-ndi, of loving
Dat. ama-ndOjjfrr loving
Abl. ama-ndo, by or in loving
The Gerundive is used to express meetness or necessity, either
impersonally, as eundum est, one must go ; or personally : vita
tuenda est, life should be protected. If a Case of the Person is
added, that Case is usually the Dative : eundurn est mini, I must
go ; vita nob is tuenda est, life should be protected by us.
C) SUPINES (Supina) are Accusative and Ablative of supines
a Verb-noun of Decl. 4, with suffix -tu (su) or -to (so) :
ama-t-um, to love ama-t-u, in loving
2. PARTICIPLES (Participia) are so called because they Panicu
take part of the properties of Verbs, and part of the p
properties of Adjectives. Besides the Gerundive, three
other Participles are found in Verbs :
Active Pres. and Imperf. ama.-ns,l0ving .... as ingens
Future . . . . aina-t-urus, about to love ) h onus
Passive Perfect . , , . ama.-t-iSLB, having been loved)
1 66 Latin Wordlore. 41.
a) The three Participles wanting may be thus supplied :
Act. Part. Perf. having loved, cum amavisset (or by Abl. Absolute)
Pass. Pres. being loved, qui amatur, or dum amatur
Fut. about to be loved, qui amabitur.
b) Some Verbs form Participials in -bundus or -cundus, express-
ing ' fulness/ as vagabundus, wandering, iracundus, wrathful;
in -bilis, expressing ' possibility/ parabilis, procurable
in -ills, expressing ' capacity,' docilis, teachable ;
in -ax, expressing ' inclination/ loquax, talkative ;
in -idus. expressing ( active force/ rapidus, hurrying, cupidus,
desirous.
c) Deponent Verbs, though of Passive form, have the Active Par-
ticiples in -ns, urus, and also use their Perfect Participle in an
Active sense :
Pres. vena-ns, hunting
Fut. vena-t-urus, about to hunt
Perf. vena-t-us, having hunted
But many Deponents use their Perfect Participle passively as
'
well as actively, as ^Q\\\^'\\.\\?>, promised or having promised, from
polliceor, I promise. Others of this kind are abominatus, auspicatus,
adeptus, comitatus, commentus, conatus, confessus, dignatus, di-
mensus, effatus, emensus, expertus, exsecratus, fabricatus, frus-
tratus, imitatus, impertltus, machinatus, meditatus, mentitus, meri-
tus, moderatus, modulatus, nactus, oblltus, opinatus, orsus, exorsus,
pactus, partitus, populatus, professus, ratus, sortltus, testatus, testi-
ficatus, ultus, velificatus, veneratus, &c.
SECTION II.
Th^ 1 i. The Conjugation of Verbs.
stems in i) In order to conjugate a Verb of Active form, three
elements must be known :
1. The PRESENT STEM. . . ama-
2. The PERFECT STEM . . . amav-
3. The SUPINE STEM . . . amat-
/
2) To conjugate a Verb of Passive form (which has no
Perfect Stem) the Present Stem and Supine Stem must
be known :
1. Pres. Stem . . . vena-
2. Sup. Stem . . . venat-
The last letter in each Stem (a, v, t) is its Character.
o) From the Present Stem are derived :
Present, Future Simple, Imperfect, Imperative, Infinitive
Present, in each Voice ;
Gerunds, Gerundive, and Participle Present in the Active
Voice.
4 2. The Conjugation of Verbs. 167
/3) From the Perfect Stem are derived :
Perfect, Future Perfect, Pluperfect, Infinitive Perfect, in
the Active Voice.
y) From the Supine Stem are derived :
Supines, Future Participle in the Active Voice ;
Perfect Participle Passive ; and therefore all the Combi-
nate Tenses in the Passive Voice.
ii. The Verb of Being, sum, 1 esse. The
Before other Verbs, it is convenient to shew the con- ess
jugation of the irregular VERB OF BEING, sum, esse,
fui, to be, which enters into their Combinate Tenses as
an auxiliary Verb.
This Verb is formed from two roots :
es- (Sk. as) to be ;
fu- (Sk. bhif) to be or become.
The forms of the Present Stem (except forem, fore)
belong to the first of these ; the Perfect, Future Par-
ticiple, and Future Infinitive, with forem, fore, to the
second ; the other Tenses are compounded of both.
1 The Root of Being, Sk. as Gr. etr- L. es-, is found in all branches of the Aryan
family, variously modified.
i) The root 'es- ' forms
Present Indie.
L. s-w-m es (for es-s) est sumus es-tis sunt
Sk. as-mi as-i as-fi s-mas s-tha s-anti
Gr. ei/xi (eoyu) et (e<r-(n) eort ea/xeV (eoyxe's) core' ec(Ti (eim)
Fut. Indie. L. ero (for es-io), Gr- e<ro-|w,ai.
Imperf. L. eram (for es-am), Sk. (simple Aor. in am), Gr. e'rjv (for e<r-iji>).
Pres. Conjunc. L. (siem) sim (for es-iem), Sk. s-yam, Gr. -iijp (for etr-tiji/).
The forms siem, sies, siet are occasionally found.
Imperf. Conjunc. L. essem. See p. 58.
Imperative.
Pres.
S. PL
L. es este
Sk. e-dhH$m as-dhi) s-ta
Gr. i<r-0t core
Future
S. PL
esto estote sunto
astu s-antu
The Infinitive es-se is, as that of every Active Verb, the Dative (or Loc.) Case of a
Verb-noun.
2) The Root fu-, Sk. M, Gr. <f>v- forms
Imperf. Conjunc. forem (for/-^w) : Infin. fore (for/-.?4
Fut. Partic. fut-urus.
It also forms the Perfect Stem fu- (for fuv-), and its derived Tenses, by agglutinating the
tenses of sum. See p. 58.
The English forms 'am,' 'art,' 'is,' 'are,' belong to the root as : 'be' to the root
1 68
Latin Wordlore.
42.
s.s
>
w V
8 1
8 I
1
w
11
all-g
>1 |
as'
I'i
en +3
S "g ^1^
Ji; %> eu Q> <u -^
i
U en
H S
SI '
Pn ^.
a *
5 g
2 5
1 P,
CO
i O
^
c r 1
1
.0
s ts
^
.S.O tn
"S|8
|
tn .
8 |
1 1'
II
q
o
o
h| Mb ioT , ~ '-M I
5 to "cTicT 10 '
e * i i'i i
S^^co
M en , .
43. Conjugation of the Verb. 169
iii. Latin Verbs are customarily divided into four canf
Classes, called CONJUGATIONS, according to their Pre- gatio
sent Character, that is, the last letter of their Present-
Stem.
a) One of these Conjugations, having for its Present-Character
either a Consonant or the Semiconsonant u, is called the Strong
Conjugation, because it keeps that Character in all Present- Stem
forms, without suffering contraction :
reg-^-re indu-/-re.
Consonant Verbs, which, with a few exceptions, are the oldest in
Latin, ought, strictly, to be the First Conjugation ; but from ancient
times they have been named and ranked as the 3rd, which title
they cannot now lose without great inconvenience, on account of
the large number of Dictionaries and other books of reference in
which they, like the Declensions, are cited numerically.
b) The other three Conjugations are called Pure, because their
Character is a Vowel (a, e, i). They are also called Weak, or Con-
tracted, because in some Present- Stem Forms the Vowel Character
unites by Contraction with a following Vowel: ama-o, amo;
ama-im, aniem, &c. So
ama-/-re, amare ; mone--re, monere ; audi-/-re, audire. 1
c) A- verbs are called the ist Conjugation.
E-verbs 2nd
I -verbs 4th
Consonant and U-verbs being the 3rd Conjugation. See a).
d) The Character of the Verb is therefore the letter which stands
before re of the Infinitive in the Weak Conjugations, or before -re
in the Strong Conjugation :
Conj. i. amA-re, love Ton* ^ jreG-/re, rule
2. monE-re, advise ' I indu-/re, put on
4. audi-re, hear
e) In Conjugation 3 are included some Verbs which exhibit i in
many Present-Stem forms : cap-/- o, pax- /-or; this i not being,
however, the Character of the Verb.
1 Although the assumption of a Vincular absorbed by contraction would account for
most of the forms in which the Characters a, e, i are long before a Consonant, it cannot
safely be affirmed that this is the true principle of formation. It is perhaps more correct
to say that these Characters are generally strengthened in this position. The practical
rules are :
1) The Characters e, i are short before a Vowel : mon earn, au dies. But & with a
following Vowel forms Contraction : ama-o, am-o, ama-im, amem.
2) The Characters, a, e, i are long when final: ama, mone, audi ; or before a
Consonant: amas, amamus; mones, monemus; audls, audlmus (an-
ciently amamus, &c.). Exceptions are : (i) before t final, though originally long
(amat, monet, audit), these Characters become short in Latin usage: amat,
monet, audit; (2) the Verb da-, give, keeps a short before a Consonant :
dare, dabo, dabam, dato, but da.
3) The Mood-vowels, a, e, i, follow generally the same law as the Characters:
audias, audiamus; ames, amaremus; veils, vellmus; but audiSt
amare t, velit (anciently audiat, amaret, vellt).
170
Latin Wordlore.
43-
/) The three Stems in each Conjugation are as follows :-
ACTIVE VERBS.
DEPONENT VERBS.
Present.
Perfect.
Supine.
Pres. Sup.
I. amA-
amav-
amax-
venA- venaT-
2. monE- monu-
moniT-
verE- veriT-
3. rec-
rex- (for reGs)
recT-
UT- US-
4. audi-
audiv-
audlT-
parti- partiT-
Method
of Con-
juga-
ting.
The Present Stem of a Pure Verb, without its Character, is
called a Clipt Stem : am-, mon-, aud-, ven-, ver-, part-.
g) A Latin Verb is sufficiently described by naming
(1) the Present Indie, ist Person;
(2) the Infinitive Pres. ;
(3) the Perfect Indie, ist Person ;
(4) the Supine in um :
amo, amare, amavi, amatum ;
but it is useful, in conjugating, to mention some other forms.
CONJUGATION OF THE ACTIVE VOICE.
ist Conj.
2nd Conj.
3rd Conj.
4th Conj.
I Pers. Ind. Pr. .
am-o
mon-eo
reg-o
aud-io
2 Pers. Ind. Pr. .
am-as
mon-es
reg-is
aud-Is
Infinitive . . .
am-are
mon-ere
reg-ere
aud-Ire
Perfect ....
am-avi
mon-ui
rex-i
aud-Ivi
Gerund in dum .
am-andum
mon-endum
reg-endum
aud-iendum
di . .
am-andi
mon-endi
reg-endi
aud-iendi
do. .
am-ando
mon-endo
reg-endo
aud-iendo
Supine in um
am-atum
mon-Ttum
rect-um
aud-Itum
u .
am-atu
mon-ftu
rect-u
aud-ftu
Partic. Present .
am-ans
mon-ens
reg-ens
aud-iens
Future .
am-aturus
mon-iturus
rect-urus
aud-iturus
CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VOICE.
ist Conj. and Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
1 Pers. Ind. Pr. . am-or mon-eor reg-or aud-ior
2 Pers. Ind. Pr. . am-aris mon-eris reg-eris aud-Iris
Infinitive . . . am-ari mon-eri reg-i aud-Iri
Perfect .... am-atus sum mon-ftus sum rect-us sum aud-itus sum
Partic. Perfect . am-atus mon-itus rect-us aud-itus
Gerundive . . am-andus mon-endus reg-endus aud-iendus 1
Deponent Verbs have Passive Conjugation, but Active meaning,
Gerunds, Supines, and Participles Active. As Intransitive Verbs
have no personal Passive, so Intransitive Deponents, as vagor, i.
wander, have no Gerundive Adjective.
1 The Gerundive is ranked under the Passive Voice because none but Transitive Verbs
can use it adjectively. But we agree with Pott, that it may be ascribed to both voices. If
a horse is ' ferox ante domandum,' wild before being broken in, his rider is ' cautus ante
domandum,' cautious before breaking him in. To the bees is ascribed ' amor habendi : ' of
their wax may be said what Virgil says of rich soil, 'ad digitos lentescit habendo/ it yields
tff tJie fingers in being handled.
43-
Conjugation of the Verb.
171
1 Pers. Pres. Ind.
2 Pers. Pres. Ind.
Infinitive Pres, .
Perfect . . . .
Gerund in dura .
di
do .
Gerundive . . .
Supine in um. .
u .
Partic. Pres. . .
Perf. . .
Fut. . .
CONJUGATION OF DEPONENTS.
hunt fear
ven-or ver-eor
ven-aris ver-eris
ven-ari ver-eri
ven-atus sum ver-itus sum
ven-andum ver-endum
ven-andi ver-endi
ven-ando ver-endo
ven-andus ver-endus
ven-atum ver-ftum
ven-atu ver-ftu
ven-ans ver-ens
ven-atus ver-itus
ven-aturus ver-iturus
use
divide
ut-or
part-ior
ut-eris
part-Iris
ut-i
part-Iri
us-us sum
part-itus sum
ut-endum
part-iendum
ut-endi
part-iendi
ut-endo
part-iendo
ut-endus
part-iendus
us-um
part-Itum
us-u
part-itu
ut-ens
part-iens
US-US
part-itus
us-urus
part-Iturus
Verbs in z-o of the Third Conjugation, in their Present-Stem
forms, retain this i generally ; but not before 1, final e, and short
er. These are the following Verbs, with their compounds :
Fugzb, faczb, and iaczb,
Compounds of speczb and laczb,
Parzb, fodzb, and quatzb,
Cupzb, capzb, rapzb, sapzb ;
(Deponents) gradzbr, patzbr, morzbr,
And, in some tenses, potzbr, orzbr.
Their form of Conjugation is :
i Pers. Pres. Ind.
2 Pers. Pres. Ind.
Infinitive Pres. .
Perfect . . . .
Active.
. . cap-z-o
. . cap-is
. . cap-ere
. . cep-i
Passive.
cap-z-or
cap-eris
cap-i
capt-us sum
Deponent.
pat-z-or
pat-eris
pat-i
pass-us sum
Gerund in dum .
di . .
do . .
Gerundive .
. . cap-z-endum
. . cap-z-endi
. . cap-z-endo
cap-z*-endus
pat-z-endum
pat-z-endi
pat-z-endo
pat-z-endus
Supine in um
u . .
Partic. Pres. . .
Perf. . .
. . capt-um
. . capt-u
. . cap-z-ens
capt-us
pass-um
pass-u
pat-z-ens
pass-us
Fut. . .
. . capt-urus
pass-urus
Note i. In the Scheme, Latin forms are given at full, with the
corresponding English of one Verb. English must be supplied, on
the same principle, to the other Verbs.
Note 2. The Masculine Participles amatus, amati, &c.,^are
set down alone to avoid confusion ; but the Gender of a Participle
follows that of the Noun with which it agrees :
is auditus est,
he was heard,
And so in all Persons and Cases of both Numbers.
ea audita est,
she was heard,
id auditum est,
it was heard.
Latin Wordlore. 44.
SCHEME OF THE
ACTIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE
MOOD
1
SINGULAR. v
PLURAL.
i.
2.
3-
i.
2.
3-
a
I thou
love lovest
he, &c.
loves
we
love
ye
love
they
love
&
am -(a)o
mon -eo
-as
-es
-at
-et
-amus
-emus
-atis
-etis
-ant
-ent
reg -o
aud -io
-is
-Is
-ft
-it
-imus
-ztis
-Itis
-unt
-iunt
shall
wilt
will
shall
will
will love, &c.
c/5
ama -bo
mone -bo
} -bis
-bit
-bimus
-bitis
-bunt
^3
reg -am
audi -am
}-es
-et
-emus
-etis
-ent
i
was
ama -bam
wast
\
was
were
were
were loving, Sec.
j
mone -bam
rege -bam
audie -bam
I -bas
-bat
-bamus
-batis
-bant
loved
or have
lovedst loves
hast has
loved
have
loved
have
loved, &c.
7*rt7/ loved, c.
o
amav -i
PH
monu -I
rex -I
-istl
-it
-imus
-istis
-erunt
^r -ere
audlv -I
1
1
shall
amav -ero
monu -ero
rex -ero
wilt
[ -ens
will
-erft
shall
-erimus
will
-erTtfs
will have loved, &c.
-erint
h
audlv -ero
)
.
had
hods
/ had
had
had
had loved
1
Pi
amav -eram
monu -eram
rex -eram
L -eras
-erat
-eramus
-gratis
-erant
audlv -eram
!
I. Examples of Indicative and Imperative Moods.
A) (Pres. and Fut. Active) : lego, / read : quid agis? what are you doing? lego, / am
reading: lege sis, ready if you please : lego, / do read: iamdiu lego, / have been reading 1
long: quid fades? what will you do? legam, / shall read: leges Iliadem, you will read the
Iliad y I hope : legam, / will read it : cum legero semel, when I shall have read it once ;
relege sodes, read it again, pray : relegito, you must read it again : de manibus non depo-
sueris antequam relege ris, yo^l will not put it out of your hands till you have read it again.
B) (Past Tenses Active) : quid agebas heri? what were yoic doing yesterday ? legebam, /
was reading: quid agebas ruri? what did you do in thecottntry? legebam, I used to read :
legebam dum lux erat, / read while it was light: legere te iusseram, / told you to read:
legebam, I did read: legeres Iliadem, you were to read the Iliad: leg! heri, / read it yes-
terday : legistine Iliadem? have you read the Iliad? legi, I have read it : legere debuisti,
you ought to have read it : legi, 7 did read it: legeram pridie, / had read it the day before.
44-
Conjugation of the Verb.
173
FOUR CONJUGATIONS.
PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
I. 2. 3. i. 2. 3.
/ thou he, &c. we ye they
am art is are are are loved, &c.
am -or -arts -atur -amur -aminl -antur
mon -eor -erfs -etur -emur -emml -entur
reg -or -ens -ztur -zmur -zrnfrri -untur
aud -ior -Iris -Itur -Imiir -Imim -izmtur
shall iuilt will
mTna Si -** ( g ) -W*
audi ~-tr * - 6r - Is - tflr
shall will will be loved, &c.
-bimur -brmrnl -buntur
-emur -emM -entur
was wast was
ama -bar \
S?.:ffi ^s (e) -b,tur
audie -bar)
were were were being loved
-bamur -bammi -bantur
was wast was
have hast has
amatus, monitus, rectus, audltus
<, j
were were were loved
have have have been loved
amati, momti, rectl, audltl
V J
sum es est
(fui) (fuisti (fuit)
sumus estis sunt
(Mmiis) (fuistts) (fuerunt, e)
shall will will
amatus, monitus, rectus, audltus
V J
shall will will have been
amati, monfti, rectl, audltl [loved
ero ens erit
(fuero) (fueris) (fuerit)
erimus eritis ^ erunt
(fuerimus) (fuentis) (fuerint)
had hadst had
amatus, monitus, rectus, audltus
V. . J
had had had been loved
amati, moniti, rectl, audltl
<. j
eram eras erat
(fueram) (fueras) (fuerat)
eramus eratis erant
(fueramus) (fueratis) (fuerant)
Note'\. In the Second Pers. Pres. Ind. Passive it is not so usual to write re for ns, on
account of the confusion with Infin. Act. and Imperat. Pass. Cicero has very few instances,
chiefly Deponent forms, though in the other tenses he decidedly prefers the forms in -re.
2. Poets sometimes write the Simple Futures of I-verbs, Act. -Ibo, -This, &c., Pass.
-Ibor, -Iberis(e), &c. ; and the Imperfects, Act. -ibam, -Tbas, &c., Pass. -Ibar, -Ibaris (e),
&c. ; as audlbo, audibor; audibam, audlbar. These were the antient forms. M. Lucr. v. 934.
3. The Perf. Partic. used with sum expresses that something was and is complete :
with f u i, that something was complete at some past time : ' leges quae latae sunt . . . quae
promulgatae fuerunt,' C. /. Sest. 25. See Madvig, Opusc. ii. p. 218.
4. On the exclusion of V, followed by contraction, from Perfect Stem s in av-, ev-,
5v-, uv-, TV-, see p. 58. The forms in -ii, -ieram, -iero, -issem, -isse, are used in prose as
well as poetry. lit, from eo, is found : but most disyllabic forms keep V : as qulvi, sIvL
174
Latin Wordlore. 44.
SCHEME OF THE
ACTIVE VOICE.
IMPERATIVE
MOOD.
Present.
Future.
.
S. 2. PI. 2.
S. 2.
8.3.
PL 2. PI. 3. eg
/0W />&0& J/tf
thou
&?,.&c.
ye they, &c. ^
am -a -ate
am -ato
-ato
-atote -anto
mon -e -ete
mon -eto
-eto
-etote -ento ^
reg -e -zte
reg -zto
-rto
-ztote -^nto
aud -I -Ite
aud -Ito
-ita
-Itote -i?/nto S
CONJUNCTIVE
MOOD.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
I. ' 2.
3-
i.
2. 3 .
J
am -em -es
-et
-emus
-etis -ent
mone -am -as
-at
-amus
-atis -ant
p t
reg -am -as
-at
-amus
-atis -ant
audi -am -as
-at
-amus
-atis -ant
ama -rem \
1
mone -rem
-ret
-remus
-retis -rent
S.
rege -rem
E
audi -rem J
amav -erimx
ti
S
4)
monu -erim 1
rex -erimf
-erit
-erimus
-erftfs -erint
audiv -erim )
1
iissem ' -isses -isset
-issemus
-issetis -issent
1
audiv- J
II. Pure Conjunctive.
A) (Potential and Conditional use): minim fortasse videatur, perhaps it may seem
wonderful: ita amicos pares, thiis you may gain friends : quaerat quispiam, some one
may ask : dixerit aliquis, somebody may (might) say : pace tua dixerim, / 'wo^tld say
with your leave : pro certo amrmaverim, I can aver for a fact '. crederes victos, you
would have supposed tJiem vanquished: velim esse tecum, / -would like to be with you :
nolim te abire, / should not like you to go away : nollem id factum, I could -wish it had
not been done : mallem aliud factum, / would rather something else had been done.
B) (Dubitative use) : quid faciam? what must (can, shall) I do ? quid facerem? what
should (could) I have done ? faveas tu hosti ? must (should) you favour an enemy ?
C) (Concessive use) : naturam expellas, you may drive out nature : fuerit sapiens, sup.
pose he were wise : ne fuerit sapiens, suppose he were not wise : fuisset anceps fortuna,
fortune might have been doubtful.
D) (Optative use) : vivas, may you live : valeant cives mei, may my countrymen
flourish: di bene vertant, heaven prosper it: moriar (ne vivam) si mentior : may I die if
I speak falsely : ita vivam ut te amo, so may I live as I love you upon my life I love
you.
E) (Hortative use) : imitemur bonos, let us imitate the good : desinant furere, let them
(or they should) cease to rave : rem tuam curares, 'you should have been minding your
own business : mortem pugnans oppetisset, he should have died fighting.
44-
Conjugation of the Verb.
175
FOUR CONJUGATIONS.
PASSIVE VOICE.
I M PER AT
Present.
S. 2. PI. 2.
be thou ye loved, &c.
ama -re -mini
mone -re -mini
reg -/re -rniini
audi -re -mini
:IVE MOOD.
Future.
S. 2. S. 3. PI. 3.
thou he they o
ama -tor -tor -ntor ^
mone -tor -tor -ntor ^ ^
reg -ftor -^tor -^ntor
audi -tor -tor * -zmtor ^
CONJUNCTIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
I. 2. 3. I. 2. 3.
am -er -er-is(e) -etur -emur -eminl -entur
mone -ar -ar-is(e) -atur -amur -amini -antur
reg -ar -ar-is(e) -atur -amur -amini -antur
audi -ar -ar-is(e) -atur -amur -amini -antiir
ama -rer \
^ :-** **
audi -rerJ
-remur -reminl -rentur
amatus, monitus, rectus, audltus amatl, moniti, rectl, audit!
V J \. 1
sim sis sit
(fuerim) (fueris) (fuerit)
simus sltis sint
(fuenmus) (fuentis) (fuerint)
amatus, monitus, rectus, audltus amatl, moniti, rectl, audit!
V J V ,
essem esses esset essemus essetis essent
(fuissem) (fuisses) (fuisset) (fuissemus) (fuissetis) (fuissent)
III, Subjunctive.
Fit ut aegrotem, it happens that I am sick : evenit utaegrotarem, it fell out that
I was sick: necesse est eas (necesse erit eas), you must go : opus est ut eas (oportet
eas), it behoves you to go : opus erat ut ires (oportuit ires), it behoved you to go : metuo
nee as, I fear you will go : metuebam ne ires, I feared you would go : metuo ut eas,
I fear you are not going: metuebam ut ires, I feared you were not going : cura ut
eas (fac eas), mind you go: sine eamus, suffer -us to go : oro ut eas, / beg that you go :
oravi ut ires, I begged you would go : utinam eas ! O that you may go ! utinam ires ! O
that you had been going ! utinam ne i s s e s ! O that you had not gone ! scio cur v e n i a t,
7 know why he comes: scio cur venerit, / know why he came : sciebam cur veniret,
/ knew why he came : sciebam curvenisset, 7 knew why he had come: non tarn
amens est ut eat, he is not so mad as to go : non tarn amens fuit ut iret, he was
not so mad as to go: edo ut vivam, 7 eat that I may live : vivebant ut ederent,
they lived that they might eat: laudant me quod earn, they praise me because
I go : laudant me quod i e r i m, they praise me becaTtse I went : laudabant me quod
i r e m, they praised me because I went : laudabant me quod i s s e m, they praised me
because I had gone : quae cum ita sint, ibo, since this is the case, I will go : quae cum
ita essent,, ivi, since this was the case, I went : aegrotabam cum irem, 7 was ill when I
went: convalui cum issem, 7 got well when I had gone : exspecta dum redeam,
wait till I return : nusquam ibo antequam re d e at, 7 will go nowhere before he retTtrns :
Latin Wordlore. 44.
SCHEME OF THE
ACTIVE VOICE.
VERB
INFINITIVE.
Pr. Impf. Perf. Plup. Future.
to love, &c. to have loved, &c. to be about to love, c.
ama -re amav -isse amat -urus \
mone -re monu -isse monit -urus I
reg/ -re rex -isse rect -urus f
audi -re audiv -isse audit -urus J
Gerunds. Supines. Partic. Pres. Partic. Fut.
loving, of, by, to love, in loving, loving, about to love, &c.
&c. &c. &c.
amand -um -I -6 amat -um -u ama -ns amatur -us -a -urn
monend -um -I -6 monft -um -u mone -ns monitur -us -a -um
regend -um -I -6 rect -um -u reg-e -ns rectur -us -a -um
audiend -um -I -6 audit -um -u audi- -ns auditur -us -a -um
ut pec caver it, carus est tamen, tJwughhe has sinned ', yet he is dear: quamvispec-
casset, carus fuit, though Jte had sinned, he was dear : clamas tanquam surdus s im, you
baivl, as though I were deaf : clamabas quasi surdus essem, you were bawling, as if I
had been deaf : emo libros quos legam, / buy books to read : emi libros quos legerem,
J bmight books to read : non is sum qui te deseram, 7 am not one to forsake you : non
is fuit qui me desereret, he was not one to forsake me : quis est quin fleat aliquando?
who is there that weeps not sometimes ? nemo fuit quin fl e r e t, there was no one but
titus est ne iret, he was forbidden to go: dubito an verum sit, / doubt it may be true :
nescio an verum sit, I rather think it is true : felicem esse puto qui rei nullius indigeat,
/ consider him to be Jiappy who wants nothing : ais te cum r ed earn adfuturum, you say
you will be present when I return : ait se cum redierim adfuturum, he says he will be
present when I have returned: aiebant se cum red i is s em adfore, they said they would
be present when I had returned : nego quicquam esse utile, quod non s i t honestum, /
say that nothing is expedient which is not morally right: aedes quas emisset ex-
ornari iussit, he ordered the house which he had bought to be decorated : exprobratur mihi
quod Iliadem nondum legerim, I am reproached with not having yet read the Iliad:
exprobratum est mihi quod Iliadem nondum 1 egi s se m, 7 was reproached withhaving not
yet read tJie Iliad : Themistocles noctu ambulabat, quod somnum capere non posset,
Themistocles used to walk by night, because (he said) he could not sleep.
IV. Pure Conjunctive and Subjunctive in Combination.
Velim rescribas, 7 should wish you to write back : vellem adesses, 7 could wish you
were here : nollem accidisset, 7 could wish it had not happened : mallem quidvis faceres,
I would rather you did anything : mallem aliter fecisset, 7 would ratJter he had done
otherwise : quidvis potius paterer, quam mentirer, 7 would suffer anything rather than
tell a falsehood : praestes quod receperis, you should perform what you have under-
taken : praestaret quod recepisset, he should perform what he had undertaken : eant
quo velint, they may go where they will : irent quo vellent, they might go where tliey
would : quis miretur quod homines liberi servire nolint ? who can say he wonders that
free men do not wish to be slaves ? earn si iubeas, earn si iusseris, ierim si iusseris, 7 shall
go if you bid me : irem si iuberes, 7 would go if you bade me : issem si iussisses, 7 would
have gone, had you told me : non iturus essem, nisi tu iussisses, I should not have been
about to go, unless you had bidden me.
(Examples of this kind, noted and imitated, teach the right rendering of the Conjunc-
tive Mood, in its various uses, better than English given in Tables.)
44-
Conjugation of the Verb.
177
FOUR CONJUGATIONS.
PASSIVE VOICE.
INFINITE.
Pr. Impf. Perf. Plup. Future.
to be loved, &c. to have been loved, &c. to be abo^lt to be loved, &c.
ama -rl amat -us\ amat -um\
mone -rl monit -us 1 v monit -um 1 _ .
reg -I rect -usf rect -umf ]
audir -I audit -us; audit -urn)
Gerundive. Partic. Perf. Plup.
(meet} to be loved, &c.
loved or having been loved, &c.
amand -us -a -um
amat -us -a -um
monend -us -a -um
monit -us -a -um
regend -us -a -um
rect -us -a -um
audiend -us -a -um
audit -us -a -um
ACTIVE.
legere utile est
to read is useful
librum legere coepi
/ have begrtn to read the book
memini me legere
7 remember that I read
aio me legisse
/ say that I have read
memineram me legisse
/ remembered that I had read
videor mihi lecturus esse
/ think I am going to read
aiomelecturum esse
/ say that I will read
aiebam me le cturum esse
/ said that I would read
aiebam me lecturum fuisse
/ said that I wo^^ld have read
The Verb Infinite.
PASSIVE.
legi libros utile est
it is useful that books be read
liber legi coepit
the book has begun to be read
memini librum legi
/ remember the book being read
aio librum lectum esse
I say that the book has been read
memineram librum lectumesse
7 remembered the book had been react
dicitur liber lectus esse
the book is said to have been read
aio libros lectum iri )
aio futurum ut libri legantur J
7 say the books are going to be read
aiebam fore ut libri legerentur
7 said that the books would be read
aio futurum fuisse ut legerentur
7 say they would have been read
putor lecturus fuisse
it is supposed I should have read
legend um est nobis
we must read
consuetude legendi
the habit of reading
cupidus sum legendi
7 am desirous of reading
aptus est legendo (ad legendum)
he is Jit for reading
inter legendum
in the course of reading
oblector legendo
I amuse myself with reading
in legendo versor
7 am engaged in reading
eo lectum Iliadem
7 am going to read the Iliad
lecturus sum Iliadem
7 am about to read the Iliad
Iliadem 1 e g e n s oblector
/ am charmed with reading the Iliad
legeridus est liber
the book must be read
cupido librorum legendorum
the desire of reading books
cupidus sum libri legendi
7 am desirous of reading the book
aptus est libris legendis \
aptus est ad libros legendos J
he is fitted for reading books
oblector libris legendis
7 amuse myself with reading books
in libris legendis versor
7 am engaged in reading books
librum unicuique legendum
a book to be read by everybody
librum utilem lectu
a book useful to read
Iliadelectagaudeo
7 rejoice in having read the Iliad
Latin Wordlore.
45-
.
SCHEME OF THE
DEPONENT
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
I. 2.
3- i. 2. 3.-
/ you he, &c. we ye they
g ven -or -ar-is(e) -atur -amur -amim -antur \ d
$ ver -eor -er-is(e) -etur -emur -emini -entur *
ut -or -^r-is(e) -itur -imur -miini -wntur j "$
part -ior -Ir-is(e) -Itur -Imur -Imini -i/mtur J 4
1
vena "P^l-b6r-is(e) -bitur -bimur -bimini -buntur <#
C/2
. w
1 "N **^
3
. " l-er-is(e)
etur -emur -emini -entur ^ |
to
parti
> ^^
.
vena -bar\
Y *^ o
$
ute -bar [ "
-batur -bamur -bamini -bantur - "^ ^
3
partie-barJ
) l -s
1
venatiis, verftus, usus,
partitus venati, veriti, usi, partiti ^^
Pk
sum es
est sumus estis sunt ^
(fui, &c.)
) ^
|
venatus, veritus, usus
V.
partitus venati, veriti, usi, partiti 1 "s
1
ero eris
f v 4 1 ^:
erlt erimus eritis erunt I ^
(fuero, &c.)
; ^^
1
venatus, veritus, usus,
partitus venati, veriti, usi, partiti, % ^*
eram eras
erat eramus eratis erant | ^ 5
S
(fueram, &c.)
/ ^
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Present.
Future.
S. 2. PL 2.
S. 2. S. 3. PL 3.
^#/, &c. /^ ye
thou he they
\ A
vena -re -mini
vena -tor -tor -ntor ^^
vere -re -mini
vere -tor -tor -ntor \ ^
ut/ -re -z'-mini
ut^ -tor -tor -//ntor S s
parti -re -mini
parti -tor -tor -zmtor ' ^
Note. Some Deponents have an Active form also, as comitari or comitare.
I 45. Conjugation of the Verb.
FOUR CONJUGATIONS.
VERBS.
179
CONJUNCTIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
I. 2.
3-
I. 2.
3-
V)
ven -er -er-is(e)
-etur
-emur -emini
entur
u
vere -ar -ar-is(e)
-atur
-amur -ammi
antur
ut -ar -ar-is(e)
-atur
-amur -ammi
antur
parti -ar -ar-is(e)
-atur
-amur -ammi
antur
vena-rer\
t,
C/2
j
vere-rer i()
ut/ -rerf
-retur
-remur. -remini
-rentur
partl-rerJ
to
venatus, veritus, usus, partitus
v ...... J
venati, veriti, usi, partiti
U
sim sis
sit
slmus sitis
sint
(fuerim, &c.)
venatus, veritus, usus, partitus
venati, veriti, usi
, partiti
CO
^J
essem esses
esset
essemus essetis
essent
(fuissem, c.)
VERB INFINITE.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. Impf.
Perf. Phip.
Future.
vena -ri | # venat-us esse
vere -ri [ <> verit -us esse
ut -i [ I us -us esse
parti -ri j ^ partlt-us esse
% venat-urus esse
-^ verit -urus esse
us -urus esse
partlt-urus esse
PARTICIPLES.
Pr.
Impf. Gerundive. Perf. Plup.
vena -ns
d
venand -us
^ <# venat
-41
vere -ns '
_ ^ verend -us t^ ^ ver it
-us 14
ut-tf -ns j
"^
utend -us
^ us
-usf
parti-^ -ns j
partiend-us
| | partlt
-us -|
Future.
\ 1
venat-urus j
verit -urus I ^
us -urus N
partlt-urus i
GERUNDS.
verend -um -i -o
utend -um -i -o
partiend -um -i -o
SUPINES.
venat-um -u
verit-um -u
iis-um -u I"
partit-um -u ^
N 2
i So
Latin Wordlore.
46-47-
46
Verbs in
2-0.
VERB in i-o OF CONJUG. III.
(Present-Stem Forms.)
ACTIVE.
Indie. Pres. cap/-o, cap-?s, -It, -imus, -ids, capz-unt.
Fut. capz-am, -es, -et, -emus, -etis, -ent.
Imperf. capz-ebam, -ebas, -ebat, -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant,
Conj. Pres. capz-am, -as, -at, -amus, -atis, -ant.
Imperf. cap-erem, -eres, -eret, -eremus, -eretis, -erent.
Imper. Pres. cap-e, -fte.
Fut. cap-ito, -itote, -/-unto.
Infin. Pres. cap-ere.
Gerund. capz-endum, -endl, -endo.
Part. Pres. capz-ens.
DEPONENT.
Indie. Pres. patz-or, pat-eris, -itur, -Imur, -imml, -z-untur.
Fut. patz-ar, -er-is(e), -etur, -emur, -emini, -entur.
Imperf. patz-ebar, -ebar-Is(e), -ebatur, -ebamur, -ebamini,
-ebantur.
Conj. Pres. patz-ar, -ar-is(e), -atur, -amur, -amini, -antur.
- Imperf. pat-erer, -erer-Ts(e), -eretur, -eremur, -eremini, -eren-
tur.
Imper. Pres. pat-ere, -Imini.
Fut. pat-Itor, -z-untor.
Infin. Pres. pat-I.
Gerund. patz-endum, -endi, -endo.
Gerundive. patz-endus.
Part. Pres. patz-ens.
The Passive of capz'-o is similar, omitting Gerund and Part.
a) Potior follows the Fourth Conjugation, but in some forms
wavers between the Third and Fourth : potltur or potltur,
potimur or potlmur, poterer or potirer.
b) In orior the forms oriri and orirer (rarely orerer) are classi-
cal ; but others (oreris, oritur, &c.) follow the Third Conjugation.
*:) Gradior, morior were originally I-verbs ; and exhibit various
i-forms in older Latin (as -grediri -gredirer, moriri). In classical
Latin they became Consonant -Verbs wholly. Morior, orior, have
Future Participles moriturus, orituru?.
47
Peri-
phrastic
Conju-
gation.
iv. Combinate or Periphrastic Conjugation.
The Participles in -urns, -dus, may be combined with
all the Tenses of the Verb sum. These forms are
called, i) 'Coniugatio Periphrastica Futuri';2) 'Con-
iugatio Periphrastica Gerundivi : ' L as
1 So also the Passive Combinate Tenses (amatussum, eram, &c.) might be called
'Coniugatio Periphrastica Praeleriti.'
47-
Periphrastic Conjugation.
181
SINGULAR.
i) C. P. F.
amaturus, a, um,
&c. &c.
2) C. P. G.
amandus, a, um,
&c. &c.
Pres. sum es
S. Fut. ero eris
Imp. eram eras
Perf. fu-i -isti
Fut. P. fu-ero -eris
Plupf. fu-eram -eras
est
erit
erat
-it
-erit
-erat
sim sis
essem esses
fu-erim -eris
fu-issem -isses
v^_
sit
esset
-erit
-isset
^i
Indie. M.
amaturi, ae, a,
&c. &c.
PLURAL.
Conj. M.
amandi, ae, a,
&c. &c.
Pres. sumus estis
S. Fut. erimus eritis
Imp. eramus eratis
Perf. fu-imus -istis
Fut. P. fu-erimus -eritis
Plupf. fu-eramus -eratis
sunt
erunt
erant
-erunt
-erint
-erant
simus sitis
essemus essetis
fu-erimus -eritis
fu-issemus -issetis
V.
sint
essent
-erint
-issent
j
Indie. M.
Conj. M.
INFINITE FORMS.
amaturus, a, um, &c.
amaturi, ae, a, &c.
amandus, a, um, &c.
amandi, ae, a, &c.
Pres. Imp. esse
Perf. Plup. fuisse.
1 A) Correspondence of the Latin Verb.
The Latin Verb corresponds in many points with the Sanskrit and the Greek : but there
-are also some in which it shews Italian peculiarities.
The points of agreement are chiefly
1) The Active Personal Endings.
2) The use of Mood Vowels generally.
3) The use of Reduplication, though more limited in Latin.
4) The form of the Present Participle Active.
5) The correspondence of many Roots.
Bbt Latin Conjugation departs from Sanskrit and Greek in the following respects :
i) It has only two Voices and two Numbers.
a) It has lost the Augment, the distinction of Perfect and Aorist Tense, and that of
Optative and Conjunctive Mood.
3) Its Passive Personal Endings are formed by agglutinating ' SC.'
4) Most of its Tenses are formed by Verbal agglutination.
5) Most of its Infinitive and Participial forms are peculiar to it.
J3) Personal Endings.
a) The Personal Endings of the two principal Active Moods generally correspond
thus :
I.
L. m, o ;
Sk. mi, m \
Gr. fxi, v, a) ;
3-
t
ti, t
<ri, Tt
I.
mus
mas, ma
/act/, Ccs)
PLURAL.
2.
tis
than, ta
3-
nt
nti
VTl
l$2 Latin Wordlore.
In translating, it is only required to construe each part of the
Verb sum with each Participle : as amaturus sum, / am about to
love ; amandus sum, / am meet to be loved (or, / am to be loved).
So futurus sum, / am about to be ; futurus sim, eram, essem, c.
Examples :
Nos scripturi sumus (erimus) ea quae agenda sunt (erunt).
Vos dicturi eratis (fuistis) ea quae agenda erant (fuere).
Dux deliberaturus est (erit) quid agendum sit.
Dux deliberaturus erat (fuit) quid agendum esset.
Illud puto statuendum esse, quid nos acturi simus.
Illud putavi statuendum esse, quid vos acturi essetis.
These do not include the peculiar endings of the Latin Perfect Indicative, which are
noticed later.
b) The Endings of the Imperative Active also coincide :
L. a, &c. te
Sk. a to.
Gr. e Te
to tote nto
tu ntn
TW vrtav
The Ending to was in E.L. tod; in Oscan tud; inUmbrian tu.
The Passive Personal Endings formed by agglutinating se are noticed p. 58.
c) The Imperative Passive Endings are so formed :
amatorforamato-se amantorforamanto-se
Similar agglutination of Passive forms appears in the Umbrian and Oscan dialects ; also
in the Sclavonic and Lithuanian languages.
The Second Persons Plural in mini are to be regarded as Participles (like Gr. -/xei/oi)
with which the Verb of Being est is, este, is to be understood: xnino is an old ending
of the Imper. Fut. Pass. 2nd Person, as arbitramino, Plaut. Epid. v. 2., where -minor
is called by Ritschl a traditional fiction.
C) Formation of the Tenses.
a) Present Tense Active.
The Present Stem is prefixed to the Personal Endings ; but
the A-verb contracts ao into O in (amao) amo ;
the I-verb takes vincular u in 3. Plur., audi-?*-nL
the Consonant Verb takes a vincular in all persons but i. Sing. ; i in ^. 3.
Sing, and i. 2. Plur. ; ?<in 3. Plur. : reg-I-s, reg-J-t, reg-J-mus, reg-z-tis,
reg-7*-nt.
On the quantities, see p. 169, Note.
b) Future Simple Active.
Here is found variety of formation.
The A- and E-verbs form this tense by agglutinating -DO, which represents the
Pres. verb fuio. The personal inflexion is like that of the Cons.-Verbin Present
Tense: ama-bo, mone-bo, -bis, -bit, &c.
The Cons, and I-verbs take between Stem and Ending in the ist Pers. S. the Con-
junctive mood-vowel a (Sk. A) : as veham (Sk. va/idni), audiam : intheother
Persons they take the Optative mood-vowel e (Sk. e) : vehes, vehet (anc. vehet),
vehemus, vehetis, vehent. So audies, &c.
But I-verbs in E. L. took the forms -bo, -bis, &c. :asaudfbo, audlbor, &c. t
and these are sometimes found in poetry. Even such forms as regebo, &c.,
appear on old Inscrr. ; and Quintilian says that dicem,faciem were written by the
elder Cato for dicam, faciam.
c) Imperfect Indie. Active.
This Tense in all Conjugations takes the form -bam -bas, &c., representing fuam,
fuas, &c., the old Imperf. of fuo. In A- and E-verbs this is at once aggluti-
nated to the Present-stem a ma -bam, mone-bam ; but in the Cons, and I-verbs
6 connects them : reg-e-bam, audi-e-bam: a formation which seems due to
mere analogy. Here too the form it) am for 1C bam occurs in old Latin and
in poetry.
48. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. 183
4 s
v. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. ^
Certain Verbs are called Irregular (Anomala) :
1) Some because they take tenses from more than one stem :
sum, possum, fero, fio ;
2) Others because some of their forms are subject to peculiar
changes : volo, nolo, malo, ; eo, queo, nequeo ; edo.
<f) Present (and Fut.) Conjunctive.
The E- I- and Cons. -Verbs take the old Sk. Conjunctive vowel 4, adding am, as,
&c. to the Present Stem : moneam, moneas, &c. ; audiam, audias, &c. ;
regam, regas, &c.
But as a ma -am, &c., would be inadmissible, -am in A-Verbs seems to have been
weakened into -im ; whence ama-im, amem, &c.
The a of the Stem is also found in old Latin to be weakened into 11 in duim (Cic.),
for dem (da-im). Thus, in Plautus, perduim, creduim (also crcduam). The
ending im, which appears in sim, velim, is also found in old and poetic forms of
other verbs : edim, Hor. ; com,edim, Cic. ; carint ; effodint ; temperint (Plaut.).
e) Imperfect Conjunctive.
Esem (=erem) is agglutinated to the Present-stem : forming (ama-esem) a m a r e m ;
(mone-esem) monerem; (reg-esem) regerem; (audi-esem) audlrem.
/) Perfect Indicative.
Perfect-stem with i, isti, &c. On these end-forms much has been written, and their
origin is still disputed. Curtius (with Schleicher), Corssen, Lubbert, and Herzog
have taken different views, which may be compared in the work of the last-
named scholar ( Untersuchungen uber die Bildungsgeschichte der Griech. und
Latein, Sprache). In so doubtful a matter it may be allowable to surmise that
this tense, like the rest of its Class, is formed by agglutination, the Present forms
of the Verb e s- (sum) being added to the Perfect-stem of each Verb, and synco-'
pation ensuing in most Persons. This theory would give :
amav-es-m-i passing into amav-i
amav-es-s-i amav-is-t-i
amav-es-t (amav-Is-t) amav-It, amav-it
amav-es-mus amav-i-mus
amav-es-tis amav-istis
amav-es-unt amav-erunt, -erunt, -ere
Forms in & for I, elt for It, belong to E.L. and R.L. Poets use -erunt : steterunt,
Verg. ; verte-runt, Hor., &c.
g) The other Perfect-stem Tenses are formed by agglutinating es-im, es-o (ero)
and es(s)em severally to the Perfect-stem :
Perf. Conj. amav-erim; Fut. Perf. amav-ero; Plup. Conj. amav-issem
(sharpened from -esem).
Z>) The Verb Infinite.
The Infinitive Pres. Act. a m a - r e (for ama-se), Perf. amav-is-se (for amav-i-se), ,
are Verb-nouns formed by adding the Dative or Locative element -se to the Pre-
sent and Perfect Stems severally.
The Present Active Participle in US (nt-S) corresponds to the Greek Participle m
VT-, Sk. t (nt when nasalized ; Norn. S. ).
The Supines and Passive Participle in tU- to- (tUS) correspond to the Sk. Parti-
cipial in ta.
The Future Participle in -turus corresponds to the Sk. agentive ending tar (tor) :
amaturus (amator).
The Gerundive in -ndo (ndus) seems to have a double suffix : (i) Pres. Partic. in
' nt, (2) do-. The vincular e which connects these with the Present-Stem of Cons.
and I-verbs was anciently u ; which remained in legal documents to the Aug.
age : reg^ndus, regwndus ; feri<?ndus, feriwndus : but orizmdus always.
On the old Passive Infinitive form ier (which passed into i), see p. 58. Gossrau
says that Lange has collected 336 instances of its use in inscriptions, laws, old
writers, and poets : of the latter, 187 are in Plautus, 46 in Lucretius, and 6 in
Virgil. Pure Verbs are those which shew it oftenest.
On the archaic and poetic forms which omit si, see p. 54.
1 84
Latin Wordlore.
Possum.
Fcro.
I. Possum, / can, is assimilated from pot-sum
sum, I am able: Perf. potui for pote-fui. See p. 168.
SCHEME.
48.
potis (or pote)
Indie.
Conjunc.
Indie.
Conjunc.
1
1
S. possum
potes
potest
P. possumus
potestis
possunt
possim
possis
possit
posslmus
possitis
possint
1
potui
potuisti
potuit
potuimus
potuistis [-e
potuer-unt
potuerim
potueris
potuerit
potuerimus
potuentis
potuerint
w
3
fe
S. potero
poteris
poterit
P. poterimus
poteritis
poterunt
as Pres.
04
3
h
potuero
potueris
potuerit
potuerimus
potuentis
potuerint
as Perf.
A
S. poteram
poteras
poterat
poteramus
poteratis
poterant
possem
posses
posset
possemus
possetis
possent
d
1
potueram
potueras
potuerat
potueramus
potueratis
potuerant
potuissem
potuisses
potuisset
potuissemus
potuissetis
potuissent
Infin. Pr. Impf. posse (for pot-es-se) ; Perf. Plup. potuisse.
Potens is an Adjective rather than a Participle, ' powerful, able. 1
Some archaic forms are found in the elder poets : as poterint,
potessem, potesse, possiem, possies, &c. The Impersonal Passive
potestur is in Lucr. and Plaut. This, and the Passive forms of
queo, nequeo, coepi, desino, are only used before an Infinitive
Passive. See Munro on Lucr. i. 1045. Potis sum, es, est, &c. are
found in poetry. 1
II. Fero (Sk. bhar, Gr. 0ep-), bring, bear.
The peculiarities of this Verb are :
1) In the Present-stem forms it casts out vincular * before %
and t : as fers, fert, fertur, &c. : also e between r and r :
as ferrem, ferrer, ferre. The Imperative fer rejects
final e.
2) It takes its Perfect-stem tul- from the root tol-, and the
Supine-stem lat- (for t-lat-) from another form of the
same root (tal- or tla-}. For Cpp. see p. 217.
1 Potis, pote (originally Adjectives) are also used adverbially. Their origin is Sk. pati,
* lord,' whence Gr. Trdcris, rrorvia (lord and lady).
Conjugation of Irregular Verbs.
SCHEME.
I8 S
PRESENT-STEM TENSES ACTIVE.
Indie.
Conjunc.
Imper.
Infin.
Part.
Present.
S.fero
fers
fert
P. ferimus
fertis
ferunt
feram
feras
ferat
feramus
feratis
ferant
fer
ferte
ferre
ferens
c/5
1
S. feram
feres
&c.
as Present
ferto
&c.
laturus
esse
laturus, a,
um
I
Qi
S. ferebam
ferebas
&c.
ferrem
ferres
&c.
PRESENT-STEM TENSES PASSIVE.
j
S. feror
ferris
fertitr
P. ferlmur
ferimini
feruntur
ferar
ferar-is (e)
feratur
feramur
feramini
ferantur
ferre
ferimini
ferri
latus, a, um
[um
ferendus, a,
en
1
S. ferar
ferer-is (e)
&c.
as Present
fertor
&c.
latumiri
1
S. ferebar
ferebar-is
(e) &c.
ferrer
ferrer-is (e)
&c.
PERFECT- STEM TENSES (ACTIVE).
tiil-i, tul-ero, tul-eram, tul-issem, &c. ; tulisse : regularly, as
rex-i, &c.
SUPINE-STEM TENSES (PASSIVE).
latus . . sum (fui, &c.), ero, eram, sim, essem, &c. : regularly,
as rect-us sum (fui), &c.
III. Fio (Sk. bM, Gr. <v-), am made, become. Fio.
The Quasi-passive fio is used as the Passive of facio in the
Present-Stem Tenses.
The Supine-Stem Tenses are formed by factus regularly.
186
Latin Wordlore.
SCHEME.
Indie.
Conjunc. ; Imper.
Infin.
Part.
S. fio
flam
fl
fieri
factus, a., um
fis
fias
S
fit
flat
1
P. (fimus)
flamus
ft
(fitis)
fmnt
flatis
flant
(fite)
[um
faciendus, a,
S. flam
futurus esse
futurus, a,
J
fles
as Present
(fito)
fore
um
1
&c.
&c.
<
S. f lebam
fierem
i
flebas
fieres
a
M
c.
&c.
ti
S. factus
factus sim
factus esse
factus, a, um
2
sum &c. &c.
The bracketed forms are hardly found.
Fio (fu-i-o) is only a strengthened form of fu-. Hence fore and
futurus may be assigned to this Verb as well as to sum, by which
they are borrowed. This appears from the constant usage of Latin
authors : 'Neque ego ea, quae fa eta sun t, fore quum dicebam,
divinabam futura,' C. Fam. vi. i. 5 ; f Quid fiat, fact um, futur-
umve sit/ C. d. Or. ii. 26. 113.
The i is long except before er, and in Ht. Comic poets often
lengthen i in fierem, fieri.
Fio, being the Passive of facio, appears as such in many Com-
Eounds : liquefio, calefio, satisfio; with Prepositions only in a
jw instances, as in some forms of confieri, defieri, interfieri,
effieri, superfieri. Also infit, begins (to speak], Verg.
IV. V. VI. Volo, nolo, malo.
Volo, / wish, I will (Sk. var, Gr. /3oX- /3ovX-), has the following-
peculiarities :
1) Its stem- vowel fluctuates between o, u, e.
2) It rejects i in three Persons of Pres. Indie. (2. 3 S. 2 PL), and'
e in Impf. Conj. and Infin. Pres.
3) It rejects a consonant in Pres. Indie. 2nd Pers. vis. (Corssen says
that this cons, is not l but the prim. r. See Krit. Nachtrdge, 287.)
4) It assimilates s to preceding l in vellem, c. for vel-sem, &c.
and in vel-le for vel-se.
5) The Pres. Conj. takes the ending im, is, c. instead of am.
Nolo is compounded of ne (non) with volo : Malo of magis or
mage and volo.
Conjugation of Irregular Verbs.
Mavelim, mavelle, &c., also nevis, nevelle, appear in E. L.
Volt, voltis were used before Augustus.
Noli is formed from nolis, 2nd Pers. Conj.
SCHEME.
Indicative.
Conjunctive.
$
S. volo nolo malo
vis nonvis mavis
vult nonvult mavult
P. volumus nolumus malumus
vultis nonvultis mavultis
volunt nolunt malunt
velim nolim malim
velis nolis malis
velit nolit malit
velimus nolimus mallmus
velitis nolltis malitis
velint nolint malint
co
s
S. volam
voles noles males
&c. &c. &c.
as Present
&
S. volebam nolebam malebam
volebas nolebas malebas
&c. &c. &c.
vellem nollem mallem
velles nolles malles
&c. &c. c.
I
S. volui nolui malui
voluisti noluisti maluisti
&c. &c. &c.
voluerim noluerim maluerim
volueris nolueris malueris
&c. &c. &c.
1
S. voluero noluero maluero
volueris nolueris malueris
&c. c. &c.
as Perfect
S
S. volueram nolueram malueram
volueras nolueras malueras
&c. c. c.
voluissem noluissem maluissem
voluisses noluisses maluisses
&c. &c. &c.
IMPERATIVE.
(volo and malo, none)
s. 2 3. P. 2.
Pres. noil nolite
Fut. nolito nolito nolitote
Pres Impf.
Perf. Plup.
INFINITIVE.
velle nolle
voluisse noluisse
nolunto
malle
maluisse
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. volens nolens (rare)
Gerunds are hardly found.
a) Pervolo, wish much, has pervelim, pervellem, pervelle.
&) Vin is used for visne, will you? sis for si vis ; sultis for si
vultis, if you please \ cap sis for cape si vis.
188
Latin Wordlore,
4 8.
Eo.
Queo,
nequeo.
VII. Eo(for][o),^.
The root is i- (Sk. Gr.), to go, which becomes e before a, o, u.
SCHEME.
Indie.
Conjunc.
Imper.
Verb Infinite.
S. ft?
earn
I
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES.
+:
IS
ft
eas
eat
I
(Pr. Impf.)
(Pres. Impf.)
o
ire
lens
P. firms
Itis
eunt
eamus
eatis
eant
ite
(Perf. Plup.)
ivisse
or isse
euntem
&c.
S. ibo
Ibis
Ito
c/5
3
Ibit
P. Ibimus
as Present
Ito
(Future)
fturus esse
(Future)
iturus
fe
Ibitis
Itote
Ibunt
eunto
,.
S. ibam
irem
GERUND.
SUPINES.
I
Ibas
Ires
i
&c.
&c.
S. Ivi or ft
ferim
eundum
i . lt-um
*c
0>
Ivisti, isti
icris
eundi
2. ItU
A
&c.
&c.
eundo
The remaining Tenses are formed as in a u d - i v i. The v is usually
dropt by ivi and its Compounds: ii, iisti or isti, ieram, issem,
&c. ; redii, rediero, redistis, redisse, &c.
The Impersonal Passive itur, Uum est, Iri, &c., is often usecb
Iri with Supine supplies a Future Passive to Verbs. Also the
Active eo forms a periphrasis with Supine,
iniurias istas ultum eunt
they are going to avenge those wrongs
aiunt iniurias istas ultum iri
they say that those wrongs are going to be avenged
(literally : there is attending to avenge those wrongs).
Ambio, go round, canvass, follows the Conjugation of audio.
VIII. IX. Queo; nequeo.
Queo, can (Stem qui-), nequeo, cannot, are like eo, so far as
their forms extend ; but have no Imperative and no Gerunds,
queo quls quivi quire .... quitum quiens (queuntis)
nequeo nequis nequivi nequlre . nequitum nequiens (nequeuntis)
The Indicative and Conjunctive forms are like those of eo.
Queor, nequeor, are found in old writers with an Infin. Pass. :
subpleri queatur, Lucr. i. 1045; 'quita est,' Ter. Hec. iv. I. 59;
' n e q u 1 1 u r,' Plaut. Rud. i v.
Conjugation of Defective Verbs.
189
X. do (Sk. ad, Gr. e'3-), eat.
This Verb is anomalous only by the occasional mutation of
forms, which omit the Vincular, and either assimilate or omit d.
2nd Pers. S. Pres. Act. es for ed-i-s (ed-s).
3rd est for ed-i-t (ed-t).
2nd Pers. PI. estis for ed-if-tis (ed-tis).
Imperf. Conj. essem for ed-e-rem (ed-sem), c.
Imperat Pres. este for ed-I-te (ed-te)
Fut. esto, estate for edito, edftote
Inf. Pres. . esse for ed-e-re (ed-se)
3rd Pers. S. Pres. Pass, 'estur for ed-I-tur (ed-tur)
The other forms of this Verb are regular; except that e dim,
edis, &c., are sometimes found for edas, edat, &c.
vi. Conjugation of Defective Verbs.
DEFECTIVE VERBS are without 'some of the usual
parts of a Verb. In this strict sense a great number of
Verbs are Defective; but those commonly so called
by grammarians are the following :
I. Praeteritiva: Verbs which, having no Present- Stem forms
in use, express these by Perfect forms.
1) coepi, 1 (have begun = ) begin, from co-ap-z'-o (Obsolete)
2) odi, (have hated = ) hate, from od-z'-o (Obsolete)
3) memmi, (have minded- ) remember, from men- (Obs.)
SCHEME.
49
Defec-
tive
Verbs.
Coepi,
odi,
memini
Indie.
Conjunc.
Imper.
Infin.
coepi
coeperim
coepisse
coepisti
coeperis
&c.
&c.
*;
odi
oderim
odisse
1
odisti
oderis
I
&c.
&c.
memtni
memmenm
memmisse
meministi
meminens
&c.
&c.
ti
coepero
coepturus esse
&
odero
osurus esse
-
memmero
memento
3
I
coeperam
oderam
coepissem
odissem
S
memmeram
memmissem
1 The obsolete Verb apio, get, acquire, of which coepi o, coepi, is a compound, ap-
pears in the forms a p i s c o r, aptus, adipiscor, adeptus, and probably also in apis,
190
Latin Wordlore.
49-
Novi.
Aio.
a) A Participle coeptus forms Perfect coeptus sum : as
'comitia haberi coepta sunt/ Cic. Coepturusis used by Pliny,
Quintilian, &c.
The Pres. Stem coepio itself is used in older Latin (Plaut. Ter.).
C6-epit is in Lucretius (iv. 619), where see Munro.
b) The obsolete Verb 6d/o, ode re, probably meant to repel.
Osus sum is a rarer form of odi. Osurus is used.
Exosus, perosus, hating greatly, have Passive sense in L.L.
c) Memini has a Compound commemini. It is the Perf. of
an obs. verb meno (mano) = Sk. man, 'think, 7 which appears in
comminiscor commentus ; mens; mentio; mentior, and
numerous Greek and other forms.
4) Novi (have come to Know), Perfect of no s co, know, is used as
a Praeteritive (/ know], like Gr. oiSa. Hence n over am, noram,
knew, novero, shall know ; novisse, nosse, to know, &c.
II. Ai-o, I say, affirm (Sk. ah, for Pr. qgh).
Indie.
Conjunc.
Imper.
ai-o
a-i (rare)
a-is
ai-as
c
a-it
ai-at
i
ai-unt
ai-ant
j"
ai-ebam
eu
ai-ebas
B
( i
&c.
The Participle ai-ens is very rare ('negantia sunt contraria ai-
entibus,' Cic.).
Aibam, found in some MSS. of Plautus, is of doubtful validity.
A in' tu? do you say so ? was a familiar expression.
Inquam. III. Inquam, say I (inquit, saith he, &c.) , for i n q u i o.
opis, opus, opera, &c., opto. Its Sk. root is &p (Pr. af). The kinship of apio,
coepio, and capio (cepi), cannot but be recognised, when we observe the similarity of
meaning as well as form : for not only is the sense of acquiring in capio, accipio, per-
cipio, &c., but also that of beginnings incipio (incepi) and occipio (occepi, some-
times written occoepi). Hence it seems probable that capio is only the adoption in
Italian speech, as a simple form, of the compound co-ap- {get together, and so take),
bearing the same relation to a p - that comprehendodoestoprehendo. The old word
remained, in the sense of beginning, at first in all forms (as shewn in Plautus, &c.), after-
wards in the Perfect only ; which sense the new Verb recognised in its own compounds
incipio, incepi, occipio, occepi ; as well as in its derivative occupo : 'interdum ra-
pere occupat,' now and then she is the first to snatch them, Hor. The passage of com-
pound Verbs to Simple is shewn in promo, sumo, surgo, and other instances.
49-
Conjugation of Defective Verbs.
SCHEME.
191
Indie.
Conjunc.
Imper.
1
inquam
inquis
inquit
inqumius
inquiunt
inquiat ?
c/5
inquies
inquiet
inquito
vt
inquiebat
I
inquisti
inquiit?
Fari.
Inquam and sum are the only two Verbs which retain m (Sk.
mi, Gr. pi) in the Pres. Indie.
Inquam is not placed in construction, but interposed between
parts of construction, as quoth in English.
Its etymology is doubtful (R. Sk. khydmi, ' I say').
IV. Fari, to speak, has these forms :
Indie. Pres. . . fatur, speaks
Fut fabor, fabitur
Perf., &c. . . fatus, sum, eram, &c.
Imperat. . . . fare
Infin fari
Gerund . . . fandi, fando. Gerundive, fandus
Supine . . . fatu
Part. Pres. . . fantem, fantis, &c. Part. Perf. fatus
Its Compounds affari, effari, (inter prae pro)- fari, can use the
same forms and a few more : affamur/ O v. ; ' affamini/ Curt. ;
4 affabar,' Verg. ; ' effabere/ Lucan ; < effabimur/ Cic. ; ' praefantes/
Catull. ; praefarer, praefamino, &c.
V. Ova re, to rejoice, triumph, has some Third Persons Sing. Ovare.
(ovat, ovet, ovaret), and the Partic. Pres. ovans. Persius has ovatus.
VI. Quaeso, I beg; ist P. PL quaesumus. Quaeso.
VII. Verb-forms used in the Imperative and Infinitive : Impera-
hail ! hail / farewell! come! be off ! Forms.
Imperative . S. salve have (or ave) vale
. PL salvete havete valete
. S. salveto haveto valeto
Fut. S. . . salvebis valebis
Infin. . . . salvere havere valere
age
agite
apage
Add S. cedo, PL cedite, cette,/ny/ tell me, give me, c.
Latin Wordlore.
50.
50
Imper-
sonal
Verbs.
VIII. Impersonal (or Unipersonal) Verbs.
IMPERSONAL VERBS are conjugated in the Third Persons Sin-
gular of the Finite Verb, and in the Infinitive.
A. Active Impersonals have no Passive Voice.
i) The principal of these are of the Second Conjugation :
it behoves, disgusts ; moves pity
it irks, shames, repents
it beseems, misbeseems
it pleases, is lawful, is clear
it relates, belongs.
Infin.
-eat
-ere
Pres.
S. Fut.
-erec Imperf.
oportet, taedet, miseret,
piget, pudet, paenitet,
decet atque dedecet,
libet, licet, et liquet,
attinet et pertinet,
Table of Impersonal Verbs (Second Conj.) :
Indie. Conj.
1. oport
2. taed
3. miser
4- pig
5. pud
6. paehit
7. dec
8. dedec
/ 9- lib
I 10. lie
II. attin
{ 12. pertin
The following Perfects are also used: 2. pertaesum est; 3.
miseritum est ; 4. pigitum est; 5. puditum est; 9. libitum
est ; 10. licitum est.
Miserescit is used; sometimes miseretur.
Gerundives pigendus, pudendus, paenitendus : Participles
miseritus, pertaesus, attinens, pertinens, are used. Paeni-
tens, decens, libens, licitus, are used as Adjectives.
The Persons are expressed by the Case : as
me, te, eum,
nos, vos, eos
mihi, &c. .
ad me, &c.
-et
-ebit
-ebat
-uit -uerit -uisse . Perf.
-uerit Fut. Perf.
-uerat -uisset .... Pluperf.
Sing, oportet me ire l it behoves me
oportet te ire
oportet eum ire
PL oportet nos ire
oportet vos ire
oportet eos ire
Sing, licet mihi ire
licet tibi ire
licet ei ire
PL licet nobis ire
licet vobis ire
licet iis ire
And so in the other Tenses.
you
him
yOU
them
it is allowed me "1
you
him
you
them
to go -
'/
you
he
ought
we
' tO gO
ye
Jhey ^
'I v
you
he
we
-may go
ye
they]
1 C. derives oportet (op-portet) from Gr. wop-, 'it is the part ;' pudet, paenitet,
from Sk. pu ; taedet, from Sk. tu (see pp. 14, 15); decet from Sk. ditf. Libet or
lubet: Sk. lubh, 'desire.' Licet: Sk. ric' t Gr. AITT- L. liquere, leave. The same
relation exists between * to leave ' and the noun leave in English. ' I give you leave' ' I
leave it to you;' ' I have leave '=' it is left to me.' Piget is unexplained.
5-
Impersonal Verbs.
2) Some Personal Verbs are used impersonally with special
meaning :
accidit it happens
delectat
it charms \
conducit it profits
iuvat
it delights (me, te,
contingitz/ befalls
mihi
fallit
it eludes [ eum, &c.
evenit it turns out
tibi
fugit
it escapes }
convenit it suits
ei
interest
it concerns \ mea, tua,
expedit it is expedient
"nobis
refert
it imports 1 eius, &c.
placet it pleases
vobis
est
it is a fact
restat it remains
iis, c.
fit
it comes to pass
succurrit 'it occurs
vacat there is leisure >
constat
praestat
it is acknowledged
it is best
So usu venit, in mentem venit,
c.
3) Some Impersonals express changes of season and weather :
such are
fulgurat // lightens ningit it snows lucescit it dawns
tonat it thunders pluit it rains illucescit it gets light
grandinat it hails rorat there falls dew vesperascit it gets late
Impersonals of Class 3) may be explained by regarding the cog-
nate Noun as Subject: nix jiingit, snow snows nix est, snow
occurs. This may be sometimes said in Class i) : pudet me facti =
pudor facti me pudet = pudor facti me habet. All of Class 2) and
most of Class i) have for their Subject either an Infinitive Verb-
noun or a dependent Clause.
B. i) Intransitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the
Passive Voice : luditur, from ludo, I play.
Infin.
ludi
lusum iri
lusum esse
lusum fuisse
The Persons may be expressed by an Ablative Case with the
Preposition a or ab following the Verb :
Present Indicative.
Sing, luditur a me there is playing by me -I play
luditur ate thee = thou play est
luditur ab eo him = he plays
PI. luditur a nobis us = we play
luditur a vobis you ye play
luditur ab iis them = they play
And so in the other Tenses.
The Case is generally understood, and the Verb is rendered
usually as expressing the First or Third Person Plural ; we play, or
they play : sometimes, one plays ; as the French, on joue.
o
Present . .
Simple Fut. .
Imperf. . .
Perfect . .
Fut. Perf. .
Pluperf. . .
Ind.
luditur
ludetur
ludebatur
lusum est
lusum erit
lusum erat
Conj.
ludatur
luderetur
lusum sit
lusum esset
194 Latin Wordlore. 5I>
2) The Neuter Gerundive is similarly used to express duty or
necessity, with a Dative or Ablative of the Person :
Present Indicative.
Sing, ludendum est mihi there must be playing by me -I
ludendum est tibi thee thou
ludendum est ei Him = he
PL ludendum est nobis us = we
ludendum est vobis you =ye
ludendum est iis them = they
And so in the other Tenses.
In this construction the case often occurs ; but here too it may
be absent, and ive, they, or one supplied, as in the former instance.
So French, on doit jouer.
SECTION III.
51
The Forms of the three Stems in Verbs.
Stems.
Present * The P TCS C H t~S tem.
1. The only Verb-roots which have Indicative Present- Stem
forms unchanged immediately before Personal endings are :
The root es (sum, es-mi] in the forms es-t, es-tis, es-te,
es-to (es-se).
The root vol in the forms vol-t, vol-tis.
The root fer in the forms fer-s, fer-t, fer-tis, fer, fer-te,
fer-to, (fer-re).
The root da, give, in the forms da-t, da-mus, da-tis,
da-nt, da-te, da-to, (da-re). But in Sk. and Gr. this
root is reduplicated.
2. The only Verb-roots which, with Vowel character, have Pre-
sent-stem forms merely strengthening that character before Per-
sonal endings are :
The root sta, stand, station, in the forms sta-s, sta-t (classi-
callysta-t), sta-mus, sta-tis, sta-nt, sta, sta-te,sta-to,
(sta-re). In Sk. and Gr. it is reduplicated.
The roots fle, weep, ne, spin, ple,y//, in the same forms, fle-s,
ne-s, -pies-, &c.
The root i, go, in the forms I-s, I-t (classically ft), I-mus,
I-tis, \, I-te, I- to (i-re). In eo, earn, &c., i is strengthened,
but the endings also contain a strengthening suffix.
The root qui, can (with its compound nequi), the forms of
which resemble those of i.
(Note, fl-, being contracted and so properly long, is not an
example here.)
3. In all other A- E- and I-Verbs (Conj. i. 2. 4.) the Vowel
character is itself a first suffix, attached to what we call the Clipt-
Stem * (am-, mon-, aud-), and preceding all flexional suffixes. This
1 On the Term Clipt-Stem and the reason of its use, see Note, p. 30.
, 5i. The Present- Stem. 195
is true of U-Verbs also ; but these, unlike the rest, are not strength-
ened in the Present-stem: indu-is, indu-e, indu-ere: but
audi-s, audl, aud!-re.
4. With respect to Consonant Verbs (Conj. 3),
Some scholars think that every root-vowel was primitively short.
Such was certainly the case with some roots which in Latin Verbs
have the long vowel : die ere (E. L. deicere), ducere (E. L. doucere),
fldere (E. L. f eider e\ compared with veridicus, dux due is,
fides.
These, however, like Latin Verbs in general, follow the Scheme of
Conjugation before given ; in which the formative suffix of Indie.
Pres. ist P. Sing. 6 contains a conjugative element (Sk. d-mi).
Certain other affections of the Present Stem in Verbs of the 3rd
(Cons.) Conjugation, distinguishing it from the True Stem, come
into notice here.
A) Strengthening by the insertion of a nasal before the Cha-
racter (Nasalisation). See 12. xvi.
To the-examples there given many may be added, which, though
keeping the nasal in the Perfect-Stem, lose it in derived or kindred
forms: fi-;z-g- (fictum); fre-w-d- (fressum), -he-;/-d- (x a <>->
-hedera) ; iu-^-g- (iugum) ; la-m-b- (labium) ; \\-n-g- (ligurrio);
ma-;/-d- (mala); mi-;*-g- (mictum); mu-^-g- (mucus); ni--g-
(nix); pa-;z-d- (passus) ; pi-w-s- (pistor); sa-;z-cire (sacer) ;
.sca-w-d- (scala) ; sti-w-g- (<m') ; a-^-g- (a'yw^).
J7) Suffix n (Sk. no) joined to a Vowel or Liquid Stem :
Strengthened Stem True Stem Shewn in Perf.
\\-n- li- or le- li-vi or le-vi
si-;z- si- sl-vi
posI-- | . (posl-vi) pos-ui >
pon- J posi-tum (Sup.) I
cer-;z- cer- (ere-) cre-vi
sper-w- < sper- (spre) spre-vi
ster-//- star- (stra) stra-vi
tem-- tern- tem-si
In E. L. are found such forms as da-#-unt fordant, soli-^-unt
for solent, nequi--unt for nequeunt, obi-^-unt for obeunt.
C) The Suffix sc, added to the True Stem, makes the Verb In-
ceptive or Inchoative (i) when the True Stem ends in a Vowel
Thus : from pa-, pa-.r<;-ere; from fati-, fati-j^-ere; from ira-,
ira-j^-i; from na-, na-^-i ; from ere-, cre-jr-ere; from quie-,
quie-^r-ere; from no-, no-sc-ere ; from hi-, hi-j^-ere.
(2) When the True Stem ends with a Cons.-, vincular i is re-
quired : from ap-, a.p-t-sc-i ; from men-, men-z'-jr-i ; from obliv-,
obliv-t-sc-i ; frompac-, pac-z'- sc-i; from profic- profic-^-j^-i ;
from ulc-, ulc-i-sc-i ; from nac- (also nasalised), na-#-c-s"-.$r-i ;
from experrig- (also syncopated), experg-/-^^-i.
C is excluded by di-^-ere for dic-^^-ere ; d by ve-j<:-i for
196 Latin Wordlore. 51.
Obs. The foregoing examples are mostly from stems which are
not in use as actual words : but Inceptive or Inchoative Verbs
derived from existing Verbs or Nouns are a very large class, all of
the 3rd Conjugation, and express the beginning of action.
Those derived from Verbs add sc- or -i-sc- to the Present-stem :
laba-^vr-ere from laba-re, i.
palle-jr-ere palle-re, 2.
trem-z-jr-ere trem-ere, 3.
obdorml-jr-ere obdormi-re, 4.
Those derived from Nouns add e-sc- (rarely a-sc-) to the Clipt
Stem :
dur-^jr-ere from durus
mit-.5v:-ere mitis
macr-^r-ere macer
plum-^r-ere pluma
vesper-tfj^-ere vespera
For a fuller list see Syllabus.
D) A few Present-stems are reduplicated. On Reduplication see
12. xiv. Thus
/-be-re for pi-pe-re (Stem pa, po)
^/-gn-ere gi-gen-ere (Stem gen, Sk. Jan)
.yz-ste-re sti-ste-re (Stem sta)
^-re-re si-se-re (Stem so)
E) The Liquid 1 is doubled in the Present-stem of
eel/ere, fal/ere, pel/ere, tol/ere.
F) T is added to the True Stem in
flec/ere, nec/ere, pec/ere, plec/ere.
G) A few Present Stems are written with g or gu indifferently :
nin^ere or nin-ere, tin^ere or tin^//ere, un^ere or un^//ere. So
in Conj. 2. ur^-ere
//) The appearance of P- in certain Verbs of Conj. 3. (capzb,
patz'or, &c.), as an extension of the Present-Stem, has been noticed.
(Peculiarities of special Consonant Verbs will be found in the Syl-
labus.)
ii. The Perfect-Stem.
F orma-
Perfect The Perfect Stem of Latin Verbs is formed in various ways.
A) By reduplicating the Present-Stem without or with vowel-
change of Stem : the reduplicative syllable being in some instances
dropt.
B) By lengthening the vowel of the Present- Stem, without or
with vowel-change. _
1 This i represents a Conjugative suffix yd in Sanskrit, of which the a falls away in
Latin: so that cap-i-o, pat-i-or, &c., may be represented as= cap-yo, pat-yor, &c.
See Schleicher, p. 577. v.
5I . The Perfect- Stem. 197
C) By adopting the Present-stem as Perfect-stem.
D) By suffixing to the Present-stem v or u, representing fu-.
E) By suffixing to the Present-stem s, representing es-.
A) Perfect-stem formed by Reduplication.
a) The Reduplicative syllable consists of the first two letters
of the Stem : in which case there is no vowel- change of
the Stem.
In E-verbs the Clipt-stem is thus sometimes reduplicated :
m6-mord-i frommord-e-; pe-pend-i from pend-e-;
spo-pond-i (for spo-spond-i) from spond-e-; totond-i
from tond-e-.
In Consonant Verbs the True Stem : cu-curr-i from
curr- ; di-dic-i from di-sc- (for dic-sc-) ; pe-pend-i
from pend-; po-posc-i from pose-; pu-pug-i from
pu--g-; te-tend-ifromtend-; tu-tud-i from tu-^-d-.
Fid-i is for (/;f^^-z)fromfi-;z-d-; sctd-ifor(scf-scd-t)
from sci-;-d-.
ff) The Reduplicative syllable is the first consonant with e ; in
which case some weakening of the stem-vowel also takes
place, unless this vowel be e in a close syllable, as
above in pependi, tetendi.
The only instances in A- verbs are de-d-i from da-; ste-t-i
from sta- : which seem to cast out the stem-vowel. But
they probably are for dedei, stestei, and so have weak-
ened a into e,
In Consonant Verbs the instances are :
pe-perc-i from pare-; pe-pig-i from pa-^-g-; te-tig-i
from ta-^-g-; ce-cid-i from cad-; ce-cid-i from caed- ;
ce-cin-i from can-; me-min-i from men-; pe-per-i
from par-f-; fe-fell-i from fall- ; pe-pul-i from pel-/-.
Tuli from tol-/- is for te-tul-i, which is found ift old Latin.
Ce-cul-i is from eel-/- ; but both are obsolete : the Cp.
percell- forms perculi.
Other forms of E. L. zxefefici from fac-, tetini from ten-.
B) Perfect-stem formed by lengthening the vowel of the Present-
stem. See 12. xiv. p. 18.
a) The Vowel of the Clipt Stem is lengthened without other
change in these Pure Verbs :
iuv-i from iuva- ; lav-i from lava- ; sed-i from sede- ; vld-i from
vide- ; cav-i from cave- ; fav-i from fave- ; pav-i from
pave- ; fov-i from fove- mov-i from move- ; vov-i from
vove-.
U) The Vowel of the True Stem is lengthened without other
change in these Consonant Verbs :
vic-i from vi--c- ; liqu-i from li-w-qu- ; fug-i from fug-/- ; leg-i
from leg- ; ed-i from ed- ; fod-i from fod-/- ; fud-i from
fu-^-d- ; rup-i from ru-;;z -p- ; scab-i from scab- ; em-i
from em-.
igS Latin Word lore. 51^
c) The Present-stem vowel is changed and lengthened in the
following Consonant Verbs :
fec-i from fac-z ; iec-i from iac-z- ; eg-i from ag- ; freg-i
from fra-;/-g- ; cep-i from cap-/- ; and in -peg-i from some
compounds of pa-;z-g-.
C) Perfect-stem formed by adopting the Present-Stem.
a) The Clipt Present-stem becomes Perfect-stem in these E-
verbs :
prande- prand-i ; stride- strld-i ; ferve- ferv-i (also ferbui).
and in the I -verbs :
comperi- comper-i ; reperi- repper-i ;
unless rep peri is syncopated from repeperi.
b) The Present-stem becomes Perfect-stem in these Consonant
forms :
bib-i ; cud-i ; Ic-i ; -fend-i ; lamb-i ; mand-i ; prehend-i ;
pand-i ; psall-i ; scand-i ; solv-i ; verr-i ; vell-i ; vert-i ;
vls-i ; volv-i ; -cand-i (-cend-i in Comp.).
Likewise in U-verbs classically: ru-i, metu-i.
But on these see 12. xiv. p. 18.
D] a. Perfect-stem formed by suffixing v ( = fu-) to a strengthened
Vowel character.
This is done by most A- and I -verbs :
ama-v-i audl-v-i
and by some E -verbs :
dele-v-i fle-v-i
Also by the Verbs which have suffixed a Consonant to a True
Vowel stem. See p. 195.
cre-v-i ; sl-v-i ; le-v-i or ll-v-i ; no-v-i ; spre-v-i ; stra-v-i ;
pa-v-i ; quie-v-i ; se-v-i.
Likewise a few Verbs in Conj. 3. assume the Perf. and Supine
forms of Conj. 4. :
cup-/- cup-iv-i ; pet- pet-Iv-i ; ter- ter-Iv-i or trlvi ; quaer- for
quaes- quaes-iv-i ; arcess- arcess-Iv-i; and 'so capess-
facess- lacess-.
b. Perfect-stem formed by ^suffixing u ( = fu-) to the Present
Stem.
a) To a Clipt Stem :
In a few A- verbs :
crepa- crep-u-i ; cuba- cub-u-i : and so from doma-, sona-,,
veta-, seca-, mica-, tona-, frica- ; neca-, plica-.
But some of these also take a-v-i. See Syllabus.
In most E- verbs :
mone- mon-u-i
In the I -verbs aperi- aper-u-i ; operi- oper-u-i ; sali- sal-u-i.
Note. Inceptive Verbs, derived from Verbs, follow the forma-
tion of their Primitive Verb : but those in esc- isc- derived from
Nouns, if they have a Perfect, form it in u-i: obduresc- obdur-
u-i.
5i. The Supine- Stem.
b) To a True Consonant Stem :
in most Verbs with character 1, m :
al- al-u-i ; gem- gem-u-i ; c.
also in
elic-z elic-u-i; rap-/ rap-u-i ; strep- strep-u-i ; frend- frend-u-i ;
stert- stert-u-i ; cu;/zb- cub-u-i ; pon- pos-u-i ; pins-pins-u-i;
SQi-jjoin, ser-u-i ; compesc- compesc-u-i ; gign- ( = gen-)
gen-u-i ; tex- tex-u-i.
E) Perfect-stem formed by suffixing s ( = es) to the Present-
stem.
This may be called the Aorist formation, resembling as it does
the Greek Aorist form in era.
As this formation brings s into concurrence with other conso-
nants, the laws of euphony must be applied as set forth in 12. xxvi.
and 12. xxix : where it is shewn that
a guttural with s produces x: dixi, rexi ; b before s be-
comes p : scrip si ; dentals are cast out, Compensation or
Assimilation often ensuing: risi, sensi ; and gutturals
are cast out after r, l : mersi, fulsi. Also p is inserted
between m and s : sum/si.
a) S is suffixed to the Clipt-stem of many E-verbs and some
I -verbs :
auge- auxi ; luce- luxi, arde- arsi ; &c.
farci- farsi ; vinci- vinxi ; sanci- sanxi, &c.
Iniube- iussi the assimilation is peculiar ;mane-mansi
is an unusual formation : in haere- haesi and hauri-
hausir ( = s) has fallen out before s.
b} S is suffixed to most Consonant Stems with a Mute cha-
racter, and to some with m, r, (s) : due- duxi ; teg- texi ;
sparg- sparsi ; ced- cessi ; nub- nupsi ; com- compsi ;
ur- ussi, &c. See Syllabus.
iii. The Supine-Stem. Forma-
tion of
This has the suffix t, which is added to the True or Clipt Stem, |gj
without or with i before the ending -um. A Vowel Character
(a, e, i) is, with some exceptions, lengthened.
I. T is suffixed to the Stem without mutation of Consonants, but
with lengthening of a Vowel Character
i) In those Pure Verbs which add v to the True Stem in the
Perfect :
ama-t-um fle-t-um audl-t-um
including some which strengthen the Pres. Stem with a suffix : p. 95 :
cre-t-um quie-t-um na-t-um
spre-t-um ira-t-um no-t-um
stra-t-um
But in the following Supines the Stem vowel is not lengthened :
li-t-um (lino) s!-t-um (smo)
i-t-um (eo) sa-t-um (sero)
Pa-s-t-um (pasco, pavi, from root pa) keeps s irregularly.
2OO Latin Wordlore. 51.
2) In Verbs of Conj. 3., which adopt in the Perfect the Character
i of Conj. 4.: cupi-tum ; petl-tum; quaesl-tum; trt-tum \ arces-
si-t-um ; capessl-t-um ; facessi-t-um ; lacessl-tum.
3) In U-verbs : indu-t-um (indu-ere).
Except ru-t-um or ru-i-t-um (ru-ere) : lu-?-t-um (lu-ere) ; fru-i-tum
(fru-i).
4) In Consonant Verbs with the Characters c (after a Vowel) x
p, n, m (with euphonic p), r, l (after a, u) : die-turn, due-turn, nac-
tum, tex-tum, ap-tum, comp-tum, par-turn, al-tum, consul-turn, c.
Also stru-c-t-um (from stru-ere for stru-ic-ere).
For Exceptions see III.
On the Vowel-change which occurs in the close syllable of many
Supines : affec-tum (afficere), cul-tum (colere). See 12. xxiv.
5) In sta-t-um (sta-re), sometimes sta-t-um.
But da- t-um (da-re) keeps a short.
II. T is added to the Stem with mutation of Consonants.
1) The Guttural Characters gr, gv, qv, h, in Conj. 3. become c
when t follows (see 12. xxvi. II.) : a-c-t-um (ag-ere) ; fra-c-t-um
(fra;zg-ere) ; un-c-t-um (ungu-ere) ; co-c-t-um (coqu-ere) ; -li-c-
t-um (li^qu-ere) ; tra-c-t-um (trah-ere) ; ve-c-t-um (veh-ere). Also
vi-c-t-um (viy-ere) ; experre-c-t-um (experg-isci) ; pis-t-um (pins-
ere). See Syllabus.
2) qv is vocalized into -cu in
lo-cu-t-um (loqu-i) se-cu-t-um (sequ-i)
3) The Labial character b becomes p :
nu-p-t-um (nub-ere) scri-p-t-um (scrib-ere)
4) V is vocalized into u in
sol-u-t-um (solv-ere) vol-u-t-um (volv-ere)
5) R (primitively s) becomes s again :
ge-s-t-um (ger-ere) u-s-t-um (ur-ere)
que-s-t-um (quer-i)
6) Exclusion of the preceding Character occurs in
ul-t-um (ulc-isci) obli-t-um (obliv-isci)
III. T is joined to the Stem by i, in the following Verbs of Conj.
3. with Nasal Character : frem-z-t-um, gem-^-t-um, gen-^-t-um,
vom-z'-t-uni.
Also in elic-z'-t-um, fug-z'-t-um, bib-z'-t-um, cub-f-t-um, strep-z 7 -
t-um, mol-z'-t-um, coal-z-t-um (coalesc-ere), pos-z'-t-um, lu-z'-t-um,
ru-/-t-um, fru-z'-t-um.
IV. T is added to the Clipt Stem without mutation of Consonants
in the following :
A- verbs : seca- sec-t-um; frica- fric-t-um; eneca- enec-t-um.
E-verbs : doce- doc-t-um; tene- ten-t-um; misere- miser-/- t-um
(or miser- t-um).
I-verbs : amici- amic-t-um ; sanci- sanc-t-um (or sanc-I-tum) ;
vinci- vine- t-um; saepi- saep-t-um ; aperi- aper-t-um; comperi-
51. Supine- Stem* 201
comper-t-um ; experi- exper-t-um ; opperi- opper-t-um ; ori-
or-t-um ; reperi- reper-t>um; sail- sal-t-um; sepeli- sepul-t-um
(with vowel-change) ; veni- ven-t-um.
The Participle mor-t-u-us from mori-or is an irregular formation,
in the nature of an Adjective, from mor-s, mor-ti-, death.
V. T is joined to the Clipt Stem with mutation of Consonants :
1) A- andE-verbs in v-a-, v-e-, vocalise v, and form contractions
u-u x u ; a-u x au or o ; o-u x o :
A-verbs : iuva- iu-t-um ; lava- lau-t-um, 16-t-um.
E-verbs: cave- cau-t-um; fave- fau-t-um; fove- fo-t-um ; move-
mo-t-um ; vove- vo-t-um.
2) The Consonant is changed by Assimilation in the following :
E-verbs : auge- auc-t-um ; torre- tos-t-um ; sorbe- sorp-t-um.
I-verb : hauri- haus-t-um (hau-sum).
3) The Consonant is excluded in the following :
E-verbs : indulge- indul-t-um ; misce- mis-t-um (mix-turn) ; tor-
que- tor-t-um.
I-verbs : farci- far-t-um ; fulci- ful-t-um ; sarci- sar-t-um.
VI. T is joined to the Clipt Stem by i :
1 ) In the A-verbs crepa- crep-z'-t-um; cuba- cub-z-t-um ;
plica- plic-z'-t-um (or-atum); doma- dom-z'-t-um; sona- son-z'-t-um;
tona- ton-z'-t-um ; veta- vet-z'-t-um.
2) In most E-verbs : mone- mon-z-t-um.
VII. T joined to the True Stem becomes s :
1) In Dental Verbs of Conj. 3. :
a) The Dental is excluded : cs becomes x, and a short Vowel is
lengthened by Compensation :
fleet- flexum ; nect- nexum ; amplect- amplexum ; ut- usum ; vert-
versum ; pend- pensum ; fu-/z-d- fusum ; cad- casum ; caed-
caesum ; divld- divlsum.
So clau-sum, cu-sum, -fen-sum, fi-sum, prehen-sum, scan-sum, ,
&c. But tend- ten-sum or ten-turn; tu-^-d- tun-sum or
tu-sum; nit- nl-sum or nixum.
b) The Dental becomes assimilated to s :
ced- cessum ; fi-^-d- fissum ; sci-;z-d- scissum ; met- messum ;
fre-tf-d fressum; fod-z- fossum ; pat-z- passum ; quat-z- quassum.
Add to these mitt- missum ; pand- passum (or pansum),
and, with vowel-change, fat-z-sc- fessum ; grad-z- gressum.
2) In Guttural Verbs, the Guttural falling out between r and s :
pare- parsum ; sparg- sparsum ; merg- mersum ; terg- tersum.
3) In Verbs with Character rr or 11, dropping one Liquid :
curr- cursum ; verr- versum ; fall- falsum ; cell- celsum.
And, with Vowel- change,
pell- pulsum ; percell- perculsum ; veil- vulsum.
4) The folio wing are special instances :
fig- fixum ; flu- (flugv-)fluxum ; lab- lapsum ; prem- pressum.
2O2 Latin Wordlore.
252.
VI 1 1. T joined to the Clipt Stem becomes s :
1) After Dentals :
a) The Dental being excluded, &c.
E-verbs : arde- arsum; morde- morsum ; pende- pensum ;
prande- pransum ; ride- risum ; suade- suasum ; sponde- spon-
sum ; tonde- tonsum ; vide- vlsum ; aude- ausum.
But gaude- (for gav-id-e-), gavisum.
In I -verbs : senti-sensum; assenti- assensum ; ordi- orsum.
) The Dental being assimilated to s :
sede- sessum ; fate- fassum.
2) After Gutturals following r or 1 :
mulce- mulge- mulsum ; terge- tersum.
3) In special instances :
iube- iussum ; cense- censum ; haere- haesum ; mane- mansum ;
meti- mensum (mentior may have been the original Present).
Note. The importance of the Supine-Stem lies in the Participles
derived from it, not in the Supines themselves, which are com-
paratively little used by Latin authors.
SECTION IV.
Composition of Verbs.
I- The Prepositions compounded with Verbs are :
A) Separable :
ab \ | ante
abs t circum
a J
cum
ad de
e ) ' inter
e
in
ex j- ob
per
post
prae
praeter
pro
sub
subter
super
trans
B) Inseparable :
ambi- (amb-), around, about ; S ed- se, apart.
dis-, di-, in different parts or ways ; sus, 1 up (susque deque),
red-, re-, back, again ;
To which some add por ( = Gr. Trport), an or in ( = dva).
Prepositions in Composition are subject to various mutations.
A) i) A, ab, abs, are written
a before m, v : amitto, avoco.
abs before c, t : abscedo, abscondo, absterreo.
as before p : asporto.
au before f : aufero, aufugio. But afui, afore.
ab before other letters : abeo, abdo, abigo, abiungo, abludo,
abnuo, abrado, absisto, abundo.
2) Ad remains before b, d, b, 1, m, v, and vowels :
adbibo, addo, adhibeo, adiungo, admitto, advoco, adeo,
adoro.
Becomes a- before gn, sc, sp :
agnosco, ascendo, aspicio (but ad may remain).
1 On sus, see Corssen ii. 580. He derives it from sup-us (= supinus), related to Greek
a, a locative form, out of which grew sup-s-i, sup-s, sus.
52. Composition of Verbs. 203
Is assimilated before other letters :
accendo, affero, alludo, annuo, appono, acquire, arrideo,
assisto, attendo. But adfero, adnuo, c., are also used.
3) Cum, in-, are written com-, im-, before p, b, xn :
comparo, combibo, committo ; impello, immergo.
Assimilated before 1, r : colludo, corrodo, illido, irruo.
Cum becomes co- before vowels, h, and sn :
Coeo, cohaereo, cognosco. So ignosco. Note comedo.
Con-, in-, before other consonants, in- before vowels and li :
concurro, condo, confero, coniungo, connecto, conquiro,
construe, contingo, convoco, incumbo, induce, ineo, inhio,
infringo, ingero, iniungo, innuo, inquiro, insisto, intono,
invado. Con-, in-, may remain before p, l : conpono, inludo,
4) EC, ex, e, are assimilated before f : effero, efficio.
E x before vowels, h ? c, q, p, s, t :
exeo, exhibeo, excedo, exquiro, expello, extruo, extraho.
E before others : educo, eludo, emitto, erumpo, evoco.
5) Ob, 1 sub, are assimilated before c, gr, p, f : occurro, oggan-
nio, oppono, offero, succedo, suppono, suggero, sufficio.
They remain before other letters :
obdo, obeo, obicio, oblino, obruo, obsisto, obtineo, obvenio,
subduco, subiungo, subrideo, subside, subtraho.
Note omit to, operio, ostendo, surripio, summoveo, summitto.
6) Per is changed only in the Verbs pellicio, pelluceo, peiero.
7) Trans becomes tra before d, n, and i-consonans :
trado, trano, traicio.
Tran- before s : transcribo.
Remains before others : transfero, transeo, transmitto.
8) Ante de post prae super
circum inter praeter pro subter
remain in composition with Verbs : except
intel-lego prod-eo prod-igo prod-esse, &c.
Pro, usually long, is shortened in a few compounds :
profari, profiteri, proficisor.
B) i) Amb- (ap/>i) becomes am- before p : amputo, amplector.
2) D is- is assimilated before f: differo.
Remains before gutturals, labials, t, i-consonans, and s with
vowel : discerpo, dispello, distraho, disicio, dissero. But
diiudico.
Di- before s with consonant, and before other consonants :
diruo, distringo, divello.
Observe dlfr-ibeo for dis-hibeo, dir-imo for dis-imo.
1 The form obs wants authority. Such words as obtineo, obtuli, &c. compared
with abstineo, abstuli, shew that it has no euphonic use. Obsolesco, often cited as a
compound of olesco, is really (with exolesco, insolesco) a compound of soleo
(solesco) ; ob-stinare is a strengthened form of ob-stare; oscenis from os, for ob
would makeitoccen; ostendo is, we believe, for ob-os-tendo, stretch before the
face shew : obtendois itself a distinct compound. And, if in the two places of Plautus,
where (instead of the usual obtrudo) obstrudo is given, the reading is correct, here
too ob-os-trudo may be the real compound : as in each place it is used of putting
food into the mouth. We cannot, therefore, accept Corssen's view, i. 121.
204
Latin Wordlore.
52.
3) Red- stands in redamo, redargue, reddo, redeo, redhibeo,
redimo, redigo, redoleo, redundo.
Re- in other compounds, as remit to.
4) Sed- appears only in seditio and its derivatives : se- in Verbs,
secubo, seduco, seiungo, sepono, sevoco.
5) Sus- is used before ci, p, t :
suscipio, suscito, suspendo, sustineo, sustuli.
su- before sp : suspicio, suspiro.
6) For- is noted in porricio, porrigo, portendo, polliceor, pol-
lingo, polluceo, polluo, possideo.
7) An- (according to Key) in anhelo, anquiro, intumesco, &c.
Note. The following scheme shews the Vowel-changes in the
three Stems of Compound Verbs with vowels, a, e. See 12. xxiv.
Simple
Verb
Comp.
Present
Comp.
Perfect
Comp.
Supine.
Simple Verbs in question.
I. a
i
e
a
ago, frango, pango.
2. a
i
i
a
tango, cado.
3- ^
\
z
e
rapio, cano.
4. a
I
e
e
facio, iacio, lacio, capio.
5. a
i
i
u
salio.
6. a
i
\ e
fateor.
7. e
i
i
e
teneo.
8. e
i
e
e
sedeo, specio, lego, rego, emo, premo.
9. e
i
t
egeo.
Examples :
i) ago
subigo subegi
subactum
subdue.
frango
effringo effregi
effractum
break open.
pango
compingo compegi
compactum
fasten together.
2) tango
attingo attigi
attactum
reach.
cado
occido occidi
occasum
die.
3) rapio
surripio surripui
surreptum
steal.
cano concino concinui concentum
sing in tmison*
4) facio
reficio refeci r
refectum
repair.
iacio
deicio deieci
deiectum
throw down.
lacio
illicio illexi
illectum
entice.
capio
accipio accepi
acceptum
receive
5) salio
prosilio prosilui
prosultum
spring forth.
6) fateor
confiteor
confessus
confess.
7) t/neo
sustineo sustinui
sustentum
sustain.
8) s^deo
obsideo obsedi
obsessum
besiege.
sp^cio
perspicio perspexi
perspectum
look through.
lego
diligo dilexi
dilectum
love.
rcgo
dirigo direxi
directum
direct.
emo
eximo exemi
exemptum
take out.
premo
reprimo repressi
repressum
repress
9) /geo
indigeo indigui
need.
Exceptions
appear in the Notes to
the Syllabus.
53. Syllabus of Stem- Formation in Verbs. 205
II. A few Verbs are compounded with Adverbs, with Nominal,
or with Verbal elements : benefacio, malefacio, satisfacio, satisfio,
satisdo; venumdo, vendo, veneo, pessumdo, valedico, calefacio,
calefio, with a large number of other compounds of facio, fio.
SECTION V.
S3
Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. Syllabus
of Stem-
A) The FIRST or A-CONJUGATION contains many JuT*"
Verbs, Active and Deponent. Most of the Active are
Transitive ; most of the Deponents Intransitive.
[Many A-verbs are derived from Nouns ; many from Verbs. J e ta ~
Among the former are Imitative Verbs in -isso : attic-isso, verbs.
graec-isso, com-issor. Among the latter
1) Frequentative Verbs, which express repeated or intense Re-
action, formed either in -to, -so, from Supine-stems: canto, sing ^e llta
much (cano, cantum), cur so, run often (curro, cursum) ; so Verbs.
adiuto; apto ; capto ; dicto ; iacto ; gesto; lacto; nuto; occulto;
rapto ; tento ; tracto ; vecto ; voluto ; cesso ; merso ; penso ; prenso ;
presso ; pulso ; quasso ; verso ; grassor ; or by adding i-to, i-tor
to the Clipt Stem: rog-z-to, ask often (rog-o), min-z-tor, threaten
much (min-or) : (so agito, cogito, mussito, strepito, visito) : some-
times to the Supine Stem: haes-z-to, lus-z-to. Frequentatives
may be formed from Frequentatives : cant-z'-to ; curs-z-to ; dict-z*-to.
2) Deminutive Verbs in -mo, from Present-stems: conscrib- Demi-
illo, scribble-, sorb-illo, sup up.\ ^jjgj
Perf. I Sup.
A-verbs form -avi atum
Variant Verbs are cited in the Syllabus ; Deponents in the Notes.
B) The SECOND or E-CONJUGATION contains fewer
Verbs than the First, and very few Deponents. Its
Verbs are principally Intransitive. Several have by-
forms in -ere, 3. used by poets : ferv-ere, frig-ere,
fulg-ere, strid-ere, turg-ere. A large number pass
into the Inceptive or Inchoative form in -sco, 3.
Many Verbs of this Conjugation are without Supine ; some with-
out Perfect also. Inchoatives in Perfect and Supine follow the for-
mation of the Verb from which they spring.
E-verbs should regularly form -evi, etum ; but they usually have
-iii, -itum. Most of them are cited in the Syllabus.
C) The FOURTH or I-CONJUGATION has not a large
number of Active Verbs, and few Deponents. Most
are Transitive.
206 Latin Wordlore.
53-
Beside- [Desiderative Verbs are of this Conjugation, formed from
** d X e Supine Stems with Suffix -ur-io :
Verbs.
es-ur-io, desire to eat, am hungry.
script-ur-io, desire to write.]
Perf. Sup.
I -verbs form -Ivi | -Ituxn
Only Variant and Deponent I -Verbs are cited in the Syllabus.
D) The THIRD CONJUGATION contains Consonant
Verbs and U-verbs : Consonant Verbs in each class are
placed in the order of their character : Guttural (c, g,
qu, h, &c.) ; Dental (t, d) ; Labial (p, b) ; Nasal (m, n) ;
Liquid (1, r, s).
Nearly all Simple Verbs of this Conjugation are cited.
(Most Compounds of all Verbs cited are mentioned at the foot. .
The formation of Perfect and Supine is the same in the Com-
pounds as in the Simple Verb, unless otherwise stated.
S. means Stem : L. S. lengthened Stem, as in mov-i : Cp. Com-
pound : Cpp. Compounds.)
A-verbs. A) First Conjugation : A-verbs : !
(am-are am-avi am-atum)
Redupl. | -atum :
i. dare
2. stare
dedi
steti
datum
statum
. giw* Put
stand
L.S. | -turn :
3. iuv-are
4. lav-are
iuvi
lavi
iutum
lotum
help, please
wash
1 A- Verbs.
1. Dare is the only Verb which keeps short a (except in da).
The Cpp. circumdare, set round, pessumdare, ruin y venumdare, set for sale, satis-
dare, give security, keep a, and form dedi, datum. All its other Cpp. pass over
to the Cons. Decl. -do -dls -dere, &c., with meanings of several, which (as in
circumdare) do not represent 'giving,' but 'placing'' or 'setting. 1 Hence it
seems clear that this Verb, whether as dare or -dere, contains within its forms
two Verbs, which in Sanskrit and Greek are distinct : namely, Sk. da (dadami),
Gr. (So) Si'SujfAt, give, and Sk. aha (dadhdmi), Gr. (0e) Tiflrj^u, set, prtt. Some
of the Cpp. must be ascribed to the latter Verb: circumdo, abdo, condo,
indo, obdo, &c. : while others, dedo, redd o, trad o, &c. may be more easily
assigned to the former. See M. Lucr. iv. 41.
2. Cpp. (ad con ex in ob per prae re)-sto -stiti. See sisto 3. (Ante circum)-sto
-steti. Disto, super-sto, have no Perf. or Sup. The Sup. statum has a short in
'stata tempora/ also stator, status, statura, statim. But in Cpp.
long quantity prevails : constaturus, exstaturus. Praestitum, L. xliii.
18: praestiturus has some authority. R. Pr. sta, Sk. stha, Gr. crra.
3. luvaturus, Sail. Cp. adiuvo. R. Sk. dtt', 'shine.'
4. Lavavi, Ter. lavatum: lautum : whence Adi. lautus, sumptuous. Older
form lave re, Verg. Hor. : still older lucre (distinct from lu- loose). See this
and its Cpp. R. Gr. Au-. See Curt. Gr. Et. p. 371.
5. Simple necare, -avi -atum: necui, Phaedr. : from nex, violent death Gr. ye/cus,
corpse. R. Sk. ruts', ' perish.'
53- $J*
abus of o
tem-rormatioK
\ in Verbs.
207
-ui | -turn :
5. enec-are
enecui
enectum
kill
6. frioare
fricui
frictum
rub
7. sec-are
secui
sectum
cut
-ui | -itum :
8. crep-are
crepui
crepitum
creak) prattle
9. cub-are
cubui
cubitum
lie down
10. dom-are
domui
domitum
tame
ii. son-are
sonui
sonitum
sound
12. ton-are
tonui
tonitum
thunder
13. vet-are
vetui
vetitum
forbid
6. Cp. perfrico. A Supine fricatum is used by frico and Cpp. effrico, refrico. R.
Sk. ghar. Gr. xP<-~- See Curt. Gr. Etym. p. 203.
7. S e cat urus is found. Cpp. (dis ex re sub)-seco.
8. Cpp. discrepo, differ ; increpo, chide ; (con per) crepo. Rarely -avi -atum.
9. Cpp. accubo, occubo ; (ex in re se)-cubo. Rarely -avi -atum. Cumbere 3. is a
nasalised byform. R. Sk. s't t ' lie down,' Gr. /eei-.
10. Cpp. (e per) domo. R. Sk. dam, Gr. Sap-, tame.
11. Sonaturus, Hor. Cpp. (in per re) -sono. R. Sk. svan, 'to sound.'
12. Cp. intono -ui -atum. Adj. attonitus, R. Sk. tan, Gr. TCI/-, to stretch. Tonere,
sonere 3. are old and poetic forms.
13. Vetavit, Pers. ; but some read notavit.
14 Simple Verb has plicavi; plicui is rare : plicitum and plicatum. Cpp.
applico, complico, explico, implico, take both forms of Perf. and Sup. The Verbs
duplico, multiplico, supplico are not Cpp. andhave-avi -atum. Gr. nXizu.
See plecto 3.
15. Cpp. dimico, combat, dimicavi ('dimicui,' Ov.), dimicatum ; emico, emicui.
a) The Inchoative Verbs formed from A- verbs are :
From gelare : congel-ascere -avi -alum, freeze.
labare : lab-ascere (no Perf. or Sup. ), begin to waver.
hiare : hiscere . . (no Perf. or Sup.), gape, whisper; M. Lucr. iv. 66.
.... dehiscere ,, ,,
<5) Deponent A- verbs (all conjugated regularly in -ari, -atUS).
Those marked * have also an Active form in -O, -are, in general peculiar to old
Latin ; but an original Active may be ascribed to all.
abomin-ari, abhor *augur-ari, ) soo thsay convici-ari, revile
*adminicul-ari, prop, sup- *auspic-ari, J ' *conviv-ari,_/<z.y/
port auxili-ari, aid cornic-ari, chatter
advers-ari, oppose *bacch-ari, revel (as a Bac- *crimin-ari, accuse
*adul-ari,y?rtta?r chanal) (de) *cunct-ari, delay
aemul-ari, rival *bell-ari, make war *depecul-ari, pillage
alucin-ari, dote *bubulcit-ari, tend kine despic-ari, despise
*alterc-ari, wrangle * achinn-ari, laugh loud devers-ari, lodge
amplex-ari, embrace alumni-ari, cavil, chicane digladi-ari, combat
ampull-ari, talk big avill-ari, banter *dign-ari, deem worthy
ancill-ari, act as handmaid aupon-ari, sell by retail dedign-ari, disdain
apric-ari, sun oneself aus-ari, allege *domin-ari, mle
aqu-ari, fetch water omiss-ari, revel elucubr-ari, work out, com-
*arbitr-ari, think, deem *comit-ari, accompany pose
architect-ari, build *comment-ari, remark epul-ari,/^^/
argument-ari, prove " :; communic-ari, impart *exsecr-ari, curse
*argut-ari, quibble contion-ari, harangue *fabric-a.r\, fashion
^aspern-ari, despise conflict-ari, contend *fabul-ari, talk (con-)
assent-ari, comply, flatter con-ari, endeavour famul-ari, serve
adstipul-ari, support consili-ari, counsel f-ari, speak (af- ef- prae- pro-)
auction-ari, hold an a^tction consol-ari, comfort *fener-ari, lend on interest
*aucup-ari, catch *conspic-ari, behold feri-ari, keep holiday
avers-ari, dislike *contempl-ari, view *fluctu-ari, fluctuate
208
Latin Wordlore.
-avi (ui) ! -ituxn or -atum :
14. plic-are plicavi (-ui)
-ui or -avi | -atum.
15. mic-are micui (-avi)
53-
plicitum (-atum) fold
-micatum glitter
frument-ari, lay in corn
*frustr-ari, baffle
*frutic-ari, sprout
fur-ari, steal
gesticul-ari, make gestures
glori-ari, boast
graec-ari, live sumptuously
(like Greeks)
grass-ari, advance, attack
grat-ari, | congra\
gratul-ari, \ (con)
gratific-ari, do a kindness
grav-ari, grudge
hariol-ari, divine
helu-ari, eat gluttonortsly
hort-ari, exhort (ad- ex-)
hospit-ari, lodge
*iacul-ari, dart (e-)
imagin-ari, imagine
imit-ari, imitate
indign-ari, disdain
infiti-ari, deny
insidi-ari, plot
interpret-ari, explain
*ioc-ari, jest
*laet-ari, rejoice
*lacrim-ari, iveep
lament-ari, lament
latrocin-ari, rob
lenocin-ari, pander
licit-ari, bid (in auction)
lign-ari, collect timber
lucr-ari, make gain
*luct-ari, struggle (col- ob-
re-)
*ludific-ari, make mock
*luxuri-ari, wanton
machin-ari, contrive
materi-ari,_/W/ timber
*medic-ari, heal
*mendic-ari, beg
medit-ari, con, plan (prae)
merc-ari, buy
*meridi-ari, take-siesta
*met-ari, measure
*min-ari, ) threaten
*minit-ari j (com-)
mir-ari, -wonder (ad- de-)
*miser-ari, pity (com-)
*moder-ari, rule, restrain *proeli-ari, fight a battle (de-)
modul-ari, tune ratiocin-ari, reason
*moriger-ari, comply record-ari, remember
*mor-ari, delay (com- de- im- refrag-ari, vote against, op-
re-)
muner-ari, reward (re-)
'mutu-ari, borrow
negoti-ari, do business
'nict-ari, wink
congratulate nidul-ari, make nest
*nundin-ari, market
nug-ari, trifle
*nutric-ari, nurture
obvers-ari, be present (to
sight or mind)
odor-ari, scent out
*orci\\\-a.r\, forebode
oper-ari, work
*opin-ari, think
*opitul-ari, help
*opson-ari, buy meat
*oscit-ari, yawn
*oscul-ari, kiss
oti-ari, be at leisure
pabul-ari, forage
*pacific-ari, make peace
*pal-ari, wander
*palp-ari, stroke, flatter
pandicul-ari, stretch oneself
parasit-ari, play the buffoon
patrocin-ari, patronise
percont-ari, - \ { ire
percunct-an,
peregrin-ari, dwell as a
stranger
periclit-ari, venture, be in
peril
philosoph-ari, philosophize
*pigner-ari, take-pledge
pigr-ari, be lazy
pisc-ari, fish (ex-)
pollicit-ari, promise
*popul-ari, lay waste (de)
praed-ari, plunder
praestol-ari, wait for
pose
*rim-ari, rake out, search
rix-ari, wrangle
rustic-ari, live in the coun-
try
*savi-ari, kiss
scit-ari, ^ \ in ire
*sciscit-ari, )
scrut-ari, search out (per-)
scurr-ari, play the buffoon
*sect-ari, follow (as- con-
in-)
sermocin-ari, discourse
sol-ari, comfort
spati-ari, walk (ex-)
specul-ari, look out
*stabul-ari, be in a stall
*stipul-ari, bargain (ad- re-)
stomach-ari, be angry
suffrag-ari, vote with
suspic-ari, suspect
tergivers-ari, shttffle
test-ari, ( catt to *>*****
testific^ hr witness (&-
I con- de- ob- pro-
v testari)
tric-ari, make difficulties
trist-ari, be sad
trutin-ari, poise in the
scales
*tumultu-ari, make an up-
roar
*tut-ari, defend
urin-ari, dive
vad-ari, hold to bail
*vag-ari, wander (di- e- per-)
vaticin-ari, prophesy
^velific-ari, sail
velit-ari, skirmish
*vener-ari, venerate (de)
ven-ari, hunt
praevaric-ari, walk crooked, verecund-ari, be shy
play the rogue vers-ari, be engaged, dwell
prec-ari, pray (com- de- (con- de- di-)
im-) *vocifer-ari, cry cut
Most of these Verbs are derived from Nouns, a few from Verbs. Adulare (i) may
be the same word as adorare, but applied to meaner subjects (dog, flatterer, &c.) ; on
aemulor, imitor, see Corss. Kr. B. 253: cunctor, R. Sk. s'ank, 'hesitate:' con-
templari is primarily an augural word, to observe the heavens (templa caeli) : populare
probably for spo-spulare, from spolium, Gr. <TKV\OV.
53* Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 209
B) Second Conjugation : E-verbs : *
(Verbs which have also an Inchoative form of Conj. 3. are printed
in italics.)
E-verbs.
Redupl. | -sum :
1. mord-ere momordi
2. pend-ere pependi
3. spond-ere spopondi
4. tond-ere totondi
L. S. | turn
5. cav-ere
cavi
6. fav-ere
favi
7. fov-ere
fovi
8. mov-ere
movi
9. vov-ere
vovi
10. pav-ere
pavi
L. S. | sum :
Ti. sed-ere
sedi
12. vld-ere
vldi
t I sum :
13. prand-ere prandi
i | no Sup.
14. comv-ere conivi
15. strid-ere stridi
1 6. ferv-ere ferbui
morsum
pensum
sponsum
tonsum
cautum
fautum
fotum
motum
votum
sessum
visum
pransum
bite
hang
contract
shear
beware
favour
cherish
move
vow
quake
sit
see
dine
blink
creak
boil
1 E-verbs.
1. Memordi is used. Cpp. (ad prae re)-mordeo -mordi -morsum. See Corss.
Krit. B. 430. R. Sk. mard.
2. Pendere is the Intrans. Verb corresponding to the Trans. pendre 3. hang : whence
pondus, weight^ and Frequent, pensare, ponder. Cpp. appendeo, impendeo,
(de pro)-pendeo -pendi -pensum.
3. Spopondi, euphonic for spo-spondi ; Spepondi is found. Cpp. despondeo, betroth,
respondeo, answer, -spondi -sponsum. See Corss. Krit. N. 112. The Verb
means ' to give a legal contract,' ' sponsionem facere.'
4. Also tetondi. Cpp. attondeo, detondeo -tondi -tonsum. The Verbs 1-4 shew that
Compounds drop the reduplicative syllable. R. r/x?(i>, Curt. Gr. Et. p. 221.
5. Cp. praecaveo. R. Sk. sku, 'hide.'
6. 7. See Corss. Krit. B. 56, 57.
8. Cpp. (a ad com de di e pro re se sum)-moveo. See Curt. Gr. Et. 324.
9. Cp. devoveo.
10. Inchoative expavesco, expavi, become terrified.
n. Cpp. (circum super)-sedeo. But assldeo, possldeo, and (con de dis in ob prae re
sub)-sideo -sedi -sessum. R. Sk. sad, Gr. eS-.
12. Cpp. (in per prae pro)-video. R. Sk. vid, Gr. /<?-.
13. Prandeo is ' to eat the prandium ' (pri-, dies- ?) or earlier meal (answering to the
present English 'luncheon,' French 'dejeuner a la fourchette '), distinguished
from cena, which answers to the present English 'dinner/ formerly 'supper/
14. Also conixi. The form nlv- is corrupted from gnigv-, g twice falling out ; R.
Sk.jdnu, y6w, genu, knee. See C. Krit. B. 56.
15. By form stridere.
16. Byform fervere, whence another Perf. fervi. Ferbui is euphonic for fervtu,
R. Sk. ghar, Gr. 0ep-. See C. Krit. B. 165. 203. Inch, defervesco, deferbui :
effervesco, efferbui.
2IO
Latin Wordlore.
53-
-evi { -etum
17. del-ere
delevi
deletum
blot out
18. fl-ere
flevi
fletum
weep
19. n-ere
nevi
netum
spin
20. -plere
plevi
pletum
JM
21. vi-ere
(vievi)
vietum
bind with twigs
22. ci-ere
stir up
23. -olere
-olevi
(olitum)
grow, &c.
24. su-ere
suevi
suetum
be wont
-ui | -itum :
25. arc-ere
arcui
(-artum)
ward off
26. coerc-ere
coercui
coercftum
restrain
27. exerc-ere
exercui
exercftum
exercise
28. car-ere
carui
caritum
be without, be in
want of
29. deb-ere
debui
debitum
owe
30. dol-ere
dolui
dolftum
grieve
31. hab-ere
habui
habitum
have
32. iac-ere
iacui
iacitum
lie
33. lic-ere
licui
licttum
be bid for
34. mer-ere
merui
meritum
serve, earn
35. mon-ere
monui
monttum
advise
36. noc-ere
nocui
nocitum
hurt
37. par-ere
38. plac-ere
parui
placui
paritum
placltum
appear, obey
please
39. praeb-ere
praebui
praebltum
afford
40. terr-ere
terrui
terrltum
affright
17. Some make this Verb de-olere, comparing abolere. More probably it is a Cp. of
le-, smear, True Stem of lino.
18. Cpp. affleo, defleo. Compare Gr. <Ae- <f>Av-, L. flu-. See Curt. 302.
19. Gr. ye-. Eng. needle, G. nadel.
20. Cpp. compleo, impleo, oppleo, suppleo, (ex re)-pleo, R. Sk. prt, Gr. TrAe-.
21. Hence vitis, vimen.
22. R. Sk. sfi, 'sharpen.' The Perf. and Sup. are formed from cire 4.
23. The root of growth, o\-(=Sk.nr, L. al- ar- or-), is distinct from the root of smell,
ol (=od). Olesco has the Cpp. adolesco, grow -up, adolevi, adultum : inolesco
-evi, grow in : whence ind-oles ; and subolesco, whence suboles. The Transi-
tive Verbs adoleo, inflame sacrificially, aboleo, abolish, with their Inchoatives
(adolesco, abolesco), have a distinct sense, and may possibly be derived from the
word oleum, implying an old practice of using oil to make the sacrifices burn
speedily : Verg. iv. 244 : Pingue super oleum infundens ardentibus extis.
24. Sucre is found in Lucr., but suesco is the Verb in classical use. Cpp. assuesco,
(con de in)-suesco, suevi, suetum. Also mansuesco -suevi -suetum, grow mild,
tame. See Curt. 251 ; M. Lucr. i. 60, iv. 1282.
25. 26. 27. R. Gr. aAx-, apK-.
30. Inchoatives : (con in)-dolesco -dolui.
31. Cpp. debeo (dehibeo); praebeo ; (prae-hibeo) ; (ad co ex in per pro red)*htbeo
-hibui -hibitum. But posthabeo.
32. Cpp. (ad circum sub)-iaceo. The intransitive Verb corresponding to iacio, cast,
See this in Conj. 3.
33. See Curt. 456 ; and p. 192 of this Gr.
34. See Curt. 332.
35. Cpp. (ad con prae)-moneo. R. Sk. man.
37. Cpp. appareo, compareo, appear.
38. Cpp. displiceo -plicui -plicitum ; (com per)-placeo. Sk. pri.
40. Cpp. absterreo ; (con de ex per)-terreo. R. Sk. tras, Gr. rpe-.
53-
4i. ttic-ere
.42. vdl-ere
-ui | -turn :
43. doc-ere
44. misoere
45. ten-ere
46. torr-ere
-ui I -sum :
47. cens-ere
-ui | no Sup.
48. eg-ere
49. mm-ere
50. 61-ere
sorb-ere
stud-ere
ac-ere
ar-ere
55. cdl-ere
56. call-ere
57. cand-ere
58. clar-ere
59. flor-ere
60. frond-ere
6 1. horr-ere
62. langu-ere
63. /#-*ir*
Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs.
52.
53-
.54-
tacui
valui
docui
tenui
torrui
censui
egui
-minui
olui
sorbui
studui
acui
arui
calui
callui
candui
clarui
florui
frondui
horrui
langui
latui
taciturn
valitum
doctum
tentum
tostum
censum
211
fo strong^ be well
scorch^ roast
value, vote
want
jut
smell
suck lip
study
fo sour
be hot
^ hard-skinned
glow white
&? bright, illustrious
bloom
be in leaf
shudder, be rough
be faint
lie hid
41. Cpp. (con ob re)-ticeo, ticui: no Sup. : usually -ticesco, -ticui.
42. Cp. praevaleo : others form Inch, (con e in re)-valesco -valui -valitum.
43. Cpp. (ad de e)-doceo. R. Sk. dis 1 , Gr. Set*-.
44. For mic-sc-eo, Cpp. commisceo, immisceo, (ad inter per re)-misceo, R. Sk. inis'r,
Gr. juty.
45. Cpp. attineo (con de dis ob per re sus)-tineo -tinui -tentum, R. Sk. tan,
Gr. rev-.
46. R. Pr. tarsh, 'be dry/ Gr. repa-. Inch, torresco, Lucr. iii. 890.
47. Cpp. accenseo, recenseo, succenseo. Censitus occurs on Inscrr. : hence recensitus.
48. Cp. indig-eo -ui, Gr. a.\-f\v.
49. Cpp. emin-eo -ui : immineo, no Perf. ; promineo.
50. Cpp. (red sub)-oleo. Subst. odor. R. Gr. 6o>, 65w5a.
51. Cpp. (ab ex ob re)-sorbeo. Gr. po<J>e-.
52. Gr. o-TrevSw.
53. Inch, acesco -acui. Cp. coacesco. R. Gr. o/c-, sharpen.
54. Inch, aresco. Cp. exar-esco -ui.
55. Inch, cal-esco -ui. Cpp. (con per)-cal-esco -ui, grow hot.
56. Inch. Cpp. occall-esco, percall-esco -ui.
57. Inch. Cpp. (ex in)-cand-esco -ui. Cando 3. (used in Cpp. only in the Trans.
form. See Corss. K. B. HI.)
58. Inch, claresco, Cp. inclar-esco -ui, become bright, ilhistrioiis.
59. Inch, floresco, Cp efflor-esco -ui, bloom.
60. Inch, frond-esco, Cp. refrond-esco -ui, come into leaf again.
61. Cpp. (ab ex in)-horreo, Inch, horresco.. Cpp. cohorresco, (ex in per)-horr-esco -ui,
shudder. R. Pr. harsh, 'to bristle,' Gr. <prcr.
62. Inch, languesco, Cpp. (e ob re)-langu-esco -ui, grow f ami. R. Gr. Aay-.
63. Inch, lat-esco, Cp. delit-esco -ui. Frequent, latito i. See C. Kr. B. 79.
P 2
212
65. mdd-ere
66. marc-ere
67. nit-ere
68. pall-ere v
69. pdt-ere
70. put-ere
71. putr-ere
72. rtg-ere
73. riib-ere
74. ^7-^>r
75. sord-ere
76. splend-ere
77. sq^^al-ere
78. stiip-ere
79. tab-ere
80. tep-ere
8 1. tim-ere
82. torp-ere
83. tiim-ere
84. vtg-ere
85. vtr-ere
Latin Wordlore.
licui
madui
marcui
nitui
pallui
patui
putui
putrui
rigui
rubui
silui
sordui
splendui
squalui
stupui
tabui
tepui
timui
torpui
tumui
vigui
virui
53-
melt
be wet
fade
shine
be pale
be open
smell rank
be rotten
be stiff
be red
be silent
be dirty
glitter
befilthy
be amazed
pine
be lukewarm
fear
be torpid
swell
be vigorous
be green
No Perf. | No Sup. :
86. av-ere
long
93- pigr-ere
be sluggish
87. claud-ere
limp
94. poll-ere
be powerful
88. clu-ere
be called
95. veg-ere
excite
89. dens-ere
thicken
96. aegr-ere
be sick
90. foet-ere
befetid
97. alb-ere
be white
91. frend-ere
gnash teeth
98. calv-ere
be bald
92. maer-ere
mourn
99. can-ere
be grey
64. Inch, liquesco ; Cp. deliqu-esco, delicui, begin to melt.
65. Inch, mad-esco -ui, become moist. Gr. /ua5-.
66. Inch. marcesco,./fr*fe, R. Pr. mar, Gr. jxop-.
67. Cp. eniteo. Inch, nitesco, enitesco -ui, shine forth.
68. Inch, pallesco, Cpp. (ex im)-pall-esco -\\\, grow pale. R. Gr. ?reA-
69. Inch, pat-esco -ui. R. Gr. n-era-.
70. Inch, putesco -ui, become foul } R gk . f Gr< ^.^
71. Inch, putr-esco -ui, become rotten )
72. Inch, rig-esco -ui. Cpp. (di ob)-rig-esco -ui, grow stiff.
73. Inch, rub-esco, Cp. erub-esco -ui, blush. R. Pr. rud/i, Gr. epv0-.
74. Inch, sil-esco -ui, become silent.
75. Inch, sord-esco -ui, become mean, worthless.
76. Cp. resplendeo. Inch, splend-esco, exsplend-esco -ui, shine out.
78. Inch, stup-esco, obstup-esco -ui, stand amazed. See Curt. 218.
79. Inch, tabesco ; Cpp. (ex in)-tab-esco -ui, begin to pine. See Curt. 238.
80. Inch, tep-esco -ui. R. Sk. tap.
81. Cpp. (prae sub)-timeo. Inch. Cpp. (ex per)-tim-esco -ui.
82. Inch, torp-esco, Cp. obtorp-esco -ui, grow torpid. See Corss. K. B. 438.
83. Inch, tum-esco, Cp. intum-esco -ui, begin to swell. R. Sk. tu.
84. Inch, vig-esco -ui. R. Sk. itksh, 'grow strong/ Gr. i<y-. But see Curt. 186.
85. Inch, vir-esco, Cp. revir-esco -ui, become green again.
86. See Curt. 309.
88. R. Sk. s'rtt, Gr. icAv.
96. Inch, aegresco, become sick.
97. Inch, albesco, exalbesco, become white.
53- Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 213
100. flacc-ere
101. flav-ere
102. heb-ere
be flabby
be yellow
be dull
1 06. remd-ere
107. scat-ere
1 08. sen-ere
smile
bubble up
be old
103. lact-ere
be milky
109. um-ere
be moist
104. liv-ere
be livid
no. uv-ere
be dank
105. milc-ere
be mouldy
-si | -turn:
in. polluc-ere
polluxi
polluctum
make a feast
112. aug-ere
auxi
auctum
increase
113. indulg-ere
indulsi
indultum
indulge
114. mulg-ere
mulsi
mulctum
milk
115. torqu-ere
torsi
tortum
twist
1 1 6. lug-ere
luxi
mourn
-si | sum :
117. mulc-ere
mulsi
mulsum
soothe
1 1 8. terg-ere
119. ard-ere
tersi
arsi
-tersum
arsum
wipe
take fire
1 20. rid-ere
risi
risum
laugh
121. suad-ere
suasi
suasum
persuade
122. iub-ere
iussi
iussum
command
123. man-ere
mansi
mansum
remain
124. haer-ere
haesi
haesum
stick
si | no Sup. :
125. alg-ere
alsi
be cold
1 26. fulg-ere
fulsi
glitter
127. turg-ere
tursi
swell
128. urg-ere
ursi
urge
129. frig-ere
-frixi
be cold
130. lilc-ere
luxi
shine
oo. See Corss. Kr. B. 28. Byform scatere, 3. Lucr. v. 40.
08. Inchoative, sen-esco, consen-esco -ui, grow old.
(The other Verbs from 96 to in form Inchoatives, which denote beginning of state :
but are without Perf. and Sup. except incanesco, which has Perf. incanui.)
12. Cpp. (ad ex)-augeo. Inch, augesco. R. Sk. uksh.
13. See Corss. K. Beitr. 382. This derivation from dA.e'yo> is very doubtful.
14. Cp. immulgeo. R. Sk. marj, Gr. i-ju.eAy-.
15. Cpp. (con de dis ex in re)-torqueo. R. rpen--.
16. See Curt. 182. The Subst. luctus points to a Sup. of that form.
17. Cpp. (de per)-mulceo. See Curt. 327.
18. Cpp. (abs de)-tergeo. See Corss. K. B. 437.
19. Inch, ard-esco, exard-esco -arsi. Corss. derives from aridus, K. B, in.
20. Cpp. arrideo, irrideo, (de sub)-rideo. R. Sk. krtd, 'play.'
21. Cpp. (dis per)-suadeo. R. Sk. svad, 'sweeten/ Gr. dS-.
22. From ius- hibere.
23. Cpp. (per re)-maneo. R. Gr. /uei/-.
24. Cpp. cohaereo, (ad in)-haereo. Inch, haere-sco, haesi and Cpp.
26. Cpp. affulgeo, effulgeo, refulgeo. Inch, fulg-esco, fulsi. Byform fulgere, 3. R.
Sk. bhraj, Gr. <\ y-.
28. Cp. adurgeo. R. P r . varj, ' to press,' Gr. fetpy-.
29. Inch, frigesco, Cp. refrigesco -frixi. R. Gr. piy-.
30. Cpp. colluceo (e re sub)-luceo. Inch, lucesco. Cp. illucesco -luxi, dawn.
R. Sk. rue 1 , Gr. AVK-.
214
Latin Wordlore.
53-
I-verbs.
Semideponent :
131. aud-ere ausus sum
dare
132. gaud-ere gavlsus sum
rejoice
133. sol-ere solitus sum
be went
Deponent :
134. lic-eri licitus
bid for
135. mer-eri meritus
deserve
136. miser-eri miseritus
pity
137. tu-eri tuitus
mew, protect
138. ver-eri veritus
fear, respect
139. r-eri ratus
think
140. fat-eri fassus
confess
141. med-eri
heal
C) Fourth Conjugation :
I-verbs : l
(aud-ire, aud-Ivi (ii), aud-Itum.)
Variant:
-Ivi (ii) | -turn :
I. sepel-Ire sepelivi
sepultum
bury
2. Ire (eo) ivi
itum
g
3. quire quivi
qultum
be able
-ui | -tmn :
4. sal-Ire salui
(saltum)
leap, dance
5. aper-ire aperui
apertum
open
6. oper-Ire operui
opertum
cover
-i | turn :
7. comper-Ire comperi
compertum
find
8. reper-Ire repperi
repertum
discover
(C. S.-) -turn :
9. ven-Ire veni
ventum
come
131. Corss. derives from avid-us.
132. Corss. derives from a form gavidus. R. Gr. yaf-.
133. Probably connected with the forms Sk. sarva-s, E.L. sollus, Gr. oAos, &c. Cp.
assoleo. An Inch, form solesco must be assumed whence in-solesco, ex-solesco,
ob-solesco -evi (insolens, exoletus, obsoletus).
134. Cp. polliceor, promise. See 33.
135- Cpp. commereor, (de pro)-mereor.
137. Cpp. (con in)-tueor. See Corss. K. B. 437.
138. Cpp. (re sub)-vereor. R. Pr. var, 'cover/
140. Cpp. diffiteor, diffessus ; (con pro)-fiteor -fessus. R. Gr. 0a-.
141. Medicatusis used as Partic. of medeor.
1 I-Verbs.
2. Cpp. (ab ad ante circum co ex in inter ob per prae praeter prod red sub trans)-eo.
Also ven-eo, ven-Ire (venum ire), to be sold, quasi-passive of vendere (venum-
dare), to sell', has no Sup. : Pass. Partic. venditus, vendendus. Ambio, as audio.
3. Cp. nequeo. See p. 188.
4. Salii is used. Cpp. (ad de ex in pro re sub)-silio -silui or -silii, -sultum. R. Pr.
sar, Gr. aAA.-.
5-8. These Verbs with experior, opperior, peritus, periculum, belong to a lost verb
perire, try. R. Pr. par, 'accomplish.' Comperior is used by Sallust.
9. Cpp. (ad circum con de e in inter ob per prae pro re super sub)-venio. R. Sk.
gam. See Corss. Kr. B. 58.
53-
Syllabus of Stem- Formation in Verbs. 215
-si | -turn :
10. amlc-Ire
amixi
ii. fare-Ire
farsi
12. fulc-ire
fulsi
13. sane-Ire
sanxi
14. sarc-Ire
sarsi
15. vine-Ire
vinxi
1 6. saep-Ire
saepsi
17. haur-Ire
hausi
1 8. rauc-Ire
rausi
-si | -sum :
19. sent-Ire
sensi
amictum
fartum
fultum
sanctum
sartum
vinctum
saeptum
haustum
sensum
clothe
stuff
prop
consecrate
mend
bind
hedge in
drain
be hoarse
feel
No Perf. | No Supine :
20. caecut-ire
be blind
27.
gloc-Ire cluck
21. croc-Ire
croak
28.
grunn-Ire grimt
22. dement-Ire
be distracted
29.
hinn-Ire neigh
23. fer-Ire
strike
So-
inept-Ire be silly
24. feroc-Ire
be wild
3*-
prur-ire itch
25. gest-Ire
be eager
32.
singult-Ire sob
26. gann-ire
yelp.
Deponent ;
-itus :
33. bland-Iri
blanditus
fawn, flatter
34.*larg-iri
largltus
bestow
35.*ment-iri
mentltus
speak falsely
36.*mol-iri
molltus
plan
37.*part-iri
partltus
divide
38. pot-iri
potltus
get possession of
39.*pun-iri
punltus
punish
4O.*sort-iri
sortltus
allot, take by lot
-tus (from C. S.) :
4i.*exper-iri expertus experience
42. opper-iri oppertus wait for
43. or-iri ortus arise
TO. Also amicui.
11. Cpp. differcio (con in re)-fercio -fersi -fertum.
12. Cpp. effulcio, suffulcio. Derived from furca, prop, C.
13. a-w-c-io is nasalised, as sa-c-er shews. R. Gr. aa-o?.
14. Cp. resarcio.
15. Cp. devincio.
16. Gr. onjK09. Saepes, praesaepe, saepire, shew the same labialism as lupus. &c., p. 59,
17. Also hausum. Cp. exhaurio.
19. Cpp. (con per)-sentio.
21. It is evident that the C in the verbs crocire, croak, glocire, chick, must have
had the hard k-sound.
33-40. These are derived from Nouns. Cpp. subblandior : (di e)-largior : emen-
tior : (e re)-molior : (im dis)-pertior.
43. Orior, Gr. op- has Cpp. (ad co ex ob)-orior -ortus.
2i6 Latin Wordlore. 53.
-sus (from C. S.) :
44.*assent-Iri assensus agree
45. met-iri mensus measure
46. ord-iri orsus begin
cons. D) Third Conjugation : Consonant * and U-verbs :
and
U-verbs. L Consonant Verbs.
i) Verbs with Reduplicated Perfect- Stem. (Compounds drop
Reduplication; except those of disco, posco, sisto, -dere, and
sometimes of curro.)
Redupl. | -turn :
i. di^c-ere
didfci
learn
2. posc-ere
poposci
demand
3. pa-^-g-ere
pepigi
pactum
fasten
4. pu-;*-g-ere
pupugi
punctum
prick
5. ta-/z-g-ere
tetigi
tactum
touch
6. sist-ere
-stiti
(-stitum)
stop
7. -d-ere
-didi
-ditum
put, give
8. tend-ere
tetendi
tentum
stretch
9. can-ere
cecmi
can turn
sing
44-46. Assentior from sentire : metior, Sk. ma, Suff. -ti : Cpp. (de di e)-metior -men-
sus. This Participle is difficult. Perhaps the Pres. also was nasalised, but dropt
n to avoid confusion with mention Cp. of ordior, exordior -orsus. R. or- with
suff. d-i. Virgil uses nutriri as Depon. : ' nutritor olivam/ G. ii. 425.
Inchoative from Verbs of Conj. 4.
dormi-
edormi-sco
edormivi
edormitum
sleep out
obdormi-sco
obdormivi
obdormitum
fall asleep
sci-sco
scivi
scitum
ratify
consci-sco
conscivi
conscitum
resolve
desci-sco
descivi
descitum
revolt
resci-sco
rescivi
rescitum
leant
1 Consonant Verbs.
1. Cpp. (ad con de e per prae)-disco. For dic-sc-o. See p. 195.
2. Cpp. (de ex re)-posco. For porc-sc-o. R. Sk. prac'h, 'ask, pray.' Hence,
prec-ari, procus.
3. Cpp. compingo, impingo -pegi -pactum ; oppango, oppegi. (De re)-pango.
R. Sk. pas', Gr. tray-, whence also pac-i-sc-or, pax, pignus, &c.
4. Cpp. (com dis ex inter)-pungo. On the probable common origin of pungere,
pingere, pix, &c., and Gr. Treu^rj, wi/cpos, TTOIKI'AOS, from a Pr. R. pik t puk t to
prick, dot, &c., see Curt Gr. Et. I. 133, 4. Compare Engl /*?/, pike, pick,
peck, poke, pock. (Can Sk. pis' be cited here ?)
5 Cpp. attingo, attlgi, attactum ; (con ob)-tingo -tTgi -tactum. The root-form tag-o
is used by Plautus : also attlgo (Gr. ray- : compare tingere). See Curt. 217.
6. Sisto, redupl. of sto, is trans, orintrans., but its Cpp. are intrans. (ab ad con de ex
in ob per re sub)-sisto -stiti. Sup. (-stitum, -statum) is very rare.
7. Cpp. of -do -dere (for dare) are (ab ad con de e in ob per pro red sub tra)-do
-didi -ditum. Also credo (Sk. Jrad-dadhami, ' put trust, believe '), -didi, -ditum,
trust, and vendo -didi -ditum, sell. See dare. The Partic. praeditus, endued,
is a relic of praedere, not otherwise occurring.
8. Cpp. attendo (con dis in ob prae sub)-tendo -tendi -tentum : (de ex os pro re)
-tendo -tendi -tentum, sometimes -tensum. R. Sk. tan, Gr. TO.V- rei/-, with suf-
fix d.
9. Cpp. occino, succlno -cinui -centum ; so (con prae)-cino. Intercino, recino, no
Perf. or Sup. Occecini is found.
53- Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 217
10. par-gre peperi partum bring forth
11. toll-ere sustuli sublatum take up
Redupl. | -sum :
12. parc-ere
13. cad-ere
peperci
cecidi
parsum
casum
spare
fall
14. caed-ere
cecldi
caesum
cut, beat, kill
15. pend-ere
pependi
pensum
weigh
1 6. tu-^-d-ere
(tutudi)
tusum
thump, pound
17. curr-ere
cucurri
cursum
run
1 8. fall-ere
fefelli
falsum
deceive
19. pell-ere
pepuli
pulsum
drive
20. (-cell-ere)
(ceculi)
(-culsum)
push
2) Verbs with Present-stem strengthened in Perfect.
(S-) | -turn :
21. fac-ere (/-o)
feci
factum
make, do
22. iac-ere (/-o)
ieci
iactum
throw
23. li-^-qu-ere
llqui
-lictum
leave
10. Fut. Part, pariturus.
11. The old Perfect tetuli is used by Plaut. and Lucr. Tuli, with dropt reduplication,
is used as the Perfect of fero. See Irregular Verbs, p. 184. Latum, used as Sup.
of fero, is for t-latum from Sk. tut, Gr. rXa-, L. tol-, lift, endure. The Cpp.
of fero are : (ante circum de per prae pro re trans)-fero -tuli -latum ; afifero
attuli allatum ; aufero abstuli ablatum ; confero contuli collatum ; differo
distuli dilatum ; effero extuli elatum ; infero intuli illatum ; offero obtuli obla-
tum ; suffero sustuli sublatum (which two forms are borrowed by tollo).
12. Cp. comparco -parsi -parsum : or with e ; comperco, &c. Curtius compares Gr.
<r-rrapi>oy.
13. Cpp. accfdo, occido, succido -cldi. So (con de ex in inter pro re)-cido : occasum
is the only Sup. Recidi for rececidi.
14. Cpp. accido, occido, succido -cldi -clsum. So (con de ex in prae re)-cldo.
15. Cpp. appendo, impendo -pendi -pensum. So (dis ex per re sus)-pendo.
1 6. Cpp. (con ob re)-tundo -tudi -tusum or tunsum. R. Sk. tud, 'to strike, push,
bruise.'
17. Cpp. (ante circum in inter pro re super)-curro -curri. So succurro. Accurro,
occurro and (con de dis per trans)-curro have -curri or cucurri : ad (ex prae)
-curro prefer -cucurri. All have -cursum. Probable R. Pr. karsh, ' draw. '
Cecurri is found.
18. Cp. refello, refelli; no Sup. R. Sk. sphal, Gr. o--<faAAw (sphal-yo), make to
fall.
19. Cpp. (com de dis ex per pro re)-pello -puli -pulsum. So appello, impello. As-
pello, no Perf. or Sup. Reppuli for repepuli.
20. (Cello ceculi) are not used. Cp. percello, perculi, perculsum, to thrill. R. Sk.
kal, 'to push/
21. Cpp. (con de in inter per prae pro re)-f!cio -feci -fectum ; so afficio, officio, suf-
ficio : but (satis bene male)-facio -feci -factum. Facio is compounded with
many verbal elements : (are assue cale collabe commone labe lique made
mansue pate putre stupe obstupe tabe tepe treme tume)-facio -feci -factum,
together with many more ; the passive forms of which are similar com-
pounds of fio.
22. Cpp. (ab ad con de dis e in ob pro re sub tra)-icio -ieci -iectum. See Munro on
Lucr. ii. 951 ; Curt. 403.
S3. The Supine is only found in the Cpp. (re dere>linquo -liqui -lictum. R. Sk. nV,
Gr. AITT-.
218
Latin Wordlore.
53-
24. vi-;z-cere
vici
victum
conquer
25. ag-ere
egi
actum
do
26. fra-^-g-ere
fregi
fractum
break
27. leg-ere
legi (lexi)
lectum
read, choose
28. cap-ere (2-0)
cepi
captum
take
29. ru-7/z-p-ere
rupi
ruptum
break
30. em-ere
emi
emptum
buy, take
31. scab-ere
scabi
scratch
(S-) | -sum :
32. ed-ere
edi
esum
eat
33. fbd-ere (o)
fodi
fossum
dig
34. fu-^-d-ere
ffidi
fusum
pour
Exceptions :
(S-) | 1-tum :
35. fug-ere (o)
fugl
fugitum
fly
(S) | -1-tum :
36. bib-ere
bibi
bibitum
drink
(S) | -turn :
37. Icere
(Tci)
ictum
strike
Lost Redupl. | -
sum :
38. fi-;/-d-ere
ftdi
fissum
cleave
39. sci-;/-d-ere
soldi
scissum
cut
(S.) | -sum :
40. vert-ere
verti
versum
turn
41. -cend-ere
-cendi
-censum
set alight
34. Cpp. (con de e per re)-vinco.
25. Cpp. (circum per)-ago -egi -actum ; (ab ad ex red sub trans transad)-igo -egi
-actum ; coigo=cogo, coegi, coactum ; deigo=dego degi, prodigo prodegi, no
Sup. ; ambigo, no Perf. or Sup. ; satago sategi, no Sup. R. Sk. aj, Gr. ay-.
26. Cpp. confringo, effringo ; (de in per prae re)-fringo -fregi -fractum. Gr. fpay-.
27. Lego, read, Cpp. (per prae re)-lego -legi -lectum. Lego, choose : sub-lego -legi
-lectum, (col de e se)-ligo -legi -lectum ; intellego, neg-lego, -lexi -lectum ; and
di-Kgo -lexi -lectum. Gr. Ae-y-.
28. Cpp. (con de ex in inter per prae re sus)-cipio -cepi -qeptum. So accipio.
But antecapio. See p. jgo. Note.
29. Cpp. corrumpo, irrumpo ; (di e inter per pro)-rumpo. R. Sk. lup, ' to tear.'
30. Cpp. (ad dir ex red)-imo -emi -emptum ; coemo, (inter per)-emo. The rest (como,
demo, promo, sumo) form -psi -ptum. Emo seems, in some of its uses, to be the
Causal of eo. Compare intereo with interemo ; pereo with peremo.
32. Cpp. (ad com ex per)-edo -edi -esum. See IRREGULAR VERBS, p. 189.
33- Cpp. (con de in per)-fodio. Also effodio.
34. Cpp. (con de in per pro re)-fundo. Also affundo, effundo, offundo, suffundo ; Gr.
^v-, with nasalised suff. d : pointing to a lost root ghu.
35- Cpp. aufugio, diffugio, effugio : (con per pro re trans)-fugio. R. Sk. bhuj, Gr.
ivy-.
36. Cpp. combibo, ebibo, imbibo. R. Sk. pa, Gr. TTO-, Present-stem redupl. ; thfr
p being softened to to.
38. Cp. dif-findo.
39. Cpp. (ab di ex re>scindo. R. Sk. c'hid.
40. Cpp. (a ad con de di e in ob per prae re sub)-verto. R. Pr. vart.
41. Cpp. accendo, incendo, succendo -cendi -censum.
53-
Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs.
42. cud-ere
cudi
ciisum
hammer
43. -fend-ere
-fendi
-fensum
strike
44. mand-ere
mandi
mansum
chew
45. pand-ere
46. prehend-ere
pandi
prehendi
pansum
prehensum
spread
take, grasp
47. scand-ere
scandi
scansum
climb
48. sid-ere
sldi
settle
49. lamb-ere
Iambi
lick
50. verr-ere
verri
versum
sweep
51. vell-ere '
jvelli >
1 vulsi >
vulsum
rend, pluck
52. psall-ere
psalli
play (chords}
53. vls-ere
vlsi
visum
msit
54. f idere
fisus sum
trust
3) Verbs with agglutinated Perfect- stem in -ul or -vi.
a. -ui I -turn :
55. compesc-ere
56. rap-ere (z'-o)
57. dl-ere
58. col-ere
59. consul-ere
60. occul-ere
61. ser-ere
62. pins-ere
compescui
rapui
alui
colui
consului
occului
serui
pinsui
raptum
altum
cultum
consultum
occultum
sertum
pistum
restrain
seize
nourish
till
constilt
hide
set in row
pound
42.
43-
49.
SO-
51-
53-
54-
55-
56.
57-
58.
59-
60.
61.
62.
Cpp. (ex in pro)-cudo -cudi -cusum. Hence incus incud-, anvil.
Cpp. (de of)-fendo. Hence infensus, infestus, manifestus (for -fendtus). Sk.
han (Pr. dhan?), Gr. 0ev-.
Cpp. (dis ex prae)-pando -pandi -pansum or passum.
Also prend-ere, prendi, prensum. Cpp. apprehendo (com de re)-prehendo or
-prendo, &c. Gr. x a ^- x av $ LV(0 '
Cpp. (ad con de in tran)-scendo -scendi -scensum. R. Sk. skand.
See sed-ere, of which sidere is a variant form. Cpp. (ad con in re sub)-sido
-sidi.
Latin root lab-.
Cp, everro. See Corss. Kr. B. 403.
Cpp. (con di per re)-velli -vulsum : (a e)-velli er -vulsi -vulsum. See Corss.
Kr. B. 325.
From Sup. of video. Cpp. (in re)-viso.
Cpp. (con dif)-fido, of which the Perfects (con dif )-fldi are in use as well as (con-
dif)-fisus sum.
For comperc-sc-ere.
Cpp. (ab de di e)-ripio -ripui -reptum. So arripio, corripio, surripio. Pott and
Corssen take rap to be the original form of Sk. hip, ' to tear/ also shewn in
ru-m-pere.
Al, ol, is the root of growth=Pr. ar: shewn in al-ere al-tus, olescere, and nume-
rous words. Inch, co-al-esco -ui -itum, -unite, curdle. See Curt. 359.
Cpp. (ex in re)-colo. See accolo. R. Pr. kar y 'make.' ,
Corssen (Nachtr. 280) agrees with Mommsen in adopting Pr. sar, 'move/ L. sal-,
as the root of con-sul-ere, exsul, praesul, &c. He gives consulere a sense = con-
venire, and makes consul (for consul-us) its derivative.
Occulo, celare, cella, clam, and Gr. KaAuTTTw (/CPUTTTW) KaAt'a, are evidently cog-
nate and point to a common Pr. kal, ' hide/ which appears in Sk. as ML
Curtius compares also clepere and color.
Cpp. (con de dis ex in)-sero. So assero. Gr. etpw. See Curt. 355.
Sometimes pisere, pisi. R. Sk. pish, 'crush.'
220
Latin Wordlore.
53-
63. tcx-ere
64. deps-ere
-ui I i-tum :
texui
depsui
textum
65. elic-ere (z-o)
elicui
elicitum
66. stert-ere
stertui
67. strep-ere
strepui
strepitum
68. cu;b-ere
cubui
cubitum
69. frem-ere
fremui
fremitum
70. gem-ere
gemui
gemitum
71. trem-ere
tremui
72. vom-ere
vomui
vomitum
73- gign-ere
genui
genitum
74. pon-ere
posui
positum
75. mol-ere
molui
molitum
76. velle (volo)
volui
77. nolle (nolo)
nolui
78. malle (malo)
malui
-ui | -sum :
79. met-ere
messui
messum
80. frewd-ere
fre^dui
fressum
81. (-cell-ere)
(-cellui)
(-celsum)
weave
kneadj tan
tice forth
snore
rattle
lie down
roar
groan
tremble
vomit
place
grind
wish
wish not
wish rather
mow, reap
gnash, bruise
push
b. -vi | -tuna :
These include the Verbs, before noticed, in which the Present
Stem is so modified as to become consonantal : while the True
Stem, which is pure, is shown in the Perfect and Supine forms.
a. 82. Ite-ere
83. ste-ere
84. cerw-ere
levi
slvi
crevi
Iftum
sftum
cretum
smear
allow
sift
63. Cpp. (con in ob per prae re sub)-texo. R. Sk. taksh (for Pr. tak), ' fashion.' Gr.
TCUX--
64. Gr. 6e'<o).
65. See lacere.
67. Cpp. (ob per)-strepo.
68. Cpp. (con de dis in pro re)-cumbo. See cubare.
69. Cp. infremo. R. Sk. bhram, Gr. /3pe/x-o>.
70. Cpp. (con in)-gemo. Inchoative : gemisca Cpp. (con in)-gemisco, gemui.
71. Inchoative tremisco. Cpp. (con in)-tremisco, tremui. R. Sk. tras, Gr. rpe-.
Suff. m.
72. Cpp. (e re)-vomo. R. Sk. vam, Gr. f e/x-e-.
73- Cp. progigno. Redupl. of gen-. Sk. fan, Gr. yei/-. Geno is found in old
Latin.
74. Cpp. (ante com de dis ex inter post prae pro re se trans)-pono. See p. 195.
75. Cp. permolo. Gr. /muA-, L. mola, a mill. Hence malt ?
76-78. See Irregular Verbs, p. 186.
79. Cp. demeto. (Sk. ma, 'measure'?)'
80. The Sup. shews the nasalisation of Pres. St. See frendere.
81. Cpp. (ante ex prae)-cello cellui. Hence the Adjectives celsus, excelsus, praecel-
sus. R. Sk. kal, 'push/ shewn also in procul, procella, culter, celer, /ce'AAw,
/3ov<coAos, and others. See 20.
82. Cpp. (per ob sub)-lino -levi -Htum. Also collmo, illmo. Another form is linire.
R. Sk. It.
83. Cp. desino, (desivi) desii, also desitus sum.
84. Cpp. (de dis ex se>cerno. R. Gr. *pt-. Hence L. cribrum, sieve.
53-
Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs.
221
85. sper;2-ere
sprevi
spretum
spurn
86. stera-ere
stravi
stratum
strew
87. ser-ere
sevi
satum
sow
88. cre^-ere
crevi
cretum
grow
89. quieyr-ere
quievi
quietum
rest
90. suejr-ere
suevi
suetum
be wont
91. (g)no^-ere
(g)novi
(g)notum
know
92. pasr-ere
pavi
pastum
feed
/3. 93. cup-ere (z-o)
cuplvi
cupltum
desire
94. pet-ere
petivi
petltum
demand
95. quaer-ere
quaeslvi
quaesltum
seek
96. rud-ere
rudlvi
rudltum
bray
97. sap-ere (2-0)
saplvi
savour
98. ter-ere
trivi
tritum
rub, bruise
y. 99. arcess-ere
arcessivi
arcessitum
fetch
100. incess-ere
incessivi
incessltum
attack
101. capess-ere
capessivi
capessltum
take in hand
102. facess-ere
facessivi
facessitum
cause
103. lacess-ere
lacesslvi
lacessltum
provoke
4) Verbs forming Perfect- Stem with agglutinated -s (for es-).
a. Guttural Stems :
-si | -turn :
104. dlc-ere
105. duc-ere
1 06. -lac-ere (z-o)
dixi
duxi
-lexi
dictum
ductum
-lectum
say
lead
entice
85. Spernere, properly * to kick.' Curt. 289.
86. Cpp. (in pro)-sterno. R. Pr. star, Gr. <rrop-.
87. Cpp. (con in)-sero -sevi -situm.
88. Cpp. (con de ex in)-cresco. Also accresco, succresco. Cresco is Inchoative of
creo, Sk. fa-t, 'make.'
89. Cpp. acquiesce, (con re)-quiesco. Sk. s'i, Gr. icet-.
90. Cpp. assuesco, (con de in)-suesco. Sk. svadh&, 'self-will.' R. sva, 'self.'
91. Nosco has dropt g" which reappears in agnosco, agnovi, agmtum ; cognosce, cog-
novi, cogmtum ; ignosco, ignovi : Adj. ignotus. Dignosco, internosco have no
Sup. This Verb, with potum, potus, are the only remnants of a Latin O-verb.
Sk. jnd, Gr. yvo-.
92. Cp. depasco.
93. Cupiret, Lucr.
94. Cpp. (com ex re)-peto. So appeto, oppeto. Curtius refers to Sk. pat, Gr. TTCT-,
fly.
95. For quaesere or quaesire. Cpp. (con dis ex in per re)-quiro -qulsivi -quisltum.
So perquiro, conquiro.
96. Sk. ru, rud ; Gr. wpvco. Persius has rudere : but rudens, cable.
97. Or sapui. Cp. desipio -ui. Inchoative resipisco -sipui, grow wise again. This
word, compared with sucus, shews labialisrn, as lupus, popina, &c.
98. Cpp. (de con pro)-tero -trivi -tritum. Also attero. Perf. terivi and terui are
found. Connected with Gr. retpw, repiji'. L. tener.
99-103. These Verbs are formed with a suffix ess- which expresses eager action.
Arcess- is for acci-ess-, and is sometimes written accers- : incess- for inci-ess- :
both from root ci, rouse : capess- from cap- : facess- from fac- : lacess- from lac-
Perfect and Supine shew that the Present-Stem was originally -io. Perfects
incessi, facessi, lacessi, are cited.
104. Cpp. (ad bene contra e in inter male prae vale)-dico. R. Sk. dis', Gr. SeiK-.
105. Cpp. (ab ad circum con de di e in intro ob per pro re se sub tra)-duco.
106. Cpp. al-licio, il-licio, pel-licio, pro-licio -lexi -lectum ; but elicio, elicui, elicitum.
222
Latin Word lore.
153-
107. -spec-ere (z-o)
-spexi
-spectum
espy
1 08. coqu-ere
coxi
coctum
cook
109. cing-ere
cinxi
cinctum
surround
no. fi;/g-ere
fi;/xi
fictum
fashion
in. -fllg-ere
-flixi
-flictum
smite
112. frig-ere
frixi
frictum
roast, fry
113. iung-ere
iunxi
iunctum
join
114. ling-ere
-linxi
-linctum
lick
115. mung-ere
-munxi
-munctum
wipe
1 1 6. pi#g-ere
pi/zxi
pictum
paint
117. plang-ere
planxi
planctum
beat
1 1 8. reg-ere
rexi
rectum
ride
119. stri;/g-ere
striwxi
strictum
bind
120. sug-ere
suxi
suctum
suck
121. teg-ere
texi
tectum
cover
122. -stingu-ere
-stinxi
-stinctum
123. tingu-ere
tinxi
tinctum
stain
124. ungu-ere
unxi
unctum
anoint
125. ningu-ere
ninxi
snow
126. ang-ere
(anxi)
squeeze
127. clang-ere
rattle
128. trah-ere
traxi
tractum
draw
129. veh-ere
vexi
vectum
carry
130. vlv-ere
vixi
victum
live
131. stru-ere
struxi
structum
pile
107. Cpp. (circum con de di in per pro re)-spicio -spexi -spectum. So aspicio, suspicio.
R. Sk. spas', Gr. a*-.
108. Cpp. (con de in per)-coquo. R. Sk. pac,' , Gr. weir-. See p. 59.
109. Cpp. (dis prae re)-cingo. So accingo, succingo.
no. Cpp. affingo, effingo, re-fingo, Gr. 0iy-.
in. Cpp. (con in)-fligo, affligo. Profligare, rout, is of Conj. i.
112. R. Sk. bhrajj, Gr. <fpvy-.
113. Cpp. (ad con dis in se sub)-iungo. R. Sk. yuj, Gr. vy-.
114. Cp. pol-lingo, anoint (a corpse), pollinxi, pollinctum. Sk. rib QIC lih t Gr. Aet*-.
115. Cp. emungo, wipe the nose, clean out. R. Sk. JHUC'.
116. Cpp. appingo, depingo. See pungere. R. Sk. pinj.
117. Gr. TrArj-y-. L. plaga.
118. Cpp. amgo, conTgo, dingo ; (e por)-rigo -rexi -rectum. Also pergo, perrexi, per-
rectum ; surgo, rise, surrexi, surrectum, with its compounds : (as con ex in
re)-surgo -surrexi -surrectum. R. Gr. opey-.
119. Cpp. astringo, (con de di ob per prae re sub)-stringo. From praestringere comes
praestigiae, juggleries (for praestrigiae). Gr. orpayy-.
120. Cp. exsugo.
121. Cpp. (con de ob pro re)-tego. Latin has dropt s. R. Sk. stliag, Gr. arey-.
122. Stinguo has the sense of pricking and also of quenching. Cpp. : (i) (di in)-
stinguo ; (2) (ex re)-stinguo. Gr. (TTI^W.
123. Gr. reyyo).
124. Cpp. (in per)-unguo. Tinguo, unguo maybe written tingo, ungo.
125. A primitive s-nih- must be assumed, from which, by casting off s and nasalizing,
comes the fbrm ningu-, and again nix, nivis, &c. Gr. vfyto. Hence Germ,
schnee, Eng. snow. R. Sk. snu.
126. R. Sk. anj, Gr. ay^-.
128. Cpp. attraho ; (con de dis ex per pro re sub)-traho.
129. Cpp. (a ad circum con de e in praeter re sub)-veho. R. Sk. -vah, Gr. f o\e-.
130. Prim, gviv, Sk. j'tzf, whence vigv-, the True Stem of vivo, which drops the second
V in Perf. and Sup. Corssen, B. 72. Inchoative : reviv-isc-o, revixi, re-
victum.
131. See Corssen, B. 72. Cpp. (ad con de ex in ob sub)-struo -struxi -structum.
53-
Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 223
-si j -sum :
a. 132. flg-ere
fixi
fixum
fa
133. flu-ere
fluxi
fluxum
flow
.& 134. merg-ere
mersi
mersum
drown
135. sparg-ere
sparsi
sparsum
sprinkle
136. terg-ere
tersi
tersum
wipe
Tx Dental Stems :
-si | -sum :
137. flect-ere
flexi
flexum
bend
138. nect-ere
| nexi .l
< nexui >
nexum
twine
139. pect-ere
pexi
pexum
comb
140. plect-ere
-plexum
(plait
\ smite
141. mitt-ere
misi
missum
send
142. quat-ere (2-0)
quassum
shake
143. ced-ere
cessi
cessum
yield
144. claud-ere
clausi
clausum
shut
145. divid-ere
divlsi
divisum
divide
146. laed-ere
laesi
laesum
hurt
147. lud-ere
lusi
lusum
play
148. plaud-ere
plausi
plausum
clap hands
149. rad-ere
rasi
rasum
shave
150. rod-ere
rosi
rosum
gnaw
151. trud-ere
trusi
trusum
thrust
152. vad-ere
-vasi
-vasum
go
132. Cpp. affigo, suffigo ; con- de- in- prae- re- trans-figo.
133. Enlarged forms flug- and flugv- account for the Perfect fluxi and for flu-v-ius.
Cpp. (circum con de dif ef in per prae praeter pro re)-fluo -fluxi -fluxum. Also
affluo, diffluo, effluo. The noun fluctus points to an older Sup. in -turn.
134. Cpp. immergo ; (de e sub)-mergo.
135. Cpp. conspergo, dispergo ; (ad in re)-spergo -spersi -spersum. In old L. these
keep a.
136. For stergere. So C. and Meyer. Compare s-trigilis, flesh-scraper. See ter-
gere.
137. This and the next three are Guttural Verbs, strengthened by a suffix t : but, as
t falls out before S, and also influences the Supine, they may be treated
as Dental Verbs. Cpp. (circum de in re)-flecto.
138. Cpp. (ad con in sub)-necto -nexui -nexum. See meto.
139. Cp. depecto depexi depexum.
140. Gr. n-Ae/c-.
141. Cpp. dimitto, immitto, omitto ; (a ad com de e inter per prae praeter pro re sub
trans)-mitto -misi -missum.
142. Cpp. (con dis ex in per)-cutio -cussi -cussum. So repercutio.
143. Cpp. (abs ante con de dis ex in inter prae pro re se)-cedo. So accedo, succedo.
144. Cpp. (con dis ex in inter prae re se)-clu<lo -clusi -clusum. So occludo, Gr.
K\L<0.
146. Cpp. allldo, collide, elTdo, il-lldo -lisi -lisum.
147. Cpp. alludo, colludo, illudo, (de e) -ludo -lusi -lusum.
,148. Cpp. applaudo -plausi - plausum, (ex sup)-plodo -plosi -plosum.
149. Cpp. (ab e)-rado. So corrado. R. Sk. rad.
150. Cpp. (de prae>rodo. So arrodo, corrodo. Sk. rad.
151. Cpp. (abs de ex in ob pro)-trudo.
152. Cpp. (e in per)-vado.
224
Latin
Wordlore.
ISS
c. Labial Stems :
-si | -turn :
153. carp-ere
carpsi
carp turn
pluck
154. clep-ere
clepsi
cleptum
steal
,rep-ere
repsi
reptum
creep
" Iserp-ere
serpsi
crawl
f- ( scalp-ere
I5 ' Isculp-e're
scalpsi
sculpsi
scalptum
sculptum
scratch
grave
157. glub-ere
glupsi
gluptum
peel
158. nub-ere
nupsi
nuptum
wed
159. scrlb-ere
scripsi
scriptum
write
d. Nasal Stems :
-si | -turn :
1 60. com-ere
compsi
comptum
dress hair
1 6 1. dem-ere
dempsi
demptum
take away
162. prom-ere
prompsi
promptum
take forth
163. sum-ere
sumpsi
sumptum
take up
164. temn-ere
tempsi
temptum
despise
-si | -sum :
165. prem-ere
pressi
pressum
press
e. Liquid (Sibilant)
Stems :
-si | -turn :
-
1 66. ger-ere
gessi
gestum
carry on
167. ur-ere
ussi
ustum
burn
II. U-verbs :
-ui | -utum :
1 68. acu-ere
acui
acutum
sharpen
169. argu-ere
argui
argutum
prove
153- Cpp. (con de dis ex)-cerpo -cerpsi -cerptum.
154. Gr. KAe7rra>.
155. Cpp. (ad ob per sub)-repo. Correpo, irrepo. Serpsi is not found in Classical
Latin. R. Pr. sarp.
156. Cpp. (ex in)-sculpo.
157. Gr. y\v<fn0.
158. Nubo is classically applied to the woman only, except in a" jocular sense : as
Martial viii. 12 : 'uxori nubere nolo meae.' It has Perf. nupta sum as well as
nupsi. That the verb is originally transitive, meaning to veil or cover, is shewn
by various passages and by the Compound obnubo. Hence the bride who covers
herself with the flammeum is said nubere (se).
159. Cpp. (ad circum con de ex in per prae pro re sub tran)-scribo.
160-163 are Cpp. of emo, take, but differing from it in the Perfect. Cpp. of promo :
(de ex>promo -prompsi -promptum. Cpp. of sumo : (ab as con de in re)-
sumo -sumpsi -sumptum.
164. Cp. contemno contempsi contemptum.
165. Cpp. imprlmo, supprimo ; (com de ex op re)-primo -pressi -pressum.
166. Cpp. (con di e in)-gero. So aggero, suggero.
167. Cpp. (ad ex in per)-uro. Corssen (Kr. Nachtrdge, 117) derives amburo r
com-buro -bussi -bustum, together with the Noun bustum, from Sk. prush,
plush, ' to burn. '
1 68. Cp. exacuo, exacui. On the original long quantity of U in U-verbs, see p. 18.
169. Cp. redargue. Sk. arjuna-s, clear, Gr. apyds.
53- Syllabus of Stem- Formation in Verbs. 225
170. exu-ere exui
exutum
put off
171. indu-ere indui
indutum
put on
172. imbu-ere imbui
imbutum
tinge
173. lu-ere lui
lutum
wash, atone
174. minu-ere minui
minutum
lessen
175. nu-ere nui
nutum
nod
176. spu-ere spui
sputum
spit
177. statu-ere statui
statutum
set up
178. sternu-ere sternui sternutum
sneeze
179. su-ere sui
sutum
sew
1 80. tribu-ere tribui
tributum
assign, pay
181. solv-ere solvi
solutum
loose, pay
182. volv-ere volvi
volutum
roll
-ul | -iitum :
183. ru-ere rui
rutum (ruftum)
184. batu-ere batui
beat
185. -gru-ere -grui
1 86. metu-ere metui
fear
187. plu-ere plui
rain
Deponent Verbs in Conj.
3:
o. 1 88. fung-i
functus
perform
189. mt-i
nisus (nixus)
strive
190. plect-i
-plexus
twine
191. pat-i (/-or)
passus
suffer
192. uti
usus
use
193. grad-i (/-or)
gressus
step
170-1. Latin -uo in these Verbs corresponds to Gr. Svw. Curt. 621. But see Corss.
Beitr. 496. Hence ind-uviae, ex-uviae.
172. Corssen considers bu in imbuo a weakened form of pa po- t ' to drink.'
273. Cpp. (ab di e per pol pro sub)-luo -lui -lutum. Fut. Part, luiturus. Luo is the
weak form which appears strengthened in Gr. Aov'o- and L. lav-ere, lavare
(see A-verbs). Curt. 370. See solvere.
174. Cpp. (com de di im)-minuo. R. Sk. mi, Gr. JAI-V-.
175. Cpp. (ab an in re)-nuo. Gr. vevw.
176. Cpp. (con de ex re)-spuo -spui. Gr. TTTV'W, hence p-i-tulta for s-pitulta.
177. From status. Cpp. (con de in pro re subVstituo -stitui -stitutum.
179. Cpp. (as con dis rc)-suo. R. Sk. siv.
180. From tribus, tribe : Root tri, three. Applied first to the state-payments of the
three original Tribes at Rome. Cpp. (con dis re)-tribuo. So attribuo.
181. Cpp. (ab dis ex per re)-solvo. For se-luere, from a verb lu-, I00se=Sk. Id, Gr.
Av-, but not otherwise shewn in L.
182. Cpp. (ad circum con de e in ob per pro re)-volvo. Gr. f eAv'a>.
183. Cpp. (di e ob pro sub)-ruo -rui -rutum. So corruo, irruo. Fut. Part, rui-
turus.
185. Cpp. (con in)-gruo.
186. Metutum appears in Lucr. v. 1139.
187. Cp. depluo.
(The word delibutus, steeled, belongs to a disused Verb delibuo.)
188. Cpp. (de per)-fungor.
189. Cpp. (ad con e in ob re sub)-nitor -nixus. For g-nitor. R. Sk, jdnu, Gr. yovv,
knee.
190. See pie ct ere. Cpp. amplector, complector, embrace.
191. Cp. perpetior, perpessus.
192. In old Latin the form oitier appears. Cp. abutor abusus.
193. Cpp. aggredior (con de di e in prae pro re trans)-gredior -gressus.
226
Latin Wordlore.
53-
194. lab-i
lapsus
glide, fall
195. mor-i (/-or)
mortuus
die
196. quer-i
questus
complain
197. fru-i
fruitus
enjoy
198. 16qu-i
locutus
speak
199. sequ-i
secutus
follow
(3. 200. apisc-i
aptus
obtain
201. -menisc-i
-mentus
have in mind
202. expergisc-i
203. fatisc-i
experrectus
fessus
wake lip
be weary
204. (g)nasc-i
(g)natus
be born
205. irasc-i
iratus
be angry
206. nancisc-i
nactus
find
207. oblivisc-i
oblltus
forget
208. pacisc-i
pactus
bargain
209. proficisc-i
profectus
set out
194. Cpp. (de di e praeter pro sub re)-labor -lapsus. So allabor, collabor, illabor.
195. Cpp. (de e>morior -mortuus. Fut. Part, moriturus. So immorior. R. Sk,
mar. Mortuus is an Adj. used participially.
196. Cp. conqueror conquestus.
197. For frugv-i, henee fructus ; but Fut. Part, fruiturus. Cp. perfruor perfruitus.
198. Cpp. (e ob pro)-loquor -locutus. So alloquor, colloquor.
199. Cpp. (con ex in ob per pro sub)-sequor -secutus. R. Sk. sac*, Gr. en--.
200. Cpp. (ad ind)-ipiscor -eptus. R. Sk. dp.
201. Cpp. comminiscor commentus ; reminiscor, no Part. R. Sk. man.
202. The Cp. expergisci experrectus is evidently weakened from exporgisci expor^
rectus : from exporrigi, to stretch oneself out (on awakening). See rego.
203. Cp. defetiscor defessus.
204. Cp. (con e in)-nascor -natus, Fut Part, nasciturus. Observe cognatus, prog-
natus. See gignere, 73.
206. Nanctus is also used : and nanciam is cited as an old form.
207. From liv-ere, to be of a dark colour ; hence oblivisci, to become darkened, tff
forget. So Corssen, Nachtr., 34.
ao8. See pan go. Cpp. (com de)-paciscor or -peciscor. R. Sk. pas 1 .
209. From pro fac- (make forward).
(Inchoative Verbs derived from other Verbs have been mentioned in the Notes to the
Syllabus.)
A) Inchoatives derived from Nouns are very numerous : examples are
i) Having a Perfect, but no Supine.
From resper
creber
crudus
durus
macer
maturms
mutus
niger
notus
surdus
vanus
- vii*
vesperasco
advesperasco
vesperavi
advesperavi
\grow towards
\ evening
invesperasco
invesperavi
crebresco
crebui
\
increbresco
incrcbui
\ become frequent
percrebresco
percrebui
)
recrudesco
recrudui
become sore again
duresco \
durui
1
induresco f
indurui
r grow hard
obduresco '
obdurui
)
macresco
macrui
grow lean
maturesco
maturui
become npe
obmutesco
obmutui
become mute
nigresco
nigrui
become black
innotesco
innotui
become known
obsurdesco
obsurdui
become deaf
vanesco
evanesco
vanui
evanui
\ vanish away
vilesco
evilesco
vilui
evilui
\ become cheap
53-
Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 227
210. ulcisc-i
ultus
avenge
211. vesc-i
feed
y. 212. llqu-i
melt
213. ring-i
grin
2) Without Perfect or Supine :
puerasco (re)
ignesco
integrasco
arboresco
ditesco
dulcesco
grandesco
puer
ignis
integer
arbor
dives
dulcis
grandis
gravis
niger
gravesco (in)
nigresco
curvus
iuvenis
tnitis
mollis
pinguis
pluma
sterilis
tener
lentus
incurvesco
iuvenesco (re)
mitesco
mollesco
pingueseo
plumesco
sterilesco
tener-esco -asco (in)
lentesco
fatisco(Gr. \a-\f all open, &c.
3) Some are of uncertain origin :
glisco, increase
Conquinisco, conquexi, stoop, is an old and remarkable Inchoative Verb.
Obs. Other Verbs of Conj. 3. without Perfect and Supine are :
ambigo, doubt ; clango ; furo, rage ; plecto, strike.
B) Homonymous words are such as are written alike, though differing in sense and
generally in origin.
i) Verbs having the same First Person Present Ind. in different Conjugations.
Conj. i.
Conj. 3.
Conj. i.
Conj.
3-
appello
call
appello
land
fundo
found
fundo
Pour
compello
address
compello
compel
mando
entrust
mando
chew
colligo
bind
colligo
collect
obsero
bolt
obsero
sow over
consterno
alarm
consterno
strew
volo
fly
volo
wish
effero
make wild
effero
bear out
With difference of Quantity :
Conj. i. Conj. 3. Conj. i. Conj. 3.
colo strain colo till educo train educo lead out
dlco dedicate dico say lego bequeath lego read, &c.
indico point out indlco proclaim with Compounds,
praedtco declare praedico foretell
2) The same form of Perfect :
acesco, 3.
cerno, 3.
frigeo, 2.
fulgeo, 2.
luceo, 2.
mulceo, 2.
paveo, 2.
3) The same form of Supine :
cerno, 3.
pando, 3.
pango, 3.
teneo, 2.
verro, 3.
video, 2.
vivo, 3.
sift
spread
fasten
hold
sweep
see
live
cresco, 3.
patior, 3.
paciscor, 3.
tendo, 3.
verto, 3.
viso, 3.
vinco, 3.
grow
suffer
bargain
stretch
turn
visit
conquer
Perfect.
grow sour
acuo, 3.
sharpen
acui
sift
cresoo, 3.
grow
crevi
am cold
frigo, 3.
roast
frixi
glitter
fulcio, 4.
prop
fulsi
shine
lugeo, 2.
mourn
luxi
soothe
mulgeo, 2.
milk
mulsi
dread
pasco, 3.
feed
pavi
Supine^
cretum
passum
pactum
tentum
versum
visum
victum
228 Latin Wordlore. 54-55.
CHAPTER IV.
PARTICLES.
tides. There is a close intimacy between the four classes of
Particles. Prepositions are Adverbs used with Noun-
cases, and many can be used without case, as mere Ad-
verbs. On the other hand, some Adverbs (as procul,
simul) can take cases. Many Pronominal Particles are
Adverbs when interrogative, but Conjunctions when re-
lative. Interjections are Adverbs hanging loose on the
sentence : and some resemble Prepositions by taking a
Noun-case.
SECTION I.
Ad 55 Adverbs. 1
i. The relations expressed by A DVERBS are Place; Time;
Number ; Order ; Manner ; Degree ; Cause ; Quality. Some Ad-
verbs (which maybe called Logical) are used for questioning, deny-
ing, affirming, or otherwise modifying the form of discourse.
ii. Interrogative Adverbs refer to
I. Place :
1. ubi ? where ? 4. qua ? by which way ?
2. quo? whither f quatenus? how far?
3. quorsum ? whitherward f
(* The following List contains most of the Pronominal and Primitive Adverbs, with
samples of the large classes derived from Nouns and Verbs.
The Dual Adverbs derived from uter have an asterisk.)
I. Adverbs of Place :
1. Adverbs corresponding to the questions Ubi? ubinam? Where ? *Utrubi? In 'which
/KV (of two) ?
ibi, illic, istic, there ; hie, here ; hie illic, here and there ; inibi, therein ; ibidem,
in the same place ; alibi, elsewhere ; alicubi, somewhere ; -ubi, uspiam, any-
where ; usquam, anywhere at all \ ubiubi, ubicumque, wheresoever ; ubivis,
ubilibet, where you will', *utrulibet, in eitJter place ; *utrubique, in both. places ;
*neutrubi, in neither place ; ubique, usquequaque, everywhere:, nusquam, no-
where ; prope, near ; procul, aloof, afar ; ante, prae, in front ; post, pone, be-
hind ; circa, circum, aroiind ; cis, citra, on this side ; ultra, beyond ; contra, over
against ; iuxta, iuxtim, adjoining ; intra, within ; extra, without ; super, above ;
subter, beneath ; supra, above ; infra, below ; superne, above ; inferne, below ; pas-
sim, here and there, everywhere ; foris, abroad ; peregre, in foreign parts ;
praesto, at hand ; ruri, in the country ; domi, at home ; humi, on the ground ;
belli, militiae, at the wars ; comminus, close at hand ; eminus, at a distance.
2. Adverbs corresponding to the question Unde ? Whence ?
inde, illim, illinc, istim, istinc, thence ; hinc, hence ; hinc inde, hinc illinc, from this
side and that ; indidem,./Vw;z same place ; aliunde,y>w another place ; alicunde,
front some place ; -unde,/>w any place ; undeunde, undecumque, from whatever
place ; undevis, undelibet, whence you will; undique,/r<wz all sides; *utriinque,
from both sides ; domo, from home ; rure, from the country ; intus, intrinsecus,
from within, within ; extrinsecus, wit/tout ; altrinsecus,y>vz one or other side :
55. Adverbs. 229
II. Time :
1. quando ? when ? 3. quousque ? to what limit ?
2. quamdiu ? how long ? quoad ? until when ?
Also quam dudum ? quam pridem ? how long ago ?
desuper, from above ; subtus, from beneath ; caelitus, from heaven. ; divinitus,
from the deity ; penitus, from far within ; funditus, from the base ; radicitus,
stirpitus,./r*wz the roots. (These last four words may mean utterly.)
3. Adverbs corresponding to the questions Quo? quonam? Whither 9 . *Utro? To -which
place (of two)?
eo, illuc, illo, istuc, isto, thither; hue, hither; hue illuc, hither and thitJier ;
eodem, to the same place ; alio, to another place ; aliquo, somewhither; -quo, quo-
piam, anywhither ; quoquam, anywhither at all ; nequoquam, nowhither ; quo*
quo, quocumque, whithersoever; quovis, quolibet, whither you will; *utrovis, to
which place yort, wz7/(of two) ; ^utroque, to both places ; *neutro, to neither place ;
citro, to this side; ultro, to yon side, farther ; ultro citroque, to and fro ; intro, to
within ; porro, forward; retro, backward; domum, home ; rus, into the wintry ;
foras, out of doors.
Ultro (root ul-s) properly means to yon side : idiomatically it gains these senses :
going farther, yet farther, without instigation, of free motion.
The questions quoad ? quousque? how far ? are answered by usque, all the way ; eo
usque, that far ; hue, adhuc, hue usque, thitsfar.
4. Adverbs corresponding to the question Quors-um(us) ? Whitherward 1 *
illorsum, istorsum, thitherward ; horsum, hitherward ; aliorsum, to another quar-
ter; aliquors-um(-us), to some quarter; quoquo versus, to whatever quarter;
*utroque versum, to both quarters ; intrors-um(-us), inwards ; sursum, upwards ;
deors-um, downwards ; sursum deorsum, susque deque, up and down ; prors-um
(-us), straightforwards ; rursum prorsum, backwards and forwards ; retrors-um
(-us), rursum(-us), rursum vorsum, backwards ; seors-um(-us), apart ; exadvers-us
(-um), over against ; dextrorsum, to the right ; sinistrors-um, to the left ; pessum,
to ruin ; incassum, to no purpose.
5. Adverbs corresponding to the question Qua? quanam? By which way? in which
direction ?
ea, ilia, iliac, that way ; hac, this way ; eadem, the same way ; alia, another way ;
aliqua, some 'way ; -qua, any way ; quaquam, any way at all ; quadam, a certain
"Way ; quaque, every way ; quaqua, quacumque, whatever way ; quavis, qualibet,
any way you will ; *utravis, *utralibet, either way ; haudquaquam, nequaquam, by
no means ; recta, straight on ; dextra, by the right road ; sinistra, by the left road.
The question Quatenus ? How far ? is answered by
eatenus, that far, so far ; hactenus, thus far ; aliquatenus, to some extent ; qua-
damtenus, to a certain extent ; usquequaque, to the fullest extent.
^ Ob's. The distinctions between the Particles ibi, illic, istic, hie ; inde, illhic, istinc,
hinc ; eo, illuc, istuc, hue, &c. , correspond to the distinctions between their Pronouns is,
ille, iste, hie. In the series of time, nunc corresponds to hie, tune to is.
The Indefinites -ubi -unde -quo -qua -quando belong to the Indefinite Pronoun quis,
qui, being chiefly used with Particles, as si-c-ubi, si-c-unde, siquo, &c., ne-c-ubi, ne-c-
unde, nequando, &c., where ubi, unde, resume the c of the Relative.
Uspiam, quopiam, &c., are used, like quispiam, in affirmative clauses; usquam, quo-
quam, &c., like quisquam, in negative or dubitative clauses.
II. Adverbs of Time :
i. Adverbs answering the question Quando? ecquando? When?
turn, tune, ibi, ibi turn, then ; etiamtum, even then ; nunc, now ; etiamnunc or etiamnum,
even now ; inde, deinde, exinde, dein, exin, thereafter, next ; hinc, abhinc, dehinc,
henceforth, from this time ; alias, at another time ; -quando, at any time ; ali-
quando, at some time ; umquam, ever ; numquam, never ; nonnumquam, sometimes;
numquam non, always ; quandocumque, quandoque, at whatever time ; quondam,
olim, some time or other (formerly or hereafter). lam, now, already ; iam
turn, even then; iamnunc, nunciam, iamiam, et iam, even now; diu, long;
230 Latin Wordlore. 55.
III. Number :
quotiens? how many times ? how often f
IV. Manner : (how f)
quomodo? quemadmodum ? (qui? ut?)
dudum (for diudum), a -while ago ; pridem, at a former time ; iamdiu, iamdu-
dum, iampridem, long ago \ baud dudum, haud pridem, not long ago ; interdum,
now and then ; nondum, hauddum, not yet ; vixdum, hardly yet ; tandem, at
length ; demum, at last ; mox, by and by, soon ; propediem, presently \ protenus,
protinam, forthwith ; interim, interea, meanwhile ; ante, antea, prius, before ;
antehac, antidhac, heretofore ; post, postea, (postidea), after, afterwards ; post-
hac, hereafter; postilla, after that time; postmodo, soon after. Modo, now t
lately, soon ; nuper, newly, lately ; recens, freshly, lately ; denuo, afresh, again \
commodum, just now \ antiquitus, of old ; primitus, from the first \ simul,
at the same time ; semper, usque, usquequaque, always \ perpetuo, continu-
ally ', sero, late ; cito, speedily ; actutum, briskly ; confestim, in a trice ; con-
tinuo, without stop ; extemplo, on the moment ; ilico (in loco), on the spot \
ilicet, straightway ; statim, instantly \ repente, derepente, subito, suddenly ;
quam primum, as soon as possible ; obiter, by the way. Hodie, to-day ; heri,
here, yesterday ; eras, to-morrow ; pridie, the day before ; postridie, the day
after ; perendie, the next day but one ; nudius tertius, the third day back, &c. ;
mane (mani), in the morning \ diluculo, at dawn ; meridie, at noon ; vesperi,
vespere, at ei>en ; interdiu, luci, lucu, in the daytime ; nocti, noctu, in the night-
time. The Abl. brevi, also perbrevi, means either in a short time or in a few
words (brevi dictione).
a) The questions quam dudum ? quam pridem ? how long ago ? are answered by diu ;
dudum ; pridem ; iamdiu ; iamdudum ; iampridem ; haud dudum ; haud pridem ; haud
ita pridem.
2. Adverbs answering the question, Quamdiu ? How long ?
diu, long; percliu, very long; tamdiu, so long; aliquamdiu, some length of time ;
tantisper, so long ; aliquantisper, for some time ; parumper, paulisper, for a
little time ; adhuc, so far, hitherto ; semper, always ; in perpetuum, for ever ;
amplius, longer ; non amplius, haud amplius, non iam, no longer.
The questions quousque, quoad, to what limit of time ? are answered by usque, usque-
quaque, continually ; adhuc, hitherto ; eo usque, so long, &c.
III. Adverbs of Number :
Answering the question, Quotiens? How often?
totiens, so often ; aliquotiens, pluriens, several times ; identidem, repeatedly ; inter-
dum, subinde, now and then ; iterum, a second time ; saepe, saepius, often, ; per-
saepe, saepissime, very often ; plerumque, generally ; crebro, frequently ; raro,
seldom. ; cotidie, indies, daily ; quotannis, annually ; semel, once ; bis, twice ;
ter, thrice, &c. &c. See NUMERALIA.
a) Ordinal Adverbs answering the question Quo ordine ?
primum, first ; primo, in the first place; deinde, in the next place ; turn, then,
afterwards ; denique, finally ; postremo, in the last place ; deinceps, next in
order ; secundo, in the second place ; tertio, in the third place, &c. ; pono,
farther ; insuper, moreover ; necnon, also ; praeterea, besides ; quin, further-
more.
IV. Adverbs of Manner :
Answering the question Quomodo? quomodonam? quemadmodum? qui? ut? How?
adeo, ita, sic, so ; aeque, adaeque, equally, as much ; item, itidem, pariter, perinde,
proinde, similiter, iuxta, in like manner; contra, contrariwise; aliter, secus,
otherwise.
55. Adverbs. 231
V. Degree:
i. quam? how? 2. quantum? how much?
VI. Cause : (why ? wherefore ?}
quare ? cur ? quamobrem ?
VII. Quality :
qualiter ? in what kind of way f
V. Adverbs of Degree :
i. Adverbs answering to the question Quam? How?
tarn, so ', omniho, prorsus, altogether ; admodum, oppido, penitus, plane, perquam,
sane, sanequam, valde, valdequam, very, quite ; vementer, exceedingly ; longe,
far ; magis, more ; maxime, most, very ; minus, less ; minime, least, not at all ',
potius, rather; potissimum, chiefly \ in primis, apprime, praecipue, praesertim,
especially ; etiam, vel, even ; fere, almost, generally ; ferme, paene, almost ',
prope, propemodo, propemodum, nearly, almost ; aegre, vix, scarcely, hardly ;
dumtaxat, merely ; modo, only ; saltern, at least ; solum, solummodo, tantum,
tantummodo, only ; utique, in fact, at all events.
2. Adverbs answering to the question Quantum ? How much ?
tantum, so much \ aliquantum, considerably ; multum, much ; permultum, plurimum,
very much ; plus, more ; satis, sat, enough ; abunde, affatim, plentifully ; nimis,
nimium, too much ; paulum, little ; paululum, very little ; parum, little, too
httle ; minus, less ', minimum, least, very little ; quantulum, quantillum, how
little ; tantulum, tantillum, so little.
a] The question Quanto ? By how much ? is answered bytanto, eo, by so much; ali-
quanto, by a good deal; multo, nimio, by a great deal ; paulo, by a little ; nihilo, &c.
b) The question Quanto opere, How greatly ?\>y tan to opere, so greatly; magnoopere,
greatly ; maximo opere, very greatly.
VI. Adverbs of Cause :
Answering the question Quare ? cur ? quamobrem ? Why ? wherefore ?
eo, ideo, idcirco, propterea, on that account ; ergo, igitur, itaque, therefore ; proin,
proinde, accordingly.
VII. Adverbs of Quality (chiefly formed from Adjectives : but also many
from Substantives, Verbs, and Particles).
Answering the question Qualiter ? In what kind of way ? Examples are :
bene, well ; male, ill ; rite, duly ; iucunde, pleasantly ; gravate, grudgingly ; recte,
rightly ; pulchre,Jlnety ; late, widely ; longe lateque,./r and wide ; publice,/#-
licly ; misere, wretchedly ; splendide, nobly, &c. &c. &c. ; audacter, boldly ; feliciter,
happily ; fortiter, bravely ; amanter, lovingly ; decenter, becomingly ; sapienter,
wisely, &c. &c. &c. ; privatim, privately ; raptim, hurriedly ; sensim, gradTially ;
furtim, stealthily ; paulatim, pedetentim, little by little ; nominatim, by name ;
singulatim, sigillatim, individually ; viritim, matt by man ; tributim, tribe by tribe ;
vicissim, by turns ; seorsim, apart, &c. &c. &c. ; falso, falsely ; consulto, delibe-
rately ; tuto, safely ; falso, falsely ; fortuito, casually ; gratuito, without fee ; im-
pxoviso, inopinato, necopinato, unexpectedly ; liquido, clearly ; merito, deservedly,
&c. ; clam, clanculum, secretly ; palam, openly ; una, simul, together ; bifariam, bi-
partite, in two parts ; trifariam, tripartito, &c. ; temere, at hazard ; forte, by chance ;
sponte, by choice ; rite, duly ; temperi, seasonably ; frustra, in vain ; perperam,
badly; gratiis, gratis, freely ; ingratiis, unwelcomely; coram, face to face ; alio-
qui(-n), ceteroqui(-n), in other respects ; nequiquam, to no purpose ; incassum,
fruitlessly ; praefiscine, without offence. This adverb is derived from prae,
fascino, barring the evil eye, under favour. * Praefiscine dixerim,' Plaut.
A sin. ii. 4. 84.
For Comparison of Adverbs see 3O.
232
Latin Wordlore.
56.
56
Prepo-
sitions.
Table of
Prepo-
sitions.
VIII. The Logical Interrogative Adverbs, which expect affirma-
tive or negative answers, are :
-ne (enclitic) ? an ? anne ? num ? numne ? utrum ? utrumne ?
nonne? annon?
SECTION II.
Prepositions.
A PREPOSITION is an exponent of relation between
one Noun and another.
i. The primary relations are those of Place, Time, Number. From
these spring many others, which are figurative or logical.
The relation of Place includes that of Person or Thing, when
Person or Thing represents Place : apud re gem, at the king's
court ; an t e m e, in front of me ; a d b e 1 1 u m, to, the war.
The relation of Time includes that of Person or Thing, when
Person or Thing represents Time : post Romulum, after the
time of Romulus ; ante tubas ferrumque, before the invention
of trumpets and^ steel.
Some Prepositions are used with Verbs of Motion, some with
Verbs of Rest ; many with both.
Several Prepositions are so used with a Case, as to form Adverbial
Phrases, which are to all intents true Adverbs : admodum, in-
vicem, obviam, ab integro, de novo, ex tempore, &c.
ii. Twenty-nine Prepositions take the Accusative Case, twelve the
Ablative, and four the Accusative or the Ablative.
i) The following Prepositions take the Accusative Case :
ad to, at) &c. ob over against, on
advers-us(um) against, toward account of
ante
before
penes
in the power of
apud
near, at, with
per
through
circum
around
pone
behind
circa
around, about
post
after, behind
circiter
aboiit
praeter
beside
cis, citra
on this side of
prope, near,
propius, proxime
contra
against
propter
on account of, nigh
erga
towards
secundum
next, according to
extra
outside of
supra
above
infra
below
trans
across
inter
between, among
ultra
beyond
intra
within
versus, versum towards
iuxta
next to
Logical Adverbs, used to modify Discourse, are
(i) nempe, scilicet, videlicet, namely, of a sooth ; nimirum, to be sure ; (2) quidem,
equidem, indeed ; certe, certainly, at least ; tamen, attamen, yet, nevertheless ;
nihilominus, nevertheless ; (3) fors, forsan, forsitan, fortasse, fortassis, perhaps ;
(4) immo, nay but, nay rather ; (5) certo, assuredly ; ita, etiam, yes, even so ; ne
(often spelt nae), yea, verily ; plane, evidently ; profecto, doubtless ; sane, quite
so ; utique, in sooth ; vero, truly, yes indeed; quippe, to be sure ; (6) non, net, no ;
haud (haut), not, no (the reverse) ; minime, by no means ; ne, not, lest ; nedum,
not to say, much less ; ne . . . quidem, not even.
57. Conjunctions. 233
Versus follows its Case; as, Urbem versus, towards the city,.
Other Prepositions occasionally follow their Case.
2) The following take the Ablative Case :
a, ab, abs by or from ex, e out of, from
absque without palam in sight of
clam unknown to prae before, owing to
coram in the presence of pro before, for
cum with sine without
de from, concerning tenus as far as
Ab stands before vowels and li ; a and often ab before consonants ;
abs sometimes before q, rarely before c, t ; but abs te is usual.
Ex stands before vowels and li ; ex and e before consonants.
Clam is used with Accusative by the Comic poets.
Cum is attached to the Personal and Reflexive Pronouns, some-
times to the Relative : as mecum, nobiscum, tecum, vobis-
cum, secum, quocum, or quicum, quibuscum.
3) The following take the Accusative or the Ablative :
in into, against (Ace.), in (Abl.) super over, upon
sub up to, under (Ace.), under (Abl.) subter under
In and sub with Accusative imply motion; with Ablative, rest.
SECTION III.
Conjunctions.
ST
CONJUNCTIONS are of two Classes : con-
juno
A. Coordinative, or those which link words and sen- *
tences without affection of Mood.
B. Subordinative, or those which link sentences, with
affection of Mood.
The following are used in Coordination as well as Subordination :
quippe, si, seu, sive, nisi, etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, quamquam, quanv
f is, quasi, tanquam, sicut, velut, ceu.
A. Coordinative Conjunctions are:
Annexive : et, -que, 1 and, both, also, &c. ; atque, ac, and;
neque, nee, nor, neither \ and the adverbial words item,
also, etiam, quoque, 3 also, even ; necnon, moreover.
Disjunctive : aut, vel, -ve, 1 or, either*; sive, seu, either, or.
Adversative: sed, at (ast), verum, but; autem, 2 but, now;
ceterum, but ; atqui, but yet ; vero, 2 triily, bitt ; tamen, yet,
nevertheless; attamen, verumtamen, however, biit yet.
Causal : nam, namque, enim, 2 etenim, for ; enimvero, for in
truth.
1 -que -ve are enclitics, always attached to the word which they affect, or to some other
in the same clause.
a Quoque, autem, vero, enim (and the adverb quidem) never stand first in a clause,
but usually after one or more words : autem, vero, enim, after the first word usually ;
quoque, quidem, after the word which they affect.
234 Latin Wordlore.
Illative : ergo, itaque, igitur, therefore.
Conclusive : quare, quamobrem, quapropter, quocirca, wherefore.
Comparative : ut, uti ; velut, veluti ; sicut, sicuti ; ceu ; quem-
admodum ; quomodo, all rendered as ; atque, ac, as ;
quam, than, as ; quasi, tamquam, as, as it were ; utpote, as
being.
B. Subordinative Conjunctions are :
Consecutive : ut, so that ; (ut non) ; quin, but that, that not.
Final : ut, in order that ; ut ne, ne (for ut ne), in order that
not ; utinam, O that ; utinam ne, &c. ; quo, in order that ;
quominus, in order that not.
Causal : quod, quia, because ; quoniam, quando, quandoquidem,
since ; siquidem, inasmuch as ; quom or cum, since.
Temporal : quom or cum, when ; ubi, quando, when ; ut,
when, from the time that ; dum, donee, while, whilst ;
dum, donee, until \ quoad, whilst ; quoad, until \ ante-
quam, priusquam, before that; postquam, after that '; simul
ac, simul (omitting ac), as soon as ; quotiens, as often as ;
and others.
Conditional : si, if; sin (for si-ne), but if ; sive, seu, or if, whe-
ther-, nisi, unless ; ni, unless-, si modo, si tantum, if 'only ',
or modo, tantum (omitting si); dum, dummodo, provided
that, or modo (omitting dum).
Concessive : etsi, etiamsi ; tametsi, tamen etsi, although, even
if; quamquam, utut, however ; quamvis, although, lit.
how you will ; cum, ut, licet, although.
Comparative : quasi, as if (for quam si) ; ut si, ac si, velut si,
as if; or velut (dropping s i) ; tamquam, as though (for
tamquam si) ; ceu, as */ (dropping si).
Obs. In Subordinative Conjunctions must be included
All Interrogative Pronouns and Particles used obliquely :
The Relative Pronoun with its Particles ubi, unde, quo, qua, &c.,
inasmuch as both these classes link sentences with affection of
Mood.
58 SECTION IV.
Inter- I nt Cfj 6 Ct lOnS.
INTERJECTIONS strictly so called (interiecta, inserted
in the sentence without affecting its form) express :
Invocation : O, heus, oho or ohe, eia or heia; pro (proh),
cho, ehodum, hark, halloa, c.
Designation : en, ecce, lo ! behold!
Surprise : O, hem, em, ehem, babae, and the comic words au;
hui; va(vah); eia; bombax; at at or at tat; attate; attattatae.
Disgust: (comic) p hui, aha, faugh; ^y,pooh!
Satiety : o h e, o i e i, enough !
Laughter : (comic) aha (ha ha), hahahae.
Joy : O, io, eia, euge, evoe, eupoe, papae, huzza! joy ! &c.,
and the comic words euax, eugepae (
59- Derivation of Nouns. 235
Praise : eu, euge, eia, bravo ! well done ! &c.
Pain and Sorrow: heu, eheu, hei or ei, vae, ah or a, alas!
woe / i 1 i c e t, all's up !
Deprecation: pro (proh), forbid it!
Call to Silence : st, hush!
Several Nouns, Verbs, and Adverbs are used in exclamation or
invocation, like Interjections. Such are :
1) Nouns : pax, hush! malum, plague ! nefas, infandum, mon-
strous! indignum, horrendum, miserum, miserabile, turpe.
The Vocative macte, Plur. macti, is used with an Ablative or
Genitive : as macte esto virtute, go on and prosper. It is
perhaps the Participle of a lost Verb mace" re. M. Lucr. v. 1339.
2) Verbs : quaeso, prithee! precor, oro, obsecro, pray;
amabo, do, please ; sis (si vis), sultis (si vultis), please : sodes
(si audies?), if you'll be so good \ agesis, agedum, agitedum,
come now; cedo (PL cette),rz/ me; a page, away, avaunt.
3) Adverbs : profecto, really; nae (or ne), truly, used with the
Nominative of a Pronoun: nae ego velim. . . nae illi errant, &c.
(a) The following expressions are elliptical :
mehercule 1 = me, Hercule, iuves, so help me, Hercules.
mecastor, ecastor = me, Castor, iuves, so help me, Castor.
edepol, pol = me, dee Pollux, iuves, so help me, Pollux.
medius fidius = me, deus Fidius, iuves, so help me, God of
faith (Zsvg ILVnoc).
pro luppiter = prohibeas, 2 luppiter, Jove forbid.
pro di immortales = prohibeatis, di immortales : heaven for ef end !
(&) O, a, heu, eheu, hem, eia, en, ecce, pro are found with
Accusative ; hem, hei, vae, with Dative ; O, a, heu, he us, eho,
and others are often accompanied by a Vocative. The Vocative
itself is in the nature of an Interjection, lying out of the construction
of the sentence.
CHAPTER V.
DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF WORDS.
SECTION I.
Derivation of Nouns.
i. The Suffixes used in the Flexion of Stems are suffixes
shewn in the preceding Chapters. We have next vL?onT
to shew those by which a Stem is derived from a Root,
or one Stem from another.
1 Mehercle, hercle, are abridged forms.
3 The etymology of pro (proh) here given is not disproved by the phrase ' pro deum
atque hominum fidem/ which may represent another ellipsis, 'prohibeatur deum atque
hominum fidem violari/
236 Latin Wordlore.
That Suffix in a derived Stem, which contains the Stem-charac-
ter, is the staminal Suffix. Thus in the word crudelitas, Stem
cru-d-eli-tat-, tat is the staminal Suffix.
It commonly happens that a word comes immediately from an-
other, which is itself derived from a third, and so on, till a root or
rudimental form is reached. Every word (including the root) is the
Theme of such as are immediately derived from it. Thus,
Theme of crudelitas : Adj. crudelis; Stem crudeli-.
Theme of crudelis : Adj. crudus; Stem crudo- for cru-ido-.
Theme of crudus : Root cru-, Sk. kravi, Gr. icpcf-, raw flesh,
Beginning from the Root, the order is :
cru-, cru-ido- ( = cru-du-s), cru-id-ett- ( = cru-d-eli-s), cru-id-eli-tat-
( = cru-d-eli-ta-s).
Here the suffixes are Xdo (*d-), eH, tat ; to each of which the
ending s is joined to form the Nominative Case.
The words of such a series may form branch-lines of derivation
by other suffixes.
Thus from cru- come crii-or, gore, cru-entu-s, gory ; from
this the Verb cru-ent-a-re : from crudus come cru-d-i-ta-s
and cru-d-esc-ere: from crudelis the Adv. cru-d-eli-ter ;
crudelitas merely forms its own Cases.
ii. Root or Rudiment.
The determination of Roots, though greatly assisted by Com-
parative Philology, is a work of vast labour and difficulty, demand-
ing the nicest conjectural criticism, and often baffling all conjecture.
Very many roots are indeed determined beyond question ; es, I, to
go, I, that) da, sta, ag, ap, &c. : others are open to doubt ; cap (see
p. 190) : while in f ac, which heads, perhaps, the largest group of Latin
words, c is now held to be a suffix, added to the root fa = Sk. bhd,
Gr. 0a-, to give light, under which stand new groups, including
fax, facies, fate or, fari, fas, &c., with their derivatives. Hence
it is often safer, in deriving words, to call their ultimate form a rudi-
ment rather than a root.
iii. Suffix.
The derivation and distribution of Latin Suffixes, with their
meaning, when they have ;one, are a special topic too wide to be
fully treated here. The Syllabus which follows, with the subjoined
examples, will supply considerable information. It adopts Diintzer's
method (Lat. Wortbildung und Composition], though not his order ;
corrected throughout by reference to the views of Schleicher (Com-
pend.\% 215-231) and Corssen (Ausspr. I. 566, &c.). Bopp, Leo
Meyer, and Fick's Lexicon have also been consulted.
Suffixes are simple or compound : but the parts of a compound
suffix often cohere so regularly in a class of words, that, having
been once shewn as compound, it may be cited without inconveni-
ence as if it were simple. Such are tudon. mento, cundo, bun do,
&C.
I 50; Derivation of Nouns. 237
iv. Rudimental Words.
Rudimental words are such as append their Case-endings to the
real or seeming Root, unstrengthened or strengthened. Such are
a) gru-s, su-s; re-s; bov- (bos), lov-; crux, dux, nex, nux,
pix, prec-, die-, grex, pes, vas (vad-), adips, caelebs, dap-,
op-, stip-, with many compound words, auspex, haruspex, obex,
index, iudex, artifex, tradux, coiux, manceps, princeps,
praeses, praepes, crassipes, &c. b) lux, pax, vox, lex, rex,
&c. c] sal, sol, lar, par, ver, ius, crus, tus, rus, spes, mos,
ros, flos, os (or-) : also farr- (far), fell- (fel), melt- (mel), ost-
(os, bone), cord- (cor).
v. Syllabus of Suffixes (with examples at the foot).
In the List of Suffixes and their Examples the abbreviations
used are :
S. Substantive. V. Verbalia (words derived from Verbs).
A. Adjective. D. Denominativa (words derived from Nouns).
Unc. (uncertain) implies that root or roots are unknown.
&c. 1 placed after Examples cited, indicate that many
&c. &c. others exist of the same class, and that in
&c. &c. &c. J some instances the number is very large.
Every Suffix ending in 6 must be taken as including the forms
iis, a, um; that is, A-nouns as well as O-nouns.
I. Vowels and V. 1
Of Vowel Suffixes (besides the characters a, 6, i, ii, e), the most
important is 16, including, as it does, a large class of Abstract Sub-
stantives in fa, rum, and of Possessive Adjectives in ius.
S. a) a (3) o y) e, le d) u e) i I) ed
rj) i* 9) iio, vo, ivo, vi.
3 I. Vowels and V.
Substantives.
a) Masc. V. scrib-a, adven-a, incol-a, terrigen-a, &c.
/3) V. merg-us, cormorant ; tor-us, couch ; fug-a, flight ; talp-a, mole ; pronub-a,
bridesmaid ; iug-um, yoke, &c. &c. D, nimb-us, cloud ; nerv-us ; taur-us ; lup-us ;
6r-a, coast ; sal-urn, brine, &c.
y) V. f id-es, effig-ies, spec-ies, &c. D. pauper-ies . . .
8) V. ac-us, D. nur-us.
t) V. arx, falx, nix, ap-is, rup-es, &c. D. nox, nub-es, mar-e, &c.
^) Mostly D. calc-eus, shoe ; trab-ea, striped robe ; flamm-eum, bridal veil, &c. V.
ol-ea, olive.
TTJ) A few Masc. V. lud-ius, player . . . D. sim-ius, ape. A large number of Fern.
D. av-ia, grandmother ; and abstracts of Quality : audac-ia, boldness ; ignav-ia,
sloth ; victor-ia, -victory ; absent-ia, absence, &c. &c. &c. A large number are
Neut. most V. denoting ' the Effect : ' benefic-ium, benefit ; conub-ium, mar-
riage ; gaud-ium, joy, &c. &c. &c. : some D. minister-ium, service ; sen-ium, old
age ; sav-ium, kiss, &c. &c. Words like arbitr-ium, augur-ium, &c., should be
ranked as V.
6) iio : D. patr-uus, uncle on father's side ; ian-ua, ho^tse-door ; VO : V. D. cer-vus ;
ri-vus ; lar-va, mask, spectre ; ar-\\\m, plough-land ; IVO : ol-iva, an olive; sal-
iva, spittle ; VI : V. ci-vis.
238 Latin Wordlore. 59.
A. a) 6 ) i 7) eo 8) *o *) u6, vd, ivd, tivd, vi.
II. C.
C is a stable suffix, denoting Individuality in Substantives :
Permanent Condition or Relation in Adjectives. Often, however,
the individuality or condition denoted is of a disparaging kind :
as in senex, senec-io, cimex, culex, pulex ; caecus, flaccus,
luscus, mancus, truncus, &c. So in c-ulo c is deminutive, but
in c-undo it denotes permanent activity.
S. a) ci ic /3) co cid ico tied 7) ac oc 5) Ic led
) ucd.
A. a) co ico tied lied 0) aci oci 7) aco aceo
Adjectives :
) d: V. fid-us, faithful ; viv-us, alive . . . with Cpp. naufrag-us, shipwrecked;
profag-ViS, fugitive . . . D. re-us, accused; nov-us, new ; me-us, tu-us, su-us . . .
/3) i : i-s ; qui-s ; qui ; iug-is . . . Cpp. bimar-is . . .
y) e6 : D. implying * Formed of;' aur-eus, golden ; argent-eus, of silver; 'Exhibit-
ing? lut-eus, miiddy ; lut-eus, of deep yellow ; ' Belonging- to : ' virgin-eus,
maiden, maidenlike, &c.
Note, ed represents Gr. 6105, Pythagor-eus, El-eus, of Elis.
6) id : D. imply generally ' Having the quality ' of, or ' Belonging to : ' mart-ius, patr-
ius, reg-ius, pluv-ius, &c. &c. ; some Cpp. egreg-ius, exim-ius. Aer-ius, aether-ius
are Greek, having the sense of L. eus. Alius, Gr. aAAos=al-yus ; medius, Gr.
/u.V<ros=med-yus ; 1 being i-consonans. Add plebe-ius=plebe-yus.
UO : V. with some in vd, Ivd, chiefly V., may imply 'Active quality : ' contig-uus,
adjoining; contin-uus, &c. ; gna-vus, knowing; proter-vus, frolicsome ; sae-vus,
raging, &c. ; noc-uus or noc-ivus, hurtful, &c. : or may have Passive use :
divid-uus, parted ; ingen-uus, freebom ; mut-uus, exchanged (between two per-
sons or parties), -mutual ; relic-uus, left ; rig-uus, irrig-uus, watered ; vid-uus,
widowed ; ca-vus, hollow ; sal-vus safe ; adopt -ivus, chosen, adoptive ; especially
those in t-Ivd, having the Supine or participial suffix t : captivus, captured ; fes-
tivus, festive ; fugi-tivus, na-tivus, praeroga-tivus, vo-tivus, &c. &c. Aes-tivus,
of summer, supposes a verb aedere (Gr. ai#-), to heat ; tempes-tivus, season-
able, is abnormal ; mor-tuus (=mor-tivus), dead; ann-uusis a rare Denom. ; mens-
tr-uus seems to be for mens-trius from mensis, month, vi : brevis, Gr. /Spaxv? ;
gravis, Sk. gurus, Gr. /3apu? ; le-vis, Sk. laghus, Gr. eAaxv's, light ; le-vis,
Gr. Aeifos, smooth ; sua-vis, Sk. svadus, Gr. ^5u'?.
II. C.
Substantives.
a) Ci : lanx, merx (faeci- fauci- . . .) : ic (ix). V. appendix : ic (ex), V. vert-ex,
vort-ex, D. ram-ex. See pp. 95-6 (most unc.).
/3) Cd : V. fo-cus, hearth ; fu-cus, drone ; es-ca, food, D. Tuven-cus -ca ; Cld-, V.
sola-cium ; Z>. un-cia (from unus); icdl D. vil-Icus, steward; vil-ica,
steward's wife ; man-Tea, handcuff; ped-Tca, fetter, springe, &c. ; tied, V.
can-ticum : D. viaticum, provision for journey.
y) D. forn-ax, furnace ; lim-ax, snail ; eel-ox, yacht.
) 1C, p. 96 (most unc. rad-ix, &c.) : but V. in trie- trix, Fern, as mere-trix, vic-
trix, &c. (see XI); ico : V. D. mend-Icus, -lea, beggar; lect-Ica, litter, and
others.
<) lact-uca, lettuce (some unc.).
Adjectives.
a) CO: V. D. par-cus, pau-cus, pris-cus, rau-cus, sic-cus, &c. (some unc.): icd :
most D. imply ' Pertaining to : ' bell-icus, publ-Tcus, &c. : some V. med-Tcus, of
Jtealing (as Subst. physician). Many Gentilia ; ScythTcus, &c. tiCO : D.
nis-tTcus, aqua-tlcus, &c. V. vena-ticus ; lico : D. fame-lTcus.
/3) aci : V. imply ' Inclined to,' ' Capable of; ' aud-ax, daring ; ed-ax, devouring ;
tet^xx., fruitful, &c. &c. ; OCi : V. ' Inclined to : ' fer-ox, haughty ; vel-ox, swift.
v) acd: mer-acus, pure (op-acus, shady, unc.); Subst. clo-aca, sewer (clu=lu),
aceo : D. ' Consisting of ':' fair- aceus, of flour, and some others.
59. Derivation of Nouns. 239
5) Ico Icio ticio e) ic* f) uco uceo 17) *aco.
III. G.
In many words which have gr before the final vowel or case-end-
ing, this cons, is known to be a root-character : as in lex, rex, strix,
frug-, coniux, angu-is, compag-es, contag-es, merg-us,
rog-us, fug-a, plag-a, plag-a, tog-a, iug-um, and others.
(Pinguis, as compared with Sk. pi 9 Gr. KL-, seems to shew a suffix
gr, but not if compared with Gr. Tra^vc- See Curt. Gr. Et. 276.)
This suggests the probability that in uncertain words, as vag-us,
alg-a, and others, & is radical rather than suffixal. On the other
hand, it is probable that the root dg is suffixal (!g, ag, Ig, ug) in
various words. Its presence in remex (remum agere), aurlga
(aureas agere), prodigus, and ambages, is obvious : in con-
fluges, coagulum, strages, stragulus, it may be conjectured :
also in nugae, for nov-ig-ae, novelties = trifles as opposed to seria
(from serus), long- considered matter : l hae nugae seria ducunt in
mala. 7 Valgus, volgus are deduced by some from Sk. roots. (May
not the latter be referred to the former word ?) Finally, the root ag
may be supposed in agon, egron, ugon : see iff. Compare the Greek
odiyyoc, xopjyyoc, &c.
On fastig-ium, vestig-ium, see C. Ausspr. II. 427, Kr. B. 197, 361.
IV. T.
This is the most efficient suffixal letter in Aryan language. If
we include its representation by s and d, it enters into the forma-
tion of all Participles and Participial Adjectives, and into that of
all Verbal Substantives with Participial theme : by the suffixes to
(s6, do), tft (sii), tX (si), tion (sXon), nti, &c. Besides which it
forms important groups of Denominative Substantives ; concrete by
the suffixes It et, abstract by the suffixes tat tut, and others.
(For the suffixes into which n enters, see w : for do, di see B.
The suffixes so, sii, si are included here.)
S. o) ta ita j8) to (so) ito y) tu (sii) itii atii Itii ultu
5) led : V. am-Tcus, friendly (Subst. friend) ; pud-icus, modest ; apr-Icus, sunny ;
from Particles ; ant-iquus, ancient ; post-Icus t hinder ; icio : D. imply ' Consist-
ing of \ ' later-Tcius : ' of 'brick ,' &c. 'Pertaining to ;' natal-icius, belonging to a
birthday, &c. but nov-Icius, newly arrived (novice), Juv. : ticio (slcio) :
V. (Sup. St.) Participial: advec-ticius, imported; conduc-ticius, hired', trala-
ticius, transferred, &c. The quantity of ti, si is probably variable.
e) (fel-ix, pern-ix, both unc.)
^) uco : V. only cad-ucus, falling; uceo : D. only pann-uceus, ragged.
i\) Greek D. card-iacus, dyspeptic : Aegypt-iacus. &c.
IV. T.
Substantives.
a) D. nau-ta, nav-ita.
/3) V. numerous : lec-tus, bed ; sec-ta, sect ; fa-tum, fate ; cau-sa, cause ; pen-sum,
task ; mer-itum, desert ; ius-sum, command, &c. &c. D. : liber-tus, freedman ;
iuven-ta, youth ; salic-tum, willow-bed ; carec-tum, sedge-bed ; virgul-tum, thicket,
&c. The last three have turn for etum. See 5) below.
y) til (su), Ytu : V. (Sup. St.) fle-tus, weeping', mo-tus, motion-, ic-tus, stroke;
crucia-tus, torture ; mugl-tus, bellowing ; hab-itus, habit ; strep-itus, noise ;
nex-us, connexion ; vi-sus, sight, &c. &c. (Pr. st.) hal-itus, spir-itus, breath ; tum-
ultus, uproar. But D. in atii denote Office, Position, Corporate Body, &c. :
consul-atus, consulship ; sen-atus, senate ; re-atus, state of accusation ; equit-
atus, cavalry, &c.
240 Latin Wordlore. $ 9 >
t) eto ti (si) L) et let it 7y) tat itat etat estat
6) tut itut /) tid (sio) itio itie K-) ato uto ltd X) ot
/*) ted.
A. a) to (so) ito 0) at& 7) eto 5) ito e) dto
uto f) ati Iti T}) ti eti it.
V. D.
This cons, is a principal element in several important compound
Suffixes, Verbal and Denominative, which appear under ar. Be-
sides those, its leading use is in the Participial Adjective suffix ido.
S. a) do ido /3) di 7) ed 6d d) ud.
A. a) do idd 8) di.
VI. P.
It is doubtful whether any true suffix can be shewn with p, except
piild, in which the root pur, pul, pie-, to Jill, is probably contained:
mani-pul-us, po-pul-us, cra-pula, du-plus, &c. : du-pl-ex,
&c. in which pi- ex (not from plico) is a compound suffix pul-ic(s).
5) ace-turn, vinegar; with many neuter D. denoting 'Place of growth ;' myrt-etum,
myrtle-grove ; oliv-etum, olive-yard, &c.
e) V. gens, mens, sors, &c. ; vec-tis, ves-tis, vi-tis, mes-sis. D. men-sis, nep-tis.
) V. seg-es, ar-ies (see C. Nachtr. 268-270) : and D. in es it-, al-es, equ-es, ped-es,
&c. p. 97.
ij) Numerous Abstract D. liber-tas, auctor-itas, car-itas, pi-etas, soci-etas (e by dis-
similation after i), &c. &c. &c. On hon-estas, &c., see R : pot-estas, eg-estas
may be for -ent-tas.
0) Abstract D. iuven-tus, senec-tus, vir-tus, serv-itus.
1) D. nun-tius, nun-tia, trist-itia, serv-itium, calv-ities, amar-ities, iust-itia, &c. &C.
ir) pal-atum, palate ; Mat-uta, goddess of Morn ; pitu-ita, phlegm.
A) dos, dowry ; nepos, grandson.
JA) lin-teum, towel.
Adjectives.
a) D. numerous: ius-tus,/?As; mul-tus, muck', sex-tus, sixth, &c. &c. V. tac-itus,
silent; sal-sus, salted; with all Perf. Participles of Conj. 3., most of 2. and
others ; tac-tus, doc-tus, admon-itus, atton-itus, ius-sus, pressus, &c. &c. &c.
/3) D. numerous : barb-atus, bearded ; ferr-atus, iron-clad, &c. &c. V. most Parti-
ciples of Conj. i. am-atus, arm-atus, &c. &c. &c.
y) V. fac-etus : and many Participles, defl-etus, decr-etus, &c.
6) D. crin-itus, rich-haired ; mell-Ttus, honied, &c. V. most Participles of Conj. 4.
and others, aud-itus, per-itus, tr-itus, &c. &c. &c.
e) D. aegr-otus, sick ; nas-utus, sharp-nosed, &c. V. Participles of Verbs in UO,
ac-utus, arg-utus, &c.
) D. nostras, Arpinas, &c. Quiris, Samnis, &c. p. 108.
17) for-tis, hebes, dives, p. 116, &c.
V. D.
Substantives.
a) V. mo-dus ; cau-da ; cica-da ; tae-da ; crep-ida.
/3) V. laus, cla-des.
y) V. her-es, merc-es, (cust-os?)
8) D. pec-us ud-.
Adjectives.
a) D. absur-dus, cru-dus ; fum-idus, smoky ; gel-idus, chilly, frosty ; herb-idus,
grassy ; morb-idus, diseased ; sol-idus ; suc-idus, juicy, and others : V. many
from Verbs (chiefly, but not solely, of Conj. 2.) : ac-idus, alg-idus, ar-idus, av-idus,
call-idus, ferv-idus, pall-idus, tab-idus, tim-idus, torr-idus, val-idus, um-idus,
&c. &c. ; cup-idus, flu-idus, grav-idus, rab-idus, rap-idus, vlv-idus.
|8) D. gran-dis ; viri-dis.
59. Derivation of Nouns. 241
VII. s.
S. a) b5. /3) bl.
A. bo.
on bundo see N ; on bill ber*, &c., see Xi, R.
VIII. M.
This Nasal has an important place in Latin Wordlore. It ter-
minates, as in Sk., the Accus. Sing, of all Masc. and Fern. Nouns,
and the first three cases of Neut. O-nouns. The Suffix mo enters
into the Superl. form of the Adj. M*n (men), mento have con-
crete use, implying Instrument : monio implies Permanent State :
S. a) mo imo timo j3) min (men) imin (imen) umin
(amen) y) mento i mento umento amen to /)
xnon umdn e) monio imdnio I) umno.
A. ) mo /8) imo (umo) timo (tum5) simo (sumo) rimo
(rumo) limb (lumo) issimo (issiimo) esimo (esumd).
VII. B.
Substantives.
a) mor-bus, tu-ba, tur-ba, ver-bum.
/3) plebs, pu-bes.
Adjectives :
pro-bus (7rpo-$vT?s)> super-
VIII. X*.
Substantives.
o) V. ar-mus, shoulder-joint ; fu-mus, smoke ; ra-mus, bough ; an-Tmus, mind ;
an-Tma, breath ; fst-ma.,fame ; flam-ma, flame ; spu-ma,foam; vic-tima, victim ;
ar-ma, arms, &c. D. bru-ma, mid-winter (brevi-ma).
]3) V. Neut. (numerous) : imply ' Means, Instmment or Concrete Effect : ' (i) when
the theme has active force : flu-men, stream ; lu-men, light ; lenl-men, leva-men,
assuagement ; nu-men, nod, deity ; nutrl-men, nutriment ; reg-imen, govern'
ment', sola-men, comfort; teg-men, covering'. (2) when the theme has a pas-
sive sense : ag-men, a marching body (quod agitur) ; n5-men, name (quod nos-
citur) ; stra-men, straw (quod sternitur) ; se-men, seed(quod seritur) ; exa-men,
swarm of bees (quod exigitur, which is driven out) or tongiie of balance (quod
exigitur, whichis adjusted). So crlmen, a charge ; doc-umen, lesson, &c. &c. &c.
Some suppose Verbs not in use : albu-men, gra-men, grass (ger-ere or gen-ere ?
Compare ger-men, sprout). (Many unc. abdo-men, bitu-men, ll-men and others.
Flamen, priest, Masc. from flag- <f>A.ey-, lighter of sacrificial fire.)
y) This Suffix is an enlargement of the last, and has the same general meanings and
varieties: V. (i) Act. argu-mentum, proof; ar-mentum, plough-cattle; comple-
mentum, what fills up ; fo-mentum, poultice (quod fovet), fer-mentum (quod
fervet) ; nutri-mentum, orna-mentum, al-imentum, teg-umentum. (2) Pass, cae-
mentum, hewn stone (quod caeditur) ; frag-mentum ; ra-mentum, shaving (quod
raditur), testa-mentum, will, &c. &c. &c. From non-extant Verbs : calcea-men-
tum, shoe ; rudi-mentum, first training, rudiment (compare erudire) ; palud-
amentum, military cloak.
6) ser-mo, discourse : (Lucu-mo, prince, priest, in Etruria).
e) D. acr-imonia, sharpness ; aegr-imonia, melancholy ; parc-imonia (rather than
pars-imonia), thrift ; matr-imonium, marriage, &c. V. quer-imonia, complaint :
al-imonium, nourishment, &c.
^) V. al-umnus, nursling ; col-umna, column.
Adjectives.
a) V. al-mus, genial '; fir-mus, firm. D. On Superl. suffix mS see p. 42. So the
Ordinal Numerals Septimus, decimus, &c. p. 152.
/3) D. plur-Imus, ci-timus, pes-simus, acer-rimus, humil-limus, dur-issimus, quin-
quag-ensimus, cent-ensimus (umus), &c. &c. See pp. 42, 153.
R
242 Latin Wordlore.
y) itimo (itiimd) d) Imo t) mi.
IX. x.
The Nasodental n is not less important than the Dentals t, d in
forming Latin Suffixes. Three uses may be distinguished : (i) when
n is followed by a vowel in a staminal suffix (na, no, ino, ano, md,
&c.) or by two vowels (neo, ineo, &c.) : (2) when it is itself, in Sub-
stantives, the Stem-character (en, in, en, 6n, on) ; here it does not,
like t, d, fall out before a Nom.-Ending s, but rejects s, remaining
itself in the form en or en (pec ten, teg men, lien), but rejected by
the stems on on, which become 6 in Nom. Sing, (homo, natio,
Plato) : (3) when it stands chiefly in Adjectives before t, d or s
(ento, enti, endo, ensi, &c.), rarely before g (quadringenti):
being sometimes the final letter of a preceding suffix (men-to),
sometimes, perhaps, the strengthening Nasal (nti, nsi).
S. (i) a) na ,o) no ino y) and ono uno end ileno
c) ino i) ni
(2) ) en (in) men (min) i } ) on (in) 0) gon agon
Igon ugron (gin) t) don edon idon udon (din)
tudon itudon (din) K) on ion cion tion sidn
(3) A) enti anti n) undon (din).
See men to under Itt.
y) D. leg-itTmus, mar-itTmus (-umus).
5) D. matr-Imus, having mother alive ; patr-Imus : (op-Imus, having- -wealth, rich).
e) co-mis, subllmis (seen from underneath ' limis oculis ? ' i.e. lofty. Compare obli-
quus).
IX. X.
Substantives.
a) V. ver-na, houseslave.
/3) V. som-nus, dom-inus, pen-na, pag-ina, reg-num. . . . D. pi-nus, pine-tree.
y) and : D. Silv-anus, god of forests ; membr-ana, parchment ; (gra-num, a
grain} ; ond : V. col-onus, farm : tenant. D. patr-onus, patron ; matr-ona,
matron ; uno : D. trib-unus, tribune ; fort-una, fortune ; end : V. hab-ena,
rein ; D. lani-ena, butcher s shop ; (ven-enum, poison) ; le-aena, lioness, &c. ;
ileno : V. cant-ilena, ditty.
6) in6 : V. inquil-inus, lodger ; ru-ina,y2z//, ruin ; rap-in*, plunder ; cu-lina, kitchen ;
D. gall-ina, hen ; medic-ina, medical art ; discipl-ina, teaching, school, &c.
e) V. fi-nis, end ; cri-nis, parted hair.
g) V. pect-en, comb. For the suffix men (mm), &c. see HI.
7}) D. hom-o, man ; turb-o, whirlwind, top.
&) g*dn : J9.vir-go, virgin ; agon : V. vor-ago, gulph ; D. farr-ago, mess of flour;
(im-ago, image ?) ; Igdn : V. or-igo, origin ; vert-igo, twirl ; Ugon : D. aer-ugo,
copper-rust ; lan-ugo, down, &c. (Genitives ginis.)
t) ddn : or-do, order ? edon : V. dulc-edo, sweetness : torp-edo, numbness ;
Iddn : V. cup-ido, desire ; udon : D. test-udo, tortoise, penthouse ; itudon :
D. alt-itudo, fort-itudo, lat-itudo, long-itudo, viciss-itudo ; vale-tudo (for valent-
udo?), &c. c. (Genitives dinis.)
K) on : m. D. commilit-o, fellow-soldier ; epul-o, banqiieter, &c. &c. : V. bib-o,
toper ; erro, vagabond ; ion, many masc. D. lud-io, player ; sen-io, sice, &c.
V. pug-io, poniard. Fern. V. (Pres. St.) : condlc-io, leg-io, opln-io, suspic-io,
&c. Some D. commun-io, communion ; consortio, rebellio, &c. ; cion : homun-
cio ; tion, sion : Fern. V. (Sup. St.), a very numerous class of words : aestima-
tio, admom-tio, sortl-tio, ac-tio, na-tio, ora-tio, posses-sio, ul-tio, vi-sio, &c. &c. &c.
A) V. adulesc-ens, serp-ens, torr-ens, anim-ans, inf-ans, &c. D. tri-ens, quad-rans, &c.
AC) hir-undo, swallow;, har-undo, reed.
4*59- Derivation of Nouns. 24.3
A. (i) a) no Xno ne6 gmo gno tino ft) ana aneo
taneo 7) end ieno oeno uno d) Ino, tino *) ni
(3) ) ento ulento olento ilento (ginto cento gento)
//) anti enti ilenti iilenti 0) ensi lens* ensili
i) undo endo ando K ) cundo A) bundo.
X. s.
The Sibilant in a large class of words, chiefly V., represents the
Dental t (so, si, sion,sdr, sorio, surd). When s is a Stem-character,
.in many words, especially in the older, it remains in Norn. Sing, flos,
ros,opus,nemus, Venus, pul vis, &c.,butoftener becomes r in the
suffix os or : pudor, auctor, c. : while in some words both forms
were used : honos or honor, labos or labor, lepos or lepor : so
-amos, colos occur. In the Oblique Cases s becomes r : floris,
roris, operis, Veneris, honoris, &c. But if in derivation such
words come before a Mute, then s is resumed : flos-culus, opus-
culum, venus-tus, hones-tus : hes-ternus (from heri for hes-i,
Gr. V0&): not before a vowel : flor-eus, pulver-ulentus; see R.
On the falling out of n before s in various words (quotiens, sem-
enstris, formonsus, vicensumus, &c.), see p. 50.
S. ) sa /3) so si sio esio ison
Adjectives.
o-) -D. mag-nus, sa-nus, va-nus, ver-nus, no-nus, u-nus, octo-nus, ter-nus ; acer-nus,
of maple ; colur-nus (for corulinus), of hazel ; adamant-mus; ahe-neus, of brass ;
ebur-neus, of ivory ; (ido-neus,^f/) ; olea-ginus, of olive ; beni-gnus, kind, boun-
tiful; cras-tmus, of t lie morrow ; pris-tmus, of olden time.
/3) Z>. arc-anus, secret ; font-anus, of a fountain ; quart-anus ; cbtidi-anus, daily ;
suburb-anus, near the city ; subterr-aneus, underground; V. supervac-aneus ;
collec-taneus, gathered together ; consen-taneus, adapted, &c.
?) V. eg-enus, needy : D. ali-enus, foreign ; terr-enus, earthly ; (ser-enus) ; op-
port-unus, at hand ; (amoenus, agreeable).
5) D- can-Tnus, of a dog ; div-inus, of a deity, divine ; mar-inus, of the sea, &c. &c. ;
libert-inus, offreedman-class ; matut-inus, of morn ; vesper- \\nus, of evening, &c.
e) seg-nis, lazy.
) D. cru-entus, bloody ; vi-olentus, violent ; lut-ulentus, muddy ; mac-ilentus, wasted ;
(corp-uleatus for corpor-ulentus). For the forms vi-ginti, tri-ginta, &c. du-centi,
quin-genti, &c., see Numeralia.
37) V. Adjectives and Participles in ens, ans, denoting 'Present activity : ' abs-ens,
eleg-ans, impud-ens, prud-ens, am-ans, praest-ans, cand-ens, dilig-ens, negleg-ens,
audi-ens, &c. &c. &c., (petul-ans). D. pest-ilens.
ff) D. for-ensis, of tlie forum ; Athen-iensis, of Athens; ut-ensilis,y27r use ; observe
di nov-ensiles, the meaning of which term is questionable.
*) V. Gerundive Participles in undus (anc.), endus, andus ; reg-undue, audi-endus,
am-andus, &c. &c. &c. They denote 'Present activity.' See Syntax.
K) V. cundo is a suffix compounded of the suffixes CO and ndo, and denotes
' Permanent action' or l Present activity:' fa-cundus, eloquent; iu-cundus,
pleasant ; vere-cundus, bashful, &c. &c. &c.
A) V. bundo is compounded of "bo and ndd, and denotes ' Production of Present
activity : ' popula-bundus, engaged in. laying waste ; vaga-bundus, given to wan-
der ; mori-bundus, on the point of dying, &c. It is found with an Object : ' vita-
bundus castra hostium,' striving to avoid the enemy's camp, Liv.
x. s.
Substantives.
a) V. lixa, sutler (lic-ere ?).
) V. na-sus, nose ; noxa, harm, &c. (see T) ; mes-sis, harvest ; ama-sius, sweet-
heart ; Megal-esia,/m.tf of Cybele ; equ-iso, groom.
R2
244 Latin Wordlore. $9.
y) isco isto estro astro <*) es (&, its) = er
f) os (Us) = or ) os (fir) = or 7;) used usto
A. a) so sio (3) oso idso coso culoso &C. 7) stri
estri astro istro c) esti estico c) usco 2) esto
usto ?) ids (z0V) = ior.
XL R.
This Liquid occurs in many Suffixes, sometimes without a second
Consonant in the same Suffix (ro, ari, arid, &c.), often in sequence
of one of the mutes, c, t, b (ero, tro, bro, &c.). On its relations to 1
and to s see pp. 64. 65, and s above.
S. a) ro j8) ero iiro 7) cero (cro) S) bero (bro)
t) tero (tro) ) rii ij) ri Q) er erco erto
y) lent-iscus, lentisk ; ar-ista, ear of com ; fen-estra, window ; D. in -aster, -astrum
are of a deminutive nature : ole-aster, wild olive ; api-astrum, wild parsley ,
mint; parasit-aster, a would-be parasite.
8 e ) Nouns increasing in er- from Nominatives in Is, us, in or- from us, and in or-
from os, will be found at pp. 25, 102.
)?) moll-usca : (loc-usta).
Adjectives.
a) V. las-sus, anxius, &c. &c. See T.
/3) 5s8 (for onso or ontid, as ovo-ia for ovrla), numerous ; D. anim-osus, form-osus,
&c. &c. &c. ; capt-iosus, cur-iosus, &c. ; belli-cosus, siti-culosus, monstr-uosus, &c.
y) V. illu-stris ; D. palu-stris, silv-estris : sin-ister.
fi) Z>. agr-estis, cael-estis, dom-esticus.
^) D. cor-uscus, glittering.
j} D. funestus from funus, er- ; scelestus from scelus, en-.; honestus from honos, 6r-
(so tempestas from tempus, or-) ; but onustus from onus, er- ; venustus from Venus,
er- ; vetustus from vetus, er- ; modestus points to a lost Neut. modus. Augustus
from augur, and robustus from robur, shew that, even in Subst. with Norn, ur,
the original ending was us.
>j) This is the Suffix of Comparatives : mel-Tor (anc. melior, melios). See p. 21.
XL R.
Substantives.
a) V. cu-ra, care ; ser-ra, saw ; lab-rum, lip ; (aurora, morning, p. 66).
/3) F. num-erus, number', arbit-er, umpire ; gen-er, son-in-law, op-era, aid; iug-
erum, acre. D. um-erus, shoulder; sat-ura, satire.
Y) V. Neuter words implying ' That which effects action : ' simula-crum, likeness ;
sepul-crum, a grave; lu-crum, gain; ful-crum (for fulc-crum), prop, &c. &c.
Culo (Cld) is another form : cena-culum, dining-room. See Ii. The suffix
comes from the root Sk. kar, L. cre-o, to make.
6) V. ' That which effects action ; ' fa-ber, engineer ; dola-bra, hatchet ; late-bra,
hiding-place ; cri-brum, sieve ; scalprum (for scalp-brum, chisel). D. candela-
brum, candlestick. Root Sk. bhar, Gr. <J>ep-. Bulo is another form : turi-bulum,
censer.
e) The Suffix t6r (tro) has two uses in Latin, both from one root, Sk. tar, Gr.
rop- (shewn in ripua, terminus, trames, trans, in-tra-re, pene-tra-re, &c.), go
beyond, penetrate, attain, (i) It corresponds to the comparative suffix Sk.
tara, Gr. repo-, used to express a relation between two : shewn in the Gr. Corn-
par, -repos, L. ter : magis-ter, minis-ter, mater-tera, &c. &c. and in Adverbs.
(2) Like cro and bro, it denotes in V. ' That which effects the action ; ' cul-ter,
knife; mulc-tra, milkpail; ara-trum, plough ; claus-trum, barrier ; ros-trum, beak
(rod-) ; ras-trum, harrow (rad-) : in mon-s-trum, prodigy, s is euphonically in-
serted.
) V. cur-rus, chariot.
t\) V. au-ris, ear; na-ris, nostril.
&) D. ans-er (for h-anser ; Sk. hansa', Gr. xn v )> gander ; pass-er, sparrow ; muli-er,
woman ; nov-erca, stepmother ; V. it-er, journey ; cad-av-er, corpse.
j 59- Derivation of Nouns. 245
.*) beri bri K) teri (tri) X) ter tr /*) iner inor v) bar
) oriir o) ari TT) ario p) or = or a) tor = tor (sor)
trie- T) torio (sorio) v) uro uri urio <J>) turo (suro).
A. ) ro /3) ero iiro 7) cero (cro) 2) bero (bro)
tero (tro) t) esteri (estri) ) aro oro er6 q) ceri (erf)
0) beri (bri) i) teri (tri) K) ari X) arid /i) torio
(sorio) v) turo (surd).
i) V. fe-bris, fever.
K) (lin-ter or lunter, boatf)
A) See above e). This suffix corresponds to the Sk. tara, denoting chiefly relation-
ships : pa-ter, ma-ter, fra-ter. Observe (Sk. svasar, Gr. oap, L. soror for sosor).
/u) (itiner), journey ; (iociner), liver : (facinor-) facinus, deed, exploit, crime.
v) iu-bar, sunbeam.
^) D. aequ-or, level surface, sea ; (unc. iecur, ebur, robur, Gen. -oris). V. fulg-ur,
ligtning', Gen. -uris. (Unc. augur, turtur, vultur.)
o) D. mol-aris (lapis), grindstone : many Neut. from Adjectives : alve-are, hive ;
calc-ar, sptir, &c. &c.
TT) Properly Adj. libr-arius, copyer of books ; den-arius, aten-aspiece ; Aulul-aria (name
of a Comedy of Plautus) ; tabul-arium, record-office ; pom-arium, orchard, &G.&C.
p) V. or from prim, rudiment : am-or, love ; cru-or, blood ; clam-or, outcry ; trem-or,
trembling ; um-or, moisture ; (ux-or, -wife ?), Gen. oris, &c. &c. &c. Many had
character S originally : umos, lepos, &c. See S.
tr) V. a numerous class, denoting ' an Agent : ' ara-tor, ora-tor, pisca-tor, moni-tor
ac-tor, vic-tor, spon-sor, mes-sor, Gen. oris, &c. &c. &c. The Fern, form is
trie trix : moni-trix, vic-trix, tons-trix, &c. &c.
D. gladia-tor, via-tor, fund-i-tor, iam-tor, and some others.
T) From Verbal Adjectives Neut. : denote chiefly locality : audi-torium, lecture-room ;
dever-sorium, hostel, &c. See below /A).
T>) V. ffg-ura, shape ; sec-uris, axe ; D. pen-uria, penury ; promunt-urium, promon-
tory.
<j>) V. (Sup. St.) na-tura, nature ; sepul-tura, burial', men-sura, meastire ; cae-sura,
cutting, &c. : official terms : dicta-tura, dictatorship ; quaes-tura, quaestorship ;
cen-sura, censorship. Others imply ' the "work of an Agent (tor, sor) : ' pic-tura,
painting ; ton-sura, shaving, &c.
Adjectives.
a) V. cla-rus, gna-rus.
/3) V. glab-er, smooth ; integ-er, lac-er, sac-er, scab-er, rough : D. satur.
y) V. ludi-cer.
5) V. cre-her, frequent.
) D. The Derivatives have the Compar. suffix tara : al-ter, u-ter, dex-ter, sinis-ter,
nos-ter, ves-ter, ex-ter, in-ter, &c. (So in Adverbs ali-ter, pari-ter, &c.) See
above e).
<) V. av-arus, covetous ; can-orus, od-orus, son-orus (unc. aust-erus ; sev-erus ;
sin-cerus, pro-cerus?).
17) V. volu-cer, medio-cris (acer, alacer ?).
#) V. cele-ber ; lugu-bris ; salu-ber ; D. fene-bris, fune-bris, mulie-bris (drops r). This
suffix is from Sk. R. bhar, Gr. <ep-.
*) D. i. eques-ter, pedes-ter, palus-ter, seques-ter (secus), semes-tris (for semens-
tris) : 2. camp-estris, silv-estris, terr-ester (tris).
K) D. in art are a large class and imply 'Belonging to;' they are used for forms ^in
all if 1 is before in the word : consul-aris ; famili-aris ; milit-aris ; sol-aris ;
vulg-aris, &c. &c. &c. They form Substantives in ar an. See above o).
-A) The suffix arid is an enlargement of ari. The Adjectives derived from
Nouns and Particles imply character, quality, class, &c. : agr-arius, of land;
greg-arius, of a herd ; numm-arius, of coin ; necess-arius ; prec-arius ; volunt-
arius, &c. &c. &c. Hence Substt. See above TT).
<fO These are chiefly formed from Verbal Nouns of the Agent in tor (sor) and imply
' Belonging to : ' ama-torius, ora-torius, cen-sorius, &c. &c. &c.
j>) This is theFut. Participle Act. of Verbs, denoting * Intended activity :' ama-turus,
da-turus, placi-turus, i-turus, fu-turus, lu-surus, mis-surus, &c. &c. &c.
246 Latin Wordlorc. 59.
XII. XK
This soft Liquid is chiefly used in Deminutive Suffixes of D.
(ulo, 616, ello, &c.) : and it often denotes weakness, lightness > &c.
in Suffixes of Verbalia (iilo, ili, tili). But after a long Vowel it
has the same firmness as r, to which it is often equivalent. Thus
the Suffixes ali ari are virtually the same : but the former is always
preferred unless 1 occurs in the Stem (hiem-alis but lun-aris) :
but ario is never changed into alio (agr-arius). The Suffix bulo
is a softened form of bero (bro) ; bili of beri (bri), both from
root bhar, <f> ep- ; ciilo (as distinguished from the double Demin.
c-ulo) is a softened form of cero (cro) from root kar.
(i) Not formally Deminutive.
S. a) a /3) 16 iilo iileo 7) ciilo (do) d) bulo
t) elo r) ilo iilo T?) li ili 0) ali Hi eli.
A. a) iilo iileo /3) ilo
XII. X.
d)
Substantives.
a) V. assec-la, masc. follower.
/3) D. vio-la, violet (Gr. lov) ; pi-lum, pestle ; neb-ula, cloud. V. cuc-ulus, cuckoo ;
ang-ulus, corner ; fig-ulus, potter ; oc-ulus, eye ; cop-ula, link ; spec-ula, watch
tower ; exem-p-lum (for exim-ulum), tem-p-lum (for tem-ulum), &c. &c. In these
and others some deminutive influence may be surmised, and in many unc.
(cat-ulus, cum-ulus, fam-ulus, scop-ulus, Gr. ovroTreAos, stim-ulus, vit-ulus, fist-ula,
ins-ula, mer-ula, &c.). See 3). On reg-ula, rule ; teg-ula, tile, see pp. 16, 17.
Po-pul-us, e-pul-ae, probably contain the root Jar (pri] put pie. See P.
y) V. (Pres. St.) numerous : implying ' Instrument, means of action, y are Neut. : gu-
berna-culum, Jiclm ; ora-culum (-clum), oracle ; specta-culum, sight ; vehi-culum,
I'cliicle ; peri-culum, trial, peril, &c. &c. &c. In vinculum (vinclum), chain ;
torculum, press, C (qu) has fallen out after C : and it is not improbable that the
same occurs in ia-culum, javelin ; spe-culum, mirror. Unc. are (graculus,
jackdaw; surculus, sJwot ; baculum, "walking-stick, Gr. /3a-? saeculum, an age,
generation, &c.). See cero (cro) in Xt.
8) I r . (same meaning) : fa-bula, story ; su-bula, awl ; lati-bulum, hiding-place ; pa-
bulum, fodder ; voca-bulum, word, name, &c. D. turi-bulum, censer.
e) V. (Pres. St.) cand-ela, candle; (redupl.) cicind-ela, glowworm; suad-ela,/^r-
suasion : (with 11) loqu-ella, saying; quer-ella, complaint ; (Sup. St.) corrupt-ela,
corrjtption ; tut-ela, guardianship or (concrete) guardian, ward. D. client-ela,
clientage.
) (unc. aqu-ila); D. cap-illus, hair; anc-illa, maidservant ; arg-illa, clay ; scint-illa,
spark ; V. pist-illum, pestle ; vex-illum, banner, &c. (probably deminutive of lost
forms, or formed by analogy).
7)) V. cau-lis, stalk ; col-lis, hill ; strig-Tlis, flesh-brush.
0) D. Adjectival words formed into Subst. ali, Masc. : nat-alis, birthday ; riv-alis,
rival (unc. can-alls, canal ; feti-alis, sacred envoy ; sod-alis, comrade), &c.
Neut. foe-ale, neckwrapper ; penetr-ale, inner shrine ; anim-al, &c. p. 107, with
Plur. names of Feasts : Consu-alia, Luperc-alia, Termin-alia, &c. &c. p. 126.
ili, Masc. aed-ilis, edile ; Apr-ilis, April, &c. Neut. cub-ile, hast-ile, ov-ile,
sed-ile, &c. p. 107. Plur. Par-ilia, feast of Pales; Suovetaur-ilia, Feast with
sacrifice of swine, sheep, and steer, eli : patru-elis, cousin on father's side.
Adjectives.f
a) D. buV)-ulus, \f>fan ox ; caer-ulus, caer-uleus, sky-blue ; edent-ulus, toothless. V-
(PreslSt.) denoting ' Tendency : ' bib-ulus, cred-ulus, garr-ulus, pat-ulus, quer-ulus^
strid-ulus, sed-ulus, trem-ulus, &c. , all with demin. character : (unc. aem-ulus).
/J) D. nub41us, cloudy ; rut-ilus, reddish.
59. Derivation of Nouns. 247
y) m ) bin *bm t) tm (sin)
attli r}) all Hi uli eli.
(2) Deminutive.
S. and A.
I. a) iilo (anc. 515, which remains after e, I).
b) ello, illo, ullo, primarily deminutive, are not purely suffixal,
but contain the Stem-character i, n or r assimilated to 1 of the
Suffix : in some words they are perhaps used by analogy.
c) ello, 1116, secondary Deminutives for iil-uld.
d) elliilo, illiild, secondary Deminutives, when derived from b\
tertiary, when derived from c).
y) V. (Pres. St.) denoting Tendency or capacity : ag-ilis, nimble ; hab-ilis, apt ;
deb-ilis, weak ; fac-ilis, easy ; diffic-ilis, difficult ; nub-ilis, marriageable ; ut-ilis,
useful, &c. D. hum-ilis, lowly ; sim-ilis, like ; ster-ilis, barren : (unc. grac-ilis,
slender).
8) V. (Pres. St.) denoting chiefly 'Passive capability : ' mira-bilis, wonderfd ; muta-
bilis, changeable ; fle-bilis, mournful ; prob-a-bilis, approvable ; credi-bilis,
credible; no-bilis, noble, &c. &c. &c. Terri-bilis, terrible, has Active force.
(Sup. St.) ftex.-\\)i\is, flexible ; plaus-ibilis, commendable ; sens-ibilis, perceivable.
Add poss-ibilis, possible (of the Silver age).
e) V. (Sup. St.) Some denote only 'Passive quality, 1 differing little from the Perf.
Part. : a\-\.\\\s, fattened ; coc-tilis, baked; fic-tilis, fashioned; fis-silis, cleft; mis-
silis, sent ; nex-ilis, twined ; tor-tilis, twisted ; versa-tilis, made to revolve, &c. :
others denote ' Passive capacity : ' flex-ilis, flexible ; diffu-silis, expansive ; tac-
tilis, that may be touched; others ' A ctive quality ;' pen-silis hanging", ses-silis,
squab ; vol-atilis,^)/z^, &c. Abnormal : fer-tilis, fruitful, indicating an old word
fert-us (fut-tilis, futile T).
f) D. aqu-atilis, fluvi-atilis, river-dwelling, &c.
i\) all : D. (numerous) denote 'Belonging to,' Sac. : aequ-alis, dot-alis, fat-alis,furi-alls,
liber-alis, marti-alis, mort-alis, reg-alis, triumph-alis, &c. ; vit-alis, voc-alis, &c. &c.
&c. I1X : D. civ-ilis, er-ilis, host-ilis, puer-ilis, scurr-ilis, sen-ilis, serv-ilis, vir-ilis,
&c. SubtT-lis for sub-telis, of the woof, fine, sribtle. ulTf : Z>. cur-ulis, like a chariot
(applied to the ' sella ' of certain magistrates, which had that shape) ; trib-ulis,
of the tribe. The Adj. ed-ulis, eatable, is abnormal, eli : D. crud-elis, cruel;
f id-elis, infid-elis. See above 6).
(2) Deminutive Nouns.
I. a) O and A-nouns form Deminutives by joining ulus (a, um) to the dipt Stem un-
less e, i, 1, n, or r precede the ending :
riv-us, riv-ulus ; frigid-us, frigid-ulus ; cist-a, cist-ula ; scut-um, scut-ulum.
After e, 1, olus (a, um) is used :
alve-us, alve-olus : aure-us, aure-olus ; line-a, line-ola ; horre-um, horre-olum ; fili-us,
fili-olus ; glori-a, glori-ola ; savi-um, savi-olum.
Guttural and Dental Nouns add ulus (a, um) to the True Stem :
rex, reg-ulus ; comix, cornlc-ula ; adolescens, adolescent-ulus, adolescent-ula ;
caput, capit-ulum : lapid-u-lus becomes lapillus.
V) ulus (a), mus (a), Tnus (a), enus (a), become ellus (a) :
populus, popellus ; fabula, fabella ; aslnus, asellus ; geminus, gemellus ; patina,
patella ; catlnus, catellus ; catena, catella.
er (ra or era, rum) become ellus (a,um) :
liber, libellus ; miser, misellus ; capra, capella ; opera, opella ; labrum, labellum.
G-nus, g-num, and ulum usually form illus, ilium :
pug-nus, pug-illus ; signum, sigillum ; pOculum, pocillum ; (but scamnum, scabel-
lum).
248 Latin Wordlore. 59.
e) Substantival Deminutives olio, alo (for axiild), iileo, and Ad-
jectival aulo (aulio), aululo (aulliilo), are rare.
II. ) The double Deminutive c-ulo.
/:>) cXon is a rare Suffix : as homun-cio.
y) unculo in a few words is joined by analogy to Stems not
Nasal : av-unculus, fur-unculus, ran-unculus.
Note i. Care must be taken not to class among Deminutives
words which are not such : as Verbals in culum : iaculum,
poculum, &c. It is probable that umbra -culum and taberna-
culum should be ranked with these rather than with Deminutives.
2. Sometimes the meaning of a Deminutive differs altogether
from that of its theme : avunculus, uncle (on mother's side), from
avus, grandfather ; osculum, kiss, from os, mouth.
3. Deminutives sometimes express endearment, sometimes scorn :
usually smallness only. They keep the Gender of their Primitives.
4. Latin Deminutives have importance in the Romance languages,
which form many words from them : as L. luscini-ola, It.
usignuolo, Fr. rossignol, nightingale-, L. api-cula, Fr. ab-
eille,&tf ; L. agn-ellus, Fr. agneau, lamb; \j. gem-ellus, Fr.
jumeau, twin.
vi. Patronymica, Names derived from Parents
or Ancestors, are noticed at p. 75.
c) Porcellus from porculus, cistella from cistula, codic-illus from codic-ulus (codex),
pauxillus from pauculus, are secondary Deminutives.
d) Porcellulus from porcellus, cistellula from cistella, pauxillulus from pauxillus, are ter-
tiary Deminutives.
e) Coron-ula, corolla ; palus for (pajuilus) paxillus ; equ-us, equ-uleus or equ-ulus ;
pauc-ulus, paullus ; whence paullulus.
II. a) Other Consonant Nouns add culus (a, um) to the Stem :
frater, frater-culus ; pauper, pauper-culus ; animal, animal-culum ; flos, flos-culus ;
mus, mus-culus ; opus, opus-culum ; cor-culum for cord-culum.
And from Comparative Adjectives :
grandius-culus, rather older', melius-culus, a little better; plus-culum, somewhat
more.
On becomes un :
homo, homun-culus ; virgo, virgun-cula ; ratio, ratiun-cula.
OS becomes US in arbos, rumor :
arbus-cula, rumus-culus.
Bos (bovis) forms bucula, heifer, for bovi-cula.
I-nouns take culus (a, um), and usually shorten i :
piscis, pisci-culus ; levis, levl-culus ; pars, part-Tcula ; rete, reti-culum ; venter, ventrl-
culus. In a few Deminutives i is long, as canlcub, cutlcula, febricula.
From anguis, snake, comes anguilla, eel.
U-nouns join i-culus (a, um) to the Clipt Stem :
versus, vers-Tculus ; anus, an-icula ; cornu, corn-iculum. Lacus-culus, domun-cula,
are abnormal exceptions.
E-nouns add cula to the Stem ;
die-cula, re-cula.
Nube-cula, plebe-cula, vulpe-cula, from Nouns of Decl. 3., are formed as though from
E-nouns.
59. Derivation of Nouns. 249
vii. Names of Countries are usually formed
from the name of the people with ending ia.
Ital-i, Ital-ia ; Graec-i, Graecia ; Gall-i, Gallia ; Arab-es, Arab-ia ;
Arcad-es, Arcad-ia, &c.
Some with the ending is :
Pers-ae, Pers-is; Colch-i, Colch-is; Aeol-es, Aeol-is, &c.
Exceptions : Africa, ludaea, Illyricum, and some others.
viii. Nominative Endings of Derived Words,
according to their several meanings. 1
I. Substantives : *
(I.) Abstract :
1) Action; Faculty.
V. tio, sio ; tus, sus 4 ; io (fern.) ; tura, sura.
2) State; Habit; Effect:
V. or or- ; us or-, us er- ; ies, ium ; ma ; monia ; monium ;
ela (ella) ; tela ; Ido, edo ; Igo.
3) Quality ; Qualified Condition ; Function :
D. ia, ies, ium ; itia, ities, itium ; ntia ; tas ; tus ; tudo; ela ;
Ina ; io (fern.) ; monia ; monium ; edo ; ago, ugo ; atus
4 ; tura, sura.
(II.) Concrete :
1) Personal Agent ; Individual:
V. tor, sor (masc.), trix (fern.) ; atus 2 ; o on- (masc.) ;
D. tor (masc.), trix (fern.) ; atus 2 ; arius 2 ; es, it- ; o, io
(masc.).
2) Efficient Thing (Means, Instrument} .
V. en; men; mentum; (ulum) culum, crum ; bulum, brum,
bra; trum.
D. bulum, brum (in a few instances).
1 Examples :
I. (I) i) actio, visio ; actus, visus ; oblivio ; sepultura, versura.
2) furor ; decus ; pondus ; congeries, colloquium ; ruina ; querimonia ; alimonium ;
suadela ; corruptela ; libido, torpedo ; vertigo.
3) concordia, pauperies, consortium ; saevitia, mollities, calvitium ; ignorantia, in-
tellegentia ; celeritas, aedilitas, libertas ; senectus ; latitude, mansuetudo ; clien-
tela ; disciplina ; communio ; castimonia ; matrimonium ; pinguedo ; farrago,
lanugo ; consulatus, comitatus ; pictura, censura.
{II) i) V. doctor, cursor, adiutrix ; legatus ; comedo : D. viator, funditor, ianitrix ;
candidatus ; sicarius ; eques, miles ; naso, centurio.
2) V. unguen ; lenimen ; lenimentum ; speculum ; operculum, lavacrum ; vocabulum,
delubrum, latebra ; aratrum, feretrum : D. acetabulum (umbraculum, taberna-
culum may perhaps be taken as Verbalia).
250 Latin Wordlore. $$
3) Thing effected :
V. turn, sum.
4) Locality :
D. etum ; ctum ; Itum ; stum ; arium ; torium ; trina, tri-
num ; In a.
5) Object:
V. ex, Tc- ; D. ale, al ; are, r, lie.
Deminutives appear above, p. 247, and are not repeated here.
Obs. Under other Endings, us 2 ; ius 2 ; a ; urn ; is 3 ; es 3,
c., are comprised Derivatives various in meaning and origin, but
almost all concrete.
II. Adjectives :
(I.) Verbalia :
1) With Active sense :
ns (Pres. Part.) ; urus (Fut. Part.) ; cundus : bundus ; ax ;
idus ; Icus, ucus ; uus, Ivus ; ulus ; tilis (a few) ; ber, bris;^
cer, cris ; aneus.
2) With Passive sense :
tus, sus (Perf. Part.) : life ; biflis ; tilis, sflis ; uus ; tivus ;
ticius ; taneus.
3) With sense Active or Passive .
ndus (Gerundive).
(II.) Denominativa : with the meanings
1) ' Belonging to : :
ius ; Icus ; ticus ; anus ; ianus ; aneus ; enus, eneus ; ensis,
iensis ; alis, aris, arms ; Ilis, elis, ulis ; atilis ; Inus ; Ivus;
ster, stris, stis ; timus ; nus.
2) 'Made ' or ' consisting of: '
eus ; Inus ; nus, neus ; icius ; aceus ; uceus.
3) meritum, visum. (V'i.sio, the seeing; visus 4, the faculty of sight, or the fact of
sight : visum, the thing seen.)
4) quercetum ; salictum : virgultum ; arbustum ; viridarium ; praetorium ; tonstrina,
pistrinum ; officina.
5) vortex ; torale, puteal ; laqueare, calcar ; bublle ; but V. sedile.
II. (I) i) constans, fulgens ; dicturus, mansurus ; iracundus, verecundus ; errabundus ;
tenax ; timidus ; pudicus ; caducus ; nocuus, nocivus ; garrulus ; volatilis ;
saluber, lugubris ; volucer ; consentaneus, succedaneus.
2) notus, fessus ; docilis ; amabilis (terribilis, Act.) ; sutilis, fossilis; mutuus; vo-
tivus ; conducticius ; collectaneus.
3) notandus, delendus, gerundus.
(II) it regius, oratorius ; bellicus ; fanaticus, rusticus ; montanus, decumanus ; Caesa-
rianus ; spontaneus ; terrenus ; aeneus ; castrensis, Carthaginiensis ; hiemalis,
Solaris, gregarius. senarius ; erilis, crudelis, tribulis ; aquatilis ; marinus,
libertinus ; aestivtis ; pedester ; caelestis ; maritinaus, legitimus ; pater-nus. (Ob-
serve colurnus by transposition for corul-nus, from corulus, hazel,)
2) ferreus ; faginus, fagineus ; quenjus ; latericius ; hordeaceus ; pannuceus.
59. Derivation of Nouns. 251
3) ' Fitll of? ( abounding in : '
. osus ; olentus, ulentus, olens ; idus.
4) ' Endued with J (analogous to Perf. Part.).
atus, Itus, utus.
5) ' Having the nature of:'
stiis ; gnus.
6) Adjectives of Time have the endings tinus, tmus ; ernus,
urnus.
ix. Adjectives are also derived from Particles;,
some from Adverbs, some from Prepositions. 1
3) frondosus; fraudulentus, violentus, violens ; herbidus. The ending osus often
implies faultiness : glori-osus, full of (\&\\\)-glory , boastful ; fam-osus, (full of
fame, but) ill-famed', mor-osus, (full of moralities, but) peevish, morose. Ul-
entus, ul-ens probably combine the root of growth, ol, 111, with ent- the par-
ticipial suffix. Cru-entus, bloody, omits Ol.
4) auratus, togatus, auritus (from auris), astutus.
5) honestus, funestus, scelestus, robustus, venustus ; abiegnus, benignus, malignus.
6) annotinus ; hornotlnus ; serotinus ; matutlnus, vespertmus ; aet-ernus, hib-ernus,
di-urnus, noct-urnus.
Adverbs with their Derivative Adjectives :
diu ; diutlnus hodie ; hodiernus perendie ; perendmus
diuturnus nimis ; nimius repente ; repeiitlnus
eras ; crastlnus nuper ; nuperus simul ; similis
heri ; hesternus peregre ; peregrinus temere ; temerarius
Also semp-i-ternus from semper.
Prepositions with corresponding Adverbs and Adjectives are derived from various rudi-
ments :
an- an-te (for old Abl. anted or antid).
(anter-us) anter-ior : antlquus.
jos- pos-t (for pos-te=old Abl. postid). See M. Lucr. iv. 1186.
poster-us, poster-ior, postre-mus : post-Icus.
cl- ci-s ; ci-tra ; ci-tro :
(citer) citer-ior, citi-mus.
ul- ultra ; ultro :
(ulter-us) ulter-ior, ulti-mus : ultroneus.
com contra ; contro- :
(conter-us) : contr-arius.
ec- ex, e ; extra ; (extris) extrin-secus :
exter-us, exter-ior, extre-mus : externus ; extraneus ; extrarius.
in in-tus ; inter ; intra ; intro, (intris) intrin-secus :
(inter-us) inter-ior, inti-mus : intestinus : internus, inferus, infer-ior, infi-
mus, imus : infernus.
pri- prae ; praeter:
prior, primus ; priscus ; pristinus.
pro pro-pe ; propter :
propior, proximus : propinquus : probus : pronus.
sup- sub sus- ; super, supra ; subter :
super-us, super-ior, supre-mus : supinus. See Footnote, p. 202.
de (di-s) :
(deter-us), deter-ior, deterrimus.
re- retro.
Key derives reci-procus from re, pro, with suffix CO appended to each,
se- sine,
clam:
clandestinus (lost form clan-dus).
tar- : appears in tran-s, -ter, -tra.
252 Latin Wordlore. 59.
x. Adjectives derived from Proper Names.
A} From Personal Names i 1
1) Suffix ius :
This is the ending of Roman Nomina Gentilia (clan names) :
Cornelius, Fabius, lunius, lulius, Tullius. As such, it is usedsub-
stantively. But it is used adjectively to describe a law brought in,
a road or public edifice made, by a member of any gens, as lex
Roscia, via Appia, aqua lulia, theatrum Pompeium, &c. A
law brought in by two colleagues bore the twofold name, as lex
Papia Poppaea de maritandis ordinibus.
2) Suffixes anus, ianus, Inus, imply ' belonging to ' the person :
Caesar-z-anus, Cinn-anus, Sull-anus, August-anus (or August-
ianus), c. ; Plaut-inus, Verr-inus, &c., and ' oratio Metell-ina/ C.
Att. i. 13.
3) Suffix -eus is poetical : Caesar-eus, Hercul-eus, Romul-eus,
&c. Horace has Romula gens. Augustus is used adjectively, as
domus Augusta; historia Augusta ; socolumna Traiana,
portus Traianus.
4) Suffixes eus ius, for Gr. -aoe, and icus for Gr. -i^oe, are used
in personal Adjectives from the Greek : Pythagoreus, Aristotellus,
Socrat-icus, &c.
B) Gentilia : from Names of People, Cities, Towns, &c.
These are properly Adjectives ; but often used Substantively.
1) Suffix anus, chiefly from Places in a or ae : Alba-nus,
Roma-nus, Theba-nus ; but also from some Places in um or i : as
Tuscul-anus, Puteol-anus.
2) Suffix Inus, from Places in ia, ium : Amer-inus (Ameria),
Aric-inus (Aricia), Clus-inus (Clusium). Observe also Praenest-inus
(Praeneste), Reat-inus (Reate), Tarent-inus (Tarentum).
1 Roman Names. A Roman of distinction had at least three names : the Praenomen,
individual name ; the Nomen, name shewing the Gens or clan ; the Cognomen, sur-
name, shewing the Familia or family. Thus, L. lunius Brutus expressed Lucius of the
Gens lunia and Familia Brutorum. To these were often added Agnomina, titles either
of honour (Africanus, Asiaticus, Coriolanus, Creticus, Isauricus, Macedonicus, Numi-
dicus, Magnus, Maximus, &c.), or expressing that a person had been adopted from an-
other Gens : Aemilianus, (adopted from the Gens Aemilia), Domitianus, Licinianus,
Mucianus, Octavianus, Salvianus, Seianus, Terentianus, Titianus, and many more. The
full name of Augustus (originally an Octavius) when adopted by his uncle's will and
adorned by the Senate with a title, was Gaius lulius Caesar Octavianus Augustus.
The Roman Gentes were either patrician (Cornelia, lulia, &c.) or plebeian (Licinia,
Memmia, Coruncania, &c.) : or there might be a patrician and plebeian gens of the same
race, as of the Claudii. Theoretically they are referred to ancestors, whose Nomina
give them their titles ; being themselves due to various circumstances. Some Gentes
are derived from Numerals : Quinctia, Quinctilia (Pompeia, Pompilia, Pomponia, Pontia),
Sestia, Septimia, Octavia, Nonia, Decia : soPostumia. Some from Coloztrs : Albia, Caesia,
Flavia, Fulvia, Helvia, Livia, Rubria, Rutilia. Some from Animals : Aquillia, Asinia, Ap-
ronia, Caninia, Canuleia, Ovidia, Porcia, Verria. Many from Personal peculiarities :
Caecilia, Calidia, Catia, Claudia, Cordia, Curtia, Digitia, Genucia, Hirtia, luventia, Lici-
nia, Naevia, Opimia, Pedia, Plancia, Plautia, Silia, Spuria, Stertinia, Turpilia, Varia, Val-
gia, Vegetia, Vitellia, &c. Others are derived from Office, biisiness, station, birthplace,
59, Derivation of A djectives, 253,
3) Suffix as from. Places in na nae num no : Fiden-as (Fidenae),,
Arpin-as (Arpinum), Aquin-as (Aquin-um), Capen-as (Capena),.
Frusin-as (Frusino). Also Anti-as (Antium), Arde-as (Ardea).
These are declined in at-, like nostras, vestras, optimates, Pe-
nates.
4) Suffix ensis from Places in o, and from some in a ae urn :
Narbon-ensis, Cann-ensis, Mediolan-ensis. Some take i-e
Athen-i-ensis, Carthagin-i-ensis.
The same Suffix may represent Gr. euc, as Chalcid-ensis
eve). But eus is also kept : Demetrius Phalereus, Zeno Citieus
or Citiensis. We find Zeuxis Heracleotes for Heracleensis.
5) Peculiar Latin Adjectives of Place are :
Caer-es (it-) from Caere : Gamers, from Camerinum : Veiens,
from Veii ; Tiburs from Tibur : but, when things are qualified, the
usual forms are Caeret-anus, Camert-inus, Veient-anus, Tiburt-
inus.
6) The Suffixes Xus (cor), aeus (cuoc)> enus (rjvog) belong to Ad-
jectives derived from the Names of Greek Places : Corinthius,
Rhodius, Lacedaemonius, Larissaeus, Smyrnaeus, Cyzicenus.
7) The Greek Suffixes ates Ites otes are rare in Latin : Spar-
tiates, Tegeates (but the Adjective forms are Spartanus, Tegeaeus) ;
Abderites (but also Abderitanus) ; Epirotes, Heracleotes.
8) Feminine Gentile Names are in a is as : Cressa, Cretan,
Ausonis, Ausonian, Troas, Trojan woman.
C) Names of People are either derived from Names of Countries
and of Cities : Latinus (Latium), Romanus (Roma), Siceliotes
(Sicilia), or they are Primitive : Afer, Gallus, Syrus, Thrax, Cres
(Cretan}. Such Names form Adjectives in icus ius aeus ensis,
&c. : Africus, Gallicus, Syrius, Thracius, Cretaeus, Cretensis, Cre-
ticus, &c.
With Personal Names the primitive is often used adjectively, as
poeta Hispanus, miles Gallus, &c. Poets use it with Appel-
latives : Marsus aper, venena Colcha, flumen Rhenum, flu-
men Medum, Hor. ; and so Fern. Adjectives: Ausonis ora,
Cressa pharetra, Verg.
or residence, &c. : Antistia, Aurelia, Cluentia, Coelia, Coponia, Cornificia, Curia, Duilia or
Duillia,Falcidia, Flaminia, Fonteia, Furnia, Gabinia, Hortensia, Maria, Nautia, Scribonia,
Servia, Silvia, &c. The Gens lulia is traced back to lulus ; Titia to Titus ; Tullia toTullus,
&c.
The Cognomina are similarly distinguishable: in the oldest times the birthplace or
residence often gave a Cognomen; which sometimes descended to the Family, Came-
rinus, Sabinus, but usually not, as Auruncus, Caeliomontanus, Fidenas, Privernas, Siculus,
Soranus, Tuscus, &c.
Colaurs give rise to Cognomina: Albus, Flavus, Niger, Pullus, Rufus, Rutilus^
Animals: Asina, Bestia, Buteo, Canina, Catulus, Catullus, Corvus, Cossus, Galba,
Gallus, Lupus, Merula, Mus, Noctua, Porcina, Pulex, Taurus, Verres, Vitulus. Vege-
tables'. Caepio, Cicero, Piso ; Lactucinus. Parts oftlieBody. Arvina, Axilla, Barbula,
Cms, Denter, Nerva, Sura, Sulla (for Surula), Scapula : and with Suffix on (o) indi-
cating size or prominence of the feature : Capito (big-head), Fronto (big-brow), Labeo,
(thick lips), Mento (chinny), Naso( big nose : but Nasica, sharp nose), Pedo (splay foot\
&c. Implements : Caligula, Carbo, Caudex, Dolabella, Fusus, Malleolus, Marculus, Mar-
cellus, Pera, Pulvillus, Scipio, Stolo, Spinther, &c. Office, station, b^lsiness, ability, &c. :
Albinus, Bubuicus, Camillus, Cursor, Cornicen, Cunctator, Figulus, Hortator, Metellus,
254 Latin Wordlore. 59.
SECTION II.
tioTof Derivation of Verbs.
Verbs.
A) Verba Verbalia.
Inchoativa (Inceptiva) in sco 3, 53, p. 209, c.
Imitativa in isso i. \
Frequentativa in so, ito i. U 53, p. 205.
Deminutiva in illo i. j
Desiderativa in urio 4. 53, p. 206.
E) Verba Denominativa.
Most Verbs in Conj. i and 4 are from Substantives or Adjectives :
the greater number being Transitive.
laud- are I.
praise
dit-are i.
enrich
milit-are i.
serve in war
liber-are i.
set free
nomin-are I
name
sollicit-are i.
make anxious
fin-ire 4..
end
insan-ire 4.
be mad
vest-ire 4.
clothe
moll-ire 4.
soften
pisc-ari I.
fish
laet-ari i.
rejoice
mol-iri 4.
contrive
larg-iri 4.
bestow
Suffixes ul ol cin it ig- ( = ag-) ic- occur in Conj. i :
grat-ul-ari congratulate nav-ig-are sail
vi-ol-are do violence mit-ig-are soften
sermo-cin-ari discourse claud-ic-are limp
debil-it-are weaken commun-ic-are impart
So iur-g-are for iur-ig-are, pur-g-are for pur-ig-are.
Most in Conj. 2 are from Substantives ; a few from Adjectives :
the greater number being Intransitive :
call-ere, luc-ere, flor-ere, flav-ere.
A few U -verbs 3 are Denominativa :
acu-ere, metu-ere, minu-ere, tribu-ere.
Obs. Some Roots have a Trans, and an Intrans. Verb correspond-
ing to each other: fugare, to put to flight ; fugere, to fly. So cae-
dere, cadere ; iacere, iacere ; liquare, liquere ; pendere, pendere ;
placare, placere ; sedare, sedere and sldere.
Natta, Paterculus, Rex, Regulus, Salinator, Vespillo. Personal peculiarities, characteristics
or accidents : Ahenobarbus, Ambustus, Balbus, Barbatus, Brutus, Caecus, Caesar, Cato,
Celer, Celsus, Cerco, Cinna, Cincinnatus, Claudus, Cornutus, Crispus, Crassus, Curvus,
Dentatus, Felix, Festus, Flaccus, Flamma, Frugi, Geminus, Glabrio, Gurges, Lana-
tus, Lentulus, Lepidus, Longus, Nepos, Nobilior, Paetus, Pansa, Pilatus, Paullus,
Pollio, Potitus, Plancus, Plautus, Poplicola, Postumus, Priscus, Proculus, Pulcher, Scaeva,
Scaevola, Strabo, Torquatus, Tremulus, Trigeminus, Tubero, Varro, Varus, Verrucosus,
Vetus, Vulso.
Many Cognomina in anus inus were originally Adjectives derived from an earlier
Cognomen : Augurinus, Censorinus, Mamercinus, Paetanus, Rufinus, Silanus, &c.
An Agnomen of honour sometimes became a Cognomen of the family. Thus in the
Valerian clan (which had also the Agnomina Poplicola and Maximus) we find a family be-
coming Corvini from Valerius Corvus, and another branch Mcssallae from the capture of
Messana. Of many Cognomina as well as Nomina the origin cannot be traced.
59- Derivation of Particles. 255
SECTION III.
Derivation of Particles. J? o fj
Par-
i. Primitive Particles in Latin are few. Of these most tides.
belong also to kindred language. Such are
ab ; ante ; ambi- ; di- dis- ; ex ; in, indu- in- ; pro ; pri- prae ;
per per- (irapa and irepi) ', ob (ini ?) sub ; cum co- (avv ?,
KOLVOQ) ; et, at ; aut (?) ; que ; ne ; an ; si ; semi- ; sem-
or sim- ; heri.
A few cannot be traced with certainty beyond Italian language.
Such are
ad ; de ; re- ; se- ; sine ; cis ; uls ; hand ; eras ; sat.
ii. Most Latin Particles are either derived or
compounded.
1) Derived Particles are either
a) Denominative (from Substantives, Adjectives, or Parti-
ciples) ; or
b) Pronominal (from Pronouns).
c) A few only are from other Particles.
Derived Adverbs in general are either Cases of their themes, or
formed from them with peculiar Endings, in the manner of Cases.
The Cases which chiefly form Particles are the Accusative, the
Ablative, the Locative.
2) Particles may be compounded of the same or various Parts of
Speech. 1
1 From the List in pp. 228, &c. the student will be able to select examples of com-
pounded Particles.
I. Relative:
1) with its own Particles and Elements : quamquam, quoquo, ubiubi, utut, &c. : qua-
cumque, undecumque, utcumque, quotiescumque, &c. : quoque, ubique, undique,
utique, usque, usquequaque, umquam, uspiam, usquam : quippe : quousque : (with uter)
utrubi, utrimque, utroque, &c.
2) with Prefix ne : neque ; nee ; nequaquam, nequiquam, neutiquam ; numquam, nus-
piam, nusquam, neutrubi, necubi.
3) with Prefix all- \ aliquo, aliquam, aliquantum, alicubi, aliquoties ; with other De-
monstrative Prefixes: tamquam, sicuti, sicut,.namque, nempe, atque ; with Prepositions:
antequam, perquam, postquam, praequam, praeterquam, praeut, prout ; with Conjunc-
tions : at-qui, nun-cubi, si-cubi, si-cunde, &c. : with Adjectives : alioqui, ceteroqui, prius-
quam.
4) with Demonstrative Suffixes : quonam, quanam, ubinam, utinam, &c. ; with suffixed
Prepositions : quoad, quapropter, quocirca, quatenus, aliquatenus, &c. ; with Conjunc-
tions : quasi, quin, &c. ; with Verbs : quamvis, quovis, quolibet, ubivis, &c. ; with Nouns :
quomodo ; quare, cur ; quemadmodum, quamobrem, quominus, utpotc, &c.
II. Demonstratives :
Compounded with each other: hi-c, illi-c, &c. : hin-c, illin-c, &c. ; hu-c, illu-c, &c.,
alibi, aliu-ta, i-ta (for ita-d), i-tem, si-c, e-nim, etenim ; ast (at-set C. ?), au-tem, tamen
(tarn in?) ideo : With Prepositions: adeo, adhuc, dein, exin, proin, abhinc, dehinc,
inibi, interibi, postibi ; interim ; antea, antidea, antehac, antidhac, postea, postidea,
posthac, postilla, interea, praeterea, praeterhac, hacpropter (compare quapropter) ;
hactenus, eatenus ; horsum (hovorsum), illorsum, &c. From dein is formed dein-ceps
(capio).
Igitur is of obscure derivation.
256 Latin Wordlore. 59,
iii. Denominative Adverbs in the form of
Cases.
A) In the form of Accusative :
a) From Substantives :
1) Uncompounded : (perhaps) part im, partly ; foras (pi. \ out
of doors \ and (rarely) vie em, in the stead \ diu, a long time (for
dium).
2) Compounded with Particles, admodum, affatim, comminus,,
eminus, invicem, incassum, obiter, obviam, propediem, propemo-
dum, postmodum.
Clam, coram, palam, perperam, saltern or saltimare of question-
able origin.
b} From Adjectives :
1) in am : bifariam, &c. p. 149 : multifariam, plurifariam,
in many parts ; promiscam, protinam (Plaut): in as : alias.
2) in um : ceterum, circum, clanculum, commodum, demum,.
nimium, solum, verum : multum, paullum, parum, tantum, quan-
tum, &cy primum, secundum, iterum, &c., plerumque ; with many
Superl. minimum, plurimum, potissimum, postremum, summum,
ultimum, &c. (Non, not, anc. noen-um for ne-unum).
3) in e (from real or supposed Adj. in is) : abunde, facile, ap-
prime, impune, prope, paene, saepe, &c. On procliv-i, -e, see Madv.
C. Fin. 14 ; M. Lucr. ii. 455.
4) in iis, Xs (Comparative) : plus, minus, melius, potius, saepius,
magis (nimis?), &c. &c. &c. Also secus, tenus, protenus.
5) Re c ens for recent er is a special instance.
Obs. i. Add to these the Compounds with vorsum (versum),
as aliorsum, prorsum, rursum, &c. Some of these often use
the Nom. form : prorsus, rursus, &c.
Obs. 2. Poets freely use Neuter Adjectives Sing, (sometimes
Plur.) adverbially : ' perfidum ridens Venus/ Hor. ; ' crassum ridet
Vulfenius/ Pers. ; ' dulce loquentem Lalagen/ Hor. ; ' suave locus
resonat/ Hor. ; * sedet aeternumque sedebit/ Verg. ; ' sera coman-
tem narcissum/ Verg. See p. 374.
B) In the form of Ablative :
a) From Substantives :
i) in o : mod6 (o being shortened) ; ergo, numero ; and the
Compounds, extemplo, profecto, postmodo, saepenumero ; mag-
nopere or magno qpere, &c., ilico (in loco), oppido (ri irlty ?).
[The peculiar words antea (for ante ea), antehac (for ante haec), &c., have been variously
explained. Some scholars, as Bucheler, take the Pronouns to be Ablatives, datin? from
a time when the Prepositions ante, post, inter, praeter, &c., may have been constructed
_ , _ , ^"s HucinLiLy, H.IIU e
ea hac, to be Accus also the d growing out of a temporary confusion of Accus. and
Abl. forms at an era when the Abl. was losing its>ld final d. This view se
r seems right.]
59 Denominative A dverbs.
257
2) in e : forte, iure, rite, sponte.
3) in is (pi.) : gratis or gratiis ; ingratis or ingratiis ; foris. M.
Lucr. iii. 935.
b) From Adjectives and Participles :
1) in a (orig. Abl. ad, underst. parte or via) : dextra, laeva,
sinistra : the Pronouns ea, hac, alia, &c.
To this formation belong all the Prepositions in a, which are
really Ablatives Fem. (circa, citra, ultra, contra, c.).
2) in 6 orig. 6d (but cito) : certo, composite, continue, consulto,
falso, merito, raro, subito, tuto, vero, &c. &c., bipartite, c., inopi-
nato, necopinato; primo, secundo, &c. : immo : Superl. meritissimo,
postremo, supremo, ultimo, praesto : omnino, from a lost omninus :
Cp. denuo (de novo).
To this formation belong the Prepositional Adverbs citro, ultro,
intro, porro, retro, contro- from Adjectives in -ter (from tara,
comparative suffix).
3) in I : brevi, perbrevi (dicto or tempore).
4) in is : alternis (vicibus) ; paucis (verbis) ; imprimis or in
primis ; cum primis.
C) In the form of Locative (Place or Time) ; heri ; domi ; humi ;
ruri ; temperi ; vesperi or vespere ; mane (mani) ; diu, by day ;
noctu or nocti ; ho-die ; pri-die ; postri-die ; peren-die (Trtjoar),
the day after to-morrow ; cotidie. PI. quot-annis.
(The forms diu, long, perdiu and perdius, all day, interdius,
interdiu, in the daytime, are by C. considered to be Accusative.)
iv. Denominative Adverbs with Adverbial
Endings.
These Endings are principally
e (e) ; ter (er), iter ; tim, sim ; tus ; iens or ies.
1) Adverbs in e are derived from Adjectives and Participles of
the O-declension :
alt-e, caut-e, miser-e, pulchr-e, &c. &c. c.
Bene, male were shortened early, like mo do.
Obs. e appears to be an anc. Abl. for e-d. See p. 46.
2) Adverbs with the Compar. ending ter, iter are derived chiefly
from Adjj. of the Cons, and I -declensions :
audac-ter (audac-iter), difficul-ter, felic-iter, fortT-ter, moltf-ter,
pari-ter, &c. &c. Ti falls out : decen-ter for decenti-ter, &c.
Ali-ter is from the old form alis. %
Some O-Adjj. form Advv. in ter as well as in e :
dur-e and dur-iter : human-e and human-ifter ; luculent-e and
luculen-ter, &c.
3) Adverbs in tim, sim are derived
a) from Perf. Participles :
S
258 Latin Wordlore. 59 .
coniunotim, minu-tim, praeser-tim, rap-tim ; pede-tentim,
step by step (pedem tendere) ; sta-tim, immediately ; cur-
sim, pas-sim, sen-sim, seor-sim, &c. c.
b) from Substantives or Adjectives :
fur-tim, uber-tim ; vicis-sim ; singul-tim, &c.
Obs. Some form e as well as ixn :
gravat-e or -im ; separat-e or im, &c.
4) Adverbs in tus are from (i) Substantives : cael-i-tus; fund-T-
tus ; radic-i-tus ; pen-f-tus : (2) Adjectives : divin-I-tus : (3) Pre-
positions : in-tus ; sub- tus. Mord-Icus, with the teeth, is peculiar.
5) On the Numeral Adverbs in lens (is) see 33.
v. Derivation of Pronominal Particles.
Pronominal Stems give birth to various Case-form Particles
(Conjunctions and Adverbs), and again to various inseparable
Elements, which enter into the composition of other Particles.
1) The Interrogative and Relative Stem quo, quX (Prim, ka] :
whence the Case-form Particles
quom or cum, quam, quod ; qu5, qui, qua ; and the Ele-
ments u- urn- us- (whence u-bi, un-de, us-que, umquam,
&c.) * ~que (-pe ?) -cumque.
The Demonstrative Stems
2) *, *6 : whence the Particles ea, eo, and (with Suff.) i-bi :
and the Element im which with -de forms the Particle inde.
3) tfc, ta : whence the Particles tarn, turn, and (with Suff. 6
for ce) tun-c : also the Elements -tern -td -ft, -tti.
By composition of 1 with to is formed the Pronoun iste (for
istus), whence the Particles isti-c, istu-c, istim, istin-c, &c. Also
I-ta, ita-que, i-tem, f-ti-dem, &c.
4) no, na : whence the Particles nam, num, and (with Suff. c)
nun-c ; ne : and the Elements -nam, -num, -ne.
5) ho, hi (anc. so, si) : whence (with c) the Particles hi-c, hu-c,
ha-c, si-c : and the Elements ho-, him- : whence the Particle hin-c.
6) ol, ul, il } forms the Pronoun ille (for ol-us), and gives birth to
its Particles, illi-c, illu-c, ill-im, illin-c, illa-c, and olim.
7) al, all : compounded with i, 16 gives rise to the Pronominals
alius (al-is) al-ter, and forms or enters into numerous Particles, alio,
alia, al-ibi, ali-ter, &c.
8) c* forms the Prep, ci-s and the Element ce (c), which becomes
a Suffix to so many Pronouns and Particles.
Note. Other Particles formed by Pronom. Stems in Composi-
tion with each other, with their own Elements, and with various
Prefixes and Suffixes, are shewn in the Footnote, p. 255.
1 Corssen formerly (Kr. B. i.) adopted the common view, that u-bi, un-de, u-ti (ut),
u-ter and Cpp. are from the Rel. quo-, dropping the guttural. But in Kr. N. 26, he
subscribes to the opinion of H. Weber, that their root is a Demonstr. Pron. U, which as-
sumes also Interrog. and Rel. power : and that -c-u-bi, -c-un-de, -c-u-ter are distinct Rel.
formations. The question must be regarded as still ' sub iudice.'
6o. The Composition of Words. 259
Obs. I. The Dual Pronoun u-ter (Gr. Trorcpoc or Korepog) forms
Particles of its own and in composition with many above named.
Obs. 2. Corssen forms e-t, a-t, au-t, au-tem, by composition of
the Prim. Pronom. Stem a with the Stem to. This may also be
the strengthening element e in e-nim, e-quidem, ec-ce (for e-ce).
Obs. 3. The Particles dum, iam, with the Elements -dam, -dem,
-do, -de, -dtcm, also -iam, have been usually assigned to a Prono-
minal Stem; but Corssen (Kr. Beitr. p. 197, &c.) derives all these
forms (with diu, dius) from the Sanskrit Root div, to shine,
whence dyus = dies. Compare propediem. 1
The Elements -pe and -iam form the compound Element -piam.
vi> Some other Particles.
With the suffix per are formed aliquant-is-per, paul-is-per,
tant-is-per, 2 parum-per, nuper (novi-per) and sem-per, once for all,
always, from root sama, as sem-el, singuli, simplex, &c.
As a prefix, per is intensive : per-multum, per-iucunde, &c. &c.
C. derives de-mu-m, de-ni-que from Adjectives formed by de:
immo from an Adjective in-mus.
Mox (/zoy-tc; ?), vix, saepe, procul, haud or hau, are obscure. On
the last see C. Ausspr. i. 205.
The Conj. licet is a Verb : its compounds ilicet (ire licet),
scilicet (scire licet), videlicet (videre licet), are sentences.
Dumtaxat (dum taxat), 'while one estimates ' = merely, is a
clause.
Vel, ve is from velle, to choose. Nimirum, no doubt ^TNnwm.
est ni.
Fors is a Subst. used adverbially, (it is) a chance, perchance : and
in forsit, forsitan, perhaps (for fors sit, for sit an). Fortassis-
forte an si vis, for which is used fortasse, perhaps.
Prepositions are compounded together in de-super, in-super.
SECTION IV.
The Composition of Words.
60
i. Composition takes place when two words are so compo-
joined as to form one word. woTds f
1 The Particles formed by this class of enclitics are :
a) quon-dam ; /3) quT-dem, ibl-dem, utrobl-dem, indT-dem, itl-dem, indentl-dem, prl-dem
and Cpp. tan-dem, tanti-dem, tantun-dem : -y) un-de and Cpp., in-de, ali-un-de, quam-de ;
6) quan-do and Cpp. aliquan-do, &c. : ) du-dum (for diu-dum), ne-dum, non-dum, nec-
dum, haud-dum, nihil-dum, vix-dum, primum-dum, etiam-dum, inter-dum : also with the
Imperatives age-dum, mane-dum, stay a bit, fac-dum, do just, ades-dum, &c.). )
iamiam, et-iam, nunc-iam, quon-iam, us-p-iam, nus-p-iam. C. forms qui-a from qui-iam.
On iamiam, see M. Lncr. Hi. 894.
Donee is for do-ni-que, do-ni- being an Adjectival form from the root diu-s. M. Lucr.
v. 997. Donicum in Plautus=donec cum.
Other compounds of diu-s are tamdiu, quamdiu, aliquamdiu, perdiu, interdiu and
interdius, nudius.
a The suffix *is(=ius)' is used in Comparison of Degree (mag-is), Time (paul-is-) or
Place (sin-is-ter). It is found also as us (minus, secus, &c.).
S 2
260 Latin Wordlore. 60.
(Only Nouns and Verbs are here considered: the
Composition of Particles being shewn in Section III.)
The latter word in Composition is Fundamental, the former
Determinative.
Sometimes the words are so joined that one actually agrjes with
the other i 1
res-publica ; ius-iurandum ; tres-vin :
or that the second actually governs the first :
senatus-consultum ; veri-similis.
Such compounds can be severed :
resque publica ; senatusve consulta.
But generally one part or both lose the form of words :
magnanimus; Troiugena ; artifex.
ii. Composition of Words maybe (i) constructive, when
one of the parts in a Noun or a Verb has the nature of
a Case governed by the other part : (2) attributive,
when the first part in a Substantive attributively qualifies
the second : (3) adverbial, when the first part adverbially
modifies the second : (4) possessive, when Adjectives are
so compounded as to imply 'having* the fundamental
part in some qualified manner, or ' not having ' it. 2
A} Substantives are compounded
i) constructively ; when the parts are
S. x V. : agri-cola (qui agrum colit) :
1 Parathetic Compounds, in which either the parts actually agree, or the first is governed
by the second, are very few : as (i) iusiurandum, oath ; (2) agricultura ; aurifodinae,
gold-mine; iurisconsultus, civil lawyer , ludimagister, schoolmaster-, pater- mater-
filius-fanrilias ; plebi-scitum ; (3) verisirailis , (4) lucrifacere, pessumdare, venumdare,
vilipendere.
In Pronouns we find such forms as alteruter, quotusquisque, quisquis, &c. ; and in
Numerals additive Compounds : as duo-decim, tertius-decimus, &c. ; subtracting ; as un-
de-viginti, duo-de-triginta, &c. ; multiplicative : as ducenti, treceni, &c.
2 Examples of Synthetic Composition.
A) Substantives:
S. x V. The Verb-roots which form constructive Compounds with determinative
Substantives are principally these : ag- caed- capi- can- col- faci- (f Tc-) die- leg-
speci- : as remex, remigium, navigium ; homi-cida, parri-cida (-cidium) ; auceps,
aucupium, manceps (-cipium), municeps (-cipium), particeps (-cipium) ; bucina,
f idi-cen (-cTna), tlbi-cen (-cina), tubi-cen, galli-cinium, cock-crowing ; caelicola,
ruricola ; aedificium, arti-fex (-ficium), carnifex, opifex, pontifex ; sacrificium ;
veneficium ; causs-idicus, pleader ; iudex, iudicium ; florilegium, sortilegus, sorti-
legium, spicilegium ; auspex, auspicium, exti-spex (-spicium), haruspex. Other
examples are : funambulus, rope-dancer \ nomenclator, namecaller(ca\^r&) ; nau-
fragium, shipwreck ; caprimulgus, goat-milker ; puer-pera (-perium) from parere,
also vi-pera (for vivi-para) : stipendium (for stipi-pendium), libripens ; faenisex ;
iustitium, stoppage of law-courts (ius sistere), solstitium ; lectisternium ; nas-
turtium ; aedituus (aedem tuens), &c.
6o. The Composition of Words. 261
S. x S. : viti-sator (vitium sator).
2) attributively ; when the parts are
A. x S. or N. (Numeral) x S. : pleni-lunium : tri-ennium.
3) adverbially ; when the parts are
N. x V. or P. x V. : prin-ceps ; in-edia.
Note. P. x S. may be (i) constmctive : inter-montium ; or (2) ad-
verbial : com-mercium ; nihil (ne-hilum, ni-hilum, Lucr. iv. 516).
B) Adjectives are compounded
1) constructively ; when the parts are
S. x V. : armi-ger ; melli-fluus.
P. x S., when S. is in the nature of a governed Case : exspes.
2) adverbially, when the parts are
A. x V. : N. x V. : P. x V. : omni-potens ; bi-fidus ; bene-
volus.
JV.xA.: P.xA.: semi-vivus, septem-geminus ; immemor.
Sx S. Substantives of this form are few : caprificus, wild fig ; iuglans (lovis glans) ;
manupretium ; rupicapra, chamois.
AxS. Substt. few: latifundium ; privilegium ; viviradix ; medi-astlnus.
N. x S. numerous : see 33 with bi- tri- &c. : as ilibra, biduum, biennium, &c. ;
decempeda, ten-foot pole ; teruncius, three-ounce coin ; also with semi- sesqui- :
sembella (for semi-libella), selibra (for semilibra), semideus, semihomo, semihora, -
semivir ; semuncia, sescuncia, sesquihora, sesquimensis, &c.
N. x V. : P. x V. : rare : for such words as accola, incola, advena, convena, ambages,
coiux, conviva, dedecus, incus, mdigenr,ingenium, indoles, proles, suboles, obiex
or obex, obses, perfuga, transfuga, praefica, praeses, &c. may be treated as de-
rivatives of the Compound Verbs accolo, incolo, advenio, &c., or, at least, as coor-
dinate with these.
P. xS. (i) constriictive : adverbium, ambarvalia, amburbium, conclave, ingluvies,
interlunium, internecio, internundinum, intervallum, pomoerium, postliminium,
proconsul, promunturium, pronomen, propraetor, subsellium, supellex, super-
cilium. (2) adverbial : abavus, abnepos, abneptis, administer, adminiculum, ad-
nepos, agnomen, cognomen, coheres, coinmilito, compes, condiscipulus, con-
servus, consobrinus, contubernium, convallis ; deunx, dodrans ; ignominia, im-
pluvium, incuria, intemperies, internuntms, interpres, interrex, interregnum ;
nefas, negotium, nemo, persona, praenomen, praesaepe, proavus, progener, pro-
mulsis, pronepos, proneptis, remora, subcenturio, subpromus, superficies.
I?) Adjectives.
S. X V. chiefly poetic : from the following and other Verb-roots : cm- die- fer- f Ic- fr5g-
flu- fug- gen- ger- leg- son- vaga- vom- : faticmus, fatidicus, aurifer, munif Icus,
naufragus ; mellifluus, lucifugus, nubigenus, belliger, morigerus, florilegus, fluc-
tisonus, nemorivagus, flammivomus. Add arcitenens, velivolus, &c. ; armipotens,
caelipotens, &c. See Examples of P. x S. in next page.
A.xV.i N.y.V~: P.X.V.: from the following and other Verb-roots : die- f Ic- fid-
flu- loqu- sci- son- vaga- vola- : veridicus, mirificus, multifidus, largifluus, vani-
loquus, dulcisonus, solivagus, altisonus ; quadrifidus, septemfluus ; conscius, in-
scius, nescius, praescius, benef Icus, malevolus, necopinus, innuba, &c. Horri-
sonus, terrificus, &c. take their determinative part from the rudiment of the Verbs
horrere, terrere. Words like invidus, providus, profiigus, &c., maybe regarded as
derivatives of the Verbs invideo, provideo, profugio, &c.
.N.X.A. : chiefly determined by semi-, a few by sesqui- and other numerals: semi-
barbarus, semihians, seminudus, sesquioctavus, trigeminus, &c.
262 Latin Wordlore. 60.
3) possessively ; when the parts are
A. x S. : N. x S. : magn-animus ; centi-ceps.
S. x S. : ali-pes ; igni-comus.
P. x S. : when S. is not in the nature of a governed Case :
con-cors, in-numerus, prae-ceps.
C) Verbs are compounded
i) constructively ; when the parts are
S. x V. : belli-gerare ( = bellum gerere).
P.xA.:
com- implies union : compar, compos, consimilis, &c.
ex- intensifies : edurus, efferus, &c.
ob- implies ' coming in face :' oblongus.
per- ' throughout, in a high degree : ' pervigij ; perdifficilis.
prae- (i) 'excess:' praelongus, praecelsus; (2) 'priority:' praecanus, prema*
turely grey;' praeposterus, last first ', inverse; (3) l extremity : ' praeustus,.
burnt at the tip.
pro- forward : procurvus, propatulus.
re- red- back : recurvus ; again, redivivus.
sub- diminishes : subobscurus, rather dark, subtristis, somewhat sad.
ve-=male : vesanus, w#^=malesanus.
ne- is privative : nefandus, nefastus, impious.
in- (inseparable negative = Greek av-) forms numerous Cp. Adjectives : impar,
impotens, impius, ingratus, insanus, infidelis, inutilis, ignarus, ignavus, ignotus,
ignobilis, illotus, irritus, &c. &c. &c.
A.XS. : N.xS. : S.xS. : unanim-is (us), l having" 1 one mind, longi-manus, ' having*
long hands : tripes, ' having' three feet : anguicomus, snake-haired. So aequa-
cvus, longaevus, multiformis, misericors ; sellers ; biennis, bifrons, triceps, tri*
linguis, &c. &c. ; cornipes, sonipes, &c.
P. x 6". (i) When P. is of adverbial nature :
anceps (ambi-ceps), double-headed, doubtful.
coaevus, concurring- in time : cognominis, communis, conco^r, confinis, consan^
guineus, consonus, consors, conterminus, &c. &c.
discolor, divided (differing) in colour ; discors, dissonus, &C.
imbellis, unwarlike ; imberbis, beardless ; immanis, implumis, importunus, inanim-
is (us), inerm-is (us), iners, infamis, informis, infrenis, illimis, illunis, inglorius r
iniurius, insomnis, invius (but insignis from in in t on), &c. &c. &c.
obscenus, obscurus, obvius.
pervius.
praeceps, praesignis, praevius, &c.
proclivis, profundus, &c.
vecors.
(2) When P. has a prepositional nature : see p. 261. i).
abnormis, amens, avius, &c.
acclivis, affinis, &c.
antelucanus, antemeridianus, antesignanus, &c.
circumforaneus.
cisalpinus, cisrhenanus, cispadanus, &c.
commodus.
declivis, decolor, deformis, degener, delirus, demens, devius, &c.
effrenus, effrons, egregius, elinguis, enervis, enodis, enormis, exanimis, excors,
exheres, exlex, exsanguis, exsomnis, exsors, extorris, &c.
obnoxius, opportunus.
perduellis, perennis, perfidus, periurus, pernox, &c.
pomeridianus.
profanus, profestus, prosperus.
securus, sedulus, &c.
subdialis, subdolus, sublucanus, subsignanus, subsolanus, subterraneus, suburbanus,
&c.
transalpinus, transmarinus, &c.
C) Verbs.
5". X V. : aedificare, significare ; litigare ; vociferari, morigerari.
6o. The Composition of Words. 263
A. x V. : aequi-parare (=aequum parare).
V. x V, : cale-facere ( = calere facere), cale-fieri.
2) adverbially ; when the parts are
P. x V. : bene-dicere ; ne-quire ; ab-ducere, and all Verbs
similarly compounded.
P.xS.orP.xA.: ef-feminare : e-rudire. 1
Note. Words which have two Determinative parts are called
Decomposita : im-per-turbatus. On Compound Words in Latin
seeM. Lucr. p. 312-313.
A. x V. : amplificare, gratificari, &c.
V. x V. : These are the Compp. of Verb-roots with facio, fie. See p. 217, and on the
quantity of e see Prosody.
1 The student may usefully test the force of Verbs compounded with Prepositions by Compo-
comparing, with the help of a good Dictionary, the meanings and uses of the Compounds sition of
of the oldest and most obvious Simple Verbs : such as ago, cado, caedo, cano, capio, cedo, Verbs
curro, dico, do (dha), duco, emo, eo, facio, fero, habeo, iacio, lego, mitto, moveo, nosco, ^l 1 Pre "
pleo, pono, porto, quaero, rego, rogo, sedeo, sto, sisto, sum, teneo, tendo, veho, venio, P - OS1 "
verto, video, voco.
When compounded with Verbs :
1. Ab, a, abs {from, away) always denotes 'separation ; ' absum, am away ; abeo, go
away ; aufero, take away ; abstineo, refrain from, &c. Note abdicd (me magistratu),
resign office ; abrogo (legem, &c.), repeal. Abundo,./?0w over, aboimd; abutor, use tip,
abuse, contain the notion of excess.
2. Ad (to, at, near) generally denotes, (i) ' approach, presence at or near ; ' adsum, am
Present ; adeo, go to ; advenio, come to ; assideo, sit by ; adsto, stand by, &c. : hence,
(2) * application to : ' adhibeo, apply ; admoneo, admonish ; afficio, affect ; alloquor, ad'
dress, &c. : (3) 'acquisition,' as accipio, receive; adipiscor, gain; arrogo, claim, &c. :
(4) ' addition' as addo, add; adnumero, reckon with ; addisco, learn besides : (5) 'action
to the full:' admiror, admire; adedo, eat up ; afficio, affect ; agnosco, recognise; atton-
deo, shear close, &c. : (6) ' response, favour, sympathy : ' acclamo, cheer ; adfleo, weep
with ; arrideo, smile on ; annuo, assent : so affulgeo, shine on, &c. The Verb adimo,
take away (quis te mihi casus ademit? Verg.), cannot be a true form. It is probably a
vocal corruption of abemo, an ancient word cited by Festus, the sound of which would not
be agreeable. Ar- was an old form of ad-, as arcesso, arbiter, arvorsum.
3. Cum, com-, con-, co- (with, together) implies, (i) 'union, coming, bringing, or acting
together : ' coeo, unite ; concurro, run together ; colligo, collect ; confero, bring togetJier \
convenio, meet ; convoco, call together, &c. For various purposes : (a) ' comparison : '
compare, compono, confero, compare, &c. : (/3) ' constraint : ' cohibeo, restrain ; cogo,
compel, &c. : (y) 'friendly action : ' colloquor, talk with ; concede, allow ; confido, trust ;
confiteor, confess ; consolor, console ; corrigo, correct : (8) ' hostile action : ' confligo, battle
with ; colluctor, struggle with ; so coarguo, convinco, confute. (2) In some words it im-
plies ' combined thought, reflection : ' concipio, conceive ; conicio, guess ; compute, reckon
up- (3) As implying a concurrence of parts or powers in action, this particle gives to
many verbs the sense of completeness or intensity : cognosce, leam ; confide, complete ;
commoveo, disturb ; compleo,^?// up ; corrvLO.fall in ; consume, waste ; contendo, strive ;
converto, turn round : cohorresco, contremisco, shiidder all over ; convalesce, get well,
&C. So consterno, bestrew ; collino, besmear.
4. De (down, down from, from) implies, (i) 'action downward :' decide, fall down, ;
deicio, throw down; depono, lay down: (2) 'absence, departure, removal, prevention,'
&c. : decedo, depart ; detineo, detain ; demo, take away ; dehortor, dissuade ; deterreo,
deter; deprecor, pray against ; desum, am wanting; deficio, revolt, fail, &c. ; derogo,
abate (a privilege by law ; see word in dictionary), &c. : (3) ' diminution, subtraction : *
depleo, empty ; deperdo, lose a part. In the last word and others, as deerro, stray ; de-
cipio, deceive ; deludo, delude ; detero, rub off; detraho, detract, &c., the preposition
carries a bad sense (deterioration). Debeo (dehibeo), owe, i.e. have a debt or minus
quantity, to be subtracted : (4) ' negation or retractation : ' dedeceo, misbeseem ; dedisco,
264
Latin Wordlore. 60.
unlearn ; dedoceo, unteach ; despero, despair. (5) In numerous words it implies ' in-
tensity or completeness ' (compare the phrase *de haut en has ') : deambulo, walk up and
down ; deamo, love exceedingly ; defleo, weep intensely ; decerno, decree ; debello, finish
a war', defungor, discharge ; deleo, blot out, destroy ; deprendo, catch ; devenio, arrive ;
devinco, vanquish, &c. (6) Such words as dedlco, dedicate ; defero, offer, imply hri-
mility in the agent. Decurro means variously run down, complete a course, or have re-
course.
5. Ex, e (put of) implies, (i) ' action out or from : ' exeo, go out ; eicio, cast out ; ex-
tendo, stretch out ; eximo, take out, take away : (2) ' manifest action : ' edico, proclaim ;
exhibeo, exhibit ; exhorresco, shudder visibly ; exsisto, stand forth, exist : (3) 'achieve-
ment of action : ' edisco, learn by heart ; efficio, effect ; elaboro, work out ; enumero,
count up ; evenio, happen ; evinco, prove ; existimo, form opinion, think : so effero, i.
drive wild ; effemino, make womanish. Note exaudio, hear from far.
6. In (in, into, against, upon) implies, (i) ' action in, being in : ' insum, am in ; inam-
bulo, walk in ; incolo, inhabit ; inerro, wander in : (2) ' action into : ' ineo, ingredior,
enter ; immitto, send into, &c. : (3) ' action onward : ' incedo, move on ; impello, urge on,
&c. : (4) 'effective action,' in many Transitive verbs : imminuo, lessen, break; impetro,
obtain by prayer ; impleo, fill ; incendo, set on fire ; inficio, infeci ; instituo, informo,
instruct ; instruo, furnish ; irrigo, water, &c. : (5) 'action upon, over, against,' &c., in
many Trajective Verbs : illido, dash upon ; impono, place on ; impertior, impart ; in-
cumbo, lean on ;immineo, impendeo, overhang ; insurgo, rise against, &c. : (6) ' intensive
action,' especially in Inceptive Verbs : illucesco, dawn ; incalesco, grow hot ; ingravesco,
grow worse ; intumesco, swell up, &c. Remark incipio, begin ; invenio, find (come
upon) ; invideo, envy (look on with evil eye). An ancient form of in was endo, iftdu
(evSov), which in old Latin appears in composition with a few words : endogredi or indu-
gredi=ingredi ; endoperator or induperator=imperator. So ind-igeo ; ind-oles.
The negative particle in- appears in the compounds ignosco, excuse, pardon, and im-
probo, disapprove.
7. Inter (between, among) denotes, (i) ' action between : ' intercido, fall between ; inter-
pono, place between ; hence, (2) interruption : interpello, i. address abruptly ; interrogo,
question; intervenio, intervene : (2) ' hindrance, stoppage \' intercede, forbid (by veto) ;
intercludo, $ hut off; interdico, prohibit, exclude : (3) 'concernment in : ' intersum, am en-
gaged in, am present at ; interest, it concerns. Inter has a peculiar use in the words
intermorior, intereo, die ; interemo, interficio, kill. See Per. Also intellego, perceive,
understand. Prof. Key (Philolog. Trans.) says that the notion of ' through ' is often con-
veyed to Compounds by inter in Lucretius : interfodio, interfugio. See M. Lucr.
iv. 716.
8. Ob (=eiri) seems to denote ' occupation of space in front : ' as, obeo, go to encounter,
Perform, die, &c. ; obicio, cast in the way ; occurro, meet ; oflfero, offer, present. This
is sometimes hostile : as, obsideo, besiege ; obsto, oppose ; obsum, harm ; obruo, opprimo,
overwhelm ; oppugno, attack ; obloquor, speak against ; sometimes friendly : as, oboedio,
obsequor, obtempero, obey. 'Persistence' is often implied by this particle: obstupesco,
stand amazed ; obdormisco, slumber ; obsolesco, become obsolete. The use of obs is
doubtful : obs-trudo in some MSS. of Plautus seems the only authority. Ostendo, show,
may perhaps be a corruption of the old phrase ob os tendo, since obtendo, stretch toward,
is an existing . compound. Omitto, leave off, omit, cease, if for ob-mitto or om-mitto
(which is phonetically possible), must be referred to the meaning of 'persistence' Operio,
cover, is not (as a Latin verb) compounded with ob, but may contain its root.
Obs. Note the Adjj. obliquus, athwart; obscurus, dark (having oneta, Prim, skit, in
front).
9. Per has the general meaning, through ; percurro, run through : hence, thoroughly ;
perdisco, learn thoroughly. Its use (see inter) is peculiar in pereo, perish, am undone
(pessum eo) ; peremo, kill; perdo, ruin, destroy, lose, for which in older Latin appears
pessum do. These uses of per, inter, may perhaps grow out of some now forgotten cus-
tom or superstition.
10. Prae (before) expresses, (i) 'priority of place or rank ; ' as, praeeo, go before ; prae-
ficio, place in command ; praesum, am in command ; praepono, prefer ; praeluceo, out-
praetexo, skirt, border.
6o. The Composition of Words. 265
11. Pro prod- (forth, forward, before, for) expresses, (i) ' motion or action forth, pttb-
licity : ' prodeo, go forth \ prodo, give forth, surrender, betray ; promo, take forth ; pro-
fero, bring forth ; provoco, call forth, challenge ; proclamo, proclaim, &c. : (2) ' motion or
action forward : ' procedo, go forward ; procumbo, fall forward ; promoveo, promote ;
propello, drive forward, &c. : (3) 'action in front : ' prohibeo, hold aloof , forbid ; pro-
^>\\<g(\Q, fight for; protego, protect ; protero, trample down (a) with the notion of advan-
tage ; as, procure, care for ; proficio, prosum, profit ; provenio, come on, prosper, &c. :
{b) of prominence ; as, promineo, jut out ; propendeo, hang forward ; promereo, deserve
ininently ; (4) 'priority ' (rare) : proludo, prelude ; propino, pledge a health ; provideo,
look out, foresee. The most noticeable verbs compounded with pro are, (a) promitto, lit.
send forth ; which obtains the meanings let grow (hair, beard, &c.), predict, and hence
its derived but most usual sense, promise : (b) prorogo, put off(io> a forward time) by
legal act ; prorogue,
12. Sub sus- (under) may imply, (i) * being under : ' subsum, am under, am at hand ;
subiaceo, lie under', submerge, dip under; subscribo, write under; subsisto, stand
under; succumbo, sink under; suffulcio, prop ; sustineo, sus fain : (2) ' motion under'.'
subdo, subicio, submitto, suppono, put under ; subeo, go under, undergo ; subigo, bring-
under, subdue ; suffundo, pour under : (3) ' motion from under : ' subduco, subtraho,
subveho, withdraw ; submoveo, remove (from below) ; subverto, overthrow ; (upward") ;
sublevo, raise up ; suscito, rouse up ; suspendo, hang up ; suspicio, look up, look up to,
suspect ; suspiro, sigh : (4) ' motion in close sequence : ' subsequor,yi?//0w close ; succedo,
ome after, succeed, also means go under, be s^lccessful ) &c. : (with a view to help or sup-
ply) subvenio, succurro, succour ; sufficio, suppeto, suppleo, siipply ; subrogo, supply
(a legal successor). Sometimes sub implies * secrecy : ' succenseo, am angry (in the heart) :
surripio, steal; sometimes slight action; subblandior, fawn a little; subirascor, am
father angry,
13. Dis- di- (6ia) (apart, asunder) implies 'division, severance, difference, distinction?
&c. : diduco, sever; disto, stand apart, am distant; dido, spread; diffindo, cleave;
dignosco, distinguo, distinguish ; differo, sunder or differ ; dimitto, dismiss , discedo,
depart ; diribeo, dirimo, divide, divide ; disrumpo, pull in pieces ; discumbo, recline apart
(of guests at table), &c. It is particularly used to express difference in argument, opinion,
action : discepto, dispute, dissero, argue, dispute, discuss ; discrepo, dissentio, dissideo,
differ in sentiment, disagree; digladior, dimico, contend in combat; hence, diiudico,
judge between contending sides. In some words dis- gives a negative sense : displiceo,
displease ; diffiteor, deny ; diffido, distrust : in some it is intensive : disperdo, ruin
utterly; dispereo, am utterly ruined; discrucio, torture painfully. The verb diligo,
love, implies a choice between different persons.
14. The inseparable particle red- re- (back, again) conveys the two general meanings :
I. 'reciprocated action : ' II. 'repeated action :' but the shades of meaning are nume-
rous, and will repay minute analysis with the aid of the dictionary.
I. If AB be a straight line, with motion from A to B, then red- or re- implies
1) ' recurrence from B to A :' redeo, return ; recurro, run back ; reduce, lead back ;
relabor, slide back ; remitto, send back; redhibeo, repono, replace; refero, reporto, bring
back ; revoco, call back ; reddo, give back, restore ; redimo, buy back, redeem, ransom ;
renuntio, tell back, bring tidings ; restituo, restore. Here rank compounds which ex-
press reflected light, echoed or replying sound : respondeo, answer ; reluceo, shine back ;
reboo, remugio, rebellow; tidal reflux : refluo, redundo, fi ow back, &c. ; but in actions
vrhich by their nature imply recurrence, the particle loses emphasis : respiro, breathe :
refulgeo, resplendeo, shine, glitter. Recaleo, become warm from being cold.
2) ' recurrence ' from B towards A : i.e. backward action : recumbo, lean back, recline ;
resideo, sit back, sit down ; refringo, break open ; repello, drive back ; remaneo, stay
back, remain ; remoror, retardo, retard ; relinquo, leave behind ; respicio, look back ; re-
tineo, hold back, &c. In some verbs, re- (ba.ck)=aTvay : relego, send away ; removeo,
move away, remove with implied care : recondo, hide away, stow : or force ; revello,
pluck away. To this head belongs the group of words in which the particle (against)
implies resistance ; rebello, war against, rebel ; reclamo, cry against ; redargue, refello,
refute ; reluctor, struggle against ; (recuso), renuo, refuse ; repugno, resisto, resist.
II. * Repeated action' (again, anew); recognosco, examine anew; recalesco, grow
warm again ; revalesco, reviresco : so, reparo, repair ; reficio (make again), repair,
renew, refresh ; renovo, renew; relevo, raise again, relieve. In refercio, cram, repleo,
fill full, &c., the notion is that of repeating to excess. In recludo, retego, revelo,
uncover, open, disclose ; refigo, take down. ; resigno, unseal, re- has a force like that
of de (removal). In revereor, reverence ; reticeo, keep silence, it implies bashful-ness :
266 Latin Wordlorc.
in redoleo, smell of, the idea is that of giving back to one who requires, as in renuntio.
In some compounds re- gives various senses, as recipio : for which see dictionary.
15. Other Compounded Particles keep their proper force, and need but short notice :
(a) ante (before) : anteire, to go before : (/3) circum (around) : circumdo, place round I
(y) post (after, behind) : posthabeo, postpone, place behind : (5) praeter (beside, beyond) :
praeterlabor, glide by ; praetereo, pass beyond, pass ; praetermitto, pass over, omit :
(e) subter (beneath) : subterlabor, glide under : in subterfugio, escape, secrecy or slyness is
implied (subterfuge) : () super (over, above) : superiacio, throw over : sometimes implies
excess ; superfluo, flow over, overflow. Note supersum, survive, superstes, surviving
(living over). Supersedeo (sit above) has the peculiar meaning, disregard, dispense with :
see Ablative Case. (TJ) trans (across, through) is properly used of crossing a river, moun-
tain, road, region, &c., hence tropically, of going or carrying over : transeo, cross, pass
beyond: transfero, carry across, transfer ; transigo, carry through, pierce, complete, trans-
act, &c. : (0) se- sed- (apart front) : seduco, draw aside : seiungo, separate ; seligo, select ',
&c. t (i) amb- am- an- (around, about, aM</>0 : ambio, go round, canvass ; ambigo, doubt,,
question ; anquiro, question, search. () the adverbs bene, male, satis, intro, retro, in a
few verbs : benedico, bless ; benefacio, do kindness ; maledico, revile ; malefacio, da
harm ; satisdo, satisfacio, satisfy ; introeo, go in ; retrogredior, retreat.
Obs. i. Many Verbs, of which the first element is a Preposition, are not Compounds in
the same sense as those hitherto named, but belong to one or other of the three follow-
ing classes :
1) Derivatives of Compound Adjectives or Substantives : concinno T. arrange (con-
cinnus) ; concordo i. agree (concors) ; discordo i. disagree (discors) ; indignor i. am in-
dignant (indignus) ; infesto i. make dangerous (infestus) ; effero i. drive wild (efferus) ;
obliquo i. slant (obliquus) ; deliro i. am mad (delirus) ; commodo i. lend (commodus) ;
incommodo i. inconvenience (incommodus) ; praecipito i. fling headlong (praeceps) ; per-
nocto i. pass the night (pernox) ; insanio 4. am mad (insanus) ; consulo 3. consult
(consul) ; concilio i. conciliate (concilium).
2) Verbs compounded of Particle and a Noun which has no derived simple verb :
recorder i. recollect (re, cor) ; defaeco i. drain (de, faex) ; infamo i. defame (in, fama) ;
so diffamo i. ; effemino i. make womanish (ex, femina) ; suffoco i. choke (sub, faux) ;
digladior \.fight with sword (di-, gladius) ; illaqueo i. ensnare (in, laqueus) ; enervo i.
'weaken (e, nervus) ; enucleo i. take out kernel (e, nucleus) ; impedio 4. hinder, entangle
(in, pes) ; expedio 4. disentangle (ex, pes) ; irretio 4. ensnare (in, rete) ; derivo i. draw
off, derive (de, rivus) ; erudio 4. instruct (e, rudis) ; exstirpo i. root out (ex, stirps) ; ex-
surdo i. deafen (ex, surdus) ; contemplor i. gaze at, observe (cum, templum augural
division of sky) ; praevaricor i. act dishonestly, deceive (prae, varus) ; convaso i. pack
tip (cum, vas) ; exubero i. abound '(ex, uber).
3) Compounds of lost or obsolete Verb-stems :
ad-7?/-or i. flatter (or- ?) ; amb-///-o i. walk ; \rc\.-bu-o 3. dye, steep ; CQm.-bur-o 3. burn *,
\n-coh-o i. begin ; oc-cul-o 3. hide ; m-du-o -$.put on ; ex-u-o (for ex-duo) 3. put off; de-
fend-Q 3. ; of-fend-o 3. ; rz-frdg-or i. oppose by vote ; suf-frdg-or i. vote for ; con-^rw-o 3.
agree ; \n-gru-o 3. ; m-vit-o i. invite ; ir-rtf-o i. provoke ; pro-mufe-o i. publish ; dis-
sip-o i. scatter. The verbs oc-cup-Q i. anti-cz^-o i. anticipate, re-/*-er-o, re-c?<^-er-o i.
recover, are forms modified from cap-, take. De-j//-o, destine, ob-stin-o, keep firm,
are weakened from stan-, the root sta- strengthened with suffix n, like da-n-o from da-,
and Gr. $9d-v-i from $60..
Obs. 2. a) The primitive root of Growth is ar, al, which appears in Latin as ar, al, OP,
Ol : sometimes, perhaps, as OP, el, ul. It appears, (i) in alo and its derived words,
aZtus, co-/-esco, &c. : (2) in or\or and its forms : (3) in -oko, -<?/esco and their com-
pounds adtf/esco, alWesco, kWesco, &c., proles (proWes), sub0/es, ind<?/es. Probably to
this root may belong many names of common quick -growing, or tall, plants ; as ar-bor,
ar-ista,(h)ar-undo, al-ga, al-nus, al-lium, (h)ol-us, ol-ea (ol-eum), ol-iva (ol-ivum), or-nus,
er-vum, epi/os, il-ex, ul-va, ul-mus : perhaps, also, ar-duus, ar-dea, Al-pis, op-os, el-ephas,
and other words.
It must be observed that the root of Smell, olere, has no connection with that of
Growth. In the former 1 represents d, as shewn in odor (Gr. oSwSa), while in the latter
l=r.
i>) The root of Solidity appears in Latin chiefly as sol- (=Gr. 6A-), shewn in the words
softus (oAos), j^/um, salidus, solfers, W/-i.citus, ^/eo, with its compounds ob-j^/esco,
ex<7/esco, in.y<7/esco, in.7/ens. Obsolesco and exolesco have often been taken fcr com-
pounds of olesco, the verb of growth ; but this is a mere error of grammarians.
The Uses of Words. 267
CHAPTER VI.
THE USES OF WORDS.
SECTION I.
i. Figurate Construction.
(In this place it is convenient to describe certain variations of struc*
Constructio'n.) tiou -
ii. Ellipsis and Zeugma: Pleonasm: Attrac-
tion : Synesis.
A] Ellipsis (eXXa^te) is the omission of one or more words which
would be used if complete fullness of expression were necessary.
This may be
1) When what is omitted appears from the context : ' Metuo
tuam iram et patris' (iram\ I dread your anger and
my father's. ' Ego amo te et tu me' (a?nas), I love you
and y oil me.
2) When usage or the exigence of meaning makes the omitted
word evident : Falernum (i.e. vinum), Falernian wine ;
gelida (i.e. aqua), cold water : turn ego (i.e. inquam),
then said I.
a) Zeugma, or the construction CITTO KOO/OV, is the connexion
of one word with two words or with two clauses, to both of
which it does not equally apply : so that for one of them,
another word (to be gathered from the sense of the pass-
age) must be mentally supplied. Zeugma is therefore a
species of Ellipsis : ' Ex spoliis et torquem et cogno-
men induit/ C. ' Querimoniae conventusque h abe ban-
tu r/ C.
The agreement of a Verb or Adjective with one only of several
Nouns forming one Subject, is also called Zeugma. 1
1 Ellipsis and Zeugma are brachylogical constructions ; that is, they abbreviate dis-
course. (In the following Examples words bracketed in italic type are explanatory merely. )
a) Where the words to be supplied are forms of another word in the sentence, the con-
struction is Ellipsis of the first kind : 'Abi rus ergo hinc ; ibi ego te (feravi), tu me feres,'
Ter. Haiti, iv. 2. 4. 'In Hyrcania plebs publicos alit canes, optimates domesticos*
(alunt), C. T. D. i. 45. ' Paene ille timore (co-mat), ego risu corrui/ C. Qu. Fr. ii. 10.
' Caper tibi salvus et haedi' (salvi), Verg. B. vii. 9. 'Hie illius arma (fnere), hie currus
fuit/ Verg. Ae. i. 16. ' Hos tibi dant calamos, en accipe, Musae, Ascraeo quos ante
seni ' (dedere), Verg. B. vi. 69. ' Nisi f a c i e n t quae ilios aequum est ' (facere), Ter.
Ad. iii. 4. 8.
/3) When the sense requires a different word, Ellipsis becomes Zeugma : ' Hoc tempus
praecavere mihi me (iitbet), non te ulcisci sin it,' Ter. And. iii. 5. 18. ' Fortuna qua illi
florentissima (usi V identur), nos duriore conflictati videmur,' C. Att. x. 4. 'Aliinau-
fragio (periisse), alii a servulis ipsius inter fectum eum, scriptum reliquerunt,' Nep.
Hann. viii. 'Quod arduum sibi (sumpsit\ cetera legatis permisit,' Tac. A. ii. 20.
' Ne tenues'pluviae (corruiHjxint) rapidive potentia solis Acrior aut Boreae penetrabile
268 Latin Wordlore. 61.
B) Pleonasm (TrXfoi/ao-juo'c) is the use of more words than seem
necessary to the expression of a thought : 'Suo sibi gladio hunc
iugulo/ I slay this fellow with his own proper sword, Ter. Ad. v. 8.
So such phrases as plerique omnes; nemo unus ; nihil
quicquam; deinde postea; ubique gentium; praesensit
prius.
C) Attraction occurs when a word, by the influence of another,
frigus adurat,' Verg. G. i. 93. ' Saepe velut qui, Currebat, fugiens hostem, per-
saepe velut qui lunonis sacra ferret/ Hor. S. i. 3. 9 (i.e. saepe currebat velut qui fugiens
hostem curreret, persaepe tardus incedebat velut incederet is qui lunonis sacra ferret).
y) An affirmative verb is understood from a negative : ' Ille quidem baud negat.
Jmmo edepol negat profecto ; neque se has aedis Philolachi vendidisse ' (elicit), Plaut.
Most. v. i. 3. 'Stoici negant bonum quicquam esse nisi honestum : virtutem autem
nixam hoc honesto, nullam requirere voluptatem' (dicunt), C. Fin. i. 18. ' Nolo exist i-
mes me adiutorem huic venisse, sed auditorem et quidem aequum' (volo existiuies), C.
N. D. . 7. Nostri Graece fere nesciunt, nee Graeci Latine (sciunt\ C. T. D. v. 40.
Qui fit, Maecenas, ut nemo quam sibi sortem Seu ratio dederit seu fors obiecerit ilia
Contentus vivat, laudet {sed ut quisque laudet) diversa sequentis,' Hor. S. i. i. i. Com-
pare Hor. Epod. v. 87.
5) Justin has ' Provolutae deinde genibus Alexandri, non mortem, sed, dum Darii
corpus sepeliant, dilationem mortis deprecantur,' vi. 9. 14 (i.e. non mortem depre-
cantur sed .... precantur). And ' Et caedem patris (vindicavit), et se ab insidiis
vindicavit,' iii. i. 9 (the same verb meaning avenged in the former clause, freed in
the latter). But such licenses of a late age are not to be imitated.
Zeugma of the second kind requires a notice of the class of constructions called <rvA-
Aij^t?, when a Verb, Attribute, Apposite, Relative, &c. stands in relation to several Sub-
stantives or Pronouns which are often of different Numbers, Genders, Persons, &c.
The rules belong to the Syntax of Agreement (see this) : but examples are :
'Pater mihi et mater mortui,' Ter. Eun. iii. 3. ' Cerere nati sunt Liber et
Libera/ C. N. D. ii. 24. 'Attoniti . . . concipiunt Baucisque preces timi-
dusque Philemon/ Ov. Met. viii. 681. 'Ptolemaeus et Cleopatra, reges
Aegypti, L. xxxvii. 3. ' Sustulimus manus et ego et Balbus/ C. Fam. vii. 5.
'Err.^ s t i s, Rulle, vehementer et tuet collegae tui/ C. in Rull. i. ' Ipse d u x c u m
urbe et exercitu deleti/ Sail. * Fregellis murus et porta de caelo tacta
erant/ L. xxxii. 'Arbitrum habebimus Civilem et Veledam, apud quos
pacta sancientur/ Tac. H. iv. 65. * Favent pietati fideique di, per quae P. R. ad
tantum fastigii venit/ L. xliv. 2.
In these examples the related words are all Plural ; and Gender and Person are deter-
mined by consideration of all the Nouns. Zeugma occurs when the construction agrees
with one of the Nouns only, whether in Number, Gender, Person, or all these : an
Ellipsis being supposed of the other agreeing words. ' Filia (capta) atque unus e filiis
captusest/ Caes. B. G. i. 26. ' C o n v i c t a e s t Messalina et Silius ' (convictus), Tac. A .
xii. 65. 'Utinam aut hie surdus (factus), aut haec muta fact a sit/ Ter. And. iii. 4, 5.
' Et genus (vilius) et virtus, nisi cum re, vilior alga est/ Hor. S. ii. 5. 8. ' Pop\i\i(liberati)
provinciaeque liberatae sunt/ C. Phil. v. 4. ' Et tu (sets) et omnes homines sciunt/
C. Fam. xiii. 8. i. ' Et ego (flagito) et Cicero meus flagitabit/ C. Att. iv. 17. 3.
In such examples agreement is with the nearer Noun ; and thus it is a kind of Attraction.
Rarer instances occur of Zeugma, in which agreement is with the more distant word :
* Ego populusque Romanus populis priscorum Latinorum bellum indlco facioque/
L. i. 32. ' Quibus ipse meique ante Larem proprium v esc or/ Hor. S. ii. 6. 65.
) Pleonasm, which expands discourse, belongs to the domain of rhetoric more than to
that of grammar, and needs not to be dwelt on at length here. Periodic style, such as that
of the Ciceronian speeches and treatises, is necessarily, to some extent, pleonastic : and the
rounded fullness of Cicero's diction exposed him, even in his own times, to the charge of
tumid Asiatic luxuriance. Two or three sentences will illustrate this tendency.
'Si fructibus et emolu mentis etutilitatibus amicitias colemus, dubium est
quin fundos et insulas amicis anteponamus ? ' Fin. ii. 26. 'Dicendi facultas non
debet esse ieiuna atque nuda, sed aspersa atquc distincta multarum rerum
iucunda quadam varietate/ Or. i. 50. ' Quinctius orat atque obsecrat ut
Jnultis iniuriis iactatam atque agitatam aequitatem in hoc tandem loco con-
sist er e et confirmari patiamini/ /. Quinc. 2.
Examples of Attraction, Synesis, &c. will be found in various parts of the Syntax.
6i. Figurate Construction. 269
is diverted from the usual construction to a less usual one :
6 Hie est quern quaero hominem/ this is the man I seek ; where
the Subst. would usually be Norn., but, attracted by quern,
becomes Accus. 'Thebae, quod Boeotiae caput est/ L. for
'Thebae, quae Boeotiae caput sunt;' the Complement caput
(Neut. Sing.) attracting the Relative from its usual agreement in
Gender and Number with the Antecedent (Thebae).
U) Synesis is when words are constructed in accordance with
meaning (avvtaiq), not with form: 'Subeunt Tegeea iuventus
auxilib tardi/ the youth of Tegea come slow to the succoiir, Stat.
Th. vii. 605 : where iuventus (a Collective Noun Feminine and
Singular) has the meaning of the Concrete iuvenes, young men
(Masc. Plur.), with which meaning the Verb subeunt (Plur.) and
the Adjective tardi (Masc. Plur.) agree in construction.
iii. Other Variations.
a) When a Verb or Adjective agrees with several Substantives
(o-t/XXrji^e, see last Foot-note) : ' Pater, mater et filia capti sunt.'
b) When words are dislodged from the normal order (i/Trtp-
fiarov) : < Tu illas abi et traduce/
An interposed clause is called TrapeVfleo-te if not in construction
with the rest : ' At tu nam divum servat tutela poetas
Praemoneo, vati parce, puella, sacro/ Tibull. ii. 5. 113.
c} When a Preposition follows its Case (avacrrpotyri) : Spemque
metumque inter dubii, Verg.
d] When compound words are separated into their parts
(jfjirifno) : 'Quae me cumque vocant terrae/ Verg. for quaecum-
que ; disque supatis for dissipatis ; ordia prima, Lucr. for primordia.
e) When one Part of Speech, Number, Case, Tense, &c., is used
for another (graXXay?/) : ' Vivere nostrum 7 for vita nostra; 'Samnis'
for Samnites, ' nos' for ego : 'populus' for popule; 'expectate 7 for
expectatus ; ' mox navigo ' for navigabo, &c.
f) Interchange of Cases (vTrctXXay//) : < Dare classibus Austros/
Verg. for < dare classes Austris.' Or attribution of an Adjective to
another than its natural Noun: t Fontium gelidae perennitates/
C. for gelidorum : 'Tyrrhena regum progenies/ Hor. for Tyrr-
henorum.
g) Expression of a complex notion by two Substantives, instead
of Subst. and Adj. (evdia$vo~u') : 'Pateris libamus et auro/ Verg.
ii. G. 192, for pateris aureis.
//) That kind of Ellipsis which omits Annexive Conjunctions
is called davvltrov : <Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit/ C. Cat. i. I.
HoXvtrvvStTov is a kind of Pleonasm, which multiplies Conjunc-
tions in poetry : * Una Eurusque Notusque ruunt creberque pro-
cellis Africus/ Verg. Ae. i. 85.
i) Archaism is a form, phrase, or idiom borrowed from old
writers (a/o^alot) : < animai ; in cassum magnum,' Lucr.
270 Latin Wordlore. 62.
k) Graecism (tXXijVKTjiDc) is a phrase or idiom borrowed from.
Greek : ' Amplexi habent/ Lucr., for amplexi sunt : ' Metuo fratrem
ne intus sit,' Ter., for ' ne frater intus sit.'
The foregoing Variations (which grammarians call < Figures ')
belong chiefly to Syntax.
iv. Metaphor and Metonymy.
(These are Figures of Rhetoric.)
I. Metaphor (/utra^opa, translatio) occurs when a term proper
to one matter is transferred by analogy to another: volnus,
wound, for damnum, loss; portus, harbour, for refugium, refuge;
sentina reipublicae, sink of the commonwealth, for turpissimi cives,
vilest citizens ; ardeo, / burn, for amo, / love, &c.
A metaphor may be qualified by such expressions as quasi,
tamquam, quidam, ut ita dicam, &c. : ( In una philosophia
quasi tabernaculum vitae suae collocarunt,' they have pitched as
it were the tent of their life in philosophy alone, C. d. Or. iii. 20.
* Caria et Phrygia asciverunt aptum suis auribus opimum quod-
dam et tamquam adipatae dictionis genus/ the Carians and
Phrygians chose a certain rich and as it were greasy style of diction
suited to their peculiar taste, C. Or. 8. ' Scopas, utitadicam,
mihi videntur dissolvere,' they seem to me to be untying, so to say,
besoms, C. Or. 71.
II. Metonymy (/zerwi'i/juia) puts a related word for a proper
one : (i) Cause for effect ; Mars for bellum ; Ceres for segetes ;
'Bacchus' for vinum; 'lanus' for lani vicus or for lani
templum. (2) Material for work: 'argentum' for vasa ar-
gentea. (3) Abstract for concrete: 'civitas' for cives, 'cor
Enni' for cordatus Ennius, the sensible Ennius. (4) Concrete
for abstract : ' Cedant arma togae,' for f cedat bellum pad.' (5)
Country for inhabitants : * Graecia' for Graeci : or the converse :
'In Persas ire,' for in Persidem, Nep. (6) The part is put for
the whole (<rvi'eK$oxfy : ' caput ' for homo ; ' tec turn ' for domus.
(7) Sometimes the whole for the part: 'Sal sextante erat,' for
' modius salis,' ' salt was at two unciae the peck] L.
SECTION II.
62
Usesof Uses of the Substantive.
.the Sub-
(On certain classes of Singular and Plural Substantives
see 2i7. iii.)
i. Singular Appellatives used collectively for
Plural.
Such Appellatives are, (i) Material Objects. (2) Bodies civil or
military. (3) People : occasional in Cato, Cic., Caes. : frequent in
Liv., Tac., Curt, and poets.
62. Uses of tlie Substantive. 271
Ex. rosa = rosae : pedes = pedites : Samnis = Samnites.
The Singular annexed to Plural is not earlier than Livy. He and
Tacitus often use it : * Hispani milites et funditor Baliaris/ L.
xxvii. 2. ( Samnis Paelignusque et Marsi/ Tac. H. iii. 59.
ii. Plural words used with Singular collective
sense in prose.
Ex. aquae, ardores, calores, frigora, frumenta, glacies, gran-
dines, ignes, pecuniae, pluviae, praedae, pruinae, rores ; all in C.
^ In poetry this use of the Plural of Concretes is abundant : aco-
nita, mella, colla, corda, currus, altaria, numina, litora, capitolia
tecta, &c.
It either heightens the image, or, still oftener, assists the metre.
iii. Plural of Appellatives expressing a
'genus' when individuals are implied.
Occasional in prose : ' Legati P. R.' (where Triarius alone is
meant), C. p. L. Man. : frequent in poetry : ' Quas mulieres,
quos tu parasites loquere ? ; Plaut. Men. ii. 2 ; ' Barbaras re gum
est ulta libidines' (meaning Tereus), Hor. C. iv. 12.
iv. Plural of Proper Names used to express
typical characters.
This is frequent in prose, occasional in poetry : ( Pauli, Catones,
Galli, Scipiones, Phili/ C. Lael. 6. ' Decii Marii magnique Ca-
milli, 3 Verg. G. ii. 169.
v. Abstract Substantives, 1 Verbal and Deno-
minative, used in Plural.
This is frequent in prose, occasional in poetry.
1) When several kinds are implied: 'Tres constantiae,' C.
T. D. iv. 6 ; ' Alia exitia/ C. d. Fin. v. 10 ; ' Sapiens nostras am-
bitiones levitatesque contemnit,' the wise man despises our
ambitious and shallow pursuits, C. T. D. v. 36.
2) Several occurrences : ' Domesticae fortitudines/ C. Off. i. 22.
So offices in L. and Tac. : * Tribunatus et praeturae et consulatus/
Tac. D. 7.
a) A material (aes, cera, &c.) may express in the Plural orna-
mental objects manufactured from it : ' Ephyreia aera/
Corinthian bronzes, Verg. G. ii. 463. ' Veteres cerae,' old
waxen busts, luv. viii. 19. But aurum, argentum remain
Singular always.
* Draeger states that there are in Latin 3,814 abstract Substantives ; of which 2,889 are
used in the Singular only, 925 in the Plural also. Of these latter 58 only are before Cicero,
including 36 in Plautus, 6 in Terence : 383 are in Cicero ; a few only, 19, in Caesar, Sal-
lust, Varro, and Auctor ad Herennium. The rest, 484, are distributed in Livy and sub-
sequent prose writers, and in classical and later poetry. See his Historische Syntax,
der Lat. Spr., Part i. p. 9, where a full list of these Abstract Plurals is given.
272 Latin Word lore. 62.
3) When the abstract is related to Plural concretes : < Conscientiae
maleficiorum/ C. Par. 2.
4) When it is annexed to other Plurals : 'Tot artes, tantae scien-
tiae, tot inventa/ C. Cat. M. 78.
i
vi. Abstract Substantives for Concrete in
prose and poetry :
This may be in any of three ways :
1) Sing. Abstr. for Sing. Concr. ) .., ,,,
Plur. Abstr. for Plur. Concr. I either or both '
Ex. ' corruptela' =corruptor, Ter. Ad. v. 3. 7 ; < desiderium^res
desiderata, Hor. C. i. 14. 18 ; ' servitia ' = servi, C. p. Flac. 38;
i imperia ' = imperatores, Caes. B. C. iii. 32 ; ' matrimonia ' = uxores r
L. x. 23. <Mea festivitas/ my delight, App. ii. 10; so 'scelus ; = dr
wicked wretch, '&&&&&J scoundrels; <vigiliae' = vigiles; <excubiae' =
excubitores.
2) Plur. Abstr. for Sing. Concr. : ' amores ' = amatus or amata r
'Pompeius nostri amores,' C.Att. ii. 19. 'Acmen . . suos amores/
Catull. xlv. i. So 'deliciae :' ' Amores et deliciae tuae Roscius/
C Div. i. 36.
3) Sing. Abstr. for Plur. Concr. freq. in prose and poetry r
^amicitia' = amici,Tac.^.27i ; 'barbaria' = barbari; <civitas' = cives;
* coniuratio ' = coniurati ; ' iuventus ; = iuvenes; ' nobilitas ; = nobiles ;
'societas ' = socii ; ' statio ' or ' custodia ' = custodes ; ( remigium ' = re-
miges. So ' Canes arnica vis pastoribus/ Hor. Epod. 6. 6. ( In hac
tanta immanitate versari/ C. = inter tarn immanis homines. ' Cum
vestra aetate,' C. = cum vobis adulescentibus.
Obs. From the Plural use of Substantives we can hardly discon-
nect the ' Pluralis Modestiae,' which includes also Verbs and Pro-
nouns, when a person speaks of himself in the Plural Number :
'Imperatores appellati sumus,' C. Att.v. 20. 'Poscimur, si
quid vacui sub umbra lu si mus/ Hor. C. i. 32. Sometimes Plur. and
Sing, occur together : ' Ardeo incredibili cupiditate ut nomen nos-
trum scriptis illustretur tuis/ C. Fam. v. 12 ; 'Et flesti et nostros
vidisti flentis ocellos/ Ov. H. v. 45. 1
vii. Idioms of the Substantive chiefly Cice-
ronian :
i) Cicero describes state or action by a Verbal Abstract : ' Ora-
toris est languentis populi incitatio et effrenati moderatio/ an
orator 's function is to rouse a languid, and restrain an infuriated^
populace, C. d. Or. ii. 9.
1 The Plural of Majesty (we, our), used in the proclamations of modern princes and
potentates, was unknown to classical Latin ; but it probably grew out of the use of the
* modest ' Plural by Roman Emperors in such phrases as * nostra mansuetudo,' ' nostra-
jnaiestas/ ' nostra excellentia,' &c.
I 62. Uses of the Substantive. 273
2) A Denominative Abstract with Genitive is used for a Noun with
Epithet. 'Vis flammae aquae multitudineopprimitur' ( = flam-
ma violenta plurima aqua opprimitur), C. Cat. M. 19. ' In con-
.suetudinesermonis 7 ( = in consueto sermone), in ordinary con-
versation, C. Inv. ii. 40.
3) A Noun takes a Genitive of another, to which it might be
Apposite, if the other were constructed as Subject or Object. ' Est
etiam deformitatis et corporis vitiorum satis bella materies
ad iocandum/ deformity also and bodily defects are a fine field for
banter, C. d. Or. ii. 59.
4) A Noun of quality or condition is used as Subject or Object
with Genitive of the real Subject or Object, or with a Possessive
Pronoun. ' Pupilli aetatem et solitudinem defendere praetor
debuit/ the praetor ought to have protected a young and orphan
ward, C. Verr. i. 58. ' Potest mihi denegare occupatio tua/
your preoccupation ( = you being preoccupied) may refuse me this,
C. Fam. v. 12. 8.
5) Cicero affects ornate periphrases and metaphors : * Occa-
sionis tarditas ; ' ' Etesiarum flatus ; ' ' naufragia fortunae ; ' ' summa
luctus acerbitas : ; ' mentis oculi; ; ' philosophiae portus;' 'gloriae
stimuli ; ; ' eius sceleri virtus M. Bruti obstitit.'
6) Stages of life and seasons of office are often expressed by the
concrete words puer, adule sc ens, &c., consul, praetor, &c., rather
than by the abstracts pueritia, consulatus, &c. ' D octus a puero/
.learned from boyhood, C. 'Ab pa.rvu.lis,' from their infancy, Caes.
' Philosophiae multum adulescens temporis tribui/ I gave much
time to philosophy in my youth, C. Off.\\. 4. ' Ante (post) me con-
sul em/ before (after) my consulship : ' consule Planco/zV/ the consul-
ship of Plancus, Hor. But the abstracts can be used.
7) Some Concrete Substantives, especially Verbals in-tor-trix,
are used Adjectively. < Ennius equi fortis et victoris senectuti
comparat suam/ Ennius compares his old age to that of a strong
and victorious horse, C. Cat. M. 5. ' Art if ex stilus/ an artistic
.style,C. This idiom is especially poetic. 'Victrix causa deis
placuit, sed victa Catoni/ the conquering cause pleased the gods, but
the conquered cause Cato, Lucan. i. 128. ' Populum late regem/
a far-ruling people, Verg. Aen. v. 25.
8) Certain phrases assume the nature of single words : 'nomen
Latinum' ( = Latini), 'res Romanae' ( = Roma). So 'res
xepetundae' (extortion), respublica, iusiurandum, &c.
9) In comparisons, by a peculiar brachylogy, names of Persons
and Places stand for their works or properties : ' Percipietis volup-
tatem, si cum Graecorum Lycurgo et Dracone et Solone nos-
tras leges conferre volueritis/^?^ will find pleasure in comparing
#ur laws with (those of) the Lycurgus and Draco and Solon of the
Greeks, C. d. Or. i. 44.
10) Verbal Substantives occasionally govern the same cases as
their Verbs : Cicero has ' domum itio ; ' ( Narbone reditus ; ; ' ob-
temperatio legibus.' Constructions such as ' receptio virum meum/
* curatio hanc rem/ are used by Plautus, but not subsequently.
T
274 Latin Wordlore. 62.
viii. Ellipse of the Substantive:
Omitted Substantives are indicated
i) By Adjectives which are their Epithets :
ager : in Tiburti, C.
aqua : frigida, Quint. ; gelida, Hor. ; calida, Varr. ; decocta,
Plin., luv.
ars : dialectica, &c. C. musica.
capilli : cani, C. and poets.
caro : agnina, lamb ; anatina, duck ; aprugna, wild-boar ; bu-
*bula, beef\ ferina, venison ; suilla, ^0ry ; vitulina, veal,
castra : aestiva ; hiberna ; stativa : C.," Caes., L., Tac. &c.
dies : natalis ; and in phrases postero, in posterum, &c.
fabula : togata, comedy with Roman characters ; p alii at a, with
Greek ; praetexta, trabeata, plays in which cha-
racters with these dresses appeared.
familiaris : ' complexus inde Coriolanus suos dimittit/ L. ii. 40,
febris : quartana, quartan ague, luv.
feriae : Latinae, the Latin holidays,
fodina : arenaria, argentaria, &c. C., L.
fratres : gemini ; trigemini.
funis : cereus, a waxen torch,
hora : quarta, 10 o'clock ; octava, 2 o'clock, luv.
lapis : molaris, millstone, Verg. ; ad quartum, at the fourth
milestone, Tac. &c.
liber : 'in T. Livii primo,' Quint. ;. 'in tertio de Oratore,' do. ; <ne
in pontificiis quidem nostris,' C. N. D. i. 30.
ludi : Circenses, luv.
manus : dextra, laeva, sinistra.
mare : Aegaeum; Ionium; altum; profundum, &c.
navis : triremis ; quinqueremis ; oneraria, C., L. ; Liburna,
Hor., &c.
nummus : aureus ; aereus ; denarius ; sestertius, c.
officina : coquina ; picaria ; figlina, &c. C., Plin.
ordines : quattuordecim, the fourteen rows of the equites in
the Roman theatre, Suet.
ovis : bidens.
paries : decumae, tithes : primae, secundae, &c., the first,
second, &c. parts in a drama, C., Hor. &c.
pecuniae : repetundarum, repetundis; frequent: Cicero
usually adds pecuniarum, pecuniis.
porta : Coelimontana, Esquilina, Capena, &c., C., &c.
praedium : Albanum, Antias, Tusculanum, &c., C.
res : argentaria, pecuaria, topiaria, &c., C.
sella : curulis, Tac.
sol : occidens ; oriens.
spolia : opima, Sen. Tr.
telum : missile, L., Verg.
tempus : brevi ; horno, Plaut.
toga : praetexta, Hor. and later.
tribus : Q. Verres Romilia, C. &c.
usurae ; centesimae ; quincunces, besses, deunces, &c.
vas : aenum ; fictile T Cat., Ov. &c.
63. Uses of the Adjective. 275
ventus : Africus, lapyx.
verba : multa, phira, &c.
versus, senarius,
via : Appia, Flaminia, Latina, &c.
vicibus : alternis, Lucr., Verg.
mnum : Caecubum, Falernum, Massicum, Sabinum, Surren-
tina (vina), &c. Hor. &c.
Also menstruum (frumenfum), L. ; nullas (epistulaf), C. ; molaris
(dens), luv. ; Papia Poppaea (lex), Tac. Dialia, Liberalia, &c. (festd).
2) By Substantives which depend on those omitted :
aedes or templum : ' ad Apollinis ; ' l ad Opis ; ' ' ad lovis Sta-
toris ; ' ' ad Vestae ; ' ' prope Cloacinae ' (aedem), C., L. &c.
actor : <Q. Arrius fuit M. Crassi quasi secundarum/ C. Brut.
69.
iter : 6 castra aberant bidui/ C. Att. v. 16.
filius, filia : ' Faustus Sullae ; ; ' Caecilia Metelli ; ' ' Hannibal
Gisgonis.'
uxor : Terentia Ciceronis ; Apicata Seiani, Tac.
homines : 'pergere ad Treveros etexternaefidei/ Tac.
poculum : *da noctis mediae/ &c. Hor. C. iii. 19.
servus : frequent in phrases : 'a manu 7 or 4 ad manum/ amanu-
ensis : ' ab epistulis/ letter-writer ; * a potione/ cup-bearer ;
( a bibliotheca/ librarian, &c.
3) By Verbs, of which the omitted word is object or subject. See
109, 126.
Object omitted : mittere (nuntium) ; agere (vitam) ; obire (mor-
tem) ; merere (stipendia} ; movere (castra) ; ducere (exerdtum) ;
appellere, conscendere (navem, classem), and others.
Besides Pronoun Subjects, the Nom. homines is constantly
omitted in the phrases aiunt, tradunt, n arrant, &c.
ix. Substantives are used with different kinds
of meaning (active or passive).
alumn-us -a (usually qui alitur ; sometimes qui alit) : clientela
(clientship ; clients ; patronage] : gloria (glory ; boasting, vanity) :
hospes (host; guesf) : fuga (flight ; exile) : invidia (envy; odium) :
nuntius (messenger ; news) : odium (hatred as feeling : hated ob-
ject) : opinio (opinion ; credit) : ruina (ruin suffered or inflicted) :
spes (hope as feeling; as object) : tristitia (sadness ; gloom inspiring
sadness) : tutela (guardianship, guardian ; that which is guarded,
ward) : vector (qui vehit, shipmaster ; qui vehitur, passenger), &c.
SECTION III.
Uses of the Adjective. Use S 3 f
i. Adjectives used as Substantives. See 15. b). jective.
A) Masculine (and Feminine) Adjectives with personal meaning.
I. Singular :
a) in arius, icus, anus, Inus, &c., including Gentile words :
adversarius ; consiliarius ; librarius ; ostiarius : sicarius ; statuarius ;
276 Latin Wordlore. 63.
tabellarius ; vicarius, &c. ; criticus, rusticus, vilictis, &c. ; hortu-
lanus ; paganus ; publicanus ; libertinus ; vicinus, &c. ; Romanus,
Sabinus, Atheniensis, &c. Also the terms for legionary soldiers :
primanus, secundanus, &c.
b) Words of Kinship and Relation :
amicus, inimicus ; aequalis ; amnis ; agnatus, cognatus ; con-
sanguineus ; contubernalis ; familiaris ; gentilis ; maritus ; necessa-
rius ; propinquus ; sodalis, socius.
c) Various ;
aemulus ; conscius ; consularis ; luvenis ; insipiens ; stultus, &c.
Cicero has, ' Meos partim inimicos partim invidos,'^. Plane.
1 Nonnulli nostri iniqui,' do. 23. ' Omnibus iniquissimis meis/
Verr. v. 69.
d) Participles :
a) Present : adulescens ; amans ; sapiens.
/3) Perfect Pass. : candidatus ; doctus ; praefectus ; nat-us (a) ;
spons-us (a).
e) Generally, l man ' may be omitted when any epithet implying
it is used (Ellipsis) : 'lacet corpus dormientis ut mortui,' the
body of a sleeper lies like that of a dead man, C. Div. i. 30. ' Non de
improbo, sed de callidoimprobo quaerimus/ we are enquiring'
not about a knave, but about a cunning knave, C. Fin. ii. 17. ' Ne-
glegere quid de se quisque sentiat, non solum arrogantis est, sed
omnino dissoluti,' to be careless of what others think about him,
indicates a man not arrogant only, but quite unprincipled, C. Off. i. 28.
II. Plural:
Plural Adjectives and Participles still oftener express men ;
chiefly, but not exclusively, in the Nom. and Accus., because in
these the Masc. is distinguished from the Neut. So
boni, divites, inferiores, infirm, iuniores, magni, maiores, minores,
multi, mortales, nulli, optimi, omnes, pauci, plerique, poster!,
proximi, summi, tenues, urbani ; nostri, sui, &c. &c. ; adstantes, dis-
centes, legentes, spectantes, &c. ; docti, indocti, imperiti, mortui, &c.
Participles are also used, especially in poetry, to describe, by some
property, classes in natural history : balantes = oves ; natantes =
pisces ; volantes = aves ; laniger = aries ; squamigeri = pisces.
Cicero has ( errantes ' for * planetae.'
E) Neuter Adjectives and Participles :
I. Singular :
^ a) It has been shewn in Ch. V. that a great number of Substan-
tives in arium, torlum, sorium, turn, sum, ale, ile, are, &c., were
originally Adjectival : as cib arium, deversorium, dictum, respon-
sum, navale, ovile, talare, &c.
&) The Greek Article enables that language to convert any Neut.
Adjective into an Abstract Noun (TO ayatiov, TO /caXoy). Latin
authors, without this advantage, use a certain number of Neuter
Adjectives Singular in this way : such aare
63. Uses of the Adjective. 277
a) Moral Abstracts :
aequum, bonum, commodum, decorum, falsum, honestum,
iustum, malum, nimium, pravum, rectum, ridiculum, utile,
verum, &c.
/3) Physical Abstracts :
album, aridum, calidum, canorum, umidum, igneum, inane,
pingue, planum, serum, sudum, tranquillum, vacuum, &c.
y) Ordinal Numerals :
primum, secundum, &c. extremum, medium, &c.
c) The most extensive Substantival use of Neuter Sing. Adjec-
tives and Participles is with Prepositions ; forming phrases of an
adverbial character.
Among the most usual phrases of this kind are :
ex adverse ; ex aequo ; ex ambiguo ; e contrario ; ex confesso ; ex
imo ; ex obliquo ; ex occulto ; ex permisso ; ex propinquo ; e^
transverse ; ex tuto ; ex vano ; ex vero : in abdito ; in alto ; in
ambiguo ; in ancipiti ; in aperto ; in arduo ; in dubio ; in edito ;
in incerto ; in integro ; in lubrico ; in medio ; in obscuro ; in piano ;
in praecipiti ; in praesenti ; in propatulo ; in publico ; in sereno ;
in secreto ; in sicco ; in solido ; in sublimi ; in tranquillo ; in tur-
bido ; in tuto : ab imo ad summum : pro certo ; pro com-
perto ; pro indigno : de alieno ; de cetero ; de communi ; de
medio ; de publico ; de suo ; de vivo ; in adversum ; in arduum ;
in artum ; in commune ; in deterius ; in dubium ; in immensum ;
in incertum ; in maius ; in medium ; in melius ; in obliquum ; in
praeceps ; in plenum ; in sublime ; in tranquillum ; in transversum :
and the temporal phrases, in aeternum; in futurum ; in longum ;
in posterum ; in perpetuum ; in praesens ; in serum : ad certum,
ad constitutum, ad immensum ; ad liquidum ; ad irritum, ad vanum ;
ad vivum ; ad unum ; and the temporal phrases, ad extremum,
ad (in) multum diei, ad ultimum. 1
II. Plural :
Neuter Plural Adjectives are freely used in Latin as Abstract
Nouns, signifying ' things?
bona, mala ; vera, falsa ; utilia, inutilia ; &c. &c. ; multa, plu-
rima, omnia, &c. ; ea, ista, haec, nostra, etc.
Some in local sense :
avia, devia, invia ; summa, infima, proxima, extrema, angusta j
aperta, secreta ; maritima, mediterranea, c. &c. : often with a de-
scriptive Genitive in history and poetry : secreta silvarum ; avia
montium ; strata viarum ; deserta locorum, abdita vallium, &c.
1 Draeger cites other instances :
Ex : abdito, alto, affluent!, antique, aperto, arido, communi, composite, conducto et
locato, diverse, facili, patenti, praeparato, proximo, publico, solido, toto, &c.
In (Abl.) : aequo, angusto, arto, communi, conspicuo, excelso, expedite, extreme, facili,
difficili, levi, occulto, pacato, private, profane, promiscuo, summo, &c.
In (A ecus.) : ambiguum, altum, angustum, cassum, contrarium, publicum, sublime,
unum, &c.
278 Latin Wordlore. 63.
ii. Adjectives used adverbially.
(1) ' Senatus frequens convenit/ the senate met in force, C. So
'invitus (or libens) veni ; ? 'imprudens (or sciens) fed/ &c.
Especially Adjectives of time, order, &c. : serus, citus, matutinus,
nocturnus, vespertinus, prior, primus, princeps, proximus, ultimus,
postremus, supremus, unus, multus, solus, totus, omnis, nullus, &c.
* Lupus gregibus nocturnus obambulat/ the wolf prowls about
the flocks at night, Verg. G. iii. 538. ' Sulla multus aderat/ Sulla
shewed himself much, Sail. lug. 9. 'Philotimus nullus venit/
Philotimus came not at all, C. Fam. xi. 22.
(2) Virgil has ' tarda volventia plaustra ' (for tarde), ' sublimem
expulsum ' (for sublime), ' inexpletus lacrimans ' (for inexpletum) ;
and similar examples abound in poetry.
iii. Partitive Attributes.
Primus, ultimus, summus, infimus, imus, intimus, extremus, pos-
tremus, novissimus, medius, reliquus, ceterus, are often used to
designate one part of that to which they are attributed.
( Prim a luce summus mons a Labieno tenebatur/ at break of
day the top of the mountain was occupied by Labienus, Caes. B. G.
i. 22. ' Maximum bellum Cn. Pompeius extrema hieme appa-
ravit, ineunte vere suscepit, media aestate confecit/ Gnaeus
Pompeius prepared a mighty war at the close of winter, commenced
it at the beginning of spring, completed it in the middle of summer,
C.p. L. Man. 12. See M. Lucr. iii. 250.
iv. Proleptic Attributes.
An attribute is said to be proleptic when it indicates a quality not
existing yet, but about to result from the action contained in the
sentence : ' Ingentes tollent animos 7 (i.e. ut ingentes fiant), Virg.
G. iii. 207. This is an idiom of very frequent use in poetry.
v. Multiplication of Attributes.
1) Two or more Adjectives are not usually joined as Attributes
to the same Substantive without an intervening Conjunction, unless
one or more with the Substantive form one complex idea :
'Propter Ennam est spelunca quaedam ubi Syracusani festos
dies anniversaries agunt/ close to Enna is a certain cavern,
where the people of Syracuse hold annual holidays, C. Verr. iv. 52.
'Columna aurea solida sacrata est/ a pillar of solid gold was
dedicated, L. xxiv. 3. 'Veni apud Mamertinos privata navis
oneraria maxima publice est aedificata/ a private yacht of very
heavy tonnage was built for Verres in the Mamertine city at public
cost, C. Verr. iv. 52. Here 'festos dies/ 'columna aurea/ 'navis
oneraria maxima/ severally constitute one idea. See M. Lucr. v.
13 : ( Divina antiqua reperta;' and iv. 394-3 'suo corpore claro.'
2) But any number of Adjectives may follow one Substantive,
when each expresses a different kind of that Substantive :
' Auribus indicantur vocis genera permulta, candidum, fuscum,
lene, asperum, grave, acutum, flexibile, lene/ C. N. D. ii.
Or when intervening Conjunctions are supposed, not expressed :
63 Uses of tlie Adjective. 279
6 Animal hoc providum, sagax, multiplex, acutum, plenum
rationis et consili, quern vocamus Hominem/ C. Leg. i. 7. ' Mon
strum horrendum informe ingens/ Verg. Aen. iii. 658.
vi. Possessive Attributes.
The Latin language uses Denominative Epithets very largely,
instead of Genitive Nouns, to express Origin, Possession, &c. :
Anacreon Tei'us, Anacreon of Teos ; Hercules Xenophonteus,
Hercules in Xenophon ; erilis films, my master's son ; fraternus
sanguis, a brother's blood ; cursus maritimus, a sea voyage bellum
sociale, a war with allies ; aliena vitia, thefaidts of other s^ &c.
vii Idioms of the Superlative.
For those of the Comparative see Correlation (quam), and the
Syntax of the Ablative.
1) The following example shews that the Superlative indicates
any very high degree, though not the highest: ' Ego sum mise-
rior quam tu quae es miserrima/ I am more wretched than you,
*who are very wretched, C. Fam. xiv. 3.
2) The force of the Superlative is increased by
a) The Adverbs longe, multo, quam, vel : 'Ex Britannis
omnibus longe humanissimi sunt, qui Cantium inco-
lunt/ of all the Britons, the most civilised by far are
those who inhabit Kent, Caes. B. G. v. 14. ' Alcibiades
fuit omnium aetatis suae multo formosissimus/ Alci-
biades was much the handsomest man of his day, Nep.
Ale. i. 'Definitio quid sit id, de quo agitur, ostendit
quam brevissime/ definition shews as briefly as may be,
what it is that is treated of, C. Or. 33. Hence, quam
primum (as soon as .possible]-. c Huic mandat, ut quam
primum ad se revertatur/ this man he directs to return
to him as soon as possible, Caes. B. G. iv. 21. ' In
fidibus musicorum aures vel minima sentiunt/ in lute-
playing the ears of musicians perceive the very slightest
errors, C. Off. i. 41.
b) The elliptical expressions, tarn quam qui, tantum
quantum qui, ut qui, qui qui, ut cum, cum:
'Tarn sum mitis quam qui lenissimus/ / am as mild
as the very gentlest, C. p. Sull. 31. ' Commendationi
meae tantum tribue, quantum cui plurimum/ assign
to my recommendation the greatest weight you would to
any, C. Fam. xiii. 22. ' Grata ea res, ut quae maxime
senatui unquam, fuit/ that circumstance pleased the senate
. as much as anything had ever pleased them, L. v. 25.
'Domus celebratur ita ut cum maxime,' the house is
thronged to its very utmost, C. Qu. F. ii. 6.
c) Quam, quantus, ut, with the verb possum : Aves quam
possunt mollissime nidos substernunt, ut quam
280 Latin Wordlore. 63.
facillime ova serventur/ birds line their nests as softly
as they can, that the eggs may be preserved with the~
greatest ease, C. N. D. ii. 52. ( Hannibal quantam maxi-
mam potest vastitatem ostendit/ Hannibal exhibits the
utmost desolation in his power, L. xxii. 3. Utpotuibre-
vissime dixi, / spoke as briefly as I could.
On unus as Superlative, and with Superlatives, see p. 153.
3) The Pronoun quisque (each], attached to the Superlative,
imparts a universal notion: 'Epicureos doctissimus quisque
contemnit/ all the most learned men despise the Epicureans, C. T'.D.
i. 31. Another Superlative is often added to increase the force :
'Maximae cuique fortunae mini me credendum est/ all the
greatest fortunes are least to be trusted, L. xxx. 30.
a) Ut quisque is used with one Superlative, it a following
with another: ' Hoc maxime officii est, ut quisque maxi-
me opis indigeat, ita ei potissimum opitulari/ this is
a special duty, according as men most need assistance, so
by preference to assist them, C. Off. i. 15. In other words,
Indigentissimo cuique potissimum opitulandum est.
ft) Quisque may likewise distribute the Comparative : 'Quo
quisque est sollertior et ingeniosior, hoc docet ira-
cundius et laboriosius/ the greater a maris skill and
geniiis, the more fervour and pains he throws into his
teaching, C. p. Q. Rose. n.
c} Quisque also distributes Ordinal numbers : Primus quisque,
decimus quisque, &c. : ' Quinto quoque anno Sicilia
tota censetur/ a census of all Sicily is taken every flfth
year, C. Verr. ii. 56.
viii. Other Intensive Phrases.
i) Remark the attractions (imitated from Greek), mirum quan-
tum, nimium quantum, immane quantum, &c. (surprisingly,
exceedingly, &c.) : 'Id mirum quantum profuit ad concordiam
civitatis/ this was marvellously conducive to the harmony of the
citizens, L. xi. i. 'Vino et lucernis Medus acinaces immane
quantum discrepat/ between the lamp-lit carouse and the Median
scimitar,, vast is the difference, Hor. C. i. 27. 5.
2)^Praecipue, summe, valde, vementer, admodum, apprime, in-
primis, sane, sanequam, perquam, egregie, oppido, enixe, perfecte,
and similar Adverbs, give a Superlative force to a Positive Adjec-
tive or Adverb: 'Praecipue sanus/ eminently healthy, Hor.
( luvenis admodum/ quite young, Tac. (See p. 135, and QUAM.)
3) Some Positive Adjectives contain often an emphatic sense,
like that given by the adverb nimis: 'Atnelongum fiat videte/
mind it be not too long (i.e. tedious), C. Leg. ii. 10. < Nihil arduura
fatis/ nothing is too hard for desti?iy, Tac. H. ii. 82.
64. Uses of Pronouns. 281
ix. Some Adjectives are used both in Pas-
sive and Active sense. Such are
ambiguus (doubted ; doubting] ; angustus (narrow ; narrowing);
anxius (disturbed; disturbing}-, caecus (dark; blind}; credulus,
incredulus ; docilis ; dubius ; flebilis ; formidolosus ; gnarus, ig-
narus ; gratus, ingratus ; gratiosus ; incautus ; infestus ; inno-
cuus, innoxius ; inultus ; laboriosus ; memor ; nescius ; notus,
ignotus ; odiosus ; operosus ; riguus, irriguus ; somniculosus ;
surdus ; suspiciosus ; tristis, and others. See these in Dictionary.
SECTION IV.
Uses of Pronouns. 6 4
i. Personal and Possessive Pronouns. and Pos-
sessive
1) Pronouns and Verbs of the First Person Plural are often Pro-
used by a single person speaking of himself. 'Norisnos: docti nouns<
sumus/ you should know me, I am a man of learning, Hor. S. i. 9.
See p. 272 Obs.
2) The Personal Pronouns are used with the Prepositions ad,
apud, ab, to signify ' house} ' abode :' * Septimo Idus veni ad
me in Sinuessanum/ on the Jth of the Ides I came to my villa at
Sinuessa, C. Att. xvi. 10. 'Scaurum ruri apud se esse audio//
hear that Scaurus is at his coimtry seat, C. de Or. i. 49. ' Quisnam
a no bis egreditur foras ? ' who is coming out of our house? Ter.
Haut. iii. 2. 50.
3) Pronouns of ist and 2nd Persons are sometimes hidden in an
Apposite Noun; < Hannibal peto pacem/ I, Hannibal, sue for
peace, L. xxx. 30. 'Omnes boni semper nobilitati favemus/ all
we conservatives ever regard noble birth with favour, C. p. Sest. 9.
'Soli Tusculani vera arma invenistis/ only you men of Tus-
culum have discovered genuine warfare, L. vi. 26.
4) Latin uses Possessive Pronouns sparingly ; thus, for c I see
my father] the Latin is < Patrem video/ omitting the Possessive
unless required for perspicuity or emphasis : 'Quid vos uxor mea
violarat?' what wrong had my wife done you? C. p. Dom. 25.
Yet the Possessive is sometimes introduced without obvious
necessity : ' Cum ita animum induxti tuum/ as you have prevailed
on yourself, Ter. An. i. 2. 12. Pleonasm of other Pronouns occurs
in poetry : 'Nee dulcis amores sperne puer, neque tu choreas/
despise in boyhood neither sweet loves nor yet dances, Hor. C. i. 9.
15. 'Sic oculos, sic ille manus, sic ora ferebat/ thus he used to
carry his eyes, his hands, his countenance, V. Ae. iii. 490. For the
pleonastic use of ille by Virgil in comparisons see Ae. x. 707, xi.
809, xii. 5, and notes there.
5) The Possessive Pronouns are used by poets in the sense
propitious : ' Sedmihi tamfacilis unde meosque deos?' but whence
can I obtain gods so easy and propitious ? Ov. Her. xii. 84. 'Vends
iturus non suis/ about to sail with unpropitious winds, Hor. Epod.
ix. 30. ' Haud numine nostro/ V. Ae. ii. 396.
282 Latin Wordlore.
6) On the use of the Possessive Pronouns for the Personal, see
Syntax of Genitive. Thus, ' Neque neglegentia tua neque odio
id fecit tuo/ this he did neither from disregard nor from hatred
of you, Ter. Ph. v. 9.
65
Demon- u. Demonstrative Pronouns.
strative
nouns. Of Demonstrative Pronouns, hie refers to what is near to the
speaker's person, place, time, habits, &c. : i lie to what is remote
from these : iste to what is in near relation to those addressed.
Hie.
i. 2. 38. 'Chrysis vicina haec moritur/ my neighbour Chrysis
here died, Ter. An. i. I. 78. ' Hoc a te peto, ut subvenias huic
meae sollicitudini ethuic meae laudi studium dices/ what 1 ask
of you is to relieve my anxiety and study to support my honour in
this matter, C. Fam. ii. 6. ' His duobus mensibus/ within the last
two months, C. Fam. vii. i. 'Hie dies/ to-day. * Licentia haec/
this modern licence, L. xxv. 40.
2) <Si illos, Labiene, quos iamvidere non possumus, neglegis,
ne his quidem, quos vides, consuli putas oportere ?' if you disre-
gard those, Labienus, whom we can see no longer, do you think no
care should be taken even for these, whom you do see ? C. p. Rab. 1 1.
( Q. Catulus non antique illo more, sed hoc nostro, fuit eruditus/
Quintus Catuhts was learned not in that ancient manner, but in
this later one of our own, C. Brut. 35.
a) I lie may refer to what was erewhile, or what will be here-
after (hence its locative olim has both meanings) : ' I llam
veterem iudiciorum vim/ C. ' Sapiens non pendet ex
futuris, sed exspectat ilia, fruitur praesentibus/ a wise
man hangs not on future things, but looks for them,
while he enjoys the present, C. Fin. i. 19.
b) When special stress is laid on a proposition or fact, it is
introduced by illud : 'Illud animorum corporumque
dissimile, quod animi valentes morbo temptari non possunt,
corpora possunt/ there is this striking difference between
minds and bodies, that healthy minds cannot be assailed
by disease, bodies can, C. T. D. iv. 14.
c) Ille is used to express fame or dignity : ' Medea ilia/ the
celebrated Medea, C. p. L. Man. 9. 'Veneramini ilium
lovem, custodem huius urbis/ adore that great Jupiter,
guardian of this city, C. Cat. ii. 12. So with an attribute :
6 An censes omnium rerumpublicarum nostram veterem
illam fuisse optimam ? ; do you think that of all common-
wealths that old one of ours was the best? C. Leg. ii. 10.
Or with other pronouns : ' Instat hie nunc ille annus
egregius/ there is coming on now this fine, famous year,
C. Att. \. 18. 'Ille ego liber, Ille ferox, tacui/ /, that
free, that haughty one, was mute, Ov. Met. i. 757.
65. Uses of Pronouns 283
d) Ille, the other (of two named) : ' Themistocles domino navis
qui sit aperit : at ille procul ab insula navem tenuit in
ancoris/ Themistocles disclosed to the ship's captain who
he was: whereiipon the other kept the vessel at anchor
some way from the island, Nep. Them. 8. I Hi, the other
side, the other party : 6 Illorum qui dissentiunt,' C. p. L.
Man. 23.
3) When hie and ille refer to two things, hie designates either Hie
what is last mentioned, or what is nearer to the speaker's mind : }jj th
ille, either what is first mentioned, or what is farther from the
speaker's mind: 'Idem et docenti et discenti propositum esse
debet, ut ille prodesse velit, hie proficere,' the teacher and learner
ought to have the same object; the former should desire to confer
advantage, the latter to obtain ii, Sen. Ep. 108. l Scitum est illud
Catonis, melius de quibusdam acerbos inimicos mereri quam eos
amicos qui dulces videantur : illos saepe verum dicere, hos num-
quam/ it is a shrewd saying of Cato, that keen-tongued enemies de-
serve better of some men, than those friends who seem sweet-spoken :
the former often tell the truth, the latter never, C. Lael. 24. ' Me-
lior est certa pax quam sperata victoria; haec in tua, ilia in deorum
manu est/ better is sure peace than hoped-for victory ; the one is in
your own power, the other in the power of the gods, L. xxx. 30.
The two Pronouns are also used for distribution : hoc et illud,
this and that. So ille aut ille, ille et ille, this and that man, C. p.
Rose. A. 21.
4) Iste has the same relation to tu(vos) that hie has to ego iste.
(nos). ' Quae est ista praetura?' what sort of praetorship is
that of yours? C. Verr. ii. 2. 18. 'De istis rebus exspecto tuas
litteras,' / await a letter from you about affairs in your parts, C.
Att. ii. 5. ' Adventu tuo ista subsellia vacuefacta sunt,' as soon
as you arrived those benches (next you) were cleared, C. Cat. i. 7. In
Cicero's speeches iste often means 'the defendant,' or the person
attacked.
Contempt is not contained in the meaning of the Pronoun iste,
but it is implied sometimes, inasmuch as the speaker seems to repel
what he names from himself to some one else. 'Quidsibi isti
miseri volunt ? ' what do those wretches want ? C. ' Errare malo
cum Platone quam cum istis vera sentire,' I had rather be wrong
with Plato than hold true doctrine with that crew, C. T. D. i. 1 7.
5) Is, the unemphatic Determinative Pronoun, is used
a) In reference to a Noun before mentioned: 'Veientes
regem creavere. Offendit ea res populorum Etruriae
animos, odio ipsius regis. Gravis iam is antea genti
fuerat,' the people of Veii elected a king: that act dis-
pleased the population of Etruria, from their hatred of
the king himself: (for} he had already been oppressive to
the nation^ at a former time, L. v. i. ' Maximum orna-
mentum amicitiae tollit qui ex ea tollit verecundiam/ he
takes away the chief grace of friendship, who takes from it
respectfulness, C. Lael. 22.
284 Latin Word lore. ' 65,
Its oblique cases are often left to be understood : ' Eadem
secreto ex aliis quaerit; repent esse vera/ he asks the
same questions privately of others, and finds all true, Caes-
B. G. i. 18.
/3) In correlation to a Relative, which it usually precedes, but
often, for the sake of emphasis, follows : Is qui hoc fecit r
he who did this. c Magna sunt ea quae sunt optimis
proxima/ great are those things which are next to the best,
C. Or. 2. '. Bestiae, in quo loco natae sunt, ex eo se
non commovent/ beasts do not move from the place they
were born in, C. Fin. v. 15. It may be omitted: 'Qui
e nuce nucleum esse vult, frangit nucem,' he who wishes
to eat the kernel out of the walnut, breaks the walnut,
Plaut. Cure. i. i. 55. ' Semper in proelio maximum est
periculum qui maxime timent/ ever in battle their peril is
most whose fear is greatest, Sail. Cat. 58. < Quidquid
non licet, nefas putare debemus/ whatever is unlawful w&
ought to think impious, C. Par. 3.
y) In the sense of ' one of a kind? ' such : ' in which sense it
may relate to any person, and be followed by qui with
Indie, or (more usually) Subjunctive, or by ut with Subj. :
' Atque haec omnia is feci, qui sodalis et familiarissimus
Dolabellae eram/ and I who did all this was one, who
stood in the most intimate arid familiar relations to Dola-
bella, C. Fam. xii. 14. ' Neque enim tu is es qui quid sis
nescias/y*?r j<?// are not the man to be ignorant of your own
powers, C. Fam. v. 12. ' Matris est ea stultitia, ut earn
nemo hominem, ea vis, ut nemo feminam, ea crudelitas,
ut nemo matrem appellare possit/ such is that mother's
folly that none can call her a human being ; such her vio-
lence that none can term her a woman ; such her cruelty
that none can speak of her as a mother, C. p. Clu. 70.
Obs. In such sentences as, ' The features of the mind are fairer
than those of the body] where the Demonstrative (those] is used in
English, the Latin idiom omits it : as ' Animi lineamenta pulchriora
sunt quam corporis, 7 C. Fin. iii. 25. The use of an emphatic pro-
noun (hie or ille) is no real exception to this rule : ' Nullam virtus
aliam mercedem laborum periculorumque desiderat, praeter hanc
laudis et gloriae/ virtue wants no other reward of its perils and
toils, but this of praise and glory, C. p. Arch. n. So, ' Those
dwelling at Rome ' is in Latin not, Ei Romae habitantes ; but either
Romae habitantes, or Ei qui Romae habitant.
Idem. 6) The Definitive Pronoun idem (is-dem), l the same} is often
aptly rendered 'also :' < Quidquid honestum, idem est utile/ what-
ever is morally right is also advantageous, C. Off. ii. 3. ' Non
omnes, qui Attice, eidem bene; sed omnes, qui bene, eidemetiam
Attice loquuntur/ not all who speak in the Attic manner also speak
well; but all who speak well speak also in the Attic manner. C
Brut. 84.
Sometimes it implies a contrast (' but yet ^ : 'Inventi multi sunt,
qui vitam profundere pro patria parati essent, eidem gloriae iac-
turam ne minimam quidem facere vellent/ many have been founds
Uses of Pronouns. 285
who were prepared to yield up life for their countrv,yet would not
choose to make the smallest sacrifice of glory, C. Off. i. 24.
It is placed, like ipse, in apposition to other Pronouns: 'Tu
idem dixisti/ you also said, C. p. L. Man. 17. So haeceadem, qui
idem, &c.
Note i. Et is, isque, atque is, et is quidem, et hie quidem,
et idem, idemque, atque idem (and that too), nee is (and that
too not], &c., are used to lay stress on some quality of a word
before mentioned : ( Homo habet memoriam, et earn infinitam
rerum innumerabilium/ man has memory, and an infinite one too, of
countless things, C. T. D. i. 24. ' Apollonium cognovi optimis
studiis deditum idque a puero/ / have known Apollonius to be
devoted to sound learning, and that from boyhood, C. Fam. xiii. 16.
Note 2. The Adverb quidem is elegantly joined to Personal
and Demonstrative Pronouns, especially to ille, when a concession
is made, but immediately qualified by an adversative clause (sed) ;
answering to the English 'certainly . . . but:' 'Ignosco e qui-
dem (ego quidem) tibi, sed tu quoque velim mihi ignoscas/ I par-
don you certainly, but I would have you too pardon me, C. Q. Fr.
iii. i, 3. 'Tuus dolor humanus is quidem, sed tamen magnopere
moderandus/ yours is a grief natural to man, I admit, but one
which should be considerably modified, C. Att. xii. 10. 'Ludo et
ioco utiillo quidem licet, sed turn, cum seriis rebus satisfeceris/
you may indulge in sport and amusement, I grant, but not till you
have fulfilled serious engagements, C. Off. i. 29. The adversative
/clause is omitted in C. Off. ii. 9 : 'Quae sordidissima est ilia qui-
dem ratio/ &c., aprinciple which is, I admit, of the meanest kind.
See 64 (4).
Note 3. Redundance of Demonstrative Pronouns occurs : ' Par-
menides, Xenophanes minus bonis quamquam versibus sed tamen
illis versibus increpant eorum arrogantiam/ Parmenides and Xeno-
phanes reprove their arrogance in verses, which, though not very
.good, are verses nevertheless, C. Ac. ii. 23. ' Ista animi tranquil-
litas ea ipsa est beata vita/ that tranquillity of mind is itself hap-
piness, C. Fin. v. 8.
This peculiar redundance is especially remarkable in Relative
clauses : ' Plato Titanum e genere statuit eos, qui, ut illi caelestibus,
sic hi adversentur magistratibus/ Plato assigns to the Titan race
those men who oppose magistrates, as the Titans opposed the gods,
C. Leg. iii. 2. * Est istius furor repellendus qui quae maiores volu-
erunt, ea iste labefactavit/ we should put away from us his mad-
ness, who has shaken those institutions, which our ancestors thought
proper to establish, C. p. Dom. 42.
iii. The Reflexive Pronouns se, suus. TheRe
flexive
Personal and Possessive Pronouns of the First and Second Per- Pr -
sons may be used reflexively : that is, they may be referred to a se^us
Subject of their own Person. But se and suus differ from the rest,
inasmuch as they cannot be used unless there be a Noun of their
own (the Third) Person, expressed or understood, to which they are
referred. Although we can say, amat me, he loves me; amat te,
Jie loves thee ; we cannot say, amo se, amas se, but amo eum, / love
2&6 Latin Word I ore.
66.
him ; amas eum,jK<?# love him\ not culpo suumfactum, but culpo
ei us factum, / blame his deed.
The general rules for the use of se, suus are these :
1) First : they may be referred to a Subject Nominative of the
Third Person in their own Clause. ' Fur telo se defendit/ /#* thief
defends himself with a weapon, C. p. Mil. 3. 'Atticus incitabat
omnis studio suo/ Atticus inspired all with his own zeal \ Nep.
Att. i. * Sentit animus se vi sua moveri/ the soul feels that it is
moved by its own force, C. T. D. i. 23. The Pronoun quisque is
a frequent Subject of se, suus : ' Ipse se quisque diligit, quod per
sesibi quisque carus est/ everyone loves himself, because every-
one by the law of his own nature is precious to himself, C. LaeL
21.
2) Secondly : they may be referred to an Object (which usually
precedes) when this reference causes no ambiguity. ' Scipionem
impellit ostentatio sui/ ostentation of self sways Scipio, Caes. B.
C i. 4. 'Caesaremsua natura mitiorem facit/ Caesar's own cha-
racter makes him milder, C. Fam. vi. 13. ' Ei nunc alia ducendast
domum, sua cognata/ he has now to marry another, his own kins-
woman, Plaut. Cist. i. i. 'Multa sunt civibus inter se com-
munia/ many things are common to fellow-citizens, C. Off. i. 17.
' Scipio s u a s res Syracusanis restituit/ Scipio restored to the
Syracusans their property, L. xxix. i. 'Apibus fructum restituo
suum/ I restore to the bees their produce, Phaed. iii. 13.
3) Thirdly, they may be referred to an Indefinite Object Case
(alicui, aliquern) understood : ' Habenda ratio non sua solum, sed
etiam aliorum/ men must take account not of themselves alone, but
also of others. Especially in conjunction with an Infinitive : ( De-
forme est de se ipsum praedicare/ it is unseemly to vaunt of one-
self, C. Off. i. 38. ' Bellum est sua vitia nosse/ // is ajine thing to
know one's own faults, C. Att. ii. i/. 1
1 The principles stated above hold good when se, suus, occur in Participial, Gerundial
and other dependence. 'Multa mea in se collata, etiam sua in me proferebat officia,'
he brought forward many services done by me to him, and also those done by himself to
me, C. /. S-ull. 6. 'Constituit igitur ut ludi, absente se, fierentsuo nomine,' he
therefore arranged that in his absence the games shoidd be held in his name, C. Att.
xv. u. 'Tanto gratior populo fu it quanto doctior maioribus suis,' he was more Popular
in proportion as he "was more learned than his ancestors, lust. xvii. 3. ' Si nulla
caritas erit quae faciat amicitiam ipsam sua sponte, vi sua, ex se et propter
se expetendam/ if there is no love to make friendship desirable on the first offer, by its
(nun force, from itself , and for itself, C. Fin. ii. 20. 'Itaque redimendi se captivif
copiam fecere,' accordingly they gave the prisoners the opportunity of ransoming them
selves, L. xxii. 58. ' Mithridatem Tigranes excepit diffidentemque rebus suis con-
firmavit,' Tigranes received and encouraged Mithridates, who was despairing of his
own resources, C. /. L. Man. 9. From such bold constructions as those of the thr^e
latter examples, in which the Reflexive is referred to the Object Case by virtue of aa
intervening Verb Infinite (expetendam, redimendi, diffidentem), has arisen one yet
bolder, in which the Preposition cum is eqxiivalent to a Relative Clause : 'Dicaear-
chum cum Aristoxeno, aequali et condiscipulo suo, omittamus,' let us pass over
Dicaearchus, and Aristoxenushis contemporary and fellow-pupil, C. T. D. i. 18, where
cum &c. =quocum coniungimus Aristoxenum . . suum. A similar idiom is extended to
places where the Preposition in (more rarely ad, ab, intra) follows such Verbs as remittere,
retinere, reverti, iubere, cogere, removere, &c. the formula of command being adopted by
the writer from the speaker's mouth. Thus, 'Caesar Fabium cum legione sua remittit
in hiberna,' Caesar sends back Fabius and his legion to their winter encampment, CaeSt
B. G. v. 53, is equivalent to ' Caesar imperat, Fabius cum legione sua in hiberna rever-
67. Uses of Pronouns. 287
a) The Cases of is (sometimes those of ipse) are used when
se, suus, would be wrong : ' Chilius te rogat, et ego eius
rogatu/ Chilius asks yoii, and I at his request, C. Att. i. 9.
'Aranti Quinctio nuntiatum est eum dictatorem esse
factum/ news came to Quinctius while ploughing, that he
was appointed dictator, C. Cat. M. 1 6.
b) The Reflexive when referred to the Pronoun qu i s qu e (either
Subject or Object) generally stands immediately before
it : ' Mors sua quemque manet/ his death awaits every
man. 'Suus quoique mos/ every one has his own
fashion,1et. Ph. ii. 4. But sometimes after it : 'Quisque
suos patimur Manis/ Verg. Aen. vi. 743. So, <Ut quis-
que sibi maxime confidit/ C. Lael. 30.
c) The use of the Adjectival phrase suusquisque (though not
noticed in Madvig's grammar) is explained and illustrated
by him on C. Fin. v. 17 : 'Quia cuiusque partis naturae et
in corpore et in animo suaquaequevis sit,' because every
part of nature both in body and soul has its own particitlar
power. So ( suo quoque anno ; on an Inscription. See
M. Lucr. ii. 372.
d) The Plural Masculine sui is used for amici, familiares or
milites so idiomatically, that it sometimes appears to
transgress the laws of Pronominal reference : f Is annus
Crassi omnem spem atque omnia vitae consilia morte
pervertit ; fuit hoc luctuosum suis/ that year overthrew
by death all the hope and all the life-plans of Crassus : it
was an event full of sorrow to his friends, C. d. Or. iii. 2.
' lam perventum ad suos est ' ( = iam pervenerant ad suos),
L. xxxiii. 4.
On these Pronouns in Dependent Clauses see 231 236.
67
iv. The Definitive Pronoun ipse. ipse.
i) This is of any person, and strengthens any Noun-term,
especially a Personal or Demonstrative Pronoun, with which it
is placed in attributive apposition : f Ipse Pater dextra molitur
fulmina,' the Sire himself wields the lightnings with his right hand,
tantur.' So: ' Carthaginienses Magonem cum classe sua copiisque in Italiam mit-
tunt,' the Carthaginians send Mago 'with his fleet and forces into Italy, L. xxiii. 32.
'Corbulo, ut Armenios ad sua defendenda cogeret, exscindere parat castella,'
Corbulo, in order to compel the A rmenians to defend their possessions, prepares to de-
stroy their forts, Tac. Ann. xiii. 39, where Corbulo may be supposed to say, 'Armenios
ad sua defendenda cogam.' In such instances, if the Subject of the sentence is of the
Third Person, the word or words to which the Reflexive suus is referred will be found
immediately before the Reflexive. If the Subject is not of the Third Person, or if re-
ference to it would be absurd, this is unnecessary. 'In sua terra cogam pugnare eum,'
/ will compel him to fight in his own land, L. xxviii. 44. ' Suis flammis delete Fide-
n&s,' destroy Fidenae 'with its own flames, L. iv. 33. 'Desinant insidiari domi suae
consuli,' they should cease to lay snares for the consril at his own house, C. Cat. i. 13.
In constructions, however, like some of those cited in this note, it is optional to use the
Demonstr. instead of the Refl. ; and the following passages (cited by Madvig, Gr. 490)
shew that ancient writers often did so: ' Omitto Isocratem discipulosque eius
Ephorum et Naucratem/ C. Or. 51. 'Pisonem nostrum merito eius amo plurimum/
C. Fam. xiv. 2. 'Deum agnoscis ex operibus eius,' C. T. >. i. 28.
288 Latin Wordlore.
Verg. G. i. 329. 'Tarde nosmet ipsos cognoscimus/ we gain
knowledge of ourselves slowly ', C. Fin. v. 15. 'Ego ipse cum
eodem ipso non invitus erraverim/ / myself would be wrong with-
out reluctance in that very same maris company, C. T. D. i. i 7.
2) Ipse implies that the notion, which it thus accentuates, is op-
posed to some other, expressed or understood. Cicero writes,
' Nemo est qui ipse se oderit/ there is no one who hates himself, C.
Fin. v. 10. If he had written Nemo est qui se ipsum oderit, the
English would still be, there is no one who hates himself. Yet there
is a difference between the two Latin sentences, for, in the former,
ipse indicates the following contrast, 'utcumque alii eum oderint/
however others may hate him ; in the latter the following : 'utcumque
alios oderit/ however he may hate others. So, ' Non egeo medicina :
me ipse consolor/ I want no medicine, I comfort myself, C. p.
Cael. 3, where ipse with the subject implies, ' I and no other/ but
* me ipsum consolor ' would mean ( I comfort myself but nobody
else.'
1) The Pronoun, which ipse emphasises, may be understood :
'Quaeram ex ipsa/ I will inquire of herself ( = ex ea ipsa), C. p.
Cael. 14.
2) When ipse strengthens the Subject, and a Reflexive Pronoun is
Object, that Pronoun usually stands before ipse : ' Artaxerxes s e ipse
reprehendit/ Artaxerxes blamed himself, Nep. Dat. 5. 'Artes se
ipsae per se tuentur singulae/ the several arts maintain themselves
on their own grounds, C. de Or. ii. 2. But after qui, qui dam, &c.,
or for stronger emphasis, ipse may precede the Pronoun Object :
'Non sunt composita mea verba : ipsa se virtus satis ostendit/
mine is no set speech : virtue of itself is conspicuous enough, Sail.
lug. 85. ' Qui ipse sibi sapiens prodesse non quit, nequiquam
sapit/ the wise man who cannot benefit himself is wise in vain, C.
Fam. v. 6.
3) Ipse strengthens the Object usually, when something in the
context is opposed to that Object. Thus, in the phrase killed him-
self, though ipse generally stands with the Subject (' lulius Priscus
se ipse interfecit/ Tac. H. iv. n), yet it may sometimes distinguish
the Object : * Pompeianus miles fratrem suum, dein cognito faci-
nore se ipsum interfecit/ a soldier of Pompeius slew his brother,
and then, discovering his crime, killed himself, Tac. H. iii. 51.
Cicero writes, ' Sunt qui dicant, foedus quoddam esse sapientum
ne minus ami cos quam se ipsos diligant/ some say there is a
kind of covenant among the wise to love their friends not less than
themselves, Fin. i. 20. Yet it is a peculiarity of his to connect ipse
with the Subject, and so heighten its force, even when the opposi-
tion lies between the Pronoun and something else : ' Iste sic erat
humilis atque demissus, ut non modo populo Romano, sed
etiam sibi ipse condemnatus videretur/ the man was so lowly
and downcast, that not only to the Roman people but even to him-
self he seemed already condemned, C. Verr. Act. i. 6. ( Non ita
abundo ingenio, ut te consoler, cum ipse me non possim/ I have
not such excess of ability as to comfort you when I cannot comfort
myself, C. Fam. iv. 8.
Uses of Pronouns. 289
4) Ipse is also used
a] For ultro, of one's own accord: 'Ipsae lacte domum re-
ferent distenta capellae ubera/ the she-goats of their own
accord will bring home their milk-swollen udders, Verg.
B. iv. 21.
8) To define time exactly : 'Cum Athenis decem ipsos dies
fuissem/ when I had been at Athens exactly ten days, C.
Fam. ii. 8. So, 'mine ipsum/ at this very moment, C.
Att. xii. 1 6. ' Tune ipsum/ at that exact time, C. de Fin.
ii. 20. On the other hand aliquis is used to state time
inexactly : 'Aliquos viginti dies/ some twenty days,
Plaut. Men. v. 5. 47.
c) To express the chief person : ' Pythagorei respondere sole-
bant, Ipse dixit/ the Pythagoreans itsed to reply, He
himself said so (i.e. Pythagoras), C. N. D. i. 5. Hence
slaves used to call their master and mistress, ipse, ipsa :
and Catullus uses ipsa for era : 'Suamque norat Ipsam
tarn bene quam catella matrem/ and knew its mistress as
well as a kitten knows its mother, iii. 6.
v. The Indefinite Pronouns.
68
i) The Indefinite Pronouns, quis, qui, 1 being Enclitic, cannot inde-
begin a sentence. They usually follow some particle (si, nisi, ne_, | nite
an, num, ut, &c.) or a Relative. 'Si quis est sensus in morte/ nouns,
if there is any feeling in death, C. Phil. ix. 6. 'Si qui etiam
inferis sensus est/ if even the shades below have any feeling, C. Quis,
Fam. iv. 5. ' Oppida coeperunt munire et ponere leges, ne quis <i ui -
fur esset, neu latro, neu quis adulter/ they began to build towns
and establish laws, that none should be a thief or bandit or adidterer,
Hor. S. i. 3. So numquis, ecquis, &c. The Particles are simi-
larly combined, siqua, siquando, sicubi, necubi, ecquando, &c.
a) Quis Indef. is often connected with a case of its own: 'Si
mala condiderit in quern quis carmina, ius est/ if one
man has composed libellous verses on another, there is a
remedy at law, Hor. S. ii. i. 82. Or with Indef. Particle :
'si quando quis faceret/ &c., L.
1 It has been stated (p. 140) that the Interrogative and Indefinite forms quis, quid, are
substantival, qui, quod, adjectival ; and the truth of this assertion is shown by the two
facts, that quis in old Latin is of both genders, and that quid and quod always retained
their distinct characters as Substantive and Adjective. But it is also true that quis
(quae) is often used adjectively, as quis campus, puer quis in Horace, sensus aliquis in
Cicero ; the reply to which is that other Substantives are also used adjectively, as rex,
regina, incola, indigena, raptor, &c.
Another difficulty is the distinction of the Feminine Singular and Neuter Plural forms
qua, quae, of quis (qui) Indefinite. Some suppose that qua belongs to quis, quae
to qui ; butf this is mere conjecture without proof. Both forms are used adjectively,
and both (less often) substantively ; but adjectives may become substantives, and occa-
sionally substantives take the place of adjectives. The question thus remains undecided.
Cicero writes : 'ecquae ci vitas? ecqua religio? si quae pars ; si qua natio ; si quae prava
sint ; ne quadiscidia fiant ; aliqua significatio virtutis ;' but not 'aliquae,' which occurs in
Lucretius. Upon the whole it may be stated that the form qua (Indef. S. and PI.) is
more usual than quae, but that quae is also classical.
U
290 Latin Wordlore.
b) Si quis, si qui, stand for the Relative with a shade of un-
certainty : ( Errant si qui in bello omnis secundos rerum
proventus expectant/ they are wrong who in war expect
all issues to be prosperous, Caes. B. G. vii. 29.
c) Quis and. qui indefinite are sometimes used without a Par-
ticle, but only when the context expresses uncertainty:
'Potest quis errare aliquando/ a person may err now and
then, C. Div. i. 32. 'Etiam quisforsitan hostis haesura
in nostro tela gerit latere/ and already perhaps some foe
carries darts that will fasten in my side, Tib. i. 10. 13. Here
forsitan favours the use of quis.
Nescio 2) ' Nescio quis, nescio qui (I know not who or what = ) some or
q uis >. other] are used as Indefinite Pronouns : 'Fortasse non ieiunum hoc
qui 010 nescio quid quod ego gessi et contemnendum \\&&>\\.vxj perhaps
this something which I have done will seem not barren and despic-
able, C. Fam. xv. 17. Particles correspond in use, nescio quo,
nescio quando, &c.
Aliquis, 3) Aliquis, aliqui, some, are somewhat less indefinite than quis,
aliqui. q u i, and imply a person or thing assumed to exist somewhere.
They do not need a Particle : ' Semper aliqui anquirendi sunt quos
diligamus/ we must always seek some persons to love, C. Lael. 27.
( Sensus morienti aliquis esse potest,' one who is dying may have
some sensation, C. Cat. M. 20. But they can follow a Particle :
'Si est aliqui sensus in morte,' if there is any kind of feeling
in death, C. p. Ses. 62. Aliquando, aliqua, alicubi, &c., correspond
in use to aliquis.
a) Occasionally aliquis signifies 'a person of importance :'
'Sese ali quern credens/ considering himself somebody (of
importance), Pers. i. 129.
b} Aliquis itself (with its particles) has always positive force :
but may stand in a Negative sentence or clause : ' Cum
scias . . . sceleri ac furori tuo non mentemaliquam aut
timorem tuum, sed fortunam populi Romani obstitisse,'
knowing as you do that your wicked madness was not
baulked by any right feeling or fear on your part, but by
the good fortune of the Roman people, C. in Cat. i. 6.
Draeger (Histor. Synt. p. 23) exemplifies at great length the
use of this Pronoun and its Particles.
Quis- 4) Quispiam is used with more emphasis than quis, and rather
piam" less than aliquis: ( Forsitan aliquis aliquando eiusmodi
q uam q u i d p i a m fecerit/ perchance somebody or other at some time or other
&c am ' may have done a thing of the kind, C. Verr. ii. 32. Ouispiam
is used chiefly in positive sentences : quisquam chiefly in negative
and dubitative sentences : nonnullus only in a positive, ullus
only in a negative or dubitative construction. ' Dicat (dixerit)
quispiam/ someone may say, C. ' Hereditas est pecunia, quae
morte alicuius ad quempiam pervenit iure/ an inheritance is
money which by somebody's death has come to any one by right, C.
Top. 6. 'Zeuxis tabulas pinxit, quarum nonnulla pars usque ad
6S. Uses of Pronouns. 291
nostram memoriam mansit/ Zeuxis painted pictures, some of which
have remained to our time, C. Inv. ii. I. l Nihil attinet quicquam
sequi, qirod assequi non queas/ it avails not to pursue anything
which you cannot attain, C. Off. i. 31. ( Heu, cadit in quemquam
tantum scelus ? ' alas, occurs there to any one such great wickedness f
Verg. B. ix. 17. ' Nihil est quod Deus efficere non possit, et qui-
<lem sinelabore ullo/ there is nothing which God cannot effect,
and indeed without any toil, C. N. D. iii. 39. ' Indignor quic-
quam reprehendi non quia crasse compositum illepideve putetur,
.sed quia nuper/ / am indignant that any work should be censured,
not because it is supposed to be of coarse or tasteless, but of modern,
-composition, Hor. Ep. ii. i. 76. See M.Lucr. i. 1077.
Uspiam corresponds in use to quispiam ; usquam, umquam to
<[uisquam and ullus ; nusquam, numquam, to non quisquam, non
ullus. Nemo = non quisquam ; nullus = non ullus. Nemo quisquam
is used : also homo quisquam.
Rare instances occur of quispiam with negatives, of quisquam
in positive sense, and of qui, aliqui where ullus would be usual.
5) Quidam, a certain one,zs opposed to aliqui s, implies that the Quidam,
subject is definitely known, though indefinitely described : thus we <jx\*>
should say, ' Ouodam tempore natus sum : aliquo moriar/ I was
born at a certain time ; I shall die some time or other. ( Accurrit
quidam notus mihi nomine tantum/ a certain man runs up to me,
whom I only knew by name, Hor. S. i. 9. 3. It is joined with epi-
thets, like the English word ' certain :' 'Erat spinosa quaedam et
exilis oratio/ his was a certain prickly and lean style, C. Or. i. 18.
It occasionally means 'some] as opposed to l the whole' or ( others :'
*Nullis piscibus supra quaternas pinnae sunt, quibusdam
binae, aliquibus nullae/ no fakes have more than four Jins, some
two, a few none at all, PL N. H. ix. 20. Hence it is used to qualify
an expression not meant to be taken strictly : 'In ideis Plato quid-
dam divinum esse dicebat/ Plato used to say that in ideas there
is something divine, C. Ac. i. 9.
Quidam also stands in contrast to quivis, quilibet, any you will.
( Ut saltatori motus non quivis sed certus quidam est datus,
sic vita agenda est certo genere quodam non quolibet/ as to a
dancer is assigned not any optional movement, bu a certain de-
Jinite one, so must life be passed in a certain definite way, not in any
we please, C. Brut. 50.
6) Quisque, quaeque, quicque, each of any number. Plautus Quis-
uses quisque = quisquis : ' Quemque offendero/ whomsoever I find] f i ue -
Capt. iv. 2. For its other uses, see pp. 280, 287. On quern quisque,
&c., see M. Lucr. i. 966.
7) The Universal Relatives, whether compounded with -cumque Univer-
or of the duplicated form (quisquis, &c.), have no special idioms J t \^
distinguishing them from other Relatives : 'Quoscumque de te
queri audivi, quacumque ratione potui placavi/ / appeased in
whatever way I could all whom I heard complaining of you, C. Q.
Fr. i. 2. ' Quidquid erit tibi erit/ whatever there is shall be for
you,C.Fam. ii. 10. < Q'uantiquanti bene emitur quod necesse
est/ what is necessary is well purchased at any price, ^C. Att. xii.
24. On quicquid for quicque, each thing, see M. Lucr. i. 289.
u 2
292 Latin Word lore. 69.
vi. Pronominalia.
69
Alter, i ) Alter is one of two : the forms in -ter (as -repOQ in Greek)
uter, implying comparison of two. 'Agesilaus claudus fuit altero pede/
Agesilaiis was lame of one foot, Nep. Ag. i. ' Epaminondas habuit
collegas duos, quorum alter erat Pelopidas/ Epaminondas had
two colleagues, one of whom was Pelopidas, Nep. Ep. 8. Thus it
answers the question u-ter, which of two ? al-ter qui . . . the one
who, alter qui . . . the other who. ' Consules inter se agitabant
uti alter Samnites hostis, alter Etruscos deligeret, et uter ad
utrum bellum dux idoneus magis esset/ the consuls were discuss-
ing, how that one of the two should choose the Samnites for enemy,
the other the Etruscans ; and which commander was more suitable
for which war, L. x. 14. So, 'quidquid negat alter et alter/
whatever one denies, the other denies also, Hor. Epist. i. 10. 4.
a) Two cases of alter (as of alius) may stand in the same
clause, distributing ambo, uterque, &c. ( Uterque horum
medium quiddam volebat sequi : sed ita cadebat ut alter
ex alterius laude par tern, uterque autem suam totam
haberet/ both these men wished to attain a mean ; but it so
fell out that one had a share of the other's credit, while each
possessed his own entire, C. Brut. 20. Uterque (each of
two} ; alteruter (one or the other of two) : ' Non est tuae
dignitatis atque fidei ut contra alterutrum, cum sis
utrique coniunctissimus, arma feras/ it squares not with
your dignity and honour, to bear arms against one or the
other, being nearly allied to both, C. Att. ix. 10. Alter
alterum amant, they love one another-, also expressed,
' amant se invicem/ ' mutuo amant/ ' amant inter se/
Alteri . . . alteri, one party . . . the other party.
) Alter means 6 a second] ' another] besides one named or
implied : ' Solus aut cum altero/ alone or with another y
C. Att. xi. 15. 'Me ipsum accuse, deinde te, quasi me
alterum/ / reproach myself, and then you, a sort of
second self, C. Att. iii. 15. ' Alter erit turn Tiphys/ then
will there be a second Tiphys, Verg. B. iv. 34. ' Alter ab
illo/ next to him, Verg. B. v. 49. Alterum t ant um, as-
imtch again.
2) Alius repeated in successive clauses signifies one . . . another,
& c ms ' &c., without limit of number. 'Aliud equo est e natura, aliud
bovi, al iud homini/ one tiling is natural to a horse, another to an
ox, another to a man, C. Fin. v. 9. Contrast is similarly effected
by the adverbs of alius ; aliter, alias, alibi, alio, &c. Alias con-
tentius, alias remissius, at one time more vigorously, at another
more slackly. Here too the repetition of alius in the same clause,
or its juxtaposition with one of its adverbs, or two of these adverbs
in the same clause, will denote a difference of the predicate for
different subjects. 'Duodeinceps reges alius alia via civitatem
auxerunt/ two successive kings increased the civic body in different
ways, L. i. 21. ' Illi alias aliud isdem de rebus iudicant/ those
men judge one thing at one time, another at another, on the same
questions, C. de Or. ii. 30. 'Eadem aliter alibi nuncupantur/
the same things are differently named in different places, PL N. H*
xxv. 4. Aliud ex alio, one thing after another.
$ 70. Uses of Prepositions. 293
SECTION V.
70
Uses of Prepositions. Useof
Prepo-
i. Prepositions with an ACCUSATIVE Case.
I. Ad (to, at, &c.).
Usque ad is often used : usque ad Numantiam. Hor. has
<c adusque supremum tempus/ even to his last hour. Also the Adv.
usque, omitting ad. ' Usque Puteolos/ as far as Pozzuoli, C. ' Tar-
sum usque/ C. <Ab ovo usque ad mala/ from the eggs to the
apples, Hor., i.e. from the beginning to the end of dinner.
1) Local Use.
a) Ad, to, takes a Case of Place or Person, after a Verb ex-
pressing or implying motion : as ire, adire, accedere, du-
cere, adducere ad urbem, &c. ; mittere, scribere ad ali-
quem, &c. For simple Dat. : ' Dulce rideat ad patrem/
Catull. See M. Lucr. i. 750.
^) Ad, at, takes a Case after a Verb not expressing motion :
esse ad urbem : ad pedes iacere : ad quartum lapidem ;
victoria ad Cannas ; Curio fuit ad me, at my house ; ad
iudices, before the judges ; ad vinum, over wine-, ad Opis,
at the temple of Ops, C.
2) Temporal Use.
a) Limit of Time (to) : ad summam senectutem, to extreme old
<age; ad hosce dies, to modern times ; ad ultimum, to the very
^ast ; a mani usque ad vesperum, from morning to evening ; ad
multam noctem, till late in the night.
b) Point of Time : ad lucem, at daybreak ; ad postremum, at
last ; ad summum, in fine. Time fixed beforehand : exspecto te ad
Kal. Febr., / look for you by the ist of February ; dies praestituta
*est quam ad solveres, a day was appointed you for paying.
c) Time within which : ad tempus, for a time, or at the right
time ; ad breve tempus, for a short time ; ad decem annos, ten
years hence.
3) Ad marks the limit of Number and Degree : ad octingentos ;
or adverbially, ad octingenti caesi, about 800 were slain, L. So,
ad unum omnes, te a man; ad assem, to the last farthing-, ad
summam, on the whole ; ad summam impudentiam, to the most
shameless height.
4) The derived uses are :
a) Addition : ad haec vulnera ; ad hoc, moreover.
b} Standard : ad fistulam canere, to sing to the pipe ; ad
verbum ediscere, to learn word for word ; ad eum modum,
of that kind-, ad unguem, to a nicety ; ad amussim, accti-
rately.
t) Comparison : nihil est ad Persium, he is nothing to Persius.
294 Latin Wordlore. 70^.
d) Respect : Insignis ad laudem, honourably distinguished*,
Ad speciem ; ad pondus. See M. Liter, iii. 214.
e) Occasion : Ad famam obsidionis, on report of the siege. Ad
ictum, after the blow. See M. Lucr. i. 185.
f) Reply : Ad ilia respondeo, to this I reply.
g) Purpose : Ad earn rem.,for that purpose : ad praedam,y0r
plunder : especially with Gerund and Gerundive : ad ves-
c&h&um, for food-, ad agros CQlzndiOS, for agriculture. So-
servus ad remum, rower, Liv., ad manum, amanuensis \.
Lygdamus ad cyathos, the cup-bearer Lygdamus, Prop. ;
ad limina custos, a doorkeeper, Verg. And with a Case of
that against which precaution or remedy is used : ad
morsus bestiarum,y0r bites, ad morbos, against diseases.
II. Adversus, adversum (advorsus, advorsum) express
1) Place (over against, opposite) : Adversus Pydnam, opposite-
to Pydna. Quis haec est quae me advorsum incedit ?
who is this woman coming face to face with me ? Plaut_
Ire advorsum alicui, to go to meet some one = obviam ire.
Exadversus is found : exadversus Athenas, opposite Athens.
2) Relation (towards, against}. Amor adversus parentes, love-
towards parents. Adversus solem ne loquitor, you must
not speak against the sun.
III. A pud expresses near neighbourhood, generally to Persons^
rarely to Place : Apud oppidum, near the town.
1) With Persons it is used in various senses : Apud Lycome-
dem, in the house of Lycomedes ; apud me, at my house.
Apud populum orationemhabuit, he spoke before the people ;
apud iudices eosdem reus factus est, he was arraigned'
before the same judges. Apud priscos Romanos hie mos
erat, this was the custom among the old Romans. Apud
Ciceronem, in the writings of Cicero ; apud Homerum.
(but in Iliade Homerl, in Ciceronis Libro de Officiis).
2) In phrases : Apud animum cogito, / am considering in my
mind. Haec apud me valent, these things have weight'
with me. Fac apud te sis, keep your wits about you.
IV. Ante (before] is applied to
1) Place : Hannibal ante portas est.
2) Time : Ante lucem, before daybreak. Ante urbem conditam,
before the foundation of the city. Ante tris annos, three-
years ago (also tribus ante annis or tertio anno ante).
Multo ante, long before. Paulo ante, a short time before*
Ante domandum, before taming, Verg.
3) Order and Preference : Hunc ante me diligo, 7 love him
above myself. Ante alios carissimus (or carior). Ante
omnia placent silvae, woods please above everything.
V. Pone (pos-ne) (behind) : Pone castra pabulatum ibant, they
went behind the camp to forage. Ante et pone, before and behind.
70i Uses of Prepositions. 295
VI. Post (pos-te : see ante) describes
1) Place (behind] : Hostis post montem se occultabat, the
enemy was hiding behind the mountain. Manus eius post
tergum religatae sunt, his hands were tied behind his back.
2) Time (after ; since] : Post cenam, after stopper. Post urbem
conditam, after the foundation of the city. Post Christum
natum, after the birth of Christ. Post hominum memo-
riam, since the memory of man. Post paucos dies (or
paucis post cliebus), a few days after. Paulo post, soon
after. Longo post tempore, V.
3) Of Order and Dignity (after, behind] : ' Neque erit Lydia
post Chloen/ nor shall Lydia be after Chloe, Hor.
VII. Cis, citra (c it era parte), (on' this side of, within}, is
applied to
1 ) Place : Cis Alpis, cis Padum, citra Euphraten, citra mare.
2) Time (very rarely) : Cis paucos dies hostis aderit, the enemy
will be here within a few days. Citra Kalendas Octobris,
before the 1st of October.
Note. Hence citra is used of measure in the sense of without
(i.e. without reaching], short of: Citra controversiam,
without dispute. Citra ebrietatem, short of intoxication.
VIII. Ultra, from the root il = ol = ul (ultera parte, on yonder
side, beyond) describes
1) Place : Ultra Aethiopiam, beyond Ethiopia. Ultra Gara-
mantas et Indos, beyond the Garamantes and Indians.
2) Measure : Ne sutor ultra crepidam (progrediatur), the cobbler
must not go beyond his last. Ultra puerilis annos est, he
is past childhood. Ultra feminam ferox, fierce beyond the
nature of woman. So, ultra fas ; ultra fidem.
IX. Trans (across , beyond} is applied to seas, rivers, hills, &c. :
Naves trans mare currunt, ships glide across the sea. Trans Eu-
phraten, beyond the Euphrates. Trans Alpis. Trans caput, V.
X. i. Circum (round, about] of Place: Terra circum axem
vertitur, the earth turns about its axis. Circurn haec loca com-
moror, / am staying about these spots. Turba circum regem, a
crowd around the king.
2. Circa (not used before Livy), describes
1) Place (round] : Urbes circa Capuam occupavit, he seized
the cities around Capua. Multos circa se habebat, he
kept many about him. Circa vias discurritur, there is a
sktirry about the streets. Circa pectus, round the bosom.
2) Time and Number (about) : Circa Calendas Februarias,
about the \st of February. Circa quingentos capti sunt,
about five hundred were taken.
3) Respect (about, concerning) in Post-Augustan Latinity :
Varia circa haec opinio est, there is variety of opinion on
this subject.
296 Latin Wordlore. 70.
3. Circiter (about] denotes extension round, and is used of
Time and Number : Circiter meridiem advenimus, we came about
noon. Decem circiter milia passuum abest, he is about ten miles
away.
XI. Contra (contera parte) denotes a tendency of two things to
come together, and describes
1) Place (over against) : Carthago Italiam contra, Carthage
over against Italy. Aspicedum contra me, look me in the
face.
2) Relation (against) : Contra naturam, against nature. Contra
legem, against law. Hoc contra ius fasque est, this is
against law arid religion. Quod contra fit a plerisque,
most people do just the contrary. Non caru'st auro contra,
hJs worth his weight in gold.
XII. Erga (towards) is used of Relation : Tuam erga me bene-
volentiam agnosco, / acknowledge your goodwill towards me.
Scio quomodo erga me affectus sis, I know how you feel towards
me. Erga is once used of place by Plautus ( = facing}.
XIII. Extra (extera parte) describes
1) Place (outside of, without) : Extra urbem, outside the city.
Extra teli iactum, out of range of darts.
2) Relation (without, beyond, clear of) : Extra culpam, peri-
culum, iocum, ordinem, modum, causam, &c.
3) Exception (except) : Nemo extra eum, nobody except him.
XIV. Intra (intera parte) (within) describes
1) Place : Intra urbem factum est, it happened within the city.
Intra montem Taurum, within Mount Taiirus (for cis).
2) Time : Intra triginta dies, within thirty days.
3) Extent : Hortensii scripta intra famam sunt, the writings
of Hortensius are short of their reputation. Intra modum,
intra legem epulari, to feast within measure, within law.
The Adv. intus (within} is also used with Accus. Intus
domum, Plaut. Intus cellam, L.
XV. Inter signifies extension inside, and is used of
1) Place (between) : Inter urbem et fluvium, between the city
and river.
2) Time (between, during) : Inter horam tertiam et quartam,
between nine and ten o'clock. Inter prandendum (or inter
cenam) curis vaco, at dinner (or at supper} I am free from
cares. Inter tot annos, during so many years. Inter
vias, on the road.
3) Relation (between, among} : Inter hominem et beluam
multum interest, there is much difference between a man
and a brute. Constat inter omnis, all are agreed. Inter
arma silent leges, amidst arms laws are silent. Inter
cetera et illud dixit, among other things he said this too.
yo. Uses of Prepositions. 297
And of mutual relation with se ; as Inter se amant, they
love one another. Inter haec = interea, meanwhile.
XVI. Infra (infera parte) (beneath) describes
1) Place : Infra lunam nihil est non mortale, beneath the moon
there is nothing not mortal.
2) Time : Homerus non infra Lycurgum fuit, Homer was not
after Lyciirgus.
3) Number : Non infra novena, not less than nine at a time.
4) Measure : Uri magnitudine sunt paulo infra elephantos,
buffaloes are of a size rather under elephants.
5) Worth : Infra dignitatem meam, beneath my dignity.
XVII. Supra (supera parte) (above, over) describes
1) Place : Caelum supra terram est, heaven is above earth.
Saltu supra venabula fertur, he bounds over the hunting
spears. Supra caput. Supra me erat Atticus, infra Ver-
rius, Atticus sat above me, Verrius below.
2) Time : Supra hanc memoriam vixit, he lived before these
times. Ut supra dixi, as I said above.
3) Number : Caesa sunt supra millia viginti, more than twenty
thousand were slain. Supra belli Sabini metum, over and
above the dread of a Sabine war.
4) Measure : Supra humanam formam altior, taller than
human form. Supra modum, above measure.
XVIII. luxta (iugista parte, Corss.) describes
1) Place (adjoining] : Hortus meus iuxta viam est, my garden
adjoins the road.
2) Order (next to, as well as, akin to) : Iuxta deos in tua
manu positum est, next to the gods it lies in your hands.
Inermes iuxta armatos trucidati sunt, unarmed as well as
armed men were slaughtered. Celeritas iuxta formidinem
est, speed is akin to fear. Iuxta seditionem ventum est,
things almost came to mutiny. Solo caeloque iuxta gravi,
soil and climate being equally unhealthy.
XIX. Ob describes
1) Place (before] : Ob oculos mihi mors versata est, death was
before my eyes. Follem sibi obstringit ob gulam, he ties a
bladder on his throat. Ob os trudere, to thrust in one's
face.
2) Cause (for, on account of, with a view to] : Poenas ob stul-
titiam do, / suffer punishment for my folly. Pecuniam
ob absolvendum accepit, he received money to acquit. Ar-
gentum ob asinos, money to pay for the donkeys. Ager
oppositu'st pigneri ob decem minas, the estate is mortgaged
for ten minas. Frustra an ob rem, ineffectually, or to
some purpose. Ob industriam, studiously. Ob earn cau-
sam, on that account.
XX. Penes (in the power of, resting with} : Penes imperatorem
est summum imperium, supreme power rests with the commander-
298 Latin Wordlore. 70.
in-chief. Deum penes est custodia mundi, the guardianship of
the 'world rests 'with God. Servi penes accusatorem sunt, the slaves
are in the prosecutor's power. Culpa te est penes, the fault lies
with you. Penes te es ? are you in your senses ?
XXI. Praeter means extension in front of, and has the uses
1) Along, beside, before : Praeter ripam, along the bank. Prae-
ter oculos, before their eyes. Via una praeter hostis erat,
the only road was along the enemy's flank.
2) Besides, except : Praeter se neminem amat, he loves none
besides himself. Quod crimen dicis, praeter amasse,
meum ? what crime do you call mine, except having loved?
3) Beyond : Praeter modum, beyond measure. Praeter ceteros
clams, renowned beyond others.
4) Contrary to : Hoc praeter opinionem accidit, this happened
contrary to expectation. So, praeter spem.
XXII. Prope (near, nigh to) : Prope viam aedificat, he builds
near the road. Prope Kalendas Sextilis, near the flrst of August.
Prope abesse ab aliquo, to be near to some person or place. Prope
secessionem plebis res venit, 7natters almost came to a secession of
the commons.
The Comparative propius, and Superlative proxime, also take an
Accusative : Propius urbem, nearer the city. Proxime montem,
very near the mountain.
XXIII. Propter (prope-ter) means 'extension near/ and de-
scribes
1) Place (near, alongside of) : Volcanus tenuit insulas propter
Siciliam, Vulcan held the isles near Sicily. Propter aquam
ambulavimus, we walked beside the water. Propter te
sedet, he sits beside you. Cubantes propter, sleeping near.
2) Cause or Object (on account of} : Sapiens non propter
metum legibus paret, the wise man obeys not the laws on
account of fear. Ilia propter se expetenda sunt, those
things are desirable on their own account.
XXIV. Secundum, from sequor, denotes following, and de-
scribes
1) Place (next behind] : I secundum me, go next to me. Se-
cundum aurem vulnus accepit, he received a wound behind
his ear. (Along) : Secundum litus, along the shore.
2) Time (after) : Secundum Idus lanuarias veniam, I will
come after the \^th of January.
3) Rank (next after) : Secundum te nemo mihi amicior, after
you no man is more friendly to me. Secundum vocem
vultus valet, countenance tells next after voice.
4) Agreement (according to, in favour of} : Secundum natu-
ram vive, live according to nature. Secundum Stoicos
omnia vitia paria sunt. according to the Stoics all faults
are equal. Pontifices secundum me decreverunt, the
priests decreed in my favour.
j 71. Uses of Prepositions. 299
XXV. Per (through) signifies Passage from one end to another,
or in all directions, and describes
1) Place : Per Macedonian!, through Macedonia. Sanguis
per venas in omne corpus diffunditur, blood is diffused
through the veins into the whole body.
2) Duration of Time (throiighout, during] : Per tris annos,
for three years. Per noctem cernuntur sidera, the stars
are seen all night. Per somnum, during sleep.
3) Agency (by, through] : Per procuratorem non per se ipsum
agit, he acts by an agent, not personally.
4) Manner or Means (by) : Eos per vim eiecit, he turned them
out by force. Per simulationem amicitiae me perdidit, he
ruined me on pretence of friendship. Per litteras certiorem
te faciam, I will acquaint you by letter. So, per vices, by
turns, per silentium, in silence, per ioc\im,j0cu/arfy.
5) Motive or Cause : Per avaritiam id fecit, he did that through
avarice. Amicitia per se expetenda est, friendship should
be sought for its own sake. Per me licet hoc agas, you
may do this with my free will. Per leges non licet civem
verberare, the laws do not allow beating a citizen. Per te
stetit quominus ego discederem, you were the ca^ise of my
not departing.
6) Per is used in Prayers and Adjurations (by) : Per deos te
oro, I pray you by the gods.
Note. Per is sometimes disjoined from the word with which it
is compounded : as, Per mihi gratum est, it is very agree-
able to me. Per ovilia turbans, V. Or from its case : Per
ego te deos oro, I pray you by the gods.
XXVI. Versus, versum (anc. versus, vorsum) (towards),
always follow their Case : Hannibal Romam versus contendit,
Hannibal marched towards Rome. The best writers subjoin it to
a case governed by ad or in : Ad meridiem versus ibimus, we will
go towards the south. In Italiam versus se convertit, he turned
towards Italy.
ii. Prepositions governing an ABL. Case.
I. A, ab, abs, express a ' proceeding from/ and describe
i) Place : (a) Motion from : Sidera ab ortu ad occasum corn-
meant, the stars move from east to west. Ab nobis domo'st,
it comes from our house.
b) Distance from : Mille passuum sex a Caesaris castris sub-
sedit, he halted six miles from Caesar's camp. See
Prope. Amilibus passuum esse, to be a mile off. See
M. Lucr. i. 554.
c) Position in regard to (on, on the side of) : A fronte, in-
front. A tergo, in the rear. A sinistro cornu, on the
left wing. A Platone facio, lam on the side of Plato.
Zeno et ab eo qui sunt, Zeno and his disciples. Hoc a
me est, this is in my favour. A senatu stetit, he took
the senate's side. See M. Lucr. i. 693, 935 ; v. 754, 1332 ;
vi. 968.
3OO Latin Wordlore. 71.
Obs. Procul ab is used : Procul a patria, Verg. And procul
without ab. Haud procul seditione, L. Usque ab. Ab usque, V.
Lucr. has ore foras, out from the mouth, iv. 554.
2) Time (from) : Ab antiquissimis temporibus hie mos in-
valuit, this custom prevailed from the earliest times. So,
ab initio, a puero, a pueritia, ab incunabulis, a prima
aetate, &c. A primo,from the first or from the beginning.
3) Rank (after) : Proximus a rege, next after the king. Alter
ab ilio. Alter ab undecimo, the 12th. Ab hoc sermone
profectus est, after this discourse he set out. Ab exequiis.
Ab igni, after (in consequence oi)Jire. M. Lucr. vi. 968.
4) Separation (from) : A poena liberi sumus, ive are free from
punishment. Defende te a periculo, defend yourself from
danger. Non ab re fuerit ea narrare, it will not be irre-
levant to relate these things. Abhorrere ab aliqua re, to
shrink from anything ; to dislike.
5) Origin in general (front) : Pecuniam a me accepit, he re-
ceived the money from me. Ab Egnatio solvet, he will
pay through Egnatius. A te mihi salutem dixit, he greeted
me from you. A superstitione animi vates adhibuit, he
called in seers from mental superstition. M. Lucr. ii. 51.
6) Agent after Verbs Passive and Intransitive (by) : A cane
non magno saepe tenetur aper, a wild boar is often held
by a small dog. Oculi a sole dolent, my eyes are pained
by the sun. Ab hoste venire, to be sold by an enemy.
7) Respect (/, in point of, on the side of} : Ab animo aeger
fui, / was sick in mind. Firmus est ab equitatu, he is
strong in cavalry. A doctrina instructus est, he is well
furnished in point of learning. A patre nobilis erat, he
was noble on the father's side.
To this use belong the phrases for the offices of slaves and
freedmen at Rome, and the modern phrases for the posts
in a royal household, &c. Thus, (servus) ab epistulis
meant a letter-carrier or estafette ; (servus or libertus) a
manu, an amanuensis ; a bibliotheca, a librarian ; a pedi-
bus, a footman a potione, a butler or cupbearer, &c. So,
Regi a secretis consiliis, a privy counsellor of the king.
Reginae a sacris, queen's chaplain.
II. De expresses
1) Place (down from, from) : De rostris descendit, he came
down from the rostra. De manibus hostium effugit, he
escaped from the enemy's hands. Susque deque, up an&
down.
2) Time (ere the close of, at) : De prima luce, at daybreak. De
die, in daytime.' 1 De nocte, in the night. De multa nocte,
in the dead of night. De prandio, after luncheon. Diem
de die exspecto, / am waiting from day to day.
1 Cicero's jeu de mots (Phil, ii 34), 'non solum de die sed in diem vivere,' links two
common phrases, 'de die (potare),' to caro-use by daylight, and ' in diem vivere/ to live
for the day, so as to suggest that Antonius drank from before the evening of one day to
the dawn of the next (de die in diem).
7i. Uses of Prepositions. 301
3) Origin : De summo loco, of highest rank. De scripto
dixit, he spoke from a written paper. De facie eum novi,
/ know him by sight. Emi domum de Crasso, / bought a
house of Crassus. Hoc audivi de patre, this I heard from
my father. De marmore signum, a bust of marble. Fies
de rhetore consul, from a rhetorician you will become
consul.
4) Partition (of) : Una de multis, one of many maidens. Ac-
cusator de plebe, a plebeian proseciitor. De tuo illud
addis, you add of your own suggestion. De meo, at my
expense.
5) Respect (concerning, of, c.) : Multa de eo scripta sunt,
much was written about him. Legati de pace, envoys to
treat for peace. De captivis commutandis, concerning an
exchange of prisoners. De nihilo irasci, to be angry about
nothing. Quid de me fiet? what will become of me?
De Gallis triumphavit, he triumphed over the Gauls.
6) Cause (for, from, &c.) : Multis et gravibus de causis, for
many important reasons. Hoc de communi sententia fac-
turn est, this was done by common vote. De via langue-
bam, / was ill from the joitrney.
7) Manner (according to, on) in many phrases : De more, ac-
cording to custom. De industria, on purpose. De im-
proviso, unexpectedly. De novo, anew. Deintegro, afresh,
&c. De gradu conari, to combat on foot, de genu, on the
knees.
III. E, ex, describe
1) Place (out of, from, \ on, c.) : Ex urbe venio. Ex Italia
discessit. Ex arbore pendet, it hangs on a tree. Ex
equis pugnant, they fight on horseback. E longinquo,.
from far. Ex propinquo, near. Ex obliquo, athwart. E
regione, in a direct line with. See M. Lucr. vi. 344.
2) Time (from, since) : Ex illo die numquam eum vidi, since
that day I never set eyes on him. Ex Metello consule,
from the consulship of Metellus. Ex itinere, on arrival.
3) Origin (from, of) : Ex eo audivi. Ex me quaesivit. Ex
Ppmpeio sciam. Statua e marmore facta. Homo ex
animo constat et corpore, man consists of soiil and body.
4) Transition (from, after} : Ex oratore arator factus est. So,
aliud ex alio, one thing after another : diem ex die, from
day to day. Pallidum e viridi folium, a palish green leaf.
5) Partition (of) : Unus ex amicis meis, one of my friends.
6) Cause (from, for, by, &c.) : Ex quo manifestum est, whence
it is clear. Ex lassitudine dormio, / fall asleep from
weariness. E vino vacillat, he staggers from the effects of
wine. Ex vulneribus mortuus est, he died of his wounds.
Vir ex doctrina nobilis, a man renowned for his learning.
Ex pedibus laborat, he has gout in his feet. Illud ex sena-
tus consulto factum est, that was done by vote of the senate.
Hoc mihi ex sententia evenit, this happened to my heart's
3<D2 Latin Wordlore. 7!.
content. Ex animi sententia loqui, to speak with sincerity.
So, ex ordine, ex composite, by arrangement, e re mea,
for my interest, e republica, for the good of the state, with
other phrases. See p. 277.
7) Manner, in many phrases : Ex occulto, secretly, ex impro-
viso, ex insperato, unexpectedly, ex parte, in part. Heres
ex asse, heir to the 'whole property by will; heres ex
deunce, heres ex semi'sse, c.
IV. Cum (with] expresses
1) Company : Cum patre proficiscor, / go with my father.
As a Sociative Particle : Romulus cum fratre Remo, JRo-
mulus and his brother Remus.
a) The Adv. simul is used with Abl. for simul cum. Simul
his, together with these, Hor. Ore simul cervix, Ov.
2) Coincidence of Time : Pariter cum ortu solis, exactly at
sunrise.
3) Community: Nihil mihi cum illo est, I have nothing to do
with him. Bellum gessit cum Helvetiis, he waged war
with the Helvetii. Tecum loquar, / will speak with you.
Conferre, comparare cum, to compare with.
4) Coincident Circumstances : Homines cum gladiis adsunt,
men with swords are present. Esse cum imperio, to be in
chief command. Magno cum dolore loquor, / speak with
great pain. Illud cum causa fecit, he acted thus with
reason. Cum pernicie reipublicae, to the ruin of the state.
Cum clamore. Cum silentio. Cum lacrimis. Madida
cum veste, in wet clothes, ' as simple Abl. 7 See M. Lucr.
i- 755-
Note the phrase : cum eo ut . . . on condition that . . . Liv.
V. Absque (without) is chiefly found in the Comic poets :
Absque te esset, were it not for you ; sometimes in Cicero. Litterae
absque argumento, a letter devoid of matter.
VI. Sine (without} : Vana est sine viribus ira, anger without
strength is fruitless. Sine dubio, sine ulla dubitatione, without
any doubt.
Lucr. uses seorsum (apart from] with Abl. : seorsum corpore.
VII. Pal am (in view of) : Palam populo, in the people's sight.
VIII. Clam, clanculum (without the knowledge of) : Clam
patre, without his father's knowledge. In Comedy with Accusative :
Clam uxorem ; clanculum patrem.
IX. Cor am (in the presence of) : Coram populo dixit, he spoke
before the people. Coram loqui cum aliquo, to speak with another
face to face.
X. Prae describes
i) Place (before) : I prae, sequar, go forward, I will follow ;
but generally before a Pronoun, and after the Verbs ago,
yi. Uses of Prepositions. 303
fero, gero : as Pastores prae se agant gregem, let shep-
herds drive the flock before them. Pugionem prae se fert,
he displays a dagger. Also metaphorically : Speciem
boni viri prae te fers, you exhibit the appearance of a good
man.
2) Comparison (compared with, before) : Prae nobis beatus es,
you are happy compared with us. Prae se neminem putat,
he thinks none his superior. Utilitatis species prae hones-
tate recte contemnitur, the show of advantage is properly
despised in comparison with moral rectitude.
3) Cause (owing to, for) : Prae lacrimis scribere non possum,
/ cannot write for tears. Prae multitudine sagittarum
solem non videbitis, you will not see the sun for the number
of arrows. Prae laetitia lacrimae prosiliunt mihi, tears
start into my eyes for joy, Plaut.
XI. Pro expresses
1) Place (before] : Pro foribus, before the door. Stabat pro
litore classis, the fleet was lying off the coast. Pro rostris
dicebat, he was speaking from the rostra. Pro contione
laudatus est, he was thanked in full assembly.
2) Defence (in behalf of, for) : Hoc non modo non pro me,
sed etiam contra me est, this is not only not for me, but
is even against me. Pro Ligario dixit, he spoke for Liga-
rius. Pro patria mori, to die for country.
3) Substitution (instead of, equivalent to, &c.) : Mihi pro
parente fuit, he was as a father to me. Vultus saepe pro
omnibus verbis est, countenance is often equivalent to any
words. Pro praetore fuit, he was propraetor.
4) Retribution (for, in requital of} : Pro istis factis te ulcis-
car, P II punish you for that conduct.
5) Resemblance and Respect (in the light of} : Illam educavi
pro mea, / brought her up as my daughter. Pro cive se
gerit, he comports himself as a citizen. Pro certo hoc
habui, / held this as certain. Pro comperto illud afferunt,
they inform me as an assured fact.
6) Proportion (according to] : Pro tua temperantia vales, your
good health 'accords with your temperance. Pro viribus
contendam, / will try my best. Pro re nata me geram, /
will conduct myself as present circumstances dictate. Pro
re et tempore consilium capere, to take counsel according
to existing circumstances. Pro multitudine hominum an-
gustos habent finis, their extent is small compared with
their population. Proelium atrocius quam pro numero
pugnantium fuit, the battle was more furious than might
have been expected from the number of the combatants.
XII. Tenus (as far as), from root tan, ten, ' stretch] follows its
Case, and governs Abl. Sing, (rarely Plur.) and Plural Genitive :
Capulo tenus abdidit ensem, he buried his sword to the hilt. Nu-
304 Latin Wordlore.
tricum terms, as far as the breast. Crurum tenus. Observe verbo
terms (as far as words go) ; quadam tenus (a certain way, to some
extent} ; eatenus, hactenus, quatenus, understanding parte. The
Abl. PL ' Pectoribus tenus J is found in Ovid : the Ace. S. ' Tanain
tenus ; in Valerius Flaccus.
72 iii. Prepositions governing an ACCUSATIVE
or ABLATIVE Case.
I. .(a) In with ACCUSATIVE signifies motion to, and describes
1) Place (into, to, upon, against ) : In carcerem coniectus est,
he was thrown into prison. In aram confugit, he fled for
refuge to the altar. In equum conscendit, he got on horse-
back. Ad urbem, vel potius in urbem, exercitum adduxit,
he led an army up to the city, or rather, into the city.
By a Constructio praegnans (one Verb having the force of
two) in with Accusative sometimes follows a Verb of
Rest : Vitruvium in carcerem asservari iussit, he ordered
Vitruvius to be kept in prison. Adesse in senatum iussit,
he bade him attend the senate. Portus in praedonum po-
testatem fuere, the harbours were in the power of pirates.
2) Time (for) : In crastinum diem me invitavit, he invited me
for the morrow. Comitia constituta sunt in Kalendas
lanuarias, the elections were fixed for the \st of January*
In perpetuum (for ever), in praesens (for the present), in
posterum,y2?r the future, &c.
3) Transition (into) : Mutatur in lapidem. In sollicitudinem
versa fiducia est, confidence turned to anxiety.
4) Dimension (to) : In altitudinem pedum sedecim murum
perducit, he carries the wall to the height of sixteen feet.
5) Distribution : Censores bini in singulas civitates descripti
sunt, two censors were appointed for each state. Ad dena-
rios quinquaginta in singulos modios, at fifty denars the
bushel. Mutatur in dies et in horas, he changes daily and
hourly. In aestatem, every summer. M. Lucr. vi. 712.
6) Relation (towards, against, &c.) : Liberalis in milites, liberal
towards the troops. Merita in rempublicam, services to the
state. Cicero in Verrem dixit, Cicero spoke against Verres.
Viri in uxores potestatem habent, husbands have power
over their wives. In te oculi omnium defiguntur, all eyes
are fixed on you.
7) Manner (in, after) : In hunc modum locutus est, he spoke
after this fashion. In verba imperatoris iuraverunt, they
swore allegiance to the general. So, in universum, in
commune, in vicem (in turn), in numerum, in measured
time. M. Liter, ii. 631.
8) Purpose (for) : Gladiatores in ludos locavit, he engaged
gladiators for the games. Sontes in poenam dediti sunt,
the guilty were delivered for punishment. Omnia in maius
7 2 . Uses of Prepositions. 305
celebravit, he exaggerated everything. Dabo tibi pecuniam
in rem familiarem, / will give you money for your house-
hold expenses. Quae in rem tuam sunt, what is for your
interest.
(b) In with an ABLATIVE signifies rest in, and describes
1) Place (in) : In Italia. In urbe. In sole. In ore omnium
versaris, you are in everybody's mouth. In Miltiade erat
summa humanitas, in Miltiades there was the greatest
courtesy. In conspectu est exercitus. In manibus est
Vergilius. So, in aprico est res, the affair is all smooth.
In incerto. In difficili. In medio relictum est, it has
been left unsettled. In luctu et squalore sum, / am in
sorrow and mourning. In manu, in hand.
(On) : Agesilaus in ora consedit, Agesilaus halted on the
brink. Nix est in summo monte, snow is on the summit of
the mountain. Pons in flumine factus est, a bridge was
formed on the river. In equo sedens, on horseback. Ponere
curam, cogitationem, &c., in aliqua re, to employ the mind
on some object.
(Among) : In magnis viris numeratur. Haec in bonis sunt
habenda, these must be counted among blessings.
2) Time (during, in) : Ter in anno rus imus, / go into the
country thrice a year. In praesenti nihil opus est, there
is no need at present. In annonae caritate civitati sub-
venit, when corn was dear he helped the city. In tempore
veni. Impraesentiarum, under present circumstances, is a
corruption of 'in praesentia harum rerum/ chiefly used by
elder and late authors, also by Nepos.
3) Circumstance (amidst, in) : In tanta perfidia veterum ami-
corum nihil supererat spei, amidst such treachery of old
friends no hope remained. Etiam in summa bonorum
civium copia timemus, even amidst an abundance of good
citizens I am alarmed. In vino diserti sumus, we are
eloquent over wine. In dicendo, in agendo. In honore,
in pretio. Horridus in iaculis et pelle ursae. V.
(In the case of) : In hoc homine non accipio accusationem, in
this man } s case I admit no charge. Idem in bono servo
dici solet, the same is said of a good slave.
4) Cause (on the score of) : In ea re gratias Deo agebamus,
for that we thanked God. Pausanias in eo est reprehensus,
Pausanias was blamed on that score.
II. (a) Sub with an ACCUSATIVE describes
i) Place (under) literally and metaphorically, when motion is
implied : Armentum sub tecta referto, take the herd back
to shelter. Sub ictum venire, to come under fire. Sub
aciem primam succedere, to come up with the van. Sub
iugum Romani missi sunt, the Romans were made to pass'"
under the yoke. Sub oculos mihi venit, he came under my
view. Sub iudicium cades, you will be subject to trial.
Sub sensus subiecta, within reach of the senses.
x
306 Latin Word lore. 72.
2) Time (immediately after or before, about, against] : Sub eas
litteras recitatae sunt tuae, next after that letter yours was
read. Sub ortum lucis signa contulit, at daybreak he en-
gaged. Cenam parat uxor sub adventum viri, the wife
prepares supper against her husband's arrival. Sub lacri-
mosa Troiae funera, just before Troy's sad destruction.
(b) Sub with an ABLATIVE is applied to
1) Place (under), rest being implied : Talpae sub terra habi-
tant, moles dwell under the ground. ludaea sub procura-
tore erat, Judea was under a procurator. Sub hac con-
dicione rediit, under this condition he returned. Sub
oculis, in mew.
2) Time (about, at} : Sub exitu anni, about the end of the year.
Sub eodem tempore. See M. Lucr. iv. 545-7^5 ; vi. 413, 416.
III. (a) Super with an ACCUSATIVE expresses
1) Place (over, above, beyond} : Alii super vallum praecipitan-
tur, others fling themselves over the entrenchment. Super
navem turris exstructa est, a tower was reared on the ship.
Super Sunium navigavit, he sailed beyond Sunium. Super
ipsum, above the host at table.
2) Number (besides] : Super bellum annona premit, besides
war, dearth causes distress. Super haec. Super omnia,
over and above all else. Super tris modios accepi, / re-
ceived above three bushels. Alii super alios. Savia super
savia, kisses upon kisses.
3) Comparison (beyond} : Res super vota fluunt, matters pro-
ceed beyond our wishes. Super, principally, V.
4) Time (during) : Super cenam collocuti sumus, during supper
we conversed.
Lucan uses desuper (over] with Accus. Desuper Alpis nubi-
ferae collis, &c. i. 688.
(b} Super with an ABLATIVE expresses
1) Place (over, upon) : Ensis super cervice pendet, a sword
hangs over his neck. Fronde super viridi requiescimus,
we rest on green foliage.
2) Time (during, at} : Nocte super media, at midnight.
3) Subject Matter (about} : Multa super Priamo rogitans,
super Hectore multa, asking much about Priam, much
about Hector, Verg.
IV. Subter (under, below}, signifying extension under, gene-
rally governs an ACCUSATIVE, but sometimes in poetry an ABLA-
TIVE : Amnes saepe subter terram vias occultas agunt, rivers often
pursue secret courses under ground. Virtus omnia subter se habet,
virtue holds everything subject to itself. Subter densa testudine,
under a compact pent-house.
Note i. The following Prepositions are also used as Adverbs :
ante,citra, circum, circa, circiter, contra, iuxta, infra, intra, pone, post,
prae (rare), prope, subter, super, supra, ultra, coram, clam, palam.
73. Correlation. 307
Note 2. Comminus ire, ' to close with] is used by Propertius
with Dat. and Accus. 'Haemonio comminus isse viro/ iii. i.
* Agrestis comminus ire sues/ ii. 19. So Ov. F. v. 176.
Note 3. Of the Prepositions the following are opposed in mean-
ing :
ante to post (pone) infra to supra sub to super
ad ab cis (trans) prope procul
in ex citra ultra clam palam
Note 4. Prepositions may sometimes stand in good prose
1) Between Pronoun and Noun : qua in re; hanc ob causam ;
magno cum metu, &c.
2) After the Pronouns qui, hie, without Noun; quern contra
dicit ; quos inter, hunc ad versus, &c. Not so found are,
ab, cis, sub, pro, prae ; seldom, ad, de, ex, in.
3) With one or more words interposed between Preposition
and Case : ' in bella gerentibus ; ' f in suum cuique tri-
buendo ; ' ' post autem Alexandri Magni mortem/ &c.
Poets often place Prepositions after their Cases, and sometimes
aloof from them: 'Vitiis nemo sine nascitur/ Hor. S. i. 3, 68. See
M. Lucr. i. 841 ; iii. 140.
(On Prepositions in composition, see 52, 59.)
SECTION VI.
Correlative Construction. corre-
lation.
i. Pronominal Correlation.
The pronominal Root qui- quo- is the most influential word in
Latin ; for from it spring (i) Almost all Interrogative words ; (2) all
Relative words ; (3) most Subordinative Conjunctions.
A) i) Every Interrogative word may question
Directly or Obliquely.
Direct. Oblique.
quae estmulier? rogo quae sit mulier
unde estmulier? die unde sit mulier
verumne est illud ? quaero verumne sit illud
Every Oblique Interrogative is Conjunctional, introducing a
Subordinate Sentence.
2) Every Pronominal Interrogative has corresponding to it at
least one Demonstrative Pronoun or Particle ; and a Relative Pro-
noun or Particle.
Interr. Dem. Rel.
quis ? is qui
ubi ? ibi ubi
Interr. Dem. Rel.
quare ? ideo quod
quando? turn quum (cum)
Every Relative Pronoun or Particle is Conjunctional, introducing
a Subordinate sentence.
X 2
308
Latin Wordlore.
73-
B) Hence the following Correlations : the first four of which are
Adjectival, that is, they involve agreement with Substantives. The
rest are Adverbial, but capable of being changed into Adjectival
form : thus ubi = quo in loco ? ubi . . . ibi = in eo loco ... in quo.
i) Correlation of Person or Thing.
Direct Interrog. Oblique Interrog.
<*)
(est?)
who (is he ?)
b) quid (est ?)
what (is it?)
Demonstr.
is, &c.
he
Rel.
!} <*>
who (he is)
quid (sit) id, &c.
what (it is) that
(The forms ecquis, ecqui, ecquae, ecquid, ecquod are also used
interrogatively.)
qui
who
quod
which
qui
which
c) uter (est ?) uter (sit) is (alter)
which of two (is which of two that one
he?) (he is)
2) Correlation of Quality.
qualis (est ?) qualis (sit) talis qualis
of what kind (is of what kind suck as
he?} (he is)
3) Correlation of Quantity.
quantus (est ?) quantus (sit) tantus
how great (is
he?)
how great (he
is)
so great
quantus
as
4)
quot
as
quot (sunt) quot (sint) tot
how many (are how many so many
they ?) they are)
(This includes quotiens ? how many times? totiens . . . quotiens.)
5) Correlation of Place.
a) ubi (est ?)
ubi (sit)
ibi
ubi
where (is he ?)
where (he is)
there
where
b) unde (est?)
unde (sit)
inde
unde
whence (is he ?)
whence (he is)
thence
whence
c) quo (it ?)
quo (eat)
eo
quo
whither (goes
whither (he
thither
whither
he?)
goes)
d) qua (it ?)
qua (eat)
ea
qua
by which way
by which way
by that
by which
(goes he ?)
(he goes)
way
(These include quorsum, whitherward, c., quousque ? quoad ?
quatenus ? how far, c. ; compounded with quo, qua.)
6) Correlation of Manner.
ut (flet ?) ut (fleat) ita ut
how (weeps he ?) how (he weeps) so as
(Similarly quomodo ? ita quomodo
quemadmodum ? ita quemadmodunO
73. Correlation. 309
7) Correlation of Degree.
Direct Interrog. Oblique Interrog. Demonstr. Rel.
quam (celer est ?) quam (c. sit) tam quam
how (swift is he f) how s. (he is) so as
(For tam . . . quam may be used aeque . . . atque (ac) and
many other Demonstratives with atque (ac). In the Correlation of
Inequality quam follows Comparatives and some other words which
contain the idea of comparison.)
8) Correlation of Cause.
<l uare t (venit?) ^ uare l (veniat) ideo 1 ( l uod l
cur J v ' cur 'proptereaf quia I
why (comes he f) why (he comes) therefore because
9) Correlation of Time.
a) quando (it ?) quando (eat) turn quum
when (goes he f) when (he goes) then when
ft) quamdiu (ma- quamdiu (ma- tamdiu quam
net ?) neat)
how long (stays how long (he so long as
he?) stays)
So quousque, quoad, quatenus, are answered demonstratively and
relatively by several forms : as, eousque . . . dum (donee, quoad) ;
usque . . . dum (donee, quoad) ; eatenus . . . dum (donee) ;
tamdiu . . . quam, &c.
C) Examples of Direct Pronominal Interrogation.
1) ( Quis fuit horrendos primus qui protulit enses?' who was it
that first produced dreadful swords? Tib. i. 10. i. 'Qui cantus
moderata orationis pronuntiatione dulcior inveniri potest ? quod
-carmen artificiosa verborum conclusione aptius ? ' what song can we
find sweeter than a well-uttered speech ? what poetry neater than a
.skilful period ? C. d. Or. ii. 8. 'Ecqui pudor est, ecqua religio,
Verres ? ecqui metus ?' have you any shame, Verres? any scruple?
any fear ? C. Verr. iv. 8. ' Ubi aut qualis est tuamens?' where or
af what nature is your soul? C. T. D. i. 27. f Ut valet Put me-
minit nostri?' how is his health? how does he keep me in mind } ?
Hor. Epist. i. 3. (In exclamation :) < Quam non est facilis virtus,
quam vero difficilis eius diuturna simulatio ! ' how far from easy is
virtue, how difficult in truth the long-continued pretence of it / C.
Att. vii. i. ' Quam timeo quorsum evadas ! ' how I dread what
you re coming to! Ter. An. i. I. 100. 'Gnaeus aut em noster ut
totus iacet ! ' how totally pro sir ate is our friend Gnaeus ! C. Att. vii.
^9. Quanti est sapere, how valuable is wisdom! Ter. Eun. iv. 7.
2) Several Interrogatives in one Sentence :
'Considera, Piso, quis quern fraudasse dicatur/ consider, Piso,
<who is said to have defrauded whom, C. p. Q. Rose. 7. 'Uterutri
insidias fecit ? ; which plotted against which ? C. p. Mil. 9.
3) Quotus quisque literally is, c eacft (unit) of what total number'
= ' one in how many] and might be answered: centensimus quisque,
.one in a hundred-, vicensimus quisque, one in twenty, decimus quis-
310 Latin Wordlore. 74.
que, one in ten, &c. Hence it came to mean, how small a propor-
tion? how few? 'Quotus enim quisque formosus est?' how
few men are handsome ? C. N. D. i. 28.
4) Quid is used in abrupt Interrogation with ellipse of a Verb :
Quid ? well? how ? &c. quid multa ? why be prolix? quid quaeris ?
what would you have more ? Quid tandem? why pray ? So, quid
enim ? quid ergo ? quid turn ? quid quod . . . ? need I add that?
5) Quin for qui non? 'Quin quod est ferendum fers?' won't
you bear what must be borne ? Ter. Ph. ii. 3. 82. Quidni possim ?
why can 1 not? ( to be sure I canj, C T. D. v. 5. Quippini ? why
not? to be sure, Plaut. On quin with Indie., see M. Liter, i. 588.
D) Correlation between Demonstrative and Relative :
1) ( Fere libenter homines i d quod volunt credunt, 7 men gene-
rally believe with readiness what they wish, Caes. B. G. iii. 18.
'Quam quisque norit artem in hac se exerceat/ let every one
practise the profession he knows. ' Non sunt tanti ulla merita
quanta insolentia hominis quantumque fastidium/ none of the
man's deserts are on a par with the greatness of his insolence and
pride, C. d. Or. ii. 52. ' Ubi bene, ibi patria/ country is where we
are well off, Inc. * Ibit eo quo vis qui zonam perdidit,'^? who has
lost his purse will go where you please, Hor. Epist. ii. 2.40. ' Quam
audax est ad conandum tarn est obscurus in agendo/ he is as
secret in action as he is bold in enterprise, C. Verr. ii. 2. <Ut
magistratibus leges ita populo praesunt magistratus/ as laws
govern magistrates, so do magistrates the people, C. Leg. iii. i.
' Quid egeris tune apparebit cum animam ages/ what you have
done will appear when you are at your last gasp, Sen. Ep. 26.
2) Demonstrative with a Relative of different Correlation : ' I n
ea urbe es ubi ( = in qua) nata et alta est ratio ac moderatio
vitae,'jww are in that city wherein regulation and government of
life were born and reared, C. Fam. vi. i. ' Ibi imperiumeritunde
victoria fuerit/ empire will be on the side of victory, L. i. 24.
3) Demonstrative understood : ' Donum redde unde accepisti,
render back the gift to the donor, Ter. Eun. i. 2. 34. This is the
most frequent form.
4) The Correlation of cum and turn, originally of Time, is em-
ployed to distribute two notions, the one (with cum) general, the
other (with turn) special, to which attention is thus invited. ' Mul-
tum cum in omnibus rebus turn in re militari potest fortuna/
fortune can do much in all things, especially in war, Caes. B. G.
vi. 30. ' Exspecta hospitem cum minime edacem turn inimicum
cenis sumptuosis/ look for a guest who is not only a small eater, but
also no friend to expensive dinners, C. Fam. ix. 23.
ii. Correlations of Manner.
Ut (uti) is a Relative Particle (orig. = quod). Its uses are :
As Interrogative (how ?).
As a Subordinative Conjunction (that, c.).
As a Coordinative Conjunction of Comparison (as).
The Interrogative and Subordinative uses are elsewhere noticed.
74 . Correlation. 3 1 1
1) As Coordinative, ut, as well as quomodo, quemadmodum
(as), is found in correlation usually with the Demonstratives it a,
sic, also with it idem, item, &c., eodemmodo, ad eundemmodum,
isto modo, &c. pro eo : and compounded : sicut (sicuti) ; velut
(veluti). Or they may be used without a Demonstrative.
A) Correlation of ut, &c. with Demonstrative. (M. Lucr. ii. 901.)
'Ut optasti ita est/ it is as you wished, C. Fam. ii. 10. 'Ut
male posuimus initia, s i c cetera sequentur/ according to our bad
beginning, the rest will follow, C. Att. x. 20. ' Ut vir doctissimus
fecit Plato item mihi credo esse faciendum/ / think I should act
as the learned Plato did, C. p. Clu. 24. ( Non ille ut plerique, sed
isto modo ut tu, distincte graviter ornate dicebat/ he did not speak
as most do, but in that manner of yours, with clearness, power, and
elegance, C. N. D. i. 21. 'Quemadmodum soles de ceteris rebus,
sic de amicitia disputa/ argue concerning friendship, as you are
wont to do on other subjects, C. Lael. 4. ' Necesse est, quo tu me
modo esse voles, ita esse, mater/ I must be as you wish me,
mother, Plaut. Cist. i. I. 48. 'Ita ut fit,' in the ordinary way.
a) Ita . . . ut in asseverations : 'Ita me di ament ut ego
tarn meapte causa laetor quam illius/ so may the gods
love me as I rejoice on my own account as much as his,
Ter. Haut. i. 3. 8. Also ita or sic without ut, parentheti-
cally: 'Sollicitat, ita vivam, me tua valetudo/ your
health, ^tpon my life, makes me anxious, C. Fam. xvi. 20.
See Hor. C. i. 3. i.
U) Ut is used with concessive meaning in one clause, sic or ita
following with adversative force in another : ' U t errare,
mi Plance, potuisti, sicdecipi te non potuisse quis non
videt ?' err indeed you might, dear Plancits, but deceived
you could not have been^ C. Fam. x. 20.
H] Without Demonstrative :
' Praesertim ut nunc sunt mores/ especially as fashions now are,
Ter. P%. i. 2. 5. Ut res dant sese, in the present state of affairs.
These Conjunctions are constantly used in parenthesis = id quod :
as, ut aiunt, as they say ; ut opinor, as I think ; ut videtur, as you
please; quemadmodum spero ; quomodo mihi persuades, &c.
Also, ut nunc est, ut nunc quidem est (tinder present circumstances],
ut potest, ut potui, ut potero, (as far as possible].
2) Ut, sicut, in comparisons, usually express a more real like-
ness than quasi, tamquam : 'Sicut unus paterfamilias his de
rebus loquor/ / speak on these siibjects like any other head of a
family, C. d. Or. i. 29. ' Inspicere tamquam in speculum in
vitas hominum/ to look into men's lives, as into a mirror, Ter. Ad.
iii. 3.61.
3) Ut is used
a) To introduce a modifying expression, ' considered as being]
'for,' without a Verb : ' Clisthenes multum, ut tempori-
bus ill is, valuit dicendo/ Clisthenes had great powers of
speaking for those times, C. Briit. 7.
P) Also with a Causal force (as being] : ' Apud me, ut
bonum iudicem, argumenta plus quam testes valent/
312 Latin Wordlore. 75.
with me, as a discreet judge, circumstantial proofs have
more weight than witnesses, C. d. Or. i. 38.
y) Hence, with a Verb, to imply that some one fact is in
conformity with some other: l Aiunt hominem, ut erat
f ur i o s u s, respondisse/ they say the man, raging as he was,
replied, C. p. Rose. Am. 12. 'Horum auctoritate finitumi
adducti, ut sunt Gallorum subita et repentina consilia,
Trebium retinent,' the neighbouring tribes, led on by these
men's influence, with the precipitation usual in the mea-
sures of the Gauls, detain Trebius, Caes. B. G. iii. 8. This
sense may also be conveyed by the Relative qui ( = quia
talis) or by the Preposition pro. Thus it is the same
thing to use any of these phrases :
(utesprudens } YQU
T I qua es prudentia I b with your usual prudence
quae tua est prudentia T \ we re silent
\ pro tua prudentia /
75 iii. Correlations of Likeness and Unlike-
ness.
Atque, ac (not used before vowels), in the Correlation of Like-
ness follow the Adjectives and Pronouns, aequus, par, similis, talis,
idem, totidem; and the Adverbs, aeque, item, itidem, iuxta, pariter,
perinde, proinde, similiter, simul : in the Correlation of Unlikeness
they follow the Adjectives ali us, contrarius, dissimilis, dispar, di-
versus ; and the Adverbs aliter, &c. contra, secus.
Ut is also found in the Correlation of Likeness after several of
the words cited : que after iuxta : et in both kinds : quam in the
Correlation of Unlikeness alone in the best age, but iuxta quam in
Livy, aeque, perinde quam in post- Augustan writers.
i) Correlation of Likeness : 'Modo ne in aequo hostes vestri
nostrique apud vos sint ac nos socii/ provided our common enemies
be not on the same footing in your esteem as we your allies, L. xxxix.
37. ' Animus te erga idem est a c fuit/ the feeling towards you is
the same as it was, Ter. Haut. ii. i. * Pari eum at que illos imperio
esse iussit/ he ordered him to be equal in command with the others,
Nep. Dat. 3. ' Aliquid ab illo simile atquea ceteris est factum,'
he did something like what others did, C. Phil. i. 4. ' Faxo eum
tali mactatum at que hie est infortunio/ / will make him suffer
such a misfortune as this man has suffered, Ter. Ph. v. 9. ( Pa-
riter me nunc opera adiuvas ac re -dudum opitulata es,' you assist
me now with your zeal jtist as you helped me some time ago with
your money, Ter. Ph. v. 3. 3. 'Hi quidem coluntur aeque atque
illi,' these are worshipped equally with the former, C. N. D. iii. 10.
' Simul atque natum animal est, gaudet voluptate/ as soon as an
animal is born, it delights in pleasure, C. Fin. ii. 10. ' Desiderium
absentium nihil perinde ac vicinitas acuit/ nothing sharpens re-
gret for the absent like neighbourhood, PI. Ep. vi. i. * Ostendant
milites se iuxta hieme atque aestate bella gerere posse/ let the
troops shew they can ivage war in winter as well as in summer,
, 75 . Correlation. 3 1 3
L. v. 6. * Omnia in Themistocle fuerunt paria et Coriolano/ all the
facts in the case of Themistocles were like those in the case of Corio-
lanus, C. Br. ii. 'Ad Luceriam iuxta obsidentis obsessosque
inopia vexavit/ scarcity distressed the besiegers at Luceria as much
as the besieged, L. ix. 13. 'Miltiades totidem navibus atque erat
profectus Athenas rediit/ Miltiades returned to Athens with as
many ships as he had gone out with, Nep. Milt. 7. So, 'Hand
centensimam partem dixi' atque possim exprimere/ / have not
said a hundredth part of what I could utter, Plaut. M. Gl. iii. i.
Horace has plus ac, more than, Catullus non minus ac.
a) Idem, iuxta, are used with Prep, cum and its Case : f Eo-
dem mecum patre genitus est/ he has the same father
as myself, Tac. A. xv. 2. 'Quo in loco res nostrae sint
iuxtamecum omnes intellegitis,' the state of our affairs
you all understand as well as I do, Sail. C. 58.
Horace uses idem with a Dative : ' Invitum qui servat iderr\
facit occidenti/ one who rescues a man against his will
does the same as one who kills, ad Pis. 467.
U) Pro eo (in proportion) goes before ac, ut, quantum (as).
' Pro eo ac debui/ as I was bound, C. Fam. iv. 5. ' Pro
eo ac mereor/ according to my desert, C. in Cat. iv. 2.
4 Pro eo ut temporis difficultas tulit,' as far as the existing
difficulties allowed, C. Verr. iii. 54. ' Pro eo quanti te
facio/ in proportion to my esteem for you, C. Fam. iii. 31.
c) Prout (according as). ' Prout ipse amabat litteras/ in ac-
cordance with his own love of learning, Nep. Att. I.
d) Praeut (compared with), praequam (compared with) are
Comic : ' Praeut futurumst,' compared with what is to be,
Plaut. Bacch. iv. 9. 5. ' Praequam quod molestumst/ com-
pared with the trouble, Plaut. Amph. ii. 2. 3.
e) Proquam is Lucretian, ii. 1137.
2) Correlation of Unlikeness :
c Illi sunt alio ingenio atque tu/ they are of different temper
from you, C. Leg. ii. 7. 'Stoici multa falsa esse dicunt longeque
aliter se habere ac sensibus videantur/ the Stoics say many things
are delusive and very different from what they seem to the senses, C.
Ac. ii. 31. ' Eadem sunt membra in utriusque disputatione, sed
paulo secus a me atque ab illo distributa,' there are the same
members in the argument of each, but laid out by me somewhat
differently from his method, C. d. Or. iii. 30. ' Vides omnia fere
contra ac dicta sint evenisse/_y0^ see that almost everything has
turned out contrary to what was foretold, C. Div. ii. 24. ' Brutus
iuvenis erat longe alius ingenio quam cuius simulationem indu-
erat,' Brutus was a youth of very different character from that he
had assumed, L. i. 56. 'Multiplex quam pro numero damnum
est/ the loss is out of all proportion to the number, L. vii. 8. 'Eruca
diversaeestquam lactuca naturae/ colewort is of a different cha-
racter from lettuce, PL N. H xix. 8.
a) Alius is used by Horace with Ablative : 6 Neve putes alium
sapiente bonoque beatum/ and you will deem none
other happy than the wise and good man, Epist. i. 16. 20.
314 Latin Wordlore.
b) Contrast is also expressed by repeating alius, or any de-
rivative of alius : 'Aliud ratio est, aliud o ratio/ reason
is one thing, speech another = aliud est ratio atque (et)
oratio. See p. 317.
76
Quam. iv. Correlations of Degree with quam.
The uses of quam differ from those of quomodo and quem-
admodum.
As an Interrogative particle (how), it intensifies Adjectives, Ad-
verbs, and a few Verbs of feeling. See pp. 279-80.
Correlative to tarn expressed or understood (as), it compares the
qualities of things in equal ratio. See p. 309.
Following Comparative words, quam (than) compares things in
a ratio of inequality.
Following ante, prius, post, pridie, &c., quam forms Conjunctions
represented by the English Conjunctions before, after. See SYNTAX
(Compound Sentences of Time).
Quamdiu (correlative to tamdiu), as long as, is also used as a
Conjunction of Time ; but quam dudum, quam pridem, how long
ago, are Interrogative only.
Com- A) Comparison of Equality with quam (as).
of Equa- i) The idioms in which quam (as, how] is attracted to other Ad-
Kty- verbs and to Adjectives are remarkable and of frequent use. Thus,
it intensifies Positive words of quality ( very) ; where the full ex-
pression might be tarn quam potest. ' Ab eius summo, sicut palmae,
rami quam late diffunduntur/ the boughs spread very widely from
its summit, like those of the palm-tree, Caes. B. G. vi. 26. ' Cenam
afferri quam opimam imperavit/^ ordered a very splendid repast
to be broiight in, Caes. B. H. 33. ' Sunt vestrum, iudices, quam
multi, qui Pisonem cognoverunt/ there are very many of you,
gentlemen, who knew Piso, C. Verr. iv. 25.
2) With a Verb quam = tarn (tantum) quam : as in the Conjunc-
tions quam-vis, quam-libet, how you will, as much as you will ;
'quam vis multos/ as many as you will, C. p. Rose. A. 16. So,
'Quamvelitsit pot ens/ be she as influential as she will, C. p. CaeL
26. 'Quam volent in conviviis faced sint/ be they as witty as
they please at dinner parties, C. p. Gael. 28. Quam potest, as muck
as possible.
3) The Adjective or Adverb with quam is raised to the Superla-
tive, in order to express the utmost intensity : ' Relinquebatur ut
quam plurimos collis occuparet et quam latissimas regiones
praesidiis teneret/ it remained for him to occupy as many hills and
hold by garrisons as large an extent of country as he could, Caes.
B. C. iii. 44. See p. 279.
4) Tarn . . . quam with Superlative and Comparative words is
an archaic construction. 'Magis quam id reputo tam magis
uror/ the more I think of it, the more I am annoyed, Plaut. Bac. v.
i. 5, ' Quam pessime quisque fecit, tam maxime tutus est,' the
worse any man has acted, the safer he is, Sail. lug. 31.
5) Quam by a peculiar attraction (also frequent in Greek) follows
a certain number of Positive Adverbs expressing intensity, espe-
Correlation. 315
daily mi re, and, more rarely, admodum, nimis, oppido, per, sane,
valde: Perquam doctus, very learned'. 'Mire quam illius loci
cogitatio delectat/ / am wonderfully pleased with the very thought
of the place, C. Att. i. n. 'Sane quam sum gavisus/ / rejoiced
exceedingly. ' Suos valde quam paucos habet/ C. Fam. xi. 13.
B) The Comparison of Inequality with quam (than) is used after com-
Comparative words unless an Ablative supplies its place. panson
1) Plus, amplius, magis, minus, potius, non plus, non magis, non e( i ualll y
minus, &c., are used in this comparison, as tarn in that of equality :
( Prodest plus imperator quam orator/ a general is of more service
than an orator, C.Br. 73. Plus is used in quantitative comparison,
magis in intensive, minus in both these ; amplius in comparison
of extension, potius in that of preference. Non amplius, haud
amplius, are used ; but amplius haud is quite inadmissible.
2) If two qualities of the same subject are to be compared, magis
quam may connect the Adjectives. ' Celer tuus disertus magis
est quam s^iw.*] your friend Celer is fluent rather than wise, C.
Att. xi. 10. Or, more elegantly, both are Comparative. 'Pauli
Aemilii contio fuit verier quam gratior populo,' the harangue
of Paulus Aemilius was more truthful than popular, L. xxii. 38.
* Romani bella quaedam fortius quam felicius gesserunt/ the
Romans waged some wars with more valour than success, L. v. 43.
Tacitus has 'vementius quam caute,'^r. 4.
3) Often the Comparative implies some excess of the Positive
quality: ' Senectus est natura loquacior/ old age is nattirally
somewhat talkative (or rather too talkative), C. Cat. M. 16. <The-
mistocles liberius vivebat/ Themistocles lived too freely, Nep.
Them. i. So plures (i.e. uno) means several. ( In columba sentio
pluris videri colores, nee esse plus uno,' in the dove I notice a
semblance of several colours, but not more than one actually, C. Ac.
ii. 25. In old Latinity, plures means the departed, the dead.
4) A Comparative and quam may be followed by Particles and
Pronouns: ' Siculis plus frumenti imperabatur quam quantum
exararant/ the Sicilians were ordered to pay more corn than they had
harvested, C. Verr. iii. 23. See pro (PREPOSITIONS).
5) Quam may follow the verbs praestare, malle: 'Accipere
quam facere praestat iniuriam,' C. T. D. v. 19.
6) In Plautus it follows a Positive : 'Tacita bona est mulier
semper quam loquens/ a woman is always better silent than
speaking, Rud. iv. 470.
7) An ellipse of quam is frequent after plus, amplius: plus
annum, more than a year ; amplius sex menses ; amplius triennium,
C. ' Plus quingentos colaphos infregit mihi/ he inflicted on me more
than five hundred blows, Ter. Ad. ii. i. 46.
Obs. In Correlation, a Nom. in the second member without verb
expressed may answer to an Accus. in the first : Docui an imam
. . . minoribus esse principiis factam quam liquidus umor aquai
aut nebula aut fumus, Lucr. iii. 426. See M. Lucr. iii. 456.
316 Latin Wordlore. 77.
SECTION VII.
Coordination.
Coord! *' Coordination by Conjunctions.
Coordinate Sentences are introduced by the Coordinate Con-
junctions enumerated 57, or by the Relative and its Particles.
Annex- -^) Annexive Conjunctions.
Con- *) The First Class contains, (i) et, que, atque or (before con-
junc- sonants only) ac; (2) neque or nee, neve or neu.
tions. j?t associates things of equal importance.
Que appends a usual adjunct; being attached, as enclitic, to the
word, or to the first word of the clause, which it annexes. 1
Atque (ac) =ad-que, adds something important, as it were by
afterthought.
Neque (nee), nor, and not, associates negative propositions;
neve (neu) associates prohibitions.
2) The Second Class is Intensive, and associates emphati-
cally. Such are etiam = et iam, also, even, for which et itself is
often used; quo que, also, even, an emphatic que; item = eo
modo, likewise ; necnon, also, moreover. On etiam quoque,
quoque etiam, c., see M. Lucr. iii. 208.
3) The Annexive Conjunctions et, que, neque, neve, are fre-
quently doubled in Distributive Correlation. The chief forms are :
et . . . et, neque . . . neque, neve . . . neve : 'Et monere et
moneri proprium est verae amicitiae,' both advising and being
advised is the property of true friendship, C. Lael. 25. ' Illud
neque taceri ullo modo neque dici pro dignitate potest/ that
matter can neither by any means be omitted from my speech, nor
yet be spoken as it deserves, C. Verr. ii. i. 34. f Carthaginiensibus
condicionespacisdictae, bellum neve in Africa neve extra Africam
iniussu populi Romani facerent/ the terms of peace dictated to the
Carthaginians were that they should wage no war in or out of
Africa, without authority from the Roman people, L. xxx. 37.
Que . . . que, et . . . que, que . . . et, are poetic, but rare in
prose. On et or que in protasis without conjunction in apodosis,
see V. A en. xi. 171.
4) Affirmative and Negative Propositions are associated by et . . .
neque, neque . .. et, nee . . . que: ' Intellegitis Pompeio et
animum praesto fuisse nee consilium defuisse/ you perceive that
Pompeius had both courage for the occasion, and no lack of counsel,
C. Phil. xiii. 6. ' Vitia erunt donee homines; sed neque haec
<:ontinua, et meliorum interventu pensantur/ vices will exist as long
as men; but as, on the one hand, their operation is not perpetual, so
also they find a counterpoise in the occasional action of better prin-
ciples, Tac. H. iv. 74. See M. Lucr. i. 280.
1 -que sometimes stands after the second word, if the first is a Preposition or other
small particle : in eoque ; a meque ; tarn variisque, &c. And later still in poetry, to
assist metre : multus ut in terras deplueretque lapis, Tib. ii. 5. 71.
77. Coordination. 3 1 7
5) Distributive association is likewise effected by the sequences,
cum . . . turn; turn . . . turn; qua . . . qua; modo . . .
modo; nunc . . . nunc; modo . . . nunc ; simul . . .
simul ; partim . . . partim ; pars . . . pars.
Also by alter . . . alter; alius . . . alius ; and its particles,
aliter . . . aliter; alias . . . alias; alibi . . . alibi; &c.
Examples : e Agesilaus cum a ceteris scriptoribus, turn a
Xenophonte collaudatus est,' Agesilaus has been extolled both by
other writers, and especially by Xenophon, Nep. Ag. i. * Hae stellae
turn occultantur turn rursus aperiuntur/ these stars are at one time
hidden, at another again displayed, C. N. D. ii. 51. 'Socrates non
turn hoc, turn illud, sed idem dicebat semper/ Socrates did not
say one thing at one time, another at another ; biit the same thing
always, C. LaeL 4. 'Scripsisti epistulam ad me plenam consili
summaeque turn benevolentiae turn etiam prudentiae/j<5># have
written me a letter full of good advice, and of great kindness as
well as prudence, C. Att. ix. 5. ' Omnium Fabiorum, qua plebis,
qua patrum, eximia virtus fuit/ all the Fabii, both plebeians and
senators, were men of eminent merit, L. ii. 45. ' Animalia cibum
partim oris hiatu et dentibus ipsis capessunt, partim unguium
tenacitate arripiunt, partim aduncitate rostrorum ; alia sugunt,
alia carpunt, alia vorant, alia mandunt/ some animals take their
food by opening the mouth and applying the teeth, some seize it by
their grasping claws, some by their crooked beaks, some suck, others
peck, others swallow down, others chew, C. N. D. ii. 47. ' Natura
alterum alterius indigere voluit, quoniam quod alter! deest
praesto plerumque est alteri/ Nature would have one man stand
in need of another, since what one lacks another generally has, Colum.
Pr. 6. c Aliter cum tyranno, aliter cum amico vivitur/ we live
in one way with a tyrant, in another with a friend, C. LaeL 10.
6) The Particles used to distribute thought in regular series (Or- Ordi-
dinative) are, primum (in the first place], deinde (in the next place}, p|^_ ve
variously followed by one or more of the words, turn, postea, mox, tides.
praeterea, porro, insuper : and often wound up with denique, in
short, finally, or postremo (urn), in the last place.
' Primum latine Apollo nunquam locutus est; deinde ista
sors inaudita Graecis est; praeterea Pyrrhi temporibus jam Apollo
versus facere desierat; postremo Pyrrhus hanc amphiboliam versus
intellegere potuisset nihilo magis in se quam in Romanos valere/ in
the first place Apollo never spoke in Latin ; in the next the Greeks
never heard of that oracle ; moreover, inthe times of Pyrrhus, Apollo
had already ceased to make verses ; in fine, Pyrrhus would have
been able to perceive that the ambiguity in this verse told no more
in his favour than in favour of the Romans, C. Div. ii. 56.
Sometimes turn precedes deinde ; and denique is followed by
postremo. In Cic. Fin. v. 23 (where see Madvig), we find primum
. . . turn .... deinde . . . post . . . turn . . . deinde, without
denique or postremo. See also M. Lucr. iii. 529.
In these sequences primum is used; seldom primo, which means
originally, at first, but sometimes in the first place, deinde fol-
lowing.
3i8 Latin Wordlore. 78-79.
a) On Asyndeton and Polysyndeton see p. 269 ft).
b) ANAPHORA is the construction which, instead of using An-
nexive Conjunctions, repeats in each clause one or more
words : c Promisit, sed difficulter, sed subductis superciliis,
sed malignis verbis,' he promised, but hardly, with knitted
brows, and in spiteful language, Sen. Ben. i. i. ' Si recte
Cato iudicavit, non recte frumentarius ille, non recte
aedium pestilentium venditor tacuit,' if Cato judged rightly,
then the corn-factor I cited was not rightly silent ; nor yet
the vendor of an unwholesome house, C. Off. iii. 16.
78
j3isjunc- ^) Disjunctive or Alternative Conjunctions.
Con- i) These are aut ; vel, -ve; sive, seu.
.Sons. Aut distinguishes notions, and opposes them to one another.
Vel (ancient Imperative of volo) and its enclitic -ve make
optional distinction (or, if you please).
Sive (seu) sometimes means or if\ but, as here cited, it implies
a distinction of name rather than of fact.
( Audendum est aliquid universis, aut omnia singulis patienda/
we must dare something as a body, or individually endure all things,
L. vi. 1 6. ' Sequimur vel antecedimus/ Curt. ' loco seriove,' in jest
or earnest,^. 'Discessus sive potius fuga,' departure or rather
flight, C.
2) Disjunctive Particles are doubled for the purpose of Distribu-
tion : 'Aut nemo aut, si quisquam, Cato sapiens fun:,' either no
man or, if any, Cato was wise, C. Lael. 2. * Vel vi, vel clam, vel
precario,' either by force or by stealth, or by petition, C. p. Lig. 3.
3) Vel may mean 'even.' ' Per me vel stertas Meet,' you may
even snore if you will for me, C. Ac. ii. 29. And 'for instance.'
( Amoris tui vestigia vel de Tigellio perspexi/ C. Fam. vii. 24.
Vel certe, or at least : vel etiam, or perhaps. See p. 279.
79
C) Adversative Conjunctions.
P>n- The Adversative Conjunctions are autem, sed; verum, vero;
lions. tamen ; at (ast), atqui ; ceterum.
1) Autem (akin to aut), the weakest of these, does not oppose
strongly, but corrects slightly, adds, or continues, with the English
but, now, or and. It is postpositive, following the first word or (after
est, sunt) the second word in its clause : 'Magnes lapis est, qui
ferrum ad se trahit : rationem autem, cur id fiat, afferre non pos-
sumus/ the magnet is a stone which attracts iron ; but a reason
for this effect we cannot assign, C. Div. i. 86. ' Bonum est autem
recta praecipere,' Lact.
a] Autem (followed by immo vero) is used with a word re-
peated interrogatively, with a view to correction. ' Ferendus
tibi in hoc meus error : ferendus autem? immo vero
etiam adiuvandus/ you must endure my mistake here:
endure, do Isay? you must even abet it, C. Att. xii. 42.
2) Sed, a form of se- (separate}, distinguishes with more or less
of opposition. After a negative, it supplies an adverse or differing
notion: * Oti fructus est non contentio animi sed relaxatio/ the
advantage of leisure is not mental exertion, but relaxation, C. d.
; 79- Coordination. 319
Or. ii. 5. Otherwise it is corrective : ' Contemno magnitudinem
doloris. S e d si est tantus dolor quantus Philoctetae/ &c. / despise
greatness of pain. But suppose it as great as that of Philoctetes, &c.
C. T. D. ii. 19. Or it is used in passing on to new points or topics :
' Ego sane a Quinto nostro dissentio : s e d ea quae restant audia-
;mus/ I quite differ from our friend Quintus. But let us hear what
remains to be said, C. N. D. ii. i.
3) Verum (but truly) resembles sed in use, but is stronger ;
6 Non quid nobis utile, verum quid oratori necessarium sit, quae-
rimus/ we are not inquiring what is profitable to us, biit rather
what is necessary for an orator, C. d. Or. i. 60.
Sed and verum are praepositive, standing first in their clause.
4) Vero (but in truth] when used as a Conjunction is postposi-
tive, and generally corrects by heightening the previous notion :
' Quidquid est quod bonum sit, id expetendum est ; quod autem ex-
petendum, id certe approbandum ; quod vero approbaris, idgratum
acceptumque habendum/ whatever is good, is desirable ; what is
desirable, is surely to be approved ; again what you approve must
be deemed agreeable and acceptable, C. T. D. v. 25.
5) Tamen (yet, however, nevertheless) detracts from the force of
,a concession, either expressed by etsi, quamvis, &c., or implied in
the context. It stands in any part of the sentence where it may be
most emphatic. See SYNTAX (Concessive Sentences).
Sed tamen, attamen, verumtamen, et tamen (but yet), are used.
6) At (anciently ast) is strongly adversative : and is used in ob-
jection, exclamation, interrogation, imprecation, &c.
6 Non placet M. Antonio consulatus meus ; at placuit P. Servilio/
&c. my consulship is not liked by Marcus Antonius, but it was
liked by Publius Servilius, &c. C. Phil. ii. 12. 'At te di deaeque
perduint/ may the gods and goddesses destroy thee ! Ter. Hec. i. 2.
59. 'Aeschines in Demosthenem invehitur : at quam rhetorice,
quam copiose! 7 Aeschines upbraids Demosthenes: aye, and how
skilfully, how copiously, C. T. D. iii. 26.
a) At = at tamen : ' Si se ipsos illi nostri liberatores e con-
spectu nostro abstulerunt, at exemplum reliquerunt/ if
those champions of our freedom have removed themselves
from our view, yet they have left us their example, C. Phil.
ii. 44.
ft) At en im, at vero, as well as at alone, are used, like aXXa
?') A /a in Greek, to introduce an objection which must be
answered. 'At enim ad Verrem pecunia ista non per-
venit. Quae est ista defensio ? ' &c. but that money, it is
urged, never reached Verres. What a lame defence is
here? &c., C. Verr. ii. 10. ' At vero malum est liberos
amittere. Malum, nisi hoc peius sit, haec sufferre et per-
peti,' C. Fam. iv. 5. 'At ego, inquit, vobis rationem osten-
dam, qua tanta mala ista effugiatis/ Sail. Cat. 40.
c) Atqui {yes but, but indeed} adds an objection which needs
to be considered. ' O rem, inquis, difficilem atque inex-
plicabilem ! Atqui explicanda est/ O what a difficult
and inexplicable matter, you say ? Yes, but it must be ex-
plained, C. Att. viii. 3. See M.Lncr. i. 755.
320 Latin Wordlore. 80-82.
7) Ceterum (but for the rest, but) is used by historians. ' Qui
Romanoram amicitiam colunt, multum laborem suscipiunt : cete-
8o rum ex omnibus maxime tuti sunt/ Sail. lug. 14. So ceteroqui(n).
Causal D) Causal Conjunctions.
j? n n c- i) Nam (for, for instance, to be sure) introduces a cause as ex-
tions. planatory ; enim (which follows the first or, after est, the second
word of a clause) introduces a proof. Namque is a strengthened
form of nam, etenim of enim : they are usually, in prose, the first
words in their clause.
a) N am is used in urgent Interrogations, either appended to
the Interrogative (quisnam, curnam, &c.), or, in old Latin
chiefly, preceding it. 'Nam quid ego nunc dicam de patre?'
why what can I now say of my father? Ter. An. i. 5, 17.
b) Enim is linked with other Particles : etenim, for, neque
enim, sed enim, at enim, verum enim, enimvero,
verum enimvero. All these may begin a sentence.
' Enimvero, Dave, nihil loci'st segnitiae/ why really,
Davus, there is no room for laziness, Ter. An. i. 3. I.
c) Enim may be emphatic (yes). ' Id enim est, inquies,
ostentum,' C. Div. ii. 26. 'Tibi enim, tibi, maxima luno/
V. Aen. viii. 84.
81
Illative E) Illative Conjunctions.
junc~- J ) I gi tur > er g> therefore, itaque, proinde (proin).
tions. Igitur expresses a reasonable inference : ergo a necessary infer-
ence ; itaque (and so) an inference arising from the antecedence ;
proinde (so then) an inference proportioned to the antecedence.
2) Ideo, idcirco, propterea (on that account), point to a ground of
fact (quod). Hoc, on this ground. M. Lucr. iii. 531.
3) The Relative words quare, quamobrem, quapropter, quocirca,
have a Conclusive sense : (wherefore, on which account}.*
Coordi- ii. Coordination by the Relative and its Par-
byRela-
i) The Relative itself may be equal to a Personal or Demon-
strative Pronoun with a Particle (et, autem, enim, igitur, &c.).
' Res loquitur ipsa: quae( = et ea) semper valet plurimum/ the
fact itself speaks; and this always has most weight, C. p. Mil. 20.
' Sunt igitur firmi et constantes eligendi : cuius ( = eius autem)
generis est magna penuria/ firm and steady friends imist be
chosen: but of this class there is a great dearth, C. LaeL 17. * Mul-
tas ad res perutiles Xenophontis libri sunt, quos ( = eos igitur) legite
studiose/ the works of Xenophon are useful for many purposes :
read them then, I beg, with care, C. Cat. M. 17.
Note. A Particle which appears with a Relative, belongs really
to a Demonstrative understood (or expressed in another clause).
'Quod est bonum omne laudabile est; quod autem laudabile
1 The uses of Latin Adverbs and Conjunctions are a very extensive subject, which can-
not be fully treated in a Grammar of moderate size. Hand's unfinished edition of Tursel-
linus de Particulis extends only to the letter P, and fills four large octavo volumes.
82. Coordination. 321
est, omne est honcstum; bonum igitur quod est, honestum est/ C.
Fin. iii. 8, where autem and igitur belong to id understood.
2) The attraction of the Antecedent to the Relative Clause is a
frequent idiom. Hence a peculiar use of the Relative arises.
* Moriar ni, quae tua gloria est, puto te malle a Caesare con-
suli quam inaurari/ upon my life I think, such is your vanity, you
'would rather be consulted by Caesar than plated with gold, C. Fam.
vii. 13. ' Quanta potuit adhiberi festinatio/ L. xlv. i.
3) When a Noun has an Attribute, especially a Superlative, and
a Relative Clause further explaining it, the Attribute is often at-
tracted to the Clause : 'Themistocles noctu de servis suis, quern
habuit fi delis si mum, ad Xerxem misit/ Themistocles sent to
Xerxes by night the most faithful slave he had, Nep. Them. 4.
4) When the Relative Clause has another subordinate to it, the
Relative may be constructed not with its own, but with its subordi-
nate Clause : 'Aberat omnis dolor, qui si adesset (for quern si
is adesset) non molliter ferret/ all pain was absent, but had any been
present, he would have borne it without weakness, C. Fin. ii. 20.
5) A Relative may be connected with a Participial construction.
' Non sunt ea bona dicenda nee habenda, quibus abundantem
licet esse miserrimum/ those things ought not to be called or held
good, amidst the overflow of which one may be utterly wretched, C.
T. D. v. 15.
With an Infinitive Clause. 'In eos, quos speramus nobis
profuturos, non dubitamus beneficia conferre, 7 we do not hesitate
to confer benefits on those from whom we hope to derive advantage,
C. Of I 15.
With an Interrogation. 'Magnus orator fuit Demosthenes :
quern quis umquam dicendo superavit?' Demosthenes was a great
orator : for who ever surpassed him in speaking ? C.
6) The Relative not only connects Clauses with Principal Sen-
tences, but it is used, especially by Cicero, in the beginning of Prin-
cipal Sentences, to shew their logical connexion withsomethingwhich
has gone before. Such are the phrases quo facto, qua re cog-
nita, quae cum ita sint, qua de causa, &c.
Also quod (now, but, in fact, &c.) stands before Conjunctions,
si, nisi, etsi, quoniam, quia, quum, ubi, utinam, &c. : ( Fit
protinus hac re audita ex castris Gallorum fuga : quod nisi cre-
bris subsidiis ac totius diei labore milites fuissent defessi, omnes
hostium copiae deleri potuissent/ on this intelligence the Gauls
forsook their camp : in fact, if our troops had not been worn out
by frequent skirmishes and a whole day's fatigite, the entire forces
of the enemy might have been destroyed, Caes. B. G. vii. 88. See C.
Off. i. 14, Div. ii. 62, Fin* i. 20 ; Liv. xxix. 34, xxxvi. 2.
7) Quod is also used (M. Lucr. ii. 248.)
a) as quantum : <Tu, quod poteris, nos consiliis iuvabis/
you will help me with your advice as far as you can, C.
Att. x. 2. ' Epicurus se unus, quod sciam, sapientem pro-
fiteri est ausus/ Epicurus is the only man, so far as I
know, who ventured to profess wisdom, C. Fin. ii. 3.
Y
322 Latin Wordlore. 82.
b) opening a sentence in relation to something about to be
stated (as to] : see M. Lucr. iv. 855 : 'Quod s crib is te
velle scire qui sit reipublicae status, summa dissensio est/
as to the wish you express in your letter to know the con-
dition of public affairs, all is discord, C. Fam. i. 7.
c) as quare : 'Est quod te visam/ there is something I must
see you for, Plaut. ' Credo ego vos mirari quid sit quod
ego surrexerim/ / imagine you are wondering for what
reason I have stood up, C.
d) occasionally for ex quo (since) : ' Dies tertius est quod
audivi recitantem Augurinum/ // is now three days since I
heard Auguriims read, PL Ep. iv. 27.
So cum : ' Multi anni sunt cum ille in aere meo est/ it is
many years that he is in my good books, C. Fam. xv. 14.
And tantum quod for vix ubi, vixdum : 'Qui tantum
quod ad hostis pervenerat, Datames signa inferri iubet/
he had but just reached the enemy when Datames ordered
the standards to advance, Nep. Dat. 6. 'Tantumquod
ex Arpinati veneram, cum mihi litterae a te redditae sunt/
I had just arrived from my house at Arpinum, when a
letter from you was delivered to me, C. Fam. vii. 23.
Note i. The transition by which the Relative quod (which} be-
comes the Conjunction of Fact quod (that) and the Causal Con-
junction quod (because) is apparent from such examples. An an-
alogous transition appears in the English that, and the Greek on.
Concede quod postulas, I grant (the thing) that you ask.
Rectum est quod postulas, (the thing) that you ask is right.
Nefas est quod postulas, (the thing) that you ask is a sin.
Gaudeo quod venisti, I am glad that you are come.
Gratum est quod venisti, // is a pleasure that you are come.
Consolatio est quod venisti, it is a comfort that you are come.
Hoc consolatur quod venisti, this comforts, that you are come.
Fugit idcirco quod timet, he flies because that he fears.
Venit ideo quod pactus est, he came because that he agreed.
Felix est quod sapiens est, he is happy in that he is wise.
Note 2. On change of construction after ReL, see M. Lucr. i.
720, and Verg. Aen. vi. 284.
8) The place of the Relative can be taken by its Particles, ubi,
unde, quo, qua, &c.
Ubi may stand for in quo, in qua, in quibus, of place,
person, or thing : 'Porticus haec ipsa, ubi ( = in qua) inambulamus/
this very colonnade in which we are walking, C. d. Or. ii. 5.
Unde stands for ex quo, qua, quibus, a quo, qua, quibus,
&c., and is also referred to place, person, or thing : ( Fontes
unde (ex quibus) hauriretis/ sources from which you might
draw, C. d. Or. i. 46. 'Eloquentia, unde ( = a qua) longe
absum/ eloquence, from which I am far removed, C. Brut. 92.
Quo for ad quern, quam, quod, quos, quae, c. < Dignus
Roma locus quo ( = ad quern) deus omnis eat/ Rome is a place
worthy to be visited by every deity, Ov. F. iv. 270.
Such Particles are connected with mood according to the same
rules as the Relative Pronoun.
tive
$ 83. Negative Words. 323
SECTION VIII.
Negative Words.
i. Ne and its Compounds. words.
1) From the Negative Root na come the Particles ne, ne.
N e, the lighter form, is used as an enclitic Interrogative. Ne.
It enters into the composition of many words : ne-que (nee),
ne-uter, ne-utiquam, non, nisi (for ne-si), nihil (for ne-hil), nemo
(for ne-homo), nullus (ne-ullus), numquam (ne-umquam), nusquam
(ne-usquam) : ne-queo, ne-scio, nolo (ne-volo), ne-fas and its deri-
vatives: as nee, of nec-dum, nec-non, nec-opinus, ne^-otium,
ne^-lego. On nee for non, see M. Lucr. ii. 23.
N e, the strengthened form, is used in prohibitive and final con-
struction, and in the phrases ne . . . quidem, nedum, &c.
It enters into the composition of words : ne-ve (neu), ne-cubi,
&c. ; ne-quaquam, ne-quiquam, ne-quam ; in old Latin more
largely, as funera ne-funera in Catullus.
On ni, nei, as old forms of ne, see M. Lucr. ii. 734.
2) Non, haud (anc. haut), not, deny Predication or Attribution.
Non simply denies : haud somewhat more strongly.
Cicero rarely uses haud with a Verb, except in the phrase ' haud
scio an' (often in MSS. hauscio an). But ( Haud equidem assen-
tior/ Leg. iii. n. See also Cat. M. xxiii. 82, Div. ii. 39.
The ordinary use of haud is with Adjectives and Adverbs. Thus
in C. haud deter i or, haud mediocris, haud sane, haud paulo, haud
facile, haud fere quisquam, haud umquam. Comic poets use haud
with Verbs, especially with possum: Virgil rarely with finite
Verbs. Horace has ' haud mini dero.'
3) Nihil (nil) maybe used as a Particle (m no wise) : nihil opus
est, nihil moror, nihil me fallis. Rarely with Adjectives and Par-
ticiples : l Nihil similis,' L. ' Senatus nihil sane ihtentus/ Sail.
Cat. 17. ' Animos nil magnae laudis egentis,' Virg. Ae. v. 751.
4) So quicquam : ' Ne hoc quidem ipso quicquam opus fuit
iudicio/ even of this judgment there was no need, C. d. Inv. ii. 27.
5) Nullus is used with the force of non. 'Sextus ab armis nul-
lus discedit,' Sextus does not lay down his arms, C. Att. xv. 22.
6) The Substantive nemo (ne-homo) is used for nullus : as
*Nemo pictor,' no painter, C. ' Nemo fere adulescens/ hardly any
young man ; even ' hominem neminem/ C. Fam. xiii. 55. ' Nemo
unus,' not one person, L. iii. 12. So quisquam, though Substan-
tival, is found with homo, civis, &c.
On the other hand, Gen. nullius, Abl. nullo, are used as Cases of
nemo, rarely of nihil. 'Si iniuste neminem laesit, si nullius
aures voluntatemve violavit, si nemini, ut levissime dicam, odionec
domi nee militiae fuit/ if he has harmed no one unjustly, if he has
done violence to no man, by word or act, if, to say the least, he has
Y 2
324 Latin Wordlore. 84.
been disagreeable to none at home or abroad, &c., C. p. Mur. 40.
' Ut quisque sic munitus est ut nullo egeat,' according as each man
is so provided as to want nobody 's help, C. LaeL 9.
a) Non ita, baud ita, are used as modified Negatives : non
ita pridem, haud ita pridem, (not very long ago).
Neutiquam (not at all) is chiefly found in Comedy : also in a
few places of Cicero and Livy. L. has neutique.
Nequiquam, (to no purpose]. Nequaquam, haudquaquam, (by
no means).
b) Vix, scarcely, hardly, is a modified Negative.
c) Minus is used as nearly = non. * Nonnumquam ea, quae
praedicta sunt, minus eveniunt,' sometimes predictions fail
to turn out true, C. Div. i. 14. Especially quominus ( = ut
eo minus), and sin minus, but if not.
Minime (least of all not at all) is a strong Negative.
d) The enclitic dum (awhile, ye f) is compounded with all the
Negatives except nemo ; also with vix ; nondum, haud'
dum, nullusdum, nihildum, vixdum.
ii. Succeeding Negatives.
1) A Negative precedes the word which it affects ; and if another
Negative follows within the same predication, the negation is an-
nulled, and the predication becomes Affirmative.
Hence arise new Pronominal forms ; some Indefinite :
nonnullus nearly = aliqui
nonnemo = aliquis
nonnihil = aliquid
nonnumquam = aliquando
some Universal : as,
nullus non nearly = omnis
nemo non = omnes or unusquisque
nihil non = omnia
numquam non = semper
nusquam non = ubique
So, neque . . . non is nearly = etiam (also).
2) Non followed by non forms a strong affirmative : thus, non
possum non = necesse est mihi. 'Non potui non dare litteras
ad Caesarem/ I could not but write to Caesar, C. A tt. viii. 2.
So, nemo . . . non : nihil . . . non, &c. 'Tuum consilium nemo
potest non maxime laudare,' nobody can help praising your de-
sign highly, C. Fam. ir. 7.
Non modo, non tantum, not only ; modo non, tantum non, only
not all but : 'Modo non mentis auri pollicens,' promising all
but mountains of gold, Ter. Ph. i. 2. 18.
3) If a negative proposition branches into two clauses with
neque . . . neque, the proposition remains negative: ' Caesar
numquam neque fecit neque fecisset ea quae nunc ex falsis
eius commentariis proferuntur,' Caesar never did nor would have
done the things which are produced from his spurious manuscripts,
C. Fam. xiv. 13.
85. Negative Words. 325
a) As the English ' and not' is usually expressed by neque;
and by * et non ' only when the negative belongs emphati-
cally to the following word ; so * and none,' ' and no-
thing] ' and nobody] ' and never] &c., are expressed by
1 neque ullus/ < neque quicquam, 7 'nee quisquam/ <nec
umquam/ &c. ; not by et nullus, et nihil, et nemo, et num-
quam, &c. : but if the negative is emphasised, the latter
forms must be used: 'Domus temere et nullo consilio
administrator/ the household is conducted in a confused
way, and without any plan, C. d. Inv. i. 34.
b) Neque is used with vero, tamen, enim, rarely autem, to con-
nect Adversative and Causal Sentences negatively.
85
iii. Ne . . . quid em, nedum, non mo do, &c. Ne...
quidem.
1) Ne . . . quidem = #0/ even, takes the emphatic words be-
tween the particles. < Ne ad Catonem quidem provocabo/ /
will not appeal even to Cato, C. Att. iv. i. Another negative
may go before, with the predicative word: 4 Non fugio ne hos
quidem mores/ I do not shun even these morals, C. Verr. iii. 90.
Nee is rarely used for ne . . . quidem. 'Esse aliquid manis
et subterranea regna nee pueri credunt/ that ghosts and subter-
ranean realms have any existence not even boys believe, luv. ii. 152.
2) Nedum indicates that a predication is out of the question. Nedum.
Hence with previous negative, it means ' much less ; ' with affirm-
ative (usually) 'not to say' ' Satrapa si siet amator, numquam
sufferre eius sumptus queat, nedum tu possis/ if a satrap were
her lover, he could not support her expenses, much less can you,
Ter. Haut. iii. i. 43. 'Nulla simulacra urbibus, nedum templis,
sinunt/ they allow no images to their cities, much less to their
temples, Tac. H. v. 5. ( Tu quoniam quartana cares et nedum
morbum removisti sed etiam gravedinem, te vegetum nobis in
Graecia siste/ since you are free from quartan fever, and rid not to
say of disease but even of languor, present yourself to us in Greece
flourishing, C. Att. x. 16.
Sometimes, but not in Cicero, nedum after an affirmative
means < much more not' f Et consules bellicosos creates, qui vel
in pace bellum excitare possent, nedum in bello respirare civitatem
forent passuri/ warlike consuls had been elected, who could stir up
war even in peace, much more in war would not suffer the state to
take breath, L. xlv. 29. See also Hor. ad Pis. 69.
3) When the principal sentence contains not only, an Adversa-
tive clause (but) succeeds. Hence non modo, non solum, are*
followed by sed, verum, sed etiam, verum etiam, &c. : *Non
solum verbis arte positis moventur omnes, verum etiam numeris
ac vocibus,' all men are affected not only by words skilfully ar-
ranged, but also by measures and sounds, C. d. Or. iii. 50.
a) Also, non modo non, non solum non are followed by
sed, sed etiam, &c., or by sed ne . . . quidem, sed
neque, &c. : * Hoc non modo non pro me, sed contra
me est potius/ this is not only not for me, but even against
me, C. d. Or. iii. 20. 'Ego non modo tibi non irascor,
326 Latin Wordlore. 86.
sed ne
not angry with you, but do not even blame your deed, C.
p. Sull. 1 8.
b) When both sentences have a common verb, non mo do
may be elliptically placed in the former, for non mo do
non: 'Tails vir non modo facere, sed ne cogitare
quid em quicquam audebit, quod non honestum sit*
( = sed etiam cogitare non audebit), such a man will not
venture, not merely to do, but even to conceive anything
which is not morally right, C. Off. iii. 19. 'Nihil eis
Verres non modo de fructu, sed ne de bonis qui-
dem suis reliqui fecit/ Verres left them nothing, I do not
say of their produce, but even of their property, C. Verr.
iii. 48.
c] The sentences are sometimes inverted, so that non modo =
much less: 'Ne sues quidem id velint, non modo ipse/
not even swine would desire that, much less himself*
C. T: D. i. 38.
d ) Non tarn, not so much, is followed by sed or sed magis. See
M. Lucr. iii. 823.
SECTION IX.
86 Questions and Answers.
Qnes-
SS S I. Questions (direct or oblique : see 73).
An-
swers.
Interrogation may be Single or Disjunctive.
into!. 6 i- Single Interrogation without a Particle.
Son!" An Interrogation in English is indicated by the Verb at the
beginning, ' Will you go?' But in Latin the sense or tone shews
the distinction. ' C e r t e patrem tuum non occidisti?' assuredly
you did not kill your father f Suet. Aug. 33, which suggests the
reply, Certe non occidi. ' Infelix est Fabricius quod rus suum
fodit?' is Fabricius unhappy in having to dig his groimd ? Sen.
Prov. 3. Answer, Non est. Sometimes the question is remon-
strative, and equivalent to a strong exhortation : 'Non pudet ad
morem discincti vivere Nattae ? ' are you not ashamed of living
in the fashion of dissolute Natta? Pers. iii. 31. Or attention is
awakened: as 'Cernis odoratis ut luceat ignibus aether?' seest
thou with scented fires how shines the sky ? Ov. F. i. 75. ( Viden
tu hunc?' Plaut. Capt. iii. 4. 25. Videtisne ut, &c.
ii. Single Interrogation with a Particle.
i) Num expects a negative answer ; nonne, an affirmative ;
ne asks indifferently : ' Num formidulosus, obsecro, es, mi homo ?
Egone formidulosus ? nemo'st hominum, qui vivat, minus/ are
you in a fright, pray, my good fellow ? / in a fright? no man
alive is less so, Ter. Eun. iv. 6. 19. ' Nonne miseri sumus?'
86. Questions and Answers. 327
a) Numne, numnam, are used : also ecquis, numquis : ' Deum
ipsum numne vidisti ?' have you seen God Himself ? (no),
C. N. D. i. 31. ' N umnam ego peril ? ' am I a lost man f
(I hope not), Ter. Eun. v. 4. 25. 'Ecquis me vivit
hodie fortunatior?' lives there any this day more lucky
than I? Ter. Eun. v. 8. i. ' Numquis hie est ? nemo
est : numquis hinc me sequitur?' is there any one
here? nobody: is any one following me out? Ter. Eun.
iii. j. i.
2) An properly signifies *orj and introduces the second and fol-
lowing members of double, triple, &c. questions. When it seems to
introduce a single interrogation, it really refers to a previous ques-
tion conceived in the mind (' is this admitted or' &c.). Hence it
confirms a statement by exhibiting the inadmissibility of the op-
posite notion : ' Oratorem irasci minime decet, simulare non de-
decet. An tibi irasci turn videmur cum quid in causis acrius et
vehementius dicimus ? ' anger is unbecoming in an orator, the sem-
blance of anger is not unbecoming. (Do you allow this ?) or do you
suppose we are really angry when we speak with more than usual
vehemence f C. T. D. iv. 25 meaning : ' we are not really angry
when we so speak ; the semblance therefore affords no argument
against the maxim that anger is unbecoming in an orator/
Sometimes an refers to aliudne understood : 'Quid dices? an
Siciliam virtute tua liberatam ? ' what will you say ? that by your
valour Sicily was freed? C. Verr. v. 2. 5. (Will you say anything
else, or, &c. = will you not probably say that, &c.) See 87, Foot-note.
a) An has a peculiar use after Verbs expressing uncertainty, as
nescio, haud scio, dubito. When in English we say, ' I
know not whether he is coming} we imply a probability
that ' he will not come : ' but in Latin, nescio an veniat
usually means existimo eum venire. So, ' Nescio an
modum excesserint/ I am inclined to think they have over-
stepped the limit, lust. xiii. 2. Hence it is used almost
adverbially: ' Sapientissimus et haud scio an omnium
praestantissimus/ the wisest and perhaps the most excellent
of all, C. N. D. ii. 4.
ff) The doubled Conjunction may mark uncertainty : ' Hanc
orationem in Origines suas rettulit paucis antequam mor-
tuus est an diebus an mensibus, 7 this speech he entered in
his Origines a few days (must we say) or months before
he died, C. Brut. 23. This idiom is frequent in Tacitus.
e) If it were wished to express the meanings ''probably not, 1
6 1 am inclined to think not,' &c., a Negative was intro-
duced in the subordination : Nescio an non veniat, /
think he is not coming. ' Quaere rationem cur ita vide-
atur : quam ut maxime inveneris, quod haud scio an
non possis, non tu ostenderis/ &c., seek a ground for this
opinion ; biit though you be ever so successful injinding
one, which I rather think yoi4 cannot do, you will not have
shewn, &c., C. Ac. ii. 25. ' Contigit tibi, quod haud scio
an n e m i n i,' there has happened to you what I rather think
has befallen no one else, C. Qu. Fr. i. i. It is questioned
328 Latin Wordlore. 8 7 .
whether the same sense is obtained by using, instead of
Negatives, those Pronouns and Adverbs which are only
found in negative or hypothetical sentences, quisquam,
ullus, unquam, &c. ; but, as the reading in all the places
cited is doubtful, it is safer to use the Negatives for this
purpose.
d) Writers of the Silver age sometimes give nescio an the
negative force, * 7 think not'
Disjunc- iii. Disjunctive Interrogation has four varie-
tiveln-
terroga-
tion.
In First Member.
i) utrum (utrumne) .
2) ne
3) No Particle
In Second Member.
an
an
4) No Particle
.... ne. 1
1) ' Utrum ea vestra an nostra culpa est ?' is that your fault or
ours ? C. Ac. iv. 29. ' Quod nescire malum est agitamus, utrumne
divitiis homines an sint virtute bead/ we discuss, what it is an
evil to be ignorant of, whether men are happy by riches or virtue,
Hor. S. ii. 6. 73.
2) 'Quod si dies notandus fuit, eumne potius notaret, quo natus,
an eum, quo sapiens factus est ?' now, if a day was to be marked,
should he have marked that rather, on which he was born, or that on
which he became wise? C. 'Quaeritur virtus suamne propter
dignitatem an propter fructus aliquos expetatur,' it is a question
whether virtue be sought for its own worth or for some profits ac-
cruing, C. d. Or. iii. 29.
3) * Recto itinere duxisti exercitum ad hostis an super omnes an-
fractus viarum ? ' did you march your army straight to the enemy,
or by every winding road? L. xxxviii. 45. ' Refert oratorem qui
audiant, senatus an populus an judices, frequentes an pauci an
singuli,' // is of moment who an orator's audience are, the senate or
people or bench of judges ; a crowd or a few persons or an indi-
vidual, C. d. Or. iii. 55.
4) 'Albus aterne fueris ignorans,' not knowing whether you
were white or black, C. Phil. ii. 16. 'Tarquinius Superbus Prisci
Tarquinii filius neposne fuerit, parum liquet/ whether Tarqui'n
the Proud was son or grandson of Tarquin the elder, is not certain,
L. i. 41. This form is only used in Oblique Interrogation.
a) An ... an, ne . . . ne, are poetic, but rare in prose :
'Distat an maturitas uvarum in torcularibus fiat an in
ramis,' it makes a difference whether the grapes become
ripe in the press-rooms or on the boughs, Plin. N. H. xv. I.
'Quiteneant . . . hominesne feraene Quaerere consti-
1 Madvig (Opusc. 230), with whom Hand concurs (Turs. iv. 321), denies that the form
num ... an can be classed with the other Disjunctive forms, in which one alternative
must be affirmed. As num always points to a negative answer, an, when annexed to
it, becomes almost=annon. 'Numfuris? an prudens ludis me obscura canendo?' are
you going mad? or do you purposely deceive me with dark oracles? Hor. 6". ii. 5. 59, im-
plying that the latter is the fact.
Questions and A nswers. 329
tuit/ he resolves to inquire who inhabit it . . . whether
men or wild beasts, Verg. A en. i. 308.
b) If in the Second Member there is a Negation of the former,
necne or annon is used, generally without, sometimes
with, the Verb repeated : 'Fiat necne fiat id quaeritur/ the
question is whether it does happen or not, C. Fam. i. 39. ( Di
utrum sint necne sint quaeritur/ it is in question whether
gods exist or not, C. N. D. iii. 7. ' Num tabulas habet
annon ? ' has he the accounts or not? C. p. Qu. Necne is
not used after num ; and only in Oblique Interrogation.
II. Answers.
i. Affirmative Answers in Latin are given in
three ways.
1) By repeating the emphatic word of the question in the required
person or case : ' Abiit Clitipho. Solus ? Solus/ Clitipho is gone.
Alone f Alone, Ter. Haut. v. i. 31. 'Virtutes narro. Meas?
Tuas.' I talk of virtues. What, mine? Yours, Ter. Ad. iv. i.
19. 'Tunenegas? Nego hercle vero/ do you deny it? Yes,
upon my word, I do, Plaut. Men. iv. 2. 67.
2) By some expression equivalent to a repetition of the emphatic
word: 'Die, Chaerea tuam vestem detraxit tibi ? Factum/ say,
did Chaerea strip your coat off? He did, Ter. Eun. iv. 4-39. Or
increasing the emphasis : ' Pater est ? Ipsust/ is it my father?
Himself, Ter. 'An voluptas in bonis habenda est? Atque in
maximis quidem/ is pleasure to be reckoned among goods ? Ay,
and among the greatest, C.
3) By Affirmative Particles, either alone, or joined to the em-
phatic word. Such are, ita, sane, etiam, verum, utique, vero,
certe, ita plane, ita enimvero, ita prorsus, omnino, admodum, recte,
profecto. 'Numquidvis? Etiam/ do you want anything ? Yes,
Ter. ' Visne potiora tantum interrogem ? S an e/ would you have
me ask only the principal matters ? Exactly so, C. ( Fuisti saepe,
credo, cum Athenis esses, in scholis philosophorum ? Vero, ac
libenter quidem/ jy0# were often, I suppose, when you- were at Athens,
in the schools of the philosophers ? Yes, and with pleasure, C. T.
D. ii. ii.
a) Nimirum, nempe, quippe, videlicet, scilicet (obviously,
to be sure, why), express irony : ' Quern hunc appellas,
Zeno? Beatum, inquit. Etiam beatissimum ? Quippe,
inquiet/ what call you this man, Zeno ? Happy, says he.
Supremely happy, too ? Why yes, he will say, C. Fin. v.
28. 'Tibi ego possem irasci ? Scilicet/ could I have been
angry with you ? Very likely ! C. Qu. Fr. i. 3.
b} Certo always affirms positively (for certain) : certe some-
times affirms positively, sometimes restrictively (at all
events, at least}. Vero affirms positively (of a truth}, or it
may be used as an Adversative Particle. Vere means
verily, really, truly.
330 Latin Wordlore. 89-90.
8 9
Nga- ii. Negative Answers are also given in three
tive An-
swers, ways.
1) By repeating the emphatic word with a Negative Particle :
'Estne frater intus? Non est/ is my brother in? No, Ter. Ad.
iv. 2. 30.
2) By Negative Particles alone, such as non, non vero, non ita,
minime, minime vero, nihil sane, nihil vero minus, nequaquam, ne
id quidem, &c. ' Cognitorem adscribit Sthenio. Quern? Cogna-
tum aliquem aut propinquum ? Non. Thermitanum aliquem,
honestum hominem ac nobilem? Ne id quidem. At Siculum,
in quo aliquis splendor dignitasque esset? Minime/ he assigns to
Sthenius a defender. Whom ? Was it some blood-relation or kins-
man ? No. Some inhabitant of Thermae, a man of honour and
rank ? Not even that. Well, but a Sicilian, possessing some emi-
nence and dignity f Far from it, C. Verr. ii. 43. ' Non opus est ?
Non her cle vero/ is there no occasion? None, I assure you, Ter.
Haut. iii. 3. 50.
3) By immo (nay rather ' = the Greek \iiv ovv), when the answer
is not simply Negative, but at the same time corrective of the
opinion implied in the question : ' Ubi fuit Sulla, num Romae ?
Immo longe a fuit,' where was Sulla? was he at Rome? Nay,
he was at a great distance from it, C. p. Sull. 19. ' Visne adesse me
una? Immo longe abi/ would you like me to attend with you f
No, keep at a distance, Ter. ' Sicine hunc decipis ? Immoenim-
vero hie me decipit/ is it thus you deceive him? Nay, to tell the
truth, he is deceiving^ me, Ter. Ph. iii. 2. 43. Immo is also used
when the answer admits the fact, but adds some heightening circum-
stance : as ' Hie tamen vivit. Vivit ? Immo etiam in senatum
venit/ yet this man lives. Lives ? Yea, even comes into the senate,
C. Cat. i. 'Tenaxneest? I m m o pertinax/ is he tenacious ! Ves 9
and pertinacious, Plaut. Capt. ii. 2. 39.
a) Recte, optime, are used not only affirmatively, but also as
polite Negatives : ( Rogo numquid velit. Recte, inquit,'
/ ask if he wants anything. All right, says he^
Ter. Eun. ii. 3. 4. So, benigne (yotfre very kind} is
used as a polite mode of declining : as in French, je vous
remercie. See Hor. Epist. ii. 7. 16.
SECTION X.
Thf Uses of the Verb. 1
Verb - (In Ch. III. Sections I. III., Verbal uses have, to some extent,
been explained along with the forms of the Verb. Throughout
Syntax they again appear as affecting construction generally. The
matter of the present Section is therefore limited to a few points.)
1 Every finite Verb is a predicative word, having Number, Person, Mood and Tense.
In regard of Number and Person, it is determined by its Subject : in regard of manner
of action (Mood) and Time (Tense), it is determined by its relations to the speaker or
narrator.
Thus when Dido in Virgil says, ' Veniet mihi fama,' the report will come to me 9
9 i. Indicative Tenses. 331
i. The Indicative or Fact-Mood and its 9*
Tenses. Indica -
tive
A. Mood. See 37. Mood *
The Indicative is the Fact-Mood, used to declare (state categor-
ically) : scribo, / write ; scribam, / will write t &c.
Such declaration may be
1) Independent, in a principal sentence.
Scribo ad filium, / write to my son : non scripsi ad Lucium ; and
(in the form of Interrogation), scribesne ad patrem ?
2) Subordinate, if the clause in which it stands is purely objective
(independent of mental conception).
Thus the Indicative may be used in clauses of fact (quod), cause
(quod, quia, &c.), condition (si, nisi), concession (etsi, quamquam,
&c.), time (cum, quando, ubi, antequam, postquam, dum, donee,
c.) : and in clauses introduced by the Relative Pronoun or a
Relative Particle ; whenever such clauses are free from those forms
of thought which require (as hereafter shewn) the Subjunctive.
Examples : Gratum est quod venis (venies, venisti, c.).
Gaudeo quod (cum, si, &c.) venis, &c. Gaudebo si (cum) venies
(veneris). Non gaudebo nisi venis (venies, veneris). Gaude-
bam cum (quia) veniebas (veneras). Mane dum redeo. Eo
quamquam aeger sum. Ibo etsi tu noles (nolueris).
B. Tenses.
The relations of the Indicative Tenses Active (shewn 38) may indie,
be thus re-stated. Tenses.
Writing, as an action, is to me
I. a. simply present : scribo, / write.
b. past : scripsi, / wrote.
c. future : scribam, / shall write.
II. I. a. now present : scribo, / am writing.
b. past : scripsi, / have written.
c. future : scripturus sum, / am about to write.
2. a. formerly present : scribebam, / was writing.
$ t past : scripseram, / had written.
c. future : scripturus eram, / was about to write.
'veniet'is determined in Number (Sing.) and Person ford) by its Subject 'fama:' its
Mood is Indicative and its Tense Future, because Dido declares what will happen
to her. See 37.
Had she said, ' Veniat mihi fama,' 'may the report come to me, ' veniat' would be re-
lated in the same respects to 'fama : ' but its Mood (Conjunctive in Optative Sense) and
Tense (Ci) would be determined by the fact that Dido states a conceived wish that some-
thing may happen to her in time coming.
If we suppose the expression to be, ' optabat Dido veniret sibi fama,' * Dido wished tht
report might come to her? ' veniret ' again follows the Number and Person of ' fama ; ' and
is again Conjunctive in Optative Sense because a conceived wish is expressed ; but its
Tense becomes C 3 because (instead of coming directly from the speaker's mouth as
'veniat' did) it depends on the narrator's statement, 'optabat/ which, being Past, re-
quires (as hereinafter shewn) the Historic Consecution : and what is stated is, that Dido
in time past conceived a wish that something might happen in time then future to her.
332
Latin Wordlore.
3. a. hereafter present : (scribam, / shall be writing).
b. past : scripsero, / shall have written.
c. future : scripturus ero, / shall be about to
write.
Forms under I. are the Simple or Aorist (indefinite) Tenses.
Forms under II. are the Relative Tenses.
The Passive Tenses correspond similarly.
Note. i. The form II. i. a. (Present with Present relation) is seldom
needed except when there is a clause with dum : < Dum tu sectaris
apros, ego retia servo/ while you are chasing boars, I am watching
nets, Verg. B. iii. 74. { Dum aes exigitur, dum mula ligatur, tota
abit hora/ while the fare is being taken, and the mule harnessed, a
whole hour passes, Hor. S. i. 5. 13.
The form 3. a. (Future with Present relation) is rarely needed.
A) The Present Tense expresses
1) Momentary Present action. 'Procumbit humi bos/ the bull
falls prostrate, Verg. Aen. v. 481. < Momento turbinis exit Marcus
Dama/ as soon as twirled he comes forth Marcus Dama, Pers. v.
77-
2) Action or state occasionally, habitually, or permanently pre-
sent. 'Domesticus otior/ / lounge at home, Hor. S. i. 6. 127..
' Honos alit artis/ honour nurtures the arts, C. T. D. i. 3. ( Deus
est, qui sentit, qui regit et moderatur, et est aeternus/ there
is a god, who perceives, who rules and governs, and is eternal, C.
Rep. vi. 24.
3) The opinion or statement of an author, who is cited as if still
living and speaking: 'Laudat Africanum Panaetius/ &c., C.
'Scribit Cato/ C. &c.
Peculiar uses of the Present are :
a) The Anticipative Present, sometimes found as an emphatic
substitute for the Future : i Ni propere fit quod impero,
vinciri vos iam iubeo/ if what I command is not done
with speed, I order you to be put in chains this moment,
L. xxxvi. 28. 'Abeo an maneo?' shall I go or stay ? Ter.
Ph. v. i. * Imusne sessum ? ' shall we go and sit down? C.
d. Or. iii. 5.
b) The Historic Present, used for the Past in animated and
picturesque narrative, whether in history, oratory, or
poetry: * Dimisso senatu, decemviri prodeunt in con-
tionem, abdicantque se magistratu, ingenti hominum
laetitia/ when the senate broke iip, the decemvirs go forth
to the assembled people, and resign office, to the great delight
of the public, L. iii. 54.
Note 2. Here may be noticed the idiom of the Historic Infinitive
(Pres. Imperf.) used predicatively for a Finite Verb ; a construction
analogous to the omission of the verb sum, inasmuch as it leaves
out, like this, the expression of time, number, and person. Both
constructions are found occurring together : < Ceterum facies totius
negotii varia incerta foeda atque miserabilis; dispersi a
suis pars cedere, alii insequi ; neque signa neque ordines
91. Indicative Tenses. 333
observare; ubi quemque periculum ceperat, ibi resistere ac
propulsare; arma, tela, equi, viri, hostes, cives permixti ; nihil
consilio neque imperio agi ; fors omnia regere/ now the aspect of
the whole affair was confused, indecisive, shocking and pitiable ;
parties scattered from their comrades were some retiring, others
advancing ; observing neither standards nor ranks ; where peril
encountered each man, there was he resisting and repelling : arms,
darts, steeds, men, foes, countrymen were intermingled, nothing was
proceeding by counsel or command : chance directed alL Sail. lug.
51. This construction, in which the Infinitive maybe considered
Imperfect, is frequently used by poets as well as historians.
c) The Historic Present is commonly used in a Temporal
clause with dum, even when the Principal Sentence is
Past or Future : 'Dum obsequor adolescentibus, me
senem esse sum oblitus/ in complying with young men, I
have forgotten that I am old, C. d. Or. ii. 4.
d) The Present obtains a Past sense also when joined with
iam, iam diu (dudum, pridem) : ' Annum iam audis Cratip-
pum,' you have now for a year been attending the lectures
of Cratippus] C. Off. i. I. ' lamdudum video/ / have
seen it this long time, Hor. Sat. i. 9. 15. ' Iam pridem
cupio Alexandriam visere/ / have been long desirous to
visit Alexandria, C. Att. ii. 5.
e) Poets use the Historic Present with great license for the
Perfect : * Quantum mutatus ab illo Hectore, qui redit
exuvias indutus Achillis/ how changed from that Hector
who returned clad in the spoils of Achilles, Verg. A en. ii.
275.
B) The Perfect Tense expresses
1) As Aorist, the simple statement of a past fact : 'Veni, vidi,
vici/ / came, I saw, I conquered, Caes.
2) As Present with Past relation, the statement of a fact com-
plete at the present moment. 'Dixi/ I have spoken, Cic. ' Venit
summa dies/ the last day is come, Verg. Aen. ii. 324.
It is idiomatically used to express:
d) The rapid completion of action (poetic) : 'Fugere ferae/
beasts have fled, Verg. G. i. 330.
b) Cessation of existence (poetic) : l Fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium/
we Trojans have been, Troy has been (i.e. exists no longer),
Verg. A en. ii. 325.
c) General habit: ' (Rege) amisso rupere fidem constructaque
mella diripuere/ if the queen-bee is lost they break faith
and pull down their honey stores, Verg. G. iv. 213.
Prose writers use this idiom in clauses with cum, si, &c.
6 Cum for tuna reflavit affligimur/ when fortune blows
contrary, we are flung down, C. Off. ii. 6.
d) Anticipation, for the Future Perfect : < Brutus si conser-
vatus erit, vicimus/ if Brutus shall have been saved, we
have won the day, C. Fam. xii. 6.
334 Latin Wordlore. 9I .
C) The Imperfect expresses
1) Action going on in time past along with other action (Past
with Present relation) : 'I bam forte Via Sacra . . . accurrit qui-
dam/ &c., / was walking by chance along the Sacred Road (when)
a certain man ran up to me, &c., Hor. Sat. i. 9. I.
2) Action repeated or habitual in time past : ' Dicebat melius
quam scripsit Hortensius/ Hortensius used to speak better than he
has written, C. Or. 38. 'Noctes vigilabat ad ipsum mane, diem
totum stertebat/ he vised to lie awake whole nights till daybreak,
and snore all day long, Hor. S. i. 3. 17.
3) Action in time past, intended or begun, but not completed :
* Aeneas . . . lenibat dictis animum/ Aeneas was trying to soften
her mind with his words, Verg. Aen. vi. 468. ' Num dubitas id me
imperante facere, quod iam tua sponte faciebas ?' do you hesitate
to do at my command what you were already on the point of doing
'voluntarily? C. Cat. i. 5. * Huius deditionis ipse, qui dedebatur,
suasor et auctor fuit/ of this surrender the very man who was to be.
surrendered was the mover and adviser, C. Off. iii. 30.
D) The Pluperfect expresses action past in a time itself past,
and often stands in connection with other Tenses : ' Cum esset De-
mosthenes, multi oratores magni et clari fuerunt, et antea fuerant,
nee postea defecerunt,' in the time of Demosthenes there were many
great and renowned orators, and there had been such before, nor did
they fail afterwards, C. Or. 2. ' Postquam lux certior erat, et
Romani, qui caedibus superfuerant, in arcem confugerant,
conticescebatque tumultus, turn Tarentinos convocari iubet/
when the light became stronger, and the Romans, who had survived
the massacre, had escaped into the citadel, and the uproar was getting
quiet, he then orders the Tarentines to be convoked, L. xxv. 10.
a) As Clauses expressing habit are in the Perfect with cum,
si, ubi, simul ac, when the principal Verb is Present
(see above B c.}, so they are in the Pluperfect with the
same Conjunctions, when the principal Verb is Imperfect,
' Gyges, cum palam eius anuli ad palmam converterat,
a Rullo videbatur, ipse autem omnia videbat; idem
rursus videbatur cum in locum anulum inverterat,' as
often as Gyges turned the bezel of that ring towards his
palm, he was visible to none, while he saw everything
himself: moreover he came into sight again, as often as hi
turned the ring back to its place, C. Off. iii. 9. ' Si hostis
deterrere nequiverant, disiectos ab tergo circumveni-
ebant, 7 if they could not deter the enemy, they surrounded
their divisions in the rear, Sail. lug. 50.
(The relations of the Past Indicative Tenses, also of the Historic
Present and Infinitive, are well exemplified in C. Verr. iv. 27;
Sail. lug. 50-51.)
Tenses N* e 3- A Roman, writing a letter, arranged the Tenses with re-
in letter- ference to the time when the letter would be received. Hence many
writing, facts, which to the writer were Present, are stated as Past in regard
to the receiver. And other facts, which to the writer were Past, are
9i. Indicative Tenses. 335
stated in the Pluperfect, for the same reason. The English practice
being different, a Roman letter must be translated not literally,
but into our idiom : ( Pridie Idus haec scrip si ante lucem. Eo die
apud Pomponium in eius nuptiis eram cenaturus/ / have writ-
ten this before daybreak on the day before the Ides. I am going
to dine with Pomponius to-day at his wedding, C. Q. F. ii. 3.
'Nihil habebam quod scriberem: neque enim novi quicquam
audieram, et ad tuas omnis rescripseram pridie/ I have no-
thing to write about : for I have heard no news, and I replied to
all your letters yesterday, C. Att. ix. 10. But matters which will
remain present to the receiver, are stated in the Present : ' Ego hie
cogito commorari, quoad me reficiam/ / think of remaining
here whilst I am recruiting my health, C. Fam. vii. 26.
E) The Simple Future expresses what its name implies, simple
action in the Future: ' Ut voles me esse, ita ero,' / will be as
you shall wish me to be, Plaut. Pseud, i. 3
a) It is often used as a polite Imperative : ' Quod superest,
puerum Ciceronem curabis et amabis,' for the rest,
please to treat young Cicero with care and affection, C.
Att. iv. 7. See Hor. Epist. i. 18. 37-40.
F) The Future Perfect expresses action to be fulfilled in Future
time: <Qui Antonium oppresserit, is bellum confecerit/ he,
who shall have crushed Antonius, will have finished the war, C.
Fam. x. 20.
a) It may be connected with the Simple Future, or used for
the Simple Future, with a view to Emphasis : ' Ut semen-
tem feceris, ita metes/ as you shall have sown, so
will you reap, C. d. Or. ii. 65. ' Si quid ac cider it novi,
facies ut sciam/ should anything new happen, please to
let me know, C. Fam. xiv. 8. 'Quid inventum sit, paulo
post videro,' what has been discovered, I shall very soon
see, C. Ac. ii. 24. 'A, si pergis, abiero,' nay, if you go
on, I shall be off, Ter. Ad. i. 2. 47. * Sitne malum dolor
necne Stoici viderint/ whether pain is an evil or not,
the Stoics will have to see, C. T. D. ii. 18.
G) In the Future Periphrastic Conjugation (-urus sum,
eram, fui, fueram, ero, fuero, &c.) the Indicative Tenses are called
Present, Perfect, &c., according to the forms of sum : and the general
distinctions above stated apply to them, but not the idiomatic uses.
This Conjugation expresses
1 ) ' Being about to ; ' ' being on the point of: ' ' Apes evolaturae
sunt/ the bees are about to swarm, Varr. R. R. iii. 16. 4 Vos cum
Mandonio arma consociaturi fuistis/ you were on the point of
allying your arms with Mandonius, L. xxviii. 28.
2) f Being likely to ;' ''being sure to :' ' Haec sine doctrina cre-
dituri fuerunt,' this they were sure to believe without learning,
C. T. D. i. 21 ( = 'they would have believed.' See the use of this
form, and of the Inf. -urum fuisse, in the Apodosis of Condi-
tional Sentences).
336 Latin Word! ore. 9i_
3) 'Being destined to ' (am to, are to, &c.) : ' Si una inter! turus
est animus cum corpora/ &c., if the soul is to perish with the body,
&c., C. Cat. M. 22. 'Quidquid ex Agricola amavimus manet
mansurumque est in animis hominum/ all that we have loved
of Agricola abides and is destined to abide in the memory ' of men r
Tac. Agr. 46. 'Me ipsum ames oportet, si veri amici futuri
sum us/ you must love me myself, if we are" to be true friends, C.
Fin. ii. 26. See Conditional Sentences : and Consecution of Tenses.
(On the Gerundive Conjugation -ndus sum, -ndum est, &c., see
Syntax of < the Verb Infinite/)
Note 4 . Latin writers often use Verbs and phrases expressing duty^
necessity, propriety, possibility, &c., in the Past Indicative Tenses
instead of the Conjunctive, to indicate that it was proper or possible
at that time to do something which however was not done.
1 ) Past Tenses ofdebere; decere; oportere ; aequum (aequius r
melius, par, utilius, &c.) esse; posse; malle ; licere, &c. ' Omnibus
eum contumeliis onerasti, quern patris loco cole re debebas/ you
have loaded with every insult one whom you ought to have revered
as a father, C. Phil. ii. 38. *Ad mortem duci te iam pridem
oportebat/_y0# ought long ago to have been dragged to death, C.
in Cat. i. I. 4 leci fundamenta reipublicae serius quam decuit/
I laid the foundations of the commonwealth at a later time than I
should have done, C. Phil. v. n. ' Haec tecumcoram malueram/
I would rather have discussed these things with you face to face, C.
Fam. vii. 3. ' Quanto melius fuerat promissum patris non esse
servatum/ how much better had it been that the father 's promise had
not been kept, C. Off. iii. 25. *Hic tamen hanc mecum pot eras
requiescere noctem/ yet you might have rested here with me this
night, Verg. B. i. 80.
2) Periphrastic Past Tenses, Future and Gerundive : ' Roman!
Poenos depoposcerunt, qui Saguntum oppugnassent : deditos ultimis
cruciatibus affecturi fuerunt/ the Romans demanded those Car-
thaginians who had besieged Saguntum; they would have exe-
cuted them, if surrendered, with the uttermost tortures, L. xxi. 44.
' Non Asiae nomen obiciendum Murenae fuit/ Murena should
not have been reproached with the mention of Asia, C. p. Mur. 5.
a) Analogous idioms are the Indicatives possum, longum est,
infinitum est, &c., where English idiom would write '/
could, 1 ' it were tedious] &c. * Possum persequi multa
oblectamenta rerum rusticarum : sed ea ipsa quae dixi
fuisse sentio longiora/ / could detail the many delights of
farming operations ; but even what I have said I feel to
have been rather tedious, C. Cat. M. 16. 'Longum est
mulorum persequi utilitates et asinorum/ it were tedious to
detail the advantages of mules and asses, C. N. D. ii. 64.
See M. Lucr. i. 400.
(On the Indicative in the Apodosis of Conditional Sumptio Ficti,
see Syntax of Conditional Sentences.)
9 2. The Imperative. 337
ii. The Imperative or Will-Mood. 37. impera-
tive.
1) The Imperative Present commands or entreats. * Quae cum
ita sint, Catilina, perge quo coepisti ; egredere aliquando ex
urbe ; patent portae : proficiscere/ siich being the case, Catilina,
proceed on your chosen path ; quit the city at some time; the gates are
open: go forth, C. in Cat. i. 5. 'Pergite, adulescentes, atque in
id studium, in quo estis, incumbite/^ on, young men, and devote
yourselves to that study, on which yoii are engaged, C. d. Or. i. 8.
2) The Imperative forms in -to -tote may entreat or command :
but they oftener command ; being used in legal forms : f Cum
faciam vitula pro frugibus, ipse venito/ when I shall be sacrificing
a calf for the crops, you must come yourself, Verg. B. iii. 77.
'Divis omnibus pontifices, singulis flamines sunto; virginesque
Vestales in urbe custodiunto ignem foci publici sempiternum/
all gods in common must have pontifices, each particular god a
flamenj and the Vestal virgins in the city must guard for ever
the fire of the public hearth, C. Leg. ii. 20. ' Regio imperio duo
sunto iique consules app el Ian tor/ /Am? shall be two magistrates
with royal power, and they shall be called consuls, C. Leg. iii. 3. See
Plaut. Pseud, iii. 2. 66, &c.
3) Ne with Imperative Present (ne crede, ne credite, Verg.) be-
longs to poetry : but is rare in prose. L. has 'ne timete.' (See
Conjunctive Mood.) With Imperative Future it is used in legal
forms, 'Hominem mortuum in urbe ne sepelito neve urito/ thou
shalt not bury or burn a corpse in the city, C. Leg. ii. 58,
4) A Periphrasis of the exhorting Imperative is made by fac,
fac ut, cur a ut, velim, with Subjunctive, and in poetry by me-
mento with Subjunctive or Infinitive; and a Periphrasis of the
forbidding Imperative by fac ne, cave, noli m, with Subjunctive ;
or by noli, and (poetically) parce, mitte, omitte, absiste, fuge, &c.,
with Infinitive.
6 Magnum fac animum habeas/ mind you have a lofty spirit,
C. Qu. Fr. i. 2. 5. ' Cura ut vale as/ take care of your health, C.
'Aequam memento rebus in arduis servare mentem/^ must
remember tv keep an even mind in difficult circumstances, Hor. C.
ii. 3. i. 'Cave facias/ beware of doing it, C. Att. xiii. 33. 'Hoc
nolim me iocari putes/ I would not have you think I say this in
jest, C. Fam. ix. 15. 'Nolite id velle, quod fieri non potest*
do not wish what cannot be, C. Phil. vii. 9. ( Mitte sectari rosa
quo locorum sera moretur/ search not in what spot the rose lingers
late, Hor. C. i. 38. 3. 'Vos timere absistite/ cease ye to fear,
Phaedr. iii. 2. 18. ( Fuge suspicari/ do not siispect, Hor.
5) Imperative forms are modified by the polite phrases sis, suit is,
sodes, amabo, &c., please, pray (see p. 235). Sis is frequent in
comedy (once in Cic.); sultis often in Plautus. Sodes, C. (once?);
frequent in comic and other poets. Amabo, amabo te ( = si me
amas) in comedy often : and in Cic. So, Cave sis, vide sis, &c.
' Refer te sis ad veritatem/ C. 'Hoc agite sultis/ Plaut. ' Scin'
quid te amabo ut facias?' shall I tell you, please, what to dof
Plaut. ' Id agite, amabo/ C.
z
333 Latin Wordlore.
93-94-
Con- 3 iii. The Conjunctive or Thought-Mood.
junc-
(On the Conjunctive as the mood of mental conception generally,
and on its twofold use, (i) as Piire or independent Conjunctive ;
(2) as Subjunctive or dependent, see 37. 2.)
P J? e 4 iv. The Thought-mood is properly termed Conjunctive by all
Con- German scholars, seeing that its use is to join with both the other
jum> Moods, and assist their power of expressing speech. It joins with
the Indicative so as to state and question in a tone either contingent
on a condition, or modified by mental reserve in the nature of a
condition. It joins with the Imperative, so as to supply its deficient
forms, and also to express the various shades of will-speech in
modified tone. The Conjunctive Mood has four Tenses, called
Present, Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect, the powers and uses of
which are best learnt from reading and practice, See p. 163.
Though the Futures are wanting, all the Tenses are capable of
referring to Future time, when required.
I. Pure Conjunctive of contingent or modified Statement (nega-
tion takes non, or haud).
A) When a condition is formally expressed, Earn si moneas
(monueris), / will go, if you advise-, irem (issem) si moneres
(monuisses), / would have gone, if you had advised : non earn
nisi tu moneas (monueris), / will not go unless you advise; non
irem (issem) nisi tu moneres (monuisses), / should not have been
going (should not have gone} if you had not advised. ( Tu, si hie sis,
aliter sentias.' * Improbe feceris nisi monueris,' Cic. 'Si
luxuriae temperaret, avaritiam non ti meres/ had he curbed luxury,
you would not have dreaded avarice in him, Tac. ( Si redisset
films, pater ei veniam daret (dedisset)/ had the son come back,
his father would have forgiven him. ' Si non des, optet/ Hor.
Si non dares (dedisses) optaret (optasset).
B) When a condition is informally expressed : see 217, 3.
Earn (irem, issem) te monente, if you advise (advised), or a te
monitus, if advised by you : non earn (irem issem) te invito,
against your will, or prohibitus a te, if forbidden by you. 'Optanti
tibi divum promittere nemo auderet/ no god would have ventured
to promise had you expressed the wish, V. 'Non illi quisquam se
impune tulisset obvius armato/ no man would have en-
countered him, armed for battle, with impunity, V. ' S i n e D e o non
e s s e t mundus/ Cic. ' 1 1 a laudem invenias et amicos pares/ Ter.
C) When a condition is implied, especially with Verb in 2nd
Person. 'Migrantes cernas/ you may see them on the move, V.
'Marte videres fervere Leucaten/ you might have seen Leucate
boiling with war (i.e. had you been present). 'Pelago c red as
innare revulsas Cycladas/ V. 'Nee quisquam . . . putet/ &c. V.
A en. viii. 704. 'Crederes victos/ L.
Z>) When modified to avoid positiveness or blufmess. 'D ubitem
haud equidem/ V. V e 1 i m, n o 1 i m, v e 1 1 e m, n o 1 1 e m are frequently
used on this ground. 'Nollem accidisset/ / wish it had not
happened, C. Fam. iii. 30. 'Vellemadesse posset Panaetius/ /
94- The Conjunctive. 339
wish Panaetius cotild have been present, C. T. D. i. 33. Also with
forsitan or fortasse : forsitan quaeratis ; roges fortasse;
'forsitan et Priami fuerint quae fata requiras,' V. Aen. ii. 506.
4 Vix verisimile fortasse videatur,' Cic. Especially C 2 is used to
convey assertion or opinion moderately. Crediderim, / am in-
clined to believe-, vix crediderim, I can scarcely believe. 'Non
te transierim/ V. 'Ausim vel tenui vitem committere sulco,'
V. G. ii. 289. And with forsitan.
This and the next use are sometimes called Potential.
II. E) Pure Conjunctive of the modified Question (Negation has
non).
a} A direct question of inquiry or of feeling implies more of
mental dubitation when used in the Conjunctive. As in
the Indicative, it may be of single or disjunctive form.
Quid hoc homine faciatis ? what are you to do with this man f
'Quis Troiae nesciat urbem?' V. ' Quid d em, quid non d em/
Hor. 'Quid faciam? roger anne rogem?' Ov. 'Eloquar an
sileam?' V. 'Tibi ego irascerer, mi frater? tibi ego possem
irasci?' Cic. Quid facerem ? quo fugerem? Iremusne annon?
quare non iremus? issemne nisi voluissem?
III. Pure Conjunctive, of modified Will-speech (Negation has
ne).
F) Concessive use : allowing, granting, &c.
'Luant peccata,' let them (they may] pay the penalty of their
sins, V. 'Vendat aedes vir bonus/ suppose a good man
has a house on sale. Haec sint falsa sane, granting
this to be quite untrue. 'Fuerit mains civis,' suppose he
was a bad citizen. 'Ne sit summum malum dolor,
malum certe est/ allowing pain not to be the greatest evil,
an evil it is at all events, Cic. 'Verum anceps pugnae
fuerat fortuna: fuisset; quern metui moritura?' but the
chance of war had been doubtful; suppose it were : whom
could I fear with death in view ? V. Aen. iv.
4) Ut is used in concession. 'Ut desint vires, tamen est
laudanda voluntas/ though strength be lacking, yet will-
ingness is praiseworthy, Ov. Ep. P. iii. 4.
G) Optative and Precative Uses.
i) The Optative use conveys a wish, and (when in direct con-
struction without ( utinam J ) by C r (Negation has ne.)
Sis felix, may you be happy. ' Valeant ci ves mei, sint florentes,
sint beati/ Cic. ' Exoriare aliquis nostris ex ossibus ultor/
V. Aen. iv.
It is frequently used in imprecation. 'Ne sim salvus si
aliter loquor ac sentio,' may I never be saved if I speak
other, than I think, Cic. 'Moriar nisi vera loquor.'
With ita (sic) . . . ut. ' Ita vivam ut te amo maxime.'
And without ut. 'Ita culmo surgeret alto,' Hor. S. ii.
* Ita me di ament/ Cic.
z 2
34-O Latin Wordlore. 95.
a) Utinam, utinamne (rarely non) are used with the Optative.
With Cj it expresses a possible wish : Utinam possim,
I wish 1 may be able ; utinam ne adsit, / wish he may
not be present. With C 3 an impracticable one : utinam
possem, / wish I could (but I cannot); utinam ne
adesset, / wish he were not present (but he is or was).
With C 4 a bygone possibility : utinam potuissem, /
wish I had been able (but I was not) : utinam non adfuisset,
/ wish he had not been present (but he was).
fr) Ut for utinam is sometimes found : U t ilium di deaeque
perduint, may the gods and goddesses destroy him, Ter.
c] O si (rarely si alone) with Opt. is poetic. ' O mihi prae-
teritos refer at si luppiter annos/ O if Jove would bring
back to me the past years, V. Aen. viii. 560. See vi. 187.
O utinam may be used.
2) The Precative use is chiefly in the Second Person, when
a sacred being or a superior is addressed : < S i s bonus
o felixque tuis,' V. Aen. v. 65. 'Ads is o placidusque
iuves et sidera caelo dextra feras/ V. Aen. iv. 578.
H) Hortative and Jussive Uses : exhorting, commanding, c.
Negative has ne.
The principal Hortative use is in the First Person Plural.
The Jussive use in the Third Persons conveys a com-
mand more or less stringent. Thus ' naviget ' (V. Aen.
iv. 287) is a strong mandate : the instructions in the
Georgics given in the Third Persons Conjunctive are
precepts rightly called jussive. See G. iii. 300, 329.
1) ' Surgamus,' V. E. x. 'Eamus omnes,' Hor. Ep. 'Mori-
amur et in media arma ruamus,' V. Aen. ii. 'Aegri-
tudinem depellamus,' Cic.
2) 'Ecferant quae secum hue attulerunt/ Ter. 'Vincat
utilitas reipublicae.' ' S i t sermo lenis, i n s i t in eo lepos/ Cic.
'Vilicus ne sit ambulator, sobrius sit semper, ad cenam
ne quo eat,familiam exerceat, ne plus censeat sapere
se quam dominum, parasitum ne quern habeat.' Cato.
'Donis impii ne placare audeant deos, 3 Cic.,Z^. ii. 16.
The most remarkable examples are those which convey this use
of the Will-speech Conjunctive into past time by C 3 , C 4 . 'Prae-
diceres/j0w should have told me beforehand, Plaut. 'Rem tuam
curares,'^?/ sho^lld have been minding your own business, Ter.
' Dictis, Albane maneres] you should have remained true to your
word, O Alb an, V. c Ne poposcisses] you ought not to have de-
manded, Cic. This usage is not confined to the Second Person ;
'Animam ipse dedissem, atque haec pompa domum me, non
Pallanta, referret,' V. Aen. xi. 162 ; see x. 854.
a] Permissive and exhorting Use of Second Person Conjunctive.
ItrsSn Tne Second Person of C x is often supposed to be Pure
Con- where it is really Subjunctive, depending on a Verb.
Reddas, Hor. C. i. 3. 7; dones, i. 31. 18, depend on
precor. Captes, Hor. S. ii. 5. 23, on dico. ' Sis . . .
. 95- The Pure Conjunctive. 341
sequare . . . cures/ C. Fain. x. 1 6, carry on the construc-
tion after ' hoc animo esse ut : ' and the punctuation
should shew this. f Sis ... scias/ L. xxvi. 50, de-
pend on paciscor. < Ne pigrere/ C. Att. xiv. i, on
quaeso.
b] Prohibitive use of Second Person Conjunctive.
Terence has 'Si certum est facere, facias ; verum ne post
culpam confer as in me/ if you are bent on doing it, you
may ; but please not afterwards to throw the blame on me,
JELun. ii. 3. 97. In classical Latin this form (ne with
Second Person of C x ) is not used as an independent pro-
hibition, but ne with Second Person of C 2 is so used fre-
quently. ' Quod dubitas ne feceris/ what you doubt, do
not perform, Plin. Ep. i. 18. f Ilium iocum ne sis as-
pernatus/ do not contemn that jest, C. Qu. F. ii. 12. ' Tu
ne quaesieris/ &c. Hor. C. i. n. i.
When Horace writes, ' Ne forte credas/ &c., he means lest
perchance you should believe, C. iv. 9. i. And so often.
On Periphrastic forms of exhortation and prohibition, see p. 337.
v. Examples of Pure Conjunctive:
A) See Examples under 213 /3, y, p. 408.
B) See 217, 3, p. 473.
C) 'Pecuniae an famae minus parceret baud facile discerneres/ Sail. Cat. 25.
' Quo postquam venerunt, mirandum in modum, canes venaticos dice res, ita odora-
bantur omnia et pervestigabant/ C. Verr. iv. 13. ' Ilium indignanti similem similemque
minanti aspiceres,' V. Aen. viii. 650.
JD) 'Tu velim sic existimes tibique persuadeas, omne perfugium bonorum in te esse
positum, si, quod nolim, adversi quid evenerit/ C. Fam xii. 6. 'Malim mihi Crassi
unam pro Curio dictionem, quam castellanos triumphos duos/ C. Br. 73. ' Ego me
Phidiam esse mallem quam vel optimum fabrum tignarium,' C. Br. 73. 'Vellem te
ad Stoicos inclinavisses,' C. Fin. iii. 3. ' Hie quaerat quispiam, cuiusnam causa tanta
molitio facta sit/ C. N. D. ii. 53. 'Primum ego me illorum, dederim quibus esse
poetas, excerpam numero ; neque enim concludere versum dixeris esse satis/ Hor.
S. i. 4. 39. 'Forsitan quispiam dixerit ; nonne sapiens, si fame ipse conficiatur,
abstulerit cibum alteri ? ' C. Off. iii. 6.
E) ' Quid nunc te, asine, litteras d o c e a m ? ' C. Pis. 30. ' Quid videatur ei
magnum in rebus humanis, cui aeternitas omnis totiusque mundi nota sit magnitude ? *
C. T. D. iv. 17. 'Quid enumerem artium multitudinem, sine quibus vita omnino
nulla esse potuisset?' C. Off. ii. 4. ' F a v e a s tu hosti ? bonorum spem virtutemque
debilites? et te consularem aut senatorem aut denique civem p u t e s ? ' C. Phil. vii.
20. ' Apud exercitum mihi fueris tot annos? forum non attigeris? afueris tarn
diu? et, cum longo intervallo veneris, cum iis, qui in foro habitarunt, de dignitate
contendas?' C. Mur. g. 'Ego mihi putarem in patria non futurum locum?' C.
Mil. 34. 'Putaresne unquam accidere posse ut mihi verba deessent?' C. Fam. ii.
ii. 'Corinthiis bellum indicamus annon?' Cic.
F) 'At tamen dicat sine. Age die at, sino/ Ter. An. v. 3. 24. 'Fuerint
cupidi, f u e r i n t irati, f u e r i n t pertinaces : sceleris vero crimine, furoris, parricidi,
liceatCn. Pompeio mortuo, lie eat multis aliis carere/ C. Lig. 6. 'Nemo is, inquies,
timquam fuit. N e f u e r i t/ Cic.
G. i) ' Quod bonum faustum felixque sit populo Romano/ L. i. 28. ' Filiam despondi
ego ; di bene vert ant !' Plaut. A^tl. ii. 3. 'Tecum esse, ita mihi omnia quae opto
contingant ut vehementer velim/ C. Fam. v. 21. ' Sollicitat, ita vivam, mi Tiro,
me tua valetudo/ C. Fam. xvi. 20. ' N e v i v a m, si tibi concedo, ut eius rei tu cupidior
sis quam ego sum/ C. Fam. vii. 23. 'Ne istuc luppiter optimus maximus sir it/ L.
;xxviii. 28. ' U t i n a m tibi istam mentem dii immortales d u i n t ? ' C. Cat. i. 9.
* U t i n a m, Quirites, virorum fortium atque innocentium copiam tantam h a b e r e t i s, ut
34 2 Latin Word lore. 96.
9 6 v. The Subjunctive.
junc- The Subjunctive is always a Mood of dependence, and, in most
tive> instances, of mental conception : but some of its functions in Latin
are not of the latter description, especially its Consecutive use.
A Subjunctive Clause 1 sometimes has no link connecting it
with the prior Verb : 'Sine te ex or em/ let me prevail on you.
<Vellem adfuisses,' I wish you had been present. But usually it
is introduced by a Conjunction or Relative.
I) A Finite Subordinate Clause, by classical usage, is always
Subjunctive, when it contains .
a) A dependent Consequence (so that, such that).
Such a clause may be introduced by ut, quin ; or by the
Relative qui consecutive. See Consecutive Clauses, and
Ut-clause Enuntiative.
b) A dependent Purpose (in order that, lest, c.).
Such a Clause may be introduced by ut, ne, quo, quomi-
nus ; or by the Relative qui final : sometimes by a Particle
of Time or Condition] antequam, dum, &c. See Final
Clauses, and Petitio Obliqua.
c) A dependence on a Verb of Fear, introduced by ne, lest,.
or ut, lest not. See Petitio Obliqua.
d) A dependent Question, introduced by any Interrogative
Pronoun or Particle. See Interrogatio Obliqua.
II) A Finite Subordinate Clause is Subjunctive, when 'it contains
a mental conception
haec vobis deliberatio difficilis esset ! ' C. L. Man. 10. * Illud u t i n a m ne vere
scriberem!' C. Fam. v. 17. 'Quod utinam ne Phormioni id suadere in mentem
incidisset/ Ter. Ph. \. 3. 5. 'Utinam minus vitae cupidt f u i s s e m u s,' C. Fam.
v. 17. 'Haec ad te die natali meo scrips! : quo utinam susceptus non essem, aut
ne quid ex eadem matre postea natum esset!' C. Att. xi. 9.
2) * Nihil ignoveris; nihil gratiae causa fe c e r i s ; misericordia commotus ne
sis,' C. Mur. 31. 'Ne fueris hie tu/ Hor. Epist. i. 6. 40. 'Cum te bene con-
firmaveris, ad nos venias,' C. Fam. xvi. 13. So teneas, L. xxii. 53. Affkias, xxvi.
50. Hor. S. ii. 3. 826 (j>lease to, pray*.
H. i) 'M eminerimus, etiam ad versus infimos iustitiam esse servandam,' C. Off.
i. 13. ' I m i t e m u r nostros Brutos, Camillos, Decios ; a m e m u s patriam, pareamus
senatui, consulamus bonis, id esse optimum put emus, quod erit rectissimum/
C. Sest. 68.
2) 'Orator vide at in primis, quibus de rebus loquatur; si seriis, severitatem
adhibeat ; si iocosis, leporem/ C. Off. i. 37. 'Sumatur nobis quidam praestans vir
optimis artibus, isque animo parumper et cogitatione f i n g a t u r/ C. T. D. v. 24. ' Fortasse
pater Cliniae aliquanto iniquior erat. Pateretur; nam quern ferret, si parentem non
ferret suum ? ' Ter. Haut. \. 2. 28. ' Forsitan non nemo vir fortis et acris animi
magnique dixerit : Restitisses, repugnasses, mortem pugnans oppetisses/
C. Sest. 20. ' Ne quis tamquam parva f a s t i d i a t grammatices elementa/ Qu. i. 4.
'Neu desint epulis rosae,' Hor. C. i. 36. 15 ' Tu ista ne asciveris neve
f ueris commenticiis rebus assensus,' C. Ac. ii. 40.
1 The term Clause is used to signify ' any member of a Compound Sentence ' which is
not the 'Principal Sentence.' The 'Infinitive Clause' means what is often called
'Accusative and Infinitive.' See Enuntiatio Obliqua. Distinguished from this is 'a
Finite Clause ; ' that is, one of which the Verb is Finite.
97 . The Subjunctive. 343
a) Of Cause : introduced by cum, since, by qui causal (usu-
ally) ; by n on quod, n on qui a, &c. See Causal Clauses.
b) Of Condition : after dum, mo do ; or when si, nisi are re-
lated to a conceptive Apodosis : <si possim velim ; '
( si possem vellem/ &c. See Conditional Sentences.
c) Of Concession : introduced by ut, licet, and (usually) cum,
quamvis, although. Also when etsi, etiamsi, tametsi
are related to a conceptive Apodosis. 'Etsi possem,
nollem.' See Concessive Sentences.
d) Of Comparison : introduced by quasi, ut si, &c., velut,
tamquam, &c. See Comparative Sentences.
Ill) A Finite Subordinate Clause is Subjunctive when it is really
dependent on
a) An Infinitive Clause (oratio obliqua).
'Audio te abesse quod aegrotes.'
. d) An assertion or opinion of some other than the writer or
speaker, implied but not formally expressed in the prin-
cipal or prior Verb (virtual oratio obliqua).
c Laudat Africanum Panaetius quod fuerit abstinens/ Cic.
{ Accusatus est Socrates quod corrumperet iuventu-
tem,' Qu. See p. 345.
Obs. The Subjunctives a and b we call Suboblique. They
may be introduced by any Conjunction, or by a Relative
Pronoun or Particle.
c) A Conjunctive Verb or prior Subjunctive (oratio obliqua).
'Omnia dixisses quae in animo haberes.' < Vellem omnia
dixisses quae in animo haberes.'
Note. The following are Idiomatic Uses :
a) A Subjunctive with cum, when (rarely with other Temporal
Conjunctions) of a past action antecedent to another
past action (quasi- causal).
'In Cumano cum essem, venit ad me Hortensius,' when I
was at my house in Cumae, Hortensius came to see me, Cic.
6 Decessit Agesilaus cum in portum venisset/ Agesilaus
died after coming into harbour, N ep. Ag.
/3) A Subjunctive of repeated action (Iterative) with a Particle
or Relative. This construction is most frequent in past
time, historically, the principal verb being generally Im-
perfect : but it is very reasonably extended to time present
in philosophical statements by M. Lucr. iii. 736.
y) A Subjunctive, generally of the Second Pers. Sing., in
dependence on a sentence containing a maxim (yvupri).
See Madv. Gr. 370; M. Lucr. i. 327, ii. 36, 41.
'Bonus segnior. fit ubi neglegas/ a good person becomes
slacker, when you neglect him, Sail. lug. 31.
vi. Classification of the Particles and Pro- 97
nouns which intr6duce Subordinate Clauses,
according to the Mood introduced.
344 Latin Wordlore. 9 8.
A) Pronouns and Particles which always, in classical Latin prose,
introduce a Subjunctive.
a) Conjunctions :
1) Consecutive: ut; quin.
2) Final : ut ; ne ; quo ; quominus.
3) Causal : cum, since.
4) Conditional : dum ; modo, dummodo ; provided that.
5) Concessive : licet, ut ; cum, quamvis (usually).
6) Comparative : quasi ; ut si ; ac si ; velut, tamquam, ceu, &c.
b] The Relative qui, or a Relative Particle, when used
i) Consecutively ( = talis ut) ; 2) Finally (in order that)
3) Causally ( = cum, since] ; 4) Concessively (although].
c] Interrogative Words, obliquely constructed : such are
1) Pronouns : quis ; qui ; uter ; qualis ; quantus ; quot ; quotus.
2) Particles : quam, quemadmodum, quomodo, ut, how, quare.
cur, quamobrem, quapropter ; quotiens ; quando ; ubi ;
unde ; quo, quousque, quorsum ; utrum, an, -ne, num.
d) Any Particle or Relative, when the Clause itself is in sense
dependent on Oratio Obliqua, actual or virtual ; or on a
Conjunctive Mood.
See also the Iterative and Gnomic uses above, Note (3. y.
B) Pronouns and Particles which always (except in the circum*
stances above named) introduce an Indicative.
a) Conjunctions :
1) Causal: quod; quia ; quoniam ; quando; quandoquidem ;
siquidem.
2) Temporal : quando ; ubi ; ut (when, &c.) ; quotiens ; simul
ac ; simul ; postquam ; dum, donee, quoad, whilst. Also
cum, when : but see its idiom, Note, p. 343. a.
3) Concessive : quamquam ; utut.
&) The Relative qui, and Relative Particles.
C) Particles which introduce an Indicative or a Subjunctive,
according as the notion conveyed is one of fact or contingency.
1) Temporal: dum, donee, quoad, until \ antequam, prius-
quam, which are used with Subjunctive when purpose is
contained, or doubtfulness conveyed.
2) Conditional and Concessive : si, nisi ; etsi, etiamsi,
tametsi.
Obs. The reason of mood is independent of Conjunctions ; but
Conjunctions distinguish the relations of Clauses more clearly, as
Prepositions distinguish the relations of Nouns.
., 98 vii. Consecution of Tenses in Subjunctive
Conse- ^ . ^ *
cution Construction. See & 229.
of X ?
Tenses. The General Rule is that *
Primary Tenses (S x S ) follow Primary (Present ; Future).
Historic (S 3 S 4 ) Historic (Past Tenses).
Consecution of Tenses.
345
i) quereris
you complain
querar-is (e)
you may complain
querer-is (e)
you will complain
questus eris )
questus fueris j
you will have complained
questus sis
questus fueris
you may have complained
questurus es (sis, &c.)
you are (may be^ &c.) about
to complain
EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATING THE CONSECUTION OF TENSES.
I.
quod te deseram
that I forsake you
quod te deseruerim
that I have forsaken you
quod te deserturus sim
that I am about to forsake you
quod tui memor non sim
that I am not mindful of you
quod tui memor non fuerim
that I have not been mindful of
you
quod tui memor non futurus sim
that I shall not be mindful of
you
quod tibi non succurram
that I do not succour you
quod tibi non succurrerim
that I have not succoured you
quod tibi non succursurus sim
that I am not about to succour
\ you
I quod te desererem
that I was forsaking you
quod te deseruissem
that I had forsaken you
quod te deserturus for em
that I was about to forsake you
quod tui memor non ess em
that I was not mindful of you
quod tui memor non fuissem
that I had not been mindful of
you
quod tui memor non futurus
essem
that I was not going to be mind-
ful of you
quod tibi non succurrerem
that I did not succour you
quod tibi non succurrissem
that I had not succoured you
quod tibi non succursurus fo-
rem
that I did not mean to succour
you
2) querebar-is (e)
you were complaining
questus es
you complained
questus eras
you had complained
quererer-is (e)
you would complain
questus esses
you would have complained
questurus eras
you were about to complain
346 Latin Wordlore. 99.
II.
1) orant ; orent ( ne se deseram
orabunt ; oraturi sunt | ut sui memor sim
oraverint ; oranto t ut sibi sue cur ram
2) orabant ; orarent f nesedesererem
oraverunt ; oraturi erant i ut sui memor e s s e m
oraverant; oravissent ( ut sibi succurrerem
Note. On the Verb Infinite see 15 and 40. Its further uses
are most conveniently shewn in Syntax, Ch. I. II. III.
99
Ellipsis viii. Ellipsis of the Verb.
ofVerb.
1) Est, sunt, esse, are often suppressed: sometimes other
forms of the Verb of Being.
' Summum ius summa iniuria/ C. Off. i. 10 (s. est). t Habenda
ratio valetudinis, u tend urn modicis exercitationibus/ C. Cat. M.
ii (s. est). ' Omnia praeclara rara/ C. Lael. 21 (s. sunt). ' lucundi
acti labores/ C. Fin. ii. 32 (s.sunt). ' Aurum vestibus inlitum mi-
rat a/ Hor. C. iv. 9. 15 (for mirata est). ' Sed haec vetera (sujit):
illud recens (est), Caesarem meo consilio inter fectum' (esse), but
these are old stories : here is a new one, that Caesar was slain by
my advice, C. Phil. ii. n. ' Ludi Romani biduum instaurati'
(sunt), L. xxix. 38. ' Potest incidere comparatio, de duobus honestis
utrum honestius' (sit), C. Off. i. 43.
a) The Participle Perfect (Passive or Deponent) is often used
in the Nom. Case with an Ellipsis of esse, being really a
Prolative Infinitive dependent on fertur, dicitur, me-
moratur, narratur, &c. 'Sic miser instantis affatus
dicitur undas/ Mart. d. Spect. 25. 5 (for affatus esse).
'Fertur Prometheus addere principi limo coactus par-
ticulam undique desectam/ Hor. C. i. 16. 13 (for coactus
esse). ' Quidam memoratur Athenis . . . populi con-
temnere voces sic soli tus/ Hor. S. i. i. 64 (for solitus esse).
'Fabulaqua Paridis propter narratur amorem Graecia
barbariae lento collisa duello/ Hor. Epist. i. 2. 6 (for
collisa esse). And often in prose : ' Q. Fabius Maximus
sic eum proficiscentem allocutus fertur/ L. xxii. 38 (for
allocutus esse). ( Capta eo proelio tria milia peditum et
equites trecenti dicuntur/ L. xxii. 50. See Note at p. 428.
2) Inquit, inquam, c. are omitted. ' At ille' . . . 'turn Brutus'
. . . f turn ego/ &c.
3) Forms of dicere, facere, fieri, &c. 'Scite Chrysippus'
(dicit), C. ' Cave turpe quicquam ' (facias), C. ' Ne quid crudeliter '
(fiat), C. ' Cicero Attico salutem ' (dicit), C. ' Crassus verbum
nullum contra gratiam ' ( dixit),^ C. ' Expecto quid ad ista '
(dicturus sis), C. ' Quas tu mihi intercessiones ' (narras) ? C.
* Finem ille ' (fecit),~C. ' Clamor inde concursusque ' (factus est), L.
Forms of dicere are suppressed in the phrases, ' Quid multa ? '
' Quid plura ? ' ' Ne multis/ c. And forms of fieri in^uch phrases
as ( Quid turn ? ' ' Quid postea ? ' &c.
99. Ellipsis of the Verb. 347
Livy often uses the phrases, ' nihil aliud quam/ 'quid aliud quam/
in which forms of the verb facere may be supplied. f Per bid-
uum nihil aliud quam steterunt parati ad pugnandum/ for two
days they did nothing but stand in readiness for battle, L. xxvi. 20.
The phrase becomes adverbial = merely, only. 'Nihil aliud quam
perfusis vano timore Romanis/ the Romans being merely panic-
struck^ L. ii. 63. ' Si nihil aliud/ if nothing else comes of it. ( Vin-
cam silentium et, si nihil aliud (faciam), certe graviter inter-
pellabo/ Curt. iv. 28.
4) Other Verbs are suppressed, which the mind can easily supply.
< Sed haec coram 7 (tractabimus), C. ' Litterarum aliquid interea'
(dabis), C. ' A Chrysippo pedem nunquam 7 (movet), C. ( Sed ad
ista alias 7 (respondebd], C. ' Sed non necesse est nunc omnia'
(commemorare\ C. * Di meliora ' (denf}. ' A me C. Caesar pecu-
niam ' (postulaf) ? C. ' Ad Tamum cogitabam ' (ire), C. ' Unde
mihi lapidem 7 (petam)t Hor. ' Nihil ad rem; ? *Quid ad me'
(attinet) ? With many more instances.
5) In the phrases, * Quo mihi ? ' 'quo tibi ?' ' usui' is to be supplied,
quo being an old form of cui. ' Quo tibi, Pasiphae, pretiosas
sumere vestis ?' Ov. ( = * cui usui est tibi ? '). But there is a further
ellipse of habere or consequi: 'Quo mihi fortunam, si non
conceditur uti ?' Hor. ( = cui usui est mihi habere fortunam ?).
6) Proverbs, being generally known and understood, are often
cited elliptically : ' Fortuna fords' (adiiwaf). c Minima de mahV
(eligendasunf]. 'Sus Minervam ' (docere milt}. 'Cuneus cuneum'
(trudif}. 'Manusmanum' (lavaf). ' Bis ad eundem ' (lapidem
offender e). 'Nee sibi nee alteri' (prodcst). 'Cornici oculum'
(cotifigere). 'Bene tibi 7 (dico), &c. 'Bene Messallam 7 (valere
iubeo\ Tib.
TOO
en-
tences.
PART IL
LATIN SYNTAX.
CHAPTER I.
THE DOCTRINE OF SENTENCES.
SPEECH in a connected series forms DISCOURSE.
Sen- As Words are the Parts of Speech, so the Parts of
Discourse are SENTENCES.
1. Sentences are either AFFIRMATIVE or NEGATIVE.
Psittacus loquitur, Psittacus non loquitur,
the parrot speaks. the parrot does not speak.
2. Sentences are either SIMPLE or COMPOUND.
1) A SIMPLE SENTENCE is the expression of a single thought,
and contains one Finite Verb :
Psittacus loquitur, Psittacus non loquitur,
the parrot speaks. the parrot does not speak.
2) A COMPOUND SENTENCE consists of two or more Simple
Sentences forming one sentence. Of such Simple Sentences, one
is the Principal Sentence, the others are Clauses.
d) Psittacus hominem imitatur, itaque loquitur,
the parrot imitates man, and so it speaks.
b) Psittacus, quamvis hominem imitetur, non loquitur,
the parrot does not speak, although it imitates man.
In (a) ' Psittacus hominem imitatur 7 is the Principal Sentence ;
' Itaq\ie loquitur 'a Coordinate Clause; that is, connected but
not constructively dependent. In (b} ' Psittacus non loquitur' is
the Principal Sentence ; 'Quamvis hominem imitetur' a Subor-
dinate Clause; that is, constructively dependent.
3. Every SIMPLE SENTENCE is in one of three forms :
I. ENUNTIA no (statement) :
Psittacus loquitur, the parrot speaks.
II. PETITIO (will-speech) :
Loquere, psittace, speak, parrot.
Loquatur psittacus, let the parrot speak.
III. INTERROGATE (question) :
Quid loquitur psittacus ? what does the parrot speak?
I0 i. Simple Sentence. 349
4. Each of these forms, in the Principal construction of a Com- Oratio
pound Sentence, is said to be Recta (direct). Obif a u a!
If it is subordinated so as to become Subject or Object of the
Principal Verb, it is called Obliqua (oblique or indirect).
I. ENUNTIATIO OBLIQUA (Indirect Statement) is mostly con-
structed as < Accusative and Infinitive :'
(Constat) \
(it is a fact} psittacum loqui,
(S cimu s) that the parrot speaks,
(we know) )
II. PETITIO OBLIQUA (Indirect Will-speech) is mostly con-
structed as < Subjunctive with ut or ne :'
(Poscitur) \
(it is required) I ut psittacus loquatur,
(Rogamus) that the parrot speak,
(we ask) )
III. INTERROGATE OBLIQUA (Indirect Question) is constructed
as * Subjunctive after an Interrogative Pronoun or Particle :'
(Incertum est) \
(it is doubtful) I quid psittacus loquatur,
(Narra) what the parrot speaks.
(declare)
Obs. Clauses of these three kinds are called Substantival,
because they stand, like Substantives, in the relation of Subject or
Object, or in Apposition.
Note. As Discourse chiefly consists of Enunciations, Syntax
chiefly considers Simple Sentences of this form. But its funda-
mental rules are equally applicable to the other two forms.
CHAPTER II.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
i. The Simple Sentence has two essential The
members: f]
tenc
1) The grammatical SUBJECT] that of which the
action or state is predicated or declared ;
2) The grammatical 1 PREDICATE ; that by which the
action or state of the Subject is declared.
Subject. Predicate.
Psittacus loquitur,
the parrot speaks.
1 'Grammatical' in contradistinction to 'logical.' A Predicate in formal logic is always
a Nominal term Y : every X (some X, no X) is Y.
IOI
3 SO Latin Syntax. 102.
1) The SUBJECT must be
(1) a Substantive, or that which takes the power of a Sub-
stantive ; as
(2) a Pronoun \
(3) an Adjective I used Substantively.
(4) an Adverb j
(5) a Verb-Noun Infinitive.
(6) a Vocable, or term cited as word or phrase merely.
(7) a Substantival Clause. See Ch. I. Obs.
2) As the Verb is the Part of Speech by which action or state
is declared, the PREDICATE must be a Verb ; and, as action and
state are predicated in Time, it must be a Finite Verb.
Examples :
Subject. Predicate.
(1) Deus regnat,
God rules.
(2) Nos paremus,
we obey.
(3) Omnia florent,
all things bloom.
(4) Satis temporis datur,
enough time is given.
(5) Navigare delectat,
sailing gives delight.
(6) 'Instant' \
they come | clamatur,
' Ad arma ' [ is shouted.
to arms )
(7) Ouae sit natura lucis ambigitur,
what is the nature of light is disputed.
Such is the true Norm of Predication : that the Simple Sen-
tence contains or implies a Subject and a Finite Verb.
This general truth is not overthrown by the following frequent
exceptions :
I. Predication is made without a Subject expressed :
1) when Pronoun Subjects are implied in the Verb. See 39.
2) in some of the constructions called Impersonal. See 50.
II. Predication is made without a Verb expressed when the
mind can be trusted to supply one. See 99.
III. Predication is made by a Verb not Finite :
1) in the construction called the Historic Infinitive. See
P. 332.
2) when a Participle stands for a Finite Verb, as often in
poetry, and in Livy and Tacitus. See 99, i.
Examples of such Exceptions :
I. i. Nee veni, V. Venisti tandem, V.
2. Pudet pigetque facti. Quid agitur ? Statur, Ter.
II. Hie tibi certa domus, V. Quidam curiosior, Simonide,
tu ex opibus nil sumis tuis ? Phaed.
III. i. Turn sic affari et curas his demere dictis, V.
2. Fusi hostes, L. Extemplo turbati animi, V.
I02 . Copulative Verbs. 351
ii. Incomplete Predication.
Some Verbs do not make a complete predication. Of these the
chief is the Verb of Being, sum, esse, which is completely predi-
cative only when it denotes mere existence. Seges est ubi Troia
fuit, corn is where Troy was, Ov.
Usually it is a COPULA, coupling the Subject with another term,
called the COMPLEMENT^ which qualifies the Subject : the Predi-
cate being then Copula with Complement.
Predicate.
Subject. Copula. Complement.
Seges est matura,
the corn is ripe.
Troia fuit urbs munitissima, ^
Troy was a strongly fortified city.
Verbs which so couple a Subject and Complement are called
COPULATIVE VERBS.
Many other Verbs are (or may be) incompletely Predicative, if
their predication is extended (or EXTENSIBLE) by an Infinitive
(vii.). A few of these are also Copulative.
Verbs of incomplete Predication are, therefore
1) Copulative, but not Extensible : (a) sum, forem, fio ; and
(sometimes) appareo, existo, evado, maneo, nascor ; also (poetic)
audio, be called ; (ft) many passive verbs of being called or named ;
appellor, vocor, nominor, nuncupor, usurper, scribor, inscribor:
being chosen or declared '; creor, legor, eligor, sufficior, declarer,
prodor, renuntior : being known, deemed, counted^ found ; cogno-
scor, iudicor, habeor, numeror, deprehendor, invenior, reperior.
2) Copulative and Extensible: videor (seem), dicor, memoror,
censeor, credor, existimor, putor, perhibeor, arguor.
3) Extensible, but not Copulative : possum, nequeo, debeo ;
volo, malo, nolo, audeo ; soleo, consuesco ; coepi, incipio, meditor ;
desino ; pergo : conor, laboro ; with many more : a few passive
verbs, as feror, narror, nuntior, trador. See vii. and 180, where
it is said that, if the Infinitive extending any Verb is Copulative, a
nominal Complement following will agree with the Subject.
a. The Complement of a Copulative Verb may be
(1) An Adjective agreeing with the Subject as its Attribute.
(2) A Substantive agreeing with the Subject as its Apposite.
(3) A Phrase : sometimes an Adverb.
Examples of Copula with Complement.
Predicate.
Subject. Copul. Verb. Complement.
(i) Homo est mortalis
man is mortal
Puer net doctus
the boy will become learned
Vos habemini prudentes
ye are held prudent
352 Latin Syntax. 102,
Examples of Copula with Complement (continued).
Predicate.
t ' \
Subject. Copul. Verb. Complement. 1
(2) Homines sunt animalia
men are animals
Mulier evadit victrix
the woman comes out conqiieress
Isti appellantur philosophi
those men are called philosophers
(3) Bona sunt viri
the goods are the husband's
Facundia censetur magni
eloquence is counted of great value
Divitiae numerantur in bonis
riches are reckoned * among goods
Navigare est voluptati
sailing is a pleasure
Conatus fuerunt frustra
endeavours were in vain
b. Examples of Nominative Complement after Infinitive.
Socrates par ens philosophiae dici potest, C. Fin. ii. i.
Aelius Stoicus esse voluit, C. Brut. 56. Cato esse quam
videri bonus malebat, Sail. Cat. 54. Xanthippe, Socratis uxor,
morosa admodum fuisse fertur et iurgiosa, Cell. i. 17. Ora-
cula evanuerunt postquam homines minus creduli esse coepe-
runt,C.Z#z/.ii. 57. Brevis esse laboro; obscurusfiOjH.^.P.25.
Animus hominis d i v e s, non area, appellari solet, C. Par. vi. i.
Tyndaridae fratres victoriae nuntiifuisseperhibentur, C. Tusc.
i. 12. Piso minor haberi est coeptus postea, C. Brut. 69. Fis
anus, et tamen vis formosa videri, H. C. iv. 13. L. Papirius
Crassus primus Papisius est vocari desitus, C. Fam. ix. 21.
Cum floret, existimari potest alba viola, PI. iv. n ; vi. 22.
Atilius prudens esse in iure civili putabatur, C. Att. vi. I. 3
Add to these the important examples of Participle Perf. (passive
or deponent) used as Prolative Infinitive, esse being understood :
QQa, and p. 428, Note.
1 The term Complement must be understood to mean ' Predicative Complement,' that
is, the word or phrase which completes predication, when the Verb is Copulative. French
writers employ this term to denote the Cases which complete the construction of various
Verbs : but, as these are sufficiently described by other names (Object ; Recipient, &c.)>
it is better to reserve the word Complement for that which has no other appropriate
name : as the term Predicate (in its logical sense) is applicable only in a few instances.
Some German writers use the term ' Nominalpradikat.'
3 In Oblique Oration, when the Verb becomes Infinitive, its Accusative Subject is called
an Oblique Subject ; and if that Verb is Copulative, its Accus. Complement is called an
Oblique Complement. Thus in ' Puto psittacum loqui ; ' ' puto psittacum (esse) loquacem ; '
psittacum is Oblique Subject, loquacem Oblique Complement. See 108, p. 360.
(Note on 103.) A Phrase means a few words (sometimes a single word idiomatically
used) expressing a distinct notion, but not containing predication, formal or virtual. Thus
in the sentences, Vir est magni ingeni: Caesar cum Balbo venit ; hoc nob is
de d e c o r i est ; we call ' magni ingeni,' ' cum Balbo,' and ' dedecori,' Phrases.
An Enthesis means a group of words not containing a formal predication, but con-
vertible by a slight change of form into a Clause ; ' ab exilio regressus ; ' * philosophus
nobilis :' 'me absente.' See II. 2) p. 354.
A Claitse has been explained to mean a coordinate or subordinate Simple Sentence.
103. Relations in the Simple Sentence. 353
Hi. Relations in the Simple Sentence.
The Simple Sentence receives expansion from Words,
Phrases, and Entheses used as Adjuncts, and standing
in the various Relations which words in a Simple Sen-
tence bear to one another. These Relations are :
I. Predicative. V. Circumstantive.
II. Qualitative. VI. Proprietive.
III. Objective. VII. Prolative.
IV. Receptive. VIII. Annexive. 1
I. The PREDICATIVE RELATION.
This subsists between the Finite Verb and the Subject. The Sub-
ject is (or is taken to be) a Nominative Case ; and its Verb is so
related as to agree with it in Number and Person.
a) A Subject Singular in form but Plural in sense is called a
Collective Subject, and its Predication may agree with the
sense and not with the form : < Pars militum occisi sunt/
part of the soldiers were slain. See p. 269 D).
&) A Subject consisting of several Nouns in Annexive Rela-
tion is called a Composite Subject, and usually takes a
Plural Predicate : 'Rex, regina, et regia classis profecti
sunt/ the king, queen and royal fleet set out.
c) Impersonal Construction is a peculiar Predication, in which
either an expressed Predicate implies an unexpressed
Subject :. pudet ( = pudor pudet) ; curritur ( = cursus curri-
tur) ; or a Verb-form (Gerundive) becomes a Subject ;
parendum est. See 50.
II. The QUALITATIVE RELATION.
(i.) Between an Attribute and the Noun to which it is in
Attribution : 'magnae divitiae/ great riches ; 'docti
viri/ learned men ; 'iste psittacus/ that parrot.
(2.) Between a Noun Apposite and the Noun to which it
stands in Apposition: 'Cicero consul/ Cicero the
consul; 'rex Croesus/ king Croesus.
The qualifying word will agree with its Noun as far as possible.
See 107. Verb-Nouns and Clauses are considered Neuter.
See Examples on p. 36o. 2
1 In the classifications of Language, each class does not exclude all the members of
every other class. We find the same words ranked as Substantive and Adjective, as
Noun and Verb, as Adverb and Preposition, &c. So the classification here given is not
invalidated by the fact that some words, phrases, cases, &c., may be referred to more
than one of these Relations : that the Complement, for instance, is both Predicative and
Qualitative, the Genitive sometimes Qualitative, sometimes Objective, &c.
a Substantives receive as Adjuncts not only Attributes and Apposites, but many other
qualifying expressions : Genitives Possessive, Qualitative, and Objective : Ablatives of
Quality and Manner : frequently Prepositions with Cases : sometimes Adverbs.
Examples : Sullae exercitus ; vir magni ingeni ; senex promissa barba ; philosophus
nomine non re ; obtemperatio legibus ; domum reditio ; mansio Formiis ; interims ferro,
fame, frigore, pestilentia ; excessus e vita ; litterae a Caesare ; liber de Ofiiciis : collo-
quium cum Balbo ; omnia ante bella : tua semper lenitas, &c.
A A
354 Latin Syntax. 103.
This relation appears in four varieties :
1 ) Attribute or Apposite as Epithet: 'docti viri;' <rex
Croesus/
2) Attribute or Apposite as Enthesis : ' Cicero, ab exilio tan-
dem regressus, in senatum venit,' Cicero, having at
length returned from exile, came into the senate (regressus
= ubi regressus erat). Socrates, philosophusin primis
nobilis, veneno interiit/ Socrates, an eminently renowned
philosopher, died by poison (philosophus = qui philosophus
fuit).
3) Attribute or Apposite, agreeing with the Noun, but in close
union with the Verb, in the manner of an adverb : ( Cicero
primus in senatum venit,' Cicero came first into the
senate. ' Caesar aedem Fortunae consul vovit,' Caesar
when consul vowed a temple to Fortune.
4) Attribute or Apposite as Complement, already described
and exemplified, p. 352.
III. The OBJECTIVE RELATION.
When the Predicate is a Transitive Verb, the predication is often
without meaning until a word is added expressing that on which
the Verb acts. This is called the Object, and its relation to the
Verb and Subject is the Objective Relation.
Thus, < Romulus interfecit/ Romulus slew, is deficient in sense
until we add ' Re mum/ Remus.
'Remum' is in the Accusative Case, as Object of the Verb
interfecit, and in Objective Relation to that Verb and to its
Subject Romulus. See Syntax of Accusative. .
a) Anything which may be the Subject of a sentence may also
be the Object: and when a Verb-noun, a Vocable, a
Clause, or an Adverb, is used as Object, it is taken to be
in the Accusative Case.
b) Verbs of asking, teaching, concealing, take two Objects, one
of the Person, the other of the Thing : ' Doceo te litter as/
I teach you letters. See 130.
c) Factive Verbs take a second Accusative in attribution or
apposition as complement to the first : c Socratem sapien-
tissimum puto/ / deem Socrates very wise. 'Caesar
Octavium scripsit heredem/ Caesar left Octavius his
heir. See 102, 131.
Such an Attribute or Apposite is called an Oblique Com-
plement. See Note, p. 352.
IV. The RECEPTIVE RELATION.
The Dative is the Case of the Recipient, that is, of tne person
or thing interested in an action or state ; for, to, upon, or against
which the action or state occurs : <Non nobis sed reipublicae
nati sumus/ we are born not for ourselves, but for the common-
wealth. 'Do .tibi librum/ / give a book to you. 'Pax grata
civibus/ a peace welcome to the citizens. c Poeni bellum inferunt
Rom an is/ the Carthaginians wage war against the Romans.
103- Relations in the Simple Sentence. 355
The Relation of such a Dative to the Verb or Adjective govern-
ing it, and to their Nouns, is the Receptive Relation. 1
a) The Dative of some Nouns is used as a Complement (Pre-
dicative Dative or Dative of the Purpose) : See 142.
( Haec mihi voluptati sunt/ these things are a pleasure to
me. ' Habet nos derisui/ he holds us in derision.
V. The ClRCUMSTANTIVE RELATION.
This limits the Verb and Adjective principally, also the Substan-
tive and Adverb, by Adjuncts, which may be :
(i) Adverbs; (2) Noun-cases or Phrases; (3) Entheses.
The chief Case of Circumstance is the Ablative; but also the
Accusative, sometimes the Genitive, may express limiting cir-
cumstances.
Limiting Phrases are especially Prepositions with their Cases.
A frequent limiting Construction is the Ablative Absolute ; that
is, a Noun with Participle (or with a second Noun) in the Ablative
Case.
The Circumstances expressed in this relation are numerous : as,
Cause ; Instrument ; Agent ; Price ; Matter : Respect ; Mea-
sure ; Manner ; Condition ; Quality ; Time ; Place Where :
Place Whence ; Separation ; Origin ; Comparison, &c.
Examples :
1) ' O dea certe/ O surely a goddess. ' Vir longe optimus/
a man by far the best. ' Vixi ho die,' / have lived to-day.
2) 'Gladiis certant/ they contend with swords. 'Vir pro-
cero cor pore/ a man of tall frame. ' Fraude non vi
periit/ he died by fraud, not by force. 'Centum annos
vixit/ he lived a hundred years. 'Hie rus in urbe est,
here is country in the city. 'Remus a Romulo occisus
est/ Remus was killed by Romulus. 'Vir rtatus ad glori-
am,' a man born for glory.
3)'Occiso Gaio, Claudius imperavit/ Gaius being slain,
Claudius became emperor. 'Solecadente dormitant aves/
when the sun sets, birds sleep. 'Torquato consule
natus est Horatius/ Horace was born in the consulship of
Torquatus. See 161, 238, 239,
1 Verbs or Adjectives which take a Dative for their appropriate case, as pare ere, to
spare; placere, to please; iu cundus, pleasant ; odiosus, hateful, &c., are called TRA-
JECTIVE words.
If the Verb, as dare, to gi we, takes an Accusative also, it is a Trajective Verb
Transitive.
Verbs may be classed according to the Cases they take :
Transitive Verbs . . . taking Accusative . . as Quid-Verbs.
Trajective Verbs ... Dative ... Cui- Verbs.
Trajective Verbs Transitive Ace. and Dative Cui-Quid- Verbs.
Transitive Verbs taking Double Accusative . . ,, Quern-Quid- Verbs.
Factive Verbs Quid-Quale-Verbs.
The Accusative is often called the Case of the Nearer Object ; and the Dative the Case
of the Remoter Object.
356 Latin Syntax. ^3.
VI. The PROPRIETIVE RELATION.
When the Genitive Case of a Noun depends on another Noun
which it has for a possession, a part, or, generally, as a notion
which it qualifies or determines. See 162-176.
Examples :
' Templum Minervae/ the temple of Minerva. ' Multi mili-
t u m/ many of the soldiers. ' Vir m a g n i i n g ejn i/ a man
of great genius. ' Cupido pecuniae/ the desire of money.
a) The Proprietive Relation is, in some examples, a special
instance of the Qualitative: thus, Vir magni ingeni
= vir ingeniosissimus; in others it is a special in-
stance of the Objective Relation; thus * Cupido pe-
cuniae' is nearly the same as ' cupere pecuniam.'
VII. The PROLATIVE RELATION.
When Predication is extended (profertur) by an Infinitive ad-
joined to certain extensible Verbs and Participles or Adjectives.
Examples :
'Noli contende re/ do not contend. t Ego videor v i d e r e
res futuras, 1 / seem to see future things. * lussus con-
fundere foedus,' ordered to break the treaty. 'Ludere
pertinax/ persisting to play.
That such an Infinitive is not an Objective Verb-Noun appears
from the fact that Infinitives of Copulative Verbs, so constructed^
keep the Complement in the same Case with the Subject :
'Puervult fieri doctus,' the boy wishes to become learned.
'Non omnes possumus esse philosophi,' we cannot a/I
be philosophers. 'Homerus caecus fuisse creditur/
Homer is believed to have been blind.
See i So.
a) Other uses of the Infinitive in the Simple Sentence fall
under the Predicative or Objective Relation : Supines under
the Circumstantive Relation; the Gerund is ranked ac-
cording to its Case; Participles follow the rules of
Adjectives.
b) Cases of Nouns depend on the Infinite as well as on the
Finite Verb.
VIII. The ANNEXIVE RELATION.
When a word is annexed to the construction of a similar word
preceding, either by a Conjunction, or the Conjunction being omitted.
Examples :
' Pulvis e t u m b r a sumus,' we are dust and shade. i Non nobis
nati sumus, sed patriae/ we are not born for ourselves >
but for our country. i Patriae nati sumus, non nobis,' we
are born for our country ', not for ourselves. ' Arma vi-
104-5- The Relative Pronoun. 357
rumque cano/ arms and the man I sing. * Pater et
mater mortui sunt/ my father and mother are dead.
6 Pater, mater, fratres peri ere, 7 father, mother, brothers
have perished. 'Me amat ut fratrem suum/ he loves
me as his own brother.
a) One Finite Verb annexed to another makes, strictly speak-
ing, a new sentence: but is often conveniently ranked
under this Relation:
* Odi profanum volgus et arceo/ / hate and keep aloof the
profane mob. ' Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit,' he has de-
parted, gone forth, escaped, burst out.
iv. Interjections and Vocative. I<H
^ i) To the forms constructed in a Simple Sentence, under the
eight Relations heretofore mentioned, must be added INTERJECTIONS
and Interjectional utterances, especially the Case (of the person or
thing addressed) called the VOCATIVE, which, with or without an
Interjection, is attached to the Sentence, but not constructed with
it; thus, with its adjuncts, forming an appendage, which may be
called a Vocative Ecthesis. Thus Horace (Carm. i. i. i) begins
with a Vocative Ecthesis of two lines :
Maecenas, atavis edite regibus,
O et praesidium et dulce decus meurn,
Sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum
Collegisse iuvat, &c.
2) Ecthesis appears also in the Accusative Case, with or without
Interjection; in the Nominative Case, usually with Interjection; in
the Dative, never without Interjection.
v. Notice of the Relative Pronoun. 105
The consideration of the RELATIVE belongs properly to the head
of Compound Sentences ; but it is introduced here so far as to
establish its agreement in Gender, Number, and Person with its
Antecedent, that is, with the Term in the Prior Sentence to which
it stands related. To this extent the Relative Pronoun is Qualita-
tive; but, as respects Case, it may (in its own clause) be Subject
Nominative or fall under any of the following Relations : Objective,
Receptive, Circumstantive, or Proprietive.
It corresponds to any Person. See 108, 114, 204.
Note. The Relative Pronoun, qui, quae, quod, may be explained
as standing between two Noun-terms, with the former of which it 
